LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Deceived /^RR 10 1893 . 189 
 ^Accessions No. ^O Q / _ . Class No. 
 
OCCASIONAL ADDEESSES 
 
 ON 
 
 EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS. 
 
HonUon: C. J. CLAY AND SONS, 
 
 CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, 
 
 AVE MAKIA LANE. 
 
 Cambrttofle: DEIGHTON, BELL, AND CO. 
 F. A. BROCKHATJS. 
 
OCCASIONAL ADDRESSES 
 
 ON 
 
 EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS 
 
 BY 
 
 S. S. LAURIE, A.M. (Edin.) t LL.D. (St And,} 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE INSTITUTES AND HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN THE 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE : 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 1888 
 
 [All Eights reserved.] 
 
LB77S- 
 L Bft 3 
 
 PRINTED BY 0. J. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS, 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 following addresses were delivered in response 
 to requests made to me from time to time, the 
 text of the discourse being frequently prescribed or, 
 at least, suggested. 
 
 I venture to print them in a volume because they 
 bear on questions under debate, and because a previous 
 and much larger collection was well received and left no 
 " remainder " in the Publisher's hands. 
 
 S. S. L. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, 
 October, 1888. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. The Eespective Functions in Education of Primary, 
 
 Secondary, and University Schools .... 1 
 
 II. Free Schooling 19 
 
 III. Professorships and Lectureships on Education . . 43 
 
 IV. Organization of the Curriculum of Secondary Schools . 59 
 
 V. Method applied to the teaching of Geography in the 
 
 School 83 
 
 VI. On the Eeligious Education of the Young . . . 106 
 
 VII. Liberal Education in the Primary School . . .124 
 
 VIII. Examinations : Emulation and Competition . . 144 
 
 IX. John Milton 164 
 
 X. Practical Hints on Class Management .... 190 
 
 Appendix. A Possible Code for Primary Schools . . . 197 
 
I. 
 
 THE RESPECTIVE FUNCTIONS IN EDUCATION OF 
 
 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND UNIVERSITY 
 
 SCHOOLS 1 . 
 
 EDUCATION is a big word as well as a great word. 
 It is a truism to say that it comprehends every in- 
 fluence that goes to the formation of a mind. No man 
 can give an account of it. A genuine autobiography 
 is an attempt to do so. But in this even a Goethe or 
 a Ruskin will fail. These men, like all others, owed as 
 much to those subtle influences which pass unnoticed 
 as to the more self-conscious experiences which it is 
 easy to record and estimate. We who have to do with 
 education professionally are apt to forget this, and to 
 exaggerate the influence of the school. We forget that 
 the ancient Persian presented to the eye of the world 
 a fine type of manhood, with no schooling at all, in our 
 sense of the word ; that the Greek leapt by one bound 
 into the van of humanity, and knew little but his 
 Homer, a few moral apophthegms, and his simple lyre; 
 that the Roman had unfolded all his greatest qualities, 
 
 1 Delivered to the Edinburgh Educational Conference of 1886. 
 L. L. 1 
 
2 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 and had proclaimed himself the coming master of the 
 world in arms and laws, with little or no literary in- 
 struction. It is not by the Latin or mathematics we 
 teach the boy that we make him a true or capable 
 man. It is by the life we present for his admiration 
 and acceptance in literature and history, and, above 
 all, by the life which we ourselves live before his eyes. 
 Our own lives, and the very movements and gestures 
 and exclamations which reveal our lives, are probably 
 the most potent of all influences in the education of 
 the young. 
 
 I may seem to you to have fallen suddenly in love 
 with the trite and the obvious, and, to have come to 
 this, that I would substitute for the philosophy of edu- 
 cation a few well-worn truisms and platitudes. But 
 the fact is that as one grows older, and has wandered 
 far and wide over the fields of educational controversy, 
 dwelt on the history of the education of the race, and 
 pondered the philosophy of the schools, one finds oneself 
 back again at the starting point in happy company 
 with the crystallised wisdom of the ages. The last 
 function of science can only be to enable us to see 
 truly what is already there before us to be seen, though 
 obscured with a veil : the last function of the philosophy 
 of education is to see the ancient facts of our moral 
 relations to each other, and the truth of the ancient 
 truisms to see truly what is often concealed by the 
 veil of words. 
 
 Accordingly, I am not ashamed to utter truisms, 
 and to reiterate that the formative power of the teacher 
 is not in what he teaches, but in what he is what he is, 
 first, consciously or unconsciously, in himself, as a living 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 3 
 
 and advancing mind, known of all men, and especially 
 of all boys, and what he is consciously to his pupils in 
 respect of educational aim, method, and manner. 
 
 These certainly are very general reflections, and yet 
 of very close and particular application. For if the end 
 of all our school-striving be not what our pupils ulti- 
 mately have, but what they finally are are, as recep- 
 tive beings in harmonious relation with the simplicity, 
 strength, and truth of nature, and as active helpful 
 beings endowed with sympathy, given to sacrifice, 
 subject to duty, courteous in bearing I say, if this be 
 so, what a multitude of practical lessons for the teacher 
 are implicit in such a conception ! 
 
 And let me, in this connexion, be strictly practical 
 for a moment, and ask the headmaster of an English 
 school, " Do you believe this that I have indicated to be 
 the true outcome of school work? Do you really believe? 
 You are a Hellenic and Roman scholar, and you are 
 probably a theologian, and know your Bible. Well, 
 then, if you believe it, is there any reason in the nature 
 of things why, for example, your boys should be kept 
 away from a knowledge of other nations and their com- 
 mercial and industrial relations with ourselves, and those 
 far-reaching lessons of humanity which such knowledge 
 suggests ? Is there any reason why the insular pride, 
 insolence and self-centered individualism of our British 
 boys sources these of much evil should not be modi- 
 fied by a knowledge of other nations of men and their 
 claims to our regard ? Can you truly promote what 
 you ostensibly accept as the true end, the life you admit 
 to be the true life, if you do not, by means of the facts 
 of human relations, lead the boys of wealthy parents to 
 
 12 
 
4 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 understand their dependence on the poor, and the true 
 significance of the co-operation of capital and labour ? 
 Can any good reason, again, be given why you should 
 not protect the boy's future life by giving him some 
 knowledge of his own frame ? Do you not call it on 
 Sundays, when you preach, the temple of the Spirit ? " 
 I am speaking of geography, economics and hygiene, 
 as subjects of a sound curriculum ; but on these a fifth 
 or sixth form boy would be held to waste his time ! 
 And so on I might go for pages, criticising existing 
 practice, in the light of general principles universally 
 admitted, and suggesting the materials to be used for 
 the making of a true man in so far as he can be made. 
 So potent are general truths, so keenly practical is a 
 principle, so penetrating are truisms. It is life that 
 truly educates us ; it is the revelation to the young 
 mind of moral and spiritual ideas in their prosaic, but 
 fruitful, relations to the hard facts and stern duties of 
 common day, which, we may presume, is the main pur- 
 pose of the great English public school, as of all schools. 
 Can any one who has looked at the records of our Law 
 Courts for the past seven or eight years believe that 
 this instruction is not needed ? Can any one believe 
 that it is continuously given ? 
 
 I shall now pass on to consider the bearing of this, 
 by no means, I hope, inapt or inept introduction, to the 
 special question which heads this address. 
 
 By the common consent of all nations, as well as 
 of physiologists, the life of the body and the mind of 
 man falls into three periods the period up to seven, 
 that of the infant school ; the period to 14, that of the 
 primary school ; and the period from 14 to 21, that of 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 5 
 
 the secondary school and the university. These, I 
 think, may again be subdivided thus to the age of 5, 
 the age of 5 to 7, from 7 to 11, from 11 to 14, from 14 
 to 18, from 18 to 21. But I do not propose to deal 
 here with these various subdivisions, but to confine 
 myself to the larger divisions which we have agreed 
 to call the primary, secondary, and university periods. 
 
 Now, let us get hold of some leading idea which 
 shall give us at once guidance and a criterion of judg- 
 ment at all these stages. That idea I believe to be 
 contained chiefly in the word NUTRITION. In the 
 primary stage nutrition of Feeling, inner and outer; 
 that is to say, of the emotions within and the realities 
 of sense without. And through these, training, with a 
 minimum of discipline. 
 
 In the secondary stage, Nutrition is again the 
 governing idea, now by means of the hard facts of life 
 and the presentation of concrete ideals; and through 
 these, a maximum of discipline. 
 
 In the university stage the idea is still Nutrition ; 
 but now through ideas, with self-discipline as the 
 necessary condition of the living apprehension of ideas. 
 
 And here it is necessary to distinguish between 
 training and discipline, terms often confounded. If I 
 carry a child through the explanation of any object of 
 knowledge, step by step, in the true logical order of that 
 explanation, and, repeating this again and again, finally 
 cause him to reproduce the process, I am calling into 
 activity his intellectual powers in the order in which 
 they alone can truly comprehend. I am thus training 
 him. If, on the other hand, I call upon him to apply 
 past knowledge to the explanation of some new thing, 
 
6 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 I discipline him. Let us take an illustration : the geo- 
 logist may explain to me a section of the earth's surface 
 by exhibiting in logical sequence the causes whose 
 operation have made it what it is. As often as I follow 
 him through this explanation my faculties are at work 
 in their natural order, and I am thereby trained. But 
 if the same geologist, knowing that he has conveyed to 
 me through his past instructions, principles, and causal 
 forces, takes me to a new section of country and calls on 
 me to map it and explain it, he disciplines me. Again, 
 in the moral sphere, which concerns doing under the 
 stimulus of motives, when I lead a child by the hand 
 and guide him to the feeling of the right motive and 
 to action in accordance with it, I train him. When I 
 throw him on his own resources, and, withdrawing my 
 fostering hand, call on him to do his duty, which means 
 to sacrifice inclination to the moral " ought " to offer 
 up self to virtue I discipline him. In intellectual and 
 moral training there is the following of a stronger on 
 whom the weaker leans ; in discipline there is the self- 
 exertion of will in the face of difficulties this will 
 being the root of our distinctive humanity. Training 
 may make a well-disposed youth, but it is discipline 
 alone that makes him strong, virile a will, a man. 
 Training is the peculiar function of the primary school. 
 Discipline, again, is the peculiar function of the second- 
 ary school. 
 
 When the primary and secondary schools have 
 attained their end, we have a great result ; but after 
 all, our pupil is, as yet, only a man among men, a 
 capable, upright citizen, it may be. That is all, though 
 much. He is fit for more than this, however. He can 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 7 
 
 rise above mere world-citizenship, and become a citizen 
 of a city not made with hands. The divine in him 
 his spirit-hood as distinguished from his mere man-hood 
 claims fellowship and kindred with God. He can rise 
 to the contemplation of ideas and regard them face to 
 face. The True is an idea it is the motive inspiration 
 of scientific inquiry ; the Beautiful is an idea it is the 
 subtle perception of the music of creation; the Good 
 is an idea it is the comprehension of the harmony of 
 the universal movement. When man attains to his full 
 stature and to communion with ideas, he raises his head 
 above the vaporous clouds of earth and breathes an 
 "ampler ether, a diviner air." He now begins to see 
 the cosmic order as truly a spiritual order, and return- 
 ing to the ordinary life of the citizen, he descends from 
 his Sinai not to despise the mean things of the daily 
 life, but now rather to see the God of the mountain-top 
 in them, and to illumine all with the light that comes 
 from within. He no longer sees with the eye of sense. 
 For him Nature is now bathed in " the light that never 
 was on sea or land," the glory of setting suns with all 
 its splendour is now to him only a dwelling-place for 
 the universal spirit, the infinite variety of nature only 
 the garment we see Him by. The living thought which 
 is all, and in all, now finds in the spirit of man a 
 responsive pulse. It is to sow the germs of this life of 
 the spirit, to foster this into adolescence, if not maturity, 
 that the university exists : to give food, nutrition of 
 this kind to supply the spiritual manna which will 
 never fail us as each morning we rise to a new day. 
 The discipline intellectual and moral peculiar to this 
 stage of education is essentially, however, se//-discipline. 
 
8 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 Such I conceive to be the three stages of education. 
 These be brave words, some of you may say, but what 
 guidance do they afford ? By what cunning application 
 can they be made to bear on the business of the teacher's 
 prosaic life ? The application will be apparent enough 
 to others. Depend on it, principles are the most prac- 
 tical, the most potent, of all things. They are inex- 
 haustible fountains of every-day detail. To pass on to 
 the farther elucidation of my text in the order above 
 indicated : 
 
 I. I have said that the chief aim of the primary 
 school is the nutrition of Feeling, inner and outer. 
 The child is receptive and his will is weak. This recep- 
 tivity is a wise provision of nature for future growth. 
 To all the primary sentiments which distinguish man, 
 the child is more open than the youth. You may 
 play what tune you please on his sensitive chords. 
 Let us take care that it is always a melody and not 
 a discord of jarring notes. No educational enthusiast 
 has ever yet exaggerated the impressionability of the 
 child, his capacity for the emotions which lie at the 
 basis of all our moral life. Love, tenderness, sympathy, 
 the desire of the approbation of others, veneration, nay, 
 even the spirit of sacrifice, and even a certain dim pre- 
 sentiment of the harmonious play of the nobler feelings 
 of human nature are all ready, nay, longing, to be 
 evoked into activity. Response is eager. It almost 
 anticipates appeals. What, after all, do our greatest 
 heroes show to the admiring crowd but simply these 
 primary sentiments gathered into a unity of life in 
 them, directed to some great purpose, furnishing the 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 9 
 
 motive-forces of their greatest deeds ? You have in 
 these primary feelings the source of all spiritual life. 
 Do not distrust them. Believe in them. The child 
 before you is not an incarnation of depravity. That is 
 an old-world fable. He is nearer God than you are. 
 Heaven lies about him. Christ did not say "of such 
 is the kingdom of heaven " to furnish a text for the 
 glosses and distortions of theologians in their bilious 
 moments. Depend upon it, He meant it. It is by the 
 watchful guidance and gentle admonition of the child 
 that you lead him to the right and good. You do not 
 supply motives for his daily acts, you evoke them out 
 of himself. They are there waiting to be turned to use. 
 It is your privilege to touch his spirit to fine issues. 
 Your business is to be watchful, but not meddlesome 
 and suspicious. The loving hand pointing the right 
 way, the upraised finger warning from the wrong path, 
 the supporting of the weak will with your strength, 
 these are your methods. To preach is futile ; food so 
 offered will be rejected. It is by the presentation to 
 the open mind of individual instances, the direction 
 and encouragement of individual acts in the common 
 things of life that you give the sustenance the child 
 needs ; above all by making yourself a particular in- 
 stance, always present to him, of kindliness, of justice, 
 of mercy, though not without the occasional anger that 
 "sins not." In such teaching, severity and harshness 
 are surely out of place. I often smile in schools at 
 the solemn exaggeration by the teacher of children's 
 offences, when I compare their young untried souls 
 with the tarnished conscience of their reprover, the 
 aggregation of iniquities which are incarnated in the 
 
10 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 dominating and indignant master. He, forsooth, is 
 virtue, the child is vice. Look on this picture and on 
 that ! Does it not ever occur to him how gladly even 
 he magister, dominus, scholasticus would change 
 places with those young souls ! 
 
 "Not poppy, nor mandragora, 
 Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world 
 Shall ever medicine us to that sweet sleep 
 Which we owed yesterday." 
 
 The aim of the primary school, I repeat, is nutrition 
 of inner feeling, of the emotions and sentiments through 
 particular instances. The soil is thereby enriched and 
 prepared for the harvest virtue. 
 
 But nutrition of inner feeling is not all ; there must 
 be nutrition of outer feeling. The real of nature, as 
 well as the real of emotion, is the material of primary 
 education. It is life that educates. Outside the school- 
 room the child lives in an ever-changing moral atmo- 
 sphere of emotion chaotic and perplexing; inside the 
 school-room, the same life is to be found, but regu- 
 lated, controlled, explained, enriched by the teacher. 
 So with the real of outer sense. Outside the school- 
 room the child lives his life under sense conditions. 
 He is feeling his way to the understanding of the 
 objects around him. Nature and the products of the 
 hand of man working on the crude stuff of nature, press 
 on him. He has to establish relations with all these 
 that he may use them for life and work and enjoyment. 
 They are in truth the raw material which he has to 
 shape to moral and spiritual ends. This outside life 
 is also to be the inside life of the school. The teacher 
 has to help the child to see, and understand, and to 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 11 
 
 organise the impressions which he brings into it. Thus, 
 when he goes out of the school, he goes out not to a 
 novel world, but to a world with which he has been 
 always familiar and which is now partially explained 
 by the teacher's better knowledge. He carries with 
 him an increase of the power of seeing and knowing 
 and correlating. 
 
 Such is the function of the primary school as the 
 nurse of feeling and the home of training ; but not, as 
 I have said, wholly without discipline. The voice of 
 authority must always be heard. The child must learn 
 that he lives and must live under law and that the 
 characteristic of true life is always effort. The merely 
 intellectual discipline is sufficiently ensured by the 
 acquisition of the subsidiary attainments of reading, 
 writing, drawing, arithmetic, &c. according to right 
 method. 
 
 II. At the age of approaching puberty (about 14) 
 we pass into a new sphere. At this age the boy tends 
 to become boisterous, and the girl skittish. Our work 
 now is mainly governed by the purpose of discipline. 
 Law now meets and controls the turbulence of the 
 phase through which the human spirit is passing. 
 Nutrition, it is true, is never to be absent nutrition 
 which is possible alone through the real of inner feeling, 
 and the real of outer nature as in the primary stage ; 
 but if the foundations of this nutrition have not been 
 laid in the primary period, I doubt our success now. 
 Opportunity is offered once to all. It may never be 
 offered a second time. The teacher, at least, must 
 assume this. The chief lesson to be taught now is the 
 lesson of law and duty and of personal effort. 
 
12 PET MARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 Nature seems at this age to yearn for activity. The 
 boy is no longer so ready to receive impressions as to 
 make them. His will, or what he mistakes for his will, 
 comes to the front, and in bodily and mental matters 
 alike, he loves to do. He cannot bear being talked to 
 or talked at. He has opinions now. He judges with 
 imbecile self-complacency things and men. He wants 
 to show what he is, and what he can do. How are we 
 to meet this ? Really a difficult question. For we have, 
 above all things, to let him grow, and growth is not 
 possible with repression nay, repression at this stage 
 enslaves and converts the less bold into skulks and 
 sneaks, the more bold into evasive dodgers paltering 
 with the truth ; and both into contemners of the pure 
 and good. Here the boy himself points the way to the 
 teacher. Work is what he needs, and wants. Let him 
 have it. Let him be brought to face difficulties in 
 learning, and though some of the subjects he studies 
 want the attraction of the 'real', let him learn to master 
 them by sheer force. It is labour that forms ingenuous 
 minds. Formal studies languages and mathematics 
 with the rudiments of which he has been conversant in 
 the latter portion of his primary stage, must now 
 occupy more than one-half of his time. His specific 
 moral life, again, can now no longer be stimulated or 
 fostered by sentiment, as when he was a child, but only 
 indirectly, and by intercourse with moral ideals in 
 conduct. This is the age which can appreciate heroism, 
 and understand the sterner and heroic virtues. So 
 with ideals in the things of intellect and literary imagi- 
 nation. Art in literature will unconsciously impress 
 him and mould him. We must not always improve 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 13 
 
 upon the lesson? ; we must let him draw his own 
 inferences. I believe much in literature at this stage 
 as the chief real or nutritive element, and in its silent 
 influence on character, much more than I believe in 
 the real of nature as presented in elementary science, 
 because the concrete idea is not in it. This last too, 
 however, must have its due and daily place. The order 
 observable in the external world may even possibly help 
 to bring order into the internal chaos, which at present 
 constitutes the boy, spite of all his pretentiousness and 
 conceit. 
 
 But not only is his rampant will to be brought in 
 contact with the hardships of intellectual work that it 
 may face and overpower; his body also must be allowed 
 its full activity. In gymnastic, and, above all, in organ- 
 ised games he should find an outlet, and also a discipline 
 the discipline of difficulties overcome, and of self- 
 imposed law obeyed. 
 
 Thus between 14 and 18 we gradually subject the 
 boy to law, and give him the priceless possession of con- 
 crete ideals in conduct great personalities, and also of 
 art in literature. He is thus tamed, if not subjugated ; 
 and when he approaches the gates of the university, 
 his brave show of self-importance, were he dissected 
 thoroughly, would be found to be hollow at the heart, 
 and to mean little more than the walking-canes, neck- 
 ties, and general masherdom, by means of which he 
 harmlessly works it off to the admiration of that other 
 half of humanity, which, formerly despised with all a 
 boy's contempt, he now desires above all to attract. 
 Desires to attract, I say ; for it is not the fairer half of 
 creation he is yet thinking of, but of himself alone as an 
 
14 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 irresistible object of admiration to that fairer half. 
 An excellent arrangement of nature, for thus he forms 
 an ideal of what he ought to be by seeing himself 
 through the rapt eyes of imaginary admirers. Nor 
 does the grave and serious youth escape the crisis in 
 its inner and more dangerous form. 
 
 III. He is within the Academic gates, and we 
 have now to ask what is the function of the university 
 in regard of him. I may be wrong, but I do not believe 
 that the university forms character. Character in all 
 its essential features is already formed in the young 
 matriculant. The home and the school have done this. 
 The university may supplement their work; it cannot 
 do it. 
 
 The function of the university has, in truth, more 
 close relation to that of the primary school than to that 
 of the secondary school. Its aim is like that of the 
 primary school, chiefly Nutrition ; but no longer nutri- 
 tion of mere feeling as in the primary, or of moral 
 ideals and of law as in the secondary, but of Ideas. 
 Training and discipline are, it is true, involved in the 
 true grasp of ideas, but they are not the university aim. 
 The nutrition of ideas this is the great academic 
 function, as I think. Nor are discipline and training 
 to be given by the university, but by the student to 
 himself. The youth has now escaped from the bondage 
 of law. The university does its work when it unfolds 
 the domain of knowledge to the opening adolescent 
 mind, and invites it to enter in and take possession, 
 and when it provides the material apparatus of self- 
 instruction. The Professor is only a guide and an 
 example. The essence of university life is freedom for 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 15 
 
 the student and freedom for the Professor. It is simply 
 because the university has become a certifying and 
 graduating body that even the calling of class rolls is 
 justifiable. Even as a graduating body I doubt, after 
 all, if it is justified in calling them. The Professor 
 offers to show the student the way to knowledge, and 
 to teach him how to use the instruments of knowledge 
 whether they be books or microscopes ; and there his 
 function ends. If any parent is unwilling to send his 
 son to the free life of a university, let him keep him at 
 home and call in a trained nurse or a paternal tutor. 
 
 ^/"-discipline, seZ/-training, through the free pur- 
 suit of ideas which attract by their eternal and in- 
 herent charm all ingenuous spirits this is the purpose 
 of an university. There can be no self-discipline with- 
 out freedom. This is of the essence of mind ; God has 
 ordered it so. True, freedom may lead to the tasting 
 of the tree that is forbidden, and in expulsion for a 
 time from Paradise. Be it so. Such is the universal 
 condition of adolescent and adult life. By bringing to 
 bear the schoolmaster the Law on the university 
 student, we make the unworthy less worthy, and the 
 worthy we irritate and repress in their onward striving. 
 
 What follows from this general view ? Certain very 
 practical results. Boys in years, and boys in mind, 
 though they be physically grown up, have no business 
 within academic walls. Their place is the secondary 
 school, where they may receive the intellectual and 
 moral discipline which fits them to breathe the pure 
 air of freedom and the rare ether of ideas. Freedom of 
 study also, not compulsory curricula, is alone in place 
 now. 
 
16 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, [LECT. 
 
 And what are ideas ? Shall I venture on a definition 
 where Plato failed and Aristotle stumbled ? I would 
 rather not. And yet I know what I mean. For is 
 not " The True " an idea ? And is not the pursuit of 
 science and philosophy the pursuit of the True ? At 
 these academic gates the student is to cast aside the 
 idols of the den and of the market-place and, unen- 
 cumbered, to question and to investigate in loyal obedi- 
 ence to the divine summons, to know. In philology, 
 in philosophy, in the study of nature in its many forms, 
 in Art, he is called upon to look face to face with the 
 True, the Good, and the Beautiful. Even when the 
 student himself is unconscious of the divine presence, 
 nay may deny it in his ardent pursuit of material 
 science, it is yet with him, for his aim is the True. 
 Step by step he is putting himself in harmony with 
 the scheme of the universe, and preparing for the final 
 illumining. The truth of this and of that he seeks for, 
 but these separate truths are but the fragments of the 
 whole, and lead him to the whole. The conception of 
 the unity of the whole, as seen in the wisdom and work- 
 ing of the eternal Reason teaching him by the things 
 which He has made, awaits him. The student-spirit 
 is thus brought into relation with the universal Spirit, 
 which effects in him the fruits of the Spirit above all, 
 harmony of soul and all the virtues. From having been 
 a reasoning being he now becomes a being of Reason. 
 
 It is philosophy, and history treated in a philoso- 
 phical sense, that hold the key of the temple of Reason. 
 But if philosophy should fail him, literature will be 
 found to be an universal solvent ; for it is the creative 
 thought of man on man cast in beautiful forms. It is 
 
I.] AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 17 
 
 a striving after the inner truth of life and a direct and 
 informal penetration into the heart of things ; it lives 
 in the idea and by the ideal. Harmony of thought and 
 life a tie between all special knowledges may be found 
 even here. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to say that when I speak of 
 science and philosophy, I speak of 'arts' in the medieval 
 sense the whole circle of rationalized knowledge. The 
 merely professional studies which fit to be physician, 
 theologian, lawyer, teacher, are only dependences on 
 the university properly conceived, mere accidents of the 
 substance. The university itself was founded in arts 
 and still truly lives only by arts. An aggregate of 
 professional colleges can never constitute an university. 
 The idea is not there ; it cannot live as the purely 
 professional. In professional schools, at least if they 
 are part of a university organization, no man is a fit 
 Professor who is not alive to the university idea in 
 what he teaches, who does not make his students aware 
 of the intimate relations of all knowledge, the philo- 
 sophy which permeates and gives significance to every 
 subject. If the student does not attain to this he has 
 fallen short of the academic aim. 
 
 But how can the student breathe the purely 
 scientific atmosphere of the university if he does not 
 come prepared ? If he spends the years of his ' arts ' 
 course in acquiring the mere instruments, linguistic and 
 mathematical, he can never enter the temple of science 
 at all. At best he can take but a cursory glance. I 
 am well aware that the world gets along by compro- 
 mise, and there can be no objection to a year or so 
 being devoted to the mere instruments within the walls 
 
 OP THE 
 
 'UHIVBRSITY: 
 
18 PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND UNIVERSITY SCHOOLS. 
 
 of a university; but let it be understood that even 
 when we accept this, we must yet demand a much 
 higher qualification in the matriculant than we do now. 
 After a year spent among the instruments, the student 
 at the age of about 19 should be in a position to throw 
 himself into real studies philology, philosophy, history, 
 literature, art, physical science. To take the encyclo- 
 paedic round would be impossible now-a-days, but by 
 the thorough investigation of a department he gains ad- 
 mission to " the idea" and thereby becomes a scientific 
 thinker. Discipline in one department, if his teacher 
 is alive to the correlation of all departments, is, if 
 properly understood and properly pursued, discipline 
 in all. He thereby attains to that reverence for all 
 knowledge, and that philosophical comprehension which 
 is the consummation of all true education of the in- 
 telligence. This indeed is what intellectual culture 
 means, and that the outcome of the whole is ethical 
 in the true sense it would not be difficult, in fitting 
 place and at fitting time, to show. 
 
 It is by the exercise of this its distinctive function 
 as above indicated that the university liberalizes the 
 professions and raises them above the level of skilled 
 trades. The graduate it sends out to the various pro- 
 fessions, if worthy, can never forget, even in the pres- 
 sure of practical life, that he has once for all enrolled 
 himself a civis of the city of Reason, of which he is a 
 freeman. 
 
II. 
 
 FREE SCHOOLING 1 . 
 
 THE question of free primary education has suddenly 
 come to the front, and demands consideration. I have 
 nothing to do here, I need scarcely say, with the political 
 or ecclesiastical aspects of this question. My business 
 is to treat it academically, and from the purely educa- 
 tional point of view, though it may be conceded to me, 
 that I am entitled to use the word " education " in its 
 largest social sense. 
 
 And first, I object to the phrase itself free educa- 
 tion ! The world is governed by phrases, and we must 
 look into them if we wish to see through them. Free 
 education has an imposing sound; the reality underlying 
 the phrase is gratuitous instruction of four-fifths of 
 the community at the expense of the remaining fifth. 
 
 I believe that a distinguished statesman has urged 
 as an argument for free education that schools were free 
 in the middle ages. Many things happened in the 
 middle ages which would not be very palatable to 
 statesmen or their audiences in these days. But apart 
 from this, the orator in question was instituting a com- 
 parison of similarity between things which ought rather 
 
 1 Delivered 2 Nov. 1885. 
 
 22 
 
20 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 to have been contrasted. It is true that such education 
 as existed in connexion with the monasteries of the 
 middle ages was free to all w ho r could not afford to pay. 
 The rich were expected to make free-will offerings to 
 the monastic funds, and the poor got their schooling and 
 their whole training for the priesthood or conventual 
 life, generally, but not always, for nothing. Montalem- 
 bert (not to speak of other writers), even after making 
 due allowance for his rose-coloured account of conven- 
 tual establishments, must be held to have placed this 
 beyond doubt. But while education was generally 
 gratuitous in the middle ages, it was not uniformly so. 
 Even at the time that Charlemagne, by the help of 
 Ms Minister of Education, Alcuin, endeavoured to pro- 
 mote higher teaching in the monastery schools, and to 
 increase the number of these, fees were frequently 
 charged. I see lately quoted by a reverend Dean the 
 inscription on the monastery school of Salzburg 
 
 "Discere si cupias, gratis quod quaeris habebis," 
 
 in support of the opinion that education was always 
 free in the middle ages. It may be read rather as 
 indicating that it was gratis only at Salzburg. If 
 gratis everywhere, why carve the fact on stone of 
 .Salzburg? The word "gratis" in the above line was 
 probably intended to proclaim that while fees were 
 charged elsewhere, none were charged by the Salzburg 
 monks. The monastery of Tours was among those 
 schools which charged fees, and because of this, in 843 
 the Archbishop Amalaric left a foundation for the 
 purpose of providing gratuitous instruction there. 
 Another bishop at the same time issued instructions 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 21 
 
 to the clergy of his diocese not to charge fees, but only 
 to accept voluntary offerings. Gratuitous instruction, 
 then, was not so universal as some suppose, even in 
 those days when education was a matter of Christian 
 charity an affair of the Church a mission. Nay, 
 further, free instruction was a necessity imposed on 
 the Church, that it might secure a supply of clergy. 
 In these days, on the contrary, education has become 
 an affair of the civil power, is enacted by law, is 
 universal, compulsory, supported by taxes. Any basis 
 of comparison, therefore, with the middle ages, escapes 
 us. 
 
 Schools for the young have now passed, I say, out of 
 the category of Church charities, and have become the 
 object of civil and compulsory enactment. Whether 
 they should consequently be wholly maintained by 
 taxes depends on whether education is a recognised 
 duty or a mission. If the parents of the country 
 recognise it to be a necessary duty it is only right 
 that they should contribute to the cost. This they 
 now do as tax -payers, rate-payers, and fee-payers. Are 
 they now and henceforth to cease to pay fees and to 
 place an additional tax on the wealthier classes in order 
 to provide a substitute for these ? Is it on social or 
 moral grounds desirable that the operatives of the 
 country should so far sacrifice their independence and 
 self-respect ? The State has a deep interest in the 
 education of all its citizens, and gives practical effect 
 to. its share of interest by means of rates and taxes. 
 So far good. Does it follow that the close and personal 
 interest of the parent, which expresses itself in the pay- 
 ment of fees, should be wholly abolished ? I say this 
 
22 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 is the question we have to consider, apart altogether 
 from the practice of the past. But as the past has 
 been called in as a witness, I shall say a few more words 
 on the evidence which it brings into court. 
 
 It has been said that education in Scotland the 
 only country which carried out the Reformation pro- 
 gramme in the 17th century was once upon a time 
 free; indeed, up to 1803, at which date the Act of 
 1696 was superseded by a more liberal provision for 
 schools. We have consequently seen it stated that it is 
 our duty to " restore " free education. Now it seems to 
 be quite true that prior to the Reformation such edu- 
 cation as existed was in Scotland, as in the rest of 
 Europe, generally, if not always, free. It was a Church 
 charity. In no other way could men be obtained for the 
 service of the church. We have a parallel in modern 
 times : the trained schoolmaster, for example, cannot be 
 secured by the State for the work of education without 
 free training and other subsidies with which the State 
 charges itself. But when, at the Reformation, the 
 instruction of the people was taken up as a matter 
 of State as well as of Church, there is no evidence that 
 schools were free. The evidence is all the other way. 
 Let us look into this briefly. 
 
 No one will question, I presume, that fees were 
 charged in the burgh schools from 1560 onwards. The 
 appendix to Grant's "History of Burgh Schools" places 
 this beyond doubt. But it may have been otherwise 
 in landward parishes. Was it so ? 
 
 In Knox's "First Book of Discipline" (1560) the 
 voice of the Reformed Church on the subject of educa- 
 tion is distinctly heard. In this book it is said to be 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 23 
 
 " of necessity " that a school should exist in connexion 
 with every kirk ; and that at the higher schools in 
 notable places " provision be made for those that be 
 poor and not able by themselves or their friends to be 
 sustained at letters, and in special those that come from 
 landward." Then in clause 4 he says "The rich and 
 potent may not be permitted to suffer their children to 
 spend their youth in vain idleness as heretofore they 
 have done. But they must be exhorted by the censure 
 of the kirk, and compelled to dedicate their sons, by 
 good exercises, to the profit of the kirk and common- 
 wealth ; and that they must do of their own expenses, 
 because they are able. The children of the poor must 
 be supported and sustained on the charge of the kirk, 
 trial being taken whether the spirit of docility be in 
 them found or not," and so forth. It is clear, then, 
 that Knox contemplated gratuitous instruction only 
 for those who were not able to pay ; but, at the same 
 time, the mediaeval conception of education as a charit- 
 able mission was potent in him ; and not only in him, 
 but in the minds of the kirk and the lords who subscribed 
 the " Book of Discipline " for presentation to the King. 
 Passing over the Act of King James VI. (1567), we 
 come to the Order of Privy Council (1616), which 
 directs that "in every parish in this kingdom, where 
 convenient means may be had for entertaining a school, 
 ^ school shall be established, and a fit person appointed 
 to teach the same at the expense of the parishioners." 
 Here a step was taken in the direction of throwing the 
 burden of education on those who immediately benefited 
 by it. In the parliamentary ratification of the above 
 Order of Council in 1633, there is evidence that the 
 
24 FKEE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 attempt to raise money in the parish had been a failure, 
 for it is therein enacted that " the bishops shall have 
 power, with the consent of the heritors and the most 
 part of the parishioners, and, if the heritors warned 
 refuse to appear, then with consent of the most part of 
 the parishioners, to set down and stent on every plough 
 or husband-land, according to the worth, for mainte- 
 nance and establishment of the said schools." The Act 
 of Assembly of 1642, declaring that "every parish should 
 have a reader and a school... according to the laudable 
 acts both of Kirk and Parliament made before," shows 
 that the progress of school-planting had been as yet 
 tardy and inadequate. The next step was taken by 
 Parliament in 1646, which ordained " that there be a 
 school founded and a schoolmaster provided in every 
 parish (not already provided), with the advice of the 
 Presbytery ; " and the heritors were required to meet 
 and provide a school -house and a stipend for the school- 
 master of not less nor more than a certain sum. (This 
 Act was rescinded after the restoration of Charles II.) 
 In 1693 an Act was passed for settling the quiet and 
 peace of the Church, which subjected masters to " the 
 trial, judgment, and censure of the presbyteries of the 
 bounds for their sufficiency, qualifications, and deport- 
 ment" in office. This brings us to the great Act of 
 1696 the true charter of the Scottish parochial sys- 
 tem which had slowly been winning its way to uni- 
 versal acceptance. This Act was substantially a re- 
 enactment of the rescinded Act of 1646. Let us now 
 inquire into the question of school fees up to this date, 
 and see whether our interpretation of the "Book of 
 Discipline" is correct. 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 25 
 
 In the book of the Universal kirk, session 1573, 
 there is a report to the assembly by the clerk of the 
 Secret Council, in which the following words occur : 
 "The order of upholding schools in burgh and to land- 
 ward would be declared in a special article." I have 
 looked for this " special article," but I cannot find it. I 
 see, however, in M'Crie's "Life of Andrew Melville," 
 p. 409, Vol. II., the following statement : " A ' common 
 order ' as to the rate of contribution to be raised for the 
 salary of the teacher, and as to the fees to be paid by the 
 scholars was laid down and put in practice long before 
 the Act of Council in 1616, which was ratified by 
 Parliament in 1633." The "common order" referred 
 to is not given, but in the appendix, Note T, will be 
 found an interesting quotation from a record of the 
 Transforthian portion of the diocese of St Andrews, 
 containing a report of the visitation of parishes. Under 
 the parish of" Forgound" we find (August 14th, 1611) 
 " The school entertained ; and for the better provision 
 of it there is ordained that ilk plough in the parish 
 shall pay to the schoolmaster 135. 4d, and that ilk bairn 
 in the parish shall pay 20s. or 305. as the master can 
 procure," (now mark what follows,) "as it is agreed in 
 other congregations." This, says M'Crie, was the "com- 
 mon order." From the records of "Anstruther Wester " 
 we find that not only were fees imposed but children 
 required to pay them whether they attended the school 
 or not. Provision was always made for the free instruc- 
 tion of the poor in accordance with the intention of the 
 "First Book of Discipline," as already quoted. Even, 
 however, with gratuitous instruction, the poor could 
 not then (as now) be got to attend, and in some places 
 
26 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 their claim to relief of their bodily needs was cancelled 
 if they did not take advantage of the school. In the 
 references I have made we have ground enough for 
 maintaining that fees were charged generally throughout 
 Scotland except in the case of " the poor." But there is 
 more evidence. In 1636 the Presbytery of Strathbogie 
 in the north of Scotland minutes " It is ordained that 
 the schoolmaster (of the parish of Botarie) shall have of 
 every scholar quarterly 20s." Go to the west of Scotland 
 and you find in 1636 the kirk-session ordaining 20s. in 
 the quarter. In 1639 the fee was reduced to 13s. 4>d. 
 "from ilk bairn in the quarter that comes to the school." 
 In 1617, Nov. 30, (Principal Lee tells us in his history 
 of the church of Scotland, Vol. II., p. 31) the kirk-session 
 of Newbattle (Midlothian) passed a minute fixing a fee 
 of 4s. a quarter from every bairn. In 1626 the same 
 session fixes a fee of 10s. per quarter for learning to 
 read and write "Scottis," for music 6s. Sd. and for 
 Latin " only 13s. 4<d" Here also it is enacted that the 
 children who are not sent to school shall pay the same 
 fees as those who attend. Payments also out of the ses- 
 sion funds on account of " poor children " are constantly 
 recorded. See also session records of Ormiston for 
 disbursements on account of " poor children," showing 
 that all others paid fees. See also for statement of 
 fees, the records of Rothesay (1650). In the parish of 
 "Dalzell," in the west country (1682, Dec. 2), the 
 session order that the schoolmaster shall have 10s. 
 quarterly for every child he teaches, " the poor children's 
 quarter to be paid out of the kirk-box!' Go to Fife 
 again and we find the session of Largo requiring all who 
 send their children to other schools than the parish 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 27 
 
 school to pay their fees to the Largo schoolmaster not- 
 withstanding ! In Aberdeenshire the Drum " mortified 
 meal " was bequeathed for the salary of the teacher of 
 Drumoak and " the fees of poor children." I think 
 this evidence will suffice up to the Act of 1696. 
 
