John Sv;ett PUBLISHERS. FOURTEEN WEEKS IN ZOO LOGY. BY J. DORMAN STEELE, PH. D., F. G. S., AUTHOR OF THE FOURTEEN-WEEKS SERIES IN NATURAL SCIENCE Nature, the old nurse, took Tne chila upon her Tcnee, Saying, 'Here is a story-'boo'k Thy Father hath written for thee. ' ' Longfellow's "Tribute to Agassiz A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. (Copyright, 1876.) FOURTEEN-WEEKS SERIES A N " . : :"": "-" :".'**::..: /*. . * IN NATURAL SCIENCE, BY J. DORMAN STEELE, PH.D., F.G.S. New Physics. Human Physiology. New Chemistry. Zoology. Popular Geology. Botany. New Descriptive Astronomy. Hygienic Physiology. Hygienic Physiology, Abridged. The Publishers can supply (to Teachers only) a Key containing Answers to the Questions and Problems in Steele's entire Series. BARNES' HISTORICAL SERIES, ON THE PLAN OK STEELE'S FOURTEEN-WEEKS IN THE SCIENCES. A Brief History of the United States. A Brief History of France. A Brief History of Ancient Peoples. A Brief History of Mediaeval and Modern Peoples. A Brief General History. A Brief History of Greece. A Brief History of Rome. A Popular History of the United States. PREFACE. work is prepared upon the same general plan as the preceding books of the Series. Among the principal features are: Brevity; directness of statement; such a presentation of the subject as will lead the pupil to love the study; frequent foot-notes, containing anecdotes, curious facts, explanations, etc. ; a uniform system of analysis in bold paragraph titles ; and a gradual introduction of scientific terms and language, so as to fit the scholar to read zoological literature. Believing that a description of a new animal without a cut is useless, the author has aimed to give a figure of each one mentioned; accompanying it, where necessary, with minor illustrations of functional peculiarities. In order not to dis- courage the beginner with dry and dull anatomical details, the text is largely occupied with biography, telling "how animals act, think, and are mutually related ;" for a fact con- cerning the adaptation, habits, etc., is as valuable and far more interesting to the young, than one about some unpro- nounceable bone or muscle. To lead, however, to closer observation, physiological dis- tinctions are grouped in frequent paragraphs under the head of General Characteristics, a section is given on Comparative Anatomy, and numerous cuts of skeletons will enable any teacher familiar with the subject to continue it as desired. The limits of the book compelled a selection to be made from the numberless animal forms. Every order, however, is named, with most of its families and many of the princi- pal genera, each one illustrated by a cut and description of a 6 PREFACE. spefciesi /'Fjfyjes for classification precede, in general, every cliyjpjpn, These^will enable the pupil to refer any tiiiwwil ;tw jts'oir^e'r/d'iiely'in many instances, to its family and genus ; though it should be borne in mind that the charac- teristics given are applicable to the genera and species described in the text, and not necessarily to all belonging to the family. In addition to these analyses, a tabular view of all the animals treated is inserted in the Appendix. It has not seemed best to define each term in the text, but the Index is very full, and contains the explanation, defini- tion, and reference of every ordinary zoological word. As far as possible, each scientific name is followed, in parenthesis, by its translation. To guide in pronouncing the titles of the cut, the quantity of the penult is carefully given. Ample directions to the beginner for collecting and pre- serving specimens are given at the close of each division. These, with the hints in the foot-notes, will enable the pupil to undertake the study of Nature understand ingly. The author would hereby acknowledge the vital assistance rendered in the preparation of this work by J. W. P. Jenks, A. M., Professor of Agricultural Zoology and Curator of the Museum, Brown "University. His life-long experience and remarkable success in teaching Zoology, together with the wide range of his observations, have alone rendered this book possible. Thanks are returned to J. W. Armstrong, D. D., President Normal School, Fredonia, N. Y. ; F. C. Clark, M. D., Providence, E. I. ; Charles W. Greene, A. M. ; Prof. D. S. Kellicott, Ph. M., Buffalo State Normal School ; and S. G. Love, A. M., Supt. Schools, Jamestown, N. Y., who have read the proofs, and furnished many excellent suggestions. Many of the cuts were taken from nature ; the others were selected from the works of Owen, Carpenter, Wood, Milne- Edwards, Jones, Woodward, the Pictorial Museum, etc. A number of our wood-cat illustrations are from Prof. Sanborn Tenney's Natural History Series. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. rpHE Tables are not, at first, to be committed to memory, -L but only read to give a general view of the subject, and afterward learned by a constant reference to them as each class, family, etc., is taken up in order. Thus, the large table on page 13 should be in constant use during the term, and the last part would not be fully understood until the book is finished. The text contains nothing which the cut can better exhibit ; hence the figure should be studied care- fully. The teacher is advised to require his pupils to draw on the board an outline of each animal, showing its size as obtained from the scale under the cut, and every peculiarity in the structure of its teeth, claws, hoofs, bill, etc. This should be followed by a familiar description, drawn from the cut, the text, the teacher's instructions, and every other source of information above all, the creature itself, where it can be secured. (See note, p. 114.) Pupils should be encouraged to make original researches. They can prepare (see page 14) the skeleton of a cat, dog, or other small animal. They can secure common birds, squir- rels, frogs, snakes, and insects; and a little practice will often develop a taste for curing and mounting which will be as instructive as delightful. They can make collections of birds' eggs and nests. Even the careful study of a common fowl or an oyster, a bird building its nest, an ox chewing its 8 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. cud, a spider spinning its web, a cat catching a mouse, the varied paces of a horse, or the metamorphosis of a caterpillar, will give a fresh zest to the work. If any opportunity offers, the class should visit a menagerie, book in hand, name the animals, and verify the statements of the text. The knowledge of the teacher should be sufficient to fill out and supplement the brief descriptions of a text-book. The following works will furnish additional facts, and aid in further investigations. Pupils may often be persuaded to procure copies as a foundation for their library : Packard's " Guide to the Study of the Insects ;" Dana's " Corals and Coral Islands;" Wood's "Natural History," and " Homes without Hands ;" Coues's " Key to North American Birds ;" Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway's "North American Birds;" Agassiz' " Sea-side Studies;" St. George Mivart's "The Com- mon Frog;" Allen's " Mammalia of Massachusetts ;" Samuels' " Birds of New England ;" Carpenter's " Comparative Physiol- ogy ;" Figuier's popular works on Natural History ; Jordan's "Vertebrates of North America;" Orton's "Comparative Zoology," etc. The back volumes of the "American Nat- uralist," "Popular Science Monthly," and "Harper's Maga- zine" (see Natural History in the Index volume), contain numerous excellent articles, many of them finely illustrated. The above-named books, as well as a microscope, so essential to efficient instruction, can be obtained of the publishers of this work, Messrs. A. S. Barnes & Co., Ill and 113 William St., New York. Specimens of all the typical species of ani- mals, as well as many beautiful casts, are constantly kept for sale by Prof. Henry A. Ward, Rochester, N. Y. TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. INTRODUCTION 11 HINTS FOR PREPARING SKELETONS 14 II. THE VERTEBRATES. 1. SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATES 15 THE MAMMALS 16 THE BIRDS ..110 MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS 162 HINTS FOR PRESERVING SKINS OF MAMMALS AND BIRDS. 163 THE REPTILES * 165 THE AMPHIBIANS 179 THE FISHES 184 HOMOLOGIES AND ANALOGIES OF THE VERTEBRATES 199 HINTS FOR STUDYING REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS AND FlSHES. 202 III. THE INVERTEBRATES. 2. SUBKINGDOM ARTICULATES ....*... 203 THE INSECTS ^ 204 HINTS FOR COLLECTING INSECTS .,<..... i 224 THE MYRIAPODS .;..**...,......,.. 225 THE SPIDERS ..../..,... . . , ,,*......,. 226 THE CRUSTACEANS ...*........,,,., , r .*.....<..... 229 THE WORMS. . . 235 10 CONTENTS. PAGB 3. SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCANS . "... 