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SKETCHES 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 SACRED AND PROFANE, 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 CREATION OF THE WORLD, TO THE YEAR 1818, 
 OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA : 
 
 IN THREE PARTS. 
 WITH 
 
 AN APPENDIX, 
 
 AND 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF CONTENT? 
 
 BY FREDERICK BUTLER, A. M. 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE CATECHETICAL COMPEND OF GENERAL HISTORV. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION, CORRECTED BY THE AUTHOR, AND CONTIN- 
 UED DOWN TO THE YEAR 1822. 
 
 HARTFORD, 
 OLIVER D. COOKE. 
 
 1822. 
 
DISTRICT OF CONNECTICUT, ss. 
 
 (L. S.) BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the third day of Novem- 
 ber, in the forty-third year of the independence of the United States of 
 America, Cooke and Hale, of the said district, have deposited in this 
 office the title of a Book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, 
 in the words following, to wit : " Sketches of Universal History, 
 Sacred and Profane, from the Creation of the World, to the year 1818, 
 of the Christian Era : in three parts, with an Appendix, and a Chro- 
 nological table of contents. By Frederick Butler, A. M. author of the 
 Catechetical Compend of General History," in conformity to the act 
 f the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An act for the en- 
 couragement of learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts and 
 Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times 
 therein mentioned." 
 
 R. I. INGERSOLL, 
 
 Clerk of the District of Connecticut. 
 A true copy of Record, examined and sealed by me, 
 
 R. I. INGERSOLL, 
 
 Clerk of the District of Connecticut 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 TO shew that one supreme, omnipotent, eternal God created the universe, that his 
 superintending providence preserves and governs all things ; that his wisdom regu- 
 late* and controls all events ; that the smallest as well as the largest are equally 
 the objects of his care ; that "not a sparrow falleth to the ground without his no- 
 tice, and even the hairs of our heads are all numbered," is the great object of thii 
 work but more particularly of the first part 
 
 To accomplish this object with the most forcible demonstration, I have shewn the 
 great designs of God in the government of men, by unfolding a succession of prophe- 
 cies, by which he announced a grand succession of events, from the fall of man down 
 to this day, and to the end of the world 
 
 To enforce conviction, I have recorded a narrative of the most important events 
 which have fulfilled these prophecies, in regular succession, from the first promise of 
 God to Adam, down to this day, as (hey stand recorded by the most approved histori- 
 ans. In this narrative it clearly appears, that all the historians, through all ages of 
 the world, have done no more than record the will and government of God, as predic- 
 ted by his inspired prophets, hundreds and thousands of years before they were ac- 
 complished. 
 
 To render the design of this narrative as clear and forcible as possible, I have not 
 only confined it to those nations who were the immediate subjects of the prophecies, 
 but to such parts of their history, as immediately regard the accomplishment of these 
 great events That part of the history of the four gre^t empires, noticed in the great 
 image of Nebuchadnezzar, and Daninl's four beasts, as regards their governments, 
 laws, manners and customs, together with a sketch of the history of the other great 
 kingdoms and empires, not immediately connected with the prophecies, I have noticed 
 separately, by way of Appendix 
 
 All prophecy was given by inspiration of God, and all ancient prophecy through the 
 prophf.ts of the ancient Jewish Church, which sprang from the family of Abraham, 
 and regarded those nations only, which were connected with the Jewish history This 
 was all that was necessary, both in its extent and duration to shew that the gov- 
 ernment of God is both universal and eternal 
 
 7'he history of the other great nations is of impoitance to be known and studied, as 
 ancient monuments of wisdom, virtue, patience, fortitude, industry, arts and arms 
 and their systems and maxims of government, have proved useful and important mod- 
 els to after ages ; have led to the improvements of the age in which we live, and to 
 the perfection of that well balancpd system of government which we enjoy 
 
 The luxury and corruptions which followed all the great conquests ; the prostration 
 of the virtues by those very corruptions, and the general licentiousness which followed 
 in their train, together with faction*, discord, weakness and ruin, which ever closed 
 the political scene, ought to serve as so many beacons, to guide us, and all after ages , 
 in the way of wisdom, virtue, and duty, and to guard us against the calamities of li- 
 centious ambition, which have invariably proved their ruin. 
 
 The economy of thu governments of the Assyrian. Chaldean, Median and Persian 
 Monarchies, are very partially known to us they were not only absolute monarchies, 
 but from the rude and barbarous ages in which they were founded, we have reason to 
 conclude their systems were very limited, and that the whole depended very 
 much upon th- will of the !<ing, with this exception, that the king could not change 
 even his own will when once it became a law 
 
 The union of all these !< injrdoms *tood upon the same basis, under the Medo- Persian 
 Empire. This system was sufficient to protect a rising stale, whilst virtue ruled, but 
 bad no powers to save a nation when sinking under licentiousness and corrupt ambi- 
 tion 
 
 All the renowned wisdom of the philosophers and legislators of Greece and Rome 
 'O m.-ir.-. with t'l th-ir boasted systemsi of liberty. They in their turn all 
 "dl a prey to licentious ambition The kingdom of Esypt, with all the boasted wisdom 
 ~"d virile cfber ancient institution*, fell a prey to all-conquering lust and ambition. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 As we (race this great subject through the two succeeding parts of this work, we 
 hall find that all the kingdoms of Europe are under the same condemnation, together 
 with the Turkish Kmpire, whose broad basis stands upon the ruins of all the ancient 
 states and empires. 
 
 How far that true balance of power, which constitutes the basis of the English and 
 American governments, rr ay be able to control ambition, licentiousness and corrup- 
 tion, and preserre the governments and liberties of the nations; remains to be tested 
 >>y experience. 
 
 In the first part of this work I have endeavored to shew the happy and prosperous 
 slate of the Jews under their theocracy, and that their wretchedness commenced with 
 their kingly (government, in connection with their false religion. I have endeavored 
 to illustrate the character of the Grecian and Roman Republics, and shew how a 
 corrupt religion and a want of the true balance of power in the third estate in the 
 government opened the way for factions, which proved their ruin 
 
 [n the second part, I have endeavoured to shew how the overbearing ambition of 
 the Roman empire proved its own rum, and how the distresses she had inflicted upon 
 >ther nations recoiled back upon herself, until luxury and refinement were swallowed 
 !tp and lost in ignorance and barbarism also, what struggles meu had to endure O 
 iise out of barbarism into a state of ciyil refinement, 
 
 In the pursuit of this subject I have endeavoured to shew bow much the happiness 
 *nd misery of men depend upon individual character, and have illustrated this in the 
 haracters of Alfred the great, contrasted witli William I styled the conqueror ; of 
 Kdward III. contrasted with Edward IV.; Queen Elizabeth and Q,ueen Ann, con- 
 trasted with James II. and Charles I. and II. and in this way have shewn how Eng- 
 and emerged from the Feudal system, and acquired the supremacy of the three es- 
 tates in her government the excellency of this government I have endeavoured to 
 shew, in the wonderful display of wisdom, order, happiness, peace aud prosperity in 
 the American Republic. 
 
 In the third part I have endeavoured to shew the character of the republics of Po- 
 land and of France, and to render it plain and intelligible, that republics without the 
 balance of power in the three estates, soon become the nurseries of factions, and that 
 <he licentiousness of liberty cherishes the strife of party, until some idol chief strips 
 'he people of their rights, and becomes their despot. 
 
 I have drawn alfufllengtb the characters of Charles XII. and Bonaparte, to illus- 
 trate the more strikingly the worth of the character of Peter the Great of Russia, of 
 Prederiek the Great of Prussia, and Alexander the Great of Russia but more imme- 
 Jiately the tiue worth of Washington. 
 
 It has been my first object through the whole work to shew the influence and impor- 
 tance of religion to contrast the pure religion of the Jews with the idolatry of the 
 which they maintained the purity of their church. To contrast particularly 
 Uve religion of Christ and his Apostle?, with the religion of the Popes and Mahomet ; 
 and to shew that Martin Luther was the angel of the gospel for the age in which he 
 Hved, and will continue to be the angel of the gospel until the millennial day, through 
 (be medium of the heralds of the cross in the protestant cause. 
 
 As this work is designed immediately for the use of schools, instructors may avail 
 themselves of the chronological table of contents to frame questions for examination, 
 instruction by lectures upon the maps, or otherwise, 
 \Vr'.h";'sf,e!<J, Conn Oct. 15, 1818, 
 
 
SKETCHES OF 
 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 PART FIRST, 
 
 PROM THE CREATION, TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE RO 
 MAN EMPIRE, 1450. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 History its divisions and use -from the creation to the flood 
 -from the flood to the Building of Nineveh and Babylon. 
 
 HISTORY is the great medium by which we are enabled to 
 perpetuate the occurrence of events and through which we 
 may take a retrospective view of those that are past. 
 
 It may be divided into four great parts, history before the 
 flood, termed antediluvian, history since the flood termed 
 postdiluvian : history from the flood to Christ, termed ancient, 
 and since Christ, termed modern history. All that is written 
 by the immediate inspiration of God, is termed sacred ; such 
 is the history of the bible : all other history comes under 
 the general denomination of profane. 
 
 It furnishes a vast field of moral and religious instruction, 
 and is designed to amuse the imagination, improve the under- 
 standing, correct the judgment, and mend the heart by leading 
 us up to God, as the great author, preserver and governor 
 of all things. 
 
 That which first claims our attention, in the annals of time, 
 1* 
 
8 NINEVEH AND BABYLON. 
 
 magnitude, of any that had been attempted since the flood. 
 At this, they wrought unchecked forty years, when God in 
 judgment, suffered them to go no farther, but put an end to 
 their work by confounding their speech. 
 
 Here was the origin of the confusion of tongues, from 
 whence arose all the variety of language, which has appeared 
 upon the earth. Here Nimrod, who was a mighty hunter be- 
 fore the Lord, laid the foundations of the renowned city of 
 Babylon, in the year of the world 1771. This city stood at 
 the confluence of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris : was wall- 
 ed in the year 1730, and became the famous capital of the 
 Chaldean Monarchy. About the year 1770, Ninas built 
 Nineveh, the subsequent capital of the Assyrian Monarchy. 
 During this period, of about 1800 years, the employment of 
 men, and the state of society, had probably continued the 
 same. 
 
 These two great cities soon acquired a degree of wealth, in- 
 fluence and power, which produced the same effects upon so- 
 ciety and the world, as have been witnessed, in the history 
 of all the great cities which have appeared : the same change 
 of manners, habits and customs : the ferocity, barbarity and 
 uncultivated state of the hunters and shepherds, began to re- 
 ceive a polish and refinement, by their intercourse with the 
 city. The same lust of pleasure, wealth and power, began to 
 appear. Each, in their turn, extended their conquest over 
 the neighboring countries, until they gave law to all the eas- 
 tern world. During this whole period, men were without 
 the knowledge of God, and were sunk in the most barbarous 
 and absurd idolatry. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 From the call of Abraham and his family, to the death of Jo- 
 seph his Great-Grandson in Egypt. 
 
 About 417 years after the flood, God saw the corruption 
 of all that eastern world ; and that they had lost the knowl- 
 edge and worship of the true God. He then called Abraham 
 from Ur of the Chaldees, near the plains of Shinar ; and di- 
 rected him to go out into a wild uncultivated desert, lying to 
 the west, near the borders of the Mediterranean sea, and 
 
THE GALL OF ABRAHAM. 3 
 
 there settle. Abraham obeyed the command, went out into 
 this remote land ; by permission, took with him Lot, his bro- 
 ther's son, and formed a new settlement. 
 
 Here God began to make a new display of himself to Abra- 
 ham and to the world. Here he unfolded his promises to 
 Abraham. 1st. That he would give to him and his posteri- 
 ty the land, when as yet he had no children. 2d. That his 
 seed should sojourn in a strange land ; be evil treated 400 
 years, and then be restored to their own land. He gave him 
 a son, in a miraculous manner ; and although he was the 
 heir of promise, God ordered him to sacrifice the lad. When 
 he had so far obeyed the command, as to erect the altar, arid 
 raise the knife for execution ; the voice of God exclaimed ; 
 " Lay not thine hand upon the lad." And Abraham caught 
 a ram in a thicket and sacrificed it to the Lord. 
 
 Thus having tried the faith of Abraham, abolished through 
 him the ancient custom of human sacrifice, which was com- 
 mon in the land of his fathers ; and having taught his people 
 in all generations of the world, although he slay them to trust 
 in him ; he prospered Abraham greatly in the land, gave him 
 flocks and herds, and made him lord of great possessions. 
 
 When Isaac, the child of promise was born, Abraham drove 
 out Hagar his maid, with Ishmael her son, to wander in the 
 desert : that Ishmael, upon whom the angel had pronounced 
 this prophecy before he was born, that " he should be a wild 
 man, his hand should be against every man, and every man's 
 against him, and yet he should dwell in the presence of all his 
 brethren" that Ishmael, for whose sake God gave this con- 
 solation to Hagar his mother, in her distress in the desert. 
 " Take the lad in thine hand, for I will make him a great na- 
 tion." Ishmael and Hagar his mother, went out accordingly ; 
 and in him, and his posterity, the prophecy has been literally 
 accomplished. The Arabs are a thieving, robbing, plunder- 
 ing race to this day, and have never been conquered. 
 
 When Isaac arrived at the age of manhood, Abraham sent 
 out his servant to the land of his fathers, and took for him 
 Rebecca, his brother's daughter to wife, by the special direc- 
 tion of God. By her he had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Abra- 
 ham lived to a good old age, died, and was buried in his own 
 tomb, which he bought ofEphronthe Hittite, for a family 
 spulchre. Esau married one of the daughters of the land, 
 
10 ISAAC, JACOB AND JOSEPH. 
 
 and united the employment of hunting with that of husband- 
 ry ; but Jacob became a husbandman, arid kept his father's 
 flocks. To Esau were born sons and daughters ; and to Ja- 
 cob twelve sons, who became heads of the twelve tribes of 
 Israel. 
 
 The history of Esau and Jacob, is recorded in the book of 
 Genesis. There also is recorded the art of Rebecca, to ob- 
 tain the blessing for Jacob her favorite son, in exclusion of 
 the rightful heir ; the death and sepulture of good old Isaac, 
 and the strife and bitterness of Esau against Jacob. As Jacob 
 increased in his family and wealth, he increased in favor with 
 God ; and by wrestling with the angel, he obtained the bles- 
 sing, with the name of Israel : also the mark of the withered 
 thigh, by the hand of the angel ; which has caused the He- 
 brews, his descendants, to exclude the thigh of all animals, 
 as improper food, to this day. 
 
 When the twelve sons of Jacob or Israel, grew into life, 
 their father cherished an unguarded partiality towards Joseph, 
 one of the younger sons, which excited a jealousy and resent- 
 ment, on the part of his brethren. This, together with 
 some extraordinary dreams, which Joseph imprudently rela 
 ted, increased their resentment to hatred, and malice, which 
 led them to 'revenge upon Joseph, by selling him to the Ish- 
 maelites, (or Arabs) and to deceive his father by a false re- 
 port that he had been devoured by wild beasts ; this they 
 confirmed by shewing his bloody coat ; a barbarous strata- 
 gem practised on their father, by dipping the coat in the 
 blood of a kid. 
 
 These Ishmaelites carried Joseph down into Egypt, where 
 they sold him as a slave. Here an impious attempt was 
 made upon .his virtue, by his master's wife ; which to her 
 severe disappointment, and mortification, he resisted. This 
 led her falsely to accuse him to his master, who threw him 
 into prison. God permitted these daring acts of outrage and 
 cruelty, to shew, for our instruction, that he always can, and 
 often does, bring the greatest blessings out of the heaviest 
 afflictions, and, to increase our confidence in him. 
 
 Here, while immured in the walls of a prison, God open- 
 ed the way for the deliverance of Joseph. When one oi 
 his fallow prisoners who was of the king's household, rolatei* 
 'a singular dream, Joseph was instructed by God in the in- 
 terpretation which was accomplished in a very extraordi- 
 
 
PHARAOH, JOSEPH AND HI9 BRETHREN. 11 
 
 nary manner. This came to the ears of the king, who soon 
 had occassion to send for Joseph to interpret his own dream, 
 of the seven fat and seven lean kine.* 
 
 This intepretation procured for Joseph the favor, and 
 confidence of the king : raised him to power, and brought 
 him near the throne. When the seven years of famine, re- 
 presented by the seven lean kine, had extended into the land 
 of Canaan, where the father of Joseph dwelt, he sent ten of 
 his sons into Egypt to buy corn. 
 
 The manner in which they were received ; the stratagem 
 of Joseph, to punish them, and bring down his younger broth- 
 er ; the second journey of his brethren, the severity of Jo- 
 seph's treatment of them, the painful sensations of his own 
 breast, the disclosure of himself to his brethren, his sending 
 for his aged father with all his household, and supporting 
 them in Egypt ; are all recorded in the close of the book of 
 Genesis, in a striking and pathetic manner, not to be ex- 
 pressed by any other pen. This interesting narrative, so 
 full of moral and religious instruction, should be familiar to 
 all, at an early age. 
 
 When the fulness of time was come, that the good old Ja- 
 cob should be gathered, as a shock of corn fully ripe ; he re- 
 membered the promise of God to his grandfather Abraham, 
 that his posterity should sojourn in a strange land, and be 
 evil entreated 400 years : he called together his sons, and 
 gave them his prophetic blessing,! and charged them to con- 
 vey his remains to the land of his fathers, and deposit them 
 in the family tomb. 
 
 This command was faithfully executed, with all that so- 
 lemnity and respect, due to the best of fathers ; and the fami-. 
 ly returned into Egypt, where they continued to increase and 
 multiply, under all their former prosperity. 
 
 Here again, the interesting determination of Divine provi- 
 dence is acknowledged. The dream of Joseph, which was 
 so offensive to his brethren, was accomplished. Their for- 
 mer sin in selling him into Egypt, now stared them in the 
 face ; and they, fearing his power and vengeance, after the 
 death of their father fell prostrate before Joseph, and pour- 
 ed out their confessions, and sought his protection.J 
 
 Again the meekness, gentleness and benevolence of 'Jo- 
 seph were displayed : again he drew a veil over the wicked- 
 
 * Gen. 41 t Gen. 49 t Gen. 50. 
 
1% JOSEPH AND HIS BRLTHKfctf 
 
 ness of his brethren, ascribed all to God, and taught them to 
 notice his special providence in their deliverance : again, he 
 restored them to his favor, and lived to see the third genera- 
 tion of Benjamin, his beloved brother. And when the ful- 
 ness of time was come, that he should be gathered to his fath- 
 ers, he called his brethren and said " I die, and God will 
 surely visit you and bring you out of this land, to the land 
 which he sware unto Abraham, Isaac and Jacob." And when 
 he had taken their oath, that they would carry his bones with 
 them, he fell asleep. 
 
 GHAP. Ill 
 
 From the death of Joseph to the call of Moses the plagues in 
 Egypt, the departure of the Hebrews, under Moses and 
 Aaron, and the destruction of Pharaoh at the Red Sea. 
 
 HERE beging a new era in the history of the family of 
 Abraham. The Patriarchs are gone ; Joseph is gone ; and 
 their descendants are left unprotected in a strange land. God 
 continued to increase arid bless them, till a new king arose, 
 who knew not Joseph. This king, unmindful of the protec 
 tion the kingdom had received in the time of the famine ; 
 and fired with ambition, began to exercise despotic power, 
 and oppress the descendants of Jacob. 
 
 When they became numerous, fearing that his oppression 
 might excite them to revolt, he commanded all their male 
 children to be destroyed at the birth ; an act of cruelty and 
 barbarity, not before recorded in the annals of man. This 
 order was executed, except in the instance of Moses, whc 
 was hid by his mother, in an ark of bulrushes, in the flags o 
 the river, where he was preserved by the special providence 
 of God. The daughter of Pharaoh, in her walk discovered 
 the child, and sent fora nurse, which, in the same provi- 
 dence proved to be the child's mother. 
 - Nursed under the guardian care of the princess, Moses 
 grew into life, and was educated in all the wisdom and sci- 
 ence of the Egyptians ; and at the same time, was instructed 
 by his mother, that he was an Hebrew, of the family of th 
 
COMMISSION OP MOSES; 13 
 
 bondmen of the land. When he became a man, he went in- 
 to the field to visit his brethren ; and seeing an Egyptian of- 
 fer to one ofthem violence and wrong, he slew him. When 
 this act was known, Moses fled into Midian, (a land on the 
 east of Egyp^,) where he married the daughter of Jethro, 
 priest of Midian, and kept his father's flocks. 
 
 Here began the displays of the majesty of Heaven ! Here 
 the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob began to have com- 
 passion on the distresses of his afflicted children in Egypt. 
 Knowing that his prediction of 400 years of sojourning were 
 nearly accomplished, here he appeared to Moses in the midst 
 of a burning bush ; and called and commissioned him, from 
 the midst of that flame, which concealed the God, but con- 
 sumed not the bush. 
 
 Here he charged Moses to go into Egypt, and deliver his 
 people : and permitted him to take with him Aaron his bro- 
 ther. Here he confirmed the commission of Moses, by the 
 special miracle, of turning his rod into a serpent ; and pre- 
 dicted the manner in which his people should at their de- 
 parture, spoil the Egyptians of their treasures of gold and 
 silver, as some compensation for their painful service. 
 
 Empowered by this high commission, and the miraculous 
 displays of divine power, Moses took with him Aaron, went 
 down into Egypt, and stood before Pharaoh. When he had 
 opened the commission of heaven to the king, he received 
 from Pharaoh this haughty reply, " Who is the Lord, that I 
 should obey his voice and let Israel go ? I will not let the 
 people go." In reply to the insolence of this haughty king, 
 Moses cast down his rod, and it became a serpent. 
 
 Then Pharaoh, to try the strength of this miracle, sent for 
 his magicians and sorcerers, who -cast down their rods and 
 they became serpents ; but the serpent of Moses' rod swal- 
 lowed up all theirs. This did not open the heart of the king, 
 but confirmed him in his purpose not to let them go. Then 
 God came out in judgment against Pharaoh, by the ten sue- 
 c ssive plagues which he caused Moses to inflict upon the 
 land of Egypt, fire, blood, and death. (Ex. 8th and 9th ch.) 
 
 In this awful manner the judgments of heaven were dis- 
 played, through this impious king, upon his guilty land : to 
 inspire the Hebrews with that confidence in God, and in Pvlo- 
 ses and Aaron, which should unite them in their departure. 
 He -.viused Pharaoh, also to double the tasks of the Hebrews, 
 tliat their oppressive bondage might constrain this union, and 
 
 2 
 
14 DESTRUCTION OP PHARAOH. 
 
 that he might make such a display of himself and his judg- 
 ments, as should lead Pharaoh, and the world, to acknowl- 
 edge, that " the Lord God omnipotent reigneth." 
 
 When God had put forth his hand and touched all the first 
 born of the land ; when every house was filled with mourn- 
 ing, lamentation and wo : then the hard heart of this haugh- 
 ty king was subdued. Then the prince and people were 
 ready to drive out the Israelites. Here commenced the sol- 
 emn festival of the Jewish passover, in commemoration of 
 their wonderful deliverance ; which continues to this day in 
 the Jewish Church. Here was fulfilled the promise, that 
 they should be enriched with the spoils of the Egyptians, by 
 their jewels of gold and of silver. 
 
 When all things were now accomplished, this mighty host 
 of 600,000 souls assembled under Moses and Aaron, and took 
 up their departure for the land of their fathers. Here again, 
 was a display of the selfishness and corruption of the human 
 heart. Notwithstanding all the manifestations God had made 
 of himself to Pharaoh, and to the people, in the miracles he 
 had wrought, and the judgments he had inflicted upon them : 
 he repented that he had let the people go : raised an army, 
 pursued after them by the way of Pihahiroth, and overtook 
 them between Migdol, and the Red Sea, where God had or 
 dered them to encamp. 
 
 Here was the closing scene ! the waters of the sea, opened 
 to the right hand, and to the left, by the mighty power of the 
 Most High ; and Moses led the host of Israel through on dry 
 land. Pharaoh attempted to pursue, when the waters return 
 ed by the same Almighty power, with which they were roll- 
 ed bnck : and this daring, hardened, impious king, with all 
 his mighty army, were swallowed up and lost in the depths of 
 the sea. At the same time, Moses assembled the host of 
 Israel, on the bunks of the sea, where they united in a song 
 of praise to God their deliverer.* 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 From the passage of the Red Sea, to the giving of the Moral 
 Law at Mount Sinai" the death of Moses and Aaron the 
 
 * Ex. *v. 
 
MORAL LAW. 15 
 
 possession of the land of Canaan, under Joshua and the 
 change of government under their kings. 
 
 HERE let us reflect, upon the awful, sublime, and interest- 
 ing scenes through which we have passed, from the creation 
 to the flood ; from the flood to the call of Abraham ; and 
 from that call to the wonderful displays of God in Egypt, 
 and the Red Sea, and learn this lesson : that when God calls 
 sinners to repentance, by his counsels, warnings, invitations 
 and chastenings ; and they, like Pharaoh, continue obstinate 
 and impenitent ; he will come out against them in his wr; : th, 
 and seal up their doom with his eternal judgments. The 
 lesson before us is a striking display of this solemn truth. 
 
 We will now pass over the several movements of the camp 
 of Israel, until they pitch before Sinai. Here again, the 
 majesty of heaven was displayed in the thunders of Sinai. 
 But notwithstanding the mountain was on fire from the pre- 
 sence of God, when he called Moses, and conversed with 
 him forty days : notwithstanding he had led their whole 
 inarch, by a pillar of cloud by day, and of fire by night : yet 
 even here, under the awful solemnities of Sinai, they caused 
 Aaron to make a golden calf, (one of the gods of Egypt) of 
 the same ear-rings which they had borrowed of their neigh- 
 Jw>r* : and uftcr the custom of the Egyptians, worshipped it, 
 in a riotous, tumultuous manner. 
 
 This was a scene which tried the patience of Moses. Al- 
 though he was the meekest of men, at the sight of this scene, 
 he threw down the two tables of stone, on which were in- 
 scribed by the finger of God, the Moral Law ; and brake 
 them in pieces. He next dissolved the golden calf, compel- 
 led its worshippers to drink it, and caused 3000 idolaters to 
 be slain. He again, by the divine command returned into the 
 mount, where he received two other tables of stone as be>- 
 fore ; which are the ten commandments (called the moral 
 law) continued in the Jewish church, and handed down to us. 
 
 We will pass over the mercies and judgments of God to 
 this people, in their several journeyings in the wilderness^ 
 until we come to the waters of Meribah. Here the murmur- 
 ings and discontent of this obstinate, ungrateful people, again 
 tired the patience of Moses, and he gave that offence to God, 
 which deprived him and Aaron of the enjoyment of the pro- 
 mised land. Soon after the offence ot Meribah, God called 
 to seal up his tost account. After Moses had led the 
 
1(3 CAPTFRB OP JERICHO. 
 
 people through the wilderness, God directed him to appoint 
 Joshua his successor, and go up to the top of Pisgah, where 
 he could view the promised land, tnd there die. 
 
 l^ull of instruction is the sacred book of God. If Moses, 
 the favoured of heaven, was denounced and cut off for one 
 unguarded offence, to what punishment does the whole fami- 
 ly of man stand exposed every moment, from the offended 
 in ijftsty of heaven ! Learn also, that to whom much is given, 
 of him much will be required ; and that every man must 
 be accountable for what he hath, and not for what he hath 
 aot. 
 
 We will now leave Moses entombed on mount Nebo, and 
 follow the camp of Israel, under Joshua, to the river Jordan, 
 Here Jehovah again displayed his mighty power, the river 
 opened, as at the Red Sea, and gave them passage. The 
 first city that presented itself, was Jericho ; strongly walled 
 and fortified. This intimidated the murmuring, complaining, 
 faithless multitude. And when they saw the hardy, warlike, 
 gothic race of men which dwelt in the land, their hearts sunk 
 within them, and they were ready to yield to fear. Again 
 the hand of the Most High was stretched forth for their relief. 
 By the special command of God, the walls of Jericho fell 
 down at the blowing of rams' horns, by the priests, and the 
 city fsli mi easy cGmjuest to Joshua. This eyc^t iiinimWt 
 the host of Israel with confidence ; and their enemies in, 
 their turn were depressed, and became an easy prey. 
 
 Here end the 400 years sojourning, predicted by Abraham, 
 and the 40 years wandering in the desert. Again, the fami- 
 ly of Jacob (or Israel) are restored to the promised land, a 
 Jand flowing with milk and honey ; abounding with every 
 thing delightful to the eye, and pleasing to the taste. 
 
 It must not be understood th:it the whole family of Jacob, 
 which came out of Egypt, returned' to this land of promise. 
 Ail who were over twenty years of age when they came out, 
 were not permitted to carry with them, the corrupt and 
 idolatrous practices of Egypt, (in which they had been 
 eduacted,) into the land of Canaan. These all* died in the 
 wilderness ; but the youth, together with such as were born 
 in the wilderness, were trained up, by the special ^ispl-iy? of 
 God's providence and goodness, to enjoy the promised in- 
 herit'ince. 
 
 When these had taken possession of the country, under 
 Joshua, they divided up the land by tribes, side by side, as 
 
RECAPITULATION. i'7 
 
 the United States are divided : established their government, 
 whkh was a pure Theocracy ; the moral law, together with 
 their ritual, formed their constitution, and God was their 
 head. Under this form of government, they continued 350 
 years ; and had they been content with their condition, they 
 might have been the happiest people on earth. 
 
 But they, like Jeshurun, waxed fat and kicked ;. the voice 
 of murmur and discontent, continued to rise up to heaven 
 against them; they lusted after the idols and corruptions, of 
 the neighbouring nations ; and had not the same power, 
 which brought them into the land, been exerted in protecting 
 them from the corruptions of their own hearts, and the sword 
 of their enemies, they would soon have f illen a prey to them, 
 and returned back to the idolatry of the Chaldeans, their 
 fathers. The promises of God are sure ; fixed and unalter- 
 able are his purposes. Although he sometimes gives up his 
 people to the indulgence of their evil propensities ; he al- 
 ways makes their trials subservient to his own glory, and 
 their best good- . 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 WE have now accompanied Abraham and his posterity, 
 from Chaldea to Canaan, to Egypt, through their sufferings, 
 their deliverance, their journeyings in the wilderness, and 
 their restoration -to the land which God sware unto Abraham, 
 to give to him and his, for a possession-, when as yet he had 
 no child. We have, through the instrumentality of this won- 
 derful family, witnessed the manifestation of the knowl^ltrc 
 and character of the only true God, in the miraculous birth of 
 Isaac, in the faith of Abraham at the sacrifice, in the accom- 
 plishment of the prophecy upon Ishmael, in the narrative 
 of Joseph, in the displays of God to Moses, in the plagues of 
 Egypt, in the deliverance of the Hebrews at the Red Sea, 
 and the destruction of Pharaoh ; in the journeyings of 000,000 
 souls in a barren uncultivated desert, fed by the immediate 
 hand of God, with quails and manna from heaven ; and with 
 water in the same miraculous manner, from the dry and 
 flinty rock. 
 
 We have also witnessed the displays of the majesty of Je- 
 hovah, io giving the Moral Law at Mount Sinai, in forming 
 
 2* 
 
18 DEFECTION OF THE TWELVE TRIBES. 
 
 his true church with their service ; together with the judges 
 of Israel, upon the basis of this law ; and finally, his leading 
 the young stuck, (after destroying all the old idolaters in the 
 wilderness,) into the land which he had promised to their 
 fathers, and in planting that church which he had not only 
 formed, and nursed, by the special displays of his almighty 
 power and wisdom, by so many miracles, but which he de- 
 lighted to honor with his special presence, guidance, and di- 
 rection, and to preside over as its head, deliverer, and pro- 
 tector. "I am the Lord your God, who hath brought you 
 out of the land of Egypt, and out of the house of bondage, to 
 give unto you this goodly land, which I sware unto your fath- 
 ers, to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and to their seed after 
 them ; a land flowing with milk and honey." 
 
 Here in the midst of this renewed paradise of blessings, 
 we are called to witness the high and distinguished privile- 
 ges of that church from whence issued the accomplishment of 
 all the promises to f illen and ruined man. 
 
 The scenes of Eden were here renewed, every thing plea- 
 sing to the eye, and delightful to the taste, in the richest pro- 
 fusion, gladdened the hearts of this favored church ; the 
 presence and counsels of God directed their steps, the wis- 
 dora of God gave them understanding, and from his special 
 bounty their cup overflowed with blessings; all but Eden's 
 innocence was here. 
 
 But here too we are called to witness again the depravity 
 of the heart of man, and say, " it is desperately wicked, who 
 can know it ;" even here this chosen church, this favored of 
 heaven, amidst the satiety of enjoyment, renounced their 
 God, and demanded a king, like the nations of the earth ; and 
 Go I loft them to the lusts of their hearts, and in his wrath 
 gave them a king. 
 
 This demand of God that he should give them a king, was 
 a renunciation of God their king, and like the apostacy of par- 
 adise, laid the foundation for all their sufferings, and prepared 
 the way for all their subsequent calamities.* 
 
 They, like the first stock in paradise, fell, and entailed 
 upon themselves and their posterity, many calamities, dis- 
 tresses and judgments, and stand as a living monument to all 
 succeeding generations ; with this awful memento. " Let 
 him that standeth take heed lest he fall." 
 
 * See the chronicles of their kings 
 
DAVID AND 90JLOMON. 19 
 
 CHAP. V, 
 
 Change of Jewish Theocracy to the government of their Kings 
 Dispersion of the Ten Tribes by Psalmanazer Remarks. 
 
 WHEN the people of God were weary of his government, 
 and asked-aking, He granted their request, and gave them a 
 king in his wrath. Samuel the prophet, by divine permis- 
 sion, anointed Saul as their first king ; but God for his diso- 
 bedience rejected him, and by the special display of his pow- 
 er, appointed David the shepherd king, from which stock 
 sprang the Messiah. 
 
 God adapts all his means to their special ends. By the 
 sword of David, He established the defence and security of 
 his people. From him sprang Solomon, who in his wisdom 
 erected the temple at Jerusalem, established the splendor of 
 the temple worship, adorned and beautified the city, and pla- 
 ced the nation on the summit of renown, The lustre of the 
 Jewish nation, shone conspicuous in his reign, throughout 
 the world. 
 
 When this illustrious king was called to sleep with his fath- 
 ers, and his son Rehoboam had succeeded him, he by one 
 unguarded act, severed the nation, ten tribes against two. 
 The exclamation of Jeroboam, " To your tents, O Israel," 
 established Samaria, as the capital of the ten tribes, with 
 Jeroboam for their king ; in opposition to Jerusalem, and the 
 two tribes under Rehoboam. TLe divided strength of a 
 family or nation, is a sure pledge of their weakness, to the 
 fir^t enemy who may be disposed to invade them. 
 
 The truth of the remark was soon verified in this divided, 
 f: lien family. When the ten tribes had set up the calves of 
 D n and Bethel, and proclaimed " these be thy Gods, O Is- 
 rael" then the God of their fathers came out in judgment 
 agvinst them ; and sent Psalmanazer king of Assyria, with 
 a mighty army ; who overran their country, pillaged and 
 razed their cities, and carried them all away captive to 
 ISineveh, where they were swallowed up, and their name 
 was blotted out from the list of nations. 
 
 Moses having foreseen, by the inspiration of God, the de- 
 struction that should come upon his people, gave them sea- 
 sonable warning.* In this admonition, the sins which caus- 
 ed this calamity, together with their dispersion, are clearly 
 
 11 Deut. iv. 28, 
 
20 THE TEN TRIBES. 
 
 pointed out ; and as the same chapter, also promises their 
 restoration in the Litter days ; great search has been made 
 for them, throughout the habitable globe, bnt no traces of 
 them have yet been found. 
 
 By some, it has been conjectured, that they passed in a 
 body, through the wilds of Asia, crossed Beering's Straits, 
 on to the continent of America, and are to be found in our 
 western Indians. The plausible grounds for this conjecture 
 are, the similarity in their notions of the Supreme Being, 
 their guttural language, together with some manners and cus- 
 toms, and their divisions into tribes. 
 
 Dr. Buchanan, in his Asiatic Researches, points out some 
 features in the Affghans in Asia, together with reports of tra- 
 dition, that they are descendants of the ten tribes ; but he 
 does not appear to attach much confidence to the conjecture. 
 All the prophets are agreed in the restoration of this branch 
 f the fimily of Israel, to the land of their fathers, in the 
 fcitter days. God will assuredly accomplish his promise ; 
 but when, and in what manner, time alone can unfold. 
 * Blessed is he thatwaiteth, andcometh to, the one thousand 
 three hundred and thirty-five days." Dan. xii. 12. 
 
 The tribe of Judah, together with the small remains of the 
 tribe of Benjamin, who had escaped the punishment of the 
 sword, which God inflicted upon them by the hands of their 
 brethren, for their impiety and barbarity ; continued the 
 temple worship at Jerusalem, under a succession of kings, 
 two hundred and fifty years ; then they filled up the measure 
 f their iniquities, by violating the sabbath and the sanctuary. 
 
1HE FALL OP NINEV8. 21 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Destruction of Nineveh Conquest of Nebuchadnezzar Siege 
 Q J Tyre Conquest of Egypt Captivity of the two tribes 
 Displays of God in Babylon. 
 
 ABOUT one hundred and fifty years after the conquest and 
 captivity of the ten tribes, by Psalmanazer king of Nineveh ; 
 God raised up the Chaldeans, together with the Medes, (a 
 nation on the east of Babylon, and not far remote,) to chas- 
 tise the city of Nineveh for her idolatry, and cruelty to his 
 people. These mighty nations overran their kingdom, L;id 
 waste their country, took the city of Nineveh, razed it to its 
 foundation ; so that her place is not to be found, according 
 to the predictions of Nahum. 
 
 Thus fell great Nineveh, the pride of the east and the 
 conqueror of the west, whose sword had drenched in blood 
 the cities of Palestine, and ruined the ten tribes of the fami- 
 ly of Israel. 
 
 This conquest of the kingdom of Assyria, raised Babylon, 
 and opened the way for all her future greatness. She ex- 
 tended her arms into the east, and harrassed the Medes and 
 Persians with distressing wars. She carried her arms into 
 the west under l^euMciJHniHJzxHr, wl"n OVii-i-rin all Asia Minor, 
 entered Phenecin, and laid siege to the city of Tyre. This 
 city then stood upon the main land, was the great mart of 
 Asia with the west, and the richest city in the world. The 
 siege of Tyre made a distinguished figure in this expedition, 
 and the conquest of this cost Nebuchadnezzar a siege of 
 two years. The distresses of this siege were such as had 
 never been experienced ; and the Tyrians, by their firm and 
 desperate resistance, caused the prediction of the prophet 
 Ezekiel to be fully verified, " every head shall be bald, and 
 every shoulder pealed." Chap. xxix. 18, 19. 
 
 When the Tyrians found all further resistance would be 
 ineffectual, they removed their families and effects on to an 
 island, about three fourths of a mile from their city ; here, by 
 the assistance of their shig, they protected and secured their 
 wealth against all further attempts from the conqueror, and 
 laid the foundation of that city, which became so distinguish- 
 ed in the siege of Alexander, under the name of modern Tyre. 
 Nebuchadnezzar carried his arms into Egypt, which foil 
 an easy prey to the conqueror j with the spoils of Egypt he 
 
22 DISPLAYS OF GOD. 
 
 enriched his army, and they rioted in the luxaries of Egypt, 
 as a reward for their services at the siege of Tyre. 
 
 From Egypt, the conqueror carried his arms into Pales- 
 tine, overran the country, laid waste the cities, and besieged 
 Jerusalem. The distresses of this siege are as memorable 
 as the siege of Tyre ; but the wretchedness of the Jews, 
 surpassed all description. Wasted by the sword, famine and 
 pestilence, those terrible judgments of heaven, they fell a 
 prey to the conqueror, who gave their city up to pillage, 
 carried the remnant of the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin* 
 away to Babylon, with the spoils of their city and temple, 
 and swept their country with the besom of destruction.* 
 
 When Nebuchadnezzar had settled the conquest of the west, 
 he returned to Babylon with the spoils of Asia Minor, Phe- 
 m'cia, Egypt, Syria and Palestine, together with the remnant 
 of the family of Israel ; Zedekiah their king graced his 
 train. 
 
 With the spoils of the west, Nebuchadnezzar greatly en- 
 riched and beautified his favorite city, Babylon ; then the 
 scourge of the nations, and mistress of the earth, and rioted 
 in the fruits of his conquests ; here the bondage of Egypt 
 was again renewed, and the captive sons of Israel became 
 the servants of the king of Babylon, to convert the spoils of 
 Jerusalem and the citias of the we?*, int^ the splendor and 
 magnificence of Babylon ; but the most dark and mysterious 
 ways of God, are often the means of illustrating the wisdom-, 
 goodness and majesty of his character. 
 
 When Nebuchadnezzar had disposed of his spoils, and 
 trophies, he caused seven of the princes of Judah to be se- 
 lected, educated, and trained for the special service of his 
 court, which opened the way for such a display of the pow- 
 er and majesty of God, by a succession of dreams, visions, 
 miracles, judgments, and prophecies, as astonished the king, 
 the nation, and the world ; unfolded a succession of events 
 which have employed the pens of all historians from that day 
 to this, and will continue to employ them, to the great con- 
 summation of all things. 
 
 That same family, who had been the instruments of the 
 displays of the character of God in Egypt, in the wilderaess ? 
 
 | 
 
 * Jer. xxxis. 
 
PTJNrSHMENT OP NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 23 
 
 and in Palestine, were now become the instruments to dis- 
 play the character of the one true God, to that same idola- 
 trous nation from whence he had called Abraham, more than 
 one thousand years before. The wonderfisl displays of this 
 Almighty power are faithfully recorded in the whole book of 
 the great prophet Daniel, for the instruction and correction 
 of a profligate world. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, God accomplished upon Ne- 
 buchadnezzar the vision of the tree, (see Dan. iv. 4, 18,) and 
 when in the pride of his heart he was exulting in the magni- 
 ficence of his favorite city, saying, " Is not great Babylon 
 which I have built, for the honor of my majesty, and the 
 glory of my kingdom, 5 ' the finger of God touched him, and 
 he was deprived of his reason, driven from his kingdom, 
 made to take up his abode with the beasts of the field, and did 
 eat grass with the ox seven years. 
 
 At the expiration of seven years God restored Nebuchad- 
 nezzar to his understanding and his kingdom, and caused the 
 humiliation of the king to praise him. Instead of saying, 
 " Is not this great Babylon which I have built for the honor 
 of my majesty," he lifted up his eyes to heaven, and blessed 
 'the most high God ; and praised and honored him that liveth 
 for ever aud ever, adding, " none can stay his hand, neither 
 may any say unto him what doest thou." 
 
 In the various displays of his power in the family of Abra- 
 ham, God had manifested to the world, why he called Abra- 
 ham out of the land of Chaldea, into the wiiderness of Ca- 
 naan, inflicted on his posterity the bondage of Egypt, and 
 led them through their forty years journeyings in the wilder- 
 ness ; it was to effect the establishment of his church in the 
 land of their fathers. 
 
 By these astonishing displays of his power, he made it 
 manifest to the world, why he blotted out the ten tribes from 
 the list of nations, and carried away the remnant of the two 
 tribes to Babylon, even that he might root out the idolatry of 
 his church, and by his chastisements, and corrections, lead 
 them back to himself, and at the same time, through the in- 
 strumentality of his own children, magnify his name amongst 
 the same idolatrous nations, from whence he had called 
 Abraham ; extort this confession from Nebuchadnezzar, 
 v that the God of the Hebrews is the only true God ;" and 
 this decree of the king, " that all nation* and languages un- 
 
24 CONQUEST OP CYRUS, 
 
 der the whole heaven, should honour the God of Daniel, and 
 all people should serve hln." 
 
 Thus having accomplished his threefold purpose of bring- 
 ing i his church by his corrections, to humility and obedi- 
 ence ; magnifying his mftneand his glory to Nebuchadnezzar 
 and his kingdom, leaving on record these wonderful displays 
 for the instruction of the world to the latest generations ; 
 God prepared the way for the restoration of his people, and 
 the rebuilding of the city of Jerusalem.* 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Conquest of Cyrus -fall of Babylon restoration of the 
 expedition of Darius of Xerxes pass of Thermopylae. 
 
 DURING the displays of divine power in Babylon, Nebu- 
 chadnezzar died, and was succeeded by his son, whose 
 reign was short, and next by his grandson Belshazzar. Be- 
 tween him and Cyaxares king of the Medes, a war sprang up, 
 in which Cyrus, king of the Persians, was engaged as an 
 ally : a battle was soon fought, in which the Babylonians 
 were defeated, put to flight with great slaughter, and compel- 
 led to sue for peace. 
 
 This Cyaxares was about to grant, when Cyrus objected, 
 urging that now was the favourable opportunity to punish the 
 Babylonians for their tyranny and cruelty ; and that if the 
 king would entrust him with the command of his army, he 
 would march to Babylon, and chastise that haughty city. 
 Cyaxares, admiring the spirit of this young hero, then twen- 
 ty-five years of age, yielded to his request, and returned t 
 his court in Media. 
 
 Cyrus, who was called by name by the prophet Isniah, 
 two hundred years before he was born, when that prophet 
 predicted the destruction of Babylon, was now about to en- 
 ter upon bis commission, and execute the decrees of heav- 
 en against that city, who had enriched herself with the 
 spoils of nations, who said in her heart, " I sit a queen, I am 
 no widow, I shall see no sorrow," and knew not thejudg- 
 
 * Tsriah 43, 44, 45. Jer. 23. Book &i Ezra. 
 
 * Isaiah 45 and 46. 
 
PALL OP BABYLON. 25 
 
 ments God had in store for her, and which he had denounced 
 against her ; and who, to fill up the measure of her iniquities, 
 then held the two tribes of Israel in bondage. 
 
 Thus commissioned by God, and armed by his authority, 
 Cyrus entered upon the plains of Shinar, and laid siege to 
 Babylon. The Babylonians, unable to keep the fiel* 
 fled, and taken refuge within their walls, where they felt 
 themselves secure, with astore of provision fortwenty years. 
 
 Cyrus invested the city so closely, that all communication 
 from without was cut off ; he next prepared a canal, by which 
 he could turn the waters of the Euphrates, into the Tigris, 
 and thereby lay bare the channel of the river. During these 
 operations, Belshazzar the king was rioting in his palace, 
 with his wives, his concubines, and all his court, and drinking 
 wine with impious profanation, out of the sacred vessels, 
 his grandfather Nebuchadnezzar had brought from the holy 
 temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 A mante hand appeared, and wrote upon the wall, over 
 against the king, these words : mene, tekel, upharsin ; the 
 conscience of the king upbraided him, and his knees Fmote 
 together with fear. Daniel was called, who thus interpreted 
 the writing ; " Thy days are numbered and finished, thy 
 kingdom is divided, and given to the Medes and Persians." 
 
 The same night, amidst this impious festivity, the strata- 
 gem of the canal was executed ; the river was drained, and 
 Cyrus entered the city by an unguarded gate, on the side c^ 
 the river, overturned all in his way, entered the palace, put 
 the king and all his court to the sword, and made himself 
 master of Babylon. 
 
 Thus fell great Babylon, the pride and ornament of the 
 Chaldean monarchy, the mistress of the world, and the head 
 of gold in the vision of Nebuchadnezzar ; and thus the em- 
 pire of Media was established upon the ruins of the Chalde- 
 an Monarchy. 
 
 Cyaxares, then an old man, and uncle to Cyrus, upon the 
 side of his mother, soon died, and left the crown of Media 
 to Cyrus, as the rightful heir ; thus uniting the three kingdoms 
 of Chaldea, Media and Persia, in one, with Cyrus foritshead. 
 
 The first act of importance recorded of Cyrus, was his de- 
 cree for the deliverance, and restoration of the Jews, to the 
 land of their fathers. This decree was accomplished, Tvith 
 the necessary supplies for carrying it into execution ; the 
 seventy years captivity was closed, and the remnant of the 
 3 
 
Z6 EXPEDITION OF DARIUS. 
 
 two tribes was restored to Jerusalem, to rebuild their city 
 arid temple under Zerubabel, and Ezra. See Ezra 1st chap- 
 ter. 
 
 Thus we are led again to see with what precision the de- 
 crees of the Most high are accomplished, " that he setteth 
 up kings, and putteth down kings, and none can deliver out 
 of his hand." 
 
 Cyrus, thus seated upon the throne of the Medo Persian 
 empire, (which became the breast and arms of silver in the 
 image of Nebuchadnezzar,) was now the greatest monarch 
 the world had ever known ; he united the three kingdoms by 
 wise and energetic laws, ruled in wisdom, laid the founda-v 
 tions of that empire which became so conspicuous in suc- 
 ceeding reigns, and died 529 years before Christ. 
 
 We will pass over the successive reigns as uninteresting, 
 until we come to the reign of Darius, father of Xerxes ; he 
 was fired with the ambition of his ancestors, raised a pow- 
 erful army, marched into the west, crossed the Hfllespont, 
 marched through Thrace, crossed the Danube, and com- 
 menced operations against the ancient Scythians of Europe. 
 These hardy sons of the forest, drew him into their wilds, 
 by flying before him, laid waste their country, and harassed 
 him in his march, until he despaired of success, and at- 
 tempted to retire from the war ; the barbarians had suc- 
 ceeded in their stratagem, they fell upon him with great fu- 
 ry, routed, dispersed and destroyed his army, and Darius re- 
 turned a fugitive into Persia, where he died soon after, leav- 
 ing his throne to his son Xerxes. He was the prince of Per- 
 sia described in Daniel's scriptures of truth, " as being far 
 richer than all others, who should stir up all against the 
 realm of Grecia." Chap. xi. 2. 
 
 Xerxes assembled a powerful army, amounting to five 
 million souls, (according to Mr. Rollin,) marched into the 
 west, crossed the Hellespont, and invaded the states of 
 Greece, then lying on the eastern borders of Europe, w r here 
 Turkey in Europe now is.* 
 
 Greece was then in its infancy, divided into a number of 
 small states, hordes, or clans, independent of each other, 
 speaking the same language under a variety of dialects ; 
 without union, without money, without allies, and unpre- 
 pared, even for any invasion. 
 
 * Appendix, M 
 
EXPEDITION OF XERXES. 27 
 
 When Xerxes appeared on their borders with his immense 
 host, they began to confederate for common safety. In this, 
 their first effort for defence, they were near being ruined in 
 the qhoice of a general ; such was the jealousy of these rival 
 sons of liberty. When they were united in this, they were 
 equally ditressed in the choice of a commander for their 
 fleet ; when they were agreed on this also, their numbers 
 were so small as not to be put in competition with the whole 
 eastern world, which was assembled against them. 
 
 The powerful force of the king, and the defenceless situa- 
 tion of Greece, inspired him with the highest confidence of 
 success, he constructed abridge of boats, passed the Helles- 
 pont, entered upon the plains of Greece, and penetrated into 
 the heart of their country, without opposition, until he ap- 
 proached the pass of Thermopylae ; here he was met by Le- 
 onidas, with three hundred Spartans, who checked his pro- 
 gress, and held at bay the whole force of Persia. 
 
 When Leonidas had learnt that Xerxes was about to force 
 his passage through the by-roads of the mountain, by the 
 aid ofa treacherous Greek, and thus enclose his little band, 
 he assembled his three hundred Spartans, put himself at their 
 head, marched through the defile, in dead of night, and, with 
 sword in hand, rushed like a torrent upon the Persian camp, 
 overturning all in his course, until he had nearly reached 
 the tent of the king; here, amidst the terrible conflict of car- 
 nage nnd of death, they all fell a sacrifice to the swords of the 
 Persians, except one, who was ever after treated by his 
 countrymen as a fugitive, and vagabond, because he prefer- 
 red life to dory. 
 
 This daring and heroic assault, so intimidated the king, 
 that he no longer considered himself safe in the midst of his 
 legions, but betook himself to his fleet, as a place of more 
 safety, and where he hop^d much from a naval victory, be- 
 cause it was superior to the Grecian, and left the command 
 of his army with Mardonius, his principal general. Here the 
 Greeks were ready to meet his wishes. The fleets met near 
 Salamin, an action was fought, and a victory obtained, which 
 ruined the Persian fleet. Xerxes escaped, and fled into 
 Persia, and his Queen, by a most masterly stratagem and ad- 
 dress, secured her ship, and flight, and followed the king. 
 They both returned safe to Babylon. 
 
 Mardonius, with the host of Persia, moved with renewed 
 caution, until the Greeks forced him to a battle at Platen, ; 
 
28 CIVIL WAR IN PERSIA. 
 
 here followed a victory, as glorious on the land, as the for- 
 mer had boon on the sea. Mardonius was killed, and of 
 three ir hundred thousand men, ofthe Persian army en- 
 
 a: I, iiot more than three hundred escaped to return into 
 Persia. Thus ended the greatest enterprize that had ever 
 been attempted, with the greatest overthrow that had ever 
 been witnessed. 
 
 The Greeks thus secured from foreign invasion, were left 
 to cultivate their soil, improve the arts and siences, extend 
 their commerce,and exert their military prowess, in their own 
 private and domestic quarrels, the most distinguished of which 
 was the Peloponncsian war, which lasted twenty-five years. 
 
 During these civil broils in Greece, a civil war sprung up 
 in Persia : th5 younger Cyrus conspired against his brother 
 Artaxerxes, who was upon the throne, passed over into 
 Greece, levied a body of fifteen or twenty thousand troops, 
 and led them into Asia, where he was joined by a large body 
 of Persians, from the province over which he was governor ; 
 with this force he marched towards Babylon, to attack the 
 king, who, apprized ofthe conspiracy, had assembled an ar- 
 my, and gone forth to meet him. 
 
 The two armies soon met ; a desperate action ensued ; the 
 wing of the army, in which the Greeks were posted, was vic- 
 torious, the wing of the Persian army which engaged them, 
 was routed and lied the Greeks pursued. At the same time 
 Cyrus, who commanded the centre, discovered his brother 
 Artaxerxes, at th head of his troops, and exclamed " I see 
 him," put spurs to his horse, rushed into the thickest of the 
 battle, attended by his guards, and made a desperate assault 
 upon his brother : here, engaged hand to hand, the two he- 
 roes fought for the fate ofthe kingdom, when the stroke of a 
 soldier struck Cyrus dead at the feet of his brother. A terri- 
 ble carnage ensued ; Cyrus' army vas routed, and cut to 
 pieces. The Greeks, who had pursued their victory too far, 
 were cut off from the army, and obliged to trust to the valour 
 of their own swords, for their safety and protection. Thus 
 the insurrection of Cyrus was closed. 
 
 Artaxerxes returned to Babylon, and left his principal gen- 
 eral, to pursue, and destroy, the remains ofthe Greeks. Ten 
 thousand ofthe descendants of the heroes of Thermopylae, of 
 Salamin, and Plntas, were now left, destitute of succour, in 
 the h^jrt of Persia, either to deliver themselves up as cap- 
 tives, and endure the whips and scorn, and mutilations of the 
 
RISE AND FALL OP PHiLIP. 29 
 
 Persians ; to fall a desperate sacrifice to their own valour, on 
 the plains of Persia ; or make a desperate retreat into their 
 own country. 
 
 They chose the latter ; and this little phalanx, under 
 Xenophon, their leader, retired in presence of the victorious 
 army of Artaxerxes, into the northern provinces of Armenia 
 and Georgia, and from thence over mountains and forests 
 covered with snow, through the uncultivated wilds, and 
 more unculivated savage nations, all of them in arms ; in the 
 presence of a pursuing army, until they reached the borders 
 of the Black Sea. Here they embarked, and by a passage, 
 not less perilous from the wintry blasts of the north winds, 
 than from the swords of the barbarians, they landed safe 
 near where Byzantium then stood, (now Constantinople,) 
 and passed safely to their own homes, to the*inexpressible 
 joy of their friends, and the astonishment of the world. 
 
 During these adventures abroad, the Greeks continued to 
 cultivate the arts, enlarge and embellish their cities, perfect 
 the science of letters, and display to the world a succession 
 of the greatest heroes, orators, statesmen and poets, together 
 with the greatest masters in the fine arts, that have ever em- 
 bellished the world ; until the great Philip, king of Macedon, 
 arose. This prince, artful, subtle, and powerful, aspired 
 to the conquest of the states of Greece, and of the world. 
 
 Philip matured his plans, by increasing his treasury, as- 
 sembling a strong militarv force, training his invincible Ma- 
 cedonian phalanx, upon new and improved principles, and by 
 lulling the neighboring states into security, by his orators, or 
 by his gold. 
 
 When he was about to strike the fatal blow to the liber- 
 ties of his country, he was killed at a public assembly, by 
 the sword of a young Greek. Thus fell Philip the ambi- 
 tious ; and through his fall, the liberties of Greece were 
 once more preserved. 
 
 Alexander, the son and successor of Philip, upon his ac- 
 cess to the throne of Macedon, found himself in possession 
 of all the vast preparations of his father, and being fired with 
 the same ambition, he soon found opportunity to carry into 
 effect all his plans. 
 
 Alexander assembled the same army which his father had 
 trained put himself at its head, and at a blow overthrew 
 the liberties of his country, and erected his standard in tri- 
 umph over those states, which the gold of his father had 
 
30 EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER. 
 
 lulled into security ; and when he had settled the govern- 
 ment of his country, prepared to take vengeance on those 
 haughty Persians, who had, with their legions, outraged the 
 liberties of Greece. 
 
 The eloquence of Demosthenes, the wisdom of Solon 
 and Lycurgue, and the boasted democracy of Greece, which 
 taught, that liberty, valor, patriotism, industry, economy, and 
 even frugality were the greatest virtues, had all fallen a sa- 
 crifice to the despotic sword of Alexander ; and this young 
 hero, of twenty-five years of age, now rose up like a Co- 
 lossus to bestride the world. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Expedition of Alexander Fall of the Persian Monarchy* 
 
 BEFORE we enter upon this extensive expedition, let us 
 consult the sacred volume, and see what commission God 
 had given Alexander, by the mouth of his prophets. 
 
 During the reign of the impious Belshazzar king of Bab- 
 ylon, who was slain at the conquest of Cyrus, we find the 
 vision of Daniel the Prophet, of the ram and he-goat, as re- 
 corded in the 8th chapter of Daniel. Impressed with the 
 importance of this vision, and the interpretation, let us ac- 
 company Alexander across the same arm of the sea, which 
 Xerxes formerly crossed when he invaded Greece, on to the 
 pi vins of Asia ; let us accompany him to the bank of the 
 Granicus ; (a small river of Asia Minor, which falls into the 
 sea of Marmora,) here he was met by a numerous Persian 
 army to oppose his march. 
 
 As soon as Alexander approached the river in view of the 
 Persians, he lost not a moment, but plunged his horse into 
 the river : the whole army followed ; the Persians disputed 
 the passage with their whole force ; the action was desperate, 
 ar -"I the victory decisive ; the Persians were routed and fled ; 
 Alexander pursued, and their army was destroyed. This 
 victory, considering the time, place, and circumstances, may 
 be considered as a literal fulfilment of the vision of the Ram. 
 The fruits of this victory opened an easy passage through 
 Asia Minor ; and Alexander moved without further opposi- 
 tion, until he met Darius the Persian king, at the pass of Ci- 
 
SIEGE OF TYRE, 31 
 
 iicia. Here, by a stratagem, he drew Darius into the narrow 
 defiles of the mountains, where numbers could not avail him, 
 and by a desperate action, gained a decisive victory ; took 
 and dispersed his army, together with the queen, and house- 
 hold of Darius, with all the treasure of his camp. Darius, 
 with the shattered remains of his army, fled into Persia. 
 
 Alexander, after having paid suitable honors ,gpd render- 
 ed proper testimonies of respect to the family of Darius, 
 moved his army, by the way of the sea, into Phoenicia, and 
 laid siege to the city of Tyre. 
 
 That city which had been built from the ruins of ancient 
 Tyre, formerly taken by Nebuchadnezzar, now stood on an 
 island, the seat of the wealth, and commerce of the world. 
 Here Alexander, like Nebuchadnezzar, met with desperate 
 resistance, and a long and distressing siege ; which called 
 forth all the talents of the conqueror, and all the energies of 
 his army ; at length valour and perseverance prevailed, the 
 city was carried by assault, and the riches of Tyre were con- 
 verted into instruments of future conquests. 
 
 Alexander pursued his rout into Egypt, which fell an easy 
 prey ; here he enriched his army with the spoils of Egypt ; 
 caused himself to be worshipped as the son of Jupiter Am- 
 mon ; and built the city of Alexandria, which still bears his 
 name. 
 
 When he had settled the affairs of Egypt, Alexander re- 
 turned into Asia, finished the conquest of Syria, and appear- 
 ed before Jerusalem ; here the high priest came out to meet 
 the conqueror, clad in all his royal vestments, attended by 
 all his court, and attempted to prostrate himself before Alex- 
 ander, and do him homage ;* but Alexander forbade him, 
 saying, that he had seen in a vision in his own country, a man 
 of his character and appearance, and he treated the high 
 priest with great civility and respect. 
 
 When this ceremony was ended, the high priest conducted 
 Alexander into the temple ; unfolded, and explained to him 
 all the prophecies, relating to the conquest of Persia ; par- 
 ticularly the vision of the ram and he-goat, Daniel's vision 
 of the four beasts, and the dream of Nebuchadnezzar's great 
 image ; all which so impressed Alexander, that he was to be 
 the conqueror of Asia, that he took the Jews into his special 
 favor, treated them with great respect and kindness, made 
 
 * See Exodus xsviii. where may be found a description of this cu- 
 noas dress. 
 
32 FALL OF PERSIA. 
 
 them rich presents,* gave them his blessing, and then pursued 
 his march to Babylon. 
 
 Nothing of importance occurred, during his passage of the 
 mountains lying between Palestine and Babylon : when he 
 came down upon the plains of Persia, he passed the Euphra- 
 tes in quest of Darius, and came up with him posted upon 
 the banks of the Tigris, surrounded by all his court, and at 
 the head of%ll the vast armies of Persia, where he* awaited 
 the conqueror. 
 
 Here opened anew the battle of the Granicus ; Alexander 
 ordered the charge ; plunged into the river at the head of 
 his army ; and encountered perils, from the depth of the 
 river and rapidity of the current, such as he had not before 
 experienced ; his army was broken by the stream, and thrown 
 into disorder ; but all this he surmounted, gained the oppo- 
 site bank, amidst the darts of the Persians ; drew up his army, 
 and commenced the attack. 
 
 Darius was routed, his army cut to pieces and destroyed, 
 and he himself fled into Armenia, (a province on the north,) 
 where he was slain by Bessus, governor of Bactria. Alex- 
 ander pursued and overtook Darius just in time to revenge 
 the insult offered to fallen majesty, by causing Bessus to be 
 mutilated and slain. He then returned, and marched to 
 Babylon, which opened her gates to the conqueror, and here 
 he gave his army repose. 
 
 Thus fell the kingdom of Persia ; which arose out of the 
 kingdoms of Chaldea, Assyria, Media, Persia and the king- 
 doms of the west, which were all united under Cyrus at the 
 conquest of Babylon. Thus fell the head of gold, and the 
 breast and arms of silver, in the great image of Nebuchadnez- 
 zar ; thus fell the second great beast in Daniel's vision, and 
 the kingdom of the belly, and thighs of brass was established 
 upon their ruins under the dominion of the he*goat. 
 
 Thus ended the kingdoms of Nebuchadnezzar and of Cy- 
 rus, which under the vision of the tree, grew and filled the 
 whole earth, and thus was verified the denunciations of the 
 prophet ; " They that lead into captivity, shall go into cap- 
 tivity ; they that kill with the sword, shall be killed with 
 the sword ;" such are the decrees of the Most High, who 
 ruleth in the affairs of the kingdoms of men. 
 

 ftREEK EMPIRE ESTABLISHED, 33 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Alexander establishes the empire of the Greeks upon the ruins 
 of the Persian dies division of the Grecian Empire rise 
 of the Roman Empire of the Carthagenian their wars 
 fall of Carthage revolutions of the Roman Empire. 
 
 WHEN Alexander had reposed his army, and settled the 
 government, he took his route through the eastern provinces,, 
 which fell an easy prey to the conqueror ; built cities after 
 his own name, and settled their governments, until he arrived 
 at the river Indus. He then turned aside, and followed its 
 banks to the Ocean ; rejoiced his army once more with a 
 view of the sea; marched into the northern provinces, sub 
 dued them in succession, waged war with the Scythians, with 
 great peril, and returned to Babylon ; established the gov- 
 ernment of the Greeks upon the ruins of the Babylonian ; but 
 preserved all the splencror, pomp, homage and ceremonies 
 of the Persian court. Thus the vision was fulfilled. 
 
 Alexander who had now become a Persian in the rnidst of 
 his Greeks, gave great offence to those generals, whose va- 
 lour had led his brave troops to victory, and to conquest ; and 
 they dared to express what their hearts so justly opposed ; 
 Clytus, his friend who had saved his life, and Calisthenes the 
 brave, fell a sacrifice to the unrestrained fury of the tyrant. 
 
 That simplicity of manners, that had nursed that Grecian 
 valor, which had hewn out the way to empire for this con- 
 queror of the world, was now exchanged for Persian pomp 
 and corruption, and the stern Greeks saw their king lost in 
 sensuality. 
 
 Having rioted in all the luxuries of eastern pomp, and ef- 
 feminacy for six years, this he-goat of the west, this son of 
 Jupiter Ammon ; this hero of the east ; this conqueror of 
 the world ; fell a prey to his own licentiousness, and died as 
 a fool dieth, in the excess of his cups. 
 
 Here again the scriptures of truth in the 1 Hh chapter of 
 Daniel were fulfilled : his kingdom was divided between his 
 four principal generals, to the exclusion of his own family, 
 Cassanojer, held Babylon and the provinces of the east ; Ly- 
 simachus, held Thrace, with Greece and Asia Minor ; Se- 
 leucus, held Syria ; and Ptolemy held Egypt. 
 
 The wars of the Seleucida3 in Syria, between the Jews on 
 fhe north, and the Ptolemies of Egypt on the south, have so ex- 
 actly fulfilled the prophecies of this lltb chapter of Daniel, 
 
34 BEATH OF ALEXANDER. 
 
 that many have supposed they were written after the events , 
 particularly those which relate to the persecutions of the 
 Jews ; their distresses under Antiochus Epiphanes, his de- 
 predations and massacres, together with the destruction of 
 their temple ; his violation of the rights of their holy religion, 
 in causing them to eat swine's flesh ; his profanation of their 
 sanctuary, in causing them to offer it upon their altars to their 
 God. These sacrilegious cruelties have led many to suppose 
 Antiochus to be the type, or forerunner of Antichrist. 
 
 These scourges of the church of God, and of the world, 
 continued their depredations down to the conquest of the Ro- 
 mans, about sixty-live years before Christ. The wars be- 
 tween the Syrians and Egyptians, were almost perpetual ; 
 and yet the descendants of Ishmael, who inhabit Arabia, ly- 
 ing partly between the two, dwelt quietly, and were not entan- 
 gled in their wars. Thus far a fulfilment of the promise of 
 God to Ishmael. 
 
 Since the call of Abraham, God %as displayed himself to 
 men, by the majesty of his power and goodness, in planting 
 and building up his church ; has rolled on one great event 
 after another, to chastise his own people for theiridolatry, and 
 backslidings ; and scourge their enemies for their corrup- 
 tions, as well as their cruelties to his people and church. 
 
 We have witnessed the revolutions of the three great em- 
 pires of the image of Nebuchadnezzar, and the three first 
 beasts of Daniel's vision ; we have now come down to the 
 fourth kingdom, as expressed by the legs of iron in the image. 
 and the fourth beast of the vision, strong exceedingly, with 
 great iron teeth. 
 
 Before we commence this part of our narrative, let us go 
 back and examine the origin of the Romans, or fourth king- 
 dom, and learn their character. 
 
 In the year 1480 before Christ, was founded the city of 
 T . oy, upon the eastern borders of the sea, now called Archi- 
 pelago, between the settlements in Asia Minor, and ancient 
 Greece. Paris, son of Priam king of Troy, was guilty of out- 
 rage to a Grecian princess ; this kindled a war, and all Greece 
 was in arms to' revenge the indignity. Troy was besieged 
 by the Greeks, and at the end often years fell a sacrifice to 
 their artful stratagems, and was razed to its foundations 
 blotted out from the list of cities, and the Trojans from the 
 fist of nations. This war called into action the genius of 
 Homer, the father of epic poetry, to celebrate the feats of 
 arms at the siege of Troy. 
 
A sma 
 
 DIVISION OF THE GRECIAN EMPIRE. 35 
 
 small colony sprung from the ruins of this renowned city, 
 under JEneas their leader, passed into Italy, and laid the 
 foundations of the Roman state. ' In the year 753 before 
 Christ, about the time of the dispersion of the ten tribes into 
 Nineveh, and the east, Romulus who was then their chief, 
 laid the foundations of the city of Rome. This little city, 
 in the midst of a ruda, savage country, grew up by incessant 
 wars, at the expense of her neighbours, until it swallowed 
 up all other kingdoms, and gave laws to the world.* 
 
 Rome was checked and harassed in her progress by her 
 great rivaf, Carthage, about four hundred years. 
 
 Carthage sprang from ancient Tyre, by a colony, which, in 
 the year 1259 before Christ, in the time of the judges of Is- 
 rael, was led into Africa, by queen Dido. Her character 
 was like that of the Tyrians, commercial, corrupt, avaricious 
 and practising the idolatry of the ancient Assyrians and Pheni- 
 cians, with the barbarous custom, or rite, of human sacrifice. 
 
 The ambition of the Carthagenians, in their early ages, 
 was carried in their wars, into Spain, Sicily, Rhodes and the 
 isles of the sea. The Greeks were commercial, and checked 
 their depredations in the Archipelago, until the Romans 
 were compelled by these ambitious neighbours, to turn their 
 attention to their fleet. 
 
 The city of Carthage, which stood upon the north of Afri- 
 ca, upon the bay where Tunis now stands, was founded about 
 1233 before Christ, as a rival of Tyre ; became the seat of 
 the commerce of the north of Africa, and of the west ; but 
 the limits of her territory being so narrowly circumscribed 
 by the great desert of Barca, and the kingdom of Numidia, 
 that she could acquire an extent of territory, only by foreign 
 conquest ; this exhausted her treasure, trained her rival to 
 arms, and proved her ruin. 
 
 The governments of these states were monarchial ; that 
 of Carthage continued ; but the government of Rome was 
 changed into a consular government, under their fifth king 
 Tarquin, and the senate, with two consuls, chosen annually, 
 by the people, governed Rome for the space of eight hun- 
 dred years, and raised her to the summit of her greatness. 
 
 The rival strength of these two cities was first called into 
 action, in the contest for the island of Sicily, next carried in- 
 to Africa, raged with violence by sen and bind, tweiity-twc* 
 years, and was closed favourably to the Romans. 
 
 * Appendix R. 
 
3% CIVIL WAR IN ROME. 
 
 tribes, and states, hat! now to drink of the cup of her own 
 affliction, which grew out of her ambition. 
 
 A great question at this time arost^ at Rome, between her 
 two greatest consuls, Cesar and Pompey, which should rule. 
 This, like all other such questions, led to an appeal to the 
 sword, and a civil war commenced ; the great champions 
 collected their armies, and retired into the country of the 
 Greeks ; they met at Pharsalia, and an action commenced, 
 the conflict was worthy of the chiefs and their companions in 
 arms ; the prize was home. Cesar prevailed ; Pompey 
 fled to Egypt ; the terror of Cesar's arms had gone before 
 him, Egypt durst not give asylum to a Roman fugitive ; 
 Pompey landed in Egypt, fell by the hand of the assassin, and 
 thus left to Cesar the quiet possession of Rome, sixty years 
 before Christ. 
 
 Ambition had cherished the virtues and liberties of Rome, 
 and laid the foundation of all her greatness. Virtue, liberty, 
 und ambition combined, raised her triumphs over Carthage, 
 with Africa, Europe and Asia, and seated her upon the throne 
 c>f the world. Here her virtue expired ; luxury, effeminacy, 
 Jind corruption succeeded ; jealousy, faction, and a corrupt 
 ambition followed, with all that train of furious passions, rchicfi 
 are the life and soul of factions in all states, and armed the 
 nation against herself. 
 
 Factions, the bane of all states and empires, when once 
 formed, seldom if ever close, without the triumph of party ; 
 and this triumph generally seals the liberties of the people, 
 by the energies of government. 
 
 The factions of Rome had long preyed upon the virtues of 
 the state, until they had sown the seeds of corruption amongst 
 the people ; and then their chiefs, with the sword, caused 
 them to become the instruments of their own slavery and ruin. 
 
 The genius of the Roman government favored the revolu- 
 tion we have witnessed, by placing so great power in the 
 hands of their military chiefs, without a balance of power in 
 the senate to check and control it. This, when regulated by 
 virtue, and foreign conquest, was not only safe, but the great 
 spring which raised Rome to the summit of her glory. 
 
 When the virtues of the state, and the ambition of foreign 
 conquest were removed, and faction prevailed, the sword of 
 conquest was turned by Cesar, and 'Pompey, against the lib- 
 erties of their country, and filled Rome with butchery and 
 distress ; great Cato fell ; Pompey fell ; that senate which 
 
A conspiracy had been laid by the Senators, to take the life 
 of CtEsar, and the day on which he was to be offered the crown 
 was affixed for its execution. Accordingly on that day, C&sar 
 having entered the senate house, and taken his seat, the Sena- 
 tors came near, under pretence of saluting him. Cimlnr, who 
 was one of them, approaching him in a suppliant posture, took 
 hold of his robe and held him so as to prevent his rising. Bru- 
 tus and Cassius (leaders of the conspiracy,) utith others, then 
 precipitated their daggers into his body, sifter defending him- 
 self manfully, he fell, having received twenty three wounds, 
 from hands which he vainly supposed had been disarmed by his 
 benefit*. 
 
CIVIL WAR IN R051E. 39 
 
 kid been the terror and admiration of the world, fell; the 
 pride and glory of the Roman state, her liberty, fell; and 
 Cesar was lord of Rome. 
 
 Cesar had triumphed over Pompey, and the liberties of 
 Rome, and was now, imperial dictator in the heart of the 
 world ; but the virtue of Rome was not all gone ; Brutus yet 
 lived, Cassius, Cicero and others had yet survived the fall of 
 Pompey and Cato, and when Cesar had declared that Rome 
 must be imperial, and Cesar the emperor, they slew him in 
 the midst of his senate ; not that Senate which had Cato for 
 its head, he had yielded up his life with the liberties of his 
 country, upon the point of his own sword, and the glory of 
 that senate was lost in the fall of Cato. 
 
 The fall of Cesar, opened afresh the civil wars of Rome. 
 Anthony, the friend of Cesar ; Brutus and Cassius, the aven- 
 gers of their country ; Octavius Cesar, then a youth, the ne- 
 phew of Julius Cesar, and heir by adoption, set up their 
 claims, and drew the sword. 
 
 The struggle between these conflicting interests, was long 
 and severe : Rome bled at every pore ; the field, the block, 
 and the scaffold, wasted the best blood of the nation. In this 
 great struggle, the great Tully fell, under the axe of proscrip- 
 tion ; Brutus and Cassius fell ; the battle of Actium sealed 
 the fate of Rome ; Anthony fled to Egypt, where he fell, and 
 young Octavius reigned triumphant, filled the imperial chair 
 of his uncle Julius, and gave peace to the world, under the 
 title of Augustus Cesar. 
 
 The temple of Janus was now shut for the first time since 
 it was built; the golden age of the world had now arrived, 
 and the storm of war was hushed into along repose. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Advent of the Messiah his life and doctrines, death and resur- 
 rection prophecy upon Jerusalem destruction of Jerusa- 
 lem dis per si on of the Jews division of the Roman Empire 
 rise of the Papal pozser. 
 
 IN this glorious, peaceful reign of Augustus Cesar, the fifth 
 kingdom commenced, Dan. 1 1 44, 45. and the glorious 
 epoch arrived when the promise of God to Adam was ac- 
 
40 COLDEN AGE OP THE WORLD. 
 
 complished, " the seed of the woman shall bruise the afcr.- 
 pent'shead." The promise to Abraham, " that in his seed, 
 all the families of the earth should be blessed ;" The pro- 
 mise of good old Jacob, in his blessing to Judah, " the scep- 
 tre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between 
 bis feet, until Shiloh come, and unto him shall the gathering 
 of the people be." The prophecy of Moses : x< A prophet 
 shall the Lord your God raise up unto you like unto me," 
 &c. The vision of Nebuchadnezzar : " And 1 saw a stone 
 cut out of the mountain without hands, that smote the image 
 upon his feet, and brake them to pieces, and became a great 
 mountain and filled the whole earth ;" The promise of God 
 to the world by all his prophets, was accomplished in this 
 peaceful reign. The star appeared in Bethlehem ; the an- 
 gelic host proclaimed in anthems of praise, " glory to God in 
 the highest, and on earth peace, good will towards men." 
 " Behold ! I bring you glad tidings of great joy, which shall 
 be to all people, for unto us is born this day, in the city of Da- 
 vid, a Saviour, who is Christ the Lord." " For unto us a 
 Son is born, unto us a Child is given ; and his name shall be 
 called wonderful, counsellor, the mighty God, the everlasting 
 Father, the Prince of Peace." In Bethlehem of Judea, the 
 wise men, as directed by the star, witnessed, and published 
 this glorious event, this accomplishment of so many prophe- 
 cies, through so many ages of the world, the advent of this 
 Alpha and Omega, this bright and morning star ; this key of 
 life, and immortality beyond the grave ; this Saviour of 
 men ; this " Immanuel, God with us." 
 
 Great were the displays of God to men, through the patri- 
 archs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and all the prophets ; in- 
 finitely greater have they been through his Son. 
 
 In him has been exhibited a perfect pattern for our in- 
 struction : love to God, and benevolence to men. A system 
 of miracles which he wrought, fully confirm this truth, " 1 
 and my Father are one." 
 
 Christ's sermon on the mount, as recorded in the 5th, 6th, 
 and 7th chapters of St. Matthew's gospel, unfold a system of 
 truths, for our moral and religious instruction, worthy the 
 Saviour of men ; Maxims, which if reduced to practice, 
 would make a heaven upon earth. Well might it be said, 
 " He taught as one having authority, and not as the Scribes," 
 '" S lively man never spake like this man." 
 
 were the displays of divine power at feis cruci- 
 
DISPLAYS OF CHRIST. 41 
 
 fixion ; darkness covered the earth at noon day, the earth 
 shook to its centre, the rocks rent, the graves opened, and 
 many that slept in the dust, sprang into life. The veil of the 
 temple, which had so long concealed this great mystery from 
 the view of men, was rent from the top to the bottom, when 
 he bowed his head in death, and said, " it is finished." 
 
 His enemies appalled at the awful sublimity of the scene, 
 exclaimed in the anguish of their hearts, " surely this was a 
 righteous man !" 
 
 The resurrection of this key of life, and immortality, be- 
 yond the grave, as he had announced to his followers : the 
 declaration of the angels who accompanied his glorious as- 
 cension ; " Why stand ye here looking up to heaven ? this 
 same Jesus whom ye now see ascend into heaven, shall come 
 again in like manner, in the clouds of heaven ;" the descent 
 of the Holy Ghost, that promised Comforter, upon his disci- 
 ples, on the day of Pentecost, and upon all his saints from 
 that day to this ; the exact accomplishment of the judgments 
 Christ denounced against Jerusalem ; ** O Jerusalem, Jeru- 
 salem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them that 
 are sent unto thee, how often would 1 have gathered thy 
 children together as a hen gathereth her brood under her 
 wings, and ye would not ; behold your house is left unto you 
 desolate;" His address and prediction to his disciples when 
 admiring the beauty of the temple, " See ye these goodly 
 stones, Verily I say unto you, there shall not be left one stone 
 upon another that shall not be thrown down," All, all claim 
 the faith, reverence, obedience, homage, and adoration of 
 men. 
 
 The manner in which he has caused the doctrines and 
 principles that he taught, together with the miracles which 
 he wrought, and the displays of benevolence that he exhibi- 
 ted, in his life, for the instruction of the world, to be trans- 
 mitted down to us, by the fourfold testimony of his disciples 
 (called evangelists) also his miraculous commission of Saul 
 of Tarsus, (a persecutor of his principles and followers ) to 
 go forth as Paul the great apostle of the Gentiles : that 
 through him the whole world might receive the knowledge of 
 this gre it truth, " that all things are given by the Father to 
 the Son," and that he hath not only redeemed the world ; 
 but that he shall judge the world* ; All claim the gratitude 
 ofman. 
 
 So fully were the prophecies of Jsaiah viii. and ix. and 
 4* 
 
OF THE 
 
 Daniel ix. verse 24, and onward, accomplished at the tiuae 
 of the advent of the Messiah, and so fully was he looked for, 
 by the Jewish nation at this time, " that many false Christs 
 appeared and deceived many ;" but the pride cf the Jews 
 had blinded their eyes, they had overlooked the first advent, 
 when Christ was to appear as a pattern of humility, meek- 
 ness, patience and benevolence, which should reprove their 
 haughty pharisaical character ; and were looking for a prince 
 and a king, \vho should deliver their nation from Roman 
 bondage, gratify their ambitious pride, and give them the 
 dominion of the world. This haughty spirit led them to de- 
 nounce their Saviour, and exclaim, " away w;ith him, cru- 
 cify him, crucify him ; his blood be upon us, and upon our 
 children." 
 
 God has taken the forfeiture at their hands : sifted them 
 as wheat among the nations, and caused the prediction of the 
 prophet again to be accomplished in them. " A hiss and a 
 by-word shalt thou be among the nations ;" which continues 
 to this day. 
 
 Seventy years after the death, resurrection, and ascension 
 of the Messiah ; Titus, the son of Vespasian, the Roman em- 
 peror, laid siege to Jerusalem with a great army, took their 
 city after a long and distressing siege (in which the sufferings 
 of the Jews were great beyond all former example,) gave it 
 np to pillage, and the sword ; butchered, destroyed, and dis- 
 persed the inhabitants ; razed their temple, and ploughed 
 up its foundations. Thus the avarice of the Jews, who had 
 hid their wealth under the walls of their temple, led to the 
 accomplishment of the ever memorable prophecy of the Mes- 
 siah upon its ruin. " Not one stone shall be left upon anoth- 
 er." 
 
 The Romans, so long as they held Syria and Palestine as a 
 province, (four or five hundred years,) treated the Jews 
 with great severity. In the fifth century the Arabians or 
 Saracens entered Palestine, broke down the Roman power, 
 established the Mahometan religion upon the ruins of the 
 Jewish, drove out il e remnant that had survived the se- 
 verities of Roman persecution, and rendered the country a 
 desert. 
 
 This deluded, distressed people, once the chosen of God, 
 und favoured of heaven, now became the fugitives, and vaga- 
 bonds of the whole earth, without character, without country, 
 without governmeotj union, or head ; the derision, scorn and 
 
TRIUMPH OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 orld. They have been these eighteen hundred 
 years scraping together gold as the dust, to be prepared at the 
 call of the Messiah, to return to their own land, rebuild their 
 city and temple, as is predicted by tbe prophets, and enjoy 
 the triumphs of that glorious day ; " when the mountain of 
 the Lord's house shall be exalted upon the tops of the moun- 
 tains, and all nations shall flow unto it and be saved." 
 Which prediction, will as assuredly be accomplished, as that 
 they exist as a dispersed nation. 
 
 God is now causing the Jews, the family of Abraham, to 
 pass through the wilderness of the whole earth, to prepare 
 them by his corrections and judgments, to become the light 
 of the world, when at the second advent of the Messiah, he 
 shall again collect the dispersed of Israel into the land of their 
 fathers ; Christ the shecbinah, shall illumine their under- 
 standing, remove the veil from their hearts, and a nation 
 shall be born to God their Saviour, in a day. 
 
 Let us learn instruction from what is before us. " To 
 whom much is given, of them much will be required." If 
 the Jews are thus punished for their infidelity and disobedi- 
 ence, what will be our condemnation, for our disobedience 
 and corruption, under the light of the gospel, with this nation 
 aPlliving miracle before our eyes, together with all the 
 prophecies, which have been so long, and are every day ful- 
 filling in them, and the nations of the earth. 
 
 Notwithstanding the vials of divine wrath have been pour 
 ed out upon this ancient church of God ; Christ has yet a 
 . true church on the earth, to perpetuate his name, and his 
 praise, to the latest generation, into which at his second com- 
 ing, this shepherd of Israel, will gather the remnant of his 
 people, together with the fullness of the Gentiles, and there 
 shall be one fold, and one shepherd throughout the habitable 
 earth. 
 
 This little church from its infancy has been, like the an- 
 cient church in the wilderness, under great trials, and dis- 
 tresses, as well as frequent displays of his presence and pro- 
 tection. That Roman empire which blotted out the ancient 
 church, and paved the way in the peaceful reign of Augustus 
 Cesar for the planting of the Christian church ; in the course 
 of three hundred and fifty years, raised ten general persecu- 
 tions against her ; persecutions designed to drown her in her 
 own blood ; yet Christ appeared in the midst of her afflic- 
 tions, and massacres, aod raised her to the donaiaion of bloody 
 
44 RISE OF POPERY. 
 
 idolatrous Rome, under the patronage of Constantine the 
 great, and through him she ruled the Roman empire. 
 
 In the midst of these triumphs, Constantine removed the 
 seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, (a city of 
 Greece) on the borders of the Black Sea, and changed its 
 name to that of Constantinople, in honor of the emperor ; 
 this struck a fatal blow to imperial Rome ; from this time the 
 legs of iron, in this part of the great image of Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, began to decline, " the feet, part of iron, and part of 
 clay" began to appear, and the empire began " to be partly 
 strong, and partly broken." 
 
 When the Ernperor Constantine removed the government 
 to Constantinople, he left a viceroy in the west, styled the 
 Exarch of Ravenna : (the name of the city where he resided) 
 he, with the bishop of Rome, governed in the west. The 
 pomp and splendor, which Constantine attached to the 
 churches, and to the worship, greatly increased the power, 
 and influence of the bishops, particularly the bishop of 
 Rome ; whose power soon become superior to that of the 
 Exarch's of Ravenna. 
 
 The meekness, simplicity, and humility of the gospel, were 
 soon succeeded, and swallowed up in this new order of 
 things ; which the luxury and effeminacy, of the Roman 
 state, at this time, greatly favored. Under this state ofthings, 
 and soon after the death of Constantine, the Goths and Van- 
 dals, under Ahric, began to make their depredations upon 
 the western empire 410 ; and revenge upon those corrupt, 
 effeminate Romans, the injuries they had suffered, from the 
 depredations of their warlike ancestors. 
 
 These ravages continued about forty years ; attended with 
 all the excesses and cruelties of savage wars : until Attilla, 
 (styled the scourge of God) with his Huns, put an end to the 
 western empire, by laying waste the countries, extermina- 
 ting the inhabitants, pillaging and sacking Rome. 
 
 With the fall of the western empire, fell all the laws, reli- 
 gion, arts and sciences, of the west ; and a state of perfect 
 ignorance and barbarism, rose upon its ruins. This change 
 introduced that period, known bv the name of the dark ages ; 
 which continued about eight hundred years ; down to the 
 middle of the thirteenth century ; and in some degree to this 
 day. 
 
 The religion ofthese barbarians, was the grossest pagan- 
 ism. They respected neither age, sex, principle, or proper- 
 
PAPAL SUPREMACY. 4i 
 
 (y, excepting that of the bishops of Rome : this the bishops 
 soon took advantage of, and made up a religion, exactly suit- 
 ed to the spirit of the times : having the old Jewish religion 
 for its basis. 
 
 The bishop of Rome laid aside his mitre, took the triple 
 erown and sceptre ; and upon this Jewish basis introduced 
 the worship of saints and images ; in imitation of the heathen 
 mythology of the Greeks and Romans, and the Pagan religion 
 of the barbarians. To these he added a corrupt christianitj r ; 
 retaining little more of it, in its purity and power, than the 
 name. 
 
 Armed with the authority of this religion, the bishop of 
 Rome assumed independent sovereignty,^ and exercised the 
 powers of a temporal prince ; the tyrant Phocas, who was 
 then upon the throne of Constantinople, confirmed this 
 power by a special edict, about the year 606. Under this 
 edict were united, the spiritual and temporal powers of the 
 bishops of Rome, and they claimed and exercised universal 
 sovereignty. 
 
 About the year 746, the Franks, in addition to the Goths, 
 Vandals, Allans, and Burgundi, who had overrun Gaul, came 
 over the Rhine, and settled in the north, under Pharamond 
 their leader. Clovis, their king, embraced the papal reli- 
 gion ; and Pepin, one of his successors, drew his sword, and 
 marched an army into Italy, to protect the pope against his 
 neighbors, when he began to make too free with his powers 
 as universal bishop. The Pope, in his turn, to reward Pe- 
 pin's fidelity, gave him his benediction ; and a general har- 
 mony has since prevailed between the two governments. 
 
 The bishop of Rome, or Pope, having thus obtained and 
 exercised universal sovereignty : assumed to himself divine 
 honors under the title of" our Lord God the pope ; the im- 
 maculate representative of God ; vicar of Jesus Christ; 
 and head of the church." Also, as proprietor of St. Peter, 
 he held the keys of ternal justice, and became the grand ar- 
 biter of all spiritual concerns ; and the dispenser of pardon 
 for all sins, past, present, and to come. The ceremony of 
 address to his holiness was, to kiss his great toe ; with, or 
 without the golden, slipper, as his holiness might graciously 
 condescend. 
 
 Thus seated on a temporal throne, with a dominion over 
 the city of Rome, and the neighboring country, called the 
 ecclesiastical states, which afford a small revenue ; the sale 
 fcf indulgences gave a handsome addition to the crown ; and 
 
4t> FIRST CRUSADE. 
 
 to increase it, his holiness created a middle state, after death, 
 called purgatory, where all souls rested, that were not par- 
 doned at death ; if they were not ransomed by their friend?, 
 with money, in a reasonable time, and prayed out, they pas- 
 sed into hell : but if thus saved, they went to heaven. 
 
 This system of finance gave his holiness a revenue, that 
 enabled him to support a throne, with more magnificence and 
 splendor, than any other potentate. See Daniel, 7th chap- 
 ter, 7th and 8th verses, also 2124, 25, 26. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Kingdom of Charlemagne of Mahomet of the Turks fall 
 of the Roman empire at Constantinople. 
 
 WE have now traced the progress of this horn of the Ro- 
 man beast, down to the year 800. At this time arose Char- 
 lemagne king of the Franks ; who subdued the several small 
 states of France, Germany, and Italy, established the sove- 
 reignty and unity of the crown of France ; placed himself at 
 the head of the German empire ; and received from the hands 
 of Leo the 3d, the iron crown of the Romans, with the title of 
 Emperor of the West. 
 
 Charlemagne, in his turn, protected the Pope ; enforced 
 the papal religion, with fire and sword, throughout all his 
 dominions ; and became one of the heads of the Roman beast, 
 about 200 years after Pepin. This little horn, this papal 
 beast, continued in regular progression, to enlarge and extend 
 hi? power and influence, until the pontificate of Urban 2d, 
 1005, when the vision of the prophet was full}' accomplished. 
 *' And these" i. e. the ten horns " shall agree to give their 
 power unto the beast." 
 
 About 200 years after Charlemagne, Peter the Hermit 
 came out of Germany over the Rhine, into the southern 
 kingdoms, and preached the first crusade or holy war, against 
 the infidels, who were then in possession of Jerusalem. The 
 flame spread like lightning throughout Christendom. Prin- 
 ces sold or mortgaged their estates, to raise money ; rallied 
 their subjects for the war, and took the field in perron ; 
 marched, or rather swarmed, into the plnins of Asia Minor, 
 and from thence intp 8vria, and laid siege to Jerusalem. 
 

 RISE OF MAHOMET. 
 
 Here was exhibited such zeal and feats of valour, as were 
 never before known. The city was carried by assault, and 
 the Christians held it one year. Before we proceed further 
 with this war, we will take a view of the rise, progress and 
 character of the powers against which all Christendom had 
 drawn the sword. 
 
 The prophecy upon Ishmael, when he was driven out from 
 his father's house, has been thus far accomplished ; the storms 
 of war have burst all around him, yet he has dwelt quietly in 
 the presence of his brethren. We will now see how he put 
 forth his hand upon the countries, rose into power, and " be- 
 came a great nation." 
 
 About the year 606, Mahomet, a monk of Mecca, renoun- 
 ced his religion, in which he had been educated, retired to a 
 cave, and framed a new one. As I have shewn, how the 
 prophecy of the little horn was fulfilled in the papal power ; 
 so I will shew, how the prophecy of St. John Revelation ix. 
 1 llth, has been accomplished, in these locusts of Arabia. 
 
 When Mahomet had matured his religion, he came forth, 
 and published it at Mecca ; asserting, that God had sent 
 Christ, to publish his Religion, to persuade men to heaven, 
 but that He had sent Mahomet to compel them to heaven ; 
 that he was the representative of God, and the only true 
 prophet. He took for the basis of his religion, the old Jew- 
 ish patriarchal ; with the indulgence of polygamy, and pro- 
 hibiting the use of wine. In prayer, copying the Pharisees, 
 but discarding the ritual or ceremonial law : denouncing 
 Christ, and proclaiming himself the only true prophet. 
 
 Mahomet discarded the bible, and made one of his own, 
 called the Koran, or Alcoran; composed of a great number 
 of detached sentences, enjoining polygamy, and prohibiting 
 the use of wine : enjoining prayers, and here and there an- 
 nouncing " God is God, and Mahomet is his prophet !" 
 
 This religion being new, and more indulgent to the ambi- 
 tion, lusts and corruptions of men, he soon had followers. He 
 also met with opposition. The city of Mecca banished the 
 prophet, who fled to Medina, (another city of Arabia) which 
 flight, called in Arabic the Hegira, is the date of the Mahom- 
 etan era. Here his followers increased, till they soon made a 
 strong military force. With this, he subdued his own country ; 
 then carried his arms into Palestine, and took Jerusalem in 637. 
 
 He next overrun Egypt, and took the city of Alexandria. 
 The Caliph Omnr ordered the largest library in the world, to 
 
RISE OF THE TURKS'. 
 
 be burnt ; with this reason, " that if it contained any thing 
 which was not in the Koran, it ought to be burnt, if not, it 
 ought to be burnt." 
 
 With the wealth and spoils of Egypt, another army was 
 raised which went into the east ; overran and subdued the 
 eastern provinces of the Roman empire, took Babylon, and 
 razed it to its foundations ; and as the prophets, Jeremiah 
 and Isaiah had predicted, " swept her with the besom of de- 
 struction, so that her place is not to be found." 
 
 The army of Egypt proceeded west at the same time, over- 
 ran and subdued all the Roman provinces on the north of Af- 
 rica, passed over into Spain, subdued that, and passed into 
 France : here they were checked in a severe action, with 
 Charles Martel, king of France ; and were driven back into 
 Spain ; where they held possession, until they were driven 
 out, with the assistance of the Moors, in 1091. 
 
 These locusts of the bottomless pit, continued their rava- 
 ges upon the southern section of the Roman empire, five 
 prophetic months, or one hundred and fifty years : they then 
 built Bagdad, in the east, on the Tigris, and called it " the 
 city of peace." 
 
 The conquests of the Ishmaelites, Mahometans or locusts. 
 extended over all the north of Africa, Syria, PalestiiJfe, and 
 the eastern provinces of the Roman empire, to the river 
 Indus : and the religion of the prophet was enforced with 
 the sword, throughout all this extent of dominion ; where 
 it continued to prevail under the Saracens, until these pro- 
 vinces were wrested from them by the Turks. 
 
 When the vision of locusts was closed ; the prophet adds, 
 * " one woe is past, behold ! there come two woes more here- 
 after ;" in the next verse goes on to unfold the vision of the 
 Euphratean horsemen : and long before the use of gun-pow- 
 der was known, he describes the exact explosion, as it ap- 
 pears when horsemen fire on horseback, " fire, smoke anc 
 brimstone, coming out of the horses' mouths." These Tar- 
 tars began their conquests with cavalry, and very numert 
 cavalry ; and the use of fire arms gave them a great superi- 
 ority over the^r enemies, and rendered their conquests rapic 
 ajid easy. 
 
 They overran and destroyed the Saracen empire, in th< 
 east, took Bagdad the capital, conquered Syria, and took Je- 
 rusalem. They also conquered Egypt, and all the Saracer 
 
states, 
 
 CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 49 
 
 on the north of Africa ; and having triumphed over 
 the eastern and southern sections of the Roman empire, they 
 entered Europe, and fixed their capital at Constantinople, in 
 the year 1450. Thus the western Roman Empire, was pla- 
 ced under the dominion of the papal religion, and the eastern 
 under that of Mahomet : where they will remain, until the 
 accomplishment ofthe prediction ofthe apostle, 2 Thessalo- 
 nians, ii. 3. " Who opposeth and exalteth himself above all 
 that is called God, or is worshipped ; sitting in the temple of 
 God, shewing himself that he is God : whom the Lord shall 
 consume, with the breath of his mouth, and the brightness of 
 his coming ;" and until the vision contained in the 2d chap- 
 ter of Daniel, and the latter part ofthe 7th shall 4>e fulfilled. 
 
 Thus we have seen how a few military adventurers under 
 Mahomet, grew into power, and overran mighty empires, 
 states and kingdoms : also, how a small clan of Tartars near 
 the source ofthe river Euphrates, began their depredations 
 upon their neighbors, and being enriched and encouraged by 
 their spoils, soon became numerous and powerful ; subdued 
 the conquests the Saracens had made and enjoyed four hund- 
 red years ; adopted their religion, enforced it like Mahomet, 
 with the sword, and the arm of the law ; fixed their capital 
 in the seat of the beast with great iron teeth, and aspired to 
 the dominion ofthe world. 
 
 Thus we have seen, the displays of the goodness of God, 
 in the communications of himself, and his will to men, through 
 the successive ages of the world, from the creation, to the 
 flood ; a period of one thousand six hundred and fifty-six 
 years : from the flood to the call of Abraham, and the foun- 
 ding of his church : from thence, through the medium of his 
 prophets, God has unfolded all the great events which were, 
 to come to pass ; and the pens ofthe several historians have 
 recorded their accomplishment, down to ihe destruction of 
 the Roman empire, and the establishment of the beast and 
 false prophet upon its ruins. 
 
 From the several christenings of the ancient and modern 
 church, (or Jewish and Christian,) we may learn the tfiith 
 ofthe great maxim of inspiration, that " to whom much is 
 git en, of them much will be required" and " he that knovv- 
 eth his master's will, anddoeth it not, shall be be beaten with 
 many stripes." 
 
 END OF JMPiT FIRST. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 TO PART FIRST. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 THE Medo-Persian empire, which was founded by Cyrus 
 upon the union of the Babylonian, Medean, and Persian em- 
 pires, about 536 years before Christ, passed through a suc- 
 cession of revolutions ; first by the conquest of the Greeks ; 
 next by the conquest of the Romans ; then by the Saracens, 
 cr Arabians ; next by the Turks. 
 
 About the close of the ! 2th, or beginning of the 13th centu- 
 v, Jenghis Khan, a Tartar Prince, on the north of Persia, 
 sprang up, assumed the style of conqueror, overran Persia, 
 a great part of Hindostan, (or hither India,) extended his 
 arms into the east as far as the confines of China, and laid 
 the foundation of that extensive monarchy, known by the 
 name of the Mogul's empire, or empire of the great Mogul, 
 lie was succeeded by Timer Bek or Tamerlane, (another 
 Tartar prince,) who extended his conquests over all that 
 part of Asia, which formerly composed the extensive empire 
 of Persia, greatly, weakened the growing strength of the 
 Turks, and fixed the permanency of the Mogul's empire, 
 1399. 
 
 The dynasty continued in his line, almost three centuries 
 and a half, until the conquest of Kouli Khan, 1732. This 
 prince or sophi of Persia, threw off the Tartar yoke, and 
 like Gustavus Vasa of Sweden, roused up his countrymen to 
 assert their liberties : with this spirit, he broke the usurpa- 
 tion of the Tartars in Persia, and greatly weakened the em- 
 pire of the Moguls. Since his conquest, the empire of Per- 
 sia has been governed, like Egypt, by a number of indepen- 
 dent sovereignties, and has been the theatre of distressing- 
 civil wars. 
 
 Kouli Khan, also penetrated into Hindostan 1735, dissolved 
 the government of the Moguls, and left that country like 
 Persia, under the government of a great number of indepen- 
 dent sovereignties, styled Soubahs, or Nabobs. The civil 
 wars between these Nabobs, laid the foundation for the ex- 
 tensive conquests and settlements of the English East India 
 company in India, and guaranteed to them a revenue, which 
 
CHINA. 51 
 
 has enabled England to resist the ambition of the French re- 
 volution, furnish money for the support of all confederated 
 Europe, through this arduous struggle of a twenty year's war, 
 and by a splendid triumph give peace to the world. 
 
 We should here notice the display of the government of- 
 God, in raising up Chnrles XII. king of Sweden, to excite a 
 spirit of enterprise in Russia. We now see in Persia, a char- 
 acter of the same description, in Kouli Khan ; raised up yt 
 the same time, and to co-operate in the same signal events, 
 (although so remote from each other) by laying the founda- 
 tion for those conquests in India, which have furnished the. 
 purse for confederated Europe, through the medium of Eng- 
 land, and rendered their sword triumphant. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 THIS empire, on the eastern extremity of the continent of 
 Asia, differing from all others in its government, religion, 
 manners, customs, and extensive population ; is noted for 
 the pride of antiquity. The modern Chinese carry back 
 their origin beyond the flood, and some of them beyond the 
 creation. About two hundred years before Christ, literature 
 began to flourish in China, the art of printing was discover- 
 ed ; their first historian, Sematsian, wrote about ninety-seven 
 years before Christ. 
 
 There is nothing that appears in their history with any 
 certainty, farther back than the first dynasty under Prince 
 Yao, or Yu, about two thousand years before Christ." From 
 the nicest investigation of Chinese chronology, by some mod- 
 ern arid learned Chinese, who were educated in France and 
 returned to China in the year 1765, and whose correspon- 
 dence has since been published at Paris ; it does not appear, 
 that the kingdom was founded earlier than the year of the 
 world 2207. 
 
 The Chinese suffered much from the depredations of the 
 northern Tartars, until the reign of Chi-ho-angti, who caused 
 the famous northern wall to be built, extending one thousand 
 five hundred miles, from east to west. This secured the 
 peace of China for several centuries ; but the Tartars, after 
 repeated assaults, and depredations, finally succeeded in break- 
 ing over the wall, and subduing the empire in 1635, and a 
 Tartar dynasty is now upon the throne. Under this dynasty, 
 all the eastern part of the Mogul's empire has been added to 
 
2 SOVJKRNMENT OF CHINA. 
 
 China. The emperor resides in summer in Tartary, andia 
 winter in China ; whLh preserves the union. 
 
 China Proper is supposed to contain more inhabit antsthan 
 r.ll Europe, they being estimated by Sir George Staunton at 
 l.uree hundred millions. The love of country is such in 
 China, that they are never known to emigrate ; they carry 
 on no foreign commerce, although their exports are immense. 
 'Foreigners are not admitted into any of their cities, and only 
 into particular parts of their country near the sea coast, and 
 into the suburbs of a few particular commercial cities. 
 
 Their government is absolute, and yet patriarchal ; the 
 emperor is not the tyrant, but the father of his people. Their 
 religion is pagan ; but so far mixed with the religion of Bra- 
 ma, that they have pure, and simple ideas of the supreme 
 being, who presides over the universe : the doctrine of 
 transmigration also, makes a part of the religion of China. 
 
 This country was first visited by the Portuguese, in their 
 discoveries in the Indian ocean, in the year 1586 ; when 
 they obtained a grant of the island of Macao, at the entrance 
 of the harbor of Canton. Since that time, the commerce 
 of China has been carried on from Europe and America, by 
 the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 The pope sent missionaries, of the order of the Jesuits, 
 into China, in the year 1692, who met with some apparent 
 success, until they began te shew a disposition to dictate in 
 the affairs of the government ; then the emperor expelled 
 them in 1742. The English government attempted to es- 
 tablish % diplomatic intercourse with China in 1792, and sent, 
 lord M'Cartney for this special purpose ; but some manoeu- 
 vres on the coast, particularly in approaching the shores 
 with their ships, making soundings, &c. and imprudence in 
 the mission soon defeated the object. The jealousy of the 
 emperor was alive to these movements, and it is owing en- 
 tirely to such jealousy, that China "has so long retained her 
 government. 
 
 United America, will doubtless in a few years enjoy a free 
 trade with China, from the western shore of this continent, 
 where will spring up and flourish, some of the largest and 
 most splendid cities. 
 
 H1NDOSTAN. 
 
 THIS Peninsula, known by the name of India within the 
 
ENGLISH SETTI.EME.fTS IN I 
 
 Ganges, (or hither India) was discovered by the Portuguese, 
 in 1497 ; and in the year 1506, they commenced the settle- 
 ment of Goa, on the Malabar coast. Here they established 
 an inquisition which continues to this day. It was visited 
 over land by the English, 1591, and at the same time by a 
 private adventure, of three ships. This adventure proved 
 unfortunate ; two of the ships were lost, and the third was 
 seized on by the crew, and the captain, after an absence of 
 three years, returned to England in another ship. 
 
 This adventure, though disastrous, laid the foundation for 
 nil the future prosperity of the English in India. The intelli- 
 gence brought home by captain Lancaster, induced a second 
 adventure, which proved successful, and laid the foundation 
 f the charter for the first East India company, Dec. 1600, 
 with a stock of 72,OOOZ. In 1698, anew company was formed ; 
 and in 1700, the old one was re-established, for which they 
 agreed to pay to government 400, OOO/. for five years. In 
 1773, the British government passed their India Bill, and in 
 1774 they sent out judges from England, to preside over 
 their India settlements. The commerce of India continues 
 to increase and flourish to this day. 
 
 The Dutch next explored the Indian ocean, and touched 
 upon the peninsula ofHindostan in 1595. The English East 
 India company made their first voyage in 1601. The same 
 year the French doubled the cape of Good Hope, and visited 
 India. In 1612, the Danes made their first voyage to India. 
 All these kingdoms established India companies, after the 
 manner of the English. 
 
 This country, when first visited by Europeans, was divided 
 into a number of viceroyalties, or sovereignties, united under 
 the emperor of Hindostan, or the Mogul's empire ; posses- 
 sing an extensive population, and enjoying one of the richest 
 and most fertile soils, with a-mild and delightful climate. 
 The frequent wars which sprang up from time to time, be- 
 tween the princes or Soubahs, led them to have recourse to 
 the Europeans for aid. 
 
 In 1738, the famous Kouli Khan, after having usurped the 
 Persian throne, overran a great part of the Mogul's empire, 
 weakened, and destroyed the power of the descendants of 
 Tamerlane, a power which had continued nearly three cen- 
 turies and a half; also overran Hindostan, dissolved the uni- 
 ty f the empire, and left it at the mercy of a great numl-er 
 5* 
 
ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS IN 
 
 of independent princes, who soon became rivals, and render- 
 ed this delightful country, a theatre of perpetual wars, and 
 devastation. 
 
 This weakness of the natives, was soon turned to the ad- 
 rantage of the Europeans, and enabled them to maintain, and 
 extend their settlements, the English, at,Bombay, Madras. 
 Calcutta, &c. ; and the French, at Pondicherry. 
 
 At the peace of 1763, the French ceded Pondicherry to 
 the English, which gave them an unrivalled possession of 
 the sea coast of this eastern world, secured the foundation 
 of their extensive commerce, wealth and power : and enabled 
 her to become mistress of the seas and arbiter of the world. 
 
 The population that has grown out of these settlements, 
 with the extensive conquests which the British East India 
 company have since made, amount to about twenty millions ; 
 this, added to the settlements the English have made, and 
 acquired, in the Indian ocean, (including New Holland, and 
 the isles) is estimated at forty millions. 
 
 This extensive, rich, and populous country, has become 
 the theatre of Christian missionaries. The ancient religion 
 of this country, was the religion of Brama, who taught 
 the doctrine of one supreme being, who made, and gov. 
 erns all things, together with the absurd doctrine of 
 meternsychosis, or transmigration of souls at death, into 
 the forms of all the different animals, according to their 
 characters in life ; and the practice of image worship, or 
 idolatry. 
 
 Into what a state of corruption, ignorance, superstition, 
 and enthusiasm, this religion is now fallen, has been very im- 
 pressively disclosed by the Rev. Dr. Buchanan. Successful 
 efforts are now making to translate the Bible into the differ- 
 ent oriental languages, and diffuse it throughout this eastern 
 world. A work slow in its progress, but one which will as- 
 suredly prosper and succeed. 
 
 TARTARY. 
 
 This vast extent of country, lying upon the north of Asia, 
 and extending from the eastern borders of Russia in Europe, 
 to the northern ocean on the north, and the Pacific ocean on 
 the east, embracing Chinese Tartary, Thibet, and a part of 
 Hiadostan on the south ; was all known to the Greeks and 
 
SESCRIPTION OF THE TARTARS. 55 
 
 lomans, under the general name of Scythia. The ancient 
 Scythians defeated Alexander, by retiring before him, laying 
 waste their country, and decoying him into their uncultivated 
 wilds, where lie had like to have been ruined and de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 The same mode of warfare was practised by the Parthians, 
 or Scythians, in the east, upon the Roman general Crassus, 
 who was ruined with his army amidst the sands, and unculti- 
 vated plains of Parthia. By this mode of defence, they 
 have been able to secure their country from conquest ; but 
 it has been no security against the feuds, civil wars, and mas- 
 sacres, which have constantly arisen out of their savage, 
 barbarous manner of life, their divided, and wandering 
 mode of subsisting, and the total want of union, and energy in 
 their government. These civil wars, and massacres, have 
 been common, and often attended with the slaughter of three 
 or four hundred thousand. This has kept dou r n their popu- 
 lation, arid wasted their strength ; and has been the chief 
 cause of their submission to the Russian government. 
 
 Some large and populous cities are scattered throughout 
 this vast extent of country ; but literature and the arts have 
 never flourished in Tartary. The mass of the population 
 lead wandering shepherd lives, or subsist by fishing, and 
 hunting. The Tartars are noted for their attachment to the 
 horse, and of course for their numerous and fine horses : 
 they also prefer the flesh of this animal to that of the ox, or 
 cow. 
 
 From these regions of barbarism, sprang up Othman, the 
 conqueror of the west of Asia, and chief of the Turks ; 
 Jeughis Khan, and Tamerlane, the conquerors of the middle 
 and southern parts of Asia ; and from Chinese Tartary sprang 
 the present reigning family on the throne of China. Since 
 the conquests of Kouli Khan (the Persian,) early in the last 
 century, there has been a general quiet throughout this east- 
 ern world. 
 
 The war practised by the Russians upon the emperor Na- 
 poleon in 1812, was a Tartar war ; the same as was practised 
 upon Alexander, the Grecian ; upon Crassus, the Roman, 
 and upon all other foreign invasions. The Russians decoyed 
 him into their country, by retiring, and laying it waste ; 
 and when the emperor presumed that he had secured his 
 object, in the possession of Moscow ; the Tartar governor 
 Pt'astopchin, set fire to the city, and burnt him out. This 
 
50 WARS OF THE TARTARS. 
 
 mode of defence has been invariably practised from the ear- 
 lie?! ages, and with invariable success. 
 
 Ail this nest of ancient and modern conquerors, lying east 
 of Russia in Europe, is now under a general system of gov- 
 ernment, and subject to the emperor of Russia ; which will 
 account for the general quiet that has so long prevailed in 
 this country. Should the ambition of the present, or some 
 future emperor, rouse up this now dormant force ; the same 
 scenes would be acted over again, and the same consequen- 
 ces result from them, as from the invasions of Othman, 
 Jenghis Khan, Tamerlane, &LC. The same countries which 
 were then the theatres of conquest, are now as inviting, and 
 as defenceless as they were then ; arid when under the direc- 
 tion of one government, so well organized, and so energetic 
 as that of Russia, it may well be presumed that more serious, 
 and extensive conquests may be effected, than any that have 
 been recorded. 
 
 The southern nations are aware of this, and it is said that 
 the Turks have a tradition, that the Russians will subdue 
 their empire, and that they even fix upon a particular gate, 
 at which they will enter when, they shall subdue Constanti- 
 nople. 
 
 Thus the southern kingdoms of Asia have been ravaged, 
 and laid waste by the Tartars, or Scythians of Asia, from 
 time to time, in the same manner as the southern kingdoms 
 of Europe have been ravaged, and laid waste by the Celtii, 
 Tartars, or Scythians of Europe. Even we, the favored in- 
 habitants of America, sprang from the Saxons who were 
 a clan, or tribe of Celtii, or Scythians, who subdued the 
 Britons ; planted in that isle the first principles of liberty, 
 and pure representative government, and transplanted them 
 into this new world, where they have flourished, and eclip- 
 ied the original stock. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 THIS kingdom was founded by Mizraim, the son of Hani, 
 in the year before Christ. 2188. Possessing the richest 
 soil, and the most inviting climate, it flourished above all other 
 kingdoms, in wealth, splendor, literature, and the arts, and 
 became the nursery from whence the splendid nations of 
 Greece and Rome, derived their literature, and knowledge 
 of the arts and sciences. Egypt became .jaof only the pride 
 
CHARACTER OF EGYPT. 7 
 
 of the world, but the envy of the world. It continued one 
 thousand five hundred and eighty-eight years, when it was 
 broken, and subdued by Nebuchadnezzar king of Assyria, 
 about six hundred years before Christ. 
 
 During this period, were constructed those stupendous 
 monuments of the arts, the pyramids ; the largest of which 
 covers with its base six acres of ground, and is six hundred 
 feet in height ; their splendid obelisks, and mummies, (those 
 monuments of the art of embalming their dead,) the Egyp- 
 tian cement, which hardened with time, and became more 
 durable than stone ; the canal that united the Nile with the 
 Rod Sea, and the almost innumerable canals that conducted 
 the inundations of the Nile, and fertilized the whole face of 
 the country ; these were amongst the arts and improveme nts 
 which distinguished Egypt. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, plundered and sacked the kingdom, 
 broke its spirit, and rendered it an easy prey to the succes- 
 sive conquerors. Alexander the great conquered Egypt 
 about the year 330 before Christ, and after his death it fell 
 under the government of Ptolemy, one of his generals. It 
 would have flourished under the Ptolemies, had it not been 
 harrassed and distressed by the perpetual wars with the Se- 
 lucidag, or kings of Syria. 
 
 With the fall of the Grecian empire, Egypt fell under the 
 dominion of the Romans, in the year 31 after Christ. It 
 continued a Roman province until the conquest of the Sara- 
 cens, about the year 625. They established the Mahometan 
 religion, and governed Egypt by their caliphs, until the con- 
 quest of the Turks, in the } r ear 1525. 
 
 The Turks confirmed the Mahometan religion in Egypt, 
 and throughout their empire, and prostrated the strength of 
 the kingdom, by giving it up to the government of a great 
 number of petty sovereigns, called Beys, who wasted the 
 rnernes, wealth, and resources of the country, and became 
 tributary to the sultan of Constantinople. In 1799, this 
 basest of ki ' verrun by the French, under general 
 
 Bonap: : it was conquered by the English ; and 
 
 in } C : ''' . by the Krurl'-b back again to the Turks, under 
 it now continues. Thus we see how the pre- 
 <]j. / the prophet, " E^ypt shall become the basest of 
 
 " IMS been fulfilled. 
 
 . Its origin, :st PR n-icient as Assyria, and 
 
 Chaldea ; and its duration as a kingdom, has clearly evinced 
 
i>8 CHARACTER OF EGYPT. 
 
 the importance of those virtuous institutions, on which this 
 monarchy was founded. At this early age of the world, the 
 knowledge of the true God was lost, all men were sunk in a 
 gross, and barbarous idolatry ; the science of civil govern- 
 ment was in its infancy, and the passions of men were corrupt. 
 In this state of things, let us take a view of the principles 
 which constituted the basis of their government, and see how 
 far they became an example for the Greeks, the Romans ; 
 and in point of moral virtue, have surpassed the governments 
 of later ages ; even of this boasted age of wisdom, light, ex- 
 perience, religion, and improvement. 
 
 The genius of their government was hereditary monarchy ; 
 to preserve the customs of their ancestors, was one of iti 
 fundamental maxims. The service of the king w r as consider- 
 ed too sacred, to be degraded by a foreigner ; and the ear of 
 majesty too pure to be polluted with ignoble sentiments. 
 
 The frugality of the king, and even the simplicity of his 
 diet, Avere considered as objects of public importance, de- 
 serving the attention of the laws ; public business of magni- 
 tude and importance, the prayers, devotions and sacrifices of 
 the temple, together with a rehearsal of the exploits, and 
 customs of his ancestors, from the sacred records, was pre- 
 scribed to the king, as the duties of the morning. To enforce 
 these, a certain pillar in the temple of Thebes, was inscribed 
 with imprecations against that king who should dare to vio- 
 late them. 
 
 To administer justice, preserve order, and support the 
 throne, the king appointed thirty judges, selected from all 
 the principal cities of Egypt. Wisdom and virtue, with a 
 fair and good report, were the sole criterions of preferment ; 
 and the judges were supported at the expense of the king. 
 
 The laws governed in Egypt, and every citizen from his 
 infancy was taught to know and reverence them. This es>- 
 f ablished a regular system of habits, which enabled the Egyp- 
 tians to preserve their government so long ; and is the true 
 maxim of the government of China to this day. 
 
 Ignorance and idleness were alike detested in Egypt ; to 
 suppress these, 'it became necessary for every man to enrol 
 his name, together with his employment, upon a public re- 
 gister in the hands of some magistrate. 
 
 The Egyptians exempted from execution, or the power of 
 the creditor, all the instruments used by the debtor to obtain 
 
HER HABITS AND M*ANJN T ER5. 59 
 
 his support ; judging it both barbarous and infamous, to divest 
 u man of the means of subsistence, and of paying his debts, 
 on account of his misfortunes ; but gave up the debtor in per- 
 son to be imprisoned by the creditor. 
 