 That fees were generally charged after this Act, as 
 they had been before it, there can be no doubt. For 
 example, the Act of Assembly of 1705 directs the 
 ministers of the Church to take " care to have schools 
 erected in every parish, conform to the Acts of 
 Parliament, for teaching of yoiith to read English, 
 that the poor be taught upon charity, and that none 
 be suffered to neglect the teaching of their children to 
 read." From this it is clear that fees were generally 
 charged, otherwise why should it be necessary to 
 specify charitable teaching for the poor? In the 
 parish of Mauchline, Ayrshire, we find from the 
 records that fees fixed in 1673 were raised in 1764 
 about 50 per cent. 
 
 Again, in the year 1704, the Society for Propagating 
 Christian Knowledge was founded. This Society de- 
 voted itself chiefly to the institution of schools in 
 districts which the parochial schools could not supply 
 or at least had not supplied. So backward were the 
 Highlands that so late as 1758 there were 175 parishes 
 in which parish schools had never been erected. So 
 common was the practice of exacting fees, even in these 
 outlying districts, that the Society in 1732, wishing to 
 abolish the practice, had to pass the following regula- 
 tion : "They i.e., the teachers are not to demand 
 anything of their scholars, but to teach them gratis 
 upon the salaries allowed them ; but if any in plentiful 
 
28 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 circumstances do freely offer to pay for their children's 
 education, then the masters are not forbid to accept of 
 what they give." 
 
 If further evidence is wanted, it will be found in 
 the long series of charitable foundations in the eigh- 
 teenth century. In 1723 in the Wallace Hall endow- 
 ment, Dumfriesshire, the teacher was required by the 
 founder's testament " to instruct the parishioners gratis, 
 and without any fee or reward other than is hereby 
 provided for him, excepting any gratuity that the 
 parents of their own good- will think fit to give him." 
 The Birse Ramsay Foundation in Aberdeenshire was 
 left in 1727 for the salary of a teacher, who shall be 
 bound to teach "without any other reward for his 
 pains." The Dangart Foundation in Colmonell, Ayr- 
 shire, was left in 1757 for education of poor relatives 
 of the testator, and, failing these, the poor of the parish. 
 In 1708 the " Bursars tenement " was left for education 
 of four poor children. In 1795 the Cromdale (Moray- 
 shire) Bequest was left for education of poor children. 
 In 1798 Duguid's Bequest was left for the fees of poor 
 children in Old Meldrum. The Graham Mortification 
 was left in 1791 for the fees of eight poor children. 
 And in 1803 the very year that saw the passing of 
 the Education Act, which superseded that of 1696 
 a minister (Dalgleish) leaves money in Ferry-Port- 
 on- Craig for the education of five poor children. I 
 might multiply these cases, but enough has been given 
 to show that the testators of the eighteenth century 
 were well acquainted with the exaction of fees. The 
 evidence we have given in support of this is further 
 confirmed by the Act of 1803 itself. For, in the 18th 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 29 
 
 section of that Act it is enacted that " the heritors, &c., 
 shall have the power of fixing the school fees from time 
 to time ; " not shall " institute " school fees, but shall 
 prevent uncertainty and irregularity by fixing " the " 
 school fees, thus manifestly assuming the use and wont 
 of Scotland. Another use and wont was recognised and 
 regulated in the same section, for it goes on to say 
 " Provided always that the schoolmaster shall be obliged 
 to teach such poor children of the parish as shall be 
 recommended by the heritors and minister at any 
 parochial meeting." 
 
 I submit that, after the historical sketch which I 
 have briefly given, we ought to hear no more of the 
 " restoration " of gratuitous instruction in Scotland. 
 There is an end of that matter once for all. Where 
 gratuitous instruction existed, it existed as a Church 
 charity ; and after the civil power fairly took over the 
 subject of education, it existed as a State charity. 
 
 But whatever the past may have done, gratuitous 
 instruction may yet be a good thing in itself. Let us 
 consider this a little. 
 
 The education of the child is also the education of 
 the parent, and every loosening of the primary duty 
 devolving on the parent to educate his own children 
 tends to weaken the family bond and is hurtful to the 
 community. This may be a large proposition, but I 
 hold it to be an irrefutable one. True, the conditions 
 of civilized life have made it necessary to delegate 
 much of the parent's work to a paid substitute the 
 teacher; but all the more important is it that what 
 remains of direct parental responsibility should be re- 
 
30 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 tained, and the affectionate interest of the parent in the 
 moral and intellectual growth of his children fostered. 
 The payment of school fees attains this object. Abolish 
 fees and you finally put the parent in the position of 
 abnegating his primary duties and wholly delegating 
 his responsibilities. The child will become more and 
 more the child of the State, less and less the child of its 
 own father and mother. To this extent a moral blow 
 is struck at the foundation of the social fabric. I do 
 not believe in the tender mercies of State-fatherhood. 
 It is only where the family life is deep and strong that 
 States can flourish. The character of the family, as 
 the social unit, makes the character of the aggregate 
 community. It guarantees morality, religion, and 
 order as nothing else can do. Take away the moral 
 bond of the family entirely, and the State is broken up 
 into loose atoms, with nothing to ^hape them into order 
 save the policeman. Take it away partially, as you do 
 when you abolish fees, and you, to this extent, weaken 
 the links which bind the social organism into a true 
 moral unity. Very potent arguments, therefore, should 
 be forthcoming to justify the assumption by the State 
 of the paternal function. 
 
 Consider again, the education which parents them- 
 selves receive in educating their children. We should 
 be slow to deprive them of the privilege of duty and 
 the discipline of sacrifice connected with this sacred 
 task. Is man to be the only animal that brings forth 
 young and leaves it to others to nurture them and 
 shape them to the ends of life ? 
 
 We do not see the evils you anticipate, it will be 
 said, in the countries where education is already free. 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 31 
 
 To this the rejoinder is, that the circumstances and 
 traditions of different countries vary; and secondly, 
 that what we do not see staring us in the face may yet 
 exist and be operative for evil. Can we imagine that 
 any moral dereliction can fail to be followed by moral 
 penalties, though these be not obvious to the superficial 
 observer? Let us not follow the example of other 
 countries, except for a proved good. Let us rather 
 show them what to do. 
 
 Again, we are told that the State, having made 
 education compulsory is bound, logically, to take the 
 next step and to make it free. I do not see the 
 obligation. The State requires that fathers shall 
 maintain their children, but it is not therefore bound 
 to provide the means. The State imposes many duties 
 involving expenditure on us all : it is not therefore 
 bound to provide us with the means of paying. But 
 the power of a popular fallacy is great. To my think- 
 ing, if education is to be free at any stage it ought rather 
 to be free after the compulsory period, when children 
 have reached the age at which prolonged attendance 
 at school involves the sacrifice of wages. The State 
 might well at this point make offer of free education 
 in the general interests of society and so meet half-way 
 the sacrifice which the parent is already making. 
 
 There is, in fact, no law to compel the education of 
 children; but only to compel negligent parents to do 
 their duty to their children by educating as well as 
 feeding them. Does such a law carry with it the 
 conclusion, "therefore we, the State, must relieve the 
 parent of his duty"? It is a contradiction in terms. 
 The State discharges its duty when it has done all that 
 
32 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 the parent himself cannot reasonably be expected to 
 do. The Scottish Education Act does not say every 
 child shall be educated at the cost of the State, but " it 
 shall be the duty of every parent to provide elementary 
 education, &c." And Lord Young, the author of this Act, 
 speaking in Glasgow eleven years after, said "Who 
 was to pay for [the educational machinery provided] ? 
 He would say those who received the advantage, 
 according to their ability" The State, as a whole, 
 it is true also receives an advantage, but for this the 
 State pays more than two- thirds of the cost, leaving 
 the remainder to those immediately benefited, and so 
 safe-guarding the " duty of the parent " referred to in 
 the Act. 
 
 Of course we all know that no parent in any class 
 of life pays the full cost of the schooling of his children. 
 But it is none the less, rather all the more, desirable, as 
 I have already said, to retain in operation the practice 
 of paying a portion, for the reasons which I have just 
 given. When there is proved inability, then of course 
 the fee should be remitted in individual cases by the 
 School Boards. This is mere Christian charity. There 
 is nothing stated by Mr Mundella and other advocates 
 of free education which would not be fully met by this 
 power of remission. By remitting we do not introduce 
 any new principle, for the principle is already operative 
 in the Poor Law. A disabled man or a helpless old 
 woman is entitled to relief. 
 
 Nobody denies that a few, but only a few, children 
 are prevented attending because of the fees. Under a 
 wise system of remission this difficulty would be 
 removed ; but, it is not this class who are irregular in 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 33 
 
 their attendance, but the class for whom fees are now 
 paid by others, and whose poverty is extreme, a poverty, 
 in a large proportion of cases, due to the vice or impro- 
 vidence of the parents. Will free education cure this ? 
 
 Gratuitous primary instruction, let us remember, 
 would be a charity. Were education free throughout 
 and for all classes, it could not be properly called a 
 charity, but it would, I think, be a misfortune. If free 
 only for a particular class at the expense of another 
 class, it must be regarded as a charity. The respectable 
 operative of the new democracy is not surely going to 
 inaugurate his reign by calling on the rich to give him 
 doles. Blink it as we may, gratuitous State-instruction 
 for one particular class is compulsory alms. The work- 
 ing man is thereby placed in an exceptional and in- 
 vidious position. It is an infringement of his self- 
 respect, which he ought to resent. Free education at 
 the cost of an endowment is another matter. Those 
 who are specified by the testator are merely enjoying 
 an inheritance, which it is wrong to take from them, 
 unless the abuse of it or altered circumstances should 
 demand a modification of the terms of the trust. But, 
 even though we may regard an endowment as an in- 
 heritance, for my own part I should prefer to owe to 
 an endowment only what was absolutely necessary to 
 supplement my own independent exertions, and I do 
 not see why a working-man should not be as sensitive 
 as a professor. 
 
 Professor Dickson of Glasgow well said in a letter to 
 the Glasgow Herald of the 26th October 1885 "Five- 
 sixths of the people are as a rule able and willing to 
 pay fees, and are quite content to have the matter rest 
 L. L. 3 
 
34 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 on its pre&ent footing." Are these five-sixths, then, 
 to be constituted alms-receivers because the remaining 
 one-sixth are negligent or profligate ? I might appeal 
 to the trade unions to save their class, and to decline 
 to be dragged down by the necessities of the casual and 
 improvident labourer, and become the recipients of the 
 alms of the plutocracy. 
 
 Apart from these larger civil considerations, let' us 
 look for a moment at the probable results of gratuitous 
 instruction on our school system : 
 
 1. On the school attendance. 
 
 2. On the quality of school education. 
 
 3. On the control of education. 
 
 4. On the position of the teacher. 
 
 First. As to school attendance: My conviction is 
 that it will be less continuous and regular under a 
 gratuitous system than it is now. It is only in a small 
 proportion of cases that non-attendance is caused by 
 inability to pay. A State minimum is always apt to 
 become the people's maximum, and so long as the 
 compulsory law is formally complied with, the tendency 
 will be to " put in " attendances in the most fitful and 
 irregular manner. This is not simply a speculative 
 opinion ; it is put beyond all question, 1. By the 
 reports of all Commissions which have inquired into 
 education in this country. 2. By the fact that in those 
 of the United States, in which common-school education 
 is free, the attendance is, in the absence of compulsory 
 laws, most irregular. I have a great distrust of statis- 
 tics until they have been interpreted, and consequently 
 I almost hesitate to give the number of " illiterates " 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 35 
 
 above ten years of age in the United States. And you 
 will understand my hesitation when I tell you that the 
 last report I have seen puts them at six millions 
 (including, of course, negroes), out of a population of 
 fifty millions ! In the northern and best educated 
 division of the States there are 5J per cent, of those 
 above ten unable to write. We have constantly had 
 American education thrown in our teeth. It would 
 seem to be (except in the large centres) a very hollow 
 system. It is the spirit of the race and the peculiar 
 conditions of America as a new country which have 
 prevented a complete educational collapse. Where 
 there are no compulsory laws, school attendance in the 
 United States is brief and most irregular. In 1873 
 (Quarterly Review for 1875) a State superintendent 
 reports : " With all the heavy weight of taxation 
 under which our people groan, the average yearly term 
 of school is but four and a half months, just what it was 
 sixteen years ago." In all country districts, and even 
 in populous places, the irregularity of attendance is 
 notorious. For the States, as a whole, the average 
 attendance is under 60 per cent., while in England and 
 Scotland it is from 74 to 80. And note that the 
 American average is calculated very largely on brief 
 school periods of from 3 to 5 months. The leading 
 educationalists of America recognise these facts and 
 deplore them. Where there is no compulsory law, 
 eiforts are being made to introduce one. But, with a 
 compulsory law, the legislatures have to fix the mini- 
 mum attendance very low Sometimes only from nine 
 to twelve weeks a year. In fact, America is an unedu- 
 cated country, as we now understand education. It 
 
 32 
 
36 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 possesses no national system ; it has not even the 
 machinery whereby education could be given in the 
 sense in which it is given in Great Britain or in 
 Germany. 
 
 In our Colonies and in Switzerland there is gratui- 
 tous instruction; but while it is generally admitted that 
 in Switzerland the attendance is good, this is probably 
 due to the small cantonal administration and stringent 
 compulsory laws. Then who has gauged the moral 
 effect on the people in Switzerland ? The only Colony 
 whose official report is before me is that of Canada, 
 1880, and there I find that the average attendance is 
 only about 53 per cent. 1 
 
 2. As to the quality of education : Irregular attend- 
 ance just enough to fulfil the compulsory minimum 
 and no more will so disturb the continuity of a 
 teacher's work that he will give up the task of educating 
 in despair, and confine himself more and more to the 
 barest mechanical work. Education as a moral and 
 intellectual process will no longer be aimed at. I 
 should not much wonder, indeed, to find irregularity so 
 common as to drive well-disposed people to institute 
 voluntary paying schools along-side of the free system, 
 in order to secure for their children the benefits which 
 the teacher is competent to give only when the 
 attendance of his pupils is continuous and the home 
 interest in their work active. 
 
 3. As to the control of education : That must lie 
 
 1 The boasted regular attendance at the now extinct Heriot Free 
 Schools, Edinburgh, was due to the fact that those who did not 
 attend regularly were dismissed. Is the same true of the Jews' school,. 
 London ? 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 37 
 
 with the purse. The local rates may perhaps be slightly 
 increased, but the imperial Treasury will certainly 
 have to bear nine-tenths of the additional burden. 
 No statesman dare propose to throw the burden of fees 
 exclusively on the parish area. The interest of parents 
 in the school having practically ceased, the centre of 
 authority will be London, and everything will be cut 
 and carved by a few men who must aim at securing a 
 State minimum in hard and set terms. Thus parochial 
 educational life will be crushed out, and the education 
 of the schools will tend to retrograde. The parent will 
 have handed over his obligations to a State machine, 
 which will prescribe the quality as well as the quantity 
 -of the article he is to receive. Politicians of all shades 
 of opinions call out for de-centralisation. A free school 
 system must be, in this country at least, a highly cen- 
 tralised system, wooden, inelastic, heartless. In any 
 educational system, centralisation, I freely grant, is 
 necessary ; but, unless it be counteracted by a vigorous 
 local life, it is deadening. A restricted local life left to 
 itself is apt to degenerate into a kind of barbarism : 
 centralised life, again, tends to substitute state-regula- 
 tion for individual spontaneity and personal responsi- 
 bility. It is the combination of the two that makes 
 civilisation possible. 
 
 4. As to the position of the teacher : I do not think 
 that the services of highly- trained teachers will be 
 needed to carry into effect the State minimum. This 
 and the heavy weight of taxation will gradually reduce 
 teachers' salaries to the amount necessary for securing 
 the minimum, and nothing more. The old Dame 
 School, even, may return upon us. With the decline of 
 
38 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 teachers' salaries comes the decline of education, for 
 capable men will go into other walks of life. In 
 France, where education is free, the average salaries of 
 two-thirds of the teachers fall below 45 a year. 
 Hundreds have only 35. In America the salaries 
 average 9 a month, and the teachers are in a large 
 proportion of cases engaged only for a few months in 
 order to work out the State minimum, and then turned 
 loose ! The vast number of female teachers, again, in 
 the States, is not explained by any theory as to the 
 superiority of female teachers for primary school work, 
 but by their cheapness. Even in the wealthy and 
 compact State of New York, the average annual salary 
 of teachers is only about 75 a year. Already, in our 
 own country, under the influence of a mechanical code 1 , 
 even a school board so intelligent as that of Aberdeen 
 finds that it can accomplish the State minimum largely 
 by means of ex-pupil teachers. It has thus far thrown 
 overboard the idea of education altogether. In America, 
 again, only 3 per cent, of the teachers are trained. They 
 do not need trained men to accomplish the work which 
 the democracy thinks the teacher has to do. 
 
 I maintain, accordingly, that a gratuitous system is 
 not only morally hurtful to the respectable operative, 
 and ought to be rejected by his self-respect, but that it 
 ought to be rejected, too, in the educational interests of 
 his class, for such a system must ultimately lower the 
 education of the masses of the people, to what is needed 
 for the " poor " alone. 
 
 It is, of course, quite possible to counteract some 
 
 1 Now (1888) very greatly improved. 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 39 
 
 at least of these predicted evils ; and if the authorities 
 will only recognise their existence in time, and take 
 measures to prevent the downward tendency, they may 
 perhaps succeed. But the common experience is that 
 no one, except here and there an enthusiast, ever did 
 anything for education pure and simple. The motive 
 has always been either ecclesiastical, political, or 
 mercantile in brief, a struggle for power or for money. 
 The only genuine educational force, in fact, which has 
 appeared in the world since the decline of Greece, has 
 been the religious force, and religion is becoming more 
 and more, in Europe, a private matter, and not a State 
 matter. Religion, unhappily, is not yet a part of the 
 socialistic programme. It will be so some day ; but 
 that day, I suspect, is a distant one. It will be a great 
 day for the teacher ; for every school will then be a 
 church and every instructor a priest. 
 
 I think I have said enough to show that free 
 schooling is so far opposed to education in the larger 
 civil as well as in the narrower scholastic sense, that it 
 ought not to be gone into with a light spirit. The 
 question strikes deep both into political philosophy and 
 economics. Is it not perfectly clear, for example, that 
 in its relation to economics it is a capitalist's measure ? 
 To the extent to which the working man is relieved of 
 fees, precisely to that extent may wages be further 
 depressed without causing a rupture. Its relation to 
 political philosophy is also clear enough, for gratuitous 
 instruction is, as I have indicated, part of a large ques- 
 tion the question, namely, " to what extent ought the 
 State to provide for the wants of the individual citizen 
 independently of his own exertions?" I so far sym- 
 
40 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. 
 
 pathise with the socialistic spirit as to hold that the 
 State ought to provide at the general cost all that is 
 needed for the rational life of the people, in so far as 
 individuals cannot by personal exertion make provision 
 each for himself. Christian charity has for ages affirmed 
 this proposition ; and the civil power has for centuries 
 been so penetrated by the spirit of Christianity that it, 
 too, now recognises the principle. Witness Poor Laws, 
 Factory Acts, Education Acts, and many other enact- 
 ments. The political difficulty arises in the application 
 of the general principle. While the State must do 
 what the individual himself cannot do, the moment it 
 passes beyond this line it demoralises the nation, and 
 the result must be disaster. In my own opinion, if we 
 are further to extend comfort to the masses of the peo- 
 ple at the cost of the well-to-do, the most urgent need 
 is not for free education, but for additional scavengers, 
 playing fields for the young, public baths, gymnasiums 
 and gas. These are far more pressing questions, and 
 they bring no evils of a moral kind in their train. Civic 
 organisation has deprived the people of these things of 
 the open field and the flowing stream and has made 
 artificial light essential to cleanliness and morality. 
 Let the civic organisation then, if it chooses, restore all 
 these things which it has taken away, but let it leave 
 the parent that primary responsibility for his own 
 offspring which God has imposed, and which he ought 
 to be proud to accept to the extent of his ability. In 
 giving to the poorer classes, at the expense of the 
 richer, let us give only those things which will not 
 weaken the moral fibre of the community. By all 
 means reduce the fees, and give powers to boards to 
 
II.] FREE SCHOOLING. 41 
 
 remit them where necessary; but do not entirely 
 abolish the sole material guarantee of the parent's 
 active sympathy with the spiritual growth of his child 
 and of his own growth in and through his child. 
 
 Let us never forget that the whole social organisa- 
 tion is the school of the citizen, and that school life is 
 expected to last for three score years and ten. This is 
 the compulsory education law of the Almighty the 
 Governor of nations. The question of gratuitous in- 
 struction accordingly is to be considered in its large 
 social relations its relations to the education of the 
 adult, to the life of the family, and to the strengthening 
 of the civil fabric as an ethical organism. 
 
 I have endeavoured in the preceding remarks to 
 avoid all that savours of ecclesiastical or political 
 controversy. I have wished to treat the question from 
 the educational point of view ; and in the large, as well 
 as in the mere school, sense of the word education. 
 Let it not be said, that an opponent of gratuitous 
 instruction is out of sympathy with the masses of 
 the people. On the contrary, it is their good he is 
 considering. We are all socialists now-a-days all 
 thinking men who have hearts as well as heads to this 
 extent, that we desire to see rates and taxes taken up 
 according to the means of the citizens, and applied not 
 merely for the protection of the State but for the eleva- 
 tion of the State ; that is to say, for the improvement of 
 the physical and spiritual well-being of the people, in so 
 far as this can be done without interfering with their 
 freedom, and the call that God makes on each man to 
 work out his own salvation. In so far as we interfere 
 
42 FREE SCHOOLING. [LECT. II. 
 
 with this Divine call we weaken the spirit of the citizen 
 and run counter to the principles of a sound philosophy. 
 It is in the interest of the working man and his children 
 that I speak. It is for him to reject the proffered dole. 
 Gratuitous instruction strikes what I believe to be a 
 serious blow at his sense of responsibility, his self- 
 dependence, his character all that makes him truly a 
 man and it weakens that family bond which lies at the 
 basis of civilised communities. 
 
III. 
 
 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND LECTURESHIPS ON 
 EDUCATION 1 . 
 
 WHEN I was invited to read a paper on " Professor- 
 ships and Lectureships on Education," I concluded 
 that my thesis was not so much the desirableness of 
 such Professorships and Lectureships generally, as the 
 propriety of instituting them in our universities. I 
 certainly was entitled to presume that a subject which 
 had engaged the thoughts of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, 
 Quintilian, Lucian, Montaigne, Locke, Milton, and Kant 
 was in itself worthy of investigation, and of being 
 professed as a special department of study for the 
 benefit of those who proposed to devote their lives to 
 educational work. 
 
 Let me remind my audience that professional 
 training in the sphere of primary instruction is already 
 an accomplished fact in the State (Denominational) 
 Training Colleges ; and, though doubtless susceptible of 
 improvement, it is a universally recognised success. 
 Education as a Philosophy and History is professed in 
 many German and American Universities. The question 
 which we here and now have to consider a question in 
 
 1 Delivered at the Educational Conference of the International 
 Health Exhibition, London, 1884. 
 
44 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 my opinion ripe for settlement is the philosophic 
 and historical study of education in the universities 
 of Great Britain, and the need of such a course of 
 study for all who intend to become middle and upper 
 schoolmasters. 
 
 It is true now, as it has been in the past and will be 
 in the future, that some of the best teachers have never 
 read or heard a word of educational philosophy or 
 method. Such men possess that happy combination of 
 powers fitting them for the doing of a specific work 
 in the world, which we call genius. Such natural en- 
 dowment and aptitude we find in every department of 
 human activity. In the arts of painting and sculpture 
 this gift of genius is conspicuous. None the less have 
 we schools of art, because we believe that even the 
 greatest genius is bettered by being placed, when 
 young, in possession of the inheritance of tradition. 
 No man, however great his powers, should be allowed 
 to waste them in finding out anew for himself the mere 
 commonplaces of his art. 
 
 Teaching or instructing is also an art. All admit 
 this. In instructing, the individual teacher is supreme 
 over his pupils. Nine-tenths are wholly dependent on 
 him for what they may know, while the remaining one- 
 tenth the select few are very largely his debtors. 
 All again depend on him for guidance and for the manner 
 of their knowing, that is to say, whether acquisition be 
 mainly through memory, their memory becoming a 
 storehouse of unorganised facts and of conventional 
 ready-made opinions (which through mere mental habit 
 finally harden into irrational convictions), or whether it 
 be through the living activity of their own reason. It is 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 45 
 
 in the evoking of this living activity, that the great art 
 of instruction consists. Is it possible to do this ? If so, 
 what is the way of doing it ? Even the most unthinking 
 of the teaching profession will grant that there is some 
 way, and that in this, as in all else, Nature has a process. 
 If any still hold that there is no process, they condemn 
 themselves to the ignoble and unworthy occupation of 
 making boys learn things by rote, and inflicting some 
 sort of physical suffering if they fail to do so. The man 
 who with such views becomes a teacher when he might 
 enlist as a soldier or sailor, must, it seems to me, be a 
 very poor creature. 
 
 I think we may now-a-days assume that even the 
 most sceptical among schoolmasters repudiate the un- 
 philosophical conception of their work ; and, were it only 
 to save their self-respect, they will claim that it is their 
 privilege, as well as their duty, to open and strengthen 
 the intelligence of their pupils through instruction in the 
 various subjects of a school curriculum. Now the most 
 elementary condition of this kind of instruction, it will 
 be admitted, is, that boys shall understand what they 
 are learning. Grant this, and we grant all; for the 
 human mind has a way whereby alone it can understand 
 anything, a way as certain and as exclusive of other 
 possible ways as its way of seeing, which is with the 
 bodily eyes alone, and not with the elbows. It is not 
 necessary, fortunately, that we should be conscious of 
 our way of seeing in order that we may see, or our way 
 of understanding in order that we may understand. 
 But if our bodily seeing could be improved by another, 
 and depended largely on lessons given us in seeing, it 
 would, I presume, be desirable at least, if not necessary,. 
 
46 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 that the eye-trainer should be aware of the conditions 
 of seeing and the way in which we see. If there be, 
 then, a way of understanding, instruction must proceed 
 according to that way, if it is to be instruction and not 
 mere mechanical memory work. Doubtless, a boy may 
 be brought to learn by rote what he does not understand. 
 This is the Chinese plan, and is also, I fear, not 
 unknown in our public schools in Great Britain. The 
 expectation is that he will some day or other under- 
 stand what he commits to memory. But if the ultimate 
 object be the understanding of what is learnt, why 
 should we not begin with this and make sure of it ? 
 I do not contend for the opinion that a boy need fully 
 comprehend all that he is taught, but I hold that he is 
 competent to comprehend all that he ought to be 
 taught sufficiently well to make it fit into his reasoning 
 processes and into the already acquired furniture of his 
 mind. There is understanding and understanding. A 
 boy of fifteen may learn and, in a sense, understand 
 Wordsworth's 'Poet's Epitaph/ but he does so in a 
 different sense from that in which Mr Browning under- 
 stands it. Understanding, then, being the end we, as 
 instructors, have in view, and there being a way 
 whereby a human being understands, we truly instruct 
 only if we follow that way. Now, a statement of that 
 way is a statement of method; and as it is further a 
 statement of the process of intelligizing, it is psychology 
 in its most interesting and suggestive form, for it is an 
 account of the intellectual powers as living and acting, 
 and not merely as dissected and tabulated. 
 
 The instructor, then, ought to know the general 
 process by which we know in other words he must 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 47 
 
 know the psychology of the intelligence. This, I think, 
 may be conceded. 
 
 But not only is there a general method: there 
 are particular methods. Method is essentially the same 
 for all subjects, but its application to the various 
 subjects of instruction is not always obvious. I have 
 seen a teacher teach arithmetic in accordance with 
 sound method, and make the most glaring mistakes 
 when he gave a lesson in grammar ; and again, I have 
 seen geography well taught, and language taught by 
 the same man in a hopelessly ignorant and unfruitful 
 way. And why ? Because the teacher I refer now 
 specially to those trained in Normal schools, where 
 methods form an essential part of the course had 
 understood for himself the method which he had been 
 taught to follow in one subject, but had not compre- 
 hended the application of the method to another subject. 
 It might be that he had seen lessons well given in the 
 one subject, and not in the other. And why did he 
 make this blunder ? Because he had not the key to all 
 methods, which is to be found in general Method alone. 
 He had, in short, no psychology, and he was, con- 
 sequently, a mere mechanical method-monger, having 
 no living source of method in himself; wanting, there- 
 fore, in elasticity, in confidence, in thought, in the 
 liberty wherewith philosophy makes the teacher free. 
 Particular methods, then, have to be taught, but they 
 are dead and barren if we have not breathed into them 
 the spirit of philosophy. 
 
 But not only is there a way of instruction, there is 
 also an order in time an order in which each subject 
 of instruction is to be begun each part of each subject 
 
48 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 each lesson of each part. All this depends ultimately 
 on the order of the growth of mind, and here the 
 instructor is brought face to face with physiological 
 conditions. Accordingly, the instructor must study the 
 elements of physiology as well as psychology, especially 
 in their relation to the nervous system, by which we 
 feel, and think, and do. 
 
 Then come considerations as to the manner of the 
 teacher in instructing, the quantity of instruction, and 
 the circumstances favourable and unfavourable to in- 
 struction. Here, again, we touch physiological as well 
 as mental conditions. 
 
 Still further, we have to consider the end we have 
 in view in instructing, and, as determined by this, 
 the materials of instruction. How can such supreme 
 questions be rationally approached save in relation to a 
 philosophy of life ? Here, indeed, all must philosophise, 
 either consciously or unconsciously. 
 
 And just at this point, where we begin to consider 
 ends, we perceive that we are as yet only at the 
 threshold of the subject ; for we are now passing from 
 the work of the mere instructor to that of the educator. 
 The whole moral and spiritual field opens out before us. 
 Were there no schools and no teachers, we might be 
 content to look on passively while a boy's hereditary 
 predispositions and natural environment moulded him. 
 But we are not at liberty as educators to do this 
 without committing professional suicide. If the delicate 
 and complex task of giving a character and tendency to 
 the inner life of the soul be truly ours (and if it be not, 
 then what is our task ?), surely it is our duty to study 
 the conditions of the growth of the moral and spiritual 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 49 
 
 life. This, again, is psychology in its deepest philo- 
 sophical relations. 
 
 Those who concur with what has been said, hold also, 
 as a matter of course, that the future teacher and 
 educator should be prepared for his task on the lines I 
 have indicated ; and that for this preparation professors 
 of the subject are needed. Those who deny that there 
 are principles in education, who think that "rule of 
 thumb" governs all, will, of course, fight shy of professors. 
 The question, accordingly, of professorships of education 
 depends entirely on the view we take of education itself, 
 and hence my way of approaching the subject prescribed 
 to me on this occasion. Is education a subject for 
 inquiry ? Is it a subject at all in an academic sense? If 
 it be a subject at all, it is manifestly a department of 
 philosophy. As such it claims a place in the faculties 
 of Philosophy in our universities. 
 
 And just as philosophy itself is enriched by the his- 
 tory of opinion, so is the subject of education enriched by 
 the history of theories, of national systems, of scholastic 
 experiments. Thus are many errors marked out for 
 avoidance, and many truths illustrated and confirmed. 
 
 For my own part I do not see how the vexed 
 questions of education are to be settled except scienti- 
 fically. Look at the programme of this Conference and 
 you will see how many subjects are still under debate 
 throughout Europe and America ; and there are a hun- 
 dred others. How am I honestly to settle the question, 
 say, of Latin versus elementary Science in secondary 
 schools, unless I can show how the one acts on the 
 human mind and how the other acts ? And so with 
 L. L. 4 
 
50 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 numerous other questions which are now asked, and 
 which must arise in the future before the day is reached 
 when the State will recognise education as its primary 
 and supreme function. 
 
 Professors of the Philosophy, Art, and History of 
 Education, then are, I hold, needed, and all aspirants to 
 the office of schoolmaster should be required to study 
 under them for a time. There are, however, three 
 objections commonly urged which are worthy of con- 
 sideration, and to which I shall briefly advert. 
 
 First. The study of education in its philosophy 
 and history will, some fear, convert our future teachers 
 into theorists. Now the very reverse of this is the 
 result of the study of a subject scientifically. The 
 untrained teacher of active mind and philanthropic 
 impulses will always become a theorist of some sort 
 a theorist in the sense of a faddist. But the youth who 
 has been led to think out the grounds of his profes- 
 sional activity scientifically, and has been brought face 
 to face with the history of his subject, is proof against 
 the tendency to 'theorise' in the vulgar sense of this 
 word. He has, on the contrary, acquired a scientific 
 habit of mind with reference to the subject of educa- 
 tion. Surely the most conservative of headmasters 
 prefer men under them who think, and who think 
 their work worth thinking about. If they think wisely, 
 they are pursuing education as a science ; and is it not 
 better that in this department of professional activity, 
 as well as in that of medicine, a scientific basis should 
 be laid during the period of professional preparation ? 
 Did the organization of medical education produce 
 theorists in the vulgar sense, or extinguish them ? 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 51 
 
 Secondly. I have seen it objected that there can 
 be no guarantee that the system of philosophy which 
 furnishes a basis of principle and an educational aim 
 will be sound. It may be Sensationalism at one time, 
 Kantianism at another, and again Hegelianism. But 
 are not the same objections to be urged against aca- 
 demic prelections in all subjects that interest and 
 cultivate the human mind, and endeavour to answer 
 its never-ceasing questions? Take moral philosophy for 
 example, or metaphysics, or even logic. And what shall 
 we say of professorial academic instruction in political 
 economy or history ? We believe that these subjects 
 afford a discipline, and train to thought, if taught by 
 able men ; and we take our chance of the rest. 
 
 Thirdly. We are told that teaching is so much a 
 mere art that practice for a few months in a good 
 school under a competent headmaster is more bene- 
 ficial than any possible course of lectures. I concur 
 with this objection so far that I think practical in- 
 struction in a model school an indispensable part of a 
 course of study for the teaching profession. But prac- 
 tice alone can never make anything but a mechanic. 
 The element of thought, of knowledge, of principle, of 
 science, is wanting, unless, indeed, the youth provides 
 all this for himself. I have said above that practice, 
 even when accompanied with the study of particular 
 methods of instruction, fails to produce the educator: 
 how much less can mere practice without any study of 
 method or methods do so ? We have again an analogy 
 in the medical profession. Clinical instruction is an 
 essential part of a surgeon's preparation, but who 
 nowadays would maintain that this would suffice 
 
 42 
 
52 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 without a knowledge of the sciences which give to 
 practice a scientific basis ? And yet there can be no 
 doubt that surgeons could be turned out, after clinical 
 study only, fit for all the ordinary work of the profession. 
 So much for current objections. 
 
 Further, we are told that our Public Schools have 
 such admirable methods, and so noble a tradition in 
 teaching, that young men who enter them as assistants, 
 and who have themselves been public schoolboys, are 
 "to the manor born," and, if they have anything to 
 learn, will soon learn it by watching the headmaster, 
 and submitting themselves to his advice. That the 
 young assistant will by these means acquire the habit 
 of his school, whatever that may be, I do not doubt. 
 But is that habit a good one ? Has the headmaster 
 himself studied philosophy and method? Is he not 
 simply repeating his predecessors ? Or, is he perchance 
 inspired ? No one will be Found at this time of day to 
 defend Keatism as it flourished at Eton, fagging in the 
 forms it assumed at certain public schools, and other 
 brutalities which brought shame on the name of Chris- 
 tian, not to speak of educator. I do not suppose any 
 one, save a survival in some endowed grammar-school 
 situated in some region remote and melancholy and 
 slow, will defend the method of acquiring the Latin 
 grammar by the learning of rules in the Latin tongue. 
 I do not suppose that any competent headmaster now 
 maintains that the sole engine of moral discipline is 
 the constant rod. I do not suppose that ignorance of 
 geography, of history, of English, of the facts and laws 
 of nature, will now be regarded as an essential charac- 
 teristic of the best English education. These things 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 53 
 
 are mostly of the past. But why ? To what is this 
 fact due ? To writers on education, to the progress 
 of society generally, and to one or two distinguished 
 practical educators, such as Arnold. Were Arnold 
 alive now, and were he to initiate a course of lectures 
 on education at Oxford, would our present headmasters 
 not think it desirable that their future assistants should 
 sit at his feet for a couple of terms ? There is no Arnold 
 now, but nature repeats a type, though it never repeats 
 an individual. The optical law, whereby an object 
 seems smaller the further it is removed from the eye, 
 is inverted in the case of men. The distance to which 
 death removes them makes them larger, not smaller. 
 You may have confidence that the Almighty did not 
 exhaust Himself in the pedagogic field when He made 
 Arnold. There was still some cosmic energy left for 
 the production of men who could teach others to teach, 
 and inspire them with the noble aims of true educators 
 of youth. Grant that, through the influences to which 
 I have alluded, we are now better than in the past, yet 
 surely it is the insanity of self-satisfaction to conclude 
 that now at this time of speaking, in August 1884, our 
 Public Schools and Middle Schools, and Primary Schools, 
 are at last perfect in their aims, methods, and discipline. 
 Even if they were, would it not be desirable that the 
 young aspirant should be introduced to the principles 
 which underlie and explain and vindicate that perfec- 
 tion, and to the instructive history whereby that per- 
 fection has been happily reached, that so he may be 
 guarded against degeneracy ? Would it not be desirable 
 that a ' school ' of education should preserve for the 
 future all that is good in the present ? 
 
54 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 Had Roger Ascham's College at Cambridge founded 
 a lectureship on the first two books of Quintilian, and 
 on Ascham's own work, and done nothing more, the 
 whole character of English public-school education 
 would have been revolutionised more than 200 years 
 ago. We should have been as great a nation measured 
 by the standards of imperial power and wealth, and in 
 addition to this, our citizens would have had a better 
 use of their brains, greater love of truth, more open 
 minds, more kindly hearts, more of wisdom, justice, 
 and righteousness. If I did not believe this, I should 
 give up the whole question of " how to educate " as 
 vain and empty talk : but I should have at the same 
 time to give up my belief in humanity and in the 
 possibility of a true civilisation. 
 
 Finally, "we admit (I understand one headmaster 
 to say) that it is desirable that young teachers should 
 study books on education nay, that even the elite of 
 the pedagogic world, the young master who has been a- 
 ' public-school ' boy and is consequently already by that 
 fact not far from perfection, should condescend to read ; 
 but as a matter of fact he does read." My answer is- 
 that he does not read. A return of the books on educa- 
 tion, not looked into, but carefully read by the masters 
 of public schools, who are, according to this gentleman, 
 supra educationem, as the emperor Sigismund was 
 supra grammaticam, would surprise him. Ask the 
 publishers of books on education how many sell among 
 the 50,000 teachers of England? But if it be so 
 desirable that the said young masters should read, 
 and if it be necessary, as a mere matter of professional 
 decency, to claim for them that they do read, it is not 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 55 
 
 surely too much to ask that their reading should be 
 put beyond all question, by requiring them to read 
 under the direction of a professor, and to listen to his 
 prelections before they plunge into their lifework. In 
 other subjects we do not leave such things to chance. 
 A clergyman should know Moral Philosophy and Church 
 History; but cognate as these subjects are to his clerical 
 functions, we do not leave him free not to read them, 
 in any course of preparation for the ministry which 
 even affects to be adequate. 
 