241 THE CEPHALOPODS 242 THE GASTEROPODS 244 THE LAMELLIBRANCHIATES 250 THE BRACHIOPODS 255 THE TUNICATES 255 THE POLYZOANS 257 4. SUBKINGDOM ECHINODERMS 259 THE HOLOTHOROIDS 259 THE ECHINOIDS 260 THE ASTEROIDS 261 THE CRINOIDS 263 5. SUBKINGDOM CCELENTERATES 265 THE CTENOPHORANS 265 THE ANTHOZOANS 265 THE HYDROZOANS 269 THE SPONGES 273 6. SUBKINGDOM PROTOZOANS 274 THE INFUSORIANS 274 THE RHIZOPODS 275 THE GBEGARINIDANS 277 IV. APPENDIX. TABLE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM 278 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 298 INTEODUOTION. fV OOLOGY (zoon, animal ; %os, a discourse) treats of animals. / J It includes every variety, from man to the tiniest micro- scopic creature. Recent investigations in Comparative Anatomy seem to indicate that all the varied forms of life so shade into one another as to furnish no sharply-marked dividing lines : and that could the animals which have become extinct be grouped with those now living, the entire series from man to the animal- cule would present an unbroken succession. This panoramic view would give an idea of unity in the same sense as when we speak of a herd of cattle, though the individuals differ in size, color, and form ; or of a landscape, in which there is no break in the undu- lating outline of the far-off horizon, though it include river, mountain, and valley. Classification. In order to understand Zoology clearly, it is necessary to separate this vast ANIMAL KING-DOM, as it is called, into different groups. If we examine the general structure of the various animals, and bring together those which have similar peculiarities as, for instance, a back-bone we shall form the first grand divisions, which are styled SUBKING- 1) QMS. There are only six of these typical ideas; each, however, developed by the all-wise Creator in wonderful diversity. Observing the characteristics of the animals composing a sub- kingdom, particularly with regard to their physiological distinc- tions as, for instance, whether they are covered with hair or feathers we reach the divisions of each subkingdom, which we designate as CLASSES. Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Class with regard to their adaptation to their mode of life as, for ZOOLOGY. instance, their manner of procuring their food we reach the divisions of each class, which we designate as ORDERS. Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Order with regard to their general form as, for instance, the shape of the bill or structure of the tongue we reach the divisions of each order, which we designate as FAMILIES. Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Family with regard to details of execution in special parts as, for instance, the number and shape of the teeth we reach the divisions of each family, which we designate as GENERA (sing., Genus). Observing the characteristics of the individuals of each Genus with regard to identity in every essential particular as, for instance, color, size, corresponding measurements, etc. we reach the divisions of each genus, which we designate as Species. The following table exhibits the general plan of classifying the Animal Kingdom : I Species 1. Genus 1. -< " r ORDER 1. CD 2 ^ SUBKINGDOM 1. SUBKINGDOM 2. SUBKINGDOM 3. SUBKINGPOM 4. SUBKINGDOM 5. SUBKINGDOM 6. CLASS 1. - FAMILY 1. Genus 2. '2. 3. I Species 1. ' etc. IFAMILV2. Genus 3. Genus 1. j 1 Species 1. " 2. 41 3. {Species 1. " 2. etc. Divided as above into genera, which are subdivided in- * to species. CLASS 2. Divided into Orders, Families, Genera and Species, etc. Divided into Classes, Orders, Families, Ac. INTRODUCTION. 13 Particular names, which are, usually, descriptive of some pecu- liarity on which the classification is based, have been given to each of the divisions and subdivisions of the Animal Kingdom. Thus, the first subkingdom is called the Vertebrate, as it com- prises all animals which have a vertebral column or backbone ; the second subkingdom is termed the Articulate, since it con- tains those having a jointed body and limbs. The names and a general description of the six subkingdoms are given in the following table : A brain, a spinal marrow, ganglions, etc. ; an inter- f ki n gd " m " 1 Hf/l.vnynnJit nal jointed skeleton ; red blood j heart ; five J Verte- J Birds, Senses. brate Reptiles. I Animals. I Fishes. Animals Ganglions and NERVOUS GANGLIONS UNITED ON with a nerves only ; A MIDDLE LINE IN A SORT OF 2d Sub- , Examples: nervous no internal LONGITUDINAL CHAIN, BODY DIVIDED INTO RINGS WITH AN kingdom, Insects, Articu- -| Lobsters, system skeleton ; EXTERNAL SKELETON FORMED late Worms, ZJ composed blood usually white ; BY THE SKIN, MORE OR LESS HARDENED. Animals, v etc. o Q a heart ; NERVOUS GANGLIONS PLACED IN ' DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY, 3d Sub- , kingdom, : Examples. Cuttle- CD senses more or AND BODY SOFT WITHOUT EX- H Mollus- -1 fishes, Z less incom- TERNAL SKELETON, BUT USUAL- can Clams, y^ ^^ .11 LY PROTECTED BY A SHELL. Animals. Snails, etc. v. plete. 4th Sub- Examples: ^~ 1 kingdom, Sea- ^^* 1 Echino- urchins, 3E DISTINCT FROM BODY-CAVITY. J derma . ' Star- 2 Animals of a radiated tous fishes, UJ ac structure.* Alimen- tary Canal L Animals. > 5th Sub- " kingdom, etc. Examples- Jelly- fishes, J ' i NOT DISTINCT FROM BODY-CAVITY. . Ccelen- terous Animals. Hydras. Sponge-, f 6th Sub- " Animals very minute, of simple structure. \ Prole' Example * I zoans - Rhizo ' pods, etc. * The Echinoderms and the Coelenterates were formerly assigned to a single Subkingdom RADIATES and are often called by that name. HINTS FOR PREPARING > LIGAMENTAL SKELETONS OF THE VERTEBRATES. First remove all the muscle that can be conveniently taken off with knife and scissors, but leave the ligaments around the joints. The specimen should next be macerated (soaked) in soft water, with the addition of a little soda or potash, changing the water daily for a week, and then leaving it till the remaining muscle can be scraped off with the finger-nail or a tooth-brush, and the rotted brain be rinsed out with water. At this stage, while the skeleton is held beneath the surface of clean water, all fibres may be snipped off with scissors without injuring the ligaments, and the bones thoroughly cleaned without scraping them with any hard instrument. Next run a wire down the spinal cavity and bend the backbone into any desired posi- tion. Finally, hang up the skeleton by threads till dry. Any animal larger than a fox should be cleaned, in the manner already described, of everything, even to the ligaments, and the bones wired together. Small skeletons of the size of a rat can be made ready for maceration and then put into a perforated box and placed in an ant-hill. These insects will quickly remove all the flesh, and the skeleton should be taken away as soon as they begin to attack the ligaments. Following these general directions, a little experience and $, great deal of patience and perseverance will ensure success. MAN the lord of the Animal Kingdom is constructed after the same type as the cat which purrs at his feet, the ox which he eats, the horse which bears his burden, the bird which sings in his gilded cage, the snake which crawls hissing across his pathway, the toad which hides in his garden, and the fish which swims in his aquarium. All are modifications of one creative thought, showing how the Almighty Worker delights in repeating the same chord, with infinite variations. VERTEBRATES. < 1. Mammals. 2. Birds. 3. Reptiles. 4. Amphibians 5. Fishes. I. SUBKINGDOM VEKTEBRATA: General tebrates are usually distinguished by a chain of small bones (vertebrae) to which the other parts of the skeleton are at tached.* Certain modifications in the structure of these animals separate them into Classes, according to the following table: SUBKINGDOM. ... , SUCKLE THEIR YOUNG ; LUNGS ; -, Viviparous RESPIRATION SIMPLE; BLOOD (producing \ WARM ; CIRCULATION DOUBLE 1Vlng . AND COMPLETE ; HEART FOUR- t CHAMBERED. C Respiration double ; > blood warm ; circulation double and complete ; i ^^ heart 1 four-chambered. J ^ RESPIRATION cc AERIAL ; Respiration simple ; \ CO WITH LUNGS. blood cold ; circulation LJ_I incomplete ; 1 heart mostly three- cc H chambered ; LU 1 skull one occipital ^^ to condyle 1 (see Glossary). & . RESPIRATION ' Respiration simple -> arous AQUATIC WHEN YOUNG, AERIAL WHEN MATURE, when mature ; blood cold ; circulation incom- Q. OR WITH BOTH plete ; heart three- 6 LUNGS AND GILLS AQUATIC AND chambered ; skull two occipital condyles. (birds}. Vertebral Column. RESPIRATION AQUATIC, WITH GILLS. f Blood cold ; ] J. heart mostly i- [ two-chambered. J Amphibia, Pisces (fishes). * For a description of the vertebral column, and the advantages of its peculiar form, see "Fourteen Weeks in Physk.logy," page 27, et seq. 16 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA. I. MAMMALIA. Characteristics. To the class of Mammals belong man and those animals which resemble him in the most important parts of their organization. The distinguish- ing features are that they suckle their young, and that their bodies have, in general, a full or partial covering of hair. Some being designed for a life purely terrestrial, others mainly aerial or aquatic, they exhibit great variety of struc- ture, as will appear in the following tabulation for Orders: MAMMALIA.