 The Egyptians paid the highest respect to old age ; the 
 young always rose in their presence, and did them reverence. 
 
 Gratitude amongst the Egyptians was ranked with the first 
 of the virtues, and gratitude to the king, claimed the first 
 rank ; and upon this principle, that he who is grateful to 
 men, will be grateful to the gods. 
 
 The religion of the Egyptians, was idolatry, wrapped in 
 mysteries known only to the priests, and long since lost in 
 the ages of obscurity, together with that labyrinth of hiero- 
 glyphics, which adorned the pyramids, obelisks, pillars, and 
 statues of Egypt. 
 
 The superstition of the Egyptians, was as great as their 
 deities were numerous, and it was death for any person to 
 take the life of anyone of all the numerous animals they wor- 
 shipped. 
 
 The Egyptians, like all other idolaters, had this thin veil 
 of covering for their religion, "that they worshipped God in 
 the image, and not the image as God." 
 
 The pyramids of Egypt, those mausoleums of the dead 
 together with their mummies, those monuments of the art of 
 embalming their dead, clearly shew the reverence the Egyp- 
 tians paid to their funerals, and the sacred rites of sepulture. 
 By embalming they preserved entire the persons of their an- 
 cestors adorned with such hieroglyphics as were commemo- 
 rative of their virtues, and those only which were sanction- 
 ed by the public voice. 
 
 The hieroglyphical panegyrics upon the dead, regarded 
 not birth, wealth, or honors ; all Egyptians were considered 
 noble. The virtues of the dead, were alone the subjects of 
 praise. The military character of Egypt, with all her boas- 
 ted regularity offeree and discipline, was never illustrious, 
 excepting in the wars of Syria, and in the reign of Sesostris. 
 
 Egypt early became the nursery of the arts and sciences ; 
 in these she excelled, and left it to all nations who have suc- 
 ceeded her, to become only her imitators, and not even that, 
 in her pyramids, hieroglyphics, the art of embalming, and her 
 wonderful cement. Geometry was greatly improved in Egypt, 
 by which means the study of astronomy, which commenced 
 upon the plains of Babylon, was carried to great perfection. 
 
60 EGYPTIAN ARTS >.NB AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The medical art was rendered illustrious in Egypt, where 
 it was reduced to a regular system, and every physician was 
 bylaw contined to one disease only. If he treated this ac- 
 cording to the prescribed rules, he was not held responsible 
 for the issue ; but if he made any new experiments, his own 
 life was held responsible for the issue. 
 
 The splendid libraries which were early founded in Egypt, 
 shew their taste, and improvement in the sciences ; arid the 
 sacred dedication of these libraries, " Office for the diseases 
 of the Soul," shews the reverence they attached to learning 
 and their abhorrence of ignorance. 
 
 The Egyptians excelled in architecture, painting and, sculp- 
 ture ; but music never struck their attention ; they considered 
 this as a useless art of effeminacy, and beneath their notice. 
 
 Agriculture was the basis on which Egypt founded her 
 greatness, it being the source of all her wealth. All employ- 
 ments were alike respected in Egypt, from the king to the 
 peasant ; and he who excelled in his profession, and in vir- 
 tue, inherited the triumph of public applause. This diffused 
 contentment, excited emulation, and raised every employ- 
 ment to its highest perfection. 
 
 The country of Egypt was greatly enriched by their hus- 
 bandmen, who covered the whole face of this garden of the 
 world, with their numerous flocks and herds. These consti- 
 tuted the permanent wealth of their country. 
 
 The soil that so richly rewarded the husbandmen, was not 
 watered by rains as with us, but by the overflowing of the 
 river Nile ; these inundations were conveyed by numerous 
 canals over the whole face of the country, to fertilize the 
 soil, which has rendered Egypt so famous for her corn, and 
 give support to those vast flocks and herds, which covered all 
 her plains. 
 
 The vegetation of Egypt was not peculiar to that country, 
 excepting the papyrus, or plant which served them for paper : 
 the rest was common to countries of the same climate, and 
 continues so to this day. 
 
 The government of Egypt supported a regular system of 
 police, every department in the kingdom was conducted with 
 the greatest order, regularity and wisdom ; and the voice of 
 health and plenty were heard in all their dwellings. 
 
 The military art was never highly cultivated in Egypt ; 
 Scsostris alone, carried his arms abroad beyond the plnius of 
 Syria. Ho subdued all the north of MVini, carne-.} his arms 
 
EGYPTIAN CONQUESTS AND CORRUPTION. 61 
 
 into India, about 1500 years before Christ, and left monuments 
 of his conquests in Asia Minor and Thrace. His dominions 
 extended from the Ganges to the Danube. Sesostris, at the 
 end of nine years, returned into Egypt, enriched with the 
 wealth and spoils of conquest ; but left those nominal con- 
 quests as free as he found them. Sesostris flourished about 
 the time of the departure of the Hebrews. 
 
 These conquests of Sesostris opened the way for those col- 
 onies which passed into Greece at this time under Cecrops, 
 Danaus arid Cadmus, who carried with them the arts and sci- 
 ences of Egypt, and planted the first seeds of improvement 
 and literature in Europe. 
 
 The conquests of Sesostris, subverted the religion, habits, 
 manners and customs of Egypt ; together with that tempe- 
 rance, industry, sobriety and economy, which were the pil- 
 lars of Egyptian greatness ; laid the foundation for all the fu- 
 ture sufferings of Egypt, and brought her to fulfil the predic- 
 tions of the prophet " Egypt shall become the basest of 
 kingdoms." 
 
 Soon after the death of Sesostris, commenced the reigns of 
 Cheops and Cephrenus, who caused all the temples of reli- 
 gion to be closed, nearly one whole century ; built some of 
 the pyramids, prostrated religion and all the virtues ; and gave 
 themselves up to all the excesses of licentiousness, cruelty 
 and barbarity. The whole nation followed their example ; 
 and Egypt, this nursery of the arts, this school of virtue and 
 morals, this paragon of industry, temperance and sobriety, 
 was now become a sink of inquity, and every hateful lust. 
 
 Such is the fate of all nations, as soon as they lose their vir- 
 tue ; and the history of Egypt, as connected with the history 
 of the Jews, together with the history of the four great em- 
 pires, clearly shews that she never recovered her virtue, re- 
 ligion, strength nor character ; all witness against her, that 
 ahe became the basest of kingdoms, even to this day. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 THIS kingdom was first established by Gorma, in the year 
 714. The most distinguished part of the history of this king- 
 dom, consists in its invasions and depredations upon the island 
 of England. In the year 877, the Danes succeeded in the con- 
 quest of the Saxons, and established Canute upon the throne. 
 6 
 
G' DENMARK. 
 
 In 880 they were expelled by Alfred the great. In the year 
 995 the Danes extorted a tribute from the Britons of 16, GOO/. 
 to buy oif their depredations. In 1002 the Danes broke the 
 treaty, and by their renewed depredations, extorted from 
 Ethelred II. a tribute of 24,000/. In the year 1412 Norway 
 was united to Denmark. In the year 1521 the kingdom of 
 Denmark was separated from the kingdom of Norway, and in 
 1660 the crown of Denmark became hereditary. 
 
 In the year 1394 the kingdom of Sweden was united by 
 conquest to the crown of Denmark, and was subject to her 
 until the year 1525, when Sweden recovered her liberty, un- 
 der the illustrious Gustavus Vasa ; since which time, Den- 
 mark has held a secondary rank amongst the nations of the 
 north. In 1813 the Kingdom of Norway was severed from 
 Denmark, and given to the crown prince of Sweden, by the 
 confederated powers of Europe, where it now remains. 
 
 The local situation of Denmark, gave her high and com- 
 manding advantages, to become one of the first commercial 
 and maritime nations of the world ; had not the jealousy and 
 rival strengh of England kept her down. In the year 1536 
 the protestant religion was introduced into Denmark, and in 
 1629 Christian the IV. was chosen head of the protestant 
 league against the house of Austria. 
 
 It has been the policy of the late sovereigns of Denmark, 
 to cultivate a good understanding with the throne of England 
 by intermarriages, and the issue of such an alliance, now 
 governs the kingdom of Denmark. Denmark still holds 
 some possessions in the Indian ocean, and upon the western 
 shore of Africa ; she exercises a sovereignty over east and 
 west Greenland, and a part of Lapland ; and holds some 
 small possessions in the West-ladies. Denmark can never 
 rise to eminence, being situated between the gigantic powers 
 of England and Russia. 
 
 Such are the great outlines of all the kingdoms, states, and 
 empires, which have ever been distinguished, either for 
 their arts or their arms. To give a sketch of the minor 
 states and isles., would swell this work to a needless ex- 
 pense. 
 
 (A.) GREECE. 
 To record a faithful narrative of events is one duty of a 
 
ORIGIN OF LETTERS IN GREECE. ?.3 
 
 historian ; but to diffuse by his pen, the true spirit of the 
 various scenes, events, exploits, and achievements which he 
 relstes, is by far the most difficult and important part of his 
 duty ; and is as absolutely necessary, to give spirit, interest, 
 energy and instruction to his narrative, as for a musician, in, 
 his performance, to give expression to the piece he performs. 
 
 To effect this, he must assume the spirit of every scene, 
 and every character, which become the subject of his story. 
 Hence the reason why the history of Greece so far surpasses 
 all others ; because those who were the heroes of her most 
 splendid scenes, diffused the same fire, and the same spirit, 
 throughout the historic page of their country, arid taught pos- 
 terity to feel, what they had achieved. To preserve this 
 fire, is ever essential to the preservation of the history of 
 Greece. 
 
 Greece, which was situated in the south part of what is 
 now Turkey in Europe, we have already noticed, with re- 
 gard to its origin, and extreme ignorance, in its early ages. 
 The splendor of Greece in later ages, which gave such lus- 
 tre to the historic page, claims attention. The first settle* 
 ment in Greece commenced about 2000 years before 
 Christ, and about 200 years after the building of Babylon by 
 Niinrod. 
 
 Letters were introduced into Greece by Cecrops, Cadmus, 
 and the Egyptian colonies, in the reign of Sesostris, king oi 
 Egypt about 1500 years before Christ. This first period of 
 Grecian history, is only a picture of man in his most rude and 
 savage state. The progress of letters, the arts and refine- 
 ment under the Egyptian colonies, were much slower than 
 in Britain, after the conquest of Julius Cesar. The Egyp- 
 tian colonies could only teach, they had not, like the Romans, 
 the power to enforce their knowledge. 
 
 The limits of this work will not permit a separate detail of 
 the founding, and progressive improvements of the several 
 Grecian colonies, kingdoms, or states ; they must all be 
 comprised under one general view. The first particular in 
 Grecian history worthy of notice, is the expedition of the 
 Argonauts to Colchos, after the golden fleece ; about 1200 
 years before Christ. The fleece, which was the object of 
 this voyage, may well be called golden, by a people who 
 were like the ancient Britons, either naked, or clad in the 
 skins of animals, taken in the chase. This took place about 
 300 years after Cecrops and Cadmus settled in Greece ; and 
 
04 ARGONAVTS. 
 
 had this importauce attached to it ; that it laid the foundation 
 of Grecian commerce and navigation, which afterwards be- 
 came so conspicuous. 
 
 The next important period in Grecian history, is the siege 
 of Troy, about 900 years before Christ, and about 300 from 
 the expedition of the Argonauts. This period of the last 300 
 years, shews the rapid improvements the Greeks had made 
 in letters, arts, and arms, by the strength of the city of 
 Troy ; by the splendid display of arms during this ever 
 memorable siege, often years ; and more particularly in the 
 unparalleled narrative of the Trojan war, by Homer, the 
 father of epic poetry. All these combined, serve to shew 
 the power of letters, and of commerce, to expand the mind. 
 elevate the soul, and exalt the character of man to thf sum- 
 mit of his rational powers, 
 
 The narrative of Homer diffused a spirit of ambition and 
 emulation throughout the states of Greece ; which estab- 
 lished the games of Olympia, about 200 years after the Tro- 
 jan war, and about 700 before Christ. Itmust not be under- 
 stood that these games originated in Greece at that time., 
 they were in general composed of such athletic exercises, 
 as have ever been common to all new countries ; but they 
 were reduced to system and order, under that institution, 
 and greatly enlarged and improved. 
 
 The exercises of these games consisted in chariot races, 
 foot races, &c. together with all such athletic exercises as 
 were calculated to exert muscular strength and dexterity : 
 inspire courage and emulation. So highly were the prizes 
 of the Olympic games estimated, that even kings entered 
 the lists, and sought with avidity the glory of an Olympic 
 crown. 
 
 From the commencement of the Olympic games, to the 
 Peloponnesian war, (which rendered Greece one theatre of 
 carnage, about twenty-five years,) about 450 years before 
 Christ ; a period of Grecian history was exhibited, the most 
 splendid of any other of her greatness. In this age flourish- 
 ed her greatest orators, heroes, statesmen, legislators, phi- 
 losophers, and artists. 
 
 In this period, Darius, king of Persia, after he had waged 
 unsuccessful war against the ancient Daci, (or Scythians of 
 Europe, north of the Danube,) turned his arms against 
 Greece, and threatened Athens, with an army of 300,000 
 
 tB 
 
OKECIA:N 7 WORTHIES. f>JJ- 
 
 men under Datis. At this eventful period, flourished Aristi- 
 des, Pericles, Themistocles, andMiltiades, who saved Greece 
 by the overthrow of the Persians at the famous battle of Ma- 
 rathon, destroyed their army, and gave peace to their country. 
 At the commencement of this period, flourished Lycurgus, 
 the renowned legislator of Sparta,* and at the close of it, 
 flourished Solon, the famous legislator of Athens ;| the wis- 
 dom of whose institutions, (though very different,) will ever 
 remain memorable in the annals of Greece. During this pe- 
 riod, and soon after the invasion of Darius, commenced the 
 invasion of Xerxes, which has been noticed. 
 
 * Lycurgus, the renowned legislator of Sparta, travelled into Egypt, 
 Palestine, and the countries of the east ; selected ail that was useful, 
 and virtuous, from their governments ; from which he formed a sys- 
 tem of government for his country, perfectly simple, and practical. 
 This government was founded upon the purest principles or liberty, 
 industry, temperance, patience, virtue, justice, and valour. It taught 
 the most sovereign contempt of riches, idleness, luxury, effeminacy, 
 cowardice and sloth ; alike disclaimed the principles of ambition, and 
 conquest ; was sanctioned by the oracle of Delphos rendered perma- 
 nent by an oath of his country, to maintain the Constitution in his ab- 
 sence, until he should return ; sealed by his voluntary banishment and 
 death ; continued in successful operation about 500 years ; enabled 
 Sparta to triumph over Athens in the Peloponnesian war, and become 
 the arbiter of Greece. 
 
 The great maxim of the government of Lycurgus was, to perpetu- 
 ate the laws, manners, customs, and habits of his country, without in- 
 novation, or change ; and to enforce this maxim, he sacrificed his life. 
 The immortal Lycurgus did all this, by a system of instruction which 
 was incorporated into his government. All Sparta was one great 
 school; and the maxims of his government, were the fundamental 
 principles of education. Practical knowledge, formed the wisdom of 
 Sparta. 
 
 f The difference of character between the Athenians and Spartans, 
 was such as is common to states which are agricultural and commer- 
 cial. Sparta was agricultural, Athens commercial ; the seat of the 
 muses and the arts. Solon as the chief magistrate, or Archon of Ath- 
 ens, attempted to reform her government, and reduce it to a more reg- 
 ular and practical system. 
 
 He divided Athens into two great classes, the rich and the poor. 
 The rich he again divided into three classes, according to their de- 
 grees of wealth ; all those of five hundred measures, (annual income,) 
 composed the first class ; those of three hundred the second ; and those 
 pf two, the third ; these made up the classes of the rich, and to these 
 he confined all the public offices. 
 
 All those whose incomes were less than two hundred, composed the 
 class of the poor. These were debarred from office ; but as a com- 
 pensation, be left them the privilege of voting in the assemblies, and 
 
66 DECLINE OF GREECE. 
 
 The conflicts occasioned by the revolutions in the several 
 states, in their struggles for power, between the tyrants, and 
 the people ; between monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, 
 were often distressing and bloody. This people with all 
 their boasted wisdom, knew nothing of that balance of elec- 
 tive government, which is the basis of English, and Ameri- 
 can liberty. The conflicts between the rival states for su- 
 premacy, (notwithstanding the Amphictyonic council, the 
 Achean league, and other confederacies,) were often severe 
 and desperate : but the Peloponesian war, which commenc- 
 ed between the two great rival states, Lacedemon and Ath- 
 ens, involved all Greece in one great struggle, which raged 
 twenty-five years, with all the violence of Grecian conflict ; 
 closed with the humiliation of Athens, destroyed their bal- 
 ance of power, and established the supremacy of Sparta ia 
 Greece. 
 
 From this time, Greece began to decline, became a thea- 
 tre of weakness, intrigue, and disorder, amidst all the splen- 
 
 judgments of the people. An appeal was open from the judgments of 
 the magistrates to the people, which finally placed the balance of pow- 
 er in the hands of the poor, when they became the most numerous ; 
 and they by their decisions gave law to the state. 
 
 These principles formed the great outlines of the government of 
 Solon, and partook much les of the balance of power, so essential 
 to good government, than the system of Lycurgus. Solon restored 
 and improved the Areopagus, or high court of the nation, introdu- 
 ced many wise laws, and regulations, which were calculated to suppress 
 indolence, and vice ; and encourage industry, virtue and good order. 
 
 He then, after the manner of Lycurgus, obtained an oath from 
 his country, to observe his laws one hundred years ; and went a- 
 broad on his travels. At the end of ten years he returned, and found 
 the Athenian state torn with factions and civil wars, which his gov- 
 ernment had no power to control, and the personal efforts of So- 
 lon, no power to regulate, or even check. 
 
 Pisistratus, one of the competitors for power, amidst the factions 
 of his country, assumed the mask of meekness, and great humility, 
 became the man of the people, robbed them of their liberties, and 
 became the tyrant of Athens. Solon lived to see Pisistratus twice 
 deposed by the factions of his country, and died of old age ; leav- 
 ing Athens under the dominion of the tyrant. 
 
 This usurpation hi Athens, caused the wars which fpllowed be- 
 tween Greece and Persia, and rendered Greece a theatre of carnage, 
 and distress, for so many years, under the invasions of Darius and 
 Xerxes. The expulsion of the two great Persian invasions, shewed to 
 Greece, what valour could achieve ; and the union of Greece, under 
 the government of Alexander, shewed to the world, the strength and 
 energies ef a permanent government. 
 
RUIN OF GREECE. 67 
 
 dor of her boasted refinement, and wisdom, under Socrates, 
 Plato and Aristotle, and all the eloquence of Demosthenes., 
 until she fell a prey to the intrigues of Philip king of Mace- 
 don, and the arms of his son Alexander ; about 300 years 
 before Christ. The conquests of Alexander produced the 
 same effects upon Greece, as the conquests of Sesostris had 
 done upon Egypt. With this blow, her virtues were lost for- 
 ever ; the arts and sciences continued to sink with her lib- 
 erty, until the overthrow of the city of Corinth, by the 
 Roman consul Mummius. This destroyed the Achean 
 league. Greece was then blotted out of the list of nations, 
 and became a Roman province ; about 150 years before 
 Christ. 
 
 The trophies of Greece graced the triumphs of Rome, un- 
 der her successive consuls. Greece became the theatre of 
 Roman war, until Rome triumphed over all the neighbouring 
 powers, and carried her arms into the east. Greece was a 
 province until the year of our Lord 330, when the emperor 
 Constantine transferred the seat of government from Rome 
 to Byzantium, called it Constantinople, after his own name, 
 and under the power and splendor of the Roman capital, the 
 splendor of learning, and the arts, again flourished where 
 Greece lay in ruins. 
 
 The arm of despotism sat triumphant in the midst of that 
 country, where liberty, valour, patriotism, economy, indus- 
 try, and faugality, with their attending virtues ; where wis- 
 dom, philosophy, science and the arts; once shone with such 
 perfect splendor, as rendered Greece the pride and admira- 
 tion of the world. 
 
 Her heroes slept in death, and witnessed not the distres- 
 sing scene. Her legislators, philosophers, poets, orators, and 
 artists were all hushed in repose, and witnessed not the ruins 
 of their degraded country ; that country they had enriched 
 and rendered so illustrious, by their wisdom, virtue, enter- 
 prise and arms. But their illustrious deeds are recorded in 
 the temple of immortal fame, and their names can never die. 
 
 Rome held the dominion of Greece from the conquest of 
 the consul Mummius, to the conquest of the Turks, in the 
 year of our Lord 1450, about 1600 years, and with the fall 
 of her Grecian power at Constantinople, fell the last vestige 
 of the gigantic power of Rome. All that remained of Greece 
 or Rome, is now lost in the dominion of the Turk. Virtue 
 
68 ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 is the glory of man ; but luxury, vice, and corruption, ever 
 have been, and ever will be, the ruin of nations. 
 
 (B.) ROME. 
 
 Before Christ. 
 
 T'-iis renowned city and empire, were founded, as we have 
 n< i, by Romulus, one of the descendants of ^Eneas,who 
 11 Jin the ruins of Troy, and settled in Italy. The pe- 
 r viiich passed between the destruction of Troy, and the 
 f... ling of Rome, together with the advantages which they 
 d : ri /sd from the improvements of their country, in arts, and 
 in arms, must have given the Roman colony such early 
 advantages over the rude natives of Italy, as to have enabled 
 th ra to have acquired at that time, not only a respectable 
 p -assion, but a superiority of character, and respectability. 
 To perpetuate these advantages, Romulus, the then hend of 
 the colony, founded the city of Rome in the 394th year after 
 the destruction of Troy, and before Christ, 753. 
 
 For the good government of his city, he instituted a senate 
 or council of ancients, composed of 100 citizens, noted for 
 their wisdom and virtue. By the wisdom of this senate, he 
 was enabled to support the title and dignity of king, and thus 
 laid the foundation of the greatness of Rome. Romulus made 
 it the first object of his care, to people his city ; and to this 
 end, he invited and encouraged strangers to settle in it. 
 This, like the settlement of all new countries, increased the 
 male population fister than the female. To obviate this, 
 he exhibited the Grecian games in his little city, and gave a 
 general entertainment to his neighbors ; in the midst of 
 these scenes, the Romans seized on the Sabine women, and 
 took them to wife, in the year before Christ, 750. 
 
 This perfidious act, involved the Romans in a war, which 
 raged through the life of Romulus, who reigned thirty-seven 
 years, died, and was deified. The government devolved up- 
 on the senate for one year, when they elected Numa Pom- 
 pilius their king, who reigned in wisdom forty-three years, 
 and made great improvements. He was succeeded by Tul- 
 lius Hortilius. In this reign was the famous combat for su- 
 premacy, between the three Roman chiefs, the Horatii, and 
 the three Alban chiefs, the Curatii. The Romans were vic- 
 torious, and the Alban state was annexed to Rome, 667 
 
 Thus under a succession of kings, the power and domm- 
 
ROMAN GOVERNMENT. (3.9 
 
 io of the Roman city were enlarged, until the wicked reign 
 of Tarquin the proud, their seventh and last king. He by 
 his unhallowed abuse of Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, one 
 of the nobles of Rome, overthrew the government. The vir- 
 tuous citizens, fired with indignation at this flagrant outrage, 
 flew to arms, deposed the king, banished him and his family, 
 destroyed the kingly government, and elected two consuls 
 for one year, with equal powers, as a check upon each other. 
 These with the senate, which had been incressed to the 
 number of two hundred, now became the government of 
 Rome. ' 500. 
 
 During this period, and under the reign of the former Tar- 
 quin, the walls of Rome were laid, the circus was built, which 
 would contain 150,000 spectators, the capitol was founded, 
 and the great outlines of many great improvements were be- 
 gun. The Romans soon experienced a weakness in their 
 government, which arose out of the divided head, and attempt- 
 ed to remedy this, by creating the office of dictator, (a kind 
 of Emperor,) with supreme power. 493. 
 
 This supreme power, added to the consuls and senate, soon 
 became oppressive to the people, and they assumed the 
 reigns of government, and created the office of tribunes of 
 the common people, as a check upon the aristocracy of the 
 three other powers. 486. 
 
 Quintus Cincinnatus was taken from his plough, and made 
 dictator. 460. 
 
 Cincinnatus then owned but four jugera of land, about two 
 acres of our measures ; this serves to show that merit, not 
 wealth, governed Rome at this age, and that the people were 
 rather jealous of the rich ; but all this did not satisfy them ; 
 they made a new change in their government, chose ten 
 wise men, called Decemvirs, and abolished the office of con- 
 sul. 450. 
 
 The Decemvirs formed a code of laws, called the ten ta- 
 bles, and caused them to be inscribed upon pillars of brass. 
 They became the standard of the judicial proceedings of 
 Rome. In the second year of the Decemvirs, one of their 
 body was guilty of lewdness ; the virtue of the people resent- 
 ed the outrage, revenged the indignity, and abolished the of- 
 fice, together with that of tribunes ; and the dictators and 
 senate, governed Rome about seven years. Their restless 
 spirit again became factious, and they created the office of 
 censor. 443. 
 
70 ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The object of this office, was to be a check upon the dic- 
 tator and senate ; this soon failed, and they chose military 
 tribunes as a substitute for the old office of consuls. This 
 continued two years, and was then abolished and the office 
 of consuls restored. 
 
 During these changes in the government, Rome was har- 
 assed by perpetual wars, with the Gauls, and various other 
 neighboring nations, particularly the Samnites, who were the 
 most powerful and warlike of all the tribes in Italy. These 
 nations often distressed the Roman state, and carried their 
 victorious arms to the gates of Rome. 
 
 The wars of Rome had hitherto been carried on for the 
 defence of the state, or military glory, by voluntary service ; 
 they first began to pay their troops about the year 400. 
 
 The office of consul did not abridge the powers of the sen- 
 ate ; they were as independent of each other, as in the times 
 of the kings ; and the consuls were kings at the will of the 
 people ; the consuls led the armies, and the senate governed 
 the state ; but the comitiaor general assemblies of the people, 
 held all the power in their own hands, both of peace and war, 
 and through their tribunes, they held the two great springs of 
 government in their hands rewards and punishments. They 
 held at their disposal all the offices of state, and all were 
 amenable to the people for their conduct. The consuls 
 were the executive, the senate the legislative, and the peo- 
 ple the electors and arbiters of the whole. Here was energy, 
 wisdom #nd folly, all so commixed, as to create perpetual 
 jealousy, discord and collision between the government and 
 the people, and occasion those frequent changes, which the 
 true balance of the federal constitution of America so wisely 
 regulates and controls. 
 
 Poverty was not only respected at Rome, as may be seen 
 in the appointment of G'incinnatus the dictator ; but it made a 
 part of their policy, in using heavy money of brass, in imita- 
 tion of the Spartan iron money ; which continued to be the 
 money of Rome, until they carried their arms into Sicily, in 
 the first Punic war ; they then found it necessary to coin sil- 
 ver money. 261. 
 The virtue and simplicity of manners in the Roman state, 
 were the palladium of the liberty of Rome. The censors 
 were the immediate guardians of this palladium; this office was 
 genar illy tilled by those whose virtues hod held the first 
 dignities f the state, with the highest approbation ; this office 
 
ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 71 
 
 protected virtue and suppressed vice and immorality, even 
 in the highest walks of life, with a severity that preserved 
 the Roman virtue pure. 
 
 The praetors composed the judiciary of the state ; the 
 ediles were more immediately the magistrates of the city ; 
 the two offices became of high importance, and in after times 
 the medium of ambition and power. The struggles between 
 the government and the people, shewed the want of a middle 
 state, to regulate these feuds. 
 
 The equestrian order held this rank in some measure, 
 not by any delegated powers, but by the influence which 
 their wealth, dignity and importance gave them in the com- 
 munity ; and when united with the patricians, they checked 
 and controlled the licentiousness of the populace. Thus a 
 partial substitute for the true balance in the government, 
 grew out of the necessity of things, and the virtue of the state, 
 formed the grand cement to the whole ; these combined with 
 a high military spirit and ardor, together with the greatness 
 and nobleness of the Roman soul, raised the Roman state 
 from a single point, amidst perpetual struggles in arms, to 
 become the mistress of the world. 
 
 Amidst all the guardians of Roman greatness and Roman 
 virtue, stood woman ; she by her smiles, or her frowns, 
 moved the arbiter of manners, of morals, and of virtue ; by 
 the dignity and majesty of her character, commanded the 
 admiration and respect of all classes and ranks of citizens ; 
 and by the splendor of her virtues, gave a lustre to the Ro- 
 man name. Nothing in Rome, was held more sacred than 
 the majesty of woman. Such was the character of the Ro- 
 man matrons, that it stands recorded to their eternal honor, 
 that not one single divorce stained the marriage covenants 
 of Rome for more than five hundred years after the days of 
 Romulus. 
 
 Rome in her infancy, thus having laid the foundation of 
 her greatness, was soon visited by the philosophers of Greece, 
 Pythagoras and others, who introduced the Grecian Mythol- 
 ogy, which deified all the virtues, gave them the first rank 
 in their temples, and thus perpetuated their value by their re- 
 ligious adoration. 
 
 The religious homage paid to the virtues, perpetuated the 
 purity of the state, as their splendid triumphs perpetuated the 
 lustre of their arms. Trained in this school of temperance, 
 and the virtues, the Roman armies, from the consul to the 
 soldier, carried te the field a Roman soul warmed with Ro- 
 
72 ROMAN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 man greatness and valor, and never once dreamed that they 
 could sheath the sword, until they had executed the decrees 
 of the senate. 
 
 Rome began the second war with Carthage, B. C. 218. 
 
 And the third Punic war, 149. 
 
 Carthage was destroyed by Scipiothe Roman consul, 146. 
 
 Marius the consul obtained the Roman triumph, with the 
 conquest and spoils of Numidia, and her captive prince, 103. 
 
 These were the days of virtue these were the days in 
 which Rome, under the consular arms, subdued all Europe, 
 south of the Danube, from the Atlantic on the west, to the 
 Hellespont on the east. These were the days in which 
 Pompey the great rescued his country from the civil wars of 
 Marius and Sylla, carried his arms into Asia, and after long 
 and distressing conquests, dedicated to his triumphant coun- 
 try, the whole extent of the states and kingdoms, between the 
 Black Sea on the north, and the Red Sea on the south, 
 brought Mithridates and Tigranes, the greatest monarchs of 
 Asia, to submit to the Rom -a arms, and settled the dominion 
 of the East. At the he;id of his victorious legions, he did 
 homage to the laws of his country, resigned his authority and 
 again became a private citizen, about the year CO. 
 
 The subversion of Roman liberty under Cesar, we have 
 noticed, also the glorious reign of Augustus, the first emperor ; 
 the fatal effects of the division of the empire, by Constantine, 
 and the final overthrow that followed the loss of Roman vir- 
 tue, and the corruption of Roman mariners. 
 
 So long as the Roman virtues and simplicity of manners 
 remained, so long Roman wisdom and the public good, sup- 
 plied the place of a balance of power in the government ; the 
 folly of the populace, was controlled by the wisdom and vir- 
 tue of the senate, and the energies of the consuls, supported 
 the glory of the state. When Carthage had fallen, and with 
 her all fears of ,\ rival ; when the wealth and luxury of Asia, 
 with the refinements of Greece, flowed into Rome, and cor- 
 rupted her manners and nfior.l, by changing public respect 
 for virtuous povertv,into the admiration of licentious wealth ; 
 then money supplanted all the virtues, bribery and corrup- 
 tion followed, the folly of the populace overpowered the 
 wisdom of the senate, the consular energies were turned 
 against the liberties of Rome, Cesar tri^ruphed over Pompey, 
 and this mighty government, w : J h had given law to the 
 , fell under the rod of a despot. 
 
DESTRUCTION Oi" ROME. -73 
 
 Lome in the midst of her corruption could boast of her 
 Cutulus, Lentulus, Cotta ; her Hortensius, Calvus and Ci- 
 cero ; her Metellus, and Lucullus ; her Pompey and Cato ; 
 but her virtue was gone, her morals were gone, and above 
 all, the majesty of woman was gone ; the smiles or the 
 frowns of this key of virtue, no longer rewarded the pure 
 and controlled the corrupt. With the fall of woman, fell the 
 manners of Rome ; and elegance, purity and refinement, 
 were swallowed up in luxury, effeminacy, dissipation and 
 corruption. Wisdom, eloquence, manners and morals, with 
 the Roman virtues, and Roman liberty, all fell a prey to all 
 conquering luxury, and corrupt ambition, in regular succes- 
 sion, until they were swallowed up, with Rome herself, in 
 the deluge of northern barbarism. 450, 
 
SKETCHES OF 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 PART SECOND, 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EM- 
 PIRE 410, TO THE YEAR 1818 OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Revolution of the Western Roman Empire character of the 
 Barbarians laws of division and tenure of their spoil 
 character of the Roman Religion Religion of the Barbari- 
 ans character of the dark ages origin of the feudal system. 
 
 THE luxuries of the Roman empire, which followed their 
 conquests in the east, with all their train of effeminacy and 
 corruption, swept away that Roman valor, which had shone 
 so conspicuous in the days of Fabius, Scipio and Cesar, and 
 opened the way for the subversion of the western empire, 
 in about one century after Constantine, the emperor, removed 
 the government to Byzantium, or Constantinople. 
 
 The northern barbarians, who inhabited the regions of 
 Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway ; (all 
 then one vast uncultivated forest, thinly peopled with a race 
 of men in a state of nature, much like the Aborigines of 
 North America,) lived wandering liyes, without letters and 
 the arts. The people who inhabited Germany, had been 
 harassed by the Romans, in their conquests under Julin-i 
 CSsar, and treated with that severity the Romans were ac- 
 customed to bestow upon such barbarians as they were re- 
 solved to tame to their submission. 
 
 These barbarians took advantage of this weak and divided 
 state of the Roman empire, to revenge the wrongs which 
 they had suffered from Roman invasions, and began their de- 
 predations in the year 410, under Alaric. 
 
 One success encouraged and invited another, as wave fol- 
 lows wave, until the whole northern wilderness was in mo 
 
 I 
 
KOMAN REVOLUTION. 75 
 
 tion, and the various tribes of Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, 
 Alans, Suevi, &c. rushed like a torrent down upon the Ro- 
 mans, spreading carnage, desolation and destruction, through 
 the finest provinces. 
 
 This torrent raged, until Attila with his Huns, from the 
 shores of the Euxine sen, sacked Rome, overwhelmed Italy, 
 and destroyed every vestige of the Roman government in the 
 west, together with the arts and scienres, manners and cus- 
 toms of the Romans ; exterminated the Roman population, 
 and planted their barbarous hordes upon its ruins. 
 
 At tiie first of the sixth century, the Goths and Franks 
 were possessed of Gaul ; the Ostrogoths and Huns of Italy 
 and Pannonia ; the Visigoths of Spain , and the Saxons of 
 Britain. New l.nvs, languages, manners, customs, dresses 
 and even names of men, things and countries, produced a to- 
 tal change in the w r estern Roman empire. 
 
 The object of this part of our work, is to shew the evils 
 that resulted from this change ; and the ultimate good which 
 has resulted from those evils ; and to unfold the wisdom of 
 the divine plan in subverting the despotic idolatry and cor- 
 ruption of the Roman state, to open the way for the religion 
 of the gospel, and the triumph of the " kingdom of the stone, 
 which should be cut out of the mountain without hands, be- 
 come a great mountain and fill the whole earth." Daniel ii. 
 35, 3G. 
 
 Terrible as was this revolution in its ravages, effects and 
 consequences ; it has long been well understood, that the 
 good of the world required the subversion of the corrupt, 
 bloody, despotic and idolatrous government of Rome, al- 
 though nothing, but a special miracle of God, short of this 
 northern exterminating revolution, could have effected the 
 change. 
 
 The barbarians treated with derision and contempt every 
 mark of Roman splendor, elegance and grandeur, as the de- 
 basing causes which rendered the Romans so easy a conquest, 
 and planted their own barbarous customs upon their ruins, as 
 the great instruments of promoting that valour, which had been 
 the immediate cause of all their triumphs. 
 
 To enforce this contempt upon the rising generation, they 
 erected a cottage upon the ruins of a palace, and caused the 
 vanquished to be fed with elegance, while they partook of 
 their rustic fare, in their rustic form, seated upon the ground. 
 The religion of the two great parties was idolatry ; but dif>. 
 fering according to their difference of refinement. 
 
76 JUPITER AN WODEN. 
 
 Jupiter, the god of the Romans, presided over the universe, 
 held the balances of events, and ruled the destinies of men ; 
 by the thunderbolts of heaven enforced obedience to his 
 laws, and took vengeance on his enemies. Mars, one ofthe 
 lesser deities, wielded the sword ; rewarded with victory 
 the arm of the valiant, and humbled the refractory, avari- 
 cious, licentious and effeminate, as trophies of the victors ; 
 whilst Apollo, the god of wisdom, directed the councils of 
 the virtuous and wise. 
 
 These, with a host of others, were the gods of the Romans, 
 bitt Woden, thegodof the barbarians, was a god of vengeance, 
 who sanctioned all that exterminating malice, which blotted 
 out the Roman name in the west ; presided over the judicial 
 combats and civil wars, which drenched Europe in blood, 
 through the dark ages, of nearly 1000 years ; until ferocity 
 itself was glutted with carnage ; and the sons of these sires, 
 under the benign influence of the gospel, received a polish 
 from the revival of letters ; and savage man, was again en- 
 robed in humanity from the improvement of those arts, which 
 their fathers had rendered the victims of their vengeance, 
 and sacrificed to Woden their god. 
 
 Although popery arose out of this tempestuous sea of igno- 
 rance and barbarity; yet popery with all its corruptions, was 
 better than the mythology of idolatrous Rome ; it laid the 
 foundation for the display of the angel of the gospel in the re- 
 formation, under the immortal Luther, and opened the way 
 for the kingdom ofthe stone, which shall fill the whole earth, 
 through the millennial period, and consummate to man all 
 the blessings ofthe future promises. 
 
 The genius of tl\e government of these barbarians, was 
 liberty and equality ; he who was most alert in the chase, 
 most hardy in toils, and most valiant in war, became their 
 chief ; and this was common to all the clans. Their division 
 of conquest and plunder was by lot, according to their differ- 
 ent shares, from the chief to the soldier ; and the tenure of 
 their property was a tenure of force. 
 
 One example may serve to illustrate this fact. " When 
 the Franks, hail taken a large silver vase from a certain 
 church, a petition was sent to Clovis, their chief, that he 
 would restore that silver vessel to its sacred use. When 
 they were about to divide the spoil, Clovis requested that 
 that vase might be given to him separately, before the di- 
 vision ; to which all consented, but one soldier, who struck 
 
FEUDAL SYSTEM. T\ 
 
 the vase with his war club, and exclaimed, ; - there shall be 
 no division here but by lot ;" and it was conclusive. 
 
 In this state of things, property became a curse instead of a 
 ble-ssing ; the weak with their shares fell a sacrifice to the 
 strong ; this led the common people to the chiefs for justice 
 and protection, who in their turn seized on their estates, 
 when it suited their humor, or interest ; others, to avoid 
 these distresses, yielded up their shares to the chiefs for 
 protection, and became their vassals. Thus from the ne- 
 cessity of things, the chiefs obtained what they could not pro- 
 tect, for the want of legal and coercive power, to restrain 
 such a state of weakness, licentiousness and anarchy. 
 
 The same acts of violence and oppression, which destroy^ 
 eel the liberties, persons and properties of the common peo- 
 ple, were common among the chiefs ; these made war an ' 
 committed depredations upon each other, as suited their lusts> 
 ambition or resentments ; this led them to the king for re- 
 dress ; his decisions, and the common safety, administered a 
 partial remedy for a time ; but the chiefs exercised the most 
 despotic sway over their subjects ; they were considered and 
 held, as the property of the chiefs upon their estates ; were 
 bought and sold like cattle, either separately or collectively, 
 with estates, and even matrimony and their children were at 
 the disposal of the lords. This gave rise to, and supported 
 the system of government, called the feudal system. 
 
 This was the military system which subjected the property 
 of the chief with all their vassals, to cLe controul of the king, 
 for the defence of the nation, and the public weal. This 
 system became common to all these clans or kingdoms ; was 
 the source ot all their horrors, through the dark ages, and 
 from which they all emerged by the same causes, and pro- 
 gressed up to their present state of civil refinement. 
 
 CHAP. II, 
 
 dovis character of his reign distracted state of the Franks 
 Mayors of the palace rei^i of Pepin Charles Martel 
 Leavigild Ecclesiastical power Mahomet Saracens 
 situation of Spain. 
 
 IN our first part, we touched upon the origin of the Franks, 
 
78 CLOVIS AND CLOTILDA. 
 
 under Pharamond and Clovis, sufficiently to shew the con- 
 nection, which laid the foundation, as well as future support 
 of the papal throne. We noticed that Pharamond led his 
 Franks out of Germany, over the Rhine, and settled in Gaul ; 
 which was at this time shared by the Romans, the Gauls, Vi- 
 sigoths, and Burgundi. 
 
 Clovis, his successor, at nineteen years of age, obtained a 
 decided victory over Syagrius, a Roman despot, and estab- 
 lished the kingdom of the Franks 486. He secured the fruits 
 of this victory by his marriage with Clotilda, niece of Gonda- 
 baud, king of Burgundy, and thereby opened a way through 
 the pious instrumentality of the queen, of winning the affec- 
 tions of the Gauls, by favouring their bishops, and flattering 
 their religion ; and actually led all his people into the Chris- 
 tian religion, by his own example. 
 
 Clevis, through the instrumentality of Clotilda, was bap- 
 tized by the bishop of Rheims in 49G, and the whole nation 
 followed his example. 
 
 Clovis, like his queen, was a catholic ; but the Visigoths 
 and Burgundians were Arians ; this opened the way for Clo- 
 vis tomalie the most of his religion ; and under the sanction 
 of the Gallic clergy, who were catholics, he drew his sword 
 upon Alaric, king of the Visigoths, and by a desperate battle 
 near Poictiers, expelled Alaric, and added the province of 
 Aquitaine to his kingdom. 
 
 The religion of Clovis, like all other religions of policy, 
 convenience or interest, without the feelings and sincerity of 
 the heart, sunk under the full tide of his successes, and he 
 fell a prey to dissipation, perfidy, licentiousness and cruelty. 
 Clovis exhibited one more specimen of a corrupt religion, 
 which has been followed by thousands, and tens of thousands 
 of apostates, from that day to this ; he attempted to atone for 
 his corruptions and cruelties, at his death, by building and 
 endowing churches and religious cloisters, and attempting to 
 regulate church discipline, which might restrain the licen- 
 tious hereafter. 
 
 The kingdom of Clovis was founded upon the rights of con- 
 quest and a corrupt religion ; and upon his death, passed un- 
 der the dominion of his four sons, which laid the foundation 
 for all the horrors of those barbarous murders, assassinations 
 and cruelties, which followed ; until Clotair, by the death of 
 the others, again united the crown of France, and transmitted 
 it to his four sons, in 562, 
 
CHILPERIC AND FREDEGONDA. 7$ 
 
 rors of the first division, had taught nothing from 
 experience, to this barbarous age : and the consequences re- 
 sulting from the second, were more fatal than those of the 
 first. The barbarities and cruelties of these murderous 
 scenes, were greatly increased by the vindictive malice of the 
 two rival queens, Brunechilda and Fredegonda, who made 
 every form of treachery subservient to their passions of ri- 
 valry and dominion ; until the princes were all exterminated, 
 and France again united under Clotair II. son of Chilperic 
 and Fredegonda, in 613. 
 
 He restored tranquillity by laying aside his ambition, insti- 
 tuting a new office of the nature of viceroy, called mayor of 
 the palace ; who governed with an influence much like the 
 prime ministers of the courts of Europe at this day. In this 
 capacity Pepin, duke of Austratia, governed France twenty- 
 eight years. Pepin died in 656, and left his authority to 
 Plectrude, his widow, who became regent in office to her 
 grandson, then an infant who was created mayor. 
 
 Charles Martel, natural son of Pepin, was imprisoned by 
 Plectrude, to suppress his ambition. Charles escaped her 
 power, seized on the mayorality of Austratia, and the people 
 supported his claims ; and in capacity of Duke of France, 
 governed France, 732. 
 
 I/pon an invasion of the Saracens, he repelled them by a 
 desperate battle, and compelled them to take refuge in Spain. 
 His son Pepin succeeded to the government, assumed the 
 title of king, to the utter exclusion of the descendants of Clo- 
 vis, or the Merovingian race, and was crowned and anointed 
 king, by St. Boniface, bishop of Mentz, in 752. 
 
 Daring these operations in France, the Visigoths founded 
 a kingdom in Spain, upon the ruins of a part of the kingdoms 
 of the Vandals and Suevi. There the powers of the clergy 
 soon surpassed the powers of the kings, they introduced a 
 spiritual tyranny into Spain ; the bishops became the judges, 
 and when united with the nobles, held the crown at their dis- 
 posal. 
 
 Under this order of things, Spain was a theatre of in- 
 trigues, assassinations, crimes, bigotry, cruelty and blood. 
 Leovigild, the champion of Spain, who subdued the Suevi, 
 put to death his son Hermenegild, because he was a catholic, 
 and would not become an Arian. This persecution between 
 the Catholics and Arians, extended to the Jews, who were 
 
80 CRUELTIES IN SFAlN. 
 
 compelled to receive baptism upon pain of death, In the 
 reign of Sisebut, one of the successors of Leovigild. He 
 subdued the Visigoths, added all Spain to his dominions with 
 some part of Gaul, and Mauritania. Chintilla, his successor, 
 banished the Jews, and enforced with rigor all the laws against 
 that people. 
 
 Under the succeeding reign, the bishops, with the palatines, 
 or great officers of the crown, assumed the election of the 
 kings to the exclusion of the nobility, and they declared 
 Wamba, (the champion of Spain against the Saracejas,) to be 
 excluded from the throne, because he had worn the habit of 
 a penitent, when labouring under the effects of poison ; and 
 at the same time they decreed the penalty of damnation to , 
 any king, who should marry a king's widow. 
 
 A civil war sprang up in the reign of Witiza, in consequence 
 of the debauchery and corruptions of this prince, who was 
 dethroned by Roderique, in 710 ; he in his turn, fell a sac- 
 rifice to those Saracens, whose rise, progress, and conquests 
 we noticed in the first part, under Mahomet, the apostate 
 apostle of Mecca, in Arabia. This invasion was imputed to 
 the intrigues of Count Julian, to revenge on Roderique the 
 dishonour he had occasioned his injured daughter. This 
 insult divided and distracted Spain, and rendered the con- 
 quest of the Saracens easy and permanent. 
 
 Appas, archbishop of Seville, joined the Saracens, to re- 
 venge the insult ; butPaleologus, a prince of the royal blood 
 fled to the mountains of Asturias, and founded a Christian 
 kingdom which he transmitted to his posterity, 717. 
 
 The wretched government of the Moors in Spain, was 
 bent upon nothing but avarice, and plunder ; this, together 
 with their civil wars, rendered Spain the theatre of crimes, 
 wretchedness, strife, carnage and usurpation ; in the midst of 
 these struggles, the Mahometan religion triumphed over the 
 Christian ; and a bloody revolution in the superior mahome- 
 tan sects established the triumph, and dominion of the sect 
 of the Abassides, over the Amiades, and settled the usurpa- 
 tions of Spain. 
 
 At this time, Abdurrahmon, or Almanzor the great, fixed 
 the Saracen government at Cordova, as his capital, and ren- 
 dered it the theatre of the arts, of elegance, and pleasure ;. 
 and by depriving the bishops of their power, with their liv- 
 ings, and by promoting intermarriage 3 - between the different 
 
KINGDOM OF ALMANSOR. 81 
 
 sects, he rooted out Christianity, without violence ; and led 
 all parties into new scenes of luxury, excesses and pleasures, 
 together with elegance and refinement of manners, which 
 shone with the more brilliance and splendor, in the midst of 
 the thick darkness, of ignorance, superstition, and barbar- 
 ism, which surrounded them. 
 
 We have thus paved the way for a correct knowledge of 
 the successive events, which followed upon this dark, and 
 distressing theatre of Europe ; a theatre pregnant with events 
 more horrid, vile and corrupt, than ever before blackened 
 the history of man ; a theatre on which ignorance, bigotry 
 and superstition, commixed with ambition, avarice and lust of 
 domination, aided with all the concomitant vices, in the ex- 
 treme, with all the distressing evils and calamities which fol- 
 lowed in their train, reigned triumphant, and rendered it 
 one successive tragedy of carnage and blood, for more than 
 one thousand years : the effects of which still remain, and 
 continue to distract this devoted country ; even down to these 
 later ages of the world ; and amidst all the improvements 
 of religion, literature, jurisprudence, the arts, and civil re- 
 finement. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 General affairs of Italy rise of Popery Pcpin supports the 
 Pope state of Britain origin of the Anglo Saxons Wit- 
 tenagemot, or elective government. 
 
 ITALY was now divided between the emperors of Constan- 
 tinople, and the Lombards, or Longobards ; and opened a 
 field for ambitious wars : these, the folly ofthe emperor Leo 
 Isauricus, soon gave rise to, by attempting to abolish the wor- 
 ship of images, in Italy, as he had done in the eastern em- 
 pire : this inflamed the populace at Ravenna, against the ex- 
 arch, when he began to pull down the images, and caused an 
 insurrection. 
 
 Luitprand, king of the Lombards, (a race of Goths who ex- 
 pelled the Ostrogoths from Italy,) seized this favourable mo- 
 ment to extend his dominions, marched to Ravenna, laid 
 siege to, and took it by storm, ..nd gave it up with all its goth- 
 ic wealth, to the plunder of his army, in 728. This struck a 
 
82 LEO, LUITPRAND, AND GREGORY II. 
 
 general terror into the cities of Italy, and they submitted to 
 Luitprand. 
 
 The edict of Leo the emperor, against image worship, (to- 
 gether with the overwhelming power of Luitprand,) alarmed 
 the bishop of Rome, then Gregory II. ; he applied to Ursus, 
 duke of Venice, for assistance ; who accepted the overture, 
 equipped a fleet, put the exarch of Ravenna, (who had fled to 
 Venice for succour,) at its head, and recovered Ravenna, in 
 the absence of Luitprand. 
 
 Enraged at this step of the bishop of Rome, Leo the empe- 
 ror recalled the exarch, sent a successor, with orders to de- 
 stroy the bishop, or seize him, and send him in chains to Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 Here commenced the struggle that fixed the papal power. 
 Gregory II. excommunicated the new exarch ; Luitprand 
 turned his arms to the assistance of the pope; the citizens 
 of Ravenna rose, murdered the exarch, and all his abettors, 
 or image breakers ; the duke of Naples shared the same fate ; 
 and the citizens of Rome rallied round the pope, and with- 
 drew their allegiance from the emperor Leo, in 730. 
 
 Fired with indignation at this outrage on his authority, the 
 emperor sent a powerful army into Italy to subdue the reb- 
 els. The pope at the same time sought aid from France, and 
 sent ambassadors to Charles Martel, who gladly received 
 them, and became the protector of the church, in 731. 
 
 During these preparations, Gregory II. died, and was suc- 
 ceeded by Gregory III. The emperor Leo died soon after, 
 and was succeeded by his son ConstantineCopronymus, who 
 followed the steps of his father. In 741, died Charles Mar- 
 tel, who was succeeded by Pepin ; and also Gregory III. 
 w^ho was succeeded by Zachary. Luitprand resigned to 
 Zachary all the cities taken from the Roman see, and he died, 
 in 743, and was succeeded by Rachis, who confirmed the 
 peace with Zachary ; but soon broke it and invaded the 
 Roman states. 
 
 Instead of drawing the sword, the pope w 7 ent in person to 
 the crimp of Rachis, and by his address, persuaded him to 
 sheath his sword, renounce his crown, do him homage as his 
 spiritual father, and retire to a convent in the habit of St. 
 Benedict, in 750. By the influence of Zachary, Pepin, may- 
 or of the palace of France, was raised to the throne, and 
 anointed king by St. Boniface, bishop ofMentz,in 752. 
 
 Thus was laid the foundation of the papal throne ; the 
 
ZACHARY AND PEPI>'. 83 
 
 succeeding narrative will show, how the stupendous super- 
 structure was raised. Astulphus the successor of Rachis in 
 Lombardy, aimed at the dominion of Italy, he subdued Raven- 
 na and Pentapolis ; marched towards Rome, and demanded 
 the submission of all the dukedom. This alarmed Stephen 
 111. then upon the papal throne,, and he again applied to 
 France for relief. 
 
 Pepin, now firmly seated on the throne of Clovis, sent 
 two ambassadors to conduct his holiness into France, where 
 he concluded a treaty ; Stephen anointed Pepin anew, with 
 holy unction, and his two sons, Charles and Carloman de- 
 claring each of them Romanorum Patricius ; and Pepin, in 
 return, guaranteed Ravenna and Pentapolis, to the pope or 
 holy see, marched his army into Italy ; compelled Astulphus 
 to restore his conquests, established the pope in the chair, 
 and returned into France. 
 
 When the rod was withdrawn, Astulphus again invaded the 
 papal dominions ; and Pepin, upon renewed solicitations from 
 the pope, again marched his army into Italy, and restored 
 tlie sovereignty of the pope, and Astulphus again took refuge 
 in Pavia. Alarmed at this state of events in Italy, the empe- 
 ror Constantine, applied by his ambassadors, to Pepin, for a 
 restoration of the exarchate, and Pentapolis, to the empire ; 
 to which Pepin replied, " that it had belonged to the Lombards 
 by the laws of conquest, that it belonged to him by the same 
 right, and that under his authority he had given it to St. Peter, 
 to preserve the purity of the catholic faith, and this he was 
 ready to seal with the last drop of his blood." 
 
 Pepin pressed Astulphus in Pavia, by a close siege, and 
 compelled him for his own safety, to relinquish all his con- 
 quests, and put the pope in possession of Commachio, the 
 strong fortress of Italy. Pepin conferred upon pope Steph- 
 en, and his successors, forever, the exarchate, Pentapolis, 
 (now Maca D'Ancona,) Emilia, (now Romagna,) with all 
 the cities therein, retaining only the ideal superiority of 
 Patricius Romanorum, (or protector of the Roman people.) 
 Thus the keys and sceptre were united to the papal chair by 
 Pepin, who died in 768, in the fifty-fourth year of his age, 
 and seventeenth of his reign, and left his kingdom to his two 
 sons, Charles and Carloman. 
 
 We have now brought forward the kingdoms of France, 
 Spain and Italy, to the commencement of the reign of Charle- 
 
84 ROMANS AND BRITONS. 
 
 magne, we will now bring forward the kingdom of England 
 to the same period. 
 
 The Romans held possession of Britain from the invasion 
 of Julius Cesar, (fifty years before Christ) to the invasion of 
 the Roman empire by the northern nations 400, about five 
 centuries. No instance occurs on the page of history, of a 
 people so brave, that have been so much harassed as the Bri 
 tons. When the Romans had withdrawn their legions for 
 their own defence, the divided state of Britain again opened 
 the scenes of discord, rapine, and war ; they again applied for 
 aid to the Romans, and again rebuilt the Roman wall of Anto- 
 nius, between the Friths of Forth, and Clyde, to check the 
 ravages of the Picts and Scots. Who these daring adventur- 
 ers descended from, is no more known, than who the Irish 
 or Britons descended from ; doubtless all from the stock of 
 Japhet, under different leaders, the same as the nations on 
 the continent. 
 
 During the ravages of Attilla, with his Huns, in the Roman 
 empire, the Picts and Scots took advantage of the absence 
 of the Roman legions, crossed the Frith of Forth, and broke 
 over the wall ; laying waste the country with fire and sword. 
 The wretched Britons addressed a letter to their former 
 masters, (the Romans,) for aid, in this style, " Driven by the 
 barbarians into the sea, and forced by the sea back upon the 
 barbarians ; we know not which way to turn from the choice 
 of two deaths." The Romans could give them no assistance, 
 and left them to the consolation of that Christian religion, 
 which they had embraced long before. 
 
 Driven to despair by these barbarous savages, some who 
 escaped the sword, fled into Gaul, and settled a province, 
 which they called Britanny ; some submitted to the con- 
 querors, some fled into the woods and mountains, where 
 they dwelt secure, and often sallied forth upon the foe, and 
 took desperate revenge for the wrongs they had suffered, 
 
 Thus harassed and distressed, they invited over the Sax- 
 ons, from the heart of Germany, to secure the peace of the 
 Island. These people sprang from what is now called Jut- 
 land, and had acquired by conquest, the greater part of Ger- 
 many, together with Holland and Zealand. Flushed with 
 the successes of their arms, they readily obeyed the call, and 
 sent a small fleet, with about 1500 troops, under the com- 
 mand of two brother chiefs, Hengis and Horsa, descendants 
 of their god Woden, in 450. 
 
BRITONS AlFb SAX6N8. 85 
 
 Sritons hailed them as their deliverers ; and soon saw 
 the frets and Scots driven again into their native wilds. In- 
 terest is the ruling passion in the heart of man ; the Britons 
 rejoiced to see themselves freed from the Picts and Scots ; 
 the Saxons rejoiced to find how easy a conquest such a peo 
 pie as the Britons, might become to their arms. 
 
 Pleased with the fertility of the soil, they sent to their 
 brethren to come over and join in the conquest of the Isl- 
 and : this they readily accepted, and a strong force embark- 
 ed, and landed in Britain ; here opened a scene too horrible 
 to relate ; suffice it to say, that after a succession of severe, 
 and desperate conflicts, the Britons were not only subdued, 
 but almost exterminated ; and the Saxons became masters 
 f the island ; until prince Arthur arose ; he gave relief to 
 such of his countrymen as had escaped the murderous sword, 
 and fled to the mountains and forests for safety ; collected 
 a band of these fugitives, fell upon the Saxons at Badon 
 Hill, in 520, and gained such a victory, as gave relief to the 
 Britons about forty years. Fresh invaders having passed 
 over from Germany, from time to time, and the Britons were 
 finally subdued ; excepting such as fled to the mountains of 
 Cornwall and Wales, where they dwelt securely under their 
 own governments, 584. 
 
 As soon as the common enemy was subdued, the Saxons 
 divided the country into seven independent sovereignties, 
 railed the Saxon Heptarchy, united under one head ; these 
 held a general elective council, called Wittenagemot, or gen- 
 eral assembly, to consult, and determine on the affairs of the 
 general good. 
 
 CHAP. III. Continued. 
 
 THE Saxon heptarchy was the basis on which the laws of 
 England, and of course, English and American liberty, were 
 founded. Their Wittenagemot, or council of wise men, was 
 composed of a select number from all the clans or kingdoms ; 
 of what class or order of men is not known. Their divisions 
 into classes, were the same as in England at this time, the 
 noble, the free, and the servile. The nobles were called 
 thanes, and were of two kinds, the greater and lesser thanes ; 
 both were dependent on the king ; the free men w r ere the 
 yeomanry, or farmers of the realm ; but the slaves were 
 
 8 
 
86 BRITONS AND SAXONS. 
 
 the most numerous, and were tlae property upon the estates 
 of the nobles. 
 
 The basis of the Anglo-Saxon laws, was the same as the 
 present English, excepting the decision of ordeal in very in- 
 tricate cases.* Their criminal code was more mild than the 
 present English ; all crimes might be compensated with 
 money. This principle became the basis of the corruptions 
 of popery. This heptarchy continued until they were united 
 under Egbert, king of Wessex, in 827 ; but it was an union 
 both transient and momentary. 
 
 The heptarchy were converted to Christianity by St. Au- 
 gustine, a catholic monk, about the year 600. Reverences 
 to saints and monastic observances, were amongst the first 
 of their moral virtues ; and donations to the church, atoned 
 for all crimes. These superstitions brought them under the 
 dominion of the Roman pontiffs, and pilgrimages to Rome 
 were common to all classes of society, from the king to the 
 peasant. 
 
 Upon this throne of the united heptarchy reigned Egbert, 
 after severe struggles for dominion, and after he had by his 
 sword persuaded the Saxons that he was the rightful heir to 
 Henghis and Horsa, the two first chiefs who led the Saxons 
 into England. The reign of Egbert was rendered distress- 
 ing and alarming by the invasions of the Normans, who 
 ravaged the country, as the Danes had done before. In the 
 midst of these scenes, Egbert died, 838, and left his throne 
 to his son Ethelwolf. His superstition was equal to the 
 weakness of his mind ; in his reign, England was again dis- 
 tressed by the ravages of the Danes ; and in the midst of 
 these distresses, the |dng went off on a pilgrimage to Rome, 
 and on his return died, leaving the throne to his sons, Ethel- 
 bert and Ethelbald. 
 
 The Danes still continued their ravages, and distracted this 
 divided kingdom, until both the kings died, and left the crown 
 to their younger brother Alfred, at twenty years of age. This 
 young hero did w r onders ; but was soon ov rpowered, after 
 having fought eight pitched battles in one year ; V ^ ,vas com- 
 pelled to abandon the crown, take the garb of a peasant, and pass 
 as a servant to a grazier. Not content with this situation, he 
 built him a strong castle in the midst of an inaccessible mo- 
 rass ; collected a few of his nobles, and when occasion offer- 
 ed, fell upon the defenceless Danes without mercy. 
 
 * The ordeal of fire and sword was common to the Saxons in the 
 
ALFRED THE GREAT, 87 
 
 Thus immured, like Gustavus of Sweden, he reconnoiter- 
 the Danes in their camp, and encouraged his countrymen, 
 mtil a favorable moment offered, when he fell upon the 
 )anish camp at Eddington, routed their army, put them to 
 flight, with great slaughter ; took Guthrum their king, with 
 the remnant of his banditti, and offered them their lives, and 
 land to work upon, if they would embrace Christianity, and 
 be loyal subjects ; these they consented to, and were true to 
 their engagements. 
 
 Although Egbert may be considered as the first king, under 
 the Saxon union, his reign was so short, that he had only the 
 name of king ; never did he enjoy a tranquil throne ; every 
 thing remained for Alfred to do, when he came to the throne, 
 and he was exactly fitted for his condition ; he did every 
 thing for that nation, in one conspicuous reign. 
 
 He subdued the Danes, he created a fleet of one hundred 
 and twenty vessels, which was equal to the protection of his 
 sea coast ; established a regular police throughout his king- 
 dom, by dividing England into counties, hundreds, and ty th- 
 ings ; and rendered every householder accountable for his 
 family and guests ; every person who did not register himself 
 in some tything, was punished as an outlaw ; and no man 
 could change his abode without a- certificate from the head of 
 the tything. 
 
 Alfred created county courts, and juries, in the manner 
 they are now used in England and America, and assembled 
 his whole people once a year, by their hundreds, not only to 
 inquire into, and correct crimes, but also all abuses of power 
 in the magistrates, and at the same time to do military duty ; 
 hence a hundred was called a Wappentake. Alfred framed 
 also a" body of laws, which were the basis of English jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
 He was sensible that ignorance was the hot-bed of mischief, 
 and that without knowledge, it was impossible for any people 
 to be free, virtuous and happy. 
 
 Alfred founded schools and seminaries \ greatly endowed 
 the university of Oxford ; enjoined it upon all freeholders, 
 to send their children to school ; and encouraged merit by 
 preferment. He studied, wrote, and practised, as he wished 
 his people to do, and thus by precept and example, was truly 
 the father of his country. He introduced and encouraged 
 manufactures and commerce ; lived to enjoy the elegancies 
 
88 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT. 
 
 and luxuries of life, and laid the foundation of all that is truly 
 great and good in England. 
 
 In the year 901, Alfred died, (having fought fifty-six pitch- 
 ed battles, by land and sea,) and left in his will, " It is just 
 that the English should ever remain as free as their own 
 thoughts." The real worth, and true greatness of Alfred, 
 are best known and expressed, by the general good which has 
 been experienced in the English nation. 
 
 To avoid interruption in the Saxon history, I have contin- 
 ued through the reign of Alfred ; which brings it forward of 
 the reign of Charlemagne, nearly one whole century. We 
 will now go back, and take up the affairs of the continent, 
 beginning with Charlemagne, king of the Franks, and empe- 
 ror of the west. 
 
 In the reign of Pepin, we noticed the holy consecration of 
 his two sons, Charles and Carloman, by pope Stephen, as 
 protectors of the Roman people. Soon after the death of 
 Pepin, died his son Carloman, and left Charles sole heir to 
 the crown, in 771. The Saxons had made a general con- 
 quest of the clans which were spread over Germany, and 
 held them in subjection, after the manner of the age ; where 
 subjection and obedience were enforced by the sword only, 
 and where ravaging and plunder were the common modes of 
 subsisting, amongst a set of pagan idolatrous barbarians, much 
 like our western Indians. 
 
 To quiet the depredations of some of these tribes, became 
 the early attention of Charles, when he was called by pope 
 Adrian I. to protect his holiness against the incursions of De- 
 aiderius king of the Lombards, in the same manner that his 
 father Pepin had done against Luitprand. Charles had mar- 
 ried the daughter of Desiderius, divorced her with the con- 
 sent of the pope, as being without issue, and married another 
 woman. This had given some occasion fer the quarrel be- 
 tween Desiderius and the pope ; and a serious cause of quar- 
 rel between Desiderius and Charles. 
 
 Upon the first summons from Adrian, Charles concluded a 
 rreaty with the Saxons, drew off his army, and marched into 
 Italy in quest of 'Desiderius, who fled at his approach, and 
 took shelter in Pavia, his capital, where Charles besieged 
 him, 773. The Lombards made a gallant defence, Charles 
 invested the city with a part of his army, drew off the other 
 part and marched to Verona, which soon fell into his hands, 
 together with his brother Carloman's widow, (who was also 
 

 CHARLEMAGNE. 39 
 
 daughter to Desiderius,) with h<*r two sons, who had been 
 sent there by her father for safety ; these Charles sent into 
 France, and returned to Pavia ; renewed the siege with vig- 
 or, and went in person to Rome to pass the Easter festival. 
 
 Adrian received Charles with great pomp, preceded by the 
 magistrates and judges of Rome, with banners ; and the ex- 
 ultations of the clergy " Blessed is he that cometh in the 
 name of the Lord." Charles being fully gratified with this 
 reception at Rome, confirmed again the grant of Pepin, and 
 retired to Pavia, which a severe plague amongst the besieg- 
 ed soon compelled them to deliver up to Charles, who took 
 Desiderius and his family, and sent them into France ; where 
 they all died. Thus an end was put to the kingdom of the 
 Lombards, 774 ; after a period of 206 years. 
 
 Italy at this time was shared by the Venitians, the Lom- 
 bards, the Popes, and the Emperors of Constantinople. After 
 the conquest of Lombard}', it was all owned by the Pope, and 
 Charles, excepting the dukedom of Naples, and several cities 
 in the two Calabrias, which belonged to the emperors. 
 
 Thus possessed of Italy, Charles received the iron crown 
 of the Romans, at the hands of the pope, with the title of 
 king of the Romans, and emperor of the west. Charles took 
 immediate possession, by instituting a new system of laws, a 
 new police, &c. ; and combined the civil, and ecclesiastical 
 government, by uniting the clergy with the nobility, after the 
 manner of France. 
 
 Having thus disposed of his conquests, Charles returned to 
 France, and marched directly against the revolted Saxons, 
 which commenced a war of 30 years with these barbarians, 
 who were finally subdued, and annexed to his empire. Great 
 persecutions accompanied this war, to christianize the hea- 
 then idolatrous Saxons. 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 France and the Church, through the reign cf Charlemagne &r.$. 
 his successors, to the settlement ofRolh, the Norman. 
 
 THE connection between the French and Papal thrones, 
 has been inseparable from the days of Clovis ; and Charles 
 increased the strength of that union, through every step of 
 
90 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 bis reign. He endeavoured to compel the Saxons, by fire 
 arid sword, to embrace Christianity ; with some he succeeded, 
 with others he found it impossible ; they fled their country, 
 and took refuge in the wilds of Norway. Charles was a real 
 friend to religion and letters ; and to promote both these, he 
 was a friend to the clergy, and admitted them into the gov- 
 ernment with the nobles ; but he was careful to preserve his 
 dignity as head of the church ; and the pope and clergy 
 yielded to him this homage. 
 
 In the midst of the co-operation of Charles, and Adrian I. 
 for the exaltation of the papal, and French monarchies, died 
 Adrian, who was succeeded by Leo III. in 796, who sent to 
 Charlemagne the Roman standard," begging him to send an 
 embassy to receive the oath of fidelity from the Romans." 
 
 In 799, Charlemagne was called into Italy to redress an 
 act of violence, and an attempt of assassination, offered pope 
 Leo, in the streets of Rome. Charles repaired to Rome, 
 passed six days with the pope in the year 800 : and assem- 
 bled the bishops, and nobles, to inquire into the affair. The 
 bishops denied the jurisdiction of the court, alleging, that 
 " the apostolic see cannot be judged by man ; " Leo ac- 
 knowledged the jurisdiction of the court, and as no proof ap- 
 peared against him, he purged himself by oath. 
 
 On Christmas day, as Charles was assisting at mass, and 
 upon his knees before the Altar, in the church of St. Peter ; 
 the sovereign pontiff advanced, put an imperial crown upon 
 his head ; and the people exclaimed, " Long live the empe- 
 ror, long life and victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by 
 the hand of God long live the great, and pious emperor of 
 the Romans," arid then seated him upon the magnificent 
 throne of the Roman emperors, and presented him with the 
 imperial mantle. Charles returned, amidst the acclamations 
 of the people, in triumph to his palace. 
 
 High raised on the imperial throne of the west, Charles 
 received, amidst other marks of respect and attention, an 
 overture of marriage from the empress Irene, of Constanti- 
 nople, which he actually accepted ; but it was prevented by 
 i'-.e interference' of Nicephorus, the patrician; who banish- 
 ed Irene to the island of Lesbos, and settled with Charles a 
 new treaty of limits, agreeable to his mind, in the year 802. 
 
 Charles received particular notice, and respect from the 
 caliphs of the Saracens, particularly the caliph Haroun Al- 
 raschid ; he ceded to Lim, by his embassy, the lordship of 
 
I 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 91 
 
 Jerusalem, and amongst other presents, sent him a striking 
 clock ; the first ever known in France. 
 
 The Arabs had retained the arts, notwithstanding they were 
 lost in Europe : the several successive caliphs of Bagdad, 
 continued this respectful notice to Charles, until they fell into 
 disorder, and civil wars, which ruined the arts and sciences 
 amongst them. 
 
 Charles was truly a great man ; but fell into the same evil 
 which had been practised by his predecessors, in dividing his 
 kingdom between his three sons, Charles, Lewis, and Pepin. 
 These, had they lived, would have distracted the empire, by 
 their civil wars ; but as only Lewis survived, he found em- 
 ployment for all his time. 
 
 Charles, near the close of his reign, began to feel the sword 
 of revenge from those Saxons who had escaped his sword, 
 and fled into Norway : these Normans, under Godfrey their 
 leader, landed a strong force upon the coast of France, and 
 threatened the empire ; but just at the commencement of the 
 fatal battle, Godfrey was assassinated by one of his followers, 
 hisarmyfled on board their ships, a peace was settled, and 
 they returned home. 
 
 The relief from this invasion, was followed by the death of 
 Charles' sons, Charles and Pepin, together with his daughter 
 Rotrude, and he associated Lewis in the government of the 
 empire ; and to express the independence of the crown, he 
 placed it upon the altar, and directed Lewis to raise it on to 
 his own head ; thus shewing that he held it of God only. 
 Charles died at Aix-la-Chapelle in 814, aged seventy-one 
 having reigned forty-seven years. 
 
 The empire of the west then consisted of France, Germa- 
 ny, Italy, part of Hungary, Spain, and the Low Countries ; 
 and the head of this empire was Charlemagne. When he 
 fell, his empire fell with him ; the discordant barbarians on 
 the north ; the intriguing, factious Italians ; the jealous, su- 
 perstitious, half Christian, half moorish Spaniards ; the dis- 
 cordant, disjunctive, conjoined provinces in France, and up- 
 on the Rhine, could not be controlled, but by the same force 
 that subdued them, and under the same wise head. 
 
 The first step Lewis took, made him unpopular with the 
 clergy ; this, at that age, was destruction to any reigo : he 
 next, divided up his government among his three sons, in 8 1 7 ; 
 (Bernard, grandson of Charlemagne was in possession of Ita- 
 ly, in his father's right.) To add to the scene already op- 
 
92 FEUDS OF FRANCE, 
 
 ened for feuds, Lewis had one more son, by a second mar- 
 riage, (Charles the bald ;) him he associated with his eldest 
 son Lothario, in the government of France, by mutual con- 
 sent. 
 
 He was now prepared for all the trouble, which such an 
 age, in the midst of such discordant interests was ready to 
 bring upon him. The feuds opened, by a coalition 'of the 
 three brothers against the father, in 829. This rebellion 
 drove Lewis to the church for consolation, and support : the 
 church took advantage of this, and the empire was in the 
 midst of distraction. To detail the occurrences of these 
 scenes, would neither improve the understanding, correct 
 the morals, or mend the heart : suffice it to say, that Grego- 
 ry IV, took such advantage of these feuds, as to bring Lewis 
 into a penitential habit, strip him of his throne, and then de- 
 creed " A penitent is incapable of civil offices ; a royal peni- 
 tent, must then be incapable of reigning ; Lewis subjected to 
 perpetual penance ; he can never ascend the throne." 
 
 Lewis, as a prisoner in the monastery of St. Medard at 
 Soissons, in due form, was stripped of his royal robes, in pre- 
 sence of his son Lothario, clad in the penitential sackcloth, 
 and assigned to his cell,ybr the crime of taking up arms against 
 his rebellious sons. The scene was now reversed from what 
 it was, when his father sat in judgment upon pope Adrian I. 
 in Italy ; and the characters were changed. This scene 
 was too gross even for this barbarous age. The feelings of 
 these half savages revolted at this triumph of a son over a 
 father ; the two brothers united against Lothario, who had 
 degraded his father, restored the unhappy king to his crown, 
 and compelled Lothario to crave mercy at the feet of his fa- 
 ther, in presence of the whole army. Lewis granted it-, and 
 yielded to him the kingdom of Italy, in 834. 
 
 The death of Pepin opened a new scene for the intrigues 
 of the queen, in favor of her son Charles the bald ; again the 
 empire was torn with feuds ; Lewis again fell a sacrifice to 
 his superstition, and died near Mentz, aged 72 ; having 
 reigned twenty-eight years. 
 
 As soon as the father was removed, the sons drew the ' 
 sword upon each other, and to carry their points, resorted to 
 all possible expedients ; Lothario offered liberty of con- 
 science to the Saxons, (that is, to return to their idolatry) if 
 they would support his sword ; Lewis and Charles stuck to 
 the Church ; France was drenehed in blood. A fatal action 
 

 CONFLICTS IN FRANCE. 93 
 
 was fought, in which Lewis and Charles prevailed over Lo- 
 thario ; 100,000 are said to have fallen in the conflict : this 
 caused a new partition, by the help of the clergy. 
 
 Added to these troubles, the Saracens pillaged Italy ; the 
 Normans ravaged France ; the nobles set the princes at de- 
 fiance ; these all combined, rendered the empire a scene of 
 indescribable wretchedness, and a fit " stage to feed conten- 
 tion on." The Normans in their ravages penetrated even 
 to the gates of Paris ; and France was an aceldama ; kings, 
 princes, nobles, and Norman marauders, all joined in the 
 general destruction. 
 
 Amidst these scenes of distress, the clergy assumed the 
 power of disposing of crowns, and held it until a more en- 
 lightened age appeared in later times. One instance of this 
 assumption may serve as an example. " Since the divine 
 favor, through the merits of the holy apostles, and their 
 vicar pope John, has raised you to the throne, according to 
 the judgment of the holy ghost, we elect you unanimously, 
 for our protector and Lord." 
 
 Those Normans who were now ravaging France and un- 
 der the protection of these feuds, desolating the finest provin- 
 ces, claim our attention. Amidst the conquests of Charle- 
 magne in Germany, he harassed the Saxons, and forced such 
 of them as would not submit to his yoke, with their fallen 
 country, to flee, and take refuge in the wilds of Scandinavia, 
 or Sweden and Norway, and form a social union with those 
 savages of the north ; and the two nations soon assimilated 
 in their habits, and manners. They were scourged by the 
 persecution of Charlemagne, on account of their religion; 
 which was paganism of the grossest kind. 
 
 Woden, their god, was to them a god of terror, devastation, 
 and carnage : in this character they worshipped him, and 
 they were true to their religion. They abhorred Christiani- 
 ty, such as Charlemagne had attempted to enforce upon 
 them. Burning with revenge for the sufferings of their fal- 
 len country, they assumed the name of Normans, (or north- 
 ern men) burst from their northern wilds, and in the reign 
 of Lewis Debonair, (son of Charlemagne) became to France 
 what they had been to England ; appeared on the coast and 
 spread a general alarm. 
 
 Upon the death of Lewis, and in the rei?n of Charles the 
 bald, his successor, they landed on the coast of France, com- 
 mitted the most shocking depredations with fire and sword. 
 

 
 SETTLEMENT F ROLLO. 
 
 pillaged the country, and carried off their booty, together 
 with all the women they could find, and as many boys as 
 they could seize, to recruit their armies ; they besieged 
 Charles, burnt Paris, and compelled the king to pay trib- 
 ute. This money, not only induced, but enabled these bar- 
 barians to repeat their visits, until Hollo, their distinguished 
 chief, took advantage of Charles the simple, one of the suc- 
 cessors of Charles the bald. 
 
 During this weak, and distracted reign, Rollo sailed up the 
 Seine, at the head of his Normans, took Rouen, fortified it as 
 N his strong hold, and began his ravages. Charles, alarmed at 
 the bold invasion of this daring adventurer, offered him his 
 daughter in marriage, and the province of Neustra, if he and 
 his followers would embrace the Christian religion, and do 
 him homage: Rollo consented, and this province in 911 
 took the name of Normandy, and soon became populous. 
 They cultivated the arts of civilization with the rest of 
 France, and became a body of good citizens, for that day, un- 
 der a brave and able prince. 
 
 During these distressing scenes in France, and England 
 too, the affairs of Germany were in as distracted a situation 
 under the weak princes of the line of Charlemagne ; until 
 they were relieved in some measure by the election of Con- 
 rad I. upon the extinction of this sluggish race, in 912. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Germany from the election of Conrad I. with Italy and the 
 Church, down to the year 1004. 
 
 To sever the Germanic body from its connection with 
 France, establish, and maintain a firm, and independent sove- 
 reignty, was a task which distracted the reign of Conrad I. 
 To settle the dominion of the duchy of Lorrain engrossed his 
 first attention, and led to sharp conflicts with Charles the sim- 
 ple, king of France. At the same time the Huns, or Hunga- 
 rians, commenced their ravages and depredations upon the 
 empire, with fire and sword ; penetrated to the Rhine, and 
 compelled Conrad to purchase a peace in 917. 
 
 Upon the death of Conrad (which soon followed,) the 
 states of Germany, by their electors, chose Henry the I. of 
 
Sax 
 
 AFFAIRS OF GERMANY- 95 
 
 ony, as his successor, in 920. These electors were com- 
 posed of seven of the higher orders of the clergy and no- 
 bility, viz : the arch bishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves, 
 (chancellors of the three great districts into which Germany 
 was anciently divided,) the king of Bohemia, Duke of Saxo- 
 ny, marquis of Brandenburg, and the count palatine of the 
 Rhine. 
 
 Henry drew his sword, marched into Lorrain, settled the 
 fate of that Duchy, humbled the refractory, settled the gene- 
 ral internal tranquillity, and marched a powerful army against 
 The Hungarians, who were again committing their ravages in 
 the empire ; he expelled the invaders at the memorable bat- 
 tle of Mersburg, and reduced them to terms. 
 
 Having there established the sovereignty, and tranquillity 
 of Germany, he attempted the conquest of Italy, at the re- 
 quest of the Pope, but was seized with an apoplexy on his 
 way, returned, died, and left the work to his son Otho the I. 
 
 The distracted state of France, at this time, under Charles 
 the simple, amidst the ravages of the Normans, was truly dis- 
 tressing. Charles died in 929 : then under Lewis the stran- 
 ger, great grandson of Alfred the great ; (who had been edu- 
 cated in England,) it was distracted with the usurpations of 
 Hugh, great duke of France. Lewis died in 954, and was 
 succeeded by his son Lothario, who died in 986, and was 
 succeeded by his sor> Lewis V. who died in the midst of trou- 
 bles in 987. With him the race of Charlemagne became 
 extinct in France, 
 
 During this distracted state of France, Otho, that took the 
 sword of his father, humbled the Hungarians, who again in- 
 vaded the empire, "at the famous battle of Dortmond, in West- 
 phalia ; humbled the Bohemians, who had revolted, and com- 
 pelled these pagan barbarians to embrace Christianity, in 
 937 ; he drew his sword, and humbled the refractory spirit 
 of the Duke of Bavaria, who attempted to act the part of 
 Hugh, Duke of France. 
 
 This overbearing spirit of the great fiefs, began generally 
 to prevail at this time, and distract the governments of Eu- 
 rope : to counteract the spirit of the nobles, Otho augmented 
 the powers of the clergy, propagated Christianity by fire and 
 sword, after the example of Charlemagne ; and extended it 
 even into Denmark, in 948. Having thus settled the affairs of 
 the north, he prepared (o redress the wrongs of Adelaide, 
 
96 AFFAIRS OF ITALY. 
 
 widow of Lothario, son of duke Hugh, who was imprisoned 
 by the usurper Berengarius. 
 
 Otho marched into Italy, relieved Adelaida, married her, 
 subdued the country, and returned into Germany to subdue 
 his son Ludelphus, who had conspired against him, with sev- 
 eral of the great fiefs of Germany. Otho received the sub- 
 mission of his son, and sent him into Italy to quell an insur- 
 rection under the same Berengarius from whose power he 
 delivered Adelaida, where he died ; the rebel triumphed 
 over the kingdom of Lombardy, and in his turn began to op- 
 press the Pope John XII. then only eighteen years of age. 
 
 Otho obeyed with alacrity the call of John, summoned a 
 diet at Worms, caused his son, Otho II. to be elected his suc- 
 cessor, marched into Italy, deposed Berengarius, was crown- 
 ed at Pavia, king of Lombardy, and Milan ; entered Rome 
 in triumph, and was crowned by the Pope, emperor of the 
 Romans, with the title of Augustus, and his holiness swore al- 
 legiance to him upon the tomb of St. Peter, 962. 
 
 Otho, in his turn, confirmed to his Holiness the grant of 
 Pepin and Charlemagne ; " saving in all things, his own, and 
 his sons, and successors authority." This reservation caus- 
 ed a revolt upon the first absence of the emperor, and John, 
 by an unnatural alliance with Adelbert, son of Berengarius, 
 took up arms against the emperor. 
 
 Fired with indignation, Otho marched to Rome, deposed 
 John, and caused Leo VIII. (a virtuous layman,) to be elected 
 Pope. Upon the first absence again of Otho, a faction re- 
 stored John upon this maxim, " that no inferior can degrade 
 a superior ;" John died by assassination, and Benedict V. 
 was elected Pope. 
 
 Fired with indignation, Otho returned to Rome, restored 
 Leo, deposed Benedict, and banished him to Hamburg, and 
 extorted this concession from Leo, the clergy, and the Ro- 
 man people ; " that Otho, and his successors in the kingdom 
 of Italy, should always have the power of choosing a succes- 
 sor, naming a Pope, and giving investiture to bishops." 
 
 During the stay of Otho in Italy, Leo VIII. died, and the im- 
 perial commissioners elected John XIII. when Otho returned 
 to Germany. The Italians again revolted, and expelled 
 John. Fired again with indignation at the restless, factious 
 spirit of Italy, Otho marched again to Rome, took vengeance 
 on the factious leaders, banished the consuls, hanged the tri- 
 bunes, and caused the Roman prefect to be whipped through 
 
OTlJO AND THE POPES ^ 97 
 
 the streets on an ass ; restored the Pope, and retired to Ca- 
 pua, where he received overtures of alliance from the Greek 
 emperor between his daughter and the son of Otho, not^ 
 Otho II. which was delayed by the treachery of her father ; 
 but in the reign of his successor, the match was consummated 
 in Italy, in 970, and Otho returned to Germany, under the 
 appellation of Otho the great, where he died, in 973, and 
 was succeeded by his son, Otho II. 
 
 In this reign the factions of Germany were kept under ; 
 but the factions in Italy prevailed again, and the scene again 
 changed ; the factions had now elected three popes at the 
 same time, and when the imperial pope was established, the 
 ex-pope had recourse to that power which the kings of 
 France had delivered them from ; and again applied to the 
 Greek emperor at Constantinople for relief : such is the 
 caprice, such the insatiable thirst of ambition, and the lus| 
 of power in man. 
 
 Otho II. like his father, drew his sword, marched into 
 Italy, chastised the rebels at Rome ; but in his turn, was 
 chastised by the Saracens, who invaded Italy through the 
 instigation of the Greek emperor. Otho died at Rome and 
 was succeeded by his son Otho III. at twelve years of age, in 
 983. During his minority, the torch of civil war was again 
 lit in Germany, and Italy ; but when he came of age, he like 
 his grandfather, drew his sword, hushed the storms, expel- 
 led the Danes from Germany, and compelled them to receive 
 Christian missionaries into Denmark and Norway. Having 
 quelled a second revolt, and settled a second papal election 
 in Italy, Otho marched into Poland, at the request of duke 
 Bolislaus, and created him king, reserving Poland as a fief of 
 the German empire, in the year 1000. 
 
 The Saracens, taking advantage of Otho's absence, again 
 entered Italy, and penetrated to Rome : Otho again entered 
 Italy, expelled the invasion, returned to Rome, where he fell 
 a sacrifice to the poisonous treachery of an injured woman. 
 Otho left no issue, and of course a contested throne, which 
 finally was settled upon Henry II. grandson of Otho II. 
 
 The troubles of Germany and Italy, were the same in thi* 
 reign, as in that of the three Othos. The feuds of Germany , 
 Italy and Poland, so greatly harassed Henry, that he attempt- 
 ed to retire from the throne in 1004, and actually took the re- 
 ligious habit ; but at the same time resumed the sceptre again 
 by this artful finesse of the abbot of St. Val. " Monks ow* 
 obedience, said the abbot, to their superiors. I order you to 
 
98 ^ENGLAND AND FRANCE. 
 
 continue at the helm of government." This was not the on- 
 ly expression of the weakness of Henry ; and yet he had en- 
 ergies which were adequate to the exigencies of the times, 
 and the peace and prosperity of his crown continued to in- 
 crease during the remainder of his reign, which closed by 
 his death, in 1024. 
 
 I have dwelt the more minutely upon the feuds of Italy, 
 that the foundation of the subsequent civil and ecclesiastical 
 feuds, between Italy arid Germany, ad also the strife be. 
 tween Germany and France, for the dominion of Italy, to- 
 gether with the intrigues of the popes, to obtain and exercise 
 universal sovereignty, both temporal and spiritual, may be 
 the more correctly understood. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 England and France, from the rise of Edward /. the Confessor 
 to the Norman conquest , 106G. 
 
 During these struggles on the continent the affairs of Eng- 
 land under Ldward, son and successor of Alfred the great, 
 continued io flourish as Alfred left them. The Danes con- 
 tinued their ravages, through his reign, but without obtaining 
 any advantages ; and he died victorious 925, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his natural son, Athelstan, who attempted to prac- 
 tice the same policy with the Danes in Northumberland, that 
 Charles the bald had practised with Rollo the Norman, in 
 France ; he conferred this district upon Sitheric a Danish 
 chief, with the title of king, and gave him his sister in mar- 
 riage, but not with the same success. 
 
 This occasioned a war between Athelstan, and Scotland, 
 which secured to him a peaceful reign. He passed a law for 
 the encouragement of Commerce, by confering the title of 
 lesser thane, on every merchant, who should make two voy- 
 ages to distant lands on his own account. He was succeeded 
 by his brother Edmund, in 941. 
 
 Nothing of importance took place in this rei-;n, and Ed- 
 mund was assassinated in the midst of a feast, by a notorious 
 robber, Leolf, whom he had banished, and was succeeded by 
 his brother Kdred. He took all possible care to check the 
 wcursioris of the Danes, and devoted the greatest part of his 
 rei'-ai lo extend and cultivate the monastic life in IThgland. 
 
KDWYj EI.GIVA, DUNSTAN. 99 
 
 The first preachers amongst the Saxons, had laid the foun- 
 dation of the doetrine and practice of celibacy ; but in this 
 reign it was carried to its extreme. Edred died in 955, and 
 was succeeded by Edvvy, son of his predecessor Edmund, at 
 the age of 17. Ed\vy, charmed with the person ofElgiva, 
 his second or third cousin, ventured to marry her. This 
 roused up the whole force of monastic indignation ; Edwy 
 was denounced by the monks, which proceeded to open vio- 
 lence and even to abuse of the queen, by Dunstan, the abbot 
 ofGlastenbury, who was at the head of the treasury, and by 
 the arch bishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Edwy resented the insult and punished Dunstan. The 
 arch bishop denounced the queen, caused her to be seized, 
 her fatal beauty to be destroyed, by burning her face with red 
 hot irons, then banished her to Ireland for life ; and compell- 
 ed Edwy to consent to a divorce, which was pronounced by 
 the arch bishop. 
 
 Fearing the royal sufferer might return to the embraces of 
 the king, they caused her to be murdered ; dethroned Edwy, 
 placed his brother Edgar upon the throne, at thirteen years of 
 age, and made Dunstan regent. 
 
 At the commencement of the reign of Edwy, Dunstan with 
 the title of St. was abbot of Glastenbury, aud made head of 
 the treasury. Upon the deposition of Edwy and the acces- 
 sion of Edgar, he was made bishop of Worcester, then of 
 London, then arch bishop of Canterbury ; and held the reins 
 of government during the minority. He triumphed over the 
 unfortunate Edwy, by the unrelenting vengeance ofecclesias- 
 tical excommunications ; and persecuted him even unto death. 
 
 The affairs of England flourished generally, under this 
 monkish reign ; and Edgar, by sacrificing every thing to their 
 humor, obtained the title of St. and a virtuous man ; notwith- 
 standing he was a most debauched libertine, and very much 
 the prototype of Henry VIII. 
 
 Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, in 975, through 
 the intrigues of Dunstan. In three years he was murdered 
 by the intrigues of Elfrida, his step-mother, to make way for 
 her son Ethelred. 
 
 This was a bloody succession, and a bloody reign. The 
 Danes renewed their depredations upon England, and Ethel- 
 red purchased a shameful peace. This invited new depreda- 
 tions, which were appeased as before ; and to revenge these 
 incursions, Ethelred gave secret orders for a general mossa- 
 
100 ROBERT, BERTHA AND THE POfE. 
 
 ere of the Danes, throughout England upon a, particular day. 
 This fatal order was as fatally executed upon all ranks and 
 classes of every age and sex. 
 
 The vengeance of heaven followed this barbarity. Sweyn, 
 king of Denmark, entered England with a powerful force, and 
 ravaged the country with fire and sword. The distresses of 
 the nation wer incomparably great ; Ethelred fled to the pro- 
 tection of Richard, Duke of Normandy, his brother-in-law, 
 until the death of Sweyn : he then returned to his throne ; but 
 not in peace : Canute the successor of Sweyn, assembled an 
 army, harassed the country and hunted Ethelred to his death, 
 in 1016. He was succeeded by his son Edmond, styled Iron- 
 side. His efforts to restore the tranquillity of England were 
 worthy of better success ; he fell a sacrifice to Danish 
 treachery, and left the throne to Canute the Dane, in 1017. 
 . During this distracted state of affairs in England, Germany 
 and Italy, in which we have seen a change of dynasty, the 
 same causes produced the same events in France, and estab- 
 lished the feudal system in that kingdom ; which was now be- 
 come a monstrous assemblage of members, without a head. 
 
 Hugh Capet, who had become the greatest nobleman in 
 France, and whose influence had given law to the several last 
 reigns, upon the death of Lewis V. seized on the crown by 
 his address in securing the favour of the clergy, associating 
 his son Robert with him in the government, with the title of 
 king ; and retaining his former title of duke, he secured the 
 throne to the exclusion of the rightful heir of the house of 
 Lorrain ; established his dynasty and left his son in quiet 
 succession, in 996. 
 
 Robert fell under the same misfortunes of Edwy of Eng- 
 land, and became the object of the same ecclesiastical cen- 
 sure and tyrannic power. Robert espoused his fourth cous- 
 in Bertha ; this consanguinity gave offence to pope Gregory 
 V. and he undertook to dissolve the marriage, although con- 
 firmed by several Bishops. Robert was strongly attached to 
 the queen, and by persisting in the connection, fell under the 
 bull of excommunication, with all its rigors. His own cour- 
 tiers would not eat with him, his own domestics all forsook 
 him, except two ; these threw to the dogs what food he left, 
 and purified the dishes by fire on which he ate, and told 
 frightful stories about the queen. The pope succeeded ; 
 Robert yielded to the censure, divorced his queen, who was 
 the idol of his heart, and married a termagant. This sacri- 
 fice restored him to the favour of his holiness. 
 
CANUTE THE DANE. 
 
 101 
 
 Robert refused the crown of Germany upon the death of 
 Henry II. the last of the Saxon line ; and after having strug- 
 gled long with the intrigues of Constance, his queen, in regu- 
 lating the succession, upon the death of his eldest son Hugh, 
 he died in 1031 ; and left his crown to his son Henry I. at 
 the age of twenty-seven ; who was obliged to take refuge in 
 Normandy, to avoid the intrigues of his mother, in favour of 
 her youngest son Robert. 
 
 Here he assembled an army, entered France, humbled the 
 queen, established his throne ; and Henry, in grateful re- 
 turn added several provinces to the duchy of Normandy. At 
 this time Robert, duke of Normandy, set out on a pilgrimage 
 to Jerusalem, where he died, and left his natural son William, 
 then a minor, to inherit his possessions. 
 
 Henry I. of France, and Alan, duke of Bretagne, (although 
 constituted guardians of William, by his father, before he 
 left Normandy ;) both became competitors for the duchy : 
 but William, by the assistance of Henry, triumphed over 
 Alan, and obtained his estate, in 1046. General tranquillity 
 prevailed in France, through this reign, and during the minori- 
 ty of Philip I. son and successor of Henry ; who died in 1060. 
 
 At this time Canute had established himself upon the 
 throne of England, and reversed the scene ; he oppressed 
 the English with severe and heavy taxes, and bestowed, at 
 the same time, great favors upon his Danish followers. This 
 roused the seeds ofjealousy, indignation, and revenge. The 
 English sought for an opportunity to redress their wrongs; 
 this led Canute to change his policy, send off such Danes as 
 could be spared, without weakening his government, and at 
 the same time, he sent Edwin and Edward, the two sons of 
 Edmund ironside, (during their minority,) into Sweden, un- 
 der pretence of receiving their education ; but really for the 
 purpose of being privately despatched, to secure the tran- 
 quillity of his throne. The king of Sweden did not comply 
 with his wishes, but sent them into Hungary ; here they 
 found a protector. 
 
 Edwin married the sister of his protector, and died without 
 issue. Edward married the sister-in-law of King Solomon, 
 and daughter of Henry II. by whom he had Edgar Ath sling, 
 Margaret, queen ofScots, arid Christina the nun. The two 
 sons of Ethclred, Alfred, and Edward, M-ere under the pro- 
 tection of their uncle Richard, duke of Normanclv, who had 
 
102 
 
 DUKE OF NORMANDY 
 
 made some preparation to restore the princes to the throne of 
 their father. 
 
 The crafty Canute resolved to break this storm ; .iccord- 
 ingly he made overtures of marriage to Emma, the sister of 
 Richard, and queen of Ethelred, by his second marriage, and 
 mother of Alfred, and Edward ; this overture was accepted, 
 the marriage consummated in England, and Emma restored to 
 the throne of Ethelred, by the hands of the conqueror, and 
 usurper : this marriage restored tranquillity to England. 
 
 Canute made a visit to Denmark, and by the valor of his 
 English subjects, subdued Sweden, and upon a second visit 
 subdued Norway ; returned home in triumph, made a pil- 
 grimage to Rome, humbled Malcolm king of Scotland, died in 
 1035 ; and left his crown to his son Harold harefoot, to the 
 exclusion ofHardicanute, the rightful heir, by queen Emma. 
 These princes were only the stepping stones to the rightful 
 succession of Edward, son of Ethelred, then in Normandy ; 
 this succession at first gave great satisfaction to England ; but 
 his weakness led him to shew the same partiality to the Nor- 
 mans, Canute had done to the Danes, which produced the 
 .same jealousy, and discontent ; by a foolish vow, he obtained 
 the title of confessor, from the monks ; but left his throne 
 open to competitors, which under earl Godwin began to dis- 
 tract the kingdom, and extorted from him the condition, that 
 all foreigners should be banished the kingdom. Godwin, af- 
 ter having extorted this concession from the king, died, and 
 left his estate to Harold his son. 
 
 The death ofSiward, at this time the hero of England, who 
 had killed Macbeth, the usurper of the crown of Scotland, 
 and restored Malcolm to the throne of his ancestors, was a 
 severe loss to Edward ; and left an opening for Harold to 
 disturb the government of Edward, by his arms, and in- 
 trigues , and when Edward died, he left Harold, Edgar Athe- 
 ling, (the sole surviving heir, who had been sent first to 
 Sweden, thence to Hungary, thence into England by the 
 voice of the people,) and William, duke of Normandy, cousin 
 to Edward, as competitors for the crown. 
 
 Harold, being at the head of that army with which he had 
 subdued Wales, stepped on to the throne, and supported his 
 title with the sword. Neither Edgar Atheling, nor William 
 gave him any trouble ; but his brother Tosti, who had beea 
 expelled from his tyrannical government in Northumberland, 
 by his oppressed people, and taken refuge in Flanders, in> 
 
CONQUERS ENGLAND. 103 
 
 liately entered into a le.- with Falfager, king of Nor- 
 way, and invaded England with H powerful fieeL -?nd -ir^y, 
 landed their forces, aiid began their ravr~es. Harold roused 
 to the contest, assembled an army, n. -i t 1 - invaders, gave 
 them battle, killed Halfager and Tosti, the chiefs ; destroy- 
 ed, and dispersed the invaders. 
 
 In this distracted moment, William, duke of Normandy, 
 appeared in England at the head of his troops, claimed the 
 crown, by right of the will of Edward the confessor, and sum- 
 moned Harold to surrender the throne ; the chiefs were at 
 issue, and appealed to the sword, an instrument equally fa- 
 miliar to both. Harold collected his forces, and marched to 
 meet the invader, and give him battle. The two armies 
 met at Hastings, a parley ensued ; but without success, ;md 
 both armies prepared for action. The English passed the 
 night in riot, and feasting ; the Normans in prayer and pre- 
 paration, and at the dawn of day, William drew up his army. 
 Upon the signal given for battle, he began the charge with 
 the famous song of Roland, the renowned chief of Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 Harold, posted on an eminence, with inferior numbers, re- 
 ceived the violence of the onset, on foot, at the head of his 
 irif.mtry ; the conflict was terrible, the Normans were bro- 
 ken, and began to fall into disorder. William rallied them 
 in person, and led on the charge ; the English gave way in 
 their turn ; but resisted with firmness as they retired. 
 
 William beat a retreat, and retired into the plain, where 
 his cavalry could act with more advantage, and the English 
 pursued in triumph. William faced about, the conflict be- 
 rarne desperate, his cavalry fell upon the wings of the Eng- 
 lish, they fled again in their turn ; William pursued, and again 
 practised the same stratagem, and succeeded as before ; drew 
 the English army into the plain, and again faced about ; the 
 conflict was again terrible, the carnage on both sides equalled 
 their valor : Harold fell at the head of his guards, and with 
 him fell the crown of England : the army fled, and dispersed, 
 leaving a carnage of more than thirty thousand upon both 
 sides. William entered London in triumph, and took posses- 
 sion of the English throne, October, 1066. 
 
 If William was a conqueror, Harold had been an usurper, 
 the terror of whose sword had reduced to him the crown of 
 England ; not the choice of the people. By the nobility, 
 William was kindly received, and by the people, cheerfully 
 
104 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 , 
 
 on 
 
 obeyed. An unguarded step in William, in retiring to Nor- 
 mandy too soon after his conquest, occasioned a rebellion 
 that created great distress to the nation, and opened the way 
 for the ruin of Saxon liberty, by the introduction of the feu- 
 dal system into England, which divided the kingdom up in- 
 to baronies, and harassed arid distressed the nation, down to 
 the reign of Henry VI 11. in the sixteenth century. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Spain and the Clmrch, with Germany, and lialy, through the 
 reign of Henry IV. to the year 1099. 
 
 THE affairs of the continent now claim our attention, par- 
 ticularly those ofSpain, the Saracens, and the Greek or Rom- 
 an empire at Constantinople ; these we left about the year 
 768, upon the death of Abdurrahman, the Moorish king in 
 Spain. At this time Portugal, and about three fourths of 
 Spain, were under the dominion of the Moors, Arabs, or 
 Saracens, and of course under the Mahometan religion. The 
 conflicts between the Christians, and Mahometans, together 
 with the private quarrels which arose from jealousy, strife, 
 and ambition, between the divided interests of the two great 
 parties, rendered Spain the theatre of carnage, crimes, in- 
 trigues, and desolation, for several centuries. 
 
 To enumerate the exploits of Ramiro II. king of Leon, and 
 Oviedo ; of Almanzor, the hero of Hissem, king of Cordova : 
 and of Sancho the great, king of Navarre, could neither in- 
 terest the feelings, nor improve the heart. They all achiev- 
 ed some acts worthy of notice ; but many more to be abhor- 
 red, and forgotten. 
 
 During this period the same dissensions, and divisions, 
 sprang up amongst the followers of Mahomet, as we have 
 seen in Christendom. Lust of power, and domination, arm- 
 ed with all the excesses of ignorance, and fanaticism, spread 
 carnage, and desolation, not only in Spain, but in the Saracen 
 states in Africa, and Asia, and by their feuds, divisions, and 
 contentions, paved the way for the dominion of the Turks, 
 which rose upon their ruins. 
 
 During these distressing scenes in the dominions of Ma- 
 homet, and St. Peter, the two feet of the Roman empire ; 
 
POPERV. 106 
 
 the main stock at Constantinople stood like a rock in the 
 midst of the ocean, lashed with the waves, and beaten by the 
 tempests, with here and there a fragment torn off, yet firm 
 on its base : torn by internal feuds, jealousies, intrigues, and 
 corruptions, it was often a prey to factions; but it preserved 
 its unity, and its splendid excellence in the arts and sciences, 
 in the midst of the dark cloud of ignorance, and wretched- 
 ness which hung around it. 
 
 Even here the arts were nursed in the lap of luxury, ef- 
 feminacy, licentiousness, and corruption ; and even here, 
 that church, which Costantine had so faithfuly nursed, and 
 adorned, was seated in the same lap, and partook of the same 
 corruptions with the arts ; and here, the bon mots of Clovis, 
 and Chilperic, his grandson, might as well apply, as in the 
 dominions of St. Peter. " St. Martin serves his friends very 
 well ; but he makes them pay roundly for his trouble." 
 Clovis. " Our treasure is poor ; our riches are gone to the 
 church ; the bishops are the kings." Chilperic. 
 
 Thus we have noticed with particular attention, the rise 
 and progress of the papal church, and power, from the days 
 of Clovis, until this time ; we have seen how the popes a- 
 vailed themselves of the genius of the religion of the barba- 
 rians ; of idolatry, avarice, and despotic power ; arid how 
 they raised the papal throne, upon this broad, and corrupt 
 basis, and upon the ruins of Christianity. They engrafted 
 the heathen mythology of the Greeks, and Romans, together 
 with these principles of the barbarians, upon the old Jewish 
 stock : the pope became high priest, laid aside his mitre, 
 took the triple crown and sceptre, and retained enough of 
 Christianity, to exercise the spiritual power of St. Peter, and, 
 with the keys of eternal justice, become arbiter of the world. 
 Money amongst the barbarians compensated for nil crimes ; 
 this principle exactly suited the exigencies of the popes. 
 Money purchased the frowns, or favors of the churc\ and 
 the salo of indulgencies, together with the price of red~mp- 
 "tion from purgatory, raised a revenue, thnt enabled the popes 
 to support the most splendid throne upon er-rth. These ages 
 were not only dark and ignorant, but corrupt in the extreme ; 
 to fourd a cloister, or endow i church, atoned for a whole 
 life of the blackest crimes : this became another source of 
 the wealth --rul sj '., :.''<.. -fthe church. 
 
 Thus hi.;h rr.ise.d to : ower, and enthroned on i^nor; nre, 
 superstition and corruption, the pope held all Europe at his 
 
106 -HENRY IV. AND GREGORY VIJ. 
 
 nod. One example from St. Egidius, bishop of Noyon, may 
 serve as a specimen of the spiritual style of the pulpit. "Re- 
 deem your souls from destruction, while you have the means 
 in your power ; offer presents and tythes to churchmen ; 
 come more frequently to church ; humbly implore the pat- 
 ronage of the saints ; for if you observe these things, you 
 may come with security in the day of the tribunal of the 
 eternal judge and say, Give us, O Lord, for we have given 
 untothee." Armed with such power, and such principles, 
 with ignorance, bigotry, corruption and fanaticism for their 
 instruments, the popes waged successful war with all the 
 powers of Christendom, by their intrigues, and spiritual thun- 
 ders, (or bulls of excommunication,) and extended the papal 
 dominion, in regular succession, until the reign of Gregory 
 Vli. : he by his triumph over Henry the IV. of Germany, 
 placed the top stone upon this stupendous fabric of human 
 invention, and brought all Christendom to his feet. 
 
 We have witnessed the triumph of the spiritual thunders 
 over Ed\vy, king of England, and Robert, king of France ; 
 we are now called to witness the spiritual conflicts with Hen- 
 ry III. and IV. of Germany. During the reign of Henry III. 
 the feuds in Italy ran so high in the church, as to cause three 
 popes to be elected, and all to preside at the same time. 
 Henry III. marched into Italy, deposed these popes, elected 
 and established Clement III. and continued to control the pa- 
 pal elections during his reign. 
 
 Upon his death Henry IV. his son, succeeded to the throne, 
 then only five years of age ; but the government continued 
 in the hands of the empress his mother, during his minority. 
 During this regency the popes recovered their strength, and 
 the clergy of Italy had decreed, that " none but the cardinals 
 should elect the pope." When Henry came to the throne, 
 lie became immediately engaged in a Avar with the rebellious 
 Saxons, and at the same time received a summons from pope 
 Alexander II. to appear before the tribunal of the holy see, 
 and defend his encroachments upon the rights of the church. 
 Henry treated with contempt the mandate of the pope, and 
 Alexander II. died. 
 
 % In the year 1073, Hildebrand was elected pope, and took 
 the title of Gregory VII. He commenced his reign, by pro- 
 claiming warwith his spiritual thunders, against all the poten- 
 tates of Christendom ; but more particularly against Henry, 
 and compelled him to answer submissively to the demands 
 
 
HENRY IV. AND GREGORY VII. 10? 
 
 of pope Alexander II. his predecessor, and make his peace 
 with the church. Gregory next proposed a crusade to Hen- 
 ry, in order to exalt the papal throne ; when this project fail- 
 ing, he commenced a direct attack upon Henry, accused him 
 of simony, and threatened him with immediate excommuni- 
 cation, if he did not cease to bestow investitures. 
 
 Fired with indignation, Henry dismissed the legates, con- 
 voked an assembly of the princes, and dignified clergy at 
 Worms, who passed their censures upon Gregory, for usur- 
 pation, ambition, and scandalous deportment to the emperor, 
 and decreed that he ought to be deposed, and a successor ap- 
 pointed. Henry accordingly, by his ambassador, formally 
 deposed Gregory, and called a council in Italy, who unani- 
 mously decreed, that the pope had just cause to depose Hen- 
 ry. Gregory issued the following bull. " In the name of 
 Almighty God, and by your authority, I prohibit Henry, son 
 of our emperor Henry, from governing the Teutonic king- 
 dom, and Italy ; I release all Christians from their oath of al- 
 legiance to him ; and I strictly forbid all persons from serving 
 and attending him as a king." Struck, as with a shock of 
 the palsy, as to his power, Henry was at once deserted by his 
 friends, and beset by his enemies, with no alternative left, 
 but to make his peace with the pope. To effect this he ap- 
 peared before the gates of the pope, where he was compel- 
 led to stand three days, barefoot, in the month of January, 
 clad in sackcloth, and fasting ; whilst his holiness was acting 
 the part of confessor to the pious Matilda, duchess of Tus- 
 cany. 
 
 At length his holiness graciously condescended to admit 
 him into his presence, permit him to throw himself at his feet, 
 swear obedience to his holiness, in all things ; and then his 
 holiness most graciously condescended to grant him absolu- 
 tion, and restore him to his throne. Thus Gregory display- 
 ed to the world the maxims of the church; that " bishops 
 are superior to kings," and that it was the duty of popes " to 
 pull down the pride of kings." 
 
 Henry returned to his throne, but the storm was not lay- 
 ed ; Gregory intrigued with the Germans, to elect a new 
 emperor, and they chose Rodolph, duke of Swabia, and 
 crowned him at Meat/. The imperial throne had now be- 
 come like the papal throne in the reign of Henry III. when 
 three popes existed at one and the same time ; and Gregorj 
 the balance of power between the rivals. 
 
1Q8 HENRY IA. AND GREGORY Vll. 
 
 Fired with indignation, Henry drew his sword, and struck 
 a serious blow upon his rival in Germany. This called forth 
 the second bull from Gregory, against Henry ; together with 
 a golden crown as a present to his rival.* This bull closed 
 with this extraordinary apostrophe to St. Peter, and St. Paul : 
 " Make all men sensible, that as you can bind and loose eve- 
 ry thing in heaven, you can also on earth, take from, or give 
 to, every one according to his deserts : empires, kingdoms, 
 principalities : let the kings and princes of the age then feel 
 your power, that they may not dare to despise the orders of 
 your church : let your justice be so speedily executed upon 
 Henry, that nobody may doubt that he falls by your means, 
 and not by chance." 
 
 Henry assembled immediately a council of bishops, de- 
 nounced Gregory, caused him to be deposed, and the arch- 
 bishop of Ravenna to be elected, under the title of Clement 
 III. ; again drew his sword upon Rodolph,his rival, humbled 
 him in the famous battle of Mersberg, dispersed his army, 
 and triumphed over his enemy, who lost his right hand in 
 the action ; marched to Rome, took it by storm, after a siegt 
 of two years, besieged Gregory in the castle of St. Axsgelo, 
 and set his thunders at defiance ; consecrated Clement III. 
 and established a quiet succession over Gregory, who di< 
 soon after at Salerno, in 1085. 
 
 This bold stroke of Henry, raised a new storm. The Ital- 
 ians elected a second pope with the title of \ 7 ictorthe III. 
 and upon his death, they chose Urban II. who became the 
 author of the first crusade. At the same time, Urban, by the 
 intrigues of the duchess Matilda, caused Conrad to rebel 
 against his father, Henry, and assume the government of Ita- 
 ly, in 1090 ; who by the direction of his father passed under 
 the ban of the empire, and he died in 1099. 
 
 Upcn the death of Urban, succeeded Paschal II. He, like 
 Gregory, kindled the torch afresh ; excommunicated Henry ; 
 caused his son Henry the rebel, to support the faith, who af- 
 ter various intrigues, deposed hi? father, reduced him to 
 poverty and distress, bv his savage treatment, and held the 
 throne. Thus we have seen how by a steady and regni.ir 
 succession of events, the papal throne has acquired the most 
 despotic sovereignty, over the lives, and consciences of'mo.n : 
 and how the ten horns have agreed " to give their power to 
 the beast." Rev. xvii. 13. 
 
 * Accompanied with this dedication Petradedit Pc(ro, Pctjus ilia 
 derna Rodoipho. 
 
PETER THE HERMIT. 109 
 
 Would you know the origin, and character of this power, 
 read the xiii. chapter of St. John's Revelation. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The church flrst crusade chivalry, and the monastic rage. 
 
 A detail of the events of the subsequent reigns, would be 
 only a continuation of the same feuds, and the same black ca- 
 talogue of crimes. The popes claimed and exercised the 
 supremacy, through a period of more than four centuries, 
 compelling kings and emperors to hold the stirrup when they 
 mounted their horse ; issuing their bulls of excommunica- 
 tion, and bringing them to their feet. The great subject 
 which confirmed this supremacy, now claims our attention. 
 
 We noticed the plan of Gregory VII. (during the perse- 
 cutions of Henry IV.) for a general crusade to redeem the 
 holy sepulchre, at Jerusalem, from the hands of the infidels. 
 This failed at that time ; but was now renewed by Peter the 
 hermit, who had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on his 
 return, came over the Rhine out of Germany, and with a cru- 
 cifix in his hand, proclaimed the first crusade, throughout the 
 southern kingdoms. Urban II. spread the flame, by assem- 
 bling a council of more than 30, 000 priests, and laymen, who 
 all declared war against the infidels. 
 
 This first council, and Peter, kindled the fire ; and a se- 
 cond council of the great prelates, and nobles, spread the 
 flame, by a decree, as if from immediate inspiration, "it is the 
 voice of God." This under the banner of the cross, became 
 the rallying point in the exploits of this mad adventure. 
 Kings and nobles assembled their vassals, mortgaged, or sold 
 their estates, (when it became necessary) to raise money, 
 and embarked in the war. Peter, and Walter the money- 
 less, led the van, with about 300,000 men, through Hungary 
 to Constantinople, trusting to the miraculous interposition of 
 heaven, for subsistence and supplies. When this failed, they 
 robbed and plundered the Jews, as the murderers of Christ, 
 plundering and butchering all such as refused baptism : when 
 this resource failed, they plundered the countries through 
 which they passed, until the inhabitants, armed in their own 
 defence, destroyed almost all this banditti, and left Peter, on 
 
 10 
 
no 
 
 CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 his arrival upon the plains of Constantinople, the starving 
 remnant of about 20,000 ; here joined by numerous other 
 adventurers, they swarmed into the plains of Asia, where 
 they were all cut to pieces by the Sultan of Nice ; Walter 
 was slain, and Peter escaped to Constantinople. 
 
 Succeeding swarms poured forth from Europe. *The em- 
 peror of Constantinople favoured what he could not resist, 
 and gave the Christians a free passage, as they arrived, whose 
 regular force amounted to about 100,000 horse and 600,000 
 foot, when assembled on the plains of Asia. 
 
 They subdued the Sultan of Nice, or Syria, and the sultan 
 of Antioch, broke the power of the Turks in Asia minor, en- 
 tered Syria, and laid siege to Jerusalem, then under the do- 
 minion of the Saracens, or caliphs of Egypt. 
 
 Greatly diminished at this time by famine, sword, pesti- 
 lence, and every calamity, they were not equal in number to 
 the garrison they had summoned. The resistance was firm ; 
 yet in five weeks they entered Jerusalem, by assault, gave the 
 city up to pillage and slaughter, and exhibited a scene of cru- 
 elty, barbarity, carnage and distress, too shocking to be con- 
 ceived of or described ; and when neither age nor sex re 
 mained,toglutthe vengeance of their swords, they approached 
 the sepulchre, their hands yet warm with the blood of the 
 aged, the infant, and the mother, and paid their devotions at 
 the shrine of the Prince of Peace. What madness will not 
 enthusiasm kindle, and support in the breast of man ! 
 
 Godfrey, king of France, was chosen king of Jerusalem. 
 Urban II. having lived to see the triumph of his plan, died 
 and left the papacy to Paschal II. During this period, the 
 partizans of the popes and emperors, took the names of 
 Guelphs and Ghibelines, and became distinguished in the 
 feuds of Europe. Three successive crusades of the same 
 stamp and style, distracted Europe about two centuries. As 
 the madness and power of the popes, as well as the low, igno- 
 rant, degraded and enthusiastic state of Europe, are more ful- 
 ly displayed in this adventure, than the pen or the pencil 
 could express, I will pass over the details of the other two 
 crusades, together with the dark, wretched and distracted pe- 
 riod of about four centuries, in which nothing appears, but 
 the blackest catalogue of crimes, murders, and assassinations', 
 sanctioned by the intrigues of civil and ecclesiastical strife, 
 competition and power. Suffice it to say, that the struggles 
 for supremacy, between the popes and sovereigns ef the sev- 
 
CHIVALRY. Hi 
 
 eral kingdoms ; the struggles for succession, claims of juris- 
 diction and conquest ; together with the contests between the 
 cities and barons ; kings and barons : and civil wars, fill up 
 this whole period, with a catalogue of crimes of the blackest 
 dye, and exhibit such scenes of rapine and cruelty, as nothing 
 could produce or tolerate, but these ages of darkness, this 
 mighty struggle of religion with superstition, reason with 
 madness, and refinement with barbarism. 
 
 A narrative of these scenes, with the achievments of the 
 particular characters, and the ev-ents as they occurred, can 
 give no adequate idea of the reality : language cannot de- 
 scribe, the pencil cannot express, the distresses of these king- 
 doms during this eventful period. But the crusades laid the 
 foundation ; and by the aid of chivalry, broke the charm, and 
 opened the way for commerce and letters, to accomplish the 
 refinement of Europe. 
 
 Chivalry, which for its excesses became the subject of rid- 
 icule^in later ages, and called forth the keen satire of Cer- 
 vantes, (author of Don Quixotte,) had its origin in the elev- 
 enth century ; sprang from the purest motives, had for its ob- 
 ject the most laudable purposes, and was accompanied with 
 the most beneficial effects, until its virtues were lost in its ex- 
 cesses and extremes. Valor, humanity, courtesy, justice, 
 virtue, chastity and honor, were the characteristic principles 
 of chivalry : religion, without its enthusiastic zeal, would 
 have been one of its shining virtues ; but with this zeal, be- 
 came one of its excesses. Even kings paid the highest trib- 
 ute of respect to knighthood. 
 
