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RUDIMENTARY TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 DRAINAG 
 
 OP 
 
 TOWNS AND BUILDINGS: 
 
 SUGGESTIVE OP 
 
 SANATORY REGULATIONS CONDUCIVE TO THE HEALTH 
 OF AN INCREASING POPULATION. 
 
 BY G. DRYSDALE DEMPSEY, C.E., 
 
 Author of "The Practical Railway Engineer," and of the "Rudimentary Treatise 
 on the Drainage of Districts and Lauds." 
 
 REVISED AND GREATLY EXTENDED! WITH NOTICES OF THE METROPOLITAN 
 DRAINAGE, THAMES EMBANKMEKT, AND WATER SUl'PLY SCHEMES- 
 
 THIRD 
 
 EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 VIRTUE BROTHERS & CO., 1, AMEN CORNER, 
 
 PATERNOSTER BOW, 
 1865. 
 

 Main 
 Agric. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Two volumes of the Rudimentary Series " The Art of Drain- 
 ing Districts and Lands," and the work now submitted to the 
 reader relate to the subject of drainage generally, with water 
 supply as an auxiliary or necessary contingent : the removal 
 of surplus waters and refuse on the one hand, and the supply 
 of pure water on the other. The one volume applies to 
 Districts and Lands ; the other to Towns and Buildings. 
 
 It becomes necessary to remark in this (the Third} Edition 
 of the present work, that when the late Mr. Dempsey pre- 
 pared the First and Second Editions, the whole subject of 
 the Drainage of the Metropolis was in confusion. The most 
 eminent engineers were in conflict as to the best mode of 
 attaining the desired end. The plan eventually adopted, and 
 now (1865) in progress, differs from that which Mr. Dempsey 
 and many other engineers recommended. This, of course, is 
 not conclusive as to the relative merits of the different schemes. 
 Who were right and who were wrong, in these speculations, 
 we shall not know for many years to come ; until the Inter- 
 cepting Main Drainage plan shal have had a fair trial by 
 long-continued working. On this account it seems desirable 
 to leave Mr. Dempsey 's calculations and deductions in their 
 original form ; because they embody, or rather illustrate, one 
 particular principle of Drainage, which may probably apply 
 to many other large towns, irrespective of its adoption or rejec- 
 tion in the metropolis. By greatly enlarging the APPENDIX, 
 space has been found for a succinct account of all that has 
 been done in relation to the Main Drainage Scheme since the 
 publication of the Second Edition of this volume, in 1854. 
 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 Plain facts arc stated, without any prediction concerning the 
 degree of SUGCCSS that may attend the operations now in 
 progress. In a later portion of the APPENDIX, relating to 
 the Utilisation of Sewage, it will be seen that this important 
 question remains nearly in the same unsettled state as when 
 Mr. Dempsey prepared the Second Edition. Much has been 
 said, and much written ; but the world has yet to learn 
 whether the sewage of the great metropolis is to be rendered 
 available as an agricultural fertiliser. We may here refer, for 
 fuller information on this important subject, to another volume 
 of this Series '(Vol. 146), Mr. Robert Scott Bums' Rudimentary 
 Treatise for Students of Agriculture, called, " Outlines of 
 Modern Farming ;" the fifth volume of those Outlines relates 
 to Utilisation of Town Sewage, Irrigation, and the Reclama- 
 tion of Waste Lands. The Embankment of the Thames being 
 now recognised as an important feature in the Main Drainage 
 Scheme, we have deemed it useful to devote one portion of 
 the APPENDIX to this subject. 
 
 Another volume of the Rudimentary Series* treats gene- 
 rally of Yfater "Works, and the Supply of Water to Towns. 
 It has been considered only necessary here, therefore, to 
 notice briefly in the APPENDIX one or two advances which 
 have been made between 1854 and 1865, in improving the 
 systems sketched in the text by Mr. Dempsey, especially in 
 regard to London and Glasgow. 
 
 LONDON, 1865, 
 
 * "A Treatise on Waterworks for the Supply of Cities and Towns ; with a 
 Description of the principal Geological Formations of England, as influencing 
 the Supply of Water; details of Engines and Pumping Machines for Raising 
 Water; and description of Works which have been executed for Procuring 
 Water from Wells, Springs, Rivers, and Drainage Areai." I3y Samuel 
 Hughes, F.a.S., Civil Engineer. Vol. 8-*** 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF TOWNS AND STREETS. 
 
 Page 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Sources of Water Supply ... 1 
 Principles of Draining .... 2 
 Value of Sewage as Manure . . 4 
 Classification of Towns with refe- 
 rence to their positions ... 4 
 Artificial Power to be employed 
 for the supply of Water, or dis- 
 charge of Sewage .... 8 
 London, situation of .... 9 
 Defects of London Drainage . . 12 
 Varieties of Surface Levels and 
 
 Inclinations 12 
 
 Application of Sewage Manure . 17 
 
 Distribution of Liquid Sewage . 19 
 
 Proper use of Sewers .... 23 
 Experiments on the value of 
 
 Sewage as Manure .... 25 
 Metropolitan Sewage Manure 
 
 Company 31 
 
 Magnitu de* of London Sewors . 37 
 
 of Fleet Sewer . . 38 
 
 Metropolitan Commission of 
 
 Sewers 46 
 
 Phillips's Tunnel Scheme . . 47 
 
 Geological objections to ditto . 49 
 Evidence of Mr. Stephenson on 
 
 the Drainage of London . . 50 
 Mr. Forster's Plan for the Drain- 
 age of London 51 
 
 Commissioners' Accounts ... 53 
 Report of the Surveyor on the 
 
 Drainage of the Metropolis . 55 
 Extracts from the Report of the 
 
 Consulting Engineers ... 65* 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Page 
 
 Supply of Water 72 
 
 Influence of the geological cha- 
 racter of the country on the 
 supply and quality of Water . 78 
 
 Reservoirs 89 
 
 Filters 90 
 
 Constant Service System, its ad- 
 vantages -. 95 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Drainage of Streets 100 
 
 Removal of Street Refuse . , , 104 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Functions of Sewers .... 107 
 
 Dimensions and Forms of Sewers 109 
 
 Capacity of Sewers 114 
 
 Fall of Sewers 119 
 
 Construction of Sewers . . . 125 
 
 Drain Pipes 1:25 
 
 Egg-shaped Sewers 129 
 
 Connections of Minor with the 
 
 Main Sewers 130 
 
 Access to Sewers 132 
 
 Cleansing of Sewers 133 
 
 of Streets 135 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Conveyance of Water .... 136 
 
 Water Pipes l' J .8 
 
 Pumping Apparatus .... 141 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 DIVISION IIT. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 Page 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Classification of Buildings . . 144 
 Supply of Water to Dwelling- 
 houses 145 
 
 to Manufactories 146 
 
 to Public Build- 
 ings 147 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Cost of raising Water .... 
 Constant Service System . . . 
 
 Private filtering 
 
 Quality of Eain Water .... 
 
 Extinction of Fires 
 
 Experiments with Jets .... 
 Graduation of Pipes .... 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Circumstances governing the 
 capacity of Drains . . . . 
 
 148 
 149 
 150 
 151 
 153 
 154 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 Page 
 Conditions of Draining . . . 158 
 
 Depth of Drains 161 
 
 Sewers Commissioners' Rules . . 163 
 Fall of Drains 164 
 
 Burnett's Water Closets 
 
 167 
 167 
 168 
 168 
 
 169 
 
 Construction of Drains . . . 
 
 Size of Drain-pipes 
 
 Trapping Drains 
 
 Connection of Drains with Sewers 
 
 Means of access to, and cleansing 
 
 of, Drains 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Water Closets 
 
 Cesspools, evils of 
 
 Water Closet Apparatus . . . 
 Combined Arrangements for 
 
 House Draining 
 
 Apparatus for emptying Cesspools 1 76 
 Hosmer's Cistern . 
 
 170 
 171 
 173 
 
 174 
 
 177 
 
 ITS 
 
 General Summary 180 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 No. 1. Fowler's Steam Draining 
 Plough 182 
 
 No. 2. Stephenson's Report on 
 Plan for draining London north 
 of the Thames 190 
 
 No. 3. Main Drainage of Lon- 
 don, proceedings from 1854 to 
 1865 194 
 
 No. 4. Embankment of the 
 Thames 205 
 
 No. 5. Extracts from the Report 
 of Mr. Wicksteed on the utili- 
 sation of Sewage 214 
 
 No. 6. Projects for utilising Sew- 
 age (1854 to 1865) .... 225 
 
 No. 7. Water supply of London, 
 and effects of the Act of 1852 
 on the same 232 
 
 No. 8. Waterworks from Loch 
 
 Katrine to Glasgow 
 
 238 
 
DKAINAGE. 
 
 DIVISION IT. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF TOWNS AND STREETS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Classification of Towns according to Position and Extent. Varieties of 
 Surface, Levels and Inclinations. Application of Sewage Manure. Me- 
 tropolitan Sewage Manure Company. Methods of treating Sewage. 
 Magnitude of London Sewers. The Fleet Sewer. Metropolitan Com- 
 mission of Sewers. The Tunnel Scheme. Great London Drainage Bill. 
 Messrs. Stephenson and Cubitt's Evidence. General Board of Health. 
 
 194. ACCORDING with our definitions (Part I. p. 1), we 
 propose to treat of the supply of water to towns and build- 
 ings as a branch of the general subject of Drainage, since 
 the purposes of the art cannot be effected without an ade- 
 quate and regulated supply of water by a combination of 
 natural and artificial agencies, the extended control over 
 which constitutes the purpose of water-supply for all high- 
 way, manufacturing, and domestic uses. 
 
 195. The means of obtaining water for towns, and of 
 conducting the drainage matters from them vary, mainly, 
 according to their position with reference to the sources of 
 water ; and, in a subordinate degree, according to their 
 superficial extent. The sources being those already enu- 
 merated in our First Part, viz. rivers, rains, and springs, the 
 command of one or more of these will be presented as the 
 most economical means of deriving the necessary supply 
 for each town under consideration. Towns situated on the 
 banks of tidal rivers, or in near proximity to them, may bo 
 
 B 
 
2 POSITION FOB RECEPTACLES OF SEWAGE. 
 
 usually sufficiently supplied from these sources, unless some 
 parts of the district extend upward to such elevation above 
 the river-level that the raising of this supply requires ex- 
 pensive artificial power; in which case springs at higher 
 levels may be advisably resorted to, or the drainage waters 
 from superior lands may be so conducted as to assist the 
 supply. Towns which are far distant from rivers are com- 
 monly entirely dependent upon springs or drainage waters 
 for their artificial supply. 
 
 196. The refuse matters to be discharged from towns and 
 buildings, consisting of the disintegrated materials of 
 street paving and roads ; of superfluous rain water ; of ex- 
 crementitious matters, solid and liquid ; of the waste pro- 
 ducts of combustion ; of the refuse of animal and vegetable 
 substances ; besides the various waste matters used in ma- 
 nufactures, require arrangements of different kinds to be 
 provided with regard to the purposes to which these mat- 
 ters may be usefully applied. For such discharges of these 
 matters as are to take place through subterranean channels, 
 one principle is, however, common to all, viz. that the re- 
 ceptacle to which they are conducted must be situated at a 
 level somewhat lower than that from which they are for- 
 warded. The arrangements for this purpose will, therefore, 
 be varied according to the nature of the site of the town. 
 If this be low in relation to the surrounding country, and 
 level, the refuse may be indifferently collected within or 
 without the town, with, however, the advantage in the latter 
 plan of avoiding such exposure of the decomposed matters 
 as tends to pollute the atmosphere, and at the same time 
 saving distance in the transfer of such portions of those 
 matters as are destined for agricultural uses. If the site of 
 the town be a valley with lower ground in the midst of it 
 than is found anywhere without its limits, the readiest point 
 of collection will be the lowest level in the town itself at 
 which the drainage can be united, and artificial power will 
 be required to distribute such matters as are intended for 
 agricultural purposes around the higher ground outside. 
 
JK1VEES NOT TO BE MADE SEWERS. 8 
 
 From towns which occupy elevated sites, having lower lands 
 around them, the refuse matters and drainage waters should 
 be conducted away at once ; or, if found necessary to collect 
 them, a point or points should be selected for this purpose 
 altogether beyond the limits of the town itself. 
 
 197. In the several cases here supposed, the question of 
 disposing of the refuse matters should be treated without 
 any reference whatever to the presence of a river through 
 or contiguous to the town, except upon the single consi- 
 deration that such river, being in all probability situated at 
 the lowest level of the site, may afford facilities, after the 
 refuse has been collected in reservoirs near its banks, for its 
 conveyance in suitable barges or vessels towards the higher 
 lands for which some portion of this refuse is ultimately 
 destined. Former practice in the art of town-draining has 
 indeed regarded the one question of river or no river, as the 
 grand determinal one for the disposal of drainage and 
 refuse matters. How to get rid of the animal ordure 
 created within the walls of a town, was formerly deemed to 
 be satisfactorily answered provided a river flowed beneath, 
 and offered a tide to wash away in boundless wastefulness 
 those matters which, properly applied, will endow barren 
 lands with the richest fertility. 
 
 198. Although reluctant to dwell upon the trite subject 
 of the importance of draining, we claim attention to this 
 great leading principle in the drainage of towns and build- 
 ings, viz. that the ultimate economy of the art comprehends 
 two distinct purposes, whereof the second the disposal 
 and utility of the refuse matters is little less in importance 
 than the first the discharge of these matters from the 
 dwellings and highways of men. And the accomplishment 
 of this second purpose involves the beneficial appropriation 
 of refuse matters so as to make them actually productive, 
 and avoid interference with those healthy uses of inland 
 waters for which they are properly adipted. In illustration 
 of this principle we will endeavour to estimate the value 
 for agricultural purposes of the excrementitious matters 
 
 B 2 
 
4 ANALYSES OF MANUEES. 
 
 flowing from a town, from which estimate the pernicious 
 effects of discharging those matters into the courses whence 
 the supply of water is derived for the several uses of the 
 population may be readily inferred. 
 
 199. The value of manures as promoters of vegetation 
 is known to result from their possession of the essential 
 element, nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, with the sub- 
 ordinate properties of alkalies, phosphates, and sulphates. 
 Now, the experiments of Boussingault and Liebig have 
 furnished us with the means of estimating the quantity of 
 nitrogen contained in the excrements of a man during one 
 year, at 16*41 Ibs., upon probable data, and also that this 
 quantity is sufficient for the supply of 800 Ibs. of wheat, 
 rye, or oats, or of 900 Ibs, of barley. " This is much more 
 than it is necessary to add to an acre of land, in order to 
 obtain, with the assistance of the nitrogen absorbed from 
 the atmosphere, the richest crops every year. By adopting 
 a system of .rotation of crops, every town and farm might 
 thus supply itself with the manure which, besides con- 
 taining the most nitrogen, contains also the most phos- 
 phates. By using, at the same time, bones and the lixi- 
 viated ashes of wood, animal excrements might be com- 
 pletely dispensed with on many kinds of soil. When human 
 excrements are treate,d in a proper manner, so as to remove 
 this moisture, without permitting the escape of ammonia, 
 they may be put into such a form as will allow them to be 
 transported even to great distances."* Making reasonable 
 allowance for the reduced quantity produced by children, 
 we shall be safe in assuming the nitrogen thus resulting 
 from any amount of population to be equal to the supply 
 required for affording 2 Ibs. of bread per diem for every 
 one of its members ! Or assuming an average of 600 Ibs. 
 of wheat to be manured by each individual of the popula- 
 tion of London ; and taking this at two millions, for a 
 rough calculation, the manure thus produced is sufficient to 
 supply the growth of wheat of a total weight of 1200 mil- 
 
 * Liebig. 
 
QUALITY OF TOWN-SEWAGE. 5 
 
 lions of pounds, or 535,714 tons. The total manuring 
 matters, solid and liquid, produced in a town, allowing for 
 those which are produced in manufactories arid sewage 
 water, are probably equal in weight to one ton annually for 
 each member of the population, or two millions of tons 
 produced in the metropolis. 
 
 200. That this vast quantity of manure should be made 
 available for agricultural production is a principle which 
 cannot be denied, and which is properly limitable only by 
 the consideration of expense as weighed against the value 
 of the results. The expense will be made up mainly of 
 three items, viz. of the collection, of the raising, and of the 
 distribution of the refuse matters. The collection being an 
 item common to all methods of disposal, will not be 
 chargeable entire in any comparative estimate, but as modi- 
 fied by the peculiarities in the collection of which the plan 
 is susceptible. The cost of raising is of course wholly 
 chargeable to a system of artificial dispersion, as distin- 
 guished from the prevailing modes of self-discharge into 
 low channels, but the former system will be debited only 
 with the excess of expense (if any), beyond that incurred 
 by the present methods of distributing the manuring mat- 
 ters for use upon the land. The cost of each of these 
 works, however, may be reduced to a . minimum by skilful 
 arrangements, and our experience is yet insufficient to ena- 
 ble us to determine these with that precision which further 
 practice will secure, or to estimate their total with the ex- 
 actness necessary for forming a just comparison between 
 the present and the proposed methods. 
 
 201. In a subsequent part of our work we propose to 
 consider the items of cost in carrying out an efficient sys- 
 tem of town-drainage ; being satisfied, at this stage of our 
 subject, in declaring the fundamental principle that the 
 refuse of a town, including not only excrementitious, but 
 all other waste matters and sewage, is far too valuable to be 
 thrown away ; and that the question of its appropriation 
 should be made dependent only upon rules of a liberal 
 
6 CONSIDERATION OF SITES. 
 
 economy, which ought, moreover, to be severely criticised 
 before admitted to practical consideration. 
 
 202. The palpable inference from this principle is, as 
 already stated, that the contiguity and position of a river, 
 with reference to a town, have no necessaiy connection with 
 the arrangement of its drainage beyond the facilities which 
 may be thus afforded for the passage or subsequent convey- 
 ance of the sewage matters for their ultimate disposal. For 
 it is quite certain that no correct general views of town- 
 drainage can prevail while we continue to regard a river as 
 the natural and suitable trunk sewer into which all colla- 
 teral and main courses of brickwork are to discharge their 
 foetid contents, which, according to the state of the river, 
 are either immediately spread upon its banks to contami- 
 nate the air of the town, or duly infused in its waters, to be 
 afterwards exposed with the same vicious effects. 
 
 203. From the principles here laid down, it will be unr 
 derstood that in the twofold purposes of the drainage of 
 towns, viz. the supply of water, and the discharge and dis- 
 posal of the refuse matters, the relative levels of the town, 
 with the adjacent districts, and of the several portions of 
 the town with each other, are the main considerations upon 
 which the peculiar methods to be adopted in each case are 
 determinable ; but it will also be evident that, generally, 
 those surfaces which are the most favourable for an econo- 
 mical water supply are the least so for the ready disposal of 
 refuse matters, and the converse is equally true ; those sur- 
 faces which present facilities for dispersing drainage-matters 
 being commonly the least accessible to water. 
 
 204. Thus the flat districts on the margins of rivers and 
 inland streams of adequate capacity are the most favourable 
 sites for towns for the supply of water, but for drainage 
 they are the least so ; since the main channels or sewers 
 are required to be laid at low levels, and the raising of their 
 contents for use upon the neighbouring lands, which are 
 probably much higher, becomes a very expensive process. 
 On the other hand, a town on a hill-top is the most readily 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF SITES. 7 
 
 and cheaply drained ; but its supply with water, whether 
 from springs, rivers, or surface drainage all at lower levels 
 is a work of great and constant cost. 
 
 Let us consider the several kinds of site which towns 
 may occupy. 
 
 205. First. A plain or flat surface, with surrounding 
 country of similar character. Water from rivers, springs, 
 or from the surface of lands in the neighbourhood. Arti- 
 ficial power will be probably required to raise the water, 
 however derived. The drainage matters must be conducted 
 into one or more main sewers, and raised by artificial power 
 for dispersion upon the land. 
 
 206. /Second. A plain or flat surface, with surrounding 
 country rising from the town. Unless well situated with 
 regard to a river, the supply of water will probably be the 
 most economically obtained from springs on the hills, or 
 from the collection of the waters which accumulate upon 
 their surface. The drainage matters, if destined for the 
 higher lands, should be generally conducted by mains 
 towards the outskirts of the town, and the question of levels 
 will evidently derive additional importance from the neces- 
 sity of raising the sewage to levels naturally above that of 
 the town itself. 
 
 207. Third. A plain or flat surface, with surrounding 
 country falling from the town. The supply of water beyond 
 that derived from wells and springs will require artificial 
 power, while the drainage matters may be collected in main 
 sewers, and, in all probability, dispersed without any appli- 
 cation of power, by the force of their own gravity. 
 
 208. Fourth. An inclined surface on the side of a hill. 
 Water will be derivable, probably, from several sources. If 
 a river flow at the base of the site, the lower parts of the 
 town will be most economically supplied from it, while for 
 the higher the surface water from lands above or springs 
 will be the most readily available. The general system of 
 collecting and distributing the drainage matters will be 
 chiefly dependent upon the localities where they are in- 
 
8 ARTIFICIAL POWEK. 
 
 tended to be ultimately disposed of. If these be on the 
 lower part of the hill, the method will be very simple, re- 
 quiring only that main sewers be laid at the base of the 
 town, from which the sewage may be distributed without 
 any application of artificial power. But if the disposal of 
 the sewage be inevitably desired on the lands above the 
 town, the site constitutes one of the least favourable for 
 economical drainage, which will require a constant expendi- 
 ture of artificial power. 
 
 209. A river- valley and a hill- top will evidently present a 
 repetition or duplication of similar features to those here 
 described, the only limitation in the resemblance beingthat, 
 in the case of a town on the summit of a hill, the water 
 supply will, most probably, be derivable only from lower 
 sources by artificial power. 
 
 In these sketches the general superficial features of the 
 site are of course only referred to. Intermediate undula- 
 tions which may exist will affect the determination of the 
 details of any arrangement of channels designed for serving 
 the drainage of the town. 
 
 210. With reference to the artificial power which may be 
 required for the supply of water, or the discharge of the 
 drainage matters, if a tidal river can be commanded, it 
 becomes a question of the highest importance whether this 
 cannot be, and, if so, in what way, made available as a 
 source of the power required. And another question de- 
 serving the most attentive consideration is, whether the ebb 
 tide may not be rendered efficient in aiding the discharge 
 of the sewage where the fall is inadequate to insure its self- 
 discharge. 
 
 211. As a general principle in town drainage, however, it 
 should be so arranged and conducted as to require no arti- 
 ficial supply of water. The surface water should always be 
 made sufficient to carry away all refuse matters, solid as 
 well as liquid. Two reasons exist for this : first, the econ- 
 omy of the water, which in many cases is a paramount, and 
 in all should be a leading, consideration; and, secondly, 
 
SITUATION OF LONDON. 9 
 
 the dilution of the sewage with any unnecessary liquid 
 involves more capacious arrangements for its diffusion, and 
 in most instances an extravagant amount of power to raise 
 it. 
 
 212. The utmost economy of water for draining purposes 
 can be secured only when a sufficient inclination in the 
 sewers can be obtained. The methods of making a fall 
 the most effectual are, therefore, deserving of the most 
 careful attention in every scheme for town- drainage. The 
 application of the tidal waters for assisting the discharge 
 of the sewage can consequently be entertained only with 
 reference to the principal main sewers at the lowest level, 
 and with such adaptation, if practicable, as will admit 
 the subsequent separation of the proper sewage matters 
 from the water thus introduced to aid their progress and 
 discharge. 
 
 213. Although the rules here suggested should be kept 
 in view as leading objects in all arrangements of town- 
 drainage, they will in many cases be admissible in part 
 only, owing to the reference to existing works which is 
 imposed upon us. Thus, in all towns for the attempted 
 drainage of which some arrangements or other have already 
 been executed, our practical operations become doubly dif- 
 ficult, since we are constrained to endeavour to reconcile 
 these with the improved details which correct principles 
 induce us to prefer. By way of illustration, which will be 
 found fully instructive, let us turn our attention to the 
 works now hi action upon and beneath the surface of our 
 own metropolis, and consider how the principles here 
 stated can be the best applied to improve the means of its 
 drainage. 
 
 214. LONDON, standing upon a bed of clay, the sub- 
 strata to which, successively, are plastic clay, chalk, and 
 gault, occupies a part of the valley through which the river 
 Thames has its course. The site of the town in some 
 places rises gently from the river, and at others is below 
 the level of high water, extending in dead flat districts. 
 
 B 3 
 
30 THE THAMES, THE GRAND SEWER. 
 
 For the principal part, however, the surface rises above the 
 river, which therefore came to be regarded as the natural 
 and proper channel for all the drainage of the town, the 
 main sewers having been arranged to discharge their con- 
 tents into it. Indeed, so thoroughly was this purpose of 
 the river formerly recognised, that the Thames was fami- 
 liarly termed the " Grand Sewer of London," 
 
 215. Now, in order to make this method effective of only 
 one of the true purposes of drainage, viz. the mere getting 
 rid of the sewage matters, it is evident that the arrange- 
 ment must be such, that the whole of these matters are 
 duly collected in the buildings and streets, and delivered 
 into the sewers; also, that these are so constructed and 
 situated that the matters they receive shall pass as rapidly 
 as possible, and certainly without any interruption that 
 would amount to stagnation, into the main sewers, and that 
 these again faithfully and promptly convey the sewage into 
 the final receiver, the river. So far, however, from being 
 fulfilled in their entirety, no one of these conditions is fully 
 and satisfactorily discharged. Thus, in many parts of the 
 town, the refuse matters are collected in holes beneath the 
 houses, and removed only when these holes become filled, 
 and the surrounding soil permeated to supersaturation. 
 Some districts have no sewers or drains of any description ; 
 and again, of the sewers which are constructed, very very 
 few, are formed with a rate of declivity sufficient for the 
 self-discharge of the sewage, -while many of them are laid 
 perfectly level. Attempts are made in some districts to 
 obviate the evils of insufficient declivity, by a flushing of 
 water through the sewers, the water being, for this purpose, 
 accumulated for a time, and then suddenly released, so as 
 to produce the effects of a powerful current. Of these 
 methods some details will be found in a subsequent part of 
 this treatise ; but the.y can be regarded only as palliatives, 
 and expensive ones, applying, moreover, to one only of the 
 many imperfections of the present system. The crowning 
 defect, however, exists at the last stage of this machinery, 
 
DEFECTS OF LONDON DRAINAGE. 11 
 
 where the outfalls of the sewers into the river are so low, 
 that their contents are delivered at, or a little above, low- 
 water level. The decomposing matters are consequently 
 delivered upon the banks of the river, and left there to 
 stagnate and poison the atmosphere, and to be brought up 
 with the next tide for the thorough pollution of the waters. 
 This is an irremediable evil of the present arrangement, 
 by which no adequate fall can be obtained for the sewers, 
 consistent with their discharge into the river near the high- 
 water level, the only position in which the sewage could be 
 effectually conveyed away from the higher towards the 
 lower districts. Into some of these sewers the water of 
 the tide is permitted to enter, the immediate consequence 
 of which necessarily is, that the discharge of the sewage is 
 suspended, and the gases engendered by the decomposing 
 matter within the sewers are driven back towards the town. 
 The return of the tide of course assists the outflowing of 
 the contents of the sewers to some small extent ; but, not- 
 withstanding this expedient for assisting the discharge, the 
 sewers are found to require periodical cleansing by hand, 
 the foul matters being raised to the surface in buckets, and 
 conveyed away in carts. 
 
 216. Of the many details of imperfection which mark the 
 existing combination of arrangements constituting the sewer- 
 age of the metropolis, all who have studied the subject are, 
 to some extent, cognizant, and all are equally prepared to 
 admit the magnitude of the several improvements which 
 have been made within the last twenty years, and which 
 tend to alleviate some of the most palpable evils of the 
 prevailing system ; but no thorough rectification can be 
 effected until the correct principles of town-drainage are 
 recurred to, and applied with such modifications as may 
 enable us to make the best use of existing arrangements, 
 without sacrificing objects of greater magnitude and im- 
 portance. 
 
 217. All the real difficulties of the drainage of London 
 have their origin in the great error of attempting to convert 
 
12 DEFECTS OF LONDON DRAINAGE. 
 
 the river Thames into the common receiving sewer. In 
 the attempt to accomplish this improper object, the sewage 
 is brought down from the high lands, distances of miles, 
 and heights of many feet, away from the very points where 
 it should have been collected, and would be at once avail- 
 able for agricultural purposes. In the same attempt it has 
 been found necessary to construct the lower ends of these 
 sewers of immense size, in order to contain the accumu- 
 lated sewage with which they are thus loaded. As the 
 buildings have been extended, or a necessity has arisen 
 for accommodating lower levels, the main sewers have been 
 industriously removed, and rebuilt below their former posi- 
 tion, and their capacity enlarged, to provide for the in- 
 creased quantity poured into them. In the same obstinate 
 attempt to pollute the waters of the river, miles of sewers 
 have been constructed without any declivity whatever, on an 
 absolute level, in which, as a necessary consequence, the 
 refuse matters accumulate and solidify, until some happy 
 rush of surface-waters sends them onward to the common 
 receptacle, from which the population has the privilege of 
 afterwards supplying their personal and household wants. 
 Now, let us banish the notion of turning our rivers into 
 sewers, and consider how the sewerage could be best ar- 
 ranged, supposing it had to be done as an entirely new work, 
 and that we were unfettered by any consideration of making 
 present subterranean structures available for the purpose. 
 
 218. Without seeking records of the actual levels of any 
 one of our river-watered towns, we may assume as a feature 
 common to many of them the existence of several ranges 
 of elevation, running parallel, or nearly so, to the direction 
 of the river, which we will suppose to be generally east and 
 west. These ranges of elevation will be interrupted at 
 intervals by ancient water-courses, and also by small ridges 
 xunning north and south. These several features of the 
 natural surface will determine the most economical courses 
 for the general system of drainage. Thus the highest of 
 the ranges (which we will call A) should have a course of 
 
RANGES OF ELEVATION. 
 
 13 
 
 sewers for the especial service of the districts above it; the 
 next range (B) should have another course of sewers to serve 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 A 
 
 the district between A and B ; the following range (c) should 
 similarly be provided with its course of sewers to drain the 
 district between B and c, and so on, as in the sketch, fig. 67. 
 The general inclination, east and west, of each of these 
 courses of sewers would be determined by the position 
 of the ridges and hollows running north and south, as 
 shown in fig. 68, where the highest points of the several 
 
 
 courses would be at K, and the lowest at H successively. 
 By this arrangement, means would be obtained of collecting 
 the sewage at each level or range of elevation, and dis- 
 posing of it with the minimum powei to be expended in 
 raising it for manuring, purposes. 
 
 219. The next great question to be determined would 
 
14 WATER POWER FROM RIVERS. 
 
 be, the most economical power that could he obtained at 
 each of these points, H, for the purpose of raising the 
 sewage for dispersion upon the land. For the lower level 
 or range, the pumps could be worked by wheels driven by 
 the tide of the river-water; and, in all probability, those 
 for the upper levels could be worked, at any rate partially, 
 by streams of water conducted, in suitable channels, from 
 the uplands. At least, while we can command the immense 
 water-power of rivers, and of the accumulated surface 
 drainage from the large districts above, the best means of 
 making this available far our purpose deserve all considera- 
 tion, before we resort to the expensive power of steam. 
 For the extended fiat districts of towns which bound tidal 
 rivers, the tides of the river could also be made available, to 
 a great extent, in doing the work required. The comple- 
 tion of the scheme would then want the details of the 
 arrangements to be made suitable to the superficial features 
 and relative levels of each part of the site for the con- 
 struction, &c., of the sewers, and the machinery to be 
 applied for raising and distributing the sewage; and we 
 should finally be prepared to arrange the minor channels 
 or drains so as to subserve the efficient cleansing of every 
 inch of the surface, and of every individual tenement in 
 the town. 
 
 220. The arrangement here suggested will be the more 
 peculiarly applicable, in proportion as the site resembles 
 the general regularity of surface which we have supposed. 
 In many parts of London there is no uniformity of incli- 
 nation, and in others the rate of inclination is -so trifling, 
 that the surface may be treated nearly as a level. But the 
 illustration we have referred to shows the general principle 
 of the arrangement which would promote the greatest 
 economy in the drainage of a town, the site of which 
 resembles, in its principal features, the section given in 
 fig. 67. In the application of this general system to 
 London, as it is, these departures of superficial character 
 from the theoretical regularity must of course receive due 
 
" INTERCEPTING " SEWERS. 1 5 
 
 attention ; and, beyond this, the existing arrangement of 
 sewers must be carefully noted and consulted, with the 
 view of rendering them, as far as possible, available as 
 parts of the general plan. Until this existing arrangement 
 is presentable to the eye, upon plans and sections of the 
 metropolis that shall exhibit every peculiarity of surface 
 and of subterranean structure, by which the details of the 
 plan to be adopted would be affected, no correct estimate 
 can be formed of the extent of modifications that would 
 be required, nor how weighty may be the reasons for relin- 
 quishing, in some parts of the town, the scheme of a suc- 
 cession of levels or ranges of elevation. An acquaintance 
 with these details will probably show the expediency of 
 making use of some of the existing main sewers through 
 out the principal part of their length, but INTERCEPTING 
 their contents before they reach the river, and forming 
 tanks or other receptacles in which these matters should 
 be collected. 
 
 221. The two objects the public health, and economy 
 being kept distinctly in view in the design and execution of 
 these arrangements, it becomes necessary to show that the 
 sewage can be collected-, treated, raised, and dispersed, 
 without any detriment to the first of these objects; and 
 that these purposes can be effected at such cost as will be 
 at least balanced by the advantage of applying the sewage 
 as manure, or a material for irrigation. 
 
 222. The contents of the sewers, consisting of human 
 and animal excrements, earthy matters carried down by 
 the surface water from the roads and streets, with some 
 portion of decayed vegetable and animal substances, &c., 
 although at first partly solid, afterwards become reduced to 
 a thick liquid state, of tolerably uniform quality. During 
 the putrefaction of these matters, the ammonia they contain 
 (and which is one of their useful constituents) is disengaged : 
 and if this process take place in the open air, it is of course 
 mingled with the atmosphere in the form of carbonate of 
 ammonia, and leaves the sewage in a less valuable con- 
 dition. Now this volatile carbonate of ammonia may be 
 
16 FIXING THE GASES. 
 
 fixed in many ways. Thus says Liebig : " Gypsum, chlo- 
 ride of calcium, sulphuric or muriatic acid, and super- 
 phosphate of lime, are substances of a very low price ; and 
 if they were added to urine until the latter lost its alka- 
 linity, the ammonia would be converted into salts, which 
 would have no further tendency to volatilize. When a 
 basin, filled with concentrated muriatic -acid, is placed in 
 a common necessary, so that its surface is in free com- 
 munication with the vapours issuing from below, it becomes 
 filled, after a few days, with crystals, of muriate of am- 
 monia. The ammonia, the presence of which the organs 
 of smell amply testify, combines with the muriatic acid, 
 and loses entirely its volatility, and thick clouds or fumes 
 of the salt, newly formed, hang over the basin. In stables 
 the same may be seen. The ammonia escaping in this 
 mariner is not only lost, as far as our vegetation is con- 
 cerned, but it works also a slow, though not less certain, 
 destruction of the walls of the building. For, when in 
 contact with the lime of the mortar, it is converted into 
 nitric acid, which dissolves gradually the lime. The injury 
 thus done to a building by the formation of soluble nitrates 
 has received (in Germany) a special name salpeterfrass 
 (production of soluble nitrate of lime). The ammonia 
 emitted from stables and necessaries is always in combina- 
 tion with carbonic acid. Carbonate of ammonia and sul- 
 phate of lime (gypsum) cannot be brought together at 
 common temperatures, without mutual decomposition. The 
 ammonia enters into combination with the sulphuric acid, 
 and the carbonic acid with the lime, forming compounds 
 destitute of volatility, and consequently of smell. Now, if 
 we strew the floors of our stables, from time to time, with 
 common gypsum, they will lose all their offensive smell, 
 and none of the ammonia can be lost, but will be retained 
 in a condition serviceable as manure. (Mohr.)" * 
 
 223. Chemistry thus supplies us with the means by which 
 
 * " Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology," by 
 Justus Liebig. Edited by Drs. Playfair and Gregory. Fourth Edition, 
 1847, p. 189. 
 
VALUE OF SEWAGE. 17 
 
 all the offensive and detrimental properties of the sewage 
 may be suppressed, and all the useful properties safely 
 retained. There is evidently no necessary reason why a 
 tank or receptacle in which the sewage is collected and 
 stored should be, in any respect, more disgusting to the 
 senses, or injurious to the health of human beings, than a 
 reservoir of the purest water. 
 
 224. Can the remaining question of cost be disposed of 
 with equal satisfaction, so as to show that the application 
 of the sewage to manuring purposes may be effected with 
 due economy? Will the agricultural value of the sewage 
 pay the expenses of applying it? We believe it may. 
 These expenses will embrace the construction of the tanks 
 or stores for the sewage, of the pumps and raising ma- 
 chinery, and the means of treating the sewage with gypsum 
 or other agent, and of distributing it upon the lands to be 
 served; but against the total, in a comparative estimate, 
 would have to be placed the cost of the present partial 
 removal of night-soil from cesspools, the immense addi- 
 tional cost incurred by the necessity of having immense 
 sewers, the cost of outfalls into the river, and the expense 
 of cleansing the present sewers by hand. Now, in order 
 to form a rough estimate of these several expenses with 
 which the present system is to be debited, we will assume 
 the population of the metropolis to be two millions,* and 
 the number of houses 200,000, that is, ten persons to each 
 house on an average; that half of these houses are still 
 drained into cesspools, and that the cleansing of each of 
 these costs one pound annually. We shall then have 
 100,OOOZ. as the annual cost of removing the contents of 
 the cesspools of the metropolis. The number of miles 
 of sewers constructed during the ten years from 1833 to 
 1843, throughout the metropolis, was about 120, or, an- 
 nually, twelve miles on an average ; and the excess of 
 capacity in these sewers, made necessary by the deficiency 
 of declivity, and the great length to which they are ex- 
 tended, probably involved a cost, in construction, equal at 
 * See Appeudix No. 3, p. 194, for details applicable to later years. 
 
18 VALUE OF SEWAGE. 
 
 least to 2000Z. per mile. This item would thus amount to 
 24,000. annually, in which the expense of outfalls to the 
 river may be included. To these are to be added the ex- 
 penses of cleansing the sewers by hand, which may be 
 moderately computed at 10,OOOZ. annually throughout the 
 metropolis. We shall thus have an amount of 134,0002., 
 which would be annually saved in these items by the pro- 
 posed system. 
 
 225. A very reduced estimate of the value, for manure, 
 of the excreta of human beings (reduced avowedly for the 
 sake of gaining public belief), represents it at 5s. for each 
 person annually. The value of the produce of the popula- 
 tion of London would thus be 500,0002. per annum. Ad- 
 mitting one-half of this to be now made available, we shall 
 have the other half, amounting to 250,0002., gained by 
 the proposed mode of collection, and adding this to the 
 134,0002. estimated saving (224), we have a total of 384,0002. 
 annually available for the expenses of construction and re- 
 pair of apparatus, and current cost of collecting, raising, and 
 treating the sewage of the metropolis. This sum will endow 
 thirty-eight stations with an annual income each exceeding 
 10,0002. for interest of capital in first construction and cur- 
 rent expenses of working and treating. And this number 
 of stations appears fully adequate to realize all the economy 
 of power which can be attained by judiciously providing for 
 several levels in each district of the metropolis. 
 
 226. In order to show that this rough estimate as to the 
 value of the sewage, and the cost of applying it, is not 
 formed upon fallacious data, calculated to induce an un- 
 founded preference for the method recommended, we may 
 refer to the authority of the Superintending Inspectors 
 under the General Board of Health, Messrs. Cresy and 
 Ranger. Mr. Cresy, in reporting upon the present sanitary 
 condition of the borough of New Windsor, and offering his 
 official recommendations for its improvement, estimated the 
 population at 10,200, and the annual value of the sewage 
 manure at from 10002. to 15002. And for the first cost of 
 
VALUE OF SEWAGE. 19 
 
 the apparatus for distributing this manure, he allowed an 
 expenditure of 40002., being 30002. for 10 miles of pipe, 
 and 10002. for pumping engine, &c. Mr. Eanger estimated 
 the value of the sewage matters of the town of Uxbridge 
 to be at least equal to 17002. per annum, the population 
 being 3219 (in 1841), or about 10s. for each person; and 
 for the first cost of the distributing apparatus, he allowed 
 35002. In reporting upon the town of Eton, of which the 
 population was 3526, in 1841, Mr. Cresy estimated the value 
 of the excreta at 5002. annually, and the cost of main 
 sewers and tanks for the sewage at 1000/. 
 
 227. These estimates of the value of sewage vary from 
 2s. to 10s, 6d. per individual, between which our average of 
 5s. is certainly a safe medium. And the allowance for first 
 cost of apparatus for pumping, &c., varies from about 6s. to 
 I/. 2s. per individual. If we assume II. as a safe average, 
 the annual interest, at five per cent., upon two millions of 
 pounds, being 100,0002., we shall have 284,0002. left for 
 the current expenses of our thirty-eight stations, or about 
 74702. each annually, which must be admitted to be a very 
 liberal estimate of the cost of pumping and treating the 
 sewage. 
 
 228. Of the current expenses of distributing the liquid 
 sewage upon the land, and of first conveying it from the 
 stations to the districts to be supplied, whether by a system 
 of piping, or by vessels, or carts, it will not be necessary to 
 offer any estimate here. These duties will probably involve 
 an expenditure which would have the appearance of being 
 heavy, if not fairly compared with the cost now incurred in 
 imperfect manuring on the one hand, and on the other, 
 with the vastly-increased value given by the application of 
 the liquid sewage to the products of arable and pasture 
 lands. When the costs and the results of the two methods 
 can be, from actual and extended experience, placed thus 
 in juxtaposition, we are justified in anticipating that a large 
 balance of advantage and economy will appear incontesta- 
 
20 DETAILS OF SYSTEM. 
 
 bly due to the system of applying and distributing the 
 liquid sewage as here described. 
 
 329. The multiplicity of stations necessary to carry out 
 the scheme of ranges of elevation may appear to involve 
 practical difficulties, and objections of a serious character, 
 that should be adverted to, and their real value shown in 
 contrast to the advantages which this arrangement offers. 
 The primary consideration which must be satisfactorily 
 fulfilled is, the practicability of accomplishing this method 
 without any sacrifice of health, by the raising and distribu- 
 tion of the sewage at and from the several stations. The 
 treatment with gypsum, already alluded to, may, it is pre- 
 sumed, be carried on at such a cost as shall not impair the 
 ultimate economy of the process, and in such a manner 
 that no offence shall be committed against the most fas- 
 tidious delicacy of sense. Indeed, the completion of the 
 process would perhaps require that the gypsum should be 
 administered either constantly, or at stated intervals, within 
 the collateral or the main sewers, by which means all dis- 
 engagement of foul gases would be prevented, and the 
 sewage would arrive at the receiving tanks in an innocuous 
 and fixed condition. But until this method is carried out, 
 the tanks may be so covered in, and their contents ex- 
 cluded from association with the external air, as that the 
 latter shall not suffer any contamination ; and similarly the 
 sewage, pumped up, may be distributed in closed pipes, or 
 loaded into river or canal boats, or into wheeled vessels, so 
 constructed of iron that the sewage, already purified in the 
 tanks, shall be at once conveyed away, without exposure in 
 the slightest degree. The great advantage, however, of 
 effecting this purification at the earliest possible stage (and 
 the only perfect system is that which shall provide for doing 
 it in the drainage of each individual house) is too apparent 
 to be disregarded or lightly estimated. It has been well 
 remarked, that so long as our covered sewers are permitted 
 to emit the noisome gases engendered by the putrefying 
 
OBJECTIONS TO SYSTEM. 21 
 
 matters within them from the air grates and gully holes 
 into the streets, they remain, to all intents arid purposes, 
 nuisances, and are nearly as dangerous and offensive as if they 
 were open sewers. And when it is remembered that these 
 very gases, which bring pestilence and death to our poor 
 population, would, if retained within the sewage, constitute 
 its most valuable properties, we surely find abundant rea- 
 son for seeking the best practicable method of applying 
 the purifying process before these dangerous properties are 
 developed, and of transmitting the fructifying matters to 
 our fields before their value has been thus grievously im- 
 paired. 
 
 230. Another objection which the system of ranges of 
 elevation will probably meet with is, that the sewage mat- 
 ters cannot be made available at any great number of points 
 within the town and its suburbs. This may be admitted. 
 It is, indeed, very likely that no profitable use can be made 
 of the sewage within some few miles of the metropolis; 
 but it does not therefore follow that it can be more ad- 
 vantageously conveyed in sewers to the distant station, 
 where it may, perhaps, be applied at once. If we had the 
 materials for instituting a fair and exact comparison be- 
 tween the first cost of constructing and current expenses of 
 maintaining, in a healthy condition, the deep and large 
 sewers required for any system of sewage which is not 
 mainly determined by the minor varieties of surface, and 
 the expenses of transporting the sewage from many points 
 by pipes or by river, railway or canal, with all the facilities 
 we can now command for any general and extended system, 
 the latter would be found to be recommended as strongly 
 by its economy, as it undoubtedly is by its superior effi- 
 ciency in subserving the health and well-being of the popu- 
 lation. The economy of transmitting liquid matters in 
 pipes is well known, and the cost has been estimated, by 
 engineers, at %\d. per ton for a distance of five miles, and 
 to a height of 200 feet. This includes interest of capital 
 and all current expenses. Railway tolls and canal dues 
 
22 EXTRAVAGANCE OF CONCENTRATION. 
 
 may indeed be regulated so as to afford but little facility for 
 the transmission of manure at present; but wonderful 
 modifications will be volunteered in these matters, so soon 
 as the system becomes general, the demand for accom- 
 modation be increased, and the mechanical and chemical 
 appliances for purifying and transporting the sewage ren- 
 dered more ready and effective. 
 
 231. Any system of collection which attempts to concen- 
 trate the sewage at a few points must be attended with ex- 
 travagance in one or more of three different ways. First, 
 and constantly, in the enlarged capacity of sewers required, 
 for two reasons, viz. the great quantity to be conveyed, and 
 the extra size needed to compensate for the deficiency of 
 declivity. Secondly, in the greater distance over which the 
 sewage has to be transmitted. Or, thirdly, in the greater 
 cost of raising it from the level of the sewers to the high 
 surface above it. Thus arise objections to the propositions 
 which have .been made for conducting the whole of the 
 sewage of London to one point, situated at a distance of 
 several miles eastward of the town, in which case retrans- 
 mission would become necessary, in order to supply dis- 
 tricts in all other directions. And, on the other hand, if it 
 be collected at any point towards the north or north-west, 
 where probably the greatest demand for it would be found, 
 the reservoir would be necessarily constructed at a depth 
 from the surface which would entail immense and needless 
 expense in raising the sewage for application on the land. 
 
 232. Another important point in which the many-station 
 system offers advantages, which the single-station system 
 does not, is the facility for storing the sewage for any 
 required time, until it may be available for agricultural use. 
 It is well known that the manuring matters are required to 
 be applied at certain seasons and intervals, according to the 
 nature of the vegetation. If the sewage be collected in one 
 reservoir, the size of it, in order to serve the true purpose 
 of a reservoir or store-place, must be immense, almost to 
 impracticability; but if divided, as proposed, between many 
 
SEWERS, MERE PASSAGES. 23 
 
 points, tanks of moderate size would be amply sufficient, to 
 contain the accumulation of long intervening periods, while 
 the facility of distribution would, moreover, probably induce 
 the use of the sewage for varieties of culture, that would 
 tend to equalize the demand for it. 
 
 233. Sewers are, properly, mere passages for the sewage, 
 but they are so only while the matters sent into them are 
 induced to continue moving by the declivity of the sewer, 
 or by the artificial force of water, or other agent, to drive or 
 carry them forward. Without one or other of these aids 
 the large sewers we have been constructing are known to 
 become reservoirs of sewage, or cesspools, in which, during 
 dry seasons, the refuse matters remain decomposing for 
 days and weeks, sending up the most pernicious gases into 
 the drains and water-closets of the houses, and through the 
 air-grates and gully-holes into the streets of the town. The 
 system which adopts ranges of elevation and varieties of 
 surface, as indications by which to lay small sewers with 
 rapid declivities, and leading into tanks situated at short 
 distances from each other, obviates these evils, by construct- 
 ing the sewers so that they maintain their proper character 
 of mere passages, and the tanks are made to perform the 
 double purpose of storing and purifying the sewage. The 
 chamber of the tank into which the sewers discharge may 
 be trapped, by turning down into water, so that no impure 
 exhalations can possibly return along the sewer towards the 
 houses and streets. 
 
 234. In adapting this arrangement to London, or any 
 other town already provided with sewers, those in which 
 sufficient fall exists may be retained and made to deliver 
 into tanks at the lowest point of each range or district. 
 But all sewers without fall, or with less than is sufficient 
 for the rapid self-discharge of their contents, should be at 
 once abandoned, and a separate system of sewers con- 
 structed, dipping into one or more tanks at the centre and 
 other points of the flat district. As a general principle, to 
 be very reluctantly departed from, the surface-water and 
 
24 MILAN DRAINAGE. 
 
 waste household-waters should be admitted as the only dilu- 
 tants of the solid sewage. Artificial scouring or flushing 
 of the sewers may be regarded as an expensive and trouble- 
 some correction of some of the evils occasioned by deficient 
 declivity, but one sometimes attended with a most mischiev- 
 ous consequence, viz. the forcing up of the sewage into the 
 streets from some of the lower sewers, which become sur- 
 charged with the flushing water during the process. Another 
 expedient which is occasionally recommended, and in some 
 cases practised, the scouring by admitting the tidal water 
 of the river, is inapplicable to any method which purposes 
 to preserve the sewage for agricultural uses ; and must be 
 admitted to have the effect of thoroughly defiling the lower 
 banks of the river at which the discharge takes place. 
 
 235. Having thus shown that the true principle upon 
 which towns should be classified in order to consider the 
 best system of arranging their general drainage, is that of 
 ranges of elevation and varieties of surface without any re- 
 ference to contiguous rivers or water-courses, and having, 
 in support of this principle, stated that the system of con- 
 ducting the sewage to the river, besides wasting that which 
 is really of great value and poisoning the water, necessitates 
 immense mis-expenditure in large and deep sewers, it will 
 be desirable, before closing this section, to cite some fur- 
 ther authority as to the value of sewage manure, and notice 
 the plans which have been proposed for applying that pro- 
 duced in London ; and also to quote some few instances of 
 the works which have been executed to provide for deliver- 
 ing the sewage of London into the river Thames. 
 
 236. The sewage of the city of Milan is collected in two 
 concentric canals, the inner one of which is called the Sevese, 
 and the outer the Naviglio, and delivered into one called the 
 Vettabbia, which flows from the southern part of the city 
 and, after a course of about ten miles, discharges into the 
 river Lambro. Throughout its course this stream of sew- 
 age is made to flow over a large extent of meadow-land, and 
 is found to possess such valuable fertilising properties that 
 
EDINBURGH MEADOWS. 25 
 
 the deposit, which has to be periodically removed in order 
 to preserve the level of irrigation, is bought by the neigh- 
 bouring agriculturists, and esteemed an excellent manure. 
 Some of the meadows, which are thus irrigated by the sew- 
 age water of Milan, yield a net rent of SI. per acre, besides 
 paying taxes, &c. These meadows are mowed in January, 
 March, April, and November for stable-feeding. They 
 besides yield three crops of hay, viz. in June, July, and 
 August ; and in September they furnish ample pasture for 
 the cattle till the irrigation in the winter. 
 
 237. The late Mr. Smith, of Deanston, in reporting to 
 the " Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of Large 
 Towns and Populous Districts," upon the " application of 
 sewer-water to the purposes of agriculture," gave an inter- 
 esting description of the method which has been adopted 
 for upwards of 30 years in applying the sewage-water of 
 part of Edinburgh to the irrigation of grass-land. " The 
 sewer- water, coming from a section of the Old Town, is 
 discharged into a natural channel or brook, at the base of 
 the sloping site of the town, at sufficient height above a 
 large tract of ground extending towards the sea, to admit 
 of its being flowed by gravitation over a surface of several 
 hundred acres. The water, as it comes from the sewers, is 
 received into ponds, where it is allowed to settle and deposit 
 the gross and less buoyant matter which is carried along by 
 the water, whilst it flows on a steep descent. From these 
 tanks or settling-ponds the sewer-water flows off at the sur- 
 face, at the opposite end to its entrance. The water so 
 flowing off still holds in suspension a large quantity of light 
 flocculent matter, together with the more minute debris of 
 the various matters falling into the sewers, and chiefly of 
 vegetable and animal origin. The water is made to flow 
 over plats or plateaus of ground, formed of even surface, so 
 that the water shall flow as equally as possible over the 
 whole, with various declinations, according to circumstances; 
 and it is found, in practice, that the flow of water can easily 
 be adjusted to suit the declination." " The practical result 
 
 c 
 
26 MR. SMITHS CALCULATIONS. 
 
 of this application of sewer-water is, that land, which \(*t 
 formerly at from 40s. to 6Z. per Scotch acre, is now let an- 
 nually at from 30Z. to 40Z., and that poor sandy land on the 
 sea-shore, which might be worth 2s. 6d. per acre, lets at an 
 annual rent of from 15/. to 20L That which is nearest the 
 city brings the higher rent chiefly because it is near, and 
 more accessible to the points where the grass is consumed, 
 but also, partly, from the better natural quality of the land. 
 The average value of the land, irrespective of the sewer- 
 water application, may be taken at 3L per imperial acre, and 
 the average rent of the irrigated land at 30Z., making a dif- 
 ference of 27Z., but %l. may be deducted as the cost of ma- 
 nagement, leaving 25. per acre of clear annual income due 
 to the sewer -water." Mr. Smith calculated that 17,920 gal- 
 lons of sewage-water, containing 5 cwt. of dissolved and 
 suspended matter, are equal in fertilising power to 2 cwt. 
 of guano, or 15 tons of farm-yard manure; and he esti- 
 mated the expense of the material and process, as applied 
 to one acre of land, as follows : 
 
 s. d. 
 Cost of manuring one acre of land with 
 
 17,920 gallons of sewer-water . . 12 9 
 2 1 cwt. of guano at 8s. -.-. . .100 
 1 5 tons of farm-yard manure at 4s. .300 
 
 He further calculated that the comparative economy of 
 the sewer-water manuring will increase with the greater 
 quantity of each kind of manure applied ; thus : 
 
 Cost of manuring one acre of land with 
 
 35,840 gallons of sewer- water . . 16 6 
 5 cwt. of guano at 8s. . . . 200 
 
 30 tons of farm-yard manure at 4s. .600 
 
 238. Mr. G. Stephen in his " Essay on Irrigated Mea- 
 dows," published in 1826, had previously described the sys- 
 tem of sewer-manuring with commendation. Mr. Stephen 
 says, " Edinburgh has many advantages over many of he? 
 sister cities, and the large supply of excellent spring-water 
 
CL1THEROE EXPERIMENTS. 27 
 
 is one of the greatest blessings to her inhabitants, both in 
 respect to household purposes, and hi keeping the streets 
 clean ; and, lastly, in irrigating the extensive meadows se- 
 lected below the town by the rich stuff which it carries 
 along in a state of semi-solution ; where the art of man 
 with the common shore -water has made sand-hillocks pro- 
 duce riches far superior to anything of the kind in the 
 kingdom, or in any country. By this water about 150 acres 
 of grass-land, laid into catch-work beds, is irrigated, whereof 
 upwards of 100 belong to W. H. Miller, Esq., of Craigin- 
 tinny, and the remainder to the Earls of Haddington and 
 Moray, the heirs of the late Sir James Montgomery, and 
 some small patches to other proprietors. The meadows 
 belonging to the last-mentioned noblemen, and part of the 
 Craigintinny meadows, or what are called the old meadows, 
 containing about 50 acres, having been irrigated for nearly 
 a century, they are by far the most valuable, on account of 
 the long and continual accumulation of the rich sediment 
 left by the water ; indeed, the water is so very rich, that the 
 proprietors of the meadows lying nearest the town have 
 found it advisable to carry the common shore through deep 
 ponds, where the water deposits part of the superfluous 
 manure before it is carried over the ground. Although the 
 formation is irregular, and the management very imperfect, 
 the effect of the water is astonishing ; they produce crops 
 of grass not to be equalled, being cut from four to six times 
 a year, and given green to milk cows. The grass is let 
 every year by public auction, in small patches, from a quar- 
 ter of an acre and upwards, which generally brings from 
 24J. to 30Z. per acre. This year (1826) part of the Earl of 
 Moray's meadow gave as high as 57/. per acre." 
 
 239. The results of experiments tried at Clitheroe, in 
 Lancashire, showed that the fertilising properties of sewage- 
 water were nearly four times as great as those of common 
 farm-yard manure. Mr. Thompson applied 8 tons of the 
 sewage-water to one acre, and 15 tons of the ordinary ma- 
 nure to another, and the produce of the former was as 
 
 c a 
 
98 USE OF SEWAGE AT MANSFIELD. 
 
 T875 to 1 of the latter. Comparing the produce with the 
 weight of manure, the proportion of the one to the other 
 will therefore be as 1-875 to -532, or nearly fourfold. 
 
 240. The sewage-water of Mansfield, in Nottinghamshire, 
 has been so applied to lands by the Duke of Portland, that, 
 with a preliminary expenditure of 30. per acre, to put the 
 land in a condition fit for irrigation, its annual value has 
 been raised from 4s. 6d. to 14. per acre. Mr. Dickinson 
 treated some land at Willesden, in Middlesex, with liquid 
 manure, derived from horses, and obtained fine crops of 
 Italian rye grass, although the land had previously been 
 deemed unworthy of cultivation. Mr. Dickinson obtained 
 ten crops in twelve months. In the year 1 846, the first 
 crop (cut in January) yielded more than 4 tons per acre ; 
 the second gave nearly 8, and the fourth, cut in June, pro- 
 duced 12 tons per acre. 
 
 241. At Ashburton, where they have applied liquid ma- 
 nure for 50 years, and at other towns in Devonshire, the 
 land thus treated produces grass at least a month earlier 
 than lands not so treated, and is valued at 8/. to 12/. per 
 acre, while land not so improved is considered worth only 
 from 30s. to 40s. 
 
 242. One of the earliest, if not the earliest, of the sug- 
 gestions for saving and applying the sewage of London ap- 
 pears to have emanated from the late Mr. John Martin, the 
 artist, in the year 1828. Mr. Ainger, in 1830, published a 
 plan for " preserving the purity of the water of the 
 Thames," by constructing covered drains along the sides of 
 the river to receive the minor drainage, and Mr. Martin in 
 July, 1834, presented to the select committee of the House 
 of Commons, then inquiring into the state of the law re- 
 specting sewers in and near the metropolis, with a view to 
 suggest amendments, a " Plan for improving the air and 
 water of the metropolis by preventing ' the sewage being 
 conveyed into the Thames, thereby preserving not only the 
 purity of the air, but the purity of the water ; and likewise 
 for manure and agricultural purposes." The objects of this 
 
ME. MARTIN'S PLAN. 29 
 
 plan were described to be " first, to materially improve 
 the drainage of the metropolis ; secondly, to prevent the 
 sewage being thrown into the river, and to preserve in its 
 pure state the water which the inhabitants are necessitated 
 to use ; thirdly, to prevent the pollution of the atmosphere 
 by the exhalations from the river and the open mouths of 
 the drains ; and, fourthly, to save and apply to a useful pur- 
 pose the valuable manure which is at present wasted by 
 being conveyed into the river." 
 
 243. The details of the plan embraced the formation of 
 a receptacle at Bayswater, on the north side of the Uxbridge 
 Road, for the drainage of Kilburn, part of Paddington, 
 Bayswater, &c., &c., and of another receptacle above Vaux- 
 hall Bridge to receive the contents of the present King's 
 Scholars' Pond Sewer. For the body of the city, Mr. 
 Martin proposed a grand sewer to commence at College 
 Street, Westminster, and run parallel with the river, and to 
 be extended to a convenient point near the Regent's Canal 
 at the east end of London. And for the south side of the 
 river, a similar plan was recommended, the sewer in this 
 case to commence near Vauxhall Bridge, and pass along 
 the bank of the river to Pickle-Herring Stairs, thence, 
 branching off through Rotherhithe, to a convenient spot 
 adjoining the Grand Surrey Canal, where a grand recep- 
 tacle should be constructed similar to that by the Regent's 
 Canal on the north side of the river. 
 
 244. These grand sewers were proposed to be constructed 
 of iron, the bed of them being on the same level with the 
 shore, and following the inclination of the river, about 7 in. 
 per mile. The top of them to form quays, at least 2 ft. 
 above the highest possible tide. To prevent the possibility 
 of those sewers being burst by the accumulations of floods, 
 they were to be provided with flood-gates ; and to afford 
 facility for inspecting, and, if necessaiy, cleansing them, 
 light iron galleries were designed to be suspended from the 
 roof. The sewers were to be built up of iron, the bottom 
 paved with brick, and the top arched with sheet iron, with 
 
30 MB. MABTIN'S PLAN 
 
 wrought-iron ribs ; the size of the sewers being on the ave- 
 rage 20 ft. in depth and width, and the estimated cost of 
 their construction 60,000. per mile, including sewer, pier 
 or quay, strong quay-wall of cast-iron, towards the river, 
 &c., <fec. The whole length of the two sewers proposed was 
 about 7 \ miles. The description of the receptacles in 
 which the sewage was to be collected will be best quoted 
 from the proposer's " Plan " submitted to the committee. 
 
 215. " The grand receptacle at the end of this great 
 covered sewer should be 20 yards deep, and 100 yards 
 square, with a division down the centre, separating it into 
 two compartments, each 50 yards in width, with a flood-gate 
 at the inner angle of each compartment for the sewage to 
 run in at ; and at the opposite extremity, within about 
 13 ft. of the top, there should be an iron grating, 5 ft. wide 
 by 50 yards long, through which the lighter and thinner 
 parts of the sewage would rise ; the heavier and grosser 
 parts would sink to the bottom, and gradually fill up the 
 base of the drain, when the gate should be closed, and the 
 one leading into the second division of the receptacle 
 opened. At the extremity of the receptacle, between the 
 two compartments, there should be an engine to raise the 
 manure into barges, and also to pump the water in case of 
 extraordinary tide ; in this way the expense of an extra re- 
 ceptacle for the water accumulating whilst the tide is up 
 would be saved ; this, however, would only be required in 
 spring tide. The receptacle would be so firmly built, and 
 covered with a roof of wrought iron, supported by cast-iron 
 pillars, that a road could be made over it ; or it might be 
 built upon, and thus no room would be lost ; and, that a 
 particle of smell might not be allowed to escape, there 
 should be a communication for the foul air to pass from the 
 receptacle to the fire of the engine, which would then com- 
 pletely consume it." It is of course unnecessary to remark 
 that these 'estimates and particulars are quoted for their 
 historical interest, and not for any practical value that 
 attaches to them. 
 
SEWAGE MANUEE COMPANY. 3] 
 
 246. About the year 1845, a company was organised, we 
 believe under the original auspices of Mr. Martin, and pro- 
 moted by Mr. Smith of Deanston, which proposed to carry 
 into effect, for the general benefit of the metropolis, a plan 
 for collecting the sewage by means of a receiving sewer 
 which should cut the existing sewers at a moan distance of 
 620 yards from the river. Mr. Martin, the founder of the 
 Company, however, objected to this, preferring to receive 
 the contents of the sewers near their outfall into the river. 
 The Company referred to the " Metropolitan Sewage Ma- 
 nure Company," contemplated the "conveying of the 
 sewage-water of London, by means of a system of pumping 
 engines and pipes, analogous to that of the great water 
 companies, and thus distributing the fertilising fluid over 
 the land in such manner and proportions as may be best 
 adapted to the various kinds of field and garden cultivation." 
 The proposals of the Company were eventually limited to 
 an operation upon the sewage belonging to the King's Scho- 
 lars' Pond Sewer, one of the principal sewers in Westmin- 
 ster, and with this reduced purpose an Act of Parliament 
 was obtained for prosecuting the scheme in 1846. 
 
 247. The actual proceedings of the Company, their results 
 and defects, were described officially in a Eeport (dated 25th 
 December, 1851) to the General Board of Health, by one of 
 their superintending inspectors, W. Lee, Esq., and from 
 this Eeport we extract the following : " I thought it my 
 duty to visit the works of the Metropolitan Sewage Manure 
 Company, at Fulham, to examine the market-gardens and 
 other land to which the sewage has been applied there, and 
 to ascertain from some of the consumers their opinions as 
 to the result upon various crops. The Company has a sta- 
 tion on the west bank of the Kensington canal, at Stanley- 
 bridge, where they have erected a steam-engine to pump the 
 sewage water over the top of a stand-pipe 75 feet high. 
 This altitude gives a sufficient pressure for the whole dis- 
 trict, and the fertilising fluid is conveyed from the stand- 
 pipe and distributed, by about 15 miles of mains and ser- 
 vices, varying from 14 inches diameter at the works 
 
32 MR. LEE'S REPORT. 
 
 down to 2 inches diameter in the fields and gardens where 
 it is used. The consumers have plugs or hydrants fixed at 
 convenient distances in their lands, and with their own ser- 
 vants, and hose and jet pipe, apply it when they please, 
 paying to the Company the sum of three pounds ten shil- 
 lings per acre per annum. 
 
 " Hitherto the Company has only taken the Walham Green 
 sewer-water, which contains, probably, less fertilising mat- 
 ter than any other in the metropolis, in consequence of the 
 less density of the population within its area, and the great 
 volume of the upland rain water. It is, however, the most 
 conveniently accessible to the works. When the arrange- 
 ments for using the Kanelagh sewer-water are completed, it 
 is expected that more beneficial results will be experienced. 
 
 " The first place I examined was a field from which two 
 crops of grass have been taken during the year, and it is 
 now a most excellent pasture. I examined the large mar- 
 ket-garden occupied by Mr. G. Bagley, who said, in answer 
 to my inquiries : 
 
 " ' I have found that all crops grow faster and are healthier 
 from the application of sewer-water. The size of vegetables 
 is increased in a fine season ; in some descriptions the qua- 
 lity is also better, and consequently they would obtain bet- 
 ter prices. I may particularly mention vegetable marrow, 
 a plant that requires much nutriment ; it has produced a 
 large crop in warm dry weather. In dry weather, the sew- 
 age is of great assistance to scarlet runners and French 
 beans, but if rain were to come after its application, the 
 consequence would be injurious. I have found it of great 
 service to cucumbers, especially from the convenience of its 
 application. I think, however, it is almost better for cab- 
 bage and brocoli, than anything else. I have not perceived 
 any offensive effluvia at the time of its application or after- 
 wards not enough: if there had been a little smell, the 
 manure would perhaps have been better than it was.' 
 
 " Mr. E. Bransgrove, manager of Mrs. Harwood's extensive 
 market-gardens, said : 
 
 " ' We have used die sewer-water ever since the Company 
 
TESTIMONY OF GARDENER8. 33 
 
 commenced. The improvement in the plants is very ma- 
 nifest; I think it helps to lessen the blight. The growth 
 of vegetable marrow is much improved, also of scarlet run- 
 ners, and the same of lettuce and celery. This plot was 
 celery, and the liquid manure was applied to it. After the 
 crop was got off, it was planted with cabbage, without any 
 further application of the sewage, but the plants are still 
 benefited by the former application. The next patch of 
 savoys had it applied to them about three months since, 
 and are a very good crop. There was very little smell 
 either at the time of its application or afterwards.' 
 
 ' I likewise visited the market- gardens of Mr. W. Bagley, 
 Mr. R Steele, Mr. J. Crouch, and Mr. J. Bagley, to all of 
 which, as well as many others in the district, the sewage 
 manure has been applied. In one place, a field of cabbage 
 plants was pointed out, and I was informed that the sewage' 
 manure had been applied to about one half and riot to the 
 other. Those to which it had been applied were darker 
 in colour, larger, and much more vigorous than the re- 
 mainder. 
 
 " I have, in my former report, already considered the objec- 
 tion urged in the provinces, that liquid manures could only be 
 beneficially applied in WET WEATHER, and have shown that 
 the solution used was too strong. It is a remarkable fact, 
 that the tenants of the Metropolitan Sewage Manure Com- 
 pany all concur in the statement, that the greatest advantages 
 are produced by its application in DRY WEATHER, when ma- 
 nuring and watering are combined in the same operation. 
 These facts, and my own experience, lead to the conclu- 
 sion that (he town sewerage water should be collected, and raised 
 to the required altitude in as concentrated a condition as possi- 
 ble ; but that it shoidd be distributed and applied to the land, in 
 such a state of dilution with water, as may be required by the 
 season of the year, the state of the weather and the quantity of 
 moisture in the soil. This may be easily accomplished, and 
 almost without expense, by a pipe from the water-works, 
 discharging into the downward arm of the sewage stand- 
 
 c 3 
 
34 SEWAGE COMPANY'S MISTAKES. 
 
 pipe, at the command of the person in charge of the sta- 
 tion. By these means, the sewerage water may be applied 
 with advantage at all times. In dry weather, and upon 
 thirsty soils, a weak solution would be used ; and in the 
 winter season in wet weather, on uncropped land or with 
 gross-feeding plants, as strong a solution as might be requi- 
 site, to produce the greatest possible fertility. 
 
 " Having said this much of the Company's operations, I 
 feel bound to add that the failure of a sewer manure com- 
 pany in the metropolis, as a commercial speculation, was 
 predicted by Mr. Smith, of Deanston and other competent 
 agriculturists, who withdrew from it. A disproportionately 
 large outlay of capital and machinery was made from a 
 wrong sewer, that is to say, from a sewer which, in fact, was 
 an old watercourse, and chiefly adapted to the removal of 
 storm water ; and the supply of manure from this was car- 
 ried to a wrong district, or one of the least suitable districts, 
 namely, to a district already supplied at the cheapest rate 
 with powerful manure : of that district only a small propor- 
 tion received the Company's supply. The whole of the 
 available capital was expended before the pipes could reach 
 the ordinary farming district, where there appeared to be a 
 demand for it. Nevertheless, the fertilising power of the 
 extremely-diluted manure, when applied to the land, already 
 highly charged with manure, was extraordinary. On this 
 land, where town manure had been applied at an expense 
 of 20Z. per acre, and labour in working the land to about 
 the same extravagant amount, an augmentation of nearly 
 one-third of the ordinary large crops was obtained. The 
 range of the distribution by the jet was visible in the extra 
 growth of the vegetation, although much of this success 
 was no doubt attributable to the water itself, irrespective of 
 the matter in solution." 
 
 248. Every sanitary reformer must have regretted that the 
 Company has not been more successful ; but when its ope- 
 rations are pointed to as a reason why works for the appli- 
 cation of the sewage of towns should not be undertaken, 
 
TUNNEL SCHEME. 85 
 
 it becomes necessary to indicate the causes of its success 
 being partial only. The errors committed are in matters 
 of detail ; the principle that town sewage water is a va- 
 luable fertiliser is fully confirmed, even by the Company's 
 operations. 
 
 249. During the inquiries upon this subject which were 
 instituted by the Sewage Company, some proposals were eli- 
 cited which differed considerably from those upon which 
 the Company is now acting. Two of these may be noticed, 
 which were examined by the select committee, appointed 
 in 1846, to consider plans for the application of the sewage 
 of the metropolis to agricultural purposes. It should t>e 
 mentioned, that the original plan of the Metropolitan Sew- 
 age Manure Company embraced the formation of reservoirs, 
 in which the sewage was to be collected from the sewers, 
 but these reservoirs were relinquished by the promoters of 
 the bill, in consequence of the objection made against 
 them by the owners and occupiers of land. 
 
 250. One of these proposals was to carry away the entire 
 sewage of the metropolis, in a tunnel of from 8 ft. to 12 ft. 
 in diameter, and at a depth of from 40 ft. to 80 ft. beneath' 
 the surface. This sewer was to commence at the Grbsve- 
 nor Road, and pass through Westminster to the Strand, 
 and on the south side of St. Paul's Churchyard, Cannon 
 Street, &c., to the Commercial Road, thence under the 
 River Lee, and in a straight line through the West Ham 
 marshes, to a large reservoir and works, to be constructed 
 in an angle between the western banks of Barking Creek 
 and the northern banks of the Thames. The sewer-water 
 was to be raised by steam-engines from the receiving reser- 
 voir into other reservoirs, sufficiently elevated to permit the 
 solid matters being deposited at a level above the Trinity 
 high-water mark. From these reservoirs the solid matter 
 would be periodically removed, dried by artificial means, 
 and then compressed and packed for transmission by land 
 or water. The liquid matter was to be discharged as worth 
 less, at all states of the tide. Mr. Wicksteed, the proposer, 
 
30 MR. HTGGS'S PATENT. 
 
 calculated that engines would be required of an aggregate 
 power equal to that of 1060 horses, and capable of raising, 
 when worked at full power, 18,000,000 cubic feet to a height 
 of 56 feet, in twenty-four hours, being considered equal to 
 two and a half times the present ordinary quantity of sewer- 
 water. The waste of the liquid sewage contemplated in this 
 scheme destroys the purpose of what was intended to be a 
 simple method of collecting the contents of the existing 
 sewers. 
 
 951. The other proposal which received the attention of 
 the select committee, and to which we will allude, was sug- 
 gested by Mr. Higgs, the patentee of a method of treating 
 sewage matters. Mr. Higgs 's patent is dated 28th of April, 
 1846, and the object is entitled, " The means of collecting 
 the contents of sewers and drains in cities, towns, and vil- 
 lages, and of treating chemically the same ; and applying 
 such contents, when so treated, to agricultural and other 
 useful purposes." The scheme comprises the construction 
 of tanks or reservoirs for the sewage, with suitable buildings 
 over them in which the gases evolved are to be collected, 
 condensed, and combined with chemical agents ; and also 
 an arrangement of spars or bars, on which the salts formed 
 by this combination may crystallize. Apparatus is devised 
 also for distributing the chemical agents over the mass of 
 sewage, and the claims of the patentee extend to the use 
 and application of them for the purpose of precipitating 
 the solid animal and vegetable matters contained in the 
 sewage, and of absorbing and combining with the gases 
 evolved from it. "Hydrate of lime," or "slaked lime," 
 and " chlorine gas," were the agents proposed to be em- 
 ployed for these purposes, arid the solid matters were to be 
 cut into suitable shapes, and dried ready for use. The 
 committee, however, did not feel justified in recommending 
 these elaborate processes, in the then immature state of the 
 public mind upon the subject. * 
 
 252. Prior to the month of December, 1847, the sewers 
 of London were controlled by seven separate boards of rmv 
 * See further ia Appendix No. 6, pp. 225 228. 
 
METROPOLITAN SEWER DISTRICTS. 37 
 
 nagement or district Commissions, six of which belonged 
 to London north of the Thames, and one to London south 
 of the Thames. The six former districts were: 1, West- 
 minster and part of Middlesex; 2, The Regent's Park; 
 3, Holborn and Finsbury; 4, The City of London; 5, The 
 Tower Hamlets ; and 6, Poplar Marsh or Blackwall. The 
 one southern district included certain portions of the coun- 
 ties of Surrey and Kent. The several boundaries and ex- 
 tent of these districts are not worth definition, because they 
 arc now all (except the City division) included in one Metro- 
 politan district, which is roughly stated to comprise a circu- 
 lar area of about twelve miles diameter, or about 114 square 
 miles,* and to contain about 2000 miles of streets, and 
 1000 miles of sewers, consisting of old and new sewers, 
 and open ditches. f The City Sewers District is about one 
 square mile in extent, and comprises about 50 miles of 
 sewers. { The progress of sewer-building in this City Dis- 
 trict may- be imagined from the following facts, viz. that the 
 commission began building sewers in 175G, and up to the 
 year 1832 had completed 9 miles and 1035 yards. In the 
 year 1843, Mr. Kelsey, their surveyor at that time, stated, 
 above 35 miles of sewers were completed. The length of 
 50 miles now constructed is said to have completed the 
 sewoi's as far as the streets of the district are concerned, 
 leaving only courts and alleys to be provided for. 
 
 253. Let us briefly glance at the magnitude of some of 
 the sewer-works which have been constructed, in the extra- 
 vagant attempt to convey the entire sewage of London into 
 the ilver Thames, and to maintain the subterranean chan- 
 nels in a clean and healthy condition. The Iron gate sewer, 
 which was formerly the city ditch, varies in height from 
 ft. G in. to 11 ft, and in width, from 3 ft. to 4 ft. The 
 Moorfields sewer is 8 ft. G in. by 7 ft., and at the mouth, 
 
 * Evidence of II. Stephenson, Esq., before Seiect Committee on the Great 
 London Drainage Bill, 13 June, 1853. 
 
 f Evidence of Mr. J. W. Bazalgette, before the same, 10 June, 1853. 
 J Evidence of Mr. W. Hay wood, before the same, 13 June, 1853. 
 
38 
 
 FLEET SEWER. 
 
 10 ft. by 8 ft. ; and at the north end of the Pavement this 
 sewer is 27 ft. below the surface. The Fleet Ditch, which 
 drains the land from Highgate southward, is partly formed 
 in two distinct sewers, which run on each side of Farring- 
 don Street; they are from 12 ft. to 14 ft. high, and each is 
 6 ft. 6 in. wide, yet they are liable to be flooded by the im- 
 mense rush of waters from the northward, and a single storm 
 will raise the water 5 ft. in height in both of them almost 
 instantaneously. The culvert constructed at the mouth of 
 this sewer was severely injured, in 1842, by the flood con- 
 sequent upon a thunderstorm. The Bishopsgate Street 
 sewer, which receives the drainage of Shoreditch and adja- 
 cent places, is 5 ft. by 3 ft., is sometimes overcharged, and 
 returns the waters from the high ground. 
 
 254. By way of conveying a ready idea of the vast size 
 
FLEET SEWER. 
 
 39 
 
 of the Fleet sewer, the great length and extended functions 
 of which have just been noticed, the two figures 69 and 70 
 
 . 70. 
 
 are introduced, the one showing the section of the sewer at 
 the city boundary, where its dimensions are 12 ft. 3 in. by 
 11 ft. 7 in., and the other showing the size of the mouth 
 of the sewer, which is 18 ft. 6 in. by 12 ft., and of ample 
 capacity to admit one of the largest locomotive enyines, the 
 
40 SEWEKS OF LONDON. 
 
 gigantic dimensions of which are sufficiently familiar to all 
 who have found it necessary to cross the platform of a rail- 
 way station. Yet this sewer has often been surcharged ; 
 and only within the last year (1842) the culvert, so ably 
 constructed at its mouth by Mr. James Walker, was severely 
 injured by the flood consequent upon a thunderstorm.* 
 
 255. The large sewers constructed in the Tower Ham- 
 lets division are 4 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft., and the cost per foot 
 varied from 15s. to II. 5s., according to the depth. One of the 
 sewers, from Hoxtoii New Town, is laid, for a length of 
 3000 ft., on a dead level, and discharges into another, which 
 is also on nearly a dead level, because a fall could not be 
 obtained. From the 45 miles of sewers in this division, 
 about 2000 loads of sewage have to be annually removed by 
 hand. All the outlets are into the Thames, below London 
 Bridge, and are provided with valves, which sometimes fail, 
 owing to some matter issuing from the sewers that prevents 
 their closing, and of course the tide rushes in. Up to the 
 year 1843, 13,000 ft. of sewers were rebuilt, at a lower level 
 than formerly, in order to accommodate levels not then pro- 
 vided for, and at the same time maintain the communication 
 with the river. 
 
 256. In the Surrey and Kent division, all the main arched 
 sewers are necessarily provided with flaps and penstocks, 
 nearly all the district being below the level of high water in 
 the river. Some of the sewers in this division have only 
 2 ft. of fall per mile. 
 
 257. In the Holborn and Finsbury division, 38,OOOZ. 
 were expended upon the Fleet sewer between the years 
 1826 and 1843, and the surveyors were enabled to reduce 
 the size of a part of it from 12 ft. by 12 ft. to 10 ft. by 9 ft., 
 " from an advantage in the difference in the fall, there being 
 more fall in this situation, which rendered the proportion 
 of the current through the smaller sewer equal to the larger 
 
 * Evidence of the Surveyor to the City Commission of Sewers, before 
 the " Commissioners of Inquiry into the state of large towns and populous 
 districts." (1843.) 
 
FLEET SEWER. 41 
 
 one." The extra expense incurred by the increased deptb. ; 
 which sometimes occasioned a passing through sand and 
 treacherous materials, may be inferred from one item in the 
 cost of construction, viz. that in such cases it was found ne- 
 cessary to use close timbering to strut the sides of the ex- 
 cavation ; the sand also, sometimes, despite all precautions, 
 rose 6 inches in one night ; and the building of some of the 
 sewers in Pentonville "had the effect of loosening the 
 ground, or causing the ground to slip, the whole way up the 
 hill," and thus seriously damaging the walls of .the gardens 
 above. The Fleet sewer, as already described, takes the 
 water from Highgate and Hampstead, conducting it towards 
 the river Thames, and it has been known "to rise six, 
 eight, and ten feet in a night ; there have been instances of 
 persons being carried away by it." The fall in that part of 
 it which is 12 ft. by 12 ft. is at the rate of a quarter of an 
 inch in 12 feet ; and in the 10 ft. by 9 ft., the fall is three- 
 quarters of an inch in 10 feet. The effect of this difference 
 of declivity is, that " if the 12 by 12 were completely full, 
 the other would not be full by 2 ft." 
 
 258. The following details respecting the Fleet sewer 
 are quoted from a report dated 25th October, 1853, made 
 by Mr. Haywood, the Surveyor to the Commissioners of 
 City Sewers. The Fleet sewer is the largest in the metro- 
 polis. An area of land six or seven times the size of the 
 whole City of London is drained by it, the waters of that 
 area being carried into it by many hundred collateral sewers. 
 Near the outfall that is, at the Crescent, Bridge Street, 
 Blackfriars the flow of these accumulated waters is proba- 
 bly from 18,000 to 20,000 gallons per minute during the 
 day in dry weather; with but slight rain, the flow is so 
 much increased that no man can stand against it ; with a 
 very moderate quantity of rain, falling uniformly over the 
 drainage area, it is questionable if a horse could maintain 
 its footing against the current in the sewer ; with heavy 
 rain the sewer is half filled. The difficulties attending re- 
 pairs to the Fleet and similar sewers are very great. The 
 
42 FLEET SEWER. 
 
 City Sewers Surveyor reported that a portion of the Fleet 
 sewer, between Fleet Street and Blackfriars Bridge, being in 
 such a condition as to require extensive and immediate re- 
 pair, it was determined to put in a new invert, and under- 
 pin the side walls, and for this purpose to construct a dam 
 across the sewer, so as to lay the bed of it dry. In order 
 to avoid complaints of street interruption or other public 
 nuisance, the works were commenced and carried on with- 
 out opening any portion of the sewer itself, the only means 
 of ingress and egress being one small hole 3 feet wide and 
 3 feet long in a branch sewer in Crescent Place. Down 
 this small opening the workmen descended and conveyed 
 all materials required, at great labour and time, and, neces- 
 sarily, cost. Moreover, mechanical appliances, which are 
 used with so much advantage in many similar works, arid 
 by the aid of which, with sufficient space, an amount of 
 work five hundred times that done in the Fleet sewer 
 could have been performed in the same space of time 
 with ease, could not be used, owing to the insufficiency of 
 space, and, therefore, manual labour, applied at immense 
 disadvantage, was all that could be adopted. The men 
 were frequently working with two thirds of their bodies im- 
 mersed in water, amid an uncertain light, and a deafening 
 roar of water, and at times, with but little chance of their 
 lives, if they had once lost their footing. Half of the 
 24 hours the tidal water was in the sewer ; when it was out, 
 the men could with difficulty work three hours each morn- 
 ing, especially on Saturdays ; and at other times, if any 
 rain came down, the work had to be suspended at once. 
 The sewer was never entirely free for 24 hours either from 
 rain actually falling, or the drainage waters from the upland 
 districts after the rain ; and actual progress was made only 
 in one tide out of every three or four. Two or three times, 
 when dams were all but complete, heavy floods of rain 
 washed the larger portion of them away. 
 
 259. The following extracts from the evidence given by 
 Mr. Eoe, surveyor to the late Holbom and Finsbury Com 
 
FLUSHING SEWERS. 43 
 
 mission of Sewers, before the Commissioners of Inquiry 
 into the state of large towns and populous districts, in 
 1843, will give some notion of the state of the sewerage of 
 that division. " The Holborn and Finsbury divisions are 
 peculiarly situated, having no immediate communication 
 with the river Thames. The waters from these divisions 
 have to pass through one or other of the adjoining districts, 
 namely, the city of London, the Tower Hamlets, or the 
 city of Westminster, before reaching the river. The sewers 
 of the Holborn and Finsbury divisions have, therefore, of 
 necessity, been adapted to such outlets as the other dis- 
 tricts respectively afforded ; and these having formerly been 
 put in without due regard to an extended drainage, the 
 sewers of these divisions have not had the benefit of the 
 best fall that could have been obtained. Of late years 
 many of the outlets have been lowered in the adjoining 
 districts ; but to alter the existing sewers of these divisions 
 to the amended levels would require the rebuilding of 
 about 323,706 ft. of sewer, at an expense of nearly a 
 quarter of a million sterling." In this state of things, Mr. 
 Roe conceived that the ordinary current of water which 
 passes along the covered sewers (in some constant, in 
 others periodical), in these divisions, which, in numerous 
 cases, does not prevent deposit from accumulating, might 
 yet be made available for that purpose; and accordingly 
 "a series of experiments were commenced, in order to 
 ascertain what velocity could be obtained in the sewers; 
 and it appeared that deposit might be removed by the 
 means of dams placed in certain situations to collect heads 
 of water, at less expense, than by the usual method. An- 
 other series of experiments were made for the purpose of 
 endeavouring to ascertain the proportion of decomposed 
 animal and vegetable matter, and detritus from the roads, 
 carried through the sewers to the river Thames by the 
 common run of water. Several square boxes were con- 
 structed, to hold 1 cubic foot of water each. These were 
 fiUed with water from different sewers. After allowing tho 
 
44 OUTFALLS OF SEWERS. 
 
 turbid water to clear itself by precipitation, I ascertained 
 the relative amount of the precipitate. The following were 
 some of the results : From the river Fleet sewer, near the 
 outlet, the proportion of decomposed animal and vegetable 
 matter, and detritus from streets and roads, held in me* 
 chanical suspension, was 1 in 96. The run of water was 
 10 in. in depth, and 10 ft. in width, having an average 
 velocity of 83-47 ft. per minute, passing 692-8 cubic feet of 
 water per minute; the matter conveyed being 7'21 cubic 
 feet per minute, or 103-660 cubic yards per annum. The 
 river Fleet sewer conveys the drainage of about 4444 acres 
 of surface, or about four-sevenths of the surface of these 
 divisions. That great quantities, in addition to the above, 
 are carried away by the force of water in rainy weather is 
 certain; allowing this source, and the remaining three- 
 sevenths of the district to only equal the discharge by the 
 river Fleet sewer, there appears to be a quantity of upwards 
 of 200,000 cubic yards of matter carried to the Thames per 
 annum from these divisions in mechanical suspension, and 
 by the force of velocity, weight, and volume of water." In 
 one part of this division (at Canonbury) the sewer is sixty- 
 eiglit feet below the surface, and the drainage of the houses is 
 provided for by a subsidiary sewer. 
 
 260. In the Westminster division the outfalls to the river 
 vary from 10 ft. to 15 ft. below the level of high-water mark, 
 that is about 5 ft. above low-water mark, and some of them 
 are provided with flaps. The cost for cleansing sewers by 
 hand, made necessary by deficient fall, amounted, in the 
 year 1842, to 1850Z. ; the average for seven years, being 
 about 1,550/., and the deposit is so hard that it is some- 
 times found necessary to use the pick-axe to dislodge it. 
 Some of the main sewers have a fall of only | inch in 100 
 feet. During the ten years ending 1843, 27,056 yards of 
 sewers were constructed by the Commissioners for this 
 division, and these were principally old sewers built at a 
 lower level, or diverted along the public way. The size of 
 the main sewers is 3 ft. in width, and 5 ft. 6 in. in height, 
 
DEFICIENCY OF FALLS. 45 
 
 and of tliis size 82,000 yards were constructed from 1833 to 
 1843 jointly by the Commission and by individuals. In 
 1843 one of the sewers in this division, the King's Scholars' 
 Pond Sewer, was described to have from its commence- 
 ment at Shepherd's Well to the flood gates at the Thames, 
 a total fall of 285 ft. 4 in., yet the fall is in some parts very 
 deficient. In the Pimlico district adjoining the palace, the 
 fall is for the last 5500 ft. only 5 ft. ; less than a foot in 
 each thousand feet, and the outlet was still so low that 
 flood gates were necessary at its outlet. During the rising 
 of the tide, therefore, these gates were closed for six hours, 
 and the sewage of course remained pent up or thrown back 
 towards the houses. 
 
 261. In the Kent and Surrey divisions, in which there 
 are several open sewers, the drainage is so conducted that 
 " during the time the tide is up in the river, the sewers 
 have to receive all the water, making its way into them, 
 and must be sufficiently capacious to hold both that quan- 
 tity, and all rain that may fall, until the fall of the tide 
 allows a discharge." The covered main sewers are 5 ft. 
 3 in., by 4 ft. 9 in. The whole of the district is many feet 
 under high- water mark. 
 
 262. The facts here quoted are certainly sufficient to 
 show that the system of draining into the Thames -is at- 
 tended with vast extra expense in the depth and size of 
 sewers, and with great inconvenience and inefficiency in the 
 Avant of declivity thereby laboured under, which are power- 
 ful considerations against the propriety of this method, and 
 the weight of which has to be added to that of the Idss 
 occasioned by the utter waste of most valuable manuring 
 matters, and the injurious effects of saturating these matters 
 in the water from which the daily supplies for the metro- 
 polis are mainly derived. 
 
 263. Having thus briefly noticed some of the details of 
 the sewerage arrangements of the metropolis, as carried 011 
 under separate commissions prior to the year 1848, it is 
 desirable to notice some of the proceedings of the United 
 
46 SEWER ACTS OF 1848 AND 1849. 
 
 or " Metropolitan Commission," since that time, including 
 their proposals, estimates, and actual works. There is 
 good reason for extending this notice, sufficiently, more- 
 over, to embrace a general review of these proposals, since 
 they present to us the labours of the highest engineering 
 talent yet brought to bear upon the great question, How 
 can London be properly drained ? The new commission, 
 appointed in December, 1847, consisted of the following 
 members: Lord Ebrington, Lord Ashley, Dr. Buckland, 
 Mr. Hume, M.P., Hon. F. Byng, Dr. Arnott, Dr. South- 
 wood Smith, Sir J. Clark, Eev. W. Stone, Professor Owen, 
 Sir H. De La Beche, Messrs. K. A. Slaney, M.P., J. Bid- 
 well, J. Bullar, W. J. Broderip, R. L. Jones, J. Leslie, and 
 E. Chadwick. In the Session of Parliament 1848, an Act 
 (11 & 12 Viet. c. 112), was passed, entitled, " An Act to 
 consolidate and continue in force for Two Years, and to the end 
 of the then next Session of Parliament, the Metropolitan Com- 
 missions of Sewers." This Act of 1848 was amended by 
 another (12 & 13 Viet. c. 93), passed August 1st, 1849, 
 entitled, " An Act to Amend the Metropolitan Sewers Act." 
 By these Acts powers were given for making district rates, 
 and levying contributions for building sewers, for making 
 sewer rates partly prospectively and partly retrospectively, 
 for levying and recovering " improvement rates," and bor- 
 rowing money on mortgages and annuities "to pay off any 
 debt not actually due." 
 
 264. On July 23rd, 1849, at a Special Court of the 
 Sewers' Commission, a report was read from the surveyor 
 of the Metropolitan Commission at that time (Mr. Phillips), 
 embracing plans and estimates he had prepared for the 
 drainage of the metropolis. In this report, the principles 
 of town-drainage were laid down as follows : 
 
 " 1. That two outfalls, independent of such other, should 
 be provided, one for the discharge of natural, or land and 
 surface waters, and the other for the discharge of artificial, 
 or house and soil drainage 
 
 " 2. That in order to perfectly drain the subsoil of the 
 
OF THE 
 COLLEGE OF 
 
 MR. PHTLLTPS'S TUNNEL 
 
 town so as to free it from damp, and to carry off, as quickly 
 as possible, the natural waters, a system of permeable land 
 drains and sewers should be provided to discharge into the 
 natural watercourses and rivers. 
 
 " 3. That as outfalls are already provided by streams and 
 rivers for the discharge of the natural waters, it is only 
 necessary to provide separate and proper outfalls for the 
 discharge of the artificial, or house and soil drainage, 
 which outfalls should convey the sewage, as fast as it is 
 produced, to a depot at a convenient and unobjectionable 
 place, quite clear of and below the town. 
 
 "4. That in order to carry off the house and soil drain- 
 age without contaminating the atmosphere of the town by 
 the escape of effluvia through the numerous inlets, as is at 
 present the case, a system of impermeable drains should 
 be provided, distinct and separate from the permeable land 
 drains and sewers, to discharge, without intermission, into 
 the said artificial outfall independently of the river. 
 
 " 5. That at the main outlet a depot should be formed, 
 and works established for raising the sewage, and for 
 converting and distributing the same for agricultural and 
 horticultural purposes." 
 
 265. For the discharge of artificial, or house and soil 
 drainage, the surveyor proposed a tunnel extending from 
 the Plumstead marshes to Twickenham, and crossing under 
 the River Thames eleven times. The proposed course and 
 construction were as follows : From the depot at Plum- 
 stead to pass under the river to East Ham and Plaistow 
 marshes, recrossing the river from below Bow Creek to the 
 Greenwich marshes, where a shaft would be provided, and 
 a branch drain to serve Charlton, Greenwich, &c. Then to 
 cross the river again to Blackwall, where another shaft and 
 main branch drains for Poplar, &c., would be constructed. 
 Continuing between the export and import West India 
 Docks, the tunnel would reach the margin of the river, 
 and a shaft and branch drain for Limehouse be provided. 
 
48 MR. PHILLIPS'S TUNNEL SCHEME 
 
 Crossing to the Surrey side, the tunnel would run through 
 Rotherhithe, and have two shafts and branch drains for 
 Rotherhithe, Deptford, and Hatcham, westward, and follow- 
 ing the bank of the river eastward. 
 
 The tunnel would leave Rotherhithe just below the en- 
 trance of the Grand Surrey Canal, and continue under the 
 river to the Middlesex side between the entrance to Shad- 
 well Dock and the Rotherhithe tunnel, and run south of 
 the London Docks through Wapping to the margin of the 
 river above the entrance of Hermitage Dock. Two shafts 
 would be built along this part of the line, and connected 
 with branch drains, one westward to the Tower and along 
 Thames Street to Blackfriars, intercepting all the sewage 
 running into the Thames as far as the Temple Gardens. 
 From the east shaft a branch would be carried for Wapping. 
 Leaving the entrance of Hermitage Dock, the tunnel would 
 cross the river to the Surrey side near Shad Thames, and 
 continue through Bermondsey, Southwark, and Lambeth, 
 below Westminster Bridge. Four shafts and deep main 
 branch drains would be constructed on this length, to serve 
 the house drainage of Bermondsey, Southwark, Lambeth, 
 Newington, Kennington, Walworth, Peckham, Camberwell, 
 Dulwich, Norwood, Streatham, Stockwell, Clapham, Brixton, 
 Battersea, Waiidsworth, Tooting, Mitcham, Carshalton, 
 Merton, &c. 
 
 From the Surrey side the tunnel would pass under the 
 river below Westminster Bridge to Westminster, and con- 
 tinue through that district to the King's Scholars' Pond 
 sewer at Pimlico ; thence to Chelsea, and between Fulham 
 and Hammersmith, crossing the river to Barnes, recrossing 
 to Mortlake, and finally crossing above Richmond Bridge 
 to take up the sewage of Twickenham and the neighbour- 
 hood. The line here described, although thus appearing 
 circuitous, may be seen on a map to thread the windings of 
 the river in a uniform curve. 
 
 266. The tunnel here proposed was to have a fall of 
 
GEOLOGICAL OBJECTIONS. 49 
 
 49 ft. 8 in. throughout its length (19| miles), a diameter 
 01 8 it. at its outlet, and 6 ft. at the upper end. The fol- 
 lowing was the estimate for the work : 
 Constructing 19 \ miles of tunnel sewer, at an 
 
 average of 23,709 per mile, including shafts 512,823 
 Constructing the shaft at the terminus 4,099 
 
 Steam engine, pumps, and boilers, complete . 95,000 
 Engine house, &c. . . 33,577 
 
 Total estimated cost of 19 J miles of tunnel 
 
 sewer, with machinery, &c. .... 644,999 
 
 The annual cost of maintenance, consumption of coals, 
 and superintendence, was set down at 15,OOOZ., and it was 
 calculated that the rated value of the property draining 
 into this tunnel being 10,000,000?., an annual rate of 1 
 penny in the pound for 22 years would suffice to pay the 
 principal and interest. The depot (at Plumstead marshes) 
 would be 10 ft. deep, and elevated above the surface 20 ft. ; 
 an average of 10,000,000 cubic feet of sewage were ex- 
 pected to be discharged into it during the day, and this 
 would be precipitated and filtered until the liquid parts 
 were reduced as nearly as possible to pure water, while the 
 solid matter remained. When there was no demand for 
 liquid manure, it might be directed into the Thames or the 
 sea, or otherwise disposed of as circumstances might render 
 advisable. This gigantic conception appears to have served 
 only for the Commissioners to talk about, and to elicit the 
 geological objections of Sir H. De la Beche and Dr. Buck- 
 land, upon the ground that the tunnel could not pass 
 through a continuous bed of clay, but must, for a great 
 part of its length, be bored through beds of sand, gravel, 
 and chalk, all of which are percolated by immense quanti- 
 ties of water, and would prove extremely unfavourable for 
 such operations as those contemplated. 
 
 267. At the end of 1849 or beginning of 1850, the Com- 
 missioners appear to have become thoroughly puzzled by 
 the conilicting advice of their own surveyors, and affrighted 
 
50 UR. STEPHENSON'S EVIDENCE. 
 
 at the task before them ; and they desperately solicited 
 anybody and everybody to tell them what they would re- 
 commend for the drainage of London. The invitation 
 thus given for the sending in of " plans," was responded 
 to by some 150 or 160 amateur drainers, of whom the only 
 fact known is, that each of them became entitled, some time 
 after they had tendered their recommendations, to receive 
 a printed map from the Commissioners, showing what the 
 sewer system of London at that time was, a kind of infor- 
 mation which one might have supposed should have preceded 
 their suggestions for its amendment. 
 
