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 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
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 SOUTHERN BRANCH, 
 
 UNIVERSITY W CALIFORNIA, 
 
 LIBRARY, 
 
 ANOELES, CALIF.
 
 THE PEDAGOGY OF 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING
 
 THE PEDAGOGY 
 
 OF 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE 
 TO FORMAL EXERCISES 
 
 y BY 
 
 CT WARD CRAMPTON, M.D. 
 
 FORMERLY DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND 
 
 SECRETARY OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS ATHLETIC LEAGUE 
 
 OF NEW YORK CITY 
 
 Sometime Director, Dartmouth and New York University Summer Schools of Physical Educa- 
 tion; Dean, Battle Creek Normal School of Physical Education. 
 
 Winner of the Gold Medal of the Olympic Games, 1906, with the thesis "Recent Advances in 
 the Sciences Underlying Physical Training"; Author of The Folk Dance, Book; Editor of 
 The Cram]>ton Ilyijiene Scries, etc.; Chairman, Committee on Physical Education, National 
 Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teachers' Associations; Director, Medical Exercise Clinic, 
 Post-Graduate Medical School and Hospital, New York. 
 
 Honorary Member of the National Council of Boy Scouts of America.
 
 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1922, 
 BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1922 
 
 Press of 
 
 J. J. Little & Jves Company 
 New York, U. S. A.
 
 "Therefore 
 
 Glorify God in your body 
 And in your spirit."
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This book is designed to give help to those who wish to 
 teach physical training. It is especially adapted to the 
 needs of normal school students, college students special- 
 izing in physical training, and grade teachers who desire 
 to equip themselves in the teaching of this subject. 
 
 It is the result of twenty-five years of the teaching, 
 study, and direction of physical training. 
 
 Practically all its subject matter has been presented in 
 lectures and addresses to the writer's students at Dart- 
 mouth College, New York University, the University of 
 Southern California, and the New York and the Battle 
 Creek Normal Schools of Physical Education. These lec- 
 tures have been repeated by the writer's students and as- 
 sistants and in turn set forth by their students in an ever- 
 widening circle. 
 
 Space has necessarily limited this volume to formal ex- 
 ercise, as the consideration of the various forms of recre- 
 ation and their appropriate methods of teaching is a large 
 subject. No one, the writer trusts, will judge from this 
 fact that he considers formal exercise more important 
 than informal exercise. Such is not the case.
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 Throughout the volume there are many features which 
 are new. Some of these are fundamental, such as the 
 ptosis theory of posture with its static exercises, eleva- 
 tion cues, method of rating, and the like; and the day's 
 order or lesson plan. Other items such as the division of 
 introductory work and formation of commands are devel- 
 oped from long-established procedure and are formulated 
 in a new way. 
 
 The writer's experience in the City of New York, in in- 
 troducing a new system of physical training to be taught 
 by twenty-two thousand classroom teachers under the 
 supervision of less than twoscore assistants, has borne in 
 upon him, with convincing force, the fact that teachers 
 must be given methods of work exceedingly simple, mani- 
 festly productive of result, and honestly, completely, and 
 powerfully true. 
 
 Whatever has been presented, it is the author's hope 
 that it may be of service, that nothing shall be accepted 
 upon authority, that everything shall be put to the test 
 of use. It is also his earnest wish that students and teach- 
 ers of this subject should always be students, able to dis- 
 cover such faults and errors as may exist and to remedy 
 them, and moreover that they shall be stimulated to de- 
 velop new and ever better methods for future needs. 
 
 While reserving full responsibility for all that is in this
 
 PREFACE ix 
 
 volume, the author gratefully acknowledges the inspira- 
 tion given him by his associates in physical training and 
 by those in education and medicine whose leadership he 
 has been glad to acknowledge.
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 During the last twenty years there has been a growing 
 unanimity of ideals in physical training. Leaders in edu- 
 cation, medicine, and physical training have increasingly 
 perceived the same vision of common human needs and 
 in seeking to meet them have come closer to each other. 
 There has been less thought and energy given to the de- 
 fense of preexisting systems or methods and more to the 
 meeting of actual situations. America is making its own 
 system. 
 
 During the war, physical training became intensely 
 pragmatic, for the need was great and immediate and no 
 theory stood unless by the proof of the most practical use. 
 There exists, however, throughout the United States, a 
 large need for sound doctrine and a still greater need for 
 simple, practical, tested, and tried methods for use in the 
 classroom and gymnasium, and on the playground and 
 athletic field. 
 
 Beginning with the State of New York, at the present 
 writing, fifteen states have passed compulsory school 
 physical training laws. Others may follow and the Fed- 
 eral government may support the movement. Scores, if
 
 xii FOREWORD 
 
 not hundreds, of normal schools have added physical 
 training to their curricula, and thousands of teachers have 
 been called to give, for the first time in their lives, in- 
 struction in the subject. 
 
 The industrial world is realizing that work is a human 
 product, that men and women who labor are living and 
 breathing, that the working process itself is motor and 
 subject to the laws of physical training, that the efficiency 
 of the worker is dependent upon his health and happi- 
 ness. To the capitalist this is of great concern, for it 
 means dollars and cents; to the laborer it is of greater 
 concern, for it means life itself. 
 
 Progressive industries throughout the United States are 
 calling for physical training in all its various forms - 
 recreation, exercise, shop hygiene, health instruction, rest 
 periods coupled with various forms of social management. 
 In the future, the workers themselves, under their own 
 direction and for their own benefit, will lead in this move- 
 ment. 
 
 It is therefore clear that there is an increasing need for 
 physical training teachers. This is well, for America has 
 had a severe lesson. Its young men have been found in 
 large proportion unfit to fight. The nation is awakened 
 to the fact that it is threatened with increasing constitu- 
 tional inferiority. This is merely an evidence of the effect
 
 FOREWORD xiii 
 
 of civilization upon the human race in which all nations 
 have shared. 
 
 The defense against this menace will be found, not in 
 staying the forward progress of civilization, but by adjust- 
 ing it better to the human race and adapting the human 
 race better to civilization. This is biological engineering; 
 a new profession, in the ranks of which physical training 
 teachers take their place. Their labor has a significance 
 of paramount importance. The profession is one of dig- 
 nity, worth, and power, and the teacher of physical train- 
 ing should not only serve it well but seek to grace it with 
 all possible personal merit. 
 
 However well grounded in correct pedagogical method 
 the teacher of physical training may be, his teaching fails 
 unless he feels the high worth of his message. His teach- 
 ing then becomes illuminated and warmed, vivid and 
 alive. The writer has endeavored not only to help his 
 colleagues forward to a perfection of method, but also to 
 strengthen comradeship in their common apostolic mission. 
 
 The profession of physical training deals with the inti- 
 mate and important things of life in a vital, personal way. 
 For the last several years, the writer has given his stu- 
 dents his motto, "Health, Happiness, and Efficiency." 
 (Some unknown genius in a recent graduating class con- 
 tracted it into the chemical formula H 2 E.) These three
 
 xiv FOREWORD 
 
 desiderata are intimately related. The first two are basal 
 to the last. Health is the prime consideration; Happi- 
 ness is at once its motive, result, and guide; Efficiency, 
 its incentive and test. The physical training teacher's 
 merchandise is therefore most precious; he dispenses gifts 
 rare and fine. In so doing, he should not fail to remem- 
 ber that example is the most convincing form of instruc- 
 tion, and that he should exemplify personally the three 
 physical training ideals.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. PHYSICAL TRAINING AS A PROFESSION .... 1 
 
 II. THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 6 
 
 III. THE LESSON PLAN 21 
 
 IV. COMMANDS 30 
 
 V. INTRODUCTORY WORK 45 
 
 VI. CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE ... 66 
 
 VII. EDUCATIONAL WORK 126 
 
 VIII. EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 152 
 
 IX. REMEMBERING 167 
 
 X. HYGIENIC WORK 183 
 
 XI. RECREATIVE WORK 211 
 
 APPENDIX I 213 
 
 APPENDIX II 232 
 
 INDEX 253 
 
 XV
 
 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL 
 TRAINING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING AS A PROFESSION 
 
 1. General Definition of Physical Training. - - Physical 
 training is the training of body and mind by motor work. 
 This broad definition includes certain forms of physical 
 training which in practice are preferably considered as 
 separate subjects, such as drawing, manual training, and 
 the like. In addition, however, the term properly in- 
 cludes certain activities directed toward the maintenance 
 and preservation of health, such as hygiene, physical ex- 
 amination, and medical inspection. It embraces physical 
 culture and physical education, which are terms of more 
 restricted significance, the former referring properly only 
 to higher physical training, the latter preferably to the 
 pedagogical phase of the subject. Folk dancing, story 
 gymnastics, games, athletics, and gymnastics are likewise 
 included under physical training. 
 
 2. Purpose of Physical Training. - - The purposes of 
 physical training are to insure good health, to increase
 
 2 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 vigor and mental and physical efficiency, and to promote 
 neuromuscular and psychomotor education. 
 
 The tendency of civilization in its daily occupations is 
 more and more away from motor work. The individual 
 must perforce adapt himself to his age and to the condi- 
 tions of his environment, and must often in following his 
 profession or calling live an inactive life. For this reason, 
 physical training in the schools is constantly increasing in 
 importance, since it affords a means of establishing a 
 sound physical foundation and an opportunity for teach- 
 ing the importance of health in its relation to life, as well 
 as an opportunity for giving instruction as to how health 
 may best be conserved. Through repeated exercises care- 
 fully selected, the body is built up and developed and is 
 taught to accustom itself to energetic, effective, econom- 
 ical movement. 
 
 Organic development does not achieve this result 
 alone. Alertness and inhibition, two of the major aims 
 of physical training, are mental and not muscular quali- 
 ties. Accuracy is both mental and physical. Toward 
 the development of these important attributes much 
 of the work upon the body is directed. Indirectly 
 through its effects and directly in its recreative aspects, 
 physical training adds to the stock of human sanity 
 and of human happiness.
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING AS A PROFESSION 3 
 
 3. The Teaching of Physical Training. As a profes- 
 sion, physical training is at once one of the most attrac- 
 tive and most exhausting of those branches of education in 
 which the opportunities for service continually tempt the 
 teacher to excessive labor. It is also one of the most use- 
 ful and dignified branches. 
 
 Dealing as it does with the health and vigor of the 
 human race, it has assumed a responsibility in the main- 
 tenance of the very structure of civilization. Upon its 
 success depend the immediate welfare and happiness of 
 the children whom it directly affects, their efficiency and 
 bodily integrity throughout life, and the physical sound- 
 ness of generations to come. The Chinese have a saying, 
 ""If you would have your words last a century, carve 
 them upon marble; if you would have them last forever, 
 carve them upon the heart of a child." The man or 
 woman who seeks to devote a life's labor to the lasting 
 good of mankind may well choose physical training, for 
 there is no worthier work to do. 
 
 4. A Survey of the Field. - - The field for physical 
 training teachers is diverse and growing. The student 
 will find it expedient to acquaint himself with the 
 various aspects of the profession as early as possible, 
 so that he may the better direct his preparation and 
 study.
 
 4 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 In the elementary schools of the cities, supervisors go 
 from school to school to instruct class teachers. The 
 tendency is toward placing trained teachers in each 
 school. There is the greatest need of competent teachers 
 for the higher positions. In the rural districts there is 
 at present little development along physical training lines. 
 In the future, supervisors who know the special needs of 
 the country school will be required, and every teacher in 
 such schools will be expected, to know as much about 
 physical training as about any other subject. 
 
 In high schools, special teachers are needed. In both 
 country and city, thorough and comprehensive training 
 in all branches of the subject is necessary to equip such 
 teachers properly. In the country, athletics is still fre- 
 quently the only form of physical training. 
 
 There is an urgent demand in training and normal 
 schools for competent teachers who have become efficient 
 in their respective fields. 
 
 Private schools, and such special institutions as truant 
 and reform schools, schools for the crippled, blind, deaf, 
 and mentally defective, are rapidly taking up physical 
 training, and are seeking teachers of ability. 
 
 Playgrounds of all sorts winter and summer, school, 
 park, and private are increasing in number and im- 
 portance. That they fail with untrained teachers in
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING AS A PROFESSION 5 
 
 charge is now generally recognized, and the demand for 
 proper instruction is growing. 
 
 Settlements and community and social centers require 
 the service of physical training teachers, and such in- 
 structors have excellent opportunity to develop a broad 
 social leadership. 
 
 In commercial and industrial circles, vocational train- 
 ing receives much attention, and vocational teachers who 
 can also teach hygiene are much needed. Welfare depart- 
 ments are organized in many industrial plants. In these, 
 physical training, hygiene, and recreation are important 
 factors, and the teacher with good training, who is im- 
 bued with the spirit of social service, has opportunity for 
 gratifying advancement. 
 
 In short, no good teacher of physical training need seek 
 long for employment, and no one who wishes to advance 
 will find greater opportunity than in this field.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 
 I. MENTAL EQUIPMENT 
 
 1. The Teacher's Ideals. - The most important item 
 in the equipment of the teacher is purpose purpose 
 founded upon a clear understanding of the high intrinsic 
 value of physical training and upon the knowledge of its 
 service to the world. With the assurance of the worth of 
 the endeavor, should come a devotion to service as a fun- 
 damental lifelong policy. The consciousness that one 
 belongs to a group of people who make better living pos- 
 sible, adds to the daily work a dignity which raises it 
 from routine and carries the teacher over times which 
 otherwise might seem dull and uninteresting. 'The man 
 or woman who does work worth doing is the man or 
 woman who lives, breathes, and sleeps that work; with 
 whom it is ever present in his or her soul; whose ambi- 
 tion is to do it well and feel rewarded by the thought of 
 having done it well. That man, that woman, puts the 
 whole country under an obligation." (John Uuskin.) 
 
 2. The Student Attitude. -- There are two kinds of 
 teachers students and laborers. The former make
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 7 
 
 physical training a profession, the latter make it merely a 
 means of livelihood. This difference in attitude causes a 
 corresponding difference in results. A teacher of the la- 
 borer type does not advance; often he fails, losing posi- 
 tion after position; often he slumbers peacefully, secure 
 in his tenure of office. Middle or old age and waning 
 physical ability unfit him to continue practical teaching, 
 and he has not fitted himself for supervisory or adminis- 
 trative work. His position is pathetic. 
 
 On the other hand, a teacher of the student type is 
 more interested in getting results and in improving his 
 methods than in watching the clock. He has a system of 
 his own, made up of what he has been taught, thoroughly 
 tested by use until it is entirely his. The student always 
 learns from his classes more than he teaches. He knows 
 that what he learns soon perishes if it is not recorded; he 
 keeps his normal school notebook alive and up-to-date 
 with constant additions; he joins societies; he takes 
 courses of lectures, reads magazines, clipping and preserv- 
 ing items of value; he experiments; he helps younger 
 teachers; he discusses his progress with others; he writes 
 reports and publishes articles; and, finally, he is called 
 
 upon to teach others how to teach. 
 
 _/ 
 This progress depends upon ability to speak well and 
 
 to write well, power to work without counting the cost
 
 8 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 or estimating the reward, interest in people and a real 
 desire to help them, and, above all, upon high ideals. 
 
 3. Preparation for the Profession. - - The teacher's edu- 
 cation, his mental training for the teaching of his subject, 
 presents various aspects and makes various demands: 
 
 a. He must be thoroughly versed in his subject. It is 
 necessary not only that the teacher know perfectly what 
 he is actually to teach, but that he should also have tech- 
 nical resources far beyond the daily need. 
 
 He may teach from a book or a syllabus, but he should 
 know the essentials of the Swedish Day's Order, German 
 drills, and other systems, and their history. Gymnastics, 
 athletics, games, folk and other dancing, and the principles 
 of hygiene are to be mastered. 
 
 In addition, the fundamental subjects of anatomy and 
 physiology call for attention. \Vith the elements, at 
 least, of these branches, the teacher should carefully fa- 
 miliarize himself. It is true that a detailed knowledge of 
 the bones, muscles, and organs is not indispensable for the 
 ordinary physical training teacher in a subordinate posi- 
 tion where the subject matter is planned for him. To 
 those who aspire to advance, more extended knowledge is 
 necessary. An understanding of medicine is invaluable; 
 for leadership, it is almost if not quite essential. 
 
 A knowledge of psychology is likewise necessary. It
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 9 
 
 provides a basis for much of the method of teaching and 
 gives an insight into the thoughts, ways, and feelings of 
 the pupils with whom the teacher has to deal. It is of 
 little use if not applied to the affairs of everyday practice. 
 The broader the interests and education of the teacher, 
 the more powerful will he be, for there is nothing in 
 human knowledge or experience that is not related to the 
 teaching of children and to the purposes of physical train- 
 ing. A college education, if well assimilated, is of incal- 
 culable value. The teacher will profit greatly if he knows 
 the nature of the subjects, other than physical training, 
 that are taught to the pupils he instructs. He then ap- 
 preciates the fact that physical training is not the only 
 subject taught in the school in which he works. 
 
 b. He must have the ability to demonstrate whatever 
 is to be taught. He should be able to do the required ex- 
 ercise with accuracy and ease, and in such a manner as 
 to inspire his pupils. He should be able to do advanced 
 gymnastics, athletics, games, dances, apparatus work, all 
 with brilliancy and elan. Nothing adds more to the 
 power of the teacher than this personal ability, the lack 
 of which is quickly discovered by his pupils. 
 
 c. He must be able to teach. Some are born with an 
 instinctive ability to teach, and some must acquire this 
 power, but all will profit by adopting teaching processes
 
 10 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 that have been carefully formulated and found to be the 
 best. By the use of such methods, the natural teacher 
 may double his efficiency and those not favored by nature 
 may make the most of their abilities. 
 
 d. He must know his school, his neighborhood, his 
 town, state, and country. He must be companionable as 
 a fellow instructor; in sympathy with the school life; a 
 good neighbor; and a well-informed, right-thinking citizen. 
 
 e . He should know how budgets are prepared and how 
 bonds may be issued to provide for the cost of new gym- 
 nasiums and playgrounds. He should also know the 
 various processes by which he may obtain supplies for 
 his work. 
 
 /. Especially he should know the local civic forces 
 which affect his work and by means of which it can be 
 advanced -- the school board, the city commission, the 
 board of aldermen, the mayor, and the various bureaus of 
 the city government. He should know the various clubs 
 and other organizations to which he may appeal for sup- 
 port in his projects. These usually include the Rotary 
 and Kiwanis Clubs, the Chamber of Commerce or Board 
 of Trade, the merchants' or manufacturers' association, 
 the city or civic clubs, and the various literary societies. 
 
 g. He should be acquainted with the various national 
 forces which can supply him with literature and advice, or
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 11 
 
 which he can summon to his aid; such as, the American 
 Physical Education Association and its various branches, 
 the Children's Bureau, the Public Health Service of the 
 United States, the Playground and Recreation Associa- 
 tion of America and its Community Service, the National 
 Education Association, the School Hygiene Association, 
 the Russell Sage Foundation, the National Child Wel- 
 fare Association, and many others of importance. 
 
 4. The Teacher's English. - - It is most important that 
 the teacher use correct and pleasing English at all times. 
 Unconscious errors in grammar are common. If the 
 friendly criticism of a fellow worker can be obtained, or if 
 attention is given to this difficulty by instructors of 
 teachers in training, these handicaps may be recognized 
 and remedied. 
 
 The teacher should know just what he is going to say 
 before he begins to speak. He should make all state- 
 ments concise and should use short Anglo-Saxon words in 
 preference to long, high-sounding derivatives. "Concise" 
 and "terse" are excellent watchwords, ever to be kept in 
 mind until speech becomes habitually compact and ex- 
 plicit. 
 
 Pronunciation and accent will need correction, if faulty; 
 and all speech defects, such as lisping, ought to be elimi- 
 nated. Every word spoken in or out of the gymnasium
 
 12 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 should be enunciated clearly, and each consonant given 
 proper value. 
 
 Each utterance should be crisp; and this word crisp 
 ma3 T well be practiced frequently to give freedom and mo- 
 bility to the lips. It also helps one to think crisply. 
 
 II. PHYSICAL EQUIPMENT 
 
 1. Physical and Medical Examination. - - A high pur- 
 pose without a sound physical equipment to sustain it 
 has often led to disaster. One who plans to enter a teach- 
 er's course in physical training should undergo a thorough 
 and complete physical and medical examination by a com- 
 petent physician. It is imperative that any defect of eyes, 
 ears, nose, teeth, throat, heart, lungs, kidneys, generative 
 organs, feet, bone, or muscle be known and corrected. No 
 one should be admitted to a physical training normal 
 school without a detailed and complete medical certificate, 
 and a corresponding certificate from a dentist. If a seri- 
 ous irremediable defect is present, another field should be 
 sought ; if the defect can be corrected there is no reason 
 why the prospective teacher should not remove the handi- 
 cap. 
 
 2. Maintenance of Health. -- Dealing with the health 
 of others, the teacher is prone to neglect his own. "Shoe- 
 maker's children go without shoes." Nothing is more
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 13 
 
 necessary for the teacher than persistently to follow his 
 own advice and adopt health as a personal fad. He 
 should be an ever-present example for his pupils. A daily 
 hygienic routine may well be established in accordance 
 with the standard practice in instruction in hygiene. The 
 following offers a good start for the day. 
 
 a. Arise at a certain fixed time, with absolutely no ex- 
 ceptions. This is excellent moral training and gives ample 
 time to prepare properly for the day's work. 
 
 6. Exercise. Neck and abdominal muscles. 
 
 Twenty deep trunk bendings right and left, forward and back. 
 Twenty deep neck flexions and extensions. 
 Twenty trunk twistings right and left, swinging arms. 
 Forty alternate knee raisings, with clenched fist massaging the ab- 
 domen. 
 
 One minute good posture elevation exercises and breathing. 
 Twenty deep knee bendings. 
 
 c. Bathe. Warm water should be used, with a cold 
 splash over the neck or a full cool shower. Brush teeth 
 and massage gums with toothbrush for two minutes. 
 
 d. Dress with care and make a thorough inspection in 
 answer to the mental query, "Am I a good example for 
 my pupils to follow?" 
 
 3. Walking as an Aid to Health. - - If the teacher 
 would keep his health under the strain of teaching, he
 
 14 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 will do well to walk three miles every day, with high 
 head, deep breathing, springy step, and with some friend 
 to accompany him. He should take this daily walk 
 whether he likes it or not. The first mile is the hardest, 
 and the last is of most value. He will look back from 
 after life with a deep thankfulness that he had common 
 sense enough to persist. 
 
 4. General Health Measures. - - Fresh air, deep 
 breathing, careful eating, proper adjustment of work and 
 rest, and intelligent recreation should all be the peculiar 
 care of the teacher as applied to himself. He must have 
 courage enough to practice what he preaches. 
 
 III. PERSONALITY 
 
 1. Personality Defined. - - Personality is the sum of the 
 external signs of the personal qualities. Health, culture, 
 breeding, power, and efficiency reveal themselves; and the 
 teacher is quickly and instinctively judged by impres- 
 sions consciously or unconsciously given and received. 
 The small muscles of the face normally register every 
 mental state and gradually become telltales of mental 
 habits. Power, weakness, worry, indecision, honesty, 
 slyness, earnestness, distress, all make their marks, and 
 these are easily read. Conscientious effort should be 
 made to throw aside all disagreeable mental attitudes
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 15 
 
 and to replace them with qualities of cheerfulness, enthu- 
 siasm, and kindliness. Those who engage physical train- 
 ing teachers know the importance of the unconscious 
 influence of the teacher on the class, and look for signs of 
 good and bad qualities. The best way to prepare to pass 
 such an examination is to seek to possess the desired qualities. 
 
 2. The Habit of Happiness. -- Happiness has a great 
 biological significance. The habit of happiness is of great 
 value to the teacher, and he will do well to seek it delib- 
 erately and consistently. "Smile even if it hurts," "iron- 
 clad optimism," and "assume a virtue if you have it 
 not," are phrases of practical usefulness. One may at 
 least have the appearance of being happy. He may begin 
 every day with a determination that it will be a good 
 day; he may say to himself, "My work will be a pleas- 
 ure, for I am strong and able. I will enjoy it all, for it 
 will profit both the world and me." Such effort brings 
 immeasurable reward. Happiness works in many ways. 
 It is contagious, and makes others happier. Everyone 
 approves of happy people. The pupils like the teacher; 
 they will do things to please him, and thus his efficiency 
 is directly increased. And, finally, the teacher's efforts 
 react upon himself and do him good. 
 
 3. Tact and Diplomacy. - - Tact is more valuable than 
 genius, for those who possess it make the most of their
 
 16 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ability. In essence it is merely habitual and systematic 
 consideration for others. Some people are naturally sym- 
 pathetic and kind, but others must cultivate those qual- 
 ities. It is better to be gracious than to be smart, and a 
 teacher should never be "clever" at the expense of his 
 pupils. A nagging teacher is neither inspiring nor effec- 
 tive. Training for diplomacy, for the ability to get along 
 with coworkers and pupils, is just as important as train- 
 ing for any other professional quality. The teacher must 
 usually begin his work in a minor position, and he will 
 find it good training as well as immediately useful to be 
 on good terms with his fellow teachers, with the princi- 
 pal, and also with the janitor. This is easier if he realizes 
 that other people are just as human as he, and if he 
 honestly tries to understand and to cooperate with those 
 with whom he must work. 
 
 4. Popularity an Asset. - - A popular teacher can do 
 more for his pupils than can one who is not popular. It 
 is worth while for everyone to examine himself in this 
 respect, and if he finds himself wanting, to court the frank 
 advice of his associates. This is especially valuable prac- 
 tice if one desires to eliminate mannerisms, which can sel- 
 dom be discovered otherwise and which often militate 
 against success. Much depends upon the way in which 
 the teacher impresses his pupils.
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 17 
 
 Attractiveness is not enough; far more effective are a 
 spirit of helpfulness, fairness, and long patience, and an 
 honest personal interest in the pupils and their work. 
 
 5. The Teacher's Manner. - - The teacher needs poise. 
 His manner should show confidence and repose, both of 
 which are attainable attributes. Ability and thorough 
 preparation will lead to confidence. Undue modesty is a 
 fault; the teacher should not hold himself cheaply but 
 should honor his own estimate of his work and worth. 
 On the other hand, overconfidence and bluffing are signs 
 of ignorance and laziness, and invariably cause a preju- 
 dice against the person who exhibits them. Repose is the 
 sign of latent power. Ease of manner is an indication of 
 repose and is worthy of sincere cultivation. Frequently 
 a lack of ease is due to shyness and inexperience and 
 manifests itself in self-consciousness and embarrassment. 
 If the teacher can divest his mind and muscles of all un- 
 necessary tension and can center his interest and his thoughts 
 not upon himself but upon the class and the lesson, his 
 self-consciousness and awkwardness will vanish and he will 
 have made a long stride toward the achievement of repose. 
 
 6. Alertness. -- Alertness is readiness for action. It is 
 a mental rather than a physical state. It is one of the 
 important physical training results, and one which the 
 teacher should constantly exhibit. When with the class, he
 
 18 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 should see everything, and be brisk and purposeful in 
 action. Overalertness is nervous tension without ease, and 
 is a sign of lack of power or of inadequate preparation. 
 
 7. Inhibition. - The ability to withhold from action 
 until the proper time is another important physical train- 
 ing result. The teacher should school himself to refrain 
 from premature word and act. In conference he should 
 not answer a question before it is fully stated. In teach- 
 ing and in disciplining a class or pupil, he should con- 
 sider the end of the matter before he begins. Inhibition 
 is one of the high mental qualities; it is not found in the 
 brute. Without it, and its correlative, patience, the 
 teacher will be in continual difficulties of his own making. 
 
 8. The Teacher's Posture. Good posture is a sign of 
 vigor and an aid to health. Buoyancy of carriage, with- 
 out strain and without conscious posing, is an essential of 
 attractive personality. Grace of bearing tends toward 
 energy and accuracy. The teacher w r ho does not exhibit 
 it continually before the class defeats his own purpose, 
 and no person not in habitually good posture should be 
 engaged to teach physical training. It is important that 
 the normal student study carefully and apply to himself 
 personally the instruction he gives in good posture. All 
 posture defects should be discovered and corrected before 
 he enters the teaching profession.
 
 THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TEACHER 19 
 
 9. The Use of the Voice. A course in voice training 
 is an advisable precaution, for the voice is continually 
 used, and strain often results. There are two essentials, 
 power and placing. Power may be obtained by always 
 having good posture, with a high chest, and always tak- 
 ing a full breath before speaking. Correct tone placing 
 may be achieved only by practice. The voice is correctly 
 used if there is a feeling that the tone is "located in front 
 of the brow," and that it travels far and lightly without 
 forcing. 
 
 A feeling that the tone comes from the throat is an in- 
 dication of error. Practice may begin by the use of 
 "m-m-m" on the pitch of middle G, softly, with the lips 
 lightly closed. It may continue by the opening of the lips 
 and the using of gymnastic commands, with varying of 
 the pitch and increasing of the power of the tone. 
 
 10. Importance of Cleanliness. - The sense of personal 
 cleanliness that comes from scrupulous daily care of the 
 body is almost a moral quality. The daily bath, with 
 stimulation of the circulation of the skin by cold water 
 and rough rubbing, produces a feeling of health and 
 power. This is of value in itself as a foundation for hap- 
 piness, and it is in addition a sign of real excellence of con- 
 dition. Women teachers should have the hair simply 
 arranged and properly confined. It is the teacher's duty
 
 20 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 not only to be clean, but to look clean, to give a positive 
 impression of being "spick-and-span." 
 
 11. Clothing. Clothing is an extension of personality. 
 The face and hands alone are seen; the balance of the 
 personal presentation is clothes. They belong to us; they 
 enter into our appearance and express our characteristics. 
 The teacher's clothing should be clean, unrumpled, in 
 strict order, and properly secured. Clothes ought always 
 to be durable, appropriate to the occasion, comfortable, 
 and becoming in color and style. 
 
 Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, 
 But not expressed in fancy. 
 
 The teacher should take pride in his appearance. In ad- 
 dition to his morning inspection, he should look himself 
 over carefully before going upon the gymnasium floor. 
 It is not a good thing for pupils to see defects in the 
 teacher's appearance. 
 
 12. The Force of Example. - - We remember our teach- 
 ers when we have forgotten their instruction. "Like 
 teacher like class" is an old and true saying. The great 
 physical training results are Health, Happiness, and Effi- 
 ciency. To teach them the teacher should possess them 
 all and exemplify them always, for the force of example 
 is stronger than that of teaching.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE LESSON PLAN 
 
 1. Historical. -- During the course of my teaching at 
 the High School of Commerce in New York City in 1902, 
 I became dissatisfied with the existing systems and meth- 
 ods in physical training and discouraged w r ith what 
 seemed to me much indefiniteness and inutility. 
 
 I set out to determine first the definite results I really 
 wished most to obtain by my instruction, to classify 
 these, and to determine their worth; next, to ascertain 
 by what exercise and methods of instruction these ends 
 could best be met. I recommend to every teacher that 
 he engage in a similar search for himself. 
 
 Pursuing this course I devised the plan given in this 
 chapter and put it into daily operation, testing it by prac- 
 tice and by applying it to varied conditions. 
 
 I presented it in the presidential address before the 
 Physical Education Society of New York and Vicinity in 
 1905, and later at Boston I again presented it, more de- 
 veloped in form, in a presidential address before the Pub- 
 lic School Physical Education Society. In 1913, I pre- 
 sented it to the physical training teachers of the New
 
 22 
 
 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 York City High Schools, and it was adopted for general 
 use. Later the elementary schools also adopted it. 
 
 This system or method or plan, as it has been variously 
 called, has for its chief merit concise, clear definiteness - 
 a quality much to be desired when physical training is so 
 rapidly spreading and must need frequently be taught by 
 those who lack complete training in the subject. 
 
 It provides for the novice an outline for the intelligent 
 direction of his efforts and for the expert a foundation 
 upon which he may erect his own superstructure. 
 
 So far as I can see, the only bad effect that can come 
 from its use will be that its very simplicity may rob the 
 teacher of a stimulus to do his own thinking. 
 
 2. Typical Lesson Plan. - 
 
 Introductory 
 
 Corrective Good posture 
 
 Floor formation, Military 
 mental and 
 physical prep- 
 aration for the 
 lesson 
 
 1. Static 
 
 2. Rhythmic 
 
 3. Slow move- 
 
 ments 
 
 Method 
 
 Response com- 
 mands 
 
 Response com- 
 mands 
 
 Elevation cues 
 
 Sustained con- 
 traction 
 
 Rhythmic com- 
 mands
 
 THE LESSON PLAN 
 
 Educational 
 
 Hygienic 
 
 Recreative 
 
 Assembly 
 
 Purpose Content 
 
 Neuromuscular Gymnastics em- 
 and psychomo- phasizing ac- 
 tor education, curacy 
 inhibition, pre- 
 cision, alert- 
 ness 
 
 Organic stimula- Rhythmic exer- 
 tion, develop- cises of trunk, 
 leg, and back, 
 rapid and 
 heavy 
 
 Natural exercises; 
 i.e., athletics, 
 
 ment of ab- 
 dominal mus- 
 cles. 
 
 Happiness 
 
 Knowledge of ex- 
 ercises 
 
 Natural, educa- 
 tional, and hy- 
 gienic results 
 
 Control and Military 
 quiet 
 
 games, dances 
 
 Method 
 
 Response com- 
 mands 
 
 Rhythmic serial 
 commands 
 
 Rhythmic, music 
 or no com- 
 mands 
 
 Response com- 
 mands 
 
 3. The Principles of the Lesson Plan. Physical train- 
 ing has two major aims health and motor education. 
 In this system all physical training procedure has been 
 classified according to the purpose and function of the 
 movements, and each form appears in proper place and 
 sequence in a typical lesson. 
 
 The formation of the lesson plan is peculiar to this
 
 24 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 system, and is based upon the following principles: 
 (a) consideration of the function and result of exercise, 
 rather than its form; (b) concentration upon the major 
 physical training results; (c) the selection of only the 
 
 I . Cor. 
 
 Ed. 
 
 nyg. 
 
 Rec. 
 
 A. 
 
 AMPLITUDE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL WORK ix A TYPICAL LESSON 
 
 best exercises for accomplishing these results; and (d) the 
 grouping together of exercises of similar purpose. 
 
 4. The Functional Basis. - - It is our duty to develop 
 men, women, and children rather than to teach exercises. 
 It is better to center our attention upon their needs and 
 the methods of meeting them than to progress systemat-
 
 THE LESSON PLAN 
 
 ically from simplicity to complexity in the form of exer- 
 cise. This system is therefore based upon function and 
 the lesson plan exhibits the purposes rather than the mere 
 structural forms of exercises. 
 
 Cor. 
 
 Ed. 
 
 Rcc. 
 
 INTENSITY OF MENTAL WORK IN* A TYPICAL LKSSOX 
 
 5. The Different Results of Exercises. - - Exercises dif- 
 fer from one another in the results they produce. Static 
 exercises (those in which the position is held), which are 
 excellent for the improvement of poor posture, are largely 
 useless for any hygienic purpose which demands rhythmic 
 contraction of large muscles. Movements of a precise
 
 26 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 nature, which are excellent for training in inhibition and 
 accuracy of position, may be similarly ineffective for 
 either hygienic or corrective purposes, and of no value 
 whatever as recreation. Therefore care should be taken 
 to select exercises the results of which will answer the spe- 
 cifically desired purpose. 
 
 6. Concentration in Choice of Exercises. -- If but one 
 result is expected from an exercise, the choice may be 
 made without compromise. Hitherto an endeavor has 
 been made to make one exercise serve all these formal 
 purposes corrective, educational, and hygienic and 
 consequently no one purpose was best served. With but 
 one object in view, only the best for each purpose need 
 be selected; thus efficiency is combined with economy. 
 
 7. Concentration in Method. - - Different methods of 
 teaching and command are appropriate to different exer- 
 cises and different purposes. Hygienic results cannot be 
 obtained in fullest measure by the use of response com- 
 mands, nor can inhibition or static position be obtained 
 from the use of rhythmic commands. 
 
 Thus the selection of exercises is made more exact, the 
 movements become more appropriate to their purpose, 
 and the methods of teaching more definite and effective 
 by applying the principle of concentration. We may cen- 
 ter our attention on one thing at a time, to obtain one re-
 
 THE LESSON PLAN 27 
 
 suit, and pass with the impetus of success to the work 
 next at hand. 
 
 8. Concentration hi Purpose. -- Under the present plan, 
 teacher and pupils seek one result at a time. They fail if 
 required to seek several. Few teachers, much less pupils, 
 can keep all three formal purposes, corrective, educational, 
 and hygienic, in mind while teaching. Most teach- 
 ers and pupils do not know definitely why they are exer- 
 cising. When an exercise has but one and only one 
 purpose, the teacher can bend every effort toward one 
 end, obtain the result, and pass to the next task. 
 
 Under these conditions the pupils may easily under- 
 stand the reason for the exercise, and interest and enthu- 
 siasm may be aroused. The following quotation from Sir 
 James Fitch states the point: "Let the scholars see what 
 you are aiming at and catch something of your interest 
 and enthusiasm. He who expects children to master with 
 any earnestness details of which they do not see the pur- 
 pose, is asking them to make bricks without straw, and 
 will certainly be disappointed." This applies with even 
 greater force to adults. 
 
 In the past, physical training has been largely esoteric. 
 Its meaning, except in a most general sense, was hidden 
 as if it were beyond the comprehension of the ordinary 
 mind. It is our purpose on the contrary to give to every
 
 28 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 superintendent, teacher, and pupil a clear objective, and 
 a simple, intelligible, practical process which will honestly 
 and efficiently produce results so that each one may dem- 
 onstrate for himself that he is making progress in things 
 that are worth while to child, pedagogue, and biological 
 engineer alike. 
 
 All physical training procedures should be subjected to 
 this rigid test. It is not too severe when we are dealing 
 with human lives. 
 
 9. The Sequence of the Lesson Plan. - - The sequence 
 of the groups of exercises in the lesson plan is based upon 
 administrative, psychological, and physiological consider- 
 ations. Introductory exercises come first to arrange the 
 class, to obtain attention, and to prepare the organic and 
 muscular systems for hard work. 
 
 Corrective exercises follow to emphasize good posture 
 early in the lesson, to favor good blood distribution by 
 increased thoracic aspiration, and to continue the mental 
 and physical preparation for harder work. Educational 
 exercises are taken next to train in movements used later 
 and to increase gradually the vasopulmonary and mus- 
 cular work. Hygienic exercises follow and furnish the 
 maximum organic work- "real exercise" as the term is 
 generally understood. Recreative exercises end the lesson, 
 completely clearing away the formal attention strain and
 
 THE LESSON PLAN 
 
 putting into natural practice the organic and muscular 
 complex. For administrative purposes, the lesson is 
 closed by a call to strict attention. 
 