 Chivalry was regarded as the school of honorable refine- 
 ment, encouraged the most delicate intercourse between the 
 sexes, and enforced the nicest observance of all their engage- 
 ments : as the standard of valor, religion, love and virtue, its 
 influence was irresistible. 
 
 Chivalry rescued woman from the fangs of degraded weak- 
 ness, oppression and wretchedness ; and paved the way for 
 all the enjoyments she has since obtained. When chivalry 
 ran mad, Cervantes destroyed it with his pen : then com- 
 merce, literature and the arts, became the reformers of man- 
 ners, and brought civil society 4ro its present state of refine- 
 ment. Even the crusades themselves, were nothing more 
 nor less, than chivalry upon a large scale, and produced the 
 same effects upon society. 
 
 The monastic life was a steady opposer to chivalry : this 
 
112 
 
 MONKERY. 
 
 ran into the opposite extreme : this took its rise amongst the 
 Christians in the east, and extended throughout the Christian 
 world. Not only solitude and celibacy with all their rigors, 
 became general ; but the extravagant austerities of the monks 
 threw a cloud over Christendom. 
 
 In order to strip human nature of its humanity, they took 
 up their abode in dens and caves, amongst the beasts of the 
 forest, as wild, naked, and savage as themselves. They 
 dwelt in the clefts of cragged rocks : the more distressing and 
 tormenting their situation, the higher the marks of sancity. 
 Some styled Stylites, took their stand in some conspicuous 
 position, upon the top of some lofty pillar, where they stood 
 night and day, for years ; through all the extremes of the 
 weather and the seasons ; whilst thousands, and tens of thou- 
 sands, were immured in their monastic cells, secluded from 
 thoir friends, society and the world. 
 
 Society, have long since decided, which of the two, the 
 knights or the monks, became the most corrupt ; were guilty 
 of the greatest excesses, and became the most obnoxious to 
 men, and to God but I forbear : the extremes of all the 
 virtues become corruption : and the example of former ages, 
 ought to serve as beacons, to guard us against the same evils, 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 England through the reign of William L- William II. Hen- 
 ry L Germany and France to the second crusade. 
 
 WILLIAM the conqueror, by his conciliatory deportment, 
 soon found himself lirmly seated upon the English throne, and 
 ventured to pay a visit to his friends in Normandy. This 
 proved unseasonable : he had founded his usurpation upon 
 the ruins of English liberty, and secured it, as he supposed, 
 by placing in the government of both church and state his 
 ohosen Norman friends, to the utter exclusion of every Eng- 
 lishman. 
 
 This had sown the seeds of disaffection, which broke out 
 into open violence, as soon as the conqueror had withdrawn ; 
 and England\ecame a theatre of insurrection and civil war. 
 Foreign alliances were formed, and a general revolution con- 
 templated. William, alarmed for the safety of his kingdom, 
 hastened back, ravaged England with fire and sword, 
 
WILLIAM II. 113 
 
 until he had quelled the rebellion. With great severity he 
 confiscated all the estates of the insurgents, established a des- 
 potic sovereignty, and an ecclesiastical independence in Eng- 
 land, and set the pope at defiance, by arresting and imprison- 
 ing, (beyond sea,) Odo, earl of Kent, in the character of 
 Bishop of Bayeaux ; who was intriguing for the papacy. 
 William determined to humble the spirit of these haughty 
 Britons, by not only placing all power in the hands of his 
 Normans, but by rooting ,out even their language. For this 
 purpose he caused the Norman language to become the lan- 
 guage of the court, and of all records ; to be taught in all 
 the schools, and become the language of the bar ; caused a 
 survey of all estates in England, which instituted doomsday- 
 book, (so called) which is of value to this day. 
 
 William humbled a rebellion headed by his son Robert, in 
 Normandy ; chastised Philip I. king of France, for an inso- 
 lent witticism at his expense, by carrying fire and sword into 
 his dominions ; and died from a bruise, received in this mad 
 career, 1087. William left the duchy of Normandy to Rob- 
 ert, England to William, and to Henry, his youngest son, the 
 possessions of his mother, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl 
 of Flanders. 
 
 William II. pursued the policy o-f his father, in his severi- 
 ty towards his English subjects ;^ttl by the suppression of 
 several insurrections, increased dHBliumiliation. He hum. 
 bled the Scotch and Welch, carr^Hiis arms into Normandy, 
 where he met with a perilous escape on his return, purchas- 
 ed Normandy of his brother Robert, for ten thousand marks, 
 took possession of the duchy, and his brother became an ad- 
 venturer in the first crusade, 1096. He humbled St. Anselm, 
 archbishop of Canterbury ; set the pope, Urban II. at defi- 
 ance, and took the prelacy into his owniiands about five years. 
 
 He restored the crown of Scotland, Jjy his arms, to Mal- 
 colm III. the rightful heir ; expelled the Danes, from the 
 islmd of Anglesea : who have not since invaded England. He 
 built the Tower, London bridge, and Westminster hall ; last- 
 ing monuments of the greatness of his mind. William xvas 
 upon the noint of embarking for France, to take possession of 
 the nrovinces of Guienne and Poictiers, by purchase ; (a sale 
 made to raise money to embark in the fi"st crusade,) when he 
 was shot by Walter Tyrrel, a French gentleman, who accom- 
 panied tho kiiig upon a hunting match in his new forest, 1 100. 
 
 William died without issue. His brother Henry stepped 
 10* 
 
HENKY J 
 
 into the government, and was proclaimed king. Henry secu- 
 red the throne, by promising to restore the laws of Edward 
 the confessor ; restoring at the same time the Archbishop 
 Anselm to the see of Canterbury ; and marrying Matilda, 
 daughter of Malcolm III. king of Scotland and niece of Edgar 
 Atheling. These wise measures secured the throne to Henry, 
 ii^uinst the disaffected Norman barons, and against the inva- 
 sion of his brother Robert, upon his return from the crusade- 
 Henry, by his intrigues, took advantage of the feuds in 
 Normandy, seized Robert, conveyed him to England, took 
 possession of the duchy, and suffered his brother to languish 
 twenty-eight years, in the castle of Cardiff, where he died. 
 Henry, by his liberality and intrigues, held at bay the claims 
 of William, son of Robert, upon the duchy of Normandy, and 
 by his sword established his dominion. The loss of his son 
 William, on his return from Normandy, was made up to Hen- 
 ry in some measure, by a son of Geoffry Plantagenet, eld- 
 est son of Count Anjou, and husband of Matilda, his only 
 daughter. 
 
 Henry made this grandson his heir, by causing his English 
 and Norman subjects to swear fealty to him ; then took up 
 his residence in Normandy, where he died, aged sixty-seven, 
 having reigned thirty-five years. Henry was a learned, wise 
 and valiant prince. 
 
 Henry promised to restore the laws of Edward the confes- 
 sor, as a guarantee to tmBp Saxon liberties ; but as soon as 
 he found himself firmly seated upon the throne, he confirmed 
 the policy of William I. and established the feudal system, 
 with all its rigors, upon the ruins of Saxon liberty in England ; 
 and by his confiscations, arid attainders seized n great pos- 
 sessions. With these he enriched the Norman barons, whom 
 he protected by his military force, and with whom he formed 
 a national assembly ; creatures of his power, and creatures 
 of his will, who riveted the chains of slavery upon every free 
 born Englishman. 
 
 Despotism now commenced the reign of terror in England ; 
 and avarice, with all her corruptions, augmented the distress- 
 es of the scene, 'and laid the foundation for all the future 
 struggles of prerogative, and privilege, which cost England 
 90 mnch blood, and treasure, to recover her Saxon liberties, 
 in after days. Henry carried on successful war with Lewis 
 VI. of France, styled the gross, who had succeeded Philip 
 the I. and who, after a wise and popular reign, 
 
leaving; the tl 
 
 CASTLE OP WEINSBURG. 115 
 
 saving the throne of Guienne, and Poictou, to his son. Lewis 
 VII. 
 
 Henry V. of Germany, having left no issue, Lothario, duke 
 of Saxe Supplemberg, was elected, and crowned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. He in his turn marched into Italy, settled a quar- 
 rel between the rival popes, Innocent II. and Anocletus II, ; 
 called Innocent out of France, and placed him in the chair ; 
 was crowned by the pope, emperor ofGermany, and support- 
 ed Innocent against all the wealth and force of Anacletus, 
 who died of grief and mortification. 
 
 Lothario died on his way to Germany, and was succeeded 
 by Conrad III. duke of Franconia, and nephew to Henry V. 
 The family of Guelphs, under Henry, duke of Bavaria, com- 
 menced a claim upon the imperial crown. The contest was 
 sharp ; Henry soon died, but his brother Guelph prosecuted 
 the claim with his sword. The pope espoused the cause of 
 Henry ; which fixed the name of Guelph to the partizans of 
 the popes. 
 
 Frederick, duke of Swabia, brother of the emperor, de- 
 fended Conrad. He was born at the village of Heighibeline, 
 which gave to his party the name of Ghibelines ; and these 
 epithets continued to distinguish the parties of the popes, and 
 emperors, in all their after struggles. This contest gave rise 
 to an anecdote worthy of notice. 
 
 Conrad besieged Guelph, and his followers, in the castle of 
 Weinsburg, who being about to surrender at discretion, the 
 dutches requested permission, that she and the women might 
 retire, with what they could carry, to a place of safety. The 
 emperor granted the request ; and to his astonishment, be- 
 held the dutchess march out with her husband upon her back, 
 together with all the women, staggering along under the 
 weight of their husbands. Conrad applauded that conjugal 
 affection which had saved their husbands from the vengeance 
 of his sword. 
 
 During these scenes in Germany, a revolution was at- 
 tempted in the government at Rome, and quelled by pope 
 EugeninsIII. A second crusade was preaehed by St. Ber- 
 nard, against the Saracens ; another against the Moors in 
 Spain, and another by the Saxons in Germany, against the 
 pagans of the north. The last was a war of extermination, 
 without one solitary convert. Conrad died 1152, and was 
 succeeded by his nephew, Frederick, duke of Swabia, styled 
 Barbarossa. 
 
116 SECOND CliUSADE. 
 
 During the civil war in Germany, Lewis VII. king of 
 France, in the midst of his feudal wars, caused the town of 
 Vitri to be burnt, which consumed 1300 persons in one 
 church, who had fleti to this sanctuary for safety. This hor- 
 rid act caused such remorse in the mind of Lewis, as led him 
 to favor the second crusade, to atone for his cruelty. 
 
 St. Bernard, like Peter the hermit, set at defiance the re- 
 monstrances of Suger, abbot of St. Dennis, and primate of 
 France ; proclaimed the crusade throughout France, Italy, 
 and Germany, and drew in his train, Lewis, king of France, 
 Conrad III. emperor of Germany, and Frederick, duke ol 
 Swabia, (afterwards emperor) with the knights of France, 
 Germany, and Italy, generally. Each army could muster 
 70,000 knights in complete armor, and the whole force ac- 
 cording to Mr. Russell, amounted to 1,600,000. 
 
 Here the old scenes of the first crusade were renewed ; 
 the same sufferings by the way, the same excesses ; and the 
 same disasters in Asia minor. Conrad, emperor of Germany, 
 met with a total overthrow by the sultan of Iconium ; fled to 
 Antioch for safety ; thence to Jerusalem as a pilgrim ; and 
 thence back to Germany as a fugitive in distress. 
 
 Lewis VII. met with a similar overthrow near Laodicea ; 
 lost his queen by the amours of the prince of Antioch ; fled 
 to Jerusalem as a pilgrim ; and back to France, with a few 
 ra^cd followers, in distress and despair. 
 
 The divorce of queen Elenor, caused her marriage with 
 Henry Plantagenat, duke of Normandy, count ofAnjou snd 
 Maine, and presumptive heir to the crown of England, who* 
 carried with her the provinces of Poictou, andGuienne : all 
 which laid the foundations for the future wars between 
 France and England. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 England during the reign of Stephen Henry II. the church, 
 with a continuation of the second crusade Germany, and 
 the third crusade. 
 
 UPON the death of Henry of England, Stephen, count of 
 Boulogne, and grandson of William the conqueror, by his 
 daughter Adela, seized upon the throne, to the exclusion of 
 
ENGLISH BAROXS. 1 f 7 
 
 Matilda, and her young son Henry. The barons and clergy 
 supported Stephen, as being better adapted to the necessity 
 of the times, than a woman, and an infant. Stephen, in his* 
 turn granted them every indulgence consistent with the safe- 
 ty of his crown ; even to coin money, erect castles, and td 
 garrison them with their own troops. 
 
 These indulgencies not only weakened, and almost de- 
 stroyed the authority of the crown, but laid the foundation 
 for those wars of the barons, which afterwards drenched Eng- 
 land with blood. In the midst of this anarchy, David, king 
 of Scotland, invaded England with a powerful army, to en- 
 force the claims of his niece Matilda ; was defeated at the 
 battle of the Standard, with great slaughter, and made his es- 
 cape into Scotland. 
 
 Matilda next landed in England from Normandy, asserted 
 her own rights, and kindled a civil war, which raged with 
 such violence as to produce a general famine, that greatly 
 distressed the kingdom. Stephen was taken prisoner, load- 
 ed with irons, and thrown into prison. The storm was ap- 
 parently hushed. Stephen was called from his prison, and 
 exchanged for Robert, the brother and champion of Matilda, 
 and the war was rekindled. This again was soon quelled by 
 mutual consent, and Matilda returned to Normandy. 
 
 Prince Henry, now sixteen years of age, went over into 
 England, thence into Scotland, thence into Normandy again ; 
 and upon the death of his father, he took possession of the 
 provinces of Anjou and Maine, espoused Elenor the divorc- 
 ed queen of Lewis VII. king of France, who brought him 
 Guienne and Poictou, and placed him upon a foundation, to 
 recover his claims upon the crown ofEngland. 
 
 Two years after this, Henry invaded England ; the barons 
 espoused his cause, and in the midst of the alarming state of 
 the parties, the claims of Henry were settled with Stephen, 
 by an agreement ; that Henry should succeed to the throne 
 upon the death of Stephen, and he withdrew from the king- 
 dom. Stephen died the next year, and Henry succeeded to 
 the throne. 
 
 The wretchedness of England at this time was truly dis- 
 tressing ; famine, distress and desolation, raged on all sides ; 
 multitudes fled into exile, others built sorry huts in the 
 churchyards ; took refuge in these sanctuaries of the dead. 
 and fed on pulse, roots, dogs and horses : whole villages were 
 deserted, and thousands died of hunger. 
 
 Henry gave a new face to this wretched country. He 
 
118 THOMAS A BECKET. 
 
 dismissed all the foreign mercenaries of Stephen, and restor- 
 ed the charter of liberty of Henry I. ; by which means ail 
 this mighty storm was hushed into a general calm ; but the 
 war which broke out between Henry, and Lewis VII. of 
 France, led Henry to seethe unwieldly mode of waging war 
 (according to the feudal system) by means of the barons, and 
 their vassals. He therefore levied a tax of three pounds up- 
 on each knight's fee ; with this money he raised the first 
 independent army, and brought the war to a speedy close. 
 
 Henry next turned his attention to the church, where he 
 found the sale of indulgencies, and the composition of pen- 
 ances, raised more annual revenue than the crown : he set 
 himself to work to correct this : a task indeed ! The church 
 had become the sink of corruption, and claimed exemption 
 from all civil jurisdiction : murders, robberies, arid assassina- 
 tions, were committed daily by ecclesiastics, with impuni- 
 ty ; more than one hundred were proved upon men in holy 
 orders, since his accession, without even an inquiry into 
 them. 
 
 To effect this great object, the correction of the abuses of 
 the mitre, Henry advanced Thomas a Becket, his chancellor, 
 to the see of Canterbury ; the first instance of English pro- 
 motion, since the days of William the conqueror. 
 
 Becket was a splendid courtier, gay in his amusements, 
 fond of diversions, a jovial sportsman ; yet he knew how to 
 render his industry useful to his master. Becket knew the 
 motives of the king ; felt his elevated station, and determin- 
 ed to make the most of it. He threw off the character of the 
 chancellor, and put on the character of the saint : assumed 
 the severest monkish austerity, and mortification ; wore 
 sackcloth next to his skin ; and became a beast of dirt and 
 vermin ; his food was bread and water ; and his back was 
 often lacerated with penitential scourgings. Daily upon his 
 knees, in imitation of the Saviour of men, he washed the feet 
 of thirteen beggars, and dismissed them with presents. The 
 sanctity, and mortification of the holy primate, together with 
 his sacred devojtions, all became the wonder and admiration 
 of the nation. 
 
 The knight of the cross, in this citadel of sanctity, levied 
 war upon the king. A parish clerk in Worcestershire first 
 debauched a gentleman's daughter, and then murdered the 
 father. Henry demanded that the offender should be deliv- 
 ered up to the magistrate. Becket claimed the privileges of 
 
THOMAS A BECKET. 119 
 
 the church, and demanded that he should only be degraded. 
 Henry summoned a council to try the question ; they were 
 unsound. He assembled another at Clarendon, composed 
 of bishops and nobles ; submitted the great question, which 
 produced what was called the constitutions of Clarendon. 
 Henry ordered the constitutions to be reduced to printing, 
 and signed, and sealed by all the prelates, with a promise to 
 observe them legally , and in goodfaith, and without fraud, or 
 reserve, and sealed the whole by an oath. With all this, the 
 primate Becket was obliged (though with great reluctance) 
 to comply. 
 
 The copy of the constitutions of Clarendon, as signed, 
 sealed, and sworn to, Henry sent to the pope, Alexander III. 
 for the ratification of his holiness. The pope abrogated, 
 annulled, and rejected them. This kindled afresh the auste- 
 rities of Becket, and he declined all ecclesiastical duties, until 
 he had received absolution from the pope. This he soon 
 obtained, and then gave full scope to his obstinate ambition. 
 
 CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON. 
 
 Voted, without opposition, that no chief tenant of the 
 crown, snail be excommunicated, or have his lands put under 
 an interdict, without the king's consent ; that no appeals in 
 spiritual causes shall be carried before the holy see, nor any 
 clergyman be suffered to depart the kingdom, unless with 
 the king's permission ; that laymen shall not be accused in 
 spiritual courts, except by legal, and respectable promoters 
 and witnesses ; and lastly, that churchmen, accused of any 
 crime, shall be tried in the civil courts. 
 
 The rejection ofthese articles by the pope, and the haugh- 
 ty overbearing spirit of Becket, called forth the energies of 
 Henry. He summoned Becket to give an account of the 
 revenues of all the abbies, prelacies, and baronies, which 
 were subject to his management, as chancellor. This kind- 
 led the fire ; Becket intrenched himself again more strongly 
 in his citadel of austerity, and sanctity, defied the arm of the 
 law, strictly prohibited all his suffragans to assist in any man- 
 ner, in any trial against him ; put himself under the protec- 
 tion of the vicar of Christ, and made his appeal to his holiness, 
 in the face of the constitutions which he had signed, sealed, 
 and sworn to obey. This was his style : " The indignation 
 f a great monarch, such as Henry, with his sword, can only 
 
120 THOMAS A BECKET. 
 
 kill the body ; while that of the church, entrusted to the pri- 
 mate, can kill the soul, and throw the disobedient into infinite 
 and eternal perdition." 
 
 Becket upon this retired to France, where he was honor- 
 ed, and distinguished by the pope, and other potentates. The 
 exclamations of the exile, filled Henry with anxiety, and all 
 Christendom with intrigue, about six years. The primate 
 triumphed over Henry, so far, that he was honorably restor- 
 ed to his see of Canterbury, and enjoyed his usual honors. 
 
 Henry had retired into Normandy during this controversy, 
 and Becket rode in triumph through England, and proclaimed 
 war against Henry, with renewed violence, threatening with 
 spiritual thunders, all the prelates who had assisted at the 
 coronation of the king. All this was more than the high 
 spirit of Henry could bear ; and he exclaimed, " Will my 
 servants still leave me exposed to the insolence of this un- 
 grateful and imperious priest ?" This armed four of the 
 king's household, who passed over into England, and Becket' 
 fell by the hand of the assassin. 
 
 The death of the primate filled Henry with more distress, 
 than his life ; he shut himself up three days, denying himself 
 all sustenance, as well as the light of the sun ; and by a so- 
 lemn embassy, attempted to appease the vengeance of the 
 pope, by protesting his innocence. 
 
 His holiness listened graciously ; whilst all Europe re- 
 sounded with the praises of the holy martyr, whose sacred 
 tomb wrought all manner of miracles ; restored the dead to 
 life, both men, women and children ; dogs, horses and cows ; 
 and was loaded with presents from all parts of Christendom, 
 to obtain his intercessions in heaven ; this tomb received the 
 devotions of more than one hundred thousand pilgrims in one 
 year. 
 
 In the midst of this religious frenzy, Henry undertook the 
 Conquest of Ireland, then in its most rude and barbarous state ; 
 governed by the laws of force, which were executed by mur- 
 ders, assassination, and pillage. 
 
 After the conquest of Ireland, Henry repaired to Nor- 
 mandy to meet the pope's legate ; settled his peace with the 
 church, by clearing himself by oath, from all concern in 
 Becket's death ; made some concessions which were satisfac- 
 tory, and this storm was hushed ; but another sprung up in 
 its place. 
 
 His son, prince Henry, demanded accession to the throne 
 
HENRY AT THE TOMB OF BEGKET. 121 
 
 of England or Normandy ; Elenor his queen, and his two 
 younger sons, backed by the king of France, then Lewis VII. 
 supported the claim. This threw Henry into a new dilem- 
 ma, and brought him to the feet of that sovereign pontiff, (to 
 pray out thunders upon his enemies,) whose power he had 
 so boldly withstood in the affair of Becket. 
 
 Alexander III. poured out his thunders most powerfully ; 
 but without effect. Henry drew the sword, and to prepare 
 the public mind for the conflict, he did penance for the death 
 of Thomas a Becket, by going barefoot to the tomb of Beck- 
 et, and watching the holy relics, one whole day and night, ex- 
 posing his naked back to the flagellations of the monks, which 
 they, remembering the old grudge, put on severely. He 
 then received absolution, and the reconciliation of heaven 
 was announced by a signal victory obtained that day, by his 
 generals, over the Scots ; their king was taken prisoner, and 
 tranquillity restored. What cannot ignorance and supc.rsii- 
 ti on perform! This peace in England, was followed by a 
 peace in Normandy. Henry now floated quietly upon the 
 tide of superstition, and enacted many wise and salutary laws, 
 for the good of his people, and the security of his crown. 
 
 Even Lewis VII. king of France, under the influence of 
 fanaticism, made a pilgrimage to Becket's tomb, to obtain 
 his intercession in heaven, for the recovery of his sick son. 
 Philip recovered, and the next year succeeded to the throne, 
 upon the death of his father, and took the title of Augustus. 
 
 Philip II. excited, and supported an insurrection in Hen- 
 ry's son against his father, which humbled his power, broke 
 his spirits, and brought him to his grave, at the castle of Chi- 
 non in Normandy, in the fifty-eighth year of his age. The 
 whole reign of Henry had fanned that fire of liberty, which 
 was so immediately connected, in after days, with privilege, 
 and prerogative, and restored the Saxon privileges. 
 
 The dependence of the emperors of Germany, upon the 
 popes, for the crown of the Romans, (beneficium Romani 
 Imperil,) and the independence they claimed as sovereigns 
 of the German empire, kept up a constant collision between 
 the two sovereignties ; occasioned all those quarrels which, 
 have blackened the annals of both parties, and rendered (he 
 popes so contemptible ; and called forth the sv/ord of the 
 Othos, and Henrys to do themselves justice, and humble the 
 haughty pontiffs. 
 
 Adrian IV. a mendicant friar, an Englishman, and son of 
 11 
 
122 ADRIAN IV. AND FREDERIC. 
 
 a mendicant, was now upon the papal throne, dealing out his 
 conditional permissions to Henry II. to conquer Ireland ; de- 
 manding of Frederic, the emperor, that he should kiss his 
 great toe, hold his stirrup when he mounted his horse, and 
 lead him by the bridle when he had mounted. All this rous- 
 ed the indignation of the emperor ; he set the pope at defi- 
 ance, humbled the revolted Bohemians, conquered Poland, 
 secured the fidelity of Germany and a tranquil throne, until 
 the feuds of the papacy again entangled him in the contested 
 election of two popes, Victor IV. and Alexander III. 
 
 This controversy embroiled the empire with the states of 
 Italy, who were supported by the emperor of Constantinople, 
 and the conflict in Italy was severe and bloody. In this civ- 
 il war in Italy, the city of Milan was given up to the flames, 
 and reduced to a heap of ruins. The emperor escaped very 
 narrowly, in his desperate contests with the confederates ; 
 especially in a naval action with the Venetians, in w r hich his 
 eldest son Henry was made prisoner. 
 
 Alexander III. triumphed over his rival ; the emperor was 
 obliged to submit to the demands of his holiness, kiss his feet, 
 hold his stirrup, and lead his horse. Frederic, upon this, 
 received the submission of Italy, with the oath of allegiance, 
 and returned into Germany, where he found more work cut 
 out for him. 
 
 The war in Italy had raged from 1159 to 1177, and the 
 ^emperor was now called to humble Henry, duke of Saxony, 
 whose pride was swelled by his marriage with a daughter of 
 the king of England. Frederic soon put him to the ban of 
 the empire, and sent him off to England, where he raised up 
 the stock that founded the house of Brunswick, from which 
 sprang the present reigning family on the throne of England. 
 
 At this time, 1181, Saladin the great, caliph of Egypt, 
 overran Syria, took vengeance on the Christians, destroyed 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem, and of Antioch, took these cities, 
 and chased the Christians from all their conquests in Asia. 
 All Christendom was full of consternation. Clement the III. 
 ordered a third crusade to be preached throughout Christen- 
 dom ; Frederic Barbarossa put himself at their head, with 
 his son, the duke of Suabia, with an army of 150,000 men ; 
 laid Hungary under contribution in his route ; humbled the" 
 Greek emperor ; marched triumphant on to the plains of 
 Asia ; made the cities of the east, and their troops, tremble 
 at his sword j bathed in tiie cold river Cydnus, after the 
 

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]>EATII OF FREDERIC. 123- 
 
 inanner ot the hero of Maceclon, took a diseas^ and died. 
 Tims fell the hero of the third crusade, in the midst of this 
 mad career of glory, in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and 
 v:w succeeded by his son Henry VI. 
 
 Philip the I. was now in quiet possession of the crown 
 of France, and Richard I. son of Henry II. upon the death of 
 his father, was in possession of the crown of England. These 
 two princes were engaged, heart and hand, in this crusade, 
 and upon a new plan. They assembled an army of one hun- 
 dred thousand men on the plains of Vezelay, in France ; 
 marched to the ports of Genoa, and Marseilles, where they 
 each embarked his army for the holy land ; were forced by 
 stress of weather to winter at Messina ; were entangled in an 
 intrigue with the king of Naples ; quarrelled with the Mcs- 
 sinians ; and quarrelled with each other : Richard seized on 
 the city of Messina, and planted his standard on the walls ; 
 they settled their quarrels, and again embarked upoa their 
 adventure, 1 191. 
 
 Richard was wrecked upon the isle of Cyprus ; some of his 
 vessels plundered, and their crews imprisoned : Richard 
 took vengeance on the tyrant, repaired his fleet, and again s*t 
 sail for Palestine, 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 Third crusade continued Richard, king of England, a cap- 
 tive in Germany John, successor to Richard Mctgna 
 
 Charta. 
 
 THE Christians had pushed the siege of- Ptolemaic, a strong 
 seaport town in Palestine, in possession of the Saracens. 
 This siege had proved fatal to Frederic II. son and successor 
 of Frederic I. emperor of Germany, and ruinous to his ar- 
 my. Here Richard landed his army, joined Philip again, and 
 took part in the siege. Here Richard displayed his true 
 English valor ; Ptolemais was taken ; after a desperate de- 
 fence, and the governor stipulated, " that the great Saladin 
 should pay a round sum of money for the ransom of the gar- 
 rison ; dismiss two thousand five hundred Christian prisoners 
 of distinction, and restore the true wood of the cross." 
 
 Thus fell Ptolemais, the citadel of Palestine, after a two 
 years siege, * which cost the Christians three hundred thou- 
 
124 
 
 FALL OF PTOLEMAIS. 
 
 sand men, elusive of persons of a superior rank ; six arch- 
 bishops, twelve bishops, forty earls, and five hundred bar- 
 ons." 
 
 The martial superiority of Richard disgusted Philip ; he 
 
 renewed his oath of peace and amity, left Richard ten thou. 
 
 sand men under the Duke of Burgundy, and returned with 
 
 ay to France, touched at Italy on his way, and applied 
 
 raent III. to absolve him from his oath, who refused : 
 
 and he attempted to manage by intrigues, when he returned 
 
 to France, what his oath restrained him from doing by open 
 
 hostility. 
 
 Richard put himself at the head of the confederates, and 
 marched to the siege of Ascalon ; Saladin with an army of 
 three hundred thousand men, disputed his passage ; an ac- 
 tion ensued, as memorable as the siege of Ptolemaic; the 
 conflict was desperate, and the carnage terrible ; forty thou- 
 sand Saracens strewed the iield of death ; the Christians were 
 triumphant ; Ascalon fell into their hands, and opened a way 
 to Jerusalem. 
 
 In full view of the great object of their enterprise, and la- 
 boars, a magical languor seized all the princes, they resolved 
 to abandon the enterprise ; settled a peace with Saladin, 
 and returned to Europe. This peace, stipulated, " that the 
 christiaus should keep possession of the strong towns thej' 
 iind conquered in Palestine ; have a free and safe access to 
 Jerusalem, for their pilgrimages, for the space of three years, 
 . three months, three weeks, and three days." Saladin died 
 at Damascus soon after. 
 
 Richard, on his return home, in the garb of a pilgrim, was 
 seized, and imprisoned by Leopold, duke of Austria, who was 
 his companion in arms, at the siege of Ptolemais, and who 
 sold him to the emperor Henry VI. who loaded him with 
 irons, and immured him in a dungeon in the heart of Germany. 
 At the same time, Philip, king of France, exerted all his pow 
 ers of intrigue, to purchase Richard, seize on Normandy, and 
 even by an intermarriage with a princess of Denmark, to reco- 
 ver to himself the Danish claims on the throne of England. 
 
 Amidst these scenes of perfidy, the clamors of the pope, 
 and the diet of Germany, compelled the emperor to withhold 
 the sale of Richard from the king of France, and restore him 
 to his own subjects ; which he did, for the ransom of fifty 
 thousand marks : (three hundred thousand pounds sterling.) 
 These are the princes who were the champions of the cross, 
 
KO?G RICHARD. 125 
 
 and these scenes serve to shew the perfidy, corruption, and 
 depravity of that enthusiastic age of barbarism. 
 
 The joy of the English nation, upon the arrival of Richard, 
 was inexpressible : but the chagrin and alarm of Philip, were 
 best expressed in this caution to John, brother of Richard, 
 who had been his confederate in his intrigues ; " take care 
 of yourself, Richard has broke loose." Richard had no 
 sooner recovered his throne, than he carried war into Nor- 
 mandy, to revenge the perfidious intrigues of Philip, and his 
 brother John. John submitted, craved pardon, and Richard 
 granted it, with this expression : " I hope I shall as easily 
 forget his offences, as he will my pardon/' 
 
 Richard returned to England, besieged count Vidomar in 
 his castle, for the sake of plunder, was wounded by an arrow, 
 arid died. Thus fell Richard I. king of England, the hero of 
 Palestine, and the idol of England, with the title of Cceurde 
 Lion, (or the lion hearted hero.) 
 
 The pardoned John, his brother, of Normandy, (stained 
 with the blood of Arthur, his nephew, who was his competi- 
 tor for the crown, and whom he slew with his own hands, 
 whilst upon his knees begging for mercy,) succeeded to the 
 throne, 1199. The inhuman murder of Arthur, drew upon- 
 John the vengeance of his English subjects : they even made 
 overtures to Phillip II. king of France, to revenge the barba- 
 rity. Philip embraced the favourable moment, seized on Nor- - 
 mandy, Anjbu, Maine, Touraine, and part of Poictou, and ad- 
 ded them to the crown of France. John fled to England ; 
 here he became the sport of his barons, and the pope.- 
 
 Clement III. attempted to exercise his sovereignty, in ap- 
 pointing an archbishop of Canterbury ; John opposed ; Cle- - 
 ment issued his spiritual thunders, with a sentence of depo- 
 sition. To enforce these thunders, the pope proffered to 
 Philip of France, the eternal joys of heaven, together with 
 the crown of England, if he would enforce the decrees 
 Philip readily accepted, levied a great army, together with 
 a fleet of seventeen hundred vessels, to execute the de'cree. 
 John as formidably prepared for defence, and all Europe was 
 alive to the issue. 
 
 In the midst ofthis vast preparation, Innocent III. receiv- 
 er! the submission of John; sent Pandolfo, his legate, into 
 England to receive the homage of the king ; and at the 
 hands of John, -took the crown of England to himself. John 
 -.ip on his knees before the throne of the legate, rescued 'his 
 
 n * 
 
126 HOMAGE OF KING JOHN. 
 
 crowa, and swore fealty to Innocent III. ; this was the 
 style : 
 
 " I John, by the grace of God, king of England, and lor<l 
 of Ireland, for the expiation of my sin.s, and out of my own 
 free will, with the advice and consent of my barons, do give 
 unto the church of Rome, and to pope Innocent 111. and his 
 successors, the kingdoms of England arid Ireland, together 
 with all the rights belonging to them ; and will hold them of 
 the pope, as his vassal. I will be faithful to God, to the 
 church of Rome, to the pope my lord, and to his successors 
 lawfully appointed, and I bind myself to pay him a tribute of 
 t>ne thousand marks of silver yearly, viz. seven hundred for 
 the kingdom of England, and three hundred for Ireland." 
 John was absolved, and after five days, again invested with 
 the regalia of majesty, 1213. 
 
 Philip, stung with mortification and rage, to be duped by 
 such a pious fraud, resolved to execute his purpose, even 
 against the commands of the pope. A coalition took place 
 between Otho IV. emperor of Germany, and John : the two 
 monarchs assembled an army in Flanders, and threatened 
 the ruin of Philip. This was the first German and English 
 ^cracy in Flanders, 1214. 
 
 Philip triumphed over this league, in a desperate battle 
 near Lisle, and gained an honorable peace ; and John would 
 have been content with destroying the French naval arma- 
 ment, could he have enjoyed his crown in peace ; but he 
 was called to pass through new scenes. 
 
 England, by the Norman conquest, had become a feudal 
 military kingdom, the despotic power of the crown was plant- 
 ed upon the ruins of Saxon liberty, and the people were vas- 
 sals to the king, and the barons. The voice of the people 
 had long been smothered under this oppression, and the bar- 
 ons had often complained of the oppressions of the crown ; 
 now all parties were agreed to commence an attack upon the 
 crown, and bring this weak king to terms. 
 
 Privilege set up her claims against prerogative, and drew 
 the sword. John soon yielded, and upon a conference at 
 the ever memorable Runemede, signed and sealed the ever 
 memorable Magna Charta, (or great charter,) the palladium 
 of English liberty, June 19, 1215. 
 
 This charter, so dear to every Englishman, was also the 
 palladium of those liberties, which our fathers brought out 
 into this wilderness, and which have rendered fheir sons il- 
 
NEW CRUSADE. 127 
 
 ill happy, beyond all former example. Thus we 
 see, how the sovereign of the universe, rides on the whirl- 
 wind, and directs the storm, and causes the wrath of man to 
 praise hirn. 
 
 Henry VI. emperor of Germany, instituted three crusades 
 with the price of Richard's ransom ; one against the maritime 
 towns of the northwest of Germany, Hamburg, &,c. ; one 
 against Palestine, and Jerusalem ; and the other against Na- 
 ples and Sicily, then in rebellion. The last, he headed him- 
 self, after he had secured a successor, by causing his infant 
 son, then in the cradle, to be crowned king of the Romans, 
 under the title of Frederic II. 
 
 Henry waged war with great cruelty, and barbarity, hum- 
 bled the rebels, and in the midst of his career, died of poison 
 as was then supposed, by the order of his queen. The 
 feuds in Germany raged with great violence during the mi- 
 nority of Frederic, under the regency of his uncle Philip, 
 duke of Suabia, and the intrigues of pope Innocent 111. 
 which threatened Germany, and Italy, with civil war. At 
 this eventful crisis, a new crusade was formed, to recover the 
 iioly land, and the feuds of Germany, France, and Italy, 
 were all swallowed up in preparations for the new holy war, 
 1202, 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 against Constantinople Germany France, ami a 
 ncrx crusade England and France Borough elections in 
 land. 
 
 BALDWIN, Earl of Flanders, bended this crusade. The 
 storm first burst upon Zena, a city ofDalmatia, which was 
 reduced and taken in defiance of the pope. It next broke 
 upon Constantinople ; this fell an easy conquest, 1204, and 
 notwithstanding it was the seat of that Christian church, which 
 was the glory of the Roman empire in the days of Constan- 
 tine, and under the protection of the religion of the cross, to 
 that day ; it was given up to pillage, rapine, and rage ; their 
 churches were plundered, their altars robbed, and made the 
 theatres of every excess ; and Baldwin, after having order- 
 ed the emperor to be thrown from the top of a lofty column, 
 uself to be proclaimed emperor. 
 
120. 
 
 NEW CRUSADE. 
 
 The confederates divided the spoil, together with the 
 empire, and provinces ; delivered up the dominion of the 
 church to the pope, and returned, abandoning the holy war to 
 such only, as had got no part of the hooty of the Greek em- 
 pire. The pope closed the scene with this holy consolation : 
 "' God, willing to console his church by the reunion of the 
 schismatics, has made the empire pass from the proud, su- 
 perstitious, disobedient Greeks, to the humble, pious, catho- 
 lic, and submissive Latins." 
 
 As soon as these champions of the cross had retired, the 
 Greeks took up arms in various quarters ; called in the aid oi 
 their neighbors ; expelled the emperor Baldwin ; pursued^ 
 and took him prisoner near Adrianople ; cut off his head, 
 legs, and arms ; gave his carcase to the wild beasts ; and re- 
 covered their ruined city, in 1206. 
 
 The feuds of France and Germany raged under Philip and 
 Otho, during these movements in the east : the pope inter- 
 fered, and crowned the young Frederic II. emperor, in order 
 to check Otho. This kindled the torch with more violence, 
 until Otho quit the field, and fled into retirement, where h( 
 sunk into contempt ; the peace of Germany was restored b] 
 the coronation of Frederic, at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1215. This 
 feud was in its turn succeeded by a new crusade under pope 
 Honorius III. All Christendom v, as now rallied to the con- 
 test ; assembled their armies in Spain and Italy ; embarked 
 for Syria, and landed at Ptolemais ; undertook several adven- 
 tures, and failed ; then laid siege to Damietta, and took it. 
 The duke of Austria withdrew his forces, and returned home 
 whilst the emperor sent out fresh recruits under cardinal 
 Albano. 
 
 This Benedictine monk claimed the chief command as the 
 immediate representative of his holiness, which after much' 
 debate arid intrigue, was by the express orders of the pope, 
 yielded to him. 
 
 The cardinal general posted his army upon the Nile, in 
 Egypt, where he was soon endangered by the overflowing of 
 the river, and compelled t^Sign a convention with the soldan 
 of Egypt ; by which he bound himself and followers, to with- 
 draw from the war for eight years, and deliver up Damiettn, 
 which had been taken by the division from Spain t Egypt 
 was relieved in 1221. 
 
 Violent disputes continued to rage in Germany and Italy. 
 Gregory IX. succeeded to the chair upon the death of Hono- 
 
NEW CRUSADE. 29 
 
 mis. He came out with his thunders against the emperor 
 Frederic II. to compel him to lead another crusade. Frede- 
 ric finally yielded, and embarked for Syria, yet under the 
 censures of the pope, which he treated with contempt, 
 This expedition proved successful, and he obtained by treaty 
 with Meledin, Soldan of Egypt, Jerusalem, Joppa, Bethle- 
 hem, Nazareth, Tyre and Sidon, with all their neighboring 
 countries, upon the conditions of a truce often years, and 
 returned to Italy, 
 
 Here the old quarrel was renewed with violence with the 
 pope, whose mortification was extreme, that the emperor 
 should exceed all the champions of the cross in his conquests, 
 when under the censures of the church. Gregory sowed 
 the seeds of rebellion in Italy and Germany, and lit the torch 
 by a new fulmination in the following style : 
 
 " A beast of blasphemy replete with names, is risen from 
 the sea, with the feel of a bear, the face of a lion, and mem- 
 bers of other beasts ; which like the proud, hath opened his 
 mouth against the holy name, not even fearing, to throw his 
 arrows against the tabernacle of God, and the saints that 
 dwell in heaven." &.c. to a great extent. 
 
 Frederic met this bull by a reply, in which he styled his 
 holiness, '> The great dragon, the antichrist," of whom it is 
 written, '-and another red horse arose from the sea, and he 
 that sat upon him took pence from the earth," &c. This 
 quarrel rekindled the two factions of the Guelphs and Ghib- 
 elines ; whose citiee were given up to indiscriminate butch- 
 ery. Gregory died ; Celestine IV. succeeded but eight 
 days : then Innocent IV. succeeded to the chair, who fled 
 into France, rekindled the war by a new bull of deposition, 
 with orders to choose a new emperor. 
 
 The bishops of Germany (without the nobles) assembled, 
 and chose Henry, landgrave of Thuringia, and the civil war 
 raged afresh. Henry died : the same council chose William, 
 count of Holland ; the war raged with more violence. Fred- 
 eric, pressed upon all sides, retired to Naples to recruit his 
 army, where he died in the fifty-fifth year of his age, A. D. 
 1250. 
 
 The war still raged ; the clergy took up arms against the 
 laity ; all laws, human and divine, were set at defiance, and 
 Germany was drenched in blood, until the death of William, 
 in 1256. This opened the way, through all the factions of a 
 long and distressing interregnum, for the election of Rodolph, 
 count of Hapsburg, in 1273. 
 
HENRY III. 
 
 During this interregnum, the maritime cities of the Trest,. 
 in the whole, eighty-four towns, formed the famous Hanseat- 
 ic league for the protection of commerce. At the head of 
 these stood Cologne, Brunswic, Lubec, Dantzic, Thorn, &c. 
 Italy and Sicily also changed their governments. AU the 
 good that resulted from this long and distressing struggle, 
 must be looked for in the field of commerce. 
 
 The feuds in England kept pace with the feuds in Germa- 
 ny. As soon as the storm was laid by magna charta, John 
 determined to recover his liberties and prerogatives. He se- 
 cretly employed in his service, foreign mercenary troops, 
 and sent to the pope, praying for a bull of interdiction against 
 his refractory barons, and obtained his request. Thus arm- 
 ed with the spiritual tnunders of the church, John drew his 
 sword, and began the attack : carrying fire and sword into 
 the castles of the barons, and throughout their villages : all 
 England was one scene of desolation and distress. 
 
 The barons in despair, applied to Philip, king of France 
 for succour ; he readily obeyed the summons, assembled an 
 army, Lewis his eldest son embarked, and landed in England. 
 John was deserted by his foreign mercenaries, sunk under 
 the pressure of the war, arid died, aged 49. 
 
 John was a weak, corrupt, malicious, unfeeling, unprinci- 
 pled king; whose whole life was full of evil, without any 
 good, but that great charter, which was extorted from him, 
 and Avhich will ever perpetuate his memory. John was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Henry III. then nine years old. The earl 
 of Pembroke, then mareschal of England, and at the head of 
 her armies, was chosen protector and guardian of Henry. 
 
 Lewis penetrated to London ; but at the death of John, 
 he found the protector not only at the head of the army and 
 government, but of the nation. He united all parties, and 
 Lewis settled a truce, procured indemnity for his adherents, 
 with a free passage to France, and set sail ; leaving England 
 to enjoy the fruits of all her struggles, under a general calm, 
 1217. 
 
 Henry, when he came to the throne, made war upon 
 France, and attempted to recover the ancient provinces 
 which Philip had seized ; but failed, lost the remainder of 
 Poictou, and returned in disgrace, 1243. During this reign 
 the pope fleeced England, and drew by his arts a greater rev- 
 enue than the crown. In addition to this, he entangled Henry 
 
 
HENRY in. 131 
 
 in the controversy for the crown of Sicily, upon the death of 
 Frederic II. Finding his resources inadequate to the enter-, 
 prise, he offered it to Richard, earl of Cornwall, the richest 
 subject in Europe : Richard refused. This project exhaust- 
 ed England, and failed ; the pope took the disposal of the 
 crown to himself, 1255. 
 
 The feuds of Germany at this time, led them to invite to 
 the throne, the same Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of 
 Henry III. Allured with the title of emperor, he accepted, 
 and spent all his fortune in a vain pursuit to establish his 
 crown, and returned to England in poverty and disappoint- 
 ment, in 1257. 
 
 Again the claims of privilege, and prerogative, were re- 
 newed in England, and Henry laid the storm by a renewal of 
 the great charter. Henry soon rekindled the storm ; the 
 earl of Leicester again took the lead of the disaffected barons ; 
 both parties took the field ; a decisive battle was fought in 
 Sussex ; Henry, prince Edward, and all the royal family were 
 taken, and Leicester took the helm of government ; assem- 
 bled a new parliament, composed of two knights from each 
 shire, and two deputies from each borough* 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 England France, and a nerv crusade under Lewis Vlll Spain 
 from 1037io 1303 -some symptoms of order. 
 
 THE last chapter has disclosed to us, how privilege tri- 
 umphed over prerogative, and introduced the borough elec- 
 tions into parliament. This branch of the government, 
 (which has been a bone of contention in after days,) became 
 the instrument of establishing the commonwealth, under 
 Cromwell, and thereby swallowing up prerogative. These 
 controversies make no part of this narrative ; facts, not opin- 
 ions, are the object of this work. 
 
 Leicester* began his persecutions in his turn ; young Ed- 
 ward made his escape, the royalists assembled, a fatal battle 
 was fought near Evesharn, Leicester was slain, his army rout- 
 ed, Henry restored to his throne, and the nation became 
 tranquil without further effusion of blood. 
 
132 
 
 ST. t\ 
 
 Prince Edward made an expedition to ihe holy l;md ii 
 .1270, returned the next year, and succeeded to the throne 
 upon the death of his father, Henry III. who died aged 64. 
 after a long reign of fifty-six years. 
 
 During this reign, Philip II. of France, had enriched his 
 crown with all the English possessions on the continent, an< 
 left his throne to Lewis VIII. : he did nothing worthy oi 
 notice, died, and left his throne to Lewis IX. or St. Lewis, 
 1226, then twelve years old ; the regency was conducted b;j 
 the queen mother during the minority. 
 
 When Lewis came to the throne, in 1235, he united in 
 himself three characters, hitherto considered as incompatible 
 with each other ; the monk, the hero, and philosopher ; anc 
 took the incontrovertible principles of justice for the basis 
 of his reign. Lewis agreeable to a vow which he made when 
 sick, passed four years in arranging the affairs of his king- 
 dom, and collecting his forces, to make an expedition to the 
 holy land, 
 
 In 1248^ he embarked upon his expedition, accompanied 
 by his queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of 
 France, touched at Cyprus, and landed in Egypt eighteen 
 hundred ships carried the army and vast military prepara- 
 tions of the monarch of France ; Lewis found himself at the 
 head of sixty thousand men. 
 
 The city of Damietta was abandoned by the Saracens ; and 
 fell an easy conquest to the arms of Lewis, in 1249. This 
 was his only success in Egypt, and this he was soon obliged to 
 abandon by a convention to recover his own liberty, which 
 he had lost by falling into the hands of the soldan of Egypt, 
 in a fatal battle at Massoura : here his brother Robert was 
 slain by his side, and his two other brothers, with all his no- 
 bility, made prisoners with himself. This treaty with athou-. 
 sand pieces of gold, restored all the captives, and enabled 
 him to draw off the shattered remains of his army into Pales- 
 tine, where he remained four years. 
 
 During this time, the queen mother, by the assistance of a 
 monk, attempted to raise 100,000 paupers in Franco, for the 
 relief of her son. This proved the worst evil of the two 
 these shepherds filled all France with their excesses of rob- 
 bery and pillage, and in a civil war, they were subdued by 
 force of arms. Lewis returned to France 1258, and ruled 
 with wisdom, moderation, and justice. 
 
 In I-?';*, he was created gole umpire, ly the contending 
 
PRANCE UNDER LEWIS VIII. 133 
 
 parties in England, to settle their quarrels, and decided with 
 that wisdom, which has ever rendered his justice illustrious. 
 It has been imputed as a fault to Lewis, that he suffered the 
 pope to shed the blood of the duke of Austria upon the scaf- 
 fold, in his controversy for the crown of Sicily; and by the 
 instrumentality of the count of Anjou, to suffer the pope to 
 hold the crown. 
 
 Lewis made one more crusade against the infidels, not of 
 Asia, but of Africa. He landed a strong army near the bay 
 of Tunis, and attempted sword in hand to compel the king of 
 Tunis to become a Christian. The infidel refused : Lewis 
 soon saw his army wasted with sickness ; one son die, and 
 another ready to die ; and in the midst of this awful scene, 
 the same plague took him off, in the fifty-sixth year of his 
 age. Philip, his son, recovered, held the Moors at bay, and 
 led back the remains of the army into France, in 1271. 
 
 Lewis made a general reform of abuses in France, correct- 
 ed the evils occasioned by his long absence on his several 
 crusades ; establishedjudicial tribunals, which checked the 
 power of the nobility ; suppressed private feudal wars ; 
 abolished the ordeal of single combat, relieved France from 
 the exactions of the popes ; and by his wisdom, virtue and 
 justice, secured during his reign, the peace of France. 
 
 We have now brought forward England, France, Italy, 
 and Germany, more than two centuries in advance of Spain, 
 in order to preserve the great chain of events unbroken, 
 through the rage of the crusades : we will now go back, and 
 bring forward Spain from the reign of Ferdinand the great, 
 son of Sancho, who united the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. 
 1037. 
 
 Here commences the reign of knight errantry. Spain 
 was at this time divided into about twenty kingdoms, besides 
 many independent lordships, all filled with ignorance, super- 
 stition, violence, and civil wars. The lesser sovereigns 
 were often engaged as mercenaries in the civil wars of the 
 kings. They ranged the country on horseback, armed cap- 
 a-pie with coats of mail, followed by their attendants, or 
 squires, as adventurers of the sword, and entered into the 
 service of such kings as required their arms. The sword was 
 their instrument of support, and war their trade ; hence the 
 reason why Spain was filled with all that . enthusiasm of sin- 
 gle combat, down to the close of the seventeenth century, 
 
 A few instances of this romantic chivalry, may be worthy 
 12 
 
134 
 
 CHIVALRY AND CIVIL WARS. 
 
 of notvce. The quarrel between Sancho, and his sister Au 
 rica, occasioned his assassination, whilst he besieged her in 
 the city ofZamora. Three knights entered the list against Don 
 Diego de Lara, the champion of Sancho, and accuser of Au- 
 rica. It must not be understood, that these three knights at- 
 tacked Don Diego at once ; this was not agreeable to the hon- 
 orable laws of chivalry : the contest was single combat. 
 
 Two champions, armed cap-a-pie in coats of mail, entered 
 the lists, mounted on horses trained to the fight. At such 
 distance as was agreed, each took his stand, armed with a 
 long spear ; this he held with his right hand, presented to his 
 antagonist, with the other end fixed firm in its rest : upon the 
 signal given, they advanced full speed to the charge, and as 
 they passed, each met his champion with the point of his 
 spear ; this either penetrated the armour and wounded, or 
 killed the knight, and threw him from his horse ; or unhors- 
 ed him by the violence of the shock without a wound ; or 
 glanced, by a side stroke, and let him pass. This was the 
 pastime of these champions of chivalry. 
 
 Don Diego killed two of the champions of Aurica, and the 
 third was carried out of the lists by the violence of his horse, 
 and the contest remained doubtful. The city of Toledo was 
 then in the hands of the Moors, and Alphonso VI. king of 
 Castile, undertook to subdue it by siege, 1084. In this war, 
 a renowned knight, known by the name of Don Roderigo, or 
 the Cid, filled Europe with his fame, and brought many 
 knights and princes from France and Italy to the siege of 
 Toledo. The city was carried after a siege of one year, 
 and all Europe resounded with the exploits of these cham- 
 pions of chivalry. 
 
 The war was a religious war, Almanzor, king of Toledo, 
 and Alphonso were friends, and under mutual obligations to 
 each other ; but their religions were different, and they con- 
 tinued so by treaty, upon the surrendery of Toledo, and both 
 parties continued to enjoy the same civil and religious priv- 
 ileges as before. 
 
 Alphonso violated the treaty, by calling an assembly of 
 bishops, and placing a catholic at the head ofthe bishopric of 
 Toledo, which act pope Urban II. confirmed. This kindled 
 the war afresh ; two knights entered the lists, and drew the 
 sword to decide the question by single combat ; (the sword 
 as well as the spear, became the instrument of single combat 
 in knight errantry.) The catholic champion was foiled ; a 
 
SPAIN CONTINUED. 135 
 
 new trial was obtained by the archbishop, in defiance of all 
 (he laws of chivalry, and they made their appeal to the or- 
 deal of tire. Both liturgies were thrown into the flames ; 
 both were consumed, and both parties exercised their religion. 
 
 This spirit of these parties raged with such violence in 
 Spain, as to induce Alphonso to invite the Miramolin of Af- 
 rica, (or king of the Moors,) to assist in subduing the Moors 
 in Spain. This invitation he accepted, took advantage of 
 their divisions, seized on the city of Seville, and confirmed 
 the dominions of the Moors, 1097. These wars drenched 
 Spain in blood, under all the extremes of chivalry. 
 
 In 1147, Alphonso Henriquez, count of Portugal, expelled 
 the Moors from Lisbon, and caused himself to be proclaimed 
 king of Portugal. 
 
 In the year 1212, the Miramolin of Africa took advantage 
 of these incessant wars in Spain, passed over with a numer- 
 ous army, and threatened the conquest of the country. This, 
 again, was a religious quarrel : knights and princes, from all 
 parts of Europe, assembled to the war. Alphonso led the 
 Christian army, preceded by the archbishop of Toledo, bear- 
 ing the cross. The Miramolin led the Moorish army, bear- 
 ing the Koran in one hand, and the sabre in the other. 
 
 The conflicts of Palestine, and the prowess of Jerusalem, 
 were renewed in the defiles of the black mountains of Spain : 
 the champions waded in blood + the standard of the cross 
 prevailed ; and the ever memorable 16th of July is still cel- 
 ebrated in Toledo. The Moors were vanquished ; Irat the 
 war still raged, and Spain knew not the enjoyment of one mo- 
 ment's repose. 
 
 In 1236 appeared Ferdinand III. or St. Ferdinand, in the 
 midst of these bloody conflicts, which still raged with vio- 
 lence. He took the city of Cordova, and drove out the 
 Moors; also the province of Murcia, and the city of Seville ; 
 he died 1252 ; his name will ever be memorable in Spain. 
 
 Alphonso the wise, or astronomer, son of Ferdinand, suc- 
 ceeded to the throne. He greatly improved the learning and 
 laws of Spain, and the improvements in astronomy do honor 
 to his reign. He died in a league with the Moors, defending 
 his crown against his rebellious son Sancho, who usurped the 
 throne upon the death of his father in 1303. His reign was 
 short but tranquil ; he was succeeded by his son Ferdi- 
 nand IV. ; his reign was turbulent, and his death worthy of 
 noticed 
 
136 EFFORTS FOR GENERAL PEACE> 
 
 Two noblemen were thrown by his tyrannic rage from the 
 top of a high rock, and dashed to pieces. At the moment of 
 their fall they summoned the king to meet them in the pres- 
 ence of God, in one month ; Ferdinand obeyed the summons 
 at the time, and died. 
 
 This chivalry which raged in Spain, was part of the same 
 spirit that armed Europe against Asia, and under the banner 
 of the cross, drenched the plains of Asia Minor, Syria, and 
 Palestine in blood these two hundred years. 
 
 The effects of these crusades at first increased and confirm- 
 ed the power of the popes ; but at the same time increased 
 the power of the kings, which in process of time rose superi- 
 or to the power of the popes. They greatly promoted com- 
 merce, and enriched the cities of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, 
 which were the more immediate carriers for Europe in the 
 later expeditions. They taught the Europeans the arts and 
 sciences, particularly the use of the shuttle and the loom ; arid 
 the manufacture of silk which soon began to flourish in Italy. 
 Architecture made a part of these improvements, cities be- 
 gan to rise and flourish in Italy, and throughout Europe ; and 
 Ihe magnificent castles which filled Europe, with the palaces, 
 as well as the strong holds of the barons and nobles, were the 
 effects of the crusades. 
 
 The collisions which sprang up between the barons and 
 the cities, and between the rival cities themselves, called for 
 the interposition of the king ; his interposition, which gene- 
 rally required force, called for the aid of the people ; they 
 made advantage of the strife, and obtained some degree of 
 that liberty of which they were entirely deprived before; 
 when the wealth of the cities could support the authority of 
 the crown by money, the king set the barons at defiance, be- 
 came the man of the people, and they supported him. This 
 secured what liberty the ignorance of the age was able to 
 bear ; but feuds, quarrels and wars still raged. 
 
 To give some check, or even respite from these bloody ca- 
 lamities, recourse was had to the church. Religious socie- 
 ties were formed, by messages, ascribed to the special inter- 
 position of Heaven, to deter men from hostility. 
 
 One styled " the truce of God" set apart those days of the 
 week in which Christ suffered, lay entombed, and rose again, 
 as days of general peace and reconciliation, to be observed 
 as a festival of the church : this restrained the people, but 
 not the barons 
 
ENGLAND, WALES, AND SCOTLAND. 13? 
 
 Another association was formed for the purpose of coerc- 
 ing by arms the refractory and the quarrelsome, styled " The 
 brotherhood of God." These became general, supported 
 the power and authority of the kings, and produced great and 
 good effects. In the rnidst of these improvements, the code 
 of Justinian's laws was discovered in Italy, and although little 
 understood, yet claimed attention as a monument of Roman 
 wisdom and greatness ; was studied, and became useful. 
 
 The science of law, as a profession grew out of this, and 
 opened the way for other professions ; schools began to be 
 established, colleges to be founded, and men began to feel 
 something of what they now enjoy. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 * 
 
 England under Edward I. affairs of Scotland Edward II, 
 
 EDWARD I. of England succeeded to the throne of his father 
 John in 1274, and during the reign of Alphonso the wise, in 
 Spain. Edward took magna charta for the standard of his 
 reign, and upon this foundation, established a system of 
 wise and vigorous measures, which caanged the aspect of 
 affairs, and gave order and tranquillity to England. 
 
 Edward marched into Wales at the request of David and 
 Roderic, to settle the controversy for the crown, then in the 
 hands of their brother Le welly n ; besieged Lewellyn in his 
 stronghold, among the hills of Snowdon ; compelled him to 
 submit and resign his crowH. As soon as Edward had with- 
 drawn his army, Lewellyn flew to arms, and roused up his 
 countrymen to revenge the insults of the English. - 
 
 Edward again entered Wales, and by his general^.Robert 
 Mortimer, defeated Lewellyn, who fell in the conflict, and 
 added Wales to the crown of England. Edward caused Da- 
 vid the competitor of Lewellyn to be executed, together with 
 all the Welch poets, that he might at one blow break the spirit 
 of those hardy sons of liberty, and bury with them the fame 
 of their exploits, in the songs of their bards. 
 
 Scotland next claimed the attention of Edward. The 
 Scots had waged perpetual wars with the Picts, their neigh- 
 bors, through all the invasions of the Danes, Romans, Sax- 
 ons, Normans and French ; and in 838 had triumphed over 
 
 12* 
 
138 
 
 IMPROVEMENTS 
 
 GOVERNMENTS'. 
 
 them, and united the two kingdoms under Kenneth II. their 
 69th king. This united kingdom had long been formidable 
 to England, until Henry II. subdued William, king of Scots, 
 and compelled him to do homage for his crown. 
 
 Richard I. absolved him from this ; and Edward I. being 
 called as umpire to settle the contested succession to the 
 crown, between John Baliol, and Robert Bruce ; (competi- 
 tors under female claims, about one century after the death of 
 William,) by a stratagem took the crown to himself, and per- 
 suaded them, when at a council in Norham castle upon Tweed, 
 (in obedience to his summons, together with all the barons of 
 Scotland,) to acknowledge Scotland as a fief of the crown of 
 England, and swear fealty accordingly. Edward then de- 
 manded possession : this also was granted. He then confer- 
 red the crown upon Baliol ; this was universally approved, 
 and Baliol did homage to Edward, and was put in possession. 
 
 The expences of Edward obliged him to have recourse to 
 his parliament for money, and was the means of establishing 
 the borough elections, which we noticed before, under the 
 <earl of Leicester, which to this day, make a part of the house 
 of commons in England. The avowed principle of Edward, 
 which led to this step, was published in his writs of election 
 "by way of preamble : " As it is a most equitable rule, that 
 what concerns all, should be approved by all, and common 
 dangers be repelled by united efforts," &c. 
 
 In this specimen may be seen the first features of Saxon 
 liberty, issuing from the throne, to give life, strength, and 
 .union to a nation so long oppressed by feudal despotism, and 
 feudal wars. This sentiment, well comported with that in 
 the will of Alfred : " It is just that every Englishman should 
 ever remain as free as his own thoughts." 
 
 This third estate (then held so contemptible in England, 
 ami throughout Europe,) has been the means of forming that 
 great balance of power in the parliament of England, of king, 
 lords, and commons ; these, united to their judiciary system, 
 constituted a government unknown to former ages, and unri- 
 valled in the improvements of man. This government formed 
 the basis of those free governments which our fathers plan- 
 ted, and and which their sons have perfected in the -wisdom of 
 our federal system. 
 
 As soon as Edward had replenished his treasury, and re- 
 cruited his army, he made war upon king Baliol, entered 
 Scotland, took him prisoner, carried him to England, and 
 
ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. 139 
 
 confined him in the tower ; destroyed the archives of Scot- 
 land, and exercised the sovereignty, 1290. 
 
 Two years after, Edward suffered Baliol to depart to 
 France, where he died, and Edward followed, with a view to 
 recover the province of Guienne, then seized by Philip IV. 
 styled the Fair. To effect tin's, money and allies were ne- 
 cessary : to obtain the first, he had recourse to his parlia- 
 ment with success ; he demanded of the clergy a fifth of all 
 their moveables ; this they refused, and plead the bull of the 
 pope. Edward granted their plea, and at once placed them 
 in a state of outlawry, by interdicting all their claims in the 
 courts of justice, and leaving them exposed to the rigors of 
 the law. They were soon harassed with insult, indignity, and 
 pillage, without redress, and their spirit was broken ; here 
 was no plea for persecution ; they yielded their supplies to 
 the support of the crown, and were restored to the protec- 
 tion of the laws. 
 
 The ambition of Edward, led him to push this money ex- 
 action too far : the barons, the clergy, and the people resist- 
 ed ; Edward yielded added one more article to the liber- 
 ties of magna charta, and settled the tranquillity of England. 
 Philip, alarmed for the safety of his kingdom, restored Gui- 
 enne to Edward, and preserved his popularity. 
 
 During these preparations against France, and whilst Ed- 
 ward was in Flanders, an insurrection broke out in Scotland, 
 headed by one William Wallace, a desperate adventurer, on 
 whom nature had bestowed all the great properties of a for- 
 midable leader in arms. His successes over earl Warren, 
 (whom Edward had left to finish the war with Baliol) had ac- 
 quired him the confidence of his countrymen ; the nation was 
 in arms ; expelled the English out of Scotland, entered the 
 north of England, laid waste the country, and gave it up to 
 plunder. 
 
 Fired with indignation at this outrage, Edward returned 
 into England, assembled an army of one hundred thousand 
 men, and entered Scotland in triumph. Wallace, (now be- 
 come the envy of the nobles,) resigned his command, and left 
 the insurgents in the hands of the nobles ; Edward attacked 
 their camp, routed and dispersed their army, and broke the 
 rebellion ; but did not subdue it. Flying parties fled to the 
 mountains, and carried on predatory war, and maintained 
 their struggle for liberty, with some success. Wallace was 
 betrayed to Edward, sent into England, condemned and ex- 
 ercuted as a rebel. 
 
i40 
 
 LNftLAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 This despotic act, roused again the spirit of Scotland ; the 
 Scots were indignant at the execution of a man, who had by 
 his valor won their hearts, and who had never sworn fealty, 
 or allegiance to any prince. They flew to arms. At the 
 same time, Robert Bruce, son of Robert the competitor of 
 Baliol, who was then in England, flew to the support of his 
 country ; assembled the nobles, and declared his purpose to 
 live or die free at their head. This was universally approv- 
 ed, except by one Cummin, who made his objections, and 
 retired : Bruce followed, and with his sword sealed his op- 
 position. The die was now cast. Robert repaired to Scone, 
 was crowned king of Scotland, and the nation were in arms. 
 
 Edward was ready ; an army soon entered Scotland ; the 
 parties engaged ; the conflict was desperate : Robert was 
 defeated, and fled to the western isles of Scotland. Edward 
 advanced into Scotland with a powerful army, to complete 
 the conquest ; sickened and died ; and with his last breath 
 enjoined it upon his successor, to prosecute the war. 
 
 Edward revived the Saxon laws, liberties, and judicial tri- 
 bunals of Alfred ; made great improvements, and reduced 
 the whole to one great system of English liberty. Edward 
 II. (then the first English prince of Wales,) succeeded to the 
 throne, in 1370. 
 
 Here opens a field which fully shews the contrast in the 
 characters of men, and fully proves how much the strength, 
 and happiness of a kingdom depends upon the character of 
 the king. All men were prepared to see young Edward put 
 himself at the head of that army which his father had left 
 him, and in the absence of Robert, strike UK- f-ital blow to the 
 liberties of Scotland. But what must be their astonishment, 
 when they saw him march back into England, disband this 
 formidable force, give himself up to the society of that worth- 
 less favorite his father had banished, and leave king Robert 
 to return to his throne, and establish the liberties of Scotland. 
 
 Enraged at this baseness in their prince, the nobility flew 
 to arms, compelled Edward to dismiss his favorite, asd hunt- 
 ed him to his execution. 
 
 Robert now invaded England in his turn. This roused up 
 Edward ; he assembled an army of nearly one hundred thou- 
 sand men ; entered Scotland, determined to decide the war 
 at a blow. Robert met him with thirty thousand men and 
 gave him battle. The champions advanced at the head of 
 their truops ^ Robert engaged with Henry de BoJuua at the 
 
DE-ATH OF EDWARD If. 141 
 
 head of the English cavalry, and with his battle axe cleft his 
 head to his chin. The English, like the Philistines of old, 
 fled ; the Scots pursued ; Robert by a stratagem threw them 
 into confusion ; the carnage was great ; and Edward narrow- 
 ly escaped, by taking refuge in Dunbar castle ; from thence 
 he sailed into England. Robert pursued, entered England, 
 ravaged the northern counties, and tilled the kingdom with 
 the terror of his arms. 
 
 Robert sent an army under his brother to subdue Ireland, 
 and an insurrection at the same time broke out in Wales. 
 Edward, sensible of his own weakness, raised the earl of Lan- 
 caster to the head of the council, and consented to be gov- 
 erned by a minister. This excited jealousies and intrigues, 
 and threw the councils of the nation into disorder. 
 
 Here originated that system of ministerial government, 
 which has since proved so important to the English crown. 
 Edward, by his unguarded attachment to his favorite Spen- 
 cer, threw the nation into a civil war, which compelled the 
 king to banish his favorite, and insult the queen. 
 
 This roused Edward from his torpor ; he assembled his 
 forces ; took vengeance on Lancaster, who headed the fac- 
 tion ; executed, imprisoned, and drove into banishment all the 
 others ; confiscated their estates ; concluded a truce with 
 Scotland for thirteen years, and recalled Spencer. This in- 
 censed his queen; she retired to her brother, in France, 
 Charles the fair ; here she fell in with that Robert Mortimer, 
 who had escaped from the tower, when under sentence for 
 high treason ; and with the intrigues of Mortimer, and sev- 
 eral fugitive English barons, plotted the ruin of Edward. 
 
 The queen by a public declaration disclosed her resent- 
 ment against Spencer. The nobility supported her : she 
 landed in England ; Edward fled into Wales for safety, and 
 the favorite Spencer and his father were both sacrificed to 
 popular rage. The queen summoned a parliament ; Edward 
 was deposed ; the young prince, then fourteen years of age, 
 placed upon the throne, and the queen appointed regent. 
 
 Here stands a catalogue of crimes, too black to be record- 
 ed. But what shall we say, when we read that Edward soon 
 fell a sacrifice, and expired under the most barbarous, and 
 horrid murder, 1327. These scenes would add one more 
 shade to the crimes of the fifth century. 
 
142 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 Germany and Switzerland Italy France Knights Tem- 
 plars. 
 
 DURING these operations in England, Rodolph of Haps- 
 burg, who had obtained the imperial throne, (after the long 
 interregnum,) devoted himself to quiet the teuds, excesses, 
 and abuses which had sprung up in Germany ; acquitted him- 
 self successfully, and became very popular. He suffered 
 some disappointment in the loss of his son Rodolph, duke of 
 Suabia, and in failing in his attempt to procure the crown of 
 the Romans, for his eldest son Albert, whom he had made 
 duke of Austria ; and caused this duchy to be annexed to the 
 electoral college. This gave rise to the house of Austria, in 
 .12.82. 
 
 Although Rodolph's crown had been confirmed by Grego- 
 ry X. Italy had not yielded to his authority ; and when he 
 could not procure for his son Albert, the Iloman crown, he 
 endeavoured to console himself with aggrandizing the duchy 
 of Austria, and died in 1291 ; having done every thing in his 
 power for his country. 
 
 Adolphus of Nassau, was raised to the imperial throne, 
 1292. His injustice soon rendered him unpopular, and the 
 archbishop of Mentz, at the head of a faction, deposed him, 
 and raised Albert, duke of Austria, to the throne. 
 
 Albert drew his sword to maintain his claim ; and Adol- 
 phus advanced at the head of his army, to dispute* the prize. 
 They met near Rosendel, and an action ensued.* Adolphus, 
 in the heat of the action, espied his rival, put spurs to his 
 horse, advanced to the combat, and exclaimed : " Here you 
 shall resign me the empire, and your life." " Both," replied 
 Albert, " are in the hands of God ;" and struck his competi- 
 tor dead at his feet. Albert was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 1298. 
 
 Three German princes had refused to Albert their votes : 
 these soon became the tools of pope Boniface VIII.; but 
 w-ere brought to' submit upon political motives, and Boniface 
 obtained a concession from Albert, that " emperors and kings 
 derive their regal power from the pope." 
 
 During this reign, the oppressions of Albert through his 
 governors,-roused the spirit of the provinces of Switzerland ; 
 and when Grisler the governor, compelled William Tell to 
 
William Tell was condemned by Grisler, the tyrant gover- 
 nor of 7/7, to be hanged, unless he should be able to strike with 
 an arrow, an apple from his son's head. Being an excellent 
 marksman, he cleft it without injury to his son; but Grisler 
 perceiving another arrow under his cloke. asked him for what 
 purpose ll> at was intended. Tell replied, " it was intended for 
 thee if I had killed my son /" For this heroic answer he was 
 condemned to perpetual imprisonment. Both the extremes of 
 tyranny and oppression often become the causes of restoring 
 that liberty they were designed to destroy. 
 
SICILIAN VESPERS. 143 
 
 e oft' with his bow and arrow, an apple placed upon the 
 head of his son, to save his own life ; the nation were alive 
 at the outrage. Tell struck off the apple, and at the same 
 time discovered another arrow under his cloke, which he de- 
 clared was designed for the heart of Grisler, had he killed 
 his son. 
 
 Grisler in a rage, doomed him to perpetual imprisonment. 
 The Swiss rose, seized all the Austrian governors, conduct- 
 ed them safely to the frontier, made them swear never to 
 serve against Switzerland, dismissed them, and delivered 
 their country. 
 
 Albert attempted to march to the subjection of Switzer- 
 land, but his career was arrested by his nephew John, who 
 stabbed him on his way, in presence of all his court. The 
 enterprize was abandoned, and the liberties of Switzerland 
 were preserved. 
 
 In the year 1309 Henry count of Luxemberg was elected 
 emperor, crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle, and immediately turn- 
 ed his attention to Italy, which had been neglected during the 
 long feuds and interregnums of Germany. Here the factions 
 of the Guelphs and Ghibelines raged without mercy, and 
 rendered both parties the subjects of indiscriminate butchery, 
 without feeling or remorse. 
 
 The old quarrels of emperors and popes, were now lost in 
 the strife of factions, and the pope, Clement V. no longer 
 safe in Rome, took shelter in France for several years. 
 
 Sicily was relieved from the French, by the massacre of 
 the Sicilian Vespers, and the house of Arragon seized on the 
 Island. The same spirit of intrigue, faction, cruelty and 
 blood raged throughout Italy, and rendered it an aceldama. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes of wretchedness and distress, 
 Henry appeared, and caused himself to be crowned king of 
 Lombardy, by a new iron crown, in place of the old one 
 which they had removed. Henry marched through the 
 cities of Italy, received their submission, and repaired to 
 Rome, where he humbled the factions with his sword, and 
 was crowned by the cardinals. 
 
 Henry proceeded to appoint a Roman governor, and levy 
 a tax upon the cites of Italy, " when he was taken off by 
 poison, given him in the consecrated wine of the sacrament, 
 by a Dominican friar, 1313." At this time the knights of 
 the teutonic order seized on Dantzic, and purchavfed Pome- 
 ania of the duke of Brandenburg. 
 
144 STATES' GENERAL OF FRANCE. 
 
 France, at this time under Philip III. had been involved i 
 a war to secure the crown of Sicily for his uncle Charles, 
 who had been expelled by means of the massacre of the Si- 
 cilian Vespers, 1282. This event took place in consequence 
 of an insult offered by a Frenchman to a young Sicilian bride, 
 as she passed with her nuptial train near the city of Palermo. 
 '1 he populace who hated the French, resented the affront ; 
 and a young Sicilian, fired with indignation, killed the offender* 
 
 The people assembled, a conflict began, butchery ensued ; 
 the populace enraged, took vengeance on the offenders, cry- 
 ing " kill the French, kill the French." A general butchery 
 followed, without regard to either age or sex, until 
 French person was exterminated from Palermo. The rage 
 then became general, until the massacre extended through- 
 out the island ; even the sanctuaries of religion were viola- 
 ted, and the priests butchered all the French penitents. 
 
 Philip III. attempted by his intrigues with the pope, to se 
 cure the crown of Sicily to his own family, amidst these con- 
 flicting passions ; but failed, and the adventure terminated 
 the ruin of the parties, the death of Charles, the ex-king o 
 Sicily, the ruin of his fleet, the capture of his son, and the 
 death of Philip III. 
 
 Philip IV. (his son) styled the fair, succeeded to the throne. 
 He began to form the government of France upon the English 
 plan, under Edward I. with the three estates, which form 
 an important epoch in the annals of France. Philip compos 
 ed the feuds of his kingdom, by the mediation of Edward I. 
 of England, and paid him, by supporting the Scotch rebellion 
 with open war. 
 
 Philip adopted the measures ot Edward I. by exacting sup- 
 plies from the rich clergy for the support of the crown. 
 Boniface VIII. put his veto upon ecclesiastical revenues be- 
 ing applied to the support of princes, by. his special bull ; 
 and the parties were at issue. 
 
 Boniface sent the bishop of Pamiers to Paris, to denounce 
 Philip, and interdict his kingdom, if he did not desist fro 
 his purpose. , Philip delivered him over to ecclesiastical 
 censure and confinement, under the power of the archbishop 
 ofNarbonne. 
 
 Boniface came out with a bull declaring, " that the vicar 
 of Christ, is vested with full authority over the kings and 
 kingdoms of the earth." The clergy of France were sum- 
 moned to Rome. Philip ordered the bull to be burnt, and 
 
 
KNIGHTS TEMPLARS. 145 
 
 the clergy not to leave the kingdom. Many, however, 
 obeyed the mandate of the pope, and Philip confiscated their 
 estates. He then summoned his parliament (which for the 
 first time, admitted the representatives of cities,) they set the 
 bull at defiance, and supported the king. 
 
 Here was the origin of the assembly of the states' general 
 in France ; here Philip found himself supported by the na- 
 tion, and set the pope at defiance. The affair ended in the 
 disgrace and death of Boniface, who was succeeded by Ben- 
 edict IX. He attempted, by mild and equitable measures, 
 to heal the divisions of the church, and was poisoned for the 
 good he attempted to do. Clement V. succeeded to the chair. 
 He was a Frenchman, and took up his residence in France. 
 
 Under the sanction of this pope, Philip undertook to abol- 
 ish the order of knights templars in France. This body of 
 men were associated into a religious society of knighthood, 
 in the time of the crusades, amongst the most distinguished 
 champions of the cross. At this time they were numerous 
 in France ; rich, and passed their lives in ease, and elegant 
 amusements, as gentlemen of France. 
 
 Philip denounced the order, doomed them all to imprison- 
 ment, throughout France, in one day, and published the most 
 daring accusations against them. To support these accusa- 
 tions, he put them to the rack, to extort confessions of their 
 guilt. Some denied the charges, and died with firmness : 
 some, through weakness, confessed whatever they were 
 charged with ; others declared the absurdity of such proceed- 
 ings, and plead the religion, zeal, and gallant exploits which 
 had so long rendered their order illustrious ; but all without 
 effect. They were rich : lived at ease ; and their destruc- 
 tion was sealed. This vindictive persecution was pursued, 
 until the rack, the scaffold, and the flames ; exterminated the 
 templars in France ; and Philip confiscated their estates. 
 
 Clement V.yet in France, assembled a council at Vienna, 
 abolished the whole order, and thus by the plenitude of hi.-* 
 power confirmed their ruin, in 1312. This bull of the pope 
 led to the same violence against the templars throughout Eu- 
 rope. They were thrown into prison, sacrificed and plun- 
 dered, and their estates confiscated. Philip soon sunk under 
 the weight of such acctimulatod guilt and distress ; Immm-b- 
 ed with a consumption, and died in the forty-seventh ; 
 I; is n!>;c, A. D. 1314. 
 
 Philip wns eucceed'^d !>v his son Lewi? X. Avaric 
 13 
 
146 EL WARD III. 
 
 cruelty, with some rmbition, were the characteristics of his 
 reign, and he died in 1316. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 France and thi Salic Law England and Scotland Englam 
 and France Battle of Cressy. 
 
 THE momentary appearance of a female succession, in an 
 infant daughter of Lewis X. was sufficent to call the attentioi 
 of the French nation to the Salic law, which excluded all fe- 
 males from the throne of France. This supposed law, was 
 found to exist only in usage, or custom, borrowed from the 
 Salian tribe, who dwelt in Gaul when Pharamond came over 
 the Rhine with his Franks. This usage, amongst those 
 barbarians, so essential to their safety and peace in that 
 barbarous age, was adopted into the government of the 
 Franks, and continues to be the usage of France. In defect 
 nt' mule issue, Philip de Valois, cousin of Lewis, succeeded to 
 the throne, 1328. 
 
 This dispute in France, opened a field for the talents of 
 Edward III. king of England. When Edward had caused 
 the persecutions which were carried on by earl Mortimer, 
 and the queen mother, against the earl of Kent, and the earl 
 of Lancaster, to he suppressed, by giving up Mortimer to the 
 vengeance of an incensed nobility, and the queen to the judg- 
 ment of his parliament ; he gave his attention to those abus- 
 es which had arisen out of the murder of his father. He is- 
 sued orders to the judges, to cause the laws to be executed 
 upon all criminals, of whatever class, or distinction. Ho 
 soon suppressed the murderous depredations of the barons ; 
 urid the ministers of justice, by their vigilance and rigid exe- 
 cution of the laws, restored the public order and tranquillity. 
 
 Under this prosperous state of affairs, Edward turned Ins 
 attention to the rebellious Scots. The renowned Bruce. --. h<; 
 had recovered the. liberties oi his country by his treaty with 
 earl Mortimer, as regent, was now dead, and the crown ws 
 in the hands of Randolph, earl of Murray, as a regent for 
 David, the son of Bruce, then a minor. 
 
 Edward Baliol, (son of John Baliol, the former competitor 
 of the former Robert Bruce,) was now immured in a Fjvin-h 
 
AFFAIRS OF SCOTLAND. 1-1 7 
 
 . by a suit of lord Beaumont, a baron of England, upon 
 a contested claim in Scotland. Many other English noble- 
 men were in the same condition with Baliol. 
 
 These all made application to Edward III. to assist them 
 in the recovery of their liberties and estates. Edward en- 
 couraged, what he considered unwise openly to avow ; Bali- 
 ol was released from confinement, together with the other 
 English nobles ; revived his claims to the crown of Scotland, 
 assembled a force of about three thousand men, and with his 
 adherents, landed in Scotland. Bruce, the victorious, was 
 gone ; the earl of Murray was gone ; and lord Douglas was 
 on a crusade in Spain against the Moors. 
 
 Baliol availed himself of this state of affairs, attacked the 
 earl of Mar, (who was ready to receive him, with forty 
 thousand men ;} routed, and put to flight his army with 
 great slaughter ; followed his victory into the heart of Scot- 
 land, took Perth, and arrived at Scone, where he was crown- 
 ed ; thus Scotland was subdued with an army of three thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 The good fortune of king Baliol caused his ruin ; he, for 
 some unwise purpose, dismissed his English followers, and in 
 this weak situation Lord Douglas surprised him by a sudden 
 attack, routed and dispersed his army, slew his brother, and 
 pursued him into England, a fugitive in distress. 
 
 Edward could no longer conceal what it now became his 
 interest to support ; he yielded to the overtures of king Bali- 
 ol, raised an army, and entered Scotland to restore the king. 
 The two armies met at Haledown-Hill, a desperate action 
 was fought, thirty-one thousand Scots were slain, the nobility 
 were all destroyed or taken, a parliament was assembled, 
 Baliol restored to the throne, the superiority again acknowl- 
 edged, and Edward received the fealty of Scotland, 1334. In 
 two years the Scots rebelled, expelled Baliol, recovered 
 their liberties, set Edward and his army at defiance, and the 
 intrigues of France supported their claims. 
 
 This interference of France kindled a resentment in the 
 breast of Edward, and he resolved to remove this opposition 
 by putting in his claim to the contested crown of France. 
 During this paper controversy of claims, Robert de Artois, 
 brother-in-law to Philip VI. a valiant Prince, fled from the 
 persecutions of Philip, andtook refuge at the court of Edward. 
 
 The address of II olv.t to Edward was, " I made Philip 
 V 1. king of Franco, and with your assistance I will depo?r 
 
148 
 
 EJT6LAND ANB 
 
 him for his ingratitude." This language gratified the resent- 
 ment of Edward, and the field of controversy was now open, 
 that field of controversy, which kindled a train of passions 
 that have never been extinguished, and which can never be 
 extinguished, so long as the independence of the two nations 
 shall continue to exist. 
 
 The predecessors of Philip VI. had excited a jealousy ii 
 the low countries (or Flanders) towards the French, and the 
 ambition of Philip the fair had fanned the flame here Ed- 
 ward turned his attention for alliance and support in the We 
 he contemplated against France. 
 
 las first object was to find a demagouge whom he coul< 
 attach to his interest, arid who could unite the Flemings in 
 his cause ; such a man he soon found in James D'Arteville, 
 a brewer of Ghent. This was the most popular and influen- 
 tial man in Flanders, who was ready to throw all his influence 
 into the scale of the king of England. 
 
 Edward who had secured the support of his father-in-lan 
 the duke of Hainault, the duke of Brabant, the archbishop oi 
 Cologne, the duke of Guelder, the marquis of Juliers, an< 
 the count of Namar, had opened the way for his future move- 
 ments, and was ready to put all his vast plans and prepara- 
 tions into operation. 
 
 Edward embarked a body of troops, repaired to Flanders. 
 set up his claim to the crown of France, and the allies wit) 
 D'Arteville, and his Flemings were ready to support hi< 
 claims. Philip was prepared, and the campaign in Flanders 
 was opened ; long and intriguing conferences wasted the 
 season, the armies remained inactive, and little vftis done. 
 Edward, distressed for money and supplies, abandoned hi: 
 enterprise, and returned to England. 
 
 The next season opened the theatre of war upon the wa- 
 fer. Edward, with a powerful fleet, obtained a signal victon 
 ever the French, took and destroyed one hundred and thirtj 
 ships, and killed thirty theusand men. Both admirals fell 
 in the engagement. 
 
 Flushed with the splendor of this victory, Edward agaii 
 assembled an army, embarked for Flanders, joined the allies 
 as before, and began his operations, by invading the frontiei 
 of France, at the head of more than one hundred thousam 
 men. 
 
 Philip acted the Fabius, declined the combat, and left Ed- 
 ward the employment of wasting the campaign in fruitles 
 
.;OUNTE3S OF MOUNTFORT. 
 
 sieges. Edward, tired ofthis warfare, and impatient to end 
 a war he was in no situation to prolong, fur the want of mon- 
 ey, sent a challenge to Philip to decide their claims by single 
 combat. Philip replied " It does not become a vassal 'o 
 challenge his liege lord," (referring to Edward's homage for 
 Guienne in France.) This was conclusive, and a truce was 
 concluded for one year, 1340. 
 
 This truce opened the way for a new scene which brought 
 into view the splendid talents of the countess of Mountfort. 
 The count of Mountfort seized on the duchy of Brittany, in 
 exclusion to Charles of Blois, brother of Philip VI. repaired 
 to the court of Edward, and negociated an alliance, by 
 offering to do homage to Edward for Brittany, as king of 
 France. The terms were soon settled, and the parties pre- 
 pared for action ; the count was taken prisoner soon after, 
 and the countess stepped in and assumed the defence. Fired 
 with indignation for the wrongs of her husband, she viewed 
 in person all the fortresses of defence, supplied and animat- 
 ed the garrisons, and waited at Hennebone the succours of 
 Edward. 
 
 Charles entered the duchy, laid siege to Hennebone, de- 
 termined to secure the/duchess before the succours of Edwa: d 
 could arrive ; the prize was the duchy of Brittany and the 
 countess of Mountfort, and the efforts of the siege were con- 
 ducted accordingly ; attacks ,vere frequent, sharp, and even 
 desperate and bloody ; the defence was rendered desperate 
 by the all-commanding presence of the countess, a breach 
 was made in the walls, the conflict became still more despe- 
 rrison were weakened by their repeated conflicts 
 aiid losses, despair began to seize on the citizens, and the 
 countess ascended her tower once more, to take a view of 
 that sea, from which she had so often looked in vain for Ed- 
 ward her deliverer. 
 
 She discovered the fleet; Edward had sent Sir Walter 
 '"am.'/ to the relief of the countess, his fleet entered the har- 
 l>or, h-nuled his troops, joined the besieged, made a desperate 
 ally, drove Charles from his camp, and satfed the town. 
 
 Tine war now raged with fresh violence ; Charles redou 
 led his efforts ; Sir Walter did valiantl'y, with inferior num 
 : >era ; Edward sent over -a reinforcement under Robert of 
 \rtois; Robert was slain, Edward then went in person, o 
 -race v/as concluded for three years j and the countess heir 1 
 possession of BriUanv, 1343, 
 13* 
 
150 BATTLE OF CRESSY. 
 
 The parliament of England now became useful to the 
 crown : they entered with spirit into the war, granted liber- 
 al supplies, and by their zeal, Edward invaded Normandy 
 the next year, to recover the possessions of his ancestors. 
 This enterprize was successful in Normandy, and led Ed- 
 ward to the gates of Paris; but Philip, at the head of one 
 hundred thousand men, compelled Edward to retire towards 
 Flanders. His situation now became critical : the river 
 Somme obstructed his march, and covered the position of 
 De Fay, at the head of a powerful army, who had destroyed 
 the bridges. 
 
 Pressed on his front and rear by two such powerful ar- 
 mies in the heart of France, Edward saw that safety de- 
 pended on immediate action. He drew his sword at the 
 head of his army, plunged into the river, like the hero of 
 Macedon, at the Grannicus, attacked De Fay, drove him 
 from his position, and recovered the plains, at the critical 
 moment when Philip came up with his whole army. Ed- 
 ward was delivered ! 
 
 That tide, which at its ebb had opened a passage for the 
 English nrmy, now by its return, obstructed the French. So 
 critical are the operations of war. Edward, resolved to 
 avail himself of his successes, and turn the ardor of his troops 
 1o his best advantage ; took a position near Cressy, and wait- 
 ed the approach of Philip. 
 
 Philip advanced ; the onset commenced at 3 o'clock the 
 conflict was general, desperate and bloody. Edward was 
 victorious Philip fled Edward pursued, and the carnage 
 was terrible : forty thousand French strewed the plains of 
 Cressy, and night only, saved Philip and his army from total 
 ruin, August 26th, 1346. The young prince Edward, dis- 
 tinguished himself in the action, and shewed that he was wor- 
 thy of his sire. Here was the first trial of cannon in the wars 
 f>f Europe : Edward supported itis line by four pieces of iron 
 cannon. Edward left Philip to pursue his flight, drew offEis 
 army, and invested Calais. 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 England and Scotland general plague invasion of France 
 d the black Prince 'battle ofPoictiers ci'tz? w 
 
QUEEN PHILIPPA. 151 
 
 of France Edward the Black Prince renews the war with 
 France peace and conditions. 
 
 PHILIP VI. by his intrigues, excited a war in Scotland, in 
 order to weaken Edward, and cramp his ambitious plans 
 against France. For this purpose David Bruce, (descend- 
 ant of the great Robert,) who had been seated upon the 
 throne of Scotland, assembled an army, and entered England 
 victorious. 
 
 England was now doubly armed Edward was in France, 
 contending for the crown of that kingdom, which perpetuates 
 the custom of the Salian tribe, and deems woman unfit to 
 rule. Edward's queen, Philippa, was in England, to support 
 the royal power, and secure the peace of the realm. 
 
 Fired with just indignation at the daring invasion of Da- 
 vid, Philippa put herself at the head of twelve thousand men, 
 and marched out to meet the marauder an action commenc- 
 ed ; the Scots were overthrown with great slaughter ; fif- 
 teen thousand fell in the action, with their principal chiefs ; 
 David, and his nobility were taken ; England was delivered, 
 and Philippa triumphant Oct. 17, 1346. 
 
 This signal exploit, at this critical moment, was a severe 
 philippic upon the Salic law, and might have taught France 
 that woman could rule. Philippa secured her royal prison- 
 er, set sail for France, and joined Edward before Calais. The 
 siege was pushed with vigor, and in twelve months, Calais 
 added one more trophy to the successes of Edward. 
 
 Pope Clement VI. sent his legate as a mediator between 
 the parties : a truce was settled, Calais was confirmed to Ed- 
 ward, and he returned to England, 1348. 
 
 The successes of Edward, and queen Philippa, kindled a 
 spirit of -ambition and emulation, in the court of Edward, un- 
 known before in England. Chivalry and gallantry, temper- 
 ed with English manners, gave a lustre to the English, unri- 
 valled, if not unknown, in Europe : and amidst the festivity 
 of these scenes, an incident, innocent and trifling in itself, 
 gave rise to this memorable motto. " Honi soit qui mal y 
 pense :" (evil to him that evil thinks.) This motto with its 
 incident, occasioned the order of the garter, by Edward, 1350. 
 
 Amidst the excesses of the passions of this age, God visit- 
 ed the earth with his judgments, by pestilence, as well as by 
 the sword. A general plague prevailed throughout Asia, 
 Africa,, and Europe, and swept off about one third of the 
 
152 GENERAL PLAGUE, 
 
 ition 
 
 whole family of man. Wars were suspended : dissipation 
 was changed into gloom ; and the whole earth became one 
 great hospital of the sick, the dying, arid the dead. Fifty 
 thousand fell a sacrifice in the single city of London. 
 
 Philip the VI. died, and left his throne to his son John III. 
 1350. During this reign, a civil war raged in France, head- 
 ed hy Charles, king of Navarre, surnamed the bad. This 
 appellation was the more forcibly true, when contrasted with 
 the good qualities of John. Charles sprang from Lewis X. 
 by the mother's side, and laid claim to the crown of France. 
 He made court to Edward III. ; excited Charles, the eldest 
 son of John II. to favour his plans ; and filled France with 
 his intrigues. In the midst of these scenes, Charles repented 
 of his folly, and did penance, by delivering the king of Na- 
 varre, and other nobles of his party into the hands of his fath- 
 er John, who delivered them up to execution, and imprisoned 
 the king of Navarre. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, the truce with Edward at Ca- 
 lais was closed, and war was renewed. The prince of Wales, 
 who had signalized himself at the battle of Cressy, took the 
 field, and penetrated, like his father, into the heart of 
 France, at-the head of only twelve thousand men. John as- 
 sembled sixty thousand, took the field, and met the prince 
 near Poictiers ; Edward, with his little army were immedi- 
 ately surrounded, and all hope of escape cut oif. 
 
 John, at the head of his superior army, was too impatient 
 to wait the regular fall of the prince, by a want of supplies ; 
 but drew his sword, and advanced to the conflict, determin- 
 ed to reduce him at a blow. Edward was ready the crisis 
 was desperate, and the conflict terrible ; the English receiv- 
 ed the shock with firmness ; the Frenclr were charged in 
 their turn, broken, routed, and fled ; the carnage was great, 
 and John a prisoner. Edward received the captirf- ki; ; 
 with great dignity, and complacency, and gave God the 
 praise, Sept. 19, 1356. 
 
 Edward, styled the black prince, (from the colour of hb 
 armour,) concluded a truce of two years, and conducted tre 
 captive icing to "England, where he continued to discover the 
 same greatness of soul, in -his amiable and dignified depoif- 
 mentto king John, and rendered his residence in Engla* ' 
 such as became a king. David, king of Scotland, w:;? at this 
 time the companion oJ \\i-?. king of France hi capt'vi' 
 land. 
 
CIVIL WAR IN FRANCE. 153 
 
 The affairs of France were now become desperate. 
 Charles, the dauphin prince, (so styled from the province of 
 Dauphiny'g being annexed to the crown, like the principality 
 of Wales in England,) assumed the reins of government in 
 the absence of his father, and to provide supplies for the 
 support of the crown, had recourse to his states' general, 
 after the manner of Edward III. of England ; but not with the 
 same success. They met him ; but with demands to redress 
 their own grievances, and to deliver the king of Navarre, 
 (Charles the bad.) 
 
 Marcel, provost of Paris, espoused the cause of the assem- 
 bly, put himself at the head of the populace of Paris, mur- 
 dered all the great mareschals of France, in the presence of 
 the dauphin, threatened all the court, and held the dauphin 
 under their control ; Charles withdrew, and they levied 
 open war. 
 
 All France took the alarm, flew to arms, and assumed the 
 government ; the days of the fifth century were renewed ; 
 anarchy, rapine, desolation, and carnage, ravaged France. 
 The war of peasants against the Nobles, or more extensive- 
 ly, the poor against the rich, filled France with every des- 
 cription of cruelty, and unhallowed barbarity ; neither age 
 nor sex were spared ; the castles of the nobles were pillaged, 
 sacked, and destroyed, their proprietors hunted like wild 
 beasts of the forest, and France filled with excesses too 
 shocking to relate. 
 
 The tocsin of the late revolution, marked then, the title 
 page of this first revolutionary volume : " Peace with the 
 cWttage, war with the palace." Nine thousand of these un- 
 hallowed sons of rapine, burst into the city ofMeaux, where 
 the princess of the Dauphin, the duchess ofOrleans, and more 
 than three hundred other ladies of distinction had taken 
 shelter. Chivalry armed with the protecting sword of the 
 illustrious Count-de-Foix, the Captal de Buche, with sixty 
 other knights, flew to their relief, and by their desperate 
 valor drove off the boors, protected defenceless innocence, 
 and added one more illustrious example, that chivalry was 
 the protector of chastity and virtue. 
 
 During these scenes, Charles, king of Navarre, made his 
 escape, set up his claim to the crown of France, and became 
 the head of the banditti. The death of Marcel distracted the 
 mob of Paris, and they began to feel the pressure of distress, 
 and turned their attention to the dauphin to restore tranquil- 
 lity. 
 
154 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 This change in the capital, became general ; arid order 
 was restored to France, as far as the situation of the nation 
 under their distresses, could be capable of enjoying order ; 
 away was at least prepared for the restoration of so desirable 
 an event. The truce of the Black Prince was now ended, 
 and he again entered France in the midst of that calm, which 
 had just opened the eyes of the nation to a sense of those 
 scenes of rapine and desolation which had filled the whole 
 kingdom with wretchedness. 
 
 He commenced his operations by ravaging arid pillaging 
 their country, and levying contributions upon their towns, 
 until desolation itself, compelled him to conclude a peace ; 
 stipulate for the ransom of John II. at three million crowns in 
 gold ; renounce all claims upon Normandy, and the other 
 provinces, claimed or owned by England, in exchange for the 
 provinces of Poictou, Xaintonge, le Angenois, and six oth- 
 ers ; together with Guienne and Calais, which were to be- 
 long to the crown of England ; and France renounced all 
 feudal claims of homage, &c. King John returned to France ; 
 but when insurmountable obstacles obstructed the execution 
 of this treaty, he broke through his opposing court, repaired 
 to London to negociate for the removal of difficulties, took 
 up his old lodgings, sickened and died, 1364. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Particular remarks affairs of France and Spain 
 Prince renews the war with France battle of the champions 
 Germany and Italy. 
 
 In the events of the last chapter, we. have seen what could 
 be done by a king of England, like Edward III. who knew 
 how to improve to advantage, the powers which his crown 
 derived from the union of the three estates in his govern- 
 ment, and wha,t force a well balanced liberty could give to 
 the energies of his sword. We have seen an example of 
 'ohn II. king of France, or rather the dauphin, in his ab- 
 & .r,p, could not do, for the want of such a free government ; 
 and what the licentiousness of despotism, when transferred 
 firm the throne to the populace, did do. Permit me to add 
 we have in our own times witnessed the second volume of 
 
AFFAIRS OF SPAIN. 155 
 
 the same scenes, arising from the same source, and upon the 
 same theatre of action. The choice is left open to the world. 
 
 Charles V. succeededto the throne of his father, at a peri- 
 od, perhaps, of all others the most difficult ; his resources 
 were so exhausted, that he held but the shadow of power ; 
 the king of Navarre was yet in arms ; forty thousand English 
 adventurers of the sword, had taken possession of the newly 
 acquired provinces, and threatened the peace of the kingdom. 
 
 In the midst of this pressing state of things, Peter the I. 
 succeeded to the throne of his father Alphonso XI. king of 
 Spain, and was acting over in Spain, a tragedy, much like 
 the late tragedy in France, in the reign of John II. Count 
 Trastamafa, brother of Peter, fled into France for safety and 
 succor, and made application to the king. Charles embra- 
 ced the favorable moment ; met his request, by a permission 
 for count Henry, to enlist those formidable knights of the 
 sword, who had formed themselves into bodies, styled com- 
 panies, or companions. These readily embraced the offers 
 of Henry, entered into his service under one Du Guesclin, 
 and assembled at Avignon : here they demanded of Pope 
 Innocent VI. (who resided in France during the long feuds 
 of Italy,) absolution from that bull he had thundered against 
 them, and their horrid barbarities ; together with a sum of 
 two hundred thousand livres. Innocent hesitated : to pardon 
 for money, was orthodox ; but to pardon, and pay money, 
 was an alarming innovation Du Guesclin added ; " My fel- 
 lows, I believe, can make a shift to do without your absolu- 
 tion ; but this money is absolutely necessary." Hisholiness 
 levied this sum upon the people, and paid the demands of 
 Du Guesclin. 
 
 The bandit shrunk from the act, and exclaimed ; " It is 
 not my purpose to oppress the innocent people : the pope 
 and cardinals can spare me double the sum from their own 
 coffers ; I therefore insist, that this money be restored to the 
 owners ; and if I hear that they are defrauded of it, I will re- 
 turn over the Pyrenees, and oblige you to make them resti- 
 tution." Innocent obeyed, and paid the money. 
 
 The enterprise in Spain proved successful ; Peter was 
 driven from his throne, fled into France, and took refuge at 
 the court of Edward the black prince, inGuiennc. Edward 
 espoused his cause, recalled the English troops under Du 
 Giiesclin, put himself at the head of thirty thousand men, 
 entered Sp.-nn, met Henry with an army of one hundred 
 
156 DLATH OF EDWARD III. 
 
 thousand men upon the banks of the Ebro, near Najara ; an 
 action commenced, Edward was victorious twenty thousand 
 French and Spaniards strewed the field of the dead ; Du 
 Guesclin was taken prisoner, and all Castile submitted to 
 Edward, who restored Peter to his throne, and returned to 
 Guienne. 
 
 This successful expedition ruined the prince. Peter re- 
 fused to pay according to stipulation ; the debts of Edward 
 cramped his affairs, and constrained him to levy upon his 
 subjects ; they complained to the king of France ; he cited 
 Edward to appear at Paris, and justify his conduct towards 
 his vassals. Edward obeyed, not the summons of Charles, 
 but of his own resentment ; put himself at the head of his 
 army, and took the field ; war commenced, and raged ; Ed- 
 ward's health declined, and his affairs declined, until he feil 
 a sacrifice to his disease, and with his death, the possessions 
 of England soon returned back to the crown of France, ex- 
 cepting Bordeaux, Bayonne,and Calais. 
 
 At this time the gallantries of Edward III. had weakene 
 his government, and rendered it necessary to confer th 
 crown upon his son, the duke of Lancaster. He survive 
 his son one year, and died in the sixty-fifth year of his age 
 1377. His name will ever live. 
 
 During these struggles in France and Spain, arid the Ion 
 and prosperous reign of Edward III. in England, a furiou 
 civil war raged in Germany, to supply the succession, afte 
 the interregnum, which followed the death of Henry Vll 
 Frederic, duke of Bavaria, and Lewis, duke of Austria, wer 
 the competitors in this controversy. In the midst of thi 
 war, two champions agreed to select fifteen from each party 
 and decide the claims of the competitors by combat. Th 
 champions met accordingly near Muldorf, the conflict was ii 
 the presence of both armies, and the rencounter so'desperate 
 that every man fell ; not one was spared. Both armies rush 
 ed to the combat ; the conflict was terrible ; Frederic wa. 
 routed, and retired from the field : he soon recovered the 
 blow, and entered Bavaria to take vengeance on bis rival ; Lew 
 is appeared with a powerful army, a battle was fought near Vc 
 r hi vis ; Frederic was taken prisoner, his army dispersed, an< 
 Lewis bore away the palm, and wore the imperial crown. 
 
 During these struggles in Germany, Austria had made onr 
 great effort to humble the Swiss : but the famous battle o 
 Mogurd defeated the Austiians, and established the libertic. 
 oif Switzerland, 
 
COUNCIL OF FRANKFORT. 157 
 
 Lewis V. maintained a controversy with pope John XXII. 
 and marched into Italy, deposed John, and created Nicholas 
 V. Upon his return into Germany, John was restored, Nich- 
 olas deposed, carried to Avignon with a rope about his neck, 
 constrained to do penance for his temerity, thrown into pri- 
 son, and died, 1330. 
 
 During this controversy, John died, and Benedict XII. was 
 raised to the chair ; he -renewed or confirmed the bulls of 
 John. This, together with a war with the duke of Austria in 
 support of his son, the margrave of Brandenburg, found em- 
 ployment for this year. In the memorable year 1338, the 
 princes of the empire, civil and ecclesiastical, assembled at 
 Frankfort, with a determination to put a final close to the in- 
 fluence of the popes in the councils of Germany, and stop 
 the effusion of blood in these civil wars. 
 
 They established irrevocably the following constitution : 
 " that the plurality of suffrages of the electoral college, con- 
 fers the empire, without the consent or the holy see ; that 
 the pope has no superiority over the emperor of Germany, 
 nor any right to approve or reject his election ; and that to 
 maintain the contrary is high treason." They also declared 
 the elector Palatine of the Rhine, to be vested with the gov- 
 ernment during an interregnum. 
 
 During this time, Benedict XII. died, and was succeeded 
 by Clement VI. a native of France, where he then resided. 
 Clement confirmed all the bulls of Benedict and John against 
 Lewis the V. ; but without effect. He then came out with 
 what he considered as his great bull of terror, which was to 
 palsy the power of Lewis, and this was the style : " May the 
 wrath of God, of St. Peter and St. Paul crush him in this 
 world and the next : may the earth open and swallow him 
 up alive ; may his mercy perish, and all the elements be his 
 enemies ; may his children fall into the hands of his adver- 
 saries, even in the sight of their father." 
 
 Clement issued a new bull of election ; it failed in part, but 
 was the means of electing Charles IV. margrave of Moravia, 
 king of the Romans, 1347. 
 
 During these struggles with the papacy, Nicholas Rienzi, a 
 private citizen of Rome, by his address, was proclaimed tri- 
 bune by the people, took possession of the capitol, and de- 
 clared all Italy free; he, like the Gracchi of old, fell a sa- 
 crifice to his termerity, and was murdered by t!i p-vtr 
 
 Charles IV. on his return to Germany, called a new diet at 
 14 
 
158 
 
 DIET AT NUREMBERG. 
 
 Nuremberg, to fix the imperial elections more definitely, thau 
 Was expressed by the diet of Frankfort. This diet framed, 
 and published the famous golden bull, which has quieted the 
 elections of the empire to this day. The style of this bull, 
 and the manner in which it was put into operation at the cor- 
 onation of Charles IV. are worthy of notice ; but such par- 
 ticulars exceed the limits of this work. Charles left the im- 
 perial crown to his son Winceslaus, in 1378. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 Affairs of England under Richard II. and Henry IV. Scotland 
 Germany) and the States of Italy council of Constance. 
 
 WE have noticed the successive steps in the government oi 
 England to recover her liberties, and the good effects they 
 have produced : we may now notice the distinction between 
 liberty and licentiousness ; mark the contrast, and learn to 
 revere that true system of government which is able to main- 
 tain and protect the pure principles of liberty, by the true 
 principles ofjustice, equity, and sound policy. 
 
 When Richard the II. of England, succeeded to the throne 
 of Edward III. his minority was supported by the weight of 
 character and influence of his three uncles, the dukes oi 
 Lancaster, York and Gloucester, and the tranquillity of the 
 throne was secured. 
 
 The continental wars of Edward, had exhausted his funds, 
 and ent niled upon Richard, not only poverty, but the neces- 
 sity of devising an expedient to replenish his treasury. This 
 might have been effected by a resort to his parliament, after 
 the manner of Edward, but this was overlooked, and he had 
 recourse to a direct tax of three groats upon the head of each 
 person, male and female, over sixteen years of age, called 
 the poll tax. This threw the nation into a ferment, raised 
 the clamour of inequality and injustice, set men to weigh 
 each other in tne balance of equality, then of liberty, and led 
 the vassal to say, that if his head was taxed as much as his 
 lord's he was as good as his lord. The passions of the nation 
 were roused ; and a single incident between a tax-gatherer 
 and a young woman, kindled the fire into a flame ; and the 
 nation, as one great mob, flew to arms. 
 
WAT TYLER'S MOB. 15$ 
 
 0)ne hundred thousand men invested London, under Wat 
 Tyler their leader, and demanded a conference with the king, 
 who had taken refuge in the tower. A conference was at- 
 tempted, but the riotous multitude rendered this impractica- 
 ble ; and they broke into London, gave it up to pillage, and 
 murdered all the gentlemen they could find. 
 
 The king again attempted a conference, which was effect- 
 ed ; and they demanded abolition of slavery, free market 
 towns, and a fixed rent on lands, instead of services by ville- 
 nage. Those demands would have been instantly granted, 
 but Wat Tyler'became so insolent with his sword to the lord 
 mayor, that he struck him to the ground, where he was slain. 
 Great tumults arose, and the mob were about to take instant 
 vengeance upon the lord mayor, the king, and all his attend- 
 ants. Richard, then sixteen years of age, stepped out in 
 presence of the mob, and exclaimed, "I am your king, and 
 will become your leader ; follow me into the field, and you 
 shall have whatever you want." The mob was hushed, and 
 followed the king, he granted their demands, dismissed them 
 peaceably, and they repaired to their homes. 
 
 Thus, we see, how critical is the state of a nation, when 
 balancing between despotism and liberty, how much the 
 good of a government depends upon the wisdom of the prince, 
 and how feudal vassalage was abolished in England. 
 
 Richard II. was the sport of faction during his weak reign ; 
 he fell into^ the hands of the duke of Lancaster, who was 
 making ambitious attempts upon the crown, was exposed to 
 the insult and scorn of the nation, died, and was succeeded 
 by Lancaster, under the title of Henry IV. 1399. Henry, like 
 all other usurpers, laid the foundation of his throne in blood, 
 and paved the way for a religious persecution in England. 
 
 Wickliff, the first English reformer, who was educated at 
 Oxford, and from his character and learning, had been thought 
 worthy the society of Edward, when duke of Lancaster, now 
 began to attract attention. 
 
 The pure principles of liberty, which Wickliff drew from 
 the gospel, were deemed by Henry, incompatible with the 
 dignity of his crown; he cherished a bitterness which the 
 clergy harboured against Wickliff, and caused a law to be 
 passed, which consigned to the flames, all relapsed heretics. 
 This, as was intended, opened the way for the persecutions 
 of the faggot ; and William Sauture, a clergyman of London, 
 fell the first victim. 
 
160 
 
 BATTLE OF SMREWSBVRY. 
 
 These arbitrary measures, soon involved Henry in wars'. 
 An insurrection broke out in Wales, which gave him mucl 
 trouble ; another in Scotland, under Harry Percy, styled Hot- 
 spur : this war baffled the efforts of Henry through one cai 
 paign, and he returned to England. The next season he en- 
 tered Scotland with about twelve thousand men ; the two ar- 
 mies were equal r-they met near Shrewsbury ; here com- 
 menced one of the most desperate and bloody actions, foi 
 the number of combatants, ever witnessed. Henry, and hi? 
 son, prince of Wales, were engaged with desperate valour 
 Percy, lord Douglas, and other Scottish chiefs* met the con- 
 flict with equal bravery. Hotspur fell, and Edward prevail- 
 ed ; the carnage was terrible, more than two thousand gen- 
 tlemen fell in the conflict, the rebellion was quelled, ant 
 peace was restored without further sacrifice, in 1403. 
 
 The battle of Glendour quelled the rebellion in Wales, am 
 Henry was left to the quiet enjoyment of his crown, 1409. 
 This continued four years, when he fell a sacrifice to distres 
 sing fits, and died in the forty-sixth year of his age, in 1413. 
 
 Winceslaus, whom we left upon the throne of Germany, wt 
 soon embroiled in a quarrel between popes Urban VI. am 
 Clement III. who were contesting their claims to the chair, 
 with all the violence and bitterness of Italian wars. The em- 
 peror assembled a diet at Nuremberg, who resolved to pro- 
 tect Urban. The plague which raged in Bohemia, led th< 
 emperor to repair to Aix-la-Chapelle, where he remained bu- 
 ried in debauchery, while the war of the popes raged in Italy. 
 
 This war was heightened by the broils of Joan, ex-queei 
 of Naples, (noticed before in the distresses of that Island," 
 who fell a sacrifice to the rage of the parties, and left her clair 
 to the crown of Sicily in a labyrinth of controversy, 1393. 
 
 Urban triumphed over Clement, took Rome, and Clement 
 retired to France. Urban next seized upon the crown 
 Naples, and usurped the throne. 
 
 At this time, Margaret, queen of Denmark, seized on th( 
 kingdom of Sweden, to relieve the Swedes from the tyranny 
 of king Albert'; annexed Sweden to Denmark, and acquire< 
 the appellation of the Semiramis of the north, 1388. Durir 
 lihese struggles, Germany fell into disorder under the reign 
 the corrupt Winceslaus, who remained at Aix-la-Chapell( 
 where he caused his cook to be roasted, because he did n< 
 please him, and was deposed by the diet ofLaenstein, am 
 Frederic, duke of Brunswick, raised to the throne. Frederic 
 
OOVNCIL OF CONSTANCE. 161 
 
 was murdered, and Robert, count Palatine of the Rhine, was 
 elected emperor, 1399. 
 
 Robert attempted to quiet the wars of Italy by force ; but 
 the campaign was unsuccessful, and the duke of Milan acquir- 
 ed great power in Italy. At this time John Huss appeared 
 in Bohemia, embraced the principles of Wickliff, alarmed 
 the pope, and kindled a fire in the church. Gregory XII. 
 excommunicated Huss, he appealed to the Holy Trinity, and 
 claimed the privilege of making his defence before the uni- 
 versity of Prague. The church was now thrown into the 
 greatest confusion. 
 
 Two popes were at once in power. Gregory XII. assem- 
 bled a council at Aquilea, and invited several princes : Ben- 
 edict XIII. held a council in Catalonia : the cardinals convok- 
 ed a third at Pisa, and the emperor assembled a diet at Frank- 
 fort for the same purpose, and all was division and discord. 
 
 To lay the storm, the cardinals deposed both the popes, 
 and raised Alexander V. to the chair ; this added fuel to the 
 fire, and the schism raged afresh. Robert, the emperor, died 
 during this struggle, and Sigismund was raised to the imperi- 
 al throne, 1411. 
 
 Sigismund convoked a general council at Constance, un- 
 der the sanction of John XXII. who had succeeded pope 
 Alexander V. This was the most numerous, splendid, cor- 
 rupt council, ever known in Europe. 
 
 The first resolve of the fathers was, that the three popes 
 should all resign the chair ; John, who presided, at once com- 
 plied with this, (provided that the others should consent,) 
 amidst the acclamations of joy in the council ; but this was 
 of short duration, pope John repented, left the council, de- 
 clared it dissolved by his absence, and fled in disguise, 141.7 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 Affairs of Germany of England of France. 
 
 GOD, in his allwise providence, suffered the papal church 
 to make a full display of all her iniquities in the corruptions 
 which produced the famous council of Constance, to open 
 the way for the great events he was about to unfold for the 
 good of bis church. The council, after the departure of 
 14* 
 
162 HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 jU\d 
 
 pope John, proceeded to determine that no other pope should 
 be chosen without the consent of the council, and to exclude 
 John, Gregory, and Benedict from the chair. 
 
 John and Gregory yielded, and resigned ; but Benedict 
 stood out, and the emperor Sigismund made a special jour- 
 ney into Spain, attended by twelve deputies from the coun- 
 cil to obtain the influence of Ferdinand, king of Arragon, to 
 persuade Benedict to resign : the pope took refuge in the 
 castle of Paniscola, and defeated the embassy. 
 
 Ferdinand agreed with tjie emperor, by his deputies, that 
 ihe council should cite Benedict to appear at Constance, and 
 upon his refusal, proceed to choose another pope. During 
 the absence of the emperor, the council proceeded to try 
 Jerdme of Prague, an associate with John Hussin principles, 
 condemned, and burnt him at the stake ! He suffered with 
 great firmness. 
 
 Upon the return of the emperor, Benedict was deposed, 
 Martin V. elected, arid crowned with great pomp. The em- 
 peror, and the elector of Brandenburg, led a most magnifi- 
 cent white horse, on which sat the pope, Martin V. ; kings, 
 princes, with their ambassadors, and the fathers of the coun- 
 cil, graced the procession to the cathedral, where the triple 
 crown was placed upon the head of his holiness ; the same 
 solemnity graced his return. 
 
 The Hussites gave loose to their enthusiasm against the 
 Opposition of the church, which had excluded them from 
 their communion : they raised a mob, entered the town- 
 house, and murdered all the magistrates who had opposed 
 them. In the midst of these riots, Winceslaus died, and was 
 succeeded in Bohemia, by Sigismund the emperor. This re- 
 ligious war raged with great fury in Bohemia to the year \ 436, 
 when Sigismund laid the storm by a general amnesty, granted 
 ? he privileges of the sacrament, and they returned to 
 duty in triumph. 
 
 -mund led these subjects against the Turks in the year 
 where he died, and left the crown of Bohemia and 
 Hungary to Albtert, duke of Austria, his son in law : this es- 
 tablished the house of Austria upon the imperial throne, 1438. 
 This union formed a most important epoch in the history of 
 Europe. 
 
 During these feuds in Germany and Italy, Charles VI. had 
 taken possession of his throne of France, when he soon fell 
 into a state of frenzy, which attended him occasionally, and 
 
BATTLE OF AGINCOURT. 163 
 
 distracted his reign. Nothing worthy of notice appeared in 
 France ; the kingdom was given up to anarchy, licentious- 
 ness, and dissipation, in which the court took the lead. The 
 court of Henry IV. of England, kept pace with the court of 
 -France, until he died, and left the crown to his son, Henry 
 V. 1413. 
 
 The disciples of Wickliff had now become numerous in 
 England, under the denomination of Lollards, and were sup- 
 ported by Sir John Oldcastle, and fc>rd Cobham, noblemen of 
 distinction. The archbishop of Canterbury, alarmed for the 
 safety of the church, obtained the king's permission to sup- 
 press the sect of the Lollards, by an attack upon lord Cobham. 
 Henry complied ; the attack commenced, and the persecu- 
 tion raged until Cobham was executed, and the Lollards sup- 
 pressed. Henry then resolved to take advantage of the dis- 
 tracted state of France, assembled an army of thirty-six thou- 
 sand men, and landed at Harfleurin France, dismissed his 
 transports, and trusted to the valour of his sword. 
 