 Grant, then, that the schoolmaster is an educator, 
 and that an educator should study education ; the fur- 
 ther question remains where should the professors of 
 education be placed ? I answer where the future 
 teachers of all schools except the primary receive, or 
 ought to receive, the rest of their preparation viz. in 
 our universities. This I might advocate on grounds 
 of mere convenience and economy. But apart from 
 this consideration, I hold that our universities, as the 
 homes of science and philosophy, claim this highest 
 of all applied sciences itself indeed a science as well 
 as an art as part of their work. It is their duty, as 
 well as their privilege, to guide the thought of the 
 nation. I shall not surely be told that the question of 
 the growth and life of the human mind and the way in 
 which character is built up, are subjects unworthy to 
 stand side by side on the academic platform with 
 inquiries into the growth and life of molluscs, mosses, 
 and crayfish, or the making of bridges and engines ! 
 Schoolmasters at least will not tell me so ! They will 
 not thus flaunt in the face of the public their self- 
 contempt ! Let me add that the influence, of such 
 
 > OF THB 
 
 'I7BI7BRSIT7] 
 
56 ON PROFESSORSHIPS AND [LECT. 
 
 philosophic and historical studies as bear on education, 
 in making effectual for its great ends the school-system 
 of the country, gives them, on mere grounds of utility, 
 the strongest of claims on our universities and on the 
 Government. In our present educational system we 
 have a very costly instrument. The study of education 
 at our universities would teach us how best to use that 
 instrument for the moral and spiritual advancement of 
 the nation. 
 
 The 6lite of our Training College primary school- 
 masters also should be required, or at least encouraged, 
 to attend a professorial or academic course before 
 entering on the duties of the school. This is already 
 partially the case in Scotland. 
 
 The practical question remains: Suppose we had 
 such chairs at all our university seats, and in connexion 
 with them revived the ancient licentia docendi, or Licen- 
 tiateship in education 1 , how are we to secure students, 
 and so make these chairs of practical utility and not 
 mere endowments of research ? Here many difficulties 
 present themselves ; but there is only one way of finally 
 overcoming them all. And that is by a Teachers' 
 Registration Act which will virtually 2 limit the pro- 
 
 1 A Diploma in education is now instituted in the University of 
 Edinburgh and in London University ; and in Cambridge a Certificate. 
 
 2 I say "virtually," because, for this generation, at least, a Regis- 
 tration Act should perhaps restrict itself to the qualifications of 
 teachers of State-aided, Foundation, and Grammar Schools. The 
 rest would soon follow. One clause affirming this, and another clause 
 declaring the conditions of registration, and a third recognising exist- 
 ing teachers (within certain limits), would make a brief but adequate 
 Bill. There might be two classes in the register those who held an 
 academic degree, and those who did not. 
 
III.] LECTURESHIPS ON EDUCATION. 57 
 
 fession to two classes of teachers those who hold a 
 Government certificate, and those who hold a university 
 licentiateship. A licentiateship granted by certain 
 corporate bodies, such as the College of Preceptors in 
 England and the Educational Institute of Scotland, 
 might also be recognised. Were such a law passed, the 
 cause of education middle and upper-class education 
 would receive as powerful a stimulus as primary 
 instruction received from the Acts of 1870 and 1872. 
 Meanwhile, and as a provisional measure, the head- 
 masters of the great public schools should let it be 
 understood that, in making appointments, they will 
 allow due weight to the existing educational diplomas 
 of Cambridge and London. 
 
 In conclusion, I would ask the teachers of Great 
 Britain to say in what sense their occupation is a pro- 
 fession if it does not demand professional preparation ? 
 The dignity and status of the scholastic occupation 
 have hitherto been borrowed entirely from the clerical 
 profession. But in proportion as laymen obtain scho- 
 lastic appointments, to that extent must education 
 find a philosophical basis for itself if it is to hold its 
 own among liberal professions. I would also point out 
 that as that philosophical basis is the same for infant- 
 school teaching and university teaching alike, its uni- 
 versal recognition would weld together the whole body 
 of schoolmasters in one vast organization having com- 
 mon aims and engaged in a common national work. 
 The primary schoolmaster and the primary school would 
 thus be raised to a higher level ; lines of demarcation 
 would be less strongly marked, for the work of one grade 
 of the profession would then be seen to pass insensibly 
 
58 PROFESSORSHIPS AND LECTURESHIPS. [LECT. III. 
 
 into that of the others, and the humblest pupil in the 
 humblest infant-school would find himself, through 
 his teacher, a part of a great moral and intellectual 
 organization. At present, subjects of instruction now 
 mark off teachers into castes : the recognition of a 
 professional basis would reveal that when a primary 
 schoolmistress teaches the alphabet, and a "senior 
 classic" teaches Sophocles, they have both, if they 
 rightly understand their work, the same aims, the 
 difference between them consisting mainly in the age 
 of their pupils, and the material which they use to 
 attain a common educational end. None of our insti- 
 tutions would benefit more largely by recognising this 
 fact than the great English Public School. 
 
IV. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM OF SECON- 
 DARY SCHOOLS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 1 
 
 To the best of our recollection, it was Sir Lyoii Play- 
 fair who first, after the Great Exhibition of 1851-2, 
 proclaimed to the British public that they must set 
 about the technical education of both masters and 
 workmen in all our great industries. The movement 
 which he set agoing has gradually reached large dimen- 
 sions, and we may almost say that little is now wanted 
 to establish the technical education of the country on a 
 sound and permanent basis, beyond a more thorough 
 organization of existing agencies. More recently we 
 have seen conferences in London and elsewhere on the 
 allied subject of "commercial" education, and it would 
 almost seem that the young men who enter our busi- 
 ness houses can neither read, write, speak, nor count, 
 and are in absolute ignorance of geography in its com- 
 mercial and industrial aspects. Looking to the names 
 of the men who are agitating this question, we must 
 assume that they know what they are talking about, and 
 that there is substantial ground for their complaints. 
 
 It is not our intention here to take up the question 
 of either Technical or Commercial Schools, but rather 
 
 1 Addressed to the Glasgow Branch of the Teachers' Guild. 
 
60 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 to point out that with technical schools on one side 
 and commercial schools on the other, the old secondary 
 schools are doomed if they do not quickly reconsider 
 their position and adapt themselves to the wants of the 
 country. Technical schools are for a very special class 
 of the community, it is true; but a very slight modifica- 
 tion of their present organization would convert them 
 into secondary schools based on science, as opposed to 
 the existing secondary schools, which are based chiefly 
 on language. The same remark applies to the pro- 
 jected commercial schools. The question thus naturally 
 arises, 'Are we prepared to conclude the long-standing 
 debate on the Humanistic and Realistic in education 
 by capitulating to the latter ? ' For ourselves, we think 
 that such a result would be a national misfortune. At 
 the same time, it has to be faced as a probability and 
 accepted if necessary. But is it necessary ? To techni- 
 cal schools as the secondary schools of the industrial 
 classes we are already committed, and the specific 
 function which they discharge justifies their further 
 extension. But it is not necessary, in our opinion, 
 further to deplete the Grammar and High Schools of 
 Great Britain in the interests of the new demand for 
 specific commercial instruction. There is no fault 
 which has yet been found with the boy-products of 
 existing schools that cannot be traced either to a faulty 
 programme or to bad methods of teaching. Take, for 
 example, arithmetic. We are told that young clerks 
 know nothing about the application of arithmetic to 
 commercial questions, are wholly ignorant of foreign 
 currencies, and are incompetent to transmute one into 
 the other. Now, there is no student of educational 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 61 
 
 method who will not say that this is due simply to bad 
 teaching, and that the proper training of teachers is 
 the true solution of this, and, indeed, of many other 
 scholastic problems. 
 
 Humanism as the basis of education is now threat- 
 ened on all sides, and it is because of this that on this 
 occasion I would direct your attention anew to the aim 
 and subjects of secondary education generally. My 
 object is to suggest such a modification of the curriculum 
 of schools as will leave the linguistic basis very much 
 where it is in all essential respects, and to establish, not 
 on utilitarian but on purely educational grounds, a 
 working compromise between the humanistic and the 
 realistic in the work of every school. The attack on 
 the mediaeval curriculum of our secondary schools and 
 universities has been very persistent during the past 
 forty years, and the assailants, while compelled to leave 
 Latin and Greek in the possession of all the strategic 
 parts of the field, have yet scored not a few successes. 
 The technical and commercial school movements are 
 only the more visible results of a prolonged campaign 
 which has shaken every old fortress to its centre. To 
 save themselves from destruction, alien and hostile 
 elements have been assigned a place within the older 
 schools, though, it is true, a subordinate and humble 
 place : for the recognition of science in our secondary 
 schools has not been cordial; along with modern lan- 
 guages, it cannot be said to be more than tolerated. 
 
 Notwithstanding the coldness with which the British 
 mind receives all theoretical considerations, it must yet 
 surely be admitted that unless we can find some standard 
 
2 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 by which we can test our educational aims, it will be 
 impossible to adjudicate justly on the claims of com- 
 peting subjects for a place among educational instru- 
 ments. That standard can only be the end which we 
 propose to ourselves. Given that secondary education 
 terminates in a boy's eighteenth year (and taking the 
 country overhead, this is a reasonable assumption), we 
 have to consider what we would have him to be, in 
 respect of faculty and character generally, when he 
 enters on the work of life. 
 
 To put before ourselves as our aim the merely tech- 
 nical requirements of this or that industry or occupation 
 has a show of wisdom about it, but is in truth unwise, 
 and will be found in its results unprofitable for our 
 youth in an educational, and for the nation in a material, 
 sense. Since the revival of letters, the idea which the 
 Attic Greeks introduced of educating a man not for this 
 or that special function, but simply for manhood, has 
 governed the education of civilised Europe. There have 
 been many quarrels, which still indeed survive, as to the 
 best way of doing this, but among the combatants the 
 leading idea has always been unquestioned. Whether 
 we ask Plato, Aristotle, Melanchthon, Sturm, Ascham, 
 Montaigne, Milton, or Comenius, the answer has been 
 in substance the same. And when that answer is 
 properly understood, it amounts to this, that the aim 
 of all education is ethical, that it has in view Wisdom 
 and Virtue; and that mere knowledge, nay, even 
 discipline of mind, are to be regarded as taking their 
 true value from their power of contributing to the 
 main purpose the wise and capable conduct of life. 
 What are called " practical " considerations, however, 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 63 
 
 are not on this account to be left out of sight ; and 
 in a country like our own, which can maintain its 
 existence only by a vast system of manufacture and 
 commerce, it is absolutely necessary that the "practical" 
 should enter into the education, not merely of the future 
 manufacturer or merchant, but also into that of the 
 future civil and military servant, and still more into 
 that of the politician who is to legislate for the whole. 
 
 While recognising in the fullest sense the necessity 
 for the recognition of the "practical" in a national 
 scheme of education, and the need there is, in a 
 reconsideration and reorganization of the curriculum 
 of secondary schools, for the fuller development of 
 those lines of activity on which they have already 
 entered, we yet must hold that all efforts to obtain the 
 supreme educational end capacity, wisdom, and virtue 
 will assuredly fail if we subject our boys to courses 
 of instruction which, being "practical" in the narrow 
 utilitarian sense, fail to educate in the larger Hellenic 
 sense. Accordingly, we maintain that in the primary 
 school and secondary school alike, language must still 
 continue to take precedence of all other studies. If the 
 educative aim is to be secured, language is the chief of 
 .all liberal studies. By liberal studies are to be under- 
 stood those which have in view the manhood of the 
 man, and not merely his technical equipment for special 
 departments of industrial or professional activity. By 
 such liberal studies, even the practical aims of life will 
 be best secured. 
 
 But by Language we do not mean grammar, though 
 this must be its basis if the teaching is to be sound; 
 but language in its concrete form as the expression of 
 
64 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 thought on human life in brief, as literature. It 
 has been recently maintained that literature is an 
 impossible subject in schools; but the reason why it 
 is always a difficult subject, and often an impossible 
 one, is simply this, that the masters of secondary 
 schools are not trained to teach and know little or 
 nothing of methods. It would be an easy matter to 
 show that even in primary schools language as litera- 
 ture can be taught, but my business here and now 
 is with secondary schools, which profess to carry on 
 the education of boys from their fourteenth to their 
 eighteenth year. These boys, we must assume, know 
 (to begin with) as least as much as the seventh 
 standard boys in Board schools. If they do not, there 
 is something seriously wrong somewhere. They must 
 be presumed to be able to read ordinary English, to 
 write accurately a simple letter, to parse ordinary 
 sentences, to give a fair account of the general geography 
 of the world, and to work sums in all the ordinary rules 
 of arithmetic, to sing from notation, and to draw a little 
 from models. So equipped to begin with, and being 
 now of an age to engage with advantage in studies 
 which demand a certain power of abstraction and 
 reasoning, we have to consider what we are to do with 
 them in order to fit them as fairly cultivated men to 
 enter on the duties of citizenship ; and, let me add, on 
 the enjoyment, as well as the work, of life. It is not so 
 much the creation of any specific power of mind that 
 we have to aim at as the giving to a youth command 
 over his own powers generally. This we cannot accom- 
 plish unless we both feed the mind and discipline the 
 mind. For the attainment of these objects, there is no 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 65 
 
 subject that can compare for a moment with language ; 
 and whatever else we may teach, this is the one govern- 
 ing subject which must run through all education from 
 the infant-school to the university. By Language we 
 mean language in the concrete form, as literature, with 
 a view to the nutrition of mind, and also in its gram- 
 matical and historical forms with a view to the discipline 
 of mind by abstract exercises ; briefly, language both 
 as a synthetic and as an analytic study. 
 
 Why now should language be raised to this emi- 
 nence ? Because it is the sole universal in the intellec- 
 tual education of every human being. Occupation with 
 the relations of weights and magnitudes and numbers 
 cannot by any possibility educate ; such studies can 
 at best only sharpen faculty, and that within a narrow 
 and closely defined range. If we can imagine a man 
 devoting himself to these questions alone during a 
 lifetime, he would at 70 be still a boy as regards all the 
 great questions of human life and destiny. The precise 
 extent to which the concrete physical and natural 
 sciences can be educative I shall not, on the present 
 occasion, try to determine. Instructive they certainly 
 are in the highest degree. But language as such is, 
 what they can never be, universal in its sweep and in 
 its educational efficacy. It embraces the whole of I 
 human life and penetrates into the remotest of its/ 
 recesses. The study of it gives command of thought 
 in all its ramifications ; it clears our apprehension, 
 makes easier our daily observations, judgments and 
 reasonings. Above all, it fits us for intelligent com- 
 munion with the great thinkers of our race. Language, 
 in truth, is always with us ; in our getting up and our 
 L. I, 5 
 
66 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 lying down : and if we start well-equipped when young, 
 it cannot but grow daily in reach and defi niteness under 
 the pressure of our multifarious relations to men and 
 things. Step by step with language grows our life as 
 thinking and active spirits, and of this we may be 
 assured, that if language is not growing in us, we are 
 intellectually dead. 
 
 But it may be said that in studying science we are 
 studying language, since all knowledge is necessarily 
 acquired through language. The language of special- 
 isms, however, is not the language we mean, except, of 
 course, those specialisms (if we may so call them) which 
 have a deep and wide human and humane significance, 
 such as philosophy and art. Specialistic language adds 
 to our knowledge of a particular department ; but 
 simply because there is nothing universal in it, it 
 fails to educate our humanity. Perhaps an illustration 
 will best convey what I mean. If any man of general 
 cultivation were to open a book on embryology, he 
 might read a whole page without understanding a 
 single word, except the more ordinary verbs and par- 
 ticles necessary to the construction of all sentences. 
 But, as a man, he is none the worse because he does 
 not understand it, and if he had been able to under- 
 stand it, as a man, he would have been none the better. 
 Now let him take up a volume of poems and read a piece 
 by, say, George Herbert. If he does not understand 
 that, then as a man, he is so much the worse ; but 
 understanding it, he is, as a man, so much the better. 
 It is this universality of language as such, causing it 
 to touch every human interest and every moral and 
 spiritual aspect of life that gives it its claim, even if 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 67 
 
 there were no other, to a governing place in all education 
 up to the time at which a young man must specialise. 
 Other subjects may give an edge to faculty. Language 
 feeds the soul and enlarges faculty. 
 
 Important, too, is the consideration that the study 
 of language is a historical study. And this in a far 
 other and deeper sense than the analysis and origin of 
 word-forms. It is historical because it is itself the 
 reflection of the thought and the whole active being 
 of man through all time. It is the accumulated and 
 complete resultant of all history. In studying language 
 as it ought to be studied, we are re-thinking, each for 
 himself, the thought of past ages, and it is in this sense, 
 chiefly, that language is, in truth, history. Just as it is . 
 community of language which more than anything else 
 makes of a crowd of men a nation, so it is language, 
 simply as such, which binds together the remotest past 
 of man with the present. Each new form of speech as 
 it attains maturity tries to make the riches of preceding 
 forms its own, thereby to find a vehicle for ever subtler 
 and more adequate expression. The very sentence 
 which we now write may be said to be influenced by 
 all the words which have preceded it and which have 
 made us moderns possible. It is to this their lordly) 
 heritage this embalmed history of the human soul, 
 that we desire to introduce boys when we teach them 
 language. 
 
 Again, the study of language is the veiled and indi- 
 rect study of morality and religion. It is the indirect- 
 ness of the moral and religious sentiment that consti- 
 tutes the substance of literature which enables us 'to 
 influence the young through works of genius. Boys 
 
 52 
 
68 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 resent direct moral and religious teaching in the very 
 years in which they most need it. It is only by means 
 of literature that we can lead them insensibly to make 
 acquaintance with spiritual ideals, only there that we 
 can find recorded the experience of the past on the 
 deepest human relations ; and in a single sentence we 
 may find more of the real, more of the true substance 
 of things than in a complete enumeration of the facts 
 of mere sense in ordered file of cause and effect. The 
 things that constitute the substance of human life, 
 not physical facts and relations, are specially the things 
 which touch the inmost soul of even the naturally 
 callous. 
 
 Without further argument, then, we may conclude 
 that the study of language, thus humanely conceived, 
 enlarges faculty and feeds the soul of man as no other 
 subject can possibly do. But it can further lay claim 
 to a unique power of sharpening and disciplining 
 faculty. For as a grammatical or logical study, and as an 
 inquiry into the growth of historical forms, it exercises 
 the mind in the making of distinctions, it makes words 
 bear their true meaning, it dissipates fallacies of matter, 
 it puts us perpetually through life on our guard against 
 sophisms. By training to exactness and precision of 
 speech it trains to exactness and precision of thought. 
 It is the best ally of the seeker after truth, even in the 
 domain of natural science. This exactness is an inevit- 
 able effect of the formal study of language, for, property 
 conducted, the analytic study of speech is the study 
 of the machinery of thought itself. If the study of 
 language does not accomplish all I have claimed for it,, 
 it is the fault of defective aims and methods. 
 

 IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 69 
 
 In advocating language in its real and formal aspects 
 as the central subject of secondary instruction, up to 
 the age of eighteen, we advocate nothing new. The 
 Athenians and the Romans trained their young men by 
 means of language ; the education of the middle ages 
 had language, and, indeed, solely Latin, as its instru- 
 ment of education ; and even at the mediaeval universi- 
 ties, the extension of language-teaching into Rhetoric 
 and Logic was but a natural development on linguistic 
 lines ; for the study of Logic and Rhetoric is merely the 
 study in an abstract and formal way of what is already 
 familiar to the student in the concrete form of language. 
 The revival of letters did not dethrone language, but 
 merely added the study of the substance of language 
 that is to say, literature, to that of dry and badly 
 formulated grammatical rules, thus restoring the Greek 
 idea. Since the Reformation, the Latin language thus 
 more or less modified by the influence of the Renaissance, 
 and with the addition of Greek, has formed the chief 
 matter of school discipline throughout Europe. Of 
 course it may be said by some that the more old-world 
 the doctrine the more is it to be repudiated by the 
 enlightened modern; but we would ask the modern 
 realist to pause and consider what the past, trained on 
 the lines we have indicated, has done for humanity and 
 for us. There must be not a little to be said for studies 
 which fed the genius of Greece, which gave substance 
 to the vigorous mind of Rome, and which have yielded 
 to modern Europe the rich literature of the past 450 
 years. If we are reminded, by way of objection, of the 
 barren outcome of the 950 years that elapsed after 
 Constaiitine, the answer is ready ; for this was due partly 
 
70 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 to historical conditions, and partly to the ignoring of 
 language as a concrete subject. It was only analyti- 
 cally and with a view to immediate use as an organ of 
 communication that language was taught in the Epi- 
 scopal and Monastery schools. Down to the 13th 
 century the mediaeval studies were thus not only 
 abstract and grammatical, but they were also, in truth, 
 utilitarian. It was this utilitarianism, the subservience 
 of language to merely ecclesiastical and other neces- 
 sary uses that emptied it of all genuine liberalizing 
 influence. 
 
 In settling what and how much of language, con- 
 crete and analytic, we are to teach, it is to us almost 
 self-evident that the mother-tongue ought to be the 
 beginning, middle, and end of all linguistic instruction. 
 Here we part company with the classical Humanists. 
 All other languages should, so to speak, play up to the 
 vernacular. It requires no argument, however, to show 
 that no man (we, of course, except men of marked 
 genius) can know his own tongue unless he knows, at 
 least, one other well. This has been often said. Among 
 the alien languages at his command for school use, the 
 teacher must, accordingly, select that one which will 
 most surely attain the ends of all linguistic teaching 
 that which will most effectually give command of the 
 mother-tongue, both in its words and forms, that which 
 will historically best connect him with past thought, 
 that which will be most moral and aesthetic in its influ- 
 ences, that which will most surely contribute to discipline 
 in thinking and in exactness of expression. There can 
 be no doubt that it is in Latin that we English find these 
 conditions alone in union, and that Latin above all other 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 71 
 
 tongues ought to be the basis, along with English, of all 
 linguistic training. So true is this that it seems to us 
 that (to apply an old witticism in a new connexion) 
 if we had not Latin, it would be necessary to invent it. 
 With English and Latin presuming that Latin is 
 taught (which it rarely is) in the broad realistic way, 
 broad both philologically and sesthetically, in which it 
 will be taught when our secondary schoolmasters are 
 trained in educational methods and aims, and that the 
 English of the school includes extensive reading in the 
 literature of our national history, the school-day would 
 be well occupied to the extent of fully one-half, and the 
 remaining portion (about three hours a day), is all that 
 would be available for other subjects. 
 
 We may seem as yet to have said very little that 
 can afford guidance in constructing a secondary curri- 
 culum out of the present confusion ; but what we have 
 said implies a good deal. For if we grant that the end 
 to be constantly kept in view in all secondary education, 
 as in all primary, is an ethical one capacity for the 
 conduct of life ; and if, further, we have fixed the lead- 
 ing instrument in that education, it is not so difficult, 
 as it at first may seem, to determine the rest of the 
 curriculum, especially if we now bring within our 
 consideration the directly practical uses of life, the 
 fitting of boys for their specific functions as citizens. 
 For having once secured those instruments by which 
 the young can best be truly educated, namely, English, 
 national History, and Latin, we are now at liberty to 
 look with an impartial mind at all the other subjects 
 pressing for recognition in subjection to the second, 
 
72 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 but always subordinate, guiding principle the pre- 
 paration of boys for the various duties they may 
 have to discharge as citizens. Here, we would place 
 first in order that subject which might, did space 
 permit, be shown to be the most cultivating generally, 
 as well as to be most directly related to the various 
 occupations of citizens in a country such as ours we 
 mean Geography. Geography does not mean the 
 miserable scraps of the modern school. We use the 
 word in the sense in which it is taken in the recent 
 work by Dr Archibald Geikie, Director of the Geo- 
 logical Survey, and by leading authors on Method 1 . 
 So taught, it embraces all that is essential for a 
 cultivated man to know of the world of nature, it 
 gives life to history and lays the sure foundation of 
 commercial, industrial and political knowledge. It is 
 thus both a general and also a specific and useful 
 study at once liberal and utilitarian. 
 
 Next to Geography, in the large sense in which I 
 have defined it, come Arithmetic and Mathematics, both 
 because they are disciplinary, and because, as instru- 
 ments in the work of the world, they stand in manifold 
 relations to practical life. But neither on utilitarian 
 nor disciplinary grounds is it necessary to go far in 
 Mathematics. A boy leaving a secondary school in his 
 eighteenth year, who has an exact knowledge of four 
 books of Euclid with their practical applications and of 
 Algebra to Quadratics, has very much more than the 
 majority of men have who graduate at our universities. 
 I say exact knowledge ; for a single step in such subjects 
 
 1 See subsequent lecture on Geography. 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 73 
 
 which is not exact is intellectually hurtful. Where 
 there are proper methods of teaching, this department 
 should not occupy boys above 14 (already by that time 
 familiar with ordinary arithmetical operations) more 
 than five hours a week. By proper methods we mean 
 practical methods the turning to use of everything 
 that is taught. I am well aware that mathematical 
 specialists will demand three times five hours weekly, 
 but they must not be allowed to ride their hobby to 
 the detriment of national education. Enough is con- 
 ceded to them if the instruction-plan of the school 
 admits of those boys who have a marked mathematical 
 aptitude specializing in the last year of secondary school 
 study 1 . 
 
 We consider that we have now laid down all that is 
 necessary for the thorough education of a mind. The 
 analytic powers have been exercised in Language, the 
 inductive in the acquisition of nature-knowledge, the 
 deductive in mathematics and in the application of the 
 principles of language to translation and composition ; 
 the imagination and the emotions have received their 
 proper nutriment in literature and the study of nature, 
 and the national spirit has been fostered by broad and 
 various historical reading. So far as mere education is 
 concerned nothing more is wanted, always presuming 
 that these subjects are so organized, and so spread over 
 the school-period, as to leave a fair amount of leisure to 
 
 1 In these days, when all professions, and many occupations, are 
 hedged round by examinations, the last year of every boy's secondary 
 course should be largely a specialized one, having directly in view 
 the examination he has to pass. A boy may quite well be coached at 
 school without being crammed. 
 
74 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 boys, not only for play but for the growth of native 
 aptitudes, such as handwork, music, &c. 
 
 But no scheme of instruction, however well devised, 
 will succeed, except with the few ardent boys, if the 
 minds of the masters are not richly endowed, and if the 
 principles and methods of education are not studied 
 and applied. Secondary schoolmasters sit down con- 
 tented with results which would insure the prompt 
 dismissal of a primary schoolmaster in our remotest 
 glens. They assume that nothing more can be made of 
 boys than they make. They are utterly wrong. We 
 recently saw a report by a distinguished headmaster 
 of an English public school in which he spoke of the 
 attainments of all boys, outside three or four race- 
 horses who had specialized with a view to Oxford and 
 Cambridge scholarship competitions, as " graded ignor- 
 ance." Very honest this ; but very lamentable. And 
 this headmaster was one of those who publicly and 
 deliberately gave it as his opinion that young Oxford 
 and Cambridge graduates, who took up the work of 
 education, had no need to study their life-work in its 
 principles, history, and methods, because they had 
 already had perfect models in their own teachers, and 
 would likewise have them in the headmasters under 
 whom they might take service ! Our conviction is that 
 an examination of the great secondary schools in which 
 the results were honestly put before the public would 
 completely explode our present system. 
 
 The restricted curriculum which we have briefly 
 sketched is, we repeat, adequate, and should be uni- 
 versal. It is also practical and fits for life, " commercial " 
 and other. There is no "modern" side in education. 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 75 
 
 Education rests on principles. What is good for the 
 future cleric is good for the future physician, school- 
 master, lawyer, merchant, publicist, and civil servant ; 
 and it is these guides, governors, and instructors of the 
 nation that we have alone to consider in our secondary 
 schools. But this course of instruction, while sufficient 
 for all educative purposes, still leaves a large portion of 
 the school time-table a blank. There is room for more. 
 In seeking about for other subjects we may now allow 
 ourselves to be wholly guided by practical considera- 
 tions. And whether the boy is to be a cleric, a phy- 
 sician, a lawyer, a scientific expert, or a merchant, 
 French and German urge their claims with irresistible 
 force. In the first year of these languages not less 
 than five hours a week, exclusive of preparation, should 
 be set apart for each, and three hours in future years. 
 French should be begun one year, and German the 
 following. 
 
 The Time-table is now full. With Greek we 
 certainly part most reluctantly, but the claims of 
 French and German are in these days such that Greek 
 can find no place in the enforced curriculum of secondary 
 schools. As a specific subject for the few who mean to 
 be clergymen, philologers or classical schoolmasters, it 
 ought to be provided but not enforced. 
 
 Art, however, need not be neglected : the adornment 
 of the schoolrooms with good casts and facsimile photo- 
 graphs will engage the interest of every good teacher. 
 Singing from notation will be taught twice a week, and 
 drawing will have three hours weekly assigned to it. 
 These subjects do not add to the weight of the school 
 curriculum, but rather lighten it. Workshops also 
 
76 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 ought, like covered gymnasiums, to form a part of the 
 equipment of every school. 
 
 Now the clamorous school of educationalists outside, 
 will begin each to push his own peculiar hobby. We 
 shall be asked, "If this be all, where is instruction in 
 the laws of health ? where instruction in our civil 
 constitution, and the duties of citizenship? where are 
 physics and chemistry?" The answer is that the first 
 two questions are put by those pedants in education 
 who imagine that to teach a subject, one must give it a 
 place in a time-table, and prescribe a text-book. The 
 laws of health ought certainly to be taught to every 
 boy, but a few diagrams and simple experiments, and 
 eight or nine familiar lessons in the last year of school 
 attendance will give all that is necessary on hygienic 
 grounds. As to citizenship and the constitution, this 
 kind of knowledge is, as a matter of course, conveyed in 
 connexion with the historical reading by every master 
 who is really competent to teach history, and is familiar 
 with the demands of method. Science again is suffi- 
 ciently represented in the nature-knowledge included 
 under the head of Geography. The theory of Chemistry 
 and the abstractions of Physics are not more educative 
 than the learning of a Greek verb. They are, and can 
 only be, received by a boy as facts, not as the outcome of 
 investigation and inductive reasoning. He gets them 
 by heart, which means by rote, and is consequently 
 wasting his time, and merely learning to hate science. 
 The properties of matter, we willingly grant, when well- 
 taught are educative, because they are capable of visible 
 .and palpable illustration ; and we further admit that 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 77 
 
 such elementary notions of Chemistry as bear directly 
 on the constitution of matter can be taught experi- 
 mentally with great advantage. So also can Botany, if 
 it means the dissection of a plant by the boy himself 
 under supervision. But if education in other and more 
 important subjects is to be thorough, these subjects 
 (which are the object-lessons of the secondary school), 
 while they must be kept in view, must be treated not 
 as serious studies demanding the application of a boy's 
 full powers, but merely as parerga designed to interest 
 and stimulate the intelligence. They will be more 
 effective for this purpose if not formally prescribed. 
 There is too much formal and magisterial lesson-giving 
 in schools. These subjects should involve no lesson - 
 learning. They should be handled conversationally, 
 and a really good teacher of these might quite safely, 
 with excellent results, make his conversational prelec- 
 tions optional so far as the boys were concerned. 
 
 Our main object in this consideration of secondary 
 instruction is to bring into prominence the necessity of 
 organizing such instruction, not in a fragmentary way, 
 not by the arbitrary setting up of different lines of 
 study, not by external considerations, not in obedience 
 to the clamour of the hour, but on broad and sound 
 educational principles. What is good for one boy is 
 good for another ; and what is good for a boy is, so far 
 as general education goes, good for a girl up to the age 
 of 17 or 18 if she has time to spare from art studies. If 
 there is anything in educational principles at all, there 
 must be a unity in educational ends and methods and 
 a unity in the educational curriculum. All outside 
 
78 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 what is best for the true education of a boy is of the 
 nature of study undertaken for a specific, external, 
 bread-earning purpose ; for this I have provided the 
 necessary time as far as modern languages are concerned, 
 while indicating that the last year of attendance might 
 be devoted to specialized work adapted to the future 
 destination of the boy. If a boy is either too idle or 
 too stupid to benefit by the general education offered 
 to him, he can be kept in the same class until his father, 
 disgusted, removes him, as much to the boy's own 
 advantage as to that of the school, and puts him to 
 some private classes or to a trade. The education of 
 the country is not to be sacrificed to a few stupid or 
 idle boys. 
 
 Remember that the quantity of knowledge to be 
 acquired is not much ought not to be much. No 
 man who has had any experience of the work done in 
 schools cares much for an extension of the quantity 
 professed. It is the quality which has to be looked to. 
 Exact and thorough knowledge of elements in languages 
 .and mathematics, if possessed by a boy of 17, will 
 enable him after that age to advance with giant strides 
 in these departments if he chooses. Every student who 
 has given himself to serious work after reaching the 
 university stage knows this. 
 
 Our conviction is that the re-organization of the 
 instruction of our secondary schools is an urgent one. 
 The Latin and Greek curriculum which now prevails 
 accompanied by a merely ostensible teaching of other 
 subjects will soon attract only those boys who are going 
 to be clergymen, for already the other professions 
 dispense with Greek and take a minimum of Latin. 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 79 
 
 What we should aim at is to preserve the idea of the 
 old system in so far as it can be shown to be education- 
 ally sound, and yet at the same time to meet the 
 modern wants of all sections of the middle class. And 
 the idea of the old system was that by language boys 
 can best be fitted to be men as well as to be practical 
 workers. We cling to this idea. It is thus that we 
 are truly Greek, not by studying Greek. We hold the 
 Hellenic conception to be fundamentally sound even in 
 these latter days. But in adapting this idea to modern 
 conditions, we have interpreted language to mean, first 
 of all our own tongue, and then Latin and other tongues 
 as merely subsidiary to it. By Latin, however, let us 
 say, we mean more Latin and better Latin than is at 
 present taught. Surely it is a public scandal that not 
 more than 10 or 15 per cent, of boys below the 6th form 
 (which form is constituted by a kind of natural selec- 
 tion), get any real benefit from Latin as at present 
 taught. To the teacher we say : Study methods, fix 
 aims ; apply your methods and you will attain your 
 aims. Above all, teach language not only as an analytic 
 exercise, but as concrete, as literature. It is quite 
 possible to do this. Make the whole study living, and 
 save humanism from being overwhelmed by the ad- 
 vancing wave of scientific realism. With humanism 
 will go, remember, moral ideals, spiritual life, art and 
 poetry. What a bleak and barren prospect ! Is it to 
 be supposed that the character of the nation will not be 
 affected by the educational revolution ? 
 
 We can imagine now, the purely classical humanist 
 who still lives in the atmosphere of the 16th century, 
 asking, ' If Greek is to go and so much time is to be 
 
80 ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM [LECT. 
 
 given to English, Latin, history, realistic subjects, 
 modern languages, drawing and singing, what is to 
 become of culture ? ' If culture means Greek, then we 
 say there will be as much of it in the future as now. The 
 schoolboys at our secondary schools and universities who 
 are fighting a losing game with Greek syntax and 
 prosody may surely disappear from the scene, to the 
 great joy of themselves and their masters, without 
 lowering the standard of Greek scholarship. What a 
 sham the whole business is this of the culture of the 
 young bowler by means of Greek ! How can classical 
 masters look parents and the public in the face with the 
 dire secrets of the examination room in their pockets ? 
 Talk of augurs not being able to pass each other without 
 a smile ! If giving up culture means giving up the 
 ability to write Latin and Greek prose at which Cicero 
 and Plato would shake their heads, and verse at which 
 Horace and Euripides would laugh, it had better go. 
 Culture is not possible on these terms, never was 
 possible except for 2 or 3 per cent, of the boys who 
 frequent our secondary schools. Is the education of the 
 country to be sacrificed to the small percentage of such 
 successes ? While allowing for the continued production 
 of these linguistic experts, a public system ought to 
 succeed in giving the full benefits of its organized 
 curriculum to at least 70 per cent, of those whom it 
 professes to prepare for life. 
 
 And, after all, what is culture ? We readily grant 
 that a man who can turn out neat verses in Latin and 
 Greek is a man of culture, not because of the verses he 
 produces (that would be absurd), but because the skill 
 he displays is evidence that he has gone through a long 
 
IV.] OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 81 
 
 course of linguistic and humanistic training, which 
 effloresces in this particular way. But such special 
 accomplishments are, as a matter of fact, very seldom 
 found in conjunction with culture in its truer and larger 
 sense. If I find a man with a command of his own 
 powers, with an open intelligence, with interests outside 
 his own personality and his own particular department, 
 with a feeling for the historical past, with a love for 
 art-forms, and with high aims in life, I recognize in 
 such a man the true ethical habit of mind in its 
 broadest sense, and him I would call a man of culture. 
 Many learned men are stupid, many scholarly men are 
 oddities, many scientific experts are boors. It is the 
 ethical outcome which Pericles and Plato, I imagine, 
 would have called culture. And such culture is not 
 the exclusive possession of academic aristocrats who 
 can turn verses or fight over emendations. It is in 
 order to promote the true culture, which alone is 
 Hellenic culture, that our schools and universities have 
 their existence as parts of the national polity; and 
 (leaving out, meanwhile, all consideration of universi- 
 ties), we believe that such culture can be best promoted 
 in schools by the curriculum which we have sketched, 
 if masters understand their business. 
 
 But here lies the difficulty with the masters not 
 with the boys. To turn over the teaching of English 
 to men who have no love of literature and no under- 
 standing of the methods whereby it may be made to 
 stimulate the minds of the young, or to ask a master to 
 teach geography who is not himself an expert in 
 geography, geology, and physics, as well as a student of 
 economics, is to ensure failure. Such a mode of procedure 
 L. L. 6 
 
82 ORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. [LECT. IV. 
 
 would introduce into even the richest and most fruitful 
 of subjects the barrenness and aridity of the old gerund- 
 grinding. And fulness of knowledge alone will not 
 suffice for the master : the study of the principles and 
 methods of education is essential. But what hope have 
 we of this when we find headmasters of great public 
 schools telling us that they have nothing to learn and 
 that they, and those who have the privilege of working 
 under them, have already reached " perfection's sacred 
 height ! " There are not a few certainly who are born 
 teachers men with a singular capacity for guiding 
 youthful minds, but the great majority must always be 
 dependent on the history and principles of their craft 
 for the due discharge of their educative function. 
 "Even the youngest" fellow of a college may have 
 something to learn from Plato, Quintilian, Ascham, 
 and Comenius. 
 
V. 
 
 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING OF 
 GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL \ 
 
 I SHALL first consider what may be called the pre- 
 liminaries of all method whatsoever in their specific 
 relation to geography as a school subject, viz., the 
 " What " and the " Why " of geographical instruction. 
 I propose thereafter to speak of the "How" of geo- 
 graphical teaching ; and without pretending to exhaust 
 the subject, I shall, in this connexion, lay before you 
 some of the leading rules of Method in their special 
 relation to Geography as a school-subject. 
 
 PRELIMINARIES OF METHOD. 
 
 I. The "WHAT." Geography would, according 
 to its etymology, be defined simply as a description 
 of the earth not necessarily including a description 
 either of men on the earth, or of beasts or plants. The 
 definition would comprise, however, atmosphere, climate, 
 and the movements of parts of the earth currents, 
 rivers, earthquakes, volcanoes, glaciers. A descrip- 
 tion of the earth in all these respects, if confined 
 to them, would be Physical Geography, and this would 
 necessarily embrace Geology as a part of the larger 
 
 1 Delivered before the Royal Geographical Society of Scotland, 
 Edinburgh, July 16, 1886. 
 
 62 
 
84 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 Physical Geography. But we should have not merely 
 to describe but to explain that is to say, to unfold 
 the characteristic causes of these phenomena and the 
 relations and harmony of all the parts. Even in thia 
 restricted sense Geography, properly taught, would be 
 the most interesting, and, with the single exception 
 of Literature, the most nutritive, the most feeding (if 
 I may so speak), and therefore the most cultivating, of 
 all school subjects. 
 
