LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class TEXT-BOOK OF THE ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK IRobert 1benr$ Smitb Massachusetts Institute of Technology Text-Book of the Elements of Machine Work 192 pp., 5x8, 204 Illustrations. Text-Book of the Principles of Machine Work 372 pp., 5x8, 434 Illustrations. Text-Book of Advanced Machine Work 350 pp., 5 x 8, 400 Illustrations. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION BOOK COMPANY BOSTON, U. S. A. TEXT- BOOK OF TEE ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK PREPARED FOR STUDENTS IN TECHNICAL, MANUAL TRAINING, AND TRADE SCHOOLS, AND FOR THE APPRENTICE IN THE SHOP LAYING OUT WORK, CHIPPING, FILING, SCRAPING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING CARBON AND HIGH- SPEED STEELS, TESTING HARDNESS, PIPE FITTING, SOLDERING, BRAZING, LACING BELTS, ALINING SHAFTING, AND INSTALLING MACHINES ROBERT H. SMITH VI MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 204 Illustrations ,.. FIRST ^DJTAO INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION BOOK COMPANY BOSTON, U.S.A. ** v SQUARE V / \ I \ v/ x x BLADE B \ ^J FIG. 22. DRAWING DIAMETRICAL LINE WITH FIG. 23. DRAWING LINES COMBINATION SQUARE. FOR KEY SEAT. 71. Key seating rule. A, Fig. 23, is used to obtain parallel lines on shafts or in holes for key ways and mortises. The rule is placed on shaft B and a scriber used to draw line along MARKING AND TESTING GAGES. 21 SCRATCH GAGE edge C. Circle D may be drawn as a guide for lines and for a drill when hole is desired. 72. To mark line around shaft, coat with sulphate of copper and pass steel tape or a strip of stiff paper around shaft. Hold tight and mark line at edge of tape with scriber. 73. Scratch gages, Fig. 24, are used for drawing parallel lines. Upon beam A head B is clamped by screw C, and marker D by screw E. To set the gage, clamp head B * WORK F at required distance from marker D, using graduations on beam or on a steel rule. Place it on work as at F with head pressed against side of work and push it in direction of arrow with marker inclined as at D', producing line GH. H WORK F FIG. 24. DRAWING PARALLEL LINES. FIG. 25. TESTING DEPTH OF HOLE. 74. Depth gage, Fig. 25, consists of beam A, rule B, and clamp C. The rule may be used at end of beam as at D when measuring depths close to shoulder. Depth of hole E in work F is li". Micrometer depth gages are obtainable. 22 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. V A FIG. 26. CENTER PUNCH FOR INDENTING CENTERS. 75. Center punch, Fig. 26, is used to produce, when struck with a hammer, an indentation in metal. It should be held perpendicularly to work or it will slip when struck. Point A should be hardened, tempered, and ground to an angle of 60. End B should also be reduced. FIG. 27. SCRIBER FOR DRAWING LINES. 76. A forged scriber (scratch awl), A B, Fig. 27, is used to mark lines upon work when guided by edge of blade of square or straight edge. 77. Bench surface gage and leveling plate, Fig. 28. To use gage A to draw line on work B parallel to leveling plate C. Coat surface with chalk or copper sulphate. Set gage at A' , place rule D against blade of square E, loosen screw F and adjust scriber G approximately to desired line on rule; set FIG. 28. LINING OUT WORK WITH SURFACE GAGE. point of scriber accurately by means of adjusting screw H, then lock by screw F; press work to leveling plate while SURFACE GAGE. 23 gage A is grasped with right hand to draw scriber across work, producing line KL. 78. Universal surface gage, Fig. 29, is used for laying out work, leveling, and lining castings, etc. Base A is grooved FIG. 29. LINING OUT ECCENTRIC STRAP WITH UNIVERSAL SURFACE GAGE. for use on circular work. Spindle B carries double clamp C that holds scriber D. Nut E clamps scriber at any height or angle. Nut F clamps spindle at any angle. Lever J and nut K serve for fine adjustments. The gage is used for leveling at G and G' ', the strap bolted to angle plate H. To set scriber to given height adjust approxi- mately, then accurately by lever J and nut K. To draw line parallel to edge of leveling plate, or to align work on planer, push down pins L, L'. For small work insert scriber D in hole M. For depth gage pass scriber through slot N. 79. Automatic adjustable center punch, A, Fig. 30, is used to produce marks of uniform size, which is important when accuracy is desired. Bring tool to desired location as at circle 24 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. on jig B, and press knurled handle downward to produce the indentation. The depth of indentation can be adjusted by screw C. Use magnifying glass D for accurate work. Point E is removable for grinding. ADJUSTABLE c AUTOMATIC CENTER FIG. 30. LAYING OUT A JIG. 80. The monkey wrench, A, Fig. 31, consists of bar 5, handle C, and jaws D and E. Jaw E is moved by nurled FIG. 31. TIGHTENING NUT. head F of screw G. Force is applied on handle in direction of arrow. To avoid springing jaws and scarring work, place WRENCHES. 25 wrench with nut H well in against bar B. Never use monkey wrench as a hammer. 81. Pipe attachment for monkey wrench. Fig. 32. --To wrench L is attached taper jaw M with teeth, by screw N. FIG. 32. USING MONKEY WRENCH AS PIPE WRENCH. When force is applied, wrench will grip and turn pipe P. A piece of a -|" round file makes a good pipe attachment. It is pressed against pipe and sliding jaw. 82. Solid wrench, Fig. 33, has less tendency than a monkey wrench to round the corners of nuts and cap screws. FIG. 33. SOLID WRENCH. FIG. 34. TOOL-POST WRENCH. 83. A tool-post wrench, A, Fig. 34, is used on head of screw B of tool post C to fasten tool D. 26 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 84. Socket wrenches, A, Fig. 35, are used to operate nuts and cap screws that are located in deep places, as nut B. FIG. 35. FIG. 36. 85. Spanner wrenches of many forms are used to operate circular nuts or collars. Wrench A, Fig. 36, is being used to turn the circular nut B to adjust and fasten box C of spindle D. Pin E of spanner fits into '~ c hole F of nut. -D 86. Screw-driver, Fig. 37, is made of steel, hardened and tempered. To avoid injury to sides FIG. 37. SCREW-DRIVER. of slot in screw, its sides must be ground parallel as at A and its edges B and C slightly rounded. 87. Plumb bob, Fig. 38, is used to test and FIG. 38. establish verticals in setting up machinery shaft- PLUMB BOB. ith mercury at hardened and body and point are ground. It is suspended with fine silk line C attached to nut D. In the absence SPIRIT LEVEL. 27 of a regular plumb bob, an improvised one may be made by tying a string to a nut or collar. 88. Spirit level, Fig. 39, is used to establish horizontals and verticals, to level and shafting machines. FIG. 39. SPIRIT LEVEL. Three tubes at A, B, and C in frame are nearly filled with alcohol, leaving a small air space called the " bubble." Tube A is used to test horizontals. Tubes B and C to test verticals. When bubble is central with line on tube, the work is true. The truth of a level may be tested by blocking up one end until the bubble is central; then reverse level, and if bubble returns to the center, the level is correct. 89. Pliers are made in a variety of styles and sizes. Parallel pliers, A, Fig. 40, are so constructed that the jaws open to the PLIERS FIG. 40. BENDING METAL WITH PLIERS. full capacity parallel to each other, giving a very effective hold on work B. 90. Nippers or wire cutters. There are many styles ; some cut at the end, others at the side. Pliers are also obtain- able that have nippers and are called combination or cutting pliers. 28 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. To cut off a piece of wire with nipper A, Fig. 41, pass wire B between jaws and compress handle. Stops C and D may be CUTTING NIPPER FIG. 41. CUTTING OFF WIRE WITH CUTTING NIPPERS. adjusted to prevent jaws from touching and dulling each other, and spring E keeps them open. To cut hard wire, nick with file or emery wheel and break off by bending. CHAPTER III. CHIPPING: HAND AND POWER. TOOL-GRINDING. CHIPPING: HAND AND POWER. 91. Hand work includes operations, such as chipping, filing, scraping, and fitting, performed with hand tools, and dates back to the Stone Age, when stone tools' were applied and used in the same manner as chisels and files are used to-day. The guide principle in hand tools can be traced from the simplest hand tools to the most complex machine tools. The tool that possesses the guide principle in a large degree is com- paratively easy to manipulate, while one that possesses it only in a small degree requires special training. The carpenter's plane possesses the guide principle in a large degree. The chipping chisel with its single cutting edge and no support but the hand is the simplest form of cutting tool but is diffi- cult to use. A file possesses the guide principle only in a limited degree, for it cuts at every part of its surface. FIG. 42. HOLDING WORK IN VISE. 29 30 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 92. Machinists' vise, A, Fig. 42, is made of cast iron with parallel jaws B and B'. It is fastened to bench C, 33" or 34" in height, by bolts or lag screws, as at D and D'. The sliding jaw B / is moved in or out to grip work E by screw F, operated by handle G. The jaws are faced with steel milled to increase their grip. Some vises can be swiveled to any angle, and others have one swivel jaw for holding taper work. Soft supplementary jaws of copper, brass, lead, leather, or wood, should be supplied on vises to protect finished work. 93. Chipping hammer, designated by the shape of its peen, as at A, B and C, Fig. 43, weighs from f to If pounds. A FIG. 43. CHIPPING HAMMERS, DIFFERENT TYPES. li -pound ball peen made of carbon steel hardened and tempered on face and peen is suitable for the average student. CHIPPING CHISELS. 31 The different peens are used for various kinds of riveting, peening and stretching metal. Handle D is of hickory, 10" to 16" in length, depending on weight of hammer, and is not too stiff at shank E to cause a shock that would tire the hand and arm. The handle is fitted in head F and held by an S-shaped iron wedge, G. The face H is slightly crowning. 94. Flat cold chisel, A, Fig. 44, is made of octagonal tool steel (70-point). Flats B and B' are forged to plane surfaces, FIG. 44. CHIPPING CHISEL. symmetrical with the sides of steel. Head C and C" is reduced. Cutting edge D, is forged wider than the body. Thickness of D' is about -^". A thick chisel is both difficult to grind and to hold to the cut. c COLD CHISEL, E 60 FIG. 45. IMPROVED CHIPPING CHISEL. 95. An improved cold chisel, E, Fig. 45. The blade is drawn thin as at F, F' and packed by heavy blows with hammer given under a dull red heat. 32 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 96. To grind cold chisel, A, Fig. 46. Grind bevels flat. If convex, as at B, it will be impossible to hold the chisel to the cut and chip a smooth surface. The bevels should be ground parallel to the flats and slightly curved at C. Wrong methods of grinding are shown at D, E, F, and G. A B GOOD BEVEL BAD BEVEL VERY GOOD F G VERY BAD VERY BAD END VIEW OF CHISELS FIG. 46. GOOD AND BAD CHISEL GRINDING. The cutting angle is changed to suit the nature of material to be cut. For cast iron it is 60 to 70; steel and wrought iron, 50 to 60; brass, 40 to 50; the softer metals as copper, Babbitt, and lead, about 35. Grind the chisel to as sharp an angle as will stand and do good work. 97. In machine work there are two processes Roughing and finishing. Roughing is the process of rapidly removing surplus stock, with one or more cuts, with approximate accuracy, leaving an allowance for finishing with one cut. Finishing is the process of taking the last cut to produce a smooth, accurate surface and a desired size. Chipping often corresponds to roughing; and filing to finishing. Chipping is used to prepare castings and forgings to be ma- chined, to snag castings (see 375), to fit castings to each other, to cut key ways in shafts, pulleys and gears, and oil grooves in bearings, etc. The most skilful chipping is done in making steel cutting dies and punches. Attention. Snagging is the process of removing the sprues, gates, fins and other projections from castings by chipping and filing with old files. CHIPPING. 33 FIG. 47. CORRECT POSITION FOR CHIPPING. ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 98. Method of using cold chisel. The chisel is grasped as in Fig. 47 with sufficient force to guide and hold it to the cut. The eye follows the cutting edge, not the head of the chisel. 99. Method of using a hammer. Grasp the handle near the end with sufficient force to control the blow, swing arm back from elbow, carrying the head of the hammer about ver- tically over the shoulder, Fig. 47. Begin with short light strokes and increase to long and vigorous blows for effective work. 100. Lubricant for chipping. Metals are generally chipped dry. When chipping key ways, slots, grooves, etc., in steel or wrought iron, the chisel will cut better if occa- sionally touched to a piece of cotton waste well saturated with oil. 101. Method of beginning and continuing a cut. To chip to line AB, Fig. 48, take heavy roughing cuts as CD ( T y to T V' in depth) and leave ^y for finishing. CHISEL E CHIP F PACKING BLOCK K FIG. 48. BEGINNING THE CUT. The dotted line CD represents depth of first roughing cut. To begin cut, place chisel E horizontally/and by a sharp blow remove chip F, as at G, Fig. 49. Then incline chisel upward, as at E', Fig. 49, until lower bevel makes small angle H to line of cut C'D' for clearance. If material is hard cast iron, the CHIPPING. 35 chip will fly off; if steel or wrought iron, the chip will curl upward as at J, Fig. 50. Attention. Hold work so that it may be operated upon horizontally if possible. Work may be prevented from slipping by packing block K, Fig. 48. CHISEU CHIP J BLOCK FIG. 49. ROUGHING CUT, CAST IRON. 1 1 FIG. 50. ROUGHING CUT, STEEL, OB WROUGHT IRON. To prevent breaking out at end in chipping, especially cast iron, stop cut \" from end of work, reverse work in vise and chip remainder. 102. Cape chisel, Fig. 51 (cross-cut chisel), is used for cutting key ways, grooves, and work of similar nature. It is thin at point A and wide at B to give strength. It is r FIG. 51. CAPE CHISEL. ground to decrease in width from A to C for clearance. A cape chisel is necessary in chipping broad surfaces by chip- ping a series of grooves to the required depth, about ? ff apart, across the surface; then the ridges are removed with a flat chisel. 36 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 103. A small round-nose chisel or gouge, Fig. 52, is used for half-round chamfers or small grooves. It is made wider at A FIG. 52. SMALL ROUND-NOSE CHISEL. FIG. 53. CHIPPING CONCAVE SURFACE. than at B to give it clearance, and thick at D to give it strength. It is given a slight bevel shown at C, Fig. 52, and C' ', Fig. 53. 104. A large round-nose chisel or gouge, Fig. 54, is used to produce concave surfaces. It is wider at A than at B in order to FIG. 54. LARGE ROUND-NOSE CHISEL. make it possible to govern the direction of cut. Its curva- ture must be of a smaller radius than that of the work it is to cut to give clearance. The front angle is ground to about 45, then a slight bevel is ground at C on under side. CHIPPING CHISELS. 37 105. A center chisel or oil-groove chisel, A and B, Fig. 55, is used in the operation of drilling to draw drill, also to D-A FIG. 55. CENTER CHISEL. chip oil grooves in bearings or boxes. To chip circular oil grooves use a bent chisel. 106. A diamond-point chisel, Fig. 56, is used for forming square corners in holes, key ways, and work of similar nature. FIG. 56. DIAMOND-POINT CHISEL. It is also used by boiler makers for cutting holes. For heavy cuts it should be slightly beveled at C. L FIG. 57. SIDE-CHIPPING CHISEL. 107. A side chisel, Fig. 57, is used for chipping the sides of slots, key ways, grooves, etc. For heavy cuts it is beveled at C. 38 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 108. To chip plane surfaces. Bevels, Fig. 58. FIG. 53. SCHEDULE DRAWING OF CHIPPING PLANE SURFACES. -*' SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. ROUGHING Stock Iron Casting. FINISHING Tool Flat Chisel Snag block with cold chisel. Coat with chalk a portion of sides, ends, and top, and smooth with fingers, (1), (2). Set scriber of bench surface gage &" from leveling plate. Draw lines all around, (3), (4). Hold block in vise with bevel lines horizontal. Grind chisel to angle of 60. Rough chip bevel all around (5) &", (6) &', two cuts. Leave &" to ^" for finishing. If chisel draws in too deep, lower chisel. To finish, regrind chisel, press hard on work and chip to line, (7). Test with blade of square. With i" cape chisel chip spot for name, (8), and stamp with steel stamp. Attention. Keep chisel sharp and cut continuously. If it does not keep its edge, test with file ; if hard, regrind ; if soft, reharden and temper. When chisel becomes too thick, reforge. PNEUMATIC CHIPPING. 39 109. Pneumatic hammer. The cold chisel may be used by power more effectively than by hand by means of the pneumatic hammer A, Fig. 59, shown chipping the boiler front B, resting on bench C. The chisel D has a hexagonal shank and fits the socket of the machine. The handle E of the machine is held with the thumb on the trigger F, which controls the air supplied to the hammer. The air is delivered at a pressure of FIG. 59. PNEUMATIC CHIPPING. about 80 pounds per square inch through hose G. To begin a cut, the trigger is pressed lightly; after the cut is started, more air is admitted, making the blows harder and more rapid. Pneumatic hammers are used for chipping, calking, and beading boiler tubes, etc. 40 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. TOOL GRINDING. 110. Wet tool grinder. Fig. 60 consists of column A, grinding wheel B in dust-proof bearings C, belt D, water pipe E, pump F, bait G, and tool rest H. A No. 30 grinding FIG. 60. WET TOOL GRINDER. wheel, grade 3} (silicate process), is used for grinding cut- ting tools. The wheel should be not less than 20" in diameter and \\" to 2" face, is used wet and run at a surface speed of 4000 F.P.M. A small quantity of sal soda in the TOOL GRINDING. 41 4 water will prevent rust of machine and tools and improve the cut of emery wheels. 111. Emery or grinding wheels (see Abrasives, 176) for automatic grinding machines are run at 5000 feet per minute periphery speed; but for special work from 4000 feet to 6000 feet may be used. A wheel running at 4000 feet has a max- imum stress of 48 pounds; 5000 feet, 75 pounds; and 6000 feet, 108 pounds per square inch. Wheels should be run as slowly as practicable to have an ample margin of safety. Attention. The term emery may mean emery, corundum, alundum, or carborundum, as all of these abrasives are used for grinding wheels. 112. To calculate speeds of emery wheels. To find the surface speed in feet per minute of an emery wheel: first, obtain with a speed indicator the number of revolutions of the emery wheel spindle per minute. Then divide the number of revolutions of the wheel per minute by 12, and multiply the result by 3.1416 times the diameter of the emery wheel in inches. Example. Find the surface speed of a 24-inch emery wheel making 637 revolutions per minute. Solution. -V/ X 3.1416 X 24 = 4000 feet per minute. This is an effective and safe surface speed for wet tool grinders, for emery wheels made by either the silicate or vitrified pro- cess, and for hand grinding. To find the number of revolutions an emery wheel spindle should run to give a required cutting speed, diameter of wheel and feet per minute being given. Rule. Multiply the diameter of emery wheel in inches by 3.1416 and divide the feet per minute (reduced to inches) by that product. Example. Find the revolutions of a spindle for a 24-inch emery wheel to run 4000 feet per minute. 12 X 4000 Solution. - = 637 revolutions. 24X3.1416 42 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 113. To true emery wheel by hand as at A, Fig. 61.-- Use dresser B dry or, preferably, with water. For heavy truing, move tool rest C back about |" and clamp. Place projec- tions D inside of rest FIG. 62. TRUING ROLL FOR EMERY WHEEL, DOUBLE WHEEL WET TOOL GRINDER. SLIDE REST FIG. 61. TRUING EMERY WHEEL WITH DRESSER. and press hard on rest. Raise handle E and move dresser back and forth across face of wheel as shown by arrows. For light truing, move tool rest closer to wheel, place projections F of dresser B on rest, press down hard and move dresser back and forth. When hardened steel disks G become worn, re- place with new ones. In- stead of using dresser by hand, special dresser H may be used in slide rest /, which is clamped to machine in place of tool rest C. 114. To true emery wheel by power with truing roll A, Fig. 6. Oil roll bearings and turn hand wheel B to force roll against revolv- ing wheel with considerable pressure. TOOL GRINDING. 43 Water supply. By hand wheel C one end of trough D is lowered into tank E and the water flows from tank into trough and against revolving wheel which delivers water through guide F to tool. Rest guard G prevents spattering. 115. Truing with a diamond tool. To true eirery wheel A, Fig. 63, use diamond tool B which consists of black dia- mond C set in end of holder. Use dry or, preferably, with water. Hold perpendicular to wheel, press firmly on rest and move across face of wheel. BLACK DIAMOND FIG. 63. TRUING EMERY WHEEL WITH DIAMOND TOOL. It may be used also in slide rest D. Diamonds are set in two forms of holders round for general use, and rectangular, which can be used in a tool post. 116. Grindstone A, Fig. 64, consists of frame B, driving belt C, water supply pipe DE, drain pipe F, tool rest G, and truing device H. The grindstones used are Ohio, Nova Scotia, English, and Huron sandstone. A stone should be soft, coarse, and have uniformity of grit for edge tool grinding, and should revolve at a surface speed of 500 to 600 F.P.M. It is used with water but is never 44 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. allowed to stand for a long time in water, as it would soften. Long exposure to the sun would make it hard. 117. Grindstone tru- ing device, Fig. 64, is clamped to trough on side of stone that moves upward. Turn wheel H to bring roll in contact with stone. When roll is dull, an- neal, recut, and re-case- harden. A piece of pipe may be used instead of above, as follows: clamp rest G hard to trough FIG. 64. GRINDSTONE FOR TOOL GRINDING B, hold pipe firmly on WITH TRUING DEVICE ' rest at an angle, revolve slowly across face of stone, dry. FIG. 65. CORRECT. FIG. 66. INCORRECT. 118. To grind tools with emery wheel or grindstone. The relative position of tool and grinding wheel shown in Fig. 65 TOOL GRINDING. 45 is correct. If chisel is held as in Fig. 66, a wire edge will be formed which is not desirable as in most cases it would have to be oilstoned off. Warning. The tool rest should be close to wheel and clamped firmly to frame to avoid accidents. 119. To grind cold chisel A, Fig. 67. Apply pressure with the left hand supported and steadied on tool rest B. Hold tool at constant angle during grinding. See Fig. 46. FIG. 67. GKINDING COLD CHISEL. Attention. Grasp tool firmly when grinding to produce flat surfaces. Do not bear hard on emery wheel. To avoid grinding point of tool excessively, move heel of tool to touch wheel first, then raise or tilt shank until bevel or face lies flat as indicated by the " feel." To produce a smooth edge and even wear on wheel, move tool back and forth slowly parallel with axis of wheel. For Grinding Lathe and Planer Tools, see PRINCIPLES OP MACHINE WORK. CHAPTER IV. FILES. HAND AND MACHINE FILING. HOW FILES ARE MADE. FILES. 120. Files are largely used to smooth work after it is turned, planed, milled, etc., and for some classes of work that are not machined. Files are also very useful where alterations are to be made. To file flat surfaces, the position of hands and arms should be such that the cutting strokes are parallel. Classes of files. Files are divided into two classes: hand and mill files. In the hand which is always used for flat surfaces, the clearance is provided by the convexity of the file; in the mill, or lathe file, which is never used for flat surfaces, the curve of the lathe work provides the clearance. See Mill File, p. 51. 121. General description. A file has three distinguishing characteristics, its length, which is measured exclusively of its tang; its kind or name, which has reference to the shape or style; its cut, which has reference not only to the character but also to the relative degree of coarseness of the teeth. Shape of files. Flat, half-round, round, square, triangular (three square), pillar, mill, etc. 122. Cut of files consists of three distinct forms, single cut, double cut, and rasp. FIG. 68. SINGLE Cur FILE. Single cut file, Fig. 68 has a single course of chisel cuts across its surface, parallel to each other, but at an angle to the central line, varying from 70 to 85 according to requirements. 