 Henry was met by a powerful French army of forty thou- 
 sand men, which checked his progress and compelled him to 
 retire towards Calais. In this retreat, he had occasion to 
 pass the river Somme, under circumstances very similar to 
 the passage of Edward III. The French, here, took post in 
 his rear, upon the plains of Agincourt, and checked his move- 
 ments : a battle was the only alternative. Henry aw his 
 army, reduced to half their numbers, by fatigues, skirmishing, 
 sickness and hunger, now in the presence of a French army, 
 of four times their numbers, headed by the dauphin, and the 
 best blood of the nation, full fed, and in high spirits. Henry 
 consoled himself with the battles of Cressy and Poictiers, (so 
 famous in English history,) took the same wise measures in 
 posting his army, and awaited the attack. The French, im- 
 patient for the victory ^ advanced to the attack with their usual 
 impetuosity ; the English received the shock with firmness, 
 and charged the French in their turn ; their ranks were brok- 
 en, thrown into disorder, and put to flight. Henry rushed 
 out of his camp at the head of his guards, and took vengeance 
 on the fugitives, with their battle-axes : a terrible slaughter 
 ensued ; the plain of Agincourt was covered with the wound- 
 ed, the dead, and the dying. The loss was very inconsider- 
 able to Henry, but ruinous to France. Henry returned to 
 England to recruit his army, and France was torn and distract- 
 ed with civil war. 
 
 The Duke of Burgundy attempted to seize on the crown, 
 
1G4 
 
 MARRIAGE F HENRY AND CATHERINE. 
 
 and through the extreme corruption of the French court, 
 tually engaged the queen mother, whilst regent to her sor 
 the dauphin, to favor his plans and promote his interest 
 Charles VI. at this time in a st;>te of frvnzy, was secured, th< 
 duke of Burgundy entered France with a powerful arm 
 seized the dauphin, and commenced a general butchery 
 his party and friends, burst open the prisons, and dragged foil 
 to indiscriminate slaughter, all the noblemen he could find. 
 
 In the midst of these^ scenes, Henry returned, and th( 
 pope's legate, at a conference, attempted to persuade him 
 withdraw, and leave the French to their fate, or conclude 
 peace. Henry urged his claims to the crown, and pleitd the 
 good he was about to do, in giving law to this distracted n; 
 tion. 
 
 At this time the duke of Burgundy was slain, and the queer 
 settled a treaty with the new duke agreed that Henry 
 should marry the princess Catherine, possess the throne 
 France as heir apparent, take the government as regent dui 
 ing the life of the king, Charles VI. and support the crcwj 
 by his arms. 
 
 Henry married Catherine the next day establishe< 
 Charles, his father, at Paris, settled the affairs of the kim 
 dom, lived to see an heir to the throne of France by his queei 
 sickened at Paris, sent for his principal confidents in Englanc 
 arranged his affairs, and died, leaving the regency of Franc< 
 to his" brother, the duke of Bedford, 1422. Charles VI, 
 the old king died soon, and the dauphin took the throne 
 Charles VII. and was crowned at Poictiers. 
 
 Catherine, the widow of Henry V. married Sir Owen Tu- 
 dor, a gentleman descended from the ancient princes of Wales 
 and bore him two sons, who became the earls of Richmom 
 and Pembroke : and who will claim our notice hereafter. 
 
 The duke of Bedford exerted himselfto support the Frencl 
 crown for the infant heir, Henry VI. and the dauphin, 
 Charles VII. made all possible efforts to recover his claims. 
 Here the parties were at issue. James I. was at this til 
 in prison in England, and the Scots shewed their resentmei 
 by supporting with their arms the cause of the daupLii 
 Charles VII. To obviate this, the English, agreeable to th< 
 advice of the regent, the duke of Bedford, entered into alli- 
 ance with James, and set him at liberty ; but he was sooi 
 murdered by his kinsman, the earl of Athol, 1437. 
 
 The duke regent overran France, and gained the battle 
 
MA1 OF ORLEANS. 165 
 
 Vernuil, which appeared to be ruinous to the cause of 
 Charles VII. but by a wonderful train of events, proved ruin- 
 ous to the cause of the regent, and occasioned the loss of all 
 the English possessions on the continent. The city of Or- 
 leans had now become the key of the contending parties, 
 and covered their divided provinces. Charles held posses- 
 sion, and the duke regent resolved to dispossess him ; all 
 Europe considered the fate of the kingdom to depend on the 
 siege of Orleans ; the contending parties exerted all their 
 valor and prowess upon both sides ; Charles VII. began to 
 despair, and actually made arrangements to withdraw into 
 Languedoc and Dauphiny, for the security of his army. 
 
 The kind remonstrance of his queen and other favourites 
 at court, diverted Charles from his purpose, and he resolved 
 to defend the city. At this critical moment, a very singular 
 adventure arrested the attention of Europe : Joan De Arc, a 
 country girl of the village of Domrimi, on the borders of 
 Lorrain, from a low and obscure station, was raised up as the 
 deliverer of the city of Orleans. 
 
 Joan announced that by immediate communications from 
 heaven, she had received a special commission to go, and re- 
 lieve the city. She went to the governor of the city of Vau- 
 couleurs, and obtained his permission to repair to the court 
 of Charles VII. atChinon ; there she w-\s favourably receiv- 
 ed, offered to execute the commission of heaven, and deliver 
 the city : and demanded a particular sword -in the church of 
 St. Catherine Fierbois. 
 
 After serious and mature deliberation, her request was 
 granted and the sword delivered. Joan, armed cap-a-pie, 
 and mounted on horseback, took her departure at the head of 
 a numerous retinue, and entered the city of Orleans, arrayed 
 in her armour, under the display of her consecrated standard, 
 and amidst the acclamations of the garrison and citizens. 
 
 The scene was opened : Joan had promised to raise the 
 siege ofOrleans, and cause Charles to be crowned at Rheims : 
 the one was invested, but the other lay in a remote p:irt. of 
 the kingdom, guarded by detachments of English troops, in 
 all the passes that led to it. 
 
 A general anxiety began to shew itself in the English ^mv, 
 and heaviness had seized their spirits. Joan joined 
 Dunois the commander of Orleans, and by sever .1 de - 
 and successful sallies, drove the English from their intrench- 
 ments, and actually obliged them to raise the siege. 
 
168 BEATH OF JOAN JDE ARC. 
 
 She then pressed Charles to accompany her immediately 
 to Rheims, which he did, at the head of 12,000 men. ""Their 
 march was rapid and (fcasy ; Rheims opened her gates, and 
 Joan and Charles entered in triumph. Charles VII. was 
 crowned, and anointed with that holy oil which the pigeon 
 was said to have brought from heaven to Clovis ; and all 
 France was ready to submit to his authority. 
 
 This simple story needs no comment we will pursue the 
 facts in their consequences. 
 
 To counterbalance this, the duke recent sentfor the young 
 king from England, Henry VI. and had him crowned, and 
 conducted all his movements with the caution of a Fabius, to 
 elude the attack of Charles. 
 
 Joan, at the coronation of Charles at Rheims, declared her 
 commission closed, and demanded permission to retire, but 
 was overpersuaded to attempt the defence of the town of 
 Compeign, then besieged by the duke. Here she attempted 
 the same sallies as at Orleans, was taken prisoner, condemn- 
 ed by an ecclesiastical court as a,witch and a sorceress, arid 
 committed to the flames. 
 
 Thus perished the heroine of Orleans, who deserved a 
 better fate, in 1431. The duke regent died soon after fac- 
 tions sprang up in England, when Henry took the throne ; 
 Charles recovered all the English possessions in France, ex- 
 cept Calais ; the storm of war hushed into a calm, whilst the 
 affairs of England took up the attention of Henry, and the 
 parties withdrew from the contest without even a truce, 
 1453. France continued to recover her order, and England 
 continued to decline. 
 
 We left Albert Duke of Austria upon the imperial throne, 
 where he attempted an expedition against the Turks, but fell 
 a prey to the dysentery 1439, and was succeeded by his broth- 
 er Frederic III. duke of Austria ; Albert's infant son Ladis- 
 laus inherited Hungary and Bohemia, under the guardian- 
 ship of Frederic III. A grand council was now assembled 
 at Basil by order of the council of Constance, " to reform 
 the church universal, both in its head and members." This 
 council had raised to the chair Felix V. in opposition to Eu- 
 genius IV. who opposed the meeting of the council. 
 
 Frederic III. repaired to this council, after having enjoyed 
 an interview with their pope Felix, who he endeavoured to 
 persuade to resign the chair to Eusenius, and restore peace 
 to the church ; Felix resigned, Eugenius died, Nicholas V. 
 was raised to the chair, and the schism was healed. 
 
CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 167 
 
 The healing of this religious faction made Frederic very 
 popular, and opened anew scene. I he factions of Germany 
 had for a long time left the states of Italy a prey to their in- 
 trigues and civil wars, and the emperor now entered upon a 
 tour of Italy, to heal the contentions, to meet Eleonora, sister 
 to the king of Portugal, to whom he was engaged in mar- 
 riage, and to receive the Roman crown. 
 
 All the cities of Italy vied with each other in testifying 
 their respect for the emperor ; ambassadors and deputa- 
 tions, from all the principal cities, met him at the foot of the 
 Alps, courted his attention, and graced his train. 
 
 Venice, Milan, Florence, and Bologna, received the empe- 
 ror with great magnificence, and Sienna witnessed the first 
 interview with the princess Eleonora, where he gave audi- 
 ence to the legates of the Pope.* The emperor had now 
 taken the first step to enter Rome, he next approached the 
 city by the way of Viterbo, (where he was insulted by the 
 populace and his life endangered) and pitched his tent under 
 the walls of Rome, according to custom, and passed the night. 
 The next morning Frederic entered Rome, attended by the 
 whole college of cardinals, amidst the acclamations of the 
 people, and was crowned king of Lombardy ; on the third 
 day his marriage with the princess Eleonora was consumma- 
 ted, the concordat of the German Empire ratified with the 
 pope, and the emperor returned to Germany, 1452. 
 
 At this time the Turks entered Constantinople in triumph, 
 overthrew the list vestige of the Roman Empire, and put an 
 end to the legs of iron in the great image of Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Thus fur we have traced the progress of man through all 
 the mazes of revolution, in the rise arid fall of the four great 
 
 * Here Frederic complied with the usages of Emperors before he 
 entered Rome, and took the following oath : " I Frederic king of the 
 Roman?, promise and swear by the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, by 
 the wood of the vivifying cross, and bv these rel ; cs of saints, that if by 
 the permission of the*Lord I shall come to Rome, I will exalt the holy 
 Roman church and his holiness who nreside* over it to the utmost in 
 my power. Neither shall he lose life, l ; rpb, or hono- by my counsel, 
 consent, or exhortation Nor will I, in ihe city of Rome, make any 
 law or decree touching those tbi-igs tl;ar be!o:i.<; 'o his holiness, or the 
 Romans, without the advice of our most holy Lord Nicholas. Whate- 
 ver part of St. PMe: > |r>tr'incviy shall fall into our hands, we will re- 
 store it to his holiness ; and he to whom we shall commit the admin- 
 istration of our kingdom of Italy, shall swear to assist his holiness in 
 defending S*. Peter's patrimony to the utmost of his power. So help 
 ipe God and his holy evangelists." 
 
168 
 
 MURDER OF THE DUKE OF GLOUCESTER. 
 
 empires of the earth, distinguished also by the four beasts ii 
 the vision of the prophet Daniel ; of whom it was said, 
 rise, devour much flesh." We have also traced the revolt 
 tions which have distressed the world under the reign of tht 
 little horn, which grew out of the horns of the fourth heasl 
 and seen the plains of ancient Greece, formerly so renow: 
 ed in the Persian and Roman wars, become the theatre 
 Christian and mahometan conflict. 
 
 CHAP. XXL 
 
 Recapitulation civil wars in England of France & 
 Flanders. 
 
 THE feet of the Roman empire are now distinctly forme< 
 as in the great image of Nebuchadnezzar, where the iron i- 
 mixed with clay. The beast and the false prophet are no) 
 rirmly seated in the two great capitals, exercising universt 
 sovereignty. The kingdoms of the west under the dominii 
 of the little horn, will continue to claim our attention. 
 
 We have noticed the struggles in France, during the mi 
 nority of Henry VI. underthe regency of his uncle, the duk< 
 of Bedford, and the ruin of the affairs of England which fol 
 lowed- the death of the duke regent. The character ai 
 reign of Henry VI. in England now claim our attention. 
 
 The weak reign of Henry, opened the way for Richai 
 duke of York, to setup his claim to the crown, which. h< 
 had derived from his mother Phiilippa, only daughter of th( 
 duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III. ; and wh 
 claimed precedence of the title of the duke of Lancaster, wh< 
 w.is third son of Edward. 
 
 The duke of York had high claims, was valiant, very rid 
 allied by marriage to the best blood of the nation, and gen( 
 rally beloved. 
 
 The queen mother, assisted by the earl of Suffolk, still con- 
 tinued the regency in England, where they \vere not onb 
 unpopular, but accused as the secret cause of all the losses ii 
 France ; and as Margaret was a French woman, they were 
 even accused of treachery ; the murder of the duke ofGloi 
 cester, which was also imputed to them, confirmed all suspi- 
 cions, and rendered them odious to the nation. 
 
'IVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 169 
 
 the duke of York knew how to avail himself of this state 
 of things ; he proceeded to accuse Suffolk in parliament, had 
 him banished for five years, and caused him to be murdered 
 on his passage to France. 
 
 The duke of Somerset succeeded in the administration, 
 and in the esteem of the queen ; this transferred the public 
 odium to him ; and the parliament approached the throne 
 with a petition that the duke of Somerset might be excluded 
 from the councils of the nation. S.omerset was arrested, 
 sent to the tower, and the duke of York appointed lieutenant 
 of the kingdom, with all the powers of regent. 
 
 Henry VI. recovering from the depressed state of his health 
 and spirits, attempted to check the overbearing power of 
 Richard by force. The duke was prepared, and a battle 
 was fought ; Richard was victorious, the king was taken, his 
 army dispersed, and a general accommodation took place be- 
 tween the parties, which was sealed in the public view, by 
 a mutual procession, and te deum, in the cathedral of St. Paul, 
 1453. 
 
 The trifling incident of a quarrel between two servants of 
 the contending parties, again threw the nation into a civil 
 war, and caused the battle of Blow-heath, where again Rich- 
 ard was successful. This increased the violence of the par- 
 ties, and the jealousy of the nation towards Richard ; the 
 treachery of one of his principal generals, who deserted to the 
 king, obliged Richard to flee to Ireland, and abandon his cause. 
 
 In this critical state of affairs, the earl of Warwick appear- 
 ed in Kent, assembled an army by the influence of his popu- 
 lar talents, marched to London, from thence amidst the tri- 
 umph of popular applause, he advanced to meet the king. 
 The two armies met at Northampton, an action was fought, 
 Warwick was victorious, the king was taken, and carried in 
 triumph to London. 
 
 Richard returned to England, approached parliament with 
 great dignity, modesty and firmness, plead his title to the 
 crown, and retired. The house of peers with the advice of 
 the commons, ratified the claims of Richard, made him re- 
 gent during the life of Henry, and upon his death, secured 
 the throne, as the true and lawful heir. 
 
 Margaret the queen had fled during these struggles, into 
 Scotland, where she raised a powerful army of twenty thou 
 sand men, and 'entered England to dispute the prize. 
 
 Richard advanced to meet the queen ; a battle was fought 
 15 
 
170 CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND; 
 
 near Wakefield, Richard was slain, and his second son earl 
 Rutland, taken and murdered : the earl of Salisbury shared 
 the same fate, and opened the way for a war of extermination. 
 
 Margaret marched towards London ; the earl of Warwick 
 met her at St. Albans, a battle ensued, Warwick was beaten, 
 and fled to London, and Margaret recovered her captive king. 
 
 1 his victory was checked by the approach of young Ed- 
 ward (then twenty years of age) son of the late duke of York, 
 with a strong force, elated with their late successes. The 
 queen retired to avoid an acCion ; Edward entered London in 
 triumph, set up his claim to the crown in right of his father, 
 was owned and received by the acclamations of the people, 
 confirmed by the house of lords, and crowned king, as Ed- 
 ward IV. 
 
 Here opened the exterminating scene of carnage and des- 
 truction in the civil war of the houses of York and Lancaster, 
 (or war of the white and red rose.) The two armies were 
 now augmented to about forty thousand men : they met near 
 Towton, an action commenced, both parties drew the sword 
 and rushed to close combat, the conflict was obstinate, the 
 carnage was great, the Lancastrians fled, Edward pursued, 
 no quarter was the order of the day, and the butchery was 
 awful : thirty-six thousand fell on the field, and in the flight. 
 The action was decisive, and Margaret and Henry fled to 
 Scotland for safety and succor. 
 
 The divided state of Scotland, under the reign of James 
 III. (who had succeeded James II.) was in no situation to heal 
 her own factions ; yet she ventured to proffer assistance to 
 Margaret, upon the condition that she should deliver up the 
 conquered fortress of Berwick, and contract her son in mar- 
 riage with a sister of James III. This being settled, Margaret 
 assembled an army of English, Scots, and French, and advan- 
 ced into England, 1464. 
 
 Lord Montecute met her at Hexham, attacked, routed, 
 and destroyed her army, either in the field or on the scaffold. 
 Margaret and her son fled into a deep forest, where she was 
 robbed by one set of banditti, and protected, with her son, by 
 another, until she found her way into France. Henry was 
 discovered, after one whole year's concealment, carried to 
 London and committed to the tower ; and the tranquillity of 
 the nation was restored. 
 
 Edward sent the earl of Warwick into France, to negotiate 
 a treaty of marriage with the sister of the queen of France^. 
 
 of. 
 
OIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 171 
 
 and in his absence was smitten with the charms of lady Eli- 
 zabeth Gray, (whose husband fell in the battle of St. Albans, 
 and whose estate had been confiscated by Richard ;) he offer- 
 ed her his hand, and the half of his crown : was accepted, 
 and the marriage consummated without the privity of War- 
 wick. This raised his irreconcilable revenge : he returned 
 to England, put himself aj; the head of the Lancastrians, and 
 took the field. Edward, deserted by his friends, felt himself 
 unsafe at the head of his army, and fled into Holland ; Henry 
 VI. was once more restored to the throne, and the parlia- 
 ment declared Edward IV. an usurper, in 1470. 
 
 The factions in England opened the way for Edward to re- 
 turn the next year. He entered London in triumph, after 
 having routed the army of Warwick, and seen him and his 
 brother the marquis of Montague, both dead before him, and 
 his army given up to the exterminating cry of no quarter. 
 
 Margaret, with her young son, eighteen years of age, lan- 
 ded from France, on the fatal day, and took shelter in the 
 abbey of Beauiieu, where she assembled an army by the as- 
 sistance of her friends, took the field, and met Edward at 
 Tewksbury. An action ensued ; Margaret was routed, her 
 army cut to pieces and destroyed, she and her son were taken 
 prisoners, her son was murdered, Margaret thrown into the 
 tower, and Edward again restored to the throne. 
 
 Having exterminated all his rivals, Edward assembled an 
 army to divert and unite the nation ; embarked for France, 
 and alarmed Lewis XI. into an honourable treaty and return- 
 ed to England, with seventy-five thousand crowns, and a stip- 
 ulation for fifty thousand more annually for life, fifty thou- 
 sand for the ransom of Queen Margaret, who retired to France, 
 and lived and died in peace. 
 
 Factions were generally laid now in England, and Edward, 
 after causing the restless spirit of the duke of Clarence to be 
 appeased in a butt of malmsey wine, enjoyed a tranquil throne, 
 and died in the forty second year of his age, 1483. 
 
 Edward V. then thirteen years of age, succeeded his fath- 
 er, under the regency of his uncle Richard, duke of Glouces- 
 ter, who was chosen protector, and who fixed his eye upon 
 the crown. 
 
 Between Richard and the throne stood the sons of Edward 
 IV. and two of the duke of Clarence, with their powerful 
 friends. The latter were dispatched in bloody succession, 
 whilst the young princes were snug in the tower ; Richard 
 swam in blood to the throne through the acclamations of the 
 
172 HUSE OF TUDQR. 
 
 mob, sealed his power by the murder of the princes in the 
 tower, and reigned, the scourge and terror of the nation. 
 
 Catherine of France, relict of Henry V. had married sir 
 Owen Tudor (as was noticed) and left Henry earl of Rich- 
 mond, who was descended from John duke of Lancaster, son 
 of Edward III. by the side of the mother, and the only branch 
 of the contending family of Lancaster ; the enemies of Rich- 
 ard entered into secret negociations to restore the throne to 
 the true line, through Henry, under the management of the 
 luke of Buckingham. 
 
 Richard, in order to defeat these plans, proposed to marry 
 the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. and sister oi 
 the murdered princes, and actually obtained the consent 01 
 the queen mother ; when Henry landed from France with 
 six thousand men, and erected his standard in Wales. The 
 Welch rallied round the standard of a descendant of their an- 
 ient kings, and at their head Henry advanced into England 
 Richard was prepared ; the two armies met at Bosworth, a 
 battle was fought, the conflict was obstinate, Henry was tri- 
 umphant, Richard fell, and the justice of the sword tookven 
 geance on this monster of cruelty, tyranny, and blood. 
 
 Henry was at once crowned king by his army (with the 
 crown Richard wore in the action,) and hailed as the deliver 
 er of the nation ; his title was acknowledged by parliament, he 
 was next married to the princess Elizabeth, and commencec 
 the dynasty of the house of Tudor, under the title of Henry 
 VII. 
 
 During these struggles in England, Charles VII. king o 
 France, organized and established his government, securec 
 the possessions acquired from the English, established a reg- 
 ular army, raised a revenue for their regular pay, and es- 
 tablished a regular conscription throughout France, of one 
 archer from each village, who was exempt from tax. v -This 
 laid the foundation in France for the title of gentlemen, both 
 in name and in arms. 
 
 In the midst of these wise measures, Lewis XI. rebellec 
 against his father, caused his death, and usurped his throne 
 1461. This produced such changes as opened a civil war 
 his disaffected nobles flew to arms, and both parties took the 
 field ; they fought, but without decision, and Lewis gainec 
 by negociation what he could not obtain by his sword, ant 
 settled the peace of his crown, 1465. 
 
 The rapacity of Lewis soon led him into new troubles anc 
 entangled him in a quarrel with Cbarles the Bold, son ol 
 
MARRIAGE OF MAXIMILIAN. . 173 
 
 Philip duke of Burgundy ; both parties took the field, but 
 Lewis bought off with money, and held a private interview 
 with Charles at Peronne, (then in possession of Charles ;) 
 here Charles caused Lewis to be secured in the castle, and 
 held him as his prisoner, compelled him to march against 
 Liege in support of Charles' claims, and assist in the reduc- 
 tion and ruin ofLiege. 
 
 Upon the return of his liberty, he attempted to unite to his 
 crown Burgundy, Tranche Compte, Artois, Flanders, and al- 
 most all the Netherlands, by a marriage between his son 
 Charles the Dauphin (then seven years of age) and the Prin- 
 cess, daughter of the duke of Burgundy, who was sole heiress. 
 
 This failed, and the Princess Mary, was married to Maxi- 
 milian I. son of the Emperor Frederic III. which laid the 
 foundation for all those wars between France and Austria, 
 which desolated the low countries. 
 
 Lewis settled a truce in Flanders, but the troubles of France 
 continued to his death, and the horrors of this scene inflicted 
 some punishment on him for the cruelties of his life. Lewis 
 was the first king of France who assumed the title of most Chris- 
 tian majesty ; he was succeeded by his son Charles VIII. at 
 fourteen years of age, and the regency was conducted by the 
 duke of Orleans, afterwards Lewis XII. 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 
 
 .4 general view of Europe ; league of Cambray ; commence- 
 ment of the Reformation. 
 
 THUS having surveyed this dark and distressing period of 
 eleven centuries, we come down to that epoch in the history of 
 Europe, when the reigns of Charles the VIII. of France, Fer- 
 dinand and Isabella of Spain, Henry VII. of England, Maxi- 
 milian I. of Germany, and popes Sixtus the IVth, and Alex- 
 ander VI. formed a new constellation in the western hemis- 
 phere, a period when the balance of power first began to be 
 felt and understood ; that balance of power which has been 
 the subject of such distressing r.nd expensive wars, and con- 
 tinues to this day to waste the blood and treasures of Europe. 
 
 Charles VIII. was a prince of great ambition, and upon the 
 commencement of his reign found all the great fiefs of France 
 15* 
 
174 BALANCE OF POWER. 
 
 united to the throne, except the duchy of Brittany ; this it be 
 came the interest of the nation to unite to the crown by a mar- 
 riage between Charles and the duchess. After the removal 
 of several important obstacles, this was finally accomplished, 
 and Charles found himself at the head of an undivided throne. 
 
 The union of the kingdoms of Castile and Arragon, under 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, was accomplished by a similar mar- 
 riage in Spain. Under their patronage, Christopher Colum- 
 bus opened a new world to the family of man in 1492. Hen- 
 ry the VII. by the victory of Bosworth, the death of Richard 
 the III. the last of the Plantagenets, and by the marriage of 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. quieted the civil wars of 
 England, and restored tranquillity to the throne. 
 
 Maximilian I. by creating the high court of the imperial 
 chamber in Germany, quieted in a great measure the feuds 
 which had long distracted the empire, established a union 
 very much like the Achean league in ancient Greece, and 
 secured tranquillity. 
 
 Of these popes like all their predecessors, we cannot find 
 one good thing to say, and pass over the many corrupt things 
 we might say, to let them rest in silence. 
 
 The system of the balance of power which now began to 
 regulate the great theatre of European politics, took its rise 
 in the Italian claims, and was now confirmed by the expedi- 
 tion of Charles VIII. to support his title to the kingdom of 
 Naples, which he claimed as heir to the house of Anjou. 
 
 Charles marched into Italy, took an uncontested possession 
 of the throne of Naples, marched to Rome, took possession 
 as a conqueror, humbled pope Alexander VI. in the castle 
 of St. Angelo, prescribed conditions to the smaller states, and 
 thus gave law to Italy. He caused himself to be proclaimed 
 emperor of the east, upon a grant of Paleologus, when the em- 
 pire of Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks. This 
 bold stride of Charles called forth a confederacy composed 
 of the emperor Maximilian I. Ferdinand and Isabella, the 
 Venetians, and the duke of Milan, sanctioned by the pope. 
 
 In this union they laid aside their private animosities, for- 
 med one common interest, compelled Charles to retrace his 
 steps, return to France, and resign the conquest of Italy in 
 less time than it had taken him to acquire it. His excesses 
 soon closed his life, and he died in 1498, leaving his throne to 
 .Lewis XII. ; the fruits of this coalition have been the means of 
 preserving the balance of power, by a similar resort, to this day. 
 
LEAGUE OF CAMERAS'. 176 
 
 Henry VII. of England made an effort to recover the prov- 
 ince of Brittany in the reign of Charles VIII. but was appeas- 
 ed with a large sum of money, and Brittany, together with 
 Burgundy passed into the hands of Lewis XII. then to Fran- 
 cis I. and the kingdom has remained entire. The success 
 of the coalition against Charles VIII. led to a new theatre of 
 events. 
 
 The republic of Venice, together with Genoa, became the 
 carriers of Europe in the time of the crusades, which laid the 
 foundation for that commerce which had now raised those 
 cities above all others in Europe, both in wealth, splendor, 
 and the arts. Venice had not only enriched and embellished 
 her city, but enlarged her state by seizing on the dominions 
 of her neighbors, and had become so formidable as to alarm 
 the fears and jealousy of pope Julius II. 
 
 Situated at the head of the Gulf of Venice, or Adriatic Sea, 
 she had supplanted the ancient city of Tyre, and engrossed 
 the commerce not only of Europe, but of Asia, and even of 
 Africa ; her government which was altogether in the hands 
 of the nobles, had stood unshaken amidst all the storms that 
 surrounded her, and set at defiance the domination of the 
 chair of St. Peter. 
 
 Julius formed a coalition to humble her, known by the league 
 of Cambray. The principals of this league were Maximilian 
 I. of Germany, Lewis XII. of France, Ferdinand of Spain, 
 together with the princes of Italy generally. The Venetians 
 suffered this storm to gather and burst upon their heads with- 
 out one effort to divert it ; their long uninterrupted prosper- 
 ity had corrupted their policy, and lulled them into security. 
 
 Overwhelmed by this mighty force, they abandoned all 
 their conquests, shut themselves up in their city, and sued for 
 peace. Julius, who was at the head of this league, and who 
 had thrown his keys into the Tiber, drawn his sword to as- 
 sert his dominion and become a champion of Mars, seized on 
 and recovered such territory as lay within, and contiguous 
 to ecclesiastical estates, and settled a peace. 
 
 Alarmed at the formidable force of Lewis, as well as the 
 rest of the allies, Julius absolved the Venetians from his spir- 
 itual thunders, united them in his interest to expel all for- 
 eigners out of Italy, and drew his sword upon Lewis. Julius 
 diverted Ferdinand from the league, united the Swiss in his 
 interest, and solicited and obtained the aid of Henry VIII. of 
 England, who co-operated in the war. 
 
176 MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 iThe battle of Ravenna lost Lewis all his claims in Italy, 
 and his flight was as rapid as the flight of his predecessoi 
 Charles VIII. Julius succeeded in all his plans arid died at an 
 advanced age, leaving the chair to Leo X. 1513. 
 
 Henry VIII. followed up the blow, formed a league witl 
 Maximilian, and the two sovereigns took the field in Flandei 
 against Lewis XII. where the emperor Maximilian served in 
 the pay and under the command of Henry VIII. of England. 
 
 Here commenced the English and German coalitions in 
 Flanders against France. Henry was entangled in a war with 
 Scotland, and Lewis with pope Leo X. at the same time. 
 The war in Elanders became a war of posts ; the campaign 
 closed without -advantage to the parties, Henry returned to 
 England, a peace was settled generally by intermarriages the 
 next season, and the storm of war was again hushed. 
 
 Lewis died 1515, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, 
 Francis I. ; the next year died Ferdinand of Spain, who was 
 succeeded by his grandson Charles, heir to the archduke 
 Philip, sovereign of the low countries, who also was elected 
 emperor of Germany, upon the death of Maximilian, under 
 the title of Charles V. 1519. 
 
 Amidst this bright constellation of princes, upon the 
 thrones of England, France, Spain and Germany, appeared 
 Martin Luther, the angel of the gospel, and the champion of 
 the reformation. At this period the use of letters, under the 
 art of printing, the use of gunpowder in the art of war, the 
 use ofthe mariner's compass in the art of navigation, Jhe im- 
 provements of husbandry, manufactures, and commerce, to- 
 gether with the discovery of a new world, commenced a new 
 era in the annals of man, opened a new field for the display 
 of talents, enterprise and ambition ; gave to the religion of 
 the gospel a triumph over the bigotry, idolatrous superstition 
 and corruption of popery, and opened the way for the estab- 
 lishment of a purer church in Europe, and in this western 
 wilderness. 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. 
 
 General state of society, commerce., navigation, and the arts in 
 Europe -foreign adventures and discoveries reformation 
 continued. 
 
 BSFORE we enter upoo that all-important scene, the re- 
 
DISCOVERY OF INDIA*. 177 
 
 formation under Martin Luther, let us take a view of com- 
 merce, navigation, the arts, and state of society generally, at 
 this eventful age. 
 
 Portugal which had been erected into a kingdom by duke 
 Alphonso Henriquez, 1 139 ; was torn by feuds, and distract- 
 ed by perpetual wars with the Moors, until the reign of king 
 John, 1385. He, like Alfred of England, turned the attention 
 of the nation to their fleet. His successor, Don Henry, 
 enlarged and improved the plans of his father, cultivated the 
 sciences with great success, applied the science of astronomy 
 to the art of navigation, and taught the Portuguese how to ex- 
 plore distant lands, who by their successful efforts were in- 
 spired with a spirit for distant adventure. The same spirit 
 grew and increased under the succeeding reign of John II. 
 who transmitted it to his successor, Emanuel I. 
 
 At the commencement of his reign, he found that the whole 
 coast of Africa, upon the shore of the Atlantic had been ex- 
 plored by his predecessor, as far as the Cape of Good Hope ; 
 the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands were opened to their 
 view, and the vine and sugar cane were introduced into Ma- 
 deira with success. 
 
 Emanuel, alive to the spirit and successes of national enter- 
 prize, sent a fleet of four ships under Vasco de Gama, to ex- 
 plore the Indian Ocean, who discovered Hindostan, or hither 
 India, 1498, touched at the city of Calicut, on the Malibar 
 coast, then greatly enriched by the trade of the Arabs, who 
 were the carriers of the wealth of India, by the way of the 
 Red Sea to Egypt, or by the way of Palmyra to Tyre and Si- 
 don ; from whence the Venetians and Genoese conveyed it 
 to Europe. 
 
 De Gama, after a perilous but successful voyage, returned 
 to Lisbon, and thus laid the foundation of the commerce of 
 India, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. Pope Alex- 
 ander VI. granted to Emanuel all his new discoveries, and 
 all such as he should discover, provided he should propagate 
 the Christian religion. 
 
 Fired with zeal and enterprize, in commerce, and religion, 
 the whole nation caught the flame ; and on a second adven- 
 ture with thirteen ships, under Alvarez de Cabral, they tra- 
 versed the great Atlantic, explored the coast of Brazil, on the 
 continent of South America, in 1500, took possession under 
 the title of the land of the holy cross, pursued their voyage 
 by the way of the C-ipe of Good Hope to India, establishd 
 with the sword an independent trade, and returned to Lisbon, 
 
178 DISCOVERY OF INDIA. 
 
 A strong force was sent out in 1502, which confirmed th< 
 former estabishment in India, burnt Calicut, and made Go; 
 the emporium of Portuguese commerce in India. In loll. 
 Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor of India, took the citj 
 of Malacca. He ruined the commerce of Egypt with Indii 
 by his depredations on the shores of the Red Sea, and thi 
 turned the wealth of India to Lisbon. 
 
 Albuquerque, after all these services for his country am 
 the world, like his great prototype, Christopher Columbu? 
 fell a sacrifice to the envy and malice of his enemies, am 
 died of a broken heart, in poverty and disgrace. 
 
 The Portuguese afterwards extended their commerce tc 
 China and Japan. J he discoveries of Christopher Colui 
 bus, 1492, we will reserve for the history of America. TJ 
 English, the Spaniards, and the Dutch, were soon engaged ii 
 the commerce of the east ; and all that wealth which used 
 pass into the west, by the way of the Persian gulf, to Tyi 
 and the Red Sea, to Cairo and Alexandria, and from thenc< 
 by the ships of Venice and Genoa, to Flanders in the lo\ 
 countries, and Dantzic and other ports on the Baltic, 
 thence generally diffused over Europe was at this tii 
 brought to Lisbon, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope 
 which continues to this day the highway of the commerce 
 the west with the east. 
 
 Martin Luther commenced his labors in the heart of Ge] 
 many, of unfolding to the world the mystery of iniquity whicl 
 had for so many centuries been veiled in the mysteries 
 popery, by publishing the pure doctrines of the gospel in 
 language familiar to all, and disclosing the corruptions of th( 
 beast without morals, without religion, and without the au- 
 thority of God. 
 
 France and Spain were now engrossed in the strife betweei 
 Charles V. and Francis I. for supremacy in Italy. Henry 
 VIII. of England was engaged in holding a balance of power 
 between them, whilst Luther was in the heart of Germany, 
 publishing good tidings of good things. 
 
 He was opposed by pope Clement VII. who summoned a 
 diet at Worms to check the progress of Luther, who had con- 
 verted to the faith nearly one half of Germany, and gained 
 the confidence of a great part of the remainder. The edicts 
 of the diet of Worms, and the spiritual thunders of Clement, 
 were lost in the air ; Luther set them at defiance. 
 
 Charles V. alarmed for the safety of the church, and the 
 
DIET OF SPIRES. 179 
 
 peace of Germany, assembled the diet of Spires to take into 
 consideration the state of religion ; they confirmed the edicts 
 of Worms ; this called forth the protest of the elector of 
 Saxony, the Landgrave of Hesse, the duke of Lurenburg, the 
 prince of Anhalt, with the deputation of fourteen free impe- 
 rial cities, against the edict of Spires, and fixed to the follow- 
 ers of Luther the. name of protestants, which continues to 
 this day. 
 
 Melancthon, who co-operated with Luther, drew up a sys- 
 tem of principles, styled the confession of Augsburg, which 
 became the strong hold of attack and defence through this 
 wonderful contest ; resisted the sword, the torch and the 
 gibbet, with all the malice of hellish assassination ; stood the 
 palladium of the reformation, triumphed over the beast with 
 his ten horns, and has transmitted the blessings of " peace 
 on earth and good will to men," down to the present period. 
 
 The field of foreign enterprise led off the attention of the 
 maratime states in the south of Europe, and the great contest 
 in Italy between Charles V. and Francis I. (in which Fran- 
 cis failed, and was led a prisoner from the siege of Pavia into 
 Spain,) also served to divert the attention of these powers, 
 and open the way for the more easy spread of the reforma- 
 tion-* and the effects of these very struggles, and this com- 
 merce, were, to expand the minds of men, and facilitate the 
 easy and general circulation of the scriptures of truth. 
 
 Henry VIII. of England, with a steady eye to the balance 
 of power in Europe, effected the restoration of Francis I. 
 after a captivity of two years, entered into the religious quar- 
 rels of the day, and by his defence of popery, obtained from 
 the pope the title of .defender of the faith : but when his 
 holiness refused to sanction the diyorce of his wife, he 
 threw off the mask, severed his kingdon of England from 
 the holy see, founded the reformed protestant episcopal 
 church, by a decree of his parliament, placed himself at its 
 head, and at one bold stroke abolished all the religious 
 cloisters of England thus rooting out popery, by the des- 
 truction of these sinks of corruption, together with the in- 
 fluence of the monks, those pests and drones of society, who 
 governed them. 
 
 Henry proceeded to divorce his first .wife, Catherine of 
 Spain^and in succession married five others ; of these, two 
 were divorced, two beheaded, and two died natural deaths, 
 
180 DEATH OF MARTIN LUTHER. 
 
 Henry was no Lutheran, and so full was he of the ideas oi 
 heretics, that he denounced all who questioned his supreme 
 cy, and brought to the block all who advocated the doctrine? 
 of Luther. The six articles (called the bloody bill) whicl 
 Henry forced through his parliament, proved him to be yet 
 an orthodox catholic ; the observance of these articles h< 
 enforced with the punishment of death. 
 
 Henry VIII. went very far however to promote the refor- 
 mation in England ; though he was as bloody an enthusiast 
 and tyrant, as many of the popes of Rome, and died as he he " 
 lived, a catholic. 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 Jljfairs of Germany England France massacre of St. Ba] 
 tholomew. 
 
 THE confession of Augsburg, and the league of Smalkalde, 
 which united the faith and energies of the protestants in Ger- 
 many, maintained a firm resistance to the powers of the em- 
 peror and the pope, until they were broken by the civil wars, 
 and the reduction of Saxony. This stroke gave strength am 
 confidence to the emperor ; he convoked the diet of Auj 
 burg, and published his interim. 
 
 This placed Charles between two fires, excited the indig- 
 nation of the pope, and his despotic sway, united more firml] 
 the protestant league of Smalkalde, and brought in prim 
 Maurice, who had subdued Saxony for the emperor, to oppos 
 Ch irles, and support the protestant league. In the midst oi 
 these scenes, died Clement VII. and Francis I. who wei 
 succeeded by Paul III. and Henry II. 
 
 This change of measures in Maurice, humbled the haughty 
 plans of Charles, and fixed the reformation upon an immova- 
 ble basis in Germany. 
 
 In the midst of these troubles, and immediately after the 
 league of Smalkalde, died Martin Luther ; having kindled 
 the reformation, and having lived to realize that waters 
 could not quench, and that floods could not drown it ; but 
 that a way was already prepared for it to illuminate the world. 
 
 Thus we have seen how the prediction of the prophet has 
 been fulfilled in this angel of the gospel ; and every protestan 4 
 
EDWARD VI. 181 
 
 divine from that day to this, has added one more blast to the 
 trump of the immortal Luther ; and all who shall follow, will 
 continue to swell the blast, till the commencement of the 
 millenial day. 
 
 In the midst of the triumphs of the reformation in Germa- 
 ny died Henry VIII. of England, who was succeeded by his 
 only son, Edward VI. at nine years of age. Henry settled 
 his crown by will ; first upon Edward, (by Jane Seymour :) 
 then to Mary, (by Catherine of Arragon ;) then to Elizabeth, 
 (by Anne Bolyn.). During the minority of Edward, the re- 
 gency devolved upon his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, with 
 the title of protector, together with five other executors, with 
 archbishop Cranmer at their head. Underthis protectorate, 
 a war sprang up between England and Scotland, which led 
 the Scots to send the young princess Mary into France for 
 her education. It produced no decisive events, and closed 
 with the triumph of the reformation in England, and the es- 
 tablishment of the church and Liturgy, as they now stand at 
 this day. 
 
 The intrigues of the earl of Northumberland, which brought 
 to the block the regent and protector, and upon the death of 
 Edward VI. conferred the throne upon Lady Jane Gray, to 
 the exclusion of the heir named in Henry's will the arm of 
 justice, supported by the voice of the nation, which set aside 
 lady Jane Gray, brought the earl of Northumberland to the 
 block, and placed the crown upon Mary, the rightful heir 
 we shall pass over ; together with the bloody reign of queen 
 Mary, in which she attempted to restore the Catholic reli- 
 gion, with the union and sovereignty of the holy see, at the 
 expense of the best blood of the nation. 
 
 In this bloody reign, a John Rogers, a Latimer, a Cran- 
 mer, and otner worthies of the protestant church, fell a sa- 
 crifice. An insurrection to resist these sanguinary scenes, 
 and restore lady Jane Gray and her husband, lord Dudley, 
 to the throne, brought these worthies to the block, together 
 with many who abetted their cause ; popery swam in 
 blood years, when the nation was relieved by the 
 death cf Mary, and the accession of the illustrious Elizabeth, 
 1558. 
 
 fhthe same year, Charles V. at the age of fifty-six, bes- 
 towed his crown and sceptre upon his son Philip 11. king of 
 Spain, and husband of Mary queen of England that he might 
 the remainder of his days in retirement and private life ; 
 
 16 
 
182 QUEEN ELIZABETH 
 
 he left the reformation triumphant in Germany, part of Swit 
 zcrland, in England and Scotland, with favourable prospects 
 in France and Ireland. 
 
 One of the first steps of Elizabeth was, to extend the arm 
 of protection to the protestants in Scotland, already worn 
 down by a popish persecution, during the regency of queen 
 Mary, instigated and supported by the intrigues of France, 
 under the influence of her husband, Francis II. who had suc- 
 ceeded Henry II. The reformation, after a severe and des- 
 perate struggle, triumphed over all opposition in Scotland, 
 by the assistance of queen Elizabeth, and established there 
 the protestant presbyterian church, as enjoyed at this day. 
 
 The death of Francis II. at this time, left the queen of 
 Scots without issue, guaranteed to the protestants of Scotland 
 the enjoyment of their religion, and to Elizabeth the tranquil- 
 lity of her throne. 
 
 Charles IX. succeeded to the throne at ten years of age, 
 and the kingdom fell under the regency of the queen mother ; 
 the king of Navarre was named lieutenant general of France. 
 At this time the reformation had taken deep root in France ; 
 and the catholics and protestants were so nearly balanced, 
 that some degree of toleration became necessary on the part 
 of the crown to appease the violence of party. An edict 
 was accordingly published, allowing to protestants the free 
 enjoyment of their religion, without the walls of cities. 
 This edict led to a civil war, in which Philip II. of Spain en- 
 gaged in the bitterness of his heart against the protestants ; 
 and Elizabeth of England, that champion of the reformation, 
 in their support. The protestants after a severe struggle, 
 were successful, and obtained a further guarantee of their 
 privileges. 
 
 Upon the return of Mary , from France to Scotland, after the 
 death of her husband, Francis II. king of France, she car- 
 ried with her all the elegance and splendor of her person, 
 polished by a French education, and the principles and bigot- 
 ry of the catholic religion ; this, notwithstanding all her ef- 
 forts to prevent it, poisoned the nation, and embittered her 
 life, by alienating the affections of her people, exciting their 
 jealousy and distrust, and inflaming the. protestants to open 
 acts of disrespect, insult, violence and rebellion. 
 
 This rebellion in Scotland led Mary to France for counsel 
 and support, where tho reformation was denounced, and a 
 total ov*"'tlM*ovr upon th<? continent, especially in France. 
 
PROTECTOR OF PROTESTANTISM. H'.o 
 
 Spain, and the low countries, concerted at Bayonne by the 
 holy or catholic league. When Mary became acquainted with 
 this, she determined to co-operate in Scotland, and suppress 
 the rebellious protestants by severity, even to extermination. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes of distress in the nation, Mary 
 married lord Darnley, against the will of the protestants ; by 
 him she had a son, James VI. : soon after this event, Darn- 
 ley died, by an explosion of gun powder. The tlames of 
 discord, by the imprudencies of Mary, were again kindled in- 
 to a civil war ; and Mary was constrained to flee into England, 
 place herself under the protection of her sister Elizabeth, 
 where by an order of Elizabeth, she was confined, and lan- 
 guished in her prison, a subject of intrigue. 
 
 During her confinement, Scotland was torn by the con- 
 flicting interests of the catholics and protestants ; France 
 became again the theatre of a religious civil war ; and the 
 low countries were drenched in blood, to enforce the catholic 
 league, and exterminate the hugunots or protestants. The 
 illustrious queen Elizabeth, high raised on the protestant 
 throne of England, sat clothed in majesty, and held the bal- 
 ances. Again, under her auspicious influence, the protest- 
 ants triumphed in France, and by afavorable peace, secured 
 the enjoyment of their principles. 
 
 The queen of Scots, during her confinement, had recourse 
 to Charles IX. of France, and Philip II. of Spain ; but the 
 distracted state of their own dominions, left them no leisure 
 to attend to her unhappy cause. ' The persecutions in the 
 low countries, under the duke of Alva, a blood thirsty bigot 
 of Philip II. drove the seven provinces of Holland to unite in 
 their own defence, raise the standard of rebellion, and assert 
 their independence of the crown of Spain. This opened a 
 severe and bloody contest : they applied to Elizabeth for 
 aid ; again she held the balances, severed the low countries 
 from Spain, and established their independence. Elizabeth 
 also put an end~toHbe catholic persecutions in Scotland, by 
 giving up Mary to the executioner 5 when the protestants 
 triumphed in Scotland. 
 
 Not so in France ; the catholic league filled the heart of 
 Charles IX. ; he affected to form a union with the catholics 
 and protestants, by giving his sister in marriage to the young- 
 king of Navarre, and upon the grand celebration of the nup- 
 tials in Paris, where the protestants resorted upon the occa- 
 sion, from all parts of France, he ordered a general, massacre 
 
.184 SI^ISH ARMADA. 
 
 to commence and extend throughout the kingdom. More 
 than seventy thousand protestants of eyery age, sex, and con 
 dition throughout France, fell a sacrifice to this bloody edict 
 Amidst the horrors of this distressing scene, the catholic 
 jvtu-e filled with rejoicings for the triumphs of the church mil 
 itant upon the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In the rnids 
 of these scenes, Charles died at twenty-four years of age, o 
 * horrible disease, and was succeededby Henry III. 1574. 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 Affairs of the Reformation generally Spanish Armada. 
 
 THESE conflicts of the reformation in the west of Europe 
 gaye an entire change to the affairs of Christendom, a/id pro 
 duced new scenes and new theatres of action ; the spirit o 
 commercial enterprise, also gave a new spring to the mind o 
 man. 
 
 The emperor Ferdinand, who succeeded Charles V. 1557 
 !ii*lc one grand effort to unite the discords of religion in 
 Germany, by the council of Trent, 1561, which offered ade 
 Tce of toleration upon the plan of the interim of Charles V 
 arid was in like manner rejected by both parties ; the couh 
 ril was dissolved 1563, Ferdinand died 1564, and was sue 
 ceededby Maximilian II. 
 
 The ambition of Selirn II. Sultan of Constantinople, in hi 
 wars with the Venetians, and upon Hungary, gave full em 
 ployment to the reign of Maximilian. The massacre of St 
 Bartholomew filled Europe with horror, and France with re 
 venge. The barbarous and sanguinary principles ofpoper 
 greatly promoted the protestant cause, raised a civil war 
 and Henry III. put himself at the head of the protestants. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, Philip II. king of Spain, great 
 ly enriched by commerce and the mines of Mexico and Peru 
 and highly incensed against queen Elizabeth, as the protect 
 or of the protestants, prepared for the invasion of England 
 with the most formidable fleet then ever known, styled the 
 invincible armada ; to tear from Elizabeth the balances o 
 Europe, hurl her from her throne, and, like William of Nor 
 mandy, wield the sceptre of England, and restore the right 
 of the holy see. 
 
DEATH OF ELIZABETH. 185 
 
 The armada put to sea, and appeared off the coast of Eng- 
 land, threw the nation into a state of consternation, and cal- 
 led forth all the majesty and energies of Elizabeth, who by a 
 special act of heaven, was soon relieved from her alarm. A 
 violent tempest arose, which overwhelmed the armada, dis- 
 persed and dashed the ships against the rocks, and left the 
 fugitives an easy prey to the ships of Elizabeth, and at a blow 
 her throne was secured ; which called forth from the queen 
 this memorable expression " Deus flavit dissipantur." 
 (God blew and they are scattered.) Elizabeth at the same 
 time narrowly escaped from the blackest conspiracy, under 
 Babbington. 4 
 
 Henry the III. of France, at the head of the protestants, at 
 the same time laid siege to his capital, then in the power of 
 the catholics, where he was assassinated by a Dominican friar, 
 and left his crown to the king of Navarre, Henry IV. (first of 
 the Bourbons,) who pressed by the catholic league, had re-* 
 course to Elizabeth. She sent him aid, by the mean^ of 
 which he held the catholics at bay ; and in order to secure 
 the tranquillity of his kingdom, embraced the catholic reli- 
 gion, and published the famous edict of Nantz, which guaran- 
 teed to the protestants the quiet enjoyment of their religion. 
 Thus Henry restored peace to his throne, in the midst 01 
 jealousy, gave tranquillity to France and settled a peace with 
 Philip of Spain, 1598. 
 
 At this time died Philip II. The war still raged with vio- 
 lence in the low countries, which was closed by a truce for 
 twelve years, between Philip III. and the United ProvinceSj 
 1609. At the same time Philip caused the Moors to be ex- 
 pelled from Spain, (more than one million of hardy, indus- 
 trious inhabitants :) this, together with the loss ofthe arma- 
 da, and the seven united provinces, with the pride and indo- 
 lence arising from the great influx of wealth from Mexico 
 and Peru, and the degrading effects ofthe inquisition upon 
 the mind of man, humbled the pride of Spain, and placed her 
 in a degraded situation, from which she has never risen. 
 
 Immediately after the death of Philip II. died queen Eliz- 
 beth, 1601, and left her throne to James VI. of Scotland, son 
 of Mary, whom she had beheaded in England. James unit- 
 ed the kingdoms of England and Scotland ; and was the first 
 king of Britain under the title of James I. 
 
 The reign of queen Elizabeth is above all comment : i ! 
 16* 
 
186 
 
 HENRY IV. 
 
 stands unrivalled in the annals of England, and of (he world, 
 and opened the way for all that is valuable to the protestant 
 cause. 
 
 Henry IV. succeeded to a throne greatly impoverished, 
 and almost ruined by the religious civil wars in France ; 
 but his energy, talents, and ambition fitted him to fill it to ad- 
 vantage : he quieted the feuds of France and made one great 
 effort to quiet the feuds of the continent, by his plan of one 
 great confederated republic, with France at its head. 
 
 To effect this, he encouraged and promoted the protes- 
 tant cause in Germany, and the low countries, but in the 
 midst of his visionary plans, he fell a sacrifice to the dagger 
 of a monk, in the streets of Paris, 1610, and was succeeded 
 "by Lewis XIII. then a minor. 
 
 France, under the regency of the queen mother, fell again 
 into all the scenes of discord and civil war ; and the conti- 
 nent was now torn with the conflicts of the two great parties, 
 known by the names of the evangelical union, and the catho- 
 lic league. 
 
 Germany in particular was one continued scene of civil 
 war ; at the same time it was entangled in the wars of the 
 Frai u;, through the reigns of Rodolph II. and Matthias, down 
 to the death of Philip III. of Spain, in 1624, who held his 
 share in these feuds, to augment his power in Italy. 
 
 The United Provinces, notwithstanding they were torn 
 with severe religious feuds amongst the protestants them- 
 selves, immediately after the pacification of 1609 had now 
 greatly extended their commerce in the east, taken Brazil in 
 the west, and were the immediate commercial rivals of all 
 the maritime states of Europe. 
 
 France and Germany having long been distracted with re- 
 ligious feuds, the parties prepared to settle all their disputes 
 'with the sword, upon the great theatre of Germany. 
 
 A marriage took place at this time, between Charles I. then 
 prince of Wales, and Henrietta, sister of Lewis XIII. of 
 France, which produced the same consequences in England, 
 as the marriage of Mary queen of Scots, with Francis II. of 
 France, had done in Scotland. 
 
 The war between the protestant union, and the catholic 
 league commenced about 1610, became general throughout 
 Europe, called into action ail the great talents of Europe, and 
 was Ihe first general display of arms in Germany. 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 178' 
 
 Upon this grand theatre of action, flourished the great 
 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, in support of evan- 
 gelic union, and crowned with his death, the famous victory 
 of Lutzen. 
 
 This triumph of Lutzen, was the triumph of the refor- 
 mation ; and the treaty of Prague, 1635, guaranteed to the 
 union, from the court of Vienna, all the claims of the cham- 
 pions ofthe reformation : but the war still raged with France 
 until the death of Lewis XIII. 1643, then under Lewis XIV. 
 until the peace of Westphalia, 1640. This again confirmed 
 to the union all former treaties, and gave them an uninter- 
 rupted enjoyment of their religion, together with an equal 
 share in the grand councils of Germany, and broke the pow. 
 er ofthe catholic league. 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. 
 
 Reformation continued Great Britain under James I. ami 
 Charles I. 
 
 UPON the death of queen Elizabeth, we found James the I. 
 son of the unfortunate Mary queen oi Scots, as the rightful 
 heir ; and agreeable to the wishes of Elizabeth, and the two 
 nations, upon the throne of England. James I. was great 
 grandson of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII. ; and 
 upon the failure ofthe male line in the house of Tudor, he 
 was the true heir, and commenced the dynasty of the house 
 of Stuart : the change was easy and regular. 
 
 James was courted by all the potentates of Europe, and af- 
 ter the defeat ofthe conspiracy in favour of his cousin, Ara- 
 bella Stuart, enjoyed a tranquil throne, gave his whole atten- 
 tion to the sciences ; by his writings, he proved the pope to 
 he antichrist, and modern Rome the whore of Babylon. 
 
 Emboldened with confidence at these public sentiments of 
 the king, the sect of puritans, which had now greatly increas- 
 ed in England, ventured to approach the throne, with hopes 
 of obtaining the abolition of episcopacy. This bold step 
 alarmed the king, and he returned this steady reply ; **^> 
 , no king." 
 
188 
 
 JAMES I. AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 The puritans were ordered to conform. JVimes declared 
 himself the husband of one wife, destroyed the barriers oj 
 the frontier towns, and brought the two kingdoms together. 
 These popular measures of James, did not satisfy the puri- 
 tans, nor the catholics, and the latter consented to the diabol- 
 ical scheme of destroying both king and parliament at a blow, 
 by a gunpowder plot, in 1605. 
 
 Upon the detection of this plot, a vast quantity of gunpow- 
 der in barrels, was found concealed under the house of lords, 
 the day before the session of parliament, with one Fawkes, 
 (a Fleming,) placed as the centinel and executioner, with his 
 matches ready prepared. In this aiFair were involved many 
 catholics of the first distinction ; whose conviction and exe- 
 cution, spilt some of the best blood of the nation. The de- 
 tection of this plot, and the lenity of James, secured his pop- 
 ularity, and absolved him from all suspicions of popery durin: 
 his reign. 
 
 James made great efforts to civilize the English, Scotch, 
 and particularly the Irish ; and took more delight in r ;io arts 
 of peace, than of war: by his weakness, he distracted his 
 reign, in bestowing unmerited favors upon undeserving favo- 
 rites. To support these, he offended the nation, by sellinj 
 to the Dutch the cautionary towns, pledged to queen Eliza- 
 beth when she granted them support in their revolutionary 
 struggle. 
 
 James' next unpopular step was, to attempt to establish 
 uniformity of worship in Scotland, as well as England, togeth- 
 er with church discipline ; for this purpose he visited his 
 native country. 
 
 The nobility of Scotland were attached to the government 
 of James, the people were under a certain degree of feudal 
 vassalage, and of course slaves ; but the kirk, or religion oi 
 Scotland, was free, independent, and of the presbyterian or- 
 der. This order existed at this time in Switzerland, upor 
 the plan ofZuinglius, and John Calvin, the great apostles oi 
 Switzerland. 
 
 The first unpopular stroke cf James in Scotland was, t< 
 permit certain catholic lords, who had been banished Scot- 
 land, to return to the kingdom. This lit up afire, he nevei 
 could extinguish, and raised an insurrection which placet 
 James at the mercy of a mob in Edinburgh. This occasion- 
 q|$ convention of the states of Scotland, where James ob- 
 tained an acknowledgement of bis supremacy over the cedes- 
 
CHARLES 1. 18$ 
 
 iastical affairs of Scotland, and the power of settling the forms 
 of worship and church discipline, with the consent of the 
 archbishops, bishops, and a competent number of ministers. 
 
 This dangerous power was opposed by his parliament, 
 and relinquished by James : but the next year he introduced 
 some ceremonies, by the consent of the kirk. This kindled 
 the fire in Scotland ; and the execution of Sir Walter Ra- 
 leigh, the projector of the colonies in North America, stamp- 
 ed an odium upon the reign of James which followed him to 
 his grave. 
 
 In addition to this, the match he was planning for his son 
 Charles, the prince of Wales, with the Infanta of Spain, rous- 
 ed the feelings and resentment of the nation, brought on a 
 collision between James and his parliament, and opened the 
 controversy of privilege and prerogative, which had for iti 
 object to destroy the true balance of power in the government, 
 by throwing too great a weight into the scale of monarchy, 
 under the claim of prerogative, or too great a weight into the 
 scale of democracy, under the claim of privile \ 
 
 The Spanish match, after a most courteous interview of 
 Charles in Spain, with the Infanta, was closed by intrigues, 
 which produced a war between England and Spain, and an al- 
 liance was formed between Charles and the princess Henri- 
 etta of France. Charles succeeded to the throne upon the 
 
 death of liiTfaYher, 1625. The attempts of J:Z!? to lor( l 
 over the forms of religion in Scotland and England, drove 
 from his kingdom that little band of puritans, with their pious 
 m'nistcr the Rev. John Robinson, who fled to Holland, and who 
 w : ll become the subject of notice in the American narrative. 
 
 The duke of Buckingham, who had accompanied Charles 
 to Spain, and had been the instrument of breaking oif the 
 Spanish match, had thereby become very popular with the 
 parliament. x This increased the insolence of Buckingham, 
 until he ruined Charles and himself, in the esteem of the na- 
 tion, and paid for his folly and temerity by the knife of the 
 assassin. Charles endeavoured to save himself, but itwas now 
 too late ; the war oi prerogative and privilege, between Charles 
 and his parliament, had gone too far. Charles tried the expe- 
 dient of dissolving his parliament ; but this only fanned the 
 fire ; the war against France in support of the Hugunots, had 
 done the same, and even the fall of the obnoxious Buckingham 
 had given no relief. The passions of the parties had QIM- 
 mounted their understandings, and what was best for the na- 
 tion, was now involved in the point, who should rule. The* 
 
19U CHARLES J. 
 
 queen who was a catholic, and archbishop Laud, who was 
 haughty, violent prelate, had both great influence with Charles : 
 strengthened his obstinate resolutions, and fixed his fate. 
 
 A specimen of the religious principles, which were the ba- 
 sis of all this national struggle, may be seen in the consecra- 
 tion of the church of St. Catherine, near the borders of Scot- 
 land. Archbishop Laud marched in procession with grea 
 pomp and solemnity, to perform the holy office of consecrc 
 tion. When he approached the church, a loud voice ex- 
 claimed, "Open! open! ye everlasting doors ! and let th< 
 king of glory in" the doors flew open, the archbishop ei 
 tered fell on his knees, and exclaimed with extended arms, 
 and uplifted eyes, " this place is holy, the ground is holy 
 in the name of the father, son, and holy ghost, I pronounce 
 holy." He approached the communion table, and bowec 
 frequently towards it ; then marched in procession roun< 
 the church, repeating the 100th psalm ; then said a form 
 prayer, concluding with these words : " We consecrate this 
 church, and separate it unto thee as holy ground, not to b( 
 profaned any more to common uses ;" uttering imprecatior 
 on all who should profane that sanctuary, bowing towarc 
 the east upon every imprecation, and exclaiming " Let 
 the people say amen." He then pronounced benedictioi 
 on all who should nurse ; and enrich that church by their ter 
 poral gifts ; and upon every benediction bowing towards tho 
 east, exclaimed : " Let all the people say amen." Suchwei 
 the counsellors, and such the religion, which distracted th< 
 nation, under the externals of privilege and prerogative. 
 
 In this state of things, a change of ministry, even under 
 privilege administration, produced no change in the publi< 
 Feeling. The same measures distracted both England am 
 Scotland; the jurisdiction of Presbyteries, Synods, and otl 
 er democratic courts, was abolished, and the general assembl 
 had fallen into neglect for more than two years ; all this kim 
 led the fire in the kirk of Scotland, and an attempt 
 made to revive the college of justice, between the clergy am 
 laity, as before the reformation. All classes of people took 
 the alarm, and popery, was the general cry. 
 
 When the dean of Edinburgh attempted to introduce the 
 liturgy into the cathedral of St. Giles, arrayed in his surplice 
 
 " a pope ! a pope!" vociferated from all parts of the 
 
 ^iilrch ; and the tumult was so great as to require the inter- 
 position of civil authority to protect the service. All these 
 
OLIVER CROMWELL. 191 
 
 arts, led the Scots to unite in a solemn covenant, to resist the 
 usurpations of the crown, and protect the kirk. 
 
 This coalition of power, proved a barrier to the encroach- 
 ments of Charles, called forth the best talents of the nation, 
 and opened a civil war. The parliament of England co-ope- 
 rated with the covenanters, and their vengeance fell first on 
 the minister of Charles, the earl of Strafford ; who, after the 
 most masterly and dignified defence, was convicted of trea- 
 son ; and in spite of all the efforts of Charles to save him, 
 brought to the block. 
 
 This sacrifice produced a momentary suspension of the 
 evils ; but the fire soon began to rage, both in England, Scot- 
 land and Ireland, and produced from the English parliament 
 the famous remonstrance, which was an appeal to the people, 
 although addressed to the king ; and was fully a manifesto, 
 and a signal for the last extremity. The violence of the par- 
 ties increased daily ; excess followed excess, and violence 
 and extreme succeeded violence and extreme, until privilege 
 swallowed up prerogative, the voice of the king was lost in 
 the usurpations of parliament, a civil war raged, the king was 
 overpowered and obliged to flee, archbishop Laud was ac- 
 idised of high treason, and brought to the block, the king was 
 taken, brought to London, imprisoned, tried, and executed. 
 ITis death laid the foundation of the commonwealth, under 
 :he protectorate of Oliver Cromwell. 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. 
 
 'Jreat- Britain under Oliver Cromwell Charles II. France 
 
 under Louis XIV. 
 
 DURING the reign of Charles I. the civil and religious lib'- 
 2rty of the nation engrossed their whole attention ; their 
 igriculture and commerce were neglected ; their foreign 
 possessions languished ; the Dutch seized on some of their 
 most valuable spice islands ; and the affairs of the nation 
 -vere low. The triumph of liberty over tyranny, and the 
 'all of the tyrant, opened the way for Oliver Cromwell, as 
 he popular chief, to usurp the throne and give law to the 
 nation, under the title of Lord High Protector. Under this 
 itle Cromwell ruled with imperial sway : but the house of 
 
CHARLES ii. 
 
 liberty 
 
 lords had been abolished, and such was the spirit of libe 
 under the commonwealth, that Cromwell with all his efforts 
 and popularity could not restore it. Under this government 
 they chastised their haughty, insolent, avaricious neighbours 
 the Dutch, in several desperate, bloody, and decisive naval 
 combats, extended their commerce, improved their agricul- 
 ture, cultivated the arts, sciences and manufactures, and op- 
 ened the way for the restoration of the monarchy under the 
 splendid reign of Charles II. 
 
 Charles succeeded to the throne through the artful policy 
 of general Monk, who relieved the nation from the feeble, 
 imbecile reign of Richard, son of Oliver Cromwell, whose 
 talents were far below the ambition of the nation, and who 
 reigned only seven months. Charles II. more intent on his 
 own pleasures, and the gratifications of his courtiers, than the 
 good of his people, suffered the commerce of the nation again 
 to decline, and the Dutch to rival them in India. 
 
 The efforts to settle North America were successful, and a 
 foundation was laid in this reign, for the succeeding prosper- 
 ous enterprise of the nation in the new world. 
 
 That spirit of the reformation which had resisted the vio- 
 lent measures of Charles I. and flourished so conspicuously 
 under the commonwealth, was in its full strength in Scotland, 
 at the accession of Charles II. and displayed its zeal and en- 
 thusiasm, in large and frequent religious assemblies in the 
 open field, called conventicles. 
 
 That liberty which always accompanies such zeal, Charles 
 considered as incompatible with the dignity of his crown, and 
 sent the earl of Lauderdale to check and suppress it. Again 
 the spirit of the reformation was called to assert its liberties 
 against the violent measures of the crown ; but not with the 
 same success. The power of the crown prevailed, and 
 through the extremes of violence, cruelty and severity, the 
 spirits of the enthusiasts were humbled. If such things could 
 be done in the green tree, what could not be done in the dry : 
 ifaprotestant administration could be guilty of such severity 
 and cruelty, what might not be expected from popery. 
 
 Whilst the 'nation were shocked with the severities of 
 Charles, and distresses of Scotland, they were roused, as by 
 a clap of thunder, by the alarm of the popish plot. This, 
 whether a reality, or an artful finesse, is still doubtful : but at 
 that time, as a serious reality, it excited strong apprehensions, 
 and threw the nation, into the highest state of alarm ; opened 
 
LEWIS XIV, 193 
 
 again the sharpest conflict between the king and his parlia- 
 ment ; excited the same feelings in the nation as in the reign 
 of Charles 1. and nothing but the conciliatory address, and high 
 opularity of the king could have prevented another civil war. 
 
 The intrigues of France at this time, had a powerful influ- 
 ence in the court of Charles ; he made the most of it, and by . 
 a money compact with the cabinet of Lewis XIV. became in- 
 dependent of his parliament, assumed a dictatorial style, set 
 them at defiance, humbled their refractory spirit, and tri- 
 umphed in their submission. 
 
 The doctrine of passive obedience, and non-resistance, 
 became the order of the day, and was echoed from the desk 
 and the bar through the nation. Charles enjoyed his success- 
 es in triumph, deprived the city of London of its charter ; 
 the other cities tendecgd a voluntary resignation of theirs, 
 and sealed the independence of the crown. 
 
 These measures excited the passions and indignation of the 
 sons of liberty, and roused the resentment of the Ryehouse 
 plot, (so called,) a plot destined to restore the commonwealth 
 by another revolution. This was discovered, and suppress- 
 ed by some of the best blood of the nation, and laid the found- 
 ation ofthrit permanent strength in the monarchy, which alone 
 has supported it through all the successive struggles of the 
 crown, and enabled it to triumph over that disorganizing spirit 
 of liberty, which became so factious in the time of the French 
 revolution. 
 
 It placed in the power of the crown, (or of the minister,) 
 the control of the borough elections, which constitute three- 
 fourths of the members of parliament, and thereby has, to this 
 clay, given the minister the control of that branch of the gov- 
 ernment, and rendered the crown in a sense despotic. Charles 
 disclosed all the religion he had at his death, in partaking of 
 the papal eucharist at the hands of a catholic priest. James 
 II. duke of York, and brother of Charles, succeeded to the 
 throne. James was a violent catholic. 
 
 Thus we see how God has overruled the conflicting pas- 
 sions of men, in this mighty struggle, of the reformation with 
 popery, and liberty with tyranny, and placed the government 
 and the church exactly in that point, which have proved to 
 this day, to be best adapted to the peace and prosperity of 
 that nation, and the good of the world. To illustrate this re 
 mark, let us take a view of the gigantic power of Lewis XIV. 
 king of France. Lewis XIV. succeeded Lewis XIII. 1643, 
 in the midst of the reign of Charles I. During his minority, 
 
 17 
 
194 LEWIS XIV. 
 
 and under the regency of the queen and cardinal Mazarine. 
 France was, like England, distracted with feuds. 
 
 When Lewis took possession of the crown, he was the 
 most splendid, ambitious monarch that ever filled the throne 
 of France. He cherished the discords in England, and at 
 the same time revived all the ancient claims of the crown 
 under Charlemagne, and erected the standard of conquest to 
 recover them. 
 
 Spain attempted to avail herself of the feuds in France, 
 which arose out of the management of Mazarine ; but Lewis, 
 united with Cromwell, the protector of the commonwealth 
 of England, soon humbled Spain, and closed this war. The 
 struggle for supremacy upon the ocean, which began between 
 England and the seven United Provinces of Holland, in the 
 reign of Charles I. still continued ; and England under Crom- 
 well, gained a decided superiority over the Dutch. 
 
 Upon the accession of Charles II. Lewis availed himself of 
 this strife, and engaged England in his views, to humble the 
 Dutch, and add the low countries to France. For this purpose 
 he assembled a most splendid military force, took the field in 
 person, and entered JFlanders at the head of his army. 
 
 At the same time the combined fleets of France and Eng- 
 land amounted to one hundred ships. The United Provin- 
 ces were thrown into the highest state of alarm ; they collect- 
 ed their fleet to guard and protect their ports, inundated their 
 country, sued for peace, and offered the most flattering terms : 
 but all to no effect : their ruin was sealed by the vindictive 
 malice of Charles, and the all-conquering ambition of Lewis. 
 The terms were rejected, and the war pursued with vigor. 
 
 This roused up the energies of the Dutch, who had by their 
 efforts ransomed their country from the. ocean, and enriched 
 it by their commerce. They declared the prince of Orange, 
 stadtholder, or chief magistrate of the nation ; and prepared 
 for defence. The throne of William was secured by the 
 violent death of the De Witts, and others opposers in Hol- 
 land ; and he j;ook the field in person. The conflict on the 
 ocean was desperate, and the confederates successful ; but 
 the stadtholder triumphed over Lewis in the low countries, 
 and he was compelled to abandon all his conquests. 
 
 Spain and Germany, by an alliance, supported the stadt- 
 holder. The distracted state of England compelled Charles 
 II. to withdraw from the war and offer his mediation. The 
 war became a war of posts, and was attended with great di?- 
 
LEWIS XIV.. i(j>0 
 
 tics and valor. At this time Sweden became con- 
 federate with France, and Charles II. a pensionary to Lewis, 
 by a secret treaty. 
 
 Lewis became formidable at sea, and successful against 
 the combined fleets of Spain and Holland, in a splendid naval 
 action on the coast of France ; this victory was sealed by the 
 death of the gallant De Ruyter, the Dutch admiral. The af- 
 fairs of France again became prosperous, and Lewis was suc- 
 cessful at all points, both against Holland and Spain. He tri- 
 umphed over England, through the venality and corruption 
 of Charles II. ; triumphed over Spain, Holland and the em- 
 pire, and laid the foundation for the future splendor of his 
 crown, by the possessions he retained in the low countries, 
 at the peace of Nimeguen, in 1648. 
 
 CHAP. XXVIII. 
 
 France continued Europe generally League of Jlugsburg-*- 
 Remarks. 
 
 Lewis XIV. notwithstanding the exhausted state of hie 
 treasury, still kept up his powerful military forces, and with 
 them, that passion for glory, and lust of ambition, with which 
 he commenced his reign, and which were the characteristic 
 features of this haughty monarch. He assumed the dictato- 
 rial style of Charlemagne, seized on Strasburg, and rendered 
 it impregnable, by the talents of the famous Vauban. He 
 began to flatter himself that all Europe would soon feel his 
 sway, and that he should establish the ancient dominion. To 
 this end, he distracted the empire of Germany with feuds, 
 excited the Turks to war against them, to humble the house 
 of Austria, which would have been ruined, had not the king 
 of Poland interposed with a powerful army, compelled the 
 Turks to raise the siege of Vienna, abandon their conquests 
 in Germany and Hungary, return to their former limits, and 
 settle a peace. 
 
 Lewis embraced this favorable moment to extend his do- 
 minions, by seizing on several important parts of the low 
 countries, and settled a peace with Spain, the Emperor of 
 Germany, and turned his attention to his fleets. 
 
 At this critical moment, died the illustriou^ Colbert, prime 
 
198 LEAGE OF AYGSBURtt. 
 
 minister of Lewis, and whose sagacious mind, as a statesman 
 and financier, had raised Lewis to the summit of his greatness. 
 With the death of Colbert, fell the greatness of Lewis, and 
 left his pride and ambition, like a ship in the midst of a tem- 
 pest, without a pilot. 
 
 Lewis revoked the memorable edict of Nantz : that shield 
 of the reformation under Henry IV. and put forth all his ef- 
 forts to establish popery upon the ruin and conversion of pro- 
 testantism ; but without effect. This cruel artifice of priest- 
 craft, butchery, and military executions, ruined the manufac- 
 turing interest, which the immortal Colbert had promoted 
 and encouraged amongst the protestants. One twentieth 
 part of the whole number, fell a sacrifice to these barbarous 
 and impolitic measures ; a price was set on the- heads of the 
 remainder, they were hunted like wild beasts of the forest, 
 and forbidden, under penalty of death, to leave the kingdom. 
 
 In the face of all this severity, however, more than six 
 hundred thousand protestants left the kingdom ; ruined the 
 manufacturing interest of France, and transplanted it into the 
 neighbouring kingdoms. This severity was not the result of 
 submission to the Roman pontiff ; his haughty spirit led him 
 to humble pope Innocent XI. in the most humiliating manner, 
 and triumph over all his excommunications. 
 
 This cruel, and vindictive persecution against the reforma- 
 tion, arose from the haughty imperious spirit of Lewis, and 
 from the weakness of his uninformed mind. He soon felt 
 the rashness of these measures. The protestants in Germa- 
 ny, throughout the empire, formed the famous league of 
 Augsburg, to restrain the overbearing spirit of France. 
 
 The emperor Leopold added Hungary to Austria, and pla- 
 ced his son Joseph upon that throne, upon the suppression 
 of the Turkish invasion, and was now ready to become party 
 in the league of Augsburg, against France. 
 
 Thus we see how God makes use of his means, to effect 
 his ends, and with what wisdom all his great purposes are 
 accomplished. 
 
 The art of printing had greatly facilitated the improvement 
 of letters, and swept away that gross ignorance which had 
 prevailed through the dark ages, (that nursery of bigotry and 
 superstition ;) given expansion to the mind of man, and pre- 
 pared the way for the reception of those great and important 
 truths the immortal Luther was destined to unfold. 
 
 The excesses, corruptions and abuse of power, which at 
 
tins time ha 
 
 COFEAKICU9, KEPLER, GALLILLO. 197 
 
 us time had become notorious in the catholic church, led to 
 a general inquiry amongst the learned, and better informed 
 part of society ; doubts began to arise with regard to many 
 of the dogmas of the church, and the abuse of power in the 
 sale ofindulgencies (which had now become notoriously cor- 
 rupt) staggered the faith of some, disgusted the feelings of 
 others, and shocked all common sense. 
 
 The pen of Erasmus was pointed and severe, well calculat- 
 ed to excite doubts, and lead the public mind to pause, reflect 
 and consider, whether all this was founded upon the author- 
 ity of God. 
 
 The waste of blood and treasure, which had so long ac- 
 companied this despotic power, had fairly opened the way 
 for the introduction of those truths, the immortal Luther was 
 destined to unfold ; and Germany was well prepared to be 
 the great theatre of action. 
 
 Armed with the authority of God, Luther stood forth, the 
 great champion of truth ; unfolded the pure principles of that 
 gospel which had been so long corrupted and abused : set at 
 defiance that power which claimed and exercised the right of 
 extirpating all opposition by force ; raised the public mind 
 to resist that infallibility, they had now been led to doubt ; 
 and by his firmness, learning, and talents, established the re- 
 formation upon an immoveable basis. 
 
 Germany, which had suffered most severely from the des- 
 potic power of the popes through the dark ages, was now 
 destined to become the light of the world, in religion, and in 
 science. Luther stood forth as the light of the gospel ; Co- 
 pernicus, (of Thorn) unfolded the mysteries of the heavenly 
 bodies, and taught the true doctrine of the solar system ; and 
 Kepler illustrated the true figure of their orbits : all these 
 combined, gave such expansion to the mind, as led to a more 
 general inquiry, opened the way to a more general and cor- 
 rect understanding of the .truth of religion, of nature, and of 
 God. 
 
 Italy at this time was favoured also with her Gallileo, 
 whose inventive genius greatly improved the telescope, by 
 which the systems of Copernicus and Kepler were confirmed, 
 and the rotation of the sun upon its own axis, the satellites of 
 the several planets, the phases of Venus, and the mountains 
 in the moon were all discovered. 
 
 All these gre-it events combined, excited a general inquiry,,; 
 this was increased, and strengthened by the persecutions of 
 
 17* 
 
198 
 
 JAMES 
 
 the popes, who denounced the whole as one great system of 
 absurdity and heresy. The inquisition of Italy, so late as 
 1633, passed a decree, declaring the solar system of Coper- 
 nicus expressly contrary to the holy scriptures, false and 
 absurd in sound philosophy, as well as erroneous in the 
 faith ! 
 
 These great luminaries of Germany, have "diffused their 
 light, as we have noticed, throughout the Christian world, and 
 have unfolded to men that great system of religious and lite- 
 rary truth which they no;v enjoy, and which, under their fu- 
 ture improvements, they are destined to enjoy. 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 
 
 England ; and Europe generally from the accession of James 
 H. to the rise of the order of the Jesuits. 
 
 AT this eventful period when the league of Augsburg had 
 united the whole protestant cause of Europe, as one great 
 family, to resist the overbearing power of that chastising 
 rod, Lewis XIV. king of France, commenced the unhappy 
 reign of James II. as successor of Charles II. of England. 
 His character as a papist, under the title of duke of York, 
 had occasioned much warmth of feeling and expression, 
 during the reign of Charles, and was yet remembered. 
 Notwithstanding his flattering assurances, he discovered the 
 purposes of his heart, in his imperious speech to his parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 Conspiracy soon kindled into a flame, and raised an insur- 
 rection in the nation. At this time he commenced a career 
 of general favor and indulgence to papists, both in England 
 and Ireland, and issued a declaration of general indulgence, 
 or liberty of conscience, by his own absolute and arbitrary 
 power ; sent an ambassador to Rome, in order to unite the 
 crown of England again to the holy see ; gave a public au- 
 dience to the pope's nuncio, and consecrated four popish 
 bishops in the king's chapel ; permitted the monks to ap- 
 pear at court in their respective habits ; attempted to intro- 
 duce Roman catholics into the church and universities ; en- 
 deavored to gain the protestant dissenters, and to form them 
 into a union with the catholics, by ordering a new declaration 
 
ot indulgence 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY. 
 
 ilgence, and causing it to be read in the pulpit by all 
 of the established clergy. 
 
 The clergy resisted, and a general alarm was excited 
 throughout the nation. They invited William, prince of Or- 
 ange, (who had married Mary, daughter of James) to assume 
 the government. He complied with the call of the nation, 
 landed in England with a strong naval and military force, 
 amidst the popular commotions and struggles, seized on the 
 crown, and James fled to France. The Scotch submitted to 
 the government of William ; he summoned a convention to 
 settle the affairs of the nation ; who placed the crown upon 
 William and Mary, by an instrument of settlement, which 
 closed all the struggles of privilege and prerogative, and fix- 
 ed the constitution upon a permanent basis. 
 
 During these mighty struggles, episcopacy had been estab- 
 lished in England and Scotland ; this occasioned at this time 
 some division of sentiment, and some warmth of feeling ; but 
 the presbyterians, who composed the mass of the people in 
 Scotland, favored and supported the throne of William and 
 Mary. 
 
 James, at the same time sealed his own ruin by favoring a 
 catholic insurrection in Ireland, and by the aid of Lewis XIV. 
 actually embarking in France with a military force, and pla- 
 cing himself at its head. This occasioned a warm conflict 
 between the English and Irish parliaments, and excited a gen- 
 eral alarm in the nation ; William declared war against Lew- 
 is, and became a party in the league of Augsburg. 
 
 At this time the divisions in Scotland were settled by the 
 sword, and the government of William quietly established. 
 James met with a warm resistance from the protestants, in 
 Ireland, who were supported by William in person, who tri- 
 umphed over James, defeated and destroyed his army, that 
 he fled again to France : the insurrection was soon quelled, 
 and all Ireland submitted to the government of William. 
 
 The spirit of faction was not yet quelled in England ; the 
 fire of the parties soon revived, appeared in parliamentary 
 feuds, and was kindled into a blaze by the rashness of Wil- 
 liam, at the massacre of Glencoe, in Scotland. This excited 
 a general alarm, which roused up the nation to a spirit of op- 
 position and gratified the spirit of Lewis XIV. king of France 
 he immediately furnished James with a powerful naval and 
 military force, who put himself at their head to invade Eng- 
 
200 
 
 LEWIS XIV. 
 
 land, and recover the crown ; but a decisive action gained at 
 this critical moment over the French fleet by the English, 
 checked the expedition ; closed all the future prospects of 
 James ; and after a few more feuds in England, settled and 
 established the government of William, and rendered the, re- 
 formation again triumphant in England. 
 
 The league of Augsburg hud now called forth all the efforts 
 of Christendom, to humble the haughty, overbearing spirit oi 
 Lewis, and roused him up, like a lion of the forest, to take 
 vengeance on his enemies. He cherished his alliance with 
 the Turks to make a diversion in Hungary ; assembled an 
 army of four hundred thousand men, and entered Germany 
 and the low countries, with various success ; at the same 
 time the fleet of Lewis gained a signal victory over the Eng- 
 lish and Dutch. 
 
 Lewis took the field in person, and appeared with great 
 splendor in Flanders ; the war became general, and raged in 
 Hungary, Germany, Flanders, Spain and Italy. Europe had 
 never before witnessed such splendid armies, under such 
 splendid captains, together with such displays of valour and 
 military tactics. Mathematics, as applied to the art of gun- 
 nery and fortification, at this period, attained their highest 
 perfection, under the talents of a Vauban. The war became 
 generally a war of posts, and raged with various success from 
 1688, to the peace of Ryswick, with France, 1698, and of 
 Carlo wits with the Turks, 1699. 
 
 This war gave a general triumph to the reformation over 
 popery, leagued with the infidels, and greatly facilitated the 
 progress of the arts and sciences ; gave a new polish and lus- 
 tre to military tactics, and a new splendor to society in Eu- 
 rope. The good effects of the reformation were generally 
 felt and acknowledged, throughout Christendom ; this excit- 
 ed a general spirit of inquiry and learning amongst the catho- 
 lic clergy, and a general improvement in their morals. 
 
 This ecclesiastical spirit of science and morals was greatly 
 improved by a new monastic order, which sprang up at this 
 time, styled the, order of the Jesuits, from the frequent use 
 they made of the name Jesu. This order became the imme- 
 diate champions of the pontiffs they became the confessors 
 of all the catholic monarchs of Christendom, and by that 
 means the organs of intelligence to their masters the popes, 
 and rendered the chair of St. Peter the repository of all the 
 intrigues of Europe. 
 
REFINEMENT OK MANNERS. 201 
 
 They also served as ambassadors to the popes in all foreign 
 courts, and thus the organs of the secrets of all the courts in 
 the world. The zeal, intrigue, and corruption of this order 
 caused its ruin in the eighteenth century. That general im- 
 provement of manners, literature, taste and refinement, 
 which began to dawn in Europe in the distinguished reigns of 
 Charles V. of Spain and Germany, Francis I. of France, and 
 Henry VIII. of England, received a polish in this war, which 
 with the commencement of the eighteenth century, commen- 
 ced a new order of things in Europe. 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 
 
 of Europe generally northern confederacy eapturf, 
 of Gibraltar by the English. 
 
 FROM the time that Francis I. of France introduced the 
 ladies at court, (about the middle of the seventeenth century) 
 the drama of life in Europe has experienced an entire change ; 
 ferocity has given place to urbanity, and barbarism to refine- 
 ment. Although a general corruption of morals grew out of 
 this, in its early stages, which soon was refined into an ele- 
 gant sensuality, and next into a polished system of gallantry, 
 and romantic effeminacy ; it Jfeis the means of giving that high 
 polish to the reign of Lewis T^V. 
 
 In this splendid reign, the sword in single combat (which 
 was also sanctioned by the former example of Francis I.) 
 gave a check to ostentation, pride and haughteur, protected 
 the characters and virtues of the fair sex, and united with 
 their example, had a commanding influence, in forming the 
 manners of the times. 
 
 All that splendid taste in the fine arts, and all^^tt classical 
 elegance, which had been revived in Italy a celmiry before, 
 were now transplanted into France, and flourished in the 
 reign of Lewis XIV. The spirit of the reformation had 
 given expansion to the mind of man ; suppressed the over- 
 bearing ignorance and bigotry of the catholic domination ; 
 awakened freedom of thought, and freedom of speech, and 
 diffused a general spirit of toleration throughout Christen- 
 dom, accompanied with a general influence on government 
 and manners ; these combined, paved the way for that iiber- 
 
202 PARTITION TREATY.. 
 
 ty, literature and science, which has come down te us, and 
 which we so richly enjoy; 
 
 Immediately after the peace of Ryswick, the declining 
 health of Charles II. of Spain, opened a new field of intrigue 
 amongst the competitors for the crown, and kindled a new 
 flame in Europe. These competitors were no less than Lew- 
 is XIV. the emperor Leopold the I. of Germany, and th< 
 elector of Bavaria. Their claims of consanguinity,- were 
 nearly equal, and the general interest, and.tranquillity of 
 Europe, required the succession of the elector of Bavaria, 
 because it would produce the least effects on the balance of 
 power. The intrigues of the competitors ran high ; all 
 Europe took a lively interest in the struggle ; the Spanish 
 nation favored the lineal succession of the house of Bourbon, 
 but the queen, who was a German princess, favored the em- 
 peror Leopold. 
 
 During this conflict of intrigue, a treaty of partition was 
 framed in the most secret manner, between England, France, 
 and Holland, to divide the kingdom and provinces of Spain, 
 amongst the contracting parties, uponth-e demise of Charles. 
 The secrets of this treaty soon reached the ears of Charles, 
 and fired him, like a shock of electricity, with indignatior 
 and resentment. He summoned an extraordinary council, 
 made his will, conveyed the succession to the elector of Ba- 
 varia, and recovered his health. The sudden death of the 
 elector, defeated the will, and Clewed the treaty of partition, 
 upon an entire new plan. B^his treaty it was stipulated, 
 that no dauphin, or king of France, should ever wear the 
 crown of Spain. 
 
 During this struggle of intrigue in the south of Europe, 
 new drama commenced in the north, under the reigns oi 
 Frederic, king of Denmark ; Charles XII. king of Sweden 
 Augustus, elector of Saxony, and king of Poland ; and Petei 
 (he I. empacor of Russia. The improvements of the north, 
 1i-ul lain tflBJant in a great measure, witrf4heir long tran- 
 quillity, and had not kept pace with the refinements of the 
 south ; until this splendid constellation arose, and diffused its 
 lustre over those regions. 
 
 I shall pass over, however, the mighty conflict which en- 
 sued amongst these sovereigns, and treat of it at large, in 
 the third part of this work, and continue the affairs of the 
 south. The sudden de >th of the elector of Bavaria, gave a 
 new turn to the affairs ,of Spain, and placed Charles II. in a 
 
GRAND ALLIANCE, 203 
 
 new dilemma ; he took the dernier resort, and appealed to 
 the pope for counsel. 
 
 His holiness, dreading the power of Austria, at once advised 
 him to bestow the crown of Spain upon the. family of Bourbon : 
 this advice was positive, and positively obeyed. Charles, by a 
 private will, annulled his former will, and conveyed the crown 
 of Spain to the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin. 
 
 During these intrigues, Charles died, the will was disclosed 
 Lewis XIV. at once accepted, and placed his grandson up- 
 on the throne of Spain, under the title of Philip the V. then a 
 minor, and prepared to support him. This accession of 
 strength to the house of Bourbon, already considered too pow- 
 erful for the peace of Europe, and during the alarming reign of 
 Lewis XIV. was considered as incompatible with the interest 
 and safety of every free state. It roused all the potentates 
 in the south to the protection of the common cause, and pro- 
 duced the grand alliance (so called) in 1701, signed by the 
 plenipotentiaries of the emperor of Germany, the king of 
 England, and the states' general, of the United Provinces. 
 
 The grand object of this league was to counteract the suc- 
 cession of the house of Bourbon to the crown of Spain ; and 
 obtain a general security for the balance of power, and the 
 peace of Europe ; with a reserve, that England and Holland 
 might retain all their conquests in both the Indies. The op- 
 erations of the grand confederacy in the north against Swe- 
 den had already commenced, and were now in their*full op- 
 eration. 
 
 At this eventful period, James II. who had taken refuge in 
 France, died, and Louis had the temerity to acknowledge the 
 son of James, as king of Great-Britain and Ireland, under the 
 title of James III. This struck the fatal blow to the peace 
 of Europe ; William resented the indignity, and prepared 
 for action, and the grand confederacy prepared to co-ope- 
 rate. Lewis, sensible of his error, attempted to pflliate the 
 blow by an apology. The parliament of England passed a 
 bill of attainder against the young prince, James III. and pre- 
 pared to support the dignity of the crown. 
 
 At this critical juncture, William was thrown from hi* 
 horse, and received a contusion which occasioned his death ; 
 he was quietly succeeded by queen Anne, eldest surviving 
 daughter of James II. 1702. She entered with spirit into 
 the measures of William, in support of the grand alliance, and 
 prepared for action. 
 
 Lord Godolphin was placed at the head of the treasury, 
 
204 GENERAL WAR. 
 
 and the earl of Maryborough at the head of the armies ; war 
 was declared against France in London, the Hague and Vien- 
 na at the same time. The protection of the general safety, 
 rendered a union of interest more permanent and formidable 
 in this compact, than in any that Europe had ever witnessed ; 
 and although Lewis was apparently strengthened by the un- 
 ion of the crowns of France and Spain, in his own family : it 
 proved the reverse, and Spain was only a burthen on his 
 hands, to be protected at home and abroad. 
 
 The gold of America was the only advantage that resulted 
 to him and this, the exhausted state of his treasury very 
 much required. The earl of Marlborough took the field in 
 Flanders, as commander in chief ; he soon acquired the title 
 of duke, and his exploits gave a lustre to the arms of the con- 
 federates. 
 
 The successes of the first campaign, led the duke of Savoy j 
 and the king of Portugal, to join the confederates, 1703 ; al- 
 though the duke was of the house of Bourbon, grandson of 
 Lewis XIII. and father-in-law to Philip V. the young king of 
 Spain. This union of the duke with the allies, was consider- 
 ed by Lewis as the ruin of his cause. All Europe, from 
 north to south was the theatre of a general war, and divided 
 into two great parties. In the south under the grand alli- 
 ance, the war raged in Flanders, in Bavaria, in Spain, in Ita- 
 ly, and upon the ocean. 
 
 An insurrection broke out in Hungary, which penetrated 
 to the gates of Vienna, and threatened the ruin of the house 
 of Austria. Feuds sprang up in Scotland, founded on their 
 resentment against king William for neglecting the Scotch 
 settlement upon the isthmus of Darien during his reign, 
 whir.h endangered the peace of England, by the sharp con- 
 test between whig and tory factions. 
 
 The wnr raged in 1704 with various success by sea and 
 land ; but the conquest of Gibraltar was a most valuable ac- 
 quisition to the English. This year the emperor Leopold 
 di'M'l, and was succeeded by his son Joseph, who entered 
 warmly into the measure of the alliance. 
 
 In 1705 the French were successful in Italy, the con- 
 federates in Spain. The war raged in Germany and 
 Flanders with various success, but nothing decisive. In 
 1706 the confederates were successful, under the illus- 
 trious Marlborough in Flanders, and in Spain, under prince 
 Charles, who entered Madrid, and was then crowned king of 
 
CONFEDERATES SUCCESSFUL. 205 
 
 the title of Charles III. ; but wae soon compel- 
 led to retire. 
 
 The English took the islands of Majorca and Ivica. Lew- 
 is XIV. under this pressure of his affairs, had recourse to 
 the king of Sweden, Charles XII. then in his successful ca- 
 reer in Poland and Saxony but without effect : Charles had 
 set his face for Moscow. 
 
 Lewis, upon this failure r sued for peace ; but without ef- 
 fect the confederates resolved, " that no peace shall be 
 made with the house of Bourboun, so long as a prince of that 
 house is on the throne of Spain." The successes of England 
 in Flanders, the conquest of Gibraltar, and the isles of the 
 Mediterranean, gave strength to the crown, and confirmed 
 that union of England and Scotland, which has since proved 
 so salutary to the two kingdoms. The splendor of the duke 
 of Marlborough in Flanders, of princ'e Eugene in Italy, and 
 the arch duke Charles in Spain, gave strength and spirit to 
 the confederates this year, and humbled the pride of Lewis. 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. 
 
 General Affairs of Evrope to the death of Lewis XIV. and 
 the suppression of the insurrection in Scotland Remarks. 
 
 THE exhausted treasury of Lewis XIV. compelled him to 
 desperate measures ; he ordered bills to be drawn upon his 
 mint, and resolutely prepared for action ; the confederates 
 where triumphant in Italy, and the French abandoned their 
 conquests by a convention the French were victorious how- 
 ever in Spain, at the battle of Almanzar, and the prospects 
 of Philip V. stood high. 
 
 In 1707 prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy penetrated 
 into France, laid seige to Toulon, and failed ; this with the 
 successes in Spain, and feuds which sprang up in the coun- 
 cils of England, revived the hopes and spirits of Lewis ; but 
 the success of the confederates in Flanders and Italy, and the 
 suppresion of the feuds in the English cabinet, together with 
 the capture of Sardinia and Minorca, by the English, joined 
 to the low state of his funds, pressed Louis in 1708 to make 
 advantageous overtures of peace to the confederates. These 
 
 18 
 
206 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 they haughtily rejected, and pushed the war in 1709 with re 
 newed vigour and success in Flanders. 
 
 Louis again pressed his overtures for peace, and the next 
 year conferences were appointed at Gertruydenburg. Lewis 
 made concessions at this conference which were humiliating 
 to him, and served to flatter the pride, and raise the spirits, 
 as well as the demands -of the confederates : they rejected 
 the overtures, broke off the conferences, and took the field, 
 with renewed success, in Flanders. Charles III. entered 
 Madrid at the head of his victorious army ; but was soon com- 
 pelled to restore it to Philip V. ; and the war in Spain raged 
 with various success. 
 
 At this time a new feud sprang up in the councils of Eng- 
 land, and divided the champions of the nation ; Godolphin 
 and Maryborough, began to decline. The tories cried out 
 danger to church and state, and the pulpit echoed the cry. 
 This produced a change in the ministry ; Marlborough sup- 
 ported his popularity ; but Godolphin was succeeded in the 
 treasury by Harly, earl of Oxford. This feud again revived 
 the claims of the pretender, and Godolphin espoused his 
 cause ; but the tories triumphed in a new parliament, 1710. 
 This year the arch duke Charles succeeded to the imperial 
 throne, upon the death of the emperor Joseph, which gave 
 pome check to the bold plans of the duke of Marlborough. 
 The parliament of England voted liberal supplies, and the 
 war was pushed with vigour. The feuds in parliament called 
 forth the best talents of the nation ; a dignified speech from 
 the queen, would have quieted, and united the councils of the 
 nation, had not the influence of Marlborough produced an 
 overheated zeal in the house of lords, and effected a secret 
 treaty between England and France, which however destroy- 
 ed his popularity and command, 1711. 
 
 The treaty fired the parties of England, with warmth and 
 bitterness it was not contended by the whigs, that Spain 
 could have been conquered at that time, and Charles III. 
 placed upon the throne of Philip V. by the sword ; but they 
 did contend, that under the existing state of the armies, to- 
 gether with the low state of the finances of Lewis, the con- 
 federates under Marlborough in Flanders, might, in one more 
 campaign, have penetrated to Paris, and compelled Lewis to 
 depose his grand-son, Philip V. and place the arch duke upon 
 the throne of Spain, and also have established a barrier on the 
 north, which would have effectually humbled the house of 
 Bourbon. 
 
PEACE OF UTRECHT. 207 
 
 These truths the whigs in England realized, these truths 
 the confederates all realized, and were severely mortified at 
 their disappointment. They made great efforts, by the aid 
 of prince Eugene, (who was invited by the whigs over into 
 England for that purpose,) to renew the confederacy, and 
 prosecute the war, but to no effect : the tories were estab- 
 lished, and the councils firm ; and conferences for a general 
 peace were opened at Utrecht. 
 
 The successive deaths of several of the princes of France, 
 at this time, increased the apprehension, lest the crown of 
 France and Spain should be united in one head, upon the 
 death of Lewis ; and called forth all the energies of the con- 
 tracting parties, to guard against this, by positive stipulation : 
 which was, ultimately, though reluctantly, complied with, by 
 Lewis, and he guaranteed the renunciation of his grandson, 
 Philip V. to all claims upon the crown of France. This pro- 
 duced a secret cessation of arms on the part of England, 
 which separated the English forces from the confederacy, and 
 an open avowal of the treaty ensued. 
 
 The Dutch, the duke of Savoy, and the kings of Portugal 
 and Spain, followed the example of the English ; and the 
 emperor being left alone in the war, a general peace was con- 
 cluded at Utrecht, and the storm of war once more hushed 
 in the south, 1713. The parties ran high at this time, in Eng- 
 land ; it became now well understood, that not only Godol- 
 phin, the ex-minister, but the duke of Marlborough himself, 
 secretly favoured the cause of the pretender ; and that great 
 efforts were made to induce his sister, the queen, to provide 
 for his restoration. 
 
 James III. was a violent catholic, and as obstinately so as 
 his father : this roused all the fears of the protestants, and 
 when united with the feuds produced at the peace, distracted 
 the nation. 
 
 A party, called Jacobites, were actually engaged to restore 
 the pretender : this called forth a vote of parliament, of 
 one hundred thousand pounds, to whoever should apprehend 
 him in Great Britain. During the violence of these meas- 
 ures, Queen Anne died, and was succeeded by George I. 
 elector ef Hanover : who placed the w%gs at the head of the 
 administration, commenced a general inquiry into the state 
 of the nation, and the negociations of the peace of Utrecht, 
 as the surest means of quieting the parties, and establishing 
 ais throne 1714. 
 
208 DEATH OF LEWIS XIV. 
 
 In the midst of these scenes, died Lewis XIV. king of 
 France, who was succeeded by Lewis XV. then a minor ; arid 
 the government of France fell under the regency of the duke 
 of Orleans, 1715. He espoused the cause of James III. (the 
 pretender,) and secretly co-operated with the Jacobites in 
 England and Scotland, to eifect his restoration. Great pre- 
 parations were made this year, for the reception of James III. 
 in England ; and the Jacobites invited him to land at Plym- 
 outh. A general insurrection took place in Scotland, and 
 these hardy sons of the mountains, who boasted that they 
 never had been conquered, tendered their services to James, 
 in support of his claims to the crown of England. 
 
 This formidable conspiracy in Scotland and England, cal 
 led forth the energies of George ; and the kingdom of Eng- 
 land and Scotland, were again torn with the distresses of a 
 civil war. The pretender landed in Scotland : again the prot- 
 estant cause was triumphant that God who rides on the 
 whirlwind and directs the storm, appeared in support of the 
 reformation. The struggle was short ; the fatal battle of 
 Sherimnuir decided the fate of the pretender, and his popish 
 cause forever in England ; his partisans dispersed, and he fled 
 to France. A few executions suppressed the rebellion, re- 
 stored the tranquillity of the nation, and established the throne. 
 
 The conflicting passions, which had harassed and distress- 
 ed Europe, in the south, during the long and ambitious reign 
 of Lewis XIV. were once more hushed into a general calm. 
 The exhausted state of finances, throughout these kingdoms, 
 rendered a general peace not only necessary : but actually 
 forbade the renewal of hostilities. 
 
 France was content to secure her ancient limits, with the 
 acquisition of the crown of Spain, to a branch of the house of 
 Bourbon. England had secured a protestant succession, and 
 the .union of Scotland ; but the emperor of Germany had ob- 
 tained no adequate compensation for the blood arid treasure 
 expended in the war, excepting the union of Hungary, with 
 the house of Austria. 
 
 Atthe close of the last war, by the peace ofRyswick, we 
 turned our attention slightly, to the general improvement of 
 manners, literature and the arts, since the reigns of Charles 
 V. Frances I. and Henry VIII. in the middle of the sixteenth 
 century : let us now take a view of the changes, which the 
 long reign of Lewis XIV. produced, in the relative connec* 
 tion of the kingdoms in the south of Europe. 
 
BALANCE OF POWER. 209 
 
 ie high claims and pretensions, which marked the com- 
 mencement of the reign of this haughty, overbearing mon- 
 arch, called up the general attention of the nations to their 
 common safety, and led them to enquire into the principles of 
 their common interest and security. These principles led 
 Spain, Italy, Germany, England and Holland to suspend their 
 private interests and views, together with their private piques, 
 and objects of ambition, and form one grand confederacy, to 
 check the high menacing ambition of France. The success- 
 es of this coalition were displayed in the peace of Ryswick. 
 
 When the intrigues of Lewis to accomplish the union of 
 the crowns of France and Spain, upon the death of Charles 
 II. again threatened to commit the peace of Europe, and de- 
 stroy the general interest, which the peace of Ryswick had 
 secured again the southern kingdoms coalesced, first under 
 the triple alliance, and then generally ; humbled the gigantic 
 power of France, reduced her to the last extremity, severed 
 the union then contemplated, by express stipulation ; and the 
 treaty of Utrecht, guaranteed to Europe a balance of power, 
 which remained undisturbed down to the French revolution. 
 
 Thus we see, how from the private quarrels of individuals 
 in the early ages, of neighboring chiefs, of neighboring and ri- 
 val cities, of neighboring states, or kingdoms, either separate- 
 ly, or with private alliances to promote, or check ambition, 
 the nations of Europe have become one great family, with 
 separate views ; but one great union of interest, founded up- 
 on that balance of power, which they have effected by their 
 great coalitions, and which has become inseparably interwo- 
 ven, not only with the general safety and tranquillity, but 
 with their very existence, as independent states and sove- 
 reignties. 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. 
 
 Europe, from the commencement of the quadruple alliance, to 
 the accession of Francis I. of Austria. 
 
 WHEN the mighty struggle of ambition which called forth 
 the triple alliance, and in succession involved all the south of 
 Europe in a distressing and eventful war, to prevent the un- 
 ion of the crowns of France and Spain, in the house of Bour- 
 
 18* 
 
QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. 
 
 bon had been so successfully closed ; when Lewis XIV. the 
 author of this mighty struggle, had guaranteed an eternal ex- 
 clusion, to the union of the two crowns in the house of 
 Bourbon, in order to restore that tranquillity which his ambi- 
 tion had disturbed, by exciting a war which he could no long- 
 er maintain, and to guarantee to his grandson Philip V. the 
 quiet possession of the crown of Spain : when Philip had 
 voluntarily sanctioned the measures of Lewis, his grandfath- 
 er, and was quietly enjoying all that he possessed, or could 
 in honor or justice claim : when all the contracting parties 
 were contentedly enjoying that quiet, which the great inter- 
 est of Europe required and demanded, after so long and ardu- 
 ous struggles as she had experienced, during the long reign 
 of Lewis XIV. : it was to have been expected, that a repose 
 so desirable, might have been continued. 
 
 What shall we say, when we announce, that the same spir- 
 it of ambition which fired the breast of Lewis, inflamed the 
 heart of Philip V. and led him to light again the torch of war, 
 by his intrigues to obtain the regency of France, during the 
 minority of Lewis XV. and thereby secure the union of the 
 two crowns of France and Spain. Although the conspirators 
 were discovered in the house of Bourbon, and duly punish- 
 ed, and the duke of Orleans more firmly established in the 
 regency ; the powers of Europe resented this outrage, and 
 England, France, Holland and Germany, under the quadru- 
 ple alliance, (so called) declared war against Spain in 1718. 
 
 The French invaded Spain on the northern frontier : the 
 English triumphed over the Spanish fleet, and took the isl- 
 ands of Sicily and Sardinia : Philip complied with the terms 
 prescribed, disgraced his minister, and sued for peace. 
 
 At this time, the famous Mississippi scheme appeared in 
 France, and through the infatuating spirit of John Law, ruin- 
 ed their system of finance, and spread distress through the 
 nation. The same spirit spread into England, and blew up 
 what was called the south sea bubble, and produced the same 
 effects upon the funds, and upon the nation, as the scheme of 
 Law had produced in France. These damped the spirit for 
 war in the two nations ; the operations of the alliance lan- 
 guished ; the death of the duke of Orleans in the year 1723, 
 paved the way for peace, by the treaties of Vienna and Han- 
 over, 1795 ; which was finally settled by the peace of Se- 
 ville, in 1727. 
 
GENERAL PEACE. 241 
 
 Pending these negotiations, died George I. who was suc- 
 ceeded by his son George II. Under this succession, parties 
 ran high in England ; corruption, jealousy and strife, dis- 
 tracted the councils of the nation. During these struggles in 
 England, died Augustus, king of Poland, 1733 ; and Lewis 
 XV. of France, now on the throne, engaged with Spain and 
 Sardinia, in a war against the emperor of Germany, to recov- 
 er the crown of Poland for his father-in-law, Stanislaus Leck- 
 zinski, who once held it under the favor and protection of 
 Charles XII. king of Sweden, by usurpation, and had fallen, 
 and fled to France upon the restoration of Augustus. The 
 French invaded Germany and Italy with such success, that 
 the emperor sued for peace. Lewis relinquished his claims 
 on the crown of Poland, and obtained for Stanislaus the 
 duchy of Lorrain, with its cession to France, upon the death 
 of Stanislaus, and peace was concluded, 1736. 
 
 During the distressing wars in Europe, for the last century, 
 the commerce, and collonial possessions of England, France, 
 Spain and Holland, rapidly progressed in North and South 
 America, and both the Indies, and became the source of that 
 wealth, by which these powers were enabled to equip such 
 vast fleets, and raise and support such vast armies. 
 
 Although war was the means of increasing and prolonging 
 the distresses of the nations, it became the instrument of en- 
 couraging and promoting the arts and sciences, of softening 
 and polishing their ferocity of manners, of disseminating the 
 principles of toleration in religion, and thereby establishing 
 the reformation upon a more permanent basis. 
 
 During this period of commercial spirit and enterprise, the 
 strife, and conflicting interests of England and Spain, led 
 them into a commercial war, in 1739. This war became a 
 war of plunder : The English exerted all their force to aug- 
 ment their maritime strength ; to plunder and rifle the 
 Spanish commerce, particularly those ships laden with the 
 treasures of Peru. 
 
 They seized on the most wealthy commercial ports of 
 Spain, in South America, and under various successes, were 
 enriched with the spoils of war ; particularly by the capture 
 of a Spanish galleon, off the coast of Chili, in 1744, by lord 
 Air on, who traversed the great Pacific with his prize, visited 
 India, returned to England by the way of the Cape of Good 
 Hope, and landed his treasure, where it was carried in great- 
 triumph, arid deposited in the tower. 
 
212 MARIA THERESA. 
 
 At the commencement of this war, died the last prince of 
 the house of Austria, Charles VI. This death opened a new 
 field for the powers of Europe. The treaty of Seville, which 
 closed the war of the quadruple alliance against Spain con- 
 templating the exposed situation of the house of Austria, and 
 anticipating the claims that would commence upon the death 
 of the emperor, Charles VI. guaranteed by a general confed- 
 Oration, the right of succession to Maria Theresa, eldest 
 daughter of Charles VI. and then wife of Francis, duke of 
 Lorrain. Maria Theresa was acknowledged by all the states 
 of Austria, and soon Became extremely popular. 
 
 At this time a secret league took place, between Lewis 
 XV. Frederic III. king of Prussia, and the elector of Bavaria, 
 to divide the Austrian dominions. The king of Prussia opened 
 the war upon Silesia, and soon placed his standard on the 
 walls of Breslaw, the capital. The forces of France entered 
 Germany, formed a junction with the elector, in Bavaria, and 
 penetrated to Vienna. The empress retired to Presburg, in- 
 Hungary, where, by her artful address, she roused up the zeal 
 and spirit of the nation, under old count Palfy, who soon ap- 
 peared for the relief of Vienna.* The allies did not wait his 
 approach, but filed off into Bohemia, invested, and took 
 Prague, and crowned the elector of Bavaria king of Bohemia ; 
 from thence he proceeded to Frankfort, and was crowned em- 
 peror, under the title of Charles VII. 1742. 
 
 The gigantic strides of France, the dangerous state of Aus- 
 tria, and general interest of Germany, that engrossed the at- 
 tention of George I. together with the good effects which re- 
 sulted to the allies from the connection between England and 
 Austria, in humbling the pride of Lewis XIV. induced George 
 II. to espouse with warmth and zeal, the cause of Maria 
 Theresa. 
 
 George carried with him the spirit of his people : he de- 
 
 * This address of the empress is worthy of record. When the em- 
 press had assembled the states of Hungary, she appeared at their head, 
 arid bearing her eldest, and her infant son in her arms, thus addressed 
 them : " Abandoned by my friends, persecuted by my enemies, and 
 attacked by my nearest relations, I have no resource left, but in your 
 fidelity and valor. On you alone, I depend for relief; and into your 
 hands I commit the son of your sovereign, and my just cause." Fired 
 with indignation and rage, they drew their swords, and with tears of 
 zeal and compassion, they exclaimed: " We will die for our king." 
 The nobility were instantly in arms, and at the head of thirty thousand 
 men. 
 
TREATY OF WORMS. 213 
 
 posed his opposing ministry ; filled their places with such as 
 were ready to second his views ; his parliament liberally 
 granted supplies, and George assembled an army in Flanders 
 of 36, 000 men; the Austrians penetrated into Bavaria, and 
 took Munich. 
 
 At this critical moment, the court of France were struck, 
 as with a clap of thunder, by the tidings of the treaty ofBres- 
 faw, and peace between Prussia and Austria. 
 
 The allies were closely invested in Prague, and their fate 
 considered as desperate. The French, on the Rhine, made an 
 effort to relieve Prague, butit failed : the duke De Belleisle, 
 however by an artful movement, stole a march upon the be- 
 siegers, abandoned Prague, and led back his army, with all 
 his baggage and artillery, to the banks of the Rhine. 
 
 Spain, in alliance with France, pushed the war in Italy, 
 with such success, as to rouse up the king of Sardinia to an 
 alliance with the empress, and king of England, and the war 
 raged by sea and land. Atthe commencement of 17.43, the 
 French sued for peace the allies refused. This artful poli- 
 cy kindled afresh the feuds of opposition in the British par- 
 liament ; George reinforced his army in Flanders, and took 
 the field in person. This occasioned such suspicious move- 
 ments, particularly at the battle of Dettingen, as damped the 
 spirit of the allies, and caused the British general, the earl of 
 Stain to resign in disgust. 
 
 The treaty of Worms, between the arch duchess, Maria 
 Theresa, and the king of Sardinia, strengthened her pros- 
 pects ; but her imperious deportment led several German 
 princes to negotiate with the new emperor, Charles VII. at 
 Frankfort. 
 
 These movements called forth a secret treaty at Fountain- 
 bleau, between France and Spain, to recover the sovereignty 
 of the Mediterranean, and at the same time all the old in- 
 trigues for the restoration of the pretender were renewed, and 
 correspondences opened between England, Scotland and 
 France ; an army of fifteen thousand men assembled in 
 France, under the celebrated count Saxe, and actually em- 
 barked for England, to restore the pretender. This diversion 
 failed, and was defeated by violent storms, and all further 
 movements were prevented by a superior British fleet, 1744. 
 
 The various operations, and various successes of the par- 
 ties through this year and the next, in Flanders, Italy, Spain 
 and Germany, are too numerous and complicated for detail ; 
 
214 
 
 CHARLES III. IN SCOTLAND. 
 
 suffice it to say, that at the close of the year 1745, all the 
 contending powers were hushed to peace, excepting France 
 and Austria : and the husband of Maria Theresa was crown- 
 ed emperor, under the title of Francis I. 
 
 The successes of this war, strengthened and confirmed 
 that mutual dependence and support, which the other alliance 
 had encouraged, between Great-Britain and the house of Aus- 
 tria. As it proved to be then, so it has continued to be to 
 this day, the great barrier against the overbearing ambition, 
 and the gigantic strides of France. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIII. 
 
 Europe, from ike accession of George II. of England to the 
 confederacy against the king of Prussia, and war of 1756. 
 
 THE violent opposition to the continental war, which dis- 
 tracted the British councils, at the accession of George II. 
 and rendered a change of ministry so necessary, went into 
 retirement with the ex-ministers, and laid the foundation for 
 that faction, which promoted and encouraged the return of 
 the pretender, to seize on the crown of England. This spirit 
 spread into Scotland, that hot-bed of rebellion, where an in- 
 surrection was soon in readiness to receive the pretender, 
 and place him upon the English throne, in 1745, 
 
 Fired with these expectations, together with the flattering 
 prospects from France, Charles III. son of James III. em- 
 barked from France, and landed in Scotland unattended, and 
 unsupported ; (his supplies from France having been blown 
 back and blockaded, as before observed.) The Scottish 
 chiefs rallied round his standard and marched into England 
 with apparent success, but were soon compelled to retire into 
 Scotland, where Charles enjoyed for a few days, the pride of 
 mock majesty ; fought the fatal battle of Culloden, deserted 
 his standard and his friends ; left them to their fate, and re- 
 tired to France. 
 
 The severity of the government, in punishing the insur- 
 gent chiefs, and stripping them of their hereditary jurisdic- 
 tion, throughout the highlands, humbled this rebellious spirit 
 in Scotland, and secured the crown of England against all fu- 
 ture claims from the pretender. 
 
DEATH OF PHILIP V. 215 
 
 The war which continued on the continent between 
 France and Austria, was rendered illustrious in Flanders, un- 
 der marshal Saxe, by his successes in this campaign ; but the 
 campaign in Italy was closed with various success in 1746. 
 
 The treaty of Fontainbleau, between France and Spain, 
 was violated by a secret treaty, between France and the king 
 of Sardinia, which roused the Spanish jealousy, and distract- 
 ed the operations in Italy ; at this critical juncture died 
 Philip the V. The government of Spain devolved upon the 
 queen but Ferdinand VI. the son of Philip V. succeeded to 
 the throne. 
 
 The cause of France and Spain, soon became desperate in 
 Italy they retired to Genoa, but were soon compelled to 
 abandon that city to her fate, and retire into France. The 
 military exactions which the ^ustrians enforced upon Genoa, 
 humbled, and almost ruined that haughty republic ; yet left 
 them a spirit, which roused up and repelled their oppressive 
 conquerors, and recovered their liberty. This closed the 
 campaign. The French, at the same time threatened Hano- 
 ver ; this caused a secret treaty between England and Prus- 
 sia, and a subsidary treaty between England and Russia. 
 Thus arrayed, the parties prepared for action. 
 
 George II. published a spirited manifesto. The king of 
 Prussia penetrated into Saxony, took Dresden, and compel- 
 led Augustus III. king of Poland, to take refuge with his army. 
 
 He next penetrated into Bohemia, with apparent success, 
 under desperate conflicts, at the same time the capture of the 
 whole Saxon army, opened his way to fall back into Saxony, 
 and take up his winter quarters at Dresden. Here he dis- 
 covered the plan of the allies, to divide up his kingdom ; 
 particularly Austria, Russia and Saxony, and preparations 
 were made to open the campaign with vigor. 
 
 France opened the campaign, by a movement of eighty 
 thousand men, to invade the electorate of Hanover, and at 
 the same time sent a small force into Germany, to co-operrte 
 with Austria. George II. entered with zeal into the war, dis- 
 graced his opposing ministry, and strengthened his cause, by 
 appointing his friends, and sent the duke of Cumberland into 
 Germany, to defend Hanover, at the head of forty thousand 
 men. The Russians prepared to co-operate with Austria. 
 
 The king of Prussia anticipated all their movements, enter- 
 ed Bohemia in four divisions, triumphed over one Austrian 
 army, united his forces, triumphed over the main body of the 
 
216 BOHEMIA ftVACUATED. 
 
 Austrian forces in Bohemia, and invested them in Prague 
 Elated with the successes of this victory, with too much confi- 
 dence, he detached a part of his army to check old marsh; 
 Daun, and soon followed in person with another detachment 
 
 These two great champions of the age met, and a battl 
 ensued ; the carnage of 20,000 men witnessed the valor ar 
 obstinacy of the conflict ; both sides claimed the victory 
 The king of Prussia retired, raised the siege of Prague, am 
 evacuated Bohemia. The remarks which have fallen froi 
 the pens of some of the greatest captains, in marking the 
 errors of the king of Prussia, at this critical juncture, and 
 showing how he might not only have remedied his misfor- 
 tunes, but have triumphed over marshal Daun, are too len- 
 gthy for this work. 
 
 It must be evident at first view, to every reader, that the 
 successes of the king, had inspired him with too much self- 
 confidence, and too much contempt for his enemies, and that 
 this caused his loss of Bohemia. 
 
 At this critical state of the king, the Russians entered Prus- 
 sia on the north, with an army of one hundred thousand men, 
 and triumphed over one of his best generals, in a signal vic- 
 tory ; the contest was sharp and desperate, the spirit of the 
 Prussian charge, was received by the Russians upon the point 
 of the bayonet, which displayed the firmness of their charac- 
 ter and discipline ; the Prussians retired with great loss. 
 The valor and firmness of the Russians had not been experi- 
 enced in the south, at that day ; and this war opened a field 
 for the cultivation of their discipline, and laid the foundation 
 for such future operations as have been witnessed. 
 