 But it so happens, and this not solely owing ta 
 unthinking traditionary habit, that the term " Geogra- 
 phy " has a wider range. For how can I speak, in any 
 adequate sense, of soil and climate, of elevations and 
 depressions and movements of the earth, without re- 
 ference to the plant life and animal life which they 
 support, and the kinds of these in any particular locality 
 as determined by particular circumstances and general 
 environment ? And how shall I speak of animals, and 
 omit the paragon of animals man ? And how shall I 
 speak of man without considering types of race the 
 Mongolian, the Tartar, the Semitic, the Aryan ? And 
 when I touch upon the Aryan, how can I resist the fine 
 field of observation supplied by the various species 
 under this head the Hellenic, the Italic, the Slavonic,, 
 the Teutonic ? Still further, when speaking of these, 
 how can I intelligently do so how can I convey the 
 mere facts, without relating them causally to physical 
 and climatic conditions ? But when I begin to do this 
 I find myself engaged with one aspect of the philosophy 
 of history. I contemplate, say, the Mesopotamian basin 
 or the Nile valley in all their physical characteristics, 
 and I place men and beasts and plants there ; and then 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 85 
 
 I may almost turn round on an intelligent pupil, and 
 ask him to predict the great outlines of the history of 
 these regions. If my class has been well prepared, I 
 may call on it to tell me the products of these countries, 
 to anticipate their industries and commerce, to forecast 
 the tendency at least of their religion and literature 
 indeed all the potentialities of their social and economic 
 life, and all their possibilities of civilisation. When, 
 under my guidance, my class has exhausted its predic- 
 tions, the actual history becomes a mere filling-in of 
 details. When these details fail to correspond to our 
 anticipations, the reasons of the failure the omission 
 by us of some condition of life, it may be, or the 
 intervention of some influence from without are them- 
 selves a fresh source of knowledge, and a stimulus to 
 thought. The discovery of unexpected causal relations 
 conveys a historical lesson and contributes to that 
 rational view of experience which is the main end of 
 all our education on the intellectual side ; for what is 
 our aim in the realistic department of instruction if 
 not the placing of men in a rational attitude to the 
 world past and present and to the conditions of life by 
 which they are encompassed ? 
 
 I may now, perhaps, after these remarks, venture to 
 define (not Geography as a scientific pursuit but) 
 SCHOOL Geography as a co-ordination of the elementary 
 aspects of many sciences in their relation to the life and 
 works of man. This is an answer to the preliminary 
 " What." 
 
 The "WHY." All possible subjects of instruction 
 fall, speaking generally, into two classes the formal 
 or abstract (e.g. arithmetic, mathematics, language as 
 
86 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING |_LECT. 
 
 grammar, logic), the main purpose of which is discipline; 
 and the real or concrete, the main purpose of which is 
 nutrition. Of the latter, the prime subjects are, first, 
 literature, and second, geography, as above liberally 
 interpreted. Geography is all-embracing, it is rich and 
 abundant beyond conception, and has claims on the 
 teacher of a paramount kind. 
 
 For observe, boys (and men too) are hungry for the 
 real. The formal in teaching is "too much with us." 
 I find a class of bright girls of fourteen years of age 
 working sums in advanced arithmetic. Does any ra- 
 tional man doubt that lessons, say on Egypt, or Greece, 
 or Italy, or Britain, conveying all that is included in 
 the geography of these countries, would do more for 
 the minds of these girls than discount or stocks ? 
 
 Again, is it not an universally admitted principle in 
 education that children are educated best through the 
 sensible, and that up to fourteen, and indeed long after 
 it (and sometimes indeed for the whole of life), the 
 formal and abstract does not either discipline or culti- 
 vate as the real and sensible does ? It is through things, 
 and events as things, and thoughts as things, that children 
 and men and women live and grow. If this be so, then 
 why is not this fruitful educational principle applied ? 
 If there be any difference of opinion about the principle 
 as a principle, by all means let us discuss it. But if it 
 be accepted, as I believe it universally is, why is it not 
 applied ? In the department of the real of sense, the 
 THING (and I write this word in capital letters) is 
 geography. Teach this THING as a thing, and your 
 results will be almost sure. And what admirable 
 results ! The engaging of the desire of the intelligence,. 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 87 
 
 if I may so speak ; that is to say, the giving of a daily 
 exercise of the intelligence so pleasing in its nature 
 that the mind will always desire its repetition. You 
 thus insure an activity of mind which will not stop 
 short of the THING which, indeed, by the very nature 
 of the intelligence itself, cannot stop short at the THING ; 
 for, once intellect moves, it moves for ever. It is irre- 
 pressible ; it is so irrepressible as to be dangerous to 
 society so irrepressible as to be full of blessing to 
 society. What a " result," I say ! You, as an educator, 
 have now attained your purpose on the intellectual side 
 at least; and you may fold your hands in the conscious- 
 ness of a work well done. You have introduced young 
 and growing minds to the causes of things ; for, in the 
 advanced stages of geography, it is all causes. It is 
 Nature that has been engaging you, and you have 
 seen into many things when teaching the thing. 
 Climate, for example, has brought your pupils into 
 immediate contact with the elements of physics, while 
 the men who inhabit a country have brought your 
 pupils face to face with history in its origins, with 
 civilisation as a growth, with economics as involved 
 in the account you give of that country's industries. 
 
 You will thus have attained your educational pur- 
 pose, I repeat, on the intellectual side. But am I 
 right so to restrict my argument? Will the mind so 
 exercised on the causes of things not also be constrained 
 to exercise itself on the principles of actions ? Will it 
 not be more open than ever before to moral truths, 
 as governing the conduct of men ? Will it not have 
 seen the working of moral principles in the character- 
 istics of nations, in their economics, and in their national 
 
88 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 and individual life, and so have -been furnished with a 
 rich store of concrete teachings worth a cart-load of 
 abstract preachings ? 
 
 I confess that were the "Why" of geographical 
 teaching to be summed up by the one word "in- 
 formation," it would have little or no interest for the 
 thoughtful teacher. It is because of its intellectual and 
 moral effects chiefly that it claims a foremost place in 
 the education of youth. There is probably no one 
 subject so prolific of matter for independent thought 
 and judgment on the affairs of life, and the destiny 
 and duty of man. By means of it, too, we not merely 
 furnish moral material, so to speak, but we extend 
 the sympathies of the pupil, and lay the foundation 
 of that sentiment of humanity which is the necessary 
 counterpoise to narrow and parochial prejudices. Such 
 teaching, accordingly, tends to comprehensiveness of 
 mind, to the correction of hasty opinions, to the strength- 
 ening of patriotism, but at the same time to the moder- 
 ation of insular patriotic insolence. It broadens the 
 narrowness of the young, and the selfishness and ex- 
 clusiveness of the adult. It is a sworn foe to the prig. 
 It widens intelligence and enriches the soul, furnishing 
 not only material for reasonings, but nutrition to the 
 ethical sentiments and a stimulus to the imagination. 
 
 Need I add that, in an island home like ours, 
 dependent, for its very existence, on its industrial 
 relations on the one hand, and the continual flow of 
 emigration on the other, a knowledge of our connex- 
 ions with other men and other lands is essential to the 
 right understanding and guidance of our own lives. 
 There are men and women to this day so grossly 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 89 
 
 ignorant of their geographical and human relations 
 that they shrink from crossing the bounds of their 
 parishes : a still greater number who dread a step beyond 
 the limits of their counties. As an economic instrument, 
 then, no less than as an intellectual and moral instru- 
 ment, geography is unsurpassed by any other subject 
 of the school curriculum, excepting always literature. 
 
 Having briefly indicated the answers to the two 
 preliminary questions of method, viz. the 'What' and 
 the ' Why ' we may now proceed to consider a few of 
 the rules of method itself; in other words, the How of 
 the teaching Method-proper. 
 
 The "How." And here I would first say to the 
 teacher : 1. Begin by considering the end. All method in 
 teaching a subject is to be governed by the ultimate end 
 of your instruction, or to put it more pointedly, by the 
 concluding and consummating lesson you propose to 
 give at the end of years of teaching let us say, at the 
 time your pupil, at the age of seventeen, is leaving the 
 secondary school. Now, in the department of geography, 
 what kind of lesson is that ? Let us figure it to our- 
 selves. It is a lesson which, starting from the physical 
 geography of a country, brings into view climatic 
 conditions, and, in the consideration of the causes of 
 these, involves a knowledge of physics. It then pro- 
 ceeds to discuss the type of man the race which 
 has taken possession of the country under consideration ; 
 it shews how the necessities of life, concurring with 
 physical conditions and configuration, have given rise 
 to its industries and commerce, and have determined 
 the localization of its towns and fortresses; how morality 
 
90 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 has arisen and social order has been maintained ; how 
 all these things, taken together, have moulded, through 
 contact with the opposing interests and ideas of other 
 nations, its military power, its art, and its literature 
 have, in short, made that nation all that it has been 
 and can be. It goes on to tell how and to what extent 
 the nation has contributed to the progress of humanity; 
 it explains how it is that this country, and not that, 
 has become the battle-field of rival empires. We next 
 call upon our pupils to draw the country, putting in 
 strongly its physical characteristics, and entering in 
 due causal relation the leading towns and centres of 
 population, and, finally, to write a paper on the basis of 
 the lesson we have given. This, very briefly summed, 
 is a geography lesson as it ought to be given to youths 
 in the last year of their secondary-school work. It- 
 may have to be spread over several days ; but when 
 finished, we shall have given an amount of knowledge 
 highly educative in its effect, because it is all given in 
 relation to causes, and which is applicable, since it 
 contains general principles, to other countries arid 
 peoples. By keeping this our last lesson in view, we 
 are guided at every previous stage of our progress. 
 So much for the first rule of method. 
 
 2. Begin at the beginning. This, the second rule, 
 is like the first, a governing rule. No teaching of a 
 subject in its final stages will take effect on the mind 
 of the average pupil unless we have prepared the way 
 for the last lesson by a long and slow process of pre- 
 vious instruction which anticipates the end. This rule 
 is apt to be disregarded. Some, for example, imagine 
 that if you introduce boys of seventeen suddenly to 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 91 
 
 literature, they will comprehend it and take to it. The 
 exceptional boy may, but not the average boy i.e. 
 not 90 per cent, of boys. So with a subject like 
 geography, although it is more within the grasp of the 
 ordinary intelligence. A final lesson such as we have 
 sketched above, would usually have for its sole response 
 dull eyes and languid minds. The mass of boys would 
 probably describe the lesson in their peculiar jargon, 
 by saying that the master had been "jawing" away 
 for half-an-hour about Greece or Italy or Spain, as 
 the case might be. As well might you expect boys 
 to write Greek Iambics all at once without a long 
 preliminary training, as expect them to comprehend 
 and appreciate a final lesson in geography without a 
 long, slow absorption, spread over years, of those ele- 
 ments of knowledge which alone put life and significance 
 into the large generalisations and instructive suggestions 
 of your concluding discourse. You must begin, then, 
 from the beginning. 
 
 3. And this brings us to a third rule of method 
 " The instruction must, at every stage of school teaching, 
 be adapted to the age and progress of the pupils" 
 This compels us to put to ourselves the question, " At 
 what age shall I begin geography in a school ? and is 
 it possible, at the age which I may fix, so to begin it as 
 really to contribute to the final lesson in all its detail, 
 all its breadth, all its generalising, all its reasoning ? " 
 
 Now my answer to the first question is, that geo- 
 graphy, like every other subject 1 , is to be begun in the 
 
 1 Is Greek to be begun in the Infant-school? No, but language is. 
 Is mathematics to be begun in the Infant-school? No, but lessons 
 in form and number are. 
 
92 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 Infant-school. And, having so committed myself, I 
 am bound to shew that the Infant-school instruction 
 affords a basis for the final lesson. Nay more, that a 
 right understanding of the Infant-school lesson reveals 
 an absolute harmony and coincidence with the right 
 conception of the final lesson. I am strong for unity 
 in method. I hold that if the first lesson in any subject 
 cannot be shewn to be the best foundation for the final 
 lesson, then either my conception of the final lesson is 
 wholly mistaken or my conception of the initiatory 
 lesson is all astray. But the harmony and coincidence 
 do exist ; and the initiatory lesson, rightly understood, 
 admirably supports and illustrates the final lesson. For 
 here I am confronted with a fourth rule, the appli- 
 cation of which solves the difficulty ; for, be it observed, 
 all sound rules of method support each other. 
 
 4. The fourth rule " The real is to be taught 
 through the real things of sense through the senses." 
 Now this very obvious rule is worth considering for a 
 moment, if I am to justify my position and establish 
 my argument. 
 
 In the final lesson, what am I dealing with ? The 
 names of countries, towns, and rivers merely, as is the 
 usual way of teaching geography ? Certainly not ; this 
 is not geography at all, but only a very small part of 
 it, to be rightly called topography just as dates and 
 successions of monarchs and battles is not history at all, 
 but merely a subordinate part of it, called chronology. 
 Let me recall my final lesson: I find that I was 
 speaking of mountains and lakes and rivers, of the 
 atmosphere, of climate, of industries, of the implements 
 or machinery of those industries, of harbours, of ships, 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 93 
 
 of products, of exports and imports, of the people, of 
 their arts, of their religion, and so forth. A large 
 text but, after all, I was only speaking of a portion 
 of the surface of the earth, and its inhabitants and 
 their doings. Now, I have a portion of this same earth 
 here at my school door, and people on it living and 
 working. This is all at my door, I say, and subject to- 
 all my senses of touch, of sight, and of hearing. My 
 course in the Infant-school, then, is clear. It is to 
 give those rudimentary and particular conceptions 
 which are the indispensable basis of my final general- 
 isations and reasonings, and to do so by means of 
 things submitted to the senses. We are dealing with 
 a realistic subject, and all teaching must therefore be 
 realistic. I take advantage of the window to look out 
 on the portion of the earth within my immediate range ; 
 and I draw upon the experience of the little children 
 as they walk to and from school, and extract from them 
 that experience. Thus I introduce them to plains, to 
 hills, to streams, to cultivated land and uncultivated 
 land, to rocks and stones, to herbs and flowers and 
 trees, to animals, to products, to men and their various 
 industries, to sizes, distances, relations in place, build- 
 ings, names of places, &c. &c. I call on them to bring 
 to school specimens of the portable objects by which 
 they are surrounded leaves of the different kinds of 
 trees, the different grains, &c. From this I gradually 
 extend to manufactures, as illustrated in their own 
 clothes and books, and so introduce them to those 
 vegetable products and manufactured products for 
 which they are dependent on other parts of the country 
 or of the world. 
 
94 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 The pupils see for themselves the physical and indus- 
 trial characteristics, and name to me what they see; and 
 as to those other names which are unfamiliar, I explain 
 them by the help of the school play-ground and the 
 school supply of water. When once they have, in the 
 course of time, supplied me with a description of their 
 own parish and all it yields, as a foundation for geogra- 
 phy, I proceed on an old tin tray, with the help of clay 
 or mud and a little water, to model it roughly ; and, on 
 the same tray, I illustrate to their senses an island, a 
 strait, a cape, a promontory, and so forth. I ask them 
 about the climate as my lessons advance, about cold 
 and heat, and their obvious effects on growth, and the 
 kinds of things grown. I have now constructed a 
 physical model of the parish a bird's-eye view; and 
 I have drawn out of my pupils its whole geography, in 
 so far as they can yet grasp it. I now transfer the 
 model to the black-board with the help of variously 
 coloured chalks. 
 
 Now, what have I really been doing ? I have been 
 giving in the particular, and by means of the direct 
 contact of the senses, almost all that I propose to give 
 in my final lesson, nine or ten years after, in a large 
 and generalised world-view. This course of procedure, 
 constantly revised or referred back to, gradually builds 
 up true geographical conceptions in the largest and 
 richest sense. And what is the result ? The fulfilment 
 of the educational requirement to train the senses of 
 children, to cultivate their powers of observation the 
 fulfilment, further, of the duty of every teacher to give, 
 with a view to sense-training and information, object- 
 lessons. In later stages, when I ask them to reproduce 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 95 
 
 what they have been taught by filling up an outline 
 map, and then by drawing a map, I teach drawing: 
 all this by merely teaching geography as it ought to 
 be taught. So remarkable is the harmony of method- 
 rules so distinctly does each contribute to all the 
 others, if they are sound. The initiatory lessons, I 
 conclude (without dwelling longer on the subject), 
 properly given, contain the germ of the final lesson. 
 A fifth rule of method now demands our attention. 
 
 5. And this is, " That all knowledge must grow out 
 of what is already known, in order that the growth may 
 be organic, and not mechanical merely" But to our 
 gratification we find that we do not need even to 
 consider this rule, for it is already complied with in 
 the mode of procedure which we have just described. 
 So harmonious, so mutually helpful, I say again, are all 
 sound rules of method. 
 
 But there are other rules which are also complied 
 with, for we are told that memory has to be cultivated ; 
 and a rule of method here is 
 
 6. Association strengthens the memory; therefore 
 link your teachings. But what association so strong as 
 the association of all our knowledge of a subject, with 
 the familiar objects of our own daily lives, out of which 
 we have made the teaching of geography spring? 
 what association so strong as the organic connexion 
 which this mode of teaching establishes in the mind ? 
 
 . But there is still a seventh rule of all sound method, 
 which I am in the habit of strongly urging, viz : 
 
 7. A pupil in learning should instruct himself, 
 the master being only the cooperator, and the remover 
 of obstructions. This is not only the best way of 
 
96 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 teaching, but gives the pupil a sense of power and 
 of self-achieved progress. But this rule too has been 
 already observed ; for when I extract the basis of geo- 
 graphy from the child's own experience, and from 
 his own observation of things put before him, he is 
 teaching himself; and when I call upon him to repro- 
 duce by drawing, he is then also self-instructing. 
 
 8. Teaching, like charity, begins at home. In 
 accordance with these various rules, and starting from 
 our initiatory lessons, the pupil extends his knowledge 
 from his parish to his county, and so on. The con- 
 sideration of these steps in the building-up of geogra- 
 phical knowledge suggests a few remarks as to detail. 
 
 Of course, I know that it may be said, "All this we 
 know ; in every technical book on method we are told 
 to begin with the parish," &c. My answer is, first, that 
 I do not pretend to have made discoveries, but merely 
 to put things in my own way, and, above all, to shew 
 the simplicity and unity of pedagogic method; and 
 secondly, that if you really do what I have above laid 
 down as your duty to do, you may, notwithstanding, be 
 gratified to hear your daily practice guaranteed by a 
 Professor of Education of thirty-two years' experience in 
 school work. Doubtless I may be ignorant of what is 
 going on in schools ; but I must honestly confess that I 
 do not find geography begun and ended, in such schools 
 as I have visited, on the method I have been expounding. 
 It may, notwithstanding, be done here or there 1 . 
 
 1 The only objection that can be taken to the true method of 
 teaching Geography is, I think, that it is not always applicable 
 to town schools. But the great majority of town schools are within 
 easy reach of all that is absolutely necessary for sound teaching. 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 97 
 
 I may now illustrate further the third rule which 
 bears on the progressiveness of the instruction given, 
 The next stage in teaching Geography is the extension 
 of the knowledge beyond the parish to the county. In 
 the parish the whole world is to be seen in miniature, 
 and our future work is simply the work of expansion. 
 At the county stage the teacher is still, as in the 
 previous stage, independent of prepared maps. With 
 chalk and a black-board, he sketches the county round 
 the parish, and outlines the country round the county. 
 He gradually puts in the physical features, and then 
 in the course of a few weeks, bit by bit, introduces 
 leading industries with a few connected towns, etc. 
 
 You may now, or indeed before this, hang up a good 
 map of the parish ; and I need scarcely say that this 
 should be a large Ordnance map ; and, after an interval, 
 a county map may be exhibited. 
 
 The next stage is not to enter into further detail 
 with respect to the native country as is too commonly 
 done. If you will consider the preliminaries of method 
 the "What" and "Why" of school-geography you 
 will come to the conclusion that the next step, after 
 a fair knowledge has been obtained of the physical 
 geography and the leading industries and towns of the 
 native country, is to introduce a large globe. Paint 
 
 In the case of London, no doubt, it is otherwise : but what a happy 
 chance is afforded to a paternal Board of giving the children a day in 
 the country at the expense of the rates, on the plea that the ex- 
 cursion is a geographical lesson ! Then in all matters of products, 
 of buildings, of the arts, of commerce, and of the organisation of 
 social relations, the towns have an advantage over the country. 
 Much may be done also by proper apparatus to counteract the 
 misfortune of living in a large town. 
 
 L. L. 7 
 
98 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 the native country red, and then, in this relation, let 
 the whole round world burst upon the pupil's view. 
 Globes should be at least 3 feet in diameter ; the maker 
 of them should care less about absolute accuracy of 
 detail than about effect. The physical features should 
 be here again strongly marked, as in the maps you 
 have been drawing on the black-board. I should have 
 nothing strongly circumscribed by outline save the great 
 divisions Europe, Asia, etc. The teaching, with con- 
 stant reference back to the fundamental conception of 
 the parish for illustrations and explanations, should 
 consist of the constantly repeated contemplation of this 
 globe, and making acquaintance with the great divisions, 
 and half a dozen great mountain chains, oceans, and 
 rivers. The names on the globe should not exceed a 
 couple of dozen. Climatic zones should be, of course, 
 clearly indicated. 
 
 The pupils at the next stage should have presented 
 to them a strongly accentuated map of the whole world 
 on a large scale, with the globe constantly there in 
 view of the class never, indeed, to be parted with 
 throughout the whole school course. This map should 
 be physical, strong, and even rough only the import- 
 ant mountain ranges and rivers indicated, and should 
 have the countries, as well as the large divisions, out- 
 lined off. The study of this map with the help of such 
 assistance as the geographical apparatus of the school 
 provides, should be the occupation of months. The 
 pupils should have outline maps given to them, to be 
 filled up in imitation of the large map before them. 
 I should keep them at this for a whole year, merely 
 introducing a slightly more detailed knowledge of their 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 99 
 
 own country after the first two months of exclusive 
 world-contemplation. If there be such a thing as a 
 raised map of the world, it should be hung up. If it 
 is on a smaller scale than the big wall-map, this would 
 not matter, as it is time now that children's imagi- 
 nations should be called on to understand greater and 
 lesser scales. In fact, their own filling up of outline 
 maps has already taught them this. 
 
 At every stage, even up to sixteen or seventeen 
 years of age. the globe and the big map of the world 
 should be always there for reference and revisal. 
 
 The next stage is to return to the globe, and explain 
 more fully the climatic zones, and so introduce the pupil 
 to Astronomical Geography. I have not time to dwell 
 on this. 
 
 The next stage is a still further extended knowledge 
 of the native country, but always concurrent with an 
 extended knowledge of the world as a whole, and especi- 
 ally of the British Empire. 
 
 After this you may do what you please, provided 
 you follow the principles that have guided your earlier 
 teaching the real by means of the real ; seeking the 
 aid of vivid diagrams and illustrations, but not confusing 
 the children with too many of these. They are getting 
 older, and you can now safely draw on their growing 
 power of constructive imagination. As they advance, 
 the teacher himself will be guided by large and descrip- 
 tive books on geography, such as those recently issued 
 by Messrs Stanford and other publishers ; and, to steady 
 and rationalise his instruction, he must never allow 
 some such book as Geikie's Lessons on Physical Geo- 
 graphy to leave his desk. The filling up of the outline 
 
 72 
 
100 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 maps should be a weekly exercise at every stage of 
 instruction, and all past work should be frequently 
 revised. 
 
 Now, in doing all this, as thus briefly summarised, 
 you are simply extending the Infant-school work, and 
 following the rules of sound method, as applied to that 
 initiatory stage of progress. The first lesson contains 
 the last lesson, just as the parish is the miniature of 
 the world. It is thus that you slowly rear in the 
 child's mind a conception of the world, and all the 
 lessons, historical and economic and moral, which a 
 true comprehension of it has in store for him. 
 
 All other ordinary rules of method are applicable in 
 the course of your teaching ; but they are not more 
 significant or essential in the case of geography than of 
 any other subject. There is one rule, however, which 
 is an exception to this general statement, and I have 
 reserved the introduction of it to the last, because of 
 its great importance, and the constant breach of it by 
 almost all teachers, especially in the two subjects of 
 Geography and History. 
 
 9. That rule is "In all subjects of instruction, 
 when there is a mass of particulars, teach first the 
 leading particulars only, and ignore all else until these 
 are firmly rooted in the mind." I have found teachers 
 exhausting every hamlet and bridge and road in their 
 county with boys and girls, whose school period was 
 necessarily brief, while leaving them in almost total 
 ignorance of their own country, and in quite total 
 ignorance of every other, and even of the elementary 
 fact that the world is a globe. This is giving an 
 extreme instance; but you find a similar thing being 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 101 
 
 done, substantially, in every school you choose to visit. 
 You find in some, minute details regarding Scotland 
 or England, or, it may be, France or Italy, to the 
 necessary exclusion (necessary, for there is not time for 
 everything) of the rest of the world. Now, if what we 
 are teaching is geography, and if geography be what I 
 said it was, and if our reasons for teaching it be what I 
 said they were, all this kind of procedure is utterly 
 wrong a waste and misuse of power and time. It, 
 moreover, deprives geography of the attractions which 
 it naturally has. I have not time to dwell on this, but 
 what I have said is enough. You will at once deduce 
 for yourselves from this rule of method a condemnation 
 of the usual atlases and wall-maps, covered with names 
 of places which nobody wants to know. Every map 
 should contain only the names necessary to know, and 
 nothing else. Map-makers confound two very different 
 things teaching-atlases and consultation-atlases; but 
 in this they only follow the example of the overcrowded 
 geographical text-books for schools. 
 
 As a subsidiary of sound method in teaching geo- 
 graphy, I may, in passing, refer to the mental stimulus 
 which can be given by a skilful use of etymology. To 
 illustrate this one subordinate aspect of geographical 
 teaching, so as to exhibit the history, the poetry, 
 and sometimes the humour that there is in names, 
 might engage us profitably for hours. 
 
 But if the individual words yield us much to stimu- 
 late the minds of the young, and to startle even the 
 dullest wits into thinking, how much more may be 
 drawn for purposes of illustration and of genuine culture 
 
102 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT, 
 
 from our poets ? " Geography in Literature " would 
 make an admirable subject for a lecture. When point- 
 ing out to a class Stirling and the winding Forth, our 
 Scottish Mseander, we may quote with effect Words- 
 worth's lines 
 
 "From Stirling Castle we had seen 
 The mazy Forth unravelled." 
 
 And not far off we may see, through the eyes of 
 Scott, where 
 
 "On the north, through middle air, 
 Ben-An heaves high his forehead bare." 
 
 Or, turning our face in the other direction, we may 
 ask our pupils to behold with us how 
 
 "On Ochil mountains fell the rays, 
 And as each heathy top they kiss'd 
 It gleamed a purple amethyst. 
 Yonder the shores of Fife you saw; 
 Here Preston Bay and Berwick Law; 
 
 And, broad between them roll'd, 
 The gallant Firth the eye might note, 
 "Whose islands on its bosom float, 
 
 Like emeralds chased in gold." 
 
 And as we carry the pointer south to the Border, so- 
 rich in the song of localities, we shall surely stir some 
 human interest as we repeat 
 
 "'Oh green,' said I, 'are Yarrow's holms, 
 And sweet is Yarrow flowing;'" 
 
 and look with the poet's eye on the " chiming Tweed " 
 and "pleasant Teviotdale," on "lone Saint Mary's silent 
 lake," and 
 
 "The shattered front of Newark's towers, 
 Renowned in Border story." 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 103 
 
 Passing into the west of England, we recall Milton's 
 "shaggy top of Mona high;" southward the "sweet, 
 tranquil Thames" of Arnold, and a multitude of poetic 
 descriptions and felicitous epithets applied to our 
 country, such as, "This precious stone set in a silver sea." 
 When we leave our own country, our poets still ac- 
 company us. Byron illumines Greece, and when we 
 touch on the Gulf of Venice we may recall the lines of 
 Arnold 
 
 "Far, far from here the Adriatic breaks 
 In a warm bay among the green Illyrian hills." 
 
 And can we point to Mont Blanc without thinking 
 of the " sovran Blanc" ? 
 
 " . . . Thou, most awful form, 
 Bisest from forth thy silent sea of pines 
 How silently!" 
 
 But to pursue this aspect of our theme would be an 
 endless task. 
 
 Finally, let me say to the teacher : 
 
 Your aim on the intellectual side, whatever the 
 subject of instruction, ought not to be knowledge, 
 but knowledge in its practical relations to ordinary 
 life, just as your aim on the moral and religious side 
 ought not to be moral and religious truths, but moral 
 and religious life and action. This is the reverse of the 
 usual order, but depend on it, it is only by keeping 
 this practical aim in view that the teacher can be an 
 educator. 
 
 I would now, in concluding, ask leave to make a re- 
 mark or two on method in general, in its relation to 
 philosophy of mind, and I cannot do so better than by 
 
104 METHOD, APPLIED TO THE TEACHING [LECT. 
 
 simply taking the rule I have last laid down. When 
 you open your eyes, and look for the first time at an 
 object say a tree you may be said to feel in a vague 
 brutish way every part of it, but you perceive, in a 
 definite rational way, only the more prominent or 
 salient features. If you wish to know the object 
 thoroughly, you proceed to take up detail after detail in 
 succession ; and, with every detail so perceived, you 
 increase your knowledge of the object. This is the 
 process by which mind knows things of sense. Now if 
 this be the process or way of mind in knowing or learn- 
 ing anything, it is also necessarily the proper and only 
 proper process, way, or method of teaching it. Hence, 
 deduced a priori from a psychological fact, comes the 
 rule of method which I have given above. You see the 
 closeness, the necessity of the connexion. 
 
 But this is true of all rules of method : they all, if 
 sound, flow necessarily from the facts of the mind-pro- 
 cess. The study of the philosophy of Education is the 
 study of these connexions : surely a most interesting, 
 instructive, elevating study for the professional educator. 
 
 And not only so ; for as I have more than once said, 
 the various rules of method, if sound, all play into each 
 other's hands. Each helps the other: many of them 
 necessarily involve others. 
 
 You will thus see that it may be possible to reduce 
 the Science and Methodology of Education to a very 
 simple scheme that is to say, if you once get at sound 
 fundamental philosophical principles ; for the truer an 
 exposition of mind or nature is, the simpler it will be. 
 
 Doubtless, method-rules may be learned by heart ; 
 and the way of putting them in practice, if cleverly 
 
V.] OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE SCHOOL. 105 
 
 exhibited by a man apt to teach, may be copied by the 
 young teacher with good effect. But imitation and 
 learning by rote are non-intelligent processes : they are 
 not to be commended as the preparation for a profession. 
 Is a so-called profession a profession at all, and not 
 rather an empirical trade, which fails to comprehend its 
 work in its deepest and rational relations? For myself, 
 I think it is not. The only questions which really 
 interest me in Education are, such a settlement of the 
 end of all our educating as may give to the teacher 
 a daily conscious purpose ; and such a philosophy of the 
 method of attaining that end, as will reduce all rules to 
 a unity not a dead unity, but a living unity and so 
 keep him in close daily contact with philosophy. 
 
VI. 
 
 ADDKESS ON THE EELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF 
 THE YOUNG 1 . 
 
 WHEN I was asked to address you, I had some doubt 
 of my fitness to do so because of my small knowledge of 
 the practical working of Sunday schools. On reflection, 
 however, it occurred to me that the invitation came to 
 me as a professional student of the art of education, and 
 that you might like to know whether I had in that 
 special capacity anything to say on the vital subject of 
 religious education. 
 
 In religious instruction and trainiog, there can 
 be no such peculiarity as to exempt them from the 
 principles which govern method in education generally. 
 Accordingly, I propose now to make a few remarks, 
 which shall be as brief and concise as possible, on the 
 teaching of religion generally, leaving you yourselves 
 to apply what I say to the work of the family and 
 the school, and taking for granted your permission to 
 speak with freedom. I shall trouble you neither with 
 psychology nor with method in the strict sense of these 
 terms, but simply confine myself to a few practical re- 
 marks suggested, it may be, by abstract considerations 
 but confirmed by personal experience. 
 
 If religion be the one concern of life, as it is the one 
 
 1 Delivered to the Edinburgh Sabbath School Teachers' Associa- 
 tion, 1886. 
 
LECT. VI.] RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF YOUNG. 107 
 
 aim of Philosophy as distinguished from mere logic and 
 psychology, early training must command our earnest 
 attention. The autumn harvest depends on the work 
 done in the spring-time. 
 
 1. I would say that the religious instructor 
 be he a volunteer teacher or a parent must have the 
 desire to teach. The teacher who takes up Sunday- 
 school work simply because it is the "right thing to do" 
 will fail. He must have in him, I say, a desire to teach, 
 a longing to teach, the truth as it is in himself. He 
 has found a guide to his own life, and his affection for 
 young and unformed spirits constrains him to impart to 
 them the treasure he has found. A mere sense of duty 
 in teaching is not enough. The sense of duty vindi- 
 cates the primary impulse, so to speak, and comes 
 into requisition as a motive-power in those periods of 
 dejection and of hopelessness which attend all work of 
 a moral or spiritual kind. But in religious teaching, 
 above all other teaching, the consciousness of an inner 
 law commanding JOM to teach is a mere accessory to the 
 spiritual impulse of love which impels you to teach. 
 
 2. Believe in the children you teach. Next to the 
 first and prime qualification of a desire to teach is 
 belief in the children whom you teach. If you do not 
 believe that they have an innate capacity for spiritual 
 truth, your teaching will certainly not reach their minds 
 and hearts. It is their soul's need that you are supply- 
 ing. You must presume that they are crying out in the 
 depths of their nature for a knowledge of God and 
 divine things. They are truly children of God, not of 
 the devil. They do not stand in antagonism to their 
 spiritual Father; they desire to be friends with Him, to 
 
108 ON THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 give Him their love, and to receive His. If you do not 
 teach in this conviction, your instruction can take the 
 form of external law only; it cannot reach the inner 
 springs of life. All the words of all the catechisms can- 
 not create God in the heart of the child : they can, at 
 best, only evoke Him. It is not you that sow the seed: 
 the seed was sown at the moment the child was born 
 sown both in the heart and reason of the child. Your 
 task is simply the careful nurturing into life and flower 
 and fruit of the seed already there. Your fostering hand 
 supplies appropriate soil and gives the warmth and 
 tendance necessary for growth : that is all. Christ 
 Himself has said : " Of such is the kingdom of heaven." 
 When He said it, He meant it. Happy the teacher 
 who could say, after he has left behind him the 
 turbulence of boyhood, the egoism of youth, the 
 struggles of mature life, "I am as one of these." It is to 
 protect these children from being even such as you 
 know that you yourself have been, that you seek 
 to instruct and to guide them. Believe in their simple 
 instinct for the elements of spiritual ideas. 
 
 3. Restrict your teaching. Do not teach all you 
 know and feel. The temptation to do this is great 
 greatest where there is zeal. It is a mistake to yield 
 to it. You have to teach only what meets the children's 
 present need, their present case. Confine your instruc- 
 tions, then, to what is essential to what is germinal ; 
 that is to say, to those truths and sentiments which 
 have in themselves an inherent power of expansion and 
 growth through their encounter with the teachings of 
 life those truths which will stand the tear and wear 
 of every day, which shine the more the more they are 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 109 
 
 shaken by the shocks of destiny, and which come out 
 vindicated by stern experience. 
 
 4. Give milk to Babes. In selecting from what you 
 know, select not only what is essential, but also what 
 is easy and comprehensible. You cannot, if you would, 
 antedate spiritual growth, God has set down an order 
 in the manifestation of Himself to our souls. The 
 attempt to anticipate growth produces in the child a 
 feeling of intellectual and moral anxiety, and even 
 perplexity, which become so associated with religion 
 that children reject the whole because of its seeming 
 intricacy. This feeling of difficulty and complexity 
 hangs about the whole subject throughout boyhood and 
 youth, and, in the case of even the well-disposed, one of 
 the results is a merely formal, hard, and unintelligent 
 belief as opposed to a living faith. Christianity is a 
 very simple matter. If it were not so, it could not be 
 the world-religion. Give, then, milk to babes, for this is 
 all they can assimilate. We are not nourished by what 
 we eat or drink, but by what we digest. 
 
 5. Prepare your teaching. It is impossible to carry 
 out the preceding advice as to selection and as to 
 simplicity if you do not prepare the lessons you mean 
 to teach. Every Sunday-school teacher should study 
 his lessons in some such book as the Cambridge Bible 
 for Schools, and should carefully make up his mind as 
 to what he means not to say as well as to what he 
 means to say. If you do not prepare, you may spoil 
 the whole effect of an otherwise good lesson by intro- 
 ducing matter either too difficult, or alien to the 
 subject in hand, or by in some way confusing the 
 lesson and destroying its unity. You thus deprive it 
 
110 ON THE KELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 of clearness and directness and efficacy. If you are 
 really fit to be a teacher, the preparation for each day's 
 work will be easy ; for if you are yourself living the 
 Christian life, your experience will readily suggest to 
 you the true import and significance of the lesson in 
 hand on the mere suggestion of a commentary. Be- 
 sides, it is not the deeper spiritual lessons that may be 
 drawn from your subject that you ought to convey to 
 the young mind, but only those that lie on the surface 
 and are of obvious application. 
 
 6. Determine the substance of your instruction. 
 Certain characteristics of the substance of instruction 
 have been already indicated. We must teach the essen- 
 tial and the comprehensible. Let us, then, make up 
 our minds as to these. I should say that the prime 
 and primary object of a teacher of religion should be to 
 bring into living activity in the consciousness of each 
 child what may be called the sense of God. We wish 
 him to feel God within him and about him. Next, we 
 wish him to feel this God to be Father and Fountain of 
 his spirit. We must then beware of representing Him 
 as the prototype of the stern traditionary father of the 
 Scottish race. This is what the historian of religions 
 would call a tribal conception of God. We fathers of 
 to-day are not now such barbarians as many of our well- 
 meaning and pious, but ill-conditioned and mistaken, 
 grandfathers were. We have attained to a purer and 
 higher conception of fatherhood. The child is the child of 
 God, and God is his Father, in the modern Christian sense 
 of that sacred word ; nay, better even than an earthly 
 father, for He is much more ready to forgive. The face of 
 the Almighty Father is a benign face, and if His child 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. Ill 
 
 errs, the change on that face is a passing shadow only, not 
 a judicial frown. If His justice is infinite, so also is His 
 mercy. It is this which " endureth for ever." Penitence 
 and the earnest desire after new obedience restore the 
 clouded fatherhood in all its native benignity, for He 
 does not desire the death of the sinner. His demands 
 are really not exacting ; He does not drive His young 
 flock over hard and stony paths, but leads them over 
 the green pastures and by the quiet waters. See that 
 this feeling and conception of God be evoked. Beware 
 of blasphemy. 
 
 Along with the feeling of God and of the father- 
 hood of God, we must evoke in the child's heart what 
 naturally tends to arise in connection with these teach- 
 ings viz. Reverence and Awe. These sentiments, when 
 they are of the genuine and not the spurious kind, are 
 compatible with love alone. Fear is not compatible 
 with love. No man who ever lived feared God and 
 loved Him at the same time, though, like a poor slave, 
 he might call aloud that he did love Him in order to 
 obviate possible penal consequences. " Fear," says Jean 
 Paul, " is begotten of the devil." 
 