 268. In October, 1851, when a new Commission was 
 formed, of which Mr. R. Stephenson and Sir W. Cubitt, the 
 eminent engineers, were members, these 150 or 160 plans, 
 which had lain till then unexamined, were exhumed, and 
 carefully considered and reported on by a sub-committee 
 appointed for that purpose. " Upon the report of that Com- 
 mittee," says Mr. Stephenson,* " Mr. Forster, the then en- 
 gineer of the Commission, proceeded to design a plan for 
 the general improvements of the sewage of London, and 
 more especially with a view to the interception of it, to 
 remove it from the Thames as far as possible in the "vicinity 
 of London. I was connected with Mr. Forster, at least I 
 took a great interest in the question, and every step he took 
 I was cognizant of. I examined the greater part of Lon- 
 don, and more especially directed my attention to the lower 
 districts on the south side of the Thames, which are so 
 badly drained at present, and which are, in fact, the seats 
 of diseases of all kinds. We proceeded so far as to com- 
 plete our plans for the south side, and were about to let the 
 contracts ; but a question was raised as to the powers of 
 borrowing money, and pledging the rates of the districts. 
 It was found we had no such power ; therefore we had no 
 means of proceeding with our contracts. We had then an 
 interview with Sir George Grey on the. subject, with a view 
 
 * Evidence before Select Committee on the Great London Drainage Bill, 
 13 June, 1858. 
 
MB. FORSTER'S PLAN. 51 
 
 of bringing a Bill into Parliament, to authorise us to raise 
 money for those purposes. Very shortly after that inter- 
 view, the Government was changed. I do not know what 
 steps were taken by the next Government, but I believe 
 none, and I believe none are now being taken by the Go- 
 vernment to relieve the Commissioners of Sewers from 
 their embarrassments." 
 
 269. The plan designed by Mr. Forster, and here referred 
 to, comprised two sewers, a high-level sewer, and a low- 
 level sewer, the former to receive the natural drainage or 
 rainfall and surface-water, and conduct it to a low part of 
 the district, as Bow Creek, by gravitation simply ; the low 
 sewer to collect all the house drainage, and convey it also 
 by gravitation to Bow Creek, where it would be pumped up 
 and descend with the surface-water to the outlet at Barking 
 Creek. By this plan, the districts that were proposed to be 
 drained by gravitation comprised a very large proportion of 
 the whole area of the north side of the Thames, admitting 
 of a sewer falling 4 ft. a mile, commencing at the extreme 
 west of London Bayswater and continuing to the Kiver 
 Lea, where Mr. Forster proposed that there should be re- 
 servoirs, if necessary, for the purification of the sewage ; 
 but that would be conveyed into the Thames conveniently 
 at all times. With respect to the low-level tract, it was 
 proposed (commencing, as in the high-level sewer, at the 
 lifting point on the eastern bank of the Eiver Lea) to con- 
 struct a sewer at a depth of 47 feet below the invert of the 
 high-level sewer, proceeding beneath the Eiver Lea near 
 to Four Mills Distillery, taking the north-western bank of 
 the Limehouse Cut, at which point it receives a branch in- 
 tended to intercept the sewage of the Isle of Dogs ; thence 
 continuing along the bank of Limehouse Cut, through a 
 portion of the Commercial Eoad, Brook Street, and beneath 
 the Sun Taverii Fields, into High Street, or Upper Shad- 
 well, at a point opposite to the church ; thence along Eat- 
 cliffe Highway, and Upper East Smithfield, across Tower 
 Hill, through Little and Great Tower Street, Eastcheap, 
 
 D 2 
 
52 ESTIMATES FOR WORKS. 
 
 Cannon Street, Little and Great St. Thomas Apostle, 
 Trinity Lane, Old Fish Street, and Little Knight Eider 
 Street ; thence beneath houses in Wardrobe Terrace, and 
 on the eastern side of St. Andrew's Hill, along Earl Street 
 and Blackfriar's Bridge. From Blackfriar's Bridge it was 
 proposed to construct the sewer along the river shore to the 
 junction of the Victoria Street sewer at Percy Wharf, which 
 sewer, between Percy Wharf and Shaftesbury Terrace, 
 Pimlico, would thus become an integral portion of the in- 
 tercepting line. The whole length of this main sewer, from 
 the Kiver Lea to Bayswater, was about 8 miles, the section 
 of sewer 8 ft. by 5 ft. or 5 ft. 6 in., and the estimated cost 
 l,200,OOOJ. 
 
 270. The want of powers to raise money, under which 
 the Commission laboured, as already explained in quoting 
 Mr. Stephenson's Evidence, necessitated the suspension of 
 proceedings, and shortly afterwards (in 1851) the death of 
 Mr. Forster deprived the Commission of their professional 
 adviser, and opened the door for a careful reconsideration 
 of the plans he had proposed. In October, 1851, Mr. K. 
 Stephenson and Sir W. Cubitt accepted the appointments 
 of Consulting Engineers to the Commission, and various 
 minor works or those of " drainage," merely, as distin- 
 guished from the ulterior purpose of "intercepting" the 
 passage of refuse matters into the Thames, were, during the 
 following two years, sanctioned and executed.* 
 
 * The following record of estimates for works ordered by the Metropolitan 
 Commission may be useful : 
 
 Ordered 6th September, 1850. 
 
 *. 
 
 340 ft. of 12 in. pipe sewer, Shepherd's Bush . . . . 70 
 120 12 Kent Road ..... 22 
 
 650 ,,15 Hanway Street \ 
 
 175 ,,12 John's Court > Oxford Street . 320 
 
 220 12 Petty's Court ) 
 
 133 9 Lisson Grove ... . . . 25 
 
 50 9 
 40 ,,6 
 
 00 ,, 9 Portland Street, Wai worth . . 50 
 
 " 1 Portman Market . 20 
 
 40 ,,6 J 
 
COMMISSIONERS' ACCOUNTS. 53 
 
 S71. From a statement of the affairs of the Metropolitan 
 Sewers Commission, read at a General Court, on the 6th 
 September, 1853, it appeared that when, previous to July, 
 1852, the power of the previous Commission to call for a 
 rate of Qd. in the pound was reduced to 3d., 200,OOOZ. was 
 the sum required for their ordinary annual expenditure ; 
 but that after this, they were empowered to raise not more 
 than 100,000/., although they had entered into contracts 
 which could not be withdrawn ; that when the New Com- 
 mission was issued in July, 1852, after giving credit for all 
 the rates, there was still a balance of 36,OOOZ. against the 
 Commissioners; that in the last 12 months, the present 
 Commission had executed, at the public expense, brick and 
 pipe sewers to the extent of 28 1 miles in length, con- 
 
 450 ft. of 2 ft, brick culvert, in line of Falcon Brook 
 
 . 120 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 12 in. pipe sewer, Brick Street, Park Lane . 
 
 . 90 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 12 
 
 Crown Court, Temple Bar 
 
 . 87 
 
 10 
 
 145 
 
 15 "v 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 1 2 j. Moor Street, Marylebone 
 
 . 95 
 
 14 
 
 75 
 
 " 12 " 
 
 Lamb Court, Clerkenwell 
 
 . 19 
 
 10 
 
 626 
 
 12 
 
 Fulham Road. 
 
 . 106 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 9 
 
 Ebury Square, Pimlico . 
 
 . 10 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 940 
 
 15 
 
 Camberwell Grove . . 
 
 . 450 
 
 
 
 L140 
 
 A on 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 Ordered 21st July, 1852. 
 
 170 ft. of 12 in. pipe sewer, in Chester Mews, Pimlico. Gradient 
 
 1 in 60 32 10 
 
 660 ft. brick sewer, 3 ft. 9 in. X 2 ft. 6 in., in New Street Mews. 
 Gradients 1 in 43, and 1 in 200. Materials stock bricks, 
 Portland cement, and blue lias mortar .... 350 
 
 100 ft. 12 in. pipe sewer, in Woburn Mews, West. Gradient 
 
 1 in 100. (Contribution 2 per house) . . . .180 
 
 260 ft. brick sewer, 4 ft. X 2 ft. 8 in., in Highgate Head. Gra- 
 dient 1 in. 122. Materials stock bricks, Portland cement, 
 and blue lias mortar 225 
 
 120 ft. of half-brick barrel sewer, 2 ft. in djameter, in Wands- 
 worth Road 30 
 
 (See page 72 for prices in 1S54.) 
 
54 COMMISSIONERS ACCOUNTS 
 
 tracted for or put in hand 12| miles, making a total of 41 
 miles in length, at the cost of 142, 8532. ; but there were 
 many other works considered as public, though constructed 
 at the expense of proprietors abutting on public roads ; 
 there had been 11^ miles of these public sewers constructed 
 in that period, at a cost of 36,4132. ; these sewers were 
 built at private expense, but afterwards became the pro- 
 perty of the public, and were cleansed and repaired at the 
 public expense, the original proprietor receiving a contribu 
 tion towards the expenses from all parties who drained into 
 them ; that besides these works and those executed at the 
 public expense, there was a large amount of pipe sewers 
 that could hardly be separated from public works. The 
 length of these pipe sewers was 70 miles, executed at a 
 cost of 44,1082. The works superintended by the Com- 
 missioners cost 80,5212., and the new sewers, executed by 
 themselves, 142,8532., making a total for works superin- 
 tended during the year of 223,3742. The works of the 
 Commissioners, however, did not end there. There had 
 been repairs, and the cleansing of open and covered sewers, 
 and on these three objects they had expended a sum of 
 36,8802. 
 
 272. The state of funds in the several districts under 
 the jurisdiction of the Commissioners, on the 30th June, 
 3853, was reported as follows: Credit, 35,7542.; debt, 
 29,4072. 12s. Id. ; available balance; after taking credit for 
 outstanding rates, 81,4182. 14s. 9rf. ; current ordinary ex- 
 penses per annum, 59,1772. 5s.; estimated amount of ex- 
 traordinary works ordered, 66,4292. 10s. lOd. Total pro- 
 spective expenses, 125,6062. 15s. 10c2. Available balance 
 for further extraordinary works : Credit, 8,723/. 16s. 9rf. ; 
 debt, 52,9112. 17s. lOrf. ; amount to be derived from new 
 rates of 6d. in the pound, 216,3702. Of this latter item 
 an amount of 140,0002. might be collected within the 
 year. Amount unprovided for, to be met by new rates, 
 44,1882. Is, Id. This statement does not embrace the fol- 
 lowing liabilities : Permanent loans, 99,492/. 13s. Id. ; 
 
SU EVE YOB'S REPORT. 55 
 
 claim for Ordnance survey, 24,2127. 17s. 5c? ; total, 
 ]23,705/. 10s. Qd. Special contracts to the amount of 
 46,508/. have been entered into, and duly executed, during 
 July and August, in respect of the most important of the 
 works ordered, but not commenced, or only partly executed, 
 up to 30th June, 1853. The following are the amounts 
 produced by a 6c?. rate on the larger districts : Kane- 
 lagh, 24,000/. ; western division of Westminster, 37,000/. ; 
 eastern ditto, 21,000/. ; Holbom, 23,000/. ; Finsbury, 
 24.000/. ; Spitalfields, 17,500/. ; Surrey and Kent, 39,00(W. ; 
 Counter's Creek, 5,200/. ; Greenwich, 4,000/. ; Fulham and 
 Hammersmith, 2,500Z. ; Ravensbourne, 2,000/. ; Kichmond, 
 l.OOO/. 
 
 273. In October, 1853, the surveyor and consulting en- 
 gineers of the Commissioners appear to have completed 
 their plans for the main drainage of the metropolis, north 
 and south of the Thames, which, after being received and 
 adopted in Committee, were adopted at a Special Court of 
 the Commissioners, held October 20th, 1853. 
 
 The report by the surveyor (Mr. J. W. Bazalgette) was 
 mainly as follows : 
 
 NORTH SIDE OF THE THAMES. 
 
 " The ' Hackney Brook, or Northern High Level Inter 
 cepting Sewer,' will divert the whole of the sewage and 
 flood-waters of 14 square miles of the upper districts from 
 the low districts, and from the river Thames, thereby re- 
 ducing the size and cost of construction of the sewers in 
 the low districts, and preventing the destruction of property 
 by floods, as at present. 
 
 "For instance, the Fleet sewer is now overcharged by the 
 amount of drainage falling into it; it is uncovered for a 
 great part of its length, Ihrough a dense population; and 
 in other places it has fallen in, and lias been temporarily 
 repaired ; but the Commissioners have never been able to 
 apply an effectual remedy to it, on account of its preseni 
 defective route, and the enormous cost of rebuilding so 
 
66 NOETH OF THE THAMES. 
 
 large a sewer in a more direct line through a crowded popu- 
 lation ; and, as it has always been intended ultimately to 
 divert its contents from the Thames, such a work could 
 only have been of a temporary character ; whereas now, by 
 the diversion of the upland drainage, these difficulties will 
 all be removed, and it and many similar sewers reduced to 
 economical and permanent works. 
 
 " The amount of drainage received by this upper line will 
 govern the sizes of the lower lines of intercepting sewers ; 
 and, as Parliament has now sanctioned the construction of 
 a tunnel railway along the New Road, which will intercept 
 our present main line of sewers, and necessitate the imme- 
 diate construction of an intercepting sewer along its route, 
 this upper line is rendered the more immediately impera- 
 tive. 
 
 " This upper sewer will be in itself a complete and perfect 
 work, and independent of any other intercepting sewer ; it 
 will afford an advantageous means of flushing and cleansing 
 the sewers in all the low districts above which it passes, 
 and thus improve their drainage; and it will relieve the 
 neighbourhoods of Stoke Newington, Kingsland, Clapton, 
 and Hackney, from the nuisance of an offensive open sewer, 
 known as the * Hackney Brook,' and the latter places from 
 frequent inundations. 
 
 " The route of this work commences with a sewer 4 ft. 
 6 in. in diameter, by a junction with the 4 ft. circular sewer 
 now constructing as the outfall for the Hampstead drainage, 
 in the line of the open Fleet sewer, its inclination being 1 
 in 72. It passes along Gordon-house Lane, crosses the 
 Highgate Eoad at an inclination of 1 in 1 34, and intercepts 
 the second branch of the Fleet sewer, being at this point 
 6 ft 9 in. in diameter. It then passes across the fields into 
 the Tufnell Park Road, turns down the Holloway Road to 
 its junction with the Tollington Road ; at this point its 
 size is increased to 10 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and it is laid at 
 such a level as to enable it to receive a branch from the 
 Edgware Road and Regent's Park, diverting the waters 
 
OUTFALL. 57 
 
 of the upper portion of the Banelagh and King's Scholars' 
 Pond Sewers, and again intercepting the Fleet sewer at 
 Kentish Town. From the Holloway Koad it passes under 
 the Great Northern Eailway and New Kiver Cut, taking 
 nearly the same direction as the present open Hackney 
 Brook sewer, for which it will act as a substitute, and falling 
 at an inclination of 1 in 476 to the High Street, Stoke 
 Newington, near to Abney Park Cemetery, where its size 
 is increased to 11 ft. 6 in. in diameter. It then passes 
 along the Rectory and Amherst roads to Church Street, 
 Hackney ; and from this point it is increased to 12 ft. 6 in. 
 in diameter, and its inclination is 1 in 1320. Thence it 
 crosses under the East and West India Dock Railway, 
 along Albion Road, West-street, and through the Victoria 
 Park, and under Sir George Duckett's canal, up to which 
 point it is kept up to such a level that it may be carried 
 over or under the River Lea Navigation ; or the sewage 
 may be diverted from the point at Sir George Duckett's 
 canal down below the Lea Navigation, at Four Mills, retain- 
 ing the present as a flood outlet; or the point selected 
 would afford an advantageous position for the erection of 
 sewage manure works. With all these alternatives held in 
 view, it is proposed for the present to terminate this work 
 with two parallel culverts, each 7 ft. 6 in. in height, by 8 ft. 
 in width, discharging into the River Lea at the present 
 Hackney Brook outfall. This sewer is kept at such a level 
 (for the purpose of being carried over or under the River 
 Lea, and discharging at high water by gravitation), that a 
 portion of the drainage of the Hackney Marshes cannot be 
 turned into it; this must either drain into the Lea, as pro- 
 posed by Mr. Forster, or eventually be carried into the lo-w 
 level sewer, to be raised by pumping. 
 
 " It is further proposed to fix tide-gates at the mouth of 
 the present Hackney Marsh open s^wer, to prevent the 
 ingress of the tide, and by this means, and the diversion of 
 the upland sewage from it, to prevent the floods to which 
 the Hackney Marshes are now subjected 
 
 D 3 
 
SOUTH OF THE THAMES. 
 
 " The estimated cost of the whole of this work, from Kil- 
 burn and Hampstead to the Kiver Lea. and a branch to 
 Four Mills, will be about 271,2902., and the probable cost 
 of that part of it which it is now proposed to execute will 
 be about 181,290J. 
 
 " The areas which would drain into this sewer amount to 
 about 8913 acres, or 14 square miles." 
 
 Sir William Cubitt, one of the consulting engineers, 
 having approved the plan, referred to the cost in the follow- 
 ing words : 
 
 " I have most carefully gone over the estimates, the 
 prices of which are guided, in a great degree, by works of 
 the same kind recently executed, and at this time in pro- 
 gress for the Commissioners, to which heavy percentages 
 are added for contingencies and compensations, for which 
 no exact estimate can be made. The total amount, as 
 shown by the estimate, is 271, 290/.; but, reasoning from 
 analogy in similar cases, I strongly recommend that the 
 probable total cost of this measure should not be stated, 
 or, at least, I do not think myself safe in stating it at less 
 than 300,0002." 
 
 SOUTH SIDE OF THE THAMES 
 SURREY AND KENT DRAINAGE. 
 
 " In preparing a design for a high-level or catchwater 
 sewer, which, in conjunction with a low-level sewer, will 
 complete the main features of a design for the effectual 
 drainage of the metropolitan districts on the south side of 
 the Thames, and the diversion of the sewage to a lower 
 point in that river, it has been sought, as far as practicable, 
 to comply with the resolutions of the Commissioners in 
 1850, communicated to their engineer, the late Mr. Forster, 
 on the subject of the main drainage ; and, in describing 
 the proposed scheme, it will be necessary, first, to call 
 particular attention to the natural features of the district 
 to be drained, which covers an area of about 24 square 
 miles. 
 
SOUTH OF THE THAMES 59 
 
 " The urban districts arid more closely populated suburbs 
 nre bounded on the north by the river Thames, on the 
 east by the river Ravensbourne, and on the west by 
 the river Wandle ; the southern boundary being a summit, 
 or water -shed level, about Mitcham, Streatham, Norwood, 
 and Sydenham. The river Thames now receives the drain- 
 age of this district from the Heathwall, the Effra, the Bat- 
 tle Bridge, the Great St. John's, the Duffield, the Earl, and 
 several minor sewers along its course, for a length of 
 1 1 miles, between the outlets of the rivers Wandle and 
 Ravensbourne. It is not proposed to intercept the rainfall 
 upon the lands adjoining these two last-mentioned rivers ; 
 they will continue to receive it as heretofore. But it is 
 proposed to divert from those lands, as far as practicable, 
 the drainage of such roads and buildings as may be built 
 upon them. 
 
 " The northern half of the entire area is mostly urban ; 
 and its general surface varies from the level of Trinity high 
 water to 6 ft. below it. This tract has, doubtless, at one 
 period, been a marsh covered by the waters of the Thames, 
 although many of the houses upon it have now basements 
 and cellars below the ground. 
 
 " The southern half is suburban, and its surface falls 
 rapidly towards its northern or lower margin, from an ele- 
 vation of 350 ft. higher ; so that during heavy rams the 
 floods from the whole of this upper district descend with 
 great rapidity into the sewers of the two lower districts, 
 and, the mouths of those sewers being closed by the waters 
 in the Thames for about eight hours each tide, the sewers 
 themselves, moreover, being insufficient to store the storm 
 waters, the result is, that during that period the lower dis- 
 tricts are flooded. 
 
 " It will be evident that it is impossible to maintain a 
 continual and unintermitting flow in the sewers of the two 
 lower districts, or to drain the cellars and subsoil, and make 
 them dry and healthy, without the aid of pumping. 
 
 " The first object, therefore, has been so to intercept the 
 
60 SOUTH OF T1JE THAMES. 
 
 waters from the suburban, or high district, as to carry off 
 the largest possible amount by gravitation, and, having thus 
 relieved the low districts from periodical inundations, where- 
 by their size is reduced to a manageable limit, to deal with 
 them as hereinafter described. 
 
 " The high-level intercepting sewer commences at the 
 north-west corner of Clapham Common, being of the ordi- 
 nary form (3 ft. 9 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.), and falling at the rate 
 of 1 in 34 1 to its junction with its northern branch, its 
 route to this point being through Clapham, Park Eoad, 
 Acre Lane, and Cold Harbour Lane, where it intercepts 
 the Effra sewer near the Brixton Eoad, its size increasing 
 in proportion to the amount of drainage to be received by 
 it, up to 9 ft. 6 in. in diameter at the point where it receives 
 the drainage from 2200 acres. From this point the main 
 line falls at the rate of 1 in 1760, or 3 ft. per mile, to its 
 outlet. And from the junction with the northern branch 
 to the junction with the southern branch, it is 12 ft. in 
 diameter, and drains 3500 acres, its direction being through 
 Cold Harbour Lane, Love Walk, and fields to the Lynd- 
 hurst Eoad, where it receives the southern branch. From 
 this point to the outlet it is increased to two parallel cul- 
 verts, each 11 ft. in diameter, passing mainly through fields 
 and garden ground, and under the Brighton and North 
 Kent Kailways, near New Cross stations, to the mouth of 
 the Eavensbourne, at Deptford Creek, into which it will 
 discharge the drainage from 7850 acres by gravitation at 
 high water of the highest tides. 
 
 " The northern branch commences with a sewer 4 ft. in 
 diameter, by a junction with an existing sewer in Eectoiy 
 Grove, Clapham ; and it falls at an inclination of 1 in 175 
 through Larkhall Lane to Union Eoad. Here it increases 
 to 6 ft. in diameter, and falls to its junction with the main 
 line in Cold Harbour Lane, at the rate of 1 in 1 472, again 
 intercepting the Effra sewer at a lower point in the Brixton 
 Eoad, and draining 650 acres through a 7 ft. sewer. 
 
 "The southern branch, or Effra diversion, commences 
 
SOUTH OF THE THAMES. 61 
 
 by a junction with the Effra sewer at Croxted Lane, near 
 Dulwich. It falls, at inclinations of from 1 in 273 to 1 
 in 100, in a direct line to its junction with the main sewer 
 in the Lyndhurst Road, being 9 ft. in diameter, and re- 
 ceiving the drainage from 3100 acres. 
 
 " These branches are important parts of the high-level 
 sewer, and without them it will not answer. In particular, 
 the southern branch will save the covering of an equal 
 length (about two miles) of the present open Effra sewer, 
 the waters of which, instead of descending by a circuitous 
 route, and with a flat gradient into the lower districts, will 
 be diverted at a high level to a point nearer the outfall ; 
 and thus the size and cost of the upper portion of the 
 main line will be reduced to one-half of what would other- 
 wise be required, while a deep outfall for a new district 
 now subjected to floods, namely, Dulwich, will be pro- 
 vided, 
 
 " Taking the more comprehensive view of the drainage 
 of the whole area, it is proposed to extend and slightly 
 alter the design for the low-level sewer laid before the Com- 
 mittee on the 20th ult., so as to include the drainage of 
 Battersea and Battersea Fields. The present scheme com- 
 mences with a circular sewer, 5 ft. in diameter, at the level 
 of the bed of the Falcon Brook, Battersea. It passes along 
 Battersea Road, under the South- Western Railway, along 
 i?riory Road, Lansdowne Road, and the Clapham Road, to 
 St. Mark's Church, Kennington Common, up to which 
 point its inclination will be 1 in 1760, or 3 ft. per mile, 
 and its size will then have been increased to 8 ft. in dia- 
 meter. From this point it proceeds in the direction of 
 Mr. Forster's line, by the side of the Surrey Canal, to the 
 Old Kent Road, at an inclination of 1 in 2112, or 2 ft. 
 6 in. per mile, being at this point 9 ft. in diameter. It 
 then proceeds along the Old Kent Road, in Coldblow Lane, 
 where it leaves Mr. Forster's line, taking a direct course 
 across the fields and market gardens, under the Brighton 
 and the North Kent Railways, along New Douglas Street 
 
62 LENGTHS OF PROPOSED SEWERS. 
 
 and Griffin Street, to High Street. Deptford, its inclination 
 for this length being 2 ft. per mile, or 1 in 2640, and its 
 size 10 ft. in diameter. Up to this point it receives the 
 drainage from 4450 acres. At High Street, Deptford, its 
 size is increased to 12 ft. in diameter, being intended 
 eventually to receive here an important branch sewer from 
 the Lower Deptford Road, which will divert from the 
 Thames the drainage of about 3300 acres. The main line 
 then passes between the Gas Works and the Vitriol Works, 
 near the Greenwich Eailway, and under Deptford Creek, to 
 a vacant piece of ground, well adapted for a pumping sta- 
 tion, or for sewage manure works, or for continuing the 
 line at some future time further eastward. 
 
 " The lift from the bottom of the sewer to Trinity high- 
 water mark would here be 30 ft. ; and from 1500 to 2000- 
 horse power would have to be provided at the pumping 
 station. 
 
 " The lengths of the proposed sewers would be as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 High-level Sewer. Miles. Fur. Miles. Fur. 
 Main line . ..62 
 
 North branch . . . .20 
 
 South branch . . . .21 
 
 Total . . . 10 3 
 
 Low-Level. 
 
 Main line . . .74 
 
 North branch . . . .23 
 
 Total % 9 7 
 
 Grand Total . . 20 2 
 
 " The sections of these sewers are of a favourable charac- 
 ter ; their inverts generally average from 20 to 30 ft. below 
 the surface ; and a very small portion of the work will have 
 to be tunnelled 
 
 " Careful attention has been paid to the character of the 
 surface under which the sewers are to be constructed ; pri- 
 
SOUTH OF THE THAMES'. 63 
 
 vate property and houses have been avoided as much as 
 possible; but, owing to the streets being irregularly laid 
 out, it has not been practicable to effect this altogether, and 
 in such cases the comparative value of the property has 
 been duly considered. 
 
 " It will be observed that, to save the permanent cost of 
 pumping, the gradients of the low-level sewer have been 
 reduced ; but the increase in the size of a sewer compen- 
 sates for a loss of fall ; and the sewers will still maintain, 
 through their whole length, a velocity of current varying 
 from 1J to 2 miles per hour, with the ordinary flow of 
 sewage, and during rains that velocity will be increased. 
 In this sewer there will be a constant current of a large 
 body of water, so that the average velocity will be sufficient 
 to keep it clear from ordinary deposit ; but there will also 
 be a good opportunity of flushing it, together with the 
 other sewers in this district, from the catchwater sewer and 
 the Thames at high water. 
 
 " The minimum velocity of current in the high-level sewer 
 will be about 2^ miles per hour, while at the upper end it 
 will be considerably more. 
 
 "The drainage of those portions of the metropolis at 
 present requiring a deeper outfall must not be made de- 
 pendent upon any scheme of interception, unless such 
 scheme is adequate to carry off the rainfall, as well as the 
 sewage, from them. It therefore follows that, whatever 
 scheme of interception is eventually adopted, if it be short 
 of such capacity, the sewerage and drainage of the metro- 
 polis must be perfected and completed independently of it. 
 
 " If this reasoning be sound, it is manifestly more eco- 
 nomical to construct one work which will answer eveiy 
 purpose, than to complicate it by the execution of duplicate 
 sewers, in order to gain the same object which may be ob- 
 tained by one; and it remains only M show that these 
 sewers are sufficient to carry off the rainfall, as well as the 
 sewage, from the districts for which they will be the out- 
 fall. 
 
61 RAINFALL. 
 
 " An average of an annual rainfall amounting to 30 inches, 
 added to the maximum daily flow of sewage, would give 
 only 3000 cubic feet per minute upon the upper district, 
 and 4000 cubic feet upon the lower district, while extraor- 
 dinary thunderstorms, amounting to I or 2 inches in an hour, 
 are recorded. These, however, generally occur during the 
 hot seasons, when the ground absorbs and the air evapo- 
 rates a large portion of the rain. Such storms are generally 
 partial, covering but a small district at one time, and are 
 never of long duration, so that the whole of the waters that 
 have fallen upon the district do not reach the outfall sewer 
 until after the storm has abated ; and, a small portion only 
 of the sewer being pre-occupied at the commencement of 
 the storm, the remaining portion for some time stores the 
 flood waters. A heavy and uniform rain of long duration 
 is probably the most severe ordeal to which sewers are sub- 
 jected, when, the ground and the air having become charged 
 to their full extent, absorption and evaporation abstract but 
 little from the sewers, and the feeder sewers, having also 
 become charged, would be delivering to their full extent. 
 
 " The largest quantity of rain which fell in London in 
 one day during the wet season of 1852 measured I* inch ; 
 but storms, amounting to 2| inches in a day, although of 
 rare occurrence, have been recorded, and these would deliver 
 into the high-level sewer 45,000 cubic feet per minute, 
 while it is capable of discharging upwards of 46,000. The 
 low-level sewer will discharge 21,400 cubic feet pel- 
 minute ; and it is here proposed that the existing main 
 sewers in the low districts should act as reservoirs during 
 such extraordinary storms. From their construction, and 
 the remarkable flatness of their level, they are peculiarly 
 adapted to this object; and it is estimated that on these 
 occasions they would store the surplus floods without the 
 rising of the latter to an inconvenient height, and would 
 again deliver their contents into the Thames at low water, 
 or into the intercepting sewer, as it became free to receive 
 them Thus the provision of engine power for such rare 
 
ESTIMATED COST. 65 
 
 occasions would be saved, and the existing sewers made 
 available. 
 
 " The estimated cost of this work will be as follows : 
 
 High-Level Sewer. 
 
 Mainline .... 195,600 
 North branch .... 20,400 
 South branch . . 42,000 
 
 -= 258,000 
 
 Low-Level Sewer. 
 
 Main line .... 140,000 
 North branch .... 32,000 
 Engines, pumps, &c. . . 100,000 
 Land, buildings, &c., required 
 for the permanent establish- 
 ment 100,000 
 
 379,000 
 
 Total . 637,000" 
 
 Extracts from the "Report of the Consulting Engineers on the 
 Surrey and Kent Drainage, or the Drainage of that portion 
 of the Metropolis which lies South of the River Thames. 
 
 " The object of the measure is to drain, take off, or inter- 
 cept all the rain-water and sewage which now fall into the 
 Thames from the district which lies between the rivers 
 Wandle and Eavensbourne, and does not at present fall 
 into those rivers, the whole of which comprises an area of 
 at least 24^ square miles, or 15,680 acres, of one-half of 
 which the rainfall can be intercepted and taken off by gra- 
 vitation ; but the other, or lowest half, the greater part of 
 which lies below high-water level, would have to be pumped 
 up and delivered into the river at some point below London 
 say Deptford Creek in the first instance, and subse- 
 quently at some point lower down the river, should such an 
 extension be deemed advisable. 
 
 ** It may be here observed that the pumping-station at 
 
66 KtrOKT OF CONSULT] KG ENGINEERS. 
 
 Deptford Creek would afford a most excellent situation for 
 the manufacture of ' sewage manure,' by which means the 
 sewage-water would be deodorised and delivered into the 
 Thames, divested of its most offensive and deleterious 
 matter, which by that process would (as is affirmed) be 
 separated and converted into a most valuable product for 
 agricultural purposes. 
 
 " To prevent mistakes and misapprehensions on the vast 
 subject of draining this great metropolis, and particularly 
 as regards its cost, we 'deem it proper to state in this place 
 that the special object of this report is not the ' sewerage,' 
 properly so called, of the metropolis south of the Thames, 
 but, in reality, the construction of a work, by means of 
 which the sewerage of the southern portion of London 
 may be freed from flooding in the first place, and well 
 drained in the next ; in short, to produce the same effect 
 that would be produced by raising the land on the south 
 side of the metropolis 20 ft. ; in which case, every main 
 sewer could discharge itself into the river, either deodorised 
 or not, as might be deemed advisable, without pumping, 
 and the cost of sewerage would be the expense of the 
 sewers only to effect the drainage of the basements of all 
 the houses ; and the whole expense of what is herein re- 
 commended is the construction of a set of underground 
 main intercepting drains or ' arteries,' sufficiently low to do 
 that by the artificial means of pumping which the Thames 
 cannot do of itself by natural means ; and it follows, of 
 course, that the cost of putting things in this position, and 
 constructing this ' arterial drainage,' is altogether over and 
 above the usual cost and expenses of carrying into effect 
 the sewerage of a town, a circumstance which cannot, in 
 our judgment, be too strongly impressed upon the minds 
 of those who are crying out (and certainly not without rea- 
 son) for improved sewerage ; for, supposing that the ' arterial 
 drainage,' with its plant of steam-engines and pumps, costs, 
 in the whole, three-quarters of a million sterling, it will 
 probably cost another quarter to complete the 'sewerage' 
 
REPOKT OF CONSULTING ENGINEERS 67 
 
 of the district even as it now exists, leaving alone fur- 
 ther extensions of the southern portions of the metro- 
 polis. 
 
 " Now, looking to the fact that no real benefit can be de- 
 rived till the plan be fully carried out to the extent only as 
 herein contemplated, and that the sooner it can be done 
 the better, the question is, Can 750, OOO/. be raised forth- 
 with to complete this ' arterial drainage,' and secured by 
 special rates upon the whole district to which it equally ap- 
 plies, leaving the raising and expending of money for the 
 common sewerage to be managed as at present in the dif- 
 ferent districts ; the first would be a uniform and standing 
 rate for a given long period, till the sum borrowed was paid 
 off, with interest, which would be followed by a small uni- 
 form rate, to cover the current expenses of pumping, &c. ; 
 and the second, a rate varying both in district and amount, 
 according to the wants and current expenditure of the dis- 
 trict in which the new sewers or other works are situated. 
 
 " The raising of the funds necessary to cany any mea- 
 sure of this kind into effect, and securing the repayment, 
 is of equal, or, perhaps, even greater importance, than the 
 measure itself, and cannot, in our opinion, be too strongly 
 impressed upon the Commissioners, and by them upon 
 that department of the Government with which such mat- 
 ters rest ; but we again repeat our opinion that the capital 
 to be raised for the arterial drains, such as the Hackney 
 Brook sewer, on which we have already reported, on the 
 north of the metropolis, and the high and low level arterial 
 drains on the south, should be considered as separate and 
 distinct, both in the mode of raising and rating, and also 
 of repaying the money, from that for the common sewers, 
 which are made to discharge into the arterial drains. 
 " We have, &c., 
 
 "W. CUBITT, 
 
 " E. STEPHENSON." 
 274. On the 27th of February, 1854, a Special Court of 
 
68 SIR W. CD Bill's ESTIMATE. 
 
 bewers, composed of members both of the city and metro- 
 politan Commissions, was held, for the purpose of receiv- 
 ing, considering, and determining upon, the report of the 
 surveyors to the commissioners, " upon the sewage inter- 
 ception and main drainage north of the Thames, a portion 
 of the works described in such report having relation to 
 sewers made or to be made within the City of London and 
 liberties thereof." Appended to the report, which described 
 minutely the localities through which the main sewers were 
 proposed to be carried, was an estimate of the probable ex- 
 pense of the works requisite on the north side of the 
 Thames, amounting to 1,378,1902. This is exclusive of the 
 proposed " Hackney Brook " northern high-level intercept- 
 ing sewer, estimated at 271,2902., including the cost of the 
 work from Kilburn and Hampstead to the river Lea, and a 
 branch to Four Mills. Sir W. Cubitt, one of the consult- 
 ing engineers of the Commission, added -a revised estimate 
 of his own as to the probable actual cost of the works de- 
 scribed in the report, arid also of those proposed for the 
 south side of the Thames, including the extension to the 
 Thames in Plumstead Marshes. As to the north of Thames 
 intercepting system and conveyance down to Barking Creek, 
 Sir William estimated 1,750,0002. instead of 1,378,190^. 
 And for the south side he allowed 750,0002. for the works 
 as terminating at Deptford Creek, and previously estimated 
 by Mr. Stephenson and himself, besides 500,0002. for the 
 extension of such works through Greenwich and Woolwich 
 to an outlet in Plumstead Marshes, making a grand total 
 of 3,000,0002. for completing the arterial and intercepting 
 drainage of the entire districts north and south of the 
 Thames. 
 
 275. It has appeared desirable to quote these reports at 
 considerable length, in order to record the latest proposals 
 emanating from the highest engineering authorities yet con- 
 sulted on metropolitan drainage. The Commission, under 
 whose authority these reports were prepared, however, 
 on the occasion of the meeting last referred to, held on 
 
COMMISSIONERS OF SEWERS, V. BOARD OP HEALTH. 69 
 
 February 27, 1854, adjourned sine die, in consequence 
 of the receipt of a letter forwarded by order of Lord 
 Palmerston, the Secretary of State for the Home De- 
 partment, avowing his opinion that the system of drain 
 age advocated by the Board of Health, (as distinguished 
 from that adopted by the Commissioners) was " that which 
 ought to be adopted, as combining the greatest degree of 
 efficiency with the greatest degree of economy." Now, the 
 essential difference between the " systems " advocated by 
 the " Commission" on the one hand, and the " Board" on 
 the other, will be apparent from the following extract from 
 a letter addressed to Lord Palmerston by Mr. F. O. Ward, 
 and referred to in his lordship's communication to the 
 Commissioners just quoted : 
 
 " The Commissioners of Sewers and the Board of Health 
 are at issue as to the cheapest and best way of draining 
 houses. 
 
 " The Board of Health advocate the drainage of each 
 house block by tubular submain running behind the houses, 
 and receiving the sewage of each by a short tubular branch. 
 They recommend a large reduction of the sizes of drains 
 hitherto employed ; for the single house drain they recom- 
 mend a 4-in. pipe ; for the submain receiving several of 
 these a 6, gradually expanding to 9, 12, and so on up to 
 20, as the lengths of the submain and the number of 
 branches received by it increase ; such drains, they say, are 
 self-scouring, the run of water through them is so concen- 
 trated that it keeps them clear of deposit; the branches 
 being very short, and running backward towards the drain 
 behind, instead of forward beneath the houses towards a 
 sewer in the street, have a quicker fall, and, in case of 
 leakage, leak into the open air, not into the houses, while 
 the cost is so much reduced by this method that blocks of 
 labourers' houses may be thoroughly drained and fitted 
 with sinks and soil-pans for an improvement rate of less 
 than 2rf. per house per week. 
 
 ** The Commissioners of Sewers, on the contrary, rccom- 
 
70 COMMISSIONERS OF SEWERS V. BOARD OF HEALTH 
 
 mend large brick sewers under the street in front of the 
 houses, beneath each of which they carry a long drain from 
 back to front, strictly forbidding more than two houses 
 being relieved by one pipe drain ; a system which, whether 
 otherwise good or not, certainly entails an enormous in- 
 crease of expense on the house-owners, and thereby re- 
 doubles the resistance on their part to sanitary improve- 
 ment. 
 
 " The Commissioners of Sewers lay great stress on the 
 independence secured by their system to each house-owner, 
 whose premises are traversed by his own drain only, which 
 he may take care of or neglect as he pleases, as its stop- 
 page can only injure himself. They allege against the 
 Board of Health plan, that it trespasses on private pro- 
 perty, that any stoppage of the tubular submain causes 
 all the houses higher up to suffer, and renders it necessary 
 for workmen to enter private back-yards to search out and 
 remedy the evil. They also deny the self-scouring property 
 of the tubular submains, and refer in support of their view 
 to several hundred cases of stoppages in tubular drains, 
 collected in a report of Mr. Bazalgette. 
 
 " The Board of Health, on the other hand, declare the 
 householders' pretended independence on this plan to be 
 illusory, seeing that the big street sewer is, nine times in 
 ten, an elongated cesspool, where the sewage of each stag- 
 nates to the detriment of all, while the stoppage of a branch 
 drain running beneath a house on the old plan often causes 
 stench in the houses on either side. Against the incon- 
 venience of an occasional invasion of the back-yards by 
 workmen, they set the greater inconvenience of periodical 
 invasions of the street and stoppage of the traffic, besides 
 tearing up of kitchen floors to get at foul drains under the 
 houses. In reply to Bazalgette 's report, they bring forward 
 examples by hundreds of pipe sewers working admirably 
 year after year, and attribute such stoppages as have oc- 
 curred to errors incidental to the first introduction of a 
 new system errors which, once known, may be avoided 
 
DEATH OF "GREAT LONDON DRAINAGE BILL" 71 
 
 Among these they cite the use, at first starting, of drain 
 pipes which were too thin, so that they broke under the 
 pressure of superincumbent earth, the uneven laying and 
 careless jointing of pipes by the jobbing builders often 
 employed (as in some parts of Croydon) on this work, the 
 use of soil-pans with ducts as large as the pipe drains to 
 which they led, and, above all, the often scanty and inter- 
 mittent supply of water to the system. They further point 
 out that a population accustomed to open privies and cess- 
 pools, available as receptacles for solid refuse of every 
 kind (refuse properly due to the ashpit), have to go through 
 a transitional period of a few weeks, while they are learn- 
 ing that such practice leads to stoppage of the new circu- 
 lating system, and must be abolished along with the old 
 stagnant cesspools. They say that many of the tubular 
 sewers, put down as failures in Bazalgette's report, are at 
 this moment working perfectly well, for which reason they 
 take all his allegations with very great reserve. They point, 
 with some reason, to Lambeth Square, New Cut, where 
 the Commissioners have allowed 32 houses to be drained 
 by four tubular back drains, which act perfectly well, quite 
 as well as 32 separate drains could act, though these would 
 have cost eight times as much; and they ask, why this 
 eightfold cost should be imposed upon London at large by 
 the very same authority which sanctioned in this square the 
 combined drainage, which is found to work well." 
 
 276. On the 2nd March, 1854, on the motion for the second 
 reading of the " Great London Drainage Bill" (which was 
 negatived without a division), Lord Palmerston stated he 
 was about to re-organise the Commission of Sewers, and 
 that Commission had lately matured a plan for the drain 
 age of the metropolis, which, upon full consideration, he 
 believed to be a good one, and likely t~> effect the objects 
 which the scheme now before the House was intended to 
 effect. He thought there would be great advantage in the 
 drainage of the metropolis being effected and managed by 
 one central department in some degree connected with the 
 
72 SUPPLY OF WATER. 
 
 local authorities. Moreover, if it should be possible to 
 realise that which, according to this Bill, might be realised 
 namely, the connection of the drainage of the metropolis 
 with some commercial advantages from the transformation 
 of sewage into manure that also ought to be in the hands 
 of Commissioners, in order that any such profit might be 
 applied for the public benefit in diminution or relief of the 
 rates raised for the construction of the sewers.* 
 
 SECTION II. 
 Supply of Water. Public Filters and Reservoirs, &c. 
 
 277. Quantity and quality criteria of every-day applica- 
 tion have special reference to the supply of water for 
 every congregation or community of human beings. The 
 varied practical purposes of domestic life to which this 
 invaluable agent is alone applicable, and the intimate con- 
 nection of many of these purposes with the health, life, 
 and well-being of humanity, at once attest the high import- 
 ance of abundance and of excellence in our command of 
 water. Rivers, springs, and surface collections have already 
 been enumerated as the several sources of water for the use 
 of towns, and the advisability of resorting to one or other, 
 or combinations of these sources, has been shown to have 
 some dependence upon the superficial contour of the town 
 and suburbs. Facility of supply, promoting the economy 
 of the means, will of course always have great influence in 
 determining the source to be referred to. Eivers and their 
 feeders brooks or streams may be classed, as the most 
 abundant sources in most instances, but their applicability 
 can seldom be realised without some expenditure of power 
 natural or artificial. Surface collections and springs, on 
 the other hand, are frequently applicable by the force of 
 
 * The subsequent proceedings of the various public bodies clown to 1865, 
 relating to the Main Drainage of the Metropolis, the Utilisation of Sewage, 
 and the Purification of the Thames by Embankment, will be found noticed in 
 the Appendix, Nos. 3, 4, and 6; pp. 194, 205, and 225. 
 
QUALITIES OF WATER. 73 
 
 gravity unaided by power, and requiring only suitable 
 channels in which the supply may be conducted from the 
 higher lands around the -town. The cost of power has, 
 however, lost much of its importance as an element in the 
 calculation since the steam-engine has enabled us to per- 
 form constant and easily-regulated duty in the raising and 
 conveyance of water at a very small expense ; and, there- 
 fore, the comparative abundance of the several sources at 
 all seasons will determine the preference rather than the 
 susceptibility of self-propulsion. 
 
 278. Where a choice is afforded as to sufficiency of 
 supply, however, the qualities of the water should be al- 
 lowed great influence in ruling the selection. Tracing all 
 these forms of immediate supply to the common original 
 one of rain water, we may readily infer, from a knowledge 
 of its ordinary properties, and of the effect of its subse- 
 quent treatment, the particular stage of this treatment at 
 which it will be the most desirable to convert the water to 
 our purposes. Rain water, as already shown (Part I. para- 
 graph 54), contains ammonia, but it is, as well known, the 
 least impure in constitution of any water at our command. 
 All the earthy, animal, and vegetable matters with which 
 water becomes charged, are extracted from the soil 
 through which, or the surfaces over which, it passes. The 
 nature of these matters depends upon the constituents 
 of the soil which is percolated; the amount of them will be 
 in proportion to the time during which the water is main- 
 tained in communication with the soil, modified of course 
 by the degree in which they may be adapted for mutual 
 action. Hence it follows that the scale of comparative 
 purity would stand thus : 1. Rain-water. 2. Water from 
 .surface drainage. 3. Water from soil drainage or percola- 
 tion. 4. Water from rivers or brorAs. 5. Water from 
 springs and subterranean sources. Regarding No. 4, how- 
 ever, it is to be remarked that the collection of the water in 
 any kind of channel allows of a partial deposition of the 
 heavier particles which the water has imbibed, facilitated, of 
 
 
 
74 USES OF WATER. 
 
 course, by the depth of the body of water, and the slownes 
 of the current, or minimum of motion. And besides this, 
 the exposure of water to the action of the atmosphere 
 appears to assist the evolution of some constituents which 
 impair its purity. Water from streams and rivers comes 
 thus to be considered as next in comparative purity to rain 
 water immediately derived, while that taken from springs 
 and sources in which it has long remained in intimate 
 contact with soluble earths and other matters, is found to 
 have acquired a corresponding proportion of these impuri- 
 ties. 
 
 279. The different kinds of impurities contained in water 
 have been explained (56 and 57), and the means of testing 
 and correcting some of those shown (58 and 59). The 
 process of filtration through the soil, which the water 
 derived from subterranean sources undergoes, tends to 
 separate the animal and vegetable impurities, and thus 
 spring-water and well-water being comparatively clear, are 
 commonly reckoned as pure. The matters which these 
 waters nevertheless contain are, however, separable only by 
 chemical treatment, while the impurities of river-water 
 may be got rid of to a great extent by mere subsidence and 
 self-filtering. 
 
 280. The several purposes for which water is required in 
 a town, or collection of people, are 1. Ordinary domestic 
 uses, including drinking, washing of persons, clothes, 
 utensils, houses, yards, and watering gardens, &c. 2. Ma- 
 nufactures. 3. Supply of public buildings, baths, wash- 
 houses, &c. 4. Extinction of fires. 5. Cleansing and 
 watering of streets and thoroughfares. 6. Supply of foun- 
 tains, and public gardens and pleasure grounds. 7. Mis- 
 cellaneous and occasional purposes not included in the 
 foregoing. 
 
 281. The supply necessary for the total of these pur- 
 poses may be reduced into an average quantity for each 
 individual of the population, and each square acre, yard, OL* 
 foot of the superficial area of the town. The latter datum 
 
REQUIRED SUPPLY. 7fr 
 
 will also afford the means of estimating the proportion of 
 the supply which will be immediately rendered in the form 
 of rain, and the difference between the amount of which, 
 and the total quantity required, will represent the propor- 
 tion to be served by other means. 
 
 282. Adopting 24 inches as the average annual fall of 
 rain, and half of this as remaining after evaporation, as 
 this quantity will facilitate an approximate calculation, and 
 be sufficiently near the truth for the purpose, (an exact 
 average for places, years, and seasons being scarcely cal- 
 culable even by the most laborious computation,) it appears 
 that 1 cubic foot of .rain-water is annually retained upon 
 each square foot of surface, or 9 cubic feet on each square 
 yard, equal to 43,560 cubic feet upon each square acre. 
 
 283. For the first, second, third, and fourth of the pur- 
 poses enumerated (280), a daily supply of 20 gallons for 
 each individual will be a fair average, being more than 
 sufficient in towns having an ordinary proportion of manu- 
 facturing operations carried on within them, and nearly, if 
 not quite so, even in towns where an excessive proportion 
 of manufactories exist. This may be inferred from the 
 quantities now supplied in towns. In Preston, Lancashire, 
 the supply by the Waterworks Company is on an average 80 
 gallons daily to each house, including factories and public 
 establishments, and as the service is constant and the 
 quantity unrestricted, it is presumable that much of this 
 quantity is wasted, and, if properly reserved, might be 
 made to supply, partially at least, the cleansing of the 
 streets. The tenements occupied by the labouring classes 
 in this town are estimated to consume only 45 gallons each 
 daily. Assuming 5 as the average number of occupants of 
 each house, the supply to each in these cases will be 16 
 and 9 gallons respectively. In Ashton-under-Lyne the 
 daily supply to each house is 55 gallons, or 10 gallons 
 to each person; and 18 factories in this town consume 
 1,103,000 gallons daily. Experiments tried in the year 
 1847 proved that the daily consumption per head of the 
 
 E a 
 
76 LONDON WATER COMPANIES. 
 
 tenants supplied by the Ashton Waterworks Company 
 averaged 6'245 gallons ; whilp the quantity supplied to the 
 mills in the neighbourhood averaged about 7 gallons per 
 head in addition, making a total of about 14 gallons per 
 head per diem. In Nottingham, the " Trent Water Com- 
 pany" supply 17 or 18 gallons per individual, daily, in- 
 cluding the trade consumption. The quantities supplied 
 by four of the leading companies in the metropolis are as 
 follows: (for 1850). 
 
 East London 100 gallons per house per diem. 
 
 New River 114 
 
 West Middlesex 150 
 
 Chelsea 154 ,, 
 
 These rates of supply will be found to corroborate the 
 average we have assumed for each individual. Thus in the 
 district supplied by the East London Water Company, 
 including Spitalfields, Bethnal Green, Poplar, Limehouse, 
 and other populous neighbourhoods filled with the poorer 
 class of persons, it will be found the average number of 
 persons is much above 5 ; 7 or 8 would probably be much 
 nearer the truth. The New River Company also supplies 
 populous districts. Many of their customers are similar to 
 those just described, and the average of all would certainly 
 give more than 5 persons to each house. In the districts 
 supplied by the West Middlesex and Chelsea Companies, 
 the population is mainly of another class, or rather classes, 
 but all of which occupy larger houses than those in the 
 Eastern and Northern parishes, and the average consump- 
 tion in each house is high in comparison with the others, 
 owing to two causes, the larger number of residents in each 
 house, including domestics, &c., and the larger quantity 
 consumed in baths and other means of private luxury and 
 comfort which are beyond the command of the other 
 classes of society. 
 
 284. Although it would thus appear that an allowance of 
 20 gallons per diem for each head of the population will 
 
REQUIRED ARTIFICIAL SUPPLY. 77 
 
 suffice for domestic and manufacturing purposes,* including 
 the supply of public buildings and for the extinction of 
 fires, we would prefer to provide for a constant service of 
 30 gallons, in order to make an ample provision for all 
 possible casualties and increased demands. Water is pre- 
 eminently so valuable, and, when properly sought, so cheap 
 an agent, that extravagance should always be permitted 
 rather than a deficiency be risked. 
 
 285. For the three remaining purposes, viz. : the clean- 
 sing and watering of streets and thoroughfares, the supply 
 of fountains, and public gardens and pleasure grounds, and 
 such miscellaneous and occasional purposes as are not 
 included in the six preceding classes, the average quantity 
 of water required may be reduced, for an approximate esti- 
 mate, into a given depth per diem, or annually, according 
 to the surface occupied by the town and suburbs to be sup- 
 plied. Towards this quantity, the rain may, as we have 
 seen (282), be estimated to contribute an annual average 
 depth of ] 2 in. available water. Now, allowing -y^th of an 
 inch of depth of water to be daily required over the entire 
 surface of the town for the several purposes stated, (and we 
 believe this to be a liberal allowance,) we shall have an 
 annual total depth of 365 -r- 10 = 36-5 in., which may be 
 regarded as 36 in., from which deducting the 12 in. sup- 
 plied by the fall of rain, we have the remainder equal to 
 24 in. depth to be supplied by other means. 
 
 286. We thus derive a rule as to the quantity of water 
 required to be supplied in any town, which calculates the 
 total quantity upon two given data, viz. : First, the amount 
 of the population ; and, secondly, the superficial extent of 
 the town and neighbourhood to be provided for. Thus, by 
 way of example, let us suppose a town having a population 
 
 * In June, 1850, it was estimated, upon official data, that there were 
 288,000 houses in the metropolis, of which 270,000 were supplied with 
 water, the quantity of which was 45,000,000 gallons daily, or 167 gallons 
 per house. For later years, see Appendix No. 3, p. 194. 
 
78 PRESTON. 
 
 of 100,000 persons, and an area of 1000 acres. The quan- 
 tity required to be provided annually for this town, would be, 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Population 100,000 x 30 x 365 = 1,095,000,000 
 Area 1000 x 43,560 x 2 x 6 = 522,720,000 
 
 Total annual quantity 1,617,720,000 
 
 allowing each cubic foot to equal 6 imperial gallons, which 
 is sufficiently near the truth for a general calculation. 
 
 287. Having thus endeavoured to arrive at an approxi- 
 mate estimate of the quantity of water required for any 
 town, formed upon the data of the amount of population 
 and extent of surface to be supplied, we have now to refer 
 to the question of quality, and cite such observations as we 
 can, which have tended to exhibit the qualities of water 
 derived from the several sources of rivers, springs, and 
 surface collections, or superficial drainage. In these par- 
 ticulars it will also be useful to include such accounts of 
 the topographical and geological features of the towns and 
 districts referred to as we can collect from the trustworthy 
 testimony of witnesses before public Commissioners. 
 
 288. The borough of Preston comprises an area of 1 960 
 acres, a population (in 1841) of 50,131, and 9994 houses at 
 the same date. The town stands principally upon a dry 
 sand of the " recent formation," marl, clay, and gravel exist- 
 ing in some parts. At a depth of about 90 ft. from this 
 surface-soil, the " new red sandstone " is found ; the same 
 rock forming the bed of the river Kibble, which through tw*o 
 miles of its course flows at about a quarter of a mile dis- 
 tance from the town, which has a general westerly slope 
 towards the river, the highest sites being about 130 ft, and 
 the lowest about 35 ft. above its low-water level. More 
 than half of the town is supplied with water by the Preston 
 Waterworks Company, which derives its supply from the 
 " mill-stone grit" formation at Longridge, distant about seven 
 miles eastward from Preston. The remainder of the town 
 
CIIORLTON-UPOX-MEDLOCK. 79 
 
 is supplied from wells. The whole of the supply from both 
 sources is described as of excellent quality, but we have no 
 analysis to determine its ingredients. The geological in- 
 fluences by which water derived from such strata as are 
 here described is affected, are certainly likely to furnish a 
 water of good general quality and comparatively free from 
 soluble mineral impurities, while the elevated position of 
 the town in relation to the river would discourage a resort 
 to it for general supply upon economical grounds. 
 
 $289. Chorlton-upon-Medlock, one of the townships of the 
 borough of Manchester, from which it is indeed separated 
 only by the little river Medlock, comprises an area of 
 about 700 acres. The number of houses in 1841 was 
 6021, and the population about 29,000. The soil is of two 
 kinds, stiff clay over the southern part of the town, and 
 gravel chiefly over the northern. The geological formation 
 is the new red sandstone, which is found at depths varying 
 from 3 to 90 ft. from the surface. A stream called " Corn 
 Brook " which flows through the township for more than a 
 mile, and delivers into the river Irwell at a distance of 
 about two miles, is little better than an open drain, and 
 keeps that part of the town near to its banks in a damp 
 and unhealthy condition. The supply of water is derived 
 partly by a Waterworks Company from Gorton Brook, 
 which affords the only stream-water fit for use, and partly 
 by pumps from wells in the gravel and sandstone. The 
 water from these latter sources is described as being 
 "bright and sparkling and well tasted, but hard." 
 
 290. The town of Ashton-under-Lyne is built on a 
 gentle declivity on the north-west bank of the river Tame, 
 above which it is elevated from 30 to 40 ft., the surround- 
 ing country being remarkable for its generally level cha- 
 racter. The principal geological feature of the neighbour- 
 hood is the great coal deposit, the surface-soil being clay 
 and loam, and the subsoil clay and gravel. The sub-strata 
 are chiefly schistus and sandstone, with intermediate layers 
 of coal. The water for the supply of the town is derived 
 
80 ASIITON. VORK 
 
 by a, Waterworks Company from springs in the higher parts 
 of the parish, and is of a medium quality, being such, how 
 ever, that it is said to be " wonderfully " improved by filtra- 
 tion. 
 
 291. York, situated in the centre of an extended vale, 
 lies between the rivers Ouse and Foss, and immediately 
 above their junction. Both of these are navigable and 
 tidal rivers, but the tide is prevented from rising to the 
 city by a lock placed five miles below it. The available 
 water is derived from the river Ouse. from wells varying in 
 depth from 12 to 40 ft, and from borings from 350 to 380 
 feet deep from the surface. The inquiries of the Eev. W. 
 Vernon Harcourt, and of Messrs. Spence and White, of 
 York, have furnished us with much valuable and accurate 
 information as to the qualities of these waters, and the 
 geological conditions in which they are presented ; and, 
 from the records of these inquiries, a few facts may be 
 advantageously quoted as illustrations of general principles, 
 which will be found commonly applicable to the several 
 sources of water for the supply of towns. 
 
 292. From these records it appears that the total of 
 gases contained in one gallon of river-water, from the Ouse, 
 amounted to 10 - 4 cubic in., and the average of 14 waters 
 from the springs, or superficial wells, amounted to 23-8 
 cubic in. That the total of solid contents (consisting of 
 carbonates of lime, magnesia, and iron, sulphates of lime 
 and magnesia, muriates of soda and potash, silica, and 
 vegetable matter,) in one gallon of river-water amounted to 
 9 grains, while the average of solid contents of the fourteen 
 well-waters amounted to 64-96 grains per gallon, comprising 
 the same carbonates, sulphates, and muriates as found in 
 the river- water, with the addition of muriate of lime in 
 some specimens, and of the nitrates of lime, soda, or mag- 
 nesia in all. An analysis of the water from the deep 
 springs, made by the Kev. W. V. Harcourt, showed the 
 presence of 96 grains of solid contents in one gallon, and 
 of this quantity about half consisted of medicinal salts; 
 
GEOLOGY OF YORK. 81 
 
 viz., 33-9 grains of the crystals of sulphate of magnesia, 
 and 14-4 grains of the crystals of sulphate of soda, besides 
 a small proportion of bicarbonate of iron. 
 
 293. The causes of these differences of ingredients 
 (which, together with considerable difference of level at 
 which the waters are maintained in the several wells, evince 
 their independence of each other, and of the river) are 
 referable to the geological conditions under which they are 
 collected. The section of an Artesian well sunk to a depth 
 of 378 ft. in the city showed the following arrangement of 
 strata: clay and gravel, 18 ft.; fine river-sand, 60 ft.; 
 sandstone rock and loose sand, 60 ft. ; a thin seam of blue 
 clay and water, and sandstone rock, 62 ft.; another thin 
 seam of clay and water, and sandstone rock, 178 ft. The 
 Rev. W. V. Harcourt describes this sandstone formation, 
 and the structure of the bed of the river Ouse, as follows : 
 " This sandstone rock belongs to the beds of the new red 
 sandstone formation, which crop out in a low line of undu- 
 lating hills along the western margin of the basin of the 
 vale of York, passing in a south-easterly direction from 
 Eainton to Borough Bridge, and Ouseburn to Green Ham- 
 merton, and emerging again from beneath the diluvial 
 covering of that basin at Bilbrough, within a few miles of 
 York. The immediate substratum of the soil in this line 
 over a considerable tract of country consists of these porous 
 beds, and the water which falls or flows down upon it 
 passes through them, between the seams of clay which 
 alternate with the sandstone, along the dip of the strata, 
 eastward to York ; it is thus carried between the diluvium 
 below the bed of the Ouse, and is dammed up under the 
 superincumbent mass, in the reservoirs of the sandy beds, 
 to the above-mentioned height of 15 or 20 ft. above the 
 summer level of the river, to which height it is found to 
 rise where the superior seams of clay are perforated by 
 boring. The water of the Ouse consists chiefly of the con- 
 tributions of the rivers which flow from the high hills on 
 the north-west of York, (especially the Swale, the Ure, and 
 
 E 3 
 
82 SALINE INGREDIENTS. 
 
 
 
 the Nid,) and are fed by the rains falling on their summits, 
 The streams from this source, after percolating the mill- 
 stone grit, with which those hills are capped, find their 
 channels on the surface of the impervious beds of the sub- 
 jacent limestone and shale along the valleys, and are con- 
 veyed on linings of diluvial clay across the edge of the 
 superior strata, and over the drift-covered plan of the red 
 sandstone to York. To this account of the geological con- 
 ditions under which York is supplied with water, is to be 
 added: 1st. That the gritstone hills which furnish the 
 river-water include few materials of saline impregnation. 
 2nd. That the beds of the red sandstone in which the deep 
 springs run are pre-eminently saliferous. 3rd. That the 
 rubbish of centuries accumulated in some parts of the city 
 to the depth of three or four yards over the diluvial beds, 
 which contain the superficial wells, is full of decomposing 
 matters, tending to mineralize and contaminate the water. 
 The waters of these wells, accordingly, are highly charged 
 with solid matters, amounting, on an average, to about 60 
 grains held in solution in an imperial gallon. In two 
 cases Mr. Spence found in them from 6 to 7 grains of 
 Epsom salts, and in one 11 grains ; in two others he found 
 31 and 38 grains of neutral salts of soda and potash. In 
 these last an infiltration may be suspected from the deep 
 springs ; but in general there are sufficient materials in 
 and upon the drifted beds to account for the sulphate and 
 carbonate of lime, of which the solid contents of these 
 waters are chiefly compounded, and which render them 
 harder than is desirable, either for drinking or for culinary 
 use." 
 
 294. The evidence here so well adduced is amply suffi- 
 cient to account for the differences observed in the chemical 
 qualities and adulterations of the water derived from the 
 several sources ; while that from the river Ouse, on the 
 other hand, furnished by the gritstone hills, being purer at 
 its source, and subsequently improved by exposure to the 
 air, contains only 9 grains of solid contents in the gallon, 
 
NOTTINGHAM. 83 
 
 and presents an exhaustless source of water of excellent 
 qualities for all the purposes of the city. 
 
 295. The materials of some soils are particularly preju- 
 dicial in their effects upon water passing through them. 
 Thus peat impregnates the water passing through it to so 
 great an extent, that it becomes discoloured, and thus ex- 
 poses the origin of its impurity. Mr. Homersham, who 
 devoted much attention professionally to the several water- 
 sources around Manchester, has recorded his observations 
 on this subject, and cites the confirmatory remarks of per- 
 sons residing in the valley of Longdendale in that locality, 
 that " upon heavy rains following a drought in the summer 
 time, the water flowing down the streams is about the colour 
 of London porter, and so strongly impregnated with moss 
 and peat, * that it can at such time be smelled a field off.'"* 
 When the water derived from peat lands passes through 
 mineral rocks of particular formation, a process of natural 
 filtration is effected by which the colouring matter is ab- 
 sorbed, and the water emerges in a tolerably pure state. 
 This fact was observed by Mr. Thorn in examining water 
 which flowed over or through a particular species of lava or 
 trap-rock (amalgoiloid) in the hills above Greenoek, and was 
 found to have thus become purified equal to fine spring-water. 
 Mr. Thorn made good use of this observation by substitut- 
 ing this rock, obtained in that neighbourhood at a nominal 
 price, for charcoal in the subsequent process of artificial 
 filtering. 
 
 296. The town of Nottingham, which is chiefly at a con- 
 siderable elevation above the surrounding countiy, on the 
 southern, eastern, and western sides, occupies the declivity 
 of the southern termination of a long range of hills, and 
 has the valley of the Trent about one mile in width at its 
 foot. Three-fourths of the town has an elevation from 50 
 to 200 ft. above the valley, and stands immediately on the 
 new red sandstone rock, which, being absorbent, remains 
 
 * " Report on the Water that can be Supplied to the Iiihabitants of Man- 
 chester and Salford, p. 85." Weale, 1848. 
 
84 LIVERPOOL. 
 
 dry on the surface. The remaining portion of the town 
 has a sub-stratum of similar material, but stands immedi- 
 ately on an alluvial deposit of gravel silt, and decayed vege- 
 table matter, lying in the valley of the Trent or its tribu- 
 tary streams. By two of these, the Leen on the south, 
 and the Beck on the east, which flows into the Leen, the 
 waters are conveyed into the Trent. The town is supplied 
 mainly by two water companies, whereof one derives its 
 supply from springs, situated about 1| mile north of the 
 town ; and the other from the river Trent, on the banks of 
 which a reservoir and other works have been constructed. 
 A small part of the population is supplied by minor works, 
 which, by means of steam-engines, raise their supply from 
 wells sunk in the new red sandstone rock. The quality of 
 all these waters is described as being good, but those from 
 the sandstone contain " carbonate of magnesia in notable 
 quantity," besides the sulphate and carbonate of lime, mu- 
 riate of soda, &c. It is quite certain, therefore, that this 
 water is, for all ordinary purposes, impaired in its purity 
 and value. 
 
 297. Liverpool is situated partly on the side of the 
 ridge of hills forming part of Ever ton, Edge-hill, &c., and 
 partly on the crest of a minor elevation, the valley between 
 the two having been the original streamlet or channel, 
 which discharged into the old pool. The sub-stratum of about 
 two-fifths of the city of Liverpool is clay. Along the banks 
 of the intermediate valley the soil is chiefly a deposit of 
 mud, with occasional beds of gravel, and in some parts 
 irregular masses of rock. Between this valley and the 
 southern and eastern boundaries of the town, a mixture of 
 yellow sand and rock is found in small thin beds, but gene- 
 rally resting upon solid rock at an average depth of 15 ft. 
 Liverpool is supplied with water by two public companies, 
 one of which derives its supply from springs at Bootle, 
 distant 3 miles from the town, and the other from wells in 
 various parts of the town. These waters- were analysed by 
 Dr. Trail in 1825, and found to contain " muriate of soda 
 
BILSTON. NEWCASTLE. 85 
 
 nnd of lime, the last in very small quantity ; sulphate of 
 soda, and possibly a minute quantity of sulphate of lime, 
 carbonate of sodn.." 
 
 298. The town of Bilston has a declivity towards the 
 brook called Bilston Brook, at its base, the fall being steep 
 in the upper part of the town, and gentle in the lower 
 part. " The geological character of the country is that of 
 the coal measures overlying the Wenlock limestone. The 
 only peculiarity is the presence of porphyritic greenstone, 
 and occasionally compact basalt. The soil of Bilston, where 
 collieries have not been opened, has a preponderance of 
 aluminous earth. The subsoil is generally brick earth. 
 The sandstone is rather an important feature in the geology 
 of Bilston, on account of its compactness and great thick- 
 ness." The water for the town is chiefly supplied by a 
 Waterworks Company, and, being collected by land-streams 
 which flow over beds of limestone, becomes impregnated 
 with lime, and thus acquires a considerable amount of 
 hardness. 
 
 299. Newcastle-under-Lyne stands partly on the old red 
 sandstone formation, and partly on a strong mine of clay 
 which extends into the coal formation of the Pottery dis- 
 trict. The water springing from the former formation is 
 somewhat hard, containing a small portion of carbonate of 
 lime. That from the clay is much more hard, from its 
 greater quantity of this carbonate. 
 
 300. Bath, which is built partly on the slope and lower 
 part of a hill, rising from the right bank of the river Avon, 
 where it forms a considerable bend round from east and 
 west to north and south, stands upon the nearly horizontal 
 beds of clays, limestones, sands, and sandstones, which 
 constitute a portion of the series of rocks to which the 
 term oolitic has been given from the oolite or oviform 
 grains in many of the limestones. jdVom the interstratifi- 
 cation of these different kinds of rocks, conditions for the 
 occurrence of springs are numerous, and they are accord- 
 ingly often met with, and from these the town is supplied 
 
86 BATH. 
 
 with water for domestic purposes. These springs occur at 
 various elevations above the height of the river Avon, from 
 120 to 160 ft. The qualities of the water raised from the 
 several wells vary according to the beds of limestones, 
 clays, marls, sands, &c., in which they are formed. In the 
 alluvial ground, on the right bank of the river and lower 
 parts of the town, trees are sometimes met with in great 
 abundance. These lie beneath an alluvial red loam, about 
 8 ft. thick, resting on gravel of about the same thickness, 
 and this upon lias clay. The water where these trees are 
 found is abundant, but never good. Some of the wells in 
 the lias furnish tolerable water, but there are examples of 
 sinkings in it to a depth of 200 ft., from which no water 
 has been obtained. The sections of many wells sunk in 
 the neighbourhood of Bath show that the water is retained 
 among the various beds of clays at great depths beneath 
 the Great and Inferior Oolites, and produces springs by 
 cropping out on the sides of the hills. 
 
 301. While the topographical and geological character 
 of the site of the town, and of the soil and sub-strata on 
 which it stands, are the admitted guides as to the source 
 or sources from which the town may be supplied with an 
 adequate quantity of water of average goodness of quality, 
 the criterion of quality as measured by relative hardness 
 must be allowed a prevailing consideration. River waters, 
 rendered impure chiefly by organic, animal, and vegetable 
 matters, are susceptible of improvement by methods of 
 nitration ; whereas waters derived directly from drainage or 
 internal springs are comparatively pure in these respects, 
 but, on the other hand, are charged in various degrees with 
 earthy and mineral matters, which at once render them less 
 fitted for domestic purposes, and far less readily susceptible 
 of purification. The economical results of the qualities of 
 the water supplied to towns have been adverted to at some 
 length in the first Part of the Rudimentary Treatise on 
 Drainage. (Paragraphs 57, 58, and 59.) 
 
 302. In concluding these remarks on the qualities of 
 
CHATHAM. 87 
 
 waters from various sources as subjects for consideration in 
 estimating their comparative value, we may usefully refer 
 to the confirmatory evidence supplied by analyses made 
 under the direction of the Superintending Inspectors to 
 the General Board of Health, of the waters available in the 
 several towns of Chatham, Uxbridge, Croydon, and Dart- 
 ford, reported upon by Mr. Hanger. The analyses were 
 made by Dr. Lyon Playfair. 
 
 303. The water now used in Chatham is obtained prin- 
 cipally from surface drainage from the upper chalk, but it 
 varies greatly in the degrees of hardness. Adopting, as is 
 presumed, the same measure of hardness as that used by 
 Dr. Clark, and explained in Part I. (58), the hardness of 
 the surface water from nine places of collection varied from 
 17 to 56, the average of the nine being 27, while the 
 water of the Kiver Medway has only 5^ of hardness. This 
 water, however, contains a large quantity of a yellow de- 
 posit; and, comparing the qualities of all the waters, the 
 Inspector recommended that the supply should be taken 
 from the Boxley Abbey Spring, of which the hardness 
 stands at 17. This spring is about 5 miles from the town, 
 and the situation being backed by elevated ground and 
 considerably higher than any part to be supplied, is pecu- 
 liarly adapted for the construction of reservoirs and filter- 
 ing beds if required. The Eeport leads us to suppose that 
 the reasons for preferring to bring water a distance of five 
 miles, while that from the river is accessible to all parts of 
 the town, is to avoid the expense of artificial raising of the 
 latter. The relative hardness is, however, an item of great 
 moment, and should receive full consideration. The de- 
 posit remarked in the river-water occurs, there is no doubt, 
 from earthy matters held partly in solution, which would 
 be readily removable by filtering. 
 
 304. Uxbridge is now supplied with water from four 
 public pumps, from wells, and by dipping from the branch 
 of the river Colne. The hardness of the water from three 
 town pumps and two others varied from 26 to 52, the 
 
88 UXBRIDGE. CROYDON. DARTFOBD. 
 
 average being nearly 30. The hardness of the water from 
 one of the Artesian wells was found to be 34 ; of that from 
 two others 14^ and 16 respectively. From the small 
 degree of hardness in these two latter waters, we might 
 conjecture some communication between these wells and 
 the river Colne, the water of which has 15f, but the 
 Report does not remark on this circumstance. The In- 
 spector advised that the adequate supply for the town 
 should be derived from the river Colne, at a part which 
 would be favourable for the construction of reservoirs, 
 filtering beds, and other necessary works. 
 
 305. The waters now supplied to the town of Croydon 
 from springs and wells are found to have an average hard- 
 ness of 25^. That from the river Wandle has 16'l, and 
 Dr. Clark reports than an expenditure of lib. of burnt 
 lime will, by his " lime-water softening process," suffice to 
 purify 800 gallons of this water, reduce its hardness to 
 3-9, and effect a saving of curd soap required to form a 
 lather with 100 gallons of the water, of 24| oz. The 
 Inspector recommended the river Wandle as the most eli- 
 gible source, from its contiguity to the town, the favourable 
 quality of its water, and its sufficiency to afford the means 
 for a supply upon the constant system. 
 
 306. The town of Dartford is now supplied by wells and 
 pumps, and dipping from the river Darent. The water 
 from seven of these sources, excluding the river, has an 
 average hardness of nearly 18, while that from the river 
 has only 13|, and was recommended by the Inspector as 
 being the most desirable for the supply of the town. 
 
 307. The third consideration affecting the supply of 
 water for towns is the relative expense at which this supply 
 can be obtained. Springs and other sources of the less 
 pure waters, are, doubtless, usually of more ready and eco- 
 nomical adaptation than rivers. Upland streams and water- 
 courses are generally applicable to some extent for supply- 
 ing the adjacent parts of the town and suburbs, but the 
 higher elevations frequently involve extra cost in forcing 
 
RESERVOIRS. 89 
 
 water from these lower sources. With a great scarcity of 
 records of the cost of works and conducting of the exist- 
 ing arrangements for supplying water to towns, we are 
 driven to form estimates which can only be assumed as 
 approximate, but will nevertheless suffice probably to indi- 
 cate the relative economy of the several methods of supply 
 which may be adopted. 
 
 308. The main items of cost of the supply of water to 
 towns are: 1, collecting; 2, storing; 3, filtering; and, 4, 
 conveying. If the supply be derived from surface-drainage 
 or springs at superior level, so that no raising is required, 
 the first of these items will comprise the construction of 
 open channels, aqueducts, or artificial rivers with tributary 
 or catch-water drains where necessary. If the supply be 
 derived from a river or other source at lower level, this 
 item for collection must be understood to include the ex- 
 pense of raising the water and delivering it to the storing 
 or filtering beds, with such constructions of channels or 
 piping as may be necessaiy for that purpose. The storing 
 places or impounding reservoirs for drainage w r aters are 
 sometimes so constructed as to answer also the purpose of 
 filtration, and thus combine in one cost the items Nos. 2 
 and 3. 
 
 309. Mr. Eobert Thorn, who has successfully supplied 
 several towns with water collected from surface-drainage 
 and natural collections or basins, considers it desirable that 
 the reservoirs should be large enough to hold at least four 
 months' supply of water, this being necessary to provide 
 against the irregularities of supply of water obtained from 
 these and similar sources. For the storing of water taken 
 directly from rivers and other ample sources from which an 
 abundant quantity can at all times be commanded, reser- 
 voirs of less capacity are sufficient, ai.d the first cost of 
 construction is therefore reduced. The catch-water drains, 
 in which the water is first received, are made to communi- 
 cate either directly with the main reservoirs, or by the 
 medium of aqueducts From the main reservoir the water 
 
90 SELF-CLEANSING FILTERS. 
 
 is conveyed by another channel or aqueduct into other 
 reservoirs or regulating basins near to the town, and each 
 of them so situated in elevation that the water from them 
 shall rise above the highest desired service, and of such 
 capacity that each will contain enough for two entire days' 
 supply of water for the town. 
 
 310. If the water cannot be delivered into the regulating 
 basins at sufficient elevation, artificial power will of course 
 be required to raise it from the natural to the desired 
 height. From the regulating basins it is delivered into two 
 or more self-cleansing niters (as before described, Part I. 
 paragraph 72), and from these into two distributing basins, 
 whence the water is carried through the streets by a system 
 of piping. Thus the town appliances are provided in 
 duplicate, and the object of this is to enable one set of 
 apparatus to be constantly commanded, and each to be 
 alternately cleansed or repaired when necessary. 
 
 311. In our fifth Section of this Division we shall have 
 to enter into the details of apparatus for conveying and 
 distributing water. Our present purpose is to enumerate 
 the general varieties of arrangements required according to 
 the source from which the supply is derived. 
 
 312. The increased expense incurred in the formation 
 of large reservoirs to hold a supply for a long period, such 
 as four months, is certainly great, but not so when com- 
 pared with the first cost of machinery and current ex- 
 penses of raising water from rivers and sources of low 
 elevation. The upper sources of springs and drainage- 
 waters are, moreover, applicable in some cases where the 
 others are inaccessible, or rendered so practically by the 
 great distance and low elevation from which river-water 
 can alone be conveyed and raised. The cost of construct- 
 ing reservoirs may be estimated at about three-pence per 
 cube yard on an average, if no extraordinary difficulties or 
 expensive works are required. With reference to reservoirs 
 as proportioned in capacity to the number of houses or 
 persons supplied, the following particulars may be usefully 
 
CAPACITY OF RESERVOIRS. 
 
 91 
 
 cited, referring to the operations in seven of the large towns 
 in Lancashire, and reported upon by Dr. Lyon Playfair : 
 
 
 
 
 
 Height of Surface 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Water in Reser- 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Capacity 
 
 voirs above 
 
 Towns. 
 
 of Houses 
 
 of Houses 
 
 of Reservoir 
 
 
 
 in Town 
 
 or Tenants 
 
 in Gallons. 
 
 
 
 
 in 1341. 
 
 Supplied. 
 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parts of 
 
 Parts of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Town. 
 
 Town. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Manchester . \ 
 Sal ford . . . J 
 
 57,238 
 
 30,000 
 
 ( 2,000.000 
 j 249.360,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
 122 
 
 Preston . 
 
 9,984 
 
 5,026 
 
 50,000,000 
 
 36 
 
 160 
 
 Bury . . . 
 
 5,260 
 
 2,980 
 
 4,181,760 
 
 50 
 
 130 
 
 Ashton . . . 
 
 4,700 
 
 4,000 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 Rochdale . . 
 
 8/266 
 
 2,800 
 
 22,781,253 
 
 6 
 
 96 
 
 Old ham . . 
 
 8/220 
 
 5,620 
 
 85,000,000 
 
 30 
 
 300 
 
 The capacity and expense of reservoirs for drainage or 
 surface-collected water will of course be regulated with a 
 view not only to the wants of the population, on the one 
 hand, but also with reference to the extent of surface to 
 be drained, and probable quantity which will thus accu- 
 mulate. From some statements given in the Eeport by 
 Mr. Homersham, before quoted from, we may present the 
 following figures : 
 
 Names and Situation of Reservoirs. 
 
 Contents 
 of 
 Reservoirs. 
 
 Area of 
 Drainage 
 Ground. 
 
 i 
 Per Acre 
 of 
 Area. 
 
 Turton and Entwistle Reservoir, 14 
 miles N.W. of Manchester . . . 
 Belmont Reservoir, 14 miles N.W. 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 100,000,000 
 78 000,000 
 
 Acres. 
 2036 
 1796 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 49,110 
 43,430 
 
 Bolton Waterworks Reservoir, 4 
 
 22,471,9.0 
 
 595 
 
 37,767 
 
 Ashton Waterworks Reservoir, 1| 
 mile N.E. of Ashton . . . . 
 Sheffield Waterworks 
 Redmires Reservoir 
 
 14,436,397 
 30 000 000 
 
 378 
 ) 
 
 38,453 
 
 32,894 
 
 
 22,000 000 
 
 912 
 
 Total. 
 57,050 
 
 
 
 
 
92 PAISLEY FILTERS. 
 
 The aqueducts for passing a supply of 20 gallons per diem 
 for each individual of a population of 500,000 may be esti- 
 mated at from 400J. to 600Z. per mile, according to the 
 ruggedness of the ground and other items of expense. 
 The cost of niters upon the self-cleansing principle will 
 average from 6000Z. to 8000J. to supply the same quantity. 
 That constructed by. Mr. Thorn at Paisley, which produces 
 regularly every 24 hours a quantity equal to 106,632 cubic 
 feet of pure water, cost about 600/., and he estimates that 
 the expense of a filter " to give a supply of water of the 
 beist quality for family purposes, to a town of 50,000 inhabit- 
 ants, may be safely taken at 800L" This supply, however, 
 allows only 13 gallons to each individual. We prefer 
 allowing a minimum of 20 gallons, as already estimated. 
 Adopting the facts stated by Mr. Thorn, as experienced in 
 supplying four towns in Scotland, viz., Greenock, Paisley, 
 Ayr, and Campbelltown, which are served by his system, 
 but allowing the greater quantity stated, to each individual, 
 and assuming the cost to increase in the same proportion, 
 we find that the average annual expense per person will 
 amount to no more that eight-pence, that is, for a regular 
 daily supply of 20 gallons of good spring-water throughout 
 the year. This expense includes wear and tear of appara- 
 tus, charge for superintendence, &c., and 5 per cent, per 
 annum upon the capital employed. In the towns here re- 
 ferred to there is such declivity that allows of high reser- 
 voirs and constant high service to the buildings without 
 any expenditure for power. Mr. Thorn states that the cost 
 for apparatus for the smallest of these towns, Campbell- 
 town, of 7000 inhabitants, amounted to about 2500Z. ; or 
 say 3800/., being about 10-85 shillings to provide for the 
 daily allowance per individual of 20 gallons instead of 13 
 gallons. 
 
 313. At Nottingham, about 8000 houses, or 35,000 inha- 
 bitants, are supplied with water raised from the river Trent 
 by a Waterworks Company. The actual supply is found to 
 amount daily to between 80 and 90 gallons per house on 
 
COMPARISON OF COST. 98 
 
 an average, including breweries, dye-works, steam-engines, 
 inns, and other places of large consumption. The levels 
 of different parts of the town vary, perhaps, 80 ft., and the 
 water pumped up from the river is raised above the town, 
 so that an average pressure of 80 ft. is maintained, the 
 greatest pressure being about 120 ft. The water is drawn 
 from the river into a reservoir formed on its banks, and ex- 
 cavated in a stratum of clean gravel and sand, through 
 which the water percolates to a distance of 150 ft. from the 
 river. Besides the nitration which thus naturally occurs, 
 the water is still further clarified by passing through a tun- 
 nel 4 ft. in diameter, which is laid through a similar stratum 
 for a considerable distance up the adjacent lands, and con- 
 structed of bricks, without mortar or cement. The expen- 
 diture for the supply of these 8000 houses amounts to about 
 30,000?., and the average annual charge per house is about 
 7s. 6d., the water being supplied at any level required, even 
 into the attics of four- or five-story buildings. The average 
 daily allowance to each individual supplied is here equal to 
 about 20 gallons ; and reducing the total expenditure and 
 the annual charge per house to an original cost and current 
 expense per individual, as we have done in reference to the 
 four towns supplied by reservoirs and aqueducts from sur- 
 face collections and higher springs, we shall find the two 
 items stand thus: original cost per individual, 17-14 shil- 
 lings ; current expense per individual per annum, including 
 per centage on capital, &c., Is. Sd. The comparative state- 
 ment for the four Scotch towns and for Nottingham will, 
 therefore, be this per head of the population supplied : 
 
 Original Current 
 
 cost of appa- annual 
 
 ratus, &c. expense. 
 Scotch towns supplied with drainage- and s. d. 
 
 spring-water ]0'85 8 
 
 Nottingham supplied with river-water . 17'14 20 
 
 The qualities of the waters, their comparative hardness, &c., 
 should be fully known and duly estimated as items in the 
 relative economy of the two sources. 
 
94 PUBLIC FILTERING. 
 
 314. For the supply of some towns it will be found de- 
 sirable to combine the two sources, namely, a river and 
 springs, or perhaps upper streams, which, flowing from 
 lands much higher than the general level of the river, pre- 
 serve a greater elevation, and may thus be applied to fur- 
 nish the higher parts of the town, and effect a judicious 
 economy of artificial power in raising the required quan- 
 tity. 
 
 315. The expense of public filtering of water has already 
 been stated, Part I., p. 65 and 67, as varying from about 
 2000 to 9000 gallons per penny. An average rate of 6000 
 gallons may be safely assumed as the quantity which can 
 be filtered at an expense of one penny. The annual ex- 
 pense of filtering the supply for each individual of the 
 population thus appears to average only T2 penny. This 
 calculation is quite conclusive as to the superior economy 
 of public over private filtering, since no separate house 
 apparatus for this purpose can possibly be maintained in 
 working order at this insignificant rate of expense. 
 
 316. The public filtering of water, before distributing it 
 into the mains and service pipes by which the streets and 
 buildings of a town are supplied, is, however, palpably in- 
 sufficient to secure purity in the water as used by the inha- 
 bitants, if the quantity for each house be received and 
 stored in a separate tank or cistern, which is seldom or 
 never emptied or cleansed. In these receptacles the minute 
 impurities brought in with each day's supply accumulate 
 into a mass of growing fouhiess, stirred up by the daily 
 delivery, and undergoing constant decomposition, and thus 
 contaminating the entire contents of the cistern and every 
 pint of water which is drawn from it. This consideration, 
 which may be confirmed by volumes of evidence, but is too 
 pa'pable to require proof, leads to the desirability of dis- 
 pensing with these separate household accumulations of 
 water, by providing a constant supply in the mains and 
 service pipes, so that any required quantity may be at all 
 times instantly commanded. The supply rendered by the 
 
CONSTANT SERVICE. 95 
 
 Trent Waterworks Company to the town of Nottingham, 
 and before referred to, is maintained upon this principle, 
 the several advantages of which have been pointed out by 
 the engineer to the works, Mr. Hawkesley, and since 
 adopted as a general rule in the recommendations of the 
 Superintending Inspectors to the General Board of Health. 
 817. The superiority of the constant service principle of 
 the supply of water to towns over the occasional or inter- 
 mittent principle is not greater in the comparative purity of 
 the water thus obtained for the current use of the persons 
 supplied than it is in the economy of the supply. The 
 first cost of cisterns or tanks, with all the expensive and in- 
 efficient paraphernalia of ball-cocks, waste-pipes, &c. f &c., 
 is entirely obviated by keeping the mains, service and com- 
 munication pipes always charged. It is well known that 
 the due care and cleansing of the house-receptacles for 
 water, whether tanks, cisterns, or butts, are greatly neglected, 
 especially among those classes who are actively and inces- 
 santly engaged in their business or daily labours, and who 
 are equally unable to command the services of others for 
 such purposes. These receptacles are often imperfectly 
 constructed and covered, open to the entrance of soot, dust, 
 and dirt of all kinds, frequently exposed to the action of 
 the sun, and neglected when repairs become indispensable. 
 If these separate and inefficient means are superseded by 
 keeping the water-pipes constantly charged, one large reser- 
 voir suffices for a whole town, or extended section of one, 
 and this one reservoir may be so devised, constructed, and 
 managed, that the combined supply shall be always main- 
 tained and delivered in the best possible condition. The 
 economy of the system here advocated arises in many 
 ways. The spaces occupied by the house-tanks are saved, 
 and the damp which always arises from the evaporation of 
 bodies of water is avoided, besides preventing accidents, 
 leakage, and the occasional inconvenience of finding the 
 cistern empty, or its contents reduced to a few inches in 
 depth of foul mud. Another source of economy is the re- 
 
96 DEFECTS OF HOUSE-CISTERNS. 
 
 duction in the sizes of main and service-pipes required, as 
 the deliver}' is distributed over a longer period than by the 
 intermittent supply, which limits the actual delivery for 
 present and prospective purposes to a few hours, or some 
 still shorter extent of time. Added to this diminution in 
 the sizes of pipes permitted by the constant supply is the 
 fact of their non-liability to be burst by the sudden gush of 
 water which compresses the air within the pipes with a 
 force which the strength even of iron cannot resist. The 
 alternate absence and presence of water within them, more- 
 over, hastens their corrosion, as it has been found that 
 much oxide of iron accumulates in them under these cir- 
 cumstances. And beyond these advantages, the constant 
 supply system possesses the further one of immense eco- 
 nomy in management. It is found at Nottingham that one 
 experienced man and one lad are sufficient to manage the 
 distribution of the supply to about 8000 tenements, and 
 keep all the distributory works, including cocks, main and 
 service-pipes, &c., in perfect repair. Under the intermit- 
 tent supply system, a numerous staff of assistants would 
 be required to discharge similar duties. 
 
 318. The "Commissioners of Enquiry into the state of 
 large Towns" have quoted a statement to the following 
 effect : That the expense of machinery or capital invested 
 in the arrangements for supplying the metropolis with 
 water, exclusive of the communication pipes to the houses, 
 the tenants' water-butts, tanks, &c., amounts to 3,310,342/., 
 or about 3L per individual supplied ; that the annual in- 
 come is 276,243/., and the expenditure 133,724/., leaving a 
 balance which is equal to an average dividend of 4 per 
 cent. The income from each individual supplied would 
 thus appear to be somewhere about 5s. annually. &ow, 
 the metropolis is supplied mainly from the river Thames, 
 the river Lea, and the New River, from a spring at Amwell. 
 In the year 1843,*~the entire supply was furnished by nine 
 companies, the names .of which, and the sources of their 
 water, were as follows : 
 
 * For later years, see Appendix No. 7, p. 235. 
 
COST OF CONSTRUCTION. Q7 
 
 Companies. Sources cf Water,. 
 
 Chelsea . . . . River Thames. 
 
 West Middlesex . . . Do. do. 
 
 Grand Junction . , . Do. do. 
 
 Southwark .... Do. do. 
 
 Lambeth Do. do. 
 
 Vauxhall Do. do. 
 
 East London .... River Lea. 
 
 New River .... Am well and River Lea 
 
 Hampstead .... Springs on Hampstead Hill. 
 The cost of construction for the water-supply at Notting- 
 ham, as already stated (paragraph 313), is between 17s. and 
 18s., and the expense attendant on the supply of water and 
 management of the works amounts to about 44 per cent. 
 on the income, which will be found somewhat less than the 
 proportion of the like expense in London. The expenses 
 both of formation of works and of current supply are evi- 
 dently controlled to a considerable extent by the natural 
 facilities for the former, and by the distance from which 
 the water has to be conveyed, and the height necessary to 
 raise it. The expense to individuals must, of course, be 
 also liable to be affected by the proximity, or otherwise, of 
 the several tenants to be supplied 
 
 319. Another principle to be observed in conjunction 
 with that of constant service of water is, that it shall be 
 delivered from such an elevation, or with such a pressure, 
 that the service may take place at least 20 ft. higher than 
 the tops of the highest houses to be supplied. The vast 
 ultimate economy and value of this provision are cheaply 
 bought by the additional expense involved in the works, 
 and current cost for making it. The experience of the 
 Trent Water Company in supplying the town of Notting- 
 ham from the river Trent has shown that the expense of 
 raising and delivering the water 50 ft. higher than at pre- 
 sent would amount to only 5 or 6 per cent, additional upon 
 the present cost. On the other hand, the advantages of this 
 high service are too great to be easily calculable, saving, as 
 
 F 
 
SERVICE. 
 
 it does, all the expenses of force-pumj s or other separate 
 apparatus for raising the water from the lower floors, and 
 affording means of supplying baths 'and other accessories 
 of cleanliness, health, and comfort, to all parts of each 
 house without restriction, labour, or cost. The total ex- 
 penses of supplying water in the town referred to, with all 
 the benefits of constant and high service, including wear 
 and tear of engines, interest on capital for machinery and 
 distributing pipes, expenses of management, &c., amount 
 to 2-88 pence per thousand gallons. 
 
 320. The value of constant and high service of water to 
 towns is strikingly important in its application for the ex- 
 tinction of fires, and for the occasional washing of streets, 
 and cooling them by jets of water in warm seasons and 
 times of drought. The bearing of these purposes upon 
 the preservation of life and property, and the promotion of 
 health and comfort, is too evident to need much illustra- 
 tion, although the details of the arrangements will claim, 
 on account of their extended utility, some notice in our 
 fifth section, which will be devoted to a brief account of 
 all the essential apparatus for carrying these principles into 
 practice. 
 
 321. Finally, let us recount the leading objects to be 
 kept in view in the supplying of water to towns : First, 
 that the supply shall be ample in quantity for all the pur- 
 poses of personal and domestic cleansing ; for the public 
 purposes of supplying baths, fountains, and gardens ; for 
 the extinction of fires, the thorough cleansing of streets 
 and thoroughfares, and the occasional cooling of them in 
 dry seasons, and for all such manufacturing purposes as 
 may be required or permitted within towns. 
 
 Secondly, that this abundant supply should be procured 
 of the best possible quality for the several uses to be made 
 of it. That, if several sources are available at various rates 
 of expensiveness, the economy of any one of them as com- 
 pared with another, or others, is to be duly estimated, with 
 a governing reference to the quality of the water so de- 
 
RECAPITULATION 99 
 
 livable; and that the question of adopting an inferior 
 water shall be affirmed only in cases where the expense of 
 the better quality amounts to a practical impossibility. 
 That, besides'the always recognised impurities of an animal 
 and vegetable character, and those held in mechanical sus- 
 pension only, with which some waters are usually adul- 
 terated, there are others of a soluble nature, which are 
 consequently commonly imperceptible except to chemical 
 analysis, but the presence of which deteriorates the quality 
 of water in a high degree, and occasions a necessity for 
 chemical processes to purify it, mere filtering being utterly 
 inoperative for the purpose. That, generally, these soluble 
 matters are found in spring- and drainage-waters in far 
 larger proportion than in river-waters, which are more sus- 
 ceptible of being purified by a process of self-filtration, 
 and are, therefore, commonly preferable for most purposes 
 to waters of the former character. That the expense of 
 raising river-water by steam-pumping is really very small, 
 and unworthy of consideration, although often regarded as 
 a weighty argument in favour of seeking the required sup- 
 ply from districts of land from which the water descends by 
 gravity, without artificial aid. 
 
 And, thirdly, that the complete utility and greatest ulti- 
 mate economy of the supply of water to towns can be 
 realised only by a service of it which is constant in duration, 
 and sufficiently high to discharge over the highest buildings 
 in the town.* 
 
 SECTION III. 
 Width and Direction of Roads and Streets. Substructure and Surface. 
 
 Paving and Street Cleansing. 
 
 322. The drainage and cleansing of the roads, streets, 
 and thoroughfares of a town are acknowledged to be public 
 purposes of the highest utility. The facility of effecting 
 these purposes is dependent upon the several circumstances 
 
 * The London and Glasgow Water Supplies are further noticed in 
 Appendix No. 7, pp. 232-238, and Appendix No. 8, pp. 239, 240. 
 
 F 2 
 
100 DRAINAGE OF STREETS. 
 
 of the dimensions and situation, and the sub- and super- 
 structure of the thoroughfare. The width of the streets is 
 influential in admitting or preventing the access of air and 
 winds, by which the wholesomeness of their condition is 
 largely affected; and also in rendering the process of 
 cleansing by hand or other labour easy or difficult. The 
 direction of roads and streets vertically in their relative 
 levels and inclinations, and, laterally, in their coincidence 
 with or opposition to the courses of the prevalent winds 
 is a condition of great importance in affecting the facility 
 and economy of the processes of drainage and cleansing. 
 And the relative dampness and dryness and quantity of 
 debris produced upon any public thoroughfare are mainly 
 attributable to its construction in the subsoil, and superfi- 
 cial formation. 
 
 323. Courts and narrow passages, such as abound in 
 most towns relics of public ignorance and private cupidity, 
 destined to be destroyed in the progress of enlightened 
 sanatory reformation limited in width and bounded by 
 elevated buildings, never receive their due share of light, 
 air, or water, and thus present the greatest combination of 
 difficulties to the vital processes of drainage and cleansing 
 And these purposes can never be economically and effi- 
 ciently fulfilled until a minimum of width and a maximum 
 of height of buildings are recognised as the elements of 
 street proportion. The recorded and repeated evidence on 
 this point is more than enough to establish the general 
 principle, although the precision of the details requires ob- 
 servations of a more exact nature than have yet been made. 
 It is certain, however, that no street should be less in width 
 than the height of the buildings on either side of it that 
 is, that the angle formed by the transverse surface of the 
 street, with a line from its extremity on one side to the 
 summit of the buildings on the other, should never exceed 
 45. And in proportion as this angle can be reduced will 
 be the facility afforded for the desirable operation of the 
 nir and of such rain as mav fall. 
 
DRAINAGE OF ROADS. , 101 
 
 324. Provided this principle be strictly observed, the 
 comparative declivity of the surface will become of minor 
 importance. Certainly, the greater the declivity the more 
 rapid and effective will be the action of rains in cleansing 
 and washing down the debris upon the surface of the 
 street ; but it should be the peculiar province of the sub- 
 terranean sewers constructed beneath, to compensate for the 
 relative flatness of the surface, by affording a channel of 
 artificial declivity, that shall at all times free the surface 
 from these matters as quickly and effectually as possible. 
 
 325. Connected with the subject of road drainage as ap- 
 plicable in the suburban parts of a town, the necessity of 
 providing covered drains cannot be too rigorously enforced. 
 Open road ditches are known to become receptacles for 
 filth and refuse matters of various kinds, and the trouble 
 and expense of cleansing and keeping them in repair, in- 
 volving a constant making-up of the banks and clearing of 
 the beds, are commonly evaded by a total neglect, which 
 leads to a stoppage of the channels and a constant expo- 
 sure of decomposing matters, both offensive to the senses 
 and injurious to health. These roadside ditches are fre- 
 quently, moreover, adopted as the only available channels 
 for dispersing the sewage of the suburban buildings ; and 
 being thus converted into open sewers with little or no 
 attempt at formation, and very little care in preserving even 
 their original rude form and capacity, the evils of retaining 
 them are multiplied to a degree actually dangerous to the 
 health of the inhabitants and of passengers. 
 
 326. Added to the inefficiency of open road drains or 
 ditches is the waste of surface which they involve. Pedes- 
 trians in the suburbs of towns know well that of a narrow 
 road nearly one-half the width is frequently occupied by a 
 wide and sluggish ditch, and that, H the absence of any 
 raised foot-path, they are frequently driven to a dangerous 
 proximity to its foulness in order to escape destruction by 
 the heedless and perhaps drunken drivers of vehicles. If 
 
102 SEWERS TO RECEIVE STREET-REFUSE. 
 
 these ditches were covered and converted into active sewers 
 by the use of pipe-tiles, of comparatively small and yet 
 ample dimensions, space would be afforded for the forma- 
 tion of convenient footpaths on which a walk would become 
 a luxury instead of being a task of danger and annoyance. 
 Those who have " picked their way " along the unpave- 
 mented strados of Rome, and contrasted them with the 
 easy security of some of the similarly narrow streets of our 
 own metropolis, will readily appreciate the value of the 
 change which might be thus cheaply effected in our sub- 
 urban roadways. 
 