46 FILES. 47 Double-cut file, Fig. 69, has two courses of chisel cuts cross- ing each other. The first or " over cut " is 35 to 55 with the central line, and the second or " up cut " is from 70 to 85 and usually finer than the first. FIG. 69. DOUBLE CUT FILE. o- O-OO-O-OOOO-O-O o-O- O*- O> < >-j i> o. O FIG. 70. RASP CUT. Rasp, Fig. 70, has the teeth disconnected; each tooth is made by a punch. 123. Coarseness is designated by the following terms: Single Cut. Rough Coarse Bastard 2dCut Smooth Double Cut. Rough Coarse Bastard 2dCut Smooth Dead Smooth Rasp. Rough Coarse Bastard 2dCut Smooth 124. Swiss pattern (extra fine) files compared with regular files. Swiss pattern or extra fine files are designated by figures, as follows: " 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8." Number 00 is coarsest and corresponds closely to the bastard; number 1 to the 2d cut; number 3 to the smooth; and number 5 to the dead smooth. 48 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Large files are slightly coarser than small files of same degree of coarseness. 125. Uses and names applied to files. Coarse rasps are used by horseshoers, bastard by carriage makers, 2d cut by shoemakers, and smooth by cabinet makers. Rough and coarse cut files are used on soft material, on leather, bone, etc. The bastard file is the coarsest file used in general machine work. For bench work, the double-cut files of different degrees of coarseness are used, and for lathe work, single-cut. File parts. The different parts of a hand file are named in Fig. 71. POINT EDGE FIG. 71. PARTS OF A FILE. Safe edge (or side) is a name given to that part of a file that is without teeth. 126. Classes of files. Regular files are divide from the form of their cross-section into three geometrical classes, quadrangular, triangular, and circular. Each class is again divided according to general outline of file into full taper, taper, and blunt. Taper and blunt of some kinds, both regular and Swiss pattern, with small cross-sections are called slim taper, slim blunt, half-round slim, square slim, round slim, three-square slim. FIG. 72. Full taper. A file, Fig. 72, with a convexity on sides from point to heel, its greatest cross-section being near middle. FILES. 49 Taper. A file whose point is reduced in size (both width and thickness) by a gradually narrowing section extending from one-half to two-thirds length of file from point. Slim. A file smaller in its cross-section than regular file of its kind, and superseding regular patterns. Blunt. A file that preserves its sectional shape from point to tang. 127. Hand files. A file parallel in width, with one safe edge and full taper or bellied in thickness. It is double cut and made FIG. 73. FIG. 74. FIG. 75. FIG. 76. in regular cuts: hand bastard, Fig. 73; hand 2d cut, Fig. 74; hand smooth, Fig. 75; and hand dead smooth, Fig. 76. Its convexity gives it clearance. These four files are used for smoothing flat and convex surfaces of planed or rough machine work. Lengths 4" to 16". 50 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. FIG. 77. Flat file, Fig. 77, a file taper in shape, double cut, mostly bastard, although 2d cut, smooth and dead smooth are used. While a common file, its uses are confined to rougher kinds of filing. Lengths 4" to 16". FIG. 78. Square file, Fig. 78, has considerable taper; made in slim and blunt shapes, usually double cut; bastard being most used, although 2d cut and smooth are sometimes used. It is useful in enlarging holes of square or rectangular shape, as dies and key ways. Lengths 4" to 16". FIG. 79. Pillar file, Fig. 79, resembles a hand file in general shape and cut. Made with one or two safe edges; useful on narrow work. Two sizes, narrow and extra narrow. Lengths 6" to 14". FIG. 80. Warding file, Fig. 80, is parallel in thickness, about T y thick; has much taper in width; double cut and usually bastard; useful to file out ward notches in keys. Lengths 3" to 8". FILES. 51 FIG. 81. Mill file, Fig. 81, is slightly taper in width and thick- ness; usually single cut. Grades commonly used, bastard and 2d cut. It is made with safe edges and used for work in the lathe, also for draw-filing. Mill files made with round edges are used for filing mill saws. See PRINCIPLES OF MACHINE WORK. Attention. A mill file is often called a float file. 128. Saw file, Fig. 82, has teeth cut on its edges to stand tough steel. Very useful in machine work where strong edge is necessary. Made in both regular taper and slim taper. Lengths 3" to 10". c FIG. 82. Three-square file is taper, double cut, sharp corners; used for acute internal angles. Bastard is most used; 2d cut and smooth have wide use for backing off taps and work of that class. Sometimes made blunt. Lengths 3" to 14". FIG. 83. Knife file, Fig. 83, is taper and double cut, of regular cuts. Resembles a knife blade; is useful for niches, inner angles, etc, Also made blunt. Lengths 3" to 10". 52 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 129. Round file, Fig. 84, is made taper. Bastard cut is useful; for enlarging round holes and shaping concave work, etc. It is made in slim and blunt shapes and used for heavy work. Lengths 4* to 16". FIG. 84. Half-round file, Fig. 85, is taper in shape and the half-round side is curved in length. Convex side is useful in shaping con- cave work. Flat side may be used for ordinary filing; edges useful in filing acute angles. Also made in slim and blunt shapes. Lengths 4" to 16". Fia. 85. 130. Bent rifHer, Fig. 86, is used in shaping and finishing irregular shaped cavities. FIG. 86. Half-round rasp, Fig. 87, is a useful file for wood. Lengths 8" to 14". FIG. 87. Lead float is single cut or float. Teeth are cut nearly straight across and very open, both of which are essential for lead or babbitt. Special files for brass, bronze, copper, and other soft metals are obtainable with teeth cut more open and of a different FILING. 53 angle than regular files. They are less liable to clog and are preferred to the regular files for these metals. 131. Wood handles for files are obtainable in different sizes. To fit handle to small file, drill hole axially true and of size about equal to diameter of -tang at middle, then drive handle carefully on to file. To fit handle to large file, heat tang of worn-out file of same size and burn out hole in handle and drive handle on to tang nearly to shoulder. FIG. 88. 132. File card, Fig. 88, is used to clean files to avoid clogging and scratching the work. Brush across the file in direction of its teeth. 133. Lubricant for filing. Oil or chalk rubbed on the file will make it cut steel or wrought iron smoother but slower. Never use oil when filing cast iron or brass. Oil may be removed from a file by rubbing freely with chalk, then brush- ing off with a file cord. 134. Pinning. In filing steel, wrought iron, or any tenacious metal, a file is likely to " pin," that is, have filings wedge between the teeth. It is prevented to some extent by filling the spaces between the teeth with chalk or oil or both. To remove filings that a file card fails to dislodge use a thin piece of soft iron (A, Fig. 88), never hard steel. 135. The proper care of a file. Files should be kept in special compartments to avoid injuring their teeth. HAND AND MACHINE FILING. 136. Height of work. For general purposes, the top vise jaws should be level with elbow. Very heavy filing is done more easily with work lower, while for very light filing it should be higher. 54 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. FIG. 89. CORRECT POSITION FOR FILING. 137. For correct position of feet and body and hands. Fig. 89. Throw the weight of the body upon the file for heavy filing. On light filing, use pressure of the arms alone. A file will cut only on the forward stroke; relieve pressure on return stroke. FILING. 55 ftOOD FIG. 90. CORRECT POSITION OF HANDS FOR FILING. FIG. 91. INCORRECT POSITION OF HANDS FOR FILING. FIG. 92. * CORRECT POSITION OF HANDS FOR LIGHT FILING. 56 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 138. To grasp file in cross filing. The student should held file as in Fig. 90. Avoid holding as in Fig. 91, as it requires twisting the forearm, making it difficult to file a flat surface. The left hand may be used as in Figs. 90 and 92, alternately to rest hand and increase or decrease pressure. 139. To select a file is the most important thing connected with filing. Use bastard and second cut for ordinary filing; smooth or dead smooth to remove only a small amount of stock and then only when a very fine finish is desired. 140. Try squares are used to establish right (90) angles, to test squareness, to lay out work, and to test flatness of surfaces. 141. To test flatness of surfaces, hold square A and block B at height of eyes, as in Fig. 93, with blade C slightly inclined FIG. 93. TESTING SURFACE OF BLOCK. toward you, and the light line between blade and surface will indicate truth or error. To produce true plane, test crosswise, lengthwise, and diagonally. Attention. For work of great refinement, use beveled edge square. It is held perpendicular to the work as at D, Fig. 93, and gives a line contact. FILING. 57 142. To test squareness, hold square A and block B at height of eyes, as in Fig. 94. Press beam C hard against trued surface with blade D slightly inclined toward you, then lower blade to lightly touch surface and light line will indicate truth or error. BEAM FIG. 94. TESTING SQUARENESS WITH TRY SQUARE. 143. To lay out work. Hold beam of square against working surface and use blade to guide scriber. FIG. 95. SCHEDULE DRAWING OF FILING PLANE SURFACES. 144. To file and to square plane (flat) surf aces,' Fig. 95. 58 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. ROUGHING. FINISHING. Stock Iron Casting, Planed. Tools 10" or 12" Hand Bastard and 8" or 10" Hand Smooth Files. Hold block in vise with copper jaws. Brighten upper portions of sides, (1) and (3), with 8" or 10" hand smooth file. Coat with cop- per sulphate and draw lines -fa" from top with bench surface gage on leveling plate, (3) (4). Bevel long edges to these lines about 45, (5) and (6) hand smooth file, as at (A) and (A'). To rough file, place work cross- wise in vise and file surface (7) to FIG. 96. FIRST ROUGHING CUT. lines with 10" or 12" hand bas- tard, with long strokes and heavy pressure, as follows: Begin as at D, Fig. 96, and file diagonally over whole surface to E and same from jy to W, Fig. 97. Test work crosswise and lengthwise with blade of square used as straight edge (see Fig. 93). To finish file, place work lengthwise in vise, file lengthwise until work is flat crosswise and un- til rough file marks are erased (8). Test lengthwise and chalk two marks, one each side of high spot. Place work in vise with high spot D 1 FIG. 97. SECOND ROUGHING CUT. toward fixed jaw. With short strokes file with left hand press- ing file directly over high spot until straight lengthwise. Test FILING. 59 across corners for wind. File high corners to take out wind. Note. To finish, move file straight ahead so that when sur- face is flat file marks will lie lengthwise of block and be straight and parallel. Stamp name (initials) with steel stamp in center of bottom (9) as shown at (10). To file (11) square with (8), Fig. 95. Test (11) with square and straight edge and file to finish as follows: file high side lengthwise only. Test as in Fig. 94 and chalk a line at the low spot and correct error. To finish, see Note above. To file (12) square with (8) and (11). Test (12) with (8) and (11). Place work in vise with high corner toward fixed jaw. Press file hard and file (12) with short strokes lengthwise only. To finish, see Note above. Attention. If a surface rounds perceptibly, increase pressure and shorten strokes. 145. Position of left hand to file out tool marks on broad sur- faces (Fig. 98). The fingers of left hand afford all the pressure necessary for light filing. FIG. 98. FILING OUT TOOL MARKS. FIG. 99. 146. Bending a file to give convexity, Fig. 99. To avoid rounding a surface, a thin file may be bent upward. 60 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. FIG. 100. : FILING LARGE SURFACE. 147. Surface file holder, Fig. 100, is used for filing large surfaces, which in addition to holding the file securely gives more or less convexity to cutting side. FIG. 101. TILTING FILE TO REMOVE STOCK RAPIDLY. 148. To remove rapidly a large amount of stock on work of small area, Fig. 101. Place stock A in vise B close to jaws to lessen tendency to chatter, and then tilt file first as at C, then as at D, then as at E. FILE I A WORK D WORK FIG. 102. USING SAFE EDGE FILE IN FILING PLANE SURFACE. FIG. 103. CANTING HALF-ROUND FILE TO PRODUCE SHARP CORNER. 149. Use of safe edge, Fig. 102, to file A and not B, and to file C and not D. B and D are the safe edges. This will not produce a perfectly sharp corner. FILING. 61 150. To produce sharp corner, use a fine half-round file slightly canted first as at E, Fig. 103, then as at F. 151. A safe round file for bottom of circular groove. Select a round file that will fit the groove or a little larger, then grind flats on opposite sides as at A and B, Fig. 104, until it freely enters groove. 1 2fe FIG. 104. USING SAFE EDGE FILE IN FILING CONCAVE SURFACE. FIG. 105. USING SAFE EDGE FILE FOR MORTISE OR SLOT. 152. A safe round-edge file for mortise or slot, A, Fig. 105, is used to cut away the walls between the drilled holes until space is large enough to use flat file B which has safe round edges. May use an ordinary hand file with edges ground approximately round. Attention. Files are obtainable with safe edges, or the teeth may be ground off. 153. Method of holding file for long holes, Fig. 106, when impossible to use regular stroke. For filing either square or round holes, a file should be as large in cross-section as can be freely used. WORK FIG. 106. FILING LONG HOLE WITH ROUND FILE. FIG. 107. FILING CONCAVE SURFACES WITH HALF- ROUND FILE. 154 Method of filing concave surfaces. Use a half-round file as A, Fig. 107. It should be given a sweep sideways on 62 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. the forward stroke from B to C by the action of the wrist. After a few strokes, the sweep should be reversed to carry it from C to B, causing file marks to cross and recross. FIG. 108. DRAW-FILING PLANE SURFACES WITH HAND FILE. 155. Draw-filing is used for finishing work (laying tool or file marks lengthwise). Hold file at 75 to 80 from work as in Fig. 108, and push file sidewise, using short strokes; relieve pressure on the return stroke. Draw-filing removes very little stock. FIG. 109. DRAW-FILING CYLINDRICAL SURFACES WITH MILL FILE. 156. To draw-file cylindrical surfaces, Fig. 109. Use light pressure and change angle slightly with each forward stroke, as the contact is very narrow. Cylindrical parts of machines having a sliding movement are usually given their final fitting in this way. FILING. 63 157. Filing wire. Freehand filing, Fig. 110. To reduce a piece of steel wire to a point. Place block A in vise B and file a V groove in its top. Insert work C in hand vise D and fasten by screw E. Then rotate work toward self with left hand and the same moment push the file forward with the right to pro- duce a circular surface. If the work is to be rectangular or flat, hold it at rest; if circular or oval shaped, it may be partially rotated. HAND VISE FIG. 110. FREEHAND FILING. 158. Filing machine, Fig. Ill, is used for die making, metal patterns, templets, etc. Schedule of Parts. A Column. B Countershaft. C Crank shaft. D File frame. E File, operated vertically by crank arm, slotted to allow ad- justment of length of stroke. F Table; maybe set tilted or horizontal. G Work, cutting die. H Feed screw, operated by hand. / Adjustable clamp for holding work. K Hand wheel for adjusting length of stroke. L Treadle shipper. M Air blast for keeping work clear of filings. Attention. In figure 111 the file cuts on downward stroke. To make the cutting stroke upward, the file is reversed and the crank pin moved to opposite end of crank arm. This machine is also used for sawing metal with a hack saw. 64 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. FIG. 111. MACHINE FILING. HOW FILES ARE MADE. 159. Files are made of a special grade of carbon steel of the required cross-section. The stock is cut to the required length, forged to shape, annealed and ground. 160. Hand -cut files. The teeth are cut with chisel as A, Fig. 112, on blank B which is secured on a pewter-faced anvil. The chisel is struck with a drawing blow by a special hammer which throws up a ridge across surface as exaggerated in MANUFACTURING FILES. 65 Fig. 112, after which the chisel is moved until it encounters the ridge just made, when it is struck again, and so on. FILE MACHINE CHISEL A / FIG. 112. FILE TEETH HAND CUT. FIG. 113. FILE TEETH MACHINE CUT. 161. Machine-cut files are known as " Increment Cut " files because the rows of teeth are spaced progressively wider from point to middle and from heel to middle to prevent chattering. Fig. 113 shows chisel A, driven. by power, and file blank B fed along for each tooth in the direction of arrow. The majority of files used are machine cut. 162. To harden files. The teeth of the file are covered with a coating of paste to protect the fine points from injury in heating. After paste is dry, the file is heated in a lead bath to a red heat, then dipped in a cooling bath which has a temperature that will give proper degree of hardness. If a file warps in cooling, it is forced back to a straight line before it is cold and cold water poured on what was the concave side. The tang is annealed to prevent breaking, the teeth cleaned, and file is ready for use. CHAPTER V. SCRAPERS, SCRAPING AND STANDARD SURFACE PLATES. POLISHING. SCRAPERS, SCRAPING AND STANDARD SURFACE PLATES. 163. Uses of scraping. Scraping is a process of cutting down the high places to produce better bearing surfaces between fitted parts of machinery; it is used to true up and fit the sliding surfaces and bearings of the better class of machines and engines, and has superseded the process of grinding surfaces together with emery and oil. Tools used in scraping are a scraper, fine Arkansas or man- ufactured oil stone and a standard surface plate. - 12"ro I5 1 - - -* T TO 4" f* 1 SIDE VIEW EDGE VIEW FIG. 114. FLAT SCRAPER FOR PLANE SURFACES. 164. Flat scraper, Fig. 114, is the most effective when much scraping has to be done. It must be " glass hard." 165. To sharpen scraper. Grind sides and edges smooth and end very slightly rounded in length. Then use oil stone, as in Fig. 115. Push scraper A forward and backward the length of oil stone B in direction of arrows C and D, then turn scraper around and repeat operation. To finish, the scraper is laid flat on stone and with both hands it is moved along stone in the direction of arrows C and D, Fig. 116, and repeated on other side. The width of cut is important; for small work use a width from J" to ". For large work a greater width is desirable, and may be obtained by sharpening end of scraper FLAT SCRAPER. 67 as in Fig. 117, moving scraper forward and backward in direc- tion of arrows C and D. FIG. 115. OIL-STONING END OF SCRAPER. FIG. 116. OIL-STONING SIDE OF SCRAPER. FIG. 117. OIL-STONING SCRAPER TO PRODUCE WIDE CUTTING EDGE. 166. A standard surface plate has the same relation to plane surfaces as a standard gage has to sizes. Surface plates, Fig. 118, are made from hard, close-grained cast iron and of a form that will retain their shape and with bearing points at A, B, C. 68 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. FIG. 118. STANDARD SURFACE PLATES FOR TESTING PLANE SURFACES. 167. Marking. To more clearly indicate by means of bright spots where the testing plate bears on the work, and in order to know where to scrape, marking is used consisting of red lead or, preferably, of Venetian red mixed with lard or machine oil to the consistency of putty. To use, wipe oil, grit, and dust, with cotton waste and hand, or hand alone, from both work and plate, apply marking sparingly with the fingers, and spread with palm of hand into an extremely thin coating. If applied too thickly false bearings will result. 168. To scrape plane (flat) surfaces, Fig. 119. -D FIG. 119. SCRAPING. 69 SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Stock Iron Casting, Planed. Tool Flat Scraper. Plane all over and file to re- move burrs. Secure work A to bench B as at C and D, and scrape lightly before applying to stand- ard surface plate. Push scraper E forward the width of its cut each time. Scrape one-third of the surface in direction of arrow F, another third in direction of arrow G, and the remainder in direction of arrow H, when work will appear as shown. Next ap- ply marking to plate, and then move work on plate using light pressure and with a circular mo- tion, principally to ward outer edge of standard plate, to make the wear on latter even the standard plate is applied to large work. Remove work to bench, when the high places oh its surface will be shown by dark marks of marking, with bright spot in center. First scrape off all high places in direction of arrow F, then with a clean hand wipe work clean of grit, and also smooth the marking on plate, with or without additional mark- ing as one application may last for a number of tests, and apply work to standard plate again, then scrape high places in direc- tion of arrow G. Proceed in this manner until bearings have in- creased considerably, then after each test scrape one-half spots off in direction of arrow F, leav- ing alternate spots to be scraped later in direction of arrow G. Proceed until bearing marks are numerous, then after each test- ing, scrape one-third of high spots from each direction. Continue latter method until the bearing marks approach closely and are uniformly distributed. Attention. Toward the last use very little marking, if any. Scrape at an angle to last course to prevent chattering and also to give good appearance. The bear- ing points on machine surfaces should be uniformly distributed, but need not be numerous as on a standard surface plate. 169. Ornamental block scraping is an effective finish pro- duced by carefully making length of cut about equal to its width, the last few times over the surface. The surface may be finished by frosting or flowering with a flat or a hook-shaped scraper by drawing it forward. 70 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. FIG. 120. SCRAPED STRAIGHT EDGE. 170. To scrape V-ways of a machine, use a standard straight edge, Fig. 120. It is of a form designed to remain straight; its edge is broad and scraped to a true surface. 171. To originate standard surface plates or straight edges. - In the absence of any standard, make three of a kind and test them with each other in binary combinations, as the first to the second, the third to the second, the third to the first, to detect and enable errors to be corrected. An error com- mon to all three cannot escape notice by this process if suc- cessively repeated. 172. To scrape without a standard. Machine both parts as true as possible and use one as a standard to scrape the other, and then vice versa. This method will not give per- fectly true surfaces, but with care good results may be obtained. 173. Bedding to mark work for scraping or riling. Plane surface of pillow blocks, connecting rod brasses, etc., often have to be fitted where they cannot be moved over their seats. Coat one part with marking and place it on the surface to which it is to be fitted, then give it a light, sharp blow with hammer, which will indicate the high spots by the adhesion of the marking. 174. Scraping bronze or Babbitt bearings. Use spindle as a standard for fitting, coat it with marking, and revolve it in the bearing. Scrape high spots with scraper AB, Fig. 121, mov- ing it diagonally with a sweeping motion to secure a shearing cut. POLISHING. 71 HALF ROUND SCRAPER A FIG. 121. SCRAPING BRONZE OR BABBITT BEARINGS. 175. Scrapers flat or half-round may be made from files by grinding off the teeth and oil-stoning edges. old POLISHING. 176. Metal is polished by rubbing with a natural abrasive, as emery or corundum, or by a manufactured abrasive, as alundum or carborundum; also with crocus, rottenstone, etc. Abrasives are used in various forms, as loose, mixed with oil, glued to cloth, paper, leather, canvas, etc. Emery is a mineral consisting of corundum and protoxide of iron and it is next to corundum in hardness. Corundum is a mineral composed chiefly of crystallized alumina, next to the diamond in hardness. Alundum is made by subjecting bauxite (an amorphous hydrate of aluminium) to a temperature estimated between 6000 and 7000 F. in electric furnaces. Carborundum is made by subjecting coke (carbon) and sand (silica) to a temperature estimated between 6000 and 7000 F. in electric furnaces. 