 The English made some diversion on the coast of France 
 this year, but without effect ; and the French seized on the 
 English settlement of Madras, in the East Indies, which clos- 
 ed the naval operations of this year, 1747. The campaign 
 was opened the next year, by a great accession of strength to 
 all the parties, and the arms of France were again rendered 
 illustrious in Flanders under marshal Saxe ; they overran all 
 the low conn-tries, and threatened Holland. The general 
 alarm roused Tip the spirit of the Dutch ; they invested the 
 prince of Orange, with the title of" stadtholder, captain gen- 
 eral and commander in chief of all- the United Provinces ;" 
 and made vigorous efforts to defend their country. 
 
 The illustrious marshal Saxe triumphed over all opposi- 
 tion ; and with the failof Bergen-op-zoom, (the key of Dutch 
 
CONGRESS P AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 217 
 
 Brabant,) became master of the navigation of the Scheldt. 
 The allied house of Bourbon were again unsuccessful, in all 
 their efforts in Italy this year. The triumph of England in 
 1748, over the navies and commerce of France, by the cap- 
 ture of twelve ships of the line, and fifty East and West In- 
 dia merchantmen, struck a severe blow to the spirits of Lewis 
 XV. and called his attention to a peace. 
 
 This year opened with a general congress at Aix-la-cha- 
 pelle. The affairs of Lewis, although so highly successful in 
 Flanders, had now become desperate : the ruin of his com- 
 merce and navy, cut off the resources of his treasury ; the 
 failure of his hopes in Italy the appointment of the grand 
 duke, emperor, and thereby defeating the prime object of the 
 war, in establishing the claims of the arch duchess Maria The- 
 resa ; the treaty of Breslaw, which detached the king of Prus- 
 sia from the confederacy ; the new powers of the stadthold- 
 er, which presented a formidable barrier on the part of Hol- 
 land ; but above all the high state of the English funds, their 
 liberality, particularly in subsidizing the empress of Russia, 
 and at the same time despatching a powerful fleet to the East 
 Indies, to recover Madras, and redeem Pondicherry all 
 pressed Lewis to efforts for peace. A cessation of arms soon 
 ensued, and the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, soon closed the 
 sanguinary conflict, 1748. 
 
 In this peace, the treaties of Westphalia, Rysa, &c. were 
 confirmed ; all conquests were restored, the accession of the 
 arch duchess confirmed, and the guarantee of the pragmatic 
 sanction renewed by all the former contracting parties, and 
 all things remained in statu quo, except the acquisition of Si- 
 lesia to the king of Prussia. 
 
 This war is generally considered, as a useless, wanton waste 
 of blood and treasure for no adequate purpose. This is strict- 
 ly true, so far as it regarded France and Spain : but far dif- 
 ferent with England : this war established the superiority of 
 the English navy and commerce, confirmed the policy of the 
 two former wars, of wasting the treasure, and humbling the 
 house of Bourbon by continental alliances, whilst England 
 bestowed her whole attention upon her navy, her commerce, 
 and her colonies in the East and West Indies, and in North 
 America, and laid the foundation of all her future greatness. 
 The fruits of this war, saved her North American colonies. 
 
 The most flattering prospects of general tranquillity in Eu- 
 rope, succeeded the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and continued. 
 
 19 
 
218 CAPTURE OF MINORCA. 
 
 with the exception of some feuds and intrigues in the courts 
 of England, France and Spain, down to the year 1756. Dur- 
 ing this period, some strife and intrigues sprang up, between 
 the settlements of England and France in the East Indies ; 
 but nothing decisive, and a treaty settled their claims. 
 
 In 1754, some collisions commenced between the English 
 and French colonies in North America, which continued, and 
 were interwoven with the seven years war, which commenced 
 in 1756, and which raged generally in Europe. The opera- 
 tions of this war in America, I shall defer, arid consider in the 
 general history of America. 
 
 The English took advantage of these collisions in Ameri- 
 ca, and commenced general depredations upon the commerce 
 of France, and captured more than three hundred sail of 
 merchant ships : at the same time commenced their intrigues 
 upon the continent. 
 
 The state of the French funds, led the court of Lewis XV, 
 to anew system of policy ; he bore the depredations of the 
 English, without making reprisals he remembered the per- 
 fidy of the king of Prussia, in deserting the confederates by 
 the treaty of Breslaw ; he also remembered the cause of re- 
 sentment the house of Austria justly entertained against that 
 prince, for his alliance with France, to oppose the claims 
 of the arch duchess, and for the acquisition of Silesia, which 
 he obtained by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 He felt the ascendency which George the II. had obtained 
 in the two last wars, by his continental influence ; this he as- 
 cribed to his power, as elector of Hanover. Lewis cherish- 
 ed the resentment of the house of Austria, against the king of 
 Prussia, and the two powers formed an alliance to punish the 
 king of Prussia, and divide up his dominions ; they had the 
 address to unite Russia and Sweden in this confederacy, and 
 the war commenced by the invasion of Minorca, by the 
 French, which was carried, through the defection of the Brit- 
 ish admiral Byng. 
 
 A general exultation reigned in France, and a general de- 
 spondency in England, and their former high martial spirit, 
 now tamely submitted to the introduction of German troops 
 into England, to repel a threatened invasion from France. 
 1757. 
 
WAR IN PRUSSIA OF 1756. 219 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 
 
 General affairs of the seven years war in Europe, to the peace 
 of Paris, 1763. 
 
 DURING the operations in Bohemia and Prussia, the duke 
 of Cumberland retired before the French under the marshal 
 De Etress, took refuge under the cannon ot Stade, and saved 
 his army, by signing the convention of Closterseven, aban- 
 doning Hanover to the French arms, and retiring to Eng- 
 land. This occasioned a new revolution in the cabinet of 
 George IT. : the ex-minister was restored, and some diversion 
 planned and executed against the coast of France ; but with- 
 out success. 
 
 By these misfortunes in Europe together with some losses 
 in America, the English felt sensibly their disgrace ; when 
 the spirit of the nation was relieved by a favourable turn in 
 their affairs, a successful recovery of their former losses, 
 with some valuable acquisitions in the East Indies, and an 
 exaction of two millions, to indemnify the expenses of the 
 war. 
 
 The losses of the king of Prussia, constrained him to act 
 on the defensive. The allied French and Austrians, invaded 
 Saxony, and summoned Leipsic. The king advanced to meet 
 them ; a battle ensued ; the king was victorious and the 
 allies retired. Old mareschal Daun, at the same time ad- 
 vanced into Silesia, invested Schweidnitz, and carried it by 
 storm ; attacked and subdued the prince of Bevern, took him 
 prisoner, and entered Breslaw. 
 
 The king flew to the relief of Silesia, united his scattered 
 forces, and prepared for action. Mareschal Daun, and prince 
 Charles, advanced to meet the king, with the same spirits, 
 that led the king into his misfortunes in Bohemia, viz. : too 
 much self confidence ; and they in their turn experienced the 
 same misfortune. 
 
 The king met the allies at Luthen, strongly posted, and 
 awaiting his attack. Here was exhibited the decisive advan- 
 tage of Prussian tactics and dicipline, over the superior for- 
 ces and-position of the allies. 
 
 The king commenced the attack, by a movement on the 
 right of the enemy's position ; and when mareschal Daun 
 had weakened his left, to support his right, the king by amas- 
 ferly display to the right, fell with his whole force upon their 
 
220 
 
 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 left : the battle was decisive, the carnage was great ; the al- 
 lies were driven from their commanding position, and the 
 king followed up his victory ; the allies retired out of Silesia, 
 and the king entered Breslaw in triumph. 
 
 The successes of the king, set the example to all his gene- 
 rals, and the Russians and Swedes, were soon driven out of 
 Prussia. These glorious successes of the king of Prussia, 
 inspired his friends with fresh confidence, and roused up the 
 electorate of Hanover, to assert their liberties. George II. 
 placed the duke of Brunswick at their head, and by his suc- 
 cessful valour, he compelled the French to retire out of Hano- 
 ver, and repass the Rhine. These spirited measures in Prus- 
 sia and Hanover, inspired the cabinet of George with fresh 
 confidence, and led his minister, Mr. Pttt, to say, that Ameri- 
 ca must be saved in Europe, and that the king of Prussia 
 must be supported. 
 
 A new treaty was negotiated with the king of Prussia, and 
 the parliament were liberal in their supplies for the war. A 
 change took place in the French ministry, and the war raged 
 upon the Rhine with various success. During these opera- 
 tions, the king of Prussia advanced in pursuit of mareschal 
 Daun ; penetrated into Moravia, and laid seige to Olmutz. 
 
 Upon the intelligence that the Russians had entered Bran- 
 denburg, he raised the seige of Olmutz, retired in the face of 
 that old hero, and returned into Prussia met the Russians, 
 and after a terrible conflict and carnage, he triumphed over 
 them in the battle of Zorndorf : the Russians retired into Po- 
 land, and the king, by a masterly movement, again appeared 
 in Saxony, for the relief of his brother, against the imperial 
 and Austrian armies : the latter under old mareschal Daun. 
 A. desperate action ensued, the king retired but gained his 
 purpose, and was not pursued. 
 
 He passed again into Silesia ; expelled the Austrians, re- 
 turned into Saxony ; compelled mareschal Daun to raise the 
 siege of Dresden, and entered it in triumph. The splendid 
 and triumphant displays of the arms of the king of Prussia, 
 together with several successful diversions of England, on 
 the coast of France, and the triumphant display of the Eng- 
 lish flag in the British channel, gave a new aspect to the af- 
 fairs of Europe, and closed the campaign of 1758, gloriously. 
 
 The successes of the last season, enabled the king of Prus- 
 sia, to open the next campaign, with a train of splendid success- 
 es, against the Russians in Poland, ; against the Swede in Po- 
 
WAR CONTINUED. 22J 
 
 id against the Austrians in Silesia, Bohemia and 
 Franconia. These, together with his plan of operation with 
 the duke of Brunswick, gave promising assurances of a spee- 
 dy issue to the war : when a sudden reverse of fortune, blast- 
 ed all his fair prospects, and gave a new turn to the opera- 
 tions of the campaign. 
 
 The French penetrated into Germany with splendid suc- 
 cess, and again threatened Hanover ; the duke of Brunswick 
 retired to the confines of the electorate, and gave battle to 
 the French. The success of this action, saved Hanover : the 
 French retired towards the Rhine, and the duke posted a part 
 of his army for the defence of Hanover, and detached the re- 
 mainder to the relief of the king of Prussia, whose forces had 
 received a severe check by the Russians in Silesia, where 
 the king Avas about to repair in person ; when old mareschal 
 Daun reinforced the Russians, and rendered that army about 
 one hundred thousand strong : they took up a commanding 
 position, and awaited the approach of the king. 
 
 Fired with resentment at the ravages of the enemy, and 
 inflamed with the passions of war, the king with only fifty 
 thousand men, hastened to the contest ; the Russians were 
 broken, and routed : they again rallied their forces, and took 
 post on a commanding eminence the king made several des- 
 perate efforts to dislodge them ; but failed. The Austrian 
 cavalry charged the Prussians in their turn, with success ; 
 the action became general ; thrice the king at the head of his 
 brave troops, led them to the charge thrice his horse was 
 shot under him, and his clothes pierced with balls ; but with 
 out effect ; the mass offeree was against him, and baffled his 
 efforts. The king retired, leaving a carnage of thirty thou- 
 sand men ; more than half of which were Prussians ; night 
 closed the scene, and prevented a total overthrow. 
 
 A singular anecdote of the king, in this memorable action, 
 may be worth notice. Upon the success of the first charge, 
 when the Prussians were in the Russian trenches ; the king, 
 in the heat of the action, wrote the following message, and 
 despatched it to the queen. " We have driven the Russians 
 from their entrenchments ; expect within two hours to hear 
 of a glorious victory." Immediately upon the change in the 
 fortune of the day, the king addressed a second message to 
 the queen, from the field of action. " Remove from Berlin 
 with the royal family. Let the archives be carried to Potz- 
 19* 
 
222 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 dam. The town may make conditions with the enemy. " 
 So fickle is the fortune of war. 
 
 His majesty fell back, took a commanding position, recruit- 
 ed and reinforced his army, was able to cover his capital 
 and to the astonishment of Europe, to act on the offensive, and 
 recover all his losses in Saxony, except Dresden ; by a mas- 
 terly movement, he compelled the Russians to retire into 
 Poland and in spite of the Austrian generals marched into 
 Saxony ; old mareschal Daun fell back upon Dresden. 
 
 Fired with his prospects, the king resolved to cut off the 
 retreat of mareschal Daun, by a detachment from his own 
 army ; reduce the Austrian army at a blow, and close the 
 campaign with the recovery of Saxon)', and the total over- 
 throw of Daun. This rash measure, lost him the whole 
 force, detached to intercept the retreat of the old mareschal ; 
 who took up his position in his fortified carnp, and the king 
 retired into winter quarters. 
 
 Thus the campaign closed, after the most active operations . 
 desperate carnage, and brilliant displays of arms, exactly 
 where it began ; except the fall of Dresden to the Austrians. 
 
 The operations of the winter opened a new scene the suc- 
 cesses in America, led the English to make the most of their 
 fleet, and they commenced a general attack upon the French 
 West India colonies, and with general success. The French 
 and Dutch made several efforts to ravage the English settle- 
 ments in India, but failed. 
 
 At home also the French assembled their forces, equipped 
 their fleets, and threatened to revenge the depredations of the 
 English upon their coast, by invading England : this brought 
 the theatre of action upon the water. A general blockade 
 of the ports of France, with several desperate engagements 
 between the English and French, closed this scene in 1760. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. Continued. 
 
 In 1761, the campaign opened with a general distribution 
 
 of force, about the same as at the commencement of the last 
 
 season, with a continuation of the general plan. The duke 
 
 of Brunswick protected Hanover, by the decisive action of 
 
 , Warburg. The king of Prussia, sensible of his rashness the 
 
last campaij 
 
 WAR CONTINUED. 223 
 
 campaign, particularly at the close, resolved to maintain 
 his strong position, and act on the defensive. 
 
 He saw his dominions invaded by three powerful armies : 
 the Russians upon the north ; one Austrian army in Saxony, 
 under mareschal Daun ; and another in Silesia, under general 
 Laudohn. By a movement, and success of Laudohn, the 
 king was constrained to abandon his defensive plan : by a 
 rapid movement, he marched into Saxony, and laid siege to 
 Dresden : mareschal Daun obliged him to retire, and without 
 an action. 
 
 At the same time Laudohn invested Breslaw ; and prince 
 Henry compelled him to abandon it. The king, alarmed at 
 the prospect of losing Silesia, by a junction between the Rus- 
 sians and mareschal Daun, made a masterly movement and 
 flew to its relief with his whole army, passed five large rivers, 
 with all his artillery and baggage, traversed a country more 
 than two hundred miles in extent, and appeared in Silesia ; 
 here he was enclosed by these three powerful armies, and 
 his fate considered desperate. 
 
 The very night, on which an attack was concerted by the 
 three generals, upon the camp of the king, he cautiously re- 
 tired, took a strong and commanding position, and watched 
 the movements of the enemy. They advanced to the attack, 
 as was agreed, in dead of night ; but to their astonishment, 
 the king was gone. At break of day he fell furiously upon 
 Laudohn, and before mareschal Daun could arrive with suc- 
 cor, he routed and dispersed his army. 
 
 The Russians withdrew from the scene, mareschal Daua 
 also retired, and took up a strong position in the mountains, 
 and the king was relieved : but his relief was only to follow 
 the Russians to his capital, where they penetrated, rifled his 
 magazines and royal treasures, laid the city under contribu- 
 tion, with other ravages attendant on war, and retired. 
 
 This spread a general gloom over the affairs of the king. 
 He, fired with indignation and rage, resolved to take ven- 
 geance on his enemies. With this view, he rushed into Sax- 
 ony, with an army of fifty thousand men ; mareschal Daun 
 followed him with an army of eighty thousand, took up a 
 strong position, and watched the king. 
 
 Resolved to attack him in defiance of all his security, the 
 king reconnoitered his position, drew out his army, and ad- 
 vanced to the charge. Mareschal Daun received him with 
 the discharge of more than two hundred pieces of cannon ; 
 
224 
 
 WAR CONTINUED. 
 
 victory long stood perched over the field now this, and now 
 that scale prevailed, until the great Daun was wounded, and 
 carried off the field ; victory soon declared lor the king the 
 Austrians fled, and left the field strewed with a terrible car- 
 nage, and night only saved the ruins of their army. 
 
 This victory, revived the spirits of his friends, and the na- 
 tion, and by his sudden movements, he recovered all Saxony, 
 except Dresden. The Austrians abandoned Silesia, the Rus- 
 sians abandoned Pomerania, and retired into Poland, and the 
 Swedes retired under the cannon of Stralsund. 
 
 Thus again the theatre of Europe has been drenched in 
 blood, the most masterly military movements have been 
 made, the most desperate and sanguinary battles have been 
 fought, the greatest feats of arms have been displayed, and 
 no decisive event has occurred. 
 
 The great contending parties are again balanced, as at the 
 close of the last campaign ; but the success of the English 
 in America, have richly compensated them for their liberal 
 supplies afforded in the war. The French received a blow, 
 which ruined their interest in North America, by the fall of 
 Quebec, and the loss of Canada. 
 
 The French were equally unsuccessful in India, by the 
 loss of Pondicherry, which fell into the hands of the English, 
 January, 1 76 1 . This closed the French power in Hindostan , 
 and confirmed to the English the supremacy of the whole 
 Coromandel coast. 
 
 Again, we see the fruits of Continental alliances : so often, 
 and so violently clamoured against in the English parliament. 
 The French are ruined in America, in India, and have suffer- 
 ed serious losses in their navy, commerce, and West India 
 islands, all the fruits of continental wars. 
 
 In the midst of this great continental struggle, and the suc- 
 cesses of his reign, died George II. who was succeeded by 
 his grandson, George III. then twenty-three years of age, 
 Oct 25, 1760. He commenced his reign under the most favora- 
 ble auspices, and received the applause of the nation, by a most 
 popular speech 'to his parliament, in which he exclaimed 
 " Born in England, I glory in the name of Briton." 
 
 The eyes of all parties, at home and abroad, were fixed on 
 the king. At this eventful crisis, all Christendom became 
 sensible of the wisdom of that continental system of policy, 
 which commenced in England, at the accession of William 
 
and Mary * 
 
 CONGRESS OF AUGSBURG. 
 
 and Mary,* and during the memorable reign of Lewis XIV. 
 of France, and which, by continuing down to this time, has 
 wasted the resources of France and Holland, (the great naval 
 and commercial rivals of England,) and enabled her to place 
 her naval and commercial strength upon such a basis, as to 
 hold the purse for confederated Europe in one hand, and 
 wield the sword of destiny with the other, and thus sit arbiter 
 of the world. 
 
 When George announced his resolution to his parliament, 
 of supporting the continental system, it was applauded by a 
 vote of supply of twenty millions sterling; a supply, which 
 astonished Europe, struck dismay into the confederates, and 
 led them into serious dispositions for peace. 
 
 The finances of France were drained ; her navy and com- 
 merce were depressed , her affairs in India and America ruin- 
 ed, and her West- India colonies lay at the mercy of an Eng- 
 lish fleet, prepared to invade them. The courts of Vienna, 
 Russia and Sweden, were in no better condition to prosecute 
 the war. 
 
 A congress was accordingly assembled at Augsburg, to ad- 
 just the differences of the continental powers generally ; but, 
 negociations were opened at London, between France and 
 England, for a separate peace : at this critical state of affairs, 
 died Ferdiannd VI. king of Spain, who was succeeded by his 
 brother, Don Carlos, king of Naples and Sicily, now Charles 
 III. This momentous event, gave a new change to the af- 
 fairs of Christendom, and laid the foundation for the famous 
 family compact of the Bourbons, upon the thrones of France 
 and Spain. f 
 
 The principle of utipossidetis,J or mutual retention ofpos- 
 
 * It must be remembered, that continental coalitions first began, in 
 the reign of Charles VIII. of France. 
 
 t The resentment shown by Mr. Pitt, closed at once the family com- 
 pact between the courts of France and Spain. This compact roused 
 the indignation of Mr. Pitt, and he called for a declaration of war 
 against Spain ; this was opposed wiih equal warmth, and the minister 
 resigned in disgust. Upon the change of ministry in England, the 
 courts of France and Spain, recalled their ministers from London, and 
 issued mutual declarations of war, and at the same time attempted to 
 coerce the king of Portugal into a co-operation, in the war ; this failed, 
 and they declared war with Portugal. 
 
 J The English had conquered from France, in North America No- 
 va Scotia, with the city of Louisburg Lower Canada, with the cities 
 
226 INVASION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 sessions acquired by the parties in the war, spun out the ne- 
 gociations at London : at the same time Charles III. sensible 
 of the triumphs of England, over France, in America, by the 
 great acquisitions of colonial territory, and alarmed for the 
 security of Spanish America, attempted to interpose his influ- 
 ence in the negociations at London ; but without success, 
 and they were suspended. 
 
 Thus the negociations for peace, at Augsburg and London, 
 resulted in a general war, and again the whole south of Eu- 
 rope engaged in the struggle. During these negociations, no 
 cessation of hostilities ensued ; the war raged in Germany, 
 the English invaded the coast of France, and took Bellisle. 
 The French made another eifort to enter the electorate of 
 Hanover, but without success ; and the year 1762, closed 
 without any thing decisive. 
 
 The year 1763, commenced with the invasion of Portugal, 
 by the arms of France and Spain, but without success. The 
 French renewed their attempts on Hanover but without suc- 
 cess. The death of Elizabeth, empress of Russia, and the 
 accession of the duke of Holstein, under the title of Peter III. 
 gave some relief to the affairs of the king of Prussia. 
 
 Peter turned his whole attention to the organization of the 
 affairs of his empire, took the position of mediator, between 
 Austria and Prussia, and when his efforts proved abortive, 
 declared war against Austria, and joined the king of Prussia. 
 This change produced a peace between Sweden and Prussia. 
 These two events left the king of Prussia at liberty to turn 
 his whole attention to the two great champions of Austria, 
 mareschal Daun and Laudohn. 
 
 At this critical moment died Peter the III. suddenly, and 
 was succeeded by Catharine II. She confirmed the peace 
 of Peter, but withdrew her troops, and left the Austrians and 
 Prussians to settle their quarrel. The king, by a grand 
 movement, foiled the efforts of his opponents, recovered 
 Schiveidnitz, and settled a truce with Austria, for Saxony and 
 Silesia. This produced a general truce throughout the 
 empire. 
 
 During these movements in Russia and Germany, the Eng- 
 lish pursued the policy which they had now so fully ma- 
 
 of Quebec and Montreal, together with all French America, except 
 New-Orleans. They had, the last year, conquered Pondicherry, to- 
 gether with all the possessions of France in India, and eome of her 
 West-India islands. 
 
 
PEACE OF PARIS. 227 
 
 tured : their naval expedition was crowned with the conquest 
 ofMartinico, and the city of Havannah, the capital of the isl- 
 and of Cuba, and key to the gulf of Mexico. 
 
 An expedition to Madras, in India, against Manilla, was 
 crowned with the conquest of all the Philippine isles. In 
 this triumphant position, the British minister announced his 
 overtures of Peace : they were accepted by France and 
 Spain ; approved by parliament, and the war closed by the 
 peace of Paris, February, 1763. 
 
 By this peace the king of Prussia retained all his domin- 
 ions, with the confirmation of Saxony and Silesia ; England 
 retained all her conquests in North America, and restored 
 to France and Spain, her conquests in the East and West- 
 Indies. The close of this war, sealed the policy of the con- 
 tinental system of England, and established her upon the 
 broad basis of mistress of the seas, and arbiter of the world. 
 The war in Germany was closed by the treaty of Huberts - 
 burg, the same year. 
 
 The splendor of the arts and sciences in Europe, kept 
 pace with the splendor of commerce and arms ; these com- 
 bined, gave a lustre to the affairs of the continent, and a new 
 polish to Christendom. The improvements of the stage, kept 
 pace with the improvements of the age ; here, poetry, music 
 and action combined, gave an expression to the theatre un- 
 known before, to any age of the world. The general expan- 
 sion given to the mind, by the reformation, kept pace with, 
 and marked the progress of this bright luminary of the west. 
 The persecutions of the papal power, had softened into a sul- 
 len state of tolerance. 
 
 The feuds in the councils of Lewis XIV. which called 
 forth the bull Unigenitus from pope Benedict XIV. to decide 
 the religious controversy between the Janesiste and Jesuits, 
 and whicji kindled a fire that continued to rage through the 
 reign of Lewis XV. deserves some attention. The haughty 
 impatience, and violent measures of Lewis XV. in dissolving 
 the parliament of France, called up the general attention of 
 the nation to this violence done to their liberties, and threat- 
 ened the life of the king, by assassination. 
 
 The king escaped with a wound only : this brought him to 
 his senses. He restored the parliament : and the Jesuits, 
 fell a sacrifice to the resentments of the day. The king, by 
 an edict, expelled them from his kingdom, and abolished 
 their order in France. 
 
228 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 This triumph of the parliament over the crown, and this 
 triumph of the Janesists party over the order of the Jesuits, 
 laid the foundation for the union of philosophy with infidelity, 
 of freedom of inquiry with the violence of liberty, and paved 
 the way for all the future sufferings of France. 
 
 In this age flourished Montesquieu, Helvetius, Voltaire, 
 De Alembert, Diderot, Rosseau and Buffon. The same ex- 
 pansion of the mind in England, kept pace with liberty, and 
 the reformation : there flourished a Locke, a Swift, with 
 Addison, Pope and others ; together with that host in the 
 councils, and in the field, in the reign of queen Anne, who 
 were the champions of all the future greatness of England. 
 
 In this age, appeared Bolingbroke and Hume : these, hav- 
 ing drank at the fountain of Hobbes and Shaftsbury, by their 
 talents and address, diffused the poison of infidelity through 
 the channels of science, and corrupted the nation. 
 
 The arts in this age, kept pace with the sciences : music, 
 painting, sculpture, architecture and husbandry, claimed a 
 fair competition with the most refined ages of Greece, or 
 Rome and the science of government, as displayed in the 
 balance of power in the English system, stood unrivalled in 
 the annals of time. 
 
 We have now traced the progress of man on the great 
 theatre of Europe, from that state of barbarism, into which 
 he was precipitated, by the violence of the revolution in the 
 western Roman empire, through all the extremes of igno- 
 rance, violence, superstition and licentiousness, with which 
 he struggled for more than one thousand years and marked 
 the more prominent causes, which produced the eventual 
 changes, that raised Christendom to her present state of civil 
 refinement. 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 
 
 Discovery and settlement of America. 
 
 THE discovery of America, we have noticed ; but the settle- 
 ment and growth of this new world, has been reserved, as a 
 distinct subject, that the narrative of events in Europe might 
 not be interrupted, and that a proper field might be given for 
 
On the evening of Oct. llth, 1492, Columbus with his fleet, 
 of three ships, manned by 90 men, discovered the new world. 
 His crew immediately threw themselves at his feel, implored 
 pardon for their unbelief, and all wilted in a hymn of thanks- 
 giving to God. Jit sunrise, they landed with a display of colors, 
 warlike music and martial pomp. Columbus, richly dressed, 
 with sword inkand.jirst set foot on the new world, and his men 
 following, kissed the ground they had so ions desired to see. 
 They then took solemn possession of the co try, erected a cru- 
 cifix, returned thanks to God for thdr successful voyage, and 
 planted the national flag, with the usual forms of their country. 
 
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 22$ 
 
 the illustration of this extensive, and important subject ; a 
 field so novel, and yet so interesting, so full of instruction. 
 
 The first outlines of the history of America, I have com- 
 pressed into a chronological form, showing in the concisest 
 manner, the first adventures, which led to the discoverery and 
 settlement of the several parts of this new world. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, under the patronage of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, discovered the islands 
 of St. Salvador and Cuba, in the West-Indies, and returned to 
 Spain, A. D. 1492. 
 
 Made a second voyage, which proved unsuccessful, 1493. 
 
 Made a third voyage, and discovered South America, 1498. 
 
 Americus Vespucius, under the patronage of the merchants 
 cf Seville, followed the track of Columbus, touched upon the 
 continent of South America ; returned, published a pompous 
 account of his voyage and discoveries, and gave his name to 
 the continent of America, 1499 
 
 John Cabot, a Venetian, obtained a grant from Henry VII. 
 of England for foreign discoveries, explored the coast of North' 
 America, touched upon the coast of Labrador, and returned 
 to England, 14956. 
 
 He, in a second voyage explored the whole extent of the 
 coast from Davis' Straits to Florida, discovered Newfoundland, 
 and returned to England, 1497- 
 
 Sebastian Cabot, (son of John Cabot) under Henry VII. pur- 
 sued the adventures of his father, visited Newfoundland, and 
 carried several natives to England, 1502. 
 
 Brazil discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, on his voyage to In- 
 dia, 1500. 
 
 Cortez, the Spanish adventurer, conquered Mexico, 1521. 
 
 Peru was conquered by the Spanish adventurer Pizarro, 1540. 
 
 Terra Firma was settled, 1520. 
 
 The Portuguese settled Brazil, 1549. 
 
 Francis I. king of France, made some efforts for discove- 
 ries in the new world by John Verezano, a Florentine, but 
 without success ; Verezano was lost in his second adven- 
 ture, 1524. 
 
 Ten years after this, Francis made another effort, by James 
 Quartier, who touched at Newfoundland ; discovered, and 
 gave name to the gulf of St. Lawrence ; and made an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to find a passage to China. The next year he 
 explored the St. Lawrence up to the rapids, wintered in the 
 20 
 
230 BISCOVERY OP AMERICA. 
 
 country at a fort which he built on the isle of Orleans, and in 
 the spring carried back with him some of the natives to 
 France, 1534. 
 
 Ferdinand de Soto, a Spaniard, made the first settlement in 
 Florida, where he remained three years and died, and left his 
 conquest to Alverdo, 1539. 
 
 Francis I. sent James Quartier to complete a settlement in 
 Canada (or New France,) where he remained at a place called 
 Charlebourg, about two years, and then retired to Newfound- 
 land, 154O. 
 Francis I. sent out other adventurers to strengthen the set- 
 tlement in Canada, where they wintered, but returned to 
 France in the spring following : this failure checked all fur- 
 ther efforts for settling Canada on the part of France during 
 this reign. These adventurers to Canada, were succeeded by 
 adventurers from Europe, for the discovery of the north-east 
 passage to India, all of which failed, on account of the ice in 
 the northern ocean About this time began the Newfound- 
 land fisheries, which have since proved so profitable to the 
 world, 1542. 
 The French under Chatillon, made some further discov- 
 eries in East Florida, and attempted a settlement, which fail- 
 ed, 1562. 
 Charles IX. sent out three ships, and made a settlement on 
 the river St. Mary, built a fort, and called the settlement Caro- 
 lina, 1564. 
 This colony was overpowered by a fleet of six vessels from 
 Spain, and all massacred, 1566. 
 The French sent out to Florida a fleet of three ships, to re- 
 venge on the Spaniards the murder of their countrymen. 
 The enterprise proved successful, they butchered the Spaniards, 
 burnt and destroyed their fort and settlements, and returned to 
 France : this closed the adventures from France to America for 
 fifty years, 1568. 
 The discovery of a north-east passage to India having fail- 
 ed, the English began to explore the north west passage to 
 India, under captain Frobisher, and under Sir Francis 
 Drake, 1576. 
 Queen Elizabeth granted letters patent to Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert in 1579, for foreign discoveries, and in 1583 he touch* 
 ed at Newfoundland, and from thence to the continent, and 
 took possession of North America, for the English crown. 
 
mSCO VERY OF AMERICA. 231 
 
 In this adventure he was lost in a storm, and the enterprise 
 failed, 1583. 
 
 In 1584, the coast of Virginia was? discovered, named after 
 the virgin queen, and settled by one hundred and seven per- 
 sons near the river Roanoke ; in 1586 they all returned to 
 England with Sir Francis Drake, who touched there on his 
 homeward passage. Sir Walter Raleigh sent out seven ships, 
 with another colony, to the same settlement on the Roanoke, 
 where they also endured extreme hardships, and were, in their 
 turn, conveyed back to England by Sir Francis Drake. Soon 
 after they were gone, a new colony arrived to support the first, 
 with fifty men, who concluded to stay, notwithstanding the 
 others had gone. The next year Sir Walter sent out d third 
 colony to support the second ; when they arrived at Roanoke, 
 not a vestige of the former colony remained. This third colo- 
 ny consisted of one hundred and fifteen, who attempted to re- 
 new the former settlement at Roanoke. 
 
 Governor White came over again, to recruit the little 
 colony in Virginia 5 but alas! they had all shared the fate 
 of the two former, and not a vestige of them was to be 
 found, 1596. 
 
 The English explored the coast, as far north as Cape Cod, 
 and called the country North Virgicia ; but made no settlement, 
 and returned to England, 1602. 
 
 The English made two ad ventures to Virginia, and not find- 
 ing the third colony at Roanoke, and being roughly handled by 
 the natives, they all returned to England, 1603. 
 
 The French began the settlement at Port Royal, and other 
 places on the bay of Fundy, 1604. 
 
 The English explored the coast of the province of Maine, 
 made no settlement, and returned to England, 1605. 
 
 The London company (by virtue of letters patent, under 
 Jau'es I. king of England,) sent out a colony to South Vir- 
 ginia, and began a settlement at Powhattan, or James ri- 
 ver, 1606. 
 
 In 1 607 they sent out a second colony, and settled James 
 Town in South Virginia, on James river. This was the first 
 town planted in North America, notwithstanding all the efforts 
 which had been made : but the next winter, James Town 
 was burnt. This year the Plymouth company sent out, and 
 settled a small colony at the mouth of Sagadehoc river, in 
 North Virginia, of forty-five persons, under captain Popham 
 (heir president ; the severity of the winter, together with 
 
232 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 the loss of their stores by fire ruined this colony : and the few 
 that remained returned in the spring to England. This mis- 
 fortune deterred all further settlements in North Virginia 
 for several years. The French began the settlement of Que- 
 bec, 1607. 
 
 In 1608 and 9, the London company sent out supplies, and 
 a recruit of two hundred persons, to strengthen the colony at 
 James Town, which now amounted to five hundred men. Ad- 
 miral Somers, on his passage to America, with a part of this 
 little fleet, was wrecked on one of the Bahama islands, and lost 
 his ship, but the crew and passengers were all saved, and re- 
 mairred there until the next year, when they were all taken off 
 by lord De la War, on his passage to Virginia, to enter upon 
 the government of this little colony which the last year con- 
 sisted of five hundred men, but was now reduced to sixty ; who 
 had abandoned the colony and embarked for England ; but 
 being met by their new governor, they were persuaded to 
 return to James Town, where they all arrived safe, June 10th, 
 1610. 
 
 In 1611, two supplies of three hundred men each, were sent 
 to this colony, together with cattle, swine, &c. to enable them 
 to cultivate their own supplies. 
 
 In 1609, captain Henry Hudson, under a commission of 
 king James I. in the service of the East India company, in quest 
 of a north west passage to India, discovered North, or Hud- 
 son's river, and the same voyage discovered Hudson's bay. 
 In 161 3, the Dutch West India company opened a trade to this 
 river ; and in 1623 established trading houses on Connecticut 
 river ; claimed all the country from Cape Cod to Cape Henlo- 
 pen, and called it New Netherlands ; this commenced the set- 
 tlement of New York. At this time the Virginians sent and 
 dislodged the French from all their settlements in North Ame- 
 rica, excepting Quebec ; and brought all their effects to Virgin- 
 ia, with all their vessels. The French, Dutch, and English 
 carried on an advantageous trade with the natives ; and in coast- 
 ing along the shores for this purpose, made further discoveries, 
 and drew charts, one of which, drawn by a captain Smith, 
 changed the name of North Virginia, to that of New Eng- 
 land, which it continues to hold. 
 
 Baffin's bay was discovered by William Baffin, in search for 
 a north west passage, 1615. 
 
 The distresses of war, famine and pestilence, amongst the 
 natives of New-England, prepared the way for a more quiet 
 
SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 233 
 
 possession and the little colony of puritans, from the flock of 
 the reverend John Robinson, to make their settlement at Ply- 
 mouth. 
 
 The whole extent of coast being now explored, from the 
 gulf of Mexico to Davis' Straits, it will exceed the limits of 
 this work to detail the subsequent adventures and settlements ; 
 I shall therefore comprise the whole in one short chronological 
 table. 
 Quebec, the capital of Lower Canada, settkd by the 
 
 French, 1 608. 
 
 Newfoundland by the English, 1610. 
 
 Virginia, do. 1610. 
 
 New York, ? d I6l4> 
 
 New Jersey, 5 
 
 New Plymouth, by the puritan colony, 1620. 
 
 Nova Scotia, by the Scotch, under Sir William Alex- 
 ander, 1622. 
 Confirmed to the English by France, after several 
 
 changes, at the peace, 1648. 
 
 New Hampshire settled by the English, 1623. 
 
 Delaware and Pennsylvania, by the Swedes and Fins, 1627* 
 Massachusetts Bay, by the English, 1628. 
 
 Maryland, do. 1633. 
 
 Connecticut and Rhode Island, from Massachusetts 
 
 Bay, 1.635. 
 
 New Jersey, under a grant to the duke of York, by the 
 
 English, 1664. 
 
 South Carolina, do. 1669- 
 
 Pennsylvania, by a grant to William Penn, do. 1682. 
 
 North Carolina, by the English, 1728. 
 
 Georgia, do. 1732. 
 
 Vermont, by New Hampshire and New York, 1764. 
 
 Kentucky, from Virginia, under Col. Boon, 1773. 
 
 Ohio, from Connecticut and other states, 1787- 
 
 Tennessee, do. 1789- 
 
 The territories of Michigan, Illinois and Indiana, 
 
 about 1780 & 1801. 
 
 Louisiana purchased of France for fifteen millions of 
 
 dollars, 1803. 
 
 The territory of Orleans, undr the name of the State 
 
 of Louisiana, was admitted into the Union, 1812. 
 
 The territory of Mississippi was admitted into the Union, 1818. 
 The territories of Indiana and Illinois were admitted^ 
 
 20* 
 
2S4 SETTLEMENT OP NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 The District of Maine, (now State of Maine) with the 
 
 territory of Missouri, was admitted, 1820. 
 
 By this table may be seen the most rapid and extensive 
 settlements, that have ever been witnessed in the family of 
 man ; embracing an extent of territory, from the gulf of Mex- 
 ico on the south, to the Hudson's bay on the north, and from 
 the Atlantic shores on the east, to the interior wilds of Louisia- 
 na on the west more than 2000 miles square, embracing a 
 population of mere than fourteen millions of free people, all 
 accomplished in the space of two centuries : those very two 
 centuries in which we have witnessed the conflicts and distress- 
 es on the continent of Europe, since the reigns of Charles 
 V. of Spain, Francis I. of France, and Henry VIII. of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 That age of the reformation, when the immortal Luther 
 commenced his glorious career, and accomplished the prediction 
 of the prophet St. John, in Revelations xiv. 6 laid the found- 
 tion for the religious liberties of Europe, and the civil and re- 
 ligious liberties of America. 
 
 A history of the rise and progress of the several States of 
 America, their private disputes, their conflicts with the natives, 
 together with the genius and forms of their governments, from 
 the great similarity that was common to the whole, would be 
 tedious and uninteresting. I will select the colony of Plymouth, 
 and with this commence and continue the history of Ameri- 
 ca. 
 
 This little family of puritans, fired with that civil and reli- 
 gious zeal which shone so conspicuous at the close of the reign 
 of James I. in resisting the overbearing influence of popery, and 
 the usurpations of the crown, and in establishing the common- 
 wealth in England, in the reign of Charles I. rallied round 
 their clergyman, the Rev. John Robinson, a pious godly man, 
 retired from the persecutions of their country, and passed over 
 into Holland : not pleased with the Dutch, the flock divided, 
 and a little colony of 101, embarked for America, and landed 
 at Plymouth, Nov. 20, O. S. 1620. The sufferings they en- 
 dured from the severity of the climate, the hostile character of 
 the natives, and the want of supplies, were too distressing to 
 be described ; yet they were endured, with all that patience 
 and resignation which the gospel affords, to all those who love 
 and obey its dictates, and cherish in their hearts the purity of 
 its principles- 
 
COLONY OF PLYMOUTH. 235 
 
 At this time a general spirit of foreign adventure prevailed, 
 and commenced settlements extensively upon the Atlantic 
 shores of North America, as may be seen by the chronological 
 table; the emigrations from England, (although in detached 
 parts,) retained a general union and harmony, as having sprung 
 from one great family. They all brought out with them those 
 principles of liberty which prevailed over tyranny in England, 
 and established the commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell 
 yet in forming their civil institutions, they retained the true 
 principles of that balance of power in the three branches of the 
 British government, with an elective chief magistrate, which 
 secured to them all the blessings of civil and religious liberty ; 
 these they enjoyed, and laid the foundation of our present great 
 national compact. 
 
 The use of gun-powder gave the first settlers of America a 
 superiority over the wild, barbarous, untutored savages of this 
 howling wilderness, which nothing of human invention could 
 have supplied ; this, by spreading terror and astonishment, 
 with carnage and destruction, overawed these hardy sons of na- 
 ture, and either repelled them from their borders, or tamed them 
 to peace and submission. 
 
 Although the rapid progress of the settlements encroached 
 upon their rights ; robbed them of their corn-fields and their 
 hunting grounds ; and kindled resentments, which often broke 
 out into resistance, violence, and savage war ; these were soon 
 subdued by the all conquering force of fire arms. Treaties 
 were made with the chiefs, lands were purchased, or ceded by 
 the rights of conquest, and in 1755 the colonies of New Eng- 
 land, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania^ Delaware, Mary- 
 land, Virginia, North and South Carolina, had all established 
 colonial governments, and were able to assert and maintain 
 their rights against the savage and barbarous depredations o 
 the natives, and the encroachments of their neighbors the 
 French. The French were settled on the north, on the island 
 of (-ape Breton, Nova Scotia, and the Canadas, with a line of 
 military posts extending from Quebec through the western line 
 of the colonies to New-Orleans. 
 
 At this time the government of France had become jealous 
 of the rising strength of these colonies, and fired with that ambi- 
 tion of giving law to the world, which we have seen displayed 
 in the reigns of Lewis XIV. and XV. they contemplated the 
 conquest of all British America ; and by an attack upon these 
 colonies in 1755, commenced that seven years's war, which 
 
236 OLD FRENCH WAR. 
 
 drenched Europe and America in blood ; that war which was 
 rendered so illustrious in Europe, by the successful displays of 
 the talents of the king of Prussia, and was so gloriously closed, 
 in 1763. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. 
 
 General operations of the seven years 7 war in America, to the 
 peace of If 63 with some remarks. 
 
 A particular detail of the events and operations of the war of 
 1755 6, in America, will give a more distinct character of the 
 natives., and their savage wars, as well as the character, genius, 
 and civil and religious institutions of the colonies, than can oth- 
 erwise be obtained. 
 
 The settlement of Nova Scotia, (which was made by the 
 Scotch,) after repeated struggles, was ceded by France to Eng- 
 land, by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. During these struggles, 
 and when France was in possession, the French population 
 surpassed the Scotch arid English, and rendered Nova Scotia 
 distinctly a French colony, to which France had given the 
 mime of Le Acadie, and the inhabitants assumed the name of 
 neutrals; 
 
 The English government, being dissatisfied with the neutral- 
 ity of Le Acadie, in the war of 1746; immediately upon the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, sent out a colony from England, to 
 settle and build the town of Halifax. The object of this com- 
 manding position was, to hold a balance of power in those seas, 
 and protect the valuable fisheries. 
 
 This movement thwarted the views, alarmed the pride, and 
 excited the jealousy of France. A question of limits and boun- 
 dary, sprang up between the two powers in Nova Scotia, and 
 soon extended through the whole line, from the gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, to the mouth of the Mississippi. 
 
 The particular controversy about limits and boundaries, 
 through this vast and extensive howling wilderness ; boundaries 
 which neither of the parties had ever enjoyed, but which both 
 contemplated to enjoy hereafter, would be useless here suffice 
 it to say, the French, fired with resentment, first pushed their 
 encroachments in Le Acadie, or Nova Scotia, and next excited 
 the natives and French to make depredations. 
 
 They seized on a trading establishment^ which Virginia 
 
OLD FRENCH WAR. 237 
 
 had made on the Ohio river, massacred all the settlers, plun- 
 dered and carried off their booty, to the amount of twenty 
 thousand pounds, and claimed the jurisdiction as belonging 
 to New France, (comprehending the Canadas and Louisiana.) 
 They next seized on another Virginia settlement, at the forks 
 of the Monongahela, with a force of one thousand men, and 
 eighteen pieces of cannon. 
 
 These formidable encroachments threw the colonies into 
 the highest alarm, soon produced -an order from England to 
 repel force with force, and war commenced. Here began 
 in America the scourging of that rod, which instead of a curse, 
 as was then considered, has proved the means of consolida- 
 ting and securing, all the bkssings of free and independent 
 America. 
 
 The orders of the crown were obeyed ; but what could be 
 the resistance of the colonies, in their discordant, disjoined 
 state, against a power acting promptly under one head, and that, 
 the governor of all new Fi ance. 
 
 The same controversies which distracted the English na- 
 tion, were carried with the different colonies into the new 
 world. The strife of religion and government, sowed the 
 seeds of bitterness in the several colonies they quarrelled- 
 with their governors, they quarrelled with the crown, and they 
 quarrelled with each other, about limits and jurisdiction. The 
 spirit of their religions were different ; some catholic, some 
 protestant ; this rendered the genius of thdr governments 
 different, some verging towards monarchy, others to democra- 
 cy. All producing a want of union and conceit. 
 
 This was well understood by France, and soon realized by 
 Great-Britain and the colonies. To remedy these evils, and 
 to be able to call forth their resources with energy, a con- 
 gress of all the colonies was proposed, and held in tlie city 
 of Albany^ and the chiefs of the Iroquois, (or six nations,) 
 were invited to attend. The intrigues of tbe French, de- 
 feated the plan of engaging the Iroquois ir tht- war ; but their 
 neutrality was secured by presents from the crown of Eng- 
 land, and the promise of repelling the French from their 
 country. 
 
 Fired with zeal and unanimity, the congress resolved to 
 prosecute the war, and support the British claims in North 
 America. Major Washington was despatched from Virginia, 
 to watch the motions of the enemy, and recover tb> set- 
 tlements on the Ohio and Monongahela, but without any dc- 
 
238 ^RADDOCK'S DEFEAT. 
 
 cisive operations. The intrigues of the courts of France and 
 England, disguised all their operations under the mask of 
 peace, but at the same time, they sent powerful fleets and arma- 
 menis to support their claims in America. 
 
 A collision between these fleets, in the gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and the capture of two sixty-four gun ships by the English, 
 closed this diplomatic farce, and commenced the war. This 
 success gave spirit to the British nation, and kindled a flame of 
 ardor, zeal and vigor, throughout the colonies. 
 
 The legislature of Massachusetts bay, passed an act of non- 
 intercourse with Louisburg, and sent reinforcements to Nova 
 Scotia. The successes of colonel Moncton, soon established 
 the British government, and restored tranquillity to Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 During these general operations, the French had establish* 
 cd themselves upon the Monongahela, and built the strong 
 post, called fort Duquesne, at the confluence, where Pitts- 
 burg now stands. An expedition was planned to co-operate 
 with major Washington, under the command of the British 
 general Braddock, in reducing this post. General Braddock, 
 unacquainted with Indian warfare, and fired with the am- 
 bition of his nation, was precipitated into a scene, unknown 
 in the tactics of Europe, and indescribable in human lan- 
 guage. 
 
 At mid day, near the object of his destination, and in the 
 midst of security, a terrible fire of musketry poured in upon 
 him, on all sides, accompanied with the most hideous and tre- 
 mendous yells of those hellhounds of the forest ; the whole 
 thicket was in a blaze with the explosion of an Indian ambus- 
 cade, and not an enemy to be seen ; the whole wilderness 
 resounded with the terrors of the war whoop the plain was 
 strewed with heaps of dead, and the troops appalled with the 
 horrors of the scene, and the groans of the dying. Braddock 
 was slain. The illustrious" major, (now colonel Washington,) 
 conducted the retreat, and led off the shattered IY mains oi this 
 army, with the loss of all their artillery, baggage, &c. together 
 with their general, and all the principal officer*. The regular 
 force retired to Albana, to join general Shirley aU Virginia 
 was left to her fate. 
 
 1 ;ie want of union in their councils and measures, render- 
 ed in-.' fforts of the southern states feeble and ineffectual ; but 
 New-\orkajad New-Jersey, combining with New-England 
 passed decrees of non-intercourse with all 'the French settle- 
 
TAKEN. 239 
 
 trients in North America, and united in two grand expeditions 
 against Crown Point and Niagara : the first under sir William 
 Johnson, and the second under general Shirley. 
 
 The colonial troops were assembled at Albany, when the 
 news of the defeat at fort Duquesne, was announced ; this 
 damped the ardor of the enterprise : the attempt upon Niaga- 
 ra was deferred, and the expedition to Crown Point abandon- 
 ed, after some successful skirmishing. The armies went into 
 winter quarters, and closed the campaign of 1757- 
 
 In 1758, the spirits of England and America were raised, 
 by the restoration of Mr. Pitt, to the head of the administra- 
 tion ; but the convention of Closter-seven, in Germany, and 
 the failure of Mr. Pitt's grand expedition to the coast of 
 France, damped their ardor. Gr at supplies of troops and 
 military stores however were sent to America, and an expe- 
 dition was planned against Louisburg, und-.r lord Loudon ; but 
 just at the critical moment of attempting the enterprise, intel- 
 ligence arrived, that Louisburg was reinforced from France, 
 by a strong fleet and armament and that attack was aban- 
 doned. 
 
 During these movements, the French had seized on fort 
 Oswego, at the confluence of the river of the same name with 
 Lake Ontario, which secured the ascendancy over the Iro- 
 quois, (or six nations,^ together with all the tribes that sur- 
 round the great lakes, and left the whole extent of the co- 
 lonial settlements exposed to their ravages. The finest vil- 
 lages fell a sacrifice to savage depredations. Flushed with 
 success, the French planned an expedition against fort Wil- 
 liam Henry, ( upon the south side of lake George ,) and carried 
 it almost without opposition ; the garrison, although protected 
 by a capitulation, were permitted to suffer all the horrors of an 
 Indian massacre. 
 
 These misfortunes overwhelmed the kingdom and the co- 
 lonies, with a gloom and melancholy, bordering on despair. 
 They began to fear that all was lort when a ray of light ap- 
 peared in the East : the British arms triumphed over the 
 French in India the town of Calcutta was restored by the 
 efforts of the famous colonel Clive : the company were rein-* 
 stated in all their privileges and possessions, and extensive 
 and valuable acquisitions crowned their conquests iu India. 
 
 During these operations in the east, lord Loudon had been 
 succeeded in America, by general Abercrombie, and the 
 expedition of Louisburg renewed. A strong detachment 
 from Nova Scotia, under general Amherst, supported by a 
 
240 CAPTURE OP LOUISBUBG* 
 
 powerful fleet, joined general Abercrombie, and appeared 
 before Louisburg. The place was invested by sea and land ; 
 and in six weeks, the success of the British arms was crowned 
 by the capture of Louisburg, and the whole island of Cape 
 Breton, together with an important naval force, stationed for 
 the defence of the harbor. This secured to the English the 
 command of the fisheries, and the gulph of St. Lawrence, and 
 raised the spirits of the colonies. 
 
 Flushed with success, general Abercrombie repaired to 
 Albany, took the command of the army of the north, and 
 commenced an expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown 
 Point. He embarked upon lake George, with about 16,008 
 men, after slight successes, and little opposition, and appear- 
 ed by forced marches before Crown Point : here he found a 
 strong position, defended by a morass, a strong breast work, 
 and a chevaux de frise : his impatience led him to commence 
 the attack, before his artillery had arrived j the assault was 
 desperate, the defence firm, and the defeat decisive ; the 
 general was compelled to retire, with the loss of about 2000 
 men. To repair this loss and disgrace, general Abercrombie 
 detached colonel Bradstreet, with 3000 men, to reduce fort 
 Frontenac, at the confluence of Lake Ontario with the St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 This expedition was crowned with success : the fort, with an 
 immense quantity of provisions and military stores, with sixty 
 pieces of cannon, and nine armed sloops, were the trophies of 
 this victory. 
 
 This success gave spirit to the expedition now planned against 
 Fort l)u Quesne, under Gen Forbes. The French appalled 
 at the loss of Louisburg and Frontenac, abandoned the fort and 
 retired down the Ohio to their settlements on the Mississippi. 
 
 These successes in America gave strength and confidence to 
 the English administration, and spirit and union to the colonies, 
 secured a geneial quiet throughout their extensive frontier, and 
 closed the operations of i758. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. Continued. 
 
 GREAT preparations were made in England and America, 
 during the winter, to bring the war in America to a close the 
 ensuing campaign. The balance of the great contending par- 
 ties on the continent, still found employment for the arms 
 
iJATTLE OF THE TLA1\* 24 > 
 
 and resources of France, and left England at liberty to turn 
 her whole attention to the American war. The minister as- 
 sumed a train of the boldest movements, and was peculiarly for- 
 tunate in his selection of officers to command. 
 
 He sent a strong land and naval force up the St. Lawrence 
 !o invest Quebec, under the command of the illustrious Wolfe, 
 and concerted a plan of operations under Gen. Ainherst, by 
 the way of Lake Champlain, to penetrate into Canada, and 
 co-operate with Gen. Wolfe, in the capture of Quebec. 
 
 The movements were made with great firmness and skill. 
 Wolfe appeared with his fleet before Quebec, early in the sea- 
 Son ; here he found a fortress strongly garrisoned, and sup- 
 ported with a powerful force of French, Canadians and Indi- 
 ans, and rendered almost impregnable both by nature and art. 
 Struck with astonishment at the object before him, he took up 
 his position, and put forth all the efforts of his genius to accom* 
 plish his purpose. 
 
 In the mean time, the army tinder Gen. Amherst was early 
 in motion, the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, be- 
 came the trophies ef his victories; the garrisons had retired to 
 the Isle An Noix, and waited his approach. 
 
 The Gen; advanced to the attack, but rinding the position 
 too strong, and the season far advanced, retired to Crown- 
 Point, and took up his winter quarters, without having learn- 
 ed the fate of Gen. Wolfe. Not sr> with Wolfe he spun oui 
 the season with various efforts ; but his prospects were so 
 Faint that the energies of his mind began to abate j the insur- 
 mountable obstacles opposed to the ardor of his spirits, \v;;s<* 
 cd his health, and the approach of winter led him to despair of 
 success. 
 
 He called a council of war, in which it Was resolved to car- 
 ry their future operations above the town, and if possible, 
 force the French general Montcalm, to an engagement. Ac- 
 cordingly the fieet moved with the tide, in the silence oi 
 night, up the river, passed the city, and with unprecedented 
 alacrity and skill, the whole army was landed, and conduced 
 up a precipice by their gallant general, in the dead of ni^ht : 
 a precipice considered almost impassable by an individual in 
 the light of day. 
 
 On the approach of morn, the whole British army were form- 
 ed on the plain, with their general at their head. The enemy 
 soon had intelligence of their position, and Montcalm 
 out of his strong camp to give him battle, 
 
~24'2 FALL OF QTJEUtC, 
 
 r riie regulars of France, with the Canada militia, coin. 
 eed a distant fire, accompanied will) the hideous yells of ihcir 
 numerous Indian allies, and appeared to be able to overwhelm 
 with numbers this he'ro, with his litile phalanx. General Wolfe 
 took the precaution to reserve his fire, and receive the enemy at 
 the distance of about forty paces ; he then opened a fire upon 
 them XvHich checked their career ; this, when renewed, threw 
 them into disorder; again, when repeated, threw them into 
 flight; at tiiis critical moment fell the illustrious WoltV, the he- 
 roof the plains of Abraham the cry of " they run," reached 
 his ear ; he raided his head ai.d asked who run ? The reply was, 
 ; tfa enemy run" lie exclaimed then I die in peace, and ex- 
 pired. 
 
 The gallant generals Townscud and JVlurrny took vengeance 
 on the fugitives wilh the bayonet, and the highland broadsword ; 
 the gallant Montcalm was mortally wounded ; the plains of 
 Abraham we re strewn with the carnage of the dead and the dy- 
 in,<;. Ti;e \5ctors pursued and threatened to enter the city com- 
 !':1\< . d ,vi:!i the fugitives, and in th- midst of triumph to plant 
 their standards upon the walls of Quebec ; but they checked 
 their career, and in five days the city fell by capitulation. 
 
 Thus fell Quebec, the key of French America, and thus 
 fell great -Wolfe, at thirty-five years of age, the pride and or* 
 natnent of tiis country, and his country's arms. This was 
 not the triumph of Woli'e over Montcalm, not the triumph of 
 conquest over the fall of a city, however strong the fortress, 
 nor the tiimnph of England over France. The God of our 
 Fathers stood aibifer of the scene, and wielded the destiny. 
 The triumph was the triumph of the reformation ; religion over 
 superstition, patriotism, over tyranny, and liberty over des- 
 potism. It was the triumph of the church in the wilderness ; 
 it uas the triumph of the motto of our fathers : " Qui transtulit 
 sit f>t met ;" (He who transplanted sustains.) By the fall of 
 Quebec, protestanism, triumphed over popery, and the colonies 
 were free. 
 
 The French again put forth their efforts to suppress the 
 growing power t)f England, in India; the conflicts were sharp 
 and desperate, but the English were triumphant. The French 
 abetted a conflict of ilvalry between the Dutch and English in 
 .India, but the English were again triumphant. 
 
 >v 'H'se multiplied successes of England depressed the spir- 
 it-; of the French: they in their turn like the English, had re- 
 
' CAPTURE OF MONTREAL. &C. 2 13 
 
 course to the expedient of invasion, to rouse the spirits cf the 
 nation. Boats and small craft wore assembled in the ports of 
 France, and formidable preparations made for the desired ob- 
 ject; but the vigilance and superiority cf the English navy, 
 rendered abortive all such plans, and triumphed over the fleets 
 of France successively, as they pat to sea. 
 
 These naval victories, added to the triumphs in America 
 and India, raised the spirit of England, and shewed them 
 where their true strength l;iy, viz. in cherishing the wars of 
 the continent by liberal supplies, and following their naval 
 and commercial system. Three millions sterling were voted 
 by way of subsidy in Germany, and t unity five thousand 
 troops to protect the electorate cf IIanover ; and support the 
 king of Prussia. 
 
 New operations commenced in Canada, with the opening of 
 the spring; that part of the army of Montcalm, which filed o(T 
 towards Montreal, in the victory >f general Wolfe, were there 
 reinforced by Canadians and Indians, under the command of 
 Monsieur de Levi, who hud succeeded Montcalm in the com- 
 mand. With this force, the French general concerted measures 
 to recover the city of Quebec. 
 
 He embarked his army in the month of April, with all his 
 artillery, under the convoy of six stout frigates, fell down the 
 river, and appeared before Quebec. The garrison under the 
 command of the brave general Murray, which in autumn 
 consisted of five thousand men. was now reduced to three. 
 AVith this small but intn-pid force, general Murray marched 
 out upon the plains of Abraham, and gave the enemy battle; 
 but overpowered by numbers, he was compelled to retire, 
 with the loss of one thousand men. This effort gave a check 
 to the enemy, and spirit to the garrison; a vigorous siege and 
 defence commenced. A fleet from England arrived in the 
 Bionth of June, put an end to tha siege, and the French general 
 retired to Montreal. 
 
 louring these operations, Gen. Amherst concerted n ~.rns- 
 ures for the reduction of Montreal. IL J gave orders to gene- 
 ral Murray to embaik his army at Quebec, proceed by wa- 
 ter and meet him at Montreal. lie directed one operation 
 against the Isle AuNoix; anoth^ upon the enemy by the w;u 7 
 of Oswego, and took the direction himself by the way" of Lake- 
 Ontario, with his whole army ; the movements all succeeded, 
 end generals Amherst and Morn-ay appeared the same day 
 
,244 1*EAGE OP PARIS, l7'6o. 
 
 before Montreal, and the detachment arrived the next day fion 
 the Isle Au Noix. 
 
 Tlie city was summoned, a capitulation signed, and De- 
 troit, Michilmachinac, and every other French military post 
 or depot were surrendered to the arms of his Britanic Majesty 
 the French troops were returned to France, and the Cana- 
 !as cleared. 
 
 This blow sealed the fate of France in America, and left her 
 nothing but the pitiful subterfuge of exciting the murderous 
 tomahawk and scalping knifo of the Cherokees, against the 
 colony of South Carolina. This was soon suppressed by spir- 
 ited exertions ; the Cherokcea punished, their towns burnt, and 
 these savages humbled. 
 
 The town of New-Orleans stood alone to France a solitary 
 monument of all her vast possessions in America. The war in 
 India still raged, and the successes of the English the last year, 
 excited them to attempt the conquest of Fondicherry, which 
 was taken from the French, J76l. In the midst of these tri- 
 umphs died George II. and was succeeded by his grandson 
 George III., Oct. 25, 1760. 
 
 With the conquest of Canada, and the suppression of the 
 Cherokees, the war closed in America. The British forces re- 
 turned to England, excepting such as were necessary to garri- 
 son the military pests in Canada, and upon the frontier ; and 
 the colonies were left to pursue their domestic repose, rnjoy 
 ibeir commerce, and extend their settlements. The peace of 
 Paris, in 1763, closed the war in Europe, America and India, 
 and all Christendom was again hushed to repose. 
 
 The colonies had learnt one most important lessen this war, 
 that was, how to unite their discordant interests, and render 
 private considerations subservient to the general good. A les- 
 son, which nothing but the disasters of the first campaigns could 
 have taught, and brought them to practice. This lesson, the 
 poli'-y of the English government continued to cultivate and 
 strengthen, by checking and controlling the spirit of some of 
 the colonies, which appeared too independent in their governr 
 ments, and in w/ithdrawing lhc;i charters, and sending over gov- 
 ernors appointed bv the crown. 
 
 This soon sowed the seed* of jealousy between the crown 
 and colonies, which began to ripen early into indignation and 
 resentment, by frequent and severe collisions, between ihe 
 people and the governors, accompanied with spirit, and 
 times outrage, 
 
 
CAUSES OP THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 245 
 
 CHAP. XXXV II. 
 
 auscs which led to the American Revolution general events 
 to the invasion of New York. 
 
 THE rapid settlements and population, together with the 
 prosperous commerce of the colonies, united to that ardent 
 active spirit of enterprize which had shone so conspicuous 
 through the war, began to excite the attention of England. 
 They foresaw, that such a combination of power, would at 
 some future day become independent, and that then was the 
 time to put on the shackles to check and controul it. With 
 this view, they commenced a system of taxation, by duties 
 on commerce in 1764, and on stamps in 1765, under the flat- 
 tering pretext of raising supplies, to indemnify the expenses 
 of the war. 
 
 The colonies resented this infringement upon their rights, 
 resisted the encroachments by spirited remonstrances, and 
 adopted this maxim : tk that taxation without representation, 
 was an infringement of liberty ;" their demand was " with- 
 draw your taxes,. and leave the fiscal concerns of America, (or 
 the colonies,) to be conducted upon the floor of their own 
 councils ; >? here they were at issue. Sprung from one common 
 stock, the same blood flowed in the veins, the same spirit fired 
 the breast of both parties and this was the result : . 
 
 Virginia resisted by spirited resolves. May, I765o 
 
 Virginia, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
 York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland and 
 South Carolina, sent a representation and formed a colonial 
 congress at New York, October, 1765. 
 
 This, like the grand assembly at Albany, gave union, 
 strength, and spirit to the colonies; tumults commenced in 
 Boston, and spread through the country ; acts of non-importa- 
 tion were passed, which lessened the imports from Britain this 
 year, 8 80,62 1/. 1766. 
 
 At this time a general estimate of free white population in 
 the colonies was 926,000, extended on the sea coast> from 
 Georgia to the province of Maine. The dignified and manly 
 resistance of the colonies,, caused the repeal of the duties on 
 stamps, 1766. 
 
 An act of parliament imposed a duty on paper and glass, 
 Fane, . ]?6Tr 
 
246 CAUSES OP THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 
 
 This again roused the passions of the colonies. Circular 
 letters, tumults, &c. became the order of the day generally 
 in 1768. 
 
 Arts of non-importation became genera! in 1169. 
 
 The British force stationed at Boston, fired on the populace, 
 and caused the famous massacre of Boston, 1770. 
 
 This outrage spread such a flame through the colonies, that 
 the British government repealed all the taxes this year excepting 
 the duty of 3d per pound on tea. This led to associations 
 through the colonies, not to drink tea ; and all ihose who vio- 
 lated these associations, were held and considered as traitors 
 and lories. 
 
 An armed schooner belonging to the British, was burnt by a 
 mob in disguise at Rhode Island, 1771 
 
 Tea sent back by some colonies, 1772. 
 
 A cargo of tea was seized in the port of Boston by a mob in 
 disguise, and thrown into the dock, 1773. 
 
 Upon the news of this, the government of England sent out 
 a en val and laud force, and took possession of the port of Bos- 
 ton, under the command of Gen. Gage, 1774. 
 
 The colonies, fired with indignation at this outrage on their 
 liberties, assembled a general congress at Philadelphia, and 
 circled Peyton Randolph, President, and Charles Thomson,. 
 Secretary, September 5, 1774. 
 
 Congress parsed several resolutions highly important to tlie 
 interest of the colonies, and dissolved, October 26. 
 
 They were now resolved to repel force by force, and an ac 
 tion commenced at Lexington and Concord, \ etween a detach- 
 ment of the Brhish forces in Boston, and a scattered col- 
 lection of miiitia of those places ; the British, grilled by a 
 scattering fire from the stone walls, hedges nnd other coverts 
 made a hastv retreat into Boston, and left the field to the vi(v 
 tors, Apri 19, 1775. 
 
 The news of this conflict spread like lightning through the 
 country : hill illumined hill, and man eletterized man. The 
 heroes of the old war left their teams in the field, and their 
 ploughs standing in the furrows, and n their rustic dress, re- 
 paiied to the field of action, and enrolled themselves in the 
 ranks of their country. 
 
 The mad councils of England, and frantic system of their 
 measures, hud now armed the nation against itself, Here com- 
 
CONGRESS OP 1774. 247 
 
 aaenced a sanguinary conflict of liberty against usurpation, 
 on those very fields which the fathers (driven by the persecu- 
 tions of their own country) had wrested from the savages of 
 the forest, and where they had planted the pure seeds of the 
 refoi mation one hundred and fifty years before ; here the sons 
 of those-sires were summoned to arms in defence of their altars, 
 their arms and their firesides, to repel the murderous dominion 
 of Britain : the conflict was desperate, but the issue was glori- 
 rious. 
 
 Without arms or discipline, without money, without credit,, 
 without allies, without military stores, and without union ; 
 with a scattered population, not then exceeding one million ; 
 the sons of the puritans entered the lits with the gigantic 
 power of Britain, then mistress of the seas, and arbiter of the 
 world. 
 
 Their first step was, to collect an army ; this was effected 
 by an assemblage of the militia of the vicinity generally, and by 
 detachments from the militia of the neighboring states, arid next 
 from the colonies generally. The Lnglish were invested in 
 the town of Boston, under the command of Gen. ^ ard, and at 
 the same time he sent off' a detachment, and seized fort Tiron- 
 deroga, May 10th, 1775 Their next step was to promote 
 union. A Congress was elected from ail the colonies, and as- 
 sembled in Philadelphia, JM.'fy 10th, 1775 The resolves of 
 this Congress wi I ever stand on the historic pare, a splendid 
 monument of the wisdom, firmness, dignity and spirit of the 
 American character. 
 
 They settled the fundamental principles of union, action and 
 support; and upon the motion of two members to enter their 
 protest against the measures of the congress, the spirit of the 
 day was expressed by that old patriot, Samuel Adams, of Bos- 
 ton : " I should advice persisting in our struggle for liberty, 
 though it were revealed from heaven, that nine hundred and 
 ninety nine were to perish, arid only one of a thousand to sur- 
 vive, and retain his liberty. One such free man, must possess 
 more virtue* and enjoy more happiness, than one thousand 
 slaves let him propagate his like, and transmit to them what 
 he hath so nobly preserved.' This was a fair sample of the 
 general spirit of congress, and of the nation. 
 
 During these transactions, great efforts were made, both in 
 America and hnglan4, to effect a reconciliation, anil .heal the 
 diffidences. The earl of Chatham stood forth in parliament, 
 the champion of virtue, and his country's interest; his rear* 
 
248 BATTLE OP BUNKER'S HILL. 
 
 soning was pure, nervous and forcible ; and to an audience 
 with hearts open to conviction, would have been irresistible 5 
 but it was lost upon parliament, and with it the colonies were 
 lost. 
 
 Congress now assumed the style of the twelve United Colo- 
 nies, June 7> and elected George Washington, of Virginia, 
 commander in chief of the American armies, June 15th; he 
 accepted the command, and repaired to Cambridge. The con- 
 gratulations which he received, and his dignified replies, inter- 
 ested the feelings, confidence and affections of the nation. 
 
 .Method, order and discipline began to be felt through the 
 army, and the enemy were completely invested in Boston. 
 Congress at this time published a declaration, by the way of 
 manifesto, unfolding to the world, the causes of the contest 
 and the resolutions of the colonies. They drew and signed a 
 petition to the king, and an address to the inhabitants of Kng- 
 land ; recommended the general forming and training the militia^ 
 throughout the colonies, and a detachment of one fourth as 
 minute men, for all sudden emergencies ; and called the atten- 
 tion of the colonies to their armed vessels, and the defence of 
 their seaports. 
 
 They established a general post-office, to extend from Geor- 
 gia to Mame, and appointed Benjamin Franklin postmas- 
 ter general : they also established a hospital for 20,000 men. 
 These general outlines being settled, all parties prepared for 
 action. 
 
 The torch of war was again kindled by the destructive bat- 
 tle of Bunker's Hill, and the cor.flagration of Gharlestown. 
 The flames fla.-hed through the country, kindled afresh the 
 spirit of patriotism, and the ardour of revenge; and the public 
 feeling was alive to the contest, from Georgia to Maine. This 
 was one of the most important movements in the American 
 revolution. 
 
 The operations io the siege of Boston, were changed into a 
 regular approach, for the purpose of attempting a general at- 
 tack ; and at the same time an expedition was formed, and 
 sent up the Kermebec river into Canada, under Col. Arnold, to 
 eo-operate with the main army, which were advancing by the 
 way of Lake Champlain and Montreal, under Gen. Montgom- 
 ery, to reduce the city of Quebec. General Gage retired. 
 from the command of Boston, and Gen. Howe suceeeded ? 
 -Sept. 1775. 
 
 The destruction of the town of Falmouth, by the British, on 
 
EVACUATION P BOSTON. 549 
 
 ike eastern shores of Massachusetts, again kindled the flames of 
 revenge, October, 1775; and the ardor of the occasion wag 
 seized, for an attack on Boston. To facilitate the operations, 
 several rich storeships from England, laden with ordnance, 
 small arms, camp equipage and military stores, were captured 
 by the Americans, and conveyed to the army. 
 
 During these movements, the army, destined to the capture 
 of Canada, under Gen. Montgomery, proceeded by the way of 
 Lake Champlain, took Montreal, (JNovember J5thJ and the 
 other military posts in its vicinity proceeded down the river, 
 and joined Colonel Arnold, about the 1st December ; they 
 commenced an attack upon the city by assault ; it failed and 
 Gen. Montgomery fell in the attempt. The siege was con- 
 tinued, and the army reinforced from Montreal and the states ; 
 where they suffered severely by the small pox, and the severi- 
 ties of winter. In the month of May, they abandoned the siege, 
 upon the arrival of succor from England, and returned to Mon- 
 treal . 
 
 General Washington, in the spring, erected a redoubt upon 
 Dorchester heights, and threatened to bombard Boston. Thi* 
 approach excited alarm, and Gen. Howe made immediate pre- 
 parations to evacuate the town : he assembled his fleet, embark- 
 ed his troops, and set sail for Halifax. 
 
 General Washington, penetrating the design of the enemy, 
 drew off his army, retired to New York, and made preparations 
 to receive him ; passed over with his army to Long Island,, 
 and fortified the Narrows to prevent the passage of the enemy 
 into tii harbour of New York. 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. 
 
 Revolution csntimicd to the capture of Gen. Prcscot at Rhode 
 j September , 1777- 
 
 ABOUT the first of January, 1776, the Liverpool frigate ar- 
 rived off Norfolk, (Virginia) from England, and laid that rich 
 commercial town in ashes ; and in the month of February, 
 the British brgan their depredations in North Carolina and 
 Georgia, which were serious in their operations and conse- 
 quences. In the month of June, a strong British naval fcrce 
 made an attack upon Charleston (S. C.) ; they were opposed 
 
250 CAPTURE F NEW-YORK, 
 
 with great firmness, and obliged to abandon the enterprise, 
 with severe loss. 
 
 Gen. Clinton and Lord Cornwallis expected to have landed 
 a strong force, and commenced their southern conquests at 
 this time ; but the severe losses sustained by their fleet, defeat- 
 ed the enterprise, and they retired to New York. In the month 
 of August, lord Dunmoresent off his negro booty of about 1000, 
 to Bermuda, withdrew from Virginia, and repaired to New- 
 York. 
 
 On the 12th of July, lord Howe arrived at the Hook from 
 England, by the way of Halifax, with a fleet and reinforce- 
 ments, and charged with a commission to ncgociate separately 
 and individually with the states, for a return of peace. lie 
 made known the duties of the commissioners, to Gen Washing- 
 ton and to Congress, and they were circulated through the 
 country, in the public prints. Congress at the same time met 
 the commission with a publication of the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, which passed the 4th of July; the campaign was 
 opened, and the armies put in motion. 
 
 Gen. Howe landed his army upon Long-Island, supported by 
 generals Clinton, Grant, earl Percy and lord Cornwallis, and 
 commenced his operations against Gen. Washington, who had 
 chosen this position, to cover New- York. 
 
 The action of Flatbush, compelled General Washington to 
 retire with loss, and under cover of the night, cross over into 
 New York. 'This he accomplished by a m;>st masterly move- 
 ment, without loss; left a detachment for the protection of the 
 city : garrisoned the forts at Haelleai and Kingsbritlge, and 
 made a stand. On the 15th of September, Gen. Howe took 
 possession of New- York, <nd began his operations. 
 
 General Washington invested New-York until the 1.8th- of 
 October : he then abandoned his position to defeat an enter- 
 prise concerted by general Howe to cut off his communication 
 with New-England, by landing a strong force in his rear. 
 Gen. Washington retired to White Plains, where he sustained 
 an assault from general Howe, which was firmly resisted, and 
 General Washington re-tired to the high grounds, and took a 
 strong position. G- n. Howe retired to Kingsbridge, coiwmr-n.- 
 eed an attack upon the American forts, and carried by assault, 
 such as we.e not abandoned by trie Americans, and butchered 
 tin- garritons, 
 
 The fall of .these posts opened the passpige of the Hudson 
 to general Howe; Gen. Washington was compelled to cross 
 ever into New Jersey, and retire to Newark. The losses in 
 
 
RETREAT OP GEN. WASHINGTON. 251 
 
 the action at Flatbush, at White Plains, and in the forts 5 the 
 departure of the Massachusetts militia, whose term of service 
 had expired ; and the gloomy state of the army, retreating be- 
 fore a strong victorious British force, rendered the American 
 cause desperate, at this eventful moment. 
 
 General Washington could assemble at Newark, only thir- 
 ty-five hundred troops, to support the cause of liberty against 
 the whole British army, of about ten thousand. Even Gen. 
 Washington himself gave up alias lost, and with his most con- 
 fidential officers, talked of retiring hastily into Virginia, r 
 beyond the Alleghany, for security. 
 
 This scene was distressing ; a whole week passed before gen- 
 eral Howe joined lord Cornwallis, and commenced his opera- 
 tions ; and during all this time, not one company, even of Jer- 
 sey militia, joined the army. 
 
 On the 28th of November Gen. Washington retired from 
 Newark to Brunswick : lord Cornwallis entered it almost at the 
 same hour ; Gen. Washington retired to Princeton : his lord- 
 ship held his position at Brunswick according to orders. 
 
 At this critical moment, the service of the Jersey and Mary- 
 land brigades expired, and they withdrew against the most 
 pressing remonstrances* 
 
 October 7, Gen. Washington retired from Princeton, as lord 
 Cornwallis entered it, and the next day his lordship entered 
 Trenton, just as General Washington had crossed the Dela- 
 ware, about midnight. Gen. Washington secured the boats up- 
 on ihe Delaware, and prevented his lordship's pursuit. 
 
 Lord Howe issued the proclamation of the king's commis- 
 sioners, offering pardon and peace to all who should submit in 
 sixty days. 
 
 The low state of the army, and of the public feeling, ren- 
 dered this proclamation highly alarming at this time. Men of 
 distinction, in great numbers, in that part of the country, em* 
 braced the overture, and made th^ir submission. 
 
 General Lee, who harassed the rear of the British army with 
 a small force, was surprised and taken Dec. 13, and the British 
 boasted that they had taken the palladium of America, and 
 considered the contest at a close. 
 
 Under this pressure of distress, well might an army deg- 
 pond, reduced almost to a cypher, without pay, without 
 clothes, without supplies, and staining the snow with their 
 blood stained steps, as they ilcd before th* 3 victorious enemy 5 
 well might their country despond, when they saw their liber- 
 
BATTLB 6 
 
 ties waste away, and about to expire under the pressure of an 
 overwhelming foe. 
 
 At this eventful crisis, General Washington, by the assist- 
 ance of general Mifflin, collected a body of Pennsylvania mi- 
 litia, from Philadelphia and the interior, and gave support to 
 his army. With this force) he resolved to strike a bold 
 stroke, and attempt to fecover the losses and spirits of the 
 army, and of the nation ; accordingly he took advantage of 
 the enemy's not passing the river in their pursuit, and pre 
 pared to act on the offensive. 
 
 On the night of the 25th of December, 1776, General 
 Washington recrossed the Delaware, under cover of a thick 
 snow storm, and commenced an attack, gained a signal vic- 
 tory put the enemy to flight and took op the position at 
 Trenton, with about one thousand prisoners, with all their 
 amp utensils and arms. 
 
 Upon the recovery of the enemy, under a strong reinforce- 
 ment, General Washington sent off his prisoners into the 
 country, and retired to Princeton ; where he exposed his per- 
 son between two fires } repulsed the enemy, and pursued them 
 to Brunswick. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis assembled flit his forces, made a bold stand, 
 and General Washington took up his position at JVlorristown. 
 The depressed state of the army when they evacuated JNew- 
 Jersey, had not only alarmed the nation, but congress ; and the 
 sudden successes resulting from the affair at Trenton, had not 
 enly rekindled the spirit of the country, but called forth an act 
 of congress, empowering general Washington "to collect six- 
 teen thousand infantry, three thousand horse, three regiments 
 of artillery, and a corps of engineers, appoint their officers and 
 establish their pay : to call from all the states such militia as he 
 shall judge necessary ; form such depots of magazines and 
 stores as he may think proper; to displace all officers under a 
 brigadier, and fill all vacancies ; to take whatever he may want 
 for the service, wherever he may be. paying reasonably there- 
 for ; and to confine all who shall refuse the paper currency ; ail 
 this for the term of six months." 
 
 Despair had roused Congress from their cautious .security, 
 and the successes of Trenton and Princeton had futfy evinced, 
 that under God, Washington must be the saviour of his coun- 
 try. Thus light arose out of this thick darkness, and order out 
 of this confusion, and the foundation was laid oil which th's 
 liberty of America was secured* 
 
CAPTURE OF GEN. PRESCOT. 253 
 
 The brutality of the British, had now roused the indignation 
 f New-Jersey ; the fire of Lexington was again rekindled, 
 nd spread through the nation ; Lord Cornwallis was 
 losely invested in his camp at Amboy, after being surprised 
 nd driven from Elizabethtown with great loss; and the 
 lass of the people were alive to the contest ; the state was gen- 
 rally cleared, and the winter passed without any important op- 
 rations. 
 
 During these movements in New-Jersey, the American army 
 nder generals Gates and Arnold, retreated out of Canada, be- 
 )re sir Guy Carleton, and General Burgoyne, which will be 
 oticed under the northern expedition. 
 
 Gen. Howe took the field in person, and embarked the heavy 
 aggage of thearmy from Amboy for New-York, and prepared 
 j revenge the affair of Trenton upon Gen. Washington ; he 
 lade a feint to embark his army, and by a sudden movement, 
 ecalled the troops, formed and commenced a sudden attack 
 pon a detachment of the American army ; but was compelled 
 ) retire with loss, and embark his army on to Staten Island, 
 une 30, 1777. ' 
 
 Thus ended the expedition into Jersey, an expedition in 
 'hich, when viewed in its operations and effects, it must be 
 vident to all, the hand of God was most conspicuously dis-* 
 layed for the salvation of the American cause ; turned the 
 ouncils of her enemies into foolishness, and out of weakness 
 rought forth strength. 
 
 Tryon, the tory governor of New- York, made an attempt 
 ith a strong force from New- York, in the month of April, to 
 estroy the American stores at Danbury, and succeeded gene- 
 illy ; the party was severely harrassed by general Woster, 
 'ho fell with glory in pursuing the enemy, and by general Ar- 
 old, who distinguished himself in this affair. Governor Tryon 
 mbarked his force, and returned to New- York. 
 
 General Howe remained in New- York, assembled his fleet, 
 elected a detachment of his best troops, making a strong 
 nd well appointed force, with ordnance and stores for a dis- 
 mt expedition, embarked on board his fleet, and fell down to 
 le Hook 
 
 At this time, whilst general Howe was manoeuvering with 
 
 is fleet to deceive the American general with regard to his 
 
 estinntion, a party of volunteers and militia under colonel 
 
 : arton, passed over on to Rhode-Island, surprised Gen. Pres- 
 
 22 
 
254 EXPEDITION TO PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 cot in his quarters at Newport, and brought him off safe, with 
 one of his aids. Gen. Prescot, with a strong British force, had 
 taken possession of Newport in December, 1776, about the 
 time of the battle of Trenton. 
 
 The expedition of Gen. Howe now claims our attention. 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 
 
 Revolution continued, from the expedition of general Howe to 
 Philadelphia, September 1777, to the battle of Camden in 
 North Carolina. 
 
 IN 1777? general Howe embarked about sixteen thousand 
 troops on board his fleet at New- York, and put to sea upon a 
 secret expedition. General Washington detached the flower of 
 the American army into the state of New-Jersey, to watch his 
 motions, and to be in readiness to cover Philadelphia. 
 
 General Howe, after several movements with his fleet up- 
 on the coast, entered the Chesapeake bay, and landed his 
 troops at the ferry of Elk. General Washington advanced to 
 meet him ; an action was fought at Chad's-Ford, September 
 llth, and general Howe was successful ; general Washington 
 retired, and after several days manceuvering, general Howe 
 entered Philadelphia, September 26th, and congress removed 
 to Lancaster. 
 
 On the 4th of October, the action of Germ an town was 
 fought with a detachment of the British j the Americans 
 were successful, and the detachment retired to Philadelphia, 
 where they were closely invested through the winter. The 
 American army was, at this time, in the most distressed situ- 
 ation ; without clothes, shoes, stockings, and even breeches 
 and blankets : more than two thousand were marched without 
 shoes, through frost and snow, leaving the traces of their march 
 by their blood. t 
 
 During these movements, lord Howe moved his fleet round 
 into the Delaware which occasioned the conflicts of fort Mif- 
 flin and Red bank ; and the protection of the fleet, secured the 
 communication with the sea. 
 
 The last season, general Burgoyne had been sent out 
 from England, to Canada, with a strong force to co-operate 
 with the British forces at New- York, and form a junctios 
 
 i 
 
CAPTURE OF GEN. BURGOYNE. 255 
 
 at Albany. Sir Guy Carlton, then governor of Canada, with the 
 aid of general Burgoyne, soon recovered the province and the 
 American army retired by the way of lake Champlain. Winter 
 closed the scene. General Burgoyne pursued, the next season, 
 and appeared on the plains of Saratoga, (state of New-York,) 
 in the month of October : at the same time, a detachment of 
 the naval and land forces at New- York, proceeded up the river, 
 and burnt the town of Esopus. This again excited the public 
 ieeling. 
 
 The successful action of Bennington, against a detachment 
 of the army of Burgoyne, had given high spirits in that vicinity : 
 the American army under general Gates, was reinforced with 
 fresh drafts of militia, and was soon able to invest general 
 Burgoyne in his camp, at Saratoga. Alarmed at his critical 
 situation, he attempted to retire ; this was impracticable the 
 Americans had destroyed all the bridges : he next proposed 
 to give battle this became desperate; the Americans were 
 strong, their spirits were high, and their attacks were sharp and 
 desperate. Struck, with astonishment, general Burgoyne pro- 
 posed to surrender; a capitulation was signed, and the whole 
 British army laid down their arms, and became prisoners of 
 war, October 1 6, 1777. 
 
 The general depression which had alarmed the public mind, 
 during these formidable operations, was removed at a blow : 
 again a general impulse was given to the public feeling: the 
 plan of severing the eastern and western, (or southern) states, 
 fell with the fall of Burgoyne, and new energies and new efforts 
 were diffused through the nation. A success so novel, and 
 yet so important, humbled the pride of Britain, in her councils 
 gave a lustre to the American arms at home and abroad, and 
 closed the campaign of 1777. 
 
 France, Spain and Holland now became parties in the war. 
 In the course of the winter, commissioners from England ap- 
 peared at Philadelphia, with artful terms of accommodation, to 
 weaken the union and energies of America : these were proper- 
 ly treated. At the opening of the spring, sir Henry Clinton, 
 seeing no advantage resulting from his position at Philadelphia, 
 prepared to return to New- York. 
 
 About the 1st of June, 1778, sir Henry Clinton evacuated 
 Philadelphia, and took up his march. General Washington 
 pressed close upon his rear : both armies were about ten 
 thousand strong. At Monmouth, in New-Jersey, general 
 Washington came up with sir Henry, and ordered general 
 Lee, at the head of the advance guard, to commence an at- 
 
256 NAVAL ACTION OFF NEWPORT. 
 
 tack, for the purpose of a general action, and assured him of his 
 support with the main army. The failure of this attack, by 
 Gen. Lee's doubtful movements, caused the failure of the action. 
 Gen. Lee was tried by a court martial, which deprived him of 
 his command. Sir Henry withdrew in the night, and the 
 Americans who had laid on their arms impatient for the attack 
 in the morning, were disappointed of their hopes. 
 
 Sir Henry retired toy forced marches to Sandy-Hook, where 
 he was met by the fleet under lord Howe, embarked his array 
 and passed into New-York, July 5. 
 
 At this time a French fleet arrived at Delaware bay, for the 
 purpose of blockading the British squadron ; learning their de- 
 parture for New- York, they pursued and arrived off the hook, 
 where they received a communication from general Washington, 
 with a request to repair to Newport, and co-operate with the 
 Americans, in reducing the British force under general Prescott. 
 They repaired to Newport accordingly. The British fleet fol- 
 lowed from New- York and appeared off the harbor. The French 
 fleet slipped their cables, put to sea, and met the English ; an 
 action commenced both fleets were severely shattered ; the 
 English withdrew, and retired to New- York, and the French 
 to Boston, to refit, and from thence to the West-Indies ; the at- 
 tack upon Rhode-Island failed. 
 
 Sept. 1779, a French fleet of 20 sail of the line, frigates, 
 &c. was destined against the Island of Grenada, (in the West- 
 Indies.) At the request of Gen. Lincoln, who was then post- 
 ed at Charleston, (S. C.) Count De Estaing, the French 
 Admiral, repaired to the American coast, and co-operated 
 with Gen. Lincoln, in an attempt to dislodge the English 
 from Savannah in Georgia. This was the first foreign aid 
 the Americans had received, excepting the attempt upon 
 Rhode-Island in 1778, and opened the way for future, and 
 more important operations. 
 
 The attempt failed, and the French Admiral withdrew from 
 the American coast, and repaired to his station in the West- 
 Indies. Sir Henry Clinton, upon the departure of the French 
 fleet, resumed his southern enterprize, and dispatched admiral 
 Arbuthnot on the 26th of December, 1779, with a squadron, 
 detached from the fleet at New-York, to recover the losses of 
 1776, at Charleston. For this purpose he also embarked a 
 land force of 7000 men, under his command, accompanied by 
 lord Cornwallis, to seize on the city of Charleston, (S. C.) a;.d 
 subdue the southern states. 
 
CAPTURE OP CHARLESTON, S. C. 257 
 
 Sir Henry proceeded to his destined port, landed his troops, 
 md carried the city of Charleston by a regular siege. The 
 garrison, under the brave Gen. Lincoln, made a dignified de- 
 fence, but were overpowered by a commanding superiority 
 of force, and made prisoners of war, March 4, 1798. 
 
 The illustrious Gen. Greene, was detached to the southward, 
 to counteract this formidable expedition. Lord Cornwallis 
 penetrated into South-Carolina, and the cavalry attached to 
 the expedition, under the command of Lieut. Col. Tarlton, 
 scoured and ravaged the country. 
 
 At this time the affairs of America had again become des- 
 perate. The hard winter of 1780, set in with all its severity, 
 immediately upon the departure of the expedition ; and the 
 privations and distresses of the army under Gen. Washington, 
 were inexpressible through the winter and spring ; a mutiny 
 ensu d, and the cause of liberty was in danger of being lost 
 forever. 
 
 Gen. Greene wrote to Gen. Washington from Maryland, that, 
 fi the want of money, supplies, horses, &c. would render it 
 impossible to provide for the march of the Maryland troops." 
 These embarrasrnents greatly retarded the southern opera- 
 tions. 
 
 During this distressing period, the young marquis La Fay- 
 ette, arrived at head quarters, from France ; the tidings he 
 brought gave new spirits to Gen. Washington, and to con- 
 gress. On his passage from Boston to France, he narrowly 
 escaped a conspiracy, formed to assassinate him, by some 
 British sailors on board the ship. Through his personal ef- 
 forts in France, he negociated for America, supplies adapted 
 to her wants ; and announced that a fleet and armament 
 would soon follow him from France. 
 
 Congress resolved, " that bills be immediately drawn on 
 Dr. Franklin, minister at Paris, for twenty-five thousand dol- 
 lars, and on Mr. Jay, minister at Madrid, for twenty-five thou- 
 sand dollars, and the money applied to the immediate benefit of 
 the armies." 
 
 The darkness which hung over the political horizon of 
 America, was dispelled by this auspicious event ; extensive 
 arrangements were made to fill up the armies by regulars, and 
 militia, and supplies were extensively collected. At the 
 same time, the arms of Lord Cornwallis spread terror and 
 consternation throughout the southern states ; South Carolina 
 fell in regular succession, into a state of submission to the 
 
 22* 
 
258 BATTLE OP CAMDEN. 
 
 arms of the conqueror, aiy\ its inhabitants were acknowledged 
 and protected as British subjects, under a regular government. 
 During these operations, Sir Henry Clinton set sai! for 
 New York with part of the forces, and left Lord CornwalUs 
 with 4000 regulars, to finish the conquest of the South. Up- 
 on the capture of Gen. Lincoln, Gen. Gates, then in Virginia, 
 was appointed to succeed him, and immediately repaired to his 
 command. 
 
 Amongst the distressing embarrassments of the nation at 
 this time, the depreciated paper money was not one of the 
 least : to obviate this, Congress called in by taxes, two hun- 
 dred millions of dollars and burnt it, and redeemed it by a new 
 emission at the rate of one dollar for twenty. This plan suc- 
 ceeded, and thousands of the best patriots of the nation were 
 ruined bv the depreciated redemption of a currency, they had 
 endeavoured to support at par. At this time Mr. Adams left 
 London (\\here he had been sent in 1776 to negociate a peace,) 
 and went by the way of Spain to Holland, to bring to a close 
 the plans of alliance and commerce, which had been two years 
 in agitation. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis having overrun South Carolina, and set- 
 tled a system of government, began to penetrate into North 
 Carolina. The troops under Gen. Gates were so miserably 
 supplied with men and stores, that they maintained a feeble 
 resistance, and with an army of four thousand, (less than one 
 thousand of which were continental troops,) he directed his 
 march for Camden in North Carolina. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis having reached Camden the day before, 
 (unknown to the general) concentrated an attack upon general 
 Gates in the night, in his camp at Clermont. At the same 
 time, both armies began their march, viz. about half past 2 
 o'clock in the morning. Their advance parties met in the 
 woods : a conflict ensued upon the first shock the Americans 
 tell into some disorder ; this was soon recovered, and skirmish- 
 ing continued through the night ; when the morning 1 appear- 
 ed, both parties being informed of their situation by their cap- 
 tives, anxiously' waited the issue. 
 
 An action soon commenced ; the field was contested with 
 various success ; the bayonets of the British carried the day ; 
 the regular troops were firm, but the militia fled, and dispersed 
 as they fled never to be recovered. The general and his 
 regulars weie abandoned to their fate. 
 
 Several parties of militia, who were advancing to join the 
 
GENERAL OPERATIONS. 
 
 army, turned their arms against the fugitives, and thus com- 
 pleted the overthrow. The pursuit continued for more than 
 twenty miles, and the road was strewed with the fragments 
 of this routed army, the wounded, the dead, and the dying. 
 Such was the general panic through the- neighboring country, 
 that a party of horse, supported by more than one hundred in- 
 fantry, and at the distance of more than eighty miles from the 
 scene of action, upon the first intelligence, sought safety bv 
 flight. 
 
 The losses of his lordship, his want of supplies, and the 
 sickly season, all constrained him to give over his pursuit, 
 "and remain at Camden, and pursue his plan of forcing and or- 
 ganizing the submission of the state of North Carolina ; the 
 more effectually to accomplish this, he seized all such principal 
 characters as were firm to their country, and sent them prison- 
 ers to Charleston and St. Augustine, and secured their effects. 
 
 CHAP. XL. 
 
 Revolution continued to the capture of Lord Cornwallis at 
 York Town, October, 1781. 
 
 THE cavalry under Col. Tarlton continued to ravage the 
 country, burning, plundering, and destroying all in their way, 
 sparing neither whig* nor tory. Operations continued by de- 
 tached parties, *and with some success to the Americans. 
 Lord Cornwallis made a retrograde movement to strengthen his 
 position, and general Gates put forth all his efforts to collect an 
 army to oppose him ; but his efforts ware not very successful ; 
 he moved from Hillsborough, and took up his head quarters at 
 Charlotte. At this time general Greene arrived, disclosing his 
 commission from his excellency general Washington, and took 
 the command ; general Gates retired, and the distresses of 
 North Carolina continued. 
 
 During these operations at the southward, great and perplex- 
 ing difficulties had nearly ruined the army under general Wash- 
 ington. The frequent changes in the army, owing to short en- 
 listments, the want of discipline amongst the raw troops, the 
 want of pay, clothing, provisions, &c. had repeatedly dis- 
 tressed the army, and were at last accompanied with the revolt 
 of the whole Pennsylvania line. 
 
260 DEFEAT OF COL. TARLTON. 
 
 In defiance to all the efforts of general Wayne, and all the 
 other officers, they seized on six pieces of artillery, took up 
 their march, and repaired to Princeton. Sir Henry Clinton, 
 upon the first intelligence, made some important movements 
 from Staten Island, and sent spies at the same time to counte- 
 nance and encourage the revolt in his name, with very favora- 
 ble proposals. This was not their object : they were patriotic, 
 but determined to be heard. 
 
 A committee from Congress waited upon the mutineers, at 
 Princeton, and by liberal assurances, endeavored to purchase 
 their return to duty ; general Washington sent a strong detach- 
 ment to enforce obedience ; and they returned to their duty.* 
 A general arrangement was made by Congress, to supply the 
 armies, both by foreign and domestic aid and resources. 
 
 The war raged in the south with various success ; general 
 Greene took the command of only 2,307 men, without clothes, 
 or magazines, and without discipline ; subsisting on daily col- 
 lections, in the heart of a disaffected country, and in the face 
 of a victorious enemy. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, on the receipt of a reinforcement of 1,500 
 men, commenced his operations, and advanced. Col. Tarl- 
 ton was detached, to dislodge general Morgan from his position 
 at the Cowpens : he commenced his movements with his 
 usual impetuosity, and traversed the country for several days, 
 laying waste every thing in his course, until he arrived at Mor- 
 gan's position : an action commenced with the same impetu- 
 osity, and with signal success the Americans were dislodged, 
 and thrown into disorder ; but they rallied to the charge, and 
 were victorious in their turn : Tarlton was defeated, his army 
 routed and destroyed, his artillery and baggage captured ; and 
 he, with the mounted jbgitives, fled to Lord Cornwallis, Jan- 
 uary 17, 178 1. 
 
 This defeat roused up his lordship : he commenced a pur- 
 suit, and the operations were such, as the flight of the Ameri- 
 cans, and the rapid pursuit of his lordship, through a country 
 thinly settled, (without intermission,) would necessarily pro- 
 duce. 
 
 Gen. Greene had the address to harrass his lordship in his 
 flight, and yet avoid a general action, until he halted at Guil- 
 ford, near the confines of Virginia, and gave him battle. The 
 movements were well concerted ; and general Greene, with 
 his 2000 men, had hopes of success, against his lordship's pur- 
 suing army, greatly superior. 
 
BATTLE OP CAMDEN*. 261 
 
 ie conflict was sharp : the militia gave way the regu- 
 irs were overpowered, and general Greene drew off his ar- 
 my in good order, took a strong position to collect the strag- 
 glers, and commenced his retreat. The severity of the ac- 
 tion occasioned his lordship to make a hasty retrograde move- 
 ment, to recover his losses. 
 
 During these movements, the murderous sword of civil 
 war, raged between whig and tory, and threatened to depo- 
 pulate the country. At this time general Clinton detached a 
 fleet with 1,500 troops, which entered the Chesapeake, land- 
 ed their forces, and began the most alarming depredations in 
 Virginia : several efforts were made to dislodge them, but 
 without effect. General Greene made a movement to return to 
 North Carolina, and carry the war into what had now become 
 the enemy's country. 
 
 He boldly advanced to Camden with his little army, and 
 gave battle to Lord Rawdon, April, 1781 : a desperate con- 
 flict ensued victory for a long time held a doubtful balance : 
 both parties withdrew, and left the field covered with the dead. 
 
 On the 28th of April, general Greene thus expressed him- 
 self to the French minister : " This distressed country, I am 
 sure, cannot struggle much longer, \rithout more effectual sup- 
 port ; they must fall and I fear their fall will sap the inde- 
 pendence of America. We fight, get beaten, rise, and fynt 
 again the whole country is one continued scene of blood a id 
 slaughter." 
 
 After the battle of Camden, his lordship retired in his turn ; 
 general Greene advanced, carried the war into South Caioli- 
 na, and by a desperate attack, was on the point of carrying 
 by assault, the strong fortress of Ninety-six, the reduction of 
 which would have recovered all South Carolina, except Charles- 
 ton. 
 
 At this critical moment, appeared a reinforcement of one 
 thousand seven hundred foot, and one hundred and fifty horse, 
 which had arrived at Charleston, landed, and flew to the relief 
 of the fortress. General Greene retired, and again invested 
 his lordship in Camden ; not being sufficiently strong to attack 
 him, he made a movement towards Charleston ; this induced 
 his lordship to leave his position, and with a detachment retire 
 to Charleston, August, 1781. 
 
 The war now raged in Virginia, under the command of 
 general Phillips. The marquis La Fayette, with a small 
 force, attempted to cover Richmond but failed ; and the 
 
262 COUNCIL OP WAR. 
 
 British entered the capital. Lord Cornwallis, after the action 
 at Guiltbrd, left general Greene to pursue his southern expe- 
 dition, and moved to Wilmington ; from thence he commenced 
 a rapid march to Richmond in Virginia, to join general Phil- 
 lips, and at a blow, reduce the state to obedience Phillips 
 had died ; but a reinforcement of 1,800 regulars joined his 
 lordship at Richmond. 
 
 The command devolved on his lordship ; and the young 
 marquis La Fayette, with a little army of 3,000 men, was 
 now destined to enter the lists with this victorious hero of the 
 south. 
 
 Flushed with his triumphs, his lordship in his communica- 
 tion to sir Henry Clinton, thus expresses himself : " the boy 
 cannot escape me.' 7 His lordship attempted to surprise the 
 rnarquis and bring him to an action but without effect : ho, 
 with great adroitness, eluded his wiles, and held him at bay, 
 until he was reinforced by a detachment from the north, un- 
 der general Wayne, and the baron Sleuben ; his lordship 
 took up his quarters at Williamsburg, after having spread car- 
 nage, terror and desolation through the states of South Caro- 
 lina and North Carolina, (for one thousand miles,) and plant- 
 ed his victorious standard in the heart of Virginia. 
 
 At the commencement of these operations in the south, a 
 French fleet under the command of the chevalier de Turney, 
 with 6,000 men, under the command of count Rochambeau, 
 arrived at Newport, Rhode-Itland, July 10, 1780. The town 
 was illuminated, and the illustrious allies were received with 
 every expression of respect, and grateful applause. This was 
 the fleet promised by the marquis La Fayette, when he return- 
 ed from France, and which he had been the great instrument of 
 procuring. 
 
 In the month of September, a conference was proposed by 
 general Washington, to the French commander at (Newport, 
 an-i they met at Hartford, in Connecticut. General Washing- 
 ton was accompanied with the young marquis La Fayette, and 
 general Knox. The avowed object of conference was, to 
 concert measures for an attack upon the city of New- York. 
 
 In the rnidst of this conference, an express arrived from 
 the fortress at West-Point, on the Hudson, annoum Dg iiie 
 traitorous designs of general Arnold, ilie council > ; b. clos- 
 ed - -' ; ;-; parties retired to their posts, ami ,;ene;.il VV ^h'tig- 
 ton flew to the relief of West-Point. On his arrival, he iuund 
 
MAJOR AJCDRE. 263 
 
 the cannon dismounted, and the fortress dismantled ; Arnold 
 had fled, and taken refuge on board a British sloop of war, 
 posted for the occasion. 
 
 Whilst his excellency was employed in repairing the fortress, 
 a prisoner was announced, who proved to be the unfortunate 
 major Andre, who had volunteered his services to sir Henry 
 Clinton, to negociate this treacherous operation with general 
 Arnold. His character was that of a spy, his fate was death ! 
 The righteous sacrifice greatly interested the feelings, and touch- 
 ed the sympathy of every American breast. 
 
 In May, 1781, Gen. Washington, with his suite, again met the 
 French officers at W^ethersfield, (Conn.) to mature the plans of 
 the last year. His excellency, at the close of the consultation, 
 repaired to head-quarters, and commenced his system of opera- 
 tions, to reduce the city of New- York. An attack was contem- 
 plated by land, whilst the French fleet should blockade the city 
 by sea. To this end, the French troops were landed at New- 
 port, and proceeded to New- York : heavy cannon and mortars, 
 left at the siege of Boston, in 1 776, were transported at great 
 expense, across the country to the Hudson river, and down to 
 the army before New- York. 
 
 The public feeling was alive to the enterprise the British 
 collected their fleet, fortified the port and city of New- York, 
 and put themselves in the best possible state of defence : the 
 American army was strengthened by drafts of militia; and upon 
 the arrival of the French troops to join general Washington, the 
 French fleet at Newport, (having been reinforced from France,) 
 put to sea. 
 
 In New- York, all was anxiety and alarm, and a momentary 
 attack was expected. At this critical moment, general Wash- 
 ington, with the best troops of the army, in conjunction with the 
 French troops, made a rapid movement into New-Jersey, and 
 to Philadelphia : the first regular intelligence of his movement, 
 announced the allied army at the head of the river Elk, and the 
 next, announced his arrival befoie York Town in Virginia, 
 where lord Cornwallis had retired upon a junction of general 
 Washington, whi the .Marquis La Fayette. 
 
 At this critical juncture, the English fleet, stationed to protect 
 his loi.i.v p, had slipped their cables upon the approach of the 
 French fleet, met them at the mouth of the Chesapeake, been 
 beaten in a severe action, and fled to New-York. The victori- 
 ous French s.:>led up the bay to co-operate with the allies, in 
 the reduction of York-Town. 
 
264 CAPTURE OF LORD CORNWALLIS. 
 
 The town was invested, and the trenches were opened on 
 thr 6th of October: the approaches were regular, the Cannon- 
 ade terrible, and the resistance desperate. The overwhelming 
 destruction which bore down, wasted and destroyed the British, 
 forced his lordship to request a parley on the 18th, and on the 
 19th, the articles of capitulation were signed, and his lordship, 
 with his whole army, marched out, prisoners of war, October 
 20th, 1781. Thus fell this hero of the south, by a stratagem 
 concerted at Hartford and Wethersfield, (Connecticut.) 
 
 CHAP. XLI. 
 
 General affairs of America, to the adoption and organization 
 of the Federal Constitution, March, 1789 remarks. 
 
 His Excellency General Washington closed the glorious 
 scene at York Town, by publishing in general orders, the 
 grateful effusions of his heart to the army, both officers and sol- 
 diers, and ordered the whole to be assembled in brigades and 
 divisions, to attend divine service, and render thanks to that 
 God who had given them the victory. 
 
 Congress next passed a vote of thanks to g^n^ral Washing- 
 ton, count Rochambeau, count Degiasse, the officers of the di 
 ferent corps, and the men under their command : appointed a 
 day of general thanksgiving to Almighty God, th-v gHout Uni- 
 te.] America ; and moved in procession to the Duu h Lutheran 
 church, and returned thanks to God, for this distinguished suc- 
 cess. 
 
 All United America resounded with grateful acclamations of 
 joy, and every breast glowed with the warmest emotions of gra- 
 titude to the God of their fathers. 
 
 Congress ordered a marble column to be erected in York- 
 Town, adorned with emblems commemorative of the French 
 and American alliance, and an inscription, expressing the sur- 
 render of the British arms. 
 
 The several corps returned to their former stations, and his 
 excellency general Washington repaired to Philadelph 
 give repose to his rnind, and to confer with congress upon the 
 future exigencies of the nation. 
 
 The French fleet, under count Degrasse, sailed for the 
 West-Indies on the 5th of November, and the operations of 
 
NAVAL ACTION. ZOO 
 
 tire seasons were generally closed. Virginia, North-Carolina, 
 ad all South-Carolina, excepting Charleston, were recover- 
 ed, and general order restored. 
 
 The theatre of war was now removed to the West-Indies, 
 where France and Spain assembled a fleet of sixty ships of 
 the line, and spread a general alarm throughout the British 
 islands. This was opposed by a British fleet of equal force. 
 One of the most desperate and sanguinary conflicts ensued 
 then ever known, between the French under count Degrasse, 
 and the English under sir George Rodney. Sir George un- 
 der a press of sail, bore down upon the French lines ; the 
 French nailed their colors to their masts, and fought xvitlt 
 desperation. Admiral Degrasse fought his ship, until only 
 two men with himself remained, and then struck his colors. 
 The English were victorious. The French suffered the loss 
 of three thousand killed, and twice as many wounded the 
 English suffered severely. This action was decisive in those 
 se'as, and the remains of the French and Spanish fleets with- 
 drew. 
 
 Congress pursued the plan of loans from France, Spain and 
 Holland to prosecute the war : and through their ministers, 
 liberal supplies were obtained. All further operations in 
 South Carolina ceased, and Charleston was evacuated on 
 thef!4th of December, 1782, with the most perfect order, and 
 in two days the regular police of the city, and the govern- 
 ment* of the state were restored. The French troops, ren- 
 dered so illustrious at the siege of York Town, now took up 
 their march for Boston , where they embarked for France. 
 
 We pass over the efforts of Spain to recovej Gibraltar, af- 
 ter the conquest of Minorca, together with all further naval 
 operations. 
 
 The subject of peace now became general in Europe and 
 America. Negociations were opened at Paris urs'der Dr. 
 Franklin and John Jay, as ministers of America ; and the 
 count de Aranda, minister of Spain ; and the count de Vtr- 
 gennes on the part of France ; with Mr. Fitzlierbert and Mr. 
 Oswald, on the part of Great Britain. Mr, Adams v ;is a. 
 this time negotiating a commercial treaty with Holland. 
 
 Many points labored ; the negotiation spun out : the Eng- 
 lish ministers could not be prevailed on to take the starting 
 point, and acknowledge trie independence of America, until 
 they had sent to England, and received positive instructions. 
 
 The fisheries next labored with England, and France did 
 
 23 
 
266 1EACE OF PARIS, 17&S. 
 
 not favor all the American demands upon this point. Dur- 
 ing this struggle in this council, Mr. Adams left Holland, at 
 the request of Mr. Jay, and repaired to Paris ; and upon a 
 confutation, they agreed to negotiate with the British minis- 
 ter separately, if the count de Yergennes did not yield to the 
 American claims on the fisheries, &c This movement suc- 
 ceeded and brought the negotiations to a favorable close. 
 
 At this critical juncture, a new scene opened to the gener- 
 al in chief. The army before New-York became infected 
 with a general mutiny, founded upon a demand for arreara- 
 ges of pay, and adequate indemnification for their services 
 and sufferings, with sufficient guarantee, before they were 
 disbanded. The general, alarmed at this dangerous conspi- 
 racy, requested the general and field officers, with one officer 
 from each company, and a proper representation from the 
 staff of the army, to assemble on Saturday the 15th. He at 
 the same time u^ed all his influence to soften the violence of 
 their passions. 
 
 According to appointment the officers met, general Gates 
 vras appointed president : his excellency general Washington 
 addressed the council in a short, but a most pathetic and dig- 
 nified speech, which touched their honors, their interest, and 
 their hearts. They voted an address of thanks to his excel- 
 lency, and retired, relying with full confidence on the assur- 
 ances of his excellency, aod the wisdom and liberality of con- 
 gress : the mutiny was quelled. 
 
 On the 24th of March, it was announced in congress, by a 
 letter from the marquis la Fayette, bearing date Feb. 5, that 
 a general peace had been signed at Paris. 
 
 Congress settled the requirements of the army to their sat- 
 isfaction, and they were disbanded. On the 4th of April the 
 treaty arrived in America ; general rejoicings resounded 
 through the country. On the 25th of November, the British 
 evacuated the city of New-York, and the Americans took pos* 
 session with great dignity and good order. His excellen- 
 cy general Washington with his principal officers, the gover 
 nor of New-York, &c. advanced in procession, attended by 
 a vast concourse of people. The ceremony was conducted 
 with great solemnity, and did honor to the occasion. 
 
 When the festivity and hilarity of this interesting scene 
 were closed, his excellency general Washington took an af- 
 ectionate leave of the officers, who were his companions in 
 
&ESIGNATIGN OF GEN. WASHINGTON,. Z7 
 
 arms, retired to Philadelphia, and exhibited his accounts to 
 the controller, in his own hand writing. He then retired to 
 Annapolis, where Congress were then sitting (by adjourn- 
 ment,) and on the 20th of December, 1783, resigned his com- 
 mission as commander in chief. Congress being assembled, 
 and the house and galleries crowded by a numerous and 
 splendid collection of ladies and gentlemen ; his excellency, 
 agreeable to appointment, and by notice from the president, 
 arose irom his seat, and with the dignity of himself, addressed 
 the house in an appropriate speech. 
 
 Thus closed the greatest revolution that had ever been un- 
 dertaken, accompanied with the greatest displays of wisdom, 
 patience, fortitude, disinterested patriotism and feats of arms, 
 ever before recorded, and with a general success, uncontempla- 
 ted by the most sanguine sons of liberty. 
 
 The liberty of America was now sealed, by the resignation 
 of that illustrious chief, who had been the instrument in the 
 hand of God, of obtaining and securing all her blessings, and 
 on whose sword hung the destinies of America. The father 
 of his country retired to his seat in Virginia, there to enjoy in 
 the bosom of repose, the prayers and benedictions of a free and 
 grateful people; 
 
 The general interest of the nation claimed, and received 
 the unremitted efforts of congress, to give credit to the paper 
 medium, (now almost a cypher by depreciation) to satisfy 
 the claims of the army, and the creditors generally to 
 strengthen the union, by securing credit at home, and confi- 
 dence abroad. 
 
 The individual states pursued the same plans, extended 
 their commerce, and improved their agriculture, and a general 
 tranquillity prevailed, Several of the states, by legislative act?, 
 infringed such articles of the treaty as regarded the [ ayment 
 of British debts, which gave to Great- Britain a pretext for in- 
 fringing that part of the treaty, which related to her relinquish- 
 ing the military posts on the western frontier : these became 
 subjects of collision. 
 
 It was early foreseen after the war, that the national com- 
 pact was too feeble to secure the tranquillity of the states; 
 two events rendered this evident to all. It became the inter- 
 est of the nation, that congress should lay a national impost, 
 to increase the revenue for the general good. This was ac- 
 ceded to by all the states, except Rhode-Island ; her nega- 
 tive put a veto upon tho measure j the impost failed: con- 
 
268 FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 
 
 gress could only recommend, but had no powers to enforce, 
 About the same time, an insurrection broke out in the state 
 of Massachusetts, under captain Daniel Shays, which became 
 highly alarming, and threatened the destruction of liberty and 
 the laws. 
 
 These two important events called up the attention of the 
 states to their general interest : they unanimously resolved, in 
 their general assemblies, by the recommendation of congress, to 
 call a convention, to be held at Philadelphia, to frame a consti- 
 tution, which should more effectually secure the peace and pros- 
 perity of the nation. 
 
 The delegates were chosen by all the states, and assembled 
 at Philadelphia, May, 1?87. The father of his country, as 
 delegate from Virginia, was unanimously elected president of 
 the convention. A constitution was framed received the sig- 
 natures of the convention, and was transmitted to the states for 
 their approbation and acceptance. 
 
 Conventions of the several states were assembled ; the con- 
 stitution was regularly discussed, and adopted by a majority. 
 liis excellency George Washington was elected president, by 
 the unanimous suffrages of his country, and the honorable John 
 Adams, vice-president. Members ot a new congress were reg- 
 ularly chosen by all the states assembled at New-York, regu- 
 larly organized, March 4, and his excellency president Wash- 
 ington, with great solemnity, was inducted into office, April 30, 
 1789. 
 
 The government was organized, and became responsible for 
 tlj^e interests of the nation. He who had shone so conspicuous 
 in the field, added a new lustre to his name, by his wisdom in 
 she cabini t. 
 
 With the new government, sprang up new energies through. 
 out the nation ; union, peace, concord, public confidence, pub- 
 lic and pri\ ate credit ; a spirit of agriculture, ctmmfrce and 
 enterprise, universally prevailed; a foundation was luid lor all 
 Unit unrivalled prosperity America has enjoyed, and all that 
 greatness she is destined to enjoy. 
 
 Here let us pause, and admire the wisdom and goodness 
 of the (Joe! of our fathers, in his watchful, guardian care, over 
 this vine of the reformation, this little church in the wilder- 
 ness. If they had not been harrassed by the savages in their 
 earl}- settlements, would they have preserved their virtue ? 
 If they ha; 1 not be n j res: ed by the alarming iluijters ot the 
 olu French war ; would they ha\< ever united? It they had 
 not been oppressed by tritajn would they have become a 
 
 
 
T/n ittix 
 /t t '\',(t.v /'l 
 t/tK /'f-f/ 
 
 tin- Mitif 
 
 < ,'if '>/' f'uf/ct/ . ftt' t'i'tffi '/" iY' ////" //'/ :*/ 
 
PRESIDENT WASHINGTON;* ~o l j 
 
 nation ? If they had not been alarmed by insurrections unc'er 
 the old confederation ; would they have delegated such pow- 
 ers to the new federal compact ? If the new federal corn- 
 pact had not been framed and put into operation just at that 
 critical time, just upon the explosion of the French revolu- 
 tion ; who will dare to say, what would ha,\e been the fate of 
 United America at this day ? Let us adore the God of our 
 fathers, who has done all this for us. 
 
 CHAP. XLtf. 
 
 Affairs of America continued war rcith France peace war 
 with England peace war with the Barbary powers gen- * 
 eral peace, 181 5 general remarks. 
 
 WE have noticed that auspicious day, the 4th of March, 
 1789, when the father of his country, as President of the Uni- 
 ted States of America, gave the first energies to that federal 
 compact, which has proved the palladium of the liberty and 
 prosperity of the nation. 
 
 On the 5th of May following, commenced that terrible ex- 
 plosion, the French revolution, \yhich overthrew the religion 
 and government of France, subverted almost every throne in 
 Christendom, and threatened the peace and liberty of Ameri- 
 ca. To this compact, under God, America is indebted, for all 
 that peace and prosperity she has been able to maintain 
 through this mighty struggle ; for her successes in the war with ^ 
 France, 1799> and her late war with England, during this dis- 
 tressing period. 
 
 The war with France was short, and of too little moment to 
 claim particular attention. The late war with England com- 
 menced in 1812, and closed February, 1815, was serious in its 
 operations eventful in its consequences, and claims some par- 
 ticular notice. 
 
 The collisions of France and England with the commercial 
 interests of America, excited a warmth of feeling in America, 
 and a spirit of hostility against both nations ; this was express- 
 ed by congress, according to the strength and predominancy of 
 the two great parties in our national councils ; remonstrances 
 produced negociations, the fluctuating state of Europe, rendered 
 negociations critical and doubtful, 
 23* 
 
*?.rO WAR WITH ENGLAND, 
 
 When the emperor Napoleon commenced his career of c,.ir- 
 quest when all Europe were alive to the events of the day 
 the American government embraced the favorable moment to 
 redress the wrongs she had so long and so patiently endured 
 from British depredation on her commerce, and the rights of the 
 American flag. They proclaimed war against England, and 
 at a blow, attempted the conquest of "the Canadas ; it failed, 
 and the war became a naval war. 
 
 Great-Britain prepared to secure her possessions in the 
 Canadas, by powerful armaments on the lakes; America con- 
 tinued her operations against the Canadas, and prepared to 
 meet her on the water ; she at the same time commenced 
 general depredations upon the commerce of England, with 
 privateers and frigates, and the contest became sharp ami 
 cloudy. 
 