^ ORDERS f WITH c ERECT, TWO-HANDED Bimana HANDS. < NON-ERECT, FOUR-HANDED Quadrumana. TEETH COMPLETE Carnivora. . . . FOUR FEET HOOFED Ungulata.... FEET PARTLY HOOFED Hyracoidea . . PROBOSCIS Proboscidea. . WHALE-LIKE, HERBIVOROUS Sirenia FISH-LIKE, CARNIVOROUS Cetacea HAND-WINGED Cheiroptera . CONICAL TEETH Insectivora . . GNAWING TEETH Rodentia TOOTHLESS Edentata POUCHED . Marsupialia. . . BIRD-LIKE ... ... Mouotremata. . EXAMPLES. Ma,,. Monkey. Cat, etc. Horse, etc. Daman. Elephant. M'tnatte, etc. Whale i etc. But Mole, etc. Rat, etc. Stnth, etc. Opossum, etc. ...Duckbill. ORDER BIMANA. This order comprises only one family, and embraces a single genus and species ; thus, BIMANA. HOMINIM!.* HOMO sapiens, Man. General Characteristics. Marked physical peculiar- ities distinguish man from the other mammals. Thus, the position of the spinal opening in the middle third of the base of the skull, thereby balancing the head and admitting an upright posture ; the double curve of the vertebral column ; the length of the thumb, extending to the middle of the index finger, and the ability of opposing the thumb to the By general consent of zoologists, the names of all Families terminate in Ida'. CLASS MAMMALS: OKDEK BIMANA. 17 fingers ; the power of placing the foot at right angles with the leg, the sole resting flat on the ground; the size and position of the great toe; the length of the arms, reaching Fig s half-way from the hip to the knees ; the relatively great development of brain; the freedom of the anterior extremities from use in locomotion, and the consequent erect and biped position. In addition, man is the only mammal that truly walks; tli at is endowed with the power of speech; and that is cosmopolitan, readily adapting himself to extremes of heat and cold, and making his home in all parts of the globe. (See Fig. 5.) There are intellectual and moral features, more- over, which place man high above all other ani- mals. The scope of his mind and the possibilities of an immortal soul, mark the rank of a being who is alone declared to have been created "in the image of God." Common Origin of Man. While in the human race there is but a single species, zoologists are accustomed to speak of several very distinctly-marked varieties. In respect to the dividing lines of the commonly-enumerated five races ? authors disagree. So that, although there are some differ- ences of structure and great diversity in the texture of the skin and the character of the hair of mankind in various localities, yet in the same nation there are similar varieties ; and as marked diversities have repeatedly been observed in a Apollo Belvedere. 18 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA. single species of the domestic animals. We therefore agree with Dr. Prichard " that no other differences occur than may fairly be attributed to the differences of external cir- cumstances ; and hence it may safoly be concluded that the different races are all members of the same family, and the offspring of one common stock." Dental Formula. As the teeth present important char- acteristics for classifying the mammals, zoologists designate the number by a formula which, as applied to man, reads .2 2 1 1 2-2 3 3 thus: pm- m Q0 . = 3*. This ^- 2 , 3 signifies that there are eight incisors, two on each side of each jaw ; four canine teeth back of the incisors ; eight pre- molars (bicuspids) back of the canine; and twelve molars back of the premolars. Fig.k. ORDER QUADRUMANA. General Characteristics. The peculiar feature of Monkeys is the power of opposing the great toe to the other toes, making the hind feet be- come hands s.-nd the animal quadrumanous or four-handed. They are further distinguished from man by the spinal open- ing in the cranium being in the posterior third of the base ; by the single curve of the ver- tebral column; the shortness of the thumb, which does not reach the base of the index finger; the long and narrow pelvis ; the impossibility of placing the foot at right angles with the leg, the sole resting on the ground ; the relative length of the arms, which reach at least to the knee, and in some species to the ankle ; the greater prominence of the canine teeth, etc. a, Monkey's hand and foot. b, Human hand and foot. CLASS MAMMALS I ORDEK QUADEtJMANA. Fig. 5. 19 Skeletons of Orang, Chimpanzee, and Man. The order is divided into families as follows : FAMILIES. EXAMPLES. QUADRUMANA. < HEAD OBLONG ; DENTIL FORMULA AS IN MAN ; NOSTRILS CATARHINE (oblique) NAILS FLAT ON ALL THE FINGERS. HEAD ROUND ; 2-2 1 1 ; 3-3 3-3 2-2* 1-1 3-3' 3-3 NOSTRILS PLATYRHINE (wide apart) ; NAILS SOMEWHAT COMPRESSED. HEAD POINTED; DENTITION AS IN CEBID^B ; NOSTRILS STREPSORHINK (twisted) ; NAILS FLAT EXCEPT A LONG CURVKD CLAW ON THE FIRST FINGER, SOMETIMES THE FIRST *- TWO FINGERS OF THE HIND FEET. ; ! Simiidae. ! ) Cebida?. Lemuridae. Monkeys of the Old World. Monkeys of the New World. Monkeys of Madagascar. Simiidae. The Catarhine Monkeys, with the exception of a single species found upon the Eock of Gibraltar, belong to Asia and Africa. This family comprises animals which SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA. greatly vary in their organization and lead down by degrees from man to the common animals, as is shown in the follow- ing table : FAMILY, GENUS. SPECIES. EXAMPLES. Troglodytes niger, Chimpanzee. r WITHOUT POSTERIOR CALLOSITIES.* (Black cave-dweller.) Troglodytes gorilla, Gorilla. N^ S; Simia satyrns, Orang-outang. z Without 1 s (Snub-nosed satyr.) O falle 1 2 tans s (Hylobates agilis. Agile Gibbon. LU , (Agile wood-walker.) Hi Hylobates syndactylus, Siamang. X tr (^ (Yoke-fingered.) < MUZZLE ROUNDED, f Semnopiihecus entellus, Sacred Monkey. s WITHOUT (Revered ape.) O is CHEEK-poucaES.t [ Semnopithecus nasica, Proboscis Monkey. i^r With 1 S . Colobus polycomus, Colobe. Q taLls MUZZLE MORE OB (Mutilated.) J S LESS PROJECTING, Cercopithecus mona, Guenon, * M WITH (Tailed ape.) to CHEEK-POUCHES. Cynocephalus mormon, Mandrill. (Dog-headed.) Fig. G. Troglodytes niger, Chimpanzee. Anthropoid Apes. The Chim- panzee bears the greatest resemblance to man, though infe- rior in stature and strength. Like the Gorilla, it has its home in the dense forests of Western Africa. Both have been represented as dwelling in huts built in trees and snatching up the un- wary traveler who * The posterior callosities are hardened protuberances, to obviate friction when the animal takes a sitting posture. t The cheek* of some monkeys are capable of being greatly expanded, so as lo form a sort of temporary larder in which the monkey lays by its food or carries it off. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. Fig. 7. Troglodytes Gorilla, Gorilla 22 SUBKINGDOM '^KTEBEATA. passes beneath; whereas they generally remain upon the ground, eat fruits and vegetables, and merely bend down branches for a seat and, perhaps, for concealment. The Orang differs more widely from man, and is adapted to an arboreal life. It inhabits Southern Asia. In the wild state it is frugivorous (fruit-feeding), not even eating eggs, though the teeth are adapted to either vegetable or animal food. Matured orangs of the same species and sex vary io height from five to over seven feet. The Gibbon is distinguished by the length of its arms and the slenderness of its form. With a height of three feet, the reach of the extended arrnl? is six feet, enabling it to swing through the air among branches twenty feet apart.* Fig. 8. Hylobates agWs, Gibbon. Hylobdtes syndactylus, SiSmang. The Siamang derives its specific name from the adhesion of the first and second fingers as far as the joint which bears the nail. The posterior callosities of this genus link it to the * When the Ateles wish to cross a river, the strongest ascend a high tree over- looking the stream. The leader hooking his tail firmly to a limb drops downwardi while the next attaches himself to his predecessor, and so on, forming at last a long chain of monkeys. This swings to and fro until the end monkey grasps a limb upon the opposite bank. Along this living suspension bridge the troop pass over, a mis- chievous monkey occasionally playing off a practical joke on some member as he hurries forward. To get the bridge across, the first monkey lets go and the chain swings over, perhaps ducking one or two, when all unfasten and catching at the branches, descend to the ground. (See page 25, Pig. 16.) CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. 23 monkeys* proper, which have tails and cheek pouches, or some equivalent modification of the digestive organs. Fig. 10 SemnopithVcus entettus^ Sacred Monl ISemnopitliecvs naslca Proboscis Monkey. * The term Monkey is properly applied to those Simiidae having tails, which serve like a balancing-pole to the rope-dancer or as a rudder to guide the animal in its leaps through the air. SUBKIHGDOM VERTEBKATA. Fig. 13. Monkeys Proper. The Semnopithecus lacks the cheek- pouches, but is compensated by a stomach with distinct sacs. The Sacred Monkey receives divine honors from the natives of India, who believe it a metamorphosed prince, and punish its slaughter by death, although a trifling fine com- pounds for the murder of a man.