 This is the classic form of the lesson and while the se- 
 quence should be preserved under ordinary conditions it 
 
 Athletic or Game Period 
 
 "Breaking In" a Class 
 
 1st Year El. School 
 
 Standard 
 
 Time i 
 
 (Minutes of Lesson) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. Co 
 
 r 
 
 
 R 
 
 ;cr ez 
 
 tlon 
 
 ll 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 
 Corre( 
 
 live 
 
 
 Ecluca 
 
 tional 
 
 H 
 
 YS- A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Cor) E 
 
 "1 
 
 
 Hyg- 
 
 ^eerea 
 
 tlve 
 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 ^or 
 
 E 
 
 1 
 
 Hj 
 
 S- 
 
 I 
 
 lee. 
 
 A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 
 
 TYPICAL VARIATIONS IN THE LESSON PLAN 
 
 may and should be varied indefinitely. Athletic periods, 
 game and play periods, and dancing lessons should follow 
 the principles underlying it, with the necessary adaptation 
 to immediate purpose. 
 
 The principle of seeking one result at a time should 
 never be violated.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 COMMANDS 
 
 1. The Gymnastic Command. - The gymnastic com- 
 mand is the means of giving information to the class. It 
 tells what is to be done and how it should be done. It 
 includes a description of an exercise and an order to per- 
 form the movement described. 
 
 2. Purpose of Commands. -- It must be remembered 
 that commands are used merely for the purpose of getting 
 the exercise done; and it is exceptionally important for 
 the teacher to realize that they are only a means of get- 
 ting the results of an exercise and that it is upon these re- 
 sults that the whole attention of the class and teacher 
 should be centered. Careful attention should be given to 
 the formation of the command, and the functions of its 
 various parts should be understood. 
 
 3. Forms of Commands. - - There are two major forms 
 of commands: the response command and the rhythmic 
 command. 
 
 I. THE RESPONSE COMMAND 
 
 1. Purpose of the Response Command. - - The response 
 command is used where a single movement is to result. 
 
 30
 
 COMMANDS 31 
 
 This movement terminates in a position which is held 
 until the next command is given; thus, position rather 
 than movement is emphasized. They are used in the in- 
 troductory, corrective, and educational sections of the les- 
 son and elsewhere when alertness, accuracy, and inhibi- 
 tion are desired. Examples of the response command are: 
 
 1 . Hands on hips PLACE ! 
 
 2. Stretching arms forward ONE ! 
 
 2. Parts of the Response Command. - The response 
 command has three elements: the preparatory part, the 
 pause, and the executive part. 
 
 3. Preparatory Part. - - The purpose of the preparatory 
 part is to give complete information quickly, clearly, and 
 concisely, as to what is required of the pupil. As a rule it 
 contains three parts in the following order: a statement 
 of (1) the movement to be done, (2) the part to be moved, 
 and (3) the direction of the movement or the place where 
 it terminates. For example: Placing right foot for- 
 ward. 
 
 The following rules apply to its formation: 
 a. The preparatory part should contain complete informa- 
 tion. It is important that nothing should be left out, and 
 that nothing should be left to chance. A typical violation 
 of this rule is the command, Arms forward STRETCH! 
 which should be Stretching arms forward ONE !
 
 32 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 A clear and complete picture must be formed in the 
 mind of the pupil. If the exercise is new, the preparatory 
 part of the command may be expanded into a description, 
 and, if necessary, supported by a demonstration by the 
 teacher. In this case, the preparatory command may be 
 given again in concise form when the description is ended. 
 The greatest care should be taken to make sure that the 
 pupils understand exactly what is required of them, as 
 many teachers fail to get accurate and vigorous results 
 through lack of such care. 
 
 When the pupils know what is to be done, the com- 
 mand alone is sufficient; when the exercise is well known 
 its title need be given only at the beginning, and each 
 successive movement is taken in response to an executive 
 command in numeral form, thus: Hands to toes, trunk 
 erect, hands on shoulders, arms upward ONE! TWO! 
 THREE! FOUR! ONE! etc. 
 
 b. Xothing should be left to the executive part of the com- 
 mand except the signal to more. This rule is the correlative 
 of Rule a. The executive part may, it is true, repeat an 
 essential part of the preparatory command, as in Stretch- 
 ing arms forward STRETCH! or it may be a numeral, 
 as in Stretching arms forward - ONE! 
 
 The following commands illustrate this rule: Facing 
 right -- FACE! instead of Right -- FACE! when the com-
 
 COMMANDS 33 
 
 mand Right does not fully describe what is to be done. 
 It might be Right -- DRESS! In ordinary practice, how- 
 ever, it is not necessary to use the word Facing or Dress- 
 ing in a preparatory command, if the teacher is sure the 
 pupils know exactly what to do. 
 
 The teacher should leave out of the preparatory com- 
 mand everything that is not necessary but nothing that 
 is essential. 
 
 c. There is to be nothing in the preparatory part which 
 can possibly be construed as a signal to move. For example, 
 A?'ms forward stretch ONE ! is wrong, while Stretching 
 arms forward ONE ! is correct, for stretch may be con- 
 strued as a signal to move. In following this rule the 
 teacher should not use the imperative form of the verb. 
 The verbal noun (the gerund form ending in -ing) is 
 better and should be placed foremost. Thus Arms 
 forward stretching should give place to Stretching arms 
 forward. 
 
 4. The Pause. -- The pause has three functions: 
 
 a. To give time for the mind to sense the preparatory 
 part, to assimilate it, and to make a mental picture of 
 the movement desired. 
 
 A sufficiently long pause thus supports the function of 
 the preparatory part, permitting the formation of a com- 
 plete mental image of the movement. Unless enough
 
 34 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 time is given for this, some pupils will be taken unawares 
 and will render a faulty, hesitating, inaccurate result. 
 
 b. To give time to adjust the nervous and muscular 
 mechanisms to the expected movement. During the 
 pause, the nervous system and the muscles must have 
 time to adjust themselves to begin the expected move- 
 ment when the executive command is given. 
 
 c. To train in inhibition. Inhibition is the ability to 
 withhold from action until the proper time. This ability 
 increases from infancy to maturity, from savagery to 
 higher civilization, and from the lowest animal forms to 
 the highest. Its development is one of the greatest 
 educational functions of physical training, and will 
 be more fully considered in the chapter on Educational 
 Work. 
 
 5. Length of Pause. - Thus it will be seen that the 
 pause in the response command has great importance. A 
 common fault of teachers of Physical Training is neglect 
 to make this pause sufficiently long. This very fault is in 
 itself evidence of lack of inhibition, and is caused by a de- 
 sire to get work done rapidly. Nothing will more cer- 
 tainly prevent accuracy and vigor in movement than a 
 disregard of the proper length of the pause, or in other 
 words, "rushing the command." To obtain the habit of 
 making the pause sufficient, the teacher may take a
 
 COMMANDS 35 
 
 breath before giving the executive command. This will 
 also add the desired force and power to the latter. 
 
 6. Variation of Pause. --In a series of response com- 
 mands, the pause should be slightly varied. If the com- 
 mands for a series are given in such a way that the pupils 
 know exactly when the successive signals to move will 
 occur, they will not wait for the signals but will move 
 when they expect the command to be given. This re- 
 lieves them of the necessity for alertness and destroys 
 training in inhibition. It results in pseudorhythmical 
 work over which the teacher has lost control. If this con- 
 dition is threatened, the teacher should unexpectedly stop 
 and "catch" those who are not waiting for the command. 
 This variation may be exemplified as follows: 
 
 ONE ! - - TWO ! THREE ! - - FOUR ! 
 
 ONE ! TWO ! - - THREE ! - - FOUR ! 
 
 ONE ! - - TWO ! - - TH REE ! - FOUR ! 
 There is an important exception to this rule in the fac- 
 ing in introductory work. Here successive commands for 
 simple facing are given for the purpose of establishing a 
 rhythm. This method is useful whenever the class has for 
 any reason lost its coherence and needs to be synchron- 
 ized. 
 
 7. Varying the Sequence. - - Instead of giving the com- 
 mands in their usual sequence 1 2 3 -- 4, the teacher,
 
 36 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 seeking to catch the pupils unawares, may vary the se- 
 quence as follows: 1 3 2 --4 2 1 3 3 --4 - 
 2--l--etc. The exercise then becomes a game; inter- 
 est and alertness increase, but at the sacrifice of continu- 
 ity. For this reason this is appropriate only for occasional 
 use; never as a routine method. 
 
 8. The Executive Part. - - The executive part of the 
 command is the signal to move. Numbers or words de- 
 scribing the movement such as PLACE! BEND! 
 STRETCH! ONE! TWO! THREE! etc. may be 
 used. 
 
 When the movement is done and the desired position 
 obtained, the teacher should correct those w r ho have 
 not taken it accurately and speed up those who are 
 slow. 
 
 The executive part of the command should indicate the 
 manner in which the movement is to be done. A quick 
 movement is usually desired, and as a rule the command 
 should have the qualities of the pistol shot that starts the 
 sprinters from their mark. A slow controlled movement 
 may be obtained by slowly drawing out the executive 
 command, for example: 
 
 S T R--E T C -H! 
 
 There is an important exception to the rule that all 
 necessary information should be given in the preparatory
 
 COMMANDS 37 
 
 part. This is "Response to Unknown Signals," and oc- 
 curs in educational work. The command is given, Jump- 
 ing to the RIGHT! (or left, back, front). Here it is de- 
 sired to place the pupil in some such situation as arises 
 when one is suddenly threatened by an automobile or 
 street car, and to train him for immediate adjustment to 
 an unknown signal. For no other purpose is this method 
 advisable. 
 
 Tapping with a wand or ruler or clapping the hands 
 may occasionally be used instead of the executive com- 
 mands, but these methods are not recommended. If used, 
 the tap takes the place of the command. Either tapping 
 or the command may be used, never both for the same 
 movement. 
 
 II. RHYTHMIC COMMAND 
 
 1. Purpose of the Rhythmic Command. Serial com- 
 mands are used mainly in hygienic exercises because they 
 emphasize movement rather than pause, concentric and 
 eccentric contraction rather than static contraction, and 
 increase in the number of contractions possible within a 
 given time. The use of response commands requires that 
 most of the time be spent in holding positions; rhythmic 
 commands permit most of the time to be spent in move- 
 ment.
 
 38 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 2. Parts of the Rhythmic Command. - - The rhythmic 
 command consists of the following elements: 
 
 1. The preparatory part 
 
 2. The pause 
 
 3. The executive part 
 
 4. Counting or keeping time 
 
 5. Halting 
 
 In general the comments descriptive of the first three 
 elements given under the response command apply to the 
 rhythmic command, with the important exception that 
 the preparatory part in addition to giving the necessary 
 information may also set the rhythm for the performance 
 of the movement. 
 
 3. A typical rhythmic command is the following: 
 Placing hands at sides of shoulders, stretching arms upward, 
 shoulders, position (Pause) Beady (Pause) BEGIN! One! 
 Two! Three! Four! etc. . . . One! Two! Class HALT! 
 
 4. Establishing the Rhythm. As in the response com- 
 mand, the preparatory part may be expanded into a de- 
 scription and a demonstration. This description may in- 
 clude a statement of the rhythm in which the movements 
 are to be made. Too much care cannot be taken to es- 
 tablish the correct rhythm, for without that precaution 
 the exercise will not be attacked simultaneously by all the 
 pupils, and faulty performance will result. By various
 
 COMMANDS 39 
 
 methods the announcement of the desired rhythm may 
 be made. The exercise itself may be demonstrated or in- 
 dicated, the hand may be waved from side to side in the 
 proper rhythm, or a wand may be tapped on the floor. 
 Music may be used. 
 
 An effective way to establish rhythm is to give eight 
 counts in the proper tempo, substituting for the seventh 
 count the word Ready and for the eighth count the word 
 BEGIN! Or, if preferred, instead of using the word 
 Ready, the count may merely be emphasized and the 
 voice raised, by way of warning. After the class is thor- 
 oughly in hand and a sense of rhythm has been created 
 by previous movements, the description of the exercise 
 may be followed merely by the words Ready, or Class - 
 BEGIN! or merely, BEGIN! This short method is used 
 when the teacher is confident that the rhythm is 
 known. 
 
 As indicated, the word Ready or its equivalent is the 
 end of the preparatory command and the word BEGIN! 
 is the executive command. 
 
 Example : Setting the rhythm - 
 
 Placing hands on shoulders, stretching arms upward, 
 shoulders, position. 
 
 1--2 3--4--1--2 Ready, BEGIN! 1--2 3- 
 4 -- 1.
 
 40 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 5. Music. - - If music is employed for a rhythmic exer- 
 cise or for a dance, the following form is used, the music 
 corresponding to the regular command: 
 
 Preparatory Part Pause Execution 
 
 Command: Ready Begin! 
 
 Music: Four bars One measure Chord 
 
 6. Counting. - - The exercise having been started at the 
 word BEGIN, the first count is given exactly at the time 
 when the first position is taken. Other succeeding counts 
 should coincide with the taking of these positions and not 
 with the start of the movement toward them. 
 
 VARIOUS METHODS or COUNTING 
 
 Twos 1-2, 1-2, 1-2, 1-2, etc Best for two-count 
 
 exercises 
 
 Fours 1-2-3-4, 1-2-3-4, etc Best for four-count 
 
 exercises 
 
 Eights 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8, 1-2-3-4, etc. . . Seldom used 
 
 Return 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8, 8-7-6-5, etc. . . Not recommended 
 
 Continuous 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12, etc. . Not recommended 
 
 The most common method is counting in fours and for 
 a four-count movement it is usually the best. 
 
 In the above methods each count coincides with a single 
 movement. The teacher may use two counts to each 
 movement as follows: 
 
 Movement 1234 
 ( cunts 12 3 4 5 6 7 8
 
 COMMANDS 41 
 
 This method gives a slower, more accurate and vigorous 
 movement, but decreases the total number of muscle con- 
 tractions per minute. 
 
 The voice should be full of animation, varying in tone 
 and quality, stimulating and carrying the class through 
 the exercise vigorously, quietly, or enthusiastically as de- 
 sired. It should stress extension counts rather than 
 flexion counts. Most frequently this emphatic count 
 comes upon the third in series; this emphasis is rhythmi- 
 cally and technically correct. 
 
 In many movements, such as running and marching, 
 which have a naturally established self-sustaining rhvthm, 
 
 </ o c 
 
 counts are not usually needed. They may, however, be 
 used to reestablish rhythmical accuracy and to stimulate 
 the class to better performance. 
 
 7. Omitting Counting. - The teacher may stop count- 
 ing and require the class to continue without it. The 
 pupils should continue gaining practice in keeping the 
 rhythm, guided by the sense of sight and sound. This 
 may be made more interesting and difficult by requiring 
 the pupils to close their eyes. This method is not for 
 common use, for it turns the attention of the pupil inward 
 upon himself instead of outward upon the vigor and com- 
 pleteness of the movement. 
 
 8. Irregular Rhythm. -- Irregular rhythms are some-
 
 42 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 times used when one or more elements in a four-count 
 series are done more rapidly than the others. Example: 
 1, 2 3-- 4,-- 1, 2 3-- 4-- 1, 2. 
 
 9. Accented Rhythm. As a rule it is best to accent 
 one or more of the counts, usually the second of a four- 
 count series. One should emphasize the count on which 
 the most effort is placed; this is usually the extension 
 element. 
 
 10. Halting. - - To end the exercise, the command 
 CLASS -- HALT! is given in place of the last two counts, 
 as follows: 1 ~ 2 3 -- 4 1 2 CLASS HALT! 
 
 The exercise comes to rest on the word "halt." The class 
 may be forewarned of the ending of the exercise by rais- 
 ing the voice on 1 - - 2 as follows : 
 
 12 HALT! 
 
 / / 
 
 12 3 --4 Class 
 
 11. Changing. - - If an exercise is done to the left side 
 and it is desired to change to the right, the change may 
 be made as follows: 
 
 12 3 4, 12 Change RIGHT. 
 
 or 
 12 3 4, 1 2 Same RIGHT. 
 
 12. Descriptive Cues. -- Instead of counts or numerals, 
 descriptive cues may be substituted in serial exercises.
 
 COMMANDS 43 
 
 These are words describing the positions to be taken, such 
 as "up, down, front, back," and so forth; or words used 
 to urge greater vigor in performance, such as "now," 
 "hit," "hard," and the like. 
 
 13. Other Signals. Flags may be used to direct exer- 
 cises already known, given in drill form or for exhibition. 
 This method was first used in a demonstration of school 
 gymnastics given by 10,000 boys in Central Park, New 
 York City, in 1913. It was the only form of command 
 which could be used because sound could not travel fast 
 enough over the vast area occupied by the mass of 
 boys. 
 
 Two flags are used. One in the left hand is used to in- 
 dicate the rhythm of the movement and beats time begin- 
 ning eight counts before the exercise starts and continu- 
 ing until the end. The flag in the other hand starts and 
 stops the movement. It is raised on the first of the four 
 counts immediately preceding the beginning of the exer- 
 cise. It begins to wave in time when the exercise begins 
 and rests at the beginning of the last four counts. 
 
 Following the principle that one flag should be used for 
 rhythm and another for starting and stopping, the teacher 
 may devise his own method. 
 
 Flags are used in the Army and Navy for signal pur- 
 poses and it would be well for the teacher of physical
 
 44 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 training to become acquainted with their method. The 
 Army also uses arm signals which describe the nature of 
 the movement and the command for its execution. 
 
 14. Practice of Commands. - The study and practice 
 of correctly formed and properly given commands is im- 
 portant to the student of physical training. Apparently 
 good results may be obtained by excellent teachers who 
 violate the rules given, but such success is accomplished 
 in spite of faulty methods, not because of them. Practice 
 may be gained by writing out ten commands illustrating 
 the use of each rule given, and giving these commands as 
 if to a class. Not until the teacher becomes so familiar 
 with the correct use of commands that he needs to give 
 their formation no attention, will he be able to give his 
 whole thought to getting the results of the exercises. 
 
 The preliminary practice should be painstakingly under- 
 gone, but should be finished as soon as possible, so that, 
 facility gained, the teacher may give all his attention to 
 more important work.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 
 
 1. Definition of Introductory Work. - - The introduc- 
 tory section of the lesson includes all that is to be done 
 in preparation for the special physical training work to 
 follow, in which the major purposes of physical training, 
 the securing of good posture and the training of mind and 
 body, will be undertaken. It is merely a preface. 
 
 2. Purposes of Introductory Work. - - Introductory 
 work has three coordinate purposes: 
 
 a. Administrative purpose. The class is to be received 
 in the gymnasium, put under control, and distributed on 
 the floor ready for work, with attendance taken and prep- 
 aration of costume, and the like, verified. 
 
 b. Psychological purpose. The pupils are to be ren- 
 dered attentive, alert, and accurate; and a group con- 
 sciousness is to be established. 
 
 c. Physiological purpose. By the use of comparatively 
 mild exercises, the muscles and organs are to be stimu- 
 lated and prepared for the heavier work to follow. 
 
 45
 
 46 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 I. ADMINISTRATIVE PHASE 
 
 1. Preparation of the Gymnasium. - - The room or place 
 in which the exercises are to be given, whether it be gym- 
 nasium, classroom, playground, or athletic field, must be 
 prepared for the lesson. It is the teacher's duty to see to 
 it that the place is clean, that the temperature is, if pos- 
 sible, not over sixty degrees, and that there are ample ar- 
 rangements for a constant supply of fresh, cool air. He 
 should see that the heavy apparatus is conveniently at 
 hand, ready for use, and that it is not broken nor in a 
 dangerous condition. He should have keys for the lock- 
 ing racks or cabinets which contain hand apparatus. All 
 play apparatus, basket balls, hockey sticks, bean bags, 
 etc., should either be at hand in the gymnasium or be 
 brought in by the class. 
 
 2. Preparation of the Teacher. - - The teacher should 
 be clad in his gymnastic costume. He should have a roll 
 book containing a list of the names of all the pupils, and 
 a place for various records. He will need a pencil; it is 
 an excellent idea to have it attached to the roll book. 
 
 The teacher should carry into the gymnasium a state- 
 ment of the lesson written out in more or less detail, de- 
 pending upon his experience. At first a list of exercises 
 written on a .5 x 8 card is advisable, but later the memo- 
 randum mav be smaller if desired.
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 47 
 
 It will be found useful to have a series of exercises of 
 the educational, hygienic, or recreative type, including ap- 
 paratus work, posted on the bulletin board. 
 
 3. Establishing Control of the Class. After the class 
 is received in the gymnasium, it is necessary to establish 
 perfect control. This is the first and one of the most 
 important tasks of the teacher, for no effective teaching 
 can be done without it. It is especially necessary in the 
 session in which the class meets the teacher for the first 
 time. 
 
 At this first session as the class is standing about wait- 
 ing for instruction, the command Class ATTENTION ! 
 may be given. When the pupils become sufficiently silent 
 and attentive, the teacher should explain that this com- 
 mand means instant immobility and silence - "Stop, look, 
 and listen!" When he has made this clear, he should dis- 
 perse the class for the purpose of practicing the exercise 
 again, and if needs be, may do this a third or fourth time. 
 Since this is the first work given to the class, a perfect 
 result should be insisted upon for disciplinary reasons. 
 The teacher has then established the tone of his work, 
 and should thereafter be able to secure instant response 
 automatically and habitually. This exercise should be 
 practiced occasionally and the pupils' pride aroused in its 
 dramatic perfection.
 
 48 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The following suggestions will be found useful in gain- 
 ing and keeping control: 
 
 a. Gain control first; teach afterwards, ^"hen you 
 have the attention of the class, you have a compact group 
 to talk to, you have silence, and you can then tell the 
 pupils what to do. By no other method can you success- 
 fully handle large groups. 
 
 b. Never talk to a class that is not paying attention, 
 except to get attention. They must be convinced that 
 you are in earnest, that you will accept nothing less than 
 entire and immediate attention. 
 
 c. It should be taken for granted that the pupils desire 
 to cooperate, that obedience is a matter of course. If this 
 is not the case at the beginning, it should be made so 
 promptly. Turn class opinion and feeling against offenders. 
 
 d. You should know confidently and exactly what is to 
 be done. It is impossible to instruct the class upon any 
 point which you do not yourself understand thoroughly. 
 If a teacher does not know exactly what is to be done and 
 how it is to be done, he becomes unsteady and uncertain, 
 and the class is quick to recognize the situation and to 
 take advantage of it. 
 
 e. You should make perfectly clear to the class what is 
 to be done. No uniformity of response can be hoped for 
 unless each pupil understands what is required of him.
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 49 
 
 /. Attempt one thing at a time, and do it well. Every 
 definite accomplishment gained by the pupils increases 
 their confidence in the teacher and in themselves. The 
 value of concentration cannot be overestimated; and 
 upon the thoroughness of the first teaching depends the 
 success of the lessons to follow. 
 
 (j. Make all requirements reasonable, well within the 
 ability of the class. If you are sure that you are not ask- 
 ing too much, then you can legitimately exact perfect per- 
 formance. If you ask for more than the strength or intel- 
 ligence or progress of the class warrant, the members 
 have a good excuse for their imperfections. 
 
 h. Allow for ignorance, provide for practice, and demand 
 perfection. Be just. Recognize and commend progress. 
 
 i. Errors made by the class as a whole are the fault of 
 the teacher, not of the pupils. Get this clearly in mind. 
 If the work is not properly done, if the class is listless, 
 possibly you have neglected to see that the conditions are 
 favorable for work. If the pupils do not respond cor- 
 rectly, either you have not made your purpose clear to 
 them and they do not know what to do, or you have not 
 demanded it with sufficient vigor and enthusiasm. In 
 every class, however, there are some slow pupils. These 
 should get special attention, but should not seriously de- 
 lay the class.
 
 50 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 j. Never do anything not vitally worth while. You 
 have too much to do to waste time on work that is more 
 trouble than it is worth. Be definite in your purpose, and 
 then work directly toward it. 
 
 4. Methods of Class Distribution. As soon as possible 
 the class should be taught placement upon the floor in exact 
 formation by some method which may be accomplished 
 rapidly and economically and which may become habitu- 
 ally perfect in execution. The best results will follow if 
 the method of assembly formation is simple and unvaried. 
 
 The tone of the first part of the lesson is military, exact 
 and brisk. To aid toward this end, the commands should 
 be more than ordinarily crisp, inspiring, and emphatic. 
 
 Good posture should receive immediate emphasis, and 
 the elevation cues "stand tall," "head up," "chest up," 
 and other good posture counsel tending to inculcate the 
 military feeling, should be employed effectively. 
 
 At first the pupils will need instruction as to where they 
 are to put their books and hang their clothes, and where 
 they are to form their lines. These preliminaries should 
 be made automatic as soon as possible. 
 
 The ideal floor formation is a rectangle, twice as broad 
 as it is deep, and the teacher is best placed opposite 
 the middle of the longest side. Of the various methods of 
 distribution, those most commonly employed are assem-
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 51 
 
 bling on painted spots, and formation from a line, with or 
 without marching. 
 
 a. Assembling on spots or numbers. This is the sim- 
 plest and quickest method. The pupils on entering the 
 gymnasium take their places directly on spots which are 
 painted on the floor at the proper distance from each 
 other. If the spots are numbered and each pupil is as- 
 signed to a certain number corresponding to his number 
 on the roll book, an exact and rapid way of taking the roll 
 is obtained. The teacher ascertains the absentees merely 
 by referring to the vacant marks. Although this is an 
 easy and economical manner of class distribution, it lacks 
 one advantage; i.e., it does not help to discharge the 
 other duties of the introductory work, the psychological 
 and physiological warming up. The teacher has saved 
 time in administration, but he will then have to take time 
 to do some military work, marching and facing, in order 
 to get the effect of response commands. 
 
 Instead of marking the floor, the sides and front of the 
 gymnasium may be marked with letters and numbers cor- 
 responding to ranks and files. 
 
 b. Formation from a line. If the class is small enough 
 to form a single line along the middle of the gymnasium, 
 the formation may be made directly from this line in vari- 
 ous wavs.
 
 52 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 At first, full directions as to location of the line, plac- 
 ing according to height, and methods of taking distance 
 and counting off should be given, and the procedure 
 should be practiced until rapid accuracy is obtained. 
 
 (1) Under the Swedish method, the pupils are in double 
 columns counted in twos. On the command -- Open 
 ranks MARCH, each column takes two steps outward. 
 On the command. Open order -- MARCH, numbers one 
 take one step right; numbers two take one step left. 
 This may be done on one command or it may be varied. 
 
 (2) When the gymnasium is oblong, an excellent plan 
 for larger classes is to have the single file march to the 
 rear of the room, the first four pupils then turning down 
 the center of the room and coming up through the center 
 to the front. As they come forward, they should take 
 arm's length distance. The following fours will execute 
 this movement in a similar manner. Both ranks and files 
 should be in proper alignment. The interval between 
 ranks will be approximately twice full arm's length dis- 
 tance. If desired, marks indicating where the successive 
 fours are to stop may be made on the wall or on the run- 
 ning track at the side. 
 
 For this method no commands are needed in practice 
 except for halting, since the class is trained to follow in- 
 variably the prescribed movement.
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 53 
 
 For teaching this method use the following detailed 
 command : (a) Form column of fours by the left flank, 
 MARCH! (b) Open order from center, twice arm's length 
 interval, MARCH! (c) First four, mark time, MARCH! 
 (d) Succeeding fours to arm's length distance and mark time, 
 MARCH! (e) Class HALT ! (Arms come to side on 
 halt.) 
 
 (3) Another method of distribution for larger classes is 
 the following: The pupils count in fours. With number 
 one as a pivot, each four executes a right turn (a quarter 
 circle) in four steps. This forms a column of fours. Then 
 each four opens order sideways to the left until the ex- 
 tended fingertips no longer touch, guiding sideways and 
 forward. This is rapid and effective, and may be done 
 in double time. It may be done with two, three, or 
 four lines assembled on one side of the gymnasium, 
 in which case the pupils "give way" to the left until 
 all are properly placed. Command: Fours right, and 
 open order sideways left, double time, MARCH! Class - 
 HALT! 
 
 (4) When the military method of distribution into rec- 
 tangular formation is to be used, the line counts in fours; 
 on command, the numbers one step off, followed at a dis- 
 tance of four paces (or two) by the numbers two ; numbers 
 three and four follow. If there is a second rank, number
 
 54 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 one starts four (or two) counts after number four of the 
 first rank, etc. Command: Take distance (two steps) 
 MARCH! Class HALT! 
 
 5. Attendance Records. - - The teacher may attend to 
 this matter himself or may appoint a monitor or captain 
 to do it. If the class is divided into squads, the squad 
 captain should be responsible for his own group. If the 
 teacher delegates the duty of taking attendance, he will 
 find it wise to check up the roll himself occasionally to 
 make sure that the monitor is correct. Whatever method 
 is used must be rapid and must be exact. 
 
 a. Counting. If the class comes from another teacher 
 with its attendance record, it is merely necessary to ver- 
 ify it by counting. This can be done either by the teacher 
 or by the class captain. 
 
 b. Floor marks. If the class assembles on floor marks, 
 the vacant marks may be noted. If the marks are num- 
 bered and each pupil is assigned to a certain number cor- 
 responding to his number in the roll book, the absences 
 may be quickly checked. 
 
 c. Calling the roll. If the class is small, calling the roll 
 is an effective method: otherwise it takes too much time. 
 It has the decided advantage of familiarizing the teacher 
 with the names of the pupils, and thus fosters personal 
 relationship and aids discipline.
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 55 
 
 6. Inspection. -- Following the taking of attendance, 
 there is an opportunity for a class inspection. This in- 
 spection may be military, for good posture; or it may be 
 hygienic, for cleanliness of person ; or it may be for proper 
 preparation of costume; or for all three. The beneficial 
 effect will be increased if the inspection is conducted with 
 some ceremony. If the results are made a matter of rec- 
 ord they may be posted and thus used to stimulate im- 
 provement in personal hygiene. 
 
 7. Gymnastic Records. Combined with records of at- 
 tendance and inspection, the teacher may well keep rec- 
 ords of personal gymnastic and athletic performances, 
 such as in basket ball throw, standing broad jump, run- 
 ning events, goal throwing, and the like. 
 
 8. Various Forms of Record. -- a. The teacher's roll 
 book containing class names, numbers, attendance, ex- 
 cuses, marks for conduct, marks for tests, and the final 
 term rating. It may also contain marks from the daily 
 inspection. 
 
 b. Pupil's record card showing records of weekly 
 tests in athletics, connoting improvement, and stimulat- 
 ing training, and serving as a basis for the individual badge, 
 test squad, and class competition. It may also contain 
 hygienic inspection records. 
 
 c. Physical record card showing the results of the
 
 56 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 physical examination and its follow-up. This may be com- 
 bined with the pupils' record card. 
 
 d. Bulletin board. On this may be posted the best 
 individual records in athletic events, squad and class 
 group competition records, results of games, schedules of 
 future games, test exercises for examination, typical exer- 
 cises for the grade to memorize, newspaper clippings, and 
 interesting pictures. 
 
 9. Methods of Handling Apparatus. Hand apparatus 
 is most commonly kept in locking racks or cabinets along 
 the walls of the gymnasium. When it is to be used in the 
 lesson, the pupils usually take it before the class is dis- 
 tributed on the floor, thus accomplishing incidentally some 
 of the introductory work of marching and facing. This 
 operation may be conducted in two ways, informally and 
 formally. If it is done informally, time will be saved; but 
 the formal method may have the advantage of motor 
 training. If a formal method is used it should be exact. 
 
 The pupils may take the dumb-bells, or whatever ap- 
 paratus is to be used, as they are marching past the 
 racks. A well-trained class can do this without losing 
 much distance, but in general there is apt to be confusion 
 and delay, as the children will reach hurriedly for the 
 apparatus, and if they do not get it or if they hesitate in 
 making a selection, the continuity of the line is destroyed.
 
 57 
 
 They may be trained to use this method accurately, but 
 its difficulty makes it of questionable value. If wands are 
 to be used, a monitor may be stationed at the rack to 
 hand the apparatus to the pupils. 
 
 The more exact method is to halt the pupils in one line 
 or more opposite the racks and facing the apparatus. 
 Upon the command Taking apparatus ONE, the pupils 
 in the line next the racks take a step forward and put 
 their hands on the dumb-bells and stand until the count 
 TWO is given. On that count they snap the bells down 
 to the side and step back to place. This at most should 
 take two steps and be done on counts. If there are two 
 lines, the first file steps behind the second, and these lat- 
 ter take the bells in the same manner and step back, on 
 counts. If the apparatus is arranged on two sides of the 
 room, this can be taken very quickly. 
 
 When the class is distributed, it will be necessary to 
 place the apparatus on the floor out of the way, in order 
 that the lesson may proceed. It is best placed to the left. 
 The essentials are that the exercise should be done in 
 military, exact fashion, and that the pupils should get the 
 apparatus squarely and securely placed. Indian clubs 
 and dumb-bells may be crossed. Wands and bar-bells are 
 likely to roll more or less despite the care taken in place- 
 ment.
 
 58 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 There are two methods of placing apparatus the in- 
 formal and the formal. In the former, the pupils are 
 simply told to lay the apparatus down. In the latter 
 method, the command is given, Placing apparatus on floor 
 - ONE ! The pupils place their bells or wands on the 
 floor to the left, holding their position with hands on the 
 apparatus until the count TWO is given. On that com- 
 mand they return to position. 
 
 II. PSYCHOLOGICAL PHASE 
 
 1. Individual Response. - The prerequisites to success- 
 ful teaching attention, alertness, and accuracy are to 
 be established in the introductory part of the lesson. 
 The pupil must be ready-minded, wide-awake, with his 
 wits about him and all his thoughts bent upon the lesson 
 in progress. Accuracy is a mental quality as well as a 
 physical expression, and the teacher will be unable to se- 
 cure exactness of motor response unless he can convey to 
 the pupil a clear conception of the movement desired and 
 give him sufficient time to think about it. For this reason 
 the teacher should exercise the greatest care to give his re- 
 sponse commands clearly and with sufficient pause. The 
 principle of simplicity should be adhered to rigidly; no 
 complexity of command or difficulty of execution should 
 be permitted to enter here. This is not the place for in-
 
 59 
 
 struction. None but movements that are well known and 
 free from intricacy should be used. 
 
 The simple military movements used in putting the 
 class on the floor serve this mental purpose as well as the 
 purpose of assembly. The continual impact of response 
 commands develops alertness and fixes the attention. 
 The unvarying demand for perfection in simple move- 
 ments, coupled with the pupil's own natural pride in ex- 
 act performance, favors the desired accuracy of motor 
 work. 
 
 In addition, facing, with response commands given 
 rhythmically in regular succession with even pause, is 
 most appropriate. It has the effect of uniting the class 
 into an harmoniously working whole. These rhythmic re- 
 sponse commands should never be used except for this 
 specific purpose, otherwise the custom of varying the 
 length of the pause should be followed. 
 
 2. Class Consciousness. -- In a logical circle, accuracy 
 aids and is aided by the establishing of a unified class 
 consciousness. In marching and facing the pupils make 
 sounds with their feet. If the movement is done cor- 
 rectly by all, the tone will be clear and resounding; if it 
 is done inaccurately, the sound will be confused. Hear- 
 ing this sound aids in synchronizing the class; the indi- 
 vidual pupil is enabled to attune his movements to those
 
 60 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 of all the others. It guides them as counting does. If 
 the sounds are sharp and rhythmic, each a single clear 
 note, the pupils are assured of excellent performance on 
 their part. There is developed a sense of unity, involving 
 a responsibility on the part of each pupil for the success 
 of the class as a whole; toward that success he feels he is 
 contributing and he becomes deeply interested in it. 
 
 This rhythmical concord and the sensation of actually 
 moving as a unit, brings about the consciousness of mass 
 movement -- a feeling of solidarity, that the teacher may 
 foster and develop until the class seems to have but one 
 mind, one body. It has become a tractable \vhole instead 
 of a group of separate elements, and the teacher may deal 
 witli it as such. AYhen this result has been obtained in 
 the introductory work, the lesson has great promise of 
 proceeding with success. 
 
 The teacher may assist in the development of class con- 
 sciousness and its retention during the lesson, by assum- 
 ing his place as a part of the class; as its vocal element 
 speaking for it rather than as an outside influence speak- 
 ing to it. Thus instead of saying: "I will show you a 
 new exercise," or ''You did that well," he will say, "Now 
 let us learn something new," "AYe did that well." In 
 general, the use of "we" and "us" is preferable to that 
 of "I" and "you." This however can be overdone. It
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 61 
 
 becomes anaemic and insipid if used to excess. At times, 
 too, the teacher must separate himself from the class and 
 become emphatically the commander, the one in author- 
 ity. It is well to remember that all talking other than 
 commands should be used sparingly, particularly in the 
 introductory section of the lesson. 'Talking down" to 
 the class is never permissible even with little children. 
 
 Class feeling is quickly lost by inaccuracies due to the 
 use of over-difficult movements, by interruptions for 
 whatever cause, or by inopportune remarks or instruction 
 by the teacher. Whenever during the course of the lesson 
 it is lost, it may be reestablished by the use of simple 
 facing to rhythmic response commands as in the intro- 
 ductory work. 
 
 III. PHYSIOLOGICAL PHASE 
 
 1. Physical Adjustment. - - The object of the introduc- 
 tory w r ork from the physiological point of view is to se- 
 cure the proper physical preparation, to get the body in 
 working trim for the lesson. There are three phases to 
 this warming-up process: 
 
 a. The muscles are to be mildly exercised to prepare 
 them for the more severe work to follow-. They should 
 never be called upon for heavy work without some prep- 
 aration. Muscles cannot exert their maximum effort the
 
 62 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 first time they are contracted, and therefore light exercises 
 should be used to warm them up, to get the blood into 
 them, and to heighten the activity of the nerves, before 
 heavier demands are made. 
 
 b. It is desirable to begin gradually the relaxation of 
 the systemic arterioles and the transfer of blood to the 
 muscles. One of the important results of the contraction 
 of the muscles is this relaxation of the systemic arterioles 
 and the blood vessels in the muscles, thereby allowing the 
 influx of more blood where it is needed. The increased 
 supply of blood comes from the splanchnic area where, in 
 the capacious vessels of the abdomen, a large amount of 
 blood is stored when the body is at rest. When exercising 
 commences, the internal blood vessels contract, squeezing 
 the blood up to the heart, where it becomes available for 
 muscle work. These modifications are best brought about 
 slowly. 
 
 c. It is wise to increase gradually the rapidity and com- 
 pleteness of the heart contractions and of the breathing. 
 In heavy work the flow of blood through the heart is in- 
 creased in volume, hence the heart must beat faster and 
 more vigorously. There is an increased flow of blood 
 through the lungs and breathing must be more rapid and 
 ample. These readjustments cannot be made rapidly 
 without producing a feeling of discomfort. There is, there-
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 63 
 
 fore, a gradual increase in the amount and vigor of mus- 
 cular contraction through the introductory, corrective, and 
 educational work until the maximum is reached in the 
 hygienic section of the lesson. 
 
 2. Methods for Physiological Preparation. - - The 
 marching and facing serve the needs of administrative and 
 mental preparation and in addition aid in securing the 
 necessary physical adaptation. However, they are not 
 sufficient for the latter purpose, and should be supple- 
 mented with running and deep-breathing exercises. 
 