72 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 177. Number of emery. Emery and other abrasives are crushed and ground from the rock or ingot, then sifted through sieves. The number is derived from the number of meshes per inch in the wire or silk sieve through which they are sifted. For example, emery that will pass through a sieve having 60 meshes to the inch and over one having 70 meshes, is called No. 60. The grains (and similarly emery wheels) are num- bered 10, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 36, .46, 54, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180, 200, and flour. Flour of emery is used in five grades, F, FF, FFF, FFFF, and SF, which are graded in flowing water. 178. Table of the numbers of emery cloth and sandpaper compared. Numbers of Emery Cloth or Paper. Numbers of Sand- paper. 46 3 54 2i 60 2 70 1* 80 1 90 * 100 120 00 150 Flour, F, FF, FFF 000 179. Crocus (an oxide of iron) is formed into bricks or cakes of one grade, also glued to cloth. It may be used on any metal, especially brass, where a very high polish is desired. 180. Rottenstone, a mineral of grayish color, consisting chiefly of alumina. It is used in powdered form for smoothing machine work. 181. Polishing. Work to be polished is usually finished by filing before applying emery cloth. Polishing reduces the size of work to some extent, which, though small, must be allowed for when exact dimensions are necessary. Emery paper is used on soft materials but rarely on iron or steel. POLISHING. 73 182. Order of applying emery cloth. For large work, roughly filed, apply^coarse emery cloth, 46 or 54, and as many of the successively finer grades, 60, 90, 120, and flour, as are necessary to obtain the desired polish. If the work is carefully filed, or preferably, draw-filed, a good polish may be obtained with 60 and 90 emery cloth. An effec- tive polish may be given to work very carefully filed, with 90 alone; and a brilliant polish by continuing with 120 and flour. First apply the coarser cloth with hard, steady pressure until all tool or file marks are removed. Then apply the next finer cloth until evidence of the former coarse grade is removed, and so on, with successively finer grades. of emery cloth until the desired polish is obtained. Use lard oil sparingly on the emery cloth or work, distributing it with the fingers. Attention. If on using the first finer grade of emery cloth the surface of the work shows deep scratches, tool marks or large pores, return at once to the coarser grade. 183. To polish flat surfaces on thin work. Fig. 122. Hold block of hardwood or metal A in vise B and clamp work C to it with clamp D. Moisten a strip of emery cloth with lard oil and hold tightly under file F. Press hard, and rub back and FIG. 122. POLISHING FLAT SURFACE IN VISE. forth with short strokes, being careful not to round corners of work. Polish vise work lengthwise so that all lines will lie parallel. Polishing destroys the truth of work to some 74 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. extent; therefore it is best to finish work by cross or draw- filing so that excessive polishing will be unnecessary. 184. To polish a bolt head or nut. Place finished bolt A, Fig. 123, in vise B between copper jaws C, C' with one of the flats horizontal. File carefully and sparingly with an 8" or FIG. 123. POLISHING FLATS or BOLT HEAD OR NUT IN VISE. 10" hand smooth file. Moisten -a strip of No. 90 emery cloth with oil and hold under file E. Hold file and emery cloth firmly; apply considerable pressure forward and back- ward; use short strokes. 185. To polish work of curved outline in a vise. For narrow concave surfaces, hold emery cloth under a half-round file, and move it back and forth, following the curve. Polish long grooves lengthwise. For convex surfaces, the emery cloth is held under a flat file and applied in direction of length of work. 186. To polish large plane or flat surfaces, fasten emery cloth to a block of wood. CHAPTER VI. ANNEALING, HARDENING, AND TEMPERING CARBON STEEL. HIGH-SPEED STEEL. CASE HARDENING. STRAIGHTENING HARDENED AND TEMPERED TOOLS. TESTING HARDNESS WITH SCLEROSCOPE. ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING CARBON STEEL. 187. Annealing, hardening and tempering carbon or tool steel. In the preparation of carbon steel for cutting tools and machine parts, three important operations are performed, annealing, hardening, and tempering. If carbon steel is heated to clear red and allowed to cool slowly, it becomes soft or annealed; and if cooled suddenly, it becomes hard and brittle; if hardened steel is reheated slightly, then cooled, it becomes tempered, that is, hard, elastic, and tough. Steel is hardened and tempered to enable it to cut hard sub- stances, to increase its elasticity, to strengthen it, and to resist wear and abrasion. 188. Annealing, softens and relieves the internal strains of steel by slow cooling. The process of making carbon steel leaves it hard; to be machined, it must be annealed. 189. To anneal carbon steel, as stock for taps, dies, cutters, etc., heat slowly and uniformly to a clear red and then bury in ashes, lime, or charcoal. Unfinished tools, as lathe and planer tools, need not be annealed. 190. Water annealing. To soften a piece of carbon or tool steel quickly, as a dead center of a lathe, heat the hard- ened portion to a clear red and hold it in a dark place until black, then plunge into water. 191. Commercial annealed carbon or tool steel in bars or other forms may be obtained at a slight increase in price. 75 76 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 192. Annealed iron castings are used to some extent, as they may be economically machined. 193. To anneal copper, bronze, and brass. Heat to a dull red and plunge quickly into water or allow to cool in the air. 194. Heat effects in the process of hardening carbon steel. Dark red or black heat: will not harden; grain remains same as in bar. Dull red or dark cherry: will harden slightly; grain becomes closer than in bar. Clear red or bright cherry: will harden properly; grain becomes fine and close. Bright red or orange, yellow or lemon : will harden, but causes scaling and injury to steel; grain becomes open and somewhat coarse. White heat: will burn and completely ruin steel; grain becomes very open and coarse. 195. To harden carbon steel, heat to a clear red and cool suddenly. The quicker the extraction of heat, the harder the steel becomes. 196. File test for hardness. If a file will not cut into the steel, but slides over it, the steel is hardened " glass " hard. If the file readily cuts the steel, it is too soft, and the hard- ening process must be repeated. See Scleroscope, 244. Attention. Repeated rehardening of finished tools, pieces with thick and thin parts, will often cause cracks. 197. Use of clay to avoid hardening portions of articles. The walls of holes plugged with clay will not harden. Por- tions of articles or tools bandaged with a layer of clay and sheet metal will not harden. 198. To temper steel. Heat hardened steel slowly. The higher the temperature is carried the greater the reduction of hardness. Cool piece suddenly by quenching to check temper at desired points indicated by color test or file test. 199. The color test for hardness. Brighten the surface of piece to be tempered and heat slowly. Colors indicating different temperatures will appear on the brightened surface of metal. When the desired color appears, check temper. HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 77 These colors begin with a pale yellow (430 F.) and continue through shades of straw, purple, and blue to a gray or black (about 650 F.) when all hardness will have left the metal. The color test is generally used when tempering at the open forge fire. Some one color within the range from a pale yellow (430 F. to a light blue (630 F.) is suitable for any purpose for which hardened steel or tools need tem- pering. See Tempering table, p. 89. To temper small polished articles uniformly. Heat sand to the desired temperature in an iron box, place articles in it, and when the desired color is obtained, remove and cool in oil, water, or in vaseline to improve the coloring. Attention. The color test is not necessarily a test of hardness. Unless a piece of carbon steel is known, to be hardened, drawing the piece until the desired color appears indicates nothing except that it has been heated to a certain temperature, for colors can be obtained on a soft piece of car- bon steel as readily as on a hardened piece, and on machine steel, wrought iron, or cast iron. 200. The thermometer test for hardness consists in drawing the temper in a bath of oil or tallow which is raised to the proper temperature gaged by a thermometer. The thermom- eter test is more reliable than the color test, and is used where large quantities of similar work are hardened and tempered. 201. File test for temper. A piece of hardened steel tempered until a dead smooth file will bite will have a tem- per equivalent to a dark straw. See Scleroscope, 244. 202. Forge fire. Use charcoal for fuel, or coke, or black- smith's coal with all the impurities burned out. " Green coal " is injurious to steel. To harden a chisel, lathe or planer tool use open fire. For mandrels, arbors, taps, reamers, and drills, which must be heated evenly throughout, take away front of a well-built-up coal fire, leaving a bed and arch which will project the heat from all sides onto the steel. 203. Muffle to prevent flames from striking steel and decar- bonizing and injuring its surface. Make a muffle by placing a 78 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. cap on the end of a piece of iron pipe of a diameter that will give plenty of room to accommodate work. 204. Gas furnaces produce intenst heat with little or no oxidation. Some are provided with muffles which insure even heat, protect the work from the flame, and prevent decarbonizing the surface of the steel. Gas and air are forced into furnace. The supply valves control the degrees of heat. 205. Use hot lead baths for heating drills, reamers, knife blades, files, etc., to give an even and desired heat. Heat the lead in a graphite crucible on a forge fire, or preferably, in an iron pot in a special gas furnace. A piece of cyanide of potassium melted in the hot lead will prevent the lead sticking and will clean the steel. 206. Electric furnace. There are two classes of electric hardening furnaces, those having the receptacle heated by electrodes, and those having the receptacle wound with plati- num, nickel or ferro-nickel resistance heating wire. Desired temperatures are easy to attain and regulate for hardening. 207. Flux of salt and cyanide of potassium, or an atmos- phere of purified gas, is often used to heat mainsprings, taps, and drills. Cyanide cleans the steel and prepares it for tem- pering. 208. Cooling baths are as essential as the proper heating of steel. Cooling tanks should be provided with appliances to keep the cooling liquid at an even temperature throughout. The most common method is to cool in a large tank of cold water. Brine, composed of salt and water, is used in cases where ex- treme hardness is required or where the steel does not harden satisfactorily in water. Lard or sperm oil baths are used for tools that do not require extreme hardness, as springs and work that is liable to crack if hardened in water. Carbon steel hardened in oil does not become glass hard. Mercury is used where it is desired to make steel extremely hard. It extracts heat more rapidly than any other bath, HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 79 and is used for small tools and some kinds of surgical instru- ments. Special baths. Among these are boiling water, hot water, lukewarm water, various acid solutions. A vessel of water with one or two inches of oil on top is an effective bath for cooling planer knives and other long thin tools to prevent cracking. They are cooled by passing them down through the oil into the water. Cleansing baths. To clean hardened work for polishing, such as taps, reamers, cutters, etc., pass it through the follow- ing baths, holding work in each bath about two minutes. 1. Solution of muriatic acid and water, I to 4. 2. Water. 3. Strong solution of lime-water. 4. Water. 5. Strong solution of sal-soda. 6. Water. 209. Points in annealing, hardening, and tempering : Select stock for finished carbon tools large enough for removal of surface, which is decarbonized as it comes from the manu- facturer and will not harden. Consider the conditions for hardening, as degree of hardness affects the temper of piece. Determine carbon percentage of steel, if possible, as a piece of high-carbon steel and a piece of low-carbon steel heated to the same temperature and cooled in the same bath, then drawn to the same color, will not be of the same temper or degree of hardness. Do not over or under-heat steel; it will not harden or temper properly, for a very little variation in heating steel may give a wide variation in results. Attention. Do not heat carbon steel above a light red except in the case of some special brands, as it will decarbon- ize, or may crack in hardening. If an unfinished carbon steel tool, as a chisel, lathe or planer tool, is overheated, reforging is the only remedy. Heat and cool steel slowly and uniformly all over to avoid warping and cracking. While being heated, frequently revolve work and turn end for end in fire. 80 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. To cool taps, reamers, etc., immerse in water endwise. Cool hammers by flooding. Do not keep tools in bath until they are absolutely cold, for they may crack when removed. Irregularly shaped pieces are likely to warp and crack in heating and cooling if the thin part is allowed to become heated or cooled in advance of the thick part. 210. Unfinished tools, as lathe and planer tools, chisels, center punches, scriber, etc., are usually hardened and tempered in one heat, as follows: Heat a little more of the tool than is required to be hardened and dip the desired portion until almost cold, then polish the surface and use remaining heat to run down and draw temper. In cases where the remain- ing heat is not sufficient to produce correct temper, or where the colors come too slowly, place tool on a red-hot bar or in flame over forge fire. Use a hot plate for tempering thin pieces that are hardened outright. BLACKSMITHS' FORGE FIG. 124. HEATING COLD CHISEL TO HARDEN. 211. To harden and temper cold chisel, one heat. Heat slowly to light red in forge fire, as in Fig. 124, about two inches HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 81 of cutting end, up to A, Fig. 125. Quickly dip in water or brine about one inch up to B, B', until almost cold or until water will not steam on tool. Attention. To test color during heating, occasionally hold for a moment in dark corner of forge. To cool quickly, move tool around or back and forth, as shown by arrows. FIG. 125. DIPPING COLD CHISEL TO HARDEN. To avoid a crack where hardened and unhardened parts join, move tool up and down slightly while cooling. After removing tool from water and before polishing and tempering, quickly test with fine file for hardness. Tool should be glass hard. 212. To temper cold chisel, Fig. 126. Quickly polish one face with polishing stick (emery cloth tacked or grain emery glued to stick) so that colors may be seen, and temper with heat in shank. Watch face. When point is dark blue, immerse whole chisel in water to fix or arrest temper. Test hardness with fine file. If tempering heat is too high, the colors will run too fast and too close together. In this case, dip and draw out quickly, when colors will come more slowly. 82 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. EMERY POLISHING STICK FIG. 126. POLISHING FACE OF COLD CHISEL TO SHOW TEMPERING COLORS. 213. To temper in charcoal or coke flame. Many tools, as chisels, lathe and planer tools, punches, long blades, etc., are hardened outright and slowly tempered to a desired color over a forge fire, as the long-blade cold chisel in Fig. 127. FIG. 127. TEMPERING COLD CHISEL OVER FORGE FIRE. Attention. To obtain more distinct temper colors, wipe polished surface with oily waste while tempering. 214. To harden and temper diamond-point tool, one heat. Heat slowly to light red in forge fire a little more than HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 83 forged part, as at A, Fig. 128, with point upward. Quickly dip point downward in water or brine as shown at B, B', and move about until nearly cold. HEAT LINE A WATER LINE B' FIG. 128. DIPPING DIAMOND-POINT TOOL TO HARDEN. 215. To temper diamond-point tool. Polish face quickly as in Fig. 129, draw to light straw by heat in shank, and cool EMERY POLISHING STICK FIG. 129. POLISHING FACE OF DIAMOND-POINT TOOL TO SHOW TEMPERING COLORS. in water. If color comes too slowly, pass tool back and forth over forge fire, or hold on hot bar. Test hardness with fine file before and after tempering. 84 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 216. To harden and temper side tool, one heat. Heat to a light red in forge fire a little more than forged part, up to A, HEAT LINE xA OX. WATER UNE FORGE FIG. 130. DIPPING SIDE TOOL TO HARDEN. Fig. 130, with point upward. Quickly dip point downward in water or brine the distance shown at B and B', and move about until almost cold. EMERY POLISHING STICK FIG. 131. POLISHING FACE OF SIDE TOOL TO SHOW TEMPERING COLORS. 217. To temper side tool. Polish side face as in Fig. 131, draw temper to a light straw by heat in shank of tool, and cool in water. Test hardness with fine file before and after tempering. HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 85 218. To harden and temper side tool, two heats. Heat only to 5, Fig. 130, and dip to B. Polish face and temper on hot bar as in Fig. 132. 219. To harden and temper a spring. Heat uniformly to a light red and dip in cotton-seed oil or sperm oil; then hold over fire until oil on spring blazes and again dip. Repeat " blaz- ing off " three times, which is about equal to drawing to dark blue. Large springs are often hardened by heating to clear red and plunging into boiling water. FIG. 132. TEMPERING SIDE TOOL ON HOT BAB. Two heats are used to harden and temper finished tools of carbon or tool steel, such as taps, dies, reamers, drills, milling cutters, etc. 221. To harden a tap. Heat slowly and evenly all over to a light red in charcoal or coke forge fire or in gas or coal fur- FIG. 133. HARDENING TAP. riace; then quickly plunge into clean cold water, as in Fig. 133, and move about under water until cold. Test hardness with fine file. Attention. Taps are often dipped vertically. 86 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 222. To temper a tap. A Fig. 134. Polish to enable colors to be seen. Heat metal ring B, two or three times I FIG. 134. TEMPERING TAP IN HOT RING. diameter of tap, to light red. Hold shank of tap in tongs, pass threaded part through ring, revolve and move back and forth until color is uni- formly drawn to a light straw. Cool in oil or in vas- eline. If shank is slender, draw to dark straw. The slower temper is drawn, the stronger tool will be. See To Temper in Oil, 227. Attention. More than hot ring; may be one not ring may be re- quired to temper a tap. 223. To harden mandrel. A, Fig. 135. - - Heat all over in molten lead B, in lead hardening furnace (7; when raised to light red dip vertically in water D, or brine, and move about until nearly cold. Test hardness with fine file. 224. To temper ends of mandrel. Polish reduced portions of ends in hand lathe and vise. Heat metal ring, draw ends FIG. 135. HEATING MANDREL, IN LEAD. HARDENING AND TEMPERING. 87 of mandrel to dark straw, and cool as in 221. Ends may be given a black finish by not polishing, and mandrel may be tempered all over or only at ends in oil (440 F.). See To Temper in Oil, 227. 225. To harden carbon steel spiral milling cutters. A carbon steel milling cutter may be heated in a hollow forge fire or, preferably, in gas, coal, or crude oil, furnace, as in Fig. 136, to a light red; then dip endways all over in water and HEATING-DIPPING CRUDE OIL FURNACE TANK WATER OR BRINE FIG. 136. HARDENING CARBON STEEL MILLING CUTTER. move about. If the cutter is large, it is good practice to take it out after a few moments and finish cooling in oil. To avoid cracking, take from water or oil while slightly warm and allow to cool in air. 226. To temper milling cutters. Polish cutter to enable colors to be seen. Select bar slightly smaller than hole in cutter, heat to red heat and insert in cutter. Revolve cutter on bar so that it will receive heat evenly. Temper teeth to a light straw color and cool in oil. This method leaves central portion tough and outer portion hard. 88 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 227. To temper in oil. Work may be more rapidly and uniformly tempered in oil than by the color process, and this process is used for tools which need not show color temper, as milling cutters, dies, taps, reamers, mandrels, punches, knives, shear blades, etc. See Table, p. 89. Fig. 137 shows methods of tempering milling cutter in oil- tempering gas furnace. The pot is nearly filled with " black IMMERSING IN HOT OIL f FIG. 137. OIL TEMPERING MILLING CUTTER. tempering oil," which can be safely raised to a temperature of 630 F., and will temper steel from a straw color to a light blue. The burners are underneath the pot and are lighted through door A with torch, and regulated by gas valve B and air valve C. When thermometer D indicates proper temperature, which for milling cutters should be between 440 F. and 470 F., depending on the kind of cutter, sub- merge cutter (dry) in the oil. As this usually lowers the temperature of the oil, allow work to remain until it rises to the proper degree, then remove and allow work to cool in the air. TEMPERING. 89 TEMPERING TABLE. WITH DEGREES OF HEAT TO WHICH TEMPER COLORS CORRESPOND. TOOLS. TEMPERING BY COLOR. TEMPERING IN HOT OIL. FAHR. CENT. Scrapers, burnishers, hammer faces, reamers, small tools, paper cutters, Light straw. . . . Medium straw . Dark straw .... 430 450 470 500 530 550 600 630 660 700 900-1300 1200-1400 221 232 243 260 277 288 316 332 349 371 483-70, 649-761 Lathe and planer tools, hand tools, milling cutters, reamers, taps, bor- ing bar cutters, embossing dies, and Drills, dies, chuck jaws, dead centers, mandrels, arbors, drifts, bending Small drills, rock drills, circular saws (for metal), drop dies, and wood Cold chisels (for steel), center punches, scratch awls, ratchet drills, wire cut- ters, shear blades, cams, vise jaws, screw-drivers, axes, wood bits, Purple Dark purple . . . Dark blue Light springs and blacksmiths' Light blue Flashing point black tempering oil Flashing point cotton-seed tempering Steel hardens light red color Attention. To transform degrees Centigrade (C.) to degrees Fahr- enheit (F.), or vice versa, use the following formulas: F. - 1.8 C. + 32; C. - f (F. - 32). 90 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Fig. 138 shows method of tempering several pieces in wire basket, as taps, dies, milling cutters, etc. The basket may be filled to the top. At proper temper- ature, submerge basket in oil, and when temperature rises to proper degree, remove basket. IMMERSING IN HOT OIL I THER- WIRE I |MOMETER|BASKET] flETER FIG. 138. OIL TEMPERING SEVERAL PIECES AT ONCE. Work should remain in oil from 10 to 15 minutes, depend- ing on the size. Large work should remain longer than small work. Attention. Dry the work before immersing it in the oil, for if water adheres to the work it will cause the oil to spatter, and to boil over if work is lowered suddenly. 228. To harden to proper degree without tempering. - Files are hardened by heating them in lead raised to proper temperature and cooling in water or oil also of a proper temperature. HIGH-SPEED STEEL. 229. High-speed steel is an alloy of either iron and tungsten; iron, tungsten, and molybdenum; or iron, molybdenum, and chromium. To the alloy is added about 25% of vanadium. It is made by the crucible process. It is hardened by raising to a white heat, about 2100 F. Forged tools are cooled in a blast of air, and finished tools are cooled in oil. Tools may or may not be tempered. Tools made from some grades HIGH-SPEED STEEL. 91 of this steel can be used until the cutting edge is red hot .before breaking down. High-speed steel can be annealed and machined with high-speed tools at about the same cutting speed as carbon steel tools will machine annealed carbon steel. It is also obtainable in hardened bars which may be cut to lengths by nicking all four sides with an emery wheel, then breaking off cold. High-speed steel tools have shown a cutting efficiency of from 50% to 200% greater than carbon steel. This increase is obtained not so much in the finishing processes but in rough- ing out or removing a large amount of stock. To obtain the full benefit of this steel, machines of greatly increased strength and driving power are built. 230. To forge high-speed steel lathe and planer tools. Heat slowly in well-burned, hollow, coal or charcoal forge fire to high lemon color and forge in ordinary way. There is little danger of burning. After forging, allow tool to cool gradually in dry place. 