* It is permitted to ravage their gardens at will. The Proboscis Monkey of Borneo has a flabby nose, six inches long and capable of enormous inflation. The Colobe (mutilated) is named from its lacking a thumb on the anterior extremity. The long white hair of its head falls over the back like a cloak. TheGuenon approaches the ape in the shortness of its muzzle. With bushy whiskers and varied colors, it is the fop of the monkeys. Its cheek- pouches will contain two days food. Driven by famine, it descends into the fields and commits great havoc. Docile in nature, it is easily tamed, but is an arrant thief, and while gravely receiv- ing caresses will pick the pocket of its confiding admirer.f Colobus rolycdmus, Bear Monkey. Fig. 1U. Cercopithlcus mona, Guenon. * It may have become interwoven so remarkably with the superstition of the Hindoos on account of being an expert serpent-killer. t The last two genera, with others, include a great number of species which inhabit Africa the headquarters of the monkey tribe. It is believed that each is restricted to a small territory and jealously guards any intrusion. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER QUADRUMANA. Fig. 15. The Baboon, with its dog-like muzzle, is the ugliest and most ferocious of the mon- keys. It dwells among craggy rocks, which it climbs with great agility. Its food con- sists of bulbous roots, eggs, insects,* etc. In this tribe the Mandrill is conspicuous for its variety of color its nose being red, with a bright scarlet tip; its cheeks, a brilliant blue ; its beard, citron-yellow; its hind-parts violet ; and its body a grayish brown, tinged above with olive. Cebidae. The Platy- rhine monkeys are found in cynocephdiu* mormon. Mandrill. 4, great numbers climbing among the trees in the forests of South America. Having no callosities, cheek pouches, or opposable thumbs, they are classified according to the differences in the tails : CEBID/t, j or Plaiyrhine } Monkeys. TAILS PREHENSILE, GENUS. Ateles SPECIES. pentadactylus, CEBID/t, J (able to grasp). \ Mycetes ursinus, TAILS NON-PREHENSILE. $ Jrachyurus cacajao, ( Hapale iacchus. EXAMPLES. Spider Monkey. Bear Hmoler Saki. Marmoset. Fig. 16. Atiles pentadactf/lus, Spider Monkey. ^ The Ateles, or four- fingered monkey, has no thumb on the an- terior extremity. On account of the length, flexibility, and slender- ness of its limbs, it is termed the Spider Mon- key. The tail is prehen- * It devours scorpions with great dexterity, whipping off their stings so quickly as to give them no chance to. strike it. SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA. Fig. 17. MycStes vrifiniis. Bear Howler. Fig. 18. sile, and the end being bare and sensitive, can be used as a fifth hand to pick up small ob- jects or to insert into the hollows of trees to hook out eggs. The Bear Howler has the power of dilating the larynx so as to render the voice louder than the roar of a lion, hav- ing been heard two miles off. ThetfaHis a striking example of the non-prehensiles, as its tail is short and so covered with hair as to look in some species like a mere knob. Fig. 19. Hapdle jacc/ius, Marmfeet. }. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDEK QUADEUMAKA. The Marmoset,* by its sharp, crooked claws, and the short thumb on its hind feet, stands at the extreme of the monkey tribe in America. Its food is not grasped by the fingers, but held between the forepaws. Several species have tufts of hair projecting from the sides of the head. Lemuridse. The Lemurs f have opposable thumbs like the Simiidse, and their dentition is the same as the Cebidse ; while, unlike both, they have a long, curved claw on the first, sometimes on the first two fingers of the hind feet. The true Lemurs are found only in the forests of Mada- gascar. The presence or ab- sence of tails furnishes a basis Of tabulation. Hand and foot of Lemur. FAMILY. GENUS. SPECIES. EXAMPLES. I FMIIRin^ ( T . TT q 5 TAIL PR EHENSILE. C Lemur macaco, Ruffled Lemur. r\iutc., ^ i Jix TAIL NON-PREHENSILE. (Cheiromys madagascariensis. Aye Aye. TAILLESS, OR RUDIMENTARY. \ ? er ? dicticus P tt0 ;. ^*f >f r CLoris gracilis, Graceful Loru. The Ruffled Lemur is the largest and hand- somest of this family. Wrapped up in its long, bushy tail, it passes the day in sleep, and only comes forth at night to Buffled Lemur. S6arch for f d - TllC * This little creature is only six or eight inches in length, and a century ago was held in great estimation as a pet by ladies of quality. So great is its fondness for insects, that it has been known to tear out the pictures from an Entomology and greedily swallow the printed scraps ! ( Wood.) t Lemur means spectre, and is descriptive of the noctnrn;il habits and stealthy step of the animal. In fact, it is known among sailors as the " Madagascar Cat. 11 SUBKINGDOH VERTEBRATA. Aye Aye has some resemblance to a squirrel, but the form of its head and limbs allies it to the Lemur.* The middle Cheiromys madagascariensis, Aye Aye. Hand of Bush- dog. finger of its fore leg, long, slender and hairless, is adapted to extract worms from their holes in the ground or in trees. The Bush- dog is marked by the absence of the first finger of the hand. The Grace- ful Loris inhabits Ceylon, Java, etc. Prowling through the darkness, it is almost invisible, save for its round, shiny eyes. Loris gra&lis, Graceful Loris. Espying a sleeping bird among the branches, it creeps toward it with noiseless, imperceptible movements, until it can place its fingers over its prey, when it seizes it with a spring sudden as a flash. ORDER CARNIVORA. General Characteristics. This order includes the flesh- eating animals. Strong, agile, and with senses highly devel- * It is an illustration of what is known as a comprehensive type, since it possesses peculiarities which link it to different orders the Quadrumana and the Rodents. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDEK, CAKNIVORA. oped, they are organ- ized for slaughter. Among their ana- tomical peculiarities are : (1), their denti- tion, marked by long, sharp canine teeth, and a molar on each side, above and below, larger and sharper than the others, known as the "car- nivorous tooth," and used for crushing bones; and (2), their feet, which are pro- vided with toes and often armed with claws. The differ- ence in these physi- cal features affords the basis of a classifi- cation. r l, ilL 2-2 ( 2-2 . 1- 2-2' 1-1 ' , - 3-3 ; 3-3 . 1 4-4' 2-2 ' , In 3-3 2-2 . 1 ' 3-3* 1-1 ' 1- 3-3 3-3 . ^ 1- 4-4' 3-3 QC 8 , l 2-2, 2-2 . o i i- 3-3' 2-2 ' ^^ 6 1- 4-4 ; 2-2 . ! 1 1- ' 4-4' 3-3 cc. 6, 1- 6 1- _, 4-4 ; 2-2. 4-4 2-2 ^ 6, 1- , 4-4, 2-2 . ' 1- 4-4 2 2 8 1 l , 5 "~ 5 ; T 1- l' 6-5' 8, or *, or 4 nidi- 6~6 4 4 g mentary g _ g 2 ? 1 1 , indefinite ; I o' o- 1 Skull of a Carnivorous Animal. Fig. 26. Skeleton of a claws retractile, Lion. FAMILY. Felidae, EXAMPLES Lion , etc. claws semi retractile, Viverridae, Civet. claws non-retractile, Hyenidae, Hyena. claws non-retractile, Canidae, Dog, etc. claws non-retractile, Mustelidae, Weasel, etc claws non -retractile, Ursidse, Bear. claws non -retractile, Procyonidse, Raccoon. claws non -retractile, Bassaridae, Civet Cat claws on posterior feet only, Otariidap, Ea: ed Sm< claws on all the feet, Phocidae, Seal claws on posterior feet only, Rosmaridae, Walrus. 30 SUBKIKGDOM VERTEBKATA. Felidae. The Cats form the typical family of this order. They are all digitlgrade (toe-walkers). Lest their claws should be blunted by coming in contact with the ground or impede their progress by getting entangled in the grass, they are retractile, i. e., the upper tendons of the foot hold them back without any exertion of the will. Resting upon its soft, padded feet, and with its claws sheathed, the animal steals noiselessly toward its prey. As the fatal spring is made, the lower muscles suddenly contract, and, drawing the claws forward, bury their sharp points in the victim's 27. Fiy. S 1. Claw Sheathed. 2. Claw Extended. Tongue of a Carnivorous Animal Highly Magnified. flesh. The tongue is covered with innumerable little hooks pointing backward. These are for rasping the bones which it gnaws for food, and beautifully illustrate the economy of Nature, which allows no waste. The whiskers on the upper lip are of great service to the animal while skulking about in the darkness, seeking its food. They equal the body in width, and by indicating the breadth of any opening, warn it from attempting too close a bush, and thus causing a rn.stle which might alarm its prey. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CAENIVOEA. Fig. SO. 31 Tongtte of a Carnivorous Animal. * GBNUS. SPECIES. ( Felis leo,* EXAMPLE. Lio,,. Terrestrial. j " tigris, Tiger. concolor, Puma. Terrestrial and 1 " leopardus, arboreal. < " on$a, Leopard. Jaguar. ( " domestica, Domestic Cot. Arboreal. j Lynx canadensis, 1 " rufus, Common Lynx, Wild Cat. The family is classified into genera according to their mode of life : FELIDxE. The Lion is known as the " King of Beasts," more from his majestic appearance than any nobleness of disposition.! The tail is tufted, while the neck of the male is ornamented with a flowing mane that in some varieties reaches nearly to the ground. J His tawny, uniform color, closely correspond- * Zoologists have described different, species of the lion, but they are now con- sidered only geographical varieties distributed over Africa and southern Asia. t Livingstone and GeVard pronounce him cruel and cowardly. He secures his prey by lying in ambush till it comes within reach of his terrible bound, and if the first spring faib, like the tiger, he sneaks back to his covert ashamed and disap- pointed. In fact his speed is too slow to permit his overtaking his game. $ It is asserted by some travelers that the roar of the lion is terrific beyond description, while others declare it to resemble the discordant cries of the ostrich. Probably the degree of fear aroused colors the narration. Since the lion's larynx is relatively larger than that of any other mammal, there may be no exaggeration in the statement that its roar sometimes shakes the ground like an earthquake, and carries dread to every animal within hearing. 32 SUBKLtfGDOM VERTEBKATA. ing to that of the desert tracts in which he lives, aids his concealment in stealing upon his *prey. The pupil of his eye is round, giving as extensive horizontal vision as vertical; Fig. 30. Fells leo, Lion. and his strength is such that he can carry off a cow with ease, even leaping broad dikes and keeping ahead of pursuing horsemen for miles without dropping it. He naturally feeds Fig. 81. Tuft of Lion's Tail, showing hook. at night, so that his apparent magnanimity in sometimes sparing man and heast during the day is only because he is already satiated with food. Like other animals, he has no desire to kill merely for the sake of killing. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 33 Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fells tigris, Tiger. The Tiger, being destitute of a mane and tail-tuft, lacks the noble bearing of the lion, but is beautifully decorated with black stripes upon a ground of reddish-yellow fur, tend- ing to white beneath. Its ferocity, especially that of the dreaded " man-eater," is fearful, while its strength enables it to carry off a buffalo thrown over its shoulder. Inhabiting Southern Asia, its home is in the long jungle-grass, with the coloring of which its stripes so exactly assimilate that it is impossible for unpracticed eyes to discern it at even a short distance. This adapta- tion of the color of an animal to that of sur- rounding objects in its native wilds is termed mimicry, and is one of the most wonderful provisions of Nature. The Puma* inhabits North and South Amer- ica. Its uniform dun color gives a mimicry Fe - is conc ^^ Pu ma . * In different parts of the continent the puma im styled the "painter," the "pan- ther," the " cougar," and even the " catamount," though there is no panther in America, and the true catamount is the wild cat of Europe. SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA. Fells leopardus, Leopard. Fig. 35. for its protection while crouching upon the branches of trees, Having a black tail-tuft and a sameness of color, it has been called the "American Lion/ 7 though none of its habits Fig. sk. resembles those of its African namesake. The Leopard, :iow con- sidered identical with the panther, inhabits Africa, India, and the adjacent islands. Smaller than the Tiger, it is as beautiful and its mimicry as strik- ing its skin being mark- ed with circles of dark spots instead of stripes, corresponding to the leaves of the tree among which it conceals itself. The Jaguar, inhabiting the warmer parts of Amer- ica, is the analogue (see Glossary) of the Leopard, though more powerful, being able to carry off a horse with ease. The circles upon its sides have a black spot in the cen- tre, well calculated to deceive the eye as the animal glides through the dense foliage of the tropical forests in pur- suit of monkeys, swims in the lagoons for tur- tles, or prowls around the herds of cattle for Fells on. fa, Jaguar. Fig. 36. Fells domesttca*C&t. larger prey. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 35 Domestic Cat. No wild animal is known that can be the original of the do- mestic cat, though there are several which bear some resemblance to it. There is a marked difference in the tail of the wild and the domestic species. Still greater varia- tions, however, are found in dogs of the same race.* The Lynx is anatomically distinguished by having two less molars in the upper jaw. Only two species are found in North America the Canada Lynx and the Wild Cat. The former has its ears tipped with pencil-like tufts of black hair, while its prevailing color is gray with a wash of black. It Mg.38. a. Tail of Wild Cat. b. Tail of Domestic Cat. Lynx * Probably, animals designed by the Creator for domestication, have inherent tendencies to variation in form and color, according to climatic and alimentary influences, so that individuals may be more readily recognized. See note p. 39. 3G SUBKIXGDOM VERTEBRATA. m. Lynx rufus, Wild Cat, Fig. U). lives upon birds and small mammals, pursuing them among the branches of the trees as well as upon the ground. Its gait is by bounds with all four feet at once, the back being arched. The Wild Cat may be recog- nized by its lacking long ear-tufts, and by having the inside of the legs banded or spotted. Viverridae. The Civet is the type of this numer- ous and varied family. The true civet has semi- retractile claws. It is also characterized by a double pouch, secreting a fatty substance used as a per- fume ; and by the pupil of the eyes being circular during the day instead of vertical, as in the Cats. The Genet has retrac- tile claws. It wages war on rats and mice,* and in many parts of the east is domesticat- ed. The Ich n e u m o n i s semi-plantigrade, and has the pupils elongat- ed transversely. It Kverra genetta, Genet lV preys Qn the ^ gg and young of the crocodile and various reptiles. Yvterra citetta, Civet Fig. U. IL * The ancient Egyptian? gave it free access to their houses and paid it divine honors. It is sometimes called " Pharaoh's Rat." CLASS MAMMALS: ORDEB CARKIVORA. 37 Vic^rra ichneumon, Ichneumon. Hyenidae. The Hyenas are peculiar to the warmer regions of the Old World. The enormous strength of their jaws and the size of their blunt molar teeth, enable them to crush the largest bones, which they swallow without masti- cation. In adult animals, the vertebrae of the neck often grow together, enabling them to endure a violent strain. The toes are four, with blunt, non-retractile claws. The bending of the hind legs makes them seem shorter than the fore legs and gives an awkward shuffle to the pace. The hyena is the true scavenger among the mammals, removing offal which would endanger the health of man.* Canidse. The Dogs have the muzzle more elongated, and hence the jaws weaker than the previous Families. The teeth are blunter, and the toes, five in front and four behind, are armed with non-retractile claws adapted to burrowing in the ground. The dog never perspires, even in the hottest weather. It drinks by lapping,f and so avoids the danger of swallowing large quantities of cold water when the, body is overheated. The shape of the pupil affords a basis for tabulating: ( ( Cnfa fopm. Wb(f. ^AMinx: ) Pupil round. ] Cmnis fniiiris, Dog. C- . : -s. - ( Canis mareu8> jo**!. ( Pupil vertical. Vulpes vnlgufe, FXC. * Its work is most useful, as it consumes even the skeletons of the decaying carcasses on which it feeds. ID \erfonnin^r this mission, its occasional attacks upot* graveyards have, however, given it an unenviable reputation. t In lapping, Felidse turn the tip of the tongue backward, and Canidas forward. 38 SUBKINGDOM YERTEBKATA. The Wolf, of which there is now considered to be but one species in North America, is the best representative of the Family. It generally hunts in packs. Unless impelled by ffig. Mr Fig. U5. hunger,* they seldom attack prey larger than themselves, and they are so wary of traps that a traveler, when pursued, has frightened them away by merely trailing a cord. Their bite, unlike that of any other animal, is a succes- sion of quick, violent snaps. The Docf.Of all the conquests achieved by man over animals, that of the dog is the most complete, and, perhaps, the most useful. Not only is he the Canisfamiliaris, Mastiff. Sole ammal that has fol- * Such is then their rapacity that they will make a meal of a harness or even of old shoes that may be within their reach. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIYORA. 