 There should be fifteen to thirty seconds of running or 
 its equivalent in every introductory period. The class 
 formation may be made at double quick time, thus serv- 
 ing two purposes. This should not be attempted until the 
 class is thoroughly familiar with the formation and can 
 run and halt accurately. Simple variations of marching, 
 such as skipping and hopping, may also be used if the 
 rhythmic effect is preserved. 
 
 After the formation is made, countermarching furnishes 
 a simple method which is economical as well, since the 
 running lines will take no more room than does the class 
 formation. Each line may run forward, the leader turn- 
 ing squarely about to the right (or left), running to the 
 rear of the room, and returning to place. The others fol- 
 low, and on reaching their places continue to run in place
 
 64 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 until the command for halting is given or the movement 
 is repeated. 
 
 It is necessary to practice halting from running in place 
 before this exercise can be done successfully. The com- 
 mand Class HALT is given, and the pupils halt on 
 two counts. 
 
 When teaching countermarching to the class, it will be 
 found expedient to give the explanation and put one file 
 through the exercise first to show how it should be done. 
 Otherwise there is likely to be confusion. 
 
 The teacher will preferably not count during running. 
 The sound made by the children's feet answers the same 
 purpose, and the teacher will merely distract from it if 
 he attempts to count. 
 
 Deep breathing should follow the marching and run- 
 ning. Inspiration should be deep, with emphasis on chest 
 lifting; expiration should emphasize abdominal contrac- 
 tion and should not be forced, for the chest should re- 
 main high in expiration. 
 
 3. Introductory Work a Resume of the Lesson. --It 
 will be noted that the introductory section of the lesson 
 is in effect a brief preliminary resume of the corrective, 
 educational, and hygienic work to follow --in itself a 
 miniature lesson. The emphasis upon good posture at the 
 beginning corresponds to the corrective phase; the secur-
 
 INTRODUCTORY WORK 65 
 
 ing of alertness is distinctly educational; and the warm- 
 ing up and running correspond to the hygienic exercises. 
 
 A common error of teachers is talking too much and 
 spending too much time on this work which is purely pre- 
 paratory. Aside from calling the roll and inspection, it 
 should not take more than two minutes.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 
 
 1. Definition of Corrective Work. Corrective work 
 is a general term including many physical training activ- 
 ities designed to secure good posture, to maintain it when 
 it is present, and to insure it for the future. It includes 
 good hygiene, hygienic exercises, recreative exercises, ath- 
 letics, and corrective exercises: in brief, all kinds of phys- 
 ical training procedure which increase health and vigor or 
 directly work for good posture. 
 
 Corrective exercises, as the term is used here, are move- 
 ments whose only function is to promote good posture. 
 Their importance is great: nevertheless they are of far 
 less value as corrective work than are hygienic and recre- 
 ative exercises and good hygiene, which indirectly but ef- 
 fectively work for good posture by increasing vigor. 
 
 I. (iOOD POSTURE 
 
 1. Definition of Good Posture. -- dood posture is the 
 best adjustment; firxt. of the various bod)/ parts to each 
 other; and. second, of the body as a irliole to its eurirou- 
 rnent, tasJ:. or irork. It is posture that signifies vitality; 
 
 66
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 67 
 
 the high, elevated position of the various body parts that 
 indicates strength and vigor. 
 
 The term corrective work is used in an entirely different 
 sense by some to cover such exercises as are designed to 
 correct deformity or organic defects of some sort. Phy- 
 sicians and many educators are inclined to apply the term 
 to any exercises given for the purpose of correcting any- 
 thing wrong about the body itself, which can be so cured. 
 
 2. Good Adjustment. Good adjustment is such adap- 
 tation as best favors health, happiness, and efficiency. 
 Since the body is called upon to do many kinds of work 
 under many varieties of environmental conditions, there 
 are as many kinds of good posture as there are different 
 circumstances and different tasks. Sitting, standing, writ- 
 ing, sewing, sweeping, resting, and all the various house- 
 hold and trade movements, each require a different ad- 
 justment and therefore a different posture. The three 
 criteria of good posture are: Does it work toward happi- 
 ness? Does it favor health? Does it aid efficiency? 
 
 3. The Essentials of Good Adjustment. a. External 
 essentials Related to work. Those attitudes or adjust- 
 ments of the body parts are best in which the muscular 
 force may be directly and economically applied. This is a 
 field of great interest and importance to industry especially, 
 but too extensive to be discussed in the present volume.
 
 68 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 b. Internal essentials -- (1) The relations of the body 
 parts. Those positions are best in which the organs are 
 held in their normal places and are not pressed or crowded 
 against each other. In the erect position they are held 
 upward by their own attachments. 
 
 ( C 2) The expenditure of energy -- Ease. That posture 
 which is maintained with least effort is best. The erect, 
 straight, high-held, vertical position of the trunk is best 
 because it places the various organs in their normal posi- 
 tion. Nevertheless it is more expensive in muscular ef- 
 fort. Up to a certain point the increased expenditure of 
 energy is justified by the improvement in organic condi- 
 tions. Beyond this point fatigue overbalances the benefit 
 and good posture costs more than it is worth. 
 
 It is the work and aim of physical training to raise this 
 point as much as possible and so develop strength and 
 vigor of the body that good position may easily be held 
 without too great a vital expense. 
 
 In this volume the term good posture will have special 
 reference to the high-held position of vitality, and bad 
 posture to the depressed position of fatigue. 
 
 II. BAD POSTURE 
 
 1. Causes of Bad Posture. - - Bad posture is usually 
 due to a combination of causes; i.e., hereditary malad-
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 69 
 
 justment, the influence of gravity, and lack of vitality or 
 tone. 
 
 The erect position is biologically a recent one, and in 
 the change from a horizontal to a vertical position, the 
 harmonious relationship of the various body parts is de- 
 stroyed; hence the mechanism for the support of these 
 parts is relatively weak and is easily wearied by gravity. 
 All these maladjustments of body parts are primarily 
 ptoses, and are due to the continual action of gravity 
 upon the body thus placed at a disadvantage. The up- 
 right position is more expensive in vital energy, and there- 
 fore all the body parts tend to sag. Ptosis is normally 
 overcome by good muscular tone. 
 
 2. Definition of Ptosis. -- Ptosis is a downward dis- 
 placement or depression of the various body parts. It is 
 found in the drooping of the head, shoulders, ribs; fre- 
 quently in the depression of the stomach, intestines, and 
 other abdominal organs; in forward, backward, and lat- 
 eral curvatures of the spine. Any of these gives Ihe body 
 an appearance of sagging downward. There are four 
 kinds of ptoses: skeletal, visceral, circulatory, and emo- 
 tional. They are more often found associated than sin- 
 gly. Each symptom evidences a condition which is the 
 result of low vitality and which in turn lends to cause 
 low vitality, thereby establishing a vicious circle.
 
 70 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 3. Skeletal Ptosis. Skeletal ptosis is the downward 
 displacement of bones, and is shown in the drooping of 
 the head, the exaggeration of the normal curves of the 
 spine, the falling in and down of the chest. These cause 
 a decrease in standing height as compared with horizontal 
 length, a comparison which is a definite test of poor skele- 
 tal posture of the flexible (but not the static) type. 
 Skeletal ptosis is caused by weak tone, by the relaxation 
 or chronic weariness of the muscles which hold the body 
 erect. It is the natural adjustment of the body to fatigue. 
 
 4. Visceral Ptosis. - - Visceral ptosis is the downward 
 displacement of the internal organs, and is usually accom- 
 panied by skeletal ptosis. It may be local; that is, one 
 organ only may be displaced; or general, in which case 
 the whole body contents sag downward. In the latter 
 case the chest is flattened, its capacity is decreased, and 
 the abdomen becomes protuberant, the lower ribs often 
 bulging. It is the result of constitutional inferiority, low 
 vitality, or bad habit. Its presence maybe ascertained by 
 percussion of the organs to determine their position, by 
 the use of the X-ray, and by comparing the girth of the 
 chest and the abdomen. 
 
 5. Circulatory Ptosis. Circulatory ptosis is the down- 
 ward displacement of blood and its collection in the ab- 
 dominal veins and arteries. The splanchnic veins in the
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 
 
 71 
 
 abdomen form the most capacious system of blood-ves- 
 sels in the body, and if they are relaxed and distended, a 
 large amount of the blood which should be in other parts 
 of the body drains into them. In the erect position, these 
 vessels continually work against the force of gravity. 
 
 Rise 
 
 Blood Pressure 
 
 Fall 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ \ 
 
 tp \ 
 
 <j> \ 
 
 " \ 
 
 * \\ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 : \ 
 
 ! \ 
 
 \ 
 
 Oto4 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 5" 8 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 9" 12 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 00 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 13 "16 
 
 85 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 17 " 20 
 
 80 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 21-24 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 25"2S 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 29 "32 
 
 65 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 33 "36 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 37 " 40 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 41 "44 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 SCALE OF CIRCULATORY EFFICIENCY EXPRESSED IN PERCENTAGES 
 
 100 per cent corresponds in general to perfect condition and approximates the border 
 line of illness. The average business man ranges from 45 to (50 per cent. 
 
 They are kept from distention by the contraction and 
 tone of the muscles in their walls, which are under sym- 
 pathetic nervous control, and by the contraction and tone 
 of the walls of the abdomen. If there is an insufficiency 
 of nervous control or if the abdominal wall is weak, per- 
 mitting relaxation, the resistance to the pressure of grav- 
 ity is lessened and ptosis results.
 
 72 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The test of circulatory ptosis is based upon the fact 
 that the systolic blood pressure should rise on standing 
 and the heart rate should not increase. In persons weak, 
 ill, or fatigued the systolic blood pressure fails to rise and 
 may even fall while the heart rate tends to increase. The 
 test is conducted as follows: The cuff of the sphygmo- 
 manometer is placed around the upper arm, the subject 
 lies down comfortably with a low pillow, the heart rate is 
 counted by quarter minutes until two successive quarter 
 minutes are the same: the systolic pressure is then taken. 
 The subject stands and the heart rate and blood pressure 
 are taken in a similar manner. The increase or decrease 
 in blood pressure and heart rate are noted and the values 
 are indicated on the preceding scale. The scale may be 
 extended if necessary for cases that are seriously deficient 
 or unusually fit. 
 
 6. An Emotional Ptosis. - - This is a depression of the 
 spirits. The terms dejected, depressed, and downcast are all 
 derived from descriptions of physical states that by racially 
 old practice and habit have become applied to emotional 
 states and refer to unpleasant feelings of the asthenic type. 
 Additional more or less colloquial terms are downhearted 
 and doicn-in-the-mouth. These terms, descriptive of emo- 
 tional ptosis and derived from physical states, indicate 
 the correlation between the mental and the physical.
 
 ILLUSTRATING CIRCULATORY PTOSIS 
 
 A thin-walled rubber tube filled with water is used to illustrate the effect of gravity 
 upon the circulation. 
 
 No. 1. The tube at rest in the horizontal position. 
 
 No. 2. The tube is in the vertical position and shows the effect of gravity reducing 
 the blood content and the blood pressure in the upper body. This is permitted by the 
 weakness of the blood vessels in the lower body where the blood collects. This is circula- 
 tory ptosis. It denotes general weakness and occurs markedly in fainting. 
 
 No. 3. A normal condition with the blood pressure and blood content rising in the 
 upper body because of a normal contraction of the vessels in the lower body.
 
 74 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 7. Correlation of Ptoses. All four ptoses as a rule 
 occur together. Any one tends to cause the others, but 
 the relation of ptoses to each other is not so greatly that 
 of cause and effect as it is that of the effects of a common 
 cause; to wit, lowered vitality. 
 
 Ptoses are likely to occur after illness, a period of loss 
 of sleep, chronic digestive disturbances, and the like. 
 Therefore ptoses are not to be removed permanently with- 
 out the removal of the common cause; i.e., lowered vital- 
 ity, the very term in itself expressing a ptosis. There 
 are, however, various other influences and substances which 
 bear upon the case. 
 
 8. Hereditary Maladjustment. - - The biological causes 
 of bad posture are "disharmonies,'" which correspond to 
 the three forms of ptosis. These are due to the fact that 
 evolution has brought the body from a posture of locomo- 
 tion on all fours with the trunk horizontal, up through 
 gradual stages to the posture with the trunk erect. The 
 body has not yet sufficiently adapted itself to the change, 
 and the various "disharmonies'' remain. 
 
 a. Skeletal disharmony. The head, instead of being in 
 the long axis of the body, has rotated 90 degrees to this 
 axis. It is kept erect by muscular force only, and tends 
 to go forward and downward if the muscles are weak. Of 
 the changes in articulation, those of the hip and neck are
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 75 
 
 relatively well adjusted. The arch of the foot presents a 
 skeletal disharmony of the worst type; the weight of the 
 body now rests on the arch, which was never meant for 
 that purpose, therefore, the arch breaks down, causing flat 
 foot. 
 
 b. Visceral disharmony. In the old horizontal position 
 of the trunk, the internal organs hung from their attach- 
 ments to the spinal column with sufficient room and with 
 proper interrelationship. In the erect position, they hang 
 from the side rather than from the top of the abdominal 
 cavity. The intestines are heaped down in the bottom of 
 the abdominal chamber, and constipation and autointoxi- 
 cation result. The contents of the chest rest upon the 
 diaphragm, which in turn presses down upon the intes- 
 tines. The abdominal wall tends to relax, allowing the 
 whole body contents to sag down upon the pelvis and 
 causing the abdomen to protrude. The best that can be 
 done to relieve this condition is to keep the chest raised 
 and to keep the intestines from crowding down by means 
 
 of strengthening the lower abdominal muscles. 
 
 " 
 
 c. Circulatory disharmony. Our physical machinery is 
 relatively weak because of the change of position from the 
 horizontal to the erect, which is biologically recent. It is 
 very easily wearied, and allows the blood and lymph to go 
 down in response to the influence of gravity. Circulatory
 
 76 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 disharmony is evidenced in the difficulty that is expe- 
 rienced in getting the blood returned from the feet up to 
 the right side of the heart. It is assisted by the action of 
 the leg muscles; 'the contraction and tone of the muscles 
 of the abdomen, which help to force the blood upward; 
 and the suction of the chest, the "aspiration of the thorax," 
 which lifts the blood out of the abdomen and delivers it 
 to the heart. Circulatory ptosis is relieved by increasing 
 the tone and contraction of the abdominal muscles, thereby 
 increasing the abdominal pressure by raising the chest, 
 which increases the thoracic aspiration, but most of all by 
 increasing the tone and vitality of the muscles in the 
 blood vessels of the abdomen by hygienic measures. 
 
 9. Lack of Vitality or Tone. Anything that causes 
 lower vitality, anything that works against health, or any- 
 thing that works against happiness, increases the ten- 
 dency toward bad posture. Bad posture is not so much a 
 cause of low vitality as it is a sign or expression of past or 
 present physical or mental depression. If the person is 
 sick or hurt, the skeletal muscles lose tone and the body 
 droops; if the mind is dejected and low-spirited, the 
 physical attitude corresponds to the mental state. Body 
 and mind are depressed together. 
 
 10. Posture and Efficiency. - - It has been established 
 by statistical tests that physical or mental defect or weak-
 
 77 
 
 ness is in general accompanied by poor posture. The 
 average record of pupils in the poor posture group has 
 been found to be appreciably lower than the good posture 
 group, in attendance, in deportment, in physical activity 
 and endurance, in manual training, and in commercial 
 success after leaving school. It is clear that anything 
 that lowers vitality causes bad posture. / To what extent 
 bad posture causes poor vitality is not accurately known. 
 It is certain that by assuming good posture, raising the 
 chest and head, one feels better. This is partly psy- 
 chological and partly due to an actual improvement in 
 the circulation of the blood. 
 
 11. Limitation of Corrective Measures. -- In the en- 
 deavor to correct bad posture through fundamental causes 
 which result in ptosis, nothing can be done to remove 
 hereditary disharmonies, and little is possible in resisting 
 the influence of gravity, except the seeking of proper rest 
 and the habitual assumption of corrective positions; but 
 in overcoming the third factor, lack of vitality or tone, 
 physical training finds its great opportunity. 
 
 12. The Essentials of Tone. --The body is kept erect 
 by bones, muscles, and ligaments. The muscles keep the 
 bones and ligaments in position. Thus, if the muscles are 
 strong and in good tone, they will hold the body parts up 
 properly, the posture will be good, the trunk erect, the
 
 78 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 chest up. and the head held high. These are the signs of 
 vitality. On the contrary, if the vitality is low. the body 
 yields to the influence of gravity and relaxes. Muscular 
 tone continually works against this influence. It is de- 
 pendent upon muscular training and upon the power of 
 the nervous system which presides over the nutrition of 
 the muscles. This applies to both the skeletal muscles 
 and the muscles of the veins of the abdomen which con- 
 trol blood ptosis. 
 
 13. The Muscular Element in Muscular Tone. - 
 a. The nutrition of the muscles which keep the trunk 
 erect, chest high, and abdomen flat in a large part deter- 
 mine their tone and their success in doing the work for 
 good posture. Hence, good food, fresh air. and the like 
 are fundamental to good posture. 
 
 6. The actual strength of the muscles is important, 
 for they must be kept in a state of semicontraction, 
 holding the body straight and its parts adjusted and 
 high. The stronger they are. within reasonable limits, 
 the better. Hence, they must get sufficient special ex- 
 ercise. 
 
 c. The muscles which hold body parts in good position 
 against gravity must acquire the structural habit of being 
 short, for lengthening means giving way. and permits 
 their loads to droop and fall to lower positions. Muscles
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 79 
 
 tend to assume the state in which they are most used; 
 hence, if we desire short muscles, we must exercise them 
 in a shortened state. Thus, we use exercises in which the 
 movement is confined to the proximal (nearest to the 
 trunk) third or half of the arc or movement, and in this 
 we emphasize complete contractions of the muscles we de- 
 sire to shorten. 
 
 14. The Nervous Element in Muscular Tone. Mus- 
 cular tone is a continual unnoticed contraction of the 
 muscle which is really due to nervous impulses flowing to 
 the muscle along the motor nerve at the rate of twelve to 
 twenty impulses a second. These impulses come from the 
 motor cells in the interior of the spinal cord and are vigor- 
 ous or weak according to their nutrition and the amount 
 of fatigue. When they are well nourished and fresh, the 
 muscular tone is good. When they are overcome or ex- 
 hausted, the muscular tone is correspondingly poor. 
 Hence, nutrition and rest have an increased significance 
 in posture. 
 
 When the motor nerve is cut or the motor cells are de- 
 stroyed by disease, as in infantile paralysis, the muscle 
 loses its tone, becomes weak and anaemic, and ceases to 
 grow; it becomes "atrophic." This proves that the motor 
 cells preside over the nutrition of the muscles, sending 
 them continually what is called the "trophic force." This
 
 80 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 indicates again the essential role the nervous system plays 
 in muscle condition. 
 
 The important little muscles surrounding the arteries 
 and veins are supplied with nerves coming from sympa- 
 thetic centers and are dependent upon them in much the 
 same way as the voluntary muscles are dependent upon 
 the cells of the spinal cord. Since these muscles control 
 the distribution of the blood, and particularly prevent 
 blood ptosis, the condition of the sympathetic (autonomic) 
 nervous system is of great importance. 
 
 The digestive glands -- the liver and the pancreas and 
 the muscular walls of the stomach and intestines are all 
 directed and managed by the sympathetic nervous system. 
 Thus the nerve centers direct processes upon which they 
 themselves depend for nourishment. 
 
 15. Examples of Good and Poor Posture. - - The pho- 
 tographs of the excellently built young man given on page 
 
 81 should be studied carefully, for they illustrate the im- 
 portant points in the discussion of posture. The photo- 
 graphs were taken within a few minutes of each other. 
 The subject remained standing with his feet in the same 
 place. The only difference is in his slumping from good 
 posture to bad. 
 
 The decrease in total height which amounts, in this 
 case, to four and a half inches, is to be noted. This is not
 
 (!OOD POSTURE AND BAD
 
 82 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 the result of bending the knee, for the right leg is just as 
 straight as it was in good posture. The decrease in height 
 comes from the slumping down of one side of the pelvis 
 and the increase in the curves of the lumbar, dorsal, and 
 cervical spine. 
 
 The illustration shows very clearly the downward dis- 
 placement of the different parts of the body, which, 
 summed up, make the difference in height. The head is 
 downward, tilted forward, hanging heavily upon the pos- 
 terior neck muscles instead of being evenly poised on the 
 cervical vertebra 1 . The shoulders go downward. It will 
 be seen, however, that they do not go forward, but the 
 chest rolls downward under the arm, and protrudes out- 
 ward at the back. The whole downward displacement of 
 the chest and the disappearance of the line of the lower 
 ribs are noteworthy. 
 
 In good posture the outline of the body from the neck 
 downward over the abdomen is convex, particularly over 
 the thorax. In bad posture this line is concave except for 
 the slight projection of the pectoral muscles. The chest 
 in good posture is deep, the abdomen shallow. In bad 
 posture the contents of the abdomen simply drop down- 
 ward and cause a bulge at the lower waist line. 
 
 The two photographs show clearly the difference in 
 aspect. The one posture is high, straight, elevated, in-
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 83 
 
 spired, and strong; the other lax, depressed, downcast, 
 and weak. 
 
 III. HOW TO ACHIEVE GOOD POSTURE 
 
 The first task of the teacher is the establishment by 
 various methods of a personal consciousness and experi- 
 ence of what good posture really is. 
 
 1. Description and Demonstration. - In our endeavor 
 to achieve good posture, children should be informed in a 
 lively interesting way as to what it is. P]mphasis should 
 be placed upon the high head, lifted chest, straight back, 
 etc. Words should be chosen which will be of use after- 
 wards as "elevation cues." Little time, however, need be 
 wasted upon description, for the most important thing for 
 the pupils to know is how it feels to stand in good pos- 
 ture. Before the class, the teacher should demonstrate 
 the various points, contrasting the erect good posture with 
 the lowered poor posture. 
 
 2. Experience in Good Posture. - - The teacher of phys- 
 ical training experiences the greatest difficulty in making 
 his pupils understand just why their postures are wrong, 
 and furthermore what kind of effort they should make to 
 correct the bad postures. This is the great fundamental 
 difficulty in the endeavor to get school children to stand 
 up straight. They have been told to stand up straight,
 
 84 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 but they do not know how. Usually they throw the 
 shoulders back and, in an endeavor to throw the chest out, 
 stick out the stomach, thus drawing the hips forward and 
 stiffening the arms straight down by the sides like pokers. 
 This is very wrong. 
 
 3. Elevation Cues. - - There are various devices used 
 to put children in good posture. The first consists of com- 
 mands called "elevation cues" because they are calcu- 
 lated to work against ptosis. The most important of 
 these are as follows: 
 
 Stand tall 
 
 Head up 
 
 Head high 
 
 Lift the head 
 
 Stretch the head upward 
 
 Chest high 
 
 Lift the chest 
 
 "Waist flat," "Lift the waist up," "Stretch the knees," 
 "Lift upward from the ankle." and "Stretch the body 
 upward" -all these cues result in increased action of the 
 muscles which keep the body erect. Additional colloquial 
 adjurations may be used by the teacher such as, "Try to 
 make the head touch the ceiling," "Stand as if you were 
 looking over a fence," "Prick up your ears," "Make be- 
 lieve you are a soldier," "Grow up tall," etc. The com-
 
 86 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 mands "Chest out," "Shoulders back," "Hips back," 
 "Chin in" and others calling for antero-posterior adjust- 
 ments are discarded. 
 
 Words alone will not bring results. The wall is a most 
 convenient gymnastic apparatus. A pupil who cannot 
 take correct posture exercises may be stood up with back 
 against the wall and with, perhaps, a book upon his head. 
 Feeling the wall against his back he will straighten up and 
 try to be as tall as possible. Placing the hand on the ab- 
 domen and pressing in and up will help him decrease the 
 lumbar curve. Stretching the arms down at the side, still 
 keeping the shoulders and hips back against the wall, will 
 help him to straighten up taller. Bending the head back- 
 ward and looking at the ceiling, while maintaining an en- 
 deavor to keep the shoulders close to the wall, will assist 
 materially. (See pictures of girl on page 85.) 
 
 Once good posture is experienced, a pupil should go 
 about his ordinary business, sitting, standing, working, or 
 exercising while maintaining the high head and chest 
 position. He should be told, and he can see for himself, 
 that he can do this without much effort and without 
 stiffness. 
 
 A full-length mirror, in which pupils can see their de- 
 fects and finally their good posture, is very valuable in 
 good-posture work. Every well-equipped gymnasium
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 87 
 
 should have a double or triple mirror permitting the pupil 
 to see himself in profile. 
 
 4. Manual Correction. - - Very seldom is it necessary 
 for a teacher to place his hands upon the pupil for any 
 purpose. As a rule the example of the teacher, elevation 
 cues, and static exercises will produce the desired result. 
 Standing behind the pupil, it is sometimes useful to place 
 the finger tips under the mastoid processes, on the bony 
 prominence just below and back of the ear and to press 
 upward. This helps the pupil to feel the correct position 
 of the head. 
 
 The following method is frequently very helpful: The 
 pupil places his hand on the lower abdomen or on the 
 belt and presses up. If he does not get the correct 
 position the teacher may place his hand on the pupil's. 
 The other hand is placed on the back just below the shoul- 
 der blades. In this position the teacher can control the 
 whole body and can lift up the chest. 
 
 5. Static Exercises. - - The use of the wall and the mir- 
 ror require the teacher's individual attention. There are 
 certain static exercises which may be used for the whole 
 class. The only direct good posture exercises which I put 
 into official use for all the eight hundred thousand chil- 
 dren in the public schools of New York City, were con- 
 fined to four of this special type not because there are
 
 88 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 not other good exercises but because these are the sim- 
 plest and most effective. It has been found that when 
 these exercises are taken there is, by the process of asso- 
 ciation, a straightening up of the body. The principle is 
 old, the application original and the exercises new. 
 
 a. Exercise I. The Air Push. (See illustration, page 89.) 
 
 Commands : 
 
 (1) Bending wrists backward, palms toward floor, Bend. 
 
 (S) Press hard! Pushdown! Lift the chest! Stand tall! Etc. 
 
 (3) Holding the head and chest up, Wrists Relax. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 The pupil stands erect, stretches the arms downward at 
 the side, pointing the fingers forward, and bending the hands 
 back at the wrists so that the palms are horizontal to the 
 floor. "When this position is assumed the exercise has only 
 begun. It is necessary to press down as hard as possible 
 toward the floor, still maintaining the hands in exactly 
 the same position, in the meantime lifting the chest and 
 head and endeavoring to straighten up as vigorously as 
 possible. This will raise the chest, lift the head, and 
 stretch the body most effectively. This position should 
 be held from five to ten seconds. The hands and wrists 
 are then released, and the body should remain erect aud 
 poixcd li'njli. \ "nder no circumstances should it be allowed 
 to slum]).
 
 90 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 When the initial position is taken, there is a tendency 
 to take a full breath and to hold it during the whole of 
 the exercise. At the end of the exercise the tendency is 
 to let the breath out and to slump. The subject should 
 practice breathing in and out in this upward-held position. 
 
 In giving this exercise to children it is necessary to give 
 them helpful upward-stretching commands when the po- 
 sition is held. These are "Stand tall," "Raise the chest," 
 "Press down on the hands," "Stretch upward from the 
 ankles," "Stretch the knees," and the like. These "Ele- 
 vation Cues" are important to the success of the pro- 
 cedure. 
 
 6. Exercise 2. Side Lift. 
 
 Commands : 
 
 (1) Stretching arms sideways height of eyes, palms up, 
 
 Stretch ! 
 
 (2) (Elevation cues) Lift! Press up! Stretch up! Stand tall! 
 
 Etc. 
 
 (3) Keeping head and chest up, Arms Down. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 Raise the arms to the side, palms turned up at the level 
 of the eyes in a manner similar to the first static exercise. 
 This position should be taken with the hands flattened and 
 pressed up. and the arms lifted, but never really rising 
 above the level of the eves. At the same time try to
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 91 
 
 stand as tall as possible, lifting the chest and stretching 
 upward from the ankles and knees. 
 
 c. ExerciseS. The Elbow Lift. (See illustration, page 89.) 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) Bending arms at shoulder level, Bend. 
 
 (2) Elevation cues. 
 
 (3) Keeping head and chest up, Arms Down. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 Bend arms forward at shoulder level. Palms should be 
 perfectly flat and hands free from the chest. The same 
 endeavor as before should be made to lift the hands as 
 high as possible, and this will lift the chest and straighten 
 the body. 
 
 d. Exercise 4. The Wrist Lift. (See illustration, page 89.) 
 Commands : 
 
 (1) Finger tips on shoulder, wrist high, elbow up, Place. 
 
 (2) (Elevation cues) Raise the chest! Lift the head! Stretch 
 
 up! Waist flat! Lift up the waist! Etc. 
 
 (3) Keeping head and chest up, Arms Down. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 Finger tips should be on shoulders, wrists high, elbows at 
 the side. In this position an effort should be made to lift 
 the wrist as high as possible without permitting the finger 
 tips to leave the shoulder. The same results are obtained 
 by lifting the head and chest and straightening the body.
 
 92 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 These static exercises should be used at the beginning of 
 every physical training lesson and in the relief exercises 
 taken between class periods. Emphasis should be placed 
 on the elevation cues while the uplifted position is being 
 held. They not only lift the head and chest but they 
 actually lift the abdominal viscera and relieve blood ptosis 
 as well. 
 
 6. Sustentacular Exercises. - - The second class of good 
 posture exercises are those which strengthen the muscles 
 that hold up the head, chest, and various body parts 
 against gravity. They are called Sustentacular Exercises. 
 In order that one may have good posture, the sustentacu- 
 lar muscles must be constantly exercised and strongly de- 
 veloped. 
 
 The neck is one of the most important and most neg- 
 lected regions of the body. The cervical spine holds up 
 the head. It surrounds and protects the spinal cord, 
 which in this locality controls the great body processes of 
 circulation, respiration, heat production, and to a great 
 degree, digestion and nutrition. ^ et these bones are fre- 
 quently badly adjusted to each other, and frequently the 
 spinal column of the neck sags forward and downward. 
 
 The "debutante slouch" is characteristically weak- 
 necked, quite typical of the young girl graduate who has 
 had no physical exercise, no vigorous games, and has re-
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 93 
 
 ceived all of her instruction in health from the pages of a 
 book on anatomy and physiology instead of from the 
 pages of daily life. 
 
 In the neck are the four great arteries which bring 
 blood to the brain and the big jugular veins through 
 which it is returned from the head. The thyroid gland is 
 saddled across the front of the neck, and this has an ex- 
 ceedingly important function in maintaining the nutrition 
 of the body. Tucked away on either side of the throat, in 
 a fold between the larynx and the lateral neck muscles, 
 are three sympathetic ganglia which constitute in effect 
 the executive managers of the circulation and respiration. 
 
 It will be seen that the neck is an important segment 
 of the human body. Necks are as characteristic as faces, 
 and they tell the story of weakness, power, vitality, ill- 
 ness, past and present, and even prophesy illness to 
 come. 
 
 That neck which has fine, strong muscular pillars on 
 either side running from the ears down to the junction of 
 the clavicle and sternum, and heavy posterior masses of 
 powerful muscle running from the occiput back to the 
 spine and scapula -- that neck is, indeed, likely to be 
 surmounted with a head worth while in this generation of 
 high deeds and great events. 
 
 Few people realize what tremendous value there is in a
 
 94 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 well-muscled neck. It holds the head high. Thus the cir- 
 culation of the neck itself is improved in all its various 
 important parts, the spine, the cervical central nervous 
 system, the sympathetic ganglia, and even the larynx and 
 the esophagus. 
 
 The high-held head puts these various parts in their 
 proper position. The low-drooped head falls in upon it- 
 self and allows each part to discommode itself and its 
 neighbor. 
 
 The exercise of the muscles of the neck not only im- 
 proves the power and tone of the circulation but it also 
 mechanically massages the throat and related parts. 
 
 (i. Exercise 1. Neck Massage. 
 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) Press the chin down on the chest as low and as hard as pos- 
 
 sible, raising the chest to meet it. 
 
 (2) Scrape the chin along the neck as closely as possible, mak- 
 
 ing as many double chins as you can. 
 
 (3) Raise the head, look upward, and press far back. 
 
 (4) Hold this position, emphasizing it as vigorously as possible. 
 
 The pupil should try to look at the back of his head. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 In doing this exercise it is important at first not to press 
 too hard with the chin nor to strain too hard in going 
 backward, lest the untrained and amrmic muscles be over-
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 95 
 
 worked and made sore. This dampens ardor and dimin- 
 ishes determination. Begin with five times, quietly and 
 easily. Increase one or two a day to ten times. 
 
 The four counts should take four full seconds. This 
 means that it should be done at the rate of fifteen times 
 in a minute. Under no circumstances should it be done 
 any quicker, but when one becomes accustomed to the 
 exercises, it should take at least six seconds. It is harder, 
 but more effective, when done slowly. There should be an 
 interval of three to six seconds between each repetition. 
 
 The name of this exercise, "neck massage," is very well 
 justified; for there is an alternation of the strongest possi- 
 ble compression and stretching of the whole of the neck 
 within physiological limits, and if this exercise did not 
 have the additional effect of strengthening the posterior 
 muscle masses, it would be sufficiently useful for the mas- 
 sage effects alone. 
 
 In addition to the massage, it produces an important 
 effect on the back muscles of the neck which keep the head 
 erect and high. When the muscles relax, the head will fall 
 forward, because the greater part of the weight of the head 
 is in front of the spine upon which it rests. These muscles 
 are in constant contraction when the head is held up. 
 They relax when one gets sleepy and begins to nod. The 
 nodding is merely due to the temporary relaxation of these
 
 96 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 muscles, which are brought back to contraction again 
 when we awake with a start. 
 
 This exercise is unusual in more than one respect. One 
 of its peculiarities is that the fourth count does not change 
 the position but merely emphasizes the position taken on 
 the third count. This is for the specific purpose of short- 
 ening the neck muscles and illustrates the application of 
 an important physiological principle frequently used in 
 physical training, as follows: A muscle tettds to assume flic 
 position it occupies during its irork. The operation of this 
 principle may be seen in the resting position of the fingers 
 of the farm hand or coal heaver who habitually uses a 
 shovel, a pick, or some implement which must be grasped 
 and held tightly. This work requires the muscles of the 
 forearm to be kept continually shortened, with the result 
 that during rest, when the hand is no longer at work, the 
 hand still maintains the position in which it worked, and 
 remains half closed. This is why we emphasize the hard 
 overcontraction of the posterior muscles of the neck, 
 being confidently assured that if we practice it often 
 enough, they will surely tend to remain shortened and the 
 result we desire will be obtained: just as the fingers of the 
 farm laborer are kept bent after their hard work, so the 
 head will be held up. This principle is just beginning to 
 be recognized as an integral part of physical training and
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 97 
 
 is essential in procedures involving the change of posture 
 relation or position of parts of the body. It is illustrated 
 in the following exercise. 
 
 6. Exercise 2. Restricted Rotation. 
 
 Position: 
 
 Raise the arms in a "half forward bend position" with the 
 wrists rigidly straight, the hands flattened, palms toward the 
 face, thumb alongside of index finger, the pads of the index and 
 middle fingers resting lightly upon the chin. The shoulders, 
 arms, forearms, and hands are straightened upward and back- 
 ward. This position in itself straightens the spine and lifts the 
 chest and constitutes an excellent static exercise. 
 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) Head turning to the right. The head is turned squarely to 
 
 the right as far as possible, tilted slightly, but very 
 slightly, backward. 
 
 (2) Return to position. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 This exercise should be done both right and left, six to 
 twenty times. In this exercise it should be noted that the 
 hands are held in the position first shown. It should be 
 noted that the head turns away from the hand and is 
 held well back of it. This is important, for the head 
 should be held back both in position (1) and in position 
 (2). This is again putting into operation the principle
 
 98 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 given in the discussion of the first exercise. One can see 
 why it is necessary to keep the posterior muscles con- 
 tracted and the head held well back. It is evident that 
 keeping the head well back is necessary to keep the 
 muscles of the neck shortened while they are working, 
 thus putting into operation the principle indicated in 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 c. Exercise 3. Shoulder Tap. 
 
 Position: 
 
 Chin resting on right shoulder. (Caution: Do not lift the 
 right shoulder to the chin, but use every effort to place the chin 
 down and far back. Do not permit the shoulder to come for- 
 ward.) 
 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) The head is thrown back and toward the other shoulder in 
 
 an endeavor to place the back of the head upon that 
 shoulder. 
 
 (2) Return to position. The exercise continues in an alternate 
 
 endeavor to press the chin on one shoulder and the back 
 of the head upon the other shoulder. 
 
 Directions: 
 
 This should be done slowly from ten to twelve times on 
 each side. This exercise keeps the posture muscles of the 
 neck in a contracted or semi-contracted state.
 
 99 
 
 The posterior triangle of the neck extends from the ear 
 along the line of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle to the 
 top of the sternum and is very prominently shown. The 
 base of the triangle extends from the insertion of the mus- 
 cle of the sternum along the clavicle to the point of the 
 shoulder. The other side of the triangle extends in a line 
 not quite straight from the point of the shoulder upward 
 to the rear. This triangle is first stretched wide open 
 and then contracted and squeezed as much as possible. 
 
 The results of these exercises are as follows: Good pos- 
 ture of the head, good posture of the chest and back, 
 stronger muscles of the neck, improved circulation in the 
 important structures of the cervical regions, and a gen- 
 eral improvement in the whole body metabolism. 
 
 7. Abdominal Exercises. -- Good posture is a three- 
 storied affair. It concerns the head, the chest, and the 
 abdomen. We have noted the methods of raising the 
 chest by simple static exercises and the great importance 
 of the tone and development of the muscles of the neck 
 in holding the head high and raising the chest. The ab- 
 dominal features of both good and bad posture are per- 
 haps the most important of all. 
 
 The normal attitude of pre-Adamitic man was on all- 
 fours. This placed the spine and ribs above the abdom- 
 inal contents, which were suspended from them by strong
 
 100 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ligaments, with the kidneys snugly attached behind the 
 peritoneum, the intestines hanging like a bunch of grapes 
 from the mesentery, and the liver, stomach, spleen, all 
 with appropriate sustentacular ligaments. Man, on rising 
 from this horizontal position, found his abdominal con- 
 tents attached to the rear wall of the abdominal cavity, 
 instead of hanging from above. 
 
 The liver soon obtained an attachment to the dia- 
 phragm, from which it now hangs suspended as it did 
 previously from the posterior abdominal wall. The other 
 organs still retain their posterior attachments. This con- 
 stitutes an hereditary disharmony, which is constantly caus- 
 ing trouble. The kidneys are prone to leave their moor- 
 ings and slide down the back, sometimes behind their 
 peritoneal coverings and sometimes pushing the perito- 
 neum in a pouch before them. The small intestines hang 
 down from their attachments and occupy as low a space 
 as possible in the abdomen, flowing down into the pelvis, 
 their weight pressing upon the pelvic contents, i.e., rec- 
 tum, bladder, and generative organs, the lower layers of 
 this mass of intestines being pressed upon by the weight 
 of the upper. 
 