 327. The quantity of surface wasted by the open road 
 ditches, and the corresponding area thus exposed for the 
 evaporation of stagnant moisture, may be readily calcu- 
 lated from the dimensions of the ditch. It may be safely 
 assumed that for each mile of road, at least half an acre of 
 surface is thus, on an average, misapplied. 
 
 328. The position of the main sewers of a town being 
 beneath and in the same direction as its streets, these 
 afford the proper channels for discharging the waste water and 
 all other matters from the surface of the streets. This doctrine 
 is liable to be challenged by all those practical economists 
 who contend that street debris is so injurious in its admix- 
 ture with the excrementitious matters flowing from a town, 
 that it should be scrupulously kept separate, and period- 
 ically removed by hand and horse labour above ground. 
 But if we take into the account, on one hand, the small pro- 
 portion which the solid part of this debris bears to the 
 total of solid and liquid excrements, house refuse, street 
 drainage, waters, &c., which are universally allowed to be 
 the proper subjects of sewer discharge, and, on the other, 
 form a due estimate of the inconvenience, expense, and 
 disgusting annoyance of removing this street refuse b^ 
 any expedient above ground, the result of the calculation 
 will lead, we think, irresistibly to the conviction that the 
 whole of these matters sl:/iild be by the readiest possible 
 
PROPORTION OF STREET-REFUSE. 103 
 
 methods delivered into the sewers, and by them conveyed 
 at once to receptacles suitable for their collection and 
 treatment. 
 
 329. The exact proportion between the solid street refuse 
 and the total of house-sewage and street-drainage (which 
 may be supposed to find its way unavoidable into the 
 sewers) is difficult to determine with any certainty ap- 
 proaching to exactness, but an approximate estimate may 
 be formed from such materials as we can command. The 
 excrementitious matters produced by each individual are 
 generally considered to amount to an annual quantity equal 
 to one ton in weight, and the other matters which are com- 
 prised in the total of house-sewage and street-drainage, 
 may be supposed equal to a similar quantity. We have 
 thus a total equal to iwo tons annually per head of the po- 
 pulation. Now, in the township of Manchester, of which 
 the population in 1841 was 104,000, the number of yards 
 of street-surface swept in the same year was 21,500,000, 
 and the number of loads of these sweepings removed 
 equalled 25,029, each of which is equal to a weight of one 
 ton. Assuming the proportion between the population and 
 street-surface of this township to be a fair average for most 
 towns, we have thus a total of house-sewage and street- 
 drainage equal to 164,000 x 2 = 328,000 tons, and a total 
 of street-sweepings equal to 25,029 tons, being V.th of the 
 former, or less than 7*7 per cent. This rough calculation 
 will be quite sufficient to show the small proportion in 
 which the manuring value of the sewage is liable to be 
 injured by the admixture with it of the street debris in the 
 common receptacles or sewers, and the consequent inadvi- 
 sability of engaging in the expensive operations of carting 
 and removing this debris by any combination of human 
 and animal labour. 
 
 330. Arrangements for the purpose of discharging the 
 street surface-drainage into any contiguous river or other 
 watercourse, instead of allowing it to mingle with the 
 sewage in the receiving wells- or receptacles to which they 
 
104 QUANTITY OF STREET-DEBRIS. 
 
 ire both conducted by the sewers, may, if thought neces- 
 sary, be provided as accessory apparatus in connection with 
 the wells, although it is highly probable that the growth of 
 our experience on this subject will develop preferable me- 
 thods of treating and disposing of these matters by subsi- 
 dence and chemical processes. 
 
 331. The amount of street debris, or the quantity remo- 
 vable from any extent of surface, is found to vary most ma- 
 terially, according to the structure of the street or roadway. 
 Thus, roads formed of broken granite or other similar ma- 
 terials are rapidly destroyed by the action of wet, which 
 loosens the superficial coating of the road, and passes into 
 the body of the materials ; the finer particles also become 
 washed upon the surface, and act as sand in grinding 
 it down, by the action of the wheels upon it. Paving 
 formed with stones of irregular shapes and sizes is also 
 productive of a large quantity of debris, although less than 
 the unpaved surfaces just referred to ; upon this inferior 
 class of paving, water acts destructively by washing up the 
 soil and dirt between the stones, by which they become 
 ioosened, while a great proportion of these interposed ma- 
 terials have to be removed as they appear upon the surface 
 in the form of mud. Pitch-paving formed with squared 
 blocks of granite, whin, or other stone of equal hardness 
 and durability set in lime grouting upon a substantial 
 foundation of concrete 9 to 18 in. in thickness, according 
 to the nature of the sub-stratum, forms the most permanent 
 construction for the carriage-ways of streets and thorough- 
 fares, and affords a correspondingly small proportion of 
 materials to be removed from the surface, in order to pre- 
 serve its cleanliness. Wood- paving yields the minimum of 
 debris, and its economy, as a subject for the labours of the 
 scavenger, at any rate, is thus very great, as compared even 
 with the most perfect form of stone-paving. 
 
 332. By making the sewers thus directly available for one 
 of their proper purposes, that of receiving the waste mat- 
 ters from the streets and thoroughfares, the operation of 
 
WH1TWOP.TH-S STKEET-CLEANSING MACHINE. 105 
 
 street-cleansing is reduced to mere sweeping of these mat- 
 ters to the side channels, which Should be constructed so as 
 to afford a ready passage for them to the sewers beneath. 
 The economy thus obtained by dispensing with the raising 
 and carting to distances sometimes extended may be inferred 
 from the fact, that the average expense of sweeping and 
 carting away the refuse of 1000 square yards (in Manches- 
 ter) in 1843 was 4s. 6d. This was performed by the ordi- 
 nary hand labourers or sweepers. In London, at the same 
 date, the mere sweeping up of the refuse from the surface of 
 Regent Street, and depositing it in the street in loads for 
 another process of removal, was charged at the rate of 
 Is. %d. per 1000 square yards, as executed by Whitworth's 
 patent machine. The mere sweeping may be liberally esti- 
 mated to cost 9d. for the same extent of surface, and 
 thus iths of the entire expense of street-cleansing might 
 be avoided by adopting the sewers for the purpose sug- 
 gested. 
 
 333. Although we advocate the abandonment of all appa- 
 ratus for carting and removing street-refuse, it may be use- 
 ful to describe briefly the " Patent Street-Cleansing Ma- 
 chine," invented by Mr. Joseph Whitworth, which has been 
 applied to a considerable extent in Manchester and else- 
 where, and been considered a very promising contrivance. 
 This will be best done by quoting the inventor's own 
 description of his machine, as rendered in evidence before 
 the " Commissioners of Inquiry into the State of Large 
 Towns and Populous Districts," in 1843. " The principle 
 of the invention consists in employing the rotary motion of 
 wheels moved by horse or other power, to raise the loose soil 
 from the surface of the ground, and deposit it in a vehicle 
 attached. The apparatus for this purpose consists of a 
 series of brooms suspended from a light frame of wrought 
 iron, hung behind a common cart, the body of which is 
 placed near the ground for greater facility in loading. As 
 the cart-wheels revolve, the brooms successively sweep the 
 surface of the ground, and carry the soil up an incline 
 
 v 3 
 
106 MAIN SEWERS. 
 
 or carrier-plate, at the top of which it falls into the body of 
 the cart. The apparatus is extremely simple in construc- 
 tion, and has no tendency to get out of order, nor is it 
 liable to material injury from accident. An indicator, 
 attached to the sweeping apparatus, shows the extent of 
 surface swept during the day, and acts as a useful check on 
 the driver. It also affords the opportunity of working the 
 machine over a given quantity of surface. The average 
 rate of effectual scavengering by hand in Manchester, taken 
 for a whole year, is from 1000 to 1500 square yards of sur- 
 face daily for each scavenger. The manner of sweeping is 
 different in London, and therefore an apparently larger 
 amount of work is done, but not so effectually. When the 
 machine is in operation, the horse going only 2 miles per 
 hour, it sweeps during that time 4000 square yards ; thus 
 performing in a quarter of an hour nearly the day's work 
 of one man. The average amount of surface which can 
 be swept by a machine during the day depends upon the 
 distance of the places of deposit. In Manchester we have 
 seven places of deposit, and the average number of yards 
 swept daily, by a machine drawn by one horse, is from 
 16,000 to 24,000." 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Main Sewers ; Proportions and Dimensions, Inclinations, Forms, and Con- 
 struction. Upper and Lower Connections. Means of Access and Cleans- 
 ing. Adaptation for Street-cleansing, &c. 
 
 334. In drainage, as in many other subjects, controversy 
 has frequently been found to be excited upon those very 
 details of the art which appear to be the most simple and 
 the most readily deducible from observation, while the 
 proper ground for discussion, in which it is really urgently 
 needed, in order to determine general principles and mark 
 out leading rules, has been left nearly or quite unoccupied. 
 Thus the forms, sizes, and thicknesses of sewers have re- 
 
FUNCTIONS OF SEWERS. 107 
 
 ceived the most elaborate investigation, and provoked the 
 expression of the most widely-differing opinions ; while the 
 principles of arrangement according to which the entire 
 system should be laid out, and the great questions of the 
 most healthful and economical disposal of the refuse of towns 
 have, till lately, remained unsought and unasked. Misled 
 by an instinctive adoption of the works of our forefathers, 
 we have been content to build our sewers in old channels, 
 and to put patch upon patch add length to length of slug- 
 gish sewer or practical cesspool, in order to maintain an- 
 cient outfalls, while the subsidiary details of form and 
 capacity have become the vexed questions and grounds of 
 issue among the most practised advisers. 
 
 335. Not that the attention given to the details, and the 
 neglect inflicted upon the general principles are here con- 
 trasted for the purpose of denying the importance of the 
 former, but that, had the principles been first determined, 
 the details would be found readily deducible from them in 
 a manner and with a certitude admitting little dispute or 
 discussion. 
 
 336. We have already, in the first section of this Divi- 
 sion, shown the general principles upon which the drainage 
 of towns should be arranged with reference to the inclina- 
 tions of surface, and the means of discharging and dispos- 
 ing of the sewage. From these principles it immediately 
 follows that the proper functions of sewers are twofold, and 
 twofold only, viz., the conveyance and collection of house- 
 drainage and of street-drainage. In the former are to be 
 included the drainings of roofs of buildings and of yards, 
 or other spaces attached to them. In these two purposes 
 is thus comprised the superficial drainage of each entire 
 town. Any attempt to add to this the drainage of the sub- 
 formation is a mistaken and a supejerogatory aim. This 
 position will be denied by those who advocate the wider- 
 drainage of London as one of the purposes of its sewerage. 
 Let us endeavour to understand the practical value of this 
 
108 FUNCTIONS OF SEWEKS. 
 
 purpose, and thence deduce the infinitely small amount 
 that would be mis-spent in any attempt to realise it. If 
 the proper functions of sewers be effectually discharged, 
 viz., the conveyance away from a town of all the rain-water 
 that falls upon its surface, and of all the solid and liquid 
 refuse produced in streets and buildings, what will be the 
 amount of submoisture which it can be necessary or de- 
 sirable to abstract in the form of land-drainage? The 
 entire surface being maintained constantly dry, the only 
 sources from which under-water can arise will be springs 
 or water-bearing strata beneath, and wherever these may 
 show themselves, they can be turned to good account, and 
 the water they yield "converted to useful purposes, without 
 making expensive provision for their drainage beneath. 
 Whatever relation the site of a town may have to the sur- 
 rounding country, that is to say, whether the town be above 
 or below the lands around, or be on a similar level, none of 
 the drainage-water from these lands should be permitted to 
 enter the town or to mingle with the soil beneath it. This 
 is to be effected by constructing around the town a system 
 of encircling catch-water drains, by which so much of the 
 surrounding drainage as would otherwise find its way into 
 the subsoil of the town will be intercepted and collected, 
 either to be returned by suitable channels to the rivers, 
 streams, and watercourses, to be made available in irriga- 
 ting adjacent districts, or diverted directly from the catch- 
 water drains into the main sewers of the town itself, and 
 disposed of with their contents. With this auxiliary ar- 
 rangement for preventing the access of surrounding drain- 
 age to the sub-formation of the town, all necessary provi- 
 sion for maintaining it in a dry and healthy condition will 
 be completed, and no necessity can possibly arise for con- 
 structing a duplicate system of sewers in order to drain 
 the subsoil of the town. With all due deference to official 
 experience, we venture to predict that, if ever tried, the 
 " system of permeable land-drains and sewers," as a scpa- 
 
DIMENSIONS OF SEWERS. 109 
 
 rate addition to the " system of permeable drains for house 
 and soil drainage," will be found as utterly useless in prac- 
 tice as it will be expensive in construction. 
 
 337. The proportions, dimensions, inclinations, forms, 
 and construction of main and all other sewers, are all more 
 or less affected and determinable by the general system of 
 drainage adopted. We will first cull from the mass of re- 
 corded experience at our command (up to the year 1843) 
 some detailed particulars of modes of construction (and 
 their cost), many of which have been found inefficient in 
 fulfilling the self discharge of the sewage matters of London 
 and other towns in England. 
 
 338. The experience in the city of London led the sur- 
 veyor to the Commissioners of Sewers to consider that the 
 form of a semicircular top and bottom, with straight (or 
 vertical) sides, "answered all the conditions of a sewer." 
 Nevertheless, many have been constructed of an oval form. 
 The smallest size in a long street is 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. 
 The other sizes are 5 ft. by 3 ft. ; but several are consider- 
 ably larger, where much water is expected to accrue from 
 the outer districts. The outlet for the main sewer at South 
 Place (Finsbury) is 6 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft. 6 in. The Fleet 
 sewer, which drains from the south-west of Hiyhgatc, is \Qft. 
 6 in. by 12/. at the mouth, and }%/t. 3 in. by lift. 7J in. at 
 the city boundary; and, owing to the immense quantity of 
 water flowing into it, " this sewer has often been surcharged" 
 The Eldon Street (Finsbury) sewer is 5 ft. by 3 ft. 2 in.; 
 the London Wall sewer is 6 ft. by 4 ft., and the main trunk 
 increases from 8 ft. 3 in. by 6 ft. 9 in. to 10 ft. by 8 ft. at 
 its mouth. For courts and alleys the sizes are 3 ft. by 2 ft. 
 2 in., and sometimes, according to the number of houses, 
 4 ft. by 2 ft. 4 in. The sewers 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. are 
 built in brickwork 14 in. in thickness throughout. Adapt- 
 ing the size of the smaller drains so as to admit a man to 
 pass through them, they should be at least 2 ft. in width, 
 and, to allow crawling through, 2 ft. 4 or 6 in. in height; to 
 allow his crouching through, 3 ft. 6 in.; or to stoop through, 
 
110 DIMENSIONS OF SEWERS. 
 
 4 ft. 6 in. The thickness of brickwork of these sewers 
 should not be less than 9 in., nor the depth from the 
 ground less than 12 ft. at the shallowest part, in order to 
 provide for the drainage of a basement story about 7 ft. 
 6 in. in height. Assuming 2 ft. 6 in. as the minimum 
 height for a common sewer, and allowing 20 in. of deposit 
 to exist in a public sewer before it can rise into the com- 
 mon sewers, the surveyor deduced a minimum height for 
 public sewers of 4 ft. 2 in. 
 
 339. In the Westminster Division of Sewers the level of 
 the outfalls into the river varies from 10 to 15 ft. below the 
 level of high-water mark, and some of them have flaps. 
 Some of the main sewers have a fall of only half an inch to 
 100 ft. The form of the sewers is that of a semicircular 
 arch at the top, and a segmental invert with upright sides. 
 The two sizes used are first class, 5 ft. 6 in. high and 3 ft. 
 wide ; and second-class, 5 ft. high and 2 ft. 6 in. wide. 
 The three centre courses of every invert are built in 
 cement, and the remainder of the work in Dorking lime- 
 mortar. The walls are 1 \ brick in thickness, and the arch 
 and invert 2 half-bricks, or 9 in. The cost for a sewer 3 ft 
 wide was. for the brickwork, 14s. 3d. per ft., and for a sewer 
 2 ft. 6 in. wide, 12s. Qd. 
 
 340. The sewers throughout the Holborn and Finsbury 
 Divisions discharge into the main sewers of the city of 
 London, and have no outfalls of their own into the Thames, 
 The Fleet sewer conveys the drainage of about 4444 square 
 acres of surface in those divisions, and is calculated to re- 
 ceive annually from this surface about 1 00,000 cube yards 
 of matter held in mechanical suspension, and carried to 
 the Thames by the force of such waters as flow through 
 the sewer. These waters, by the experiments of Mr. Roe, 
 having been found to amount to about 1 00 times the bulk 
 of the matters held in suspension by them, it follows, 
 that the Fleet sewer discharges from this surface about 
 10,000,000 of cube yards of sewage-water and suspended 
 matters into the river Thames annually. The total 
 
PROVINCIAL SEWERS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 work of this sewor comprises also the quantity it receives 
 from the surface of the city, after passing through the dis- 
 trict here referred to. A sewer carried up to Holloway, in 
 this division, a length of nearly 3 miles, passes under 
 Canonbury (Islington) at a depth of 68 ft. from the surface, 
 and the drainage of the houses in that part is provided for 
 by a subsidiary sewer. 
 
 341. Sewers constructed on the Kingston estate, through 
 a very soft clay, are built of an oval form, the largest size 
 being 3 ft. 6 in. high, and 2 ft. 6 in. wide, the radius of 
 the side curves about 3 ft. ; half a brick thick in cement 
 The extent of cutting was from 16 to 18 ft., and the cost 
 15s. per lineal foot. The fall at the rate of 80 ft. in a 
 quarter of a mile. 
 
 342. The practice in some of the provincial towns was 
 reported as follows : 
 
 Lancaster. Flag or slate bottom. 
 Rubblestone sides, laid in common 
 mortar. Rough stone covers. Mains 
 2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 4 in., 6s. per lineal 
 yard. Branch street drains, 1 ft. 4 in. 
 square, 4s. 6f/. ditto. Yard drains, 
 6 or 7 in. square, 2s. ditto. All found 
 to be very inefficient. 
 
 Nottingham. Brick. Cylindrical 
 sewers. Upper half built in mor- 
 tar. Lower half laid dry. Half- 
 brick thick. Diameter from 2 ft. to 
 2 ft. 6 in. Average cost 7s. per lineal 
 yard. 
 
 Birmingham and Walsall. 2 ft. cir- 
 cular culverts laid 5 ft. deep. 7s. per 
 lineal yard. 
 
 Chester. Circular brick drains from 30 to 36 in. diame- 
 ter. Average cost 12s. per lineal yard. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
112 
 
 PROVINCIAL SEWERS 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Bristol. Four sizes of ellip- 
 tical brick sewers. 
 
 Ft. in. Ft. in. 
 
 1st. .40x30 
 
 2nd. .33x26 
 
 3rd. .28x20 
 
 4th. .20x16 
 All 9 in. thick. 
 
 Cylindrical drains, 1 ft. 2 in. 
 in diameter internally, 7 in. 
 thick. 
 
 Rate of fall from 1 in 60 to 
 1 in 360. 
 
 Frome. -- Stone and lime 
 cheap and abundant. Drains or "gouts" 18 in. square, 
 covered with stone to take any weight, exclusive of digging; 
 2s. per lineal yard. 
 
 Culverts 2 ft. square, diy walls, with rubbed stone arch, 
 turned in good coal-ash mortar, exclusive of digging, 4s. Qd. 
 per lineal yard. 
 
 Swansea. Oval drains, 3ft. 2 in. x 2 ft., including exca- 
 vation, 10s. fid. per lineal yard. 
 
 Cylindrical drains, 2 ft. diameter, including excavation, 
 8s. per lineal yard. 
 
 Brecon. Cylindrical drains, 2 ft. diameter, cost 8s. per 
 lineal yard. 
 
 Square drains, side walls of dry masonry, with flat cover- 
 ing stone, from 3 to 4 in. thick. 
 
 Cost. 12 in. 2s. Qd. per lineal yard. 
 15 in. 3s. 3d. 
 
 1 8 in. 4s. 
 
 343. The egg-shaped or oviform section used in the Hoi- 
 bom and Finsbury divisions is shown in fig. 74, and the 
 section commonly used in the Westminster division, up to 
 the year 1843, is shown in fig. 75. The difference in ex- 
 pense between sewers of these sections has been estimated 
 at 1660Z. per mile, upon the following data. Brickwork at 
 
COMPARISON OF FORMS. 
 
 113 
 
 20s. per cube yard. Excavation Is per cube yard. Filling 
 in '3d per cube yard. Carting 2s. per cube yard. Remaking 
 
 Fig- 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 surface Is. 0(7. per superficial yard. Average depth of exca- 
 vation, 20 ft. The quantities per mile of each sewer are 
 shown in the following table ; the sixe of the egg-shaped 
 sewer being 5 ft. 3 in. by 3 ft. 6 in., arid that of the upright- 
 sided sewer 5 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 
 
 Finsbury, or Westminster, or 
 
 Egg-shaped Upright-sided 
 
 Sewer. Sewer. 
 
 Brkks consumed 924,140 1,378,080 
 
 Cube yards of brickwork . . 2,272 3,388 
 
 Do. do. of excavation . . 19,555 25,420 
 
 Excess in Westminster Sewer, per mile. 
 
 1116 cube yards of brickwork at 20s. . . 1116 
 
 5865 excavation at Is. . . 293 5 
 
 5865 filling-in at 3d. . . . 73 6 3 
 
 1116 carting at 2s. ... Ill 12 
 
 880 super yards repairing at Is. 6d. . . 66 
 
 Total 1660 3 3 
 
1 14 CAPACITY OF SEWERS. 
 
 344. One of the Westminster sewers, built in the Har 
 row Boad, according to the section, fig. 75, failed, owing, as 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 a leged, to some difficulties in the nature of the soil, and 
 tc imperfect workmanship. This was replaced by another 
 form of sewer, which is shown in fig. 76, in which the 
 shaded parts represent brickwork in cement, the invert and 
 springers being bedded in concrete as high as the 14-inch 
 work, as there shown. 
 
 345. The capacity of sewers is determined by a con 
 sideration jointly of the quantity of sewage to be conveyed 
 through them, and of the rate of inclination or fall in 
 their vertical position. The capacity will vary directly as 
 the quantity and inversely as the fall ; since the greater the 
 fall the more rapid will be the discharge. It has been usual 
 to prescribe another limitation as to the minimum capacity 
 of sewers, viz., that they shall at least, under all circum- 
 stances, be large enough for a man to pass along them. 
 The necessity for this allowance has arisen from the fact, 
 that sewers are found to require cleansing by hand-- that it 
 
CAPACITY OF SEWERS. 115 
 
 is utterly impossible to remove the accumulations which 
 are liable to occur within them by any other means, and 
 thus some 10, GOO/, has been annually expended in London 
 alone in an employment of a most disgusting and danger- 
 ous nature. We have no hesitation in saying, that, under a 
 thoroughly efficient and practicable system, no such process 
 could ever be needed, and, moreover, that if deemed desi- 
 rable for any possible purpose, it would apply only to the 
 principal sewers, the size of which would admit of it, aa 
 determined upon the joint data of quantity and fall alone 
 We will, therefore, dismiss this condition from the problem, 
 and study it upon the two data named. 
 
 346. Since the quantity of sewage due to any given ex 
 tent of surface will depend mainly upon the amount of 
 population to be served, it follows, that in an equalised 
 system aiming at an uniform size for the sewers of the 
 several classes, the points of collection or receiving wells 
 should be arranged at distances varying inversely as the 
 density of the population. Now, the maximum density of 
 the population of London is estimated at 243,000 to a 
 square mile. Let us suppose the drainage of one quarter 
 of a square mile of surface, populated to this extreme de- 
 gree of closeness, to be conveyed in one main sewer, and 
 endeavour to form a rough notion of the total quantity of 
 sewage which this sewer should be fitted to convey and dis- 
 charge. The entire bulk of sewage must consist chiefly of 
 the house-sewage and rain-water from the surface at least 
 the other constituents are of too insignificant an amount to 
 require notice in a merely approximate estimate. And 
 similarly the entire house-sewage may be assumed as equal 
 to the bulk of water delivered to the total population. We 
 have calculated, in Section II., on the supply of water 
 (par. 283), that 20 gallons are, or ough 1 to be, allowed to 
 each individual of the population per diem. The annual 
 quantity will, therefore, be 20 x 365 = 73,000 gallons, or 
 say 1200 cubic feet. The population of the square quarter 
 
116 CAPACITY OF SEWERS. 
 
 ci a mile being ', or about 60,000, this number 
 4 
 
 multiplied by 1200 cubic feet for each person will produce 
 72,000,000 as the annual quantity of sewage in cubic feet 
 arising from this population. To this is to be added the 
 bulk of the rain-water, which we will allow to amount to 
 24 inches, or 2 ft., in depth annually over the surface, and 
 that this quantity will be discharged into the sewer without 
 further diminution by evaporation. The total quantity to 
 be drained annually from the surface of the quarter of a 
 square mile will thus amount to 2640- x 2 = 13,539,200 
 cubic feet. Adding this, which we will call 13^ millions, to 
 the 72 millions of .house-sewage, we obtain a total of 85 1 
 millioris of cubic feet of sewage to be discharged per 
 annum from the surface of a square mile of the most 
 densely-populated part of the metropolis. If this annual 
 quantity were in a state of constant transition along the 
 sewer, and with equal velocity throughout, and the effect of 
 friction was for the moment disregarded, the proportion to 
 be passed per minute would be of course easily calculated, 
 being 85,500,000 divided by 525,600 (the number of 
 minutes in a year), or 162-66 cubic feet. Now a recorded fact 
 will be a more useful datum for our calculation here than 
 any elaborate investigation of velocities, friction, &c. ; and 
 we will, therefore, refer to the experiments of Mr. Eoe, 
 instituted for testing the value of the flushing system as 
 applied to sewers, and which showed that the sewage 
 passed through the river Fleet sewer with an average velo- 
 city of 83-47 ft. per minute ; the run of water being spread 
 over a surface 10 ft. in width, and the stream being only 
 10 in. in depth, the passage every minute, therefore, was 
 equal to 692'8 cube feet of sewage, and the friction in this 
 case being greater than if the same sectional area of water 
 had been accumulated in a cylindrical drain of smaller 
 diameter. The solid matters held in suspension by this 
 water amounted to the proportion of 1 in 96 of the bulk of 
 water, and consisted, as all sewage usually does, of decom- 
 
" STORM-WATERS. " 1 j 7 
 
 posed animal and vegetable matter, and detritus from 
 streets and roads. At this rate of transit, it appears that a 
 sectional area equal to two square feet would suffice to pass 
 the entire sewage of a thickly-populated area of a square 
 quarter of a mile, supposing the passage to be constant 
 and uniform, and the fall of the sewer and friction of the 
 sewage equal to that of the river Fleet sewer, on which the 
 experiments were made. 
 
 347. In modifying this result to provide for the difference 
 between the assumed and the real nature of the transit, we 
 will first admit that the bulk of the sewage, consisting of 
 that flowing from the houses, is delivered into the drains 
 during perhaps half the real time; that is, during 12 
 instead of 24 hours. The sewers will, therefore, be required 
 to discharge double the quantity estimated during each 
 alternate period of twelve hours, and during the intervening 
 periods of like extent to remain empty. We will, there- 
 fore, double the capacity, and 'allow four square feet of 
 transverse sectional area of main sewer for the drainage of 
 the given surface. 
 
 348. But we have another allowance to make ; we have 
 the " storm waters " to provide for, about which we have 
 heard so much, because occasionally, during the rainy 
 month of July, a smart shower is observed to cover a flat 
 street, or form ponds on the low side of an ill-formed road- 
 way. Let us estimate the allowance required for this phe- 
 nomenon, and infer the advisability of providing for it in 
 the sewers. We have seen that 24 inches in depth of rain 
 falling upon our selected spot will equal a total bulk of 1 3| 
 millions of cubic feet. We will suppose an extraordinary 
 case, viz. that some July day the whole quantity due to a 
 month (2 inches) falls in 20 minutes. Then, in order to 
 prevent any flooding of the thoroughfares, this quantity, 
 
 13,500,000 u* * < 
 
 equal to - _ = 1,125,000 cubic feet, will have to 
 
 be disposed of in 20 minutes. Assume that the velocity 
 produced by the pressure on the water will equal i 000 ft. 
 
118 
 
 DISPOSAL OF STORM-WATEBS. 
 
 per minute. What would be the capacity of the sewer 
 equal to discharge this rain-water as rapidly as it falls from 
 the clouds ? The quantity accruing per minute being 
 
 1,125,000 
 = 56,250 cubic feet, and the velocity equal to 
 
 1 000 cubic feet, the capacity of the sewer must be equal to 
 56^ square feet of transverse sectional area. Now, we have 
 found that an area of 4 ft. will suffice ordinarily for the 
 house-sewage. Is it desirable to increase the capacity of 
 our sewers fourteen fold in order to provide for an occasional 
 shower ? There can be no necessity to answer the query. 
 Economy of the most liberal disposition would not sanc- 
 tion any such arrangement. If the exact area of 4 ft. be 
 doubled, in order to make ample provision for all ordinary 
 contingencies, it will satisfy every reasonable requirement; 
 and then, by suitable inlets to the sewer, the deluge of 
 rain-waters will be prevented from overcharging it, and the 
 effects of the shower will disappear in some hour and a 
 half, and before any very serious mischief can be produced 
 by the water soaking into the subsoil through well-paved 
 streets and yards. 
 
 349. In proportion as the population is more extended, 
 the ratio of house-sewage to surface-sewage will of course 
 diminish, and vice versa ; but we believe that economy and 
 facility of drainage will be best promoted by limiting the 
 sum of population and area to each receiving well, so that 
 a transverse sectional area of 8 or 9 ft. shall suffice for the 
 main sewers. 
 
 350. In the suburban districts of a town, where compara- 
 tively large surfaces exist in gardens, and where, therefore, 
 the effect of allowing the " storm waters " to gather might 
 be productive of mischief by saturating the soil, the dimi- 
 nished amount of house-sewage will tend to make the 
 operation of the mains more effective in relieving the sur- 
 face, besides which, natural declivities will usually aid the 
 fall of the sewers ; and provision might frequently be made 
 at little cost for receiving the surface-water in auxiliary 
 
POSITION OF RECEPTACLES. 119 
 
 wells or receptacles in which it could be made available for 
 subsequent service in irrigation, without allowing it to bur- 
 den the main sewers of the district. 
 
 351. Having based our calculation as to the capacity of 
 main sewers upon an area of the maximum density of popu- 
 lation, we will, with the same view of providing for the 
 utmost necessities, consider the question of declivity or fall 
 as to be applied to that description of natural surface which 
 presents the greatest difficulties to the operation of any 
 system of sewage a perfect or dead level. The wells or 
 receptacles for the sewage being placed half a mile distant 
 from one another, so that the area drained into each of 
 them equals a square quarter of a mile (or each side 2640 ft, 
 long), half of this, or 1320 ft., may be taken as the length 
 of each of the main drains. The longest of the main 
 sewers thus measuring 1320 ft., the fall is to be computed 
 with reference to this length. We have seen that metropo- 
 litan sewer-practice has recognised a fall of half an inch in 
 JO ft, or 1 in 240, as sufficient for all the purposes of good 
 drainage. At this rate the fall due to 1320 ft. will be 5| ft. 
 But preferring to allow double this fall as proportionally 
 improving the system, by aiding the discharge, we should 
 require a fall of 1 1 ft. in our main sewers of the maximum 
 length. And preserving 5 ft. above the head of the main, 
 it would lie at a depth of 16 ft. at the well. This 5 ft. will 
 usually be found sufficient to allow all necessary fall in 
 house-drains and in branch sewers, to serve the superficial 
 draining of the intervening district. 
 
 352. The utmost economy of the system would be at- 
 tained by multiplying the main sewers as much as possible, 
 as by this means the length of the branches may be re- 
 duced to a considerable extent, and the necessary depth of 
 the mains also reduced correspondingly. On the other 
 hand, by sparing the main sewers, they are required to be 
 laid deeper, and the brandies also ; or, if depth be saved, 
 it, is at the expense of efficiency, and the whole system is 
 instantly filled with insuperable difficulties in vain attempts 
 
120 DEPTH OF SEWERS. 
 
 to reconcile the relative levels of an infinite number of 
 collateral sewers, and to adjust the details of the arrange- 
 ment to the minor variations of surface above. 
 
 353. In the depths we have assumed, as deduced from 
 the desirable rate of inclination for the main sewers, allow- 
 ance is not yet made for draining the basement stories of 
 the buildings. It must be confessed that this purpose 
 involves the greatest difficulty in the details of the system. 
 On the one hand, it is evident that the construction of 
 sewers as large as rivers, and at depths varying from 20 to 
 70 ft. below the surface, demands a most extravagant ex- 
 penditure at the outset, and, after all, puts the works in 
 positions which are practically inaccessible. Yet, on the 
 other hand, we shall be reminded that the deep basements 
 and kitchens must be provided for, and that our branch 
 sewers must be sunk low enough to serve even the lowest 
 of these. In order to provide for these, the main sewers 
 will need to be laid some 8 or 10 ft. lower than the depths 
 we have given, viz., 13 or 15 ft. at the head, and 24 or 26 ft 
 deep at the well. Rather than permit the evils caused by 
 sinking sewers at these depths, it will probably be prefer- 
 able to reduce the distance between the wells, or even 
 admit (although highly objectionable) some diminution in 
 the rate of fall. We are satisfied, however, that the fullest 
 investigation into this subject will establish the principle 
 that no sewage matters of any kind whatever should be allowed 
 to be discharged into a drain from any rooms or apartments 
 below the surface of the ground. The difficulties which would 
 attend any attempt to carry this principle into effect in 
 London and similarly ill-constructed cities, may be too for- 
 midable to be now encountered, but they must be over- 
 come before the sewerage of such towns can be reformed 
 upon the most efficient plan which our present knowledge 
 and experience suggest. 
 
 354. The dimensions of the branch sewers are to be 
 determined upon the same two elements of population and 
 surface to be served that we have referred to in estimating 
 
SIZE OF SEWERS. 121 
 
 the required capacity for the mains ; and, according to the 
 varying extent and proportion of these elements, a scale of 
 sizes may be determined for the several lengths, distances 
 apart, &c., of the branch sewers. 
 
 355. By the system of district collections here recom- 
 mended, one great difficulty felt in planning sewers for 
 concentrated discharge is at once obviated. In forming 
 sewers which are intended at the time to serve a certain 
 district, but which may hereafter be treated as trunks, and 
 called upon to discharge constant accessions of sewage 
 from an extending neighbourhood, no calculation can pos- 
 sibly be made as to the sufficiency or otherwise of the sec- 
 tion it is proposed to adopt. Thus, as truly remarked by 
 the Surveyor to the City Sewers Commission, " the sewer 
 from Moorfields to Holloway appears to measure upon the 
 map about three lineal miles. In process of time, and as 
 buildings increase, it may throw out branches m all direc- 
 tions, and the three miles may become thirty. Not only all 
 the atmospheric waters which may, upon an average, fall 
 within the valley south-eastward of Highgate (or at least a 
 large portion of them), but all the artificial supplies which 
 the wants of its yet future inhabitants, as well as of those 
 intermediate between Islington and Moorfields, may re- 
 quire, will have to be carried off by the City sewers." The 
 necessary consequence of which doubtful condition is, 
 either that the sewers are at first constructed in a most 
 extravagant manner as to dimensions and depth, or that 
 they are afterwards found to be utterly inadequate to their 
 increased duty, and have to be reconstructed at greater 
 depth and of enlarged capacity. Whereas, if district col- 
 lections are adopted, each main sewer is at once properly 
 devised as to size, form, and construction, and continues to 
 perform its services efficiently; and, PS new districts are 
 formed, each of them is provided with another system of 
 sewers adapted to its defined limits, and made sufficient 
 for all the work it will be ever expected to perform. 
 
 8~6, In the form of sewers two conditions have to be 
 
122 FORM OF SEWERS 
 
 fulfilled, viz. strength, as obtained with economy of cost, 
 and efficiency of action. A hollow channel embedded in the 
 subsoil is evidently liable to be presse'd upon and against 
 by the weight and bulk of the surrounding solid materials, 
 and it therefore becomes necessary that the form of this 
 channel be such as will enable it to resist effectually this 
 pressure from without. We all know that a curved form 
 of construction, in which the convex surface is opposed 
 against the pressure, is stronger in this way than a plane 
 surface, because the pressure applied to any point of the 
 convex surface is immediately distributed to all the surround- 
 ing points on that surface, and their combined resistance is 
 thus brought into action against the external force. And 
 since the complete co-operation of all parts of the surface 
 in resisting uniform pressure from the exterior is obtained 
 only when all those parts have a common centre, the circle 
 is the most perfect figure for this purposo. 
 
 857. But the pressure upon all parts of a sewer is not 
 uniform. The top of it will be subject to the entire weight 
 of the mass above it, minus only the friction and structural 
 tenacity by which that mass is prevented from moving 
 freely downward from the surrounding portions. The 
 sides of the sewer are pressed against by the soil with 
 forces inversely proportional to the tenacity of the material ; 
 that is to say, the less the tenacity or power of self-support, 
 the greater will be the pressure against the sewer. The 
 bottom of the sewer may be regarded as free from external 
 pressure, except such as is due to the resistance with which 
 the soil below meets the downward pressure exerted by 
 the sewer itself, and transmitted by it from the load 
 above. 
 
 358. The greatest pressure being thus vertically from 
 above, a form of uniform strength would require to act 
 with greater resistance in this direction. Hence an ellip- 
 tical form, the longest diameter being placed vertically, 
 would appear to answer the conditions better than a circle, 
 and is, doubtless, the least imperfect form that can be 
 
FOEM OF SEWEMS. 123 
 
 adopted. Practically it has been deemed desirable to com- 
 bine, as far as possible, a considerable capacity with the 
 means of making a reduced flow active in its passage 
 through the sewer; and these requirements appear to be 
 fulfilled by a form of section that differs from an ellipse in 
 having the upper curve of larger radius than the lower one, 
 resembling the outline of an egg standing on its smaller 
 end, and to which the name of egg-shaped, or oviform, has 
 therefore been applied. 
 
 359. The value of the curved bottom of reduced radius 
 depends upon the well-known law, that the passage of fluids 
 through channels is retarded by the friction between the 
 water and the surface of the channel with which it is in 
 contact. And it is an evident result of this law, that the 
 greater the surface of contact the greater the friction. 
 Hence any given bulk of water will flow the most rapidly 
 in that form of channel in which this surface of contact is 
 reduced to the minimum. The form necessary to fulfil this 
 condition is presented at once by the well-known geome- 
 trical principle, that the circle includes a greater area 
 within its perimeter than any other figure of equal peri- 
 meter. And as the necessity for aiding the flow by dimin- 
 ishing the friction occurs chiefly when only a small stream 
 exists within the sewer, it follows that the radius of cur- 
 vature should be proportionally reduced within practical 
 limits. 
 
 360. The exact proportion which the radii of the upper 
 and lower curves of the oviform section of sewer should 
 bear to each other, (adopting circular curves as preferable 
 in practice to elliptical or any indefinite curves,) would 
 depend on the precise average minimum of water to be 
 provided for, calculated jointly with the density and tena- 
 city of the soil, and the depth at which the sewer is laid. 
 As it is manifestly impossible to determine all these ele- 
 ments with exactness in evolving any general rule for the 
 proportions of the section, they may be disregarded, since 
 the main form is established by the conditions stated in 
 
J24 
 
 RULE FOB FORMING SEWERS. 
 
 paragraph 358, and a practical rule may be formed which 
 will be found to answer all real purposes. 
 
 361. In the forming of sewers, as in all works of a 
 similar class, which are often necessarily entrusted, to a 
 great extent, to the charge of workmen, who cannot be 
 expected to pay much attention to the refinements of 
 geometrical principles, simplicity is evidently an object of 
 the first importance. The proportions of the several curves 
 required in marking out the section and forming the 
 moulds and gauges to be used in constructing and testing 
 the work should be such as can be readily understood and 
 exactly remembered ; and in proportion as these rales are 
 observed in designing the form, will be the probability of 
 that form being preserved, and exactness attained in the 
 construction of the sewer.^ 
 
 362. In seeking this object we have worked out a diagram 
 of proportions, shown in fig. 77, that we can venture to 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
 recommend on the score of simplicity and sufficiency, 
 which we hope will be made evident by the figure and the 
 
RULE FOE FORMING SEWERS. 125 
 
 following description. In this section let the diameter AA, 
 of the upper semicircle ADA equal 1 ; that of the lower arc 
 BB will equal -5. The entire height of the section DF will 
 equal 1'5, and the radius CAA, of the side arcs AB (truly 
 tangential to the upper and lower arcs) will also equal 1-5. 
 The centres cc being upon the produced diameter of the 
 upper arc, that arc will equal a semicircle, and the lower 
 arc BB will equal 120, the points for the meeting of the 
 curves being at BB, found by drawing the radial lines, CB, 
 through the centre E of the lower arc. Suppose the greatest 
 diameter A A be determined at 3 ft, the several dimensions 
 will be thus : 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Diameter of upper arc 30 
 
 Do. of lower arc 16 
 
 Height of section 46 
 
 Radius of side arcs 46 
 
 And the area may be taken (as a very close approximation 
 to the truth) as equal to that of a semicircle of 3 ft. 
 diameter, added to the area of a circular segment whose 
 radius is 4 ft. 6 in., and versed sine 1 ft. 6 in. ; the area 
 thus given being in excess only the small space shown in 
 shaded lines at G. 
 
 363. The construction of sewers is varied according to 
 their size, and should be also considered with reference to 
 the economy with which different materials may be obtained 
 according to the locality of the district, and also the nature 
 of the soil in which the work is constructed. For the 
 smaller sewers the " glazed stone-ware " pipes are found 
 efficient substitutes for those built up of brickwork. They 
 have the advantages of being much more quickly laid than 
 the others can be built, and of presenting a very superior 
 surface for the rapid passage of the sewage. They are also 
 constructed in various forms of bends and junction pieces, 
 and thus afford the means of ensuring proper form in these 
 points. From their comparative thinness, pipes of this 
 kind afford a much larger capacity with a given quantity of 
 
126 STOJS'E-WAEE PIPE SEWEES. 
 
 excavation for laying them, than sewers formed of brick- 
 work, which, even for the smallest diameter, cannot be less 
 than half a brick, or 4^ in. .in thickness. In laying them 
 care must, of course, be taken with the joints, which are 
 formed by a socket on one end of each length of pipe in 
 which the plain end of the adjoining length is received. 
 The prices at which these pipes may be procured in 
 London are as follows : 
 
 Straight Tubes with Socket Joints. 
 
 La 3 ft. lengths . . . 
 
 Inches 
 Bore. 
 
 Price per 
 Lineal Foot. 
 s. d. 
 4 
 
 
 ... 3 . 
 
 5 
 
 2ft. . . . 
 
 . . . 4 . 
 
 . 6 
 
 
 ... 6 . 
 
 . 8 
 
 
 ... 9 . 
 
 1 U 
 
 
 
 2 
 . 1 10 
 
 
 ... 15 . 
 
 . 3 
 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 Diameter of 
 Bore. 
 
 Bends Each. 
 
 Junctions 
 Each. 
 
 Double Junc- 
 tions Each. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 . d. 
 
 t. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 8 
 
 4 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 8 
 
 9 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 12 
 
 5 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 7 
 
 Egg-shaped tubes are also prepared of t'-ie same material in 
 2 ft. lengths with socket joints, at the following prices 
 
 
 Size 
 
 Inside. 
 
 Price per 
 Lineal Foot. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 9 , 
 
 . 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 T_ 
 
PRICES OF SEWEES. J27 
 
 In Chester the following prices have been paid, including 
 excavation of the maximum depth of 12 ft. : 
 
 Inches. s. d. 
 
 42 x 32 . 11 per lineal yard, ordinary earth. 
 
 42 x 32 , 15 2 rock. 
 
 36 x 28 . 96 ordinary earth. 
 
 33 x 25 . 8 6 
 
 30 x 22 . 7 9 
 
 24 x 18 . 66 
 
 20 x 15 . 5 6 
 
 15 x 12 49 
 
 The stone-ware tubes may be manufactured with ample 
 strength for all purposes required in their application as 
 minor sewers. Some experiments, made with specimen 
 tubes of fire-clay at Glasgow, proved their power to resist 
 a pressure equal to that of a perpendicular column of water 
 900 ft. in height, being three times the pressure to which 
 it is found necessary to prove iron pipes used for the trans- 
 mission of water. Drain tubes of common clay are sup- 
 plied in Glasgow at the following prices : 
 
 s. d., 
 
 3 in. diameter ..06 per lineal yard. 
 6 - .09 
 
 9 ..10 
 
 12 ..13 
 
 18 ..20 
 
 Pipes of fire-clay at Glasgow, cost: 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4 in. diameter . 1 per lineal yard. 
 6 ..16 
 
 12 .23 
 
 Supplied in large quantities, it is presumed that all of 
 these prices for tubular drains would admit of considerable 
 reduction. The following estimates for works, as ordered 
 by the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers in the months 
 
128 PRICES OF PIPE SEWEES 
 
 of April and May, 1849, contain some useful figures as to 
 the cost of works oj this class : 
 
 Quantities. Localities. Estimated 
 
 Cost. 
 
 S. d. 
 
 245 ft. of 12 in. pipe "1 To be put down an open sewer in South- 
 sewer . . J ampton Street, Nine Elms, Surrey . 39 
 400 ft. of 9 in. and 1 To be put down in St. Mark's Road, 
 
 500 ft. of 12 in. . . J Kennington 131 5 
 
 485 ft. of 12 in. . . To be put down in James Street, Ken- 
 nington . 78 16 3 
 
 400 ft. of 9 in. and T To be put down on the south side of 
 
 415 ft. of 12 in. . . J Kennington Common 117 18 9 
 
 700 ft. of 4 in. . . To be put down on the north side of 
 
 Kennington Common 15 
 
 483ft. of sewer, 3 ft. T To be put down in the Wyndham 
 
 6 in. by 2 ft. 3 in. J Road, Camber well 157 
 
 95ft. of 18 in. pipe -| To be put down in Great Guildford 
 
 sewer . . . .J Street, Borough 28 10 
 
 135 ft. of 15 in 26 
 
 665 ft. of 9 in. . . In an open ditch 78 10 
 
 800 ft. of half-brick sewer, 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 3 in. and 158 ft. 
 
 of 12 in. pipe sewer 300 
 
 240 ft. of 9 in. 15 
 
 From these estimates the average costs of supplying 
 and laying the pipe sewers of several sizes appear to be as 
 follow : 
 
 s. d. 
 
 4 in .0 5*14 per foot. 
 
 9 in 13 
 
 12 in 33 
 
 15 in 3 10 ' 
 
 18 in 60 
 
 And of the egg-shaped sewer, half a brick thick, and 
 measuring 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 3 in., 6s. 10d. per foot. 
 
 364. In commonly good soils brick sewers may be con- 
 structed of a single half brick, or 4| in. in thickness, of 
 curved form, of considerable size. In the Finsbury division, 
 half brick egg-shaped sewers have been construoted, 4 ft. 
 6 in. by 2 ft. 9 in., and are found sufficient. Sewers of 
 
EGG-SHAPED SEWEKS. 129 
 
 these dimensions would be ample for the mains of properly 
 limited and defined districts. If the soil be of a loose and 
 uncertain character, it will be necessary to build them 9 in. 
 in thickness, or two half-brick rings. In the small curve 
 of the invert all brick-built sewers should be very carefully 
 constructed, the unavoidable interstices between the bricks 
 (if of the common square form) being filled in with pieces 
 of slate or tile, and the whole floated in with cement to 
 make it as one solid mass. If this be not honestly done 
 and carefully superintended, the action of the declivity will 
 be nullified by irregularities in the interior surface of the 
 waterway, and a liability created to the formation of bars 
 by the settlement of the solid portions of the sewage. 
 Egg-shaped sewers 3 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in., in an average 
 excavation of 15 ft., have been executed at a cost of about 
 14s. per lineal foot in the neighbourhood of London. 
 These sewers were built half a brick in thickness and in 
 cement throughout, and the cost included excavation and 
 refilling the soil. 
 
 365. Egg-shaped sewers formed according to the rule 
 given (362), built hah a brick in thickness and with inverts 
 in cement, in an average excavation of 10 ft., may be esti- 
 mated to cost per lineal foot as follow : 
 
 Ft. In. Ft. In. s. d. 
 
 Class 1.4 0x2 8 . 10 per lineal foot. 
 ,,2.36x24 86 
 
 ,,3.30x20. 70 
 ,,4.26x18 56 
 
 ,,5.20x14. 46 
 
 366. In forming the connections of drains with each 
 other, viz. those of the house drams with the branch drains 
 or sewers, and of these with the mains, through the several 
 classes of sizes which it may be necessary to adopt, two 
 rules should be in all cases imperatively insisted upon, 
 first, that all junctions shall be formed with curves, and of 
 as large radii as possible in the direction of the current ; 
 
 G 3 
 
130 CONSTRUCTION OF SEWEKS. 
 
 and, secondly, that wherever a minor drain discharges into 
 a larger one, the bed of the former shall be kept as much 
 as possible above that of the latter as the relative sizes of 
 the two sewers will admit 
 
 367. The importance of the first of these rules has 
 been long recognised and admits of proof, both theoretical 
 and practical. It is found that in a sewer of 2 ft. 6 in. in 
 width, a stream of water, flowing with a velocity equal to 
 250 ft. per minute, meets a resistance in suffering a change 
 of direction, the amount of which depends upon the direct- 
 ness with which that change is made ; the resistance occa- 
 sioned being three times as great by a right angle as by a 
 curve of 20 ft. radius, and double that produced by a curve 
 of 5 ft. radius. The resistance thus diminishes as the radius 
 of curvature of the junction is increased. The effect of junc- 
 tions in which considerable resistance is opposed to the free 
 passage of the sewage is, that the solid particles become 
 deposited, and, being left by the flowing water, they accu- 
 mulate until a bar is formed, which still further impedes 
 the progress of the sewage, and eventually arrests it alto- 
 gether. 
 
 368. The practical value of keeping the mouths of minor 
 sewers above the level of the bed of the mains into which 
 they discharge, arises from the prevention by this means of 
 a return of the sewage up the minor drains, supposing 
 a deficient declivity or any untoward circumstance should 
 produce a retrograde movement within the main. The 
 connection should also be formed in the most perfect 
 manner, so that the mingling of the currents shall not 
 have the effect of impeding either of them. The mouth 
 of the minor drain should be spread into a bell-form, and 
 the whole surface of the junction made solid and even with 
 good cement. 
 
 369. The upper connections of the minor sewers, viz 
 with the house drains, are small works, requiring the 
 greatest care and circumspection. They are frequently 
 disregarded and carelessly executed, because they appear 
 
CONNECTIONS OF SEWEKS. 131 
 
 individually trivial matters; and, moreover, are trouble- 
 some and tedious, and correspondingly expensive. But it 
 is clear that the efficiency of the entire arrangement of any 
 system of town drainage is primarily dependent upon the 
 completeness with which the individual drains of houses 
 convey the separate contributions of sewage into the minor 
 or branch drains. If these tributaries fail, the trunk of 
 course remains idle, and all care bestowed on the larger 
 works is thrown away. Supposing the house drains to be 
 formed with clay or stone-ware pipes, and the receiving 
 branch sewer to be of the same material, lengths of the 
 latter should be introduced at intervals having sockets into 
 which the ends of the house drains may be fitted. If the 
 branch sewer be of brickwork, the junction of the house 
 drains should be carefully made good with a ring of cement, 
 and the work nicely finished on the interior surface. It 
 will of course be necessary to lay these house drains and 
 branch sewers at the same time (if the latter are of brick- 
 work and not large enough to admit a workman), in order 
 to complete this work in the best manner. And as this is 
 not always convenient, the stone-ware pipes offer the great 
 advantage of jointing without any hand work inside the 
 branch, by simply laying the branch sewers with sufficient 
 socket outlet lengths at intervals, which may be communi- 
 cated with by house drains at any future time, the sockets 
 being temporarily plugged up with wood. 
 
 370. The lower ends of the main sewers will communi- 
 cate with the receiving wells, and should be well lipped 
 downwards to promote the ready discharge of the sewage 
 the moment it arrives at the mouth. These being principal 
 works, and few in number, are more likely to be well at- 
 tended to and carefully executed than the multiplied minor 
 connections. The wells, adapted in capacity to the quantity 
 of sewage they are intended to contain, will require sub- 
 stantial and sound work. Being in towns necessarily sunk 
 to some depth in the ground, the cylinder will be the best 
 form in which to construct them. Behind and around the 
 
132 ACCESS TO SEWERS 
 
 brickwork a backing of concrete sbould be filled in, the 
 excavation being made sufficiently large for this purpose, 
 and the whole interior surface should be lined with cement 
 or asphalte. If this be done it will not be necessary to 
 build the work in cement, although this would, perhaps, be 
 a wise additional precaution. Proper economy in this mat- 
 ter will be best arrived at by experiments, upon which an 
 adequate sum of money would be well expended before 
 extensive operations are commenced. 
 
 371. Means of access to the main sewers are best afforded 
 by side entrances, such as those which have been introduced 
 in the Holborn and Finsbury division for the purposes of 
 inspection and flushing. Although, if the entire system 
 were properly constructed, no necessity could occur for 
 artificial cleansing, it will be desirable to provide means of 
 getting at the interior of the main sewers at intervals, and 
 the side entrances referred to are well adapted for this pur- 
 pose. The side entrance consists of a vertical square or 
 rectangular aperture, formed in brickwork, and covered by 
 a hinged iron cover, fitted in the foot-pavement of the 
 street. This aperture is carried down to a level of about 
 2 ft. above the bed of the main sewer, and terminates in a 
 short passage or tunnel, which opens into the side of the 
 sewer. The vertical entrance is provided with hand-irons, 
 built into the wall, by which descent and ascent are ren- 
 dered easy. 
 
 372. We have already insisted on the necessity of so 
 arranging and constructing the sewers of a town that they 
 shall not require any cleansing by hand, and have denied 
 the condition of admitting workmen as an essential one in 
 determining the size of sewers. A sewer cannot be con- 
 sidered as properly constructed if it retain the matters 
 committed to it in a quiescent condition. It should act 
 simply as a place of passage, and instantly transfer the 
 sewage onward towards the receiving well. Failing in this 
 purpose, and containing all the solid matters in a con- 
 stantly-growing accumulation, the sewers of a town act as 
 
CLEANSING SEWERS 138 
 
 combined cesspools, and the several gully-holes serve as 
 the outlets for the escape into the atmosphere of some of 
 the deadly gases constantly engendering below. The ex- 
 pense of cleansing by hand is, moreover, an item of con- 
 siderable importance, although, of course, never incurred 
 until the subterranean nuisance becomes intolerable. In 
 the Holborn and Finsbury division, the cost of removing 
 the soil from the sewers provided with man holes is about 
 7s. per cubic yard, and from those without, 11s. per cubic 
 yard, including the expense of breaking the arch and 
 making it good again. 
 
 373. The method of cleansing the sewers in which 
 matter accumulates, by flushing water through them, was 
 practised to a great extent in the Holborn and Finsbury 
 division of sewers, and has been adopted by the New 
 Metropolitan Commission of Sewers. The principle of 
 this method consists simply in retaining the sewage water 
 for a period of time by flushing gates fitted in the- sewer, 
 and periodically admitting the accumulated water to pass 
 by opening the gates, and thus producing an artificial rush 
 sufficient to carry all accumulations before it. The relative 
 economy of the process, as practised in the Holborn and 
 Finsbury division, and, as compared with the hand clean- 
 sing, was stated as follows : 
 
 Washing away 6688 cubic yards of deposit by 
 board-dams (a process always performed 
 preparatory to fixing and using the flush- s. d. 
 ing apparatus) . . . 644 1 2 7 
 
 Putting inside entrances and flushing gates . 1293 
 
 1937 12 7 
 
 The cost of removing these 6688 cubic yards by hand 
 would have amounted to 2387/. The preliminary cleansing 
 and providing flushing apparatus were, therefore, effected 
 at a saving of 449Z. 7s. 6d. The current expenses of the 
 two methods are thus stated: 
 
134 FLUSHING SEWERS. 
 
 s. d. 
 Annual cost of cleansing 16 miles of sewers by 
 
 hand 326 17 
 
 Annual cost of cleansing 16 miles of sewers by 
 
 working flushing gates 106 
 
 Annual saving by flushing method 220 17 
 
 The cost of this method, as subsequently practised under 
 the New Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, has been 
 reported as being about one-third that of cleansing by 
 hand ; thus 22,400 ft. of sewers, in which the deposit varied 
 from 6 in. to 3 ft. 6 in. (in depth) were cleansed, and 3386 
 double loads washed away at an expense of 5001., which 
 process, under the old system, would have cost 16001. 
 
 374. The method of flushing is attended with one, and 
 that a very serious, evil consequence, and the mischief of 
 which is the greater in proportion to the force and velocity, 
 and corresponding efficiency of the process. This is, the 
 violent driving forward of the foul gases with which the 
 otherwise vacant portion of a sewer holding stagnant refuse 
 is usually filled. The flushing of the higher part of an 
 extended line of sewer is thus frequently productive of a 
 rising of these gases into the house-drains connected with 
 the lower portion of the sewer, and any imperfection in the 
 trapping of these admits the most noisome effluvia into the 
 houses, while the streets are always poisoned with the 
 gases thus driven up through the gratings and gully holes. 
 Sometimes, indeed, the flushing water is forced into the 
 house-drains, and, of course, occasions a total suspension 
 of the flow of the sewage in the reverse direction. Accord- 
 ingly, we find that the process of flushing has been dis- 
 continued during the warm season, the very time when 
 it is most needed as an artificial means of cleansing the 
 sewers. 
 
 375. For the efficient cleansing of the streets and 
 thoroughfares of a town two provisions are requisite, viz. 
 an abundant supply of water for occasional application, 
 
CLEANSING STUEETS. 135 
 
 when the self-supply of rain is suspended, and a complete 
 arrangement of sewers through which to discharge all the 
 surface-water when its purpose of cleansing has been ful- 
 filled. For the supply of water, the system of constant 
 supply affords the greatest facilities, giving an instant com- 
 mand of the required quantity. 
 
 376. It has been ascertained in London, that one ton of 
 water is sufficient to lay the dust over a surface of 600 
 square yards of gravel or macadamized roads, or of 400 
 square yards of granite paved streets. The average number 
 of days per annum in which it is found, from twenty years' 
 experience, to be necessary to apply water for this purpose, 
 is about 120. The common charge for this work is at the 
 rate of f d. per square yard for the season, the water being 
 applied only once per diem, or 50. per mile of a main road. 
 The common assessment per house for watering roads 
 twice a day is II. for the season. The cost of doing the 
 same work by means of jets, supplied from the main water- 
 pipes, is estimated at 5s. per house. At Nottingham, where 
 the constant service of water is rendered, a charge of Is. Qd. 
 per annum is made for a single street plug, by which some 
 of the proprietors of shops command a ready supply, at all 
 times, for watering the street in front of their own premises, 
 and often of the adjoining houses also. 
 
 377. The scouring effect of jets of water thrown upon 
 the surface of the streets is far greater than when merely 
 dropped or thrown from the perforated pipe of a water- 
 cart. A single jet, supplied with a force equal to throw the 
 water vertically upward to a height of fifty feet, will, directed 
 at an angle of 45, command an area of about 2000 square 
 yards, and this surface will be really cleansed by the pro- 
 cess, whereas the mere distribution of the water, without 
 pressure, wets without cleansing. The mud which is formed 
 on the surface of the streets, during certain states of the 
 weather, is well known to have an unctuous character, which 
 resists all cleansing action less vigorous than that of jets of 
 water under pressure. 
 
186 CONVEYANCE OF WATEU. 
 
 S78. The position of the main sewers beneath the streets 
 of a town affords ready means of directly discharging the 
 waste waters from their surface. The adaptation of the 
 sewers for this purpose requires inlets, at intervals, fitted 
 with iron gratings, by which large substances are prevented 
 from passing into the sewers. These inlets and gratings 
 being situated at the sides of the carriage-way, whrle the 
 sewer is beneath the middle of it, they communicate by 
 means of transverse drains or passages, which should be 
 formed with sufficient declivity to prevent any accumulation 
 of surface-water or road-sweepings beneath the gratings. 
 The naiTower the interstices between the bars of the grat- 
 ings are, the better. Very small spaces will suffice to admit 
 the water with great rapidity, and also the mud which is 
 formed upon the surface of the streets, and the narrow 
 spaces are useful in preventing the admission of these mat- 
 ters during heavy showers with a force which might endan- 
 ger the safety of the sewers. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Conveyance of Water. Piping, Aqueducts, Reservoirs. Pumping Appa- 
 ratus, Steam Draining and Pumping, &c. 
 
 379. For the conveyance of water from upper surfaces 
 and sources to towns, open channels, or aqueducts, some- 
 times afford cheaper means than the laying of piping be- 
 neath the surface of the ground. In supplying water from 
 these sources to some of the towns in Scotland, Mr. Thorn 
 has had occasion to construct several miles of aqueducts, 
 and in preference to adopting direct lines, which are com- 
 monly obtained at great cost in the necessary aqueduct 
 bridges for crossing valleys and other expensive works for 
 meeting the difficulties presented by the natural rugged- 
 ness of the country, Mr. Thorn designs his aqueducts by 
 winding along the slopes, however circuitous the course 
 thus involved, and descending only with such a fall as will 
 
NEW RIVER. ]37 
 
 allow the water to flow with a gentle current. Aqueducts 
 thus formed are simply artificial rivers, and the entire 
 expense is limited to that of constructing suitable banks 
 and bed for the channel. An aqueduct thus constructed 
 at Greenock, passes through very rugged ground, and has 
 cost not more than 400Z. per rnile. The New Eiver, by 
 which a large section of London is supplied with water 
 from the springs of Chadwell and Amwell, with an addi- 
 tional supply out of the river Lea, near Chadwell, in Hert- 
 fordshire, is a fine example of an aqueduct of this kind. 
 This channel, the enterprise of Sir Hugh Middleton, was 
 commenced in 1609, and completed in 1613. The direct 
 length between its extremities is about 20 miles, but its 
 actual length is 39 miles. The average annual quantity 
 supplied by this aqueduct is 614,087,768 cubic feet. De- 
 ducting from this the larger consumers and street-watering, 
 together about 33,529,400 cubic feet, the remaining 
 580,558,368 cubic feet per annum are equal to about 46J 
 cubic feet per tenement, supplied each alternate day. The 
 reservoirs, in which this supply is stored, are equal to con- 
 tain the quantity consumed in seven days, or 11,774,000 
 cubic feet. 
 
 380. The city of New York is partially supplied with 
 water from the Croton river by an aqueduct 40 miles in 
 length. The receiving reservoir of these works con- 
 tains 150,000,000 gallons, and the distributing reservoir 
 21,000,000 gallons. The supply is effected without either 
 pumps or water-wheels. An interesting work of this kind, 
 a suspension aqueduct, has been constructed for a canal 
 over the Alleghany river at Pittsburgh. This aqueduct 
 consists of seven spans of 160 ft. each, from centre to cen- 
 tre of pier. On the piers are pyranrds rising 5 ft. above 
 the level of the side walk and towing-path, and measuring 
 3 ft. by 5 ft. on the top, and 4 ft. by 6 ft. 6 in. at the base. 
 The two wire cables which support the structure are placed 
 one on each side. Each is 7 in. diameter, perfectly solid 
 and compact and constructed in one piece from shore to 
 
133 CBOTON AQUEDUCT. 
 
 shore, 1175 ft. long, of 1900 wires of | in. thickness. Each 
 wire is varnished separately, arid the whole cable has a 
 close, compact, and continuous wrapping of annealed wire 
 laid on by machinery. Transverse beams of timber, 27 ft. 
 long, and 16x6 in., are placed in pairs at 4 ft. apart. 
 Each pair of these beams is supported on each side of the 
 aqueduct with a double stirrup of 1| in. round iron, 
 mounted on a small saddle of cast iron, which rests on the 
 cable. Into these beams, wooden posts 7 x 7 in. at top, 
 and 7 x by 14 in. at bottom, are mortised. These posts 
 are the side supports of the water- trunk, which is of wood, 
 1140 ft. in length, 14 ft. wide at bottom, and 16J ft. wide 
 at top, and 8| ft. deep. The sides and bottom are com- 
 posed of a double course of 2| in. white pine, placed so 
 that each .course crosses the other diagonally at a right 
 angle. The extremities of the cables do not extend below the 
 ground, but are connected with anchor-chains which, in 
 curved lines, pass through the masonry of the abutments. 
 The bars of these chains average 1J x 4 in., and from 
 4 to 12 ft. in length. They are formed of boiler scrap 
 iron, and forged in single pieces without welds. The ex- 
 treme links are anchored to cast-iron plates 6 ft. square. 
 The total length of each cable and its chains is 1283 ft., 
 and the weight of both cables 110 tons. The weight of 
 water in each span (4 ft. deep in the trough) is 295 tons. 
 The total solid section of anchor chains is 72 superficial 
 inches. Deflection of chains, 14 ft. 6 in. Elevation of 
 pyramids above piers, 16 ft. 6 in. The tension of each 
 wire is 206 Ibs., while its ultimate strength will be 
 HOOlbs. 
 
 381. Cast-iron pipes are now universally employed for 
 the conveyance of water. They are formed with socket 
 ends, so that all necessary motion is permitted according to 
 the expansion and contraction of the metal, caused by va- 
 riations of temperature. Until the commencement of the 
 present century all the water supplied by companies to 
 London was conveyed in pipes bored out of elm, and at 
 
WATEB-PIPES. 139 
 
 that time the New Biver Company had 400 miles of these 
 wooden pipes in use. The general use of water-closets 
 among the higher class of tenants, about the year 1809, led 
 to the projection of new companies, who undertook to meet 
 the growing want of water-supply at high service, by the 
 use of steam power and iron pipes, a duty for which the 
 old wooden pipes were inadequate. The bore of the 
 wooden mains was from 6 to 7 in., and of the service pipes 
 3 in. The principal iron mains now vary from 12 to 30 in. 
 in diameter ; the sub-mains are 6 and 7 in., and the service 
 pipes usually 4 in. The interior of the cast-iron pipes 
 used for conveying water should be coated with a prepa- 
 ration of lime-water, to prevent corrosion and the conse- 
 quent injurious effect upon the quality and flavour of the 
 water. 
 
 382. Several methods have been adopted for forming the 
 joints of iron water-pipes. Originally they were formed 
 with flanges screwed together, but these were rapidly de- 
 stroyed by the variations in the total length of piping pro- 
 duced by changes in temperature. Socket joints were then 
 introduced, the joining parts being so formed that an annu- 
 lar space is left within the socket, and outside the entering 
 pipe, for a ring of solder to be poured in, for the purpose 
 of making the joint water-tight. An improvement has been 
 effected in this kind of joint, by making the parts to fit 
 each other, and turning them accurately to a conical form 
 so that a water-tight joint is produced without any stuffing 
 or packing of any kind, a little whiting and tallow only 
 being used to assist the close adhesion of the parts. This 
 kind of joint is so perfect that it has been adopted inform- 
 ing the joints of a steam-engine suction pipe, 30 in. in dia- 
 meter, with perfect success. Wooden plugs of suitable 
 taper form have also been successfully and economically 
 applied for forming the socket joints of water-pipes pre- 
 pared with an annular space, in which they are driven. 
 
 383 The weights of cast-iron pipes, as applied for 
 
140 
 
 SIZE AND WEIGHT OF WATEE-PIPES. 
 
 water-supply, are as follows, according to the size or diame- 
 ter of the bore. 
 
 In. 
 
 3 diameter of bore 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 36 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 qrs. Ibs. 
 
 ore . . .0 
 
 3 14^ 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 14 
 
 > . 
 
 .... 1 
 
 3 
 
 It 
 
 . . . . 2 
 
 2 
 
 S* 4> 
 
 . . . . 3 
 
 .0 
 
 ,g.s 
 
 .... 4 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 .... 4 
 
 2 
 
 *o ^ 
 
 . 6 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 .... 12 
 .... 34 
 
 2 j|S 
 OJ 
 
 384. In determining the proper size for pipes, according 
 to the quantity to be conveyed, the following formula has 
 been employed 
 
 -1 */f}= 
 15V * 
 
 d, 
 
 in which q represents the number of gallons to be delivered 
 per hour, I the length of the pipe in yards, h the head in 
 feet, and d the diameter of the pipe in inches. In applying 
 this formula, Mr. Hawksley, Engineer to the Trent Water- 
 W r orks Company, calculates that for supplying a street of 
 600 yards in length, the total length should be divided into 
 three spaces of 200 yards each, and the quantity allowed 
 for each of these spaces should be respectively as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Gallons per diem. 
 
 Final 200 yards . > . . 13,000 
 Middle 200 yards, 11,000 + 13,000 = 24,000 
 First 200 yards, 8,000 + 24,000 = 32,000 
 
 The calculation also assumes that the delivery of these 
 entire quantities will take place in four hours, and that the 
 whole of the water taken off from each length has to be 
 passed to the end of that length. The delivery of these 
 quantities respectively will require, according to the formula 
 quoted, pipes of the following sizes : 
 
COST OF PUMPING ]41 
 
 Inches. 
 
 For the first 200 yards . , .5-2 diameter. 
 
 middle 200 yards . . 4'5 
 final 200 yards 4 . . 3'6 
 Adding about half an inch to each of these for possible 
 contraction by corrosion, the practical diameters become 
 6 in., 5 in., and 4 in. respectively. The difference in 
 the size of pipes needed for the intermittent and the con- 
 stant supply systems is exhibited in the following com- 
 parative statement : 
 
 Periodical Constant 
 
 Supply. Supply. 
 
 Mains , 20 in. diameter . 12 in. diameter. 
 
 , . 7 . 5 
 
 . . 6 .4 
 
 Service pipes 3 ., 2 
 
 385. Of the cost of raising water with pumps worked 
 by steam-engines exaggerated conceptions are frequently 
 formed, and it is therefore desirable to collect the best 
 evidence on this subject, from which it appears that this 
 cost is really an insignificant item, when the expense of the 
 power is fairly compared with the quantity of water raised, 
 as appears from the table of results (page 143), as stated by 
 Mr. Wicksteed : In all these cases the coals are taken at 
 12s. per ton, and all charges for working the engine, coals, 
 labour, and stores, are included, but no charge is allowed 
 for interest upon outlay, or repairs of machinery and .build- 
 ings. To raise 160,000,000 of gallons 100 ft. high would 
 cost according to the 
 
 1st statement .... 362 
 2nd . 238 
 
 3rd . . 222 
 
 4th . . 100 
 
 386. Of the performance of Taylors pumping engine, 
 in use at the United Mines, the late Mr. Farey made the fol- 
 lowing computation : The average duty performed by this 
 engine during the years 1841 and 1842 was equal to the 
 
142 COST OF PUMPING. 
 
 raising of 95f millions pounds weight of water, 1 foot high, 
 by the combustion of 1 bushel of coal. Each bushel of 
 coal weighs about 94 Ibs., therefore each Ib. of coal con- 
 sumed by Taylor's engine raises 1,000,000 Ibs. of water 
 1 ft. high. The unit of horse-power adopted by Mr. Watt, 
 viz. a force equal to 33,000 Ibs., acting through a space of 
 1 ft. per minute, is found to be half as much more as the 
 average performance of a good draught horse working 
 8 hours a day and 6 days a week. A steam engine which 
 raises 94,000,000 per bushel (as Taylor's engine does) con- 
 sumes only I '98 Ibs. of coal per hour for each horse power 
 which it exerts independently of overcoming its own fric- 
 tion, and that of the pumps That is, when it exerts a 
 power equal to that of 100 horses, it consumes only 198 Ibs. 
 of coal per hour. 
 
 387. Mr. Hawksley has furnished a compendious state- 
 ment of his experience in raising and conveyance of water 
 for the town of Nottingham, to this effect : " The cost of 
 transmitting water to a distance of 5 miles, and to a height 
 of 200 ft., including wear and tear of pumping machinery, 
 fuel, labour, interest of capital invested in pipes, reservoirs, 
 engines, &c., amounts to about %^d. per ton." The same 
 gentleman calculates the resistance from friction in convey- 
 ing water in pipes according to the formula 
 
 n = 
 
 140 ff 
 
 in which p represents the horse-power necessary to over- 
 come the friction, I the length of the pipe in inches, q the 
 quantity of water to be delivered in one second in gallons, 
 and d the diameter of the pipe in inches. For the trans- 
 mission of 500 gallons of water per second, two mains, 
 each of 60 in. diameter, would be required, and the resist- 
 ance arising from friction in these mains, 25 miles long, 
 would, according to this formula, require about 450-horse 
 power. The power required to raise this quantity to a re- 
 servoir at a height of 220 ft. would amount to that of 2000 
 horses nominally. The total power required to raise and 
 
TABLE OF RESULTS 
 
 143 
 
 transmit a distance of 25 miles, through pipes, 500 gallons 
 of water per second would thus equal, that of 2450 horses. 
 These figures are sufficient to show that the cost of raising 
 and transmitting water by steam power is so small in pro- 
 portion to the quantity of water thus placed at our com- 
 mand, that a pure but distant source may generally be eco- 
 nomically applied in preference to supplying an inferior 
 quality of water from more proximate sources. 
 
 Description of Engines. 
 
 Quantity of 
 Water Raised 
 per Diem. 
 
 Height 
 to which 
 the 
 Water is 
 Raised. 
 
 Cost of 
 Raising 
 KM X) Gal- 
 lons 100 
 Feet 
 High. 
 
 No. of 
 Gallons 
 Raised 100 
 Feet High 
 for One 
 Penny. 
 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 1. A single pumping engine,"^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 by Boulton and Watt, in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1809, working 10 hours 
 
 > 
 
 612,360 
 
 100 
 
 543 
 
 22,099 
 
 per diem, 6 days per week, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mean power 29^ horses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Average of 2 years' working.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. Two single pumping en^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gines, by Boulton and Watt, 
 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 
 in 1809, working 24 hours 
 per diem, 7 days per week, 
 
 
 2,922,480 
 
 90 
 
 358 
 
 33^19 
 
 me;in power of each engine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 horses . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Average of 10 years' working.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Two single pumping en^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gines, by Boulton and Watt, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 one in 1816, and one in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828, working 12 hours 
 
 > 
 
 3,601,116 
 
 100 
 
 333 
 
 36,036 
 
 per diem, 7 days per week, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mean power of each en- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gine 76 horses . . . .J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Average of 10 years' working.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 4. One single pumping en-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gine, by Harvey and Co., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 upon the expansive prin- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ciple, in 1837, working 24 
 hours per diem, 7 days per 
 
 > 
 
 4,107,816 
 
 110 
 
 150 
 
 80,000 
 
 week, mean power 95| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 horses .... j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Average of 4 years' working.) 
 
 
 
 
 
DIVISION III. 
 
 DKAINAGE OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 Classification of Buildings. 
 
 388. THE principal classes of buildings, as subjects for 
 water-supply and drainage, are 1, Dwellings ; 2, Manufac- 
 tories ; and 3, Public Buildings. Each of these admits of 
 several subdivisions, which should be briefly enumerated, 
 in order to indicate the extent to which they are recipients 
 of pure water and contributors of refuse matters to the sum 
 total of town sewage 
 
 389. Dwellings are to be sub-classified according to the 
 superficial area which they occupy, and the average number 
 of i^sidents whom they accommodate, and the arrange- 
 ments to be provided for the joint purposes of supplying 
 water and discharging sewage are required to be propor- 
 tional to these two data combined. Upon the extent of 
 area the quantity of rain water will depend, and this has to 
 be entered in the account in two ways, first, as affording an 
 integral portion of the supply, and secondly, as contributing 
 to the sum of the sewage. The principal datum will be the 
 number of persons for whom water is required in each 
 dwelling, and each of whom will yield an average share of 
 the refuse to be removed. The calculations of Water Com- 
 panies are usually based upon the rental paid for each house 
 as an index to the consumption of water within it, and in 
 this way they recognise an almost infinite number of 
 classes. It is clear, however, that the mere rental fur- 
 nishes no exact criterion of the number of occupants of a 
 house. Nor would the number of rooms in a dwelling 
 
SUPPLY OF WATER TO DWELLINGS '145 
 
 show this with much more accuracy. On the contrary, it 
 is well known that houses of small rental and compara- 
 tively few apartments are frequently receptacles of a greater 
 number of human beings than the more costly and capa- 
 cious habitations of the wealthy classes. Nevertheless, it 
 is a fact, that, with the present habits of the poorer sections 
 of the population, the rental is generally in approximate 
 proportion to the quantity of water consumed, a fact to be 
 accounted for only upon the recognised and deplorable 
 principle that poverty and uncleanliness are mutual ex- 
 ponents and companions in the social condition of civi- 
 lised beings. 
 
 390. We have estimated (283) 20 gallons as the average 
 daily quantity for each inhabitant of a town, and have sup- 
 posed this quantity to be sufficient to allow also for an or- 
 dinary proportion of manufacturing operations, for the sup- 
 ply of public buildings, and for the extinction of fires (284). 
 This estimate is founded upon the experience had in several 
 towns in which the supply is considered adequate. Reserv- 
 ing the details of the appropriation of this quantity for the 
 next section, we now refer to this general estimate as the 
 datum upon which the proper supply of water to dwelling- 
 houses should be provided, and as being at least approxi- 
 mately correct, if the service be constant, and proper in- 
 ducements be offered to all classes to cultivate habits of 
 cleanliness. We would, therefore, subdivide the First Class 
 of Buildings or Dwellings according to the average number 
 of occupants of each, and provide the means of water-sup- 
 ply and drainage accordingly. 
 
 391. The Second Class of Buildings, or Manufactories, 
 including all consumers beyond households, admits ot a 
 subdivision according to the operatiors carried on. Che- 
 mical works, including those for dyeing, calico-printing, 
 &c. , rank high as consumers of water. Factories for the 
 making of paper, distilleries, breweries, bakehouses, malt- 
 ing-rooms, slaughter-houses, stables, &c., also consume 
 large quantities. Steam-engines are among the wholesale 
 
 H 
 
146 SUPPLY OF WATER TO MANUFACTORIES. 
 
 consumers. The charges made by the Nottingham Trent 
 Water- Works Company are worth quoting in reference to 
 the consumption of water, as their supply is constant, a.nu 
 provides for high-service, the two essential conditions of a 
 complete water-supply. The charges for house service ^ac- 
 cording to rental, varying from 51. to 100Z.) are from bs. to 
 60s. annually, being 10s. for Wl. rental ; 20s. for 23J. or 'Ml. 
 rental; 30s. for 39/. or 40Z. rental; 42s. for 60Z. rental; 60s. 
 for a rental from 711. to 75Z.; and 60s. for 100Z. rental. The 
 incidental charges are as follow : 
 
 .*. d. 
 Stable and one horse 40 
 
 Stable and more than one horse, for each horse . . . .26 
 
 Cows, each 16 
 
 Warehouses upwards from 50 
 
 Offices 50 
 
 Gardens 26 
 
 Private baths in dwelling-houses 10 
 
 Slaughter-houses 50 
 
 Water-closets in private houses .... --. . .10 
 
 Water-closets in warehouses, &c. . . ... , ... . . 20 
 
 Victuallers' brewhouses, two brewings per week . . . . 20 
 
 Ditto ditto, less than twice per week. : ' : . -.16 
 
 Pipe for watering street in front of private house . '. ' ;.'- . 7 
 Boilers of high-pressure steam-engines, working 10 hours per day, 
 
 pe horse power . , . t ,,..j ; . ... . . .90 
 
 Lace-ftressing rooms, per yard in length, single frames . . .09 
 Ditto ditto, double frames . . . ' . '.."' . 1 
 
 Bakehouses 5s. to 8 
 
 Malt-rooms, per quarter of malt contained in steeping cistern . .26 
 Water consumed in erection of new buildings, per yard superficial 
 
 on plan of each story . . . . . . . .01 
 
 Water consumed in erection of fence walls, per yard superficial . OJ 
 Mill-hands, for drinking and washing only, per individual em- 
 ployed 03 
 
 Workhouses, including baths and washing rooms, per individual on 
 
 the average of the whole year . . . . . . .08 
 
 The supplies to dyers, &c., are estimated and charged lor 
 according to the size of the service pipes, by the folio 
 
SUPPLY OF \VATEB TO PUBIJC BUILDINGS. 
 
 
 Estima 
 
 ted 
 
 
 Supply. 
 
 Charge. 
 
 Inches. 
 1 
 
 Gallons. 
 50,000 
 
 8. d. 
 
 1 10 1 
 
 4 . . 
 
 100,000 
 
 2 12 
 
 J. . 
 
 200,000 
 
 4 12 
 
 1 
 
 300,000 
 400,000 
 
 6 10 
 860 
 
 11 . 
 
 500 000 
 
 10 
 
 ii . . . r . . . 
 
 1 and 1 in. 
 H and 1 .. 
 
 600,000 
 700,000 
 800,000 
 
 11 12 
 13 2 
 14 10 
 
 landlj,, 
 l| and 1 
 li andl,, 
 
 900,000 
 1,000,000 
 2,000,000 
 
 15 16 
 17 
 32 
 
 Uandl*,, . 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 45 
 
 The waste water from condensing steam-engines of 500- 
 horse power in the aggregate will amount to at least 1500 
 gallons per minute, or 3 gallons per minute per horse 
 power. 
 
 392. Public buildings requiring constant service are to be 
 divided according to the number of residents or persons to 
 be supplied. Thus, union workhouses, prisons, lunatic 
 asylums, &c., are to be provided at the minimum rate of 
 20 gallons per diem for each occupant. Baths and wash- 
 houses require quantities in proportion to the maximum 
 number of bathers and washers. Churches, theatres, and 
 other places of public congregation are to be supplied for 
 cleansing purposes according to the cubic contents of each 
 building. In the baths, it may be estimated that a bulk of 
 water measuring 6 ft. in length by 1 J ft. in width, and 1 ft. 
 in depth will suffice foi>the ablution of each person. This 
 quantity of water will equal 9 cubic ft., or about 54 gallons. 
 The cost of supplying ]000 gallons by the Nottingham 
 Trent Water- Works Company is, as we have seen (para- 
 graph 319) 2'88/., or nearly 3</., and, as this quantity will 
 be adequate to supply about 19 baths, the expense of water 
 
 H 3 
 
M8 EXPENSE OF BATHS. 
 
 per bath will be something less than one-sixth of a penny. 
 The expense of fuel for heating 100 hogsheads of water 
 sufficient for 100 of these baths from a medium temper- 
 ature of 52 to 98, including the replacing of heat lost by 
 radiation, evaporation, and conduction, may be taken at 
 about 540 Ibs. of Newcastle coal, which at London prices 
 may be averaged to cost 6s. The cost of heating each bath 
 will thus amount to about *75rf., and including the water, 
 916rf., or less than Id. If as much more be added for 
 attendance, and a similar amount for interest on capital in 
 building, and for incidentals, it appears that a hot bath may 
 be well afforded at a charge of 3d. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Supply of Water Levels. Constant Service. Quantity required. Cisterns. 
 Reservoirs. Filters. Valves and Apparatus. Piping, &c., &c. 
 
 393. The relative levels at which water is required to be 
 supplied to buildings in a town will necessarily govern tha 
 height to which the main quantity must first be raised. But, 
 practically, as the entire arrangements of the supply should 
 be devised to command delivery at and above the most ele- 
 vated of the buildings, the heights at which the delivery 
 actually occurs will be found to affect only the current cost 
 of raising, or the duty to be exacted from the power em- 
 ployed. And if this power be derived from steam-engines, 
 its cost will appear to be insignificant in comparison to the 
 space through which the water is raised. The expense of 
 raising 1000 gallons to an average height of 80 ft. is found 
 by the Trent Company to be, excluding interest on capital, 
 less than l^d., and the cost, according to Mr. Wicksteed's 
 Table of Kesults (page 143), of raising 1000 gallons to a 
 height of 100 ft. with a single pumping engine on the ex- 
 pansive principle, excluding interest on capital and repairs 
 of machinery, is less than one-bixth of ld. t or I6d. Al 
 
CONSTANT SERVICE OF WATER. 149 
 
 though he first cost of engines and pumping machinery of 
 this class is very heavy, it will be a liberal allowance to ba- 
 lance this with the remaining -85d., and we shall tluai have 
 an average current cost of Id. for raising 1000 gallons to 
 an elevation of 100 feet. From this it will be readily in- 
 ferred how small a difference will arise from diminish- 
 ing or increasing this height to the extent of 20, 50, or 
 100 ft. 
 
 394. The necessity for constant service, great as it is in 
 all buildings, is still more imperative in supplying those of 
 which the demand is of a variable character. In certain 
 seasons, when the occasion for repeated bathing of persons 
 and cleansing of apartments is greatest, these duties require 
 a much larger quantity of water than will suffice at other 
 periods, and this demand of course increases in the same 
 ratio with the number of persons and apartments to be 
 supplied. Thus workhouses, prisons, and all public asy- 
 lums vary considerably from time to time in the quantity 
 of water required, and all methods of supply, short of con- 
 stant service, and all provision for storage, fail in one way 
 or another in securing the constant and unlimited command 
 of fresh and pure water. Thus, house-tanks, cisterns, and 
 reservoirs, however capacious and well designed, serve to 
 receive only limited quantities ; and if these be ample for all 
 purposes, it follows that if the consumption be lessened the 
 greater quantity of water will remain in a stagnant condi- 
 tion, to be added to but not replaced by the next delivery 
 from the main. The lower body of water in the cistern 
 will thus remain slightly changed, and stirred up only, and 
 in this way a lower bed of impure water, surcharged and 
 rendered heavy with deposited matters, gradually accumu- 
 lates, suffering a slow diminution by the proportion of im- 
 purity which it imparts to each portion drawn off for imme- 
 diate use. Pure or fresh water is, by this arrangement, put 
 altogether out of the question. 
 
 395. In large public asylums, properly constructed, ar- 
 rangements would be made for supplying a bath at least 
 
150 PRIVATE FILTERING. 
 
 once a week for every inmate. For this purpose an institu- 
 tion having 1000 residents would require weekly 54,000 
 gallons, or about 6000 cubic ft. of water. And if the 
 supply be derived by a daily delivery, and the bathing be 
 divided equally over 6 days in the week, a tank to hold the 
 quantity for bathing only must have a capacity equal to 
 1000 cubic feet, or of the minimum dimensions of 20 ft. in 
 length by 10 ft. in width, and 5 ft. in depth. The other 
 purposes of cleansing would require (allowing 20 gallons 
 per diem for each individual) 66,000 gallons weekly, or 
 11,000 gallons daily, and a tank to be daily emptied and 
 refilled of the capacity of about 2000 ft., or measuring say 
 20 ft. in width and length, and 5 ft. in depth. For con- 
 tingencies, provision should be made for about half this 
 'quantity in addition, and thus the entire capacity of the 
 tanks should equal 4000 cubic ft., or dimensions of 80 ft. 
 in length by 10 in width and 5 in depth. And if the con- 
 sumption one day be reduced one-fourth, and the tanks be 
 not emptied before the fresh delivery, which it is practically 
 impossible to effect, this quantity of stale water will re- 
 main in the lower part of the tanks, and each day's reduced 
 consumption will tend to increase the impurity of the water, 
 unless duplicate tanks be provided, and a large amount of 
 water be wasted in their periodical cleansing. 
 
 396. In cases where the constant service of water cannot 
 be obtained, and it consequently becomes necessary to pro- 
 vide cisterns for buildings, they should be so constructed 
 and furnished as to combine the operation of filtering with 
 the purpose of storing the water. For this purpose the 
 best form of cistern will be that of which the bed inclines 
 downwards, so that the discharge pipe may be inserted at 
 the lowest point, and the water always drawn from that part 
 of the cistern. The material used being commonly slate, 
 the bottom may still be formed in a single slab for house 
 cisterns (so as to avoid extra joints), declining in both direc- 
 tions. The filtering media, consisting of beds of sand and 
 gravel of different degrees of fineness (as described in 
 
USE OF RAIN-WATER. 151 
 
 Fan I., p. 64), will be arranged in horizontal layers, except- 
 ing the lower one, which will lie in the bottom of the cis- 
 tern, and be dressed to a level on its upper surface. The 
 head of the discharge pipe should be protected with a fine 
 wire-gauze cap, to prevent the gravel washing into the pipe. 
 Below this pipe another cistern for the filtered water should 
 be provided of proportionate capacity, and if the process 
 be too tedious to admit of the filtration of all the water 
 used, that for inferior purposes may be drawn from a pipe 
 entering the cistern just above the filtering beds. 
 
 397. The superior quality of rain water in respect to its 
 softness, as compared with Avater from all other sources, 
 renders it exceedingly desirable, in an economical view, that 
 all the supply derivable from this source should be carefully 
 collected and preserved. In towns this water is commonly 
 wasted, or at least allowed to subserve only the inferior 
 purpose of assisting the flow of the drainage. Yet the 
 quantity. which might, by efficient arrangements, be com- 
 manded of this superior water is by no means insignificant. 
 The roof of a house of the average dimensions of 20 ft. 
 square, presenting a plane surface of 400 square ft., receives 
 at least 800 cubic ft. of rain water annually, or about 4800 
 gallons. If well-constructed and capacious gutters are 
 provided, this quantity may be collected with little loss 
 from evaporation, and will form a reserve stock for such 
 special household purposes as it is peculiarly adapted for. 
 This quantity should be immediately received in a filtering 
 tank, and the best available method be adopted of purifying 
 it from the carbonaceous matters with which it becomes 
 saturated in passing through a smoky atmosphere and 
 flowing over roof-surfaces covered with a deposit of similar 
 impurity. An economical and well-devised apparatus for 
 effecting this purpose, and applicable to private and public 
 buildings of ah 1 classes, is a desideratum yet wanting in the 
 economical supply of water. 
 
 398. All valves and other apparatus for regulating the 
 admission and use of water in buildings are required to be 
 
152 USE OF RAIN-WATER 
 
 constructed in the simplest and most efficient and durable 
 manner. Complicated contrivances are utterly inadmissible 
 to be entrusted to the ordinary carelessness and inattention 
 with which these things are treated in separate households. 
 Apparatus of costly construction will never receive the 
 sanction of landlords, nor will temporary tenants incur the 
 charge of expensive repairs, or devote regular attention to 
 keep ball-cocks and similar appendages in working order. 
 And in proportion as the rental of houses is less, these 
 difficulties are increased. Landlords become more par- 
 simonious, and tenants less interested and more neglectful 
 In this point of view the advantages of constant and high 
 service are rendered more conspicuous than in its applica- 
 tion to tenements of a superior class in which a higher 
 rental enables the landlord to be liberal in the construction 
 and appliances of the building, and the tenant shares his 
 disposition to preserve their proper action in order to secure 
 his own comfort and convenience. 
 
 399. If the rain-water be not collected for household 
 cleansing purposes, it should at least be made as efficient 
 as possible for scouring the house-drains. An apparatus 
 for this purpose has been suggested by Mr. W. D. Guthrie, 
 a gentleman who has paid much attention to the subject of 
 town sewerage, and was one of the early advocates for the 
 use of small tubes in substitution for the larger drains, 
 constructed of brickwork, which were formerly prescribed 
 by Commissioners of Sewers as the only form of channels 
 which should be permitted access to their subterranean and 
 gigantic sewers or extended cesspools. Mr. Guthrie pro- 
 posed that the rain-water from the roof be conducted into a 
 cistern, the lower part of which should be formed like an 
 inverted cone, and fitted with a conical valve at the head of 
 a pipe, discharging into the house-drain. This conical 
 valve is to be attached t.o a vertical chain above it, and con- 
 nected with titie short end of a lever to the other arm of 
 which a cord or chain is fixed, and by which the valve may 
 be occasionally raised from its seat, and the water dis- 
 
EXTINCTION OF FIRES. 153 
 
 charged from the cistern into the drain-pipe with a force 
 proportional to the quantity in the cistern. From the 
 upper part of the cistern a waste pipe is to descend exter- 
 nally and communicate with the drain pipe below the valve, 
 so as to prevent the cistern overflowing, in case the water 
 accumulates faster than it is discharged ; the lower end of 
 the waste-pipe being trapped, to prevent the effluvium in 
 the drain-pipe passing into the cistern. 
 
 400. One of the most important of the occasional ser- 
 vices for which a supply of water is required for application 
 to buildings is, the extinction of accidental fires. For ex- 
 tensive buildings, such as warehouses, factories, and work- 
 rooms, tanks have been suggested, and, in some cases 
 adopted, in which a considerable quantity may be con- 
 stantly stored and ready for instant application for this 
 purpose. This arrangement is, however, scarcely applicable 
 for private buildings, and, where it is employed, the quan- 
 tity commanded is of course limited, and can never be 
 safely trusted to as affording an adequate supply for ex- 
 tinguishing the fire. In this application of water, again, 
 the system of constant service offers great advantages. 
 Thus, if the mains are kept always filled, an adequate 
 supply is at all times at hand in every direction, and the 
 grievous losses and dangers incurred by delay in obtaining 
 water on these occasions are avoided. 
 
 401. The combination of high service with constant ser- 
 vice in the supply of water also affords the means of in- 
 stantly applying jets of water upon the fire until the fire or 
 pumping-engines arrive. These jets are thus available as 
 substitutes for the engines, and the experiments made to 
 ascertain the height to which a jet of water will rise from 
 the main and service-pipes under a fixed pressure, have 
 shown considerable facility in applying jets for this purpose 
 and a corresponding efficiency in their action. The prac- 
 tical limitation to this mode of delivery appears to arise 
 from the extent of supply required, the economy of the use 
 of jets depending upon the amount of pressure that can be 
 
 H 3 
 
154 EXPERIMENTS WJTH JETS. 
 
 obtained, .and the small number of jets which will suffice 
 for the extinction of the fire. The available power in this 
 case is found to decrease in proportion to the extent to 
 which it is employed, and the loss by friction in the leather 
 hose reduces the delivery, and, consequently, the height or 
 force of the jet, 2| per cent, for every 40 lineal feet of hose 
 through which the water passes. The importance of the 
 results of the experiments with jets here referred to will 
 justify a brief account of them in this place. They were 
 tried on the 31st of January, 1844, upon jets supplied from 
 the mains and services belonging to the Southwark Water- 
 Company, under a fixed pressure of 120 ft. 
 
 The first experiment was made over an extent of 800 
 yards of 7 in. main, which were connected with 500 yards 
 of 9 in., this length being joined to 200 yards of 12 in., 
 continued by 550 yards of 15-inch main to the great main 
 leading from the Company's works at Battersea, the total 
 distance from the works to the experiment being 5500 
 yards. The heights to which the water was thrown from 
 2^-inch stand pipes, with 40 ft. of hose and a ^-inch jet, 
 were as follows : 
 
 With 1 stand pipe the water rose 50 ft. 
 2 45 
 
 3 40 
 
 4 35 
 
 5 30 
 
 6 27 
 
 When all the fire plugs on the main were closed, except 
 the first and one 2|-inch stand pipe, and 160 ft. of hose 
 with a J-inch jet applied, the water rose to a height of 40 ft. 
 The quantity of water delivered from the same (7 in.) 
 main through one stand pipe, and different lengths of hose, 
 was as follows : 
 
 With 40 ft. of hose . . . 98 gallons in 59 seconds. 
 
 80 ... . 112 65 
 
 160 .... 116 70 
 
 40 ft. and 24-in. jet . . .118 27 
 
EXPERIMENTS WITH JETS. 155 
 
 The second experiment was made with a 9-inch main 1400 
 yards in length, joined to a 15-inch main of 1000 yards in 
 length, and at a distance of 6650 yards from the works. 
 The stand pipes used were 2| in., the hose 40 ft. long, and 
 the jet -J inch, as before. 
 
 With 1 stand pipe the water rose 60 ft. 
 
 ,,2 imperceptible difference. 
 
 ,,4 45ft. 
 
 ,,6 40 ft. 
 
 The quantity delivered with the same pipes, length of hose, 
 and size of jet, being 
 
 With 1 stand pipe . . . .114 gallons in 64 seconds. 
 
 4 . . . . 115 75 
 
 6 . . . . 112 78 
 
 These experiments, with the two sizes of main-pipe, will 
 indicate the rate at which the quantity is diminished by 
 the friction of the water in smaller pipes, a result confirmed 
 by another experiment made with the addition of 200 yards 
 of 4-inch service and 200 yards of 5-inch pipe to the 9-inch 
 main last referred to. The hose, 40 ft. long, and the jets 
 inch, as before. 
 
 With 2^-inch stand pipe fixed on the 4-inch service near the 5-inch 
 pipe, the water rore . . . . . . . . 40 ft. 
 
 With 2 do. do. do. . . . 31 ft. 
 
 With 1 do. fixed at end of service, or 200 yards from 
 
 5-inch pipe, the water rose . . . . . . 34 ft. 
 
 With 2 do. do. do. . . . 23 ft. 
 
 The quantity delivered in each of these last four cases 
 being respectively as follows : 
 
 112 gallons in 83 seconds 
 
 117 103 
 
 112 90 
 
 114 118 
 
 402. In an interesting paper by Mr. James Braidwood, 
 upon the means of applying water for the extinction of 
 fires, read at the Institution of Civil Engineers, it is shown 
 that elevated tanks for a reserve of water for this purpose 
 should be adapted to contain 176 tons of water for each 
 
156 USE OF JETS AT PRESTON 
 
 fire-engine to be employed. This allows for six hours 
 working of an engine having two cylinders of 7 in dia- 
 meter with a stroke of 8 in., making 40 strokes each per 
 minute, and fitted to throw 141 tons of water in six hours; 
 and, allowing one fourth for waste, the supply required will 
 be as stated, 176 tons. In the case of a large building, 
 provision should be made for working ten engines for this 
 period, and the quantity required will be 1760 tons, or 
 63,360 cubic feet of water. From this calculation, it will 
 be evident that the dimensions of the tanks would be 
 enormous. If steam engines can be commanded upon the 
 premises to maintain the supply through the mains, the 
 reserve may be reduced to a consumption for two hours, 
 before the expiration of which time it may be expected that 
 the engine could be got to work. This provision is such 
 as may be supposed requisite in dockyards and for large 
 stacks of warehouses, manufactories, &c. 
 