 Next to the feeling of God and the sense of His 
 benignant Fatherhood, penetrating like a warm light into 
 the soul of the child, and the awe and reverence which 
 accompany these spiritual ideas, I should like to make 
 the child feel in his inmost heart the elder-brotherhood 
 of Christ. The man Christ Jesus walking here on 
 earth, working and loving and suffering coming here 
 to lend a helping-hand to the weak and erring child 
 and to the strong and sinful man, is the conception I 
 should wish to present to the young Christian. Let 
 
112 ON THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 him grasp this and understand once for all that, if he is 
 in Christ, he is also in the Father. This elder brother 
 is the revealer of God to him and as such his supreme 
 Teacher ; He is the Way by which he is to walk and, 
 as such, the bridge between man and God ; He is the 
 Master who is to be loyally served ; or, as the Catechism 
 sums it up, He is Prophet, Priest and King. 
 
 Note this, that the personal Fatherhood of God 
 tends to give place, as the child grows older, to that 
 more universal conception of God as a Spirit infinite 
 and incomprehensible, removed to a distance from man, 
 which is expressed so well in the catechism. It is just 
 at this time that the elder brother Christ comes to the 
 child as God in the concrete, God humanized, God-man, 
 and restores the reality of the idea of God. The Son 
 is there, and each, by being in Him, is in God the 
 Father. 
 
 These truths, I consider, are the essential substance 
 of Christian instruction. Whatever else may be added 
 must be built on them as on a sure foundation. There 
 is no difficulty in them: difficulties begin when men 
 begin to speculate and refine and theologize. The 
 child will accept these simple teachings readily, easily, 
 gladly. Why should he not ? 
 
 And how all-important it is that he should accept 
 them ! Leave human nature alone, and, spite of the 
 divinity in it, the evil which is also there has a curious 
 and appalling persistency and an ease of conquest 
 which bewilder us. It is like the law of gravitation 
 with its never-failing and persistent downward pull. 
 Give the ideas of the divine Fatherhood and of the 
 elder-brotherhood and Sonship of Christ thoughts so 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 113 
 
 concrete as to be easily grasped by the young, so real 
 as to seem like nature's food and by the help of these 
 the child, the boy, and the man will raise themselves to 
 their true and sole humanity. That there should be a 
 daemonic tendency in a nature which has yet, by its 
 very constitution, a capacity for God, is part of the 
 mystery of man. The physical world reveals many a 
 parallel. Do we not see the flower rooted in the earth 
 and earthy, and yet that same flower striving to take 
 into its bosom the light of the sun as the primal source 
 of life, growth and fruition, and truly living and growing 
 only in so far as it absorbs the central light ? 
 
 7. Preserve a due proportion in your teaching. If 
 we are to limit our teaching to the essential in the first 
 instance and to the milk of the Word, we are to take 
 care when we advance to the teaching of other things 
 less vital, to give our various teachings their due 
 proportion in respect of importance. For example, if 
 you believe that strict Sabbatarianism is an essential 
 teaching, teach it ; but if it be only subordinate and 
 accessory doctrine, if (as the greater part of Christen- 
 dom holds) the keeping of the Sabbath is merely a 
 means of grace, and if your own deliberate practice 
 affirms this, beware of putting the duty of Christians 
 in respect of such matters on a level with truth 
 essential to the Christian life. By so doing, you divert 
 attention from what is vital. For the moment, the 
 teaching may be accepted on your mere authority ; but 
 as the pupils see your doctrine practically set aside 
 by those who hold high and admitted positions as 
 Christian men, the doubt which attaches to such sub- 
 sidiary beliefs will assuredly tend to infect the essential 
 L. L. 8 
 
114 ON THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 truths. Rebellion against the whole Christian system 
 will be, and we all know is, the inevitable result. 
 Beware then of confounding the essential with that 
 which, though desirable, is only subsidiary and instru- 
 mental. " By faith we are saved : " the faith, that is to 
 say, not of intellectual assent, which by itself is simply 
 husks not grain and increases the probabilities of 
 spiritual death rather ; but the faith that is living and 
 may be seen of all men in our judgments and deeds. 
 
 When I say preserve a due proportion in your 
 teaching, I merely say, in other words, "speak the 
 truth." It is very important, for example, that children 
 and grown people should go to church and take ad- 
 vantage of every means of edification ; but even this, 
 important as it is, is not essential. True, with a 
 certain class of people, there is no religious life at all if 
 there is no church attendance. In speaking thus I do 
 not wish to give offence but merely to emphasize the 
 essential character of certain truths as compared with 
 others. 
 
 Speaking the truth in teaching suggests also that 
 you should not teach what you do not in your heart 
 believe taking your daily conduct, that is to say, as 
 the test of your belief. When a man takes your coat, 
 you do not give him your cloak also ; when he smites 
 you on one cheek, you do not turn the other. On the 
 contrary, you either strike back or hand the offender 
 over to society which has got instructions from you and 
 others to smite him back. The true significance of such 
 passages is summed up in the general doctrine, "Forgive 
 your enemies." If you do not teach such scriptural 
 utterances with the necessary explanations and quali- 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 115 
 
 fications, you make a pretence of an ideal system of life 
 which the child and boy find to break down in practice. 
 You know it to be a pretence. When these utterances 
 are taught absolutely, the sensitive young conscience 
 finds Christianity unworkable, and the doubt, which 
 thus attaches to these doctrines, extends to the whole 
 fabric of Christian truth and brings the whole down in 
 ruins. I beg you to consider these things. Christ's 
 yoke is easy and His burden light. We do not live 
 under the Law. The Christian life is a simple matter 
 to see into, though it may be difficult to exemplify in 
 all we think and do. By putting difficulties in the way 
 and exaggerating breaches in conduct, you do a wicked 
 thing. It is the finer spirits that suffer most from the 
 inner contradictions which result. These difficulties are 
 stumbling-blocks, and check the natural flow of the 
 spiritual life, sometimes causing its total extinction. 
 It were better for you, teacher or parent, that you were 
 cast into the sea with a millstone round your neck to 
 sink you, than that you should thus choke the growing 
 seed of the religious life in the young soul. This is a 
 strong expression, but it is not mine. (St Luke xv. 2 : 
 Mark ix. 42.) Offences must come ; but woe to you if 
 they come by you. 
 
 8. Preserve an order in your teaching. We must 
 never forget the difficulty the young have in grasp- 
 ing the abstract or general. Take, for example, the 
 question of regeneration or sanctification. We all feel 
 the child's difficulty instinctively, for no one, I sup- 
 pose, would think of asking a child of five to learn 
 these theological definitions. If we would not ask a 
 child of five, should we ask a child of seven or of 
 
 8 a 
 2 
 
116 ON THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 nine or of eleven ? This is an important question ; for 
 our object is to preserve religion from being mere 
 formalism, and there is a formalism of words and dogma 
 which much more surely retards the religious life than 
 the formalism of ritual. It is one of the characteristics 
 of the Christian religion, which might give it a claim 
 to acceptance if it had no other, that it addresses 
 itself to the young, the ignorant and the simple-minded, 
 in accordance with the now recognized principles of 
 sound educational method. For it makes use every- 
 where of the concrete. The whole essential truth is 
 told through things and persons. Christianity is a 
 life and can be learned through human lives. It is a 
 story, and as a story alone should it be first learned 
 not as dogma, save in respect to those essential truths 
 of which I have spoken, if they may be called dogma. 
 There is no time to develope this aspect of the question, 
 nor is there need : it is so manifest though constantly 
 forgotten. I would speak now rather of certain auxili- 
 aries of religious teaching. 
 
 9. Auxiliaries of religious teaching. These auxili- 
 aries are Memory, Music, and the Style of examining. 
 
 (1) Memory. All parts of the New Testament 
 are not of equal value to children. But the passages 
 which more directly appeal to them in the Gospels and 
 Epistles (and these passages, so fit for children, are 
 also precisely those which will most give strength in 
 middle life and consolation in declining years) should 
 be read, understood and committed to memory. The 
 modern educationalist is apt to slight the learning of 
 passages by heart. These words of truth and beauty 
 should not be committed to memory once for all and 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 117 
 
 then set aside as done with ; they should be frequently 
 reverted to in the course of instruction. Then, verses 
 and hymns which simply and rhythmically present 
 religious truth should be learned by heart. Such pub- 
 lications as "Hymns for little children," for example (if 
 you omit what teaches sectarianism), are invaluable. 
 So also, many of the paraphrases and psalms, if taught 
 to us when young, become a life-long possession. These 
 memory-stores are, in truth, a kind of living presence 
 in our souls watching over us. They furnish us with 
 spiritual armour for the battle of life. They are a part 
 of every militant Christian's weapons and equipment. 
 These passages of Scripture it is far more important to 
 lodge in the memory than the precise words of cate- 
 chisms. 
 
 I would not exclude catechetical dogma the form 
 of sound words. But I would never forget this, that the 
 ability to define adoption and sanctifi cation is a small 
 thing compared with being adopted and sanctified. 
 There is a prevalent superstition on this subject. The 
 very words of catechisms must be given by children. 
 Is it not a surer sign that the doctrine is intelligently 
 apprehended if the substance and meaning are given in 
 the boy's own words ? 
 
 (2) Music. But if religion, in the rhythmical falls 
 of hymns and psalms, be so helpful in building up the 
 spiritual life of the young, what shall we say of verse 
 set to fitting music and sung by children's voices in 
 unison ? It is in popular music that that most effective 
 aid of all educational method viz., Sympathy, is evoked. 
 I have said elsewhere, "The united utterance of a com- 
 mon resolution, of a heroic sentiment, of the love of 
 
118 ON THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT, 
 
 truth, or of a common feeling of worship, gratitude or 
 purity, in song suited to the capacities of children's 
 minds and to the powers of children's voices, devotes 
 the young hearts which pour forth the melody to the 
 cause of humanity, morality and religion. The mere 
 utterance of the song is, in some sense, a public vow 
 of self-devotion to the thought to which it gives expres- 
 sion. The harmony of the singers falls back on the 
 ear and seems to enforce afresh the sentiment to which 
 the music has been married, in accents pleasing and 
 insinuating, not harsh and preceptive. The humanity 
 and religion of song thus drop gently and without 
 the parade of formal teaching into the deepest heart 
 of the child and in this form they are welcome." 
 Music has a subtle influence in the school and is a 
 commender of truth. Besides, does not the mere music 
 itself, apart from the lesson which the song conveys, 
 reveal the inner harmony of the spiritual life ? Bishop 
 Beveridge says, "I find my soul is become more har- 
 monious by being accustomed so much to harmony and 
 adverse to all manner of discord, so that the least jarring 
 sounds, either in notes or words, seem very harsh and 
 unpleasant to me." "The meaning of song," says 
 Carlyle, "goes deep. Who is there that can express, in 
 logical words, the effect music has on us ? A kind of 
 inarticulate, unfathomable speech which leads us to the 
 edge of the Infinite and lets us for moments gaze into 
 that." 
 
 (3) The Style of Examining. Still keeping to the 
 subject of the auxiliaries of method, I would point out 
 that the method of intercourse with children, between 
 pupils and teacher, should be always conversational, not 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 119 
 
 dogmatic and as from a height. The children should 
 read to the master and the master should read to the 
 children. In religion, at least, if in no other subject, 
 the master may easily assume the attitude of a fellow- 
 learner with his pupils, and lay aside the magisterial 
 airs of superiority and infallibility. In no other way 
 can religious instruction be truly religious. The magi- 
 sterial and highly dogmatic style cannot possibly be a 
 fitting vehicle for that hope, love and faith, which are 
 the Christian graces, or for nourishing that sense of 
 mystery, infinitude, and awe which evokes reverence. 
 
 Need I say in this connection, that all place-taking, 
 personal competition and prizes are wholly out of place 
 nay, they are destructive of true religious teaching. 
 They vulgarise and secularize it. There should be no 
 formal examinations and summing up of marks, although 
 there ought to be frequent conversational and informal 
 revisions of the lessons of the month or quarter. To 
 make use of religion as an intellectual exercise is on a 
 par with using the account of the crucifixion for spelling 
 or grammar. In religious teaching again, punishments 
 of whatever kind are ridiculous. Severity of discipline 
 was consistent with being under the Law, and was good 
 enough for Jews ; but it is out of place in the Christian 
 scheme. 
 
 10. Attend to manner in teaching. It is through 
 the eyes, through the observation of the bearing of the 
 teacher that children receive the strongest impressions. 
 If the manner of the teacher is not in perfect harmony 
 with the spirit of the religion he is teaching with its 
 gentleness, charity, humanity, he will fail ; if it is in 
 marked discord with that spirit, his teaching will be 
 
120 ON THE KELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 positively hurtful. He is an unworthy servant of the 
 grace of God, an impure channel of the Spirit. Better, 
 I think, that the child should grow up in ignorance 
 than be so taught, for in that case the avenues to his 
 soul would still remain open, whereas, in the case I have 
 imagined, they are probably closed for ever. The man- 
 ner of the teacher may more than undo his oral lesson : 
 it may destroy the present lesson and bar all future and 
 possible lessons. Love cannot be taught in harsh 
 accents ; humanity cannot be taught where there are 
 bitter judgments ; devotion cannot be taught with the 
 face of threatening and command. The manner must 
 also be reverent and earnest ; for reverence cannot be 
 taught where the bearing is irreverent : earnestness 
 cannot be taught where the manner is frivolous. Temper 
 must be under control and the tone must be kindly ; 
 for self-control and mutual kindliness cannot be taught 
 where there is impatience and a cross or peevish tone. 
 Manner with the young is so potent that it may defeat 
 the matter of instruction and put it to rout. The evil 
 characteristics of manner in the teacher are due largely 
 to impatience for results, and this naturally leads me to 
 my next remark. 
 
 11. Have faith in your own teaching. Select wisely 
 what you mean to teach, adopt a sound method, assume 
 the virtue of a fitting manner (even if you have it not), 
 and your teaching cannot possibly fail to have good 
 results. Be assured of this: Nothing is lost in the 
 spiritual any more than in the material world. It 
 cannot possibly be lost. You may never yourself see 
 the results, but the bread you have cast on the waters 
 will ultimately return. Nay, more than the bread you 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 121 
 
 cast ; for God takes it, and the miracle of the loaves is 
 daily repeated. We often read of late conversions. I 
 do not quite believe in them. They are, for the most 
 part, simply the revival of the teachings of childhood 
 the grown man after many wanderings going back to 
 his mother, the prodigal, after feeding on husks, re- 
 turning to the rich abundance of his Father's table. 
 
 Do not, then, be discouraged by the apparent 
 throwing off of religious feeling and principle, which is 
 too often characteristic of boyhood and adolescence. It 
 is for the most part due to the mere force of animal life 
 in the youth the dawning manhood which, conscious of 
 its powers, is egotistic and resists authority, law, and 
 convention. But this is only for a time. God does not 
 relax His hold of any one whom He has once put His 
 hand upon. In the words of the well-known hymn, 
 
 "Thou on my head in early youth didst smile, 
 And, though rebellious and perverse meanwhile, 
 Thou hast not left me, oft as I left Thee, 
 On to the close, Lord, abide with me." 
 
 But remember you have no right to expect such 
 fruits early or late, unless your teaching has been apt in 
 substance, sound in method, true in manner. "Train up 
 a child in the way he should go," has, we all know, been 
 often to the outward eye falsified ; but has it really and 
 to the inner eye been a delusive utterance ? I do not 
 believe it. Oh, ye of little faith ! The spirit is still in 
 that youth who has gone astray, and it will finally assert 
 itself. If it does not, it is because your training has 
 not been "in the way he should go." Alas ! then, for 
 you ! 
 
 In conclusion, let me say, the teacher should never 
 
122 ON THE KELIGIOUS EDUCATION [LECT. 
 
 for a moment forget the practical issues of religious 
 teaching. "Religion is use," is, I think, a saying of 
 Swedenborg's. Never cease impressing on the young 
 that Christianity is a life that the substance of your 
 teaching purity, love, godliness has significance only 
 in action ; that the Christian graces do not even exist 
 at all in us except in so far as they are constantly being 
 translated into an infinite series of daily and hourly 
 detail. Even our way of looking at outer things is 
 transfigured by religion, so rich is its practical outcome. 
 "To the religious mind," says Jean Paul, "every being 
 is a moving temple of the Infinite, everything purifies 
 and suns itself in the light of God." Break down, then, 
 with reiterated persistence, the wall between belief and 
 life. Our highly respectable grocers, bakers, farmers, 
 squires, lawyers, teachers, ministers, professors, and so 
 forth, too often make the business of life and their 
 religion run on parallel lines. They forget that their 
 business, simply as such, is a very paltry affair. The 
 boy has to be taught that the labour by which he is to 
 gain his living is itself the divinely-appointed channel 
 for his true inner life to flow in. It is by that business 
 he will be judged ; it is in and through his daily relations 
 as hirer and hired, buyer and seller, that his chance is 
 given him, and almost wholly in these. God will not 
 accept even his Sundays or his charity subscription-book. 
 The Hellenic idea even in the exalted and humane 
 mind of Plato restricted salvation to an academic 
 aristocracy. The power of the Christian idea lies in 
 this that the occupations which to the Greek sages 
 were banausian, if not degrading, are no longer common 
 or unclean. The way of earning a living not only may 
 
VI.] OF THE YOUNG. 123 
 
 be, but is, the way of life. In the discharge of the 
 lowliest functions the path to the highest and best 
 may be trodden. 
 
 As teachers, keep these practical issues before you, 
 and the world will shortly be a better world than now. 
 "God's true Church, remember, is the temple of the 
 universe," as Jean Paul well says. In that temple we 
 must always be worshipping. The going within walls to 
 worship is a mere incident of the Christian life : the 
 worship must be always going on in the world of men 
 and women and affairs. 
 
 I need scarcely say that whatever may be the result 
 of your instruction as regards others, the reward to 
 yourself is sure. The old saying docendo discimus is in 
 nothing so true as in moral and religious teaching. 
 Thus it is that children educate their parents. The 
 depth and significance of spiritual ideas, indeed, are 
 fully known only when we try to hand them on to 
 others. They are then, like Mercy, twice blessed. 
 They bless him that gives and him that takes. 
 
VII. 
 
 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL 1 . 
 
 WHEN your Secretary did me the honour to ask me 
 to address you on this annual occasion I had some 
 difficulty in finding a text ; but as soon as I received a 
 copy of your Annual Report, my difficulty was removed. 
 This Council of Education I found exists to co-operate 
 with the School Board generally, and chiefly to promote 
 the advanced instruction of the masses of the people. 
 It seemed to me accordingly to be not inappropriate, 
 either to the function I am now discharging, to the 
 objects of this Council, or to the circumstances of the 
 time, to say a word in defence of what I conceived to 
 be the true purpose of the primary school in special 
 relation to the advanced instruction of the people tech- 
 nical and literary. 
 
 It would almost appear from public meetings held in 
 London, and from the action taken by some Chambers 
 of Commerce, that young clerks can neither write nor 
 count, and are wholly ignorant of the objects and ways 
 of commerce. It has also been said that the lower 
 
 1 Delivered before the Liverpool Council of Education, 1888. 
 
LECT. VII.] EDUCATION IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 125 
 
 class of commercial instruments office boys do not 
 exhibit as much intelligence and sense of duty as did 
 those of their predecessors twenty years ago, who had 
 received such instruction as was then available. Again, 
 we have the constantly recurring demand for the tech- 
 nical instruction of our artisans. 
 
 Now, if the remedy for these defects is the institu- 
 tion of secondary schools of commercial and of technical 
 instruction for boys who, at the age of thirteen, have 
 got all that the primary school can give them, we 
 could not but wish success to the movement ; but I 
 should still contend that such schools would not succeed 
 in giving either the artisan or the clerk that ability to 
 cope with changing circumstances which would keep 
 England in the van of the industry and commerce of 
 the world ; and this because the instruction which it is 
 proposed to give in them is too narrow and specialised. 
 Secondary commercial and technical schools for the 
 artisan and lower middle class should, in my opinion, 
 always include in their curriculum, general, as well as 
 specialised, instruction instruction which will tend to 
 raise the intellectual and moral level of the classes for 
 whom the new schools are instituted. We have to keep 
 steadily before us the education of men as men and 
 as citizens, if we are really to attain the objects of the 
 technical specialists themselves. By so doing, we shall 
 make this life more worth living for the individual, 
 and fit him better for his ever-extending duties in a 
 democratic society. 
 
 Professor Huxley has said that no one can yet define 
 technical instruction. But it seems to me that the 
 
126 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 definition, in general terms at least, is easy enough. 
 Technical instruction is instruction with a view to 
 gaining a living in some specific department of in- 
 dustry, or to discharging some specific social function. 
 A seminary for young men, devoted to theological 
 instruction and to the inculcation of the proper way of 
 preaching and of managing a parish, would be a tech- 
 nical school for the ministry of the Church. So with a 
 medical school, or a teachers' school, or a lawyers' school. 
 We call these schools "professional:" strictly speaking 
 they are technical ; but it is, doubtless, better to restrict 
 the term "technical" to instruction which fits a man, 
 not for a social function, but for dealing with those 
 material things and agencies which form the necessary 
 basis of the individual life as well as of society at large. 
 I leave out of consideration at present the technical- 
 professional, and confine myself to the technical in 
 the restricted sense. And of it we may correctly say, 
 that technical instruction is instruction with special 
 reference to earning a living, while liberal instruction 
 is education with a view to living a life the life of a 
 rational being and a good citizen. 
 
 It is far from my intention to say a word against 
 technical instruction. I used to have great doubts as 
 to its utility. I have none now, because I have exa- 
 mined into its practicability ; and it would be easy for 
 me here and now to advocate technical schools, not only 
 as bearing on our industries and our national welfare, 
 but as a most valuable contribution to the general 
 education of the artisan. Technical schools, indeed, 
 are destined, I hope, to be to the lower half of the 
 middle class what high schools, grammar schools, and 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 127 
 
 our great public schools are to the upper half, and we 
 do well to promote them for the education of boys 
 above thirteen years of age. But it is constantly the 
 duty of the professed educationalist to resist popular 
 ideas, and to insist on a reasonable view being taken of 
 every fresh educational panacea. We are now, it seems 
 to me, threatened with an advancing tide of technical 
 instruction, which aims at swallowing up all other 
 educational agencies. Scotland has got a Technical 
 Schools Act ; England is about to have one. In so far 
 as these Acts can be safely utilised by School Boards, 
 it will be in the direction probably of evening schools 
 for apprentices, and of adding a higher department to 
 a few of the existing day schools, where those who 
 have passed the sixth standard, and have not yet 
 entered on apprenticeship, may assemble to receive 
 instruction of a more or less technical character. Such 
 schools will be a most important addition to the educa- 
 tional machinery of Liverpool and other centres of in- 
 dustry, and will give definite character and aim to one 
 of the objects of this Council of Education. But they 
 will fail to be educative in the best sense unless they 
 are so organized as to include commercial subjects, and 
 to give some place to literature, music, and so forth, as 
 well as to elementary science and manual work. It is 
 proposed to make such secondary schools for the people 
 purely technical. Against this I think it is our duty 
 to protest in the interests of the secondary education 
 of the artisan and lower middle class. 
 
 But still worse awaits us ; for schemes have been 
 already mooted for technicalising (so to speak) the fifth 
 and sixth standards in the Board Schools and for giving 
 
128 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 workshop instruction in them of a distinctively tech- 
 nical character. Such movements are to be resisted, 
 nay, I would almost say resented, in the interests of 
 the people. Not content with technical instruction, 
 which, however defective when taken alone, yet cer- 
 tainly involves a certain amount of intellectual training, 
 we are further threatened from America with an 
 organised system of manual instruction for primary 
 schools which gives, taken by itself, the minimum of 
 mental training. Now, when boys have left the primary 
 school, and have entered upon a technical course, 
 manual training must, of course, be a part of this. 
 A boy, I grant, will never really learn his trade save in 
 a workshop ; but yet it is necessary in a technical school 
 to include, as part of the school premises, shops for 
 carpentering, metal turning, &c., in order to keep the 
 instruction given in the school in close relation with its 
 practical aim. But in the primary school, as distinct 
 from the professed technical school, workshops and 
 manual occupation are just as necessary as gymnasiums 
 neither more nor less. They belong to the depart- 
 ment of play at this stage of a boy's education, rather 
 than to that of organised instruction ; and in a climate 
 like ours, carpenters' sheds for boys above 11 years of 
 age, and covered gymnasiums for all, should be a part 
 of the equipment of every school, primary and secondary 
 alike. Hand-work, I readily admit, though in itself 
 giving the minimum of intellectual training, gives all 
 that certain minds are capable of receiving, and in all 
 other cases it re-acts upon the intelligence, and gives a 
 certain solidity to the purely intellectual and moral 
 instruction of a school. In fact, we may say, generally, 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 129 
 
 that the method of teaching any subject whatsoever, is 
 never adequate until the fingers have been in some 
 way brought into requisition in connexion with it. In 
 the manual work of drawing, for example, we have an 
 educational instrument which trains both hand and eye, 
 and insensibly contributes to the general education of a 
 boy much more than is even yet understood. Hand- 
 work, then, in so far as it includes drawing, and, in the 
 case of girls, needlework and cooking, all educationalists, 
 I presume, advocate in the primary school: nor less 
 would they gladly see carpenters' sheds and gymnasiums 
 as places devoted to strenuous idleness. 
 
 But when we are asked to give to carpentering a 
 certain portion of the time now devoted to geography, 
 history, reading, and so forth, we object. Those who 
 believe that the distinction between man and monkey 
 does not depend on the development of the thumb, are 
 driven to protest in the name of the distinctively human 
 in man. Can we be expected even to restrain our 
 laughter when we see it stated by a hand-enthusiast in 
 America that one hour of carpentering will do more for 
 a boy's intellect than three hours of Sophocles ? If the 
 spirit of man can be educated through his fingers, it is 
 a pity that Plato and Shakspere ever wrote and Christ 
 ever taught. The thumb educationalists must be com- 
 manded to keep their place ; and, along with them, 
 those technical educationalists who would take forcible 
 possession of the primary school, and substitute science 
 (so-called) in place of more humane and humanising 
 studies. If in the technical schools, to which a Tech- 
 nical Schools Bill will lead, literature, music, and 
 history ought to find an honourable place, in order to 
 I, I, 9 
 
130 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 make them the secondary schools of the artisan and 
 lower middle class, how much more do these subjects 
 demand protection in the primary school ? Technical 
 instruction, pure and simple, can never educate ; at best 
 it can only contribute to education. The Technical has 
 in view the gaining of a living : Education properly 
 understood has in view life. We " do not live by bread 
 alone, but by the Word " that is to say by thought on 
 human life, conduct, and destiny, conveyed in apt, if 
 not also felicitous, language. What shall it profit Eng- 
 land, I should like to know, if she gain the whole 
 world that is to say, drive all other nations out of 
 the field of neutral markets and "lose her own soul ?" 
 The operative of England is not to be trained merely 
 to be a useful tool in the hands of the holders of capital. 
 He has to earn a living, no doubt, but he has also to 
 live a life the life of a rational and immortal spirit. 
 It is still, I think, generally held that we must have 
 humanistic that is to say, literary, historical, eco- 
 nomical, and religious teaching in the secondary school : 
 much more must we have it in the primary school, if 
 the masses of the people are to be put on the right 
 way. 
 
 One of the aims of this Liverpool Council is to 
 keep children as long at school as possible, and so to 
 begin the secondary or advanced education of the chil- 
 dren of the poorer sections of the population. But the 
 artisan, and even a large proportion of the middle, class 
 cannot take advantage of your liberal offer owing to 
 social necessities. They can receive their secondary 
 education only through the experience and opportu- 
 nities of life. The opening of people's parks, of play- 
 
VIL] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 131 
 
 ing-fields, public baths, of art galleries, of cheap concerts, 
 of free libraries, of evening lectures, and the capping of 
 the whole with cheap literature and with University 
 Colleges (as here in Liverpool), are the opportunities 
 now growing up in our great centres of population, and 
 that not too soon. But they are useless to those who 
 have not been put on the right way when young. The 
 artisan will remain outside these agencies, just as he too 
 often, unhappily, remains outside the churches. He 
 will not adopt them into his daily life and make them 
 an integral part of that. If he is to do so, I repeat, 
 the primary school, and above all the advanced classes 
 of the primary school, must put him, when yet a boy, on 
 the right way. That right way is the way of the 
 humanities, and the way of the humanities is paved 
 with literature, history, ethics, religion, art all that is 
 humanising, all that makes a citizen a man and not 
 merely a work-man. In short, the education of the 
 primary school must like that of the secondary school, 
 be liberal and humanising, and prepare for the general 
 conduct and rational enjoyment of life, not for any 
 specific department of labour. 
 
 To the primary teacher, then, I would say : ' While 
 boys and girls must be largely trained, by means of 
 object-lessons, geography, arithmetic, and always on a 
 distinct realistic basis, the teaching being closely prac- 
 tical, your leading idea, your constant purpose (spite of 
 codes and all their demands), must be the moralising 
 and humanising of the boys and girls under your charge. 
 Let us face the fact that religion is really not at present 
 in its proper place in our schools, because theologians 
 cannot agree. While theologians quarrel, the people 
 
 92 
 
132 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 may perish. I feel very deeply, that until these 
 quarrels are settled, it becomes more than ever neces- 
 sary that humanising and ethical aims should in your 
 minds be paramount. Knowledge is not everything. 
 Life is better. If the apprentice lad does his work 
 honestly and as to God, if he is kindly and gracious and 
 civil in his family and social relations, if he seeks the 
 pleasures of society and song, and brings a pleasant 
 temper and a gracious countenance to the fireside, if he 
 is leading the life of a rational and religious being, and 
 so promoting the sum of human happiness, he is a 
 worthy member of the commonwealth. Such a youth 
 is the best possible product of school-life and more than 
 repays all your daily toil ? But if you do not, or, owing 
 to code restrictions, cannot, lay such a foundation as will 
 rear this edifice of a true man, then all I have to say is, 
 the school has lost its way. It is an expensive machine, 
 turning out machine-made articles, and not the hand- 
 work into which is put the honest endeavour of an 
 earnest mind, the love and inspiration of the moral 
 artist.' 
 
 The education of the primary school, I have said, 
 must be liberal and humanising. How is it to be 
 made so ? The answer is easy : by having a liberal 
 and humane mind at its head, skilled in methods, 
 instinct with ethical purpose. Religious teaching is at 
 a discount at present, but nobody prevents the teacher 
 telling the Gospel story, and reading, as a father might 
 with his children, its simple records in such a way as 
 to touch the hearts and imaginations of his pupils. 
 Then there is literature. In the rich stores of our 
 country there can be no difficulty in finding materials 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 133 
 
 to supersede, or at least to supplement, the barren 
 teachings of our school-books. Were I a teacher I 
 should find in such materials the means of establishing 
 between myself and my scholars that sympathetic bond 
 which is the source of all true power over the human 
 mind, because it is spiritual power. I should like to 
 sit down, when time and circumstance were favourable, 
 and read with them, and to them, pieces which stir 
 emotion in the heart of old and young alike: such child- 
 pieces, for example, as this, by Blake, poet and artist, 
 would, I think, yield fruit both in the present and the 
 after time : 
 
 "Little lamb, who made thee? 
 Dost thou know who made thee, 
 Gave thee life and bid thee feed 
 By the stream and o'er the mead; 
 Gave thee clothing of delight, 
 Softest clothing, woolly, bright; 
 Gave thee such a tender voice, 
 Making all the vales rejoice? 
 Little lamb, who made thee ? 
 Dost thou know who made thee ? 
 Little lamb, I'll tell thee, 
 Little lamb, I'll tell thee. 
 He is called by thy name, 
 For He calls himself a Lamb : 
 He is meek and He is mild, 
 He became a little child. 
 I a child and thou a lamb, 
 We are called by His name, 
 Little lamb, God bless thee, 
 Little lamb, God bless thee." 
 
 This is literature, simple though it be. Can the 
 child resist it ? Certainly not, if the teacher feels it. 
 
134 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 England is full of child-literature even better than this, 
 suited to every child-stage of life. The poets of 
 England have been generous in their gifts to children. 
 Spelling is important, grammar is important, but not so 
 important as the food that maintains the very life of the 
 soul. Much of our teaching may evaporate, but the 
 impressions of the good which we make by means of the 
 beautiful, will never evaporate. The teachings of the 
 heart remain for ever. 
 
 It is by such means as I have indicated that we 
 may hope to rear a population captivated by moral and 
 religious truth, and disdainful of all meaner forms of 
 pleasure ; it is by such means that the immortal spirit 
 is taught to shine, even " through a simple rustic garb's 
 disguise, and through the impediment of rural cares." 
 The school, we are told, is to fit for the larger school of 
 life. True ; but does life consist only of a struggle for 
 the satisfaction of material wants ? Are man's relations 
 to the spiritual not life ? 
 
 " The world is too much with us : late and soon, 
 Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers." 
 
 Nor is the moral and spiritual life, which it is the 
 business of the school to evoke, the least potent element 
 in the equipment for the struggle of each passing day 
 and the cheerful acceptance by each of us of our special 
 burdens. Even of Milton, Wordsworth could say 
 
 "Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart; 
 Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea; 
 Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free, 
 So didst thou travel on life's common way 
 In cheerful godliness; and yet thy heart 
 The lowliest duties on herself did lay." 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 135 
 
 Let, then, the intellectual and spiritual ideal of the 
 school be fixed, let the master be himself inspired with 
 that ideal, and then allowed freely to work for this, and 
 the result will be a population, not of mere working 
 men, but of men who can live and enjoy life, as well as 
 toil intelligently for a living. 
 
 I have been urging this that what we as educa- 
 tionalists desire to accomplish, and that even in the 
 department of industries and commerce, is to raise the 
 standard of life, and to quicken the general intelligence 
 of a boy, and further, that to accomplish this success- 
 fully, we must rely mainly, on the training of the hu- 
 manity in man. I hope I am not misunderstood. No 
 man who takes a broad view of education can regret to 
 see the growth of physical science as an educational 
 agency. The study of nature had been for long left out 
 in the cold, and it was inevitable that it should make 
 importunate demands for admission and for an honour- 
 able place at the scholastic hearth. But it must not be 
 allowed to drive the literary and the ethical from their 
 supreme place. Even science itself becomes truly edu- 
 cative in the highest sense, only when it is transfigured by 
 imagination and touched by moral emotion. It is the 
 spiritual in man, not the logical understanding, which 
 to Nature 
 
 "Adds the gleam, 
 
 The light that never was on sea or land, 
 The consecration and the poet's dream." 
 
 To the popular eye, and to the eye of Herschel alike, 
 the starry heavens are but so much dead matter if they 
 do not light the path of the sublime, and raise the soul 
 of man above the petty and transitory. ' The heavens 
 
136 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 declare the glory of God and the firmament showeth 
 His handwork.' It is only the poetic ear that can 
 hear " the silence that is in the starry sky." When 
 this dependence of science itself on the alchemy of 
 thought for its true interpretation is clearly seen, the 
 present imperious claims of its votaries will be abated. 
 There is an ebb and a flow in all social questions, but 
 the time for the ebb of the scientific tide is not yet. 
 Depend upon it, it is by the study neither of the 
 molecule nor of the crayfish, but of the thoughts and 
 deeds of epochs now gone that we ourselves truly 
 understand ourselves. The dead generations are in 
 truth our dead selves from which we rise to higher 
 things. By the past we live. You and I are old men ; 
 thousands of years have passed over our heads. By the 
 help of science alone, I admit, each man may in these 
 days start afresh for himself, and succeed in correlating 
 himself and his material needs with his environment, 
 but assuredly he cannot attain to his full stature as 
 man save by first spreading his roots deep and wide 
 into the soil which is enriched by the deeds and 
 utterances of his forerunners. 
 
 I am not depreciating scientific and technical 
 instruction ; I wish simply to look at it in the light of 
 educational principles and to assign it its due place in 
 the formation of character, and the fitting of a man for 
 the duties and the enjoyment of this world. I hold 
 that even in the primary school it is quite possible 
 to meet all reasonable demands which our commerce 
 and our skilled industries can make on us by giving a 
 practical character to our teaching, and yet subordinate 
 all to the great educative aim. Only let realistic 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 137 
 
 subjects everything that comes under the head of 
 nature-knowledge have their foundations laid in the 
 primary school as a part of general education. Above 
 all, let subjects be taught with direct reference to use. 
 This it is which makes geography and arithmetic alive 
 nay, moralises them because it brings them into rela- 
 tion with the hard facts and the daily work of life. By 
 this kind of teaching we shall, by the help of our human- 
 istic instruction, to which our geography and history and 
 arithmetic will always play up, turn out the youth of the 
 country to do their part, when we leave the stage, with 
 living hearts, open eyes, and active intelligences ; and, 
 above all, with that moral steadfastness which all men 
 need when they " fall upon the thorns of life." We 
 shall not accomplish this educative result if we let bread- 
 earning subjects supersede the liberal, the humanistic, 
 the spiritual training instead of merely contributing to 
 it. On the other hand, that, at this time of day, we 
 should pretend to educate our youth divorced from 
 nature and its teachings, and without specific reference 
 to practical life, is simply absurd. All I wish to insist 
 on is that the root of the matter is not in the various 
 sciences of nature, but in the ethical purpose of human 
 existence. Man is capable of ideas and ideals. To say 
 that his life is in the infinite is not a merely rhetorical 
 utterance ; but sober fact. He is not simply the aristo- 
 crat of the monkey- tribe, but something far other and 
 better. Give me a man with an intelligent mind and 
 with a moral purpose in life honest in his resolves, 
 honourable in his aims and I will guarantee you in 
 that man the best manufacturer, the best merchant, 
 the best weaver, the best engineer, the best plumber, 
 
138 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 given the necessary amount of knowledge of his business. 
 I will guarantee you also against a railway king or a 
 shoddy millionaire. To technical and scientific know- 
 ledge the words of the Laureate are even more closely 
 applicable than to knowledge in general : 
 
 * * * " Let her know her place 
 
 She is the second not the first. 
 
 A higher hand must make her mild, 
 If all be not in vain ; and guide 
 Her footsteps, moving side by side 
 
 With Wisdom, like the younger child." 
 
 As with scientific and technical instruction so with 
 manual work in schools : let it be subsidiary to the 
 greater end ; in brief, let it not be work at all, but play. 
 The son of the poor man has to buckle himself to hand- 
 labour soon enough. Do not evade the Factory Acts by 
 turning the primary school into a factory of factory- 
 hands. It is a factory of minds not of hands ; if it be 
 not this, let it go ! 
 
 The primary school, then, you will see I regard as 
 being, no less than the secondary, the abode of humanism, 
 and its aim liberal education. The classical master of 
 our great public schools will toss his head at this and 
 ask : " How is it possible that the ' common school ' 
 should give a liberal education ? " I may use my 
 natural privilege as a Scotsman and respond by asking 
 him another question : " What is a liberal education ? 
 What do you think education is ? What does it aim 
 at ?" By the time he has answered these questions he 
 will find that in the primary school properly understood 
 must be laid the foundation firm and sure of all liberal 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 139 
 
 education. " To the poor the Gospel is preached. " The 
 word humanism, which has for centuries been the 
 equivalent for a liberal education, has not changed its 
 true meaning, but it has, in these modern times, changed, 
 or, rather. I should say multiplied, its instruments, while 
 the secondary schoolmaster of a certain type has been 
 left high and dry on the shore of the sixteenth century. 
 Latin and Greek were once the only possible vehicles of 
 liberal education, because they alone contained literature 
 and great moral examples for the modern world. And I 
 would still say to every man who has the time " study 
 these," for in that antique world are to be found, to use 
 Shelley's words, 
 
 " Harmonies of wisdom and of song, 
 And thoughts, and deeds worthy of thoughts so fair." 
 