 This is bad for the pelvic organs, for they become 
 crowded, congested, and generally discommoded in action. 
 It is bad also for the intestines themselves. This condition
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 101 
 
 results in the exertion of constant pressure upon the abdom- 
 inal wall from within outward. In the erect position, 
 this outward pressure is greatest at the lower levels of the 
 abdominal wall and decreases gradually as we go upward 
 until the ribs are reached, where the dragging effect of the 
 abdominal contents begins to pull the abdominal wall in, 
 instead of pushing it out. Hence, when the abdomen is 
 weak, it assumes the shape of the ancient leather water 
 bottles which when filled were bulging and round at the 
 bottom, but sloped to a thin neck above. Not only is the 
 upper part of the abdomen drawn in, but the chest itself 
 is dragged down and sinks inward. The weighty liver 
 pulls down the diaphragm, which in turn pulls downward 
 and inward the lower ribs to which they are attached, 
 which in turn pull down the upper chest, and the bottle- 
 shaped appearance extends from pubis to neck. 
 
 This is the picture so frequently presented by the chronic 
 invalid, the man in bad posture, the man who has "never 
 taken exercise." This is the effect of gravity, that con- 
 stant force which ever drags us down toward the earth. 
 It is a picture of gravity victorious over the strength and 
 vitality of a man, the picture of a man defeated by the 
 forces of Nature. He is still erect, still possessed of a 
 certain amount of vigor and muscular strength, but Na- 
 ture is dragging him down piecemeal and has proceeded
 
 102 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 a long way toward the winning of the ever-waging tug- 
 of-war, which finally and inevitably she must win, for 
 gravity brings us all at last to rest. 
 
 The strong abdomen is a flat abdomen; therefore, it 
 should be made flat and kept flat. All that is necessary 
 in the normal individual is merely an effort of the will, 
 calling upon the abdominal muscles to contract. As a 
 rule, however, men are not normal, and the abdominal 
 muscles are incompletely under the control of the will, 
 and in many cases are half paralyzed. For ninety-nine 
 per cent, it is necessary to reeducate the individual as well 
 as to strengthen these muscles. 
 
 a. E.irrriw 1. Abdominal Contraction and Relaxation. 
 Position: 
 
 Leaning forward with the hands on the knees, which are 
 slightly bent. 
 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) Contract the abdomen, pulling it in and up as far as possible. 
 (-2) Relax the abdomen, allowing it to fall down under the pres- 
 sure of the abdominal contents. 
 
 Rate: One count to the second: two seconds to the exercise. 
 
 Repetition: Ten to thirty times. 
 
 b. E.i'crcixe ^1. Abdominal Contraction with Breathing. 
 Position: 
 
 The same a< in Exercise 1.
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 103 
 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) Abdominal contraction, the same as in Exercise 1. 
 
 (2) Breathe in (abdomen contracted). 
 
 (3) Breathe out (abdomen remains contracted). 
 
 (4) Breathe in (abdomen remains contracted). 
 
 (5) Breathe out (abdomen remains contracted). 
 
 (6) Breathe in (abdomen remains contracted). 
 
 (7) Breathe out (abdomen remains contracted). 
 
 (8) Breathe in (abdomen remains contracted. Keep it con- 
 
 tracted.) 
 
 Rate: Two seconds to each count; sixteen seconds to the ex- 
 ercise. 
 
 Repetition : Six to twelve times. 
 
 These are probably the best of all abdominal exercises 
 and are the result of many years of patient research and 
 experience. The first exercise gives a training in the vol- 
 untary control of the abdominal muscles, improving their 
 circulation and strengthening them. It forces the abdom- 
 inal contents up into the upper part of the abdomen, de- 
 creases the circumference of the lower segment, and in- 
 creases the circumference of the upper segment. In a 
 well-trained athlete, this is readily seen. The tape meas- 
 ure tells the significant tale of three and three-quarter 
 inches difference, and this is the index of the uplifting im- 
 pulse that has been given to the abdominal viscera. Chest
 
 104 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 expansion is important, but abdominal contraction is a far 
 more significant measure of vital power. 
 
 The relaxation of the abdominal walls permits the vis- 
 cera to fall again, the alternating contraction and relaxa- 
 tion causing a churning kind of massage which stimulates 
 the living tissues which form the abdominal contents, 
 and heightens their activity. The muscular structure of 
 the bowels becomes less lazy and more active, the glandu- 
 lar lining of the intestines, the actuating nervous ganglia, 
 the arteries, veins, and lymphatics all receive their appro- 
 priate mechanical stimulation, all of which is conducive to 
 health. 
 
 If the diet is even approximately near the biological 
 normal, and the condition has not lasted so long that the 
 intestinal muscles themselves have become semi-paralyzed 
 or spastic, exercises of this type will completely relieve in- 
 testinal stasis. The improvement which this makes in the 
 taut and strengthened abdominal wall gives it sufficient 
 power to support the abdominal contents. Such power is 
 tested, practiced, and improved by Exercise 2. This ex- 
 ercise (breathing with a contracted abdomen) stimulates 
 the normal tonic condition of good posture. The abdo- 
 men is first contracted and held taut while the breath is 
 taken in and allowed to go out of the lungs. This is the 
 state of att'airs which should obtain at all times during the
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 105 
 
 day, when a man sits or stands erect, and, particularly, 
 when he is standing still. 
 
 In the first exercise, the lower and inner wall of the ab- 
 domen was acted upon. In the second exercise, it is held 
 normally contracted while it is put under a rhythmical 
 strain by the movements of the chest above. It remains 
 in static contraction, which is exactly the position in 
 which it must remain during daily life. 
 
 These exercises may be used where school conditions 
 warrant. 
 
 c. Other varieties of abdominal work may be given as 
 follows : 
 
 Hanging from horizontal bar - Knee and leg raising. 
 Lying on hack Knee and leg raising. Sitting up. Touch- 
 ing toes to floor behind head. Abdominal rotation. 
 
 Standing Knee and leg raising. Trunk bending. Trunk 
 twisting. 
 
 Sitting Abdominal rotation. Leg raising. 
 Prone falling Thigh flexion. 
 
 IV. INDIRECT WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 
 
 1. Importance of the Mental Attitude. Mental states 
 express themselves in correlative body positions. Ele- 
 vated mental attitude brought about by consistent hap- 
 piness and persistent hopefulness is one of the strongest 
 influences toward good posture.
 
 106 
 
 In this connection it is interesting to note the transfer 
 from physical to mental significance of words denoting 
 mental attitude in terms of the physical expression of these 
 attitudes. The things which are high, are good; as, for 
 example, "uplifted," "high-spirited"; and the things 
 which are low, are bad, as, "depressed," "dejected," 
 "downcast." "Straight" and "crooked" are similar in- 
 stances of transferred significance. 
 
 It is the teacher's privilege by force of example and by 
 precept to cultivate high mental qualities in his pupils. 
 If the pupils are confident, they will have a bodily expres- 
 sion of confidence; if they feel uplifted and inspired, their 
 bodies are uplifted. These mental states, to a great de- 
 gree, are under their control, and it is their duty to them- 
 selves and to others to try to be happy. To have a worthy 
 pride in oneself shows in one's posture; and to be ashamed 
 of oneself likewise shows itself in a hangdog bearing. 
 
 The teacher will find that the military ideal as the ex- 
 pression of manliness, virility, and personal power ap- 
 peals to boys, whereas pride in womanliness, personal at- 
 tractiveness, and "style" appeals to girls. Pride and re- 
 spect for oneself are the strongest motives in work for 
 good posture. 
 
 2. Instruction in Hygiene. Careful attention to the 
 laws of health leading to the conservation and develop-
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 107 
 
 ment of tone and vitality is of paramount importance, 
 and no mere system of corrective exercises will ever avail 
 without it. The necessity for ample rest and sleep, for 
 fresh air day and night, for good food well masticated, for 
 bodily cleanliness, for exercise and recreation, should be 
 impressed upon the pupils, and the connection between 
 these essentials of hygienic living and the preservation of 
 health and good posture should be clearly shown. 
 
 It is wise to give the pupils a good daily hygienic rou- 
 tine and require them to follow it. Schedules of the hy- 
 gienic duties of the day may be made out by the pupils 
 and taken home for constant reference. Individual re- 
 ports may be kept by each child on the execution at home 
 of the main points of the schedule and may be brought to 
 school with or without the parent's signature. Daily in- 
 spection in the classroom is a powerful force toward clean- 
 liness and offers a concrete, definite method of giving in- 
 struction in hygiene. These methods affect daily life and 
 result in good health habits. Mere instruction alone is 
 futile. (See Appendix II.) 
 
 3. Relation of Digestion to Posture. Since tone de- 
 pends largely upon the nutrition of the muscles and ner- 
 vous system, digestion directly influences posture. Acute 
 trouble with the digestive tract causes pain which affects 
 the nervous system directly, causing temporary poor pos-
 
 108 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 ture, and chronic trouble makes for permanently bad pos- 
 ture. Indigestion is usually attended by constipation and 
 absorption of poisonous putrefactive products into the 
 blood, causing diminished nutrition, autointoxication, 
 headaches, and chronic physical depravity. Investiga- 
 tions in the relation of food to posture prove that pupils 
 who have adequate and proper food are habitually in bet- 
 ter posture than those who have inadequate or insufficient 
 food. Pupils should be taught the value of vegetables, 
 fruits, "roughage," and sufficient water in promoting di- 
 gestion and preventing constipation. 
 
 4. Relation of Bathing to Posture. Care of the skin 
 has its effect upon posture. There are two kinds of bath- 
 ing, one for cleanliness and one for tonic effect. For 
 cleanliness, two hot baths a week, with soap and brush, 
 are usually sufficient; but the cool or cold bath or shower 
 is of tonic value and should be taken daily. 
 
 5. Relation of Teeth to Posture. - The toothbrush 
 drill is a useful corrective exercise. The child should be 
 taught to brush his teeth before breakfast and before 
 going to bed, and to scrub the gums as well as the teeth. 
 An unclean mouth makes a foul breath and causes the 
 teeth to decay. Decayed teeth hold germs which often 
 cause contagious diseases, diseased tonsils, and enlarged 
 glands of the neck. Proper chewing is impossible when
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 109 
 
 the teeth are decayed, and indigestion and loss of ap- 
 petite follow. 
 
 6. Hygienic Exercises. - - Hygienic exercises are large 
 rhythmic movements of large muscle groups. They are 
 designed to create a physiological state of exercise with a 
 heightened circulation, increased breathing, and a more 
 rapid body metabolism followed by improvement in nu- 
 trition and elimination. 
 
 Exercises of this type, both formal and informal, are of 
 great importance for they produce organic and muscular 
 vigor, the bodily expression of which is good posture. 
 
 Incidentally they also increase the strength of the pos- 
 ture muscles of the abdomen, neck, and back. They are 
 fully described in the appropriate chapter. 
 
 7. Posture While Exercising. Since muscles tend to 
 assume the state in which they are exercised, it is espe- 
 cially important that good posture should be held while 
 exercising. The muscles of the neck, back, chest, and ab- 
 domen will therefore tend to maintain their shortened 
 state and to support good posture after the exercise is 
 over. 
 
 For this reason good posture is insisted upon at the 
 outset. The command ATTENTION, the first incident of 
 the lesson, means "head up," "chest high," and that the 
 body be straightened upward from the ground.
 
 110 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 During the lesson every movement should start and 
 finish in good posture. 
 
 Explanations and demonstrations of new exercises should 
 always be given while the pupils are "at ease," at which 
 time the elevated position should not he emphasized. 
 Though good posture is always desired, it is proper to 
 permit some relaxation at these times, for the muscles 
 supporting good posture occasionally need rest. If a pu- 
 pil slouches badly he should receive special attention but 
 not at a time when correction would interrupt the whole 
 class. Contrary to the usual opinion, perfection of good 
 posture should not be insisted upon at all times. In 
 growing children it frequently cannot be obtained and it 
 should never be mentioned while children are at play. 
 
 It should be insisted upon during formal exercises and 
 at attention. It will best be obtained as a habit by judi- 
 cious requirements, consistent training, habits of exercise, 
 and good hygiene, not by continual nagging. 
 
 The call to attention after a period of instruction should 
 invariably and dramatically produce a perfection of good 
 posture; an alert, high, and vigorous bearing, a sharp 
 contrast to the previous relaxation. 
 
 8. Selection of Exercises: Emphasis upon the Ex- 
 tension Element. -- A consistent effort should be made to 
 have every exercise contain a complete emphasized con-
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 111 
 
 traction of the extensor muscles of the back, shoulders, 
 and neck. Informal exercises, play and athletic move- 
 ments, seldom contain these elements; and the task of 
 strengthening and shortening the extensors rests to a large 
 extent with formal exercises. 
 
 Hence, a movement such as touching the toes and re- 
 turning to position is seldom used alone as a two-count 
 movement. A third count, such as stretching arms up- 
 ward is added and emphasized by adding "looking up- 
 ward" before returning to the starting position, making 
 the movement of four counts instead of two and produc- 
 ing a strong complete extension. Charging, trunk bend- 
 ing, trunk twisting, and the like should habitually be 
 made into four-count movements by a similar addition of 
 an extension element. 
 
 9. Emphasis in Command. - - When a four-count move- 
 ment contains an extension element, the corresponding 
 count should be emphasized. 
 
 10. Shoulder Blade Exercise. - - The shoulder blades 
 (scapulae) are held upward, backward, and inward by the 
 rhomboid muscles which run from their borders to the 
 spine. They hold the weight of the shoulders. In the 
 past, too much emphasis has been placed upon their devel- 
 opment because it was wrongly believed that the shoulders 
 should be held back. They should receive consistent
 
 112 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 attention, but not to the prejudice of more important cor- 
 rective work. It is proper to include one of the following 
 in every lesson: 
 
 Shoulder circles. Shoulders forward, upward, backward, downward. 
 Hand circles. Arms stretched sideways, palms up, hand circle 
 
 upward. (Caution: the circle is above and 
 
 back of the shoulder.) 
 Arm flinging. Arms stretching forward, flinging arms sideways 
 
 (height of eyes) with rising on toes. 
 Elbow circles. Hands on shoulders. Elbows forward, sideways, 
 
 backward down. 
 
 In all of these the posture of the head must be care- 
 fully watched. They may be used to rhythmic commands 
 in the corrective part of the lesson. 
 
 11. Rising Movements. Any upward movement of the 
 arms tends by association to raise the chest and head. 
 This effect is reinforced if there is associated with the 
 movement some elevated idea. 
 
 For example, raising the arms slowly forward, slightly 
 sideways (palms upward), and stretching them upward 
 and forward with a feeling of expressing "inspiration/' 
 lifts the chest, head, and whole body upward. 
 
 Raising the bended arms upward in front of and close 
 to the body (wrist leading) to a position over the head 
 and looking upward, has the same effect. Dance positions
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 113 
 
 indicating buoyancy, as in the Scotch dances where the 
 hand is held over the head with the wrist high, have a 
 favorable influence upon the body if they are done in a 
 manner which expresses and in turn reinforces the inher- 
 ent exuberance of the dance. 
 
 These movements are seldom used in gymnastic lessons 
 of the usual type. It is, however, important to note the 
 principle involved and it is to be hoped that a more 
 extended use of it will be made in the future. 
 
 12. The Use of Motives and Incentives. - - The desire 
 for good posture should be inculcated. The pupils should 
 realize that it is worth working for and the strongest mo- 
 tives toward consistent effort should be. aroused. 
 
 Motives are either in the pleasure or pain series. In the 
 former, the ideas of personal pride, gain, social approba- 
 tion, health, happiness, and efficiency are brought into re- 
 lation to good posture. In the latter, shame, disgrace, 
 ill health, unhappiness, and loss of efficiency are shown 
 as consequences of bad posture. The teacher should habit- 
 ually use the pleasure series and only occasionally use 
 the pain motives, for it is far better to base conduct 
 upon the anticipation of gain than upon the fear of 
 punishment. 
 
 In addition to the use of personal pride as previously 
 indicated, the commercial value of good posture frequently
 
 114 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 has a strong appeal. It is the erect manly boy and the 
 well-appearing girl that instinctively appeal to the em- 
 ployer, and good posture helps to get and keep good posi- 
 tions. It has a value in dollars and cents. 
 
 The health motive does not make a very strong appeal 
 although at times it may be used with effect. 
 
 13. Tests and Marks. - - Testing and marking posture 
 bring clearly to the student's mind his personal defects 
 and make evident to him that good posture has a value 
 in the eyes of the school authorities. They also provide 
 an incentive for improvement. 
 
 14. Triple Posture Test. - - This test was first formu- 
 lated by Miss Jessie H. Bancroft, Assistant Director of 
 Physical Training in the Brooklyn Schools; it has three 
 parts. 
 
 a. Standing Test. While the class is placed at atten- 
 tion the teacher inspects each pupil from the side. Those 
 who are unsatisfactory are placed to one side. The 
 usual defects to be noted are as follows: head forward, 
 shoulders back and hips forward, round shoulders, flat 
 chest, weight on heels, hollow back. The remainder are 
 given the next test. 
 
 /;. Marching Test. The class is marched past the 
 teacher two or three times and those who do not maintain 
 good posture are put to one side.
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 115 
 
 c. Exercise Test. Those who pass the marching test 
 are given simple exercises. Those who do not have good 
 posture habitually are usually caught off their guard. The 
 "arms upward stretching" position may be included among 
 these exercises, but it is a severe test of the mobility of 
 the shoulders as well as of good posture, and often pupils 
 or even adults cannot hold this position with the trunk 
 straight and the head erect. Those who pass all three 
 tests are put in group one; the others, in group two. 
 
 This test should be conducted at least once a month. 
 The percentage of pupils in good posture should be calcu- 
 lated and placed on the blackboard or posted. The pu- 
 pils should become interested in improving the percentage 
 month by month. 
 
 Class records should be reported to the principal and 
 a monthly chart for the whole school made and posted. 
 The percentages may be read at the assembly exercises 
 before the whole school and a spirit of rivalry developed. 
 Occasionally there may be good posture reviews and good 
 posture may be noted when fire drills are held. 
 
 A banner or trophy may be awarded to the class having 
 the best percentage. In this case it is better to have the 
 principal or the visiting physical training teacher verify 
 the percentage offered by the teachers. 
 
 In arranging the class for formal exercise it is a good
 
 116 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 plan to place the poor posture pupils in a group by them- 
 selves at one side rather than in the front. 
 
 The names of the good posture pupils may be placed 
 on the classroom blackboard or on an honor roll in the 
 gymnasium. 
 
 Occasionally the teacher may call upon the class to make 
 its own posture estimates, placing a group of pupils be- 
 fore the class and calling upon the remaining pupils to 
 give their estimate in terms of a series of numbers from 
 one to fire in which one is the best. It is surprising how 
 accurate the pupils are in their judgments. This method 
 arouses a great deal of interest. 
 
 Those who are wholly deficient in posture may be formed 
 into a "slouch class" and given special exercises when the 
 class breaks up into squads for recreation. This deprives 
 the delinquents of the pleasure of play and stimulates a 
 real desire to improve. It should be remembered that 
 play has a real value as a postural exercise and the slouch 
 class must do work which really benefits them. It should 
 never be used as a punishment. 
 
 Pupils should never be "kept in" after school merely 
 as a punishment for bad posture, although to hold an 
 after-school class for poor posture cases is a valuable pro- 
 cedure. 
 
 It is important to enlist the cooperation of the home,
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 117 
 
 for much can be done in this way. Parents are often 
 interested in good posture, for it is one of the most easily 
 observed results of physical training. 
 
 Records showing whether posture is good, fair, or poor, 
 should be placed on the monthly report card and special 
 home exercises should be assigned. 
 
 In making judgment on posture, care must be taken 
 not to blame unjustly those whose posture is very bad or 
 those who are suffering from a fixed spinal curvature, for 
 these children are frequently aware of their defects and 
 may be very sensitive. Such cases require special and 
 sympathetic care from the teacher and should always be 
 referred to the school physician. 
 
 V. THE MEASUREMENT OF POSTURE 
 
 1. Methods of Measurement. - - The measurement of 
 the posture of children in school should be made as simple 
 as possible. It should be based upon sound scientific prin- 
 ciples, but it should be relieved from the painful accu- 
 racy of scientific method. All measurements of posture, 
 whether scientific or merely practical, should be based 
 upon the recognition of the fact that good posture is an 
 evidence of good gravity resistance, for bad posture is on 
 the other hand a submission to gravity. If the child is 
 standing as tall as it is possible for his physical frame to
 
 118 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 stand, he is in good posture. If gravity pulls him down 
 an inch or two or three, he is in correspondingly bad pos- 
 ture. 
 
 Bad posture may be measured, therefore, by decrease in 
 height. This may be shown by actual measurement of 
 height or by observation of the contour of the body in 
 profile, as a poor posture will show various displacements 
 forward and backward. If, for example, we take a piece 
 of wire thirty-six inches long and lay it upon a yardstick 
 in a vertical position, it will, if the wire is perfectly 
 straight, measure just thirty-six inches. Now let us take 
 this wire and bend it slightly at the middle and call this 
 the position of "hips forward." Bend it also at twenty- 
 four inches from the ground making an "increased dorsal 
 curve." Bend it again further up to correspond to the 
 "head forward" position. Then lay it alongside the 
 yardstick and we will see that the wire, although it is 
 thirty-six inches long, only measures thirty-two or thirty- 
 three inches or possibly thirty-one inches, depending upon 
 how much we have bent it at the various points corre- 
 sponding to the hip, back, and neck. This, then, is the 
 way to measure the extent of bad posture of the mobile 
 type. 
 
 Other measures of posture may be obtained by noting 
 actual visceral ptosis: i.e., the depression of internal or-
 
 120 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 gans below their normal positions. If the abdomen bulges 
 and the chest is flat, there is bad posture and visceral 
 ptosis. 
 
 We should be able to arrive at an index of comparative 
 girths of chests and abdomens. In a healthy young man, 
 the average chest girth should be from 25 to 30 per cent 
 greater than the smallest abdominal girth; in woman it 
 may be less. The proportions of 5 to 4 are probably nor- 
 mal. This measurement is complicated by the amount of 
 abdominal fat and by other factors. Circulatory ptosis 
 can be determined by the author's test which is based 
 upon an observation of the systolic pressure and heart 
 rate in the horizontal and vertical positions. 
 
 In the schoolroom, however, we wish to measure pos- 
 ture merely to stimulate improvement. For this purpose 
 a chart showing successive photographs of the same indi- 
 vidual in positions ranging from perfect posture to very 
 poor posture is offered. This indicates that the same child 
 may, at different times, have excellent, very good, fair, 
 poor, or bad posture; that it is possible for any child to 
 have a record of either good or bad in this regard. It is evi- 
 dence on the one hand that good posture is not impossible 
 for any normal person if effort and application are used 
 and, on the other hand, it is evidence that those who 
 have good posture may, if they are not careful, lose it.
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 121 
 
 In this respect, an important distinction must be made. 
 Many children can assume good posture during a posture 
 test but make no effort to keep good posture at any other 
 time. They may have been given an A mark and placed 
 in the good posture division, but they deserve this dis- 
 tinction far less than the B posture children who try very 
 hard all the time. 
 
 I strongly recommend that tests for good posture should 
 be continued in a standard fashion; i.e., while standing, 
 marching, and exercising; but that, in addition, a rating 
 should be given for habitual posture and I suggest the fol- 
 lowing set of instructions for the teacher: 
 
 2. The Posture Rating. a. The teacher should be 
 provided with posture charts showing, in the five posture 
 positions, a child appropriate in size to her grade. 
 
 b. She will conduct a test in posture including stand- 
 ing, marching, and exercising, with one half of the class 
 acting as assistant judges while the other half is being 
 tested. 
 
 c. The pupils will be graded, as a result of this test, 
 with the letters A, B, C, D, and E corresponding to the 
 pictures on the chart. 
 
 d. The teacher will observe the posture habit of pupils 
 in their daily work, particularly when they are standing 
 for recitation of lessons, writing at the blackboard, and
 
 GOOD POSTURE 
 
 TEST 
 
 BCD 
 
 A GOOD-POSTURE POSTKR FOR THE CLASSROOM 
 
 (Used in the public schools of Michigan)
 
 123 
 
 marching to assembly, and she will rate the pupils on 
 their habitual posture according to the numerals 1 to 5 on 
 the posture chart. 
 
 It is preferable to have one or more posture monitors 
 selected because of their superiority in physical training 
 and good posture, and it should be his or their duty to 
 record the ratings of the fellow pupils and thus save the 
 teacher time and trouble. Such helpers should not be per- 
 mitted to nag and browbeat fellow pupils as monitors are 
 sometimes prone to do. 
 
 The rating for habit in posture should be in numerals 
 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, referring to the values exhibited on the 
 chart. Thus we will have each pupil rated by letter and 
 by number very much as business organizations are rated 
 in Dun's financial report. A will stand for the best pos- 
 ture in test, but the pupil in order to get a rating of Al 
 must habitually stand in good posture, for if he slumps he 
 may get a rating of A3 or even A4 or Ao. A pupil in C 
 posture may be rated C4 or C5 depending upon his pos- 
 ture habit. It is theoretically possible for a pupil in C 
 posture to be 2 or even 1 on habit, because some pupils 
 during the test have an inconquerable tendency to assume 
 rigid over-straightened posture which cannot be rated as 
 perfect; but when unconscious of observation, they sit 
 and stand perfectly.
 
 CORRECTIVE WORK FOR GOOD POSTURE 125 
 
 Pupils and teachers alike take quickly and easily to 
 these ratings for Al has a well understood significance the 
 world over and all departures from it have a common 
 meaning. 
 
 VI. SUMMARY 
 
 Good posture is important not as a thing in itself but 
 as an evidence of the sturdy vitality of which it is an ex- 
 pression. Teachers who work for the Health, Happiness, 
 and Efficiency of their pupils will lead them often into 
 the bright sunshine for their exercises, dances, and games. 
 They will open the windows frequently and direct stretch- 
 ing and static exercises. They will bring the sunshine of 
 happy, high idealism into the classroom, and they will 
 personally exemplify the beauty of wholesomeness. Not 
 everyone is given the privilege of making deep and lasting 
 impressions upon the lives of so many persons as is the 
 school teacher.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 
 
 1. Definition of Physical Education. - - Except for its 
 prime service toward health, the greatest function of phys- 
 ical training is physical education., the development of skill 
 in movement. 
 
 2. Motor Skill. Adults differ greatly in motor skill. 
 Some are deft, accurate, graceful, and confident in every 
 movement; others show obviously their lack of motor 
 training in their slow, careful movements, their inability 
 to run, jump, climb, throw, dance, swim, or engage in 
 any kind of sports with success, and in their inability to 
 learn anything new rapidly. The former are motor ex- 
 perts and the latter are motor dullards. 
 
 In the training of the soldier, the two phases of phys- 
 ical training, the hygienic and educational, are clearly 
 shown. He is given heavy setting-up exercises, vigorous 
 games, and hikes to develop organic vigor and muscular 
 endurance. On the other hand he is thoroughly ''discip- 
 lined" and trained to do invariably the right thing at 
 the right time and in the right wav 
 
 126
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 127 
 
 He is taught to march correctly in proper relation to 
 his fellows in the squad and company, to handle his rifle, 
 to fight with a bayonet, to throw a grenade, and the like 
 in a prescribed manner and with the perfection of accur- 
 acy, and withal to be "smart," alert, and ready with a 
 background of skill that makes for adaptability and confi- 
 dent initiative. This is physical education. 
 
 The educational purpose of physical training is to ren- 
 der every movement of daily life accurate in application 
 and economical in energy, to be able to meet any motor 
 emergency, to be accomplished and graceful in game, 
 sport, and dance, and to be rapid in learning any new 
 form of work. 
 
 I. THE MOTOR MECHANISM 
 
 1. The Body's Motor Mechanism. - The motor mech- 
 anism of the body consists of the bones, ligaments, and 
 muscles under the direction of the motor and sensory 
 nerves, spinal cord, and brain. 
 
 2. The Bones. - - The bones are merely the servants of 
 the muscles as these in turn are directed by the nervous 
 system. Although they are not subject to education in 
 the ordinary meaning of the term, yet as they grow they 
 are shaped; they harden into the forms best fitted to sup- 
 port the body efficiently and to serve the purposes of ha-
 
 128 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 bitual forms of movement. To a great extent, therefore, 
 the kind of exercises taken during youth determines the 
 details of their structural form. 
 
 To a far greater degree the general structure of the 
 bones is a result of the kinds of movements habitually 
 used by countless generations of our ancestors, and they 
 owe their present shapes to the fact that our forebears 
 ran, jumped, climbed, threw, swam, and fought. There- 
 fore in a sense, training does produce a difference in the 
 bones. 
 
 3. The Ligaments. - - The ligaments, discharging their 
 function of binding the bones together, are subject to the 
 same laws of individual and ancestral education, but are 
 more plastic and subject to modification. 
 
 4. The Muscles. Aside from the fact that muscles 
 may be made larger, stronger, harder, and shorter, by 
 exercise, they are not subject to education. They have 
 no skill in themselves, but are merely dumb servants of 
 the central nervous system guided by the will. They con- 
 tract quickly or slowly, more or less, as they are directed. 
 A motor dullard may have a muscular equipment pre- 
 cisely similar to that of a motor expert and yet remain a 
 motor dullard. 
 
 5. The Motor Nerves. -- Motor nerves are formed of 
 the axis cvlinder branches of the motor cells found in the
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 
 
 129 
 
 anterior horn of the spinal cord and in various places in 
 the biain. These axis cylinders grow out from the cells 
 and make their way to the muscles in all parts of the 
 body, where they branch and end in motor plates which 
 
 Spinal 
 Cord 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SCHEMA OF SPINAL CORD 
 
 (Showing motor and sensory nerves) 
 
 transmit the motor impulse and stimulate the contraction 
 of the muscle. The motor cells in the spinal cord and 
 in the brain may receive their signal to cause muscular 
 contraction either from the other parts of the brain con- 
 cerned in movement or from cells in the spinal cord or 
 from other sensory cells attached to the nerves which 
 bring the sensory impulse to the spinal cord.
 
 130 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 6. The Sensory Nerves. - - The fact that all movement 
 is guided by some sensation received from a sense organ 
 such as the eye or ear, or from the skin, makes it import- 
 ant to consider the sensory nerves a part of the motor 
 mechanism. The sensory nerves come from the surface, 
 bringing information. Some carry impressions of touch, 
 temperature, pressure, and movement; others have the 
 special duties of carrying light, sound, taste, and smell. 
 These latter, however, do not go to the spinal column, 
 but directly to the brain. The nature of the sensory 
 stimulus going in from the surface determine the resultant 
 action. Thus the gymnastic command must be heard and 
 the demonstration must be seen, before the pupil can do 
 the movement. 
 
 7. Reflex Action. Some movements are so common 
 and so invariably appropriate that they do not need con- 
 sideration, and therefore they are done without the gui- 
 dance of the brain. Such a movement is called reflex, 
 and is the simplest form of motor work. The familiar 
 example is the withdrawing of the hand from a hot stove. 
 \Ye say we take it away before we know it. This is called 
 a spinal reflex because it is managed entirely by the spinal 
 cord, which receives the sensory impulse from the hand 
 through the sensory nerve. The motor cells in the an- 
 terior horn of the spinal cord are immediately stimulated.
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 
 
 131 
 
 They send out motor impulses to the appropriate muscles 
 and the hand is drawn quickly away from danger. While 
 this action seems to take place almost at once; yet, in the 
 interval, the sensory impulse has traveled up to the brain 
 and we realize that the stove was hot and are conscious 
 of the fact that the hand has been withdrawn. If any 
 
 Motor Cell 
 
 Anterior 
 
 Motor Root 
 
 Spinal Nerve 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 Sensory Root 
 Sensory Cell 
 
 A CROSS SECTION OF THE SPINAL CORD 
 (Showing the course of a spinal reflex) 
 
 further movements are necessary, such as binding up the 
 injured fingers, the brain takes charge of the matter and 
 the necessary muscular work is consciously directed. The 
 course traveled by the spinal reflex is known as the reflex 
 arc. 
 
 While only one sensory impulse may come to the spinal 
 cord, many motor impulses may be aroused and sent out. 
 The withdrawal of the finger from the stove requires the 
 contraction of the flexors of the arm and shoulder, and
 
 132 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 sometimes those of the trunk and of almost all of the 
 body. This distribution of the sensory impulse to the 
 many motor cells in different parts of the spinal cord, is 
 caused by the stimulation of certain cells in the spinal 
 cord which have many branches running to many motor 
 cells. There exist in the spinal cord a multitude of mech- 
 anisms such as these, all arranged so that appropriate re- 
 sponse may be made to a large series of common, every- 
 day emergencies to which the reaction has become so ha- 
 bitually correct that nature can always accomplish it 
 without conscious direction. Such movements are heredi- 
 tary. The race has learned them well; and the spinal 
 cord can be trusted to do them, always in the same way, 
 through unconscious coordination. 
 
 Thus nature has developed a definite and complete 
 series of different kinds of motor skill in every human 
 being, and for thousands of years she has been conducting 
 lifelong courses in physical education. 
 
 8. The Cerebellum and the Lower Automatic Motor 
 Nuclei. - - The cerebellum and the lower automatic motor 
 nuclei of the brain are composed of cells which have many 
 branches leading down to the cells of the motor nerves in 
 the spinal cord. The cerebellum is under the control of 
 higher levels of the brain from which the general direc- 
 tions for bodily movements are given. One of the main
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 
 
 133 
 
 duties of the cerebellum and the large collections of cells 
 in the motor nuclei of the brain is to conduct automatic 
 movements. These movements, such as walking, running, 
 
 Ce//s in Motor Area 
 
 Ce//s in Sensory Area 
 
 Cerebrum 
 
 Cerebel/um 
 
 {Coordination 
 CentreJ 
 
 Spin a/ Cord 
 
 Motor fmpu/ses J, IT Sensory fmpu/ses 
 
 DlAGHVM OF THE M.U\ SENSORY AND MOTOR P.YTHS OF THE BRAIN 
 
 swimming, and even dancing and game movements, must 
 first be learned with a great deal of care and conscious di- 
 rection. The process of learning is the process of physical 
 education. It consists very largely in the training of the 
 lower motor cells to make the arms and legs work to-
 
 134 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 gether appropriately and gracefully, by a process of coor- 
 dination. In learning to walk, for instance, many trials 
 are made until the lower motor nuclei finally are trained 
 so that they can continue the movement without our con- 
 scious thought. It then becomes automatic. 
 
 Many of the movements of the body, such as throwing, 
 jumping, stooping, lifting, etc. are apparently quite simple, 
 but they really involve the contraction of a large number 
 of muscles of the body, all working correctly and in proper 
 order. Practically all our large gymnastic and game 
 movements are of this type. The task of sending all the 
 motor signals down the spinal cord to elicit the proper re- 
 sponse from the many muscles involved, is discharged by 
 the cells in the lower levels of the brain. 
 
 9. The Motor Area. - - The higher levels of motor con- 
 trol are in the cerebrum, which is the upper part of the 
 brain, and is most highly developed in man. Here there 
 are millions of cells with processes running down to the 
 cerebellum and lower motor nuclei and also straight down 
 to the motor cells of the spinal cord. These higher cells 
 are found in the motor area around the fissure of Rolando 
 which runs from a point on the brain just above the ear 
 upward toward the top of the head. They are grouped 
 in smaller areas corresponding to the face, arm, head, 
 trunk, and leg. The stimulation of any one of these cells
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 135 
 
 by electricity will cause a corresponding movement. When 
 we decide, for instance, to raise the right knee, the special 
 cells in front of the fissure of Rolando send impulses down 
 to the motor cells in the spinal cord in the lumbar region, 
 and the knee is raised. At the same time they send mes- 
 sages to the cerebellum and elsewhere and the muscles 
 of the trunk and the other leg are slightly contracted so 
 that the balance of the body is preserved. The cells of 
 the cerebrum give general directions for the movement. 
 The cells in the spinal cord distribute these instructions 
 among the muscles and at the same time the cells in the 
 cerebrum and in the other motor nuclei are sending addi- 
 tional instructions down the spinal cord for other mus- 
 cular contractions which must be associated with the main 
 movement in order that it may be complete, accurate, and 
 effective. 
 
 10. The Sensory Area. - - In giving an exercise to a class 
 the teacher describes it and may also give a demonstration 
 for the pupils to follow. The description is heard and the 
 demonstration is seen in the auditory and visual centers of 
 the brain. From these centers nerve fibers run to the 
 motor centers just described and acquaint the cells with 
 the nature of the movement desired. In addition there 
 is another area known as the kinesthetic area, which re- 
 ceives sensations from all parts of the body; these ac-
 
 136 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 quaint the brain with the position of the arm, leg, or 
 trunk, with the amount of strain which each part is under- 
 going, and with the nature of the movement under way. 
 In the exercise previously described, where the knee is 
 raised and the body balanced on one foot, every part of 
 the body is sending sensory impulses to this kinesthetic 
 area informing it of how the balance is being kept. This 
 area in turn conveys the information to the motor area, 
 which is then concerned in sending out messages in an 
 endeavor to keep the balance. 
 
 It can be seen, therefore, that nature has provided us 
 with a vastly complex nervous mechanism, which can ac- 
 complish, of its own accord, many ordinary movements 
 which by training can also become capable of more effi- 
 cient adjustment and each part of which has a different 
 and distinct function. In addition this mechanism pro- 
 vides a system of unconscious coordination of muscular 
 contractions which may perfect and complete any move- 
 ment we may desire to make. 
 
 The work of physical education is to make these move- 
 ments accurate, skilled, and controlled. 
 
 II. TYPES OF MOVEMENT 
 
 1. Instinctive Movements. -- Instinctive movement is 
 the result of a natural inherited tendency to react in an
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 137 
 
 appropriate manner to any common need for action. We 
 instinctively recoil when a blow is aimed at us. In the 
 main these actions are managed by the lower motor cen- 
 ters although they are in varying degrees under conscious 
 control. They are inborn, natural movements, and form 
 a large part of life. 
 
 2. Habitual Movements. - - Habitual movements are 
 those which have been consciously learned and are done 
 so often that they become automatic, or relatively auto- 
 matic, and are removed in great part from conscious 
 direction. Such movements are involved in walking, dress- 
 ing, eating, and the like. 
 
 3. Natural vs. Unnatural Movements. So far as gym- 
 nastics are concerned, movements fall into two classes, 
 natural and unnatural. A natural movement is one which 
 occurs in the ordinary affairs of daily life. As a rule these 
 movements are learned without formal training. Mothers 
 naturally act as physical training teachers when they teach 
 children how to walk, and fathers and big brothers serve 
 likewise when they teach children how to jump, climb, 
 swim, and throw. This is an informal, almost instinctive 
 method. These movements can be regulated and improved 
 by physical training, and they form the basis of all kinds 
 of athletics and athletic games. One of the greatest fields 
 for the physical training teacher and the teacher of ath-
 
 138 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 letics is making these movements more skilled. Throw- 
 ing, for example, is a crude natural ability which may be 
 developed to its highest degree, as in the training of a 
 baseball pitcher, who must be able to curve the ball over 
 the corner of the plate just where he wishes it to go. 
 