 403. In the town of Preston, the advantages of the con- 
 stant and high service have led to the general use of jets 
 and the comparative disuse of engines for the extinction of 
 fires. For this purpose the hose is carried upon a reel, 
 and should be fixed upon a light spring cart, by which the 
 ladders may be also conveyed. The ladders are found to 
 be invaluable appendages for the economical application of 
 the hose without the engines, because the higher the water 
 is carried upward in the hose, that is, the higher the nozzle 
 of the hose is placed, the less is the resistance suffered from 
 the atmosphere. If a jet forced by a pressure of 100 ft. 
 attain a height of 50 ft. when delivered at the ground level, 
 it will still attain an additional height of 80 or 25 ft., when 
 the nozzle is carried up these 50 ft, and the discharge will 
 then take place at a total height of 70 or 75 ft. from the 
 level of the ground And another advantage derived from 
 carrying the hose as high as possible is, that of command- 
 ing a more effective discharge of the water than can be 
 obtained when the direction of the jet is conducted on tho 
 ground 
 
GRADUATION OF PIPES ]57 
 
 404. The piping for the conveyance of water to buildings 
 has to be graduated in capacity according to the quantity 
 required, in the same way that the mains and service-pipes 
 are proportioned to the extent of district and number of 
 buildings they are intended to serve. In supplying towns 
 with drainage water collected in high reservoirs, and thence 
 conveyed by aqueducts to " distributing basins," Mr. Thorn 
 adopted a general system of piping, which is so arranged 
 that the water shall always flow within them in one direc- 
 tion, entering at the upper and passing to the lower end. 
 At the lower end of each range of piping a cleansing cock 
 is provided, by opening which occasionally any improper 
 accumulation within the pipe may be removed. The pipes 
 are kept constantly full, and laid at a minimum depth of 
 3 ft. below the surface of the pavement. In some cases, in 
 order to provide very fine cold water to private houses, an 
 iron cistern, to hold about 20 gallons, is sunk 8 or 10 ft 
 below the bottom of the cellar, and supplied with water 
 through a small lead pipe entering it at the top, while the 
 water is drawn off for use through another small pipe, 
 inserted a few inches above the bottom of the cistern. It 
 would appear, however, that the cleansing of cisterns thus 
 situated must be a somewhat troublesome duty, and the 
 means of regular access to a cistern so deeply sunk in the 
 ground must involve a considerable additional expense in 
 construction 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Varieties of Manufactures and best available Methods of Draining. 
 Arrangement of Separate and Collective Drains. Proportion of Area of 
 Drain to Cubic Contents of Dwelling-Houses. Fall of Drains. Mode of 
 Construction. Connection with Main or Collateral Sewers. Means of 
 Access, &c., &c. 
 
 405. The several operations carried on within a building 
 devoted to manufacturing purposes should afford the data 
 
158 FOUR CONDITIONS IN CONSTItUCTING DRAINS, 
 
 upon which to determine the extent of drainage required, 
 but the most ready way of estimating the amount of refuse 
 waters produced, will be reached by assuming this to equal 
 the supply of water rendered to the building. The appli- 
 cation of the same rule to domestic buildings or dwellings 
 admits of a more exact calculation as to the capacity of 
 drains required, but these must all alike be governed by 
 the principle, that ample capacity for immediate discharge 
 is to be sought, with due regard to the fact that all passages 
 for the conveyance of liquid or semi-liquid matters are effi- 
 cient in proportion to the narrowness of the surface over 
 which these matters are required to flow. This is one of 
 the most important results which recent inquiries have esta- 
 blished. Sewers and drains were formerly devised with the 
 single object of making them large enough, by which it was 
 supposed that their fall efficiency was secured. But sluggish- 
 ness of action is now recognised as the certain consequence 
 of excess of surface equally as of deficiency of declination. 
 A small stream of liquid matter extended over a wide sur- 
 face, and reduced in depth in proportion to this width, 
 suffers retardation from this circumstance as well as from a 
 want of declivity in the current. Hence a drain which is 
 disproportionally large in comparison to the amount of 
 drainage, becomes an inoperative apparatus, by reason of 
 its undue dimensions ; while, if the same amount of drain- 
 age is concentrated within a more limited channel, a greater 
 rapidity is produced, and every addition to the contents of 
 the drain aids, by the full force of its gravity, in propelling 
 the entire quantity forward to the point- of discharge. 
 
 406. There are four conditions which are to be regarded 
 as indispensable in the construction of all drains from all 
 buildings whatsoever. These conditions. are First. That 
 the entire length of drain is to be constructed and main- 
 tained with sufficient declivity towards the discharge into the 
 sewer to enable the average proportion and quantity of 
 liquid and solid matters committed to it to maintain a con- 
 stant and uninterrupted motion, so that stagnation shall never 
 
NEGLECT OF THEM. 159 
 
 occur. Second. That the entire length of drain is to be 
 constructed and maintained in a condition of complete imper- 
 meability, so that no portion of the matters put into it shall 
 accidentally escape from it. Third. That the head of the 
 drain shall be so efficiently trapped that no gaseous or volatile 
 properties or products can possibly arise from its contents. 
 And, Fourth. That the lower extremity of the drain, or the 
 point of its communication with the sewer, shall be so pro- 
 perly, completely, and durably formed, that no interruption 
 to the flow of the drainage or escape shall there take place, 
 and that no facility shall be offered for the upward progress 
 of the sewage in case the sewer becomes surcharged, and 
 thus tends to produce such an effect. 
 
 407. These conditions appear so simple in their state- 
 ment, that we are disposed to regard them as self-evident 
 necessities, yet an acquaintance with the details of house- 
 drainage as commonly regulated reveals the fact that they 
 have been generally neglected, and that, at the best, the at- 
 tention they have received has been most unwisely crippled 
 by considerations of cheapness in first cost at the expense 
 of permanent economy and usefulness. Thus we know 
 that house drains are frequently laid with very imperfect 
 fall, not sufficient indeed to propel the matters sent into 
 them except with the aid of gushes of drainage-water ; that 
 they are often composed of defective and carelessly-built 
 brickwork with wide joints of sandy mortar; that the head 
 of the drain is commonly untrapped ; and that the entire 
 formation is badly designed and defectively executed. We 
 will endeavour to show the arrangements by which the effi- 
 cient action of the separate drains of houses and other 
 buildings is most likely to be secured 
 
 408. The utmost practicable declivity being obtained in 
 the direction of the drain, the efficiency of its action will 
 be further much controlled by the construction adopted 
 and the kind of surface presented to the sewage Any 
 roughness or irregularity in this surface will of course im- 
 pede the passage of the sewage, and hence arises the neces- 
 
1 60 BASEMENT-DRAINAGE 
 
 sity for the greatest care in the construction, whatever the 
 material and kind of formation. The first step in the 
 arrangement is, to collect the whole of the drainage to one 
 point the head of the intended draining apparatus, and 
 the determination of this point requires a due consider- 
 ation of its relation to the other extremity of the drain at 
 which the discharge into the sewer is to take place. In 
 buildings of great extent this will sometimes involve a 
 good deal of arrangement, and it will, perhaps, become de- 
 sirable to divide the entire drainage into two or more points 
 of delivery, and conduct it in so many separate drains to 
 the receiving sewer. The length of each drain being thus 
 reduced to a manageable extent, the necessary fall will be 
 more readily commanded, and the efficiency of the system 
 secured. 
 
 409. The cost of constructing these minor works, and 
 also the main sewers with which they are connected, is so 
 enormously aggravated by the depth to which they are fre- 
 quently laid in order to accommodate the basements of 
 buildings, that, for the sake of economy, basement-drainage 
 should either be altogether abandoned or so modified that 
 efficiency shall never be sacrificed in a vain attempt to re- 
 concile the depth of the basement with the position of the 
 sewer. In arranging the drainage of buildings, therefore, 
 the head of the drains should be kept at the minimum 
 depth which will suffice to sink the construction beneath 
 the surface. We have already (353) expressed a conviction, 
 that a thoroughly perfect and economical system of town- 
 draina,ge must recognise this as a leading principle, and 
 under this conviction we could not be satisfied to admit 
 the difficulty now experienced to be one which should en- 
 cumber our proceedings so as to involve comparative inef- 
 ficiency in action and extravagant costliness in construction 
 and repairs. 
 
 410. Although it is not within our province in this place 
 to discuss the governmental measures which would be re- 
 quired to authorise and direct such an adjustment of the 
 
MINIMUM DEPTH FOR DRAINS. 161 
 
 details of private drainage as would be necessary to insure 
 their conformity with the principle here advocated, we may- 
 he permitted to observe that this direction was, to a con- 
 siderable extent, assumed and exercised by the old Com- 
 mission of Sewers, who always declared their authority in 
 prescribing the manner in which private drains should 
 alone be allowed to communicate with the sewers under 
 their jurisdiction. These prescriptions determined the 
 rate of declivity, the relative levels, and the dimensions of 
 the drains, and were enforced by the Commissioners' exe- 
 cution (by their contractors) of that portion of the work 
 which joined with the sewers. The regulations enforced 
 in the City of London (and which, from its independence 
 of the new consolidated commission, are, it is supposed, 
 still enforced) are based upon the following calculation, the 
 stated principle being that "A house cannot be called 
 effectually drained unless the water is taken away from the 
 floor of its lowest story."* 
 
 Ft. In 
 Take the least height which a basement story ought to be . .70 
 
 Thickness of a timber flooring on sleepers 09 
 
 Covering of the drain, say brick flat . . . . . . 2J 
 
 Height of drain inside . . . . . . . .09 
 
 Current of drain inside the premises, say, 1 in. to 10 ft. for a house 
 
 50 ft. deep 05 
 
 Current outside the house, i. e. in the street 03 
 
 Height of cross-drain above the bottom of main-drain, at least . 6 
 
 9 10J 
 
 This would give (9 ft. 10| in., or) 10 ft., at the least, 
 depth from the surface of the street to the bottom of a 
 main drain (of 18 in. diameter), and this may be fairly 
 assumed as the least depth at which a private house of the 
 most ordinary description can be effectually drained; but 
 this considers it only as for the drainage of one house. 
 
 * It should be borne in mind that this principle becomes impracticable if 
 the lowest story of any house should, at the free will and option of its 
 owner, have another " lower deep " excavated below it, a practice which has 
 been indulged in in the formation of some of the leviathan warehouses in the 
 City. 
 
162 MINIMUM DEPTH FOR DRAINS 
 
 "When a series of houses, situate in a public way, 
 inhabited by some who will use, and some who will not 
 use, a drain fairly, is to be drained, the question has to be 
 looked at differently. 
 
 " For a retail shop, in which the basement story is often used as a 
 warehouse, it cannot be unreasonable to say that the story shall 
 not be less in height than . . . . . . .86 
 
 Flooring 09 
 
 Covering of drain 2 
 
 Height of drain 13 
 
 Current inside 05 
 
 Current outside 03 
 
 Height above bottom of common sewer 16 
 
 12 10 
 
 "As it may be said that a story of less height might 
 do as a wareroom, and, in order to keep the calculation 
 as low as it fairly can be kept, I would assume that the 
 bottom of a common sewer ought not in any part to be 
 less than 12 ft. beneath the surface of the street."* 
 
 We have thus quoted these calculations at length, in 
 order that we may be enabled to refer to the details as- 
 sumed without fear of mistaking the meaning of the official 
 provisions of the Commissioners. 
 
 411. By another of the regulations of the Commissioners 
 of the City Sewers, affecting the details of the house drains, 
 we find that since the year 1832 the Commissioners have 
 required that their own tradesmen should be employed to 
 make the whole of the drains up to the front of the build- 
 ings, these drains, 15 in. in diameter, being charged at the 
 rate of 5s. 6d. per lineal foot. And the reason alleged for 
 this regulation was, that the Commissioners found great 
 difficulty in getting individuals to make the drains sub- 
 stantially. 
 
 4=12. The regulations laid down by the Commissioners ot 
 
 * " Memorandum," laid before the Court of Commissioners of Sewers for 
 the City of London, &c., by their late Surveyor. 
 
SEWEKS-COMMISSTONERS RULES. 1C3 
 
 Sewers for Westminster for the construction of private 
 drains" were as follows : " That no drains shall be laid into 
 a public sewer, without a special leave for that purpose 
 from the Commissioners. That when such leave shall be 
 obtained, the opening into the sewer shall be made, and 
 the drain built, for a length of 3 ft. from the sewer, accord- 
 ing to a plan and section approved by the Commissioners ; 
 the whole to be done by a workman to be employed by the 
 Commissioners, and paid by the party requiring the drain, 
 nt the prices undermentioned : For cutting through the 
 springing wall of a sewer, putting in a cemented brick ring, 
 and soundly underpinning the wall round the same, the 
 sum of 10s. Gd. for each opening. For building a length 
 of 3 ft. 4 in. of 9-in. barrel drain, with proper York keel 
 stone, sound stock bricks and blue lias lime mortar, the 
 sum of 10s. 6d. for each such length of drain. For the 
 same length of 12-in. barrel drain, 12s. 6d. The digging to 
 be done at the expense of the party requiring the drain ; 
 and notice to be given at the office of the Commissioners 
 when the excavation shall have been made, in order that an 
 officer may attend, and that a workman may be sent to do 
 the required works. As a guide to persons about to build, 
 it is recommended that the private drain of each house or 
 other premises have a current not less than a quarter of an 
 inch to each foot in length, making in the length of 60 ft. 
 a fall of 15 in., to which, adding 13 in. for the height of 
 the drain and brick arch over it, also 8 in. for the depth of 
 ground and paving over the drain at the upper end, and 
 12 in. from the lower end of the drain to the bottom at the 
 side of the sewer, will make, in the whole, 4 ft. from the 
 bottom at the side of -the sewer to the lowest pavement of 
 the building, being the least height necessary to guard the 
 premises from being flooded by water from the sewer." 
 
 413. These notices of the regulations which were enacted 
 and enforced by two of the old Commissions of Sewers are 
 sufficient to show that the powers which may now be 
 required for instituting an entire system of house-drainage 
 
164 DEFICIENCY OF FALL, 
 
 under public authority, or that derived from a Commission 
 under the Great Seal, would be no new entrenchment- upon 
 private rights. The following order of the Westminster 
 Commission declares its power to deny the right of drain- 
 ing into the public sewers if the depth of the building 
 would require a rate of declivity less than then deemed 
 necessary to insure the proper action of the drain : " The 
 Commissioners give notice, that whenever the lower floors 
 or pavements of buildings shall have been laid so low as 
 not to admit of their being drained with a proper current, 
 they will not allow any sewers, or drains into sewers, to be 
 made for the service of such buildings." 
 
 414. The regulations we have quoted are, we submit, 
 sufficient to show also that the details thus prescribed were 
 not calculated to contribute to a system of efficient house- 
 drainage, being inadequate, in some of the several indis- 
 pensable conditions before stated (406). 
 
 415. Thus for cylindrical drains of 9 in. in diameter, a 
 construction composed of the ordinary rectangular bricks, 
 with mortar joints, is essentially unsuitable and imperfect, 
 being unavoidably permeable to a considerable extent ; the 
 irregularities which occur at every joint, moreover, impair 
 most seriously the effectiveness of the declivity which, if 
 only 1 in. in 10 ft., or 1 in 120, as allowed in the City of 
 London, is, even if fully preserved, inadequate for the pur- 
 pose. The Westminster allowance of a quarter of an inch 
 in each foot, or 1 in 48, is barely sufficient to make the 
 rapid passage of the sewage a matter of certainty. And 
 drains are much more likely to act efficiently if laid with a 
 fall of 1 in 20 or 30. These regulations illustrate the two 
 alternatives to which the present system reduces the prac- 
 tice and the utility of house-drains. In the one division 
 we have an utterly inefficient declivity of 1 in 120, coupled 
 with a minimum depth of 12 ft. from the bottom of the 
 common sewer ; while, in the other division, the Commis- 
 sioners, with an arbitrary kind of wisdom, decline to at- 
 tempt the task of draining any premises with basements 
 
AND CONSEQUENT STAGNATION. 165 
 
 " laid so low as not to admit of their being drained with a 
 proper current." The " propriety " of the current would, 
 however, he considerably enhanced by still increasing the 
 fall of 1 in 48, which they adopted. 
 
 416. The common occupation of the basement stories of 
 houses as kitchens and water-closets, has made it appear 
 desirable to depress the drains and sewers, in order to 
 receive the refuse matters below the level of these base- 
 ments ; but as this object involves one or both of the evils 
 we have pointed out, viz. deficient declivity and consequent 
 stagnation in the drains, and a general system of sewers 
 sunk so deeply in the ground that incomparable expense 
 and difficulty are created in construction, access, and re- 
 pairs, the purpose of basement-draining should be aban- 
 doned, and practicable methods sought of delivering the en- 
 tire drainage immediately beneath the surface of the ground. 
 If, indeed, no practicable methods could be devised of 
 doing this so as to render basement-draining unnecessary, 
 it must of course be admitted as part of the purpose of 
 house-drainage, in order to avoid the sacrifice of the healthi- 
 ness of human habitations, which we all readily admit 
 as the final object of the art of draining towns and build- 
 ings. 
 
 417. The selection of the methods to be adopted for this 
 purpose will be dependent mainly upon the internal ar- 
 rangements of the building and the occupation of its lower 
 apartments. In the first place, water-closets must in all cases 
 be constructed above ground, or, at any rate, so nearly above, 
 that the discharge shall take place within a foot or so of the 
 surface. However valuable the ground-floor space of any 
 premises may be, sufficient room may and always should be 
 reserved for this purpose, as this level is the most desirable 
 for the situation of these accommodations. If placed higher, 
 they cannot be so readily aided with the sewage water pro- 
 duced in the domestic offices, unless these occupy a simi- 
 larly-elevated position ; and besides this objection, is that of 
 having an unnecessary length or extent of drains above 
 
166 A GENERAL SYSTEM SHOULD BE ENFORCED. 
 
 the ground. The most desirable arrangement, therefore, 
 is that which collects the entire drainage at or near the 
 ground level, and there at once and immediately delivers it 
 into the subterranean channels. If, however, it is in any. 
 case unavoidable that the kitchen and similar domestic 
 offices are situated in the basement of the building, it will 
 be still equally imperative that all the sewage water shall 
 be delivered into the drain at or near the ground level. No 
 sink or other apparatus for discharging refuse water should 
 be retained in the basement, and the extra labour of carry- 
 ing this water up to the surface level, or head of the drain- 
 age, must be incurred as the penalty of this misconstruction 
 or misappropriation of the building. 
 
 418. These arrangements, although involving expense in 
 the alteration of some of the existing buildings in towns, 
 are not to be magnified into impracticabilities. As essential 
 parts of a general system conducive to the health of the 
 entire population, they should be commanded and enforced 
 by adequate public authority, and carried into immediate 
 effect without favour or evasion. And in the construction 
 of new buildings, they should be regarded as imperative 
 general orders, sanctioned by the public well-being, and, if 
 necessary, to be obeyed under official superintendence 
 The truth of principles and advantage of modes of action, 
 established by experiment, should command their adoption 
 without opposition, from the prevailing squeamish reluct- 
 ance to interfere with private arrangements, which, be it 
 remembered, are, if misdirected, really in these matters 
 public nuisances. 
 
 419. The keeping of the basement itself of a building 
 dry by draining is not, we submit, to be acknowledged as 
 a proper purpose of a correct general system. Sufficient 
 and sound construction are alone needed to maintain base- 
 ment stories of any depth in a perfectly dry condition, if 
 all sewage and rain-waters are, as they should be, collected 
 and discharged into the sewers before they reach the base- 
 ment The draining of the surrounding subsoil to the 
 
GRADUATION OF DRAIN-PIPES. 167 
 
 entire depth of the foundation of a building is a want 
 which cannot arise, if the entire structure up to the ground 
 level is waterproof, which we contend it should be; the 
 means of effecting this by the materials now at our com- 
 mand, being of economical and certain application 
 
 420. Discarding brickwork and all similar constructions 
 of small parts, as unsuitable for obtaining the imper- 
 meability and smoothness of internal surface which are 
 especially required in small drains, the current in which is 
 often reduced to a very small quantity of liquid or semi- 
 solid matter, we are led to seek some tubes or pipes, which 
 shall require only annular joining at distant points, and 
 thus admit of the regularity of surface which is so neces- 
 sary to assist the passage of the drainage. The stone-ware 
 is now offered as a superior material for this purpose, ad- 
 mitting of much greater economy than iron, and being 
 entirely free from the chance of corrosion and permea- 
 bility. By glazing the interior surface, moreover, tubes of 
 this ware are made peculiarly suitable for adoption in 
 forming drains; and carefully-made socket joints laid in 
 the direction of the current are cheaply executed, if 
 moulded conically and luted with a little cement of best 
 quality. 
 
 421. The size of the drain-pipes has to be graduated 
 according to the quantity to be passed through them, limited 
 hi the minimum extreme so as to avoid stoppage from the 
 excessive bulk of the sewage matters, and hi the maximum 
 extreme so as to obtain all the rapidity of progress of which 
 a small stream of water is capable, retarded by the friction 
 of the surface over which it passes. For moderate-sized 
 houses, say of eight rooms, and holding some five or six 
 persons on an average, a tube of 5 in. in diameter will 
 suffice for the house-drain. The area of the drain may be 
 proportional to the cubic contents of the house, but if so, 
 in diminishing ratio. That is, if a 5-in. pipe will be large 
 enough for an average-sized house, a pipe of double the 
 area of such a pipe will not be required for a house of 
 
168 TKAPPING DEAINS. 
 
 double the cubic contents, or holding doubl the average 
 number of persons. A 6-in. pipe, laid with sufficient fall, 
 will be ample for the most capacious private house. And 
 from 9 to 15 hi. will, under a similar condition, be sufficient 
 to serve the average drainage of factories and other large 
 consumers of water. 
 
 422. The trapping of the head of the drain, so as to 
 prevent the ascent of smell and impure gas from the drain 
 into the building, is the next indispensable requirement in 
 the draining apparatus. So many contrivances have been 
 applied for this purpose, that we will riot attempt to make 
 a selection ; and it is beyond our limits to give any general 
 list or detailed description of them. Simplicity of con- 
 struction and permanence of action are, of course, required, 
 with the least original outlay at which these qualities can 
 be obtained. If only one water-closet is to be provided 
 for, it will be desirable to gather the discharge from it and 
 from the house-sink, &c., into one trap at the head of the 
 drain. If two or more closets are to be served, so many 
 separate traps will sometimes become indispensable. But 
 for every separate inlet to the drain, which is equally an 
 outlet for smell and gas, an efficient trapping apparatus of 
 some kind is required. 
 
 423. The lower connection of the house-drain with the 
 public sewer is the last point of importance to which we 
 have to allude. A perfect construction of this portion of 
 the work has always been recognised as an essential feature 
 of good drainage, and the Commissioners have accordingly 
 stipulated that its execution should be entrusted only to 
 their own contractors, and be subject to the inspection and 
 approval of their own officers. The level of the bed of the 
 drain must be kept as high as possible above that of the 
 receiving sewer. If the sewer be also constructed of the 
 glazed stone-ware piping, lengths of it may be introduced 
 at convenient intervals, having outlet sockets for receiving 
 the ends of the house-drains, and those being slightly ta- 
 pered or conical hi form will be readily jointed with a little 
 
CLEANSING HOUSE-DRAINS 1C9 
 
 of the best blue lias cement or other of equal quality. If 
 the sewer be constructed of brickwork, a good joint will be 
 obtained by introducing a separate socket of stone-ware to 
 receive the house-drain pipe, and formed with a flange at 
 the other end to surround and cover the opening in the 
 sewer, which can then be made good with a ring of cement 
 carefully applied. 
 
 424. Means of access to house-drains are always desir- 
 able in arranging the details of the apparatus. And this 
 constitutes another reason against the deeply-sunk drains 
 required to serve the basement story of houses. If the 
 drains be constructed of glazed stone-ware pipes, carefully 
 jointed, and laid in directions as nearly uniform as possible, 
 the process of artificial cleansing and raking (should it ever 
 become necessary) will be much facilitated. If any angu- 
 lar turns are formed in the direction of the drains, it will 
 be worth while to consider the practicability of fitting a 
 movable cover at the angle, by removing which, direct ac- 
 cess should be afforded to the two branches of the drain. 
 A long pliant rod with a stiff brush or scraper at the end 
 could then be readily introduced into the drain, and, if ne- 
 cessary, these means of access by trap doors and remov- 
 able covers should be afforded at intervals throughout each 
 extended length of drain, so that thorough cleansing from 
 the head of the drain to the outlet in the sewer could be 
 performed as frequently as might be found requisite. Under 
 a complete and efficient system of drainage the task of pe- 
 riodically examining the separate drains from the buildings 
 would be ordered and performed with all the regularity and 
 readiness of a necessary duty, and the drains would be 
 maintained in a state of constaot instead of intermittent 
 cleanliness. * 
 
 * The system of sulways, recently introduced in some parts of the metro- 
 polis, will probably supply facilities for examining the minor drains, as well 
 as the main sewers, to a degree not hitherto practicable. (180'5.) 
 
170 WATEK-CLOSETS. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Water-closets; Arrangement and Construction. Adaptation to variou 
 circumstances. Combined Arrangements for Efficient House-Drainage. 
 Miscellaneous Apparatus and Contrivances. 
 
 425. The best position for a water-closet in any building 
 is that in which all the waste water shall be made the best 
 use of in scouring the contents directly through the pan of 
 the closet, and propelling them forward through the private 
 drain into the common sewer. And since the matters dis- 
 charged into the closet will be, if the house drain is re- 
 served for its proper uses, more solid and less readily con- 
 veyed than the other sewage matters, it will, moreover, be 
 desirable to place the closet as near as possible to the point 
 at which the drain discharges into the sewer. The velocity 
 and force of the liquid sewage are increased at the lower or 
 sewer end of the drain, and its effect is thus augmented in 
 scouring away the contributions of the closet. But if this 
 preferable position cannot be commanded for the closet, it 
 must, at any rate, be so situated with regard to the head of 
 the drain and the inlet for the liquid sewage, that these 
 shall be behind or above it. When the closet and the 
 house-sink are near to each other, the water from the latter 
 may be conducted directly into the trap or basin of the 
 closet, and thus secure at once a rapid discharge of its 
 contents and a constant supply of liquid to preserve its 
 action and efficiency. 
 
 426. The rudest form of domestic accommodation or 
 open privy over a cesspool is a contrivance which deserves 
 notice only on account of its several imperfections, and 
 which will, it may be hoped, be soon reckoned among me 
 obsolete mistakes of our forefathers. These cesspools are 
 sometimes mere pits or holes excavated in the ground, and 
 the contents of course rapidly permeate the surrounding 
 soil ; by which process pits of this kind frequently are 
 found *o drain themselves, the perviousness of the material 
 
CESSPOOLS. 171 
 
 permitting the escape of the sewage, so that little accumu- 
 lation takes place within the pit itself until the whole 
 neighbourhood becomes fully saturated with the drainage^ 
 which will then ooze through and appear upon the surface, 
 or find its way through some defective foundation, and poi- 
 son the basement of an adjoining building. Constructed 
 cesspools formed with brickwork of substantial quality will 
 prevent this saturation in proportion as their walls are care- 
 fully and imperviously built. The matters daily discharged 
 into these depositaries accumulate, and tteir decomposition 
 is constantly proceeding and engendering gases of the most 
 noisome and pestilential kind. The open privy formed 
 over a pit of this description affords an outlet for the escape 
 of these gases, which are thus regularly supplied to the 
 building above or adjacent to the closet. If a trap or water 
 basin and pan be applied to this privy, so that the pan dips 
 into the trap, the escape of effluvia may be prevented so 
 long as the trap is kept supplied with water. The supply 
 of water for this purpose will, however, considerably aug- 
 ment the bulk of the sewage, and necessitate cleansing 
 much more frequently than otherwise, unless some defect 
 in the joints of the work afford a passage for the liquid 
 matters in the surrounding strata, or a communication be 
 afforded with a drain. In this latter case of combination 
 of a cesspool with a drain, a waste pipe may be laid from 
 the former into the latter, so that the contents of the cess- 
 pool shall always be maintained at the same quantity and 
 depth ; the trap may then be dispensed with by attaching 
 a vertical pipe to the lower part of the pan, so that this 
 pipe shall dip into the sewage, and being thus constantly 
 kept below its surface, no gas can pass upward through the 
 pipe. The cost of the pan or basin rnd pipe required for 
 this contrivance, if of stone- ware, will not exceed 13s. in 
 addition to that of a common privy, and its advantages in 
 preventing the escape of effluvia are obvious. The sim- 
 plest and cheapest form of trap and basin is that in which 
 they are formed in one or two pieces of the stone-ware, 
 
 i 2 
 
172 CESSPOOLS TO BE ABANDONED 
 
 and may be purchased at about 7s. 6d. together. Allowing 
 5s. Qd. for the fixing, and also providing and fixing a short 
 length of pipe of the same material to connect with the 
 trap so as to dip into the sewage, this complete trapped 
 apparatus may, at a cost of 13s., be added to a common 
 privy over a cesspool, so as to prevent to a great ex- 
 tent the escape of effluvia into the house or adjacent 
 building. 
 
 427. The great importance, however, of avoiding all 
 sources of unwholesome and offensive effluvia, and of pre- 
 serving the foundations of the buildings and the substrata 
 of the soil of a town in a dry and clean condition, creates 
 a severe necessity for relinquishing cesspools, and all recep- 
 tacles for sewage, within or connected with all buildings 
 and places whatsoever, except those to which it is con- 
 ducted for the purposes of collection and treatment. The 
 sole purpose of all house apparatus of water-closets, sinks, and 
 drains, and of all public constructions of branch or tributary 
 sewers, and main sewers, should be that of affording a passage 
 for the conveyance of the refuse waters and other matters pro- 
 duced in a town. This conveyance should be immediate, every 
 particle committed to the entire ramification of passages being 
 preserved in ceaseless motion until it arrives at the final collect- 
 ing place. 
 
 428. Discarding cesspools upon these grounds, we are at 
 the same time led to the principle which should govern the 
 whole of the details of house-draining apparatus, which 
 should be so arranged and combined as to afford the fewest 
 possible inlets for effluvia from the matters committed to 
 the drains, and to make the total of the liquid refuse useful 
 in advancing the current within the drains. The position 
 of the water-closet being determined (425), it becomes desi- 
 rable to select the most economical and efficient construc- 
 tion for it, and for the apparatus connected with it. 
 
 429. We have already (422) stated that the head of 
 the drain, and every inlet to it, requires to be fitted with a 
 trap to prevent the escape of effluvia, and this will equally 
 
WATER-CLOSET APPARATUS. 173 
 
 form an indispensable part of the closet apparatus. The 
 perfect action of the trap will demand a means of supplying 
 water on each use of the closet, and although all possible 
 advantage should be taken of the house-sewage water in 
 promoting the action of the drains, a separate and constantly- 
 commanded source should be provided for this purpose. 
 If the supply of water to the house or building be rendered 
 upon the constant service system, a mere tap will be suffi- 
 cient to afford the means of discharging a volume of water 
 through the trap of the closet. If the water be supplied 
 upon the intermittent system, a cistern or reservoir of some 
 kind, provided for the house supply, must be made to com- 
 municate with the pan of the closet by a pipe with a valve 
 and apparatus for working it. For general use it is espe- 
 cially desirable that economy and simplicity be combined 
 in the whole of the apparatus of the closet. Delicacy of 
 adjustment, requiring a complicated arrangement of parts, 
 and a corresponding costliness of construction and repairs, 
 and carefulness in management, is inadmissible in a design 
 adapted for general adoption ; and combinations of levers 
 and cranks, liable to accidental derangement and injury by 
 roughness of treatment, are therefore to be avoided as much 
 as possible. The position of the cistern in relation to the 
 closet will affect, in some degree, the force and efficiency of 
 the volume of water discharged on each occasion; and, if 
 the supply of water to the building be constant, the service- 
 pipe should be so conducted over the closet that the tap 
 can be conveniently placed for admitting the required quan- 
 tity to the pan. If the supply is obtained from a house- 
 cistern, this must, of course, be placed above the pan, and 
 at such elevation that the water ma) acquire a sufficient 
 impetus to flow with rapidity. 
 
 430. The glazed stone-ware basins or pans, with syphon- 
 traps combined, before referred to (4-26), are the most eco- 
 nomical and effective for general purposes. These are made 
 in several forms : viz. with the pan and trap in one piece, 
 and adapted to communicate either with a vertical or a hori- 
 
174 ' STONE-WAKE PANS. 
 
 zontal drain ; with a separate trap, having a screwed socket 
 on the head in which the lower part of the pan is received, 
 being formed with a collar and screwed end ; or, as a some- 
 what more complicated arrangement, consisting of a trap 
 with a flanged head and a separate dip pipe having a pro- 
 jecting flange about its mid-length, and a spreading mouth 
 above, into which the lower part of the pan is fitted with 
 cement. The dip pipe, extending downwards into the trap, 
 below the level at which its contents flow out, is secured to 
 the head of the trap by bolts passing through the holes in 
 the flanges. The reason for making the pan separate from 
 the dip pipe would appear to arise from a difficulty in form- 
 ing them together with the wide projecting flange so as to 
 give sufficient steadiness to the pan above. This latter 
 form was designed especially for prison use, under circum- 
 stances which do not allow of any fixed seat or framing 
 above to which to secure the pan. The previous forms are 
 found to answer all purposes in cases where this kind of 
 support is afforded, and are preferable for their fewer num- 
 ber of parts. The pan in each of these forms of construc- 
 tion is provided with an aperture and inlet at the upper 
 part, having a socket to receive the water-pipe. They are 
 retailed at the price of 7s. 6d. each, and recommended by the 
 present authorities in drainage matters. 
 
 431. The combined arrangements for efficient house- 
 drainage comprise, besides the means of adequate water 
 supply, as explained in section II. of this Division, the 
 water-closets, house-sinks, and drains in which the matters 
 committed to the closets and sinks are conveyed and deli- 
 vered into the public sewers. And if the rain-water falling 
 on the roof of the building and on the yard or space 
 attached to the house, is not applied to any other purpose, 
 it will have to be conducted into the drain to be discharged 
 with the sewage. These waters being the purest of the 
 contents should be received as near as possible to the head 
 of the drain, and made to traverse its entire length, and 
 thus exert all the cleansing action of which they are capable. 
 
TEBKO METALLIC PIPES. 175 
 
 The house-sink or place at which the ordinary waste water 
 of the household is discharged should communicate with 
 the drain at a subsequent part of its course, and the closet 
 be so placed that its contents shall traverse a minimum por- 
 tion of the drain, thus reducing the liability to the escape of 
 effluvia, and deriving the greatest scouring force from the 
 accumulation of the rain and house waters. The drain 
 being formed as a complete and impervious channel receiv- 
 ing the entire sewage and waste waters of the premises, 
 made easy of access and examination, and provided with 
 traps at every opening or inlet for receiving the drainage, 
 may be graduated in size from the one extremity to the 
 other, and, if of considerable length, it may be provided at 
 intervals with self-acting valves or traps to prevent the pos- 
 sible return of any matters, waters, or gases, from the lower 
 towards the upper end. 
 
 432. Self-acting valves or traps are constructed of the 
 stone-ware ; and the valves being hung at a slight inclina- 
 tion, and well fitted with a rim on the meeting surface, 
 they remain closed against any retrograde movement of the 
 sewage or gases, but are readily opened by a slight force 
 of water in the outward direction of the drain. Sink traps 
 are also formed of this material, with perforated heads 
 or covers, and syphon bends below, which, remaining filled 
 with the drainage w r ater, prevent the escape of any effluvia 
 from the drain into which they give access. 
 
 433. Beside the socket drain pipes of glazed stone-ware 
 which we have described, another material, known under 
 the name of " Terro-metallic," has been applied in the pro- 
 duction of a superior quality of piping, which is manufac- 
 tured in cylindrical forms both with socket ends and plain 
 butt ends, and also in a conical form with plain ends, the 
 cones fitting one another so that the joints are similar to 
 conical socket joints, and may be made to fit with a great 
 degree of exactness. The material of these pipes is of the 
 same quality as that used in making fire-bricks, and has an 
 extreme density with a very durable glaze upon the surface. 
 
176 
 
 POKTABLE PUMPING APPAEATUS. 
 
 The prices of these pipes at the Tileries, Tunstall, Staf- 
 fordshire, where they are manufactured, and in London, are 
 as follows : 
 
 TERRO-METALLIO DRAIN PIPES. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Bore. 
 
 Plain Jointed 
 Cylindrical Pipes. 
 
 Conical Pipes 
 to Fit one another. 
 
 Cylindrical Pipes 
 with Socket-Joints. 
 
 Price per 
 Foot at 
 Tunstall. 
 
 Price per 
 Foot in 
 London. 
 
 Price per 
 Foot at 
 Tunstall. 
 
 Price per 
 Foot in 
 London. 
 
 Price per 
 Foot at 
 
 Tunstall. 
 
 Price per 
 Foot in 
 London. 
 
 Inches. 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 6 
 9 
 12 
 16 
 
 s. d. 
 2 
 2f 
 3f 
 4 
 6 
 1 2 
 2 3 
 
 s. d. 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 11 
 2 1J 
 3 9 
 
 . d. 
 2| 
 3 
 
 3| 
 4f 
 
 8 
 
 *. d. 
 3i 
 5 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 1 2 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3| 
 
 U> 
 6 
 9 
 1 4i 
 2 6 
 
 *. d. 
 
 b"5j 
 
 6f 
 9 
 1 3 
 2 3 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Curved and Junction pipes in the same material are charged at double the 
 prices of the cylindrical pipes. 
 
 434. One of the most valuable improvements recently 
 effected in the practical cleansing of buildings is a portable 
 pumping apparatus, with hose for emptying cesspools. For 
 conveying the sewage, this consists of a close tank mounted 
 upon two or four wheels, according to its size, with a hose 
 fitted to an aperture in it, and an. air-pump attached, so that 
 the chamber communicates with the interior of the tank. 
 The hose is provided of such length that it may be laid 
 through the passage, &c. of a house, and dipped into the 
 cesspool, while the other end is attached to the tank at the 
 door, into which the contents of the cesspool are rapidly 
 transferred, without offence or nuisance, by a labourer at the 
 pump. A small pumping apparatus with hose, but without 
 tank, has been extensively applied for removing the con- 
 tents of the cesspools into the sewers, a second hose being 
 attached to the pump-chamber for this purpose. This ap- 
 paratus, with hose complete, is furnished at the price of 
 13., and the economy of its use as compared with the cost 
 
HOSMEK'S CISTEHN. 177 
 
 of cleansing cesspools by the old method, effects a saving 
 of 95 per cent. Among the instances reported by the Sur- 
 veyors to the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, the 
 following may be quoted : " The contents of one large 
 cesspool, equal to 24 loads of soil, were pumped out in 
 3 1 hours, at a cost of 24s. Under the old system, three 
 nights would have been occupied in emptying the cesspool, 
 and it would have cost at least 24Z." 
 
 435. Among the many contrivances which have been 
 suggested for improving the house-apparatus for regulating 
 the disposal of the water supplied, is a simple form of cis- 
 tern, introduced by Mi. John Hosmer, which appears well 
 calculated to prevent the waste of water which now fre- 
 quently results from the inefficiency of the apparatus em- 
 ployed. The amount of this waste may be inferred from 
 the proved fact that, in one district of the metropolis, an 
 average quantity of twenty-nine gallons per house is wasted 
 at each delivery from the works, by dribbling over the 
 waste-pipes of the cisterns after they have become filled. 
 Mr. Hosmer's cistern has a partition, dividing it into two 
 spaces, one considerably larger than the other, and contain, 
 ing the supply for domestic use, while the smaller space is 
 intended to contain a reserve for cleansing the drains and 
 sewers. A two-way cock is fitted on the cistern with ball 
 and lever, and one aperture of the cock opens into each of 
 the spaces in the cistern. The large division of the cistern 
 is fitted with a pipe or pipes to deliver the house supply as 
 required, and the small division has a syphon-trapped pipe, 
 leading into the drain and covered by a valve, the vertical 
 rod of which is attached to tho lever of the two-way delivery 
 cock. The water from the main first fills the small division, 
 the position of the lever being such that the valve at the 
 lower part remains closed. The water then flows over the 
 partition (which is kept a trifle lower than the sides of the 
 cistern for this purpose) and fills the large division, the 
 rising of the ball in which overcomes the pressure upon 
 the valve in the small division, and lifts it sutldenly to swh 
 
 i 3 
 
BUNNETT'S WATEK-CLOSETS. 
 
 a height as to permit of a rapid discharge of water through 
 the syphon-trapped pipe into the drain. Similar cisterns 
 thus fixed and fitted, deriving their action simultaneously 
 from the delivery at the main, would, it is supposed, dis- 
 charge streams of water at one and the same time into the 
 several house-drains connected with them, and thus act 
 with considerable efficiency in scouring these drains and 
 the sewer into which they discharge. 
 
 436. Although complexity of parts is to be avoided in 
 water-closets intended for use in the greater number of 
 dwellings, some of the more complete forms of apparatus 
 adapted for self-action, and which necessarily comprise 
 considerable detail of arrangement, are preferable in supe- 
 rior buildings in which close economy of construction is 
 not a first condition, and regular care and attention can be 
 secured for the action of the apparatus employed. In some 
 of these closets, the valve which opens and closes the open- 
 ing into the water-pipe is attached by a rod to a lever, which, 
 by means of a cord or chain, is connected with the door of 
 the closet, so that the opening of the door opens the valve 
 and thus discharges a quantity of water into the pan. In 
 another form of apparatus, the pressure of the person on 
 the seat produces a similar effect. One of the most im- 
 proved of these is that patented by Messrs. Bunnett and Co., 
 which will be found fully described and illustrated in the 
 " Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal " for the month of 
 April, 1849. This closet is self-acting and doubly trapped, 
 and designed to secure a supply and force of water which 
 shall always be efficient and uniform without waste. It is, 
 moreover, so contrived, that no soil can remain in the basin 
 after use, and an ample supply of water being secured in 
 the basin so as to form a " water-lute " between that and the 
 syphon-trap, the rising of smell is effectually prevented. 
 The lower part of the pan dips into a water-pan or trap, 
 which is hinged and maintained in a horizontal position by 
 a rolling balance weight. The effect of pressure on the 
 seat of the closet is to depress a lever and open a valve in 
 
GENERAL SUMMARY. 179 
 
 the supply-box of the cistern, and thus poui a volume of 
 water into the water-pan or trap sufficient to throw it open, 
 and afford a passage for the soil into the lower basin, 
 which terminates in a syphon, and is also trapped with 
 water. When the pressure is removed from the seat, the 
 water-pan or upper trap is immediately brought back to a 
 horizontal position by the rolling weight, and receives suffi- 
 cient water before the closing of the valve, to fill it, and 
 thus effectually shut off all communication with the lower 
 basin. 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 
 
 437. In the First Part of this Kudimentary Treatise, 
 devoted to the Drainage of Districts and Lands, an attempt 
 is made to exhibit an arranged outline of the facts which 
 have been observed and recorded with reference to the 
 several sources of water for agricultural purposes, and the 
 best means of making these available. The methods of 
 filtering and purifying water for extended purposes in dis- 
 tricts comprising towns, are also briefly explained, and the 
 difference pointed out between the mechanical and chemi- 
 cal processes required. In the sections which treat of the 
 drainage of lands, as limited in its purpose to the discharge 
 of superfluous water, the peculiar method to be employed 
 is shown to depend on the united consideration of relative 
 levels of surface and structural formation of soils. The 
 importance of efficient draining of fens and the several 
 works required for this purpose, are illustrated by grand 
 instances in our own country in the counties of Lincoln 
 and Cambridge and a brief description is introduced of 
 that celebrated Dutch work by English engineers, the 
 draining of the Lake of Haarlem. The construction of 
 catch-water drains, and the adoption of means for aiding the 
 supply of water to high or upland districts, are also alluded 
 to as among the duties of the drainer. The formation of 
 
180 GENERAL SUMMARY. 
 
 soils is described as affording a general knowledge of their 
 character, and aiding in the determination of the best 
 arrangement of drains. Adopting a general classification 
 of soils in regard to their structure, under the three leading 
 characters of porous, retentive, and mixed, an extended 
 notice is devoted to the several arrangements of these soils 
 which are met with, and the modes of proceeding in each 
 case are briefly explained. A description of the several 
 modes of forming drains or artificial subterranean channels 
 through lands is accompanied by practical rules as to their 
 construction, dimensions, arrangement, and cost, and some 
 of the best experience on this subject is quoted. A brief 
 account of the several operations to be carried on, of con- 
 tour-mapping, and of the tools employed in draining, com- 
 pletes the First Division of the work 
 
 438. The Second Division, of which the purport is the 
 Drainage of Towns and Streets, aims at establishing a clas- 
 sification of towns as subjects for water supply and drainage 
 according to the relative levels of the surface, and without 
 that reference to the contiguity of rivers which has boen 
 dictated by the mistaken object of converting rivers into 
 general sewers. An illustration of the principle here advo- 
 cated is taken from the position and superficial character of 
 our own metropolis. The value of sewage matters for agri- 
 cultural purposes, and the practicability of rendering the 
 distribution and use of these matters innocuous by chemical 
 processes, are also stated upon the highest authority, and 
 the evils of concentrating the sewage of large towns at few 
 points, and misusing the channels for its conveyance, are 
 pointed out and established upon past and extended expe- 
 rience. A brief notice is added of some of the general 
 plans which have been suggested for the drainage of Lon- 
 don, and some particulars given of the costly and inopera- 
 tive works executed in the department of Metropolitan 
 Sewerage. Upon the public supply of water to towns a 
 mass of evidence is collected from past experience in the 
 metropolis and the provinces, showing the effect of geologi- 
 
GF.NERAL SUMMARY. 181 
 
 cal structure upon the quality of water, and the cost of sup. 
 plying, of filtering, and purifying it for the several purposes 
 required. The circumstances affecting the cleansing and 
 draining of roads and streets are also shortly noticed. The 
 proper functions of sewers, their arrangement, dimensions, 
 and construction, are deduced from the data which it is be- 
 lieved should be referred to, and by calculations which our 
 past experience enables us to form. A rule for the correct 
 sectional form of sewers is also given, and recommended 
 for its usefulness and simplicity. The cost of several de- 
 scriptions of sewers is also cited from the records of expe- 
 rience, the stone-ware pipe sewers described, and the method 
 of cleansing by flushing adverted to, and its effects quoted. 
 The conveyance of water to towns and the several methods 
 adopted, with the cost of pumping by steam-power, are 
 described and stated. 
 
 439. The Third Division treats of the Drainage of Build- 
 ings as subjects of the entire system which embraces the sup- 
 ply of water as an accessory to the purpose of draining. It 
 is suggested that the classification of dwellings should be 
 determined by the number of persons to be served rather 
 than the rental paid for each house, and that larger build- 
 ings, in which human beings are congregated for manufac- 
 turing and other purposes, may be provided for according 
 to the cubic space inclosed by them. The arrangement, 
 construction, and dimensions of house-drains are described, 
 and the qualifications of impermeability, secure trapping at 
 the head and all other openings through which effluvia 
 might escape, and proper connection with the receiving 
 sewer at the lower end, are insisted upon as indispensable 
 to perfect and efficient construction. And in the concluding 
 section a general view is taken of the combined arrange- 
 ments for efficient house-drainage, and the simplest con- 
 struction recommended for water-closets and similar appa- 
 ratus designed for general adoption. 
 
APPENDIX No. 1. 
 
 STEAM DRAI NINO-PLOUGH 
 
 440. THE following account of Fowler and Fry's new 
 steam draining-plough is quoted from the " Bristol Mer- 
 cury " of February 11, 1854. 
 
 " On Thursday last some experiments of a deeply in- 
 teresting and important nature, in connection with the 
 question of land-drainage, were made at Catherine Farm, 
 on the estate of P. W. Miles, Esq.; at Kingsvveston, when 
 Fowler and Fry's new steam draining-plough was for the 
 first time put in operation. The great utility of under- 
 ground drainage upon clay soils and in marshy districts is 
 now too generally known and appreciated to leave it a 
 matter of debate ; but the heavy expense which the adop- 
 tion of the system of hand-labour entails, especially in 
 neighbourhoods where that labour is scarce and dear, has 
 hitherto stood in the way of its general adoption. It will 
 be obvious that anything which has a tendency to facilitate 
 the operation and diminish its cost, must be, in an emi- 
 nent degree, beneficial to agriculture, and hence scientific 
 and practical men have been stimulated to bend their 
 efforts in a direction tending to those ends. The drainage 
 of moist lands was first attempted by the simple process of 
 digging, by spade labour, narrow trenches, and laying rude 
 stone drains in the bottom of them. The difficulty of pro- 
 curing stones and the cost of hauling them were found to 
 stand considerably in the way of that process, and the use 
 of draining-tiles in various forms was by degrees intro- 
 duced, but without any decided improvement being effected 
 in the mode of cutting the drain trenches. An important 
 
APPENDIX. STEAM DRAINING-PLOUGH. 183 
 
 revolution in the process was introduced by our fellow- 
 citizen Mr. Fowler, of the firm of Fowler and Fry, agricul- 
 tural machine manufacturers, of Temple Street, in the 
 invention of his draining-plough, by which manual labour 
 was in a large degree superseded ; but a deficiency still 
 remained. The plough had to be worked by horse-power, 
 four horses being employed by it in turning the windlass 
 by which it was set in motion, and the process, although 
 cheaper and more expeditious than spade-labour, was, 
 nevertheless, in a degree expensive and tardy. The desira- 
 bility of applying steam power to a plough upon the same 
 principle soon became apparent, and, impressed with the 
 importance of the object, Mr. Fowler directed his attention 
 to it, and now, as the result of a great deal of anxiety and 
 labour, and of no inconsiderable expense, he has perfected 
 a steam draining-plough, which we saw in successful ope- 
 ration on Thursday, and which we have no doubt will 
 speedily take rank among the most useful inventions of the 
 day. A brief description of the machinery may prove 
 interesting. 
 
 " The steam-engine, although mounted on wheels, and 
 capable of being transported from point to point, is, when 
 employed, a stationary one, and worked by a horizontal 
 cylinder. It has connected with it two drums, which are 
 loose on the axles. Attached to the larger drum, which 
 draws the plough forward, is a wire rope of beautiful manu- 
 facture, the breaking strain of which is 14 tons, the work- 
 ing strain being 5 tons. This drum is worked by two 
 motions off the fly-wheel shaft, which give a leverage of 
 22 to 1 on the plough, the drum making seven revolutions 
 per minute. To the lesser drum, which is worked off the 
 second shaft, is attached a rope also of ,vdre, but of smaller 
 calibre, which draws the plough back, when it has com- 
 pleted a furrow, to the side of the field from which it 
 started and where it has to begin again. By an ingenious 
 contrivance the drums are formed by the insides of t\vo 
 spar wheels, so that practically the working is effected by 
 
1 8-4 APPENDIX. STEAM DEA1NING-PLOUGH 
 
 ordinary spur-gearing. The drams can be instantly thrown 
 out of gear by clutches moving the pinions on a feather. 
 The larger wire rope, on being wound on to the Irani for 
 the purpose of impelling the plough forward, works round 
 a sheave-wheel or pulley -block anchored to the field at such 
 a point as to draw the plough at right angles to the engine, 
 by which arrangement the necessity of shifting the engine 
 is obviated to so great an extent that almost any field may 
 be drained without once removing it from the position first 
 taken up by it. To the front of the plough is attached a 
 second sheave-wheel, round which the rope is doubled, 
 thereby, also, doubling the power. The coulter of the 
 plough is of iron, an inch in diameter at its widest point, 
 so that the furrow made by it upon the surface of the land 
 is scarcely perceptible and generally disappears after the 
 first storm of rain. It can be worked to a depth of four 
 feet, and indeed deeper, if necessary, and is so made that 
 it can be raised or depressed by a handwheel under the 
 control of the ploughman, and which works gear connected 
 with a rack at the back of the coulter. The boring of the 
 land is effected by means of a cast-iron mole or plug (the 
 size of which is regulated by the size of the tiles to be 
 laid) keyed to the bottom of the coulter, and the most 
 striking feature of the machine is, that as fast as it bores 
 the land it lays in the tile-piping, thus completing the 
 drain as it goes at the rate (when we saw it working) of 
 85 feet, and probably, under very favourable circumstances, 
 40 feet per minute. It should be stated, in order to the 
 understanding of what follows, that as the engine winds 
 the large rope on the large drum and draws the plough 
 towards it, it at the same time unwinds the small rope 
 which is attached to the back of the plough from the small 
 drum. 
 
 "The mode of operation we will now endeavour to 
 explain, assuming for our illustration a field of ] 000 feet 
 square, which has to be drained by drains 10 yards apart 
 from east to west. The engine would be fixed at the 
 
APPENDIX. STEAM TRAINING-PLOUGH. 185 
 
 middle of the western edge ; the plough would be placed 
 on the eastern edge at 10 yards from the southern edge of 
 the ground, and an anchor and sheave-wheel would be 
 rigged exactly opposite to it on the western edge. The 
 large wire-rope would be passed round the sheave-wheel, 
 and thence on to the front of the plough, while the small 
 wire-rope would be connected from the back of the plough 
 with another anchor, &c., rigged 10 yards north of the 
 plough that is, at the point to which it would have to be 
 drawn back, and from which it would have to commence 
 again. The machinery thus arranged, the pipe-tiles are strung 
 on ropes of fifty yards long (the length being thus limited 
 to economise time and labour in threading), but fitted with 
 ingeniously-contrived joints at either end, so that they can 
 be readily and firmly joined together at any length required. 
 These ropes are made of hemp for the sake of flexibility, 
 while, as a matter of economy and durability, and to 
 decrease friction as much as possible, they are coated with 
 wire. The ropes being threaded and joined, one end is 
 fixed immediately behind the mole, and the machine being 
 set in motion by the steam-engine, the coulter cuts its 
 narrow channel through the land, the mole bores and lifts 
 the subsoil, and the pipes are drawn through the aperture, 
 and closely and neatly put together, forming the drain. 
 The sheave-wheels are then shifted, the plough drawn back 
 by the small rope, and the second and succeeding drains 
 are cut and piped in the same way. The ropes, after the 
 tiles have been laid, are drawn out by horses, which is the 
 only employment of horse-labour required. The plough is 
 attended by a man, whose only duty seems to be to keep it 
 upright where the land is out of level ; but we were told by 
 Mr. Fowler that he had perfected some self-acting level 
 guides, which would be shortly attached, and which would 
 enable the plough to adapt itself to any inequalities which 
 might arise, and make it independent of any guide. 
 
 " The advantages which Mr. Fowler expects to derive 
 from his inventions are manifold. The first and most 
 
186 APPENDIX. STEAM DRA1NING-PLOUGH. 
 
 important is, of course, economy. The sum at present 
 charged by contractors, for draining on a large scale, per 
 acre, is from 5Z. to 6Z. A considerable tract of land, at 
 present in course of drainage in an adjacent county, is 
 understood to have been taken at 5Z. '5s. or 5. 10s. per acre. 
 Mr. Fowler considers that by his machinery land may be 
 drained for from 31. 10s. to 4Z. per acre, yielding a fair 
 remuneration to the contractor. One engine with ten men 
 and two horses will, he calculates, do as much work as 
 120 men, and, under favourable circumstances, as much 
 work as 150 men would do by the old system. A second 
 advantage anticipated is, the ability to drain in the summer 
 season, when days are long and the weather favourable, a 
 desideratum not now obtainable on account of labour being 
 at that period so fully occupied by other sources of employ- 
 ment. Third, drainage by the machine will be better per- 
 formed. The drains will be uniform in depth and straighter, 
 and the tiles more closely and firmly laid, while the plough, 
 by lifting the land, causes the water to percolate at once, 
 and thus brings the drain into immediate action. Fourth, 
 no damage is done to the surface of the ground, which, by 
 the old process was often the case. With diy weather the 
 machinery may be erected and field drained one day, and 
 on the next a casual observer would be unable to perceive 
 that any change had taken place. Fifth, the drains when 
 made will be more durable. 
 
 " With regard to the capabilities of his invention, Mr. 
 Fowler calculates that with a single engine and plough he 
 shall be able to drain about 30 acres per week. At present 
 the machinery will only be retained in this neighbourhood 
 long enough to complete the drainage of about 40 acres 
 of land on the farm where it is now at work. This will 
 probably be effected by about the end of next week, after 
 which time it will be removed to London, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of which city it will, we understand, be tried 
 under Government inspection, and, doubtless, will receive 
 
APPENDIX. STEAM L>RAINING-PLOUGH. 187 
 
 the attention of many scientific and practical gentlemen 
 interested in the advancement of agriculture 
 
 " Should the ' STEAM DKAINING-PLOUGH ' meet with the 
 approbation of those to whom it is about to be submitted, 
 arrangements will be made for carrying it into operation 
 upon a scale to some extent commensurate with the wants 
 of the kingdom." 
 
 Figures 78, 79. 80, and 81, show the plough and cap- 
 stan apparatus complete, as adapted to be propelled by 
 horse-power. Figs. 78 and 79 are an elevation and plan 
 of the capstan, and figs. 80 and 81 a corresponding eleva- 
 tion and plan of the plough 
 
 [Since the above was written, very considerable advances 
 have been made in the practice of plough-draining by steam- 
 power, as in the application of the same mighty agency to 
 other agricultural labours ; but the principles are nearly as 
 above described.] 
 
183 
 
 APPENDIX. STEAM DRAINING PLOUGH. 
 
 Fiy. 78. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
APPENDIX. STEAM DKAINING-PLOUGH. 189 
 
190 
 
 APPENDIX No. 2. 
 
 MR. STEPHENSON'S REPORT ON THE PLAN FOR THE DRAINAGE OF 
 TRICTS NORTH OF THE THAMES, 
 
 At a, Special Court of the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers, 
 held on the 16th May, 1854, the following Eeport by Mr. Robert 
 Stephenson, M.P.,on the plan proposed by Messrs. Bazalgette and Hey- 
 wood, was read : 
 
 "24, Great George-street, Westminster, May 15. 
 
 " Gentlemen, Absence from England prevented my uniting with 
 Sir William Cubitt in drawing up his remarks, dated February 25, 
 1854, on the joint report of Messrs. Bazalgette and Heywood, on a 
 proposed system of intercepting drains throughout that portion of the 
 metropolis lying on the north side of the river Thames. 
 
 " I therefore now take leave to lay before you a few observations on 
 that report, and before doing so may premise that it is not my inten- 
 tion to revert to those points touched upon by Sir William Cubitt, as 
 I entirely concur in the opinion he has given respecting the gene- 
 ral merits of the plan and the estimated cost of carrying it out. 
 
 "My observations will rather have reference to the general principle 
 of intercepting sewers upon which the design is based, and to one or 
 two of the localities where it has been deemed advisable to depart from 
 this system to meet special conditions. 
 
 " With respect, then, to the application of the principle of inter- 
 cepting sewers to very large towns, and more especially to the metro- 
 polis, where it has become imperative to lessen as far as practicable 
 the nuisance of discharging the sewage directly into that part of the 
 Thames upon which the metropolis is situate, I believe there is con- 
 siderable unanimity of opinion among engineers who have been called 
 upon to direct their attention to the subject. When I was a member 
 of your body, it fell to my lot to examine upwards of 150 suggestions 
 for improving the drainage of London, among which were many from 
 professional men of experience, and by far the majority of these, when 
 a comprehensive study of the subject had been made, agreed on adopt- 
 ing a series of intercepting sewers, as the only method affording a sim- 
 
MR. STEPHEN-SON'S EEronr 181 
 
 pie and efficient system of drainage, and at the same time freeing the 
 Thames through London of pollution. 
 
 " The plan which was afterwards submitted by Mr. Frank Forster to 
 the commissioners may be regarded as embodying most of the useful 
 views which such of these plans contained as were based upon the 
 principle of interception by main lines of sewer, carried to a point on 
 the river so far down as to prevent the reaction of the tidal waters 
 bringing the feculent matter back among the inhabitants of the me- 
 tropolis. 
 
 " The design now produced by Mr. Bazalgette and Mr. Heywood 
 may be regarded as the extension of Mr. Forster's views, adapted to 
 the new features which every suburb of London is yearly presenting. 
 They have also made some judicious modifications suggested by time 
 and further information, one of the most important of which is the 
 removal of the lowest intercepting drain from the shore of the river, 
 as such a position, although chosen for the purpose of making the 
 system of interception complete, would have been carried out with the 
 utmost difficulty, in consequence of the loose nature of the soil, and 
 at a cost incapable of any certain calculation beforehand. 
 
 " The construction of this low level intercepting sewer does not, 
 however, press for immediate attention, for it is clear that, of the 
 three intercepting sewers comprehended in Messrs. Bazalgette and 
 Heywood's plan, the construction of the upper and middle levels 
 should be proceeded with first. Their completion alone will greatly 
 relieve the Thames of impurities, and by lessening the direct discharge, 
 will .render the construction of the lowest level less difficult and less 
 costly. Indeed, it is not improbable that by the diversion of so large 
 a portion of the sewage matter from the river as would be under the 
 control of the middle and upper lines of interception, the formation 
 of the lowest would become comparatively much less important, and 
 might be postponed for some length of time, and so relieve the de- 
 mand upon those who supply the funds. 
 
 " The two upper lines of interception would, in fact, leave less of- 
 fensive matter to be discharged into the sewers than has taken place 
 in any time within living recollection. 
 
 "It is the only mode of procedure which seems adapted even- 
 tually to remove, and at once to mitigate, many of the chief diffi- 
 culties and annoyances attaching themselves to this complicated 
 question. 
 
 " In this design the system of interception is applied to the whole 
 of the metropolis on the north side of the river, excepting a portion 
 which is designated the western district, comprising an area of about 
 eighteen square miles, commencing a little to the east of Brompton 
 and Chelsea, and extending westward as far as Brentford. The level 
 
192 APPENDIX NO. 2. 
 
 of all this district is so low that it is impossible to obtain any other 
 natural means of drainage than into the river, as at present. To ob- 
 viate this objection, it is proposed to treat the western district by a 
 different method, which appears to me well calculated to overcome the 
 obstacles arising out of this circumstance, namely, to direct the whole 
 of the sewage to one point on the shore of the river near the entrance 
 into the Kensington Canal, and there take means for separating the 
 liquid and solid portion of the sewage before the former is discharged 
 into the river. Experiments on a large scale with this process are now 
 being made, and with such result that its ultimate success may be 
 fairly deemed probable. 
 
 " I agree, therefore, with the recommendations made in this report 
 as to the method to be applied to the western district, in consequence 
 of its extremely low level. 
 
 "With the general lines of direction which have been selected for 
 interception I also concur ; but, in anticipation of the success of the 
 method for extracting solid manure from the sewage, and its becom- 
 ing remunerative, it is suggested, ' that considerations may arise se- 
 riously affecting the scheme proposed,' and a question is raised * whe- 
 ther it would not then be advisable, on the score of economy, to 
 modify the designs presented for the middle and low-level sewers, and 
 to abandon the chief portion of the line between the river Lea and 
 Barking Creek.' In this I do not go to the full extent with Messrs. 
 Bazalgette and Heywood, for, although the process for the manufac- 
 ture of manure may prove successful, I do not think this probably 
 would tend to, still less would justify, the delay of the construction of 
 the middle level works. These seem to me to be absolutely necessary 
 to rectify the present defective system of drainage, whatever shape the 
 manure question may eventually take. I have already stated that the 
 middle level is calculated, when properly dealt with, to ameliorate the 
 evils so much complained of in so marked a manner that the execu- 
 tion of the lower level may perhaps safely be postponed for a time ; 
 but I can foresee no degree of improvement in the manufacture of 
 manure in prospect that would tend to any material alteration in its 
 construction, or position, or cost. It strikes at the root of many of the 
 existing evils in the most direct manner, while it comprehends within 
 its scope and influence so large and important a district, that I think 
 no minor obstacle ought to stand in the way of its execution. The 
 extension to Barking might, I think, be dispensed with, as sug- 
 gested. 
 
 " If in extending and perfecting the drainage of London, the chief 
 objects be the improvement of the general sanitary condition of the 
 inhabitants and the purification of the Thames from noisome matter, 
 I cannot help repeating that I regard the middle intercepting sewer as 
 
MR. STEPHENSON'S REPORT. 193 
 
 one of the most important features of the scheme on which I am now 
 reporting, and, indeed, without it either object, and the last especially, 
 could only be very partially attained, for no arrangement in the ex- 
 traction of the solid matter from the sewage that I can conceive 
 would prevent the frequent discharge of the usual amount of noxious 
 filth into the river. 
 
 " This can only, I believe, be avoided by the intercepting system 
 being fully carried out, and no part of the proposed plan is more effec- 
 tive than the middle interception, and none can be so ill spared or- 
 postponed. 
 
 "I am induced to express this opinion somewhat decidedly, be- 
 cause, having had my attention called to several methods that have 
 been proposed for the extraction of manure from sewage, I have been 
 led to the conclusion that, instead of multiplying such establishments 
 within the precincts of towns, as some contemplate, a complete system 
 of interception, with the concentration of the manure process on a 
 few points, is that which is best calculated to attain success. 
 
 " With reference to the dimensions of the proposed sewers, I have 
 not been able to go into the details of the calculations, but, having 
 examined the tabular statements attached to the engineers' report, 
 and having received explanations from them respecting the directions 
 of the flow in the various sewers intended to take place, I have every 
 confidence in the correctness of their conclusions. 
 
 " I have only further to add, that I regard the design of Messrs. 
 Bazalgette and Heywood as comprehending, in a very practical shape, 
 all the essentially useful suggestions which have, from time to time, 
 been made by engineers respecting the drainage of the metropolis ; 
 and I have no doubt whatever that if the commissioners be put in a 
 position to carry it out, it will be found effective. 
 
 " I am, gentlemen, your obedient servant, 
 
 " ROBERT STEPHENSON. 
 ' To the Commissioners of Metropolitan Sewers." 
 
194 
 
 APPENDIX No. 3. 
 MAIN DRAINAGE OP LONDON. THE PROCEEDINGS FROM 1854 TO 1865. 
 
 For reasons stated in the Preface, it has been considered desirable to 
 leave Mr. Dempsey's paragraphs untouched, so far as concerns the pro- 
 ceedings in relation to the Main Drainage of the metropolis, and to 
 present in this place a succinct account of what has been done in the 
 matter between 1854 and 18G5. 
 
 The first important events after 1854 in regard to this subject, were the 
 abolition or abrogation of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers, the 
 establishment of a new body with greatly increased powers, and the settle- 
 ment once for all (whether for good or bad) of a multitude of vexed ques- 
 tions relating to the method of draining the metropolis. On August 14, 
 1855, the royal assent was given to the "Metropolis Local Management 
 Act" a statute of enormous length, having 251 clauses and 100 large 
 pages of schedules. By virtue of this Act, the parishes of the metropolis 
 elect vestries, which are bodies corporate, either singly, or two or more 
 parishes combined, in which latter case the combined vestries form a 
 District Board. The vestries and boards, together with the Common 
 Council of the city, elect representatives from among themselves, in 
 certain proportions ; and these representatives, to the number of 45, 
 form a Metropolitan Board of Works. The Secretary of State selects & 
 chairman from three persons named by the board. 
 
 The powers of this board" are chiefly the control of the main drainage 
 of the metropolis, the naming of the streets and the numbering of the 
 houses, the widening of narrow streets, and the facilitating of street traffic. 
 The area over which this power extends is that which has been adopted 
 by the Census Commissioners of 1851 and 1861, and which gives a total 
 in the last named year of 330,237 inhabited houses, and 2,803,034 inha- 
 bitants, in the metropolis. The board, to defray the charges of any 
 works undertaken, is empowered to levy a rate on the same principle as 
 the county rate, and to borrow money upon the credit of that rate. 
 
 The Parish Vestries and the District Boards, besides electing members 
 to the Metropolitan Board of Works, have extensive local powers of their 
 own. They manage all the minor sewers and drains subordinate to the 
 main drainage. They control the paving, lighting, watering, and 
 cleansing of the streets, and the erection of public conveniences. They 
 have the powers of surveyors of highways. They may appoint crossing- 
 sweepers. They appoint Inspectors of Nuisances, whose duties are 
 decided by that title. And, lastly, they appoint Medical Officers of 
 
MAIX DRAINAGE OF LONDOX. 195 
 
 Health, to report upon the sanitary state of the several districts and 
 parishes ; to ascertain the existence of epidemics and other diseases ; to 
 suggest means for preventing the spreading of these evils ; and to take 
 cognizance of the ventilation of churches, chapels, schools, lodging- 
 houses, and other buildings of a more or less public character. To defray 
 the cost of these works, the vestries and district boards are empowered 
 to levy rates on the householders, under the three forms of Sewers rate, 
 Lighting rate, and General rate, 
 
 So far, then, as concerns the present part of our subject, the Metro- 
 politan Board of Works, elected by the parish vestries and the district 
 boards, is entrusted with the general drainage of the metropolis. One 
 important clause in the Act declares that " Such board shall make such 
 sewers and works as they may think necessary for preventing all or any 
 part of the sewage within the metropolis from flowing or passing into the 
 river Thames, in or near the metropolis ; and shall cause such works to 
 be completed on or before the 31st December, 1860." Of course it was 
 right to name a limit of time in this way ; but the limit has been far 
 exceeded. Another Act, in 1856, empowered the commissioners, acting 
 in harmony with the parish vestries and district boards, to take all the 
 requisite measures for forming parks, pleasure-grounds, places of recrea- 
 tion, and healthy open spaces in the metropolis ; but it did not affect 
 the power of the commissioners in reference to the main drainage. 
 
 It was known when the Act of 1855 was passed, that the Government, 
 and most of the influential persons concerned, were favourable to the 
 11 Intercepting " scheme, as contrasted with the local or sectional 
 schemes. But much valuable time was spent in discussion. Not only 
 did the remaining portion of that year, but the whole of the years 1856 
 and 1857, pass away without definite results ; and it was not until 1858 
 that an Act of Parliament was obtained, empowering the commissioners 
 to carry out a specified system of metropolitan drainage. This Act, 
 which received the royal assent on the 2nd of August, was framed after 
 an immense deal of trouble. Considering that 80 million gallons of 
 liquid refuse flow from the metropolis every day ; that this vast bulk of 
 water contains 400 tons of solid refuse ; that 2,000 miles of sewers convey 
 these abominations into the Thames by about 100 mouths ; that con- 
 siderably more than 100 square miles of area have to be provided for in 
 some way or other ; and that upwards of 80 nHles of great intercepting 
 sewers would have to be constructed, it is no wonder that embarrass- 
 ments and difficulties should arise. But there were others of a more 
 formal kind. By the former statute (1855), the Board of Works and 
 Public Buildings had a veto on the plans of the Metropolitan Board 
 of WorJcs in all that concerned main drainage ; and as the rival boards 
 had rival engineers, with rival plans, matters came to a dead lock. 
 Moreover, by the " Thames Conservancy Act " of 1857, the corporation 
 
 K 2 
 
196 APPENDIX NO. 3. 
 
 have certain rights conceded to them over "the soil of the Thames 
 between high and low water ;" and these rights give them a voice in 
 many drainage questions. All difficulties of this kind were, however, at 
 length surmounted, and the Act was passed. 
 
 The basis of the system adopted was the Interception, which had 
 been more or less before the public since 1845. The Act did not instruct 
 the commissioners to adopt any plan defined in the Act itself, but 
 empowered them to adopt a plan, some plan, on their own responsibility. 
 They were to be relieved from the absurd veto of the Commissioners of 
 Works. They were empowered to spend 3,000,0007. sterling by the 
 31st December, 1863 ; to borrow this amount under their corporate 
 seal, and to repay the principal and interest in forty years by a levy of 
 3d. in the pound on the annual value of the property in the district, in 
 the manner of a county rate. 
 
 The curious course of procedure, therefore, had been this; that, in 
 1855, the Metropolitan Board of Works was formed mainly with a view 
 to the drainage of the metropolis ; that, in 1856 and 1857, all parties 
 were disputing as to the best mode of doing this ; that, in 1858, an Act 
 of Parliament was passed, empowering the commissioners to spend 
 3,000,000?. on some plan for preventing the sewage of the metropolis 
 from flowing into the Thames ; and that the commissioners then had to 
 give their final vote what that plan should be. 
 
 We have now, therefore, to give some account of the greatest system of 
 town drainage ever yet commenced. The commissioners, in 1859, finally 
 determined upon the Intercepting plan, with Mr. Bazalgette as their 
 chief engineer. The reader is already acquainted with the general cha- 
 racter of the plan in the foregoing paragraphs ; and all that will be 
 necessary, therefore, is, to show how far the results are likely to be 
 modified. 
 
 The area that will be drained under this system, both of house-sewage 
 and of rain-fall, extends to the enormous amount of 117 square miles, 
 nearly equal to that of a quadrangular area 12 miles long by 10 broad. 
 All the arrangements as to the outfall, &c., are made for a prospective 
 population of 3,500,000, about 500,000 more than the present population 
 of the induced area. The whole of this drainage will then, as heretofore, 
 flow into the Thames, unless some plan is adopted of utilising the 
 sewage; but nearly the whole of it will enter the river many miles below 
 London, under circumstances which, it is hoped, will prevent a return 
 of the pollution upwards. There will be five great lines of sewer, more 
 or less parallel to each other and to the river ; and each of these sewers 
 will receive all the drainage from so much of the district as is on a 
 higher level than itself. Three of the main sewers are on the north of 
 the Thames, and two on the south. The first three will converge at a 
 point eastward of the metropolis, and then flow into the river near 
 
MAIN DRAINAGE OF LONDON. 197 
 
 Barking Creek ; the Ia8t two will converge near Deptford, and flow on 
 together to Crossness Point, between Woolwich and Erith. We shall 
 now describe these great lines separately, under the names by which they 
 are generally known, and shall give a few further details concerning 
 them collectively. 
 
 Northern High-Level. This commences in the Gospel Oak Fields, at 
 the foot of Hampstead, and extends to Old Ford, by way of Kentish 
 Town, the New Cattle Market, Highbury Vale, Stoke Newington, 
 Hackney, and Victoria Park. It absorbs on its way the old offensive 
 open sewer called Hackney Brook, which is now emptied and closed 
 over. It crosses beneath the Great Northern, Tottenham and Hampstead, 
 and North London railways, and Sir George Duckett's Canal. The fall 
 commences at about 4 ft. per mile. It lies at a depth of 20 ft. to 26 ft. 
 below the ground, and drains 14 square miles. The sewer is 4 ft. by 
 2 ft. 8 in. at the western or upper end, and gradually enlarges to 12 ft. 
 wide by 9 ft. high at the east end. The actual distance is about 8|- 
 miles, but some small additional portions of sewers raise the length to 
 9-| miles. The engineer's estimate for this work was about 180,000/. ; 
 and the whole has been admirably finished by Mr. Moxon within the 
 estimate. 
 
 Northern Middle-Level. This commences at Counter's Creek sewer, 
 near Kensal Green, and extends to Old Ford. It first passes nearly 
 south from Kensal Green and Kensington Park to Notting Hill, and 
 then along the Bayswater Koad, Oxford Street, Bloomsbury Square, 
 Clerkenwell, Old Street, and Bethnal Green to Old Ford. The length, 
 with branches, is about 12^ miles, half of which is tunnelling; and for 
 2 miles it passes under houses and other private property. The size of 
 sewer, as in the former case, varies from 4 ft. by 2 ft. 8 in. to 12| ft. by 
 9 ft. The gradient varies from 2 ft. to 25 ft. per mile ; and it lie* at a 
 depth varying from 30 ft. to 40 ft. below the surface. Mr. Bazalgette's 
 estimate for this great work was 280,000^. Mr. Eowe contracted for it 
 in February, 18GO, at a price of "264,000^. ; but he broke down after an 
 expenditure of 12,0001. ; and a new contract was made in December with 
 Messrs. Brassey and Co. for 330,OOOJ. This portion of the work has 
 been beset by immense difficulties; for, owing to a paucity of plans of 
 existing sewers, water-pipes, and gas-pipes, the excavators had to feel their 
 way inch by inch under the roadway of Oxford Street and other places. 
 At another place the Regent's Canal burst into this sewer, retarding the 
 works for a considerable time. 
 
 Old Ford Storm Overflow. The High and Middle-level sewers converge 
 at Old Ford, where some remarkable works have been constructed. The 
 Penstock Chamber consists of a large receptacle below, and machinery 
 rooms above. The arrangements are such, that when the High and 
 Middle-level sewers are supercharged after heavy rain, the surplus water 
 
198 APPENDIX NO. 3. 
 
 is diverted, in the Penstock, into a short channel which flows into the 
 river Lea, permitting only the usual average quantity to flow onwards 
 towards the Thames. The proportion thus diverted may be varied at 
 pleasure. This is a more important matter than would at first be 
 supposed. Four times as much sewage passes through the London 
 sewers at noon as at midnight ; the maximum flow being about equal to 
 a rain-fall of a quarter of an inch in depth in twenty-four hours. But 
 besides this source of inequality, the quantity is much exceeded in rainy 
 weather, at which time the rain-fall often greatly exceeds in bulk the 
 sewage itself. It would have been very difficult and enormously expensive 
 to construct the sewers large enough to carry off all the storm waters as 
 well as the sewage ; and therefore the existing main sewers, as well as the 
 river Lea, are to be occasionally made use of as storm overflows, to carry 
 the rain-fall to the Thames by channels different from those of the new- 
 sewers. The whole of the drainage collected by the Upper-level was 
 diverted by the mechanism of the Penstock into the Lea in 1862, until 
 the works at Barking were finished. The value of the system was 
 further felt in 1862, when an irruption of the Fleet sewer into the 
 Underground Eailway in Victoria Street took place. The injury would 
 have been much greater, had not the upper waters been diverted to Old 
 Ford. It may suffice to show the formidable nature of some of these 
 works, when we say that between Old Ford and Barking the High and 
 Middle-level sewers have had to be carried, by iron aqueducts supported 
 on columns, across no less than six branches of the river Lea, across the 
 East London Waterworks Canal, and under and over four lines of 
 railway. The works for the Old Ford Penstock Chamber were included 
 in Mr. Moxon's contract for the High-level sewer. 
 
 Northern Low-Level. This begins by a junction with the Banelagh 
 sewer .at Chelsea, which it will connect with the Victoria Street eewer; 
 then, approaching the Thames at Whitehall, it will continue near the 
 embankment to the City ; whence it will pass by way of Tower Hill, 
 Stepney, Limehouse, and Bromley, to West Ham. At this last-named 
 place it is to be joined by the High and Middle-level sewers. One 
 grave difficulty has led to the delay of these works. According to the 
 original plan, this eewer was to have been carried beneath the roadway of 
 the Strand, Fleet Street, Ludgate Hill, &c., at a depth varying from 30 ft. 
 to 50 ft. below the surface ; but it was felt that the execution of the 
 works would be an insupportable nuisance to the inhabitants, and that 
 the obstructions to trade might give rise to formidable claims for com- 
 pensation. It was even feared that St. Paul's Cathedral might be 
 endangered by such deep excavations near its foundations. It was 
 therefore determined to combine the scheme for a Low-level sewer with 
 one for a Thames Embankment. Accordingly an Act was obtained in 
 1862, which enables the Metropolitan Board of Works to carry the Low- 
 
MAIN DRAINAGE OF LONDON. 199 
 
 level sewer close to the proposed embankment, in the bed of the Thames 
 itself, from Whitehall to Blackfriars Bridge. There will be difficulty 
 enough to decide how to carry the sewer through the City; but the 
 double scheme will at all events save the Strand and Fleet Street from 
 the threatened disturbance. How the sewer and embankment will be 
 combined is explained in a later page. 
 
 The Northern Outfall. We have traced the High and Middle-level to 
 Old Ford, and have now to describe their course over the Essex Marshes. 
 The Northern outfall extends from Old Ford to Barking Creek, whero 
 the river Koding enters the Thames, a distance of about 5^- miles. The 
 route is by way of Stratford, West Hani, Plaistow, and East Ham. It 
 comprises two parallel channels from Old Ford to West Ham, mostly 
 brick arches of 12 ft. by 9 ft., but partly iron tubes of great magnitude. 
 At West Ham the Low-level sewer will join them ; but as the sewage will 
 in this be at a much lower level than in the others, it will be pumped up 
 by powerful machinery. The three sewers will then run in three distinct 
 and parallel channels, formed of the best brickwork, in an embankment 
 above the general level of the ground. The three channels will be 14| miles 
 in all. In order to ensure permanence of structure, and to avoid a thick 
 bed of peat which underlies the surface in the Plaistow and East Ham 
 marshes, a concrete foundation for the embankment has been made, in 
 eome places 25 ft. below the surface. The triple sewers pass under one 
 and over two lines of railway. For a mile and a half the embankment 
 is built upon transverse arches, the piers of which rest upon a deeply laid 
 bed of concrete. Mr. Bazalgette's estimate for this remarkable tripartite 
 system of vast channels was 635,000^. ; and Mr. Furness took the 
 contract in 1860 for 625,000 The work is considered to rank among 
 the best specimens of brickwork ever seen almost as highly finished as 
 if intended to meet the eye of a connoisseur, instead of being permanently 
 buried out of sight. It has been wisely determined that the cheapest as 
 well as the best way in the end will be to do this work thoroughly once 
 for all. 
 
 The Barking Reservoir and Sluices. The sewage conducted along the 
 three fine lines of channel just described is received at the Outfall 
 Station. This consists mainly of a vast covered brick reservoir, 14 acres 
 in area and 20 feet deep, and would, if needed, contain double the 
 quantity of twelve hours' sewage from all the northern sewers. It is 
 so roofed with brick arches and earth, as ix> prevent the escape of 
 effluvia. From this reservoir the sewage will flow into the Thames 
 during the first two and a half hours of ebb ; that is, for two hours and 
 a half after high water. It is calculated by the engineer (and on the 
 correctness of this calculation depends much of the success of the whole 
 scheme) that as the point of discharge is 12| miles below London Bridge, 
 the outgoing tide will carry the sewage too far away to allow it to flow up 
 
200 APPENDIX NO. 3. 
 
 to London again at the flood tide ; especially as the bulk of water oppo- 
 site the outfall is very great, and as the flow downwards is very forcible 
 during the first two or three hours after high water. It is supposed that 
 the very last gallon of each outflow will have reached 12 or 13 miles 
 below Barking Creek, or 25 below London Bridge, before the tide 
 begins to flow upwards again. The mains carry the sewage from the 
 reservoir far out into the bed of the river, so as to insure its mixing 
 with as large an amount of water as possible. Mr. Bazalgette's 
 estimate for the works at this outfall station was 170,000^, and 
 Mr. Furness took the contract for 164,000^., in January, 1863. It is 
 probable, however, that these works may be made in some way contingent 
 upon any future scheme for the utilisation of sewage. Mr. Bazalgette, 
 pending the discordant arguments on this subject, lays his plans for the 
 discharge of the whole of the sewage into the Thames ; but the com- 
 missioners have purchased 50 acres of land adjacent, to be prepared for 
 any future scheme of sewage utilisation. 
 
 Western Drainage. The western part of the Metropolitan area, 
 north of the Thames, is much of it at so low a level that the three great 
 intersecting sewers cannot well accommodate it. It is, therefore, treated 
 by Mr. Bazalgette as a distinct system. The districts comprised within 
 it are Acton, Hammersmith, Fulham, Kensington, Chelsea, Brompton, 
 &c. This system comprises several portions. The Acton Branch 
 extends from Acton Bottom to Netting Dale, along the Uxbridge Road. 
 It comprises about 1^ mile of small sewers, and descends 4 ft. per 
 mile, at an average depth of 15 ft. below the surface. The Eanelagh 
 Storm Overflow is a sewer commencing in the Bayswater Road, passing 
 through Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, and joining theRanelagh 
 sewer at Knightsbridge. It connects the Middle-level system with the 
 Western system. Its chief purpose is to carry off storm overflows, that 
 would otherwise trouble the district, and overfill the Middle-level 
 sewer ; but another purpose is to relieve the Serpentine from foul water 
 that used to enter it during those overflows. This subsidiary sewer is a 
 little over a mile in length. The sewer is a 9 ft. barrel, at a depth of 
 11 to 44 ft. beneath the surface, and with a fall of 12 J ft. per mile. 
 These sewers vary from 3| ft. by 2J to 4| ft. by 4J. It was at first 
 intended to form a covered reservoir near the banks of the Thames, by 
 the side of the Kensington Canal, with arrangements for deodorising 
 the sewage before allowing it to pass into the Thames ; but the inhabi- 
 tants of the neighbourhood objected so strongly to the plan that the 
 commissioners appointed a committee to consider and report upon it. 
 Meanwhile these western sewers have been proceeded with, leaving the 
 question of the outfall in abeyance. 
 
 Southern High- Level. The whole of the immense works hitherto 
 described are, or are to be, north of the Thames. "We have now to 
 
MAIN DRAINAGE OF LONDON. 201 
 
 notice those on the south. Here, unlike the north, there is no Middle- 
 level ; the nature of the district being satisfied with a High-level and a 
 Low-level sewer. The High-level extends from Clapham Common to 
 Deptford Creek, a distance of 9| miles, by way of Brixton, Camberwell, 
 and New Cross. It varies in section from 4| ft. by 3, to 10J ft. by 
 1(% and lies at a depth varying from 10 to 50 feet beneath the level of 
 the ground. Mr. Bazalgette's estimate was 212,000^. ; the contract was 
 taken conjointly by Messrs. Holling & Co. and Messrs. Lee and Bowles 
 for 217,000?., and the works are completed. Connected with this High- 
 level is a branch from New Cross to Dulwich and Norwood, superseding 
 in its way an offensive open channel called the Effra sewer. 
 
 The Southern Low-Le.vel extends from Putney to Deptford Creek, by 
 way of Wandsworth, Battersea, Vauxhall, Lambeth, Southwark, and 
 Rotherhithe, a distance of about 9 miles, with a Bermondsey branch 
 from the Spa Eoad. In some of these works on the south side the diffi- 
 culties have been most harassing. At one place the water flooded in 
 upon the works at the rate of 8,000 gallons per minute, taxing the con- 
 tractor's skill to the utmost. Although it is customary to speak only of 
 two levels on the south of the river, it would give a better idea of the 
 system to have regard to three Putney to Deptford, Clapham to Dept- 
 ford, and Norwood to Deptford all rising at different levels, but all 
 coming to the same level at Deptford. 
 
 Deptford Pumping Station. On account of the low level of most of 
 the ground near the south bank of the Thames, the sewage from the Low- 
 level sewer will flow to a point far too deep to enter the river ; indeed, 
 it is stated that nearly one half of Lambeth, Bermondsey, and Eother- 
 hithe is 6 ft. below high- water level. Hence it becomes necessary to 
 pump the whole of it up to a higher level ; and for this purpose steam- 
 engines, boilers, furnaces, pumps, pump-wells, chimneys, coal-sheds, &c., 
 are provided at Deptford. These works alone have cost 140,000?. 
 
 Southern Outfall. This consists of about 7 J miles of sewer, 1 1^ ft. in 
 diameter, at depths varying from 17 to 80 ft. below the surface, and with 
 a fall of 2 ft. per mile. At Woolwich, it is in some places full 80 ft. 
 beneath the surface, and of course made wholly by tunnelling. It extends 
 from Deptford Creek to Crossness Point, in the Erith Marshes, under 
 Greenwich and Woolwich, and across Plumstead Marshes. At Deptford 
 it receives the contents of the High-level sewer by gravitation, and those 
 of the Low-level by pumping. 
 
 The Crossness Reservoir and Sluices. At the point of junction with 
 the Thames, 14 miles below London Bridge, there is a system analogous 
 to that at Barking Creek, but more costly to work on account of the 
 difference of levels. There are four double-acting condensing and 
 rotative engines of 125 horse-power, working eight pumps, 7 ft. in 
 diameter, with a lift varying from 10 to 34 ft. ; and the works connected 
 
 K 3 
 
202 APPENDIX NO. 3. 
 
 with the flowing into the river of the sewage thus pumped up comprise 
 engine and boiler houses, reservoirs, river-walls, shafts, coal-sheds, &c. 
 The pumping power is equal to that of raising 25,000,000 cubic ft. per 
 day to the level of the outfall. These works on the south side of the 
 river are very costly : the Deptford and Crossness constructions, and the 
 connecting sewer between them, will cost no less than 800,000^., irrespec- 
 tive of the southern high and low-level sewers. The reason is, that the 
 whole of the sewage has to be pumped up before it can enter the Thames, 
 whereas at Barking it flows by gravitation to the proper level. There is 
 at Crossness a reservoir 5 acres in extent : connected with it are three 
 systems of channels, one above another the lowest to bring down the 
 sewage from the sewer to the pumping- well ; the highest to convey it into 
 the reservoir by pumping ; and the middle one to discharge it from the 
 reservoir into the river. There is also provision for carrying off the 
 storm- waters by another channel. The culverts for carrying the sewage 
 from the great main sewer to the pumping- well are sufficiently large for 
 a railway train to run through, and a troop of mounted Lifeguardsmen 
 might do the like. The sewage passes through gratings, or strainers, 
 before it reaches the pump- well, formed of a kind of portcullis working 
 on massive hinges secured in the masonry. The strainings thus arrested 
 consisting of dead eats and dogs, and all the miscellaneous bulky sub- 
 stances that find their way into the sewers fall into a capacious stone 
 receptacle. A large wheel, carrying buckets on the periphery, rotates in 
 this receptacle, and dredges up the filth (as these solid matters are called), 
 and deposits it in the filth chamber, whence it is flushed into the river at 
 low tide. The bottom of the pump-room is 17 ft. below low- water mark. 
 This shows how formidable will be the work allotted for the pumping- 
 engines to perform. Indeed, Mr. Bazalgette has declared that if the 
 northern drainage had to be pumped up in the way which is thus neces- 
 sary for the southern, he would have shrunk from incurring the vast 
 working costs that would be involved ; and, in fact, he would not have 
 recommended the plan at all. When the sewage has reached the reser- 
 voir (which has a floor of Portland stone, and a roof formed of brick 
 arches resting upon brick piers), it will accumulate to the extent of 
 20,000,000 gallons (if full), and will then be let out into the Thames for 
 about two hours after each high-tide, day and night. The reservoir will 
 contain at one time much more than twelve hours' sewage from the whole 
 of the metropolis south of the Thames, with a sufficient extra capacity 
 for contingencies. 
 
 In 1861 and 1862 the Metropolitan Board of Works invited many 
 hundred peers, members of parliament, and other influential persons, to 
 visit the works, and see for themselves the nature of these very novel 
 operations. On the 18th July, 1863, another of these inspections took 
 place, by four hundred distinguished persons. Mr. Bazalgette explained 
 
MAIN DBAIXAGE OP LONDON. 203 
 
 everything that could be explained in a short oral address, and then 
 announced that all the northern drainage, except the Low-level sewer, 
 would be finished about the end of 1863 that by the autumn of 1864 
 the whole of the southern drainage would be finished and that by the 
 end of 1866 the completion of the northern Low-level eewer and the 
 Thames northern embankment may be expected. (The progress has not 
 been quite so rapid as Mr. Bazalgette at that time anticipated.) After 
 the visitors had inspected the vast works at Crossness Point they passed 
 over by steamer to Barking Creek, where the following operation took 
 place, as described in the daily newspapers : " The contents of the High- 
 level sewer, bringing down the sewage of Hampstead, Highgate, Kentish 
 Town, Holloway, Hackney, Bethnal Green, &c., was turned on for the 
 first time direct into the Thames. For some time past it has been dis- 
 charged through the Storm Overflow into the river Lea. The complaints 
 against the commissioners for spoiling the navigation of the pleasant 
 little river induced the board to lay down a temporary iron duct, which 
 conveys the sewage direct into the river Thames from the end of the 
 great sewer, without leading it through the reservoir. To those who have 
 faith in the value of this material as a liquid manure, it must have been 
 grievous indeed to see this gushing, roaring, black, and stinking stream 
 mixing in the broad waters of the Thames. Others, however, not so 
 absorbed in considerations of the economical value of this fertilising 
 stream, regarded it as the first great triumph of the system of main 
 drainage." 
 
 Considering the immensity of the work, it cannot be matter for 
 surprise that the cost will exceed the estimates. Since the commence- 
 ment of the commissioners' operations, in 1858, the wages of bricklayers 
 and the prices of bricks have risen considerably. It has been found that 
 between 1858 and 1863 wages had risen Is. or Is. Gd. per day for brick- 
 layers, and Gd. or Is. per day for excavators and labourers. The best 
 stock bricks, with which most of the work has been done, rose from 
 about 26. to 40s. per thousand ; and every kind of cement had risen in 
 price also. These augmentations of wages and prices were due mainly 
 to the unexampled quantity of brickwork executed in and near London 
 within the last few years. The Metropolitan or Underground Eailway, 
 the Metropolitan Extension of the Chatham and Dover Eailway, the 
 Charing Cross and Cannon Street Extensions of the South-Eastern Kail- 
 way, and the Finsbury Extension of the North London Eailway, besides 
 the International Exhibition building and other public structures, and 
 the new dwelling-houses and edifices (there were 24,000 new houses built 
 in the metropolis between the two takings of the census in 1851 and 
 1861), all combined to enhance the market value of materials and labour 
 in the building trades. The contracts taken for the main drainage in 
 1861, 1862, and 1863 were at higher terms than those taken in 1858, 
 
204 APPENDIX NO. . 
 
 1859, and 1860, on this account. Hence it resulted that Mr. Bazalgette 
 found his estimates would be exceeded. The Commissioners of the 
 Board of Works had, by the Main Drainage Act of 1858, obtained power 
 to raise 3,000,000^, to be paid by a tax or rate on the house property 
 within the metropolitan area. The Bank of England has advanced this 
 sum, at the low rate of 3f per cent, interest. In June, 1863, the commis- 
 sioners announced to the Treasury that, partly owing to the rise in labour 
 and materials, and partly to the necessity for additional works, a further 
 addition of more than a million sterling would be necessary. After a 
 little correspondence, the Treasury agreed to the introduction of a Bill 
 for increased parliamentary powers ; and this Bill has since become law. 
 The commissioners may raise 1,250,000/., which the Bank of England 
 agrees to advance at 3f per cent. It is a curious proof of the increase 
 in the value of property in London, that the commissioners now believe 
 they will be able to pay off the whole 4,250,OOW. in forty years the 
 same period which in 1858 they believed would be necessary for paying 
 off o,000,000/. The duty is 3d. in the pound on the rated rental of the 
 property within the metropolitan area. It produced 150,389^. in 1858-59, 
 and gradually rose to 157,075^. in 1862-63. Calculating on a similar rate 
 of increase in future, the commissioners estimate that by the year 1898, 
 or forty years from 1858, they will have received an aggregate total of 
 7,560,OOW. This would pay off the debt of 4,250,000/., together with 
 3,233,465/., the calculated interest, and leave a small surplus. As the 
 Treasury will guarantee the whole of the principal and interest, they 
 will virtually claim control over the due collection and disbursement of 
 the rate. The new Act of 1863 gave the commissioners an extension of 
 time until the end of 1866, on the ground that it will be impossible to 
 finish the Low-level sewer except in connection with the Thames embank- 
 ment. 
 
 Should the anticipations of the engineer be realised, it will unquestion- 
 ably be one of the greatest works of ancient or modern times. Even in 
 an industrial point of view it is very remarkable ; for, by the time all is 
 finished, the works will have absorbed 300,000,000 bricks, and 800,000 
 cubic yards of concrete, while the excavations will have amounted to 
 4,000,000 cubic yards of earthwork. 
 
 Among the many difficulties which the engineer of the Main Drainage 
 has had to meet, is that connected with new railway schemes. In 1863 
 there were no fewer than thirty-three distinct plans for railways in the 
 metropolis ; and when Mr. Bazalgette came to examine them, he found 
 that they would cut his sewers all to pieces, if constructed according to 
 tiie deposited plans. One would have diverted the great Fleet sewer 
 wholly out of its present direction for a considerable distance; while 
 others had been planned so recklessly that it would be difficult to see how 
 the sewers could be managed at all. Happily, most of the schemes fell 
 
EMBANKMENT OP IfiE THAMES. 205 
 
 to the ground at one or other of the parliamentary stages ; and in those 
 for which Acts were obtained, clauses were introduced bearing reference 
 to the safety and efficacy of the Main Drainage. Difficulties of a similar 
 kind afterwards arose in relation to the railway projects of 1864; and 
 1865. 
 
 APPENDIX No. 4. 
 EMBANKMENT OF THE THAMES. 
 
 Although the embankment of the Thames, now (1865) legislatively 
 sanctioned in reference to both banks of the river, is intended mainly 
 to increase the road communication, east and wet, through the metro- 
 polis, and to deepen and otherwise improve the river current, yet the 
 intimate alliance which it has with the great intercepting main drainage 
 scheme, on account of the line selected for the Low-level northern sewer, 
 renders desirable some account of the matter in this place. We shall 
 therefore rapidly trace the history of the subject, notice the extraordinary 
 variety of projects to which it has given rise, and describe the final 
 result to which those projects have led. 
 
 Just about a century ago plans began to be proposed for embanking 
 one or both sides of the river at London ; and they have been poured 
 forth at intervals ever since. The object was not in the first instance to 
 protect the river from pollution, but to improve the shores in an archi- 
 tectural point of view, and to facilitate traffic. So long as cesspools 
 were used instead of sewers, the river remained comparatively clean ; 
 for the contents of such receptacles frequently found their way upon 
 the land for manure. But when sanitary reformers urged upon the 
 government, as a measure of public health, the desirability of encouraging 
 the construction of sewers instead of cesspools, then did the Thames of 
 necessity become polluted, seeing that there is no other channel through 
 which the contents of the sewers can be conveyed out to sea. All the 
 earlier schemes for embanking the Thames, as we have said, had other 
 objects in view than the preservation of the water in purity ; but with the 
 present century the plans gradually became more comprehensive in their 
 scope. A committee of the House of Commons was appointed quite 
 early in the century to examine schemes for improving the river in various 
 ways. Among them was one by Mr. Jessop for forming a river wall at 
 some distance beyond the existing shore ; filling in the space behind it 
 with ballast dredged from the bed of the river ; forming in this way an 
 embankment from Blackfriara Bridge to the Tower ; building wharves 
 
206 APPENDIX NO. ^. 
 
 and warehouses on the embankment ; dredging the shoals in that part of 
 the river ; and selling the reclaimed land behind the embankment to pay 
 for the works. The plan was full of ingenuity, but nothing came of it. 
 Twenty years afterwards, when old London Bridge was about to be, 
 replaced by a new one, Mr. James Walker was requested by the Corpo- 
 ration to report on the probable effect of that change on the river and 
 its banks. His opinion was that the effect would be rather beneficial 
 than otherwise. Then, in 1824, came forward Sir Frederick Trench's 
 scheme for embanking the Thames. He proposed to embank the north 
 shore from London Bridge to Westminster Bridge, and to render the 
 embankment available as a public thoroughfare. A bill was brought 
 into Parliament to effect this object, by means of a public company; but 
 without success. Next year he enlarged his plan, proposing to make 
 an embankment from London Bridge to Scotland Yard, 80 ft. wide, 
 with a carriage-way in the middle, and footpaths on either side ; to con- 
 tinue this by another embankment, 110 ft. wide, from Scotland Yard to 
 Westminster Bridge, to be surmounted by a terrace-crescent of hand- 
 some houses ; to form a basin behind the embankment, 7 or 8 acres in 
 area, for commercial purposes ; and to construct roads to connect the 
 embankment with the Strand. The scheme was one of much boldness ; 
 but, like its predecessor, it fell to the ground. In 1831 and 1832, Sir 
 John Rennie and Mr. Mylne, at the request of the Corporation, reported 
 on the practicability of improving the- Thames by equalising in some 
 degree the depth and the width at different points. They proposed about 
 12,000 ft. of quay wall on the south side, from Southwark Bridge to 
 Westminster Bridge, and 7,000 ft. on the north side. They calculated, 
 as other engineers had previously done, that the rental of the reclaimed 
 land behind the river wall would pay for the whole enterprise. The 
 Corporation, however, did nothing further in the matter. Again, nine 
 years afterwards, engineers went over the old track, and took up again, 
 the idea of a river wall or embankment. In 1840 the Corporation, 
 reproached for doing nothing, answered the reproach by commissioning 
 Mr. Walker to prepare a comprehensive plan. He found on examination 
 that, by the removal of the bulky piers of old London Bridge "the 
 velocity of the stream had increased, the depth of water had decreased, 
 and shoals appeared more and more above the surface ; the piers of 
 Blackfriars and Westminster bridges were becoming undermined ; and 
 the general effect had been to render the inequality of the river greater 
 than ever, by deepening the narrow parts and shoaling the wide." 
 Mr. Walker believed that the Thames, even at the narrowest part, is 
 wide enough for all the traffic, if well organised ; and his proposal was, 
 to bring the river to something like an equality of width by means of 
 embankments. The width is a minimum of 600 ft. opposite the Milbank 
 Prison, and a maximum of 1,480 ft. opposite Buckingham Terrace. He 
 
EMBANKMENT OF THE THAMES. 207 
 
 proposed that the maximum should nowhere exceed 870 ft. The embank- 
 ment was to consist of a river wall of brick or stone, filled in behind 
 with soil dredged up from the bed of the river ; and Mr. Walker esti- 
 mated (as other engineers had estimated before him) that the rental 
 of the reclaimed land would pay for the works : the soil would form 
 good building ground behind the wall, instead of shoaling the river 
 itself. This well-concocted scheme fell to the ground, owing chiefly 
 to the opposition of wharfingers and others interested in river- side 
 property. 
 