 The fortress of antiquity must be held if our modern 
 life is not to suffer grievously. But the campaign of 
 the army of humanity has now to be conducted mainly 
 with weapons which our own immediate forefathers have 
 forged. The fire lighted at the altars of Greece, having 
 first burned with a dazzling brilliancy in Italy, crossed 
 the Alps and, fed by Celtic ardour and moderated by 
 Teutonic soberness, illumined the nations. The result 
 has been modern literatures and a Christianised huma- 
 nism, whose proper place is not merely the halls of uni- 
 versities, but the nurseries and schools of our children. 
 
 I would turn now to another consideration. 
 
 By means of bursaries we provide for the advance- 
 ment of clever boys who aim at professional work. But 
 the ladder which is to lead from the gutter to a univer- 
 sity fellowship has small interest for the educationalist 
 
140 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 compared to the ladder which is to lead from the 
 gutter to a good and honourable life as a man and a 
 citizen. It is not the higher education and success in 
 life of this or that boy which can long engage our 
 attention. It is the higher education of the people as a 
 whole. Whatever we do in education, this in all nations 
 and in all periods of history must be done this, namely 
 we must educate the centre of political power. In this 
 democratic country that centre is now the artisan class 
 the aristocracy of the millions of the wage-earners. 
 These, when they leave the primary school, have to be 
 brought in increasing numbers within the circle of 
 intellectual and moral interests. And this is to be done 
 by increasing the number of those who stay at school 
 till they have passed the sixth standard, by evening 
 continuation schools, by organized courses of lectures, 
 by art galleries, by music halls of the right sort ; and 
 finally by our churches, when these have learned the 
 secret of touching the heart and speaking the language 
 of the working man. That scientific lectures (if given, 
 not by what are called "science masters," but by 
 masters of science) can attract and elevate has been 
 proved by the University Extension Schemes ; but all 
 that the masses of the people can absorb of this kind of 
 instruction is very limited. Not so with humanistic sub- 
 jects these have an infinite variety which "custom 
 cannot stale." History, political science, economics, 
 literature, art, religion, offer themselves. They promise 
 enjoyment to the mind; and it is only through what 
 they enjoy as a relief from toil and harassment that 
 men working hard can be permanently expected to seek 
 knowledge. 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 141 
 
 The subjects I have named give, I say, enjoyment, 
 and, while they do so, they at the same time nurture, 
 feed, elevate, and form. The interest of such subjects 
 also is lasting, for they are in intimate relation to the 
 present conduct of life and to the future destiny of each 
 man. The doctrine of the anthropoid ape and adap- 
 tation to environment is played out. It is not the 
 descent of man but the ascent of man we have to think 
 of. Much retrospect to the monkey out of which we 
 have been evolved is not satisfying. A man must be a 
 biological expert to go into intellectual ecstasies over 
 that. " Let the ape and tiger die." Given due prepara- 
 tion in boyhood, and you will then find a potent auxili- 
 ary in the work of education in the artisan himself when 
 once he has entered on the duties of life. For, strange 
 to say, his mind is commonly more open and more 
 eager for fresh intellectual food than that of the 
 college don or the scientific expert. There is a freedom 
 from prejudice and a na'ive simplicity of receptiveness 
 about him. Explain the fact as you may, it is a fact. 
 I have great faith in the British working man and in 
 his power to work out his own educational salvation 
 when the opportunity is provided, if only you have 
 given him a fair start in the people's school. He is of a 
 good breed. 
 
 Why, indeed, should he not achieve for himself 
 even culture ? What this precisely may be it is not easy 
 to say. It certainly is not the exclusive property of 
 academic minds. I have elsewhere defined it as a 
 disposition to know things and to think about things 
 above our own petty personal interests and outside our 
 particular department of work, combined with a love for 
 
142 LIBERAL EDUCATION IN [LECT. 
 
 art forms, a feeling for the historical past out of which 
 we have come, and, generally, what may be called an 
 ethical habit of mind. Now all this is, in its essence at 
 least, quite within the reach of the industrial classes ; 
 and some individuals among them are at this moment 
 more truly cultured than many of the wealthy, and not 
 a few of the academic class. Many of the latter are too 
 apt to think that culture means acquisition or literary 
 expertness, and not character and intellectual openness. 
 Let us, then, see to it that every citizen has his 
 opportunity given him by a liberal education in the 
 primary school to grow to this true manhood, to this 
 genuine culture, in remote glens as well as in crowded 
 cities. There is now no insuperable difficulty in this. 
 What a depressing thought for every man who is 
 interested in the advancement of society if he had to 
 confess that all that shapes the spirit of man to the 
 highest issues is for ever beyond the reach of the masses 
 of mankind that education, in the best sense, is for 
 the few. This is not the teaching of our Master, Christ. 
 There are still some far too many, it is true who are, 
 unhappily, in such daily anxiety as to the means of 
 living that they have no time to live, and there will 
 always be a certain number who, with every opportunity 
 that could be given, will remain dull, obtuse, ignorant, 
 evil : and this in all ranks of society. The devil, like 
 the poor, we shall have always with us, I suspect ; but 
 we must do our best to fight him, or it, under whatever 
 grammatical gender modern enlightenment may classify 
 the dire reality. We work in the hope that the 
 number of those outside the pale of a true civilisation 
 may grow less and less as the generations pass, and we 
 
VII.] THE PRIMARY SCHOOL. 143 
 
 already have reached this great and unprecedented 
 position that we are able to address ten for one whom 
 we could so have addressed thirty years ago, asking 
 them to come and drink of the fountains of knowledge, 
 no less than of the waters of life, freely. 
 
 To sum up in a sentence or two : What I have 
 chiefly desired to impress upon you is that the primary, 
 even more than the secondary school, must be sacred to 
 the humanistic in education; and, further, that realistic 
 subjects should be so practically taught as to relate 
 them to the uses of life, and in this way contribute to 
 humanistic education. If these two ideas are given 
 effect to, you accomplish two things. You give the so 
 much desiderated practical foundation for subsequent 
 technical and commercial instruction, while at the same 
 time, you prepare the ground for the culture of life, 
 which must, if it exist at all, be for the great mass of those 
 who are likely to seek it literary, historical, aesthetic, 
 ethical ; rarely scientific, and then only in a very 
 popular sense. The conclusion to which I have pointed 
 in the politics of education is, that in the Technical 
 Schools Bill powers should be given to introduce com- 
 mercial subjects into the technical school, and, gene- 
 rally, to continue the subjects now taught in primary 
 schools. If this be done, the Act will become the charter 
 of the secondary schools of the people, and furnish an 
 important and much-needed addition to our educational 
 machinery. Whatever we do, let us always put the 
 man before the workman, and we shall so not only best 
 fulfil our duty to the humanity of the people but also 
 best fit them, each for himself, to acquire and apply the 
 specialty by which he gains his living. 
 
VIII. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, AND COMPETITION 1 . 
 
 THE subject of the following remarks is "Examina- 
 tions and, in connexion with them, Emulation and 
 Competition." I shall speak of Examinations in their 
 bearing on School and College work and to their use in 
 selecting men for the enjoyment of money rewards and 
 for the public service. 
 
 We all know that this is the age of examinations. 
 We are beset by them on every side, and every pro- 
 fession hedges itself round with examinations, qualifying 
 or competitive, except, indeed, the profession of secon- 
 dary schoolmaster. The members of this profession are 
 not required to know anything about their work in so 
 far as it is teaching or educating, for the sufficient 
 reason that they, by the mere fact, I presume, of their 
 being Masters of Arts, have served themselves heirs to 
 all the arts, including those they do not know; they 
 alone, of all professional men, are heaven-born. All 
 skilled occupations, no less than professions, have their 
 principles and their technique. The secondary school- 
 master will not deny that the educator of the middle 
 and upper classes also requires principles and technique ; 
 
 1 Delivered, at the Moray House Training College, to Students and 
 Teachers, 1887. 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 145 
 
 but he always has them, if not by Divine inspiration, 
 then by apostolical succession. 
 
 Now we certainly all both examiners and exami- 
 nees detest examinations. The former have a decided 
 conviction, that after all is done the resultant class-list 
 is a very rough affair ; and the latter, if not at the top, 
 is apt to feel that his real capacity has not been gauged. 
 And both may be right. Both sigh for the golden age 
 when examinations were not. 
 
 Examinations are the pricks of the modern boy's life, 
 and it is vain to kick against the pricks. The human 
 animal has to adapt himself to this new environment, 
 and he who fails to do so, must give way and let 
 the fittest survive : there is no escape for any. Let us, 
 then, see what of real justification they have as a piece 
 of educational machinery, and, above all, their relation 
 to emulation and competition in schools and univer- 
 sities. Is it possible to reduce the evil and save edu- 
 cation ? 
 
 There are three kinds of examinations to be con- 
 sidered : (a) Teaching or Class examinations; (6) 
 Qualifying examinations ; (c) Honours and Competition 
 examinations. 
 
 There is a good deal to be said for all these, but 
 especially for the first and second. 
 
 (a) TEACHING OR CLASS EXAMINATIONS. As re- 
 gards the first (teaching or class examinations), it is 
 certain that there can be no good teaching which is not 
 a continual process of examination. We may talk at 
 and to boys, but we shall talk in vain. The highest 
 kind of teaching is simply an intelligent and free con- 
 
 L. L. 10 
 
146 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 versation between a ripe and unripe mind. This, more 
 than anything else, truly educates the young intelligence 
 in the best possible way. But, if done consciously and 
 with a purpose, it is examination. This was what 
 Socrates did, a great educator. But the qualities 
 needed for this are rarely to be found. We cannot 
 presume on their being found at all, and we have to 
 condescend to instruction and examination in the ordi- 
 nary vulgar sense, and to be thankful if we can get this 
 fairly well done in our schools. 
 
 Now let us consider. Instructing a boy in anything 
 is guiding him and helping him to find out how it is 
 done, and then exercising him in the doing of it. 
 Generally, it will be found that the knowledge of the 
 how is best gained by simply doing the thing in 
 imitation of a model. But if we omit the analysis of 
 the " how," we are pretty sure to produce parrots and 
 imitators. Originality and mental elasticity find their 
 best friends outside the walls of such a school. The 
 intelligent use of the intelligence is never acquired, and 
 conventionality of mind the boasted " practical " mind 
 of the Briton is the result. If, again, we dwell too 
 much on the " how," we certainly stimulate the intelli- 
 gence, but the mental energy thus generated has a 
 tendency to dissipate itself in aimless and spasmodic 
 activities. It is only by getting a thing done again 
 and again that we give solidity of faculty. As in 
 intellectual, so in moral method : I cannot, for ex- 
 ample, cultivate justice in a youth by talking to him, 
 or getting him to talk, about justice, but by getting 
 him to do just acts. Character, in the intellect and 
 in the moral nature alike, is not determined by the 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 147 
 
 potentialities in a man, but by his faculties his activi- 
 ties in doing. 
 
 Hence it is a wise course to make instruction consist 
 mainly of oral exercises or written exercises, once the 
 way of doing the thing has been shown, but without 
 waiting for the full understanding of the process. Every 
 day's examination is a testing of the power of doing, 
 of the art or faculty of reading, speaking, writing our 
 own or other languages, or of demonstrating relations of 
 magnitudes and numbers. Our weekly or monthly 
 written examinations make larger demands on the 
 faculties attained. Examinations, then, are tests of 
 how the pupil can, unaided, do the things he has been 
 taught. Sometimes, it is true, they must turn on the 
 mere reproduction of knowledge conveyed ; but to the 
 extent to which examinations call for reproduction 
 instead of doing, they are (though a necessary, yet) 
 a defective test of mental power, and therefore weak 
 as a mental discipline. You are teaching the humble 
 arts of reading, writing, and spelling ; how else can 
 you ascertain whether you are actually teaching them, 
 except by calling on your pupils to read, to write, to 
 spell ? So with grammar, you call on them to parse 
 a sentence ; with arithmetic, you call on them to work 
 their way through numerical relations ; with Latin, you 
 call on them to translate an unprepared passage, or to 
 write Latin ; and so forth. All your instruction points 
 to the doing of something as outcome, hence examina- 
 tions to see if your pupils can do the thing they have 
 been taught. A good teacher aims at the training of 
 faculty, not the giving of knowledge. Encyclopaedism 
 in education is bad ; encyclopaedism of knowledge 
 
 102 
 
148 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 that is to say, but we are bound to aim at what may 
 be called encyclopsedism of faculty. By examinations 
 alone can we find not only in what respect the pupil 
 has failed to learn, but also in what respect we (the 
 teachers) have failed to train faculty in a specific direc- 
 tion. These should, therefore, be not daily but hourly, 
 and conducted orally; but no week should pass without 
 examination papers being also written, the pupil being 
 left entirely to his own resources. 
 
 Let me now consider teaching examinations in 
 relation -to emulation and competition. In how far may 
 the teacher legitimately make use of these motives in 
 the necessary work of class examining and class testing ? 
 I confine myself, in the first instance, to class or teach- 
 ing examinations, because the true significance of the 
 general question of emulation and competition is best 
 seen in their bearing on the inner and ordinary work of 
 the school. 
 
 Emulation is a passion on which schoolmasters rely 
 more than on any other to urge boys, who are already 
 well disposed to work, to exert themselves to the utmost. 
 Emulation, strictly defined, is, I imagine, a desire to be 
 equal to the best, and so understood it is not morally 
 hurtful. As manifested in school, however, it is a desire 
 and effort to be better than others, and consequently 
 has its root in that love of self-assertion, power, and 
 acquisition, which is native to the human breast. It is 
 the school aspect of the struggle for existence. 
 
 Even in this its school form of a desire to surpass 
 the best, emulation may, under the influence of a good 
 and watchful master, be restricted to a generous rivalry, 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 149 
 
 and foster a high and vigorous moral spirit. But when 
 it degenerates into mere competition, the setting of one 
 against another, the evil passions of jealousy and envy 
 must inevitably enter and work moral injury to all 
 concerned master and pupils alike. Moreover, emu- 
 lation, in the degraded form of competition, incites 
 boys and youths to overstrain their powers, and is 
 consequently hurtful to the nerve-tissue, and so to the 
 general health of body. It may be assumed that 
 exertion, and all that incites boys and men to exert 
 themselves, is good, and all that urges them to strain 
 themselves is bad. I speak of course of the ordinary 
 circumstances of life, and of habitual conduct, merely; 
 for there are occasions on which duty requires that we 
 should overstrain ourselves, even at the risk of our lives, 
 and, for that matter, of the lives of others also. 
 
 You will ask, Is it impossible that two boys should 
 compete against each other without becoming victims 
 to the evil passions of envy and jealousy ? The answer 
 is, No ; but it is so rare an event that we cannot 
 calculate on it. The cases which are sometimes cited 
 are, I believe, misinterpreted. Two boys are straining 
 for a prize, one against the other, and are good friends 
 not only during the strife, but after it is over and one 
 has been beaten. The reason of this really is, that the 
 friendship of the boys is so strong that it survives the 
 unnatural test to which it has been subjected, or that 
 the beaten one has all along been secretly content to be 
 beaten for the sake of his friend, and has not really 
 cared very earnestly for success. But such friendships 
 are rare, more rare than the simulation of them ; and 
 as in educational matters we have only to do with the 
 
150 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 ordinary case, I am driven to the conclusion, that where- 
 ever there is strong personal competition, there exists 
 also a hostile feeling which gives rise, or tends to give 
 rise, to jealousy, envy, malice, and all uncharitableness ; 
 and this because the gain to one is loss to another. As 
 boys grow into young men these feelings are doubtless 
 much moderated, and, in well-conditioned youths, if they 
 exist at all, they exist only in so far as they belong to 
 the ordinary rivalries of life. But the point for educa- 
 tionalists to consider is this, What is the effect of per- 
 sonal competition on the unformed and ill-regulated 
 passions of childhood and boyhood ? Does keen personal 
 competition give rise or does it not, to petty feelings of 
 a jealous and envious character, which lead to all sorts 
 of efforts being made to gain advantages sometimes 
 unfair advantages over others ? I think it does most 
 certainly. And if I am right, the moral evils must 
 greatly outweigh the intellectual benefits. The results 
 are, excessive self-appreciation, unjust depreciation and 
 detraction of others, and the painfully immoral condition 
 which these feelings engender at a period of life when 
 impressions made are deep and lasting, and when moral 
 habits once formed are formed for life. The generosity, 
 ingenuousness, candour, so often attributed to the boyish 
 nature, but which I maintain do not at all exist except 
 in circumstances favourable to their growth, are seriously 
 interfered with. False life-aims also are set up before 
 the boy, with the sanction of his elders : to beat others 
 is the great object of his existence. All this now I call 
 demoralisation. It is anti-social. 
 
 Note that I grant exceptional cases, and I also 
 admit that under exceptional masters all these melan- 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 151 
 
 choly results may be obviated. I speak of the general 
 case only. I have spoken of false aims ; for is not the 
 whole system due to an exaggeration of the importance 
 of mere intellect, and of a kind of intellect too which is 
 by no means that which the higher work of the world 
 demands, but of memory quickness, smartness, Setz/o- 
 T?;?, the vulpine intelligence which knows where the 
 geese lie ? When the ethical idea of education has 
 fully entered into the souls of schoolmasters, this deify- 
 ing of the intellect will be abjured, as opposed to 
 all the highest and best aims of education. Of this 
 I am certain. But the result, some say, is good for the 
 nation, because competition secures the best intellect 
 for the service of society. But, in answer, I would 
 point to the small outcome of the mental force of school 
 "duxes" in the work of the world. Their aim has 
 frequently been not knowledge, not truth, but success ; 
 and when this stimulus has been removed, their interest 
 flags, and the world has accordingly to find the majority 
 of its best workers in those who have escaped this kind 
 of training. If school duxes retain their bodily health, 
 they almost always do well in the world ; but I believe 
 the cases to be few in which they contribute much to 
 the moral and intellectual advance of humanity. To 
 the evil physical results of all this straining of the- over- 
 worked brain, we must partially attribute the small 
 result in after-life. 
 
 But I must not fail to point out the demoralising 
 effects on masters. They inevitably come to regard 
 their few competing boys as alone their school, and 
 consequently, those who fail to take a place in the front 
 line and who from an early age have ceased to care, 
 
152 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 because it is vain to hope, for success, are neglected. 
 The master's pleasure is naturally in those who more 
 than respond to every demand made on them, and on 
 whom his own reputation and the reputation of his 
 school depend. There is thus fostered in schoolmasters 
 a mistaken conception of duty, as well as a false educa- 
 tional ideal. Education by competition is, in short, not 
 liberal education ; it is education for a mean end, and 
 by using Horace and Sophocles for instruments you do 
 not make it liberal and moralise the end. 
 
 I have been speaking of emulation, remember, when 
 it takes the degenerate and vulgar form of competition. 
 If emulation be a desire for excellence, even though 
 accompanied with a desire to be alongside of the best, 
 there is nothing save what is commendable in it. 
 Excellence is too abstract a notion to constitute an aim 
 for boys, and, indeed, for most men. To equal the best 
 in any line of study, is to desire excellence in the only 
 form in which we can measure it, viz., what the best 
 can do. It is in this concrete form that excellence is 
 intelligible to us. It is in this sense that we may be 
 rightly told to emulate Christ, that is to say, to rise 
 to the highest excellence of our humanity. Emulation, 
 then, in the sense of a desire to be alongside the best, 
 may be fostered, and the moral nature benefited by it ; 
 the demoralisation begins when for this is substituted 
 the desire to beat others and exalt self over others, 
 when, in short, for emulation, which is noble rivalry, is 
 substituted competition, which is ignoble antagonism. 
 
 True, a matured man may legitimately desire to 
 excel others in virtue, in knowledge, in good works, in 
 service to the State ; but in the case of a mature, well- 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 153 
 
 regulated mind, this takes the form simply of a striving 
 after abstract excellence, not the vulgar form of a 
 desire to eclipse his neighbours. The excellence of our 
 neighbours is merely the external measure by which we 
 measure the degree to which we have attained our own 
 ideal. If it be anything else than this, it is the mere 
 exaltation of our own ego, it is spurious emulation 
 from the moral point of view, and thus far immoral. 
 But how can we expect pure emulation, in the moral 
 sense of it, from mere boys ? 
 
 The only argument which I have heard urged in 
 support of competition in schools is, that in life there is 
 this competition and personal rivalry, and the sooner 
 boys are taught to give and take in the struggle of life 
 the better. I do not admit the necessity for competi- 
 tion among men. But supposing that competition in 
 the sense of a desire to beat others and to exalt self 
 over their prostrate bodies, is among grown men, though 
 immoral, yet inevitable ; is not this rather an argument 
 for excluding it from a sphere where it is not inevitable ? 
 Because immorality must exist among men, therefore 
 train boys to it ! This is a Spencerian conception : 
 Train up a boy, in short, in the way of immorality, that 
 when he is old he may not depart from it. A singular 
 argument truly, only needing to be stated to furnish its 
 own refutation. 
 
 A master's business, then, is to foster pure emula- 
 tion, and to check all the spurious forms of it ; and to 
 foster it in all his pupils, not simply in two or three, 
 letting all feel that they have obtained his approbation 
 when they have done their best, though that best be 
 far short of what others can do. 
 
154 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 Now what practical conclusions do we draw from all 
 this ? The following : 
 
 1. The work of a class should be well within the 
 capacity of all in that class, so that each, by doing his 
 best, may be held to have attained excellence as regards 
 his moral conduct, and, along with this, full recog- 
 nition of his intellectual attainment whatever that 
 may be. 
 
 2. Recognition, both moral and intellectual, is not 
 for a few but for all. Like the offer of salvation, I 
 repeat, it is for all, and each must feel that if he do not 
 accept the offer he has himself alone to blame. 
 
 3. Place-taking, therefore, and prizes should be 
 abolished, and a certificate or card given to each, which 
 should recognise his merits. The master will then feel 
 that his grandest achievement will be, not to have one 
 clever dux to be entered for the Oxford or Cambridge 
 " Derby" and advertised in the newspapers if successful; 
 but to have the whole class duxes. I do not mean to 
 denounce place-taking altogether in the case of young 
 pupils, so long as it does not become an instrument for 
 estimating merit. It keeps a class lively; but the 
 numerical results should tell on the position of each 
 boy only to the extent of ten per cent, of the total 
 marks obtainable in other ways. 
 
 I can scarcely recommend the introduction into 
 such certificates of a moral scale, because of the impos- 
 sibility of always measuring motive, and consequently 
 the probability of doing irreparable harm by an unjust 
 judgment. But it would be quite safe to say that a 
 boy's general conduct had been "unsatisfactory," "satis- 
 factory," and " very satisfactory," without using the 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 155 
 
 moral epithets "good," or "very good," or "bad.'* 
 There is some danger in the too free use of these terms. 
 As to the intellectual progress, this can be measured by- 
 giving to each his due percentage. The theory here is 
 that all, and not merely one, may have 100 per cent. 
 This practically, of course, is impossible ; but all may 
 play the game. The fixing of definite percentages, 
 however, such as 90 and 91 per cent., is apt to restore 
 competition and all its evils. The best plan is to give 
 all above 75 per cent, a first-class, all from 50 to 75 a 
 second-class, and all below this a third-class, no ticket 
 at all being given when a boy falls below say 40 per 
 cent. If a master can issue first-class certificates to 
 twenty boys in a class of tAventy, he has thus twenty 
 duxes, and has attained the greatest triumph which it 
 is possible for him as a teacher to attain, so far as mere 
 instruction goes. 
 
 In granting certificates, as indeed in all matters 
 that concern our relation to boys, where there is a doubt, 
 give the boys the benefit of it. You can only do good 
 by so doing. 
 
 I freely admit that such arrangements as I have 
 indicated put a moral as well as an intellectual strain 
 on the master. But he exists to endure this. His 
 high position in the State cannot be discharged on 
 easier terms. A teacher who accepts his whole educa- 
 tional responsibilities, is the most important social 
 worker we have. He has no slight task to perform ; 
 but if he performs it well, he ought to be a happy man, 
 for to him, I think, it has been given to do more for 
 humanity, in his day and generation, than to any other, 
 if we except those men who, by dint of surpassing 
 
156 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 genius, solve the problems or elevate the thought and 
 life of the race. 
 
 (6) QUALIFYING EXAMINATIONS. Passing from 
 Class Examinations, I might take as an illustration of 
 qualifying examinations, school " leaving-certificates ;" 
 but I prefer to go at once to the universities, and take 
 the leaving-certificate of these institutions, which we 
 call by the traditionary name Master of Arts. A 
 Diploma in Arts is merely a certificate that a young 
 man has carried his school work into a higher sphere, 
 the sphere of ideas, that is to say, of literature, of 
 criticism, and science, has spent a certain number of 
 years in contact with confessed masters in certain de- 
 partments of thought, arid has received in this way such 
 an amount of discipline and of substantial knowledge as 
 entitles him to be regarded as an educated man, and 
 qualifies him to prosecute study in any specific line. 
 More than this it is not ; less than this it ought not to 
 be. The M.A. pass of an university does not proclaim 
 that the holder is an expert in anything ; all it does is 
 to guarantee the liberal culture of a youth. It is the 
 business of our university authorities to see that it does 
 this. If they do not see to this, they fail in their duty 
 to the State. 
 
 Since the M.A. examination is a qualifying exami- 
 nation merely, competition is entirely out of place. All 
 the successful candidates should be arranged in alpha- 
 betical order. And this should be done, I hold, for the 
 very purpose, among others, of preventing overstraining, 
 and ensuring that calm of mind which alone favours 
 true educational growth at the critical period of life 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 157 
 
 from seventeen to twenty-one. Mutual converse, col- 
 lision of mind with mind, much use of the library under 
 the guidance of professors who can point out the right 
 books to read, and who present to the student the 
 history of thought and its present position (each in his 
 own department), such are the true educational in- 
 fluences of an university. The leaving-certificate or 
 diploma should simply testify that a man has undergone 
 this process of education, very largely a process of self- 
 education under guidance. The examiners can ascertain 
 this only by making sure that due attendance has 
 been given, and that the students, as the outcome of 
 the whole, have a power or "faculty" of doing certain 
 things, translating into and from a foreign tongue, 
 solving questions in mathematics, logic or science, 
 writing historical accounts and criticisms. The stan- 
 dard set up must always be a moderate standard, but 
 great care should be taken that it truly testifies to 
 genuine knowledge and power within the limits fixed. 
 If the standard were not a moderate one, it would 
 defeat the true process of education, which is a calm 
 and leisurely process. Time is an important factor. 
 A youth entering the university properly prepared by 
 the secondary school should have no difficulty in meeting 
 all reasonable requirements in three years, if he pro- 
 ceeds " without haste," but also " without rest." The 
 results of examination being arranged alphabetically, 
 there is an absence of competition there is not even 
 rivalry. Why should there be ? That we find it neces- 
 sary even to ask such a question reveals that we are 
 already de-moralised. 
 
 I drew certain practical conclusions for the school. 
 
158 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 What, then, are our practical conclusions for the univer- 
 sity, with a view to our giving effect to the proper mode 
 of conducting qualifying examinations ? These, and 
 they are all for the examiners, are 
 
 1. The object of a pass or qualifying examination 
 should be to ascertain how much a man knows of his 
 subject, and not his ignorance of this or that : therefore 
 the paper should always contain at least one-third more 
 questions than he is allowed to answer. 
 
 2. The questions should always turn on the impor- 
 tant parts of the subject, those parts which involve 
 principles or methods of working, and avoid hole-and- 
 corner details. Some papers seem to be drawn up for 
 the mere purpose of plucking; all pass papers should 
 be drawn up for the purpose of passing the candidates 
 if possible. An examiner on the English language who 
 should take Murray's Dictionary and extract unusual 
 words in order to pose his candidates would proclaim 
 his own unfitness for his position. But absurdities as 
 great as this are constantly committed, especially in 
 geography and history and literature ; and I believe 
 also in the sciences. 
 
 3. Questions should not be put which a candidate 
 may be unable to answer and yet know the subject on 
 which he is examined. 
 
 4. Abundance of time should be given. The best 
 intellect is not always the quickest. Indeed the original 
 and productive mind is (I suspect), generally, a delibe- 
 rate, if not a slow, mind. 
 
 5. The questions should be as much as possible 
 such as test the pupil's mental power in specific relation 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 159 
 
 to the subject of examination rather than his know- 
 ledge. If the subject is Aristotle, questions might be 
 so framed as to pluck Aristotle himself, and a Chinaman 
 could do it. If the subject be the interpretation of 
 Robert Browning, anybody could pluck him on his own 
 works. 
 
 6. Finally, there should be taken into consideration 
 the report of each professor under whom the candidate 
 has studied, who should be required to say whether 
 the candidate had received a pass-certificate in his 
 class. 
 
 In short, the educational and educative should be 
 kept in view in examining no less than in teaching, for 
 the examination always tends to govern the teaching. 
 We need to study in ^ these days the art of examining 
 as a subsidiary to the art of education. Let examiners 
 study the question, and themselves be examined on the 
 art of examining. 
 
 Dr Fitch, in his excellent " Lectures on Teaching," 
 has a very good chapter on the subject. He says truly, 
 but with great naivete, that the chief evils of the exami- 
 nation system will be obviated if the teacher does not 
 teach for the examination specially, if the previous 
 questions of the examiners are not studied, and so 
 forth ; in brief, if neither teachers nor learners allow the 
 coming examination to dominate their work. Now all 
 these advices are perfectly vain so long as a teacher's 
 credit and a pupil's success in life depend on the result. 
 You will not convince either the one or the other that, 
 if they have to run a race to reach a certain goal, the 
 shortest line between two points is not the straight one. 
 No ; the only cure is in the principles that regulate an 
 
160 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 examination, in the character of the examiner and his 
 mode of discharging his duty. 
 
 My remarks hitherto have had in view not the 
 evasion of examinations, but the possibility of so tem- 
 pering and adjusting them that they will not govern 
 the education given, but, on the contrary, be deter- 
 mined by the education, adapted to it, and, as essential 
 to this result, exclude the element of competition. I 
 have pointed out that the knowledge which a pupil has 
 of a subject can be ascertained only by ascertaining 
 what he can do in it his faculty relatively to it. 
 But there are educational results, and those often of 
 a delicate and rare kind, which the mere rough test- 
 ing of faculty must always leave out of account. It is 
 too coarse a measure. How are these to be gauged by 
 an examiner ? In three ways : (1) By studying the in- 
 struction-plan, the organization and the aim of a school 
 as an educational unity. (2) By hearing the master 
 teach and estimating his method of procedure in its 
 disciplinary, refining and enriching influence on a boy's 
 mind. (3) By the general impression which the boys 
 make on him as active intelligences and moralized 
 beings. 
 
 These functions of an examiner are not to be re- 
 stricted to secondary and university schools alone; they 
 apply equally to primary schools and indicate at least 
 one-half of the work of a Government Inspector. The 
 other half is, of course, the testing of faculty. Imperial 
 grants should be paid on the basis of the first and higher 
 half of the Inspector's duty, provided always that not 
 more than a certain percentage of the pupils who had 
 completed their attendances fail when tested as to their 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 161 
 
 faculty in this or that. All possibility of undue pres- 
 sure on pupils or masters disappears the moment we 
 give effect to educational ideas in the inspection of 
 education. 
 
 In granting leaving-certificates in Secondary schools 
 also, regard should be had to the three higher tests 
 given above; for a leaving-certificate, properly under- 
 stood, is not merely a certificate that a boy has fulfilled 
 a prescribed test as to ' faculties ', but it also guarantees 
 that he has passed through an organized curriculum of 
 instruction, has been taught according to sound methods 
 and has thereby obtained such an amount of discipline 
 and training as fit him for the work of life or for the 
 university. 
 
 (c) HONOURS AND COMPETITION EXAMINATIONS. 
 We have been speaking of class or teaching examina- 
 tions and of pass or qualifying examinations ; what now 
 shall we say of Honours examinations ? These should 
 exist, I think, only for men who mean to be experts in 
 a department, and devote their lives to it. They have, 
 in fact, a professional character, just as the M.B., or 
 B.D., or LL.B. has. After a certain amount of general 
 and liberal study, a youth must be allowed to spe- 
 cialise with a view to his future life-work. But there 
 need be no competition when his competency comes to 
 l>e tested : a standard has to be reached, and the notice- 
 paper should give the results alphabetically. I doubt 
 very much if there should be a second class in the 
 honours or professional schools certainly not more 
 than two classes. The aspirants should pass simply, or 
 " with distinction." You see I am keeping in view the 
 
 L. L. 11 
 
162 EXAMINATIONS, EMULATION, [LECT. 
 
 moral influence of pressure, haste and competition on 
 true intellectual development. What is morally hurtful 
 must also be intellectually hurtful. 
 
 In the preceding remarks most of the ground has 
 been traversed, and we are now in a position to ask, 
 Where, then, does competition or personal antagonism 
 inevitably come in ? Only when there is money or 
 a situation to be got, a limited number of rewards or 
 places for an unlimited number of candidates: and 
 here jealousy, envy &c. have no place for obvious- 
 reasons. Scholarships, Fellowships, State appoint- 
 ments, necessitate competition. Unquestionably within 
 this hot and steamy atmosphere we are not in the at- 
 mosphere of liberal education ; that at least is certain. 
 We are conquered by the Chinese idea. China is called 
 the flowery land ; but where in it are the flower and fruit 
 of true culture ? All that can be said on competitive 
 examinations, by way of practical guidance, is that in 
 competitions the same leading principle should guide 
 the Examiner as in qualifying and honours examina- 
 tions. His business is to devise such a paper in his 
 subject as shall bring to the front the youth of native 
 capacity and not the youth distinguished for his repro- 
 ductive facility. It is a difficult thing to draw up such 
 papers. So far as my observation goes, much more 
 consideration and time should be given to the drafting 
 of papers and the examination of answers than is com- 
 monly given. I cannot think that rapidity of working 
 should ever be a factor in determining results in com- 
 petition examinations assuredly never in the highest 
 kind of examinations such as those for Fellowships or 
 
VIII.] AND COMPETITION. 163 
 
 Indian appointments. The quick and ready wit and 
 the facile pen do not necessarily indicate great mental 
 capacity, and it is the capable man we desire to select 
 for honour and place. 
 
 I do not on this occasion, touch the further question 
 as to the relative value of subjects in competitive 
 examinations : a very important question in itself and 
 also because it determines the lines on which the higher 
 education of the country will run. I would only here 
 say that the subjects which are held to be most truly 
 educative in their character should also, as a general 
 rule, be those which are employed for the discovery 
 of the highest capacity for the public service. Educa- 
 tional ideas will thus govern, and not obey. 
 
 112 
 
IX. 
 
 JOHN MILTON 1 . 
 
 WHEN we reflect that Milton was not only a Great 
 Poet one of the greatest but also the most learned 
 and accomplished man of his time, we naturally approach 
 his Tractate with profound respect and in the anticipa- 
 tion of much instruction. Our expectations, it must be 
 confessed, are at first disappointed. For we are entitled 
 to expect not only philosophic grasp but also practical 
 guidance from a man of genius who happened to be also 
 himself a teacher and for a long time kept a boys' school 
 in Aldersgate Street. On a closer acquaintance with the 
 book, however, our disappointment gives place to admi- 
 ration and gratitude. 
 
 Rabelais and Montaigne had first moved in the 
 direction of the realistic in education, but by the real, 
 Montaigne meant studying what was said by eminent 
 writers as opposed to mere words and grammatical 
 rules. He held that the languages might be taught as 
 they were taught to himself, conversationally and that 
 
 1 Born 1608 : died 1674. Tractate on Education published in 1644 
 and a second edition 1673 at the end of the second edition of the minor 
 poems. 
 
LECT. IX.] JOHN MILTON. 165 
 
 the true end of education was not learning, in the 
 linguistic, or any other, sense ; but Wisdom. 
 
 Milton also, nearly 100 years after, wrote in the 
 same sense, but he was largely influenced by the educa- 
 tional movements which had preceded him under Ratke 
 and which were even then represented by Comenius. 
 He directly refers indeed to Comenius' works in a 
 somewhat sneering way in the beginning of his Tractate. 
 " To tell you," he says, " what I have benefited herein 
 among old renowned authors, I shall spare; and to 
 search what many modern Janua's and Didactics, more 
 than ever I shall read, have projected, my inclination 
 leads me not." The reference is manifestly to Comenius' 
 " Janua Linguarum Reserata " and to the " Magna 
 Didactica," in which Comenius lays down his princi- 
 ples ; or it may be to the Didactics of Ratke. But no 
 man, not even a Milton, however he may ignore the 
 originators of ideas, can keep himself outside the in- 
 fluence of the ideas themselves, if they are in the air. 
 
 Let us first of all bear in mind that Milton's Treatise 
 is only a very condensed and brief statement, written 
 at the request of his friend Hartlib, the devoted follower 
 of Comenius, and that it reads more like a summary of 
 opinions to be afterwards elaborated than a complete 
 treatise. It is because of the almost negligent structure 
 of the Essay and the condensed and pregnant character 
 of the style "a few observations which have flower'd 
 off and are as it were the burnishing of many studious 
 and contemplative years " that it demands close atten- 
 tion if it is to be thoroughly appreciated. 
 
 Milton was a Realist and Encyclopaedist like Come- 
 nius, but in some respects different. For he was a 
 
166 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 realist who sought the study of reality in the ancients, 
 whereas Comenius sought for the study of reality as 
 modern science presented it, including the ancients, or 
 abridgements of their works, only in so far as they were 
 necessary and accessory. In another essential respect 
 Milton differed from Comenius. He had not in view 
 the education of the people as a whole. He thought 
 only of the few " our nobler and our gentle youth " 
 those who had time for prolonged study. 
 
 Both writers, however, were alike in disregarding 
 mere words language and literary expression as in 
 themselves containing the elements of knowledge and 
 discipline during the juvenile period of education. 
 
 Oratory, poetry all art in language were certainly 
 recognized by both (as they are by all realists whom it 
 is worth our while to consider), but only as the ornament 
 and finish of education and as belonging to the period 
 of adolescence. The peculiar discipline of mind given 
 by the comparison of a modern with an ancient tongue 
 is not even alluded to by either Milton or Comenius. 
 This was largely due to the prevalent method or no- 
 method of teaching which justified Milton in calling the 
 studies of schools and universities " an asinine feast of 
 sow-thistles and brambles," and again, " meer words or 
 such things chiefly as were better unlearnt." 
 
 THE END OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Milton's first proposition is thus laid down : 
 " The end then of Learning is to repair the mines of 
 our first Parents by regaining to know God aright, and 
 out of that knowledge to love him, to imitate him, to be 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 167 
 
 like him, as we may the neerest by possessing our souls 
 of true vertue, which being united to the heavenly 
 grace of faith makes up the highest perfection. But 
 because our understanding cannot in this body found 
 it self but on sensible things, nor arrive so clearly to the 
 knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly 
 conning over the visible and inferior creature, the same 
 method is necessarily to be follow'd in all discreet 
 teaching. And seeing every Nation affords not experi- 
 ence and tradition enough for all kind of Learning, 
 therefore we are chiefly taught the Languages of those 
 people who have at any time been most industrious 
 after Wisdom ; so that Language is but the Instrument 
 conveying to us things usefull to be known. And though 
 a Linguist should pride himself to have all the Tongues 
 that Babel cleft the world into, yet, if he have not 
 studied the solid things in them as well as the Words 
 & Lexicons, he were nothing so much to be esteem'd a 
 learned man, as any Yeoman or Tradesman competently 
 wise in his Mother Dialect only." 
 
 Now in this passage we have several propositions 
 which it is worth our while to disentangle that we 
 may clearly comprehend Milton's view of the End of 
 Education. 
 
 1. The aim of Education is the knowledge of God 
 and likeness to God. 
 
 2. Likeness to God we attain by possessing our 
 souls of true Virtue and by the Heavenly Grace of 
 Faith. 
 
 3. Knowledge of God we attain by the study of 
 the visible things of God. 
 
 4 Teaching then, has for its aim this knowledge. 
 
168 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 5. Language is merely an instrument or vehicle 
 for the knowledge of things. 
 