 Unnatural movements are those which are not com- 
 monly found in nature, and are frequently upward, or are 
 such movements as those of arms stretching sideways or 
 arms circling. 
 
 In the main, natural movements use only about the 
 middle third of the possible arc of movement. That is to 
 say, the arms are seldom stretched completely straight nor 
 are they bended to the fullest extent. The middle part 
 of the arc is that field where movements are best controlled 
 and most powerful, because that section is used most and 
 the leverage of the muscle works to the best advantage 
 there. Unnatural movements are used in formal gym- 
 nastics and provide an opportunity for complete exten- 
 tion and flexion through the distal and proximal ends of 
 the arc. 
 
 4. Definite vs. Indefinite Movements. - - Indefinite 
 movements are as a rule natural, and as such they occupy 
 the middle third of the arc. They are movements in which 
 exactness in the beginning and ending are of little import- 
 ance so long as the part moved traverses the desired course
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 139 
 
 and the appropriate work is done. For instance, in throw- 
 ing a ball, the position of the hand in the beginning of 
 the throw and its position after the ball has left it, are 
 comparatively immaterial. The important elements are 
 the speed and direction of movement of the hand 
 holding the ball, and its action just as the ball is re- 
 leased. 
 
 A definite movement, on the contrary, starts from a 
 certain exact location, goes through a prescribed course, 
 and arrives and stops at an exact terminus, as for instance 
 in the exercise, "starting from the hips-firm position, 
 stretch arms sideways at the height of the eyes." 
 
 III. CONTROL AND COORDINATION 
 
 1. Objective vs. Subjective Control. - - The difference 
 between objective and subjective control depends not so 
 much upon the character of the movement as upon the 
 thought in the mind of the person exercising. In objective 
 control the mind is directed toward what will happen as a 
 result of the movement. For instance, in throwing a ball, 
 the thrower visions the ball arriving at a certain place; a 
 skilled skater in making a "grapevine" is thinking of the 
 diagram made by the skates upon the ice. The ball 
 player does not think of the position of his head, shoul- 
 ders, arms, and hands; nor does the skater consider the
 
 140 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 movements of the trunk, arms, and legs. The skilled 
 jumper in running at the bar thinks mainly of going over 
 it; he does not pay attention to all of the movements of 
 his legs and the many details of muscular contraction 
 which will be accomplished as he makes his jump. 
 
 Subjective control, however, is centered upon the mov- 
 ing part of the body. The mind is conscious of the posi- 
 tion of the part in motion and is endeavoring to control 
 the movement. This is the characteristic mental condi- 
 tion in learning any exercise. It is used especially in 
 gymnastics when we call for definite movements, and it is 
 used in training for superior skill in natural movements. 
 In learning how to throw a curve, the pitcher must study 
 very carefully the movement of shoulder, arm, wrist, and 
 fingers. When the various movements become habitual 
 or automatic, his attention is relieved from these details 
 and is more concerned with the objective result of his 
 effort. 
 
 2. Coordination and Isolation. -- Coordination is the 
 working together of the body parts. It is usually, though 
 not necessarily, unconscious. Isolation is the contraction of 
 a muscle or set of muscles without the contraction of other 
 muscles which are usually associated with it, or the execu- 
 tion of a part of a movement isolated with it, or the 
 execution of a part of a movement isolated from move-
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 141 
 
 ments ordinarily accompanying it. For example, in open- 
 ing or closing the hand, ordinarily all the fingers move in 
 unison; their movements are coordinated and they func- 
 tion easily. If only one finger is raised, however, an iso- 
 lation, an unnatural breaking up of the coordination oc- 
 curs. It is difficult for a person to flex one finger when he 
 is accustomed to flex all four simultaneously. 
 
 Ability to make isolated movements is dependent upon 
 muscular control. Awkwardness occurs when coordina- 
 tions are not well put together, or are not appropriate to 
 their purpose or harmonious in their relation to each 
 other. In short they are not skilled. Part of the duty of 
 physical training is by means of isolation to change poor 
 coordinations into good coordinations until the latter be- 
 come habitual. 
 
 3. Analytic-Synthetic Method. - - When a new coordi- 
 nation or a new exercise is to be taught, it can sometimes 
 be done better by one method than by another. The 
 analytic-synthetic method is usually preferable. In using 
 this method, the teacher considers the composition of the 
 movement; for instance, he analyzes the various motions 
 entering into a natural movement such as walking, or into 
 a comparatively unnatural movement such as putting the 
 shot, and cuts them up, making a separate exercise of each 
 motion. He teaches these separate parts under subjective
 
 142 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 control, to response commands. When by this method of 
 isolation he has the proper motions established in the 
 pupil's mind, he puts them together and goes through 
 them as a series of movements, in the natural rhythm, 
 whereupon he achieves coordination, leading to objective 
 control and transition from voluntary to automatic move- 
 ment. In other words, it is a process of cutting up, of 
 analysis; and also of synthesis, of putting together again. 
 This method may be used in improving natural move- 
 ments or in teaching unnatural movements. It is the sci- 
 entific, formal method of teaching gymnastic work. Its 
 great advantage is that it gives definiteness, correct tech- 
 nique, and perfection of form. 
 
 4. Mimetic-Objective Method. --In the case of coordi- 
 nations which are not analyzed, such as walking, skip- 
 ping, and the like, and which are hereditary or are al- 
 ready learned, the teacher may begin at once with object- 
 ive control. The coordination is left entirely to the pu- 
 pils. This is the mimetic-objective method; mimetic, in 
 that the pupils simply watch the teacher and then try to 
 do it just as he did; objective, because the pupil's atten- 
 tion is centered mainly upon the movement to be done 
 rather than upon the moving part of the body. This is 
 teaching by imitation, teaching the thing as a whole in 
 contradistinction to teaching it in parts and putting it to-
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 143 
 
 gether. It is a natural method, under objective control, 
 and lends itself well to the teaching of some forms of free 
 and informal dancing. Its advantage is that it is easy and 
 rapid, but it has limitations in that important points are 
 often overlooked, inaccuracies creep in, and technique, a 
 "form," which is dependent upon subjective control, is 
 not secured. In some cases, this destroys the whole re- 
 sult, because grace is primarily dependent upon accuracy. 
 Where precision is to be desired, the mimetic-objective 
 method is less appropriate; where amplitude of move- 
 ment and much exercise is the object, the method is ex- 
 cellent. Thus it answers well the purposes of folk dancing 
 but not so w T ell those of aesthetic dancing. 
 
 IV. RESULTS OF EDUCATIONAL WORK 
 
 1. Results to be Obtained from Educational Work. - 
 The prime educational purpose of teaching muscular ex- 
 ercises is to use them afterward in gymnastics, games, or 
 in later life. In addition physical education seeks to de- 
 velop various desirable qualities characteristic of expert 
 physical movements. These qualities are mental rather 
 than physical, though they receive physical expression. 
 They are the results of training the mind and nervous 
 system rather than the muscles. It is essential that the 
 pupils should know what results are desired and should
 
 144 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 take an interest and pride in obtaining them. But the 
 teacher must understand the mental and physical results 
 that are to be sought. 
 
 2. Accuracy. Accuracy is of two kinds, exactness of 
 position and precision in time. Accuracy of position de- 
 pends upon the accuracy of the movement by which the 
 body arrives at the position and the correctness of the po- 
 sition itself. It depends upon knowledge of the move- 
 ment and of the position not only by means of the ear 
 and eye, but also by means of muscular sensations. The 
 movement must be made at the right time, and, if one of 
 a series, in the proper sequence. Formal exercises to re- 
 sponse commands are designed primarily to get accuracy 
 of position, under subjective control. 
 
 3. Aids in Getting Accuracy. Accurate response de- 
 pends much upon good presentation of the exercise, a 
 clear preparatory command, and a sufficiently long pause. 
 Simplicity is helpful. The exercise should be well within 
 the ability of the pupil and but one thing should be taught 
 at a time. Every movement should be accurately accom- 
 plished before another is attempted. The teacher should 
 correct faulty performance of individual pupils with the 
 least possible interruption to class work. In addition to 
 the effort thus required of the teacher, accuracy is like- 
 wise dependent upon the pupils' attention, interest, and
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 145 
 
 desire to cooperate. They should take pride in accurate 
 performance and continually endeavor to improve. 
 
 4. Alertness. Alertness is a state of mind and body 
 prepared for immediate action. In its mental phase, it is 
 based upon attention or sensory receptiveness, the mind 
 and senses open. In its motor phase, it is the preadjust- 
 ment of the body for any emergency a tightening of 
 the muscles, a setting ready of all the body parts that are 
 to join in the movement. Alertness is shown in the abil- 
 ity of the pupil to react at once to the executive com- 
 mand. This ability depends in part upon his understand- 
 ing that quick response is desired and in part upon his in- 
 terested endeavor to comply. If there is any delay, he is 
 not alert, and something is wrong with his sensory or 
 motor responsiveness. He must know exactly what to do 
 and must have sufficient time to prepare himself to exe- 
 cute the movement. 
 
 The stimulus of the teacher's voice giving a clear and 
 decisive signal to move, and his alert, interested manner, 
 have much to do with inspiring a brisk response. The re- 
 sult is shown in the time of movement, and may be meas- 
 ured by unanimity of action on the part of the class. If 
 such a response is not secured, the exercise should be re- 
 peated, attention being called to laggards. 
 
 The teacher should not lose sight of the fact that fre-
 
 146 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 quently failure on the part of the pupil is due not to the 
 latter's want of alertness, but to improperly given com- 
 mands. 
 
 5. Inhibition. - - Inhibition is the ability to withhold 
 from action until the proper time. It is a mental quality 
 of restraint or control, and is related to advancement in 
 the biological scale and in personal culture. 
 
 In the giving of response commands, inhibition may be 
 practiced through the use of long and varied pauses. The 
 longer the pause the greater is the inhibition. 
 
 The pupils should not at any time begin a movement 
 before the executive part of the command is given, and 
 they should not know when to expect the signal to move. 
 To insure inhibition training, the pauses in the commands 
 should be varied. If the pupils err in this regard, and 
 move too soon they may be recalled to position and the 
 exercise may be started anew. 
 
 The principle of surprise may be employed judiciously 
 also in varying the sequence of the counts. The tension 
 or strain of restraint may be increased by the substitution 
 of such words as "ready!" "now!" when the pupil natu- 
 rally expects the executive command. This method should 
 not be practiced to excess. The voice may be changed 
 suddenly, not only by raising it and speaking louder, but 
 by lowering it and decreasing the volume.
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 147 
 
 In the foregoing ways the teacher may guard against 
 rhythmic effect. This is important, for when the response 
 command becomes rhythmic, inhibition is lost. 
 
 6. Speed. Speed is a desirable result of physical 
 training. It may occur in the single movement in re- 
 sponse to the single command or in a series of movements 
 done to counts. In response to a single command speed 
 depends largely upon the tone in which the command is 
 given; if the command is given briskly, the response will 
 be rapid, and, on the other hand, if the command is given 
 languidly, the response will be spiritless and slow. 
 
 Speed in sequence depends upon the rapidity with which 
 successive commands are given, or, in other words, upon 
 the length of the pause between the different commands. 
 Xo definite rate of speed can be laid down. The pace of 
 the movement should be that naturally appropriate to 
 the purpose in hand. It should always be brisk; never 
 slow. As a general guide, the military cadence of one 
 hundred and twenty steps to the minute will usually be 
 correct for most exercises, though in some, especially those 
 involving a change of base, this rate will be entirely too fast. 
 
 On the part of the pupil, the conditions necessary to 
 speed are knowledge of the exercise, alert attention to the 
 command, appropriate preadjustment and control, and, 
 finally, energetic effort.
 
 148 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 7. Grace. -- Grace in movement is the sign of perfec- 
 tion. It depends upon familiarity with the exercise and 
 upon the proficiency in coordination and isolation. These 
 are the results of accuracy. A movement to be grace- 
 ful must be true, exact, and appropriate to the occasion. 
 The ease and facility which are essential to grace are con- 
 tingent upon margin of power. Behind any performance 
 that is designed to be graceful there must be a reserve of 
 power not in operation. If there is an appearance of ef- 
 fort, the movement is not graceful. There must be an 
 appearance of ease, of superabundance of power, of 
 muscular ability far in excess of the immediate require- 
 ment. 
 
 8. Economy. Economy of movement depends upon ac- 
 curate adaptation to a particular need. It is the result 
 of knowledge and practice, and is the use of just enough 
 energy as is required to make a given movement. For 
 example, in playing tennis, some players seem to move 
 very easily, they are always in the right place at the 
 right time, without a single false motion, whereas others 
 rush anxiously to the place where the ball will probably 
 fall, and adjust themselves several times, with the waste 
 of a considerable amount of energy. These latter players 
 are neither graceful nor economical. The qualities of 
 grace and economy have much the same basic elements.
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 149 
 
 9. Reflex Mental Results. Accuracy, alertness, speed, 
 inhibition, grace, and economy aid reflexly in the devel- 
 oping of the allied mental qualities of concentration, di- 
 rectness, and clearness of thought. To a certain extent, 
 one trained to accuracy and alertness in gymnastics is apt 
 to be similarly accurate and alert in mental operations. 
 Failure to get these results in the gymnastic training, 
 likewise tends toward general habits of inaccuracy. 
 
 10. Aesthetic Mental Training. -- Bodily positions and 
 movements affect the mind, and per contra, mental states 
 have correlative physical positions or movements. Under 
 the Delsarte system of physical training, these two oper 
 ations were classified as impression, or the arousing of 
 ideas or emotions by placing the body in corresponding 
 positions, and expression, or the reproduction in bodily 
 movement of mental experience. 
 
 11. Impression. - - Bodily positions and movements 
 make their impressions upon the mind. A thought may 
 be introduced into the mind or a given mental state may 
 be induced by putting the body into a position naturally 
 correlative with that thought or emotion. Thus the cor- 
 relative of fear is a crouching position, while the correla- 
 tive of courage is an erect, bold attitude. There is a whole 
 series of these analogous poses. In the main, those posi- 
 tions which are gained by extension, by the contraction
 
 150 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 of the extensor muscles, belong to the pleasure series and 
 correspond to the good things of the mind, while those 
 positions which are flexed belong to the pain series and 
 correspond to fear, depression, and the bad things of the 
 mind. In educational and hygienic work, as well as in 
 dancing, it is wise to emphasize the extended positions 
 and avoid the flexed positions. 
 
 12. Expression. - The want of adequate expression is 
 one of the most unfortunate lacks of modern life. Many 
 ideas and feelings that would be of value do not find out- 
 let because in the means of expression available, chiefly 
 voice and movement, skill is wanting. By means of 
 gymnastics, dances, and games, physical training teachers 
 are increasing knowledge in the technique of expression 
 through movement. Allied with their" work are schools 
 of dancing, of dramatic art, of voice culture, and the like. 
 
 In aesthetic dancing, every movement, every position, 
 is the representation of some thought or emotion. It may 
 be a mimetic expression, the actual mimicking of the 
 movements of some person or of some movement iu na- 
 ture, as in the folk dance known as the Shoemaker's Dance 
 or in the waving of arms to signify the shaking of trees 
 in the wind. Likewise an idea or a quality found in 
 nature, such as sunlight, air, or space, may be expressed in 
 motion. Human emotions form a field by themselves, and
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORK 151 
 
 are expressed in naturally correlated movements. Finally, 
 and entering less into the direct realm of physical train- 
 ing, is symbolic expression, the endeavor to express in 
 movement or attitude some abstraction, to present the 
 epitome of an idea by means of positions or movements 
 which shall stand for a series of thoughts, emotions, or 
 qualities.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 
 
 All muscular movements are brought about by the ac- 
 tion of the nervous system, and therefore, every exercise 
 is, not only muscular movement, but a more or less com- 
 plicated action of the nervous system as well. In so far 
 as the action of the nervous system in connection with 
 the muscular movement is increased in skill, the process 
 is educational. In a sense, therefore, all (except reflex, 
 automatic, and instinctive) movements are educational in 
 proportion to the possibility of their being learned or im- 
 proved. 
 
 \Vhen we desire to learn an exercise or to improve an 
 exercise already learned, such an exercise is educational 
 and should be taught as such. 
 
 AVhen we use exercises purely for the purpose of prac- 
 tice and improvement in some of the various forms of 
 general motor skill, such as alertness, accuracy, and inhi- 
 bition, such exercises also are primarily educational and 
 should be so taught and used. 
 
 1. Definition of Educational Exercises. -- Educational 
 exercises are those which are used primarily to be learned 
 for future use or for the purpose of the development of 
 
 152
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 153 
 
 precision, alertness, inhibition, and other forms of motor 
 skill. 
 
 Educational exercises are sufficiently important to be 
 attacked directly, definitely, and whole-heartedly, with- 
 out compromise; with a single-minded effort to obtain the 
 desired educational results. They are therefore placed in 
 a separate section of the physical training lesson devoted 
 exclusively to this purpose. This satisfies the principle of 
 concentration and permits the teacher, first, to select the 
 most appropriate exercise for the purpose; second, to use 
 the most appropriate method of teaching it; and third, to 
 place all of his attention upon the getting of the desired 
 educational results. 
 
 2. Kinds of Educational Exercises. --In the main edu- 
 cational exercises are of two general kinds: 
 
 (1) Exercises to be learned for future use in physical 
 training or in the affairs of life. 
 
 (2) Exercises used for the development of general motor 
 skill. 
 
 The common practice of teaching a corrective, hygienic, 
 or recreative exercise and then immediately using it for 
 its corrective, hygienic, or recreative purpose is admissi- 
 ble if there is a clear distinction made between the teach- 
 ing and the use. It is, however, generally better to group 
 together exercises of a like kind.
 
 154 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 I. LEARNING EXERCISES FOR FUTURE USE 
 
 AYhile some educational gymnastic exercises are of value 
 only for the training that results from their use, other 
 movements are learned so thai they may subsequently be 
 of use, either in the course of physical training or in after 
 life. 
 
 1. For Further Use in Physical Training. Almost all 
 gymnastic exercises must be taught before they can be 
 used, and during this process they are educational. Even 
 natural exercises such as running and walking are subject 
 to modification and improvement by teaching. 
 
 For example, corrective exercises (for good posture) 
 must be taught and learned thoroughly before they can 
 be practiced and the results obtained in fullest measure. 
 Hygienic exercises, usually used to rhythmic commands, 
 should first be taught and practiced to response com- 
 mands until the movements are learned to precision. 
 
 Mimetic exercises, taken from games and athletics, must 
 be taught, and the process of athletic coaching involves 
 instruction and the learning of movements of a gymnastic 
 nature. All these processes are educational. 
 
 2. For Use in Later Life. --In many ways physical 
 training has an educational service for future life. Train- 
 ing in games and athletics develops a skill in their per- 
 formance and an interest in them which will lead to health-
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 155 
 
 ful and salutary leisure-improving occupation in after life; 
 and one of the most important purposes of physical train- 
 ing is to give children and adults the taste and desire to 
 use their idle time in profitable recreation. This they will 
 not do unless they have some reasonable degree of skill. 
 
 Exercises for the prevention and correction of flat foot 
 should be learned by every one, for the modern decrease 
 of daily exercise and increase in standing has caused this 
 disability to become almost universal. 
 
 Other gymnastic exercises are taught for various other 
 purposes. Included in the New York City Course of 
 Study are exercises relating to "emergency jumps," which 
 are training for correct action under conditions of stress. 
 It is worth while, always, if time and opportunity permit, 
 to teach children how to walk and sit, and how to rise 
 from a chair with grace and ease. 
 
 There are allied fields which engage in physical training 
 but which are not usually within the physical training 
 teacher's province -- the teaching of handwriting, type- 
 writing, manual training, shop work, trade movements, 
 and the like -- these are all physical training and the 
 process of instruction is subject to the same method as are 
 educational exercises. 
 
 3. Value of the Process of Learning. - The learning 
 process itself is also of use. Every time a child makes a
 
 156 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 conscious effort to learn a movement and succeeds, he 
 gains facility in the process of learning and becomes more 
 able to learn. He develops confidence in his ability and 
 is more likely to say, "I'll try" and essay a task than to 
 say, "Oh, I can't" and refuse to make an effort. This is 
 especially true when a teacher uses a good method of pres- 
 entation and development. Its results are that children 
 who have been taught gymnastics and who have learned 
 athletic games become quick to "pick up" anything, and 
 are likely to become rapidly skillful in any mechanical oc- 
 cupation. 
 
 4. Simplicity. - - In a complex exercise given for the 
 first time, the mind of the pupil is necessarily concen- 
 trated for the most part upon accuracy involving the 
 proper adjustment of a large number of muscles and 
 joints. lie cannot concentrate upon any one item such 
 as the position of the shoulder, without for the moment 
 neglecting the position of the knee. head. hip. and trunk. 
 Moreover, he cannot concentrate upon alert performance 
 for lie has to make a collection of his various movement 
 impulses and put them together. Simplicity, therefore, 
 favors an accuracy and alertness which complexity makes 
 difficult. Accordingly, we should use simple exercises as a 
 rule and avoid complex exercises. It is exceedingly diffi- 
 cult to teach the ordinarv normal-school graduate to fol-
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 157 
 
 low this rule, and some teachers never learn it. They 
 wish to teach the latest "complexity" which they were 
 given as Seniors. As a result, they merely demonstrate 
 the excellence of their personal performance and the in- 
 feriority of their pedagogical training. The best teachers 
 have learned that by the use of simple exercises they can get 
 practically all the results they wish, for it is habits of alert- 
 ness and accuracy which have the most educational value. 
 
 5. Familiarity. - - Well known exercises completely fa- 
 miliar to the students permit them to focus all their at- 
 tention upon accuracy and alertness. Such exercises in 
 the psychological sense are always simple for there exist 
 in the mind prearranged coordination paths. Old, familiar 
 exercises are as a rule the best. The teacher who continu- 
 ally needs something new to interest her class lacks the 
 ability to make anything interesting. 
 
 6. Complexity and Coordination. - - Physical training 
 would be incomplete if it confined itself wholly to simple 
 movements. It is necessary to learn to coordinate, that 
 is to strive to do a new movement which involves the use 
 of several groups of muscles simultaneously. It must be 
 remembered, however, that natural exercises are already 
 coordinated and hence simple to do, although they may 
 be most complex in form. A child can throw a ball using 
 over one hundred and sixty muscles almost simultaneously;
 
 158 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 and he can do this because he has a prearranged system of 
 coordination. A professional baseball player has learned 
 how to throw a ball in many different ways and under a 
 variety of conditions, as a result of a training which has 
 improved his psycho-motor mechanism. 
 
 7. Existing and New Coordinations. - - The teacher will 
 find his work divided into two parts: training already ex- 
 isting coordinations and making new coordinations. The 
 first is natural, the second unnatural. One of the great- 
 est fields of physical education is the learning of new 
 movements, and the best service the teacher can render 
 his pupils is the development in them of skill in learning 
 to do new things. This can be applied in every walk of 
 life and particularly in the movements of industry. 
 
 Senior students of a physical training normal school 
 were sent to a big industrial concern for a period of six 
 weeks to learn by actual experience to conduct welfare 
 work. They were passed through the ordinary routine of 
 work as if they were regular employees and were taught 
 the necessary processes such as stamping, recording, etc. 
 Such was their training that they learned these processes 
 from twenty-five to thirty-five per cent more rapidly than 
 the regularly employed young woman. The movements 
 were unnatural but soon became habitual and were done 
 with speed and facility.
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 159 
 
 Gymnastic exercises are a succession of movements in 
 which there are two, three, four, six, or eight counts, as 
 a rule presenting positions equal to the number of counts 
 less one. An exercise becomes a series of successive co- 
 ordinations, and the pupil must remember it not only as a 
 coordinated movement but in the order of movements in- 
 volved. As a rule this is not difficult because each move- 
 ment becomes a cue to the next, although an extreme is 
 reached in an eight-count exercise in which there are seven 
 different positions. This is the extreme in educational 
 gymnastics. Such advanced work however does not be- 
 long in the ordinary curriculum of any school but rather 
 to a studio where gymnastics are pursued as an end in 
 themselves and not as a means to many ends. 
 
 II. HOW EXERCISES ARE TAUGHT AND LEARNED 
 
 1. Teaching and Learning. The processes of teach- 
 ing an exercise and of learning it, go hand-in-hand and ap- 
 pear to be very simple when a skillful, sympathetic teacher 
 is instructing an interested class. They are, however, 
 fairly complex. Let us take for example, a simple exercise 
 such as "placing the hands upon the hips," done to the 
 response command, -- Hands on hips, PLACE, and put 
 in one column the process of teaching and in the other the 
 process of learning.
 
 160 
 
 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 THE PROCESS OF TEACHING 
 
 (1) Call for "Attention." 
 
 (2) Description of exercise. 
 
 (3) Demonstration of exercise. 
 
 (4) Recalling previous use of ex- 
 
 ercise if any, and, if the ex- 
 ercise is new, comparing it 
 with a similar exercise pre- 
 viously used. 
 
 (5) Preparatory Command 
 
 Hands on Hips! 
 
 (6) Pause. 
 
 (7) Executive Command- 
 
 PLACE! 
 
 (8) (9) (10) Observation of suc- 
 
 cesses and errors on the part 
 of the pupils and comment. 
 
 THE PROCESS OF LEARNING 
 
 (1) Hearing the call and coming 
 
 to attention. 
 
 (2) Hearing description. 
 
 (3) Seeing demonstration. 
 
 (4) Understanding; i.e., forming 
 
 a concept of the new exer- 
 cise by bringing into asso- 
 ciation memory pictures of 
 past similar exercises and 
 sense presentations. 
 
 (5) Hearing command. 
 
 (6) (a) Recognizing meaning of 
 
 command. 
 
 (b) Pre-adjustment of nerv- 
 
 ous and 
 
 (c) Muscular system; i.e., 
 
 "pre-coordination." 
 
 (d) Sensation of adjustment 
 
 and readiness. 
 
 (e) Waiting inhibition. 
 
 (7) (a) Hearing the signal to 
 
 move. 
 (b) Willing the effort. 
 
 (8) (a) The process of moving 
 (b) accompanied by the sen- 
 sations of movement.
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 161 
 
 (9) (a) Willing to stop. 
 
 (b) Stopping. 
 
 (c) Sensation of stopping. 
 
 (d) The muscular sensations 
 
 accompanying the new 
 position. 
 
 (10) Consideration of the sensa- 
 tions accompanying the 
 new position to see if they 
 are in accord with the mem- 
 ories of teacher's presen- 
 tations. 
 
 (11) Position! (11) Return to position; involv- 
 
 ing hearing, recall of men- 
 tal picture of previous po- 
 sition, willing to move, 
 moving, stopping, and sen- 
 sations accompanying the 
 same. 
 RETRIAL OR PRACTICE 
 
 (1) Presentation of three pictures; (1) Attention, hearing and seeing 
 first, the right way to do the teacher, recalling memory of 
 exercise; second, statement the performance corre- 
 of the wrong ways; third, spending to the teacher's 
 their differences, emphasiz- second picture, seeing pic- 
 ing the right way and mak- ture Xo. 1, and making a 
 ing it the last picture before comparison between the two 
 giving the command. assisted by teacher's picture
 
 162 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 No. 3. Review, in the mind, 
 of sensations accompany- 
 ing previous movement; 
 search for the wrong ele- 
 ment. Feeling of success in 
 seizing upon the wrong ele- 
 ment, desire for retrial to 
 make it correct. 
 
 (2) Preparatory command (2) (3) (4) See below. 
 
 Hands on hips! 
 
 (3) Pause. 
 
 (4) Executive command 
 
 PLACE! 
 
 The practice is then put under way and is accomplished in very 
 much the same manner as was the initial trial except that the memo- 
 ries of the previous trial are kept in mind and held in review for com- 
 parison with those accompanying the retrial. After correction, fur- 
 ther trials may be made until reasonable precision is gained. 
 
 III. THE PROCESS OF TEACHING 
 
 1. A Typical Exercise. - - The brief schedule of events 
 in the teaching of the exercise given above may be ex- 
 panded and made more complete when applied to a four- 
 count educational exercise, done to response commands, 
 which is selected because it is expected to be of further 
 use in physical training for promoting hygienic purposes. 
 We will choose the following:
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 163 
 
 Position: Feet separated 20 inches, hands on shoulders. 
 
 Movement: Touching finger tips to floor, shoulders and arms 
 stretching upward, and looking upward. 
 
 Commands: 
 
 (1) Touching finger tips to floor between feet: ONE! 
 
 (2) Return to starting position : TWO ! 
 
 (3) Stretching arms upward, looking upward : THREE ! 
 
 (4) Returning to starting position : FOUR ! 
 
 2. Method of Teaching. - - The proper way to teach 
 this exercise is as follows: 
 
 (1) The teacher must know the exercise thoroughly. 
 If the exercise is new and the teacher is inexperienced, he 
 should practice it the day before he teaches it, going 
 through the movements on command, just as if he were 
 before the class. In giving commands to himself, the 
 teacher should be careful not to move until he hears his 
 own command. 
 
 (2) Confident that he thoroughly knows the exercise, 
 he informs the class that a new exercise will be taught. 
 The idea of novelty should be conveyed and a feeling of 
 interest aroused, not by using a stilted form, such as 
 "Now I will teach you a new exercise" but by the use of 
 such varied phrases as "Here is a new one," "Watch this 
 one," 'Try this," "See how quickly you can get this 
 one."
 
 164 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (3) The class should be given a clear idea of the pur- 
 pose of the exercise so that it will be interested and able 
 to see why it should expend its energy. It is not enough 
 merely to state that the exercise is "introductory," "cor- 
 rective," "educational," or "hygienic." 
 
 (a) For introductory work the idea of briskness, accur- 
 acy, alertness, and attention should be given in a word or 
 two. 
 
 (b) In corrective work the idea of straightening up, 
 lifting up. should be conveyed. 
 
 fc) In educational work the same ideas appropriate to 
 the introductory section should be used. 
 
 (d) For the hygienic exercises hard work, vigor, force, 
 and effort should be emphasized. 
 
 "While this point has been treated fully, the teacher must 
 not get the impression that he should spend much time or 
 use many words to get the result desired. An instant and 
 the right word and manner are enough. 
 
 A talkative teacher means a bored class getting little 
 exercise. 
 
 (4) The name of the exercise should be given. 
 
 (5) The exercise should be demonstrated by the teach- 
 er's giving commands to himself and going through the 
 movements but not until he has notified the class that the 
 commands and performance are given for the purpose of
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES 165 
 
 demonstration and are not to be followed. At this point 
 some teachers call attention to errors that are likely to be 
 made and frequently talk too much, thereby confusing 
 and tiring the pupils. This should be avoided. 
 
 The demonstration and description should end with the 
 repeating of the name of the exercise and the summing up 
 in a few words of everything that has been said so as to 
 put in the pupil's mind, as one complete picture, the con- 
 cept of the movement, and definitely to attach the name 
 of the exercise to this mental picture. 
 
 (6) Warning is given to the class to be ready to do the 
 exercise. The word "Ready" itself is sufficient but a con- 
 versational "Now you do it" or the like may be used. 
 
 (7) The class is put into proper starting position by the 
 use of the response command: "Hands on shoulders - 
 PLACE!" 
 
 (8) A description of the first movement is given as a 
 preparatory part of a response command, as follows: 
 
 "Finger tips to the floor!" 
 
 (9) The executive command is given: 
 
 "ONE!" 
 
 The pupils take the first position and hold it. During 
 this time the teacher is not demonstrating the exercise 
 but is observing the class.
 
 166 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 (10) The command for the second movement is given 
 as follows: 
 
 " Trunk erect and hands on shoulders - - TWO!" 
 
 (11) In similar manner the 3rd and 4th movements are 
 given and the exercise is completed: 
 
 "Arms upward and looking up - - THREE! 
 Hands on shoulders -- FOUR!" 
 
 (12) Brief corrections are made and the exercise is re- 
 peated. 
 
 (13) Corrections are again made if necessary and the 
 exercise is gone through once more, this time without 
 the use of the description of each movement as a prepara- 
 tory part of the response commands. The exercise is then 
 done in response to the command: 
 
 "ONE! TWO! - THREE! FOUR! - 
 
 ONE!" etc. 
 
 (14) When the exercise is subsequently used the teacher 
 should present it in a similar manner, recalling the part of 
 it previously used and reviewing a memory image of the 
 exercise as a whole. The pupil will then compare the 
 memory image with the images presented by the teacher 
 and will be able to proceed better than before because the 
 exercise has been taught.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 REMEMBERING 
 
 1. Memory. - - The clarity and vividness of the recalled 
 mental image is the measure of success of the previous 
 teaching. 
 
 If nothing is remembered by the pupil, no progress can 
 be made either by pupil or teacher. The better the 
 memory of the exercise, the better the progress. Remem- 
 bering is a sign that some impression remains, some change 
 has been made, some improvement has been accomplished; 
 in other words, there has been some education. Without 
 memory there can be no education. Therefore, the study 
 of the laws of memory, of remembering, recollecting, and 
 forgetting, is of great importance to the physical training 
 teacher. 
 
 Briefly there are four elements of memory: (1) the na- 
 ture of the impression made upon the pupil's mind; (2) the 
 physical and mental condition of the pupil at the time of 
 the impression; (3) repetition; (4) recalling. 
 
 2. Attention. - - To make an impression upon the mind, 
 it is necessary to have that mind in a state of attention. 
 This is the reason for one of the rules previously given; 
 
 167
 
 168 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 that is, "Never talk to a class that is not giving attention 
 unless it is to get attention." The teacher can no more 
 make an impression upon the pupil's mind when he is not 
 paying attention than one can talk to a person by tele- 
 phone with the receiver on the hook. The mind of a 
 pupil is very much like a house with many rooms each 
 devoted to a specific purpose. There are compartments 
 of seeing, listening, feeling, tasting, smelling, and many 
 others. Unless the particular mind compartment con- 
 cerned with seeing is illuminated, with the full mental, 
 "electrical" current turned on, the pupil does not really 
 see. The pupil's mind is dark in this mental compart- 
 ment while he may be very attentive in the hearing com- 
 partment of his mind, listening to a neighboring pupil; or 
 his mind may be simply absent from all sense impressions, 
 wandering in a moving picture world far from the class- 
 room. His eyes see not, nor do his ears hear. In this 
 state physical exercises may be accomplished mechanically 
 by almost subconscious imitations. Little or no recollec- 
 tion will be possible. 
 
 It is the teacher's duty to find means of assembling the 
 available mind energy and focusing it upon, (1) seeing the 
 exercise. (2) hearing its description, and (3) willing and 
 experiencing it in action; all of which should be subjected 
 to definite, directed, forceful attention.
 
 REMEMBERING 169 
 
 Attention is an intensified form of consciousness. It is 
 the direction of the mind toward any one object. The 
 teacher's voice if loud will attract attention. According 
 to the law of change of stimulus, the change from a loud 
 tone to a low, quiet tone will attract attention. 
 
 3. Interest. - - Things that are interesting and things 
 that are new attract attention. The teacher who makes 
 the lesson interesting by good selection of material and a 
 proper method, gains and keeps attention and makes prog- 
 ress in teaching. Interest will be obtained when the sub- 
 ject is new, yet based upon a certain amount of familiarity 
 with some similar experience already known to the pupil, 
 for this arouses curiosity and suggests attainment. 
 
 4. Pleasure and Pain. - - Things that arouse pleasur- 
 able emotions are interesting. If the exercise promises 
 fun, attention is gained. If the teacher merely indicates 
 the prospect of severe punishment or if a failure in the ex- 
 ercise itself will cause pain, then interest and attention are 
 automatically gained. This last principle was used in the 
 United States Army where games were used for hygienic 
 and educational purposes. It was found that the soldier 
 played with vivid enthusiasm those games in which a 
 painful penalty was attached to failure as in the simple 
 game of "Baste the Bear." The teacher must steer a 
 middle course between the use of the old and of the new;
 
 170 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 that is, between the principles of familiarity and of nov- 
 elty. Old exercises sometimes become stale, yet some old 
 games, like baseball, are ever new. New exercises and 
 games will be interesting because they are new but the 
 teacher who leans upon this crutch for arousing interest 
 will fail. Team games such as volley ball, basket ball, 
 and baseball stimulate and hold interest and attention, 
 and provide instruction, improvement, and physical edu- 
 cation for many months without recourse to novelty to 
 sustain the interest. 
 
 5. Voluntary and Involuntary Attention. Attention 
 may be involuntary or voluntary. Involuntary attention 
 arises from natural causes and is given without conscious 
 effort. Voluntary attention, however, must be called for 
 and consciously given. Most of the attention given by 
 the pupil should be involuntary, given as a matter of 
 course. Voluntary attention commanded and received by 
 the teacher should play a subordinate but a very definite 
 part in the lesson. Practice in getting attention and hold- 
 ing it is a valuable feature of physical education. 
 
 6. Rhythms in Attention. -- Attention is a mental ef- 
 fort which like muscular effort should not be continuous 
 but rhythmic. To hold a "fall-out" position for long 
 tires the muscles, so in exactly a similar manner, the mind 
 is tired by continuous attention focused upon any one
 
 REMEMBERING 171 
 
 thing. As we get the greatest amount of work done by 
 the muscles, if we exercise them rhythmically; that is, by 
 relaxation following contraction, it follows that we get the 
 greatest amount of work from the mind by calling rhyth- 
 mically for attention and not requiring its continuous ap- 
 plication. The teacher must recognize this in her instruc- 
 tion, often relieving the attention of the class from the 
 lesson with the command, "In place rest" or a similar less 
 formal interlude. 
 
 7. Mind Receptivity. - - When the wise classroom 
 teacher desires the children to be particularly bright and 
 keen for a written test she gives a "Two-minute setting- 
 up drill." Following the same principle, the physical 
 training teacher should provide for relaxation before he 
 attacks an especially difficult task. 
 
 The physical conditions of the pupils affect their ability 
 to pay attention. If they are tired physically or ill-nour- 
 ished, if the temperature is too high, or if the room is 
 stuffy, their minds cannot be easily concentrated nor can 
 they be kept at attention long. This illustrates the bene- 
 fit of physical training to the classroom for when children 
 have had their bodies improved by physical education, 
 they can render better attention in their other studies. 
 
 The mind may also be weary from previous classroom 
 work and incapable of giving high, broad, rhythms of at-
 
 172 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 tention. In some schools, lessons in gymnastics have fre- 
 quently been periods of the hardest kind of mental appli- 
 cation requiring far more mental effort than Arithmetic 
 or English. They provided absolutely no relaxation. This 
 was a serious error. Though they have a definite unre- 
 placeable function, exercises with the use of response com- 
 mands must not, under any circumstances, dominate the 
 physical education period. Having given attention to the 
 elements of teaching which make for interest and atten- 
 tion, the teacher will have done much to insure remem- 
 bering. 
 