39 lowed man to the ends of the earth, but more than any other is he capable of education and disinterested affection. His habit of repeatedly turning round before lying down is regarded as a singular retention of his mode in the wild state* of making a lair in the tall grass. The dog attains maturity in two years, and lives from fifteen to twenty. The Jackal derives its specific name from the golden tint of its skin. Like the wolf, it hunts in bands; but it associates more intimately with man, acting the scav- enger in consuming the street offal in the filthy towns of the East.f The Fox is mostly noc- turnal, springing upon its prey as it passes by ? or stealing upon it while asleep. Its dentition is Canis flw * w * Jackah ^ calculated for a mixed diet, so that mammals, birds, mol- luscs, and even grapes, furnish a dainty meal. Its character- istic is craftiness. J Its maternal instinct is also highly developed, and it will peril its life to save its young. * The canine race, like the human, inherently adapted to variation and develop, ment, through the influence of climate and condition, presents innumerable varieties; though all are considered by most naturalists as having a common origin and to be regarded of one species. Many have supposed the wolf to be the progenitor of the dog. But, while the osteological structure of the two is identical, the total want of similarity in disposition, especially in affection for man, their hostility to each other, and their permanent physical differences as the obliquity of the wolfs eye, and its drooping tail oppose this theoiy. Besides, it is as reasonable to presume ;hat the wolf descended from the dog, as the dog from the wolf. But no wild dogs as, for instance, those of the Antilles, known to have sprung from domestic varieties have ever approximated the characteristics of wolves. Hence, with Prichard, \ve conclude, u As with the race of man, so with the race of dogs, the varieties have become permanent from one original pair." It is, however, a mooted question. t In uninhabited , regions, it often feeds upon the remnants of carcasses left by lions, and hence the absurd idea that it is the companion of that beast, and runs down his prey for him. t A hunted fox will run a long way in a straight line, then doubling on its track, suddenly spring off to a great distance one side and quietly steal away, while the hounds are eagerly following up Ihe scent ; it will leap from tree to tree, and hide in some convenient hollow : it will perfume itself with any odorous eubstance it may 40 SUBKITSTGDOM VERTEBRATA. Different species abound in all parts of the world. * Fig. hi. Vulpes mlgflris. Fox Mustelidae. The Weasels are greatly diversified in size, habits, color, etc. All have fine fur, short legs, and slim, flexible bodies, which enable them by gliding movements to pursue their prey through small openings. Nearly all have glands secreting a disagreeable odor. Differences in denti- tion and manner of walking afford a means of tabulation : Terrestrial, i Aquatic. DIGITIGEADE. DIGITIGRADE. j Mustela pentmntii, 1 " nmericaim, Putorius ermineus, lutreolus, Mephitis mephitica, .Scion americana, TEETH =r.S. Gulo, luscus, TEETH =3& Lutra canadensis. TEETII TEETU TEETH = 31. -I Mephi f Taxid JY.v7.rr. Sable. Weasel Mink. Skintl: Uudyer. Wolverine. Otter. The Fisher and the Sable are the representatives of the Genus Mustela in North America. The former is the largest meet. in order to deceive the dogs ; it will rnn at full jump to the crest of n hill, then quickly lie down, while the headlong spaed of its pursuers carries them pell-mell to the bottom; and even if caught it will feign death, permitting itself to be handled, kicked about, and carried away, without showing any sign of life until a chance of escape offers, when it will suddenly dash off to the intense surprise of those whom it has so cleverly duped, * So varied, however, are their individual markings according to age and locality^ that naturalists disagree as to the number of species in North America, or whether there is more than one genus. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. Fig. 1*8. of the known species. Its long head and bushy tail, resem- bling those of the Fox, mark the transition from the Canida3 to the Mustelidse. The Sable is arboreal, climbing with ease to the highest branches in pursuit of birds and eggs. Its fur will lie smoothly in any direction. The Weasel, at the ., , . MusWapennemfii, Fisher, ft. north, during summer, is reddish-brown above and white beneath. It changes from brown to white in October ami November, and back again in Fig. l&. Musttla americana, Marten or Sable. March, except the extremity of the tail, which is always black. At the south, the same species does not vary its fur. STJBKINQDOM VERTEBRATA. Fig. 50. Putorius erminSw, Weasel in winter. |. These alterations are effected, not by shedding the coat, but by changes in the color of the hair. Weasels destroy mice, and hence are beneficial to farmers.* Fig. 51. Putorius erminSus, Weasel in summer. J. * Their carnivorous propensities are, however, not unfrequently displayed in the hen-roost. An ermine has been known to kill forty full-^rowu fowls in a CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 43 Fig. 52. The Mink is brown, with a white spot under the chin. It is semi-digitigrade and semi-palmate (webbed), being thus fitted for hunting in the streams for fish, frogs, etc. The Skunk is striped with black and white ; but individuals of the same species differ in their markings. It emits in self-defence an intoler- able odor, that no othar pMm lutr(blus ^ Mink . iV animal can endure. The fore feet are adapted to digging holes, in which it hibernates 53. without becoming torpid entering its retreat in the fall, fat, and coming out in the spring, lean. The Badger, inhabit- ing the northern part of the continent, has long silky hair and short tail. Its stout claws are well adapted for burrowing. Though so peaceable as to resign its nest without a struggle to those much weaker than itself, it can bite more fiercely than any animal of its size. Its skin is so loose and thick, that while the teeth of its assailants can make little impression upon it, the badger can turn itself round in it, so as to bite them in their tenderest parts. It feeds upon small animals, which it night, as it devours the brain and sucks the blood, but never eats the flesh of an animal. Its mode of attack is to pounce upon its prey transversely, and piercing the brain at a single bite, to throw itself lengthwise upon the body, to which it clings nntil the death of its victim. Its ability to bend the head at right angles with the neck facilitates this mode of attack Ermine skins have long been used in England to decorate the robes of judicial officers, and hence their association with ideas of moral purity. The expression " catch a weasel asleep" is based upon the ease with which the animal may be caught when sleeping, on account oi the soundness of its slumbers. 44 SUBONGDOM VERTEBRATA. digs out of their burrows, leaving dangerous trap-holes foi the unwary traveler. Fig.51*. Fig. 55. Tassidga americctna, Badger. The Wolverine inhabits the northern parts of Europe and America, Extravagant stories are told by trappers of its strength and ferocity,* whereas it is harmless to man, and only annoying by de- vouring animals caught in traps, and by destroy- ing the hunter's hoards. "With a sagacity rarely permitting it to be en- snared, it skillfully tears q| the trap to pieces, and carries off the bait. The River Otter has but one species in North America, though it ranges from Hudson's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Its webbed feet exhibit * Thus we are gravely informed that the Wolverine will drop from a tree upon the back of an animal passing underneath, and, clinging to its neck with long tren- chant claws, tear open the blood-vessels until the poor victim falls lifeless. Gulo luscus, Wolverine or " Glutton." CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 45 an approach to the amphibious mammals. The peculiar position of its eye enables it, with a slight motion of the head, to see the fish on which it preys, whether swimming above, below, beside, behind, or before. % It burrows in the Fin .<> Fig. 57. a Ultra canadensls, Otter. . banks of streams, forming the entrance under water, and providing numerous cells to occupy, according to the height of the stream. Its pastime of sliding in companies into the water, down a snow-bank in winter and a slippery clay-bank in summer, presents a singular feature of animal life. Ursidse. The Bear is a typical example of a plantigrade (see Glos- sary). The entire sole of the foot applied to the ground; the broad, flat crowns of the molars; large, curved, n on -retractile claws; smooth tongue; mobile nose; circular pu- pils, and short tail, exhibit such f / variations from the strictly carniv- ' orous animals as betoken different b TopviewofBear , shnverjaw . habits of life. Bears arc carnivorous c . side view of jaws shut.. 46 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBEATA. Fig. 58. Skeleton of Bear. only from necessity, their preference being for roots, nuts, honey, and even insects. The single American genus is thus tabulated : ["Terrestrial only. ) SOLES OF THE ) Ursus horribilis, G izzly Bear. URSID/E. \ Terrestrial and arboreal, f FEET NAKED ^ " amer icanii3 ' lacfc ' r ' ( SOLES OF THE ^ v. Maritime. } FEETCOVERED> " maritimus, WhiteBear. IIAIR. The Grizzly Bear, so called because of the intermixture in its fur of grayish hairs with black and brown, is the most ferocious of the North American carnivora. Its sharp, powerful claws, often five inches long, move independently of one another, and, when the animal strikes with its paws, cut like so many chisels. Its strength enables it to carry off a bison, and dig a pit in which to bury it.