231. To anneal high-speed steel. Pack in sand in a cast- iron box made air-tight. Heat to 2100 F. and cool slowly. 232. To harden high-speed steel, heat cutting edge, A, Fig. 139, in well-burned hollow coal or charcoal forge fire to white ROUUHINQ TOOL FIG. 139. HARDENING HIGH SPEED STEEL LATHE TOOL IN AIR BLAST. heat or until a flux like melted borax forms on nose of tool, confining heat to % or J inch of nose. Cool in blast of air, as shown, or it may be cooled in oil, butjiever in water. 92 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 233. To temper high-speed steel, or relieve strains, dip in oil heated to 460 F. and cool in air. 234. To grind high-speed steel, use wet emery wheel or grindstone employing light pressure to avoid production of surface cracks, and grind until all scale is removed. 235. To harden and temper high-speed steel cutter. Fig. 140. (Lathe or planer tool.) HEATING-DIPPING PRESSURE BLOWER F FIG. 140. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. To Harden. Heat cutter A to white heat (2100 F.), in gas furnace B. Drop in cotton-seed oil C to cool. To remove, raise wire basket D. A jet of air is forced up through oil by pipe E from pressure blower F to keep the oil at a uniform temperature. x To Temper. Immerse in oil heated to 450 F. and cool in air. HARDENING AND TEMPERING HIGH-SPEED STEEL. 93 236. To harden and temper high-speed steel milling cutter. Fig. 141. HEATING- DIPPING MUFFLE GAS FURNACE FIG. 141. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. To Harden. Heat cutter to white heat (2100 F.) in muffle gas furnace. Cool in cotton-seed oil. To Temper. Immerse in oil heated to 450 F. and cool in air. FIRE END BARIUM f CHLORIDE FIG. 142. 237. To heat high-speed steel tap in barium chloride. Fig. 142. Finished work. 94 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. To Harden. Heat barium chloride A in gas furnace B from 1900 F. to 2100 F. Test temperature with pyrometer C. Place tap D (pre- heated) in basket E of sheet nickel. Immerse in barium chlo- ride 3 to 4 minutes. Cool in oil. See 235. Clean in boiling caustic soda. Note. Use two fire ends F when first raising temperature to check danger of overheating steel. Charcoal may be used on top of chloride to prevent oxidation, but it has a tendency to pit tool. To Temper. Immerse in oil heated to 460 F. and cool in air. Attention. Preheat high-speed steel to a red heat in another furnace bafore placing in high-temperature furnace, to avoid spring- ing or cracking. CASE-HARDENING. 238. Case-hardening or pack-hardening is the process of converting the surface of machine steel, wrought iron and malleable iron into carbon steel by heating finished articles in the presence of carbon and suddenly cooling. Many articles, as nuts, wrenches, and other machine parts, and some finish- ing and cutting tools are made from machinery steel or wrought iron and then case-hardened. Three processes of case-hardening or carbonizing: - First, rapid cyanide of potassium or prussiate of potash process. Second, the slower, but more thorough, box process. Third, carbonizing with gas. 239. To case-harden with cyanide of potassium or prussiate of potash. Heat a piece to a cherry red in the usual way; sprinkle powdered cyanide of potassium over the work with shaker or spoon or dip the work into the cyanide, and reheat slowly to a cherry red; then plunge into cold water. This CASE-HARDENING. 95 process permits of case-hardening any portion of a piece by localizing the application of cyanide of potassium. 240. To case-harden without colors by box process. The old process is to pack the pieces in an iron box surrounded by scraps of leather, hoofs cut into small pieces, salt, etc. WATER TANK WITH DUMPING AIR BOX SUPPLY C D FIG. 143. CASE-HARDENING MACHINE PARTS. The modern method is to pack the articles in iron boxes A t Fig. 143, between layers of granulated bone black, or raw bone and cover with iron filings or with an iron cover cemented with clay. Heat boxes to a light red (1400 F. to 1500 F.) in case-hardening furnace J3, for two to four hours accord- ing to the depth of hardening desired. When ready, remove the cover and dump contents of box C into clear, cold, soft 96 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. water D. Remove articles by sieve hung below surface of water. To clean work, separate from bone and boil in clean water. Dry in sawdust, and oil to bring out color and prevent rusting. To case-harden with colors. To obtain the finest colors and mottling the heat must be uniform, the work bright and clean, the bone charred without burning it before work is packed in it, and an air pipe should be connected with water pipe so that air and water will mix and come into the tank together otherwise the work may be hard but without coloring. Delicate articles may be dipped in oil. Attention. Case-hardening and annealing coal furnace B is used for case-hardening by day and the heat utilized for annealing by night. Work to be annealed is packed in old burned bone and heated to a cherry red, then removed, covered with slacked lime, and allowed to cool very slowly. Note. Machine steel and wrought iron absorb carbon to a depth of about V in 24 hours. Copper-plate such portions of work as are not to be case-hardened. 241. To anneal and reharden case-hardened work. Treat the same as carbon steel, which will not affect the strength and ductility of its inner part. 242. Case-hardening with carbonizing gas produces rapidly a deep penetration without packing in bone, leather, etc. The work is heated in a special revolving gas furnace to the desired temperature, about 1500 F., and then the carbon- izing gas is let into the furnace until the proper depth of car- bonizing is obtained, which is about -^ in one hour, and i" in 12 hours. The work is revolved during the process, thus insur- ing uniform carbonization. The control of the heating gas and carbonizing gas is positive. The carbonizing gas is derived from liquids in a special generator. STRAIGHTENING HARDENED AND TEMPERED TOOLS. 97 243. To straighten hardened and tempered tools. Fig. 144. STRAIGHTENING PRESS FIG. 144. STRAIGHTENING HARDENED AND TEMPERED WORK. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Taps, reamers, drills, mandrels, gages, and work of that class, often spring in hardening and tempering and have to be straight- ened. Example. Mount hardened and tempered reamer A on cen- ters B, 'of straightening press C. Rotate with fingers, test with chalk, and note eccentricity. Place reamer on supports D, D' with eccentric side up, and heat at most eccentric part E with blowpipe F. Apply pressure with screw G operated by handle H to force reamer straight or slightly beyond straight as it may spring back some, then cool under tension with water from cup J or wet waste. Again test on centers, and repeat process if needed until reamer is true within grinding limit. Caution. To avoid drawing the temper while heating, test temperature occasionally by touch- ing reamer with soft solder K. (Soft solder melts at 370 F.) If the solder melts readily, cool with water, for the temperature must not exceed 430 F. Attention. Large lots of tools of the above classes may be straight- ened rapidly by heating in an oil-tempering gas furnace to a tempera- ture from 350 to 400 F. This temperature is not high enough to draw the temper, but is high enough to permit the work to be easily and safely straightened in a press. 98 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Attention. If hardened steel is heated higher than 630 F., the effect of the hardening process is destroyed. Note. Some tools, as gages, scrapers, etc., are hardened outright and not tempered, and may or may not be slightly heated to relieve internal strains. TESTING HARDNESS WITH SCLEROSCOPE. 244. The scleroscope, Fig. 145, is an instrument to measure or test the hardness of metals, as carbon steel, high-speed steel, machine steel, wrought iron, cast iron compositions, brass, copper, and lead. It will detect the slightest differ- ence in hardened steel, a most important factor in tool-making. The hardness of materials for machine construction may be predetermined and hard material annealed or discarded before attempting to machine the same, thereby avoiding waste and permitting time estimates of machining work to be more accurately made. A matter of great value in designing and constructing machinery is to know in advance the comparative wear of the different materials, and the scleroscope will enable one to construct each part of a material which possesses the pre- cise degree of hardness to give uniform wear. 245. Scleroscope principle. The principle of the sclero- scope consists of dropping a tiny (about 40 grains) hardened steel jewel (diamond) pointed plunger hammer from a height of about ten inches onto the surface of the material to be tested, which it penetrates slightly, and reading on the scale the height of its rebound, which varies on metals of different hardness. As the area of the jewel point is very small, about ^ " diameter, the pressure on hard steel would approach 500,000 pounds per square inch, which exceeds the elastic limit of the hardest steel. The scale is divided into 140 equal parts. High-carbon steel hardened outright will vary from 90 to 110 but will average about 100 on the scale, and other metals may be considered as so many per cent as hard as hardened steel. TESTING HARDNESS. 99 SCLEROSCOPE SCALE OF HARDNESS. NAME OF METAL. ANNEALED. HAMMERED. Steel carbon tool (hardened.) 90-110 Steel high-speed (hardened) 70-105 Chrome-nickel (hardened) 60-95 Chrome-nickel 47 Vanadium steel 35-45 Steel tool 1 65% carbon 35-40 Steel tool 1% carbon 30-35 40-50 Iron gray (chilled) 50-90 Iron gray (cast) 30-45 Nickel anode (cast) 31 55 Mild steel 015 carbon 22 30-45 Iron pure 18 25-30 Platinum 10 17 Brass (drawn) 10-15 20-45 Bismuth (cast) 9 Pure tin (cast) 8 Zinc (cast) 8 20 Brass (cast) 7-35 Silver 6* 20-30 Copper (cast) 6 14-20 Gold . . .... 5 8* Babbitt metal . 4-9 Lead (cast) 2-5 3-7 Attention. These figures are subject to variations owing to the varying composition or compression treatment of metals. Porcelain gives 120 and glass 130. 246. To measure hardness of milling cutter. Fig. 145. MILLING CUTTER FIG. 145. MEASURING HARDNESS OF MILLING CUTTER WITH SCLEROSCOPE. 100 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Set scleroscope plumb by rod 1 and thumb screws 2,2'. Press and suddenly release bulb 3 to draw hammer 4 through glass tube 5 to starting point at top 6, where the catch mechanism engages groove in hammer and retains it. Raise clamp 7 by lever 8 and insert milling cutter 9 to be tested. If lever 8 is not nearly horizontal, release it by latch 10 and set it horizontal. With right hand hold bulb 11 and press on lever 8 to hold cutter firmly. With left thumb press valve hook 12 to open tube to avoid vacuum when hammer descends; then press bulb 11 to release hammer, and note approximate height on scale to which top of hammer 4 rebounds, as 95 in detail cut. Move work so that hammer may not strike twice in same spot, and repeat. Knowing approximate rebound of hammer, the second or third test may be read accurately. The reading lense and needle 13 maybe moved to any part of scale, and is only used where it is neces- sary to read slight differences. Attention. Work to be tested in this manner must be flat, parallel, and fres from scale. 247. Plaster mount. Pieces made in odd-shapes with smooth side up, may be pressed and leveled in plaster dish 14 by clamp and lever and then tested. 248. Magnifier hammer. As the rebound of the jeweled hammer on soft metals is small, magnifier hammer 15 with large point area which rebounds higher, may be used to mag- nify variations in hardness of soft metals. 249. The swinging arm. The scleroscope may be de- tached from its regular frame by screw 16 and placed on swinging arm post 17 to test work held level in vise or on surface plate. A drill may be tested by grinding a little flat on its point and clamping upright in vise. CASE-HARDENING. 101 250. To test large work freehand. Detach instrument from its dovetail block by knob 18 and clamp in its place finger ring 19. With thumb of right hand in ring, index finger on valve hook and left hand to operate bulbs, the instru- ment may be carried about to test large castings or attached parts of machines. See File Test for Hardness, 196. See File Test for Temper, 201. CHAPTER VII. CUTTING OFF STOCK, HAND AND MACHINE METHODS. 251. Hand hack saw, Fig. 146, is composed of frame A and blade B. It is operated similarly to a file, relieving the pres- T3 "I ctual Ou ameter. i | j3 ctual In ameter. a) aJ 2 g utside Ci ence. wW't! O ID 3 ^d^ fg-3 gar 53 ength of Square Outside <5 o Tj '35 utside A: ength of . taining c Foot. OJ a 1 5 o.ofThr Inch of ! "1 ll a! a < H < h- 1 h3 A H) Z In. In. In. In. In. In. Ft. Ft. In. In. Ft. Lbs. In. I 0.405 0.068 0.270 0.848 1.272 14.15 9.44 0.0572 0.129 2500. 0.243 27 A i 0.54 0.088 0.364 1.144 1.696 10.50 7.075 0.1041 0.229 1385. 0.422 18 A 1 0.675 0.091 0.494 1.552 2.121 7.67 5.657 0.1916 0.358 751.5 0.561 18 A * 0.84 0.109 0.623 1.957 2.652 6.13 4.502 0.3048 0.554 472.4 0.845 14 1 1.05 0.113 0.824 2.589 3.299 4.635 3.637 0.5333 0.866 270. 1.126 14 A 1 1.315 0.134 1.048 3.292 4.134 3.679 2.903 0.8627 1.357 166.9 1.670 11* ij'y li 1.66 0.140 1.380 4.335 5.215 2.768 2.301 1.496 2.164 96.25 2.258 11* A 1* 1.90 0.145 1.611 5.061 5.969 2.371 2.01 2.038 2.835 70.65 2.694 11J A 2 2.375 0.154 2.067 6.494 7.461 1.848 1.611 3.355 4.430 42.36 3.600 H* A 2* 2.875 0.204 2.468 7.754 9.032 1.547 1.328 4.783 6.491 30.11 5.773 8 A 3 3.50 0.217 3.067 9.636 10.996 1.245 1.091 7.388 9.621 19.49 7.547 8 A ?i 4.00 0.226 3.548 11.146 12.566 1.077 0.955 9.887 12.566 14.56 9.055 8 A 4 4,50 0.237 4.026 12.648 14.137 0.949 0.849 12.730 15.904 11.31 10.66 8 A 4i 5.00 0.247 4.508 14.153 15.708 0.848 0.765 15.939 19.635 9.03 12.34 8 A 5 5.563 0.259 5.045 15.849 17.475 0.757 0.629 19.990 24.299 7.20 14.50 8 A 6 6.625 0.280 6.065 19.054 20.813 0.63 0.577 28.889 34.471 4.98 18.767 8 A 7 7.625 0.301 7.023 22.063 23.954 0.544 0.595 38.737 45.663 3.72 23.27 8 A 8 8.625 0.322 7.982 25.076 27.096 0.478 0.444 50.039 58.426 2.88 28.177 8 A 9 9.625 0.344 9.001 28.277 30.433 0.425 0.394 63.633 73.715 2.26 33.70 8 ^j 10 10.75 0.366 10.019 31 .475 33.772 0.381 0.355 78.838 90.762 1.80 40.06 8 i^T 11 12.00 0.375 11.25 35. 343 ; 37. 699 0.340 0.318 98.942 113.097 1.455 45.95 8 ^j 12 12.75 0.375 12.000 38. 264 1 40. 840 0.313 0.293 116.535 132.732 1.235 48.98 8 ^j 14.00 0.375 13.25 41.268 43.982 0.290 0.273 134.582 153.938 1.069 53.92 8 ^1 15.00 0.375 14.25 44.271 47.124 0.271 0.254 155.968 176.715 .923 57.89 8 ^j 16.00 0.375 15.25 47.274 50.265 0.254 0.238 177.867 201.062 .809 51.77 8 ^j 17.00 0.375 16.25 51.05 53.40 18.00 0.375 17.25 53.281 56.548 0.225 0.212 225.907 254.469 .638 69.66 20.00 0.375 19.25 59.288 62.832 0.202 0.191 279.720 314.160 .515 77.57 21.00 0.375 20.25 63.61 fifi Q7 22.00 0.375 21.25 66.75969.115 0.179 0.174 354.66 380.134 .406 85.47 24.00 0.375 23.25 73.04 75.39 0.164 0.159 424.56 452.39 .339 93.37 PIPE AND TUBING. 117 TABLE OF DIMENSIONS OF EXTRA STRONG WROUGHT- IRON PIPE. V 03 , 01 0> 0,2-i aJ J3 1 u 0) '33 < FH O "S i 1 s .i S S jl IT^i 1 1 M It 1 6 "o3 ^ 3 S 1 8 r g -g -to 00 o <3 ^ fe G> < ^ C^ i .27 M 12 .25 2 2.46 23 12 5.75 1 .36 A 12 .43 3 3.06 Si 12 8.30 i .49 12 .62 2* 3.50 4 12 10.90 .62 T! 12 .92 4 4.02 4j 12 12.70 1 .82 i^ 12 1.25 5 5.04 5.56 8 to 10 15.75 1 1.04 i^ 12 1.70 6 6.06 6.62 6 to 8 18.31 11 1.38 i 12 2.50 7 7.02 7.62 Special 26.28 u 1.61 i 12 3.00 8 7.98 8.62 Special 29.88 2 2.06 D FIG. 167. (123) 124 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. NAME. USE. Globe valve, B. or C. I. . . Gate valve (flange;, B. or C. I. Steam radiator valve, B.. Corner valve, B Hot-water radiator valve with union, B. Swing check valve, B. (horizontal) . Cock, B. orC. I Three-way cock, B. or C. I Ammoniaexpansion valve, M.I. Hydraulic globe valve, B. or C. I. ' Air and steam valve, B . . Air valve, B Automatic air valve, B. . . Double slip joint. El- bow, brass nickel- plated. Screw joint Tee. Brass nickel-plated. Steam joint. Universal. To shut off or control steam or water pres- sure. Same as 41. Preferred for water. Pres- sure either direction. Same as 41 but for steam radiators. Same as 41 and 43 but to connect steam radiators in corners. For hot-water heating. The union is easily connected or disconnected. To prevent flow except in one direction. Used on pumps and boiler feed pipes. The valves are also made to operate ver- tically. A shut-off for steam, water, gas, etc. Pre- ferred to a valve for boiler blow-off. To change direction of flow of steam, oil, gas or water from one point to another. To exhaust steam from engine to con- denser or atmosphere. A substitute for two valves. For ammonia gas in refrigerating plants. For high water pressure in hydraulic machinery. To blow off air in radiators, etc. Same as 51, for hot- water radiators. For steam radiators. Automatic air valves are obtainable for hot-water radiators. Similar to a union for nickel-plated tub- ing. Used for drainage, etc. For nickel-plated tubing. Sanitary pattern. For connections requiring universal movement. PIPE FITTINGS. 125 GAS FITTINGS, MALLEABLE IRON AND BRASS. No. NAME. USE. 57 Gas Tee MI. ... Same as 10 but for gas. 58 59 60 61 Drop elbow, M. I. Inside thread. Drop elbow, M. I. Outside thread. Swing joint with cock, B. Side nozzle B Same as No. 4, but flanged to fasten to wall for gas connections. To make close connection with swing joint for wall bracket. To make wall bracket gas light with 59. Burner connection. 62 Base B Part of burner. 63 Pillar, B Part of burner. 64 Lava tip Part of burner. RAILING FITTINGS, MALLEABLE IRON OR POLISHED BRASS. No. NAME. USE. 65 Elbow side outlet . . . To connect top rail and post at corner. 66 Tee To connect intermediate post and top rail. 67 Tee, side outlet To connect intermediate post, top and 68 Cross cross rail, and for same purpose as 65 when ornament is used. To connect rails and post and to connect 69 Elbow top rail at intermediate post when orna- ment is used. To connect top single rail and post. 70 Flanges A B To connect post or rail with floor or wall. 71 Angle flange Obtainable in different diameters to one size thread. To connect angle rail with wall. 72 73 Adjustable angle fitting . . Ball ornament To connect post, horizontal and angle rail. To ornament railings. 126 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Attention. In order to erect a railing two pipes high, the upper outlet of fittings used in lower pipes must have left-hand thread. As railing joints need not be steam or water tight, it is permissible, if necessary, to run a left tap into a right threaded fitting. Note. Railing fittings more ornamental than those in chart, and also brass and nickel-plated fittings, are obtainable. FITTINGS FOR DRIVEN AND^BORED WELLS. No. NAME. USE. 74 75 Drive point, M. I. point, W. I. strainer. Drive coupling M I For driven wells. For driven and bored wells 76 Drive Cap, M. I . . For driven wells 77 Drive shoe, S For bored wells. 78 Sand chamber, copper or C.I. For bored wells. To separate and hold sand and protect pump valve. PIPE TOOLS. 287. Names and uses of pipe tools in chart, Fig. 168. ABBREVIATIONS . R., Right hand. N., Nickel. L., Left hand. P., Plated. Comb., Combination. T., Tubing. C. S., Carbon steel. No. NAME. USE. Solid pipe die. Iron pipe size. (C. S.) R. or L. thread. Solid die. Fixed chasers, Die stock. Guide bush- ing. Adjustable die stock . . . To thread pipe by hand. To thread pipe by hand. To hold solid dies. To facilitate starting dies 1^" to 4*, die stock has threaded leader same pitch as die. Ratchet die stocks are used to thread large sizes and where space is limited. Dies may be set to thread standard size or adjusted to provide for variation in fittings. Dies can be removed and ground at emery wheel or grindstone. CHART OF PIPE TOOLS ADJUSTABLE DIE STOCK QUICK OPENING ADJUSTABLE DIE STOCK 5 CUTTING OFF ATTACHMENT FOR DIE STOCK 6 PIPE THREADING AND CUTTING OFF MACHINES HAND POWER (PORTABLE) 7 8 PIPE TAP AUTOMATIC ADJUSTABLE COLLAPSING PIPE TAP 10 COMB.DRILL AND PIPE TAP II PIPE REAMER PIPE CUTTER WHEEL 14 PIPE CUTTERS ONE WHEEL THREE WHEEL 16 FIG. 168. (127) 128 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. NAME. USE. Quick-opening adjustable die stock. Cutting-off attachment for die stock. Hand pipe- threading and cutting-off machine (portable) . Quick- opening die head. Power pipe-threading and cutting-off machine. Quick-opening die head. Motor driven. Pipe tap. Taper f* to 1'. Iron pipe size. (C. S.) R. or L. thread. Adjustable automatic col- lapsing pipe, tap R. or L. Comb, drill and pipe tap. (C. S.) Pipe reamer, fluted. Ta- per I" to 1". (C. S.) Pipe reamer or burr re- mover. (C. S.) Pipe cutter wheel. (C. S.) Pipe cutter. Single wheel. Pipe cutter. Three wheels. Chasers will thread wide range of sizes. One set (4) will thread pipe I", l", H", and 2" (11 threads). When thread is cut die is opened and removed without backing off. A device to attach to stock No. 5 to cut off pipe by hand. Operate like lathe cut- ting-off tool. To thread larger pipe than can be done with die and stock by hand. Has cut- ting-off attachment. Same can be operated by crank or by ratchet. To thread and cut off large pipe or large lots of pipe of any size. To tap a pipe thread in boiler, pipe fitting, or other apparatus to receive threaded pipe. Straight tubes are obtainable. To thread pipe fittings, etc., by power used in special tapping machines or any tur- ret head machine. Collapses automati- cally when thread is tapped and is with- drawn without reversing machine. To ratchet drill and tap holes to receive threaded pipe. See Ratchet, No. 35. To ream holes to proper taper before tap- ping. Thin plates may be tapped with- out reaming taper. To remove burr from inside pipe made by pipe cutter. This sharp-edged wheel forces the pipe off evenly all around. Strictly speaking, it does not cut it off. Stock and cutter wheel. To cut pipe to lengths. It is placed on pipe, block screwed down, and handle moved for- ward in a circle. To cut off pipe to lengths more rapidly than single wheel. Can be used where space is limited with strokes back and forth, and to cut off pipes in the thread. PIPE TOOLS. 129 NAME. USE. Ratchet pipe cutter. . . Hinged pipe vise, M. I. Comb, pipe vise, C. I.. Stillson pipe wrench . . Auto, pipe wrench Chain pipe wrench. Pipe tap wrench. . . Pipe pliers Pipe tongs. Monkey wrench Nipple holder. Commer- cial. Nipple holder. "Home- made. Pipe-bending form. Flange wrench Pipe- joint cement or mix- ture. Oil can. Lard oil , To cut off pipe where space will not allow ordinary pipe cutter to be rotated. To hold pipe to thread, cut off, make or unmake joints. Is bolted to bench or post. Same as 18 and with plain jaws and fittings for rectangular work. To make or unmake screwed connections of pipe fittings. May also be used for bolts and rods s Same as 20, another type. Same as 20, for large pipe and fittings. To operate taps and reamers. Same as 20, for very small pipe and gas connections. Same as 20; used for radiator coils where space is limited. Also made adjustable. For union, bolt and nut connections, etc. To hold nipple to thread blank end. Same as 27; convenient for short or very large nipples, also to use in machines. To bend pipe to a desired shape. Forma to suit special cases may. be sawed out of wood. To bend pipe, fill with sand plug end, and bend cold or hot. To make up or take off flanges. Better than bar or bolt. To lubricate pipe thread and to make joints tight. To lubricate dies and cutting-off tools for wrought iron or steel pipe and taps for wrought iron, steel, cast and malleable iron. (See Brass pipe tools.) 288. Names and uses of pipe tools in chart, Fig. 169. CHART OF PIPE TOOLS CONTINUED NIPPLE HOLDERS COMMERCIAL HOME MADE 27 28 HP > BRASS PIPE AND TUBING TOOLS PLUMBERS' SIZE OR FINE THREAD TOOLS DIE TAP 37 38 TOOLS FOR NICKEL PLATED TUBING DIE STOCK 45 TAP 46 (130) FIG. 169. PIPE TOOLS. 131 No. 34 35 36 NAME. Half-round Bastard or 2d cut file (10" to 14*). Screw clamp. Ratchet drill. Pipe tool chest. USE. To mark off lengths by filing nicks in which to start wheels of pipe cutter. To re- move burrs and for smoothing opera- tions. To hold pipe temporarily in position and for general purposes. To drill holes in boiler, pipe or other appa- ratus to be tapped that cannot be brought conveniently to a drilling ma- chine. To keep safely and tq ship pipe tools. PLUMBERS' SIZES OR FINE THREAD PIPE TOOLS. Plumbers' Drawn Seamless Brass Pipe or Tubing is Measured at the Outside. No. NAME. USE. 