 The English government sent their ships of war and frigates 
 on to the American coast, with full confidence that the small 
 naval force of America would soon be overpowered and de- 
 stroyed. The Americans sent their cruisers and frigates into 
 evt ry sea, and every clime, with high confidence and distinguish- 
 ed success. The particular operations of this war, upoa the 
 water, claim some noike. 
 
 On ilie 2 1st of June, 1812, (three days after war was de- 
 clared,) an American squadron of two frigates and two sloops 
 of war, under commodore Rogers, sailed from IS e^- York on 
 a crui.v.o. On the 13th August, the United States frigate Es- 
 sex of 44 guns, commanded by captain Porter, fell in with 
 and captured his Britannic Majesty's sloop of war Alert, of 
 1Q guns, after an action of eight minutes. On the IQth of 
 August the. United States fripute Constitution, of 44 guns, 
 captain Hull, fell in with and captured his Britannic Majesty's 
 frigate Guerriere, of 38 guns, James Dacres, commander, af- 
 ter an action of twenty-five minutes. The Guerriere lost fif- 
 teen men killed and sixty- four wounded j the Constitution had 
 seven killed and seven wounded. 
 
 At this time the government of Algiers commenced depre- 
 dations upon the American commerce in the Mediterranean, 
 and captured the brig Edwin of Salem. October 18th, the 
 United States sloop of war Wasp, of iGguns, captain Jone?, 
 fell in with his Britannic Majesty's sloop of war Frolic, of 18 
 guns, captain Wyngates, ami captured her in forty-three min- 
 utes; the Frolic had thirty killed and fifty \youndecl j the Wasp 
 h;.'d five killed, and five \voundcd. 
 
NAVAL WARFARE. J|i 
 
 His Britannic majY sty's ship of war the Poictiers, of seven- 
 ty-four guns, fell in with and captured the Wasp and her prize 
 soon after the action. October 25, the United States frigate, 
 United States, of fort \-four guns, commodore Decalur, tell 
 in with, and captured his Britannic Majesty's frigate Macedo- 
 nian of 38 guns, J. S. Garden commander, after an action of 
 one hour and thirty minutes; the Macedonian lost thiity-six 
 killed, and sixty-eight wounded ; the United States five kil- 
 led and seven wounded. December 29th, the United States 
 frigate Constitution, 44 guns, Commodore Bainbridge, fell in 
 with and captured his Britannic Majesty's frigate Java, of 
 thirty-four guns, captain Lambert, after an action of fifty-five 
 minutes ; the Java lost sixty-nine killed, and one hundred and 
 0'ne wounded j the Constitution nine killed, and twenty-five 
 wounded. 
 
 During these operations on the water, the Americans were 
 unsuccessful in all their laud operations against Canada, and 
 the war on that side wore an unfavorable aspect. February 
 24, 1813, the United States staop of war Hornet, of sixteen 
 guns, captain Lawrence, fell in with and captuied his Britan- 
 nic Majesty's brig Peacock of eighteen guns, captain Peake, 
 aOer an action of 15 minutes ; the Peacock had 33 wounded 
 which uere saved with the prisoners of the crew ; but the kill- 
 ed, with their captain went down with the Peacock ; the Hor- 
 net lost 1 killed, 4 wounded, and 3 sunk in the prize. 
 
 August. At this time, the skirmishing on lake Ontario 
 commenced with various success ; the Creek and Choctaw 
 Indians, began their depredations with success; and the Eng- 
 lish blockaded the ports south of the Chesapeake bay, under 
 sir J. B. \Varren. September 3 the U. S. brig Enterprise of 
 1C guns, captain Burrows, fell in with and captured his Bri- 
 tannic majesty's brig Boxer, of 18 guns, captain Blythe, after 
 an action of 45 minutes ; the loss of the Enterprise 9 t^e 
 Boxer lost 45 ; both captains fell in the action. 
 
 The limits of this work will not permit me to pursue this 
 brilliant scene of naval war, and shew, in detail, the capture 
 of his Britannic majesty's frigates Cyane and Levant, by the 
 United States frigate Constitution, in a desperate action ; of 
 his Britannic majesty's frigate Penguin of thirty-two guns, by 
 the United States sloop of war Hornet ;> of his Britannic ma- 
 jesty's brig Epervier, of eighteen guns, by the United States 
 sloop of war Peacock; of his Britannic majesty's sloop of 
 Vr Keindecr, by the United States sloop of war Wasp; or of 
 
272 L-E KEY'S VICTORY. 
 
 his Britannic majesty's brigs Letticeand Bon Accord, and siocp 
 of war Avon, by the Wasp : the last of which, sunk immedi- 
 ately after the action. 
 
 These captures were the result of close action, in sharp and 
 desperate conflicts; many of these prizes, were stripped of eve- 
 ry spar, and several so cut to pieces, as to become unmanagea- 
 ble, and were burnt at sea; others sunk in the action, or imme- 
 diately after. 
 
 The general movements for the reduction of Canada, were 
 now completed j the fleets on lake Erie, and lake Ontario, 
 were now about equal in numbers and force, and prepared for 
 action. The American forces under the command of Gen. 
 Harrison, moved towards Detroit, and an action commenced 
 ou Lake Erie, between the American fleet, under the command 
 of Com. Perry, and the British fleet under the command of 
 commodore Barclay, Sept. 10th. 
 
 The fleets were equal : commodore Barclay, an old distin- 
 guished officer, in the school of Nelson, had seen much ser- 
 vice ; commodore Perry, a young officer, and without experi- 
 ence. The conflict commenced the action was general and 
 desperate commodore Perry's ship being disabled he changed 
 liis flag, on board another ship, in an open boat, in the heat 
 of x the action, and at once bore down with the remainder of his 
 fleet upon the enemy : both fleets were close engaged 
 the action was short the carnage was terrible, and the whole 
 British squadron surrendered to commodore Perry. Two 
 ships, two brigs, cne sloop, and one schooner, were the trophies 
 of his victory. 
 
 The British, upon the news of this victory, evacuated De- 
 troit, and retired to Maiden, in Upper Canada. Gen. Harri- 
 son took possession of Detroit, Sept. 28th, and pursued into 
 Canada. The illustrious Perry joined him, and became his 
 companion in arms. Gen. Harrison gained a victory over Gen. ; 
 Proctor, in Upper Canada, with distinguished advantage ; and 
 captured and destroyed his whole army, Oct. 5. At the same 
 time, com. Chauncey took and destroyed seven of the British 
 squadron on lake Ontario. 
 
 Nov. 4th Overtures for peace arrived from England : at 
 the same time Gen. Wilkinson arrived, and took command of 
 the expedition into Canada. The operalions continued with 
 various success, through the month of December, and both 
 armies took up their winter quarters. 
 
 Feb. 1314. The U. States frigate President, 
 
QR6JISE AND GAPTORE OP THE ESSEX. e lf3 
 
 Rogers', arrived after a cruise of seventy days. The United 
 States frigate Essex, of thirty-two guns, captain Porter, which 
 had sailed early in the war, on a cruise to South America, 
 took several valuable prizes on the coast of Biazil, doubled 
 Cape Horn, and cruised with great success on the coast of Chi- 
 li and Peru ; captured and destroyed the British whale ships in 
 those seas, and repaired to the bay of Valparaiso, on the coast 
 of Chili, to obtain supplies; here she was overtaken and 
 blockaded by a superior British force, consisting of the frigate 
 Phce 1 e, of thirty-six guns, and 'the sloop of war Ch rub, of 
 twenty-two guns, and was captured, after an action of two 
 hours and a half. 
 
 At this time Gen. Jackson took vengeance on the Creek In- 
 dians, for their predatory ravages. July 3 The operations 
 against Canada were now commenced. August. A British 
 squadron entered the Potomac, proceeded up to the city of 
 Washington, landed a body of British troops, took :he city, 
 burnt the Capitol, President's house, &c. and retired, and 
 plundered Alexandria ; from thence they proceeded to Balti- 
 more, and after an unsuccessful attack, were compelled to re- 
 tire. 
 
 Sept. 11. The town of Plattsburg was assaulted by a land 
 force from Lower Canada, under the command of den. Pre- 
 vost, and a formidable naval force, under the command of 
 commodore Downie. The harbor or' Plattsburgh was defend- 
 ed by the American squadron, under the command of com, 
 Macdonough. The merits of this action, so g'orious to the 
 American navy, may be seen by the following official report of 
 commodore Macdonough. 
 
 U.S. ship Saratoga, of Plattsbnrgh, Sept. 11, 1814. 
 
 Sir, The Almighty has been pleased to grant us a .sig.'.al 
 victory on Lake Champlain, in the capture of one frigate, one 
 brig, and two sloops of war. 
 
 J have the honor to be, very respectfully, 
 
 Sir your most obedient servant, 
 
 T. MACUONOUGH, 
 
 Hon. WILLIAM JONES, 
 
 Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 This signal victory, obliged General Prevost to retire with 
 U rapid movement ; the American troops pursued, an. I here- 
 turned into Canada. The openlions on the lines continued 
 with various success. The Biiti li in\adi-<l th<- city of New- 
 Orleans with a formidable force, with a view to make a eeri- 
 
WAR WITH ALGIERS. 
 
 quest of Louisiana ; but were repulsed in a signal victory by 
 general Jackson, and abandoned the enterprise, January 8, 
 1815. On the llth February, the treaty of peace with Great 
 Britain arrived, and closed the conflict. All things returned 
 into their former state, February 18, the treaty was ratified 
 and peace was established* 
 
 On the 2d of March, 1815, war was declared by the Ame- 
 rican government against Algiers, and a squadron of eleven 
 frigates and armed vessels, was dispatched to the JVlediteira- 
 nean, in two divisions, under commodores Bainbridge and 
 Decatur; and in four months, all the Barbary powers were 
 united in treaties of peace with the united States; our own 
 captives, and those of several European states, released, and 
 expressions of submission from several of those powers ob- 
 tained, not hitherto contemplated, and such as had never been 
 extorted by any other nation. A just tribute to the American 
 flag. 
 
 Religion, patriotism and valor, supported by industry and 
 economy, joined to resolution, perseverance and enterprise, 
 marked the character of our fathers : these virtues combined, 
 made this western wilderness blossom like the rose, and this 
 savage desert become vocal with the praises of our God ; led 
 them to resolve, that as the bible was the standard of their re- 
 ligious faith and practice, they would take the bible for the 
 standard of their civil government, until they could find a 
 better, 
 
 Under this standard, they planted a system of religious, 
 eivil and literary institutions, the most free, pure and perfect 
 ever before known ; protected by a system of military disci- 
 pline, the most independent in thy support of that all impor- 
 tant military principle, true merit) ever before witnessed ; the 
 whole, supported by that balance of power in the three de- 
 partments of government, unknoim to all former republics ; 
 'A balance of power which originated in the Saxon hrptarchy 
 in the fifth century -was greatly improved by Alfred the great, 
 in the ninth century and" has been completed in America. 
 
 Upon this inestimable basis, stands the illustrious republic 
 of nited America. The success of these systems, stands un- 
 rivalled in the annals of time, and so long as they are preserv- 
 ed in their purity, will continue to stand unrivalled, until they 
 are eclipsed by the glories of the great millennial day. 
 
 All the literature of the ancients, together with all the ex- 
 tensive improvements of the moderns; in the arts and. sciea- 
 
REMARKS- 27 
 
 ces have flourished in America, and equalled, if not surpass- 
 ed i he learning of Europe. The manufactures of America 
 are yet in their infancy ; although her improvements have been 
 flattering, she can never excel, so long as an unbounded forest 
 invites to distant enterprise, and promises a rich reward to the 
 hardy sons of labor. 
 
 The agriculture of America has kept pace with her general 
 improvements; her inventive genius shines conspicuous ; and 
 her enterprise on the ocean, has rendered her the second 
 commercial nation in the world. Her naval glory stands un- 
 rivalled, and tjpe late war with England has evinced to the 
 world, that America has stripped the laurel from the brow of 
 the mistress of the seas. 
 
 The most distinguished features in the American character^ 
 are displayed in that unshaken virtue which formed her nation- 
 al republican compact: a compact which has so balanced the 
 independent sovereignties of the several states, as to give the 
 most flattering assurances that states may be multiplied to any 
 extent, even to oversp.ead the whole northern continent, and 
 yet our free elective government be supported, and the free ii> 
 dependent republics preserved. 
 
 Let every American cherish the religion and virtues of our 
 forefathers ; cultivate and preserve their habits, manners and 
 customs, together with their wise and virtuous institutions ; re- 
 membering, that these are the basis of all our boasted acquire- 
 ments and enjoyments : that when we abandon these, we aban- 
 don the God of our fathers, the vine which he has planted, and 
 desert the standard of the church in the wilderness. We may 
 then take up our lamentation, with an eternal adieu to all our 
 greatness, to all our peace, to all our boasted enjoyments. We 
 shall then add one more example to the many already gone be- 
 fore us, that republican liberty without virtue, is dead. We 
 shall the*n have a master, and that master must be a despot.* 
 
 * Ssetfo recapitulation of the family of Abraham, page 17* 
 
SKETCHES OF 
 UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 . 
 
 Causes that led to the French revolution ; causes that led to 
 the great events which controlled it ; northern confederation 
 a gainst Sweden; the rise of Peter 1. ; rise of Charles XII. ; 
 character of Sivcden^ Russia, Denmark and Poland inva- 
 sion of Denmark, and peace siege of Narva ; battle of 
 Narva j battle of the Dwina ; intrigues of Charles XII. in 
 Poland ; character of the Polish nation and government ; 
 intrigues of the Archbishop of Gnesna distracted state of 
 Poland. 
 
 THAT bright luminary of the west, the reformation, which 
 had in some degree illumined all the states of Europe, amidst 
 the bloody and cruel persecutions of the popes, and the creatures 
 of the papal church : and enjoyed the protecting power of Hen- 
 ry VIII. of England, Henry the IVth. of France, and Queen 
 Elizabeth of England ; and had triumphed over the vindictive 
 malice of Philip the It. of Spain, and the overbearing hauteur, 
 and exterminating persecution of Lewis XIV. of France, and 
 had seen the true church happily planted in America; was now 
 destined to witness new and sanguinary scenes, to endure 
 new and sanguinary sufferings, and experience the triumphs of 
 her enemies. Enemies, more fatal to the church than the 
 whole catalogue of two hundred and sixty popes, and n oie 
 vindictive against the reformation, than the thirty-eight pa- 
 pal despots, who have flourished since the days of Luther. 
 Enemies, who combined all the violent subtlety of the dis- 
 ciples of Ignatius Loyola, (that saint of Gregory XV.) with all 
 
INFIDELITY. 277 
 
 the arch malice and venom of the school of modern philoso- 
 phers, and who attacked her with the whole host of infidelity, 
 under the masked assault of reason, philosophy, and illu- 
 minatism ; armed a great nation by a desperate and destruc- 
 tive revolution, to rifle her temples, violate her altars, pillage 
 and butcher tier friends, and by one solemn national decree, 
 announce "there is no God, and death is an eternal sleep." 
 
 The regular and progressive order of things in Europe, 
 which paved the way to this eventual crisis, together with the 
 means which at the same time were regularly progressing to 
 control it, claim some particular notice. 
 
 The great conflicts which sprang up in the south of Eu- 
 rope, at the commencement of the eighteenth century, and 
 which drencn-d the south in blood, by thf lust of dominion, 
 pride, subtlety, intrigue, luxury and corruption, paved the 
 way for the gratification of that black catalogue of passions 
 which flow from the total depravity of the human heart, and 
 under the mask of science and refinement, opened the thea- 
 tre of a twenty years war, and threatened the extermination of 
 the very name of religion. 
 
 The first symptom of this sanguinary scene appeared, 
 when Lewis XV. interfered in the quarrel of the Jensenists, 
 and Jesuits; the violence of the parliament shewed that the 
 poison had begun to work, and the attempt on the life of the 
 king was a specimen of the same subtle and vindictive malice 
 that destroyed Henry IV. and rendered the abolition of the or- 
 der of Jesuits absolutely necessary. 
 
 The demon of subtlety and discord then assumed a new 
 form, and continued to work with the same means, under a new 
 name, until it again drenched the world in blood, and was con- 
 strained to languish under the rod which its own violence and 
 excesses had raised up to check and control it. When and how 
 God had prepared this rod of correction, claims our next at- 
 tention. 
 
 Jn detailing the great events of Europe in succession, we 
 noticed the mighty conflict in the north, which sprang up ia 
 the reign of Lewis XIV. of France, between Russia, Poland 
 and Denmark, with Sweden ; passed over the operations and 
 events of this war, and left them for this place, as being more 
 immediately connected with the great subject of this part of our 
 work. 
 
 24 
 
278 PETER I. 
 
 The long and distressing reigns of Lewis XIV. and XV. had 
 kindled a fire of ambition in the breast of man, which had given 
 a polish to his manners, a brilliancy to the arts, and a lustre to 
 his arms, which far surpassed former ages, and which the states 
 of the north had not acquired. 
 
 That God, who renders his means always adequate to his 
 ends, had now raise r j up a bright constellation in the north, 
 which should enable their dignity and improvements to vie 
 with the south. The two champions of this northern con- 
 stellation, were Peter I. of Russia, and Charles XII. of Swe- 
 den. 
 
 In 1696, Peter had rendered his arms illustrious, in his war 
 with the Turks, particularly in the acquisition of Asoph, and 
 the dominion of the Black Sea. Flushed with the acquisitions 
 of this war, he resolved to make Russia the centre of trade for 
 all that northern world to this end he contemplated a city 
 upon the Baltic, and a chain of water communication, from 
 thence to the Black Sea, to the Caspian Sea, to Archangel on 
 the North Sea, and to China. 
 
 To accomplish these great objects, he sent three ambassa- 
 dors into the south of Europe, to the courts of England, 
 France and Holland, and followed in their train as a private 
 gentleman. He passed into Holland; there he entered the 
 dock yards, and served as a common laborer to learn the 
 art of ship building: he passed over into England, where he 
 was courteously received, and returned into Russia, carrying 
 with him some carpenters from the dock-yards of England 
 and Holland, and was master builder for the first ship built in 
 Russia. 
 
 In his travels, he studied the arts and sciences generally ; he 
 studied men, manners and things, with a view of laying the 
 foundation of the future greatness of his country. 
 
 The peace of Carlowitz closed the war with the Turks, 
 and guaranteed to Peter the conquests upon the Black Sea. 
 Fired with the successes of this war, his mind aspired to the 
 dominion of the Baltic, to accomplish the whole extent of 
 his ambitious plans. To this end, he entered into an alliance 
 with the king of Denmark, then Frederick II. and with the 
 king of Poland, then Augustus, elector of Saxony, to seize 
 on the dominions of Charles XII. the young king of Sweden. 
 By this blow, Peter hoped to open a way to the ocean, 
 through the sovereignty of the Baltic, and establish the un- 
 controuled commerce of his new capital. All this was mask- 
 
GUSTAVtfS VASA. 279 
 
 ed, under the pretext of recovering the territory of his ances- 
 tors, particularly the provinces of Ingria and Livonia. 
 
 The dominions of Peter, at this time, embraced the whole 
 north eastern section of the continent of Europe, together 
 with the whole northern section of Asia, extending from the 
 shores of the Baltic on the west, to the ocean on the north, 
 and the Pacific ocean on the east ; the most extensive, and 
 the most barbarous empire on the earth, and now under the 
 sovereign dominion of one of the greatest and most ambitious 
 monarchs. 
 
 Sweden, which was the Scandinavia of the ancients, (or 
 Gothland,) from whence issued the swarms of those tribes 
 which overwhelmed the western Roman empire, had been 
 distinguished for its heroes, and the love of liberty, until 
 it fell under the dominion of Denmark, in the reign of Mar- 
 garet, 1492, and the distresses which ensued upon the divi- 
 sion and intrigues of Christern, king of Denmark, and Upsal, 
 archbishop and primate of the kingdom, a creature of the 
 pope. 
 
 These oppressions roused up the nation to a sense of their 
 wrongs : wn6n Gustavus Vasa, a prince from the ancient 
 kings of Sweden, who had been driven into obscurity by the 
 revolutions of his suffering country, and in the character of a 
 peasant, had been immured in the mines of Sweden ; burst 
 from his long concealment ; disclosed his' character to his 
 countrymen ; put himself at their head ; with his sword took 
 vengeance on his enemies, and restored the liberty of his 
 country. Gustavus took vengeance on the creatures of the 
 pope; exterminated the papal religion, and established the 
 reformation of Luther, which continues to be the religion of 
 Sweden. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, his son and successor, styled the great, 
 protected the reformation in the heart of Germany, humbled 
 the house of Austria, and made the pope tremble upon his 
 throne. ID the midst of his triumphs, he crowned the battle of 
 Lutzen with his illustrious death, and was succeeded by Chris- 
 tiana, who did nothing more than to evince to the world, that 
 she was unworthy of the crown of Sweden, appoint her succes- 
 sor, and resign her crown to Charles Gustavus. 
 
 lie, like his ancestor Gustaphus Adolphus, was illustrious in 
 arms, and died young, in the midst of successful enterprise, 
 and left his crown to Charles XI. who also was distinguished 
 in arms, died early, and left his crown to the immortal 
 Charles XTT. 
 
280 CHARLES XH. 
 
 Charles succeeded to the throne of this illustrious line of 
 ancestors, at fifteen years of age, in the year of 1 699, the same 
 year that Peter the I. returned from his travels, and formed 
 the design of dismembering his kingdom. The heroes of 
 this distinguished dynasty, had trained the hardy Swedes to 
 war; and their spirit of liberty, joined to the principles of the 
 reformation, had rendered their victorious arms illustrious on 
 the fields of Germany, and inspired their neighbors with a high 
 sense of their valor. 
 
 Augustus, king of Poland, at this time, was seated upon a* 
 throne rendered splendid by the high polish of his own person- 
 al elegance, address and manners ; his kingdom was under the 
 full power of the feudal system. Augustus was but the shadow 
 of a king, the nobility held the power. 
 
 Denmark was governed by Frederic II. in possession of 
 Norway, and claiming the sovereignty of one half of Sweden ; 
 possessing the spirit of those ancestors, whose depredations we 
 iiave so often witnessed in England and France, and who was 
 now leagued with Peter and Augustus, to dismember the king- 
 dom of Sweden, during the early age of the young king, Charles 
 XII. He began the war by invading the duchy of Holstein, 
 then owned jointly by the duke of Holstein, and his brother-in- 
 law Charles'XIL 1700. 
 
 Upon the first tidings of the war, the senate of Sweden 
 were assembled, and the young king appeared in the midst of 
 his council. During the all important deliberations, all eyes 
 were fixed on him ; he was cool, thoughtful, and silent. When 
 impatience was ready to distract the council, he exclaimed, 
 "I will never begin an unjust war, nor end a just one, but with 
 the destruction of my enemies" immediately made the neces- 
 sary arrangements, embarked his troops at Carlescroon, on 
 board his fleet, set sail for Copenhagen, landed on the island of 
 'Zealand, and invested the city. 
 
 Upon the landing of the troops, Charles was the first on 
 shore ; and when he heard the whistling of the bullets from 
 the Danes, who opposed his landing, he said to an officer who 
 was near, " what noise is that in the air ?" upon being answer- 
 ed, it is the whistling of bullets, he replied, "evermore let this 
 be my music." 
 
 A deputation immediately attended the king from Copen- 
 hagen, beseeching him not to bombard their city Charles, 
 on horseback at the head of his troops, received them on 
 their knees, and upon a promise to pay four thousand rix dol- 
 
PEACE OF DENMARK. 281 
 
 lars, he granted their request, concluded a treaty, and in six 
 weeks, Denmark was severed from the confederacy by an 
 honorable peace, and the duke of Holstein indemnified for 
 all his losses and expenses in the war. 
 
 During these operations, Peter the Czar, with the allies, en- 
 tered the provinces of Livonia and Ingria ; Peter laid siege to 
 Narva, with eighty thousand men, and Augustus laid siege to 
 Riga. Charles advanced to the relief of Narva, , crossed the 
 gulf of Riga, with fifteen thousand foot, and four thousand 
 horse, and landed in Livonia. The Czar had opened his 
 trenches in October, before Narva, with one hundred and fifty 
 pieces of cannon, and eighty thousand men, with a reserve of 
 thirty thousand, thea on their march to join him at Narva. 
 
 The character of the Swedes had been formed, under the 
 succession of heroes who had filled the Swedish throne, but 
 the character of the Russians was yet to be formed. This 
 army of the Czar, was rather an assembled multitude, than a 
 regular army ; composed of the peasantry of Russia, in a rude, 
 savage, undisciplined state, many of them clad in the skins of 
 wild beasts, armed with war clubs, and bows and arrows, few of 
 them had fire arms, and were commanded by their chiefs, as 
 unaccustomed to discipline as their soldiers. 
 
 The Czar had given the command of this army to a Ger- 
 man general, the duke de Croix, on whose experience and 
 abilities he had great confidence; and held, himself, the sta- 
 tion of a lieutenant, for the double purpose of learning the 
 military art, as he had learnt the ship carpenter's art, through 
 the regular grades of service and to set the example of sub- 
 ordination and discipline to the chiefs in his service, who had 
 been accustomed to absolute sway, over their untutored 
 slaves. 
 
 The Qsar had posted 30,000 of this besieging army in ad- 
 vance from Narva, one league ; and 20,000 more in advance 
 of the former, in order to intercept the approach of Charles, 
 to the relief of Narva ; and 5,000 more, as an advance guard ; 
 and had gone himself to hasten the march of an army of 40,000 
 men, then on their way to join his army before Narva. 
 
 Charles resolved to attack the Czar in his camp, put himself 
 at the head of 4,000 horse, and 4,000 light troops, and made 
 a rapid movement to the relief of Narva. 
 
 Upon the approach of the king of Sweden, the advanced 
 guard of the Russians, consisting of 5,000 men, fled ; the rout, 
 terror, and disorder of their flight, with the Swedes close at 
 
 24* 
 
282 BATTLE OP NARVA- 
 
 their heels, threw the 20,000 in their way into the same clis 
 order: they ii* their flight, spread terror and consternation 
 throughout the camp. These operations had given very little 
 check to the advance of the king of Sweden : he now ap- 
 peared before the Russian camp, well intrenched, and defend- 
 ed by one hundred and fifty pieces of cannon. Charles, re- 
 solved to avail himself of the general panic, advanced to the 
 attack ; the Russians made a firm resistance ; the Swedes, 
 having made a breach with their cannon in their intrench- 
 ments, advanced to 'the charge with fixed bayonets, favored 
 by a violent snow storm, and overthrew all in their way. A 
 terrible carnage ensued ; the Russians fled on all sides, and 
 abandoned their camp, artillery and baggage : the rout and 
 consternation became general : Charles, with his little troop, 
 pursued to the river the right wing in attempting to cross, 
 broke down the bridge, and met with another overthrow in the 
 river ; the left wing returned to their camp, where, after a slight 
 defence, they all laid down their arms to the king of Sweden, 
 who received their submission with great civility. 
 
 Charles detained only the general officers, and dismissed 
 the remainder in the most courteous manner, supplied them 
 with boats to cross the river, and they returned into Russia. 
 Eighteen thousand Russians had fallen in their intrenchments, 
 besides those that had fallen in their flight, and were drowned 
 in the river : the Swedes lost but six hundred. 
 
 This almost unexampled overthrow, saved Russia : it taught 
 Peter, that numbers, without discipline, would rather ruin, 
 than save his country ; and he profited by the lesson. It in- 
 spired Charles with too much confidence m his own strength, 
 and too much contempt for his enemies ; these iwo evils ruined 
 his cause. 
 
 Charles, wrapt up in his cloak, threw himself upon the 
 ground, (then covered with snow,) and gave himself a few 
 hours repose. At break of day, he prepared to attack a body 
 of 30,000 Russians, not yet subdued, when he received from 
 (heir general, overtures of submission, with a request, that 
 the king would grant them the same favor he had granted to the 
 other captives : he sent his assurances, and the 30,000 laid 
 down their arms, and the king received their submission with 
 fheir heads uncovered, at the head of less than 7000 Swedes, 
 sent them all free, back into their own country, and entered 
 Narva in triumph. Here he treated the general officers of 
 the Russians, who were detained as prisoners, with great lib- 
 
fr PASSAGE OF THE DWINA, 285 
 
 erality 5 restored their swords, supplied them with money, and 
 conducted with great modesty. 
 
 This overthrow, caused Augustus to raise the siege of Riga. 
 The Czar received the news of the destruction of his army 
 before Narva, when advancing by forced marches, with 40,000 
 men, to intercept the retieat of the king of Sweden, and in 
 high expectation of enclosing him between the two armies, 
 and thus sealing his ruin : he abandoned his enterprise, re- 
 turned to Moscow, and devoted himself to the discipline of his 
 army. 
 
 Upon the request of Augustus, they soon had an interview 
 at Birsen, in Lithuania, to concert measures of general defence 
 and safety ; and gave themselves up to dissipation fifteen days. 
 
 Charles passed the winter at Narva, and upon the opening 
 of spring, appeared in Lithuania. The Saxons had taken the 
 field under Mareschal Stenau, and Ferdinand, duke of Cour- 
 land, and opposed his passage of the river Dwina. 
 
 Charles assembled his boats, and embarked his troops with 
 a favorable wind ; at the same time he let off a great number 
 of boats, filled with burning hay, straw, &c. ; this smoke 
 blew over upon the enemy, and concealed the movements of 
 the king. He passed in good order, and, as at Copenhagen, 
 leapt into the water at the head of his troops, landed his can- 
 non, and formed his army on shore before the smoke was suf- 
 ficiently cleared away to give the Saxons opportunity to make 
 resistance. 
 
 Mareschal Stenau, as soon as the air was cleared, lost not 
 a moment ; he fell upon the Swedes with the flower of his 
 cavalry ; the shock was violent; the Swedes were broken, and 
 fled into the river ; Charles, with great composure, recovered 
 the shock, rallied his troops in the water, advanced to the 
 charge, ad recovered the plain. 
 
 An action commenced the Saxons fought with great bra- 
 very, and the duke of Courland thrice penetrated into the 
 king's guards, had two horses killed under him ; was repulsed, 
 wounded, and carried off the field. The Saxons fled, and the 
 kins advanced to Mittau, the capital of Courland ; here h re- 
 ceived the submission of the whole duchy. 
 
 He next marched into Lithuania, and formed the plan of de- 
 posing Augustus, king of Poland, through the intrigues of his 
 own subjects. The operations and success of this intrigue, will 
 give the best illustration of tke strength and genius of the feu- 
 dal government of Poland. 
 
284 GOVERNMENT OF POLAND. 
 
 This kingdom was larger than France, watered with large 
 and fine rivers, and possessed a rich and fertile soil ; but the 
 natives were indolent, the nobility rich, and the peasantry 
 slaves. The population of Poland was at that time greater 
 than that of Sweden, but the character of the nation, and en- 
 ergies of the government very different, and far inferior. 
 
 The constitution of Poland was purely Gothic. Every 
 gentleman might vote for the choice of a king, and even be 
 chosen himself ; this general liberty of suffrage and election, 
 exposed the crown always to the highest bidder. The nobility 
 and clergy were independent of the crown ; but the peasantry 
 were bought and sold like cattle upon the estates, and even 
 their lives were at the disposal of their lords. 
 
 In the midst of this wretchedness, the Polanders were proud 
 of their liberty, and of their republic ; and gloried in the title 
 of electors of kings, and destroyers of tyrants. The very 
 seeds of discord, riot and rebellion, were sown in the constitu- 
 tion of Poland ; and at the coronation of the king, he absolv- 
 ed his subjects from their allegiance, upon his infringing the 
 constitution and the laws. 
 
 All offices were at the disposal of the crown, and nothing 
 was hereditary, but the estates of the nobility ; yet the balance 
 of power was on the side of the people. The king could not 
 remove an office he had once conferred, but the people could 
 depose the king, if he violated one law of the republic.-; 
 
 Two great parties were ever the standing monuments of fac- 
 tion in this government the one in office, and the other in ca- 
 balling to obtain promotion. The same bitterness and jealousy 
 that prevailed against each other, involved the king ; both 
 jealous of their power, held themselves as the guardians of 
 their liberties. 
 
 The diets, or states general, regulated all the affairs of the 
 republic. These were composed of the clergy, nobility, and 
 gentry, which formed an elective body, over which the arch- 
 bishop of Gnesna, as primate of the republic, presided ; and 
 in case of an interregnum, he became viceroy. 
 
 This council met alternately in Poland and Lithuania, and 
 sat armed in council, after the manner of their forefathers and 
 every gentleman of this body had a negative upon the senate, 
 and by his single protest or vote, could stop the unanimous 
 resolves of all the others ; and if he then quitted the city or 
 town where the diet sat, he dissolved the assembly. 
 
 These seeds of rebellien often broke out into open vio- 
 
GOVERNMENT OF POLAND. 283 
 
 lence; the diets broke up, and the parties held separate diets, 
 II^UT the sanctity of the king's name, and often without, or 
 against his knowledge anri consent, as the parliament of Eng- 
 land did, in the reign of Charles I.: custom, not law, sanction- 
 ed these cabals. 
 
 In this feudal government, the nobility constituted the mili- 
 tary strength of the nation ; the peasantry were not trusted 
 with arms : and to secure their own power against the 
 crown, they did not build forts or castles of strength them- 
 selves, nor suffer the king. These armies, like the old feu- 
 dal service in the south of Europe, were assembled on sud- 
 den emergencies, kept the field but a short time, for the want 
 of discipline and regular supplies, and were often disbanded in 
 disgust. 
 
 In addition to this force, a regular guard was provided for the 
 kingdom, consisting of two parts, under two generals, independ- 
 ent of each other. The first, in Poland, consisted of 30,000 
 men, and the other in Lithuania of 12,000 men. These gene- 
 rals were appointed by the king, but were amenable only to the 
 republic. It was the duty of the state to support this force : 
 but upon their neglect, each officer was bound to support his 
 separate corps undf r his command ; which he did by depreda- 
 tions upon the peasantry. 
 
 Such was the civil and military strength of Poland, when 
 Charles XII. appeared upon its borders. In addition to 
 this imbecile state of Poland, a civil vvar raged in Lithuania, 
 between two rival families of the nobles. Charles, by throw- 
 ing his weight into the scate of the one, destroyed the resistance 
 of the other, and secured Lithuania. 
 
 His next object was to dethrone Augustus in the same 
 way. The king had rendered himself unpopular, by intro- 
 ducing Saxon troops into Poland, when he laid siege to Ri- 
 ga; this jealousy weakened his dependence upon the army, 
 then only about 18,000 strong, and rendered the situation of 
 the king very critical and alarming ; his only alternative was, 
 to assemble a diet. This council, when assembled, were not 
 so much prepared to grant him relief, as to scrutinize his 
 measures ; and it soon appeared that Charles XII. had the 
 strongest party in the diet. 
 
 At the head of the party of Charles, stood the archbishop 
 of Gnesna, primate of the kingdom, and president of the 
 council. This gra.n! <;;^'iary, being well versed in the in- 
 trigues of Poland, and fired with resentment for some former 
 
286 INTRI6CE9 OP CHARLES XII. 
 
 disappointments, began to open the way for a great revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 He issued circular letters, disclosing the weakness and cabals 
 of the diet, and exhorting to national union 5 at the same time 
 be despatched an address to the king of Sweden, conjuring him 
 to give Peace to Poland and her king. A negotiation soon en- 
 sued between the minister of Charles, and the prelate and the 
 intrigues at the prelate's house, regulated the movements of 
 the diet. Charles seconded these measures whilst he lay with 
 his army in Lithuania, by publicly declaring that he did not 
 make war against the Poles, but only against Augustus and his 
 Saxons ; that the great object of his visit was, to restore the 
 liberty of Poland. 
 
 At this time, Peter sent 20,000 Russians into Lithuania, to 
 support the cause of Augustus, agreeable to treaty. These, by 
 their ravages, distressed the Lithuanians, rendered the cause of 
 Augustus still more unpopular, and served for employment to 
 the Swedes, who were directed to harrass and drive them back 
 into Russia. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Augustus attempts a secret peace, with Charles "Kll battle of 
 Cracow battle of the Bog war in Polish Prussia in- 
 trigues of the Primate Augustus deposed Stanislaus Lee- 
 zinski elected king capture of Leopold coronation of 
 Stanislaus. 
 
 IN this critical and alarming state of Poland, the diet broke 
 up, Feb. 1702 ; but the senate continued at Warsaw, making 
 provisional laws and regulations for the safety of the king- 
 dom ; a practice, sanctioned by custom, not by law. They 
 decreed an embassy to the king of Sweden, the assembling the 
 nobles in defence of the state; and attempted at the same time 
 to diminish the power of the king. This attack upon the 
 crown, decided the fate of Poland. 
 
 Augustus resolved to make a secret peace with Charles 
 XII. To effect this, he engaged in his interest the countess 
 of Conigsmark, (a Swedish lady, to whom he was attached,) 
 and obtained her consent to negociate for him with the king of 
 Sweden, under cover other paying her respects to that sovereign, 
 in whose dominions she had resided, upon one of her estates. 
 
 
INTRIGUES OF CHARLES XII. 287 
 
 The Countess was the handsomest, and most accomplished 
 woman of the age, and mother of the great mareschal Saxe, 
 who became so illustrious in the reign of Lewis XV. king of 
 France. She repaired to the camp of the king of Sweden, and 
 gained access to his minister, but not to the king ; he cautiously 
 avoided her. 
 
 Resolved to accomplish her purpose, the countess met the 
 king in a narrow pass, stepped from her coach, and threw her- 
 self in his way. He cooly turned about his horse, and returned 
 to his tent, choosing to evince to the world, that he prefered be- 
 ing vanquished, rather than subdued by a woman. The coun- 
 tess returned to Augustus. 
 
 At this time, the resolve of the senate had reached Au- 
 gustus ; he took advantage of it, and despatched his own 
 minister to negociate the treaty. Him Charles imprisoned, 
 and then marched to Grodno. The deputation from the sen- 
 ate next waited upon Charles ; these he received with great 
 coolness and dignity. The conference was guarded, and 
 nothing concluded. Charles then seized the critical moment, 
 assured them that he would settle their affairs at Warsaw, 
 took up his march, and entered that city the fifth of May, 
 1702. 
 
 This movement overawed the nation, and left the king as a 
 fugitive, without strength, without troops, and without resources : 
 these he attempted to supply from Saxony ; but these troops 
 only increased the general jealousy and alarm. 
 
 At this critical moment, the cardinal primate repaired to 
 the king of Sweden, with whom he held a long conference 
 standing, which Charles closed by announcing, " I will 
 never give the Poles peace, until they have elected a new 
 king :" this, the cardinal caused to be published throughout 
 Poland. 
 
 The crisis had now arrived ; Augustus had assembled his 
 Saxons, and gone in quest of Charles, then advancing to Cra- 
 cow, with an army of 12.000 men. Augustus met him upon a 
 spacious plain with 24,000 men ; the action commenced by a 
 discharge of artillery, and the young duke of Holstein fell at the 
 head of the Swedish cavalry. 
 
 Struck with the loss of this brave officer, and fired with 
 ardor and rage, Charles, at the head of his guards, rushed in- 
 to the heat of the action ; the contest was bravely supported ; 
 the prize was the crown of Poland. The Saxons were bro- 
 ken retired, and rallied to the charge, again and again, until 
 
288 INTRIGUES OF CHARLES XII. 
 
 overpowered by the resistless impetuosity of the Swedes, 
 they fled in disorder, leaving their camp, artillery and hag- 
 gage in the hands of the victors. Charles passed these with- 
 out notice, pursued the vanquished to Cracow, and would 
 have entered the city commixed with the fugitives, if the 
 gates had not been closed upon him : these were ir,st<n,;ly 
 forced, and charles entered in triumph; not a gun was fired ; 
 the soldiers fled to the castle ; Charles entered the castle, com- 
 mixed with the fugitives, and the city was reduced without a 
 gun. 
 
 Charles immediately left the city, to pursue Augustus in his 
 flight, determined to strike the finishing blow. In the midst 
 of his zeal, his career was arrested by a fall from his horse, 
 which broke his thigh. This confined him at Cracow six weeks, 
 and gave Augustus time to recover in some measure his defeat. 
 lit' caused it to be published extensively, that Charles XII. "''is 
 dead, by the fall. This was generally believed, and inv > -d 
 the Poles in a new dilemma. Augustus seized the favor;, Me 
 moment, and assembled a diet, first at Marienburg, and next at 
 Lublin : the representation 'was full, and the cardinal primate 
 was present. 
 
 The misfortunes of the king, had learnt him to become more 
 affable and conciliatory, and his sufferings had softened the pas- 
 sions of the diet ; a general harmony prevailed, and Augustus 
 received a new oath of allegiance from the diet, the purport of 
 which was, " that they never had, and never would attempt 
 any thing prejudicial to the cause of Augustus;" and the diet re- 
 solved to maintain an army of 50,000 men, for the protection of 
 the crown. 
 
 Charles was now well ; he summoned a new diet at Warsaw, 
 and by the intrigues of the primate, set this diet to counteract 
 the late diet of Augustus, by their disputes and decrees ; and 
 having received 6000 foot and 8000 horse from Sweden, he 
 went in quest of general ^ff-nau, at the head of the Saxons. In 
 May, 1703 he came up with him behind the river Bog, 
 near the confines of Prussia. Charles plunged his horse in- 
 to the river, at the head of his cavalry ; the resistance was 
 slight, the Saxons fled, the king pursued, and their army was dis- 
 persed. 
 
 Augustus fled to Thorn, in Polish Prussia ; Charles pur- 
 sued, and laid siege to Thorn. To reduce this strong city, it 
 became necessary to receive cannon, men, and supplies from 
 Sweden ; these in their way, met with some delay in passing 
 
OP GWARLES XII. 28^ 
 
 by Dantzic, another free city of Polish Prussia, at the mouth of 
 the Vistula ; this slight offence cost them 100,000 crowns. 
 
 Upon the reduction of Thorn, at the expiration of one month., 
 Charles rewarded the governor for his bravery, but exacted a 
 contribution of forty thousand crowns. Upon a slight offence 
 from the city of Elbing, Charles exacted at the point of the bay- 
 onet a contribution of 260,000 crowns. All this secured the 
 overthrow of Augustus. 
 
 During these operations of Charles, the cardinal primate re- 
 paired to Warsaw, attended by a retinue of soldiers from his 
 own estates ; he threw off the mask, and published in the name 
 of the assembly, " that Augustus, elector of Saxony, was incapa- 
 ble of wearing the crown of Poland ;" and all the assembly pro- 
 nounced the throne vacant. 
 
 The cardinal now flattered himself that he had accomplished 
 his purpose, and restored the crown to the family of John So- 
 bieski, in the person of his son James 5 who was waiting with 
 impatience at Breslaw for the issue. 
 
 Augustus, alive to the views of the primate, sent a party of 
 horse, surprised James Sobieski on a hunting party with his 
 brother, conveyed them into Saxony, and imprisoned them at 
 Leipsic. The same disaster awaited Augustus. Gen. Kens- 
 child surprised him at table with his friends, near Cracow 
 Augustus fled Renschild pursued the flight continued four 
 days, almost in close view ; but Augustus escaped and the 
 king of Sweden was victorious in Poland. 
 
 Charles next offered the crown of Poland to Alexander, a 
 third son of John Sobieski. Alexander refused, alleging, " that 
 nothing should induce him to take advantage of his brother's 
 misfortunes." Charles, agreeable to the views of his minister, 
 offered the crown to his favorite, Stanislaus Leczinski. He in 
 his turn refused it. 
 
 Charles sent a message to the assembly at Warsaw, * that 
 they must elect a king of Poland in five days, and that Stanis- 
 laus must be the man.'' The cardinal primate used all his in- 
 fluence to defeat the election, but without effect ; he withdrew 
 from the council, and Stanislaus was elected, and proclaimed 
 king, amidst the acclamations of the diet, July 12, 1705. 
 Charles repaired in secret to Warsaw, and witnessed the scene. 
 
 Charles compelled the cardinal, with all the abswifees and 
 opposers, to appear and do homage to the new king, and attend 
 him to the quarters of the king of Sweden : who paid to Stan- 
 
 25 
 
290 R3VOLUTON OF POLAND. 
 
 islaus all the honours due to the king of Poland, and supplied 
 him with troops and money, to secure his power ; took up his 
 majch to finish the conquest of Poland, and laid siege to Leo- 
 pold. 
 
 This strong town was carried by assault, after a siege of one 
 day, and yielded an immense treasure to Charles. Stanislaus 
 remained at Warsaw with the cardinal primate, the bishop of 
 Posnania, and some grandees of Poland, who composed his 
 court, to arrange the affairs of his kingdom, with a guard of 
 about GOOO men. 
 
 Augustus, apprized of the situation of Charles, and the fall 
 of Leopold, collected a force of about 20,000 men, mostly Sax- 
 ons, and by a rapid movement, fell upon Warsaw by surprise. 
 The city was unfortified, and defenceless, against such a force. 
 Stanislaus fled, his family and his friends scattered, and thus 
 made their escape ; his youngest daughter was concealed, and 
 afterwards found in a manger, a humble station for her who 
 was destined to become queen of France. 
 
 Augustus withdrew from Warsaw with his forces, committed 
 the command to count Scullemburg, left the country to the ra- 
 vages of the two kings, retired into Saxony, and fortified his 
 capital. Scullemburg had the adroitness to elude the pursuit of 
 the king of Sweden, and get off his army in good order, thus 
 leaving Stanislaus in quiet possession of his crown. 
 
 The pope threatened all the ecclesiastics of Poland, with the 
 thunders of his power, if they attempted to assist at the corona- 
 tion of Stanislaus, or to take any measures contrary to the inter- 
 ests of Augustus. 
 
 Charles set his thunders at defiance, and witnessed (incog.) 
 the magnificent coronation of Stanislaus and his queen, at 
 Warsaw, October, 4, 1705, by the hands of the archbishop of 
 Leopold, together with several other prelates ; the crown, pla- 
 ced upon Stanislaus, was placed upon the object of the labours 
 of Charles. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Reduction of Narva, by Peter I. Peter commences the city 
 of Petersburg Charles XII. enters Saxony peace with 
 Augustus Distresses of Poland Charles XII. commences 
 his march into Russia Battle of the Berezina. 
 
 During these operations in Poland, the Czar of Russia was 
 
PETERSBURG. 291 
 
 not idle ; he had leartit in his travels in Holland, how the 
 Dutch recovered their country from the sea, by their unreraitted 
 efforts, and caused the finest and most commercial cities in Eu- 
 rope, to rise up in the midst of the waters, and stand firm upon 
 the softest mud. 
 
 Peter was now engaged in rescuing from the Baltic, a scite 
 for his new city of Petersburg. To accomplish this, it became 
 necessary for him to obtain possession of Narva, lying in th$ 
 neighbourhood of his object. He laid siege again to Narva, 
 and carried it by assault, August, 1703, after a regular siege ; 
 here he was constrained to draw his sword against his own sol- 
 diers, to check their cruel licentiousness towards the inhabitants, 
 alter their surrender. 
 
 Upon the fall of Narva, he drew the plan, and laid the foun- 
 dation of the city of Petersburg, which, for its commerce, wealth, 
 regularity and beauty, has become the admiration of Europe. 
 To effect this, he had the same obstacles to overcome, that 
 were peculiar to Amsterdam, in Holland, a foundation of mud, 
 unconquerable to any other man than Peter, together with a 
 climate so inhospitable as to destroy two hundred thousand 
 men in the early stages of the enterprise. 
 
 Firm to his purpose, Peter surmounted all this in the midst 
 of an unsuccessful war, and even when his allies were falling 
 beneath the sword of his haughty overbearing rival. This very 
 war he turned to his advantage, to prosecute his plan, and bring 
 forward his city, whilst Charles was employed in giving away 
 crowns in Poland. 
 
 In 1704, Petersburg had become the residence of more than 
 three hundred thousand souls, which Peter had transplanted 
 there from different parts of his dominions, and in 1705, when 
 Stanislaus was crowned king of Poland, Petersburg had become 
 a commercial city, and its harbour was full of foreign ships. 
 The liberality of Peter drew strangers of all descriptions, from 
 all parts of Europe, and Petersburg was soon filled with com- 
 merce and the arts. 
 
 In the midst of these labors, he rendered some assistance to 
 Augustus 5 but his means could not accomplish both ends his 
 new city grew, but Augustus fell. This fall roused up the 
 Czar to new efforts ; he saw his own dominions laid open to the 
 conqueror, upon this event ; and he put forth his efforts to re- 
 cover, what he had not been careful to prevent. He invited 
 Augustus, (by his minister Patkul,) to a conference at Grodno ; 
 and repaired thither with an army of 70,000 men. 
 
W2 PETERSBURG. 
 
 Augustus met him, attended by general Scullemburg, and the 
 scattered remains of his troops. The conference was short : 
 the Czar was called suddenly to quell an insurrection in Astra- 
 ean, and left his army to co-operate with Augustus, in recover- 
 ing the crown of Poland. 
 
 Augustus soon after ordered his minister, John Patkul, to be 
 arrested and imprisoned at Dresden, upon a suspicion of an 
 intrigue, to settle a separate peace between the Czar, and the 
 king of Sweden. 
 
 The plan of Augustus in distributing his Russian and Saxon 
 troops into small divisions, to harass and distress the Poles, as 
 well as the king of Sweden, led to the most active operations. 
 Charles co-operated with Stanislaus, and they fell upon these 
 several divisions in such rapid succession, that Poland was soon 
 cleared, the Russians were driven behind the Boristhenes, and 
 all the treasures of Augustus and his Russian allies, fell into the 
 hands of Charles ; together with an entire regiment of French 
 soldiers, which had been taken by the Saxons at the famous 
 battle of Hochstet, in their war with Lewis XIV. 1704, and 
 entered into the Saxon service. 
 
 Charles received this regiment at their request, into his ser- 
 vice, on the same day of their capture. Having -settled the 
 conquest of Poland, and secured the crown to Stanislaus, he 
 prepared to enter Germany. Charles by rapid movements, 
 marched into Saxony, where he was triumphant, and gave law 
 to the electorate. 
 
 On his passing through Silesia, he gave a general alarm te 
 the empire, already torn and harassed by the distressing wars 
 with Lewis XI V. who was supporting the claims of the house 
 f Bourbon upon the throne of Spain. 
 
 They were soon relieved ; his stay was short in Saxony ; he 
 visited the field of Lutzen, rendered so famous by the death of 
 the great Gustavus Adolphus ; paid a tribute of respect to 
 his memory, and exclaimed ; " I have endeavoured to live like 
 him, God perhaps may grant me as glorious a death." 
 
 Charles proceeded to levy enormous contributions upon Sax- 
 ony, to the amount of 625,000 rix dollars per month, with daily 
 rations for his army whilst he staid ; established a new and en- 
 ergetic police: and attended the great fair of Leipsi-c; the 
 whole electorate enjoyed the most piofound tranquility, during 
 the stay of th** king of Sweden. 
 
 During thtse movements in Saxony, Augustus, deprived of 
 
OF AUGUSTUS x?9^ 
 
 both of his crowns, was a wanderer in Poland. In the depth 
 of despair he wrote to the king of Sweden, secretly, by the ba- 
 ron de Imhoff, and sued for peace. Charles received the let- 
 ter, and replied, " I consent to give peace to Augustus upon 
 the following conditions, which can never be altered : 
 
 1. " That Augustus renounce the crown of Poland forever : 
 that he acknowledge Stanislaus as lawful king : and that he 
 promise never to mount the throne of Poland, not even after 
 the death of Stanislaus." 
 
 2. " That he renounce all other treaties, and particularly 
 those he has made with Muscovy." 
 
 During this negociation, a Russian army, under prince Men- 
 zikoff, appeared in Poland, joined Augustus, and threw him in- 
 to the greatest embarrassments. An action commenced at the 
 same time, with a detachment of Swedes, in which, for the first 
 time, the Russians were victorious ; and Augustus entered 
 Warsaw in triumph. In the midst of Te Deum, which Augus- 
 tus had ordered for the successful action, a messenger arrived 
 with the treaty of peace from Charles. 
 
 Augustus signed it, resigned his crown, and set off for Saxo- 
 ny to meet Charles. The two sovereigns met: Charles receiv- 
 ed, and treated Augustus respectfully, and gave him the ight 
 hand ; but compelled him to write a letter of congratulation to 
 Stanislaus ; renounce the title of king of Poland, and erase it 
 from the public prayers. 
 
 Fired with resentment at this inglorious peace, the Czar re- 
 tntered Poland at the head of 60,000 men, flew to Leopold, as- 
 sembled a diet, and ordered a new king of Poland to be elected. 
 The factions of Leopold controlled the diet ; Peter transferred 
 the diet to Lublin : factions still prevailed they made no 
 choice, renounced both kings, and dissolved the diet. 
 
 This threw the republic into an unparalleled state of wretch- 
 edness : the sword of civil war was drawn; the torch of civil 
 war was lit; conflict, carnage, pillage, and conflagration mark- 
 ed themovements of all the parties, and the Poles abhorred 
 alike their kings, the Czar, and Charles XII. 
 
 In the midst of this state of wretchedness and distress, Stan- 
 islaus appeared in Poland with a bod v of troops from Saxony 5 
 the discipline of his troops, and his money, rallied the Poles 
 around his standard, and he was soon at the head of such a 
 force, as compelled the Czar to abandon Poland. 
 
 At this critical moment appeared a third party in Poland^ 
 25* 
 
294 CHARLES XII, 
 
 headed by count Sinkausky, grand general of the crown. He 
 made great efforts to be elected king and failed, and was iiow 
 become the head of a party of some considerable force, whose 
 only subsistence was pillage. This third scourge of Poland, 
 was of short continuance ; they soon abandoned their chiefs, 
 repaired to the standard of Stanislaus, and he became the ac- 
 knowledged sovereign of Poland. 
 
 During these movements in Poland, Charles held his court at 
 Altranstadt, where he received ambassadors from all the pow- 
 ers of the south of Europe, then engaged in the great contest 
 about the Spanish succession. Although Charles had pledged 
 himself in 1700, that he would not interfere in the quarrel 
 yet the great duke of Marlborough could not be persuaded, that 
 money would not make a man change his opinion, and even 
 his word, until, as ambassador of queen Ann, he had visited 
 Charles XII. king of Sweden. 
 
 Charles had now passed one whole year in Saxony, where 
 by his diplomatic skill, he had humbled the emperor of Germa- 
 ny, protected the Lutherans in Silesia, dethroned one king, 
 crowned another, and rendered himself the admiration of Eu- 
 rope, and the terror of the north. He prepared to depart. 
 
 On the approach of his departure, he ordered the grand Ma- 
 reschal of his household, to lay before him the rout from Leip- 
 sic, to all the capitals in Europe : and, September, 1707? he 
 commenced his march for Poland, at the head of 43,000 men, 
 tojntn count Levenhaupt, with 20,000 more, together with such 
 recruits as weie often arriving from Sweden. At the head of 
 this army, he received an ambassador from the sultan of Con- 
 stantinople, with a present of one hundred Swedes, purchased 
 of the Tartars, and the compliments ot the ambassador, upon 
 the accession of Stanislaus. 
 
 Charles, at the head of this strong force, cleared Poland of 
 all the Russians, settled the tranquillity of the kingdom, left 
 Stanislaus 10,000 Swedes, for the protection of his crown, and 
 commenced his march, amidst frost and snow, in the month of 
 January, 1708, to surprize the Czar in Grodno. 
 
 Peter had the. good luck to escape at the north gate, when 
 Charles entered at the south ; and made his retreat. The next 
 da*', Peter, finding that Charles had advanced by a rapid 
 movement, with only 600 of his guards, surprised the king 
 of Sweden in his turn, at Grodno, with a force of 1500 
 men : an action ensued and the impetuosity of Charles, com- 
 pelled Peter to flee with precipitation, and secure his retreat. 
 
BATTLE OP THE BEREZINA. 295 
 
 Peter collected his forces in Lithuania, and retired into Mus- 
 covy, by forced inarches, and laid waste the country. Charles 
 pursued with rapid movements harrassing a d distressing the 
 Russians in their flight: the wilds of Muscovy, covered only 
 with morasses and deep forests, almost impenetrable, with a 
 scanty supply of subsistence rendered this flight extremely dis- 
 tressing j and to crown all, it was in the heart of a Russian 
 winter. The Czar continued to retire, through the winter and 
 spring. Charles advanced j and on the 25th of June, they met 
 on the opposite banks of the Berezina. Here the Czar had 
 collected his forces, intrenched his camp, and awaited the ap- 
 proach of the king of Sweden. 
 
 Charles, by gaining a pass, crossed the river, and attacked 
 and routed the Czar who retired on to the Boristhenes, destroy- 
 ing the roads and bridges, and laying waste the country. 
 
 Charles fell in with an army of SOjOOO Russians, strongly in- 
 trenched behind a morass : impatient for the attack, he de- 
 tached a party of horse, to take the enemy in flank plunged 
 into the morass, at the head of his guards, and commenced 
 the assault : the resistance was firm, bnt the Russians were 
 btoken and dispersed, and the action was decisive. This 
 memorable action, caused this memorable medal. Upon 
 one side was inscribed Sylvas^paludas, agger as, hostcs, virti. 
 Woods, -marshes, mounds, and enemies conquered. Upon 
 the other Victrices capias alium laturus in orbem. Watting 
 his warlike troops to the other world. 
 
 Upon the loss of this action, the Czar sued for peace : to 
 which Charles replied, " I will treat at Moscow." Charles 
 advanced to Smolensk: here he attacked a body of 10,( 00 
 horse, and 6,000 Cossacks, with his accustomed impetuosity. 
 The troops were routed, and fled : Charles pursued ; the Cos- 
 sacks ambushed him at the head of his guard, and cut off his 
 communication with his main body : a desperate conflict ensu- 
 ed the king was dismounted, his horse killed, and he engaged 
 hand to hand, with these savages of the north, and by his depe- 
 rafe valour, he killed and kept at bay these desperate assailants, 
 with the loss of all his attendants except five. 
 
 In this critical and alarming situation, a colonel Dardof, at 
 the head of a little band, broke through the Tartars, relieved 
 the king, and put the enemy to flight. Charles with his usu- 
 al intrepidity, mounted his horse, put himself at thf head of his 
 troops, and pursued the fugitives, more than two leagues on his 
 route to Moscow, 
 
296 BATTLE OP THE MOBASS. 
 
 Charles, who had advanced more than five hundred leagues, 
 into the heart of an enemy's country, aniust the most unpar- 
 alleled successes began now to feel the want of recruits, to 
 supply the place of those who had purchased his victories by 
 their death ; and others who were sick, or dead, with the fa- 
 tigues and diseases of the march; together with supplies and 
 military stores for his arrny, through the severities of a Rus- 
 sian winter. Knowing that Peter had laid waste the country, 
 and destroyed the bridges arid the roads leading to Moscow 
 he began to pause and consider: his only dependence now 
 was, on the arrival of general Levenhaupt, with stores and 
 recruits from Sweden, to reinforce and refresh, as well as sup- 
 port his army. 
 
 In this situation Charles commenced a negotiation with 
 Mazeppa, prince of the Ukraine Cossacks, who engaged to 
 supply him with 30,000 men, ammunition, provisions, mon- 
 ey, &c. and to meet him, with these supplies, at a given time 
 and place. 
 
 Pleased with this new fund of resources, and having the more 
 confidence in Mazeppa, as a Polander by birth and education, 
 and then at enmity with the Czar Charles turned aside from 
 the road to Moscow, and attempted to penetrate, by devious 
 ways, into the almost impenetrable forests of the Ukrain, in 
 quest of the prince of the Tartars. 
 
 In this attempt he lost almost all his artillery and baggage, 
 in passing the rivers, and deep morasses of the forests ; ex- 
 hausted with fatigue, and in want of almost all things, he arriv- 
 ed at the place of general rendezvous, at the time appointed. 
 Mazeppa appeared ; but to the astonishment of the king, it 
 was only to announce, that Peter, apprised of his treachery, 
 had intercepted all his plans, destroyed his army, and carried 
 off his treasures ; and, instead of an ally, Charles found a fu- 
 gitive, who relied upon his protection, and who was pursued 
 by the same troops that had ruined him. 
 
 At this eventful moment, Levenhaupt arrived ; not/ with 
 the 15,000 Swedes he had led out of Sweden not with the 
 convoy of provisions and military stores, to replenish the ar- 
 my of the king but with the news, that the Czar had attack- 
 ed him, on the 7th of October, 1708, near the town of Lerno, 
 upon the Boristhenes, with a greatly superior force; that he 
 had had the honor to rout the Czar, in five successive engage- 
 ments, and had cut his way through the Russians, with the 
 loss of ten or twelve thousand men, together with all hi* 
 
 
SIE&E OF PULTOWA. "297 
 
 convoy of provisions and military stores, and after suffering in- 
 credible hardships, to penetrate to the camp of the king, with 
 this handful of men 
 
 The memorable winter of 1709, had now set in. In the 
 midst of these disasters, Charles made a movement to seize on 
 the town of Pultowa, (a strong magazine of the Czar's upon ihe 
 eastern extremity of the Ukrain,) defended by a regular force 
 of 10,000 men, and covered by the Czar, with an army of 
 70,000 The Swedish king had now about 30,000 men : 
 2000 of these, he had the distressing mortification to witness 
 the loss of, by the severity of cold and hunger, on his march to 
 Pultowa. 
 
 On the 10th of May, he sat down before the town, and com- 
 menced the siege. During the operations of the siege, Charles 
 received a wound in his heel, which deprived him of the use of 
 his leg, but not of his spirits. On the llth of July, the Czar 
 advanced to the. relief of Pultowa : Charles marched out of 
 his trenches to meet him, carried on a litter. 
 
 This was not the action of Narva ; the Russians were now 
 trained to arms and discipline. The Swedes charged the Rus- 
 sians with their usual impetuosity ; the Russians were routed; 
 they recovered, and rallied to the charge, penetrated the camp 
 of the king, three times shot away his litter, and after a despe- 
 rate conflict of two hours, routed and destroyed his army. 
 Charles fled on horseback ; attended with a few of his princi- 
 pal officers, and a few stragglers, (in all about three hundred,) 
 and took refuge with the Turks. 
 
 Thus closed the most brilliant, mad career of glory, the world 
 had ever witnessed, since the dajs of Alexander ; and the fatal 
 battle of Pultowa, sealed the fate of Charles XII. with a long 
 adieu to all his visionary schemes, to all his greatness; placed 
 his rival triumphant upon the throne of the Czars, as the ar- 
 biter of the north, and secured to him the prosecution of all his 
 vast plans and enjoyments. 
 
 Peter pushed the enlargement and improvements of his fa- 
 vourite city, extended the contemplated canals, amended his 
 code of laws, to govern, tame and civilize his subjects ; extend- 
 ed his commerce, manufactures and a&nculture, by every possi- 
 ble encouragement ; and thus triumphed over Charles, by the 
 greatness of his life, as well as In the (rats ol his arms. 
 
 The war which the Spanish succession had kindled in the 
 south, still raged \viih violeore ; but ' <> fjll of Clta l--s XII. 
 damped the ardor of Lewis Xi V. and leU him to despair ol that 
 
29* CHARLES XII. IN TURKEY. 
 
 aid, which he had vainly hoped for from the king of Sweden, 
 and make humiliating concessions, with overtures for peace ; 
 concessions such as nothing but the overbearing demands of 
 the allies could have rejected. The spirit of the parties was 
 not yet tamed, and the war continued to rage. 
 
 Peter restored the sovereignty of Poland, to Augustus ; de- 
 posed Stanislaus, expelled the Swedes, took possession of the 
 provinces upon the Baltic, and gave peace to the west. 
 
 Charles, agreeable to a generous maxim of the Turks, was 
 honourably received, and conducted to Bender, (a frontier town 
 on the north of Turkey in Europe,) and saluted upon his arri- 
 val, with a discharge of artillery where agreeable to his wish- 
 es, he and his retinue were lodged in a little camp, on the banks 
 of the Niester. 
 
 Charles and his camp became the objects of the day ; were 
 visited by all the neighbouring country, and became the resort 
 of strangers. His temperance and devotion endeared him to 
 the Turks, and they were ready to acknowledge him as a true 
 musselman. 
 
 Charles repaired to Bender, with a design to kindle a war 
 between the Turks, and Russians ; and he commenced hs in- 
 trigues whh the sublime Porte, immediately for that purpose, 
 through the influence of his envoy, and his friend, Poniatowski, 
 a Polish nobleman ; who commixed with the Turks, in free and 
 familiar intercourse, and often presented the king of Sweden's 
 memorials to the Sultan, Achmet III. on his way to mosque. 
 By this means, he obtained the favors of the Sultan, for the 
 king of Sweden, and at the same time caused the grand vizier 
 to be deposed. 
 
 One instance of these intrigues, was conducted in the fol- 
 lowing manner: "The grand Seignior goes every Friday to 
 mosque, (a Mahometan temple,) surrounded by his Solacs, 
 cr guards, whose turbans are adorned with such high feathers, 
 as to conceal the Sultan from th view of the people. When 
 any one has a petition to present, he endeavours to mingle 
 with the guards, and holds up the paper aloft. Sometimes the 
 Sultan condescends to receive it himself; but he more com- 
 monly sends an Aga to take charge of it, and causes it to be 
 laid before him on his return from mosque. Poniatowski 
 had no other method of conveying the king of Sweden's com- 
 plaint to Achmet." 
 
 The t fleets of this petition we*e, a present from the Sultan 
 to the king, of twenty-five fine Arabian horses 5 one of which 
 

 TRIUMPH OF PETER THE GJIEAT. 299 
 
 having carried his sublime Highness, was covered with a 
 saddle ornamented with precious stones, and furnished with 
 stirrups of pure gold accompanied with a polite letter, with 
 marks of approbation towards the vizier; but he was soon ban- 
 ished to Grim Tartary. 
 
 The new vizier was as averse to war with the Czar, as the 
 former, and endeavoured to persuade Charles to return home ; 
 gave him eight hundred purses, of five hundred crowns each, 
 to defray the expenses of his journey ; but all to no effect : 
 Charles was not ready. The Czar was on the throne of Rus- 
 sia, and Charles was determined the Turk should take him 
 off. To accomplish this, he ceased not to insinuate, that the 
 successes of Peter would enable him to gratify his ambition, 
 and make himself master of the Black Sea, subdue the Cos- 
 sacs carry his arms into Crim Tartary, and even threaten 
 Constantinople. 
 
 CHAP. TV. 
 
 Peter I. enters Moscow in triumph War between Turkey and 
 Russia perilous escape of Ptter /. Peace intrigues of 
 Charles XII. Battle of Bender War rages in the Swedish 
 provinces of Germany. 
 
 DUBLNG these intrigues of the fugitive king, Peter the great 
 appeared at the head of his empire in all the majesty of a 
 great monarch. To. impress his own subjects, and the world 
 with the splendor of his arms, and the magnitude of his vic- 
 tories (after he had placed Augustus upon the throne of Po- 
 land, and given peace to the north,) he made a triumphant en- 
 try into Moscow, in a most splendid and magnificent style, 
 after the manner of a llornan triumph un'der seven trium- 
 phal arches, decorated in the most superb style ; the whole il- 
 lustrative of the conquests at Pultowa, by a display of the tro- 
 phies of that victory. 
 
 A regiment of guards led the procession, followed by the 
 artillery taken from the Swedes, each piece drawn by eight 
 horses, covered with scarlet housings, hanging down to the 
 ground ; next the Swedish kettle drums, colours, and stand- 
 ards, carried by the officers and soldiers who had captured 
 them, succeeded by the finest troops of the Czar and in sue- 
 
300 WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY. 
 
 cession to these was drawn the litter of Charles XII. on which 
 he was rarried at the battle of Pultowa, all shattered by the 
 cannon shot, and displayed conspicuously upon a chariot 
 then in a train followed all the Swedish generals, officers and 
 soldiers taken at Pultowa, two and two, together with the 
 king of Sweden's prime minister. 
 
 Next followed the Czar, mounted on the same horse he rode 
 at the battle of Pultowa, and followed by the generals who com- 
 manded on that glorious day. A vast train of waggons loaded 
 with Swedish military stores, preceded by a regiment of Kussian 
 guards, closed the grand procession. 
 
 This splendid and magnificent display, opened a new field 
 for the admiration of these untutored sons of the north, inspir- 
 ed them with veneration for the Czar, for their country, laws, 
 religion and arms, and excited a new spirit of emulation in 
 Russiar' Charles availed himself of this triumph, to gratify 
 his own malignant mortification, by representing through 
 fresh intrigues, the dangerous ambition of Peter ; caused a 
 second grand Vizier to be deposed, and obtained a successor 
 to his wishes; him he inspired with the spirit of war. Ach- 
 met himself, had now caught the flame, and the Janizaries were 
 ripe for a war with Russia. 
 
 The vizier assembled an army of two hundred thousand 
 men, imprisoned the Russian ambassador in the seven towers, 
 (which ; s the Turkish method of declaring war,) and prepared 
 to enter the dominions of the Czar. Peter, upon the first intel- 
 ligence, withdrew his troops from Poland, and the provinces of 
 the west, and prepared for the conflict. The vizier assembled 
 his army, according to custom, in the neighbourhood of Adrian- 
 f>p!e, and in three days after the first review, took the field, and 
 commenced operations. 
 
 Peter had alieady taken the field ; on his way to the theatre 
 of action, he entered Moldavia, received the submission of this 
 Turkish province*, and the governor, prince Cantemir, became 
 his allv in the war. This inflamed the confidence of Peter ; 
 he advanced into the heart of the province, upon the river 
 Prnth, near to the capital. The vizier advanced to meet him, 
 with an army of 250,000; crossed the Pruth, and invested 
 Peter in his camp. 
 
 Thus caucht in the toils, Peter saw himself involved in the 
 same error of the king of Sweden at Pultowa, and that the fate 
 of his army must depend upon the fate of an action, upon the 
 most unfavourable terms. 
 
 
PEACE. 301 
 
 At this critical moment, count Poniatowski (who accompa- 
 nied the vizier) sent an express to the king of Sweden at Ben- 
 der : Charles rode post night_and day, to witness the fall of his 
 rival. Peter attempted to withdraw in the night, but the Turk 
 discovered the movement, fell upon his rear, and threw his ar- 
 my into confusion : they rallied, and made a firm stand againgt 
 two successive attacks. The vizier then changed his opera- 
 tions, and invested the Czar in his camp ; this reduced him to 
 the alternative of starving or fighting, under such disparity of 
 numbers, with a victorious enemy. 
 
 Peter retired to his tent in despair, resolved to try the dread- 
 ful experiment of forcing his way at the point of the bayonet, 
 with 30,000 men, through an army of 250,000, flushed with 
 their recent successes and forbade any one to approach him. 
 
 In this critical moment of distress, Catharine, whom from 
 a country girl, he had made empress, ventured to repair to 
 his tent ; she flung herself at his feet, and entreated him to 
 permit her in his name, to offer proposals of peace to the 
 grand vizier; Peter consented: she presented him a letter, 
 he signed it; she selected an officer on whom she could de- 
 pend, and despatched the letter, with a present, according to 
 custom, and received for answer from the vizier : " Let the 
 Czar send me his prime minister, and I shall then consider 
 what is to be done." 
 
 The chancellor of Peter repaired to the camp of the vizier ; 
 a negociation took place, accompanied with a cessation of 
 arms, for six hours, and a treaty was concluded, in which 
 Peter stipulated "to restore Azoph to the Porte, destroy 
 the harbor of Sangerou, and demolish his forts on the Palus 
 Mosotis, withdraw his troops from Poland, give no further dis- 
 turbance to the Cossacs, and permit the king of Sweden to re- 
 turn to his own dominions." 
 
 .At the eventful moment, when the treaty was signed, and 
 Peter was enjoying the fulness of plenty in his camp, pro- 
 tected by a peace, arrived Charles XII. Stung with chagrin, 
 mortification and disappointment, at the folly of the vizier, 
 the escape of his enemy, the ruin of all his efforts, and the 
 disappointment of his high expectations, he flevr to the tent 
 of the vizie^ reproached him keenly for the treaty he had 
 made ; threw himself on to his sopha, and with an eye of in- 
 dignant scorn, thrust out his leg, entangled his spur in his 
 robe, purposely tore it ; rose with the most sullen silence, and 
 
 26 
 
#02 BATTLE OF BENDER. 
 
 returned to Bender. The treaty was received at Constantino- 
 ple with applause, and public rejoicings, yet Charles found 
 means to be revenged on the vizier, and he was disgraced. 
 
 This affair did not rest here. Charles was not so fortunate 
 in the next vizier; his supplies, of 500 crowns per day, were 
 withdrawn, together with the rich supplies of his table. The 
 sultan became deaf to all further thoughts of war with Russia, 
 and determined to send out of his dominions, this intriguing, 
 fugitive king. 
 
 The sultan wrote Charles to this effect with his own hand : 
 and after styling him " Most powerful among the kings who 
 worship Jesus, brilliant in majesty, a lover of glory and hon- 
 or," he positively assured him, that he had laid aside all fur- 
 ther views of war with the Czar, and pressed him to return to 
 his own dominions. 
 
 Charles was not yet ready to go : he did not comply but 
 continued his intrigues. The sultan sent to Charles to pre- 
 pare immediately for his departure; with 1200 purses, under 
 the care of the bashaw of Bender, to provide for his journey. 
 Charles deceived the Bashaw, got the money, but still refused 
 to go: this occasioned the bashaw much trouble and address to 
 save his head. 
 
 The sultan assembled his divan, in which it was advised to 
 send away the king of Sweden by force. The bashaw of 
 Bender communicated this order to the king of Sweden: 
 Charles replied, " Obey your master, if you dare, and leave 
 my presence immediately. ' The Bashaw obeyed, and pre- 
 pared to execute the sultan's orders : Charles prepared to re- 
 sist, and the bashaw besieged him in hij little camp, diew up 
 his army of Turks and Cossacks, opened his fire from his ar- 
 tillery, and advanced to the charge j the camp was carried, and 
 300 Swedes made prisoners. 
 
 Charles being on horseback, dismounted, and took to his 
 house : here, amidst his general officers and domestics, he 
 made a stand with musketry, against the assault of the whole 
 Turkish force. ,By a spirited fire from the windows, they 
 killed about 200 Turks. The Turks fired the house ; and 
 when the roof fell in, Charles, by the advice of one of his 
 attendants, rushed out of the flames, at the head of his little 
 band, and with the sword attempted to cut his way through 
 the Turks, to the Chancery house, and there make a stand. 
 Pressed by the Turks, he tripped with his spurs, and fell ; the 
 Janizaries seized him and bore him away. The bashaw re- 
 
CHARLES XII. RETUR.NS TO SWEDEN. 303 
 
 ceived him in his own house, guarded him close ; but treated 
 him like a king. The next day hc sent him to Demirtash, 
 near to Adrianople : here he learnt that king Stanislaus was 
 a prisoner amongst the Turks : here he renewed his intrigues, 
 and complained to the sultan of the unprecedented seventy of 
 his treatment. The sultan covered his own character, by a 
 general sacrifice of his ministers 5 but Charles remained a pris- 
 oner, and to avoid being sent away by force, took to his bed ; 
 and lay ten months, served alone by his principal officers. 
 
 During these scenes, the generals of Charles were perform- 
 ing feats of valor, in defending his provinces in German} 7 , from 
 the ravages of the Danes and Saxons. The allies bombarded 
 the city of Stade, in the duchy of Bremen, and reduced it to 
 ashes. Steenbock, the Swedish general, defeated the allies in a 
 desperate battle, and revenged the barbarity of Stade, by burn- 
 ing Altena, a city of the king of Denmark. Fired with the 
 spirit of his master, Steenbock did valiantly; but a junction of 
 the Russians, with the Danes and Saxons, drove him into Hoi- 
 stein, besieged him in Toningen, and made him a prisdher, with 
 all his army. 
 
 The baron De Gortx then undertook to manage by intrigue 
 the affairs of the king of Sweden, and effect by negotiation, 
 what Steenbock had failed to accomplish by arms. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Charles XII. returns to Sweden ; defence of Stralsund ; na- 
 val operations upon the Baltic ; Peter I. enters Petersburg 
 in triumph ; fall <f Stralsund. 
 
 DESPAIRING of success from his intrigues, tired of this inac- 
 tive life, and alarmed for the fate of Sweden, Charles roused 
 from his confinement and prepared to depart. The Vizier 
 furnished him with an escort and supplies according to his 
 wishes, and he set out by the way of Germany with sixty load- 
 ed waggons, and an escort of three hundred horse to return to 
 Sweden. On the confines of Transylvania he dismissed his 
 escort, took leave of his friends, and attended by one officer, 
 rode post night and day through Germany, and arrived at 
 Stralsund November 21, 1714. Here he passed the winter, 
 making general arrangements to prosecute the war with vigrfr 
 in the spring. 
 
304 NAVAL VICTORY AND TRIUMPH 6F PETER I. 
 
 The war which the Spanish succession had kindled in the 
 sout of Europe, ancTwhich had raged with so much violence 
 in Flanders, Spain, Italy, Germany, and upon the ocean, was 
 now hushed to peace by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, 
 March, 1713. 
 
 The flame of \var, which was kindled under the northern 
 league, against the young king of Sweden, had never been 
 extinguished ; the parties were now exerting all their efforts 
 to accomplish their grand purpose, and divide up Sweden. 
 Prussia, Denmark and Saxony were ready to invest Stralsund 
 at the opening of the spring. Peter, with a fleet of thirty ships 
 of war, the fruits of his own persevering geuius, and in part 
 the labors of kis own hands, rode triumphant upon the 
 Baltic. 
 
 He became, from actual experience, the best carpenter, ad- 
 miral and pilot of the north ; this he acquired by the successive 
 grades of merit, from the lowest service up to the highest ; he 
 became admiral, as he became master-builder in his dock-yards, 
 and general in his armies. 
 
 Peter, having completed the reduction of Finland, put to 
 sea with a fleet of thirty sail of the line, eighty gallies, and 
 forty half-gallies, with twenty-thousand land forces, all from 
 his new port of Cronslot, near to Petersburg, to make a de- 
 scent upon the Island of Aland, on the coast of Sweden, near 
 to Stockholm. 
 
 He created Apraxin admiral of this fleet, and served as vice- 
 admiral himself. On the 16th of July, 1714, he fell in with 
 the Swedish fleet, commanded by vice-admiral Erinchild 
 an action commenced which lasted three hours. The Czar 
 attacked the Swedish vice-admiral, and took him after a se- 
 vere engagement; sixteen thousand troops were landed on 
 the Island, at the same time ; they took and carried on board 
 the fleet all the troops found upon the Island, and Peter re- 
 turned to Cronslot in triumph, with the vice-admiral's ship : 
 three others, one frigate, and six gallies, the trophies of his 
 victory. Having assembled his fleet, he set sail and entered 
 the harbor of Petersburg, amidst the triple discharge of one 
 hundred and fifty pieces of cannon. 
 
 Here commenced a new scene. This Petersburg, where 
 in the year 1700, not one solitary house was to be seen, where 
 not even a fishing boat was to be found, and when the great 
 founder of it was a common carpenter in the dock-yards of 
 Holland, now displayed the magnificence of thirty-four thou- 
 sand five hundred houses, in the most superb style of modern 
 
THE CONTRAST. oOj 
 
 architecture. That port which Peter had formed with indefat- 
 igable efforts and labor now witnessed the triumphant entry of 
 a victorious fleet of thirty sail of the line, with the prizes of the 
 Swedish fleet : and to crown the whole, the Czar repeated at Pe- 
 tersburg the splendor of the triumphs of Moscow ; he made his 
 triumphant entry into Petersburg, and amidst the display of the 
 trophies of his victory, the Swedish vice-admiral graced his train. 
 The conquests of Peter, were devoted to the benefit of Pe- 
 tersburg : all that was valuable in manufactures, and the arts 
 and sciences, were destined to enrich and improve his new- 
 capital. Triumphant over Sweden, by land and sea, he now 
 became the arbiter of Poland, and held the balance between 
 Augustus and his nobles. Charles XII. all this time, was 
 intriguing in Turkey, fighting the bashaw of Bender, or lying a 
 bed ; and having rode post fifteen days and nights, was now 
 prepared to defend Stralsund against the allies. His country 
 in his absence, had been ravaged and despoiled of nearly all his 
 foreign possessions 5 her veteran troops, once so formidable, had 
 fallen, wasted and perished : more than one hundred thousand 
 were prisoners in Russia, and as many more, the Tartars had 
 sold to the Turks; and the enterprise and ardor of Sweden, had 
 wasted with her commerce, her money, her credit, aud her 
 troops. 
 
 The scales were turned. Peter now stood on that high 
 ground, which Charles had abandon d ; and Charles, in his 
 turn had to begin anew. Charles, having arranged ihe de- 
 fence of his kingdom, prepared to defend Stralsund. His ar- 
 rival had rekindled the ancient spirit of Sweden ; man vied 
 with man, in the general preparations. The Prussian arid 
 Danish fleet, sunk and destroyed five Swedish ships before 
 Stralsund. 
 
 Peter rode triumphant before Stockholm, with twenty 
 ships of the line, one hundred and fifty transports, and 30,000 
 men threatening a descent ; he filled all Sweden with alarm. 
 At the same time, he overran and subdued all Finland, east 
 of the Gulf of Bothnia, and hold possession. The king of 
 Prussia seized on the island of U.sedom, and the city of Stetin, 
 at the mouth of the Oder, and dispossessed the Swedes. 
 
 During these operations, Charles conducted the defence 
 of Stralsund, with a garrison of 9,000 men besieged by the 
 &.in;_'> of Denmark and Prussia, at the head of "6.000 men. 
 Stralsund was a place of great strength and importance, in- 
 
 26* 
 
306 BATTLE OF RAGEN. 
 
 accessible by land, and considered so by water ; defended 
 by Charles XII. who was confident it could not be taken. 
 
 An accident discovered to the besiegers, that the fortress 
 which protected the city, was accessible on the side of the 
 sea, and that the Baltic receded under a strong west wind, 
 and left but three feet of water". The besiegers availed them- 
 selves of this ; the same night a party of 1800 men plunged 
 into the water ; at the same time, another party of 2,000, 
 commenced an attack by land. The troops in the water pene- 
 trated to the walls, entered unobserved, and carried the for- 
 tress with a cruel slaughter : part of the garrison fled to the 
 town 5 the conquerors pursued, and entered, with the fugitives ; 
 but their course was arrested at the drawbridge they were all 
 taken, and the town saved. 
 
 The besiegers attempted to make a lodgment upon the 
 island of Rugen, opposite to the harbor of Stralsund. This 
 place Charles knew the importance of securing : to this end, 
 he repaired to Rugen, with a few of his principal officers, to 
 encourage and support the little garrison of 2,000 men, who 
 were stationed for its defence. The same night the besieg- 
 ers sailed to the islands, with a fleet of transports, carrying 
 15,000 men, under the command of the prince of Anhalt. 
 The cautious prince, intrenched his camp, in the dead of 
 night, with a deep ditch and chevaux-de-frise, with as much 
 caution and strength, as if he knew the king of Sweden had 
 been there with his army. Charles, apprised of the landing, 
 but ignorant of the force of the enemy, drew out his little 
 band, marched three leagues in dead of night, and at two in 
 the morning, his soldiers began to pull up the chevau-de- 
 frise. This gave the alarm ; and the prince and his parly 
 stood to their arms. Charles advanced, and discovered the 
 ditch ; struck with surprise, he leapt into it, and his soldiers 
 followed his example : by the greatest personal exertions, 
 they penetrated the camp the action commenced the im- 
 petuosity of the Swedes bore down all before them ; but the 
 weight of numbers soon checked the onset. The enemy 
 rallied, and chai'ged in their turn ; the conflict was desperate 
 the Swedes retired Charles fled, ignorant of his pursuer 
 the prince pursued, alike ignorant of those who fled before 
 him : Charles rallied his troops to the charge the carnage 
 was terrible the king witnessed the fall of his favorites, Gro- 
 thusen, and general Dardoff, by his side. Deering, who rode 
 post with him through Germany, fifteen days,, lay dead at his 
 
FALL OP STRALSUND. 307 
 
 feet, Charles was then announced by name, by a Danish 
 lieutenant, who knew him, and had seized him by the hair, 
 and with uplifted sword, was ready to sever his devoted head. 
 Charles drew a pistol from his sash, and shot the lieutenant 
 dead in the act. The name of the king, thickened the cloud 
 about him, and he received a ball under the left breast. At 
 this critical moment, Poniatowski, who had saved the king at 
 Bender appeared with his horse, penetrated to the king, and 
 set him thereon ; the Swedes retired to their fortress, and se- 
 cured the king. The next day he abandoned his brave Swedes 
 to their fate, returned to Stralsund, and his little band surren- 
 dered prisoners of war. 
 
 The brave count Villelongue, who jeoparded his life for the 
 king, at Adrianople, was taken at the head of that French 
 regiment, which joined the king of Sweden in Poland, when 
 taken from Augustus ; and now passed into the service of the 
 prince of Anhalt. Shut up in Stralsund, Charles felt the se- 
 verities of a bombardment and half the town was in ruins : 
 the citizens were all become soldiers, and rallied with cheer- 
 fulness around their king. Charles continued to repel the at- 
 tacks and assaults of the enemy, until all hopes of resistance 
 failed ; he then yielded to the voice of his friends to abandon 
 a town whose defence had become desperate, and provide for 
 his safety. This had now become as difficult and dangerous, as 
 the defence of Stralsund. 
 
 It was now the 20th of December, 1715 ; the frost had set 
 in, and the harbor was frozen ; but Charles made the attempt, 
 in a small fishing boat, accompanied by only ten persons. They 
 succeeded in breaking the ice unmolested by the enemy's ship- 
 ping 5 passed the fort with only the loss of two men, from an 
 incessant fire ; landed at Scania, and from thence Charles pas- 
 sed to Carlscroon, (the port from whence he embarked on his 
 expedition against Copenhagen, in the year 1700, to give law 
 to the north.) The next day Stralsund surrendered. Charles 
 rode post to visit his sister, by appointment, on the banks of 
 lake Weten, and on the next day returned to Carlescroon, and 
 passed the winter. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Invasion of Norway Baron de Gortz death of Charles XII, 
 
308 BARON DE GORTZ. 
 
 peace characters of Peter I. and Charles XII. Immediate 
 causes of the French Revolution. 
 
 CHARLES had inspired all Sweden with the same zeal which 
 he had kindled in Stralsund, and the readiness with which they 
 rallied round his standard, and opened their treasures to supply 
 his armies, gave him such confidence, that instead of defending 
 Sweden against a concerted attack from the Danes and Rus- 
 sians j in the month of March, he assembled an army ; braved 
 the severity of this early season, and the greater severity of 
 roads almost impassable ; passed into Norway, and laid siege 
 to Christiana. 
 
 This bold stroke gave some eclat to his arms, and excited a 
 general attention ; but the approach of the Danish fleet, and 
 the want of supplies obliged him to return into Sweden. At 
 this time, the intrigues of his prime minister, the baron de 
 Gortz, began to take some effect. De Gortz had sown the 
 seeds of jealousy between Peter, and the states of Germany ; 
 and was now diffusing the same seeds between Peter, and the 
 king of Denmark. He carried his intrigues into all the courts 
 of Europe ; favored the pretender in France, and flattered 
 Charles XII. with the prospect of invading Scotland 5 and in 
 short, the operations of war were changed into finesse and in- 
 trigue. 
 
 Peter at this time again visited Holland and France, to 
 perfect that education which he had begun fifteen yaars be- 
 fore. Here he had an interview with the baron de Gortz, 
 who obtained great influence, by attaching Peter to that mys- 
 terious system of politics, he was so insiduously sowing 
 throughout Europe, and induced him to listen to terms of 
 peace with Charles ; flattered him that the arms of Russia and 
 Sweden united, might make an easy conquest of Denmark, es- 
 tablish the independent sovereignty of the Baltic, and a free 
 intercourse with the ocean ; and hinted, that such a peace 
 would guarantee to him the provinces conquered from Swe- 
 den, which had been so much the object of Peter. These 
 hints, with such others as Peter foresaw were connected with 
 them, added to the low state of his funds, led him to listen 
 seriously to de Gortz. 
 
 Charles had now recovered some strength, he again enter- 
 ed Norway, December, 1718, and laid siege to Frederickshall. 
 He opened the trenches in the midst of frost and snow, and 
 assisted in person in the most arduous operations. Here, in 
 
T>EATH OF CHARLES XII. S09 
 
 directing the approaches by star-light, he was killed instantly^ 
 by a grape-shot, which passed through his head. Charles seiz- 
 ed the hilt of his sword, and died without a groan. 
 
 This momentous event put a new face upon Europe, and 
 was followed by a general cessation of arms. The prince of 
 Hesse, brother-in-law to Charles, led baek the Swedes from 
 Norway into their own country, unmolested by the Danes. 
 The senate of Sweden ordered the baron de Gortz to be ar- 
 rested, tried, condemned, and executed as a mal-adviser to the 
 king, and an enemy to Sweden. They next elected Ulrica 
 Elenora (sister of Charles XII.) their queen, and rendered the 
 crown of Sweden elective : she conferred it upon her husband, 
 the prince of Hesse. Sweden soon settled a peace with all her 
 enemies but Peter : he continued the war, and ravaged the 
 coast of Sweden, until the peace of 1721, which guaranteed to 
 the Czar the provinces of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, a part of 
 Carelia, and of Finland. The Czar then took the title of em- 
 peror, which was acknowledged by all Europe. The charac- 
 ters of these two heroes of the north, are here drawn at large ; 
 never were two characters so uniformly great, and so uniform- 
 ly different. The effects and consequences which resulted, are 
 the best comment it is in the power of man to make, or language 
 to express; in the effects are displayed the true contrast of 
 their characters. 
 
 We have witnessed how ambition without judgment, has 
 humbled the first nation of the north ; and how ambition united 
 with judgment, has tamed a wilderness of barbarians into a na- 
 tion of soldiers ; has created ports, cities, fleets and commerce, 
 in the midst of almost impenetrable forests, and raised their 
 august author to the high station of arbiter of the north. 
 
 Three objects in particular are designed in this minute nar- 
 rative of the reigns cf Charles and Peter : the first, to shew the 
 history of the two nations, in connection with the other nations 
 of Europe ; second, the rise, progress and improvements of the 
 Russian nation ; and third, the effects of this, in controlling the 
 French revolution. 
 
 The north, after the peace that followed the death of Charles 
 XII. enjoyed an uninterrupted repose down to the French 
 revolution, excepting such connection as they had with the 
 great wars of the south, which we have noticed in the second 
 part; together with a short, but successful war, between 
 Russia and the Turks, from 1736 to 1738. We also noticed 
 in detail, the efforts of Charles VIII, Lewis XII. Francis L 
 
310 CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 Henry IV. and Lewis XIV. kings of France, to recover the 
 iron crown of Charlemagne, and the empire of the west. 
 We noticed also the feuds which sprang up in France in the 
 reign of Lewis XIV. between the Jansenists and Jesuits ; be- 
 tween the king and the parliament ; and the general excite- 
 ment of the nation, occasioned by the pope's bull Unigeni- 
 tus ; the suppression of the Jesuits, and the suspension of the 
 parliaments by Lewis XV. ; and alluded briefly to the rise of 
 infidel philosophy. We will now pursue the great object of 
 this third part, and illustrate the origin, causes, effects, and op- 
 erations of the French revolution. 
 
 The labors of Luther, and the light of the reformation, had 
 disclosed the mysteries of iniquity, and shewn to a certain 
 portion of Europe, the fallacy and corruption of auricular 
 confession, the sale of indulgences, pardon and remission of 
 sins, the absurdity of purgatory, and papal supremacy. The 
 expansion given to the mind by the arts and sciences, led the 
 philosophers of France, and of Europe, to discover the same 
 mystery of iniquity through another channel ; and in their turn, 
 to set at defiance the corruptions of popery, and the supremacy 
 of the pope. The bull I nigenitus, kindled the fire that rallied 
 the parties to the contest. The power of the kings- of France, 
 had been from the time of ClovLs, Pepin, and Charlemagne, in- 
 separably interwoven with the supremacy of the pope: of 
 course, Lewis XIV. supported the bull ; the parliaments, the 
 body of the nation, together with many of the higher, as svell as 
 the lower orders of the clergy, opposed the bull and the na- 
 tion was divided into two great parties ; the pope and the king 
 on one side, and the parliaments and the people upon the oth- 
 er : but the death of Lewis gave a check to the quarrel. The 
 licentiousness which the duke of Orleans introduced at court, 
 and diffused through the nation, diverted the quarrel, until Lew- 
 is XV. came to the throne. The arbitrary spirit of Lewis, led 
 him to espouse the cause of the pobe, and the Jesuits: parlia- 
 ments as warmly espoused the cause o,f the people. Arbi- 
 trary power united in the pope a&d king, together with the ab- 
 surd superstitions of the church of Rome, became the subjects 
 of dispute. 
 
 Here, as in all such controversies, was displayed the ex- 
 tremes of the passions ; liberty was arrayed against tyranny, 
 licentiousness against superstition, and science and philoso- 
 phy, against ignorance and corruption : the conflict was vio- 
 lent ; Lewis pushed his powers to the extreme \ the parlia- 
 
REVOLUTION COMMENCED. 311 
 
 nients were firm ; Lewis dissolved the parliaments; their spir- 
 it was unbroken ; the people clamored ; one Francis Damien, 
 (a fanatic) stabbed the king; this brought him to his senses: 
 he recovered of the wound, and restored the parliaments. They 
 now triumphed in their turn; they demanded that the Jesuits, 
 who had caused the quarrel, should be suppressed : Lewis com- 
 plied, abolished their order, gave them up to civil prosecutions, 
 and banished them from France. The corruptions of their in- 
 stitute were discovered, and exposed to the world ; their colleges 
 \vere seized ; their estates confiscated ; and they became the 
 reproach of the world. 
 
 Elated with this great victory, the parliaments attempted 
 to limit and humble the crown. They not only refused to 
 register certain obnoxious edicts of tl*e king : but commenc- 
 ed prosecutions against such authorities as dared to oppose 
 them : here they were at issue again, and the contest con- 
 tinued. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Jansenists and Jesuits ; assembly of the States-General ; Rev- 
 olution opened ; Paris becomes one great mob : the king a 
 cypher ; flight of the king ; convention formed $ neio Con- 
 stitution. 
 
 IN the midst of the disputes in France about liberty and 
 prerogative, died Lewis XV. and was succeeded by Lewis 
 XVI. 1774. The great parties which sprain? up in the reisjn 
 of Lewis XIV. and distracted the mn of Lewis XV. still 
 raged in France. The dispute of the Jansenists and Jesuits 
 about free grace, free will, &c. had called forth the pens of 
 the most learned religious writers the cause of liberty, against 
 civil and ecclesiastical tyranny, called forth also the pens of the 
 learned of all classes, excited a general attention and inquiry 
 through the nation ; and all descriptions of character became 
 party in the quarrel. 
 
 The American Revolution, {rave a diversion to the violence 
 of the contest, for a time; when mat was closed, it raged with 
 renewed violence; the abolition of the parliament had only in- 
 creased the flame, until the people, impatient of all further re- 
 straint, were resolved to govern themselves. 
 
312 REVOLUTION. 
 
 They accordingly assembled at Versailles, on the 5th of 
 May, 1789, a general deputatoin from all the sections of 
 France, under the denomination of the States-General, and as- 
 sumed a share in the government ; and on the l6th of June, 
 they resolved themselves into a national assembly. Over- 
 awed in some measure by the Swiss guards of the crown, 
 they saw the necessity of a military force they resolved that 
 48,000 citizens should be enrolled as national guards, and in 
 two days 270,000 men were enrolled in the city of Paris. 
 These were without arms ; they seized on all the depots of 
 arms that fell in their way ; an immense mob assaulted the 
 hospital of invalids, took 30,000 muskets, and 20 pieces of can- 
 non ; and they intercepted all the couriers of the court, and 
 disclosed their dispatches. Flushed with these successes, the 
 national assembly sent a deputation to the king, with a demand 
 thnt the large body of troops posted in the Champ de Mars. 
 should be withdrawn the king replied, " I have already made 
 known to you the measures the disorders of Paris have obliged 
 me to adopt; I alone have the right to judge of the necessity, 
 and in that respect can make no change ;" the troops however 
 withdrew in the night. 
 
 On the next day, June 14th, the people, still in quest of 
 arms, went to the bastile, and sent a small deputation to the 
 governor, who were admitted ; soon a firing commenced ia 
 the prison this enraged the populace ; they flew to the bas- 
 tile, with a strong military force ; the governor fired on the 
 mob with cannon and grape; this threw the populace into a 
 rage an assault commenced, the governor displayed the 
 white flag ; a parley ensued, and a second deputation was 
 admitted, and a second firing commenced within the prison. 
 This becrrne a signal of general assault ; a violent conflict 
 ensued, the prison was forced, the governor was massacred, 
 the principal officers were executed, and their heads exhibit- 
 ed on poles throughout the city of Paris. The prisoners 
 were set at liberty, and the keys carried to the national as- 
 sembly ; they decreed the destruction of the bastile. This 
 was immediately executed, amidst the excesses of those pas- 
 sions which fired the populace to take v-ngeance on the ob- 
 jects of their hatred and fury. This violent triumph over this 
 detested rod of despotism, diffused a general spirit of enthu- 
 sias.n through the nation, and may be called the tocsin of that 
 liberty, which eventually changed the political character of 
 France. The king ; alarmed at this outrage, repaired the 
 
DEVOLUTION. 313 
 
 next day to the hall of the assembly, and by a speech, attempt- 
 ed to soothe the violence of the proceedings. 
 
 The die was cast, negociation was at an end, violence had 
 commenced, blood had been spilt, and the nation was in arms. 
 The explosion had disclosed the passions which had been 
 ripening for nearly half a century ; and had opened the field of 
 harvest for those seeds, which were sown in the reign of Lewis 
 XIV. The princes of the blood, with many of the nobles of 
 church and state, alarmed for their safety, lied into voluntary 
 banishment. Fired withi resentment at this, the populace took 
 vnngeance on such as remained, cut off their heads, and expo- 
 sed them in triumph on poles through the streets August 4. 
 
 The assembly decreed the inviolability of the king, freedom 
 of opinion in matters of religion, liberty of speech, liberty of the 
 press, and the rights of man ; and abolished all privileged or- 
 ders, August 15. At this time the alarm became general; the 
 king sent the plate of the crown to the mint ; the assembly sent 
 the plate of the church to the mint ; a national guard of 60,000 
 men, conducted the king from Versailles to Paris, and lodged 
 him in the palace of the Thuilleries : the same night the assem- 
 bly sent him a deputation with the declaration of the rights of 
 man, which the king accepted. 
 
 Nov. 1. The assembly decreed the abolition of all letters de 
 cachet, and all arbitrary imprisonments, all distinction of orders, 
 and the confiscation of ecclesiastical estates ; a free toleration 
 in religion, with an equality of privileges. These violent pro- 
 ceedings in such rapid succession, alarmed the friends of the 
 crown, and led them to attempt a union of effort, to check this 
 mad career, rescue the king and government from this licen- 
 tiousness, and restore the authority of the crown. This effort 
 existed only in name, and served only to inflame the populace. 
 The system had long been maturffJ, and every means was reg- 
 ularly seized to progress the plan. A government was now 
 fixed in the national assembly ; a military force was formed, 
 and armed ; the bastile was destroyed by violence, without op- 
 position ; the king was no better than a prisoner, or cypher in 
 his palace, his prerogative was set at defiance, with the decree 
 of the rights of man. 
 
 That clergy, which had so violently assisted the crown to en- 
 force the bull Unigenitus, were now stripped of their pow- 
 er, by the act of free toleration, and the confiscation of their 
 estates. Money was now wanting ; this it would not do to 
 
 27 
 
314 HEVOLUTIOI*. 
 
 supply by taxes on the people : assignats, or paper money 
 was issued, and the Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon 
 were decreed citizens of France, January, 1790, and their ex- 
 tra taxes abolished ; the civic oath was administered to the 
 king, and the whole city of Paris; all religious cloisters were 
 abolished forever, and their estates confiscated ; the minister 
 Neckar sent in his resignation to the assembly ; they decreed 
 a monument to be erected to the memory of J. J. Rosseau, 
 and that his widow and family be supported at the public ex- 
 pense. These were the outlines of the proceedings of the 
 assembly this year ; the violent agitation of the public mind 
 generally, and the distractions of the city of Paris particularly, 
 can never be described. 
 
 April, 1791. The king attempted to go with his family to 
 St. Cloud, to pass the easier holydays : a violent tumult en- 
 sued ; here, for the first time, Lewis realized that he was a 
 prisoner in his palace : here, for the first time, the marquis 
 La Fayette began to realize, that it was easier to excite the 
 popular tumult, than to control it ; and that what he and his 
 friends had contemplated, as a reform in the government, had 
 become a revolutiou, irresistible and uncontrolable. 
 
 The king was compelled to return to the Thuilleries, under 
 a strong guard. The complaints of the king, to the assembly, 
 produced no more effect, than the remonstrances of the mar- 
 quis La Fayette to the mob. The king was a prisoner, the 
 government subverted, and the efforts of man, could not control 
 the violence of the tornado. 
 
 The minister at war announced to the assembly, that the 
 emigrants were assembled on the frontier, to invade France; 
 that they had been reviewed by the prince of Conde, that 
 their uniform was black, faced with yellow, nnd their motto 
 " Conquer or die." This inflamed the assembly and the na- 
 tion like a shock of electricity, they decreed the ashes of Vol- 
 taire worthy the Pantheon ; the populace assembled in the 
 Palais Royal in Paris, and burnt the pope in effigy ; the 
 violence of the new principles were now displayed, Voltaire 
 was deified, and the pope consumed. This was in miniature 
 the triumph of the old praties, the fall of superstition, and the 
 triumph of philosophy ; but the triumph of the sword of Charle- 
 magne was yet behind the curtain this was in the hands of a 
 set of men who had not yet disclosed it. 
 
 The king, aware of the eventful crisis, attempted to con- 
 vey his family in a secret flight to Montmedy, a strong town 
 
 
REVOLUTION. . ' \ u 
 
 on the north of France ; he was recognized on his va} r , at Va- 
 rennes, arrested by the populace, and conducted back to Pa* 
 ris, under an escort of 30,000 men, and again committed to 
 the Thuilleries, June 29. Placards were posted upon the 
 walls of Paris : "Whoever shall applaud the king, shall be 
 soundly cudgelled : whoever shall insult the king, shall be 
 hanged." The general alarm was great ; but the escort was 
 conducted with great solemnity, arid the national assembly 
 became permanent. They sent a deputation to the king, to 
 inquire into the cause of his departure ; and the king assured 
 them it was not his intention to leave the kingdom, but only 
 to reside at Montmedy, until the nation became tranquil, and 
 the constitution settled ; and remonstrated against the riotous 
 abuse the queen received from the mob, in Paris, and ex- 
 pressed his anxiety for her safety. The queen replied, that 
 she only accompanied her family and husband to a place of 
 more safety. The ashes of Voltaire, were, according to the 
 decree, removed to St. Genevieve, July 17. This move- 
 ment of the king, had kindled anew the flames of the revolu- 
 tion. Robespierre appeared in the Champ de Mars, at the 
 head of a vast multitude, who petitioned for the king to be 
 dethroned. At this eventful crisis, the famous convention 
 took place, between the emperor Leopold, and the king of 
 Prussia. 
 
 August 1 . The minister at war announced that the emi- 
 grants, to the amount of 8,000, were assembled upon the 
 Meuse and Moselle, under the prince of Conde, and were sup- 
 ported by another body of 10,000, headed by the two broth- 
 ers of the king. The spirit of liberty was now sown in the 
 island of St. Domingo : the colonial assembly decreed the 
 liberty of the mul ittoes to the floor of their assembly. This 
 produced great confusion, and became the cause of great 
 contention. In this state of things, the new constitution of 
 France, was finished, and presented to the king, by a deputa- 
 tion of sixty members, September 14 ; and the assembly de- 
 creed, that the constitution be solemnly published throughout 
 France. 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 Lewis XVI. signs the new Constitution -Clubs of the 
 
316 NEW CONSTITUTION. 
 
 lans and Jacobins Decrees of the National Assembly 
 
 Treaty of Vienna Riots in Paris Coalition Duke of 
 
 Brunswick Flight of the King. 
 
 THE king received the constitution, and repaired imme- 
 diately to the hall of the National Assembly to sign it. He 
 closed his memorable speech, on this occasion, with these 
 words : "I come, solemnly to consecrate my acceptation of 
 the constitutional code ; and I swear to be faithful to the na- 
 tion and the laws, and to employ all the power with which I 
 am entrusted, to maintain the constitution decreed by the 
 National Assembly, and to cause the laws to be executed. 
 May this great and memorable epoch, be the cause of re-es- 
 tablishing peace and union, and become the basis of the wel- 
 fare of the people, and the prosperity of the empire." 
 
 The burst of applause which tilled all parties upon the oc- 
 casion, cannot be described. A grand festival was given in 
 the Champs Elisses ; " One hundred thousand citizens danc- 
 ed upon the occasion ; and at the distance of every hundred 
 yards, was constructed a highly illuminated orchestra, where 
 the musicians played : and the air resounded, every half- 
 hour, with the discharge of one hundred and thirty pieces of 
 cannon, placed on the banks of the Seine. On a tree, plant- 
 ed on the oldscite of the Bastile, was displayed the following 
 inscription. Here is the epoch of Liberty. We dance on the 
 ruins of Despotism. The Constitution is finished. Long live 
 Patriotism." The constituent assembly closed September 30. 
 
 October 1. The legislative assembly was organized un- 
 der the new constitution, and sat, for the first time. The 
 king of the French, despatched letters to all the emigrant 
 princes, conjuring them to return to France. They had car- 
 ried with them into exile, the seeds of the old quarrel : they 
 were not cordial to this new order of things, it went to de- 
 stroy all their power ; and they refused to return. The 
 count De Artois declared, that they had taken up arms to re- 
 store the Roman Catholic religion, and its ministers, and to 
 give the king his liberty and authority. The assembly pass- 
 ed a decree to compel the emigrants to return ; this the king 
 refused to sanction. The flames of liberty were now kin- 
 dled in St. Domingo, and the mulattoes burnt three hundred 
 houses. We come now to the eventful period which disclos- 
 es the main-spring which set the vast machine in motion, and 
 
REVOLUTION. 317 
 
 apeared openly to regulate and control all its movements and 
 operations. 
 
 A society of Moderates styled Feuillans, was formed, and 
 began to diffuse their influence and sentiments, to regulate the 
 government this society breathed the opinions of reform, not 
 revolution, in government ; limited monarchy, not a republican 
 system, such as the Marquis La Fayette and others contempla^ 
 ted. This club called into view thejacobin club this originated 
 in an assemblage of about 40 literary gentlemen in the lifetime 
 of Voltaire, and in the reign of Lewis XV. for the purpose of 
 diffusing general information in France, and to counteract the 
 corrupt and despotic power of popish superstition, and through 
 the means of a more general knowledge, to rouse up the nation 
 fro a sense of their rights, and of their power, and through the 
 medium of these, to open the way for France to recover all her 
 ancient greatness. 
 
 The club of the moderates were opposed to this, and the 
 jacobins were then forced fr^m their concealment. They as- 
 sembled regularly, their numbers were small, but their names- 
 had great weight and these gave strength, and added numbers 
 to the club ; it soon bore down and destroyed the moderates. 
 The great plan of this club was, to discuss such questions as 
 were most likely to claim the attention of the national assembly, 
 and through this medium, influence and control that body. To 
 render this the more effectual, a regular president, secretary, 
 &c. were chosen, and the debates conducted with the greatest 
 regularity. Auditors were admitted into the galleries, who 
 caught the spirit of the club, and by their applause, proclaimed 
 it through the nation the influence of this club became great, 
 bore down all other clubs, and gave law to the nation. 
 
 At this eventful crisis appeared Condorcet's manifesto, ad- 
 dressed to all states and nations : the national assembly decreed 
 it and presented it to the king two sentences of this will be a. 
 sufficient sample of the whole : " Peace, which imposture, in- 
 trigue, and treason have banished, will never cease to be our 
 first wishes. France will take up arms, compelled to do so, for 
 her internal peace and safety ; she will be seen to lay them 
 down with joy, the moment she is assured, that there is nothing 
 to fear for that liberty, for that equality, which is now the 
 only element in which Frenchmen can live." Condorcet 
 was a jacobin, and here disclosed the su n of the whole matter, 
 27 * 
 
318 DEVOLUTION. 
 
 which had been so long concealed, and in concealment wrought 
 such astonishing effects. 
 
 The compact for a military republic was formed, and the 
 Iking was like Charles I. of England, only a cloak or tool, for 
 this club to work with. January 1, 1792, the assembly pas- 
 set! a decree against the emigrant princes the king of Prus- 
 sia publickly declared, " that Lewis XVI. having accepted the 
 new constitution prevented his acting in his defence." The 
 affairs of the revolution began now to excite a general alarm 
 throughout Europethey all knew what France once was, 
 and what she had not ceased in her efforts to become again, 
 viz. the empire of the westthey dreaded a military republic in 
 the heart of Europe, armed with all the resources, military ex- 
 perience, and wild enthusiasm of France ; they prepared to do 
 something, and at the same time knew not what to do if 
 they lay idle, they feared the union and strength France might 
 gain, in ripening her plans if they made a movement, they 
 feared that it might endanger the king, and drive the nation to 
 union for their common safety, and kindle with violence the 
 torch of war. The king of Bohemia and king of Prussia enter- 
 ed into a secret treaty to prepare for the worst. February 
 20th, the national assembly published, through their ambassa- 
 dors, to all the courts of Europe, " France renounces all arma- 
 ments with a view of making conquests, and will never employ 
 her forces against the liberty of any state." The secret treaty 
 of Vienna was soon known to France, and excited alarm. 
 
 Lewis XVI. to secure his own safety, wrote immediately to 
 the emperor : " I demand of the king of Bohemia, an entire 
 renunciation of all coalition and armament against France ; 
 and I declare to him, that if heroes not do this, the king will 
 regard him from the present, as in a state of war." The em- 
 peror died in 36 hours, and was succeeded by his eldest son, 
 Francis IT. He immediately, through his minister announced 
 to the world, that he had adopted the political system of the 
 emperor his father. A general change took place in the 
 French ministry. At this time, the English government abol- 
 ished slavery; and count Ankerstrom assassinated Gustavus 
 III. king of Sweden. 
 
 A new court of inquisition commenced in France at this 
 time, known by the name of the revolutionary tribunal : 
 nothing like this had appeared since the inquisition of old ; 
 and a new instrument of death was invented, called the guillo- 
 
 
EE VOLUTION, 310 
 
 tine, (from the name of the inventor.) These enthusiastic 
 sons of liberty, who had inveighed so bitterly against the over- 
 bearing persecutions of the pope and the crown, were now in 
 their turn become the instruments of a persecution, tenfold 
 more bitter and bloody than either ; not for orthodoxy in reli- 
 gion, but undqr the sanction of the sacred name of liberty. 
 They had yet to learn, that the maxim of " compel them to 
 come in," was as cruel and unjustifiable in social, as in religious 
 rights ; and that the maxim when applied to liberty, can no 
 more be justified, than when applied to the bull Unigenitus, or 
 the Alcoran. 
 
 The jacobins had carefully originated a new system of logic, 
 which served as a smoothing plane for the violation of every 
 moral principle, and at once destroyed all the sympathies of 
 the heart. " The end justifies the means :" a worse, er more 
 dangerous principle than this, never existed amidst the wilds 
 of Gothland ; and the ravages which marked the over- 
 throw of the western Roman Empire, with all their extermin- 
 ating train, were never founded upon a maxim so corrupt as 
 this 5 but upon their savage usages of war, in disposing of 
 conquest. 
 
 June 20. A mob in Paris of 100,000 men, armed with 
 muskets and artillery, assaulted the palace of the king, in or- 
 der to compel him to come into their measures, and sanction 
 two decrees which he had declined. The gates were thrown 
 open, the mob entered the palace ; they presented to the 
 king the red cap of liberty, on the end of a pike 5 he took it, 
 put it on, and the queen with great good humour, distributed 
 ribbands and May branches amongst the mob, as they passed 
 through the apartments^ to the number of 40,000 men in 
 arms. The king the next day issued a proclamation con- 
 cerning these tumults, and complained of the violence done 
 by the mob. Francis II. at this time, was elected emperor 
 of Germany at Frankfort, 1792 and the king announced to 
 the national assembly, that a Prussian army of 52,000 men, 
 were on their march against France. July 9. The minister 
 for foreign affairs announced, that Germany, Russia, Turin, 
 Naples, Rome, Spain and Portugal, had conspired against 
 France ; the assembly decreed the nation in danger, and de- 
 nounced fifty-seven persons as guilty of high treason. The 
 duke of Brunswick published a clear, and laconic manifesto. 
 
 The king, alarmed at this manifesto, addressed a letter to 
 the president of the national assembly 5 disclaimed all con- 
 
320 MASSACRE OF THE GUARDS. 
 
 nectionwith this movement, and declared, " that it was to 
 the nation that he owed himself and that he was one, and 
 the same with her." At the same sitting, Petion, at the head 
 of the commonalty of Paris, appeared at the bar of the assem- 
 bly, and demanded, " that the king be excluded from the 
 throne, and a ministerial government be appointed, until a 
 new king should be chosen." This threw offjlhe mask, the 
 king now realized his fate, he saw before him the grave of 
 Charles I. ; he again attempted to escape in the garb of a 
 peasant ; but was recognized by a centinel, and secured. 
 Here appeared the result of the federation in the Champ de 
 Mars, of the 18th of July. Their deputation now appeared 
 at the bar of the assembly, August 10, bearing a petition, 
 gignedby thousands of citizens, preceded by a pike, bearing 
 a red woolen cap, with this label : " Deposition of the king." 
 Alarmed for his immediate safety, the king, attended by 
 his Paris guards, the queen, his sister, and the royal children, 
 took his seat by the side of the president, and said : "I am 
 come amongst you to prevent a horrible crime, convinced 
 that while here I am safe." 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Mob of the 10th of August bold measures of the Assembly 
 Dumourier La Fayette Massacres National Convent ton 
 Trial of Lewis XVI. Condemnation. 
 
 THE materials, which had long been collecting, now took 
 fire, and involved the whole city of Paris in the explosion. 
 The collection of the mob, on the morning of the 10th of Au- 
 gust, together with the alarming rage of the populace, ren- 
 dered it necessary for the king to take this step. Acts of open 
 violence soon commenced : the mob attacked the Swiss 
 guards at the palace the guards made a firm resistance ; the 
 conflict became desperate ; a horrible carnage ensued ; and 
 the guards were shot down and butchered almost to a man. 
 About 25,000 fell in this horrible massacre. The mob enter- 
 ed the palace in triumph, and with unrestrained fury burst 
 open the apartments, carried off the treasures of the queen, 
 overthrew the statutes of Lewis XIV. and XV. and laid them 
 in ruins ; and when they had wreaked their vengeance on these 
 
FALL OF LA FAYETTE. 321 
 
 monuments of their kings, and laid waste, by their ravages, 
 this sanctuary of royalty they retired and dispersed. 
 
 This horrid scene filled all Paris with terror and conster- 
 nation : the national assembly were shocked with the out- 
 rage, and caught the general alarm : some members trembled 
 for their own safety ; others retired, or absented themselves. 
 In the midst of this scene of distress, they ordered the roll of 
 the house to be called decreed, and took the following oath : 
 " I swear, in the name of the nation, to maintain Liberty and 
 Equality, or die at my post." They also decreed, " that the 
 French people be invited to call a national convention ;" and 
 " that as the executive power was provisionally suspended, the 
 six ministers now in power, shall become the executive, and 
 present the plan for appointing a governor for the young 
 prince royal ; and that the king and royal family remain 
 under the protection of the assembly, be considered as under 
 the safeguard of the law, and their defence be entrusted to the. 
 national guards of Paris. They denounced as traitors and 
 infamous, all who should quit their posts ; and ordered these 
 decrees to be- prpclaimed to all Paris, and throughout the 
 eighty-three departments. These bold measures, were re- 
 ceived with general applause, through the nation ; and pro- 
 duced a torrent of addresses to the assembly, of plaudits and 
 congratulations. The ministers, who floated upon the top of 
 the popular tide at this time, were Danton, Le Brun, Roland, 
 Servon, Monge and Claviere. The royal family was next 
 removed from the convent of the Feuillans, (or moderates,) 
 and confined in the temple ; and the marquis La Fayette 
 moved his army towards Paris, in order to arrest the violent 
 proceedings against the royal family: but alas ! it was now 
 too late ! He had now to learn in his turn, that it was easier 
 to raise, than to control popular tumult. 
 
 The assembly, apprised of his movement, decreed his ar- 
 rest, and sent a deputation to enforce the decree : the mar- 
 quis caused the deputation to be arrested and imprisoned. 
 This enraged the assembly ; and they decreed, that the mar- 
 quis La Fayette be brought, dead or alive, to the bar of the 
 Assembly. This decree alarmed the marquis, and he fled in- 
 to Germany ; he was seized atRochfort, by the Austrian gen- 
 eral, and sent to Namur, and from thence to the strong for- 
 tress of Olmutz, in Moravia, where he was attended by his 
 wife and daughter, through along and distressing confinement. 
 
 General Dumourier, who had preceded the marquis in the 
 
322 RIOT IN PARIS. 
 
 command, had also attempted a compromise, to save the 
 royal family, been denounced, and commissioners sent to ar- 
 rest, and bring him before the bar of the assembly : these he 
 . arrested, and sent to the Austrian general, as hostages for 
 the safety of the king, and threw himself upon the mercy of 
 the emperor of Germany. These two champions of the 
 revolution, now felt the truth of whatmarshal Ney afterwards 
 said to the emperor Napoleon " Sire, revolutions never go 
 Lack." The tornado had now acquired such force, that all 
 who attempted to arrest its course, became like a feather in 
 a tempest they were swept away. 
 