* Black Bear. While the Grizzly Bear is limited to the Rocky Mountain regions,, the Black Bear, under a variety of names, is distributed over North America. An expert * Such is the terror inspired by this formidable beast, tint no other animal will dare to touch a deer which it has killed and left behind ; the simple print of the bear's foot frightening away even a hungry wolf. Its tail is very short and entirely hidden beneath its fur. The Indians sometimes amuse themselves with the perplex- ity of persons who are ignorant of this fact, by requesting them to lift the carcaes of a Grizzly which they say is easily done if seized by the tail. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. Fig, 59. Ursus forribl 7, G rizzly Bear. climber, honey is its favorite food ; though its powerful claws are adapted to tearing up young shoots and succulent roots. Its mode of attack is to rear upon its back feet, and seizing its victim between its fore legs, either to suffocate it with its embrace, or disembowel it with its hind claws. In the colder Mg. GO. Ursus americanus, Black Bear 48' SUBKIKGDOM VERTEBKATA. Ursus maritimm. White Bear. latitudes it passes the winter usually in a hollow log, withfyut Fi 61 becoming insensible. The Polar Bear* is the largest member of this family. It feeds on seals, fish, and walruses, which it pursues in the water, swimming and diving with great skill. To secure firm footing on the ice, the soles of the feet are thickly covered with long hairs. It passes January and February in a lethargy, buried in the snow or hidden in the ice-rifts. Procyonidse. The Raccoon is the only representative of its family in the United States. It derives its specific name from its habit of dipping its food in the water before eating. Though its entire foot is naked, yet in walking it does not, like the bear, Fig bring its whole sole to the ground. Om- nivorous in its food, it is, according to circumstances, a fish- er, a hunter, a trapper, a reaper, or a fly- catcher, having the instinctive cunning of ^J the fox, the inquisi- tive meddlesomeness of the monkey, the greediness of the bear, and the slyness of the cat. Procyon lotor, Raccoon, or Common " Coon. * Its sense of smell being exceedingly keen, several are frequently collected about a carcass. This fact has given rise to the idea that the Pokr, unlike other Bears, is social in its nature. The ice-fields on which it lives are often detached and float off. carrying it to sea, where it has been descried by sailors a hundred miles from land. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. Fig. 63. Bassaridse. The Civet Cat * is raccoon-like in appear- ance and habits, but differs in the length and size of its banded tail, and its more arboreal life. The California miners make it a domestic pet. OtariidaD.f The Eared Seals are prin- cipally found in the Pacific Ocean. The most remarkable spe- cies is the Northern Bass&ris QM ^ Civet Cat Sea Bear, I so called from the striking resemblance of its head to that of the Fiq. ei:~ * The true Civets, Viverridae, belong to the Old World, while the Civet Cat is found in the New. t The three following families are grouped under the general name of Pinnipeds (fin-footed), or Pinnigrades (fin-walker?). t The Sea Lion (Enmetoplas stellSri) is a species of the Eared Seals with habits similar to those of the Sea Bear,. Full-grown males are often thirteen feet long and weigh nearly a ton. In the harbor of San Francisco hundreds of these animals are seen, scrambling over the steep rocks, biting and pushing off their comrades, and rolling over one another, keeping up, meanwhile, a peculiar and incessant barking, 50 SUBKItfGDOM VERTEBRATA. Ursidae. It is polygamous, families of over a hundred, with one male chief, keeping entirely separate. Each dam, in returning from a fishing excursion, will pass by thousands of others lying along the shore and bleating like sheep, till it comes to its single cub. The Sea Bear furnishes the choicest seal fur. Fig. 65. Skeleton of Seal. Phocidse. The Common Seal abounds upon the Atlantic coast. The different species vary in length from three to twenty feet and present every variety of marking and color. Mg. 66. Phoca mtuftna, Common Seal. Their eyes are large and full of intelligence,* and the animal is easily tamed. * Emerging unexpectedly from the depths of the sea, with dripping manes (which gome species possess) and uttering a feminine scream, it is not strange that the imagination has mistaken them for human beings and given rise to the legends of CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER CARNIVORA. 51 Fig. 67. Fin. 68. Rosmdrus obZsus, Walrus. Rosmaridae. The Walrus, unlike the seal, has neither lower incisors nor canines, while the upper canines project downward, sometimes two feet. By moans of these and the yacuum- forming soles of its feet, it often ascends almost perpendicular ice- herg3 a hundred feet high. It is omnivorous, feeding on shrimps, small fish, young seals, and marine vegetables, using its tusks for grub- bing up the plants on the sea-bottom. The parental affection of the dams is great, and on the first alarm they take their cubs under their fins and escape to the water.* Canine Teeth and Underjaw of Walrus. tritons, sirens, sea-nymphs, and mermaids. All the Phocidse have the singular habit of swallowing stones, as many as four pounds of sharp pebbles having been found in a single stomach, hut no satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon has been given. * The Seal and the Walrus are the subsistence of the inhabitants of the Arctic regions. The flesh furnishes food ; the fat, light and fuel ; the lining of the intestines, windows for their enow-huts; the skin, clothes, thongs and boats; the tendons supply thread and bow-strings j and the teeth, hunting implements. SUBKIKGDOM VERTEBRATA. Fig. 69. ORDER UNGULATA. General Characteristics. The distinguishing feature of this extensive order is that the toe-nails form hoofs. The Families differ in almost every other respect* Ruminant Digestion. The food of Kuminants con- sists of vegetable matter, little nutritious, and hence demanded in large quantities. As they are in turn the food of carniv- orous animals, and their only safety lies in flight, while mastication is a work of time, they fill a large stomach- reservoir by rapid grazing, re-chewing its contents in a place of security. The stomach is divided into four compartments. The food passes without mas- tication into the rumen (p) 9 next into the reticulum (b), thence back through the oesophagus (o) to the mouth, where it is masticated ; then down the oesophagus a second time into the leaflet (/), and thence into the caittette (c) or true stomach. The mechanism by which the food goes through the same orifice at the bottom of the oesophagus, at one time into the rumen and at another into the leaflet, may well create surprise. The oesophagus is continued below in a tube (c a), with a slit on the under side whose lip-like edges shut water-tight, forming a passage from the oesophagus to the leaflet. If, however, the mouth- ful of food swallowed be large and solid, as it is when first eaten, it distends the tube, and, separating the edges of the slit, falls into the first stomach ; but if it be soft and pulpy, as it is after being re-chewed, it does not force apart the edges Stomach of a Ruminant. * Those having the number of toes even are styled Artiodactyls, and odd, Perisso dactyls. The Artiodactyls that chew the cud are termed Ruminants. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER U^GULATA. 53 of the slit, and so reaches the third stomach. Here it under- goes further preparation and passes directly into the fourth stomach, where the actual process of digestion is carried on. The mechanism for conveying the unchewed mass in the first stomach back into the mouth also depends upon the lip-like tube. The contraction of the walls of the rumen forces portions of the food into the reticulum; in turn, the contraction of its walls crowds a part against the outside of the lips, which, opening, pinch off a portion, and, compress- ing it into a ball, present it to the oesophagus, the fibres of which, contracting successively from below upward, push it forward into the mouth. The order can be tabulated into Families by a comparison of their hoofs and horns: C WITHOUT HORNS ; WITH HORNS, (WITH ONE EXCEP- TION.) * Persistent : ( By hairy skin. covered, ( By a 7iorny case. Deciduous ; Of solid bone. Camelid33, Giraffidae, Bovidae, Camel. Giraffe. Ox, etc. FOUR TOES ; Perissodactyl ; Antilocaprida?, Prong horn. Cervidae, Deer, etc. Hippopotamida?, Hippopotamus. Suidae, Hog. Dicotylidae, Peccary. < ONE TOE; . ( THREE TOES ; Equidae, Horse, etc. Rhinocerotidae, Rhinoce. os. Tapiridae, Tapir. Camelidae. Camels have two toes, united nearly to the point by the callous sole. The second stomach is used as a receptacle for water, the excess over- flowing into cells along the upper part of the first stomach, which the animal can open at will, and supply the moisture necessary for digestion. ** skeleton of a Camel. 