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 Plumbers' size or fine thread die., (O. D.). Taper f" to I". Plumbers' size or fine thread tap, standard diameter. Taper " to Pipe vise with jaws to hold brass pipe. Brass-pipe wrench. Roller pipe cutter. Hack saw . . To thread tubing. Fits iron pipe die- stock No. 3. To tap a fine thread in plates, fittings, ap- paratus, etc., to receive threaded tubing. To hold polished or nickel-plated pipe or tubing while threading or cutting off. For very nice work, line jaws with lead or use wooden jaws. To make or unmake screwed connections of polished or nickel-plated pipe, tubing or fitting. For very nice work, line jaws with lead. To cut off brass pipe or tubing, small pipe use hack saw. For very Shears . To cut off brass pipe and tubing use saw with 22 teeth. For general purposes use saw with 14 teeth. For cutting sheet metal, wire, etc. 132 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. NICKEL-PLATED BRASS TUBING \" TO 2" OUTSIDE DIAM- ETER, 28 THREADS. No. NAME. USE. 44 45 46 47 Nickel-plated (brass) tub- ing die, 28 threads per inch. Taper J/ to I". N. P. T. die stock N. P. T. tap, 28 threads. . Plumbers' torch, gasoline or kerosene. For threading nickel-plated brass tubing. To hold N. P. T. die. To tap N. P. T. thread in plates, fittings, etc. To heat pipe to bend to form (see No. 29), for soldering, etc. Attention. Pipe dies and taps are designated by the nominal sizes of the pipes they are used upon, and not by their actual diam- eters. A V pipe, die or tap, is about 1 J" diameter which is the bore of the pipe plus twice the thickness of the pipe. A ball-peen hammer is used to loosen fittings that they may be unscrewed easily, and to break off cast iron fittings when necessary. HAND AND MACHINE METHODS OF PIPING. 289. Hand method of threading, cutting off pipe, and mak- ing up pipe joints. One person can thread or cut off pipe by hand up to 1", and with an assistant and die stock with threaded leader up to 2". For larger sizes, a hand or power pipe-threading and cutting-off machine is needed. PIPE THREADING BY HAND. 133 290. To thread pipe, hand method. Fig. 170. Right-hand thread. PIPE JOINT CEMENT FIG. 170. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Place " W.I. pipe A in pipe vise B, with end clear of bench C, and clamp pipe. Place I" R. H. solid die marked side up in front, and f" guide bushing in back of diestock D, and clamp. Remove burr from end of pipe with half- round file E. Freely oil end of pipe with lard oil from can F, Place bushing end of diestock on pipe and start die. Stand well back, and with hands near the center of the stock, press hard on handles ; at same time rotate handles to right through a quarter circle and change hands. Press hard and again rotate a quarter circle. Then move hands out as shown and occasionally ro- tate backward slightly, to allow chips to drop, and continue for- ward and backward with less pres- sure, using plenty of lard oil through opening of die, until end of pipe is even with front of die. Remove diestock and try on fitting, which should go on at least three threads with the hand. To cut left-hand thread, place left-threaded die in diestock and turn handles to left. Attention. Large pipe is often ustable dies. See Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, threaded with two cuts with ad- and 8, Fig. 168. 134 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 91. To make up screwed pipe joint. Hand method. Fig. 171. FIG. 171. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Place pipe A in swivel pipe vise B and thread. With brush or stick apply cement or pipe-joint mixture C to first three threads in fitting or on pipe. Screw elbow D on by hand and with Stillson pipe wrench E make joint tight. Then as a matter of cleanliness, with waste G (or cloth) wipe all surplus cement from pipe and fitting at H. Attention. The wrench may be held on fitting with left hand while operating handle with right. Note. Vise B is a type of plain vise with heavily milled jaws of great gripping power and much used in commercial work. 292. To cut off pipe, hand method. Fig. 172. FIG. 172. PIPE THREADING BY HAND. 135 SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Place pipe A in vise B so that desired length will clear end of bench C. Lay off length with rule D. and mark with file E. Place pipe cutter F on pipe so that wheel cutter G comes on mark. Drop lard oil on pipe and cutter, then press handle of pipe cutter downward. At each revolution of cutter, move backward a little and rotate handle to feed cutter inward pro- ceeding thus until pipe is cut off. Reverse pipe in vise and thread blank end. Attention. In commercial pip- ing unnecessary handling of pipe is avoided by passing pipe through vise far enough to cut off desired length, and allow remainder to be threaded before laying away. 293. Problem in pipe fitting. Fig. 173. Make up parts in alphabetical order, as A, B, C, and D. Measurements are taken fit R&L. FIG. 173. SCHEDULE DRAWING OF PROBLEM IN PIPE FITTING. from center of one fitting to the center of the next. To secure this, it is best, when possible, to make up tight each 136 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. successive pipe or fitting before attaching the next or cutting off pipe, for more accurate measurements may be thus ob- tained. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Place a f" pipe in vise and clamp. If not threaded, thread R. H. (width of die), (1). With hand, screw right end of I" R. and L. C. I. elbow (2) on pipe and make tight with Stillson as in Fig. 171. Mark with file the distance fitting goes on, unscrew and measure this distance with wooden rule, (f" fitting may go on about &", and this information is necessary to know where to cut off pipe for the next fitting.) Then make up joint. A fitting adds to the length of a pipe, and the amount the pipe is screwed into the fitting is subtracted from length of pipe. Select a I" X %" C. I. reducing elbow and measure its effective length from face to center, as in Fig. 174. A I" elbow may be IjV' in length. Pass pipe through vise and clamp. Meas- ure off on pipe from center E IS" (distance from E to F), less Iffc", length of elbow, plus T", length of thread, mark and cut off pipe Then thread R. H. (3), apply ce- ment, screw on elbow (4) and make REDUCING ELBOW gJlCENTER FIG. 174. MEASURING LENGTH OF FITTINGS FACE TO CENTER. up joint. Aline elbows and meas- ure. If within T^" of 18", it is good. If too long, die may be run on further. Part B is made up in order (6), (7), (5), (8), (9). Note how far " pipe enters a fitting. Also measure length of elbow (9). Cement all connections. Attention. In screwing up bushings it is best to make up the larger thread first to avoid splitting the bushing. 294. To make right and left connections. Fig. 173. Right and left connections are here used on both sides on account of PIPE THREADING BY HAND. 137 the stiffness of short pipes. If problem called for long pipes, they would spring sufficiently to necessitate R. and L. connec- tions on one side only. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Place parts A and B on bench with G, H, centers 16" apart and parallel. Then measure for pipes C and D, allowing for threaded ends. Thread and cut required pipes, threading one end of each left hand. Count Threads. Screw pipe (10) by hand or wrench, into (7) without cement. Chalk line on pipe and fitting as at (5) and note number of turns it takes to unscrew pipe; repeat with left end (11), also (13) and (13). If both right and left ends take same number of turns to make tight, both pipes may be coated with cement and started together. If, for example, right end (10) takes 4 turns and left end (11) but 3 turns to make tight, start right end (10) one turn before left (11). Use same method with (12) and (13), then screw pipes alternately to make tight. Dimensions should be correct within ]V'. To test joints, at- tach (14) to steam pipe with a pressure of 100 Ibs. (or water 200 Ibs.), and turn on pressure. If there is no leak, problem is finished and said to be steam tight. If leaks show at R. and L. joints, it means that R. and L. joints were not accurately counted, that is, that one joint did not makeup tight. Unscrew(lO), (11), (12), and (13) and count in again. 295. Pipe coils and bends. Pipe coils of steel, wrought iron, brass, or copper pipe or tubing are used for heating, refrigerat- ing, and condensing purposes. The large bends are used for high-pressure steam and exhaust piping. Coils and bends are made cold or by heating and bending on special pipe-bending machines, as the electric welding and bending machine and hydraulic coiling and bending machine. If the radius is large compared with diameter, the pipe may be bent cold, but if radius is small, it is necessary to heat the pipe before bending. 138 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 296. To thread 3" pipe with hand pipe -threading machine, I" to 4". Fig. 175. FIG. 175. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Release screws B, B' and move setting lever C until letters AA on machine coincide. Remove four dies (one is shown at D) and replace with 3" dies E. Move lever C until graduations f coin- cide, then lock screws B, B'. Mount pipe F in chuck and clamp with wheel G. Throw in back gears H (for large pipe only); lubricate pipe and dies with lard oil. With lever C in its notch move pipe to dies (to start thread only) with wheel /, and rotate crank handle K to thread pipe. To release dies, throw lever C against stop pin. Remove pipe and throw lever back in notch again to reset dies to duplicate thread. Note. For pipe 1 J" and less, use bushing L to steady dies. Caution. Avoid backing dies off thread. To cut off pipe with hand ma- chine. Release dies and clamp pipe in chuck lightly. Place pin M in hole N and bring guide jaws against pipe just back of dies to center, and hold pipe while cut- ting off; then clamp pipe in chuck hard. Move cutting-off tool (shown in detail at P) to pipe with PIPE THREADING WITH MACHINE. 139 handle Q placed on star wheel R. Swing pawl S forward to obtain automatic star feed. Lubricate tool, and rotate crank handle K to cut off pipe. Note. The guide jaws are often used to steady pipe when threading. This machine is also used for threading bolts and rods. 297. To thread 12" pipe with power pipe -threading machine 3" to 18", Fig. 176. L 7 SHIPPER CHASER FIG. 176. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Remove chasers from die head 1 and replace with 12" die (8 chasers; one is shown at 2). Set (0) zero lines to cut 12" pipe on graduated scale back of die head as shown in detail at 3. Clamp pipe 4 in chuck 5 (also in chuck 5' for long pipe). With pilot wheel 6 move die head to pipe (to start thread only). With shipper 7 start machine, lubricate pipe with lard oil from oil pump through pipe 8 and hold lever 9 down while threading. To terminate thread, release dies by throwing lever 9 up. Then stop machine and remove pipe. Adjustments of .001" are ob- tained by hand nut 10. To cut off pipe. Move pipe 140 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. out through die head, clamp in chucks 5 and 5' and steady with guides 11, 11'. Lubricate tool, start machine and cut off pipe with tool 12 operated with hand wheel 13. Various speeds are obtained by a 3-step cone and back gears. These machines are often motor driven. This machine is also used for threading bolts and rods. Attention. Pipe cutting-off ma- chines are obtainable which oper- ate rolling cutters to cut off pipe similarly to hand pipe cutters. Nipples are usually cut in ma- chines. See nipple holder in chart, Fig. 169. 298. To make up a large pipe joint by power. To save labor, large pipe joints are often made up with power pipe- threading machines, as in Fig. 177. FIG. 177. Mount Tee A in chuck B. Lift pipe C with chain hoist D and start pipe into tee by hand. Hold pipe with chain tongs E with handle resting on floor. Start machine with shipper F, and stop when joint is made up. CHAPTER IX. STRAIGHTENING AND BENDING. PEENING AND RIVETING. HAND DRILLING. STRAIGHTENING AND BENDING. 299. To straighten or bend bars or sheets of metal. Place flat bar A, Fig. 178, concave side down and over square hole in anvil B, straighten with the face (not the corner) of hammer C. FIG. 178. STRAIGHTENING FLAT STOCK ON ANVIL. FIG. 179. STRAIGHTENING ROUND STOCK ON ANVIL. Round bar A, Fig. 179, is placed concave side down on anvil B. Swage C is held on bar while a helper strikes swage with a sledge. 300. To test and straighten centered shafts in a lathe. -*- Unturned work that is centered is tested by rotating it in lathe and marking with chalk. For finished work, use copper tool held in tool post or a test indicator shown at A, Fig. 180. FIG. 180. TESTING AND STRAIGHTENING SHAFT IN LATHE. 141 142 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Shank B is held in tool post; the cross feed is fed inward until feeler C touches revolving shaft D, when pointer E will indicate error in thousandths of an inch. With piece F for fulcrum and bar G, the shaft is straightened. Sometimes it is necessary to peen shaft by a few light blows of hammer on upper side, struck while shaft is pressed upward. 301. Straightening press, Fig. 181. If shaft A is centered, it is tested by mounting on centers B and B'; if not centered, it FIG. 181. STRAIGHTENING SHAFT WITH STRAIGHTENING PRESS. is tested by sighting along its length and marking with chalk or metal workers' crayon (soapstone). It is placed on sup- ports C and C' with its high side under screw D* and pres- sure is applied with screw D and lever E. PEENING AND RIVETING. '302. Peening metal. To hammer one side in order to stretch that side to straighten the work or to otherwise alter its shape: Work A, Fig. 182, is placed convex side down on anvil B and struck with the ball peen of hammer C. The blows should be quick and light to stretch the metal on one FIG. 182. PEENING WORK TO STRAIGHTEN. side only. The metal will be stretched where the blows are struck, and if striking is continued over the whole surface, the concave side may be made equal in length to the convex side thus straightening the surface. RIVETING. 143 303. Riveting. Riveting is the process of fastening two or more pieces of metal together by means of a soft metal rod or wire having usually a head on one end. The rivet is passed through a hole in the work and its headless end is spread by hammering or peening until a second head is formed. The work may be done by a press, hammer or pneumatic riveter. The rivet may be headed hot or cold. 304. Copper rivets are often employed to fasten metal, leather, or other material together. The rivet is inserted, and usually a washer, called a burr, is put over the point, then the point is riveted with a hammer or preferably with a cup- shaped tool. 305. Flush riveting. Fig. 183. Countersink pieces A and B for soft-steel rivet C, as at D and D' '. "Upon anvil E with 'hammer F head rivet to fill countersinks. Strike with light blows, principally near edge of rivet. Then file flush with work and polish. FIG. 183. RIVETING PLATES. FIG. 184. RIVETING CRANK PIN. 306. Riveting crank pin A, Fig. 184, to crank B. Coun- tersink hole C and hollow out pin as at D. Place head of pin on babbitt block E, with peen hammer ^ strike light quick blows equally around pin to draw it tight. Finish end of pin after riveting. 144 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. HAND DRILLING. 307. Hand drilling machines are used in erecting or repair- ing machinery, to drill holes in the frame or other parts which cannot be conveniently taken to a power drilling machine, and when no portable power drilling machine, as a pneumatic or electrically driven hand drill, is at hand. 308. Breast drilling machine (breast drill), Fig. 185, is for drilling small holes as clearly shown in the illustration. FIG. 185. DRILLING WITH BREAST DRILLING MACHINE. SCHEDULE OF PRINCIPAL PARTS. A Spindle. B Breast plate to press on with body to give feed. C Chuck; runs free on spindle. D- Drill. E Driving crank. F Bevel gear fast to crank. G Bevel gear attached to chuck; runs free on spindle. H Idler gear. K Handle to support and steady machine. HAND DRILLING 145 309. Ratchet drilling machine (ratchet drill), Fig. 186, is for drilling larger holes. FIG. 186. DRILLING WITH RATCHET DRILLING MACHINE. SCHEDULE OF PARTS AND OPERATIONS. A Flat ratchet drill. B Head with square tapered hole to hold drill. C Brace, located at will. D Work to be drilled ; locate and draw drill in usual way. #- Foot plate. F Clamp ; use a bolt instead, if convenient. G Center; fits depression in underside of arm. H Arm fastened to brace by nut. J Handle to revolve drill part of a stroke at a time by means of the ratchet mechanism. X-Pawl. L Ratchet wheel fast on head B. M Threaded sleeve; to obtain feed, keep sleeve from rotating by holding with the hand to feed. N Hole to insert pin to hold sleeve to feed, if necessary, after drill is started. P Pawl, to reverse action of ratchet L. Attention. Instead of a flat drill, a square shank twist drill may be obtained, or a socket for regular taper and straight twist drills may be used. CHAPTER X. SOLDERING. BRAZING. BABBITTING. SOLDERING. 310. Soldering and brazing are processes for uniting metals by means of an alloy that melts at a lower temperature than the metals to be united. 311. Soldering is done with a fusible alloy of tin and lead, which melts at a low temperature, below 500, and is used to unite surfaces of metals that are not subject to great stress or heat. 312. Soft solder consists of two parts of tin and one of lead, and melts at 340 F. A more fusible solder is made by adding bismuth. Tinsmiths use solder composed of one part tin and one of lead, which melts at 370 F. 313. Flux for soldering. Parts to be soldefed must be chemically clean; that is, all oxide must be removed from the surfaces to be united, by filing or scraping, to insure a perfect joint. To prevent oxides from forming during the soldering and to promote the flow of solder, a flux (chloride of zinc, or resin) is used. Chloride of zinc is prepared by dissolving pieces of zinc in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid) until effervescence ceases. This solution is then strained and put in a bottle with a glass stopper. For soldering brass it is best to dilute with water. For copper and galvanized metals, undiluted hydrochloric acid is often used. 314. Soldering-iron D, Fig. 187, is made of copper, and is pointed at one end. 315. Tin soldering-iron before using. Heat iron until it will just melt solder; shape and brighten its point with a file and dip into acid, then apply to a stick of solder until it is " tinned " or coated. 146 SOLDERING. 147 316. To solder two pieces of brass tube to make an elbow. Fig. 187. F- SOLDERING J ACID WIRING CLOTH FIG. 187. SOLDERING WITH SOLDERING IRON. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. 1. Clean and brighten surfaces of work A to be soldered by filing and fasten to plank B on bench C. 2. Heat iron D in heater E, rub acid F on joint, clean iron with cloth, then with solder G and iron D tack elbow with a drop of solder at outer and inner edges, then pass solder and iron along seam to complete the joint. Attention. If solder does not "run" properly, use a little more acid and repeat operation. Irons D and H are used for straight work, swivel iron K for work which a straight iron could not reach. 317. Soldering by sweating is a process of heating the pieces to be united in the flame of a Bunsen burner, blowpipe, or forge fire. After the pieces are sufficiently heated, acid and solder are applied directly to the surfaces to be joined,, the parts are again heated until the solder fuses and flows to tin the surfaces, when the pieces may be rubbed hard together, alined, and allowed to cool. 148 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Caution. Thoroughly brighten the work, place flux in proper place, apply heat where solder is expected to flow, and never use heat enough to burn the solder. Note. A combined soft solder and flux is obtainable, in either stick form or paste, which cleanses and solders in one operation. BRAZING. 318. Brazing or hard soldering serves to unite metals to endure high temperature and severe stress. Use a solder slightly lower in melting point and similar in hardness and malleability to metals to be united. 319. Brazing solder or hard solder, composed of equal parts of copper and zinc, is obtainable granulated or in form of wire, and melts at 1800 F. Brass wire and granulated brass, often called spelter, are also used. For soldering gold, use solder composed of gold, silver, and copper; for silver, silver and copper; for platinum, fine gold. 320. Flux for brazing. Specially prepared borax is used to unite with the metallic oxide and clean joint, also to pre- vent oxide forming during brazing. G SPELTER FIG. 188. 321. To braze with hand blowpipe, a steel rocker arm, Fig. 188. BRAZING. 149 SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. 1. Place work A to be brazed on hearth C within forge D; sur- round by fire brick E to retain and deflect heat on to work. 2. Use borax flux F freely; heat slowly with blowpipe B to a low red. Apply spelter G when flux flows. Control gas and air through pipes H and J by hand. 3. Steadily raise temperature of work, continuously apply flux and spelter with rod K until spelter fuses thoroughly through joint. 4. Allow work to cool slowly in air. Attention. All parts to be brazed must be closely fitted. In some cases it is best to bind parts together with, iron wire. Steel or iron while being brazed may " scale " and be destroyed if heated too much; copper or brass may melt. 322. To braze with stationary blowpipe, half a rear steel axle case for an automobile, A, Fig. 189, with blowpipe B supplied through pipes C and D. Clean and pin parts FIRE BRICK F STATIONARY BLOW PIPE AUTOMOBILE AXLE A SPELTER WIRE H FIG. 189. BRAZING WITH STATIONARY BLOWPIPE. together, place on forge E, surround by bricks F, turn no blast and heat to a low red. Apply flux with rod G and 150 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. supply spelter from wire H. Heat until spelter fuses through joint, shut off blast, and cool slowly in air. 323. To solder small work, as jewelry, use a blowpipe held in the mouth to direct flame on to work from a gas jet, Bunsen burner, or alcohol lamp. 324. To braze cast iron, use, in conjunction with the regular brazing material, a special compound which will decarbonize the fractured surface of cast iron. 325. To braze broken cast iron vise jaw with decarbon- izing compound A, Fig. 190. PORTABLE BLOW PIPE P FIG. 190. BRAZING CAST IRON. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. 1. Place jaw B with fracture B' on brazing forge C and heat to bum out all foreign matter. 2. When cool, remove and clean fracture with hydrochloric acid D, wash with water E, and wipe dry with clean cloth F. 3. Brush fracture vigorously with wire brush G, and coat with compound A made into paste by adding mixing liquid H. 4. Bolt the parts together with bolt J, and place on fire brick and level with fire clay L. Place brick around and iron plate M on top of piece to deflect the heat. Place portable blowpipes N and P in position. 5. Heat jaw to cherry red, with spoon Q apply borax R and spelter S to fracture until joint is satu- rated with spelter, then allow the whole mass to cool slowly in air. BABBITTING. 151 Attention. If brazing is carefully performed, the joint will be as strong as the casting was before it was broken. When brazing a small part to a large part, heat and cool parts evenly to avoid cracks due to unequal expansion and contraction. Small pieces may be held in alinement for brazing by bsdding with fire clay. Protect threaded parts from heat and spelter with a coating of fire clay or graphite. Coat finished work with Spanish white. 326. Pickle brazed work to remove surplus flux and allow joint to be more readily finished by filing. Pickle solution consists of one part sulphuric acid to thirty parts water. BABBITTING. 327. Babbitt bearings are often used because they can be made in place and can be easily renewed. Eccentric straps, hangers, and main engine bearings etc., are often babbitted. The boxes or bearings are cast in halves, the lower half being babbitted first. The retaining webs at -the ends are bored or chipped and filed slightly larger than shaft to aline shaft. On fine work, as bearings of lathe headstocks, an undersized shaft is used, the Babbitt being peened or stretched by bur- nishing and the hole later bored, or bored and reamed. FlQ . 191> BABBITTING ENGINE BEARINGS. 328. To Babbitt cap of crank-shaft bearing, Fig. 191, the bottom half of bearing having been completed. 152 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Heat cap A of bearing on engine bed B to drive out any moisture, which would cause metal to ex- plode. Place strips of cardboard C, C' between halves of box to prevent Babbitt from uniting with lower half box, and strips of leather or clay, as at D, to prevent Babbitt running out. Heat Babbitt in pot E to 700 F. (until it will char a pine stick), skim, and pour with ladle F, into funnel G which is formed by putty to guide the metal. Attention. Powdered resin sprinkled into the Babbitt or box will facilitate the flow. Note. In babbitting large shafts, paper may be wrapped around the shaft, or a shaft slightly larger than the regular one may be used to allow for shrinkage. Chalk, smoke, or soap shaft to prevent Babbitt from sticking. CHAPTER XI. POWER TRANSMISSION. ALINING AND LEVELING SHAFTING AND INSTALLING MACHINES. POWER TRANSMISSION. 