 We now approach the period when Royal Commissioners began to 
 take up this Thames question. In 1842 a commission was appointed 
 " to inquire into and report upon the most effectual means of improving 
 the metropolis, and of providing increased facilities of communication." 
 As far as concerned the Thames, the commissioners examined plans by 
 Sir Frederick Trench, Mr. Walker, Mr. Page, Mr. Martin, and others. 
 Trench's plan was for an embankment, with a railway elevated above it 
 on columns; a promenade between the columns; a foot-pavement between 
 the covered walk and the river ; stone landing-stairs at intervals ; and a 
 road for vehicles on the other side of the walk. Mr. Walker's plan 
 comprised a continuous quay on the northern side of the river, about 
 4 ft. high ; and the owner of every wharf was to have the portion of 
 quay fronting his property on certain terms to be agreed upon. Four 
 basins behind the quay were to be constructed for barge traffic, with 
 four openings through the quay itself. This plan proposed neither a 
 roadway nor a large area of reclaimed land behind the quay, and was in 
 these particulars less comprehensive than his earlier plans. Mr. Page's 
 plan was for a quay with numerous water-openings leading to floating 
 basins, or tidal docks, behind it. Every water-opening was to have a 
 bridge over it, so that a continuous roadway might be formed along the 
 quay. Mr. Martin's plan was one of the first which embraced provisions 
 for a great sewer, in addition to the other objects of an embankment, 
 and on that account it deserves notice, as a sort of precursor of the plan 
 now actually being adopted. He proposed the construction of a great 
 sewer to receive all the drainage from the adjacent parts of London, and 
 carry it down to Limehouse, where it would be solidified as agricultural 
 manure ; a line of quay above the sewer for general traffic ; a line of 
 terrace above the quay for foot passengers; and colonnaded wharves 
 upon the quay, at certain busy places, to land merchandise, but without 
 disturbing the continuity of the quay. It is worthy of remark that, 
 while Mr. Martin's plan resembled the one now actually adopted, in 
 combining a low-level sewer with an embankment, Mr. Page's resembled 
 it in containing a provision for paying for the works by a tax upon all 
 coals brought within the metropolitan area. 
 
 London was doomed to another postponement of these excellent 
 
208 APPENDIX NO. 4. 
 
 improvements. The commissioners issued voluminous reports ; but, 
 through various causes, nothing was done excepting the embanking of 
 the northern shore of the river in the neighbourhood of Pimlico, chiefly 
 through the energetic exertions of Mr. Thomas Cubitt, acting for or 
 with the Marquis of Westminster. 
 
 In 1855 Parliament was flooded with railway schemes, many of 
 which attacked the Thames in singular ways. Mr. Lionel Gisborne, 
 Mr. Beaumont, Mr. Bird, Mr. Taylor, and Mr. Hawkshaw, all 
 had schemes for combining railways in some way with embankments 
 of the Thames, but without any arrangements for sewers. The 
 House of Commons appointed a committee to investigate all these 
 schemes, and this committee rejected every one of the plans that affected 
 the Thames. And thus another year was lost. So, indeed, were lost the 
 years 1856, 1857, 1858, and 1859, in regard to any definite plans for 
 embanking the Thames. There were, however, proceedings in relation 
 to the main drainage of the Metropolis, and others in relation to the 
 temporary purification of the Thames water. The first we have already 
 described in another part of the Appendix, and the other we will briefly 
 notice in this place. As the water of the Thames had been getting more 
 and more foul every year, it exhaled more and more noxious odours, 
 especially in hot weather ; until at length our judges at Westminster 
 Hall "smell'd" the river all day, and our legislators at the Houses of 
 Parliament all the evening, and half through the night. Mr. Golds- 
 worthy Gurney, superintendent of the arrangements for warming and 
 ventilating the Houses of Parliament, was requested, in 1857, to see what 
 could be done in the matter. Mr. Gurney reported that the solid 
 portion of sewage, being heavier than water, subsides permanently after 
 being driven to and fro a few times by the flood and ebb tides, and forms 
 a portion of the bed of the "river ; inasmuch as the black, slimy mud 
 that we see at low water contains solid sewage as one of its constituents. 
 No wonder, then, that such an abominable mixture should give forth 
 offensive odours ; the wonder would be if it did not. This applies to 
 the part of the river above London Bridge, into which sewage can flow 
 from the sewers only for a few hours before and after low water ; it 
 need not necessarily apply to the Thames about Barking and Erith, 
 especially when the sewage flows into the river soon after high water, as 
 in the Great Intercepting Drainage System. 
 
 Mr. Gurney conceived that if he could obtain a mastery over the 
 banks of the river he could greatly lessen the offensive state of the water ; 
 even though the old sewers continued to pollute the river. By straight- 
 ening and deepening the portion of the bed between high and low water 
 levels, he expected to get rid of many eddies, slacks, and retrograde 
 movements, which cause the retention of solid refuse. He proposed to 
 deepen the shallows near the shore, and to round off projections; then 
 
EMBANKMENT OF THE THAMES. 209 
 
 to form a breadth of 50 yards of solid, sloping banks on either side of 
 the river, wifh an inclination of one in twelve from the present shore 
 down to low-water level ; then to dredge a deep channel, 30 yards in 
 width, immediately outside or beyond each of these slopes. The gravel 
 dredged up would furnish materials for the sloping banks. The middle 
 of the river he would leave untouched ; the two deepened channels would 
 form the water ways for river steamers. The theory on which this plan 
 was based was, that the slopes of the banks would cause all mud and 
 Solid refuse to flow down into these channels ; that the depth of the 
 channels would cause a current sufficiently strong to carry down the 
 refuse to the sea ; and that thus the Thames would gradually become 
 cleaner and more salubrious. Mr. Gurney further proposed, as a means 
 of lessening the offensive odours perceptible at and near the mouths of 
 the sewers, to trap those mouths, or to close them with valves of such 
 construction as to permit the passage of solid and liquid sewage, but not 
 gases. As the noxious gases would thus be confined within the sewers 
 themselves, he further recommended that special openings should be 
 made at spots near the mouths of the sewers for burning the gases, they 
 being inflammable when mixed in certain ratio with atmospheric air. 
 Mr. Gurney's plan, submitted to the Commissioners of Public Works in 
 1857, underwent their consideration during the winter ; but nothing was 
 practically done by Mr. Gurney, except lessening the offensive odour 
 near the Houses of Parliament, by throwing down chloride of lime into 
 the sewers. 
 
 The next stage in this matter was the appointment of a committee of 
 the House of Commons in 1858, to investigate plans " for the purifica- 
 tion of the River Thames, especially in the immediate vicinity of the 
 Houses of Parliament." Judging from the constitution of the com- 
 mittee, it ought to have produced good results, seeing that it comprised 
 the names of Lord Palmerston, Lord John Russell, Sir John Shelley, 
 Sir Benjamin Hall, Mr. Robert Stephenson, Mr. Joseph Locke, and Mr. 
 William Cubitt, besides others of less note. Mr. Gurney was the chief 
 witness examined, and he presented in great detail the plan just 
 described. Other engineers, however, handled his scheme with great 
 severity. Mr. James Walker believed that Mr. Gurnev's sloping banks 
 would become covered with mud in the wide parts of the river ; that the 
 dredged channels would fill up again ; that one deepened channel in the 
 middle would be better than two near the sides ; that the muddy deposit 
 could not be removed unless a system of embankment were adopted ; 
 and that the offensive odours of the metropolis would not cease so long 
 as any of the sewers entered the Thames thereabouts. Mr. Bidder 
 expressed his opinion that the suggested channels would require constant 
 dredging, to remove the gravel that would otherwise silt them up ; that 
 the navigation of the Thames would be incommoded by these artificial 
 
210 APPENDIX NO. 4. 
 
 irregularities of bottom ; that deposits of mud would form on the 
 sloping banks ; that trapping the sewer mouths, burning the gases in 
 shafts, and all the other parts of the plan, would involve a wasteful 
 expenditure of money, as they would only be temporary expedients even if 
 useful at all ; and that the only good plan was a system of drainage which 
 would carry the whole of the refuse of London into the Thames at a 
 point far below the limits of the metropolis. Mr. Haywood, engineer 
 to the City Commission of Sewers, contended that the ventilation of 
 the sewers would cost annually a sum so enormous as to be insupport- 
 able ; that the existing air-shafts and gulley-holes must be trapped as 
 well as the mouths of the sewers, to give the system a fair chance ; and 
 that only a small portion of the deleterious gases could be decomposed 
 by burning. In short, although a few civil engineers gave a favourable 
 opinion of Mr. G-urney's plan, the balance of evidence was decidedly 
 against it. The committee thereupon rejected it. The investigation 
 led, however, to a strengthening of the hands of the Metropolitan Board 
 of Works, and to an adoption of that scheme which we have already 
 described for the main drainage of the Metropolis. 
 
 The plans for embanking the Thames remained in abeyance for some 
 time. Mr. Gurney's deodorising of the existing sewers was abandoned ; 
 the great intercepting drainage was commenced ; and the embankment 
 schemes slept a while. It became, nevertheless, evident that the Metro- 
 politan Board of Works were favourable to such an embankment, in 
 connection with their Low-level sewer. There was a very general concur- 
 rence of belief that if there were a river wall, filled in behind with solid 
 earth, the advantages would speedily become great. By narrowing the 
 river at certain wide parts, the current would be rendered more equable; 
 by straightening the line of shore, it would increase the scouring action 
 of the stream ; by shutting off the strip of ground between high and 
 low water, it would prevent the formation of mud-banks ; by giving 
 adequate breadth to the embankment, a terrace roadway might be formed 
 at the top ; by enclosing and drying the space now occupied by sand- 
 banks, new building ground might be obtained ; and by having a per- 
 manent wall running along a line in advance of the present limit of the 
 river-side houses, there would be a barrier, behind which a low-level 
 sewer might be constructed at any desired depth, without passing under 
 the houses and roadway of the Strand and Fleet Street. The old idea, 
 growing in many ways since the days of Sir Christopher Wren, had been 
 clouded from time to time by other plans ; but it was pretty certain 
 to meet with proper attention at last. 
 
 The year 1859 passed over without any decisive results in reference 
 to the Thames embankment ; but in 1860 a committee of the House of 
 Commons collected a vast body of evidence, and published a bulky Blue 
 Book, illustrated with many valuable maps and plans. The chief pro- 
 
EMBANKMENT OF THE THAMES. 211 
 
 jects for embanking the Thames were eight in number, concerning each 
 of which we will say a few words : 
 
 1. Mr. Fowler proposed an embankment, 80 ft. wide, from West- 
 
 minster to Blackfriars, to carry a road and a railway. The line 
 would be continued (though not on an embankment) to Farring- 
 don Street station at the one end, and to Pimlico station at the 
 other; and there would also be a new street from Blackfriars 
 to Cannon Street. Three docks would be formed behind the 
 embankment for barges, with a water area of 8 acres. The capital 
 was to be provided, partly by the Government or by the local autho- 
 rities, and partly by a company, who would work the railway. 
 
 2. Mr. Lionel Gisborne proposed to embank both sides of the river 
 
 from Westminster Bridge to London Bridge, on the supposition 
 that the southern bank would be injured if only a northern 
 embankment were made. He looked to a large rental for the 
 reclaimed land behind the two embankments. 
 
 3. Mr. Sewell proposed a railway on iron pillars, following nearly the 
 
 low-water line, with a low-level sewer under it, and openings 
 between the pillars for barges to reach the same water-area that 
 is now open to them. 
 
 4. Mr. Edmeston proposed an embanked road and railway following 
 
 nearly the high-water level, the whole of the barge trade to be 
 conducted outside it. 
 
 5. Mr. Bird proposed a tunnel railway from Pimlico station to Scot- 
 
 land Yard ; a railway, partly elevated and partly submerged in an 
 iron tunnel, from Scotland Yard to Queenhithe ; an embankment 
 and roadway from Scotland Yard to Blackfriars ; and the finishing 
 of a long-intended line of new street from Blackfriars to Cannon 
 Street, 
 
 G. Mr. Bidder brought forward a plan in which he had been assisted 
 by Mr. Harrison and the late Mr. Eobert Stephenson. It com- 
 prised the following elements an embankment from Westminster 
 Bridge to Southwark Bridge ; arches to raise a roadway to a level 
 with those bridges ; a low-level sewer beneath the embankment ; 
 large areas of reclaimed land to be given to Somerset House and 
 the Temple; about 12 acres of docks behind the embankment; 
 an extensive surface of reclaimed land to be let or sold for ware- 
 houses and cellars ; and a double tramway for large omnibuses on 
 the embankment. The plan also contemplated an embankment 
 on the south side of the Thames the whole way from Battersea 
 Park to London Bridge. 
 
 7. Mr. Page proposed an embankment from Pimlico to Queenhithe, 
 for the most part so low as not to intercept the view of the river 
 from the existing houses; the road to be on the embankment- 
 
212 APPENDIX NO. 4. 
 
 26 acres of dock-space to be formed behind the embankment; 
 certain portions of the reclaimed land to be laid out as pleasure- 
 grounds; tidal gates to be constructed in the embankment, to 
 admit barges into the docks ; a low-level sewer to be made under 
 the embankment ; and the embankment to be broad enough to 
 admit a tramway. 
 
 8. Messrs. Bazalgette and Hemans proposed an embankment from 
 Westminster Bridge to Q.ueenhithe ; a road on the embankment 
 100 ft. wide, to pass under Hungerford, Waterloo, and Blackfriars 
 Bridges, and inclined roads to connect the embankment with the 
 levels of those bridges. The embankment would be formed by 
 cylinders and sheet-piling, like new Westminster Bridge, filled in 
 with earth ; a low-level sewer would be formed beneath the 
 embankment, and behind it would be five docks, varying from 
 100 to 300 ft. in width, covering 21 acres, and entered by several 
 tidal gates. 
 
 All these plans, and many others, engaged the attention of the com- 
 mittee. As a result, the committee did not recommend any plan in 
 particular, but only some plan to be executed by the Metropolitan Board 
 of Works, under sanction of an Act of Parliament to be obtained for that 
 purpose. They recommended a postponement for a time of any southern 
 embankment, and a limitation of the length of the northern embankment 
 to the space from Westminster Bridge to Blackfriars. They proposed 
 that the cost should be defrayed out of the coal and wine duties collected 
 in the City. 
 
 No Act for this purpose was obtained in 1861 ; but a royal commission 
 was again appointed to examine and report upon all the schemes that 
 they could get hold of. The commissioners were Sir William Cubitt, 
 Sir Joshua Jebb, Captain Galton, Mr. Burstal, Mr. Hunt, Mr. McLean, 
 and Mr. Thwaites. They examined no less than fifty-nine plans or 
 schemes for the embankment of the Thames. The commissioners recom- 
 mended the postponement of the southern embankment : they concocted 
 a plan among themselves from the other fifty-nine, and they recom- 
 mended that it should be carried out by a distinct commission appointed 
 for that purpose. Mr. Thwaites, chairman of the Metropolitan Board 
 of Works, differed from the other commissioners chiefly on this point 
 that he wished the embankment to be constructed by his own board, 
 which already had the management of the main drainage. 
 
 At length, in 1862, an Act was passed for a northern embankment, 
 after a report from another committee that filled 360 folio pages. The, 
 Act is the 24th and 25th Viet., c. 93. By this statute there will bo an 
 embankment from Westminster to Blackfriars. The public roadway on 
 this embankment will be 100 ft. wide from Westminster Bridge to the 
 eastern boundary of the Inner Temple, and 70 ft. wide from the last- 
 
EMBANKMENT OF THE THAMES. 213 
 
 named point to Blackfriars Bridge. Approach roads, 40 ft. at least in 
 width, are to lead from Surrey Street, Norfolk Street, and Arundel 
 Street to the embankment. There is to be another approach road, 
 extending diagonally from Wellington Street, Strand, to the embank- 
 ment near Charing Cross railway bridge, with short branches to Villiers 
 Street and Buckingham Street; and other approach roads, with good access 
 to the embankment, from the Adelphi, from Whitehall, and from White- 
 hall Yard. There are to be no docks behind the embankment the space 
 is to be filled in and reclaimed. The Act only marks out the general 
 features of the plan ; the Metropolitan Board of Works were to settle the 
 details. The property is to be purchased by 1867, but the execution of 
 the work is not limited to that period. The line of embankment is so 
 chosen as to form a continuation of the terrace in front of the Houses of 
 Parliament. The distance to which it will extend out into the river (at 
 high water) is 220 ft. opposite Eichmond Terrace, 400 ft. opposite Scot- 
 land Yard, 300 ft. at Charing Cross, 450 ft. opposite Buckingham 
 Street, 300 ft. opposite Salisbury Street, and 130 ft. opposite Somerset 
 House. The first brick pier of Charing Cross Bridge and the first pier 
 of Waterloo Bridge will nearly denote the distances from the shore at 
 those spots. The embankment will be solid so far only as the Temple 
 Gardens ; eastward of that point it will rest on columns, and will leave 
 space for barge-traffic behind it. Mr. Bazalgette finds that he has to carry 
 the foundations 30 ft. below the bed of the river. He sinks iron caissons, 
 fills them with concrete and brickwork, and raises upon them (from below 
 the level of low- water) a solid granite-faced embankment. The low -level 
 sewer will be constructed behind and under the protection of the em- 
 bankment wall. 
 
 Throughout the various negotiations concerning the embanking of 
 the north side of the river, the inhabitants on the south bank strongly 
 urged the embanking of that also ; and in reference to very pressing 
 requests, the Government oppointed a commission, in 1862, to inquire 
 into the matter. After examining about twenty plans, the commis- 
 sioners, while admitting the improvement which the Thames would 
 experience by being embanked on the south side, from Westminster 
 Bridge to Deptford, did not feel justified in recommending, at present, 
 such an extensive work. They proposed, however, an embankment for 
 the distance between Westminster Bridge and Battersea Park. This 
 embanked roadway would be about 4J ft. above Trinity high-water 
 mark, 70 ft. wide, and 2 miles long. It would be an ornamental viaduct 
 opposite the Houses of Parliament, as far as Bishop's Walk ; then a 
 solid embankment as far as the London Gas Works ; then on arches to 
 Nine Elms; and then solid to Battersea Park. They further recom- 
 mended the dredging of this portion of the bed of the river to a level of 
 5 ft. below low- water mark. 
 
214 APPENDIX NO. 5. 
 
 The session of 1863 witnessed the passing of an Act for this Southern 
 Embankment. The Metropolitan Board of Works are empowered to 
 form an embankment from Gunhouse Alley to Westminster Bridge ; to 
 enlarge the bed of the river along a portion of this distance; to connect 
 the embankment, by approach roads, with Palace New Eoad, and Vaux- 
 hall Eow ; to reclaim the portion of foreshore behind the embankment ; 
 and to make a public footway 20 ft. wide on the embankment. It will 
 thus be seen that this scheme is a very limited one a first instalment of 
 what may be a large undertaking in the course of time. 
 
 The fire-places, great furnaces, and factory stoves of London are to 
 pay for both embankments, in the form of coal dues. 
 
 APPENDIX No. 5. 
 
 REPORT (MADE, BY ORDER, TO THE COMMISSIONERS OP SEWERS), UPON 
 THE MOST ADVANTAGEOUS MODE OP DEALING WITH THE SEWAGE 
 MATTER OP THE METROPOLIS, WITH A VIEW TO THE PREPARATION 
 OF SEWAGE MANURE, BY THOMAS WICKSTEED, ESQ., CIVIL ENGI- 
 NEER. 
 
 From this interesting Keport (dated February 13, 1854), we present 
 our readers with the following extracts which describe the works con- 
 ducted at Leicester by Mr. Wickstead, and the results he has obtained 
 in a successful deodorisation and disinfecting of sewer water. 
 
 "In 1845 I was^called upon by the projectors of the London 
 Sewage Company to report to them upon the practicability of carry- 
 ing out a scheme for distributing the sewage water of London in agri- 
 cultural districts by the application of steam power and pipes, and was 
 further instructed, that if I found it could not be carried out thus so 
 as to prove profitable, to suggest, if possible, some other mode for 
 effecting the object; and it was at that period that I entered into the 
 calculations as to the cost of such a scheme, which led me to form the 
 opinion that it could never be made a remunerative speculation. I 
 then considered a scheme for arresting the fertilising matter held in 
 suspension in sewer water, and found that even had it been as valuable 
 as the matter held in solution (which is by no means the case), the 
 quantity to be obtained, having regard to its quality, was too small to 
 be remunerative. 
 
 " It then occurred to me, that if by a mode much less costly than 
 that of evaporation to dryness, a sufficient quantity of the fertilising 
 matter held in solution could be separated, that the collection and ex- 
 
215 
 
 traction of fertilising matter from sewer water, might tJien be effected 
 at a remunerative cost, or otherwise the scheme must be aban- 
 doned. 
 
 " I then consulted my friend, Mr. Arthur Aikin, the eminent 
 chemist, at that time Professor of Chemistry at Guy's Hospital, as to 
 whether there was any cheap substance that could be employed to 
 separate the fertilising matter dissolved in sewer water, and which 
 would not itself prove injurious to the manure ; and he informed me, 
 that he had for forty years previously been in the habit of using a 
 small quantity of lime to separate the organic matter contained in the 
 New Kiver water, which application had always effected its intended 
 purpose, and that he had no doubt it might be applied with good effect 
 to the sewer water. Mr. Aikin tried some experiments upon the Lon- 
 don sewage water, and found, that, by the addition of about the three- 
 thousandth part by weight of lime, the quantity of precipitate ob- 
 tained was double of that which had previously resulted from the 
 precipitation of the solid ma'tter only, held by mechanical suspension 
 in the sewer water. The result of these experiments showing, that 
 not only was the weight of the manure to be obtained doubled, but 
 thatdthe addition being much more valuable as a fertiliser, the whole 
 quantity was rendered superior, and it appeared to be very probable 
 that a remunerative scheme might be formed ; accordingly I designed 
 a plan for the projectors of the London Sewage Company, and plans 
 were prepared and deposited for parliament, and the same was done in 
 the following year, but at neither of the periods could the company 
 proceed for want of the necessary capital. 
 
 " For some time after that period the state of the money market 
 was such, that although various similar schemes were published for 
 tunnel sewers with artificial falls, I considered my scheme would not 
 be much advanced by bringing it in opposition to the new schemes 
 until there was a greater chance of being able to raise capital for ita 
 execution. 
 
 "About the year 1849, I consulted my friend Mr. Eobert Stephen- 
 son upon the subject, who was kind enough to enter into a thorough 
 investigation of my scheme and an examination of the data upon 
 which it was founded. He afterwards expressed a favourable opinion 
 of its feasibility; the objections to it he considered to be chiefly the 
 large size of the reservoirs, which we agreed it would be desirable to 
 reduce if a scheme for so doing could be devised. And as to the ques- 
 tion of the tunnel sewer itself being constructed by a private com- 
 pany, instead of by a public commission, as it is clear that the com. 
 pany's interest would be to make the sewer as little in excess of the 
 size required to convey the sewer water when sufficiently impregnated 
 with fertilising matter to render its extraction remunerative, while a 
 
216 APPENDIX NO. 5. 
 
 commission, not being swayed by such considerations, would naturally 
 consider the question of getting rid of flood waters also, he thought, 
 therefore, that it would be better, if possible, to divide the scheme, 
 leaving the sewer to the public commission, and the process of dis- 
 infecting and utilising the sewage water to a company. Thus encou- 
 raged, I proceeded farther in the consideration of the subject, and in 
 the following year the idea of applying centrifugal force for the sepa. 
 ration of the water from the deposit in the bottom of the reservoirs 
 suggested itself to me, and, having tried the effect practically, in 
 1851 I took out a patent for the manufacture of sewage manure. 
 
 " The result of experiments with the patent process was -to show, 
 that, by its adoption, the size of the reservoirs might be greatly re- 
 duced ; that the deposit from the bottom of the reservoir might be 
 abstracted without exposing it by the removal of the supernatant 
 water ; and that it might be rapidly reduced into a sufficiently solid 
 state to admit of its being packed in casks, stored in pits or heaps, or 
 moulded into bricks for the purpose of farther drying by natural eva- 
 poration. In the latter part of 1851, Mr. Robert Stephenson, and 
 Professors Aikin and Taylor, having expressed very favourable opinions 
 of the practicability of my amended scheme, which opinion the^y al- 
 lowed me to publish, parties were thereby induced to purchase my 
 patents for Great Britain and Ireland, and in 1852 an Act of Parlia- 
 ment was obtained, incorporating the " Patent Solid Sewage Manure 
 Company," and enabling the Company to raise capital to the extent of 
 100,0002. 
 
 "In February, 1852, the Directors resolved that temporary works 
 should be erected in Leicester for the purpose of manufacturing the 
 manure upon a sufficiently large and practical scale, having in view 
 three objects: the first being to ascertain whether the lime process 
 effectually disinfected the sewer water, and if so, whether it could be 
 practically used upon the large scale ; the second, to ascertain whether 
 the removal of the precipitate from the bottom of the reservoir, and 
 the abstraction of the water from it by means of centrifugal force, 
 could be practically carried out upon the large scale and at a suffi- 
 ciently small cost ; the third object being, to manufacture a sufficient 
 quantity of the manure to enable agriculturists to prove its commer- 
 cial value, considering that their practical opinions would be a much 
 better test than chemical analyses only, and it was resolved that upon 
 the result of these trials, the question of proceeding with the Com- 
 pany should be decided. Works were accordingly erected, and after 
 many alterations and improvements upon the original scheme, which 
 probably would not have suggested themselves unless the opportunity 
 of carrying the plan out practically had been afforded, the Directors 
 were so satisfied with the result, that they felt justified in entering 
 
217 
 
 into a contract with the Town Council of Leicester, undertaking in 
 return for the exclusive right to all the sewage water for a period of 
 thirty years, to disinfect it, and discharge the water in an innoxious 
 state into the river Soar for the same period. 
 
 "The estimated cost of the necessary works is 25,0001, and contracts 
 were entered into in April last, for the erection and completion of 
 them in last October, but owing to unfortunate and unforeseen circum- 
 stances, first, to the delay in obtaining the land ; secondly, to the 
 unparalleled wet season which has peculiarly affected these works, the 
 site of them being on low marsh ground ; and, thirdly, to the great 
 difficulty in obtaining labour, owing to the strikes amongst the work- 
 men, and the delay in obtaining materials, I am afraid these works, 
 which, under ordinary circumstances, might easily have been com- 
 pleted in five months, will not be in effective operation much, if at all, 
 before next summer. 
 
 " I will now proceed to describe the temporary works and the pro- 
 cess, to the maturing of which I have devoted the greatest portion of 
 my time for the last two years, and have completely satisfied myself 
 that the scheme is not only practicable and remunerative, but may be 
 made very profitable when carried out on a larger scale than opportu- 
 nity has hitherto afforded. 
 
 " The temporary works at Leicester were erected upon ground be- 
 longing to the Town Council, upon the banks of the Leicester Naviga- 
 tion, near the outfall of the filthiest sewer in the town, a branch from 
 which supplied the works with sewer water. The use of the ground 
 was granted to the Company, at a merely nominal rate, by the Town 
 Council, who in this, as in other instances, have afforded every facility 
 to enable the Company to demonstrate to the public the practicability 
 of disinfecting the water and manufacturing the manure. 
 
 " As regards the size of the temporary works, they were calculated 
 for a population of 5,000, previous to the introduction of a supply of 
 water into the town from the New Water Works. I do not mean to 
 imply that we have actually deodorised the sewer water from a popula- 
 tion of -5,000 during twelve months, for this would be inaccurate, as 
 the constant interruption arising from the practical modifications and 
 improvements of the machinery used in the process would of itself have 
 prevented such a course ; but the works have for different periods been 
 kept in continuous operation day and night, that I might have the 
 opportunity of assuring myself that the process was complete as affect- 
 ing the sewer water during any of those periods, the object of these 
 temporary works being, as I have before stated, to ascertain whether 
 the process could be practically and remuneratively carried out by the 
 means proposed. 
 
 "At the commencement of our operations, it was found that the 
 
 L 
 
218 APPENDIX NO. 5. 
 
 process of deodorising was not perfect, and it was discovered that ltd 
 partial failure was due to the sewage water being in too concentrated a 
 condition, the new supply of water to the town having only been in- 
 troduced at Christmas last, while the operations of the Company com- 
 menced more thau a year and a half ago. To prove whether this con- 
 jecture was correct, a portion of the partially deodorized water was 
 returned into the engine well, and when the concentrated sewage was 
 reduced to a quality equal in strength to that of the metropolitan 
 sewer water, the process was completely successful. 
 
 " Professors Aikin and Taylor ascertained the strength of the Lon- 
 don sewer water, and determined what amount of dilution was neces- 
 sary to reduce the Leicester sewer water to the requisite strength, and 
 by their experiments I was guided in my practical operations. 
 
 " Again, it was found that at night, when the manufactories were 
 not at work, and the waste water from the engines had ceased to flow 
 into the sewer, their contents being chiefly urine and excrementitious 
 matter in a state of far greater concentration than the day sewage, the 
 effect of the lime was only partial, but upon diluting it as in the for- 
 mer case, the process of deodorising was completely successful the 
 effluent water from the reservoir, after the process was completed, 
 being perfectly free from all taste and odour, excepting occasionally 
 from the lime when it had been used in excess. 
 
 "A quantity of the effluent water from the reservoir was taken in 
 August last, by Mr. Theodore West, chemist, of Leeds, and subjected 
 to an analysis, and he found that there was not a trace of any other 
 matter than carbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, and chloride of 
 sodium, proving clearly that all noxious matter had been abstracted 
 during the process. 
 
 " The mode of operation in this process is as follows : the water is 
 pumped up from the sewer, and into the pipe conveying it to the re- 
 servoir a smaller pipe is introduced, connected with the lime-pump, 
 which works stroke for stroke with the sewer water-pump, and the pro- 
 cess of deodorising is so rapid that when the mixture of sewer water 
 and lime is discharged into the reservoir, there is no noxious odour 
 arising from it ; the discharge takes place into the first part of the 
 reservoir divided into three compartments, in each of which is an 
 agitator worked by the engine : a thorough mixture having thus been 
 effected, it flows through the upper end of the reservoir, and is from 
 thirty to forty minutes passing through this portion, during which 
 time seven-eighths or more of the separated matter has been precipi- 
 tated on the bottom of the reservoir ; there stilt remains, however, 
 about one-eighth of solid matter, and which being lighter than the 
 first portion, requires a longer time for precipitation, so as to render 
 the water clear and bright. 
 
MR. WICKSTEED'S REPORT. 219 
 
 " The water is, in fact, two hours in passing from the sewer to the 
 farthest end of the reservoir, where it is discharged, and arrangements 
 are made to enable the water to flow continuously through the reser- 
 voir with as nearly as practicable the same velocity over the whole 
 section, the openings of the discharging gates being proportioned to 
 the depth of water in the cross section, and thus the necessity of 
 having two reservoirs, for the purpose of filling one while the water 
 in the other is being cleared by deposition, is avoided, for although 
 the stream is continuous, its velocity being only about one-fourth of 
 an inch per second, it does not interfere with, or arrest the precipita- 
 tion of the solid matter. 
 
 " The operation of removing the precipitate from the bottom of the 
 reservoir, so as not to interfere with the continuous flow of the water 
 in the reservoir, is performed by means of a screw, which removes the 
 precipitated matter into an adjoining well or shaft as rapidly as it is 
 formed, without disturbing the process of precipitation which is 
 carried on above it. 
 
 " The bottom of the first portion of the reservoir is made to slope 
 towards the centre, along which a culvert runs, semi-circular at bottom 
 and open at top ; in the bottom of this the screw is laid, and the pre- 
 cipitate collecting upon it from the sloping sides,- is, as the screw re- 
 volves, carried into the adjoining well : the practical working of this 
 arrangement is now completely successful. 
 
 " It is the combination of these two arrangements ; viz., the con- 
 tinuous current and the removal of the deposit without disturbing the 
 supernatant water that has enabled me to reduce the size of the re- 
 servoirs to so great an extent : this will be seen hereinafter when I 
 give the sizes of the reservoirs I propose for the metropolis. 
 
 " The next operation is to raise the deposit or mud from the well or 
 shaft, by means of a Jacob's ladder, very similar in appearance and 
 construction to the ladder of buckets in the dredging machines 
 used on the Thames, excepting that its position is vertical and its 
 construction much slighter ; the mud thus raised in a semi-fluid state 
 into a tank, flows through a pipe to the centrifugal machine, the ma- 
 chine is then set in motion at the rate of about 1,000 revolutions per 
 minute, and in half an hour from the time the precipitate lay on the 
 bottom of the reservoir, it is in a sufficiently dry state to pack in casks 
 or to mould in the form of bricks for farther drying. 
 
 " A given bulk of the manure, when introduced into the centrifugal 
 machine, is reduced to about one-third of its original bulk, two-thirds, 
 as water, having been separated from it by the operation. 
 
 " The machines which are now making for the new Leicester Sewage 
 Works, are each calculated to turn out 360 Ibs. of manure in an hour, 
 in the state of consistency previously mentioned. 
 
 " Thus it will be seen, that the whole operation of disinfection and 
 
220 APPENDIX NO. 5. 
 
 conversion into manure is very simple, and I think it must appear evi- 
 dent, that after the experience of a year and a half of what may be 
 done in works sufficient for a population of 5,000, that by simple mul- 
 tiplication of the means, it may be made available for any population, 
 however great ; as in this case the increased quantity of sewage water 
 merely involves a simple increase of machinery in proportion to this 
 increase, the increase of power for raising it being in direct proportion 
 to the quantity. 
 
 " There is one very important conclusion that may be drawn from 
 what has been said ; viz., that an increased supply of water, by which 
 means only the greatest and most immediate sanitary effect will be 
 produced upon the atmosphere of dwellings in any town, does not 
 render the plan just described abortive, on account of the enormously 
 increased expense ; but, on the contrary, within certain limits, the 
 more the sewage is diluted, the more complete is the effect of the dis- 
 infection of the water and the precipitation of the manure, so that 
 the sanitary objects of the Commissioners and the commercial in- 
 terests of a Company carrying on the works, would not be opposed 
 to each other as would be the case in the event of the liquid scheme 
 being adopted. 
 
 " In the temporary works at Leicester, although the reservoir, the 
 steam-engine and boiler, the machinery for manufacturing the manure, 
 and the store for the manure, whether in casks or exposed in heaps 
 for drying, are under one roof, no noxious effect has in the slightest 
 degree been caused to the workmen employed in the process; and 
 although the manure itself, when taken from the cask and held to the 
 nose has a smell which an agriculturist would not object to, neverthe- 
 less, no smell whatever is perceptible at the distance of a foot or two 
 from the manure. 
 
 " As regards, however, the proposed large works for Leicester, there 
 will be two reservoirs, about 200 feet long, and 44 feet wide, two-thirda 
 of the area will be covered with an iron girder and brick arch floor for 
 the warehouses above, to economise space, and the whole will be roofed 
 over ; and as this portion of the design is intended to be carried out 
 in all future works, however large, all chance of nuisance from expo- 
 sure is avoided ; but the fact is completely established, that no nui- 
 sance does arise either from the reservoirs or in the process used in 
 manufacturing. 
 
 " Upon this point, and in corroboration of my statements, I beg 
 leave to call your attention to the practical evidence of his Grace the 
 Duke of Rutland, given in a letter I had the honour of receiving 
 from him; also of Joseph Whetstone, Esq., the Chairman of the Local 
 Board of Health ; John Ellis, Esq., late M.P. for Leicester, the Town 
 Clerk ; Dr. Shaw, and other medical gentlemen of the town of 
 Leicester, given in a certificate, which, with another from John Buck, 
 
ME. WICKSTEED'S EEronT. 221 
 
 Esq., late Medical Officer of the Leicester Local Board of Health, who 
 has had frequent opportunities of witnessing the operation of the 
 patent process, are addressed to your Honourable Board, as I thought 
 it might be more satisfactory to you to have the evidence of disin- 
 terested parties. 
 
 " Although not in a 'position at present to state what the ' actual 
 commercial value of the residual manure will be, because, as before 
 intimated, the desire of the directors of the Patent Solid Sewage 
 Manure Company has been to leave this to be determined by the re- 
 sult of its practical application by the agriculturist, and at present 
 the manure that has been so applied has been pro tanto inferior to 
 what is intended to be supplied, in its having been chiefly collected 
 from the day sewage unmixed with the richer night sewage, and also 
 from the fact of its containing 60 or 70 per cent, of water instead of 
 20 per cent., which is the quantity it would have contained, if the 
 extent of our temporary works had afforded us room for drying it in 
 larger quantities than has hitherto been practicable ; nevertheless, our 
 experience has been quite sufficient to prove that, without the neces- 
 sity of having recourse to expensive applications of artificial heat, 
 simple exposure to atmospheric influence for a few weeks will reduce 
 the moisture to 20 per cent., so that, bulk for bulk, the manure in- 
 tended for sale Avill contain twice as much fertilising matter as that 
 which has at present been forwarded to agriculturists for trial. The 
 present results, however, show that, taking guano at 10Z. per ton, the 
 manure, as proposed for sale, is at least worth 21. 13s. per ton ; but as I 
 stated to the Commissioners verbally, I have considered it safest to 
 calculate its commercial value at 21. or 21. 2s. per ton, and this amount 
 would yield, after deducting the cost of manufacture and repairs, a 
 fair per centage upon the capital expended in the construction of the 
 works ; but the actual value will not be ascertained until time has 
 afforded more extensive experience. But while it is undoubtedly of 
 importance that the Commissioners should be satisfied that it is of 
 sufficient value to induce capitalists to subscribe for its manufacture, its 
 real value, if greater, must depend in some measure upon the favour- 
 able locality of the works in relation to the agricultural districts 
 and hence its concentration, by reducing the cost of carriage, will in. 
 crease its value, weight for weight; and agair , the reduction in the 
 cost of manufacture, which the last year's experience has already en- 
 abled me to effect, has also shown, that, with larger opportunities, fur- 
 ther reductions may be effected, which, I need not remind the Commis- 
 sioners, has generally been the case in all new manufactures. 
 
 " The cost of manufacture will be proportionably greater in small 
 works than in larger ones : my present experience, however, enables 
 me to state, that, upon the average, the cost of manufacture will not 
 exceed 20s. per ton." 
 
222 
 
 APPENDIX NO. 5. 
 
 As to the application of his treatment to the sewage of the metro- 
 polis, Mr. Wick steed had been supplied by Mr. Bazalgette, engineer to 
 the Metropolitan Commission, with a map and the following parti- 
 culars : 
 
 " The main sewers of the Eastern Division are capable of being 
 terminated at the points A, B, and D, at the river Lea, and their 
 contents being separately or collectively manufactured into manure in 
 that locality, or they can be continued so as to discharge at mean high 
 water at the mouth of the Roding. With this view, A and B will be 
 9 feet above Trinity high water at crossing over the river Lea, and 
 the sewage could possibly be there converted into manure without 
 pumping. 
 
 " The main sewers of the Western Division will have two separate 
 flood outlets into the river at the points E and I, the inverts being 
 there level with low water. 
 
 " Sewage manure works could be established at both those points, 
 or the sewers could be so connected as to have one establish' 
 ment. 
 
 " We have taken the sewage at 5 cubic feet per head, and 
 the tables give the sewage thus due to the present population, and 
 also due to the ultimate increase of population as estimated by us. 
 
 NORTHERN SEWAGE INTERCEPTION AND DRAINAGE. 
 
 Hackney Brook . . A 
 Middle Level . . . B 
 Low Level . . . C 
 
 Total . . D 
 
 Present Population. 
 
 Prospective Population. 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 per Diem. 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 perMinute. 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 per Diem. 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 perMinute. 
 
 462,240 
 3,911,040 
 3,225,600 
 
 321 
 
 2,716 
 2,240 
 
 2,075,040 
 4,574,880 
 3,415,680 
 
 1,441 
 
 3,177 
 2,372 
 
 7,598,880 
 
 5,277 
 
 10,065,600 
 
 6,990 
 
 WESTERN DIVISION. 
 
 {Acton Line . . 
 
 169,920 
 
 118 
 
 662,400 
 
 460 
 
 CheyneWalkBranch } y 
 - to ditto . . . . S 
 
 224,640 
 
 156 
 
 224,640 
 
 156 
 
 I Brentford Line . . G 
 
 298,080 
 
 207 
 
 1,732,320 
 
 1,203 
 
 I Fulham Branch to do.H 
 
 37,440 
 
 26 
 
 139,680 
 
 97 
 
 Total ... I 
 
 730,080 
 
 507 
 
 2,759,040 
 
 1,916 
 
223 
 
 " MEMORANDA. The height of the lift, from the invert of the low 
 level sewer at the pumping station near West Ham Abbey, to the 
 invert of the high level sewer, is 35 feet, and to Trinity high water 
 mark, 26 feet. The height of the lift, from the invert of the sewer at 
 the pumping station in Fulham Meadows to Trinity high water mark, 
 is 17 J feet." 
 
 Mr. Wicksteed's estimate for works required for treating the sewage 
 of the metropolis, according to this arrangement of main sewers was 
 as follows : 
 
 PROPOSED WORKS. 
 
 " Without giving an opinion as to the actual sites that should be 
 secured by the Commissioners, which I have no doubt you will agree 
 with me would be premature, not to say imprudent, and in the choice 
 of which I have no doubt you will be much influenced by your Engi- 
 neers, to whom I shall be happy to give my assistance if required, I 
 may state, that it appears to me that four sites at least should be ob- 
 tained for the proposed works : the first in the neighbourhood of the 
 River Lea, uniting A and B, or the Hackney and the middle levels of 
 the northern division ; the second, in the neighbourhood of the same 
 river, to receive C, or the low level of the northern division ; the third, 
 in the neighbourhood marked I, upon the plans supplied to me by your 
 Engineer, uniting the Acton, Cheyne Walk, Brentford, and Fulham 
 levels of the Western Division ; and the fourth, on the banks of the 
 Thames, on the south side of the river, for the southern sewage. 
 
 " Supposing, in other respects, these sites to be eligible, there could 
 be no objection to them on the part of the Patent Solid Sewage Manure 
 Company ; but to repeat what I have hereinbefore intimated, there is 
 nothing as regards the disinfecting and manufacturing of the manure 
 to prevent either a concentration of, or a further subdivision of ma- 
 nufactories ; and if, therefore, it should appear hereafter that a dif- 
 ferent arrangement would lead to a reduction in the size and cost of 
 the main sewers, or for causes at present not foreseen an alteration 
 should be deemed advisable, I see no objection to its being made. 
 However, this part of the subject does not appear to me to press in 
 such a manner as to lead to the necessity of my delaying the comple- 
 tion gf this Report ; should, however, the s^es herein suggested be 
 finally determined upon by the Commissioners, the following state- 
 ment will represent the principal works that would be required for 
 each : 
 
224 
 
 APPENDIX KO. 5. 
 
 I. THE QUANTITY OF LAND REQUIRED FOR ALL PURPOSES, No. 1, AND 
 TOR KESERVOIRS, No. 2, INCLUDED IN No. 1. 
 
 
 Present Population. 
 
 Prospective Population. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 1st Site . . 
 2nd Site . . 
 3rd Site . . 
 4th Site . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Land for 
 all Purposes. 
 
 Land for 
 Reservoirs. 
 
 Land for 
 all Purposes. 
 
 Land for 
 Reservoirs. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 8| 
 6 
 1J 
 
 51 
 
 Acres. 
 2| 
 2 
 
 2 2 
 
 Acres. 
 
 124 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 Acres. 
 
 4i 
 2i 
 
 If 
 2* . 
 
 21| 
 
 n 
 
 81J 
 
 101 
 
 II. FULL AND AVERAGE POWER OF PUMPING ENGINES AND COALS. 
 
 1st Site . . 
 2nd Site . . 
 3rd Site . . 
 4th Site . . 
 
 Total . . 
 
 Full 
 Power. 
 
 Average 
 Power. 
 
 Coals per 
 Annum. 
 
 Full 
 Power. 
 
 Average 
 
 Power. 
 
 Coals pei 
 Annum. 
 
 H.P. 
 
 Nil 
 223 
 37^ 
 225 
 
 H.P. 
 
 Nil 
 148| 
 25 
 150 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Nil 
 
 1545 
 342 
 1560 
 
 H. P. 
 
 Nil 
 236 
 UIJ 
 270 
 
 H.P. 
 
 Nil 
 157 
 94i 
 180 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Nil 
 1635 
 981 
 
 1872 
 
 4S5 
 
 323 
 
 3447 
 
 647 
 
 431} 
 
 4488 
 
 " With the exception of the land and approaches, the above works 
 would have to be provided and maintained by the Company, and 
 in addition the Company would have to provide for manufacturing 
 purposes 
 
 Engine-power for present population 2,955 horses' power 
 
 Ditto for prospective ditto 4,286 
 
 Coals, per annum, for present ditto 26,341 tons 
 Ditto, ditto, for prospective ditto 38,205 
 
 " To show the importance of having manufactories established on 
 sites accessible for carriage, I may state, that the probable present and 
 prospective annual tonnage of coals, lime, and manure, will "be as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 For present population . . . 214,000 per annum 
 
 For prospective ditto . . . . 310,000 
 "" The capital required for the construction of works for the prospec- 
 tive population would not exceed 1,000,000. sterling." 
 
225 
 
 APPENDIX No. 6. 
 
 PROJECTS FOR UTILISING SEWAGE, 1854 TO 18G5. 
 
 In relation to the Main Drainage of the metropolis, we have been able, 
 in a former number of the Appendix, to describe a very important 
 advance made since the publication of the second edition of this work in 
 1854. The Sewage Manure question, however, has not been so fortunate. 
 We are still, in 1865, as we were in 1854, groping in search of a prac- 
 tical, if not profitable plan. Boards, committees, commissions, inspectors, 
 and civil engineers, all have been examining and reporting; and the 
 following brief account will show in what direction speculative ingenuity 
 has sought for a solution of this very difficult question. For fuller 
 details we refer to Mr. Scott Burn's JKudimentary Treatise noticed in the 
 Preface. 
 
 In 1856 the Board of Health directed their chief superintending 
 inspector, Mr. Ilenry Austin, to prepare a "Keport on the Means of 
 Deodorising and Utilising the Sewage of Towns." In 1857 that report 
 was presented, consisting of about a hundred pages of text, and seven 
 lithographed plans. Mr. Austin entered very fully into the chemical 
 and agricultural relations of sewage manure, the (then) existing arrange- 
 ments concerning the drainage of towns, the deodorisation of sewage, and 
 its manufacture into solid manure. He treated the general principles of 
 the subject, so far as they have yet been determined ; and obtained 
 evidence from various quarters as to the facts. He described various 
 chemical processes for separating the solid matter of sewage, as patented 
 or suggested by Mr. Higgs, Mr. Wicksteed, Mr. Stothert, Mr. Herapath, 
 Mr. Dover, Dr. Angus Smith. Mr. Blackwell, Mr. Manning, and 
 Mr. McDougall. He next similarly examined various mechanical pro- 
 cesses for effecting the same end, as adopted with more or less success at 
 Cheltenham, Uxbridge, Ely, Hitchin, and Dartmoor Prison. Mr. Austin 
 then instituted inquiries into the utilisation of sewage in the liquid form, 
 by open irrigation and by underground pipes : and into the relative 
 advantages of town sewage and farm-yard manure for agricultural 
 purposes. Mr. Austin wound up his report with a series of " Conclu- 
 sions," the most practical of which were as follow : 
 
 "That in order to avoid all further risS cf injury to health, whether 
 from discharge of the sewage into the rivers and streams, or from its 
 application to the land, it appears desirable that the solid matter should 
 in every case be separated from the liquid sewage at the outfall, and that 
 a cheap portable manure should be manufactured therefrom for use in 
 the immediate neighbourhood. 
 
 L 3 
 
226 * APPENDIX NO. 6. 
 
 " That it should be mixed with the ashes of the town, or such other 
 deodorising material as may be most suitable for application to the 
 surrounding land, and prepared, if de8irable, with other manuring 
 ingredients for particular crops. 
 
 " That it appears probable that such operation will in most places pay 
 its own expenses ; but that, as some such measure is absolutely necessary 
 for the public health, even though involving some expense, it should be 
 the duty of local boards and other governing bodies to carry it out, just 
 as much as arrangements devolving upon them for removal of dust or 
 other refuse from the town. It should form, in fact, part of such 
 service, and might be combined in the same contract. 
 
 "That the liquid portion of the sewage, thus cleared of its solid 
 matter, but still retaining its chief value as manure, might then be 
 applied with benefit to the neighbouring lands in any quantity ; but that 
 all land upon which this method of application of the sewage is practised 
 should, if not naturally porous, be artificially drained, as the liquid, if 
 allowed to become stagnant, would, as in common irrigation, be likely to 
 engender disease in the_neighbouring inhabitants, or in cattle exposed to 
 its influence. 
 
 " That the distribution of manures in the liquid state by the hose and 
 jet, from a system of underground pipes on. the land, has been found, 
 by the experience of several years upon farms in England and Scotland, 
 most advantageous ; and that the outlay for such works is considered by 
 eminent agriculturists,, who have had experience of their benefits, as a 
 very profitable outlay, irrespective altogether of the question of sewage 
 distribution. 
 
 " That upon grass lands, for which the application is best adapted, 
 these larger quantities of the liquid sewage, deprived of its grosser 
 particles, may be economically distributed, especially upon the lower 
 levels, by a combination of the underground pipe system with the sub- 
 sidiary open irrigation by small contour gutters. 
 
 " That the solid sewage manure, prepared and deodorised as above pro- 
 posed, may be used anywhere, and any quantity of the liquid applied on 
 absorbent or properly drained land, without any risk of injury to health, 
 and without any of the offensiveness constantly experienced from farm- 
 yard and other solid manures applied as top-dressings. 
 
 " That in any neighbourhoods, however, where no opportunity exists 
 for this beneficial irrigation, the liquid sewage, before being discharged 
 into rivers or streams, should, after separation of the solid matter, be 
 treated with lime or other deodorising and precipitating agents a duty 
 which should devolve upon the local board or other governing body, as a 
 precaution in which the public health is materially concerned." 
 
 Such was the substance of Mr. Austin's recommendation. It has been 
 a misfortune, in relation to this matter, that the same facts are described 
 
PROJECTS FOE UTILISING SEWAGE. 227 
 
 over and over again, and printed in the Blue Books at the public 
 expense, by rival or independent boards, commissions, and committees. 
 Instead of acting upon any of the suggestions made to the Board of 
 Health by Mr. Austin, a new body proceeded to investigate the whole 
 matter over again. In 1857 a Sewage Commission was appointed, con- 
 sisting of Lord Portman, Dr. Southwood Smith, Mr. I. K. Brunei, 
 Mr. H. K. Seymer, Mr. Rawlinson, Professor Way, Mr. Lawes, 
 Mr. Simon, and Mr. Austin. Their duties were " to inquire into the 
 best modes of distributing the sewage of towns, and applying it to 
 beneficial and profitable uses." The commissioners appointed five of 
 their number as a committee "to visit and personally examine the 
 different localities where sewage is employed in agriculture, or treated 
 with a view of neutralising its offensive and noxious properties;" leaving 
 for a subsequent period in their labours, " to undertake a series of 
 distinct experiments to test the efficacy of existing methods, and, if 
 possible, to improve upon them." The localities visited by the committee 
 in which sewage was applied to the land in a liquid form were Rugby, 
 Watford, Edinburgh, Eusholme, Mansfield, and Milan ; those in which 
 works were in operation for the purification of sewage were Croydon, 
 Leicester, Tottenham, and Cheltenham. The committee also visited 
 several farms, in which farm-yard liquid manure was used on a largo 
 scale ; the farms selected being the Earl of Essex's, at Cashiobury ; 
 Mr. Mechi's, at Tiptree ; Mr. Wheble's, at Bulmarsh Court ; Mr. Ken- 
 nedy's, at Myer Mill ; Mr. Telfer's, at Gumming Park ; the Marquis of 
 Breadalbane's, near Luing ; and Mr. Hervey's, near Glasgow. The 
 general report of the commission, founded upon the special reports of 
 the committee, and sent in to the Treasury irt 1858, was necessarily littlo 
 more than a repetition of Mr. Austin's statements, extending over nearly 
 the same area, and arrived at nearly in the same way. It will suffice to 
 give merely a few of the results at which the commission arrived: 
 
 " That the methods which have been adopted with the view of dealing 
 with sewage are of two kinds the one being the application of the 
 whole sewage to land ; and the other that of treating it by chemical pro- 
 cesses to separate its most offensive portions. 
 
 " That the direct application of sewage to land favourably situated, if 
 judiciously carried out, and confined to a suitable area exclusively grass, 
 is profitable to persons so employing it ; and that, where the conditions 
 are unfavourable, a small payment on the part of the local autL critics 
 will restore the balance. 
 
 " That this method of sewage application, conducted with moderate 
 care, is not productive of nuisance or injury to health. 
 
 " That when circumstances prevent the disposal of sewage by direct 
 application to land, the processes of precipitation will greatly amelio- 
 rate, and practically obviate, the evils of sewage outfalls, especially where 
 
228 APPENDIX NO. 6. 
 
 there are large rivers for the discharge of the liquid; but that Buch 
 methods of treating sewage do not retain more than a comparatively 
 small portion of the fertilising matters ; and that, although in some cases 
 the sale of the manure may repay the cost of production, they are not 
 likely to be successful as private speculations. 
 
 " That, considered merely as the means of mitigating a nuisance, these 
 precipitating processes are satisfactory ; that the cost of them in any 
 case is such as town populations may reasonably be called upon to meet; 
 that the necessary works need not, if properly conducted, be a source of 
 nuisance ; and that, by modifications of the existing methods, even the 
 slightest risk of nuisance may be entirely obviated. 
 
 " That the employment of the one or other method of disposing of 
 sewage, or of both conjoined, must depend upon locality, levels, markets, 
 and a variety of other circumstances ; and that the case of each town 
 must be considered upon its own peculiarities. 
 
 " That there is good ground for believing that the methods yet pro- 
 posed for dealing with sewage are not the best that can be devised ; and 
 that further investigation will probably result in the discovery of pro- 
 cesses more thoroughly equal to the suppression of the nuisance, and at 
 the same time calculated to give more valuable products. 
 
 "That the magnitude of a town presents no real difficulty to the 
 effectual treatment of its sewage, provided it be considered as a collection 
 of smaller towns. As. however, the conditions under which the evil may 
 be best removed will differ greatly in different localities, we think it 
 would be desirable, before any legislation takes place on this subject, 
 that investigation should be made into the state of the outfalls of dif- 
 ferent classes of towns, and of the condition of rivers in populous 
 districts, with the view to advise as to the general legislative measures 
 that might safely be adopted." 
 
 The commission also sketched a plan for dealing with the sewage of 
 the metropolis, by combining an embankment of the Thames with a series 
 of works for deodorising the sewage. 
 
 During the course of their labours from 1857 to 18G3, the commis- 
 eioners received numerous communications relating to plans for dealing 
 with this difficult sewage question. Some proposed plans for the manu- 
 facture of " urban manure ;" some for the disinfection of drains. Mr. 
 Beadon had a plan for the drainage, collection, and deodorisation of the 
 sewage of the metropolis by a system of subways, in which the sewage 
 would be conveyed to suitable districts for the purpose. Mr. Bridges 
 Adams proposed to collect separately the solid and liquid portions of the 
 sewage, allow them to accumulate for a given time, and finally remove 
 them for agricultural uses. Mr. Wright suggested a plan for producing 
 an inoffensive solid manure by using burnt clay, charcoal, and gypsum, 
 
PROJECTS FOE UTILISING SEWAGE. 229 
 
 with the sewage. Mr. Dover's suggestion was, so to employ hydrochloric 
 acid, sulphate of iron, and common salt, as to separate the liquid from 
 the solid portion of sewage, to render the former inodorous and inoffen- 
 sive, and to manufacture the residium into a profitable, portable manure. 
 Thirty or forty projects, more or less resembling those here noticed, were 
 received and considered by the commissioners, but no definite course of 
 action was adopted in reference to any of them. Two commissioners, 
 acting as an agricultural committee, Professor Way and Mr. J. B. Lawes. 
 have made many interesting experiments on fields near Eugby, by com- 
 paring the crops produced with and without the aid of sewage manure, 
 Oxen were fed with grass grown on sewaged and on unsewaged land, and 
 the fattening qualities of the two kinds were compared. 
 
 This Sewage Commission was appointed before there was a Metro- 
 politan Board of Works, entrusted with the general drainage of the 
 metropolis. Now, however, when there is such a board, the question is 
 practically taken out of the hands of the commission, so far as London 
 is concerned, seeing that it rests with the board to decide whether the 
 sewage shall flow into the Thames, or whether the contents of the great 
 reservoirs at Barking and Crossness shall be applied as manure. Never- 
 theless, the commission may still render service by encouraging plans 
 that may be useful in other large towns. 
 
 The Eeport of the Metropolitan Board of Works, submitted at a 
 meeting of the board held August 7th, 1863, emanated especially from 
 the Main Drainage Committee, and related to tenders received from various 
 persons for the sewage of the metropolis. Twelve parties had responded 
 to an advertisement put forth by the committee, and the following, 
 expressed in a condensed form, will suffice to show the nature of the 
 tenders: 
 
 1. Dr. Thudichum proposed by a mechanical arrangement so to sepa- 
 
 rate the house-drainage as to retain that which he considered 
 most valuable ; and he gave a sketch of his closet and drains, and 
 tables of analysis of the constituents of fluid sewage. He estimated 
 the cost of the works for carrying out his process at 1,500,000?. 
 Out of the net profit he proposed that he should receive a per- 
 centage, and that one half of the balance should be paid to the 
 board, and one half to the shareholders of a company formed for 
 carrying out the system. 
 
 2. Mr. Curwood was not in a position to offer a tender, but suggested 
 
 the separation of the solid and liquid sewage. 
 
 3. Lord Torrington, Sir Charles Fox, and Mr. Hunt, while expressing 
 
 their willingness to discuss a particular plan of theirs with the 
 Main Drainage Committee, and to enter into a provisional arrange- 
 ment for presenting a Bill in Parliament during the ensuing 
 
230 APPENDIX NO. 6. 
 
 session, regretted their inability to comply with the conditions of 
 the advertisement, on the ground of the impolicy of publicly 
 declaring the land with which they proposed to deal. 
 
 4. The London Sewage Utilisation Company (Limited) proposed that 
 
 the board should grant them the sewage they might require at 
 Barking Creek for two years, at a rent of 5 ; that, if the expe- 
 riment succeeded, the board should then grant a further term of 
 twenty-one years at the same rent ; and that, at the end f such 
 further term, the rent for a lengthened period should be referred 
 for decision either to the Board of Trade or to the President of 
 the Institute of Civil Engineers. 
 
 5. Mr. Moore proposed that the board should grant the sewage for a 
 
 term of ninety years ; that for fourteen years of this period the 
 rent should be merely pepper-corn ; and that for the remainder of 
 the term, after deducting 10 per cent, on the capital invested, the 
 rent should be one half of the profits. In a subsequent tender, 
 made in July, 1863, Mr. Moore offered one farthing per ton for 
 all the sewage raised by the board to a height of 200 ft. ; at 
 80,000,000 gallons per day, this would amount to 136,000^. per 
 annum. Mr. Moore stated that he had already engagements with 
 the occupiers of nearly 60,000 acres for the use of the sewage. 
 This plan of raising the sewage to so great a height seems to indi- 
 cate some arrangement for allowing the liquid to flow by easy 
 gradients to fields at a considerable distance-. 
 
 6. Mr. Shepherd, as a first communication, asked for a concession of 
 
 the whole of the sewage of London for fifty years. He proposed 
 to establish a company to work the plan ; and that, after this 
 company had reached 1\ per cent, on the invested capital, he 
 should share the surplus profits with the board. In a second 
 communication, Mr. Shepherd stipulated more completely than 
 before for an unlimited command over the whole of the sewage. 
 
 7. Mr. Kirkman's proposal embodied the use of a patent, of which he 
 
 is proprietor, for obtaining manure from sewage by filtration and 
 deposit ; the water after such treatment to be discharged into the 
 river. He proposed to erect works for this purpose at Barking, 
 on condition that the board convey to him the necessary land 
 adjoining the reservoir, deliver the sewage to him from the main 
 outfall sewer into his works, grant him the use of their river - 
 frontage and wharves for the term of seven years at a pepper-corn, 
 , seven years at a rent of one-fifth the net profits, after deducting 
 
 5 per cent, on the capital, and for any further time at a rental to 
 be settled by the Secretary of State. Mr. Kirkman stated that he 
 was prepared to guarantee a minimum rent of 10,000. per annum 
 that he could name two or more securities for the due perform- 
 
PEOJECTS FOE, UTILISING SEWAGE. 231 
 
 ance of the contract, and that he would agree to the surrender of 
 the works on two years' notice, subject to the repayment of tho 
 capital invested, and of a premium of 25 per cent, thereon, toge- 
 ther with a royalty of II. per cent, for the use of his patent. 
 
 8. Mr. Ellis proposed to pump the sewage from the reservoirs at 
 
 Barking and Crossness into certain covered tanks, and then to 
 cause it to flow by gravitation through pipes laid along the sides 
 of the roads adjoining the land to be irrigated. On behalf of a 
 joint-stock company to be formed, Mr. Ellis undertook to provide 
 and use deodorising agents. The net profits, after deducting 
 working expenses and reserve fund, to be divided equally between 
 the company and the board. The concession of the sewage to be 
 in perpetuity, subject to the board's power of purchasing after 
 fifty years, on giving three years' notice the price to be fixed by 
 valuers jointly chosen. Certain capitalists were prepared to back 
 Mr. Ellis to the extent of 60,000^. 
 
 9. Messrs. Napier and Hope proposed to intercept the whole of the 
 
 ordinary flow of the northern sewage near Abbey Mills, and to 
 convey it by a culvert 44 miles in length to Maplin Sands on tho 
 one hand, and to Dengie Flats on the other. Both those areas are 
 at present submerged at high water, and their redemption is part 
 of the project, extending ta 15,000 or 20,000 acres. The capital 
 proposed to be invested was 2,000,000^. ; the concession of the 
 sewage to be for fifty years, subject to parliamentary authority 
 being obtained, and to a grant of the land from the crown. The 
 net profits to be divided equally between the company and the 
 board, after deduction of 10 per cent- on the outlay. The board 
 to have the power of resuming the grant of sewage, and taking 
 the whole of the lands and works at a valuation, at the end of the 
 term of fifty years, on giving seven years' notice ; or a new con- 
 cession to be granted in terms settled by the Secretary of State. 
 The board to be represented by two directors appointed to the 
 company. The company to be formed within two years after 
 obtaining parliamentary powers. The company, within three 
 months of its formation, to place in the hands of trustees a certain 
 sum of money as security for the due fulfilment of the works. 
 The other three responses to the advertisement of the board did not 
 take the form of tenders. It will suffice to show the difficulties which 
 surround this subject to say that the committee did not feel justified in 
 recommending any of the plans, and that it was resolved by the board 
 that the committee's report, together with all the tenders, supplementary 
 documents, and correspondence, should be printed, and copies sent to all 
 the metropolitan vestries and district boards. From this it is pretty 
 evident, that so far from any defined arrangement being made, the end 
 
232 APPENDIX NO. 7. 
 
 of the year 1863 witnessed merely the commencement of another series 
 of plans, discussions, and controversies on this much-troubled sewage 
 question. To detail the proceedings of 1864 would be little more than 
 going again over the same ground ; the controversies and proposals were 
 numerous, but nothing definite resulted from them. In 1865, however, 
 the Maplin Sand reclamation scheme is brought forward in a definite 
 way, in connection with a system of sewage utilisation. 
 
 APPENDIX No. 7. 
 WATER SUPPLY OF LONDON, UNDER THE ACT OP 1852. 
 
 IN addition to the information given in the text (p. 99), it nay be 
 desirable to present here a few facts concerning the supply of water to 
 the metropolis, especially under the influence of the important statute 
 passed in 1852. For the reason stated in the Preface, we may refer 
 to Mr. Hughes' 'Rudimentary Treatise, for a fuller treatment of water 
 supply generally. 
 
 In 1856 a valuable Eeport was presented to the General Board of 
 Health, by the Superintending Inspectors of that Board (Messrs. Henry 
 Austin, William Kanger, and Alfred Dickens), on the subject of the 
 Water Supply of London. The Water companies having been required, 
 by the terms of the Act of 1852, to make* very extensive alterations and 
 improvements in their works, it became desirable to ascertain how far 
 the alterations had advanced. The inspector, therefore, made an exact 
 comparison between the state of matters in 1850 and in 1856, before 
 and after the Act of 1852 came into operation. The Act required that 
 by August 31, 1855, no water should be taken by any of the companies 
 (with one exception) from any part of the Thames below Teddington 
 Lock ; that all reservoirs within 5 miles of St. Paul's should be roofed 
 in, unless the water is filtered after leaving the reservoir ; that all the 
 conduits or water channels within the metropolis should be covered, 
 unless the water were filtered after leaving such channel. It may be 
 useful to present here a few leading facts concerning the ten companies 
 which supply the metropolis with water. 
 
 In 1850, there were 270,581 houses supplied with about 44,000,000 
 gallons of water daily, by nine companies ; whnreas in 1856 there were 
 o28,561 houses supplied with 81,000,000 gallons per day, by ten com- 
 panies : exhibiting a rise from 164 to 246 gallons per house per day. 
 The main and branch pipes, irrespective of the private service pipes, 
 were 2,086 miles in length, in 1856. There were 40 acres of filter beds, 
 and 141 acres of subsiding reservoirs. The filtered water was stored in 
 fourteen covered reservoirs, comprising an area of 15 acres, and in four 
 
WATEE SUITLY OF LONDON. 203 
 
 uncovered reservoirs, of about 3 acres, beyond the specified distance of 
 5 miles from St. Paul's. The cost of the several water-works, down to 
 the enactment of the statute in 1852, was about 5,000,000*. ; and a 
 further sum of 2,300,000*. was spent between 1852 and 1856 ; to which 
 an additional large sum has been added between 1856 and 1865. 
 
 The following are a few facts relating to each of the companies, indi- 
 vidually, in 1856. 
 
 New River. Sources of supply, New River, Eiver Lea, and chalk 
 springs. Number of houses supplied, 95,083. Gross quantity supplied 
 per day, 25,000,000 gallons. Aggregate nominal steam-power for work- 
 ing the pumping and other engines, 1,442 horses. Length of mains and 
 branches, about 450 miles. Area of subsiding reservoirs, 66 acres. Area 
 of filter beds, 9 acres. Area of covered reservoirs for filtered water, 
 of acres. Total cost of works, about 2,000,000*. 
 
 East London. Source of supply, the Eivcr Lea. Number of houses 
 supplied, 70,000. Gross quantity supplied per day, 16,000,000 gallons. 
 Aggregate nominal steam-power, 840 horses. Length of mains and 
 branches, 331 miles. Area of filter beds, 12 acres. Area of covered 
 reservoirs for filtered water, 2^ acres. Total cost of works, 1, 000,000*. 
 
 Southward and Vauxhall. Source of supply, the River Thames, at 
 Hampton. Number of houses supplied, 41,529. Gross quantity sup- 
 plied per day, 10,330,000 gallons. Aggregate nominal steam-power, 
 1,065 horses. Length of mains and branches, 432 miles. Area of sub- 
 siding reservoirs, 8 acres. Area of filter beds, 4| acres. Total cost of 
 works, 650,000?. 
 
 Lambeth. Source of supply, the River Thames, at Thames Ditton, 
 Number of houses supplied, 28,541. Gross quantity supplied per day, 
 6,110,000 gallons. Aggregate nominal steam-power, 680 horses. Length 
 of mains and branches, 206 miles. Area of filter beds, three-quarters 
 of an acre. Area of open reservoirs for filtered water, 1 J acre. Area 
 of covered reservoirs for filtered water, 3 acres. Total cost of works, 
 610,000*. 
 
 West Middlesex. Source of supply, the Thames, at Hampton. Number 
 of houses supplied, 25,732. Gross quantity supplied per day, 6,900,000 
 gallons. Aggregate nominal steam-power, 480 horses. Length of mains 
 and branches, 178 miles. Area of subsiding reservoirs, 16 acres. Area 
 of filter beds, 4^ acres. Area of covered reservoirs for filtered water, 
 If acre. Total cost of works, 800,000*. 
 
 Chelsea. Source of supply, the Thames, at Seething Wells. Number 
 of houses supplied, 25,030. Gross quantity supplied per day, 5,300,000 
 gallons. Aggregate nominal steam-power, 700 horses. Length o* 
 mains and branches, 198 miles. Area of subsiding reservoirs, 3^ acres. 
 Area of filter beds, 2 acres. Area of covered reservoirs for filtered 
 water, 2| acres. Total cost of works, 930,000*. 
 
234 APPENDIX NO. 7. 
 
 Grand Junction. Source of supply, the Thames, at Hampton. Number 
 of houses supplied, 17,221. Gross quantity supplied per day, 6,700,000. 
 Aggregate nominal steam-power, 1,440 horses. Length of mains and 
 branches, 117 miles. Area of subsiding reservoirs, 7f acres. Area of 
 filter beds, 5^ acres. Area of covered reservoirs for filtered water, a 
 little over 1 acre, Total cost of works, 730,000?. 
 
 Kent. Source of supply, the Eiver Eavensbourne. Number of houses 
 supplied, 16,077. Gross quantity supplied per day, 3,500,000 gallons. 
 Average nominal steam-power, 500 horses. Length of mains and 
 branches, 124 miles. Area of subsiding reservoirs, 5J acres. Area of 
 filter beds, 2| acres. Area of open reservoirs for filtered water, 1^ acre. 
 Total cost of works, 230,000^. 
 
 Hampstead. Sources of supply, the Hampstead and Highgate Ponds, 
 and an artesian well at Hampstead. Number of houses supplied, 
 6,348. Gross quantity supplied per day, 600,000 gallons. Aggregate 
 nominal steam-power, 72 horses. Length of main and branches, 33 miles. 
 Area of subsiding reservoirs, 35 acres. Area of filter beds, one-seventh 
 of an acre. Total cost of works, 120,OOOJ. 
 
 Plumstead and Woolwich. Source of supply, an artesian well in the 
 chalk. Number of houses supplied, about 3,000. Gross quantity 
 supplied per day, 550,000 gallons. Aggregate nominal steam-power, 
 35 horses. Length of main and branches, 16 miles. Area of subsiding 
 reservoirs, one-fifth of an acre. Area of covered reservoirs for filtered 
 water, one-third of an acre. Total cost of works, 50,000. 
 
 Some of the above-named companies were in 1856 without subsiding 
 reservoirs, some without open reservoirs, and some without closed reser- 
 voirs ; but very extensive additional works have been constructed between 
 1856 and 1865. Taking them one with another, the companies have 
 spent about 2QL in works for each house supplied with water ; and the 
 interest on this amount, together with the annual working expenses, are 
 considered in determining the annual water-rate charged upon each 
 house. 
 
 At the Woolwich and Charlton works, established so recently as 1854, 
 the water is softened by Dr. Clark's process, in which the chalk is ren- 
 dered soluble ; and the result, as stated by the inspectors to the Board of 
 Health, is beneficial in regard to health, comfort, and economy. The 
 inspectors made the following remarks on one still-existing source of 
 impurity in the water supplied, notwithstanding the use of filter-beds 
 and covered reservoirs : " The only remaining serious cause of conta- 
 mination will be the cisterns, water-butts, and other means for storing 
 the supplies now furnished by the companies. Although considerable 
 improvement has already taken place in the distribution, and the water 
 formerly supplied only on alternate days is now for the most part given 
 daily, except on Sundays, to every part of each company's district, its 
 
WATER SUPPLY OP LONDON. 235 
 
 storage even from day to day in the private butts and cisterns of most 
 houses, and especially in those of the poorer class, to a great extent 
 destroys the advantages that so much pains have been taken to secure. 
 The only complete remedy for this serious defect will be the constant 
 supply that is to say, a supply obtained at all times by direct commu- 
 nication of the house-service pipes with the constantly-charged mains of 
 the companies, thus avoiding the necessity for any means of storage 
 whatever on the private premises. The constant supply would bo the 
 means of rectifying also another serious defect to which the public is not 
 unfrequently liable in the present system viz. the irregularities of 
 supply. Notwithstanding that the companies have abundant means of 
 furnishing any quantity of water that can be legitimately used through- 
 out their districts, loud complaints are too often heard of a want of water 
 in certain localities. The deficiency would appear to arise not from 
 actual lack of water, but from some irregularity from time to time in 
 'districting' the service, which the constant supply would obviate. We 
 would allude also to the great advantage of constantly- charged mains in 
 case of fire as no small consideration." 
 
 The charge for water-rate by eight out of the ten companies (omitting 
 the Kent and the Woolwich) for the yea"r 1856, as given in one of the 
 parliamentary papers, was as follows : 
 
 NewEiver 156,367 
 
 East London 85,286 
 
 West Middlesex 72,165 
 
 Grand Junction .... 52,590 
 
 Chelsea 43,071 
 
 Southwark and Vauxhall . . 41,914 
 
 Lambeth 34,645 
 
 Hampstead 10,580 
 
 Taking an average of the whole, this gives a gross payment, by house- 
 keepers and manufacturers, of about Is. for 2,800 gallons of water, of 
 233 gallons for Id. 
 
 We have no concern here with the controversy respecting the Trafalgar 
 Square Fountains as matters of taste or art ; but as they are connected 
 in a small degree with the supply of the metropolis with water, a para- 
 graph concerning them may not be out of place. The wells which supply 
 the fountains also supply some of the government offices. In 1843 
 Messrs. Easton & Amos were employed to sink wells for this purpose to 
 the level of the springs beneath the London clay. The fountains were 
 not intended to be merely ornamental they were to form cooling-ponda 
 to condense the steam of the pumping-engines, the resistance of the air 
 to the ascending jets producing a cooling action. The Government were 
 encouraged to undertake this work by the ascertained fact that the 
 
236 APPENDIX NO. 7. 
 
 interest on the cost of the new works would be less than the water-rate 
 paid by or for the government offices about the neighbourhood of White- 
 hall. The works were commenced on a piece of ground in Orange Street, 
 behind the National Gallery. A well was sunk to the depth of 174 ft. 
 A cast-iron pipe, 15 in. diameter, was then driven through 30 ft. of 
 plastic clay, and 10 ft. into a stratum of gravel, sand, and stones. 
 Within this another pipe of 7 in. diameter was driven through 35 ft. of 
 green-coloured sand, and 3 ft. into the chalk. Boring was then continued 
 to a depth of 300 ft. from the surface. The chief supply of water thence 
 obtained came from the chalk. A second well was then sunk in the 
 enclosure in front of the National Gallery, to a depth of 168 ft., and a 
 pipe and a boring continued nearly as in the former instance, but to a depth 
 of 383 ft. The springs were found to be stronger than those in the well 
 in Orange Street. A tunnel, 6 ft. diameter, and about 400 ft. long, was 
 driven to connect the two wells, at a depth of 123 ft. below Trinity high- 
 water mark. The works were finished in December 1814, at a cost of 
 8,400/. The water rose to within 90 ft. of the surface, and was found to 
 be of good quality. When the engine was pumping 110 gallons per 
 minute, it lowered the water only 4 ft. in the well. In 1846, a further 
 demand for water having arisen, a larger pump was substituted, capable 
 of raising 350 gallons per minute. In 1849, another well was sunk in 
 Orange Street, to a depth of 176 ft., and a tunnel was made to connect it 
 with the others. The steam-engine works one double-acting pump for 
 supplying the fountains, and two others for raising water from the 
 springs into the tanks above the building. The pumping of 600 gallons 
 per minute lowers the water 20 or 24 ft. ; but then the level remains 
 permanent, however long the pumping may be continued. In the 
 beginning of 1859 the level of the water in the wells was found to be 
 nearly as it had been throughout. 
 
 In a paper by Mr. P. W. Barlow, read before the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers in 1855, the water-bearing strata of the London basin were 
 described, with a view of showing how abundant is the supply of water 
 available, if proper means were adopted for utilising it. This basin, 
 defined by a boundary running through or near Folkestone. Hythe, 
 Ashford, West Farleigh, Sevenoaks, Reigate, Godalming, Pewsey, 
 Devizes, Swindon, Wantage, Tetworth, and Cambridge, covers an area 
 of 8,000 square miles ; and the water-bearing strata beneath this area 
 comprise the London clay, the chalk, the upper greensand, and the 
 lower greensand. The superficial area through which rain infiltrates 
 west of London, and from which the supply for the artesian wells of 
 London is obtained, is about 24 square miles. About 200 square miles 
 of area eastward of London, where the lower beds of clay are arenaceous 
 and permeable, but where the upper or impervious beds are wanting, 
 add very little to the supply of the ordinary London basin. Of the 
 
WATER SUPPLY OF LONDON. 237 
 
 3,800 square miles of chalk strata exposed to the surface, it is considered 
 that this constitutes the great water-bearing stratum ; and that, in parts 
 where the chalk is 60 ft. or 80 ft. below the surface, there may be several 
 supplies of water, irrespective of each other, at different depths, and 
 applicable to different purposes. The district south-east of London was 
 stated by Mr. Barlow to be peculiarly adapted for affording a water 
 supply. Scarcely any of the springs in that part of Kent reappear in 
 the form of surface springs ; they mostly empty themselves into tho 
 Thames at low water, from fissures in the bed or banks. By inter- 
 cepting these springs in their course towards the Thames, a copious 
 supply of water might be obtained from the chalk. It was estimated that 
 the drainage area of the water thus wasted is 190 square miles, west of 
 the Medway, which might yield a daily supply of 60,000,000 gallons ; 
 and that 320 square miles, east of the Medway, might yield 100,000,000 
 gallons per day. Mr. Prestwich, from an investigation of the greensaml, 
 had arrived at a conclusion that those strata might be made to yield 
 40,000,000 gallons per day, which would probably rise to a height of 
 120 ft. above the surface ; and he had suggested how desirable it would 
 be, imitating the example furnished by the artesian well at Grenelle, if 
 a similar experiment were tried in some spot of the London basin where 
 the lower infiltrating springs would be intersected. Mr. Barlow quoted 
 these speculations of Mr. Prestwich, and adduced his own experience as 
 engineer of the South-Eastern and North Kent railways, to support tho 
 view that the metropolis ought not to be left mainly dependent on tho 
 Thames for its supply of water, seeing that that river is becoming more 
 and more deficient, and that the strata of the London basin comprise so 
 many beds that are water-bearing. A lengthened discussion took placo 
 after the reading of Mr. Barlow's paper, during which many engineers 
 adverted to the uncertainties which have marked the sinking of deep 
 wells near London. A well-known instance is the one on the road 
 between Kentish Town and Highgate, sunk to obtain a supply auxiliary 
 to that of the Hampstead Waterworks. The well was begun at a height 
 of 172 ft. above Trinity high-water mark, with the hope of reaching 
 water in the chalk at about 320 ft. below the surface. The chalk was 
 compact, hard, free from fissures, and comparatively dry, with the flints 
 not in layers, but distributed through the mass. After sinking 218 ft. 
 in the chalk, boring was commenced, and continued to a depth of 
 1,150 ft. below the surface. After traversing 538 ft. of chalk, and then 
 layers of gault and red clay, the greensand was reached ; but so dis- 
 couraging was the result, owing to the scanty indications of water, that 
 the enterprise was regarded almost as hopeless. It was further continued, 
 however, to a depth of 1,302 ft., and then abandoned, after two years and 
 a half of labour, and a very heavy expense. 
 
 It docs not seem very probable, now that the ten water companies 
 
238 APPENDIX NO. 8. 
 
 have invested such large 'sums in enlarging and improving the water 
 supply of the metropolis, that any further radical changes will be made 
 in this matter. But the future will have to settle the question. It is 
 supposed that more than 50,000,000 gallons of water per day are at the 
 present time (1865) taken out of the Thames near Hampton and Thames 
 Ditton, in aid of the London supply ; and it has still to be ascertained 
 what effect that large draught will have on the general condition of the 
 river. Hence such inquiries as those instituted by Mr. Prestwich and 
 Mr. Barlow, and mentioned in the last paragraph, are important. We 
 may notice, too, a project which bears relation to the chalk strata near 
 Grays, in Essex, opposite Northfleet. In excavating the chalk for ship- 
 ment, 2,000,000 gallons of water per day require to be pumped away 
 into the river ; and it has been proposed to utilise this water for the 
 supply of towns, instead of thus allowing it to run to waste. Purfleet, 
 Kainham, Brentwood, Dagenham, Ilford, Komford, Barking, East Ham, 
 and other towns between Grays and London, might (it is conceived) be 
 thus supplied. Messrs. Easton and Amos have estimated that, if 
 220,000/. were expended in the necessary works, a supply of 2,000,000 
 gallons every twelve hours might be obtained ; 4,000,000 gallons by an 
 expenditure of 268,000^.; and 6,000,000 gaUons by an expenditure of 
 475,000/. 
 
 APPENDIX No. 8. 
 THE GREAT WATERWORKS FROM LOCH KATRINE TO GLASGOW. 
 
 Without going into the subject of the water supply of our great towns 
 generally, as developed between the years 1854 and 1865, we deem it 
 desirable to notice those for the supply of Glasgow, unparalleled as they 
 are in this country for engineering grandeur and public success. 
 
 The works were commenced in 1856, after lengthened inquiries in the 
 preceding years. The old supply from the Clyde at Dumbarton had 
 become quite inadequate. A plan had been proposed for bringing water 
 from Loch Lubnaig, but had fallen to the ground. Loch Katrine was 
 then named ; and after a very favourable report from two distinguished 
 engineers, since deceased, Mr. Brunei and Mr. Robert Stephenson, the 
 corporation commenced that magnificent work which has become an 
 honour to the city and to the engineer. The water comes from the 
 mountain-lakes on the borders of Stirlingshire and Perthshire. The 
 sources of supply are Loch Katrine, 8 or 9 miles long, with an area of 
 3,000 acres ; Loch Vennachar, 4 miles long, with an area of 900 acres ; 
 and Loch Drumkie, with an area of about 150 acres. The three lakes 
 would, if quite full, contain 1,600,000,000 cubic feet of water. The 
 
GLASGOW WATEK SUPPLY. 239 
 
 basins which find their drainage into these lakes cover an area of 45,800 
 acres, and have an average rain-fall of about 80 in. per annum. The 
 works at Loch Katrine are so managed that all the water for 4 ft. above 
 the ordinary summer level, and 3 ft. below it, can be treated as a 
 reservoir or store, with proper channels for drawing it off ; this store is 
 equal to 50,000,000 gallons per day for 120 days without rain. The 
 \rater from Lochs Vennachar and Druinkie is chiefly appropriated to the 
 Bupply of mill-owners, fishermen, and others interested in certain rivers ; 
 the supply for Glasgow being mainly obtained from Loch Katrine. At 
 the outlets provision is made for the discharge of floods as well as for 
 the daily regulated supply, and for securing the passage of salmon and 
 other fish by properly constructed " salmon-ladders." Loch Katrine 
 being 360 ft. above the river level at Glasgow, there is scope for a gentle 
 descent the whole way, and still leaving a pressure of 70 ft. or 80 ft. 
 above the highest summit of land within the city. The whole length of 
 aqueduct from Loch Katrine to Glasgow is about 34 miles, 10 or 1 1 of 
 which consist of ridges of very hard rock, forming spurs of Ben Lomond. 
 Through these ridges, in a tolerably straight line, the aqueduct is carried, 
 principally by tunnelling. The tunnels are 8 ft. in diameter, and have a 
 fall of 10 in. to the mile. Across several deep and wide valleys the 
 water is conveyed by cast-iron pipes, 4 ft. in diameter, with a fall of 5 ft. 
 per mile. The average inclination of the whole is 2 ft. per mile. Near 
 Mugdock Castle, about 8 miles from Glasgow, a reservoir has been con- 
 structed, 70 acres in extent, and capable of containing 500,000,000 
 gallons. From this reservoir, the top- water of which is 311 ft. above 
 the sea, the water flows to the city through two lines of cast-iron pipes, 
 3 ft. in diameter. Of the 26 miles which lie between Loch Katrine and 
 the reservoir, 13 miles are tunnelling, 3f miles iron piping, while the 
 remainder, where the ground has been cut open, is an arched aqueduct, 
 8 ft. in diameter, with the same angle of descent as the tunnels. Where 
 the ground has been thus excavated,. it has been filled in again over the 
 aqueduct, which is covered throughout, and the surface restored to its 
 original condition. 
 
 It will at once be seen from this description that many of the works 
 must be very heavy. There are 70 distinct tunnels, upon which 44 
 vertical shafts have been sunk. The greatest tunnel, a mile and a 
 half long, just out of Loch Katrine, is worked through the hardest 
 gneiss and mica slate ; and five out of the twelve shafts sunk for working 
 it are 500 feet deep. The tunnel just before entering the great reservoir 
 is also a mile and a half long, and is worked in whinstone. In some 
 places, where the mica slate is largely mixed with quartz veins, the rock 
 is so obdurate that the progress did not exceed 3 linear yards in a 
 month, although the work was carried on day and night. In tunnelling 
 the mica slate, the progress was generally 5 yards per month. In drilling 
 
240 APPEKDIX NO. 8. 
 
 the holes for blasting the rock, a fresh drill or chisel was required foi 
 every inch in depth ; and 60 drills were constantly kept working at once 
 There are twenty-five important iron and masonry aqueducts over river 
 and ravines, some 60 or 80 ft. in height, with arches of 30 to 90 ft. span 
 
 It was known when the plans were first laid that the hard rock wa 
 likely to be free from water, and that, therefore, the working, thougl 
 slow, would not be retarded by harassing inbreaks of springs. N< 
 water occurred in any of the tunnels or workings in mica slate or cla^ 
 slate. When the works emerged from the slate rocks and entered th< 
 old red sandstone, tunnelling was avoided as much as possible ; but evci 
 in this formation water was met with in much less quantity than had beei 
 anticipated. 
 
 The works were inaugurated by the Queen on the 14th of October, 1850 
 when her Majesty and the royal family were en route from Balmoral t( 
 Windsor. The royal party drove from Holyrood to the Loch, ernbarkec 
 on a small steamer, and went to the mouth of the tunnel by which th< 
 water finds its exit, and which was, of course, gaily decked out for th< 
 occasion. The ceremony was a very simple one. The Queen turned i 
 small tap, which set in motion a 4-horse hydraulic engine at the moutl 
 of the tunnel, and this raised the great iron shutters which permittee 
 the water to enter the tunnel on its journey of 34 miles to Glasgow. Ir 
 a few graceful words before leaving, her Majesty said : " It is with much 
 gratification that I avail myself of this opportunity of inaugurating f, 
 work which, both in its conception and its execution, reflects so mud 
 credit upon its promoters, and is calculated to improve the health and 
 comfort of the vast population which is rapidly increasing round the 
 great centre of manufacturing industry in Scotland. Such a work is 
 worthy of the spirit of enterprise and the philanthropy of Glasgow, and 
 I trust that it will be blessed with complete success." 
 
 With a wise foresight, the corporation provided for a much larger 
 supply than is at present needed. They obtained powers to draw 
 50,000,000 gallons per day from the lakes, and constructed all the works 
 necessary thereto ; but their present actual requirements very little exceed 
 20,000,000 gallons. Mr. Bateman, the engineer, in a letter to the 
 Builder, in 1862, draws attention to the wonderful advantages which 
 have followed the introduction of such a copious supply of pure soft 
 water : " The saving to the inhabitants in soap, and other articles of 
 private and trading consumption, is estimated at about 40,000/. per 
 annum, equal to a free gift to the city of 1,000,000^., being a sum greater 
 than the cost of the whole works. The saving of soap alone in trading 
 establishments, such as bleach and print works, is from one-half to. five- 
 eighths of the quantity which was previously used. These facts cannot 
 be too strongly impressed on the minds of the public, aa they show the 
 importance and economy of soft water supplies, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Access to sewers, 132. 
 Accounts of Commissioners, 53. 
 Acts (1848 and 1849), Sewers, 46. 
 Adam's plan for the utilisation of sewage, 
 
 Ainger's plan for utilising sewage, 28. 
 
 Ainmonia, its value in sewage, 15 ; to 
 prevent the escape of, from sewage, 16. 
 
 Analyses of manures, 4. 
 
 Appendices : No. 1. Steam draining- 
 plough, 182 ; No. 2. Mr. Stephenson s 
 Report on plan for draining London 
 north of the Thames, 190 ; No. 3. Main 
 drainage of London, proceedings from 
 1854 to 1865, 194; No. 4. Embankment 
 of the Thames, 205 ; No. 5. Extracts 
 from the report of Mr. Wicksteed on 
 the utilisation of sewage, 214 ; No. 6. 
 Projects for utilising sewage (1854 to 
 1865), 225; No. 7. Water supply of 
 London, and effect of the Act of 1852 on 
 the, 232 ; No. 8. Waterworks from Loch 
 Katrine to Glasgow, 238. 
 Application of sewage water to Edinburgh 
 meadows, 25 ; to Craigin tinny meadows, 
 
 Aqueduct, Croton, 137. 
 Ashburton, application of sewage at, 28. 
 Ashton-under-Lyne, supply of water, 79. 
 Austin's report on the utilisation of sew- 
 age, 225. 
 
 Barking reservoir, described, 199. 
 
 Barlow on the water-bearing strata of the 
 London basin, 236. 
 
 Basement drainage, 160. 
 
 Bath, supply of water, 85. 
 
 Bazalgette and- Hemans' plan for em- 
 banking the Thames, 212. 
 
 Bazalgette's report, 55. 
 
 Beadon's plan for utilising sewage, 228. 
 
 Bidder's plan for embanking the Thames, 
 
 Bill, "Great London Drainage," 71. 
 
 BiLston, supply of water, 85. 
 
 Bird's plan for embanking the Thames, 
 
 Birmingham sewers, 111. 
 
 Bishopsgate Street sewer, 38. 
 
 Board of Health v. Commissioners of 
 
 Sewers, 69. 
 Bones for manure, 4. 
 Boussfogault's experiments on sewage, 4. 
 Brecon sewers, 112. 
 Bristol sewers, 112. 
 Buildings, classification of, 144. 
 Bunnett's water-closets, 178. 
 Capacity of reservoirs, 91 ; sewers, 115. 
 Cast-iron water-pipes, 138; joints of. 139; 
 
 size of, 134, 140; weight of, 140. 
 Cesspools, 171 ; cleansing, 17. 
 Cesspools, apparatus for emptying, de- 
 scribed, 176. 
 
 Chatham, supply of water, 87. 
 Chelsea Waterworks Company, facts re- 
 lating to the, 233 ; charge of, for water- 
 rate, 235. 
 
 Chester sewers, 111, 127. 
 Chorlton-on-Medlock, supply of water, 79. 
 Cistern, Hosmer's, 177. 
 City of London sewers, 37. 
 Classification of buildings, 144 ; of sites of 
 
 towns, 7. 
 
 Cleansing cesspools, 17; house-drains, 169; 
 sewers, 133; streets and roads, 99, 135. 
 Clitheroe, application of sewage as ma- 
 nure at, 27. 
 
 Collection of manure, 5. 
 Commissioners' accounts, 53 ; invitation 
 
 for " plans," 50. 
 Commissioners of Sewers v. Board of 
 
 Health, 69. 
 Computation of Farey on the performance 
 
 of Taylor's piu^ping-engine, 141. 
 Concentration, extravagance of, 22. 
 Conditions in constructing drains, 158. 
 Connections of sewers, 131. 
 Consideration of sites of towns, 6. 
 Constant service of water, 95, 149. 
 Construction of sewers, 130. 
 Consulting engineers' report on drainage 
 
 south of Thames, 65. 
 Contents of sewers, 15. 
 Conveyance of water, 136. 
 Cost of manuring, 26; pumping, 141. 
 
242 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Covered drains, 101. 
 
 Craigintinny meadows, application of 
 
 sewage to, 27. 
 
 Cresy's estimate of value of sewage, 18, 19. 
 Crops, rotation of, 4. 
 Crossness reservoir, 101 ; capacity of, 202 ; 
 
 cost of, 202 ; culverts of, 202 ; filth 
 
 chamber, 202 ; strainers, 202. 
 Croton Aqueduct, 137. 
 Croydon, supply of water, 88. 
 Cubitt's estimate for London sewerage, 
 
 68 ; report on drainage south of Thames, 
 
 65. 
 
 Dartf ord, supply of water, 88. 
 
 Defects of house-tanks, 96. 
 
 Defects of London drainage, 11. 
 
 Deficiency of fall, 95, 164. 
 
 Deptford pumping-station, 201. 
 
 Depth for drains, 161 ; of sewers, 120. 
 
 Dimensions of sewers, 109. 
 
 Disposal of refuse matters, 3. 
 
 Distribution of refuse matters, 5. 
 
 District boards of works, powers of, 194. 
 
 Ditches, evils of open, 101. 
 
 DIVISION II. Drainage of Towns and 
 Streets: Sec. I. Classification of towns, 
 &c., 1. Sec. II. Supply of water, &c., 
 72. Sec. III. Drainage of streets, &c., 
 99. Sec. IV. Main sewers, &c., 106. 
 Sec. V. ConTeyance of water, &c., 136. 
 
 DIVISION III. Drainage of Buildings: 
 Sec. I. Classification of buildings, 144. 
 Sec. II. Water service, 148. Sec. III. 
 House-drains, &c., 157. Sec. IV. Water- 
 closets, &c., 170. 
 
 Dover's plan for utilising sewage, 229. 
 
 Drainage (Main) of London, an account 
 of, 1854 to 1865, 194 ; conflict between 
 the Board of Works and Public Build- 
 ings and the Metropolitan Board of 
 Works. 195 ; constitution and powers of 
 the Metropolitan Board of Works, 194 ; 
 system adopted, 196; area to be drained, 
 196. Northern System : northern high- 
 level, 197; northern middle-level, 197; 
 Old Ford storm overflow, 197 ; northern 
 low-level, 198; northern outfall, 199; 
 Barking reservoir, 199 ; western drain- 
 age, 200. Southern system: southern 
 high-level, 200; southern low-level, 201 ; 
 Deptford pumping-station, 201 ; southern 
 outfall, 201; Crossness reservoir, 201. 
 Inspection of the works, 202 ; cost of, 
 203 ; circumstances increasing the cost 
 of, 203 ; materials absorbed by the 
 works, 204; difficulties from the inter- 
 ference of railways with the system, 
 204. 
 
 Drainage of basements, 160 ; of London, 
 10; of London south of the Thames, 58. 
 
 Drainage not determined by rivers, 6. 
 
 Draining plough, Fowler's steam, 182. 
 
 Drains, conditions in constructing, 158 ; 
 covered, 101 ; deficiency of fall of, 164 ; 
 formed of stoneware pipes, 126 ; trap- 
 ping, 168. 
 
 East London Waterworks Company, facts 
 
 relating to the, 233 ; charge for water- 
 rate, 235. 
 
 Edinburgh meadows, application of sew- 
 age to, 25. 
 
 Edmeston's plan for embanking the 
 Thames, 211. 
 
 Egg-shaped sewers, estimates for, 129; 
 rule for forming, 112. 
 
 Elevation, ranges of, 12. 
 
 Ellis's project for utilising sewage, 231. 
 
 Embankment of the Thames, account of 
 schemes for, 205; appointment of a 
 royal commission, 207; Mr. Gumey's 
 plan, 208 ; parliamentary committees 
 on, 209, 210; plans laid before ditto, 
 209, 211; result, 212 ; act for embank- 
 ing the north side of the river, 212; 
 plan of the embankment described, 212 ; 
 southern embankment, 213. 
 
 Escape of ammonia from sewage, 16. 
 
 Estimates for egg-shaped sewers, 129. 
 
 Estimates for London sewerage, by Sir 
 W. Cubitt, 68. 
 
 Estimates for sewers, 52. 
 
 Experiments by Boussingault, 4 ; with 
 jets, 154; by Liebig, 4, 
 
 Extinction of fires, 153. 
 
 Extravagance of concentration, 22. 
 
 Fall, deficiency of, 45. 
 
 Fare3 T 's computation on the performance 
 
 of Taylor's pumping-engine, 141. 
 Filtering, private, 150. 
 Filters at Nottingham, 92 ; at Paisley, 92 ; 
 
 self-cleansing, 90. 
 Fires, extinction of, 153. 
 Fixing the gases in sewage, 16. 
 Fleet sewer, 38, 40, 109, lid. 
 Flushing of sewers, 43, 133 ; evils of the 
 
 system, 134. 
 Form of sewers, 122. 
 Forster's plans for intercepting the sewage 
 
 of London, 50. 
 Fowler and Fry's steam draining-plough, 
 
 182; machinery of, 183; operation of, 
 
 184; advantages of, 185. 
 Fowler's plan for embanking the Thames, 
 
 211. 
 
 Frome sewers, 112. 
 Functions of sewers, 107. 
 
 Gases in sewage, fixing the, 16. 
 
 General summary, 179. 
 
 Geological objection to tunnel scheme, 49. 
 
 Geology of York, 81. 
 
 Gisborne's plan for embanking the 
 
 Thames, 211. 
 Glasgow, water supply of, from Loch 
 
 Katrine, 238; works described, 239; 
 
 inauguration of, 240. 
 Graduation of drain-pipes, 167 ; of water- 
 
 p'ipes, 157. 
 Grand Junction Waterworks Company, 
 
 facts relating to the, 234; charge for 
 
 water-rate, 235. 
 Grays, water obtained from the chalk 
 
 excavations near, 238. 
 li Great London Drainage Bill," 71. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 243 
 
 V 
 
 Greenock, supply of water, 83. 
 
 Gurncy's plan for purifying the Thames, 
 
 208. 
 Outline's apparatus for using rain-water, 
 
 152. 
 Gypsum, use of, to fix the gases of sewage, 
 
 16. 
 
 Hackney-brook sewer, 55. 
 
 Hampstead Waterworks Company, 234; 
 charge for water-rate, 235. 
 