 8. Clearness and Emphasis. Of almost equal impor- 
 tance, in making good and lasting impressions on the 
 minds of the pupils, is the clarity and definiteness with 
 which the mental image is presented. There must be no 
 question in the mind of the pupil as to what is desired in 
 position or movement. The demonstration of the teacher 
 must be confident, unhesitating, and complete. Her de- 
 scription must emphasize those points where the mental 
 process of the pupil might branch oft' from the true road 
 and perfect performance. For instance, if the arms arc 
 stretched to the side with the palms up at the height of 
 the eyes, the teacher should show the position with the 
 palms up, look at her own hands, and at the time the 
 word "up"' is spoken in her description, her hands should
 
 REMEMBERING 173 
 
 be raised, stretched out and flattened, thus keeping the 
 auditory-visual picture. This is the basis of much of the 
 work in the dramatic art, an art which the teacher is prac- 
 ticing when she portrays the movement she wishes the 
 pupils to see and learn. The teacher, however, must not 
 overdo it, for she can by over emphasis create the wrong 
 impression, destroy accuracy, and call attention to her- 
 self. This last is a fatal error for it removes the attention 
 of the pupil from the desired object, the exercise. 
 
 9. Contrast. - - The principle of contrast may be 
 brought into the instruction and the teacher may make 
 the image of the exercise clear by contrasting it with a 
 picture of the movement that is \vrong. As a rule, how- 
 ever, this contrast should not be made upon the first 
 presentation because the teacher will present two images 
 and the pupil is likely to learn the wrong as well as the 
 right. The best time for this contrast is after the first 
 trial when errors have been made. Only when one wishes 
 to contrast a new exercise with an old one similar to it is 
 the demonstration of both unqualifiedly legitimate in the 
 beginning. Thus the clarity of the impression in its com- 
 pleteness serves to assist memory. 
 
 10. Volitional Memory. - The image of the exercise is, 
 however, not entirely complete when there is a clear pic- 
 ture of this description and a clear picture of how it looks.
 
 174 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 There must also be an equally clear picture of how to do 
 the movement itself and how it feels to do it correctly. 
 The first is a volitional phase of the mind which in some 
 people may be very weak and in others very strong. 
 There are some feeble-minded pupils who can picture 
 clearly what is to be done but can only with the greatest 
 difficulty bring themselves to make the necessary psychic 
 and nervous adjustments to do it. 
 
 There is a distinct feeling of mental as well as physical 
 adjustment to the desired movement as it has been 
 clearly pictured. This accompanies the actual discharge 
 of nervous impulses in the brain and results in a feeling 
 that all is ready for the trial itself. Very little is known 
 of this mental phase of exercise but it can be easily 
 identified by the physical training teacher from her own 
 experience. 
 
 11. Kinsesthetic Sense. - - There must be intimately as- 
 sociated with the memories of sound, sight, and volition 
 the memory of how it actually fell to do the exercise. 
 This is the kinaesthetic sense and comes from the sensa- 
 tion of movement of the body parts, of effort, and of the 
 position of the hody parts when they have come to rest. 
 The teacher should utilize the kinaesthetic sense in her en- 
 deavor to get a clear, mental picture of the exercise which 
 now lias become a concept by the intimate joining together
 
 REMEMBERING 175 
 
 of all of its various parts. When the position is properly 
 taken, she may say, "Now that you have it right, just see 
 how it feels." She may contrast it with the feeling of 
 other wrong positions. This is particularly important in 
 corrective work for good posture in which the first impor- 
 tant task is to teach the pupils the feeling of good posture. 
 They can only feel their good or bad posture whereas 
 others can only see it. The picture of the exercise can 
 sometimes be made clearer by asking the pupils to look at 
 the hands, knee, or foot in its new position and to correct 
 it if necessary. Thus we have established in the pupil's 
 mind, a clear, complete concept consisting of definite sense 
 impressions from every available source which form a com- 
 plete whole. 
 
 12. Recalling. - - The old-fashioned country well is pro- 
 vided with a bucket which is let down into the cool water 
 at the bottom of the well and pulled up again by a rope 
 attached sometimes to a long well-sweep and sometimes 
 to a creaking windlass. The water bucket would be of 
 little use without the rope to pull it up. When an idea is 
 put away in the mind, we must have ways of reaching or 
 recalling it; otherwise, it is of no use to us. Thus when 
 an exercise is given, we give it a name. It becomes tied 
 to it as the rope is to the bucket by a knot which we call 
 association. It is part of the teacher's duty to make these
 
 176 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 knots hard and fast. Thus, when the exercise is first in- 
 troduced, it is described and the name is given as a final 
 summary and is repeated again in the preparatory part of 
 the command. Sometimes it is wise to give a short name 
 to an exercise, or to add to it some feature of peculiar sig- 
 nificance and interest, such as, "The Liver Squeezer" 
 (Robert J. Roberts) ; the familiar mimetic exercises, 
 ''Walking Beam," "Mowing," "Windmill"; ind aesthetic 
 positions as "Adoration," "Entreaty," etc., etc. 
 
 13. Association. - - These effectively recall, by natural 
 interesting association, the exercise not only as an exercise 
 but as a procedure something similar to another object or 
 movement. Not only is it well to state the name before 
 the exercise is given, but to repeat it once or twice and to 
 leave it the last thing to enter the pupil's mind; for exam- 
 ple, "Now that you have learned the Jete; remember that 
 before we go on to the Pirouette." This is called associa- 
 tion by contiguity because the name and the exercise occur 
 contiguously and tend to recall each other. Some names 
 of exercises as the "Windmill," "Chopping," and the 
 'Trout Jump" are associated with some object or move- 
 ment which the gymnastic exercise itself resembles; for 
 example, the movement of the Indian clubs in "Wind- 
 mill" is similar to that of the arms of a real windmill; 
 "Chopping" is done as with an axe: while the launching
 
 REMEMBERING 177 
 
 of the body through the air in the "Trout Jump" is like 
 the movement of the fish itself as it leaves the water. 
 Thus we have an association by similarity. 
 
 14. Teaching by Association. - - Throughout all our 
 physical training there is an opportunity to teach by asso- 
 ciation, beginning with the children in the kindergarten 
 and ending with the highest cultural phases of dancing. 
 In the kindergarten, most of our dances and gymnastic 
 stories are based upon imitation and mimicry. If we wish 
 to teach deep breathing, we make believe that we are 
 smelling flowers, calling into play the natural psycho- 
 motor mechanism for taking deep breaths of fragrant 
 flower perfume. 
 
 If we were to give such commands to little children as 
 "expand the chest," "lift the ribs and depress the dia- 
 phragm," no deep breaths would be taken because there 
 exists in their consciousness no knowledge of the manage- 
 ment of the chest or ribs or diaphragm. If, however, 
 we present a clear picture of flower and perfume, and then 
 ask the children to smell the flower they will inhale deeply. 
 We have come upon Nature's own territory and the pic- 
 ture is the clue to the movement. It is very much like 
 the rope which was tied to the mental bucket which drew, 
 from the minds of children, the water of memory. Thus 
 if we desire a movement to be done, the best way that we
 
 178 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 can insure its performance is to find the natural idea 
 which corresponds most closely to it, present the idea, and 
 elicit the action. 
 
 We may also get a deep breath by making believe we 
 are blowing bubbles. We can get vigorous upward stretch- 
 ing by making believe we are trees standing up tall in 
 a forest. We can double the vigor of charging if we let 
 the pupils imagine that they are lunging toward a real 
 opponent. 
 
 Folk dances and singing games are replete with mimicry 
 and dramatic action, much of which has hardly to be taught. 
 It has merely to be elicited. Interpretative dancing is 
 definitely based upon imitation of some natural object or 
 event. In fact, the whole gamut of dancing (unless it has 
 been degenerated into stilted formality) is an endeavor to 
 tell a story by movements which suggest, imply, or di- 
 rectly describe the story. All of this is founded upon or 
 closely related to association by similarity. 
 
 15. Teaching by " Idea." - By the use of this method, 
 we are frequently enabled to teach more quickly, truly, 
 and completely than by more ordinary pedagogical meth- 
 ods. I have called it "teaching by idea." We put an 
 idea into the pupil's mind for the purpose of getting the 
 motor expression. If we tell the pupils what to think 
 rather than what to do, they frequently will do what we
 
 REMEMBERING 179 
 
 want them to do when the direct instruction would fail. 
 The elevation cues in corrective work are in this field. 
 The teaching of the back air spring involves a brief vivid 
 series of strong efforts best expressed by, "Think up in 
 the air; then double up like a jackknife; quick." Teach- 
 ing the double rear vault on the horse, may be facilitated 
 by telling the gymnast to think "over there," "there" 
 being the end of the croup. In brief, the more one sym- 
 pathetically understands how the child's mind works, the 
 more successful will he be in eliciting the proper responses 
 and developing skill in movement. 
 
 16. Repetition. An exercise is not learned when it is 
 done once. It may be remembered sufficiently well to 
 guide a reasonably correct repetition if that is instituted 
 at once. But unless this repetition occurs immediately, 
 the new collection of memory images fails to become a 
 clear, well-knit concept, and remains very much at the 
 mercy of succeeding mental impressions. In other words, 
 if the exercise is not repeated one or more times, it is not 
 likely to be remembered. During repetitions, it is the 
 teacher's duty to see that each effort reestablishes the pri- 
 mary impression, improving and strengthening it. Atten- 
 tion should not be allowed to flag. The mind forces should 
 be concentrated upon the succession of sensations and 
 efforts. Throughout the whole procedure there should be
 
 180 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 an effort toward perfection, a feeling of gain, of increased 
 success, and of accomplishment. At the end of the series 
 of repetitions, there should remain in the minds of the pupils, 
 a sense of knowing the exercise, of having accomplished 
 something and having done it well. The name of the ex- 
 ercise should be securely attached to the rest of the concept, 
 so that there should be a clear and accessible mind path- 
 way to the memory image. 
 
 17. Mental Cues. - - In games and athletics, the pupil 
 is involved in a series of exercises which are initiated and 
 changed from one form to another by himself rather than 
 by the teacher. He gives his own signals which depend 
 upon the exigencies of the game. He receives his cues and 
 signals to run, jump, stop, dodge, or throw from what 
 happens in the game itself. This must be taken into con- 
 sideration by the teacher and the athletic coach. The 
 pupils must be trained not only as to what they are to do 
 and how to do it, but to do the right thing at the right 
 time and to do it quickly --in other words, to interpret 
 correctly the signals given in the game as cues eliciting 
 the proper motor response. Thus the major part of ath- 
 letic coaching is training the players to interpret the en- 
 vironmental conditions as a cue to appropriate action, to 
 size up the situation, and to do the right thing at the 
 proper moment. Knowledge and ability are useless
 
 REMEMBERING 181 
 
 unless they are brought into action at the appropriate 
 time. 
 
 In the teaching of hygiene, most of our instructions 
 apply to the regulation of life at home. We tell children 
 that they should wash their hands and show them how to 
 do it. If they fail to wash their hands, it is not because 
 they do not know how, but because they forget. Nothing 
 reminds them to do it. Herein lies the chief task in the 
 teaching of hygiene, to establish cues that will automatic- 
 ally and efficiently remind the children to do as they 
 should at the proper time and place. 
 
 There are two kinds of cues or reminders -- those of 
 time and those of place. If we wish the bed aired, we 
 will say, "When you get up, throw the bed clothes over 
 the foot of the bed," pressing deeply into the mind, the 
 association of getting up and bed clothes. Thus when 
 the act of getting up is performed, the association brings 
 to mind "bed clothes." 
 
 Similarly, such reminders as follow may be applied: 
 "When, you put on your hat, look to see if your hands are 
 clean;" "When you take off your stockings, hang them 
 up;" "When you crawl into bed, ask yourself, 'Have I 
 opened the window?' Frequently, the association acts 
 tardily and there is left in the mind of the child, when he 
 gets up or goes to bed, only a feeling that he was to do
 
 182 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 something but does not know what it is. If he makes an 
 effort, he may remember; if the impression has been deep 
 enough on a receptive mind, it will be remembered. 
 
 This principle is an important one and not as yet well 
 implanted pedagogically. It deserves a far more import- 
 ant place than has hitherto been given it.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 
 
 1. Definition of Hygienic Work. -- Hygienic work in- 
 cludes activities designed to stimulate the internal organs, 
 to increase circulation and respiration, to insure health and 
 vigor, to strengthen the larger muscular masses, and to 
 produce physical power and endurance. It is called hygi- 
 enic because of its value in health conservation. It may 
 also be called physiological work because it produces its 
 results by stimulation of the physiological processes of 
 the body. 
 
 2. The Purpose of Hygienic Work. - - In the division of 
 hygienic or physiological work lies the most important 
 function of physical exercise --to improve present health 
 and to endeavor to insure the continuance of good physical 
 condition. This is "physical exercise" as it is actually 
 understood by the man in the street. 
 
 The effect of muscular movements on the health is 
 immediate and direct in improving circulation and in stim- 
 ulating all body processes. An organ not called upon to 
 do its ordinary amount of daily work soon becomes stag- 
 nant and is liable to become diseased. The body as a 
 whole is composed of organs and its freedom from disease 
 
 1S3
 
 184 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 depends upon the proper functioning of these organs. In- 
 asmuch as approximately one half of the body's work is 
 muscular and at least one half of the work of the brain is 
 concerned with muscular movement, the value of physio- 
 logical work is apparent. 
 
 Under modern conditions, mankind has successively and 
 progressively decreased the need for muscular work. He 
 protects himself by warm clothing and he lives in 
 warm houses. He does not need exercise to keep him 
 warm. All kinds of vocational, industrial, and home work 
 are being done more and more by machinery and less and 
 less by unaided muscular work. Three quarters of the 
 men and women in a large city earn their living without 
 doing any more muscular work than that occasioned in 
 walking to a car, clinging to a strap, reading a newspaper, 
 sitting at a desk and dictating letters, and the like. Thus 
 there is little work for the large muscles of the body and a 
 great deal of work for the smaller muscles of the hand 
 and also for the voice production muscles. This progress- 
 ive ease causes body stagnation, and exercise must be 
 taken deliberately to counteract the resultant bad effects. 
 
 I. THE MUSCLES 
 
 Inasmuch as physical training is directly concerned with 
 muscular work, the nature of the muscles and the pro-
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 185 
 
 cesses of muscular contraction should be thoroughly un- 
 derstood if the best results are to be obtained. 
 
 1. Gross Anatomy. - - Muscles are usually either spin- 
 dle-shaped or flat in form. As a rule they are broad in the 
 middle, tapering at the ends, and round in a cross section. 
 They may be attached directly to bones, but are usually 
 attached to tendons which are in turn attached to bones. 
 Tendons should not be confused with ligaments, which run 
 from bone to bone. A few muscles are attached only to 
 the skin. 
 
 2. Muscular Contraction and Relaxation. - - ^ T hen a 
 muscle contracts it increases its circumference and de- 
 creases its length. Hence its contraction will bring closer 
 together the bones to which its ends are attached. When 
 a muscle relaxes it simply remains passive. It does not 
 actually push apart its ends and become long again. It 
 merely permits itself to be lengthened by the weight it 
 has previously lifted or by the contraction of an opposing 
 muscle which will pull against it. 
 
 Sometimes, however, the mus^e will hold itself in a 
 state of contraction, pulling against a weight or the pull 
 of another muscle, and allow itself gradually to lengthen. 
 This semi-passive form of contraction of the muscle 
 which accompanies its lengthening, is called excentric 
 contraction.
 
 186 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The usual form of muscle contraction in which the 
 muscle shortens and bulges is called concentric contraction. 
 
 Sometimes the muscle makes a contraction effort which 
 is evenly matched by some weight or by the contraction of 
 an antagonistic muscle. In this case it neither lengthens 
 nor shortens. This is called static contraction. 
 
 For example, in holding the arm straight out at shoul- 
 der level, the deltoid muscle of the shoulder which holds 
 up the arm is in static contraction. If we allow the arm 
 slowly to drop to the side, the deltoid is in excentric con- 
 traction, thereby steadying the movement. If we raise it 
 again to the level of the shoulder, the deltoid is thrown 
 into concentric contraction. 
 
 The muscles of the upper arm afford a simple illustra- 
 tion. The biceps in the front part of the arm is attached 
 to a bone of the forearm, that is immediately in front of 
 the elbow joint. When the biceps pulls, the forearm is 
 raised; when it relaxes, the forearm drops. The triceps 
 is in the back part of the upper arm and is attached to a 
 bone of the forearm which extends back of the elbow 
 joint. When the elbow is bent and the triceps contracts, 
 it pulls on this little backward extension of the forearm 
 and throws the bulk of the forearm forward and outward. 
 If the biceps and triceps contract both at the same time, 
 then the arm will straighten or bend at the elbow depend-
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 187 
 
 ing upon which is contracted more vigorously. The one 
 that pulls the harder will shorten in concentric contrac- 
 tion; the weaker will lengthen in excentric contraction. 
 If they both pull the same, they will both remain in static 
 contraction. 
 
 3. Muscular Tone. - - There is a form of muscular ac- 
 tivity which is continuous throughout the whole of life. 
 It is called muscular tone. This is illustrated by the fact 
 that when the muscles are cut across, the ends shrink 
 apart and leave a gap. This state of muscular tone is due 
 to a series of constant contraction impulses, from ten to 
 twenty per second. Muscular tone varies; in well-nour- 
 ished vigorous individuals it is strong; in individuals with 
 lax, amemic muscles it is weak. 
 
 4. Microscopic Anatomy. - - There are three kinds of 
 muscles: voluntary muscle, which is striated; involuntary 
 muscle, which is smooth; and heart muscle, which is both 
 striated and involuntary. 
 
 Each muscle is composed of muscle fibers which are 
 from one third to one half an inch in length but only 
 1/7.50 to 1/4,50 of an inch in diameter. These fibers are 
 spindle-shaped and taper to a point at each end, and each 
 has crossbands of alternating light and dark. Each fiber is 
 a single cell in which there are many cell nuclei, and 
 is surrounded by a cell wall called sarcolemma. The fibers
 
 188 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 are packed together, side by side, to form muscle bundles, 
 and are bound together by a network of connective tissue 
 fibers known as endomysium. 
 
 The muscle bundle thus formed of many muscle fibers, 
 is surrounded by a still firmer envelope of connective 
 tissue called epimysium. The more connective tissue there 
 is present in the structure, the harder is the muscle. 
 Nerves, veins, arteries, and lymphatics run in the con- 
 nective tissues that surround the muscle fibers and bun- 
 dles. 
 
 5. Chemical Composition of the Muscle. - - The muscle 
 is composed mostly of the proteids, myosin and myosino- 
 gen, and of carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Pro- 
 teids form the structure of the muscle. Glycogen is its 
 fuel, the oxidation of which supplies energy and produces 
 contraction. In addition there are various other sub- 
 stances of the nature of enzymes, salts, and pigments, 
 while water forms seventy-five per cent of the total weight. 
 
 II. THE EFFECTS OF MUSCULAR CONTRACTION 
 
 Muscular contraction affects the body in many ways. 
 Since so much of the body weight and bulk is in muscular 
 tissue, and since the muscles are in active use during the 
 greater part of the life of man, the results of this activity 
 are exceedingly important. When the muscles are thrown
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 189 
 
 into activity, it is a signal for the rest of the body also to 
 become active. A study of the physiology of exercise is 
 really a study of the whole human physiology because 
 muscular exercise merely increases body processes which 
 are continually going on and changes them otherwise but 
 little. 
 
 There is such a variety of effects of muscular exercise 
 that they require classification. When the muscle con- 
 tracts it changes its own form and structure and affects 
 the surrounding tissues. The changes which occur in and 
 around the muscle are called the local effects of exercise 
 in contra-distinction to the effects of exercise which occur 
 in other parts of the body and which are called general 
 effects. Both the local and general effects of exercise may 
 be either mechanical or chemical. If they are mechanical 
 there is some physical and structural change of form or 
 place. The chemical effects are those which actually 
 change the chemical nature of the body tissues and fluids. 
 
 Some of the effects of muscular activity, such as the 
 shortening of the muscle and the combustion of muscle 
 food content, occur at once, and are called the immediate 
 effects of exercise. Others, such as the effect upon the 
 appetite and the increase of the development of the mus- 
 cles occur much later and are called the remote effects of 
 exercise.
 
 190 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 III. LOCAL EFFECTS OF EXERCISE 
 
 1. Immediate Mechanical Effects. -- Upon the contrac- 
 tion of a muscle its fibers become hard and press against 
 each other. All the blood vessels and lymphatics which 
 run between the bundles are flattened and their fluid con- 
 tents are to a great extent pressed out. One of the most 
 beneficial effects is the compression of the surrounding 
 veins against the skin or against other muscles and tissues. 
 This is particularly important in the legs where the blood 
 in the veins must mount all the way from the feet to the 
 abdomen, and thence to the heart. The squeezing of the 
 veins presses the blood upward toward the heart, because 
 the valves in the veins prevent it from flowing down. 
 This assists the circulation materially. Standing still pro- 
 duces a great strain upon the veins, and after a while 
 may cause them to become varicose. The lymph is also 
 squeezed from the surrounding tissues and is pressed to- 
 ward the heart in exactly the same way. Moreover, the 
 blood vessels in the skin dilate. The skin becomes red and 
 warm, and the sweat glands become active. The muscle 
 itself may shorten or lengthen or remain the same. 
 
 When the muscle is relaxed, the blood vessels and lym- 
 phatics are relieved from pressure and are immediately 
 filled again with blood and lymph. Usually they are re- 
 plenished more fully than before. Upon the next contrac-
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 191 
 
 tion and relaxation the process of squeezing and refilling 
 is repeated. Thus the rhythmic contraction and relaxa- 
 tion of the muscle works like a blood and lymph pump, 
 and each muscle helps the circulation very much as if it 
 were an accessory heart. This muscle pumping gives the 
 best effect when the muscle is completely contracted and 
 shortened alternately with complete relaxation and length- 
 ening. But the effect decreases with the decrease in am- 
 plitude and ceases entirely in static contraction. 
 
 2. Remote Mechanical Effects. - - The remote mechan- 
 ical effects are increase in the size and hardness of the 
 muscle. Increase in size depends upon good nutrition. It 
 is favored by rhythmic, long-continued contractions with 
 moderate weights. A muscle becomes hard from heavy 
 long-continued work as the result of increase in its con- 
 nective tissue elements. It is important, particularly in 
 work for the obtaining of good posture, to shorten muscles 
 as well as to strengthen them. This may be done by ap- 
 plying the principle stated before, that muscles tend to 
 assume the position in which they are exercised. They 
 are therefore shortened quickest and best by vigorous 
 exercise in the proximal third of the complete arc of 
 movement. 
 
 3. The Local, Chemical, Immediate Effects. -- Effects 
 that are immediate, local, and chemical are due primarily
 
 192 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 to the fact that muscular contraction is accomplished by 
 the combustion of the carbohydrates in the muscle. This 
 oxidation of the carbohydrates releases energy and causes 
 heat, thus making the muscle warm. Use stimulates 
 growth; and this stimulation lasts for some time and may 
 be classed as a remote effect. 
 
 Since muscular contraction uses the food carbohydrates 
 stored in the muscle, the supply must be replenished from 
 the blood which in turn gets it from the digestive organs 
 and from the liver. 
 
 The waste products of combustion are chemical results 
 of muscular exercise. These wastes are mainly carbon di- 
 oxide and, to a lesser degree, the products of the breaking 
 down of the proteid structure of the muscle which, if not 
 promptly removed by the lymphatic system, will poison 
 the muscle. 
 
 4. Muscular Soreness. - - There are two kinds of mus- 
 cular soreness, chemical and mechanical. The first is the 
 result of the chemical wear and of the poisoning effects of 
 the breaking down of the proteid muscle structure in an 
 untrained muscle unexpectedly and heavily exercised. If 
 these waste products are not removed with sufficient ra- 
 pidity, they remain and poison the muscle, thus causing 
 it to become painful. The second kind of muscular sore- 
 ness also occurs because of an untrained muscle's being
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 193 
 
 called upon suddenly for heavy work. The muscle fibers, 
 not being used to this heavy work, contract unevenly, and 
 the fine connective tissue fibers attaching one muscle to 
 the other are torn. Sometimes little blood vessels running 
 between the fibers are ruptured. Occasionally bundles of 
 fibers or even whole muscles are torn by their own con- 
 traction. 
 
 The treatment of chemical soreness is by the applica- 
 tion of heat, massage, and more muscular work. The 
 treatment of mechanical soreness is by the application of 
 heat, massage, and, in more severe cases, a short rest fol- 
 lowed by more muscular work. 
 
 5. Local, Chemical, Remote Effects. - - The local, chem- 
 ical, and remote effects of muscular exercise are best under- 
 stood by reference to the familiar condition of the mus- 
 cles of a chicken. The leg muscles which are continually 
 exercised are the dark meat, strong, filled with blood and 
 carbohydrate food. The breast muscles which are only 
 used for an occasional Hap of the wings are pale and 
 anemic. 
 
 6. Immediate General Effects. - - When the body is at 
 rest, that is, when we are asleep, its processes are proceed- 
 ing at a low rate. When we awake, metabolism increases 
 and all the tissues of the body become more active. When 
 we exercise mildly, as in walking, there is an increase of
 
 194 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 organic activity, particularly in the circulation of the 
 blood. The whole body is thrown into a "state of exer- 
 cise." With a further increase of work, as in running, 
 great circulatory and respiratory changes occur, and the 
 activity becomes so great that it cannot be long continued. 
 
 7. Nervous Effects. - - The immediate effects of muscu- 
 lar contraction are felt first in the nervous system; for, in 
 stimulating and directing contraction, the nerve centers, 
 cells, and fibers are exercised just as well as the muscles 
 themselves. In fact muscular exercise is as much nervous 
 exercise as it is muscular, and in some cases is more so. 
 The latter is true where the exercise involves new condi- 
 tions or requires much care, thought, and application, but 
 uses only small muscles; in familiar or simple exercises 
 of larger muscles it is less nervous. The nervous system 
 usually becomes exhausted before the muscles, and an ath- 
 lete frequently stops in his race for this cause and not from 
 exhaustion of the muscles. 
 
 8. Circulatory Effects. Since the muscles in their con- 
 traction use the food and oxygen that are stored in them, 
 there is always an immediate need for more, and the blood 
 is called upon to supply it. Through the nervous system 
 the heart is called upon at once to beat faster to supply 
 the extra amount of blood needed, and the chest is called 
 upon to breathe more deeply so that the lungs may be
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 195 
 
 filled with more air for the supply of oxygen. At the 
 same time the nervous mechanism, working through its 
 complex sympathetic nervous system, causes a relaxation 
 of the arteries and arterioles in and around the contract- 
 ing muscles, and a contraction of the arteries and veins in 
 the internal part of the body, particularly in the abdo- 
 men. This gives the blood less space in the blood vessels 
 of the inner part of the trunk and more space in the mus- 
 cles of the outer part of the trunk and in the limbs. The 
 blood is thus redistributed, going where it is needed. The 
 blood pressure will fall or rise, depending upon whether 
 the greater space occasioned by the relaxation of the blood 
 vessels in the muscles' of the outer part of the body will 
 contain more blood than is squeezed out of the blood ves- 
 
 
 
 sels in the inner part of the trunk. If the relaxation of the 
 vessels in the muscles is greater than the blood supply 
 warrants, the blood pressure will fall; if the contraction 
 within the trunk supplies more blood than the outer vessels 
 can easily accommodate, the blood pressure will rise. The 
 blood vessels of the abdomen are capacious, and while 
 they contract at the beginning of the exercise they may 
 relax later from fatigue and cause the pressure to fall. 
 Fainting from exhaustion is caused in this manner. 
 
 In a person in good health, blood pressure usually rises 
 promptly at the beginning of exercise but if exercise is
 
 196 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 continued for some time, blood pressure gradually falls 
 again to its previous point or lower. Whether or not the 
 pressure remains up or falls depends upon the nature, 
 intensity, and duration of the exercise and the physi- 
 cal condition of the person. Bicycling and running 
 will raise it; walking, especially on a warm day, will 
 lower it. 
 
 9. Heart Rate. -- Unless the exercise is very mild the 
 heart rate is increased, though in some cases the rate may 
 actually be lowered. The heart, however, always dis- 
 charges more blood at each beat. The increase in rate 
 occurs almost at once and is greatest in one unaccustomed 
 to exercise. In the trained athlete the heart normally 
 beats slowly from fifty to sixty beats a minute and when 
 he is exercising it does not increase its rate greatly. After 
 the exercise is over it returns quickly to its previous rate, 
 while in the case of the untrained or of one who has exer- 
 cised too severely for his strength, the heart rate remains 
 rapid much longer. 
 
 10. Breathing. - - Following and in addition to the in- 
 crease in the heart rate, breathing also increases both in 
 rate and amplitude. The movements of the diaphragm 
 are increased and the chest wall, which previously may 
 have been almost in repose, is drawn into ample rhythmic 
 movement. The chest itself is made more capacious.
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 197 
 
 This not only causes air to be drawn in and expelled more 
 frequently and in larger quantities, but also causes simi- 
 lar increase in the movement of the blood. As the air is 
 more forcibly sucked in, so the blood is more forcibly 
 drawn from the abdomen and other parts of the body 
 into the chest and assisted in its flow to the heart. Its 
 expulsion by the heart into the arteries is assisted by the 
 contraction of the chest. This causes rhythmical varia- 
 tion in the blood pressure corresponding to the move- 
 ments in breathing. In this manner the chest acts as a 
 blood pump assisting the circulation. 
 
 11. Arteries. - - The arteries share in the general effects 
 of exercise, expanding as the stream of blood and the 
 pressure within them become greater. When the heart 
 beats, the walls are stretched, compressed, and become 
 thinner. Between beats they contract again, sometimes 
 to a smaller caliber than before, thus aiding the circula- 
 tion as if they were accessory pumps. Incidentally the 
 arterial walls are kneaded and massaged just as the mus- 
 cles are massaged by their own exercise. It will be seen, 
 therefore, that exercise brings into action many factors 
 which assist the heart in carrying on the circulation of the 
 blood more vigorously than before. The rhythmic pump- 
 ing action of the muscles, the chest, and the arteries are 
 combined to aid in increasing the flow of blood.
 
 198 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 12. Adjustment. - - Vigorous exercise makes a call upon 
 the various parts of the body system for vital action and 
 mutual adjustments. At the beginning these adjustments 
 are not coordinated; for instance, after the first few hun- 
 dred yards of a mile race the runner experiences consider- 
 able discomfort. AYlien, however, the intricate circulatory 
 mechanism has become adjusted to its high plane of activity, 
 a feeling of ease comes to the runner. This is what is 
 called second wind. A similar period of discomfort comes 
 after the end of the race and, in fact, at the termination 
 of any vigorous exercise. This is why the runner stays 
 on his feet and walks about after the race is over, and 
 why the gymnastic lesson should be ended with a short 
 series of mild movements. 
 
 13. General Remote Effects. After the exercise is 
 over, breathing and circulation return to normal and the 
 muscles are at rest. For a long time, however, the ar- 
 teries in the muscles are dilated, and are engaged in bring- 
 ing to the muscles the nourishment which they need, and 
 in repairing worn out tissue while the veins carry away 
 waste products. This activity gives the clue to the vari- 
 ous other processes which are going on in the rest of the 
 body, as a result of the exercise. To supply the addi- 
 tional nourishment needed the blood calls upon the liver, 
 the great storehouse of food, and the stomach and intes-
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 199 
 
 tines as well, for a renewed supply. Thereupon vigorous 
 activity accompanied by a feeling of hunger ensues, and 
 the whole digestive tract becomes alert and active. This 
 is a condition of health which shows up in sharp contrast 
 to the torpid state of an alimentary tract continually burd- 
 ened with unearned food and never called upon to re- 
 spond to the vigorous demands of exercise. 
 
 The kidneys, the skin, and the lungs are each called 
 upon by exercise to take out of the blood the increased 
 burden of waste material caused by physical exertion, and 
 to relieve the body of the accumulation of these poisons. 
 Thus these organs are thrown into a state of heightened 
 activity which stimulates them and improves their condi- 
 tion just as surely as the muscles are stimulated and im- 
 proved by being exercised. 
 
 The rest of the body nervous system, bones, ligaments, 
 and organs of special sense is in general stimulated by 
 the increased speed of circulation and the improvement 
 in nutrition. 
 
 Thus the whole body is stimulated, refreshed, and nour- 
 ished as a result of exercise. Every tissue is given a ten- 
 dency toward health, and a feeling of well-being arises. 
 
 It must not be forgotten, however, that there is another 
 side to the matter. Exercise continued too long with too 
 brief intervals for rest and reconstruction of the tissues
 
 200 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 will tear down the body and make it less strong. Over- 
 work causes serious harm because it injures the very ma- 
 chinery of repair. 
 
 It is, therefore, necessary to guard against overexercise, 
 overwork, and overfatigue, not only in physical training 
 but in all of life's activities. 
 
 14. Massage. Muscular exercise moves various body 
 parts and oftentimes one part of the body is brought into 
 physical contact with another. This occurs when joints 
 are fully flexed as flexing the thigh of the body. In this 
 exercise the parts in question are mechanically compressed 
 and if it is done rhythmically, we have virtually a mas- 
 sage. 
 
 Many exercises, such as running, jumping, charging, 
 and dancing, jar the body. In fact, there are very few 
 exercises involving change of place or base which do not 
 do so. This jarring also stimulates the whole body and 
 its effect upon the abdominal organs is particularly bene- 
 ficial and important. I am inclined to believe that a very 
 large part of the benefits of exercise results from the 
 stimulation in this manner, of the cells of the body. This 
 principle is an important one to be considered in the 
 selection of exercises.
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 201 
 
 IV. HYGIENIC EXERCISES 
 
 1. The Specific Purpose of Hygienic Exercises. - - Dur- 
 ing life the body is never wholly inactive; even in sleep 
 its physiological processes go on in proportion to its ac- 
 tivity. A scale for measuring body activity can be con- 
 structed as indicated by the diagram on page 202. 
 
 All of our physical training exercises correspond to 
 types 3, 4, 5, and 6, and most of them to types 4 and 5. 
 The varying heights of the columns indicate approxi- 
 mately the rate of physiological activity. Above the line, 
 work exceeds repair, and we may call type 5 and 6 a 
 "state of exercise" and types 1, 2, and 3 a "state of rest," 
 although the terms, rest and exercise, are always relative. 
 
 We have a sense of exercise when we sit up after a 
 period of illness, which means progressing from type 2 to 
 type 3. We have a sense of rest when sitting down after 
 walking, or when we begin to walk after running. Hence 
 rest is experienced in change made in going down the 
 scale exercise, in change made in going up the scale. 
 
 This diagram is introduced for the purpose of bringing 
 clearly before the mind of the teacher, the thought that 
 exercise is a normal variation of physiological process. 
 
 2. Formal vs. Informal. Both formal scientific gym- 
 nastic exercises done to command and informal exercises, 
 such as games and athletic activities, are appropriate to
 
 202 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 the purpose. Formal exercises have the advantage of 
 definite construction and prescription, and dosage is al- 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF EXERCISES ACCORDING TO THEIR PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 INTENSITY (METABOLISM) 
 100, 
 
 Sleeping Recumbent Standing Walking Running Fighting 
 
 (Minimal) (Maximal) 
 
 12345 6 
 
 ways under control, that is, the quantity may easily be 
 adapted to the need. They are less interesting and less
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 203 
 
 likely to be used habitually in after life, and yet this after- 
 use is most important. 
 
 The recreative or informal exercises, on the other hand, 
 have the advantage of being natural. They normally in- 
 volve many sets of muscles, and they are interesting and 
 are, therefore, much more likely to be continued in use. For 
 this reason we make generous use of mimetic exercises. It 
 is, however, more difficult to control the dosage of these 
 exercises. 
 
 V. SELECTION OF EXERCISES 
 
 1. Rhythm. - - Hygienic exercises should be rhythmic, 
 consisting of alternate contraction and relaxation of the 
 muscles. This, as we have seen, aids the circulation, as 
 the muscle acts as an accessory circulation pump. Static 
 contraction of the muscle, it will be recalled, interferes 
 with circulation. 
 
 2. Use of Large Muscles. - - Large muscles and large 
 muscle groups should be exercised in preference to small 
 ones because a single contraction of a large muscle equals 
 many contractions of a smaller muscle, and since each con- 
 traction requires an effort of will, the single contraction of 
 a large muscle is much more economical in nervous energy. 
 
 3. Simplicity. -- Hygienic exercises should be simple 
 and wdl known,, and should require very little nerve strain
 
 204 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 and conscious attention, for it is the exercise of the mus- 
 cles we wish, and not the exercise of the nervous system. 
 
 4. Repetition. Many repetitions of moderate muscu- 
 lar contraction will produce greater physiological results 
 rather than a few heavy contractions. There is a moder- 
 ate weight against which a muscle contracts at best ad- 
 vantage. This is known as the normal load. The best 
 physiological results can be obtained by exercise with this 
 load. 
 
 5. Amplitude. - - It is best to have a large sweeping 
 movement which gives a complete contraction of the 
 muscles. This provides the best circulatory pumping 
 effect and also muscular massage, although the most foot 
 pounds of work can be done by a muscle if the move- 
 ment is limited to the middle of the total arc of the 
 movement. 
 
 6. Speed. -- Hygienic exercises should be of moderate 
 speed. If they are very fast the contraction of the an- 
 tagonistic muscles controlling the movement increase the 
 work greatly and the nerve strains are likely to be ex- 
 treme thus reducing the value of the exercise. 
 
 7. Mechanical Jar. - - To a moderate degree hygienic 
 exercise should provide for mechanical jar like that occa- 
 sioned by running and jumping, because of its stimulat- 
 ing effect upon the body.
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 205 
 
 8. Summary. An hygienic exercise is typically a sim- 
 ple rhythmic movement of large muscles, of large range, 
 of moderate speed, easy, well known, and often repeated. 
 There is no necessity for a large variety. A few exercises 
 well learned will answer all purposes. The best hygienic 
 exercises are the simplest and these are racially old coor- 
 dinations, used in original form or modified slightly to 
 serve gymnastic purposes. 
 
 VI. VARIETIES OF HYGIENIC EXERCISES 
 
 1. Running. -- Running meets all the requirements of 
 hygienic exercise. It is natural, simple, rhythmic, in- 
 volves large masses of muscles and is easily controlled. 
 It should be used briefly in some form in the introductory 
 part of the lesson and again in the hygienic section. 
 Every child should learn to run at an early age and 
 should be able to run continuously at a slow rate for fif- 
 teen or twenty minutes without undue fatigue. Every 
 person should retain this ability up to old age, for running 
 should be practiced in some form two or three times a 
 week up to the age of sixty. 
 