 We come now, to the memorable second of September. A 
 decree of the assembly, requiring that all the clergy should 
 take the civic oath, had been but partially complied with : 
 this opened the way for vengeance to fall upon the old quar- 
 rel of Jansenist and Jesuit, with all the bitterness and vio- 
 lence of party. A general riot commenced in Paris another 
 horrid massacre commenced ; one ex-bishop, and about one 
 hundred nonjuring priests were butchered ; .the prisons were 
 all violated, the debtors released, and a general political mas- 
 sacre prevailed. Three or four thousand stained the annals 
 of France with their blood, on this memorable day, under the 
 sanction of the mob, styled Septemberisers. The trophy of 
 this infuriated mob of barbarians, was the mangled body of 
 the princess De Lamballe, borne in triumph to the temple, 
 and exposed to the view of the royal family, with her head 
 elevated upon a pole, and presented before the window of 
 their apartment. The assembly passed a silent decree of 
 approbation and applause, upon this murderous scene, by an 
 oath, " that they held royalty in detestation ; and swore, that 
 no king or monarch, should ever be a stain upon the liberties 
 of the people." 
 
 At this time, fifty-four national prisoners of distinction, 
 were arrested at Orleans ; and on their way to Saumer, they 
 passed through Versailles, where they were attacked by the 
 DOpulace, and all butchered : the principal among the suf- 
 ferers, were, the duke of Brisac, and the bishop of Maudes: 
 and on the s^me day, ninety priests were butchered at St. 
 Fermin. Those massacres of the clergy were frequent and 
 numerous in Paris, and throughout France, at this time. 
 
 The assembly decreed, that the marriage covenant might 
 be dissolved at the request of cither party, os upon the sim- 
 ple allegation of incompatibility of temper, in either -party, 
 or other grounds, 
 
TRIAL OF LEWIS XVI. 323 
 
 The declaration of war on the part of the German empire, 
 against France, was announced by the minister of foreign af- 
 fairs : and the assembly declared war against Sardinia. A 
 new epoch was then announced in this scene of horror ; the 
 convention had been elected, and were then formed in the 
 palace of the Thuilleries : M. Gregoire, bishop of Blois, at 
 the head of twelve commissioners, said : " Citizens, the con- 
 vention is constituted, and we are deputed to announce to 
 you, that it is about to repair here to commence its sittings." 
 The president then said " The legislative assembly declares 
 its sitting closed." 
 
 October 9, 1792. The national convention opened its de- 
 crees, with death against all emigrants. The subject of a 
 new constitution next claimed their attention, and they ap- 
 pointed a committee to frame one, and present it to the con- 
 vention : this committee was composed of sixteen ; at their 
 head, stood the noted names of Sieyes, Thomas Paine, Bris- 
 sot, Danton, Condorcet, &c. At the motion ofBarrere, (one 
 of the members of this committee,) a decree was passed, 
 " inviting all the friends of liberty and equality, to present to 
 the committee, in any form, and in any language whatever, 
 the plans, methods, or means, which they thought the best 
 calculated to form a good constitution for the French repub- 
 lic ;" passed with this addition " Whoever shall attempt to 
 establish royalty, or any other system of government, deroga- 
 tory to the sovereignty of the French people, shall be pun- 
 ished with death." The eventful period, for which the na- 
 tional body was organized, was now arrived : the necessary 
 previous steps had been taken ; the public mind was now pre- 
 pared ; and the unfortunate Lewis XVI. called to the bar of 
 the convention, to pass through the 9wful scenes of Charles I. 
 of England, before the mock parliament. Upon his approach, 
 the president thus addressed the king : 
 
 " Lewis, the French nation accuses you : the convention 
 decreed, on the 3d of December, that you should be tried by 
 itself: on the 6th it was decreed that you should be brought 
 to the bar : they are about to read to you the act, which an- 
 nounces the crimes imputed to you. You may sit down." 
 
 The accusation was then read, in the usual form, and the 
 king interrogated upon each charge, by the president what 
 he had to say in his own defence ? At the close, the king re- 
 plied " 1 desire a copy of the act of accusation, -is w 11 as 
 ef all papers intended to serve as proofs against me, and that 
 
324 CONDEMNATION OF LEWIS XVI. 
 
 I may be allowed council in my defence." Lewis was then 
 permitted to retire ; and after some debate, his request was 
 granted, and counsel allowed. Messrs. Tronchet and Lemo- 
 ignon de Malesherbes, became counsel for the king ; the 
 latter an old man of seventy-eight. The prosecution against 
 the unhappy monarch of France, was conducted in due form ; 
 and on the 17th of January, 1793, his punishment was deter- 
 mined by an appel nominal ; (the question was put to each 
 member, and his answer noted.) 
 
 The president then announced that the number of votes, 
 was 721. 
 
 Answers for imprisonment during the war, - 319 
 
 Answers for perpetual imprisonment, 2 
 
 Answers for a suspension of the sentence of death, until 
 
 the expulsion of the family of Bourbons, 8 
 
 Answers for a suspension of death, unless the French 
 
 territory should be invaded, - 23 
 
 Answers for death, with commutation of punishment, - 1 
 
 353 
 Answers for death, - 368 
 
 Majority for death, 15 
 
 Impressed with the solemnity of the scene, the president 
 then rose, took off his hat, and declared, in a low and solemn 
 tone of voice, " the punishment pronounced by the conven- 
 tion, against Lewis Capet, is death." Philip, duke of Orleans, 
 a relative of Lewis XVI. was a member of the convention, 
 and gave his vote, death : but Thomas Paine, voted only for 
 banishment. This is that Philip, duke of Orleans, who re- 
 quested the convention t give him a new name ; and receiv- 
 ed that of Philip Egalite, (or equality.) The fate of the king 
 was announced on the 20th of January, 1793 ; all Paris was 
 illuminated, and no person permitted to appear abroad ; the 
 whole city was buried in the most solemn silence, and the 
 military in large bodies patroled the streets. 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Execution of Lewis XVI. violence of the. convention Chen 
 
January 21s/, 1793, agreeably to a vote of the National 
 Convention, Lewis 16th was brought to ike scaffold, attended by 
 a military escort, and an immense concourse of people. He at- 
 tempted to speak, but was prevented by a flourish of music, and 
 aery of " JVo speeches.' JVo speeches .'" Seeing his last hope 
 cut off, he exclaimed [forgive my enemies may God for- 
 give them, and not lay my innocent blood to the charge of the 
 nation God bless my people .' ? ' He then stretched himself up- 
 on the guillotine, arid with greut serenity met his fate. 
 
EXECUTION OF LEWIS XVI. 326 
 
 lotte Corde trial and execution of the Q?/ecn triumphs of 
 philosophy. 
 
 ON Monday, of the fatal, solemn, awful 21st, about two 
 o'clock in the morning, the gloom of silence was here and 
 there interrupted, by voices of lamentation in broken accents, 
 expressing the distress of the feelings, and increasing the 
 horrors of the gloom. 
 
 Lewis, with great composure and eminence of soul, passed 
 Sunday in preparing for the solemn change. The morn oi 
 Monday came ; the queen, the princess royal, the dauphin, 
 and madam Elizabeth, took their parting leave of the king. 
 The distresses of this scene, may be realized by the sensibil- 
 ities of a feeling, sympathizing heart, but can never be ex- 
 pressed by the pen. Lewis was calm, and possessed a digni- 
 fied composure ; he retired for a few moments with his 
 confessor, and devoted himself to the solemnities of religion. 
 The stroke of eight from the Paris clock, announced the 
 solemn hour ; the royal martyr was led forth to execution ; 
 placed in a coach between two soldiers, (or gens de arms) he 
 was conveyed to the pjace de la Revolution, amidst a large 
 military escort, and an immense concourse of people. Lewis, 
 with a firm step, ascended the scaffold, attended by his- con- 
 fessor, and several municipal officers ; with great complacency 
 he beheld the multitude, and made an effort to address the 
 spectators but was stopped by an officer, who exclaimed, 
 " come, come, no speeches, no speeches :" this was accom- 
 panied by a flourish of music. Lewis saw at once that his 
 last hope was cut off, and exclaimed " I forgive my ene- 
 mies, may God forgive them, and not lay my innocent blood 
 to the charge of the nation ; God biers my people'' he gave 
 his affectionate blessing to his confessor, stretched himself 
 upon the fatal guillotine, and with great serenity met his fate 
 12 o'clock, January 21, 1793. 
 
 Desperation now seized every department, and witnessed 
 rvery measure in France. The nation was like a ship in 
 the midst of a tempest, without a pilot, tossed with violence. 
 and at the mercy of the waves, and the storm. The request 
 of the unhappy king to be buried with his fathers, was treated 
 by the convention with the silence of apathy ; pml his body 
 was thrown into a pit with quicklime, and consumed. One 
 of the ex-king's guards, assassinated Lfc Pelletiere, one of the 
 
o26 TRIAL OF THE 
 
 Convention, whose vote against the king was death ; and the 
 convention attended his funeral on the 24th. The sanguinary 
 scene was opened afresh, and the convention in their turn 
 began to bleed ; the righteous vengeance of heaven never 
 spared them, until they had by their own blood, made some 
 atonement for this outrage on the life of the king. Great heat 
 and bitterness, now marked the proceedings of the conven- 
 tion. The barbarian Marat, outraged all common decency, 
 in his attacks on the members in debate, with the opprobrious 
 epithets of " incendiary, assassin, villain, scoundrel," &c. ; 
 which called forth a decree, that " whoever should use such 
 injurious language towards any member should be expelled." 
 Marat denounced the framers of the decree, as conspirators. 
 The convention were now at issue. The violence of those 
 passions which had wreaked their rage and fury upon the un- 
 fortunate king, were now turned upon themselves. They 
 denounced Condorcet as a traitor to his country, and he met 
 his fate : to denounce and execute, were now synonymous 
 terms. The famous Charlotte Corde, took vengeance on 
 Marat, and sacrificed him upon the altar of her country, by 
 stabbing him to the heart ; for which, she suffered death in 
 her turn, by a decree of the revolutionary tribunal. The en- 
 thusiasm of this heroine may be learnt from her last words :. 
 v 'Tis guilt brings shame, not the scaffold." 
 
 During these distressing scenes in the interior of France. 
 her armies under Gen. Dumourier and others had been suc- 
 ressful ; the allies had moved with caution, lest they should 
 endanger the life of the king : they advanced into Flanders ; 
 laid siege to, and tookValentienr.es. This enraged the con- 
 vention, they denounced the queen, ordered her to be ar- 
 rested, arid conducted to prison ; August 1. The decree 
 was executed the same night ; the queen was roused from her 
 repose, and hurried in a most unfeeling manner from her 
 family, to her place of confinement, a cell, a dungeon, eight 
 feet square and doomed to lodge on a couch of straw ! 
 >h-nrk with the jiorrors of the cell, she fell into a swoon, and 
 passed the rest of the night in those violent struggles of na- 
 ture, which threaten momentary dissolution. The approach 
 of morn, witnessed the ravages of distress upon the graces of 
 the queen : she lived : but ah ! bow changed. She languish- 
 ed in this horrid cell, until the loth and 16th of the month, 
 when she was summoned to her trial before this revolutiona- 
 ai;d after the u^ual forms of trial, theinry Rafter 
 
 
L X E C U T 1 N O F T II E <* I E E N . 3 ''J T 
 
 one hour) returned a verdict of guilty of all the charges al- 
 leged. The president then rose, and after the usual ceremo- 
 nies pronounced the following sentence : " The tribunal, 
 after the unanimous declaration of the jury, in conformity to 
 the laws cited, condemn the said Maria Antoinette, called of 
 Lorrain and Austria, widow of Lewis Capet, to the penalty 
 of death ; her goods confiscated for the benefit of the repub- 
 lic : and this sentence shall be executed in the Place of the 
 Revolution." The queen received this sentence with the 
 same composure which she had supported through the whole 
 scene. The trial spun out, through the night ; arid at half 
 past 4 o'clock in the morning, the queen was re-condacted 
 to her cell, in the prison La Conciergerie : no time was al- 
 lowed her for reflection or repose ; "at 5 o'clock thegenerale 
 was beat at 7 the whole armed force was on parade, can- 
 rion were planted upon the squares, and at the extremities of 
 the bridges, from the palace, to the place La Revolution 
 at 10 o'clock, numerous patroles passed through the streets 
 at half past 11, the queen was brought out of her cell, 
 dressed in a white dishabille ; she was conducted to the 
 place of execution in an open cart ; her hair from behind 
 was cut off ; her hands were tied behind her back, and her 
 back turned towards the horse : on her right sat the execu- 
 tioner ; on her left, a constitution :il priest," (or one who hud 
 taken the oath to support the constitution.) The queen pas-- 
 ed to her execution, insensible to the shouts of Five la Liber- 
 ty, Mas la Tyrannic, Five la Republic ; she beheld with in- 
 difference, the vast military escort of 30,000 men, and the 
 placards of liberty and equality, posted on the houses -where* 
 she passed ; she ascended the scaffold in some haste, cast 
 her eyes upon the populace ; with a look took leave of her 
 palace, laid her head upon the guillotine, and met her fate, 
 at 12 o'clock, aged thirty-eight : the same place, and same 
 hour, witnessed the death of her husband, just eight 
 months and twenty-six days before. The executioner, ac- 
 cording t the usual form, exhibited the head from the four 
 corners of the stage ; and the populace as usual, exclaimed, 
 Vive la Republic, Vive la Liberty. Her body was thrown in- 
 to a grave of quick-lime, in the same place and manner of 
 her husband. 
 
 Thus fell Lewis XVI. thus fell Maria Antoniette king and 
 queen of France : victims to the same passions which com- 
 menced in the reicm of Lewis XIV. which occasioned Lewis 
 
328 HORRORS OF THE CONVENTION. 
 
 XV. to dissolve his parliament, and which armed the knife of 
 the assassin who stabbed the king, and by a wound restored 
 the parliaments, and expelled the order of the Jesuits. The 
 same passions were rekindled ; and when transferred from the 
 schools ofthe Jesuits, totheschools of the philosophers, were 
 swelled into a mighty blaze, which inflamed the whole na- 
 tion, and were now shedding torrents of blood, by the revo- 
 lutionary tribunal, guided and controlled by the Jacobin club. 
 
 This club which commenced under the auspices and di- 
 rection of the philosophers of France, had now become very 
 numerous, embracing all the choice spirits of violence and 
 corruption in the nation. 
 
 The king and queen were now dead ; and no longer the ob- 
 jects of that dread and hatred, which served as a rallying 
 point, for the members of the revolutionary tribunal. The 
 same fire of ambition and revenge, which destroyed the roy- 
 al family, now commenced its ravages upon their own body. 
 
 The allies pushed the war in Flanders. England dismis- 
 sed the French minister, arul proclaimed war against France. 
 Horror and alarm seized on the convention : Brissot, with 
 twenty other members, were denounced as conspirators, and 
 executed. The ravages of the revolutionary tribunal, were 
 marked with blood, through the nation ; mobs, insurrections 
 apd massacres, rendered all France, one great theatre of car- 
 nage, and one dark scene of horror. The ravages of the 
 guillotine, threatened to exterminate the clergy : all fled that 
 could flee ; others resigned their ecclesiastical functions. 
 
 Gobert, bishop of Paris, with all his grand vicars, divested 
 themselves, at the bar of the convention, of their letters of 
 priesthood : Lindet and Gregoire followed their example. 
 Seventy persons were guillotined in one day at Lyons ; on 
 the next day sixty-eight were shot, and eight guillotined. 
 
 An insurrection in La Vendee, now raged with violence ; 
 and the French arms under general Turreu, ravaged the 
 country. Philosophy now triumphed over religion, as well 
 as over the clergy : the convention abolished all religion, and 
 decreed, " there is no God, and death is an eternal sleep." 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 Insurrection of La Vendee ; fall of Robespierre ; Grand Jlr- 
 
 
WAR IN LA VENDEE. 329- 
 
 mistice of La Vendee ; Jacobin Insurrection ; death of Lena- 
 is the son of the king ; new constitution ; revolution in Hol- 
 land. 
 
 THE war in La Vendee now claims some attention. The' 
 causes which produced these sanguinary and distressing 
 scenes, were the triumph of philosophy over religion, and 
 the triumph of philosophers over every vestige of moral vir- 
 tue, and the moral sympathies. 
 
 They had announced that the clergy could never have 
 raised this world and rendered it subservient to their domin- 
 ion and control, if they had not fixed the lever upon the oth- 
 er world. They had now struck away all support of the lev- 
 er, and announced no God ; and further, that death was an 
 eternal sleep. That quiet after death, which had been pur- 
 chased with so many pilgrimages, crusades, or holy wars 
 by whole lives of penitential self-denial, with the purchase of 
 go much money to obtain the viaticum of the holy unction, 
 was now rendered free to all, in. the doctrine that " death was 
 an eternal sleep." 
 
 The churches of religion became republican tribunes, 
 where republican principles were to be preached, and the 
 disciples of the philosophers to become the orators of the 
 day. The national convention decreed, " that the remains of 
 Mirabeau should be removed from the Pantheon, and those 
 of Marat be put in their place." 
 
 Under the sanction of these feelings and these principles, 
 the war raged in La Vendee. Five hundred royalists, pris- 
 oners in La Vendeei, were shot by order of the commissioner 
 Leguino ; the commissioners, Turreu and Prieur, announced 
 to the convention a terrible action in La Vendee six thou- 
 sand slain, and three hundred driven into the Loire : this 
 reign of Robespierre drenched the convention and the nation 
 with blood. 
 
 January 1, 1794, Thomas Paine was arrested, and a depu- 
 tation of Americans appeared at the bar of the convention to 
 petition for his release ; and to shew him not guilty, but a 
 true apostle of liberty. 
 
 Carrier made a report on the war in La Vendee, in which 
 he stated that more than 400 leagues were in arms ; that 
 the rebels were more than 150,000 ; that in one battle were 
 slain more than 20,000 ; that 4 or 500 prisoners p'Mi-hed 
 daily, either by shooting or drowning, and that some pit: e- 
 
 28* 
 
"330 FALL OF ROBESPIERKF,. 
 
 tained 5000." Their mode of drowning was to crowd the 
 hold of vessels with prisoners, set them afloat on the river, 
 scuttle the vessel, and let them sink. 
 
 At this time, the convention decreed the people of color, 
 and blacks, in the French West India Colonies, all free. 
 
 A terrible denunciation fell on thirteen members of the con- 
 vention, and was sealed with the guillotine ; amongst the num- 
 ber were Danton, Lacroix, Phillippeauz. Robespierre tri- 
 umphed again. That jealousy and ambition which raged 
 throughout the nation, and marked its ravages with blood, still 
 raged in the convention, and rendered that body an alcedama. 
 
 Old Malesherbes, who defended Lewis XVI. at the age of 
 seventy-eight, was now covicted of corresponding with the 
 enemy, and guillotined : and madam Elizabeth, sister to the 
 king, met the same fate. Cecilia Regnault, imitating the ex- 
 ample of Charlotte Corde, attempted to assassinate Robes- 
 pierre, and Collot de Herbois, and met the fate of Charlotte 
 Corde, the next day July 27. 
 
 The cup of vengeance was now full ; the tyranny of Ro- 
 bespierre and his party, had now become insupportable : the 
 vials of wrath were ready to be poured out upon them ; they 
 were denounced, and their arrest ordered ; a gens de arms 
 attempted to seize the tyrant ; he defended himself with a 
 knife ; a conflict ensued ; he was subdued ; an act of out- 
 lawry wgft passed against him ; he was ordered for immedi- 
 ate execution, with Robespierre the younger, Couthon, St. 
 Just, and fifteen or twenty others, creatures of the tyrant. 
 Next in turn was arrested, Tinville, public accuser to the 
 ^evolutionary tribunal. 
 
 In the midst of these revolutionary scenes of distress, the 
 world was struck with a republican rhapsody from Geraud, 
 Upon the subject of national education. After observing that 
 France was elevated upon the pinnacle of earthly splendor, 
 that the eyes of mankind were fixed upon those doctrines and 
 principles which had effaced the ignorance, degradation and 
 slavery of fourteen centuries; that the slaves of despotism 
 had been struck with a mortal terror ; a- protecting divinity 
 had elevated her empire upon the smoking ruins of a throne, 
 and on the bloody remnants of expiring factions ; he ex- 
 claimed : 
 
 " Mandatories of a great nation ! Let us consecrate a du- 
 rable monument to the rising generation ; the Areopagus of 
 
SUFFERINGS OF LA VENDEE. 331 
 
 Europe ought now to consolidate the majestic edifice of our 
 immortal revolution, on the immoveable basis of public in- 
 struction. Before we abandon the helm of public affairs, let 
 us announce to our constituents, with a true republican bold- 
 ness, to France, to all Europe, that we contemplate with one 
 inviolable maxim, that without public education, the empire 
 of morals must be destroyed." 
 
 That system of education thus contemplated, ought to be 
 in operation many centuries in France, to accomplish that 
 degree of intelligence and information, amongst the lower 
 classes of her citizens, which could enable her to support a 
 republican government, even if she could be wholly divested 
 of her monarchical prejudices and habits ; and her philoso- 
 phers, with all their boasted light and wisdom, ought to have 
 known this, or if they did know it, they ought not to have 
 built their ambitious schemes upon a foundation, which 
 must of course swim in blood. 
 
 We have witnessed how the blood of the royal martyrs 
 has again stained the convention. 
 
 The following extract of a letter from general Danicamp 
 will shew, how the war raged in La Vendee. " I will prove 
 that old men were murdered in their beds, that infants were 
 murdered at their mother's breasts, and that pregnant women 
 were guillotined. I will tell you in what place, at what time, 
 and by whose orders, I have seen magazines of all kinds 
 burned. The practice of drowning was not confined to 
 Nantz, it extended thirty leagues up the Loire : I will de- 
 monstrate that the men who now assume the mask of philan- 
 thropy, were then the murderers." Immediately upon this. 
 Carrier, commissioner in La Vendee, was arrested and exe- 
 cuted, for the horrid cruelties practised by him in La Vendee. 
 
 February 19, 1795 An armistice was concluded in La 
 Vendee, and Carnot presented to the convention a list of the 
 principal victories obtained in La Vendee this campaign 
 viz : " twenty seven victories, of which eight were pitched 
 battles : 121 actions of less importance ; 80,000 enemies 
 slain, 9 1 ,000 taken prisoners ; 116 strong towns, or important 
 places taken, 36 of them by siege or blockade ; 230 fort? or 
 redoubts ; 3800 pieces of cannon ; 70,000 muskets ; KOOO,000 
 Ibs. of powder ; and 90 pair of colors all within the space 
 of seventeen months." 
 
 M:vy 5. Fresh scenes of distress awaited the devoted 
 city of Lyons, and she was again doomed to a most shocking 
 
332 INSURRECTION OF PARIS. 
 
 massacre. The noted Tinville, (who prosecuted the queen) 
 with his accomplices, were executed at Paris the 12th, and 
 on the 20th a most terrible insurrection broke out in Paris, on 
 the part of the jacobins to recover the blow they received by 
 the fall of Robespierre. The deputy Ferrand was assassinat 
 ed in the convention, and his head carried through the hall 
 stuck upon a pole. 
 
 Nineteen persons were guillotined in Paris, for aiding in 
 the insurrection of the 20th of May. At this time, died in 
 his prison, Lewis, son of the late king Lewis XVJ. aged 1 1- 
 years. An address from the insurgent chiefs of La Vendee, 
 to the king of England, expressive of their grateful recollec- 
 tion of the succor afforded them during their arduous strug- 
 gle, and their hopes of future aid, shewed, that this insurrec- 
 tion was an effort of England, to weaken the arms of France. 
 This, with olher operations on the part of England, led to a 
 numerous meeting at Copenhagen-house near London, to pe- 
 tition his majesty to discontinue the war. 
 
 At this eventful period, France opened a new scene : a new 
 constitution was framed, adopted, and a new legislature were 
 assembled Dec. 28, organized, and composed of a council of 
 ancients, and a council of five hundred with an executive of 
 five, called the directory, who were installed in Paris Nov. 1 ; 
 the plan of this executive was, that each should reign in his 
 tarn. On the 26th of Dec. Charlotte Antoniette, daughter of 
 Lewis XVI. was taken from the temple by the minister of 
 the interior, conducted to his own hotel, and from thence sent 
 to Vienna, where she arrived safe 1796. 
 
 At this time, parties ran high in England ; Charles Fox 
 flattered the populace, and disturbed the government ; their 
 majesties were insulted in the streets of London, and the mob 
 abused the king's servants. A revolution had commenced 
 in Holland ; the stadtholder had retired to England with his 
 family, in January, 1795. The national convention of Hol- 
 land was organized March 1, 1796, and citizen Paulus elect- 
 ed president. An extract of the order of procession will be a 
 specimen of the genius of the Batavian Republic. ''Amongst 
 other displays in this splendid procession, appeared a waggoo 
 covered with cloth so as to conceal its wheels, having three 
 benches : on the hinderrnost, was seated an old man, bowed 
 down with age, carrying a flag with this inscription : * I liv- 
 ed in slavery ; but I rejoice in dying free. My posterity who 
 
REVOLUTION OF HOLLAND. 
 
 are before me, will feel all the benefits.' On the bench he- 
 fore the old man were seated two aged women, who repre- 
 sented his daughters ; and before them were two men with 
 their children on their knees. The horses were led by four 
 young men, the waggon was surrounded by six burgeose with 
 drawn swords, preceded by a herald carrying a banner, with 
 this inscription : * We will protect them that cannot protect 
 themselves.' The powerful effect of such a display of ad- 
 dress to the populace, is more readily felt than described." 
 
 The revolutionary principles which had spread into Eng- 
 land, distressed the government ; the military were in con- 
 stant readiness to keep the peace : the government ordered a 
 national fast. The chief in the insurrection of La Vendee, 
 La charette, was taken prisoner, and shot April 1. Pichegru, 
 who had succeeded La Fayette in Flanders, was now suc- 
 ceeded by Gen. Moreau, and prince Charles set out from 
 Vienna to command the Austrian armies. Mr. Pitt brought 
 forward his budget for a loan of 7,000,000, and Thomas Paine 
 amused the French directory, with a pamphlet upon the de- 
 cay and fall of the English system of Finance ; which was 
 ordered to be printed and distributed to all the members of the 
 national council. On the 22d of June, the insurrection in La 
 Vendee was wholly quelled, and the republic acknowledged. 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 State of France movements of the Armies Napoleon Bona- 
 parte peace zvith Spain Conquests in Italy Milan. 
 
 WE have now reviewed in a cursory manner, the distress- 
 es of the interior of France, but have omitted the operations 
 of the armies for a separate detail, that the events might not 
 be blended together, and that the general occurrences might 
 be more distinctly marked. The operations of the armies 
 now claim some attention. The movements under generals 
 Dumourier and La Fayette we have noticed, together with 
 the appointment of gen. Pichegru. We have shewn the jaco- 
 bin club to be the spring of all the movements of the national 
 councils. We hnve shewn the origin ot this revolutionary 
 mob, how it grew into power, by overbearing and destroying 
 the Feuillans, or moderates; 
 
RECAPITULATION. 
 
 These two factions afterwards became blended in the club, 
 and in the convention ; they were restrained from open 
 violence and hostility against themselves, during the life 
 the royal martyrs: but when these objects of their attention 
 were removed, all restraint was withdrawn, and that balance 
 of power, which marked the strength of the parties in their 
 sentence upon the king, was at once turned upon itself. 
 These were distinguished by the appellation of Girondists, 
 and the .Mountain ; ,of the latter, were Robespierre and the 
 Jacobins. 
 
 Under this government, Dumourier carried the arms of 
 France into the heart of Austrian Flanders, and subdued 
 Belgium watched, regulated, directed and controlled by 
 commissioners from the jacobin faction, in the national coun- 
 cil. These sowed the seeds of French philosophy, and 
 French liberty, by establishing revolutionary clubs in every 
 city they entered ; these clubs inspired the conquered pro- 
 vinces, on all sides of France, to pour in their addresses to 
 the national council, congratulating them upon their success- 
 es, and praying to be incorporated with the glorious republic. 
 
 In the midst of these flattering prospects, the scenes were 
 changed the low state of the finances of France called for 
 supplies to conduct her ambitious plans arid operations ; the 
 Jacobins compelled Dumourier to lay contributions in the 
 conquered provinces ; this excited alarm ; these fell short 
 of the pressing exigencies of the armies ; they ordered him to 
 rifle the churches, seize on the plate, and apply it to the use 
 of the army ; this struck a fatal blow the Belgians had not 
 yet immolated these altars to French philosophy, denounced 
 their God, and buried their religion in the death of eter- 
 ii:il sleep. 
 
 Fired with a just indignation, they resisted the outrage ; 
 and by the assistance of the Prussians, drove the French out 
 of Belgium. To obviate this fatal rashness, as well as to 
 save the king Dumourier and La Fay ette, attempted a com- 
 promise by negotiation ; both fell a sacrifice to jacobin fury, 
 and fled into exile. Gen. Pichegru, (who succeeded to the 
 command in 1794,) sensible of the rock, on which both par- 
 ties had split by his popularity healed the breach, secured 
 the conquest of the Low Countries, and penetrated into Hol- 
 land. The Dutch, alarmed for their safety, inundated their 
 country about Amsterdam, and made a firm resistance. 
 
 In the month of January, 1795, the frosts were so severe. 
 
 ,. 
 
 en 
 of 
 
FALL OF AMSTERDAM. 33o 
 
 that the ice became passible ; and Pichegru moved his army 
 across into Amsterdam, and it fell an easy conquest to the 
 French. With the fall of Amsterdam, the other provinces 
 of Holland fell in quick succession : their Stadtholder and 
 bank were removed to England, January, 1795, and on the 
 1st of March, the republic of Batavia was organized. 
 
 The factions in the French convention, kept the example 
 of Cesar, in his triumph over the Roman republic, and the 
 example of General Monk, in the restoration of Charles I. of 
 England, as great reflecting mirrors, constantly before their 
 eyes. To guard against a repetition of these examples, they 
 kept their commissioners with their armies, to watch their 
 generals. The successful campaign of general Pichegru, ex- 
 posed him to this jealousy ; and he was regularly succeeded 
 in command, by general Moreau who was appointed by 
 the convention, to lead the expedition of the French army 
 upon the Rhine and Moselle. 
 
 GeneralJourdan was appointed to the command of anoth- 
 er army on the Meuse. The object of these two armies 
 was, to pursue the former plans of France in their wars 
 fas far back as Francis I.) to penetrate into Germany, forma 
 junction upon the Danube, and march down to Vienna, and 
 there form a junction with another army, destined to pene- 
 trate by the way of Italy and the Tyrol. The command of 
 this third army was entrusted to general Bonaparte, who was 
 raised to this important command, at the age of twenty-five. 
 
 As this campaign was one of the most important the French 
 had then ever witnessed, on the side of Italy, I will give a 
 short sketch of the origin of this young hero of France. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, was born on the island of Corsica, in 
 the year 1*769 ; he received his education, partly in France, 
 and partly in Padia, in Italy, at the military school : he en- 
 tered the French service, as a military adventurer, and pass- 
 ed without much notice, until the famous massacre of Paris, 
 on the 10th of August ; here he so distinguished himself by 
 hi? coolness and firmness, in protecting the directory, that 
 they raised him to the command of the army of Italy. When 
 be had accepted the trust, he was thus interrogated by some 
 friends : " Are you not too young a man to take the com- 
 mand upon so distant an expedition 1" to which the young 
 general replied " I shall be older when I come back." 
 
 Spain, at this time, made a part of the coalition against 
 
 
336 GENERAL BONAPARTE. 
 
 France. General Bonaparte made a sudden movement with 
 his army towards Spain, crossed the Pyrenees, entered the 
 northern provinces, without much opposition, settled a sepa- 
 rate peace, returned into France, and pursued his march into 
 Italy. On the plains of Montenotte, he gained his first victo- 
 ry, over General Bolieu ; his second victory over the united 
 Austrians and Piedmontese at Milessimo ; and his third, 
 at Mondovi, over the same forces ; and he announced to the 
 directory, the capture of twenty-one stands of colors. The 
 following extract of an address, published by general Bona- 
 part, to the municipalities of Milan and Pavia. may serve as a 
 specimen ofthe artful policy of general Bonaparte. 
 
 " The sciences,which do honor to the human mind ; and 
 the arts, which embellish human life, and transmit illustrious 
 actions to posterity, shouhibe peculiarly respected in all free 
 governments. All men of Genius, all who have obtained a 
 distinguished rank in the republic of letters are Frenchmen, 
 whatever may be the country in which they were born. The 
 states of Milan did not enjoy the consideration to which they 
 were entitled : inclosed in the recesses of their laboratories, 
 they esteemed themselves happy, if the kings and priests 
 were good enough to do them no harm. At this day, it is 
 not so : opinions are free in Italy. Inquisitions, intolerance, 
 and despots are no more. 
 
 " I invite the learned to assemble, and to propose to me, 
 their views, their names, or the assistance they may want, to 
 give new life and existence to the sciences and fine arts. All 
 those who may be desirous of going to France, shall be re- 
 ceived with distinction by the government. The people of 
 France, set a greater value upon the acquisition of a learned 
 mathematician, a painter of reputation, or any distinguished 
 man, whatever maybe his profession, than in the possession 
 of the richest, and most abundant city. Be you then, citi- 
 zens, the organ of these sentiments, to all persons in the Mi- 
 lanese, distinguished for their learning." 
 
 The effects'of this popular stroke were best expressed by 
 the exhibition of popular applause, which witnessed his tri- 
 umphant entry into the city of Milan. Gen. Bonaparte was 
 met by a deputation ofthe council general, who presented 
 him with the keys ; the deputation, with the arch bishop at 
 their head accompanied by the magistrates and noblesse, with 
 their splendid equipages, followed the general in grand pro- 
 cession, as he advanced into the city of Milan, preceded by 
 
CAMPAIGN OF ITALY. 337 
 
 a large detachment of infantry, and his guards the national 
 guard of the Milanese closed the procession. 
 
 This procession moved with great order to the archducal 
 palace, as the quarters of the general, where he was enter- 
 tained with a grand dinner of two hundred covers ; French 
 and Italian music graced the scene with alternate airs vive 
 la liberty, vive la republic filled the great square around the 
 tree of liberty. The ladies of Milan, dressed in the national 
 colours of France, gave splendor to a ball, which closed this 
 scene of general hilarity. General Bonaparte moved to Ve- 
 rona ; he also seized on Loretto and Anconn, cities of the pa- 
 pal dominions, and at the same time, concluded an armistice 
 with the king of Naples which the general announced to 
 the directory. 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 Battle of Castiglione bridge of Lodi panic of the 4000 
 siege of Mantua campaign of the Rhine, Meuse and Mo- 
 selle victories of prince Charles -fallofKehl of Mantua. 
 
 AN action commenced at Gastiglione, which lasted five 
 days successively ; the Austrians and Italians were com- 
 manded by old field mareschal Wurmser, in which the French 
 were victorious ; 70 field pieces, with all their cassions, 
 6000 killed and wounded, and 15,000 prisoners, were the 
 trophies of this victory. 
 
 At the bridge of Lodi, the Austrians had planted a strong 
 park of artillery, resolved to make a firm resistance, and 
 check the French. At sight of the enemies, general Bona- 
 parte ordered the charge ; the order was obeyed ; the de- 
 structive fire of grape shot caused the French to halt at the 
 bridge, and shew some disorder ; general Bonaparte advanc 
 ed, seized a standard, and exclaimed, " follow your geno 
 ral :" the bridge and whole park of artillery were carried ; 
 the Austrians were broken, and put to flight, and the victory 
 was complete. An adroitness of general Bonaparte at the 
 close of this action, will serve to shew the power of his mili- 
 tary fame, and the general panic of the enemy. General 
 Bonaparte repaired after the action to the village of I 
 with 1200 of his guards, to reconnoiter the enemy ; a Jjodv 
 
 29 
 
338 CAMPAIGN OF ITALY. 
 
 of 4000 Austrians which had been severed from the main ar- 
 my, appeared at Lonado, and summoned the place ; general 
 Bonaparte returned for answer " Go and tell your general 
 that the commander of the army of Italy is here, with his 
 brave troops ; and that ,if he with his division do not lay 
 down their arms in eight minutes, he, with all the general 
 officers, shall be responsible for the insult, and be sacrificed 
 without mercy." The whole column of 4000 surrendered 
 immediately. At this time, his holiness alarmed for the 
 safety of the ecclesiastical states, published an edict prohib- 
 iting all maledictions against Frenchmen. 
 
 After the decisive action of Castiglione, general Wurmser 
 fell back into Mantua, and secured his retreat in this strong 
 fortress, which is the great key between Italy and the Tyrol : 
 this movement prevented general Bonaparte from penetra- 
 
 
 mander in chief, summoned the governor of Mantua to sur- 
 render and received for answer ; " July 17. The laws of 
 honour and duty, compel me to defend to the last extremity, 
 the place entrusted to me. I have the honor, &c." 
 
 The general successes of the armies, had excited through- 
 out France general energies. The government and the na- 
 tion had recovered a general tranquillity ; and the general joy 
 these had diffused, was expressed by a grand celebration at 
 Paris of the memorable fall of Robespierre. With the fall 
 of Robespierre, fell the bloody sovereignty ofjacobinism. 
 
 At this time a division of the French army entered Leg- 
 horn, and seized property to the amount of eight millions of 
 livers. Aug. 14. General Bonaparte gained three actions 
 over the Austrians, at Coronna, Montebaldo, and Proabolo ; 
 and pushed his victories to Roveredo ; These victories des- 
 troyed, with a terrible carnage, the army sent to the relief of 
 Mantua. Again, on the 16th 6f September, he was successful 
 at the action of Cavela. During the siege of Mantua, general 
 Marmont, aid-de-camp to general Bonaparte, was announced, 
 and presented to the directory by the minister at war, who 
 by an address 'pronounced this eulogy : " Posterity will 
 scarcely credit the evidence ofhistory, that in one campaign, 
 all Italy was conquered ; that three armies were successive- 
 ly destroyed ; that upwards of 50 stands of colours remained 
 in the hands of the victors ; that 40, 000 Austrian^ laid dowr 
 their arms ; in fine, that 30,000 Frenchmen, under a general 
 of twenty-five year* old, had accomplished all this." 
 
CAMPAIGN OF ITALY. 
 
 During these operations of the armies, England sent lord 
 Malrnsbury to Paris, to arrest the progress of the French 
 arms by a peace ; the negoeiation failed, and he returned to 
 London, October 26. 
 
 During the memorable siege of Mantua, the emperor o 
 Germany sent down two armies, to co-operate with the gar- 
 rison for the relief of Mantua : these were destroyed in the 
 battles last mentioned. A third army from Vienna now ap- 
 peared, composed of recruits and volunteers, all young men, 
 the flower of Austria. To give spirit, dignity and energy to 
 this enterprise, the empress presented one regiment of volun- 
 teers with a standard, wrought with her own hands. General 
 Wurmser commenced a sortie with the garrison, to co-ope- 
 rate with this army ; he was too soon, his sortie was repelled. 
 General Bonaparte next turned his whole attention to the ad- 
 vancing army ; they were destroyed with a dreadful carnage. 
 The king of Naples made terms with the conqueror of Italy, 
 and signed a peace. Mantua was now closely invested. 
 
 We will next turn our attention to the armies of the Rhine, 
 Meuse and Moselle, under the command of generals Moreau, 
 and Jourdan, and opposed by the hero of Austria, prince 
 Charles. On the 26th of June, general Moreau crossed the 
 bridge at Strasburg with his army, took the strong fortress of 
 Kehl, and advanced into Suabia, to meet prince Charles. At 
 Renchen he gained a very considerable victory, and took 
 1200 prisoners from the Austrians, June 28. On the 9th of 
 July, general Moreau defeated prince Charles near Ettingeri 
 in a severe action : the Austrians retired, and the French pur- 
 sued, and on the 18th advanced with rapid strides into the 
 heart of Germany. This alarmed the duke of Wirtemburg, 
 and brought him to such terms, as occasioned a suspension 
 of arms between him and general Moreau. This* successful 
 general concluded at the same time an armistice with the mar- 
 grave of Baden ; continued to pursue prince Charles, cros- 
 sed the river Neckar, and made peace with the circle of Sua- 
 bia. General Jourdan penetrated into Germany, upon the 
 Meuse, at the same time, took the city of Frankfort, and levi- 
 ed a contribution of six million of livres in cash, and two mil- 
 lion in supplies, July 22. At the same time the strong fortress 
 of Koenighoffen surrendered to a division of Jourdan's army, 
 commanded by general Lefebre. August 5, general JVToreau 
 met with a check from prince Liechtenstein, near Kirchein ; 
 this he recovered by an attack upon Neresheim, the Austri- 
 ans were routed, and the French carried the place. 
 
340 DEFEAT OF GEN. JOURDAN. 
 
 Alarmed at these rapid strides of France in Italy and Ger- 
 many, the emperor issued a proclamation to all his subjects, 
 to rplly round the standard of their country, their constitu- 
 tion, and the laws, and thus concluded : "Behold the still 
 smoking ruins of Italy, the excesses and most inhuman cru- 
 elties committed there ! Behold the devastation which the 
 once flourishing territories of Germany have suffered, inun- 
 dated by the armies of the enemies, and you cannot remain 
 dubious about the terrible fate which threatens every coun- 
 try, and every nation, on being invaded by such terrible ene- 
 mies." The armies continued their operations. Prince 
 Charles made a sudden movement and attacked ganeral Jour- 
 dan a terrible conflict ensued for fourteen hours ; the field 
 was disputed with such obstinate valor that the conflict ceas- 
 ed upon the field of action, through excessive fatigue ; the 
 carnage was terrible, both parties withdrew. The next day 
 general Moreau advanced and took possession of Nordlingen, 
 and another severe action near Donawert compelled Prince 
 Charles to retire and cross the Danube. General Jourdan 
 advanced and took possession of Newark and Castel. The 
 Austrians retired behind the river Nab. 
 
 Alarmed again for the fate of Germany, the emperor issued 
 another proclamation, calling on the kingdom of Bohemia to 
 enroll a militia for the safety of that kingdom. A junction 
 now took place between prince Charles and general Werten- 
 sleben the prince availed himselfof this united force, attack- 
 ed Jourdan, and drove him from his position on the Nab, 
 with the loss of 7000 men ; this junction, and this action open- 
 ed an advantage to general Moreau, which he improved by a 
 splendid victory near the Lech, which opened a passage for 
 the French arms into the heart of Bavaria ; Munich and 
 Augsburg, were the trophies of these victories, August 23d 
 and 24th. The elector of Bavaria sued for peace. A treaty 
 of alliance offensive and defensive, was signed August 29, 
 between France and Spain. Prince Charles continued to 
 press Jourdan, and he retired behind the Mayne, and from 
 thence to Hamelberg, with the loss of 4000 men. The peace 
 concluded this campaign in Germany, with the small states 
 near the B,hine, laid the foundation of that league which af- 
 terwards became the confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 This masterly stroke of Prince Charles, in uniting with 
 Wertensleben to overpower Jourdan, rendered the advance 
 f Moreau into the heart of Bavaria easy ; but when a Sue- 
 
FALL OF MANTUA. 341 
 
 cession of victories over Jourdnr, had weakened his force, 
 and compelled him to retire, general Moreau was left expos- 
 ed : he soon felt his critical situation, and attempted to ex- 
 ricate himself by a seasonable retreat ; in which he acquir- 
 ed more honor, than in his victorious advance. 
 
 The Austrians pressed the French close and severe ; and 
 iven the peasantry took up arms to revenge their sufferings. 
 In the midst of this pursuit in Suabia, Moreau made a bold 
 ttack upon the advance guard of the Austrians, gained a de- 
 cided advantage, killed, and took 5,000 men, with twenty 
 >ieces of cannon. 
 
 September 2 Generals Jourdan and Moreau, continued 
 to retire before the overpowering force of prince Charles ; 
 re-crossed the Rhine, and entered France, leaving a strong 
 force in the fortress ofKehl. 
 
 This fortress was invested by prince Charles, with all the 
 irdour of a conqueror, the garrison rnacK a desperate resis- 
 mce : prince Charles, anxious to detach a part of this victo- 
 'ious army to the relief of Mantua, which continued to be 
 ;lose invested by general Bonaparte, and impatient of every 
 loment's delay, brought his whole force to bear upon Kehl ; 
 ind after a resistance of forty days, under the most desperate 
 encounters, the prince carried Kehl by a general assault ; 
 and drew off part of his army to the relief of Mantua. The 
 same day, Mantua fell a conquest to the conqueror of Italy, 
 ibout the 1st of February, 1797. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 Submission of the Pope triumphs of the campaign treaty of 
 Campo Formio armament of Toulon capture of Malta 
 battle of the Nile conquest of Egypt defeat at Acre 
 general Bonaparte returns to Egypt to France new con- 
 lit ion. 
 
 WITH the fall ofKehl and Mantua, the illustrious and splen- 
 did campaign of 1796, closed generally. On the 17th of No- 
 vember,' died Catherine II. empress of Russia : and the great 
 duke Paul, succeeded to the throne. After the foil of Man- 
 tua, all further resistance on the part of Austria, ceased in Ita- 
 ly ; and general Bonaparte advanced into the states of the 
 29* 
 
342 SUCCESS OF THE WAR. 
 
 pope under a fruitless resistance, and threatened Rome. Hi? 
 holiness addressed an affectionate letter to general Bonaparte* 
 under the tender appellation of My dear son, and by his en- 
 voys sued for peace : to which the general replied, with the 
 respectful appellation of Holy father, settled a peace, and re- 
 tired into the Tyrol, to meet prince Charles ; a terrible ac- 
 tion ensued general Bonaparte was victorious, and prince 
 Charles retreated with precipitation into the heart of Austria, 
 
 The emperor took the alarm, and sued for peace ; a truce 
 of six days was granted by general Bonaparte ; a conference 
 was opened, the preliminaries drawn, and the peace of Cam- 
 po Formio, guaranteed to France all her conquests in Italy. 
 
 At this time a general sketch of the successes of the war, 
 was published at Paris, stating, " that from the 8th of Febru- 
 ary, 1793, to the 19th of February, 1797 France had gain- 
 ed 261 victories, including 31 pitched battles ; killed 152,000 
 of the enemy ; taken 197,784 prisoners, 288 strong places, 
 319 forts, camps, or redoubts, 7,965 pieces of cannon, 187, 
 -762 guns, 4,318,150 pounds of powder, 207 standards, 5,486 
 horses," &c. &c. This treaty stipulated with the emperor 
 of Germany for the release of the marquis La Fayette from 
 the prison of Olmutz ; and the marquis, with his wife and 
 daughter returned into France. Lord Malmsbury was sent, 
 the 30th of June, by the English court to negotiate a peace 
 at Lisle, and returned the 1st of September without effect- 
 ing his purpose. 
 
 At this time, the republic of Genoa was united to France, 
 under the name of the Ligurian republic. The young hero 
 of Italy now returned in triumph to France, November 24, 
 1797, after having accomplished in one campaign what Lewis 
 the XL Charles VIII. Lewis XII. Francis I. Charles IX. Hen- 
 ry IV. Lewis XIV. and XV. kings of France, had each in his 
 reign attempted to accomplish, at the expense of the best 
 blood and treasures of France, but without success. This 
 young hero was not only " older when he came back," but 
 was illustrious in arms ; the trump of fame had proclaimed the 
 successes of this ever memorable campaign to France, to Eu- 
 rope, and to the world. Alarmed at the triumphant popular- 
 ity of the conqueror of Italy, upon his return into France, the 
 directory began to tremble in their seats, and to provide for 
 their safety ; this thej^ soon found in their fleet in Toulon. 
 
 The directory assembled and equipped this fleet, with all 
 possible expedition, consisting of 17 ships of the line, and 
 
BATTLE OF ABOUKIR. 
 
 343 
 
 15,000 men, destined for a secret expedition upon foreign 
 service, and gave the command to general Bonaparte. On 
 the 9th of April, 1798, general Bonaparte left Paris, and re- 
 paired to Toulon to take the command of this armament ; and 
 on the 19th set sail. This fleet was watched hy an English 
 fleet of an equal force, under the command of Lord Nelson, 
 off the straits of Gibraltar, to intercept their passage to Ire- 
 " ind, should they attempt it, as was then contemplated. 
 
 Upon the first tidings of the sailing of the Toulon fleet, his 
 lordship pursued up the Mediterranean, and at Malta learnt 
 the fate of that Island, which the French had taken in their 
 passage. He next sailed to the coast of Egypt, and recon- 
 noitered the bay of Aboukir. Not finding the French fleet, 
 he sailed to the coast of Syria. ' Not finding the French upon 
 this coast, he returned to Egypt ; and to his.great joy discov- 
 ered the fleet in the bay of Aboukir, anchored close under 
 the forts and batteries of the harbor, in the form of a crescent, 
 at the distance of about one cable's length from each other, 
 with the Le Orient, admiral Brueyes, in the centre. 
 
 During his lordship's passage to, and return from Syria, 
 the French fleet had arrived, anchored in the bay, and land- 
 ed the general with his army, &c. His lordship, on the af- 
 ternoon of the 1st of August, upon his first arrival, gave signal 
 for an immediate attack ; in the following order : The fleet 
 to advance in two divisions ; the first to pass within the 
 French, between their fleet and the land ; the second division 
 to pass without their fleet ; the two van ships to engage the 
 Le Orient in the centre of the French line, the others to en- 
 gage the ships of the French, lying between them. The sig- 
 nal was obeyed without any other accident, than the ground- 
 ing of the Culloden, in the first attempt to pass between the 
 French and the land : this ship served as a guide to the rest 
 of the division, and had no share in the action. 
 
 In this position of the two fleets, the action commenced ; 
 the conflict was terrible ; the French made a desperate re- 
 sistance ; but before the half of their fleet which were not en- 
 gaged, could slip their cables, and come into action, the Le 
 Orient took fire, and blew up, with an explosion which shook 
 the deep to its centre, and filled the dark vault of heaven 
 with its blaze. The rest ofthe fleet engaged, were silenced 
 and taken ; and the half which were not engaged, were all 
 taken in the bay, except two these were afteawards taken 
 at sea. Thus fell at one fatal blow the vast armament of Ton- 
 
344 DEFEAT AT ACRE. 
 
 Ion. Not so the general he with his army were upon the 
 heights of Alexandria, witnessing the destruction of his fleet, 
 in the midst of a cannonade whose flashing thunders, like the 
 bursting of _4tna, filled with awe the solemnity of the night 
 scene, and diffused terror and distress through the horrors 
 of the gloom. 
 
 General Bonaparte planted his eagles, without opposition, 
 upon the walls of Alexandria ; from thence,' by easy marches 
 he penetrated to Cairo, which, in its turn, fell an easy con- 
 quest. The resistance of the beys was feeble ; the conquer- 
 or brought them into subjection by an artful policy, flattering 
 some, encouraging others in their party quarrels, and subdu- 
 ing the obstinate by force. By these means, he soon placed 
 himself at their head, as a conqueror, and at Grand Cairo he 
 settled the government, and gave lw to Egypt. General 
 Bonaparte left a small force to protect his new government, 
 and marched his army into Syria, to plant his eagles at Je- 
 rusalem, and give law to that country. 
 
 His march was rapid and unmolested, until he appeared 
 before the commanding city of St. Jean de Acre, (a seaport of 
 Syria ;) it became absolutely necessary to conquer this place 
 before he could accomplish his plan. He set down before 
 the city, opened his trenches, and began the attack ; upon 
 the first appearance of a breach, he ordered an assault the 
 attempt was made, but the desperate resistance of the be- 
 sieged, added to a galling fire from the small squadron of Sir 
 Sidney Smith, (which raked the French from the bay as they 
 advanced to the charge,) obliged the columns to retire ; gen- 
 eral Bonaparte ordered the charge to be renewed the 
 French advanced with great firmness and impetuosity, the 
 conflict was terrible ; the trenches before the city were filled 
 with heaps of slain ; the resistance was desperate ; the 
 French retired ; and night closed the awful conflict. The 
 next day, the general ordered the assault to be renewed ; the 
 issue became the same. Stung with chagrin at the repulse 
 of his invincible'legions, and fired with indignation at the ob- 
 stinate resistance, he ordered the assault to be renewed : his 
 army, exhausted with the fatigues and distresses of the con- 
 flict, and shocked with the horrid stench of their comrades, 
 who lay in heaps in the trenches, (now become putrid by the 
 heat of the climate,) and over whom they had to march to the 
 assault^ began to hesitate ; and one regiment dared to disobey 
 the order. 
 
 Struck with astonishment at the bold refusal, and fearing a 
 
GEN. BONAPARTE RETURNS. 346 
 
 general revolt, the hero of Italy, and conqueror of Egypt, 
 abandoned his enterprise ; beat a retreat , led back his army 
 into Egypt, and returned to Cairo. Here he gave a grand 
 fete in honor of the conquest of Syria, and inflicted a severe 
 punishment upon the regiment which disobeyed at Acre, by 
 causing them to march in review, with their arms reversed, 
 and slung behind their backs. This severity of punishment, 
 settled again the discipline of his army. 
 
 General Bonaparte settled the government of Egypt, and 
 proceeded to Alexandria, where he ordered a frigate to be in 
 readiness to attend him, wrote, and delivered a sealed letter- 
 to general Kleber, selected his favorite general Berthier, 
 embarked on board the frigate, and set sail for France. 
 
 When the time had expired for general Kleber to open his 
 letter, he found to his astonishment, that the general had 
 abandoned his army, returned to France, and appointed him 
 his successor in the army of E^pt. General Kleber shewed 
 to the general officers his new commission, and assumed the 
 command in general orders. 
 
 Gen. Bonaparte, after several hair-breadth escapes from 
 the English cruizers, arrived in France; landed near the 
 place where he had embarked the preceding year, and re- 
 paired directly to Paris. .Here he was hailed as the deliver- 
 er of France. 
 
 During his absence, new scenes had been opened ; new and 
 distressing events had occurred. The arms of France had 
 been weakened, her resources had declined, the confidence 
 and energies of the nation had sunk, the government was en- 
 feebled, and the constitution almost a cypher. France, in 
 his absence, fitted out the Brest fleet, with troops, to assist 
 the insurgents in Ireland ; they were taken and destroyed by 
 the English on their passage, and the expedition failed. 
 
 A new coalition was formed December 18, 1798, between 
 England, Russia and Austria, to co-operate in the war against 
 France. Old field mareschal Suwarrow was appointed to 
 the command of the Russinn and Austrian army, destined to 
 the conquest of Italy. This army was to be paid by England 
 and Austria. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 General Suwarrow enters Italy battle of Switzerland mr- 
 
346 
 
 JDEFEAT OF GEN. SUWARROW. 
 
 sion of Holland General Bonaparte first consul battle of 
 Marengo infernal machine northern armed neutrality 
 peace of Luneville war between Spain and Portugal bat- 
 tle of Copenhagen. 
 
 GENERAL Suwarrovv entered Italy by the way of the Ty- 
 rol. The city of Mantua fell an easy conquest ; together 
 with the other cities of Italy, taken hy general Bonaparte, 
 and the French generals McDonald, Angereau and others, re- 
 tired before the conqueror. At this time the war raged gen- 
 erally ; general Jourc^an crossed the Rhine and took Manheirn, 
 March 2, 1799. General Bonaparte was then in Syria. Gen- 
 eral Massena was stationed in Switzerland, where he was 
 watched by prince Charles upon the Rhine, and another Aus- 
 trian army which lay towards Vienna. Suwarrow in his 
 march, took possession of all the cities and strong holds in 
 Italy, in the name of the ei^peror of Russia : this excited 
 jealousy and distrust in the coalition. England checked her 
 supplies, Austria grew cold ; prince Charles neglectedthe ne- 
 cjessary arrangements, to form a necessary co-operation. 
 
 As Suwarrow approached Switzerland, to attack Massena, 
 the French general anticipated his movements, commenced 
 a desperate attack upon the Austrian army which watched 
 him on the side of Vienna, routed and destroyed it, before 
 Suwarrow could pass the mountains and afford assistance. 
 He then by a sudden movement fell upon Suwarrow with his 
 victorious troops ; the conflict was short, but terrible ; Su- 
 warrow was beaten, obliged to take advantage of the moun- 
 tains, file off into Germany, and secure his retreat. Here he 
 proposed to form a junction with prince Charles, who refus- 
 ed. 
 
 This old hero of the north, this champion over the Turks, 
 this conqueror of Warsaw and of Italy, was recalled by his 
 master, banished the court, and died in disgrace. Massena 
 held his strong position in Switzerland. The Austrian army 
 in Italy advanced and laid siege to Genoa ; the English in 
 co-operation with Russia made a descent upon Holland, and 
 took and carried off the Dutch fleet, September 1 ; at the 
 same time they landed a strong force under the command 
 of the duke of York, and attempted the conquest of Hol- 
 land. This opened a new scene the Dutch and French 
 united their forces, and, by a succession of victories, the 
 duka of York, with his English and Russian army, were com- 
 pelled to sign a convention, and resign up the Dutch fleet 
 
BATTLE OF MARENGO. 347 
 
 'which they had carried off a few months before) as a pledge 
 for the safe embarkation of their army. This convention was 
 the second volume of the old convention of Closter-seven in 
 Hanover, in the old seven years war. 
 
 In the midst of v these events, general Bonaparte arrived at 
 Paris ; by the efforts of his friends put himself at the head of 
 a small military force, appeared at the hall of the national 
 council, entered with his sword drawn, and at the point of the 
 bayonet dissolved their sitting and power, locked up the hall, 
 took the key, and retired Sieyes and others of the directo- 
 ry were in the secret they immediately framed a new con- 
 stitution, after the form of the old Roman consular govern- 
 ment, with three consuls, a senate, &c. and general Bona- 
 parte was elected first consul for ten years, December 13, 
 1799. During the operations in Holland, the English seized 
 on the city of Rome, and the Roman States in Italy. The 
 consul addressed a letter to the king of England on the sub- 
 ject of peace, and at the same time assembled an army of re- 
 serve at Dijon ; organized the government, put himself at the 
 head of the army of Dijon, crossed the Alps, and appeared 
 on the plains of Italy, before the Austrian general (who was 
 pressing the siege of Genoa) had knowledge of his move- 
 ments. Placed between two fires, he raised the siege and 
 retired to meet the consul, who awaited him on the plains of 
 Marengo : here the conflict which was to decide the fate of 
 Italy commenced in the morning ; the Austrians advanced 
 on to the plain, the consul retired and took his position in a 
 strong defile, in a pass of the mountains : the conflict was 
 desperate, the consul resisted the impetuosity of the Austrian 
 attacks, until a column of fresh troops, (^posted by design fif- 
 teen miles distant) were conveyed in waggons to the scene of 
 action ; this column, with their brave general Dessaix at their 
 head, entered the pass, and rushed like a torrent upon the 
 plain, overwhelming all opposition ; the conflict was short, 
 the carnage terrible, and the gallant Dessaix crowned with 
 his death the victory of Marengo. This action was of itself 
 a campaign ; the army of Austria was destroyed, her power 
 in Italy subdued, and all Italy recovered to France. The 
 consul, by a rapid movement, entpred Milan without opposi- 
 tion and enjoyed the triumph. Jnne 4th. He dispersed the 
 remnant of the Austrians at Montebello, and se'ttled an armis- 
 tice for Italy, June 10th, and established the Cisalpine 
 Republic. The movements on the Rhine, had been stayed 
 during these important movements of the con.-ul. 
 
348 CONVENTION OF LUNEVILLE. 
 
 On the 18th of July, Gen. Moreau gained an important vic- 
 tory over the Austrians at Blenheim, and again at Newhurg on 
 the 28th ; these successes were followed by preliminaries of 
 peace, which were signed at Paris, July 28, 1800. 
 
 Paul, emperor of Russia, made the first motion for a con- 
 vention, for an armed neutrality which was acceded to by 
 all the northern powers, Dec. 24. 
 
 At this time an attempt was made upon the life of the 1st 
 Consul by the infernal machine (so called) as he rode to the 
 theatre ; this machine was about the size of a barrel, filled 
 with gunpowder, spikes, bullets, &c. with a machinery to 
 strike fire for an explosion, like the torpedo, which could be 
 regulated for anygparticular time. This machine was placed 
 in the way of the Consul where his carriage would pass that 
 evening to the opera, and the explosion took effect, directly 
 after the Consul had passed ; the shock and alarm were great, 
 some of the materials were thrown over the tops of houses, 
 but no essential damage was done. The Consul passed on to 
 the opera, without regarding the event, staid the usual time, 
 and retired. 
 
 Notwithstanding the preliminaries of peace were signed be- 
 tween France and Austria, the French pushed their advances 
 in Italy and Germany ; they seized on Tuscany, and met 
 with a check in Italy which occasioned the armistice of Tre- 
 viso. They penetrated on the Danube near to Vienna, 
 which caused the convention of Luneville between Austria 
 and France, Jan. 28, 1801. The definitive treaty was sign- 
 ed Feb. 23. 
 
 On the 1st of January, 1801, the English assembled a fleet 
 at St. Marmorice, fo'rthe purpose of conquering Egypt the 
 command of this armament was given to Lord Keith, and he 
 set sail on the 27th of February ; all Egypt was subdued in 
 one campaign ; the French army taken by capitulation, and 
 sent back to Prance, and Egypt was restored to the Turks, 
 May, 1803. At this time Spain proclaimed war against Por- 
 tugal, which was settled in one month b}^ the treaty of Bada- 
 jos. A new convention was now effected between England 
 and Russia, and the preliminaries of a general peace were 
 signed at London, Oct. 1 , 1801. The storm of war was now 
 hushed throughout the world, for the first time since the year 
 1793. 
 
 The northern confederacy in 1800, which supported their 
 armed neutrality, gave a general alarm in England ; they 
 remembered the depredations which formerly ravaged their 
 
BATTLE OF COPENHAGEN. 
 
 island, from the mouth of the Baltic, and they were jealous 
 of this confederacy, and resolved to suppress it. The Eng- 
 lish laid an embargo upon all the ships and vessels of Russia. 
 Denmark and Sweden ; and dispatched a fleet, under the com- 
 mand of lord Nelson, to attack the Danish fleet in the har- 
 bor of Copenhagen, Aug. 1801. The Danes collected their 
 whole fleet, to the number of twenty-eight sail of the line^ 
 under cover of their forts and batteries ; they also construc- 
 ted a number of floating batteries for the occasion, and put 
 their harbor in the best possible state of defence. Lord 
 Nelson entered the Baltic sound, and with great labor, warp- 
 ed his fleet through the passage, where a fleet had never 
 passed before, and by this means, entered the harbour of 
 Copenhagen with a fair wind. The Danes were prepared, 
 and the action commenced : here the thunders of Aboukir 
 were renewed ; the attack was fierce and terrible the re- 
 resistance firm, desperate and bloody. The carnage on 
 board the batteries was so great, that they were repeatedly 
 manned from the shores, with fresh troops. The cannonade 
 from the fleets, the batteries, the forts and the shores, was 
 awfully sublime ; their thunders shook the land, the ocean 
 and the heavens : the fleets swam in blood : the Danes were 
 subdued ; and awful was the scene of silence, solemnity and 
 gloom that ensued. His lordship landed in person, attended 
 the king, settled a peace, and conducted the shattered remains 
 of the Danish fleet in triumph to England. This peace se- 
 vered the northern confederacy, and brought Russia into an 
 alliance against France. 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 Revolution in St. Domingo character of the Black Chiefs 
 conquest of Hanover first Consul chosen for life made em- 
 peror of France Austrian war -fall of Vienna battle of 
 Austerlitz peace with Austria war between England and 
 Spain. 
 
 A general joy was diffused throughout Europe and America. 
 This however was of short continuance the rage of liberty 
 and equality in France, early in the revolution, had abolished 
 slavery in all the French West-India Islands ; a violent revolu- 
 tion of liberty and equality commenced immediately at St. Do- 
 
 30 
 
350 
 
 WAR OF ST. DOMINGO. 
 
 mingo, which raged with all the horrors of rapine, murders, 
 massarces and confiscation ; the beautiful town of Cape Fran- 
 cois was in ruins, and the blacks in arms ; the whites and peo- 
 ple of colour were the victims of their rage. The consul em- 
 braced this calm to check this violence in the colonies he 
 had lost the confidence of the army of Egypt, by deserting 
 them, and he could place no confidence in an army who in 
 his absence had murdered their general, (Kleber ;) he appoint- 
 ed Gen. Le Clerc to the command, and sent out this army of 
 Egypt to subdue the rebel blacks in St. Domingo. The blacks 
 made a desperate resistance the horrors of St. Domingo ex- 
 ceeded the horrors of Egypt and Syria, and the swords of the 
 blacks, together with the fatal West-India climate, ruined and 
 destroyed the whole of this army ; the blacks maintained 
 their liberty, and established the kingdom of Hayti, 1 802. In 
 the Island of St. Domingo, African slavery first commenced, 
 and here they first obtained their liberty, and established an 
 independent government. 
 
 During this revolution in St. Domingo, appeared Tousant, 
 Christophe, and other Chiefs, who possessed strong minds, 
 great dignity, firmness, and strength of character, with a gen- 
 eral knowledge of men and things, joined to a correct knowl- 
 edge of the military art. They made a figure at the head of 
 their armies, which commanded obedience and respect ; their 
 troops were regularly formed and disciplined, their cause was 
 the cause of liberty, and they defended it with desperate val- 
 our, and rose superior to French tactics, discipline and in- 
 trigue. When they had organized and established their 
 government, there appeared at the head of it, and of the sev- 
 eral departments, a description of characters, fully competent 
 to the duties of their stations, and the government was, and 
 continues to be administered, with energy, wisdom, firmness 
 and dignity ; commerce and the plantations flourish, and the 
 government, and the laws are respected in the kingdom of 
 Hayti. 
 
 The peace of Europe remained undisturbed until June 7, 
 1803. At this time, England, alarmed at the growing power 
 of the French, declared war. The consul had been consti- 
 tuted consul for ten years more, after the first term often 
 years should expire, and afterwards had been elected consul 
 for life, by a subscriptive vote of more than three million of 
 citizens ; and his military preparations had excited a general 
 alarm in Europe, particularly in England, on account of the 
 
CAPTURE OF HANOYER. 351 
 
 hostile movements upon the French coast. The English had 
 evacuated Egypt, the 16th of May, and called home their 
 fleet and troops, for the defence of their island. The con. 
 sul announced to the nation, that England had declared war ; 
 and made great preparations upon the coast, for the invasion 
 of England ; sent a strong military force into the west of Ger- 
 many, and seized on Hanover, the hereditary dominions of 
 George III. king of England, June, 1803. The spirit of the 
 French nation was high, at this time : the invasion of England 
 with delenda est (Carthago., Carthage must be destroyed,) be- 
 came the order of the day ; boats, gallies and small craft, 
 were built and collected from all the ports of France and 
 Holland, and assembled at Boulogne ; soldiers were trained 
 daily, in the order of embarking and disembarking ; a gener- 
 al alarm prevailed in England, and the consul reigned in the 
 hearts of the French people. The licentiousness of liberty 
 had been checked in some degree by a decree of the direct- 
 ory, prohibiting the circulation of foreign newspapers ia 
 France, in 1 797. This check had been improved by the first 
 consul, in suppressing the licentiousness ofthe prees, and con- 
 fining the publications to licensed papers only. This led to 
 an anecdote, which may serve to mark the difference of char- 
 acters, and difference ofthe times, in France. When the 
 marquis La Fayette (who had been released by Gen. Bona- 
 parte, at the peace of Campo Formio, from the dungeon of 
 Olmutz,) was called upon to give his subscriptive vote to the 
 first consul, as consul for life, he addressed this note to the 
 consul : " The marquis La Fayette presents his compliments 
 to Gen. Bonparte, and will most cheerfully give him his vote 
 as first consul for life, provided he will restore freedom of 
 speech, andfreedom of the press to the French people." The 
 consul returned this reply : "Gen. Bonaparte returns his 
 compliments to the marquis La Fayette, and assures him, 
 that should he comply with his wishes, neither the marquis 
 La Fayette, nor general Bonaparte, would be in France in 
 six months." This difference of character caused the differ- 
 ence in in the affairs of France, and gave her atthis time, the 
 power of distressing her ancient rival. 
 
 The consul signified to the marquis La Fayette, that ho 
 might retire upon one of his estates, remote from Paris : the 
 marquis withdrew. Jealousy, distrust and apprehension pre- 
 vailed throughout England ; parties ran high in the cabinet ; 
 the government and the nation were alive to their common 
 
352 EMPEROR NAPOLEOtf. 
 
 safety ; and the military kept the peace. Austria alarmed 
 for the safety of Europe, joined a new confederacy against 
 France, to give a check to the movements against England. 
 She assembled a powerful force in Suabia, upon the Danube, 
 under general Mac, who took up his head-quarters at the 
 strong and commanding position of Ulm. 
 
 The English were successful in the East and West Indies, 
 and took the island of Demerara. The consul caused gene- 
 rals Pichegru and Moreau to be arrested in Paris : Pichegru 
 died in his prison, and Moreau was banished, and fled to A- 
 merica, where he remained until 1813. 
 
 This year the emperor of Russia, Alexander, (who had suc- 
 ceeded to the throne upon the death of his father Paul) made 
 great movements to co-operate with England and Austria 
 against France. Anew revolution took place in the French 
 government, and an imperial government was established 
 May 5 ; the consul was vested with the imperial dignity, and 
 erownedby the pope at P ris, at the almost unanimous voice 
 of the nation August 11, 1804. The emperor continued 
 his operations upon the coast, and the invasion of England 
 became every day more popular^in France, and more alarming 
 in England, which increased the preparations for defence and 
 security. During these operations, the emperor put himself 
 at the head of the army of England (so called,) and by a sud- 
 den movement passed the bridge of Strasburg, and appeared 
 in Suabia, before Ulm, October, 1 805. The same rapid move- 
 ments which brought him before this city, obliged general 
 Mac to abandon it, almost without resistance, and led the 
 French soldiers to say " Our emperor makes us use our 
 legs, if we donotuse our muskets." Gen. Mac retired down 
 the Danube ; the emperor pursued by forced marches, pen- 
 etrated to Vienna, took it November 14, left a garrison, and 
 filed off with his army into Moravia to meet the emperor 
 Alexander, with his Russian army. The two young empe- 
 rors lay in sight of each other several days, when the empe- 
 ror Napoleon made a sudden retrograde movement : this 
 deceived the emperor Alexander, who suspected his enemy 
 was about to make his escape. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon retired several miles, and made a 
 halt upon an eminence at Austerlitz, to observe the motions of 
 his enemy. The emperor Alexander put his army in motion to 
 pursue ; and in order to intercept his retreat, he detached a di- 
 vision of his array, with orders to gain the rear of the emperor 
 
BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ. 353 
 
 Napoleon : such a movement on the part of the king of Prus- 
 sia, towards old mareschal Daun in Silesia, proved fatal to the 
 enterprize. Napoleon saw the result he had caught Alex- 
 ander in the trap he had set for him, and exclaimed, " They 
 will all be given into my hands before night." He ordered 
 a charge to be made upon the detached division : the onset 
 was violent ; they were overthrown with great slaughter ; put 
 to the sword, or driven at the point of the bayonet into a 
 neighbouring lake, where they almost all perished. A general 
 charge was then made on the main body of the Russian ar- 
 my ; the conflict was short, the carnage was great, and the 
 victory decisive, Dec. 2, 1805. The emperors drew off their 
 armies, settled a peace, and the Emperor Alexander returned 
 with his shattered army into Russia. The emperor Napole- 
 on returned to Vienna, settled a peace with the emperor, 
 which stripped him of the title of Emperor of Germany, 
 and of his dominions in the Tyrol, (these were added to 
 Italy) and left him only the title of Emperor of Austria. 
 This blow severed the union of the Germanic body, and left 
 them without a head. The emperor Napoleon then led back 
 his victorious army in triumph into France, again posted 
 them on the seaboard, and retired to his palace. 
 
 The invasion of England was again renewed ; the success- 
 es of the last year, had kindled anew the zeal and ardor of 
 the nation, and the disasters of the allies, had as greatly de- 
 pressed the English nation ; all was anxiety and alarm. 
 
 Thus Napoleon, under the imperial crown, in one cam- 
 paign, triumphed over the grand coalition, in the capital of 
 Austria ; triumphed over the emperor of Russia in the fa- 
 mous battle and peace of Austerlitz ; triumphed over the 
 Germanic body, by deposing their head ; and over the house 
 of Austria, by annexing the country of the Tyrol, to the 
 conquests of France in Italy ; and made his enemies sup- 
 port the Avar. The eay access of Ulm, was the first fruit? 
 of the confederation of the Rhine, which commenced as ear- 
 ly as August 1796. The object of this confederation was to 
 withdraw the small states near the Rhine from the contest be- 
 tween the great rival powers, and prevent their becoming 
 the perpetual theatre of war. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon, by his powerful forces upon the 
 coast, overawed the republic of Holland ; changed their con- 
 stitution, placed at their head a tool of his own, linger the ti- 
 tle of grand pensionary ; and thus assumed the dominion of 
 30* 
 
354 
 
 BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR. 
 
 Holland, 1805. England at this time issued letters of marque 
 and reprisal against Spain, to prosecute the war which had 
 been declared the 14th of December, 1804. 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 Kmperor Napoleon on the throne of Charlemagne battle of 
 Trafalgar confederation of the Rhine Prussian war 
 battle of Jena ; of Eylau ; of Friedland peace of Tilsit 
 Berlin decree treaty of Fontainbleau Bayonne Decree 
 fall of Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. capture of Madrid. 
 
 On the 1st of May, 1805, the emperor Napoleon was 
 .' rowned king of Italy. Again the Franks were gratified to 
 *ee a successor of Charlemagne upon the throne of France, 
 and the iron crown of the Romans placed upon the head of 
 an emperor of the west. The spirit of the nation was high, 
 but the conscripts began to be sent to the armies, chained in 
 pairs, and the conscription galled ; internal gloom and mur- 
 mur began to dampen the spirit of patriotism, and the voice 
 of applause. The senate of Genoa decreed the union of 
 the Ligurian Republic with France. The English made a 
 daring attempt to burn the flotilla in the harbor of Boulogne 
 with carcases ; but failed, August 31, and the general prepa- 
 rations for invasion went forward. 
 
 During these great preparations for the invasion of Eng- 
 land, the combined fleets of France and Spain, lay secure 
 in the harbor of Cadiz ; but the blockad,e of the English 
 under Lord Nelson was so close, as to cut off all supplies by 
 water ; the supplies from the country failed, and they were 
 obliged to change their position. To effect this, they put to 
 jsea in order to gain the port of Toulon. Lord Nelson pur- 
 sued, and the fleets were soon in sight of each other off the 
 cape of Trafalgar. The combined fleet, to the number of 
 twenty or thirty sail, moved in form of a crescent, under an 
 easy sail, before the wind. When Lord Nelson came up, he 
 ordered his fleet to bear down upon the enemy in two divis- 
 ions, break through the line, and commence the attack. The 
 signal was obeyed, and the action commenced. 
 
 The thunders ofthe Nile, and of Copenhagen were renew- 
 ed ; the conflict became general ; the battle was desperate, 
 and the carnage terrible. The English were victorious : the 
 
HEW COALITION. 356 
 
 allies lost the greater part of their fleet, taken, sunk, or de- 
 stroyed, and the remnant made their escape to Toulon. 
 
 Thus failed the threat of the emperor Napoleon. " I will 
 eat my Christmas dinner in London." Nelson the great ; 
 the hero of Aboukir ; of Copenhagen ; of Trafalgar, &c. ; 
 the champion of the ocean ; the pride, the boast, and the or- 
 nament of his country, and his country's arms, crowned with 
 his death the victory of Trafalgar. Oct. 21, 1805. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon had ventured to say, that he 
 should keep his Christmas in London ; this was fixing a day ; 
 this rendered certain, what had before been only conjecture, 
 that he was in earnest, and that he intended to lead the en- 
 terprise in person : the whole political horizon was at this 
 time dark and gloomy. In America, there was a total eclipse 
 of the sun at mid-day (a sublime display of the majesty of 
 the heavenly bodies,) June 16, 1806. 
 
 A resolution originated in the House of Lords, and passed 
 the national council, for the abolition of slavery. A treaty 
 was signed at Paris between France and the States of Bava- 
 ria, Wirtemburg, Baden, and several smaller German states, 
 such as Lower Saxony and Hesse Cassel, by which these 
 states renounced their connection with the German empire, 
 and under the name of the confederation of the Rhine, 
 placed themselves under the protection of France. This 
 closed the compact of the confederation of the Rhine, which 
 had been so long in agitation. This confederation opened 
 to France a free access into the heart of Germany, and 
 brought the two great powers of Austria and Prussia, upon 
 their frontier ; destroyed at one blow all that chain of barrier 
 towns which had called forth the genius of a Vauban in the 
 reign of Lewis XIV. and been the object of all succeeding 
 treaties, for the safety both of France and Germany. 
 
 This treaty opened to France an easy passage to the cap- 
 itals of all the States of Germany : and the rival spirit be- 
 tween Prussia and Austria, which Lewis XIV. had sown, and 
 Lewis XV. had cherished, now gave the emperor Napoleon 
 an opportunity to improve it. England and Russia, alarmed 
 at the gigantic strides of France, formed a new coalition with 
 Prussia, to protect the king against the encroachments of the 
 emperor of France, and to strengthen the defence of Eng- 
 land. The emperor Napoleon was now prepared for the 
 campuign, to defeat this coalition. He had reapt the firs* 
 
356 BATTLES OF JENA AND EYLAU. 
 
 fruits of the conquest over the divided rival states of Austria 
 and Prussia, by humbling the house of Austria, whilst the 
 king of Prussia remained an inacative spectator ; he was non- 
 prepared to strip the ancient laurels from the brows of the 
 other rival, and shew to the king of Prussia the truth of this 
 sacred maxim, " that a house divided against itself must fall.'' 
 
 The emperor Napoleon knew, and the king of Prussia, 
 ought to have known that a union of Prussia with Austria, 
 would have prevented the defeat of general Mac at Ulm : if 
 not, it would have prevented the fall of Vienna, and given the 
 emperor of Russia time to unite his forces ; this would have 
 produced the same effects, as resulted from the same union 
 ot Leipsic, 1813. This was now too late, the die was cast, 
 Austria was humbled, and Prussia stood alone. France held 
 Hanover by conquest in 1803. The emperor Napoleon had 
 concluded a treaty at Paris with the Russian minister. This 
 treaty the emperor Alexander refused to ratify : he prepared 
 to co-operate against France, and published his manifesto. 
 
 The French pressed upon the borders of Prussia, and oc- 
 casioned a collision and rencounter. Prince Lewis of Prus- 
 sia was killed, and war commenced ; both parties were pre- 
 pared for action, both sovereigns took the field : and the 
 emperor of Russia put his army in motion to co-operate. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon advanced into Germany at the 
 head of the victorious army of the Danube ; the two armies 
 met at Jena, (a strong town in Lower Saxony,) the conflict 
 was terrible, the victory decisive ; the Prussians fled the 
 French pursued into the heart of Prussia, the king reinforced 
 as he retired until winter checked the operations of the 
 campaign, and the emperor took up his winter quarters in 
 Prussia, and watched the king. The Prussians hoped to take 
 advantage of their climate, and engage the French, by sur- 
 prise, in their quarters. Accordingly, the king at dead of 
 night, in the severity of winter, attacked the emperor Napo- 
 ieon by surprise, in his camp at Eylau. A terrible conflict 
 and carnage ensued, the veterans of the Danube, of Auster- 
 litz, and of Jena, were firm and unshaken, the attack was 
 well concerted, well executed, and as well resisted; both 
 parties claimed the victory, and took up their quarters. 
 
 With the opening of the spring, the emperor Napoleon 
 commenced his operations. Dantzic and Conigsburgh were 
 the trophies of his victories. The Prussians retired behind 
 the Pregel, where they met the Russians ; Napoleon advanc- 
 
BERLIN DECREE. 357 
 
 ed ; the two armies met at Friedland. Here the fate of Prus- 
 sia was sealed, by an action as great, as important, and as 
 decisive as either of the two armies had experienced ; the 
 victory was complete. The allies sued for peace, and the 
 emperor Napoleon dictated the peace of Tilsit, which guar- 
 anteed the friendship of Alexander, and secured his safe re- 
 turn into Russia. It opened all Prussia to the arms of Na- 
 poleon, stripped the king of all but the name of king, with a 
 scanty pittance to support it, and guaranteed the peace of 
 Germany, June 26, 1807. This treaty secured to the empe- 
 ror Napoleon, the whole sik-coast from Riga, on the confines 
 of Russia, to Bayonne, on the confines of Spain. 
 
 Napoleon repaired to Berlin, and passed his Berlin^ecree, 
 interdicting all commerce with England ; and had high ex- 
 pectations, that this decree would banish all English com- 
 merce from the continent. This was one of those decrees 
 which called forth the noted orders in council in England, 
 which together, distressed neutral commerce, excited gene- 
 ral complaint in America, and caused the war with England 
 in \ 812. A general blockade by the British ships of war and 
 armed vessels took place on the coast of Europe, and in the 
 Baltic ; also a proclamation calling in all their seamen abroad, 
 in whatever service. This brought on. collisions between 
 British armed vessels and neutrals, and involved the question 
 of the right of search. The president of the United States 
 issued his proclamation, forbidding all intercourse with Brit- 
 ish ships of war ; this expelled the English naval force from 
 the American ports. These orders of council, led the em- 
 peror of Russia to decree war against England, July 27, 
 1807. The expedition into Prussia, being thus closed, the 
 liberties of Germany sealed by the treaty of Tilsit, and Rus- 
 sia engaged in a war with England ; all further coalition in 
 a war with France was closed. Napoleon was now at liber- 
 ty to turn his attention to the peninsula. He led back his 
 troops in triumph again into France, stationed them upon the 
 sea-board, and repaired again to his palace. 
 
 Parties ran high this year in America ; the English, as well 
 as the French, had envied her prosperous commerce : and 
 having realized that America was enriched by the quarrels 
 of Europe, they had both struck her a severe blow, by their 
 decrees, and orders in council. This blow brought America 
 into the continental system, in December, 1807. A national 
 embargo commenced, which lasted seven years, and finally 
 
358 INTRIGUES WITH SPAIN. 
 
 resulted in a war with England, which terminated at the 
 peace of 1815. 
 
 A new field of operations opened fo employ the energies 
 of Napoleon, he now aspired to the universal sovereignty of 
 Europe, if not of the world, and found it necessary to hold 
 the dominion of Spain, in order to accomplish his plans. 
 
 He remembered, that Portugal originally was a part of 
 Spain, and that on the sequestration of Alphonso Henriquez, 
 1 139, it had been united into a kingdom ; that Spain had again 
 recovered it in 1580 ; and again it was sequestered by the 
 duke of Braganza, 1640 ; he knew that it would be an object 
 with Spain again to recover Portugal, and accordingly nego- 
 ciated% treaty at Fontainbleau, to co-operate with Spain in 
 the conquest, and partition of Portugal : with some assurances 
 to aid in the recovery of Gibraltar. Charles IV. was upon 
 the throne of Spain, a very old man, and his son, Ferdinand 
 VII. ready in waiting to succeed him. Napoleon moved a 
 large army to Bayonne, (near the confines of Spain) passed 
 his Bayonne decree, to strengthen his Berlin decree against 
 English commerce. He next prepared to execute his plan ; 
 commenced an intrigue with Charles IV. and induced him to 
 resign his crown to his son Ferdinand ; he next intrigued with 
 Ferdinand, and drew him into his camp at Bayonne, where 
 he detained him a prisoner ; he then sent general Murat, 
 grand duke of Berg, at the head of a strong military force 
 into Spain, to take possession of Madrid. 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Spanish Junta declare rvar ; Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain 
 -fall of Dupont conquest of Rome kingdom of Holland 
 conference of Erfurth battle of Corunna Austrian war 
 battle of Ratisbonfall of Vienna battle of Lobeau of 
 Wagram peace with Austria invasion of Holland, by the 
 
 
 CHARLES IV. revoked his resignation, appointed general 
 Murat, lieutenant general of Spain, and repaired to Bayonne, 
 where he and his son, both made a formal surrendry of the 
 crown of Spain, to Napoleon ; who conferred it upon his 
 brother Joseph Bonaparte, and detained Charles IV. and' 
 
INVASION OF PORTUGAL. 359 
 
 Ferdinand VII. as prisoners in France. Stung with chagrin 
 und indignation, at this outrage upon the sovereignty of Spain, 
 the Spaniards butchered about 5,000 of the French, under 
 Murat at Madrid, and the French about as many Spaniards in 
 their turn. The Junta of Spain caught the alarm, assembled 
 an army, declared war against France, retired into the south 
 as far as Seville, and were supported by the English at Cadiz. 
 The emperor Napoleon having thus secured the crown of 
 Spain, prepared to support the title of his brother. He 
 framed a new constitution for Spain, at Bayonne, passed the 
 Pyrenees, and entered Spain, at the head of the victorious 
 army of Germany ; marched to Madrid, placed his brother 
 Joseph on the throne, caused him to be crowned, apd sent 
 one army to co-operate with the Spanish army in the con- 
 quest of Portugal, and another to the south, to invest the Jun- 
 ta in Seville. Both plans succeeded ; the French and Span- 
 iards entered Portugal, and penetrated to Lisbon. The roy- 
 al family retired to Brazil, in South America. General Soult 
 pushed the conquest of the south of Spain, and invested Ca- 
 diz. The English sent a fleet to protect Cadiz. The Eng- 
 lish sent a strong force to Lisbon, drove out the French, and 
 prepared to co-operate with the Portuguese, in recovering 
 their country : they trained the Portuguese soldiers to arms 
 and discipline, and taught them how to beat the French. 
 
 At this time, general Dupont, with an army of 1 4,000 men, 
 surrendered to the Spanish patriots, July 31, 1808. This 
 blow shook the throne of king Joseph ; he considered all as 
 lost ; and suffered the churches in Madrid to be rifled, to- 
 gether with other excesses and irregularities collected his 
 troops, and evacuated Madrid, August 21, 1808. The 
 French, at the same time, entered Rome, in Italy, decreed 
 the papal throne .vacant, and deprived the Pope of his eccle- 
 siastical states, to compel him to enforce the continental sys- 
 tem. The emperor Napoleon subverted the republic of Hol- 
 land, erected it into a kingdom, and placed his brother Louis 
 upon the throne. 
 
 At this time, sir Arthur Wellesley began to act in Portu- 
 gal, and gained the action at Vimeria, which proved fatal to 
 the French arms in Portugal, and compelled them to sue for 
 an armistice, which was granted ; they evacuated Portugal 
 by a convention, October 1, 1808. In this state of things, the 
 emperor Napoleon proposed an interview with the emperor 
 Alexander, at Erfurth, (a strong town in Thuringia, in Lower 
 
360 AUSTRIAN WAR. 
 
 Saxony, in Germany,) then under the dominion ofthe French. 
 This interview took place October 12, lasted several days, 
 attended with much etiquette ; and closed, with mutual as- 
 surances offriendship and good humor. 
 
 The result of this conference was, a mutual overture to 
 England, for peace : this was rejected ; and the English sent 
 a strong armament to the north of Spain, under generals 
 Moore and Baird, and assembled their force at Salamanca. 
 Alarmed at this movement, the emperor repaired to Madrid 
 with a strong force, restored king Joseph to the throne, and 
 took the field in person. At the approach of the emperor, 
 the British arrny retired towards the coast ; the French pres- 
 sed close upon their rear ; some sharp encounters ensued, 
 but nothing decisive, until they reached Corunna, the port 
 of embarkation. Here, sir John Moore was compelled to 
 sustain a general action, to cover the embarkation : the 
 French were victorious ; the English suffered very severely, 
 and sir J. Moore fell in the action. Thus Spain, on the north, 
 was cleared at a blow. Napoleon returned to Paris, and left 
 Jung Joseph in quiet possession of his crown. 
 
 Great Britain, alarmed at the conference at Erfurth, enter- 
 ed into a negociation, and settled a peace with the Turks, in 
 order to find employment for the Emperor Alexander. 
 
 Napoleon addressed a letter to the Emperor Alexander, in 
 which he styled him Emperor ofthe East, and received, in 
 reply, the title of Emperor of the West and hostilities com- 
 menced immediately, between Russia and the Turks. 
 
 At this time, Mr. Madison succeeded Mr. Jefferson, in the 
 presidency in America ; Mr. Erskine concluded with the 
 American government a treaty of accommodation to regulate 
 the commercial differences between England and America, 
 and commerce was restored by the president's proclamation. 
 This negotiation was disavowed by the British government, 
 and things remained as they were. 
 
 The rupture contemplated between France and Austria 
 now became inevitable Austria had renewed her strength 
 during the conflicts in Spain ; assembled another army at Ulm, 
 and prince Charles was now invested with the supreme com- 
 mand ; he published his manifesto and took the field, March 14. 
 
 Fired with indignation at this new coalition, the Emperor 
 Napoleon, (now on the coast superintending the preparations 
 for invasion,) repaired to Paris, made a demand on the bank 
 for an immense sum, guaranteed the safety of the bank against 
 
BATTLE OF LOBEAL. LU 1 
 
 all runs that should affect its credit, and protected it by a 
 military force ; returned to his army, put himself at their 
 head, crossed the bridge at Strasburg, and appeared inSuabia. 
 J he victories of Puffenhoffen, Tarn, Aberisburg, Landshut, 
 and Eckmul, on the 20th, 21st, 22d and 23d of April, announ- 
 ced the approach of the conqueror. He advanced without 
 farther opposition, and met prince Charles at Ratisbon ; here 
 a terrible coiTflict ensued ; the prince was routed, and retired 
 in disorder upon the left bank of the Danube : the emperor 
 Napoleon passed through Ratisbon on the 29th, took the right 
 bank, and by forced marches appeared before Vienna, be- 
 fore prince Charles arrived ; took the city, and rested his ar- 
 my on the 21st and 22d of May. The prince passed on the 
 opposite bank a few miles below the city, and fortified a strong 
 ramp, upon the heights of Aspern and Esling, opposite to the 
 island of Lobeau : the centre of his camp was supported by 
 an immense park of artillery, in the form of a crescent ; here 
 he awaited the French. 
 
 When the emperor Napoleon had rested, and refreshed his 
 army at Vienna, he moved down to Lobeau, caused abridge 
 of boats to be thrown across on to the island, and from thence 
 to the opposite bank ; and put his army in motion to cross : 
 when about one half of the army had gained the opposite 
 bank, the prince caused a large quantity of logs (which he 
 had prepared for the purpose,) to be let loose ; these de- 
 stroyed the emperor's bridge, upon the opposite bank, and 
 at the same time, Charles commenced an attack. 
 
 The emperor saw himself out-generaled : his situation 
 was critical, and his measures were desperate. He ordered 
 the bridge to be repaired, and at the same time commenced an 
 attack upon the Austrian camp but without success : he re- 
 newed the attack but without success : he then ordered 
 mareschal Lannes, at the head of the French cavalry, to charge 
 the centre of the Austrian camp, and carry the whole cres- 
 centof artillery : this desperate assault was executed with all 
 the intrepidity and valor of mareschal Lannes but without 
 success ; he crowned this assault with his death. 
 
 This desperate attack astonished the prince, and gave & 
 check to his efforts ; and Napoleon (having repaired hie 
 bridge) drew off his army, repassed the Danube, and return- 
 ed to Vienna ; here he rested and recruited ins army a whole 
 month. The tribute of respect the emperor p-iid to the 
 memory of mareschal Lannes was, to cause his body tr 
 
 31 
 
362 BATTLE OF WAGHAty. 
 
 conveyed to France in a coach of state, covered with a black 
 pall, attended by a military escort. 
 
 After the action of Lobeau, prince Charles moved down 
 the river, and fortified a strong camp on the plains of Wa- 
 gram, and awaited the emperor. When the emperor Napo- 
 leon had fully reconnoitered the position of the prince, he 
 put his army in motion, crossed the river again at Lobeau, 
 and under cover of a dark, rainy, dismal night,*led his army 
 through by-roads considered as impassable for an army, and 
 in the morning appeared on the plains of Wagram, in the 
 rear of the prince. The prince in his turn was compelled 
 to fight in a position uncontemplated ; his fortified camp was 
 now rendered useless ; the conflict was short, but terrrible 
 and fatal to the prince : his army was cut to pieces, routed 
 and destroyed, and a remnant fled into Hungary. The em- 
 peror advanced as far as Presburg, halted his army a few days, 
 returned to Vienna, settled a peace with the emperor of 
 Austria, dismembered again the southern section of Austria, 
 by a line running from Switzerland to Hungary, and annexed 
 it. to Italy : this included the country of the Grissons No- 
 vember 8, 1809. 
 
 During these operations, the duke of Sudermania was elect- 
 ed king of Sweden, under the title of Charles XIII. May 14 ; 
 and on the" 9th of August the English invaded the coast of 
 Holland with an army of 40,000 men, and took the island of 
 Walcheren ; but were soon obliged to abandon it, to save 
 their army from the pestilence of the climate. 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 The imperial continental system divorce of the empress Jo- 
 sephine, and marriage of Maria Louisa of Austria war in 
 Spain-- -war in Turkey war in Portugal- birth of the im- 
 perial heir of France preparations for the Russian war 
 America. 
 
 THE emperor returned to France ; again formed the line 
 of invasion upon the sea-coast, pushed the war in Spain, and 
 pressed the continental system, in France, Spain, Italy, Hol- 
 land, Austria, Germany, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden and Nor- 
 way ; also in Hamburg, and ttie cities of the Hanseatic league. 
 
IMPERIAL MARRIAGE. 3G3 
 
 This system at this time embraced all Europe, except Tur- 
 key and Russia. The emperor of the French now beheld 
 himself upon the throne of Charlemagne, with an extent of 
 dominion greater, and a population far more numerous, en- 
 riched with all the treasures of commerce, and adorned with 
 all the refinements of the sciences, and th.r elegance and 
 splendor of the arts. A throne unrivalled in the annals of 
 time. The war in Spain was only considered as a field day 
 exercise, to keep the troops in motion, and amuse the French 
 people. 
 
 The ambition of this mighty conqueror was not yet satisfi- 
 ed. In his early career of glory under the consulate, he hd 
 married the favorite of the director Barras, who filled the 
 throne, as empress, with dignity ; bu.t remained without issue. 
 To remedy this evil, and to strengthen his crown, Napoleon 
 divorced his wife Josephine, and offered his hand to the arch- 
 duchess Maria Louisa, of Austria. This overture was accept- 
 ed, and general Berthier, prince ofNeufchatel, was despatch- 
 ed to Vienna to celebrate the nuptials, and escort the em- 
 press into France : where again they were celebrated, with 
 all the pomp and splendor, becoming the emperor of France. 
 The emperor passed but a short time at Paris : he assem- 
 bled a large force at Bayonne ; pushed the war in Spain, 
 strengthened the line of invasion of England ; and passed the 
 season of 1810 in visiting his dominions, particularly the sea- 
 coast, accompanied by the empress. The war raged this 
 year in Spain with various success ; but nothing decisive. 
 The emperor of Russia prosecuted the war against the 
 Turks with vigor, and acquired some very considerable ad- 
 vantages in the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. The 
 emperor Napoleon, viewed with a jealous eye, these move- 
 ments of the emperor Alexander, and determined to check 
 him. He again pressed him to enforce the continental system 
 in Russia ; not succeeding in this, he entered into secret trea- 
 ties with the courts of Austria and Prussia, to furnish such a 
 quota of men, &c. to compel the emperor Alexander to adopt 
 the continental system : all under the mask of coercing 
 England to peace. 
 
 The plans being settled, he began to push the war in 
 Spain and Portugal, with vigor ; sent general Massena into 
 Portugal at the head of 70,000 men, and invested the Eng- 
 lish and Portuguese in Lisbon. The English fleet protected 
 the city, and the French made no assault. 
 
WAR IN PORTUGAL. 
 
 General Massena drew off his army from before Lisbon, 
 and retired up the Tagus with a view to cross that river, and 
 carry on his operations against Lisbon upon the left bank ; 
 ravage the south country of Portugal, and bombard Lisbon 
 from the heighjts opposite the city. Lord Wellington pressed 
 him so close with the British and Portuguese army, as to de- 
 feat this movement ; he gained some important advantages in 
 the mountain?, in the battle of Busaco, over general Massena, 
 November 15,1810. The emperor reinforced this army, 
 and general Massena advanced again ; drove lord Welling- 
 ton into Lisbon, and invested the city. The Spanish patriots 
 were assembled in arms throughout the interior, and harassed 
 the French with frequent and sharp skirmishes, and the spirit 
 of opposition increased daily in Spain. 
 
 The emperor, at this time, saw himself at the head of 800, 
 000 men in arms ; 450,000 of this force were in the interi- 
 or of France, and on the sea-board ; and the pressure on 
 England increased daily. Expectations of ruining the English 
 system of finance, were very high in France ; but Russia 
 still held out. 
 
 At this time the credit of the English funds stood high ; 
 their flag waved in every clime, and every sea. By a fortui- 
 tous concurrence of events, the whole trade of South Ameri- 
 ca had been opened to England : this supplied her West In- 
 dia colonies, as well as augmented her revenue. Loans to 
 immense amount were filled as soon as opened ; they 
 strengthened their position at Lisbon ; augmented their ar* 
 my ; and laid the foundation for the successes of 1812. 
 
 At this time, the empress presented the emperor with an 
 heir to the throne, April 20, 1811; who was named Napole- 
 on Francis Charles Joseph. Parties at this time ran high in 
 America, and the government looked for a war with England. 
 
 The emperor had now completed his plans, and began to 
 put his machines in motion : he organized his system of fi- 
 nance, to meet the importance of the movements : he in- 
 trigued with the Poles, and promised to restore the unity and 
 sovereignty of Poland : drew his best troops from Spain, and 
 replaced them by detachments from the north of Germany, 
 and the banks of the Vistula ; and pressed the king of Den- 
 mark into a compliance with his measures. He dissolved 
 the kingdom of Holland, annexed it to France, incorporatec 
 it with the empire, and brought king Louis to Paris. 
 
 At this time, general Massena again fell back from before 
 Lisbon, for want of supplies for his army. Lord Wellington 
 
WAR IN SPAIN. 365 
 
 again pressed close upon the French, and gained some advan- 
 tages. The war raged sharp in Spain, between lord Wel- 
 lington and general Massena, and became a war of posts. 
 The French invested Cadiz, and attempted to reduce it by 
 storm ; but the English protected the city, and set them at 
 defiance. General Soult assembled and concentrated his 
 forces, and by severe and repeated actions, protected Buda- 
 jos. General Massena in the same manner covered Cindad 
 Roderigo. These movements and operations, called forth 
 the talents and energies of some of the greatest captains ; 
 and the desperate conflicts which frequently took place, to- 
 gether with the harassing parties of the Spanish patriots, 
 rendered Spain one theatre of carnage and distress. These 
 scenes continued to waste and distress that devoted country, 
 under various successes, through the years 1811 and 12, dur- 
 ing the grand operations of the Russian war ; until the over- 
 throw of the emperor Napoleon in the north, gave to his 
 enemies the superiority in the south, and secured to lord Wel- 
 lington a triumph, which broke the power of Napoleon in 
 Spain, and drove the French from the Peninsula. 
 
 During the operations of 181 1 in Spain, the whole Chris- 
 tian world was one theatre of intrigue. The emperor of 
 Russia waged successful war with the Turks ; but at the 
 same time made overtures for peace. England favored these 
 overtures, with a view to unite Russia, Austria, and the Turk, 
 in one grand coalition against France. This failed Napo- 
 leon had guarded against this, by a secret treaty with the 
 emperor of Austria. Great efforts were made to relieve 
 Prussia from her fallen situation ; but to no effect Prussia 
 was down, and entangled in a secret treaty with the emperor 
 of France ; and the grand coalition against Russia, was 
 formed. 
 
 The war In Spain, gave employment for the troops of Eng- 
 land ; her fleets scoured the coast of Europe, upon the Atlantic 
 and the Baltic, and enforced her system of general blockade ; 
 whilst the great internal movements, and military preparations 
 in Austria, Prussia, Poland, Italy and throughout the confede- 
 ration of the Rhine ; together with the preparation in Rus- 
 sia, rendered those countries one great theatre of intrigue 
 and alarm ; whilst Spain and European Turkey, w j ~o the 
 theatres of desolation and raruage. The intriguer which ex- 
 cited and put in motion all their great plans and operations, 
 extended to America ; distracted her councils, inflamed 
 31* 
 
366 REMARKS. 
 
 the passions, roused the public feeling, and in addition to the 
 continental system of Dec. 1807, led her into the war. 
 
 America, under her neutrality, had become the carriers 
 upon the ocean for the continent of Europe, through this long 
 and desperate struggle ; her flag waved in every sea, and eve- 
 ry clime. Her commercial field was truly great, and the 
 harvest was great. The wealth and commerce of America 
 increased beyond all former example. This excited a spirit 
 of envy and jealousy at home and abroad, which endangered 
 her internal peace, and in 1812 entangled her in a war with 
 England. 
 
 The continental system of 1807, gave a check to the tide 
 of prosperous and successful commerce in America ; and the 
 war with England, destroyed it, even to the coasting trade, 
 down to the peace of 1815. 
 
 The ruin and distress which so suddenly succeeded this 
 unrivalled prosperity of America, were the necessary effects 
 of such opposite extremes ; they were such as the feelings 
 of the nation could express but not the pen. 
 
 If the morals of the nation have been improved, and licen- 
 tiousness and dissipation checked ; if union, and general har- 
 mony have in some measure grown oul of this chastisement ; 
 if, as the fruits of a two year's war, America has acquired 
 a naval glory, which shall cause her flag to be more respect- 
 ed hereafter ; she may derive some consolation for all her 
 sufferings, through this long period of distress. 
 
 America not only became entangled in the quarrels of 
 Europe, when she adopted the continental system, by her 
 general embargo but she actually became a party in the 
 grand coalition of 1812, when she declared war against Eng- 
 land ; and, painful as this may have been to the nation, it is 
 greatly to be hoped, that a general good has resulted, and will 
 continue to result, which shall fully counterbalance all her 
 sufferings. 
 
 We have now unfolded the mysteries of intrigue, which 
 
 entangled in one general quarrel the whole Christian world ; 
 
 opened the greatest field of military enterprize, produced the 
 
 greatest distresses, and resulted in the greatest events, of any 
 
 er war that has ever been recorded. 
 
 
RUSSIAN WAR. 367 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 Commencement of the Russian war American war move- 
 ments in the Russian rvar battle of Smolensk of Borodino 
 -fall and destruction of Moscow. 
 
 THE auspicious year 1812 is come; big with the fate of 
 Napoleon and of France. The emperor of the west, like 
 the main spring of a watch, now put in motion all the vast 
 machine of power, which he had constructed to fix the desti- 
 nies of Europe. He again renewed his demands on the em- 
 peror Alexander, to adopt the continental system, and de- 
 manded that Riga should be garrisoned with the troops of 
 France. These were rejected with that dignity and firmness 
 which distinguished the character of Alexander. 
 
 The emperor then called into the field, the armies of Aus~ 
 tria and Prussia, as stipulated by treaty, in the year 1811 ; 
 and assembled an army in Prussia and Poland, from all parts 
 of his vast dominions, of French, Austrians, Prussians, Ger- 
 mans, Italians and Poles, of from four to six hundred thou- 
 sand men, and took up his head quarters at Warsaw. 
 
 The emperor of Russia, assembled an army at W ilna, in 
 Poland, to watch the French, under the command of prince 
 Bagration entered into a convention with England for gen- 
 eral safety and defence, sent the Russian fleet to England, to 
 secure it from the French, but more particularly, as a pledge 
 for the general exigencies of the war : opened anegociation 
 for peace with the Turks, under the influence of England, 
 and repaired to Wilna. Negociation was soon closed, and 
 both armies took the field. 
 
 Here opens the second volume of Charles XII. The em- 
 peror moved his grand army to attack the prince at Wilna : 
 the prince retired to Drissa : at the same time, a Prussian 
 nrmy under general McDonald, penetrated into Russia, by 
 the way of Riga, towards Petersburg. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon now saw the two capitals of Russia, 
 (the great objects of his enterprise) in view of expectancy, 
 and began to realise, that this grand movement would fix the 
 fate of Europe, and crown him lord of Christendom. 
 
 Every movement was announced, by a special bulletin 
 from the emperor Napoleon, proclaiming the advance and 
 successes of the --rand army All Europe, both Tuvk.^ ind 
 Christians., were alive to the scene, and anxious for the event. 
 
368 BATTLE OF BORODINO. 
 
 At this critical moment, America proclaimed war against 
 England, and made a sudden descent upon Canada. Denmark 
 had furnished the fine horses of Hplstein, to fill up the caval- 
 ry of the French armies, and the whole Christian world were 
 now leagued against Russia and England, excepting Sweden ; 
 she alone remained neuter ; the Turk also withdrew from 
 the war, gave up his advantages, and settled a peace with the 
 emperor Alexander. 
 
 Thus armed, thus arranged, the awful, the eventful scene 
 opened. From Drissa, the grand army moved to Polotsk ; 
 the prince again retired to Witepsk ; the emperor advanced ; 
 the prince again retired to Smolensk, and made a stand : 
 the emperor advanced : here the two armies met for the 
 first time, and a severe action ensued ; the Russians fought 
 for their fires and their altars they were overpowered by 
 numbers, and retired with firmness towards Moscow. 
 
 Flushed with the successes of Smolensk, the grand army 
 advance^. On the hills of Borodino, the prince, with some 
 reinforcements, again made a stand. The emperor pursued 
 with a strong column, as his advanced guard, and found the 
 Russians strongly intrenched upon an eminence, under co- 
 ver of a formidable redoubt, lined with artillery, and de- 
 termined to await the issue of a battle, in the view of 
 Moscow. 
 
 The emperor beheld at a distance, the object of his wish- 
 es Moscow, like a little world, filled all the plain. The 
 French soldiers, fired with the prospect of reaping the spoils 
 of Moscow, as a reward for all their toils, burnt with impa- 
 tience for the combat. 
 
 Nopoleon cherished this ardor ; and before the day closed, 
 commenced a desperate assault upon the grand Russian re- 
 doubt, and carried it at the point of the bayonet : the conflict 
 was sharp but the Russians retired, and left this bulwark 
 of their defence, in the hands of the French ; night closed 
 tht scene. 
 
 \The next day .opened a solemn scene. The two armies in 
 view of each other, passed the day in reconnoitering, and in 
 strengthening their positions, to complete the work of death. 
 Night closed this scene without a blow. The angel of death 
 sat brooding over the night, to indulge in a repose thatshould 
 serve to heighten the carnage of the morning. The fatal morn 
 appeared : the sun rose clear, and with his first beams, caught 
 
"Alt Ocean of Klauir." /;/.///. Xn/n,i,,>ii 
 
 irill 
 
 /itv>/Ht/>li/ ivxit/f hi t/if 1 1 -in in h /i o/'t/H' lif/(>/-niiiti<>/i,tiuf/ t/ic 
 
 t'Ntflli/isllllK'Ilt ///'///<' J\'itHfflfHH ftf lilt' Stf'IH' III IVHI'/lfOtit I/If 
 
 
CONFLAGRATION OF MOSCOW. 3tj9 
 
 the eye of the emperor Napoleon ; who exclaimed with em- 
 phasis, " 'tis the sun of Austerlitz." Death roused from his 
 slumbers, and opened the scene. Prince Bagration com-, 
 menced an attack, to recover the redoubt he had lost the pre- 
 ceding day ; a strong Russian column moved to the charge : 
 it was now impregnable ; and vomited forth death into the 
 Russian ranks, and broke the column. Both armies became 
 engaged in the conflict : the ardor and impetuosity of the. 
 French, forced the Russians to recoil ; but it was only to 
 concentrate their force, and advance in solid columns to the 
 charge. The conflict now became terrible ; the ardor of 
 the French, and the firmness of the Russians, opened a dis- 
 play of valor and heroism, amidst the thunders of a cannon- 
 ade, and the carnage of a field, that will ever render memo- 
 rable, the battle of Borodino ; horrors, which neither the 
 pen nor the pencil can describe. The French retired, and 
 left the field to the defenders of their country ; the great 
 Bagration crowned with his death, the victory of Borodino. 
 The emperor Napoleon drew oft" his army, to recover his 
 losses ; and published in ge'neral orders " Soldiers ! This 
 is the first action I ever lost ; you must wipe off the stain, 
 with the blood of the Russians." The losses in tins action 
 were severe upon both sides but nothing decisive : it had 
 not become the sun of Austerlitz the stratagem failed. Old 
 prince Kutusoff, who now became the Russian chief, did not 
 pursue the victory ; had he done it, the emperor Napoleon 
 would have brought into action his corps de reserve, anrj the 
 action would then have become the action of Austerlitz. The 
 scene was reversed : Kutusoff retired to Moscow, marched 
 through, collected all the treasures and inhabitants of the city, 
 and carried off the fire engines ; and when the emperor ofthe 
 French entered, the Russians divided into three armies, and 
 invested him in Moscow. Rastapchin, the governor, gave a 
 general notice to the inhabitants, who had made a general 
 preparation for removal ; and in the midst ofthe triumphs of 
 the ernperor, they fired the city : the convicts in the prisons, 
 were set at liberty for this awful scene ; and in one hour, the 
 flames burst forth from all parts, and raged throughout. 
 Thus, this ancient capital of Russia, the pride and boast 
 of Muscovy, a city, ten miles in extent, and thirty or forty 
 miles in circuit, was wrapt in flames, and consumed with one 
 general conflagration, which can neither be conceived of, nor 
 
370 CHARACTER OF THE WAR. 
 
 described : the awful sublimity of the scene was strikingly 
 expressed by the emperor Napoleon " an ocean of flame." 
 But the wealth and splendor of Moscow were soon smoking 
 in ruins Fatal was the battle of Pultowa, to Charles XII. : 
 fatal was the destruction of Moscow v to the emperor Na- 
 poleon, 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Character of the Russians overtures of peace firmness of 
 the emperor Alexander views of Napoleon retreat of the 
 French -flight of Napoleon destruction of the French ar- 
 my the emperor Napoleon in Paris again in Saxony at 
 the head of a new army battle of Leipsic Napoleon in Pa- 
 ris successes of Lord Wellington restoration of the fami- 
 ly of Bourbon Napoleon at Elba lord Wellington in Pa- 
 ris Napoleon in Paris battle of Waterloo Napoleon in 
 England at St. Helena Lewis XVlll. again in Paris 
 Lord Wellington again in Paris the empress Maria Louisa, 
 with her little son., at Milan. 
 
 THE Russians are the descendants of the ancient Scythi- 
 ans : the war was a Scythian war : and the result, such as has 
 been common to the invasions of Scythia. The French gave 
 a loose reign to all the passions in Moscow ; and rioted amidst 
 the distresses of the scene. The emperor Napoleon took up 
 his quarters in the Kremlin, the citadel of Moscow, and cradle 
 of the Czars of Russia. Here he made overtures of peace 
 to the emperor Alexander : the emperor amused him until 
 he had collected his forces, strengthened his armies, and sent 
 orders for the army of the Danube to advance, in the rear of 
 the French, to intercept their retreat. 
 
 This army had been trained to arms, in the successful cam- 
 paigns against the Turks, in 18 10 and 1 1. Then the empe- 
 ror Alexander rejected the overture, and published in his 
 manifesto " I will never make peace, so long as Napoleon, 
 or any of his family, are upon the throne of France." 
 
 Napoleon now saw before him the dreadful alternative. 
 That confidence which had led him to the conquest of Moscow, 
 taught him to believe, that he should winter there ; and he had 
 neglected even one solitary preparation to facilitate a retreat. 
 The Russians, on their retreat, laid waste their country ; and 
 
 
PLIGHT OF NAPOLEON. 371 
 
 what the Russians left, the French army destroyed ; so that 
 the whole extent of way, from Moscow to Polotsk, on the 
 confines of Poland, was literally a desert ; and the Russians 
 were now destroying all the bridges, through all this extent 
 of way. The emperor Napoleon now felt the destruction of 
 Moscow. Instead of rioting, with his army, through the win- 
 ter, in the spoils of Moscow ; instead of restoring the ancient 
 sovereignty of Muscovy, placing his brother Louis on the 
 throne of the Czars, who should reign in the north, the great 
 ally of France, humble the emperor Alexander, and bar his 
 sword from all further weight in the great scale of Europe ; 
 instead of returning in the spring with his victorious army in- 
 to France, to swell the trump of fame with the triumphs of 
 another campaign ; instead of assembling all confederated 
 Europe on the banks of the Danube, and under the protecting 
 sword of his ally of Muscovy (this contemplated shield of 
 the north) marching at the head of his legions to the banks 
 of the Hellespont, and planting his eagles on the walls of Con- 
 stantinople ; may I yet say, instead of triumphing over Asia 
 and America, and erecting his standard upon the ruins of the 
 liberties of man ; this hero of Borodino and of Moscow, be- 
 came the hepo of a different scene. He wreaked^ his ven- 
 geance on the Kremlin, by blowing up, and destroying the 
 cradle of the ancient sovereigns of Muscovy ; collected the 
 remaining treasures of Moscow, and took up his retreat, in 
 order to recover his former position in Poland. His first move- 
 ments were regular ; but the assembled armies of Russia, un- 
 der that old veteran, prince Kutusoif, fired with revenge for 
 the smoking ruins of their country, pressed on his rear, and 
 soon overtook the spoil-incumbered foe. Torn with a suc- 
 cession of murderous conflicts ; galled by the distressing rav- 
 ages of the Cossacs ; stung with the severites of a Russian 
 winter ; this conqueror became a fugitive stripped of his ar- 
 tillery and baggage by the death of his horses, the spoils of 
 Moscow fell into the hands of the Russians. Pressed by the 
 Russians, murdered by the Cossacs, the retreat ofthe French 
 became the flight of a confused mass, without order, without 
 disipline, without supplies, a prey to death in every form ; 
 destroyed by, and destroying, every thing in their route. He 
 who so late had been the idol, now became the reproach of this 
 wreck of an army ; himself no longer safe in the midst of these 
 fugitives, he now became a fugitive and deserted his myrmid- 
 ons in the midst of death. On the confines ofKrasnoy, on the 
 
372 
 
 BATTLE OF LEIPsIC. 
 
 banks of the Dnieper, Napoleon, fled ; fled in disguise ; and 
 fled alone! just at the time, when the army of the Danube 
 appeared in his rear to intercept his flight. Language can- 
 not paint, imagination cannot conceive of the distresses of the 
 scenes that followed ; suffice it to say, that this mighty force, 
 which under the appellation of the grand army, had inarched 
 into Russia victorious ; when it reached Poland, had vanish- 
 ed " like the baseless fabrick ofa vision, and left not a wreck 
 behind." 
 
 The army of Prussia which entered Russia by the way of 
 Riga, returned entire, and the army of Austria separated from 
 the grand army in the retreat, and returned with great loss ; 
 but escaped ruin. Napoleon repaired to Paris, as Charles 
 XL1. returned through Germany ; assembled his senate, dis- 
 closed his losses, and put the Empire under afresh requisi- 
 tion, for men, money, and arms ; in two months, assembled 
 a new army, put himself at their head, and took the field in 
 Saxony. The emperor of Russia, in the mean time, entered 
 Prussia, and joined the king, with his victorious army ; the. 
 emperor of Austria entered Bohemia, with one hundred thou- 
 sand men, as mediator for his son in law, Napoleon. The 
 allies brought into the field Bernadotte, prince of Pontecorvo, 
 now crown prince of Sweden ; with an army of one hundred 
 thousand men, to enter the lists with Napoleon his old mas- 
 ter. This Bernadotte was a distinguished general in the 
 Prussian war of 1806 7, in jiie service of the emperor of 
 France, and was elected crown prince of Sweden, when in 
 the French service, upon the deposition of GustTvus IV. 
 
 The sovereigns of Russia arid Prussia, took up their head- 
 quarters at Dresden, in Saxony. Prince Bernadotte, took 
 the field, at the head of his Swedes ; the emperor Napoleon 
 was encamped at Leipsic. Balenced in this awful state of 
 suspense, the armies awaited the decision of the emperor of 
 Austria. When they were ready for action, his mediation 
 was* closed ; he declared for the allies, against his son in law 
 Napoleon, and the conflict began. The thunders of Borodi- 
 no were renewed upon the plains of Leipsic, the conflict was 
 desperate, and the carnage terrible. The French were true 
 to their emperor ; but the contest was unequal : ov< 
 eredby numbers, they gave way, fled in disorder, unr, 
 butchered and destroyed, with a horible slaughter. 
 
 The brare geBera] Moreau, whohsd returned from A 
 jai. and joined the crown prince of Sweden, fell in the htat 
 
CAPTURE OF THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON. 373 
 
 of the action. The three sovereigns of Russia, Austria and 
 Prussia, beheld the awful scene from their quarters, and when 
 the victory was announced, they fell on their knees, arid 
 gave thanks to God. Napoleon, with the shattered remains 
 of his army, fled into France, and repaired to Paris, assem- 
 bled the wreck of his army, and prepared for his defence ; 
 the allies of Russia, Austria and Prussia, pursued into France, 
 invested Napoleon in Paris, and took him by capitulation ; 
 stripped him of his crowns, and banished him to the island 
 of Elba. 
 
 They next subdued the French forces in the west of Ger- 
 many, established the sovereignty of Holland, and' restored 
 the Stadtholder. The English, Portuguese and Spaniards, 
 recovered Portugal and Spain drove out king Joseph, and 
 entered France victorious, under the duke of Wellington, to 
 co-operate with the allies in the conquest of Napoleon. The 
 allies restored the Bourbon family in the person of Lewis 
 XVIII. ; established a strong force at Paris, under the duke of 
 Wellington ; the emperor of Russia, and king of Prussia, vis- 
 ited England retired to Vienna, and formed a congress to 
 settle the claims of the several powers, for their losses in the 
 war. 
 
 Nothing had ever appeared in Europe like the violence of 
 the French revolution. It had overthrown the ancient civil 
 and religious establishments, destroyed the ancient balance of 
 power, changed many of the ancient limits and boundaries ; 
 involved all the states in enormous debts, and laid the founda- 
 tion for a labyrinth of claims. The congress of Vienna had 
 spent six months in settling the difficulties which had arisen, 
 when they were roused from their sitting, as by a clap of thun- 
 der, with the news, " that Napoleon was in Paris', and at the 
 head of the army." Struck with alarm they closed their sit- 
 ting, repaired to the head of their armies, and took the field. 
 