 Hawksley's calculation of the cost of 
 raising and conveying water for the 
 town of Nottingham, 1-12. 
 
 Hcmans and Bazalgette's plan for em- 
 banking the Thames, 212. 
 
 Higg's patent for utilising sewage, 36. 
 
 High-level, northern, described, 197; 
 southern, 200. 
 
 High-level sewer, 51. 
 
 High service of water, 98. 
 
 Holborn and Finslmry sewers, 110. 
 
 Homersham's report on the capacity and 
 cost of reservoirs, 91. 
 
 Hope and Napier's plan for utilising sew- 
 age, 211. 
 
 Hosmer's cistern, 177. 
 
 House-drains, cleansing, 169; trapping, 
 168. 
 
 House-tanks, defects of, 96. 
 
 Intercepting sewers, 15. 
 Irongate sewer, 37. 
 
 Irrigated meadows, L'6 ; at Craigintinny, 
 27 ; at Edinburgh, 25. 
 
 Jessop's plan for a river wall for the 
 Thames, 205. 
 
 Jets, experiments with, as a means of 
 extinguishing fires, 153 ; use of, for 
 cleansing streets, 135 ; use of, at Pres- 
 ton, 156. 
 
 Joints of water-pipes, 139. 
 
 Katrine, works for supplying Glasgow 
 with water from. Loch Katrine de- 
 scribed, 238. 
 
 Kent and Surrey drainage, 58. 
 
 Kent Waterworks Company, facts relating 
 to, 234. 
 
 Kirkman's proposals for utilising sewage, 
 230. 
 
 Lambeth Waterworks Company, facts 
 relating to the, 233 ; charge for water- 
 rate, 235. 
 
 Lambro river, 24. 
 
 Lancashire reservoirs, 91. 
 
 Lancaster sewffrs, 111. 
 
 Liebig on fixing the gases of sewage, 16. 
 
 Liverpool, supply of water, 84. 
 
 Loch Katrine, supply of water for Glas- 
 gow from, 238 ; works described, 239 ; 
 inauguration of the works, 240. 
 
 London Basin, water-bearing strata of the, 
 236. 
 
 London, drainage of, 10; defects of, 11. 
 
 London, main drainage of, account of 
 proceedings from 1854 to 1865, 194; sys- 
 
 tem adopted, 196 ; area to be drained, 
 196; cost, 203. 
 
 London, main drainage of: northern 
 system, 197 ; southern system, 200. 
 
 London, Martin's plan for intercepting 
 the sewage of, 28 ; report on the drain- 
 age of, 65; Stephenson's evidence on 
 the drainage of, 50; water supply of, 
 232 ; list of companies supplying Lon- 
 don with water, 233. 
 
 London sewers, 40; outfalls of, 11. 
 
 London, situation of, 9. 
 
 London Water Companies, 97; supply, 76, 
 96. 
 
 Low-level, northern, main sewer de- 
 scribed, 198. 
 
 Low-level, southern, main sewer de 
 scribed, 201. 
 
 Low-level sewer, 51. 
 
 Machine, Whitworth's street sweeping, 
 
 105. 
 
 Main sewers, 106. 
 Manchester, street-sweeping in, 106; 
 
 supply of water, 83. 
 Mansfield, use of sewage at, 28. 
 Manure, bones for, 4. 
 Manure Company, sewage, 31. 
 Manure, quantity of, produced by each 
 
 person, 5. 
 
 Manures, analyses of, 4. 
 Manuring at Clitheroe, 27 ; cost of, 26. 
 Market-gardens, sewage manuring of, 31 
 
 Martin's plan for embanking the Thames, 
 
 207. 
 Martin's plan for intercepting the sewage 
 
 of London. 28. 
 Meadows, irrigated, 26; Craigintinny, 
 
 27; near Edinburgh, 25; near Milan, 
 
 25. 
 "Metropolis Local Management Act, 1 ' 
 
 extracts from, 194. 
 "Metropolitan Board of Works," consti- 
 
 tutioi^of, 194 ; powers of, 194. 
 Metropolitan Sewers Commission, 40; 
 
 latest proceedings, 195. 
 Metropolitan sewer districts, 37- 
 Middle level, northern, sewer described, 
 
 197. 
 
 Milan, sewerage of, 24. 
 Moore's scheme for the utilisation of 
 
 sewage, 230. 
 
 Napier and Hope's plan for utilising 
 sewage, 2:>>1. 
 
 Navi^lio can t J at Milan. 24. 
 
 Newcastle-undcr-Lyne, supply of water, 
 85, 
 
 New Commission of Sewers, 50. 
 
 Now Eiver, the, 137. 
 
 New River Water Company, sources, 
 supply, &c., of, 233 ; charge for water- 
 rate. 235. 
 
 New York, Croton aqueduct at, 137. 
 
 Nitrogen in excreta, 4. 
 
 Northern embankment of the Thames, 
 plan of, described, 212. 
 
244 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Northern high-level sewer, 197; low- 
 level sewer, 193; middle-level sewer, 
 197 ; outfall described, 199. 
 
 Nottingham filters, 92 ; sewers, 111 ; 
 supply of water, 83, 146. , 
 
 Old Ford storm overflow, 197 ; Penstock, 
 
 chamber of, 197. 
 Open ditches, evils of, 101. 
 Outfall, northern, 199 ; southern, 201. 
 Outfalls of sewers, 11, 44. 
 Overflow, Old Ford storm, described, 197. 
 
 Page's plans for embanking the Thames, 
 207, 211. 
 
 Paisley filters, 92. 
 
 Pans of stoneware, 173. 
 
 Parish vestries, powers of, 194. 
 
 Penstock chamber of the Old Ford storm 
 overflow described, 198. 
 
 Phillips's tunnel scheme, 47. 
 
 Pipe-sewers, 126. 
 
 Pipes for water, 139. 
 
 Pipes, graduation of, 157. 
 
 Plans for the embankment of the 
 Thames : laid before the committee of 
 the House of Commons (1858), 209; 
 before the committee of the House of 
 Commons (1860), 211. 
 
 Plough, Fowler's steam draining, 182. 
 
 Plough, steam draining, 182. 
 
 Plumstead and Woolwich Waterworks 
 Company, facts relating to, 234. 
 
 Portable pumping apparatus, 176. 
 
 Position of receptacles for sewage, 210. 
 
 Preston, supply of water, 75, 78 j use of 
 jets at, 156. 
 
 Prices of sewers, 127. 
 
 Private filtering, 150. 
 
 Proportion of streets, 100. 
 
 Public filters, 94. 
 
 Pumping station, Deptford, 201. 
 
 Pumping water, cost of, 141 ; Mr, Wick- 
 steed's table of results, 143. 
 
 Qualities of water, 73. 
 Quality of town sewage, 5. 
 
 Quantity of manure produced by each 
 person, 5. 
 
 Rain-fall, 75. 
 
 Rain-water, use of, 151. 
 
 Raising refuse matters, 5. 
 
 Ranger's estimate of value of sewage, 19. 
 
 Ranges of elevation, 12 ; details of system 
 
 of, 20; objections to system of, 21. 
 Recapitulation, 99. 
 
 Receptacles of sewage, 2 ; position of, 119. 
 Refuse from streets, 102. 
 Refuse matters, collection of, 5 ; disposal 
 
 of, 3 ; distribution of, 5 ; raising, 5. 
 Relative levels of towns, 6. 
 Rennie, Sir J., and Mr. Wyle's plan for 
 
 embanking the Thames, 206. 
 Report by Mr. Homersham, 91. 
 Report, extracts from the, of the consult- 
 x ing engineers on the drainage of south 
 
 London, 65. 
 Reservoirs, report on the capacity and 
 
 cost of, yi. 
 
 Reservoirs, 89 ; capacity of, 91. 
 
 River Lambro, 24. 
 
 River, New, described, 137. 
 
 Rivers do not determine drainage, 6. 
 
 Rivers not to be made sewers, 3. 
 
 Rivers, towns on, 1 ; water-power from, 14. 
 
 Roads and streets, cleansing, 99. 
 
 Rotation of crops, 4. 
 
 Rule for forming egg-shaped sewers, 124. 
 
 Rule for size of water-pipes, 190. 
 
 " Salpeterfrass," 16. 
 
 Self-cleansing filters, 90. 
 
 Sewage, Ainger's plan for the utilisation 
 of, 28 ; Austin's report on, 225 ; Lie- 
 big's experiments on the value of, 4 ; 
 Martin's plan for intercepting the, of 
 London. 28 ; position of receptacles for, 
 210 ; to prevent the escape of ammonia 
 from, 16 ; utilisation of : extracts from 
 the report of the Metropolitan Board of 
 Works on utilisation, 229 ; projects for 
 utilisation. 225 ; results of the, the sew- 
 age commission of 1857, 227 ; value of 
 ammonia in, 16 ; extracts from Mr. 
 Wicksteed's report on the utilisation of, 
 
 Sewage Manure Company, 31. 
 
 Sewage water, applications of, as manure, 
 25 ; value of, 3, 17, 18, 19. 
 
 Se well's plan for embanking the Thames, 
 211. 
 
 Sewerage of Milan, 24. 
 
 Sewers, access to, 132 ; Acts, 1848 and 
 1849, 46 ; capacity of, 115 ; in Birming- 
 ham, 111; in Brecon, 112; in Bristol, 
 112; in Chester, 111; cleansing, 133; 
 Commissioners' rules for f orming drains, 
 163 ; connections of, 131 ; construction 
 of, 130 ; contents of, 15 ; depth of, 120 ; 
 dimensions of, 109 ; estimates for, 52 ; 
 flushing, 43, 134; form of, 122; in 
 Frome, 112; functions of, 107 ; in Hoi- 
 born and Finsbury division, 110 ; inter- 
 cepting, 15; in Lancaster, 111; of 
 London, 40 ; main, 106 ; in Notting- 
 ham, 111; outfalls of, 44; prices of, 
 127 ; rule for forming, 124 ; size of, 121 ; 
 stoneware pipe, 126; Swansea, 112; 
 Westminster division, 110, 112, 114. 
 
 Sevese canal at Milan, 24. 
 
 Shepherd's plan for utilising sewage, 230. 
 
 Sites of towns, classification of, 7. 
 
 Situation of London, 9. . ' 
 
 Size of sewers, 121. 
 
 Southern embankment of the Thames, 
 212. 
 
 Southern low-level sew*, 201; high- 
 level, 201; outfall, 201. 
 
 Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks 
 Company, facts relating to the, 233; 
 charge for water-rate, 235. 
 
 Steam draining plough, 182. 
 
 Steam power, application of, to agricul- 
 tural purposes, 187. 
 
 Stephens on irrigated meadows, 26. 
 
 Stephenson's evidence on the drainage of 
 London, 50. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 245 
 
 Stephenson's report on drainage south of 
 
 Thames, 65 ; north of Thames (App.), 
 
 190. 
 
 Stoneware pans, 173 ; pipe sewers, 126. 
 " Storm waters," 117. 
 Street cleansing, 99, 135 ; debris, 104 ; 
 
 proportion, 100 ; refuse, 102 ; sweepings, 
 
 103 ; sweeping in Manchester, 106. 
 Street-sweeping machine, Whitworih's, 
 
 105. 
 
 Subways for gas and water pipes, 169 n. 
 Supply of water, 1, 72 ; to dwellings, 145 ; 
 
 in London, 76 ; to manufactories, 146 ; 
 
 at Preston, 75, 78 ; to public buildings, 
 
 147. 
 
 Surrey and Kent drainage, 58. 
 Surveyor's report, 55. 
 Swansea sewers, 112. 
 Sweeping machine, street, 105. 
 Sweepings of streets, 103. 
 
 Taylor's pumping engine, Farey on the 
 performance of, 141. 
 
 Terro-metallic pipes, 175. 
 
 Thames, drainage south of the, 58. 
 
 Thames, embankment of the: projects 
 for, 205; Act for the embankment of 
 the north side, 212; plan of, described, 
 212; southern embankment, 213, see 
 Embankment. 
 
 Thames the grand sewer of London, 10. 
 
 Thorn's filters described, 92 ; cost of, 92. 
 
 Thudichum, Dr., on the utilisation of sew- 
 age, 229. 
 
 Towns on tidal rivers, 1. 
 
 Towns, relative levels of, 6. 
 
 Town-sewage, quality of, 5. 
 
 Trafalgar Square fountains, wells of, 235. 
 
 Trapping drains, 168. 
 
 Trench, Sir F., his scheme for embanking 
 the Thames, 206. 
 
 Tubular drains, 126. 
 
 Tunnel schemes : Martin's, 28; Wick- 
 steed's, 35 ; Phillips's, 47 ; Forster's, 50. 
 
 Use of rain water, 151. 
 
 Use of sewage at Ashburton, 28 ; at 
 
 Mansfield, 28 ; for market gardens, 31 
 
 34. 
 
 Utilisation of sewage, Ainger's plan, 28. 
 Uxbridge, supply of water, 87. 
 
 Value of ammonia in sewage, 16. 
 Value of sewage, 3, 17, 18, 19. 
 Vestries, powers of parish, 194. 
 Vettabbia caual at Milan, 24. 
 
 Walker's plan for the embankment of the 
 Thames, 206 ; plan laid before the 
 Royal Commissioners of 1842, 207. 
 
 Water-bearing strata of the London basin, 
 236. 
 
 Water-closets, 170. 
 
 Water Companies in London, 97. 
 
 Water, constant service of, 95, 149 ; con- 
 veyance of, 136 ; cost of pumping, 141 ; 
 high service of, 98 ; imparities in, 74 ; 
 power from rivers, 14 ; qualities of, 73. 
 
 Water obtained from the chalk excava- 
 tions near Grays, 238. 
 
 Water-pipes, iron, described, 138 ; joints 
 of, 139 ; size of, 139, 140 ; weight of, 140. 
 
 Water-pipes, rule for size of, 140. 
 
 Water supply, 1, 72; Ashton-under-Lyne, 
 79; Bath, 85; Bilston, 85; Chatham, 
 87 ; Choiiton-on-Medlock, 79 ; Croydon, 
 88 ; Dartford, 88 ; Glasgow, 238 ; work 
 described, 239; inauguration of, 240; 
 Greenock, 83 ; Liverpool, 84 ; London, 
 76, 96, 232 ; influence of the Act of 1852 
 on, 232 ; facts relating to the companies 
 supplying London, 233 ; advantages of 
 the constant supply system, 235 ; charge 
 for water-rate by eight companies, 235 ; 
 wells of the Trafalgar Square fountains, 
 236 ; Barlow on the water-bearing strata 
 of the London basin, 236; Manchester, 
 83; Newcastle-under-Lyne, 85; Not- 
 tingham, 83; Preston, 75,78 ; Uxbridge, 
 87 T York, 80. 
 
 Water sewage, application of, as manure, 
 25; to Edinburgh meadows, 25; to 
 Craigintinny meadows, 27. 
 
 Wells of the Trafalgar Square Fountains, 
 235. 
 
 West Middlesex Waterworks Company, 
 facts relating to the, 233 ; charge for 
 water-rate, 235. 
 
 Western drainage system, 200. 
 
 Westminster sewers, 110, 112, 114. 
 
 Whitworth's street-cleansing machine, 
 105; Wicksteed's report to Metropoli- 
 tan Sewers Commission (App. No. 5), 
 214 ; tunnel scheme, 35. 
 
 Willesden, application of sewage at, 28. 
 
 Wooden pipes for water, 139. 
 
 Wright's system for utilising sewage, 228. 
 
 Wyle, Mr., and Sir J. Rennie's plan for 
 embanking the Thames, 206. 
 
 York, geology of, 81; supply of water, 
 80. 
 
 D BY JAMES S. VIKTUE, CITY KOAD, LONDON. 
 
RUDIMENTARY TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 DRAINAGE 
 
 DISTRICTS AND LANDS, 
 
 BY G. DRYSDALE DEMPSEY, C.E., 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 "THE PRACTICAL RAILWAY ENGINEER," 
 ETC. ETC. ETC. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, 
 
 REVISED AND GREATLY EXTENDED. 
 
 Hontion: 
 JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBOBN. 
 
 1859. 
 
LONDON : 
 BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 A FEW years since, the subject of the following volume 
 would have been considered scarcely a necessary theme for 
 one of a series of works intended to bear a popular as well 
 as a technical character. The entire subject would have 
 been deemed sufficiently disposed of by describing the sub- 
 terranean works of the navigator and the bricklayer, and 
 the sub-aquatic and rude operations of the ditcher. Now, 
 however, our subject occupies a prominent position in the 
 public thought, and may be regarded as nearly a new branch 
 of practical art, based, or to be based, upon principles of 
 science, and essential to the health, life, and morality of 
 our race. 
 
 Urged, almost insensibly, by the strong earnestness and 
 foresight of a few leading minds, the British public and 
 Legislature have been brought to discern the urgent need 
 of reforming the substructures of their dwellings and high- 
 ways, and to feel affrighted at the dangerous apathy in 
 which they and their ancestors have nitherto innocently 
 indulged. The rudeness of our past practice is indeed the 
 subject of our astonishment ; the facts adduced are but the 
 pictures of our individual experience, and the simplicity of 
 the principles now first recognised brings them home to us 
 with all the familiarity of things known long ago. We 
 
IV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 now wonder at the folly of digging holes beneath houses 
 for the accumulation of filth, till the surrounding ground 
 becomes overcharged, and the bulft demands periodical 
 removal. We can see clearly enough that the pursuits of 
 the scavenger are offensive equally to common sense and 
 to common decency, and admit, without further proof, the 
 sanatory axiom, that the infusion of the refuse of a town in 
 the water which serves at once the libations and ablutions 
 of its people, is not adapted either to perfect the purity of 
 the liquid, or promote the health of the human system. 
 And in that great branch of the subject which is devoted to 
 agricultural practice, by which the farmer is endowed with 
 all the valuable experience of the most intelligent inquirers, 
 and taught the art of economising the natural resources 
 of his streams and watercourses, and the fructifying pro- 
 ducts of his farm-yard, Drainage has acquired a well- 
 recognised value in the estimation of the scientific public, 
 and is daily recording results of the highest practical 
 character. 
 
 The general principles which are now commonly enter- 
 tained upon the subject of Drainage, maintain its primary 
 value as a branch of sanatory science, arid its claim, to be 
 regarded among the paramount duties of every civilised 
 Legislature. District Commissions are disbanded as inca- 
 pable of achieving the great purposes which the health of 
 the people demands, and which can no longer be entrusted 
 in the hands of incompetent authorities. Cleanliness and 
 health are now considered in the relation of cause and 
 effect; and the first requirements of the physician's suc- 
 cess are admitted to consist in the constructive conditions 
 of the patient's dwelling. Medical philanthropists have 
 explored the hidden horrors of our metropolis and towns, 
 and shown that the open sewer and the offal heap are the 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. V 
 
 contaminators of the rich, and the agents of death to the 
 poor. And, akin to these public pestilences, we are now 
 made aware that a cesspool, or an imperfect drain in a 
 house, is to be reckoned only as a means of gathering fever 
 and disease ; arid that the cleansing of the rooms above, 
 while one of these radical abominations is sending forth its 
 putrid gases from below, is but an illustration of the 
 ancient error of rectifying secondary, in mistake for pri- 
 mary, evils. 
 
 While thus the subject of Drainage is attaining a com- 
 manding importance among the social necessities of our 
 times, a corresponding occasion has arisen for its thorough 
 examination as a branch of practical science. Its principles 
 are, or must be, determined, and its rules thence deduced 
 and embodied among the vital applications of the useful 
 arts. The future works of the engineer, the architect, and 
 the builder, must be regulated by considerations of the 
 available methods of securing ample water-supply and effi- 
 cient drainage ; and these considerations will present them- 
 selves with that imperative character which they derive from 
 the public will, and which cannot be countervailed by any 
 scruples of private economy, or any opposition of corporate 
 prejudice. 
 
 To collect carefully the records of the experience of the 
 past, to compare results and deduce principles with critical 
 anxiety, and upon these principles to establish practical 
 rules, propounded and illustrated with exactness and fide- 
 lity, will doubtless become the common object of many of 
 the students of practical art. The following elementary 
 treatise cannot attempt so extensive and laborious a range, 
 but it aims at accomplishing a general survey of the sub- 
 ject, and a brief enumeration of the details which properly 
 belong to it. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 IN the Introduction to the first edition of this little book- 
 a congratulation was ventured upon the interest in its sub, 
 ject taken by the public at that time. That that interest is 
 still a growing one (albeit scarcely yet very fruitful in good 
 works), is now an admitted sign of the times. Commis- 
 sions and Boards metropolitan and provincial are hard 
 at work, doing their best, and stayed only by professional 
 discordance, or limitation of resources. The demand for 
 a second edition of the Eudimentary Treatise on Drainage 
 should be deemed gratifying to the public, as an evidence 
 of the progress of the subject, rather than complimentary 
 to the author as an acknowledgment of his ability in 
 treating it. 
 
 Care has been taken to incorporate a record of the most 
 recent results, by which the book is considerably augmented 
 in size, while the indicial headings to the pages may, it is 
 hoped, assist in referring to the facts and details. 
 
DRAINAGE. 
 
 
 DEFINITIONS, AND SYNOPSIS OF THE DIVISIONS IN WHICH THE 
 SUBJECT WILL BE TREATED IN THIS WORK. 
 
 1. DRAINAGE is the collecting and conveying away refuse 
 waters, and other matters, from lands, towns, and buildings. 
 It ascertains the means and methods of accomplishing 
 these purposes in the most complete manner ; and, as water 
 is the principal agent in all cleansing processes, the means 
 required for insuring its supply are among the necessary 
 provisions of efficient drainage. By simply extending the 
 same means, the supply of water may be made adequate to 
 satisfy all other purposes ; and it hence becomes desirable 
 to include among the objects of drainage the entire supply 
 of water for towns and buildings, and for the irrigation of 
 lands. Sewers are among the essential means of town 
 drainage, and therefore have to be so considered, and their 
 positions, forms, sizes, and modes of construction duly ascer- 
 tained. Our subject thus embraces several matters which 
 may be treated separately, .but which are properly branches 
 of the art of draining, and cannot be consistently studied 
 and usefully applied without a full appreciation of their 
 several and intimate connections. 
 
 2. Beyond the limits of the subject of draining as de- 
 nned (1), it is also to be extended to the ultimate disposal 
 of the refuse matters which it has first to remove from 
 streets and dwellings : and one of its most important duties 
 is to effect this disposal in such a manner that human health 
 shall not be thereby impaired ; and, moreover, that the 
 
 B 
 
2 DIVISIONS OF SUBJECT. 
 
 matters removed shall be made available to the utmost in 
 promoting the fertility of the land, and effecting all chemi- 
 cal purposes for which they are the best fitted. 
 
 3. The synopsis of the several heads under which we 
 propose to arrange our facts, principles, and rules, is the 
 following : 
 
 DEAINAGE. 
 
 DIVISION I. DEAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS. 
 DIVISION II. DRAINAGE OF TOWNS AND STREETS. 
 DIVISION III. DRAINAGE OF BUILDINGS AND DWELLINGS. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 SECTION I. Sources of Water. Natural and Artificial Sup- 
 ply. Kain, Ocean, Elvers, Streams, Springs, &c. Seasons, 
 Evaporation, Temperature, &c. Quantity required. Na- 
 ture of Soils and Crops, and position of Districts. Quali- 
 ties of Water. Eain Water, Sea Water, Eiver and other 
 Waters Four kinds of Impurities. Modes of Purifying. 
 Subsidence. Filtration. Chemical Process. Natural 
 Filters. 
 
 SECTION II. Upper and Lower Districts. Eiver-watered 
 and Sea-coast Districts. Eeclamation of Land. Modes of 
 Draining, Pumping, &c. Water-wheels, as applied for 
 Draining and supplying Upland Districts. 
 
 SECTION III. Means of conveying, distributing, and 
 discharging Water. Drains and Watercourses ; Forms, 
 Sizes, and Methods of Construction. Implements em- 
 ployed. Shallow and Deep Draining. Stone, Tile, Earthen- 
 ware, and Brick Drains, &c. 
 
 DIVISION II. 
 
 SECTION I. Classification of Towns according to Po- 
 sition and Extent. Varieties of Surface Levels and In- 
 clinations. 
 
 SECTION II. Supply of Water. Public Filters and Ee- 
 servoirs, &c. 
 
DIVISIONS OF SUBJECT. 3 
 
 SECTION III. Width and Direction of Koads and 
 Streets; Substructure and Surface. Paving and Street 
 Cleansing. 
 
 SECTIO.N IV. Main Sewers ; Proportions and Dimen- 
 sions, Inclinations, Forms, and Construction. Upper and 
 ower Connections. Means of Access and Cleansing. 
 Adaptation for Street Cleansing, &c. 
 
 SECTION V. Conveyance of Water. Piping, Aqueducts, 
 Reservoirs. Pumping Apparatus, Steam Draining and 
 Pumping &c. 
 
 DIVISION III. 
 
 SECTION I. Classification of Buildings. 
 
 SECTION II. Supply of Water Levels. Constant Ser- 
 vice. Quantity required. Cisterns. Reservoirs. Filters. 
 Valves and Apparatus. Piping, &c., &c. 
 
 SECTION III. Varieties of Manufactures, and best avail- 
 able Methods of Draining. Arrangement of Separate and 
 Collective Drains. Proportion of Area of Drain to Cubic 
 Contents of Dwelling-Houses. Fall of Drains. Mode of 
 Construction. Connection with Main or Collateral Sewers. 
 Means of Access, &c., &c. 
 
 SECTION IV. Water-Closets ; Arrangement and Con- 
 struction. Adaptation to various circumstances. Com- 
 bined Arrangements for efficient House Drainage. Miscel- 
 laneous Apparatus and Contrivances. 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 
 
4 DRAINAGE. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF DISTRICTS AND LANDS 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 Sources of Water. Natural and Artificial Supply. Rain, Ocean, Rivers, 
 Streams, Springs, &c. Seasons, Evaporation, Temperature, &c. Quantity 
 required. Nature of Soils and Crops, and position of Districts. Qualities 
 of Water. Rain Water, Sea Water, River and other Waters. Four Kinds 
 of Impurities. Modes of Purifying. Subsidence. Filtration. Chemical 
 Process. Natural Filters. 
 
 1. Water is indispensable to animal existence and health. 
 The means of obtaining, treating, and economizing this 
 vital liquid are therefore among the most important objects 
 of human art. The several sources, primary and secon- 
 dary, of water, are the ocean, rivers, streams, lakes, subter- 
 ranean collections or springs, and rain. Some or other of 
 these sources are at our command, to some extent, in every 
 region of the habitable globe. The applicability of the 
 first-named four sources is limited by the geographical 
 position of the district ; the latter two of them are obtain- 
 able nearly everywhere. The ceaseless cycle of operations 
 by which the waters on the earth and of the ocean mingle 
 with the atmosphere by the medium of evaporation, and, 
 descending in the forms of rain and dew, sprinkle the sur- 
 face, and again unite through streams and rivers in their 
 common reservoir, is one of the most beautiful and inter- 
 esting illustrations of the compensating principle of the 
 economy of Providence. 
 
 2. In adopting the terms natural and artificial supply as 
 contradistinguished, it may appear that the former should 
 apply commonly to all the sources enumerated, except the 
 subterranean. We would, however, limit the term natural 
 supply to rain and dew, since all the other sources require 
 more or less of artificial means before they are generally 
 available for the purposes of man. Thus the water of 
 the ocean must undergo chemical change or distillation, 
 
EVAPORATION. 5 
 
 and that of rivers requires artificial channels and conduits 
 for its distribution. These, therefore, like the subterranean, 
 for which wells and borings are necessary, have to be classed 
 among the artificial sources of water. 
 
 3. The quantity of evaporation from land-surface is evi- 
 dently more limited than that from water-surface, the one 
 depending upon the retentive power of the super-soil, and 
 the facility for capillary action, while the other arises from a 
 source comparatively inexhaustible. The rate of the pro- 
 cess is controlled by temperature, and accelerated in pro- 
 portion to the heat acting upon the surface ; the tempera- 
 ture being affected by the elevation, and reduced in propor- 
 tion as the elevation increases. The joint result of these 
 conditions is, that proximity to the sea, the river, or the lake, 
 promotes the natural supply of water in the form of rain. 
 The geography of the district, therefore, affects the facility 
 or difficulty of the natural supply. 
 
 But another consideration also affects this supply, viz., 
 the superficial features of the district. Thus a mountainous 
 character, augmenting the surface exposed to oblique showers, 
 increases the quantity received on the one side, and dimi- 
 nishes that on the other ; and the sides of a valley, in like 
 manner, receive more or less than the quantity due to a 
 level district. 
 
 4. The natural supply is, moreover, modified in effect by 
 the structure of the surface on which it falls. Thus, upon 
 a rock-surface (such as that presented by mountains), which 
 resists percolation, the rain collects in masses, floods itself 
 through a fissure, or wears a channel along the line of the 
 most pervious formation, and reaches the lower plains in 
 the formidable rush of a mountain torrent. And as, gene- 
 rally, the effect of the natural supply of water is in pro- 
 portion to the comparative impermeability of the soil, it 
 follows, that the value of this supply in any district is fur- 
 ther conditional on the structural character of the adjacent 
 districts. Thus, from a higher impermeable district it will 
 receive, and to a lower more permeable district it will give. 
 
6 RAIN. 
 
 Natural supply is hence, in effect, determined by the geo- 
 graphical situation, the superficial character, and the geo- 
 logical structure of a district, modified also by the structure 
 of the surrounding district. 
 
 5. The quantity of rain that falls annually at several 
 places, has been observed, and recorded as follows : 
 
 In England, the mean annual depth of the eight years 
 1836 to 1843, both included, was 26-61 inches, having 
 varied between the extremes of 21-1 and 32'1 inches. The 
 average annual fall at some other places has been recorded 
 as follows : 
 
 South Carolina . . .50 inches. 
 
 Bombay (mean of 10 years) . . 78 
 Brazil (in 1821) . . . .280 
 Cumana ..... 8 
 
 Humboldt has assigned the fall of rain to vary with the 
 latitude, being greatest at the equator, and diminishing 
 towards the poles in the following ratio: viz., 96 inches 
 annually in the equatorial zone, 80 inches to latitude 
 20, 29 inches to latitude 45, and 17 inches to lati- 
 tude 60S. 
 
 6. The quantity of rain thus varying, with some refer- 
 ence to the latitude, also to the position of the district in 
 relation to the sea, and varying also from one year to an- 
 other, is further affected by the season. Thus, the mean 
 fall per month on an average of eight years in some dis- 
 tricts of England has been recorded as fluctuating from 
 1-617 inch in March to 3-837 inches in November; the 
 fall in each month being as follows : 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March . 
 April 
 
 Carried forward 6'89l 
 
RAIN. 
 
 Brought forward. 
 
 May . 
 June . 
 July 
 
 August . 
 September 
 October . 
 November 
 December 
 
 Inches. 
 6-891 
 1-856 
 2-213 
 2-287 
 2-427 
 2-639 
 2-823 
 3-837 
 1-641 
 
 26-614 
 
 7. This monthly quantity, being the mean of eight years, 
 does not by any means indicate the monthly proportion for 
 any one year, the variation being as great between the same 
 months of different years, as it is from one year to another, 
 or indeed from one latitude to another. Thus, during the 
 eight years over which these observations extended, the 
 quantity of rain falling in each month was as follows : 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 YEARS. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 2-40 
 2-85 
 0-75 
 1-32 
 0-94 
 1-86 
 1-30 
 3-00 
 1-38 
 1-55 
 2-05 
 1-70 
 
 21-10 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 Ins. 
 1-40 
 1-45 
 1-92 
 1-65 
 1-22 
 3-31 
 4-36 
 3-65 
 3-22 
 1-68 
 4-40 
 3-02 
 
 1840. 
 
 Ins. 
 3-95 
 1-32 
 0-34 
 0-34 
 2-62 
 1-33 
 1-68 
 1-90 
 2-31 
 l-W 
 4-25 
 0-40 
 
 1841. 
 
 Ins. 
 1-50 
 1-02 
 1-65 
 1-85 
 1-68 
 3-00 
 2-80 
 3-62 
 4-00 
 4-40 
 4-28 
 | 2-30 
 
 1842. 
 
 1843. 
 
 January , 
 
 Ins. 
 2-40 
 2-04 
 3-65 
 2-57 
 0-70 
 1-80 
 2-29 
 2-24 
 2-60 
 4-55 
 3-95 
 2-21 
 
 31-00 
 
 Ins. 
 0-31 
 2-65 
 1-55 
 1-35 
 0-84 
 2-85 
 2-35 
 0-95 
 2-47 
 2-68 
 3-55 
 1-58 
 
 23-13 
 
 Ins. 
 1-36 
 2-02 
 2-20 
 0-47 
 1-85 
 2-00 
 1-93 
 1-40 
 4-50 
 1-41 
 5-77 
 1-52 
 
 Ins. 
 
 1-46 
 2-42 
 0-88 
 2-10 
 5-00 
 1-56 
 2-09 
 2-66 
 0-63 
 4-82 
 2-45 
 0-40 
 
 26-47 
 
 February 
 
 March .. 
 
 April 
 
 May... 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 TV 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 Quantity in ) 
 each year . . . ) 
 
 31-28 
 
 21-44 32-10 
 
 26-43 
 
 The greatest and least quantity falling in each month 
 during this period is thus stated: 
 
BAIN. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 Maximum. 
 
 Minimum. 
 
 Difference. : 
 
 
 Inches. 
 3-95 
 
 Inches. 
 0-31 
 
 Inches. 
 3-64 
 
 February 
 
 2-85 
 
 1-02 
 
 1-83 
 
 March 
 
 3-65 
 
 0-34 
 
 3-31 
 
 
 2-57 
 
 0-34 
 
 2-23 
 
 May 
 
 5-00 
 
 070 
 
 4-30 
 
 June . 
 
 3-31 
 
 1-33 
 
 1-98 
 
 July 
 
 4-36 
 
 1-30 
 
 3-06 
 
 August ... 
 
 3-65 
 
 0-95 
 
 2-70 
 
 September 
 
 4-50 
 
 0-63 
 
 3-87 
 
 October 
 
 4-82 
 
 1-41 
 
 3-41 
 
 November . 
 
 5-77 
 
 2-05 
 
 3-72 
 
 December 
 
 3-02 
 
 0-40 
 
 2-62 
 
 
 
 
 
 The third column shows the difference between the 
 greatest and least fall in each month during the eight 
 years, and thus represents the relative variableness of 
 each month's rain. It thus appears that the fluctuation is 
 least in February, and greatest in May. 
 
 8. As evidence of the great difference of quantity of 
 rain which falls in similar latitudes, we may quote the 
 following observations referring to the upland districts 
 about Manchester, which we have compiled from Tables 
 given by Mr. Homer sham in his " Report on* the Supply 
 of Surplus Water to Manchester, &c."* These observations 
 were made at eight stations during the four years 1844, 
 1845, 1846, and 1847; and at five other stations during 
 the year 1847 only. The first column gives the name of the 
 station at which the observations were made; the second 
 shows its elevation above the mean level of the sea ; the 
 next five columns contain the depth of the rain in inches 
 and decimal parts for each year, and mean depth of the 
 four years ; and the last column gives the names of the ob- 
 servers. 
 
 * Weale. 1848. 
 
CAUSE OF RAIN. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 STATION. 
 
 Elevation 
 in feet. 
 
 Depth of rain in inches during 
 the years 
 
 OBSKRVKRS. 
 
 1844. 
 
 1845. 
 
 1846. 
 
 1847. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Fairfield 
 
 220 
 320 
 350 
 500 
 531 
 620 
 720 
 820 
 1000 
 1121 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 
 1670 
 
 ears\ 
 
 26-35 
 34-63 
 
 34-41 
 29-40 
 
 42-70 
 50 '00 
 
 33-00 
 24-80 
 
 38-90 
 48-11 
 
 51-64 
 38-80 
 
 51-10 
 55'00 
 
 43-80 
 39-80 
 
 30-20 
 40-82 
 
 42-04 
 32-35 
 
 38-10 
 49-80 
 
 38-tiO 
 37-10 
 
 4075 
 52-32 
 34-69 
 51-72 
 43-70 
 38-39 
 51-30 
 61-40 
 33-12 
 44-00 
 35-70 
 
 29-50 
 35-85 
 
 34-05 
 43-97 
 34-(i!) 
 47-45 
 36-06 
 38-39 
 45-80 
 54-05 
 33-12 
 49-90 
 
 34-35 
 
 29-50 
 35-85 
 
 Mr. J. Meadows. 
 H.H.Watson. 
 J. Meadows. 
 J. Ecroyd. 
 J. Meadows. 
 Ditto. 
 Ditto. 
 J. Magnall. 
 J. Meadows. 
 Ditto. 
 
 R. Mathews. 
 
 J. Meadows. 
 Ditto. 
 
 
 Newton 
 
 Rochdale 
 
 Marple 
 
 Todd Brook Reservoir . . 
 
 
 Woodhead Tunnel 
 Chapel-en-le-Frith 
 Whiteholme Reservoir, \ 
 Blackstone edge f 
 Brinks 
 
 
 Mean of each of the four ] 
 at ei^ht stations 
 
 34-41 
 
 45-89 
 
 38-65 
 
 47'61 
 
 Mean of the one year at thir-\ 
 
 
 
 
 42-49 
 
 
 Among the many observations made upon this subject, it 
 must, however, be admitted that we have not yet the means 
 of instituting any very satisfactory comparison. To do this 
 we require careful observations carried on for a long series 
 of years, at stations selected for the purpose, and with ap- 
 paratus of the same construction. 
 
 9. Any attempt to describe the several fluctuations which 
 are observed in the quantity of rain falling, or to explain the 
 causes of these fluctuations, beyond the few leading cir- 
 cumstances we have noticed, would involve an elementary 
 inquiry into the phenomena of rain far exceeding the limits 
 of these pages. But we may quote a few words from the 
 celebrated Dalton, which will be fully suggestive to the 
 studious mind in this interesting department of meteorolo- 
 gical science. " The cause of rain, therefore, is now, I con- 
 sider, no longer an object of doubt. If two masses of air 
 of unequal temperatures, by the ordinary currents of the 
 winds, are intermixed, when saturated with vapour, a preci- 
 pitation ensues. If the masses are under saturation, then 
 
 B 3 
 
10 RAIN GAUGES. 
 
 less precipitation takes place, or none at all, according to 
 the degree. Also, the warmer the air, the greater is the 
 quantity of vapour precipitated in like circumstances." 
 " Hence the reason why rains are heavier in summer than 
 in winter, and in warm countries than in cold." * 
 
 ] 0. The depth of rain which falls is ascertained by re- 
 ceiving it in a vessel of some form with a gauge connected, 
 in which the depth may be accurately measured ; but no in- 
 strument of the kind yet devised can be considered as en- 
 tirely satisfactory in its action, or as giving results which 
 will allow estimates of perfect correctness to be thence 
 formed. The rain-gauge used by Dr. Dalton for a series of 
 experiments extending from 1795 to 1819, or later, con- 
 sisted of "a funnel of 10 inches diameter, and the top 
 surrounded by a perpendicular rim of 3 inches high, to pre- 
 vent any loss by the spray ; it was fixed in a proper frame 
 with a bottle for the water, and stood above 2 feet above 
 ground." Dr. Garnett, in 1795, suggested the addition to 
 this simple form of gauge, of a cup inverted over the mouth 
 of the bottle, and adapted to receive closely the neck of the 
 funnel, so as to prevent the passage into the bottle of any 
 water striking against or condensing upon the outer surface 
 of the funnel. Gauges which have been subsequently used 
 for many observations consist of a hollow cylinder of copper 
 or other metal, 7 or 8 inches in diameter, and from 30 to 
 40 inches in length, with a perforated funnel or colander 
 of the same diameter, fitted within the cylinder a few 
 inches below the top. A float is placed within the cylinder 
 and fitted with a staff which passes upward through a hole 
 in the funnel, and, standing above the cylinder, serves to 
 indicate the depth of rain accumulated within the cylinder. 
 Experiments, with an apparatus adapted for the purpose, 
 and called a staff gauge, have shown that the prolongation 
 
 * Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester ; 
 vol. iii., second series, 1819, p. 507. Several valuable papers, with detailed 
 observations made during long series of years, by Dr. Dalton and others, are 
 to be found in these Memoirs. 
 
EVAPORATION OF RAIN WATER. 
 
 11 
 
 of the staff above the cylinder collects a great quantity of 
 rain, and thus shows a greater depth than is due to the sur- 
 face of the cylinder. This might be obviated by using a 
 cylinder of glass inclosed in a suitable case, or a metal 
 cylinder fitted with a glass panel, for observing the position 
 of the float inside, and dispensing with the staff altogether. 
 The apparatus must be partly sunk in the ground within a 
 strong case, to prevent injury, and capable of being readily 
 taken out when required. 
 
 11. The effectiveness of rain for all purposes of water- 
 supply and drainage can be estimated only after determining 
 the deduction due to the process of evaporation, by which 
 the larger part of it is raised from the surface on which it 
 has fallen, and, in the form of vapour, mingles with the 
 atmosphere, to be again precipitated upon the earth and 
 ocean. The proportion evaporated appears to be mainly 
 dependent upon the temperature, heat promoting the pro- 
 cess, and cold retarding it. The highest, lowest, and mean 
 temperature in each month have been observed to be as 
 follows: 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 THERMOMETER. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 
 52-0 
 53-0 
 66-0 
 74-0 
 70-0 
 90-0 
 76-0 
 82-0 
 76-0 
 68-0 
 62-0 
 55-0 
 
 o 
 
 11-0 
 21-0 
 24-0 
 29-0 
 33-0 
 37-0 
 42-0 
 41-0 
 36-0 
 27-0 
 23-0 
 17-0 
 
 36-1 
 38-0 
 43-9 
 49-9 
 54-0 
 58-7 
 61-0 
 61-6 
 57-8 
 48-9 
 42-9 
 39-3 
 
 
 March . 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 
 
 October .. . 
 
 
 
 
EVAPORATION AFFECTED BY STATE . 
 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 Evaporation 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 January 
 
 29-3 
 
 February . . . 
 
 21-6 
 
 March 
 
 33-4 
 
 April .... 
 
 79-0 
 
 May , 
 
 94-2 
 
 
 98-3 
 
 July . 
 
 98-2 
 
 August 
 
 98-6 
 
 September . 
 
 80-1 
 
 October 
 
 50-5 
 
 November . 
 
 15-1 
 
 December 
 
 oo-o 
 
 And, accordingly, we find the proportion of rain evaporated 
 corresponds with the temperature recorded thus : being 
 the mean evaporation of each month during the eight 
 years 1836 to 1843, and stated at per cent, upon the 
 quantity of rain. 
 
 Remainder 
 per cent. 
 
 . 70-7 
 . 784 
 . 66-6 
 . 21-0 
 5-8 
 1-7 
 1-8 
 1-4 
 
 . 13-9 
 
 . . . 49-5 
 . . . 84-9 
 . 100-0 
 
 Mean 57'6 42-4 
 
 The remainder stated in the second column shows the per 
 centage upon the total quantity falling which is available for 
 human purposes. 
 
 12. Besides the main condition of temperature, other 
 minor circumstances affect the proportion of rain which 
 passes from the surface in the state of vapour, and have to 
 be considered in forming an estimate, from these records, 
 of the available quantity of rain-water in any district. 
 These minor conditions are chiefly the structure and the 
 state of the supersoil and of the subsoil. Thus, if the 
 structure be of an impermeable character, the water will lie 
 upon the surface, while evaporation takes up more than its 
 average quantity, being hindered only by the provision 
 which may exist for passing the rain immediately to a more 
 porous surface. On the other hand, a soil of excessive 
 permeability will imbibe the water rapidly, and thus reduce 
 the amount of evaporation. The state of the soil affected 
 
RAIN RECEIVED IN THE SOIL. 
 
 13 
 
 by the frequency and extent of the showers will, moreover, 
 determine in some degree the relative quantities of rain- 
 water evaporated and retained. Thus, if the soil has ac- 
 quired excessive hardness from long drought, or become 
 super-saturated by excessive rain, evaporation will proceed 
 more rapidly than percolation, and the effect of the fall be 
 similarly diminished. 
 
 13. The average quantity remaining to filter through the 
 soil, or to be made use of for the purposes of man, may be 
 computed from the following Table, No.VIL, which shows the 
 average monthly fall during the same period of eight years 
 as stated in Table No. I., the quantity evaporated, and the 
 quantity remaining, in inches. 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 
 
 RAIN. 
 
 . 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 Total falling. 
 
 Evaporated. 
 
 Remaining. 
 
 January 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1-847 
 
 Inches. 
 0-540 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1-307 
 
 February 
 
 1-971 
 
 0-424 
 
 1-547 
 
 
 1-617 
 
 0-540 
 
 1-077 
 
 April 
 
 1-456 
 
 1-150 
 
 0-306 
 
 May 
 
 1-856 
 
 1-748 
 
 0-108 
 
 
 2213 
 
 2-174 
 
 0-039 
 
 July 
 
 2-287 
 
 2-245 
 
 0-024 
 
 August 
 
 2-427 
 
 2-391 
 
 0-036 
 
 September 
 
 2-639 
 
 2-270 
 
 0-369 
 
 October 
 
 2-823 
 
 1-423 
 
 1-400 
 
 November 
 
 3-837 
 
 0-579 
 
 3-258 
 
 December 
 
 1-641 
 
 0-164 
 
 1-805 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26-614 
 
 15-320 
 
 11-294 
 
 14. Of the quantity remaining and available, 11*294 
 inches per annum, it is desirable to notice the proportion 
 due to the season. Thus, during the months of January, 
 February, March, and October, the quantity is nearly uni- 
 form, varying only between 1-077 and 1*547. In the 
 
14 
 
 QUANTITY DEPOSITED PEE ACRE. 
 
 month of December it rises to T805, while in November 
 it averages a depth of 3*258 inches. During the six con- 
 secutive months of April, May, June, July, August, and 
 September, the quantity remaining is comparatively small, 
 being always less than half an inch in depth. TKe following 
 Table, No. VIII., shows the monthly quantity in cubic feet 
 and weight of water remaining on each superficial acre, as 
 computed from the preceding Tables. 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 
 MONTH. 
 
 Rain-water permanently deposited per acre. 
 
 Quantity in cubic feet. 
 
 Weight in tons. 
 
 
 4744 
 5616 
 3910 
 1111 
 392 
 142 
 87 
 131 
 1339 
 5082 
 11826 
 6552 
 
 132- 
 156- 
 109- 
 39- 
 11- 
 4- 
 2-42 
 3-61 
 37- 
 141- 
 328- 
 182- 
 
 February . ... 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 Mav 
 
 June 
 
 July... 
 
 August . . ... 
 
 September 
 
 October 
 
 November 
 
 
 
 40932 
 
 1145-03 
 
 15. The following observations on evaporation and filtra- 
 tion,* for which we are indebted to the patient and care- 
 fully-conducted experiments of Mr. Charles Charnock, of 
 Holmfield House, near Ferry-Bridge (one of the Vice- 
 Presidents of the Meteorological Society of London), pre- 
 sent some valuable facts for consideration. 
 
 * Quoted by J. H. Charnock, Esq., Assistant Commissioner under the 
 Drainage Acts, in a paper " On Suiting the Depth of Drainage to the Cir- 
 ,cumstances of the Soil," given in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural So- 
 ciety, vol. x. pt. ii. pp. 515 to 518, 
 
ME. CHARNOCKS EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 15 
 
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CONDITIONS OF EVAPORATION. 17 
 
 In these experiments, the evaporation from saturated soil 
 was determined thus : " A leaden vessel of 13 inches deep, 
 and a foot square, was filled to within an inch of the top 
 with soil, and placed in the ground, in the same manner as 
 the previous vessel, with a pipe level with the surface of the 
 soil to carry off the excess of top-water into a receiver. The 
 same quantity of water was then daily supplied to this soil 
 as the evaporating dish of column 2 showed was evaporated. 
 The soil was stirred as in the former case, and thus repre- 
 sented wet and undrained land." 
 
 " In the first place, it is observahle how much greater is the 
 amount of evaporation from water than from land, and how 
 near, as shown by columns 3 and 5 (Table IX., pp. 15, 16), 
 the evaporation from wet land is to that from water itself 
 hence the wetter the land the greater the evaporation, and, 
 as the well-known consequence, the greater its excess of 
 coldness. We have a familiar illustration of nature's pro- 
 cess in this particular, in the method often adopted to cool 
 our wine on a hot summer's day, by wrapping a wet napkin 
 round the bottle and exposing it to the full sun: as the 
 moisture from the napkin is evaporated, the temperature of 
 the wine declines to almost freezing point. The school- 
 boy's experiment of producing ice before a fire, by incasing 
 the vessel in wet flannel and adding a portion of salt to the 
 water, is a similar example, with this additional lesson to 
 the farmer that to apply certain limes to wet land is only 
 increasing the evil. 
 
 " You will then, in the second place, notice how much 
 less the evaporation is in the shade than in the sun, and 
 consequently that wet land must be the warmest when 
 there is the least sun. From which cau^e, no doubt, arises 
 that too vigorous growth of young wheat, so often observ- 
 able on such land in the winter and spring months, which 
 never fails to produce serious injury to the crop in all its 
 subsequent stages. And thirdly, you will remark how com- 
 paratively small a proportion of the rain which falls is 
 shown to be carried off by filtration. Taking the average 
 
18 DR. DALTON'S EXPERIMENT 
 
 of the five years' experiments, it will be seen that only 4-82 
 inches out of 24-6 inches of rain passed through the land 
 to the depth of three feet. We might, therefore, be led at 
 the first glance to infer that land in general stands less in 
 need of drainage, or may be drained by a less perfect 
 system, than is supposed to be requisite, did not daily 
 experience oppose such a conclusion. We must, therefore, 
 endeavour to reconcile this seeming incongruity, and de- 
 duce at the same time, from the facts disclosed, such data 
 as may guide us in determining the essential requisites to 
 ensure completeness of effect in drainage. 
 
 " Now, although there can be no reason to question the 
 accuracy of the experiments on filtration made by Mr. 
 Diclqjison, and recorded in the Journal of the Koyal Agri- 
 cultural Society of England, Vol. V., Part I., yet there is a 
 very considerable difference in the aggregate result, as 
 shown by them and the account before us. ' The first 
 important fact disclosed,' says the commentator, page 148, 
 1 is, that of the whole annual rain, about 42| per cent., or 
 lift inches out of 26^,* have filtered through the soil:' 
 whereas in the Holmfield House experiments there is only 
 shown, as we have already said, 4-82 inches out of 24-6, or 
 about 5^ per cent, against 42 per cent. This is certainly 
 a very great and somewhat irreconcileable difference in the 
 result of two experiments made professedly to ascertain the 
 same fact. Now, on referring to the * Memoirs of the 
 Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,' Vol. V., 
 Part II., you will find a paper on rain, evaporation, &c., 
 from the pen of the celebrated Dr. John Dalton (the father 
 of the science of Meteorology), wherein he explains a series 
 of experiments made by himself and his friend, Mr. Thomas 
 Hoyle, jun., to ascertain the amount of evaporation and 
 filtration, and giving the following Table of results : f 
 
 " ' Having got a cylindrical vessel of tinned iron,' says 
 the Doctor, ' ten inches in diameter and three feet deep, 
 there were inserted into it two pipes, turned downwards, 
 * See Table VII. p. 13. f See Table X. p. 19. 
 
DR. DALTONS EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 19 
 
 TABLE X. 
 
 MONTHS. 
 
 Water through the Two 
 Pipes. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Mean 
 Rain. 
 
 Mean 
 Evapora- 
 tion. 
 
 1790. 
 
 1797. 
 
 1798. 
 
 January 
 
 1-897 
 1-778 
 431 
 220 
 2-027 
 171 
 153 
 
 680 
 918 
 070 
 295 
 2-443 
 726 
 025 
 
 1-774 
 1-122 
 335 
 180 
 010 
 
 504 
 
 1-594 
 
 1-878 
 
 1-450 
 1-273 
 279 
 232 
 1-493 
 299 
 059 
 168 
 325 
 227 
 879 
 1-718 
 
 2-458 
 1-801 
 902 - 
 1-717 
 4-177 
 2-483 
 4-154 
 3-554 
 3-279 
 2-899 
 2-934 
 3-202 
 
 1-008 
 528 
 623 
 1-485 
 2-684 
 2-184 
 4-095 
 3-386 
 2-954 
 2-672 
 2-055 
 1-484 
 
 February 
 
 March 
 
 April . . 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 
 September 
 October 
 
 ... 
 
 976 
 680 
 1-044 
 3-077 
 
 10-934 
 38-791 
 
 November 
 December 
 
 200 
 
 6-877 
 30-629 
 
 Rain 
 
 7-379 
 31-259 
 
 8-402 
 
 33-560 
 
 25-158 
 
 Evaporation 
 
 23-725 
 
 27-857 
 
 23-862 
 
 for the water to run off into bottles : the one pipe was near 
 the bottom of the vessel, the other was an inch from the 
 top. The vessel was filled up, for a few inches, with gravel 
 and sand, and all the rest with good fresh soil. Things 
 being thus circumstanced, a regular register has been kept 
 of the quantity of rain-water that ran off from the surface 
 of the earth through the upper pipe (whilst that took place), 
 and also of the quantity of that which sank down through 
 the three feet of earth, and ran out through the lower pipe. 
 A rain-gauge of the-- same diameter was kept close by, to 
 find the quantity of rain for any corresponding time.' 
 
 " You will notice that the general result of these experi- 
 ments accords pretty nearly with that of the Holmfield 
 account ; and yet it may be readily conceived that circum- 
 stances of situation and stratification may often occasion 
 as wide a difference in the amount of filtration as is sho\\n 
 between Mr. Dickinson's and Mr. Charnock's observations. 
 
CONDITIONS OF SOILS. 
 
 "On an examination of the details registered in the 
 account before us, it will be evident that the amount of 
 filtration is not exclusively dependent on the fall of rain ; 
 but that a variety of other causes combine to affect its pro- 
 portion. For instance, in March, April, May, June, and 
 July, of 1842, the fall of rain was 13-65 inches, and the 
 filtration for the same period was only 2'05 inches ; whilst 
 in April, 1846, there was 5-97 of rain and 2'99 of filtration. 
 Similar instances are also noticeable in Mr. Dickinson's 
 details. From March to October, inclusive, of 1840, a fall 
 of 11-52 inches of rain is recorded, without any filtration; 
 but in November, 1842, the rain was 5 -77, with 5 inches of 
 filtration. Dr. Dal ton's table also shows the same varia- 
 tions. The lesson, therefore, derivable from these experi- 
 ments, so far as regards filtration by drains, is one rather of 
 a speculative than of a definite character; for, although we 
 are assured filtration must be secured, we are left with a 
 large and varying margin as to the proportion. We must 
 not, however, overlook the fact, that all the registered de- 
 tails show occasionally an amount of filtration nearly equal 
 to the rain that falls, and, therefore, in determining the 
 size of pipe to be used, the ready exit of this maximum 
 quantity must be provided for." 
 
 16. The precise quantity of water required for the agricul- 
 tural purposes of any district depends upon the nature of 
 the soil and the crops, and the position of the district in 
 relation to the surrounding country. Thus, if a permeable 
 soil occupy an elevated site, the water deposited upon it 
 will pass rapidly, and perhaps before serving for the germi- 
 nation or the nutriment of the plant. If, on the other 
 hand, as is the far more common case in this country, the 
 soil be of a retentive character, and the site low in relation 
 to other districts, the water will be kept while the soil be- 
 comes saturated to so great an extent that the processes of 
 vegetable germination and growth are greatly impeded. 
 The soil exists in one of three conditions ; 1st, in the form 
 of clay ,being a dense mass consisting of finely comminuted 
 particles, but all of a highly tenacious kind ; in a state of 
 
GEKMINATION OF SEEDS. 21 
 
 slight moisture it becomes a clammy paste, and is never 
 found so utterly devoid of moisture that its constituent 
 particles are separable : it affords no passages for water, 
 receiving it with difficulty, and retaining it in the same 
 way. 2nd, in the form of sand or gravel, the particles of 
 which are seldom or never united, and the soil is therefore 
 full of passages or canals for water. Soil of this kind has 
 no power either to oppose the admission or effect the reten- 
 tion of water poured upon it. And 3rd, existing in the 
 form of a mixture of the aluminous, silicious, and calcareous 
 elements, in endless variety of proportions, found as clods, 
 and in this state affording two classes of passages for the 
 ingress and permeation of water, viz., those remaining be- 
 tween the particles which are congelated in each clod, and 
 those formed by the spaces between the clods. The former 
 are sometimes called pores, and the latter canals. The 
 power of admitting and retaining or discharging water 
 exerted by these mixed soils, will exist in an endless variety 
 of degrees, according to the mechanical formation of the 
 constituent particles and clods. The state of soil which is 
 most favourable for the germination and development of 
 the plant is that of moistness, capable of being readily 
 crumbled by the hand, and equally removed from the ad- 
 hesive extreme of mud and the volatile one of dust. In this 
 condition it will be found that the pores are filled with water, 
 but the canals are not these latter serving as passages for 
 the air, which is one of the feeders of vegetable life ; and 
 we can, therefore, readily understand that, when water 
 exists in such quantity that the soil is saturated with it r 
 and all the pores or canals filled, its condition is unhealthy 
 for the growth and development of plants. 
 
 The following extract, from an admirable lecture on Agri- 
 cultural Science, by Dr. Madden, quoted by the General 
 Board of Health in their " Minutes of Information," al- 
 though of considerable length, claims a space here, for the 
 valuable information it conveys on the fitness of soil for 
 promoting vegetable germination. 
 
 " The first thing which occurs after the sowing of the 
 
22 MECHANICAL KELATIONS OF SOIL. 
 
 seed is, of course, germination ; and before we examine how 
 this process may be influenced by the condition of the soil, 
 we must necessarily obtain some correct idea of the process 
 itself. The most careful examination has proved that the 
 process of germination consists essentially of various 
 chemical changes, which require for their development the 
 presence of air, moisture, and a certain degree of warmth. 
 Now it is obviously unnecessary for our present purpose 
 that we should have the least idea of the nature of these 
 processes : all we require to do, is to ascertain the conditions 
 under which they take place; having detected these, we 
 know at once what is required to make a seed grow. These, 
 we have seen, are air, moisture, and a certain degree of 
 warmth ; and it consequently results, that wherever a seed 
 is placed in these circumstances, germination will take 
 place. Viewing matters in this light, it appears that soil 
 does not act chemically in the process of germination ; that 
 its sole action is confined to its being the vehicle by means 
 of which a supply of air and moisture and warmth can be 
 continually kept up. With this simple statement in view, 
 we are quite prepared to consider the various conditions of 
 soil, for the purpose of determining how far these will in- 
 fluence the future prospects of the crop, and we shall 
 accordingly at once proceed to examine carefully into the 
 mechanical relations of soil. 
 
 17. Soil, examined mechanically, is found to consist entirely 
 of particles of all shapes and sizes, from stones and pebbles 
 down to the finest powder ; and on account of their extreme 
 irregularity of shape, they cannot lie so close to one an- 
 other as to prevent there being passages between them, 
 owing to which circumstance soil in the mass is always 
 more or less porous. If, however, we proceed to examine 
 one of the smallest particles of which soil is made up, we 
 shall find that even this is not always solid, but is much 
 more frequently porous, like soil in the mass. A consider- 
 able proportion of this finely-divided part of soil, the im- 
 palpable matter as it is generally called, is found, by the aid 
 of the microscope, to consist of broken-down vegetable tissue, 
 
PERFECTLY DEY SOILS. 23 
 
 so that when a small portion of the finest dust from a 
 garden or field is placed under the microscope, we have 
 exhibited to us particles of every variety of shape and 
 structure, of which a certain part is evidently of vegetable 
 origin. 
 
 18. On examining a perfectly-dry soil we perceive that 
 there are two distinct classes of pores : 1st, the large ones, 
 which exist between the particles of soil ; and 2nd, the very 
 minute ones, which occur in the particles themselves ; and 
 whereas all the larger pores those between the particles of 
 soil communicate most freely with each other, so that 
 they form canals, the small pores, however freely they may 
 communicate with one another in the interior of the particle 
 in which they occur, have no direct connection with the 
 pores of the surrounding particles. Let us now, therefore, 
 trace the effect of this arrangement. If the soil is perfectly 
 dry, the canals communicating freely at the surface with the 
 surrounding atmosphere, the whole of these canals and 
 pores will, of course, be filled with air. If, in this condi- 
 tion, a seed be placed in the soil, you at once perceive that 
 it is freely supplied with air, but there is no moisture ; there- 
 fore, when soil is perfectly dry, a seed cannot grow. 
 
 19. Let us turn our attention now to that state of the 
 soil in which water has taken the place of air, or, in other 
 words, the soil is very wet. If we observe our seed now, 
 we find it abundantly supplied with water, but no air. 
 Here again, therefore, germination cannot take place. It 
 may be well to state here, that this can never occur exactly 
 in nature, because water having the power of dissolving air 
 to a certain extent, the seed is in fact supplied with a certain 
 amount of this necessary substance; and, owing to this, 
 germination does take place, although by no means under 
 such advantageous circumstances as it would were the soil 
 in a better condition. 
 
 20. We pass on now to a different state of matters. Let 
 us suppose the canals are open and freely supplied with air, 
 while the pores are filled with water. While the seed now 
 has. quite enough of air from the canals, it can never be 
 
24 PKOPEB CONDITION OF SOIL. 
 
 without moisture, as every particle of soil which touches it 
 is well supplied with this necessary ingredient. This, then, 
 is the proper condition of soil for germination, and, in fact, 
 for every period of the plant's development ; and this condi- 
 tion occurs when soil is moist but not wet that is to say, 
 when it has the colour and appearance of being well 
 watered, but when it is still capable of being crumbled to 
 pieces by the hands, without any of its particles adhering 
 together in the familiar form of mud. 
 
 31. Let us observe still another condition of soil; in this 
 instance, as far as water is concerned, the soil is in its 
 healthy condition it is moist, but Dot wet, the pores alone 
 being filled with water. But where are the canals ? We 
 see them in a few places, but in by far the greater part of 
 the soil none are to be perceived ; this is owing to the par- 
 ticles of soil having adhered together, and thus so far obli- 
 terated 'the interstitial canals that they appear only like 
 pores. This is the state of matters in every clod of earth ; 
 and you will at once perceive, on comparing it with a stone, 
 that it differs from it only in possessing a few pores, which 
 latter, while they may form a reservoir for moisture, can 
 never act as vehicles for the food of plants, as the roots are 
 not capable of extending their fibres into the interior of a 
 clod, but are at all times confined to the interstitial canals. 
 
 22. With these four conditions before us, let us endeavour 
 to apply them practically to ascertain when they occur in 
 our fields, and how thosd "which are injurious may be 
 obviated. 
 
 The first of them, we perceive, is a state of too great 
 dryness, a very rare condition, in this climate at least ; in 
 fact, the only case in which it is likely to occur is in very 
 coarse sands, where the soil, being chiefly made up of pure 
 sand and particles of flinty matter, contains comparatively 
 much fewer pores, and, from the large size of the individual 
 particles, assisted by their irregularity, the canals are wider, 
 the circulation of air freer, and, consequently, the whole is 
 much more easily dried. WTien this state of matters exists, 
 the best treatment is to leave all the stones which occur on 
 

 EFFECTS OF EXCESS OF WATER. 25 
 
 the surface of the field, as they cast shades, and thereby 
 prevent or retard the evaporation of water. 
 
 23. We will not, however, make any further observations 
 on this very rare case, but will rather proceed to a much more 
 frequent, and, in every respect, more important condition 
 of soil : an excess of water. 
 
 When water is added to perfectly dry soil, it of course, 
 in the first instance, fills the interstitial canals, and from 
 these enters the pores of each particle ; and if the supply 
 of water be not too great, the canals speedily become empty, 
 so that the whole of the fluid is taken up by the pores : 
 this, we have already seen, is the healthy condition of soil. 
 If, however, the supply of water be too great, as is the case 
 when a spring gains admission into the soil, or when the 
 sinking of the fluid through the canals to a sufficient depth 
 below the surface is prevented, it is clear that these also 
 must get filled with water so soon as the pores have become 
 saturated. This, then, is the condition of undrained soil. 
 
 24. Not only are the pores filled, but the interstitial 
 canals are likewise full ; and the consequence is, that the 
 whole process of the germination and growth of vegetables 
 is materially interfered with. We shall here, therefore, 
 briefly state the injurious effects of an excess of water, for 
 the purpose of impressing more strongly on your minds 
 the necessity of thorough-draining, as the first and most 
 essential step towards the improvement of your soil. 
 
 The first great effect of an excess of water is, that it 
 produces a corresponding diminution of the amount of air 
 beneath the surface, which air is of the greatest possible 
 consequence in the nutrition of plants ; in fact, if entirely 
 excluded, germination could not take place, and the seed 
 sown would, of course, either decay or lie dormant. 
 
 Secondly, an excess of water is most hurtful, by reducing 
 considerably the temperature of the soil : this I find by 
 careful experiment to be to the extent of 6J degrees Fahren- 
 heit in summer, which amount is equivalent to an eleva- 
 tion above the level of the sea of 1950 feet. So that, 
 
26 PULVERIZING THE SOIL. 
 
 supposing two fields lying side by side, the one drained, 
 the other undrained, and supposing them both equally well 
 cultivated, there will be nearly as much difference in the 
 amount and value of their respective crops, as if the 
 drained one was situated at the level of the sea, and the 
 other had an elevation as high as the most lofty of the 
 Pentland Hills.* But, besides this, and what is nearly 
 equally bad, the temperature is rendered unnaturally high 
 during winter ; whereas it has been proved that one great 
 source of health and vigour in vegetation is the great 
 difference which exists between the temperature of summer 
 and winter, which difference amounts in dry soil to between 
 thirty and forty degrees, while in soil very much injured by 
 an excess of water, the whole range of the thermometer 
 throughout the year will probably not exceed from six to 
 ten degrees. 
 
 These are the two chief injuries of an excess of water 
 in soil which affect the soil itself. There are very many 
 others affecting the climate, &c. ; but these are not so con- 
 nected with the subject in hand as to call for an explanation 
 here. 
 
 : 25. Of course all these injurious effects are at once over- 
 come by thorough-draining, the result of which is to esta- 
 blish a direct communication between the interstitial canals 
 and the drains, by which means it follows that no water can 
 remain any length of time in these canals without, by its 
 gravitation, finding its way into the drains. 
 
 26. Too much cannot be said in favour of pulverising 
 the soil ; even thorough-draining itself will not supersede 
 the necessity of performing this most necessary operation. 
 The whole valuable effects of ploughing, harrowing, grub- 
 bing, &c., may be reduced to this : and almost the whole 
 superiority of garden over field produce is referable to the 
 greater perfection to which this pulverising of the soil can 
 be carried. 
 
 * Of course the field of high elevation must be thoroughly drained to 
 equal even the undrained field at the level of the sea. 
 
QUANTITY OF AIK IN SOIL. 27 
 
 The celebrated Jethro Tull has the honour of having first 
 directed the farmer's attention forcibly to this subject : and 
 so deeply impressed was he with its infinite importance, 
 that he believed the use of manure could be entirely super- 
 seded were this pulverising carried to a sufficient extent. 
 
 The whole success of the drill husbandry is owing, hi a 
 great measure, to its enabling you to stir up the soil well 
 during the progress of your crop ; which stirring up is of 
 no value beyond its effect in more minutely pulverising the 
 soil, increasing, as far as possible, the size and number of 
 the interstitial canals. 
 
 27. Lest any one should suppose that the contents of 
 these interstitial canals must be so minute that their whole 
 amount can be of but little consequence, I may here notice 
 the fact, that in moderately- well pulverised soil they amount 
 to no less than one fourth of the whole bulk of the soil 
 itself: for example, 100 cubic inches of moist soil (that is, of 
 soil in which the pores are filled with water while the canals 
 are filled with air) contain no less than 25 cubic inches of 
 air. According to this calculation, in a field pulverised to 
 the depth of 8 inches, a depth perfectly attainable on most 
 soils by careful tillage, every imperial acre will retain be- 
 neath its surface no less than 12,545,280 cubic inches of 
 air. A familiar illustration of the space occupied by the 
 spaces between the particles of loosened soil is afforded by 
 the fact that when soil is disturbed it more than fills the 
 space it previously occupied. 
 
 28. Taking into calculation the weight of soil, we shall 
 find that with every additional inch which you reduce to 
 powder (by ploughing, for example, 9 inches in place of 8), 
 you call into activity 235 tons of soil, and render it capable 
 of retaining beneath its surface 1,568,160 additional cubic 
 inches of air. And, to take one more element into the 
 calculation, supposing the soil were not properly drained, 
 the sufficient pulverising of an additional inch in depth 
 would increase the escape of water from the surface by 
 upwards of 100 gallons a day, 
 
 c a 
 
28 DE CANDOLLE'S BULKS. 
 
 29. The great purpose of draining being, immediately, 
 the improvement of the land, but, ultimately, the promo- 
 tion and improvement of vegetable production, the prece- 
 ding considerations as to the fitness of the soil for germi- 
 nation may be well followed by a brief enumeration of the 
 rules for the application of water to plants, which, as laid 
 down by De Candolle, refer 
 
 First, to the quality of the water used : that it should be 
 well aerated ; the presence of atmospheric air is good, but 
 of carbonic acid gas much better. The next qualities 
 desirable are, that it should contain fertilising matters ; the 
 water should be as little muddy as possible ; the tempera- 
 ture of the water is of importance, especially for hot-house 
 plants : the water used in hot-houses is allowed to stand for 
 some time before it is employed, in order that it may have 
 the temperature of the place ; it is well that other water 
 employed should stand for a time in the sun. 
 
 Second, to the times of the application : In the winter 
 time there should be little irrigation, because the plants are 
 then dormant, and water is then superabundant. In spring 
 time water is usually abundant. In summer it is wanting; 
 and at that time the water should be given in the evening. 
 
 Third, to the quantity of the water to be applied, which 
 should be varied according 
 
 a. To the object of the culture : When for leaves, more 
 water should be given than when for flowers; less water 
 should be given when for grains or fruits. 
 
 b. To the depths of the roots: The application should be 
 more frequent to the plants of which the roots are superfi- 
 cial ; less frequent to deeper roots. 
 
 c. To the structure of the foliage : Those which evaporate 
 much (such as plants with large leaves), more frequently 
 than perennial, or plants with thick leaves. 
 
 d. To the consistence of the stalks, and of the roots : Roots 
 with fleshy fibres do not thrive if too abundantly watered ; 
 at the same time they are injured by dryness. Tuberculous 
 or bulbous plants, or plants with fleshy leaves, can bear a 
 
SURFACE-DRAINING. 29 
 
 long-continued aryness, and therefore infrequent, yet abun- 
 dant, waterings suit them well. 
 
 e. To the stage of vegetation : It is important to bear in 
 mind that young germinating plants require light and fre- 
 quent waterings; those that are in the height of growth 
 abundant waterings ; and when the fruit or seed is being 
 matured the waterings should be infrequent. Those that 
 have been transplanted require abundant watering. 
 
 /. To the nature of the soil, according to which these 
 rules must be modified : The lighter the soil the more 
 frequent and plentiful must be the waterings. If it 
 is a compact and clayey soil less watering will be re- 
 quired. 
 
 fj. To the state of the atmosphere: It will be readily 
 conceived that the watering must be more frequent when 
 the temperature is high, the sky clear, and the air dry, and 
 during drought." 
 
 30. The proper serving of water for agricultural purposes* 
 similarly with that for domestic and manufacturing uses, 
 requires both adequate supply and discharge. That is, if 
 the natural supply be deficient it becomes the business of 
 the drainer to augment it ; if excessive, to reduce it : but, 
 in either or any case, his correlative object is to provide 
 sufficiently for the discharge of the water as rapidly as 
 vegetation has imbibed its nutriment from it, and the sup- 
 ply is replenished. The recognition of this essential prin- 
 ciple founded the era of all modern improvements in the 
 Art of Draining. The most skilful tenders of the soil 
 were previously satisfied to drain the surface of the land. 
 So long as they were enabled by superficial channels to get 
 rid of the excess of water which appeared above ground, 
 their work seemed to them complete, and the effects of 
 subterranean reservoirs and aluminous sponges, made visi- 
 ble in stunted and unhealthy vegetation, were attributed to 
 any causes rather than the true ones. In our third section, 
 which will show in detail the methods of determining and 
 
30 IRRIGATION IN LOMBARDY. 
 
 forming drains, these causes and the mode of treating 
 them will be explained. 
 
 31. The facility or difficulty attending the artificial sup- 
 ply of water from rivers and subterranean sources depends 
 upon the distance of the sources from the districts to be 
 watered, their relative levels, and the geological structure 
 of the soil. The map of the district will exhibit the first 
 of these circumstances, and a corresponding section will 
 show the second; the third may be inferred, with more or 
 less exactness, from the superficial features of the country, 
 but can be ascertained with certainty only by boring 
 through the superincumbent strata until the spring or 
 internal reservoir is arrived at. 
 
 32. The water of rivers is not generally available for the 
 supply of the lands of districts of superior level, the 
 expense of applying mechanical power for this purpose 
 being too great to admit of extensive operations. For the 
 supply of towns and buildings, however, this consideration 
 is outweighed by the importance of the object. Pumps 
 worked by water, steam, or other power, are applied to 
 raise the water ; and artificial channels, such as aqueducts 
 or pipes, provided for its conveyance, with tanks or reser- 
 voirs for containing it, and submitting it to any desired 
 operations of cleansing or purifying. If the district, to be 
 supplied lie on a level, near to that of the feeding river, 
 the reservoirs are usually constructed contiguous to it, and 
 receive and cleanse the water before its conveyance through 
 pipes or other conduits. Thus, several of the companies 
 who now supply water to London and its suburbs have 
 reservoirs for these purposes on the banks of the river 
 Thames, whence their supply is derived. 
 
 33. For the irrigation and draining of adjacent lands on 
 accessible levels, the waters of rivers are conducted by 
 artificial courses. The system of irrigation adopted in 
 Lombardy is complete for this purpose, and the principle 
 of it is illustrated in figures 1 and 2 ; a a is the feeder to 
 
31 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
32 SUBTERRANEAN IRRIGATION. 
 
 b b, the irrigating channels. The water flowing from these 
 spreads itself as a veil over the rectangular sections of land 
 between them, and thence passes into the draining chan- 
 nels c c, which are formed at a lower level than the supply 
 channels, and is received in the common drain d d, through 
 which it passes, and becomes the means of irrigation and 
 draining to other similar districts in succession. In Lom- 
 bardy, the width of land between the channels b and c is 
 usually about 22 feet, and the difference of level between 
 the irrigating arid the draining < channels about 6 inches. 
 These water-meadows, or marcite, are thus irrigated in 
 summer during several hours about once in each week; 
 and from the end of September to the end of March the 
 process proceeds continuously, the water being turned off 
 only while the grass is being cut. 
 
 34. Instances of irrigation by submersion, by filtration^ 
 and by reguryitation, or subterranean irrigation, are men- 
 tioned by Count Manetti, the Superintendent of the Koyal 
 Gardens at Monza, near Milan, in these words : " The 
 irrigation by submersion is, in Lombardy, limited to rice 
 fields. Elsewhere, as, for instance, in Tuscany, it is em- 
 ployed to improve the soil by the 'deposit of earthy matter 
 from the water, whilst in France and Germany it is employed 
 both for arable lands and meadows, leaving them under 
 water till a scum appears, which indicates that the crust of 
 the soil begins to decay. The irrigation adopted in Lom- 
 bardy for arable and pasture lands, as well as for meadows, 
 is by nitration, for one could scarcely call submersion that 
 very thin veil of moving water so skilfully spread over the 
 land by our irrigators, who, in this point, are the best 
 agriculturists in the world. The irrigation by regurgitation 
 (more properly subterranean irrigation) is not in use in 
 Lombardy; but in Switzerland, in the neighbourhood of 
 Berne, and especially at Hofwyl, a considerable extent of 
 land is irrigated in this manner with great success. The 
 famous Fellenberg reclaimed the bogs of his Hofwyl estate 
 
CATCH-WATER MEADOWS. 33 
 
 by the application of subterraneous drains, so contrived that 
 by stopping their mouths when the surface of the soil is 
 too dry, he compels the water to swell back to the roots of 
 the grass. This mode of irrigation is not only adapted to 
 grassy lands after they have been drained, but to every 
 other description of light soils, especially in hot climates. 
 It was common in Persia long ago." 
 
 35. A method of irrigation by water-meadows, similar 
 to that described (par. 33), has been adopted in Wiltshire 
 and the neighbouring counties, the soil being thrown up 
 into beds, the water running along the crown of each bed, 
 and discharging on each side. 
 
 36. Another method adopted chiefly, until lately, in 
 Devonshire, is that known by the name Catch-water Meadow 
 or Catch-meadow. In this arrangement the gutters are drawn 
 along natural slopes, and the water falls from the upper 
 one to that immediately below it, which spreads it anew 
 equally over the surface lower down. This system, origi- 
 nating in an almost mountainous country, has been of late 
 years transferred to land quite as level as any on which the 
 ridge-water meadows were made in Wiltshire. 
 
 37. Experiments have been recently made upon the 
 economical effect of substituting an apparatus of pipes or 
 flexible hose for irrigating lands, for the channels and gut- 
 ters previously described. The chief advantages apparent 
 from the use of pipes either of iron or earthenware, or the 
 flexible hose with lateral openings, as water-carriers or 
 conductors over the water-meadows, have been thus recited : 
 that the surface now occupied by fixed carriers for water- 
 meadows would be saved; that the flexible hose may be 
 carried across depressions or over undulations of surface, 
 with closed lengths, without the expense of permanent 
 works ; that with these tubular carriers less water will 
 suffice, and, therefore, less waste from evaporation ; that 
 the apparatus may be at once removed for the adaptation 
 of the land to arable or varied cultivation. The hose may 
 
 c 3 
 
34 PIPE-DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 "be carried over hedges, ditches, or even small streams. 
 With a slight covering, it may be carried temporarily over a 
 road, or under it, through a road-drain. 
 
 The distribution by the hose and jet admits of various 
 modes of appliance with steam-power, from the heaviest 
 fall of a thunder- shower within the range of the jet, to a 
 shedding in the shape of a mist by a skilful operator, or 
 the shedding in various full streams upon the ground. 
 Horticulturists deem various niceties in watering essential 
 to good production. In the practice of the new distribution 
 on a large scale these points of skill appear to have been 
 little, if at all, attended to ; and although crops now 
 deemed extraordinary were got without them, it is probable 
 that, with them, further increase of production will be 
 attained. 
 
 38. When the several specified advantages of the pipe- 
 distribution are considered, they appear to the engineering 
 inspectors who have examined the different works, to pre- 
 ponderate greatly, even for common agricultural purposes, 
 over the cheapest methods of distribution by catch-water 
 meadows, and to induce a far higher and more profitable 
 order of cultivation. When, indeed, the question relates 
 to land which is valuable from its contiguity to a town, and 
 to a cultivation yielding IQL or 20Z. or more per acre, the 
 annual cost of the land occupied by the water-carriers 
 alone exceeds the annual cost of a complete system of iron 
 pipes. Thus, in the newly-formed water-meadows at Edin- 
 burgh, the open gutters occupy about one thirty -seventh of 
 the area irrigated, and in many places a greater propor- 
 tionate space is occupied for the purpose. As the rent of 
 the land is there 20Z. per acre, the annual value of the space 
 devoted to gutters is 10s Qd. per acre, or about equal to 
 the average annual working expenses, including interest on 
 capital, of the pipe distribution ; and it would be clearly a 
 saving to the owners of those meadows, and of several 
 others, to fill up the gutters, to abandon the practice of 
 distribution by submersion, and to adopt that of pipe dis- 
 
HAND-DISTRIBUTION. 85 
 
 tribution. Besides saving land, filling up the gutters would 
 be removing impediments to the passage of carts, and to 
 numerous other agricultural operations. Where a sufficient 
 fall is obtained for pipe distribution by gravitation, it is 
 cheaper than the common catch-water meadows. 
 
 39. The power derivable from the prompt application of 
 plain water to arable cultivation may be said to be unknown 
 to the agriculture of this country, and very little known in 
 that which has heretofore been distinguished as " market 
 garden cultivation ; " and it is only imperfectly practised in 
 horticulture. Wheat has, under some circumstances, been 
 watered with great success. In the market-garden cultiva- 
 tion at Naples and Paris, effects are stated to be produced 
 by skilful watering which are unknown in this country. At 
 Naples the water is distributed by regular channels of irri- 
 gation. At the market gardens of Paris, it is skilfully 
 distributed by hand labour, by the use of the scoop, at 
 great expense indeed, but for which the extra produce com- 
 pensates. Some of the more eminent market-gardeners 
 would, however, appreciate the advantages of any appliances 
 for the cheap distribution of water. A quantity of water 
 equal to the fall from a heavy thunder-shower may be dis- 
 tributed by engine power at an expense not exceeding a 
 few pence per acre. 
 
 40. The cheap power of distributing water may often be 
 of importance to the agriculturist, to facilitate the working 
 of the land at those times when it is hardened by drought, 
 and when, for ploughing or other work, extra labour, often 
 more than double the ordinary amount, is necessary. On 
 such occasions, labourers wet the ground to facilitate the 
 working with the spade. When wa f er is avaijable, and 
 when the ground may be thoroughly wetted at a trifling 
 expense, the farmer may, by such an application, work 
 with two horses where otherwise four would be required. 
 
 41. Districts considerably above river level, or so situated 
 that no water can be conveyed to them from that source, 
 may be artificially supplied from wells, or by making com- 
 
86 RISE OF RIVEES. 
 
 munication with the lower and saturated strata of the soil. 
 Thus, the ridges of land lying above the reach of the Nile 
 were perforated with wells by the ancient Egyptians, as a 
 substitute for the inundation by which the lower banks 
 were fertilized. The Chinese also resort to wells for the 
 purpose of irrigation. In many parts of the East, where 
 the natural supply by rain is deficient, works on a very 
 large scale have been constructed for obtaining water suffi- 
 cient for irrigating. In Hindostan, Japan, China, Java, 
 Tartary, &c., the supply is, to a great extent, drawn from 
 wells ; and in Bengal, Ceylon, the Carnatic, &c., immense 
 tanks have been for ages constructed to contain the valuable 
 liquid. 
 
 42. The principal rivers noted for the periodical rising 
 of their waters, are the Nile, the Ganges, the Euphrates, 
 and the Mississippi. Of these, the Nile, which flows from 
 the Jibel Kumri Mountains, begins to rise in June, and by 
 the middle of August attains an elevation of 24 to 28 feet, 
 the inundation flooding the valley of Egypt for a width of 
 12 miles. The Ganges, flowing from the Himalayas, rises 
 32 feet from April to August, and creates a flood of ] 00 
 miles in width. The Euphrates, from Mount Ararat, rises 
 12 feet between March and June, and covers the Babylonian 
 plains. The Mississippi, flowing from the Stony Moun- 
 tains, rises with the melting of the snows from March till 
 June, forming a vast belt of watered surface. At the dis- 
 tance of 1000 miles from the ocean it is said to rise 50 feet, 
 while nearer the sea its rise is considerably reduced by the 
 vast tract which it covers. 
 
 43. The periodical rise of river waters gives facilities for 
 their systematic distribution over the higher districts to a 
 most important extent by the construction of canals, of 
 which the ancient Egyptians largely availed themselves. 
 Their canals, branching in various directions, are said to 
 have amounted to 80 in number, and to have extended to 
 60 or 100 miles each in length. Similarly, the great 
 cavities, called the Lakes of Moeris, Behira, and Mareotis, 
 
AETESIAN WELLS. 37 
 
 are considered to have been reservoirs artificially formed for 
 collecting vast stores of water to be afterwards distributed 
 for irrigation. 
 
 44. Among the means of artificial supply, the construc- 
 tion of wells has always been resorted to as a certain 
 method of obtaining water in cases where no other was 
 practicable. Failing rain and rivers, subterranean sources 
 have, from the earliest times, been sought for, the formation 
 of wells being one of the most ancient engineering expe- 
 dients. The primitive wells of Greece are described as 
 being surmounted with massive marble cylinders ; those of- 
 Thrace consisted of arched excavations in the sides of 
 rocks, where the water was directly obtainable from springs; 
 the springs of Turkey were converted into fountains, and 
 " the castle of Cairo contains a curious well, sunk in the 
 rock to the depth of 280 feet, and having a circumference 
 of 42 feet. The water of this w.ell filters through the sand 
 from the Nile, and, being impregnated in its passage by 
 salt and nitre, it has a brackish taste." 
 
 45. As a modern discovery, or, properly, revival, that of 
 Artesian Wells is a valuable source of the artificial supply of 
 water. The theory of these wells is simply this: that 
 water, descending through the permeable strata of the 
 earth, and reaching either a cavity or a bed of spongy 
 materials, will accumulate there if its egress is prevented 
 by an impervious surrounding stratum; then, if an artificial 
 opening or well be made into this water-bearing bed, the 
 water will rise upward in it to a height, and with a force, 
 due to the superior elevation and fertility of the source. 
 Having been long adopted in Artois, these wells have 
 received the modern name of Artesian \\ells. This con- 
 trivance appears to have been introduced into this country 
 from France and Italy about the year 1790. At Mortlake, 
 near the Thames, a well was driven through the clay and 
 sand into a bed of soft chalk to a depth of 375 feet, and a 
 good supply obtained through a bore of 3 ins. in diameter. 
 The strata penetrated were as follow: gravel, 20 ft. 
 
38 
 
 WELL AT CRENELLE. 
 
 London clay, 250 ft.; plastic sands and clays, 55 ft,; hard 
 chalk with flints, 35 ft.; soft chalk, 15 ft. 
 
 46. The celebrated Artesian Well at Grenelle, in France, 
 formed under the direction of M. Mulot, is an instance of 
 the difficulties and success of these works. This work 
 occupied eight years and a half of anxious exertion, and the 
 
 STRATA. 
 
 43 ** 
 
 its 
 
 ! 
 3 g 
 
 g| 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 l 
 
 f. 'Jl 
 
 l 
 
 02 
 
 
 Formations of 
 London and 
 Paris Basins. 
 
 Gravel and sand 
 
 Feet. 
 13 
 
 Feet. 
 13 
 
 
 
 Cockle shells .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quartzose sand, with fine particles 
 of sulphuret of iron 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fine sand . . . . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Argillaceous sand J> 
 
 180 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 Mottled 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 Clay .. 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 Sand and claj^ with nodules of 
 limestone J 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White chalk, with layers of flints ... 
 White chalk, alternating with strata ) 
 of dolomite and small pieces of> 
 silex 
 
 328 
 
 886 
 
 148 
 
 558 
 
 2 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 fi 
 O 
 
 h4 
 
 White chalk. 
 
 Gray chalk with particles of silex ... 
 Gray chalk compact without silex ... 
 
 1049 
 1453 
 
 163 
 
 404 
 
 m 
 
 rG 
 ^ 
 ' 
 
 fco 
 
 c 
 
 Gray chalk. 
 
 silicate of iron | 
 
 
 
 r o 
 c 
 
 
 Blue argillaceous chalk ... 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Blue argillaceous and sandy chalk, { 
 with particles of mica, and | 
 veins of green chalk J 
 
 1634 
 
 181 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Chalk marl. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the phosphate of lime and fossil j 
 
 
 
 
 
 Green sand ... 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clay and greenish sand, with grains 
 of quartz 
 
 1794 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 Argillaceous sand 
 
 
 
 
 
 Green snd white sand J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
WELL AT GEENELLE. 39 
 
 water first rose on the 26th of February. 1841. The strata 
 bored through are as shown in the table page 38 the 
 depth being measured from the surface : the second column 
 shows the depth of each stratum, and the third column ex- 
 hibits the resemblance between the formations of the basins 
 of London and Paris. 
 
 The sand, in which the water is obtained, continues below 
 this depth. The boring was commenced at a diameter of 
 20 inches, and diminished as the tubes descended, so that 
 at the depth of 576 feet, employing 4 columns of tubing, 
 the diameter was 12 inches. The fifth column of tubing 
 reaches 1148 feet, with a diameter of 10 inches. The sixth 
 reaches 1345 feet, and has a diameter of 8J inches. The 
 seventh and last tube reaches 1771 feet, with a diameter 
 of 6^ inches. The lower 23 feet in the clay are not tubed. 
 During the progress of the work several accidents of a dis- 
 couraging nature occurred : the rods and chisels sometimes 
 became detached, and fell to the bottom. The chisel also, 
 when in the chalk, sank at one stroke 85 feet, and became 
 so firmly fixed, that M. Mulot found it necessary to enlarge 
 the hole on all sides. All difficulties were at length, how- 
 ever, surmounted, and on the day mentioned the rods sud- 
 denly sunk several feet; the workmen found that all 
 resistance had ceased, and that the water-bearing stratum 
 was attained. After a few hours a column of water rose to 
 a height of nearly 2000 feet. The subsequent operation of 
 lining the bore was a work of great importance, in order to 
 prevent the sides of the hole falling in through any of the 
 less compact strata, and at the same time prevent the possi- 
 bility of the water escaping, or the pressure being lost by 
 any fissures that exist, or may be fomed in the strata 
 through -which the water passes. The arrangement of 
 these tubes requiring a regular diminution of diameter in 
 the manner of the tubes of a telescope, it is essential that 
 the relative dimensions be calculated with great exactness, 
 otherwise the lower tubes are found to become too small to 
 admit the water, and it is then necessary to remove the 
 
40 PUITS DE GRENELLE. 
 
 whole of the tubes deposited, and enlarge the bore accord- 
 ingly. At Grenelle it was five times necessary to remove 
 the whole of the placed lining, and enlarge the bore of the 
 well. Wrought iron had been employed for lining on pre- 
 vious occasions, but had failed, one remarkable instance of 
 which may be mentioned. The water of an Artesian Wei 1 
 at St. Cyr, near Tours, rises from the sand beneath the 
 ehalk, and the tubular lining to the well was of iron. The 
 supply, however, diminished in every succeeding year, and 
 M. Bretonneau caused the tubing to be drawn up, which 
 was f ths of an inch in thickness, and found well preserved ; 
 but at the joints of the pipes several circular holes were 
 discovered, two or three centimes in diameter. This effect 
 has been accounted for by an assumed electro-chemical 
 action, but, however caused, it led to the rejection of iron 
 as a material for the tubing. Copper tubes ^th of an inch 
 in thickness have been applied at Grenelle. 
 
 47. The supply from the Puits de Grenelle was reported 
 in 1841 to exceed 880,000 gallons every 24 hours, and the 
 cost of the work was about 10,000. Some of the Artesian 
 Wells sunk at Tours were found to yield less than when 
 opened. A greater number, however, have produced an 
 augmented quantity, and the probability is that the defi- 
 ciencies have arisen from imperfections in the lining of the 
 bores. In the province of Artois, where Artesian Wells 
 have existed upwards of 300 years, no diminution has ever 
 been observed. The subterranean sheet of water which 
 supplies these, extends over a space of several hundred 
 square leagues, in comparison with which the outlets to 
 these wells are almost inappreciable. 
 
 48 The deficiency of supply by which Artesian Wells 
 are rendered inoperative, usually becomes evident before 
 any very great depth is reached, although, if the water- 
 bearing stratum happens to crop out at any points however 
 distant from the boring, the supply is liable to deficiency, 
 and the pressure necessary to force the water upwards is 
 also perhaps lost. Thus, previous to the operations at 
 
ABSORBING WELLS 41 
 
 Crenelle, just described, a boring was executed at the Jardin 
 des Plantes ; but the water never reached the surface, 
 although it rose to within a few feet of it. This fact was 
 afterwards accounted for by the discovery that the sheet of 
 water which supplied this boring, being the same that feeds 
 the fountains of St. Ouen and St. Denis, crops out on the 
 banks of the river Seine, between Chaillot and Saint 
 Cloud. From this sheet, that which supplies the wells at 
 Tours and Elboeuf is separated by the entire chalk forma- 
 tion. M. Champoiseau communicated to the Academy of 
 Sciences, in 1840, the result of experiments he had made 
 at Tours, to ascertain if any connection existed between his 
 Artesian Well and the neighbouring rivers. These experi- 
 ments were conducted during the months of March, April, 
 and May, while the waters of the rivers were fluctuating, 
 but no corresponding change was found in the well-waters, 
 which did not show any variation either in their quantity 
 or clearness. The temperature of the water of Grenelle 
 was found to be 81 0- 7 Fahr., and its quality far more pure 
 than that of the Seine, or of Arcueil. From an analysis by 
 M. Pelouze, it appears that 100 cubic inches of the Grenelle 
 water gave only 3 '5 grains of extraneous matter, whilst a 
 similar quantity of water from Arcueil or the Seine yielded 
 4-3 grains mechanically suspended, and 11-6 grains of 
 chemical impurities. 
 
 49. Borings similar to those for Artesian Wells have been 
 executed for the purpose of getting rid of superfluous water 
 and liquid matters. An embankment near Val de Fleury, 
 for the left bank Versailles Eailway, was drained in this 
 manner by means of absorbing wells. A stratum of clay and 
 sand soaked with the rains of the previous year forced the 
 bank from its position, and destroyed the works. Borings 
 were made, the first of which reached 20 yards in depth, 
 where it arrived at the upper part of the chalk, full of fis- 
 sures, and which speedily absorbed the water. The subse- 
 quent borings were carried to 35 and 40 yards, in order to 
 reach the chalky fissures which communicate with the 
 
42 PUMPING AND DISTEIBUTING. 
 
 Seine, and feed the neighbouring wells. Absorbing wells 
 have also been used in France to dispose of the refuse of 
 the lay-stalls. M. Mulot, who superintended the Grenelle 
 Artesian Well, executed a boring for this purpose at Baudy. 
 Through a perforation 244 feet in depth, two absorbing 
 strata were obtained, one at a depth from 133 to 155 feet, 
 in chalk mixed with silex, and the other from 210 to 244 
 feet, in argillaceous sand, and green and gray sands con- 
 taining lignites and pulverized shells. By the first 70, and 
 the latter 140 cubic yards of refuse liquid were absorbed. 
 
 50. The Question of relative levels as affecting the prac- 
 ticability and expense of draining operations in the raising 
 and removal of water and even of soils, has been rendered 
 far less important by the application of steam-power. The 
 expense of raising 43,000 gallons of water a hundred feet 
 high by a Cornish engine of 25-horse power is only a shil- 
 ling; and with an engine of 180-horse power, 80,000 gallons 
 are lifted for that sum, coal being 12s. per ton. In the 
 potteries, what is called " slip," that is, clay mixed with 
 powdered flint and granite, with about one ton and a half 
 of water to one ton of solid matter, is pumped and distri- 
 buted ; * and there is no doubt that where water is avail- 
 able, and where the operation required is 011 a sufficiently 
 large scale, lands might be " clayed " and earths distributed 
 much more effectually and cheaply by this than by any 
 other method. The greater weight of the " slip " referred 
 to, as compared with that of water, increases the labour of 
 pumping about one-third. 
 
 51. The power of water in carrying matters in suspension 
 is much neglected in agricultural as well as in engineering 
 operations. Earths may, when properly diluted, be distri- 
 buted, by the pump worked by steam-power, through a 
 hose with open apertures, not only at a cheaper rate than 
 by any other method, but in a far superior mode, being 
 finely comminuted and evenly spread. In Germany, where 
 
 * General Board of Health "Minutes of Information." 
 
MOVING EARTH BY STREAMS. 43 
 
 water can be obtained at a high level, and gravitation can 
 be used, improvements are effected by the distribution of 
 earths on an extensive scale, the principle of the mechanical 
 distribution by hydraulic power being the same as warping. 
 In Tuscany the large work of the " bonificamento " of the 
 Maremma is a work by means of water-power so applied by 
 which upwards of two feet in thickness of solid earth has 
 been spread over forty square miles of country ; a mass of 
 earthwork equal to nearly 82 ^million cubic yards, regularly 
 deposited as if rammed. On an estimate for some work 
 on a large scale in this country it appeared that the working 
 expense of spreading clay by means of a hose would be 
 little more than 2s. 6d. per inch of depth per acre, equal to 
 134 cubic yards, the expense of carrying and spreading 
 which, by man and horse-power, would have been very 
 considerable. 
 
 52. The following example of the comparative expense 
 of removal of earth by cartage and in suspension in water 
 is given in the sanitary report : "A contract was about to 
 be entered into by the West Middlesex Water Company for 
 hauling out from their reservoir at Kensington the deposit 
 of eight or ten years' silt, which had accumulated to the 
 depth of three or four feet. The contractor offered to 
 remove this quantity, which covered nearly an acre of sur- 
 face, for the sum of 400Z., in three or four weeks. The 
 reservoir was emptied (of the water) in order to be inspected 
 by the engineer and directors before the contract was 
 accepted. It occurred to one of the officers that the cleans- 
 ing might be accomplished more readily by merely stirring 
 up the silt to mix it with water ; and then, if a cut or outlet 
 were made in the main pipe used for conveying the water 
 to London, that it might be washed out. He accordingly 
 got thirty or forty men to work in stirring up the deposit, 
 and accomplished the work at the cost of 40Z. or 501. , and 
 three or four days' labour, instead of so many weeks. 
 When the directors wont to see the basin, to decide upon 
 
44 QUALITIES OF WATER. 
 
 the contract, the reservoir was as free from any deposit as 
 a house-floor."* 
 
 53. On the peculiar qualities of water depends its fitness 
 for agricultural, manufacturing, and domestic purposes. 
 Chemical researches have put us in possession of much 
 valuable knowledge upon this subject, which it behoves the 
 land-worker and the engineer equally to avail themselves of. 
 Pure water, as proved by the early experiments of Priestley 
 and Cavendish, about the year 1780, consists of the two 
 gases, oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion of 85 parts, 
 by weight, of oxygen, to 15 of hydrogen. This pure liquid 
 can be obtained only by distilling water as it is found in 
 the several states of rain-water, river-water, sea-water, and 
 spring-water. The water obtained from each of these 
 sources contains foreign matters of some kind, the nature 
 and effects of which, as ingredients in the water we have to 
 employ, are well deserving our best attention. 
 
 54. Liebig has proved, by experiments made in the labo- 
 ratory at Giessen, that rain-water contains ammonia. All 
 the rain-water used for these experiments was collected at a 
 distance of 600 paces (south-west) from the town, and while 
 the wind was blowing towards it. Several hundred pounds 
 of the water were distilled in a copper still, and, upon eva- 
 porating some of it with muriatic acid, an evident crystalli- 
 zation of sal-ammoniac was observed. The same eminent 
 chemist has fully satisfied himself of the presence of am- 
 monia in snow-water. By evaporating the snow with mu- 
 riatic acid, crystals of sal-ammoniac were obtained; and 
 from these crystals the ammonia was liberated by adding 
 hydrate of lime. In these experiments Liebig observed 
 that the inferior strata of snow always contained a larger 
 proportion of ammonia than that lying upon the surface. 
 
 * Under the old practice, sewers were cleansed from deposit by buckets, 
 and the deposit removed by cartage, at an expense of 105. per load, by con- 
 tract. By means of flushing, or by water, the cleansing and removal were 
 effected at a cost of from 3d. to 8d. per load. 
 