 In the introductory section of the lesson, running can 
 be changed into many varieties of skipping, hopping, and 
 simple dance steps. It should not occupy more than one 
 third of the time devoted to introductory work. A sim-
 
 206 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 pie pleasing form of hopping is as follows: Hop in place, 
 eight steps left foot, eight steps right foot; four left, four 
 right; two left, two right; run four steps to a halt. In 
 the hygienic section, running should take a prominent 
 place in at least three of the five weekly periods. Chil- 
 dren should be trained to run, gradually increasing the 
 time allotted to such training from fifteen seconds of the 
 lesson to four and five minutes. Following the Boy Scout 
 method, one can run one hundred steps and then walk 
 one hundred steps. The running exercise may, however, 
 be varied by raising the knees high, taking a longer stride, 
 lifting the heels up behind, and the like. The runner 
 should be carefully safeguarded against overdoing. It is 
 very necessary that the teacher should know that no 
 child is suffering from heart disease or hyperthyroidism. 
 
 2. Trunk Exercises. -- Next to running, trunk bend- 
 ing and trunk twisting are the most important of hygienic 
 exercises: firstly, because of their direct effect upon the 
 abdominal contents in squeezing and massaging them: 
 and secondly, because of their strengthening effect on the 
 lower abdominal wall and because they aid greatly in 
 keeping the abdominal contents held up against the force 
 of gravity. These two elements should be kept in mind 
 in the selection of exercises. 
 
 Trunk bending forward, for hygienic purposes, is best
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 207 
 
 when done completely, that is, including flexion of the hips 
 and touching finger tips to the toes. Trunk bending to 
 the right and left can be made more effective by touching 
 the finger tips to the outside of the knee. Trunk bending 
 backward should consist of an extension of the spine, with 
 the chest held high; the hips should bend very little and 
 the trunk should be bent backward only by bending the 
 dorsal spine and lifting the chest. This decreases the am- 
 plitude of the movement and limits hygienic results to 
 the part to be benefited thereby. 
 
 It is our purpose to make all movements ample. For 
 this reason we seek to provide an objective termination. 
 For instance, as suggested above, in trunk bending for- 
 ward, the finger tips should touch the toes or the floor; in 
 trunk bending sideways, the knees. Unless this is done, 
 the pupils are likely to slight the movement, and little ex- 
 ercise results. This principle should be used throughout 
 the whole of hygienic work. 
 
 The best abdominal work is done by lying on the back 
 and raising the legs, by rising to a sitting posture with 
 the feet held in a fixed position, by inverted "bicycle 
 riding," or by lying on the side and using a walking 
 movement. 
 
 3. Trunk Twisting. - - Trunk twisting should always be 
 done with a hiii chest and a contracted lower abdomen.
 
 208 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 It is best done with hands on hips, using the weight of the 
 arm to increase the load to be moved, or even with a wide 
 base and the arms stretched to the side. Various combi- 
 nations of trunk bending and twisting are valuable. Chop- 
 ping with a downward stroke or cutting as if chopping the 
 base of a tree are mimetic, interesting, and especially use- 
 ful. It is usually preferable to do trunk twisting exercises 
 with the feet spread apart. 
 
 4. Knee Bending and Charging. - - These exercises use 
 the large muscle masses of the thighs. Knee bending 
 should always be used with caution but when used should 
 be full and rhythmic, the student sitting on his heels mo- 
 mentarily on each count. To injure this, the thumbs are 
 clasped behind and the finger tips stretched downward so 
 as to touch the heels at each effort. This is the form of 
 knee bending that was put into the two minute setting- 
 up exercise taught in the public schools of the City of New 
 York, because the children previously had performed the 
 exercise only perfunctorily. Charging or lunging provides 
 an element which can be used in exercises to add to their 
 hygienic value. 
 
 5. Dosage. --It is a matter of prime importance for 
 the teacher to realize that he can fatigue and exhaust his 
 class and do them serious damage by overexercise. Against 
 this he must continually guard himself. In the older days
 
 HYGIENIC WORK 209 
 
 it was customary in physical training for the new teacher 
 to impress his class with his importance by giving them 
 such severe work that they became exhausted, stiff, and 
 lame. This may be good psychology, but it is dangerous 
 physical training. 
 
 Dosage can be increased by increasing the number of 
 muscles involved, by increasing the weight moved (whether 
 it be a part of the body or an additional weight such as a 
 dumbbell), by increasing the leverage of the weight, by 
 extending the number of repetitions of the movement, 
 and by increasing the speed. It is the purpose of the 
 teacher however, as a rule, not to increase the severity of 
 the work itself, but rather to decrease it so that it may be 
 continued without harm for an appropriate length of time. 
 
 It is advisable to devise exercises which contain both a 
 heavy and a light hygienic element as for example: 
 
 Exercise 1 
 Heavy 1. Touching finger tips to toes. 
 
 2. Hands on hips. 
 Light 3. Stretching arms sideways. 
 
 4. Hands on hips. 
 
 Exercise 2 
 Heavy 1. Deep knee bending. 
 
 2. Knees stretching. 
 Light 3. Stretching arras upward. 
 
 4. Hands on hips.
 
 210 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 In these exercises the hard work - - trunk bending and 
 knee bending - - is alternated with the milder effort, arm 
 stretching. This is the typical formation of the four 
 count hygienic exercise and it should be used as a stand- 
 ard procedure. Exercises of two counts with nothing but 
 hard work are to be used with caution. 
 
 This gives an opportunity also to insert in the four 
 count exercise an element such as arms upward stretch- 
 ing which acts as an extension element, and thus lifts the 
 chest and head after the trunk has been compressed in the 
 flexion movement. This element helps posture. 
 
 By using double counting, giving two counts to each 
 movement as explained in the chapter on "Commands," 
 the speed of the exercise is diminished without decreasing 
 its interest. 
 
 The number of repetitions of each exercise will depend 
 upon its nature and severity. As a rule there should be a 
 period of a few moments between each exercise. At times, 
 however, if the exercises are not too severe, it is of advan- 
 tage to go directly from one to another in a series which 
 may be learned and formed into a "drill." Since these 
 exercises are rhythmic, they may be done to music with 
 advantage, observing the caution, however, that the per- 
 formance should never be allowed to become perfunctory.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 RECREATIVE WORK 
 
 Under the title of recreative work are included all 
 forms of natural exercises, such as play, games, folk and 
 other kinds of gymnastic dancing, and athletic games and 
 contests of all kinds. These are nature's own forms of 
 training. They provide educational and hygienic results 
 of their own peculiar kind and they add to these their 
 great services in social training. They are productive of 
 enjoyment and happiness. 
 
 No physical training period is complete without its 
 recreative features, which appropriately come at the end 
 of the lesson. It is, sometimes, good practice to have 
 physical training periods devoted wholly to recreative ac- 
 tivities. These exercises are so varied and important that 
 it is impossible to treat of them adequately in this volume. 
 The student will, however, find a multitude of textbooks 
 covering this diverse and important field. 
 
 211
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The following pages contain the general directions which are given 
 to the teachers of the public schools of the city of New York and are 
 intended to exemplify the methods indicated in the foregoing part of 
 this book. Besides this, they will, it is hoped, exemplify the princi- 
 ples of clearness, brevity, and completeness hitherto set forth. It has 
 also seemed worth while to include those general directions which ap- 
 ply to all physical training lessons both in the classroom and gym- 
 nasium, together with sample lessons of present usage. 
 
 These directions may serve as models or incentives for supervisors 
 and city superintendents in preparing similar instructions. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 1. Physical Training includes the two minute drill, formal gymnas- 
 tics, directed recreation, games, athletics, folk dances, recesses, 
 instruction in hygiene, the daily morning hygiene inspection, the 
 observation for physical disabilities and signs of illness, and 
 cooperation with the medical inspector and nurse. 
 
 2. The purpose of physical training is (1) to obtain good posture, 
 
 (2) to make pupils alert, accurate, and graceful in movement, 
 
 (3) to render them vigorous and able to endure, (4) to teach them 
 forms of recreation for use in after life, (5) to teach the laws of 
 health for the immediate purpose of success in athletics, and the 
 ultimate purpose of establishing a lifelong habit of good hygiene. 
 
 3. These results are sought separately in the appropriate sections of 
 the lesson designated for their attainment: (1) Corrective Exer- 
 cises, for good posture, (2) Educational Exercises, for alertness and 
 
 213
 
 214 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 accuracy, (3) Hygienic Exercises, for vigor and endurance, (4) 
 Recreative Exercises, for instruction in play and enjoyment in its 
 practice. 
 
 4. The first task of the teacher in the preparation of the lesson is to 
 study its various parts and to aim at a thorough understanding 
 as to how the desired results are to be obtained by the use of the 
 exercises. 
 
 5. The teacher should learn the exercises herself and practice giving 
 the appropriate commands, always keeping in mind the results 
 to be obtained. 
 
 6. The teacher also should keep in mind that the exercise is not an 
 end in itself. It is only a means of obtaining the desired results; 
 i.e., good posture, alertness, accuracy, recreation, and endurance. 
 
 7. The teacher should make perfectly clear to the pupils the results 
 desired, and the pupils should become interested in obtaining 
 them. They should take a pride in their own performance and 
 in the work of the class, and continually strive to improve. The 
 mere announcement of the purpose as indicated in the lessons is 
 insufficient. The matter should be thoroughly explained and 
 understood, and kept continually in mind. 
 
 8. The teacher should carefully study the general instructions with 
 regard to Response and Rhythmic Commands, Good Posture, 
 Educational Results, and Directed Recreation. 
 
 9. The teacher should seek every available opportunity to give 
 physical training out of doors. 
 
 10. Coats and sweaters should be removed before exercising in the 
 classroom or gymnasium. 
 
 11. Pupils should be urged to practice the formal exercises at home for 
 at least five minutes night and morning.
 
 APPENDIX I 215 
 
 RESPONSE COMMANDS 
 
 Response commands are used in the introductory part of the lesson 
 and only for corrective and educational exercises. They should train 
 for alertness, accuracy, and inhibition. The teacher should see that 
 these results are obtained whenever responsive commands are used. 
 
 The response command has three parts as follows: 
 
 1. PREPARATORY PART. 
 
 a. The preparatory part of the command contains a brief de- 
 scription of the exercise. Its purpose is to tell the pupils exactly 
 what is to be done. 
 
 b. If necessary, the teacher should fully describe and demon- 
 strate a new exercise before giving the command. When the pupils 
 know what is to be done there should be no need of further dem- 
 onstration; the command should be sufficient. 
 
 c. The teacher's voice should be clear and stimulating and her 
 manner interested and alert. 
 
 d. When the exercise is thoroughly learned the preparatory 
 part is omitted and the commands, ONE! - - TWO! - 
 THREE! - - FOUR! etc., are sufficient. 
 
 2. PAUSE. 
 
 a. After the preparatory part, the teacher should pause for 
 one or two seconds before giving the executive command. A 
 breath taken at this time will prevent the neglect of the pause and 
 will add force to the executive command. 
 
 b. The pause must be varied in each successive command. 
 The pupils should never know when the executive command will 
 be given. A neglect of this rule destroys alertness and inhibition. 
 The only exception to this rule is in FACING, when the pauses 
 may be equal, to establish the rhythm of the movement. 
 
 3. EXECUTIVE PART. 
 
 This is the signal to move. It should be clear, decisive, and 
 stimulating.
 
 216 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Example 
 
 Preparatory Part Pause Executive Part 
 
 Thrusting arms sideways ONE! 
 
 Hands on hips PLACE ! 
 
 RHYTHMIC COMMANDS 
 
 Rhythmic commands are used in teaching hygienic exercises. 
 The purpose of hygienic exercises is to develop physical endurance 
 and to provide vigorous stimulation of the heart and lungs. 
 The Rhythmic Command has four parts as follows: 
 
 1. PREPARATORY PART. 
 
 The preparatory part of the command contains a brief 
 description of the exercise. Its purpose is to tell the pupils 
 exactly what is to be done. 
 
 2. SETTING THE RHYTHM. 
 
 This insures alert attack and uniform rhythm. 
 
 3. EXECUTIVE PART. 
 
 This is the signal to move. The command BEGIN! should 
 be given in a clear, decisive, and stimulating tone. 
 
 4. COUNTING. 
 
 The purpose of counting is to keep the proper rhythm and to 
 stimulate vigorous performance. 
 
 METHOD OF TEACHING HYGIENIC EXERCISES 
 
 Describe the exercise, using response commands. 
 
 State the name of the exercise. 
 
 If necessary, the teacher may demonstrate the exercise to the 
 correct rhythm. 
 
 Set the rhythm, 1-2-3-4, 1-2-3-BEGIN! The counts should be 
 given once or twice, while the pupils mentally enact the exercise.
 
 APPENDIX I 217 
 
 For the last count, the command BEGIN ! is substituted, and the 
 exercise and the counting begin simultaneously. 
 
 For the change from left to right, the teacher should substitute 
 the words Same RIGHT! for the last two counts; that is 1-%-Same 
 RIGHT! 
 
 To insure a uniform halt, change the tone of the voice, premonitory 
 Class, executive HALT; that is l-2-C7ass-HALT ! 
 
 Do not count to 16; it is best to repeat 1-2-3-4. Care should be 
 taken not to break or increase the rhythm. 
 
 Counts for movements of extension; that is thrusting and charging, 
 particularly those for thrusting arms upward, should be emphasized. 
 
 When the pupils can begin the exercise simultaneously and con- 
 tinue in unison, the teacher may omit the preliminary counting; she 
 should then proceed as follows: (1) State the name of the exercise, 
 (2) Pause, (3) BEGIN! 
 
 The number of repetitions of each exercise should be from four to 
 thirty-two, depending upon the amount of available time, the fa- 
 miliarity with the exercise, and the endurance of the class. 
 
 THE Two MINUTE DRILL 
 
 Grades from 3A to 8B Inclusive 
 
 At the sound of the bell, monitors should open windows without 
 command. 
 
 Class STAND ! (Face windows at once without command.) 
 
 1. BREATHING. 4 times. 
 
 IN! Six counts for inhalation. 
 OUT! Four counts for exhalation. 
 RIGHT (LEFT) FACE! 
 
 2. STRETCHING. 4 times. 
 
 This exercise must be done to response commands, using the 
 
 cues indicated. 
 BEND! Bend the trunk forward, touching hands to toes.
 
 218 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 SHOULDERS! Stand erect, touching hands at sides of 
 
 shoulders in passing to the next position. 
 STRETCH! Stretch the arms upward, palms toward each 
 
 other. Do not bend backward. 
 HIGHER! Make an effort to stretch higher. 
 DOWN! Turn hands and bring arms sideways downward 
 
 quickly, without noise. If the room is too crowded for the 
 
 sideways downward movement, the arms may be brought 
 
 down, close to the body. 
 
 3. KNEE BENDING. (Thumbs locked behind without command.) 
 
 8 times. 
 
 This exercise should be taught, using the cues indicated. When 
 it is thoroughly learned, it may be done to rhythmic com- 
 mands. 
 
 DOWN ! Bend the knees deeply. 
 
 UP! Stretch the knees quickly. 
 
 RIGHT ! (LEFT) FACE ! 
 
 4. BREATHING. 4 times. 
 
 IN! Six counts for inhalation. 
 OUT! Four counts for exhalation. 
 ('/a** SIT! 
 
 Coats and sweaters should be removed during drill. 
 
 The first two minute drill devised and put into execution was prob- 
 ably that used at the High School of Commerce by the author in 1901 
 at the suggestion of J. J. Sheppard, the Principal of the school. This 
 suggestion probably inspired Dr. Luther H. Gulick, who shortly 
 thereafter introduced the drill generally into the New York City 
 schools in its present substantial form which is described above. 
 
 The author has also devised an exercise for stretching and has used 
 it successfully, notably in the cooperative industrial classes of the city 
 of New York. This, as set forth below, was introduced in 1910. It 
 may be substituted for the stretching exercise indicated in the preced- 
 ing drill.
 
 APPENDIX I 219 
 
 STRETCHING EXERCISE 
 
 Hands on shoulders PLACE ! 
 
 Fists tight. 
 
 Full breath. 
 
 (Natural) " Noiv S-T-R-E-T-C-H ! " 
 
 Teacher executes movement with the class and stretches when they 
 do, as the command STRETCH! is given. 
 
 This is the normal stretch in every way. The pupils twist and 
 turn as they desire at the same time stretching the arms upward. 
 They should enjoy the exercise and feel better for doing it. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR PROCEDURES COMMON TO ALL LESSONS 
 IN THE GYMNASIUM 
 
 Ready for physical training SIT! (Trunk erect. Elevation Cues.) 
 Obtain good sitting posture before standing to go to the gymnasium. 
 Class STAND ! (For alertness.) 
 
 At the command STAND! the pupils should take their pre- 
 scribed places in the aisles, ready for marching. 
 To the gymnasium FORWARD MARCH! 
 
 Marching to the gymnasium should be done with precision 
 and dispatch. Coats should be left in the classroom or removed 
 in the gymnasium. 
 Taking distance ONE ! TWO ! 
 
 When the class arrives in the gymnasium the pupils should be 
 at full arm distance, or the class should be halted and full arm 
 distance obtained on the command, Taking distance ONE! 
 TWO! 
 Marching and facing. 
 
 Facing to the right (left] by counts ONE! TWO! 
 
 Raise slightly the left heel and right toe, fiice to the right, 
 turning on the right heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball 
 of the left foot ONE! 
 
 Place the left foot by the side of the right foot TWO! 
 Left face is executed on the left heel in a similar manner.
 
 220 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Facing about, by counts ONE! TWO! 
 
 Place the toe of the right foot about a half-foot length to the 
 rear and slightly to the left of the left heel without changing the 
 position of the left foot ONE ! 
 
 Face to the rear, turning to the right on the left heel and right 
 toe TWO! 
 
 When the facing is completed the heels will be together. There 
 is no Left about face. 
 
 The above commands are to be used only in teaching facing. 
 
 The usual commands are Facing, right, (left) FACE! and ABOUT 
 
 -FACE! The movement is then done in two counts without 
 
 separate commands. When the pupils know what is desired the 
 
 word facing may be omitted. 
 
 Mark time MARCH ! Class HALT ! 
 
 (From marking time, halt in two counts.) The foot should be 
 raised two inches from the floor, knees up in front, body erect, 
 arms swinging at the sides as in marching. Use this to develop 
 rhythm, accuracy, alertness, and good posture. Avoid stiffness of 
 the arms and shoulders. 
 
 Forward MARCH! should be taken from a halt, not from 
 marking time. 
 
 Forward MARCH ! Class HALT ! 
 
 (From marching, halt in two counts.) At the command 
 MARCH! advance the left foot a full step from the right, the 
 weight of the body resting upon it. In like manner, advance 
 the right foot. Swing the arms naturally (about four inches for- 
 ward and three inches back of the middle line of the body). The 
 teacher should secure from every pupil a full step forward at the 
 command MARCH! This should be practiced until a perfect 
 response is obtained from the entire class. 
 
 The cadence is at the rate of 120 steps to the minute. This is 
 known as quick time. 
 
 Double time MARCH ! Class HALT !
 
 APPENDIX I 221 
 
 If at a halt, at the first command shift the weight of the body 
 to the right leg. At the command MARCH! raise the forearms, 
 fingers closed, to a horizontal position along the waistline, and take 
 up an easy run with the step and cadence of double time (180 steps 
 to the minute), allowing a natural swinging motion of the arms. 
 
 If marching in quick time, at the command MARCH ! given as 
 either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and 
 then step off in double time. 
 
 To resume the quick time give the command Quick time 
 MARCH ! At the command MARCH ! given as either foot strikes 
 the ground, advance and plant the other foot in double time 
 and then resume the quick time, dropping the hands to the sides. 
 This change is made in two counts. 
 
 Double time, in place MARCH ! Class HALT ! 
 
 From double time halt in two counts in response to the command, 
 Class HALT ! Drop the hands to the sides as soon as the halt has 
 been made. 
 
 Skipping may be used occasionally instead of running. 
 
 Counter marching (right or left) MARCH ! 
 
 Counter marching (right or left), DOUBLE TIME MARCH! 
 
 Taking apparatus and marching to floor formation, FORWARD 
 MARCH! 
 
 (With alertness and accuracy.) As the leader takes the ap- 
 paratus, the command Half step MARCH! is given, so that the 
 interval of marching distance shall not be lost. When the whole 
 class has taken the apparatus, the command Forward MARCH ! 
 is given. The class then proceeds at full step. 
 
 Floor Formation. 
 
 From the single file formation, the first four pupils should 
 execute a flank march at the rear of the room, deploy to arm's 
 length, and march to the front of the room. Arriving at position, 
 they should mark time. The following fours should execute the 
 movement in like manner. Both the ranks and files should be 
 in proper alignment. The interval between ranks should be
 
 222 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 approximately twice full arm distance. When all have taken their 
 places, give the command Class HALT ! 
 
 The above method of floor formation is typically rapid and 
 definite. It may be varied to suit conditions. 
 Breathing IN! OUT! (Facing windows.) 
 
 Inhalation should be slow, deep, and complete, taking 5 or 6 
 seconds; exhalation taking 3 or 4 seconds. The chest should not 
 become depressed during exhalation. 
 
 Method of placing apparatus on floor. 
 Dumb-bells. 
 
 Placing apparatus on floor ONE! TWO! 
 
 (1) Turning and charging directly to the left, place bells 
 (crossed) on the floor, in front of the left foot ONE! 
 
 (2) Return to standing position TWO ! 
 Wands or Bar bells. 
 
 Placing apparatus on floor ONE! TWO! 
 
 (1) Turning and charging directly to the left, place wand or 
 bar bell on the floor ONE ! 
 
 (2) Return to standing position TWO! 
 
 Method of taking apparatus from the floor. 
 
 Taking apparatus from floor ONE ! TWO ! 
 Reverse the above procedure. 
 
 Use of Wands or Bar bells. 
 
 The wand or bar bell is carried in the right hand at the side, 
 resting against the front of the shoulder. 
 Wands doirnO^E\ TWO! 
 
 Grasp wand at shoulder with left hand, palm front ONE! 
 
 Bring wand down to horizontal position in front of thighs 
 TWO! 
 1 1 'a n ds at carry ONE ! TWO ! 
 
 Reverse the above procedure. 
 
 Monitors, collect apparatus MARCH! 
 
 Monitors should be appointed to collect the apparatus before 
 the running and recreative exercises.
 
 APPENDIX I 223 
 
 POSTURE 
 
 1. GOOD POSTURE 
 
 Good posture is the best adjustment of the parts of the 
 oody to each other and the body as a whole to its work. While 
 it is important to organic health, it is also the physical expres- 
 sion of mental alertness. The essentials of good posture are 
 the erect head, the straight trunk, and the high chest. 
 
 Good posture is a matter of habit. Special attention 
 should be given to it when pupil is standing to recite, in 
 marching, and during the whole of the physical training period. 
 
 To obtain good posture, pupils must become aware of their 
 defects, must be able to correct these defects, must be given 
 exercises to strengthen the muscles which hold the body erect, 
 and must practice good posture at all times. 
 
 2. POSTURE TEST. 
 
 At the beginning of the term the teacher should examine 
 the posture of all pupils in his class. This is best done by a 
 process of elimination as follows : 
 
 The pupil must show his ability to maintain the proper 
 position of the body through three tests: (1) Standing; (2) 
 Marching; (3) Holding the arms in the upward stretch posi- 
 tion demonstrated in the two minute drill. Any child found in 
 poor posture during any part, of the test should be told to sit. 
 The pupils standing at the close of the entire test form Divi- 
 sion I for posture; the others, Division II. 
 
 Division I may be divided into two groups of pupils, those 
 who always have good posture and those who have sufficient 
 endurance to pass the triple test but do not maintain good 
 posture at all times. The former should be rated A, the 
 latter B. 
 
 3. GROUPING FOR THE PHYSICAL TRAINING LESSON. 
 
 Groups I and II should be separated for the regular physical 
 training lesson.
 
 224 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 4. MONTHLY TESTS AND RECORDS. 
 
 The posture test should be repeated on the first school day 
 of each month. The percentage of the class in Group I should 
 be determined on the basis of the attendance of the day. To 
 arouse a desire for improvement, this is recorded and placed 
 permanently on the blackboard with the records of preceding 
 months. 
 
 5. CORRECTION OF DEFECTS. 
 
 If the pupil can respond properly to the elevation cues he 
 will be able to assume good posture. The teacher should give 
 additional instruction to all pupils who cannot assume correct 
 posture at will. Such pupils should receive special attention 
 during the lesson and should be instructed to practice the 
 corrective exercises at home. The special teacher may be 
 called upon for assistance. 
 
 6. SITTING POSTURE. 
 
 a. Ordinary sitting posture is a resting position, hips well 
 back on the seat, the back against the back of the seat, trunk 
 erect. The hands may be placed on the desk or grasping the 
 sides of the seat, but never behind the back. 
 
 b. For physical training SIT! The pupils sit erect. 
 
 c. For writing SIT! Pupils sit erect; lean forward from 
 the hips (trunk straight). See directions in penmanship 
 circular. 
 
 d. For drawing and sewing, the ordinary sitting position is 
 used. 
 
 e. For reading, the pupils should use the ordinary position 
 with both hands on the desk supporting the book. 
 
 /. Children should not be required to sit absolutely still nor 
 in any one position for a long time. There should be a change 
 of occupation, and they should be permitted, from time to time, 
 to turn to the right Q? left, with their feet in the aisle and their 
 arms resting on the top of the desk. The two minute drill 
 provides rest and should never be neglected. Pupils in the
 
 APPENDIX I 225 
 
 first two years should occasionally be allowed to lay their arms 
 on the desk and their heads on their arms, for thorough relaxa- 
 tion. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL RESULTS 
 
 1. PURPOSE. 
 
 The results desired from Educational Exercises are: (1) The 
 learning of exercises for use afterward for hygienic or other 
 purposes, (2) The training of pupils in alertness, inhibition, and 
 accuracy. It is essential that the pupils should know what 
 results are desired and should take an interest and pride in 
 obtaining them. 
 
 2. METHOD. 
 
 Educational Exercises are invariably done to response 
 commands and the teacher should carefully study the state- 
 ments relative thereto. 
 
 3. TEACHING EXERCISES. 
 
 The teacher should study and practice the exercise before 
 teaching it to the class. She should then be prepared to insist 
 upon perfect performance of the pupils. In a new lesson the 
 exercises should be taught until all pupils are reasonably 
 proficient. 
 
 4. INHIBITION. 
 
 Inhibition is the mental ability to withold from action until 
 the proper time. To obtain training in this, the teacher should 
 not permit any pupil, at any time, to begin the movement 
 before the executive part of the command is given. This is 
 accomplished by adherence to the rule that the pupil should 
 not know when to expect the signal to move, and is insured by 
 varying the length of the pause in the command. If the pupils 
 err in this regard, they should be recalled to position and the 
 exercise should be started anew.
 
 226 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 5. ALERTNESS. 
 
 Alertness is shown in the ability of the pupil to react at once 
 to the executive part of the command. This depends upon 
 the following: 
 
 (1) The pupil's understanding that quick response is desired 
 
 and his interested endeavor to excel ; 
 
 (2) The pupil's knowing exactly what to do; 
 
 (3) Allowing pupil sufficient time to prepare himself to 
 
 execute the movement this is insured by a pause 
 in the command long enough for adjustment; 
 
 (4) The stimulus of the teacher's voice giving a clear and 
 
 decisive signal to move, and her alert, interested 
 manner. 
 
 If the pupils err in not simultaneously beginning the exercise 
 they should be recalled to position and practiced in alertness. 
 
 6. ACCURACY. 
 
 All positions should be accurate. The teacher should 
 correct faulty performance of individual pupils with the least 
 possible interruption to class work. The pupils should take a 
 pride in accurate performance and continually endeavor to 
 improve. 
 
 7. ADDITIONAL POINTS. 
 
 Good posture should be insisted upon during all exercises. 
 Elevation cues sh mid be used for this purpose, and individual 
 attention should be given to pupils in special need. 
 
 All extensor positions, such as thrusting and stretching, 
 should be pressed to the utmost. 
 
 The teacher and pupils should always keep in mind the 
 results to be obtained. There should be constant reference 
 to these and a continual desire to improve. Teachers should 
 guard against spending much time in talking, for this lessens 
 the time allotted for work.
 
 APPENDIX I 227 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 One or more assistants to principals or one or more class teachers, 
 especially qualified in this subject by ability or training, should be 
 assigned by the principal at the beginning of the term to perform the 
 duties listed below. 
 
 DUTIES. 
 
 1. To visit the other class teachers at least once a month, in order 
 
 to advise and assist in the teaching of the two minute drill, 
 classroom games, recesses, classroom gymnastics, athletics, 
 folk dances, and physical training exercises in the gymnasium 
 and playground. 
 
 2. To confer with the special teacher at the beginning and at the 
 
 end of his visit to the school, to set forth the needs of the 
 school, and to report such needs to the principal. 
 
 3. To be responsible for the care of the physical training equipment. 
 
 4. To hold grade or department conferences at the call of the 
 
 principal, and to assist the special teacher in arranging 
 special conferences on physical training. 
 
 5. To attend all general meetings of the physical training depart- 
 
 ment and to relate to the teachers of the school the benefit 
 of the instruction received. 
 
 6. To make such report, or reports, as may be required by the 
 
 principal. 
 
 NOTE: The principal should likewise assign similar assistants 
 to principals or teachers to take charge of hygiene, whose duties shall 
 be the same as the duties of those in charge of physical training.
 
 228 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 TYPICAL BEGINNING LESSON FOR THE CLASSROOM 
 
 SIXTH YEAR, FREEHAND 
 
 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES: (Response Commands. For mental and 
 physical preparation for the lesson.) 
 
 See "Directions for Procedures Common to All Lessons." The 
 class should be thoroughly drilled in the items under this head- 
 ing. 
 CORRECTIVE EXERCISES: (Elevation Cues. To develop good posture.) 
 
 A Posture Test should be given at the beginning of each month. 
 (See Page 114.) 
 
 To get good posture it is necessary for the pupils to know from 
 experience the exact position desired in response to Elevation 
 Cues. These are always to be used while the static contrac- 
 tion is held for the purpose of lifting and straightening the body. 
 They should be given with meaning, vigor, and discrimination. 
 
 The following are the best: 
 
 Head UP! LIFT THE HEAD! 
 
 Chest UP ! LIFT THE CHEST ! 
 
 Wai*t FLAT! STRETCH THE KNEES! 
 
 Weight FORWARD! STRETCH THE ANKLES! 
 
 (if necessary). STAND TALL! 
 
 The teacher should note with great care the posture of each pupil 
 and determine what improvement is necessary. 
 
 Each pupil should be informed of his defects and shown how to correct 
 them. This requires constant practice and much individual 
 attention. Every formal exercise should start and finish in 
 the correct standing position. 
 
 Good posture without rigidity should be constantly maintained. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES: (Response Commands. For alertness, 
 
 inhibition, and accuracy.) 
 Hands to left foot; trunk erect, hands on hips; arms sideways; hands 
 
 on hips PLACE! 
 Bending trunk forward, touching hands to left foot ONE!
 
 APPENDIX I 229 
 
 Trunk erect, hands on hips TWO ! 
 
 Stretching arms sideways, hands height of eyes (palms up) 
 
 THREE! 
 
 Hands on hips FOUR! 
 4 times. Same RIGHT! ALTERNATE! POSITION! 
 
 HYGIENIC EXERCISES: (Rhythmic Commands. To develop physical 
 
 endurance.) 
 Double time, in place MARCH ! Class HALT ! (180 steps 
 
 to the minute.) 
 
 From running, halt in two counts. Teach the rhythm 
 before starting to run. Practice for accuracy in starting and halt- 
 ing. In this lesson the run should be of short duration but re- 
 peated 5 or 6 times. Arms should be half bent, but not rigid. 
 Breathing IN! OUT! 4 to 8 times. (Facing windows.) 
 
 Inhalation should be slow, deep, and complete, taking 5 or 6 
 seconds; exhalation taking 3 or 4 seconds. The chest should not 
 become depressed during exhalation. 
 
 RECREATIVE EXERCISES: 
 
 Dances. Ace of Diamonds; Oranges and Lemons. 
 
 Game. Jump the Shot. 
 
 Athletic Period and Class Athletics. 
 
 TYPICAL MID-TERM LESSON FOR CLASSROOM SHOWING 
 
 PROGRESS 
 
 SIXTH YEAR, FREEHAN T D 
 
 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES: (Response Commands. For mental and 
 
 physical preparation for the lesson.) 
 Ready for physical training SIT! (Trunk erect. Use Elevation 
 
 Cues.) 
 Class STAND! (For alertness.) Taking distance ONE! 
 
 TWO! (Get good standing posture. Use Elevation Cues.) 
 Marching and Facing. Review. 
 Breathing IN! OUT: 4 to 8 times. (Facing windows.)
 
 230 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 CORRECTIVE EXERCISES: (Elevation Cues. To develop good posture.) 
 
 Raising arms sideways (palms up) RAISE! (Use Elevation 
 Cues.) 
 
 Hands height of eyes, palms up and pressing upward (not back- 
 ward), carrying chest up, straightening spine. 
 
 This exercise has one elevated position, which is held from 3 to 7 
 seconds, while the teacher urges and the pupils work for 
 elevation. 
 
 POSITION! 
 
 4 or more times. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL EXERCISES: (Response Commands. For alertness, in- 
 hibition, and accuracy.) 
 
 Raising and lowering heels. (To strengthen the arch of the foot.) 
 Feet parallel and six inches apart PLACE! 
 
 Raising heels ONE! (Keep the weight on the outer 
 edges of the feet, and raise the heels high, turning the 
 soles inward.) 
 Lowering heels TWO! 
 6 or 8 times. 
 
 Hands ontside of left foot; trunk erect, hands at sides of shoulders; 
 arms upward. 
 Hands at sides of shoulders PLACE! 
 
 Ticisting and bending trunk to the left, touching hands outside 
 
 of left foot ONE! 
 
 Trunk erect, facing front, hand* at xides of shoulders TWO! 
 Stretching arms upward THREE! 
 Hand* at side* of shoulders FOUR! 
 4 times. Same RIGHT! ALTERNATE! POSITION! 
 
 HYGIENIC EXERCISES: (Rhythmic Commands. To develop physical 
 
 endurance.) 
 Sitting position at end of seat, hands on shoulders PLACE! 
 
 Hands to toes; trunk erect, hands on shoulders; arms upward 
 
 BEGIN! 
 4 or more times. POSITION!
 
 APPENDIX I 231 
 
 Hands at sides of shoulders PLACE ! 
 
 Deep knee bending; stretching knees; arms upward BEGIN! 
 
 4 or more times. POSITION ! 
 
 Double Time Review. 
 
 Hopping 8 times on each foot alternately. 
 
 Breathing IN! OUT! 4 to 8 times. (Facing windows.) 
 
 RECREATIVE EXERCISES: 
 
 Chinning: crouching start, standing start. 
 Dances. Highland Schottische; Black Nag. 
 Games. Over and Under Relay (Boys). 
 
 Arch Ball (Girls). 
 Athletic Period and Class Athletics.
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Physical training is not only physical exercise. It includes a 
 number of health procedures as indicated below. The subsequent 
 pages are an outline of a complete system for the care of the health. 
 It was planned first in 1912, was introduced experimentally into the 
 schools in 1914, and was finally adopted in 1917. This was also 
 the first time that the daily morning hygienic inspection was used in a 
 school system. This has since become the basis of the more objective 
 instruction in hygiene. 
 
 The same may be said of the daily routine. It is important that 
 the teacher get these methods in a simple original form. She can 
 then adapt them to her own use or need. 
 
 Lessons in hygiene are important, though far less important than 
 the general regulations which are given here. The sample grade 
 syllabus on page 237 indicates the method of development. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 SYLLABUS IN HYGIENE 
 
 The work in hygiene in the elementary schools is as follows: 
 
 1. Hygiene of the classroom. 
 
 2. Instruction in hygiene. 
 
 3. Inspection of pupils. 
 
 4. Observations for physical disabilities. 
 
 THE HYGIENE OF THE CLASSROOM 
 OBJECT: 
 
 To counteract and eliminate the health-depressing influences of 
 school life.
 
 APPENDIX II 233 
 
 METHOD : 
 
 1. Seating: The teacher should seat the pupils at the beginning of 
 
 the term with regard to the following points: 
 
 a. Height: Not later than two weeks after the beginning 
 of the term, seats should be adjusted by the janitor so 
 that the pupil can sit with the hips well back, the thighs 
 resting on the seat, and the feet flat upon the floor. The 
 desk and seat should also be so adjusted that the proper 
 writing position can be taken i.e., hips back, body 
 straight and inclined forward (never flexed or twisted), 
 forearms resting on the desk near the edge. The eyes 
 should not be less than 10 inches nor more than 16 
 inches from the writing. 
 
 b. Defects in vision and hearing: These defects should be dis- 
 covered early so that afflicted children may be placed 
 at a proper distance from the blackboard and teacher's 
 desk. To this end the reverse side of the pupil's class 
 record card may be consulted. 
 
 2. Light: Light should fall from the left and from behind. Shades 
 
 should be so adjusted that the sunshine shall not fall upon 
 the book or work. There should not be two consecutive 
 periods of close eye work. The eyes should never be closer 
 than 10 inches to the work, 14 inches is preferable, and 
 should be raised occasionally from the work. Books should 
 be held at a right angle to the line of vision, and off the 
 desk, though the hands may rest upon the desk. 
 
 3. Temperature: The classroom temperature should be maintained 
 
 between 65 and 68 F. when artificial heat is used. An 
 accurately registered thermometer should be attached to 
 the teacher's desk and an hourly record of the temperature 
 should be made. If the temperature is not satisfactory, 
 the principal should be notified at once. 
 
 4. Ventilation: A flag or other indicator should be placed in front 
 
 of the air intake. When this shows a deficient supply of 
 air, the fact should be immediately reported to the principal.
 
 234 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Windows should be opened from the top and bottom during 
 every class period, during the two minute drill, and the 
 regular gymnastic, play, and singing periods; but on very 
 cold days they may be closed before the end of the period. 
 Except as noted, the schoolroom should be closed when the 
 forced ventilation is in operation. When it is not in opera- 
 tion, the room should be open on at least two sides ; transoms 
 should be kept in repair for this purpose. Drafts must be 
 avoided. 
 
 5. Order and cleanliness of the room: Children should be urged to 
 
 take pride in the order and cleanliness of their desks and 
 classrooms. In the upper grades this interest should be 
 extended to the school and community through the forma- 
 tion of sanitary squads, and pupil health organizations. 
 
 6. Immobility: Children should not be required to sit still for long 
 
 periods at a time, particularly in the lower grades. In 
 addition to the two minute drill, games may be used when 
 necessary, and a short recess may be given in which free 
 movement about the room and quiet conversation may be 
 allowed. Immobility may be relieved also by alternation 
 of tasks, standing to recite, group and blackboard work. 
 Immediately before and after lessons requiring severe con- 
 centrated effort, a short relaxation is most helpful. The 
 children may be permitted to rest their heads upon the 
 desks and relax completely for a minute or two. They 
 should be called to strict attention immediately following 
 such periods. The contrast between work and rest should 
 be definite. 
 