54 SUE-KINGDOM VERTEBBATA. . 71. Mg. Foot of a Camel. Water-cells of CameTs Stymach. The Family is tabulated as follows : CAMELIDXE. - Toes 1 united ! ONE HUMP ; Camelus dromedarius, Diomedary. | Two HUMPS ; Camelus bactrianus, Bacti ian Camei to the nail. J V WITHOUT HUMP ; Auchenia llama, separated, j Llama. The Dromedary is peculiarly adapted to sterile regions. Its long neck, incisors and canines in both jaws, prehensile, cleft upper lip, and narrow cheek-bones, enable it to crop its food of thorny bushes by the way- side without retard- ing its speed; its hairy nostrils, which close intuitively, ?, protect it from in- haling the particles driven by the si- Camelusdromedanus, Dromedary, moO m ; its broad, cushioned foot prevents its sinking in the sand; its many- CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UXGULATA. 55 celled stomach enables it to go a week without drink, and the gradual absorption of its fatty hump as long without food ; its callosities on the breast and joints permit its kneel- ing to receive its load; its projecting eye, sheltered from the sun by a double lid and a bony arch, and with the sight habitually directed to the path, gives sure-footedness.* Fig. 74. Camelus bacf.rianus, Bactrian Camel. The Bactrian Camel has two humps, and is adapted to cold climates, as the dromedary is to hot. * The camel, poetically called by the Arab the "ship of the desert," constitutes his wealth. Its milk, and often its flesh, furnishes him food; its skin, leather; its hair, clothing; its excrement, fuel ; and, in an extremity, the water in its stomach will save his life. It will carry 600 and even 1000 Ibs. burden. A swift dromedary will travel 10 miles per hour for 20 hours on a stretch. Its gait has a peculiar swing- ing, jerking motion that is terribly trying to the novice. Its disposition is said to be naturally gentle, but the brutality of its drivers often renders it ugly. Thus says a traveler : Watch it when it is being loaded. See its keeper struggling frantically, and making it kneel only by sheer force, and when down, keeping it there by tying neck and fore legs together tightly. Hear it grumbling in deep, bubbling tones, with mouth savagely opened as each new burden is laid on its back. Look how it refuses to rise until a part is removed; then see it get up a great, brown mountain, still groaning and bubbling and dash to and fro, shaking off beds, furniture, and trunks in a shower. Mark it, subduecl by Hows, march through the day, occasionally biting at a passer-by, and at night kneel to have its load removed, grumbling as ever. Certainly not the picture of our ideal patient animal I 56 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBRATA. 7.75. fig. 76. Auchema llama, Llama, The Llama, the camel of the New World, is of small size, and has no humps. To adapt it to its home in the Andes, its cushioned toes are completely divided, and its nails project so as to hook downward, and give it a fearless step among the crags. Giraffidse. The Giraffe, inhabit- ing the arid regions of Africa, where herbage quickly disappears after the rainy season, is adapted by its long neck * to browse upon the branches of trees. There is an apparent difference in the length of the fore and hind legs; but the heads of the humerus and femur are on a level, and the great height of the fore-shoulder is caused Foot of Llama. * Seven the typical number of cervical vertebra for all mammals is not, however, varied from. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDEH UKGULATA. 57 by the length of the scapula and the spinous processes. As its greatest enemy is the low-crouching lion, that usually springs upon its prey from behind, its eye is so placed on the side of the head, that it can see backward as well as forward ; Fig. 77. Skeleton of a Giraffe. and, as the danger is from below, while its food is above, the sensitive tufts on the tips of its skin-covered horns indicate, as it stalks among the trees, the presence of leaves overhead. It uses its short horns for defence by a sidelong sweep of the neck rather than by butting. Its chief reliance, however, is on rapid and powerful kicks sufficient to break the skull of 58 SUBKINGDOM VERTEBEATA. Mg. 78. Fig. 79. Eyes of a Giraffe. Fig. 80. Tongue of a Giraffe. Camdoparddlis giraffa, Giraffe. 5 V lion. The long tongue is prehensile, and so flexible as to be flattened and rounded like a plate, or contracted to enter a quill. In mimicry it resembles the branchless trunks among which it stalks and upon whose umbrella tops it feeds. * Bovidse. The Ox family comprises ruminants having horns and cloven feet. It may be tabulated according to the structure of the horns. * "In the case of the Giraffe, which is invariably met among venerable forests, where innumerable blasted and weather-beaten trunks occur, I have repeatedly been in doubt as to its presence, until I had recourse to my spy-glass; and on referring the case to my savage attendants 1 have known even their optics to fail, at one time mistaking these dilapidated trunks for camelopards, and again confounding real camelopards with these aged veterans of the forest." Gumming" s Adventures. CLASS MAMMALS: ORDER UNGULATA. 59 Bony axis of Horns with cells, which communicate through ths frontal sinus with the nose Horns curve OUT-WARD, I DOWNWARD, r Ovibos moschatus, Musi; Ox. THEN UPWARD. J r Bos taurus, Domestic Ox. TO THE SIDE, j Bos americanus, Bifon. THEN UPWARD OR \ Bos bubalus, Buffalo. FORWARD, IN A Bos grunniens, Yak. CRESCENT. t Bos indicus, Zebu. r Aplocerus montanus, Mountain Goat. Antilope nipicapra, Chamois. j Antilope dorcas, Gazdle. * DIVERT FORM. 1 Antilope kudu, Koodoo. J Antilope gnu, Gnu. I Antilope oryx, Gemslok. UPWARD "I AND BACKWARD ; 1 Capra aegagrus, Goat. FOREHEAD f Capra ibex, Ibex. CONCAVE. J BACKWARD THEN SPIRALLY Ovis montana, Mountain Shtf.p FORWARD ; Ovis aries, Domestic Sheep. FOREHEAD CONVEX. Bony axis of Horns without cells or pores. Horns curve The Musk Ox, so called from the flavor of its flesh, inhabits Arctic North America.* It feeds on grass and lichens. The horns widen at the base, so as entirely to cover the crown of the head. Difference be- tween Herbivora and Carnivora.f A distinguishing feature of the Ruminants is the elevation of the heel, which compels the animal to walk upon its nails (the Camelidse excepted). The Garni vora bring the entire toes to the ground, * The Esquimaux hunters will attack this irritable animal with only a knife, and turning around quicker than it can" wheel, stab it to death. t A comparison of Fig*. 27. 65, 77, 82, will show that the differences in the various parts of the skeleton are those of relative size and adaptation rather than of number. Ombos moschatus, Musk Ox. 60 SUBKIXGDOM VERTEBRATA. and being thus unable to outrun their victims, pounce upon them from concealment. The Carnivora have incisors, canines, and molars, but many of the Herbivora lack upper incisors, and all, true canines, while the surfaces of the molars are no longer trenchant, but ridged either longitudinally or transversely. The Domestic Ox evinces no trace of its origin or that of its nu- merous varieties. En- dowed by the Creator with inherent qualities adapting the genus to easy acclimation, it is everywhere found the companion of civilized man. There are in this country three noted breeds, each distinguished for peculiar excellencies. * Fig. Sit. Skeleton of a Cow. Fig. 83. Teeth of Herbivora. Short Horn. The Short Horn, or Durham, from Durham county, England, * A careful study of Fijrs. 84, 85 and 86 will clearly define the points of distinction in these varieties, and enable the student to identify each in a herd or at a Fair. CLASS MAMMALS: OEDER UNGULATA. 61 Fig. 85. is pre-eminent for beef. The Jersey, from the island of Jersey, is unrivaled for the quality, and the Ayrshire, from Ayr- shire, Scotland, for the quantity of its milk. The Bison is the only boyine, except the Musk Ox, indige- nous to America.* Originally ranging in Bos a'inericanus, Bison. * Having the distinctive hnmp on the fore-shoulders, it is a true Bison and not a Buffalo, as it is generally called. SUBKINGDOM VERT EBR ATA. mmense herds over the most of the United States, it is .ow found only on the great plain between the Mississippi nd the Eocky Mountains and is fast becoming extinct. The Id males sometimes weigh a ton, and though so cumbrous in appearance, are very swift. Their horns are used for defence, and for tear- ing up roots and fur- rowing the snow in search of food. The Buffalo in- habits the southern part of Asia, and is BOS bubdius, Bumio. distinguished by its enormous horns. Their bases are of great strength, while their length exceeds four feet, with tips five feet apart. In order to use even the tamest Buffalo, a ring is put in its nose. The traveler over the Campagna of Rome often sees these wild-looking animals employed in agricultural labor. Fig. 89. Bos grunmens, Yak.