 The Russian and Austrian armies took their position upon 
 the Rhine, on the east of France, to guard the bridge ofStras- 
 burg. The English and Prussian armies were posted in Flan- 
 ders, with the English army in advance, twenty or thirty 
 miles. One French army lay on the east to watch the Rus- 
 sians and Austrians, and another in Flanders to watch the 
 English and Prussians. The emperor fortified his capital, 
 and attempted to renew the conscription, but this failed . 
 France had lon^been tired of this wasting conduit, through 
 
 32 
 
374 BATTLE OP WATERLOO. 
 
 which the blood of her sons had flowed so freely he saw 
 himself deserted by the nation, but supported by the armies. 
 
 His plans were fixed : he left Paris in the night, (according 
 to his usual custom,) put himself at the head of the army of 
 the north, and commenced an attack upon the English army, 
 under lord Wellington, with expectations of destroying this 
 army at a blow ; then the Prussian army at another blow ; 
 and then the armies of Russia and Austria would have fallen 
 an easy conquest to the united forces of the victorious empe- 
 ror, and his popularity would have enabled him to renew the 
 conscription. 
 
 The allies had set for this old fox, his own trap of Auster- 
 litz and Borodino. He commenced a furious assault upon 
 lord Wellington his lordship had seen the French in Spain 
 he received the charge of the French with firmness : the 
 conflict was severe and obstinate ; the English retired, and 
 resisted as they retired ; the Prussians advanced, and the ac- 
 tion continued. On the second day, the allies formed a junc- 
 tion the action became general, and the carnage was great. 
 On the third day, the action was renewed : the French, ex- 
 hausted with the long conflict, and overpowered by numbers, 
 gave way : Napoleon rallied to the charge, again and again ; 
 the conflict became desperate the allies opened a battery of 
 artillery upon the centre of the army of Napoleon the de- 
 struction was terrible ; he drew up his guards to support his 
 centre ; they fell almost to a man : Napoleon exclaimed to 
 the officer near him " 'tis time for us to go." He fled into 
 France, and left his army to their fate ; resigned his crown to 
 his son ; made for the sea-coast ; delivered himself up to the 
 captain of an English ship ; and was conveyed to England. 
 
 The allies assembled at Paris ; restored Lewis XVIII. ; 
 established again the duke of Wellington, with a strong force 
 to protect the king secured the tranquillity of Europe. 
 The sovereigns again retired to Vienna ; opened their con- 
 gress, and sentenced Napoleon to the Island of St. Helena, 
 for life. 
 
 The empress Maria Louisa, (upon the first invasion of 
 France by the allies in 1813,) retired with her son into Italy, 
 took up her abode at Milan, and devoted herself to the care 
 of her son ; who is now considered by many as heir apparent 
 to the throne of France, upon the demise of Lewis XVIIL 
 
 
GENERAL AFFAIRS OF CHRISTENDOM. 375 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 
 
 General affairs of Christendom. 
 
 THE storm which burst upon the world in the French 
 revolution, commenced in May, 1789, and raged without in- 
 termission down to the year 1815. This tempest not only 
 overthrew the governments of France, Spain, Portugal, Hol- 
 land, Germany, Switzerland, and the States of Italy ; but 
 shook to their centres all the othergovernmentsin Christen- 
 dom, and threatened to prostrate the world to the dominion 
 of France. 
 
 When the allied sovereigns triumphed over the emperor 
 of France at the battle of Waterloo, and banished him to the 
 islandofSt. Helena, for life, the storm was completely brok- 
 en ; but the tempestuous sea of Europe has continued to 
 swell and rage, from the terrible effects of the storm, down to 
 the present time. 
 
 Although the allied sovereigns resumed their congress at 
 Vienna., at the close of the war, to finish the adjustment of all 
 the contested claims,, which rose out of the war ; and al- 
 though they united in the confederacy, styled the Holy 
 League, in 1816, for the suppression of wars, and the promo- 
 tion of peace ; yet the passions of men have been impatient 
 of controul, arid bid defiance to their power. 
 
 In 1820 a revolution commenced in Spain, that shook the 
 nation to its foundations, and threatened the subversion of 
 the government. The people rose in arms throughout the 
 kingdom, and entered Madrid in triumph. The King, (Fer- 
 dinand VII.) to appease the rage of the popular fury, swore 
 to maintain, and preserve the constitution of 1812 ; and thus 
 sanctioned the spirit of the day. This constitution then 
 wnt into operation, and continues to this time ; but the con- 
 flicting passions of the nation have not become tranquil. 
 
 In 1821 the national Cortez decreed the abolition of the in- 
 quisition, together with all the religious cloisters, and confis- 
 cated their estates. They also decreed the liberty of the 
 press. 
 
 These were amongst the first acts of the French revolu- 
 tion, and opened the way for all their subsequent calamities. 
 Similar effects may possibly result, ultimately, from similar 
 causes in Spain. 
 
 Pending these events in Spain, a similar scene was opened 
 
376 GENERAL AFFAIRS OF CHRISTENDOM. 
 
 in Portugal, and similar consequences followed, and continue 
 to follow. The two nations may still be considered in a rev- 
 olutionary state. 
 
 The kingdom of Naples caught the revolutionary fire, 
 which burst forth in a mighty blaze. The people, as in 
 Spain, rose in arms, and threatened the subversion of the go- 
 vernment ; but the house of Austria interposed with a strong 
 military force, supported the king, and at the point of the 
 bayonet hushed the storm. Peace and tranquillity were re- 
 stored, and continue to prevail. 
 
 Pending these convulsions on the continent of Europe, the 
 patriots of South America seized the auspicious moment, rose 
 in arms, asserted their rights, and after a long and arduous 
 struggle, shook off the Spanish yoke, and secured to them- 
 selves their just rights amongst the free and independent na- 
 tions of the earth. 
 
 Mexico followed the example of the kingdoms in South 
 America : rose in arms, shook off the Spanish yoke, and es- 
 tablished her independence, 1821. 
 
 Pending theso mighty struggles for liberty in Europe and 
 America, the fever of revolution broke out in England, un- 
 der the mask of radical reform, and threatened thesubversion 
 of the monarchy. 
 
 In the midst of this storm, queen Caroline, who had been 
 rejected by her husband, when Prince of Wales, and become 
 a traveller upon the continent, appeared in England, and be- 
 came the rallying point for the revolutionists. This threw 
 the nation into a high state of agitation, and the Queen, to re- 
 venge on her husband, fanned the flame. 
 
 To allay this storm, a trial was instituted against the Queen, 
 upon the statute of pains and penalties, which spun out to a 
 great length ; the nation was convulsed, and the king tottered 
 upon his throne. To appease the popular rage, and lay 
 the storm, the trial of the Queen was closed, by an adjourn- 
 ment for six months, and the nation became calm. 
 
 The King embraced the favorable moment, and caused a 
 day to be proclaimed for his public coronation. This divert- 
 ed the attention of all parties, and the passions of the people 
 were swallowed up in the splendid shew of a coronation day, 
 July, 1821. The Queen was rejected. 
 
 This shock was more than the Queen could sustain ; she 
 sunk under the disappointment, and with her death sealed 
 the tranquillity of the nation. Her remains were removed 
 
to Germany, 
 
 GENERAL AFFAIRS OF CHRISTENDOM. 377 
 
 to Germany, and deposited with those of her friends of the il- 
 lustiious house of Brunswick. 
 
 To close this solemn scene, the great Napoleon, emperor of 
 France, and conqueror of Europe, died in his confinement up- 
 on the Island of M. Helena.* " Yet he shall come to his end 
 and none shall help him." Daniel xi. 45. 
 
 * The fallowing; is an interesting account given by Dr. Antomarchi, 
 Napoleon's Physician. 
 
 " Bonaparte occupied himself often with gardening ; and under 
 his immediate superintendance, bowers and grottoes were erected 
 in his garden at Longwood. Gen. Bertrand, Madame Bertrand, 
 with the children, and Dr. Antomarchi, assisted him on such occa- 
 sions. His usual dress was that of a Chinese gardener : nankins 
 and a large straw hat. Within the last eight months of his life he 
 could scarcely move out, and was obliged either to rest on the sofa, 
 or in his easy chair ; he suffered considerably, and was, in conse- 
 qn ^nc- , considerably morose ; he had lost full two thirds of his cor- 
 pulence. 
 
 " Durirg his illness his son was the principal topic of his conver- 
 sation ; he never conversed on politics, at least the Doctor said so. 
 Two priests were sent to him by his mother, one an old man, (Buona- 
 vita) and the other a young ma;; Since their arrival mass was read 
 every day at Longwood, and the Doctor said " It est enbon Cre- 
 tien." Bonaparte expressed much disgust at the old priest's smel- 
 ling of tobacco he disliked smoking and smokers. He had errr<-ely 
 left off taking snuff. You have seen it noticed in the papers that he 
 sent a present to lady Holland. The circumstances that led to it 
 are highly honorable to her ladyship. Lady Holland was never per- 
 sonally known to Bonaparte, * but since his confinement she had 
 been unremitting in her attention to him, by constantly provi ug 
 him with articles for his table, which she thought would be ;t< 
 able to him ; also by sending him books, and contributing b. 
 other ways to his domestic comfort. He sent her a Cameo of 
 value, as a token of gratitude ; it was on a snuff box which the Pope 
 presented to Napoleon. 
 
 " The veneration with which the Doctor spoke of him is beyond 
 any thing of the sort 1 ever witnessed. {Speaking of Bertrand, he 
 always styles him (le grand Marechal.) Madam Bertrand \\ s al- 
 ways allowed to enter his room without being announced, 
 leon was quite resigned to die at St. Helena he often convc >od 
 with Antomarchi of events of his earliest age, and recollected the 
 most trifling acts of his childhood. The Doctor being a ualh ' of 
 Corsica, they generally conversed together in the idiom of the 
 island, which was quite familiar to Napoleon. The house at Long- 
 wood was exceedingly small and uncomfortable, an-1 damp ' 
 conception; the new "bouse was M and it was Bona- 
 
 parte's intention, had he lived, never to inhabit it." 
 
 33 
 
378 GENERAL AFFAIRS OF CHRISTENDOM. 
 
 Pending these convulsions of Christendom, an insurrection 
 broke out in Turkey in Europe, which gave serious alarm to 
 the sublime Porte, and still threatens to prostrate the crescent, 
 and subvert the government. 
 
 The Greeks who were the immediate instruments of this in- 
 surrection, have maintained a desperate conflict, in the unequal 
 strife, and the Emperors of Russia and Austria, have given 
 them all such support, as could be afforded without open hos- 
 tilities. 
 
 Persia is said to have availed herself of these commotions 
 in Europe, and opened a war upon Turkey on the east, for 
 the purpose of recovering her ancient possessions, and hum- 
 bling the gigantic power of Turkey. 
 
 What will be the issue of these mighty events, time only can 
 unfold.* 
 
 During the continuance of these eventful struggles in Europe, 
 Asia, and South America, the affairs of the United States con- 
 tinue to roll on prosperously. 
 
 The successful close of the Seminole war in 1818, opened 
 the way for the cession of the Floridas to the United States, 
 and the settlement of the boundary line between the United 
 States and Spanish America, and hushed the storm which 
 threatened the peace of the two nations, by an amicable adjust- 
 ment, 1821. 
 
 The strife of party which raised the storm in Congress upon 
 the Missouri question, and arrayed the north against the south, 
 was amicably settled by the admission of the state of Missouri 
 into the Union in 1821. 
 
 The conflicts of party in the United States, have hithert 
 been overruled in great wisdom ; they have enlightened the 
 people, and strengthened the government. 
 
 Amidst the numerous improvements of the United States 
 none have appeared of equal magnitude with the great nort 
 ern and western canals of the state of New-York. The fi 
 has opened a communication between the Hudson and St. 
 Lawrence, and the latter between the Hudson and Mississippi, 
 and rendered th,e city of New-York tb* preat local point o 
 commerce for Nwrth America. This will also render her t 
 London of America. 
 
 * For a more particular illustration of this subject, see Per- 
 sia and Tartary, in appendix to part 1, pages 50, 54. 
 
SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Wit have noticed in our remarks upon England, the decided sove- 
 reignty of the island, at and before the Roman invasion ; that during the 
 period of nearly five centuries, the Romans kept the peace between 
 the petty sovereigns, and when they withdrew their power, the Saxons, 
 under Hengis and Horsa, seized on the island ; and subdued all these 
 small hordes under the dominion of the Heptarchy, and thus laid the 
 foundation of the representative government. 
 
 The union of this Heptarchy, under 
 Alfred the great, was also noticed, 
 who may be fairly styled the first 
 English monarch, and laid ihe foun- 
 dation of the government. 380 
 Alfred was succeeded by his son Ed- 
 ward the elder, ... 9,'0 
 Athelstan, 925 
 
 Henry II[. 
 Kdward 1. ... 
 Kdward If. 
 Edward III. 
 Richard 11. 
 
 1216 
 1272 
 1307 
 13-26 
 1377 
 1399 
 1412 
 1422 
 1460 
 1483 
 1483 
 1435 
 1509 
 1546 
 1553 
 1553 
 1602 
 1635 
 1648 
 1685 
 1688 
 1702 
 1714 
 1727 
 1760 
 1811 
 
 758 
 
 Ho 
 
 Henry IV. 
 Henry V. 
 Henry VI 
 
 Edmund 94 1 
 Edr^d, 918 
 Edwy, . .... 955 
 
 Edward IV. 
 Edward V . . 
 Richard III. 
 HenrvVII 
 Henry VIII 
 Kdward VI. 
 Mary 
 
 Edgar 950 
 Edward the Martyr, . . 975 
 Kthetred. 978 
 Edmond Ironside, . . . 1016 
 f'annte the Dane, Danish line, . 1017 
 Harold Harefoot, Danish line, . . 1035 
 Hardicanute, Danish line, . . 1039 
 Edwnrd the Confessor, . . 1041 
 Harold, 1086 
 
 
 James I- . 
 Ch.rlesl 
 Charles II. 
 J-rnesIf 
 
 William the conqueror, Danish line, 1066 
 Wilt-am Rufus, .... 1087 
 
 William and Mary, 
 Ann 
 
 Henry I HOO 
 Stephen, . . . 1135 
 HenrvII 1154 
 Richard I. ... . 1139 
 
 
 George II. . . . 
 George III. 
 Regency of the Prince of Wales, 
 
 3F FRANCE. 
 
 Pepin, son f Charles, 
 Charlemagne, 
 Lewis, Debonnoir, . . . 
 
 SOVEREIGNS < 
 
 \ye bave noticed the origin of the 
 kingdom of the Franks, or France, 
 urtder Pharomond who led his 
 Franks over the tUiine, in the fifth 
 centnry ; from whom descended 
 Clevis who commenced his reign, 436 
 The next sovereign worthy of notice 
 
 Lewis II 
 Charles th bald, 
 Lewis the Stammerer, . 
 Lewis III 3 . ... 
 Charles the fat, 
 Cnarlss ill. 
 
 856 
 875 
 . 877 
 879 
 . 884 
 898 
 922 
 923 
 
 Clotairll 81* 
 Darobert, ..... 63t 
 644 
 
 Pepiu HeriBtel. l M ^ va , 
 Charle. Martel,5 MaVaS ?4 
 End. of the first race of Kings. 
 
 
 Lewis the tranger, . . 936 
 Lotbario. .... 954 
 LftwiiVI 966 
 End of the tteond ract of Kings* 
 
380 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF EUROPE. 
 
 Hu<rh Capet 
 Robert 
 Henrv I . 
 
 987 
 4l9ri 
 131 
 1059 
 1106 
 1 37 
 1180 
 1223 
 1-226 
 1271 
 1-285 
 1314 
 1316 
 1316 
 13 K 
 13- '8 
 1350 
 
 1357 
 1364 
 
 1385 
 
 Charles VII .... 
 Henry VI. of England, . 
 Lewis XI .... 
 Charles VIII 
 
 1430 
 1461 
 1483 
 1498 
 1515 
 1559 
 1560 
 1574 
 1589 
 1610 
 1643 
 1651 
 1715 
 vo- 
 . 1774 
 s 
 1795 
 1804 
 1814 
 
 Philip I . . . . 
 
 Lewis VI 
 Lewis VII 
 Phi'ip 11 styled august, . 
 Lewis VIII .... 
 Lewi? IX 
 Philip III styled hardy, 
 Philip IV styled the fair, . 
 Lew.sX ..... 
 John I ... 
 
 Lewis XII 
 Francis I. . ... 
 Francis II. 
 Charles IX 
 Henrr III 
 Henrv IV. . 
 Lewis XIII. 
 Lewis XIV. ten years of age, 
 crowned, 
 Lewis XV. . . . 
 Lewjs XV 1 ^-Guillotined in the rt 
 lution, 
 Lewis XVII aged eleven year 
 Poisoned in the revolution, 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor, . 
 1 Lewis XVIII. . 
 
 Philip V surnamed the Long, . 
 Charles IV. styled the fair, 
 Philip VI. 
 John H. ... 
 
 Edward III. of England by consan 
 {riiimty, and by conquest, 
 Vsarles V. . 
 Charles VI 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. 
 
 Sovereigns of Spain, under the Visi- 
 goths, who founded their kingdom 
 in Spain, ... 467 
 
 Their barbarous superstition render- 
 ed Spain one Continued scene of 
 bvitebery, nearly 300 years; in 
 which time, ber kings fell, in such 
 rapid succession as to leave not 
 more than three or four on record, 
 worthy of notice. 
 
 Lovgild, . . , . . .480 
 
 Sissbut, . . . . . 600 
 
 Wamba 680 
 
 Pelagius, .... 'OP 
 
 Abdurahman, Caliph of the Moors, 756 
 Spain, during three centuries, contin- 
 ued divided into a great Bumber of 
 small kingdoms, until they began to 
 
 be united under -Ferdina 
 
 great 
 
 Sancho ..... 
 Alphonso, ... 
 
 AlpbonsoVII 
 Alphonso VIII. 
 
 Sancho III 
 
 Ferdinar-1 II, died suddenly, 
 Alphonso IX. ... 
 Henrv 1 .... 
 
 the 
 
 1027 
 >065 
 1072 
 1209 
 H2-J 
 11M 
 1158 
 1158 
 1214 
 
 Ferdinand [II. 
 Alphonso X. 
 ham: bo IV. 
 
 Mphonso Xf . . 
 
 Peter the cruel, 
 
 Henry II 
 
 John I 
 
 Henry III 
 
 John II 
 
 HenM IV 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 
 Philip I 
 
 Chirles I. Emperor Charles V. 
 
 Philip II 
 
 Philip III. 
 
 Philip IV 
 
 Ch rTe< II 
 
 Philip V 
 
 Ferdinand VI. . . , . j72& 
 
 Charles III 1746 
 
 Charles IV 1788 
 
 resigned to Ferdinand VII. 1808 
 
 Botb, by intrigues of the Emperor 
 Napoleon, resigned to Joseph Bo- 
 naparte, 1308 
 
 Ferdinand restored, . . . 1313 
 
 1216 
 3252 
 1284 
 1289 
 1312 
 1350 
 1368 
 1379 
 1390 
 1466 
 1454 
 J474 
 1504 
 1516 
 1555 
 1591 
 1612 
 1066 
 
 EMPERORS OF GERMANY-beginning icith Charlemagne. 
 
 Chi> i^magne, .... 8dO 
 
 Lotb-,rio 1 840 
 
 Lewis II 855 
 
 Charles the bald, ... 874 
 
 Chr.rhsthe fat, . ' . . .879 
 
 Arnold 888 
 
 Lewis IV at seven years of age, 899 
 
 End oftht 7*ce of Charlemagne. 
 Conrad I. of rJermany, . . 911 
 
 Henry 1. of Saxony, . . .918 
 Otho 1 styled great, . . 93- 
 
 Othoil. . ' . . . .973 
 Otho III. . 9SS 
 
 Henry It 1092 
 
 Conrad II. 
 
 Henry III. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Henrv V. . . 
 
 Lothario II. . 
 
 Conrad III. 
 
 Frederic I. 
 
 Henry VI. . 
 
 Philip. . 
 
 Otho IV. 
 
 Frederic II. 
 
 ' . onrad IV. 
 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg. 
 
 Adolphiu of Nassau, . 
 
 10-74 
 1039 
 1055 
 1106 
 1225 
 1137 
 1151 
 1190 
 1197 
 1-208 
 1212 
 1250 
 1273 
 1291 
 
SOVEREIGNS OP EUROPE. 
 
 381 
 
 Albert I. of Austria, . . J293 
 
 Henry VII 1309 
 
 Frederic the handsome. <$ Lewis V. 1315 
 
 Lewis V 132-2 
 
 Charles IV 1347 
 
 Winreslaug, .... 1378 
 
 Robert, Count Palatine, . . 1399 
 Sigi-iinund, . .' . . .1411 
 
 Aloe, t IF. of Austria, . . . 1438 
 
 Fred-ric III 1440 
 
 Maximilian I. , 1493 
 
 Charles V.King of Spain, . . 15l9 
 
 Ferdinand I .... 1558 
 
 Maximilian II 1564 
 
 Rodolphll 1576 
 
 Matb.aa 1612 
 
 Ferdinand II 1619 
 
 Ferdinand III 1639 
 
 Leopold, 1 156 
 
 Joseph 1 1705 
 
 CharlesVI 1712 
 
 Cbarles VII of Bavaria, . . '742 
 
 Francis I. of Lorrain. . . . 1745 
 
 Joseph II 1765 
 
 Leopold II. m. 179 
 
 Francis II. . . . W . 1792 
 
 now on the throne, 1813 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA. 
 
 Peter 1 163'J 
 
 Catherine 1 1725 
 
 Peter 1 1 1727 
 
 Anne 1730 
 
 John the infant, . . . 1740 
 
 Elizabeth, .... 1741 
 
 Peter III. 
 Catherine II. 
 
 Paul 
 
 Alexander, 
 
 now on the throne, 
 
 1762 
 1763 
 1796 
 1800 
 1818 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 THE antiquity of Scotland's Kings stands unrivalled in Europe ; she 
 boasts her royal line of Kings, from Fergus I. ; who settled in Scot- 
 land as early as the subversion of the Medo- Persian empire, by Alex- 
 ander ; three hundred and thirty years before Christ. She claims a 
 regular succession of one hundred and fifteen Kings, through a period of 
 one thousand nine hundred and thirty-two years, down to the time of 
 her union with England, under James 1. 1602 ; and from thence to the 
 confirmed union of 1707, when the crown of Scotland was united with 
 the crown of England under the title of Great Britain. 
 
 The history of this nation, in connexion with the history of England, 
 has claimed and received our attention A list of her Kings, would 
 swell the size of this work without advantage ; since her political ex- 
 istence has become incorporated with England. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF POLAND. 
 
 SigismuBd, .... (583 
 
 JJladislaus, .... 1633 
 
 John II. ... 1648 
 
 Michael, . ... 169 
 
 Frederic II.' Elector of Saxony, 1697 
 
 Stanislaus I. .... 1704 
 Frederic II. restored, . . . 1710 
 
 Frederic HI 1733 
 
 Stanislaus II. ... 1764 
 
 tell with the partition of 
 Poland, between Russia, Austria 
 
 and Prussia ;795 
 
 died at Petersburg, 1793 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF SWEDEN. 
 
 Gustavui Vasa, 
 
 15/3 
 1592 
 . lr06 
 
 . lt-33 
 
 . ir!5t 
 
 1699 
 
 33* 
 
 Ulrica, Charles' sister, . . 1718 
 Adolp us. . i75i 
 IT-US vut iii. . t . 1771 
 murdered by count An- 
 Ucrstroin 
 Gusiavii IV deposed, . . 1793 
 CKarle^ XIII 1809 
 Gen. Bernadotte crowned Prince, 1910 
 
 Cbarlr, IX 
 
 Gustitvus Adolphus, 
 Christiana, ->ix years of age, 
 Charles Gustavus X. 
 Charles XI aged four y ars, 
 Charles XII. fifteen yearn of age 
 
382 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OP EUROPE. 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK. 
 
 Frederic I. 
 Christian III. 
 Frederic II. 
 Christian IV. 
 Frederic III. 
 Christian V. 
 
 15. -3 
 1554 
 1558 
 1559 
 1648 
 1670 
 
 Frederic IV 1698 
 
 Christian VI. ... 1730 
 
 Frederic V 1746 
 
 Christian VII 1807 
 
 Frederic VI. now on the throne, 181 1 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL, 
 
 AlpbonsoHenriquez, first King 
 His line held the throne, witi 
 interruption, down to John I. 
 
 1139 
 
 i little 
 1385 
 J414 
 
 Philip II. King of Spain, 
 J.bn HI. ... 
 John IV 
 
 John II. 
 
 1464 
 
 Peter II 
 
 Emanuel I. ... 
 
 1495 
 
 JotnV 
 
 Henry the Cardinal, 
 
 
 
 Mary, . 
 
 1581 
 
 1640 
 1646 
 1633 
 1708 
 1750 
 1777 
 
 SOVEREIGNS OF PRUSSIA, 
 
 Frederic I. 
 Frederic II. 
 Frederic III. 
 
 1701 I Frederic IV. 
 1713 I Frederic V. 
 1740 
 
 1786 
 1798 
 
 PRESIDENTS AND VICE-PRESIDENTS OF 
 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 PRESIDENTS. 
 
 aeorge Washington, . . J789 
 
 re-elected, . 1793 
 
 JebnAdaou 1797 
 
 Thomas Jeffenon, . . . 1801 
 
 re-elected, . . 1805 
 
 James Madion, . 1809 
 
 re-elected . . 1813 
 
 James Monroe, . . . 1817 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENTS. 
 
 John A dams, 
 
 re-elected, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Aaron Burr, 
 George Clinton, 
 
 re-elected 
 K (bridge Gerry, 
 Daniel D. Tompkins, 
 
 1789 
 1793 
 1797 
 1801 
 1805 
 1809 
 1813 
 1817 
 
A CHRONOLOGICAL 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 s-ROM THE CREATION, TO THE SUBVERSION OF THE ROMAN EM- 
 PIRE, 450. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 History its division and use -from the creation to the flood thence to 
 
 the building of Nineveh and Babylon. 
 
 A. M. p affe 
 
 Introductory remarks, ... 5 
 
 1 The creation ot' the universe, .... 6 
 
 The happv state of man, ... u 
 
 The apostacy, . u 
 
 The curse that followed. . . . t ,, 
 
 A ransom promised in the seed of the woman, . .. 
 
 The employment and wretchedness of man, . , i. 
 
 Worship by sacrifice early instituted, . . >j 
 
 129 The first war Cain slew his brother Abel, . ... 
 
 God the judge and avenger of blood. . ,, 
 
 Violence marked the character of the old world, . ' .. 
 
 1656 Noah, the ark, and the deluge, . . ,, 
 
 1657 Noah and his family began to people the earth, . . ... 
 
 The employment of men, 
 
 1770 The building of Babylon and Nineeh, . 
 The influence of these cities on the manners ef that age, and their conquests 
 
 General religious character of man, . . ' , 4 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 From the call of Abraham and his family, to the death of Joseph his 
 grandson in Egypt. 
 
 1931 God called Abram to found his church, . . g 
 
 1871 God tried the faith of Abraham in the sacrifice of Isaac, . 9 
 
 Hagar and Ishmael rejected, ... ,, 
 
 The angel comforted Hagar with the promise of God, . 
 
 Character of the Arabs, his descendants, . ,, 
 
 3837 Marriage of liaac birth and character ot Esau and Jacob, > 
 
 1821 Death of Abraham Jacob and his twelve son?, . . .. 
 
 J716 Death of Isaac, . . ..... 
 
 Jacob wrestles with the angel, and obtains the name of Israel, . . n 
 
 Jacob's partiality to Joseph causes his brethren to sell him, . . 
 
 _ Joseph's character and trials in Egypt, ... ]0 
 
 1715 Is raised to power, and next ta the king, . . 
 
 .1707 Sends for his father's family down into Egypt, . . . 
 
 1699 Where good old Jacob, or Israel died, ., 
 
 And ws conveyed by hi bon !o Canaan and entombed, . > jj 
 
 1635 Joiepb and bit brethren bii character death and prophecy, 
 
384 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 From the death of Joseph, to the call of Moses the plagues in Egypt 
 the departure of the. Hebrews under Moses and Aaron, and the de- 
 struction of Pharaoh at the Red Sea. 
 
 B. C. Page 
 
 1577 Commencement of a new era in the family of Abraham, ... 12 
 
 Oppression of his descendants by the destruction of the children, . 
 
 1571 Moses born, and hid in the flags of the river, . . 
 
 His preservation and education, , . . ' 
 
 He kils an Egyptian, and flies into Midian, . . . '- 
 
 1491 Is commissioned by God from the burning bush, . . 13 
 
 Moses and Aaron stand before Pharaoh king of Egypt, and demand the 
 
 dttliverance of the Hebrews, . " 
 
 Confirm t*'eir commission by miracles, . . . 
 
 1491 These compel Pharaoh to send away the Hebrews, . . 14 
 
 Pharaoh pursues the miracle of the Red Sea, . " 
 
 The triumphant song of the children of Israel, 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 From the passage of the Red Sea, to the giving of the Moral Law at 
 mount Sinai the death of Moses and Aaron the possession of the 
 land of Canaan under Joshua, and the change of government under 
 their kings. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 General remarks displays of Mount Sinai, . . 15 
 
 ^ The idolatrous apostacy of Aaron, and the camp of Israel, . 16 
 Moses in his wrath breaks the tables of the Moral Law, punishes the idola- 
 ters, and returns into the Mount, where God inscribed two other tables 
 
 as before. -. . 
 
 Moses gives offence to God at the waters of Meribah, . . " 
 
 J451 Death of Aaron and Moses, and appointment of Joshua, . . 
 
 to Remarks passage of tne river Jordan, ... 
 i453 Miraculous reduction of Jericho, ....' 
 
 The 400 years sojourning' predicted by God to Abraham, closed, . " 
 
 Death of all over 20 years of a^e in the wilderness, . 17 
 Division of Canaan Their form of government Their happy state Their 
 
 idolatry and corruption, . " 
 
 General remarks, . 18 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Change of Jewish Theocracy to the government of their kings disper- 
 sion of the ten tribes, by Psalmanazer remarks. 
 
 1095 Saul, the first kin- of Israel anointed by Samuel, . . 19 
 1085 David the Shepherd king to Ih^ exclusion of Saul, 
 
 1015 Solemon the temple and rumple worship. . " 
 
 $75 Rehoboam, and the division of the tribes, ... ' 
 
 721 Dispersion of the ten tribes hy Psalmanazer, ... 20 
 
 The prophrcy oPMoses fulfilled. 
 
 Conjectures upon the ten tribes remarks, . . . * 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Destruction of Nineveh conquest of Nebuchadnessar siege of Tyre-" 
 
CONTENTS. 385 
 
 conquest of Egypt captivity of the two tribes~-displays of God in 
 Babylon. 
 
 B. C. Page 
 
 Destruction of Nineveh, and union of Chaldea and Assyria, 21 
 
 600 Captivity of the tribes of ludah and Benjamin, by Nebuchadnezzar, . 22 
 
 Displays of God in Babylon, . " 
 
 569 Humiliation of Nebuchadnezzar, .... 93 
 
 662 His restoration and gratitude to God, . . " 
 
 General remarks, ..... 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Conqueet of Cyrus fall of Bahy!<>n restoration of the Jews expedition 
 
 of Darius of Xerxes pass ofThermop^cn. 
 B. C. 
 
 562 Death of Nebuchadnezzar, and succession of Belahazzar, . 24 
 
 555 C/axares and Cyrus wage successful war"with Belshaz/.ar and Babylon 
 
 538 i .ubdued by Cyrus, .... .25 
 
 536 Cyrus lays the foundation of the Medo- Persian empire . " 
 
 Delivers the Jews from captivity, and restores them to their land , . " 
 
 529 His reign aad death, ..... 26 
 
 500 Darius his expedition and overthrow in Scythia, . " 
 
 481 Xerxas his expedition into Greece, . . . 27 
 
 Characterof the Greeks, . , . , " 
 
 Leonidas at the Pass of Thermopylae, 
 
 Naval action of Salamin, . . " 
 
 GUrious victory of Platea, . . . . " 
 
 Civil war in Persia, between Cyrus the younger, and Artaxerxes, . 28 
 
 The Greeks engage a auxiliaries, . . . '* 
 
 341 Defeatand death of Cyrus, and retreat of 10,000 Greeks, . 
 
 Improvements in Greece, . . . . . 
 
 340 The ambition and death of Philip king of Macedon, . 28 
 
 336 Rise and character of Alexander his son and successor, . " 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Expedition of Alexander -fall of the Persian Monarchy. 
 B.C. 
 
 View of the vision of the prophet Daniel, ... 36 
 
 335 Alexander begins the conquest of Asia, . . " 
 
 Battle of the Granicus, . . " 
 
 Battle of Usus flight of Darius king of Persia, ... 31 
 
 Siege, and conquest of Tyre Conquest of F.gvpt, . " 
 
 Alexander returns into Syria, and visits Jerusalem, 
 
 Fs confirmed in bis ambition by the Jewish scriptures, . 32 
 
 330 He proceeds into Persia fights the battle of Arbela, routs and destroys 
 
 Darius, and conquers Babylon, . " 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Alexander establishes the empire of the Greeks upon the ruin of the Per- 
 siandies division of the. Grecian empire rise of the Roman empire 
 of the Carthagenian their -wars fall of Carthage revolutions of 
 the Roman empire. 
 B.C. 
 
 323 Alexander subdues the eastern and northern provinces, . 33 
 
 Establishes the Grecian, upon the ruins of the Persian government, bat re- 
 tains the Persian customs and manners kills Chtus and Cft!ithene, 
 323 He diedn the midflt cf libentiousnetn. 
 
 His four principal gt-nera Is divided his empire, 
 
 Antiochus, one of the Selucidw of Syria, distresees the Jewi, and the war? 
 
386 CONTENTS. 
 
 B. C. Pas 
 
 of Syria and Epypt are almost perpetual down te the conquest of the 
 Romans yet Ishmael dwells safe remarks, 
 Origin of the Romuns, . 
 
 Trojan war, and Grecian colony, .... 
 
 Homer the father of epic poetry, .... 
 
 J213 Carthage founded by Dido from Tyre, 
 753 Romulus founds Rome, ..... 
 
 Wars of Carthage and Rome, .... 
 
 Their jjorernmeuts And wars continued, .... 
 
 241 Hamilcar and Hanniof End yf the first ptinic war, 
 
 Hannibal carries his arms into Italy, and Scipio carries the Roman 
 arms into Africa. ..... 
 
 201 Second Punic war closed, . . . 
 
 Commencement of the thrd Punic war, 
 Distressing sisre of Carihage, .... 
 
 146 Decree of the Roman Senate, fall and ruin of Carthage, 
 
 The Romans distribute the spoils of Carthage to all the nations who 
 claim tlieir own, . ... 
 
 They conquer Greece, Kjypt, the west of Asia, and ol" Europe, 
 Civil war of Cesar and Pompey, 
 47 Triumph of Cesar, defeat, flight and death of Pompey, 
 
 Fatal effects of corrupt ambition, .... 
 
 Fall of Cato, of Roman liherty, and of Cesar, 
 
 Fresh ciril waia at Rome, ' . . . - 
 
 Fail of Brutu? and ' as.-ius \nthony and Tully, 
 
 Augustus Cesar becomes emperor, ntid gives peace to the world, 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 Advent of the Me?siah his life and dvctrines, death and resurrection' 
 prophecy upon JerU84tcm~de8truction of Jerusalem -dispersion ofti 
 Jews division of the Roman empire rise of the papal potoer. 
 
 The whole system of prophecy fulfilled in the advent of the Messiah, 
 His benevolent example, instructions and doctrines, . 
 
 His sufferings, death, resurrection and ascension, 
 His pro;;hecy upon Jerusalem, . . 
 
 His commission of .Saul of Tarsus, his reproof of Pharisaical hypocrisy, 
 Jiiflgnaents upn the Jews, and Jerusalem, . . . 42 
 
 70 Their overthrow and ruin, ... 42 
 
 >37 The Romans in Palestine, subdued by the Saracens, . 
 
 The Jews which remained, again distressed, and the whole natiou in their 
 dispersion preparing to laturn to Palestine, where they will be born by 
 the spirit of Christ into the faith of the gospel, 
 
 The true church of Christ, his peculiar care, , . . 43 
 
 Her triumphs in the roidst of persecutions, 
 Her dep humility under the barbarians and popes, 
 
 420 Rie of the Franks, or French ; their connection with the papacy Char- 
 acter and title of the pope, .... 4/> 
 His means of revenue from indulgencies and purgatory, 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Kingdom of Charlemagne of Mahomet of the Turks fall of the 
 
 Roman empire at Constantinople. 
 A. D. 
 
 800 Charlemagne king of the Franks, and emperor of the West, 46 
 
 1095 Peter the hermit preaches the first crusade, or holy war Character of 
 
 this war. and of the natians ensrayed in it, . . 
 
 606 I? fee of Mahomet. " . . 47 
 
 His ci.i rActer. religion, bible orkoran, nod conquests, 
 1450 Rise of the Turks and conquest Remarks, 
 
CONTENTS. 387 
 
 9JK 
 
 APPENDIX TO PART FIRST. 
 PERSIA. 
 
 B. C. Pag* 
 
 536 Founded by Cyrui, revolutions considered, . . .50 
 
 A. D 1300 Jenffhis Ma,i found* the Mogul's empire, . . 
 1399 TatnerJa-ie confirms his power, ... " 
 1732 Kouli Khan subverts it,, .....' 
 1735 And the Hindostan Re m arks, . 51 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 2207 Founded by prince Yao or Yu their character, . . 51 
 
 A. D 1635 Tartars mcade China, break over their walls and subdue it, 
 
 Population, government, &.c . ... 52 
 
 1586 China visited by the Portuguese, ..... 
 
 1692 The Pope sends missionaries to China, ..." 
 
 17-J-2 They are expelled, . . " 
 
 1792 The'English smd an embassav to China, . . " 
 
 HINDOSTAN. 
 
 A D. 
 
 1497 The Portuguese firU discover Hindustan, ..." 
 
 1506 They build the city of Goa. . . 
 
 159! Visited by the En^li.h, . . . 
 
 15(>0 They form their firt East India Company . . " 
 
 16V8 They form their second, ....' 
 
 1700 They rnw tbeir 6rst charter, and proceed to establish their government, " 
 1595 The Dutch commence their India trade, 
 
 161.? The Danes commenC'- their India trade, ... .'.' 
 
 1738 Causes of the successful lettlemeiHs in Hindustan, . * 
 
 1763 The French cede Pondicherry to the English, . . 54 
 
 Character of the religiou of India, and the successful efforts of Christian 
 missionaries, . . . . . " 
 
 TARTARY. 
 
 Ancient name and character of this country, ... 54 
 
 Their mode of warfare, . ... 55 
 
 Their massacres attachment to the horse, ..." 
 
 The nursery of great conquerors, . . .58 
 
 Character of the Russian war of 1812 13 Remarks, . . " 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 2183 This kingdom wa* founded, .... 
 
 Her soil and character, .... 
 
 600 Subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 
 A. D. Again !<y Alexander 333 before Christ, " 
 
 3! It fell under the dominion of the Romans, . . " 
 
 625 Was subdued by the Saracens, . . " 
 
 1535 ( .inquired by the Turks, . . . . M 
 
 17^ Oven an by the French, , . . . . 
 
 181 Conquered by tbe fiaglitbt . . . *' 
 
 1803 Ceded by the FCnglish back to the Turks, . 
 
 Character of the KgyptianJ. and sfo-ernment, . 58 to 61 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 70i Orormo founded this kingdom, , . 61 
 
 1'aae* in* aJe England from time to time, '* 
 
 88" **os9C3.< i-n^land ... . " 
 
 88'^ Expelled by Alfred. . . 
 
 SV- 1 ! .! , rcniUi Fngland (ributary, . . . ' 
 
 .IOC. 1 ' i, w thi- trit.ute, . ...' 
 
 141J C '<ni]Ur Norway, . . * 
 
 History of Denmark continued, . 
 
38S CONTENTS. 
 
 GREECE CONTINUED. 
 
 B. C. Page 
 
 2000 Greece first settled by (on, son of Japhet, eldest son of Noah, 63 
 
 1500 Letters introduced from Kgypt, .... 
 
 l-20'i Character of the Greeks at the time of the Argonauts, . . 64 
 
 900 Their character at the tims of the Trojan war, 
 
 700 Which gave rise to Homer, and afterwards to the Olympic games . " 
 
 450 Peloponesian war, and character of Greece, continued, 
 With the invasion of Darin*, and of Xerxes, 
 
 Character and government of Lycurgus and Solon, . 65 
 
 300 Decline of Greece to the reign of Philip and Alexander; when she fell un- 
 der the rod of a despot, 
 
 150 And became a Roman province, .... 
 
 A. D. J30 Greece became tht seat of Roman government, under the empe- 
 ror of Constantine Remarks, 
 
 450 Greece, under the Roman capital, until the conquest of the Turks, where 
 it DOW remains, ...... 
 
 ROME CONTINUED. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 700 The city of Rome founded by Romulus, its government by a king and senate, 68 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 FROM THE REVOLUTION OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPRIE, 
 410, TO THE YEAR 1818, OP THE CHRISTIAN ERA. 
 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Revolution of the ivestern Roman empire character of the Barbarians 
 laws of division, and tenure of their spoilcharacter of the Roman 
 Region- religion of the barbarians character of the dark ages 
 origin of the feudal system. 
 
 410 Character of the Romans of the Barbarians, . . ,74 
 
 450 Their ravages in the Roman empire, . . . 
 
 R'-ligion of the Romans and Barbarians, 
 
 486 Genius of their government unde.i Clovis Feudal system, . 77 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 Clovis character of his reign distracted state of the Franks mayors 
 of the palace reign of Pepin Charles Marlel Leoregild ecclesi- 
 astical power Mahomet Saracens situation of Spain. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Pharamond Clovis, and the religion f ih Franks ; his victory and con- 
 quest of the Visigoths, .... 
 
 511 r 'CBh of Clovis -bis successors and feuds, . " 
 
 656 Character of Pepin mayor of the palace, 
 
 73 Charles Martel Ms successor .... 
 
 752 P- pin bin successor, ... " 
 
 Vi:.ioths in Spain Distresses in Spain, 
 
 Remarks, . ... 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 General affairs of Italy rise of popery Pepin supports the popestate 
 
CONTENTS. 389 
 
 of Britain origin of the Anglo-Saxons Wittcnagemot, or elective 
 government. 
 
 ' A - D - Pa~ 
 
 Italy under the Lombards, ...... 
 
 Ki>.e of the Papal Power, .-.... 
 
 752 Pope Zachary, and Pepin king of the Franks, . . . . 82 
 
 Struggles of Italy Pope Stephen, and Pepin, . . . . t 
 
 763 Death of Pepin his successor, . . . . . .83 
 
 Britain, under the. Romanb, and after their departure, ... 
 
 50 Anglo Saxons, iheir conquest of Britain, their Heptarchy, . . 85 
 
 CHAP. III. CONTINUED. 
 
 Government, manners and customs of the heptarchy, down to Egbert, and to 
 827 his successor, . . . . 85 
 
 833 Alfred the Great character and government of Alfred, 
 901 His death, .... . . 88 
 
 77i Rise of Charlemagne Charles supports pope Adrian I. 
 
 774 Pwts an end to the kingdom of the Lombards, ID Italy, and is crowned emperor 
 
 of the West. . . . , . .89 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 France and the church, through the reign of Charlemagne and his sue" 
 
 cessors, to the settlement of Hollo the Norman* 
 A. D. 
 
 The connection between the papal and French monarchies, . . 39 
 
 800 Imperial coronation of Charles, . . . . . 90 
 
 'M2 Respect paid to Charles by the powers of the east, . 
 
 314 Character of Charles big death, and the extent of his empire Lewis his son 
 and successor his government and feuds is deposed by pope Gregory IV. 
 for taking up arms against his rebellious sons, and his son Lothario succeeds 
 to the throne . ... 92 
 
 334 Lewis restored, and Lothar'O made king of Italy Lewis dies the feuds con- 
 tinue, and ih- Saracens iiuade. Italy ; the Normans ravage France, and burn 
 Pans; and amidst all these distresses, the clergy assume the disposal of 
 crowns, . ..." 
 
 Rollo the Norman chief, begins his ravages in France, . . 93 
 
 'Jll Marries the daughter of Charles the simple, and settles in Nustra, which be- 
 comes the Province of Normandy, . . 94 
 The distractions of Gerniaoy, M^ep pace with the feuds of France, under the 
 912 successors of Charlemagne, until they are succeeded by tbe emperor Conrad 1. " 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Germany from the election of Conrad I. with Italy and the church, d<ncti 
 
 to the year 1004. 
 A. D. 
 
 9l7 The Hans invade Germany, and force a p^ace, . . 94 
 
 920 Conrad succeeded by Henry I. of Saxonjr Electors of the Germanic body- 
 Henry, by hu sword, gies peace to Germany, . . .95 
 
 936 Attempts the conquest of Italy, and dir-,, . . 95 
 
 937 The race of Charlemagne becomes extinct in Fiance, . 
 Otho I son of Henry I -upports with dignity the imperial throne of Germany, 
 
 948 propagate* Christianity even into Denmark, and gives laws to Italy, . 
 
 962 Is crowned king of thi' Romans, . . . 
 
 Otho chastises the perfidy of pope John XII. . . " 
 Tbe feuds of Italy, compel Othoiio support a succession of popes b contract* 
 970 an alliance between bis son, Otho 1 1. aod a princess of the Greek empire, at 
 
 Constantinople. . .... 97 
 
 34 
 
390 CONTENTS. 
 
 A- D. Pag 
 
 973 Otho the great dies, and leaves his throne to his son, Otho II. He like his 
 father is valiant in arms ; but amidsl the feudsof Italy, harragsed by the 
 Saracens, . . . . 91 
 
 983 Dies and is succeeded by his son, Otho III. 
 1000 Otho III. created Bolislaus king of Poland, 
 1002 The Saracens enter Italy, besiege Rome, and are expelled by Otho, who dies 
 
 of poison, and is succeeded by Henry II. " 
 
 1004 Henry, harrassed by feuds, attempts to retire ; but is prevented by the com- 
 mands of the Abbot of St. Val. continues toreig-n with successful prosper- 
 1024 ity until his death, and is succeeded by Conrad II. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 England and France, from the Rise of Edward 1. to the Norman con- 
 quest, 1U66. 
 
 901 Edward I ascends the throne of his father Alfred, and maintains the Saxon 
 
 liberties through a succes-ful reign, . . . .9! 
 
 925 Dies and is succeeded by Athelstan, who establishes Sitheric, the Danish 
 chief, in Northumberland, with his sister in marriage, which produces a 
 war with Scotland. . . ' 
 
 941 Athelstan encourages commerce dies and is succeeded by his brother F.d- 
 mond : who is assassinated, and succeeded by his brothe^Eddred ; who is 
 a friend to monastic life, through his reign, , 
 
 955 Dies and is succeeded by Edwy, the son of Edmorid, who suffers great perse- 
 cutions from the clergy, is divorced from his queen, dethroned, and his 
 brother Edgar succeeds him at thirteen years of age, . . 9 
 
 Edgar favours Monkery, and is sainted, 
 
 975 Dies, and is succeeded by his son Kdward, v,-ho was murdered in three years, 
 
 978 And succeeded by Ktlielred, who orders a general massacre ofall the Danes 
 in England which occasions his expulsion, by Swein, king of Denmark, and 
 his persecution to his death, ..... 
 
 1016 He is succeeded by his son. Edmond Ironside, 
 
 1017 Who die-., and leaves the throne to Canute the Dane, . 1C 
 996 The feuds of France, leaves open the way for Hugh, duke of France, to 
 
 eei2e on the crown, and confr it to his son Robert, who fell under the 
 same ecclesiastical despotism, of Edwy of Kngland, 
 
 1031 Dies, and leaves his crown to his son, Henry I who flies to Normandy for 
 succor, and by his sword, enters France, and recovers his crown, 
 Robert, Duke of Normandy, dies on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, leaves his 
 1046 throne to hi natural son William, then a minor, who is crowned in the 
 
 midst of strife. . J< 
 
 Canute sends ICdwin and Edward, sons of Edmond Iionside, into Sweden, 
 
 to be dispatched they are preserved in Hungary, 
 Canute at the same time gives tranquility to England, by marrying Emma, 
 
 their mother, and queen of Ethelred, 
 
 Canute subdues Swsden, and Norway, humbles Malcolm king of Scotland, 
 
 1035 dies and leaves his throne to his son Harold harefoot, who if) succeeded 
 
 by Edward, son of Ethelred, who dies and leaves hi* tbrone to Harold II. 
 
 who is inaded by his brother Tosti, and next by William, duke of Nor- 
 
 1066 mandy, who usurps the tbrone, and establishes the feudal system, . I 1 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Spain and the church, with Germany and Italy, through the. reign 
 Henry IV. to the year 1099. 
 
 768 Spain, the Saracens, and Greek empire from 7fi3, . 1 
 
 Portugal under the Arabs one general scene of distress, 
 Constantinople, and the arts and sciences, and the Greek ehurch, all in the 
 
 midst of corruption Remarks, 
 Feudi of Italy down to 1073 
 
CONTENTS. 391 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 Henry IV. emperor of Germany, is persecuted by pope Gregory VII. and 
 
 excommunicated . . . 107 
 
 Gregry causes Rodolph, duke of Suabia, to be elected emperor, . 
 
 Henry, by a council, depeses Gregory, and by his sword, humbles Rodolph, 
 
 and all Germany and Italy are involved in the quarrel, lOg 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 The church first crusade chivalry, and the monastic rage. 
 A. D. 
 
 1095 Remarks First Crusade, general disasters, . . . 109 
 Amount of the Christian forces in 4sia, . . 1 10 
 Conquest of Jeiusalem, ... . " 
 Godfrey King of France, made king of Jerusalem, . " 
 Guelphs and Ghibelinea, become conspicuous in the subsequent feuds of Eu- 
 ropeRemarks, . . . . Ill 
 
 Chivalry its character, . . . " 
 
 . ' Monastic life its character Remarks, , . . . 112 
 
 CHAP IX. 
 
 England through the reign of William I. William II. Henry I. Germany 
 
 and France to the second cn&ade. 
 A. D. 
 
 William I. visits Normandy, returns to quell a rebellion subdues the British 11 
 
 spirit, and establishes the French language, quells a rebellion in Normandy, 
 1087 ravages France, and dies, leaving the crown of England to his son, Wil- 
 liam II. . . 113 
 
 1096 William II. pursues the policy of his father, purchases Normandy of his 
 brother Robert ; and sets the pope, Urban II. at defiance, . . 
 
 1100 Is killed on a hunting match in his new park, 
 
 Henry I. bis brother succeeds to the throne, ... 
 
 Seizes his brother Robert in Normandy, and imprisons him in England 28 
 
 years, where he dies, . . . 114 
 
 1135 Causes bis English subjects to acknowledge Henry Plantagenet, his grandson, 
 
 then a minorrbis heir, and dies, . " 
 
 Despotism, and the reign of terror, lays the foundation for the future strug- 
 gles of privilege and prerogative, . . " 
 New struggles arise in Germany and Italy under Lothario, and his successor, 
 
 Conrad III Anecdote of the castle of Weinburg New crusades, . 116 
 
 1152 Conrad dies, and is succeeded by Frederic Barbarossa, " 
 
 1300 persons burnt in the church of Vitri, by order of Lewis VII. king of 
 France, who favors St. Bernard in the second crusade, to atone for this 
 crime, ... , 116 
 
 Amount of the army of the crusade, and events, , . " 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 England during the reign of Stephen Henry II. the church with 
 
 continuation of the second crusade Germany and the third crusade. 
 A. D 
 
 1135 Stephen, count of Boulogne seizes the throne weakens the crowo by indul- 
 ging the barons in building calle* David, king of Scoti. and Matilda wage 
 war in support of Henry II, the rightful heir, which is settled by compro- 
 mise These civil wars produce a distressing famine in England, . 117 
 Henr/ II upon the death of Stephpn, succeeds to the throne, Mid humbles 
 
 Lewis VII kino; of France, by tb first independent army, . " 
 
 1161 \ppointsThomasA Beoket, primate of England, to correct the abuses of 
 
 the church Becket's character, .... 118 
 
 116^ Opm war bftwern Henry and Becket, 
 
 Constitution of Clarendon, . llg 
 
 Flight of Becket, his return, triumph, and death, . 120 
 
 Superstitions of Becket's tomb. 
 
392 CONTENDS. 
 
 Normandy to settle bis peace with 
 
 1189 
 
 I'rnlipl! succeds to the throne, 
 
 Henry dies in Normandy Improvements of Henry, . . " 
 
 Alexander III brings Frederic II emperor of Germany, to kiss his feet, &c. 122 
 
 Victor III and Alexander III rival nrmps. 
 
 takes their king, , . 
 
 1183 Lewis VII king of France, makes a pilgrimage to Becket's tomb, dies, and 
 
 Philip I! succeds to the throne, 
 HI-:J"V 'lies in JVormandy Improvements of 
 Aiexand.-r III brings Frederic II emperorc 
 Victor III and Alexander III rival popes, 
 
 1159 Milan destroyed amidst these rival feuds, . ' 
 
 Oiisi.i of the house of Brunswick, . , . 
 
 1181 Saladin, caliph of Egypt, recovers Palestine, which occasions another cru- 
 sade under Frederic Barbarossa, who dies in Asia Minor, and is succeeded 
 by his son Henry VI. . , . 123 
 
 J 191 Philip I. of France, and Richard I of England, engage in this new crusade, 
 
 and tafte their route to I'alestine by water. . . . 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 rhe third crusade continued Richard Iring of England, a captive in Ger- 
 many John successor to Richard Magna Charta. 
 
 A. D- 
 
 They besiege and take Ptolemais, . . . .123 
 
 Characters of Richard and Philip, .... 
 
 1 192 Rir.har-.i ^ains the famous battle of Ascalon, and the conquest of that city 
 
 The confederates, in sight of Jerusalem, abandon the enterprize, ami re- 
 turn home, . ... 124 
 
 1193 Rirhai d is seized in Austria, and sold to the emperor of Germany, imprison- 
 
 ed, and ransomed bv his subjects for ?00 0001. sterling, . " 
 
 ; 199 Is wounded at the seige of the castle of Vidomer and dies, John, bia brother, 
 
 succeeds to the throne, ..... 126 
 
 1505 Philip of France seizes on all the English possessions in IVcrmandy, . " 
 Joha falls under a papal interdict, and resigns his crown to the pop'e, togeth- 
 er with an annual tribute of 1000 marks, John and Otho IV. form the 
 first German coalition against France, . . " 
 
 :215 John grants to the barons, Magna Charta, , .126 
 
 Henry VI emperor of Germany, institutes three crusades with the price of 
 Richard's ransom, and dies in the midst of his wars, in Italy, by poison 
 from his queen, .... '' 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 Crusade against Constantinople Germany France, and a new crusade 
 England and France borough elections in England. 
 
 A. D, 
 
 1204 Baldwin, earl of Flanders, heads a new crusade, . . 128 
 
 Ta*Kes Constantinople, is proclaimed emperor of the Gree.ks, 
 
 1206 Becomes unfortunate, is defeated and slain. " 
 
 1215 The feuds of Germany closed, at the coronation of emperor Frederic II- " 
 
 AH Europe engages in the new crusade, under Honorious III. Cardinal 
 Albano made general in chief, " 
 
 1221 Becomes unfortunate, and the confederates abandon the wqr by a truce, ' 
 New feuds in Germany compel Frederic II. Vo engage in another crusade 
 under Gregory IX. Frederic is more successful in the east than any of the 
 preceding champions. . " 
 
 i229 Concludes a truce, and returns home, and is involved in new feuds with the 
 pope, .... 
 
 1256 The civil wars rage until his death, .... 199 
 
 1273 An interregnum succeeds, until the election of Kodolph, count of Hapsburg ; 
 
 the Hanseatic league is formed during this interregnum, . 
 
 I2'6 Philip of France engages in the support of the ci^il wars in England against 
 
 John, and dies, ... . . " 
 
 1217 Henry III son of John, gives union 'nd peace to England, . " 
 
 1253 Henry attempts to recover ihe English possessions in France, , 
 
CONTENTS. S9S 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 1257 Richard, earl of Cornwall, attempts to quiet the feuds of Germany, spend* 
 his vast estate, fails, and returns poor to England The feuds in England 
 open the way for the earl of Leicester to establish a new parliament, with 
 borough elections, . . . 131 
 
 Remarks on the parliament, 
 
 CHAP. XIII. 
 
 England France, and a neiv crusade under Lewis VIII Spain from 
 1007 to 1097, thence to 1303 some symptoms of order. 
 
 J265 Henry recovers his throne, and Leicester is ilain, . . 131 
 
 1270 Prince Kdward engages in the holy war with success, " 
 
 1271 Returns and succeeds his father upon his death, . . 132 
 Philip of France leaves his throne to Lewis VII. . . 133 
 
 1226 Who in his turn leaves it to Lewis IX. a minor, ..." 
 
 1235 Lewis comes to the throne, and engages in the holy wars, with his queen, 
 
 three brothers, and all the knights of France, ... . 134 
 
 1248 Lands in ttpypt, and takes the city of Damietta, . " 
 
 1249 Is defeated and taken in the fatal battle of Massouro, is ransomed by treaty, 
 
 and 1000 pieces of gold, with all the captives, and retires to Palestine for 
 
 four years, ..... . 
 
 1258 Returns to France to settle the mobs of the kingdom, 
 
 Is created sole umpire in the fends of England, . " 
 
 1264 Enters upon a crusade against the infidels of Africa, loses his eldest son with 
 1271 the plague, dies himself, and his second son leads back his army to France, " 
 
 Character of Lewis, . " 
 
 1073 Spain, and the rigVof Knight-errantry, from 1073 to the sequestration of 
 1147 Portugal, under Don Henriquez, . . . " 
 
 Spain continued, her conflicts with the Moors, . . 136 
 
 1212 Battle of the Black mountains, . . . 136 
 
 1236 Rise of Ferdinand III or St Ferdinand his conquests and death, 
 
 1252 Alphonso the wise succeeds his reign and death, . . " 
 
 1308 Saucho his son succeeds his tranquil reign and death, . . " 
 
 Ferdinand IV his son succeeds his turbulent reign and extraordinary death, 136 
 
 Remarks upon chivalry and the crusades. 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 England, under Edward I. affairs of Scotland Edward II. 
 
 1274 h:dward I succeeds his father, . . 137 
 
 Subdues Wales, and destroys their bards, . 
 
 1291 Subdues Scotland by stratagem, . 139 
 
 1295 Borough elections established in the house of commons, in England, 
 Rercarks on ovramont, 
 
 1296 Conquest of Scotland, by Edward I. . " 
 He compels the ler;y to furnish supplies. 
 
 Is obliged to abandon his enactions, and add one more article to the great 
 
 charter to rtstore tranquility, *' 
 
 Edward's ambitious plans against France, opens the way for a rebellion in 
 Scotland the Scots eipel the English in their turn - are again subdued by 
 Kdward, and William Wallace, their chief, taken and executed, 
 )305 Rebellion again renewed, under Robert Biuce, and the English agai ex. 
 
 pell.d. 140 
 
 1307 * d ward enters Scotland in triumph dies, and leaves hu throne to his son, 
 
 Kdward II ... 141 
 
 Who abandon* the enterprise of hi* father, 
 
 1303 And the Scots restore their powr, undr Robert Brace, who invades Eng- 
 
 Innd which rouses Edward II. to the conqnest of Scotland, . . " 
 
 1314 Thr English are d-fHtd, and fl.e ; and the Scots uuder Robert Bruce again 
 *rm-r England. *nd invade Ireland. 
 
 1323 Force peace, and secnr* their !'br!ips. 
 
 1327 Civil wars of England, here follow 'he death of Edward, 
 34* 
 
394 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 Germany and Switzerland Italy France KnigJds Templars. 
 
 A. E> Pae- 
 
 1292 Rodolph of Hapsburg, and the rise of the bouse of Austria, 
 1179 Death of Rodolph, . ... ., 
 
 1292 The succession of Adolpbus of Nassau, and Albert duke of Austria, 
 
 1298 Triumph of Albert, at the battle of Rosendel, and his coronation, - 
 
 J308 Revolution and liberties of Switzerland, ,, 
 
 Death of Albert, and succession of Henry VII. . 140 
 
 Affairs of Italy, . . , . . . ,. 
 
 1313 Death of Henry VII . . 
 
 Knights of the Teutonic order, purchase Dantzic, <$-c. . . ,, 
 
 France, during these struggles, had been involved in war, under Philip III. 
 
 on account of the crown of Sicily, . . 144 
 
 J282 Massacre of the Sicilian Vespeis, . . t , 
 
 )2<-5 Philip III attempts the re.covery of Sicily fails and dies. His son Philip 
 IV. succeeds to the throne of France institutes parliaments upon the plan 
 of Edward I. of England, . . . 
 
 !303 Quarrels with the pope and c ergy burns the pope's bull summons his 
 
 first parliament, who support the kin?. u 
 
 Boniface die* of chagrin Benedict IX succeeds is poisoned for bis good 
 
 deedg. and leaves his chair to Clement V. a Fienchman, . 145 
 
 S310 Philip, the pope and states of Europe, persecute and destroy the Knights 
 J312 Templars, 
 
 H14 Philip dies, and is succeeded b his son, Lewis X . . 
 
 ;316 Who dies after a short, but cruel and avaricious rei^n, , 
 
 CHAP. XVI. 
 
 France and the Salic law England and Scotland England and France- 
 battle of Cressy. 
 \. D 
 
 1328 The origin of the Salic law examined succession of Philip de Valois, 145 
 
 1330 Edward III punishes the mal-administration of earl Mortimer and the queen 
 
 mother, and restore.- tranquility, . . 147 
 
 .13J Raises Edward Baliol from a French prison, to the throne of Scotland, 
 
 133,? He is expelled, and flies into England, . .', 
 
 1334 i-.dward, by the sword, again restores Baliol to his throne, and receives the 
 
 submission of Scotland, ..... u 
 
 1336 The >cots a :rain expel BalioS, and France supports the insurrection, 
 
 1338 Edward nuts in hi', clain.s to i.he crown of France, opens hisjnegoeiations in 
 
 the Low Countries, o r Plunders, and invades France, . . 143 
 
 1339 Edward is successful against the French at cea. . . .. 
 
 1340 He again invades France, with his allies in Flanders, and challenges Philip, 
 
 which produces a truce, . . 149 
 
 3343 The truce displays the talents of the countess of Mountfort in the defence of 
 
 the province of Brittany i . . 
 
 1946 Edward by tht % assistance of his parliament, is enabled again to enter France 
 
 passage of the Sornme, artd battle of Cressy use of cannon, . 150 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 England and Scotland general plague invasion of France by Edward 
 
 ///. battle ofPoictiers civil wars of France peace and conditions. 
 A. D. 
 
 1346 Bruce, king- o Scotland, at the instigation of Philip, king of France, enters 
 
 England victorious, 151 
 
 Edward invade^ France, to support his claim to ihe crown, and his queen 
 Hhilipp* ?a ns a battle over the Scots takes David their kiug and all his 
 
 court pn* .:>"" s. . . '' 
 
 1347 Phili t 'pa joins Edward in France. an<5 they take Calais, . " 
 '348 Kdwar'd .-'ttlfis a peac-% md returns to Enirlard, . . " 
 iS50 Chaiactir 'f the English Couit and order of the srnrter, . " 
 
 General plague throughout the world; Philip VI. dies; IS? 
 
CONTENTS. 395 
 
 A, D. Pa ? e 
 
 Civil war in France under Charies the bad, 15 : J 
 
 Edward renews th war in this distre-K, and the Prince of Wales fains 
 the battle of Poictiers, takes John, king of France, prisoner, and conveys 
 1356 him under a truce, with respectful dignity, into Kns;Iarid, . 
 
 Charles attempts to rule amidst the distractions of the civil wars and massa- 
 cres under Marcel, provost of Paristhe poor against the rich 611 France 
 with wretchedness, until the death of Marcel enables the dauphin to re- 
 store order again, ... 153 
 1359 Edward the black prince again enters France, and takes advantage of Ihesc 
 
 distresses, to mak". a favourable peace, restores John to his throne, . " 
 1364 Who again returns to England to revise the treaty, and die, . ' 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Particular remarks affairs of France and Spain Black Prince renews 
 
 the ivar with France battle of champions Germany and Italy. 
 A. D. 
 
 Remarks on the last chapter, . . . 15-1 
 
 Accession of Charles V his difficulties, 
 
 Charles lends Im aid to quiet the civil wars of Spain, 155 
 
 Du Guesclin and pope Innocent VI contend, and Innocent yields to his -de- 
 mands, ..... . " 
 
 Edward enters Spain with 100,000 men, gains the battle of Najara, on the 
 Ebro, and restores Peter I to his throne, . . " 
 
 1376 Edward's affairs decline in France, and with his death the English lose 
 
 nearly all tbetr possessions in France, . . . 156 
 
 1377 Edward III. dies in England, 
 
 The civil wars continue to rage in Germany, thirty competitors appear to de- 
 cide the controversy between Frederick, duke of Bavaria, and Lewis duke 
 of Austria ; every man falls into the conflict, the armies engage, and Lew- 
 is is triumphant, . " 
 
 Switzerland secures her liberty at the same, time, and the council of Frank- 
 fort, check the insolence of the popes. The struggles continue until the diet 
 ofNuremburg, by their golden bull, quiet the feuds of the imperial elections 157 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 Affairs of England under Richard II. and Henry IV. Scotland Ger- 
 many and the states of Italycouncil of Constance. 
 A. D. 
 
 Remarks accession of Richard II. *tate of his treasury, . 158 
 
 The poll tax causes an insurrection under Wat Tyler, 159 
 
 Richard lays the storm, upon the death of Tyler, by abolishing feudal vas- 
 salage in F.ngland, " 
 1399 Richard died, and is succeeded by the duke of Lancaster, as Henry IV. by a 
 
 bloody usurpation, ..,..' 
 
 MOO He persecutes Wickliff and his followers, . 
 
 1403 This kindles a civil war, which is quelled with severity. . 160 
 
 1393 The papal contests between Urban VI and Mement III. verr severe in Italy 
 
 and involve the states of Germany, and the kingdom of Naples, . " 
 
 1383 Margaret, queen of Denmark, seizes on Sweden, . . " 
 
 Winceslaus. emperor of Germany dies Fiederick, duke of Brunswick, suc- 
 1399 ceeds is murdered, and Uober'. cr>um palatin-, of the Rhine succeed', " 
 John Huss, a disciple of Wicklitf, appears in Bohemia, and tbtowsth'- church 
 into great confusion, and occasion^ she council of f'atalonia, Aqnila, Pisa, 
 Frankfort and Constance, . . 161 
 
 1411 Sigigijfrund succeeds to the throne upon the death of Robert, 
 
396 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 Affairs of Germany of England of France. 
 
 Remarks the council of Constance, . . . 
 
 Sigismund the emperor repairs to Spain, to settle the papal feuds with Bene- 
 dict XIII. ... . . 
 Martin V elected Pope, . . . u 
 1436 Insurrections and murders in Bohemia, . . . 
 J438 Si^ismund leaves the imperial throne to Albert, duke of Austria, together with 
 
 the crown of Bohemia, . . . . t 
 
 Fnince distracted under Charles VI. . . . . 
 
 H13 Henry IV. of England dies in the midst of feuds, and leaves his throne to 
 
 Henry V. who suppresses the Lollards, or followers of Wickliff, . " 
 
 1415 Henry iriv-ades Fiance, and gais the battle of Agincourt, returns to Eng- 
 land, and leaves France torn with feuds, . . J63 
 1420 Henry returns to France, seizes the government, and marries the princess 
 
 Cathayne, . ....< 
 
 Henry dies, and leaves the throne of France in the hands of his brother duke 
 
 of Bedford, as regent for his infant son, Henry VI Charles VI. dies, and 
 
 his son. Charles VII. is crowned at Poictiers, . . 
 
 Catharine marries sir Owen Tudor, and bears the dukes of Richmond and 
 
 Pembroke, . . 164 
 
 J429 The duke of Bedford presses the affairs of Charles VII and lays seige to the 
 
 city of Orleans, .....' 
 
 Affair of the maid of rieans, . . . 165 
 
 1431 Her successes, misfortunes, capture and death, . . . 166 
 
 1435 Death of the duke of Bedford, ..." 
 
 1453 Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Calais, . 
 
 1439 Frfederick III. succeeds to the throne of Germany, after the short rei^n of 
 Albert, ... .... 
 
 1441 Visits the council of Basil .... . 
 
 1452 Visits Italy is crowned at Rome, and married, . . . 167 
 The Turks take Constantinople General remarks, . ; 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Recapitulation civil ivars in England of France war in Flanders. 
 A. D. 
 
 Remarks . ... 168 
 
 1450 Ric-bard, duke of York, and Henry VI. contend for the crown of England, 
 Fall of the dukes of Glouce "er and Suffolk, . . 
 
 1458 Henry VI. taken by Richard, in a fatal battle, and a general accommoda- 
 
 " lion" follows, . . . 
 
 1459 Civil war renewed Richard fines to Ireland returns to England, and falls 
 
 in the battle of AVakefield, 169 
 
 Kdward IV his son, appears with a strong force to support the claims in right 
 of his father, . . . 170 
 
 1464 Is crowned at London, .... 
 The action of Towtown, between Henry VI. and Margaret his queen, and 
 
 Edward IV commences the exterminating scene of no quarter, and drives 
 Henry and Margaret into Scotland. Margarst collects an army in Scot- 
 land adrances into England, fights the battle of Hexham, is beaten, and 
 escapes to France, . .... 
 
 1465 Henry is taken and confined in thu tower, .... 
 
 1470 Civil wai continnes, and Henry VI recovers his throne. Edward again re- 
 
 covers bis crown and capital, after another battle of extermination and no 
 quarter, , . , . . . .171 
 
 1471 Hnry VI dies, ...... 
 
 Edward invades France successfully, and quiets the feuds of England, by the 
 
 death of the duke of Clarence, . . 
 
 1483 Dies, and leaves hi-; throne to Edward V. at thirteen years of age, 
 Richard duke of Gloucester is chosen regent, and usurps the throne, by his 
 
 bloody power, as Richard III . . 
 
 1484 Henry VII defeats Richard in the battle of Bosworth, and recovers the 
 
 crown to the true line, ur.der the new dynasty of the house of Tudor, " 
 
 1453 Charles VII. king of France, at this time establishes a regular conscription 
 
 ID France, . . i'K 
 
CONTENTS. 397 
 
 A. D. Pa e 
 
 1461 Lewis XI. causes the death of his father, usurps the throne, and reigns in the 
 
 midtit of feuds, civil wars and cruelty. . . . 172 
 
 1485 Dies a horrid death his son Chailea Vlll. succeeds, . . 
 
 CHAP. XXIK 
 
 4 general view of Europe league of Chambray commencement of the 
 
 reformation 
 &..T). 
 
 14H1 Charles VIII. unites the duchy of Brittany to bis crown by marriage, 173 
 
 1464 Ferdinand and Isabella unite the crown of Castile and Arragon, in Spain by 
 
 a like marriage, . . . . . . 
 
 1485 Henry VI quiets the civil wars in England, by a marriage with the princess 
 
 Elizabeth, . ... 
 
 Maximilian quiets the feuds of Germany, by the court of the imperial cham- 
 ber, 
 
 1495 Charles VIII. lays the foundation of those coalitions which have preserved 
 
 the balance of power in Europe, . . . 174 
 
 1498 He dies Lewis XII. succeeds to the throne, and recovers the province of 
 
 Brittany from Henry VII. . . . 
 
 1608 The /eague of Chambray formed, by pope Julius II. to humble the state of Ve- 
 nice. ....... 175 
 
 Character of that state, . > 
 
 Julius arms the confederacy against Lewis XII with the aid of Henry VIII. 
 ofKnjIand, . . . . 
 
 1513 Lewis is expelled from Italy, and Henry VIII. in coalition with Maxamilian, 
 invade France on the side of Flanders, which forms the first coalition of 
 England and Germany in Flanders, . . . < 
 
 Lewis dies, and is succeeded by Francis I. ..." 
 
 J516 Ferdinand king of Spain, dies, and is succeeded by Charles V. . ]76 
 
 3517 Martin Luther fills up the bright constellation of Europe, and opens the way 
 for the spread of the Gospel, < 
 
 CHAP. XXIII. 
 
 General state of society, commerce^ navigation and the arts in Europe 
 foreign adventures and discoveries reformation continued. 
 
 \.B. 
 
 1139 Alphonfo Henrique, sequesters the Kingdom of Portugal, . 177 
 
 14&8 His successors become nmigaton and adventurers until Emmanuel I. sends 
 a fleet under Vasce de Gama, and discovers Him!os>tan the voyage suc- 
 cessful. ..... . .t 
 
 1500 Emmanuel sends a second Heel to India, they di-L'ovcr Brazil in South Amer- 
 ica, and repair to India, . . " 
 
 1513 This*voyaje securer to the Portuguese the rorr.rnerce cf India, 178 
 
 1520 All the maritime states cf F.urop", engage in this commerce, Martin Luther 
 continue* bis successful label s, in publishing the gospel, in defiance of the 
 diet of \Vorm.=^ ... . . " 
 
 Charles V a^-sernbles tht- diet of Spires, to suppress the doctrines of Luther, 
 this occasion* a general protr.st p<r:unnt their decrees, ji-.-es to ihe refor- 
 mers the name of prot.estams and lends IQ tho confession of Augsburg, by 
 Meloncihon, which served as a rallying (mint for the reformers, 179 
 
 1524 The strife for supremacy, between Krancis I and Char]-; V". upon the thea- 
 tre of Italy, terminates in the defeat and capture of Francis, at the seige of 
 Pavin, 
 
 Henry VIII obtain* the till* of defender of the t'.iitf-, from the pope ; but by 
 an open quarrri, severs the kingdom of England !'roii tltt- holy see, estab- 
 lishes the epi-coral church, ami dissolves all mor,at''c institution* io Eng- 
 land, . . 
 . ..1 Henry becomes very fickle and cruel, in his morringe relations ; discloses the 
 principles of his religious faith, and dies a ca' !. 
 
398 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XXIV. 
 
 
 Affairs of Germany of England F/a/.ce Massacre of St. SarthoU- 
 
 ueiv. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 The union of the protestant? under the confesm'on of Au^sbiirs^. m<l Ipa^ii' 1 of 
 Su.alkalde, supports their cause ag;i.nt the d-iect aitac's of th 
 power, and the insiduous attacks of the interim:, of Charles V. of Spain, 186 
 
 1546 Luther die-, m the midst of his aiicce-sfiil 1 . tjors 
 155? Prince Maurice supports the profeatant ta'i'e it, Gcrniany, . 
 
 1547 Dm ing the minority of Edwaid VI. >on and surcessor of 'lenry VIII. a war 
 
 commences between Knjrland and Scotland, which confirms the reformation 
 
 in England as it now Hands . . 181 
 
 1553 Edward VI d.es and lady Jane Oi ay succeeds, expressly ^-pinst thu w'll of 
 
 Henry VIII and spils the best blood of the nation, and brings Marv to the 
 throne . . . " . 
 
 1554 She reigns in bloody persecution against the Protestants five years, and by 
 
 her death makes w;iy for the illustrious reigrn of Elixab'th," . " 
 
 Upon the accession of Mary, Charles V of Spain leaves his tii one !o his son 
 Philip II. and retires to private life, and Philip marries queen M-IV " 
 
 1559 The reformation supported universally by Elizabeth, and confirmed in Eng- 
 land and Scotland. . . . 182 
 
 1565 Mary queen of Scots, marries Francis 'I of France, and upon hi* drath re 
 turns to Scotland, where she, attempts to suppress the reformation; bnt 
 fails, marries lord Darnley, by w-.orn she has om son, J ara^s VI. 85 
 
 1568 Upon the death of her husba'hd," compelled to flee into Englani to her sister 
 
 Elizabeth for succour, where she languishes in prison, . . " 
 
 1572 Charles IX, of France, v ho succeeded FrancisII. causes the massacre of St. 
 
 Bartholomew, . . . < 
 
 J574 Charles IX, dies of a horrid disease, . . , " 
 
 1587 Mary, queen of Scots, tried, condemned and executed, . ' 
 
 CHAP. XXV. 
 
 Affairs of the reformation generally Spanish Armada Remarks. 
 A. r>. 
 
 1557 The Emperor Ferdinand succeeds Charles V. . . 184 
 
 1561 And calls the council of Treqt, to heal the feuds of the chuch, . 
 
 1564 Maxarnilian II. succeeds upn the death of Ferdinand, . . 
 
 1588 Philip 11. invades England by his invincible Armada, which is wholly lost 
 
 and destroyed, ..... 
 
 1589 Henry III of France, supports the Protestants is assassinated by a Domican 
 
 Friar, and is succeeded by Henry IV. who supports Uie Protestants 185 
 
 1598 And publishes the edict of Nantz, and settles a jieace with Philip II. king of 
 
 Spain, .......' 
 
 1599 Pbfl'.p I.I. dies and is succeeded by Philip III. . 
 
 1609 Ph;lip III. closes the war in Holland by a truce of twelve years, and expels 
 
 '.he Moors from Spain, . ' 
 
 1601 Ifpon the deafh of Phtiip )F, diesqu^en Elizabeth, and is succeeded by James 
 
 VI- of Scotland -on of Wary, and first kin^ of Great Britwin, as James I. 
 
 1610 Hnry IV. forms the plan of an European Pepub'ic, with France at its head, 
 
 and assassinated by a Monk. Lewis XIII mcceeds to the throne, 186 
 
 16-21 Pisln-P'-n? c.-ne, between the e van^f-lica' union, and the catholic League, 
 
 vrhicM rage (hfortgh thereifnof PnHip III. " 
 
 IBS* And ibrou^h the ceig-noCCevin XIII . " 
 
 S4? Then xmO- r L v. i riV to the peace of Westphalia, when the Union tri- 
 umphs over the League, ... , 
 

 CONTENTS. 39J) 
 
 CHAP. XXVI. 
 
 Reformation continued Great-Britain under James L under Charles L 
 
 1605 
 
 .larnr* I the first of the House of Stewart, gives offence to the Puritans and 
 Catholics, which occasions the gunpowder plot, so called, which is detected 
 
 , . . ,07 
 
 1625 Jmips kin<U afire in the church by his violent religious measures, and by 
 his proposed match for hi* son Charles, which opens the controversy of 
 privilege and pr-roffative. which Charles, at his accession attempts to quiet 
 
 ifiqn nZ? dlssokln S bis parliament, . . . J89 
 
 1 his quarrel increased by the violence of the duke of Buckingham, and arch- 
 bishop Laud, ... .1. 
 
 i*V And P roduces a civil war, which brings to the block the Earl of Slraffbrd, 19 1 
 
 44 j\e*t Aier.bishopLaud, 
 
 1649 Then the execution of the king, and the trin/i.ph of the Commonwealth " 
 
 CHAP. XXVII. 
 
 Great-Britain under Oliver Cromwell Charles II France under 
 
 Le-wis XIV. 
 A. D. 
 1660 Character of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell Character of Rich- 
 
 ard Cromwell at the accession of Charles II, Character of Charles II hig 
 
 severity toward the reformation in Scotland i- checked bv the Polish plot, 192 
 1676 Charles becomes tributary to Lewis XIV. to become independent of his refrac- 
 
 tory parliament, .... . J93 
 
 1683 His despotic sway occasions the Rye-house plot, to restore the Commonwealth, 
 
 which occasions the borough elections, . 
 
 J685 Charles dies a Catholic James II duke of York, and brother to Charles suc- 
 
 ceeds Remarks, .... 
 
 1643 Affairs of France upon th accession of Lewis XIV. his character, and ambi- 
 
 tious wars in Flanders, f .... 194 
 
 1678 And triumphs at th* peace of Nimeguen . . . 
 
 CHAP. XXVIII. 
 
 France continued Europe generally League ofrfugsburgh Remarks. 
 A. D. 
 
 1683 Lewis XIV excites a war of the Turk' aprnins! Austria, . 195 
 
 John Sobieski, king of Polund, relieves Vienna. . 
 
 Lewis concludes a peace with ?p<<jn, and the emperor and augments his fleets " 
 The Mrength of Lewis fall* with the death of his m inister Colbert " 
 
 1685 Lewis revoke* the edicts of Nant/, and gives up the Protestants to extermina- 
 
 tion, . . . '-98 
 
 1686 Thay flee from France , and ruin the manufacturing interest. " 
 
 1687 Lew'is hiunbles Pope Innocent XI and the Protestants form the League of 
 
 Augsburg Remarks. 1 97 
 
 CHAP. XXIX. 
 
 England and Europe. generally, from the accession of James II. to the 
 ' rite of 'he order of the Jesuits. 
 
 1(185 James II. commences his rei;rn under the most unfavorable impressions, and 
 
 attempts the restoration n f Popery, . 193 
 
 1688 1 be nation resist, pnd incite Wil liarc, prince of Oranare. son-in-law to James, 
 
 io assume th fro-ernmnt He sets sail from Holland with a strong arma- 
 inpnt, is w-ll received in England and Scotland, 
 
 1689 James attempts to head an insurrection of the CathoKct io Ireland, failj and 
 
400 CONTENTS. 
 
 A. D- 
 
 flees to France, and William becomes party in the League of Augsburg, * S * 
 and the reformation again triumphs in England . 199 
 
 Lewis put* forth all his efforts, to resist the League of Augsburg : takes the 
 field in 1 landers, * t the head of a powerful army, and the war becomes 
 general, . ...... . 200 
 
 1697 Great display of talents, by Vauban, and the war closes by the peace of Rys- 
 
 wick Remarks, ... 
 
 CHAP. XXX. 
 
 Affairs of Europe generally northern confederacy capture of Gibral- 
 ter by the English. 
 
 General remarks, . . 201 
 
 1698 The Spanish succession, upon the declining health of Charles II. opens a 
 lt>99 new fieldof ambition and intrigue, by secret partition treaties, . 202 
 
 The grand confederacy of the north, opens a new drama, . " 
 
 1701 Charles II upon his death, confers his crown upon the young duke of Anjou 
 
 of the Bourbons, . . . . . 203 
 
 This produces the grand alliance and Lewis XIV. supports his grandson, . " 
 
 1702 Upon the death of James II Lewis XIV. supports the claims of his son, 
 
 James III to the English throne, . . ... 
 
 William proclaims war, anddi.es Queen Ann succeeds, and supports the war, ' 
 Lord Gdolphin and the Earl of Marlborough take the helm of the cabinet 
 
 and the field . .... 
 
 1704 'I he war rages generally in the south, and Gibralter is taken by the English, " 
 
 1705 The success of the war unites Englandand Scotland, and presses Lewis to 
 
 sue for peace, ,.... 
 
 CHAP. XXXI. 
 
 General affairs of Europe to the death of Lewis XIV. and the suppres 
 
 sion of the insurrection in Scotland. Remarks. 
 A. D 
 1707 Lewis XIV draws bills on his mint, and prosecutes the war, which rages 
 
 with various saccess until 17lO . . .20; 
 
 1710 Lewis again sues for peace, and obtains the conference of Gertruydenburg 
 
 this fails and the war rages, . - . 20 
 
 1711 Q,ueen Ann changes her ministry, and parties run high in England, a secret 
 
 treaty the result in consequence of the death of the emperor Joseph of 
 Germany, " 
 
 1713 The treaty of Utrecht signed March 31, . . 207 
 
 1714 Treatv of Rastadt with the emperor, March 6, ' 
 
 The 'English parliament offer a bounty on the head of James III. . 
 Queen Ann dies, and is succeeded by George I. 
 
 1715 Lewis XIV. dies, and is succeeded by Lewis XV and the duke of Orleans 
 
 takes the regency. . . 20: 
 
 General conspiracy in England and Scotland, in favor of James III. the pre- 
 tender, he ^landb in Scotland, is defeated andfhes to France, and George I, 
 secures the'throne, ..... " 
 
 General remarks, . . , . . 20' 
 
 CHAP. XXXII. 
 
 Europe from the commencement of the quadruple alliance, to the acces 
 
 sion of Francis I. of Austria. 
 A.D 
 
 1713 Quadruple alliance against Spain. , 
 
CONTENTS. 401 
 
 A.. Page 
 
 1719 Mississippi schema in France, and South Sea scheme in England, . 3)0 
 
 1723 The war rages generally until the death of the duke of Orleans opens the 
 
 way for the peace of Se villa, . . " 
 
 1727 George I. dies and is succeeded by his son, George II. ; Lewis XV. accedes 
 to the throne of France, and obtains for Stanislaus Leckzinski, ex-king of 
 Poland, the duchy of Lorrain, .... 211 
 
 1739 War between England and Spain, which becomes a war of plunder on the 
 
 water, . . . 
 
 1744 Lord Anson takes a Spanish galleon of Chili, and conveys the treasures by 
 
 way of China to England, . 
 
 The death of Charles VI. of Austria opens the way for the confederacy 
 against the empress Maria Theresa, . . . 212 
 
 1742 The elector of Bavaria is crowned king of Bohemia, and emperor of Germany, 
 
 as Charles Vll. ... 
 
 The allies take Prague, and upon the treaty of Breslaw, make a masterly 
 
 retreat, .... 213 
 
 Spain pushes the war in Italy, and the French sue for peace, which is re- 
 fused, . . . . 
 
 1744 This refusal kindles afresh the feuds in England, an* the claims of the pre- 
 tender are renewed, and his vast armaments for the invasion of England, 
 blockaded in France; a general peace concluded in favour of Maria 
 Theresa, and her husband the emperor Francis I. . ' 
 
 CHAP. XXXIII. 
 
 Europe, from the accession of George II. to the confederacy against the 
 
 king of Prussia, and war of 1756. 
 A. D. 
 
 1745 Charles III. son of Jamas III. the pretender, lands in Scotland without his 
 
 armament fights the battle of Cullodan, and flees again to France, . 214 
 Philip V dies, and is succeeded by Ferdinand VI. . 21* 
 
 1746 Prussia and Russia unite with England in the war, " 
 
 1747 Russia unites with Austria and Saiony, to invade Prussia War in Bohemia 
 
 and battle of Prague, . 
 
 1748 The war rages generally, and is closed by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 Remarks, 
 
 1754 Callissions in North America open the scene for the seven years war, . 21 S 
 
 1755 The English commence depredations upon French commerce, . . " 
 
 1756 France. Austria, Russia and Sweden unite against Prtssia, and the French 
 
 take Minorca, 
 '757 England receives German troops to repel a French invasion, 
 
 CHAP. XXXIV. 
 
 Ventral affair* of the seven years war in Europe, to the peate / Paris, 
 i. D. 
 
 This war raged generally with various success, and was closed in Europe, 
 
 by the peace of 1763. leaving the parties in statu quo, . lit 
 
 761 In the midst of this struggle, died Geerge II. and was succeeded by kit 
 grandsov, George III. 
 
 Remarks, 
 
 George III. becomes popular by prosecuting the war, 
 
 A congress assembled at Augsburg te settle the preliminaries f peace, and 
 other negotiation opened at London ; bat both failed, 29* 
 
 35 
 
402 CONTENTS. 
 
 A. D. V*tS* 
 
 1762 The family compact of the Bourbons in the courts of France and Spain kin- 
 
 dles the flame afresh, . 225 
 
 1763 The successes of England in the East and West Indies, force the peace of 
 
 Paris, and the peace of Hubertsburg, 
 
 Remarks. . . ... 
 
 1713 The bull Unigentus &o. . ... 
 
 1756 Lewis XV. &c . ... 
 
 Character of the age, . ... 
 
 CHAP. XXXV. 
 
 Discovery and settlement of North America, 
 
 1492 to 1812 Chronological summary of the discovery and settlement of America 
 
 and remarks, . . 229 to 235 
 
 1755 Causes that led to the old French war, . . 237 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. 
 
 General operations of the seven years war in America, to the peace of 
 1763 iviih some remarks. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Causes that led to the old French war, continued, . 287 
 
 Commencement of operations on the Ohio, and Monongahela, 
 
 1756 War omnences by a natal action in the gulf of St. Lawrenc*, - 238 
 
 1757 General Braddock's defeat at fort Duquesne, 
 
 The French take O.iwego, ... .239 
 
 And fort William Henry, ..... 
 
 1758 Louisburg takn Frohtenac fort taken, . 240 
 
 CHAP. XXXVI. CONTINUED. 
 
 1759 The French abandon Duqusne. Expedition by land and sea against 
 
 Canada, . . . 240 
 
 1759 Quebec taken, and the gallant Wolf, and the French general Montcalm both 
 
 slain, . . . . 241 
 
 Remarks, . .'"'.'. 
 
 1760 The French under De Levi attempt to recover Quebec, 243 
 Montreal, Canada, and all French America fall this year, and all further 
 
 operations, in America, cease. Remarks, 
 
 CHAP. XXXVII. 
 
 Causes which led to the American revolution General events to the in* 
 
 vasion of New- York. 
 A. D. 
 
 Remarks,^ ... 246 
 
 Chronological summary, . . . s . 
 
 1775 War commences. Battle of Lexington Remarks, . 248 
 
 Boston hcFJp.ged. and Ticonderogfa tab en, . . 247 
 
 Geoeial Congress at Philadelphia General Washington appointed com- 
 mander in ahief. and the British invested in Boston. Congress publish 
 their Manifesto, and prepare <n>riously for action. 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill and destruction of Cl:arle<*own Expedition by way 
 of Kpnnebcc, to Queber G< t Howe succeeds general Gage. Falnnouth 
 burnt F.xpt- diuon to rap\d;i under Gunera! Montgomery. The united 
 forces of Montgomery and Arnold commence an assault upon Quebec, and 
 foil Monti-ornery killed. . 2-W 
 
 J776 Genei-Ml Vashington fortifies the heights of T)orhefter which occasions gen- 
 era! Howe to evacuate Boston. General Washington withdraws from 
 Boston to New-York, aid meets genera Howe on Long-Isiaad, 
 
 
 iron 
 
CONTENTS. 403 
 
 CHAP. XXXVIII. 
 
 Revolution continued to the capture of general Prescolt at Rhode-Island ', 
 
 September 1777. 
 
 *.. D. Page 
 
 776 The British burn Norfolk, Vir British expedition to South Carolina fails 
 Lord Howe arriyes at New-York with a commission to settle a general or 
 separate peacu with the Colonies, . . . 25 f J 
 
 General Washington loses th action of Flatbush, and retreats off of Leng- 
 Island, retires from New-York, and invests the city. General Hovre di- 
 lodje general Washington, from hi position, gams the action of White 
 Plains, and takes the fort at Harlem and Kingsbridge General Wash- 
 ington, retired into New- Jersey, general Howe pursues, general Washing- 
 ton, retires in distress by forced marches, and crosses the Delaware at 
 Trenton, ... 251 
 
 Recrosses on the night of the 25th of December, and gains the battle of 
 Trenton, 262 
 
 General and extensive powers given to general Washington by Congress, and 
 
 the cause revises from deep despair, . . 
 
 1*77 General Washington continues offensive operations, and drives the British out 
 of .Yew- Jeisey. into New- York Sir Guy Carlton, and general Burgoyne 
 <lriv* the Americans out of Canada General Howe, in person, attempts 
 to surprise general WHsbinjjton in hit camp, but fails Governor Tryon, 
 by a sudden expedition, burns the American stores at Danbury General 
 How* embarks an army from New- York, upon a secret expedition Colo- 
 nel Barton, with a party of militia, surprises General Prescott and his aid, 
 *a Rhode-Island, and secure* their prisoners, . . . 253 
 
 CHAP. XXXIX. 
 
 Revolution continued, from the expedition of general Hotoe to Philadel- 
 phia, Sept. 1777, to the battle of Camdtn in North Carolina. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1777 General Howe enters Chesapeake Bay, and lands at Elk ferry General 
 Washington advances to meet him Battles of Chad's-ford and German- 
 town Capture of Philadelphia distresses of the American army, they 
 invent general Howe in Philadelphia. . . . 354 
 
 Gineral Rurgoyne, taken with all his army, . . 2i6 
 
 '778 France and Spain, enrage in the war Sir Henry Clinten, evacuates Phila- 
 delphia General Washington pursues him into New-Jersey gains the 
 battle of Monmoutb general Lee is cashiered, . > 
 
 Sir Henry regains New- York by forced marches A French fleet arrive on 
 the coast battle off Rhode Inland Anothe* French fleet arrive the 
 coast of South Corolina, co-operate with general Lincoln agaiast the Bri- 
 tish at Savannah, fail and withdraw, . . . 250 
 
 1780 Sir Henry Clinton, >-ith Lord Cornwallis. commence their southern expedi- 
 tion, and take Charleston, S. C. March 4. ... 257 
 
 General Green detached upon the southern command Marquis La Fayette 
 returns from France, with good tidings Lord Cornwallis subdues South 
 Carolina Sir Henry Clinton returns to New- York, . . ' 
 
 Congress redeem 200,000,000 dollars of paper money Lord Cornwallis pro- 
 ceeds' to Cttmdeo, in South Carolina, fights general Gates, and destroys his 
 army, . . . .253 
 
 CHAP. XL. 
 
 Revolution continued to the capture of Lord CorntvalUs at Yorktevtn, 
 
 October, 1781. 
 A. D. 
 1780 General Green succeeds general Gatei in th southen command, 259 
 
404 
 
 A. D. j 
 
 The whole Pennsylvania line revolt, under general Washington, 
 Jan. They are recovered to their duty. 
 1781 The war rapes in the south battle of the Cowpens, 
 
 Battle of Quilford General Green returns to North Carolina, fghts lord 
 Rawdon at Cairulen, and despairs of the cause, . . 261 
 
 General Green carries the war into South Carolina, 
 
 Lord Cornwallis advances into Virginia, where h is opposed by Marquis La 
 Fayette, general Wayne, and baron Steuben A French fleet arrives at 
 Newport. R. I Council of war at Hartford, Connecticut, 
 
 Arnold's conspiracy at West-Point Capture and execution of Major Andre 
 Siege of New- York French fleet is reinforced at Newport from France, 
 and put to sea ; meets the English fleet off the mouth of the Chesapeake, 
 gains an action, and invests lord Cornwallis at Torktown General Wash- 
 ington at the same time proceeds by land, and invests the British at York- 
 town, ... . . 
 mi Lord Gornwallii with all his army taken, Oct. 20th, 
 
 CHAP. XLL 
 
 General affairs of America, to the adoption and organization of tht Fe- 
 deral Constitution, March, 1789 Remarks. 
 A. D. 
 
 J781 Religious gratitude of the American army and nation, upon the capture of 
 
 Yorktown. ... . 264 
 
 The French fleet retire to the West Indies All the South is recovered ex- 
 cepting Charleston Desperate naval action in the West Indies Charles- 
 ton evacuated, and negocjations opened at Paris for peace, 
 
 General mutiny in the army of General Washington is quelled. . 266 
 
 1782 Peace is announced by a letter from the marquis la Fayette The British 
 
 evacuate New -York, . 
 
 General Washington exhibits his accounts to Congress Resigns, . 267 
 
 1788 The confederation proes insufficient in time of peace A general convention 
 
 frame and recommend, the federal constitution The several states adopt it, 268 
 
 1789 His Excellency General Washington, chosen president The honorable Jobs 
 
 Adams vice-president General good effects Remarks, . . " 
 
 CHAP. XLII. 
 
 . IJfairs of America continued war with Francepeace war -with Eng- 
 land peeice War with the Sarbary powers general peace, 1815 
 general remarks. 
 A. D. 
 
 J 789 Federal compact, and French revolution, . . 26* 
 
 1790 War with France Peace. . . " 
 
 1812 War with England general eperations, particularly at sea, 279 
 
 '.313 General Harrison retakes Detroit, and enters Canada victorious Commodore 
 
 Perry captures the whole British fleet upon Lake Erie. . 272 
 
 General Harrison triumphs over General Proctor Commodore Chuuncey 
 
 victorious on Lake Ontario . . " 
 
 1814 The British take Washington, &c. Commodore Macdonouph victorious at 
 
 Pl&tUburr, 
 
 ISIS General Jarkson defeats the British at New-OrleansPeace with England, 
 4th of February America declares war against Algiers, and forces a sub- 
 missive peace in four months, '*~'^ 
 Aeneral remarks, . . 
 

 CONTENTS. 405 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 CHAP. I. 
 
 Causes that led to the French revolution causes that led to the great 
 events -which controled it northern confederation against Stoeden rise 
 of Peter I. rise of Charles X II. character of Stoeden. Russia, Den- 
 mark and Polandinvasion of Denmark, and peacs siege of Narva 
 battle of Narva - battle of the Dioina intrigues of Charles XII in 
 Poland -character of the Polish nation and government intrigues of, 
 the arch bishop of Gresna Distracted state of Poland. 
 
 A. D. Pag, 
 
 1789 The reformation, in the midst of triumph, is called to endure new trials 
 
 General effects of infidelity, . . . 276 
 
 1697 Peter I. visits the south of Kurope Northern confederacy, . . 078 
 
 1700 Character of the northern powers, . . . 
 
 Charles XII. invades Denmark, and forces a peace, . . . , 280 
 
 Passes into Livonia, and gains the battle of Narva, . . 281 
 
 Augustus raises the seige of Riga, .... 283 
 
 1701 Charles XII. and general Stenace, fight the battle of the Dwina, . " 
 Character of the republic of Poland, . . . . 284 
 
 1702 General diet of Poland, . . . . .286 
 
 CHAP. IT. 
 
 .Augustus attempts a secret peace -with Charles XII battle of Cracow 
 battle of the bogivar in Polish Prussia ijitrigue* of the primate 
 Augustus deposed Stanislaus Leckzinski elected king capture of 
 I^eopold coronation of Stanislaus. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1702 The diet dissolve Charles XII. evades overtures for peace from Augustus, 
 
 and enters Warsaw, , . . . . 286 
 
 Charles routs Augustusnt the battle of Cracow, . . . 388 
 
 1703 Again at the river Bog carries the war into Polish Prussia, and levies 
 
 heavy contributions upon the chief to\vns, 
 
 1701 Deposes Augustus, and causes Stanislaus to be elected king of Poland, 289 
 
 1705 Parties become more violent, . . " 
 
 Charles caises Stanislaus and hit queen, to be crowned at Leopold, . 290 
 
 CHAP III. 
 
 Reduction of Narva, by Peter I. Peter commences the city of Peters- 
 burg Charles XII, enters Sajconii peart icith Augustus distresses of 
 Poland Charles XII, commences his march, into liussia battle of the 
 Berezina. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1704 Peter I. lays the foundation of Petersburg, . . 291 
 
 1705 Distresses of Poland, continued, . . . 892 
 
 1706 Charles enters Saiony, forces Augustus to a peace, levies enormous contribu- 
 
 tions, . 
 
 1707 Charles remains in Saxony and the distresses of Poland continue the duke 
 
 of Marlboronfh 'iait Charles XII. . 293 
 
 J703 Charles drives the Russians out of Poland, and commences his march for 
 
 Moscow, 294 
 
 Gains the battles of Boristhenes and Morass, comnwncen a treaty with M- 
 *r. rpa , ... 296 
 
 35* 
 
406 CONTENTS- 
 
 A.D. p, ge 
 
 1709 Passes the winter in the Ukrain, and loses his supplies iroia Sweden under 
 
 general Levenhaupt, . . 28i 
 
 Charles commences the siege of Pultowa, in May, and is wounded is defeat- 
 ed by the Czar, in July and flies into Turkey, . . . 297 
 Peter 1 'prosecutes the building of Petersburg, recovers Poland, and restores 
 Augustus to his crown Charles intrigues with the Sublime Porte, . 291 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 Peteter I. enters Moscow in triumph war between Turkey and Russia 
 perilous escape of Peter I. peace intrigues of Charles X//. battle 
 of Bender war rages in the Swedish provinces of Germany. 
 
 1710 Peter's triumphant entry of Moscow, . . . 299 
 
 1711 The Tizier declares war against Russia, . . 300 
 Perilous escape of Peter peace, . . . SOI 
 
 1712 Intrigues of Charles continued Battle of Bender, . . 30* 
 
 1713 War rages with violence in the Swedish provinces, . " 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 Charles XIL returns to Sweden defence of Stralsund naval operationt 
 upon the Baltic Peter I. enters Petersburg in triumph fall of Stral- 
 tund. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1714 Charles XII. leaves Turkey on his return to Sweden, 
 
 Peter gains a signal naval victory, and enters the port of Petersburg in tri- 
 umph, .... . 304 
 
 1715 The enemies of Charles invade his dominions, 
 Charles attempts the defence of Stralsund, and fails battle of the Island f 
 
 Rugen, .... 308 
 
 1716 Stralsund surrendered, 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 Invasion of Norway Baron De Gorts death of Charles XII peace 
 character of Peter I. and Charles XU. immediate causes of the French 
 revolution. 
 
 Charles XII. invades Norway, and fails Peter I. again visits France and 
 Holland Barren De Gortz turns the war, of the north into intrigue, 308 
 
 1717 Charles XII again invades Norway, and is killed before FrederishaH, 
 
 1718 Tke prince of Hesse leads back the army to Sweden peace with Denmark 
 
 ensues De Gortz is executed Ulrica Eleonora is elected queen, and con- 
 fers the erown upon her husband, the prince of Hesse, . . 3C 
 1721 Peace between Sweden and Russia, 
 
 Remarks upon Charles and Peter, and upon the causes of the French revo- 
 lution, . ... 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 Jansenisls and Jesuits assembly of the states-general revolution opened 
 Paris becomes one great mob the king a cypher flight of the king 
 convention formed new constitution, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1774 State of France, at the accession of Lewis XVI. 
 Quarrel of the JanseHists end Jessits c eat IBB* d, 
 
 
CONTENTS. 407 
 
 A. D. Pag 
 
 1789 Revolution commences, with the destruction of the Bastile, . . 312 
 
 1790 The national assembly assume ihe government, and the feinj is conducted 
 
 from Versailles to Fans, by 60,000 men, lodged in hit pala.ce, and held 
 under duress, . . .313 
 
 1791 The emigrants assemble in arms, on the frontier, and threaten an invasion, 
 
 which excites violence, and general alarm, . . 314 
 
 New constitution is tinished, . 3li 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 Lewis XVI. signs the new constitution clubs of the Feuillans and Jaco- 
 bins decrees of .the National Assembly treaty of Vienna. riots in 
 Paris coalition duke of Brunswick flight of the king. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1792 Speech of Lewis XVI. when he signs the constitution general feslirity of 
 
 Paris, . . . .316 
 
 New legislative assembly the Jacobin club arise upon the ruins of Feuillans, 317 
 Ctndorcet's maifesto Convention between the kings of Prussia and Bohe- 
 mia. . . 318 
 Organization of the relutionary tribunal Invention of the guillotine, 319 
 New political logic, " the end justifies the means," great mob in Paris, 
 
 June -iO, ..-.;., . . 
 
 Duke of Brunswick takes the field against France, which causes the deposi- 
 tion of the king, . . 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 Mob of the 10th of August bold measures of the assembly Doumourier 
 La Fayette massacres National Convention trial of Lewis XVI. 
 condemnation. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1792 Twenty-five thousand fall in the massacre of the 10th of August Decree of 
 
 the assembly, for the call of a convention, . 320 
 
 The king and royal family confined in the Temple Marquis La Fayette 
 denounced, flies, and imprisoned in Olmutz The Old quarrel of Jansenist 
 and Jesuits breaks out in the memorable mob of Paris, Sept. 2, 
 Massacre at Orleans Germany declares war against France, . . 322 
 
 The Convention commences their sitting, and appoints a committee to frame a 
 
 new constitution, . . 323 
 
 Jan 1793 They call Lewis XVI. to their bar, try and condemn him, 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 Execution of Lewis XVI. violence of the Convention Charlotte Corde 
 
 trial and execution of the Queen triumplis of Philosophy. 
 A.D. 
 
 1793 Horrors of the awful 2lst of January, . . S25 
 
 Execution of the king assassination of La Pallitiere, 
 Assassination of Murat, by Charlotte Corde Arrest, trial and condemnation 
 
 of the queen, . . . 376 
 
 Execution of the queen. February 16, ... 327 
 
 The schools of the Jesuits and Philosophers, unite in the Jacobin club, and 
 become the instruments of their own ruin General distress of the cation, 
 particularly in La Vendee The convention decree, " no God, and death 
 D eternal sleep." . . . 32* 
 
408 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 Insurrection of La Vendee fall of Robespierre grand armistice of La 
 Vendee Jacobin insurrection death of Lewis, son of the king new 
 constitution revolution in Holland. 
 
 A. D Page 
 
 1794 War continues to rage in La Vendee Triumph of philosophy, . 329 
 Carrier's report on the Vendeean War Fall of Robespierre and Tmrille, 330 
 Rhapsody of Geraud, . . 
 
 1795 Arruijtiee in La Vendee, and report of Carnot, . 331 
 Horrors of Paris and of the convention, " 
 New constitution and murder of the dauphin, . 332 
 
 1796 The princess Maria Antoniette sent to Vienna, . * 
 Grand revolution in Holland, . . " 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 State of France movement of the armies Napoleon Bonaparte -peace 
 with Spain conquests in Italy Milan. 
 
 Recapitulation, . ... 
 
 1794 Conquests of Belgium, under general Dumourier, . . 334 
 He leries contributions, rifles their churches ; which raise insurrections, and 
 
 loses the conquests, *' 
 
 1795 General Pichegru succeeds Dumourier, and subdues Holland, " 
 
 1796 General Moreau succeeds Pichegru, and invades Germany, . 336 
 View of the plan of the campaign, 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte becomes genera) in chief of the army of Italyinvades 
 
 Spain, and forces a pea.ce. 
 
 Invades Italy gaius the battles of Montenolte and Millesimo, . 39$ 
 
 Hi address to the cities of Milan and Pavia, . 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 Rattle of Castiglione bridge of Lodi panic of the 400 siege of Man- 
 tua campaign of the Rhine, Meuse and Moselle victories of print* 
 diaries fall ofKerl of Mantua. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1796 Action of Castiglione, and affair of Lodi, 
 Siege of Mantua, 
 
 Success of general Bonaparte over three successive armies, sent to the re- 
 lief of Mar.lua England senus lord Malmsbury to Paris, to negociate for 
 a peace which fails, . 
 
 Mantua is closely invested, . 
 
 Generals Moreau and Jourdan penetrate into Bavaria in triumph, over princ* 
 Charles, which calls forth a proclamation of the emperor of Germany, 
 
 Actions of Donawert and Nordingen compel prince Charles to cross tne Dan- 
 ube, .... 3<1( 
 
 General Moreau penetrates into the heart of Bavaria; but the successes of 
 prince Charles over general Jourdon, oblige them both to retire out of 
 Germany. a,nd recross the Rhine with a severe loss. 
 
 1797 The French sustain a siege in the fortress of Kehl forty days, and at last snr- 
 
 render to prince Charles by assault. 
 Mantua surrenders to general Bonaparte the same day, 
 
 CHAP. XIV. 
 
 Submission of the pope triumphs of the campaign treaty of 
 Formio -armament of Toulon capture of Malta battle of the tftt 
 
 ' Campi 
 the Ml, 
 
 
CONTENTS. 409 
 
 conquest of Egypt defeat at Acre general Bonaparte returns to 
 Egypt to France new coalition. 
 
 A. D. Pag 
 
 1797 Campaign closes, . . 341 
 
 The Pope becomes submissive, . 
 
 Gensial Bonaparte triumphs over prince Charles in the mountains of the Ty- 
 rol, and the emperor sues for peace, . . 343 
 Feb. 19. The peace of Campo Formio closes the war, and liberates the marquis La 
 
 Fayette from Olmutz Successes of the war, . " 
 
 1793 The popularity of Bonaparte causes the armament at Toulon, and expedition 
 
 to Egypt, . . 
 
 Battle of Aboukir, . . . 343 
 
 Capture of Alexandria, and conquest of Egypt,, invasion of Syria, and de- 
 feat at Acre, .... 344 
 1799 General Bonaparte returns to Egypt from thence to France ; there learns 
 
 the distresses arising from the new coalition, . 345 
 
 CHAP. XV. 
 
 General Surwarrow enters Italy battle of Switzerland invasion of 
 Holland general Bonaparte Jirst consn 1 b'tttle of Jlfarengo in- 
 fernal machine northern armed neutrality peatc of Luneville 
 war between Spain and Portugal battle of Copenhagen. 
 
 1799 The war is renewed generally, in Germany and Italy Stirwarrow i trium- 
 phant, until his tvetb?ovr in Switzerland by Massena, which pro^tss his 
 ruin, . . 846 
 
 The duke of York invades Holland, is unsuccessful, ana signs a convention 
 
 to save his army, 
 
 renera! Bonaparte, b< a revolution establishes a consular government, and 
 become-" first oousul for ten vears gain* the ba.tlt of Marngo and recov- 
 ers J;aiy. . 347 
 1300 This wilt-. ii -iiii r- -r in Germany causes the pei..-f oi' Paris, July, 348 
 
 Nortln 1 1. . -i >' I rfiil V. " 
 
 1801 Thr> I -ric ]-u>! Wrti- . uiiti' fh<> * -.u*.-* I peace of Lunetille, Jan. 28, " 
 Th- ,,!rl--N in.-'jL , ,.{ .nnriei lord K K< . 
 Egjipt rabdued, and araverfci pece .UBO?, Oct .A general embargo upon 
 
 the pow. -s of trip northern eonln! -,.;>, by Knviu.-id, produces a rupture 
 with !>-. rk, !.<ch rlo^es w>th the battie of Copenhagen, 
 Itussia declares wa< agaiii't France, 
 
 CtlAP. XVL 
 
 Revolution in St. Dorrin? .- ckat acier of the black chiefs tonquftt of 
 Hanover first consul choner, for fife made emperor of France 
 Austrian wm -fall of Vifuni. batt'e of Jlusterlitz yeaceicith Aiu- 
 tria war between England and Spain. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1802 The universal jieat-e opeT th way for the Coosnl of France, to snd tbe 
 
 army j-f Eyvpi out to St Domingo. i,n<lf r ^encrnl Le Clerc, to subdue the 
 Msrs of'libertv and f quality amer- tht blacki, . . 350 
 
 This ejpediff.n failVanH establishes the kingdom ot Hayti, 
 
 Characifr of the blac 1 * clii^fs Hiid government, 
 
 First Consul made Consul for life controuU the press, 
 
 Anerdotf of th* marquin La Fayelte. 
 
 1803 F.njiand declares war a<jaint Fraace. and rhe French take Hanover, . 
 1304 First Consul made emperor, i>y a ubcripti*-i- oie. 
 
 J305 Austria trengtb-ns her position at Ulm, and joins a new confederacy agamit 
 
 France. 
 
 The emporor Napoleon, by a sudden mo.ement, appears before Ulm, defeats 
 o-eneral Mac ; appears before Tienna. takes it , appear? in Moravia ; gains 
 Ike battle f Auttrlitz, ever tie mpcror of Rusiia ; settlei a peat, 
 
410 CONTENTS. 
 
 A. D. Page 
 
 returns in triumph to France ; again threateni England, ani rerolutioaizei 
 Holland, ; . 353 
 
 CHAP. XVII. 
 
 Emperor Napoleon on the throne of Charlemagne battle of Trafalgar 
 confix deration of the Rhine Prussian war battle of Jena ofEy- 
 lau of Friedland peace of Tilsit Berlin decree treaty of Fon- 
 tainb ! mu Bayonne decree fall of Charles IV. and Ferdinand V1L 
 capture of Madrid. 
 
 A.. D. 
 
 May 1. The emperor Napoleon crowned king of Italy and becomei the regular roc- 
 
 ceor of Charlemagne, . . 354 
 
 Oct 21 Rattle of Trafalgar, . . 
 
 1806 oufederation of the Rhine closes New coalition of England, Russia, and 
 
 Prussia against: France, 3S 
 
 The emperor Napoleon advances into Germany, and gains the battles of Jean, 
 Eylauand Friedlnnd. . 356 
 
 1807 Dictates the peace of Tilsit, and passes his Berlin decree, . 
 K".."..wd by tbe embargo in America, . . 357 
 
 18 8 Ictiigues with Spain for the reduction of Fortugul, seizes on the crown of 
 
 Spain, and places it upon his brother Joseph, . . 358 
 
 CHAP. XVIII. 
 
 Spanish Junta declare war Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain fall of 
 general Dupont conquest of Rome kingdom of Holland confer- 
 ence at Erfnrth battle ofCorvnna Austrian war b title of Ratis- 
 bonfall of Vienna battle ofLobau of Wagram -peace with Aus- 
 tria invasion of Holland by the English. 
 
 A. I). 
 
 Hasnacre at Madrid French and Spaniard* entar Lisbon, and the royal fam- 
 ilv retire to Brazil General Dupont is taken with his whole army, 
 which occasion* king Joseph to quit Madrid Th emperor Napoln 
 erects Hplland into a kingdom, places his brother Louis on the thron* 
 MefftJ th emperor Als*andert Erfarth, 
 
 Repairs o Spain, and gain* the. battle of Cerrunna, 3 fi( 
 
 J809 Wr <:otr;merces between Austria and Fiancn, 
 
 The en ,4eror Napoleon, by rapid movements, gains the battle of Ratisbon, 
 over prince Charles; lakei Vienna, loses the battle of Lobau, gain* the 
 b.mlf of Was; ram, and pursues the prince to Presburg, ^ 
 
 NOT. 8. Return* to Vienna, and dic'atet a peace to the emperor of Austria The 
 English take the island of Walcherea in Holland, 
 
 CHAP. XIX. 
 
 The imperial continental system divorce of the empress Josephine, am 
 marriage of Jll ?v> Louisa of Austria war with Spain icar if 
 Turkey war ; Portugal birth of the imperial heir of France pre 
 parations for the Russian war- America. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon returns to Fiance, and pres?s his continental system. SC 
 
 1809 Uiwcrii his \vife Josep'ine, and rnarriec the arch duchess, Maria Louisa of 
 
 1810 Austria, 
 
 phi^s for th- Russian war. l>y >-:( treaties with Austria >nd Prussia- 
 sends oRncral Msssena with "0 K'V in to sub'!!]*' Portugal War rages 
 n Spain and Portugal with . iiiious success Amount of the emperor Na- 
 oleen's fcrce Causes of the support of the English finds. 
 

 CONTENTS. 411 
 
 
 Page 
 AD imperial heir born to Napoleon Intrigues of Poland Union of Holland 
 
 with France, . . . 364 
 
 1811-12 War rage? in Spain and Portugal, with various success, . . 365 
 
 The whole Christian world, both in Europe and America, becomes one great 
 theatre of intrigue, and America joins the coalition against Russia, bj a 
 ar with .England, . . 377 
 
 CHAP. XX. 
 
 Commencement of the Russian war American wat movements in the 
 Russian war battle of Smolensk of Borodino fall and destruction 
 Moscow. 
 
 of 
 . D. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon assembles his army in Poland, for the Russian war, 367 
 Convention between Russia and England Mcvementi of the armies Battle 
 
 of Smolnk, .... 
 
 Battle of Borodino, .... 
 
 Capture and destruction of Moscow, . . . 369 
 
 CHAP. XXI. 
 
 Character of the Russians overtures of peace firmness of the emperor 
 Alexander views of Napoleon retreat of the French flight of No- 
 poleon destruction of the French army-i-the emperor Napoleon in 
 Paris again in Saxony, at the head of his new army battle of Ldp- 
 sic Napoleon in Paris successes of Lord Wellington restoration 
 of the family of Bourbon Napoleon at Elba Lord Wellington in 
 .Paris Napoleon in Paris battle of Waterloo Napoleon in Eng- 
 land at St. Helena Lewis X Vlti. again in Paris Lord Wel- 
 lington again in Paris the empress Maria Louisa, with her little 
 son at Milan. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1822 The emperor Napoleon makes overtures of peace in Moscow, which the empe- 
 
 ror Alexander rejects, . . . S7t 
 
 The rmpror Nap*leon begins bis retreat Deserts hig army at Krasnoy, and 
 flies to Paris ; and his urmy is ruined. . . 371 
 
 1813 Assembles a new army, and repairs to Saiony Meets the allies of Russia., 
 
 Adutria. Sweden anA I'russia Fights 1h battle of Leiptic, 372 
 
 And flies into France The allies pursue, enter France, to co-operate with 
 Lord Wellington, who had driven the French out. of Spain, in he siege of 
 Paris They take .Vapoleon and banish him to Elba In six monihs he is 
 again in Paris, at the head of the government Fi^hu the battle of Wa- 
 terloo fli*sinto France, resigns his crown, delivers fcimsulf op to the cap- 
 tain ofar. EnHish fii?'r, is convyed to EngUnd, sent to St He.ent for 
 life, and Lewis XVIII restored to his throne, protected by lord Wen":n- 
 ton. The empress Maria Louisa in Milan, with hr too, . 373 to 874 
 
 CHAP. XXII. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 18-20 Revolutions in Spain, 
 
 The Km? swear* to the Cffnstitution of 1812, 
 
 Rev.liitiori in Portugal, . . . . 3. 
 
 R rotation *ttmptd fa Ntpfot, 
 
 Revolution? in South Amoii< a, . . 
 
 1820 Resolution in Mexico, 
 1841 RevoltiMoa tte<n|>ied in England, 
 1321 Trial of the Q,ueen of Eugland, 
 
412 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1821 Death of the Q,en, 
 
 Coronation of George IV. 
 
 Death of Napolon, . 
 
 Insurrection in Turkey 
 
 War with Persia, 
 
 General prosperity of the U. S. 
 
 Peace with Spain, 
 
 Floridas ceded, and boundaries settled, 
 
 Great Canals, 
 
 376 
 
 377 
 
 THE ENB. 
 
AUTO. DISC. 
 
 
 
 1986 
 
24886 
 
 GENERAL LIBRARY - U.C. BERKELEY