ANALYSES OF WATER. 45 
 
 The origin of this ingredient and its utility in the vegetable 
 economy are details of a most interesting study, but we 
 cannot afford space to pursue the inquiry. 
 
 55. Sea-water contains, besides carbonic acid, ammonia, 
 &c., the following salts : according to Marcet, 
 
 Chloride of sodium .... 26-660 
 
 Chloride of magnesium . . . 5-152 
 
 Sulphate of soda 4-660 
 
 Sulphate of lime 1-500 
 
 Chloride of potassium ... 1-232 
 
 39-204 
 
 making a total of 39-204 parts of salts in 1000 parts of 
 sea-water. An analysis of the water of the North Sea, 
 made by Clemin, differs slightly from this. Clemm's is as. 
 follows : 
 
 Chloride of sodium . . . . 24-84 
 Chloride of magnesium . . . 2 '42 
 Sulphate of magnesia . . . . 2-06 
 Chloride of potassium . . . . 1-31 
 Sulphate of lime 1-20 
 
 31-83 
 
 showing a total of 31-83 parts of salts in 1000 parts of 
 sea-water. These salts are, by the constant evaporation 
 from the surface of the sea, floated over the earth and 
 carried down by the rain, thus replenishing vegetation with 
 the salts essential to its growth and existence. 
 
 56. The waters obtained from rivers, springs, and 
 wells, are all impregnated, in a greater or less degree, with 
 foreign substances, and also hold others in a state of 
 mechanical suspension. These impurities are of four 
 kinds, viz. ; 
 
 ] st. The Mechanical. 
 2nd. The Animal. 
 3rd. The Vegetable. 
 4th. The Mineral or Saline. 
 
46 HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 Although the purification of water from these matters 
 may belong peculiarly to our Second Division, it will be 
 well to consider it under the First, in order to establish cor- 
 rect notions of the qualities of water, whether applied to 
 agricultural, manufacturing, or domestic uses. The pro- 
 cess of nitration separates only the first of these. The 
 saline matter contained in water may be distinguished as 
 neutral and alkaline. The neutral salts are gypsum, common 
 salt, &c. The alkaline portion consists of earthy bicar- 
 bonates, such as those of lime and magnesia, and alkaline 
 bicarbonates, such as those of potash and soda. The 
 principal cause of that quality of water, termed "hardness," 
 arises from the presence of the earthy salts mentioned, and 
 sometimes iron-salts ; and the same property is evinced if 
 the water contains an excess of carbonic acid. Exposure to 
 the air will diminish the hardness of water, as far as that 
 quality is occasioned by the excess of carbonic acid ; and it 
 will have a similar effect, but in a much diminished degree, 
 upon waters which owe their hardness to the presence of 
 the earthy bicarbonates. 
 
 57. The economical results dependent upon the qualities 
 of the water supplied to towns are of extreme importance, 
 and therefore deserve attention. Thus, the bicarbonates of 
 lime, &c., affect, to a great degree, the value of water in its 
 application to many manufacturing purposes, and to the 
 production of steam and the heating of pipes for artificial 
 warming. The incrustation of boilers is a well-known 
 theme of consideration in the economy of steam-power, 
 and, moreover, frequently becomes operative as the ultimate 
 cause of accidents, in the case of explosions. In its domes- 
 tic applications, the properties of water are equally impor- 
 tant. The quality of hardness occasions a necessity for a 
 great additional consumption of soap in all the processes of 
 washing and cleansing. And this resistance to the cleans- 
 ing action becomes, as is universally known, the cause of 
 increased mechanical effort on the part of the operator, and 
 a corresponding increase of wear and injury to the clothes 
 
DE. CLARK'S PROCESS 47 
 
 acted upon. Dr. T. Clark, who has given much attention 
 to this subject, and is the patentee of a process for testing 
 the hardness of water, conceives that a very considerable 
 expenditure arises from thee causes in a large town sup- 
 plied with hard water. 
 
 58. For the purpose of comparison, Dr. Clark adopts 
 the effect of the presence of one grain of chalk in one 
 gallon of water as a standard, or one degree of hardness ; and 
 he gives the results of some of his analyses as follows : 
 The hardness of the waters supplied through pipes in 
 London varies from 11 to 16, or equal to the effect of 11 
 to 16 grains of chalk per gallon. The pipe-water of Man- 
 chester has 12 of hardness. The water of Glasgow 4-5. 
 Of Edinburgh about 5. Newcastle-upon-Tyne Company's 
 water, nearly 5. Thames water near Mortlake had 14 0> 2 
 hardness, while the average of many trials upon Thames 
 water, after conveyance through pipes, gave only 11 0> 8. The 
 inference, therefore, is, that it had lost 2'4 of its original 
 hardness during its passage and exposure. 
 
 59. The outline of Dr. Clark's process may be gathered 
 from the following abridged extract from the specification 
 of his patent : " Chalk forms the bulk of the chemical 
 impurity that the process will separate from water, and is 
 the material whence the ingredient for effecting the separa- 
 tion will be obtained. In water, chalk is almost or alto- 
 gether insoluble, but it may be rendered soluble by either 
 of two processes of a veiy opposite kind. When burned, 
 as in a kiln, chalk loses weight. If dry and pure, only 
 9 oz. will remain out of 16 oz. ; these nine will be soluble 
 in water, but require 40 gallons for entire solution. Burnt 
 chalk is called quicklime, and water holding quicklime in 
 solution is called lime-water, and is clear and colourless. 
 The 7 oz. lost by burning the 16, consist of carbonic acid 
 gas, which, dissolved under compression by water, forms 
 soda-water. The other mode of rendering chalk soluble in 
 water is nearly the reverse. In the former mode, one 
 pound of pure chalk becomes dissolved in water, in conse- 
 
48 DK. CLARK'S PROCESS. 
 
 quence of losing 7 oz. of carbonic acid. To dissolve in the 
 second mode, not only must the pound of chalk not lose 
 the 7 oz. of carbonic acid, but it must combine with 7 ad- 
 ditional ounces of that acid. In such a state of combina- 
 tion, chalk exists in the waters of London, dissolved, invi- 
 sible, and colourless like salt in water A pound of 
 
 chalk dissolved in 560 gaUons of water by 7 ounces of car- 
 bonic acid, would form a solution not sensibly different, in 
 ordinary use, from the filtered water of the Thames, in the 
 average state of that river. Chalk, which chemists call 
 carbonate of lime, becomes bicarbonate of lime when dis- 
 solved in water by carbonic acid. Any lime-water may be 
 mixed with another, and any solution of bicarbonate of 
 lime with another, without any change being produced. 
 But, if lime-water be mixed with a solution of bicarbonate 
 of lime, the mixture acquires the appearance of whitewash, 
 and chalk is precipitated, leaving the water above perfectly 
 clear. This operation will be understood by supposing 
 1 Ib. of chalk, after being burned to 9 oz. of quicklime, to 
 be dissolved, and form 40 gallons of lime-water ; that 
 another pound is dissolved by 7 oz. of extra carbonic acid, 
 so as to form 560 gallons of a solution of bicarbonate of 
 lime, and that the two solutions are mixed, making up 600 
 gallons. The 9 oz. of quicklime from the 1 Ib. of chalk 
 unite with the 7 extra ounces of carbonic acid that hold 
 the other pound of chalk in solution. These 9 ounces of 
 quicklime and 7 ounces of carbonic acid form 16 oz., or 
 1 Ib. of chalk, which, being insoluble in water, becomes 
 visible at the same time that the other pound of chalk, 
 being deprived of the extra 7 oz. of carbonic acid that kept 
 it in solution, reappears. Both pounds of chalk will be 
 found at the bottom of the subsidence. The 600 gallons 
 of water will remain above, clear and colourless, without 
 holding in solution any sensible quantity either of quicklime 
 or bicarbonate of lime." 
 
 60. All the methods of mere mechanical clearing of 
 water are one or other of two processes, viz., settling, or 
 
SUBSIDING EESEEVOIRS. 49 
 
 subsidence, and filtration . The first of these processes is of 
 a negative character, consisting simply in letting the water 
 remain for a considerable period in an undisturbed condi- 
 tion. It is well known that, if a quantity of water, having 
 particles of any foreign matters of greater specific gravity 
 than water floating or diffused within it, be allowed to con- 
 tinue in a quiescent state for a sufficient length of time, 
 these particles will subside to the bottom of the water, 
 which is thus left comparatively clear and limpid. In order 
 to accomplish this purpose on a great scale, reservoirs are 
 constructed, in which the water is accumulated and per- 
 mitted to remain, and from which it is delivered as re- 
 quired. Such reservoirs are termed subsiding or settling re- 
 servoirs. 
 
 61. The East London Water Company, which draws the 
 water from the Elver Lea, near Lea Bridge, and supplies 
 the eastern part of the metropolis and suburbs, has 20 acres 
 of settling reservoirs. The arrangement is this : The 
 water is introduced through a canal, two miles long, into a 
 wide canal, or small reservoir, at the end of which there 
 are two sets of gates, each of \vhich opens a communication 
 with a separate reservoir. The water is admitted into both 
 of these reservoirs, but drawn from only one of them at a 
 time, the other remaining closed. Thus the water remains 
 for one day in each reservoir alternately, while, in time of 
 floods, it may be shut off altogether from these reservoirs 
 for four or five days. 
 
 62. The value of all merely settling reservoirs can be de- 
 rived only by drawing the water from the upper part' of 
 them. It is evident that, while the subsidence is going on, 
 the whole bulk of the water is clarified only in proportion 
 to its distance from the bed; and thus, the lower down that 
 the point of exit is situated, the less clear must be the 
 water that passes away. 
 
 63. To make the principle of subsidence fully effective, 
 it is likewise necessaiy that the water should remain for 
 some period, probably 24 hours at least, entirely undisturbed. 
 
 D 
 
50 FILTEATION. 
 
 If any motion is permitted, the subsidence is interrupted, 
 if not arrested. The reservoir should therefore be filled, 
 and then totally closed both to ingress and egress. At the 
 expiration of 24 hours, the upper part of the water should 
 be gently drawn off. If the extent of supply will admit, the 
 lower portion of the water may afterwards be let off for 
 manufacturing or inferior purposes, or allowed to mingle 
 with another fresh portion. If both the supply and the 
 discharge be conducted at a sufficiently slow rate, and 
 enough time be allowed for the quiet completion of the 
 subsidence, the bulk of the water will always maintain a 
 high degree of mechanical clearness, and the intermixture 
 of the water remaining after each drawing off with the in- 
 coming water, will not involve any material loss of time in 
 the process. 
 
 64. The process of filtration is effected by providing a 
 bed of easily permeable materials, in which the water depo- 
 sits the solid particles which it held in suspension, and 
 finds its way to the lower bed in a comparatively clear 
 state. The filtering materials employed in large filters are, 
 sand and gravel of various degrees of fineness, pebbles, and 
 shells. These latter, by their calcareous properties, act 
 chemically on the water to a trifling extent, or while they 
 retain free carbonic acid ; the other materials admit the 
 passage of the water, but prevent that of such solid parti- 
 cles as are larger than the interstices between the particles 
 of the materials. The filtered water is collected in brick 
 tunnels, constructed in the lower filtering stratum, and 
 having apertures in the joints to admit the water. Fig. 3 
 is a section of a filtering reservoir as constructed for the 
 Chelsea Water Company. In this reservoir the water comes 
 in contact first with a bed of fine sand, a, which arrests the 
 mechanical impurities. It thence passes through the strata, 
 b, of coarse sand, c, of pebbles and shells, and d, of fine 
 gravel, into the lowest bed, e, which consists of large gra- 
 vel, lying upon a firm foundation of clay, 18 inches thick, 
 and having the brick culverts, fff, built within it. The 
 
CHELSEA WATEIIWORKS. 51 
 
 clay bottom must, of course, be rendered sufficiently com- 
 pact to resist the passage of the "water ; and, if no clay be 
 found, it will be necessary to form an artificial bed for the 
 purpose. The collecting tunnels are here constructed of 
 blocks of brickwork in cement, and partly open-jointed. 
 They are three feet in diameter, an two half-bricks in 
 thickness. The water is admitted to the filtering-bed at 
 nine places, the ends of the supply-pipes being fitted with 
 curved boards to diffuse the water, and prevent any dis- 
 turbance of the upper stratum of sand. The quantity 
 filtered in this bed, which is 240 feet long, and 180 feet 
 wide, is 72 gallons per superficial foot of the filtering-bed 
 daily, according to the demand. The undulating surface of 
 the bed allows parts of it to be drained when necessary, 
 without removing the water from the adjacent hollows. It 
 is found that the sediment penetrates only from six to nine 
 inches in depth, and the removal of one inch in thickness 
 of the fine sand, every fortnight, is found sufficient to 
 secure the proper action of the apparatus. Air-drains are 
 provided to admit the escape of the condensed air which 
 may collect in the tunnels. It has been found that it is 
 necessary, in all cases, to remove the old sand before intro- 
 ducing fresh sand ; otherwise a film is formed on the origi- 
 nal sand which will resist the passage of the water. 
 
 65. The first and current expense of this system of filtra- 
 tion is estimated by Mr. James Simpson, the engineer of 
 the Chelsea Waterworks, to be as follows : 
 First cost of filtering-bed, exclusive of land . . 11,700 
 
 Annual expense of raising water in filtering-bed . 800 
 
 (From the River Thames, close adjoining, 
 
 raised by steam engine.) 
 
 Annual expense of cleansing and renewal . . . 800 
 
 Five per cent, interest on outlay of capital . . 585 
 
 Total annual cost, exclusive of land 
 
52 SOUTHWARK WATERWORKS. 
 
 The quantity filtered being 3,136,320 gallons daily, or 
 1,144,756,800 gallons annually, or at the rate of about 
 2183 gallons for one penny. 
 
 66. The system of cleansing adopted by the Southwark 
 Water Company embraces settling reservoirs, as well as 
 filtering-beds or rdfcrvoirs, and some peculiarities in the 
 formation of the former deserve notice. The section, fig. 4, 
 will clearly show the construction. A A are the settling re- 
 servoirs, having an area of between four and five acres, and 
 being 13 ft. 6 in. deep, and faced with gravel. The bed 
 was found to be springy in some places, and there lime 
 was mixed with the gravel, forming an impermeable con- 
 crete. The beds are formed with a slight inclination from 
 the sides towards the middle, along which an inverted arch, 
 6, is formed of brickwork in cement, 6 ft. wide, and 
 3 ft. 6 in. deep. This invert is an essential improvement, 
 and, with the inclined bed, gives great facilities for cleans- 
 ing, by sweeping the deposits into the invert, and flushing 
 it away with a current of water from an upper reservoir. 
 The filters are constructed similarly to those of the Chelsea 
 Works just described. The series of filtering substances 
 consists of coarse gravel, 1 ft. deep ; rough screened gravel, 
 9 in. deep ; fine screened gravel, 6 in. deep ; hoggin, or 
 fine gravel, 9 in. deep ; and fine wash gray river sand, 
 3 ft. 6 in. deep. The water is gradually drawn from the 
 settling reservoirs, A A, on to the surface of the sand, on the 
 filter-bed, c, and is permitted to percolate through brick 
 culverts, formed with open joints in cement. The filtered 
 water passes from these into close brick tunnels, by which 
 it is conducted into the well of the pumping engine, D. 
 
 67. The expense of filtering by this, the Battersea filter, 
 is stated by Mr. Joseph Quick, the engineer for the Works, 
 not to exceed 350?. per annum, the quantity filtered being 
 2,160,000 gallons per diem, or 66 gallons per superficial 
 foot. At this rate the annual quantity filtered will be 
 788,400,000 gallons, and the cost about one penny per 
 
SOFTENING WATEIl. 53 
 
 9386 gallons. At the Bleaching Works at Dukinfield, 
 500,000 gallons are filtered daily, at a cost of 156Z. per 
 annum, or at the rate of 4874 gallons for one penny. 
 
 68. Water which has been subjected to the process of 
 subsidence only still usually contains finely-comminuted 
 particles of solid matter, from which the subsequent process 
 of filtration is necessary to cleanse it. The settling reser- 
 voirs having answered the double purpose of depositing 
 the grosser solid particles, and of effecting all the chemical 
 softening of the water which can be effected by mere expo^ 
 sure to the atmosphere, the filtering reservoir completes the 
 process of depositing, and sends the water forward in a 
 tolerably pellucid condition. But beyond these processes, 
 and altogether irrespective of any chemical improvement of 
 its constitution, it is found that water which has remained 
 in an exposed reservoir, and subject to the action of light 
 made so much more effective by the transparency of the 
 filtered water does, in some states and temperatures of 
 the atmosphere, betray unequivocal symptoms of vegetable 
 formation within it, and, if the action proceeds, animal life, 
 in the form of minute animalcula?, rapidly succeeds. It 
 has therefore been suggested, that the filtering process 
 could be still further improved, if the water were submitted 
 to a subsequent passage through some filtering medium 
 calculated to detain any such vegetable or insect produc- 
 tions as might be formed on the surface of the filtering- 
 bed, and by chance find their way with the water into the 
 tunnels beneath. 
 
 69. When water is drawn from a river having a sandy or 
 gravelly bed in its vicinity, it is comparatively easy and in 
 expensive to form a natural and Idghly-effective filter. 
 Thus, at Nottingham, the Eeservoir, which is formed on 
 the banks of the Kiver Trent, about a mile from the town, 
 is excavated in a stratum of clean gravel and sand, through 
 which the water slowly percolates to a distance of 150 feet 
 from the river. The deposited solid matter thus remains 
 on the bed of the river, from which it is removed by the 
 
54 NATURAL FILTERS. 
 
 natural action of the current. The reservoir being exposed 
 to the solar influence, vegetation is sometimes produced. 
 and which is removed at intervals of three weeks in sum- 
 mer, and six weeks in winter, by pumping out the water 
 and sweeping. Besides the reservoir, there is a tunnel 
 filter, which passes through a similar stratum for a consider- 
 able distance up the adjacent lands. This tunnel is 4 ft. 
 in diameter, and half-brick thick, laid without mortar or 
 cement, costing about 10s. a foot, including excavation to a 
 depth of 12 feet. 
 
 70. An arrangement, somewhat similar to the last 
 described, has been successfully carried out on the Eiver 
 Clyde, a few miles above Glasgow'. At the selected spot 
 there is an extensive round bank of sand. A tunnel was 
 constructed in this bank parallel to the edge of the river, 
 and also to the surface of the water and below the level of 
 the water. This tunnel being constructed of bricks set in 
 mortar below, but bricks without mortar above, received the 
 water, which afterwards percolated into wells, from which it 
 was pumped up for use. Similar natural filters w T ere 
 attempted at other points contiguous to the Clyde, but most 
 of them failed, from the interception of springs of water of 
 a harder quality than that from the river. In some cases, 
 also, the natural springs intruded water containing iron, 
 and injurious to the purposes for which the supply was 
 required. Natural filters must, therefore, also be considered 
 with reference to their liability of interruption by natural 
 springs of a different or inferior quality. Beyond this, they 
 should always be designed with a reference to the lowest 
 level to which the river water may fall at any season, or 
 under any circumstances ; and this necessity sometimes 
 involves a depth for the pipes, or other constructive diffi- 
 culties, which altogether mar the economy and advisability 
 of the arrangement. If this last precaution be not adopted, 
 it will happen at the driest season of the year, when the 
 maximum supply is required, that the reduced level of the 
 river will be below the fixed level of the filtering tunnel, 
 
EE CAPITULATION. 55 
 
 which thus becomes dry and inactive. The only alternative 
 which then remains is, to draw the water directly from the 
 river, and thus the filter remains useless at the season when 
 it is most desirable that it should be performing its highest 
 duty. The work of cleaning the tunnels is, moreover, by 
 no means an easy one ; and, considering all the circum- 
 stances and liabilities of these expedients, it would appear 
 that they are of very limited application. 
 
 71. Let us recapitulate the heads of the subjects over 
 which we have already passed. 
 
 The sources whence the land is supplied with water, 
 without artificial aid, are rain and tidal rivers, as in the 
 Nile, Euphrates, Ganges, Mississippi, &c., besides such 
 springs as rise spontaneously to the surface, either upward, 
 by the pressure of internal reservoirs at a higher level, or 
 at the outcrop of the strata of the earth. The artificial 
 sources are the ocean, rivers, streams, and wells. The 
 quantity of rain which falls over the earth appears to vary 
 with the latitude, the distance from the ocean, the season, 
 and other circumstances, the nature and influence of which 
 we do not yet understand. The effect of the rain, as a 
 source of water, and a cause of the necessity for drainage, 
 is limited by the quantity which passes off from the surface 
 of the earth in a state of vapour. The quantity so raised 
 depends upon the temperature which prevails while the 
 process of evaporation is going on. Efficient drainage 
 requires the supply and the discharge of water to be duly 
 regulated, the supply to be sufficient, and not in excess, 
 and the discharge to proceed correlatively. The quantity 
 required for the complete irrigation of a district is deter- 
 minable by reference to the nature of the soil and the crops, 
 and the position of the district in relation to surrounding 
 tracts of country. The state of soil most favourable to 
 vegetable growth is that of moistness, having water between 
 the particles, but none between the clods or masses of 
 earthy matter. Among the artificial sources of water, that 
 yielded by the ocean requires chemical changes in order to 
 
56 PAISLEY FILTERS. 
 
 fit it for domestic purposes, and its applicability for those 
 of agriculture is necessarily limited by remoteness. Eiver- 
 supply is attainable only for the adjacent lands of low level, 
 unless it be forced up to the higher districts by mechanical 
 means, which are afforded by steam-pumping at a compa- 
 ratively small cost. The water of streams which are tribu- 
 tary to rivers is applicable for superior levels, and may, by 
 judicious diversion and extension through artificial channels, 
 be made widely useful. Wells are generally available by 
 mechanical agency, and in some cases without it, provided 
 a subterranean reservoir exists, and is subject to sufficient 
 pressure from a higher source. All water at our command 
 for practical use is more or less impure. Thus, rain-water 
 contains ammonia, and sea-water a variety of salts. The 
 water from rivers, springs, &c., contains several kinds of 
 impurities. These impurities are dispelled only by a com- 
 pound process, or rather series of processes, by which such 
 matters as are mechanically suspended in the water are 
 allowed to subside, or are arrested by filtering media, and 
 the chemical impurities are absorbed and withdrawn by 
 suitable agents. A brief notice of several varieties of fil- 
 tering apparatus concludes this section of our first Divi- 
 sion. 
 
 72. The filters already described, which, acting by the 
 spontaneous percolations of the water through the apparatus, 
 may be termed self-acting, have been further improved by 
 adding means for their self -cleansing . The arrangements 
 introduced for this purpose at Paisley, and other places, by 
 Mr. Eobert Thorn, are illustrated, in principle, by the 
 adjoining figures 5, 6, and 7. Fig. 5 is a plan, and figs. 6 
 and 7 sections taken at right angles to each other through 
 the filter. In these filters, which are provided with layers 
 of gravel and sand, the foul water 'is admitted at the top, 
 and descends through these strata to undergo filtration ; 
 but the construction also admits of an occasional forced 
 ascent of the water through these media, by which the foul 
 particles are raised, deposited on the upper surface of the 
 
PAISLEY FILTERS. 
 
 F F E 
 
 F F 
 
 i 
 
 B B B a H 
 
 JLJJLJLl 
 
 
 Kg. 1. 
 
 A 
 
 
 l=^=^r r~~ 
 
 Wik^ir- 
 
58 CHARCOAL FILTERS. 
 
 sand, and eventually carried away through a foul-water 
 drain. The Paisley filter is 100 feet long and 60 feet wide, 
 arranged in three compartments, each of which may be 
 used separately while the others are cleansing. They are 
 excavated, on a level site, to a depth of 6 or 8 feet, sur- 
 rounded with retaining walls built in cement, and puddled 
 behind. The bed is puddled 1 foot thick, and cemented 
 pavement is laid upon it. It is then covered with fire- 
 bricks laid on edge, and with spaces J inch wide between 
 them. These are covered with flat tiles, perforated with 
 holes ^oth inch diameter. Over the drains thus formed, 
 six layers of gravel, each 1 inch deep, and of finer particles 
 than the one below, are evenly spread, and overlaid with 
 2 feet depth of clean, sharp, fine sand, the upper 6 inches 
 of which are mixed with ground animal charcoal. The 
 water is admitted through a stone pipe, A, and vertical iron 
 pipes, B B, each having an upper and lower outlet to the 
 filter. These pipes are fitted with valves, by which either 
 of these communications is opened and the other closed. 
 The clean water passes from the bottom of the filter 
 through openings c c, fitted with stop-cocks, into a drain, D, 
 and thence into the clean water basin, E. When the 
 cleansing is going on, these connections are shut off, and 
 access is given to the foul matter through holes, F F, to a 
 drain, G. The cost of this filter was less than 600Z., and 
 the quantity of clean water produced every 24 hours, on an 
 average, is 106,632 cubic feet. Trap rock, from the hills 
 above Greenock, has since been substituted by Mr. Thorn 
 for the charcoal with perfect success, and considerable 
 economy : one part of the charcoal was mixed with eight or 
 ten parts of the sand. The charcoal is sometimes laid in 
 deep layers, without mixture, and is then worth reburning 
 for a second use. 
 
 73. In the use of charcoal as a filtering agent, an attempt 
 is made to effect something more than the mere mechanical 
 clearing of the water by absorbing some of the gases with 
 which it is chemically adulterated. How far this expedient 
 
SWISS FILTERS. 
 
 59 
 
 is valuable is, however, very questionable. The power of 
 charcoal to act in this manner is well known to depend 
 upon its being thoroughly and recently burnt and dry. 
 Moisture diminishes this absorbing power, and in a short 
 time the chemical action of the charcoal ceases. Some 
 difference, doubtless, exists, in this respect, between animal 
 and vegetable charcoal, but neither of them can be admitted 
 as an effective chemical agent in the purification of water, 
 without requiring a costly rapidity of renewal quite imprac- 
 ticable upon an extended scale. 
 
 74. With a view to promote the mechanical action of 
 filters, many arrangements of internal partitions have been 
 suggested. One of the best of these is exhibited in fig. 8, 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 and was successfully applied in Switzerland, by Sir Henry 
 Englefield, upwards of forty years ago. This filter is 
 divided into chambers by parallel partitions, A B, which 
 admit the passage of the water alternately above and below 
 them. The intermediate spaces may be filled with filtering 
 materials of uniform qualiiy. The course of the water 
 must evidently be in the direction of the arrows ; and the 
 effect of this arrangement is, that the floating impurities 
 are retained on the surface, while the heavier particles sink 
 to the lower level. 
 
60 FILTEKIXG ON THE SEINE. 
 
 75. An apparatus for close filtering, within an iron water- 
 tight box, has been introduced by M. Maurras; and its 
 principal novelty consists in interposing the strata of fine 
 sand between flat iron cases, perforated with holes and 
 filled with sand of particles larger than the holes in the 
 cases, with an arrangement of sluice-cocks, &c. ; the process 
 of cleaning was effected by sudden and violent currents of 
 water. A machine of this kind, 5 ft. 6 in. by 5 ft. 6 in., 
 working under a head of water of 12 ft. 6 in., is said to 
 have filtered an average quantity of 150,000 imperial gal- 
 lons in 24 hours. A filter of this kind was tried for four 
 months at the works of the New Eiver Water Company, 
 but the experiment does not appear to have been prosecuted, 
 or the invention adopted. 
 
 76. In the year 1841, the Council of Health of Paris 
 reported upon several processes which had been tried for 
 filtering the waters of the Seine. The two principal plans 
 noticed were those known as " Fonveille's " and " Souchon's." 
 The apparatus used in the first of these consists of several 
 layers of sponge, sand, and charcoal, disposed alternately in 
 a close vessel. The filtration is accelerated by a consider- 
 able pressure upon the water. This arrangement was 
 found to produce the most clear and least impure water ; 
 but, although this superiority was attributed to the charcoal, 
 it was admitted that this effect required a very frequent 
 washing, drying, and renewal of it. Souchon's process, 
 which is most extensively used, consists in passing the 
 water through layers of woollen tissue, formed of clippings 
 of wool laid on the frames which form the bottom of the 
 filter. The water filters through five of these layers, of 
 which the two lowest are the thickest, and are changed at 
 intervals of about five days. The upper layers are changed 
 twice or thrice a day. The water thus filtered is stated to 
 have been inferior to the other, but the quantity passed 
 through was greater, being as 162 to 110. 
 
61 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 Upper and Lower Districts. River-watered and Sea-coast Districts. 
 Reclamation of Land. Modes of Draining, Pumping, &c. 'Water-wheel as 
 applied for Draining and supplying Upland Districts. 
 
 77. The principal division of districts and lands, as sub- 
 jects for watering and draining, is derived from their relative 
 levels. The sources at command and methods of proceed- 
 ing for high and low tracts are perfectly dissimilar, and 
 hence the natural and necessary distinction which is adopted 
 as the head of this section. And as the plains and valleys 
 are far more extensive in themselves than the hill tops and 
 uplands, and equally superior in importance as recipients 
 of the drainer's care, it is proper to turn our attention to 
 them in the first instance. 
 
 78. In this first class, the Lower Districts, we propose to 
 include the following varieties of surface, viz. : 1st, the low 
 lands forming the margins of seas and rivers ; and, 2nd, 
 generally, the valleys in which natural watercourses have 
 been formed, such as rivers, streams, &c. ; 3rd, valleys in 
 which lakes, or similar expanses of water, do or might exist, 
 and which, with that adaptation, have a continuously-curved 
 or-basin-like contour; 4th, and plains which, although they 
 may have a superior elevation to adjacent districts on one 
 side, are correspondingly low in relation to the hills on the 
 other. The sections sketched in the foreground of the figs. 
 Nos. 9 to 12 will illustrate the relationship of levels referred 
 to in each of these four varieties. 
 
 79. The watering and drainage of districts belonging to 
 the first of these varieties (fig. 9) are frequently reduced to 
 the sufficiently heavy task of getting rid of a large surplus 
 of water which collects from the adjacent estuaries of large 
 streams, or is detained in the form of evaporation from the 
 surface of the sea, and condensed by low temperature. If 
 the level of the district is above that of the sea and river- 
 mouths, surface drainage, of properly-determined depth and 
 extent, with ample main conducting channels, will suffice 
 
SURFACE-DRAINING , 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 
 . 10. 
 
 to keep the land in a tolerably dry condition. An opportu- 
 nity very seldom exists in such districts for tapping, or 
 getting rid of the excess by opening a communication with 
 a lower and permeable stratum. Kock in some -cases, and 
 bog in others, usually form the inferior deposits. If the 
 former, surface draining is certain of success, although the 
 construction will probably be expensive ; but if the sub- 
 

 BORINGS IX BOG. 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 63 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 stratum be bog, and its bed below the river or sea level, 
 boring to lower strata is presented as the only chance of 
 success. 
 
04 DUGD ALE'S DRAINING. 
 
 80. If, however, the level of the district be below that of 
 the contiguous waters, it will be manifestly impossible to 
 dry the land without embanking. And it will be necessary 
 either that this work be sufficiently substantial to prevent 
 the ingress of the water, or that the surface of the land be 
 simultaneously raised artificially until it has a superior 
 level, or that mechanical means be constantly employed to 
 pump out the surplus water. Our own island has been 
 preserved in its borders, nay, extended, by works of this 
 class, which we shall now have to notice. 
 
 81. In pursuing this branch of our subject, we have the 
 great gratification, through the kindness of Mr. Weale, of 
 referring to one of the earliest and most interesting records 
 of engineering art in this country the celebrated account 
 of the Fens, by Sir William Dugdale, the earliest edition 
 of which was published in the year 1652, and the second 
 edition, in folio, which we have consulted, in the year 1772, 
 under the care of Charles Nelson Cole, Register to the 
 Corporation of Bedford Level. Dugdale had been in the 
 employment of the Corporation since the year 1643, and 
 "published this History of Imbanking and Draining, at 
 the request of Lord Gorges, who at that time had the prin- 
 cipal direction of their works, and was, after their incor- 
 poration, for many years their Surveyor-General." The 
 first sixteen pages of Sir William's book are occupied in 
 brief notices of foreign works of this kind, beginning with 
 Egypt, and thence passing to Babylon, Greece, and Rome, 
 quoting his authorities from Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, and 
 others, and ending with Holland and the Netherlands. 
 We cannot forego one short extract in reference to the 
 troublesome Tiber, whose later tricks, we all remember, 
 plunged so many of the poor Romans in ruin. Our quo- 
 tation shows that, even in the time of Tiberius, public 
 improvements were scandalously thwarted, as they are in 
 our own clay, by the petty jealousies of cities and corpora- 
 tions. " To restrain the exorbitant overflowing of this 
 stream (the river Tiber), which was not a little choaked with 
 
DUTCH DRAINING. 65 
 
 dung and several old buildings that had fallen into it, I 
 find that Augustus Caesar bestowed some cost in the clear- 
 ing and scouring of it ; and that after this, through abund- 
 ance of rain, the low grounds about the city suffering 
 much by great inundations thereof, the remedy in prevent- 
 ing the like for the future was, by the Emperor Tiberius, 
 committed to the care of Ateius Capito and L. Aruntius. 
 Whereupon it was by them discussed in the senate, whe- 
 ther, for the moderating the floods of this river, the streams 
 and lakes, whereby it increased, should be turned another 
 way ; but to that proposal there were several objections 
 made from sundry cities and colonies; the Florentines 
 desiring that the Glanis might not be put out of its accus- 
 tomed channel, and turned into the river Arnus, in regard 
 much prejudice would thereby oefall them. In like manner 
 did the inhabitants of Terano argue ; affirming that, if the 
 river Nar should be cut into smaller streams, the overflow- 
 ings thereof would surround the most fruitful grounds of 
 Italy. Neither were those of Beate (a city in Umbria) 
 silent, who refused to stop the passage of the lake Uelimis 
 (now called Lago de Terni), into the said river Nar. The 
 business, therefore, finding this opposition, was let alone. (/) 
 After which, Nerva or Trajan attempted likewise, by a 
 trench, to prevent the fatal inundations of this river ; but 
 without success." 
 
 82. The earlier works of the Dutch were well followed 
 up by the contemporaries of Dugdale. He describes their 
 works "within the space of these last fifty years" to have 
 included the " draining of sundry lakes, whereof sixteen 
 were most considerable, by certain windmills, devised and 
 erected for that purpose. The chiefest of which lakes, 
 called the Beemster (containing above eighteen hundred 
 acres), is made dry by the help of LXX of those mills, 
 and walled about with a bank of great strength and sub- 
 stance." " The other lakes, so drained, as I have said, do 
 lie about the cities of Alcmare, Home, and Purmerende ; 
 and are vulgarly called de Schermere, de Waert, de Punnet, 
 
66 DRAINING BOM8EY MABSHES. 
 
 and cle Wormer." "Neither have the attempts of these 
 people, by the like commendable enterprises, in South 
 Holland, about the cities of Leyden, Dort, and Amsterdam, 
 had less success, there having been divers thousands of 
 acres, formerly overwhelmed with water, made good and 
 firm land, within these few years, by the help of these 
 engines." We shall have more to say by-and-by of the 
 Dutch draining, as further extended within our own times, 
 but meantime pass on to a notice of our own works in a 
 similar department. 
 
 83. Dugdale shows, by " circumstantial testimonies," that 
 the Eomsey marshes were reclaimed by the Romans, and 
 then quotes the ordinances of Henry III., " that all the 
 lands in the said marsh be kept and maintained against 
 the violence of the sea, and the floods of the fresh waters, 
 with banks and sewers." The execution of these ordinances 
 appears to have provoked much litigation, and Edward I. 
 found it necessary to issue letters patent for the repairing 
 of the banks and ditches. Further disputes followed, and 
 led to new letters patent two years afterwards. Edward II., 
 Edward III., Richard II., and several succeeding sovereigns, 
 repeated their patents for the like purpose. Similar Royal 
 commissions were instituted for preserving the lands in 
 East Kent, " for the digging of a certain trench, over the 
 lands, lying between Gestlinge, and Stonflete, and from 
 Stonflete to the town of Sandwich; to the intent that the 
 passage of the water called Northbroke, which was at 
 Gestlinge, should be diverted; so that it might run to 
 Sandwich." Also " for the repair and safeguard of the 
 banks and ditches, from the overflowing of the tide, betwixt 
 Dertford, Flete, and Grenewich," and thence to London 
 Bridge. The banks, &c., in Surrey, " betwixt Lainbehethe 
 and Grenewiche ;" of Middlesex, " betwixt the hospital of 
 S. Kathrine's, near the Tower of London, and the town of 
 Chadewelle;" some parts "within the precincts of West- 
 minster ;" " betwixt a place called the Neyt and Temple 
 Bar, in London, then broken and in decay by the force of 
 
LINCOLNSHIRE DRAINING. 67 
 
 the tides," were also to be repaired by Eoyal letters 
 patent ; besides the marshes in the suburbs of London, in 
 Essex, and in Sussex. On the coasts of Somersetshire, 
 Gloucestershire, and Yorkshire, &c., works of repair were 
 also provided for under the care of Commissioners, severally 
 appointed by letters patent from the kings. Of Somerset- 
 shire, Dugdale observes, " that the overflowings, both of 
 the sea and fresh rivers in some parts of this country, were 
 heretofore likewise exceeding great. I need not seek far 
 for testimony ; the rich and spacious marshes below Wells 
 and Glastonbury (since, by much industry, drained and 
 reduced to profit) sufficiently manifesting no less. Foi% 
 considering the flatness of those parts, at least twelve miles 
 eastward from the sea, which gave way to the tides to flow 
 up very high ; as also that the Jilth and sand, thereby con- 
 tinually brought up, did not a little obstruct the out-falls of 
 those fresh waters which descend from Bruton, Shepton 
 Malet, and several other places of this shire, all that great 
 level about Glastonbury and below it (now for the most 
 part called Brentmarshe) was, in time past, no other than a 
 very fen ; and that place, being naturally higher than the 
 rest, accounted an island, by reason of its situation in the 
 bosom of such vast waters." 
 
 84. The history of the works of embanking and drain- 
 ing in the counties of Lincoln and Cambridge affords evi- 
 dence of the skill and labour which had then been applied 
 to these objects. The good abbots appear to have acted as 
 conservators of the low lands in Lincolnshire. Thus, in 
 the isle of Axholme, " one Geffrey Gaddesby, late abbot of 
 Selby, did cause a strong sluice of wood to be made upon 
 the river of Trent, at the head of a certain sewer, called 
 the Maredyke, of a sufficient height and breadth for the 
 defence of the tides coming from the sea; and, likewise, 
 against the fresh waters descending from the west part of 
 the before-specified sluice to the said sewer, into the same 
 river of Trent; and thence into Humbre:" "John de 
 Shireburne," Geffrey's successor, pulled down this timber 
 
68 INFANCY OF DRAINING. 
 
 sluice, and t; did new make the same sluices of stone, suffi- 
 cient (as he thought) for defence of the sea tides, and like- 
 wise of the said fresh waters;" but jurors, appointed under 
 patent of Henry V., reported that these stone sluices were 
 "not strong enough for that purpose, being both too high and 
 too broad ; and that it would be expedient, if the then abbot 
 would, in the place where those sluices of stone were made, 
 cause certain sluices of strong timber to be set up, consist- 
 ing of two flood-gates, each flood-gate containing in itself 
 four foot in breadth, and six foot in height." They also 
 recommended "one demmyng" to be made, "without the 
 said sluice, towards the river of Trent." 
 
 85. It was upon districts such as those we are now con- 
 sidering that the art of draining was first practised. Here 
 the matter was one of obvious necessity. In wet fields and 
 moist pastures, our ancestors found no positive demand for 
 improvement ; the evil was seen and recognised in its full 
 extent, but the only tangible effect was to depreciate the 
 value of the land, and induce a preference for districts 
 where nature provided a more sufficient drainage. But on 
 the sea-coast, and especially in the neighbourhood of the 
 outfalls of rivers, the evil of neglect was too apparent to be 
 disregarded; the ocean spread over its common bounds, 
 and the waters of the river, choked up with silt, passed 
 their limits, the pasture fields became swamps, in some 
 eases the land disappeared by degrees, and the inheritance . 
 of ages became merged in the boundless waters. 
 
 86. The first work was to cut channels at intervals 
 through the threatened district (selecting the lowest levels 
 for them, where a choice was afforded), in which the excess 
 of water might be collected and conducted to a main drain 
 cut parallel to, or at an angle with, the coast or river, the 
 transfer of the water from one to the other, and from the 
 main to the sea or river, being, when necessary, regulated 
 by sluices. The earth removed from these collecting and 
 main drains, being cast up on either side of them, at once 
 increased their available depth, formed boundaries to the 
 
THE ANCHOLME. 69 
 
 passing water, and raised causeways for the passage of men 
 and animals. Thus arose the combined arts of draining 
 and embanking. 
 
 87. The maps of the fens of Cambridgeslyre and Lin- 
 colnshire exhibit a multitude of illustrations of the works 
 here referred to ; but we may select those executed in one 
 district as examples of the whole. This district consists of 
 the lowland or level about the river Ancholme in Lincoln- 
 shire, and is situated on the south side of the river Humber, 
 about ten miles below its junction with the river Trent, 
 containing about 50,000 acres of land. It is bounded on 
 the east by a ridge of chalk hills, which extend from the 
 Humber nearly 24 miles N. and S. From this ridge the 
 Ancholme receives the drainage of about 100,000 acres. A 
 lower ridge of oolite and sandy limestone divides it on the 
 W. from the Trent Valley, and contributes to the Ancholme 
 the drainage of some 50,000 acres more, and on the S. a 
 low diluvial ridge divides the district from the "YVitham 
 Valley. The Ancholme thus receives the drainage of a 
 total of 200,000 acres. The valley varies from one to three 
 miles in width, and the total bulk of waters daily poured 
 through the river is estimated at 140 millions of cubic feet, 
 being sufficient to cover the entire level to a depth of Cl- 
 inches. The principal portion of the district lies below 
 the level of high water spring tides in the Humber, being 
 in some places as much as 9 feet below that level. From a 
 map of the valley published in Dugdale, and bearing date 
 in 1640, it appears that the course of the Ancholme was 
 originally very tortuous, being probably enfeebled and 
 choked up by the alluvial deposits from the overflowing of 
 the Humber. At that time, however, a straight channel 
 had been cut, extending from the Humber to Glentham 
 Bridge (a distance of 18 miles), and several drains formed,, 
 leading to the new Channel. Figs. 13 and 14, which are 
 reduced sketches of the plan and section given by Dugdale, 
 show the general direction of the old and new channels, 
 and the drains as thev existed in 1 640. Tn the previous 
 
70 CATCH-WATEK DRAINS. 
 
 year Sir John Munsoii became the undertaker for im- 
 proving the draining works of this district, having a period 
 of six years allotted for their execution, and a part of the 
 lands, extending to 5827 acres, assigned to him, free of all 
 commons, titles, charges, interest, and demand, of all or 
 any persons whatsoever. 
 
 88. In the year 1801, the late Mr. Eennie reported upon 
 the hest means of completing the drainage and navigation 
 of the level; and recommended that the drainage of the 
 high lands should be separated from that of the low lands 
 by main drains, commonly called catch-water drains, formed 
 at a higher level than the others, and arranged with separate 
 sluices for discharging into the Humber. This recom- 
 mendation was well founded on the observation that the 
 greater force and rapidity with which the waters from the 
 upper districts reached the river than those from the lower, 
 had the effect of driving the latter over the level, the sluices 
 being inadequate to discharge the entire bulk of water 
 during the periods while the river-tide permitted the sluice 
 doors to remain open. Another and highly-important pur- 
 pose which the catch-water drains fulfil, is that of providing 
 a reserve supply of water which, during dry seasons, may be 
 applied to the lower lands, thus promoting the objects 
 which in those districts are usually associated with drain- 
 age, viz. irrigation and navigation. Mr. Eennie had already 
 adopted a similar system of drainage on a more extensive 
 district, that of the East, West, and Wildmore fens, near 
 Boston ; but his Eeport upon the Ancholme level was not 
 then adopted. Twenty-four years later, however, an Act was 
 obtained, viz. in 1825, for effecting improvements recom- 
 mended by Sir John Eennie, and comprising the formation 
 of the catch-water drains, as proposed by his late father in 
 1801. Sir J. Eennie advised that the river Ancholme should 
 be straightened, widened, and deepened, so as to double its 
 capacity ; that a new sluice be formed at Ferraby, having 
 its cill 6 ft. lower than the old one ; together with a new 
 lock, 20 ft. wide, so as to serve the double purpose of ad- 
 
KENNIES EEPORTS. 
 
 W^ 
 
 3MIQ PJOV7B 
 
 sf 
 
72 DRAINS FOR HIGH LANDS. 
 
 mitting larger vessels, and affording a greater discharge for 
 the drainage waters during floods : that all old bridges 
 which obstructed the flow should be removed, and a new 
 lock be formed 18 miles above Ferraby sluice. These 
 several works were executed accordingly, and the entire 
 level of Ancholme has been converted into a rich arable 
 district, capable of producing superior crops of every kind. 
 Sir John Rennie also recommended the formation of re- 
 servoirs, with overfalls and weirs to receive the sand and 
 mud brought down from the upper part of the country, and 
 thus prevent its accumulation in the river. 
 
 89. Fig. 15 will give a general idea of an arrangement of 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 drains, which will be suitable for a level district with high 
 land behind it. In this fig. A B is the river, and c D the 
 high land. E F G represent a catch- water drain for receiving 
 the waters from the high land; H i J, a parallel main 
 drain for the level, with another main drain i K. Between 
 the main drains the level is intersected with minor drains, 
 which have a fall either way towards the mains. The 
 
SECTIONS OF DRAINS. 
 
 73 
 
 catch-water drain is adapted to discharge directly into the 
 river ; or by closed sluices at E G, and an open one at F, its 
 contents may be directed into the main level drain at i, and 
 made to assist the irrigation of the level in dry seasons. 
 Sluices will be required at E, F, G, H, i, j, and K, by the re- 
 gulation of which the water may be collected and disposed 
 of in any manner required for the preservation and im- 
 provement of the district. 
 
 90. Figs. 16, 17, and 18 represent sections of drains of 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 4. "Ft 
 
 4,'Ft 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 large size, adapted for works of the kind here referred to. 
 Drains of these sections, formed with a'fall of 18 in. per 
 mile, will discharge as follows: fig. 16, 10-ft. drain, will 
 discharge 1193-4 cubic feet per minute; fig. 17, 15-ft. 
 drain, 2880 cubic feet per minute; and fig. 18, 18-feet 
 drain, will discharge 4642 cubic feet per minute. A good 
 section for an embankment against the sea for these works 
 is shown in fig. 19, in which A represents the embankment 
 of earth; B, a solid wall or dyke of puddle; c, a facing wall 
 
74 
 
 PLYMOUTH BREAKWATER. 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 of masonry ; D, the high-water level of the sea or bay ; and 
 E, the natural bed. The form of the front wall must 
 be adapted to resist the action of the waves, and the em- 
 bankment must have an internal slope, according to the 
 nature of the materials of which it is composed : for ordi- 
 nary materials, a base of 1*5 to a perpendicular height of 1 
 will insure the necessary stability and firmness. 
 
 91. If the entire embankment be formed of loose stones, 
 with occasional facing only of laid masonry, as in the case 
 of the celebrated breakwater at Plymouth, a form of less 
 steepness must be adopted for the river front of the em- 
 bankment. By way of illustration we may refer to fig. 20, 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 which shows a section of the Plymouth breakwater. The 
 line A A shows the level of high-water spring tides ; B B, low 
 water spring tides ; c c, original bottom, varying from 40 to 
 45 feet below low-water mark ; D, the fore shore ; E, sea 
 slope ; F, top, 45 ft. wide. The mass of the work is com- 
 posed of limestone, from the Overton quarries, distant four 
 miles from the spot. The stone is raised in blocks varying 
 
SLUICES. 75 
 
 from one quarter to ten tons and upward in weight, which 
 are promiscuously thrown into the sea, care being taken 
 that the greater number of the large blocks are thrown 
 upon the outer or sea slope, and that the whole are so 
 mixed together as to render the mass as solid as possible, 
 the rubbish of the quarry and screenings of lime being 
 flung in occasionally to assist the consolidation of the ma- 
 terials. The form of the outer slope, below low-water line, 
 has been effected by the action of the sea, and is ascer- 
 tained to be at from 3 to 4 feet of base to 1 of perpen- 
 dicular altitude. From low water upward the work has 
 been set artificially and inclined at 5 to 1. The inner 
 slope next the land is nearly 2 ft. base to 1 altitude. The 
 foreshore shown at D, which is from 30 to 70 ft. wide at 
 different parts of the work, rises from the toe of the slope, 
 to a height of 5 ft. above low water at its outer extremity, 
 and serves to break the waves before they reach the main 
 work ; thus diminishing their force, and, at the same time, 
 preventing the recoil of the wave from undermining the 
 base of the slope. 
 
 92. The several sluices, gates, &c., constructed for the 
 Ancholme drainage, being of the best description, may be 
 briefly described as applicable for similar works in future. 
 The sluice at Ferraby consists of three openings, each 18 ft. 
 wide, with cills 8 ft. below that of the old sluice, and from 
 2 to 3 ft. below low water of spring tides in the Humber. 
 The lock is 20 ft. wide in the clear, and 80 ft. long between 
 the gates, giving a clear water-way of 74 ft., with an addi- 
 tional fall of 8 ft. The masonry is of best Yorkshire stone ; 
 and the foundations, which are in alluvial silt and clay, are 
 upon piles 12 in. diameter, of beech, elm, and fir, from 24 
 to 28 ft. in length, and fitted with wrought iron hoops and 
 shoes. When the piles were driven and the heads levelled, 
 the earth was excavated to a depth of 2 ft. below them, and 
 the spaces filled with blocks of chalk rammed soundly in, 
 and grouted with lime and sand. Cap-cills of Memel fir, 
 elm, or beech, J 2 in. square, were fitted on the pile-heads 
 
 E 2 
 
76 WITHAM DRAINAGE. 
 
 and firmly spiked down, the intermediate spaces being 
 afterwards filled with solid brickwork, set and grouted with 
 best Eoman cement. The whole was then covered with a 
 3-in. flooring of Baltic fir-plank, bedded in lime, pozzolana, 
 and sand. Inverted arches of solid stonework, 18 in. deep 
 at the crown, are built upon this platform, and the work 
 carried upon them. Two sluice gates were provided for 
 each opening in the sluice, with draw-doors fitted in a water- 
 tight groove by means of pinions, of wrought iron, which 
 work in screws connected with vertical rods. These draw- 
 doors are for regulating the navigation level (which is 
 13 ft. 8 in. above the cill), and to preserve a depth of 
 8 ft. 9 in. at Brigg, which is 9 miles distant, and 6 ft. 6 in. 
 at Haarlem Hill lock, 18 miles distant. The gates are self- 
 acting, being shut by the tide, and opened by the head of 
 fresh water as soon as the tide falls below the level of the 
 inside water. Four pairs of lock-gates were provided for the 
 lock ; two pairs pointing to the sea, arid of sufficient height 
 to exclude the highest tides : the other two pairs, pointing 
 to the land, are high enough to control the navigation of the 
 level. These gates were wholly constructed of the best 
 English oak, well fitted together with wrought iron straps 
 and bolts. The lock is filled and emptied through side 
 culverts in the masonry, provided with cast-iron sluices, 
 sliding upon brass faces, and worked with pinions and 
 screws of wrought iron. The works also included several 
 bridges of various spans and forms of construction. 
 
 93. In the application of catch-water drains it is preferable 
 to discharge their contents at a higher point of the river, 
 or main receiving channel, than that at which the low land 
 drains are emptied. This principle was very successfully 
 adopted by the late Mr. Rennie, in the drainage of the 
 East, West, and Wildmore Fens, bordering on the river 
 Witham, and comprising about 75,000 acres. The drain 
 for the high land waters was made to discharge in,to the 
 Witham, at a distance of three miles above the discharge of 
 the low land waters. 
 
DRAINAGE OF FEN LANDS. 77 
 
 9-1. The drainage of a low fenny district being arranged 
 as far as the judicious selection of separate channels for the 
 high and low lands, and provision made, with sluices, &c., 
 for their communication with each other and with the river 
 at pleasure, it remains to consider the state in which this 
 river must'be maintained in order to give efficiency to the 
 internal system of drains by which the district is traversed. 
 For this purpose it is evidently necessary that the channel 
 be adequate in dimensions and suitable in form to main- 
 tain an active and sufficient current through it, and these 
 conditions require a direct course and proper fall for the 
 channel. If the direction be tortuous, the projecting banks 
 will be washed into the bed and impede the flow of the 
 current, and if the bed be on a dead level, or have an inade- 
 quate inclination, the flow will be sluggish, and lend no 
 assistance to the discharge. Besides these conditions, it is 
 necessary that the outfall of the river into the sea be of 
 ample dimensions and unencumbered with shoals, bars, or 
 other solid accumulations. These arise from the deposi- 
 tions of alluvial matter, which is liable to be brought in by 
 the tides from the neighbouring coast, and also brought 
 down with the drain-water from the interior country. This 
 matter remains suspended in the water until the velocity 
 is diminished, which generally occurs at the entrance to the 
 river, owing jointly to the reduced inclination of the river 
 bed near the sea, and the resistance suffered from the wind 
 and waves, and it is then deposited, and by continual aug- 
 mentation forms a fatal obstruction to the efficiency of the 
 current. To determine the precise fall or inclination re- 
 quired for the bed of the channel, many experiments have 
 been tried, but it will evidently be, to a considerable extent, 
 controlled by the obstructions which may exist to the dis- 
 charge of the waters. If the outfall be unimpeded, 4 or 
 5 in. per mile will be sufficient fall, but if obstructions 
 exist, in the form of old bridges, sinuosities, &c., from 12 to 
 18 in. per mile will be found requisite. 
 
 95. Among the notable works of this kind which have 
 been executed in this country, we may mention those for 
 
78 EECLAMATION OF LAND. 
 
 improving the rivers Ouse and Nene. The chief defect in 
 the former existed above the town of Lynn, where the river 
 turned almost at right angles to its general course, and in a 
 length of 5 miles formed a semicircle of only 2f miles in 
 diameter. The channel was, moreover, so irregular in 
 width and encumbered with shifting sands, that the tidal 
 and drainage waters were unable to force a passage, and 
 disastrous inundations were the results. In the year 1724 
 this evil was understood, and a proposition made by Bridge- 
 man for improving the river by making a direct cut which 
 should intercept the bend here described. Succeeding 
 engineers concurred in this recommendation ; but it was 
 not until the year 1817 that an Act was obtained for execu- 
 ting this important work, which was named the Eau Brink 
 Cut, and confided to the late Mr. Eennie. The works 
 were finished on the 19th July, 1821, and have proved 
 highly successful, lowering the low-water line in the river 
 several feet, and completing the drainage of more than 
 300,000 acres of land.* A work of similar character was 
 executed in the year 1829, by Telford and Kennie, at the 
 outfall of the river Nene, which commences about five 
 miles below Wisbeach, and terminates after a length of 
 five miles in the great estuary of the Wash. The benefits 
 of this improvement have been very great ; the low-water 
 mark has been lowered 10 ft. 6 in., and a district of more 
 than 100,000 acres, formerly a stagnant marsh, has been 
 brought into cultivation. 
 
 96. Closely allied with the drainage of low lands are the 
 operations by which their boundaries are extended, and 
 large districts actually reclaimed from the action of the sea. 
 This is effected by judiciously controlling the deposit of 
 the alluvial materials which are washed down with the 
 drainage waters and thrown back by the tide. This re- 
 quires the formation of embankments or opposing barriers, 
 by which the removal of those materials is prevented. A 
 
 * The Great Level of the Fens contains about 680,000 acres, formerly of 
 little value, but now rich in corn and cattle. 
 
DEAINING IN HOLLAND. 
 
 79 
 
 similar artificial mode of depositing the solid matters con- 
 tained in the water is practised in the interior districts by 
 surrounding them with embankments, and admitting and 
 discharging the water by means of sluices and canals. This 
 method has for many years been adopted with great success 
 in the rivers Trent, Ouse, and Humber. 
 
 97. Districts lying below the level of the adjacent river, 
 or so little above it that drains of adequate capacity must 
 have their beds below the water line, necessarily require 
 artificial means of discharging the drainage waters into the 
 receiving channel or river. In the low lands of Holland 
 this is commonly the case, and accordingly we find the 
 Dutch were early adopters of contrivances for this purpose. 
 Fig. 21 shows the relative conditions of the drain and of 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 the river into which its contents are required to be dis- 
 charged. A represents the general level of the district; 
 B, that of the water in the drain to be discharged ; c, the 
 top of embankment ; and D, the high-water level outside. 
 To transfer the contents of the dram B into the main chan- 
 nel D, it is, evidently, only necessary to erect upon the em- 
 bankment, pumps, buckets, or scoops, which shall bring 
 the water up on the one side and discharge it on the other. 
 Among the earlier machines employed by the Dutch were 
 scoop wheels, which they worked by means of windmills, 
 and continued to use for many ages. 
 
80 
 
 FAIEBAIRN S DRAINING SCOOP. 
 
 98. A new form of scoop or alternating trough has been 
 designed by Mr. W. Fairbairn, and adapted to be worked 
 by the single-acting Cornish engine. Fig. 22 will serve to 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 give a general idea of this contrivance. A is the bail scoop, 
 turning on a centre at B, fixed on the embankment c. The 
 other end of the scoop is connected at D by a connecting 
 rod with the end E, of the engine-beam F, of which G is the 
 centre, and erected upon suitable foundations, H. i repre- 
 sents the level of water in the river, and j, the drain from 
 which the water is to be discharged. The action of the 
 apparatus will be evident from inspection of the figure. 
 The engine employed is of the reciprocating kind, and by 
 raising a weight suspended at the other end of the engine- 
 beam F, the bailing scoop A descends, and becomes filled 
 with the drainage water through the opening valves at K. 
 The weight having been raised to the height of the stroke, 
 descends by its own gravity, and raising the end, D, of the 
 scoop, discharges its contents into the river at i. This ap- 
 paratus is well adapted to be worked by the single-acting 
 
CORNISH ENGINES. 
 
 81 
 
 Cornish engine, and while the length of stroke in the cylin- 
 der always remains the same, the dip is regulated as 
 required by shifting the connecting rod at the ends D andE. 
 The scoop is made of iron boiler plates, and is 25 ft. long 
 and 30 ft. wide, with two partitions across it to strengthen 
 the sides and afford bearings for the valves at K. The 
 machine is adapted to raise 17 tons of water at each stroke, 
 and, with an engine of 60-horse power, will do a duty equal 
 to 3 Ibs. of coal, per horse power, per hour. 
 
 99. The greatest improvement, however, effected in 
 mechanical draining is by the employment of the steam 
 engine for this purpose. In the year 1820, Eennie applied 
 one of Watt's engines to the working of a large scoop 
 wheel for draining Bottisham Fen, near Ely. Since that 
 time large districts have been efficiently drained by steam 
 power ; and of them we may enumerate the following : 
 
 
 Containing 
 
 1 
 Drained by 
 
 Deeping Fen, near Spalding, Lincoln- 
 shire . 
 
 Acres. 
 
 25.000 
 3600 
 
 6000 
 28,000 
 
 7000 
 
 5000 
 4000 
 2700 
 2400 
 1600 
 
 Engines. 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 Horse power. 
 
 80 and 60 
 40 
 
 40 
 30 and 40 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 30 
 20 
 40 
 
 Marsh West Fen, Cambridgeshire 
 Misserton Moss, with Everton and 
 Grain ^eley Can's . . . . 
 
 
 (75 wind engines were employed in 
 this district before steam was used.) 
 
 "Waterbeach Level, between Ely and 
 
 Magdalen Fen, near Lynn, Norfolk .,. 
 March Fen district, Cambridge .. 
 Feltwell Fen, near Brandon 
 
 
 (Formerly a lake : the lift is here 
 very great,) 
 
 100. If the drainage from the high lands be discharged 
 through catch-water drains, that from the low levels will 
 consist of the rain water only, and as this, in the fen dis- 
 tricts on the eastern side of England, seldom exceeds the 
 
 E 3 
 
82 DRAINING FEN LANDS. 
 
 average of 26 in. in depth per annum, of which a large 
 quantity is carried off by evaporations and absorption, 
 2 in. in depth or Ij cubic ft. of water on every square yard 
 of surface is the ordinary maximum quantity to be lifted 
 per month. Adopting the admitted standard of horse- 
 power, viz. 33,000 Ibs., raised one foot per minute, and the 
 weight of a cubic foot of water to equal 624 Ibs., or 10 Ibs. 
 per gallon, a horse's power will raise 300 gallons, or 52'8 
 cubic ft. of water 10 ft. high per minute. The total quan- 
 tity to be raised per acre per month, viz. 7260 cubic ft., 
 may thus be raised a height of 1C ft., and discharged in 
 about 2 hours and 10 minutes. Upon this calculation, 
 which Mr. Glynn (a high and practical authority in these 
 matters) has found to be supported in practice, it appears 
 that a steam engine of 10-horse power will raise and throw 
 off the drainage water due to a bistrict of 1000 acres of 
 fens, in each month, in 232 hours, or less than 20 days, 
 working 12 hours a day. The scoop-wheels used for raising 
 the water resemble an undershot water-wheel, but, instead 
 of being moved by the force of the water, they are adapted 
 for forcing the water upward, deriving their motion from the 
 steam engine. The float boards or ladle boards are of wood, 
 and fitted to work within a track or trough of masonry : 
 they are usually about 5 ft. long, that is, they are immersed 
 in the water to that extent, the width or horizontal dimen- 
 sion of them being varied, according to the power of the 
 engine and the head of water to be provided for, from 
 20 in. to 5 ft. The lower end of the wheel track communi- 
 cates with the main drain, and the higher end with the 
 river, the water of which is excluded by a pair of doors, 
 pointing like the gates of a canal lock, and closed when the 
 engine ceases to work. The wheels are of cast iron, and 
 fitted in parts. The float boards are attached to the wheel 
 by oak starts, stepped into sockets cast* in the periphery of 
 the wheel for that purpose. The wheel is fitted with cast- 
 iron toothed segments, working into a pinion upon the 
 crank shaft of the engine. If the level of water in the 
 
SCOOP-WHEELS. 83 
 
 delivering drain and in the river does not vary much, one 
 speed for the wheel is sufficient; but if the tide rises to 
 any great extent, it is found desirable to have two speeds of 
 wheel work, one to be used at low water, and the more 
 powerful combination to act against the rising tide. It is 
 usually not necessary to raise the water more than 3 or 4 ft. 
 above the surface to be drained, and that only when the 
 river is filled by long-continued rains or floods from the 
 upland. If the main drains be 1\ ft. deep, and the floats 
 dip 5 ft. below the surface of the water, 1 ft. in depth will 
 be left below them to admit the passage of weeds or other 
 matters, and the water will yet be kept 18 in. below the 
 surface of the land. If the wheel dips 5 ft. below the 
 drain-water level, and the level of the water in the river is 
 5 ft. above that in the drain, the wheel will be said to have 
 " 10 ft. head and dip," and should be 28 or 30 ft. in diame- 
 ter. For a dip of 5 ft. and head of 10 ft., that is, "a head 
 and dip of 15 ft.," Mr. Glynn used wheels of 35 ft. to 40 ft. 
 in diameter. A wheel of 40 ft. diameter, and situated on 
 the ten-mile bank near Littleport in the Isle of Ely, is 
 driven by an engine of 80-horse power. The largest quan- 
 tity of water discharged by one engine is from Deeping 
 Fen, near Spalding. This fen comprises 25,000 acres, 
 drained by two engines of 80 and 60-horse power. The 
 80-horse power engine works a wheel 28 ft. diameter, 
 with float boards 5J ft. by 5 ft., and moving with a mean 
 velocity of 6 ft. per second. When the engine has its full 
 dip, the section of the stream is 27 ft., and the quantity 
 discharged per second is 165 cubic feet, equal to more than 
 4^ tons. These two engines were erected in 1825, before 
 which time the district had been kept in a half cultivated 
 condition (being sometimes wholly under water) by 44 
 windmills. 
 
 The land now grows excellent wheat, producing (in 1848) 
 from four to six quarters to the acre. In many districts 
 land was purchased by persons who foresaw the conse- 
 quences of these improvements, which they could now sell 
 
84 DRAINING IN CAMBRIDGESHIRE. 
 
 at from 50/. to 101. per acre. This increase in value has 
 arisen not only from the land being cleared from the inju- 
 rious effects of the water upon it, but from the improved 
 system of cultivation it has enabled the farmers to adopt. 
 The fenlands in Cambridgeshire and great part of the 
 neighbouring counties are formed of a rich black earth, 
 consisting of decomposed vegetable matter, generally from 
 6 to 10 ft. thick, although in some places much thicker, 
 resting upon a bed of blue gault containing clay, lime, and 
 sand. When steam-drainage was first introduced, it was 
 usual to part the land and burn it, then to sow rape-seed, 
 and to feed sheep upon the green crop, after which wheat 
 was sown. The wheat grown upon this land had a long 
 weak straw, easily bent and broken, carrying ears of corn of 
 small size, and having but a weak and uncertain hold by its 
 root in the black soil. Latterly, however, chemistry having 
 thrown greater light upon the operations of agriculture, it 
 has been the practice to sink pits at regular distances 
 through the black earth, and to bring up the blue gault, 
 which is spread upon the surface as manure. The straw, 
 by this means, taking up an additional quantity of silex, 
 becomes firm, strong, and not so tall as formerly, carrying 
 larger and heavier corn, and the mixture of clay gives a 
 better hold to the root, rendering the crops less liable to be 
 laid by the wind and rain, whilst the produce is most luxu- 
 riant and abundant. Mr. Glynn has applied steam-power 
 to the drainage of land in fifteen districts, all in England, 
 and chiefly in the counties of Cambridge, Lincoln, and 
 Norfolk, to the extent of more than J 25,000 acres, the 
 engines employed being seventeen in number, of sizes 
 varying from 20 to 80 horses, and having an aggregate 
 power of 870 horses. The same engineer has also drained, 
 by steam-power, the Hammerbrook district, near Hamburg, 
 and designed the works for draining a level near Rotterdam, 
 which have been carried out by the Chevalier Conrad.* In 
 
 * Abstract of a E,eport on the Application of Steam Power to the 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 
 
 85 
 
 British Guiana the steam engine has been made to answer 
 the double purpose of drainage and irrigation. Some of 
 the sugar plantations of Demerara are drained of the super- 
 fluous water during the rainy season and watered during 
 the dry season. 
 
 101. Recurring to fig. 10, p. 62, the districts there illus- 
 trated will require methods of drainage determined by the 
 inclination of the surface. If this be comparatively level, 
 the drains may be generally cut with beds parallel, or nearly 
 so, to the surface, and arranged to deliver into one or more 
 main drains having lower beds, but still above the low-water 
 level of the river or receiving channel, and from which the 
 water can be let off when the tide is down by providing 
 
 sluices suitable for the purpose. If the surface undulate, 
 the main drains must be laid in the hollows, and the feeders 
 be distributed over the higher parts, and made to commu- 
 nicate with the mains. Small sluices fixed at intervals, 
 
 Drainage of Marshes and Fen Lands, to the British Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science, 1848, by Joseph Grlynn, F.R.S., M. Inat. G.E. 
 
86 JUNCTIONS OF JDBAINS. 
 
 both in the main and minor drains, will, by intercepting 
 the water, permit an accumulation when desired for flood- 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 ing or irrigating the higher lands. Figs. 23 and 24 show a 
 plan and section of a district of this character. A A is the 
 river or receiving channel ; B B the principal main drain ; 
 and c c and D D two other main drains delivering into it ; 
 each of the mains receiving the drainage from the feeders 
 or minor drains. Fig. 24 is a section supposed to be taken 
 on the line z z on the plan. Two imperative rules require 
 to be observed in these arrangements, viz. that all the 
 junctions shall be curved, and that no two feeders shall 
 enter the main drain at opposite points. If these rules are 
 neglected, the currents will be interrupted at these points, 
 and mischief may arise from flooding when the drains 
 become filled in wet seasons. It is also advisable, if the 
 ground be of a loose texture, to guard the junctions with a 
 few rough stones piled together in the form of a retaining 
 wall ; or, for greater permanence, concreted with lime and 
 gravel, as shown in the plan and sections, figs. 25, 26, and 
 27, of which fig. 25 is a plan, fig. 26 a section through the 
 ordinary drain taken on the line Y Y ; and fig. 27 a section 
 through the guard-walls, taken on the line x x. 
 
 102. If the general inclination of the surface of the dis- 
 trict be considerable, it is often desirable to form catch- 
 water drains, or series of drains at different elevations, 
 communicating with each lower one successively by falls. 
 By this method great facilities are obtained for regulating 
 the management of the waters, so that any required quan 
 tity can be retained to compensate for seasons of drought ; 
 while, moreover, the falls are applicable as water-power, 
 and may be used for a variety of purposes. Fig. 28 is a 
 
CATCH-WATER DRAINS. 
 Fifj. 25. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 plan, and fig. 29 a section of a district drained in this 
 manner. A A, B B, and c c, are the main or catch-water 
 drains, each of which receives the drainage from the minor 
 drains or feeders connected with it, and delivers it to the 
 next lower main, through the channels a a, b b, and c c, 
 each of which has sluices fitted to it, while the water forms 
 a series of falls at the points marked y. Or the water from 
 the superior levels may be received in reservoirs constructed 
 for the purpose and in the places of the catch-water drains, 
 and there disposed of for agricultural, manufacturing, or 
 domestic purposes. 
 
 103. In fig. 11, p. 63, we have sketched an inland body 
 
88 
 
 FORMATION OF LAKES. 
 Tig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 of water, or lake, which receives the drainage of the adja- 
 cent districts, and to these, thus situated, the same methods 
 of draining as those just described are generally applicable. 
 The formation of lakes upon the surface of our globe ap- 
 pears to have resulted from three causes, viz. the outcrop- 
 ping of internal springs or sources of water ; subterranean 
 communication with seas ; or, the flowing down and accu- 
 mulation of the surface waters from the surrounding and 
 more elevated districts. Lakes formed by the first of these 
 causes being constantly fed and replenished, may be re- 
 
DRAINING THE LAKE OF HAARLEM. 89 
 
 garded as permanent reservoirs ; and those formed by the 
 second are dependant upon the preservation of their inlet 
 from the ocean ; hut those which receive their supply from 
 the drainage of the lands around, appear destined to ex- 
 tinction by the constant deposit within them of the solid 
 matters brought down by the water. Thus, the Black Sea, 
 the Caspian, and Arral, are fairly supposed to have origi- 
 nally formed one vast lake, the ridges in which have now 
 become elevated, so as to form permanent boundaries be- 
 tween them. The Caspian, also, has evidently become 
 reduced in extent, as proved by the marine matters now 
 found at a distance from its present shores. 
 
 101. Fresh-water lakes, of considerable extent and little 
 depth, are sometimes worthy of being entirely drained for 
 the sake of cultivating the site they occupy. One of the 
 most recent examples of this class of works is the drainage 
 of the Lake of Haarlem in Holland. This lake is situated 
 between Ley den and Amsterdam, and communicates with 
 the Zuyderzee. The bottom of it consists of a rich alluvial 
 deposit well fitted for agriculture. A Dutch engineer, 
 popularly known by the name of " Leeghwater," or " drier 
 up of water," formed a project for draining this lake in 
 1623, and another proposal for the same object was brought 
 forward at the end of the last century, when steam was 
 first employed in draining ; similar works having been 
 already executed in the Beilm and Diem. The area of 
 the Lake of Haarlem is equal to 45,230 acres, and its 
 average depth about 14 ft., the cubic contents being equal 
 to 800,000,000 of tons of water. One part of the lake is 
 13 ft, under the level of the tide. The longest side of it 
 is parallel to the sea, and separated from it only by a very 
 narrow strip of land. Observations, continued during a 
 period of 91 years, show that the maximum quantity of 
 rain which falls upon the lake amounts to 36,000,000 
 tons of water monthly. The Dutch Government having 
 appointed a commission of engineers to report upon the 
 best means of draining the lake, many proposals were sub- 
 
90 PUMPING-ENGINES. 
 
 mitted and examined, and it was ultimately determined to 
 adopt the plan recommended by Messrs. Gibbs and Dean. 
 These gentlemen employed three engines for the purpose 
 of draining the lake, each being of great power, whereby 
 the total current cost was much less than would be incurred 
 by using a greater number of smaller engines. These 
 three engines are named the " Leeghwater," the " Cruquius," 
 and the " Van Lynden," after three celebrated men of these 
 names, who had interested themselves in the draining of 
 the lake. 
 
 105. Of these three engines the "Leeghwater" was first 
 erected, witii suitable houses and pumping machinery. The 
 first step in this work was to construct an earthen dam of 
 a semicircular form, inclosing about 1J acre of the area 
 of the lake, and adjoining its bank. The space inclosed 
 by this dam was then cleared of water by a small steam 
 engine, and the foundations for the houses and machinery 
 commenced. These foundations consisted first of 1400 
 piles, which were driven to the depth of 40 ft., into a 
 stratum of hard sand. Upon these piles, and at the depth 
 of 21 ft. below the surface of the lake, a strong platform 
 was laid, and upon this a wall, pierced with arches, was 
 constructed, at the distance of 22 ft. from the intended 
 position of the engine-house. Upon this wall a thick floor- 
 ing of oak was laid, between the wall and the engine-house. 
 The pumps rest upon the platform, beneath and opposite 
 to the arches, and their heads pass through the floor just 
 described, standing about 3 ft. above its level. Into the 
 space left between the engine-house and outer wall, the 
 water raised by the pumps was received and discharged 
 from it on either side of the boiler-house, through sluice 
 gates, into the canals conducting to the sea sluices. The 
 general arrangement of the engine, boilers, pumps, and 
 sluices, will be understood from Fig. 30, in which A repre- 
 sents the engine; B, the boiler-house; c c, the pumps; 
 aiid r D D, the sluices through which the water was dis 
 charged. The engine has two steam cylinders, one within 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF ENGINES. 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 the other, united at the bottom, but with a clear space of 
 Ij in. between them at the top under the cover, which is 
 common to both. The large cylinder is 12 ft., and the 
 small one 7 ft. in diameter. The small cylinder is fitted 
 with a piston, and the large cylinder with an annular piston. 
 These pistons are connected by one main piston rod (of 
 the internal cylinder) 12 in. diameter, and four small rods 
 (of the annular piston) 4J in. diameter each, with a great 
 cap or cross-head, having a circular body 9 ft. 6 in. diame- 
 ter, and formed to receive the ends of the balance beams of 
 the pumps. The pumps are eleven in number, and each of 
 them 63 in. diameter, with a cast-iron balance beam turning 
 upon a centre in the wall of the engine-house, one end of 
 which is connected with the great cap of the engine, the 
 other to the pump rod. Each pump rod is of wrought 
 
92 POWER OF THE " LEEGHWATER." 
 
 iron, 3 in. diameter, and 16 ft. long, with an additional 
 length of 14 ft of patent chain cable attached to the pump 
 piston. The steam and pump pistons have a stroke of 10 
 ft. in length ; each pump is calculated to deliver 6-02 tons 
 of water per stroke, or 68*22 tons for the eleven pumps. 
 The quantity actually raised was found to be about 63 tons. 
 The action of the engine is as follows : The steam being 
 admitted, the piston and great cap are thereby raised, and 
 the pump pistons make their down stroke. At the top of 
 the steam stroke a pause of one or two seconds is made, to 
 enable the valves of the pump pistons to fall out, so that, 
 on the down stroke of the steam piston, they may take 
 their load of water without shock. In order to sustain the 
 great cap and its dead weight during this interval, an 
 hydraulic apparatus is brought into use, which consists of 
 vertical cylinders, into which water is admitted, forcing 
 upward two plunger poles which sustain the cap, the water 
 being prevented from returning by spherical valves fitted 
 at the lower part of the cylinders. The arrangement of 
 the two steam cylinders is adopted in order to bring the 
 load under immediate command, the varying character of 
 which would otherwise require occasional alteration of the 
 dead weight to overcome it, which would involve great 
 delays and inconvenience. By the use of the two cylinders, 
 the dead weight raised by the small piston did not usually 
 exceed 85 tons, the extra power required being derived 
 from the pressure of the return steam at the down stroke 
 upon the annular piston. A skilful regulation of the ex- 
 pansion and pressure of steam in the small cylinder thus 
 enables the engine-man to provide for all cases of difference 
 of resistance without the delay of altering the dead weight. 
 Respecting the power of the "Leeghwater," it appeared, 
 from experiments conducted by a sub-committee of the 
 Commission, that the engine would do a duty equal to 
 raising 75,000,000 Ibs., one foot high, by the consump- 
 tion of 94 Ibs. of good Welsh coal, and exerting a net 
 effective force of 350-horse power. The lift being 13 ft., 
 
BOILERS, AND COST OF ENGINE. 93 
 
 the engine worked the eleven pumps simultaneously ; the 
 net weight of water lifted being 81*7 tons, and the dis- 
 charge 63 tons per stroke. When the site of the lake is 
 cultivated, the surface of the water in the drains will be 
 kept at 18 in. below the general level of the bed; but 
 during floods the waters of the upper level of the country 
 will be raised above then' usual height, and the lift and 
 head will be increased to 17 ft. To test the power of the 
 engine to meet these cases, the eleven pumps were worked 
 simultaneously, without regard to economy of fuel, and 
 109 tons net of water were raised, per stroke, to the height 
 of 10 ft. The boilers of the Leegh water engine are five in 
 number, cylindrical, and each 30 ft. long, and 6 ft. in dia- 
 meter, with a central fire tube 4 ft. in diameter. Under 
 the boilers a return flue passes to the front, and then 
 divides along the sides. Over the boilers, and communi- 
 cating with all of them, is a steam chamber, 42 ft. in length, 
 and 4 ft. 6 in. in diameter ; from which a steam pipe, 2 ft. 
 in diameter, conveys the steam to the engine. The con- 
 sumption of fuel is 2 1 Ibs. of coals per horse power per 
 hour, when working with a net effect equal to the power of 
 350 horses. The cost of the " Leeghwater" and machinery 
 was 21,000., and of the buildings and contingencies, 
 15,000^. It was calculated that the entire cost of the works 
 for draining the lake would be 100,OOOZ. less than would 
 have been incurred by adopting the ordinary system of 
 steam engines and hydraulic machinery, and 170,000/. less 
 than the expense of applying the system of windmills 
 hitherto prevailing in Dutch drainage. The annual cost of 
 the three methods was thus estimated : ly three engines, 
 such as the Leeghwater, 4500. ; by windmills, 6100^.; and 
 by ordinary steam-engines, 10,OOOZ. 
 
 106. The several methods of draining, as already ex- 
 plained in reference to figs. 9, 10, and 11, are also more 
 or less applicable for districts of the kind sketched in fig. 
 1*2, and also for the second class or Upper Districts. Thus, 
 the drainage from, the high lands has to be received and 
 
94 
 
 DRAINING UPLANDS. 
 
 collected in catch-water drains at the base of the hills, and 
 means taken for combining these waters with those from 
 the level district, or for keeping them separate, as may be 
 required. Or reservoirs may be formed in connection with 
 the catch-water drains, so that irrigation may not be neces- 
 sarily suspended in cases of drought or deficiency of rain 
 water. 
 
 107. Upland districts are liable (even with all the aid 
 that can be rendered by economy of the natural supply) to 
 suffer from an inadequate command of water. Thus, if, as 
 shown in fig. 31, the surface of the district A A have a 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 stratum of clay or other impervious material, B B, imme- 
 diately beneath it, the outer stratum will remain always, 
 comparatively dry, the rain and drainage waters eagerly 
 flowing downward, while the clay resists their passage into 
 the subsoil. Beneath the resisting layer, however, a per- 
 meable and saturated soil, as c c, is often situated, and in 
 these cases an adit drain at D, or other convenient point, 
 will bring the internal water to the surface, and probably 
 aid the supply of the district with the drainage waters from 
 a higher and overcharged level. Internal springs are also, 
 in some cases, available for this purpose, and may be 
 brought into use by simple and inexpensive means. If 
 these resources fail, it may become desirable to apply me- 
 
DUTY OF CORNISH ENGINES. 95 
 
 chanical power for raising the necessary quantity of water 
 from a river or other reservoir at a lower level. 
 
 1 08. Various forms of apparatus have been devised and 
 applied for the purpose of raising water, some of which 
 are actuated by the accumulated force of small streams 
 from superior levels ; but these admit of very limited appli- 
 cation for draining purposes. Pumping engines, worked 
 by steam power, form the only class of machines at present 
 available, by which the required accession of water can be, 
 under all circumstances, brought up from the lower source. 
 If the lower source, however, be a tidal river, the pumps 
 may be worked by an undershot water-wheel placed upon 
 it, and the water be delivered above into an artificial 
 channel or aqueduct, and thence conducted to the higher 
 levels. 
 
 109. A very extended and valuable experience of the 
 powers of steam-pumping engines has been obtained in 
 the mines of Cornwall, from the records of which a few 
 facts may be usefully gleaned in this place as authentic 
 data for application in many draining operations. The 
 number of engines employed in these mines was, in 1822, 
 52, doing an average duty of 28,900,000. In the year 1843, 
 36 engines are reported, but their average duty had risen to 
 60,000,000. The duty is measured by the number of 
 pounds weight of water raised 1 ft. high by the com- 
 bustion of one bushel of coal. Thus, while in 1822, each 
 bushel of coal raised less than 29,000,000 Ibs. of water 
 1 ft. high, the same fuel was able, by improvements in 
 the details of the engines, to raise 60,000,000 Ibs. in 
 1843. The best engine in 1822 was a double cylinder one 
 by Woolf, the highest duty of which was 47,200,000. The 
 best engine in 1842 was a single cylinder (85 inches) engine, 
 by Hocking and Loam, the highest duty of which was 
 107,500,000. This engine was erected in 1840, and was 
 especially intended to work more expansively than had 
 hitherto -been practised. The boilers were made smaller in 
 diameter than usual, and of stronger plate, so as to stand a 
 
96 MOTIVE POWER FOB DRAINAGE. 
 
 higher pressure of steam, the working elasticity being fixed 
 at 40 Ibs. per square inch above the atmosphere. Also an 
 extra number of boilers was provided, in order to give an 
 increased proportion of heating surface, and the strength of 
 the working parts of the engine and machinery was aug- 
 mented to withstand the strain caused by the great force of 
 the steam on the piston at the commencement of the stroke. 
 The progress of the application of the expansion principle 
 has been intimately connected with the deepening of the 
 shafts of mines. In order to render this principle effective 
 in practice, to any great extent, it is necessary that a con- 
 siderable load be moved by the engine-stroke. As the mines 
 were deepened, the weight of the pump rods and balancing 
 machinery necessaiy for draining them was of necessity in- 
 creased ; thus furnishing the load required, and affording 
 at once occasion and opportunity for gradually extending 
 the improvement derivable from the principle of expan- 
 sion. 
 
 110. Motive power 'may frequently be obtained from 
 streams of drainage water collected or received from supe- 
 rior levels, and economically applicable to pumping and the 
 actuating of mills and other agricultural machinery.* 
 
 * As an example of the adaptation of water power derivable from 
 drainage to agricultural purposes, the arrangement adopted upon the estate 
 of Lord Hatherton, in Staffordshire, may be aptly adduced. " His lord- 
 ship has there had collected very cleverly the drainage water of the higher 
 lands of his estate ; he has erected several ponds for storing it, and he has it 
 carried to his farm-yard, where it drives a powerful water-wheel, which does 
 all the thrashing, milling, chopping, &c., and drives a saw-mill besides. 
 From the mill the water is carried in canals of gentle fall to lower meadow 
 ground, where it is used in extensive and profitable irrigation. Drain-water 
 always contains more or less of the manure and soluble parts of the soil in 
 suspension ; and the fertilising properties of the drain-water on this estate 
 are particularly marked by the very luxuriant growth of grass it produces on 
 the meadows. This experiment forms a noble example of an economy in 
 agriculture worthy of imitation, and is one which can be carried out to a 
 greater or less extent on all farms having surfaces at different altitudes." 
 Answer ly the late James Smith, Esq., of Deanston, to Query No. 13, issued 
 ly the Metropolitan Sanitary Commissioners. 
 
TURBINES. 97 
 
 Machines which derive their motive force from water are 
 constituted mainly of a wheel or revolving lever apparatus, 
 actuated either from the circumference or from the centre. 
 In the former case, the wheel is usually made to revolve 
 vertically upon an horizontal axis, and receives the impulse 
 afforded by the weight and motion of the water at a level 
 above the periphery of the wheel, or just below the axis, or 
 identical with the lowest position which the periphery 
 assumes in the course of its rotation. The wheels are 
 distinguished in each of these arrangements respectively, 
 as overshot, breast, and undershot. Water-wheels actuated 
 from the centre derive their motion from the resistance 
 offered by arms or vanes to the centrifugal disposition of 
 the water, which thus reacts and produces a rotatory motion 
 in the opposite direction. They are thus commonly known 
 as "reaction water-wheels," and in France have received the 
 name of " turbine, or horizontal water-wheel" from the posi- 
 tion of the wheel, the axis being vertical. The celebrated. 
 French experimenters, Poncelet and Morin, have ascer- 
 tained that overshot wheels and turbines produce an effect 
 equal to from 60 to 80 per cent, of the power exerted ; that 
 breast-wheels produce from 45 to 50 per cent; and that 
 undershot- wheels produce only from 27 to 30 per cent, 
 being thus the least effective of all. 
 
 111. As the inventor of turbines, M. Fouriieyroii has 
 attained considerable celebrity in France, and is reported 
 to have realised an useful effect equal to 87 per cent, of the 
 power expended. The proportion of effect to power is, 
 however, not the only criterion of the usefulness or adapt- 
 ability of these machines. Many circumstances are usually 
 present which will dictate, or enable us to arrive at, a selec- 
 tion of such an apparatus as will be practically found to 
 yield ample useful effect. Thus M. Fourneyron has pro- 
 duced a good average effect from a simple apparatus, with a 
 fall of water of only nine inches. There are many places, 
 especially in hilly districts, where high falls of water are 
 found, and where the nature of the ground affords facilities 
 
98 TURBINES. 
 
 for making reservoirs, so as to insure a constant supply, 
 where the height of the column of water may compensate 
 for the smallness of its volume. And there are other 
 situations where a great volume of water rolls with a very 
 trifling fall. In either of these cases the turbine may be 
 applied with great advantage. It, moreover, occupies a very 
 small space in comparison with a water-wheel of the same 
 power; its speed is high, and the expense of its construc- 
 tion greatly below that of any other effectual mechanism 
 for deriving a rotatory motion from a head of water. 
 
 112. The turbine of M. Fourneyron consists of a hori- 
 zontal water-wheel, in the centre of which the water enters ; 
 diverging from the centre in every direction, it enters all 
 the buckets at once, and escapes at the circumference or 
 external periphery of the wheel. The water acts on the 
 buckets of the revolving wheel with a pressure in propor- 
 tion to the vertical column or height of the fall ; and it is 
 led or directed into these buckets by stationary guide 
 curves, placed upon and secured to a fixed platform within 
 the circle of the revolving part of the machine. The efflux 
 of the water is regulated by a hollow cylindrical sluice, to 
 which a number of stops, acting simultaneously between 
 the guide curves, are fixed. With this short cylinder, or 
 hoop, they are all raised or lowered together by means of 
 screws communicating with a regulator or governor, so that 
 the opening of the sluice and stops may be increased or 
 diminished in proportion as the velocity of the wheel may 
 require to be accelerated or retarded. This cylindrical 
 sluice alone might serve to regulate the efflux of the water, 
 but the stops serve to steady and support the guide curves 
 and prevent tremor. 
 
 113. One of these machines, erected by M. Fourneyron 
 for M. Caron, was of 60-horse power, the fall of water 
 being 4 ft. 3 in., and the useful effect varied with the head 
 and the immersion of the turbine from 65 to 80 per cent. 
 Another erected at Inval, near Gisors, for a fall of 6 ft. 
 6 in., the power being nearly 40 horses, expended 35 cubic 
 
G WYNNE'S WHEEL. 99 
 
 feet of water per second, and produced an useful effect of 
 71 per cent, of the force employed. One with a fall of 63 
 ft. gave 75 per cent. ; and when it had the full height of 
 column for which it was constructed, viz. 79 feet, its useful 
 effect is said to have reached 87 per cent, of the power 
 expended. Another, with 126 ft. fall, gave 81 per cent., 
 and one with 144 ft. gave 80 per cent. In 1837, M. 
 Fourneyron erected a turbine at St. Blasier, in the Black 
 Forest of Baden, for a fall of 72 ft. The wheel is made 
 of cast iron, with wrought-iron buckets ; it is about 20 
 in. in diameter, and weighs about 105 Ibs. ; it is said 
 to be equal to 56-horse power, and to give an useful effect 
 equal to 70 or 75 per cent, of the water power expended. 
 
 114. The turbine is adapted, when applied to tidal waters, 
 to work with one flow only ; and to improve on this arrange- 
 ment, and produce a continuous movement both with the 
 rise and fall of the tide, is the object aimed at in Mr. 
 Gwynne's " Double-Acting Balanced Pressure Wheel," 
 which is said by the inventor to effect a saving of fro % m 33 
 to 50 per cent, on the first cost (as compared, it is presumed, 
 with the ordinary water-wheels), to produce an useful result 
 equal to 85 per cent, of the power employed, and to main- 
 tain a perfect operation irrespective of floods or large accu- 
 mulations of back water. This contrivance consists mainly 
 of a flat cylindrical casing, with a vertical spindle passing 
 through its centre, and carrying the internal wheel or ar- 
 rangement of buckets which receive the impulse of the 
 water entering at the periphery, the peculiar feature of the 
 invention consisting in the shape of the partitions or 
 buckets, which are adapted to present i. direct surface to 
 the action of the water in its passage through, whether it 
 passes in one direction or the reverse of it. 
 
 115. Dr. Barker's mill, which was formerly neglected as 
 being useless for practical purposes, is now recognised as 
 involving important principles of action. It consists of a 
 vertical tube, terminating in an open funnel at top, but 
 closed at the lower end, from which project, at right angles* 
 
100 WHITELAW'S WHEEL. 
 
 two horizontal tubes in opposite directions, in communica- 
 tion with the vertical tube, and having closed outer ends. 
 Each of these horizontal arms, however, has a round hole 
 on one side of it (the two holes being opposite to each 
 other), and the vertical tube being mounted on a spindle 
 or axis is kept full of water flowing into the top. The issue 
 of the water from the holes on opposite sides of the hori- 
 zontal arms causes the machine to revolve rapidly on its 
 axis, with a velocity nearly equal to that of the effluent 
 water, and with a force proportionate to the hydrostatic 
 pressure given by the vertical column, and to the area of 
 the apertures ; for there is no solid surface at the apertures 
 to receive the lateral pressure, which acts with full force on 
 the opposite side of the arm. According to the celebrated 
 Dr. Robison, this unbalanced pressure is equal to the 
 weight of a column, having the orifice for its base, and 
 twice the depth under the surafce of the water in the trunk 
 for its height. Desaguliers, Euler, John Bernoulli, and 
 M. Mathen de la Cour, have treated of this machine, and 
 the last-named author proposed (in 1775) an arrangement 
 by which any fall or column of water, however great its 
 height, may be rendered available. This proposition was 
 to bring down a large pipe from an elevated reservoir, to 
 bend the lower part of it upwards, and to introduce into it 
 a short pipe with two arms, like Dr. Barker's mill reversed, 
 and revolving on an upright spindle in the same manner ; 
 the joint of the two pipes being so contrived as to admit of 
 a free circular motion without much loss of water. 
 
 116. In the year 1841, Mr. Whitelaw essayed an im- 
 provement of this machine, and obtained a patent for it 
 This contrivance appears to consist mainly in the modifica- 
 tions suggested by Dr. Robison and M. Mathon de la Cour, 
 and in the bending of the two horizontal arms into a form 
 resembling that of the letter S. In this machine, the water 
 is discharged from the ends of the arm in the direction of 
 the circle described by their revolution, or in that of a 
 tangent to it, the capacity of the arms increasing as they 
 
G WYNNE'S PUMP. 101 
 
 approach the centre of rotation, so as to contain a quantity 
 of water at every section of the arm inversely proportionate 
 to its velocity at that section, with the view of economising 
 the centrifugal force. The transverse sections of the arms 
 are everywhere parallelograms of equal depth, but of width 
 increasing from the jet at the outer extremity of the arm to 
 the central vertical pipe. In a model of this form, with a 
 fall of 10 ft., the diameter of the circle described by the 
 ends of the arms being 15 in., and the aperture of each 
 jet 2-4 in. in depth, by -6 in. in width (the area of each 
 orifice being thus 1-44 in.), the water expended was 38 
 cubic feet, the velocity 887 revolutions per minute, and the 
 effect equal to 73-6 per cent, of the power employed. 
 
 117. Mr. J. S. Gwynne publicly exhibited, at the Passaic 
 Copper Mine, U.S., in January, 1849, his "direct acting 
 balanced pressure centrifugal pump," and obtained patents 
 for the invention in the United States, 1850, and in Eng- 
 land in March, 1851. The "balanced centrifugal pump," 
 as described by the patentee, has a rotatory action, by which 
 a centrifugal movement is given to the inclosed water, 
 which it discharges in radial lines coincident with the 
 direction of the centrifugal force, into a flattened spheroidal 
 chamber, constituting the body of the pump, and having 
 but one exit pipe, placed at a tangent with- its circumfer- 
 ence. ^ The water, as it is thrown off from the open peri- 
 phery of the revolving piston, is forced up the discharge- 
 pipe in quantities, and at a rate, proportioned to the speed 
 at which the piston is driven. The piston is formed of 
 two concave discs placed parallel, with their concave sur- 
 faces towards each other. Between these discs is a single 
 arm, or impeller, radiating from a boss, or hollow axis, 
 mounted on a shaft, which may work horizontally, verti- 
 cally, or obliquely. The impeller varies in breadth; its 
 narrowest part is at the outer edge of the piston, and it 
 becomes gradually broader, until its edge intersects the 
 inner surface of the opening in the suction side of the 
 piston, from which line, to its extremity at the boss, its 
 
102 
 
 GWYNNES PUMP. 
 
 edges continue parallel to each other, and at right angles 
 to the axis of the shaft. In working the pump, the water 
 is poured into the piston, at its centre, through a circular 
 opening in one of its sides and concentric with it. The 
 piston is inclosed in a case placed parallel and concen- 
 trically with the discs, and which acts as a receiver. From 
 the circumference of this case, and at a tangent to it, the 
 discharge-pipe rises perpendicularly. To prevent the water 
 rotating in the case, and to give it a direction upward to 
 the discharge-pipe, a stop or plate is provided. The joint 
 between the suction pipe and piston is carefully made, and 
 so situated, that no sand, gravel, or other gritty matter can 
 lodge in or near it. Mr. Gwynne also describes a " balanc- 
 ing nut," and claims that or any other contrivance for 
 " equalising the lateral pressure on the piston, which would 
 give rise to very serious inconveniences in the use of the 
 pump, when great elevations of water were to be obtained ; 
 for, in raising it to great heights, the pressure would be ex- 
 cessive, amounting to many tons." As applicable to works 
 of drainage and irrigation, the patentee announces the 
 sizes, powers, and prices of his pumps as follows : 
 
 Size of Pipes. 
 
 Gallons of 
 Water 
 raised 
 30ft. 
 
 Equal to 
 Horses- 
 Power. 
 
 No. of revolutions per minute of 
 Piston required to raise Water. 
 
 Price. 
 
 Dis- 
 charge. 
 
 Suc- 
 tion. 
 
 in. 
 6 
 9 
 12 
 18 
 24 
 
 in. 
 7 
 10 
 13 
 
 20 
 26 
 
 1320 
 3000 
 5310 
 12000 
 21000 
 
 15 
 35 
 60 
 136 
 240 
 
 10ft. 
 500 
 375 
 250 
 
 OT4 
 
 125 
 
 20ft. 
 700 
 525 
 350 
 240 
 175 
 
 30ft. 
 800 
 600 
 400 
 275 
 200 
 
 GO ft. 
 1200 
 900 
 600 
 412 
 300 
 
 i 
 
 85 
 200 
 437 
 
 750 
 
 118. In November, 1848, Mr.'Appold exhibited a model of a 
 rotatory pump as a convenient one for draining purposes, 
 and made experiments on it with 6, 24, and 48 arms or vanes. 
 A pump of this description was shown at the Great Exhi- 
 bition of 1851, and experimented upon by the jury. In 
 this pump the fan revolving vertically was 1 ft. diameter, 
 <md 3 in. wide, having an opening one-half the total 
 
APPOLDS PUMP. 
 
 103 
 
 diameter in the centre of each side for the admission of 
 the water, and a central division plate extending to the 
 circumference, to give a direction to the two streams of 
 water, and convenient for fixing on the shaft; the 6 arms 
 curved backwards, terminating nearly tangential to the cir- 
 cumference. The revolving fan was fixed on the end of 
 the horizontal driving shaft, passing through a stuffing-box 
 in the side of the casing, and it worked between two circu- 
 lar cheeks, running close without actually touching, by 
 which the outer revolving surfaces were shielded from the 
 water, but a free ingress allowed for the water, and a large 
 space left all round the periphery of the fan, facilitated the 
 discharge of the water. In the experiments instituted by 
 the jury, the power employed was measured with great care 
 by means of Morin's dynamometer, and the following re- 
 sults obtained : 
 
 Appold's Centrifugal Pump, with Curved Arms. 
 
 Height of 
 
 Lift. 
 
 Discharge per 
 Minute. 
 
 Revolutions per 
 Minute. 
 
 Velocity of 
 circumference. 
 
 Percentage 
 of effect to 
 Power. 
 
 ft. 
 
 gallons. 
 
 
 ft. per minute. 
 
 
 8-2 
 
 2100 
 
 828 
 
 2601 
 
 59 
 
 9-0 
 
 1664 
 
 620 
 
 1948 
 
 65 
 
 18-8 
 
 1164 
 
 792 
 
 2988 
 
 65 
 
 19-4 
 
 1236 
 
 788 
 
 2476 
 
 68 
 
 27-6 681 
 
 876 
 
 2751 
 
 46 
 
 With Straight Inclined Arms. 
 
 18-0 1 736 | 690 
 
 2168 | 43 
 
 With Straight Radial Arms. 
 
 18-0 1 474 | 720 
 
 2262 | 24 
 
 A large pump constructed on this plan erected at Whittle- 
 sea Mere, for the purpose of draining, was reported, in 
 July, 1852, to have been then working for nearly a year 
 
304 
 
 APPOLDS PUMP. 
 
 with complete success. This pump is 4 ft. diameter, 
 with an average velocity of 90 revolutions, or 1'450 ft. per 
 minute, and is driven by a double cylinder steam engine, 
 with steam 40 Ibs. per inch, and vacuum 13J Ibs. per inch ; 
 it raises about 15,000 gallons of water per minute, an 
 average height of 4 or 5 ft. The cost of the engine and 
 pump was about 1600Z. The following experiments were 
 tried to ascertain the percentage of effect obtained from 
 the pump ; the* power employed being measured by taking 
 indicator figures from the engine, deducting in each case 
 the power that was indicated when the engine was working 
 at the same speed without the pump, which was found to 
 take 10'6-horse power. The quantity of water discharged 
 was measured by calculating the overflow from an opening 
 6 ft. wide in each case. 
 