329. Power for driving machine tools is obtained from engines, motors, etc., and transmitted to a main shaft and then to line shafts by belts, pulleys, oj gears. Machines are seldom driven directly from line shaft but indirectly through countershafts of the friction type used on engine lathes and milling machines, and the tight and loose pulley type used on hand lathes, drilling machines, and planers. In electrically driven machines where individual motors are employed, no countershaft is necessary, and by using a rheo- stat various speeds are obtained. 330. Shafting of steel or wrought iron is obtainable either turned or rolled. Turned shafts are T y less than nominal diameter, a 2" shaft being lyf" actual diameter. Cold-rolled shafts are obtainable of nominal or reduced size. Line shafts at least 2" nominal diameter, running from 150 to 200 revo- lutions per minute, supported by hangers bolted to timbers about 10 feet apart, form a good arrangement to transmit power to machine tools (see Figs. 203 and 204). Couplings are used to connect two or more lengths of shafting. Two collars, on each end of a line shaft bearing, take the thrust and prevent end motion. 331. Pulleys, solid and split, are obtainable in cast iron, pressed steel, and wood. The bores are usually T V less than nominal diameter, but may be obtained nominal diameter. Solid pulleys are used in places where they are not likely to be changed. It is best to use split pulleys on line shafts. To prevent slipping of belt, avoid belting together pulleys of greatly different diameters. Pulleys up to 36" diameter 153 154 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. are usually fastened to shaft by set screws or clamping; and over 36" by keys. Pulleys running at high speed are balanced. See 361. 332. Crown and straight face pulleys. Pulleys are tapered, leaving center highest to keep belts in place, as a belt tends to run to the highest part of pulley. Crowned tight and loose pulleys on countershafts are belted to a straight-face pulley on line shaft. 333. General formulas for calculating speeds of shafts and diameters of pulleys. Diameter of driven X revolutions per minute = diameter of driver X revolutions per minute. To find diameter of pulley on line shaft to give desired speed of countershaft. Formula. Diam. of countershaft pulley Desired speed of countershaft X - Speed of line shaft = Diameter of line shaft pulley. Example. Desired speed of countershaft for 12" engine lathe, 180 R. P.M. Diameter of countershaft pulley, 8"; speed of line shaft, 150 R.P.M. Solution. 180 X 8 ^ 150 = 9.6". Use 10" pulley. To find diameter of pulley for a countershaft to give de- sired speed of a machine spindle. Formula. Diam. of spindle pulley Desired speed of spindle X - Speed of countershaft = Diameter of countershaft pulley. Example. Desired speed of grinder spindle, 1800 r.p.m. Diameter of pulley on grinder spindle, 6". Speed of counter- shaft, 500. Solution. = 21.6". Use 22" pulley. To find speed of countershaft to give desired speed of con- stant speed drive. BELTS. 155 Formula. Desired speed of constant speed drive X Diam. of drive pulley Diameter of countershaft pulley = Speed of countershaft. Example. Desired speed of constant speed drive, of an all-geared headstock machine, 600 R.P.M. Diameter of drive pulley, 14"; diameter of pulley on counter- shaft, 19". 600 X 14" Solution. : = 442, speed of countershaft. To find the velocity of last pulley in any system of shafts or pulleys. Rule. Multiply together all diameters of drivers and multiply the product by speed of first one; divide this product by product of diameters of all driven pulleys and the result will be the speed of the last one. 334. Effect of belts and gears on speeds. The relative speed in a train of gears is always exact, but relative speed of pulleys is subject to variation, for a belt creeps or slips about 1% and does not drive driven pulley quite as fast as the calculation shows. 335. Belting of leather, rubber, or a woven fabric (cotton duck) is employed to transmit rotary motion and power from driving pulley to driven pulley. 336. Rope and round leather belts and chains. Wire and hemp rope drivers are used; also round leather belts and chains. When rope is used, the pulleys are called sheaves or groove pulleys, and are provided with V-shaped grooves to increase the grip. Sprocket wheels are used in chain transmission. Belts of woven fabrics (canvas belts) are used for large and small powers and on high speed machines. 337. Rubber belts are used where great changes of moisture prevail, but not where there is much oil or dust. 338. Leather belts are designated as single and double according to the number of thicknesses of leather. Use single 156 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. belts on small pulleys and light work. The grain side of belt (hair side) should always run next to pulley. 339. Open belts. Fig. 192 shows an open belt from line shaft to countershaft, to rotate driven pulley in same direction, as the driving belt of an engine lathe. DRIVING PULLEY DRIVEN PULLEY 9'0" FIG. 192. OPEN BELT. 340. To obtain length of open belts. Pass a tape, pref- erably of steel, around pulleys, and if a single belt is to be used, cut belt to length obtained by tape; but if a double belt, add twice thickness of belt. Length of small belts may be easily obtained by passing belt around pulleys and straining with hand pull. New belts stretch and become slack after a few days' use and should be taken up. This slackness may be anticipated on large belts by cutting belt I" shorter for every 10 feet to allow for stretch. Do not run belts too tightly. To obtain length of belt by formula. Rule. Add diameter of pulleys in inches. Multiply sum by constant 1.57, and add to product twice distance between centers in inches. If there is much difference in diameter of pulleys the follow- ing formula should be used for open belts. Formula for finding length of open belt: L = 3.1472 + r+ 2D + ^ R ~ D R = radius of large pulley. r = radius of small pulley. D = distance between centers of shafts. L = length of belt. BELTS. 157 Example. In Fig. 192 one pulley is 24", other pulley 12" in diameter; distance between centers of the shafts is 9 feet. What is the length of belt? Solution. Putting radii of pulleys in feet, and substituting in formula: .25 L = 3.14 (1 + .5) + 18 + = 4.71 + 18 + .027 = 22.74 feet or 22' 8J". 341. Cross belts. Fig. 193 shows a cross belt drive to rotate driven pulley in opposite direction, as the backing belt of an engine lathe. DRIVING PULLEY DRIVEN "ULLEY FIG. 193. CROSS BELTS. 342. To obtain length of cross belts. If pulleys are already in position, use a tape for finding length of a cross belt; but if pulleys are not in position, length of cross belt may be obtained by following formula. Formula for finding length of cross belt, as in Fig. 193. L = 3.14 (R + r) + 2 D + R = radius of large pulley. r = radius of small pulley. D = distance between centers of shafts. L = length of belt. Example. In Fig. 193 one pulley is 24", other pulley 12" in diameter; distance between centers of two shafts is 9 feet. What is length of belt? 158 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. Solution. in formula: Putting radii of pulleys in feet and substituting 2.25 L = 3.14 (1 + .5) + 18 +. = 4.71 + 18 + .25 = 22.96 or 22' 1H". 9 These formulas for open and cross belts can be depended upon to give length of single belts, for the error is less than stretch of belt. For double belts it is necessary to add thick- ness of belt to diameter of pulleys. 343. Quarter-turn and twisted belts are used to transmit power between two shafts lying in parallel planes but whose axes are at an angle. Fig. 194 shows plan, elevation, and end view. Shafts A and B are located at right angles, and figures show that pulleys C and D should be lined up to have belt run in direction of arrows. 344. To aline pulleys for quarter-turn belt. ELEVATION FIG. 194. QUARTER-TURN BELT. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. 1. Place pulleys C and D on respective shafts in approximate positions. 2. Slide pulley D upon shaft B until its middle plane, EF, is in line with point E of delivery side of pulley C. 3. Slide pulley C' on shaft A until middle plane is in line with point G of delivery side of pulley D', when pulleys will appear as shown in full lines in end view. Attention. The belt will run off pulleys if direction is reversed. To revolve pulleys in opposite direction, they must be lined up in reverse order. LACING BELTS. 159 345. To aline pulleys whose axes are other than a right angle. It may be seen that the small pulley can be rotated, as shown dotted in end view, about axis EF projected at H, to .any intermediate angle between an open belt (0) and a cross belt (180), and still have all the conditions of proper aline- ment fulfilled. Adjust pulleys to make belt run properly, especially for cross and quarter-turn belts. 346. Guide pulleys. When two shafts do not lie in parallel planes, supplementary guide pulleys are used to guide belt. They are also used as tighteners for open belts. 347. Joining ends of belts. The ends of belts are joined in two ways: by bringing butt ends together and fastening with lacing or hooks, and by cementing, gluing, or riveting the scarfed ends together. 348. Belt lacing. Rawhide lacing comes in widths I" to ", and in various lengths and thicknesses. For belts 2" and less, use \" lace; 2" to 4", T y'; 4" to 16", f"; above 16", \" . 349. Lacing belts and belt punches. Cut belt off square with a try square and knife. Punch holes with belt FIG. 195. PUNCHING BELT TO LACE. punch A, Fig. 195, in belt opposite each other. Four sizes of cutters, C, D, E, and F, are provided for different widths of belts. 350. To lace small and medium belts. Fig. 196. Punch single row of holes in each end: two holes for belts less than 160 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 2"; 3 holes from 2" to 3"; 4 holes from 3" to 4i"; 5 holes from 4J" to 6". - 3" H H 3 BELT BELT PULLEY SIDE OR GRAIN FIG. 196. LACING SMALL BELT. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. In 3" belt in Fig. 196, punch 3 holes and use f " rawhide lacing. Pass ends of lacing down through holes A and B, with grain side of lacing outward leaving ends of equal length. Pass end of lacing that was passed down through A up through B, but do not pull tight ; and end of lacing that passed down through B up through A. Draw both tight. The lacing will ap- pear on pulley side as at A' and B f . Pass lacing that is up through A down through D, and the lacing that is up through B down through C. Pass lacing that is down through C up through D, and lacing that is down through D up through C. Draw tight. Next pass the lacing that is up through C down through F, and lacing that is up through D down through E. Pass lacing that is down through E up through F, and lacing that is down through F up through E. Draw tight. To fasten ends, punch small holes with a belt awl at G and H. Pass lacing that is up through E down through D and up through G. Pass lacing that is up through F down through E and up through H. Draw ends of lacing up through holes G and H, hard. Make incision with knife on one side of lacing close to belt to form a barb; then cut off lacing about f" above incision. LACING BELTS. 161 351. To lace large belts. Fig. 197. For belts from 3" to 5" punch 3 and 2 holes; for belts 5" to 1" punch 4 and 3 holes. BELT. PULLEY SIDE OR GRAIN FIG. 197. LACING LARGE BELT. For wider belts punch one or two more than number of inches in width. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. In 6" belt in Fig. 197 punch holes for f " lacing. Pass ends of rawhide lacing from under or grain side of belt up through A and H, middle holes in second row; draw ends of belt together firmly, and make ends of lacing of equal length. With end of lacing that is up through A lace to left through B, C, D, E, F, G, F, G, D, E, B, C, and H', then punch small hole at K with awl, and draw lacing through hole and hitch it. It is often desirable, on very heavy belts, to give lacing a firmer hitch by punching two or more small holes, passing the lacing through them and barbing it at last hole. Lace the right side in same manner as left. Note. When lacing a wide belt by this method, it is better to lace alternately, right and left. 352. Belt clamps. The method of lacing wide, heavy belts is to place the belt on the pulleys and use a belt clamp to draw ends of belt together. 162 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 353. Coil wire lacing. Fig. 198. Small perforations are made in ends of belt at A and B (right and left spiral) by a heli- cal needle, in a special machine op- erated with crank by hand. The coil wire lacing is inserted in same c manner as the needle, flattened and pressed well into belt. The ends are coupled together by a rawhide pin, or steel pin, shown at C. Composition wire belt lacing is used in a similar manner to raw-hide: apart. Begin at two center holes and lace both ways with straight strands on pulley side and at each turn tighten wire with pliers. Fasten ends by back lacing and taking single turn on wire with pliers, and cut off. Flatten lacing with hammer. 354. Belt hooks and metal fastenings. Fig. 199. These hooks can be put in in less time than lacing. The holes are punched with a special belt punch. A shows hooks with pulley side of belt up, and B the outside of belt, showing fm- FIG. 198. COIL WIRE LACING. Punch holes from f " to FIG. 199. DOUBLE HITCH BELT HOOKS. FIG. 200. STEEL BELT LACING. ished joint. Steel belt lacing in Fig. 200 is useful for small belts. The lacing, ready to be applied, is shown at A, and at B the finished joint, as it runs with clinched points of lacing against pulley. 355. Cementing or gluing belts. Belts up to 3" in width are usually lapped 4", and wider belts about width of belt. The ends of belt may be beveled off to form lap (so that the thickness of lap will be same as rest of belt) with a wood- worker's smoothing plane. Belt cement is obtainable, but for small belts glue will make a good joint. After cement or SPEED INDICATOR. 163 glue is applied, the joint should be clamped very tightly between two pieces of smooth board and allowed to dry. High-speed belts should always be made endless. 356. Belt dressing. When a leather belt becomes dry, an application of castor or neat's-foot oil will make it pliable and increase its adhesion to the pulley. Belt dressings are obtain- able. Oiling or applying a belt dressing to a belt when it needs it will prolong the life of the belt; but too much dressing is injurious to leather. Resin or soap is injurious. 357. Speed indicator, Fig. 201. Revolutions of shafts, spindles, etc., are quickly counted by a speed'indicator, used in conjunction with a watch. Spindle A passes through case B containing tw r o dials C, D. Handle E is of hard rubber. Dial C is graduated into 100 divisions; each division when passing indicating finger F represents one revolution of spindle. Dial FIG. 201. SPEED INDICATOR. is figured to read right or left. Dial D has fifty divisions, each representing 100 revolutions of spindle A or one complete revo- lution of dial C. This indicator will count 5000 revolutions. Some speed indicators are so arranged that they may be started or stopped without removing the eyes from the watch. An attachment is obtainable also for measuring surface speeds. Indicators with long points are obtainable for use where ends of shafts are not easy to reach. 164 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. For Using Speed Indicator, Fig. 201. To set indicator. Press and turn screw G, then turn dial C until trip pin H is close to finger F to the right or left, so that pin H will not pass under finger un- til dial has made one complete revolution ; then tighten screw G. Next turn dial D until finger F engages depression indicated by pin K. To use, hold watch in left hand and with right press indicator point into center of revolving shaft or spindle, as at L. Example. When point of spindle A is held against shaft L sixty seconds, withdraw, and if dial D is distant 10 spaces and dial C 40 spaces, the spindle is revolving at 1040 R.P.M. Solution. 10 X 100 + 40 = 1040. Attention. Two rubber tips are provided to go over end of spindle A and used as at M, N and P, Q. A surface speed at- tachment is also obtainable. 358. Pair of gears and train of gears. Two gears that run together are commonly called a pair of gears, one the driver and the other the driven or follower; and one revolves in the opposite direction to the other. When three or more gears run together, they are commonly called a train of gears. When a train of three gears run together, as the simple screw- cutting gears of an engine lathe, the middle gear is called the intermediate or idler, which meshes with driver and driven gears and compels both to revolve in the same direction. The intermediate gear does not change relative speeds of driver and driven gears. 359. To calculate speed of gears. Ride. When calcu- lating speed of gearing, use same rules as for belting, but take numbers of teeth in gears instead of diameters of pulleys, see 333. Example. How many revolutions does a 32-tooth driven or follower gear make to 5 revolutions of a 96-tooth driver? Solution. 96 X 5 -?- 32 = 15 revolutions of driven gear. BALANCING PULLEYS. 165 Example. The back gears of an engine lathe consist of two pairs of gears. On some 14" lathes, one gear and pinion contain 81 teeth and 27 teeth respectively, and the other gear and pinion 76 teeth and 19 teeth. How many revo- lutions will cone pulley make while spindle makes one revolution? C1 y *7 Solution. = 12 revolutions of cone pulley. z t y\ i y 360. Pulleys, fly wheels, car wheels should be in balance to avoid vibration. Small pulleys are balanced only when they are to run at very high speeds. Line shaft pulleys, cones, armatures, and polishing wheels are often given a standing balance upon two pairs of balanc- ing disks, or on balancing ways, as in Fig. 202. 361. Balancing pulleys Standing balance. Fig. 202. Level two finished balancing ways A, A' upon their supports, FIG. 202. BALANCING PULLEY. and insert close-fitting shaft or mandrel B in finished pulley with its set screw in place, and mount on ways. Start pulley, to rotate slowly; the heavy side will stop at the bottom. Weight the rim diametrically opposite with clay or putty as at C to offset the unbalanced weight. Repeat until pulley will stop at any position. Remove lumps of clay. Drill holes through rim T\" and countersink and rivet 166 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. pieces of metal as at D, D'. Weight of metal and rivets should equal weight of clay. Then file flush. Sometimes the hub and inner side of rim of pulleys are turned to balance them. Attention. Pulleys, fly wheels, etc., are often balanced by cutting away metal from the heavy side by drilling, chipping or filing instead of adding metal to the light side. Balancing fly wheels Rotary balance. Gas engine fly wheels, electric motor and dynamo armatures, drums and pulleys running at high speeds are rotary balanced in a special machine. To rotary balance a fly wheel, it is poised horizontally on the point of the perpendicular center and a weight of the necessary size is located at the middle of the inside of the rim to obtain a standing balance. The machine is then run at the desired speed and fly wheel tested with chalk or a clay pencil. If wheel runs out, move weight toward edge of rim. If on reaching edge of rim the fly wheel still runs out, increase size of weight and place small counter weight diametrically and transversely opposite. If the weight is not heavy enough, increase its size, but if this affects the standing balance, also increase size of counter weight opposite. Attention. Automobile and power-boat crank shafts are rotary balanced in special machines. ALINING AND LEVELING SHAFTING AND INSTALLING MACHINES. 362. Erection of hangers for main -line shaft. In wooden construction the hangers to support the main-line shafting are bolted to wooden beams, posts, or walls. In concrete construction anchor bolts are molded into the beams so that the line-shaft hangers will be ten feet apart. The anchor bolts support bracket castings to which are bolted two angle irons which run with girders. The hangers are bolted to the angle irons and support the shafting which runs along the building. See Figs. 203 and 204. ALINING SHAFTING. 167 363. To aline and level shafting, line and level method. The fly wheel of the engine may be belted to a sup- plementary shaft called a jack shaft, or direct to the main line. The countershaft may be driven direct from the main line or through another line of shafting, and all are alined from the engine shaft. FIG. 203. ALINING AND LEVELING SHAFTING, LINE AND LEVEL METHOD. SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. To Place Hangers. Stretch fine grass or silk line 1, 2, Fig. 203, in direction of desired shaft or use wall as guide. Mark location and place hangers A, B approximately. Place shaft in boxes, and lift into hangers. To Aline Shaft Vertically. Use stick 3, 3' with nail in end and move shaft until parallel with line 1, 2, adjusting hangers by screws 4, 5 or with heavy hammer at 6, 7. To Aline Shaft Horizontally. Hang leveling hooks 8, 9 from shaft with straight edge 10 on hooks. Place spirit level 11 on straight edge and test, making adjustment at 12, 13. Move leveling device along shaft, placing hook 8 where 9 is, test and adjust again, and so on along shaft. Attention. Instead of leveling device, spirit level is sometimes placed directly on shaft to test. 168 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. SHAFT 364. Alining and leveling shafting, transit method. The shaft is set in approximate alinement by stretching a line at desired location or by measuring from the wall. The hangers are fastened to posts, timbers, walls or ceiling and the shaft placed in boxes and accurately alined by the transit method, Fig. 204. Targets are placed on shaft and wall. A special architects' level is used and the shafting is alined and leveled in one opeiation. The device is used also for setting up machinery and grading steam and water pipe. By this scheme the aline- ment of shafting is tested and corrected in large factories, mills, etc., at stated periods to maintain original alinement. With the addition of a special lantern, shafting may be alined by night. ALINING SHAFTING. 169 SCHEDULE OF OPERATIONS. Transit Method, Fig. 204. At end of shaft 1, in detail 1' and near hanger, hang portable target 2 by clamps 3 with plumb bob 4 attached. Set level 5 at zero and aline center of target with plumb line. Lower plumb bob and mark spot on floor, move plumb bob about one foot and mark second spot and connect with straight line. Move target away and center transit 6 (tele- scope and level) over line on floor by blumb bob 7. Set transit level by its adjusting screws 8. Place cap 9 on telescope and adjust target up or down until horizontal line coincides with pointer on cap. Move target to other end of shaft and set level at zero. Remove cap, sight through and adjust telescope to coincide with vertical line on target. Remove portable target. Place fixed target 10 on wall at end of line. Sight through telescope, and have assist- ant adjust fixed target in both directions until cross lines on target coincide with cross hairs on telescope. The fixed target is only used to test alinement of telescope. Hang portable target 2' near farthest end of shaft. Sight through telescope, and have assist- ant adjust shaft horizontally by adjusting screws 11, 11', and ver- tically by adjusting screws 12 12' on hanger 13, or by heavy hammer at 14, 14' on hangers without side adjusting screws, un- til cross lines on target coincide with cross hairs on telescope. Same method with other hangers. Attention. Each hanger may be tested and the error indicated on a chart, then the corrections made first at the hanger that is most out of line, or in the regular order beginning at the farthest hanger. The amount to adjust hanger may be known by observing on cross hairs of telescope the number of notches on sighting spaces in target which read to eighths of inches vertically and horizontally. For night use lanterns are pro- vided. Note. A line shaft of differ- ent diameters may be alined as easily as a shaft of one diameter, as the clamps are self-centering and do not alter height of target. 365. To erect a countershaft or shaft parallel to the main line. In wood construction, hanger planks or stringers are bolted to the beams and parallel to the main line of shafting. To the hanger plank or stringer the countershaft hangers are bolted. 