 6. The knowledge of all the languages in the 
 world, without a knowledge of the solid things regarding 
 which they treat, leaves a man less " learned " than any 
 farmer or tradesman who knows only his own vernacular, 
 but, in and through that, has a competent knowledge 
 of things. 
 
 Milton also tells us in another part of his Essay 
 that he considers that to be " a compleat and generous 
 education which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully 
 and magnanimously all the offices, both private and 
 public of Peace and War." With this large and noble 
 aim all will heartily concur. But we cannot pass with- 
 out remark the assumption contained in the larger 
 statement of the aim of education. We do not admit 
 that the knowledge of language is not a knowledge of 
 things. We would, on the contrary, maintain that 
 language, apart from the general argumentum of a 
 writer, is a thing a thing intellectual and a thing 
 moral. And further in these days, when language 
 extends itself into the science of comparative philology, 
 it is also a thing scientific. 
 
 I shall not dwell on this however, because I wish 
 rather to expound Milton's views than to criticize 
 them. It is enough that I emphasize the above aspect 
 of Milton's doctrine as it is with him fundamental and 
 explains much that follows. 
 
 Too much time, he says, is spent in acquiring a 
 knowledge of Greek and Latin. We spend seven or 
 eight years in acquiring what might be acquired in one 
 especially if we would stop the absurd practice of 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 169 
 
 "forcing the empty wits of children to write Theains, 
 Verses and Orations which are the acts of ripest judg- 
 ment and the final work of a head fill'd by long reading 
 and observing." Another objection to the practice is 
 that the boys are under the necessity of " using such 
 language as they have, thus barbarizing against the 
 Latin and Greek Idiom with their untutored Anglicisms 
 odious to be read." 
 
 We may now pass from the general aim of education 
 to the detail of Milton's scheme merely premising that 
 he had in view boys from 12 to 21 years of age, that is 
 to say the secondary and university periods of instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 THE MATERIALS AND ORDER OF EDUCATION. 
 Secondary School Stage. 
 
 Milton's opinion is that after the boys have acquired 
 the accidence and the " chief and necessary rules " they 
 should have " some chosen short book lessoned tho- 
 roughly to them," with a view to praxis of the acci- 
 dence and syntax. Arithmetic and Geometry are to be 
 learned at " some other hour of the day even playing 
 as the old manner was." 
 
 The pupils, now we may presume thirteen years 
 old, were next immediately to proceed to the study of 
 things in Latin and Greek Authors, and they would thus 
 "bring the whole language quickly into their power." 
 This he considered to be " the most rational and most 
 
170 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 profitable way of learning languages and whereby we 
 may best hope to give account bo God of our youth 
 spent herein." 
 
 The things to be studied first and for long are 
 sensible things and not abstractions. We learn from 
 Phillips who was a pupil of Milton's at Aldersgate 
 Street the names of the books which Milton made 
 use of in teaching with a view to give instruction 
 at once in language and in language through things, 
 viz. in Latin : 
 
 The work of CATO MAJOR de Re Rustica the only 
 work of Cato's which has come down to us. 
 
 Columellas 12 books on the same subject. 
 
 Varro [of course De Re Rustica]. 
 
 Palladius, also an agricultural writer very popular 
 in the middle ages. This treatise is in 14 books mostly 
 in the form of a farmer's Calendar. 
 
 Celsus on Medicine. 
 
 Pliny s Natural History. 
 
 Vitruvius on Architecture. 
 
 Frontinus on Strategy. (Four books.) - 
 
 Lucretius's Philosophical poem de Rerum Natura. 
 
 Manilius, a writer of a poem on Astrology and 
 Astronomy. (Astronomica 5 books.) 
 
 In Greek : 
 
 Aratus : who wrote two astronomical poems very 
 popular among the ancients. 
 
 Dionysius, commonly called Periegetes, who wrote a 
 description of the earth in hexameters. 
 
 Oppian, who wrote on fishing and hunting. 
 
 Apollonius Rhodius, whose Argonautica gives a 
 description of the adventures of the Argonauts. 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 171 
 
 Quintus Calaber, author of a Greek epic poem on 
 the Trojan war. 
 
 Plutarch (apparently some of the Moral writings ?). 
 
 Geminus who wrote on Astronomy. 
 
 JElian, on Tactics. 
 
 Xenophons Anabasis and Cyropaedia. 
 
 The substantial correctness of the record made by 
 Phillips is guaranteed by the list of books which Milton 
 himself recommends in his treatise, though he omits 
 some of the above books, and adds others. Among 
 those named by Milton and omitted by Phillips are the 
 rural parts of Virgil, Hesiod, Theocritus: also Seneca's 
 Quaestiones Naturales. Milton also names for ethical, 
 philosophical and political teaching, the moral works of 
 Plato, Xenophon, Aristotle, Cicero and the Greek poets. 
 
 Now, if we attempt to arrange the course of study, 
 following such slight indications as are given by Milton, 
 we find that after the initiatory year's work already 
 adverted to (substantially grammatical), the books first 
 to be studied are the writers on agriculture, Cato, 
 Columella, and Varro. These will give the pupils com- 
 mand of all ordinary prose. After reading these books, 
 they should study in some modern author "the use of 
 the globes and all the maps." Concurrently with this, 
 Greek would be begun after the same fashion as Latin, 
 and the pupil be introduced to Aristotle's physical 
 works and the history of plants by Theophrastus. To 
 help in these studies in so far as they were of a 
 practical kind, all sorts of mechanical teachers might be 
 employed such as hunters, fowlers, fishermen, archi- 
 tects, engineers, etc., in a subordinate capacity either 
 giving their services gratuitously or for a salary. This 
 
172 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 course of study would bring the pupil to the age of 
 about 17 I should say. 
 
 The pupils would now proceed to Latin and Greek 
 authors on Astronomy and Geometry and proceed to 
 the study of Trigonometry, Engineering, Fortification, 
 Navigation. A compendium of Physics would be here 
 introduced and natural history, and even Anatomy and 
 Medicine (within certain limits) studied. Milton's 
 scheme of secondary education (in so far as it has 
 reference to the intellect) is thus at once realistic, 
 encyclopaedic and technical. 
 
 University Stage. 
 
 The above studies could not possibly be com- 
 pleted until the pupils were at least 18 years of age 
 the university age, as we may call it. It is at this age 
 that the purely literary, political, theological and 
 philosophical course would, according to Milton's 
 scheme, begin. The literary, by the reading of the 
 moral parts of Plato, Cicero, Xenophon, some Greek, 
 Latin or Italian comedies, and those tragedies which 
 " treat of household matters, as the Trachinise, Alcestis 
 and the like." Then would come the study of Politics, 
 " that they might know the beginning, end and reasons 
 of Political Societies ; that they may not in a 
 dangerous fit of the Commonwealth be such poor, 
 shaken, uncertain Reeds, of such a tottering Conscience 
 as many of our great Counsellors have lately shewn 
 themselves, but stedfast pillars of the State." Next 
 they would study Law in its grounds and practice 
 including Roman Law, and the Common and Statutory 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 173 
 
 Law of England, and concurrently with this, on Sundays 
 and in the evening of each day, the high matters of 
 theology and Church History ancient and modern, " the 
 Hebrew tongue having been already acquired " at a set 
 hour " so that the Scriptures might be read " in their 
 own original." 
 
 It is only after these " employments are well con- 
 quered," and consequently not sooner than the 20th 
 year (I presume), that the youth is admitted to a 
 purely literary course. This is to consist of choice 
 histories, heroic poems, Attic tragedies and all the 
 famous political orations, "which, if they were not 
 only read but some of them got by memory and 
 solemnly pronounc't with right accent and grace (as 
 might be taught) would endue them ever with the 
 spirit and vigour of Demosthenes or Cicero, Euripides 
 or Sophocles." 
 
 Last of all that is to say in the 21st year might 
 be studied the "organic Arts," viz. Logic, Rhetoric, 
 Poetry as these are to be found treated by Aristotle, 
 Plato and others. " This " he says " would make them 
 soon perceive what despicable creatures our common 
 Rimers and play- writers be ; and show them what 
 religious, what glorious and magnificent use might be 
 made of poetry both in divine and humane things." 
 
 This large curriculum would be concluded by lite- 
 rary compositions " in every excellent matter." " When 
 fraught with an universal insight into things " will be 
 the right season, Milton says, to form them into able 
 writers. "Then," he goes on, "whether they be to 
 speak in Parliament or counsel, honour and attention 
 would be waiting on their lips. There would then 
 
174 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 also appear in pulpits other visages, other gestures 
 and stuff otherwise wrought, than what we now sit 
 under, oft-times to as great a trial of our patience as 
 any other that they preach to us." " These," he cries 
 out, "be the studies in which our noble and our gentle 
 youth ought to bestow their time in a disciplinary way 
 from twelve to one and twenty unless they rely more 
 on their ancestors dead than on themselves living." 
 
 Milton's University curriculum no less than his 
 secondary, is, thus, in the fullest sense encyclopaedic. 
 It is also (except in the last year) realistic, not now 
 the realism of nature-studies alone, but the realism 
 which looks to the substance rather than the form of 
 things taught. 
 
 GYMNASTIC. 
 
 " I call a complete and generous education," he says, 
 " that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully and 
 magnanimously all the offices, both private and public, 
 of peace and war" The course of discipline which he 
 has as yet sketched out, however, would prepare only 
 for the offices of peace ; and he accordingly now 
 proceeds to deal with gymnastic "the exercises and 
 recreations " that best agree and become these studies. 
 The day should be divided into three parts devoted 
 respectively to studies, exercise and diet. 
 
 An hour and a half before they eat at noon, is to be 
 allowed the youths for exercise and due rest afterwards ; 
 the time for this being extended according as they rise 
 early. Their exercises should be fencing and wrestling 
 " to keep them healthy, nimble and strong and well in 
 breath." " It is also the likeliest means to make them 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 175 
 
 grow large and tall and to inspire them with a gallant 
 and fearless courage " ; which he adds " being tempered 
 with seasonable lectures and precepts to them of true 
 Fortitude and Patience will turn into a native and 
 heroick valour and make them hate the cowardise of 
 doing wrong." 
 
 With gymnastic should be combined military ex- 
 ercises. " About two hours before supper, they are by 
 a sudden alarum or watch word, to be call'd out to 
 their military motions, under skie or covert, according 
 to the season, as was the Roman wont: first on foot, 
 then as their age permits, on Horseback, to all the Art 
 of Cavalry; That having in sport, but with much 
 exactness, and daily muster, serv'd out the rudiments of 
 their Souldiership in all the skill of Embattelling, 
 Marching, Encamping, Fortifying, Besieging and Bat- 
 tering, with all the helps of ancient and modern 
 stratagems, Tacticks and warlike maxims, they may as 
 it were out of a long War come forth renowned and 
 perfect Commanders in the service of their Country." 
 
 In this way the " Institution of breeding " which he 
 " delineates " shall " be equally good both for Peace and 
 War." 
 
 As to relaxation from study and recreation, he would, 
 after the grounds have been well laid in the first two or 
 three years, give a holiday in Spring. He says beauti- 
 fully, " In those vernal seasons of the year when the air 
 is calm and pleasant, it were an injury and sullenness 
 against nature not to go out and see her riches, and 
 partake of her rejoycing with Heaven and Earth." But 
 even this holiday he would turn to educative uses. 
 He would have the youths ride out in companies under 
 
176 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 proper superintendence, to all quarters of the land, 
 learning all places of strength and studying the places 
 most suitable for harbours, ports and industries. Some- 
 times he would have them take to sea, and visit the 
 navy to learn there something of naval tactics, " These 
 ways would try all their peculiar gifts of nature and if 
 there were any secret excellence among them would 
 fetch it out and give it fair opportunities to advance 
 itself by, which could not but mightily redound to the 
 good of this nation and bring into fashion again those 
 old admired vertues and excellencies, with far more 
 advantage now in this purity of Christian Knowledge." 
 
 MORAL, RELIGIOUS AND AESTHETIC TRAINING. 
 
 The moral instruction should be direct as well as 
 indirect. In addition to the study of Scripture pro- 
 secuted chiefly in the evening, Cebes 1 and Plutarch in 
 Greek and Quintilian in Latin should be studied in con- 
 nexion with this reading ; but here " the main skill and 
 groundwork will be to temper them such lectures and 
 explanations upon every opportunity as may lead and 
 draw them in willing obedience, enflamed with the 
 study of Learning and admiration of Vertue ; stirr'd up 
 with high hopes of living to be brave men and worthy 
 
 Patriots, dear to God and famous to all ages infusing 
 
 into their young breasts such an ingenious and noble 
 ardor as would not fail to make many of them renowned 
 and matchless men." 
 
 1 Tabula (a board hence picture) Cebetis : a philosophical ex- 
 planation of a picture (said to be hung in the Temple of Cronos 
 in Athens or Thebes) symbolically representing human life, written 
 by Cebes (?), a pupil of Sokrates, very popular in ancient times. 
 Sometimes it has been bound up with the Enchiridion of Epictetus. 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 177 
 
 Chiefly, however, the example of their master was to 
 influence them. At a more advanced stage when they 
 have been prepared by "years and good general pre- 
 cepts" they will require "a special reinforcement of 
 constant and sound endoctrinating to set them right 
 and firm, instructing them more amply in the knowledge 
 of Vertue and the hatred of Vice : " " Their young and 
 pliant affections" should with this view be led through 
 all the moral works of Plato and Xenophon, Cicero, 
 Plutarch &c., they will thus be perfected in the " know- 
 ledge of personal duty " and thereafter proceed to the 
 study of Economics. Each day's work is to be closed 
 with the study of the Bible. 
 
 Aesthetic : Milton attaches importance to music as 
 an educational agency, but he would teach it as a 
 relief from other studies and from gymnastic; "The 
 interim," he says, " of unsweating themselves regularly, 
 and convenient rest before meat may both with profit 
 and delight be taken up in recreating and composing 
 their travail'd spirits with the solemn and divine har- 
 monies of Musick heard or learnt; either while the 
 skilful Organist plies his grave and fancied descant, in 
 lofty fugues, or the whole Symphony with artful and 
 unimaginable touches adorn and grace the well studied 
 chords of some choice Composer, sometimes the Lute, 
 or soft Organ stop waiting on elegant Voices either to 
 Religious, martial, or civil Ditties ; which if wise men 
 and Prophets be not extreamly out, have a great power 
 over dispositions and manners, to smooth and make 
 them gentle from rustick harshness and distemper'd 
 passions. The like also would not be unexpedient 
 after Meat to assist and cherish Nature in her first 
 L. L. 12 
 
178 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 concoction, and send their minds back to study in good 
 tune and satisfaction." 
 
 Of Discipline in the vulgar school sense Milton says 
 little. He believes evidently that the course of daily life 
 which he delineates will be so attractive to boys as to 
 make this superfluous : for, speaking of his own scheme 
 he says, I will " strait conduct ye to a hill side, where I 
 will point ye out the right path of a vertuous and 
 noble Education; laborious indeed at the first ascent, 
 but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospect, 
 and melodious sounds on every side, that the Harp of 
 Orpheus was not more charming. T doubt not but ye 
 shall have more adoe to drive our dullest and laziest 
 youth, our stocks and stubbs from the infinite desire of 
 such a happy nurture, then we have now to hale and 
 drag our choicest and hopefullest Wits to that asinine 
 feast of sowthistles and brambles which is commonly 
 set before them, as all the food and entertainment of 
 their tenderest and most docible age." 
 
 Elsewhere he suggests, but only in a remote and 
 incidental way, coercion ; for if " mild and effectual 
 perswasions" and the teacher's own example fail to 
 gain them (as he thinks they will) to an "incredible 
 diligence," there may be " an intimation of some fear, 
 if need be." One would like to know what Milton's 
 own practice as a teacher was. We can imagine that 
 sheer stupidity would not so much irritate him as make 
 him indignant. If he vented his indignation in words 
 the poor boy would be in a pitiable plight under the 
 torrent of vigorous vituperation of which Milton was a 
 master. It is not a violent supposition that a Lexicon 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 179 
 
 might sometimes hurtle through the air the objective 
 point being some crass skull. In any case we may be 
 sure that the schoolroom 'scene' would be enacted 
 after the grand manner of the demigods and would, 
 doubtless, have its educative uses. 
 
 As to travel; Milton would postpone this till the 
 youths were three or four and twenty. They would then 
 go, "not to learn principles but to enlarge experience and 
 make wise observation ; " and as already cultivated men 
 they would be well received by foreigners of eminence. 
 
 School Buildings and Apparatus. To carry out his 
 scheme of Education Milton proposes that a " spacious 
 house and ground around it fit for an Academy and big 
 enough to lodge 150 persons" should be secured and 
 placed under the government of one Head. This place 
 should be at once school and University, " not making 
 a remove to any other House of Scholarship " except 
 in the case of those who desired to continue their studies 
 in the specific faculties of Law and Physic with a view 
 to being practitioners. Several such institutions ought 
 to be founded throughout the country. 
 
 The reader of the Tractate will notice that every 
 recommendation made by Milton is accompanied with 
 a fierce, but wonderfully eloquent, attack on the then 
 existing school practice, or on the melancholy results 
 of that defective practice in every department Social 
 Life, Letters, Preaching, Politics, Administration and 
 the Military Art. There is much in these passages 
 that recals Carlyle. Some of them I have already 
 quoted and I shall here conclude my exposition with 
 his invective on Universities "And for the usual 
 
 122 
 
180 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 method of teaching Arts, I deem it to be an old errour 
 of Universities not yet well recover'd from the Scho- 
 lastick grossness of barbarous ages, that in stead of 
 beginning with Arts most easie, and those be such 
 as are most obvious to the sence, they present their 
 young unmatriculated Novices at first comming with 
 the most intellective abstractions of Logick and Meta- 
 physicks; So that they having but newly left those 
 Grammatick flats and shallows where they stuck un- 
 reasonably to learn a few words with lamentable con- 
 struction, and now on the sudden transported under 
 another climate to be tost and turmoil'd with their 
 unballasted wits in fadomless and unquiet deeps of 
 controversie, do for the most part grow into hatred and 
 contempt of Learning, mockt and deluded all this while 
 with ragged Notions and Babblements, while they ex- 
 pected worthy and delightful knowledge; till poverty 
 or youthful years call them importunately their several 
 wayes, and hasten them with the sway of friends either 
 to an ambitious and mercenary, or ignorantly zealous 
 Divinity ; Some allur'd to the trade of Law, grounding 
 their purposes not on the prudent and heavenly con- 
 templation of justice and equity which was never 
 taught them, but on the promising and pleasing 
 thoughts of litigious terms, fat contentions, and flowing 
 fees ; others betake them to Sjate affairs, with souls so 
 unprincipl'd in vertue, and true generous breeding, that 
 flattery, and Court shifts and tyrannous Aphorisms 
 appear to them the highest points of wisdom ; instilling 
 their barren hearts with a conscientious slavery, if, as I 
 rather think, it be not fain'd. Others lastly of a more 
 delicious and airie spirit, retire themselves knowing no 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 181 
 
 better, to the enjoyments of ease and luxury, living out 
 their daies in feast and jollity ; which indeed is the 
 wisest and the safest course of all these, unless they 
 were with more integrity undertaken. And these are 
 the fruits of mispending our prime youth at the Schools 
 and Universities as we do, either in learning meer 
 words or such things chiefly, as were better unlearnt." 
 
 By way of criticism ; I would first take exception 
 to Milton's proposal to institute isolated boy colonies. 
 To shut up 150 youths from the age of 12 to 21 
 and put them through a severe curriculum of study 
 is, altogether apart from the scheme of study which 
 may be adopted, a proposal fundamentally unsound. 
 Boys, like men, learn by contact with the world as it 
 is, and in their own families they acquire that kind of 
 intellectual and moral training which prepares them 
 best for the world we live in. Milton's scheme has 
 most of the disadvantages that attend monastic life and 
 is an exaggeration of the English Public School system 
 from which even Sparta would have shrunk. 
 
 The rigid system of intellectual and physical disci- 
 pline to be carried out in these prison-houses is to 
 be condemned. Neither mind, nor body, can grow 
 to its best if it is always laced tight and dressed in 
 regimentals. 
 
 A second obvious criticism is that Milton in allowing 
 only one year for learning as much Latin and Greek 
 as was " scraped together " in seven or eight, absurdly 
 exaggerates the aptitude of boys and the capacity 
 of teachers. 
 
 As regards the substance of intellectual instruction : 
 
182 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 even admitting that real-naturalistic instruction is alone 
 valuable up to the age of say 18 or 19, it certainly 
 would not be practicable to carry boys through the 
 extensive course of reading which Milton advocates. 
 He over-estimates the capacity of the average pupil. 
 A boy would certainly be 15 years of age before his 
 knowledge of Latin (even with the best teaching) 
 or his maturity of intelligence would make it possible 
 for him to begin to read with advantage the authors 
 named by Milton as coming first in the curriculum. 
 The work could simply not be done in any save the 
 most perfunctory manner, even allowing for the fact 
 that some of the books were to be " read to " the 
 boys. On the ground of mere practicability there- 
 fore, the scheme of intellectual instruction must be 
 pronounced a wild imagination, even if it were sound 
 educationally. 
 
 But it may be said, and said truly, these objections 
 ^ do not touch the substance of Milton's theory which is 
 this : The Real or Sensible should alone (with religion 
 and morals) be taught until a boy is 18 or 19 years of 
 age. Even the humble linguistic exercise of composi- 
 tion is to be eschewed until the boy is full of matter. 
 Now this principle can perfectly well be given effect to if 
 we choose to do so. We might confine youths till they 
 had reached the age of 18 solely to real-naturalistic 
 studies. Latin and Greek, of course, we should now 
 exclude entirely, inasmuch as they could in these days 
 contribute nothing to the knowledge of the youth save 
 what was better not learned, because it would have to 
 be unlearned. A few boys might be allowed to take 
 up Latin and Greek on the special ground that they 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 183 
 
 were ultimately to devote themselves to Theology, 
 Philosophy or Literature, the thorough and historical 
 acquaintance with which is impossible save through 
 these languages. But it is even doubtful whether 
 the time required for languages of such difficulty 
 would, on the Miltonic theory, be well spent even 
 by the few. By means of good translations in his own 
 or in foreign modern tongues, a youth might be 
 admitted to as much of ancient eloquence and thought 
 as was requisite for general culture or for specialized 
 work. 
 
 The conclusion then would be, if we translate Milton 
 into the conditions of the 19th century, that none 
 save professional scholars should waste their time over 
 the ancient languages. French, German and Italian 
 would of course take their place in all schools, on the 
 ground that these are now the channels of all real and 
 realistic knowledge. This is truly what Milton pro- 
 poses when we translate him into contemporary and 
 equivalent terms. 
 
 Even the professed Philologer and Theologian would 
 study Latin and Greek (if he studied these at all) and 
 modern languages not for their own sake, but solely for 
 the sake of the substance of the writings to be met 
 with in the various tongues. By the material of 
 thought, the substance of morality, the ideas of reli- 
 gion, man, according to Milton, can be made all we can 
 mentally and morally make him. Much hard work, 
 much discipline are, doubtless, needed to acquire the 
 material and substance of all knowledge, but the 
 mental discipline which the curriculum of study would 
 necessitate is not valued by Milton, not thought of. 
 
184 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 It is simply the knowledge acquired, the mental equip- 
 ment he cares for. By knowledge we are saved, not by 
 discipline or training. Milton, if he were answering an 
 opponent, would doubtless say that he had in his 
 thoughts, implicitly, the whole idea of intellectual and 
 moral discipline as well as instruction. But the answer 
 is, that his theory of education does not take account 
 of the former as an end in itself, and therefore falls 
 to be ranked among those schemes which think that 
 knowledge will accomplish all. Wisely remarked Mil- 
 ton's immediate successor in educational history, John 
 Locke, " Men of much reading are greatly learned but 
 may be little knowing." Mark Pattison also says : 
 " Milton saw strongly, as many have done before 
 and since, one weak point in the practice of schools, 
 namely, the small result of much time. He fell into 
 the natural error of the inexperienced teacher, that 
 of supposing that the remedy was the ingestion of much 
 and diversified intelligible matter. It requires much 
 observation of young minds to discover that the rapid 
 inculcation of unassimilable information stupefies the 
 faculties instead of training them." 
 
 Let me by way of caution, however, repeat that 
 Milton does not confine himself to the real of sense, 
 but embraces in his scheme the real of the hu- 
 manities. At the fitting age, the youth is to be 
 introduced to literature and theology and philosophy. 
 A strictly accurate exhibition therefore of Milton's 
 system would show that he confines himself almost 
 wholly to the realistic of sense, but always including 
 moral and religious instruction and training, up to a 
 certain age (say 18), and thereafter takes the youth 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 185 
 
 into that other realm of the Real, viz. Poetry, Politics, 
 Oratory and Philosophy. 
 
 Milton's conception of the substance of the education * 
 of a man is, if we take it as a whole, not only adequate, 
 but magnificent. His error lies in the prescribed order 
 of studies. He turns the old trivium and quadrivium 
 upside down, laying the foundations on the quadrivium 
 and finding in the trivium, viz. Grammar (which always 
 included literature), Rhetoric and Dialectic (coextensive 
 with Philosophy), the completion of the educational 
 structure. As the education of the country, however, is 
 concluded in all save about one per cent, of those even 
 whom we call educated, before the Corinthian capital 
 could be placed on the top of the column of realistic 
 knowledge, the question, so far as primary and secondary 
 schools are concerned, is at bottom one between the 
 Humanistic and the Real of sense, as instruments of 
 education generally. For we have to educate at every 
 stage in such a way and on such principles as will 
 ensure to every pupil the maximum of good, in respect 
 both of knowledge and discipline, at whatever age his 
 education may be abruptly stopped by the necessities 
 of life. Nothing, indeed, is a better test of the sound- 
 ness of a system of education, than its fulfilling this 
 requirement. 
 
 Under Milton's scheme the mass of boys would enter 
 life unhumanized by their education, and with their 
 minds filled, or rather, congested, not disciplined and 
 trained. Even those who went forward to university 
 study could not without great, perhaps insuperable, 
 difficulty enter on the ' organic ' studies and the pursuit 
 of literature and philosophy. They would have had 
 
186 JOHN MILTON. [LECT, 
 
 none of that preparatory cultivation in language, formal 
 and concrete, which alone, we believe, affords a sound 
 foundation for philosophical and literary studies. 
 
 Samuel Johnson in a criticism of Milton puts the 
 antagonistic view exceedingly well: "The truth," he 
 says, "is, that the knowledge of external nature, and 
 the sciences which that knowledge requires or includes, 
 are not the great or frequent business of the human 
 mind. Whether we provide for action or conversation, 
 whether we wish to be useful or pleasing, the first 
 requisite is the religious and moral knowledge of 
 right and wrong ; the next is an acquaintance with 
 the history of mankind and with those examples which 
 may be said to embody truth and prove by events 
 the reasonableness of opinions. Prudence and Justice 
 are virtues and excellencies of all places. We are 
 perpetually moralists, but we are geometricians only 
 by chance. Our intercourse with intellectual nature 
 is necessary; our speculations upon matter are volun- 
 tary and at leisure. Physiological learning is of 
 such rare emergence, that one may know another 
 half his life, without being able to estimate his skill 
 in hydrostatics or astronomy; but his moral and pru- 
 dential character immediately appears. Those authors, 
 therefore, are to be read at schools that supply most 
 axioms of prudence, most principles of moral truth, 
 and most materials for conversation; and these pur- 
 poses are best served by poets, orators and historians. 
 Let me not be censured for this digression as pedan- 
 tic or paradoxical ; for, if I have Milton against me, 
 I have Socrates on my side. It was his labour to 
 turn philosophy from the study of nature to speculations 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 187 
 
 upon life ; but the innovators whom I oppose are turn- 
 ing off attention from life to nature. They seem to 
 think, that we are placed here to watch the growth of 
 plants, or the motion of the stars. Socrates was rather 
 of opinion, that what we had to learn was, how to do 
 good and avoid evil. 1 " 
 
 This is all true, but it is largely irrelevant as a 
 criticism of Milton. Its defects are due to this that 
 Johnson had read the Tractate so carelessly that he 
 omitted to notice the very large place assigned by 
 Milton to the moral and religious education of boys. 
 In this respect, indeed, Milton stands out conspicuously 
 as an advocate of direct moral instruction, while the 
 practice of schools, then and now, is to rely almost 
 wholly on such indirect instruction as school events 
 may yield and on the dogmatism of religious creeds. 
 A just criticism would be that Milton did not see the 
 importance of language and literature as a moralizing 
 agent in the education of the young, and so dispensed 
 with them till it was too late to make use of them. 
 
 A serious error of omission in Milton is due to his 
 contemptuous ignoring of the chief work which the 
 Baconian school of educationalists was doing. Method 
 is not even mentioned by him. His treatise keeps 
 steadily in view a great aim but in other respects it 
 presents us, not with a method but only, with a ratio 
 studiorum or Lehrplan. 
 
 Nor can we approve of Milton's giving a practical 
 and useful turn to play. The essence of play is that 
 it shall be useless. The objection may also be urged 
 that Milton's course of instruction is not boyish enough 
 
 1 Johnson's Lives, vol. i. p. 95. 
 
188 JOHN MILTON. [LECT. 
 
 for boys; but while recognizing the force of this ob- 
 jection, I am yet disposed to agree with Mr Browning 
 when he says 1 , " One of the main hopes of the im- 
 provement of education lies in adopting the truth that 
 manly and serious studies are capable of being handled 
 and mastered by intelligent schoolboys." 
 
 Because of the obvious defects of Milton's scheme, it 
 has been the habit of schoolmasters to treat his Tractate 
 with something like contempt. Unaccustomed to think 
 of principles, mere babblers of traditional conventionali- 
 ties, infidels in educational ideas, they have failed to see 
 the greatness and grandeur of the Miltonic contribution 
 to educational thought. Drop the mere externalities of 
 the scheme and contemplate the ideas, and what do we 
 find? (1) A condemnation of exclusive Latin and 
 Greek instruction with which all thinking men now agree. 
 (2) A condemnation of the verbalism and formalism of 
 the teaching, which also now meets with universal 
 acceptance. (3) An advocacy of nature-instruction and 
 of practical handwork : who is there among thinking 
 educationalists now to question this ? (4) An earnest 
 plea for direct moral instruction : still awaiting response 
 from our Schools. (5) A denunciation of attempts 
 at Composition without material to write about. (6) 
 Generally, the putting of the study of the real of sense 
 and the real of the Humanities before the study of 
 the organic arts Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric: "Matter 
 before Form," as Comenius was then preaching and 
 which all intelligent teachers (at least theoretically) now 
 accept. (7) The recommendation of technical instruc- 
 1 Educational Theories, p. 97. 
 
IX.] JOHN MILTON. 189 
 
 tion in its widest sense. (8) The advocacy of gymnastic 
 and military drill, now accepted elements in all properly 
 organized education. (9) The teaching of Latin Gram- 
 mar by means of the English tongue and not in Latin 
 as was then, and till quite recently, universal 1 . Even 
 his encyclopsedism may be defended as a necessary 
 protest against the meagre intellectual life of the 
 schools of his time. And greater than all was the 
 profound conviction, which he has handed down to 
 all worthy to inherit it, of the efficacy of education to 
 mould the youth of a country to virtue, generosity and 
 sacrifice. Professor Masson well says, "the noble 
 moral glow that pervades the Tract, the mood of 
 magnanimity in which it is conceived and the faith it 
 inculcates in the power of the young spirit are merits 
 everlasting 2 ." 
 
 Milton himself, remember, recognizes the ideal char- 
 acter of his scheme of education. For he tells us that 
 " this is not a bow for every man to shoot in that 
 counts himself a teacher ; but will require sinews almost 
 equal to those which Homer gave Ulysses." And in 
 truth this is what every man is driven to say who 
 seriously thinks about national education its nature 
 and its possibilities, viz. where are we to find the 
 Educators ? Few are born in the purple : how can we 
 make the average man worthy to assume it ? 
 
 1 Milton's first publication after "Paradise Lost" was a Latin 
 Grammar for beginners within the compass of 65 pages and written 
 in English. It is entitled " Accedence Commenc't Grammar " 1669. 
 
 2 Professor Masson in Life of Milton. 
 
 Note. The quotations in the above Lecture are printed verbatim 
 from Mr Browning's excellent edition of the Tractate (Pitt Press). 
 
X. 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS ON CLASS-MANAGEMENT. 
 
 A brief address to young teachers. 
 
 PRESUMING that a master is familiar with his subject 
 and with methods, the next consideration is, How can 
 he best learn to teach and control a class ? The answer 
 is the same as we should give if asked, How is a carpen- 
 ter to learn to make a cart ? By seeing it well done 
 and then by doing it himself. Agenda agenda. He 
 must practise at first under superintendence and then 
 by himself. Some men will feel that they hold the reins 
 firmly after a few days' experience : others take longer : 
 others again will always have a dim feeling of incapacity 
 when they enter their class-rooms. To these last I say, 
 leave the profession at once. You can do little good 
 and you will lead a miserable life. This does not apply 
 to mere nervous hesitancy, if the boys do not see it. 
 
 And yet, just as directions how to proceed in a 
 surgical operation will very much help a young surgeon 
 not only in his first, but in all future, attempts, I shall 
 set down here certain notes made from time to time by 
 myself when visiting schools which may be of value to 
 you as young teachers. I presume, of course, that you 
 have a class before you not a mob. 
 
LECT. X.] HINTS ON CLASS-MANAGEMENT. 191 
 
 The class is a unity; but do not forget that it is made 
 up of many though it be a unity, and that a teacher 
 succeeds with it only in so far as each boy takes part 
 in every act and thought of every other. This is the 
 primary consideration in class-management. The sym- 
 pathy and cooperation of each with all are essential. 
 
 To help the attainment of this result a few expe- 
 dients or devices suggest themselves : 
 
 1. I think on the whole that the best form of a 
 class is that of a horse-shoe. 
 
 2. The master should stand still, and in the same 
 place .during a lesson, drawing to himself the eyes of 
 all members of the class. He should not move about, 
 but stand erect, or sit in a raised chair. 
 
 3. His mind and manner should be concentrated 
 on the lesson, and on securing the greatest amount of 
 thought and work from each member of the class. 
 This concentration will act electrically on the class, and 
 make the spirits of each " attentive." 
 
 4. If you find yourself falling into the habit of 
 speaking much in a class, be assured you are prelecting, 
 not teaching. The boys have to teach themselves 
 under your guidance. It is not you who have to do the 
 work of learning, but they. Your expenditure of force 
 should be mental, not physical. 
 
 EXAMINATION. 
 
 (a) In putting questions be select in the use of 
 words, concise and brief. 
 
 (b) Do not question straight 'down the class;' but 
 
192 A FEW PRACTICAL HINTS [LECT. 
 
 always put the question first, and then name the boy 
 who is to answer, without repeating it 
 
 (c) Take only such answers as all may hear. This 
 secures articulateness of utterance in the pupils. Call 
 for the repetition of answers from the more backward 
 boys. 
 
 (d) Take only complete sentences in reply to your 
 questions. 
 
 (e) Speak in a calm, clear, moderated tone, as 
 nearly as possible approaching to the conversational. 
 Loudness and quickness drive thought, of which the 
 essence is deliberation and calm, out o/boys. 
 
 (/) Avoid fussiness, relying on purpose and method, 
 and not on personal activity either of mind or body. 
 
 (g) If a class fail to answer any question and you 
 have to tell them, make the class repeat the answer 
 simultaneously before you pass on, and also ask several 
 individually. Then write it on the blackboard. 
 
 (h) In putting questions demanding some thought 
 to answer, give time. Kapidity in question and answer 
 is applicable only to memory questions. In these you 
 may be as rapid as you please. 
 
 (i) Always prepare your lessons, to the extent at 
 least of determining your method and aim in examina- 
 tion and of limiting the amount you mean to teach in 
 any one lesson. 
 
 (J) In examining, do not mix up things that are 
 different, e.g. spelling with etymologies, meaning of 
 words, and meaning of sentences. Do one thing at a 
 time. 
 
 (k) Remember you are not so much teaching a 
 lesson as teaching your pupils or, rather, helping them 
 
X.] ON CLASS-MANAGEMENT. 193 
 
 to teach themselves, and direct your special attention, 
 consequently, to the worse half of your class. 
 
 (I) Sum up every step in a lesson on the black- 
 board, and then use the board for a rapid revision of 
 the lesson before dismissing the class. 
 
 (ra) In examination, be earnest ; and your boys 
 will feel that you are earnest, if the earnestness is real, 
 and not merely an earnest desire for vain display or 
 the earnestness of the street-preacher. Think of the 
 pupils, not of yourself: in short, attend to the class 
 and the class will attend to you. 
 
 (n) Note. The great art of all teaching and all 
 examining, depends on the power the teacher has of 
 assuming in imagination the attitude of ignorance 
 towards the subject that is to be learned, and thereupon 
 advancing to the knowledge of it in company with the 
 pupil. 
 
 READING. 
 
 (a) Let each pupil finish his sentence before you 
 allow any corrections. 
 
 (6) Never allow your pupils to read "straight 
 down " the class. Name the reader. 
 
 (c) Let the upper class pupils always read more 
 than one sentence. 
 
 (d) When your class is reading, do not use a book 
 yourself. Listen simply. In this way you compel 
 clear enunciation. 
 
 DICTATION AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 (a) In dictation make your pupils write over the 
 words they mis-spell, three times correctly on a slate. 
 
 L. L. 13 
 
194 A FEW PRACTICAL HINTS [LECT. 
 
 (b) Illustrate common errors in spelling by means 
 of the black-board. 
 
 (c) In like manner with common errors in Com- 
 position. 
 
 (d) In teaching elementary narrative composition, 
 make the pupils write each complete sentence as a 
 separate paragraph. 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 (a) In parsing, make each pupil complete the 
 parsing of a clause, and not parse simply one word. 
 
 (b) Fall back on reasons and rules when parsing, 
 in the case of every mistake that is made. 
 
 (c) In Latin and English parsing, after the oral 
 lesson has been given, send the boys to their seats to 
 write out the parsing (or a portion of it) in tabular 
 form. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 Have half-a-day a week set free for revisal of what- 
 ever is taught; and the more that revisal is done on 
 paper the better. The evening previous to the revisal 
 should be set free for preparation. 
 
 Husband your powers at the beginning of the 
 school-day. 
 
 The rod and all physical penalties exist because of 
 four things, want of self-control in the schoolmaster ; 
 want of ethical purpose in the schoolmaster ; want of 
 method in teaching; want of good organization and 
 classification. Where all these things are present 
 instead of absent, the rod will be very rarely if ever 
 resorted to. In any case, never punish except for 
 
IX.] ON CLASS-MANAGEMENT. 195 
 
 deliberate wrong-doing. Blame privately, praise pub- 
 licly. 
 
 PLACE-TAKING 
 
 has been invented by masters for the purpose of securing 
 attention and stimulating the boys to work. It is a 
 bad substitute for good teaching. At the same time, 
 place-taking may be practised because it gives vivacity 
 to a class ; but the merit list of the term or year should 
 be determined only to the extent of 10 per cent, of the 
 marks as ascertained by the class-places held from day 
 to day. This merit list should be fixed almost wholly 
 by the results of fortnightly examinations. 
 
 Prizes are hurtful : a certificate of having attained 
 first, second or third class in the year's work is all that 
 is needed, except in the schools which wish to advertise 
 themselves by sending their pupils home with gaudy 
 books 1 . 
 
 1 In this case a little sagacity will enable you to devise measures 
 which will ensure every boy carrying home a gilt advertisement on 
 some pretext or other. 
 
 132 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 NOTE. The following Code was printed at the end of 
 the third edition of my book on " Primary Instruction " 
 several years ago. I here reprint it to give it further cir- 
 culation and also as a complement to the Lectures on the 
 "Curriculum of Secondary Schools" and "Liberal Educa- 
 tion in the Primary School" 
 
 When this Code first appeared some experienced educa- 
 tionalists regarded it as a ' pious imagination* and smiled 
 at my confidence in it. More than one-half of it is already 
 worked into the Scottish Code. The rest will be substantially 
 adopted in due time. 
 
A POSSIBLE CODE FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY 
 SCHOOLS. 
 
 INFANT SCHOOL AND STANDARD I. AGE 5 7. 
 
 THE objects of the Infant school are : 
 
 1 . Moral and Religious Training : At this period of 
 life the child is singularly receptive, and, though unstable, 
 is open to all moral impressions. He is to be trained to 
 control passion and to practise justice. Above all, kindli- 
 ness and the feeling of reverence are to be evoked. These 
 ends are attained by the telling of stories (without pre- 
 ceptively emphasizing the "moral" of them), by simple 
 songs, but chiefly by the regulation of the conduct of the 
 children to each other and to their mistress, and by the 
 order and easy rule which pervade the school. They 
 cannot, by possibility, be attained by force or mere law, 
 but only by kindliness, persuasiveness, firmness, and friend- 
 liness of manner, on the part of the teacher. The prime 
 qualification in the teacher is a genuine interest in little 
 children. 
 
 2. The Training of the percipient Intelligence : This 
 is attained (a) By means of Object-lessons, the training 
 of the children to discriminate colours, forms, weights, 
 measures, and money : the weights and measures, &c. 
 should be of course seen and handled by all. (b) By 
 teaching the Elements of Reading, Writing (on slate), and 
 Arithmetic ; the arithmetic being entirely taught by means 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 199 
 
 of the ball frame, and as mental arithmetic with the help 
 of the black-board, at least for the first year. 
 
 [The memory is strengthened by all these exercises, and 
 by learning simple verses of a moral and religious kind by 
 heart.] 
 
 Quantity : At the end of this infant period, the child 
 should be able to read the book usually prescribed for the 
 First Standard, copy on his slate neatly a sentence of the 
 reading-book, and spell the greater number of the words in 
 it. In arithmetic he should be able to add and subtract 
 mentally and on the slate up to one hundred, and to count 
 and write up to one thousand. 
 
 Note: Singing and manual exercises will form an 
 essential part of the occupation of the Infant school, and 
 where these are not present no grant will be given. 
 
 STANDARD II. AGE 7 8. 
 
 Moral and Religious Training: The moral and re- 
 ligious teaching and training must be continued precisely 
 in the same way as in the Infant school. (Moral songs and 
 hymns should be learned by heart, and sung.) 
 
 Realistic Instruction : The object-lessons of the Infant 
 school should be revised and extended, always keeping 
 within the range of familiar objects. The clothes we wear, 
 and the food we eat, will at this stage suffice for the 
 planned course. But natural objects, such as flowers, 
 stones, should be occasionally introduced and examined 
 and described by the pupils. 
 
 Language Instruction: Reading 1 . In addition to the 
 lesson-book, the children should be allowed to take home 
 from the school library simple illustrated story-books. They 
 
 1 Reading in any standard means easy, audible, and intelligible 
 reading. Nothing less than this can be recognised by the Inspector. 
 
200 APPENDIX. 
 
 will be expected to read with ease the Second Standard 
 reading-book, to spell the greater part of the words in it, 
 and to respond intelligently to an examination on any 
 lesson in it at the choice of the Inspector. 
 
 The intelligence will be further cultivated by requir- 
 ing the children to give oral accounts of their lessons 
 daily, in class. 
 
 Writing: Writing on paper in copy-books will be 
 introduced, and writing from dictation daily on the slate. 
 Transcription exercises (of sentences in a lesson that has 
 been read) will be given as home lessons. 
 
 Arithmetic: Measures and weights, and money, will be 
 revised and extended, always with the objects present to 
 the senses, and simple addition and subtraction, mental 
 and on the slate, required. [The home exercises should 
 consist of a repetition of the sums done in the school.] 
 The multiplication table, up to "five times" inclusive, 
 should be thoroughly acquired. The facility with which 
 elementary exercises are performed, not the amount professed 
 is at this stage the essential point. 
 
 Geography: In geography, the cardinal points with 
 reference to the schoolhouse should be taught, and the 
 beginnings of geography laid by constructing on the black- 
 board a map of the parish with the help of the children. 
 The parish, with its plains, streams, &c. (in rural districts), 
 and industries, should be taken as an object-lesson, so as to 
 give clear fundamental conceptions of future geographical 
 terms and teaching. The county map will next be drawn. 
 
 Drawing of simple forms will be practised twice a week. 
 
 Note for the Inspector ; While requiring adequate 
 familiarity with the work professed, the Inspector will, 
 above all, consider the moral spirit and the intellectual 
 activity and freedom of the class in estimating the work of 
 the Teacher. 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 201 
 
 STANDARD III. AGE 8 9. 
 
 Moral and Religious Instruction : At this stage, the 
 moral and religious instruction should be continued in the 
 same way as in previous Standards. Easy poems, of a 
 literary character, should be learned by heart. Pure 
 literature promotes moral training. The New Testament 
 should not be read ; because the difficulty of spelling it out 
 gives rise to painful associations with religion, and such 
 early impressions cannot easily be effaced. A selection of 
 Bible stories, simply written, might however be read, and 
 such Scriptural doctrines taught as are naturally suggested 
 by these. 
 
 The lessons in prose and poetry of the school reading- 
 book will also suggest instruction of a moral character. 
 
 Realistic Instruction: Object-lessons should be con- 
 tinued, and should consist of the revision and extension 
 of past subjects; and to these should be added object-lessons 
 on such things as buildings, furniture, houses, pen, ink, 
 paper, chalk, pencils, and things generally used by children ; 
 also, lessons on animals, i.e. native animals almost wholly. 
 
 Language Instruction : (a) Reading. The reading- 
 book should be varied in its matter, and contain, along 
 with literary extracts, lessons on the objects of nature. 
 The school library, composed of simple child stories and 
 easy accounts of birds and beasts, should be freely used. 
 
 (b) Oral Composition, in the form of giving a conse- 
 cutive account of the lesson of the day, should be practised; 
 and the children should be thoroughly familiarised with the 
 subject and predicate of a sentence, i.e. the whole subject 
 and whole predicate. 
 
 Writing : Dictation lessons, as well as oral spelling 
 lessons, should be given daily, and the children required to 
 
202 APPENDIX. 
 
 write out at home at least five or six lines of some lesson 
 that has been read, and to add a list of the words which 
 have been found most difficult in the lesson of the day. 
 
 Geography : The map of the parish should be recon- 
 structed on the black-board, and the children required to 
 reproduce it on their slates until they can do it so well that 
 it may be demanded on paper as a home exercise. The 
 physical features of the parish should be dwelt on, so that 
 exact notions of geographical terms may be acquired. 
 Further, the general geography of the world should now 
 be taught on a large globe. Transition may be made to 
 a large map of the world towards the end of the year. 
 
 Arithmetic : The multiplication table, to ten inclusive, 
 should be thoroughly acquired; and simple division and 
 multiplication, first mentally, and thereafter on black-board 
 and slates, should be taught. The sums done in school, or 
 a few of them, should always be reproduced at home, and 
 brought up on the following day. Rapid working should 
 be practised Vith very simple sums in all the four simple 
 rules. 
 
 Drawing to be continued, and writing in copy-books 
 practised. 
 
 STANDARD IY. AGE 910. 
 
 Moral and Religious Instruction : This should now be 
 given, on the basis of the New Testament, the master 
 always approaching this subject with reverence of manner. 
 There should be no place-taking. After the lesson has 
 been read, and an oral account of it given, the master will 
 quietly and deliberately read the lesson to the children, as 
 they listen with their books shut. The Life of Christ 
 as a whole should be read, two or three simple dogmas 
 taught, and the Ten Commandments explained and 
 learned. 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 203 
 
 Realistic Instruction : Object-lessons will now be given 
 in a more extended form, and embrace all the artificial 
 objects which contribute to the life and comfort of the 
 peasant and artizan, including foreign products, and an 
 explanation of our dependence on commerce for these. 
 Lessons on animals, and their uses, with the help of good 
 diagrams, will be continued. 
 
 Language Instruction : (a) In Reading, prose and 
 verse, and lessons literary, didactic, narrative, and natura- 
 listic, should be intermixed, with a view to cultivating 
 in the pupil a command of variety of language and idiom, 
 and comprehensiveness of intelligence. The library books 
 given out should be of the Robinson Crusoe and Miss 
 Edgeworth types. At this, as at all stages, the children 
 will be expected to respond intelligently to an examination 
 on the lessons read, and the school reading-book must in- 
 crease in difficulty from Standard to Standard and contain 
 sufficient matter. 
 
 (b) The Making of Sentences out of given words should 
 be practised, and the pupils taught on the black-board 
 what constitutes a sentence, for which their now familiarity 
 with subject and predicate will have prepared them. As 
 soon as possible, short stories (e.g. fables of ^Esop) will be 
 read to the children, and they will be required to reproduce 
 them on their slates. 
 
 Writing: Dictation lessons, as well as oral spelling 
 lessons, should be given daily, and the children required to 
 write out at home at least five or six lines of some lesson 
 that has been read, and to add a list of the words which 
 have been found most difficult in the lesson of the day. 
 These home exercises may now be on paper with ijrik. 
 
 Geography : The general geography of the World should 
 be taught carefully ; and fuller, but still very general, in- 
 struction given in the geography of the native country, i.e. 
 
204 APPENDIX. 
 
 England and Scotland, always with special reference to 
 physical, industrial, and commercial characteristics. (Con- 
 nect on the object-lessons.) Outline maps of the native 
 country should be filled up (within narrow restrictions). 
 
 Arithmetic: Sums in the four simple rules, including 
 long division, should be largely practised. Compound rules 
 taught, and reduction of weights and measures. The 
 weights and measures themselves should be again seen and 
 handled, as in the Infant school. 
 
 Drawing to be continued (following some progressive 
 series of books, and) introducing solid objects as models. 
 
 STANDARD V. AGE 10 11. 
 
 Moral and Religious Instruction: This will be given 
 in connexion with the lessons read, and the incidents of 
 the school. Simple poetry of a moral character to be 
 learned by heart. The continued reading of the New 
 Testament, and the learning of certain Scripture passages 
 and of hymns by heart, is the work of this Standard, 
 along with the easier parts of dogmatic catechetical in- 
 struction. 
 
 Realistic Instruction and Nature- Knowledge : Object- 
 lessons (or lessons in common things) should be fully 
 revised and extended, and the elements of a knowledge 
 of the Heavens, of the Measurement of Time, and of 
 Physical Geography as growing out of the knowledge 
 already possessed of the parish, be now begun. Intro- 
 duction to an elementary knowledge of the human body 
 and the laws of health will be also at this stage given. 
 Realistic instruction now passes into Nature-knowledge. 
 
 Language Instruction : (a) Reading as in Standard 
 IV., but in a more advanced book. The library books 
 should be as in Standard IV., with ^the addition of voyages 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 205 
 
 and travels. A book of history, written biographically and 
 dramatically, will now also be read in school ; and the 
 leading dates (ten or twelve at most) in British history 
 taught, with all the principal events that cluster round 
 these dates. 
 
 (6) Dictation and Composition Exercises as in Standard 
 IV., but more advanced. The composition exercise 
 written in school should now be prescribed to be re- 
 written as a home exercise on paper. The beginnings of 
 English Grammar may be attempted towards the end of the 
 year. 
 
 Geography: In Geography, the general geography of 
 the World will be revised, the British Colonies being now 
 specially adverted to. The geography of the native country 
 will be revised and slightly extended. Outline maps of 
 the World will be filled in. 
 
 Arithmetic : Constant practice of the compound rules, 
 and bills of parcels; and towards the end of the year an 
 introduction to the rule of three and fractions. Accuracy 
 and rapidity of working is to be expected at this stage in 
 the case of all ordinary sums; and daily and numerous 
 questions should be given bearing on the ordinary concerns 
 of life. 
 
 Drawing to be continued according to a progressive 
 series of books : also from solid objects. 
 
 STANDARD VI. AGE 11 12. 
 
 Moral and Religious Instruction : Moral and Religious 
 instruction as hitherto, with an addition to the dogmatic 
 portion. 
 
 Nature-Knowledge: While oral lessons on "common 
 things" will not be neglected, the object-lessons at this 
 stage pass into Physical Geography and Physiography. 
 
206 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sufficient instruction will also be given in the human body 
 to enforce the laws of health. Diagrams to be used. 
 Lessons will also be given in the nutritive qualities and the 
 preparation of different kinds of food. 
 
 Language Instruction: (a) heading. A more ad- 
 vanced collection of various pieces will be read, and some 
 one continuous piece of literature read along with it, such 
 as one of Scott's poems. A variety of select short poems will 
 be learned by heart. 
 
 There will also be added a History of England and 
 Scotland, supplemented by the oral instruction of the 
 master. The dates of fifteen or twenty great events or 
 periods, including the names of one or two of the greatest 
 writers of these periods, will be required. 
 
 (b) Dictation as hitherto. Composition of historical 
 narratives and of business letters will now be required. 
 
 (c) In Grammar, ordinary parsing and general analysis. 
 Geography : Outline maps of Great Britain and of the 
 
 World will be filled up, and special attention paid to the 
 British Colonies. In connexion with industrial and com- 
 mercial geography, the leading facts and principles of 
 elementary economics will be taught. 
 
 Arithmetic : The pupils will be expected to work with 
 freedom and ease ordinary questions in proportion and 
 fractions, vulgar and decimal; but commercial and industrial 
 arithmetic must chiefly be taught. [In the case of girls, 
 model house-books of weekly expenditure will be required 
 instead of fractions.] 
 
 Drawing from objects will be required, and the intro- 
 duction of geometrical or mechanical drawing. 
 
 Those who are likely to remain longer at school should 
 now also profess the first stage of some foreign language 
 Latin or French. 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 207 
 
 STANDARD VII. AND VIIL AGE 1214. 
 
 Moral and Religious Instruction : This is best conveyed 
 by the reverent reading and explanation of the New 
 Testament in more detail than in previous standards. 
 The Catechism will be taught and explained throughout. 
 
 Language Instruction : (a) Readings in English His- 
 tory (such as Green's or Creighton's). The reading with 
 intelligence, emphasis, and expression, of a book of Milton 
 or a historical play of Shakespeare. 
 
 The study of the said book or play, with reference to its 
 thoughts, its logical sequence of development, and its 
 characteristics of style. 
 
 A piece of good literary prose (such as the readings in 
 history above named) similarly studied. 
 
 Evidence that the boy has read by himself, or cursively 
 with the master, one of the longer poems of Scott and the 
 greater part of Goldsmith ; or, instead of these, selections 
 from the poetry of Great Britain. 
 
 (b) The grammar and general analysis of one of the 
 books read ; and the vocables of the book professed, with 
 their cognates. (Analysis should never be too detailed.) 
 
 (c) The composition of a narrative of any part that 
 may be selected by the Inspector from a limited period of 
 British history, the period to be chosen by the boy himself. 
 Commercial Correspondence. 
 
 (d) The second (and with the more advanced, the 
 third) stage of Latin or French. 
 
 Geography and Nature Knowledge : Revision of physical 
 geography, and of commercial and industrial geography, 
 with special relation to economics, and with continued map- 
 drawing. Laws of health. 
 
 Arithmetic and Mathematics: Commercial Arithmetic 
 
208 APPENDIX. 
 
 and problems requiring the exercise of thought in Propor- 
 tion (involving fractions) ; about half of Euclid, Book I., or 
 Mensuration. (Specific subject, Book-keeping.) 
 Drawing, geometrical and from models. 
 
 NOTE. 
 
 General. At every stage the pupil is presumed to be 
 familiar with all the stages that precede it. 
 
 As to History : In the first four Standards the teacher 
 will orally narrate the leading incidents of British history, 
 reading to the pupils ballads and other poems written in 
 connection with these. In the Fifth Standard a book of 
 British history will be read, the dates of only the critical 
 events being required ; and the master will here also draw 
 on the poetry of the country, e.g. when dealing with the 
 battle of the Baltic, he will read Campbell's verses ; when 
 speaking of Flodden, he will read Aytoun's ballad ; of the 
 Spanish Armada, he will read Macaulay's fragment ; when 
 treating of the French wars, the Wars of the Roses, and the 
 period of Wolsey, he will draw on Shakespeare, and so 
 forth. 
 
 As to Singing: It is required that singing be taught 
 in the school daily, and, after a certain stage, from 
 notation. Sewing, knitting, and mending are to be taught 
 to all the girls, and in the advanced stages cutting out. 
 
 As to Home Lessons : Home lessons should consist of 
 mechanical work (except in the preparation of the reading 
 lesson), or of the reproduction in writing of work already 
 done in school (orally or on the slate). 
 
 Where a school has a Ninth Standard, the instruction 
 will continue the same as in the Seventh and Eighth 
 Standards, with the addition of more advanced instruction 
 in a foreign language and in mathematics, including 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 209 
 
 geometrical and mechanical drawing. To these subjects a 
 larger proportion of school time will now of course be 
 given. A more scientific character will also be given to 
 the Nature-knowledge. It will take the form of initia- 
 tion into the elements of Chemistry, Biology, or Mechanics, 
 always with special reference to industries. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS TO THE INSPECTOR. 
 
 The Department is aware that you are thoroughly 
 conversant with all the subjects usually taught in schools. 
 You have studied the principles, methods, and history of 
 education, and have yourself either taught a school of your 
 own, or been trained to teach in a Normal Practising 
 School during your probationary period. It is not, there- 
 fore, necessary to issue detailed instructions for your guid- 
 ance. It will conduce more to the proper discharge of your 
 duties to leave you free. You have only to be reminded 
 that, as bishops of your educational dioceses, you are fellow- 
 workers with the teachers in the education of the children 
 of the country, and that in this capacity your duty is 
 to understand them, to appreciate their difficulties, and 
 to act as a sympathetic friend and intelligent counsellor. 
 The teacher should hail your visit, not fear it. Your 
 duty is to cooperate with him in attaining the ends the 
 State has in view in instituting a national system of 
 education. 
 
 Having first acquainted yourself with the organisation, 
 the instruction-plan, and general character of the school 
 you are visiting, you will, as each Standard passes under 
 your inspection, direct your attention mainly to the moral 
 spirit and intelligence of the children. These you will be 
 aided in ascertaining by allowing the teacher to teach the 
 class in your presence, from a lesson selected by you, 
 as well as by personally examining. If you are satisfied 
 L. L. 14 
 
210 APPENDIX. 
 
 with the school as a whole, and with each Standard, in 
 these essential respects, you will pass the whole of each 
 Standard for the full capitation grant, provided not more 
 than 20 per cent, fail to pass in the three subjects of 
 Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. The number of failures 
 if below 20 per cent, will not be officially communicated 
 either to the teacher or the school managers. 
 
 As to the instruction, generally, outside these three 
 technical acquirements, you will in the advanced Standards 
 accept any subject of instruction (such as Agriculture or 
 the Elements of a Science) from the master in lieu of 
 the Code requirements, if that subject is taught in the 
 spirit of these requirements, and promotes the aim of the 
 school, which aim always is the intelligent, moral, and 
 religious upbringing of the young. You will estimate the 
 quality of the teaching by the practical out-come as well 
 as by the method and style of the master. 
 
 If the school be specially remarkable for the excellence 
 of its organisation and discipline, and for the intelligent 
 results attained, you will report it for an additional 
 capitation grant of 2s. or 4s.; and you will state the 
 grounds of your recommendation in your report to the 
 Chief Inspector of your district, who will endorse your 
 recommendation should he see fit. But you will be careful 
 to exclude from the specially commended class those schools 
 in which there is any indication of over- work, in which play 
 and freedom are not amply provided for, and also those 
 in which the discipline is not mild and just, and does not 
 show itself to be so in the manners and bearing of the 
 children. 
 
 You will see that it is impossible for you to discharge 
 your duty to a school in the spirit of the Code (unless it be 
 a school already well known to you) if you hurry your 
 inspection, or seem to hurry it. 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 211 
 
 Should a school fall short of satisfying you in the 
 essential respects referred to above, you will recommend a 
 reduction of 2s. per pupil, and this even though 100 per 
 cent, should pass in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. 
 
 Your occasional informal visits will be directed chiefly 
 to the cleanliness, ventilation, playground, private offices, 
 and general discipline, of the school. 
 
 MONEY GRANTS. 
 
 There will in future be no grants for specific subjects, 
 as these are now embodied in the ordinary work of the 
 school. 
 
 (1) The grants for the Infant Department will remain 
 as at present. 
 
 (2) The grants for the various Standards will be deter- 
 mined by capitation. The basis of the capitation will be 
 the number of children who have been in attendance for 
 not less than six months during the school year. 
 
 Standard I. . . . . 14s. 
 
 Standard II Us. 
 
 Standard III 15s. 
 
 Standardly 15s. 
 
 Standard V 16s. 
 
 Standard VI 18s. 
 
 Standard VII 21s. 
 
 For Merit Grant (see instructions to Inspector). 
 
 (3) For every failure beyond 20 per cent, in Reading, 
 Writing, and Arithmetic respectively, a deduction of 10s. 
 will be made from the total grant otherwise earned. 
 
 (4) The age at which the pupils are presented for 
 examination does not affect the grants. 
 
 (5) Where education is efficiently carried on beyond 
 the Sixth Standard, a special grant of from 15 to .30, 
 according to the report of the Inspector, will be made to 
 
212 APPENDIX. 
 
 the master personally, provided he is qualified to teach the 
 advanced subjects by being either a Graduate or a Literate 
 in Arts, or by having passed an examination satisfactory 
 to the Department. Only one school in each parish will be 
 recognised for this supplementary grant, the school to be 
 selected by the School Board. Such schools will be dis- 
 tinguished as Elementary Schools of the First Class. 
 
 DEDUCTIONS. 
 
 (a) Where Singing is not taught, a deduction of Is. 
 per child will be made on the school grant otherwise 
 earned. 
 
 (b) If school libraries suitable to the various stages of 
 progress are not provided, and arrangements made for the 
 free use of the books, Qd. per child will be deducted from 
 the grant. 
 
 (c) The grant will be reduced by its excess above 18s. 
 per scholar in average attendance : [(2)], but the personal 
 grant to the teacher [(5) above] will not be affected. 
 
 PUPIL TEACHERS. 
 
 (1) Pupil Teachers will be selected by the School 
 Board from among those candidates who have passed the 
 6th Standard. 
 
 (2) Their instruction will be in the line of the 7th and 
 8th Standards, and will always include Latin and Geo- 
 metry, except where the teacher is unable to teach Latin, 
 in which case French or the elements of some science must 
 be professed. 
 
 (3) At the end of his apprenticeship he will pass such 
 an examination in Political Geography, Map-drawing, and 
 in the outlines of British History as will enable him to 
 dispense with these subjects when he enters a Training 
 College. 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION. 213 
 
 (4) The local Inspector will require the Pupil Teacher 
 to report annually the books he has read in English Litera- 
 ture (including History), and converse with him regarding 
 their contents. 
 
 ASSISTANT TEACHERS. 
 
 The Department will determine from time to time those 
 who are to be recognised as Assistant Teachers ; but none 
 shall be recognised for a longer period than one year who 
 do not hold either a Certificate of Merit, or (in addition 
 to such other qualifications as may be required) an Educa- 
 tional Diploma from some University or recognised College 
 of Science and Arts. 
 
 March 1883. 
 
NOTE ON SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 
 
 THE painting of the walls of school-rooms should be 
 light and cheerful. 
 
 No elementary school is adequately supplied with ap- 
 paratus which has not at least (1) A large black-board 
 affixed to the wall : (2) A smaller moveable black-board 
 specially intended for the junior classes : (3) A black-board 
 ruled for music : (4) A pair of globes : (5) A set of maps, 
 including a large physical map of the world : (6) A nu- 
 merical ball frame : (7) A supply of objects for object- 
 lessons, &c. : (8) Coloured pictures illustrative of Scripture 
 narratives : (9) Simple materials for exercises in colour and 
 form, size, weights, measures, and coins : (10) Specimens 
 of the birds, minerals, and plants of the district: (11) A 
 few works of art on the walls. 
 
 School libraries are, when they are met with they 
 should be compulsory, too often composed of works which 
 the children do not care to read. It is obvious that as 
 reading from the library is presumed to be a voluntary act, 
 the books in it must be attractive if the library is to be of 
 any use. A liberal supply of fairy tales, fables, ballads, 
 voyages imaginative and real, illustrated books of natural 
 science, history, biography, and such religious books as 
 contain in themselves an interest apart from the fact that 
 they treat of religion, ought to form the staple of the 
 library. Moreover, sets of books suited to the different 
 
NOTE ON SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 215 
 
 stages of progress in the school should be provided. The 
 great mass of the children of the country never heard of 
 Jack the Giant-killer, the Babes in the Wood, or Robinson 
 Crusoe ! A mind growing up with imagination so starved 
 must consolidate into something strangely different from 
 the richly-fed minds of the children of the middle and 
 upper classes. When there exists a school library really 
 suited to the needs and desires of the young, permission 
 to take the books home may be granted as a reward for 
 lessons thoroughly acquired. The school will be a brighter 
 place for little children when, the lesson once thoroughly 
 acquired, a story-book or picture-book will be put into their 
 hands to amuse, and through amusement, to instruct. 
 Why should not the teacher himself occasionally take a 
 book from the library-shelf and read a story to his school ? 
 It would relieve the monotony of his work, and help to 
 maintain friendly and pleasant relations between himself 
 and his pupils. 
 
 With respect to the choice of school text-books, we 
 would urge on the attention of schoolmasters the important 
 consideration that the reading-books of elementary schools 
 constitute the whole literature of the children of the opera- 
 tive classes, except where there are school libraries in active 
 operation. They should keep this in mind, as well as the 
 remarks in the chapter on the object and method of 
 teaching Reading, when selecting text-books for their 
 pupils. 
 
 [TJHIVBRSITT; 
 
 CAMBRIDGE : PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
WORKS BY PROFESSOR S. S. LAURIE. 
 
 METAPHYSICA NOVA ET VETUSTA : A Return 
 to Dualism. By SCOTUS NOVANTICUS. (Professor S. S. LAURIE.) 
 200 pp., 8vo, Cloth, Qs. 
 
 " I congratulate you very sincerely on the production of this remarkable little book. 
 Its results are among the best in philosophy ; at the same time that your deduction of 
 them from the simple act of percipience is at once original and happy." From 
 Dr Hutchison Stirling. 
 
 "The book is an analysis of Perception independently undertaken, but with full 
 knowledge of, and reference to, the Kantian investigation. . . . The whole is worked out 
 with much sureness of touch and with real philosophical insight. The author's know- 
 ledge and use of German thought is flavoured by a certain sturdy Scotch independence 
 as well as by an infusion of Scotch caution. . . . The book makes the impression of 
 having been written by one who has held himself at some distance from the philosophical 
 schools, and who has embodied in his work the results of his mature thought. . . . 
 Relativity (with the author) is something quite different from Relatedness. . . . What is 
 said by the author is said with admirable clearness." From "Mind," October, 1884. 
 
 "... As a connected reasoned body of doctrines, the explanation offered by ' Scotus 
 Novanticus ' constitutes a new philosophical theory. ... By the help of this versatile will- 
 force, the writer endeavours to solve the great problems of philosophy If the reasonings 
 
 and conclusions are not always satisfactory, the book will still be interesting to the 
 readers of philosophy on account of the light it throws on several important points of 
 speculative inquiry, and also for the thoroughness with which the doctrines are 
 developed and carried out." F rom " The Scotsman." 
 
 "The anonymous work 'Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta,' by 'Scotus Novanticus,' well 
 deserves the careful attention of all who can appreciate a sustained piece of reasoning. 
 . . . The book displays much maturity of thought throughout, and the author, whoever, 
 he is, possesses a complete grasp of philosophical distinctions. . . . Though he works out 
 his theory forcibly in his own way, he has evidently been largely influenced by Kant and 
 the post-Kantian Idealists, particularly perhaps by Fichte. ... It may be described as a 
 succinct but comprehensive sketch of a metaphysical psychology." From " The Contem- 
 porary Review." 
 
 "... In the instance before us, while the subject handled is a large one, the treatment 
 it receives (notwithstanding the brevity of the book) is wonderfully full. 'Scotus 
 Novanticus ' wastes none of his space in rhetorical verbiage nor in wordy excursions into 
 the picturesque fields adjoining his subject proper, but confines himself strictly to the 
 province within which it lies. His style is terse yet lucid, and his book, though hard 
 reading, as it is almost bound to be from its nature as from its succinctness, never fails 
 to be interesting. ... In this little work the anonymous author attempts nothing less 
 than to trace the genesis and history of our knowledge our knowledge of the outer world 
 as well as of the workings of mind itself. ... It would be impossible for us here to give 
 anything like a full and explicit account of the contribution which is here offered. 
 ' Scotus Novanticus ' wastes no words, and his treatise reads like a mathematical 
 demonstration The work will well repay a careful study, and is a valuable con- 
 tribution to the subject with which it deals. We heartily commend it to students of 
 Philosophy whether they be materialists or not." From " The Scottish (Quarterly) 
 Review." 
 
 L. L. 15 
 
Notices of the Press. 
 
 " While, as we shall afterwards point out, we consider this work a failure as an 
 argument for Dualism, we cannot help congratulating the author on the production of a 
 work so distinguished by subtle analysis and philosophic power. . . . We say his Dualism 
 is illogical, because in no work have we seen the activities of the mind more clearly 
 exhibited or their necessity for the constitution of knowledge more convincingly arguedi 
 More than this, he has freed himself from the paralogisms which strangled Kant when 
 dealing with such notions as Being, Causality, and the Absolute. ... It only remains to 
 add that the style is clear, terse and vigorous." From " The Glasgow Herald." 
 
 " This is the work of a powerful and original thinker." From " The Modern Review," 
 October, 1884. 
 
 " . . . . Professor Laurie's ingenious and original little book. . . . Comprehensive 
 treatise ... it abounds in admirable expositions and acute criticisms : and especially 
 indicates a clear insight founded upon accurate knowledge into the insufficiency of the 
 empirical psychology as a base of metaphysical philosophy." From a " Study of Reli- 
 gion," by Dr James Martineau, 1888. 
 
 ETHICA, OR THE ETHICS OF REASON. By 
 
 SCOTUS NOVANTICUS, Author of " Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta." 
 
 "About twelve months ago the author of this volume published a work entitled 
 ' Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta : a return to Dualism," in which he advanced a notable 
 theory regarding the origin and nature of human knowledge. . , . 
 
 "In the ' Ethics of Reason ' the direct influence of Kant and Hegel is especially evident ; 
 still these old elements of doctrine, as well as the terminology, are here used in an 
 independent way by a writer who elaborates a theory marked by distinctive features. . . . 
 
 " To "understand fully the doctrines thus propounded by ' Scotus Novanticus,' his 
 reasonings must be studied in his own expositions, and as he has reasoned them out and 
 connected the different parts into a system. All that we can say is that the various 
 branches of the subject are unfolded with ability and ample knowledge of existing moral 
 theories. . . . 
 
 "The work is the production of an original and profound thinker who is well aware of 
 the difficulties of his thesis. The argument is managed with skill and dialectic power. The 
 treatise is well entitled to the attention of students of Philosophy." From " The 
 Scotsman." 
 
 "The 'Ethica' repeats the characteristics of the 'Metaphysica,' and is an equally 
 noteworthy contribution to the determination of ultimate philosophical positions. The 
 book is not controversial in character, and is as sparing as its predecessor in the specific 
 allusions to other writers ; but we are able to feel that the abstention is advised, and 
 that the author's theory has been elaborated in full view of modern discussions. As he 
 proceeds on his own way, doctrines receive their correction, amplification, or quietus, 
 though their authors are not referred to. ... 
 
 " Enough has perhaps been said to prove that the argument deserves to be studied by 
 all who aim at clear thinking on ethical questions." From " Mind" October, 1885. 
 
 " As we expected, the acute and logical author of ' Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta' has 
 followed up that work with another, in which his leading principles are applied in the 
 field of ethics. Here, as in his former work, he is very close and cogent, scorning to 
 allow himself any of the easy and rhetorical illustrations with which some writers in 
 philosophy are prdne to make up their chapters. Whatever may be said of his ideas, his 
 style, it will be admitted, is one that is to be commended alike for its directness, 
 simplicity, and serviceableness. We have read the book with an increasing conviction of 
 the author's originality and power, and of the benefit that lijs books may confer, even in 
 this regard, on philosophical students. So carefully is his main argument drawn out 
 that we cannot find space to outline it here, but must content ourselves with indicating 
 one or two of his salient positions. . . . 
 
 " The author's application of his principles to the development of the Altruistic 
 Emotions, to Law, and Justice is admirably consistent and suggestive ; though, of course, 
 in the process he has to deal somewhat severely with the definitions of the moral sense, 
 the moral faculty, and conscience, which have been given by not a few writers on 
 philosophy, ethics, and theology. Many of Kant's positions are 'incisively criticized, and 
 lacunce, as the author conceives, supplied. Asa criticism of ethical systems, no less than 
 as a piece of dialectic, and a positive contribution to ethical science, it is suggestive and 
 thorough. We can cordially commend the book. It will raise questions no doubt, and 
 answers will be forthcoming on various points ; but the questioners would do well to take a 
 hint from the author in the style of answering them." From " The British Quarterly 
 Review." 
 
Notices of the Press. 
 
 " Instead of the psychological method of inquiry formerly so much in fashion in the 
 treatment of ethics, we have here a method which is transcendental in character. . . . 
 
 "Here, as indeed throughout the volume, 'Scotus Novanticus' shows how ably he 
 can conduct a process of reasoning throughout its various stages, avoiding every 
 temptation to depart from the definite line of argument which he has marked out for 
 himself. . . . 
 
 " This is an exceedingly ahle work. It contains much forcible writing, and shows the 
 author to possess a singular power of sustained thought. We admire the way in which 
 he keeps himself free from entanglement in view of side issues, and at the same time is 
 able to indicate their bearings on the main theme. For the expression of abstract 
 thinking the style could hardly be better. It is direct, and hence forcible, and, though 
 using the language of philosophy, is free from unnecessary technicalities." From " The 
 Glasgow Herald* April 10, 1885. 
 
 " The author's mode of working out his thought may seem to symbolize his ethical 
 theory itself. The sense of effort that is a part of all moral action ends, as he shows, in 
 a sense of harmony. Now 'Scotus Novanticus' requires from his readers a distinct 
 intellectual effort in order to grasp his thought ; but if they are willing to make this 
 effort, they are really rewarded by having in their minds an idea of a coherent system 
 which has many features of originality, and which, regarded as a whole, produces 
 (whether we agree with it or not) that sense of power to contemplate the world and 
 action from a general point of view which is characteristic of the philosophic attitude as 
 distinguished from the attitude of science and common sense." From "The Westminster 
 Review." 
 
 " This volume is characterized, we need hardly say, by all the excellent qualities that 
 distinguished our author's previous work. . . . 'Scotus Novanticus' is a skilful and 
 patient analyst of the phenomena of mind, and writes in a style that conveys very clearly 
 what he wishes to express. It is a case of clear thought mirroring itself 'in clear 
 language. . . . We remarked in regard to his 'Metaphysics' that it read like a mathe- 
 matical demonstration: we have the same to say of this. 'Scotus Novanticus' has 
 evidently a wholesome horror of ' padding.' His argument is about as condensed as it 
 could well be. Then he is so careful in the use of his terms that we run a risk of 
 misleading our readers by employing them without also giving his precise definitions of 
 them. We refer our readers, therefore, to the work itself. It will amply repay careful 
 study, and only by careful study can the argument be fully appreciated. . . . ' Ethica ' is 
 a careful study, and a valuable contribution to ethical science." From " The Scottish 
 (Quarterly) Review." 
 
 "The present treatise contains a very close discussion of the chief points in debate 
 between the different schools of moralists ; and the author seems, in my j udgment, to be 
 
 remarkably successful in harmonizing the elements of truth in each It is not possible 
 
 here to do more than single out a few points from a book which rewards a careful 
 study." From " The Contemporary Review." 
 
 ON THE "METAPHYSICA" AND "ETHICA" 
 TOGETHER. 
 
 "There is nothing absolutely new in [Dr Martineau's] doctrine [as to necessity of 
 conflict, &c.]. ... It has been admirably expounded in a recent volume of great force 
 of thought and scientific precision of analysis, under the title of 'Ethica, or the Ethics of 
 Reason.' This volume bears to be by 'Scotus Novanticus,' author of a preceding 
 volume entitled 'Metaphysica Nova et Vetusta.' Both volumes are marked by much 
 vigour and lucidity, grasp of philosophic distinctions, and capacity of following and 
 combining threads of thought to their end. . . . We have pleasure in recommending them 
 to the attention of all students of Philosophy." From " The Edinburgh Review." 
 
 "Das erste dieser beiden eng zusammengehorigen Bilcher desselben ungenannten 
 Verf. (des Prof. S. S. Laurie) lasst sich als eine Phenomenologie des Geistes behufs der 
 Constituirung einer erkenntnisstheoretischen Metaphysik bezeichnen, die von Kantischen, 
 streng rationalistischen Gesichtspunkten ausgehend, sich von da mit Hulfe weiterer an 
 Fichte und Hegel erinnernden Elemente zu eiuer vollstandigen, eigenthumlichen Ansicht 
 der Sache erhebt." 
 
 "In der Behauptung der Idee der Personlichkeit steht der Verf. durchaus auf 
 Kantischem Boden ; sein Streben ist aber die theor,etische und praktische Seite der 
 Vernunft einander moglichst zu nahern, um eben aus ihr als einem einheitlichen Princip 
 eine vollstandige systematische Erkenntnisseinheit zu deduciren, wobei er sich dem 
 absoluten Idealismus der nachkantischen deutschen Philosophic annahert. Das Unter- 
 
Notices of the Press. 
 
 nehmen des 'Scotus Novanticus' kann als einer der achtbarsten Yersuche unserer Zeit, 
 in Ankniipfung an die durcli Kant begonnene pliilosophische Bewegung zu einer, melir 
 als bislier geschehen ist, abschliessenden Form eines speculativen Systems zu gelangen, 
 betrachtet werden." C. S. (PROFESSOR SCHAARSCHMIDT). From "Die philosonhische 
 Monatshefte," xxii. 6, 7. 
 
 "....deux ecrits recents fort remarquables signes du pseudonyme de 'Scotus 
 Novanticus.' Ce spnt des essais fort ing6nieux de conciliation entre les mgthodes 
 obj ective et subj ective appliquees a la recherche des origines de la connaissance et de la 
 loi morale." M. G. ROLIN-JACQUEMYNS. From " La Revue d e Droit international." 
 
 WILLIAMS AND NORGATE : LONDON AND EDINBURGH. 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 NOTES ON BRITISH THEORIES OF MORALS. 
 D. DOUGLAS, Edinburgh. 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION IN RELATION TO 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Third Edition. J. THIN, Edinburgh. 
 
 HANDBOOK TO LECTURES ON EDUCATION. 
 
 Third Edition. J. THIN. 
 
 THE TRAINING OF THE TEACHER AND OTHER 
 EDUCATIONAL PAPERS. 
 
 KEG AN PAUL, TRENCH AND Co., London. 
 
 THE EDUCATIONAL LIFE AND WRITINGS OF 
 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 
 
 Third Edition. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 THE RISE AND EARLY CONSTITUTION OF 
 UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH AND Co. 
 
 APPLETON, New York. 
 
UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 Jamtary, 1889. 
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