 7. Leaving the room: Pupils should not be restrained from leaving 
 
 the room to go to the toilet. If the teacher suspects that a 
 pupil is abusing the privilege, appropriate measures may be 
 taken subsequently. 
 
 8. Exercise: The two-minute setting-up exercises should be given 
 
 without fail at 10, 11, and 2 o'clock, or after each class period.
 
 APPENDIX II 235 
 
 The periods for physical exercise, play, and recess should 
 be strictly observed, and should be taken out-of-doors 
 unless the weather is inclement. 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE 
 OBJECT: 
 
 To inculcate habits of cleanliness, and care of the body, etc., in 
 
 order to maintain and promote good health and vigor. 
 METHOD : 
 
 The emphasis of the instruction should be placed upon the practical 
 affairs of daily life, such as keeping the scalp and hair clean, 
 brushing the teeth, attention to clothing, study, play, and rest, 
 and not upon theoretical instruction in anatomy and physiology. 
 
 During the first three years the pupil should be told to do things 
 without emphasizing the reasons therefor. Each topic should 
 be related to daily living and should affect daily practice. 
 Stories and actual illustrations from daily life, many of which 
 may be supplied by the children themselves, should character- 
 ize the method of teaching throughout these years. 
 
 After the third year the pupils are required to use textbooks, but 
 the method of applying instruction to daily practice should 
 be continued. The teacher should endeavor to insure the 
 grasp of one or two topics in a lesson and should not try to 
 cover too much ground. The result of the instruction should 
 be tested by inspection and by questioning the pupils as to their 
 success in putting into practice the teaching of the previous 
 lessons. 
 
 The teacher should be informed on the topics taken up in the 
 preceding terms, and should endeavor to fix the results of 
 previous instruction. 
 
 The pupils should become interested in the formation of good 
 hygienic habits, and should learn to apply the lessons of 
 personal hygiene to the home, neighborhood, school, and city. 
 Student self-governing health leagues and sanitary squads may 
 be formed with great profit. The pupils should be alert to
 
 236 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 note all matters affecting health. The personal example and 
 influence of the teacher is of great importance. 
 
 The topics presented in the syllabus should be used frequently for 
 oral and written compositions. 
 
 The teacher should use every possible means to make the instruc- 
 tion concrete, particularly by the use of "Case Method." 
 Specific cases of accidents, diseases, disorders, examples of un- 
 usually good hygiene, should be brought to the attention of 
 the pupil, and lessons as to their conduct should be drawn 
 therefrom. While this method is referred to as being used in 
 the last lesson in each term's work, it should be used through- 
 out the term, whenever opportunity offers. 
 CORRELATION WITH NATURE STUDY: 
 
 Throughout the term's work, the teacher should make constant 
 reference to phenomena of plant and animal life related to the 
 subject in hand. Growth, development, the need of food, 
 water, light, and air, cleanliness, and the like, are features of 
 plant and animal life, in many instances already familiar to the 
 children, which may be used as illustrations to make more 
 clear and objective the instruction in hygiene. In addition, this 
 should lead to a better knowledge of plants and animals, and 
 their effects upon personal welfare. 
 SPECIAL TOPICS: 
 
 The following instructions relating to special topics should be kept 
 in mind: 
 
 1. In considering topics relating to home hygiene, care should 
 
 be taken not. to bring the pupil into conflict with home 
 authority. 
 
 2. While the consideration of the effects of alcohol and tobacco 
 
 is the special topic for certain lessons, the state law 
 requires that reference be made to this subject in all 
 lessons on hygiene. 
 
 3. The special topics on seasonal hygiene may be taken earlier 
 
 or later in the term as seems necessary to make instruction 
 timely.
 
 APPENDIX II 237 
 
 4. The consideration of any special topic is not necessarily 
 
 limited to any special time. While all the topics given 
 in the lessons should be adequately covered during the 
 term, the principal is empowered to make appropriate 
 adjustments to neighborhood needs. 
 
 5. A special course on "The Care of Children" may be sub- 
 
 stituted for older girls. This course may be given in 
 any grade from 6A upwards or in special classes. For 
 children who are taught in special classes which prepare 
 immediately for work, a special course on "The Hygiene 
 of the Worker" should be given. 
 
 HYGIENE SYLLABUS 
 
 A SAMPLE GRADE SYLLABUS ILLUSTRATING CONTENT 
 AND PRESENTATION 
 
 GRADE GA 
 SPECIAL TOPICS: Digestion, blood circulation. 
 
 Daily morning hygienic inspection. Observations for physical 
 disabilities. Daily routine. Emergency measures. Seasonal 
 and home hygiene. Alcohol arid tobacco. 
 
 1st and 2d week. The items of the daily morning hygienic inspection 
 as illustrations of personal hygiene. Unsound teeth as avenues 
 of entrance for disease germs. Special attention to cleanliness 
 of teeth. Pins and picking teeth; avoidance. Good digestion; 
 sound teeth, thorough chewing; regularity in eating. 
 3d and 4th week. The items of daily routine as illustrations of 
 personal hygiene. Special attention to preparation for meals. 
 Morning and evening use of individual toothbrush, water, powder, 
 and dental floss; their sanitary care. Regular attention to lavatory 
 morning arid evening, an aid in keeping the blood free of poisons, 
 and in giving the body a greater resistance to disease. 
 5th and 6th week. Digestion. A simple description of the passage 
 of food through the mouth, stomach, small and large intestines; 
 the changes which take place, part being absorbed into the system,
 
 238 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 the remainder excreted as waste product. Hygienic application 
 to food, mastication, and constipation. 
 
 7th and 8th week. Aids to digestion. The avoidance of overeating 
 and eating too fast. The importance of a sound set of teeth; of 
 masticating thoroughly; of properly selecting and preparing 
 foods; and the importance of leisure and cheerful conversation 
 at meals. 
 
 9th and 10th week. Circulation. A simple study of the passage of 
 digested food through the intestinal wall into blood vessels to 
 the heart and then all over the body (in arteries); of waste products 
 returned to the heart by veins. Demonstrate heart beat, arterial 
 pulse, and direction of flow of blood in veins and arteries. 
 
 llth and 1 -2th week. Emergency measures. Importance of immediate 
 expert medical attention. Toothache: its prevention. Daily care 
 of teeth and semi-annual visits to dentist. Use of proper foods 
 to harden enamel. Headache: its prevention; avoidance of drugs. 
 Bleeding: nosebleed; its control. Frostbite: its prevention and 
 care. Fainting: its care. 
 
 13th and 14th week. Home hygiene. Cleanliness of kitchen, cook- 
 ing and eating utensils, ice box. Selection of food for lunches. 
 Care of lunch boxes. Fruits and vegetables, their iron contents 
 and laxative properties. Body repair during sleep, therefore 
 sufficient rest. 
 
 loth and 16th week. A'cohol and tobacco. The effect of alcohol on 
 the circulation and digestion. Alcohol and illness; its influence 
 upon recovery, and length of life. Cigarette smoking and irregular 
 heart action; palpitation of the heart. Coffee and tea to be 
 avoided. 
 
 l?th and 18th week. Seasonal hygiene. Hot weather. Use of fruits, 
 vegetables, milk, water, etc.. in lessening dangers from overheating 
 and sunstroke. Danger of drinking cold water and alcoholic 
 beverages. Cold weather. Use of foods that provide heat. 
 Dana'er of colds and freezing from use of alcohol. 
 
 19th and -20th week. Review of term's work. Emphasis should be 
 placed upon work in sanitary squads, attendance at lectures,
 
 APPENDIX II 239 
 
 demonstrations, and exhibitions of pure food, temperance leagues, 
 anti-tuberculosis societies, anti-cigarette leagues, first-aid-to-the- 
 injured, etc. 
 
 DAILY ROUTINE 
 
 Throughout the entire course an endeavor should be made to put 
 into daily practice the lessons learned in school. Children should 
 be glad to observe their environment and to help improve conditions 
 about them. To further this end the lessons of the third and fourth 
 weeks are devoted to the special consideration of the Daily Routine 
 with particular emphasis upon the subject assigned to the term. 
 The following methods of instruction may be employed: 
 
 1. Schedules of the duties of the Daily Routine. 
 
 a. Pupils should make out, under the direction of the 
 
 teacher, schedules of the hygienic duties of the day. 
 
 b. Such schedules should be taken home for constant 
 
 reference. 
 
 2. Dramatic representations by the class. 
 
 3. Compositions and written reports. 
 
 4. Oral recitation on personal use of the Daily Routine. Inductive 
 
 lesson. 
 
 5. Actual demonstrations of the hygienic procedures advised. 
 
 Toothbrush drill. 
 
 6. Daily home exercises. 
 
 7. Individual reports on the execution at home of the main points 
 
 of the Daily Routine may be kept by each pupil and brought 
 to school with or without the parent's signature. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING IS A TYPICAL DAILY PROGRAM 
 
 1. Rise promptly. 
 
 2. Take breathing and setting-up exercises appropriate to the 
 
 grade. 
 
 3. Wash (warm water and soap) hands (hand brush), face, neck, 
 
 and chest. Cold splash on face, neck, and chest. Clean 
 finger nails.
 
 240 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 4. Clean the teeth. Brush the gums and the whole mouth and 
 
 rinse the mouth. Drink a glass of water. 
 
 5. Dress with inspection of clothes as to cleanliness. 
 
 6. Eat slowly at breakfast and chew well. 
 
 7. Visit the lavatory and wash hands again. 
 
 8. Prepare for school. Books and clothes clean and in order. 
 
 9. Observe regulations as to entering school. 
 
 10. Care of outer clothing. Attend to order of desk and prepare 
 
 for Morning Hygienic Inspection. 
 
 11. Keep correct sitting and standing posture in school. 
 
 12. Drink water at recess. Use individual drinking cup or bubble 
 
 fountain. 
 
 13. Return home for lunch without loitering. Wash before lunch. 
 
 Eat slowly. 
 
 14. Play in fresh air after school. 
 
 15. Study. Pay attention to lessons and finish the work. 
 
 16. \Aash and prepare for the evening meal. 
 
 17. Prepare for bed early. Visit the lavatory, bathe, put clothes 
 
 in order, and open window. 
 
 DAILY MORNING HYGIENIC INSPECTION 
 TIME: 
 
 Ten minutes should be allowed daily for the Daily Morning 
 Hygienic Inspection. It should take place at the beginning of the 
 morning session. The time should be scheduled on the teacher's 
 daily program. 
 
 The Daily Morning Hygienic Inspection must be efficient in 
 realizing the purposes of the inspection, but the principal of the 
 school is empowered to adapt it to the neighborhood needs. 
 
 For schools operated under a form of "double session," the time 
 and method of making the inspection must necessarily be adapted 
 to the local conditions. A general preliminary inspection in the 
 auditorium may be followed later by a more detailed individual 
 inspection in the classroom.
 
 APPENDIX II 241 
 
 PURPOSE: 
 
 1. To inculcate habits of personal cleanliness by inspection of each 
 
 pupil. By arousing each pupil's enthusiastic interest and 
 pride in his own personal appearance and by stimulating a 
 desire to attain a perfect class record in cleanliness, neatness, 
 and good health, the teacher will obtain better results than 
 by emphasizing the deficiencies found. 
 
 2. To discover early signs of illness and to prevent contagion. (See 
 
 Symptoms of Illness in Children, page 245.) 
 
 3. To establish cooperation between the home and the school. 
 
 4. To establish a close cooperation between the school medical inspec- 
 
 tion service and the class teacher for the benefit of the health 
 of the children. 
 
 METHOD : 
 
 The following is a typical method of conducting the inspection 
 when the class is seated in the classroom: 
 
 Note: Not all of the following items need be noted every day, 
 
 but none should be neglected during the week. 
 Heads (especially of girls) should be inspected at least 
 three times a week, when the teacher should take her 
 place near the window and the class should file past 
 her. Special attention should be given to chronic 
 offenders. There should be a daily inspection for acute 
 contagious diseases. It is not essential that a daily 
 record be kept of the conditions found. 
 
 A. GENERAL CLASS INSPECTION 
 
 If the principal desires to have a "general class inspection," 
 the following is a suggested method: 
 
 Ready for inspection CLASS ATTENTION ! (Note any 
 obvious signs of illness.) Coats, sweaters, and rubbers 
 should be removed.
 
 8 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 The Teacher standing in the front of the room should note 
 the following items: 
 
 1. Blouses; shirts; dresses; collars. Note cleanliness 
 and order. 
 
 2. Ties; hair ribbons; order of hair. 
 
 3. Handkerchiefs. 
 
 4. Individual toothbrushes. The teacher should ask the 
 children who have individual toothbrushes, to stand. 
 The increased number from day to day should be 
 noted. Toothbrush drills should be practiced in 
 pantomime during the hygiene lesson on Daily 
 Routine. Every effort should be made to have each 
 child possess a toothbrush. 
 
 5. Teeth brushed. Children who have brushed their 
 teeth should be asked to stand. 
 
 6. Nail biting. Pupils who do not bite their nails 
 should stand. 
 
 7. Shoes are inspected by one of the following methods : 
 
 a. One row of children stands in the aisle. After the 
 
 first pupil has been inspected he seats himself 
 quickly and quietly, and each in turn follows 
 suit, or 
 
 b. The pupils remain seated but turned facing the 
 
 window with their feet in the aisles, in which 
 case the inspection is made by the teacher from 
 the head of each aisle. 
 
 B. SPECIAL INDIVIDUAL INSPECTION. (For Cleanliness, and Signs 
 of Illness and Contagion.) 
 
 Class at attention. Sleeves are rolled up. Desk tops are 
 put down. Hands and arms are placed on the desk 
 palms down. Each pupil is inspected by the teacher 
 for the following points: 
 
 1. Hands and Arms are inspected for cleanliness and 
 absence of rash.
 
 APPENDIX II 243 
 
 2. Nails are carefully observed as to cleanliness and 
 lack of evidence of biting. Children should have 
 their nails cut short and should take a pride in 
 their appearance. 
 
 3. Teeth are displayed by having the lips drawn well 
 apart. Emphasis should be placed on good mouth 
 hygiene. Charts displaying a clean, even, healthy 
 set of teeth may be hung about the walls of the 
 classroom. The same plan should be followed 
 showing well-trimmed finger nails, clean hands, 
 shirts, ties, etc. 
 
 4. Face, neck, and ears are finally carefully observed as 
 the teacher passes from child to child, up and down 
 the aisles. The ears and neck are inspected by 
 having the child draw his collar from the neck and 
 turn his head first to one side and then to the other. 
 
 5. Head. Heads are bent forward and the hair pulled up 
 from above and behind the ears; braids are pulled 
 up; uncleanliness of the scalp and hair is noted. 
 This close individual inspection affords an oppor- 
 tunity for the teacher to discover cases of contagion 
 and to refer them for exclusion, to the principal, 
 doctor, and nurse. The following should be observed : 
 Head (pediculi-nits), eyes (discharge), skin (rash), 
 and the early signs of general illness or contagion. 
 (See Symptoms of Illness, page "245.) When unhygienic 
 conditions are discovered, an endeavor should be made 
 to correct them in such a manner as not to occasion 
 embarrassment. Children who show evidences of 
 extreme neglect should be referred to the principal 
 or to the nurse for home visits. 
 
 A valuable development of the morning inspection idea is made 
 in the Modern Health Crusade, address, 381 Fourth Avenue, New 
 York City.
 
 244 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 TYPICAL TOOTHBRUSH DRILL 
 
 Two or three children, provided with toothbrushes, dentifrice, cups, 
 water, and a basin, should demonstrate this drill before the class. 
 Every member of the class should follow the leaders in pantomime. 
 
 ATTENTION! (All in line, elbows close to side, with brushes in 
 right hand and cups in left.) 
 
 1. Ready DIP ! 
 
 2. Outside Surfaces. (Brush inserted under cheek, teeth closed- 
 
 Brush gums as well as teeth.) 
 
 Left side Ready Count 1 to 16. DIP! 
 
 Right " 
 Front " 
 
 3. Inside Surfaces. (Mouth wide open, straight motion front to 
 
 back.) 
 
 Upper left side Ready-- Count 1 to 16. DIP! 
 
 right " 
 
 front " 
 
 Lower left " 
 
 right " 
 
 front " 
 
 4. Cheicing Surfaces (scrubbing vigorously). 
 
 Upper left side Ready Count 1 to 16. DIP! 
 
 right " 
 Lower left " 
 
 right 
 
 5. Empty cups and refill them Ready Count 1 to 16. DIP! 
 
 6. Rinse month 
 
 7. Rinse brush 
 
 (Shaking off excess of water over basin.) 
 
 N. B. Counting by leader should be rather brisk but even, 
 and should allow plenty of time for dipping and shaking 
 of the brushes.
 
 APPENDIX II 245 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 1. Toothbrushes (brought to school in envelopes made by leaders). 
 
 2. Dentifrice. 
 
 3. Individual cups (paper preferably), made by the leaders at 
 
 home, to be half filled with water by monitor. 
 
 4. One pitcher of water. 
 
 5. One tin basin. 
 
 SYMPTOMS OF ILLNESS IN CHILDREN WHICH SHOULD BE OBSERVED BY 
 
 SCHOOL TEACHERS 
 
 Any deviation from the normal in a previously healthy child should 
 always be regarded with suspicion. 
 
 GENERAL SYMPTOMS. 
 
 The beginning of most children's diseases show one or more of the 
 following symptoms. Depending upon the severity of the 
 symptoms, the pupil should be separated from others and 
 watched, sent to the doctor or nurse, or sent home to the 
 parents with a written explanation. 
 
 Disinclination to study or play. 
 
 General malaise. 
 
 Drowsiness. 
 
 Cheeks flushed or pallid. 
 
 Fever. 
 
 Chills. 
 
 Vomiting. 
 
 SPECIAL SYMPTOMS. 
 
 Cough. Children who sneeze or cough should be taken from their 
 regular seats and isolated or excluded, if necessary. This is 
 most important, for many diseases are spread by sneezing 
 and coughing. 
 
 Loss of weight (Imperfect nutrition). 
 
 Pallor. 
 
 Shortness of breath.
 
 246 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Frequent requests to leave the room. 
 Restlessness. 
 
 LOCAL SYMPTOMS. 
 
 Pain. 
 
 Eruptions, rashes, itching, irritation of the skin. 
 
 Red eyes (irith or without discharge). Especially if accompanied 
 by any of the following symptoms of defective vision: scowling, 
 squinting, headaches, holding reading matter at an improper 
 distance from the eye. 
 
 Running ears and deafness. 
 
 Mouth breathing. 
 
 Sore throat. 
 
 Swelling in the neck. Particularly if in the region of the ear. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS FOR EVIDENT PHYSICAL DISABILITIES 
 
 During the first week in October, the teacher should make a simple 
 test of each pupil's vision and hearing. During the first week in March, 
 pupils registered since October should also be tested. But at all times 
 teachers should keep their children under careful classroom observa- 
 tion, in order to discover evident physical disabilities. Every effort 
 should be made to cooperate with the doctor and nurse to correct the 
 defects found. 
 
 EYES. 
 
 Test: The Snellen Chart is to be used to estimate acuteness of 
 vision. For very young or mentally retarded children, charts 
 with numbers or pictures should be used. The Snellen Chart 
 should be hung in a good light (preferably the back of the 
 room), on a level with the eyes. The pupil should be placed 
 -20 feet from it. Each eye should be tested separately, the 
 other being completely covered with the back of the hand or 
 a slip of paper so as not to press upon the eyeball. The pupil 
 should start at the top and read down. The number opposite 
 the last line successfullv read should be recorded as the de-
 
 APPENDIX II 247 
 
 nominator of a fraction, the numerator of which is uniformally 
 20. For instance, if the 70 line is the last line read by the right 
 eye, the 100 line by the left eye, the record is as follows: 
 
 20 20 
 R L- 
 
 70 100 
 
 20 20 20 
 
 A record of less than i.e., -, etc., is abnormal. 
 30 40 50 
 
 Evidences of eyestrain, such as cross-eye, habitual headache, and 
 weariness after study, bloodshot eyes, crusty lids, should also 
 be carefully observed and recorded. 
 
 20 20 
 
 A record of even or , if accompanied by any of these evidences 
 20 30 
 
 of eyestrain (S), is abnormal, and is recorded as follows: 
 
 20 20 
 
 R (S) L - 
 20 30 
 
 Referring Cases: All cases of defects should be referred to the 
 school doctor or nurse for further examination. 
 
 EARS. 
 
 Children with running ears, and those who do not hear questions 
 readily and frequently ask for repetition, should be referred to 
 the doctor or nurse. Inquiry regarding earache should be 
 made and any case of discharge noted. A record of all defective 
 cases should be made, and they should be referred to the doctor 
 or nurse. 
 
 TEETH. 
 
 The presence of cavities, green deposits, sore and spongy gums 
 should be observed. Xo time should be wasted in counting 
 the number of cavities, as one small cavity is sufficient to 
 indicate the need for treatment.
 
 *48 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 All defective cases should be recorded and referred to the doctor 
 or nurse. These children should be encouraged to visit a 
 dentist. 
 
 DEFECTIVE NASAL BREATHING. 
 
 The teacher is in constant contact with the child and may easily 
 
 note signs of defective nasal breathing. 
 Habitual mouth breathing, chronic nasal discharge, frequent colds, 
 
 are indications of defective nasal breathing. Such cases should 
 
 be referred to the doctor or nurse. 
 
 Xote: Children unusually pale, thin, and puny, underweight for 
 their height, and lacking in vitality, should be referred to the 
 doctor or nurse. 
 
 HYGIENIC INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 The teacher in using this text will find special bulletins and circulars 
 of instruction, issued by the New York State and City Departments 
 of Health, and other health agencies, most useful in giving a back- 
 ground for the teaching of the subject. When necessary, pupils 
 should be furnished with circulars of instructions to parents on The 
 Care of the Nose, The Care of the Mouth and Teeth, The Care of 
 Children's Hair and Scalp, The ("are of the Eyes, all of which, issued 
 by the New York City Department of Heath, will be supplied upon 
 application to 1'59 Centre Street, New York City. Additional 
 pamphlets of interest to teachers, among which are the following, 
 may be obtained by sending a two cent stamp for postage to the 
 New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York. (Other 
 cities and states made similar provisions.) 
 
 Special Bulletin No. "2 Regulations for Cleansing and Disinfection. 
 
 Circular No. 1 The /'////>// 7-Y//. 
 
 Habits and life history of the fly. Prevention of breeding. How 
 to trap flies. 
 
 Circular \o. 4 The Food of the Kahi/. 
 
 Food the baby requires and how to prepare it. Rules for bottle 
 feeding.
 
 APPENDIX II 249 
 
 Circular No. 5 The Summer Care of Babies. 
 
 Care of breast-fed and bottle-fed babies. How to prevent 
 
 diarrhea. 
 
 Circular No. 6 Care of Milk in the Home. 
 How to safeguard the milk for your baby. Directions for making 
 
 a homemade ice box. 
 Circular No. 8 Avoid Infection. 
 
 How the baby may be kept free from disease. Things which are 
 
 bad for all babies. 
 Circular No. 10 Your Baby How to Keep It \Vcll. 
 
 A 28-page booklet of advice on preparation for motherhood, nurs- 
 ing, feeding, and care of the baby. 
 Circular No. 11 Smallpox. 
 
 How to detect the loathsome disease. How this disease spreads 
 and how it may be avoided. Directions for care of patients. 
 Circular No. 12 Vaccination. 
 
 Care in cases of vaccination, so as to avoid sore arms or other 
 
 harmful results. 
 Circular No. 13 The Teacher and Communicable Disease. 
 
 How disease is caused and how it spreads. Symptoms by which 
 
 the teacher may detect communicable disease. 
 Circular No. 15 Scarlet Fever. 
 
 How it may be detected. How it spreads and how it may be 
 
 avoided. 
 Circular No. 16 Typhoid Fever. 
 
 Information for those who take care of the patient in regard 
 
 to the spread and prevention of typhoid fever, 
 Circular No. 17 Measles. 
 
 Information for parents and for those who take care of the 
 
 patient in regard to the spread and prevention of measles. 
 Circular No. 18 Whooping Cough. 
 
 Information for parents and for those who take care of the patient 
 
 in regard to the spread and prevention of whooping cough. 
 Circular No. 20 Tuberculosis (Consumption}. 
 
 What it is. How it spreads and how it maybe avoided. (Folder.)
 
 250 THE PEDAGOGY OF PHYSICAL TRAINING 
 
 Circular Xo. 22 Sore Eyes of New-born Babies. Directions for 
 
 preventing infant blindness. 
 Circular No. 23 Diphtheria. 
 
 Information for parents and for those who take care of the 
 patient in regard to the spread and prevention of diphtheria. 
 Safety First for Children. 
 
 A book of story and verse intended to help in the work of saving 
 hum-in life. Distributed by the Safety First Federation of 
 America, New York City.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Accuracy, 144, 226; aids to, 144; in in- 
 troductory work, 58. 
 
 Action, reflex, 130. 
 
 Adjustment, of body to exercise, 198; 
 definition of good, G7; essentials of 
 good, 67. 
 
 Aims of physical training, major, 23. 
 
 "Air Push," 88. 
 
 Alertness, 145, 226; of teacher, 17. 
 
 Analysis in teaching, 141. 
 
 Apparatus, methods of handling, 56; 
 placing on floor, 222. 
 
 Area, kinesthetic, 135; motor, 134; sen- 
 sory, 135. 
 
 Arteries affected by exercise, 97. 
 
 Aspiration of the thorax, 76. 
 
 Assembly on spots, 51. 
 
 Association in teaching, 176-178. 
 
 Attention, initial use of, 47; involuntary, 
 170; in relation to remembering, 167; 
 rhythms in, 171; voluntary, 170. 
 
 Attitude, student, 6 
 
 Board, bulletin, 56. 
 
 Breathing affected by exercise, 196. 
 
 Cerebellum, 132. 
 
 Charging, 208. 
 
 "Chest out" discarded, 86. 
 
 "Chin in" discarded, S6. 
 
 Circulation, accessory, 190. 
 
 Circulatory efficiency, percentage of, 71. 
 
 Class, control of, 48-50; counting the, 
 54; distribution of, 50; establishing 
 control of, 47; feeling, 60; formation 
 
 of, 51; inspection of, 55; opinion of, 
 48; solidarity of, 60. 
 
 Class distribution, methods of, 50. 
 
 Class formation, military method of, 53. 
 
 Commands, counting in, 40; descriptive 
 cues in, 42; establishment of rhythm 
 in, 38; executive part in response, 36, 
 215; executive part of rhythmic, 216; 
 flag signals in, 43; forms of, 30; gym- 
 nastic, 30; halting, 42; irregular 
 rhythm in, 41; music in, 40; pause in 
 response, 33; preparatory part of re- 
 sponse, 31; purpose of, 30; response, 
 30, 215; rhythm accented in, 42; 
 rhythmic 1 , 37, 216; sequence variation 
 in response, 35; variation in pause in 
 response, 35. 
 
 Complexity, 157. 
 
 Concentration, principle of, 26; principle 
 applied to educational exercises, 153. 
 
 Condition, Crampton Scale of, 71. 
 
 Consciousness, class, 59. 
 
 Constipation, exercise for, 104. 
 
 Contraction, concentric, 186; excentric, 
 185; static, 186. 
 
 Contraction and relaxation, abdominal, 
 102. 
 
 Control, objective. 1,'!!); subjective, 139. 
 
 Coordinations, 140, 157; new, 158; suc- 
 cessive, 159. 
 
 Corrective work, definition of, 66. 
 
 Countermanding. 63. 
 
 Cues, descriptive. 42; elevation, 84, 228; 
 for good posture, 50; mental, 180; in 
 remembering, 181. 
 
 253
 
 254 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Day's order, 22. 
 " Debutante slouch," 92. 
 Demonstration in good posture, 83. 
 Disabilities, observation for, 247. 
 Disharmonies, circulatory, 75; skeletal, 
 
 74; visceral, 75. 
 Dosage, 208. 
 
 Ease, principle of, in good posture, 68. 
 
 Educational work, results of, 143; speed 
 in, 147. 
 
 Effects of muscular contraction, 188-200; 
 chemical, 191-193; classification of, 
 188; local, 100; mechanical, 190. 
 
 Efficiency and posture, 76. 
 
 "Elbow Lift," 89. 
 
 "Emergency jumps," 155. 
 
 English, use of, 11. 
 
 Executive part in response commands, 
 36, 215. 
 
 Executive part in rhythmic commands, 
 216. 
 
 Exercise, massage, an effect of, 200; 
 nervous effects of muscular, 194; teach- 
 ing a typical, 162. 
 
 Exercises, abdominal, 99, 207; blood 
 pressure affected by, 195-197; cards 
 for, 40; choice of, 26; circulatory ef- 
 fects of muscular, 194; complexity in 
 educational, 157; digestive tract af- 
 fected by, 19S; educational, 152-166; 
 extension element in hygienic, 201; fa- 
 miliarity in educational, 157; for future 
 use, 15 ! 159; future use of educa- 
 tional, 153; general effects of. 19S; 
 heart rate affected by, 196; heavy, 
 209; hygienic, 201; in later life, 154; 
 learning of, 159-161; mimetic. 205; 
 name.-, for, 176 ISO; neck, 9-2; or- 
 ganic, 1S3; relation of, t good posture, 
 109; selection of hygienic. 203; shoul- 
 der Made, 111; stretching, 219; sus- 
 
 tentacular, 92; teaching, 159-161; 
 trunk, 206. 
 "Expression" in educational work, 150. 
 
 Facing, 219. 
 
 Fatigue, 199; prevented by correct 
 
 dosage, 208. 
 Feeling, class, 60. 
 "Fist Lift," 89. 
 Flag signals as commands, 43. 
 Flatfoot, exercises for, 155. 
 Formation of class, 50. 
 Forms of commands, 30. 
 
 Grace, 148. 
 
 Grades of posture, 124. 
 Gymnasium, preparation for, 46. 
 Gymnastic command, 30. 
 
 Halting commands, 42. 
 Happiness, habit of, 15. 
 Hopping, 205 206. 
 Hygiene in posture work, 107. 
 
 Illness, symptoms of, 246. 
 
 Immobility, 234. 
 
 "Impression" in educational work, 149. 
 
 Industry, good posture in, 67. 
 
 Information, hygienic, 249. 
 
 Inhibition. 146. 225. 
 
 Inspection, of class. 55; hygienic, 240; 
 morning hygienic, 240. 
 
 Instruction, hygienic, 232-235. 
 
 Instructions for exeicise. general, 219. 
 
 Intensity, physiological, of exercises, 202. 
 
 Interest. 169; and pain, 169. 
 
 Introductory work, administrative phase 
 of. 46 58; blood flow in, 62: breath- 
 ing in, 61: individual response 1 in, 58; 
 military movements in, 59; muscular 
 warming up in. 61; physiological phase 
 of, 61; psychological phase of, 58;
 
 INDEX 
 
 255 
 
 purpose of, 45; running in, 63; warm- 
 ing up in, 61. 
 Isolation, 140. 
 
 Jar, an effect of exercise, 200. 
 Knee bending, 208. 
 
 Large muscles, use of, in hygienic exer- 
 cises, 203. 
 
 Later life, use of exercises in, 1,54. 
 
 Learning, psychological process in, 159- 
 101. 
 
 Learning process, value of, 155. 
 
 Lea\ing the room, 234. 
 
 Lesson, mental work in, 25; typical, 228- 
 229. 
 
 Lesson plan, 21; functional basis of, 24; 
 principles of, 22; psychological process 
 in, 100-171; sequence of, 28. 
 
 Light in classroom, 233. 
 
 Maladjustment, hereditary, 74. 
 
 Marching, 219. 
 
 Massage, an effect of exercise, 200; neck, 
 94. 
 
 Mechanical effects of muscular contrac- 
 tion, immediate, 190; remote, 191. 
 
 Mechanism, motor, 127. 
 
 Memory, 107; elements of, 107: voli- 
 tional, 173. 
 
 Mental results, reflex, 149. 
 
 Mental training, aesthetic, 149. 
 
 Method, analytic-synthetic, 141; mi- 
 metic-objective, 142. 
 
 Mind, receptivity, 171. 
 
 Motor area, 133. 
 
 Motor mechanism, 127. 
 
 Motor nerves, 128. 
 
 Motor nuclei, automatic, 132. 
 
 Motor skill, 126. 
 
 Movement, arc of, 138; automatic, 133; 
 
 control of, 139; definite, 138; economy 
 in, 148; habitual, 137; indefinite, 138; 
 instinctive, 136; natural, 137; rising, 
 112; types of, 136; unnatural, 137. 
 
 Muscles, 184; anatomy of, 185-187; 
 chemical composition of, 188; con- 
 traction of, 185; as part of motor 
 mechanism, 128. 
 
 Muscle shortening, principle of, 96. 
 
 Muscular contraction, immediate effects 
 of, 191; immediate general effects of, 
 193; remote effects of, 193. 
 
 Muscular tone, 187; elements of, 78; 
 nervous element of, 79. 
 
 Music in commands, 40. 
 
 Neck exercises, 92. 
 
 "Neck massage," 94. 
 
 Nerves, motor, 128; sensory, 129-130. 
 
 Nervous effects of muscular exercise, 194. 
 
 Nervous element in muscular tone, 79. 
 
 Nuclei, automatic motor, 132. 
 
 Objective termination, in knee bending, 
 208; in selection of hygienic exercises, 
 207. 
 
 \iin and interest, 169. 
 
 'a use in response commands, 33, 215. 
 
 Vrsonality, definition of, 14. 
 
 'hysical disabilities, observations for, 247. 
 
 'hysical education, definition of, 126. 
 
 'hysical record, card for, 55. 
 
 'hysical training, definition of, 1; field 
 of, 4; profession of, 3; purpose of, 1, 
 213. 
 
 Physiological intensity of exercises, 202 
 Physiological work, 183; in lesson, 24. 
 Pleasure and interest, 169. 
 Popularity, 16. 
 
 Posture, "A-l," 123; corrective work 
 for, 223-224; dance positions in good,
 
 256 
 
 INDEX 
 
 113; definition of good, 66; demon- 
 stration in good, 83; depression in bad, 
 82; description of, 223; digestion re- 
 lated to good, 108; ease in good, 68; 
 and efficiency, 76; while exercising, 
 109; experience in good, 83; extension 
 element emphasized for good, 110; 
 grades of, 124; grouping, 223; indi- 
 rect work for good, 105; measurement 
 of, 117; monthly tests for, 224; poster 
 for, 122; rating, 121: in sitting, 224; 
 of teacher, 18; tests, 114-121, 223; use 
 of motives in, 113; and vitality, 77. 
 
 Posture work, appeal to pride in, 106; 
 manual correction in, 87; mental atti- 
 tude in, 10.5; mirror in, 87; use of in- 
 centives in, 113-114. 
 
 Practice in teaching an exercise, 161. 
 
 Preparation for the lesson, 46; methods 
 of, 63. 
 
 Preparatory part, response commands in, 
 31, 215; rhythmic commands in, 38, 
 216. 
 
 Processes, educational, 154. 
 
 Program, daily hygienic, 239. 
 
 Pronunciation, 11. 
 
 Ptosis, circulatory, 70; correlation of, 74; 
 definition of, 69; emotional, 73; skele- 
 tal, 70; visceral, 70. 
 
 Pumps, accessory, 197. 
 
 Recalling, 175. 
 
 Records, 54; at tendance, 54; gymnastic, 55. 
 
 Record card, pupil's, 55. 
 
 Recreative work, 211. 
 
 Reflex, mental results, 149. 
 
 Reflex action, 130. 
 
 Reflex arc. 131. 
 
 Relaxation, of attention, 121; muscular, 
 
 185. 
 Relaxation in introductory work, arterial, 
 
 62. 
 
 Remembering, 167-182. 
 
 Repetition, principle of, in selection of 
 hygienic exercises, 204. 
 
 Response commands, 30, 215. 
 
 Results, educational, 225. 
 
 Results of exercise, differences in, 26. 
 
 Retrial in teaching an exercise, 161. 
 
 Rhythm, accented, in commands, 42; es- 
 tablishment of, in commands, 38; in 
 hygienic exercises, 203; irregular, in 
 commands, 41. 
 
 Rhythmic commands, 37, 216. 
 
 Rhythmical response commands, 59. 
 
 Roll call, 54. 
 
 Routine, daily, 239. 
 
 Running, 205. 
 
 Seating, 233. 
 
 Second wind, 198. 
 
 Sense, kinesthetic, 174. 
 
 Sequence variation in response com- 
 mands, 35. 
 
 "Shoulders back" discarded, 86. 
 
 "Side Lift," 90. 
 
 Simplicity, in educational exercises, 144 
 156; in hygienic exercises, 203. 
 
 Skill, motor, 126. 
 
 Skipping, 205. 
 
 "Sky Lift," 89. 
 
 "Slouch class," 116. 
 
 Snellen Charts, 247. 
 
 Soreness, muscular, 192. 
 
 Speed in selection of exercises, 204. 
 
 Spinal cord, cross section of, 131; longi- 
 tudinal section of, 129. 
 
 Spinal reflex, 130. 
 
 State of exercise, 194. 
 
 Static exercises, 87-92. 
 
 Supervisors, duties of local, 227. 
 
 Surprise, principles of, 146. 
 
 Syllabus, hygiene, 232; physical train- 
 ing, 213.
 
 INDEX 
 
 257 
 
 Symptoms of illness, 246. 
 Synchronizing the class, 59. 
 Synthesis in teaching, 142. 
 
 Tact, 15. 
 
 Taking apparatus, 57. 
 
 Taking distance, 219. 
 
 Teacher, cleanliness of, 19; clothing of, 
 20; essentials of, 8; example of, 20; 
 health of, 12; ideals of, G; manner of, 
 17; mental equipment of, 6; physical 
 equipment of, 12. 
 
 Teachers' instructions, 213-214. 
 
 Teaching, by association, 177; clearness 
 in, 172; principle of contrast in, 173; 
 demonstration, 164; emphasis in, 172; 
 by idea, 178; by imitation, 177; inhi- 
 bition in, 18; psychological processes 
 in, 159-161; repetition in, 179; steps 
 in, 163-16C; synthesis in, 142. 
 
 Teeth, relation of, to good posture, 108. 
 
 Temperature, 233, 
 
 Test, condition, 71; ptosis, 71. 
 
 Tone, 76-77; of muscles, 187. 
 
 Toothbrush drill, 245. 
 
 Trade movements, learning, 158. 
 
 Triple posture test, 114. 
 
 Trophic force, 79. 
 
 Two minute drill, 217. 
 
 Typical exercise, teaching a, 162. 
 
 Variations, in lesson plan, 29; in pause 
 
 in response commands, 35. 
 Ventilation, 233. 
 Vitality and posture, 77. 
 Voice, use of, 19; variation of, 146. 
 Volitional memory, 173. 
 Voluntary attention, 170. 
 
 Wall, use of, in good posture, 85. 
 
 Work, educational, 126-151; hygienic, 
 
 183; posture, see Posture work; results 
 
 of educational, 143. 
 "Wrist Lift," 89.
 
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