170 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. In concrete construction, the hanger planks or stringers are bolted to the angle irons, and countershaft hangers are bolted to them. Place hangers in alinement and approximately parallel to main line by measurement or by stretching a line, and bolt to hanger plank or stringers with lag screws or bolts. Remove pulleys from countershaft and place shaft in boxes, test shaft with level and place shims of wood under hangers until shaft is level. If not over 15 feet distant, clamp two short sticks together or drive nail in end of a long stick to permit of some adjustment and use this as a caliper at ends to test, then ad- just hangers until shaft is parallel with main line. For shafts a greater distance apart, drop a plumb line from the main line at two points on the floor some distance apart, and connect with chalk line; then draw a parallel line on the floor under desired position of countershaft by measurement. Obtain the position of each hanger and countershaft, dropping a plumb line from the hanger plank to this floor line. Attention. If it is not convenient to remove pulleys from shaft, place another shaft in boxes and test its alinement. 366. To install machine tools. Place the machine under or as nearly under the countershaft as is desired, the spindle or driving shaft being parallel to the countershaft, and aline the cone or pulley on the machine with the cone or pulley on the countershaft by dropping a plumb line direct to spindle shaft or ways and moving the machine until the alinement is correct. If the machine is not directly under countershaft, test aline- ment by measuring from spindle to plumb line. Fasten machine to wooden floor with lag screws, and to concrete floor with expansion bolts in holes drilled with a stone drill either flat or star-pointed. Attention. Heavy machines such as milling machines, planers, etc., are not always bolted to floor but leveled on the wooden floor or leveled and bedded with cement on concrete floor. CHAPTER XII. TABLES AND OTHER DATA USED IN MACHINE WORK. 367. To etch names and figures on hardened steel. In a dark room, cover surface with pulverized asphaltum dis- solved in benzole. Draw inscription on tracing cloth, clamp the design to the surface and cover with glass or celluloid. Expose one minute, develop in turpentine and wash in water. Flood inscription with chloride of iron, strong iodine, or a mixture composed of 2 ounces pyroligneous acid, J ounce alcohol, and J ounce nitric acid. Let stand about ten minutes. Wash in water. For work which is to receive an elaborate design, such as swords, saws, etc., the inscription is printed reversed upon paper with an ink that will resist acid, then transferred to the work ; the paper is removed and the inscription flooded with acid. A rough method is to scratch letters or figures through a wax coating and with a feather or a piece of wood fill depressions with acid. 368. Bluing revolvers Iron and steel. The color is obtained by heating the highly polished work in pulverized charcoal and rubbing with a cloth saturated with oil or, prefer- ably, vaseline. Light blues are obtained by heating work in sand or wood ashes. 369. Gun barrel finish blacking, bluing, browning. - Gun barrels, revolvers, etc., made of solid steel or laminations of iron and mild steel are colored by acid oxidizing solutions. Different formulas are used to produce different colors. For a brown finish use the following : 1^ oz. alcohol, 1J oz. 171 172 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. tincture chloride of iron, oz. corrosive sublimate, 1J oz. sweet spirits of niter, 1 oz. blue vitriol, f oz. nitric acid. Apply the solution to the barrel with a sponge every few hours, and twice a day scratch off the rust with file card. Repeat until dark enough. 370. Repairing rust holes and splits in pipe, and plug- ging blowpipes. To temporarily repair a leak in a steam or water pipe, place a piece of sheet rubber packing over hole or split and use a special emergency pipe clamp. Blow holes in fittings or castings may be drilled, tapped, plugged, and the plug filed off flush. Small blow holes are filled with a rust joint or special cement. 371. To case-harden cast iron. Heat the piece to a cherry red, coat with cyanide of potassium, reheat to a cherry red and plunge into cold water. See 239. Iron castings may be case-hardened also by the box process. See 240. INCHES WITH EQUIVALENTS IN MILLIMETERS. 17B H t^oot^oco>^acoco>OGC O (M CO "CO CO 1C >O O iO C^l ^ t^* C5 C^l "^ t^ OC^^Ol^-OC^^Ot^-OC^tOt^" i (i li-HrHCCiCQC^COCOCOCO^t lT t l '^t tl ^t | iOOiOO C/J rt w H w S -H|oi fa Jfo i-iT-if-iT-i(NiM(M(NCOCOCOCO'*''*'*-*iOO>OO W li-i i * W t HS"> i-HCOCDGO'-iCOCDOO'-HCOCOOii-l . , rHi-iT-iT-i(N(M(M(NCOCO _ g 'i-liHr^r-(l^ t^COOO-*OiTtHOOT-HCDi--C^ g COOOOOCO"OOOCCOCpGOrHCOCDGOTH. CO pjq \ " bq "N co p -^ oo (N co p T^~oq .(MOOCOOO'*Oi^OO>Oi iCOC-(N PQ M"^- COiOOOOCOlOGOQCOlOOOQCOCpGOrHCOpOO'-H C*a "'""^T (MOt^OCOOG60COlOOOOCOlOOOOCOCOOOi-lCOcbOO g^J i-H'T-iT-itH(N(N(M(MCOCOCOCO^^T^-*iOO>OiO oo _ _ ^. w N N _ ^H ^^ C^ *O !> O C^ ^O t^ OCO^OOOOCO^OOOOCO^OOOOCO i-(i-ii-iT-i(N(M(MCO^OCOOOOOCO|OOOOCO 3} |z 174 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 373. TABLE OF MILLIMETERS WITH EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES. From YQ to 100 m/m Advancing by -j 1 ^ Millimeter. M /M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES M /M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES M/M. INCHES. .1 .00394 5.1 .20078 10.1 .39763 15.1 .59448 20.1 .79133 .2 .00787 5.2 .20472 10.2 .40157 15.2 . 59842 20.2 . 79527 .3 .01181 5.3 .20866 10.3 .40551 15.3 . 60236 20.3 .79921 .4 .01575 5.4 .21259 10.4 .40944 15.4 .60629 20.4 .80314 .5 .01968 5.5 .21653 10.5 .41338 15.5 .61023 20.5 .80708 .6 .02362 5.6 .22047 10.6 .41732 15.6 .61417 20.6 .81102 .7 .02756 5.7 .22440 10.7 .42125 15.7 .61810 20.7 .81495 .8 .03149 5.8 .22834 10.8 .42519 15.8 .62204 20.8 .81889 .9 .03543 5.9 .23228 10.9 .42913 15.9 .62598 20.9 .82833 .0 .03937 6.0 .23622 11.0 .43307 16.0 .62992 21.0 82677 1 .04330 6.1 .24015 11.1 .43700 16.1 .63385 21.1 . 83070 .2 .04724 6.2 .24409 11.2 .44094 16.2 .63779 21.2 .83464 .3 .05118 6.3 .24803 11.3 .44488 16.3 .64173 21.3 .83858 4 .05512 6.4 .25196 11.4 .44881 16.4 .64566 21.4 .84251 5 .05905 6.5 .25590 11.5 .45275 16.5 .64960 21.5 . 84645 .6 .06299 6.6 .25984 11.6 .45669 16.6 . 65354 21.6 .85039 .7 .06692 6.7 .26377 11.7 .46062 16.7 . 65747 21.7 .85432 .8 .07086 6.8 .26771 11.8 .46456 16.8 .66141 21.8 .85826 .9 .07480 6.9 .27165 11.9 .46850 16.9 .66535 21.9 .86220 2.0 .07874 7.0 .27559 12.0 .47244 17.0 .66929 22.0 .86614 2.1 .08267 7.1 .27952 12.1 .47637 17.1 .67322 22.1 .87007 2.2 .08661 7.2 .28346 12.2 .48031 17.2 .67716 22.2 .87401 23 .09055 7.3 .28740 12.3 .48425 17.3 .68110 22.3 .87795 2.4 .09448 7.4 .29133 12.4 .48818 17.4 .68503 22.4 .88188 2.5 .09842 7.5 .29527 12.5 .49212 17.5 .68897 22.5 .88582 2.6 .10236 7 6 .29921 12.6 .49606 17.6 .69291 22.6 .88976 2.7 . 10629 7.7 .30314 12.7 .49999 17.7 .69684 22.7 .89369 2.8 .11023 7.8 .30708 12.8 .50393 17.8 .70078 22.8 .89763 2.9 .11417 7.9 .31102 12.9 .50787 17.9 .70472 22.9 .90157 3.0 .11811 8.0 .31496 13.0 .51181 18.0 .70866 23.0 .90551 3.1 . 12204 8.1 .31889 13.1 .51574 18.1 .71259 23.1 .90944 3.2 . 12598 8.2 .32283 13.2 .51968 18.2 .71653 23.2 .91338 3.3 .12992 8.3 .32677 13.3 .52362 18.3 .72047 23.3 .91732 3.4 . 13385 8.4 .33070 13.4 .52755 18.4 . 72440 23.4 .92125 3.5 .13779 8.5 .33464 13.5 .53149 18.5 .72834 23.5 .92519 3.6 .14173 8.6 .33858 13.6 .53543 18.6 . 73228 23.6 .92913 3.7 . 14566 8.7 .34251 13.7 . 53936 18.7 .73621 23.7 .93306 3.8 .14960 8.8 .34645 13 8 .54330 18.8 .74015 23.8 .93700 3.9 .15354 8.9 .35039 13.9 .54724 18.9 .74409 23.9 .94094 4.0 .15748 9.0 .35433 14.0 .55118 19.0 .74803 24.0 .94488 4.1 .16141 9.1 .35826 14.1 .55511 19.1 .75196 24.1 .94881 4.2 16535 9.2 .36220 14.2 .55905 19.2 .75590 24.2 .95275 4.3 .16929 9.3 .36614 14.3 .56299 19.3 .75984 24.3 .95669 4.4 .17322 9.4 .37007 14.4 .56692 19.4 .76377 24.4 .96062 4.5 .17716 9.5 .37401 14.5 .57086 19.5 .76771 24.5 .96456 4.6 .18110 9.6 .37795 14.6 .57480 19.6 .77165 24.6 .96850 4.7 .18503 9.7 .38188 14.7 .57873 19.7 .77558 24.7 .97243 4.8 .18897 9.8 .38582 14.8 .58267 19.8 .77952 24.8 .97637 4.9 .19291 9.9 .38976 14.9 .58661 19.9 .78346 24.9 .98031 5.0 .19685 10.0 .39370 15.0 .59055 20.0 .78740 25.0 .98425 MILLIMETERS WITH EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES. 175 TABLE OF MILLIMETERS WITH EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES. Cont'd. From yV to 100 m/m Advancing by T ^ Millimeter. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. 25.1 .98818 30.1 . 18503 35.1 1.38188 40.1 1.57873 45.1 1.77558 25.2 .99212 30.2 .18897 35.2 1.38582 40.2 1 58267 45.2 .77952 25.3 .99606 30.3 .19291 35.3 1.38976 40.3 1.58661 45.3 . 78346 25.4 .99999 30.4 .19684 35.4 1.G9369 40.4 1 . 59054 45.4 . 78739 25.5 1.00393 30.5 .20078 35.5 1.39763 40.5 1.59448 45.5 .79133 25.6 1.00787 30.6 .20472 35.6 1.40157 40.6 1.59842 45.6 .79527 25.7 1.01180 30.7 .20865 35.7 1.40550 40.7 1.60235 45.7 .79920 25.8 1.01574 30.8 .21259 35.8 1.40944 40.8 1.60629 45.8 .80314 25.9 .01968 30.9 .21653 35.9 1.41338 40.9 1.61023 45.9 .80708 26.0 .02362 31.0 .22047 36.0 1.41732 41.0 1.61417 46.0 .81102 26.1 .02755 31.1 .22440 36.1 1 .42125 41.1 1.61810 46.1 .81495 26.2 .03149 31.2 .22834 36.2 1.42519 41.2 1.62204 46.2 .81889 26.3 .03543 31.3 .23228 36.3 1.42913 41.3 1.62598 46.3 1.82283 26.4 .03936 31.4 1.23621 36.4 1.43306 41.4 1.62991 46.4 1.82676 26.5 .04330 31.5 1.24015 36.5 1 .43700 41.5 1.63385 46.5 1.83070 26.6 .04724 31.6 1.24409 36.6 1.44094 41.6 1.63779 46.6 1.83464 26.7 .05117 31.7 1.24802 36.7 1.44487 41.7 1.64172 46.7 .83857 26.8 .05511 31.8 1.25196 36.8 1 .44881 41.8 1.64566 46.8 .84251 26.9 .05905 31.9 1.25590 36.9 1 45275 41.9 1.64960 46.9 .84645 27.0 .06299 32.0 1.25984 37.0 1.45669 42.0 .65354 47.0 .85039 27.1 .06692 32.1 1.26377 37.1 1.46062 42.1 .65747 47.1 . 85432 27.2 1.07086 32.2 1.26771 37.2 1.46456 42.2 .66141 47.2 .85826 27.3 1 . 07480 32.3 1.27165 37.3 1.46850 42.3 .66535 47.3 1.86220 27.4 1 07873 32.4 1.27558 37.4 .47243 42.4 .66928 47.4 1.86613 27.5 1.08267 32.5 1.27952 37.5 .47637 42.5 .67322 47.5 1.87007 27.6 1.08661 32.6 1.28346 37.6 .48031 42.6 1.67716 47.6 1.87401 27.7 1.09054 32.7 1.28739 37.7 .48424 42.7 1.68109 47.7 1.87794 27.8 1.09448 32.8 1.29133 37.8 .48818 42.8 1.68503 47.8 1.88188 27.9 1.09842 32.9 1.29527 37.9 .49212 42.9 1.68897 47.9 1.88582 28.0 1.10236 33.0 1.29921 38.0 .49606 43.0 1.69291 48.0 1 . 88976 28.1 1.10629 33.1 1.30314 38.1 1.49999 43.1 .69684 48.1 1.89369 28.2 1.11023 33.2 1.30708 38.2 1.50393 43.2 .70078 48.2 1 . 89763 28.3 1.11417 33.3 1.31102 38.3 1.50787 43.3 .70472 48.3 1.90157 28.4 1.11810 33.4 1.31495 38.4 1.51180 43.4 .70865 48.4 1.90550 28.5 1.12204 33.5 1.31889 38.5 1.51574 43.5 .71259 48.5 1.90944 28.6 1.12598 33.6 1.32283 38.6 1.51968 43.6 .71653 48.6 1.91338 28.7 1.12991 33.7 1.32676 38.7 1.52361 43.7 1.72046 48.7 1.91731 28.8 1.13385 33.8 1.33070 38.8 1.52755 43.8 1.72440 48.8 .92125 28.9 1.13779 33.9 1.33464 38.9 1.53149 43.9 1.72834 48.9 .92519 29.0 1.14173 34.0 1.33858 39.0 1.53543 44.0 1.73228 49.0 .92913 29.1 1 . 14566 34.1 1.34251 39.1 1.53936 44.1 1.73621 49.1 .93306 29.2 1 . 14960 34.2 1.34645 39.2 1.54330 44.2 t. 74015 49.2 .93700 29.3 1.15354 34.3 1.35039 39.3 1.54724 44.3 1 . 74409 49.3 .94094 29.4 1.15747 34.4 1.35432 39.4 1.55117 44.4 1.74802 49.4 .94487 29.5 1.16141 34.5 1.35826 39.5 1.55511 44.5 1.75196 49.5 .94881 29.6 1.16535 34.6 1.36220 39.6 1.55905 44.6 1.75590 49.6 .95275 29.7 1.16928 34.7 1.36613 39.7 1.56298 44.7 1.75983 49.7 .95668 29.8 1.17322 34.8 1.37007 39.8 1.56692 44.8 1.76377 49.8 .96062 29.9 1.17716 34.9 1.37401 39.9 1.57086 44.9 1.76771 49.9 .96456 30.0 1.18110 35.0 1.37795 40.0 1.57480 45.0 1.77165 50.0 1.96850 176 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. TABLE OF MILLIMETERS WITH EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES. Cont'd. From j^ to 100 m /m Advancing by j 1 ^ Millimeter. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. j INCHES. 50.1 1.97243 55.1 2.16928 60.1 2.36613 65.1 2 . 56298 70.1 2.75983 50.2 1.97637 55.2 2.17322 60.2 2.37007 65.2 2.56692 70.2 2.76377 50.3 1.98031 55.3 2.17716 60.3 2.37401 65.3 2.57086 70.3 2.76771 50.4 1.98424 55.4 2.18109 60.4 2.37794 65.4 2.57479 70.4 2.77164 50.5 1.98818 55.5 2 . 18503 60.5 2.38188 65.5 2.57873 70. 5 |2. 77558 50.6 1.99212 55.6 2.18897 60. 6 ! 2. 38582 65.6 2.58267 70.6 2.77952 50.7 1.99605 55.7 2 . 19290 60. 7 \2. 38975 65.7 2.58660 70.7 2.78345 50.8 1.99999 55.8 2.19684 60.812.39369 65.8 2.59054 70.8 2.78739 50.9 .00393 55.9 2.20078 60.9 2.39763 65.9 2.59448 70.9 2.79133 51.0 .00787 56.0 2.20472 61.0 2.40157 66.0 2.59842 71.0 2.79527 51.1 .01180 56.1 2.20865 61.1 2.40550 66.1 2.60235 71.1 2.79920 51.2 .01574 56.2 2.21259 61.2 2.40944 66.2 2.60629 71.2 2.80314 51.3 .01968 56.3 2.21653 61.3 2.41338 66-3 2.61023 71.3 2.80708 51.4 .02361 56.4 2.22046 61.4 2.41731 66.4 2.61416 "1.4 2.81101 51.5 .02755 56.5 2.22440 61.5 2.42125 66.5 2.61810 71.5 2.81495 51.6 .03149 56.6 2.22834 61.6 2.42519 66.6 2.62204 71.6 2.81889 51.7 .03542 56.7 2.23227 61.7 2.42912 66.7 2.62597 71.7 2.82282 51.8 .03936 56.8 2.23621 61.8 2.43306 66.8 2.62991 71.8:2.82676 51.9 .04330 56.9 2.24015 61.9 2.43700 66.9 2.63385 71.9 2.83070 52.0 .04724 57.0 2 . 24409 62.0 2.44094 67.0 2.63779 72.0 2.83464 52.1 .05117 57.1 2.24802 62.1 2.44487 67.1 2.64172 72.1 2.83857 52.2 .05511 57.2 2.25196 62.2 2.44881 67.2 2.64566 72.2 2.84251 52.3 .05905 57.3 2.25590 62.3 2.45275 67.3 2.64960 72.3 2.84645 52.4 .06298 57.4 2.25983 62.4 2.45668 67.4 2.65353 72.4 2.85038 52.5 .06692 57.5 2.26377 62.5 2.46062 67.5 2.65747 72.5 2.85432 52.6 .07086 57.6 2.26771 62.6 2.46456 67. 6\2. 66141 72.6 2.85826 52.7 2.07479 57.7 2.27164 62.7 2.46849 67.7 2.66534 72.7 2.86219 52.8 2.07873 57.8 2 . 27558 62.8 2.47243 67.8 2.66928 72.8 2.86613 52.9 2.08267 57.9 2.27952 62.9 2.47637 67.9 2.67322 72.9 2.87007 53.0 2.08661 58.0 2.28346 63.0 2.48031 68.0 2.67716 73.0 2.87401 53.1 2.09054 58.1 2.28739 63.1 2.48424 68.1 2.68109 73.1 2.87794 53.2 2.09448 58.2 2.29133 63.2 2.48818 68.2 2.68503 73.2 2.88188 53.3 2.09842 58.3 2.29527 63.3 2.49212 68.3 2 . 68897 73.3 2.88582 53.4 2 . 10235 58.4 2.29920 63.4 2.49605 68. 4 12.69290 73.4 2.88975 53.5 2.10629 58.5 2.30314 63.5 2.49999 68.5 2.69684 73.5 2.89369 53.6 2.11023 58.6 2.30708 63.6 2.50393 68.6 2 . 70078 73.6 2.89763 53.7 2.11416 58.7 2.31101 63.7 2.50786 68.7 2.70471 73.7 2.90156 53.8 2.11810 58.8 2.31495 63.8 2.51180 68.8 2 . 70865 73.8 2.90550 53.9 2.12204 58.9 2.31889 63.9 2.51574 68.9 2.71259 73.9 2.90944 54.0 2.12598 59.0 2.32283 64.0 2.51968 69.0 2.71653 74.0 2.91338 54.1 2.12991 59.1 2.32676 64.1 2.52361 69.1 2.72046 74.1 2.91731 54.2 2.13385 59.2 2.33070 64.2 2 . 52755 69.2 2 . 72440 74.2 2.92125 54.3 2.13779 59.3 2.33464 64.3 2.53149 69.3 2 . 72834 74. 3 i2. 92519 54.4 2.14172 59.4 2.33857 64.4 2.53542 69.4 2.73227 74.4 2.92912 '54.5 2.14566 59.5 2.34251 64.5 2.53936 69.5 2.73621 74.5 2.93306 54.6 2 . 14960 59.6 2.34645 64.6 2.54330 69.6 2.74015 74.6 2.93700 54.7 2 . 15353 59.7 2.35038 64.7 2.54723 69.7 2 . 74408 74.7 2.94093 54.8 2.15747 59.8 2.35432 64.8 2.55117 69.8! 2 . 74802 74.8 2.94487 54.9 2.16141 59.9 2.35826 64.9 2.55511 69.9, 2.75196 74.9 2.94881 55.0 2.16535 60.0 2.36220 65.0 2.55905 70. 0; 2 . 75590 75 '2. 95275 MILLIMETERS WITH EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES. 177 TABLE OF MILLIMETERS WITH EQUIVALENTS IN INCHES. Concl'd. From YQ to 100 m/m Advancing by T ^ Millimeter. M/M. INCHES. M /M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. M/M. INCHES. 75.1 2.95668 80.1 3.15353 85.1 3.35038 90.1 3.54723 95.1 3.74408 75.2 2.96062 80.2 3.15747 85.2 3.35432 90.2 3.55117 95.2 3.74802 75.3 2.96456 80.3 3.16141 85.3 3.35826 90.3 3.55511 95.3 3.75196 75.4 2.96849 80.4 3 . 16534 85.4 3.36219 90.4 3.55904 95.4 3.75589 75.5 2.97243 80.5 3 . 16928 85.5 3.36613 90.5 3.56298 95.5 3.75983 75.6 2.97637 80.6 3.17322 85.6 3.37007 90.6 3.56692 95.6 3.76377 75.7 2.98030 80.7 3.17715 85.7 3.37400 90.7 3.57085 95.7 3.76770 75.8 2.98424 80.8 3.18109 85.8 3.37794 90.8 3.57479 95.8 3.77164 75.9 2.98818 80.9 3.18503 85.9 3.38188 90.9 3.57873 95.9 3.77558 76.0 2.99212 81.0 3 . 18897 86.0 3.38582 91.0 3.58267 96.0 3.77952 76.1 2.99605 81.1 3.19290 86.1 3.38975 91.1 3.58660 96.1 3.78345 76.2 2.99999 81.2 3.19684 86.2 3.39369 91.2 3 .69054 96.2 3.78739 76.3 3.00393 81.3 3.20078 86.3 3.39763 91.3 3.59448 96.3 3.79133 76.4 3.00786 81.4 3.20471 86.4 3.40156 91.4 3.59841 96.4 3 . 79526 76.5 3.01180 81.5 3.20865 86.5 3.40550 91.5 3.60235 96.5 3.79920 76.6 3.01574 81.6 3.21259 86.6 3.40944 91.6 3.60629 96.6 3.80314 76.7 3 01967 81.7 3.21652 86.7 3.41337 91.7 3.61022 96.7 3 . 80707 76.8 3.02361 81.8 3.22046 86.8 3.41731 91.8 3.61416 96.8 3.81101 76.9 3.02755 81.9 3.22440 86.9 3.42125 91.9 3.61810 96.9 3.81495 77.0 3.03149 82.0 3.22834 87.0 3 .42519 92.0 3.62204 97.0 3.81889 77.1 3.03542 82.1 3.23227 87.1 3 42912 92.1 3.62597 97.1 3.82282 77.2 3.03936 82.2 3.23621 87.2 3.43306 92.2 3.62991 97.2 3.82676 77.3 3.04330 82.3 3.24015 87.3 3.43700 92.3 3.63385 97.3 3.83070 77.4 3.04723 82.4 3.24408 87.4 3.44093 92.4 3.63778 97.4 3.83463 77.5 3.05117 82.5 3.24802 87.5 3.44487 92.5 3.64172 97 5 3.83857 77.6 3.05511 82.6 3.25196 87.6 3.44881 92 6 3.64566 97.6 3.84251 77.7 3.05904 82.7 3.25589 87.7 3.45274 92.7 3.64959 97.7 3.84644 77.8 3.06298 82.8 3.25983 87.8 3.45668 92.8 3.65353 97.8 3.85038 77.9 3.06692 82.9 3.26377 87.9 3.46062 92.9 3.65747 97.9 3.85432 78.0 3.07086 83.0 3.26771 88.0 3.46456 93.0 3.66141 98.0 3.85826 78.1 3.07479 83.1 3.27164 88.1 3.46849 93.1 3.66534 98.1 3.86219 78.2 3.07873 83.2 3.27558 88.2 3.47243 93 2 3.66928 98.2 3.86613 78.3 3.08267 83.3 3.27952 88.3 3.47637 93.3 3.67322 98.3 3.87007 78.4 3.08660 83.4 3.28345 88.4 3.48030 93.4 3.67715 98.4 3.87400 78.5 3.09054 83.5 3.28739 88.5 3.48424 93.5 3.68109 98.5 3.87794 78.6 3.09448 83.6 3.29133 88 6 3.48818 93.6 3.68503 98.6 3.88188 78.7 3.09841 83.7 3.29526 88.7 3.49211 93.7 3.68896 98.7 3.88581 78.8 3.10235 83.8 3.29920 88.8 3.49605 93.8 3.69290 98.8 3.88975 78.9 3 . 10629 83.9 3.30314 88.9 3.49999 93.9 3.69684 98.9 3.89369 79.0 3.11023 84.0 3.30708 89.0 3.50393 94.0 3.70078 99.0 3.89763 79.1 3.11416 84.1 3.31101 89.1 3 . 50786 94.1 3.70471 99.1 3.90156 79.2 3.11810 84.2 3.31495 89.2 3.51180 94.2 3.70865 99.2 3.90550 79.3 3 . 12204 84.3 3.31889 89.3 3.51574 94.3 3.71259 99.3 3.90944 79.4 3 . 12597 84.4 3.32282 89.4 3.51967 94.4 3.71652 99.4 3.91337 79.5 3.12991 84.5 3.32676 89.5 3.52361 94.5 3.72046 99.5 3.91731 79.6 3.13385 84.6 3.33070 89.6 3.52755 94.6 3.72440 99.6 3.92125 79.7 3 . 13778 84.7 3.33463 89.7 3.53148 94.7 3.72833 99.7 3.92518 79.8 3.14172 84.8 3.33857 89.8 3 . 53542 94.8 3.73227 99.8 3.92912 79.9 3 . 14566 84.9 3.34251 89.9 3 . 53936 94.9 3.73621 99.9 3.93306 80.0 3 . 14960 85.0 3.34645 90.0 3 54330 95.0 3.74015 100 3.93700 178 ELEMENTS OF MACHINE WORK. 374. TABLE OF FREEZING, MELTING, AND BOILING TEMPER- ATURES OF METALS AND COMMON SUBSTANCES. From Standard Authorities. (-) = below 0. Fahrenheit (F.) Centigrade (C.) Greatest natural cold Mercury freezes ... . . -94 39 -70 39 Snow and salt melts Human blood freezes Sea water freezes 26 28 -18 - 3 2 32 o Heat of human blood For fusing metal, 25 parts lead, 25 parts tin, 50 parts bismuth 250 parts mercury 98.8 113 36 45 Highest natural temperature 117 47 Gutta-percha softens 145 63 Alcohol boils 173 78 \Vater boils 212 100 Milk boils 213 101 Sulphur melts . 272 120 Saturated brine boils Gutta-percha vulcanizes 226 293 108 145 Common solder (tin 1, lead 1) 370-466 188-241 Steam at 80 Ibs 324 162 Steam at 100 Ibs 338 170 Wood burns Fine solder melts (blowpipe) (tin 2 lead 1) 340 360 171 182 Plumbers' solder (tin 1 lead 2") 475 246 Fusible plugs melt 445 230 Tin melts 449 232 Bismuth melts 517 269 Dividing line between mercury thermometer and pyrometer 675 357 Lead melts . 621 327 Mercury boils . . 675 357 787 419 790 421 800 427 1166 630 Magnesium melts 1171 633 Aluminum melts 1213 657 Bronze melts 1652 900 Silver melts 1751 955 Brazing solder (hard solder) (copper 1, zinc 1) . . . . 1800 1832 983 1000 1681 916 Briss rod (rolled brass) melts 1706 930 Gold melts . . . 1947 1064 FREEZING, MELTING AND BOILING TEMPERATURES. 179 TABLE OF FREEZING, MELTING, AND BOILING TEMPERA- TURES OF METALS AND COMMON SUBSTANCES. Concluded. Fahrenheit. (F.) Centigrade. (C.) Copper me Its 1949-1983 1065-1084 Cast iron (white pig) melts . . . 1922-2075 1050-1135 Cast iron (gray pig) melts ... ... 2012-2786 1100-1530 Steel (ferro tungsen) rnelts 2240-2280 1226-1248 Emery wheels are vitrified Hard steel melts 3000 2570 1648 1410 Mild steel melts ' 2462-2552 1350-1400 Wrought iron melts Nickel melts 2700-2920 2703 1482-1604 1484 Iron (pure) melts 2912 1600 Platinum melts . . 3236 1780 Manganese melts . 3452 1900 Fire-brick melts 4000-5000 2204-2760 Carborundum produced Alundum produced 7000 7000 3870 3870 375. Cleaning castings. Tumbling barrels or mills, also called rumblers, have largely superseded the pickling method of removing sand, scale, and cores from all kinds of castings. The castings are put in the tumbling barrel or mill with some smaller castings, and " star shot " (iron), and are cleaned by their rolling and rubbing action as the barrel is revolved by power. The gates, sprues, risers and fins on the castings are removed by hand or by pneumatic chipping. Steel castings are usually cleaned with a sand blast, and the gates, sprues, risers and fins are removed by drilling and planing. Pickle for iron castings. Iron castings may be immersed for a short time in a solution of one part sulphuric acid and from two to three parts water, to soften and loosen the sand and scale. See Tumbling Barrel. Cleaning brass, composition, bronze and copper castings, etc. These castings do not always need tumbling or pickling as they may be cleaned by brushing and the cores removed by dipping while hot, in cold running water. Aluminium castings are cleaned by brushing. INDEX. Page Abrasives, manufactured 71 natural 71, 72 Acid solutions for etching 171 Acid, nitric 171 pyroligneous 171 sulphuric 179 Air blast for hardening high-speed steel tools 91 Alining and leveling shafting, line and level method of 166, 167 Alining and leveling shafting, transit method of 168, 169 Alining pulleys 158, 159 Alloys 6, 7 Aluminium Aluminum Aluminium bronze 7 castings 7, 8 pipe and fittings 112 Aluminium castings, cleaning 179 Alundum 71 Annealed iron castings 76 steel castings 5 Annealed steel bars, commercial 75 Annealing brass 76 bronze 76 carbon steel 75, 79 case-hardened work 96 copper 76 high-speed steel 91 Annealing, water 75 Asbestos joint runner Ill, 112 washers 112, 113 Assembly drawings 9 Automatic center punch 23, 24 B Babbitt bearings, scraping 70, 71 metal 7 Babbitting bearings 151, 152 Balancing pulleys 165, 166 Barium chloride for heating finished high-speed steel tools 93, 94 Barrels, tumbling 179 Page Bastard files 47-52, 58, 59 Baths, brine 78 cleansing 79 mercury 78, 79 oil 78 special 79 water 78, 79 Bearings, Babbitting 151, 152 scraping bronze 70, 71 Babbitt 70, 71 Bedding to mark work for scraping or filing 70 Belt clamps 161 dressing 163 hooks 162 punches 159 Belt lacing, coil wire 162 rawhide 159 Belting, cotton 155 leather 155, 156 rubber 155, 156 Belts, cementing or gluing 162, 163 cross 157, 158 endless 162, 163 joining ends of 159-163 lacing 159-162 length of cross 157, 158 open 156, 157 open 156, 157 quarter-turn and twisted ... 158, 159 slip of 155 Bench surface gages 22, 23 Bessemer steel 4 wire 6 Black lead. See Graphite. Block-tin pipe 112 Blowpipes for brazing 148-150 Blow holes in pipe fittings and cast- ings, plugging 172 Blue prints 13 Bluing revolvers 171 steel or iron light or dark 171 Bone for case-hardening 95, 96 Borax for brazing 148 , 6, 7 181 182 INDEX. Page Brass and copper seamless tubes in iron pipe sizes 118 Brass tubing 109-111 Brass, annealing 76 files for 52, 53 soldering 146-148 Brass and bronze castings, cleaning. 179 Brass pipe and fittings, iron pipe sizes 109, 110 Brass pipe and fittings, plumbers' sizes 109, 110 Brazed tubing 110 Brazed work, pickle for 151 Brazing 148-151 automobile parts 148-150 cast iron 150, 151 forges 148-150 rocker arm 148, 149 solder 148 with hand blowpipe 148, 149 portable blowpipe. . . 150, 151 spelter 148-151 stationary blowpipe. 149, 150 Brazing, blowpipes for 148-150 flux for 148 Breaks on drawings 11 Breast drilling machines 144 Briggs' Standard pipe measure- ments 115, 116 Brine baths 78 Bronze 6, 7 castings 7 pipe or tubes 109 Bronze, aluminium 7 manganese 7 phosphor 7 to anneal 76 Tobin 7 Browning gunbarrels 171, 172 steel and iron 171, 172 Calipers, inside 19 keyhole 19 outside 19 Cape chisel 35 Carbon 4 steel 4, 5, 6 wire 6 Carbon steel, annealing 75, 79 commercial annealed ... 75 hardening 75-90 tempering 75-90 Carborundum. . 71 Card, file 53 Case-hardened work, annealing 96 cleaning 96 rehardening. ... 96 Case-hardening 94-96 by carbonizing gas. . 94, 96 cast iron 172 machine parts 94-96 with bone 95, 96 colors 96 cyanide of potas- sium 94, 95 prussiate of pot- ash 94, 95 without colors 95 Cast iron 3 pipe Ill, 112 Cast iron, to braze 150, 151 Cast-iron straight edges, standard scraped 70 Castings, aluminium 7, 8 bronze 7 cleaning 179 composition 6 iron 3, 5 malleable iron 5 pickle for 179 snagging 32, 179 steel 5 vanadium iron 3 steel 5 Cement, litharge 113 pipe joint 109 rust joint or special 172 Cementing or gluing belts 162, 163 Center chisel 37 punch 22, 80-82 square 20 Center punch, automatic 23, 24 Centigrade 89, 178, 179 Chain drive 155 Chalk 17 Charcoal 82 Chart of brass pipe and tubing tools . . 