 
 Experi- 
 ment First. 
 
 Experi- 
 ment Se- 
 cond. 
 
 Experi- 
 mentThird 
 
 Experi- 
 ment 
 Fourth. 
 
 Velocity of circumference of 
 pump, in feet, per minute... 
 Height of lift, in feet and 
 inches 
 
 1159 
 3 
 
 1357 
 4 1 
 
 1301 
 
 5 
 
 1329 
 
 K 11 
 
 Depth of water at points of 
 overflow, in feet and inches, 
 A 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 5 1 
 
 1 3ft 
 
 1-9 
 
 Ditto, at 17 ft. distance, B. ... 
 Gallons discharged per mi- 
 nute, according to the 
 depth A 
 
 1 7 
 12 429 
 
 1 84 
 
 14 2^3 
 
 1 6| 
 
 11 706 
 
 1-5 
 
 QK AK 
 
 Ditto, ditto B 
 Theoretical discharge 
 Horse power effective in rais- 
 ing the quantity, A. ... 
 
 16,104 
 17,400 
 
 11-34 
 
 18,023 
 21,587 
 
 16-88 
 
 15,288 
 15,768 
 
 17-79 
 
 13,606 
 12,803 
 
 17-17 
 
 Ditto ditto B 
 
 14-70 
 
 22-38 
 
 23-24 
 
 24-49 
 
 Horse power employed in 
 working the pump . . 
 
 23-00 
 
 40-90 
 
 29-90 
 
 39-80 
 
 Percentage of effect to power 
 employed, by calculation, A. 
 Ditto ditto B. ... 
 
 49 
 64 
 
 41 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 78 
 
 43 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The centrifugal pump has been found more advantageous 
 
FORMATION OF SOILS. 105 
 
 for lifts below 20 ft. than for higher lifts, and its most ad- 
 vantageous application is as a tidal pump, where the height 
 of lift is continually varying, hecause the lower the lift, the 
 greater is the discharge, the speed of the pump remaining 
 the same. This form of pump has also been applied with 
 advantage as an assistant or feeder to a water-wheel, to 
 keep the latter going constantly in the summer time, when 
 short of water. 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 Means of Conveying, Distributing, and Discharging Water. Drains and 
 Watercourses. Forms, Sizes, and Methods of Construction. Implements 
 employed. Shallow and Deep Draining. Stone, Tile, and Earthenware 
 Drains, &c. 
 
 119. Having in the preceding sections shown the general 
 principles of draining, as applicable according to the 
 general profile of the district, we have now to direct our 
 attention to the details of the system ; to show the methods 
 to be selected with reference to the nature of the soil and 
 the position of the substrata, and to consider the arrange- 
 ment, form, size, and construction of the drains which it 
 maybe necessary to provide in order to promote the objects 
 of agriculture. 
 
 120. The nature of the several soils which we have to 
 deal with will be best understood by regarding the manner 
 in which they have been formed, and the several materials 
 of which they are constituted. The formation of all soils 
 may be very clearly traced to the disintegration, by mecha- 
 nical and chemical agencies, of rocks anJ. minerals which 
 contain alkalies and alkaline earths. In the mountainous 
 districts' of perpetual snow, the most refractory rocks are 
 crumbled into fragments, which, being rounded by the 
 action of glaciers, or pulverised into dust, are borne down 
 by the rivers and streams, and deposited upon the plains 
 and valleys below. Some of the most remarkable proofs 
 of the influence of the air, water, and carbonic acid upon 
 
 F 3 
 
106 CONSTITUENTS OF SOILS. 
 
 the constituents of rocks, are exhibited in parts of South 
 America, where the elements of the silver ores are gradually 
 dissolved and dissipated by the action of these agents in 
 the winds and rains, and the metal, resisting the destruc- 
 tion, is left exposed in sharp angular projections from the 
 surface of the rock.* 
 
 121. The yellow clay which occurs so frequently in Den- 
 mark is considered by Forchammer to have been formed 
 from granite, the felspar of which has undergone change, 
 while the mica has not; the quartz forming the sand of 
 the clay. The blue clays, having no mica, appear to have 
 been formed from sienite and greenstone. The great stra- 
 tum of clay which occurs at Halle has resulted from the 
 disintegration of porphyry. Most of the sandstones con- 
 tain silicates with alkaline bases, and in the sandstone of 
 the Holy Mountain, near Heidelberg, fragments of felspar 
 are observed partly changed into clay, and visible at white 
 points in the sandstone. Felspar is unable to resist the 
 solvent action of water when saturated with carbonic acid. 
 Clays formed by the disintegration of felspars containing 
 potash are free from lime; those formed from Labrador 
 spar, which is the principal component of lava and basalt, 
 contain lime and soda. Most rocks, as felspar, basalt, clay, 
 slate, porphyry, and the numerous varieties of the lime- 
 stone formation, consist of compounds of silica with alu- 
 mina, lime, potash, soda, iron, and protoxide of manga- 
 nese ; and from the fact that most of these ingredients are 
 susceptible of uniting with oxygen, the cause of the disin- 
 tegration of the rocks which they constitute may be readily 
 and fairly inferred. Of these constituents, the protoxide of 
 iron has a great disposition to absorb oxygen from the 
 atmosphere ; thus forming the higher oxide or peroxide of 
 iron. This property is indicated by the reddish brown 
 colour of the rich ferruginous soils, while the black colour 
 of the subsoil shows the presence of the protoxide. In the 
 process of subsoil-ploughing, this protoxide frequently be- 
 * Darwin, Liebig, &c. 
 
SAND, LIME, AND CLAY. 107 
 
 comes exposed, and the consequence is, that the fertility is 
 impaired until the protoxide is converted into peroxide, 
 and the red colour becomes apparent upon the surface. 
 Struve has proved by experiments, that water which is im- 
 pregnated with carbonic acid decomposes all rocks contain- 
 ing alkalies, and then dissolves a portion of the alkaline 
 carbonates. 
 
 122. Soils being thus formed by the disintegration of 
 rocks, their properties are evidently dependent, first, upon 
 the nature of the several components of these rocks ; and, 
 secondly, upon the effects produced upon these components 
 by the action of the air and water to which they are subse- 
 quently exposed. Of the various kinds of soil, the princi- 
 pal constituents are 1. sand, 2. lime, and 3. day. The first 
 two of these, containing no other inorganic substances 
 except siliceous earth and carbonate or silicate of lime, 
 afford no nutriment whatever for vegetation. The clay or 
 argillaceous earth constitutes the fructifying element in all 
 soils, and is produced by the disintegration of aluminous 
 minerals, among which are the felspars, mica, &c. The 
 fertilising properties of argillaceous earths appear to arise 
 from their containing alkalies and alkaline earths, with sul- 
 phates and phosphates, ingredients which are never absent 
 from these earths. This valuable property of the argilla- 
 ceous earths is also aided by the peculiarity of their tex- 
 ture, which affords great facilities for retaining moisture. 
 Vegetable life, however, requires, besides the nourishing 
 properties found in the argillaceous earths, to be supplied 
 with air and moisture, and while alumina gives no aid to 
 the passage of these essentials, chalk ard sand do give it 
 by their mechanical formation. Hence, " land of the great- 
 est fertility contains argillaceous earth and other disin- 
 tegrated minerals, with chalk and sand in such a proportion 
 as to give free access to air and moisture. "* The clays are 
 therefore to be regarded by the drainer as impermeable and 
 retentive materials, and the sands and limes as porous ma- 
 * Liebig. 
 
108 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 
 
 terials ; and the infinitely varied proportions in which these 
 matters are found combined in soils, determine the degree 
 in which each soil will facilitate or impede the passage 
 of water through it. 
 
 123. With this knowledge of soils, we may proceed to 
 the arrangement of the drains required for regulating the 
 supply of water to the lands of a district. This arrange- 
 ment will be varied according to the contour of the surface, 
 and the position of the substrata. If this be level, and the 
 texture of the soil uniform, the drains may be at once 
 planned, with mains at certain intervals, and minor drains 
 or feeders at right angles to the mains, and parallel among 
 themselves, as shown in fig. 32. The inclination in the 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 bed of the drains, which is necessary to assist the discharge 
 of their contents, must be obtained by cutting them deeper 
 towards the receiving channel, as shown in fig. 33, which 
 is a longitudinal section of one of the main drains, with 
 the feeders discharging into it. This increase of depth 
 also provides the additional capacity wanted in the drains 
 as the water accumulates in them. An undulating surface 
 will require the main drains to be arranged at the lowest 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 
 
 109 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 levels, and the minor channels conducted into them with 
 due reference to the capacity of the mains to discharge 
 their united contents. Fig. 34 is a plan of a surface of 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 this kind, the lines A B, c D, and E F, showing the position 
 of the hollows in which the main drains are to be laid, the 
 minor ones being arranged so as to divide the total dis- 
 charge among the mains as nearly equally as the nature of 
 the surface will conveniently admit. The capacity of the 
 mains, as also of the feeders, must, of course, be deter- 
 mined according to the quantity of water for which passage 
 is required, and modified also by the steepness of the fall. 
 If the fall is considerable, a drain of smaller dimensions 
 will suffice than will be necessary if but little inclination 
 
110 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. 
 
 can be obtained. That part of the main drain from E to B 
 will, in any case, require enlarged capacity, as it receives 
 the entire drainage. Fig. 35 is a section of part of the 
 
 mains, in which it will be seen that, as the surface inclines, 
 the bed of the drain will have sufficient fall if laid at equal 
 depth from the surface of the ground throughout. The 
 drains are arranged parallel to each other, which is evi- 
 dently a good rule where it can be observed, the surface 
 being thus divided into equal spaces, and the drainage 
 made at once perfect and simple. 
 
 124. The arrangements of drains here described suppose 
 the texture of the soil to be the same throughout the sur- 
 face to be drained ; but if soils of different retentive power 
 appear upon the surface, it becomes essential to arrange 
 the drains with reference to the line of junction of the 
 soils. Thus, let figs. 36 and 37 represent the plan and 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF DRAINS. Ill 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 section of a district, whereof the higher ground is of porous 
 materials, p overlying the clay, or other retentive soil 
 (marked R), as far as the line A, D, B, where the clay first 
 appears upon the surface. The water, percolating through 
 the bed p, and prevented from descending by the clay, will 
 accumulate along the line A, D, B, and form a swamp unless 
 got rid of. In this case, therefore, a drain must be laid 
 along this line, while a main drain for the remainder of the 
 ground, which slopes towards the brook at G, must be 
 formed on the line E, D a , F. This latter drain receives the 
 contents of the minor drains, which are to be laid parallel, 
 as shown in fig. 36. The upper drain, A, D, B, discharges 
 into the brook G by the cross ducts A E and B F. The two 
 main drains must, if the surface permit it, be laid with 
 their beds dipping either way from the middle at D and D a , 
 so as to insure the free passage of the drainage water. 
 
 125. The general arrangement of the drains being, as 
 already stated, controlled by the superficial contour and 
 texture of the soil, cannot be properly determined without 
 a careful reference to the sectional strata of the district. If 
 these consist of materials of various degrees of porositj, 
 their relative positions, not only on tho surface, wherever 
 the substrata may outcrop, but also in the section, must be 
 regarded. In this kind of consideration consists one great 
 field in which so much improvement has been already 
 effected, and so much more may be, in the practical art of 
 land-draining. The history of the art, indeed, informs us 
 that the Eomans consulted the nature of the soil in select- 
 ing the form of their drains ; that they provided for drain- 
 
112 DEEP DRAINING. 
 
 ing from springs and subterranean sources as well as from 
 the surface ; and that they were thoroughly conversant with 
 the superiority of covered and deep drains in certain cir- 
 cumstances. Without attempting to pursue this history, 
 however, which is abundantly interesting, but far beyond 
 our space, we may recall to the minds of our readers the 
 fact that, some century ago, the only method of draining 
 generally practised in this country consisted of forming 
 the surface into rude ridges and furrows, and cutting open 
 trenches by the hedges to carry off some of the super- 
 abundant moisture. But, more than this, we are called 
 upon to attest the fearful truth, that our own little island 
 still contains thousands upon thousands of acres of land in 
 this same disgraceful condition, which are commonly con- 
 demned as bad lands, and regarded as evidences of the 
 misfortunes, instead of the ignorance, of their cultivators. 
 The modern art is not yet a century old. It appears to 
 date principally from the methods instituted in the year 
 1764 by one Mr. Joseph Elkington, a Warwickshire farmer, 
 who happening to drive an auger through the bed of a 
 trench, discovered the existence of a water-bearing stratum 
 beneath, by drawing the water from which, the surface and 
 supersoil became thoroughly drained. The late Mr. Smith, 
 of Deanston, and others, subsequently extended the prin- 
 ciple of consulting the texture of the subsoils, and have 
 adapted the depth, capacity, and construction of drains to 
 these varieties of texture.* 
 
 * As early as the time of the Commonwealth, deep draining was advo- 
 cated by Captain Walter Blith, who says " Wherever you see drayning 
 and trenching, you shall rarely finde few or none of them wrought to the 
 bottome. But for these common and many trenches, ofttimes crooked too, 
 that men usually make in their boggy grounds, some one foot, some two, I 
 say away with them as a great piece of folly, lost labour and spoyle. And 
 for thy drayning trench it must be made so deepe that it go to the bottome 
 of the cold spewing moyst water that feeds the flagg and rush a yard or 4 
 feet deepe if ever thou wilt drain to any purpose." And " to the bottome 
 where the spewing spring lyeth thou must go, and one spade's graft beneath, 
 how deepe soever it be, if thou wilt drain thy land to purpose." 
 
CHARACTERS OF STRATA. 
 
 113 
 
 120. Proceeding to examine the several varieties of the 
 structure of soils which are met with, we propose to con- 
 sider the strata under three leading characters, as exhibited 
 in the following diagram, viz. the porous, or readily perme- 
 able ; the retentive, or comparatively impervious; and the 
 semi-porous, or mixed. 
 
 Characters of Strata. 
 
 Sand, Gravel, &c. 
 
 Clays, Marl, Dense 
 Rocks, &c. 
 
 Porous or Pervious, 
 marked p in Sections. 
 
 Retentive or Impervious, 
 marked R in Sections. 
 
 Mixed or partly Pervious, 
 marked M in Sections. 
 
 This diagram, therefore, will serve as an index to the 
 several sequent illustrations, numbered from 38 to 51 
 inclusive. 
 
 1 27. In fig. 38 we have a common arrangement of strata, 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 the surface-soil (which for its thinness need not be re- 
 garded), on a porous stratum, and this lying upon a reten- 
 tive one. The method to be 'adopted, in this case, will 
 
114 
 
 TAPPING." 
 
 partly depend upon the thickness of the several strata. 
 The water falling upon the surface will saturate the super- 
 soil, and, being impeded by the lower stratum, will not pass 
 away except by frequent drains, arranged with *regard to 
 the inclinations of the surface. If the clay beneath be of 
 considerable thickness, so that the average depth of its bed 
 from the surface exceeds 5 ft., it will be economical to limit 
 the depth of the drains to the upper stratum, and thus 
 avoid interference with, the clay. The land, however, will 
 be brought into a drier condition by penetrating the clay 
 with the main drains at least. But, by doing so, if springs 
 exist below the clay, they may thus become exposed, and 
 the work of draining thereby augmented. Borings should, 
 therefore, be made along the lines of lowest surface, and 
 especially at any points where wet appears to gather, and, 
 if any springs are thus detected immediately below the 
 clay, they should be tapped, that is, have communications 
 opened to the drain, so that their contents may pass away 
 through the proper channels. 
 
 128. When the porous bed is beneath the clay or reten- 
 tive bed, as shown in fig. 39, it will be advisable to cut the 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 drains through the clay into the lower stratum, provided 
 the latter is of sufficient depth to bear the water, and assist 
 the drainage of the district. Supposing the entire depth of 
 the lower bed from the surface does not exceed 6 ft., and it 
 be desirable to economise the water for subsequent irriga- 
 tion, or other purposes, it will be well to cut the drains 
 
POSITIONS OF STEATA. 115 
 
 completely through both strata, and thus clear off the whole 
 of the sub water, as well as that from the immediate sur- 
 face. This arrangement of strata requires the drains to be 
 laid at small intervals, and of ample capacity, as the dense 
 super-soil will keep all the water which falls upon it, and 
 also that which reaches it from superior levels. Some beds 
 of clay are of such thickness that no practicable drains can 
 be made to communicate with the substrata. When this 
 is the case, the general system of drainage should consist 
 of small drains laid very closely, so that the worked mass 
 of clay may become thoroughly freed from an excess of- 
 water. 
 
 129. Fig. 40 represents a similar succession of strata to 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 those shown in fig. 38, viz. the surface-soil resting upon a 
 porous bed, and this upon one of a retentive character. 
 But the contour of the surface is such, that the main drains 
 must be formed in the middle of the section, which is the 
 lowest part in the case here illustrated. The substratum 
 of clay, rejecting the water,. assists its accumulation at the 
 point marked r, and it will become necessary to provide a 
 drain of large dimensions in proportion to the extent of the 
 district to be served. If the general surface is favourable, 
 it will be better to arrange the principal number and extent 
 of drains at right angles to the section, as here shown, 
 rather than parallel with it. The main central drain will 
 be thus relieved of the violence of the rapid discharges 
 which the steep drains would send into it, and less danger 
 will accrue from floods descending from the higher lands. 
 
116 
 
 POSITIONS OF STRATA. 
 
 130. An arrangement of strata, which is very apt to dis- 
 cover springs rising to the surface, is shown in fig. 41, in 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 
 which the district appears to have a concave surface, with 
 the porous stratum occupying the lower position. The 
 water contained in the higher portions of this hed will 
 burst forth at any outlets that may be formed through the 
 clay ; and indeed, if the latter be not of great depth, it will 
 frequently force passages for itself, and thus augment the 
 lower surface accumulations, which are collected at the 
 middle of the section in consequence of its form, and the 
 density of the upper clay. Efficient drainage will, in this 
 case, require that the channels intersect the porous stratum, 
 and, if the depth be not too great, the beds of the drains 
 should reach that of the stratum. The position of the 
 drains on the plan should also be determined, with a view 
 to cut off the water from the gravelly bed at the higher 
 parts of the section, and thus relieve the central main drain 
 at K, which would otherwise become overloaded Three 
 main drains, therefore, or more, if the sides of ihe basin 
 be of great extent, should be laid, viz. one at the middle 
 of the section, and two at the higher part, on either side of, 
 and parallel with it. 
 
 131. In fig. 42, the strata are represented in positions 
 which produce swamps or morasses. Thus, at the point 
 T>, at the foot of a porous bed, lying upon one of clay, 
 which rises from that point, the accumulation of water will 
 require a main drain to be laid, bounding the base of the 
 
POSITIONS OF STRATA. 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 317 
 
 permeable stratum throughout the entire district, and to 
 have a capacity in proportion to the extent of that stratum. 
 If the clay be of inconsiderable thickness, the main drains 
 should intersect it completely. In this arrangement it will 
 be manifestly useless to cut channels above the point D, 
 except as shallow feeders to the mains. This section illus- 
 trates one of the reasons of the failure of the methods 
 formerly adopted of attempted drainage without consulting 
 the structural condition of the soil. 
 
 132. Sometimes a tongue of gravel, or other pervious 
 material, will be found to extend into and under the clay, 
 as shown in fig. 43, in which a main drain at D, whatever 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 its dimensions may be, will not be sufficient to intercept 
 the drainage water which passes through the bed, and will 
 require another main at D a . In this case, indeed, the prin- 
 
118 
 
 POSITIONS OF STRATA. 
 
 cipal drain should be laid at this point; otherwise, that 
 portion of the district lying between D and D a will remain 
 in a moist and swampy state. 
 
 133. If, however, the position of the strata be reversed, 
 and the clay runs into and beneath the porous material, as 
 represented in fig. 44, the mam drain at D should, if prac- 
 
 ticable, be cut through the clay, so that the water may be 
 assisted in draining from it, and keeping the space from D 
 to D a in a healthy condition. At the latter point, the depth 
 of the main should be such as to reach the bed of the clay, 
 and prevent the water running back towards the point E, 
 in case the inclination has a tendency to produce that 
 effect. 
 
 134. A patch of gravel or similar material is occasionally 
 met with in the midst of a district, the surface of which, 
 in other parts, consists of clay, as shown in fig. 45. In 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
POSITIONS OF STRATA. 
 
 119 
 
 this case two sets of drains will be required, viz. at the 
 points D D and D' d D a ; and the same remarks as to the rela- 
 tive depths of these mains will apply as already made in 
 referring to fig. 43. 
 
 135. Fig. 46 shows a similar patch of clay running into 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 and under the gravel, requiring also two sets of main 
 drains, which will be more effective in proportion to their 
 depth, and the most so if they reach the bed of the clay, 
 and thus prevent its injurious retention of the drainage 
 water from the gravel or sand overlying its edges. 
 
 136. When the general surface of the district has a con- 
 siderable inclination, as shown in figs. 47 and 48, the me- 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 thods of drainage to be adopted will be varied according to 
 the relative positions of the materials. Thus, if the porous 
 material be above, as in fig. 47, the main drain should be 
 
120 
 
 POSITIONS OF STBATA. 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 at the point B ; but, if the clay lie upon a stratum of less 
 density, as in fig. 48, the main should be laid at a lower 
 situation, where it will naturally receive all the water which 
 accumulates at D, besides that contained in so much of the 
 lower bed as is above it. 
 
 1 37. If a bed of gravel lie in the hollow of a stratum of 
 clay, as represented in fig. 49, the surface of the district 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 will remain tolerably dry except at the lowest point D a , 
 where the accumulation of water from the higher parts, re- 
 sisted in its disposition to descend by the substratum of 
 dense texture, will make a principal main drain of ample 
 dimensions necessary. Auxiliary mains are also required 
 at D D, to drain the clay surface above these points, and 
 save the porous bed from the saturation which will naturally 
 occur unless thus prevented. 
 
 138. In hilly districts, clays and gravel are often found 
 in alternate layers, which outcrop on one side of the hiH, 
 
POSITIONS OP DRAINS. 
 
 as sketched in fig. 50, and render a series of main drains 
 necessary at the points marked D. By these drains, the 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 water which gathers in the retentive strata will be dis- 
 charged at the lowest points on the surface, and prevent 
 any mischievous excess on the soil. The intermediate 
 portions of the porous materials which are exposed will 
 readily get rid of their contents by percolation, and drains 
 of comparatively small dimensions will be adequate to the 
 efficient drainage of a section thus composed. 
 
 139. Sometimes the side of a hill displays a series of 
 alternate and horizontal layers, as represented in fig. 51, in 
 which case a small main drain should be laid at the ex- 
 posed bed of each stratum, at the points marked D D, which 
 will receive the contents of each porous layer, and prevent 
 any injurious excess accumulating within the intermediate 
 clays. 
 
 140. Having thus briefly noticed the several varieties of 
 section which are likely to occur in the drainage of districts 
 and lands, we have now to consider the form, size, and con- 
 struction of drains which it will be advisable to adopt ac- 
 cording to the circumstances of each case. 
 
 141. The rudest form of drain is that of an open cut or 
 channel in the surface of the ground, for conveying the 
 
122 
 
 OPEN DEAINS. 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 water which falls in the form of rain, or percolates through 
 the materials intersected, away into some lower position, 
 brook, or other receiver. These open drains are distin- 
 guished from the more complete form of underground or 
 covered drains formed by open channels, which are after- 
 wards refilled, except at the lower part, along which a chan- 
 nel is preserved by one of several methods of construction. 
 Both of these methods appear to be of great antiquity, 
 having been certainly practised by the Romans, as recorded 
 by Palladius, Pliny, &c. 
 
 142. The arrangement and distances apart of open 
 drains have been usually determined by those of the ridges 
 and furrows. Previous to the introduction of "under- 
 draining," wet and strong lands were prepared for arable 
 cmlture by being ploughed up into the undulating shape 
 known as " ridge and furrow," the bottom of the furrow 
 forming a rude drain for the water from the adjoining 
 ridges. The wetness of the furrows or " thoroughs," as 
 sometimes called, and of the slips of land adjoining, how- 
 ever, occasioned the perishing of the crops, and led to the 
 adoption of shallow drains below the furrows, and com- 
 monly kept open with straw or brushwood. This was 
 termed "furrow" or "thorough" draining. In this manner 
 
DISTANCES OF DBAINS. 123 
 
 the ordinary width of the lands or ridges in each district 
 indicates generally the distance at which the drains were 
 placed, and the distances now most commonly observed in 
 different districts, and on different soils, have reference to a 
 width of ridge that was, or is, in use in those districts ; and 
 it is "a fact worthy of remark, that throughout the country 
 the statements of the number of feet from drain to drain 
 is in almost every instance divisible (when reduced to 
 inches) by eighteen, that being the space of ground in 
 inches moved by a single turn of ordinary ploughing."* 
 The long-established usages of each district may be regarded 
 as indicating the requirements of that district, and the 
 distance from furrow to furrow furnishes a kind of rude 
 index of the comparative tenacity or porosity of the soil, or 
 its capacity for retaining or transmitting water. .The tabu- 
 lar statement, p. 124, (as prepared by Mr. Spooner,) illustrates 
 the correspondence of the distances between ridges and 
 drains with the character of the soil. 
 
 143. Open drains are applicable only as conductors of 
 surface water, and for strong tenacious soils. To make 
 them effective in draining from the body of the soil, the 
 depth necessary renders open drains inadvisable ; while, in 
 loose soils, the inclination of the sides, which must be 
 allowed in order to prevent their rapid destruction, occupies 
 a most extravagant surface of the land. They are evidently 
 inapplicable to land submitted to the plough, by which they 
 are almost certain to be injured or destroyed, and thus have 
 commonly been restricted to pasture land, whence they 
 have been named sheep-drains. Even as thus limited, the 
 use of open drains is of very doubtful advisability, inas- 
 much as they are always much exposed to injury, and to 
 have their banks trodden down and destroyed. Admitting 
 permanent utility as an object in drain-making, it is certain 
 that covered drains should, in nearly all cases, both for 
 arable and pasture districts, be preferred to open ones. 
 
 * Evidence of L. H. Spooner, Esq., of Balmacara House, Loch Alsh. 
 
 G 2 
 
124 
 
 DISTANCES OF DRAINS. 
 
 Width of Land or 
 Ridge. 
 
 Ml 
 
 { a 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 S?3 
 
 ome of the Districts 
 n which the respec- 
 ve widths of Ridge 
 are in common use. 
 
 General character of 
 the Soil. 
 
 Distance from Drain 
 to Drain, in common 
 use. 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 7 6 
 
 5 
 
 ommon in the 
 county of Essex. 
 
 tenacious and uniform 
 clay. 
 
 7 ft. 6 in., 15 ft., 21 
 ft., or every fur- 
 row, every other 
 
 
 
 
 
 furrow, every 
 
 
 
 
 
 third furrow, &c. 
 
 16 6 
 
 11 
 
 'arts of Surrey, 
 Sussex, Kent, 
 
 ame as above, fine and 
 silthing clays, with 
 
 Drains 1 rod apart. 
 
 
 
 Middlesex, &c. 
 
 beds of fine sand in- 
 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 arts of Yorkshire, 
 Northumberland, 
 South of Scot- 
 
 terspersed, 
 ylays, containing coarse 
 sand and grit, inter- 
 spersed with shale and 
 
 Drains 18 ft. or 1 
 rod (Scotch mea- 
 sure) apart. 
 
 A 
 
 14 
 
 land, &c. 
 ommon in the 
 
 slate fragments. 
 Calcareous soils and 
 
 Drains 21 ft. apart. 
 
 jl. V 
 
 
 above and the 
 
 clays, lighter than the 
 
 
 
 
 Midland Coun- 
 
 above, with frequent 
 
 
 
 
 ties, &c. 
 
 intermixtures of sand 
 
 
 o 
 
 16 
 
 Very common in the 
 
 and gravel. 
 Clays, similar to the 
 
 Drains 24 ft. apart. 
 
 
 
 Midland Coun 
 
 above, with rotten 
 
 
 
 
 ties and the High 
 lands. 
 
 sandstone rock and 
 more frequent inter- 
 
 
 SO 
 
 20 
 
 Very generall 
 adopted in th 
 
 mixtures of gravel, &c. 
 The lighter description 
 of clays and clay 
 
 Drains 30 ft. apartJ 
 
 
 
 lighter clay 
 
 gravels. 
 
 
 
 
 throughout th 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 country. 
 Parts of Berkshire 
 Herts, Suffolk 
 
 Chalk districts, stone 
 brush, gravelly, anc 
 
 Drains 33 ft. or 
 rods apart. 
 
 
 
 Cambridgeshire, 
 &c. 
 
 sandy soils, and th< 
 lighter description o 
 
 
 
 
 
 lands, usually spring) 
 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 Same as above, an 
 very general. 
 
 soils. 
 
 Drains 36 ft. or 
 rods (Scotch me 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 sure) apart. 
 
 The application of furrow drainage to the two last is comparatively of rec< 
 date. 
 
OPEN KOAD DRAINS. 125 
 
 144. For suburban and road drainage, the reasons for 
 preferring covered to open drains have still greater force 
 than those applicable to land drainage. These reasons are 
 not only economical, but also sanitary. Open drains, pre- 
 senting a commonly stagnant water surface to the atmo- 
 sphere, produce an unwholesome evaporation. Decayed 
 vegetable matter accumulates in these drains or ditches, 
 and emits the most offensive, effluvia. Near the metropolis 
 there are many large open watercourses, which serve to 
 carry away flood waters, when such occur, but at other 
 times the small quantity of water in these channels moves 
 sluggishly over their rugged beds, or lodges in stagnant 
 pools. These ditches sometimes serve as outfalls for the 
 drainage of suburban houses, and the effluvium then be- 
 comes at times highly noxious and even fatal. The courses 
 of these ditches were marked by excessive ravages of cho- 
 lera among the adjoining population. 
 
 145. In carrying out land-drainage, the open roadside 
 ditches are usually found to present most serious obstruc- 
 tions to the work ; but if road-drainage were placed, a,s it 
 should be, in proper subordination to the general system, 
 covered tubular drains for the roads would of themselves 
 effect considerable land-drainage, and in some districts 
 closely intersected with by-ways and public footpaths, 
 they would sometimes supersede the necessity for any other 
 drainage. On a very stiff clay soil a road drain might, 
 perhaps, not act more than from 12 to ] 5 ft. on either side 
 of it, but in freer soils a single drain would frequently 
 serve a width of from ] to 2 chains. These road drains, 
 properly constructed, would generally answer as excellent 
 outfalls for the drainage of the land. 
 
 146. The extent of evaporating surface of stagnant mois- 
 ture with decomposing vegetable and animal matter pre- 
 sented by the open ditches on both sides of a mile of road, 
 equals from three quarters to one acre ; that is, by the sub- 
 stitution of covered drains, three quarters to one acre 
 would be gained as diy road, or cultivable land for each 
 
126 
 
 COVERED DRAINS. 
 
 mile of road, besides removing a frequent cause of accidents 
 with horses and vehicles. 
 
 147. Covered drains, being simply intersticial courses 
 formed beneath the surface, may be constructed in a great 
 variety of ways, which may be partly determined by the 
 proximity of the suitable materials. One of the simplest 
 forms, and most generally applicable, consists of a layer of 
 stones in the bed of the drain v which is afterwards filled up 
 with the soil taken out of it in order to deposit the stones, 
 as shown in fig. 52. In these drains there is a liability to 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 become less active, by particles of soil being forced down 
 or brought into the water, and clogging the spaces left for 
 its passage. If stratified stone is cheaply obtainable, the 
 better arrangement represented in fig. 53 should be 
 adopted, consisting of side stones, and one cover over them, 
 leaving an open space or duct through which the drainage 
 water passes of course more fluently than through the spaces 
 between the stones, as shown in fig. 52. 
 
 148. A compound drain, composed of a layer of loose 
 stones, and an artificial duct formed with a flat tile on the 
 bed of the drain, and covered with a semi-cylindrical tile, as 
 shown in fig. 54, combines the advantages of tne two pre- 
 ceding drains. This form is commonly denominated the 
 sole and tile drain, and may, in most parts of the countiy, 
 be constructed at less cost than the stone duct shown in 
 
STONE DRAINS . 
 
 127 
 
 fig. 53. It has also the advantage of greater permanency, 
 being less liable to displacement of the parts. In the 
 drain shown in fig. 53, the same arrangement of stones 
 over the duct may of course be introduced ; but unless the 
 work is very carefully done, and the covering with the flat 
 stones rendered perfect, the loose stones are liable to fall 
 into the duct, and thus destroy its utility. 
 
 149. In clays and tenacious soils, drains such as that 
 shown in fig. 55 are sometimes formed by cutting the lower 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 part narrower on each side, and thus leaving shoulders, on 
 which a flat stone being supported, an open space is left 
 below, forming a natural duct or open passage for the 
 water. The permanence of this, the shoulder drain, is 
 somewhat insecure, as it depends solely upon the shoulders 
 being preserved, and the qualification of the material to re- 
 sist all damage to the open parts of the drain. Another 
 form of rough stone drain is represented in fig. 56, for 
 which the larger stones are assorted, and placed in the bed 
 with a layer of small stones upon them. It must be re- 
 marked of this, however, as of every rough stone drain, 
 that its permanent action, depending upon the small spaces 
 left between the stones, is very liable, in the course of time, 
 to beconlte much impaired or destroyed by the particles of 
 soil and solid matters brought along with the drainage 
 water ; and on this account, especially, these drains are far 
 inferior to those constructed with permanent open ducts. 
 
128 
 
 BOG DRAINS. 
 
 150. Fig. 57 shows a drain suitable for bog and peaty 
 soils, with which the drain is filled up, leaving an open 
 space below for the passage of the water. The principal 
 objection to this form of construction in peat is, that the 
 effect of dry seasons is to contract the materials, which 
 then get shifted by the superincumbent weight, and some- 
 times choke the watercourse below. For the purpose of 
 protecting the water-way of drains, turf is occasionally 
 placed over the stones, as shown in fig. 58, where the water- 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 course is formed with three flat stones, or otherwise tiles, 
 arranged as the sides of a triangle, and leaving an open 
 duct between them. This duct is covered with a layer of 
 loose stones, by which the stones forming the duct are 
 kept in their places, and upon these stones a layer of turf 
 is placed before filling the drain up with the soil. 
 
 151. Fig. 59 represents a compound drain, having two 
 clear watercourses, and a layer of loose stones for inter- 
 sticial drainage. The two courses are formed with two 
 semi-cylindrical tiles, and a flat tile or sole between them. 
 In all drains formed with soles and tiles, these are laid so 
 that the joints in one break with those in the other ; b\ 
 which the joints are rendered less liable to be dislocated or 
 disturbed than they would be if the joints in the^oles and 
 the tiles were laid coincident with each other. 
 
 152. The most complete and undoubtedly permanent 
 form of drain is that which consists of an open channel 
 
SIZE OF DRAINS. 129 
 
 formed entirely of single pieces of tile-work or piping. 
 These are now generally acknowledged to form the most 
 superior drains ; and, in nearly all places in this country, 
 their cost will not much exceed that of the imperfect drains 
 formed with loose stones. A drain of this construction is 
 shown in fig. 60, where the earthen pipe is represented of 
 an egg-shaped section, and a layer of loose stones placed 
 above it. If drains he thus formed, the joints accurately 
 laid, and the whole work carefully i; d one, the drainage will 
 remain in a perfect and unimpaired condition for a very 
 long period. 
 
 153. Drains are liable to injury by vermin, as well as 
 vegetation, the roots of trees, &c., acting in a very injurious 
 manner when their progress is interrupted by underground 
 constructions for drainage. Drains should, therefore, be 
 laid apart from trees, or these cleared away before con- 
 structing the drains. The liability to injury by vermin is 
 one feature in which pipe drains are superior to all others 
 constructed of several parts, or depending partly upon the 
 permanent position of the soil in which the drain is 
 formed. 
 
 154. The form of construction being determined, the 
 size of the drains is the next object of consideration. For- 
 merly drains were commonly made of small depth. But 
 deeper ones having been subsequently constructed, and con- 
 siderable efficiency in the effect obtained, a great desire has 
 arisen for deep drains. In arable districts one imperative 
 condition as to the depth of drains is, that the lower and 
 constructed part of the drain shall be be^w the action of 
 the plough and other agricultural implements. The struc- 
 ture, depth, and position of the strata are also circum- 
 stances that will deserve regard in fixing the depth, as 
 already explained at length in describing the several varie- 
 ties of sections ; and, besides these, another consideration, 
 which must be kept in mind, is, the rate of fall which can 
 be obtained, according to the levels of the surface of the 
 district, to assist the discharge of the contents of the drain. 
 
 G 3 
 
130 DEPTH OF DRAINS. 
 
 As a general principle, if it were impossible to allow all 
 these circumstances their due weight in arriving at a deci- 
 sion as to the depth of the drains, deep drains are doubt- 
 less more safe and likely to be efficient than shallow drains ; 
 but while all the facts exist, and may be ascertained, by 
 which the depth should be regulated, it is mere blind pre- 
 judice which advocates deep drains in all cases and under 
 all circumstances. 
 
 155. On the depth of drains, the following observations 
 by the late Mr. Smith, of Deanston, are deserving of careful 
 consideration : " Estimating the thorough drainage of 
 land by the cubic contents of the soil, reckoning from the 
 level of the bottom of the drainage to the surface of the 
 ground, can give no exposition of the agricultural effect, 
 because it has not yet been fully determined by experiment 
 or in practice how far it is beneficial to the growth of 
 plants to remove the free water from the lower regions of 
 the subsoil. One set of experiments over a course of three 
 years has been furnished by Mr. Hope, of Foreton Burn, 
 in East Lothian, from which it appears that the results 
 were in favour of moderate depths of drains ; and the 
 practice in the Fens of Lincolnshire shows that the most 
 beneficial distance from the surface for the free water is 
 about 2 ft. In dry seasons, when the water in the level 
 ditches falls below 2 ft. from the surface, the crops are 
 found to suffer, and it is customary to dam up the water to 
 that level.* Water will rise some inches in soil by capillary 
 or molecular attraction ; but in such cases the water never 
 fills the fissures or interstices of the soil to such an extent 
 as to exclude the atmospheric air, but merely attaches itself 
 to the surface of the particles of soil, and of the smaller 
 cells and channels in the soil, where it remains available 
 to the roots of plants, and without any of the bad effects 
 resulting from stagnant free water. Until the great point 
 
 * The expediency of this practice is questioned by J. A. Clarke, Esq., in 
 an elaborate report upon the farming of Lincolnshire. See Journal of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 326. 
 
ELKINGTON'S METHOD. 131 
 
 can be fully and practically determined as to the proper 
 distance for retaining a supply of water, the depth to which 
 land should be drained cannot be pronounced. The rule, 
 when ascertained, will probably be found to vary with the 
 nature arid condition of the soil. In removing water fall- 
 ing on the surface, it has been found in practice, and which 
 agrees with a great theory, that having the artificial chan- 
 nels at near distances, and not over deep, is most effective 
 in the immediate and complete removal of the free surface 
 water. Distances of from 18 to 24 ft., with depths of from 
 2 ft. to 3 ft., have been found, over extensive tracts, and in 
 soils of various texture, to effect complete thorough-drain- 
 age for agricultural purposes." 
 
 156. As an advocate of deep draining, Mr. Elkington 
 must be named as connected with some very successful ex- 
 periments in treating land, which astonished the good far- 
 mers of the last century, who had been accustomed to pay 
 very little attention to the improvement of their lands in 
 this manner, and had been satisfied to trust the aqueous 
 condition of their broad fields to the hedge-ditch and ridge- 
 furrow. Mr. Elkington, having a farm called Princethorp, 
 in the parish of Stretton-upon-Dunsmore, county of War- 
 wick, of which the soil was very poor, and so wet that the 
 sheep rotted by hundreds, turned his attention to the best 
 means of draining it. For this reason he began operations 
 in a field of wet clay soil, made nearly a swamp, and in 
 some parts a shaking bog by the springs of water which 
 issued from an adjoining bank of gravel and sand. Mr. 
 Johnstone, who published an account of Mr. Elkington's 
 " system," thus describes his proceedings : " In order to 
 drain this field, he cut a trench about four or five feet deep 
 a little below the upper side of the bog, or where the wet- 
 ness began to make its appearance ; and after proceeding 
 with it so far in this direction, and at this depth, he found 
 it did not reach the main body of subjacent water, from 
 whence the evil proceeded. On discovering this, Mr. 
 Elkington was at a loss how to proceed. At this time, 
 
132 ELKINGTON'S METHOD. 
 
 while he was considering what was next to be done, one of 
 his servants accidentally came to the field where the drain 
 was making, with an iron crow or bar, which the farmers 
 in that country use in making holes for fixing their sheep- 
 hurdles. Mr. Elldngton, having a suspicion that his drain 
 was not deep enough, and a desire to know what kind of 
 strata lay under the bottom of it, took the iron bar from the 
 servant, and after having forced it down about four feet 
 below the bottom of the trench, in pulling it out, to his 
 astonishment, a great quantity of water burst up through the 
 hole he had thus made, and ran down the drain. This at 
 once led him to the knowledge of wetness being often pro- 
 duced by water confined further below the surface of the 
 ground than it was possible for the usual depth of drains to 
 reach, and induced him to think of employing an auger, as 
 a, proper instrument in such cases." 
 
 157. These proceedings took place in the year 1764, and 
 it is very evident, from Mr. Johnstone's account of Mr. 
 Elkington's discoveries, and the principles upon which he 
 conducted his draining operations, as distinguished from 
 the methods then in common use, that these methods were 
 adopted without any reference whatever to the leading cir- 
 cumstances which properly regulate the steps to be taken. 
 Thus the three leading points observed by Mr. Elkington, 
 were, " 1 st, finding out the main spring, or cause of the 
 mischief; " " 2nd, taking the level of that spring, and ascer- 
 certaining its subterraneous bearings ; " a measure never prac- 
 tised by any, till Mr. Elkington discovered the advantage to 
 be derived from it ; " and 3rd, making use of the auger to 
 reach or tap the spring, when the depth of the drain is not 
 sufficient for that purpose." 
 
 158. The process of tapping is evidently available only 
 when the spring is fed from a higher level, so that the pres- 
 sure shall suffice to force the water upward through the 
 auger-hole. Another method is sometimes adopted as a 
 substitute for the auger-hole or vertical bore, namely, dig- 
 ging a well of depth proportioned to the pressure, and 
 
CHEAPEST DRAINS. J S3 
 
 filling this well with loose stones, through which the water 
 will rise, and thence pass away along the drain, with the 
 bed of which the well communicates. Similar auger-holes, 
 or wells, may be adopted to effect the precisely opposite 
 object, viz. to make a downward passage of the drainage 
 water from the drains which intersect an upper and clay 
 stratum only, into a more porous bed beneath, in the body 
 of which the water will become dispersed. 
 
 159. The cheapest method of forming open drains in 
 grass land is by turning a furrow-slice over with the plough, 
 and afterwards trimming it with the spade, the lines for the 
 drains being previously marked with poles. The cost of 
 these drains will not exceed one halfpenny per rood of six 
 yards, which is the measure we shall adopt in all cases 
 where the quantity is stated in roods. This mode of opera- 
 ting is inadvisable if the grass be rough and long, so that 
 the plough is apt to become choked, or if swampy places 
 occur. In such cases, it is far better to do all the work 
 with the spade, by which the cost will be increased to %d. per 
 rood, if the drain be formed about 9 in. wide in the bed, 18 
 or 20 in. at top, and about 1 8 in. deep, which is a good size 
 for the minor or sub-drains. Covered drains may be formed 
 in grass-land 6 in. wide in the bed, 18 at top, and about 16 
 in. deep, at 4d. per rood, by cutting out the upper turf, the 
 whole width across the cut, with the spade, casting out the 
 lower portions subsequently, and then carefully replacing 
 the turf, thus leaving an open space below, equal to the 
 quantity cast out. The permanence of this drain is, how- 
 ever, very insecure ; and, if cattle are admitted on the 
 surface, they will certainly tread the turf to the bed of the 
 drain, and thus destroy it. The first cost will, moreover, 
 nearly equal that of a pipe drain, which needs a much nar- 
 rower cut, and will remain permanently efficient. 
 
 160. In land to be planted with forest trees, open drains 
 are always to be recommended, as covered ones are certain 
 of destruction by the natural tendency of the roots of the 
 trees to choke them in their search for moisture during diy 
 
134 CAPACITY OF DKAINS. 
 
 seasons. The main drains should be laid along the hol- 
 lows in the surface, and made at least 3 ft. deep, with a flat 
 hed 1 ft. wide, and the banks inclined at the rate of Ij 
 base to 1 perpendicular, except in firm clay soils, in which 
 the banks may be formed much steeper. The minor drains 
 should be for clays not less than 20 in. deep, and light soils 
 14 in., with a bed in both cases 9 in. in width, and the in- 
 clination of the banks regulated as for the mains. The 
 cost of the former will be about l^d. per rood, and the 
 latter 3d. per rood. The cost of the mains will be in 
 nearly the same proportion, according to the quantity of 
 soil removed. The best distance at which to lay the minor 
 drains from each other will vary in extreme cases from 5 to 
 40 yards, according to the levels of the site and character 
 of the soil, the retentive clays requiring the drains closer 
 than the lighter soils. 
 
 161. A general and most important principle as to the 
 capacity of drains of all kinds whatsoever is, that it should 
 exceed rather than be deficient of the dimensions ordinarily 
 required to discharge the quantity of water for which pro- 
 vision is to be made. The principal use of a drain being 
 to attract water towards it through the soil, besides passing 
 the water thus collected away, its dimensions cannot be 
 adequately estimated by simply considering the quantity to 
 be conveyed within any given time. These dimensions 
 should, therefore, be such as to present large surfaces of 
 the soil intersected, and, other circumstances being the 
 same, the efficiency of the drain will be in proportion to 
 the extent of the surfaces, that is, to the depth of the drain. 
 But, on the other hand, if the greater depth of the drain 
 causes it to intersect porous strata overcharged with water 
 from higher land, it will become injurious rather than bene- 
 ficial, and this evil will be much aggravated if the greater 
 depth be admitted as a reason for the proportionate infre- 
 quency of the drains. There can be no doubt that, in' 
 tenacious soils, shallow drains laid closely are, within cer- 
 tain limits, more useful than deep drains laid wide apart ; 
 
STEPHENS'S CALCULATIONS. 135 
 
 but, if contiguity can be observed, the deeper they are made 
 the better, in ordinary cases. 
 
 163. Some reasons to guide the depth of drains may be 
 derived from a consideration of the action of the soil upon 
 the water which reaches it, as produced by its mechanical 
 structure. Thus, in light and porous soils, the force 01 
 gravity is active in carrying the water to the bottom of the 
 stratum ; whereas, in the dense clays and soils, a certain 
 capillary action is exercised upon the water introduced to 
 them, which tends to raise it from the bed, and sustain it 
 in general diffusion throughout the mass. Therefore, while 
 porous soils evince little or no water on the surface, the 
 lower part of the layer will be kept in a state of excessive 
 wetness if it lies upon a clay bed ; and, if its thickness be 
 such that the roots of the vegetation reach the wet, the 
 depth of the drains should at least equal that of the porous 
 soil, so that the entire body may be relieved of the water. 
 On soils of this nature, shallow drains are utterly useless, 
 unless they happen to reach an impervious subsoil, and con- 
 duct the water into mains of greater depth. 
 
 163. In arable land, the minimum depth for covered 
 drains may be estimated upon the depth to which the 
 plough penetrates, and making such an allowance below 
 this depth as will secure the materials of the drain from 
 disturbance under any circumstances. Mr. Stephens cal- 
 culates the depth of a furrow-slice with a two-horse plough 
 at 7 in. ; but in cross ploughing, 9 in. If four horses be 
 used, the depth of the furrow will be 12 in. ; and if the 
 four- horse plough follow the common ore, the depth will be 
 increased to 16 in. Subsoil ploughing will penetrate 16 in. 
 below the common furrow of 7 in. Allowing 3 in. between 
 the lowest disturbed part of the soil and the surface of the 
 materials in the drain, and restricting the effectiveness of 
 the drain to that portion of it which is below the ploughed 
 surface of 7 in. in depth, the minimum depth of drains 
 should be such as to allow 19 in. below the furrow-slice, or 
 6 in. below the surface and above the constructed portion 
 
136 DATA FOB SIZE, ETC. 
 
 of the drain, and so much more than this if subsoil 
 ploughing be practised. Allowing 6 in. for the depth of the 
 drain occupied by the pipes or tiles, Mr. Stephens estimates 
 33 in. as the minimum depth of drains in porous subsoils, 
 and 50 in. in clay subsoils, with an additional 6 in. in each 
 case if stones are employed as filling materials in the 
 drain. 
 
 164. The size for the water-passage or duct of a drain 
 should be determined by reference to a variety of circum- 
 stances, the combined influence of which may generally be 
 estimated in practice, although not reducible to any very 
 exact rules. Thus, the quantity of rain which falls upon 
 the surface has to be considered, not as an annual or season 
 quantity, but as a maximum per diem. Then, the nature 
 of the soil and the state of the atmosphere, as affecting the 
 ratio of evaporation, require attention. Beyond these con- 
 siderations, the general level of the district in relation to 
 the surrounding country, by which the tract to be drained 
 may be made the recipient of foreign waters, on the one 
 hand, or kept in a dry condition by the action of gravity, on 
 the other, must be noticed. Again, the structure of the 
 soil affects the quantity of the water which passes through 
 it, and also the rapidity of its passage ; and the amount of 
 water to be met with will be modified by the part of the 
 stratum at which the drain is situated. Thus, in porous 
 materials, smaller ducts will suffice in the top of the layer 
 than are required below ; and the dimensions must be in- 
 creased in proportion to the depth of soil above. As an 
 auxiliary fact in enabling us to determine the capacity of 
 the ducts of drains, the frequency of them upon the plan of 
 the district will be greatly influential. 
 
 165. The best evidence on these points, viz. the dimen- 
 sions and distance of drains, is to be gathered from the 
 records of extended practice. In the weald-clay of Kent, 
 which is commonly of a very tenacious character on the 
 surface, but milder below, the body of the water naturally 
 passes downwards until arrested by a more retentive stra- 
 
EXPERIENCE IN VAEIOUS COUNTIES. 137 
 
 turn, and, therefore, the deeper the drains the more effici- 
 ently they will act. In other parts of the weald, the soil is 
 compounded of the supersoil or cultivated earth and of a 
 strong clay, upon which it lies. This soil admits of perco- 
 lation ; but the tenacious clay beneath it does not, and, if 
 this clay be at a considerable depth from the surface, there 
 will be little utility in carrying the drains into it. In these 
 strong clays, not subject to springs, drains 2| ft. deep have 
 been found more efficacious than those made 4 ft. deep. 
 In the heavy lands of Norfolk, the drains which answer 
 best are 2J ft. deep, and laid at the distance of 22 ft. apart. 
 When they are made deeper, in clay in which flint and 
 chalk boulders are found dispersed about, the labour of 
 taking out the lower bed of 16 or 18 in. is very expensive, 
 costing in that county from 6 to 8 pence per rod of 5 J yards. 
 In the clay-lands of Hampshire, the drains made from 30 
 to 36 in. in depth, and 18 to 24 ft. apart, have been found 
 most successful. We can readily understand that, as vege- 
 tation requires a certain amount of moisture, it is possible 
 to drain land so effectually that sufficient moisture is not 
 left to fulfil the purposes of cultivation, and the clay soils, 
 which are so reluctant both to receive and to discharge 
 water, will yet suffer a slow and sure deprivation through 
 the agency of deep drains, which will be injurious to the 
 health of vegetation ; while drains of less depth would have 
 left the lower part of the stratum in a damp condition, and 
 capable, by the capillary action of the soil itself, of supply- 
 ing the entire mass with a genial moisture. In Lincoln- 
 shire it is a known fact, that if the water in the ditches is 
 reduced to a level below 3 ft. in depth from the surface, the 
 grass-land is, in dry summers, most decidedly injured. In 
 the neighbourhood of Folkingham, a tract of clay land was, 
 several years ago, drained with tiles laid 3 ft. 6 in. deep, 
 and the surface, which was in broad bands with high ridges, 
 was levelled. After a short period, however, the texture of 
 the clay became so solid that the surface-water could not 
 get down to the drains, and it became necessary to alter the 
 
138 
 
 COST OF CHAINING. 
 
 method. On the same lands, drains now made 18 or 24 in, 
 deep are found entirely successful. In the neighbourhood 
 of Newcastle-on-Tyne, some clay lands have been drained 
 by drains laid 2J ft. deep and 20 ft. apart, with highly satis- 
 factory results. In various parts of Scotland, the subsoils 
 of retentive clay have been more completely drained by 
 drains 2J ft. deep and 18 ft. apart, than by 4-ft. drains laid 
 36 ft. apart. In the counties of Worcester, Hereford, &c., 
 the best drains in the clays are those laid from 2 to 3 ft. in 
 depth; those made 4 and 5 ft. deep being found far less 
 effective. Mr. Tebbet of Mansfield, near Nottingham, states 
 that the best way he has adopted on strong clay lands is 
 putting the drains 14 ft. apart and 2 ft. deep; while he 
 finds other clays that will draw at 18 to 24 ft. apart, and 
 2 to 3 ft. in depth for the drains. 
 
 166. A kind of average scale for the dimensions and dis- 
 tances of drains may be drawn from the experience we have 
 hitherto had in the draining of land. Classifying the varie- 
 ties of soils into three divisions, as Compact or Heavy, Me- 
 dium, and Porous or Light, each of which may be subdivided 
 into several degrees of retentiveness or porosity, the distance 
 of the drains apart may be graduated from 15 to 66 ft., and 
 their depth range from 2 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 6 in., as in the 
 Table, p. 139, which has been adopted by the General 
 Board of Health in their " Minutes of Information." 
 
 167. The cost of draining is necessarily a theme of deep 
 consideration in the execution of any plan which appears 
 likely to be most successful. The following records state 
 the size and distance of the drains, the nature of the soil, 
 and the total expense per acre. 
 
 The first eight of these cases are quoted from Mr. Smith's 
 (of Deanston) Pamphlet. They are instances of hard sub- 
 soils, with tiles and soles. 
 
 Nos. 9 to 16 are cited by Mr. Josiah Parkes, in the 6th 
 vol. of the " Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society," the 
 drain-pipes being supposed to be made upon the estate, and 
 costing 6s. per thousand. 
 
COST OF DBALNING. 
 
 139 
 
 giJ9f 
 
 11! Ill 
 
 M 
 
 
 11 Sill 
 
 C<! o.SP- 
 
 J? ! 
 
 s l, 
 IIIS 
 
 8 .3 . 
 
 Ill 
 
 eo t>. (N o o os 
 
 CD O OQ t>^ 
 ^CO t^tOXi 
 
 ot>. OS (N C* O ** CO CO Ci ^O CO O^ t^CO ^- O5 
 ^Tjl COWO (N<M<NO1 r-<r-r-l-rr-<^-i-<rHO 
 
 es 01 s c; w i^t 
 
 to JO M 5OI O-U 
 
 " CO t>'O * CO^-*O OCO!O'*Tl < 'l'OO'<< 
 v-; i rt r-4 i i-if-N(N <M(NC)(NmcO-<l<CO 
 
 ^o ooo oooo ooooooooo 
 
 .C'O OC1=> OOCOCO 50C5000WC0505 
 
 .2 S* 
 
 i 3 
 
 I : : :go< 
 
 O * C * C/} 
 
 g Sg ^p| :> = 
 
 t^ i^i^in 
 
 If ll SSfSfSf! 
 
 oSofe ^3wi'" 
 
140 
 
 COST OF DRAINING 
 
 The remaining cases are also given by Mr. Parkes, viz. 
 in the " Gardener's Chronicle," the tiles being made upon 
 the estate, and drawn by the tenants 
 
 No. 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 Depth of 
 Drains. 
 
 Distance 
 between the 
 Drains. 
 
 Cost of Labour 
 per Acre. 
 
 Cost of Pipes 
 or Tiles per 
 Acre. 
 
 Total Cost 
 per Acre. 
 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 . 
 7. 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 15. 
 1. 
 
 i 
 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 
 Clay 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ft. 
 15 
 18 
 21 
 24 
 27 
 30 
 33 
 36 
 
 33 
 33 
 33 
 40 
 50 
 49s 
 49i 
 66 
 33 
 36 
 36 
 30to33 
 39 
 30 
 36 
 33to36 
 36 
 
 s. d. 
 2 11 4 
 2 2 10J 
 16 .9 
 12 1 
 8 7 
 5 8 
 3 4 
 
 l 7 
 
 
 
 6 8 
 2 
 6 6 
 15 6 
 15 6 
 6 8 
 2 10 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3 111 
 2 10 9| 
 2 3 6h 
 1 18 li 
 1 13 104 
 1 10 6 
 1 7 8i 
 1 5 4 
 
 7 H 
 7 11 
 7 H 
 066 
 053 
 054 
 054 
 040 
 7 11 
 
 s. d. 
 5 12 3i 
 4 13 8i 
 4 3J 
 3 10 2J 
 3 2 5 
 2 16 2 
 2 11 Oi 
 2 6 11 
 
 1 7 H 
 1 7 11 
 1 14 7 
 1 8 6 
 1 11 9 
 2 10 
 2 10 
 1 10 8 
 2 17 11 
 4 11 7 
 3 15 5 
 442 
 4 15 7 
 4 13 11 
 4 16 1 
 5 3 4 
 448 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto . . 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 3 
 3to4 
 4Jto4 
 4 
 3to3J 
 
 3Jt 4 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 Clay. Hard gravelly subsoil 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Various. Clay, gravel, sand 
 
 Clay. Gravelly subsoil 
 
 Heavy clay 
 
 
 Strong clay 
 
 
 Weak blue clay 
 
 Whitish stubborn clav 
 
 Strong clay and gravel . . 
 
 Whitishclay .... 
 
 
 168. The several items of cost of draining a rectangular 
 field of 20 acres, with drains 3 ft. deep, and 22 ft. apart, 
 may be averaged thus : 
 
 s. d. 
 Main drain, 60 rods, at 8|d. per rod for cutting 
 
 and filling 
 Drain-pipes, 990, at 40s. per thousand 
 Minor drains, 226H rods, at 4^d. per rod 
 Dram-pipes, 37,320, at 30s. per thousand 
 
 2 2 
 
 1 19 
 
 42 8 
 
 55 19 
 
 6 
 
 74 
 
 
 
 102 9 
 
 Equals 5Z. 2s. 6c?. per acre. 
 
 The main drains are supposed to be 3 ft. 6 in. deep, 20 in. 
 wide at top, and 4 in. in the bed, with pipes 4 in. in dia- 
 
COST OF DEAINING. 141 
 
 meter. The minor drains are supposed to be 3 ft. deep, 
 1 5 in. wide at top, and 3 in. in the bed, with pipes 3 in. 
 in diameter. 
 
 169. The several items of cost of draining a similar rect- 
 angular field of similar soil, and prices for cutting and fill- 
 ing in proportion to the sectional area of the drains ; the 
 field being, as before, 20 acres in extent, with drains 4 ft. 
 deep, and 45 ft. apart, may be estimated thus : 
 
 s. cL 
 
 Main drain, 60 rods, at Is. %d. per rod for cut- 
 ting and filling 3100 
 
 Drain pipes, 990, at 40s. per thousand . . 119 7|- 
 Minor drains, 1109 rods, at Wd. per rod for cut- 
 ting and filling 46 4 2 
 
 Drain pipes, 18,300, at 30s. per thousand . 27 9 
 
 79 2 
 
 Equals 3. 19s. l\d. per acre. 
 
 The main drains are supposed to be 5 ft. deep, 24 in. wide 
 at top, and 4 in. in the bed, with pipes 4 in. in diameter* 
 The minor drains are supposed to be 4 ft. 6 in. deep, 21 
 in. wide at top, and 3 in. in the bed, with pipes 3 in. in 
 diameter. 
 
 170. Mr. Smith gives estimates for drains constructed 
 with reference to the nature of the soil, which may be 
 arranged as in the Table given on p. ]42. 
 
 Mr. Smith also mentions a district of 10,000 acres of stiff 
 compact clay soil in Scotland, which has been satisfactorily 
 drained with drains 2 ft. deep, and laid 20 ft. apart. 
 
 171. The principal circumstances which determine the 
 cost of drainage works are the labour of cutting and 
 filling the drains ; the material of which the drain itself is 
 formed ; and the outlets for the discharge of water. Of 
 these, the last increases in proportion as the ground is 
 steep and irregular, or unusually flat, and can only be in- 
 cluded, in a general estimate, where the surface gently un- 
 dulates ; the material also varies greatly in cost, arising, in 
 
142 
 
 COMPAEISON OF COST. 
 
 
 
 
 Cost per Acre. 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 c 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 j O) 
 
 <u 3 cJ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 8 . 
 
 bo 
 
 |*1 
 
 "rt c G 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 *2-S 
 
 f| 
 
 11 = 
 
 1*3! 
 
 
 
 
 .52 2 
 
 PP 
 
 5e 
 
 xi 
 
 Sill 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 s.d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s.d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Alluvial clay 
 
 3 
 2 9 
 2 9 
 
 21 
 21 
 24 
 
 2 1 10 
 329 
 340 
 
 220 
 220 
 1 16 31 
 
 18 
 1 2 
 1 1 
 
 5 1 10 
 669 
 6 1 3i 
 
 Upland clay or till, full of stones. 
 Compact gravelly drift, with 
 
 boulder stones. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Open sand and gravel, with 
 moorish bottom. 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 360 
 
 1 1 9k 
 
 1 2 
 
 5 9 9k 
 
 Peat moss, forming its o chan- 
 nel. 
 
 3 6 
 
 18 
 
 1 4 5 
 
 " 
 
 060 
 
 1 10 5 
 
 the case of tiles, in the supply being near at hand, and equal 
 to the demand, or otherwise ; and, in the case of stones, in 
 the distance of carriage.* The following table supposes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sandy Soils, 
 
 Stiffer Clay 
 
 Hard Clay 
 
 1 
 
 'i,s 
 
 *o e 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 L at bottom 
 
 ge Width. 
 
 ing yards o 
 in to the 
 ic yard. 
 
 light Loams, 
 and light 
 Clays; easy 
 digging. 
 
 and Gravel, 
 requiring 
 some 
 pickwork. 
 
 and close 
 Soils, 
 requiring 
 pickwork. 
 
 IP 
 
 g 5 
 &P 
 P 
 
 i 
 
 S ' 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 At 4d. per 
 cubic yard. 
 
 At 6d. per 
 cubic yard. 
 
 At 8d. per 
 cubic yard. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 yard. 
 >-. d. 
 
 rod. 
 s.d. 
 
 yard. 
 #. d. 
 
 rod. 
 *. d. 
 
 yard. 
 s. d. 
 
 rod. 
 *. d. 
 
 .So 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 2 + t 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 1 41 
 
 4 
 
 1 10 
 
 P 
 
 3 6 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 21- 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 li 
 
 31 
 
 1 51 
 
 1" 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 31 + 
 
 If 
 
 6i 
 
 if 
 
 81 
 
 21 
 
 1 01 
 
 en * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 101 
 
 21 + 
 
 If 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 li 
 
 31 
 
 1 51 
 
 
 3 6 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 91 
 
 3i 
 
 o i* s 
 
 7 
 
 o in 
 
 10* 
 
 2 T 6 a 
 
 1 2 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 71 
 
 1* 
 
 03 
 
 4i 
 
 li 
 
 61 
 
 11 
 
 8k 
 
 * See Mr. Spooner's evidence " Minutes of Information," collected by 
 the General Board of Health, 1852. 
 
 f The signs + and imply a small fraction greater or less than the 
 number stated. 
 
 In the price per rod, the fractional parta are reduced to the farthings 
 nearest to them. 
 
STONE DRAINS. 343 
 
 two sets of drains, the one opened for stones (as illustrated 
 in fig. 56), the other for pipe-tiles, and at depths of 3 ft, 
 3<| ft., and 4 ft. respectively. The table shows the average 
 width of cutting for each size and sort, and the number of 
 lineal yards required to equal a solid yard. 
 
 172. Stones, as used for the filling of drains, are of two 
 kinds, viz. the pebbly, or round stones, obtained from the 
 sea-coast, or channels of inland streams, and the fragments 
 produced by breaking up stratified or other rocks, and pro- 
 cured from the quarry. Of these, the former are much su- 
 perior as the materials for drains, as they preserve the 
 interstitial channels more permanently than the angular 
 scraps from the quarry, the several projections of which are 
 liable both to block up the spaces, and to be broken off by 
 ramming, and thus interfere very mischievously with the 
 passages for the water. As to the size of the stones, the 
 standard commonly prescribed, namely, the " size of a 
 goose's egg," is as good as any. At any rate, none should 
 exceed 4 in. in diameter, or be less than 2 in. In all cases 
 the stones should be assorted according to size, and used 
 separately. Carelessness, in this respect, often leads to the 
 complete choking of the drain, by the smaller stones filling 
 up the spaces between the larger ones, and forming an im- 
 permeable dam across the drain. 
 
 173. Mr. Eoberton, of Roxburghshire, who has paid 
 much attention to the construction of rough stone drains, 
 adopts these dimensions for them, viz. 33 in. deep, 7 in. 
 wide at bottom, and 9 in. wide at the height of 15 in. from 
 the bed of the drain, which is the space filled with stones 
 in the manner shown in fig. 52, p. 126. Fifteen cubic feet 
 of stones will fill this space in a rood of 6 running yards of 
 such a drain. Mr. Stirling makes his drains of this de- 
 scription : 30 in. deep in the furrows, 5 in. wide in the bed, 
 and 8 in. wide at a height of 15 in. from the bed. A rood 
 of this drain will be filled to a depth of 15 in. by 12 -3 cubic 
 feet of stones. Inasmuch as the durability and efficiency 
 
144 COST OF STONE DRAINS. 
 
 of these drains will be nearly in proportion to the space 
 allotted to the stones, it is desirable, if the means will allow 
 such an expense, to make the bed of the drain somewhat 
 wider than here stated. Mr. Stephens prefers 9 in. width 
 of bed, and 18 in. depth of stones, in a drain 36 in. deep. 
 
 174. The cost of Mr. Eoberton's drains is thus stated by 
 Mr. Stephens : The drains being laid from 30 to 36 ft. 
 apart, and the subsoil favourable to drainage. The ave- 
 rages of these distances gives 70 roods, of 6 yards each, of 
 drains to the imperial acre. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Opening drains 33 in. deep, and 7 in. wide at 
 bottom, at 5%d. per rood of 6 yards, for 70 
 roods . . . . . . . . 1 12 1 
 
 Preparing stones 4 in. diameter, at 4d. per rood 134 
 Carnage of stones, at 4|<i. per rood . . 1 6 3 
 
 Unloading carts, and moving screen barrow, at 
 
 %d. per rood . . . '..", 4 4^ 
 Filling in earth, at \d. per rood . . . 1 5 
 Extra expense in the main drains . . .0100 
 
 Per acre of 70 roods . . . 4 17 6 
 Or per rood of 6 yards .'.- , . 1 4f 
 
 In another instance, the expenses were as follows : 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Opening drains 28 in. deep, and 7 in. wide at 
 bottom, at 4d. per rood of 6 yards, for 70 
 
 roods . 134 
 
 Preparing stones, at 2|d. per rood . . 14 7 
 
 Carriage of stones, at 2fd. per rood . . 16 
 
 Carried forward 2 13 1 1 J 
 
COST OF STONE DRAINS. 
 
 145 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Brought forward 2 13 1 1 i 
 Unloading carts, and moving screen barrow, at 
 
 ^d. per rood ..... 
 Filling in earth, at \d. per rood 
 Extra expense in the main drains 
 
 10 
 
 Per acre of 70 roods 
 Or per rood of 6 yards 
 
 11 
 
 64 
 
 
 384 
 Hi 
 
 From these two instances, Mr. Stephens deduces Is. Id. as 
 the average cost per rood, the average depth being 30| in., 
 and he has calculated a Table, which we give here, omitting 
 the smaller fractions : 
 
 Subsoils to which the Distances 
 are applicable. 
 
 Distances be- 
 tween the Drains, 
 in Feet. 
 
 Roods of Drains 
 per Acre. 
 
 Cost per A ere. 
 
 j 
 
 10 
 
 242 
 
 13 2 2 
 
 HARD TILL . . . . < 
 
 11 
 
 220 
 
 11 18 4 
 
 ( 
 
 12 
 
 202 
 
 10 18 6 
 
 STIFF CLAY . . . . < 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 186 
 173 
 
 10 1 10 
 
 D 6 10 
 
 c 
 
 15 
 
 161 
 
 8 14 9 
 
 
 16 
 
 151 
 
 8 3 10 
 
 \ 
 SANDY CLAY ....<( 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 142 
 135 
 
 7 14 2 
 7 5 11 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 19 
 
 127 
 
 6 18 1 
 
 I 
 
 20 
 
 121 
 
 6 11 1 
 
 * 
 
 21 
 
 115 '64 10 
 
 
 22 / 
 
 110 
 
 B 19 2 
 
 
 23 I 105 ! 5 14 i { 
 
 
 24 
 
 101 , 5 y Z 
 
 FREE AND STONY . . .-^ 
 
 25 
 
 97 :543 
 
 i 
 
 26 
 
 93 
 
 5 10 
 
 
 27 
 
 90 
 
 4 17 1 
 
 
 28 
 
 86 
 
 4 13 7 . 
 
 I 
 
 29 
 
 83 
 
 4 10 4 
 
146 
 
 DRAINING TILES. 
 
 Subsoils to which the Distances 
 are applicable. 
 
 Distances be- 
 tween theDrains, 
 in Feet. 
 
 Roods of Drains 
 per Acre. 
 
 Cost per Acre. 
 
 s 
 
 30 
 
 81 
 
 475 
 
 
 31 
 
 78 
 
 447 
 
 
 32 
 
 76 
 
 420 
 
 OPEN -{ 
 
 33 
 34 
 
 73 
 71 
 
 3 19 5 
 3 17 1 
 
 I 
 
 35 
 
 68 
 
 3 14 11 
 
 
 36 
 
 67 
 
 3 13 
 
 I 
 
 37 
 
 65 
 
 3 10 10 
 
 IRREGULAR BEDS OP^) 
 
 GrRAVEL OR SAND, ! 
 AND IRREGULAR OPEN [ 
 
 ROOKY STRATA . . J 
 
 88 
 39 
 40 
 
 64 
 63 
 61 
 
 390 
 372 
 356 
 
 175. In using tiles and soles, as shown in fig. 54, p. 126, 
 the width of the drain in the bed will be determined by the 
 breadth of the soles. For tiles the internal diameter of 
 which is from 3 to 4 in., the soles are commonly 7 in. in 
 breadth. The length of the tile and sole is of course the 
 same ; but this length varies in different localities. The 
 Ainslie machine tiles are 15 in. long when burnt; those 
 made by the Marquis of Tweeddale's machine are 14 in.; 
 but the more common length is 12 in. Machine-made tiles 
 are in all cases much superior to those made by hand, being 
 more thoroughly compressed, and consequently more dense. 
 Containing more clay, they are still thinner than hand-made 
 tiles. The 15-in. tiles are less subject to displacement in 
 the drain, and less handling is, of course, wanted to make 
 up any given length. The angular junctions are best 
 formed by semicircular notches in the sides of the tiles 
 into which the ends of the others are fitted. Tiles for 
 main drains are commonly 4 in. wide, and 5 in. high in 
 tne clear, and the soles 9 or 10 in. in width, the thickness 
 of both being about -f ths of an inch. The ordinary price 
 wt tiles may be taken as about 20s. per thousand, and of 
 &e soles, half that of the tiles, or 10s. per thousand. To 
 
COMPARISON OF COST. 147 
 
 the cost of the tiles an addition has to be made, averaging 
 from 30s. to 40s. per acre, (the drains being 15 ft apart,) for 
 the expenses of carriage, loading and unloading, &c., which 
 expenses do not appertain to the common loose stone 
 drains as last described. With the addition of loose stones 
 over the tiles, as shown in fig. 54, the cost will, of course, 
 be considerably enhanced, as compared with that of com- 
 mon loose stone drains, nearly to the extent of the cost of 
 the tiles, and the extra incidental expenses of from 30s. to 
 40s. per acre, the drains being 15 ft. apart. This will, how- 
 ever, form one of the most perfect, durable, and capacious 
 drains that can be applied, and will command attention 
 wherever these objects are sought with minor reference to 
 cost. 
 
 176. Tiles in the form of complete tubes or pipes are, 
 however, more perfect instruments of drainage than the 
 separate soles and tiles, being less liable to derangement, 
 and requiring only half the handling. Pipe-tiles, 2 in. in 
 diameter, may be bought at the works at 1.8s. per thousand, 
 and 15 in. in length; those 1^ in. in diameter at 15s., and 
 1 in. in diameter at 10s. per thousand. Mr. Stephens gives 
 the following comparative summary of the cost, per acre, of 
 the three kinds of drain, viz. stones, soles and tiles, and 
 pipe tiles, the drains being 30 in. deep, and 15 ft. apart: 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Loose stone drains 8 14 
 
 Sole and tile drains 7 10 8| 
 
 Pipe-tile drains 589 
 
 Showing a saving by using 
 
 Soles and tiles instead of stones, of . . 1 4 OJ 
 
 Pipe tiles instead of stones ..,..360 
 
 Pipe tiles instead of soles and tiles . . . 2 1 llf 
 
 Mr. Mechi states his expense of draining an acre of " strong 
 
 clay land" (in Essex), the drains being 40 ft. apart, and 
 
 average depth 4 ft., amounts to %l. 9s. Qd. To this should 
 
 be added about II. for the extra incidental expenses which 
 
 his estimate does not include, and the total cost per acre 
 
 H 2 
 
148 COST OF DRAINS. 
 
 will be 3Z. 9s. Qd. Without questioning the skill and expe- 
 rience of this gentleman, whose advocacy of thorough 
 draining merits due appreciation, we are satisfied that he 
 would find greater ultimate advantage by expending a little 
 more money in making his drains more frequent and less 
 in depth. 
 
 177. In comparing these several methods of forming 
 drains, it is perhaps scarcely necessary to state the truth, 
 that first cost does not afford an adequate test of efficiency 
 and permanent economy. To obtain this, subsequent cur- 
 rent expenses, and the resulting condition of the soil for 
 agricultural purposes, must also be brought into the account, 
 and will show the benefits to be derived from the use of 
 pipe tiles still more forcibly. 
 
 178. The flat stone drains shown in figs. 53 and 55, are 
 economical forms of construction in some localities, viz. 
 where the required slabs are cheap and abundant. The 
 shoulders, shown in fig. 55 as being left in the soil, may be 
 in some cases better substituted by clearing the drain out 
 level, and introducing two slabs of stone, meeting at the 
 bottom, and having a stone wedged in between them at the 
 top, the upper portion being filled in with loose stones. If 
 the flat stones at the sides can be obtained 6 or 8 in. broad, 
 and lj in. thick, at about 4d. per ton, an acre of land may 
 be drained with drains 32 in. deep below the crowns of 
 the gathered-up ridges, and laid at distances of 15 ft., at a 
 cost of about 2J. 12s., exclusive of carriage of materials, 
 and the ploughing by which the upper ridges are formed. 
 Constructed as in fig. 55, if the covering flags can be 
 procured 12 in. wide, and 2 in. thick, at the same rate 
 per ton, the acre may be similarly drained for 8s. or 9s. 
 less. 
 
 179. For the draining of bogs, the arrangement repre- 
 sented in fig. 57 is peculiarly applicable, all the materials 
 being on the spot, as the whole drain is refilled with the 
 peat itself, which is well known to resist the action of 
 water with impunity. Provided the cutting of the drains 
 
PLUG-DRAINING. 149 
 
 be done in summer, when the material quickly becomes 
 dried, and sufficient time is allowed between the successive 
 operations of cutting and refilling to effect the required 
 consolidation, no better method is yet devised for effecting 
 this kind of work. The liability of the moss in the bed 
 of the drain to subside in detached parts, and with great 
 irregularity, is certain to destroy any arrangement of tiles, 
 pipes, or other artificial materials. 
 
 180. Another mode of forming drains with the natural 
 materials, called plug -draining, has yet to be mentioned, 
 rather to make our list complete than for any extended 
 applicability of which it is susceptible. Plug drains are 
 practicable only in subsoils of very firm clay entirely free 
 from stones, and which never become thoroughly dry ex- 
 cept by evaporation. Their use is further limited to lands, 
 the occupation of which is that of permanent pasture. The 
 usual form of open channel being formed in the clay, 
 wooden blocks are introduced, which fit the lower part of 
 the channel to a height of 8 or 10 in., and are convex or 
 arched on the top. Upon these blocks, or suters, or plugs, 
 the clay is returned and rammed down in a very careful and 
 thorough manner. The plugs are then withdrawn, or 
 drawn forward, for the formation of another length, and 
 leave an open space or duct below for the passage of the 
 water. In Gloucestershire, this kind of drain, 2 ft. deep, 
 has been executed at from 4^. to 7^d. the rood of 6 yards, 
 but the whole of the operations have to be conducted with 
 extreme care, when the soil is free from frost or much wet, 
 the ramming, moreover, requiring stout labourers, while 
 much of pipe-draining may be performed by women and 
 children, and the finished work is, after all, peculiarly 
 liable, like all other drains formed with natural materials, 
 to the destructive attacks of moles and other underground 
 vermin. 
 
 181. These being the principal forms and constructions 
 of land-drains, some notice of the successive operations to 
 be carried on, and the implements to be employed, is re- 
 
150 SURVEY AND CONTOUE LINES. 
 
 quired to complete our account of the draining of districts 
 and lands. 
 
 182. The preliminary survey of the district to be drained 
 having heen made, and such indications of the nature of 
 the soil as this survey affords noted, the next desideratum 
 is, precise information as to the relative level or altitude, 
 from a fixed datum, of every portion of the surface to be 
 drained. These levels are obtained by the spirit-level in 
 the usual manner, but they should be so complete as will 
 enable us to lay down a plan of the district, with the levels 
 of equal altitude marked upon it. These levels will appear 
 as lines upon the map. Thus the highest point will be 
 represented by a dot. The space around it, at one degree 
 of altitude less, will appear as a continuous line encircling 
 the dot. The space which has one degree of altitude less 
 than this is represented by another encircling line around 
 the preceding, and so on, down to the lowest altitude. 
 These encircling lines, called contour lines of equal altitude, 
 will, of course, be more or less irregular, according to the 
 superficial character of the district. They were used in the 
 French Survey, in 1818, having been suggested in an 
 Essay read before the French Academy of Sciences so 
 early as 1742, and since adopted for the Irish Survey in 
 the year 1838. A precise idea of these lines may be 
 formed, by supposing a block of stone, of an irregular 
 conical form, to be immersed in a vessel of water. If the 
 water be drawn off so as to lower its level equally, say one 
 inch, at each successive discharge, the lines on which the 
 water meets the surface of the cone will be the true con- 
 tour lines of equal altitude. The degree of altitude to be 
 adopted for each contour line will, of course, vary in 
 amount, according to the prominence of the hills and the 
 exactness required, being less in proportion as the district 
 is flat or slightly undulating. From a map thus plotted, 
 combining, as it does, a true plan and infinite sections of 
 the district, any vertical section can at any time be accu- 
 rately prepared without further reference to the ground, 
 
BOEING. 151 
 
 while an immense advantage is obtained in the true indi- 
 cation of all brooks, and outcroppings of the substrata of 
 the soil. 
 
 183. The levels being ascertained and recorded, the ob- 
 servations necessary to complete the information upon 
 which the general arrangement of the drains can be deter- 
 mined have next to be made, by means of boring into and 
 examining the structure of the subsoil at various points of 
 the district. The tools, or boring-irons, employed for this 
 purpose, consist principally of the auger, by which cylin- 
 drical holes are made in the soil, and their contents brought 
 up to the surface ; the punch, with which compact gravel 
 and soft rock are perforated ready for the action of the 
 auger ; and the chisel, or jumper, with which, by the aid of 
 sledge-hammers, the necessary holes are made in hard 
 rocks which resist the auger and chisel. The auger is 
 from 2 to 4 in. in diameter, and about 15 in. long in the 
 shell. Its form is that of a cylinder, with a longitudinal 
 opening throughout its length, and a sharp cutting edge or 
 nose of steel secured to the entering end of it. The form 
 of the punch is that of a pyramid of four sides, from 8 to 
 12 in. in length, and from 2 to 4 in. square on the base, 
 which is the upper end of the tool when in use. The 
 chisel is a flat tool, with a broad and cutting end, and is 
 made of various sizes, according to the size of hole required. 
 Each of these tools has a screw formed at the upper end, 
 which will fit rods of iron made about 3 ft. long and 1 or 
 1 in. square, used to lengthen the apparatus when the 
 hole becomes deeper than the length of the cutting tool. 
 A cross handle of wood, fitted to a tapped socket, that fits 
 upon the tools and rods, is used for the purpose of turning 
 the augers. 
 
 184. When the nature of the subsoil has been ascer- 
 tained by boring, and the arrangement of main and minor 
 drains determined, the work of forming the drains is com- 
 menced by marking the lines upon the surface with poles, 
 and driving stakes to indicate the intended position and 
 
]0# DKAINING TOOLS. 
 
 direction of the cuttings. A common garden line is then 
 used to mark off the sides of the cuttings according to the 
 width they are intended to have. The ground is then 
 rutted with the spade along the line, and a rut is made at 
 each side of the drain. From 20 to 30 yards are thus 
 lined out at each stage. The different tools to be then 
 employed will vary according to the structure of the sub- 
 soil to be removed. 
 
 185. For ordinary soils, such as clays, loams, and small 
 gravel, and the usual combinations of these materials, the 
 common spade, the ditcher's shovel, and foot and hand- 
 picks, are the tools employed. The foot-pick has a cross 
 handle of wood, and a tramp fixed at about 1 5 in. from the 
 point of the tool, on which the foot of the workman is 
 placed to drive it into the soil, and which forms a fulcrum 
 on which stones or lumps of the hard dry clay are rarsfd. 
 The ditcher's shovel resembles a common spade, but is 
 somewhat stronger, and rounded off on each side from the 
 haft, forming a rounded point at the lower end. If the 
 sides of the drain have a tendency to fall in before the 
 work can be completed, they must be sustained by planks 
 and short struts of timber wedged in between them. In 
 order to test the correct dimensions of the drain, a gauge 
 is useful, which consists of an upright stem, on which two 
 or three cross-pieces are fitted to move up and down. The 
 stem being graduated, these cross-pieces may be shifted 
 and fixed so as to correspond with the intended limits of 
 the cutting, and applied wherever thought necessary. 
 
 186. The uniformity of the fall of drains is tested with 
 three staves, each consisting of an upright stem, and a 
 cross-piece on the top fixed at right angles, so that the 
 form of the instrument resembles that of the letter T. 
 Two of these staves are made about 2 ft. in height, and the 
 third one equal to 2 ft. added to the depth of the drain. 
 The two shorter ones are held perpendicularly, one at each 
 end of the drain, upon the surface of the ground, while 
 the long one is shifted along the bed of the drain, and the 
 
DRAINING TOOLS. 153 
 
 prominent or depressed points marked for correction. Be- 
 sides these staves, a common mason's level, with a plumb 
 line, is a very useful instrument for testing the inclination 
 of the drains. Mr. Denton has designed a still more com- 
 plete apparatus for this purpose, which he names the A 
 level, from its resemblance to that letter in form, having a 
 cross-shifting limb, by which the inclination of one of the 
 legs is adjusted, so that a plumb line from the apex indi- 
 cates the intended fall, one of the legs having a sliding 
 vernier, and the other having cross hairs for ranging the 
 levels to the end of the drain, with a graduated staff. 
 
 187. In the formation of loose stone drains, after the 
 stones are assorted as to size, and deposited in the drains 
 (for which purposes Mr. Koberton, of Roxburghshire, has 
 introduced a very complete and portable form of harp or 
 screen, provided with a movable tailboard), they are evenly 
 distributed in the drain with a strong rake, and beaten 
 down with a heavy beater, having a cross-handle for raising 
 it. The best form of shovel for the stones is that known 
 as the frying-pan, or lime shovel, having a raised rim 
 around the hinder part of it, and being made of a capa- 
 cious size. 
 
 188. The cutting of tile drains, requiring very exact 
 work, is best performed with tools fitted peculiarly for it. 
 Thus the narrow drain spade produces more perfect work 
 in throwing out the loosened soil, and also trimming the 
 sides of the drain, than the common spade. Pipe Drains, 
 being much narrower in the bed than any others, are best 
 finished with small tools designed for the purpose. These 
 are the narrowest drain spades, made only 3^ or 4 in. wide 
 at the mouth, and having a stud or tramp in front for the 
 heel of the workman, to assist in pressing the tool into the 
 soil. Narrow hoes are also useful in removing small stones, 
 &c., from the bed; and for removing any wet and loose 
 earth that may accumulate in it after the cutting of the drain, 
 a scoop formed like a long narrow hoe with raised sides is 
 very effective, being, in use, drawn forward by the workman. 
 
 H 3 
 
154 
 
 THE "MARKLY SPADE." 
 
 The bed of these drains may also be very nicely finished 
 and adjusted with a trowel, formed with the edges parallel, 
 and rounded only near the front. 
 
 189. The objects to be attained in draining implements 
 are strength, combined with lightness, and handiness; width, 
 sufficient to remove at one cut all the soil required to be 
 taken out of a drain at any one part of it ; such a shape of 
 the blade, that it shall, when lifted, raise the earth cut, 
 leaving the least possible quantity of broken earth to be re- 
 moved subsequently. Spades of various widths are needed 
 for cutting the parts of a drain, so that it shall be finished 
 "with a regular tapering section with a top width sufficient 
 to enable the drainer to work in it, and a bottom width 
 only equal to receive the material to be deposited. Many 
 implements have been introduced of various shapes, and 
 some of them possessing considerable merit; but we have 
 space here to notice only the two principal sorts of drain 
 spades, which have been found in practice superior to all 
 others for working in common soils, and of increased 
 superiority in proportion to the difficulty which the material 
 to be excavated presents to ordinary operations. Of these, 
 the " Markly spade," introduced by Mr. Darby, represented 
 
 Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. 
 
THE KENTISH SPADE. 
 
 155 
 
 of different sizes in figs. 61, 62, and 63, is admirably formed 
 for removing the lowest 16 or 18 in. of a drain, and has 
 proved its superiority in " shape and make" as adopted for 
 cutting through and lifting out a hard gravel or rocky bot- 
 tom. Figs. 64, 65, and 66, represent a kind of spade ori- 
 
 Fig. 64. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. 
 
 
 ginally used in Kent, and since introduced into Rossliire, 
 and other parts of Scotland, where it has been found to im- 
 prove the method of cutting the drains, and also to cheapen 
 their formation to a material extent. With such implements 
 as these, a drain 10 to 12 in. wide at top, 3 in. wide at bot- 
 tom, and 36 to 40 in. deep, may be opened by a single cut 
 from each of these sizes.* Drains 40 to 48 in. deep require 
 a double cut in width and depth with the largest of the 
 three spades. 
 
 190. Bog drains are formed with some tools of peculiar 
 form, which may be noticed. Thus the surface turf is cut 
 along the lines of the intended drain with an edging iron 
 of a crescent-like form, and sharpened round its outer edge. 
 For cutting the turf out, a broad-mouthed shovel is used. 
 
 * Mr. Spooner's evidence " Minutes of Information," collected by the 
 General Board of Health, 1852. 
 
156 PEAT-CUTTING. 
 
 The moss, being cut into square peats with this shovel, is 
 lifted from the drain with a three-pronged fork made for 
 the purpose, or if footing be found for the workmen, the 
 peats may be neatly cut from the bed, and thrown out with 
 spades fitted with the handle at a large angle to the spade, 
 which may thus be conveniently used in a horizontal posi- 
 tion. 
 
 191. In soils where peat is plentiful, this material is 
 sometimes cut or compressed into form, and baked so as 
 to constitute open ducts when laid together in the drain. 
 Mr. Calderwood, of Ayrshire, introduced, some years ago, 
 a tool fitted to cut peats into a massive semi-cylindrical 
 form by one cut, and without any waste of material, the 
 hollow in one peat fitting the exterior of another. It is 
 said that one man accustomed to the work can cut from 
 2000 to 3000 of these peats in a day. They^re afterwards 
 dried in the sun, and stacked till required. Several highly- 
 ingenious machines have been invented for forming peat 
 tiles, and also for moulding the pipe tiles of clay of various 
 forms, to secure ready and accurate joints, by which im- 
 provements the cost of production has been within late 
 years 'most materially reduced. 
 
 192. Some part of the work of cutting drains has, at 
 various times, been attempted with ploughs of different 
 forms and construction, fitted, wherever they are applicable, 
 to effect some economy in the cost of labour for the work. 
 Ploughs to facilitate the cutting of drains have been in use 
 for many years in districts where alluvial clays prevail, and 
 when used, they have been found to economise the cost of 
 drainage considerably ; but owing to the great number of 
 horses (from 8 to 12) required to work them, and the diffi- 
 culty first experienced by ordinary farm-servants in trying to 
 manage so many horses and such large implements, the 
 use of them has been heretofore much restricted. 
 
 ] 93. An implement has, however, been introduced, which, 
 as a draining plough, has far surpassed all previous efforts 
 and which accomplishes the entire work of opening the 
 
THE DRAINING PLOUGH. 157 
 
 ground, depositing the pipes, and making good again in ail 
 admirable automatic style. This implement is the " drain- 
 ing plough" of Messrs. Fowler, Harris, and Taylor, of 
 Temple Gate, Bristol, and will be found described and 
 illustrated in the Second Part of the Kudimentary Treatise 
 on Draining. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Absorbing wells, 41. 
 
 Air in soil, 27. 
 
 Analysis of sea-water, 45. 
 
 Ancholme, draining the, 69. 
 
 Appold's pump, 104. 
 
 Arrangement of drains, 85. 108. 
 
 Artesian wells, 37. 
 
 well at Grenelle, 38. 
 
 Battersea filter, 52. 
 
 Blith's observations, 112. 
 
 Bog drains, 128. 
 
 Boring, 151. 
 
 Breakwater, Plymouth, 74. 
 
 Cairo, well at, 37. 
 
 Cambridgeshire, draining in, 84. 
 
 Canals in Egypt, 36. 
 
 Capacity of drains, 134. 
 
 Catch-water drains, 70. 
 
 meadows, 32. 
 
 Cavendish's experiments, 44. 
 
 Characters of strata, 113. 
 
 Charcoal filters, 58. 
 
 Charnock's observations on evapora- 
 tion and filtration, 19. 
 
 Cheapest drains, 133. 
 
 Chelsea waterworks, 51. 
 
 Chinese wells, 36. 
 
 Clark's process for softening water, 
 47. ' 
 
 Clay, lime, and sand, 107. 
 
 Cleaning reservoirs, 43. 
 
 Clemm's analysis of sea-water, 45. 
 
 Clyde, filters on the, 54. 
 
 Conditions of soils, 20. 
 
 Constituents of rain-water, 44. 
 
 soils 106. 
 
 Contour lines, 150. 
 
 Cornish pumping engines, 81. 95. 
 
 Cost of draining, 138-148. 
 
 Covered drains, 126. 
 
 Cutting peat, 156. 
 
 Dalton's observations on rain, 9-18. 
 
 De Candolle's rules for watering 
 
 plants, 28. 
 Deep draining, 112. 
 Definitions, 1. 
 Depth of drains, 130. 
 Devonshire, irrigation in, 32. 
 Distances of drains, 123. 
 Distribution by pumps, 42. 
 Divisions of subject, 2. 
 Draining by absorbing wells, 41. 
 the Ancholme, 69. 
 
 cost of, 138-148. 
 
 by Dugdale, 64. 
 - fens, 64-77. 
 
 in Holland, 65-79. 
 
 the Lake 'of Haarlem, 89. 
 
 in Lincolnshire, 67. 
 
 ploughs, 156. 
 
 in Rome, 64. 
 
 Bomsey marshes, 66. 
 ~ scoop, Fairbairn's, 80. 
 -- tiles, 146. 
 
 tools, 152. 
 -- uplands, 94. 
 
 Drains, arrangement of, 85. 108. 
 
 bog, 128. 
 
 capacity of, 134. 
 
 catch-water, 70. 
 
 covered, 126. 
 
 depth of, 130. 
 
 distances of, 123. 
 
 junctions of, 86. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 159 
 
 Drains open, 122. 
 
 sections of, 73. 126, 127, 128. 
 
 size of, 129. 
 
 stone, 127. 
 
 Dry soils, 23. 
 Dugdale's draining, 64. 
 Dutch draining, 65. 79. 
 Duty of Cornish engines, 95. 
 East London Waterworks, 49. 
 Edinburgh, irrigation in, 33. 
 Egyptian canals, 36. 
 
 wells, 36. 
 
 Elkington's method, 112. 132. 
 Engines, Cornish pumping, 81. 
 
 the "Leeghwater," 90. 
 
 Englefield's filters, 59. 
 Euphrates, rise of the river, 36. 
 Evaporation, 5. 11, 12. 
 
 conditions of, 17. 
 
 Experience in counties, 137. 
 Experiments by Cavendish, 44. 
 
 Liebig, 44. 
 
 Priestley, 44. 
 
 Fairbairn's draining scoop, 80. 
 Fellenberg's irrigation, 31. 
 Fens, draining the, 64-77. 
 Filter at Battersea, 52. 
 Filtering on the Seine, 60. 
 Filters, charcoal, 58. 
 
 on the Clyde, 54. 
 
 Fonveille's, 60. 
 
 at Paisley, 56. 
 
 Souchon's, 60. 
 
 - Swiss, 59. 
 Filtration, 50. 
 Fonveille's niters, 60. 
 Formation of lakes, 88. 
 
 soils, 105, 106. 
 
 Fourneyron's turbines, 97. 
 Fowler's draining plough, 157. 
 Ganges, rise of the river, 36. 
 Garnett's rain gauge, 10. 
 Germination of seeds, 21. 
 Grenelle, Artesian well at, 38. 
 Gwynne's pump, 101. 
 
 wheel, 99. 
 
 Haarlem, draining the lake of, 89. 
 Hardness of water, 46. 
 Hatherton, arrangements of land, 96. 
 Hose, irrigation by, 32. 
 Impurities of water, 45. 
 Irrigation in Devonshire, 32. 
 
 Irrigation in Edinburgh, 33. 
 
 by Fellenberg, 31. 
 
 filtration, 31. 
 
 hose, 32. 
 
 in Lombardy, 30. 
 
 Persia, 32. 
 
 by regurgitation, 31. 
 
 submersion, 31. 
 
 subterranean, 31. 
 
 in Switzerland, 31. 
 
 Tuscany, 31. 
 
 Wiltshire, 32. 
 
 by water meadows, 32. 
 
 Junction of drains, 86. 
 Kentish spade, 155. 
 Lakes, formation of, 88. 
 
 of Haarlem, draining the, 89. 
 
 Moeris, Behira, and Ma- 
 
 reotis, 36. 
 
 Land, reclamation of, 78. 
 " Leeghwater," the, 90. 
 Liebig's experiments, 44. 
 Lime, sand, and clay, 107. 
 Lincolnshire draining, 67. 
 Lombardy, irrigation in, 30, 31. 
 Madden on germination of seeds, 21. 
 Manetti, description of draining by 
 
 Count, 31.' 
 
 Market-garden cultivation, 35. 
 "Markly" spade, 154. 
 Meadows, catchwater, 32. 
 Mechanical relations of soil, 22. 
 Mississippi, rise of the river, 36. 
 Moving earth by streams, 43. 
 Natural and artificial supply of water. 
 
 4. 
 
 Natural filters, 54. 
 Nile, rise of the river, 36. 
 Nottingham, reservoir at, 53. 
 Open drains, 122. 
 Paisley filters, 56. 
 Peat-cutting, 156. 
 Persian irrigation, 32. 
 Pipe, distribution for irrigation, 34. 
 Plants, De Candolle's rules for water- 
 
 ing, 28. 
 
 Ploughs for draining, 156. 
 Plug draining, 149. 
 Plymouth Breakwater, 74. 
 Positions of strata, 115-120. 
 Priestley's experiments, 44. 
 Proper condition of soil, 24. 
 
160 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pulverising soils, 26. 
 Pump, Appold's, 104. 
 
 distribution, 42. 
 
 GKvynne's, 101. 
 
 Pumping engines, 81-90. 
 Quantity of air in soil, 27. 
 Rain, annual fall of, 6, 7. 
 
 affected by local circumstances, 
 
 8. 
 
 -* cause of, 9. 
 
 constituents of, 44. 
 
 gauges, 10. 
 
 mean, per month, 6. 
 
 Recapitulation, 55. 
 
 Reclamation of land, 78. 
 
 Rennie's reports, 70. 
 
 Reports on draining, by Rennie, 70. 
 
 Reservoir at Nottingham, 53. 
 
 Reservoirs, subsiding, 49. 
 
 Rise of rivers, 36. 
 
 the Nile, 36. 
 
 Roman draining, 64. 
 Romsey marshes, draining of, 66. 
 Sand, lime, and clay, 107. 
 Scoop wheels, Fairbairn's, 80. 
 
 . Glynn's, 82. 
 
 Sea-water, analysis of, 45. 
 
 Sections of drains, 73. 126, 127, 128. 
 
 Seeds, germination of, 21. 
 
 Seine, filtering on the, 60. 
 
 Size of drains, 129. 
 
 Sluices, 75. 
 
 Soils, air in, 27. 
 
 condition of, 20. 
 
 dry, 23. 
 
 formation of, 105, 106. 
 
 mechanical properties of, 22. 
 
 proper condition of, 24. 
 
 wet, 25. 
 
 Souchon's filters, 61. 
 Sources of water, 4. 
 
 Sonthwark waterworks, 52, 
 Spade, Kentish, 155. 
 " Markly," 154. 
 
 Stephens's calculations, 135. 
 Strata, characters of, 113. 
 
 . positions of, 115-120. 
 
 Streams, moving earth by, 43. 
 Store drains, 127. 
 Subsiding reservoirs, 49. 
 Subterranean irrigation, 31. 
 Surface-draining, 29. 
 Survey and contour lines, 150. 
 Swiss filters, 59. 
 Switzerland, irrigation in, 31. 
 Synopsis, 2. 
 "Tapping," 114. 132. 
 Thorn's filters, 56. 
 Tiles, draining, 146. 
 Tools for boring, 151. 
 
 draining, 152. 
 
 Tull's system, 27. 
 Turbines, 97. 
 Tuscany, irrigation in, 31. 
 Uplands, draining, 94. 
 Water, hardness of, 46. 
 
 impurities of, 45. 
 
 meadows, irrigation by, 32. 
 
 Waterworks, Chelsea, 51. 
 
 East London, 49. 
 
 Southwark, 52. 
 
 Well at Cairo, 37. 
 Wells, absorbing, 41. 
 
 Artesian, 37. 
 
 in China, 36. 
 
 Egypt, 36. 
 
 Wet soils, 25. 
 Wheel, Gwynne's, 99. 
 
 Whitelaw's, 100. 
 
 Wiltshire, irrigation in, 32. 
 Witham drainage, 76. 
 
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