130 cocks 123 driven and bored-well fit- tings 123 gas fittings! 123 nickel-plated fittings 123 railing fittings 123 tools for nickel-plated tubing 130 valves 123 Charts of pipe fittings 119, 123 pipe tools 127, 130 Check system for tool room 2 INDEX. 183 Page Chip, finish 32 rough 32 Chipping 29-39 hammers 30, 31 Chipping, correct position for 33 lubricant for 34 pneumatic 39 Chipping plane surfaces, schedule of operations for 38 Chisels, cape 35 center 37 cold 31-37 diamond-point 37 flat 31 grinding cold 32, 44, 45 hardening and tempering 80-82 improved 31 large round-nose 36 method of using 32-36 oil-groove 37 side 37 small round-nose 36 Chloride for heating finished tools, barium 93, 94 Chrome steel 5 Clamps, belt 161 Clay to prevent hardening 76 Cleansing baths 79 Coal furnaces 95 Coarse-cut files 47, 48 Cocks 123, 124 Coil wire belt lacing 162 Coils and bends, pipe 137 Cold chisels 31-37, 80-82 Cold-rolled shafting 5, 153 steel and wrought iron. . . 5, 6 Cold saw cutting-off machine 105 Color test for tempering 76, 77 Color, identifying pipe lines by 118 Combination square 20 Composition castings 6 Composition and copper castings, cleaning 179 Conduits or tubes, electric 107 Cooling baths for hardening steel .... 78 tanks 78, 80-87, 92-95 Copper 6 pipe tubing and fittings ... 109, 110 wire 7 Copper, to anneal 76 to harden ' 6 Copper sulphate, use of 17, 18 Corundum 71 Crayon (soapstone), metal workers. . 142 Crocus 72 Page Cross belts 157, 158 Cross belts, length of 157, 158 Crown and straight-face pulleys 154 Crude oil furnaces 87 Cut, finishing 32 roughing 32 Cuts of files 46-48 Cutter, pipe 127-131, 134, 135 to harden and temper high- speed steel 92 Cutters, wire 27, 28 Cutting-off attachment for pipe die stock 127, 128 Cutting-off machine, electric drive. 104, 105 metal saw 105 Cutting off pipe, hand method of. 134, 135 Cyanide of potassium 94, 95 Dead-smooth files 47, 49 Depth gages 21 Detail drawings 9 Diamond-point chisel 37 Diamond-point tool, hardening 82, 83 tempering 82, 83 Diamond tool for truing emery wheel 43 Die stocks, pipe .... 126-128, 130, 132, 133 filing 63, 64 Dies, pipe.. 108, 126, 127, 130-133, 138, 139 plumbers' sizes or fine thread pipe 130, 131 Dimensions on drawings 13 Dividers 19 Double-cut files 46, 47 Double-extra strong wrought-iron pipe, table of dimensions of 117 Draw-filing 62 Drawings, assembly 9 breaks on 11, 12 detail 9 dimension-limit system ... 15 dimensions on 13 isometric 8,9 lines on 10 mechanical 9-15 order of reading working. . 14 ' pencil sketches ' 13, 14 perspective 8 reading 8, 14 scale of 13 schedule-of-operations .... 13 section lining on 11 sections on 10, 11 table of abbreviations on . 12 working 9-15 184 INDEX. Page Dresser, emery wheel 42 Drilling machines, breast 144 ratchet 145 Driven and bored well-fittings, chart of 123 Drop forgings 5 [E Electric conduits or tubes 107 Electric furnaces for heating to harden 78 Emery 71 or grinding wheels 40-43 paper 72 wheel dresser 42 Emery, flour of 72 number of 72 Emery cloth, order of applying dif- ferent grades of 73 Emery wheel, diamond tool for truing 43 to true 42, 43 Emery wheels, to calculate speed of 41 Equipment for manufacturing ma- chines 2 Equipment for teaching machine con- struction 2 Etching names and figures on har- dened steel 171 Etching, acid solutions for 171 Extra strong wrought-iron pipe, table of dimensions of 117 Fahrenheit 89, 178, 179 Fiber washers 113 File card 53 test for hardness 76 temper 77 File, bent riffler 52 blunt 49 finish 58 parts of 48 round 52 safe edge 48, 60, 61 round edge 61 saw 51 square 50 to bend 59 File holder, surface 60 Filed surfaces, testing flatness of. ... 56 testing squareness of . . 57 Filing 46-64 a die 63, 64 concave surfaces 61, 62 long holes 61, 62 machine 63, 64 Page Filing wire 63 Filing, correct position for 54-56 draw 62 height of work for 53, 54 removing large amount of stock by 60 rough 58 to lay out work for 57-59 Filing plane surfaces, schedule of operations for 57-59 Files for brass 52, 53 Files, bastard 47-52, 58, 59 care of 53 classification of hand 48 coarse-cut 47, 48 coarse to fine grades of 47 cuts of 46-48 dead-smooth 47, 49 double-cut 46, 47 extra fine 47 flat 50 half-round. . 52, 60-62 hand 49 hand-cut 64, 65 handles for 53 knife-edge 51 large 48 lead float 52 lubricant for 53 machine-cut 65 mill 51 names of parts of 48 pillar 50 pinning of 53 rasp-cut 46, 47, 52 shapes of 46 single-cut 46, 51 slim 49 Swiss pattern 47 taper 48, 49, 51 three-square 51 to harden 65 uses of safe-edge 48, 60, 61 uses of different classes of. ... 48 warding 50 Finish chip 32 file 58 Finishing cut 32 Fins 179 Fire brick for brazing 148-150 Fittings for driven and bored wells 123, 126 galvanized wrought-iron or steel pipe 107 gas pipe 123, 125 lead-lined pipe 107 INDEX. 185 Page Fittings for nickel-plated tubing. . . 123, 124 railings ....123, 125 Fittings, aluminium 112 malleable iron 118, 119-126 measuring length of pipe. . . 136 pipe 107-126 right and left pipe, 108, 119-121, 136, 137 tables of pipe. . . 120-122, 124-126 tin-lined pipe 107, 119, 120 Flange pipe joints, making up 111, 113 Flange wrench 129, 130 Flat files 50 scrapers 66-68 Flour of emery 72 Flux for brazing 148 heating to harden 78 soldering 146 Forges for brazing 148-150 hardening and tempering, 80, 82, 86 Forging high-speed steel tools 91 Forgings, drop 5 hand 5 vanadium steel 5 Formulas for speeds of pulleys. ... 154, 155 Furnaces, coal 95 crude oil 87 electric 78 muffle-gas 85, 93 oil-tempering gas 88, 90 soft-metal 86 Furnaces for hardening and temper- ing 85-87, 92, 93, 95 G Gages, bench surface. . . . depth scratch universal surface. ,22,23 , 21 , 21 23 Galvanized steel and wrought-iron . . . 4 steel and wrought-iron pipe and fittings 107 Gas, case-hardening with 94, 96 Gas fittings 123, 125 Gas furnace, lead hardening 86 Gas furnaces for heating to harden, 78, 85, 86, 92-94 Gaskets for unions, piston rods, cyl- inders, etc 112, 113 Gates 179 Gears, to calculate speed of 164, 165 train of 164 Gluing or cementing belts 162, 163 Gold, to solder 148 Page Grades of files, coarse to fine 47 Graphite 108 Grinders, wet tool 40, 42, 43 Grinding cold chisels 32, 44, 45 high-speed steel tools 92 tools 44, 45 Grinding wheels, emery 40-43 Grindstone 43, 44 Grindstone, truing 44 Guide pulleys 159 Gun barrels, browning 171 Gun metal... 7 Hack saw, hand 102 power 102, 103 Half-round files 52, 60-62 rasp 47, 52 Hammer, method of using 33, 34 pneumatic 39 Hammers, chipping 30, 31, 33 Hand blowpipe 148, 149 Hand-cut files. 64, 65 Hand-smooth files 47, 49 Hand drilling machines 144, 145 files 49 Handles for files 53 Hangers, spacing of 66 Hard soldering 148 Harden, flux for heating to 78 forge fire for heating to 77, 80 muffle for heating to 77, 78 Hardness, file test for 76 scleroscope scale of 99 scleroscope test for 98 Hardening a tap 85, 93, 94 and tempering chisels. . . .80-82 and tempering finished tools 85-90, 93, 94 and tempering high-speed steel removable cutter . . 92 and tempering high-speed steel tools 90-94 and tempering springs. . .85, 89 carbon steel 75-90 carbon steel milling cutter 87 diamond-point tool 82, 83 files 65 high-speed steel milling cutter 93 high-speed steel tap in barium chloride 93, 94 mandrel 86, 87 186 INDEX. Page Hardening portion of articles ........ 76 side tools ............... 84, 85 to proper degree without tempering ............ 90 unfinished tools .......... 80-85 with electric furnace ..... 78 with lead ............... 78, 86 copper .................. 6 Hardening steel, cooling baths for. . . 78, 79 Hardened and tempered tools, straightening .................... 97, 98 Hematite ......................... 3 High-speed steel ................... 90-94 High-speed steel, annealing ......... 92-94 hardening ......... 91 tempering ......... 92-94 High-speed steel tools, air blast for hardening ...................... 91 High-speed steel tools, hardening and tempering ...................... 90-94 High-speed steel tools, forging ....... 91 grinding ..... 92 History of machine tools ........... 1, 2 Holes, testing depth of ............. 21 Holes in pipe-fittings and castings, plugging ....................... 172 Hose threads ..................... 118 I Inches, table of millimeters with equivalents in ................. 174 Inches with equivalents in milli- meters, table of ................. Indicator, speed ................. 163, test .................. 141, Inside calipers .................... Iron, cast ......................... cold-drawn wrought ........... cold-rolled wrought ........... galvanized ores of pig scrap wrought Iron castings Iron castings, annealed malleable pickle for Isometric drawing. .. -177 173 164 142 19 3 6 5 4 3 3 3 3 3, 5 76 5 179 Joint runner, asbestos. . . . Joints, right and left pipe. K Keyhole calipers Key-seating rule Key ways, laying out .... Knife-edge files Page 111, 112 136, 137 19 ..20, 21 ..20, 21 51 Jaws, soft vise Joining ends 01 belts. Joint, lock nut pipe. . . .30, 55, 58, 62 159-163 . .119, 122 Laboratories for teaching machine construction 2 Lacing belts 159-162 Lard oil 108 Lathe and planer tools, to harden and temper 82-85, 90-92 Laying out work 17-24 Lead 7 float files 52 hardening 78, 86 hardening gas furnace 86 lined fittings 107, 119, 120 lined pipe , . 107 pipe.. 112 Lead, black. See Graphite. red 109 white 109 Leather belting. . , 155, 156 washers :...,. 112, 113 Length of belts 156, 157 Level 27 Limonite 3 Line shafting, speed of 153 Lining pulleys. See Alining pulleys, shafting. See Alining and lev- eling shafting. Litharge 113 Lubricant for chipping 34 filing 53 Lubricants for threading pipe 108, 109 M Machine-cut files 65 Machine filing 63, 64 steel 4 Machine, breast drilling 144 ratchet drilling 145 Machine construction, equipment for teaching ... 2 laboratories for teaching. ... 2 Machine tools, history of 1 origin of 1 INDEX. 187 Page Machine tools, power for driving 153 Machines, hand-drilling 144, 145 Machinists' vise 29, 33, 54 Magnetite 3 Malleable pipe fittings 108, 119-125 iron castings 5 Mandrel, hardening 86, 87 tempering 86, 87 Manganese bronze 7 Manufacturing machines, equipment for 2 Marking for scraping 68 Materials for machines and tools .... 3-8 Measurements, English system of linear 16 Measurements, Metric system of linear 16, 17 Mechanical drawing 8-15 Mercury baths 78, 79 Metal packings 112, 113 saw cutting-off machine 105 worker's crayon (soapstone) . . 142 Metal, Babbitt 7 gun 7 Metric system of linear measure- ments 16, 17 Mica 3 Mill files 51 Milling cutters, hardening and temper- ing carbon steel 87-90 hardening and temper- ing high-speed steel 93 scleroscope for testing hardness of 98-101 Millimeters, table of inches with equivalents in 173 Millimeters with equivalents in inches, table of . . 174-177 Molybdenum 90 Monkey wrenches 24, 25 Monkey wrenches, pipe attachment for 25 Muffle for heating to harden 77, 78 gas furnaces 85, 93 Music wire ... 6 ' ; N Nickel "... 5 steel 5 tubes 114, 115 Nickel-plated fittings 123, 124 tubing tools 130, 132 Nickel-plated tubes, seamless Ill Nippers or wire cutters 27, 28 Page Nitric acid 171 Nut, adjusting circular 26 Nuts, tightening 24, 25 Oakum 112, 113 Oil baths 78 stones 66, 67 stoning scrapers 66. 67 tempering 88-94 gas furnaces 88, 90 Oil-groove chisels 37 Oil, hardening and tempering high- speed steel tools in 92-94 Open belts 156, 157 Open-hearth steel 4 Ores of iron 3 Originating standard straight edges. . 70 surface plates. . 70 Origin of machine tools 1 Orthographic projection 9 Outside calipers 19 Oxidizing solutions for coloring steel and iron... 171, 172 Pack hardening. See Case-hardening Packing, sheet rubber 112 Packings for unions, piston rods, cylin- der heads, etc 112, 113 Packings, metal 112, 113 Peening sheet metal 142 Perspective drawing 8 Phosphor bronze 7 Phosphorus 3 Piano wire 6 Pickle for brazed work 151 iron castings 179 Pig iron 3 Pillar files 50 Pinning of files 53 Pipe attachment for monkey wrench. 25 coils and bends 137 cutter 127-131, 134, 135 die stocks 126-128, 130, 132, 133 dies. 108, 126, 127, 130-133, 138, 139 Pipe fittings 107-126 for hydraulic pressure. See Double-extra strong pipe, taps. .. 108, 110, 127, 128, 130, 132 threads 108 tools 126-135 vises 127, 1 9-131, 133, 134 188 INDEX. Page Pipe, aluminium 112 ammonia. See Wrought-iron pipe extra strong. block tin 112 brass, copper and bronze, seam- less drawn 109-111 brine. See Wrought-iron pipe. cast-iron Ill, 112 cast-iron, drain or soil Ill, 112 compressed air 106, 107 copper 109, 110 double-extra strong 106, 117 extra strong 106, 117 galvanized steel and wrought-iron 107 gas 106, 107 gasoline 106, 107 hand method of cutting off. . 134, 135 hot water 107, 109-112 iron-size brass 110 lead-lined 107 lubricants for threading 108, 109 plumbers' sizes brass 109-111 copper 109, 110 repairing splits in 172 seamless lead or block tin 112 tin-lined 107 water 106-112 wrought-iron 106, 107, 115, 116 Pipe and pipe fittings, aluminium. . . 112 Pipe and tubing threads, taper per foot of 108, 110, 132 Pipe equivalents, table of 113 Pipe fitting, measuring length of. ... 136 problem in 135-137 Pipe fittings, regular 108, 119-126 right and left, 108, 119-121, 136, 137 Pipe joint cement 109 Pipe joint connections, right and left 136, 137 Pipe joints, lead 112 tin 112 Pipe joints by hand, making up screwed 127, 129-139 by power, making up large 139, 140 Pipe lines by color, to identify 118 Pipe sizes, tables of Briggs* Stand- ard 115, 116 standard 106, 115, 116 steel 106, 115, 116 tables of dimensions of * extra and double-extra strong steel and wrought-iron 117 Page Pipe threading by hand 133 threading with machine by hand 138, 139 threading with machine by power 139, 140 Pipe wrenches, Stillson 127, 129, 134 Planer tools, to harden and temper, 82-85, 90-92 Platinum 8 Platinum, soldering 148 Pliers 27 Plumbago. See Graphite and Black lead. Plumb bob, mercury 26, 27 Plumbers' sizes or fine thread pipe tools 130, 131 Plumbers' sizes, brass pipe or tubing 109-1 1 1 taps and dies. 110, 130, 131 Pneumatic hammer . 39 Polishing bolt heads 74 curved work 74 flat surfaces 7 J work before tempering,. . . .82-87 Polishing, abrasives for 71 lubricant for 73 Porcelain 3 Portable blowpipe 150, 151 Potassium cyanide for case-hardening, 94, 95 Power for driving machine tools 153 hacksaw 102, 103 transmission 153-170 Press, straightening 97, 142 Pressed steel pulleys 153 Projection, orthographic 9 Prussiate of potash 94, 95 Pulleys 153-155 Pulleys, alining 158, 159 balancing 165, 166 calculating the size of 154, 155 cast-iron 153, 154 crown and straight-face .... 154 guide '. ' 159 pressed steel 153 solid 153, 154 speed of 154, 155 split 153, 154 to adjust 159 wood 153 Punch, center 22 Pyroligneous acid 171 Pyrometer for measuring high tem- peratures 93, 94 Quarter-turn and twisted belts 158, 159 INDEX. 189 R Page Railing fittings 123, 125 Rasp-cut files 46, 47, 52 Rasp, half-round 47, 52 Ratchet drilling machine 145 Rawhide belt lacing 159 Reading working drawings 8, 14 Red lead , 109 Revolvers, bluing 171 Rifflers, bent 52 Right and left pipe joints, making up 136, 137 Risers 179 Riveting 143 crank pin 143 Riveting, flush 143 Rivets, copper 143 steel and iron 143 Rope drive 155 Rottenstone 72 Rough and finish pipe thread 133 chip 32 file 58 Roughing cut 32 Round files 52, 61 Round-nose chisels 36, 37 Rubber belting 155 washers 112, 113 Rubber packing, sheet 112 Rule, key-seating 20, 21 standard steel 18, 19 two-foot 18 Rumblers 179 Rust-joint or special cement 171 Safe-edge files, uses of 48, 60, 61 Sandblast 179 Sand, tempering in 77 Sand paper, numbered sizes of 72 Saw file 51 Sawing metal 102, 103, 105 Scale of drawing 13 Schedule-of-operations-drawings 13 Schedule of operations for alining and leveling shafting, line and level method 166, 167 Schedule of operations for alining and leveling shafting, transit method, 168, 169 Schedule of operations for alining "pulleys for a quarter-turn belt. .158, 159 Schedule of operations for Babbiting an engine bearing 151, 152 Schedule of operations for brazing cast iron 150, 151 Page Schedule of operations for brazing with hand blowpipes 148, 149 Schedule of operations for brazing with stationary blowpipe 149, 150 Schedule of operations for chipping plane surfaces 38 Schedule of operations for cutting off pipe, hand method 134, 135 Schedule of operations for filing plane surfaces 57-59 Schedule of operations for hand pipe threading 133 Schedule of operations for hardening and tempering high-speed steel cutter 92 Schedule of operations for hardening and tempering high-speed steel mill- < ing cutter 93 Schedule of operations for heating a high-speed steel tap in barium chloride , 93, 94 Schedule of operations for lacing large belts 161 Schedule of operations for lacing small and medium belts 159, 160 Schedule of operations for making right and left pipe joint connec- tions 136, 137 Schedule of operations for making up a screwed pipe joint 134 Schedule of operations for measuring hardness of milling cutter with scleroscope 99, 100 Schedule of operations for problem in pipe fitting 135, 136 Schedule of operations for scraping flat surfaces 68, 69 Schedule of operations for soldering brass 147, 148 Schedule of operations for straightening hardened and tempered tools 97, 98 Schedule of operations for threading pipe by hand 133 Schedule of operations for threading pipe with hand-pipe threading machine 138, 139 Schedule of operations for threading pipe with power pipe-threading machine 139, 140 Schedule of operations for using a breast drilling machine 144 Schedule of operations for using a ratchet drilling machine 145 Schedule of operations for using a speed indicator 163, 164 190 INDEX. Page Scleroscope, testing hardness with . .98-101 Scrap iron 3 Scrapers, flat 66-68 to sharpen 66, 67 half-round 71 Scraping Babbitt bearings 70, 71 bronze bearings 70, 71 flat surfaces 68, 69 V-ways of a machine 70 without a standard 70 Scraping, marking for 68 ornamental 69 uses of 66 Scraping or filing, bedding to mark work for 70 Scratch gages 21 Screwdriver 26 Scriber, forged 22 Section lining on drawings 11 Shafting 3, 5, 153 Shafting, cold-rolled 5, 153 line and level method of alining and leveling. . 166, 167 steel 5, 153 to straighten 141, 142 transit method of alining and leveling 168, 169 wrought-iron 3, 5, 153 Sheet rubber packing 112 steel 4 Shop equipment for manufacturing machines 2 Side chisels 37 Side tool, hardening 84, 85 tempering 84, 85 Silicon 3 Silver, soldering 148 Single-cut files 46, 51 Sketches 13, 14 Slip of belts 155 Smooth files, dead 47, 49 hand 49 Snagging castings 32, 179 Socket wrenches 26 Soft metal furnaces 86 Soil or drain pipe, cast-iron Ill, 112 Solder for brazing 148 Solder, hard 148 soft 146 Soldering 146-148 acid 146 brass 146-148 by sweating 147, 148 gold 148 platinum 148 Page Soldering silver 148 with soldering-iron 146-148 Soldering, flux for 146 hard 148 Soldering-iron 146 Soldering-iron, tinning 146 Solid pulleys 153, 154 Solutions for coloring steel and iron, oxidizing 171 Solutions for etching, acid 171 Spanner wrenches 26 Speed indicator 163, 164 of emery wheels 41 line shafting 153 pulleys 154, 155 Spelter for brazing 148 Split pulleys 153, 154 Splits in pipes, repairing 172 Springs, to harden and temper 85, 89 Sprocket wheels 155 Sprues 179 Square, center 20 combination. 20 Square files 50 Squares, try 56, 57 Steam pipe 106, 107, 109-111 Standard pipe 106, 115, 116 steel rules 18, 19 straight edges 20, 70 surface plates 67, 68 Standards of linear measurements. . . 16, 17 Star shot 179 Stationary blowpipe 149, 150 Steel 4, 5, 6 Steel and iron rivets 143 castings 5 pipe 106, 115, 116 shafting 5, 153 wire 6 Steel, Bessemer 4 carbon 4, 5, 6 chrome 5 cold-drawn 6 cooling baths for hardening. . . 78, 79 etching names and figures on hardened 171 galvanized 4 .high-speed 90-94 machine 4 nickel 5 open-hearth 4 percentage of carbon in 4, 5 sheet 4 to anneal carbon 75, 79 tool. See Carbon steel INDEX. 191 Page Steel, vanadium 5 Steel and iron, browning 171, 172 Steel and iron light or dark, bluing. 171 Steel castings, vanadium 5 and wrought-iron, cold-rolled. . 5, 6 pulleys, pressed 153 tubes, seamless drawn 113, 114 Stillson pipe wrenches 127, 129, 134 Stock. See Materials room 2 Stoning scrapers, oil 66, 67 Straight edge, standard steel 20 Straight edges, standard scraped .... 70 cast-iron 70 to originate 70 Straightening bars of steel 141, 142 hardened and tempered tools 97, 98 press 97, 142 work by peening 142 Straightening shafts in a lathe, testing and 141, 142 Sulphate of copper 17, 18 Sulphur 3 Sulphuric acid 179 Surface file holder 60 Surface plates, standard 67 to originate 70 Surfaces, filing large 60 Sweating to solder. 147, 148 Swiss pattern files 47 Table of abbreviations on drawings. . 12 driven and bored well fittings 126 freezing, melting and boiling temperatures of metals and common substances, 178, 179 gas fittings 125 hose threads 118 inches with equivalents in millimeters 173 millimeters with equivalents in inches 174-177 pipe equivalents 113 plumbers' sizes or fine thread pipe tools 131 plumbers' sizes taps and dies 110 railing fittings 125 seamless drawn brass and copper tubes in iron pipe sizes... 118 Page Table of temperatures and colors for tempering 89 valves and cocks 124 Tables of Briggs' Standard pipe measurement 115, 116 dimensions of extra and double extra strong wrought-iron pipe .... 117 pipe fittings. 120-122, 124-126 pipe tools, 126, 128, 129, 131, 132 Tallow 109 Tanks, cooling 78, 80-87, 92-95 Taper files 48, 49, 51 Taps, hardening 85, 93, 94 pipe 108, 110, 127, 128, 130, 132 tempering 86, 93, 94 Teaching machine construction, equipment for 2 Temper, file test for 77 thermometer test for 77 Temperatures of metals and common substances, table of freezing, melt- ing and boiling 178, 179 Tempering carbon steel 75-90 milling cutter 87 diamond-point tool 82, 83 finished tools, 76, 77, 86-88, 90, 93, 94 high-speed steel 92-94 milling cutter, 93 in charcoal or coke flame. 82 in oil 88-94 in sand 77 mandrel 86, 87 side tool 84, 85 table of temperatures and colors 89 tap 86, 93, 94 unfinished tools ... 76, 77, 80-85 Tempering, color test for 76, 77 Test indicator 141, 142 Testing flatness of filed surfaces 56 squareness of filed surfaces. . 57 Testing hardness, scleroscope for 99 Thermometer for measuring low temperatures. ... 88, 90 test for temper. .77, 88-90 Thread, rough and finish pipe 133 Threading pipe by haniL_. 133 with hand pipe thread- ing machine 138, 139 with power pipe thread- ing machine. ... 139, 140 Threads, pipe 108 192 INDEX. Page Three-square files 51 Tin 7 Tin-lined fittings 107, 119, 120 pipe 107 Tin (block) pipe, seamless 112 Tinning soldering-iron 146 Tobin bronze 7 Tool steel. See Carbon steel. Tool grinders, wet 40, 42, 43 grinding 44, 45 room 2 Tool room, check system for 2 Tools for nickel-plated tubing 130, 132 Tools, charts of pipe 127, 130 forging high-speed steel 91 grinding 44, 45 guide principle in hand 29 hardening and tempering lathe and planer 82-85, 90-95 materials for 3-8 plumbers' sizes or fine thread pipe 130, 131 straightening hardened and tempered 97, 98 tempering finished, 76, 77, 86-88, 90, 93, 94 unfinished.. 76, 77, 80-85 Tools for brass pipe and tubing, plumbers' sizes of 130, 131 Transmission, power 153, 170 Truing emery wheel 42, 43 grindstone 44 Try squares 56, 57 Tubing, brazed 110 nickel 114, 115 seamless drawn steel 113, 114 Tubing threads, taper of 110, 111 tools, nickel-plated 130, 132 Tubes, brass, copper and bronze seam- less 109-111 nickel-plated seamless Ill Tubes of brass and copper in iron pipe sizes, seamless 118 Tumbling barrels 179 Tungsten 90 U Page Valves 123, 124 Vanadium iron castings 3 steel 5 forgings 5 castings 5 Vaseline 86, 171 Vise, machinists' 29, 33, 54 Vises, height of machinists' 30 pipe 127, 129-131, 133, 134 soft jaws for 30, 55, 58, 62 V-ways of a machine, scraping 70 W Warding files 50 Washers, fiber, leather, asbestos, rub- ber and metal 112, 113 Water annealing 75 pipe 106-112 Well fittings, driven or bored 123, 126 White lead 109 Wire belt lacing 162 cutters 27, 28 Wire, Bessemer steel 6 carbon steel , . . . 6 copper 7 filing 63 music 6 Wood in machine construction 8 pulleys 153 Work, laying out 17-24 Working drawings 8-15 W T rench, flange 129, 130 Wrenches, monkey 24, 25 pipe attachment for monkey 25 socket 26 spanner 26 Stillsonpipe 127, 129, 134 Wrought iron 3 pipe 106, 107, 115, 116 shafting 3, 5, 153 Yard, Imperial 16 Z Universal surface gages 23 Zinc . UNIYERSF THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $I.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. OCT 161935 * 14lU^ 55< ^ OCT201936 IUN4 1955 LU i orn 4 1939 Str ** OCT SI tW AUG 8 1940 , FEB 10 194ZE iN/Tpcji ._, UN/\/ Affi 4 tn/i r\ Ul ^OP * LD 21-100m-7,'33 - U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES THE UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY -