University of California. 
 
 FROM 1'HK I.IDKAK'i 
 
 !)R. FRANCIS L I E B I^R , 
 : Hi-tory and Law in Columbia College, Now York. 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 MICHAEL REESE, 
 
 73. 
 
noil latin. 
 
 AOOLD'S CLASSICAL SERIES, 
 
 I. 
 
 A FIRST AND SECOND LATIN BOOK 
 
 1ND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. By THOMAS K. ARNOLD, A. M. Revised and caiefully 
 
 Corrected, by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo., 75 eta. 
 
 n. 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION: 
 
 A Practical Introduction to Latin Prose Composition. By THOMAS K. AHNOLD, A. M* 
 Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $1. 
 
 III. 
 
 FIRST GREEK BOOK; 
 
 jVltb Easy Exercised and Vocabulary. By THOMAS K. ARNOLD, A. M. Revised and Oof 
 reeled by J A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., 75 cts. 
 
 IV. 
 
 GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION: 
 
 A Practical Introduction to Greek Prose Composition. By THOMAS K. ARKOLD, A. BL 
 Revised ami Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12rao., 75 cts. 
 
 V. 
 
 GREEK READING BOOK, 
 
 For the L'se of Schools ; containing the substance of the Practical Introduction to Greek Cott 
 
 etruing, and a 1 realise on the Greek Particles, by the Rev. THOMAS K. ARNOLD, 
 
 A. M., and also a Copious Selection from Greek Authors, with English 
 
 Notes, Critical and Explanatory, and a Lexicon, by 
 
 J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $1 25 
 
 VL 
 
 CORNELIUS NEPOS; 
 
 With Practical Questions and Answers, and an Imitative Exercise on each Chapter. By 
 
 THOMAS K. ARNOLD, A. M. Revised, with Additional Notes, by Prof. Johnson, 
 
 Professor of the Latin Language in the University of the City of 
 
 New-York. 12mo. A new, enlarged edition, with 
 
 Lexicon, Index, &c., $1. 
 
 "ARNOLD'S GREEK AND LATIN SERIES. The publication of this valuable collection of 
 classical school books may be regarded as the presage of better things in respect to the mode of 
 teaching and acquiring languages. Heretofore boys have been condemned to the drudgery of 
 going over Latin and Greek Grammar without the remotest conception of the value of what 
 they were learning, and every day becoming more arid more disgusted with the dr^ and un- 
 meaning task ; but now, by Mr. Arnold's admirable method substantially the same with that 01 
 lllendorff the moment they take up the study of Latin or Greek, they begin to learn sentences. 
 lo acquire ideas, to see how the Romaas and Greeks expressed themselves, how their mode of 
 expression differed from ours, and by degrees they lay up a stock of knowledge which is utterly 
 a^ioni^hing to those who have dragged on moath after month in the old-fashioned, dry, ana 
 tedious way of learning languages. 
 
 " Mr. Arnold, in fact, has had the good sense to adopt the system of nature. A child learn 
 his own language by imitating what he hears, and constantly repeating it till it is fastened ~ 
 the memory ; in the same way Mr. A. puts the pupil immediately to work at Exercises in Lat__ 
 and Greek, involving the elementary principles of the language words are supplied the mode 
 
 the memory ; in the same way Mr. A. puts the pupil immediately to work at Exercises in Latin 
 and Greek, involving the elementary principles of the language words are supplied the mode 
 of nutting them together is told the pupil lie is shown how the ancients expressed their ideas, 
 and the r i, by repeating these things again and again iterum iterumque the docile pupil haa 
 
 them indelibly impressed upon his memory and rooted in his understanding. 
 
 " The American Editor is a thorough classical scholar, and has been a practical teacher for 
 years in this city. He has devoted the utmost care to a complete revision of Mr. Arnold's works, 
 has corrected several errors of inadvertence or otherwise, has rearranged and improved various 
 matters in the early volumes of the series, and has attended most diligently to the accurate prim- 
 ing and mechanical execution of the whole. We anticipate most confidently the speedy adoption 
 of these works in our schools and colleges." 
 
 V Arnold's Scries of Classical Works has attained a circulation almost unparalleled, being 
 Introduced into nearly all the Colleges and leading Educational Institutions in the United State*. 
 
 30 
 
fnglisjj. 
 
 MANUAL 
 
 OP 
 
 MODERN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 
 
 BY WILHELM PUTZ, 
 
 AntkJT of Manuals of " Ancient Geography and History," u Medictval Geography and 
 History," $c. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN. REVISED AND CORRECTED. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. SI. 
 
 Preface. The present volume completes the series of Professor PLitz's Handbooks ol 
 Ancient, Medieval, and Modem Geography and History. Its adaptation to the wants ol itis 
 student will be found to bo no less complete than was to be expected from the .trmer 1 arts, 
 which have Ix-en highly approved by the public, and have been translated into several Ian- 
 ruaces besides the Knelish The difficulty of compressing within the limits of a single volumt 
 the vast amount of historical material furnished by the progress of modern states and nations 
 in power, wealth, science, and literature, will be evident to all on reflection ; and they wiK 
 find occasion to admire the skill and perspicacity of the Author of this Handbook, not only in 
 the arrangement, but also in the facts and statements which he has adopted. 
 
 a ln the American edition several improvements have been made ; the sections relating to 
 America and the United States havs been almost entirely re- written, and materially enlargt-d 
 and improved, as seemed on every account necessary and proper in a work intended for general 
 use in this country ; on several occasions it has been thought advisable to make certain verbal 
 corrections and emendations: the facts and dates have been verified, and a number of explan 
 atory notes have been introduced. It is hoped that the improvements alluded to will be lound 
 to add to the value of the present Manual." 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 IK WHICH THE PRINCIPLES OP THE ART ARE DEVELOPED IN CONNECTION WITH 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR; 
 
 Embracing full Directions on the subject of Punctuation : with copious 
 Exercises. 
 
 BY. G. P. QUACKENBOS, A.M. 
 Rector of the Henry Street Grammar School, N. Y. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. 45 cts. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM PREFACE. 
 
 ** A county superintendent of common school*, speaking of the important branch of com- 
 position, uses the following language : 'Fora long time 1 nave noticed with regret the almost 
 entire neglect of th art of original composition in our common schools, and the want of a 
 proper text l xk upon this essential branch of education. Hundreds graduate from ourcomimwi 
 schools with no well-defined ideas of the construction of our language ' The writei mi<rm 
 have gone further, and said that multitudes graduate, not only from common schools, but 
 from mme of our best pnvate institutions, utterly destitute of all practical acquaintance with 
 the subject : that to many such the composition of a single letter is an irksome, to some an 
 almost impossible task. Yet the reflecting mind must admit that it is only this practical appli- 
 cation of grammar that renders that an useful that parsing is secondary to composing, and 
 the analysis of our language almost unimportant when compared with its synthesis. 
 
 'On great reason of th* nrtrlrct noticed above, has, no doubt, been the want of a suitable 
 
 text-bonL on he su'tjef t. Dunn!! the years of the Author's experience as a teacher, he ha 
 
 examined, and practically tested the various works on composition with which he has mrl . 
 
 the result has been a conviction that, while there are several publications well calculated to 
 
 > pupils at the age of fifteen or MV.-.-II. there it not one suited to the comprehension 
 
 T (hone between nine nnd twelve: at which lime it is hi derided opinion that this branch 
 
 fcou'A or taken up. ! her has been obliged either to make the scholar labor 
 
 through a work entirely loo difficult for him. to give him exercise* not founded on any regulai 
 
 i the branch altogether and the disadvantages of eithftr of these courses 
 
 are at on< 
 
 ' It i this c.invinion, founded on the experience not only of the Author, but of many 
 
 iher teachers with whom he has c.it.'ulted, that has led to the production of ihe work now 
 
 flersd to the public, It claims to be a first-book in compos, in. ..nd is intended to initiate 
 
 beginner, by easy and pleasant step*, into thai ail Important, but hitherto generally ncg- 
 
 6 
 
MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 ANCIENT 
 GEOGRAPHY AID HISTORY. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILHELM PtiTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR AT THE GYMNASIUM OF DUKE*. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN. 
 
 EDITED BY THE REV. 
 
 THOMAS KERCHEVER ARNOLD, M. A, 
 
 RECTOR OF LYNDON, AND LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 SECOND AMERICAN, 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED FROM THE LONDON EDITION. 
 
 NEW-YOEK : 
 
 D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 
 1851. 
 
ffc 
 
 ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, by 
 D. APPLKTON & COMPANY, 
 
 in Uw Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District 
 of New- York. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THE first edition of this work was a reprint of the English 
 edition, with a feAV verbal alterations and occasional corrections. 
 But the favor with which it has been received has induced the 
 publishers to have it carefully revised, and it now appears with 
 material improvements. The most important is in the references 
 for a fuller course of study, English authorities having been 
 substituted for the German, except where there was a translation 
 of the German work. This, it is believed, will give the list a 
 practical value which it could not have, so long as it was filled 
 with works that few of those, into whose hands such a book will 
 fall, would be able either to obtain or to understand. And it is 
 with pleasure and pride that we have inserted among these re- 
 ferences the " History of Roman Liberty," by Mr. Eliot a work 
 of singular beauty and of great learning, and which, by the puri- 
 ty and elevation of its views, is one of the safest and most useful 
 guides to a correct estimate of the results and processes of an- 
 cient history. 
 
 C. W. G. 
 Brown University, May 21, 1850. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. 
 
 ONE of the most encouraging features in our system of educa- 
 tion, is the attention which is given to the study of history. Other 
 branches address themselves more directly to our personal interests, 
 and are mixed up with the daily concerns of life. Every man must 
 read and write, if it be only to read the newspapers or write an 
 advertisement. Arithmetic and geography will be studied as long 
 as there are accounts to make up, or products to send to market. 
 And railroads, and steamboats, and the thousand arts of polished 
 society will always insure the cultivation of the exact, as well as 
 of the experimental sciences. These are the conditions of every 
 well-organized state which man can no more refuse to fulfil, than 
 he can refuse to obey any other law of his nature. 
 
 But history, as a serious study, stands upon different grounds, 
 and addresses itself to a principle, which is neither developed so 
 early, nor so universally acknowledged. Not but what most men 
 acknowledge its importance as a record of the past, and feel some- 
 thing of the same kind of interest in it, that they do in any other 
 exciting tale ; but its connection with the present, the light which it 
 throws upon what we ourselves are doing every day of our lives, its 
 checkered narrative of human hopes and disappointments, and its 
 manifold lessons of encouragement and of warning, are less gene- 
 rally accepted, and often not even understood. They are classed 
 among doubtful things, which, study as much as we may, we can 
 never make perfectly sure. Characters are said to be distorted by 
 party prejudice, because no two men agree exactly in their judg- 
 ments of them : and facts to be wholly unsusceptible of proof, be- 
 cause every witness tells his story in his own way. And yet, there 
 is scarcely an important event of our lives, in which we do not look 
 back to our own experience, or to that of others, for some example 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 to go by ; and the gravest questions of life are decided every day, by 
 the same ales of testimony, that every judicious historian applies to 
 history. If one man calls Napoleon a selfish usurper, and another, 
 the greatest of the moderns, it is not history that is at fault. The 
 landscape is none the less beautiful because you have no eye to see 
 it with : nor is truth any the less sure, because your line will not 
 reach to the bottom of the well. Raleigh is said to have burnt the 
 unpublished half of his history, because of two or three persons who 
 undertook to describe an occurrence in the Tower court, which he 
 had also watched from his prison window, each gave a different 
 version of it,, and his own differed from them all. But what jury 
 would dare to bring a verdict, if this were to be their standard 1 or 
 what judge could pronounce sentence or instruct a jury, without 
 dreading that he might be sending an innocent man to punishment, 
 or letting a villain loose upon the world 1 Let us judge past events 
 as we do those that are passing under our own eyes ; let us try to 
 give life to our conceptions by comparing them with our experience ; 
 and above all, let us remember that the master art of doubting, can 
 never be learned by any but those, who are carefully trained in the 
 science of belief. 
 
 It is only when we take partial views of history, that these 
 objections seem unanswerable. Look broadly over it, not as a 
 record of incidents, but as a connected series of developments, 
 through which the human race has passed, in its progress from the 
 incomplete civilization of the ancients, to that diffusion of know- 
 ledge, those higher conceptions, that earnestness of endeavor and 
 that hopeful trust in the future, which characterize our own age, and 
 you will readily find an answer to every one of them. For you will 
 see, that although here and there, a detail may escape us, the general 
 tenor of the narrative corresponds with the result : that what seems 
 obscure while standing by itself, becomes clear and definite the 
 moment that you put it in its proper place ; that men and events 
 look very differently when taken in that natural connection which 
 gives you the motives of the one and the causes of the other: and. 
 that if one or two chapters only serve to sadden us, the whole 
 volume will inspire us with trust and hope. Nothing makes worse 
 citizens than despondency, and there is nothing which political de- 
 spondency grows on, like those half-way views of life, which we are 
 inevitably led to form, by only looking around us or only looking 
 behind, without feeling how the past and the present work together 
 in moulding the future. If you would make good citizens, firm, 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 hopeful, and earnest, teach them their duties to the future by teach- 
 ing them their obligations to the past. Life itself will tell them 
 what they owe to the present ; and what may not a country hope 
 from men grateful to their fathers, true to themselves, and who know 
 what a joy there is in making the future too our own. 
 
 Hence, we look upon the place which history has at last won in . 
 our elementary studies, as a peculiarly hopeful feature of them. We 
 feel more confidence in the principles and the judgment c f the rising 
 generation, from knowing that they are to be formed by the lessons 
 of this great teacher; and acknowledging, as we unhesitatingly do, 
 the claims of every other branch of knowledge, we feel that our 
 firmest hopes must be drawn from this, which is, at once, the judge 
 and the recorder of them all. 
 
 But to do this, history must be studied as a science. She must 
 not be considered merely as a record of phenomena, but as an ex- 
 ponent of laws. As a narrative of facts, no man would have the 
 time to study even the history of a single nation thoroughly : but as 
 the science of humanity, any man may read the world's history, and 
 read it well. There have been a thousand insignificant things and 
 insignificant men in every age : and with these, history has seldom 
 any thing to do. They may serve to fill up a gap in chronology, or 
 form a kind of stepping-stone from one point to another. But your 
 passage over the stream would be very slow, if you were to stop 
 and examine every stone that gave you a footing ; and your history 
 would be very dull, if you were to give every man and every thing 
 a place in it. 
 
 Now to see what really deserves a place, you must see what 
 relation the parts bear to one another : and to see what kind of a 
 place you can give it, you must get upon some eminence, from 
 which you can look down upon them all and see how much room 
 the whole fills up. And as in geography you begin by marking out 
 the great divisions of land and water, before you attempt to trace 
 the course of mountains or rivers, or to fix the sites of towns and the 
 boundaries of nations, so your true starting point in history, is by 
 mapping out those great successions of empires and of races, which 
 show the part which each has performed in the progressive develop- 
 ment of society. Then every fact falls into its proper place, and 
 events class themselves in your mind, according to their due propor- 
 tions. You know what to look for, and where to go ; and feeling 
 yourself at home in the great world of history, can choose out for 
 yourself the parts that you wish to study with greater accuracy, and 
 
VI PREFACg. 
 
 study them by themselves without losing sight of their bearing upon 
 the whole. 
 
 It is with a view to facilitate this method of historical study, that 
 the series of which the present volume forms a part, is offered to the 
 public. The first steps are strictly elementary. This little volume 
 contains a clear and definite outline of the history of the principal 
 nations of antiquity. To render it still more clear, a concise geogra- 
 phy of each country has been added, in which, without entering into 
 minute details, all the important features of its physical aspect have 
 been carefully marked. The enumeration of the sources from which 
 we derive our knowledge of them, will familiarize the student's mind 
 with this interesting part of literary history, and show him, from the 
 beginning, how many irreparable losses we have suffered, and how 
 much labor it has required to form that which has been preserved to 
 us, into a definite and instructive picture of the past. 
 
 It was neither consistent with the plan of the work, nor tbs stage 
 of progress for which it was designed, to enter into a fuller narrative 
 of events. The history of each nation is given with as much brevity 
 as is consistent with clearness, and with as much detail as its relative 
 importance required. Where the whole is treated upon so limited a 
 scale, much is intentionally left for the instructor to supply ; and 
 something too for the student. For the former can never gain a firm 
 hold upon his pupils by confining himself exclusively to his text- 
 book ; and the latter will lose all the discipline of historical study, 
 unless they are early accustomed to carry out an inquiry and use 
 books of reference for themselves. The admirable treatises of 
 Bojesen on Greek and Roman Antiquities, should be taken in con- 
 nection with those parts of the volume which relate to Greece and 
 Rome ; and a fuller historical narrative for consultation, or for a 
 more advanced stage of study, will soon be laid before the public in 
 the series which has already been announced. 
 
 GEO. W. GREENE. 
 
 Brown Univernty, April 11, 1849. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 PAQ& 
 
 HISTORY its sources .... 1 
 Handmaids of History : 
 
 I. Geography . . . . 2 
 
 II. Chronology ..... 2 
 
 The most remarkable Forms of the Year . 2 
 
 The most important historical jEras . 4 
 
 III. Genealogy . .... 5 
 
 Divisions of History Methods of History . . 5 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. ASIA. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks . ... 5 
 
 A. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF ASIA. 
 
 1. Boundaries ...... 6 
 
 2. The principal Mountains ... 6 
 
 3. Seas, Gulfs, and Straits Lakes Rivers . .7 
 
 4. Ancient division of Asia . . . 7 
 
 B. PARTICULAR STATES. 
 
 I. THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . . 8 
 
 5. Geography of Palestine : 
 
 Names ...... 8 
 
 Boundaries Mountains Waters Climate . 9 
 
 Its divisions at different times . . .10 
 
 Cities in Judaea .... 10 
 
 in Samaria . . . .10 
 
 in Galilee ; .11 
 
Vlii CONTENTS. 
 
 FAG* 
 
 6. History of the Israelites : 
 
 I. From Adam to Noah . . .11 
 
 II. From Noah to Abraham . . . 12 
 
 III. From Abraham to the conquest of Palestine . 13 
 The Mosaic Laws: 1. Religious; 2. Civil 15 
 
 IV- From the conquest of Palestine to the esta- 
 blishment of the monarchy Period of the 
 
 Judges . . 17 
 
 V. From the establishment of the monarchy to 
 
 the separation of the two kingdoms . 18 
 
 VI. The kingdoms of Judah and Israel . 21 
 
 VII. The Israelites under the rule of the Persians . 22 
 
 $ 7. Literature, Arts, and Sciences ... 23 
 
 II. THE INDIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .24 
 
 4 8. Geography of Ancient India : 
 
 Name and Boundaries . . . .24 
 
 Face of the Country and Rivers . . 25 
 
 The Islands . . . .25 
 
 Productions Inhabitants ... 26 
 
 9. Fragments of the Ancient History of India . . 26 
 
 10. Religion, political Condition, Literature, &c. of the 
 
 ancient Indians . . . . .27 
 
 III. THE BABYLONIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .31 
 
 $11. Geography of Babylon: 
 
 Situation Soil Rivers Cities . . .32 
 
 Buildings of Babylon .... 33 
 
 12. History of the Babylonians . . . .33 
 
 13. Religion, Literature, &c. of the Babylonians . 35 
 
 IV. THE ASSYRIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information .... 37 
 
 14. Geography of Assyria: 
 
 Name and Situation Soil Cities . . 37 
 
 15. "History of the Assyrians ... 38 
 
 16. Religion, Literature, &c. of the Assyrians . . 40 
 
 V. THE MEDES. 
 
 Sources of Information . . 41 
 
 $ 17. Geography of Media : 
 
 Boundaries Soil . . 41 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 18. History of the Medes . . 41 
 
 Various Accounts of the relation which Cyrus Dore to 
 
 Astyages . . . . . -.43 
 
 19. Religion, Literature, &c. of the Medes . . 43 
 
 VI. THE PERSIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .44 
 
 20. Geography of the Persian Empire . , 45 
 Countries belonging to the Persian Empire : 
 
 A. On this side the Euphrates . . .45 
 
 B. Between the Euphrates and Tigris . 46 
 
 C. Between the Tigris and the Indus . . 46 
 
 D. The Alpine Country between Oxus and laxartes 48 
 
 21. A. History of the Persians before Cyrus . . 48 
 B. History of the Persians from Cyrus to the dissolution 
 
 of the Empire . . 48 
 
 22. Religion, Constitution, &c. of the Persians . 58 
 
 VII. THE PHCENICIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .59 
 
 23. Geography of Phoenicia .... 60 
 
 24. Foreign Settlements of the Phoenicians . . 60 
 General View of the Phoenician Colonies . 60 
 
 25. Fragments of Phoenician History . . .61 
 
 26. Religion, Inventions, Commerce, Arts and Manufactures 
 
 of the Phoenicians . .63 
 
 VIII. THE STATES OF ASIA MINOR. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .65 
 27. Geography of Asia Minor : 
 
 Name Soil Rivers .... 65 
 
 Divisions and Cities . . . .66 
 
 28 History of the Kingdom of Lydia . . . 67 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. AFRICA. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks . . . . .68 
 
 A. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF AFRICA. 
 
 29. Boundaries * . 69 
 
 30. The Soil 69 
 
 31. Seas, Lakes, and Rivers .... 69 
 
 32. Division of Africa . 70 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 B. THE STATES OF AFRICA. 
 
 I. THE ETHIOPIANS. 
 
 FAGK 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .70 
 33. Geography of Ethiopia : 
 
 Name and extent Soil ... 70 
 
 Rivers Inhabitants . . . .71 
 34. The State of Meroe : 
 
 Geography History .... 71 
 
 Religion, &c. Trade . . . .72 
 
 II. THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information .... 72 
 35. Geography of Egypt : 
 
 Name and Boundaries Soil and Climate . . 73 
 
 Seas Lakes Rivers ... 74 
 
 Natural Productions Division Cities . . 75 
 36. History of the Egyptians : 
 
 1. Fabulous period to the reign of Sesostris . 77 
 
 2. From Sesostris to the autocracy of Psammetichus 78 
 
 3. From the reign of Psammetichus to the Persian 
 
 conquest . . . . .80 
 
 4. Egypt under Persian rule . . . 81 
 37. Religion of the Egyptians . . . .82 
 
 Constitution . . . . . 83 
 
 Sciences . . . . . .84 
 
 Art . .... 85 
 
 III. THE CARTHAGINIANS (CARCHEDONII). 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .87 
 
 38. Geography of the Kingdom of Carthage . . 88 
 
 39. Foreign Possessions and Settlements of the Cartha- 
 
 ginians . . . . . .88 
 
 40. History of the Carthaginians : 
 
 1. From the building of Carthage to the Wars with 
 
 the Greeks in Sicily ... 89 
 
 2. From the beginning of the Ware with the Greeks 
 
 in Sicily to the Ware with the Romans . 90 
 
 3. From the beginning of the Ware with the 
 
 Romans to the destruction of Carthage 91 
 
 41. Religion of the Carthaginians . . . .93 
 Constitution ..... 94 
 Literature Trade . . .95 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 THIRD DIVISION. EUROPE. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preliminary Remarks . . . .96 
 
 A. GEOGRAPHICAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 
 
 42. The Boundaries ..... 97 
 
 43. The principal Mountains . . . .97 
 
 44. Seas and Gulfe ..... 97 
 Straits Lakes Rivers . . . .98 
 
 45. The Countries of Europe ... 99 
 
 B. INDIVIDUAL STATES OF EUROPE. 
 
 I. THE GREEKS. 
 Sources of Information .... 100 
 
 A. GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 
 
 46. The name of Greece . ... . 102 
 
 47. The Boundaries . . . . . 102 
 
 48. The Mountains ... . . . 103 
 
 Promontories . . . . . 104 
 
 49. Seas Gulfs Strait Lakes Rivers . . 104 
 
 50. Climate and Products of Greece . . . 105 
 
 51. Divisions of Greece .... 105 
 
 52. Topography of Greece : 
 
 A. Northern Greece .... 105 
 
 B. Central Greece, or Hellas, in its more restricted 
 
 sense . . . . . 107 
 
 C. The Peloponnesus . . . .110 
 
 D. The Greek Islands . . . 112 
 
 B. HISTORY OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 FIRST (MYTHICAL) PERIOD FROM THE EARLIEST NOTICES TO THE 
 MIGRATION OF THE DORIANS, B.C. 1104. 
 
 53. The earliest Population of Greece . .114 
 
 54. Myths concerning the Migrations of the Hellenic 
 
 Tribes 115 
 
 55. The Heroic Age 116 
 
 Myths concerning Expeditions undertaken by the 
 
 Greeks conjointly . . . . 117 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD FROM THE MIGRATION OF THE DORIANS TO THE 
 PERSIAN WAR, 1104500. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 56. The Migration of the Dorians, or Heraclidse . . 120 
 
 57. The Greek Colonies on the western coast of Asia 
 
 Minor, and the adjacent islands : 
 
 1. ^Eolian Colonies . . . .121 
 
 2. Ionian Colonies .... 122 
 
 3. Dorian Colonies . . . .122 
 
 58. Origin of Republican Constitutions . . 122 
 The four great National Games . . .125 
 
 59. Sparta ...... 126 
 
 60. The two first Messenian Wars . . .128 
 
 61. Athens 129 
 
 62. The Grecian Colonies . . . 135 
 
 Dorian Colonies in Lower Italy . . 135 
 
 Achaean Colonies in Lower Italy . . . 136 
 
 Chalcidian Colonies Dorian Colonies . . 136 
 
 Outline of the History of Syracuse . .136 
 
 Colonies of Miletus Colonies of the Phocaeans 
 Colony of Zacynthus . . . 137 
 
 THIRD PERIOD FROM THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE DECLINE OP 
 GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE, 500 33b. 
 
 $ 63. The Persian Wars 137 
 
 64. The Third Messenian War ... 141 
 
 65. The Age of Pericles : 
 
 A. Degeneracy of the Athenian Democracy . 142 
 
 B. Foreign and Domestic Wars during this period 143 
 
 66. The Peloponnesian War .... 144 
 
 I. Ten Years' War to the Fifty Years' Truce of 
 
 Nicias . . . . .145 
 
 II. From the renewal of the War to the issue of 
 
 the expedition against Sicily . .147 
 
 III. The Decelean War . . 148 
 
 67. The Hegemony of Sparta . . . .150 
 
 1. The Supremacy of the Thirty at Athens 150 
 
 2. War of the Spartans with the Persians . 151 
 
 3. The Corinthian War ... 151 
 
 4. The Olynthian War . . .153 
 
 68. The War between Thebes and Sparta . . 153 
 
 69. The War of the Confederates against Athens . 155 
 
 70. The Phocian or Sacred War . . . 156 
 
 71. The War against Philip II. of Macedonia . .157 
 
 1. On the Macedonian coast 2 In Thessaly . 157 
 
 3. On the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace . 158 
 
 4. The Sacred War against Amphissa . 158 
 
 5. The decisive struggle in Bceotia . . 159 
 
CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 PA OK 
 
 72. Religion of the Greeks Deities . . .159 
 
 Constitution . . . . .162 
 
 Literature . . . . . .163 
 
 Art 169 
 
 Trade 171 
 
 II. THE MACEDONIANS. 
 
 Sources of Information . . . .172 
 73. Geography of Macedonia : 
 
 Boundaries Mountains , . . .172 
 
 Waters Rivers Cities . . .173 
 
 74. History of Macedonia to the reign of Philip II. . 173 
 
 75. Philip II. 174 
 
 76. Alexander the Great . *. . .175 
 
 77. Partition of the Persico-Macedonian empire . 181 
 
 III. THE KINGDOMS WHICH AROSE OUT OF THE 
 MACEDONIAN MONARCHY. 
 
 Succession of Kings . . . .183 
 
 78. Macedonia and Greece . . . .183 
 
 Schools of Philosophy . . . .186 
 
 79. Egypt under the Ptolemies . . . .187 
 
 A Flourishing condition of the empire under the 
 
 three first Ptolemies . . . 187 
 
 B. Decline and fall of the empire . . .188 
 
 C. Alexandrian Literature . . . 188 
 
 80. The Syrian Empire under the Seleucidae . . 190 
 
 81. Kingdoms which revolted from the Syrian dominion 193 
 
 82. The Kingdom of Pontus . . . .197 
 
 83. Bithynia and Cappadocia . . . 197 
 
 IV. THE ROMANS. 
 Sources of Information .... 198 
 
 A. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. 
 
 84. Names and Boundaries of Italy . . . 200 
 
 85. The Mountains of Italy . . .201 
 
 86. Seas Lakes Rivers . . . .202 
 
 87. Soil, Climate, and Products of Italy . . 203 
 
 88. Divisions of Italy ..... 204 
 
 89. The ancient Inhabitants of Italy : 
 
 A. The most ancient races : 1 . The Pelasgi ; 2. The 
 Opici, Osci, and Ausones ; 3. The Sabelli ; 4. 
 The Umbri ; 5. The Ligures . . 204 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 B. Foreign Settlers; 1. The Etrusci ; 2. Grecian 
 
 Settlements ; 3. The Gauls . . .205 
 
 90. Topography of Italy : 
 
 A. Upper Italy . . . .207 
 
 B. Central Italy . : . . .208 
 
 C. Lower Italy, or Magna Graecia . . 213 
 
 D. The Islands 214 
 
 B. HISTORY OF EVENTS ANTECEDENT TO THE BUILDING OF ROME. 
 
 91. Legend concerning the immigration of the Trojans 
 
 into Latium ..... 216 
 
 C. HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 92. Legend concerning the building of Rome . .216 
 
 FIRST PERIOD rRoME UNDER KINGS. 
 
 93. Romulus 217 
 
 94. Numa Pompilius . . . . 218 
 
 95. Niebuhr's view of the origin and earliest inhabitants 
 
 of Rome . . . . . 218 
 
 96. The earliest constitution of Rome under Servius 
 
 Tullius: The King The Senate The Comitia 
 Curiata ..... 220 
 
 97. Tullius Hostilius : A war with Alba Longa Second 
 
 War with Veii and Fidenae . . .221 
 
 98. Ancus Marcius : A war with four Latin cities . 221 
 
 99. L. Tarquinius Priscus . . . .222 
 
 100. Servius Tullius ..... 223 
 
 101. The Constitution of Servius Tullius : 
 
 Plebs Tribus Centuriae Census Comitia cen- 
 turiata Military Constitution . . . 223 
 
 102. L. Tarquinius Superbus .... 226 
 
 SECOND PERIOD ROME AS A FREE STATE. 
 
 a) Aristocracy. 
 
 $ 103. The Consuls ... . 227 
 
 104. Consequences of the expulsion of the Tarquins . 228 
 
 105. Secession of the Plebs JEdilea plebeii . 231 
 
 106. Ware to the period of the Decemvirate: 1. The war 
 
 with the Volsci ; 2. War of the Fabii against Veii ; 
 
 3. Ware with the ^Equi and Volsci . . 232 
 
 107. Struggle of. the Plebeians with the Patricians for 
 
 equality of Civil Rights: 1. The rogation of the 
 tribune C. Terentilius Haraa ; 2. The first decem- 
 virate ; 3. The second decemvirate ; 4. The laws of 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 the consuls Valerius and Horatius ; 5. The roga- 
 tions of the tribune C. Canuleius Two Censors 233 
 108. The last War against Veii . . . .237 
 
 109. War with the Gauls M. Manlius . . 237 
 
 110. Termination of the struggle between the Patricians 
 
 and Plebeians by the Licinian Rogations : Pra- 
 
 torship Curule jEdiles . . . 239 
 
 fc) Democracy aa) To the subjugation of Italy in 266. 
 
 111. Their wars to the Samnite wars . , .241 
 
 112. First war with the Samnites . . . 241 
 
 113. War with the Latins . x . . .242 
 
 114. Second war with the Samnites . . . 243 
 Contemporaneous war against the Etruscans, Sam- 
 nites, Umbrians, and Hernicans . . 243 
 
 115. Third war with the Samnites . . . 244 
 
 116. War with Tarentum and with Pyrrhus of Epirus 245 
 
 117. Complete Subjugation of Italy . . . 247 
 Connection of the conquered States with Rome 247 
 
 118. Domestic History of Rome during this period . 248 
 
 56) From the subjugation of Italy to the Gracchi. 
 
 FOREIGN WARS. 
 
 119. The first Punic war : 1. Campaign in Sicily ; 2. Sicily 
 the theatre of war by sea and land ; 3. Campaign 
 in Africa ; 4. Sicily a second time the theatre of 
 
 war by sea and land .... 249 
 
 120. War with the Illyrians .... 252 
 
 121. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul .... 253 
 
 122. Second Punic war: 1. War in Italy; 2. Contempo- 
 
 raneous war in Spain ; 3. Conclusion of the war 
 
 in Africa ...... 254 
 
 Pedigree of the Scipios .... 254 
 
 123. The two wars against Philip III., king of Macedonia 258 
 
 124. War with Antiochus III. of Syria . . 260 
 
 125. Third Macedonian War . . . .260 
 
 126. The last wars with Macedonia and Greece . 262 
 
 127. The third Punic war . . . .262 
 
 128. Further wars in Spain .... 263 
 
 129. Wars against the Gauls, Ligurians, Carnians and 
 
 Istrians ...... 264 
 
 130. First Insurrection of the Slaves in Sicily . 264 
 
 131. Domestic History during this period . . . 265 
 Increase in the number of Prators . . 265 
 Administration of the provinces Meaning of the 
 
 word "province" ..... 266 
 
 Relations of Rome with other free States . 266 
 
XVi CONTENTS. 
 
 cc) From the Gracchi to the autocracy of August 
 Decline and Fall of the Republic. 
 
 SIVIL AND FOREIGN WARS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 132. The two Gracchi ..... 267 
 
 133. The war with Jugurtha .... 269 
 
 134. War with the Cimbri and Teutones . . . 270 
 
 135. Second Insurrection of the Slaves in Sicily . 270 
 
 136. To the Social War 270 
 
 137. The Mareic or Social War ... 271 
 
 138. Civil war between Marius and Sulla ; and first war 
 
 against Mithridates .... 273 
 
 139. Changes effected in the Constitution by Sulla . 276 
 
 140. The war against Sertorius .... 277 
 
 141 . The Servile War ; or war of the Gladiators and Slaves 278 
 
 142. War against the Pirates . . . .278 
 
 143. The two last wars against Mithridates . . 279 
 
 144. Catiline's Conspiracy . . . .281 
 
 145. The First Triumvirate .... 282 
 
 146. Caesar's war in Gaul . . . . .283 
 
 147. The civil war between Caesar and Pompey . 285 
 
 148. Caesar's wars in the East : 1 . The Alexandrian war ; 
 
 2. The war against Pharnaces . . . 287 
 
 149. Caesar's last wars against the partisans of Porapey : 
 
 1. The war in Africa ; 2. The war against the sons 
 
 of Pompey in Spain .... 288 
 
 150. Death of Caesar 289 
 
 151. Consequences of Caesar's assassination . . 290 
 
 152. The Second Triumvirate . . . 291 
 
 153. Foreign wars of Antony and Octavian . . 293 
 
 154. The war between Octavian and Antony . 294 
 
 THIRD PERIOD ROME UNDER EMPERORS. 
 
 155. C. Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus . . 295 
 
 Pedigree ..... 298 
 
 156. Four Emperors of the House of Livia ; Tiberius ; 
 
 Caligula ; Claudius ; Nero . . . 299 
 
 157. Three Emperors proclaimed by the Legions : Sulpicius 
 
 Galba ; Otho ; Vitellius . . . .301 
 
 158. The Three Flavii : Vespasianus; Titus; Domitian 301 
 
 159. The most flourishing period of the empire : Nerva 
 
 Trajanus Hadrianus Antoninus Pius M. Au- 
 
 relius Antoninus . 302 
 
 160. Decline of the empire under the Praetorians . 304 
 
 161. Period occupied by partitions of the Empire, until the 
 
 reign of Constantine .... 309 
 
 162. Constantine the Great, sole Emperor . . 311 
 
 163. The successors of Constantine the Great to the per- 
 
 manent division of the Empire . . . 313 
 
CONTENTS. XV11 
 
 PAGE 
 
 164. The Western Roman Empire to its fall . .315 
 
 165. Religion of the Romans Deities . . 320 
 Art of War . . . . . .323 
 
 Literature ..... 324 
 
 Arts 328 
 
 Trade and Manufactures . . 329 
 
 166. Historico-Geographical View of the Roman Empire : 
 
 A. European Countries .... 329 
 
 B. Countries in Asia . . . 331 
 
 C. African Countries . . . .332 
 
MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 ANCIENT 
 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 UNIVERSAL history is the record of those facts, by 1 
 which the internal and external relations of human society A 
 have been created and modified. 
 
 The sources of history are either articulate or 
 mute. 
 
 The articulate are divided into 
 
 1. Oral: such as legends, traditions, and historical 
 ballads. 
 
 2. Written : as inscriptions on buildings, columns, B 
 stones, and tablets, especially those of Greece and Rome ; 
 coins, medals, seals ; documents, such as treaties, articles 
 of peace, proclamations, records of public transactions, 
 &c. (these sources are especially available for mediaval 
 and modern history) ; annals (the historical portions of the 
 Old Testament ; the annals of the Phoenicians, Persians, 
 and Romans) ; chronicles (especially those of the middle 
 ages) ; and historical works, either contemporaneous with 
 the events which they record, or written subsequently. 
 
 The mute are pictures and statues, coats of arms, all c 
 sorts of buildings and works of art, columns, altars, mili- 
 tary intrenchments, ruins, domestic implements, weapons, 
 &c. 
 
 By the term historical investigation we under- 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 1 2. 
 
 (1) stand the collection of facts from these various sources, 
 A together with a critical examination of their credibility. 
 
 The handmaids of history are, I. Geography, 
 topical as well as physical and political, the last being 
 further divided into ancient, mediaeval, and modern. 
 
 II. Chronology, or the science of computing time, 
 which teaches us to define, according to a settled standard, 
 the duration and succession of events. This standard is 
 partly natural (as the revolutions of the earth and moon, 
 on which is grounded the division of time into years, 
 B months, and days), partly artificial and arbitrary, the com- 
 mencing point for the calculation of those natural periods 
 and their further sub-division having been settled by legis- 
 lators. Hence the distinction between astronomical and 
 historical chronology ; the former defining the natural por- 
 tions of time, and the latter giving us the artificial or 
 civil divisions, as well as the events which have been 
 adopted as landmarks to distinguish the commencement 
 of different aras. ! 
 
 The most remarkable forms of the year. 
 
 2 1- The variable solar year of the Egyptians consisted of twelve 
 c months (each of which contained thirty days), with five supplemen- 
 tary days. 1461 Egyptian= 1460 Julian years or the Sothiac cycle, 
 so called from Sothis or Thoth, the Egyptian name of Sirius, the he- 
 liacal rising of which marked the rising of the Nile, an important 
 epoch in Egypt. Munetho's chronology is founded on the Sothiacal 
 cycles. 
 
 2. The Chaldeans and Babylonians are generally supposed to have 
 adopted the same form and commencement of the year as the Egyp- 
 tians ; it seems, however, by no means improbable that their civil 
 year, like that of all the Semitic nations, Syrians, Arabians, and 
 Hebrews, was divided into lunar months. 
 
 D 3. The Greeks, particularly the Athenians, the only Grecian nation 
 with whose chronology we are fully acquainted, had a lunar year of 
 twelve months, consisting alternately of thirty and twenty-nine days. 
 Three months were intercalated every eight, or seven every nineteen 
 years, in order to fix the commencement of the year at one uniform 
 season, viz. the summer solstice. The month was divided into three 
 decades. Their day began at sunset, like other nations (Jews and 
 Mahometans), whose division of time was governed by the revolu- 
 tions of the moon. 
 
 4. Until the year B c. 45, the Roman mode of computing time was 
 very unsettled and imperfect Under Romulus they had the Etruscan 
 
 1 Perhaps a Gothic word. [It occurs in a Latin form in Isidore's 
 Origines.] 
 
2.] INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 year of 304 days, or ten months, which was exchanged by Numa (2) 
 for a lunar year of 355 days, or twelve months. To this year the ^ 
 Decemviri added an intercalary month twice in four years (once of 
 twenty-two and once of twenty-three days). In the year B. c. 45, 
 Julius Caesar, as Pontifex Maximus, established a settled method of 
 computation by the adoption of the solar year, with an intercalary 
 day once in four years (after the 23rd Feb.). The Roman month 
 [2, D] was also subdivided into three portions : Calends (the first day 
 of the month), Nonae (the ninth day before the Idus),Idus (in months 
 of thirty-one days the fifteenth, and in others the thirteenth day), 
 from which the single days were reckoned backwards. They 
 reckoned also4y weeks of eight days (Nundinae). The day began B 
 at sunrise [and was therefore of variable length], but afterwards at 
 midnight. , 
 
 5. The Christians availed themselves of the Julian calendar, but at 
 the same time borrowed from the Jews the division of the year into 
 weeks, and named their days after the saints. The council of Nicaea 
 decided that the feast of Easter should always fall on the first Sunday 
 after the full moon following the vernal equinox. In the middle 
 ages, the beginning of the year varied in different nations, some 
 reckoning from the 1st of January, others from the 1st of March, the 
 Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, Easter, Christmas, &c. ; nor was c 
 it until the end of the 17th century, that the 1st of January was 
 adopted (by an ordinance of Pope Innocent XII.) as the invariable 
 commencement. The Julian calendar, according to which every 
 year had an excess of 11', 14", 30'", was amended by Gregory XIII. ; 
 ten days (the aggregate amount of the excess) being left out in the 
 year 1582, an arrangement by which the 15th October was made 
 immediately to follow the 4th, it being also settled that in future 
 three days should be left out in every 400 years. 
 
 The Mahometans neglecting the correspondence of the lunar and D 
 solar year, count by lunar years of 354 days, with 12 months of 29 
 and 30 days alternately, adding a day 11 times in 30 years. Week 
 of 7 days day begins at sunset. 
 
 Republican calendar of the French, first used Nov. 26,1793 ; abol- E 
 ished Dec 31, 18U5. Dated from Sept. 22, 1792. Year began at 
 midnight of the day of the autumnal equinox ; divided 12 months of 
 30 days, with 5 additional days for festivals, and every 4th year, 6 ; 
 months divided by decades ; days into 10 hours of 100 minutes each. 
 
 ( Vindemiaire (Vintage month), Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. 
 Autumn, < Brumaire (Foggy month), Oct 22 to Nov. 20. 
 ( Frimaire (Sleety month), Nov 21 to Dec. 20. 
 
 Nivose (Snowy month), Dec. 21 to Jan. 19. 
 Winter, ^ Pluviose (Rainy month), Jan. 20 to Feb. 18. 
 
 Ventose (Windy month), Feb. 19 to March 20. 
 
 Germinal (Budding month), March 21 to April 19. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 Summer, 
 
 Floreal (Flowery month), April 20 to May 19. 
 Prairial (Pasture month), May 20 to June 18. 
 Messidor (Harvest month), June 19 to July 18. 
 Fervidor or Thermidor (Hot month), July 19 to Aug. 17. 
 Fructidor (Fruit month), Aug. 18 to Sept. 16. 
 
INTRODUCTION. [3. 
 
 The most important historical aras. 
 
 3 1. Among the Babylonians the aera of Nabonassar, (26 Feb.) 747. 
 
 A 2. The Hebrews reckoned at first by the ages of their patriarchy 
 and afterwards by the years of their governors. The most remark- 
 able a;ras are the destruction of the first Temple (586), the Seleucian 
 (312), that of the Maccabees 143 B. c.), and the aera of the world 
 (calculated by Rabbi Hillel in the fourth century). 'B. c. 3761.) 
 
 3. The Olympiad of the Greeks, a period of .bur years, begin- 
 ning with the year 776. This mode of computing time did not come 
 into general use until the fifth century before Christ, when it was em- 
 ployed by the historian Timaeus of Sicily ; it did not, however, super- 
 sede, but merely existed in conjunction with* the more ancient mode 
 
 B of naming the year after some person in authority ; at Sparta, for 
 instance, after the first Ephor, and at Athens after the Archon 
 (Archon Eponymus). 
 
 4. Among the Romans, the only aera recognized in public pro- 
 ceedings was the Consular, which was retained even under the 
 empire until the reign of Justinian (541). The aara ab urbe conditd 
 also came into general use among writers in the reign of Augustus. 
 Its commencement is fixed by Varro in the year B. c. 753, and by 
 Cato in 752. 
 
 5. In the Syrian empire, they had the aera Seleucidarum, 
 C (1 Oct.) 312, in which year Seleucus Nicator overthrew Demetrius 
 
 Polwrcetes, at Gaza, and occupied Babylon. This aera is still in use, 
 at least for ecclesiastical purposes, among the Syrian Christians. 
 
 6. The Christians of the West, in the first centuries, were accus- 
 tomed to distinguish the year either by the date of the emperor's 
 accession, or still more frequently by the names of the Consuls ; but 
 as the Consular aera began about the fourth century to lose its im- 
 portance, they adopted the Indiction-Cycle,a tax period of 15 
 years, begun Sept. 1,312 (according to the Benedictines 313), and 
 counted Ind. 1,2, &c., up to 15, when it began anew. This aera was 
 
 D also in its turn abandoned by degrees, with the constitution from which 
 it derived its origin. In conjunction with this aera, which appears in 
 public documents as late as the 16th century, the sera from the birth 
 of CHRIST, invented by the Roman abbot Dionysius Exiguus (t556), 
 soon came into general use, and has been retained to the present 
 day, although its commencement is fixed four, or perhaps six years 
 too late. The Christians of the East observed partly the Seleucian, 
 and partly the <era Diocletiani or Martyrum, (29 Aug.) A. D. 284, in 
 commemoration of the persecution under Diocletian. This aera is 
 still in use among the Coptic and Abyssinian Christians. We find, 
 
 E also, among the Orientals a variety of aeras, such as the Alexandrine, 
 that of Julius Africanus, the Byzantine, &c. 
 
 7. Among the Mahometans, since the death of the Caliph Omar, 
 the aera has been the Hegira (Hedschra), commencing on the 
 evening of the 14th or 15th of July, 622. It must be observed, 
 however, that the flight of Mahomet (Mohammed) did not occur at 
 that time, but in the third month of the first year of the Hegira. 
 
4.] ASIA. 5 
 
 8. The French method of reckoning by the years of the republic (3) 
 was abolished, after being in use twelve years (1793 1805). An A 
 attempt was made by Joseph Scaliger, in 1609, to reduce all the 
 rarious computations of time to one sera, viz., the Creation of the 
 World, according to which he proposed to arrange the events of all 
 nations and ages ; a plan which has been also adopted by Petavius, 
 Usher, and others. But as these authorities were unable to agree 
 respecting the settlement of the epochal year, a more simple and 
 convenient method (the computation of years before and after the 
 birth of CHRIST), invented by Riccioli, has been in general use 
 since the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 
 III. Genealogy, or the record of the origin, multipli- B 
 cation, and affinities of different races. 
 History is divided with reference to 
 
 1. Its contents : into political history, and the history 
 of civilization. 
 
 2. Its extent : into universal and special. 
 
 3. The portions of time comprehended: into 1. The his- 
 tory of Antiquity, from the earliest period of which we 
 have any notices, to the dissolution of the Western empire, 
 A. D. 476. 2. The history of the Middle Ages, to the dis- c 
 covery of America in 1492. 3. The history of Modern 
 Times, to the present day. 
 
 Methods of history. The annalistic, ethnographic, and 
 synchronistic, or by years, by nations, or by classing con- 
 temporaneous events together. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Asia, the largest quarter of the globe, and the cradle of 4 
 the human race, is universally recognized as the native 
 land of civilization, the most remarkable religious systems 
 (the Jewish, Christian, and Mahometan, with those of D 
 Buddha, Zoroaster, and Confucius [Kon-fu-tse],) having 
 originated there : as well as the most perfect and richest 
 languages, most of the arts, sciences, and inventions ; trade, 
 industry, and political science. On the other hand, the 
 civilization which had commenced in Europe at a later 
 period, was almost annihilated by immigrations of Asiatic 
 hordes (Huns, Seldschuks, Mongols), none of whom, 
 except the Arabians, exercised a favorable influence on 
 the cultivation of the arts and sciences. Its enormous 
 
6 ASIA. [5, 6. 
 
 (4) extent (five times that of Europe), and its situation in 
 A three distinct zones (chiefly however in the temperate), 
 have rendered Asia superior to the other quarters of the 
 world in wealth, magnificence, and variety of productions 
 in the animal, and still more in the vegetable kingdom ; a 
 variety which is found not only in the space bounded by 
 its northern and southern, but in that which lies between 
 its eastern and western extremities. 
 
 India, its southern portion, has always been a field for the display 
 of commercial enterprise, the result of which has been the discovery 
 B of new seas and a (so-called) New World. The operations of trade 
 have been rendered comparatively easy by the great extent of sea- 
 coast, as well as by the deep gulfs and mighty rivers of that impor- 
 tant peninsula. 
 
 A. Geographical View of Asia. 
 1. Its Boundaries. 
 
 5 Although the ancients were unacquainted with the ex- 
 treme northern and eastern portions of Asia, they seem to 
 have been aware (at least after the expeditions of Alexan- 
 der the Great) that this quarter of the globe was washed by 
 three different oceans, and on the western side by an inland 
 sea, the most considerable in the world. Its boundaries on 
 the land side are variously reported. 
 
 C Herodotus mentions the P ha sis, as separating it from Europe; 
 others speak of the T a n a is (Don}, as its boundary on that side. The 
 older geographers considered Egypt sometimes partially, sometimes 
 entirely as belonging to Asia. Strabo mentions the Arabian gulf as 
 its western boundary. 
 
 2. The principal Mountains of Asia. 
 
 6 The ancients mention as detached branches of the Ural 
 chain (the greater part of which was unknown to them), 
 the Hyperborei, Riphaei (Rhymnici, also Alani) Monies. 
 
 D They were much better acquainted with the southern chain, 
 the Taurus, which commences in Asia, and after sending 
 out a branch, the Caucasus, in Armenia towards the 
 north, divides itself in Sogdiana into two main arms, which 
 inclose a vast desert (now called Kobi), and are united by 
 the I ma us (Mustag). One branch of this southern chain 
 is the Paropamisus (Hindu-Khu), crossed by Alexander 
 the Great, a western continuation of the Himalayan range 
 (EmOdus). 
 
7, 8.] ASIA. 7 
 
 3. The Waters of Asia. 
 Seas, Gulfs, and Straits. 
 
 In the north the Frozen Sea (mare Scythicum). 7 
 
 In the east the Eastern Ocean (Oceanus E6us). A 
 
 In the south the Indian Ocean, with the Erythr&an sea 
 (between the peninsulas of Arabia and India), the Persian 
 gulf and the Arabian gulf, or Red Sea. 
 
 In the west the inner sea (called by Herodotus %$s fj 
 &dlacraa, rj xatf fjfAtx? tfaJiaava, t) law duJLaava, r\ ivio<; 
 #A(rtr), now called the Mediterranean. The parts of it 
 which washed the coasts of Asia were the ^E g e a n Sea (now 
 the Archipelago), the Hellespont (straits of Dardanelles), 
 the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), the Thracian Bospd- 
 rus (straits of Constantinople), the Pontus Euxlnus [==hos- B 
 pitable sea), called in ancient times Axenus [the inhospi- 
 table] ; the Black Sea (in contradistinction to the other 
 inland seas, which were named the White Sea by the 
 Arabian geographers), the CimmerianBosporus (straits 
 of Kaffa or Jenikale), the Mseotis (called also the Palus 
 Mseotis and Lacus Maeotis), now the Sea of Azov. 
 
 LAKES. 
 
 The Caspian Sea, the largest lake in the world, which 
 probably once communicated with the Sea of Aral, for 
 which reason no mention is made of the latter in ancient 
 writers. The Lacus Asphaltites, or Dead Sea, and the Lake c 
 of Genezareth, or Sea of Galilee. 
 
 RIVERS emptying themselves 
 
 Into the Indian Ocean : the Ganges, Indus (Sind), and 
 the twin streams Tigris (also Tigres) and Euphrates, 
 both of which discharge their waters into the Persian gulf. 
 
 Into the Pontus Euxlnus : the Halys (Kisil Irmak), 
 the Phasis. 
 
 Into the Caspian Sea : the twin streams Ox us (Amu), D 
 and Jaxartes (Sirr or Sihon), both into what is now called 
 the Sea of Aral; from Europe the Rha (Volga). 
 
 4. Ancient division of Asia. 
 
 A. THE CONTINENT. 8 
 
 The Greeks and Romans divided Asia either into 
 1. Upper and Lower Asia (^ wVw xi y XTW 
 2 
 
8 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [9, 10. 
 
 (8) separated by the Halys ; thence called also Asia within 
 A and without the Halys. 
 
 Or, 2, into Asia, on this side, or within the Taurus, and 
 on the other side, or without the Taurus. The former was 
 also called Asia proper. The name of Asia Minor first 
 occurs (in Orosius) at the beginning of the fifth century. 
 B. THE ISLANDS. 
 
 In the Mediterranean: Cyprus; in the ^Egean sea, 
 Rhodus, the Sporades, Samos, Chios, Lesbos, Te- 
 nedos. 
 
 B In the Indian Ocean: Taprobane (Ceylon), Insula 
 Bon aeF or tunse (Sumatra), and labadii insulse (Java). 
 The more distant southern, and most of the eastern and 
 northern islands were unknown to the ancients. 
 
 B. Particular States. 
 I. The Israelites. 
 
 9 Sources of information. Hebrew: The principal source of 
 information is the Holy Bible, especially the books of Moses or the 
 Pentateuch (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), 
 the books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Kings, and Chronicles, the holy 
 Psalmists, and the Prophets. We have also the Talmud, or Jewish 
 tradition. 
 
 C Greek: Flavius Josephus ('lovSa'iicfjs iXwrcw? 7 B. 'lovia- 
 iVijf dpxaioAoyiuff 20 B.), in the first century after Christ. Trogus 
 Pompeius in the Latin extract of Justin, xxxvi. c. 2,3.) 
 
 For Geography: Strabo (16, 2), Ptolemaeus (5, 15 17), 
 Plinius (H. N. 5, 13 19), and particularly the Onomasticon 
 urbium et locorum Scripturae Sacrae, written by Eusebius of 
 Caesarea, and still extant in the form of a Latin translation by 
 Jerome. Mod. Milman's Hist, of the Jews. Eliot's Hist, of Roman 
 Liberty, ch. 7. 
 
 5. Geography of Palestine. 
 
 10 Names. In the Old Testament, the country between 
 the Jordan and the Mediterranean is called Canaan (also 
 the land of the Hebrews, Jehovah's, as being the peculiar 
 D possession of Jehovah), Israel (the promised Land). The 
 name of Palestine was given at first to the country of the 
 Philistines in south-western Canaan, but by degrees it 
 became the term most frequently employed in the West to 
 signify the whole country ; which was also denominated 
 the Holy Land, as being the theatre of events recorded in 
 sacred history. It received the name of Judaa after the 
 Babylonian captivity, because Judah was the chief of the 
 tribes. 
 
10.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 9 
 
 Boundaries (in the time of the Judges) : on the west (10) 
 the Mediterranean sea, N. Phoenicia and Syria, E. the A 
 Syrian desert (country of the Ammonites), S. Arabia 
 (country of the Amalekites, Edomites, and Moabites). 
 David subdued Syria ; and Solomon's dominions extended 
 from Thapsacus on the Euphrates to Gaza, and south- 
 wards as far as the Red Sea. 
 
 Mountains: the two chains of Lebanon [Libanon : 
 jlifluvos], which is 10,000 feet high, and clothed with a 
 forest of cedars. At a later period, this range was divided 
 into Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon [Herman], between which B 
 lies the valley of the Leontes, or the ancient Coele-Syria, 
 with the ruins of Baalbeck. 
 
 The northern part of Palestine, afterwards called Galilee, forms 
 a table-land, on the southern side of which rises Mount Tabor; 
 thence the traveller towards the south descends into a small plain 
 (Jezreel). The centre of the country is traversed by the moun- 
 tains of Ephraim, the southern by those of Juda, and the 
 eastern by those of Gilead. 
 
 Waters. The Mediterranean (in the Bible the Great 
 Sea). The lakes of Merom (or Samochonitis), andc 
 Genezareth, or the Sea of Galilee; the Dead Sea (so 
 called, because, as it is said, no living being can exist in 
 it, or on its surface), or Lacus Asphaltites (on account of 
 the bitumen or asphalt found there), or Salt Sea (on ac- 
 count of the unusual saltness of its waters). This body of 
 water owes its origin to the judgment which overwhelmed 
 the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah (with Adama, Zeboim, 
 and Bela), and changed the fruitful valley of Siddim into a 
 lake. The river Jordan rises from three sources in the D 
 Anti-Lebanon, and flowing through a valley formed by a 
 wall of rocks on each side, finally loses itself in the Dead 
 Sea. Before the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, it 
 seems to have discharged its waters into the Atlantic. 
 
 Climate. As the soil of Palestine comprehends within 
 a small area almost all the formations of the earth's sur- 
 face, from the bright lively chalk to the black basalt ; so 
 does it possess every variety of climate, from the tropical 
 temperature of the valley of Jordan, on the banks of the 
 lake Genezareth, to the cold and raw atmosphere of the 
 heights of Lebanon. By this great variety of climate a 
 gradation of vegetable life is created, ascending regularly 
 
10 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [10. 
 
 (10) from the stunted productions of colder climates, to the 
 A. palm-trees and tropical fruits of the south. 
 
 Agriculture and the cultivation of the vine, as well as the growth 
 of fruit (especially figs and olives), and the rearing of silk-worms 
 once flourished extensively in Palestine ; and, in conjunction with 
 pasturage and the keeping of bees, formed the chief wealth of the 
 inhabitants. Forests of cedars, cypresses, palms, and oaks, furnished 
 wood for building, whilst salt was supplied abundantly by the Dead 
 Sea. The scourge of Palestine was its swarms of locusts. . 
 
 Its divisions were various at different times. Joshua 
 B portioned out the land among the twelve tribes of Israel 
 (Judah, Simeon, Benjamin, Dan, Ephraim, Manasseh, 
 Issachar, Zebulon, Asher, Naphtali, Gad, and Reuben), and 
 after the death of Solomon, it was divided into the king- 
 doms of Israel and Judah. In our Saviour's time, a dis- 
 tinction existed between the parts on this side Jordan 
 (Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee), and on the other side 
 (Peraea). 
 
 CITIES 
 
 In Judaa. 1. JERUSALEM or Salem, originally Jebus, 
 c the capital of the Jebusites ; in the Bible Jeruschalaim, 
 -lit 'legoaolvfta (in Herodotus Kadvng ?) ; from the time of 
 Hadrian jElia Capitolina, and Jerusalem again under Con- 
 stantine the Great ; the chief city of Judaea, and, since the 
 days of King David, capital of the whole country, was 
 situated on four hills, viz., Zion, the southernmost and 
 loftiest, on which a fortress was erected by David ; Mori a 
 [Moriah], where Solomon built the temple; Akra (so 
 named from the castle built on it by Antiochus Epiphanes), 
 and at a later period Bezetha. The city was surrounded 
 D with a triple wall, strengthened by towers. 2. BETHLEHEM, 
 southward of Jerusalem, a mountain city, the birth-place of 
 David and of our Blessed Saviour. 3. JERICHO, destroyed 
 by Joshua, and restored by David, the seat of the " schools 
 of the prophets." 4. On the coast the sea-port of Japho 
 or JOPPA (Jaffa). 
 
 To Judaea belonged also the cities of the Philistines, who were 
 subject for a short time to the Israelites ; viz., Gaza on the coast, 
 Askalon, and Ashdod (seat of the idolatrous worship of Dagon). 
 
 In Samaria. 1. SAMARIA (Schomron), sometime capi- 
 tal of the kingdom of Israel, destroyed by Shalmanesar in 
 722, and afterwards rebuilt. 2. SICHEM, where the Ten 
 
11.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 11 
 
 Tribes revolted under Jeroboam, who fixed his residence (10) 
 there. It was afterwards the chief city of the Samaritans. A 
 3. SILO PS/ 1 ,: !oh~\ ; where the tabernacle of the Lord rested 
 from the days of Joshua to Samuel. 
 
 In Galilee. CANA, where our Lord wrought his first 
 miracle at the marriage-feast ; NAZARETH, where He was 
 brought up; CAPERNAUM, his usual place of residence. 
 There were no very remarkable cities in Perwa. 
 
 6. HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 I. From Adam to Noah. 
 (1656 years according to the Hebrew chronology.) 
 
 The Bible teaches us, that God 1 created (probably il 
 about 4000 years before the birth of Christ) a pair of B 
 human beings, Adam and Eve, whom He placed in a 
 garden, named Eden, the situation of which it is impos- 
 sible now to ascertain. Here they continued to dwell, 
 until, having fallen by an act of disobedience from their 
 state of innocence (' the FalV), they were expelled from 
 Paradise, and man was condemned to earn his bread by 
 the sweat of his brow. But this sentence was accom- 
 panied by a positive but indefinite promise, that some 
 * seed of the woman ' should accomplish, though not with- 
 out difficulty and suffering, a final victory over sin and 
 the personal Spirit of evil who had tempted him to his c 
 fall. We learn from the Bible history that the sons of 
 Adam employed themselves in agriculture and the feed- 
 ing of cattle; and that they offered sacrifice, a rite 
 which afterwards prevailed throughout the whole ancient 
 world, and was probably of Divine appointment. 8 The 
 union of the first family was soon dissolved by the 
 murder of Abel by his brother Cain, and the flight of 
 
 1 Chronologists have found it difficult to agree upon this date. 
 The Hebrew text, according t<? Moreri, gives 4003 B. c. as the date 
 of the creation. Usher, 4004, which is generally adopted by English 
 writers. The Septuagint, according to Riccioli, 5634. The Vulgate, 
 according to Riccioli, 4184. Petavius (in Strauchius), 3983. The 
 Benedictines, in the Art of verifying dates, 4963. The deluge He- 
 brew and Vulgate, 1656 ; Samaritan Pentateuch, 1307 ; Greek, 2262. 
 
 2 [Sacrifices of expiation were commanded the Jews, and obtained 
 among most other nations, from tradition, whose original probably 
 was revelation. Bp. Sutler, Anal. ii. 5.] 
 
12 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [12. 
 
 (11) the fratricide into the land of Nod (i. e. of banishment), 
 A where he built the first city. The posterity of Cain, 
 whose wickedness had filled the earth with murder and 
 violence, were destroyed, together with most of the de- 
 scendants of Seth (Adam's third son), by the waters of a 
 Flood. The Bible account of this visitation is confirmed 
 by the traditions of other ancient nations, as well as by the 
 history of the earth itself. None escaped this destruction 
 except righteous Noah, his wife, and their three sons 
 (Shem, Ham, and Japheth), with their wives, in all eight 
 B persons. These were saved in the Ark, which finally 
 rested on Mount Ararat; and thus the human race a 
 second time sprang from a single family. 
 
 II. From Noah to Abraham. 
 
 v. Goguet, Origin of Laws, &c., among Ancient Nations. 
 (B. c. 23002000.) 
 
 12 The rapid increase of Noah's descendants compelled 
 them to settle on the banks of the Euphrates, in the fruit- 
 ful plain of Shinar (Babylon). Building of the tower of 
 
 c Babel. Dispersion of Noah's posterity. The Shemifcs 
 (or descendants of Shem) spread themselves over Asia, 
 from the Mediterranean to the Oxus ; north-western Asia, 
 and Europe were peopled by the descendants of Japheth ; 
 Africa and a portion of south-eastern Asia 1 by the chil- 
 dren of Ham. In consequence of the universal degeneracy 
 of Noah's posterity the knowledge and worship of the one 
 true God were entirely lost, except in the family of Abra- 
 ham, a descendant of Seth in the taith generation, who, 
 being called by God, received from Him a command to 
 
 D leave his own country and kindred, and seek for a new 
 home in a land, the very name of which was not to be 
 declared to him till a future time. He was required to 
 act in faith, the command being enforced by a promise, 
 that his obedience should be rewarded by his being made 
 the father of a great nation, from which a blessing should 
 be conveyed to all the nations of the earth. The faith of 
 the patriarch was equal to the trial : he quitted the land 
 of his fathers (Ur oftJie Chaldees), " not knowing whither 
 he went ;" and from this time the original promise of a 
 
 1 [Apparently the coasts of Arabia and the Persian gulf] 
 
13.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 13 
 
 Saviour was limited, and thus rendered more definite by (12) 
 the added specification, that He should proceed from the A 
 family of Abraham. 
 
 III. From Abraham to the Conquest of Palestine. 
 (B. c. 20001500.) 
 
 Abraham, who was called, by the native Canaanites, 13 
 Hebri, i. e. ' the man from the other side ' (hence the 
 term Hebrews), had entered their country (the land of 
 Canaan) in company with his nephew Lot ; but the rapid 
 increase of their flocks and herds soon compelled them to B 
 separate. Lot, to whom Abraham granted the privilege 
 of choosing his future abode, settled in the valley of Sid- 
 dim, the rich and well-watered plain of the Jordan. The 
 inhabitants of its cities, Sodom and Gomorrah, were so 
 terribly wicked, that the Lord rained fire and brimstone 
 upon them from heaven, showing at the same time his 
 power to deliver the godly out of temptation by preserving 
 righteous Lot. When these guilty cities were overthrown, 
 the plain in which they stood became the Dead Sea. Lot 
 escaped into the mountains with his daughters, who (by c 
 incestuous intercourse with their father, whom they had 
 made drunk with wine) gave birth to Moab and Ben-Ammi, 
 the ancestors of the idolatrous Moabites and Ammonites. 
 
 On the other hand, Abraham, who, on account of the 
 barrenness of his wife Sarah, had had a son (Ishmael) by 
 her handmaid Hagar, received a promise that Sarah, in 
 her old age, should have a son. Accordingly he became 
 the father of Isaac, i the son of promise ;' and, as a reward 
 for a great and mysterious trial of his faith, when he pre- 
 pared to sacrifice this son at the command of God, was D 
 admitted to a more intimate communion with the Almighty 
 by the establishment of a covenant, into which every male 
 of his race was thenceforward to be incorporated by 
 circumcision. Ishmael, with his mother Hagar (who 
 had justly offended Sarah by her mocking behavior on the 
 festival of Isaac's weaning), had been driven forth into the 
 Arabian desert at the request of Sarah, but with the per- 
 mission of God. Isaac became the heir of his father's 
 possessions, and having married Rebekah (the daughter of 
 Abraham's brother, Nahor), begat twin sons, Esau (or 
 Edom) and Jacob, afterwards named Israel. 
 
 Esau, having profanely sold his birthright to his bro- 
 
14 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [13. 
 
 (13) ther, travelled towards the south, and became the founder 
 
 A of a commercial race named Edomites (Idum&ans}, 
 
 After Isaac's death, Jacob became the head of the 
 Israelitish family, and continued to lead a pastoral life, 
 being assisted in the care of his flocks and herds by his 
 twelve sons. His favorite son, Joseph, was sold by his 
 envious brethren to a caravan of Ishmaelites, who carried 
 him into Egypt, where he became the property of Poti- 
 phar, and was thrown into prison in consequence of a false 
 accusation brought against him by his master's wife. 
 
 B Having interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh, he was created 
 viceroy of Egypt, and after severely proving his brethren, 
 who had come down from Canaan to buy corn, at last dis- 
 covered himself to them. By the invitation of his son, 
 Jacob migrated with his whole family into Lower Egypt, 
 where he dwelt in the land of Goshen. After residing 
 there 430 years, ' the Israelites (now a considerable nation, 
 numbering 600,000 fighting men) quitted Egypt under the 
 command of MOSES. This leader (a descendant of Levi) 
 had been exposed when an infant on the banks of the Nile, 
 
 c in consequence of a command issued by Pharaoh that all 
 the first-born male children of the Israelites should be 
 destroyed. Being rescued from the waters by Pharaoh's 
 daughter (hence his name), he was given to his own mother 
 to be nursed, and as he grew up received instruction in all 
 the learning of the Egyptians. Having slain an Egyptian, 
 who was persecuting one of his brethren, the children of 
 Israel, he fled for safety to the country of the Midianites, 
 in Arabia, where Jehovah appeared to him in the midst of 
 a burning bush on Mount Horeb, and commanded him to 
 
 D return and conduct the people from Egypt into the land of 
 Canaan. In conjunction with his brother Aaron, he endea- 
 vored to obtain from Pharaoh permission for the people 
 to make a three days' journey into the wilderness, that 
 they might sacrifice to the Lord their God : but Pharaoh's 
 heart was hardened, so that he refused to let them go, 
 until his land had been visited by ten miraculous plagues. 
 The army of the Israelites, guided by a pillar of a cloud 
 by day and a pillar of fire by night, marched through the 
 Arabian gulf (God having first "caused the waters to go 
 back by a strong east wind" and then to return and over- 
 
 1 So Piitz : but the 430 years are to be reckoned from the promise 
 in Gen. xv. to the Exode. 
 
14.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 15 
 
 whelm their pursuers) towards Mount Sinai, in Arabia, (13) 
 where Moses delivered to the people a code of laws, A 
 written by the finger of God Himself. God punished 
 their faithlessness and disobedience by condemning them to 
 wander forty years in the wilderness : after which they 
 conquered the whole of Palestine as far as the river Jor- 
 dan. Aaron and Moses, having on one occasion failed to 
 sanctify Jehovah before the people, were not permitted to 
 enter the promised land, but died before the children of 
 Israel crossed the river. 1 
 
 The MOSAIC LAWS, by which the Jewish people were to be go- 14 
 verned, were given to Moses by God Himself, especially the two B 
 tables of stone on which the Ten Commandments were engraven, 
 and the pattern of the tabernacle, with its furniture and ordinances 
 of worship. It contained, however, many confirmations of ancient 
 patriarchal usages (such as the worship of one God by means of 
 sacrifices, prayers, and vows, the observance of the Sabbath, circum- 
 cision, oaths, the avenging of blood, and the patriarchal life under 
 the government of heads of tribes and fathers of families) : and 
 some of the political and domestic institutions bear a strong resem- 
 blance to those of the Egyptians. The laws were 
 
 1. RELIGIOUS. The worship of one God, Jehovah, as King of his 
 chosen people. It was forbidden to make any visible representation c 
 of the Almighty ; but his presence was indicated by the cloud which 
 rested on the mercy-seat in the tabernacle. This tabernacle was a 
 portable tent, consisting of a court and the sanctuary, properly so 
 called, the innermost division of which (the Holy of Holies) con- 
 tained the ark of the covenant with the Ten Commandments en- 
 graven on two tables of stone. The tribe of Levi (to which Moses 
 belonged) were charged with the administration of every thing 
 relating to public worship, but the priesthood itself was confined to 
 the descendants of Aaron ; the head of the family for the time being 
 having the title of high priest, and acting at the same time as head 
 of the tribe of Levi and spiritual chief of the whole nation. All 
 duties connected with the worship of God, unless expressly reserved D 
 to the priests, were performed by the Levites, with the exception of 
 the lowest offices, which were discharged by the slaves of the sanc- 
 tuary. They were also required to transcribe and explain the books 
 of the law, administer justice, and conduct the registration of the 
 tribes ; and were generally versed in all the scientific learning of 
 those days. They dwelt in forty-eight cities, dispersed among all 
 the tribes, and were not allowed to possess any property, but re- 
 ceived a tenth part of the possessions of the other tribes (the tithe 
 of which they again gave to the priests), besides a share of the 
 beasts offered in sacrifice, the firstlings of the flock and the first fruits of 
 the land. The high priest was also supreme judge, and had the 
 privilege of inquiring the will of God. He entered the Holy of 
 
 1 Before his death, Moses, by God's direction, nominated Joshua 
 to succeed him as the leader of the people. 
 2* 
 
16 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [14. 
 
 (14) Holies once a year, on the great Day of Atonement, to offer sacrifice 
 
 A for his own sins and the sins of the people. In order to fix in the 
 minds of the children of Israel a perpetual remembrance of their 
 dependence on the Divine Ruler of their nation, periodical feasts 
 were appointed by the Mosaic law. To remind them that their 
 persons and property belonged to God, their bodies were to rest 
 every seventh day, or Sabbath (as a memorial also of the rest 
 of God on that day from the work of creation), and their land 
 every seventh or Sabbatical Year ; and at the end of seven times 
 seven years, or the year of Jubilee, all contracts for the possession of 
 person or property were cancelled, domestic slaves emancipated, and 
 lands which had been sold or pledged, were restored, with the neces- 
 
 B sary farm buildings, to their original owners. Their three annual 
 festivals, at which all the males were required to visit the place 
 where the ark of God was deposited, were partly commemorative of 
 God's wonderful protection of his people, and partly seasons of 
 thanksgiving. 1. Tiie Passover (Passah}, in commemoration of the 
 deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery, and the sparing of 
 their first-born by the destroying angel when he smote the first-born of 
 the Egyptians. 2. The Feast of Weeks, or nevTEKoorr} (fy/tpa), a thanks- 
 giving for the delivery of the law on Mount Sinai, as well as for the 
 commencement of harvest. The Feast of Tabernacles, a festival 
 commemorative of their living in tents and booths in the wilderness, 
 and a thanksgiving for the end of the fruit gathering and vintage. 
 Their dependence on Jehovah was also especially recalled to their 
 
 C minds by a yearly penitential observance, called the great Day of 
 Atonement. The new moon of the seventh month, or beginning of the 
 civil year, was likewise a festival, and was announced by sound of 
 trumpet, whence it was denominated the Feast of Trumpets. The 
 sacrifices, which were all offered up on an altar in the court of the 
 Tabernacle, and afterwards of the Temple, were either bloody, consist- 
 ing of clean beasts without spot or blemish (oxen, goats, sheep, and 
 doves), or unbloody, such as meats, drink-offerings, and the daily 
 offerings of incense. Besides these sacrifices, the Israelites were 
 required to bring before the Lord the first-born of beasts, and the 
 first fruits of their fields and vineyards, as well as a double tithe 
 (half for the Levites, and the other half to form a fund for the 
 expenses of sacrificial feasts, hospitality to strangers, and relief of 
 
 D the poor). Among their religious observances may also be classed 
 vows, prayers, circumcision, and the purification of the unclean. 
 
 2. CIVIL. Their political constitution was a Theocracy. The peo- 
 ple were divided into twelve tribes, which were governed by heads of 
 tribes and families (named elders}, and formed each a small republic : 
 but the whole nation was subject to the dominion of the invisible 
 Jehovah, who governed by his visible representative the High Priest, 
 assisted by the priests and prophets. On extraordinary occasions 
 the people were all called together to decide questions of peace, war, 
 alliances, &c., and to elect leaders. We find, also, in the Mosaic 
 law special provisions for the case (which afterwards occurred) of 
 the people desiring to choose a king. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. After the conquest of Palestine a 
 judge, chosen generally from the tribe of Levi by the heads of 
 families and tribes, was stationed in every city. The punishments 
 
15.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 17 
 
 were, death, inflicted for offences against the Theocracy, such as (14) 
 idolatry, desecration of holy usages, blasphemy, prophesying falsely, ^ 
 &c. All crimes of this description were punished with death by the 
 sword or stoning, as acts of high treason against the Sovereign Ruler 
 of the nation. The same punishment was also inflicted for murder, 
 robbery of an Israelite, adultery, incest, and cursing or ill-treating 
 parents. Corporal punishment (stripes) ; fines (for theft and defama- 
 tion) ; ecclesiastical penalties (sacrifices). Moses appointed three 
 cities on the eastern side of Jordan, to which the slayer, who had 
 killed his neighbor without malice prepense, might flee from the 
 avenger of blood. 
 
 WAR. Every free citizen who had attained the age of twenty 
 years was required to serve in the army, which was divided into 
 battalions corresponding to the number of the tribes, each tribe 
 being commanded by its own heads and fathers of families. Terms B 
 of capitulation were to be offered to besieged places, but if these 
 were refused, and the city taken by storm, all the male inhabitants 
 were put to death. 
 
 DOMESTIC LIFE. For the avoidance of idolatry, the people were 
 commanded to separate themselves strictly from foreign nations 
 (with the exception of their relatives the Edomites and the Egyp- 
 tians), and to root out the ancient inhabitants of Palestine. They 
 were required to lead a peaceful life within their own borders, main- 
 taining themselves by agriculture and pasturage, and neither seeking 
 to enrich themselves by commerce, nor attempting to extend their 
 territory by conquest. Kindness to the poor, widows and orphans, C 
 justice to the hired laborer, and gentle treatment of their slaves, and 
 even of beasts, were strictly enjoined by the Law. 
 
 The commission of J o s h u a was ratified by the miracu- 
 lous interposition of Jehovah, who caused the waters of 
 Jordan to retire at the first touch of the priests' feet, and 
 the walls of Jericho to fall down before the people of 
 God. This leader subdued thirty-one princes of the Ca- 
 naanites, and consequently made himself master of the 
 whole land, which he divided among the twelve tribes, 
 ten of which were named after the sons of Jacob (with the 
 exception of Levi and Joseph), and two after Manassek D 
 and Ephraim, the sons of Joseph. The Levites occupied 
 forty-eight cities. 
 
 IV. From the Conquest of Palestine to the establishment 
 of the Monarchy. Period of the Judges. 
 
 (B. c. 15001100.) 
 
 The twelve tribes, each under its own prince, were 15 
 united into one federal commonwealth by their worship of 
 Jehovah (the tabernacle at Shiloh), and their common in- 
 terest in the priestly race and the high priesthood, which 
 
18 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [10. 
 
 (15) was hereditary in Aaron's family, as well as by the Mosaic 
 
 A law and their general assembly (at Sichem). 
 
 The command of God, speaking by his servant Moses, 
 to root out the ancient inhabitants of the land, had been in 
 a great measure disregarded; and the people not only 
 contracted marriages with the Canaanites, but added the 
 idolatrous rites of their neighbors to the worship of 
 Jehovah. These transgressions, the envious feeling of 
 the weaker tribes towards the stronger, and their conflicts, 
 generally disastrous, with their neighbors, the Philistines, 
 
 B Edomites, Midianites, Ammonites, and Moabites, to whom 
 the Israelites were alternately either subject or tributary, 
 would have put an end to the commonwealth, had not indi- 
 vidual heroes (JUDGES, such as Gideon, Jepht hah, Sam- 
 son, and Eli) been raised up by God in the time of their 
 sorest need to rescue the nation from complete subjection. 
 When, however, the sons of Samuel (a Judge, and the 
 founder of a School of Prophets, in which the young 
 Israelites were instructed in the laws, religion, and music), 
 who had been admitted by their father as his coadjutors in 
 
 c the priestly office, were known to have accepted bribes, 
 the people, forgetting that God was their King, persuaded 
 themselves that a union of the tribes under a single head 
 would insure them more unanimity among themselves, and 
 greater security against their enemies. Accordingly, they 
 desired to have a visible king, like the nations around 
 them. Samuel was highly displeased at this request, 
 which he justly considered an act of rebellion against their 
 Almighty Sovereign ; but being commanded by God to 
 accede to their demand (though not without pointing out 
 
 D to them its sinful character), he anointed Saul, the son of 
 Kish, a Benjamite, to be king over Israel. 
 
 V. From the establishment of the Monarchy to the 
 separation of the two kingdoms. 
 
 (B. c. 1095975.) 
 
 16 Saul, after obtaining a victory over the Philistines, re- 
 ceived the homage of the Israelites at a general assembly, 
 where he swore to observe the constitution as defined by 
 the terms of his compact with the people and the laws of 
 the Jewish nation. After this he subdued the remainder 
 of their heathen neighbors, the Philistines, Moabites, and 
 Edomites, and rooted out the Amalekites, but, in defiance 
 
16.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 19 
 
 of Samuel's prohibition, spared their king and the best of (16) 
 the cattle. He had on another occasion offered sacrifice, A 
 in profane violation of God's law ; and for these acts of 
 disobedience Samuel, by (rod's command, privately 
 anointed David, of Bethlehem in Judah (a young man), to 
 be the future king of Israel. When a boy he had kept his 
 father's flocks, but had been admitted at the court of Saul 
 as a player on the harp and armor-bearer to Jonathan, 
 the king's son. After his victory over the giant Goliath 
 he was persecuted by the jealousy of the king, and took 
 refuge among the Philistines. Saul, being deserted by B 
 God, ended his life by falling on his own sword after a 
 disastrous conflict with the Philistines, in which three of 
 his sons were slain. 
 
 DAVID then returned to his own country, and was at 
 once acknowledged by the tribe of Judah ; the other 
 eleven tribes declaring in favor of Ishbosheth, the son 
 of Saul, who was put to death eight years after his 
 accession, when David became king of all Israel. Having 
 chosen Jerusalem, which he had conquered from the Jebu- 
 sites, to be the royal residence, David transferred the Ark c 
 of the Covenant to that city, and built a magnificent palace 
 on Mount Zion, by the aid of workmen furnished by his 
 ally Hiram, king of Tyre. The booty taken in his wars 
 was also set aside to meet the expenses of erecting a 
 Temple which he desired to build, but was commanded by 
 God to leave the execution of his plan to his peaceful 
 successor. By the subjugation of the Moabites, Edomites, 
 and Syrians (of Zoba and Damascus), David extended his 
 kingdom eastward as far as Thapsacus on the Euphrates, 
 and southward to the Arabian gulf. At the same time he D 
 took measures for the regular administration of his enlarged 
 dominions, surrounded himself with a brilliant court and a 
 body guard (Krethi and Plethi), appointed ministers and 
 officers for the administration of justice and military affairs, 
 divided the company of priests and Levites into courses, 
 gave a more settled form and greater magnificence to pub- 
 lic worship, maintained a standing army of 300,000 men 
 in twelve divisions, each of which remained in turn a 
 month under arms, concluded a commercial treaty with 
 Hiram of Tyre, &c. 
 
 Deep religious feeling and unshaken confidence in 
 the Almighty were the distinguishing characteristics of 
 
20 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [17. 
 
 (16) David, whose fervent spirit of devotion is displayed in the 
 
 A Psalms. Under the influence of passion he committed two 
 grievous sins (the seduction of Bathsheba and murder of 
 Uriah), of which he sincerely and bitterly repented. On 
 this repentance he was himself pardoned ; but because he 
 had given occasion to the enemies of the Lord to blas- 
 pheme, a sentence of punishment was pronounced against 
 him, that the sword should never depart from his house. 
 His son Absalom, who had deposed his father, was put to 
 death by the commander-in-chief (Joab) as he hung by 
 
 B the hair from the branches of an oak. A short time before 
 his death David abdicated in favor of his son SOLOMON 
 (the son of Bathsheba), who had been educated by the 
 prophet Nathan. 
 
 17 The wisdom of Solomon, which was renowned through- 
 out the whole eastern world, was displayed in his judicial 
 decisions (the determining, for instance, which of two 
 claimants was the true mother of a child), proverbs, of 
 which 3000 are extant, songs (1005), and enigmas. 1 His 
 great work was the erection of a magnificent national 
 
 c Temple, and the establishment of a splendid ritual. The 
 Temple was finished in seven years by artisans from Tyre, 
 and profusely ornamented with gold, silver, and precious 
 stones. The building was divided (like the Tabernacle) 
 into the Holy Place and Holy of Holies, and solemnly 
 dedicated to the service of the Almighty ; the Ark of the 
 Covenant being brought from Zion and deposited in the 
 sanctuary. He built also a royal palace, the walls of Jeru- 
 salem, and several cities (as Tadmor or Palmyra, in the 
 Syrian desert). Solomon renewed the commercial league 
 
 D with Hiram, king of Tyre, and, in conjunction with him, 
 sent ships from the Edomitic harbors of Elath and Ezion- 
 Geber to Ophir, probably an emporium on the Arabian 
 gulf,* and to Tarshish (Tartessus in Spain ?). A love of 
 magnificence and luxury was manifested in the arrangements 
 of the court, the sacrifices, the troops of strange wives and 
 concubines introduced by the king after his perversion to 
 idolatry, and the vast number of horses. To support this 
 extravagant expenditure, heavy contributions were exacted 
 
 1 The hard questions in which the Queen of Sheba came to prove 
 him (1 Kings x. 1). 
 
 * Kttlb (Hist, of Travels and Discoveries in Africa, i.) suppose* 
 Ophir to have been Sofala, on the eastern coast of Africa. 
 
18, 19.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 21 
 
 from the people, without any adequate advantage being (17) 
 gained by the remoter provinces. A conspiracy was in A 
 consequence organized by Jeroboam (of the tribe of 
 Ephraim), who, on the discovery of his treason, fled into 
 Egypt. Syria revolted, and the Edomites remained merely 
 as tributaries under kings of their own. 
 
 REHOBOAM, Solomon's son, having rejected a petition 18 
 for an alleviation of the public burdens, ten tribes at 
 once chose Jeroboam, and formed the kingdom of Israel, 
 only the southern tribes of Judah and Benjamin remaining 
 faithful to Rehoboam : these two tribes composed the king- B 
 dom of Judah. This political separation produced also 
 an ecclesiastical schism, the tribe of Levi remaining 
 in Judah and celebrating the worship of Jehovah in the 
 national temple, whilst the tribes of Israel, renouncing 
 their allegiance to the priesthood at Jerusalem, as well as 
 to the throne of David, with its promise of perpetual 
 duration, offered sacrifices on the high places, and adopted 
 very generally the Egyptian worship of beasts, and the 
 adoration of the Phoenician idol Baal. 
 
 VI. The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 
 
 (FROM B. c. 975.) 
 
 From this period the KINGDOM OF ISRAEL, with its capi- 19 
 tal Samaria (formerly Sichem), became a prey to intes- c 
 tine commotions, and only lasted (under nineteen kings) 
 until the year B. c. 722. The kings, who sought, by 
 favoring foreign idolatry, to prevent the people from 
 visiting the Temple at Jerusalem, and thus to render the 
 separation of the two kingdoms permanent, were strenu- 
 ously opposed by a party of faithful worshippers of 
 Jehovah, headed by the divinely-commissioned prophets, 
 Elijah, Elisha, &c., who denounced the foreign rites and D 
 the worship of the high places, and endeavored to re- 
 establish the connection with Judah. These struggles pro- 
 duced revolutions, which were the more frequent, because, 
 since the revolt of the tribes from the chosen family of 
 David, the right of their kings to the throne had no better 
 foundation than national opinion. Hence, repeated wars 
 with their heathen neighbors (particularly the Syrians), to 
 which they were urged by the exhortations of the prophets. 
 The Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser, took most of the cities 
 of Israel by storm, and his successor, Shalmaneser, put an 
 
22 ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. [20. 
 
 (19) end to the kingdom of Israel, after the surrender of Sama- 
 A ria to his forces in 722. Most of the inhabitants were 
 transported to the interior of Asia, and their place in Pales- 
 tine supplied by Asiatic colonists, the mixture of whom with 
 the Israelites at home produced the race of the Samaritans. 
 THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH, with its capital, Jerusalem, 
 lasted from B. c. 975 to 586, under nineteen kings and one 
 queen (Athaliah) of the house of David, most of whom 
 supported the Aaronic priesthood, and maintained the 
 worship of Jehovah, but there were some who persisted in 
 B favoring idolatry, and offering sacrifices on the high 
 places, in defiance of the rebukes, warnings, and lamenta- 
 tions of the prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, &c.). After a suc- 
 cession of wars, for the most part disastrous, with the king- 
 dom of Israel and their heathen neighbors, Judah became 
 tributary to the Assyrians (who had formed an establish- 
 ment in the adjoining country of Israel), and at a later 
 period (after the death of Josiah, who fell in battle against 
 Pharaoh-Nechoh) to the Egyptians ; and lastly, after the 
 overthrow of that nation at Karkemisch (Circesium), to 
 Babylon. 
 
 c Zedekiah, who had been placed on the throne by the 
 Babylonians, having rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar stormed 
 Jerusalem, B. c. 586, plundered and burnt the Temple, and 
 carried off the greater part of the inhabitants to Babylon, 
 a few being left behind, under the government of a viceroy, 
 for the cultivation of the corn-land and vineyards. 
 
 VII. The Israelites under the rule of the Persians. 
 
 (B. c. 538332.) 
 
 20 After the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, the Jews were 
 D not only permitted by that sovereign to return to their own 
 land after an exile of seventy years, but were presented 
 with the treasures which had been plundered from their 
 Temple, protection being also granted to them for the re- 
 storation of the building. At first, however, only a small 
 body of the exiles (50,000) returned to Palestine, which 
 now formed a district of the Persian satrapy of Syria. 
 The administration of civil affairs was left by the satraps 
 for the most part to the high priest, who was now, for the 
 first time probably, assisted by a council of seventy -one 
 elders. During the reigns of Cambyses and Smerdis, the 
 building of the temple was obstructed by the Samaritans, 
 
21.] ASIA. THE ISRAELITES. 23 
 
 who had been excluded from a participation in the work, (20) 
 and was not finally completed until the reign of Darius I. A 
 The Jewish colony, already established in Judaea, was 
 joined by new settlers under the command of Ezra and 
 Nehemiah. 
 
 7. Literature, Arts, and Sciences. 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 The exclusive and sacred character of the divine oracles 21 
 was naturally an impediment to the growth of any mere 
 literature among the Jews. Before the exile the arts of 
 reading and writing were confined to but a few, principally B 
 to the Priests, Levites, and Prophets. The commandments 
 of God and the miraculous events of the national history 
 were communicated orally by parents to their children, 
 whose curiosity their religious institutions were calculated 
 and intended to excite (fteut. vi. 7. sqq.). 
 
 POETRY. The poetry of the Israelites is distinguished by 
 a majestic simplicity, great strength of expression, elevation, 
 and originality. It differs from all other national poetry, 
 not only in its substance, derived from divine inspiration, 
 and filled therefore with the spirit and power of religious 
 wisctorfif, but also in its form, being constructed without c 
 metre, and in a rhythm which consists merely of a corre- 
 spondence in the length and structure of the sentences, that 
 of the syllables being entirely neglected. Their poems are, 
 1. Lyrical, like the Psalms (almost all of which are of the 
 time of David, and, generally speaking, his own composi- 
 tions), and the Song of Solomon ; 2. Didactic, either, in 
 short detached sentences, like the Proverbs of Solomon, or 
 in the form of dialogues, like the book of Job ; 3. Lyrico- 
 didactic, like the Lamentations and prophecies of the four 
 greater prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel), 
 and the twelve lesser ones. v. Lowth's Hebrew poetry. 
 
 THE ARTS. There was no opportunity for the attainment D 
 of architectural excellence among the Israelites, since they 
 had only one Temple (built by Phoenician architects), the 
 pattern of which had been prescribed by God Himself; 
 nor do they seem to have possessed any other public build- 
 ing worthy of notice. Still less could painting and sculp- 
 ture flourish among a people, who, being forbidden by 
 their religion to make any carved or molten image as a 
 representation of the invisible God, were restricted to 
 mere decoration. 
 
24 ASIA. INDIA. [22, 23. 
 
 (21) On the other hand, music, on account of its use in the 
 A Temple worship, especially from the time of David, seems 
 to have attained a certain degree of perfection. 
 
 Their trade with foreign nations was intentionally 
 prevented, by the Mosaic law against intercourse with 
 foreigners ; at a later period its development was impeded 
 by the vicinity of the Phoenicians and Arabians, who shared 
 the commerce of Asia between them : Palestine, neverthe- 
 less, exported a considerable quantity of corn, oil, honey, 
 and balsam. The commerce established by Solomon in 
 conjunction with Hiram at the ports of Elath and Ezion- 
 B Geber (which had been added to his dominions by David), 
 ceased with the loss of those provinces. Their internal 
 trade was more important, Jerusalem being the scene of 
 an animated traffic thrice a year at their great national 
 Festivals. 
 
 II. The Indians. 
 
 22 Sources of information. Neither native historians nor annalists. 
 The authorities for Indian religion, legislature, and literature, are the 
 Vedag, or four ancient collections of religious notices, neither be- 
 longing to one time nor compiled by one writer. The principal 
 
 C authority, however, on legal questions, is Manu's (the first mortal, 
 grandson of Brahma) code of civil laws, a compilation, gradually 
 formed, of written or traditionary laws, with* an immense mass or 
 commentary. Among Greek writers, the most credible accounts are 
 found in Herodotus (iii. 94), Strabo, and Claudius Ptolemaeus. On 
 the other hand, the "Indica" of Ctesias is almost entirely fabulous, 
 and the " Indica " of Arrian, with many fragments from the ex- 
 cellent accounts of Megasthenes and other eye-witnesses, contains 
 also a great deal of exaggeration, introduced for the sake of flatter- 
 ing Alexander the Great. Among the Roman authorities is Pliny 
 (Hist. Nat.), whose account, although copious, is disfigured by his 
 love of the marvellous and exaggerated. The writings of Q. Curtius 
 contain little that is new or worthy of credit. 
 
 D The best general view will be found in Heeren's Researches, 3d 
 vol. of the Eng. tr. v. also an excellent ch. in Eliot's History of Ro- 
 man Liberty, Introd. View, ch. 2. Ancient ana modern India are so 
 closely connected that they may be studied together, v. Elphistone's 
 Hist, of India, 2 vols. ; Crawford's Researches concerning the Laws, 
 Theology, &c., of Anc. and Mod. India; for the knowledge the an- 
 cients had of India, Robertson's Hist. Disquisition. 
 
 8. Geography of Ancient India. 
 
 23 NAME AND BOUNDARIES. The name of INDIA, which 
 is derived from the river Indus, is generally employed by 
 Greek and Latin writers to designate the countries of the 
 South generally, but most frequently southern Arabia and 
 
24 26. 8.] ASIA. INDIA. 25 
 
 Ethiopia. The later division into India intra and extra (S3) 
 Gangem, although still inaccurate, indicates a more correct A 
 knowledge of the country. The name of Hindostan, 
 first introduced by the Mahometans, is given to the tract 
 of country lying between the Indus and Burrampooter, 
 and between the Himalayan mountains and the Indian 
 ocean. 
 
 India, in the centre of the tropical peninsula of southern Asia, 24 
 the Italy of the eastern world, the goal of conquerors and settlers, 
 the emporium of the world's commerce, the exporter to all climes 
 and in all ages of the richest productions of nature (precious stones 
 and spices), extends 330 German miles in breadth (the distance from 
 Bayonne to Constantinople), and 400' in length (that of Naples from 
 Archangel). 
 
 FACE OF THE COUNTRY AND RIVERS. The continent of 25 
 India consists of an Alpine, a lowland, and a highland B 
 district, and is separated from the rest of Asia by almost 
 inaccessible mountains. 1. The Alpine district is in the 
 north, between the Himalaya, the highest point of which, 
 the Dhawalagiri (i. e. Mont Blanc) stands 27,000 feet 
 above the level of the sea, and a lower chain (7,000 feet 
 in height) which runs along the skirts of the valley. 2. c 
 The Lowland country stretches in the centre, between the 
 Alpine and highland districts, in the form of a triangle, 
 from the bay of Bengal to the Persian gulf, and is sepa- 
 rated into two regions of very opposite character ; viz. the 
 fertile plain of the sacred Ganges and Burrampooter, which 
 unite before they enter the sea, and forming a delta, dis- 
 charge their waters by several mouths into the bay of 
 Bengal ; and the plain, for the most part barren and waste, 
 of the Indus, the five tributary streams of which (the 
 Hydaspes, Acesmes (Aceslnus), Hydraotes, Hyphasis, 
 and Satadrus,) water the Punjab, or land of the five rivers, 
 which is fertile, and in parts well cultivated. 3. The Table- D 
 land of Deccan, surrounded on three sides by the sea, is 
 a uniform triangular peninsula, the eastern and western 
 borders of which are formed by the Ghaut mountains, 
 whilst the Vindhaya range, which forms its northern 
 boundary, slopes in terraces down to the valley, and the 
 middle consists of one unbroken tract of table-land. 
 
 THE ISLANDS. That Ceylon and the more distant 26 
 
 1 About 1200 and 1600 English miles. 
 
26 ASIA. INDIA. [27 29. 9. 
 
 (26) islands of the East Indian Archipelago, as Sumatra, Java, 
 A Borneo, Celebes, &c., were peopled and cultivated by 
 Hindu tribes, is evident from the Sanscrit names of the 
 mountains, cities, and rivers, and the complexion, manners, 
 and institutions of the islanders, as well as from the stu- 
 pendous vestiges of Indian architecture, with which the 
 islands abound. 
 
 27 PRODUCTIONS. No portion of the earth is equal perhaps 
 in the riches and variety of its productions to India, which 
 unites the characteristics of the tropical and polar regions. 
 
 B The chief of these productions are in the vegetable kingdom, 
 the cocoa-tree, the richest spices and southern fruits, rice, sugar, all 
 sorts of aromatic woods, cedar, teak, the timber of which is almost 
 imperishable, the cotton shrub, indigo, the sacred banyan-tree, and 
 the equally hallowed lotus in the animal kingdom, buffaloes, used 
 for draught and riding, elephants, lions, tigers, jackals, large wild 
 dogs, apes, serpents, peacocks, parrots, silk-worms, and innumerable 
 insects in the mineral kingdom, gold, silver, diamonds, saltpetre, &c. 
 
 28 INHABITANTS. The Hindus, of Caucasian race, and an 
 aboriginal negro tribe, the Farias, who are sometimes to 
 a certain extent civilized, but as frequently savage, living 
 on garbage, and sunk into the lowest state of degradation. 
 
 c The dialect in which the classical works of the Indians are 
 written, and which has been a dead language since the 
 time of the Mahometans, is called Sanscrit a, i.e. "the 
 perfect," in contradistinction to the popular dialects which 
 have sprung from it, and which bear the genera 1 , name of 
 Prakrita (common, vulgar). 
 
 9. Fragments of the Ancient History of India. 
 
 29 As the expeditions of Semiramis and Sesostris belong to 
 D legendary lore, little is known respecting the history of 
 
 India before the time of Alexander the Great, beyond the 
 fact that certain nations on the banks of the Indus were 
 subdued by Darius Hystaspes. Alexander the Great 
 found several kingdoms already existing in the Punjab, 
 some of which he restored, after his conquest of the 
 country, to their former kings (as Taxiles and Porus), 
 and placed others under the jurisdiction of Macedonian 
 satraps. His successors lost the Indian provinces during 
 their disputes respecting the partition of the kingdom, 
 Sandrocottus, king of the Prasians on the Ganges, having 
 
30, 31. 10.] ASIA. INDIA. 27 
 
 expelled the governors appointed by Alexander, and (29) 
 founded, about the year 312, an empire, which extended A 
 from the Ganges over the whole of the Punjab, and a 
 great part of Aria, Arachosia, and Gedrosia, but at a later 
 period was first circumscribed, and then entirely destroyed 
 by the Bactrian kings. The conquests of the Bactrians in 
 India were soon transferred to the Parthians, and from 
 them to the Scythians, who were utterly defeated by the 
 Indian king, Vikramadityas, B. c. 56, and the Indo- 
 Scythian empire broken up. Then follows another period B 
 of darkness until the time of the Mahometan invasions 
 (about A. D. 1000), during which the peace of southern 
 India seems to have been grievously disturbed by the re- 
 ligious feuds of the Brahmins and Buddhists. 
 
 10. Religion, political Condition, Literature, fyc. of ike 
 ancient Indians. 
 
 1 . RELIGION. 
 
 The Brahminical system. The original religion of the 30 
 Indians consisted in a veneration for nature, with some sort 
 of vague acknowledgment of a Supreme Being. This c 
 primary cause they termed Brahma, and honored the Sun 
 as his representative under the name of Brahman. To- 
 gether with Brahmaism there arose in Northern India 
 two forms of popular worship, the fierce Sivaism, or 
 worship of fire, and the milder system of Vishnu, which 
 venerated water and air as the great elementary powers. 
 
 Their three great deities, Brahman, Vishnu, and Siva, which form 
 the Trinity of Indian theology (the Trimurtis), must be considered, 
 like all their other gods, as nothing more than personifications of the 
 Supreme Being's power, as displayed in the creation, preservation, 
 and destruction of all things. The will of God that the world should D 
 be created was revealed through Brahman ; that it should continue 
 to exist through Vishnu, and that the works of creation should be 
 destroyed through Siva. Vishnu ten times assumed the human form, 
 in order to revive the expiring virtue of mankind. Their religious 
 observances are, prayers, purifications, sacrifices, of various sorts, 
 rejoicings at most of their religious festivals, severe penances, and 
 retirement in old age, generally accompanied by ascetic mortification 
 of the body. The practice of burning widows prevails only among 
 the followers of Vishnu, and is subject, even among them, to many 
 restrictions. 
 
 The Buddhist Reformation (about B. c. 1000). The 31 
 reformer of the stern Brahminical system, or founder of the 
 
28 ASIA. INDIA. [32, 33. 10. 
 
 (31) milder religion of Buddha, was Gautamas, surnamed 
 A Buddhas, i. e. the Wise (son of the king of Magadha), 
 who seems either himself to have given out that he was an 
 incarnation of the god Vishnu, or in process of time to 
 have passed for the manifestation of that deity in a human 
 form. He rejected the system of caste (D) ; forbad bloody 
 sacrifices and the burning of widows, whom he permitted 
 to marry again ; required the priests to lead a life of chas- 
 tity, celibacy, self-denial, and renunciation of all worldly 
 possessions : a system which led to the establishment of 
 B several Buddhist monasteries. The humane and tolerant 
 worship of Buddha had spread itself in the fourth or fifth 
 century before Christ over all the East Indian islands ; and 
 about the year B. c. 200 had reached China, and through 
 the emigrations caused by the intolerance of the Brahmins, 
 had extended as far as Korea, Japan, Tibet, and Mongolin. 
 
 32 2. CONSTITUTION. Their form of government was 
 monarchical, and the succession to the throne hereditary, 
 according to priority of birth. The king could make 
 grants of land to any individual, and again withdraw them, 
 except in the case of the priests, whose estates, granted to 
 them in lieu of a money payment, were inviolable and 
 
 c exempt from taxation. In accordance with this practice, 
 the king appointed governors over the larger provinces, who 
 again made grants of the smaller districts to inferior 
 officers and farmers, on condition of receiving a rent, 
 which varied in amount according to the times and circum- 
 stances, and of being furnished in time of war with a 
 certain contingent of young men, of the warrior caste, 
 capable of bearing weapons. 
 
 D The king, sprung from this caste, seem to have been surrounded 
 by a body of priests, but it does not distinctly appear what share 
 they had in the government. He chose his ministers from the caste 
 of Brahmins, an& took counsel with his senate of gray-haired men ; 
 but seems, nevertheless, to have acted on all occasions according to 
 his own discretion. His most important duty was the administration 
 of justice ; for which purpose a court, consisting of ten learned and 
 aged Brahmins, was established in each province, the king himself 
 being the supreme court of appeal. 
 
 33 From the earliest times the people have been divided 
 into four CASTES : 
 
 a. The Brahmins (i. e. descendants and worshippers of 
 Brahma), who are sacred and inviolable, more highly edu- 
 
34. 10.] ASIA. INDIA. 29 
 
 cated than the other castes, exempt from taxation, and (33) 
 subjected to less severe punishment than others for any A 
 violation of the laws. They seem to be highly esteemed, 
 and to exercise considerable influence in all political affairs. 
 Only a fourth part of the caste are priests, the remainder 
 being employed as teachers, judges, physicians, or in some 
 other honorable office. 
 
 b. The Warrior-caste Kshatriyas (i. e. averters of 
 devastation). The king must be of this caste. 
 
 c. The Visas (i. e. inhabitants), the agricultural and 
 trading caste. 
 
 d. The Sudras (i. e. fugitives) ; the people properly so B 
 called, divided into guilds, and employed in a variety of 
 trades, manufactures, arts, and even in commerce. They 
 are excluded from reading and hearing the Vedas, but are 
 not considered altogether unclean, like the Farias. 
 
 3. LITERATURE. The literature of the ancient Indians, 34 
 the extent of which has not yet been fully ascertained, 
 consists of 
 
 a. Their sacred writings, comprehended under the title 
 of Sdstra (i. e. the guide, the law), and divided into 
 eighteen classes. At the head of these stand the fourc 
 Vedas, with their numerous commentaries and explana- 
 tions. The remainder treats of various arts and sciences 
 (music, dancing, military tactics, mechanical arts, gram- 
 mar, and lexicography, religious usages, and astronomy, 
 legislation, philosophy, &c.), and concludes with the 
 Puranas or antiquities, and the religious Epopee. 
 
 The practical sciences, such as geography, natural philosophy, and 
 medicine, seem to have been in their infancy among the ancient 
 Indians. Individual discoveries of considerable merit are overlaid 
 with poetical fictions and religious myths. Their labors in the D 
 abstract and speculative sciences, such as mathematics and philo- 
 sophy, are of a more respectable character. To them we are in- 
 debted for the invention of numerals and algebra. Of their reli- 
 gious epic poems, which in many respects bear a great resemblance 
 to the poetry of Homer, the two most ancient and famous, are 
 1. The Ramayana (of Valmikis), which relates, in 24,000 double 
 verses, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu (Ramas) and his expe- 
 dition to Celone. 2. The Mahabharata (of Vyasas), which describes 
 in nearly 100,000 double verses a civil war between two kindrea 
 races, with a great number of episodes. 
 
 b. Their profane writings, including their lyric and 
 dramatic poetry. 
 
30 ASIA. INDIA. [35. 10. 
 
 (34) The Indian drama, which, like that of Greece, is a development of 
 A their ancient sacrificial hymns and rural dances, has chosen its sub- 
 jects from the celestial world and the lives of heroes, as well as from 
 the realms of philosophy and the domestic circle ; employing also, in 
 most instances, the religious Epopee. The most renowned dra- 
 matic writer of Indian antiquity was Kalidasas, who flourished 
 in the first century before Christ. The Sakuntala, of this author 
 was the first of his works known in Europe. 
 
 35 ART. 
 
 B Architecture. The monuments of Indian architecture, 
 which are on a more stupendous scale than those of any 
 other nation, may be divided into three classes. 1. SUB- 
 TERRANEOUS TEMPLES, hewn out of the solid rock; re- 
 markable for their extent, the grandeur of the plan, and 
 its careful execution, and the richness of the statues 
 and relievos which cover the walls. They are found in 
 different parts of the country, but the most magnificent 
 are at Ellore, where the mountain of the gods, as it is 
 termed, is hollowed out from its base to its summit into 
 innumerable temples, forming a complete Pantheon. 
 
 c 2. ROCK-TEMPLES, above ground, hewn out of the solid 
 rock. Of these the most celebrated are the seven pagodas, 
 or monuments of the rock-city Mahabalipuram, on the 
 coast of Coromandel. 3. BUILDINGS, PROPERLY so CALLED, 
 formed of masses of stone. These edifices are partly of 
 a religious character (as the temples, called by Europeans 
 pagodas, which are generally in the form of pyramids and 
 obelisks, and are often superior in magnitude and colossal 
 architecture to the monuments of Egypt, which they almost 
 invariably surpass in elegance of execution and arrange- 
 ment of the details) ; partly erected for secular purposes, 
 like the castles and fortresses which are seen in great 
 numbers on insulated crags. 
 
 D The attainment of excellence in the art of sculpture was 
 rendered almost impossible by a religious law, which pro- 
 hibiled any change in the existing form of their sacred 
 images. 
 
 Of painting we find the earliest distinct traces in their 
 dramatic representations. 
 
 That music attained perfection at an early period among 
 the Indians, and was raised to the rank of a science, is 
 manifested by the great variety of their instruments, as 
 
36, 87. 10.] ASIA. THE BABYLONIANS. 31 
 
 well as by the number of Sanscrit treatises on tho theory 
 of harmony. 
 
 COMMERCE. 30 
 
 Their home traffic was carried on, not so much by cara- A 
 vans as by individual traders, who employed tame ele- 
 phants for the conveyance of their wares by land, and 
 vessels for river and coast navigation. Their sacred sta- 
 tions, to which hundreds of thousands of pilgrims resorted, 
 were the principal markets for the sale of domestic 
 produce. 
 
 The foreign trade was in three directions: 1. To the B 
 North- East, especially to China, whence they imported 
 silk. 2. To the East, or peninsula on the other side, 
 named by the Greeks Chryse, in consequence of the great 
 quantity of gold brought from its coasts. From the nu- 
 merous harbors and commercial stations on the coasts of 
 Coromandel and Ceylon, a brisk trade was carried on be- 
 tween the two extremities of India. 3. To the West, from 
 the Malabar coast to Arabia, whence they imported frank- 
 incense, and by Arabian ships to the eastern or gold coast 
 of Africa. 
 
 The principal exports were spices, the sugar-cane, precious c 
 stones, especially diamonds, pearls, various sorts of Indian cloth, 
 from the finest gauze and embroidered satin to nankeen and cotton 
 stuffs, figured with grotesque representations of animals and plants 
 in the brightest colors, &c., &c. 
 
 III. The Babylonians. 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Native BEROSUS, priest of Bel and 37 
 astrologer at Babylon, wrote, about the year B c. 268, a work, entitled 
 Ba/ytAowKu (in three vols.), compiled from ancient records pre- 
 served at Babylon, and from stamped tiles. His book comprised 
 the histories of Babylon, Assyria, and Media. (Fragments of this D 
 work are preserved in Josephus, Eusebius, and Syncellus.) 2. ABY- 
 DENUS, a scholar probably of Berosus, who wrote mpl rfo row 
 XuA<5atojj> Bao-tAeiaf. (Fragments in Eusebius, Cyrillus, and Syn- 
 eellus.) 
 
 Hebrew. The BIBLE, particularly the Books of Kings and the 
 Prophets (especially Daniel). 
 
 Greek 1. HERODOTUS ; see particularly B. I. c. 178 199. 
 2. CTESIAS, a native of Cnidus in Caria, and body physician to 
 Artaxerxes II., compiled from oral accounts and the annals of the 
 Persian kingdom, a Persian history (llEpffixtiv, 23 B ) ; of which 
 nothing is extant except a quotation in Photius, and some fragments 
 in Diodorus. His Babylonian history (in B. I III.) contradicts in 
 
32 ASIA. THE BABYLONIANS. [38 40. T 11. 
 
 (37) many particulars both the Bible and Herodotus. 3. DIODORTJS 
 - A SICULUS, in B. II. of his Bi/?Ao0/j*j 'loropiKfi. 4. EUSEBIUS, Bishop 
 of Cffisarea (A. D. 3UO), wro(e a Chronikon in two books, of which 
 only fragments were known, until the discovery at Constantinople of 
 an Armenian translation, which has also been rendered into Latin. 
 y. Heeren, vol. 2, pp. 129 et seq. Grote, ch. 19. 
 
 11. Geography of Babylon. 
 
 38 SITUATION. Babylon, called also Chaldaea, and in the 
 Bible Sinear or Senaar, extended on both sides of the 
 Euphrates southwards, from the central bend of the river 
 
 ^and the Median wall (which separated it from Mesopo- 
 tamia) to the Persian gulf. 
 
 B SOIL. An entirely flat alluvial land, which on account 
 of the want of rain, is watered by canals by means of 
 hydraulic machines, and then produces from two to three 
 hundred fold. The only tree that flourishes in this soil is 
 the palm, of which there are great numbers. Its fruit not 
 only served for food, but produced also a sort of wine and 
 honey. 
 
 The want of wood and stone is supplied by an inexhaustible 
 abundance of clay for making bricks, and instead of lime they used 
 naphtha or bitumen (of which there are large fountains in the 
 neighborhood), with layers of reeds and palm -leaves. 
 
 39 RIVERS. The Euphrates and the Tigris ; the last of 
 c which is very rapid ; hence its name Tigris, which signifies 
 
 the arrow. Both rise in Armenia, and unite their streams 
 fifteen miles above their entrance into the Persian gulf at 
 Pasitigris (Shut-ul-Arab). 
 
 ^ The Euphrates generally overflows its banks in winter, and still 
 ofiener in spring, when the snow begins to melt on the Armenian 
 mountains. These inundations were restrained by dams, or carried 
 off by canals (the largest of which, the royal canal, communicated 
 with the Tigris, and was navigable for ships of considerable burden,) 
 either into the Tigris, the bed of which is lower than that of the 
 Euphrates, or into marshes and artificial lakes. 
 
 40 CITIES. 1. Babylon stood in the midst of a fertile 
 D plain on both sides of the Euphrates. It was surrounded 
 
 by walls 337 feet 8 inches high, 75 feet thick, and com- 
 prising a square, of which each side was 1*20 stadia or 
 nearly 15 English miles in length. Around the wall was 
 a broad, deep moat, lined with bricks, and a hundred 
 gates served for communication with the surrounding 
 country. Each street was 15 miles long, 150 feet broad, 
 except the half streets under the wulls, which were 200 
 
41 43. 12.] ASIA. THE BABYLONIANS. 33 
 
 feet broad. There were besides, 296 squares used as (40) 
 gardens, &c., so that half the city, like modern Rome, ^ 
 was filled with cultivated ground. 2. Borsippa. 3. 
 Cunaxa (battle in 401). 
 
 BUILDINGS OF BABYLON. The most magnificent were 1. The 41 
 Temple of Bel, or Babylonian Tower; which consisted of eight towers 
 or stories, one above the other, diminishing gradually in size as they 
 approached the summit, which was crowned with a temple, containing 
 the couch and golden table of the god. Used for astronomical ob- 
 servations: a heap of ruins in Alexander's time." 2. Old palace, both 
 sides of the Euphrates. 3. New one by Nabopolassar and Nebu- B 
 chadnezzar. Hanging gardens. Situate in the Pachalic of Bagdad, 
 near Hella. East bank of the Euphrates, ruins of vast buildings 
 none of the walls. Sirs Nimrud, huge oblong edifice of brick, west 
 of the Euphrates tower of Babel ? v. Rich's Journey to Babylon, 
 &c. 
 
 12. History of the Babylonians. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. According to the 42 
 express declaration of Scripture, Babylon was a more 
 ancient state than Assyria. It was founded by Nimrod 
 probably about the year 2000, and from it Assyria was 
 peopled. 
 
 The Greeks mention, as the founder of the Babylonian empire, c 
 Bel (i. e. Lord or King), to whom they ascribed all the ancient insti- 
 tutions, of which the founders and date were unknown. According 
 to the same authority, his son Ninus was founder of the Assyrian 
 empire. One writer alone, Ctesias, asserts that Assyria was the 
 mother country. The native legends, preserved by Berosus, speak 
 often kings who ruled Babylon before the deluge. In the reign 
 of the third, there arose out of the Erythraan sea a being named 
 Oannes, half man and half fish, who taught men the arts and sciences, 
 and communicated them a legend respecting the creation of the 
 world. The meaning of this fable probably was, that the Baby- 
 lonians were indebted for their civilization to a people who came 
 over the sea, from Egypt or Meroe. Under the last of these kings D 
 (Xisuthrus), there was a great deluge, from which the king and his 
 family were saved in a ship. 
 
 The history of the Babylonian empire, from the de- 43 
 luge to the Persian conquest, comprehends, according to 
 Berosus, seven dynasties, the sixth of which (of forty-five 
 Assyrian kings) continued, according to the same autho- 
 rity, 526 years ; a statement which is confirmed by the 
 assertion of Herodotus (I. 95), that the Assyrian rule over 
 Upper Asia lasted 520 years. From this Assyrian domi- 
 
34 ASIA. THE BARYLONIANS. [44. -12. 
 
 (43) nation the Babylonians delivered themselves, in the year 
 
 A B. c. 747, under Nabonassar, with whom begins the seventh 
 dynasty of nineteen native kings. (The era of Nabonassar 
 reckons from the 26th of February, 747.) Repeated at- 
 tempts were made by the Assyrians to repossess them- 
 selves of Babylon, which for a short period was again 
 subject to them. Under Nabopolassar, the fourteenth king 
 of this dynasty (625 604), happened probably the immi- 
 gration of the Chaldaeans from Mesopotamia ; which they 
 were compelled, it would seem, to abandon by the Scy- 
 
 B thians, who had lately invaded their country. This sove- 
 reign, in conjunction with the Medes, put an end to the 
 Assyrian empire, destroyed Nineveh, and received for his 
 share the western portion of the empire (Mesopotamia, 
 Phoenicia, Syria, and Israel). When Necho, in his vic- 
 torious progress from Egypt, advanced to the banks of the 
 Euphrates, Nabopolassar sent out his son Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, who overthrew the invader near Carchemish 
 (Circesium), and compelled him to disgorge Syria with 
 Palestine (B. c. 604). Meanwhile Nabopolassar died, and 
 was succeeded by Nebuchadnezzar (NafiovxodovoaoQo?) 
 
 c (604 561). In his pursuit of the Egyptians, this monarch 
 advanced as far as Pelusium, and carried off a number of 
 Jews to Babylon. The kingdom of Judah having refused 
 to pay tribute, and formed an alliance with Egypt, Nebu- 
 chadnezzar laid siege to the city of Jerusalem, which sur- 
 rendered after being closely invested for one year and a 
 half. The city was plundered and destroyed (B. c. 586) ; 
 the king, Zedekiah, had his eyes put out, and most of the 
 inhabitants were carried away as prisoners to Babylon. 
 
 D Those who remained in Judah were subjected to the juris- 
 diction of a Babylonian governor. Nebuchadnezzar waged 
 a third war against the Phoenicians, because they had 
 formed an alliance with Zedekiah, destroyed Sidon, and 
 besieged Tyre thirteen years without success. Thus his 
 empire extended from the Nile to the Tigris. After his 
 return he built the new royal palace, with the hanging 
 gardens, for his wife Nitocris ; and laid the foundations, 
 on the other side the Euphrates, of a second half of the 
 city, which he surrounded with a triple intrenchment. 
 
 44 During his seven years of madness the government was adminis- 
 tered by Nitocris. This queen dug a lake, into which the waters of 
 
45. 13.] ASIA. THE BABYLONIANS. 33 
 
 the Euphrates could be conveyed, built a bridge over the river, and (44) 
 erected a monument, with a lying inscription, in honor of herself. ^ 
 
 His fourth successor, and the last king of the Baby, 
 lonians, was Nabonedus, called by Herodotus Labynetus, 
 who supported Croesus ineffectually against Cyrus, and on 
 that account was besieged by the Persians in Babylon. 
 The river Euphrates being diverted from its course into 
 the lake constructed by Nitocris, the city was taken whilst 
 the inhabitants were celebrating a feast, and Babylon re- 
 duced to the condition of a Persian province 1 (B. c. 538). 
 
 13. Religion, Literature, fyc. of the Babylonians. 
 
 1. RELIGION. The religion of the Shemites, 2 and of 45 
 the ancient Asiatics generally, was that of nature ; i. e. a B 
 deification of her powers and laws, and the offering up of 
 prayers to objects in which those powers were supposed to 
 exist. In this natural religion the Godhead is not, as in 
 the religion of the Hebrews, a distinct self-existent ruler 
 by whom nature is governed, but the innate powers of 
 nature herself, as she reveals them according to fixed laws, 
 sometimes in creation and preservation, and then again in 
 the destruction of her own works ; thus exciting in the 
 rninds of men at one time admiration, love, and adoration, 
 and at another, terror, and a desire to avert her anger. The c 
 most common idea of the Godhead among Asiatic nations, 
 who profess the religion of nature, is that it consists (after 
 the analogy of mortals) of a male and female. Thus Baal 
 is the active, and Baaltis the passive power of nature ; the 
 one a creative, conservative, but at the same time destruc- 
 tive element, the other the concipient and productive prin- 
 ciple. This sexual distinction, which extends to all the 
 powers and phenomena of nature, seems to have occa- 
 sioned at an early period the grammatical distinction of 
 genders as applied to inanimate objects. A later step in D 
 the development of material religion was the representation 
 of gods with human characters and the human form. To 
 
 1 According to Xenophon (Cyrop. vii. 5), and Daniel (v. 30), the 
 king lost his life when the city was taken ; but Berosus asserts that 
 he escaped to Borsippa, gave himself up to Cyrus, and ended his life 
 in Carmania. 
 
 * To the Shemites belonged the Assyrians, Babylonians, Pho3ni- 
 cians, Carthaginians, and Lydians. 
 
36 ASIA. THE BABYLONIANS. [46 48. 13. 
 
 (45) complete this notion, the gods were described as dwelling 
 A on earth, and as the founders of families, especially those 
 of kings and princes, suffering the trials of mortality, and 
 at last dying and reposing in sepulchres, which were still 
 to be seen. Thus we find, that wherever any divinity was 
 especially venerated, he or she had been in ancient times 
 the king or queen of the country, and that the guardian 
 deities of cities were generally their founders. The first 
 rank among the Shemitic divinities is assigned to Bel 
 (Belitan), their first king, who subdued the whole east, 
 beginning with Syria, and stands at the head of all the 
 B Shemitic royal pedigrees. From him the Babylonians 
 gave their city the name of Babel (z. e. the court of Bel), 
 and ascribed to him the erection of their famous wall, and 
 even of the tower of Babel. In this fortress he was ac- 
 customed to watch the movements of the heavenly bodies 
 from a lofty observatory, and communicate his discoveries 
 to the Chaldseans. 
 
 46 Of the five planets, two, Jupiter and Venus, were considered be- 
 Q neficent powers by the Chaldaeans, and all the other astrologers of 
 
 those days. Mars and Saturn were destructive, and Mercury some- 
 times good and sometimes malignant, according to his position. The 
 Chaldaean priests believed that the will of the gods and the destinies 
 of men might be learned from the position, rising, and setting of the 
 planets, and in the course of their observations made many scientific 
 discoveries. 
 
 47 2. THE CONSTITUTION. " The King of kings," who 
 received divine honors from his 'people, and exercised un- 
 controlled and irresponsible power, resided in his tower, 
 surrounded by an immense multitude of officers and at- 
 
 D tendants. The empire was divided into satrapies, which 
 were governed despotically by the king's lieutenants. 
 Considerable authority was also possessed by the priestly 
 caste of the Magi, who were termed pre-eminently " Chal- 
 dseans " (Kasdim), and were sole possessors of all the 
 learning of those days, which they communicated by tra- 
 dition to members of their own caste. 
 
 48 3. TRADE. The favorable position of their country, 
 midway between the Indus and the Mediterranean, in the 
 neighborhood of the Persian gulf, and on the banks of two 
 navigable rivers, rendered Babylon the centre of com- 
 mercial communication between Upper and Lower Asia. 
 
49 51. 14.] ASIA. THE ASSYRIANS. * 37 
 
 a. The land trade was carried on by means of caravans, eastward, (4g) 
 with India (from which they imported precious stones, hounds, and A 
 coloring substances), and with Bactria (for gold) ; westward, with 
 Asia and Phoenicia, up the Euphrates as far as Thapsacus, and thence 
 
 by caravans. Their exports to these countries were Arabian and 
 Indian produce. 
 
 b. Trade on the Euphrates, by leathern boats, which brought wine 
 from Armenia. 
 
 c. Maritime commerce was carried on, not so much by the Baby- 
 lonians themselves, as through the Phoenicians settled on the coasts of 
 Arabia, and the Arabians beyond the Persian gulf: 1 , with Arabia 
 (especially with the Chaldaean colony of Gerra and the islands of 
 Tylus and Aradus), whence they brought back pearls, cotton, frank- 
 incense, and timber for ship-building ; and, 2, with the western coast 
 of India, from which they imported spices, ivory, ebony, precious 
 stones, pearls ; and with Ceylon, which sent them cinnamon. 
 
 4. ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. Woollen and cotton 49 
 stuffs and carpets, objects of luxury (perfumed waters, B 
 carved walking-sticks, cut stones). 
 
 IV. The Assyrians. 
 
 SOURCES of INFORMATION. The same as those for Babylonian his- 50 
 tory. The most numerous, but at the same time most incredible and 
 fabulous notices are found in Clesias (B. 1 3). To these we may 
 add Trogus Pompeius, a Gaul who flourished in the reign of Au- 
 gustus. We have his universal history in the Latin extracts of 
 Justin (see the beginning of B. 1). Herodotus, in his history (i. 184; C 
 compare i. 106), refers to a separate history ot Assyria, which has 
 been lost. Grote, ch. 19. Layard's Nineveh. 
 
 14. Geography of Assyria. 
 
 NAME AND SITUATION. By the term Assyria we un- 51 
 derstand 1, the province ; comprehending all the country 
 between the Tigris and Media, southwards as far as Baby- 
 lon, and northwards to Armenia, corresponding to what is 
 now termed Kurdistan; 2, the empire; which, besides 
 the province of Assyria, comprised Mesopotamia. Babylon, 
 with Chaldaea, Media, and Persia. Sometimes the names 
 of Assyria and Syria were interchanged. 
 
 SOIL. Mountainous in the north and east ; well watered, D 
 and consequently for the most part productive ; produces 
 bitumen. Chief and boundary river, the Tigris. 
 
 CITIES. Nineveh (17 IVtvo?), the earlier city built by 
 Ninus, was situated on the Tigris, probably where the 
 royal canal runs into the river ; the more modern city of 
 
38 ASIA. THE ASSYRIANS. [52, 53. 15. 
 
 (51) Ninus lay further north on the eastern bank of the Tigris. 
 A The old town was 480 stadia in circumference (150 in 
 length, and 90 in breadth) : its walls were 100 feet high, 
 and broad enough to receive three carriages abreast, with 
 1500 towers, 200 feet in height. 2. Gaugamela iu I*.), 
 in the vicinity of Arbela (ru A.), the scene of Alexander's 
 victory in 331. 
 
 15. History of the Assyrians. 
 
 52 According to the Bible narrative, the Assyrian empire 
 B and its capital Nineveh were founded from Babylon, either 
 
 by Nimrod himself, or by the emigration of the tribe of 
 Assur. 1 Grecian writers ascribe the foundation either to 
 Bel or to his son NINUS (a personification of the Baby. 
 Ionian colony), about 2000 years before Christ. To this 
 monarch and his consort and successor SEMIRAMIS (daughter 
 of the goddess Derketo), Ctesias ascribes expeditions on a 
 magnificent scale in Asia and Africa (against Bactria, 
 Libya, Ethiopia, and India), in which the forces on both 
 sides amounted to several millions. 
 
 C Semiramis founded commercial cities on both sides of the principal 
 rivers, with causeways, canals, dams, extensive gardens, &c. ; be- 
 sides erecting memorials of her expeditions, one of which is still seen 
 at Ecbatana. According to Ctesias, she conquered the greater part 
 of Libya and Ethiopia, and at last undertook an expedition on the 
 Indus against an Indian king, with an enormous force consisting of 
 3,000,000 of infantry, 500,000 cavalry, and 100,000 chariots; and a 
 fleet of 2000 ships. This multitude was met by a still more numerous 
 army of Indians, who were vanquished by Semiramis ; but the strata- 
 gem of her pretended elephants being discovered, the heroine was 
 compelled to give way in her turn, and being wounded by the king, 
 returned to Nineveh, where she soon afterwards died, and was num- 
 bered among the gods. 
 
 53 Semiranm was succeeded by her son NINYAS. This mon- 
 D arch and his successors (until Sardanapalus), whose number, 
 
 names, and reigns are variously given, led for the most part 
 an effeminate life in their palace, which was guarded by a 
 standing army of 400,000 men, changed every year. During 
 
 1 Whether Nimrod himself was the founder of the Assyrian em- 
 pire is doubtful ; for the passage (Gen. x. 11) may be interpreted 
 " From this country he (Nimrod) went to Assyria, and built Ni- 
 neveh ;" or it may signify " From this country went Assur, and 
 built Nineveh." 
 
54. 15.] ASIA. THE ASSYRIANS. 39 
 
 this period (according to Herodotus and Berosus) occurred (53) 
 the subjection of Upper Asia to Assyrian rule. After an A 
 interval of thirty generations, we find the throne occupied 
 by the effeminate TONOSKONKOLEROS, surnamed Sarda- 
 napalus (the Admirable), about the year B. c. 840. An 
 insurrection of the Babylonians and Medes against this 
 monarch produced the establishment of an independent 
 Median empire, whilst that of the Assyrians, so far from 
 being destroyed, continued to subsist under its own kings, 
 the Babylonian empire being also incorporated with it. 1 
 There exists no record of the kings who succeeded Sar- B 
 danapalus until the period when the history of Assyria 
 becomes blended with that of Israel. We have then the 
 following succession : 
 
 PHUL (about B. c. 770), who compelled the Israelites to pay 
 tribute. 
 
 Under TIGLATH.PILESER the Babylonians revolted 54 
 (747) ; but the Assyrians were indemnified for this loss 
 by the acquisition of Syria and a part of Israel, which were 
 invaded and conquered by their king on the invitation of the 
 king of Judah. SALMANASSAR, 'Shalmaneser' (730), after c 
 the conquest of Samaria (in 722), destroyed the kingdom 
 of Israel, which had refused to pay tribute at the insti- 
 gation of the Egyptians. The Israelites were transported 
 to Assyria, and Assyrians sent to supply their places. The 
 conqueror then advanced as far as Phoenicia, which he 
 subdued, with the exception of the insular city of Tyre, 
 the siege of which he was compelled to raise, after his fleet 
 had been defeated by the Tyrians. The Assyrian empire 
 was now exceedingly flourishing ; but again declined under 
 SENNACHERIB 2 (Sanacharibos, about B.C. 713), who subdued 
 
 1 According to Ctesias, this revolt of the governor Arbaces and the 
 priest Belesys of Babylon ended in the destruction of Nineveh, and 
 the complete dissolution of the Assyrian empire. But as it is spoken 
 of in the Bible as continuing to exist after this period, and the names 
 of Assyrian kings are given, by whom the kingdom of Israel was 
 overthrown, some writers have tried to reconcile the discrepancy by 
 supposing a second or new Assyrian empire. It is, however, certain 
 that such an empire never existed ; the supposition being grounded 
 on the error of Ctesias, who places the destruction of Nineveh and 
 the dissolution of the Assyrian empire in the reign of Sardanapalus I. 
 instead of that of Sardanapalus II. 
 
 a [Between Shalmaneser and Sennacherib we meet with Sargon 
 in Is. xx. 1. Mr. Browne's dates are : Shalmaneser, 723 ; Sargon, 
 cir. 718 ; Sennacherib, 713.] 
 
40 ASIA. THE ASSYRIANS. [55. 16. 
 
 (54) the Babylonians, took their king prisoner, and made his 
 A own son king of Babel ; but in an attempt on Judah was 
 not only compelled to raise the siege of Pelusium (the 
 bow-strings of his soldiers having been gnawed through, it 
 is said, by field-mice), but lost his army under the walls of 
 Jerusalem [by the miraculous interposition of God, of which 
 the tale just mentioned was probably a corrupted or disguised 
 version], and after his return was slain by his two eldest sons. 
 He was succeeded by his third son, ASSAR-HADDON (' E s a r- 
 h ad don/ about 700), who warded off the ruin of the empire 
 B for a time. Under the last of the Assyrian kings, S ard an a- 
 palus II. (or Sarak), an alliance was formed between 
 Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, and Cyaxares, king of 
 Media (whose daughter Nitocris was given in marriage to 
 Nebukadnezar, the son of his ally), for the conquest of 
 Assyria ; and the Assyrians were already overthrown in 
 an engagement and siege laid to Nineveh, when the Scy- 
 thians invaded Media, and kept possession of the country 
 for twenty-eight years. It was not until after their ex- 
 pulsion that Nineveh fell, and was utterly destroyed, pro- 
 bably about the year B. c. 604 ! [606, Browne and Zumpt ; 
 Niebuhr, 625]. 
 
 16. Religion, Literature, fyc. of the Assyrians. 
 
 55 Notwithstanding the fertility of their soil, the Assyrians 
 c never attained a high state of civilization. Their trade 
 was in the hands of foreigners ; . nor do we find among 
 them any traces of art or science, beyond the rough tactics 
 of a half-savage warfare. Their religion consisted in the 
 worship of the planets, like that of the Babylonians, but 
 under different names, and in the offering up of human 
 
 1 This statement follows exactly the words of Herodotus (I. 103 
 106). According to the historian, the war of Cyaxares against the 
 Assyrians and the siege of Nineveh were interrupted by an invasion 
 of the Scythians. The conquest of Assyria is mentioned as occurring 
 subsequently to the expulsion of the Scythians, and being the last act 
 of the reign of Cyaxares. Now if his reign began in 633, the expul- 
 sion of the Scythians, after twenty-eight years' occupation of the 
 land, could not be earlier than 605 or 604, and the taking of Nine- 
 veh could not, therefore, have occurred previously to the year 604. 
 That it did not happen later than that year is evident from the 
 prophecy of Jeremiah (xxv. 18), delivered in the first year of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar (t. e. B.C. 604), which does not mention Assyria among 
 the nations threatened by Nebuchadnezzar, because Nineveh had 
 been already destroyed. [Cf. Ordo Saclorum, 491.] 
 
56 59. 17, 18.] ASIA. - THE MEDES. 41 
 
 victims. Their political constitution was similar to that of A 
 the Babylonian empire. 
 
 V. TfoMedcs. 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Native. ZOROASTER'S Zend-Avesta. 55 
 Greek. Herodotus, i. 95130. CTESIAS, B. 46 (in Diodorus, ii. 
 24 34). XENOFHON of Athens, in his Kvpov naifcia, contradicts both 
 Herodotus and Ctesias. But this work is not generally received ai 
 an authentic history. Grote, ch. 17. 
 
 17. Geography of Media. 
 
 BOUNDARIES. On the north the Caspian sea, on the 57 
 east Hyrcania and Parthia (in ancient times the domi- B 
 nion of the Medes seems also to have comprehended Aria 
 and Bactria), on the south, Susiana and Persis, and on 
 the west, Assyria and Armenia. 
 
 SOIL. The northern part, afterwards named the lesser 58 
 Media or Atropatene (now Aderbeidscan [Azerbijan]), 
 was a cold and barren tract of hilly country, whilst the 
 southern or greater Media was a fertile plain, which pro- 
 duced wine and all sorts of southern fruits. In this dis- 
 trict, on the Nissean plains, were reared the white horses 
 so famous for their size, sureness of foot, and swiftness. 
 
 The Kdo-TTiat iriiAai was a narrow mountain pass which formed the 
 only means of communication with the north-eastern districts. 
 
 The capital, Ecbatana (Called by Herodotus, Ttx'jypd- c 
 
 now Hamadan) was built without walls on the slope 
 of a hill, on the summit of which stood the royal castle, 
 surrounded by seven walls increasing in height as they 
 approached the centre, and crowned with battlements 
 painted seven different colors. As the residence of the 
 Median, and subsequently of the Persian, kings, as well as 
 on account of its situation on the great commercial road 
 between Babylon and India, Ecbatana soon became one of 
 the fairest cities of Asia. 
 
 18. History of the Medes. 
 
 The first mention of the Medes is found in Berosus, 59 
 who speaks of Babylon being ruled by a dynasty of eight D 
 Median kings. At a later period they became subject to 
 the Assyrians, from whose dominion they emancipated 
 
42 ASIA. THE MEDES. [60. 18 
 
 (59) themselves in the reign of Arbaces. For a succession of 
 A years, each tribe (of which Herodotus, i. 101, enumerates 
 six) was governed by its own prince or chieftain, until the 
 election of the judge DEIOCES to be king of the whole 
 nation. This sovereign (who reigned from 708 655) 
 built the city of Ecbatana with its castle, established a 
 body guard, and introduced a rigid court ceremonial. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son PHRAORTES (655 633), 
 who subdued the Persians and other nations of Asia, but 
 was slain in battle with the Assyrians. His son CYAXARES 
 (633 593) was the first who divided the army regularly 
 B into cavalry soldiers, spearmen, and archers. He subdued 
 western Asia as far as the river Halys. Having formed 
 an alliance with the Babylonian king, Nabopolassar, Cyax- 
 ares commenced a war with the Assyrians, and laid siege 
 to Nineveh ; but the Scythian Nomades (who had driven 
 the Cimmerians out of Europe into Asia Minor) advanced 
 into Media, defeated Cyaxares, and remained masters for 
 twenty-eight years (633 605) of the whole of western 
 Asia as far as Syria, and even extended their conquests to 
 Egypt, where they were bribed by the king, Psammetichus, 
 to withdraw their forces from his country. 
 
 C Whilst the Scythians were thus dominant in Asia, that is to say, 
 were driving their herds wherever they found pasture, and plunder- 
 ing the inhabitants, Cyaxares was carrying on a war (which lasted 
 six years) against Alyattes, king of Lydia. The pretence for 
 this aggression was, that Alyattes had refused to deliver up some 
 Scythians, who had set before Cyaxares at a banquet the body of a 
 murdered Median boy. The war, which was carried on for some 
 time, with various success, was suddenly terminated by an eclipse of 
 the sun, which had been foretold by Thales the Ionian (30th Sept., 
 610). 
 
 60 A number of the Scythians having been treacherously 
 D murdered at a banquet, where they had drunk to excess, 
 the remainder returned to their own country, and finding a 
 new generation, the offspring of their wives and slaves, 
 attacked the intruders with whips instead of swords, and 
 completely vanquished them. After the departure of the 
 Scythians, Cyaxares renewed the war against the Assy- 
 rians, destroyed Nineveh, and reduced Assyria itself to 
 the condition of a Median province (604), the western 
 districts of that empire being left to his ally Nabopolassar. 
 His son and successor, ASTYAGES (593 558), lost Persia, 
 
61, 62. 19.] ASIA. THE MEDES. 43 
 
 which revolted under his grandson Cyrus ; and taking the (60) 
 field in person against the rebels, was defeated and made A 
 prisoner at Pasargadse. 
 
 VARIOUS ACCOUNTS OF THE RELATION WHICH CYRUS BORE TO 01 
 ASTYAGES. According to Herodotus (who had heard four different 
 accounts) the king, having had a strange dream respecting a flood, 
 married his daughter Mandane to a Persian named Cambyses, by 
 whom she had Agradatus, afterwards called Cyrus. Astyages has 
 a second dream concerning a vine Cyrus, being exposed by Har- 
 pagus, is rescued by a herdsman and brought up as his son is 
 chosen king by his playmates recognized by Astyages Harpagus 
 made to feast on the limbs of his own son the Magi declare that 
 the dream of Astyages is already fulfilled Cyrus sent back to 
 Persia to his own parents receives a letter from Harpagus, con- 
 veyed in the belly of a hare and in consequence incites the Medes 
 to revolt the two unequal days [the day of toil and the day of feast- 
 ing; the latter as a type of what every day would be, if they conquered 
 the Medes] Cyrus and the Persians rise against Astyages Harpa- 
 gus, being sent to oppose him, goes over to the rebels Astyages 
 overthrown, and taken prisoner in an engagement at Pasargadae. 
 
 ACCORDING TO CTESIAS, Cyrus was not related to Astyages, but p 
 was urged to attack him simply by the lust of conquest. He stormed 
 Ecbatana, took the king prisoner and then released him ; but after- 
 wards sent him into a desert to die of starvation. 
 
 XENOPHON'S story is, that Cyrus, so far from having obtained the 
 crown by violence from Astyages, was not even his immediate 
 successor, Astyages being succeeded by his son Cyaxares II., at 
 whose death the kingdom passed quietly into the hands of Cyrus. 1 
 
 19. Religion, Literature, fyc. of the Medes. 
 
 The RELIGION of the Medes, even before the time of the 6? 
 Median kings, whose names are given by Herodotus, was c 
 that of the ancient Bactrians or Zend- people, as they were 
 called, who quitted their Nomadic life at the instance of a 
 leader named Dsjemschid, and established themselves in 
 the vicinity of the Oxus. This doctrine, of which Zara- 
 thustro or Zoroaster, who flourished long after Dsjemschid, 
 was the author, was contained in the Zend-Avesta, in twenty- 
 one parts, of which one (the Vendidad) has reached us 
 entire, and the others only in fragments and tables of 
 contents. 
 
 1 As a confirmation of this account, it may be mentioned that 
 Xenophon relates several acts of Cyaxares II., which cannot all be 
 the offspring of a poetical imagination ; and that the prophet Daniel 
 (vi. 1 ; ix. 1), who lived at the Medo-Persian court, speaks (after 
 Astyages) of a Darius the Mede, who answers to the Cyaxares II. 
 of Xenophon. 
 
44 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [63 65. 19. 
 
 53 The principal doctrines taught in the Zend-Avesta are, that there 
 A exists a kingdom of light (i. e. a good principle) in which Ormuzd 
 reigns, who is the origin and promoter of all good and a kingdom 
 of darkness (i.e. an evil principle), the ruler of which, Ahriman, is 
 the author of all physical and moral evil. Both these kingdoms are 
 engaged in a perpetual warfare, but Ahriman will one day be over- 
 come, and the kingdom of light alone remain. All things in the 
 world belong either to Ormuzd (pure men, beasts, and plants) , or to 
 Ahriman (unclean, i. e. sinful men, and impure, i. e. poisonous or 
 hurtful, beasts and plants). Moral precepts. Everyman should be 
 pure and holy, and promote purity and holiness by every means in 
 his power. On this principle are grounded his laws respecting the 
 improvement of the land by agriculture and pasturage, and of the 
 B human race by marriage. His disciples are commanded to adore 
 the sacred fire. The people are divided into four castes priests, 
 warriors, husbandmen, and mechanics ; the king is absolute, and his 
 ordinances irrevocable, but he is required to follow the precepts of 
 Ormuzd, and command only that which is good and just. 
 
 64 This code of laws was intrusted to the Magi, to whom 
 alone belonged the right of offering up prayers and sacri- 
 fices, and of interpreting the will of Ormuzd. They pos- 
 sessed great influence also over all public and private 
 undertakings, on account of the universal belief in divina- 
 tion, especially by means of the stars. There were no 
 temples. 
 
 ,3 Constitution. At first, the different clans lived apart, 
 each under a chief chosen by itself; but from the time of 
 Deidces, the nation was governed by a king, to whom they 
 paid divine honors, and whose will was law, but his ordi- 
 nances, when once promulgated, could not be recalled. 
 
 Manufactures. The Median stuffs (probably of silk), celebrated 
 for the deliiacy of their texture and the brightness of the colors, 
 were the favorite dress of the Asiatic Greeks. 
 
 VI. The Persians. 
 
 05 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 1. Native. The annals of the Persian 
 empire (6t<f,dcpal 0aai\tKai) were compiled by the scribes, who 
 D always attended the king, and preserved in the royal residences a 
 Susa, Babylon, and Ecbatana. From these annals the Greek 
 historians have drawn their facts. The Persian poets (Ferdusi, in 
 the seventh century), and annalists (Mirkhond, in the fourteenth), 
 of the middle ages, contain notices of ancient Persian history, which 
 are utterly at variance with the accounts of the Greek writers. 
 
 2. Scriptural. The books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther (the 
 last for a knowledge of Persian court life), and the contemporary 
 Propheta. 
 
 3. Greek. HERODOTUS, who in addition to the oral information 
 
66, 67. 20.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 45 
 
 obtained in his travels, seems to hav drawn largely from the /gj\ 
 Persian archives (e. g. in his description of the nations who com- ' 
 posed the army of Xerxes, his account of the speeches delivered by 
 the Persian kings, &c.). Thucydides the Athenian (born 371), 
 Evyypa0ri, in eight books. Ctesias. Xenophon's 'Ai/d/?aa<f, Kvpov 
 iratfcia, and 'EAAqctird. Diodorus. Ari'ian's 'laroptrT>v Avafiaatws 
 'AAcfipfyov, seven books, compiled from the journals of writers who 
 accompanied Alexander. Plutarch, in the life of Artaxerxes I., and 
 biographies of different Grecian Generals. Mod. Heeren, vol. 1. 
 Grote, chs. 32 36. Eliot, ch. 4. 
 
 20. Geography of the Persian Empire. 
 
 NAME. The term " Persia " signifies either the pro- 66 
 vince, which was bounded by Media and the Persian gulf, B 
 or the Persian empire, which extended from the Medi- 
 terranean to the Indus, and from the Pontus Euxinus and 
 the Caspian to the Indian sea, and at one time compre- 
 hended Egypt, Thrace, and Macedonia. 
 
 The Countries belonging to the Persian Empire were, 
 
 I. In Europe; Thrace and Macedonia. 
 
 II. In Africa ; Egypt and the neighboring country of 
 Libya. 
 
 III. In Asia. 
 
 A. On this side the Euphrates (or the western part o/*67 
 the highland country of Asia). c 
 
 1. Asia-Minor (Anatolia), see 110, sqq. (p. 65). 
 
 2. Syria (in the Bible Aram), in the more restricted 
 sense of the term, the country between the Mediterranean 
 and Euphrates (sometimes with, sometimes without Phoe- 
 nicia and P a 1 e s t i n e), in its wider sense, the whole region 
 as far as the Tigris (Assyria often used for Syria and 
 vice versa). FACE OF THE COUNTRY. Partly mountainous 
 and partly desert. CITIES. 1. Thapsacus on the Eu- D 
 phrates ; 2. Tadmor or Palmyra in the Syrian desert, 
 built by Solomon, afterwards the capital of a kingdom 
 (under Odenathus and Zenobia) ; 3. Chalybon, famous 
 for its excellent wine. The term of y xo/Aq 2vgla^ Ccele- 
 Syria, was first employed in the time of the Seleucidse to 
 designate the southern part of Syria, which lies between 
 the chains of Libanon and Anti-Libanon [in Lat., Libanus 
 and Anti-Libanus'] ; Damascus was the capital of this 
 district, and at a later period Antiochia and Seleucia, 
 both built by Seleucus Nicator. 
 
 3. Phoenicia, see 97 (p. 60). 
 
 4. Palestine, see 10 (p. 8). 
 
46 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [68 70. 20 
 
 68 B. Between the Euphrates and Tigris (or the Alpine 
 A country of Armenia and the lower terraces of the Euphra- 
 tes and Tigris). 
 
 1. Armenia, northward from Mesopotamia and As- 
 syria, and westward from the Euphrates to the Caspian 
 sea. 
 
 SOIL. An elevated cold mountain soil, interspersed with warm 
 fertile valleys, from which wine was conveyed by the Euphrates to 
 Babylon, and horses and mules to Phoenicia. There were no cities 
 here in the Persian times, but merely extensive open spots. At a 
 later period we find Artaxata (ra 'A.) and Tigrano-certa. 
 B 2. Mesopotamia (a name unknown in the Persian 
 times, and subsequently reckoned sometimes as belonging 
 to Syria, sometimes to Arabia) extended southwards from 
 Armenia to the Euphrates and the Median wall, which 
 form the boundaries on the side of Babylonia. 
 
 SOIL. In the north, mountainous, well-watered, and fertile ; in 
 the interior, barren, and inhabited only by Nomadic hordes. Cities, 
 Karkemish [or Carchemish] (Circeaium), &c. 
 
 c 3. Babylonia, always distinguished in the Persian times 
 from the rest of Mesopotamia, the richest and most pow- 
 erful of the satrapies. See 38, sqq. (p. 32). 
 
 69 C. Countries between the Tigris and the Indus, or the 
 eastern part of the highland district of Asia Plateau of 
 Iran. 
 
 a. On the western border of the highland country. 
 
 1. Assyria, see 51, sqq. (p. 37). 
 
 2. Media, see 57, sqq. (p. 41). 
 
 D 3. Susiana (Louristan), between Babylonia and Per- 
 sis on the Persian gulf; the entrance to the highlands ; 
 capital city, Susa (TU 2owa). 
 
 b. On the southern border. 
 
 1. Persis (Pars or Farsistan), between Susiana 
 and Carmania on the Persian gulf. 
 
 SOIL. Various : in the north, lofty and rugged mountains ; in the 
 centre, fertile, undulating plains (especially on the rivers Cyrus and 
 Araxes) ; in the south, the mountains end abruptly in a narrow, 
 sandy, desert shore, of African character, rendered almost unin- 
 habitable in summer by the simoom. 
 
 70 On these mountain ridges stood the CITIES of 1. Perse- 
 polis, not the residence, 1 but the burial-place of the Per- 
 
 1 [The monuments show that the Persian monarchs must, even at 
 the height of their power, have resided there from time to time. 
 Neibuhr.] 
 
71 73. 20.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 47 
 
 sian kings, and the national sanctuary. Since its destruction (70) 
 by Alexander the Great, there remain considerable ruins A 
 (with sculpture and inscriptions in arrow-headed cha- 
 racters), consisting partly of the fragments of a royal 
 castle, partly of sepulchres hewn in the rock. 2. In the 
 vicinity, Passargada or Passargadse [Deh Minaur. Arr.], 
 founded by Cyrus in commemoration of his victory over 
 Astyages at this place (on the river Cyrus), the capital of 
 the whole kingdom, depository of the royal treasures, and 
 burial place of the king. 1 
 
 2. Carmania (Kerman), on the Persian gulf, between B 
 Persis and Gedrosia. 
 
 3. Gedrosia, between Carmania and India, the most 
 barren of all the Persian districts (with its capital, Pur a) \ 
 on the sea-coast, the Ichthyophagi. 
 
 c. EASTERN BORDER. 71 
 
 1 . Arachosia, a district situated northwards of Gedrosia, 
 on the confines of India (with the city Arachotus), and 
 making with Gedrosia only one satrapy. 
 
 2. The country of the Paropamisdda, between Ara- 
 chosia and Bactriana. 
 
 3. Indoscythia, the eastern slope of the highlands, to- c 
 wards the valley of the Indus. 
 
 d. On the NORTHERN BORDER. "72 
 
 1. Bactriana, between the country of the Paropami- 
 sadse and Sogdiana, from which it was separated by the 
 Ox us (with its capital, Baclra, T BUXTQU, now Balk), 
 the residence of the Zend-people, who obey the law of 
 Zoroaster. 
 
 2. Margiana belonged in the Persian times to Hyrcania, D 
 with Alexandria (built by Alexander, then destroyed, and 
 rebuilt by Antiochus Soter, under the name of Anti- 
 ochia.) 
 
 3. Hyrcania, on the Caspian sea (capital, Zeudra- 
 k a r t a [ Zadracarta : Goorgauri]). 
 
 6. IN THE INTERIOR. 73 
 
 1. Aria ('Ayta and !*tye/<x), an extensive steppe with 
 some fertile spots, a lake named Aria, and two rivers 
 (Arius), and a city (Aria). 
 
 1 Heeren (Ideen, i. 1. 269) and Tychsen (in his supplement to 
 Heeren's Ideen, i. 2, S. 401) suppose Persepolis to be the translation 
 of the name Pasargada. 
 
48 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [74 76. 21. 
 
 (73) 2. Parthia under the Persian and Macedonian rule be- 
 A longed to Hyrcania. The capital of the Parthian king- 
 dom, founded by Arsaces, was Hecatompylos. 
 
 3. Drangiana, between Aria, Gedrosia, and Arachosia. 
 
 74 D. The Alpine country between Oxus [Jihon or Amoo] 
 and laxartes [Sir or Sihon\ t or Sogdiana, the northern- 
 most Persian province, which forms the boundary between 
 the arable district and the pasture land of the Nomadic 
 tribes, and consequently was inhabited partly by Sogdiani an 
 settlers, partly by Scythian Nomades. In the southern 
 
 B district, which was rendered fertile by numerous canals, 
 was Maracanda (now Samarcand ?), the royal city of the 
 Sogdianians. On the laxartes, as a defence against the 
 frequent inroads of the Scythian Nomades, Cyrus built 
 the fortress of Cyreschata (garrisoned with 18,000 men), 
 and Alexander the Great, Alexandria ultima. 
 
 21. HISTORY OF THE PERSIANS. 
 
 75 A. HISTORY OF THE PERSIANS BEFORE CYRUS. 
 
 c The Persians, on account of the variety of their soil, 
 were partly Nomades, partly agriculturists. Herodotus 
 enumerates four Nomadic herdsmen castes, three agri- 
 cultural, and three warrior castes, who governed the in- 
 ferior and supplied the higher officers of state. The 
 most distinguished of these was the tribe of the Pasar- 
 gadse, its most illustrious family being that of the 
 Achaemenidee, from which alone the kings were chosen. 
 The Persians had been subdued by the Median king 
 Phraortes (about 640), but retained their own kings, the 
 first of whom was named Achsemenes. His descendant, 
 Cambyses, was the father of Cyrus, by Mandane, daughter 
 of the Median king, Astyages (see 77, sqq. p. 49). 
 
 76 B. HISTORY OF THE PERSIANS FROM CYRUS TO THE 
 
 D DISSOLUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 558 331. 
 
 1. Cyrus (originally Agradatus), 558 529, became 
 by a stratagem leader of all the Persian tribes, and in 
 consequence of his victory over Astyages, at Pasargadae 
 (see 60, A.), lord of the whole Persian empire,extending 
 westwards as far as the river Halys, which divided it from 
 the kingdom of Lydia. The Lydian king Crcesus, hoping 
 to avenge himself on Cyrus for the expulsion of his 
 brother-in-law, Astyages, and interpreting in his own 
 
77. 21.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 49 
 
 favor the ambiguous response of an oracle, crossed the (76) 
 Halys, ravaged Cappadocia, and after an indecisive en- A 
 gagement (at Pteria, not far from Sinope ?) retreated to his 
 capital, which, after a second battle, was invested, stormed, 
 and sacked by Cyrus. After the destruction of the Lydian 
 empire, Cyrus sent Harpagus to subdue the Greek cities 
 on the coast of Asia Minor, which were ready to pay 
 tribute provided their constitution were respected. Most 
 of them received tyrants under the protection of the 
 Persians, but the inhabitants of Phocsea emigrated to 
 Corsica (where they had a short time before founded 
 Alalia), and being expelled thence by the Tyrrhenians and 
 Carthaginians, retired to Lower Italy. l At the same time, 
 the Teians colonized Abdera, in Thrace. The Carians B 
 and Lycians were also subjugated by Harpagus ; so that 
 the whole of Asia Minor or lower Asia belonged to the 
 Persian empire. 
 
 Meanwhile Cyrus himself had subdued Upper Asia, 77 
 taken Babylon after a two. years' siege (because that city 
 had formed an alliance with Croesus), and put an end, in the 
 year 538 B. c. to the Babylonian empire, which comprised 
 also Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia. The Jews were per- 
 mitted by the conqueror to return to their own land (com- 
 pare 20, p. 22.) For an account of the form of govern- 
 ment established in the conquered countries see 94, B. (p. 
 59.) 
 
 There are three different accounts of the death of Cyrus, as well as c 
 of his origin. 1. According to Herodotus, he fell in battle with the 
 Massagetae (northwards of the laxartes?), and their queen, Tomyris, 
 plunged his head into a vessel filled with human blood. 2. Ctesias 
 says that he was slain in a war with the Sacre ; 3, and Xenophon 
 that he died a natural death. 
 
 Before his death he nominated his eldest son Cam- 
 by s e s to be his successor ; the younger, Smerdis, being 
 appointed viceroy (under his brother) of the eastern portion 
 of the empire, which now extended from the Hellespont 
 to the borders of India. He was buried atPasargadse 
 [or, Passagardse]. 
 
 1 That Massilia (Marseilles) was not originally founded by the 
 Phocseans, who emigrated at that period, but had been already in 
 existence since the year B. c. 600, is clearly shown by Dederich, in 
 the Rhenish Museum. 
 
50 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [78 80. 21. 
 
 78 2. Cambyses, 529 522, added Egypt and Libya to 
 A the countries already subdued by his father. 
 
 According to the narrative of Herodotus, the cause of his under- 
 taking this expedition was a personal affront received from Amasis, 
 king of Egypt, whose daughter he had sought in marriage, but who 
 had sent him in her stead the daughter of the former king. Full of 
 indignation at this insult, Cambyses crossed the Arabian desert, 
 under the guidance of a Greek mercenary named Phanes, and en- 
 tering Egypt, overthrew Psammenitus, the successor of Amasis, at 
 Pelusium, took Memphis, and made prisoners of the king and his 
 family. The captive monarch was treated kindly for a time, but, in 
 consequence of an attempted insurrection, was afterwards put to 
 death by being compelled to drink ox's blood (?). The Libyans and 
 Cyrenians bordering on Egypt, surrendered themselves voluntarily to 
 the conqueror. 
 
 79 Expedition against Ethiopia and Ammonium. The plan 
 B of Cambyses, for extending his conquests in Africa by the 
 
 subjugation of the Carthaginians, Ammonians, and Ethio- 
 pians, was rendered abortive by the refusal of the Phoe- 
 nicians to lend him a fleet for the attack on Carthage, and 
 by the destruction of an army which he had sent against 
 the Ammonians. This force was overwhelmed by the 
 shifting sands of the desert ; whilst another division, 
 which he was leading in person against the Ethiopians, 
 was compelled to return for want of provisions. 
 
 C After his return to Memphis, Cambyses, meeting a solemn proces- 
 sion of the worshippers of Apis, caused the priests to be scourged, 
 wounded and overthrew the god, insulted his temples and sacred 
 rites, and committed various other extravagant acts. Having dreamt 
 that his brother Smerdis had usurped his throne, he caused him to be 
 assassinated by Prexaspes, married two of his own sisters, and killed 
 one of them with a kick ; slew the son of Prexaspes with an arrow, 
 ordered twelve of the principal Persians to be buried alive, com- 
 manded Croesus, who had ventured to remonstrate with him, to bo 
 put to death, and slew his servants for neglecting to execute the 
 sentence. 
 
 D Return to Persia and death. The death of Smerdia 
 having been kept a profound secret in Persis, a Magian*, 
 of the same name, who also closely resembled him in per- 
 son, had ascended the throne. On receiving intelligence 
 of this treason, Cambyses hastened his return to Persis, 
 and died at Agbatana, in Syria, in consequence of a wound 
 in the thigh. He left no children. 
 
 80 3. P seudo-S me rd is, 522, who endeavored to render his 
 usurpation popular by dispensing with military service and 
 
81,82. 21.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 51 
 
 remitting the taxes for three years, was discovered in the (80) 
 seventh month of his reign, (in consequence of having lost A 
 his ears ?) and, with many other Magi, put to death by a 
 conspiracy of seven of the chief Persians. A festival, 
 termed T ^ua/oqpoVm, was instituted in commemoration of 
 this event. After a discussion among the conspirators re- 
 specting the best form of constitution, it was resolved to 
 retain the monarchy, and 
 
 4. Darius I. ascended the throne, by the contrivance; 81 
 says the legend, of his master of the horse. This king, 
 who was the son of Hystaspes, of the race of Achae- 3 
 menes, 1 married two of the daughters of Cyrus and 
 one of the real Smerdis (521 485). To him the king- 
 dom was indebted for a better organization, the whole 
 country being divided into twenty satrapies, each of which 
 had a civil governor termed a satrap, and a commander -in- 
 chief for military affairs. 
 
 These satraps, who were generally relations of the king, were Q2 
 charged with the collection of the revenue, and the promotion of 
 agriculture. They were assisted by royal secretaries (ypa^cmoTni), 
 who received the commands of the king through messengers, and 
 communicated them to the satraps. These messengers performed 
 the journey very rapidly by means of stations, placed at the distance 
 of a day's journey from each other. The civil and military adminis- 
 tration of each province, as well as the cultivation of the land, were 
 inspected every year either by the king in person, or by royal com- 
 missioners, and always at the head of an army, 
 
 Financial administration. From each of the provinces, except c 
 Persis, a tribute was raised, which was paid in the precious metals, 
 generally in an uncoined state. After providing for the expenditure 
 of their own establishments (which were modelled on that of the 
 king), the support of the standing army, and the maintenance of the 
 various provincial officers, the balance was forwarded by the satraps 
 to the royal exchequer. Another source of revenue were the pre- 
 
 Cyrus, great-grandson of Achaemenes. 
 Teispes. 
 
 Cambyses with Mandane. Armnes. 
 
 Cyrus, king. Arsamis. 
 
 I 
 
 Cambyses, Smerdis, Atossa, Artystona. Hystaspes. 
 
 Parmys. Darius I. marries 
 
 Atossa, Artystona, and 
 Parmys. 
 
52 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [83. 21. 
 
 (82) sents made by the courtiers and satraps, c6nsisting of costly objects 
 of various descriptions. The inferior officials received their remu- 
 neration in kind, and those of a higher rank were rewarded with 
 estates. Personages of the most exalted station, such as the wives 
 and mothers of the kings, had a separate district assigned to them 
 for the supply of their wants. 
 
 The conquests of the Persians having reached the 
 ocean southwards, and been arrested on the north by the 
 resistance of the inhabitants of the Steppes, Darius under, 
 took the extension of his empire in a westerly and easterly 
 direction. 
 
 Liberation of Samos. Syloson of Samos, who had presented a 
 purple mantle to Darius when he was at Memphis, obtained from him 
 in return the power of delivering his native city from a tyrant (the 
 secretary of the murdered Polycrates, the brother of Syloson). 
 
 83 Reduction of the revolted province of Babylon. After a 
 B siege of twenty months, Babylon was taken (through the 
 cunning, it is said, of Zopyrus) ; 3000 of the principal 
 Babylonians were crucified ; and Zopyrus, as a reward, 
 was invested with the satrapy of Babylon, of which he 
 received the whole revenue for the term of his life. 
 
 Expedition against the Scythians, on account of their 
 former invasion of Media. Darius, at the head of 700,000 
 men, crossed the Thracian Bosporus into Europe, sub- 
 dued the Getae and Thracians, and passed the Ister, leaving 
 behind him the lonians to guard the bridge which he had 
 c built over that river. The Scythians retreated before him, 
 laying waste the land as they went, so that Darius was 
 compelled by want of provisions to return without accom- 
 plishing his purpose. Meanwhile the Scythians, supported 
 by Miltiades (the Athenian), had been tampering with the 
 lonians who were left in charge of the bridge, which was only 
 saved from destruction by the strenuous remonstrances of 
 Histiaeus of Miletus. On the march back, Megabazus, the 
 Persian general, subdued the Thracian sea-coast, and re- 
 ceived from Amyntas, king of Macedonia, earth and water 
 in token of submission. (The Paeonians were transplanted 
 from Thrace into Phrygia.) 
 
 D Expedition to India. Darius, having previously dis- 
 patched Scylax (of Caryandes) on a voyage of discovery 
 down the Indus, entered that country in person and sub- 
 dued a part of it. 
 
 An expedition into Libya, undertaken by the Persian viceroy of 
 
84,85. 21.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 53 
 
 Egypt, ended in the capture of the city of Barca and the removal of A 
 its inhabitants to Bactria. 
 
 THE WARS WITH GREECE, 500 449. 84 
 
 Insurrection of the lonians, 500 494. Histineus, tyrant 
 of Miletus, who had been rewarded with a grant of land in 
 Thrace, for his good service in preserving the bridge, had no 
 sooner laid the foundations of a city in that quarter, than he 
 became an object of suspicion to the king, and was recalled 
 to Susa, his son-in-law Aristagoras being nominated tyrant 
 of Miletus in his room. The failure of an attempt on Naxos 
 having rendered the security of this appointment preca- 
 rious, Aristagdras, in conjunction with Histiseus, persuaded 
 the lonians to rise against the Persian government, and 
 visited Greece in person, for the purpose of soliciting co- 
 operation, but could only obtain a small subsidy of ships 
 from Athens and Eretria. Sardes, it is true, fell without B 
 striking a blow, and was utterly destroyed by fire ; but the 
 lonians were overthrown by a Persian land force, and 
 being abandoned by the Greeks, were gradually reduced 
 (after the conquest of their fleet off the island of Lade, 
 opposite Miletus), and the inhabitants of Miletus trans- 
 planted to the interior of Asia. Aristagoras was slain in 
 Thrace. The participation of the European Greeks in 
 this insurrection of the lonians, hastened the commence- 
 ment of the Persian wars, which were soon afterwards un- 
 dertaken for the conquest of Greece. 
 
 The first expedition against Greece (in 492) was con- 85 
 ducted by Mardonius, satrap of Asia Minor, who subdued c 
 the Macedonians ; but his fleet, after taking Thasos, having 
 been wrecked off Mount Athos, and his land forces cut to 
 pieces in Thrace, he was compelled to return. Darius, 
 acting under the influence of the exiled Athenian Hippias, 
 and the Spartan king Demaratus, having ineffectually 
 called on the Grecian cities to acknowledge his authority, 
 a second expedition was undertaken in 490, under the com- 
 mand of Datis and Artaphernes. These generals sailed to 
 Euboea with an enormous fleet, took Eretria by treachery, 
 and having crossed the channel into Attica by the advice 
 of Hippias, drew up their forces, which amounted to 
 100,000 men, on the plain of Marathon, where they 
 were completely defeated by a little army of 9000 Athe- 
 nians and 1000 Platseans (29th of September), under the 
 
54 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [86,87. 21. 
 
 (85) command of Miltiades, and after an unsuccessful attempt 
 A on Athens returned to Asia. Darius died in the midst of 
 preparations for a fresh expedition, which had been inter- 
 rupted by an insurrection of the Egyptians. 
 
 5. He was succeeded by XERXES!. (485 465), his son 
 by his second wife, Atossa, one of the daughters of Cyrus. 
 Having reduced Egypt to submission, the new king collected 
 the forces of his immense empire for a third expedition against 
 Greece. A land army of 1,700,000 men was assembled 
 at Critala, in Cappadocia, and a fleet of 1207 ships of 
 Phoenicia and Asia Minor, collected in the Ionian harbors 
 of Cyme and Phocaea. 
 
 B A canal dug through the isthmus of Mount Athos (?) the bridges 
 over the Hellespont destroyed by a storm the sea scourged two 
 new bridges constructed Sardes revolts first review of the troops 
 at Abydos on the Hellespont the bridges crossed by the army in 
 seven days and seven nights second review, and numbering of the 
 army at Doriscus in Thrace. Thirlwall, chs. 15, 16. Grote, cha. 38 
 to 42, inclusive. 
 
 86 The land army continued its march through Thrace, 
 Macedonia, and Thessaly, until it reached the pass of 
 Thermopylae, where Leonidas, king of Sparta, with 300 
 Spartans and 4900 other Greeks, courageously withstood 
 the millions of Xerxes, but, being betrayed by Ephialtes, was 
 slain, with all his Spartans and 700 Thespians, who had 
 
 c voluntarily remained with him. The Persian army then 
 advanced without opposition into Attica, and burnt Athens. 
 Meanwhile their naval commanders, after an indecisive en- 
 gagement off the promontory of Artemisium with the 
 Greek fleet, under the command of Eurybiades, had dis- 
 patched a fleet of 200 sail round Euboea into the Eurlpus, 
 for the purpose of inclosing the Greeks ; but the ships of 
 
 D this detachment were scattered by a storm. A second in- 
 decisive engagement then took place off Artemisium on 
 the same day as the battle of Thermopylae ; after which 
 the Greek fleet retired to S a 1 a m i s. Here, by a stratagem 
 of Themistocles, the Greeks were forced into an engage- 
 ment, which ended in the total defeat of the Persians 
 (23d of September, 480) and their return to Persia. 
 Xerxes hastily recrossed the Hellespont (induced by a fresh 
 stratagem of Themistocles), leaving Mardonius in Thessa- 
 ly with an army of 300,000 men. 
 
 87 Campaign of Mardonius in 479. After fruitless nego- 
 
88,89. 21.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 55 
 
 tiations with the Athenians (through Alexander of Mace- (87) 
 donia), Mardonius advanced into Attica and took Athens, A 
 which had been abandoned by the inhabitants ; but, on 
 the approach of the Lacedaemonians, he retreated into 
 Boeotia, where he was slain in an engagement at Platseae 
 (25th of September, 479), in which the army of the Per- 
 sians was utterly routed by the Athenians under Aristides, 
 and the Lacedaemonians under Pausanias. The Persian 
 camp fell into the hands of the allies. 
 
 On the same day the Persians were defeated at M y c al e, B 
 in Asia Minor (where they had formed a bulwark of their 
 ships hauled up on the land), by the Spartan king, Leoty- 
 chides, and the Athenian, Xanthippus. Their camp and fleet 
 were utterly destroyed, and thus Ionia was delivered from 
 her oppressors. After this victory the Greeks commenced 
 a war of aggression against the Persians. Pausanias and 
 Aristides subdued the greater part of the island of Cyprus 
 and Byzantium ; Cimon expelled the Persians from Thrace, 
 Caria, and Lycia, and defeated both their fleet and army 
 on the river Eurymedon, in Pamphylia 1 (469). 
 
 Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the captain of hisc 
 body-guard, together with his eldest son, Darius. The 
 crown, in consequence, descended to his second son. 
 
 6. ARTAXERXES I. (//ax^o/f^ [Longimanus] also Ar- 
 taxerxes), 465424. 
 
 War with the Egyptians and Greeks. Second revolt of 88 
 the Egyptians under the Libyan prince Inarus, who beat the 
 Persian army with the aid of the Athenians, but, being soon 
 afterwards conquered by Megabyzus (son of Zopyrus), 
 Inarus capitulated, together with the Greeks, who were 
 blockaded by the enemy in Prosopitis, an island of the 
 Nile. One prince alone, Amyrtoeus, still maintained his 
 position in the marshes at the mouth of the Nile. The D 
 war was prosecuted by the Greeks under the command of 
 Cimon, whose fleet and army were victorious (after his 
 death) at Salamis in Cyprus (B. c. 449). 
 
 First revolt of the satraps. Artaxerxes having put to 89 
 death Inarus and the Greek prisoners, for whose safety 
 Megabyzus had pledged his word, the satrap threw off his 
 
 1 The pretended peace of Cimon (placed by some in 469, by others 
 449), but which, if real, Thuc. i. 112, must have mentioned, has been 
 fully discussed by Dahlmann, Kruger [and Thirlwall, iii. p. 37]. 
 Grote, ch. 45, shows that a convention was actually made, and ac- 
 counts on good grounds for the silence of Thucydides. 
 4 
 
56 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [90. 21. 
 
 (89) allegiance, conquered the royal forces, and prescribed his 
 A own terms to the king. From this period there were fre- 
 quent revolts of the satraps, occasioned by the over- 
 weening power of the governors of provinces, who not 
 only united in their own persons the civil and military 
 authority, but were sometimes lords of several satrapies. 
 Their rebellious projects were also favored by the foreign 
 wars. Hence arose new independent kingdoms (Cappa- 
 docia, Pontus). The employment at the same time of 
 mercenary troops, chiefly Greeks, hastened the de- 
 generation of the once-warlike Persians into luxurious and 
 B effeminate cowards. Artaxerxes, who during the whole 
 of his life had been the slave of his mistresses, was suc- 
 ceeded by his only legitimate son, 
 
 7. XERXES II., who was murdered, after a reign of forty- 
 five days, by his illegitimate brother, 
 
 8. SOGDIANUS. This king, after reigning six months, was 
 also assassinated by another illegitimate brother, who as- 
 cended the throne under the name of 
 
 c 9. DARIUS II. NOTHUS (424 405). ' During his 
 reign there were repeated revolts of the satraps, in conse- 
 quence of the king's subserviency to his wife Parysatis. 
 The Egyptians, also, under Amyrtseus, for the third time 
 renounced their allegiance, and retained their independence 
 under kings of their own for a period of sixty- four years. 
 
 10. ARTAXERXES II. MNEMOX (405362). 
 90 War with his brother Cyrus. His younger brother, 
 Cyrus, the favorite of his mother, and satrap of the whole 
 of Asia, endeavored to establish his right to the succes- 
 sion, as being the first-born son of his father after he had 
 ascended the throne ; and for this purpose assembled in 
 Asia a large body of mercenary troops, under pretence of 
 leading them against the Pisidians, who were still unsub- 
 
 D dued. Being supported by the Spartans, to whom he had 
 furnished subsidies of money during the Peloponnesian 
 war, Cyrus advanced without opposition as far as the 
 Euphrates, where Artaxerxes, who had received seasonable 
 information from Tissaphernes, the deputy-governor of 
 Ionia, met his brother with an army of nearly a million 
 soldiers (?). Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa in 401 ; 
 
 1 According to Clinton (Fast. Hell.), Artaxerxes II. probably 
 ascended the throne in Dec. 405. 
 
91,92. 21.] ASIA. THE PERSIANS. 57 
 
 and the Greek auxiliaries, who had successfully resisted (90) 
 the enemy, and still numbered 10,000 men, retreated in A 
 good order under the command of Xendphon, and, after 
 encountering indescribable hardships, at last reached Asia 
 Minor in safety. 
 
 War with Sparta. Tissaphernes, who had been re- 91 
 warded for his fidelity with the province formerly governed 
 by Cyrus, having punished the Jonians for their share in 
 the rebellion, the Spartans prepared to support them. Con- 
 siderable progress was made in the liberation of the Asiatic 
 Greeks by the Spartan general, Dercyllidas, and particu- 
 larly by their king, Age si la us; but their plans were 
 frustrated by the satrap Tithraustes (successor of Tissa- 
 phernes, who had been murdered at the instigation of 
 Parysatis). This crafty politician contrived, by bribing B 
 the democratical party in Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, to 
 establish in those cities a league (which was afterwards 
 joined by Athens), for the express purpose of resisting the 
 Spartan Hegemony, and thus to transfer the war from Asiato 
 Greece (see 67 3) . The Spartan general, Lysander, 
 having fallen in an engagement with the allies at Haliartus, 
 Agesilaus was recalled from Asia to take the command in 
 this Corinthian war. In the year 394, the Persians, under 
 the command of Con on, an Athenian refugee, having 
 annihilated the Spartan fleet off Cn id us, in Caria, the 
 Greeks of Asia Minor again gradually lost their inde- 
 pendence, and in the peace of Antalcidas (387), were 
 abandoned, with Cyprus, to the dominion of the Persians. 
 
 An attempt to reconquer Egypt miscarried through the disunion c 
 of the commanders, Iphicrates and Pharnabazus. A general rebel- 
 lion of the satraps of Asia was betrayed by one of their body, and 
 crushed. Artaxerxes had nominated as his successor his eldest son, 
 Darius ; but this prince having been put to death for conspiring 
 against his father, the king appointed Ocnus, who soon poisoned his 
 benefactor, and ascended the Persian throne, under the name of 
 
 11. ARTAXERXES III. (362 338). 
 
 War with the Phoenicians and Egyptians. The Phoe- 92 
 nicians having expelled the Persians from their cities and 
 formed an alliance with the Egyptians, Artaxerxes took 
 Sidon (through the treachery of their own king, Tennes), 
 the inhabitants having previously set fire to the city. The 
 rest of Phoenicia submitted voluntarily to his authority. 
 Artaxerxes, then, with the assistance of his Greek auxi- 
 
58 ASIA. THE PERSIANS. [93, 94. 22. 
 
 (92) liaries, overthrew the Egyptians at Pelusium, and com- 
 A pelled the country, after sixty-four years of independence, 
 again to submit to the authority of Persia. Their king, 
 Nectanebus, fled to Ethiopia. 
 
 Artaxerxes, whose cruelty had rendered him universally 
 odious, was poisoned by the Egyptian Bagoas (by whom 
 he was entirely governed), together with all his sons, ex- 
 cept the youngest. 
 
 12. ARSES (338 336), who was placed on the throne 
 by Bagoas, and murdered by him at the end of two years. 
 A great-grandson of Darius Nothus, 
 
 B 13. DARIUS HI.CoDOMANNUs(336 330), was then made 
 king, and Bagoas, who had intended to put him to death, 
 was compelled himself to drink the poison which he had 
 prepared for his master. The new monarch was unable to 
 avert the ruin of the Persian empire, which, since tne 
 Greek wars, had been gradually falling into decay. He 
 was vanquished by Alexander the Great in three battles 
 on the Granlcus, 334; at Issus, 333 ; and at Guagamela in 
 331 ; and at last taken prisoner by his own satraps, and 
 murdered by Bessus in 330 (see 76). 
 
 CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 1. The ex- 
 haustion occasioned by the expenditure of men and money in the 
 expeditions against Europe. 2. The introduction of mercenary 
 troops, and the consequent frequency of wars and degeneracy of the 
 Persians. 3. The insurrections of the satraps, whose power had 
 become enormous since the reign of Artaxerxes I. 4. To cor- 
 ruption of court morals, produced by the influence of women and 
 eunuchs. 
 
 22. Religion, fyc. of the Persians. 
 
 93 1 . The RELIGION of the Persians was a worship of nature, 
 c according in all essential particulars with the doctrine of 
 
 Zoroaster. They adored the sky as the supreme god- 
 head ; together with the sun and moon, some of the planets 
 (particularly Venus, under the name of Mitra), the earth, 
 fire, water, the winds, &c. Like the Medes, they offered 
 up their prayers, not in temples, but in the open air. The 
 priestly caste of the Magi, after the conquest of Media, 
 transferred itself, with all its influence, to the Persian court. 
 
 94 2. The CONSTITUTION was also borrowed from the Medes, 
 and, like all other eastern governments, was despotic. The 
 " Great King," whose power was circumscribed only by 
 the laws of Zoroaster and a court ceremonial invented by 
 
95, 96. 22.] ASIA. THE PHOENICIANS. 59 
 
 the Magi, was considered sole proprietor both of the land (94) 
 and people, and was entitled to receive tribute (called A 
 " a present " until the reign of Darius Hystaspes) from the 
 conquered provinces. In his palaces (nvlai) at Susa, 
 Babylon, and Ecbatana, which were occupied alternately 
 according to the season of the year, the king was sur- 
 rounded not only by officers of the court (the king's * eyes ' 
 and * ears '), through whom all communications were con- 
 veyed to him, but also by a numerous army, consisting 
 chiefly of cavalry. In addition to the power of the Magi, 
 the ladies of the seraglio, and the eunuchs by whom it was 
 guarded, exercised an influence not only over the adminis- 
 tration of public affairs, but even over the succession to 
 the throne. 
 
 To secure the possession of conquered countries 1 . Standing B 
 armies were left, which were entirely supported by the inhabitants ; 
 2, the people were transplanted into other countries ; 3, warlike 
 nations were compelled to become luxurious and effeminate, as in 
 the case of the Lydians, who were thus treated by Cyrus at the in- 
 stigation of Croasus. The constitution in the conquered cities was 
 suffered to remain unchanged ; their dependence on Persia being 
 recognized in the performance of particular services as vassals 
 viz., the payment of tributes in gold and silver for the use of the 
 court and the satraps, the support of the standing army, contingents 
 in time of war, and certain presents. 
 
 For the division and organization of the empire by c 
 Darius I., see 21. 
 
 3. Of SCIENCE we find scarcely any trace among the 95 
 Persians, their whole literature being confined to the 
 writings of Zoroaster, in the Zend language borrowed 
 from the Medes and a few works, on the subject of his 
 religion, in the Pehlevi language. On the other hand, the 
 ruins of the royal palace at Persepolis display considerable 
 remains of architecture, exceedingly perfect, as regards the 
 mechanical part, and of sculpture, which seems, however, 
 to have confined itself to works in relievo. Both are dis- 
 inguished by great simplicity. 
 
 VII. THE PHOENICIANS. 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Native. In the larger cities were 96 
 archives, containing annals and notices respecting the most im- D 
 portant events, from which Sanchoniathon, about the year 1250 (?), 
 compiled a Pho3nician and Egyptian history in nine books, written in 
 the PhcEnician language, which was afterwards translated into Greek 
 by Philo of Byblus. (Of this work only a fragment has been pre- 
 served by Eusebius.) Hebrew the Bible, especially the prophet 
 
60 ASIA. THE PHOENICIANS. [97 99. 23,24. 
 
 A EZEKIEL. Greek Menanderof Ephesus, and D i u s, a Phoenician, 
 compiled a history of Tyre from Tyrian annals (of which fragments 
 are found in Josephus and Syncellus), Herodotus, and D iodorus. 
 [For Sanconiathon, see a Dissertation of Goguet, Origin of Laws, 
 &c., vol. i.] Mod. Grote, ch. 18. Heeren, vol. 2. Eliot, ch. 5. 
 
 23. Geography of Phoenicia. 
 
 97 Phoenicia (so named from the nnmber of palm-trees 
 (jpolvixe^ on its coasts) consisted of a narrow strip of land 
 on the Syrian coast, between Aradu s and Tyre (twenty- 
 five miles in length and four to five in breadth), abounding 
 in harbors and full of lofty mountains ; most of which 
 are comprehended under the name of Libanon, and pro- 
 duced timber for ship-building and the construction of 
 houses. A cluster of islands, lying close to the coast, 
 were studded with towns as thickly as the continent itself. 
 
 B TOWNS from the north to the south. 1. A r ad us, on 
 an island, and opposite to it on the continent. 2. Anta- 
 radus. 3. Tripolis, consisting of three towns founded 
 by Aradus, Tyre, and Sidon. 4. Sidon, the most 
 ancient of the Phoenician cities, and the mother country of 
 ' several foreign colonies. 5. Ty r e (in the Bible Zor [ Tsor 
 or Tsur], called by Virgil also Sarra), consisting of the old 
 town built by the Sidonians on the continent, and the new 
 city founded by the inhabitants of the old, with a double 
 port. During the siege of the old town by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, many of the inhabitants took refuge here ; in con- 
 sequence of which new Tyre increased in importance, 
 whilst the old town gradually declined. After its conquest 
 by Alexander, the new town also fell into decay. 6. 
 Ptolemais, or Accon (now S. Jean d'Acre). 
 
 24. Foreign Settlements of the Phoenicians. 
 
 98 The usual motives for founding colonies are 1. To 
 c establish a secure intercourse with distant and particularly 
 
 with uncultivated countries. 2. To prevent too rapid an in- 
 crease of the poor, and thus to anticipate violent revolu- 
 tions. 3. When, during intestine disturbances, the weaker 
 party emigrates, either voluntarily or by compulsion, and 
 settles itself elsewhere. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF THE PHOENICIAN COLONIES. 
 
 99 1. On the Islands of the Mediterranean, as well on the 
 larger viz., Cyprus and Crete as the smaller viz., the 
 
100, 101. 25.] ASIA. THE PH03NICIANS. 61 
 
 Sporades and Cyclades and northwards as far as the Hel- (99) 
 lespont, especially on Thasus, for the sake of its rich gold- A 
 mines. There were also still more distant settlements on 
 the coast of Sicily, especially Panormus and Motye, and 
 afterwards Lilybseum (at a later period Greek settlements 
 were formed in these islands) ; and on Sardinia and the 
 Balearic islands, which served for a harbor of refuge on 
 the voyage from Phoenicia to Spain. 2. On the northern 
 coast of Africa Utica, Carthage, (KuQ%rfiuv) Adru- 
 metum, the Greater and Lesser Leptis, &c. 3. Spain, B 
 especially its southern coast, was a favorite locality for the 
 establishment of Phoenician colonies ; of which the most 
 remarkable were Tarsis, or Tartessus, Carteia, 
 Gadia, or Gades, the pillars of Hercules (two rocks now 
 occupied by Gibraltar and Ceuta), Malaca, and His- 
 palis. There were, however, more than 200 places in 
 Spain which claimed a Phoenician origin. 4. On the 
 western coast of' Africa, 300 cities, as it is pretended (?), all 
 founded by Tyre; on tne Fortunate (i. e. Canary) islands 
 and Madeira. 5. In the Persian gulf, on the islands 
 Tyrus, or Tylus, and A r ad us (the Bahrein islands). 
 
 In Egypt an entire quarter of Memphis was inhabited by Phceni- c 
 cian merchants. Whether the colony of Cadmus came to Thebes 
 from Phoenicia is still doubtful (compare &31, b. p. 115). 
 
 The date of these settlements can only be fixed generally. ifjQ 
 Most of them were probably founded in the palmy days 
 of the mother city, Tyre ; that is to say, during the period 
 from Hiram to Cyrus (1000550). 
 
 Their relation to the mother country. The Phoenicians, unlike 
 their descendants the Carthaginians, do not seem to have possessed 
 the art of retaining their colonies in a state of dependence. In con- 
 sequence of this defect, which was the result of their extended colo- 
 nial system, and the great distance of the colonies from the mother 
 country, their mutual relation was limited to commercial intercourse, 
 the celebration of feasts in honor of their common gods, and the 
 offering of sacrifices by ambassadors sent for that purpose from the 
 colonies to the mother city. 
 
 25. Fragments of Pfi(Knician History. 
 
 The Phoenicians belonged to that race of Shem which 101 
 spread itself over the whole of western Asia, and of which, D 
 long before the existence of historical records, individual 
 hordes had overrun Syria from the north, or Arabia from 
 
62 ASIA. THE PHOENICIANS. [102, 103. 25. 
 
 (101) the south, straggling by degrees into Canaan, (i. e. the 
 A low country in contradistinction to Aram, the highlands,) 
 where they established themselves in settled habitations. 
 From these they were expelled by the invasions of 
 Nomadic tribes, and especially by the immigration of the 
 Israelites, and obliged to take refuge in the neighboring 
 countries and islands, the inhabitants of the sea-shore alone 
 being able to maintain themselves in their fortified cities 
 and the little islands immediately adjoining their line of 
 B coast. In very ancient times, this little territory was 
 governed by one king, who resided first at Tyre, and 
 subsequently (after Hiram ?) at Sidon, but after the sepa- 
 ration of Sidon from Tyre in the time of Salmanassar each 
 city had its own king. The history -of the two more 
 powerful states or cities is very imperfect. Of the others 
 we know nothing. 
 
 102 FROM THE HISTORY OF SIDON. Sidon (named after the first- 
 born son of Canaan) is mentioned as a great city in the days of 
 Joshua, and is celebrated by Homer as the most renowned of all the 
 cities of the earth for its works of art. It was already famous for 
 its navigation and trade in amber, but notorious also for the piracy 
 
 C practised by its inhabitants. Among its earliest foreign settlements 
 were Thebes (founded by Cadmus in 1500), and Utica (about 
 1 100). About the year B c. 700, Sidon surrendered to the Assyrian 
 king, Salmanassar, (see 15,) and after the dissolution of the As- 
 syrian empire, became subject to Babylon, and was destroyed by 
 Nebuchadnezzar as a punishment for having formed an alliance with 
 Judah. Under the dominion of Persia it seems to have become 
 again prosperous, and took the lead in an insurrection against 
 Artaxerxes III., which ended in its ruin a second time ; the city, 
 which had been surrendered to the Persians through the treachery 
 of its own king, Tennes, having been set on fire by the inhabitants 
 themselves. After its restoration, it became subject to Alexander 
 the Great, and received a new king at his hands. 
 
 103 FROM THE HISTORY OF TYRE. Tyre was founded at an early 
 period by Sidon, which it soon surpassed in wealth and power. 
 Even in David's time it seems to have been the chief of the 
 Phoenician cities. Its king Hiram sent workmen and timber to 
 Solomon for the building of the Temple, and entered into a com- 
 mercial treaty with him for the purpose of sending ships to Ophir 
 (see 17, D p. 20). King Pygmalion having murdered the husband 
 of his sister Dido, the widow fled to Africa , where she founded the city 
 of Carthage (830 ?). About the year 720, Sidon, old Tyre, and other 
 cities, threw off their allegiance to Tyre, and were supported by 
 Salmanassar, who invested the city, but was compelled to raise the 
 siege at the end of five years. With equal success Tyre maintained 
 its independence against Nebuchadnezzar, who besieged the old town 
 thirteen years without effect. 
 

 104, 105. 26.] ASIA. THE PH(ENICIANS. 63 
 
 Under the Persian dominion the Phoenician cities re- 104 
 tained their own kings, and were merely required to pay A 
 tribute and furnish contingents of shipping. The kings of 
 Tyre and Sidon are mentioned as commanders-in-chief of 
 the Persian fleet at Salamis. The Phoenician cities sub- 
 mitted without resistance to Alexander the Great, with the 
 exception of Tyre, which refused to receive a Macedonian 
 garrison, and after a siege of seven months was taken and 
 almost entirely demolished. Although it was afterwards 
 rebuilt, the establishment of Alexandria prevented its ever 
 attaining its former prosperity. 
 
 26. Religion, fyc. of the Phoenicians.* 
 
 The RELIGION of the Phoenicians is a subject of unusual 105 
 importance, as relating to a people who were the most B 
 polished of all the Semitic tribes, and exercised the 
 greatest and most lasting influence on the civilization of 
 the ancient world, partly by means of their commercial 
 relations, and partly through the extensive migrations of 
 Phoenician tribes. Their religion, like that of the Shem- 
 ites in general (comp. 45, p. 35), was that of nature, ex- 
 pressed in the worship of the heavenly bodies, their gods 
 being mythical personifications of her powers visibly re- 
 presented by the planets. The Sun (Baal), as the c 
 stronger and more vigorous light, was worshipped as the 
 symbol of the male power of nature, whilst the Moon 
 (Astarte), as the milder and feebler luminary, represented 
 the female. The various effects of the sun's rays were 
 also worshipped as divine beings, both the beneficial (as 
 Jao, the vivifying power of nature), and the injurious, 
 (personified in Typhon,) and his different phases at the 
 various seasons of the year, and different parts of the day, 
 suggested the idea of separate deities (e. g. the sun in 
 spring was worshipped as Adonis), and, lastly, the planets 
 (Venus, Mars, and Mercury), as deriving light and power 
 from the sun, were considered emanations of his godhead. 
 They believed, moreover, that the supreme Being acts in D 
 the world, not immediately, but by the intervention of a 
 Mediator, who is like himself, and regarded as his son, 
 because he is the visible manifestation of his essence. 
 
 1 ' The Phcsnicians' (die Phonizier), by F. C. Movers, 1841, vol. i. 
 3* 
 
64 ASIA. THE PHOENICIANS. [106, 107. 26. 
 
 A This manifestation of Baal was the Tynan Hercules, who 
 in this character is partly a conservative principle (Chon 
 or Saturn), partly a destructive one (Moloch). 
 
 106 2. INVENTIONS. Necessity led the Phoenicians to in- 
 vent ship-building, the alphabet, arithmetic, and, perhaps, 
 also the coinage of money ; but the discovery of their 
 purple dye and the manufacture of glass seem to have 
 been the result of accident. 
 
 107 3. COMMERCE. 
 
 B Maritime trade. To this they were driven by the posi- 
 tion of their country, and the barrenness of its soil, as 
 well as by the accumulation of articles of merchandise 
 brought by caravans from the interior of Asia. The chief 
 goals of their maritime enterprise were their own colonies, 
 especially the south of Spain, from which they imported 
 gold, silver, lead, and iron, wine, oil, wax, wool, fruits, 
 and salt fish. From Spain they visited the " tin islands," 
 (Cassiterides), the amber coas^?), 1 and the western coast 
 
 c of Africa ; but these voyages were kept secret. From the 
 Persian gulf they sailed to India, and from the Arabian, 
 in company with the Israelites, to Ophir. Necho, king of 
 Egypt, is said to have prevailed on them to circumnavi- 
 gate Africa. 
 
 There was never any very considerable commercial intercourse 
 between the Greeks and Phoenicians, partly on account of their 
 mutual jealousy, and partly because the Greeks could obtain most 
 articles of Phoenician produce in their, own colonies in Asia Minor ; 
 partly also on account of the political relations of the Greeks to the 
 Phoenicians, as subjects of the king of Persia. Frankincense, spices, 
 and Tyrian cloths, seem to have been the only articles imported from 
 Phoenicia by the Greeks. 
 
 j> LAND-TRAFFIC. aa. Southward to Arabia, from which the 
 Nomadic people of that country, the Edomites and Moabites, 
 brought to Phoenicia the productions of their own land (frankincense, 
 which was obtained, not in Arabia, but from the opposite peninsula 
 of Zuila, gold, and precious stones), aa well as those of India and 
 Ethiopia (cinnamon, ivory, and ebony), and to Egypt, whence they 
 themselves imported cotton and embroidered stuffs in exchange for 
 wine. 
 
 bb. Westward to Palestine, whence they imported corn, wine, oil, 
 and balsam ; to Syria (wine from Chalybon, and wool), and to Bnby- 
 
 ' C. 0. Mttller (die Etrusker, 287), proves that it does not follow 
 from the early acquaintance of the Phoenicians with amber, that they 
 visited the coasts of Prussia, by establishing the fact, that this pro- 
 duction was conveyed through Germany, and thence to Greece, by 
 means of the Etruscans in Upper Italy. 
 
108 112. 27.] ASIA MINOR. 65 
 
 Ion, on the great commercial road across the Syrian desert by A 
 Palmyra. 
 
 cc. Northward to Armenia (importations, horses and mules), and 
 to the Caucasian countries, (importations, slaves and copper). The 
 trade of Phoenicia was carried on principally by means of barter. 
 
 4. ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. The most celebrated were 108 
 their dyes. The Tyrian purple(a term used to express 
 not a single color, but generally those produced by the 
 liquor of the sea-muscle, especially the scarlet and violet), 
 was among the chief articles of luxury purchased by the 
 great. Stuff's (Sidonian garments are mentioned by Homer) 
 in Sidon and especially in Tyre. Glass, the manufacture B 
 of which was discovered by the Phoenicians, and for a long 
 time confined to them. Objects of luxury, in gold, amber, 
 and ivory. 
 
 VII. THE STATES OF ASIA MINOR. 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Our notices of the history of these states 109 
 are meagre and scattered. Most of them are found in Herodotus 
 and Strabo, and (for the history of Troas) in Homer and Virgil. 
 Xanthus ofSardes wrote a history of Lydia, in four books, of 
 which only a fragment is extant. Cramer, Geog. and Hist, descrip- 
 tion of Asia Minor. Grote, chs. 16, 17. l 
 
 27. Geography of Asia Minor. 
 
 NAME. The peninsula (formed by the Black, JiJgean, 110 
 and Mediterranean seas), which we name Asia Minor, 
 had no general appellation among either the Greeks or 
 Romans ; the term " Asia Propria," as well as that of ' 
 " Asia Minor," which is first found in Orosius (in the 
 fifth century), being employed to indicate only the west- 
 ern half, 
 
 SOIL. The interior of the peninsula forms a westerly 111 
 continuation of the Armenian highlands, separated from c 
 the coast on the north by the Taurus, and on the south by 
 the Anti-Taurus, and broken towards the west into chains 
 of lower mountains, such as the Tmolus, Sipylus, Ida, 
 and Olympus. The highest peak is the Argseus on the 
 upper Halys, the point from which the rivers run in dif- 
 ferent directions into the Black and Mediterranean seas 
 and the Euphrates. 
 
 RIVERS. a. Flowing into the Pontus Euxlnus the 112 
 Halys (now Kisil-Irmak) ; b. into the Propontis the 
 Gran ic us (battle in 334) ; c. into the JEgean sea the 
 
 1 Fellowe's Lycia and Journals of excursions in Asia Minor will 
 well repay a careful perusal. 
 
66 ASIA MINOR. [113116. 27. 
 
 A H e r m u s with the golden P a c 1 6 1 u s, the Maeander ; d. into 
 Hie Mediterranean the Eurymedon (battle in 469), and 
 the Cydnus. 
 
 113 DIVISIONS AND CITIES. 
 
 A. On the northern coast. 1. PONTUS with Trapezus 
 (now Trebizond), and Amisus, the residence of Mithri- 
 dates. 
 
 2. PAPHLAGONIA, with Sin6pe on the Euxine (the 
 birthplace of the Cynic Diogenes). 
 
 B 3. BITHYNIA, with the cities ofChalcedonon the Bos- 
 porus, opposite Byzantium, Nicomedia on the Propontis 
 (death of Hannibal), Nicaea in the interior (first council 
 in 325). 
 
 114 B. On the western coast. 1. MYSIA, divided into, a. 
 Lesser Mysia, the northeastern part, wi.h the cities of 
 Cyzlcus, on the isthmus of the promontory known by the 
 same name ; Lampsacus and Abydus (or os) on the Helles- 
 
 c pont (battle in 410). b. Greater Mysia comprehending aa. 
 Troas or the Trojan kingdom (from Abydus to the pro- 
 montory of Lectum), the capital of which, Ilium (77 'rtiog 
 and 10 "rtiov), afterwards called Troja, with its citadel 
 Pergama, stood on a hill between the rivers Si mo is and 
 Scamander. (In the place of the Ilium of Homer, which 
 was destroyed, the Mysians and Phrygians founded a 
 second Ilium, and after the death of Alexander a third 
 city of the same name was built nearer the coast.) bb. 
 The district of DAKDANIA, or kingdom of ^Eneas, situated 
 north of Troas, with its city, Dardania (to be distinguished 
 from the ^Eolian colony of Dardania, where Sulla con- 
 
 D eluded a peace with Mithridates). cc. The territory of 
 Pergamum, at a later period the capital of a distinct king- 
 dom, dd. The twelve ^Eolian cities (reduced to eleven 
 after the secession of Smyrna). See 57, 1. 
 
 115 2. LYDIA, originally Maeonia, with Sardes (al 2uQdn?) 
 on the PactOlus, the capital of the kingdom of Lydia, 
 afterwards the residence of the Persian satraps, and Mag- 
 nesia on the Sipylus (defeat of Antiochus in 190), with 
 the Ionian towns. See 57, 2. 
 
 3. CARIA, with several promontories, among which 
 M y c a 1 e is famous for the defeat of the Persians in 479. 
 
 116 C. On the southern coast. 1. LYCIA (with Patara and 
 Xanthus, renowned for the oracle of Apollo Patareus). 
 
117120. 28.] ASIA MINOR. 67 
 
 2. PAMPHYLIA. (116) 
 
 3. CILICIA, divided into western or mountainous (ryot- A 
 Xfia, aspera), and eastern or champaign (ntdui?. campcstris) 
 Cilicia. In the latter were the cities of Soli (ol ^So/lot), 
 afterwards Pompeiopolis (Solcecismus), Tarsus on the 
 Cydnus (birth-place of the Apostle Paul), and Issus on 
 the Issic gulf (Alexander's victory in 333). 
 
 D. Mountain districts of the Taurus. 1. PISIDIA. 117 
 2. ISAURIA. 
 
 E. Elevated country of the interior. 1. PHRY- 118 
 GIA, at various times a district of considerable extent, B 
 divided into the Greater Phrygia, to which Lycaonia 
 
 and Gal atia originally belonged, and Lesser Phrygia 
 or Phrygia on the Hellespont. City, Ipsus (battle in 301). 
 
 2. GALATIA or GALLOGR^CIA formerly a part of Phrygia, 
 occupied since the third century by the Gauls, and divided 
 into twelve tetrarchies. City, Go rd i u m (the Gordian knot). 
 
 3. LYCAONIA, with the city of Iconium. 
 
 4. CAPPADOCIA, which in the time of the Persian empire c 
 comprehended also Pontus, was divided into two satrapies, 
 the Greater Cappadocia (which afterwards alone retained 
 the name of Cappadocia), and Cappadocia on the Pontus, 
 which at a later period was known simply by the name of 
 Pontus. 
 
 F. The islands. See 52. D. ii. c. 
 
 28. History of the Kingdom of Lydia. 
 
 The original inhabitants of Lydia, the M&onians (pro- 119 
 bably Pelasgians), were subdued by the Lydians y a Carian 
 race, who invaded the country at a later period. The 
 history of the Lydians is divided, according to the three 
 consecutive dynasties of the ATYDJE, HERACLIDJE (1200 
 700 ?) and MERMNAD^E (700 546), into three periods, 
 the two first of which are entirely fabulous. The fourth D 
 of the Mermnadse, CRCESUS (560 546), subdued the 
 whole of Asia from the ^Egean sea to the Halys (with the 
 exception of Lycia and Cilicia according to Herodotus), 
 but having crossed the river and invaded the Persian 
 dominions, he was conquered and deprived of his kingdom 
 in 546. See 55. 
 
 Conversation between Croesus and Solon the Athenian, 120 
 in which the latter pronounces the happiest of men to be 
 one Tellus, an Athenian, on account of his son's and his 
 
68 AFRICA. [121, 122. 28. 
 
 120) own death on the field of battle ; and next to him the 
 A brothers Cleobis and Biton, on account of their filial affec- 
 tion, and the love borne them by their mother. Croesus, 
 before his invasion of Persia, consults the oracle at Delphi, 
 and receiving a response which he deems favorable, 
 crosses the Halys, and after an indecisive battle at Pteria, 
 returns to Sardes, which is taken after a siege of fourteen 
 days, and destroyed by Cyrus, who had previously in a 
 second engagement obtained a victory for which he was 
 B chiefly indebted to his camels. Croesus, whose life had 
 been saved first through his dumb son's sudden recovery 
 of speech, and afterwards (when placed on a funeral pile 
 with fourteen Lydian youths), through his mention of the 
 name of Solon, sends his fetters to Delphi, and advises 
 Cyrus to secure the subjection of the Lydians, by com- 
 pelling them to lead a life of enervating luxury. 
 121 Of the history of the remaining states, we possess no- 
 thing beyond a few legends and detached notices. For 
 the war of the Greeks against Troy see 237. 4. (p. 118). 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 122 Africa, of which only the northern part was known to the 
 c ancients, was called by the Greeks simply Libya (stiftvr)). 
 Of all the quarters of the globe this is the most uniform, 
 both as regards its line of coast, which is scarcely diver- 
 sified at all by gulfs, isthmuses, or promontories, and its 
 interior, which presents merely an alternation of hill and 
 valley, with a narrow strip of sea-coast. Its insular form 
 separates it from the other quarters of the old world ; 
 whilst the division of the whole region by the equator into 
 two portions, differing but little in climate, and lying nearly 
 under the same parallels of north and south latitude, pro- 
 duces a sameness of phenomena in the animal and vege- 
 table kingdoms. Communication with other parts of the 
 world is rendered difficult by the want of harbors and 
 roadsteads, and by the small number and insignificant ex- 
 tent of its rivers, in most of which navigation is impeded 
 
123125. 2981.] AFRICA. 69 
 
 by cataracts. Of its two most important streams the one 
 communicates merely with an inland sea, whilst the mouth A 
 of the other has only been discovered within a few years. 
 At the same time, the vast extent of its trackless deserts, 
 and the small number of navigable rivers, present almost 
 insuperable obstacles to communication with the interior. 
 In consequence of these disadvantages, Africa, with the 
 exception of Egypt, has made very little progress in civili- 
 zation, as compared with the other quarters of the globe. 
 
 A. Geographical View of Africa. 
 29. Its Boundaries. 
 
 On the west the Atlantic ocean, or outer sea ; on the 123 
 north the inner, Libyan, or North sea (Mediterranean) ; B 
 on the east Asia (of which the boundaries on that side 
 were exceedingly vague, see 5), the Arabian gulf, and 
 the Erythraean sea ; and on the south (as the Greeks sup- 
 posed) the ocean which united the Erythraean sea to the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 30. The Soil of Africa. 
 
 MOUNTAINS. The Atlas, the summit of which, enve- 124 
 loped in eternal -clouds, was regarded by the ancients as c 
 the supporter or pillar of heaven the Libyan and Arabian 
 chains, which inclosed the valley of the Nile the moun- 
 tains of the Moon Sandy deserts the sea of sand be- 
 tween the Libyan mountains, the Mediterranean, the Atlas, 
 the Ocean, and Nigritia (now called Sahara), the most 
 extensive desert in the world. In its eastern portion, 
 which is the smaller of the two, there are a few scattered 
 springs of water and oases ; but the western division con- 
 sists entirely of a mass of shifting sand, which is every 
 year extending its limits. 
 
 31. The Waters of Africa. 
 
 SEAS. On the north the Mediterranean, or North sea 125 
 (a part of which was called the Egyptian sea) ; on the D 
 east the South, or Red sea, with the Arabian gulf; on the 
 south the Ethiopian sea ; on the west the outer, or Atlantic 
 ocean, connected with the Mediterranean by the Straits 
 of Hercules (fretum Herculeum or Gaditanum). 
 
70 AFRICA. [126 128. 32, 33. 
 
 (125) LAKES. Triton is and Moeris. 
 
 A RIVERS. Flowing into the Mediterranean the Nile 
 (see 133, p. 73) ; into the interior of Africa the Niger, 
 or Nigris (Niger, Dscholiba [or, Joliba], Quorra) ; the em- 
 bouchure of which, in the Bight of Benin, was discovered 
 by Richard and John Lander in the year 1830. 
 
 32. Division of Africa. 
 
 126 The CONTINENT of Libya is divided by Herodotus, ac- 
 B cording to its physical character, into three regions. 1. 
 Habitable Libya, on the shores of the Mediterranean (from 
 Egypt to the promontory of Soloeis), inhabited partly by 
 an indigenous race (Libyans and Ethiopians), partly by 
 Greek and Phoenician settlers. 2. The Libya of wild 
 beasts, or region of Mount Atlas ; and, 3. Desert or sandy 
 Libya. The interior of Africa he designates by a general 
 name, as the country of the Ethiopians. 
 
 THE ISLANDS. Insulae Purpurariae (the northern Canary 
 islands); Insulae Fortunatae (the southern Canary islands); 
 Hesperidum Insulae (Cape de Verd islands?). 
 
 B. The States of Africa. 
 
 I. THE ETHIOPIANS. 
 
 127 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Herodotus (B. III.), Fragments of 
 c Eratosthenes B.C. 250), and Agatharchides (about 120), Diodorus 
 
 (B. III.), and Strabo. Ethiopians Modern accounts : Heeren, vol. 
 4, pp. 285 et 199. Russell, Nubia and Abyssinia, comprehending 
 their civil history, antiquities, arts, religion, literature, and natural 
 history. Edin. Cab. Cyc. For travels, v. Bruce's Abyssinia Burck- 
 hardt's Nubia, Hoskin's Ethiopia. 
 
 33. Geography of Ethiopia. 
 
 128 NAME AND EXTENT. The name of Ethiopians (in the 
 D Bible Cushites) was originally given by the Greeks to all 
 
 people of a black or swarthy complexion (al'&w and wy>), 
 but afterwards the term was applied exclusively to the 
 inhabitants of the country lying southwards of Egypt on 
 the Upper Nile (now Habesch and Nubia). 
 
 SOIL. In the south a table-land, traversed in all direc- 
 tions by chains of mountains ; further northwards, towards 
 the middle of the Nile's course, an undulating country, 
 
129, 130. 34.] AFRICA. 71 
 
 interspersed with rocks, over which the river forms (128) 
 cataracts. 
 
 RIVERS. The Astapus and Astabdrus, the union of A 
 which forms the Nile. The inundation, which renders the 
 valley of the Nile so fertile, is occasioned by the Astapus, 
 but repeated attempts to discover its sources have been 
 hitherto unsuccessful. Probably (as suggested by Ptolemy) 
 it rises in the Mountains of the Moon. The Astabdras 
 flows out of a lake (Tzana) in Abyssinia. 
 
 INHABITANTS. The Ethiopians of the state of Me roe ; 
 the Troglodytes and Ichthyophagi, both on the shores 
 of the Arabian gulf; the M a c r o b i i, on the Indian ocean ( ? ), 
 the Egyptian Warrior-caste, which emigrated in the reign of 
 Psammetichus, and, settling in the southern part of Meroe, 
 founded a city dependent on that kingdom. 
 
 34. The Stale of Meroe. 
 
 1. GEOGRAPHY. On the large island, or rather penin- 129 
 sula of Meroe, formed by the Astapus and Astaborus, B 
 stood the city of Meroe, the exact position of which can- 
 not now be ascertained. Inhabitants. Tribes of hunters, 
 herdsmen, and agriculturists, united by their common 
 worship of Ammon and commercial relations. 
 
 2. HISTORY. Meroe, which seems to have been the 130 
 founder of the most ancient Egyptian states, and, in con- 
 junction with Thebes, to have planted the little colony of 
 Ammonium in the Libyan desert, had attained considerable 
 importance as early as the year B. c. 1000, through the 
 celebrity of the oracle of Jupiter Ammon ; and its situa- 
 tion, as a central point for the caravan trade, which was 
 protected by the priests, and carried on by the surrounding 
 Nomadic tribes. Its most flourishing period was between c 
 the years 800 and 700, when Sabacus subdued Egypt. 
 From this country the worship of Ammon and Osiris, the 
 colossal style of architecture, and probably the hieroglyphic 
 characters, found their way into Egypt. The power of 
 the priests was destroyed in the third century before Christ 
 
 by king Ergamenes, who put them to death with the aid 
 of the warrior-caste, and changed the theocracy into a 
 monarchy. As early as Nero's time the kingdom had 
 ceased to exist, and the country was a desert. 
 
72 AFRICA. THE EGYPTIANS. [131, 132. 34. 
 
 131 3. RELIGION, &c. 
 
 A a. Religion. They worshipped the sun as the god Amun, 
 or Jupiter Ammon, in connection with his oracle. The 
 great similarity between the Ethiopian and Egyptian sys- 
 tems of worship is testified by their architecture. Both 
 seem (like the religion of Brahma) to have been founded 
 on astrology. 
 
 b. Constitution. The sovereignty of a priestly caste, who 
 chose a king from their own body. The power of this 
 monarch was restricted within very narrow limits by, a 
 variety of sacred laws and a rigid priestly ceremonial. 
 
 B c. Art. In Ethiopia, as well as in Nubia, we find nume- 
 rous ruins of magnificent temples, decorated with sculpture 
 and inscriptions ; the most ancient of which are either en- 
 tirely (like those of India) or partially hewn out of the 
 solid rock; whilst the more recent, the Nubian for in- 
 stance, are distinct monumental buildings, often with alleys 
 of sphinxes and colossal statues. The relievos on the 
 walls represent historical scenes, partly of a religious cha- 
 racter (such as solemn supplications, with offerings and 
 distributions of alms), partly political and warlike ; the 
 former, as the more important, being placed in the sanc- 
 tuary, the latter on the outside. There is a remarkable 
 similarity between Egyptian and Ethiopian works of art. 
 
 c d. TRADE. Meroe was the centre of the great traffic 
 between India, Arabia, Ethiopia, Egypt, Libya, and 
 Carthage. 
 
 This traffic was carried on by Arabians from India by sea to Ara- 
 bia Felix, or Yemen, across the Arabian gulf to the eastern coast of 
 Africa ; and thence by caravans of the Nomadic tribes on that side 
 (Troglodytae and Icthyophagi), 1 through Meroe, which was also the 
 emporium for the products of central Africa. Thence the merchants 
 conveyed their goods through Thebes down the Nile into Egypt, and 
 by caravans, which touched at Ammonium, and thence continued 
 their progress through the country of the Garamantes, by the greater 
 Leptis, to Carthage : thus visiting the three principal establishments 
 of the priestly caste (Meroe, Thebes, and Ammonium) ; to which 
 they were attracted partly by the prospect of greater security, and 
 partly by the concourse of persons who flocked to the national 
 sanctuaries. 
 
 II. THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 132 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Mangtho, high priest of Heliopolis, 
 compiled (about the year B. c. 260), by command of King Ptolemy II., 
 a work, entitled Ayu7rriad (in three books), from copies of the 
 
 1 Tribes mentioned by the ancients as living in caves, but of whom 
 we know little or nothing. 
 
133, 134. 35.] AFRICA. 73 
 
 hieroglyphical inscriptions preserved in the temples. Fragments of (132) 
 his work are found in Josephus, Eusebius, and iSyncellus. A 
 
 Hebrew. Principally the books of Moses. 
 
 Greek. Herodotus, in Book II. 1 His information was derived 
 from the priests at Memphis ; whose accounts, collected from pic- 
 torial records, admitting a variety of interpretation, and from the 
 ill-understood hieroglyphical inscriptions on the public monuments, 
 were of necessity imperfect and unsatisfactory. Diodorus, in B. i., 
 partly from the older Greek writers, partly from oral and written 
 communications made to him by the priests at Thebes. STRABO. 
 Heeren's 5th volume is devoted to Egypt. Grote has a valuable 
 chapter, 20 Eliot, ch. 3. For a full view, v. Wilkinson's Manners 
 and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. The great work (when 
 completed) will be Bunsen's " Egypt's Place in the World's History." 
 Hawks's " Egypt" contains an interesting v.;ew of the connection of 
 Egyptian and Biblical history. 
 
 35. Geography of Egypt. 
 
 NAME AND BOUNDARIES. Egypt, in the Bible Mizraim, 133 
 and thence still called Mesr by the Arabians, described by B 
 the ancient geographers as belonging either, partially or 
 entirely to Asia, was bounded on the north by the Mediter- 
 ranean, on the east by Arabia and the Arabian gulf, on the 
 south by Ethiopia (so that the islands of the Nile, Ele- 
 phantine, and perhaps Philae, belonged to Egypt), and on 
 the west (without any definite frontier) by Libya. In 
 ancient times, however, the name of Egypt was generally 
 understood as belonging only to the valley of the Nile ; 
 nor was it until the time of the Ptolemies that its bounda- 
 ries were extended eastward and westward. 
 
 SOIL AND CLIMATE. The valley of the Nile is inclosed 134 
 by the Libyan and Arabian mountain chains ; both of c 
 which are pierced with a number of valleys crossing them 
 obliquely, and leading on the one side to the Red sea, and 
 on the other to the greater and smaller oases of the Libyan 
 desert. The western chain forms a monotonous barren 
 dam, by which the valley of the Nile is protected from the 
 sand-waves of the Libyan desert ; the eastern, which fills 
 the whole country as far as the Red sea, has in Upper Egypt 
 three distinct formations viz., in the south (from Phil SB 
 to Elephantine) rose-colored granite (the material of 
 which the obelisks, entire temples, and colossal statues, 
 were formed), in the centre (from Syene to Esne) sand- 
 
 1 v. Kenrick's valuable edition of this book. 
 
74 AFRICA. [135. 35. 
 
 (134) stone of various colors (material of the temples), gradually 
 
 A merging in the limestone formation of the mountains in the 
 north, or in Lower and Middle Egypt (material of the 
 pyramids). Of this region the only fertile portion is the 
 valley (from two to three miles in breadth), which is in- 
 closed between these chains, and watered by the Nile. 
 This valley becomes wider as it approaches the north, and, 
 with the Delta (excepting the sandy and marshy ground 
 on the coast), forms a tract of rich alluvial soil, which is 
 manured every year by the overflowings of the Nile. Rain 
 is known only in the Delta. The Chamsin. Ophthalmia 
 plague. 
 135 WATERS. 
 
 B Seas. The North sea (also the Egyptian sea) ; the 
 Arabian gulf (in the Bible the sea of weeds), the north- 
 western part of which, at a later period, was called the 
 gulf of Heroopolis. 
 
 Lakes. 1. The lake Mceris (formerly forty, now only 
 twenty-five leagues in circumference, and extending even 
 within the last 200 years two leagues further southwards 
 than at present), was fed by a canal from the Nile ; to 
 which alone the remark of Herodotus applies, that the 
 lake Moeris was excavated by human hands. In the 
 middle are two pyramids. 2. The lake Mareotis, con- 
 nected with the Nile and the Mediterranean. 
 
 c Rivers. The Nile (6 JVtUo?), called by Homer A\'y\m- 
 TO? (in the Bible Jeor, Nahal Mizraim, and Sihor), is 
 formed by the confluence of the Astapus and Astaboras 
 (see 33); and, after descending in two cataracts 1 (a greater 
 in Ethiopia and a lesser on the confines of Egypt), passes 
 Syene in Egypt, and twenty miles above its mouth divides 
 itself into two principal channels, which inclose the Delta 
 (probably in ancient times a gulf), and flow into the Me- 
 diterranean. In the time of Herodotus the Nile had seven 
 mouths ; of which the easternmost was at Pelusium, and 
 
 D the most western at Canopus. Of these only two at 
 Damietta and Rosetta are now navigable. The constant 
 rains which prevail in Upper Ethiopia during the wet sea- 
 son (from May to September) cause the Nile to rise an- 
 nually (from June 1 to September), and, when the water is 
 at its full height, to inundate the whole of the valley. In 
 
 1 From end of June to end of September at the rate of about four 
 inches a day, and falls at the same rate. 
 
136138. 35.] AFRICA. 75 
 
 order to distribute this body of water (on which the fer- 
 tility of the land entirely depends) equally over the A 
 country, and, at the same time, to facilitate inland com- 
 munication, artificial lakes (Mceris) and canals were formed, 
 the latter being furnished with sluices arid hydraulic ma- 
 chines. The most extended of these canals (that of Joseph) 
 was forty miles in length, and ran parallel to the Nile. 
 Most of them were in the Delta. Two ancient canals com- 
 municate with the Red sea. 
 
 Natural Productions. The crocodile, esteemed sacred, 136 
 and after death embalmed and inclosed in a coffin by some B 
 Egyptian tribes, and eaten by others the hippopotamus, 
 or river horse the ichneumon the ibis, which devours 
 winged serpents the trochilus. Corn (even in the days 
 of Abraham and Joseph, Egypt was a place of refuge foi 
 the neighboring nations in seasons of scarcity, and sub- 
 sequently became the granary of Rome and Constantinople) 
 cotton the papyrus shrub the lotus (from which they 
 made bread). There is a deficiency of wood and metals, 
 but an abundance of stone. 
 
 Division into 1. Upper Egypt, or Thebais (from c 
 Syene to Chemmis ; 2. Central Egypt, or Hepta- 
 nomis (as far as the division of the Nile); 3. Lower 
 Egypt, or the Delta, and the lands on each side of it be- 
 longing to Egypt. Each of these districts was subdivided 
 into a number of Nomes (see 37). 
 
 CITIES. All standing on elevated ground. Herodotus, 137 
 ii. 177, calculates their number in the time of Amasis at 
 20,000. 
 
 A. In Upper Egypt. 1. PHILJE, on a little island above 138 
 the smaller cataract, visited by pilgrims on account of the D 
 grave of Osiris (only 2700 feet in circumference), the 
 richest and best preserved group of ruins in all Egypt, 
 principally remains of temples. 2. ELEPHANTINE, also on 
 an island, with some architectural remains, demolished in 
 1818. 3. SYENE, on the Nile (now Assuan), opposite 
 Elephantine, the frontier town on the side of Ethiopia ; 
 where Juvenal died in exile. 4. THEBES, or Diospolis, 
 on both sides of the Nile, capital of the Thebais, and the 
 most ancient residence of the Egyptian kings. This city, 
 called by Homer the hundred-gated (exarouTivloi, II. ix. 
 383), was richer than any other city of the earth in 
 
76 AFRICA. [139. 35. 
 
 V 138) architectural specimens, the ruins of which now fill the 
 A whole of a valley two miles in breadth. 
 
 The most remarkable monuments of antiquity in Thebes are 
 a. ABOVE GROUND, aa. On the western side, the race-course, used for 
 foot-, horse-, and chariot-races innumerable ruins of ancient tem- 
 ples and palaces in Medinet-Abou a crowd of colossal fragments 
 two colossal figures of Memnon, represented in a sitting pos- 
 ture, one of which is reported to have sent forth a musical sound at 
 sunrise gigantic remains of the sepulchre of Osymandias, 
 with an enormous granite rock, which looks at a distance like a 
 B statue of Osymandias. bb. On the eastern side : the two Obelisks, 
 in front of the temple of Luxor, one of which has been set up at 
 Paris (since 1834) the torsos of lions, with rams' heads, being the 
 remains of an avenue of 600 colossal sphinxes in the village 
 of Karnak and the temple of Karnak, with a mass of dilapidated 
 walls, broken columns, mutilated colossal statues, and overthrown 
 obelisks j 1 and between them enormous halls (one of them according 
 to Wilkinson, 170 feet by 329), the roof- plates of which are supported 
 by a forest of columns. In the largest building there are 134 of these 
 pillars, 12 of which are 66 feet high and 12 feet in diameter: in 
 front of them are the loftiest gates and porticos in the world. 
 The whole is covered with sculpture, and the interior decorated 
 with paintings in fresco, the colors of which are still exceedingly 
 brilliant. 
 
 C b. UNDERGROUND. Opposite Thebes the Libyan range of moun- 
 tains, to the extent of two leagues, and to the height of 300 feet, is 
 pierced with innumerable Catacombs, which, in number, dimen- 
 sions, and beauty, excel all the grottos of a similar description in 
 Egypt, India, and Italy. In ancient times they served as places of 
 burial for the 'dead ; and at the commencement of the middle ages 
 were occupied by the anchorites of the Thebais. They are now in- 
 habited by Troglodyte. (See 374, c.) 
 
 A separate cleft of this Libyan chain contains the sepulchres 
 of the kings of the Thebais, sunk into the rock (one of them is 
 341 feet deep), with long galleries, which gradually descend to a 
 greater depth), interrupted by innumerable halls, corridors, and 
 chambers, in which stood the sarcophagi which contained the mum- 
 mies ; the whole decorated with the most exquisite sculpture and 
 
 D painting. In one of them there was found a sarcophagus of the 
 most beautiful alabaster, only two inches thick, and consequently 
 transparent. It was covered within and without with 2000 hiero- 
 glyphic figures, varying in height from one to six inches, with others 
 of the natural size. In the catacombs, near the uncoffined mum- 
 mies, rolls of papyrus have been found, covered with hieroglyphics 
 and Egyptian characters. 
 
 139 B. In central Egypt the monuments of antiquity were 
 destroyed at a much earlier period, and more completely, 
 
 1 Here once stood the largest monolith in the world, ninety-one 
 feet in length. 
 
140142. 36.] AFRICA. 77 
 
 than in Upper Egypt. The catacombs, however, still (139) 
 point out where the demolished cities once stood. The A 
 most important of these was Memphis, on the western 
 side of the Nile, near to which stood the pyramids. See 
 374, e. 
 
 C. In Lower Egypt a. In the Delta. 1. Naucratis, 140 
 where the Greek merchants established themselves, by 
 permission of Amasis. 2. Sais, from the time of Psam- 
 metichus, the royal residence. 3. Buslris, with the chief 
 temple of Isis. b. Westward of the Delta Can op us, 
 called by Herodotus Canobas (now Aboukir), on the west- 
 ern bank of the Nile at its mouth, and at a laier period 
 Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great, with its four 
 ports ; before the largest of which lay the island Pharos, 
 with its famous lighthouse, c. Eastward of the Delta B 
 
 1. On (HJiiovTioh?), with the celebrated temple of the 
 sun. 2. P el usium (perhaps the Avaris of the Hyksos), 
 on the eastern side of the Nile, near its mouth, surrounded 
 by swamps (hence Pel usium from nr^vg)) and considered 
 the key of Egypt on the side of Asia. It was besieged 
 without success by Sennacherib. Defeat of Psammenitus, 
 and subsequently of Nectanebus. 
 
 D. On the shores of the Arabian gulf arose, at a later 141 
 period, the cities of Heroopolis (on the canal of Ptolemy), 
 Arsinoe, Myoshormos, and Berenice; 
 
 36. HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 1. Fabulous period to the reign of Sesostris, or 
 
 (about 1500 years B. c.) 
 
 The most ancient states (Nomes) of Egypt, that is to 142 
 say those of Upper Egypt, were settlements founded by c 
 the priestly caste of Meroe (comp. 34), whose rallying 
 point was the temple with its privileged priesthood. The 
 more powerful states soon began to exercise authority over 
 the weaker. The most ancient and mightiest was Thebes. 
 During the period anterior to Sesostris, the throne, accord- 
 ing to Manetho, was occupied by eighteen dynasties. 
 
 The first king is generally supposed to have been Menes, to whom 
 the building of Memphis (a Theban colony) is ascribed. According 
 to Herodotus he was followed by 330 sovereigns (answering to the 
 eighteen dynasties of Manetho), of whom the priests knew only the 
 names, no memorials of their deeds being extant. Among th 
 
78 AFRICA. [143, 144. 36. 
 
 (142) successors of Menes, Diodorus mentions Buslris as the builder of 
 A Thebes and Osimandyas, on account of his sumptuous monument 
 with its library. As early as the year 2000, Abraham found a king- 
 dom established in Upper Egypt. The Pharaoh at whose court 
 Joseph lived, resided probably at Memphis. 
 
 143 The most important event of the first period was the in- 
 vasion of the H y k sos 1 (name of their leaders ?), a Nomadic 
 tribe from Arabia, who fortified Avaris, Avaqig : (Pelusi- 
 um ?) and spread themselves over lower and central Egypt, 
 ravaging the country, and destroying every vestige of civil- 
 ization. This accounts for the blank in the early history of 
 
 B Egypt. These invaders destroyed the power of the priest- 
 hood, but were themselves, after a lapse of many centuries(?) 
 expelled by the Egyptians under the command of Thut- 
 mossis, king of Thebes. The religion, which had been 
 suppressed by the Hyksos, was then re-established, and 
 the great temple erected (under the auspices of Amenophis 
 II., called by the Greeks Memnon, whose statue used to 
 send forth musical sounds at sunrise). 
 
 According to Herodotus, the last of these kings was Moeris, to 
 whom the historian ascribes the excavation of the lake Moeris and 
 the building of its two pyramids. Exodus of the Israelites, establish- 
 ment of colonies by Cecrops in Attica, and Danaus in Argos. 
 
 2. FROM SESOSTRIS TO THE AUTOCRACY OF 
 PSAMMETICHUS. 
 (B. c. 1500656.) 
 
 144 The mighty conquests ascribed by tradition (following, 
 c perhaps, some Egyptian heroic poem) to Sesostris (on 
 
 the monuments, Ramases : in Diodorus, Sesoosis) are 
 limited by Herodotus to an expedition on the Arabian 
 gulf for the subjugation of the nations on the Erythraean 
 sea, and a campaign (through Syria and Asia Minor, 
 where the historian himself saw memorials of his exploits) 
 against the Scythians and Thracians ; but with the increase 
 of geographical knowledge, the range of his reputation 
 became so extended, that Diodorus speaks of all the 
 nations of Asia, to the very shores of the Pacific, as being 
 his tributaries. Herodotus also mentions him as the only 
 Egyptian king, who ever ruled over Ethiopia. He 
 divided the country into thirty-six Nomes(comp. 37. 2), 
 
 1 [Supposed to be the Israelites by Josephus and many modern 
 writer*. See Browne's Ordo Saclorum, p. 578.] 
 
145 140. 36.] AFRICA. 79 
 
 each under a governor (Nomarch), distributed in equal (144) 
 proportions the land capable of cultivation, allowed A 
 architects from the conquered nations to build temples to 
 the principal divinities in all the cities of Egypt, erected 
 obelisks, intersected Lower Egypt with canals, and built 
 u wall 1500 stadia in length from Pelusium to Heliopolis, 
 to protect the country from invasion on the side of Syria 
 and Arabia. Under his successors, who probably resided 
 at Memphis, the territory acquired by conquest in Asia 
 and Europe was soon lost, the authority of the later 
 Pharaohs extending only over Nubia (as far as Meroe), 
 and over Libya. 
 
 RHAMPSINITUS (about 1200), story of the robbery of his treasury. 145 
 
 CHEOPS closed the temples and prohibited the offering of sacrifices, B 
 that he might exact the full amount of compulsory labor from the 
 people, for the building of the pyramids (compare 37). His brother 
 acted in a similar manner. 
 
 CHEPHREN continued the building of the pyramids. 
 
 MYCERINUS reopened the temples and distinguished himself by his 
 justice. During the period from Mycerlnus to Sabaco (about 300 
 years), only two kings are mentioned by Herodotus; viz. Asychis 
 and the blind Anysis, who was driven by Sabaco into the marshes. 
 In the Bible, mention is made of an Eyptian king named Sisak, who, 
 in the year 970, made war on Rehoboam, and stormed and plundered 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 About 760, the Ethiopians under Sabaco invaded 143 
 the country, and governed Upper Egypt 1 during a period c 
 of fifty years, the dynasties of Bubastis and Tanis still 
 maintaining their authority in Lower Egypt. Soon after 
 the departure of the Ethiopians, the reins of government 
 were seized by SETHOS or Sethon, a priest of Phtha at 
 Memphis. The warrior-caste having been treated with 
 great contempt by this sovereign and robbed of their 
 estates, refused to meet the Assyrian king Sennacherib, who 
 had advanced as far as Pelusium. Noth withstanding this 
 backwardness on the part of the army, the invader was 
 compelled to raise the siege (by an army of field-mice, 
 according to the legend). After Sethos, the sovereign D 
 authority was restored to the warrior-caste, and Egypt 
 divided into twelve states, the DODECARCHY (671 656), 
 
 1 According to Manetho, Egypt was governed during these fifty 
 years by three Ethiopian kings, of whom the Bible recognizes only 
 the two last. 
 
 5 
 
80 AFRICA. [147, 148. 36. 
 
 (146) which were destroyed by a civil war after continuing 
 A fifteen years. One of these twelve princes, PSAMMETI- 
 CHUS, who reigned at Sais, and opened Lower Egypt to 
 the Greeks and Phoenicians, was banished to the marshes 
 by the other eleven, on account of his fulfilment of a pro- 
 phecy (by pouring a libation from a brazen helmet) ; but 
 with the aid of Greek and Carian mercenary troops, he 
 succeeded in expelling the eleven princes and re-establish- 
 ing the monarchy. 
 
 3. FROM THE REIGN OF PsAMMETICHUS TO THE 
 PERSIAN CONQUEST. 
 
 (B. c. 656 617.) 
 
 147 1. PSAMMETICHUS (656 617) having offended the 
 B warrior-caste by granting estates to his mercenaries, the 
 
 greater part of the former body (240,000) migrated from 
 Egypt to Ethiopia (comp. 33). From this period the 
 flower of the Egyptian army, and even the royal body- 
 guard, was composed of Greek mercenaries. At the head 
 of these troops the Egyptian kings made several attempts 
 on different parts of Asia, especially Syria and Palestine. 
 c These expeditions were commenced by Psammetichus, but 
 his progress was stopped by the obstinate resistance of the 
 Syrian frontier city of Azotus (Ashdod), which was taken 
 after a blockade of twenty-nine years, and by the advance 
 of the Scythians into Syria. Memphis still continued to 
 be the capital, but the usual residence of the sovereign 
 was Sais. Psammetichus having caused Egyptian youths 
 to be instructed in the Greek language by Greeks who 
 had settled in Europe, from them sprang the caste of the 
 interpreters. His son 
 
 148 2. NEKOS (also Necho, 617 601) continued the favor 
 D shown by his father to the foreign mercenaries, at whose 
 
 suggestion probably he began a canal intended to unite the 
 Red and Mediterranean seas, by communicating with the 
 latter by the Pelusian branch of the Nile ; but this project 
 was never completed. He also carried out the plans of 
 conquest set on foot by his father, stormed Jerusalem, and 
 advanced as far as the Euphrates, where he was over, 
 thrown by Nebuchadnezzar, near Circesium (in 604), and 
 deprived of all his conquests in Syria and Palestine. The 
 circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians (see 26). 
 
149153. 36. AFRICA. 81 
 
 3. Of his son PSAMMIS (601 595), Herodotus records 149 
 only one short expedition against Ethiopia, of which the A 
 issue, as it was related to him by the priests, was unfavor- 
 able. His son 
 
 4. APRIES (in the Bible, Hophra, 595 570) revived 150 
 Necho's plans, and marching with a land force against 
 Sidon, carried that city, and at the same time overthrew 
 the Tyrians in a naval engagement. But the anti-national 
 system of government of the Asiatic dynasties was cut 
 short in consequence of an accusation brought against 
 Apries, that he had undertaken an expedition against 
 Gyrene, for the purpose of wearing out the remnant of the 
 warrior-caste. The army, after sustaining a defeat from B 
 the Cyrenians, rose against the king, and called to the 
 throne Amasis, who had been sent to put down the 
 insurrection. Apries, with his Greek mercenaries, was 
 vanquished near Momemphis, taken prisoner, and sub- 
 sequently strangled. 
 
 5. AMASIS (570 526), who at the commencement of 151 
 his reign was lightly esteemed, as belonging neither to the 
 priestly nor warrior-caste, endeavored to propitiate the 
 priesthood by building and embellishing several temples 
 and other edifices, and established his authority on a firm 
 basis by the conquest of the island of Cyprus, as well 
 
 as by alliances with Gyrene, Polycrates the tyrant of 
 Samos, and the Greeks, to whom he granted Naucratis for 
 a settlement. His reign was the most flourishing period c 
 of Egyptian history. He died whilst Cambyses, whom 
 he had insulted, was advancing against him with an army 
 (comp. 21). His son 
 
 6. PSAMMENITUS (525) was vanquished by Cambyses, 152 
 near Pelusium, Memphis taken, and Egypt reduced to the 
 condition of a Persian province (see 21). 
 
 4. EGYPT UNDER PERSIAN RULE. 
 (B. c. 525332.) 
 
 The insults offered by Cambyses to the priesthood (still 153 
 an influential caste) and to the Egyptian religion, had D 
 excited a spirit of national hatred, which on three occa- 
 sions led the Egyptians to throw off* their allegiance to 
 Persia, a proceeding which was rendered comparatively 
 easy by the distance of the seat of government from their 
 
82 AFRICA. [154. 37. 
 
 (153) country. The first revolt was in the reign of Darius I., 
 A and suppressed by Xerxes I. The second under Arta- 
 xerxes 1., by whom they were compelled to return to 
 their allegiance, with the exception of Amyrtseus, who 
 maintained himself in the marshes at the mouth of the 
 Nile. Third revolt under Darius Nothus. Amyrtaeus 
 assumed the sovereign authority, and the Egyptians 
 remained sixty-four years (414 350) an independent 
 nation, subject to their own kings, in spite of the attempts 
 of Artaxerxes II. to reduce them. This object was at 
 length accomplished by Artaxerxes III., the last Egyptian 
 king, Nectanebus, being compelled to take refuge in 
 Ethiopia. Egypt a Macedonian province in 332. 
 
 37. Religion, #c. of the Egyptians. 
 
 154 1. RELIGION.' Objects of worship different in different 
 B Nomes. 1. Beasts, either individual animals (e. g. Apis 
 at Memphis, the he-goat at Mendes, &c.), or species, such 
 as the crocodile, hawk, cat, dog, ichneumon, hippopotamus, 
 serpent, &c., which in one Nome were accounted sacred, 
 and the killing of them forbidden on pain of death, whilst 
 in the others they were killed and eaten by the people. 
 Individual animals among the sacred beasts were attended 
 by guardians specially appointed to that duty, and after 
 death were embalmed and placed in consecrated coffins 
 amidst the lamentations of their worshippers. 2. In- 
 animate objects the Nile, Osiris (the sun ?) and Isis (the 
 c moon ?) 3. Local divinities Ammon (Zeus) at Thebes, 
 Phtha (Vulcan) at Memphis. On (the sun) at Heliopolis, 
 Neith (the goddess of fate) at Sais. The religion of the 
 priests was essentially different from that of the people, 
 embracing more exalted conceptions of the divinity, and 
 furnishing other views of the life after death. FEASTS, 
 SACRIFICES, and RELIGIOUS PRACTICES, varied according to 
 the locality and the deity worshipped ; but the belief in 
 the immortality of the soul seems to have been universal, 
 its existence however being supposed to depend on the 
 preservation of the corpse, the soul passing, after the 
 decay of its habitation, into the body of some beast. 
 Without embalming and the performance of funeral rites 
 
 1 [Mr. Brown thinks, that the hated Typhon is " the mythological 
 impersonation of Israel." Ordo S&clorum, p. 606.] 
 
155, 156. 37.] AFRICA. 83 
 
 the deceased could not be admitted into the realms of the (154) 
 blessed. His right to these honors was ascertained by A 
 an inquest consisting of forty members, by whom his 
 former life and conversation were strictly investigated. 
 There were oracles at the principal temples (of Ammon at 
 Thebes, Latona at Buto, &c.). 
 
 2. CONSTITUTION. 
 
 DIVISION OF THE COUNTRY INTO NONES. The number 155 
 and names of these Nomes are variously reported. They 
 seem originally to have been independent priestly states, 
 each settlement of the priestly caste forming a Nome of 
 its own, until the gradual amalgamation of the whole into 
 one kingdom. 
 
 DIVISION OF THE PEOPLE INTO SEVEN CASTES (ysvSCt) I 156 
 
 a. The priestly caste, which emigrated from Meroe, and B 
 spread over the whole of Egypt, had its principal stations 
 at the chief temples, viz. at Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, 
 and Sais. The priesthood and high priesthood were he- 
 reditary, the sons being compelled to remain in the same 
 temple, and attached to the service of the same god as 
 their fathers. Scientific knowledge being exclusively in 
 the hands of the priesthood, all judges, physicians, inter- 
 preters of signs, and officers of state, were taken from that 
 body, which was honored as the ruling caste. Their 
 revenue consisted of the income derived from the farming 
 out of the tax-free estates belonging to the temples. 
 They were rigid monogamists, and observed the strictest 
 cleanliness in their persons and dress. 
 
 b. The warrior-caste, hereditary, settled generally in c 
 Lower Egypt (on account of the frequent wars with Asia), 
 and paid by grants of land. No cavalry, only war chariots 
 and infantry. The emigration in the reign of Psammeti- 
 chus did not extend to the whole caste. 
 
 c. Caste of the herdsmen not Nomades, but tribes 
 settled in the mountains and swampy lands of the Delta, 
 where there was no arable land, but abundance of excel- 
 lent pasture. 
 
 d. Caste of the swineherds, an indigenous, unclean, D 
 and despised tribe, prohibited from mingling with the 
 other castes, and even excluded from the temples. Indis- 
 pensable, however, on account of the use made of swine in . 
 sacrifices and for treading in the corn. 
 
84 AFRICA. [157, 158. 37. 
 
 (156) e. Caste of tradesmen (xanyloi), comprising artists, 
 A merchants, shopkeepers, and artificers. Each of these 
 employments was probably hereditary. 
 
 f. Caste of boatmen on tlie Nile, of especial importance 
 during the inundations. 
 
 g. The caste of the interpreters, which formed the me- 
 dium of communication with foreigners, was established 
 by Psammetichus (see 147, c. p. 80). 
 
 Diodorus, who comprehends all the herdsmen in one caste, men- 
 tions also a caste of agriculturists, who perhaps were the farmers of 
 estates belonging to the kings, priests, and warriors. Whether these 
 formed a portion of the " tradesmen caste " described by Herodotus, 
 is not very clear. 
 
 157 The kings or Pharaohs were probably chosen from the 
 B warrior-caste by the priests. Their power was circum- 
 
 scribed by the influence (arising principally from their 
 control over the oracles) of the priests by whom they were 
 surrounded, and from whom they were obliged to choose 
 all the officers of state. They resided at Thebes, after- 
 wards at Memphis, and lastly at Sais. Their revenues 
 were derived from their estates, the gold mines of Nubia, 
 the fisheries, and the tribute paid by conquered nations. 
 The kings commanded the army in time of war ; but 
 judicial questions were investigated by courts of which 
 the members were all priests (the supreme court of 
 justice consisted of thirty members). The proceedings 
 were conducted in writing, and sentence given according 
 to written laws. 
 
 158 3. SCIENCES, which were exclusively in the hands of 
 c the priests. 
 
 a. Astronomy, applied either to the settlement of the 
 seasons, the arrangement of the calendar, and the agri- 
 cultural operations dependent on it, or to astrology, which 
 in Egypt, more than elsewhere, exercised an influence 
 over the public and private life of the people. 
 
 b. Geometry, a science introduced by the necessity of 
 re-measuring the fields after every inundation of the Nile. 
 The erection of their magnificent buildings also required 
 mathematical knowledge. 
 
 c. Medicine. Each part of the body and every disease 
 had its own physician, who could not depart from the rules 
 laid down in the six books of medical instructions. 
 
159161. 37.] AFRICA. 85 
 
 d. Jurisprudence. Legislation being connected with re- (158) 
 ligion, their priests were also judges. A 
 
 e. Historical learning consisted in an acquaintance with 
 the public monuments and sacred writings. 
 
 4. ART. The monuments of Egypt exhibit proofs ofl<59 
 great mechanical skill, and gigantic solidity of construction ; 
 but the dependence of art on religion and politics, and the 
 rigid prohibition of any alteration in the established forms, 
 although no impediment to the production of grand and 
 magnificent effects, rendered it impossible for Egyptian 
 artists to rise to the repsesentation of the beautiful. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE and SCULPTURE were closely connected 160 
 among the Egyptians, the latter being employed partly in B 
 the production of hieroglyphics, partly of figures repre- 
 senting, with the aid of painting, religious ceremonies, 
 the affairs of private life, and historical events. 
 
 THE OBJECTS OF ART were : 161 
 
 a. The Temples, the walls, pillars, and roofs of which 
 were covered with figures representing for the most part 
 objects of religious worship, and with hieroglyphical in- 
 scriptions. 
 
 b. The Palaces, with representations of historical events. 
 
 c. The Catacombs or sepulchres in the Libyan moun- c 
 tains, especially near Thebes, with a great number of 
 chambers, side-closets, halls, staircases, corridors, and 
 perpendicular wells, adorned with hieroglyphics and 
 painted sculpture, representing every possible circum- 
 stance and employment of life. 
 
 d. The Obelisks were pillars, square at the base, and 
 terminating in a point. They were generally formed out 
 of a single block of granite from 50 to 180 feet in height, 
 with a base of from 5 to 25 feet ; hewn and polished in 
 the mountains of Upper Egypt, and transported by the 
 Nile and its canals to the place of their destination (prin- 
 cipally Thebes and Heliopolis), where they were set up at 
 the entrances of the temples and palaces and covered with 
 hieroglyphical inscriptions. 
 
 Several of these obelisks were brought in the time of the Roman > 
 emperors to Rome and Constantinople, where they were erected, but 
 afterwards thrown down. Sixtus V., and some of the other popes, 
 caused several of them to be replaced at Rome. The Luxor obelisk 
 is in the Place de la Concorde at Paris. Cleopatra's needle in Water- 
 loo Place, London. 
 
86 AFRICA. [162, 163. 37. 
 
 (161) e. The Pyramids (also Piramyds), only found in central 
 A Egypt, are quadrilateral buildings (the horizontal length 
 of the sides being gradually diminished as the building as- 
 cends), often ending at top in a flat superficies. They were 
 built of various heights (the largest, that of Cheops, origi- 
 nally 480, now 460 ft. 9 in. high, was completed in thirty 
 years by 100,000 laborers ; a canal from the Nile was 
 brought to the spot, and on the island formed by its waters 
 was the burial place of the king), of limestone cased exter- 
 nally with granite or marble, with few inscriptions. On the 
 B inside were chambers and passages. There are still about 
 forty pyramids near Memphis, standing in five groups, the 
 most celebrated of which is the group of Ghizeh. Their 
 four sides are turned towards the four cardinal points of 
 the compass. Various conjectures have been hazarded re- 
 specting the use for which they were intended. Probably 
 they were either themselves sepulchres, or erected over 
 burial places to mark the entrance. 
 
 f. Colossal Sphinxes. Couchant lions, with human heads, 
 representing (perhaps) distinguished men and sovereigns. 
 
 c Thus the double rows of 200, and even 600, of such 
 sphinxes at Luxor and Carnac might represent the long 
 line of Theban kings. 
 
 g. The Labyrinth, erected (according to Herodotus, II. 
 148) by the Dodecarchs (146, D.), in the vicinity of the 
 lake Mceris, consisted of twelve covered courts, with 1500 
 chambers above ground ; and the same number, it is said, of 
 subterranean rooms, with the coffins of the twelve founders 
 and the sacred crocodiles. The ruins which have been dis- 
 covered do not enable us to trace the ground plan of this 
 extraordinary work. 
 
 162 THE ART OF WRITING.' Of the Egyptian inscriptions 
 D only a few detached sentences and single letters have been 
 
 hitherto deciphered. 
 
 163 According to the opinion of Champollion, they had three distinct 
 modes of writing. 1. The hieroglyphic, or sacred text, which was 
 
 1 The interpretation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics is the great 
 critical discovery of our age. Champollion's claims are allowed to 
 be better than Young's. The great work is Champ Precis du Sys- 
 tfcme Hierog. des Anc. Egypt. Its application to Scripture history is 
 given by Greppo, whose esay was translated by Isaac Stuart, and 
 commented by Prof. S. Lieber's article in the Am. Enc. contains 
 an admirable general view, and the whole subject of the Egyptians 
 is thoroughly discussed in Bunsen's Egypt, now in course of publi- 
 cation. Good summary in Hawks's Egypt. 
 
164166. 37.] AFRICA. 87 
 
 employed on their public monuments, and comprehended three sorts (163) 
 of characters, viz. a. Figures, representing the actual object ; b. A 
 Symbolic signs, indicating abstract conceptions, through the medium 
 of analogous natural objects ; c. A sort of alphabet, consisting of 
 100 letters (phonetic hieroglyphics), which represented different 
 sounds by the figures of those objects of which the name began with 
 the sound in question in the ancient Egyptian tongue, which is inter- 
 preted through the Coptic ; a language no longer spoken, but pre- 
 served in their literature. 2. The Hieratic, or characters employed 
 by the priesthood ; an abbreviation of the hieroglyphic form. 3. The 
 demotic, or popular character, consisting almost entirely of phonetic 
 signs, and employed in the common intercourse of life. 
 
 5. The want of timber for ship-building compelled the 164 
 Egyptians for a long time to confine themselves to inland B 
 and river traffic. Its position, midway between Africa 
 and Asia, in the vicinity of the gold of Nubia and Abys- 
 sinia, and the facilities for transport afforded by the Nile, . 
 the only navigable stream of northern Africa, rendered 
 Egypt, especially Upper Egypt, the centre of an extensive 
 commerce by means of caravans. (Compare 34.) (Corn 
 and cloth were transported into Arabia and Syria by cara- 
 vans of the Nomadic tribes. ) The commercial relations of 
 Egypt were extended by Psammetichus, who opened the 
 ports to the Phoenicians and Greeks, and by Amasis, who 
 permitted the Greeks to form a settlement at Naucratis c 
 (the Hellenion). The increase in the consumption of Egyp- 
 tian produce, consequent on these arrangements, gave a 
 fresh stimulus to agricultual and manufacturing industry. 
 
 6. Our knowledge of Egyptian HANDICRAFTS, as well 165 
 as the employment of their every day life, is obtained 
 from pictures, especially those found in the tombs. They 
 possessed the art of weaving garments, tapestry, and carpets ; 
 
 of dying in various colors ; of producing a great variety 
 of elegant articles in metal, and of manufacturing earthen 
 vessels for domestic ' use, and for the reception of the 
 sacred mummies. 
 
 III. THE CARTHAGINIANS (Carchedonii). 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. The works of their native writers IQQ 
 (alluded to by Sallust, Bell. Jug. 17) are all lost ; nor is any mention D 
 made of Carthaginian history by the Greek and Roman historians, 
 except in so far as it coincides with that of their respective countries. 
 We possess, it is true, accurate accounts of the wars of Carthage 
 with Syracuse and Rome in the works of Polybius, Diodorus, Livy, 
 and Appian ; but none of them treat the history of that country as a 
 primary subject. The only notices which we have respecting the 
 
88 AFRICA. [167169. 38 > 39 ' 
 
 early history of Carthage are found in Justin (from Theopompus). 
 The constitution is also described by Aristotle in his Politics. Hee- 
 ren, vol. 4. Arnold's Rome, chs. 22, 39. 
 
 38. Geography of the kingdom of Carthage. 
 
 167 The kingdom of Carthage, at its most flourishing period, 
 A was bounded on the north by the Mediterranean, on the 
 
 east by the state of Gyrene (the boundary stone was called 
 arse Philaenorum), on the south by the lake Tritonis, and 
 on the west by Numidia ; the frontier on that side being 
 very vague and unsettled, on account of the Nomadic 
 tribes by whom the country was inhabited. 
 
 168 DIVISION AND CITIES. 
 
 B a. The northern part, or Zeugitana, with the cities of 
 1. CARTHAGO, on a peninsula, in the bight of a gulf formed 
 
 . by two promontories (the Hermaean and that of Apollo), 
 was protected by the citadel of Byrsa, and on the land 
 side by a triple wall (thirty yards high and thirty feet in 
 breadth), with two ports ; the outer for trading vessels, 
 and the inner (in the city itself) for ships of war. 2. Utica, 
 a more ancient city than Carthage, and, after its fall, the 
 capital of the province of Africa (Cato Uticensis). 
 
 c b. The southern part, or Byzacium (from the people of 
 the Byzantines) ; of which the fertile region, bordering on 
 the lesser Syrtes and the lake Tritonis, is sometimes 
 further distinguished by the name ofEmporia (on account of 
 the number of commercial towns). Cities : 1 . A d r u m e- 
 tum; 2. The Lesser Leptis; 3. Thapsus (Caesar's 
 victory over Juba, B. c. 46). 
 
 c. The eastern part, or the regio Syrtica, between the 
 two Syrtes ; a flat district, inhabited by Nomadic tribes, with 
 a few colonies, such as the greater Leptis and others. 
 
 39. Foreign Possessions and Settlements of the 
 Carthaginians. 
 
 169 A. FOREIGN PROVINCES, governed by lieutenants (orr^a- 
 
 D T1J/0/). 
 
 1. Sardinia, the most ancient foreign possession of the 
 Carthaginians. This province, which was ceded to the 
 Romans at the end of the first Punic war, was important, 
 partly on account of its natural productions (grain, metals ?) ; 
 partly as the key of the Mediterranean, and the emporium 
 of their commerce with western Europe. Capital city, 
 Cal&ris (Cagliari), built by the Carthaginians. 
 
170172. 40.] AFRICA. 89 
 
 2. Corsica (Cyrnos), of which only a part belonged to (169) 
 Carthage; ceded to the Romans at the same time as A 
 Sardinia. 
 
 3. Sicily; never entirely in their occupation. The 
 Carthaginians took possession of the settlements founded 
 by the Phoenicians (see 24) ; and through the attempts 
 which they made to extend their conquests, were involved 
 for 200 years in quarrels with the Syracusans. 
 
 4. Tlie smaller western islands of the Mediterranean. 
 The Balearic isles (inhabited by Troglodytes, who served 
 in war asslingers),withEbusus(lvica), and Mel ite( Malta). 
 
 5. In Spain, the Carthaginians at first had only a few B 
 detached settlements on the southern and western coasts. 
 It was not until after the loss of Sicily and Sardinia that 
 they endeavored to make themselves masters of the whole 
 country. 
 
 B. FOREIGN SETTLEMENTS on the northern and western 
 coasts of Africa, and the western coast of Spain. These, 
 as well as the provinces, were kept in a state of complete 
 dependence on the mother country, which was enabled to 
 retain her supremacy by her position almost in the centre 
 of her colonies, and her large military and naval force. 
 Establishment of the worship of Melkarth in the colonies. 
 
 40. HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 1. From the Building of Carthage to the Wars with the 
 
 Greeks in Sicily. 
 
 (B. c. 880480.) 
 
 The Phoenicians having already founded Utica, and per- 170 
 haps other cities on the northern coast of Africa, partly on c 
 account of the fertility of the soil, partly for the sake of 
 commerce with the native Nomadic tribes, and intercourse 
 by sea with Spain, the establishment of Carthage was 
 effected about the year 878 (?) by a party who had emi- 
 grated from Tyre in consequence of a civil war. 
 
 Legend of its establishment. Dido, a Tyrian princess (according to J7j 
 Virgil and some historians a contemporary of JEneas), fled from her 
 brother Pygmalion, the murderer of her husband, and having pur- 
 chased as much land in the district of Utica as she could cover with 
 an ox's hide (QvpaaV) cut it into strips sufficient to inclose a space 
 of half a mile (?), and built the fortress of Byrsa, which was gra- 
 dually surrounded by a city. 
 
 This state, which from its foundation was independent 172 
 
90 AFRICA. [173175. 40. 
 
 (172) (except in religious matters), soon extended itself. 1. By 
 A the subjugation of the neighboring tribes, who were kept 
 in a state of dependence by the establishment of Cartha- 
 ginian colonists. The amalgamation of these with the 
 natives produced the nation of the Libyo-Phcenicians. 
 2. By foreign conquests and settlements. Voyages of 
 discovery undertaken by Hanno and Himilko beyond the 
 pillars of Hercules. Abortive attempt of Cambyses against 
 Carthage (see 21). First commercial treaty with Rome. 
 
 2. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE WARS WITH THE GREEKS 
 
 IN SICILY TO THE WARS WITH THE ROMANS. 
 (B. c. 480 264 ) * 
 
 173 FIRST WAR IN SICILY (480). The first step towards 
 B the downfall of the Carthaginian state, which had risen so 
 
 rapidly into importance, was the unsuccessful attempt of 
 the Carthaginians entirely to subdue Sicily, where they 
 had already taken possession of the colonies formerly 
 established by the Phoenicians. Although they chose for 
 this purpose the very moment when Greece, occupied with 
 the Persian war, was straining every nerve to preserve her 
 own independence, their immense army (300,000 strong ?) 
 was nevertheless utterly defeated near Himera (480) by 
 Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, on the same day as the battle of 
 c Salamis. In this engagement Hamilcar, their commander- 
 in-chief, was slain, and their fleet burnt, nor were terms of 
 peace granted to them until they had consented to pay a 
 considerable tribute. 
 
 174 SECOND WAR IN SICILY (410 339). After an inter- 
 mission of hostilities for seventy years, the war with the 
 Greeks was renewed, in consequence of the assistance 
 given to the people of Egesta against Selinus by the Car- 
 thaginians, who destroyed Selinus, Himera," Agrigentum, 
 and Gela, and concluded a peace with Syracuse, by which 
 
 D they became masters of the western part of Sicily. The 
 Syracusans, however, under their tyrant Dionysius I., and 
 afterwards under the Corinthian Timoleon, made repeated 
 attempts to expel the Carthaginians from Sicily ; and suc- 
 ceeded so far as considerably to circumscribe their pos- 
 sessions on the island. 
 
 175 THIRD WAR IN SICILY (317 375). The tyrant 
 Agathdcles had hardly ascended the throne of Syracuse, 
 when he endeavored to subdue the rest of Sicily, and, in 
 
176. 40.] AFRICA. 91 
 
 consequence of this attempt, became involved in a war (175) 
 with the Carthaginians, who afforded an asylum to the A 
 people whom he had expelled, wrested his conquests from 
 Agathdcles, and laid siege to Syracuse itself. The tyrant 
 then effected a landing in Africa, stormed most of the 
 Carthaginian cities, ravaged their territory, and even threat- 
 ened the capital itself, which at that time was in a state of 
 commotion on account of Bomilcar's attempt to make him- 
 self absolute. Meanwhile, the Syracusans overthrew and B 
 annihilated the besieging army of the Carthaginians. No 
 sooner, however, had Agathdcles quitted Africa for the 
 purpose of crushing the opposition of the Sicilians, than 
 the army which he had left to carry on the siege of Car- 
 thage began to melt away, and Agathocles himself was 
 compelled to concede to the Carthaginians the peaceable 
 occupation of their former possessions in Sicily, on con- 
 dition of their becoming tributary to Syracuse. After the c 
 death of Agathocles (280), the victorious Carthaginians ad- 
 vanced to the walls of Syracuse, which was weakened by 
 intestine struggles ; but were twice beaten back as far as 
 Lilybseum by Pyrrhus, who had been invited over from 
 Italy, and was already on the eve of embarking for Africa, 
 when several cities, disgusted at his extreme severity, 
 again joined the Carthaginians, and overthrew him in a 
 naval engagement on his return from Sicily in the year 
 275. 
 
 3. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE WARS WITH THE ROMANS 
 TO THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 (B.C. 264-146.) 
 
 FIRST WAR WITH ROME, 264241. See 119. 176 
 
 WAR WITH THE MERCENARIES (240 237). The first D 
 war with Rome not only ended in the loss of Sicily, but 
 so completely exhausted the exchequer of the Carthaginian 
 government, as to leave no funds for discharging the ar- 
 rears of pay due to the mercenary soldiers. A mutiny of 
 these hired troops being immediately succeeded by an 
 insurrection of the Carthaginian provincial towns, which 
 availed themselves of this opportunity to throw off the 
 oppressive and often bloody yoke of the Carthaginians, 
 Hanno was appointed commander-in-chief ; but, being un- 
 successful in his endeavors to crush the insurrection, was 
 
92 AFRICA. [177, 178. 40. 
 
 (176) superseded by Hamilcar Barcas, who, by great exertions, 
 A brought the war to a satisfactory termination. During this 
 war the Romans deprived the Carthaginians of Sardinia, 
 and soon afterwards of Corsica, Proceedings having been 
 commenced by his enemies against Hamilcar, on the 
 ground of his having occasioned the mercenaries' war, and 
 the consequent loss of Sardinia, by promises made to the 
 soldiers on his own responsibility, the accused appealed to 
 the people, and having succeeded in gaining over their 
 leaders, the process fell to the ground. Thus there arose an 
 aristocratical party under Hanno, and a democratical, 
 headed by Hamilcar, the first step towards the destruc- 
 tion of the constitution. 
 
 177 In order to indemnify his country for the loss of her 
 B best provinces, Sicily and Sardinia (the guilt of which was 
 
 laid to his charge), and for the purpose of recruiting the 
 finances, Hamilcar, without consulting either the people 
 or senate, undertook the conquest of Spain. Hamil- 
 car was succeeded in the command by his son-in-law 
 Hasdrubal ; and during the nine years of its occupation 
 by the former general, and eight by the latter, the 
 whole of southern Spain was brought into subjection to 
 the Carthaginians, partly by negotiation and partly by 
 war; until a period was put to their conquests in that 
 quarter by the conclusion of a treaty, by which Hasdrubal 
 pledged himself not to cross the Iberus, and to respect the 
 c Saguntines as allies of Rome. Hasdrubal, who, besides 
 other cities, had founded Carthago Nova (Carthagena), 
 which he had destined to be the seat of Carthaginian go- 
 vernment in Spain, fell by the hand of an assassin in the year 
 221, and was succeeded in the command by Hannibal, 
 the son of Hamilcar, then in his twenty-sixth year ; whose 
 appointment was sanctioned both by the senate (where the 
 party of Barcas was predominant) and the people. The 
 capture of Saguntum by Hannibal occasioned the 
 
 178 SECOND WAR WITH ROME, 218201. See 122. The 
 D tyrannical authority of the 100 (104 ?) (an order of judges, 
 
 according to Livy) was restricted by the new dictator to one 
 year, and several improvements were adopted in the ad- 
 ministration of the finances. He also, in conjunction with 
 Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, formed a plan for 
 commencing a fresh war with Rome; but his project bring 
 
179, 180. 41.] AFRICA. 93 
 
 betrayed by his opponents, Hannibal fled for safety to the (178) 
 court of Antiochus, and subsequently to Prusias of Bithy- A 
 nia, where he withdrew himself from the persecutions of 
 the Romans by taking poison. Masinissa, king of Nu- 
 midia, and an ally of the Romans, deprived the Carthagi- 
 nians (who by the terms of the last peace were not per- 
 mitted to undertake any war without the consent of the 
 Romans) of two of their provinces (Emporia and Tyska), 
 and, at the same time, secured a party at Carthage by 
 means of bribery. This party being expelled from the 
 city, a war broke out, and Masinissa, after defeating the 
 Carthaginian army, shut them up in their own camp, and 
 compelled them to surrender. This war having been un- B 
 dertaken without the permission of the Romans, afforded 
 them a welcome pretext for the renewal of hostilities. 
 
 THIRD WAR WITH ROME (150 146), AND RUIN OF 179 
 CARTHAGE. 
 
 A colony of Roman settlers having been established in Africa 
 twenty-four years after the destruction of Carthage, a new city was 
 founded by Augustus (on the southern extremity of the peninsula), 
 which rose into considerable importance as a Roman colony, and at 
 a later period became the capital of the kingdom of the Vandals. 
 Afterwards it was the residence of a Byzantine governor, and in the 
 year 706 was destroyed by the Arabs. Modern Tunis was built 
 from its ruins. 
 
 41. Religion, fyc. of the Carthaginians. 
 
 1. The RELIGION of the Carthaginians was, generally 180 
 speaking, the same as that of their mother country, Tyre c 
 adoration of the heavenly bodies, in conjunction with a 
 dark and blood-thirsty superstition. 
 
 The chief divinities of the Carthaginians (as of the Phoenicians) D 
 were 1. Baal (sometimes a general term for God, Lord, &c., some- 
 times signifying the sun), who, as the guardian and patron of the 
 nation, was addressed by the distinctive title of (2) Melkarth, or 
 Melkar. His peculiar residence being supposed to be at Tyre, 
 embassies were sent yearly to that city with offerings of tithes and 
 first-fruits from Carthage, and all the other provinces. 3. In con- 
 junction with Baal, they worshipped a female deity named Astarte 
 [Ashtaroth], probably the moon. Both of these divinities were bene- 
 ficent, and opposed to (4) the malignant Moloch; who could only be 
 propitiated in seasons of calamity by human sacrifices, especially of 
 children. Another beneficent deity was (5) Esmftn, the Asclepios 
 or jEsculapius of the Greeks and Romans. In addition to these 
 gods of the mother country, the Carthaginians, at a later period, 
 
94 AFRICA. [181183. 41. 
 
 (180) adopted in some instances the worship .of foreign nations ; for ex- 
 A ample, that of the Sicilian goddesses, Ceres and Proserpine. The 
 adoration of Dido, and of the brothers Philaeni, was peculiar to 
 Carthage. The Carthaginians, like the Phoenicians, had no heredi- 
 tary priesthood. 
 
 181 2. CONSTITUTION. The government was in the hands 
 of two suffetes, or kings, chosen by the people from the 
 principal families, and holding their office probably for 
 life, and of the senate, which was composed of repre- 
 sentatives from all the guilds of the citizens, and divided 
 into the greater (yegovaia) and lesser council (r\ ffvyxlr t jos), 
 both of which are often comprehended under the common 
 
 B term of avvtdgiov. In this assembly the kings presided, 
 and proposed the questions for discussion. ]n the event 
 of a difference of opinion between the kings and the 
 senate, the decision was referred to an assembly of the 
 people. As a general rule, the kings possessed the su- 
 preme, civil, but not the military authority. Appre- 
 hensions being entertained that individual families the 
 warlike race of Mago, for instance might become too 
 powerful, a second power was created, by the selection 
 from the council of a body termed the college of 100, who 
 were invested with the right of calling the commanders 
 
 c and other public officers to account. They were also re- 
 quired to take measures for upholding the existing con- 
 stitution, and probably acted as judges in cases of high 
 treason. This college must be distinguished from the 
 court of 104, appointed for the decision of civil causes. 
 The inhabitants of the Carthaginian dominions were mere 
 vassals, without any of the rights of citizens in the capital. 
 Their magistrates were partly chosen by themselves, partly 
 sent from Carthage. The colonies of Phoenician origin, 
 however, seem to have been allies rather than subjects of 
 Carthage. 
 
 182 Sources of revenue. 1. The tributes of the African and foreign 
 D provinces, partly in specie (from the commercial cities), partly in pro- 
 duce (from the low countries) ; 2. Duties levied in the ports of the 
 capital and the colonies ; 3. The profits of the mines, especially in 
 Spain ; 4. Piracy. 
 
 183 Warlike resources. Their naval force, before their wars with the 
 Romans, consisted generally of 150 200 triremes. In the sea-fight 
 with Regulus 350 quinqueremes were engaged, each manned with 
 120 armed marines and 3000 slaves to work the oars. 2. The land 
 force consisted, for the most part, of mercenary troops, composed of 
 
194, 185. 41.] AFRICA. 95 
 
 soldiers from different countries of the west. The Carthaginians (183) 
 themselves formed what was termed the sacred band. The van con- . 
 sisted of Balearic slingers, and the centre of the African vassals ; the 
 chief strength of that division being the light Numidian cavalry. 
 They had also elephants. 
 
 3. In Carthaginian LITERATURE we hear of historical works, 184 
 and a long treatise on agriculture (in twenty-eight books), by 
 Mago, which was translated into Latin by command of the 
 Roman senate. Fragments of this work are still extant. 
 The Romans, when they stormed Carthage, found several 
 libraries, which they presented to the Numidian kings. 
 Architecture, mechanics, hydraulics, &c., attained a high 
 state of perfection at Carthage. 
 
 The LANGUAGE of the Carthaginians (the Punic, of B 
 which we find remains in the Pcenulus of Plautus) was a 
 dialect of the Phoenician. 
 
 4. TRADE. 185 
 
 a. Commerce by sea. The Carthaginians, in their anxiety 
 to monopolize the commerce of the west, opened only the 
 ports of their capital to the vessels of foreign nations, ex- 
 eluding them as much as possible from those of their co- 
 lonies, in order to avoid a competition which they con- 
 sidered prejudicial to their interests. The intercourse with 
 foreign countries was facilitated by friendly connections 
 between individuals belonging to different countries, and 
 by leagues with the states themselves. Their navigation c 
 extended to almost all the coasts and islands of the Me- 
 diterranean, especially on the western side ; to Sicily, 
 southern Italy, Malta (a principal emporium of Cartha- 
 ginian manufactures, chiefly stuffs), Corsica, ^Ethalia D 
 or Elba, the Balearic islands (Majorca and Minorca), and 
 especially Spain ; probably also to Gaul. Beyond the 
 pillars of Hercules, they shared with the Phoenicians the 
 trade carried on between Gades and the tin 1 and amber 
 islands ; and on the western coast of Africa their traffic not 
 
 1 The tin islands are generally supposed to have been Britannia 
 and Hibernia. Heeren, however, imagines that they were the Sor- 
 lingin or Scilly islands, on the western coast of England ; and Vogel 
 (Encyclop. von Ersch. und Gruber) states their existence to have 
 been simply an invention of the Phoenicians, devised for the purpose 
 of satisfying inquirers, and withdrawing their attention from the real 
 tin counties, Hispania and Britannia. 
 
96 EUROPE. [186, 187. 41. 
 
 A only extended to their colonies, but was carried on secretly 
 on the rich gold coast of Guinea. 
 
 186 CHIEF ARTICLES OF COMMERCE. a. Exports Black slaves, pre- 
 cious stones, gold, manufactured goods, b. Imports Oil and wine 
 from India, honey and wax from Corsica, iron from Elba, fruit and 
 mules from the Balearic islands, metals from Spain. 
 
 b. INTERNAL TRAFFIC, by means of caravans of the 
 Nomadic tribes, between the two Syrtes, from the district 
 of Emporia, eastwards, to Ammonium and Egypt (com- 
 pare 34, 3, d), and southwards to the country of the 
 Garamantes (now Fezzan) ; and still further into the in- 
 terior of Africa ; whence they brought black slaves, salt 
 from the salt lakes, pits, and mines in the desert, dates 
 from Biledulgerid, gold, and precious stones. 
 
 THIRD DIVISION. 
 EUROPE. 
 
 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
 
 187 Of all the quarters of the globe, Europe, although the 
 B smallest, is unquestionably the most powerful, civilized, 
 populous in proportion to its extent, and remote from 
 extremes of every description. Its position, for the most 
 part in the temperate zone, renders it inferior to Asia and 
 America as regards the number, variety, and beauty of its 
 productions, but the happy union of a continental and 
 maritime climate, and the consequent facilities afforded to 
 agriculture in almost every part, dispose the inhabitants to 
 habits of regular industry, without encouraging them to 
 lead what, in strictness of speech, may be termed a 
 c Nomadic life. Commercial intercourse is also greatly 
 facilitated by the extent of coast, the islands lying 
 within an easy distance of the continent, the numerous 
 inland seas, and the equal distribution of navigable rivers. 
 In addition to these advantages, it excels all the other 
 quarters of the globe in the productions of the intellect ; 
 for it cannot be denied, that if the seeds of political know- 
 ledge, the sciences, manufactures, and trade were to a great 
 extent first sown in the east, they attained their full per- 
 
188190. 4244.] EUROPE. 97 
 
 fection on European soil, at first in the south, and subse- (187) 
 quently in the north. Through this intellectual excellence, A 
 added to their immense superiority in the art of war, the 
 Europeans have been enabled not merely to bid defiance 
 to foreign invaders, but to extend their dominion, and the 
 civilization which has always followed in its train, to all 
 the other quarters of the globe, by means of their dis- 
 coveries, conquests, colonies, and commerce. 
 
 The great chain of the Alps, which is united by its western and B 
 eastern branches with the Pyrenees and the Haemus, divides our 
 quarter of the world into two unequal parts, each distinguished from 
 the other by the difference of productions indigenous to a northern 
 or southern climate, as well as by a variety in the character and ap- 
 pearance of the inhabitants. These mountains also in ancient times 
 formed a barrier between the civilized and uncivilized world. There 
 exists ano>her distinction between eastern and western Europe, the 
 former being remarkable for its monotonous character and the extent 
 of its plains, the latter for the greater variety and form of its moun- 
 tain districts. 
 
 A. Geographical view of Europe. 
 
 42. The boundaries of Europe. 
 
 On the north the Frozen Ocean (mare congelatum, 188 
 pigrum, Cronium, &c.), on the west the Atlantic or outer c 
 sea, on the south the Mediterranean or inner sea, on the 
 east the Tanais, the Palus Mseotis, the Cimmerian 
 Bosporus, the Pontus Euxlnus, the Thracian Bos- 
 porus, the Propontis, the Hellespont, and the 
 ^Egean Sea. 
 
 43. The principal mountains of Europe. 
 1. The Pyrenees (T nvgyvcila, Pyrenaei montes) ; 2.189 
 The Alps (ul "Ainu?, Alpes) ; 3. The Apennines (TD 
 *Antvvlva } Apennmus) ; 4. The Hsemus (6 Aifiog) or 
 Balkan; 5. The Car path i an mountains (6 Ka^naTr^) ; 6. 
 The Ural or Hyperborean mountains; 7. TheKjolen 
 [Koelen, or Fiell] mountains (Sevo mons ?). The Her- 
 cynian forest. 
 
 44. The waters of Europe. 
 SEAS AND GULFS.' 
 1. The Frozen Ocean. 2. The Atlantic, which at 190 
 
 1 No mention is made here of those waters for which names are 
 not found in ancient authors. The titles which often appear in maps 
 have no classical authority, and are generally borrowed from such 
 writers as Cellarius or Cluverus. 
 
98 EUROPE. [191193. 44. 
 
 (190) once divides and connects the two most civilized quarters 
 A of the globe ; with its several divisions, viz. 
 
 a. Not surrounded by land: 1. The Cantabrian or 
 Aquitanian Sea (now bay of Biscay) ; 2. The Britannic Sea 
 (la Manche, or Straits of Calais) ; 3. The Caledonian Sea 
 (now also Minsh) ; 4. The German Ocean (rtppuvixbg 
 3 Jlxtav6?) or North sea. 
 
 b. Inland seas: 1. The Suevian or Sarmatian sea 1 
 (now the Eastern Ocean) ; 2. The Mediterranean or Inner 
 Sea, which at the same time separates and unites the three 
 continents of the old world, is divided into a western basin, 
 
 B and an eastern almost double the size of the other. The 
 first of these comprehends the Ligurian gulf (Gulf of 
 Genoa), and the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian sea (between 
 Italy and its three great islands), the other comprises the 
 Adriatic Sea with the Tergestine bay (bay of Trieste), 
 the Ionian Sea with the Tarentine and Corinthian 
 gulfs (gulf of Lepanto), and the ^Egean Sea (now Archi- 
 pelago), with the Therm a ic gulf (gulf of Salonichi); 3. 
 The Propontis (sea of Marmora); 4. The Pontus 
 Euxinus (Black Sea), entirely without islands; 5. The 
 Mseotis (sea of Azov). 
 
 191 STRAITS. 
 
 c 1. Fretum Gaditanum or Herculeum (straits of 
 Gibraltar); 2. Fretum Siculum (Faro di Messina); 3. 
 He llespont us (straits of Dardanelles) ; 4. Thracian 
 Bosp 6 r us (straits of Constantinople) ; 5. Cimmerian 
 Bospdrus (straits of Kaffa or Jenikale). ' 
 
 192 LAKES. 
 
 v 1. In Greece, the Copais; 2. In Upper Italy, Lacus 
 Verbanus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (Lago di 
 Como). L. Benacus (Lagodi Garda) ; 3. In the country 
 of the Helvetii ; L. Brigantinus (Boden-See, or Lake of 
 Constance), L. Lemanus (Lake of Geneva). 
 
 193 RIVERS. 
 
 a. Flowing into the Atlantic 1. The B set is (Gua- 
 dalquivir); 2. The Anas(Guadiana); 3. Tagus(Tago); 
 4. Duriiis (Duero) ; 5. Garumna (Garonne) ; 6. The 
 Liger (Loire); 7. The Sequana (Seine). 
 
 1 The Eastern Ocean was considered by the ancients, not as a 
 Mediterranean, but as a portion of the Oceanus Septentrionalis ; 
 Tacitus Germ. c. 40. 43 and 44, names it the Ocean. The term 
 " Suevicum mare," indicates the southern portion of the eastern sea. 
 
194. 45-1 EUROPE. 99 
 
 1. Into the German ocean 1. The Tame sis (Thames); (193) 
 Scald is (Scheldt); 3. Rhenus (Rhine); 4. VisurgisA 
 (Weser); 5. A Ibis (Elbe). 
 
 Tributaries of the Rhine On the right hand the Nicer (Neckar), 
 M oenus (Main), and the Lupin or Luppia (Lippe) ; left, the 
 Mosella (Moselle), and the Mosa (Maas or Meuse). 
 
 c. Into the Suevian sea I. The Viadus 1 (Oder); 2. 
 The Vistula. 
 
 d. The Mediterranean sea receives but few great rivers B 
 1. The Iberus (Ebro); 2. Rhodanus (Rhone), with 
 the Arar (Saone); 3. The Arnus (Arno); 4. Tiberis 
 (Tiber); 5. Through the Adriatic sea, the A the sis 
 (Adige) and Pad us (Po). 
 
 e. The Pontus Euxinus receives within its narrow limits 
 four of the greatest European streams 1. The Ister, the 
 upper part of which was called Danubius (the Danube) ; 
 2. The Tyras (Dniester); 3. The Borysthenes (Dnie- 
 per); 4. (Through the Mseotis) the Tanais (Don). 
 
 Tributaries of the Ister a. On the right the I s a r s a (Isar) , IE n u s c 
 (Inn), Arabo (Raab), Dravus (Drau), Savus (Sau) ; b. left, 
 Cusus (Waag), Tibiscus (Theiss), Hierasus (Pruth). 
 
 f. Into the Caspian sea The Rha (Volga), the most 
 considerable river of Europe. 
 
 45. The countries of Europe. 
 
 A. ON THE CONTINENT PROPER 1. Gallia; 2. Ger- 194 
 mania ; 3. The southern Danube countries(Vindelicia, 
 Rhaetia, Noricum, and Pannonia); 4. Dacia; 5. 
 European Sarmatia. 
 
 B. THE PENINSULAS (or limbs of Europe)!. The D 
 four southern, Hispania, Italia, the Greek peninsula 
 (Illyria, Moasia, Macedonia, Thrace, and Greece), and the 
 Tauric Chersonesus (now Krim [Crimea']), the first 
 being the entrance from Europe into Africa, the third into 
 Asia. 2. The two northern: the Cimbrian peninsula 
 (Jutland) and Scandinavia (also Baltia, now Sweden 
 and Norway, the last of which was also called Nerigos). 
 
 1 The OfriaSos, mentioned by Ptolemy, for which the name of 
 Viadrus has been unmeaningly substituted by modern geographers, 
 is generally taken for the Oder. Other writers, however, (Reichard, 
 Giesebrecht, and von Spruner), take the w</?of (Suevus) for the 
 Oder, and the Viadus for the Wipper. 
 
100 EUROPE. GREECE. [195 197. 45 
 
 195 THE ISLANDS. 
 
 A 1. In the Atlantic Britannia or Albion, Hibernia 
 or lerne (Ireland), the Hebudesor Ebudes (Hebrides), 
 the Orcades (Orkney islands), Thule (Iceland?). 
 
 2. In the Suevian sea, the island of the goddess Hertha 
 (Rugen ?). 
 
 B 3. In the Mediterranean The Pity USEB (among these 
 was Ebusus or Ebusus, hod. Ivica) and the Bale a res 
 (also called ItymprMu), of which the largest are the 
 Balearis major and minor (now Majorca and Minorca), 
 Sardo or Sardinia, Cyrnos or Corsica, jEthalia or 
 llva (now Elba), Trinacria or Sicilia, Mellte 
 (now Malta). 
 
 4. In the Ionian sea Corcyraor Kerkyra (Corfu), 
 Leucadia (now S. Maura), Ithaca (Theaki), Cephal- 
 lenia (Cephalonia),Zakynthus (now Zante), Cy thera 
 (now Cerigo). 
 
 c 5. In the JEgean sea Greta now (Candia,) the Cy- 
 clades, Eubcea (now Negropont). 
 
 B. INDIVIDUAL STATES OF EUROPE. 
 I. The Greeks. 
 
 Sources of Information. 
 
 196 Their historical writers, strictly so called, were preceded by: a. 
 the CYCLIC POETS, who used to repeat in a continuous form the 
 various legendary ballads (t>*Aovj), and the Logograpki, who first 
 related the legends in prose (Aoyovj). Such were Hecataeus, Charon, 
 Hellanicus, and others, of whose works only detached fragments have 
 reached us. 
 
 197 THE HISTORIANS. 
 
 jj 1. HERODOTUS (pater historiae), born at Halicarnaseus, B. c. 484. 
 He wrote, after his great journey (through Greece, Macedonia, 
 Thrace, Asia, Egypt, and Libya), a history of the Persian wars to 
 the retreat of the Persians from Europe with episodes concerning 
 the early history of that people, and the nations who came into 
 contact with them, in nine books (loroptw'), which he revised and 
 completed at Thurii. He is said to have read his work in public at 
 the Olympic games (?). 2. THUCYDIDES, born at Athens, B. c. 474, a 
 commander in the Peloponnesian war superseded in his command. 
 In his place of banishment on the Thracian Chersonesus, he collected 
 materials for his history (ivyypntyn in eight books) of the Pelopon- 
 neaian war, reaching to the year 411. 3. XENOPHON, born at Athens 
 in 443 (?),a disciple of Socrates, banished from Athens for Laconism ; 
 he wrote, a. 'EAAijvurd (seven books), a continuation of the history 
 of Thucydides to the battle of Mantinea ; b. 'AvdffaPis (seven 
 
198, 199. 45.] EUROPE. GREECE. 101 
 
 books) ; c. Kvpov iraifoia (eight books) ; d. Adyoj els 'Ay?<riAao/. (197) 
 4. POLYBIUS of Megalopolis (205 131), author of a practical uni- ^ 
 versal liistory Jo-rofxui*' 40 13.), from the commencement of the second 
 Punic war to the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans. 5. Dio- 
 DORUS SICULUS, in the reign of Augustus, wrote a /?i#Ajo0j*i iaropiKjj 
 (in forty books). 6. PLUTARCH (born A. D. 50 at Chaeronea) : he 
 wrote forty-four /?n TrupaAAr/W, and five separate biographies. Of 
 Diodorus, only books 1 5=11 20 remain. 
 
 GEOGRAPHERS. 
 
 1. STRABO (in the first century of the Christian era), in book 8 10 JQQ 
 of his yEwyjDa(/>ia. 2. PAUSANius (born at Rome in the second cen- B 
 tury), in his description of Greece ('EAAd<Jos nspifiyriais, in ten books). 
 3. CLAUDIUS PTOLEMJEUS (an Egyptian who flourished in the second 
 century), wrote yewypa^ncrj fy/jyijffis (in eight books). 
 
 The chronicle of the Parian marbles is a tablet, discovered in 
 the island of Paros, and now preserved at Oxford, containing a chro- 
 nological list of the principal events in the history of Greece, and 
 particularly of Athens ; 1381 years, from 1450 B. c. to 264 B. c. 
 
 Of Latin historians, who have written upon Grecian history, we 
 have Cornelius Nepos [or the lives that go under his name] and Jus- 
 tin. Besides the historians, we have, for the first mythical period, 
 the library of Apollodorus, for the third, the orations of Isocrates, 
 ^Eschynes, and Demosthenes, and for constitutional history, the poli- 
 tics of Aristotle ; for geography, Pomponius Mela, first cent. A. c. 
 
 MODERN BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 
 
 a. Geography. Cramer, A geographical and historical description 199 
 of Ancient Greece ; 3 vols. 8vo. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 1. c 
 Geographical outlines of Greece. Grote, part 2, ch. 1, General geo- 
 graphy and limits of Greece. Gell, Itinerary of Greece ; id. Journey 
 
 in the Morea. Leake's Travels in Northern Greece. Wordsworth's 
 Classical tour in Attica, &c. 
 
 b. History The best general histories of Greece are in English, D 
 although particular parts have been treated with great success by other 
 nations, and especially by the Germans. Grote's is the only work 
 in which the "Legendary Period" is satisfactorily treated, without 
 which Grecian character and half of the subsequent history is almost 
 unintelligible. The vast learning, sound judgment, liberal views, 
 statesmanlike sagacity, critical acumen, and classical taste of this 
 writer, must give his work the first place among the histories of 
 Greece. (Grote's Greece. 6 vols. are published down to the peace 
 of Nikias.) Next in merit is Thirlwall (8 vols. 8vo.), deficient in 
 grouping and judging the legendary history, inferior in learning and 
 philosophy to Grote, but far superior to all his predecessors. These 
 works have entirely thrown out Mitford, who had but little relish for 
 antiquity, and wrote ancient history with the pen of a modern parti- 
 san ; and Gillies, who though more readable than Mitford, is every 
 way unequal to such a subject. Eliot has a very interesting chapter 
 on Grecian liberty, in his Liberty of Rome ; v. also Greene's His- 
 torical Series, vol. 1. 
 
102 EUROPE. GREECE. [200, 201. 46, 47. 
 
 (199) Chronology Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, or Civil and Literary Chro- 
 A nology of Greece ; a valuable work, when the author once gets on 
 historical ground. 
 
 Religion, Politics, Commerce, $c. Heeren, vol. 6 of the English 
 edition, originally translated by Mr. Bancroft and published in the 
 United States. Herman, Political Antiquities of Greece, 1 vol. 8vo. 
 (from the German), Oxford, 1836 St. John's History of the Man- 
 ners, Customs, Arts, &c., of Ancient Greece, 3 vols. 8vo. Potter's 
 Grecian Antiquities. Bojesen's Manual of Grecian Antiquities, Ap- 
 pletou's edition, 1 vol. I2mo. 
 
 A. GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE. 
 46. The name of Greece. 
 
 200 In the most remote times there was no general name for 
 B the whole of Greece, any more than for Italy and Asia 
 
 Minor. The name of Hellas had various significations at 
 different periods. Originally it indicated merely the city 
 of Hellas in Thessaly ; at a later period, the term com- 
 prehended the greater part of Thessaly, and afterwards it 
 was applied to the whole of midland Greece, which was 
 called Hellas proper in contradistinction to Peloponnesus. 
 c After the Persian war Peloponnesus itself was also in- 
 cluded, and at length (after the Macedonian war) the term 
 was understood as designating every country inhabited by 
 Hellenes. 
 
 THE TERM ACHJEAN LAND ('Audi's yata in Homer), is applied in 
 strictness of speech only to a small portion of southern Thessaly, 
 where Achaeus, the son of Xuthus, reigned ; but in a secondary sense 
 it is employed also to indicate the rest of Greece, especially Pelo- 
 ponnesus, of which the descendants of Achaus had made themselves 
 masters. 
 
 . In like manner ARGOS, originally the name of a town in Argolis, 
 was used for Peloponnesus, and at last for the whole of Greece. 
 
 D The term Graecia (rqatxol) was never employed by 
 the Greeks themselves, but was the only name given by 
 the Romans to the whole of the country. Originally it 
 was limited to the district of Dodona in Epirus. 
 
 As a Roman province, Greece (with the exception of 
 Thessaly, Epirus, and Acarnania), was distinguished by 
 the name of Achaia. 
 
 47. The boundaries of Greece. 
 
 On the north the Macedonian (or Cambunian) and 
 Ceraunian mountains ; east, the ^Egean and Myrtoan seas ; 
 
 201 west and south, the Adriatic and Ionian seas. 
 
202204. 48.] EUROPE. GREECE. 103 
 
 No country of Europe presents, in proportion to its size, such an A 
 extent of coast, or such facilities of approach. 
 
 48. The mountains of Greece. 
 
 A. 1. In NORTHERN GREECE, the Find us (a continuation 202 
 of the Scardas, from 7000 to 8000 feet in height) forms B 
 the line of separation from which the rivers flow in dif- 
 ferent directions either into the Ionian or ^Egean sea. 
 
 Its branches are : a. westwards, the Ceraunian chain, the 
 northern boundary of the half Grecian tribes in Epirus ; 
 the steep promontory in which it terminates (called Acro- 
 ceraunia), marks the division of the Ionian sea from the 
 Adriatic, b. Eastwards: 2. Chains at right angles with 
 the Ceraunia : 1: The CAMBUNIAN in the north (6000 
 feet), the continuation of which, Mount OLYMPUS [now 
 ElymboY (6000 feet), was supposed to be the habitation 
 of the gods; 2. The Othrys in the south, forming with 
 Pel ion [Plesnia] and the round-headed Ossa [Kissovo] 
 (5UOO feet), the eastern frontier of Thessaly. The last c 
 of these is separated from the southern slope of Olympus 
 only by the narrow pass of Tern pe. Thessaly, therefore, 
 is a basin surrounded on all sides by mountains, the waters 
 of which are conveyed by the river Peneus through the 
 narrow channel of Tempe into the sea-. 
 
 B. In CENTRAL GREECE : a. in the north, continuations 203 
 of the Pindus, such as the OS t a [Catavothra, &c.] (4000 
 feet), with the famous straits of THERMOPYLAE, once a very 
 narrow pass along the shore ; b. in the south, detached 
 groups of mountains and hills, for the most part barren and D 
 inhospitable ; e. g. PARNASSUS [Lyakoura] (7500 feet), 
 with its three abrupt peaks, HELICON [Zagora, or Paleo 
 Vouni] (5300 feet), covered with forests, the rugged 
 CITHJERON [E/atea] (3900 feet), the HYMETTUS [Trello- 
 vouno] (2700 feet), the PENTELICUS [Pentele], &c. 
 
 C. The PELOPONNESUS forms a table-land (2000 feet 204 
 above the level of the sea) the flattest part of which 
 (Arcadia) is by no means level, but broken into isolated 
 groups of mountains (some of them 6000 feet above the 
 sea), and surrounded on all sides by still loftier chains, the 
 branches of which form the four isthmuses of the peninsula. 
 
 1 [Arrowsmith gives : Olympus, 6250 feet ; Ossa, 4000 ; Pelion, 
 4000 ; Pindus, 8500 ; 
 
104 EUROPE. GREECE. [205. 49. 
 
 (204) The most steep and lofty is the northern border (Achaia), which 
 A reaches its greatest height (7200 feet) in the mountain of CYLLENE, 
 the continuations of which stretch west towards Elis, and southeast 
 into Argolis. The eastern (Parthenius) sends out a spur as far as 
 the promontory of Malea, the southeastern extremity of Laconia, 
 whilst the more broken western ridge (Erymanthus) slopes very gra- 
 dually down to the level coast, its southern continuation intersecting 
 the isthmus of Messenia. The southern is connected with the T ay- 
 get us, the highest ridge (7400 feet) in Peloponnesus. It traverses 
 the western isthmus of Laconia to the promontory of Taenarum (Cape 
 Matapan). 
 
 B PROMONTORIES: A ctium on the Ambracian gulf (battle 
 31). Rhion and Antirrhion [or, Rhium and Anti- 
 Rhium] opposite each other on the Corinthian gulf. Malea 
 [also, Malea] and T sen arum, the extreme points of Laco- 
 nia. Sunium, the southernmost point of Attica. Arte- 
 misium, the northern point of the island of Eubcea 
 (battle 480). 
 
 49. The Waters of Greece. 
 
 205 SEAS. 1. The ^%en sea ; 2. The Myrtoan sea, be- 
 
 c tween the eastern coast of Peloponnesus and the islands ; 
 
 3. The Ionian sea. The currents of the two last meet at 
 
 the promontory of Malea, which on that account was 
 
 notorious for shipwrecks. 
 
 GULFS. 1. The Thermaic (hod. gulf of Salonichi); 
 2. The Pagassean and Malian bays; 3. The Saronic 
 gulf (now the gulf of Egina); 4. The Argolic (gulf of 
 Napoli) ; 5. The Laconic (gulf of Kolokythia) ; 6. The 
 Messenian (also the Coronaean, now gulf of Koron) ; 
 7. The Corinthian (now gulf of Lepanto), with the 
 Crisseanbay; 8. The Ambracian (gulf of Arta). 
 p STRAIT. The Eurlpus, between Eubcea and Bceotia. 
 
 LAKES. 1. Acherusia, in Epirus; 2. The Copais, 
 which communicates with the Eubcean sea by long subter- 
 raneous channels. 
 
 The RIVERS, as in every mountainous country, are nu- 
 merous ; but on account of the close vicinity of the sea 
 on all sides, and the consequent narrowness of the con- 
 tinent, they are very insignificant, and so ill-supplied with 
 water, as to be for the most part dry in summer. 1. Pe- 
 nfius [Salembrid], flowing into the Thermaic gulf; 2. 
 AchelOus (now Aspro-potamo), between Acarnania and 
 jEtolia, flowing into the Ionian sea; 3. Cephissus, into 
 
206 208, 50 52.] EUROPE. GREECE. 105 
 
 the lake Copais ; 4. Alpheus [Rouphid], into the Ionian A 
 sea ; 5. EurOtas [Iris. Basilopotamo] into the Laconic gulf. 
 
 50. Climate and products of Greece. 
 
 In no country, perhaps, is the contrast of climate so 206 
 great as in Greece. The temperature varies with the 
 difference of soil ; so that whilst Laconia is enjoying spring, 
 and Messenia summer, the winter has scarcely ended in 
 Arcadia. The months from May to September, inclusive, 
 are extraordinarily dry, scarcely any rain falling except in 
 winter, when it descends in torrents, generally on the lands 
 of moderate elevation, in the form of squalls, with thunder 
 and lightning. The highest peaks of the mountains are 
 covered with almost perpetual snow. 
 
 PRODUCTS. 
 
 1. Mineral kingdom. The precious metals were, for the most part, B 
 rare. There were gold mines on Thasos (and Siphnos), silver mines 
 in the mountains of Laurium [Aauptoi/, or Aavpetov] in Attica, copper 
 and iron near Chalcis in Euboea, marble in Pentelicus and Paros. 
 
 2. Vegetable kingdom. The most productive grain was barley 
 (of which they made aX^r). Among the varieties of trees were the 
 silver poplar, the Greek cedar, the evergreen cypress, and the majestic 
 plane. Besides an abundance of fruit of other sorts, they had grapes, 
 figs, and olives, the last especially in Attica. 
 
 3. Animal kingdom. Bullocks, sheep, goats, hogs, and mules, c 
 The rearing of horses was rendered very difficult by the mountainous 
 character of the country. Pigeons on Cythera, owls at Athens, bees, 
 especially on Mount Hymettus, fish, dolphins. The country was 
 grievously plagued by locusts. 
 
 51. Divisions of Greece. 
 
 A. NORTHERN GREECE contains 1. Thessaly; 2.207 
 Epirus. 
 
 B. CENTRAL GREECE, or Greece Proper, is divided into 
 1. Acarnania; 2. ^Etolia; S.Doris; 4. Locris; 
 5. Phocis; 6. Sceotia; 7. Attica; 8. Megaris. 
 
 C. SOUTHERN GREECE, or Peloponnesus ( formerly D 
 *Ania t now the Morea), comprises 1. Corinthia; 2. 
 Sicyonia; 3. Phliasia; 4. Achaia; 5. Elis; 6. 
 Messenia; 7. Laconia; 8. Argolis; 9. Arcadia. 
 
 D. The ISLANDS. 
 
 52. Topography of Greece. 
 
 A. NORTHERN GREECE. 
 
 1. THESSALY (named also Hellas, compare 200), the 208 
 largest district of Greece, and the cradle of all the Grecian 
 
106 EUROPE. GREECE. [209. 52. 
 
 (208) tribes, consists principally of two caldron-shaped basins, 
 A the greater of which (according to Herodotus, vii. 129) 
 in early ages was a lake, until Ossa was separated from 
 Olympus by an earthquake, and an outlet made for the 
 river Peneus through the narrow valley of Tempe. High 
 mountains (see 202, c.) inclose a plain, well adapted for 
 agriculture and the rearing of cattle ; the only outlet for 
 he waters being, as we have mentioned, the narrow fissure 
 called the valley of Tempe (described by Ovid. Met. i. 
 569). 
 
 B This district was divided by the ancient geographers into four 
 circles (Tetrades or Tetrarchies) : Hestiseotis in the north (the 
 Peneus forms, generally speaking, its southern boundary) ; Phthio- 
 tis in the south; Thessaliotis between the two first- mentioned ; 
 Pelasgiotis in the east, between Ossa and Pelion. 
 
 209 CITIES. 1. Phthia, the ancient capital, the birth-place 
 of Achilles. It disappeared at an early period. 2. Lamia 
 (the Lamian war, 323). 3. Pharsalus (battle in 48) ; in 
 the vicinity was the hill of Cynoscephale (battle in 197). 
 4. P her SB (the tyrants). 5. Larissa on the Peneus. 
 
 C The district of MAGNESIA on the sea-coast, with lolchos (the ren- 
 dezvous of the Argonauts), in all probability did not belong to any of 
 the tetrarchies of Thessaly, not having been subject to the Thessah'ana 
 when that division was made. 
 
 2. EPIRUS (j;i0o=the continent), in the Odyssey, means 
 that part of the continent which lies immediately opposite 
 to Ithaca ; nor was it until a later period that the name 
 was used to distinguish the country bounded by the Acro- 
 ceraunian mountains, Pindus, the Ambracian gulf, and the 
 D Ionian sea. On account of its volcanic soil, this district 
 was supposed to communicate with the infernal regions ; 
 the river Acheron [Mauro, or Souli], which flows through 
 the lake Acherusia, and, after receiving the Cocytus [Bas- 
 sa], empties itself into the Ionian sea, being placed in the 
 lower world by the poets. 
 
 Epirus was inhabited by fourteen distinct Pelasgic tribes, ranked as 
 Greeks by Herodotus, but called barbarians by Thucydides and every 
 other writer. The most considerable of these tribes were the Chao- 
 nians, Thesprotians, and Molossians ; after whom the country was 
 divided into three parts Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. 
 
 Cities. 1. Ambracia (now Arta), the residence of 
 Pyrrhus ; 2. Dod 6na, with the most ancient Grecian ora- 
 cle (of Zeus). 
 
210 214. 52.] EUROPE. GREECE. 107 
 
 B. CENTRAL GREECE, OR HELLAS, IN ITS MORE 
 
 RESTRICTED SENSE. 
 
 1. ACARNANIA; bounded by the Ambracian gulf, the 210 
 Achelous, the Corinthian gulf, and the Ionian sea. Cities. A 
 1 . Stratus, the largest city of the district ; 2. A c t i u m, 
 founded by Augustus on the promontory of the same name, 
 where there formerly was only a port with a temple (of 
 Apollo). 
 
 2. ^ETOLIA. Boundaries. On the north, Thessaly and 211 
 Epirus ; east, Locris and Doris ; south, the Corinthian 
 gulf; west, the Achelous. Capital city, Thermon (also 
 Therrnus), seat of the jEtolian league (Panoetolium). 
 
 3. DORIS. This rugged little state contained four cities, 212 
 named the Dorian Tetrapolis. B 
 
 4. LOCRIS was divided into two districts, inhabited by 213 
 three tribes : 
 
 a. That on the Corinthian gulf, which was surrounded 
 by Phocis, Doris, and JStolia, was inhabited by the Ozo- 
 lian Locrians, a savage predatory tribe. Cities. 1. 
 A mphissa (destroyed in 339). 2. Naupactus (nowLe- 
 panto) ; place of embarkation of the Dorians when they 
 passed over into Peloponnesus given by the Athenians to 
 the Messenians, who were again expelled after the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. 
 
 b. The rest of the district on the Eubcean sea and the c 
 Malian gulf was inhabited by the Opuntian Locrians, 
 with their capital Opus ; and northwards from these, as 
 far as Thermopylae, were the EpicnemidianLocrians, 
 so named from the mountain Cnemis, at the foot of which 
 stood the city of Cnemides. 
 
 5. PHOCIS. Cities. 1. Delphi (in Homer Pytho), on 214 
 the southwestern declivity of Parnassus, between its two 
 orincipal peaks. Here was the " infallible " oracle of 
 Apollo Pythius, so renowned even among foreign nations. 
 
 Its responses were delivered by the Pythia, seated on a D 
 golden tripod, placed in the temple over the prophetic 
 cavern. In the court which surrounded the temple were 
 votive offerings of various nations. Individual cities had 
 also each their own treasury. The reputation of the oracle 
 was further increased by the choice of Delphi as the place 
 of meeting for the Amphictyonic council, and the celebra- 
 
108 EUROPE. GREECE. [215, 216. 52 
 
 (214) tion of the Pythian games. 2. Crisa (also Crissa), or 
 
 A perhaps (Cirrha ?), was destroyed in the time of Solon, and 
 
 its territory assigned to the Delphic god. 3. El ate a, in 
 
 the valley of the Cephlsus, the key of Phocis and Bceotia. 
 
 215 6. BOZOTIA. This fertile basin is formed by the moun- 
 tains of Parnassus, the Helicon (the seat of the Muses), 
 with its numerous springs ; the savage Cithaeron, and the 
 rugged rocky chain of Parnes ; and comprehends within 
 itself several plains of greater or smaller dimensions, a 
 circumstance which rendered Bceotia the battle-field of 
 
 B Hellas, as Arcadia was that of the Peloponnesus. The 
 more considerable of the Boeotian cities formed a confe- 
 deracy under the Hegemony of Thebes. Cities. 1. 
 The bae ; also Thebe (iKfonvJb?) ; the acropolis of which 
 was founded by the Phoenicians under Cadmus, and thence 
 called Cadmea. According to the legend, the walls of the 
 lower city were raised by the notes of Amphlon's lyre. It 
 was destroyed by Alexander the Great (335), and restored 
 by Cassander. 2. Ore horn en us, formed with its dis- 
 trict, which in the earliest times comprehended the whole of 
 western Bceotia, a distinct country, not attached to Bceotia 
 
 c until after the Trojan war. Its inhabitants were called 
 Minyse or Minyans (also Phlegyans). Victory of Sulla in 86. 
 3. Plataea, or Plataeae (on the northern declivity of Cithae- 
 ron), which separated itself from the Boeotian confederacy 
 (battle in 479). 4. Thespiae, at the foot of Helicon (obsti- 
 nate courage of the Thespians in the battle of Thermopylae). 
 Between Thespiae and Plataeae lay probably the hamlet of 
 Leuctr a (battle in 371). 5. Tanagra(battle in 457); in 
 the district belonging to which were A u 1 i s (rendezvous of 
 the Grecian fleet for the Trojan war), Delium (battle in 
 
 D 394), and(Enophyta(battlein456). 6. Haliartus,on 
 the lake Copais (battle in 394). 7. Coronea (battle in 
 394). 8. Chae rone a, a frontier fortress on the side of 
 Phocis (battles in 338 and 86). 
 
 216 7. ATTICA (Ifrnxij). Boundaries. On the north, 
 Bceotia; west, Megaris ; south, the Saronic gulf; east, 
 the jEgean sea. Division into four, from the time of 
 Cleisthenes ten, and at a still later period twelve Phylse ; 
 which were subdivided into demi, the number of which 
 amounted at one time to 174. Cities. 1. Athens ('Adrivai), 
 consisted of two principal parts, viz., the city, and its three 
 
217, 218. 52.] EUROPE. GREECE. 109 
 
 ports, Phaleron [or Phalerum], Munychia, and Pireeus [in (216) 
 Greek, /Zcfpaeei;?], which were united to the city by two long A 
 walls (T ffxe'Ajj). After its demolition by the Persians, 
 Themistocles rebuilt Athens in a more magnificent style, 
 surrounded it with walls, and joined it to the Piraeus. 
 
 The city, which stood in the plain Cecropia, on the banks of the 217 
 river Ilissus, consisted of a. the Acropolis (called also Cecropia), 
 on a steep rock, crowned with the Parthenon, or temple of Minerva, 
 built entirely of white Pentelic marble (by Ictlnus and Callicrates), 
 and approached by a portico termed the Propylaea (erected by 
 Mnesicles). In this temple stood a statue of Pallas Athene (by 
 Phidias), thirty-seven feet in height, and carved in gold and ivory. 
 On the frieze was a model in relievo of the Panathenaic procession, B 
 and in the tympanum the victory of Athene over Poseidon, exqui- 
 sitely represented in a group of colossal statues. On the side of the 
 Propylaea stood a bronze statue, seventy feet high, of Athene Pro- 
 machus,cast by Phidias, b. The lower town. In the western quarter 
 of the city, on an elevation, was the Pnyx, where the assemblies of 
 the people were held ; and on another eminence, the Areopagus, 
 from which there was a thoroughfare through the street of Hermes, 
 by the Poikile [or, Facile] (adorned with frescoes of the battle of 
 Marathon by Polygnotus) to the new Agora ; and thence along the 
 Tripod street, by the Prytaneum (where ambassadors and meritorious 
 citizens were entertained at the public cost), to the great theatre of 
 Dionysos [Bacchus]. In the southeastern quarter of the city, after- c 
 wards called Hadrian's town, stood the Olympieion, or temple of 
 Zeus, with a colossal statue of the god, in gold and ivory. Without 
 the city were three Gymnasia, viz. a. the Academy [Academia], 
 where Plato taught ; b. the Cynosarges ; c. the Lyceum, where Aris- 
 totle used to walk with his disciples (hence the term Peripatetics). 
 On the other side of the Ilissus was the stadium (of Herodes Atticus) 
 for public games. 
 
 2, E leu sis, with its temple and mysteries of Demeter 
 [Ceres]. 3. Suni um ; a fortress on the promontory of the 
 same name, with the temple of Athene Sunias, of which the D 
 ruins are still visible. 4. Marathon, on the plain of the 
 same name, with monuments (still in existence), erected in 
 commemoration of the battle in 490. 5. Phyle, where 
 Thrasybulus assembled the opponents of the thirty tyrants. 
 6. Decelea, fortified by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian 
 war. 
 
 8. MEGARIS. Boundaries. On the north, Bceotia ; 218 
 east, Attica, and the Saronic gulf; south, the isthmus of 
 Corinth ; west, the Corinthian gulf. In the city of Megara 
 (T M.), which at an earlier period belonged to Attica, the 
 Dorians, on their return from the war against Codrus, 
 founded a colony. 
 
110 EUROPE. GREECE. [219 223. 52. 
 
 C. THE PELOPONNESUS. 
 
 219 1. CORINTHIA, with the city of CORINTH (formerly 
 A Ephyra), at the foot of a steep mountain, on which stood 
 
 the Acro-Corinthus, the strongest fortress in Greece, and 
 key of the Peloponnesus. The situation of Corinth ren- 
 dered it the emporium of the maritime traffic, not only 
 between northern and southern Greece, but between Italy 
 and Asia, as well as the chief seat of manufacturing in- 
 dustry and the arts (the Corinthian order of architecture, 
 vases, Corinthian brass). The successful cultivation of 
 these various branches of commerce rendered it the most 
 populous (300,000 inhabitants) and wealthy, but at the 
 B same time the most dissolute, of all the Grecian cities. It 
 was demolished (with the exception of the citadel) by 
 Mummius in 146, and rebuilt by Csesar. On the isthmus 
 stood a temple, a stadium, and a theatre of Poseidon 
 [Neptune], where the Isthmian games were celebrated. 
 
 220 2. SICYONIA, with the city of S icy on (also ^Egialia), 
 near the coast of the Corinthian gulf, was also famous for 
 Grecian manufactures and works in metal, as well as for 
 painting and sculpture. 
 
 221 3. PHLIASIA. The city of Phi ins, with its little ter- 
 c ritory, formed an independent state. 
 
 222 4. ACHAIA (also Achaia, formerly jEgialos), extended 
 from Sicyonia along the northern coast of Peloponnesus. 
 Here, as in all the settlements of the lonians, we find a 
 confederacy (of twelve hamlets), with a democratic con- 
 stitution. Cities. 1. Helice, the ancient capital, in- 
 gulfed in 373 by one of the earthquakes so frequent on 
 this coast. Its territory fell into the hands of the neigh- 
 boring state. 2. jEgium, the station of the Panegyris. 
 3. PatrtE (now Patras), a sea- port. 
 
 223 5. ELIS (also Eleia), divided by mountains into three 
 D portions, viz. 1. Elis proper, or the "hollow," with the 
 
 capital Elis, a city without walls, and its port of Cyllene. 
 2. Pisatis,withOlympia. This was not, strictly speaking, 
 a town, but ranked as such on account of the multitude of 
 buildings, groves, altars, and places for public games and 
 combats, belonging to the temple of Zeus Olympius, and 
 occupied at the Olympic games. In a grove of olives 
 (named Altis) stood the temple, with a statue of the god 
 
224 227. 52.] EUROPE. GREECE. jl, 
 
 in a sitting position, carved by Phidias, in gold ana .*ory, 
 and reaching to the ceiling of the temple. The length of the A 
 stadium (one-fortieth of a geographical mile) was the Greek 
 standard measure of distance. 3. T r i p h y 1 i a, with Pylus. 
 
 6. MESSENIA (also Messene). Cities. 1. Pylus (now 224 
 Navarino), the residence of Nestor, with a harbor pro- 
 tected by the island of Sphacteria ; 2. IthOme, a fortress 
 
 on a high hill, at the foot of which Epaminondas built (3) 
 Messene; 4. Ira, defended for eleven years by Aristo- 
 menes. 
 
 7. LACONIA (y/axwwx??). Boundaries, in the more con- 225 
 fined sense Messenia, Arcadia, Argolis, the sea. From B 
 the second Messenian war to the battle of Leuctra, Mes- 
 senia was reckoned as belonging to Laconia. Cities. 1. 
 Sparta (2naQiri), Lacedeemon ; on several eminences 
 
 on the declivity of Taygetus and the banks of the Eurotas ; 
 without walls, until it was fortified by the tyrant Nabis. 
 2. Helos (To"Aos), on the low lands at the mouth of the 
 Eurotas. Its inhabitants were reduced to the condition of 
 bondsmen by the Spartans. 3. Sellasia (battle in 222). 
 
 8. ARGOLIS (also TO "Agyos and *j 3 AQydtx). Cities. 226 
 1. Argos (in Latin also Argi), the most ancient city inPelo- c 
 ponnesus, gave its name to the whole district. Its acro- 
 polis, named Larissa, was a Pelasgian building, with Cyclo- 
 pian walls. 2. Nauplia (near what is now called Napoli 
 
 di Romania), the sea-port of Argos. 3. My cense; of 
 which the Cyclopian walls, the lions'-gate, and what is 
 called the treasury of Atreus, still remain. The residence 
 of Agamemnor.. 4. Tiryns, with its Cyclopian walls, of 
 which remains still exist. 5. L e r n e (the Lernsean Hydra) ; D 
 N e m e a, not a city, but merely the name of a valley, and 
 of the temple of Zeus, which stood there. (The Lion, the 
 Nemean games.) The three smaller districts of Her- 
 mione, Troezene, and Epidaurus. 
 
 9. ARCADIA, from the most ancient times the pasture 227 
 country of Nomadic herdsmen, never formed a whole, po- 
 litically speaking. Cities. 1. Mantinea (battles in 418 
 and 362). 2. T e g e a ; which, with its district (Tegeatis), 
 formed one of the most considerable cantons of Arcadia. 3. 
 Megalopolis, the most modern and largest of the Arca- 
 dian cities, founded by the advice of Epaminondas in 371, 
 and peopled by the inhabitants of the (38) circumjacent 
 
 6* 
 
112 EUROPE. GREECE. [228, 229. 52. 
 
 (227) hamlets. It was destroyed by the Spartans under Cleo- 
 A menes, and only partially rebuilt, with the largest theatre 
 in Greece (native city of Philopoemen and Polybius). 
 
 D. THE GREEK ISLANDS. 
 
 228 I. IN THE IONIAN SEA. 1. Kerkyra, or Corcyra (now 
 Corfu), in Homer; the Scheria inhabited by the Phoe- 
 nicians. Capital Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, in the 
 lime of the Persian war, the most considerable naval power 
 
 B after Athens. 2. Leucadia (now S. Maura), so called 
 from its chalky soil, was originally a peninsula, mentioned 
 by Homer as belonging to Epirus. The isthmus was dug 
 through by the Corinthians, and Leucadia made into an 
 island. Capital Leucas (in Homer Nericon). 3. The 
 Cephallenic islands, or islands belonging to the dominions 
 of Odysseus [Ulysses], viz. a. Ithaca (now Theaki), 
 which consists of two rugged mountain masses, united by a 
 narrow isthmus, on which stood the city of Ithaca, with an 
 acropolis, containing the palace of Odysseus (the ruins of 
 which are still called by the islanders the castle of St. Pene- 
 
 c lope). In front of the isthmus was the port of Rhei- 
 thron. b. Cephallenia; in Homer Samos, or Same (now 
 Cephalonia), with the city of Same. c. Zakynthus (now 
 Zante), with its single city Zakynthus. 4. The Teleboides, 
 or islands of the Taphians, the largest of which, called 
 Taphos, lay between Leucadia and the continent. 5. 
 Sphacteria (or Sphagia), opposite Pylus. 6. Cythera (now 
 Cerigo), at the entrance of the Laconic gulf. City of the 
 same name, with a temple of Aphrodite Cytherea. 
 II. IN THE ^EGEAN SEA. 
 
 229 a. In the western part aa. in the Saronic gulf. 1. 
 DCalauria; temple of Poseidon, with an asylum, where 
 
 Demosthenes died. 2. ^Egina. The ^Eginetan sculptures 
 (from the temple of Zeus Panhellenios), discovered in 
 1811, now in the Glyptothek at Munich. 3. Sal amis, or 
 Salamin, taken from the Megarians by Solon (battle in 
 480). lib. In the JEgeansea. Eubrea (now Negroponte), 
 probably separated from the continent by one of the earth- 
 quakes common in those parts, with the promontory of 
 Artemisium (so named from a temple of Artemis battle 
 in 480), and the cities of 1. Chalcis (now Negroponte), 
 
229. 52.] EUROPE. GREECE. 113 
 
 joined to the continent by a bridge over the Euripus a (229) 
 strong fortress, and place of considerable trade ; the A 
 mother-state of Cumae and Rhegium. 2. Eretria; the 
 inhabitants of which were transplanted into Asia by Datis. 
 
 b. In the northern part 1. Lemnos. Its most ancient 
 inhabitants, according to Homer, were the Sintians, who 
 practised piracy, and received Hephaestus [Vulcan] when 
 he was thrown down out of heaven. 2. Samothrake, or 
 Samothrace. 3. Thasos, formerly famous for its gold 
 mines. 
 
 c. In the eastern part 1. Lesbos, celebrated for its B 
 excellent wine. Cities. a. Mitylene (also Mytilene), 
 renowned for the contests of poets ; many of whom were 
 natives of the city (Terpander, Arion, Alceeus, Sappho). 
 b. Methymna, which remained faithful to the Athenians 
 (428). 2. The A r gin u see (battle in 406). 3.Chio(now 
 Skio), famous for its wine ; Capital, Chios minstrel-school 
 of the Homerides. 4. Samos, with its capital of the same 
 name, the native city of Pythagoras, at the height of its 
 reputation and power, under Polycrates (532). 5. Rhodus, 
 renowned for its nautical enterprise and cultivation of the 
 sciences. In the port of the city of Rhodes stood the 
 brazen colossus, seventy yards in height. 
 
 d. In the southern part aa. the twelve Cydades ; c 
 among which the most important were 1. Delos, in the 
 centre, the birth-place of Apollo and Artemis (on the 
 mountain of Cynthus). Near the temple of Apollo solemn 
 games were celebrated every five years. 2. Naxos, the 
 largest of the islands, sacred to Dionysus Ariadne. 3. 
 Paros, famous for its white marble the marble chronicles. 
 bb. Greta (now Candia), in the vicinity of three quarters 
 of the globe, and the centre of a much frequented sea, 
 with a mountain chain, split into four parts, and intersect- 
 ing the island. Its highest peak is Mount Ida (7200 feet). 
 The island was inhabited at a very early period (thence ID 
 called by Homer sxaio'/uTroyUe), and well cultivated. Capital 
 city, Cnossus, the residence of Minos, with its labyrinth, 
 built by Daedalus (probably nothing more than the ex- 
 tensive and partly subterraneous quarries in that part of 
 the island). 
 
114 EUROPE. GREECE. [230. 53. 
 
 B. HISTORY OF THE GREEKS. 
 FIRST (MYTHICAL) PERIOD. 
 
 From the earliest Notices to the Migration of 
 the Dorians, B. c. 1104. 
 
 53. The earliest Population of Greece. 
 
 230 1. ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS. The most ancient in- 
 
 A habitants of Greece seem to have been the Pelasgi, one 
 
 of the most numerous clans of southern Europe, who 
 
 spread at the same time over Italy, Macedonia, Thrace, 
 
 and even over a part of Asia Minor. 
 
 They had already acquired a certain degree of civilization (for we 
 read of them as the founders of the most ancient Grecian states, 
 Sicyon*and Argos), practised agriculture and the rearing of cattle, 
 and founded cities, with strong fortresses (called Larissa), in fertile 
 valleys (named Argos), manured by streams, which at certain seasons 
 overflowed their banks. Some of these cities (as Argos, Mycenae, 
 Tiryns, Orchomenus, &c.) were surrounded by Cyclopian walls. The 
 Pelasgi had also an oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and sent out colonies 
 to Asia Minor, Crete, and Italy. 
 
 B The appellation of Hellenes was used originally, and 
 even in the days of Homer (II. ii. 684), to designate the 
 inhabitants of the district of Hellas in Thessaly, or the 
 Myrmidons; the names of Achsei, Argfii ['^^7o], and 
 Dana i, being applied to the people collectively. It was not 
 until after the time of Homer that Hell en, 1 the son of 
 Deucalion, was mentioned (first by Hesiod?) as the founder 
 of the Grecian race, and of its principal tribes the jEolians, 
 Dorians, Achaeans, and lonians derived from his sons 
 jEolus and Dor us, and his grandsons Achseus and 
 Ion. Since that period the name has no longer been re- 
 stricted to the Myrmidons of Achilles, but applied col- 
 lectively to the whole Greek nation. 
 
 1 Prometheus 
 
 Deucalion with Pyrrha 
 Helta 
 
 jEolus Dorus Xuthus 
 
 Ion Achaeus. 
 
231, 232. 54.] EUROPE. GREECE. 115 
 
 2. FOREIGN IMMIGRATIONS, as early as the sixteenth 231 
 century, B. c., are said to have contributed to the peopling A 
 and cultivation of the land. 
 
 a. CECROPS is said to have planted an Egyptian colony 
 in Attica, and married the daughter of the king (Astaeus), 
 to whose throne he succeeded. He built the Acropolis 
 (Cecropia), established the worship of Zeus and Athene, 
 introduced lawful marriages and the interment of the dead, 
 and divided the country into twelve demi. 
 
 b. CADMUS, son of Agenor, king of Sidon, being sent B 
 (according to the legend) by his father in search of his 
 sister Europa, who had been carried off by Zeus (a myth 
 expressing the migration of the Phoenicians into Europe), 
 arrived in Bceotia with a band of colonists, laid the foun- 
 dation of the Cadmea in Thebes, and taught the natives 
 the Phoenician alphabet, metallurgy, and the worship of 
 Dionysus [Bacchus], 
 
 c. DANAUS, with his fifty daughters, migrated, it is said, 
 from Chem, in Upper Egypt, to Argos, where he was called 
 to the throne. The introduction of the Thesmophoria, 
 and the worship of Athene and Aphrodite [Minerva and 
 Venus], are ascribed to this monarch. 
 
 The fifty sons of his brother JEgyptus, who followed him, and ob- c 
 tained his daughters in marriage, were all murdered by their wives ; 
 with the exception of Lynceus, who was spared by Hypermnestra, 
 and having slain his father-in-law, became king of Argos. The 
 daughters of Danaus were condemned to draw water for ever in the 
 infernal regions. 
 
 d. PELOPS, about the year 1320 (his father Tantalus, 
 king of Sipylus, having been expelled by the Troes), came 
 from Phrygia, and made himself master of Pisatis and 
 Arcadia. His sons extended their dominion over the 
 greater part of Peloponnesus. 
 
 54. Myths concerning the Migrations of the Hellenic 
 
 Tribes, 
 
 (between B. c. 1500 and 1300.) 
 
 Deucalion, the son of Prometheus, of the race of those 232 
 Titans who fought against the gods, landed, after the gen- D 
 eral deluge, on one of the summits of Parnassus, and, with 
 the assistance of his wife Pyrrha, created a new race of 
 men by throwing stones (Ae) . Hence the word l&oi, people. 
 
116 EUROPE. GREECE. [233. 55. 
 
 (232) With these followers he migrated to Phthiotis, where he 
 
 A was succeeded on the throne by his son Hell en, and he 
 
 by his eldest son jEolus. From Phthiotis the ^Eolians 
 
 spread themselves, under the command of his successors, 
 
 over Thessaly more especially, and the western portion of 
 
 central Greece (jEtolia, Acarnania, Phocis, and Locris), as 
 
 well as over parts of the Peloponnesus (Elis, Corinth, 
 
 Messenia,) and became amalgamated with the aboriginal 
 
 inhabitants of those countries. 
 
 B DORUS expelled the Dryopes of Mount (Eta, and founded 
 the Doric Tetrapolis. Another division of the Dorians 
 migrated to the island of Crete, which received a Doric 
 constitution through their king Minos. 
 
 XUTHUS, the youngest son of Hellen, went into Attica, 
 where king Erechtheus gave him his daughter Creusa, as a 
 reward for military services. By her he had two sons, 
 ION and ACILEUS. From Ion's four sons the legend de- 
 rives the division of the inhabitants of Attica into four 
 phylae, according to their mode of life, viz., the Hopletes 
 (warriors), Teleontes, or Geleontes (peasants who paid 
 rent?), Ergadeis (handicraftsmen), and Agikoreis (goat- 
 herds). 
 
 C Xanthus, being expelled by the sons of Erechtheus, went to jEgia- 
 los, which was named Ionia (afterwards Achaia), after his eldest son, 
 who remained behind in that country ; whilst the younger, Achaeus, 
 proceeded into Thessaly, and took possession of his ancestral king- 
 dom of Phthiotis, whence the Achaeans, under the command of his 
 sons, returned to the Peloponnesus, and spread themselves over Argo- 
 lis and L iconia. 
 
 55. The heroic Age. 
 (1300 to 1100.) 
 
 233 The wanderings of the Hellenic tribes had awakened at 
 D a very early period a passion for bold and extraordinary 
 undertakings ; which were at first confined to their native 
 land, but soon extended into foreign countries. At first 
 they were merely the enterprises of individual heroes, such 
 as Hercules, Theseus, &c. ; but at a later period expe- 
 ditions were undertaken by numbers, who united for that 
 purpose. In this manner Greece endured a period of the 
 most fearful disorganization and supremacy of brute force, 
 the natural consequence of its political division into sepa- 
 rate nations, and the absence of popular rights. 
 
234. 55.] EUROPE. GREECE. 117 
 
 Hercules is described in mythical history as the ideal of human (233) 
 perfection, dedicated to the service of its fellow-creatures. All that ^ 
 is excellent in him is of divine origin : thus he consists of a godlike 
 and a human nature ; is the son of Jupiter and Alcmene, the wife of 
 Amphitryon ; and even ia the cradle manifests his superiority over 
 his merely human brother Iphicles by strangling a couple of serpents. 
 As a youth he is tempted (fable of Hercules at the place where the 
 roads divide), and overcomes the temptation. He is persecuted during 
 the whole of his life by the relentless malice of Here [Juno], but pro- 
 tected by Pallas. His enemy Here avails herself of the assistance 
 of Eurystheus, at whose command Hercules undertakes his twelve 
 labors; which, in accordance with the object of the myth, consist 
 in the destruction of noxious and violent animals (the Nemean lion, 
 the Lernaean hydra, the Erymanthian boar, the hind of Artemis, the 
 Stymphalian birds, the Cretan bull, the horses of Diomedes in 
 Thracia), or in the acquisition of treasures belonging to foreign 
 lands (the zone of the queen of the Amazons, the cows of the three- 
 headed Geryon, the golden apples of the Hesperides), or, most of all, 
 in superhuman exertions (purification of the Augean stable). The B 
 list of his toils closes with his triumphant return from the lower 
 world, bringing with him the three-headed dog Cerberus. But to 
 render the story fully instructive, the poet speaks also of his mad- 
 ness, and of his love for the Lydian queen Omphale ; and, in due 
 course, of his return to the path of virtue. The myth concludes 
 with a magnificent description of the hero's self-immolation on a 
 funeral pile, and his assumption into heaven, where he is reconciled 
 to Here, and marries her daughter Hebe. 
 
 Theseus, son of the Athenian king ^Egeus, appears also in c 
 mythical history as a benefactor to the human race, especially in 
 his native country. He slays robbers, relieves Athens from the neces- 
 sity of sending to Crete an annual tribute of seven boys and seven 
 virgins, by putting the Minotaur to death in the Cretan labyrinth 
 (with the assistance of Ariadne), and fights with the Amazons and 
 Centaurs. He, as well as Hercules, is under the protection of a 
 deity, Poseidon (whence he is said to be his son, and a native of 
 Troezene, the city of Poseidon). By the aid of his patron, he returns 
 safely from Crete and from the lower world, which he had visited in 
 company with his friend Peirithous, for the purpose of abducting 
 Persephone. He puts to death his son Hippolytus, who had been 
 accused by his step-mother Phredra of an attempt to dishonor her. 
 For his establishment of a constitution in Attica, see 61. 
 
 MYTHS CONCERNING EXPEDITIONS UNDERTAKEN BY THE 
 GEEEKS CONJOINTLY. 
 
 1. THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. Phrixus, son of 234 
 Athamas, king of Orchomenus, flying with his sister Helle D 
 from the persecutions of his step- mother Ino, attempted to 
 cross the sea to Colchis on the back of a ram, with a 
 golden fleece. Helle, being unable to keep her seat, was 
 
118 EUROPE. GREECE. [235237. 55. 
 
 (234) drowned in the waters of the strait called from her the 
 
 A Hellespont ; but Phrixus, having landed safely on the 
 shores of Colchis, offered up the ram in sacrifice, and pre- 
 sented its fleece to king uEetes, who placed it in the sacred 
 grove of Ares, under the guardianship of a dragon. To 
 recover this fleece, Jason, son of the king of lolchus, 
 with the most renowned heroes of his time such as Her- 
 cules, Theseus, and his friend Peirithous, Castor and Pol- 
 lux, the minstrel Orpheus, and the fathers of the heroes 
 who fought before Troy (Peleus, Telamon, Olleus, Neleus, 
 and Menoetius) embarked on board the ship Argo, and, 
 after various adventures, landed at the mouth of the Pha- 
 sis, and effected his purpose by the aid of Medea, daughter 
 of jEetes, whom he carried off into Europe. 
 235 2. THE WAR OF THE SEVEN CHIEFS AGAINST THEBES. 
 
 B In consequence of an oracle, Laius, king of Thebes, had 
 caused (Edipus, his son by Jocasta, to be exposed on 
 Mount Cithaeron ; whence he was rescued, and brought 
 up by Periboea, queen of Corinth. (Edipus inadvertently 
 slays his father, unriddles the enigma of the Sphinx, mar- 
 
 c ries his mother, and becomes king of Thebes. On discov- 
 ering his twofold crime, he puts out his own eyes, and, 
 guarded by his daughter Antigdne, wanders in the guise 
 of a beggar to Colonos, in Attica, where he casts himself 
 down as a suppliant before the altar of the furies, is pro- 
 tected by Theseus, and soon afterwards dies. Jocasta falls 
 by her own hand. Their twin sons E t e 6 c 1 e s and P o 1 y- 
 nlces dispute the succession to the throne; and Poly- 
 nices being expelled from the city, persuades six heroes 
 (Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, 
 and Parthenopseus) to join him in an expedition against 
 
 D Thebes. Both the brothers are slain, and of the other 
 leaders inly Adrastus escapes. After the death of Ete6- 
 cles, the guardianship of his infant son Laodamas is under- 
 taken by Creon, the brother of Jocasta and uncle of the 
 deceased princes. 
 
 230 3. WAR OF THE EriodNi. Ten years after these events, 
 Thebes was again besieged by the sons of the fallen heroes, 
 who carried the city by storm, and placed Thersander, the 
 son of Polynices, on the throne. 
 
 237 4. WAR AGAINST TROY (B. c. 1194-1184). The angr> 
 feeling which had long existed between the kings of Troy 
 
238. 55.] EUROPE. GREECE. 119 
 
 and the race of Pelops, in consequence of the expulsion of (237) 
 Pelops by the Trojan king Dardanus, was brought to a A 
 crisis by the abduction of Helena, wife of Menelaus, king 
 of Sparta, by Paris, one of the sons of Priam, king of Troy. 
 At the instigation of Menelaus and his brother Agamem- 
 non, the most powerful monarch of Greece, an expedition 
 against Troy is undertaken by most of the Grecian princes, 
 viz. Nestor of Pylus, Odysseus of Ithaca, Achilles, chief- 
 tain of the Myrmidons in Thessaly, Diomedes of Argos, 
 the two Ajaxes (the one the son of Telamon of Salamis, 
 the other the son of Oileus, and leader of the Locrians), 
 Thersander of Thebes, Idomeneus of Crete, &c. Whilst B 
 the Grecian fleet, consisting of 1186 vessels with 100,000 
 men on board, was riding at anchor in the port of Aulis, 
 Artemis [Diana], who was angry with Agamemnon for 
 having slain a fawn, sent a calm, which continued until 
 the king, by the advice of Calchas, consented to offer up 
 his daughter Iphigenia as a sacrifice to the offended god- 
 dess. Artemis, nevertheless, released the victim, and con- 
 veyed her to Tauris. After a siege of ten years the city 
 was taken (myth of the wooden horse, constructed by 
 Epeus), and burnt. Migration of JEneas to Italy. 
 
 MODE OF WARFARE. Their armies were composed entirely of C 
 infantry and war-chariots, without cavalry. Duels or single combats 
 of the heroes. The Greek camp protected by walls and ditches. 
 Achilles, enraged at the abduction of Brisels by Agamemnon, refuses 
 to take any part in the war, until he resumes his weapons to avenge 
 the death of his friend Patroclus, and kills Hector. Achilles himself 
 also slain. 
 
 FATE OF THE GRECIAN PRINCES AFTER THEIR RETURN. 238 
 1. AGAMEMNON was murdered by his wife Clytemnestra, 
 and her paramour ^Egisthus ; both of whom were after- 
 wards slain by Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, with the 
 assistance of his friend Pylades. Orestes, who was per- D 
 secuted for a long time by the furies, on account of his 
 matricide, obtained the sovereignty of Argos and Mycenae, 
 and, as son-in-law of Menelaus, became also king of Sparta. 
 His son Tisamenus was expelled by the Dorians (see p. 
 121, A). 2. MENELAUS, accompanied by Helena, wan- 
 dered for eight years about the coasts of Cyprus, Phoe- 
 nicia, &c. 3. DIOMEDES, finding his wife ./Egialea mar- 
 ried again, quitted Argos, and fled to Italy. 4. A variety 
 of adventures were experienced by ODYSSEUS [ Ulysses]. 
 
120 EUROPE. GREECE. [239. 56. 
 
 (238) THE CONSTITUTION OF THE HEROIC AGE was hereditary 
 A monarchy. The kings, who were supposed to be allied to 
 the gods ((x di Jibs ftuadf^ thence called by Homer 
 fapwftMQ diojQFyifs, d/oi,) were judges, commanders, and 
 the representatives of their people in offering public sacri- 
 fices. Their revenue consisted of an estate (TC'/IWOS), a 
 larger share of the booty and victims offered in sacrifice, 
 and voluntary gifts (ytQara, d&^). As counsellors of the 
 kings, we find individual nobles, sometimes bearing the 
 title of princes and leaders (r^To^cs i t dg psdovitg), some- 
 times of elders (ytgovrv;). There were also assemblies 
 (apodal) of the people (df^o?), who were, however, called 
 together, not to express any opinion, but simply to decide. 
 
 B In many of the Grecian states the king seems to have been merely 
 the first man among the nobles. Thus Attica was divided by Theseus 
 into twelve districts, each under a separate dynasty ; the twelve rulers 
 being presided over by the king. Similar constitutions, according to 
 Homer, existed in Scheria and Ithaca. These princes are also called 
 /?aAr)cj, and perform ail those official duties which are not necessa- 
 rily (like the command-in -chief of the army) intrusted to one person. 
 As these chiefs gradually threw off the yoke of the sovereign, the 
 supreme monarchical power came into their hands, and hence arose 
 aristocratic constitutions. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 FROM TEE MIGRATION OF THE DORIANS TO THE PERSIAN 
 
 WAR, 1104-500. 
 
 56. The Migration of the Dorians, or Heracllda. 
 (1104.) 
 
 239 Some fifty years after the Trojan war the Thessa. 
 clians, a branch of the Thesprotians, wandered from 
 Epirus to the valley of the Peneus, and gave the name of 
 Thessaly to the district which had been hitherto called 
 Pelasgicon. The ancient inhabitants (^Eolians) either 
 became serfs (nwiaiai), or went into exile, as in the case 
 of the Boeotians, who conquered the country named from 
 them Boeotia ; the aborigines of which (as the Minyans in 
 Orchomenus, the Cadmeans in Thebes, the Thracians, &c.) 
 scattered themselves over the neighboring states, and 
 founded several colonies. From this period we find no 
 further mention of them in history. 
 
 THE CONQUEST OF PELOPONNESUS BY THE DORIANS 
 
240. 57.] EUROPE. GREECE. 121 
 
 is represented in the myth as having been undertaken for (239) 
 the purpose of establishing the ancient hereditary claims A 
 of the Heraclldae. Amphitryon, we are told, the father of 
 Hercules, was deposed from the throne of Tiryns by 
 Sthenelus, king of Mycence. The endeavors of his pos- 
 terity to recover their inheritance were for a long time 
 ineffectual ; but, eighty years after the Trojan war, three 
 of the descendants of Hercules (TEMENUS, CRESPHONTES, 
 and ARISTODEMUS), at the head of the DORIANS, who had 
 hitherto dwelt between (Eta and Parnassus (see 54), 
 and accompanied by the ^Etolians under Oxylus, crossed 
 the Corinthian gulf near Naupactus, overthrew the Achse- 
 ans under Tisamenus, the son of Orestes (who resided at 
 Mycenae, and thence ruled the districts of Laconia, Argos, 
 and Messenia), and divided the conquered lands of the 
 Atridae. Temenus received Argolis for his portion, Cres- B 
 phontes Messenia ; PROCLES and EURYSTHENES, the sons 
 of Aristodemus (who had been struck dead by lightning), 
 obtained Laconia, and the ^Etolians Elis. At a later period 
 Doric kingdoms were also founded in Sicyon, Corinth, 
 Megaris, &c. Attica lost Megaris, and only retained her 
 independence through the magnanimous self-sacrifice of 
 Codrus, the last Athenian king, 1068. Thus much seems 
 to be historically certain, that about the year B. c. 1100, 
 Dorians, under various leaders, after a great battle, settled 
 in Peloponnesus, and made themselves masters of the 
 greater part of the peninsula ; not all at once, but gra- 
 dually, and after a long and severe struggle. The Area- c 
 dians alone continued to occupy their ancient habitations. 
 Of the Achseans some were subdued, and others took pos- 
 session of the northern coast of the Peloponnesus, inha- 
 bited by the lonians, who retired before the invaders, and 
 took refuge in Attica, the islands, and Asia Minor. 
 
 57. The Greek Colonies on the western coast of Asia 
 Minor, and the adjacent islands. 
 
 The movement of the Heraclidse was followed by the 240 
 establishment of colonies in the islands and coasts of Asia 
 Minor, partly by the conquerors, who were compelled to 
 emigrate on account of the superabundant population, and 
 partly by the vanquished aborigines. 
 
 1. AEOLIAN COLONIES. After losing the sovereignty of 
 
122 EUROPE. GREECE. [241 243. 58. 
 
 (240) the Peloponnesus, the expelled Achseans (under the com- 
 A mand of Penthilus, a son of Orestes) migrated, in com- 
 pany with the Boeotian ^Etolians, to Mysia and Lydia 
 (hence the name of jEdlis), where they founded twelve 
 cities, or states ; among which the most important were 
 Cyme and Smyrna. The latter was taken at an early 
 period of its history by the lonians (expelled from Co- 
 lophon). At the same time, they spread over Lesbos, 
 where they founded Mitylene and Methymna, and took 
 possession of several other islands. 
 
 241 2. IONIAN COLONIES. The same lonians, who, when 
 B they were expelled by the Achseans from the northern 
 
 coast of Peloponnesus, had fled to their kinsmen in Attica, 
 migrated (under the younger son of Codrus), in company 
 with the remnants of other Greek clans, to the Cyclades, 
 Chios, and Samos, as well as to the southern coast of Lydia 
 and to the north of Caria (hence the name Ionia), where 
 they also founded twelve cities. Of these states, which 
 were united by the bond of a common sanctuary (the 
 Panionium at Mycale), the most important were 1. 
 c Miletus; which founded more than eighty colonies, 
 principally on the shores of the Pontus Euxinus and 
 the Propontis (see 62). 2. Ephesus, with the famous 
 temple of Artemis, which was burnt by Herostratus (359), 
 and restored on a more magnificent scale. 3. P hoc SB a, 
 the inhabitants of which emigrated to Massilia (compare 
 55). 4. Smyrna, formerly an jEolian city. 
 
 242 3. DORIAN COLONIES. Dorians, from different cities of 
 D Peloponnesus and from Megara, emigrated to the islands 
 
 of Crete (see 54), Rhodes, Thera, and southern Caria 
 (hence Doris), and founded a confederacy of six cities 
 (the Doric Hexap6lis) ; two of which, Halicarnassus 
 (the birth-place of Herodotus and Dionysius), and C nidus 
 (battle in 394), were on the main land. From Thera a 
 colony was sent out, about the year 632, to Gyrene, in 
 Africa. 
 
 58. Origin of Republican Constitutions. 
 
 243 With the heroic age expired also the absolute sove- 
 reignty of 1 individuals, partly through the extinction of 
 royal families, and partly through the restrictions imposed 
 on the authority of the crown, or the violent expulsion of 
 
244. 58.] EUROPE. GREECE. 123 
 
 their kings. Instead of monarchical, most of the states (243) 
 adopted aristocratic, and at a later period republican, con- A 
 stitutions, with various modifications ; and except at Sparta, 
 where two kings, a Eurysthenid and a Proclid(247, D) conti- 
 nued to reign, the monarchical constitution was retained only 
 in Argos, and that under considerable restrictions, until the 
 Persian war. Greece was split into almost as many inde- 
 pendent states as there were cities with a territory attached 
 to them, only a few districts, such as Laconia, Megaris, 
 and Attica, forming each a confederate state ; although in 
 many, perhaps in all the other districts, the different inde- 
 pendent cities were united by a league. By this arrange- 
 ment, which existed especially in Achaia, each city re- B 
 tained its own constitution, or sometimes a particular city 
 was invested with the Hegemony, or presidency over the 
 others, as Thebes over the states of Boeotia, and Sparta 
 over those of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 In most of the Grecian states, as well at home as in the 
 colonies, the struggles of the people against an arrogant 
 oligarchy occasioned, in the seventh and sixth centuries 
 B. c., the establishment of TYRANTS, as they were called, that 
 is, of individuals who assumed a supreme and irresponsible 
 authority, which they endeavored to render hereditary in 
 their families. In those states, especially, which were not 
 exclusively Dorian (i. e. in all those of the mother country ( . 
 except Sparta and Argos), the establishment of this kind of 
 tyranny was the result of the struggles between the ancient 
 inhabitants and the Dorians ; the leaders of the popular 
 party, in their resistance to aristocratic oppression, gene- 
 rally retaining their power ^fter the victory was gained, 
 and assuming the authority and name of Tyrants. 
 
 The most numerous changes of constitution were experienced by 244 
 Corinth, where, after the Doric immigration, the sovereign power D 
 was at first in the hands of the Heraclidae, then of the Bacchiadae, 
 who for a time retained the monarchical constitution, but subse- 
 quently established an oligarchy under the presidency of a Prytaneus, 
 elected annually (during this period most of the Corinthian colonies 
 were founded, such as Syracuse, Corcyra, Potidaea, &c.) then a 
 tyranny was established in the person of Cypselus (657), who was 
 succeeded by his son Periander, one of the seven sages of Greece, 
 and he by his nephew Psammetichus, until the expulsion of their 
 tyrants by the Corinthians (584) and the restoration of the oligarchical 
 tonstitution. 
 
 There were two institutions which served, no less than 
 
124 EUROPE. GREECE. [245. 58. 
 
 the confederacies of cities in the same district, to unite the 
 little independent states into which Greece was divided. 
 245 1. The Amphictyoniae (properly Amphictioniae) or 
 
 A unions of people living in the vicinity of a sanctuary, esta- 
 blished for the purposes of mutual security, and of cele- 
 brating their festivals in common. They differed from the 
 ordinary confederacies, in not being directed against any 
 third power. The most celebrated was the DELPHIC AM- 
 PHICTYONIA, originally a confederacy of Hellenic tribes in 
 Thessaly, who acquired new settlements in their wars with 
 the Pelasgians. The term was subsequently used in a more 
 
 B extended sense to express a union of the several nations of 
 Thessaly and central Greece, comprising at an early period 
 twelve districts (with their colonies), the number and pri- 
 vileges of which remained unchanged until the time of 
 Philip II. of Macedonia. The reception of several Pelas- 
 gian clans into the confederacy, naturally altered its original 
 character of a defensive alliance against the Pelasgians, and 
 from that time the union assumed a more peaceful form. 
 To the Amphictyons belonged the privilege of protecting 
 the Delphic oracle and the treasures deposited in the 
 temple, of arranging the festivals and providing for the 
 security of pilgrims. Through this connection with the 
 
 c Amphictyons the Delphic oracle obtained such an influence, 
 that at one time nothing of importance was undertaken 
 without its command or sanction : but as faith in its pro- 
 phetic powers declined, the Amphictyonia fell also into dis- 
 repute, and was superseded by the Hegemonia, first of 
 Sparta, and subsequently of Athens. 
 
 From this period the duties of.,the confederacy were re- 
 stricted to the protection of the oracle, and the s'uperinten- 
 dence of the Pythian games, until the Phocian war, when it 
 again assumed a political character. So far was it, how- 
 
 D ever, from recovering the influence which it had possessed 
 in the sacred war against Crissa, that its exertions were 
 now of little avail, except to increase intestine discord, and 
 hasten the downfall of Grecian freedom. 
 
 At the two meetings, which were held annually, in the Spring at 
 Delphi, and in the Autumn near Thermopylae (at Anthela), the 
 multitude of citizens who attended from the cities of the league com- 
 posed the greater assembly. There was also a council of deputies, 
 who, besides arranging the questions to be brought forward for dig- 
 
246. 58.] EUROPE. GREECE. 125 
 
 cussion in the assembly^and carrying its decisions into effect, were (245) 
 charged also with the superintendence of the sanctuaries belonging A 
 to the league, and the worship connected with them ; and more par- 
 ticularly with the management of the Delphic temple, and the Pythian 
 games. 
 
 THE CONGRESSES (navriyi<Q(iii) at the four great 246 
 National Games, which, with few exceptions, were 
 open to all Greeks, and to them exclusively. 
 
 a. The Olympic, the most renowned of all, were founded, 
 according to the legend, by Hercules, and after a long in- B 
 terruption, revived by Iphitus of Elis (a descendant of 
 Oxylus), and Lycurgus of Sparta (300 years after the de- 
 struction of Troy ; consequently in 884 ?). It would seem, 
 however, that what is called their revival, was, in reality, 
 the first establishment of these games. From the year 
 B. c. 778 (Olymp. i. 1), a regular record was kept of the 
 conquerors, and from that date until A. D. 392. The games 
 at the commencement of the first year in each Olympiad 
 were celebrated at Olympia, in honor of Zeus, with gym- 
 nastic contests and horse-races, during a general amnesty, 
 which lasted five successive days ; the ceremonial being 
 closed by sacrifices, a banquet, and a grand procession. 
 
 The gymnastic combats of men (at a later period of boys also) 
 consisted, at first, simply of races in the stadium : but gradually the c 
 programme was enlarged by the addition of the Pentathlon (or union 
 of five exercises), viz., leaping, throwing the discus or javelin, run- 
 ning, and wrestling ; and the Pancration, or union of wrestling and 
 boxing. The other combats consisted of races on horseback, and in 
 chariots drawn by two or four horses. The presence of so many 
 Hellenes from all parts of the country, and the difficulty, in those 
 days, of making any general announcement, rendered the Olympic 
 Panegyris an occasion peculiarly favorable for public advertisements, 
 and the exhibition of works of art. The victors were rewarded on 
 the spot with crowns of wild olive branches, and statues in the grove 
 of Altis, and still more substantially on their return to their own cities ; 
 at Athens, for example, with a triumphal entry, Proedria, and main- 
 tenance for life in the Prytaneum. 
 
 b. The Pythian, in honor of the Pythian Apollo, were D 
 held in the third year of each Olympiad, on the plain of 
 Pytho between Delphi and Cirrha. 
 
 c. The Nemean were celebrated in a cypress-grove near 
 the village of Nemea, in Argolis, in honor of Zeus (in the 
 winter of the second, and summer of the fourth, year of 
 each Olympiad). 
 
 d. The Isthmian, in the grove of pines on the Corin- 
 
126 EUROPE. GREECE. [247. 59. 
 
 A thian isthmus, in honor of Poseidon(at the beginning of 
 the first, and end of the third year in each Olympiad). 
 
 49. Sparta. 
 
 247 Laconia, in the division of Peloponnesus, having fallen 
 to the lot of Eurysthenes and Procles, the throne of Sparta 
 was thenceforth always occupied by two kings, a Eurys- 
 thenid and a Proclid. The contest with the Achseans, 
 who still occupied parts of the country, continued for about 
 300 years, and even in the eighth and seventh centuries, 
 B. c., we find that Achaean colonies were sent out from 
 Lacedaemon. Of all these struggles the most obstinate was 
 
 B with the inhabitants of Helos, who, after the destruction of 
 their city, became bondsmen of the Spartans. 1 Thus the 
 population assumed a threefold character, viz.: 1. The 
 dominant Dorians, or SPARTANS. 2. The PERICECI , or LA- 
 CEDAEMONIANS, a title given to the conquered Achseans, 
 who enjoyed personal freedom, and retained their property 
 in the land. They paid taxes, but had no share in the ad- 
 ministration of public affairs. 3. The Helots, or bonds- 
 men of the state, who were the inhabitants of places for- 
 merly stormed by the Spartans. Their lands were forfeited 
 
 c to the conquerors, whose property they farmed, paying 
 them a proportion of the annual produce by way of rent. 
 They served in war, either as attendants on their masters, 
 or as light-armed soldiers ; but were considered the pro- 
 perty of the state, and consequently could not be sold out 
 of the country, or put to death. 
 
 LYCURGUS, a member of the family of Procles, and guardi- 
 an of king Charilaus, was compelled by the opposite party 
 to withdraw from Sparta ; but returned about the year 880, 
 after having visited Crete, Asia Minor, and Egypt. At the 
 
 D request of his fellow-citizens, and with the approbation of the 
 Delphic oracle, Lycurgus gave his native city a constitution, 
 partly new, but for the most part merely a legal confirmation 
 of ancient practices, recorded by oral tradition in the form 
 of proverbs (^rpcu). THE TWO HEREDITARY KINGS were 
 retained. They presided over the public sacrifices, and in 
 war had the uncontrolled command of the army ; but in 
 
 1 [The term Helot* IB much more probably connected with JXeiV 
 than with Helos and this tale of its capture, which was probably 
 invented to account for the term.] 
 
248,249. 59.] EUROPE. GREECE. 127 
 
 time of peace were distinguished merely by the privileges (247) 
 which they enjoyed (a dwelling, estates, perquisites of A 
 beasts offered for sacrifice, and skins, booty, precedence, 
 a double portion at the public meals, and a public funeral). 
 The government was administered by a^f yo IKT/M, consist- 
 ing of the two kings, and twenty-eight men who had reached, 
 at least, their sixtieth year. They were elected by the 
 people and were irresponsible. The duties of this council 
 were to propose measures to the general assembly of the 
 people, discharge the highest functions of government, sit 
 in judgment as the supreme criminal tribunal, and in 
 conjunction with the Ephors, to watch over public morals. 
 
 The POPULAR ASSEMBLY, at which every Spartan above 248 
 thirty years of age had the right of voting, was regularly B 
 assembled every full moon in the open air, and decided by 
 acclamation on the adoption or rejection of the propositions 
 successively laid before it by the Gerusia, which related 
 principally to the passing or repealing of laws, the choice 
 of public officers, war and peace. It is uncertain, whether 
 Lycurgus himself introduced the five EPHORI, who origi- 
 nally, as presidents of the popular assembly, acted the part 
 of judges in civil matters, and, at a later period, as repre- 
 sentatives of the people from whom-they were taken, formed 
 a standing opposition to the kings and Gerusia, and enjoyed 
 almost unlimited power. They exercised a strict control c 
 over the public morals, education, and the behavior of 
 foreigners, enforced observance of the laws, conducted all 
 public negotiations, particularly with regard to foreign 
 affairs (the axi'TM^ 1 ), inquired into the manner in which 
 the magistrates performed their duties, and even possessed 
 the power of arresting the kings. To the legislation of 
 Lycurgus is ascribed also the introduction of an equal par- 
 tition of the land, in accordance with which the whole 
 country was divided into 39,000 inalienable and indivisible 
 lots or properties, 9,000 greater, of which each Spartan 
 family (at least after the acquisition of Messenia) possessed 
 one, and 30,000 smaller for the Lacedaemonians ; but this 
 arrangement was probably subsequent to the first Mes- 
 seninn war. 
 
 The regulations of Lycunrns with rospoct to educ a- 249 
 
 1 [See the description of it in the ' Handbook of Grecian Antiqq.' 
 (p. 139), or in the ' Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiqq.'] 
 7 
 
128 EUROPE. GREECE. [250. 60. 
 
 (249) t i o n and domestic life had reference principally to the 
 " A qualification of every free citizen for military service, 
 and the subjection of all private interests to those of the 
 state. Every new-born child, if weakly or deformed, was 
 exposed on Mount Taygetus, the strong children were 
 brought up by their mothers until their seventh year, and 
 from that time, until the age of thirty, were publicly edu- 
 cated in troops or classes (a^c'Aai and /5oi't) instructed 
 in gymnastic accomplishments, music, and dancing, and 
 accustomed to practise the resources and endure the pri- 
 B vations of warfare. That the citizen's life might oe perpe- 
 tually that of the soldier in his camp, exempt from household 
 cares and occupations, Lycurgus instituted public meals 
 (ffwalnu, in Lacedaemon <pstdhia f m the black broth), in 
 separate messes of fifteen persons, and required the greatest 
 simplicity in dress and lodging. For the removal of every 
 temptation to avarice or foreign luxury, the only circulat- 
 ing medium allowed was an iron coinage ; and commerce, 
 travelling, and the residence of foreigners at Sparta, were 
 strictly prohibited. The chief occupation of the free citizen 
 was the practice of military exercises, in which all persons 
 between the ages of twenty and sixty were required to 
 join. The Periceci devoted themselves exclusively to trade 
 and manufactures, whilst the cultivation of the soil and all 
 mechanical labors devolved on the Helots. 
 
 Lycurgus, after exacting from the king, the senate, and 
 the people, an oath that none of his taws should be changed 
 during his absence, quitted the city and never returned. 
 
 60. The two first Messenian Wars. 
 250 1. FIRST MESSENIAN WAR (743 724). 
 
 C LEGEND CONCERNING THE CAUSE OF THE WAR.' Some Spartan vir- 
 gins, who had come to worship at a temple of Artemis common to 
 both Lacedaemonians and Messenians, were carried off by Messenian 
 youths, and the Spartan king (TelSclus) slain in an attempt to re- 
 lease them ; soon after this outrage, a noble Messenian (Polychares), 
 being unable to obtain satisfaction from the Spartan senate for the 
 driving away of his cattle, and the assassination of his son, (by a 
 Lacedaemonian named Eusephnus,) avenged himself by the murder 
 of some Spartans. 
 
 Their demand that the murderer should be delivered up 
 
 1 According to an intimation in Tacit. Annal. iv. 43, the real cause 
 of the war seems to have been a dispute respecting the boundaries of 
 the two states. 
 
251, 252. 61] EUROPE. GREECE. 129 
 
 to them, being treated with contempt, the Spartans at once (250; 
 commenced the war, by making several incursions into the A 
 Messenian territory. Many bloody, but indecisive, battles 
 were fought. The Messenians threw themselves into the 
 strong fortress of IthOme, and, during the lifetime of their 
 king, Aristodemus, with the assistance of the Achaeans, 
 Arcadians, and Sicyonians, made head against the Spartans ; 
 but after his death, Ithome was taken, and many of the 
 Messenians escaped into Argos and Arcadia, whilst those 
 who remained became tributary to the Spartans, under the 
 name of Perioeci. 
 
 The despised Parthenii (children of slaves?), as they were called, 
 being detected in a conspiracy with the Helots, emigrated to Italy, 
 where they founded the city, of Tarentum (708). 
 
 2. SECOND MESSENIAN WAR (685668). The hard 251 
 conditions on which peace had been granted to the Messe- B 
 nians, and their contemptuous treatment by the Spartans, 
 roused the next generation to insurrection, in which they 
 were assisted not only by their former allies, but also by 
 the Eleans. Under the command of the Heraclid Aristo- 
 menes, the Messenians defended themselves against the 
 Spartans (who were led by the lame Athenian minstrel 
 Tyrtaeus), and for eleven years kept possession of the for- 
 tress of Ira, from which successful incursions were often 
 made into the Spartan territory. In one of these sallies c 
 Aristomenes himself was taken prisoner, but escaped from 
 his prison (the Ceeadas) by following, it is said, the footsteps 
 of a fox (?), and returned to Ira. At length, through the 
 treachery of a Spartan deserter, the enemy were admitted 
 during a tempestuous night ; and the Messenians, after 
 bravely contesting the possession of the city for three days 
 and nights, were at last compelled to abandon their post. 
 Aristomenes, placing the women and children in the centre 
 of the army, fought his way into Arcadia, but his plan of 
 surprising Sparta from this point was frustrated through the 
 treachery of the Arcadian king, Aristocrates. Most of the 
 Messenians emigrated to Sicily, where they took possession 
 of Zancle, which thenceforth was called Messana. The 
 few who remained became Helots. 
 
 61. Athens. 
 
 1. PERIOD OF THE KINGS to the year 1068. The whole 252 
 catalogue of Athenian sovereigns until the reign of Theseus D 
 
130 EUROPE. GREECE. [253 255. 61. 
 
 (252) is a mere unconnected tissue of mythical personages, inter- 
 A woven with personifications of local events. The histo- 
 rical period of Athens begins with Theseus, who collected 
 into one city the scattered communities of Attica, and in 
 addition to the old partition of the country into four Phylae, 
 and twelve Phratriae, introduced a fresh division (based on 
 the condition and employments of the people) into 
 tvxaryldui (nobles), ytayioyoi (husbandmen), and drjfiiovg- 
 yol (handicraftsmen). The last sovereign of the line of 
 Theseus lost his crown to Melanthus, a descendant of 
 Nestor, who, flying from Pylos, arrived in Attica, whilst 
 that country was engaged in a dispute with Bceotia con- 
 cerning their boundaries, and accepted a challenge to meet 
 the king of Bceotia in single combat, which had been de- 
 B clined by the Athenian monarch. He was succeeded by 
 his son Codrus, after whose voluntary death (239) the 
 contest of his two sons for the throne afforded the Eupa- 
 tridae an opportunity of entirely abolishing the kingly office. 
 Neleus, disgusted at the preference shown to his brother, 
 emigrated to Asia Minor, as leader of the lonians ; whilst 
 Medon and his descendants became mere chief magistrates, 
 responsible for their administration to the aristocracy, the 
 title of king being at the same time exchanged for thai 
 of ARCHON. 
 
 253 2. ARCHONS FOR LIFE (1068 to 752), of the family of 
 c Codrus. They differed from the kings merely in name, 
 
 and in being responsible for their administration. 
 
 254 3. ARCHONS FOR TEN YEARS (752682). Only the 
 four first were of the family of Codrus: afterwards the 
 Archonship was open to all Eupatrids7 
 
 255 4. NINE JOINT ARCHONS ANNUALLY ELECTED (from the 
 year 682). The first of these, who had the title of Epony- 
 mus, because the year was named after him, was originally 
 at the head of the civil administration, the second, or 
 Basileus, was the chief-priest, and the third, or Polcmar- 
 
 D chus, commanded the army in time of war. The remain- 
 ing six, who were called Thesmothe'tae, were charged with 
 the administration of criminal justice. 
 
 As the Archons were chosen only from the Eupatrids, 
 and, in the absence of statute law, were guilty of great 
 partiality and oppression in the discharge of their office, a 
 system of written laws was loudly called for by the dis- 
 
256,257. 61.] EUROPE. GREECE. 131 
 
 satisfied plebeians. In the year 624 one of the Archons, (255) 
 named Draco [z/exwv], was commissioned to draw up such A 
 a code, but the extreme severity of his dwfiol only increas- 
 ed the discontent of the people. Draco fled to ./Egina, 
 where he died, and most of his laws fell into disuse. 
 
 THE INSURRECTION OF CvLON (612). At the head of the malcon- 256 
 tents was one CylOn, who attempted to make himself absolute at 
 Athens. With some troops belonging to his father-in-law, (Thea- 
 genes, tyrant of Megara), he seized on the Acropolis, but was soon 
 expelled by the Archon Megacles of the family of Alcmaeonidae), at 
 whose instigation the partisans of Cylon, who had fled for refuge to 
 the altar of the Eumenides, were all put to death. The Alcmaeonidae, 
 laden with a curse on account of this murder, were compelled, at the 
 suggestion of Solon, to quit the city, which was purified from the 
 pollution by Epimenides of Crete. 
 
 In order to remove the misunderstanding between the 257 
 Eupatrids and the Demos [or people], two measures were B 
 proposed by Solon, a descendant of Codrus, who was al- 
 ready well known to the people. 1. The recovery of Sala- 
 mis. This island had been lost to the Megarians, and all 
 attempts to retake it having proved ineffectual, it was 
 forbidden on pain of death to propose an expedition for 
 that purpose. Solon, however, by means of an elegy, c 
 delivered under the influence, as he pretended, of insanity, 
 prevailed on the Athenians to renew the war. He himself 
 acted as their leader, and the Megarians having been in- 
 veigled into Attica, were put to death by soldiers disguised 
 as women. The settlement of the dispute having been 
 subsequently referred to the Lacedaemonians, Solon se- 
 cured the possession of the island to his countrymen by 
 interpolating a verse in the Iliad (ii. 558). 2. The Jlrst 
 Sacred War. The Crisaeans had not only extorted heavy 
 payments from the merchants and pilgrims who passed 
 through their territory on the road to Delphi, but had even 
 plundered the temple of Apollo, and put to death the foreign- 
 ers who happened to be present. Solon having induced the D 
 Amphictyons to make war on Crisa [Kqiaa rather than 
 A'ptWa] ; the city was demolished, its inhabitants sold into 
 slavery, and its territory, in obedience to an injunction of the 
 oracle, consecrated to the Pythian Apollo. Meanwhile, three 
 factions had sprung up in Attica : 1 . The Eupatrids, who 
 possessed rich estates on the plains of Attica (ol ex TOU 
 mdlov), and advocated a rigid oligarchy. 2. The proprietors 
 in the mountainous districts, who were poor and in debt ; 
 
132 EUROPE. GREECE. [258260. 61. 
 
 (257) these wished to establish a democracy. 3. The Demiurgi 
 A on the coast (Tra^oAoi), who desired a mixed form of govern- 
 ment. With the view of reconciling these various factions, 
 the sovereign authority was offered to Solon, and on his 
 refusal to accept the crown, he was chosen Archon 
 Eponymus (in 594), and commissioned to draw up a new 
 code of laws. 
 
 258 SOLON'S LEGISLATION. 
 
 The measures adopted by Solon for meeting the present 
 emergency and reconciling the contending parties were : 
 1. The repeal of all Draco's laws except those against 
 murder. 2. The Seisactheia, as it was called [i. e. the 
 shaking off" of burdens~\,by which claims were rendered more 
 moderate, and the means of liquidating debts facilitated by 
 raising the standard of the coinage (about fW)- l At the same 
 time Solon abolished the ancient law of arrest for debt, and 
 restored their civil rights to all citizens (except actual 
 felons), who had been pronounced UT//UOI [Antiqq. 139]. 
 
 259 The persons excluded from civil rights were : 1. The piroiKoi [resi- 
 B . dent-aliens], for the most part foreigners, who were permitted by the 
 
 state to exercise their trades at Athens in consideration of a fixed pay- 
 ment and an undertaking to bear their share of all the public burdens 
 (even military service). In all legal proceedings they were repre- 
 sented by a citizen as their advocate or patron (Tpo<rrdr^j). 2. 
 The slaves (purchased foreigners and their descendants), whose lives 
 were protected by Solon's code, and a right of complaint against 
 their masters allowed in cases of undue severity. Emancipated 
 slaves were admitted to the same privileges as the Metreci, and were 
 required to choose their former masters as patrons. 
 
 260 A democratic character was given to the constitution of 
 c Solon by the substitution of property for birth as a qualifi- 
 cation for the higher offices of state. In accordance with 
 this plan, the citizens were divided into four classes: 
 1. The Tteviaxoffioftidturoi, who obtained yearly from their 
 estates 500 measures of dry and liquid produce. 2. The 
 
 D inniis, who had 300 measures, and were able to maintain 
 a war-horse. 3. The fi'/iiai, who had 200 measures, and 
 kept a pair of farm-horses. 4. The #jTff, who possessed 
 a smaller income. None but citizens of the first class 
 were eligible to the Archonship ; and by consequence no 
 others were admissible into the court of Areopagus. The 
 other offices of state were open to the three first classes, 
 
 1 [" making the mina be counted at 100, instead of its previous 
 value, 73 drachmas." Keightley's Greece, p. 62.] 
 
261263. 61.] EUROPE. GREECE. 133 
 
 and all enjoyed the right of voting in the popular atsem- (260) 
 blies and acting as judges. In this manner, Solon con- A 
 trived to reconcile the conflicting claims of the nobility 
 and the people ; the former continued for a long period to 
 monopolize all the most important offices, whilst at the 
 same time the personal equality of all free-born citizens 
 was fully recognized. 
 
 The citizens of the first and second classes served as cavalry 
 soldiers, those of the third as hoplites, and those of the fourth (only 
 in cases of necessity), as light-armed troops, and at a later period as 
 marines on board the fleet. 
 
 The NINE Archons were retained. They were chosen 261 
 annually by lot from the first class ; and before entering B 
 on their office, were required to undergo a formal examina- 
 tion, and to swear that they would neither go beyond the 
 law nor receive bribes. 
 
 The Senate (/fouiii), which from the time of Solon 262 
 had consisted of 400 members (abbve thirty years of age), 
 100 for each Phyle, was increased to 500 when Cleisthenes 
 divided the nation into ten Phylae, and subsequently to 
 600, on the addition of two new Phylce. The members 
 were chosen annually by lot (after a previous scrutiny) 
 from the three first classes. The senate was not only re- 
 quired to investigate all questions previously to their dis- 
 cussion in the general assembly, but was also charged with 
 the superintendence of all public functionaries, and the 
 various branches of the administration, especially as re- 
 garded financial arrangements, such as the farming out the 
 produce of the public lands, and the income arising from 
 the mines, import duties and personal taxes paid by the 
 ^EToixof, as well as those exacted from them for permission 
 to exercise their trades. The collection of rents from in- 
 dividual farmers was also intrusted to the Senate. 
 
 The ASSEMBLY OF THE PEOPLE (sxxybjo-tw), which con- 263 
 sisted of all classes of citizens, was held regularly four c 
 times in each Prytany (thirty-five or thirty-six days), on 
 the Pnyx (at a later period also in the theatre), and after 
 formal debate decided such questions as were proposed to 
 it by the senate, respecting the enactment or repeal of laws, 
 he election of magistrates, war and peace, political 
 offences, &c. They voted sometimes by holding up their 
 hands, and sometimes (as in the Ostracism) by throwing 
 pebbles into an urn. 
 
134 EUROPE. GREECE. [264266. 61. 
 
 264 The COURT OF AREOPAGUS, composed of ex-Archons 
 A who had discharged the duties of their office unblamably, 
 
 held its sittings by night on the hill of Ares [" Mars' 
 Hill"]. To them was committed the trial of grave of- 
 fences, as well as the superintendence of public morals 
 and the education of youth. They possessed also the right 
 of investigating and annulling the decrees of the popular 
 assembly. 
 
 For the lower courts of justice 6000 men, above thirty years 
 of age (//Aiffra), were annually selected by lot from the assembly 
 of the people, and from them were chosen the Thesmothetae (gene- 
 rally from 500 to 600) required for the trial of each cause. 
 
 B After engraving on tables of wood and setting up on the 
 Acropolis his code of laws, which the people swore to 
 observe for 100 years, Solon travelled into Asia Minor, 
 Crete, and Egypt : but on his return he found the nation 
 still split into three factions, neither of which was satisfied 
 with the privileges which it had obtained. 
 
 265 PISISTRATUS, a mountain chieftain, of the race of 
 Codrus, having persuaded his countrymen that the wounds 
 inflicted by himself on his own person were the work of 
 his enemies, obtained a body-guard of club-bearers for his 
 protection, and with their assistance seized the Acropolis, 
 and became absolute sovereign of Athens (560). He was 
 twice expelled from the city, but each time returned : and 
 having at last obtained the confidence of the people, 
 embellished the city, founded the first library, and made a 
 collection of ancient poems, especially those of Homer. 
 
 266 The government was carried on in the same spirit by 
 c his eldest son HIPPIAS (527 510), who allowed a con- 
 siderable share in the administration to his brother HIP- 
 PARCHUS. This prince, who was an enthusiastic admirer 
 of poetry, was assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogei- 
 ton (from motives of private revenge, because the sistei 
 of Harmodius had been excluded by the Pisistratidse from 
 the Panathenian procession). After this event the ad- 
 ministration of Hippias became insufferably severe : ami 
 at length, after putting many persons to death, he was 
 expelled by the Alcmaeonidac, who had returned from 
 Macedonia, and were assisted by the Spartans, 1 the 
 enemies of all tyranny, and by the disaffected Athenians. 
 In the year 510, Hippias abandoned his country and 
 
 1 Under Cleomenes. 
 
267 270. 62.] EUROPE. GREECE. 135 
 
 sought an asylum at the court of the Persian king, 
 Darius I. 
 
 About the same time the DEMOCRACY was completely 267 
 established by the Alcmseonid Cleisthenes, whoA 
 endeavored to obliterate all historical family reminiscences 
 by dividing the people into ten local Phylse, to which he 
 gave entirely new names, and admitted into them many 
 foreigners. At the same time the number of senators was 
 increased to 500 (fifty for each Phyle), who were <iow 
 chosen by lot. An ineffectual attempt to overthrow the 
 new constitution was made by I sag 6 r as, at the head of 
 the aristocratic party, supported by the Spartans, who 
 were always favorable to the aristocratical form of 
 government. Cleisthenes and his party were compelled to B 
 retire from Athens, but soon returned. To him is ascribed 
 the invention of the Ostracism, a popular mode of banish- 
 ing from the city (generally for ten years) any person who, 
 in the opinion of the people, had become too powerful, 
 even although he was charged with no overt act. By this 
 arrangement, the democratic party possessed the power of 
 setting aside all whose wealth, talent, or merit rendered 
 them objects of jealousy. 
 
 62. The Grecian Colonies. 
 
 During this period (particularly from 750 to 650), a 268 
 number of Grecian colonies were established on the islands c 
 and coasts of the Mediterranean, the Propontis, and the 
 Black sea, partly for purposes of commerce, and partly as 
 a means of relieving the mother country from a super- 
 abundant population, or in consequence of political dis- 
 turbances. These settlements adopted for the most part 
 the constitution, manners, and institutions of the mother 
 country, and at a very early period had oligarchical or 
 aristocratical forms of government ; which, however, de- 
 generated, even sooner than in Greece proper, into demo- 
 cracies or tyrannies. They were entirely independent of D 
 the mother country, except in so far as they were induced 
 by piety to accord to her certain privileges and distinctions. 
 
 I. AEOLIAN, IONIAN, and DORIAN COLONIES on the 269 
 western coast of Asia Minor, see 57. 
 
 II. DORIAN COLONIES in Lower Italy, or Magna Grse- 270 
 cia : 1. Tarentum (see 60) ; 2. Locri Epizephyrii 
 
 7* 
 
136 EUROPE. GREECE. [271 273. 62. 
 
 (founded in the first instance by the Ozolian or Opuntian 
 Locrians, and afterwards re-settled by Messenian Dorians). 
 
 271 III. ACHJEAN COLONIES, in Lower Italy. 1. Croton; 
 A 2. Sybaris. After the destruction of this settlement by 
 
 the Crotoniates (510), another city named Thurii was 
 founded in the neighborhood by the Athenians (446). 
 
 The Sybarites founded Metapontum and Poseidonia, the latter of 
 which, under Lucanian rule, obtained the name of Poestum. 
 
 272 IV. CHALCIDIAN COLONIES : a. On the Thradan coast 
 (where the whole peninsula between the Thermaic and 
 Strymonic gulfs had the name of Chalcidice) were thirty- 
 two places (Olynthus, C hale is, &c.) all of Chalcidian 
 origin, b. In Lower Italy: 1. Cumae [or Cyme; in 
 
 B Greek /ti'/n/], the most ancient of all the Grecian settle- 
 ments in the west, and the mother-city of Neap 6l is; 3. 
 Rhegium. c. In Sicily : 1. Naxos (afterwards Tauro- 
 menium), with the daughter-cities of Leontini and 
 Cat an a; 2.Zancle (afterwards a Dorian city under the 
 name of Messana) ; 3. Himera. 
 
 273 V. DORIAN COLONIES: a. In Sicily, \. Syracuse 
 c founded about the year 735, by Archias, a Corinthian, on 
 
 the island of Ortygia. It subsequently became four cities : 
 
 2. The Hyblaean Megara (destroyed by the Syracusan 
 tyrant, Gelon, about 480), with its daughter city S e 1 1 n u s ; 
 
 3. Gela, with its daughter city Agrigentum (destroyed by 
 the Carthaginians in 405, and" restored by Timoleon). b. 
 A chain of Corinthian settlements on the coast of the 
 Ionian sea, viz. Leucas, Anactorium, Ambracia, 
 Apollonia, Epidamnus, and particularly Corcyra. 
 c. On the Thradan coast : 1. Potidsea (founded by Co- 
 rinth) ; 2. Byzantium (by Megara); d. On the Thradan 
 Bosporus, Chalcedon. 
 
 D Outline of the History of Syracuse. Syracuse underwent more 
 numerous changes of constitution than even her mother country, 
 Corinth (see 58). a. Aristocracy from the establishment of the 
 colony to the time of Gelon (735 484). During this period the 
 supreme authority was lodged in the hands of a few rich families 
 (Gamoroi), who were expelled by the democratic party and an in- 
 surrection of the slaves, but restored by Gelon, lord of Gela. 0. 
 Tyranny (488 466), under three brothers, who succeeded each 
 other in the following order Gelon, who overthrew the Cartha- 
 ginians at Himera on the same day as the battle of Salamis (480), 
 Hieron, and Thrasybulus. The last was deposed, after a reign of 
 eight months, on account of his cruelty, y. Democracy (466405), 
 
274 278. 63.] EUROPE. GREECE. _ 137 
 
 introduction of the Petalismus, for the purpose of expelling citizens (273) 
 who had become objects of suspicion. Attempt on Syracuse by the 
 Athenians (415413). i. Tyranny (405343), Dionysius I. and 
 his son Dionysius II. thrice waged war against Carthage ; Timoleon 
 being invited from Corinth to take the command of the Syracusans, 
 overthrew the Corinthians, expelled the tyrants, and re-established 
 c. the democracy (343 317). <. Tyranny (317 269), Agathocles 
 (317 289), took most of the Grecian cities in Sicily, and waged a 
 fresh war with the Corinthians (comp. 40. ii.). He was succeeded 
 by Maenon and Icetas. *. Kings (269 212). The reign of Hiero 
 II., who was chosen king on account of his victory over the Mamer- 
 lines, and carried on war for a short time against Rome (see 118), 
 was the most flourishing period of Syracusan history. His great 
 grandson, Hieronymus, made an alliance with the Carthaginians, 
 which occasioned the siege and capture of the city by Marcellus, 
 in 212. For Dionysius, v. Arnold's Rome, ch. 21. 
 
 VI. COLONIES OF MILETUS. a. On the Hellespont 274 
 Abydus and Lampsacus. b. On the Propontis B 
 
 C y z i c us. c. On the Pontus Euxinus S i n 6 p e (with its 
 daughter city Trapezus), Phasis,Tanais,atthe mouth 
 of the river Tanais, Panticapaeum, Olbia, at the 
 mouth of the Borysthcnes, Tomi, &c. 
 
 VII. COLONIES OF THE PHOCJSANS: Aleria on the 275 
 island of Corsica, and Massilia, on the southern coast 
 
 of Gallia. 
 
 VIII. COLONY OF ZACYNTHUS : Saguntum, on the east- 276 
 ern coast of Spain. c 
 
 The establishment of two colonies by Athens (Amphi- 
 polis in Macedonia, and Thurii in Magna Graecia), oc- 
 curs during the next period. For the colony established 
 in Gyrene, see 57. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 From the Persian wars to the Decline of 
 
 Grecian Independence, 500 338. 
 
 63. The Persian Wars. 
 
 (500 449.) 
 
 For the causes of the Persian wars (the participation 277 
 of the Athenians and Eretrians in the revolt of the D 
 lonians), see 21, b. 4. 
 
 A. DEFENSIVE WAR AGAINST THE PERSIANS, 492 479. 278 
 First campaign of the Persians under Mardonius (492) ; 
 second under Datis and Artaphernes (490). See 21, 
 b. 4. 
 
 After the victory of Marathon 29th Sept. 490), 
 
138 EUROPE. GREECE. [279. 63. 
 
 (278) Miltiades formed the design of chastising those islands 
 
 A of the ^Egean sea which had revolted to the Persians 
 during the war. This project succeeded as far as regarded 
 Lemnos, but his attempts to carry Paros being unsuccess- 
 ful, he was condemned on his return to pay a pecuniary 
 fine, which his son was compelled to raise after the death 
 of his father. The fate of Athens, after the decease of 
 Miltiades, was almost entirely in the hands of Themis- 
 tocles, and of Aristides, surnamed the "Just." 
 Themistocles having espoused the popular cause as the 
 
 B most likely mode of carrying out his ambitious views, 
 succeeded in obtaining the ostracism of his rival by spread- 
 ing a false report, that Aristides wished to exclude the 
 common people from the privilege of sitting as judges. 
 At the same time, he prevailed on them to pass a decree 
 authorizing the expenditure in ship-building of the revenue 
 arising from the silver mines of Laurion (thirty to forty 
 talents), which had hitherto been divided annually among 
 the people. This measure, dictated, as he pretended, by 
 
 c obedience to the oracle, which had counselled the Athe- 
 nians " to seek for shelter behind their wooden walls," was 
 in reality the result of that sharp-sighted policy, which 
 foresaw the preservation and future aggrandizement of 
 Athens, in the establishment of a naval power as a coun- 
 terpoise to the superiority of Lacedaemon by land. 
 279 THIRD CAMPAIGN OF THE PERSIANS IN 480. Even 
 the advance of an immense Persian army (comp. 21,. 
 B. 5) scarcely awakened the Greeks to a sense of the ne- 
 cessity of combined exertions. Thebes and the greater 
 
 D part of Boeotia openly took part with the barbarians, whilst 
 Sparta, at the head of the Peloponnesian league, was sup- 
 ported only by Athens and her allies, the cities of Thespise 
 and Plataese. An attempt to dispute the entrance of the in- 
 vading army into Thessaly by the pass of Tempe having 
 failed, the Spartan king Leonid as was detached, with 
 300 Spartans and 4900 Greek soldiers of other nations, to 
 defend the pass of Thermopylae ; a Greek fleet, under the 
 command of Eurybiades, a Spartan, being at the same 
 time stationed off the headland of Artemisium. As soon 
 as he heard of the treachery of Ephialtes, Leonidas dis- 
 missed all his allies except the Medizing 1 Thebans, and a 
 
 1 [To Medize = to favor the Mtdes.] 
 
280. 63.] EUROPE. GREECE. 139 
 
 little band of 700 Thespians who voluntarily remained at (279) 
 their post. After a brave resistance, the patriot army, A 
 consisting of these Thespians and 300 Spartans, was en- 
 tirely cut to pieces. The Thebans laid down their arms ; 
 and the Persian army, advancing without opposition, tra- 
 versed Attica, and burnt the city of Athens, which had 
 been abandoned by the inhabitants. Meanwhile, the Grecian 
 fleet having been twice engaged with the Persians off 
 Artemisium, without obtaining any decided advantage, 
 had retired to Salamis, where Themistocles(who had 
 already bribed Eurybiades to continue at his post, and now, 
 by means of a stratagem, compelled the Peloponnesians to 
 risk another engagement) obtained a splendid victory over 
 the Persian fleet on the 23d of September. 
 
 By a second stratagem of Themistocles (the destruction 280 
 of the bridge over the Hellespont), Xerxes was induced to B 
 hasten his return into Asia, leaving behind him in Thessaly 
 Mardonius, with 300,000 men. After fruitless negotiations 
 with the Greeks, carried on through the intervention of 
 Alexander king of Macedonia, Mardonius invaded Attica in 
 the year 479. The Athenians r abandoning their city for the 
 second time, fled for refuge to their ships and to the island of 
 Salamis. The Spartans now sent an army to the assistance c 
 of their allies ; and Mardonius, falling back on Boaotia, 
 was utterly defeated near Platsese (25th of September) 
 by the united forces of the Athenians under Aristides 
 (recalled from banishment to take the command), and the 
 Spartans under their king Pausanias. In this action Mar- 
 donius was slain, with the greater part of his army. The 
 rich camp of the invader was plundered by the conquerors, 
 and the city of Thebes closely besieged, until the leaders 
 of the Medizing faction were delivered up to Pausanias, 
 who put them all to death (at Corinth). On the same day D 
 the Persians (who had intrenched themselves behind a 
 bulwark, formed partly of their ships, which they had 
 hauled up on land near the promontory of My c ale, in 
 Asia Minor) were defeated by the Spartan king Leotychides, 
 and the Athenian Xanthippus. This battle, followed by 
 the destruction of the Persian camp and fleet, was the first 
 aggressive movement on the part of the Greeks, and pre- 
 pared the way for the liberation of the islands and the 
 restoration of independence to the Greeks of Asia Minor. 
 
140 EUROPE. GREECE. [281, 282. 63, 
 
 (280) Under the administration of Themistocles, Athens was 
 A rebuilt, on a more extensive scale, and the fortifications 
 completed .with astonishing rapidity, notwithstanding the 
 remonstrances of the Spartans, who viewed with distrust 
 the increasing power of their rivals. At the same time, 
 the commodious harbor of Piraeus was also completed and 
 fortified. As a reward for their bravery, Aristides obtained 
 the enactment of a law, by which citizens of the fourth 
 class were rendered eligible to all offices of state. 
 
 281 B. AGGRESSIVE MARITIME WAR AGAINST THE PERSIANS 
 B UNDER THE HEGEMONY OF ATHENS (478 449). The war 
 
 was continued by the allied fleet, under the command of 
 Pausanias, Aristides, and Cimon, with the view of expel- 
 ling the Persians from Thrace, the Greek islands, and the 
 colonies of Asia Minor. The greater part of Cyprus was 
 subdued, together with Byzantium ; but the haughty ar- 
 rogance of Pausanias so disgusted the allies, that they 
 transferred the maritime Hegemony from Sparta to Athens 
 (477 ?). The Spartans hereupon recalled Pausanias, and 
 refused to take any further part in the war against the 
 Persians, which was now carried on with considerable 
 success by the Athenians and their allies. 
 
 c The Hegemony of Sparta over the other Peloponnesian states 
 consisted in this that in all wars undertaken by general consent a 
 Spartan should take the command in chief of the allied army ; and 
 that all congresses and councils of the allies should be held at Sparta. 
 Until the Persian war this Hegemony was confined to the Pelopon- 
 nesus, but, in consequence of the almost universal participation 
 of the .Greeks in these wars, the system was so far extended, that at 
 the battle of Mycale Sparta found herself at the head of a con- 
 federacy, which, in addition to most of the states of the mother 
 country, comprehended also the colonies on the coast of Asia Minor. 
 Athens, on withdrawing from this Hegemony, naturally found allies 
 in the colonists (for the most part democratical), whom she had de- 
 livered from the Persian yoke, and over whom she already exercised 
 
 D a species of Hegemony, as the chief . maritime power. The tyranny 
 of Pausanias soon compelled, as we have seen, the rest of the allies 
 to withdraw from the Spartan Hegemony, and seek protection by 
 placing the Athenians at the head of the confederacy. The proposal 
 being willingly accepted, Aristides drew up a plan, in which the 
 relative duties of the allied powers were distinctly defined. Each 
 state was to furnish a contingent either of ships or money ; and the 
 island of Delos was to be the place of meeting for the congress, and 
 the depository of the common chest, the administration of which was 
 committed to the Athenians. 
 
 282 From this period commences the development of a 
 
283. 64.] EUROPE. GREECE. 141 
 
 fierce antagonism between the aristocratic and democratic (282) 
 states of Greece, which gradually split into two parties ; A 
 of which Athens and Sparta were respectively the heads 
 and representatives. But even in Athens itself there still 
 lingered a restless aristocratic faction, which persuaded the 
 people that danger was to be apprehended from the popu- 
 larity of Themistocles; and being aided by the secret 
 co-operation of Sparta, at length obtained his banishment by 
 ostracism in the year 473 (?). Themistocles retired, in the 
 first instance, to Argos ; but being accused of maintaining 
 a treasonable correspondence with the Persians, in con- 
 junction with Pausanias, he quitted that country, and 
 sought the protection of Artaxerxes I., who granted him 
 for his support the revenues of three cities (Magnesia, 
 My us, and Lampsacus.) He died (it is said, by drinking B 
 ox's blood ?) without attempting any thing against his 
 native country. Pausanias, who had been engaged in 
 secret negotiations with the Persians for the abolition of 
 the Ephorate and increase of the kingly power at Sparta, 
 escaped arrest by taking refuge in a temple, where he was 
 starved to death. Aristides died about the same time 
 (468 ?) in extreme poverty. After the banishment of 
 Themistocles, and the death of Aristides, Pericles seems 
 to have been the leader of the democratic party, and Ci- 
 m on, the son of Miltiades, of the aristocratic; the policy 
 of which was to keep the people employed by continuing 
 the war. Cimon, being appointed commander-in-chief c 
 of the army of the league, expelled the Persians from 
 Thrace, Caria, and Lycia ; defeated them, by sea and land, 
 on the river Eurymedon; and expended the booty ob- 
 tained by these victories in beautifying Athens, and join- 
 ing Piraeus to the city by means of the long walls. 
 
 64. The third Messenian War. 
 [465 (or 464) 456 (or 455).] 
 
 The Spartans were on the eve of invading Attica, for 283 
 the purpose of defeating the designs of the Athenians on D 
 the island of Thasus, when their preparations were arrested 
 by a tremendous earthquake, by which 20,000 persons lost 
 their lives. The oppressed Helots availed themselves of 
 this opportunity to make an attempt on the city, whilst it 
 
142 EUROPE. GREECE. [284. 65. 
 
 (283) lay in ruins, but finding the Spartans drawn up in arms, 
 A under the command of their king Archidamus, they re- 
 treated to Ithome, which they occupied in conjunction with 
 the Messenians. Through the influence of the aristocratic 
 party, particularly of Cimon, aid was afforded to the 
 Spartans by the people of Athens. Cimon himself marched 
 twice into Messenia, but as the place continued to hold out, 
 and he no longer possessed the confidence of the Spartans, 
 he was dismissed ; and in consequence of this disgrace 
 was banished by the ostracism, at the instance of the 
 B democratic party, headed by his rival Pericles. At length, 
 after sustaining a siege of ten years, tne Messenians were 
 permitted to depart uninjured, and occupy Naupactus, 
 which had been taken by the Athenians a short time pre- 
 viously from the Locri Ozolae. 
 
 65. The age of Pericles. 
 
 284 A. DEGENERACY OF THE ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY. 
 
 From the banishment of Cimon may be dated the com- 
 mencement of democratic supremacy, the people being 
 entirely governed by the influence of its leaders ; among 
 whom the most powerful was Pericles, the son of Xan- 
 thippus, a man who, although he had never filled the 
 office of Archon, exercised almost unlimited control as a 
 popular orator and commander during a period of forty 
 c years (468 429). The means of carrying out his various 
 innovations were principally afforded by the removal of 
 the exchequer of the league from Delos to Athens. Ever 
 since the Athenians had supplied shipping and troops, for 
 the purpose of carrying on the war, in return for the pe- 
 cuniary contingents of the allies, they had been in the 
 habit of looking on the common treasury as their own 
 property, and instead of employing the finances against 
 D Persia, had applied them to their own purposes. To such 
 an extent was this abuse carried, that the funds contributed 
 by the allies of Athens were even used as an instrument 
 for destroying the independence of those who had supplied 
 them ; it being, of course, requisite that all lawsuits con- 
 nected with these finances should be decided at Athens by 
 the Heliasts. Besides this, all the allies (among whom 
 were now included all the Grecian cities on the coasts of 
 
285 287. 65.] EUROPE. GREECE. 143 
 
 Macedonia and Thrace, as well as those on the western (284) 
 and southern shores of Asia Minor, as far as Pamphylia, A 
 and the islands of the jEgean sea) were not only compelled, 
 after the conclusion of the Persian war, to continue the 
 payment of war-taxes, but these contributions were gra- 
 dually raised to double the original amount. With such 
 ^esources at his disposal, Pericles not only embellished the 
 city with the most magnificent buildings, but also found 
 means of inducing the poorer citizens to take a greater 
 interest in public affairs, by granting them a remuneration 
 for their attendance at the public assemblies and in the 
 courts of justice. He also introduced the practice of B 
 paying the army, and discharged out of the public ex- 
 chequer the fees required from the poorer classes for 
 admission to the theatre. As the only obstacle to his 
 design of raising the lower orders, and by consequence 
 increasing his own power, was found in the Areopagus, 
 now the sole representative of aristocratic interests, 
 Pericles obtained (on the motion of one Ephialtes) a 
 decree that the right of deciding certain causes, as well as 
 the guardianship of public morals, and the superintendence 
 of the public treasure, should be withdrawn from that 
 court. 
 
 B. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC WARS DURING THIS 285 
 PERIOD. 
 
 1. THE PARTICIPATION OF THE ATHENIANS IN THE 286 
 INSURRECTION OF THE EGYPTIANS, AND OF THE SATRAP c 
 INARUS (460 455) AGAINST THE PERSIANS, ended with 
 the blockade of the Athenian fleet in the Nile, off the 
 island of Prosopitis (see 21, B. 6). 
 
 2. WAR OF THE ATHENIANS WITH THE SPARTANS 287 
 AND BOEOTIANS (457 450). In order to establish in 
 Boeotia a counterpoise to the power of Athens, by re- 
 storing the influence formerly possessed by the aristocratic 
 government of Thebes, the Spartans, under pretence of 
 expelling the Phocians who had invaded the Doric father- 
 land, sent an army into central Greece. But all the ad- D 
 vantages which they and their allies, the Bosotian and 
 Athenian oligarchs, expected to have gained by the victory 
 
 of Tanagra (457), were soon neutralized by a victory 
 obtained by the Athenians, under My ronides (near (Eno- 
 
144 EUROPE. GREECE. [288 '290. 66 
 
 (287) phyta) ; in consequence of which, the Boeotians, Phocians. 
 A and Opuntian Locrians, joined the Athenian confederacy. 
 As a severe struggle with Sparta was apprehended, Pericles 
 consented to the recall of Cimon, and, through his inter- 
 vention, obtained an armistice for five years with the 
 Peloponnesians (450). 
 
 288 3. After their reconciliation with Sparta, a fresh cam- 
 paign against the Persians was undertaken by the 
 Athenians, at the instance of Cimon, who engaged to re- 
 duce the island of Cyprus, but died whilst blockading 
 Citium. On their way home, his fleet and land army 
 overthrew the Egyptians at Salamis of Cyprus (449). 
 
 289 4. WAR OF THE ATHENIANS AGAINST THE BOSOTIAN 
 B ARISTOCRACY (447). A number of aristocratically dis- 
 posed citizens, exiles from those Boeotian cities which had 
 been compelled to join the Athenian confederacy, having 
 united for the purpose of expelling the Athenians, a battle 
 was fought at Co rone a (447), where Tolmides was slain, 
 and the Boeotians gained such a victory as enabled them 
 to attain their object. The Peloponnesians, after the ex- 
 piration of the five years' armistice, having invaded Attica, 
 for the purpose of embarrassing Pericles in his endeavors 
 to reconquer the revolted island of Euboea, the Athenian 
 commander, in order to secure the island, concluded a truce 
 
 c with the Peloponnesians for thirty years (445). The con- 
 ditions of this treaty were, that all places taken from the 
 Peloponnesians during the war should be given up ; and 
 that Athens and Sparta should each confirm and respect 
 the Hegemony of the other ; but unfortunately permis- 
 sion was, at the same time, granted to the neutral states 
 to join the alliance or not, as they might think fit, an 
 arrangement which laid the foundation of fresh disputes. 
 
 66. The Peloponnesian War. 
 
 (431_404.) 
 200 CAUSES. 1. The opposition between the ARIS- 
 
 D TOCRATICAL PARTY and that DEMOCRATIC ELEMENT, which 
 
 was rapidly acquiring the ascendency, in spite of the re- 
 sistance offered by Lacedaemon and the other aristocratic 
 states. One of the most prominent signs of this antago- 
 nism was the jealousy between Athens and Sparta, 
 
291 293. 66.] EUROPE. GREECE. 145 
 
 created by the transfer of the Hegemony to Athens, and (290) 
 the fortification of that city; a feeling which had been A 
 aggravated by the insult offered to Athens in the dismissal 
 of her troops during the third Messenian war, and by the 
 active participation of the rival powers in the political 
 disputes of other states. 2. The discontent of the allies, 
 who were treated as vassals by Athens, and had made 
 several ineffectual attempts to throw off the yoke. 
 
 IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF HOSTILITIES 1. A War be- 291 
 twcen Corcyra and Corinth (434 432). Epidamnus, a B 
 colony of Corcyra, being hard pressed by her banished 
 nobles in conjunction with the Illyrian barbarians, and 
 having applied in vain to the mother-country for assistance, 
 had admitted troops sent by Corinth, the mother-country 
 of Corcyra. Hence the war between Corcyra and Corinth. 
 The Corcyraeans obtain a victory (off Actium), blockade 
 Epidamnus, and conclude an alliance with the Athenians, 
 who take part in a third, but indecisive, engagement ; 
 and through this alliance extend their authority to the 
 coasts of the Ionian sea. 2. The revolt of Potidcea, c 
 a Corinthian colony, from Athens, in disgust at a command 
 issued by the Athenians, that they should pull down the 
 walls of their city. The Potidseans, although supported 
 by Corinth, are conquered, and their city blockaded. At 
 a congress of the Peloponnesian powers, held at Sparta, 
 by desire of the Corinthians, war against Athens is resolved 
 }n, principally at the instigation of the Corinthians and 
 Megarseans, in opposition to the advice of king Archidamus. 
 
 ALLIES. a. Of Athens. Thessalian cavalry Acarnanians the 292 
 Messeniana in Naupactus, Plataeae, almost all the islands of the 
 JEgean sea, and in the Ionian sea Corcyra and Zacynthus ; most of 
 the Greek cities on the western coast of Asia Minor, the Hellespont, 
 and the shores of Thrace, b. Of Sparta. The whole of Pelopon- 
 nesus, except Argos and Achaia, which remained neutral, Megara, 
 Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, the island of Leucas, and the cities of Am- 
 bracia and Anactorium. 
 
 I. TEN YEARS' WAR [o fcxaEir/s nofonoq] TO THE FIFTY 
 
 YEARS' TRUCE OF NICIAS. 
 
 (431_421.) 
 
 The war commenced with the invasion of Attica by the 293 
 Peloponnesians, under Archidamus, which was regularly 
 repeated every year ; the Athenians making reprisals by 
 sending a fleet to ravage the coasts of Peloponnesus. As the 
 
146 EUROPE. GREECE. [294, 295. 66. 
 
 (293) Athenians evaded their enemies by land, and the Spartans 
 A shrunk from a naval engagement, neither party obtained any 
 decided advantage. The inhabitants of Attica, by the advice 
 of Pericles, sought refuge within the walls of the city ; 
 where a pestilence [the famous Plague] broke out, which, 
 among its numerous victims, carried off Pericles himself 
 (B. c. 439). After his death the democracy of Athens 
 degenerated into an unbridled oligarchy. The blockaded 
 city of Potidaea was reduced in 430; and the island of 
 Lesbos, the whole of which, with the exception of Me- 
 thymna, had also thrown off its allegiance to Athens, was 
 compelled (the relief promised by Sparta having arrived 
 B too late) to surrender at discretion (427). By the advice 
 of Cleon, sentence of death was passed on all the inhabi- 
 tants of Mitylene, but on the following day it was com- 
 muted into an order for the execution of the principal con- 
 spirators. One thousand of the most distinguished Lesbians 
 were nevertheless put to death, their ships of war taken 
 away, and the whole island (with the exception of Me- 
 thymna) assigned to the Athenians in 3000 lots. 
 
 294 In the year 429 the Athenians sent a fleet to the assistance of the 
 Leontines, who were engaged in war with Syracuse. Demosthenes, 
 who accompanied a second fleet destined for the same service, landed 
 in the dismantled port of Pylos, which he fortified, but was soon 
 blockaded by the Spartans, both by sea and land ; a situation from 
 which he was delivered by Eurymedon. The Spartans stationed on 
 the island of Sphacteria, opposite Pylos, being cut off from the main 
 army by Eurymedon, were taken prisoners by Cleon [the demagogue, 
 to whom the command had been given, as a practical joke, that he 
 might make good his frequent assertions, that if the generals were 
 men, the Lacedaemonians might be captured with ease] (425). 
 
 295 In the year 424 the Athenians took the important 
 island of Cythera, and ravaged the Laconian coast ; but 
 their good fortune had now reached its greatest height, for 
 the next year they were defeated by the Boeotians at 
 Delium (where Alcibiades saved the life of Socrates) ; and 
 about the same time several of their colonies in Chalcidice, 
 including Amphipolis itself, were wrested from them by 
 the Spartan commander Brasidas (Thucydides rescued 
 
 D Eion, but was nevertheless banished). For the purpose of 
 reconquering these cities, Cleon was dispatched with an 
 army to the Macedonian coast ; but being forced by Bra- 
 sidas to risk an engagement, he was defeated at AMPHIPOLIS 
 
296, 297. 66.] EUROPE. GREECE. 147 
 
 in 422. Both generals having fallen in the engagement, (295) 
 a truce for fifty years was negotiated by Nicias; it A 
 being stipulated that each party should be placed in the 
 position which it had occupied before the commencement 
 of the war. 
 
 II. FROM THE RENEWAL OF THE WAR TO THE ISSUE OF 
 THE EXPEDITION AGAINST SICILY. 
 
 (418413.) 
 
 As some of the Dorian states were dissatisfied with the peace of 296 
 Nicias, a confederation for its maintenance was formed between 
 Athens and Sparta, which produced the establishment of a counter- 
 league between Argos, Elis, and Mantinea. But presently complaints 
 arose on both sides respecting the non-fulfilment of certain articles of 
 the treaty ; and Alcibiades, availing himself of the misunderstand- 
 ing thus created between Athens and Sparta, persuaded the Athenians 
 to renounce their alliance with Sparta, and join the Argive confeder- 
 acy. The Lacedaemonians and their allies, although they obtained a 
 victory over the army of the league at Mantinea in 418, were unable 
 to prevent a renewal of the treaty between Argos and Athens. 
 
 THE EXPEDITION AGAINST SICILY (415413). The 297 
 Athenians, being invited to aid the inhabitants of Egesta, B 
 in Sicily, against Syracuse and Selinus, were persuaded 
 by Alcibiades (in opposition to the advice of Nicias) to 
 send thither a fleet of 134 ships, under the command of 
 Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus. The expedition had 
 scarcely landed, and commenced the blockade of Catana, 
 when the Salaminia (the vessel employed for conveying 
 sacred embassies) arrived, with dispatches to Alcibiades, 
 commanding his immediate return to Athens, that he might 
 defend himself against a charge of mutilating the statues 
 of Hermes, and profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. 
 Alcibiades escaped by landing at Thurii, whence he pro- 
 ceeded to Argos, and being condemned to death at Athens, 
 sought an asylum at Sparta, where he persuaded the gov- 
 ernment to support the Syracusans. Meanwhile, Nicias c. 
 was victorious in a battle fought under the walls of Syra- 
 cuse ; and the city, being closely invested, was on the eve 
 of surrender, when Gy lippus came to its assistance with 
 a Spartan fleet. Nicias also received a reinforcement, 
 commanded by Eurymedon and Demosthenes ; but the 
 Syracusans, who were now supported by all the Greek 
 cities in Sicily, except Agrigentum, obtained a victory over 
 the Athenian fleet, which they blockaded in the port. 
 
148 EUROPE. - GREECE. [298. 66. 
 
 (297) A last attempt to break through the blockading line having 
 A entirely failed, the crews abandoned their vessels, and 
 commencing a retreat by land, were taken prisoners by 
 the enemy. Nicias and Demosthenes were put to death, the 
 prisoners thrown into the stone quarries, and after seventy 
 days of suffering, the survivors (with the exception of the 
 Athenians, Siceliotes, and Italiotes) were sold as slaves. 
 
 III. THE DECELEAN WAR. 
 
 298 Following the advice of Alcibiades, the Spartan army, 
 E under the command of their king Agis, invaded Attica, 
 and fortified Decelea, which thenceforward became the 
 stronghold from which parties were sent out to ravage the 
 country. At the same time, 20,000 runaway Athenian 
 slaves joined the expedition. The resources of their allies 
 being utterly exhausted, the Athenians were compelled to 
 substitute for the direct tax hitherto paid a duty of five 
 per cent., ad valorem, on all articles imported and ex- 
 ported; a grievance which occasioned the revolt of many 
 c of their allies in Asia Minor. Whilst Athens was thus 
 deprived of all those resources which secured to the Demos 
 a majority in the courts of justice and public assemblies, 
 Sparta was receiving subsidies for the war from Tissa- 
 phernes, the Persian lieutenant in Caria. Every disaster 
 " was now laid to the charge of the democracy ; and the 
 oligarchical faction, whose secret intrigues had been long 
 preparing the way for such a revolution, availed themselves 
 of the absence of those sturdy burghers who were serving 
 in the fleet, and of the utter despair of the multitude, to 
 D overthrow the existing constitution. The supreme au- 
 thority was vested in an oligarchical council of 400, by 
 whom the number of citizens allowed to be present at the 
 popular assemblies was limited to 5,000. As the election 
 and convocation of these representatives was entirely de- 
 pendent on the will of the council, the authority of the 
 people became merely nominal, whilst that of the oligarchy 
 was unlimited. By the advice, however, of ThrasybQlus, 
 the men who were serving on board the fleet stationed off 
 Samos, plod^d themselves to support the democracy, and 
 recalled Alcibiados, who persuaded Tissaphernes to re- 
 nounce the league with Sparta. It was with difficulty that 
 
299, 300. 66.] EUROPE. GREECE. 149 
 
 the general restrained his army from marching upon (298) 
 Athens ; but such a measure was rendered unnecessary by A 
 the overthrow of the oligarchical faction, after a reign of 
 four months, in consequence of a suspicion that they had 
 been engaged in a treasonable correspondence with Sparta. 
 The ancient senate resumed its functions; but as the 
 government no longer possessed the means of remunerating 
 a large number of citizens for their attendance at the pop- 
 ular assemblies, the supreme authority still remained in 
 the hands of the 5,000. 
 
 ALCIBIADES A SECOND TIME COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, 295 
 411-407. The Spartan fleet, under Mindarus, which had B 
 sailed for the Hellespont in order to join Pharnabazus, 
 satrap of Bithynia, was twice defeated in the neighbor, 
 hood of Abydos (off Kvvog ("j/u)> and annihilated off 
 CYZICUS by Alcibiades in 410. After subduing the coasts 
 of the Hellespont and Propontis, and taking Chalcedon 
 and Byzantium, Alcibiades returned in triumph to Athens 
 (407), where he revived the celebration of the Eleusinian 
 mysteries, but was soon deprived of his unlimited com- 
 mand, in consequence of the defeat, during his absence, of 
 his lieutenant Antiochus by Lysander (near Notium). 
 Alcibiades retired to the Thracian Chersonese ; and ten c 
 generals, of whom Conon was one, were appointed to 
 succeed him. At Sparta, also, there was a change of com- 
 manders-in- chief. Lysander was succeeded as Nauarch 
 by Callicratidas, who, with a superior force, blockaded 
 Conon in the harbor of Mitylene, but was defeated by a 
 newly-equipped Athenian fleet off the Arginusian islands, 
 and lost his own life in the engagement. 
 
 Of the. ten Athenian generals, eight were condemned to death for 
 having neglected to save the shipwrecked seamen after a storm, and 
 to collect the bodieo of those who were drowned. Six of them were 
 executed, and the remaining two banished. 
 
 Lysander, being again appointed admiral of the Spartan 300 
 fleet, annihilated that of Athens at jEgospotamos (opoo- D 
 site to Lampsacus), in 405. Of the whole force only nine 
 ships were saved, with which Conon effected his escane to 
 Cyprus. He also subjugated all the allies of the Athe- 
 nians, except Samos, introduced aristocratic constitutions 
 with Spartan magistrates (Harmostoe), and blockaded the 
 Piraeus ; whilst Athens was beleaguered, at the same time. 
 
150 EUROPE. GREECE. [301, 302. 67. 
 
 (300; on the land side by the garrison of Decelea, under Agis, 
 A and a Spartan army, under Pausanias. After a siege of 
 four months, Athens was compelled by famine to capitu- 
 late, deliver up her fleet (except twelve ships), dismantle 
 the long walls and the fortifications of Piraeus ; recall her 
 banished citizens, receive an aristocratic constitution, en- 
 gage to furnish assistance to the Spartans in all their wars, 
 and place her armies under the command of a Spartan 
 general-in-chief. With the fall of Athens perished also 
 the democratic principle ; and for a long period we hear no 
 more of the struggles between the aristocratic and popular 
 parties. 
 i 
 
 67. The Hegemony of Sparta. 
 
 301 As many of the Athenian allies during, and in conse- 
 B quence of, the war, had placed themselves under the pro- 
 tection of Sparta (an example which Athens herself was 
 obliged to follow, now that peace was established), the 
 whole of Hellas was in effect subject to an authority, 
 which was soon found to be as odious as it was oppressive, 
 on account of the favor shown to a despotic oligarchy, as 
 well as the establishment of garrisons and Harmosts in all 
 those places which had formerly been in alliance with 
 Athens ; and also on account of the extortion practised by 
 
 c the Spartan government. Those states, especially Thebes 
 and Corinth, which had taken a part in the war simply 
 with the view of crushing the dangerous power of Athens, 
 had never intended that Sparta should acquire through 
 their exertions a decided preponderance in Greece. When, 
 therefore, the demand of the Thebans, that Athens should 
 be demolished, was rejected by Sparta, on the ground of her 
 intending to retain it under her own influence, as a barrier 
 against Bceotia, they so far changed their political creed 
 as to advocate the restoration of Athenian democracy and 
 independence, which had previously been the objects of 
 their bitterest hatred. 
 
 302 1. THE SUPREMACY OF THE THIRTY AT ATHENS, 
 D 404 403. A change in the constitution was effected by 
 
 the election, at the instance of Lysandcr, of thirty men, all 
 taken from the former body of 400, and invested, accord- 
 ing to the practice of antiquity, with supreme power during 
 the continuance of their office. As soon as these persons 
 
303, 304. 67.] EUROPE. GREECE. 151 
 
 considered their authority firmly established by the admis- (302? 
 sion into the acropolis of a Spartan garrison, and the dis- A 
 arming of all citizens, except 3000 who were known to 
 be oligurchically inclined, there followed a number of im- 
 peachments, executions (1400? it is said), and banish- 
 ments, at the instigation principally of one Critias, a rene- 
 gade disciple of Socrates. One of their own number, 
 Theramenes, who had been the first to suggest more hu- 
 mane measures, was condemned to death, and compelled to 
 drink poison in prison. Alcibiades, having also become 
 an object of suspicion to the Spartans, was attacked and 
 slain in Phrygia by Pharnabazus, at the instance of Ly- 
 eander. Happily ibr Athens, the Spartans and Thebans B 
 were now at variance, and Thebes received the Athenian 
 exiles, notwithstanding the prohibition of the Spartans. 
 Under the command ofThrasybulus, these exiles made 
 themselves masters of the frontier fortress of Phyle, and, 
 having overthrown the troops of the oligarchs, took pos- 
 session also of Piraeus, where a battle was fought, in which 
 the Thirty were defeated, and Critias lost his life. The 
 places of the Thirty, most of whom had fled to Eleusis, 
 were supplied by ten oligarchs (one from each Phyle), who 
 were supported by Lysander, and manifested a disposition 
 to reign as despotically as their predecessors. But the c 
 Spartan king Pausanias, being jealous of the reputation of 
 Lysander, now entered into a compact with Thrasybulus; 
 in consequence of which both the Thirty and the Ten were 
 set aside, a general amnesty proclaimed (from which, how- 
 ever, the Thirty were excluded), and, in place of the de- 
 generate democracy, the laws of Solon were restored in 
 all their purity, with such modifications as a commission 
 appointed for that purpose should deem necessary to meet 
 the wants of more modern times. 
 
 2. WAR OF THE SPARTANS WITH THE PERSIANS. At 303 
 first for the support of the younger Cyrus, and afterwards D 
 for the liberation and protection of the Greeks in Asia 
 Minor (see 90, p. 56). 
 
 3. THE CORINTHIAN WAR, 394 387. For the pur- 304 
 pose of rendering abortive the plans of Agesilaus against 
 the Persian empire, the Persian satrap Tithraustes, suc- 
 cessor of Tissaphernes, availing himself of the universal 
 discontent, succeeded, by means of bribery, in persuading 
 
152 EUROPE. GREECE. [304. 67. 
 
 (304) the democrats in Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, to promote 
 
 A a war with Sparta ; the Athenians, although they had re- 
 ceived no subsidy from Persia, declaring themselves ready 
 to join the confederacy. That there might be a pretext 
 for the war, the Thebans incited the Opuntian Locrians to 
 make a predatory incursion into the territory of Phocis, 
 and supported them in their undertaking. The Phocians 
 applied for aid to the Lacedaemonians; and Lysander, 
 having joined their army in Bceotia, fell in a skirmish 
 under the walls of Haliartus. As the confederation 
 against the unpopular Hegemony of Sparta was rapidly 
 
 B extending itself, Agesilaus was recalled from Asia. Mean- 
 while the Lacedaemonians had obtained a victory over the 
 confederates, who had drawn together their forces at 
 Corinth for the puj^ose of enabling the wavering Pelo- 
 ponnesians to liberate themselves from the Spartan yoke ; 
 but their fleet was annihilated by that of Persia, under the 
 command of the Athenian exile Conon (off Cnidus, in 
 394) ; in consequence of which almost all the maritime 
 
 c powers joined Pharnabazus and Conon. Agesilaus, con- 
 cealing this disaster from his army, traversed Thrace with- 
 out sustaining any considerable interruption on the part of 
 the allies, and obtained a victory at Co rone a, whither the 
 allies had detached only a portion of the army which they 
 had assembled at Corinth. Conon and Pharnabazus, having 
 expelled the Spartan Harmosts from the Greek cities of 
 Asia Minor and the islands, sailed for Greece, and ravaged 
 the coasts of Laconia. By means of Persian gold, Conon 
 was enabled to rebuild the walls of Athens, and to restore 
 for a short time to his native city the maritime supremacy 
 which had been lost by Sparta and abandoned by the 
 
 D Persians. To withdraw the Persians from their alliance 
 with Athens, the Spartans sent their Nauarch Antalcidas to 
 the Persian court with proposals of peace, engaging to 
 leave the Persian monarch in possession of the Asiatic con- 
 tinent, provided the islands and other Greek states were 
 permitted to be independent. On these terms, the PEACE 
 OF ANTALCIDAS, as it was called, was concluded in the year 
 387 ; by means of which Sparta obtained the dissolution 
 of every kind of supremacy exercised by one Grecian 
 city over others [e. g. the Thebans over the Boeotian 
 cities]. 
 
305, 306. 68.] EUROPE. GREECE. 153 
 
 In the island of Cyprus, which had been assigned to king Arta- A 
 xerxes II., king Euagoras maintained himself in Salamis ; and the 
 Athenians continued to hold Leninos, Imbros, and Scyros, which 
 they had taken in the Persian war. 
 
 4. THE OLYNTHIAN WAR (383 379.) Olynthus having induced 305 
 several Greek and Macedonian cities in Chalcidice and Thrace to 
 form a confederacy, into which she was endeavoring to force the re- 
 cusant cities of Acanthus and Apollonia, the Spartans sent an army 
 into that country ; and after carrying on the war for three years (during 
 which they sustained considerable losses), compelled the Olynthians 
 to abandon their conquests, and join the Spartan Symmachia, on 
 condition of retaining their independence. 
 
 68. The War between Thebes and Sparta. 
 
 (378362.) 
 
 In Thebes, where the oligarchical and democratical par- 306 
 ties were at that time equally balanced, there stood at the B 
 head of affairs, as Polemarchs, in the year 383, the de- 
 mocrat Ismenias, and the oligarch Leontiades. In order 
 to annihilate the democracy, the latter of these leaders 
 persuaded the Spartan general Phcebidas, who had en- 
 camped in the vicinity of Thebes, on his march to Olynthus, 
 to attack the city in time of peace, and take possession of the 
 Cadmea [or citadel of Thebes], which Leontiades was willing 
 to surrender into his hands. Ismenias was put to death ; and 
 the rest of the democrats, among whom was Pelopidas, fled 
 to Athens, where they found the same hospitality which the 
 fugitive Athenian democrats had experienced from the 
 Thebans twenty years before. Pelopidas, having called c 
 on his companions in exile to assist him in delivering their 
 native city from the dominion of 'the aristocrats and 
 Spartans, twelve conspirators entered Thebes in disguise, 
 and assassinated the leaders of the aristocratic party during 
 the celebration of a festival ; Leontiades being put to 
 death in his own house by his rival Pelopidas. The 
 Spartan garrison in the citadel were compelled, by want 
 of provisions, to capitulate, on condition of being allowed 
 free egress ; and the democratic ascendency was re-esta- 
 blished. Soon afterwards the Spartan kings Cleombrotus D 
 and Agesilaus appeared in Boeotia at the head of an army, 
 which made repeated incursions into the Theban territory, 
 but with so little success, that the Spartans were advised 
 by their confederates to try their fortune by sea. Here, 
 however, the Spartans found themselves opposed by an 
 Athenian force far superior to their own (the Athenians 
 
154 EUROPE. GREECE. [307. 68. 
 
 (306) having succeeded in forming, on equitable terms, a new 
 A Symmachia of seventy cities). Two victories, gained by 
 the Athenians (at Naxos, under the command of Chabrias, 
 and off the promontory of Leucadia, under Timotheus, 
 the son of Conon), annihilated the Spartan fleet, and se- 
 cured the adherence of those maritime powers which had 
 been previously wavering. Having thus established her 
 authority over the maritime states, Athens now sought to 
 secure it by a general peace, which the Thebans refused to 
 recognize, because they were not permitted to sign the 
 B treaty in the name of the Boeotians. In consequence of 
 this refusal, Bceotia was again invaded by Cleombrotus, 
 who was defeated and slain byEpaminondas (who had 
 concentrated all his strength against the wing command- 
 ed by the king), and the sacred band of Pel op id as, 
 on the plain of Leuctra, in 371. This defeat of the 
 Spartans having hastened the defection of their allies in 
 Peloponnesus, the Thebans, in the hope of promoting this 
 movement, and raising a supremacy of their own on the 
 ruins of Sparta, invaded Peloponnesus, and, in conjunction 
 c with the Arcadians, Argives, and Eleans, prepared to at- 
 tack Sparta itself. Their cavalry had already advanced as 
 far as the Hippodrome, when the unexpected opposition 
 which they encountered, in addition to the want of pro- 
 visions and unfavorable season of the year, compelled 
 them to abandon the attempt, in order that their entire 
 force might be available (according to the terms of the 
 peace of Antalcidas), for the re-establishment of Messenian 
 independence. The newly-built cities of Messene and 
 Megalopolis were intended to form with Tegea and Argos 
 a chain of fortresses, sufficient to restrain the Spartans 
 from any further encroachments on Peloponnesus ; but on 
 the advance of the Athenians, who were unwilling that 
 either Sparta or Thebes should become too powerful, the 
 Theban army was compelled to retire. 
 
 D A second invasion of Peloponnesus had no effect beyond securing 
 the accession of Sicyon, an ally it is true of some importance ; and a 
 third ended in the temporary subjection of Achaia. 
 
 307 In the north the Thebans undertook three several ex- 
 peditions (368 364) against Alexander, the ferocious 
 tyrant of Pherse, for the purpose of delivering the Thes- 
 salians. In the first campaign their leader Pelopidas was 
 
308. 69.] EUROPE. GREECE. 155 
 
 made prisoner, but was rescued in the second by Epami- (307) 
 nondas, and in the third fell in the moment of victory at A 
 CYNOSCEPHALE. The Thebans exerted themselves man- 
 fully to avenge the death of their beloved leader, and 
 compelled the tyrant to conclude a humiliating peace. 
 Soon after the death of Pelopidas, a fourth campaign in 
 Peloponnesus was undertaken by Epaminondas, in con- 
 sequence of dissensions among the Arcadians. Their 
 chief magistrates had begun to employ the treasures of the 
 temple at Olympia for the purpose of paying their 
 mercenary troops ; and when a portion of the Arcadians, 
 among whom the Mantineans were most forward, pro- 
 tested against this dishonest practice, had applied for 
 assistance to the Thebans. After a second unsuccessful B 
 attempt on Sparta, Epaminondas fell in the battle of 
 MANTINEA, where his troops were victorious (362). In 
 the confusion consequent on the death of their leader, the 
 Thebans made so little use of their victory, that both 
 parties erected trophies. The Greek states were now so 
 thoroughly exhausted, that they were compelled to con- 
 clude a peace, to which Sparta for a long time refused to 
 accede, on account of her unwillingness to recognize the 
 independence of Messenia. Agesilaus died as he was 
 returning from an expedition into Egypt, undertaken for 
 the purpose of putting down an insurrection against the 
 Persians. 
 
 $ 69. Tlie War of the Confederates against Athens. 
 (357355.) 
 
 The exaction of a larger amount of tribute from the 308 
 allies provoked the most powerful among them, CHIOS, c 
 RHODES, Cos, and BYZANTIUM (supported by the Carian 
 king Mausolus II.), to renounce their allegiance to Athens. 
 After a struggle, which lasted three years, the Athenians 
 (who after the death of.Chabrias had been commanded by 
 Iphicrates and Timotheus), when they found themselves 
 threatened also with war by Artaxerxes III., (against 
 whom Chares had supported the revolted satrap Arta- 
 bazus,) and saw Philip of Macedonia advancing in his 
 career of victory, were compelled to recognize the inde- 
 pendence of their revolted allies, and remit the tribute. 
 Thus their newly established (since 377) naval supre- 
 
156 EUROPE. GREECE. [309, 310. 70. 
 
 (308) macy was a second time annihilated, and Greece lost the 
 A assistance of the only state which could have protected 
 her liberties. 
 
 70. The Phocian or Sacred War. 
 (355346.) 
 
 309 CAUSES. Many years before the breaking out of this 
 war, the Phocians had been sentenced by the Amphic- 
 tyonic council at Delphi to pay a pecuniary mulct, as a 
 punishment for having occupied a tract of land near 
 
 sCirrha, belonging to the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 
 None however had ventured to enforce the sentence, until 
 the Thebans, who viewed the Phocians in the light of 
 enemies, as being allies of the subjugated Boeotian states, 
 persuaded the Amphictyons to demand payment of the 
 fine. The Phocians, in conjunction with the Spartans, 
 who had also been condemned to pay a fine for their 
 occupation of the Cadmea, now took forcible possession 
 of the. temple at Delphi, the superintendence and guardian- 
 ship of which had formerly been wrested from them by 
 the Delphians, and, as soon as war was declared against 
 them by the Amphictyons, applied the treasures of the 
 
 c temple to the payment of hired troops. On the other 
 hand the Thebans were joined by the Locrians, and almost 
 all the nations of northern Greece. 
 
 310 Under the command of their general Philomel us, the 
 Phocians made head against the Locrians and Thessalians, 
 but were defeated by the Thebans in an engagement in 
 which Philomelus, to avoid falling into the hands of the 
 enemy, threw himself headlong from a rock. His brother 
 and successor Onomarchus, was enabled to continue the 
 war by means of fresh funds drawn from the treasury at 
 
 D Delphi. The principal theatre of hostilities was now 
 Thessaly, the Phocians having formed an alliance with the 
 tyrants of Pherae, the ancient enemies of Thessaly, and 
 the Thessalians on their part having applied for assistance 
 to Philip king of Macedonia. After many vicissitudes, 
 the Phocians were at length compelled to yield to the 
 Thessalian cavalry and Macedonian tactics ; Onomarchus 
 was slain in attempting to escape, and the prisoners were 
 thrown into the sea. The treasures of the temple how- 
 
311, 312. 71.] EUROPE. GREECE. 157 
 
 ever were not yet exhausted, and hostilities were still (310) 
 carried on against the Thebans, by the Phocians, under A 
 Phayllus, the brother of their two former leaders, un- 
 successfully at first ; but subsequently with such decided 
 advantage, that the Thebans were compelled to call in 
 Philip II. of Macedonia. This crafty monarch so com- 
 pletely deceived the Phocians, who had also applied to 
 him for assistance, that many of the Phocian cities 
 voluntarily placed themselves at his disposal, and others 
 were reduced with very little difficulty. By a decree of B 
 the Amphictyonic council (pronounced, it would seem, 
 only by the Thebans, Locrians, and the Thessalian tribes), 
 the Phocian cities were deprived of their walls, the in- 
 habitants dispersed, their arms and horses taken from 
 them, restitution of the Delphic treasure enforced, and the 
 two votes of the Phocians in the Amphictyonic council 
 given to Philip, who was also, in conjunction with the 
 Thessalians and Thebans, charged with the superintend- 
 ence of the Pythian games. 
 
 71. The War against Philip II. of Macedonia. 
 
 1. ON THE MACEDONIAN COAST. 311 
 In order to obtain possession of the entire coast of his c 
 
 country, a portion of which was still in the hands of the 
 Athenians, Philip, as long ago as the war of the con- 
 federates, had captured Amphipolis and Pydna. Potidaea, 
 which fell into his hands at the same time, was given up 
 to the Olynthians, to prevent the formation of an alliance 
 between Athens and Olynthus, the most powerful city of 
 the Chalcidic peninsula. 
 
 2. IN THESSALY. 312 
 The first pretext which Philip found for interfering in 
 
 the affairs of Greece, was an application of the Thessa- 
 lians for aid against the tyrants of Pherae. Philip com- D 
 plied with this request, so far as to co-operate with the 
 Thessalian cities in their attempts to recover their freedom, 
 but permitted the tyrants to remain, that there might still 
 be a necessity for his assistance. The Phocians having 
 formed an alliance with these tyrants, Philip occupied 
 Thessaly, successfully resisted an attack of the Phocians 
 under Onomarchus, held the places which he had captured, 
 and at a later period, after the ruin of the Phocians, and 
 
158 EUROPE. GREECE. [313.314. 71. 
 
 (312) the consequent expulsion of the tyrants, treated the coun- 
 A try in every respect as a Macedonian province (343). 
 
 After his victories over the tyrants and the Phocians, Philip, unable 
 any longer to resist the importunity with which his allies, the Thes- 
 salians and Thebans, urged him to annihilate the Phocians, advanced 
 for that purpose as far as Thermopylae ; but finding the pass occupied 
 by an Athenian army, he avoided a battle, contenting himself with 
 having found an excuse for suffering the Phocians to remain, that his 
 friends might still stand in need of his assistance. 
 
 313 3. ON THE COASTS OF MACEDONIA AND THRACE. 
 
 B Allowing the parties in Greece to wear out one another, 
 Philip directed his chief attention to the conquest of the 
 Grecian maritime cities on the Thracian coast from By- 
 zantium to the borders of Macedonia, and to the creation 
 of a Macedonian navy. The most obstinate resistance 
 was offered by the powerful city of Olynthus, but after 
 the defeat of the weak and ill-appointed force sent out 
 from Athens to its assistance at the instance of Demos- 
 thenes, the city was betrayed into the hands of Philip 
 (348), who demolished it with many others, amusing the 
 Athenians meanwhile, through the agency of the bribed 
 orator ^Eschines, with proposals for the conclusion of a 
 
 c peace. It was not until the end of the Phocian war 
 (comp. 70), and after Philip had effected a landing in 
 Laconia, and compelled the Lacedaemonians to abandon 
 their design of reconquering Messenia, that he recom- 
 menced his plans of conquest on the Thracian coast with 
 the blockade of Perinthus and Byzantium (341). 
 The capture of both these cities was however prevented 
 by the arrival of an Athenian fleet under the command of 
 Phocion (341). 
 
 314 4. THE SACRED WAR AGAINST AMPHISSA (339). 
 
 D That he might have a fresh excuse for marching an 
 army into Greece, Philip persuaded the Amphictyons 
 (through his agent ^Eischines), to impose a fine on the 
 Locrians of Amphissa for an alleged desecration in 
 ancient times of a piece of ground belonging to the temple 
 at Delphi, and to intrust him with the execution of their 
 sentence. In consequence of this arrangement, Philip 
 entered Greece at the head of a considerable force, and 
 put an end to the war (by what means does not distinctly 
 appear). The occupation however of Elatea, the key of 
 

 315 317. 71.] EUROPE. GREECE. 159 
 
 Bceotiii, plainly indicated that he had ulterior objects in A 
 view. 
 
 5. THE DECISIVE STRUGGLE IN BCEOTIA (338). 
 
 When the astounding intelligence of the occupation of 315 
 Elatea reached Athens, none but Demosthenes had the 
 courage to propose the equipment of a fleet and a land 
 force. Proceeding to Thebes, he called on the govern- 
 ment to form an alliance with Athens, and pleaded the 
 cause of his country so eloquently, that the Macedonian 
 party and the orator Python (who had been bribed by 
 Philip), were compelled to abandon their opposition. 
 Several other states also joined the confederacy, but the B 
 allied army (the Athenians were commanded by Chares 
 and Lysicles), after two successful engagements, was at 
 length overmatched by the Macedonian phalanx (338) 
 near Chaeronea, where the young Alexander extermi- 
 nated the sacred band of the Thebans, and thus decided 
 the fortune of the day. In the first moment of alarm 
 Thebes surrendered to the enemy, and was compelled to 
 receive a Macedonian garrison ; Athens, which still held 
 out, was enabled to make terms with the invader, whilst 
 the smaller states hastened to purchase his forbearance ; 
 and Philip, at a great national assembly of the Greeks held 
 at Corinth, was elected generalissimo of their armies 
 against the Persians. 
 
 72. Religion, Literature, #c. of the Greeks. 
 
 The erroneous notion of antiquity, that Greek civilization was 316 
 derived from Egypt, had its origin partly in the assertions of the c 
 priests, who represented the gods of Greece as descended from 
 those of Egypt, in order that they might be themselves considered 
 the instructors of the Greeks, and partly from the propensity of the 
 Greeks to give Grecian names to foreign divinities. There seems 
 to have been no intimate connection between the two countries until 
 the reigns of Psammetichus and Amasis, nor do we find in Greece 
 the slightest vestige of hieroglyphics, of Egyptian arts, or of the 
 Egyptian race. 
 
 RELIGION. The religion of the Greeks consisted ori- 317 
 ginally in the worship of natural objects and influences ; D 
 but by degrees they began to represent the gods as sentient 
 beings, subject to human passions, and engaged in the same 
 pursuits and occupations as the inhabitants of earth. This 
 prosopoposia, which in a great measure owed its existence 
 
160 EUROPE. GREECE. [318. 72. 
 
 (317) to the poets Homer and Hesiod, as well as to the artists 
 A of Greece, formed the popular religion ; whilst the ancient 
 symbolical system existed almost exclusively as a priestly 
 religion in the mysteries, i. e. in those secret acts of 
 worship to which none but the initiated were admitted. 
 Yet even in the midst of this polytheism, we find some 
 traces of a belief in one supreme being ; as exhibited in 
 the notion of an inevitable fate (Ia, fto7^a), to which the 
 gods themselves are subject, and of the supreme dominion 
 B of Zeus. According to popular belief the residence of 
 this god was on the summit of Mount Olympus, which 
 pierces the brazen vault of heaven (ovQarog), the lower 
 peaks of the mountain being occupied by the rest of the 
 gods. The various national divinities of the different 
 tribes were amalgamated at a very early period into 
 one body composed of twelve OLYMPII or NATIONAL DE- 
 ITIES. 
 
 318 1. Zeus [Jupiter], the supreme, most powerful, and wise being 
 c (wraroy, tJi//aroj. unriirns), the king and father of gods and men, 
 watches over all the concerns of mankind, especially over hospitality, 
 oaths, and the relief of suppliants (hence called Zcvs {ivios, ojtwio?, 
 Iwffioj, &c.), and holds in his hands, as god of heaven, the aegis, and 
 the lightning. Tradition represents many heroes as descended from 
 Zeus, for the purpose of increasing their renown hence the legends 
 of his numerous wives and children, and of the jealousy of Here [Juno]. 
 To this god of the heavens was united, but not as a being of the same 
 rank, a goddess of the earth, named by the Dorians 2. Here, and by 
 the lonians 3. Demeter or Foua, who bears him Persephone (that 
 is, the earth, rendered fruitful by the sky, brings forth corn). This 
 daughter, being carried off by Pluto, passes one half of the year 
 with her husband, the other with her mother (i. e. the corn is at first 
 concealed in the bosom of the earth, then springs forth and ripens). 
 Demeter herself teaches the art of agriculture to Triptolemus, son 
 of the king of Eleusis, to whom she also gives a code of laws hence 
 D her feast is called Thesmophoria. The gods of heaven and earth 
 are accompanied by the deities of light, who were believed to be 
 children of Zeus ; 4. Athene ; 5. Apolldn ; 6. Artemis. ATHENE 
 bears some relation to fire and light, physical (hence yXat>i;i7nj) as 
 well as moral hence she is named the goddess of understanding and 
 wisdom, and in that character springs from the brain of Zeus. She is 
 also connected with the element of water, whence her name Tritoge- 
 neia, and the legend of her contest with Poseid6n [Neptune]. Both 
 these elements, the warm and the moist, are employed in making the 
 earth bring forth : thus Athene becomes the goddess of the harvest 
 and of fertility, and her son is named Erichthonius. She is also the 
 goddess of war, and presides over works of female skill. APOLLON and 
 ARTEMIS, twin children of Zeus and Leto (i. e. darkness), born on 
 mount Cythnus in Delos, are the deities of light, the sun and moon. 
 
319. 72.] EUROPE. GREECE. 161 
 
 Hence Apollon is called Phoebus, and an eternal fire is maintained on (318) 
 his altar. Artemis is drawn with a torch and crescent. Their rays A 
 were compared to arrows, and for that reason they were represented 
 also as deities of the chase (hence 'Air. *rj/?(5Xoj, apyp<Jroff). Apol- 
 lon is not only the god of destruction, but also of healing, (hence 
 iraiwr, d\c^iiKOf, the father of Asclepios). In reference to the 
 effects of light, the destruction of grain by smut ('A*. ipvOi0tos), 
 and even by mice (E^i/0ct5j), is ascribed to Apollon. He is the 
 god of intellectual, as well as physical, light ; hence to him is ascribed 
 the gift of prophecy, but as a deliverer of oracles he is ambiguous 
 (hence Aoaj). He is also the god of poetical inspiration, of song 
 and music, and the leader of the Muses. In this view of the universe, 
 the elements of fire and water have of course their place. Thus B 
 Poseidon (7) denotes both the sea and the fresh water in the deep 
 recesses of earth ; and Hephaistos [ Vulcan] (8) the terrestrial fire (on 
 and in the earth), the origin of which from celestial fire is poetically 
 represented by the hurling down of Hephaistos from heaven to earth. 
 The fertility of the vine on volcanic soils gave occasion to the fable 
 which connects Hephaistos with wine as the cup-bearer of the 
 gods ; and on account of the agency of fire in the working of metals, 
 he is represented as a blacksmith famous for the production of works 
 in steel (the shield of Achilles). 9. Hermes [Mercury], perhaps, ori- 
 ginally, a symbol of the generation of animals, is known as protector 
 of the herds, and especially of flocks of sheep ; and also as messenger 
 of the gods and guardian of the streets (hence the Hermae). In an 
 intellectual sense, he is represented as the inventor of the lyre and 
 of gymnastics, and the protector of trade ; and in the last of these 
 characters is shrewd, cunning, and even inclined to theft. 10. Hestia C 
 [ Vesta], or the deified conception of the hearth, as the centre of the 
 house, and place of assemblage for the family. 11. Ares [Mars], or 
 the personification of war. 12. Aphrodite [Venus], or the personified 
 idea of love and enjoyment ; a divinity borrowed from the Phoeni- 
 cians. Different classes had their respective deities ; thus the goat- 
 herds and vine-dressers paid especial honor to Dionysos [Bacchus], 
 who, as god of the Sprin?, clothes the fields with flowers, and makes 
 the herds bring forth their young ; and, as god of Autumn, fills the 
 vats with wine, a union of the two legends respecting his birth (from 
 the thigh of Zeus, and from Semele, the daughter of Cadmus.) 
 Hence he is called Dithyrambus. In his spiritual character, he 
 appears as a prophet, as the god of the dead (Zagreus), and the pro- 
 tector of democracy. 
 
 The inferior classes of deities were : 1. The Dcemones, 319 
 who were either aboriginal local divinities ; deified natural D 
 objects, the gods of the river, the mountain, and the forest ; 
 or abstract ideas personified, as Tv%vi, Wvxri, "///?;, Aidw$, 
 #r^u77, Eigrjvr], OavctTo?, tf>d/3o, the Erinnyes, or Eume- 
 nides, &c. 2. The heroes, or mortals deified after death, 
 and termed demi-gods. These were either founders of 
 entire tribes, who were also believed to be the sons of 
 
162 EUROPE. GREECE. [320. 72. 
 
 (319) gods, as Hercules, &c., or patrons of particular crafts, as 
 
 A Daedalus, the hero of architects, &c. The notion of a life 
 
 after death produced the deities of the lower world, Pluton 
 
 or Hades, and the three Moerge (Clotho, Lachesis, and 
 
 Atrdpos). 
 
 The worship of their gods consisted principally 
 in sacrifices, which were either offerings of prayer and 
 thanksgiving, or sin-offerings, and were celebrated by the 
 priests either in the open air, on the tops of mountains, in 
 forests and groves, or in temples, especially on the occa- 
 sion of certain festivals, such as the great national games, 
 the Panathensea, Thesmophoria, Eleusinia, Dionysia, &c. 
 B The offerings were either living victims, sometimes single, 
 sometimes in great numbers (Hecatombs), or inanimate 
 objects, as fruits, wine, honey, milk, frankincense, &c., and 
 in the earliest times, human victims, for which, however, 
 beasts were very soon substituted. Their other modes of 
 honoring the gods were by short forms of prayer, uttered 
 standing and with outstretched arms, by votive offerings, 
 solemn processions, and religious dances. Besides these 
 modes of propitiating the gods and turning away their 
 wrath, men believed also that they could obtain revelations 
 of the Divine will, either immediately from the oracles, of 
 which the most renowned were those of Zeus at Dodona, 
 and of Apollo at Delphi : or mediately through the iiQtvg, 
 from the inspection of entrails, through the pavTig, from 
 the flight and song of certain birds, and from atmospheric 
 phenomena, and through the ovftQOJioiog, from dreams. 
 320 2. CoNSTiTtrrioN. 
 
 c For the constitution of the heroic age see 55 ; and for 
 that of the second period, 58. 
 
 In the third period both the external and internal relations 
 of Greece received from the Persian wars a character which 
 they retained during the succeeding age. The line of demar- 
 cation between Greeks and barbarians was more distinctly 
 traced, the necessity for adopting common measures of de- 
 fence produced offensive and defensive alliances,and in place 
 of the old loose unions, more extended Hegemonies were in- 
 troduced ; the effect of whicn was, that in all political move- 
 ments each nation bore a part either voluntarily, or by com- 
 pulsion. Jn their internal policy great changes were pro- 
 duced by the almost contemporaneous expulsion of tyrants 
 
321, 32-2. 72.] EUROPE. GREECE. 163 
 
 from the different states. At Athens the constitution of (320) 
 Solon was restored (with a few alterations by Clisthenes, A 
 see 61, and Aristides, 63. In many states (as Argos, 
 Mantinea, Elis, Megara, Corinth, Syracuse, &c.) demo- 
 cracy was for the first time introduced ; in others, the ar- 
 istocracy degenerated into oligarchy, as, for example, in 
 Sparta and Thebes, the two strongholds of the oligarchical 
 system ; and also in Thessaly, Corinth, Sicyon, &c. From 
 the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war these two forms 
 of government were placed in a state of antagonism, which 
 not only produced wars between different states, but also 
 created civil disturbances in many of the Grecian cities. The B 
 oligarchical system was at its greatest height during the He- 
 gemony of Sparta, at the conclusion of the Peloponnesian 
 war, oligarchical constitutions being introduced by the Spar- 
 tans wherever they had any influence (in the western parts 
 of Asia Minor, and at Athens, Elis, Corinth, and Thebes). 
 These constitutions, however, lasted a very short time. 
 The expulsion from Thebes of the oligarchical party and 
 the Spartan garrison, and still more the battle of Leuctra, 
 were the signal for a general rising against Sparta ; and the 
 extension of democracy became, at the same time, an es- 
 sential part of the policy of Thebes, which was now strain- 
 ing every nerve to obtain the Hegemony. In the end, c 
 discord, cowardice, treason, and supineness prepared Greece 
 to receive the yoke of a foreign master. 
 
 3. LITERATURE. 321 
 
 A. Poetry. 
 
 Epic poetry, and then lyric, first flourished in the colo- 
 nies of Western Asia Minor ; dramatic poetry first deve- 
 loped itself about the year 500, in the mother country, 
 chiefly at Athens. 
 
 EPIC POETRY. Before the days of Homer the only 322 
 poems of this description were short ballads, descriptive of D 
 single deeds or adventures. By him the plan of the epic 
 poem was fully developed, so as to comprise, in addition 
 to the story of the principal heroes, the characters and ac- 
 tions of a large circle of the most remarkable secondary 
 personages. The Iliad and Odyssey, the most perfect 
 epic poems ever produced, were made known to the world 
 by the Rhapsodists, a school of minstrels at Chios, and at 
 a later period (in the time of Pisistratus) were copied out 
 
164 EUROPE. GREECE. [323. 72. 
 
 (322) and edited by the Diaskeuastoe at Alexandria. The so- 
 
 A called Homeric hymns, employed by the Rhapsodists as 
 introductions to their poetical recitations, are, for the most 
 part, the work of the Homeridce. The poetry of Homer 
 produced a crowd of imitators, cyclic poets, as they were 
 called (between 800 and 500), some of whom sang the 
 other events of the heroic age (for example, the war 
 against Thebes), whilst others wrote continuations of the 
 Iliad and Odyssey. Contemporaneously with the minstrel 
 school of the Homeridae at Chios, there flourished another 
 in Boeotia, at the head of which was Hesiod of Ascra, 
 
 B Three of his epic poems are still extant ; two of which are 
 mythological, viz., 1, dtoyoviu, a work of the highest im- 
 portance in a religious point of view, as being the standard 
 authority for all representations of the gods, their pecu- 
 liarities, family connections, &c. ; and 2, the acrnl? '//- 
 xAc'ous ; and one of a didactic character, tgya xal r^gai. 
 323 I. LYRIC POETRY, intended to be sung with a lyre or 
 
 c flute accompaniment, developed itself in the seventh cen- 
 tury, B. c., contemporaneously with the rise of republi- 
 canism. It comprehends a variety of species, and many 
 different metres. The invention of the elegiac measure, 
 which differs very little from the epic, is generally ascribed 
 to CALLINUS (about 660), who, like his contemporary 
 TYRT^US, was chiefly famous for his warlike elegies. In 
 proportion as the lonians, among whom this style of poetry 
 flourished, became less warlike and more effeminate, so 
 did the elegy lose its political character, which is feebly 
 exhibited in the poems of MIMNERMUS, but resumes its 
 
 D original strength in the elegies of SOLON at Athens. To 
 the elegy belong, as regards their contents and form, the 
 remains of THEOGNIS, which consist of mere fragments 
 cited from his works by other writers without any regu- 
 lar connection. The last of the great elegiac poets is 
 SIMONIDES of Ceos, whose elegy in honor of the Greeks 
 who fell at Marathon, was preferred to that of ^Eschy- 
 lus. The elegiac is also the metre most commonly 
 employed for the Epigram, perhaps because monumental 
 inscriptions (the most usual form of epigrams among tha 
 Greeks) were intimately connected with songs of lamenta- 
 tion. Those of the most distinguished epigrammatic poet 
 SIMONIDES of Ceos, were, in fact, principally inscriptions 
 
824. 72.] EUROPE. GREECE. 165 
 
 for the tombs of the heroes who fell in the Persian wars. (323) 
 The custom observed at certain religious festivals of attack- A 
 ing one another in scurrilous lampoons, called iambi, gave 
 occasion to ARCHILOCHUS (a contemporary of Callinus) to 
 frame a new species of poetry, which received the name of 
 Iambic. It was distinguished from the epic and elegiac, 
 not only by its different metre, but by a style more nearly 
 approaching to prose. The Lyric poetry of the Greeks, in 
 its more restricted sense, is divided into the JEolic, which 
 was intended for recitation by a single performer, with the 
 accompaniment of a stringed instrument, and appropriate 
 movements of the body ; and the Doric, which was sung 
 to the dancing of the chorus. The latter had its strophes, B 
 which were often very elaborate, together with its anti- 
 strdphes and epodes ; whilst the former had either no 
 strophes at all, or only such as were of a very simple cha- 
 racter, containing a few verses, all in the same metre, and 
 uninterrupted by epodes. The subject matter was also 
 different ; the choral lyric endeavoring to bring before the 
 audience, by means of the whole chorus, objects of public 
 and general interest, whilst the Molic gave expression to 
 individual feelings and opinions. The most distinguished c 
 poets of the ^Eolic school were Lesbians. ALCJEUS (about 
 600), and his contemporary SAPPHO, to whom we may 
 also add ANACREON. The Doric choral poetry developed 
 itself under ALCMAN and STESICHORUS, and attained per- 
 fection under IBYCUS and SIMONIDES (also elegiac poets) 
 and especially under PINDAR (522 442). Of the various 
 styles of lyric poetry, strictly so called', in which Pindar 
 distinguished himself, nothing has reached us except his 
 hymns of victory or Epinlcia, which are well calculated, by 
 the richness of invention which they display, the elegance 
 of their composition, and the variety of form and style, to 
 create a favorable opinion of the writer's poetical talent. 
 
 c. DRAMATIC POETRY. The choral hymns (Dithy- 324 
 rambs), chanted at the Dionysia, first assumed the form of D 
 tragedy, when Thespis (of Athens, about 540) inter- 
 mingled with them the representation (dp/u, enetaodiov} 
 of a story or plot by a single actor (viioxiTqg\ who was 
 separated from the chorus, and played many parts succes- 
 sively in the same piece. This action or Epeisodion was 
 made the principal feature of the entertainment by ^Eschy- 
 
166 EUROPE. GREECE. [325. 72. 
 
 (324) lus an Athenian (525 456), who added a second actor, 
 
 A and thus became the founder of the dramatic dialogue. At 
 every dramatic contest in which he was engaged, yEschylus 
 brought forward three tragedies, which formed a whole, 
 and were succeeded by a satyric drama. In these trilogies 
 we find the most striking myths dramatically worked out 
 in such a manner as to excite the astonishment and delight 
 of the Greeks, as they became aware of the part played by 
 the gods in their early history. SOPHOCLES (495 406), 
 introduced a third actor, and made the action, even more 
 than ./Eschylus had done, a principal part of the drama, by 
 shortening the songs of the chorus ; his object being to re- 
 present the feelings of the personages actually engaged in 
 the plot, rather than the impression made by its events on 
 
 B mere spectators. He also followed the custom of intro- 
 ducing three tragedies and a satyric drama at each repre- 
 sentation ; but these, as far as their subject matter was 
 concerned, were in fact not one long poem, but four dis- 
 tinct works. EURIPIDES, who, according to the received 
 account, was born in the island of Salamis on the day of 
 the battle (more probably in the year 482, or 481), and 
 died a few months before Sophocles, introduced a twofold 
 innovation as regarded the form of the tragedy. In the 
 first place, the audience, by means of a prologue, were in- 
 formed of previous events down to the very moment at 
 which the action of the tragedy begins ; and secondly, the 
 knot of dramatic entanglement, instead of being unravelled, 
 was severed by the appearance of a " deus ex machina.' 
 
 c The mythical traditions of antiquity, in which ^Eschylus 
 recognized the exalted workings of divine power, and 
 Sophdcles discovered matter for the most profound re- 
 flections on human events, were treated by the philosophical 
 Euripides almost as if he desired to expose their folly, by 
 stripping his heroes of all ideal greatness, and representing 
 them with the petty passions and weaknesses of ordinary 
 mortals. 
 325 One degenerate offspring of tragedy was the SATYRIC 
 
 D DRAMA, which formed a sort of connecting link between 
 it and comedy ; and was generally introduced, with its 
 chorus of satyrs and Silenuses, after the conclusion of the 
 tragic trilogy. Although this practice was antecedent to 
 jEschylus, and retained its place as long as tragedy 
 
326. 72.] EUROPE. GREECE. 16-7 
 
 flourished at Athens, only one complete piece is extant, (325) 
 in the Cyclops of Euripides. The OLD COMEDY, as it is A 
 called, which derived its origin from songs sung during the 
 revels (xo/tot) of the Dionysia, was moulded into a more 
 artistical form in the fifth century, B. c., by the exertions 
 of Kpicharmus in Sicily, and Cratinus, Eup6lis, and espe- 
 cially ARISTOPHANES, at Athens. The last of these poets, 
 who flourished between 427 and 338, has left us in his 
 comedies (of which eleven out of fifty-four are extant) a 
 very correct representation of Athenian manners, couched 
 in bitter and often ribaldrous satire. During the reign of B 
 the thirty at Athens (404) all satirical notice of living 
 characters, as well as the representation on the stage of 
 contemporaneous events, was strictly prohibited ; a regula- 
 tion which produced what is called the Middle Comedy. 
 In this species of drama the poet exposed, in the form of 
 a mythic plot, the follies of different ranks and classes, 
 or exercised his wit on the literary absurdities of the day. 
 B. Prose. 326 
 
 a. History. That so intellectual a people as the c 
 Greeks remained for so many centuries without feeling 
 the want of an accurate record of their history, is explained 
 by the fact, that between the occurrence of those events of 
 the mythical age which were celebrated by their epic poets, 
 and the breaking out of the Persian wars, no enterprise 
 whatever was undertaken by the combined nations of 
 Greece. As hi epic and lyric poetry and philosophy, so 
 also in history, the first ground seems to have been broken 
 by the lonians ; hence the most ancient prose dialect is 
 the Ionic. The compilers of history, antecedent to Hero- 
 dotus (generally termed Logographi), contented them- 
 selves with giving the results of their geographical and 
 statistical researches, especially in the east, without any 
 attempt at arrangement, or historical description. Hero- D 
 dot us, on the contrary, by interweaving episodical notices 
 of oriental countries, and their inhabitants, with his history 
 of the great struggle between the east and west, has suc- 
 ceeded in producing an animated picture of the two con- 
 tending masses. Throughout the whole work we recog- 
 nize also the pervading idea of a just Providence, which 
 assigns to every man his path of duty, and the limits within 
 which it behooves him to confine himself; and punishes 
 
168 EUROPE. GREECE. [327. 72. 
 
 (326) with ruin and destruction the inordinate acquisition of 
 
 A riches or power. The first, and, at the same time, the 
 most complete, description of contemporaneous events, is 
 that given by Thucydides, in his history of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, a work unrivalled for perspicuity, truth, 
 and accuracy, as well as for the admirable delicacy and 
 acuteness displayed in its delineations of character. His 
 successor, Xenophon, is inferior to Thucydides as a 
 descriptive writer ; but there seems little or no foundation 
 for the heavy charge brought against him by modern 
 critics, of being intentionally a partisan of Sparta. 
 327 b. ELOQUENCE. Although addresses to the people were 
 
 B common at a very early period of Grecian history, as we 
 learn from the speeches of Homer's kings, eloquence seems 
 to have been cultivated as a political science only at 
 Athens. The orations of P e r I c 1 e s are especially worthy 
 of remark, for the extraordinary depth and vigor of 
 thought which they display, as well as for the manner in 
 which single events are reduced to general principles. The 
 grandeur of his conceptions, their ready adaptation to 
 every possible contingency, and the majestic repose of his 
 style, obtained for him the epithet of " the Olympian." 
 
 c The cultivation of rhetoric as an art originated with the 
 sophists ; among whom those of Hellas Proper aimed prin- 
 cipally at correctness, whilst those of Sicily (as Gordias) 
 considered elegance of style the chief excellence of an 
 oration. The union of natural power (possessed in the 
 highest degree by Pericles), with the rhetorical studies of 
 the sophists, produced that elaborate eloquence of the 
 senate and the bar of which we find examples in the ten 
 Attic orators. Among these, LYSIAS, by his Epitaphios, 
 created a new style of eloquence, viz., the oratory of 
 display, as it has been termed (enidtixuxov or naryyvQixov 
 yivos), distinguished from all other sorts by having no 
 
 D practical object. The composition of these panegyrical 
 orations was rendered more elaborate, and their style im- 
 proved, by ISOCRATES, a distinguished teacher of eloquence. 
 The powers of judicial and political oratory are exhibit- 
 ed in their fullest development in the contest between 
 jEscniNES, the advocate of Macedonian interests (393 
 317), and his irreconcilable adversary DEMOSTHENES (385 
 332), who for fourteen years employed the art, which ho 
 
328, 329. 72.] EUROPE. GREECE. 169 
 
 had acquired with so much labor, in resisting the aggres- A 
 sions of Philip II. 
 
 c. PHILOSOPHY was first cultivated in the colonies of 
 western Asia Minor and Lower Italy ; in the former, in 328 
 the Ionic school of Thales, one of the seven wise men, 
 whose reputation seems to have been founded rather on 
 their practical activity, as statesmen and advisers of the 
 people, than on their philosophical speculations; in the 
 latter, in the Pythagorean and Eleatic schools (those 
 of Pythagoras and Xenophanes). The ancient or nat- 
 ural philosophers (ol qpwnxo/), as they were termed, were 
 succeeded by the' Sophists, who taught principally the 
 art of dialectics invented by Zeno the Eleatic, and its 
 application to rhetoric. Their abuse of this art was resist- B 
 ed by Socrates (469 399), who employed the peculiar 
 (interrogative) method termed from him the Socratic. This 
 philosopher endeavored by precept and example to stem 
 the torrent of immorality, and to give men, by means of 
 familiar conversations, more just conceptions of themselves, 
 their knowledge, and their duties (hence he is known as 
 the founder of Ethics). Notwithstanding, however, his 
 endeavors to promote the welfare of mankind, he was 
 held up to ridicule by Aristophanes, in his comedy of 'the 
 Clouds,' as the representative of the Sophists ; and being 
 accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, was sentenced 
 to drink poison. His doctrines are preserved in the c 
 writings of his disciples Xenophon and Plato (429 347), 
 the founder of the Academic school. For their develop- 
 ment in a scientific form we are indebted to the philosophy 
 of Aristotle (384322), the founder of the Peripa- 
 tetic school (at the Lyceum at Athens); by which the 
 first outline of a system of logic was traced, and a philo- 
 sophical terminology created. 
 
 d. The earliest traces of MATHEMATICAL SCIENCE are found in the D 
 geographical and astronomical labors of several philosophers. 
 
 e. MEDICINE, being closely connected with religion, was for a long 
 time entirely in the hands of the priesthood. Pythagoras, indeed, 
 made an attempt to introduce it into ordinary life ; but this object 
 was not fully attained until the time of Hippocrates (460 370), 
 the real founder of the healing art. 
 
 4. ART. 
 
 a. The architecture of the Greeks was at first of the 329 
 udest character colossal blocks of stone, which in the 
 
170 EUROPE. GREECE. [330. 72. 
 
 (329) most ancient times were not even hewn, were piled on one 
 
 A another, without mortar, until they formed massive walls. 
 This style was called the Cyclopian. Vestiges of it may 
 still be seen in the remains of walls at Tiryns and Argos, 
 and in the gate of the lions at Mycense, which is set in a 
 wall of this description. Our notices of the sacred archi- 
 tecture of the heroic age are few and obscure ; but, on 
 the other hand, we are fully acquainted with the arrange- 
 ments of their palaces from the descriptions of Homer 
 (e. g. that of the palace of Odysseus [ Ulysses]), and there 
 still exist fragments of the treasuries that were con. 
 
 B nected with such palaces ; for instance, those of the 
 treasury of Atreus at Mycense. The most important ar- 
 chitectural monuments of antiquity are the temples of 
 the gods, in which we discover the development of the 
 Grecian column, for the most part in two forms, the Doric 
 and Ionic. Immediately in front of the temple were the 
 Propylsea. forming an entrance to the sacred inclosure, by 
 which the temple was surrounded ; then succeeded colon- 
 nades appropriated to different objects (e. g. halls of jus- 
 tice, gymnasia, &c.), and at a still greater distance were 
 
 c inclosures for sports and combats, stadia, hippodromes, 
 theatres, music-halls (w&Za), &c. 
 
 The most ancient of the architectural monuments still in 
 existence are found in the Doric colonies in Sicily (Selinus 
 and Agrigentum), in Magna Graecia (at Psestum), and in 
 the Ionic colonies of Asia Minor (the temples of Juno at 
 Samos, and of Diana at Ephesus). Those of the most 
 flourishing period of Grecian architecture may be seen at 
 Athens (the Parthenon, the Propylaea, the Erechtheum), at 
 Eleusis (the temple of Demeter), at Olympia (the temple 
 of Zeus), and in the Ionic colonies of Asia Minor (the 
 temples of Athene at Priene, and of Apollo at Miletus). 
 330 b. Sculpture produced at a very early period orna- 
 
 D mental works in metal (the shield of Achilles) ; earthen 
 vessels with paintings burnt into the clay ; and, above all, 
 statues of the gods, which at first were of wood, covered 
 with real garments, then of brass and marble, and at the 
 period of their greatest perfection (after the Persian wars) 
 also of gold and ivory. The ornaments of the temple 
 afforded also an ample field for the sculptor's art. These 
 at first consisted of splendid votive offerings, vessels and 
 
331333. 72.] EUROPE. GREECE. 171 
 
 other furniture with relievos, some of which were of co- (330) 
 lossal dimensions and rich materials ; and, at a later period, A 
 of groups of statues, representing mythological scenes. 
 When art no longer confined itself to religious representa- 
 tions, but selected also subjects from public and private life, 
 its productions became so numerous that even hamlets and 
 villages had their collections. The most distinguished 
 masters in sculpture were, Phidias, who executed in gold 
 and ivory the statues of Zeus at Olympia, and of Athene in 
 the Parthenon at Athens, and the colossal image of Athene 
 in the acropolis of Athens, in brass P olycletus, Myron, 
 Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus. 
 
 c. Painting was for a long time confined to the deli- 331 
 neation of figures on earthenware, and was consequently B 
 considered subordinate to sculpture, until the age of Pe- 
 ricles, and especially the fourth century B. c., when it was 
 raised to the rank of an independent art by Polygnotus, 
 Z e u x i s, and Parrhasius, and attained the highest degree 
 of perfection under A pell es, in the reign of Alexander the 
 Great. His works consisted partly of frescoes, and partly 
 of painted tablets. 
 
 5. TRADE. 
 
 The trade of the Greeks in the heroic age was merely 332 
 passive. They permitted the commerce of the Phceni- c 
 cians, who brought them not only the products of their 
 own manufacturing industry, but also those of Ethiopia, 
 Arabia, India, and other foreign countries (electron, 1 for 
 instance). At a very early period, however, the Cretans 
 and Phseacians were notorious for their sea-voyages and 
 acts of piracy. The Phoenicians being gradually sup- D 
 planted, and piracy in a great measure suppressed, the 
 trade became active, and was carried on principally by 
 Corinth, Sicyon, jEgma, Athens, the Cyclades, and the 
 Ionian colonies, and promoted by the establishment of 
 colonies and by commercial leagues and religious unions. 
 
 Principal branches of Greek commerce : 333 
 
 1. Between the Grecian states themselves. 
 
 2. Between the mother country and its colonies. 
 
 3. To foreign countries a. .Eastward to the coasts of Asia Minor, 
 and thence into the interior as far as Cappadocia and Pontus. 
 
 1 Acording to Htillman, the term " electron" signifies, in Homer 
 and Hesiod, not amber, but precious stones in general. 
 
172 EUROPE. GREECE. [334336. $73. 
 
 (333) & North-eastward to Thrace, the Propontis, the Bosporus, the Pontua 
 A Euxlnus, and from the cities on its northern shore (Dioscurias and 
 Olbia) to the interior of Sarmatia. c. Southwards to Cyprus, Egypt 
 (the Hellenion, originally a merely religious but afterwards a com- 
 mercial union, founded by Naucratis as an emporium), Cyrene, and 
 thence into the interior of Africa, d. Northwards to the Ionic and 
 Adriatic sea, and from Epidaurus into the interior of Illyria. e. West- 
 ward to Italy, Spain, and Gaul. 
 
 Principal articles. 1. Of import: Grain from the colonies on the 
 Cimmerian Bosporus in Egypt and Sicily timber from Thrace and 
 Macedonia ivory from Africa slaves from Phrygia, Thrace, and 
 the countries of Scythia and the Caucasus linen and papyrus from 
 Egypt. 2. Of export: Wine, oil, honey, wax, works in metal, &c 
 
 II. THE MACEDONIANS. 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION. 
 
 334 Diodorus, in seventeen books. Arrian (see 50). Plutarch, in 
 
 _ his Biographies of Demosthenes and Alexander the Great. Curtius 
 
 de rebus gestis Alexandri Magni, 3 10, B. Some of the orations 
 
 of Demosthenes and ^Eschines. A few notices in Herodotus, Thu- 
 
 cydides, and Justin. 
 
 MODERN AUTHORITIES. 
 
 The settlements, origin, and early history of the Macedonian people, 
 by K. O. MQller, Berlin, 1825. Flathe ; History of Macedonia, and 
 of the empire ruled by the Macedonian Kings; Leipzic, 1832 34, 
 two parts. Mannert ; History of the immediate successors of Alex- 
 ander the Great ; Leipzic, 1787. 
 
 73. Geography of Macedonia. 
 
 335 BOUNDARIES. Macedonia, as the term was originally 
 c understood, or Emathia, extended from Mount Olympus 
 
 to the mouth of the Lydias ; consequently that portion of 
 it which bordered on the Thermalc gulf was a mere narrow 
 strip of land. But as the power of the Macedonian kings 
 increased, the term obtained a wider signification ; and in 
 the days of Alexander the Great was taken to indicate the 
 whole country, bounded on the west by the lake Lychmtis, 
 on the north by the Scardian mountains, on the east by the 
 Nestus, and on the south by the Macedonian or Olympian 
 chain, and the ^Egean sea. As a Roman province, Mace- 
 donia comprised also Thessaly and a part of Illyria. 
 
 336 MOUNTAINS. In the south the Macedonian, or Olympian 
 range (also Cambunii Monies) ; in the west, north, and 
 
 
337 340. 74.] EUROPE. GREECE. 173 
 
 east, several branches of the Scardus. Mount Athos, on 
 the peninsula of Acte. 
 
 WATERS. The Thracian sea, with the Strymonic and 337 
 Thermaic gulfs, inclosing the peninsula of Chalcidlce, A 
 which is again divided into three smaller peninsulas, formed 
 by the Singitic and Toronaic gulfs. The names of these 
 peninsulas were Acte, Sithonia, .and Pallene. The lake 
 Lychnltis. 
 
 RIVERS. a. Flowing into the Strymonic gulf, the Nes- 338 
 tus, and Strymon ; b. into the Thermaic gulf, the Axius, 
 and Haliacmon. 
 
 CITIES. 1. Pydna (battle in 168). 2. Pel la, the ca- 339 
 pital, and residence of the sovereign. 3. Thessalonlca B 
 (formerly Therma now Salonichi the place of Cicero's 
 exile), built by Cassander. 4. Potidsea, on the isthmus of 
 Pallene. 5. Olynthus, destroyed by Philip II. 6. Am- 
 phipolis, on the Strymon, an Athenian colony (battle in 
 422). 7. Philippi, formerly Cremdes (battle in 42). 
 
 74. History of Macedonia to the Reign of Philip II. 
 
 There exist two traditions respecting the establishment 340 
 of the Macedonian monarchy ; neither of which, however, c 
 asserts more than the fact that the kings of Macedonia 
 were descended from Hercules. 1. The Temenide (and 
 consequently Heraclide) Caranus of Argos conquered 
 Edessa in Emathia, and named it jEgse. 2. Perdiccas, 
 also a Temenide from Argos, in conjunction with his two 
 brothers, made himself master of Emathia. 
 
 By degrees the whole of the sea-coast, from the frontiers 
 of Thessaly to the Axius, fell into the hands of the Hera- 
 clide kings, who exercised also a certain authority over 
 the petty barbarian sovereigns in the interior. The first 
 continuous notices of Macedonian history commence with 
 the subjection of the country to the Persians by Mardoni- 
 us, B. c. 490. l 
 
 The Macedonian king Alexander, who was compelled D 
 to take a part in the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, 
 
 1 King Amyntas I. had already given earth and water, the em- 
 blems of submission, to Megabazus, the Persian satrap of Thrace ; 
 but Macedonia remained free from Persian dominion until the year 
 490. 
 
174 EUROPE. GREECE. [341, 342. 75. 
 
 (340) was employed ineffectually by Mardonius as an ambassa- 
 A dor to the Athenians, to whom he betrayed the barbarians' 
 plan of operations before the battle of Platsese. The re- 
 treat of Mardonius in 479 liberated Macedonia, as well 
 as Greece. The next king, Perdiccas II., at the com- 
 mencement of his reign, was an ally of the Athenians ; 
 but when they supported his rebellious brother Philip, and 
 the Thracian king Sitalces, in their opposition to his gov- 
 ernment, he went over to their enemies, promoted the ris- 
 ing of the Chalcidians (Potidaea) in the Peloponnesian war, 
 B and formed an alliance with Brasidas. His son A re he- 
 la us improved the condition of the country by his pro- 
 motion of agriculture, the encouragement which he gave 
 to literary and scientific Greeks (Euripides lived at his 
 court), the construction of public highways, fortification of 
 the cities, discipline of the army, &c. His death was suc- 
 ceeded by a gloomy period of confusion and revolution, 
 which lasted until the time of Philip II. ; who availed 
 himself of his influence, as guardian of his nephew, 
 Amyntas III., to assume the reins of government in the 
 year 359. 
 
 34 1 CONSTITUTION OF MACEDONIA DURING THIS PERIOD. The king was 
 commander-in-chief, high priest, and chief justice ; but in all questions 
 which concerned the general welfare he was bound by the votes of 
 his nobles, and was also obliged to share the judicial authority with 
 his people. Under Alexander the Great this power was exercised 
 by the army. 
 
 75. Philip II. 
 (359536.) 
 
 342 The Thebans (Pelopidas) having settled the disputed 
 succession in Macedonia by the partition of the kingdom 
 between two claimants, Philip 1 (son of Amyntas II.) was 
 
 Amyntas II. t370. 
 
 Alexander II. 
 t368. 
 
 Perdiccas III. 
 t359. 
 
 Philip II. 
 t336. 
 
 Amyntas III. 
 
 Alexander the 
 Great. 
 t323. 
 
343. 76.] EUROPE. GREECE. 175 
 
 sent as a hostage for the observance of the treaty to (342) 
 Thebes ; where, during a residence of three years in the A 
 house of Epaminondas, he not only received a Greek edu- 
 cation, but acquired a thorough knowledge of the Theban 
 tactics, and of the fearful jealousies which existed between 
 the different states of Greece. After the dissolution of 
 this compact by the assassination of one of the claimants 
 to the throne, Philip returned to Macedonia, where he 
 was invested with a petty principality. On the succession, 
 however, of Amyntas III., the infant son of Perdiccas III., 
 the empire being threatened by the neighboring barbari- 
 ans (Illyrians, Paeonians, and Thracians), and two other 
 pretenders to the crown having raised the standard of re- 
 bellion, Philip assumed the office of protector, overthrew 
 both the pretenders, beat back the barbarians, and himself 
 ascended the throne. We have no minute account of these 
 occurrences. 
 
 Thenceforward the grand object of Philip seems to have B 
 been the subjugation of the Persian empire. With this 
 view, he not only increased the efficiency of the army by 
 the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx the terrific 
 power of which consisted in its close ranks, the heavy ar- 
 mor of the men, and their long spears but also endeav- 
 ored to make himself master of the coasts of Thrace (that 
 they might serve as means of communication with the 
 countries which he intended to conquer), and to acquire 
 over the Grecian states a Hegemony, which should place 
 their forces at his disposal. For an account of the manner 
 in which this object was gradually attained see 312, sqq. 
 
 Scarcely, however, had this Hegemony been acquired, c 
 and the advanced guard of the army commenced its march 
 into Asia, when the king was assassinated, on coming out 
 of the theatre at ^Egse, by one Pausanias, whose complaint 
 of having received ill-treatment from a member of the 
 royal family had been contemptuously dismissed by Philip. 
 
 76. Alexander the Great. 
 (336323.) 
 
 Alexander, born in the year B. c. 350. on the same night in 343 
 which Herostratus set fire to the temple of Artemis [Dz- D 
 awa], at Ephesus,was scarcely 20 years old, when he ascend- 
 ed the throne. His education had been superintended by 
 9 
 
176 EUROPE. GREECE. [344, 345. 76. 
 
 (343) Aristotle (cf. 328, c), from whom he had acquired a taste for 
 A poetry, especially for the compositions of Homer. The first 
 acts of his reign were to punish the murderers of his father ; 
 and remove certain pretenders to the throne,who disputed the 
 legitimacy of his birth. On receiving information that the 
 Greeks, at the instigation of Demosthenes, had refused to 
 recognize his Hegemony, Alexander suddenly appeared in 
 Greece, at the head of an army, and at the awidqiov, at 
 Corinth, was chosen commander-in-chief of the forces des- 
 tined to act ngainst the Persians, all the states, except La- 
 csedemon being thoroughly humbled, and concurring in 
 the election. 
 
 B Lest however his plans should be disconcerted by the breaking out 
 of fresh disturbances, he compelled the Greeks to conclude a general 
 peace with each other, and with the Macedonians ; the settlement 
 of their disputes being referred to a Synedrion, which seems to have 
 sat at Corinth during the whole of Alexander's reign. 
 
 344 An expedition was now undertaken against the Thraci- 
 ans, Triballi, and Getce, who had manifested symptoms of a 
 desire to regain their independence ; and Alexander, having 
 advanced beyond the Ister and accomplished his object, 
 was returning, having, in his march homewards, subdued 
 the Illyrians and Taulantians, when intelligence reached 
 him, that fresh disturbances had broken out in Greece, in 
 
 c consequence of a false report of his death. Thebes, which, 
 in spite of the freedom and independence guaranteed by 
 her ally, was still occupied by a Macedonian garrison, had 
 revolted. Within twelve days Alexander appeared before 
 the place, overthrew the Thebans in a pitched battle, and 
 having obtained a decree of the Synedrion at Corinth, de- 
 molished the city, with the exception of the Cadmea, the 
 temples, and the house of Pindar, and sold the surviving 
 inhabitants (30,000) into slavery. 
 
 345 His campaign against the Persians. Havingleft 
 D Antipater as regent in Macedonia, Alexander undertook 
 
 the conquest of the Persian empire, which intestine weak- 
 ness had already brought to the verge of dissolution. In 
 tin- spring of 334, a Macedonian force of 30,000 infantry, 
 and 5000 cavalry, crossed the Hellespont, and overthrew 
 the satraps of Darius and the Greek mercenaries under 
 Memnon, a Rhodian, on the banks of the Granicus, 
 where Clitus saved the life of Alexander. As he advanced 
 along the western coast of Asia Minor, he was hailed as 
 
346. 76.] EUROPE. GREECE. 177 
 
 their deliverer from Persian tyranny by the inhabitants of (345) 
 the Greek towns, to whom he granted independence, on A 
 condition of their closing their ports against the Persian 
 fleet. The only resistance offered was by the Persian 
 governor of Miletus, and by Memnon, the Rhodian, at 
 Halicarnassus; but both cities were carried by storm. 
 Alexander then divided his army, himself proceeding 
 along the southern coast of Asia Minor, as far as the 
 frontiers of Cilicia, whilst his general, Parmenio, made 
 himself master of Phrygia. The further advance of Alex- 
 ander along the southern coast being barred by the rocky u 
 mountains of Cilicia, he marched northwards into the inte- 
 rior of Asia Minor, with the intention of wintering in the 
 fruitful district of Phrygia. In order to render the super- 
 stitious belief of the people of Asia subservient to his 
 purpose, he cut the famous knot at Gordium. 
 
 In the year 333 Alexander, in conjunction with his general 
 Parmenio, entered Cilicia, and falling sick at Tarsus, after 
 bathing in the Cydnus, was cured by his calumniated 
 physician, Philip. At Issus, on the borders of Syria, 
 Darius himself was overthrown by Alexander, in a battle 
 in which 100,000 Persians fell, and their king escaped 
 with difficulty. The rich camp of the Persians, with the c 
 magnificent royal tent, the mother, wile, two daughters, 
 and a son of Darius, fell into the hands of the conqueror, 
 who treated the prisoners with his accustomed clemency. 
 Damascus, with the royal treasury, was taken by Parmenio. 
 Meanwhile Darius had escaped to the other side of the 
 Euphrates, and was in vain endeavoring to purchase a 
 peace by the resignation of all his dominions as far as that 
 river. 
 
 In the year 332 Alexander conquered Syria, Cyprus, 346 
 and Phoenicia, where the insular city of Tyre alone D 
 refused to admit a Macedonian garrison, and after a siege of 
 seven months was stormed by means of a dam thrown 
 across from the mainland to the island. In Palestine, 
 Gaza, (the only city that offered any opposition) was 
 taken after a siege of two months* In Egypt, where 
 Alexander was welcomed as a deliverer from the Persian 
 yoke, he endeavored to perpetuate his power by founding 
 at the western embouchure of the Nile the port and 
 (almost entirely Greek) city of Alexandria. 
 
178 EUROPE. GREECE. [347349. 76. 
 
 347 From this place, Alexander, at the head of a considerable 
 A portion of his army, marched through the Libyan desert to 
 the temple of Zeus Ammon (by whose priest he was pro- 
 nounced to be the son of the god), probably for the purpose 
 of offering, in the sight of the Egyptians, a solemn act of 
 homage to their supreme deity. By the conquest of Phoe- 
 nicia and Cyprus, he had also acquired a powerful fleet, 
 consisting of ships which at an earlier period had composed 
 the main strength of the Persian marine. Returning to 
 Asia, he overthrew Darius at Gaugamela near Arbela 
 B (1 Oct.), 331. The defeated monarch fled for refuge to 
 the inaccessible north-eastern regions of his kingdom, 
 whilst the conqueror promptly took possession of the more 
 important and wealthy provinces of the southeast, viz., 
 Babylonia, Susiana, and Persis. Retracing his steps 
 through Media, in the hope of discovering the fugitive, 
 Alexander, on his arrival in Parthia, found that Darius 
 had already fallen by the hands of the satraps of Bactria 
 (Bessus), and Arachosia. 
 
 349 The death of Darius removed the last barrier which 
 c withheld the principal Persians from throwing themselves 
 into the arms of the conqueror, whose crafty policy, even 
 more than his brilliant victories, enabled him to found a 
 Persico-Macedonian kingdom. The rapid subju- 
 gation of the eastern portion of the empire was effected 
 principally by the adoption of three measures : 1 . The 
 satraps, who were willing to recognize him as sovereign of 
 the east, were permitted to retain their satrapies. This 
 secured the eastern portion. 2. The dress, manners and 
 court ceremonial of the earlier Persian kings were adopted 
 by Alexander, that he might appear as little as possible in 
 D the light of a foreign conqueror. 3. In accordance with 
 a system which had hitherto worked well, he governed 
 with more mildness than the Persian monarchs, and with 
 more respect for the principle of nationality. 
 
 349 After traversing the eastern provinces, Alexander pro- 
 ceeded to Sogdiana, in pursuit of the satrap Bessus (the 
 murderer of Darius, who had assumed the title of Arta- 
 xerxes III.), and having taken him prisoner, ordered his 
 immediate execution. The north-eastern limits of the 
 Persian empire having been reached, and the country com- 
 pletely subjugated, Alexander conceived the design of 
 
350 351. 76.] EUROPE. GREECE. 179 
 
 making himself king of all Asia, the extreme boundaries of (349) 
 which were, as he supposed, at no great distance. With A 
 this view he undertook an expedition against the Scythians 
 and Indians, and crossed the Juxartes ; but finding that the 
 nomadic hordes avoided a battle, and that as he advanced 
 the country became more inhospitable, he retraced his 
 steps, contenting himself with posting garrisons along the 
 line of frontier ibrmed by the river. 
 
 Meanwhile discontent had manifested itself in two quarters. 1. 350 
 Among the Macedonian nobles, who had followed him to Asia, and fi 
 could neither brook the appointment of the Persian nobility to satra- 
 pies, nor readily accord to their sovereign the divine honors which 
 he now claimed as king of Persia. Some of the most distinguished 
 among them, as Parmenio, and his son Philotas, Clitus, and Callis- 
 thenes, lost their lives in consequence of their refusal to render this 
 unworthy homage. 2. In Greece, where the severities of Alexander 
 and his lieutenant, Antipater, became every day more intolerable, the 
 Spartan king, Agis II., availing himself of the opportunity afforded 
 by the absence of Antipater in Thrace (whither he had gone for the 
 purpose of chastising his revolted officer Memnon), raised the standard 
 of patriotic warfare. None however supported him, except the 
 Achaeans, Eleans, and Arcadians ; and a single victory (near JEgae, 
 in Arcadia) put an end to the insurrection (330). 
 
 Campaign of Alexander in western India, 327 351 
 and 326. 
 
 With an army, of which the nucleus alone was composed c 
 of Macedonians and Greeks, the main body consisting of 
 the most promising barbarians, Alexander, in the spring of 
 327, crossed the Indian frontier, and in the expectation of 
 soon reaching the oastern coast of Asia, fought his way to 
 the Hyphasis, the brave savages of the Punjab offering the 
 most determined resistance to his progress. For his suc- 
 cess he was, in a great measure, indebted to dissensions 
 among the chieftains of northern India, and to the alliance 
 of the most powerful sovereigns, such as Taxila and Porus, 
 who were induced, by the promise of important benefits, to 
 acknowledge the supremacy of the Macedonians, permit 
 the establishment of fortresses within their dominions 
 (e. g. Nicaea, and Bucephala, at the two most important 
 fords of the Ganges), and receive Macedonian satraps as D 
 commanders of the garrisons, or themselves become satraps. 
 As Alexander's knowledge of the extent of India became 
 more accurate, and his army melted away in repeated and 
 
180 EUROPE. GREECE. [352, 353. 76. 
 
 (351) obstinate combats with the barbarians, whilst at the same 
 A time distressing intelligence reached him of the misconduct 
 of his satraps, the idea of subduing India was gradually 
 abandoned. On the Hyphasis he was compelled (it is 
 said, by the discontent of his soldiers [?]), to give his line 
 of march a southerly, instead of an easterly, direction. 
 Embarking, with a part of his army, on board a fleet of 
 1800 to 2000 vessels built on the Hydaspes, and com- 
 manded by Nearchus, he sailed down the Hydaspes and 
 the Acesines, and thence (after the overthrow of the brave 
 Malli and Oxythracians) down the Indus (the mouths of 
 which were accurately surveyed and fortified, in anticipa- 
 B tion of a future enterprise) into the Indian ocean. Near- 
 chus piloted the fleet through the Erythraean sea into the 
 Persian gulf, and discovered the mouths of the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris; but Alexander, with the larger division of 
 his army, returned overland to Persia. Taxila and Porus 
 seem to have been the only Indian sovereigns who con- 
 tinued in a sort of dependent state until the death of 
 Alexander. 
 
 352 His return to Babylon, 326 324. 
 
 c Alexander, with that portion of his forces which had not 
 embarked on board the ships, continued his march from the 
 mouth of the Ganges, along the sea shore, for the purpose 
 of keeping his fleet in sight and supplying it with provi- 
 sions. When this line of march became no longer prac- 
 ticable, he proceeded through Gedrosia, Carmania, Persis, 
 and Susa, to Babylon, where he punished the arrogant 
 satraps with great severity. The last years of his life 
 were spent (with the exception of a short campaign against 
 the wild Cossseis) in making arrangements for the inter- 
 nal regulation of his dominions, and in preparing for a 
 future expedition, probably against India. 
 
 353 Internal arrangements. The barbarian satraps, who oppressed the 
 D people, were removed, and their places supplied by Macedonians. In 
 
 order still further to conciliate the barbarians, Alexander married 
 Barsine, the eldest daughter of Darius Codomannus, and Parysatis, 
 the youngest sister of King Artaxerxes III., and, at the same time, 
 compelled the most distinguished of his suite, as well as 10,000 other 
 Macedonians, to take Persian wives. The discontent of the Mace- 
 donians at finding that the ranks of the army, and even of the king's 
 body-guard were filled with barbarians, whilst the services of his own 
 veteran soldiers were forgotten, occasioned a mutiny, which was sup- 
 pressed by the energy and firmness of the king. 
 
355, 356. 77.] EUROPE. GREECE. 181 
 
 In the year 323, Alexander, in consequence of his ex- 354 
 traordinary exertions, and his undue indulgence in the A 
 pleasures of the table, died at Babylon [of a fever] at 
 the early age of thirty-two. 
 
 77. Partition of the Persico- Macedonian empire. 
 
 After Alexander's death, his most distinguished generals 355 
 and friends, Perdiccas, Leonatus, and Ptolemoeus, the son 
 of Lagus, in conjunction with the leaders of the army, de- 
 termined to proclaim as king the child to which his widow, 
 Roxane, 1 expected shortly to give birth, in the hope that it 
 would prove a male. Perdiccas (at first in conjunction B 
 with Leonatus) was to govern as regent ({Tri/uiqnJ?) in Asia, 
 Antipater and Craterus in Europe ; and the most dis- 
 tinguished Macedonians were to be advanced to satrapies. 
 The army, however, compelled them to recognize Arrhi- 
 dceus, the weak-minded half-brother of the late king, to- 
 gether with his posthumous son, Alexander. 
 
 The eastern portion of the kingdom was entirely unaf- 
 fected by this partition of satrapies ; but in the west Pto- 
 lemceus Lagi obtained the satrapy of Egypt, Leona- 
 tus of the Hellespontine Phrygia ; Cassander of Caria; 
 Antigonus of Pamphylia, Phrygia, and Lycia ; Eume- 
 nes (Alexander's private secretary) of the still uncon- 
 quered districts of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia ; and Ly- 
 simachus of Thrace and the western coasts of Pontus. 
 
 Perdiccas, who had accepted the regency in the 356 
 hope of being able to set aside the two royal puppets c 
 Arrhidaeus and Alexander, and himself ascend the 
 throne, pursued his plans so incautiously as to raise up 
 against him a confederacy of satraps : and when he ap- 
 pealed to arms, he was slain by his own troops during 
 a campaign in Egypt in the year 321. The vacant 
 regency was now conferred by the army on Antipater, 
 who, at his death in 318, bequeathed the guardianship of 
 the two young kings, not to his own son, Cassander, who 
 was a bitter enemy of the royal family of Macedonia, but 
 to his former lieutenant-general Polysperchon. This 
 
 1 Alexander the Great 
 by Roxane by Barsine 
 
 Alexander. Hercules. 
 
182 EUROPE. GREECE. [357, 359. 77. 
 
 (356) arrangement occasioned a war between Cassander and 
 A Polysperchon, the former allying himself with Antigonus, 
 the governor of Western Asia, the latter with Eumenes. 
 Antigonus was victorious in Asia, and Cassander in 
 Europe ; whilst the ruin of Eumenes in Asia, through the 
 treachery of his partisans, occasioned also the fall of Poly- 
 sperchon in Europe. The ambitious designs of Antigonus, 
 who had portioned out the satrapies of eastern Asia accord- 
 ing to his own caprice, and every where taken possession 
 of the royal treasures, had now become so apparent, that a 
 confederacy was formed against him by the satraps of the 
 west, Cassander of Macedonia, Ptolemseus Lagi, Lysi- 
 machus, and Seleucus, who had been expelled from Baby- 
 lon. This occasioned, at two different periods '(314, 301), 
 B war bet ween Antigonus and those satraps. For 
 a long time Antigonus, assisted by his son, Demetrius 
 Poliorcetes, made head against his enemies, but in the 
 year 301 he was defeated and slain in a battle fought at 
 1 ps us, against Lysimachus and Seleucus. His dominions 
 were divided among themselves by the conquerors, so that 
 on the ruins of the Persico- Macedonian empire there now 
 arose four new monarchies. Meanwhile the two royal 
 puppets were murdered. 
 
 357 First War (314 311). Antigonus endeavored by his activity 
 and cunning to divide his opponents, whose plans of operation were 
 
 different. Whilst he was preparing for an invasion of Egypt, and 
 commencing a war with Ptolemy, by making himself master of 
 Phoenicia, he caused it to be proclaimed to the Greeks (by the 
 Macedonians in his army,) that they were emancipated from the 
 Macedonian yoke. This was done for the purpose of weakening 
 Cassander of Macedonia. Then he subdued the south-western part 
 of Asia Minor, and had already reached the Hellespont, intending to 
 cross into Europe, when his son Demetrius, whom he had left behind 
 in Phoenicia, was totally defeated by Ptolemaeus, near Gaza (in 312.) 
 Seleucus then regained the satrapy of Babylon (312), of which he 
 had been deprived, and united with it Media and Susiana. In order 
 to reconquer the east, Antigonus abandoned his European campaign, 
 and concluded a peace with Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemecus, 
 reserving for himself the sovereignty over the whole of Asia, nnd 
 stipulating that his promise of independence to the Greeks should be 
 confirmed. 
 
 358 Second War (309 301). As neither party observed the con- 
 ditions of this peace (for the garrisons of Cassander as well as the 
 lieutenants of Antigonus still remained in Greece ; and Alexander 
 had moreover procured tin- ;i--:i-sm;iti<>n of Hercules, the last scion 
 of the ancient royal house), the war broke out afresh. Demetrius, 
 
359. 78.] EUROPE. GREECE. 183 
 
 who was now commissioned by 'his father Antigonus to effect the (358) 
 liberation of Greece, drove the troops of Cussander out of Athens, A 
 and for this service was rewarded with the most extraordinary 
 marks of respect ; two new tribes, Antigonias and Demetrias, being 
 named after his father and himself. He then, in obedience to his 
 father's commands, returned into Asia, and after a splendid victory 
 over the Egyptian fleet, wrested Cyprus from Ptolemeeus Lagi. In 
 their joy at having obtained this advantage, both Antigonus and 
 Demetrius assumed the title of king, an example which was followed 
 by Ptolemaeus, Lysimachus, and Seleucus. After an unsuccessful 
 attempt on Egypt, Demetrius tried to avenge himself on the flourish- 
 ing and powerful republic of Rhodes, which had refused to assist 
 him against Ptolemaeus ; but notwithstanding the most .remendous 
 exertions, and the construction of an engine termed Helepolis, which 
 consisted of nine stories, and was worked by 3400 men, he was 
 compelled to raise the siege, and gladly accepted the invitation of the 
 Greeks to aid them in opposing the ambitious designs of Lysander. 
 The rapid and successful progress of Demetrius (who had been 
 nominated commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces at the Syne- 
 drion at Corinth), compelled Lysander to enter into a fresh alliance 
 with Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemaeus. Lysimachus having in B 
 consequence of this arrangement marched into Asia Minor, whilst 
 Seleucus at the same time advanced from the east, Antigonus, who 
 was now in his eighty-first year, recalled his son from Greece, but 
 fell in the battle of Ipsus30l. His territories were divided among 
 the conquerors, Lysimachus receiving the whole of Asia Minor on 
 this side the Taurus, and Seleucus the rest of that district together 
 with Syria, including Phoenicia and Palestine. Demetrius, who still 
 retained possession of Cyprus, Tyre, and Sidon, and had the largest 
 fleet at his disposal, proceeded towards Greece. 
 
 III. THE KINGDOMS WHICH AROSE OUT OF THE MACE- 
 DONIAN MONARCHY. 1 
 
 78. Macedonia and Greece. 
 (323146.) 
 
 The Lamian War, 323322. 359 
 
 On receiving the intelligence of Alexander's death, the c 
 Greeks, who even during his lifetime had made an attempt 
 to recover their freedom (see 76), united, at the summons 
 of the Athenians, for a last struggle. Leosthenes, com- 
 
 1 Succession of kings: a) Of various families: 1. Philip 
 Arrhidaeus and Alexander. 2. Cassander. 3. Philip. 4. Anti- 
 pater and Alexander. 5. Demetrius Poliorcetes. 6. Pyrrhus. 7. 
 Lysimachus. 8. Seleucus Nicator. 9. Ptolemaeus Ceraunus. 10. 
 Meleager. 11. Antipater. 12. Sosthenes. b.) Of the family of 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes. 1. Antigonus Gonatas. 2. Demetrius II. 
 3. Antigonus U. Doson. 4. Philip III. 5. Perseus. 6. Andriscus. 
 
184 EUROPE. GREECE. [360,361. 78. 
 
 (359) mander-in-chief of the allied army, transferred the theatre 
 A of war to Thessaly, where Antipater, after sustaining a 
 defeat, threw himself into Lamia, with the intention of 
 awaiting the arrival of his allies Craterus and Leonatus. 
 Leonatus came first, and fell in a second battle; but 
 Craterus having now joined Antipater, and obtained a 
 considerable advantage in a third engagement (near Cra- 
 non), most of the Greek states endeavored to make terms 
 for themselves, leaving the Athenians and ^Etolians to 
 B carry on the war. Even Athens, when the Macedonian 
 army advanced to her walls, was compelled to sue for 
 peace, which was granted on condition of her paying the 
 expenses of the war, together with a heavy fine, receiving 
 a Macedonian garrison into Munychia, delivering up the 
 orators Demosthenes and Hyperides, and accepting such a 
 constitution as Antipater thought fit to offer. The two 
 orators had fled from Athens, but were overtaken ; Hype- 
 rides was conveyed to Macedonia, where his tongue was 
 cut out Demosthenes swallowed poison in the island of 
 Calauria. 
 
 360 The kings of the new Macedonian empire, being fully 
 c aware that any attempt to recover Asia would be fruitless, 
 
 contented themselves with endeavoring to render Greece 
 (which as yet was but loosely connected with Macedonia) 
 a province of that country. Notwithstanding, however, 
 the pertinacity with which they kept this object in view, 
 their plans were continually rendered abortive even when 
 they seemed on the eve of being accomplished, partly by 
 repeated disputes respecting the succession to 
 the throne, partly by quarrels with the barbarians 
 of the north, especially the Gauls, and at a later period 
 D by the invasion of the Romans. Another obstacle 
 to the complete subjugation of Greece existed in the 
 mutual jealousies of those who were at the head of the 
 three greater monarchies, and in the formation of the 
 jEtolian, and revival ofthe Achaean confederacy 
 (280). Thessaly alone remained a Macedonian province, 
 most of the other states being merely allies of Macedonia, 
 and bearing each a different relation to the king, as the 
 head of the Graeco-Macedonian Symmachy. 
 
 361 Macedonia and Grece invaded by the GauU 
 in 280. A detachment, consisting of three hordes, of 
 
362, 363. 78.] EUROPE. GREECE. 185 
 
 those Gallic tribes, whose immigration a hundred years (361) 
 before had convulsed the south-western portion of western A 
 Europe, appeared in Macedonia in the year 280. The 
 first horde overthrew king Ptolemseus Ceraunus, who was 
 slain in the engagement ; but the invaders were sub- 
 sequently driven out of the country by Sosthenes. A 
 second horde under Brennus advanced as far as Delphi, 
 laying waste the country with fire and sword ; but the 
 attacks of the allied Grecian force (now strengthened by 
 the addition of Macedonians and Syrians), and the suffer- 
 ings which they endured through earthquakes (?), cold, and 
 hunger, reduced their army to a mere skeleton. Brennus, B 
 their king, being grievously wounded, fell by his own 
 hand ; and the few who escaped, joining their countrymen, 
 who had remained in Thrace, formed a Gallic settlement 
 in that country, which since the death of Lysimachus had 
 been united with Macedonia. A part of them crossed 
 over into Asia Minor, and settled m Galatia. 
 
 The establishment of the ^Etolian and re- 353 
 newal of the Achaean confederacy (280) had for c 
 its object the restoration and maintenance of Grecian in- 
 dependence. The JEtottan confederacy, at the head of 
 which was placed a strategos, held an annual meeting 
 (Panaetolion) at Thermus, at which questions affecting the 
 general interests of the confederacy were discussed. 
 They had also the great council of the Apocletse. The 
 ancient insignificant union of the Achcean cities (see 
 58) was revived, at first by four and subsequently by all 
 the rest ; but this confederacy, which held its session twice 
 a year at ^Egium, and subsequently at Corinth, under the 
 presidency of a strategos, did not acquire any considerable 
 influence until the time of Aratus, who, as the soul of the 
 whole union, gained over to the cause his own native city 
 of Sicyon, together with Corinth, and all the principal 
 cities of Peloponnesus (Sparta excepted). Even the D 
 Athenians were persuaded to join the confederacy through 
 the policy of Araitus, who bribed the Macedonian governor 
 to withdraw his garrison from their city (229). 
 
 These successes of the Achseans excited the jealousy of 363 
 the ^Etolians, who endeavored to establish a confederacy 
 of the whole of Greece with themselves at its head. The 
 pursuit of this object among the Peloponnesian states, the 
 
186 EUROPE. GREECE. [364 366. 78. 
 
 (363) union of which was also the great end of the Achaean 
 A league, produced a struggle for the Hegemony of Greece 
 between the two confederacies. The Achseans being at 
 first unsuccessful, abandoned the principle on which their 
 confederacy had been formed, and applied for aid to the 
 king of Macedonia. 
 
 364 In the Cleomenian war, as it was called (228 222), the ^Etolians 
 formed an alliance with Sparta, each party perhaps promising the 
 other that they would divide the Hegemony of Greece between them. 
 The Arliif.-nis after sustaining many defeats, were on the point of 
 submitting themselves to the Hegemony of Sparta, when the 
 ambitious Aratus, in order to prevent the decline of his personal 
 
 g influence, called in the Macedonians. Cleomfines, king of Sparta, 
 wearied out by the long war, which had exhausted all his resources, 
 was vanquished, in attempting to make good the pass of Sellasia 
 between Arcadia and Laconia, by the numerical superiority and 
 greater warlike skill of the Macedonians. The subjugation of the 
 jEtclians, who were not comprehended in the great Grreco- Mace- 
 donian Symmachy, was left by Antigonus as a legacy to his son 
 Philip III. The opportunity for effecting this seemed to have arrived, 
 when the brave jEtolians came forward to resist the further exten- 
 sion of the great Graeco Macedonian Symmachy, and hence arose the 
 war of the confederates, between the jEtolians and a portion of the 
 Symmachy. This war was carried on almost single-handed by 
 Philip with such success, that at the end of two years peace was 
 concluded, the intelligence of Hannibal's victories in Italy having 
 drawn his attention to the feasibility of attacking Rome. uEtolia 
 and Elis retained their independence. 
 
 For the relations of Macedonia and Greece 
 with Rome see 123126. 
 
 Civilization of the Greeks from 338 to 146. 
 
 365 Literature: 1. In poetry the most remarkable phe- 
 c nomenon was the New Comedy ( without a chorus), the chief 
 
 aim of which was to present a characteristic picture of 
 ordinary life, and to assail with the weapons of ridicule 
 those irregularities, which were inaccessible to the attacks 
 of graver moralists. The most successful writer of this 
 description of comedy was Menander, the model of 
 D Plautus and Terence. 2. Eloquence lost more and 
 more its political character, and was merely cultivated as 
 an art in the schools of the rhetoricians, chiefly at Rhodes. 
 3. The cultivation of philosophy as a distinct science 
 occupied the attention of five recently established schools. 
 
 ggg a. The Peripatt tic, that of Aristotle and his disciple Theophrnstua 
 (his Ethics.) b. The Epicurean, founded by Epicurus, which repre- 
 
367,368. 79.] EUROPE. GREECE. 187 
 
 sented pleasure (Wovfi) as the chief end of man. c. The Stoic, (366) 
 founded by Zenon (Zeno), which recognized real good only in virtue, ^ 
 and enjoined a life in accordance with nature, d. The Skeptic 
 (founded by Pyrrhon [Pyrrho]), which denied certainty of notions 
 received through the senses, or formed from sensible impressions by 
 reflection, e. The New Academy (founded by Carneades), which 
 combated the Stoics with its skeptical eloquence. 
 
 b. Commerce. The principal commercial places, after 367 
 the decline of Grecian freedom, were Corinth, Rhodes, 
 and Byzantium. Articles of Asiatic luxury, which had 
 become better known by means of Alexander's expedition, 
 were soon eagerly sought after by Europeans. 
 
 79. Egypt under the Ptolemies. 
 (B. c. 32330.) 
 
 Flourishing condition ofthe empire under the 368 
 three first Ptolemies, 323 221. B 
 
 Of the three greater empires into which the Mace- 
 donian monarchy was divided after the death of Alex- 
 ander, the smallest, but for that very reason, the most 
 easily tenable, fell to the lot of the Ptolemies. They 
 enjoyed the advantage of being able to dispense with the 
 satraps, and of governing an unwarlike people, who, having 
 been long accustomed to a foreign and often oppressive 
 dynasty, were little disposed to take offence at the acces- 
 sion of a foreign race, or the presence of Greek and 
 Macedonian officers in the army and at court ; especially 
 as the new rulers treated their subjects kindly, and re- 
 spected their religion, constitution, and customs. Notwith- c 
 standing, however, the sagacity displayed by the three first 
 kings, Ptolemy Soter, 2 Ptolemy Philadelphus, 1 and 
 Ptolemy Euergetes, 8 in their endeavors to render 
 Egypt, and particularly their Grseco- Macedonian capital, 
 Alexandria, a grand emporium for the commerce of the 
 whole world, as well as the central school of Grecian 
 science and art, their foreign policy was singularly in- 
 judicious and unfortunate. As a proof of this, we may 
 
 1 A surname bestowed on him by the Rhodians, whom he had 
 assisted against Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 2 So named, because he married his own sister Arsinoe. 
 
 3 Euergetes [ = the benefactor] was a surname given to Ptolemy 
 by the priests, for having brought back the images of the Egyptian 
 gods from Asia. 
 
188 EUROPE. GREECE. [369371. 79. 
 
 (368) mention the stupid obstinacy with which they persisted in 
 A their endeavors to add the desirable, but by no means in- 
 dispensable, neighboring districts of Ccele-Syria, Phre- 
 nicia, Palestine, and even Asia Minor, to Egypt, Gyrene, 
 and Cyprus, which they possessed, the first by right of 
 conquest, the last in virtue of a treaty. Their per- 
 severance in this line of policy not only involved them in 
 frequent quarrels with the Seleucidoe, but rendered the 
 revival of the satrapy- system indispensable in the con- 
 quered districts. 
 
 369 In order to facilitate the commerce between India and the 
 B Mediterranean, Ptolemy Philadelphia completed a canal from 
 
 the Red Sea to the Nile, which had been commenced by Necho (see 
 92), and continued by Darius Hystaspes. It would seem, how- 
 ever, that little use was made of this mode of communication, until 
 the time of the Arabian Caliphs, it being considered safer on account 
 of the numerous reefs at the upper end of the Arabian gulf to ship 
 only as far as the ports of Berenice and Myos Hormos (both founded 
 by the above-mentioned king), where the cargoes were discharged 
 and conveyed on camels to Coptus, and thence forwarded by canal 
 to the Nile. Thus Egypt became a principal emporium for the 
 Indian and Arabian trade, an advantage which it in a great measure 
 retained until the discovery of a passage to India by the Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 370 B. Decline and fall of the Empire, B. c. 221 
 c30. 
 
 The decline of the Egyptian empire dates its com- 
 mencement from the reign of the luxurious tyrant Ptolemy 
 IV. Philopator. From this time portion after portion of 
 the foreign possessions acquired by the swords of their 
 ancestors was wrested from the feeble hands of successive 
 sovereigns, who gave themselves up to effeminacy and 
 debauchery, leaving the administration of public affairs to 
 their favorites ; whilst the people, goaded to madness by 
 the oppressive government, made repeated attempts to 
 shake off the yoke of a foreign dynasty, and a disputed 
 succession furnished the Romans with an excuse for inter- 
 vention, and finally for the dismemberment of the kingdom 
 (comp. 6 125). Caesar's Alexandrian war against Ptolemy 
 D XIII. Dionysus, at the instigation of Cleopatra (see 
 148, 1). War of Augustus against Cleopatra and Mark 
 Antony (see 154). Egypt a Roman province, B. c. 30. 
 
 371 C. Alexandrian Literature. 
 
 From the time of Alexander the Great, or rather from 
 
372 374. 79.] EUROPE. GREECE. 189 
 
 the establishment of the Alexandrian Museum by (371) 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus, the new capital of Egypt took the A 
 place of Athens as the seat of Grecian learning, the object 
 and character of which were however materially altered 
 by its transplantation to a different quarter of the globe. 
 The creative arts, as well as poetry and rhetoric, mani- 
 festly declined, whilst scientific subjects were treated more 
 profoundly and systematically. 
 
 1. Poetry. The Alexandrian poets are deficient in 372 
 poetic genius, imagination, and not unfrequently taste in B 
 the choice and treatment of their subject, In tragedy, we 
 have the " seven stars," as they are called, in lyric poetry 
 Callimachus (elegies), in epic Apollonius Rhodius (the 
 Argonautica), in didactic poetry Aratus, and in Bucolic 
 (which now first developed itself) Theocritus (thirty of his 
 Idylls are extant), Bion, and Moschus. 
 
 2. Grammar, in conjunction with criticism and the 373 
 interpretation of the ancient writers (philology in short), 
 was first raised in this century to the position of a sub- 
 stantive science by the Alexandrian grammarians, who 
 selected the best productions of Grecian literature, formed 
 them into a canon, and corrected the text, which they 
 illustrated with grammatical, historical, and oesthetical 
 comments. The most celebrated grammarians were Zeno- 
 dotus of Ephesus (about 280), and his -disciple Aristo- 
 phanes of Byzantium (about 240), who arranged the first 
 canon of classic writers. His pupil Aristarchus (about c 
 180) was considered the most distinguished critic of 
 antiquity. His " Recension " of Homer's poems (the 
 division of which into twenty-four cantos is ascribed to 
 him) forms the ground-work of the text which we now 
 
 Mathematics also, which had hitherto been considered only a 374 
 branch of philosophy, first began to be treated systematically during 
 this period, principally by Euclid (his " Elements"), Ctesibius (in- 
 ventor of the water-organ}, Apollonius of Perga (Conic Sections), a 
 pupil of Archimedes of Syracuse, the founder of Statics. 
 
 The first scientific systems of astronomy and geography were esta- 
 blished at Alexandria by Eratosthenes (ywypa<ru in three books). 
 
 Philosophy was eagerly cultivated here in the second century by 
 the Eclectics, who selected from different systems whatever they 
 considered most worthy of their attention. 
 
190 EUROPE. GREECE. [375. 80. 
 
 80. The Syrian Empire under the SeleucicUz.* 
 (31264). 
 
 375 Seleucus, satrap of Babylon, being summoned by 
 A Antigonus to give an account of his administration, had 
 fled into Egypt ; but in the year 312 returned at the head 
 of an army of Egyptian auxiliaries to Babylon, which he 
 defended successfully against Demetrius, the son of Anti- 
 gonus, and remained in undisturbed possession of Babylo- 
 nia, Media, Susiana, and some of the neighboring districts. 
 By his victory at Ipsus (p. 182) he became master of the 
 principal countries governed by Antigonus, and, after the 
 defeat and death of that monarch (282), of his Asiatic 
 B dominions also. Thus the Syrian empire comprised all 
 the Asiatic countries which had belonged to the monarchy 
 of Alexander the Great (Ccele-Syria, Palestine, and 
 Phoenicia, were soon lost to the Egyptians), with more 
 natural boundaries than that monarchy had ever possessed. 
 Instead of availing themselves of such a favorable position 
 of affairs, the Selucidoe endeavored to restore the unna- 
 tural connection with Europe, and to establish a Grseco- 
 Macedonian dominion in newly-built cities 2 on the western 
 frontier, instead of rendering the inhabitants of Asia their 
 friends, by the establishment of a purely oriental system 
 of government in the capital of their empire (Susa, Baby- 
 c ion, Ecbatana), and thence throughout the provinces. In 
 consequence of this policy the people of the west were 
 estranged, the more distant north-eastern provinces (Par- 
 thia and Bactria) soon revolted, the chieftains of northern 
 Asia Minor, whom Alexander had been unable to subdue, 
 not only retained their independence, but extended theh 
 dominions, and even Grecian satraps, renouncing their 
 allegiance to the effeminate and debauched successors of 
 Seleucus, made themselves masters of those portions of 
 
 1 Succession of the kings: Seleucus Nicator, Antiochus I. Soter, 
 Antiochus II. Theos, Seleucus II. Callinicus, Seleucus III. Ceraunus, 
 Antiochus III. the Great, Seleucus Philopator, Antiochus IV. Epi- 
 phanes, Antiochus V. Eupator, Demetrius I., &c., &c. 
 
 * Among these were seventeen Antiochs, so named after the father 
 of Seleucus. 
 
 
376. 80.] EUROPE. GREECE. 191 
 
 Asia Minor, which had not already fallen into the hands of 
 the Egyptians. 
 
 The ruin of the declining empire was for a time averted 376 
 byAntiochusIII., surnarned the Great (224 187), who A 
 even endeavored to re-establish it in all its integrity. 
 His first attempt was to wrest their Asiatic conquests from 
 the Ptolemies, and when this failed, he undertook the 
 veconquest of Parthia and Bactria. The Parthians, who 
 had spread as far as Media, and perhaps to the other side 
 of the Tigris, were again confined to Parthia and Hyr- 
 cania ; but Antiochus was compelled to recognize their 
 independence as well as that of the Bactrians, and return 
 to the west with the conviction, that so far from there being 
 an opening for fresh conquests in the north- western portion 
 of the Persian empire, it would be difficult to retain even 
 the territory which he already possessed in that quarter. B 
 The war against the weak Ptolemy Epiphanes was now 
 renewed with better success, almost all the cities of Coele- 
 Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine becoming Syrian. Scarcely 
 however had Antiochus re-established his authority over 
 the countries on the southern and western coasts of Asia 
 Minor (which had revolted, partly to the Ptolemies and 
 partly to the kings of Pergamus), and well-nigh completed 
 their subjugation, when the Romans, who ever since the hu- 
 miliation of Philip of Macedonia had been seeking a pretext 
 for war with Syria, issued a proclamation, in which they 
 declared that all the Greeks of Asia were free and inde- 
 pendent. Antiochus, deceived as he was, and at a later c 
 period annoyed and insulted, by the Romans, still strove 
 by every means in his power to avoid a war ; but finding 
 all his endeavors unavailing, he allowed himself to be 
 persuaded by the ^Etolians to visit Greece, for the purpose 
 of forming a Symmachy between Syria, Macedonia, and 
 all the Grecian states, and thus checking the aggressive 
 movements of Rome in the east. Even here, however, he 
 found himself miserably deceived ; for Philip of Mace- D 
 donia was soon seduced by the fair promises of the 
 Romans, and the Greeks, partly through fear, partly 
 because they had persuaded themselves that the Romans 
 were the real protectors of their liberties, were slow in 
 joining the confederacy, whilst the Achoeans replied to his 
 
192 EUROPE. GREECE. [377. 80. 
 
 (376) proposals by a declaration of war, which was soon fol- 
 
 A lowed by a similar proceeding on the part of the Romans. 
 Under these unfavorable circumstances Antiochus, instead 
 of returning at once into Asia and there joining the forces 
 assembled in the interior of his kingdom, still lingered in 
 Greece in a state of miserable indecision, until a defeat at 
 Thermopylae compelled him to seek safety in flight. 
 The Romans followed him into Asia, and having gained a 
 second battle at. Magnesia on the Sipylus, compelled him 
 to pay 15,000 talents, deliver up his fleet and elephants, 
 and renounce all claim to the portion of Asia Minor within 
 
 B the Taurus ; a district which they divided provisionally 
 between their allies, Eumenes, king of Pergamus, and the 
 republic of Rhodes. The satraps of the Greater and 
 Lesser Armenia availed themselves of this crisis to refuse 
 the further payment of tribute, and renounce their alle- 
 giance to the Seleucidae. 
 377 After the death of Antiochus III., two causes slowly 
 
 c but surely undermined the empire of the Seleucidae: 1. 
 The increasing prevalence of the eastern spirit over the 
 Grecism of the Seleucidae, aided as it was by the advance 
 of the Parthians westwards, and of the Bactrians towards 
 the south-east. 2. The policy of the Romans, who fos- 
 tered the mutual disgust of the Ptolemies, Seleucidoe, and 
 the kings of Asia Minor, and thus not only withheld them 
 from uniting for the purpose of resisting the aggres- 
 sions of Rome, but reduced them to such a miserable state 
 of weakness, as rendered the conquest of their country a 
 
 D work of little difficulty. King Antiochus IV. Epi- 
 phanes so little understood his position, that when the 
 Romans attacked Perseus of Macedonia, instead of uniting 
 with that monarch to oppose Rome as the common enemy, 
 he availed himself of the opportunity to reconquer the 
 provinces of Coele-Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia, which 
 had again revolted, and even to make himself master of 
 the whole of Egypt except the capital. The Ptolemies 
 appealed to the Romans, who compelled Antiochus to 
 disgorge his Egyptian conquest. In Palestine he found, 
 besides the Israelites, who jealously observed the law and 
 supported the Ptolemies, an innovating Grecizing party, 
 by whom he was persuaded to persecute those who 
 
378,370. 81.] EUROPE. GREECE. 193 
 
 adhered to the ancient faith. This treatment occasioned (377) 
 their defection from the Syrian monarchy. 1 Compare A 
 81, 6. 
 
 Under his feeble successors, most of whom bore the 
 name of Antiochus, and were continually subject to 
 humiliation and annoyance from the Romans, the kingdom, 
 which no longer extended eastwards over Babylonia and 
 Mesopotamia, was shaken to its foundation by disputes 
 respecting the succession to the throne, which were kept 
 alive by the Romans. At length, in the year sixty-four, 
 the Syrian empire, already limited to Syria Proper by the 
 conquests of the Parthians, was reduced by Cn. Pompeius 
 to the condition of a Roman province. 
 
 81. Kingdoms which revolted from the Syrian dominion. 
 
 1. Pergamus (Pergamos) (283180), Philetcerus, 378 
 lieutenant of Lysimachus in Pergamus, revolted to Seleu- B 
 cus Nicator, and during the disturbances which followed his 
 assassination, made himself independent by the aid of a band 
 
 of mercenaries. His successors assumed the title of k i n g, 
 and extended their dominions. Eumenes II. supported 
 the Romans in their war against Antiochus III. of Syria, 
 and on the conclusion of peace received the greater portion 
 of that monarch's possessions in Asia Minor. He was the 
 founder of the celebrated library of*Pergamus (which was 
 afterwards presented to Cleopatra by M. Antony), and the 
 first who patronized the manufacture of parchment (perga- 
 mena charta). His next successor but one, Attains III., c 
 a prince of weak intellect, bequeathed his kingdom to the 
 Romans, who converted it into a Roman province under 
 the name of Asia Propria. One Aristomcus, who had set 
 up a claim to the throne, was overthrown by the consul 
 Perperna. Compare 132. 
 
 2. In Gal at i a, three Gallic tribes, who had migrated 379 
 to Asia Minor, were presented by Nicomedes, king of D 
 Bithynia and Paphlagonia, with allotments of land, on 
 which they lived, under the government of four tetrarchs, 
 
 of whom Deiotarus was the first who assumed the title of 
 king, and was invested by Caesar with the sovereignty of 
 
 1 [Antiochus Epiphanes, as the fiercest persecutor of God's people, 
 s the great type of the Antichrist.] 
 
194 EUROPE. GREECE. [380382. 81. 
 
 the whole country. It was made a Roman province by 
 Augustus (25 B. c.). 
 
 380 3. Parthia. a. Under the Arsadda 256 (?) B. c. to 
 A A. D. 226. Agathocles, the universally unpopular Syrian 
 
 satrap, was assassinated by Arsaces, who founded an inde- 
 pendent kingdom, which was extended by his successors 
 over all the countries between the Euphrates, Indus, and 
 Oxus. Residences: Ctesiphon and Seleucia on the 
 Tigris. The victory of Arsaces XIV. over the Roman 
 Triumvir Crassus was followed by frequent wars with the 
 Romans, occasioned principally by disputed successions in 
 Armenia. Arsaces XXX. (called also Artabanus IV.) was 
 deposed in the year of our Lord 226 by a Persian named 
 B Artaxerxes, son of Sassan. With this Artaxerxes begins 
 b. the dynasty of the Sassanidce. or new Persian empire, 
 226 651. Narses (297) was deprived by the Roman 
 emperor Galerius, of Mesopotamia, five provinces on the 
 other side the Tigris, and the sovereignty of Armenia and 
 Iberia but the five provinces were restored by the 
 emperor Jovian. 
 
 381 4. Bactria, which revolted from the Syrian monarchy 
 c at the same time as Parthia, formed an independent king- 
 dom, until Arsaces VI. united the province of Bactria 
 with that of Parthia, whilst other conquerors made them- 
 selves masters of the other component parts of the Bac- 
 trian kingdom. , 
 
 382 5. Armenia. A fter the unfortunate wars of Antiochus 
 the Great, both the governors of Armenia revolted (189), 
 and assuming the royal title divided the country between 
 them. a. The Greater Armenia. Among the kings the 
 most worthy of notice is Tigranes I., who ruled at the 
 same time over Syria, the Lesser Armenia, and Cappa- 
 docia ; but having formed an alliance with his father-in- 
 law IVfithridates VI., king of Pontus, he was attacked by 
 the Romans, and his sovereignty restricted to the Greater 
 
 D Armenia. At a later period, the succession to the throne 
 furnished a subject for contention between the Romans 
 and Parthians. Trajan conquered Armenia in 106, and 
 reduced it to the condition of a Roman province, but the 
 government was again vested in native princes (subject to 
 the supremacy of Rome), by the 'emperor Hadrian in 117. 
 Finally, Armenia became a part of the new Persian 
 
383 385. 81.] EUROPE. GREECE. 195 
 
 empire (412). b. The Lesser Armenia, ruled by its own (382) 
 kings until the conquest of the country by Tigranes I. It A 
 fell subsequently into the hands of the Romans, by whom 
 it was alternately conferred on some neighboring king, or 
 merged in the Roman province of Cappadocia. 
 
 6. Palsestina. 383 
 
 a. Dependent on the Ptolemies and Seleucida 323 
 167. At the division of the kingdom after the death of 
 Alexander the Great, Palestine fell to the lot of the 
 governor of Syria, but was soon conquered by Ptolemy I., 
 who transported a colony of Jews to Alexandria, where 
 the Seventy translated the Old Testament into Greek [the 
 Septuagint]. In the war of Antiochus the Great against the B 
 Egyptians, the Jews, weary of Egyptian rule, attached them- 
 selves to the king of Syria, and remained subject to the Se- 
 leucidse from the year 203 to the reign of Antiochus IV. 
 Epiphanes ; when the people, enraged at the sale of their 
 high priesthood to the Grecizing party, and the attempts of 
 the king to enforce attendance on the idolatrous worship 
 of Greece, took up arms under the command of Mattathias, 
 
 a priest of the race of the Asmoneans, and his five sons, of 
 whom Judas Maccabaeus was the most renowned. 
 
 b. Under the Asmoneans or Maccabees, 167 39. The 384 
 Jews, whose success was promoted by the family quarrels 3 
 of the Seleucidse, maintained their independence during a 
 period of nearly forty years, 167 130. At length, Simon 
 Thassi, the son of Mattathias, was recognized by Deme- 
 trius as high-priest and independent prince of Judeea, and 
 
 his grandson Aristobulus assumed the title of king (in 
 107). Under his successors the struggles of the two sects 
 of Pharisees and Sadducees prepared the way for the 
 dependence of their country on Rome ; Hyrcanus, the 
 leader of the Pharisaic party having called in Pompey, 
 who wrested Jerusalem out of the hands of the Sadducees, 
 and promoted Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood, but at the 
 same time compelled the little state of Judsea to pay a 
 tribute to the Roman exchequer. 
 
 The Pharisees, in addition to the written law of Moses, recognized 385 
 the authority of tradition, and believed in predestination. They also D 
 held the [true] doctrines of the immortality of the soul and the ex- 
 istence of angels. The Suddurees on the contrary rejected all these 
 doctrines. A sect of the Pharisees, the Esscnes, were distinguished 
 by the ascetic severity of their discipline. 
 
196 EUROPE. GREECE. [386, 387. 81. 
 
 (385) As the new high-priest troubled himself very little 
 A about the administration of public affairs, the supreme 
 authority fell into the hands of a favorite of the emperor's 
 named Antipater, a native of Idumaea, who placed his son, 
 a lad of fifteen, over the province of Galilee. This son, 
 whose name was Herod, being supported by the Romans, 
 was enabled to bid defiance to the enmity of the Pharisees, 
 and in the year B. c. 39, was proclaimed by the Triumviri 
 king of Judaea. 
 
 386 r. Under the Herodians from B. c. 39 to A. D. 70. 
 The government of Herod the Great (!), imposed as it 
 was on the country by the swords of a foreign power, was 
 
 B of course hateful to every Jewish patriot. His poJicy, 
 therefore, during a tyrannical reign of thirty-seven years, 
 was to ally himself closely to the Romans, and endeavor 
 by every means in his power to root out the ancient 
 Jewish customs and institutions. 
 
 In the last year but one of his reign, four years before 
 the commencement of our epoch, 1 JESUS CHRIST was born 
 at Bethlehem. After the three sons of Herod had reigned 
 a short time, Judaea was included in the Roman province 
 of Syria, retaining however its own procurators or gov- 
 ernors. Of these, the most notorious was Pontius Pilate 
 [Pontius Pilatus], under whom our blessed Lord suffered 
 in the year 30. 
 
 387 Under Herod Agrippa I., a grandson of Herod the Great, who 
 had rendered important services to the emperor Claudius, Palestine 
 
 C was again a kingdom for three years ; but after his death it became 
 as before a Roman province, administered by procurators. At a 
 later period (A. D. 53) a small portion of the country was ruled by 
 the last of the Herodians, king Agrippa II., a son of Herod 
 Agrippa I. 
 
 An insurrection, occasioned by the severity of these 
 governors (A. D. 66), ended in the destruction of the city 
 by Titus [as the instrument by which the righteous judg- 
 ment of the Almighty was executed] in the year 70; 
 1,100,000 Jews, who had come up to the feast of the Pass- 
 over, losing their lives by famine, pestilence, and the sword. 
 The Roman governor now transferred the seat of govern- 
 ment to Samaria. The settlement of a colony on the site 
 of Jerusalem, and erection of a temple of Jupiter Capito- 
 
 1 [Mr. Browne places it in B. c. 5. Ordo Saclorum, p. 36.] 
 
388, 389. 82, 83.] EUROPE. GREECE. 197 
 
 linus by the emperor Hadrian, occasioned another general (387) 
 insurrection of the Jews (A. D. 133), of whom more than A 
 half a million lost their lives ; but in spite of this opposi- 
 tion, the new city of jElia Capitolina rose on the ruins of 
 Jerusalem. Dispersion of the Jews. 
 
 82. The Kingdom of Pontus. 
 
 Pontus, which had been a Persian satrapy from the time 388 
 of Darius I., became independent in the general insurrec- 
 tion of the satraps against Artaxerxes II. The Pontic 
 king, Mithridates II., submitted to Alexander the Great ; 
 but expelled Antigonus, to whom Pontus had been assigned 
 in the partition of the kingdom. The last king, Mithrida- u 
 tes VI., or "the Great," a man of learning and an author, 
 subdued Colchis, extended his empire as far as Armenia, 
 and was thrice involved in war with the Romans in 
 consequence of his conquests in Asia Minor (87 84; 
 83 81 ; 74 64), see 138 and 143. His own son 
 Pharnaces, to whom he was at last compelled to fly for pro- 
 tection, having seduced his troops, Mithridates laid violent 
 hands on fyimself. The central portion of Pontus was in- 
 corporated into the Roman province of Bithynia, but at a 
 later period conferred, together with the eastern district, 
 on a grandson of Mithridates (Polemo). Finally, both c 
 countries became Roman provinces in the reign of Nero ; 
 the western portion, which bordered on Galatia, being con- 
 ferred on the Galatian prince Deiotarus. 
 
 83. Bithynia and Cappadocia. 
 
 In both provinces the Persian satraps assumed the title 389 
 of king, and maintained their independence against the 
 Macedonians. Among the Bithynian kings, the best 
 known are Prusias II., at whose court Hannibal sought ah 
 asylum ; and Nicomedes III., who was expelled by Mith- 
 ridates VI., but restored by the Romans, to whom he be- 
 queathed his kingdom (B. c. 75). 
 
 Cappadocia, after the death of her last king ( Archelaus), D 
 who was inveigled to Rome by the emperor Tiberius 
 (A. D. 18), became a distinct province of the Roman em- 
 pire. The manner of his death is not known. 
 
193 EUROPE. ROME. [390393. 83. 
 
 IV. THE ROMANS. 
 Sources of Information. 
 
 390 The most ancient authorities, Roman history commences with a 
 . few detached and meagre records ; among which the most important 
 are, 1. The A/males Maximior Pontificum, which originated in the 
 yearly registration of magistrates, with a short notice of the most 
 important events of each year, inscribed at the end of the year on a 
 white tablet, by the Pontifex Maximus, in whose house it was hung 
 ip for public inspection. This practice continued from the earliest 
 times to the days of the Gracchi. It seems probable, however, that 
 the annals of events antecedent to the storming of Rome by the 
 Gauls, were partially destroyed when the city was burnt, and per- 
 haps replaced by others at a later period. 2. The Fasti Capitotini, 
 or Consular Fasti, a list of the Consuls to the time of Augustus, in 
 whose reign this record was compiled from ancient authorities. It 
 was found at Rome in 1547, and has very recently been augmented 
 B by fresh discoveries. 3. The Laudes funebres, or funeral orations, in 
 which triumphs, consulates, &c., often imaginary, were ascribed to 
 the ancient Romans, and thence transferred to history. 
 
 39 j b. The Annalists, whose numerous works are lost, with the ex- 
 ception of a few passages cited by more recent authors. The most 
 ancient are Q Fabius Pictor and L. Cincius Alimcntus ; both of 
 whom served in the second Punic war, and wrote a history of their 
 own tunes, with an introductory essay on the earlier history of Rome. 
 A few years later we have a metrical history, in eighteen books, 
 under the title of " Annales," by Q. Ennius, who brings down the 
 narrative to his own times ; and a treatise (Origines) on the same 
 subject, in seven books, brought down to the year 151, with profound 
 criticisms, by M. Porcius Cato Censorius. The most shameless fal- 
 sifier of history, especially of numbers, was Valerius Anlias. 
 
 392 c. Historian*. 
 
 aa. In the Greek language, the chief authority for the more 
 important events of Roman history, between the years 220 and 157, 
 is Polybius. The fragments which we possess of Diodorus Siculus 
 are mere detached notices, reaching only to the year 302, and often 
 unworthy of credit. Dionysius, in his 'Apx"o>>oyia 'Poj//uiv; (in 
 twenty books, of which one to eleven are extant), gives an account 
 of the earliest history and constitution of Rome. Ajtpian ( Appianus), 
 a principal authority for the times immediately following the second 
 Punic war, and for the civil wars. Dio Cassius, of whose works frag- 
 ments are extant, comprehending the period between B. c. 87 and 8. 
 J If /ad mn (Herodianus) History of his own times from A. D. 180 to 
 238. Zondras, in the twelfth century, wrote a xpnvirfv of events 
 frqm the beginning of things to the year 1118. Plutarch's /?joi 
 jrapaXXnX"* contain the lives of twenty-two celebrated Romans. 
 
 393 bb. In Latin <i. Writers who bring down the Roman 
 hifitory from the commencement to their own times. 
 
 D 1. Titug LiriiiK [called by us, Livy] (born at Padua B. c 58, died there 
 A. D. 19). Of his " Annales" (in 142 books) we possess unmutilatcd 
 only books 1 10 (authorities for the period between 753 293), and 
 
394 396. 83.] EUROPE. ROME. 199 
 
 2145 (218167). 2. C. Velleius Paterculus (in the first century (391) 
 of the Christian nera). In his Histories Romano; libri ii., we have a ^ 
 brief outline of universal history, with especial reference to the Ro- 
 mans (to A. D. 3D). 3. L. Auuaeus Ftorus (probably in the reign of 
 Trajan). His Rerum Romauaruui libri iv., bring down the history 
 from the building of Rome to the reign of Augustus u c '. v l 4 
 ulropius (in the fou.th i vuuiry; wrote a Brevianum ili.stor. Rom. 
 from the building of iio:ae to tlie reign of Valens We limi al.w; . 
 notices of Roman affurs, down to the reign of Augustus, 111 the His- 
 toriae Philippic (forty-tour books) of Trogus Pumpeius, of which 
 there exist merely a tew extracts in the works of Justin [Justinus]. 
 
 0. Writers who treat of particular portions of Roman 394 
 history. 1. C. Julius Casar (99 44) describes his campaigns in B 
 Gaul in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico (eight books), and his war 
 with Pompey and his party in the Commentarii de Bello Civili (three 
 books). 2. C. Sallusttus Crispus (86 35). His Bellum Catilinarium 
 and Bellum Jugurthinum are entire ; but we possess only a few 
 fragments of the Histor., lib. vi. [79 67). 3. C. Cornelius Tacitus 
 (somewhere between A. D. 152 130?). Portions only are extant of 
 his Historiarum Libri (6rS 96) and Annales, in sixteen books (14 
 68). Ammianus Maicellinus (about A D. 400). Of his Rerum Ges- 
 tarum libri xxxi (A. D. 91 378), we possess only eighteen (35^ 
 378), the last and the most important. 
 
 y. Biographers. 1. Cornelius Nepos (in the first century of 395 
 the Christian eera), whose lives of Hannibal, Cato, and Atticus c 
 (from his " Vitae Excellentium Imperatorum"), belong to Roman 
 history. 2. C. Cornelius Tacitus Vita Agricolae. 3. C. Suetonius 
 Tranquillus (about A. D. 100), Vita3 XII. Imperatorum (Caesar to 
 Domitian). 4. Script ores Historic Augusta ; a collection of thirty- 
 four biographies of Roman emperors (from Hadrian to Carus and 
 his sons, or from 117 to 285), by six different authors. 5. S. Au- 
 relius Victor (in the fourth century), De Viris Illustribus Romae and 
 de Caesaribus. We have a collection of interesting traits of cha- 
 racter and anecdotes in the " Factorum Dictorumque Memora- 
 bilium" libri ix., of Valerius Maximus (in the reign of Tiberius). 
 Besides the historians, we may consult Cicero's books, De Republic^, 
 (only two of the six remain, and those in an imperfect state), and 
 the three books, De Legibus, for the history of the earlier consti- 
 tution ; and his letters for that of his own times. Among the 
 geographers, the first place must be assigned to Strabo (5 and 6 
 books). 
 
 Modern Authorities. 
 
 The Roman histories of the early modern writers are mere com- 396 
 pilations from the works of ancient historians, without any attempt D 
 at testing the credibility and value of their testimony. After this 
 fashion, Freinshemius (Supplementa Livii, 1654) tried to replace the 
 lost books of Livy. The first writer who applied the rules of criti- 
 cism to Roman history was Jac. Perizonius, whose masterly investi- 
 gations (Animadversiones Historicse, 1685) soon fell into unmerited 
 oblivion ; whilst, on the other hand, the skepticism of L. de 
 Beaufort (sur 1'Incertitude des cinq premiers Siecles de 1'Histoire 
 10 
 
200 EUROPE. ITALY. [397. 84. 
 
 (396) Romaine, 1750), though it is here and there carried too far, enjoyed 
 A in its day considerable reputation and influence. In the same spirit 
 of mere negation, Levesque wrote his Histoire critique de la Rdpub- 
 lique Romaine (1807). Edward Gibbon's " History of the Decline and 
 Fall of the Roman Empire," from the second century of the Christian 
 sera to the downfall of the Byzantine empire, is a work distinguished 
 by critical acuteness and the surpassing beauty of the narrative. 1 An 
 entirely new epoch, as regards the treatment of Roman history, began 
 with the publication of B. G. Niebuhr's " Roman History" (two parts, 
 1811 and 12 ; a second edition, carefully revised and corrected, was 
 published in 1827 and 1830, followed in 1832 by a third part, bringing 
 down the history to the end of the first Punic war ; fourth edit., one 
 B vol., in 1834 [translated into English by Hare and Thirl wall, vol. iii. 
 by Dr. Schmitz]). In this work, the historian not only proves the 
 untenable character of those statements which formerly passed for 
 Roman history, but also selects, with great critical acuteness, from the 
 mass of legends, conjectures, and forgeries, all that deserves the name 
 of unfalsified fact ; and on this foundation essays to build a critical 
 history of Rome. Niebuhr's Rome has been very well abridged by 
 Twiss (Oxford, 1845). A full course of Roman history down to 
 Constantine will be found in Niebuhr's lectures (3 vols. 8vo.). Ar- 
 nold's Rome gives Niebuhr's views of the early history with great 
 beauty, and with the posthumous volume and early work (v. Apple- 
 ton's ed.) brings you down through the Republic, v. also Eliot's 
 Liberty of Rome, Schrnitz's Roman History, Greene's Historical Se- 
 ries, vol. 2, Ferguson's Roman Republic, Sismondi's Roman Empire. 
 
 A. Geography of Italy. 
 84. Names and Boundaries of Italy. 
 
 397 The name of 1 1 a 1 i a originally belonged only to the ex- 
 c treme southern portion (called at a later period B r u 1 1 i u m, 
 and extending northwards as far as the isthmus on the gulf 
 of Scylla), nor had the peninsula in a'ncient times (any 
 more than Asia Minor) a general name, each district be- 
 ing merely designated after the people by whom it was 
 inhabited ; e. g. (Enotria (the south-western peninsula 
 from the La us), Ausonia, or Opica (northwards from 
 the Laiis to the Tiber), Tyrrhenia (from the Tiber to the 
 Apennines), U m b r i c a (the north-eastern part of the penin- 
 D sula), lapygia (its south-eastern part). It was not until 
 the Romans had united the whole peninsula under one 
 government (in -260) that Italia became a general name 
 
 1 In Milman's edition all the objectionable parts and doubtful ques- 
 tions are carefully discussed in the notes. 
 
398, 399. 85.] EUROPE. ITALY. 201 
 
 for the entire country, extending northwards to that branch (397) 
 of the Apennines which stretches from the maritime Alps A 
 nearly to the Adriatic, and as far as the river Rubicon. 
 GalliaCisalpina, which had been subdued in the year 
 221, was called in Caesar's time (49) Liguria; but to- 
 gether with the territory of the Garni, Istri, and V e n e t i, 
 was considered from the time of Augustus a part of Italy ; 
 the western boundary of which towards Gaul was now the 
 river Varus [the Far], and the eastern, the river Arsia 
 [Arsa]. 
 
 We find, however, even at a later period, many of the ancient B 
 names employed by both Greek and Latin poets to designate some- 
 times the whole peninsula, sometimes particular portions. Italy is 
 also called by them Hesperia (literally the land of the West) and 
 S a turn i a (perhaps the name given by the ancient Latins to a portion 
 of central Italy.) 
 
 85. The Mountains of Italy. 
 
 A. The Alps, .which inclose Italy in a direction from 398 
 south-west to north-east, are divided into three principal 
 ranges, each of which consists of three chains. 
 
 1. The Western Alps, consisting of the Alpes Maritime, (from 
 the sea to Viso), the Alpes Cottia, or Alps of Dauphind (as far as 
 Mont Gem's), and the Alpes Grata, or Alps of Savoy (as far as Mont 
 Blanc). 
 
 2. The Central Alps, subdivided into the Alpes Pennince, or 
 Valaisian Alps (from Mont Blanc to Monte Rosa), the Alpes Lepon- 
 titB, or Alps of the Orisons (the St. Gothard),and the Alpes Rh&tica, 
 or Tyrolese Alps (as far as Grossglockner). 
 
 3. The Eastern Alps, consisting of the Alpes Norica, or Alps c 
 of Salzburg and Styria (as far as the Danube at Vienna), the Alpes 
 Carnicte,or Carinthian Alps (as far as Terglu), and the Alpes Julia, 
 or Alps of Carniola (to the Adriatic sea). 
 
 B. The Apennlnus, a single chain, with short branches 399 
 on each side, running from the maritime Alps through the 
 peninsula (of which it occupies the entire centre from 
 north to south), and extending into Sicily, interrupted only 
 
 by the strait of Messina. 
 
 The Apennines, like the Alps, are divided into three sections. D 
 1. The northern Apenninus, which stretches from the maritime Alps 
 east and south-east, running nearly parallel with the Alps, and sepa- 
 rating the plain of the Po from the sea and the Arno. 2. The 
 central, Apenninus, beginning at the sources of the Arno, forms the 
 peninsula, properly so called (406), and attains its greatest height on the 
 frontier of the kingdom of Naples (in the Abruzzi 70009000 feet), 
 and its greatest breadth (from the Tyrrhenian sea to the Adriatic, 
 
202 EUROPE. ITALY. [400 404. 86. 
 
 (399) where it terminates in the promontory of Garganus). 3. The southern 
 
 A Apenninus consists of two arms, of which the eastern is the higher 
 
 and the western the lower ; the two together forming a peninsula. 
 
 The granite mountains of Sardinia and Corsica belong neither to the 
 
 Alpine nor Apennine system. 
 
 86. The Waters of Italy. 
 
 400 Seas. Mare Tuscum (Tuscan sea), or Tyrrhe- 
 num,or Inferum Mare Hadriaticurn,or Superum 
 Mare internum (Mediterranean). 
 
 401 Gulfs. Sinus Ligusticus (gulf of Genoa), Sinus 
 Tarentinus (gulf of Taranto), Sinus Tergestlnus 
 (gulf of Trieste). 
 
 402 Lakes. a. In Upper Italy Lacus Verbanus (Lago 
 B Maggiore), L. Larius (Lago di Coino), L. Benacus 
 
 (Lago di Garda). b. In Central Italy L. Trasimenus 
 (Hannibal's third victory, 217, now Lago di Perugia), L. 
 Alb anus (Lago di Castello), L. Regillus (battle in 496, 
 now Lago di Regillo), L. Fucinus (Lago di Celano). 
 
 403 Rivers. 
 
 a. Running into the Adriatic. The two greater Alpine 
 streams, viz., the A thesis (the Adige) and Padus ('///- 
 davog ? now Po), and the small rivers in the narrow eastern 
 strip of land between the Apennines and the sea ; viz., the 
 Rubicon (now?) the Metaurus(Metauro Hasdrubal's 
 defeat in 207), and the A u fid us (Ofanto). 
 
 C The Po rises in the Vesulus (Monte Viso), and after receiving the 
 waters of thirty tributary streams from the Alps and Apennines, is 
 raised, by means of the alluvial soil deposited in its bed, thirty feet 
 above the level of the surrounding country, which is protected by 
 dams ; and, finally, forms with its seven mouths a swampy Delta. 
 The most important tributary streams are a. Rising in the Alps 
 the Ticlnus (now Tessino, Hannibal's first victory in 248), the 
 Addua (now Adda), and the Mincius (Mincio), which precipitate 
 themselves together from the mountains into one of the greater lakes 
 of Upper Italy, and thence run with clearer water into the Po. 6. 
 Rising in the Alps the Trebia (Hannibal's second victory in 218). 
 
 104 b. Running into the Tyrrhenian sea. From the broader 
 D space on the western side of the Apennines 1. The 
 Arnus(Arno), and, 2, the Tiberis(Tevere) ; the course 
 of which is lengthened by their running at first through 
 valleys, nearly parallel to the coast, and then passing into 
 others at right angles with the former, until they discharge 
 themselves by swampy embouchures into the sea. 3. The 
 
405407. 87.] EUROPE. ITALY. 203 
 
 Liris (Garigliano). 4. Vulturnus (Volturno), Sil&rus (404) 
 (Silaro, victory of Crassus, 71). 
 
 The tributary streams of the Tiber are on the left the Allia 
 (victory of the Gauls, 389), and the Anio (Teverone) ; and on the 
 right the Cremora (the 300 Fabii). 
 
 87. Soil, Climate, and Products of Italy. 
 
 1. The Italian Lowlands, or plain of the Po, are 405 
 inclosed on the north-west by the Alps, the summits of A 
 which are covered with eternal snow, and on the south by the 
 lower and less precipitous Apennines ; but on the east they 
 are open to a much- frequented inland sea, and are watered 
 
 by a navigable river, with its numerous tributaries and 
 canals, as well as by four beautiful lakes ; and whether we 
 consider the mildness of their climate, the luxuriant vege- 
 tation (maize, rice, the vine, fruit and mulberry trees, ever 
 verdant meadows, pastures, &c.), or the industrious and 
 productive habits of the inhabitants, may fairly be ranked 
 among the most highly-favored countries of Europe. 
 
 2. The Italian peninsula, lying westward, south- 406 
 ward, and south-eastward of the Apennines, is broken up 3 
 by an uniform mountain-chain into a number of small 
 valleys, watered by forest streams, and of plains abutting 
 
 on the coast ; and contains, in consequence, a series of 
 districts separated from one another by peculiarities of 
 situation and character. The ridge of this mountain-chain 
 affords merely pasturage ; but its sides are covered with 
 chestnut forests of immense extent, and its foot with vine- 
 yards, plantations of olives, and orange orchards. Cala- 
 bria and Sicily have almost an African climate, which 
 permits the cultivation of the palm-tree, the cotton-shrub, 
 and the sugar-cane. 
 
 The country westward of the Apennines is of a volcanic nature, of 407 
 which we have distinct indications, a. (as far northward as Terracina, 
 especially on the Campagna di Roma) in the lakes which occupy C 
 craters of extinct volcanoes, and in the sulphureous vapors which 
 rise out of holes and clefts in the ground. In southern Tuscany and 
 the Pontine marshes, luxuriant districts are rendered so pestilential 
 by this malaria as to be uninhabitable in summer, and used only for 
 the pasturage of cattle in winter. 6. In the southern portion of the 
 western side of the peninsula the existence of volcanic matter is still 
 more plainly indicated by the eruptions of Mount Vesuvius (3700 
 feet), the Phlegraan fields, and Mount ^Etna (10,280 feet), by fre- 
 quent earthquakes, and by the breaking out of fresh volcanoes. 
 
204 EUROPE. ITALY. [408 415. 88, 89. 
 
 88. Divisions of Italy. 
 
 408 A. Upper Italy contains those districts which were 
 A not reckoned among the Italian states by the Romans until 
 
 the time of Caesar and Augustus. 1. Liguria; 2. Gallia 
 Ci sal pin a, or Togata ; 3. the country of the Veneti, 
 with that of the Garni and Istri. 
 
 409 B. Central Italy contains 
 
 a. On the western side, Etruria, Latium, and 
 Campania. 
 
 b. On the eastern side, Umbria, Picenum, and 
 
 Samnium. 
 
 410 C. Lower Italy 
 
 a. On the western side, Lucania and Bruttium. 
 
 b. On the eastern side, Apulia and Calabria. 
 
 411 D. The Islands 
 
 Sicilia [Sicily], Sardinia, Corsica, the smaller 
 islands. 
 
 89. The ancient Inhabitants of Italy. 
 A. The most ancient races. 
 
 412 1. The Pelasgi inhabited not only the entire western 
 B coast from the Arnus to the southernmost point of Italy 
 
 (where the northern portion of them were called Tyrrheni, 
 and the southern (Enolrii), but also parts of the eastern 
 coast; the Veneti in the north, and the Daunii and Peucetii 
 in the south, belonging probably to the Pelasgian race. 
 
 413 2. The Opici, Osci, and Ausones, inhabited the 
 western branch of the Apennine chain. To this race be- 
 longed the JEqui and Volsci, in Latium the Casci (or 
 Prisci), who dwelt at first round the lake Fucinus, and at 
 a later period were driven out by the Sabines, and mi- 
 grated to Latium, and probably the Apuli (westward of 
 the Garganus), who subdued the Pelasgian Daunii. 
 
 414 3. The Sabelli, an offset of the ancient Sabini. The 
 c original seat of the Sabines was among the highest moun- 
 tains of the Abruzzi about Amiternum, whence the super- 
 fluous population migrated in various directions the 
 Picentes to Picenum, the Hernici to Latium, the Samnltes 
 to Campania, and the Lucani to Lucania. In the ancient 
 seats there remained the Marsi, Peligni, Vessini, and Ma. 
 rucini, who composed a confederacy. 
 
 415 4. The Umbri, an aboriginal people of Italy, who, 
 
416 418. 89.] EUROPE. ITALY. 205 
 
 before the immigration of the Etrusci, had spread from the 
 Pad us into the country of the Sabines, and probably also 
 into southern Etruria. 
 
 5. The Ligures, whose origin is unknown. At an 416 
 early period they had considerably transgressed the boun- A 
 dary assigned to Liguria by Augustus (perhaps from the 
 Pyrenees to the Tiber, and in the north as far as the Seve- 
 nine and across the Po), but were afterwards driven back 
 by the I be res on one side, and the Gel tee on the other. 
 
 B. Foreign Settlers. 
 
 1. The Etrusci, or Tuscans (Raseni in their own Ian- 417 
 guage), came from Rhsetia, being probably driven out by the 
 Celtae, and entering Upper Italy, drove back the Venetians 
 and Umbrians, and founded in Gallia Cisalpma (of which the 
 Ligurians retained the western part) a confederate state of 
 twelve sovereign cities. At a later period they crossed 
 the Apennines and the Arnus, and founded in Tuscany a 
 second confederate state of twelve cities ; having first sub- 
 dued or expelled the Umbrians and Tyrrhenians, who dwelt 
 between the Arno and the Tiber. At length (about the B 
 year 470) the}' forced their way into Campania, where 
 they founded colonies (probably a third confederate state 
 of twelve cities), such as Capua and Nola; of which, 
 however, they were soon deprived by the Samnites. 
 
 Religion, fyc. of the Etrusci. 
 
 a. Religion. Their gods (in Tuscan ^Esar) were divided by the 410 
 Etrusci into two classes. 1. The higher or veiled divinities, dark, 
 mysterious powers, working in secret, whose number was unknown ; 
 and, 2, the twelve inferior gods. Jupiter (in Tuscan Tina, or Tinia), 
 occupying probably a middle position between the two classes, and 
 believed to be the centre of the divine world. He consults the 
 higher divinities on matters of importance, whilst those of the lower 
 class compose his ordinary council. Different parts of the creation, 
 e. g. the heavens, water, the infernal regions, &c., were also sup- 
 posed to be under the protection of Daemons (Lares, Penates, and 
 Manes). A distinguishing characteristic of the Etruscan religion 
 was the prominent position occupied by divination, or the discovery 
 of the divine will by means of auguries. This art, or " discipline," 
 which, according to the legend, was revealed by Tages, the grandson 
 of Jupiter, and at first propagated by tradition in the families of the 
 nobles, was subsequently imparted to all classes in schools set apart 
 for that purpose, and rules for its acquisition, accurately laid down 
 in books (Etruscae Disciplinae Volumina). This "discipline" as- 
 sumed that the gods were wont to declare their will to mankind by D 
 lightning, the flight and cry of birds, the entrails of victims, and 
 
206 EUROPE. ITALY. [419 421. 89. 
 
 other signs, which it was the business of the Harusplces to in- 
 terpret. 
 
 419 6. The Constitution. The whole of Etruria formed a confederacy 
 . of twelve independent cities ; but which of these were members of the 
 
 league cannot be satisfactorily ascertained, as there seems to have 
 been more than twelve, equally independent. Probably some of the 
 twelve nations (nonets) of Etruria were not restricted to one capital, 
 but inhabited several cities, independent of each other, but having 
 only one vote in the confederacy. The members of the league had 
 regularly every year religious meetings in the temple of Voltumna 
 (the situation of which cannot be distinctly ascertained). On these 
 occasions public fairs were held, expeditions agreed on by the 
 " principes " of the confederacy, and commanders of the allied forces 
 elected. Each of the allied states had, at least in the earliest times, 
 a king elected for life, and a hereditary nobility, named by the Romans 
 " principes" ( = Lucumones?), who alone could aspire to the highest 
 offices in the state. There was also a commonalty personally inde- 
 pendent of the nobles, and a crowd of clients, who were probably 
 descendants of the vanquished aborigines (Tyrrheni and Umbri). 
 
 420 c ' Arts and Sciences. All the religious celebrations of the 
 Etruscans, particularly their solemn processions, were accompanied 
 with music (flutes, trumpets, horns, &c.). Scenic art was confined to 
 the dance, in which the performers, without employing words, repre- 
 sented the plot by means of gestures. Their architectural works, 
 city-walls, of the Pelasgian order, indicating the transition from the 
 Cyclopian style to that in which hewn stones are employed, vaulted 
 gateways, monuments, temples, theatres, and amphitheatres, are of 
 colossal dimensions, and were probably raised by feudal labor; as 
 were also their aqueducts, sewers, dams, and canals, by means of 
 which the Delta of the Po was regulated, and the marshes drained 
 
 . c on the banks of the Arnus. From their famous manufacture of 
 vases, relievos, and statues, in terra cotta, they gradually learnt the 
 art of casting in bronze such articles as ornamental arms, candelabra, 
 paterae, &c. ; in the production of which they attained a high degree 
 of excellence. Painting was employed partly for the coloring of 
 statues and relievos in stone and clay, and partly, as an independent 
 art, for frescoes on the walls of tombs. In the absence of any le- 
 gends of native heroism, the Etruscan artists borrowed for the most 
 part their subjects from the Greek mythology, which they were wont 
 to combine, in a modified form, with their local traditions. In 
 Etruscan literature, we find, besides their books of " discipline," a 
 few religious hymns, the Fescennine verses (ribaldrous songs, in 
 alternate verse), and historical notices. From them the Romans 
 borrowed most of their knowledge respecting the interpretation of 
 signs, the designation of numbers by figures, and the division of the 
 month into calends, nones, and ides, as well as the dress and in- 
 signia of their magistrates 
 
 421 d Commerce. The Tuscans seem at an early period (perhaps 
 D even in Homer's time) to have carried on a considerable land-traffic 
 
 in their N-ttlemonta on the Po ; and also to have brought overland 
 from the coasts of the Daltic the amber which they obtained from 
 Germanic tribes, and subsequently transported by sea into Greece. 
 Their maritime traffic began with piracy in the western Mediterrm- 
 
422420. 90.] EUROPE. ITALY. 207 
 
 nean, accompanied by the establishment, through commercial leagues, (421) 
 of friendly relations with particular nations, especially with the A 
 Carthaginians and Greeks of Lower Italy. The articles of export 
 were partly the natural and artistic productions of those districts of 
 Italy which were in the hands of the Etruscans (grain, iron from 
 Ilva, wine, earthenware, works in bronze, &c.)> partly those which 
 they had obtained by traffic with foreigners ; amber, for instance. 
 Their imports were the products of the east. A third branch was 
 their domestic trade, which was closely connected with the religious 
 festivals, each of them being at the same time a fair ; the business of 
 which must have been considerable, since the Etruscan monetary 
 system was adopted by the whole of central Italy. 
 
 2. For the Grecian settlements, see 62. 422 
 
 3. The Gauls, a rude offset of the great tribe of the 
 Celtae, which had spread itself over western Europe, mi- 
 grated (about B. c. 400) in great numbers (300,000) into 
 Italy ; a portion of them overrunning Upper Italy and 
 marching upon Rome ; whilst the remainder directed their 
 course towards Pannonia. 
 
 90. Topography of Italy. 
 A. Upper Italy. 
 
 1. Liguria, in the time of Augustus, comprehended 423 
 the line of coast between the rivers Varus and Macra, B 
 northwards as far as the Pad us. Genua (Genova), chief 
 commercial city of the Ligurians. 
 
 2. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata. 424 
 This vast plain, which was occupied by the Gauls, is 
 
 divided by the Po into two parts. 
 
 A. Gallia Cispadana (inhabited by the Boii, Sendnes, 425 
 and Lingdnes). Cities. 1. Placentia (Piacenza), at the 
 confluence of the Trebia with the Padus ; founded by the 
 Romans in 219. 2. Mutina (Modena ; defeat of M. 
 Anthony in 43). 3. Bononia (Bologna). 4. Ravenna, 
 formerly on the sea-coast, now an inland town ; imperial 
 residence from the time of Honorius. 
 
 B. Gallia Transpadana (inhabited by the Taurini, Insu- 426 
 bres, and Cenomani). Cities. 1. Augusta Taurino- c 
 rum (Taurino, Turin), on the Padus (originally the capital 
 
 of the Taurini, under the name of Taurasia). 2. Ver- 
 c e 1 1 ae ( Vercelli), defeat of the Cimbrii in the Campi Raudii 
 (101). 3. TicInum(Pavia), on the Ticinus. 4. Medio- 
 1 a n u m (Milano, Milan), under the emperors the seat of the 
 arts and sciences (hence Novae Athense), and frequently the 
 imperial residence. 5. Cremona on the Padus, founded 
 10* 
 
208 EUROPE. ITALY. [427 429. 90. 
 
 by the Romans in219. 6. Mantua, in a lake formed by 
 the river Mincius ; near it was the village of Andes, in 
 which Virgil was born. 
 
 427 3. The country of the Veneti. 
 
 A Cities. 1. V e r 5 n a, on both sides of the Athesis ; am- 
 phitheatre for 22,000 spectators. 2. Patavium (Padova, 
 Padua), founded, according to the legend, by Trojan exiles, 
 under the command of Antenor. Birth-place of Livy 
 (hence his " Patavinitas," or provincialism). 
 
 From the time of Augustus the following districts were 
 also included in the country of the Veneti: 1. The 
 country of the Garni, with the city of Aquileia, demo- 
 lished by Attila (A. D. 452). 2. I stria, with the city of 
 Tergeste (Trieste). 
 
 B. Central Italy. 
 
 428 1. Etruria, or Tyrrhenia; at a later period also 
 sTuscia. 
 
 Boundaries. On the north, the M a c r a ; east and south, 
 the Tiber ; west, the sea. Aboriginal inhabitants Tyr- 
 rhenian Pelasgians ; settlers the Etrusci from Rhsetia. 
 The most remarkable of its twelve sovereign cities, which 
 were for the most part situated on eminences, were 
 
 1. Caere, where Mezentius ruled, and where the Romans 
 concealed their sacred images during the Gallic war. 
 
 2. Veii, the largest and most powerful city of Etruria 
 (100,000 inhabitants), which carried on seven wars against 
 Rome, and after its capture by Camillus (395) remained 
 
 c uninhabited. 3. Tarquinii. 4. Clusium (Chiusi), Por- 
 senna. 5. P e r u s i a (Perugia), defeat of the Etrusci (309) ; 
 it was destroyed in the Perusian civil war (40). 6. Arre- 
 tium (Arezzo), the birth-place of Maecenas. 
 
 Non-sovereign places 1. Luca (Lucca). 2. Pisee (Pisa), on 
 the Arnus, with the Portus Pisanus (where now stands Livorao, or 
 Leghorn). 3. Florentia (Firenze, Florence), on the Arnus. 
 
 429 2. Latium, was divided into Latium vetus, from the 
 Tiber to the promontory of Circe ii, and Latium adjectum, 
 or novum, to the Liris. Latium vetus was originally in- 
 habited by the Siculi (Tyrrhenian Pelasgians), of whom a 
 considerable number fled into Sicily, when the Casci, re- 
 tiring before the Sabines, took possession of their country ; 
 whilst the remainder, submitting to the invaders, formed 
 
430, 431. 90.] EUROPE. ITALY. 209 
 
 in conjunction with them the nation of the Latini. In (429) 
 contradistinction to the nation thus established by conquest, A 
 the Siculi, as the earlier inhabitants of Latium, were alsfr 
 styled aborigines. By degrees there arose thirty small 
 independent states, forming a confederacy, which annually 
 celebrated the ferise Latinae on the Alban mount, and held 
 a diet, in a grove near the fountain of Ferentlna, for the 
 discussion of questions affecting the general interests of 
 the league. Southward and eastward of Latium vetus 
 dwelt the jEqui, Hernici, Volsci, and Ausdnes ; whose 
 territories, after the last Latin war (337), were added to 
 Latium, under the title of Latium novum. 
 
 Cities of the Latini. 1. Roma, which originally stood 430 
 on the left bank of the Tiber, on seven hills, Palatinus, B 
 Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Viminalis, Esquilinus, 
 Coelius, and Aventinus, to which was added in the 
 time of Aurelian, the collis Hortulorum (Monte Pincio), 
 the Janiculum and Vaticanus (on the other side of 
 the Tiber), and at a later period the Mons testaceus. 
 
 The ancient city of Romulus was confined to the Palatine. On the 431 
 opposite hill (the Quirinalis), was a Sabine colony, the citizens of 
 which were named Quirites. After the Sabine war these two dis- 
 tricts united, forming a single city protected by a fortress on the 
 Capitoline, which they occupied as a common citadel. An addition 
 was made to the city by Tullus Hostilius, who settled the Albans on 
 the Caelian hill, after the demolition of their own city, and by Ancus 
 Martius, who established the vanquished Latins on the Aventine. 
 Tarquinius Priscus drained the swampy flats (particularly the 
 Velabrum between the Palatine and Aventine), by means of cloacaB. 
 Servius Tullius surrounded the seven hills with a wall, which ex- 
 tended on the other side the Tiber to the summit of the Janiculum. c 
 On the eastern side aldne, from the porta Collina to the Esquilina, the 
 city was protected merely by a mound of earth (agger), with fosses. 
 Servius divided the city into four regions. (Suburana, Esquilina, 
 Collina, and Palatina). When Rome was burnt by the Gauls, the 
 whole city was destroyed as far as the Capitoline hill, and sub- 
 sequently rebuilt without any regular plan. From the time of the 
 Punic war, and still more from the reign of Augustus (who divided 
 the city into fourteen regions), there were considerable additions and 
 embellishments. After the conflagration in Nero's reign, the three 
 districts which had been laid in ashes were rebuilt and presented a 
 uniform appearance. Aurelian entirely surrounded the city with a 
 new wall (with towers, battlements, and breastworks), and under 
 Diocletian Rome had attained her highest pitch of beauty and 
 splendor : but with the transfer of the imperial residence to Byzan- 
 tium, the prosperity of the ancient capital began rapidly to decline, 
 
 1 In this sketch, Niebuhr's views are followed. Nardini, Nibby, 
 and Canino differ from him on many points. 
 
210 EUROPE. ITALY. [432, 433. 90. 
 
 and several quarters were gradually deserted, especially after the 
 sack and pillage of the city by the Goths (41U), and Vandals (455) 
 432* The mons Cujritolinus, originally Saturnius, consisted of two por- 
 
 A lions separated by the " intermontium." The southernmost of these 
 rocky peaks was the rupes Tarpeia (approached by the centum 
 gradus), the northern, which was fortified, was named arx. On the 
 southwestern side (according to Niebuhr), stood the temple of Jupiter 
 Capitolinus, built by Tnrquinius Superbus, which was thrice burnt 
 (B. c. 84, A. D 69 and 80). . Between the Capitoline and Palatine was 
 the forum Komanum, anciently the velabrum (now campo vaccino), 
 divided by the rostra, (so named from the beaks of the Antian ships, 
 anciently " templum," or stage from which orators addressed the 
 people,) into the comitium (place of meeting for the patricians), and 
 
 B the forum properly so called (where the plebeians assembled). Near 
 the comitium stood the curia Hostilia, originally the citadel of king 
 Tullus Hostilius, which was granted by that monarch to the senate 
 fortheir sittings. The building was destroyed by a fire, which broke 
 out during the burning of the dead body of Clodius, and was subse- 
 quently restored by Caesar, who gave it the name of curia Julia. 
 Between the Palatine and Aventine was the Cirrus Maximus (which 
 held, at the lowest estimate, 150,000 persons ; according to A. Victor, 
 385,000). The handsomest streets were the Via Sacra (leading from 
 
 C the Colosseum to the forum), and the Carina, between the Esquiline 
 and Cselian. The most considerable place of public resort was the 
 Campus Martius, which was used for gymnastic exercises, reviews of 
 the army, and the comitia centuriata. At a later period it was sur- 
 rounded by public buildings. 
 
 433 The most important buildings were, among the temples (of which 
 there were more than 400), that of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the 
 Pantheon of Agrippa (now Santa Maria della Rotonda) ; among the 
 palaces, the golden house of Nero, which not only covered the whole 
 of the Palatine, but even extended as far as the Esquiline, and com- 
 prehended within its walls temples, baths, groves, race-courses, &c. 
 Among the theatres, the three built by Pompey (for 40,000 spectators), 
 that of Marcellus (with 30,000 seats) ; among the amphitheatres the 
 Amphitheatrum Flavium, (afterwards the Colosseum [Coliseo], begun 
 by Vespasian, and completed by Titus. It contained 100,000 persons. 
 Among the baths, or Therma, those of Titus (in which, the group of 
 the Laocoon was discovered), of Caracalla and Diocletian ; among the 
 columns, the columna rostrata Duilii, in the forum Romanum, and 
 
 D the pillar of Trajan in the Forum Ulpium. Among the monuments, 
 the mausoleum of Augustus, the moles Hadriani (now the castle of 
 St. Angelo), and the Septizonium of Septimius Severus; and among 
 the triumphal arches, those of Titus, Septimius Severus, and Con- 
 stantine. Besides these buildings there were several porticos (ten), 
 basilicae (thirty-seven), gates (eighteen), fora (ten), circuses, nau- 
 machijjc, obelisks, statues (the bronze colossal statue of Nero, and 
 that of M. Aurelius, which has been preserved), odea (twenty), 
 aqueducts, cloacae, &c., &c. 
 
 The environs of the city (especially on the sixteen scientifically 
 constructed roads leading to all parts of Italy), were crowded with 
 
434 436. 90.] EUROPE. ITALY. 211 
 
 innumerable villas, sepulchral monuments, and ornamental buildings 
 of every description. Underneath the city and the via Appia 
 were catacombs. On the Alban mount was a temple to Latial Jove, 
 where consuls went to offer sacrifice before setting out for the army. 
 
 2. Ostia ; founded at the mouth of the Tiber by Ancus 434 
 Martius, as the port of Rome. 3. Laurentum, also on 
 
 the coast, where Latinus was king when ^Eneas landed in 
 Italy. 4. Lavinium, built, according to the legend, 
 by jEneas, and 5. Alba Long a, on the slope of 
 the Alban hill (where the ferise Latinse were held), and 
 on the border of the Alban lake, (the mother city of 
 Rome, if we may believe tradition).* It was destroyed 
 by Tullus Hostilius. 6. Tusculum (near the modern 
 Frascati), surrounded by numerous villas (Cicero's Tus- 
 culanum). 7. Praeneste (now Palestrina), built on the B 
 slope of a hill in the form of terraces, and strongly forti- 
 fied. It was demolished in the civil wars of Sulla (82). 
 8. Gabii, said to have been taken by stratagem, by 
 S. Tarquinius. 9. Tibur (now Tivoli), on the Anio, a 
 favorite residence of the Roman nobles, and consequently 
 surrounded by villas (those of Maecenas and others). 10. 
 Collatia, the residence of Tarquinius Collatinus, the hus- 
 band of Lucretia. 
 
 Other nations in Latium. 1. The Rutuli, with the city 435 
 of Ardea, which was besieged by Tarquinius Superbus. 
 2. The Hernlci (with the city Anagnia). 3. The Volsci 
 and jEqui, with the cities of Antium (taken and deprived 
 of its fleet in 338). Terraclna (or Anxur), Suessa 
 Pometia (stormed by Tarquin the Proud), Fregellae, 
 A r p I n u m, the birth-place of Marius and Cicero, C o r i 6 1 i 
 (see 106). 4. Some of the Ausones, or Aurunci, with 
 the city of Mint urn ae on the Liris (Marius). 
 
 3. Campania (from the Liris to Silarus). 436 
 Inhabitants : Tyrrhenian Pelasgians, then Opicii (Auso- c 
 
 nians), Greek settlements on the coast, and immigrations of 
 the Etruscans, whose dominion was speedily crushed by an 
 invasion of the Samnites. From the amalgamation of 
 the Samnite invaders with the earlier inhabitants of 
 the country, the Opici, Greeks, and Etruscans, sprang 
 the Campanians. Mountains : the Gaurus on the Gulf D 
 of Puteoli (first defeat of the Samnites, 342), Vesuvius 
 (defeat of the Latins, 339), Falernian and Massic wines. 
 Cities. a. On the coast. 1. Cumse, the most ancient 
 
212 EUROPE. ITALY. [437439. 90. 
 
 (436) Greek colony in Italy, founded by emigrants from Chalcis 
 
 A in EuboBa (B. c. 1030 ?), with its port Dicsearchia (the 
 
 modern Puteoli). In the vicinity was the lake Avernus 
 
 (*AOQVO?), near which was a cavern, believed to be the 
 
 entrance to the infernal regions. 2. M i s e n u m, a sea-port. 
 
 3. Baise, a bathing-place ; near it was the lacus Lucrlnus, 
 out of which arose, in the year 1538, the monte nuovo. 
 
 4. Neapolis(Napoli, Naples), near it was Parthenope, 
 or Palaiopolis, a colony of Cumse. 5. Herculaneum(over 
 which now stand the cities of Portici and Resina) , P o m p e i i, 
 and Stabiae, at the foot of Vesuvius, (by an eruption of 
 which they were destroyed, A. D. 79). The two first were 
 again brought to light in the eighteenth century, and afforded 
 
 B a rich harvest to the antiquarian, b. Cities in the interior. 
 I.Capua; at first a Tyrrhenian settlement under the name 
 of Vulturnum, then Etruscan, afterwards Samnite, and 
 lastly, a Roman municipium, and the second city of Italy, 
 until it espoused the cause of Hannibal, when it was a 
 second time captured, and suffered the vengeance of the 
 conqueror ; it continued, however, to be an important city 
 until the middle ages. 2. N o 1 a (second defeat of Han- 
 nibal) ; Augustus died there A. D. 14. 
 
 C The Picentini were transplanted by the Romans from Picenum 
 into southern Campania, for the purpose of cutting off the Samnitea 
 from the lower sea. Principal sea-port, Sale mum. 
 
 437 4. Umbria (from the Rubicon to the JEsis and Nar). 
 Cities. a. On the coast. 1. A rim in urn (Rimini). 2. 
 
 Sena (Sinigaglia, Hannibal defeated in 207). b. In the 
 interior, Sentlnum (defeat of the Samnites, 295). 
 
 438 5. Picenuin. 
 
 Inhabitants originally Pelasgians, afterwards Picen- 
 tians, a Sabine people. Cities. 1. Ancona^/xw*'). 2. 
 Asculum Picenum (Ascoli), sacked in the war of the 
 confederates. 
 
 439 6. Samnium. 
 
 D Inhabitants the Sabines, and their offspring the Sabelli. 
 A. The Sabines with the cities, 1. Cures(-ium), capital of 
 the Sabines (where T. Tatius reigned, and Nurna Pom- 
 pilius was born). 2. Fidense. 3. Crustumerium,in the 
 territory of which stood the mons sacer. 4. Amiternum 
 (birth-place of Sallust). B. The Sabelli : a. the Samnites 
 
440, 441. 90.] EUROPE. ITALY. 213 
 
 , whose dominions, previously to their wars with (439) 
 the Romans, extended from the Hadriatic sea to the A 
 Tyrrhenian, with the cities 1 . Beneventum (Benevento), 
 originally Maleventum (defeat of Pyrrhus in 275). 2. 
 Bovianum (battle in 305). Caudium, with the pass called 
 the furculse Caudlnee (victory of Pontius, the Samnite 
 general in 321). b. The confederacy of the Marsi, 
 Peligni with the cities, Corfinium, capital of the Italian 
 confederacy, and Sulmo, the birth-place of Ovid), Mar- 
 rucini and Vestini. c. The Hirpini and Frentani. 
 
 C. Lower Italy, or Magna Groecia. 
 
 1. Lucania and Bruttium (separated by the river 440 
 Laus). 
 
 Inhabitants. The (Enotrii, who were Grecized by B 
 Grecian settlements on the coast, were subdued by the 
 Lucanians (Sabelli), and reduced to the condition of serfs. 
 At a latej?- period, however, they rose against their op- 
 pressors, and, with the assistance of the Osci, wrested from 
 them the southern half of the district, hence their name 
 Bruttii, i. e. revolted serfs. To these we may add the 
 Greek settlements on the coast, viz., Cities in Lucania 
 
 1. Sybaris (5 10, destroyed by the Crotoniates its lux- 
 ury). [Posidonia, or Psestum (of which magnificent ruins c 
 still remain), was founded by settlers from this city.] 
 
 2. Thuri\, founded by the Athenians (446), in the vicin- 
 ity of the demolished Sybaris. 3. Helia (also Velia and 
 Elea), seat of the Eleatic school of philosophy. 4. Hera- 
 el e a (victory of Pyrrhus, 280). Cities in Bruttium (now 
 Calabria), Croton, near the promontory of Lacinium (its 
 inhabitants destroy Sybaris; school of Pythagoras, the 
 Athletes, Milo). 2. Rhegium (Reggio). 3. Locri 
 Epizephyrii (the law-giver Zaleucus). 4. Consentia, 
 capital of the Bruttii. Alaric died here, and was buried 
 in the bed of the Busentinus. 
 
 2. Apulia and Calabria, named by the Greeks 441 
 lapygia. D 
 
 Inhabitants. Messapians, Peucetians, and Daunians ; 
 hence, Apulia was divided by the Aufidus into Apulia 
 Peucetia and Ap. Daunia. The Byzantines, after losing 
 
214 EUROPE. ITALY. [442, 443. 90. 
 
 (441) the south-eastern peninsula, transferred the name of Cala- 
 A bria to the south-western. Cities in Apulia. 1 . L u c e r i a 
 ( 114). 2. Asculum Apulum (victory of Pyrrhus in 
 279). 3. Cannae (fourth victory of Hannibal in 216). 
 4. venusia(a Roman colony established after the Samnite 
 wars; birth-place of Horace). Cities in Calabria. 1. 
 Brundusium (Brindisi), usual port of embarkation for 
 Greece (to Dyrrhachium). 2. Tarentum (7't>'ps; now 
 Tarento), founded by the Parthenii from Sparta ; the most 
 flourishing commercial and manufacturing Grecian city 
 in Italy (with 300,000 inhabitants), Archytas; ten years' 
 war with the Romans. 
 
 D. The Islands. 
 
 442 1. Sic ilia (SixtUa, .Ttxan'a, 
 
 B This island, the granary of Italy, studded in ancient 
 times with magnificent cities, and possessing an unusually 
 numerous population, was separated from the Italian penin- 
 sula by the Sicilian strait (now str. of Messina), in which 
 the currents of the Hadriatic and Tyrrhenian seas met, and 
 formed the whirlpools known by the names of Scylla and 
 Charybdis. A continuation of the Apennines, which ex- 
 tends along the northern coast, and sends out a branch 
 towards the south-east, gives the island its form, which is 
 triangular, terminating in three promontories (Pelorum, 
 
 c Pachynum, and Lilybeeum). The most fertile part of the 
 island is the volcanic formation on the eastern coast, where 
 Mount jEtna (Mongibello), rises to the height of 10,000 
 feet. 
 
 443 Inhabitants. The Sicani (probably immigrants from 
 Iberia), were driven back in the south and west part of 
 the island, by the Siculi, who came from Latium ; Phoeni- 
 cian and Greek settlements, the former on the north-western 
 coast (they afterwards joined the Carthaginians), the latter 
 
 D on the southern and western coasts. Cities. a. In the 
 cast, 1. Mess an a (anciently Zancle, now Messina), where 
 the Messenians, and, at a later period, the Mamertines, 
 formed settlements. 2. Taurornenium (with a theatre, 
 which still "remains, capable of holding from 30,000 to 
 40,000 spectators). 3. Cat an a (Catania), at the foot of 
 Mount ./Etna. 4. Syracusae (Siragossa), a fourfold city 
 
444 446. 90.] EUROPE. ITALY. 215 
 
 (Ortygia, Archradina, Tycha, Neapolis), a Corinthian (443) 
 colony founded in 735. At the period of its greatest pros- A 
 pcrity it contained probahly a million of inhabitants, b. 
 In the south 1. Gel a (a Rhodian colony), and its daughter 
 cities. 2. Agrigentum (Girgenti, with its magnificent re- 
 mains of Greek temples, one of which, the temple of Zeus 
 Olympios, is described by Diodorus as the largest in the 
 world). 3. Selinus. c. In the west and north 1. Lily- 
 bseum (the Phoenician Motye). 2. D re pan a. 3. Se- 
 geste, orEgesta. 4. Panormus (Palermo). 5. Himera 
 (Gelon's victory in 480). d. In the interior Henna 
 (Enna). (Rape of Proserpine ; outbreak of the first ser- 
 vile war.) 
 
 2. Sardinia (2aQ$w and Zagduv). 
 
 The two neighboring islands of Sardinia and Corsica 444 
 are essentially distinguished from the mainland of Italy by B 
 the granite formation of their mountains, as well as by the 
 rugged character of their inhabitants. The Sardinians 
 lived in caves, and were clothed in the skins of wild beasts. 
 The only parts of Sardinia which enjoyed the blessings of 
 civilization were a few Phoenician, and, at a later period, 
 Carthaginian, settlements on the coast. Capital, Caralis 
 (Cagliari), on the southern coast. 
 
 3. Corsica (KVQVOS). 445 
 Inhabitants. Ligurians and Iberians, Phocseans (see c 
 
 21), Carthaginians. The Phocoeans founded on the east- 
 ern coast the city of Alalia, which afterwards, as a Roman 
 colony, bore the name of Aleria. 
 
 4. The smaller Islands. 
 
 1. II va (Al&ntiu, now Elba), on the Etruscan coast. 446 
 It abounds in iron. 2. Capreee (now Capri), opposite D 
 Naples ; the favorite residence of Tiberius. 3. The 
 (eleven) insulse ^Eolise or Vulcanise (now the Lipari 
 islands), the largest was called Lipara. 4. The ./Egates 
 (-ades, now the ./Egadian islands). Naval victory of Lu- 
 tatius Catulus over the Carthaginians (242). 5. Melite 
 (Malta), with its capital of the same name, a Phoanician 
 colony. Under the rule of Carthage its trade and manu- 
 factures were exceedingly flourishing. 
 
216 EUROPE.- ROME. [447449. 91. 
 
 B. History of events antecedent to the building 
 
 of Rome. 
 91. Legend concerning the immigration of the Trojans 
 
 into Lalium. 
 
 447 It would seem that previously to the Trojan immigra- 
 A tion, Latium had been visited by an Arcadian prince, 
 
 named Evander, who built the city of Palatium, on the 
 hill of the same name, and introduced arts and civilization 
 into Italy. With the aid of Hercules, who came from 
 Iberia, Evander is reported to have vanquished and slain 
 a giant named Cacus, who dwelt on the Aventine (?). At 
 a later period, so runs the tale, ^Eneas, accompanied by a 
 few Trojans, and bearing with him the statues of his coun- 
 try's gods, landed in the dominions of the Laurentian king, 
 LATINUS, and married his daughter LAVINIA. The first 
 settlement in Italy was named by the Trojans, Troja. 
 Afterwards they founded Lavinium (on the spot to which 
 a sow had fled from the knife of the sacrificer). 
 
 B Turnus, king of the Rutuli (at Ardea), to whom Lavinia had been 
 previously betrothed, declares war against ^Eneas and Latinus, and 
 is vanquished in a battle in which Latinus loses his life. Turnus 
 then, in conjunction with Mezentius, kingj of Caere, renews the war, 
 and is also slain. The Latins nevertheless are driven from the field, 
 and ./Eneas throws himself into the river Numicius, and thencefor- 
 ward receives divine honors under the name of Jupiter Indiges. 
 lulus (Ascanius), the son of ./Eneas, slays Mezentius, and becomes 
 sovereign of Latium. 
 
 448 Thirty years after the building of Lavinium, Ascanius 
 led the Latins from the pestilential Maremna to the slope 
 of the Alban Mount, where he founded the city of Alba 
 Longa. 
 
 C The catalogue of fourteen kings, from Ascanius to Amulius, is of 
 very doubtful authenticity, whether we regard the suspicious charac- 
 ter of the names (which are sometimes repetitions of those which 
 occur in previous or subsequent history, sometimes mere adaptations 
 of geographical names, set down at random without any connecting 
 narrative), or the exact agreement of the dates with the canon of 
 Eratosthenes, and not with the usual Roman chronology. 
 
 C. History of Rome. 
 92. Legend concerning the building of Rome. 
 
 449 This myth is known to us under two principal forms : 
 1. Ua, the daughter of ./Eneas, was the mother of 
 
450. 93.] EUROPE. ROME. 217 
 
 Romulus. 2. Procas, king of Alba, left two sons, Numi- (449) 
 tor and Amulius ; the latter of whom wrested the sove- A 
 reignty from his elder brother, killed his nephew, and 
 enrolled his niece Silvia among the vestal virgins. Tiie 
 maiden became pregnant by Mars, and brought forth twin 
 sons, Romulus and Remus, who were exposed, by com- 
 mand of Amulius, at the foot of the Palatine, on a spot 
 flooded by the Tiber, which in after times was indicated 
 by the ficus Ruminalis. The children, however, escaped 
 death, being suckled by a she-wolf and fed by a wood- 
 pecker, until they were discovered by the herdsman of 
 Faustinus, who placed them under the care of his wife, 
 Acca Larentia. As soon as they were grown up, theB 
 brothers slew Amulius, and replaced Numitor on the 
 throne. A dispute respecting the building of their new 
 city is decided in favor of Romulus by the flight of 
 twelve vultures Remus slain by his brother. Commem- 
 oration of the building of Rome, 21st April (festival of 
 the Palilia;. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 Rome under Kings. 
 
 (B. c. 753510.) 
 
 93. Romulus. 
 Reigned thirty-seven years (from B. c. 753 to 716). 
 
 The new city was soon peopled by the opening of an 450 
 asylum for malefactors of every description ; and the c 
 overtures of Romulus for matrimonial alliances with the 
 neighboring nations having been contemptuously rejected, 
 thirty Latin and Sabine maidens, who had been invited 
 with their parents to the festival of the Consualia, were 
 forcibly carried off by the Roman soldiers. Hence war 
 with three Latin cities (Csenma, Antemnse, and Crustu- 
 merium), which were subdued one after the other; and 
 with the Sabines, whose king, Titus Tatius, was admitted 
 into the capitol by the treachery of Tarpeia. A peace 
 being concluded through the intervention of the captive 
 maidens themselves, the Romans and Sabines (Quirites) 
 formed a united commonwealth, which was governed, until 
 
218 EUROPE. ROME. [451, 452. 94, 95. 
 
 (450) the death of Tatius, by the two kings conjointly 100 
 A Sabines were also admitted into the senate founded by Ro- 
 mulus, which had previously consisted of 100 Roman mem- 
 bers. War with Fidenae, (related in almost the same terms 
 as that which happened in 4*24), and with Veii (Romulus 
 slays 8000 Etruscans !). During an eclipse of the sun 
 Romulus is carried up. into heaven in a chariot of fire by 
 his father Mars, and appearing to Proculus Julius, enjoins 
 the people, through him, to pay divine honors to their late 
 monarch as the god Quirinus. 
 Interregnum for a year. 
 
 94. Numa Pompilius. 
 
 Reigned thirty-nine years [according to Livy forty-three years], 
 from 715 to 672. 
 
 451 Numa Pompilius, of Cures, son-in-law of T. Tatius, 
 B was chosen out of the Sabines by the Romans. He di- 
 vided the conquered lands among the people, and under 
 the instruction of x the Camena Egeria, commenced the 
 establishment of a regular system of religious worship, 
 appointing 1, the Pontifices ; 2, the Augures ; 3, the 
 Flammes, or priests of the temples ; 4, the Vestales ; 5, 
 the Salii Palatini, and probably also (6) the Fetiales (see 
 165). To him also is ascribed the division of the year 
 into twelve months, as well as the building of the temple 
 of Janus, which remained closed during the whole of his 
 peaceful reign. 
 
 95. Niebuhr's view of the origin and earliest inhabitants 
 of Rome. 
 
 452 The inhabitants of Rome (a Siculian, and subsequently 
 c a Latin settlement on the Palatine, founded at an unknown 
 period), having formed matrimonial alliances (represented 
 in the myth by the rape of the Sabine virgins), and politi- 
 cal engagements with the Quirites, who inhabited the oppo- 
 site hills of Capitolinus and Quirinalis ; the two nations soon 
 became one state, with one senate, one general assembly 
 of the people, and one king, chosen by one of the two na- 
 tions outof\\\Q other. Hence the term Populus Romanus 
 (et) Quirites. 
 
453, 454. 95.] EUROPE. ROMS. 219 
 
 Before the formation of the plebs, ' the Roman people 453 
 consisted of Patrons and Clients (dependents, from A 
 the verb cluere, xlv<), a distinction almost universally 
 recognized by the Italian nations, although no historical 
 record exists of its origin. No doubt the victorious Casci 
 brought many clients with them, and this number was 
 augmented by the admission of foreigners and emancipated 
 serfs, and even by the voluntary assumption (by the 
 plebeians) of a status which afforded many important 
 advantages. 
 
 The patron was bound to protect his client, plead his cause before 
 the tribunals, and, if he were poor, assign him a portion of land for 
 his support in return for these benefits the client was expected to 
 contribute towards the portions of his patron's daughters, release 
 him from arrest for debt, assist him in the payment of taxes, &c. 
 
 To these Romans and Quirlfes (who enjoyed equal 454 
 rights), was added at a very early period a third com- B 
 ponent part of the Roman people the Luceres (of un- 
 certain origin), who possessed inferior privileges, and 
 thence were styled gentes minores. Thus the most ancient 
 division of the Roman people was into three tribes 
 Ramnes (Romans), Titles (Sabines), and Luceres. The 
 three tribes were subdivided into thirty curise, and these 
 into 300 gentes consequently, each tribe comprised 100 
 gentes, and thence was also termed a centuria. Each tribe c 
 was presided over by a tribunus, each curia by a curio, 
 and each gens by a decurio, who were their magistrates in 
 peace, and leaders in war. The family of a gens were 
 not necessarily allied by blood, but merely formed a 
 
 1 According to Niebuh^s latest views (I. 452, 3rd edit.) the 
 Roman plebs was composed of the most heterogeneous elements. 
 The community of which the nucleus had been formed in the three 
 original cities, owed almost all its importance to the subsequent 
 accession of Latins from the places conquered by the early kings of 
 Rome, especially by Ancus Martius. These Latins were sometimes 
 permitted to reside in their own country, and sometimes transferred 
 to Rome but in either case they enjoyed all the privileges of 
 Roman citizens According to Walter (Geschichte des Rom Rechts, 
 S. 11), the origin of the patricians may be traced to the Casci, who 
 took possession of the greater part of the land on the conquest of 
 Latium, and that of the plebeians to the vanquished Siculi, who were 
 permitted to retain a portion of the soil. 
 
220 EUROPE. ROME. [455457. 96. 
 
 (454) corporation the members of which were connected by a 
 A common sacra, the obligation imposed on them to assist 
 one another, and the right of inheritance. They all bore 
 the same nomen gentile. Each gens sent its president 
 (decurio) as a deputy to the senate, which consequently 
 contained 300 members. 
 
 96. The earliest constitution of Rome under Servius 
 Tullius. 
 
 455 The supreme authority was divided between the king, 
 B the senate, and the comitia of the curiae. 
 
 The Kin-g was chosen for life by the curice (at first by 
 those of one tribe), on the nomination of the senate ; and 
 after the election had been ratified by a favorable augury 
 from the gods, was invested with the sovereign authority 
 (according to the provisions of the lex curiata de imperio) 
 by the curise of all the tribes. This authority was three- 
 fold priestly, judicial, and military. The first was ex- 
 ercised when the king offered sacrifice for all his people ; 
 as judge, he sat every nine days to hear complaints, and 
 either decided disputes himself, or commissioned judges to 
 c perform that duty. From this sentence the patricians, how- 
 ever, enjoyed the right of uprovocatiotothe citizens. Lastly, 
 as commander-in-chief he possessed unlimited power in 
 time of war, and during his absence in the field was repre- 
 sented at home by a senator nominated by himself, with 
 the title of custos urbis. A certain portion of the ager 
 publicus was set apart for his support. 
 
 456 The Senate, which at first consisted of 100 members, 
 after the union of the Romans and Quirites of 200, and 
 from the time of Tarquinius Priscus of 300, and was 
 divided into thirty decuriae, was called together by the 
 king for the dispatch of public business. 
 
 457 The Comitia Curiata, in which the patricians alone, 
 D and not their clients, took part, decided questions of war 
 
 and peace, the adoption of new laws, and the choice of 
 the king and other officers, but were always restricted to 
 the consideration of subjects proposed by the senate. 
 
 During the interval beween the death of a king and the 
 election of his successor, the ten chief members of the 
 
45S, 459. 97, 98.] EUROPE. ROME. 221 
 
 senate (i. e. the presidents of the ten decurice of the (457) 
 Ramnes) acted as Interreges, each of them being in- A 
 vested with sovereign authority and bearing the insignia of 
 royalty for five days. If at the expiration of fifty days 
 a new king were not chosen, the cycle began afresh. 
 
 97. Tullus Hoslilius. 
 Reigned thirty-two years (672640.) 
 
 * 
 
 A warwithAlbaLonga, the head of the Latin con- 458 
 federacy, which had broken out in consequence of mutual B 
 depredations, was decided favorably for the Romans, by a 
 victory gained, according to the legend, by the three 
 Horatii (Romans ?) over the three Curiatii (Albans ?), in a 
 combat proposed by the Alban dictator, Mettius Fuffetius. 
 The surviving Horatius murders his sister; but the sen- 
 tence of death passed on him is remitted at the intercession 
 of his father. 
 
 Second war with Veii and Fidense, at the insti- 
 gation of Mettius Fuffetius, whose attempted desertion to 
 the enemy in the midst of a battle is punished by the c 
 tearing of his body into four quarters. Alba is levelled with 
 the ground, and its inhabitants transported to the Caelian 
 mount. During a successful war with the Sabines, a pes- 
 tilence breaks out at Rome. Tullus himself sickens, and 
 is slain by lightning as he stands before the altar. 
 
 98. Ancus Marcius. 
 
 Reigned twenty- three years (according to Cicero ; according to Livy 
 twenty-four years, 640 616). 
 
 Ancus, the son of Numa's daughter, caused the laws 459 
 respecting religion to be written out, and exposed to view D 
 in a public place. 
 
 A war with four Latin cities (Politorium, Tellenae, 
 Ficana, and Medullia), occasioned by depredations in the 
 Roman territories, was speedily terminated, and the in- 
 habitants transferred to the Aventine. Ancus founded 
 Ostia, the first Roman colony, built the career, erected the 
 pons Sublicius, and fortified the Janiculum. 
 
222 EUROPE. ROME. [460. 99. 
 
 99. L. Tarquinius Priscus. 
 
 Reigned thirty-eight years (616 578.) 
 Damaratus 
 
 Aruns L. Tarquinius Priscus, 
 
 married to Tanaquil. 
 
 Ep 
 
 erius L. Tarquinius sup., 
 married the 2 daughters of 
 Servius Tullius (i. e. first 
 one, then the other who was 
 first married to Aruns) 
 1. The elder Tullia. 
 2. The younger Tullia. 
 
 Arnus, 
 married 
 to the 
 younger 
 Tullia. 
 
 Tarqu 
 marrit 
 M.Ju 
 
 TJ. Tiinin 
 
 inia, 
 d to 
 nius. 
 
 s Rnidis 
 
 L. Tarq. Sextus, Titus, Aruns. 
 
 Collatinus, 
 
 married to 
 
 Lucretia. 
 
 460 Tarquinius, a son, according to the legend, of the 
 A Bacchiad Damaratus, who took refuge at Tarquinii from 
 the tyranny of Cypselus of Corinth, came to Rome with 
 his wife Tanaquil, and was appointed guardian of the sons 
 of Ancus, but, after the death of that prince, was himself 
 chosen king, and thus put an end to the alternate choice of 
 Roman and Quiritic kings. His victories (over the Latini, 
 Sabini, and ^Equi, and according to Dionysius the over- 
 throw of twelve Etruscan cities), are less memorable than 
 his architectural labors and the changes which he effected 
 B in the constitution. He began the wall round the city, 
 which was completed by Servius, built the cloacae, and 
 in the valleys thus drained laid the foundations of the Forum, 
 and of the Circus Maximus for the celebration of the 
 ludi Romani or magni. At the same time he increased 
 the number of senators to 300 by the admission of the 
 Luceres, and that of the vestals to six ; and was inclined 
 to form three new tribes out of the plebeians, whom his 
 various conquests had rendered exceedingly numerous ; 
 but the opposition of the ruling order (the Augur Attus 
 Navius) compelled him to content himself with merely 
 doubling t/ie number of the gentes by a selection from the 
 plebeians. These new gentes were enrolled (with inferior 
 privileges) among the ancient gentes, with the title of 
 Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres secundi. In the same manner 
 
461, 462. 100, 101.] EUROPE. ROME. 223 
 
 the three ancient knightly tribes were retained, but the (460) 
 number of knights was doubled, so as to form six centuries. A 
 Tarquin died by the hand of an assassin, at the instigation 
 of the sons of Ancus. 
 
 100. Servius Tullius. 
 Reigned forty-four years (578 534). 
 
 According to the legend, Servius was the offspring of 461 
 some god by Ocrisia, a female slave of Queen Tanaquil 
 (hence his name of Servius). In consequence of a 
 luminous appearance on his head, Servius is educated as 
 the king's son, whose daughter he marries, and after his 
 death becomes viceroy, and subsequently king (successful 
 war against Veii). He obtained for Rome admission into B 
 the Latin confederacy, and built a second confederate 
 temple (that of Diana) on the Aventine, where the Roman 
 king offered sacrifice for Romans and Latins, as the head 
 of the Latin confederacy did at the feriae Latinse on the 
 Alban Mount. For the wall of Servius Tullius, see 90. 
 He was murdered by his son-in-law L. Tarquinius 
 Superbus, who, after the assassination of his brother 
 Aruns, had married his widow Tullia, the murderess of 
 her own sister, and placed himself at the head of those 
 senators who were discontented with the institutions of 
 Servius (see 101). 
 
 101. The Constitution of Servius Tullius. 
 
 The chief object of the constitution of Servius Tullius 462 
 was the organization of the Plebs, anew and im- c 
 portant order, which had been created, principally since 
 the reign of Ancus Martius, by the naturalization of the 
 inhabitants of conquered places, and possessed no incon- 
 siderable influence, in consequence of its numbers and 
 property. It consisted exclusively of free agriculturists, 1 
 dwelling in the city and suburbs, but chiefly in the country 
 towns and harnlets. Servius was well aware that the only 
 security for the maintenance of peace at home, and for the 
 prosperity' of the republic, was the admission of these 
 
 1 The names of persons engaging in trade or mechanical employ- 
 ments, or convicted of gross offences, were erased from the register 
 of their Tribus, and placed among the serarii. 
 11 
 
224 EUROPE. ROME. [463. 101. 
 
 (462) supplemental citizens to political privileges, and to a par- 
 A ticipation in the distinctions enjoyed by others. He there- 
 fore commenced his reforms with the partition of the 
 Roman territories into thirty "regiones;" viz., the city 
 into four urbanae (Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, Palatina), 
 and the country into twenty-six rusticse. The plebeians 
 settled in each region formed a community, which, like the 
 patrician tribes, was denominated Tribus, and had a tri- 
 bune as its president. Thus the plebeians in the thirty 
 tribes corresponded to the patricians in the thirty curiae. 
 463 With the view of extending the enjoyment of civil 
 B rights to the plebeians (especially as regarded the privilege 
 of voting), and of defining, at the same time, the extent of 
 their liability to taxation and the performance of military 
 service, Servius introduced (with reference to the assem- 
 blies of the people and the muster of the army) a new 
 division of the inhabitants into Centuriae, in which the 
 patricians (and their clients ?) were comprehended, together 
 with the plebeians. According to this division, the nation 
 consisted of three grand component parts, viz. 
 c A. Eighteen centuries of knights (or cavalry soldiers), 
 six patrician and twelve plebeian. 
 
 B. The infantry, divided into five classes, or 170 
 centuries. 
 
 1. Thos* ^vho possessed at least 
 
 100,000 asses = 80 centuries. 
 
 2. " 75,000) , 
 
 3. " 50,000 V e ^ n 60 centuries. 
 
 4. " 25,500) ^ 
 
 5. " 12,000 " 30 centuries, 
 D C. Those not comprehended in the classes, seven 
 
 (or five) centuries, viz. 
 
 1. Fabri, one century. 
 
 2. Liticines and cornicines, two centuries. 
 
 3. Accensi and velati (with 1500 12,500 asses), tw<? 
 centuries(?). 
 
 4. Proletarii (with 375 1500 asses), one century. 
 
 5. Capite censi (with less than 375 asses), one century. ' 
 
 1 This representation of the Centuriffi (as collected by Niebuhr 
 from ancient testimonies, especially Cic. de Rep. ii. 22) differs but 
 little from the accounts given by Dionysius and Livy ; and that only 
 in the case of the centuries which were not comprehended in the 
 
464466. 101.] EUROPE. ROME. 225 
 
 Each century had a voice in the assembly of the people ; 464 
 the votes of the knights and the first class deciding the A 
 question, provided they voted on the same side. They 
 formed also, in war, divisions, of course of very unequal 
 strength. Thus there existed a very intimate connection 
 between the military and civil constitutions of the king- 
 dom ; the same men (the cavalry and heavy-armed) who 
 led the charge in the field deciding the questions proposed 
 in the assembly of the people. In each of the five classes, 
 half the number of centuries assigned to the class belonged 
 to the juniors, and the other half to the seniors, in order 
 that the latter, although inferior in numbers, might possess 
 their full share of influence. Tradesmen and artisans who B 
 possessed no landed property formed a distinct class ; the 
 members of which were exempt from military service, but 
 were liable to taxation, and thence called aerarii. 
 
 The property qualification was settled by the Census, which was 465 
 held in each lustrum (every five years 1 ), at first by the king, then by 
 the consuls, and at a later period by the censors. It comprehended 
 houses, lands, slaves, cattle, brass, and the precious metals. Each 
 Roman was compelled, under heavy penalties, to give in an account 
 of all these items, as well as of the births and deaths in his family, 
 the attainment of the age of puberty by any of its members, and all 
 changes of residence or transfers of property. The administration of 
 the public exchequer was intrusted to two qua3stores classic!. 
 
 The comitia centuriata, i. e. the general assembly 466 
 of the people, convoked by the king on the Campus Mar- c 
 tius, was invested by Servius with the threefold privilege 
 hitherto enjoyed by the comitia curiata, viz. 1, The 
 right of adopting new laws ; 2, the election of kings ; 
 and, 3, the decision of questions relating to peace and 
 war. In elections and legislation, however, they possessed 
 merely the right of accepting or rejecting candidates, or 
 
 classes. These writers make no distinction between the proletarii 
 and the capite ccnsi (a distinction expressly stated by Gell. xvi. 10) : 
 both also make two centuries of fabri, &.c. Cic. (1. c.) knew of but 
 one. Moreover, Dionysius makes no mention of the accensi and 
 vclati, and consequently reckons 193 centuries. Livy makes 194 
 centuries, one consisting of the accensi. In recent investigations the 
 number 193 is generally retained, as being mentioned in three distinct 
 passages of Dionysius. 
 
 1 This was decidedly the older signification of the word lustrum, 
 but it never acquired the fixed meaning that belonged to the Greek 
 Olympiad. 
 
226 EUROPE. ROME. [467- 469. 102. 
 
 (466) measures proposed to them by the senate ; and even this 
 A signification of their acquiescence in any proposal had not 
 the force of law until it was confirmed by the curise. By 
 the laws of the twelve tables, the judicia capitis (decisions 
 respecting offences punishable by death or banishment) 
 were committed to the comitia centuriate. 
 
 467 The Military Constitution. 
 
 1. The knights (equites) served on horseback. The state granted 
 them 10,000 asses for their outfit, and an annual allowance of 20UO 
 asses (the payment of which was charged on rich virgins, widows, 
 and orphans) for the support of a war-horse, and the maintenance of 
 a mounted yeoman with his horse. The census equester one mil- 
 lion of asses belongs to a later period. See 131. 
 B 2. The classes, and only they [cf. 463 D], were equally divided 
 into centuries of juniores and seniores ; the former, which compre- 
 hended all males between the ages of sixteen and forty-five, being 
 destined for service in the field, the latter (from forty-six to sixty) for 
 the defence of the city. The Roman legion consisted originally of 
 1200 men. The three first classes were heavily armed, and the 
 fourth lightly. The fifth served as slingers in front of the line. 
 
 3. The acccnsi and velati stood apart from the legion: "but one 
 by one they filled up the gaps that were made, and received arms 
 for that purpose." Niebuhr i. 441. 
 
 4. The Proletarii were armed by the state only in extraordinary 
 cases, the capite censi and cBrarii never. 
 
 102. L. Tarquinius Superbus. 
 Reigned twenty-five years (534 510). 
 
 468 Without any election on the part of the people, or con- 
 c firmation by the curiae, Tarquin ascended the throne of 
 
 his murdered father-in-law, and commenced his cruel and 
 oppressive reign under the protection of a body-guard, 
 which enabled him to bid defiance to the resentment of his 
 subjects. The senate, reduced by murders and banish, 
 ments, was no longer convoked ; heavy taxes were im- 
 posed on the plebeians, who were not only deprived of 
 the privileges conferred on them by Servius, but compelled 
 to perform feudal service : the Latins and Hernicans were 
 subjugated, and Tarquin presided as head of the Latin 
 confederacy at the feriae Latinae on the Alban Mount. 
 
 469 His Wars. 
 
 D 1. He is said to have carried Sv^ssa Pometia by storm, 
 sold its inhabitants (the city nevertheless was recaptured 
 in 503), and employed the booty in building the Capitoline 
 temple of Jupiter, and those of Juno and Minerva, where 
 
470 472. 103.] EUROPE. ROME. 227 
 
 the three Sibylline books, purchased from an unknown old (469) 
 woman, were preserved in a subterraneous cell by two A 
 (afterwards by ten, and from the time of Sulla fifteen) 
 guardians. 
 
 2. Gabii, which had refused to join the Roman alliance, 470 
 was taken by stratagem and treachery. 
 
 The narrative of the self-mutilation of Sextus, and of the advice 
 conveyed by the act of cutting off the poppy heads, seem to be 
 adaptations to Roman history of the story of Zopyrus (83 u), and the 
 answer of Thrasybulus to Periander ; both recorded by Herodotus. 
 Mission of Titus and Aruns to Delphi, accompanied by their cousin, 
 L. Junius Brutus (whose life had been saved by his feigning mad- 
 ness). 
 
 3. During the siege of Ardea, the wealthy capital of 471 
 the Rutuli, a dispute arose between the sons of the king B 
 and their cousin, L. Tarquinius of Collatia, respecting the 
 virtue of their respective wives. Lucretia is dishonored 
 
 by Sextus, and dies by her own hand. Brutus, as Tribunus 
 Celerum, assembles the people, who banish the Tarquins, 
 abolish the sovereignty, and lodge the supreme power in 
 the hands of two praetors (afterwards named consuls), 
 who hold their office for a year. The two first are L. 
 Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus. The con- 
 stitution of Servius is restored, and remains unchanged in 
 all essential particulars. 
 
 The flight of the king (regifugium or fugalia) was commemorated c 
 yearly on the 24th of February. An armistice for fifteen years 
 seems to have been concluded with Ardea ; but in the commercial 
 treaty between Rome and Carthage (in 509), Ardea is mentioned as 
 a city subject to Rome. There are several inconsistencies in the 
 chronology of this period. Tanaquil must have lived to the age of 
 1 J 5 years, and Brutus is called a child (at the beginning of Tarquin's 
 reign), and twenty-five years later is mentioned as the father of 
 grown-up sons. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 Rome as a free State. 
 
 (B. c. 50930.) 
 a. Aristocracy. 
 
 (509366.) 
 
 103. The Consuls. 
 
 The consuls (a term probably equivalent to collega), 472 
 who were named prsetores until the time of the decem- 
 
228 EUROPE. ROME. [473 475. 104. 
 
 (472) virate, were at first exclusively patricians, but from the 
 
 A year 365 plebeians were also eligible to the office. By 
 
 the lex annalis (180), none could be consuls who had not 
 
 attained their forty-third year, and already discharged the 
 
 offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor. 
 
 The election by the centuries was always succeeded by the con- 
 firmation (or approbation of the gods, declared by an augurium) and 
 by investiture, on the part of the curia. The day of their entering 
 on office was different at different periods. From the year 154 it 
 was on the first of January. 
 
 473 At first the consuls possessed an authority almost equiv- 
 B alent to that of the kings (the priestly duties alone being 
 
 committed to a separate functionary termed rex sacrorum), 
 but this power was gradually circumscribed, at first by the 
 provocatio, afterwards by the intercession of the tribunes of 
 the people, and the separation of the censorship and prae- 
 torship from the consulship. Under extraordinary circum- 
 stances of danger, the consuls were invested by the senate 
 with unlimited powers. They might be impeached at the 
 expiration of their year of office. Under the emperors, 
 the consulship continued nominally to exist until the reign 
 of Justinian (A. D. 541). The year was named after them. 
 
 104. Consequences of the expulsion of the Tarquins. 
 
 474 Tarquin retired to Caere, and thence to Tarquinii. A 
 c conspiracy against the new constitution organized by his 
 
 emissaries at Rome was betrayed ; the sons of Brutus 
 slain, by command of their own father, for participation in 
 the plot, and the whole gens Tarquinia banished, including 
 even Tarquinius Collatinus, whose place as consul was 
 filled by P. Valerius (as consul suffectus). The royal 
 demesnes were consecrated to the god Mars, and named 
 the Campus Martius. The number of senators, which had 
 been diminished by proscriptions and murders in the reign 
 of Tarquin, was again raised to 300 by the admission of 
 plebeian knights (conscripti). 
 
 475 War with Veii (and Tarquinii? 500). The leaders of the 
 D cavalry on both sides, Aruns, the son of Tarquin, and Brutus, having 
 
 fallen each by the other's hand, the combat remained undecided, until 
 the voice of the forest daemon proclaimed at midnight that victory 
 belonged to the Romans, because the Etruscans had lost one man 
 more than their enemies! The Roman matrons mourn a whole 
 year for Brutus. 
 
476478. 104.] EUROPE. ROME. 229 
 
 P. Valerius (Publicol a) obtains for the plebeians, by the lexde (475) 
 provocatione, the right of appealing (within the distance of one mile x 
 from the city) from the sentence of a censul to the assembly of the 
 people ; that is, to the comitia centuriata. First commercial treaty 
 with Carthage, by which the Romans were prohibited from navi- 
 gating the seas southward of the Hermaean promontory (509). 
 Dedication of the Capitoliue temple by the consul suffectus, M. Ho- 
 ratius, the first who drove the clavus as a mark for reckoning time 
 (508?). 
 
 The war with Porsenna of Clusium (508? insti- 476 
 gated, it is said, by the Tarquins) was rich, if we may 
 believe the legend, in heroic deeds, such as the defence of 
 the bridge over the Tiber by Horatius Codes, the unsuc- 
 cessful attempt of Mutius Sccev6la to assassinate Porsenna, 
 the escape of Clcelia, &c. ; but there seems to be much 
 embellishment and improbability in the narrative, in the 
 account especially of one fact the unresisted occupation 
 of the Janiculum by the Etruscan army, and the conse- 
 quent famine. After carrying on this war for some time, B 
 the Romans were compelled to conclude an ignominious 
 peace. The city was given up to the enemy, its inhabit- 
 ants disarmed, a third of their territory taken from them 
 (the number of the tribes reduced to twenty), and the re- 
 mainder probably held by the Romans as tributaries ; the 
 royal insignia were sent to Clusium in token of subjection, 
 and twenty hostages (among whom was Clodia) were placed 
 at the disposal of the conqueror. 
 
 Under the name of a dictatorship (an office of Latin 477 
 origin), the royal authority was revived (without provo- c 
 catio) for a period not exceeding six months, in times of 
 extraordinary embarrassment and danger. The first dic- 
 tator was appointed in 501, when Rome was threatened 
 with a Latin war. By the establishment of such an office, 
 the government hoped to obtain that unity and promptitude 
 of action which can only be secured by the delegation of 
 absolute power to an individual. 
 
 The dictator, taken at first exclusively from the patricians and 
 consulares, but at a later period (355) from the plebeians also, was 
 elected in the same manner as the kings. 
 
 War with the Latins, who had thrown off their al- 478 
 legiance to Rome during the Etruscan war, and were in D 
 arms, probably at the instigation of the Tarquins. The 
 Romans claim the victory in a battle on the banks of the 
 lake Regillus (496 ?},- the account of which has a very 
 
230 EUROPE. ROME. [479, 480. 105. 
 
 (478) poetical character ; but a few years later they concede to 
 A the Latins, and subsequently to the Hernicans, the right 
 of sharing the command'of the allied army, and an equal 
 portion of the booty and conquered territories. 
 
 King Tarquin, now in his ninetieth year, is wounded in a single 
 combat with the Roman dictator Postumius, who is perhaps men- 
 tioned as commander in this battle merely on account of his family 
 name Regillensis. The Dioscuri are also reported to have appeared 
 during the engagement. 
 
 105. Secession of the Plels, 494. 
 
 479 Their condition before the Secession. 
 
 B After the expulsion of the kings, the plebeians had been 
 favored by the restoration of the constitution granted by 
 Servius Tullius, the Valerian laws, &c. ; but no sooner 
 was the Etruscan war terminated, and all fear of dis- 
 turbance from the Tarquins at an end, than the patrician 
 party began to press heavily on them. The dictatorship 
 was created with the view of curtailing their privileges, 
 and all participation in the lands, won by their own swords, 
 refused to those who were the sole payers of the tribQtum, 
 
 c and composed the flower of the army. In addition to 
 these wrongs, the plebeians, who had been ruined by re- 
 peated predatory wars, and were deeply indebted to 
 patrician usurers, were subjected to a severe law of debtor 
 and creditor. Any one who had given personal security 
 for the repayment of money borrowed was termed nexus. 
 If he failed to redeem his pledge within a given time, he 
 was assigned (addictus) to his creditor as a serf, and lost 
 his civil rights (capite deminutus). 
 
 480 The Secession. 
 
 D The people, roused by the sight of an old soldier who 
 had oeen imprisoned for debt and escaped from his 
 dungeon, demanded the abolition of arrest, and refused to 
 serve in the army (495 and 494), but were persuaded to 
 take the field by the arguments of the consul, P. Servilius, 
 and the dictator, M. Valerius, and returned victorious (over 
 the Sabines, Volscians, and yEquians). Finding, however, 
 the promises of their commanders unfulfilled by the senate, 
 the plebeians crossed the Anio, and occupied the mons 
 sacer in the territory of Crustumorium. After a few days 
 (not four months, as asserted by Dionysius), the patricians, 
 through the intervention of Mcnenius Agrippa (his alle- 
 
481, 482. 106.] EUROPE. ROME. 231 
 
 gory of the belly and the members), concluded a formal (480) 
 peace with the plebeians ; the engagements of those who A 
 were unable to pay being declared void, whilst the right of 
 arrest remained as before. At the same time, the ple- 
 beians were placed under the protection of magistrates of 
 their own (the five, afterwards ten, Tribunes), who were 
 chosen by the centuries out of the five classes, subject to the 
 confirmation of the curies (curiee); until the passing of a 
 law, proposed by Volero Publilius (471), by which it was 
 enacted that they should be chosen by the tribes, without 
 any such confirmation. The persons of these tribunes 
 were sacred and inviolable (sacrosancti) . Object andB 
 powers. Protection of the people against the patrician 
 authorities (within the distance of one mile from the city), 
 in order to secure the right of appeal ; together with the 
 power of calling the magistrates to account before the 
 tribes at the expiration of their year of office. In the 
 college of Tribunes all questions were decided by a majority 
 of votes; but at a later period (about 400) the veto of an 
 individual was sufficient to neutralize a proposal or resolution 
 (intercedere). They summoned the people (without consult- c 
 ing the auspices) to the comitia tributa, in the forum, 
 where resolutions (p 1 e b i s c i t a) were adopted, affecting at 
 first only the interests of the plebs, but, after the passing 
 of the law of Volero Publilius, comprehending all ques- 
 tions of state policy. At a still later period (by the lex 
 Valeria, see 490, 4) these plebiscita were declared equally 
 authoritative with the decrees of the comitia centuriata. 
 
 The sediles plebeii (an office which perhaps existed 481 
 at an earlier period), were charged with the superintend- 
 ence of religious festivals, and the guardianship of the ple- 
 beian archives. They seem also to have been intrusted 
 with the administration of the communal .exchequer, and 
 the execution of all police regulations affecting the plebs. 
 
 The attempt to obtain for the plebs a share of the ager publicus 433 
 completely miscarried. The consul, Sp. Cassius, by whom the law D 
 was proposed, was impeached at the close of his year of office, by the 
 populus (not the plebs, whose benefactor he had been, but the 
 curias), and being pronounced guilty of aiming at absolute power, 
 was beheaded, and his house levelled with the ground. His law 
 although in all probability adopted, was never carried into execution ; 
 and when, at a later period, one T. Genucius, a tribune, ventured to 
 charge all the consuls who had been elected since the time of Cassius 
 with having neglected its provisions, he was silenced by the dagger 
 of an assassin. 
 
232 EUROPE. ROME. [483 485. 106. 
 
 106. Wars to the period of the Decemvirate. 
 
 483 1. The war with the Volsci. 
 
 A The war with the Volscians continued after the con. 
 clusionof peace with the plebs. Inthe year 493 (?) Cn. Mar- 
 cius is said to have taken Corioli, and thence obtained the 
 surname of Coriolanus, but as Corioli was one of the thirty 
 Latin cities, it could not have been attacked by the 
 Romans. Having been condemned by the comitia tributa 
 for proposing, during a season of scarcity, that corn (im- 
 ported from Sicily?) should be distributed among the people 
 on condition of their renouncing the tribunate, Marcius 
 at once went over to the Volscians, with all his adherents; 
 and taking the command of their forces, captured several 
 
 B Latin cities ; among the rest Corioli. Advancing to Rome, 
 he summoned the city to surrender unconditionally, de- 
 manding, at the same time, the restoration of all the dis- 
 tricts which had been forcibly taken from the Volscians, 
 and the recall of the Roman settlers ; but being overcome, 
 it is said, by the entreaties of his mother and wife, he 
 raised the siege and returned into the country of the 
 Volscians, where he lived in peace to extreme old age. 1 
 
 484 2. War of the Fabii against Veii (482 474). 
 With the view of recovering the territory which had 
 
 been wrested from them by the Etruscans, as well as of 
 finding employment for the plebeians, the patricians, chiefly 
 at the instance of the gens Fabia, renewed the war with 
 Veii, which was terminated by a peace for forty years. 
 
 485 The plebeians having refused to serve in the army, 306 Fabii, with 
 their families and clients, established themselves in a fortress on the 
 river Cremera, where they were all (with the exception of one boy,) 
 cut to pieces by the Veientines ; having been allured, according to the 
 commonly received story, to a distance from their stronghold by the 
 prospect of booty,' or, as another legend relates, having set out un- 
 armed for Rome, with the intention of offering sacrifice. Like Por- 
 senna in days of yore, the Veientines appeared on the Janiculum, but 
 after a few skirmishes, they were driven back, and having sustained 
 another defeat close to the gate of their own city, were glad to accept 
 conditions of jpeace. 
 
 1 There is nothing surprising in this, after the benefits conferred 
 on the Volscian state by Coriolanus ; nor was it until a much later 
 period, that Roman vanity invented the myth of the surrender of all 
 his conquests at the instance of his mother and wife. To make the 
 story consistent, it was necessary to add, that Coriolanus was mur- 
 dered by the enraged Volscians. 
 
486, 487. 107.] EUROPE, ROME. 233 
 
 Wars with the JSqui and Volsci, to 458. 486 
 
 Both these Ausonian tribes had extended their authority A 
 over Latium as far as the sea, and taken possession of 
 Antium, which was wrested from them by the Romans 
 (who colonized it in 468) ; and again restored at the Vol- 
 scian peace in 459. The war with the ^Equians still con- 
 tinued. A Roman army was beaten on the Algidus and 
 surrounded by the enemy, but was rescued by the dictator, 
 L. Quinctius Cincinnatus (458). 
 
 The narrative of his campaign on the Algidus is full of improba- 
 bilities. 
 
 107. Struggle of the Plebeians with the Patricians for 
 equality of Civil Rights. 
 
 1. The rogation of the tribune C. Terentilius487 
 Harsa (462). B 
 
 The want of any written code of laws for the plebeians, 
 and the caprice with which patrician consuls decided all 
 disputes between patricians and plebeians, not by any fixed 
 rules, but according to precedents, which might be inter- 
 preted to signify whatever the judge desired, induced the 
 tribune C. Terentilius Harsa, to propose the formation of a 
 code by five or ten persons chosen from the classes. All 
 the obligations of plebeians towards the state were to be 
 accurately defined, and a rule to be established by which 
 their disputes should thenceforth be decided. On the other c 
 hand, the patricians, who were well aware of the advan- 
 tages afforded to their order by the uncertain state of the 
 law, endeavored by every means in their power, even by 
 forcibly obstructing the proceedings of the comitia tributa, 
 to render this " rogatio " ineffective. After a succession of 
 fierce and bloody struggles, certain advantages were con- 
 ceded to the plebeians, such as the doubling the number of 
 tribunes and placing the Aventine in the hands of the com- 
 mons ; and in the end a general measure of legislation, 
 embracing the interests of both classes, obtained the assent 
 of the curise. 
 
 The mission of three senators to Athens, for the purpose of making D 
 themselves acquainted with the laws of Solon and those of the other 
 Grecian states, may perhaps be a historical fact, without necessarily 
 leading us to the inference that the Roman code was derived imme- 
 diately from that of Athens. 
 
234 EUROPE. ROME. [488, 489. 107. 
 
 488 2. The first decemvirate, 451. 
 
 A After a long delay on the part of the patricians, and the 
 modification by the plebeians of their original proposition 
 into the appointment of a mixed commission, selected 
 equally from both orders, the functions of all magistrates 
 were suspended, and ten senators appointed, as interreges, 
 with irresponsible authority, and instructions to frame a 
 code of written laws. In accordance with these instruc- 
 tions, the commissioners produced a series of legal pro- 
 visions, divided into ten sections, which were engraved on 
 ten tables of brass, and hung up in a conspicuous place, 
 after they had received the assent of the senate, the centu- 
 
 B ries (consequently of the plebs), and of the curies. Of 
 these laws, which formed the groundwork of Roman legis- 
 lation down to the time of the emperors, nothing now re- 
 mains but a few insignificant fragments. One of the most 
 important changes consequent on the formation of this 
 code was the admission of patricians into the plebeian 
 tribes, which thus became a national division, and the 
 comitia tributa a national assembly. 
 
 489 3. The second decemvirate (450) added two new 
 c tables of laws ; but instead of laying down their authority, 
 
 or making arrangements at the end of their year for the 
 election of consuls or other magistrates, the decemviri con- 
 tinued to exercise a despotic power, which gave great 
 offence to the people (murder of the veteran L. Siccius 
 Dentatus, who had counselled an insurrection of the com- 
 mons). At length the discontent, which had *ong been 
 smouldering, was blown into a flame, by an act of wanton 
 cruelty on the part of one of the decemviri. In the midst of 
 a war with the Sabines and ./Equians, a young maiden named 
 Virginia (the daughter of L. Virginius, an officer in the 
 army), who had been assigned, during her father's absence, 
 to one of his clients as a slave by Appius Claudius, the 
 chief of the decemviri, was stabbed to the heart by her own 
 father, as the only mode of saving her from dishonor. 
 D On receiving intelligence of this event, all the plebeians in 
 the army returned to Rome and encamped on the Aven- 
 tine. The abolition of the decemvirate being obstinately 
 refused by the patricians, the plebeians again retired to the 
 mons sacer, whither they were followed by L. Valerius 
 and M. Horatius, by whose intervention peace was restored 
 on the following terms : the decemviri were required to lay 
 
490, 491. 107.] EUROPE. ROME. 235 
 
 down their office, the tribunate was re-established, and Va- (489) 
 lerius and Horatius were elected prcetors, or, as they were A 
 thenceforth called, consuls. The decemviri were im- 
 peached by Virginius before the plebs, two of their num- 
 ber (Appius Claudius and the plebeian Sp. Oppius), died in 
 prison, probably by their own act, and the rest escaped 
 punishment by voluntary exile. Their property was con- 
 fiscated to the use of the state. 
 
 4. The lawsofthe consuls Valerius and Ho r a- 490 
 tius (448). 
 
 The first endeavor of the newly-elected consuls was to 
 establish on a firm basis the freedom thus restored to the 
 people. With this view the following laws were enacted 
 1. The plebiscita were declared to be of equal authority u 
 with the resolutions of the centuries, and had the force of 
 law, when they emanated from, or were sanctioned by, the 
 senate, and confirmed by the curies. 2. The right of pro- 
 vocation against the consuls, and all future magistrates, was 
 secured. 3. The inviolability of the tribunes and sediles 
 plebeii was re-established and extended to the judges. 
 
 We find also, about the same time, a seat reserved for the tribunes 
 in front of the open doors of the senate-house, that they might hear 
 the debates. 
 
 An essential change in the constitution was effected by 
 
 5. The rogations of the tribune C. Canuleius491 
 and his colleagues, 444. c 
 
 The " rogatio " of the tribune C. Canuleius for the 
 legalization of marriages (connubium), between patri- 
 cians and plebeians, was adopted after a severe struggle ; 
 but when his colleagues proposed that one consul should 
 be chosen from each of the orders, it was settled, 
 that instead of thus dividing the office between the patri- 
 cians and plebeians, the supreme authority should be vested 
 in tribuni militum consulari poiestate, an office to 
 which plebeians were declared admissible ; the functions of 
 the censorship being at the same time separated from 
 those of the consular tribunate, and reserved for patricians. 
 The number of these military tribunes varied at different D 
 periods (three, four, six, eight). Among the six was always 
 a praetor urbanus (patrician) ; and among the eight, were 
 two censors. Every year a law was passed, declaring 
 
236 EUROPE. ROME. [492 494. 107. 
 
 whether consuls or military tribunes should be elected for 
 the succeeding year. 
 
 492 At first the two Censors were taken exclusively from 
 A the patricians (generally from consulares), but after the 
 
 passing of the law of Publius Philo (338), they were chosen, 
 one from each order. At the first institution of the office, 
 they were elected in each lustrum (for five years ; after- 
 wards for eighteen months, and at a still later period for 
 thirty-two), originally by the curies, and afterwards by the 
 centuries. Their functions were twofold : 1. Registra- 
 tion of the citizens according to their rank (senators, 
 knights, burgesses), coupled with the right of admitting 
 individuals into, or removing them from, the senate, the 
 B knightly order, and the tribes. The right of expulsion 
 was exercised, either in accordance with the sentence of a 
 tribunal, or (in the case of offences not strictly cognizable 
 by the courts) on the individual responsibility of the cen- 
 sor (notatio censoria). 2. Administration of the ex- 
 chequer. It was a part of their office to farm out the 
 duties and similar sources of revenue, contract for public 
 works, and apportion the payment of the tributum accord- 
 ing to the census. 
 
 493 During a famine, in the year 439, a distribution of corn having 
 been made to the people, by Sp. Mselius, the richest of the plebeian 
 knights, a cry was immediately raised that secret meetings were 
 held in his house, and arms deposited there, which it was his inten- 
 tion to use for the purpose of raising himself to absolute power. 
 
 C L. Cincinnatus was nominated dictator, and the unarmed, and 
 probably innocent, Maelius, was shun in the forum, by his master of 
 the horse. The assassin escaped impeachment by voluntary exile. 
 
 The number of questores classici was increased from two to four, 
 chosen without distinction from all ranks (420), and thenceforth the 
 senate was recreated from the list of persons who had filled the office 
 of quaestor. 
 
 494 Hitherto all questions had been decided in the college 
 of tribunes of the people by a majority of votes, but about 
 this time (between 415 and 394), it was enacted that the 
 "veto" of any one tribune should be sufficient to arrest a 
 proposed decree ; an arrangement which proved, in the 
 end, advantageous to the patricians. 
 
 D The practice was introduced of giving regular pay 
 (stipendium) to the infantry (probably then for the first 
 time to each legionary), for which purpose a tenth part of 
 the ager publicus was set aside (305). 
 
495499. 108, 109.] EUROPE. ROME. 237 
 
 108. The last war against Veii. 
 (404595.) 
 
 After the termination of the Sabine wars by the decisive victory 495 
 of M. Horatius, repeated wars were carried on by the Romans (for A 
 the most part successfully), against the ^Equians and Volscians. 
 Fide nffi, which had expelled some Roman colonists, was taken, and 
 afterwards, in consequence of the assassination of the Roman ambas- 
 sadors, was levelled to the ground. Then followed the last war 
 against Veii, which had formed an alliance with Fidenee. 
 
 The Romans having in vain demanded satisfaction for 496 
 the murder of their ambassadors, which had been per- 
 petrated at the instigation of the king of Veii, declare war 
 against that state. After a blockade often years, effected B 
 by means of a line of works drawn at some distance round 
 the city, Veii is taken by the dictator M. Furius Camil- 
 1 us. The account of this capture belongs rather to poetry 
 than history. 
 
 The Alban lake having, in the driest season of the year, overflowed 497 
 its banks, it was declared by a captive Etruscan aruspex (in accord- 
 ance with the oracle of Delphi), that until the waters of the lake were 
 confined to their proper limits Veii could not be taken. In conse- 
 quence of this intimation, the drawing off" of the waters was under- 
 taken by means of a tunnel, six feet deep, three and a half broad and 
 6000 in length. Then the city was taken, it is said, by means of a 
 mine carried as far as the temple of Juno. It would seem, however, c 
 that neither this gallery, nor the tunnel, was completed during the 
 dictatorship of Camillus ; still less could the temple have been 
 reached with any certainty ; if such a gallery, therefore, were formed 
 at all, it was probably for the purpose of opening a breach in the 
 wall. Similarity of this war to that of Troy. 
 
 A body of the plebeians having determined to quit Rome 498 
 and settle in the beautifully situated and well-built city of 
 Veii, a portion of the Veientine territory was assigned to them 
 in lots of seven jugera each. Camillus, after his triumph, 
 was accused of appropriating to his own use a portion of 
 the booty, and being condemned to pay a " multa," went 
 into exile. 
 
 109. War with the Gauls, 389. 
 
 During the last war against Veii, the Gauls, a Celtic 499 
 tribe, had crossed the Alps and entered Italy, where a D 
 portion of them remained, whilst the rest continued their 
 march towards Pannonia. Having overthrown the Etrus- 
 cans and Umbrians, the Italian division, under the com- 
 
238 EUROPE. ROME. [500. 109. 
 
 (499) mand of Brennus, appeared before Clusium (whither, 
 A according to the legend, they had been invited by a 
 burgher of the city, who had failed to obtain redress for 
 the violation of his wife). The Clusinians applied to the 
 Romans for help, and three ambassadors (Fabii) were sent 
 to treat with the Gauls but these men took part in the 
 battle, and slew one of the Gallic leaders. The Romans 
 having refused to deliver up their ambassadors, an army 
 of 70,000 Gauls advanced towards Rome, and on their 
 march encountered on the banks of the A 1 e i a a Roman 
 army 40,000 strong, commanded by Q. Sulpicius, which 
 they utterly routed, the Romans flying in confusion, some 
 to Rome and others to Veii. This battle was fought on 
 the 16th July, 389. On the 18th of the same month 
 Rome was taken, sacked, and laid in ashes eighty aged 
 B patricians were slain in the forum. An attempt to scale 
 the capitol (which was defended by Manlius 1 with 1000 
 armed followers), was discovered by the cry of some 
 geese, consecrated to Juno. On receiving intelligence that 
 the Venetians had invaded their country, the Gauls con- 
 sented to withdraw their forces from Rome, on condition of 
 receiving 1000 pounds' weight of gold. The legend how- 
 ever declares, that at this critical moment, Camillus, the 
 Dictator, appeared at the head of the Roman soldiers who 
 had taken refuge at Veii, prevented the payment of the 
 gold, twice overthrew the Gauls, took Brennus prisoner, 
 and put him to death. 
 
 c A second plan of the plebeians for withdrawing to Veii 
 was happily rendered abortive by Camillus (thence sur- 
 named the second founder of the city), and the place dis- 
 mantled ; but within a year it was restored and peopled by 
 Capenatians, Faliscans, and Veientines, who formed four 
 new tribes (22d 25th.) 
 
 500 M. Manlius. Many persons having been reduced to insolvency 
 by the expenses incurred in the restoration of their houses and re- 
 placement of the cattle and furniture which they had lost in these 
 wars, M. Manlius, the preserver of the capitol, advanced money 
 without interest to 400 ruined citizens, demanding at the same time 
 that all debts should be liquidated, either by the sale of the public 
 
 ^ fr. ______ - - _ _L, 
 
 1 Manlius was sumamed Capitolinus, not because he had saved the 
 capitol, but because he dwelt there. The name, according to Nie- 
 buhr, already existed in his family. 
 
501. 110.] EUROPE. ROME. 239 
 
 lands, or out of the Gallic gold, which the patricians had unfairly (500) 
 appropriated to their own use. Manlius was immediately thrown A 
 into prison by the indignant patricians ; but was soon afterwards 
 liberated in consequence of an insurrection of the plebs, and ac- 
 quitted by the centuries. As however he still occupied th* capitol, 
 sentence was passed against him by the curiffi in the fourth dictator- 
 ship of Camillus, and he was treacherously thrown from the Tar- 
 peian rock in the year B. c. 308. At the same time a law was passed 
 that thenceforth no person should inhabit the capitol. 
 
 110. Termination of the struggle between the Patricians 
 and Plebeians by the Licinian Rogations. 
 
 (376366.) 
 
 An attempt to relieve the continued embarrassment of 501 
 the plebeians was made by the tribunes C. Liciniuss 
 Stolo, and L. Sextius, who proposed the three following 
 laws : 1 . That the office of military tribune should be 
 abolished, and two consuls be nominated, one of whom 
 should always be a plebeian. 2. Every Roman citizen 
 (consequently every plebeian) should enjoy a share of the 
 ager publicus, but none should hold more than 500 jugera, 
 with a correspondent number of heads of cattle in the 
 common pasture. The rent paid for the use of this 
 pasture to be farmed out from lustrum to lustrum by the 
 censors, and the proceeds employed for the payment of 
 the soldiers. Land occupied by individuals to be given c 
 up, and divided among the plebeians in lots of seven 
 jugera each. 3. Debts to be liquidated by three yearly 
 instalments, after deducting the amount of interest already 
 paid. The reading of these rogations was stopped by 
 eight of the tribunes, who had been gained over by the 
 senators ; but for ten years the same two men were re- 
 gularly re-elected to the tribunate, and at last, in the year 
 366, their rogations were adopted, subject to this con- 
 dition, that the praetura urbana (an office established 
 chiefly for the administration of justice within the city, 
 and hitherto held by a patrician military tribune), should 
 be -separated from the consulate, and, as well as the 
 censorship, be reserved for patricians. On the other hand, D 
 it was settled that the curule sedileship (an office created 
 at this time in the room of the qusestores parricidii), 
 should be held alternately by patricians and plebeians. 
 
240 EUROPE. ROME. [502, 503. 110. 
 
 L. Sextius was nominated the first plebeian consul in 
 365. 
 
 502 The Praetorship. The praetor urbanus was in some 
 A sort a third consul, elected in the same manner as the 
 
 consuls, styled their colleague, exercising during their 
 absence the functions of their office, and enjoying probably 
 the distinction of the six fasces. At first the office was 
 open only to patricians, but subsequently (probably after 
 the law of Q. Publilius Philo in 336), it was held by a 
 patrician and plebeian alternately. His principal duty 
 was the administration of justice, both in criminal pro- 
 ceedings, inasmuch as he presided over the assemblies of 
 the people, before which offenders against the state were 
 tried, and in civil more especially, it being his business to 
 publish the decisions of judges nominated by himself, and 
 
 B see that they were carried into effect. His authority was 
 indicated by three words dare (judicem), dice re (sen- 
 tentiam), addict re (rem). When he entered on his office, 
 the praetor published an edictum (or formula), which 
 served as a guide for his decisions in cases to which the 
 law did not extend. He sat on the Nuridmae (dies fasti). 
 The settlement of disputes between citizens and foreigners 
 continued for a long time to be one of the duties of the 
 consulate; but the increase of litigation consequent on the 
 extension of the Roman territories, and the frequent ab- 
 sence of the consuls, at length rendered it necessary to 
 appoint a special officer (in 242), named praetor inter 
 
 c peregrines et cives. The number of prsetors was in- 
 creased, for the administration of the provinces, to four 
 and afterwards to six ; but after the introduction of the 
 quaestiones perpetuoe (144), these functionaries remained 
 at Rome until the expiration of their year of office, when 
 they entered on the government of their province with 
 the title of propraetor. Sulla increased the number to 
 eight, and Caesar to sixteen. 
 
 503 The Curule JSdiles (aediles curules). Number, 
 D two ; alternately two patricians and two plebeians. They 
 
 presided at the ludi llomani, of ^which at a later period 
 (after the first Punic war), they generally bore the ex- 
 pense ; and were charged with the inspection of public and 
 private buildings, streets, markets, and provisions, as well 
 as the investigation and prosecution of certain offences. 
 
504506. 111,112.] EUROPE. ROME. 241 
 
 It was only after the expiration of twenty-five years (503) 
 that the plebeians were peaceably established in the A 
 possession of their newly acquired rights. The election 
 of consuls was often interrupted by the nomination of a 
 dictator and within a space of thirteen years (354 
 342), we find seven illegal consulates. 
 
 b. Democracy. 
 
 (B. c. 36630.) 
 
 aa. To the subjugation of Italy in 266. 
 
 111. Their wars to the Samnite wars. 
 
 (361346.) 
 
 Four wars with the Gauls (361 346), a succes- 504 
 sion probably of fresh swarms. The first was decided B 
 by the single combat of T. Manlius (Torquatus) with a 
 Gallic giant, the second and third by victories obtained by 
 the Roman armies, and the fourth by the single combat of 
 M. Valerius (Corvus) with a Gallic warrior, and the vic- 
 tory of L. Furius Camillus (son of M. Camillus). 
 
 The Hernicans were also subjugated after repeated defeats ; but a 505 
 war with the Tarquinians and Faliscans (in which C. Marcius c 
 Rutilus, the first plebeian dictator, stormed the Etruscan camp, and 
 triumphed without the consent of the senate), terminated ingloriously 
 in an armistice for forty years. 
 
 112. First war with the Samnites. 
 (342_340.) 
 
 The Samnites, a nation whose dominions, extending 506 
 from the Hadriatic to the Tyrrhenian sea, contained a D 
 population exceeding in number the Romans with their 
 allies, having attacked the Sidicini (whose capital was 
 Teanum), that people called in the Campanians ; and they, 
 after sustaining two defeats, applied for assistance to the 
 Romans. The consul, M. Valerius Corvus, marched into 
 Campania, and r.btained a victory at Mount Gaurus, near 
 Cumse (342), whilst the other consul (A. Cornelius 
 Cossus), who had penetrated into Samnium, was sur- 
 rounded near Caudium, but afterwards rescued by the 
 military tribune P. Decius, in conjunction with whom he 
 
242 EUROPE. ROME. [507, 508. 1 13. 
 
 (506) stormed the Samnite encampment. A rich booty (40,000 
 A shields) fell into the hands of the Romans after a second 
 great victory gained by Valerius (perhaps with both the 
 Roman armies) at Suessula. In the year 341, fresh 
 advantages were perhaps obtained, but by the Latins [' for 
 Rome was paralyzed by the insurrection of the army.' 
 Nicbuhr}. A separate peace and separate alliance was 
 concluded between Rome (without Latium) and the Sam- 
 nites, one of the conditions being, that the subjugation of 
 the Sidicini should be permitted by the Romans. 
 
 113. War with the Latins, 339337. 
 
 507 The alliance between Rome and Latium, which had 
 B been dissolved after the capture of the city by the Gauls, 
 
 was renewed in 357, when the Romans were threatened 
 with fresh danger from the same quarter ; but the Latin 
 confederation refused to recognize the supremacy of the 
 Romans ; insisting that Rome and Latium should be united 
 into one nation, and that the senate and consulate should 
 be shared between them. The Romans having rejected 
 this demand, a Latin war broke out, which ended in the 
 c complete subjugation of the Latins. Two consular armies 
 marched through Samnium into Campania (where the 
 legions of the Latins were still stationed near Capua), and, 
 under the command of T. Manlius, obtained, with the 
 assistance of the Samnites, a victory near Mount Vesu- 
 vius, for which they were chiefly indebted to the self- 
 sacrifice of P. Decius Mus. Manlius inflicted capital 
 punishment on his son, who, in defiance of his father's pro- 
 hibition, had slain a Latin general in single combat. A 
 second victory gained by T. Manlius at Trifanum broke 
 up the Latin confederacy, the cities surrendering one by 
 one, and receiving Roman garrisons. 
 
 508 Of these cities some were admitted to the full rights of Roman 
 _ citizenship, and from one of them two new tribes were formed ; 
 
 whilst the inhabitants of others were regarded as mere vassals, with- 
 out the right of voting ; and some Latin as well as Campanian places 
 were considered allies of Rome, as the whole of Latium had formerly 
 been. Antium lost its ships of war (the rostra were carried to 
 Rome), and became a Roman colony ; the Latins were forbidden to 
 hold diets, and connubium and commercium were permitted only 
 between inhabitants of the same city. 
 
509511. 114.] EUROPE. -ROME. 243 
 
 114. Second War with the Samnites. 
 (325304.) 
 
 Causes. The Romans having established a colony in the Volscian 509 
 city of Fregellae, which had been taken and sacked by the Samuites, A 
 its withdrawal was required by the original conquerors, and refused. 
 About the same time, the Romans demanded satisfaction from 
 Palaeopolis and Neapolis for certain acts of plunder committed in 
 Campania ; and this being refused by both cities (by advice of the 
 Tarentines and Samnites), they were invested by Q. Publilius 
 Philo, whose term of consular authority was extended. As pro- 
 consul (the first who ever bore that title) Philo obtained pos- 
 session of Palaiopolis by treachery. 
 
 In order to divide the forces of the Samnites, the 510 
 Romans concluded an alliance with the Apulians, and sent B 
 an army into their country. At the very commencement 
 of this war the Samnites were four times defeated with 
 considerable loss (by Q. Fabius Maximus and L. Papirius 
 Cursor), and sued for peace ; but being unable to obtain 
 any reasonable terms from the Romans, they continued the 
 war, and laid siege to Luceria (which had been stormed 
 by Fabius, and was now occupied by a Roman garrison). 
 A Roman force, sent to the relief of the place (under the 
 consuls, T. Veterius and Sp. Postumius), was intercepted 
 and beaten by the Samnite general C. Pontius, in the 
 narrow passes near Caudium (furculse Caudmse). The c 
 survivors, unable to extricate themselves from the defile, 
 capitulated on terms, which, considering their helpless po- 
 sition, were not unreasonable, and, having passed under 
 the yoke, withdrew to Capua (321). The Roman senate 
 having refuser, to ratify this capitulation, the war still con- 
 tinued, at first with various success, but latterly with de- 
 cided advantage to the Romans. 
 
 After the battle of Caudium, Luceria was taken by the Samnites, 
 and subsequently (probably in 315) recaptured by the Romans, and 
 olonized. The war was carried on with various success (victory of 
 \e Romans near Saticula, defeat of their army under Q. Fabius 
 Maximus at Lautulae) until the year 314, from which period the 
 advantage was decidedly on the side of the Romans. 
 
 Contemporaneous War against the Etruscans, Samnites, 511 
 UmbrianSfGnd Hernicans. The Etruscans, who had main- D 
 tained friendly relations with Rome as long as the Gauls 
 were in their neighborhood, endeavored, now that the 
 
244 EUROPE. ROME. [512, 513. 115. 
 
 (511) Romans were occupied with the Samnite war, to re-establish 
 A their ancient boundaries. In pursuance of this plan, they 
 laid siege to the frontier fortress of Sutrium, where they 
 were defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus, who then forced 
 his way through the Ciminian forest, and again defeated 
 the enemy near Peru si a (309). For this victory Fabius 
 was not only rewarded with a triumph, but was also, as an 
 especial honor, re-elected consul for the following year. 
 Meanwhile, L. Papirius Cursor (whom Q. Fabius, sup- 
 pressing his personal dislike, had proclaimed dictator) ob- 
 tained a victory over the Samnites, near Longula. Fabius 
 then took the command in Samnium (except for a short 
 period, during which he marched against the Umbrians, 
 who were speedily subdued), and overcame (as proconsul) 
 B the Samnites and Hernicans near Allifae (307). Fresh 
 victories were gained by the consuls of the ensuing year 
 one over the Hernici, and two over the Samnites. It 
 required, however, two more defeats at Bovianum and 
 Tifernum, 305) to convince the Samnites that their only 
 chance of safety consisted in their recognizing the su- 
 premacy of Rome. A peace was concluded in 304 ; the 
 Samnites being permitted to retain their own dominions, 
 but losing their sovereignty over Lucania. 
 
 512 The armistice was renewed with the Etruscans (from 309) every 
 c year. The revolted cities of the Hernicans became municipia 
 [cf. 523, A], without the right of voting, and were deprived of connu- 
 bium and commercium with the rest of the Hernicans ; and the 
 Volscians and ^Squians, who had afforded assistance to the Sam- 
 nites, were compelled to accept the privilege of Roman citizenship, 
 subject to the same degrading conditions. 
 
 115. Third War with the Samnites. 
 (298290.) 
 
 513 The Lucanians having applied for aid against the Sam- 
 D nites, who had invaded their country for the purpose of 
 re-establishing their ancient supremacy, the Romans de- 
 manded the immediate evacuation of Lucania ; and this 
 being refused, war broke out afresh. The two first cam- 
 paigns proved disastrous to the Samnites, who then sent an 
 army into Etruria, and formed an alliance with the Etrus- 
 cans, Umbrians, and Gauls ; but in the year 295 they 
 were totally defeated near Se itlnum by Q. Fabius 
 
514, 515. 116.] EUROPE. .ROME. 245 
 
 Maximus (in his fifth consulate), whilst P. Decius Mus (513) 
 (for the fourth time consul) checked the advance of the A 
 Gauls by the sacrifice of his life. The war still continued 
 in Samnium : at first the Romans were victorious in three 
 engagements (at Luceria, Aquilonia, and C o m i n i u m), 
 but, on the other hand, Q. Fabius Gurges (son of Fabius 
 Maximus) was defeated by C. Pontius. This loss, how- 
 ever, was repaired by the elder Fabius, who, as his son's 
 lieutenant, was once more victorious (it is not known 
 where). The brave C. Pontius was taken prisoner, con- 
 veyed in triumph to Rome, and executed ! Colonies were B 
 sent to Venucia to check the alliance between Tarentum 
 and Samnium. The war with the Samnites (290) was 
 terminated by M'. Curius Dentatus ; but we are not ac- 
 quainted with the conditions on which peace was con- 
 cluded. 1 
 
 The Sabines were attacked by M'. Curius Dentatus (probably be- 
 cause they had assisted the Samnites in the Etruscan campaign), and 
 being speedily subdued, were admitted to the privilege of citizenship 
 without the right of voting. The sovereignty of Rome now ex- 
 tended to the shores of the Adriatic sea. 
 
 116. War with Tarentum and with Pyrrlius of Epirus. 
 
 (282272.) 
 
 Soon after the termination of the Samnite wars, the 514 
 Romans, interfering in the affairs of Lower Italy, com- c 
 pelled the Lucanians and Bruttians to raise the siege of 
 Thurii and placed a Roman garrison in the town. A fleet 
 of ten triremes being sent at the same time into the bay of 
 Tarentum to protect Thurii by sea (in contravention of a 
 treaty with the Tarentines, by which the Romans were 
 prohibited from passing the promontory of Lacinium), five 
 vessels were taken by the Tarentines, Thurii stormed, and 
 the garrison expelled. An embassy, sent by the Romans 
 to demand satisfaction, having been insulted by the Taren- 
 tines, war was immediately proclaimed. 
 
 Being disappointed in their expectation of a general 515 
 rising of the Italian states, the Tarentines applied for as 
 sistance to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who entered the 
 
 1 The only notice on this subject is found in Livy, Epitome xi. 
 Cum Samnitibus pacem petentibus fcedus quarto renovatum est. 
 
246 EUROPE. ROME. [516, 517. 116. 
 
 (515) country (by the invitation of most of the Greek cities in 
 A Lower Italy) with a considerable force, including twenty 
 elephants, to which he was chiefly indebted for a victory 
 on the banks of the Siris, near H e r a c 1 e a. Py rrhus now 
 sent his friend, the orator Cineas, to offer peace to the 
 Romans, provided they were willing to restore to his allies 
 (the Samnites, Lucanians, Apulians, and Bruttians) all the 
 places which they had lost in the war. This proposal 
 having been rejected, by the advice of the blind Appius 
 Claudius, Pyrrhus advanced to Prseneste, for the purpose 
 of joining the Etruscans ; but finding that they had already 
 concluded a peace with Rome, he retreated to Tarentum, 
 and went into winter quarters. 
 
 B The upright C. Fabricius was sent with two other Romans to 
 treat with Pyrrhus for the liberation of his prisoners, who were per- 
 mitted to visit Rome for the purpose of celebrating the Saturnalia ; 
 but being unable to persuade the senate to conclude a peace, they 
 were obliged to return into captivity. 
 
 516 The following year, Pyrrhus attacked the places in 
 Apulia, which were garrisoned by Roman soldiers, and 
 compelled the consuls (P. Sulpicius and P. Decius) to 
 retreat, after sustaining considerable loss in a battle fought 
 near Asculum Apulum, 279. In this battle, P. Decius, 
 the grandson, is said to have offered himself as a victim to 
 
 c the infernal gods. The victory, however, had been dearly 
 purchased ; and this circumstance, joined to the intelligence 
 of an alliance between Rome and Carthage, and the inva- 
 sion of Macedonia by the Gauls, induced Pyrrhus to con- 
 clude an armistice with Rome. An invitation, which he 
 soon afterwards received from the Syracusans, to pass over 
 into Sicily, and protect them from the Carthaginians, was 
 willingly accepted, as affording him an opportunity of 
 evacuating Italy without loss of honor (comp. 40, II.). 
 
 517 At the expiration of three years he was compelled to 
 D abandon Sicily, taking with him the treasures which he had 
 
 acquired there, and returned into Italy, for the purpose of 
 protecting the Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians, against 
 the attacks of the Romans. In the year 275, his mercenaries 
 having been defeated by M'. Curius Dentatus, near Bene- 
 v en turn, Pyrrhus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum under 
 the command of Milo, set out on his return to Epirus, and 
 soon afterwards was slain at Argos. In the year 272. 
 I 
 
518522. 117.] EUROPE. ROME. 247 
 
 Tarentum was treacherously delivered up to the Romans 
 by Milo. 
 
 117. Complete Subjugation of Italy. 
 
 After the termination of the Samnite wars, the Galli518 
 Sendnes, in northern Umbria, who had been persuaded A 
 by the Etruscans and Umbrians to assist them in pro- 
 secuting the war against the Romans, encountered and ut- 
 terly defeated a Roman army. But this insult was speedily 
 avenged by the consul. P. Dolabella, who laid waste the 
 whole territory of the Senones, and overthrew (at the lake 
 Vadimon) the Boii, who were hastening to their assistance 
 (283). Peace was granted to the Boii, but the Sendnes 
 were almost exterminated ; the Etruscan cities were sub- 
 dued one after another ; and those which held out the 
 longest, obtained from the Romans (in consequence of the 
 advance of Pyrrhus on Rome) peace on very favorable 
 terms (280). 
 
 The Samnites, Lucanians, and Bruttians, having 519 
 recognized the supremacy of Rome, after the death of B 
 Pyrrhus (272), were compelled to cede a portion of their 
 territory and receive Roman colonists. 
 
 The Picentians were subdued after a battle in 268, and 520 
 a portion of them transplanted into southern Campania, for 
 the purpose of cutting off the Samnites from the Tyrrhenian 
 sea. 
 
 The subjugation of the Sallentinians, in Calabria 521 
 (266), completed the conquest of Italy as far as the 
 rivers Rubicon and Macra. 
 
 Connection of the conquered States with Rome. 532 
 
 A. As regards their connection with Rome, the Italian states may _ 
 be divided into three classes. 
 
 1. Those nations which had been admitted to the privi- 
 lege ofRpman citizenship, either in an inferior degree without, 
 or to its full extent with, the right of voting. In the latter case, they 
 were incorporated into the Roman tribus. 
 
 2 Those which nominally retained their independence, as allies 
 of Rome, being either Latins or confederates in other parts of Italy. 
 Both classes retained their own territorial rights, but were bound to 
 furnish contingents of troops, money, ships, corn, &c. The Italian 
 confederates were those nations which, although subdued, had kept or 
 received back from the conqueror their own codes of laws. 
 
 3. The subject States, whose position, as regarded their con- 
 nection with Rome, varied exceedingly ; some (revolted allies, for 
 12 
 
248 EUROPE. ROME. [523525. 118. 
 
 example) being deprived of their personal freedom and the honor of 
 serving in war, whilst others were personally free, but in other 
 respects subject to many severe restrictions. 
 
 523 B. The circumstances of single cities were also of a threefold 
 A character. 
 
 1. Municipia, i. e. cities, the inhabitants of which enjoyed, to a 
 certain extent, the rights of Roman citizenship (either with or with- 
 out the suffragium). 
 
 2. Coloniae; partly Roman, partly Latin. For the purpose of 
 retaining a conquered people in a state of dependence, the Romans, 
 agreeably to an Italian usage, were accustomed to transplant a 
 certain number of Roman families (at first exclusively patrician, but 
 afterwards^plebeian also) into some of the cities, where they formed 
 a standing garrison. To these colonists were assigned the reserved 
 lands, which were generally a third, and sometimes, but very rarely, 
 
 B the whole of the conquered territory. A city colonized in this 
 manner had a double population ; viz. the original inhabitants, now 
 vassals of Rome, and occupiers of a portion only of the estates which 
 had formerly been their own ; and the new colonists, in whom the 
 entire administration of public affairs was vested. This plan at 
 once secured a provision for the poorer Roman families, and relieved 
 Rome of her discontented citizens. After the union of Rome with 
 the Latin confederacy, colonies were sent out by the two nations 
 conjointly. Hence the distinction between Roman and Latin colo- 
 nies ; the former being those which were established previously, and 
 the latter subsequently, to the Latin alliance. The sending out of a 
 colony was consequent on a Senatus consultum [or, as one word, sena- 
 tusconsultum], and at a later period on a plebiscitum, and was managed 
 by curatores. The colonists were, as far as possible, volunteers ; but 
 if the number of these was insufficient, others were chosen by lot. 
 
 C 3. Prajfecturae were municipia to which a prefect, or magis- 
 trate charged with the administration of the laws, was sent out 
 every year from Rome, for the purpose of maintaining the supremacy 
 of the Roman code. 
 
 118. Domestic History of Rome during this period. 
 
 524 From the time that the consulate became accessible to 
 plebeians, and the most distinguished men of that class 
 were admitted into the senate, or connected themselves by 
 marriage with patrician families, the offices which had 
 formerly been reserved for patricians gradually fell into 
 plebeian hands, and the importance of the patrician order 
 declined. 
 
 525 The first decided step towards a complete equalization 
 D of the two orders was taken by the plebeian dictator, 
 
 Q. Publilius Philo (338), who proposed three laws 
 1. That plebisclta, emanating from or approved by the 
 senate, should thenceforth have the force of law, even 
 
526, 527. 119.] EUROPE. ROME. 249 
 
 41 
 
 without the confirmation Of the curies. 2. That the curies (525) 
 should beforehand promise their assent to any law about A 
 to be passed by the centuries. 3. That one of the censors 
 should always be a plebeian, as had once already been the 
 case under extraordinary circumstances in the year 350. 
 As this legislator was the first plebeian praetor (in 336), it 
 seems probable that the alternate appointment of a patri- 
 cian and plebeian to that office was secured by one of his 
 laws. The dictatorship had already (soon after the passing 
 of the Licinian laws in 355) been held by a plebeian (com- 
 pare 111), By the lex Ogulnia (300), the plebeians 
 were declared admissible to a number of offices under the 
 pontifices and augures. The lex Maenia (286?) ex- B 
 tended the second Publilian law to the election of magis- 
 trates, and the curies, whose right of confirmation had be- 
 come a mere form, ceased to assemble for that purpose. 
 Finally, the dictator, Q. Hortensius (after the secession 
 of the plebs to Mount Janiculum, in consequence of the 
 cruelties practised by their creditors), declared the ple- 
 bisclta binding on all classes, even without the assent of 
 the senate (?). Thus the democracy was completely es- 
 tablished. 
 
 In the year 312 Appius Claudius Caecus admitted, as censor, the 536 
 whole body of libertiiii into the plebs, to fill up the number of per- c 
 sons qualified to bear arms, which had been diminished by the war. 
 This arrangement, however, was set aside by his successors (after 
 eight years) in the censorship, L. Fabius and P. Decius, who con- 
 fined the libertlni (304) to the city tribes. As the chief agitator on 
 this occasion, Fabius received the surname of Maximus. 
 
 The increased amount of the revenue rendered it necessary to 
 appoint three censors, whose discharge of this office qualified them 
 for admission into the senate. 
 
 bb. From the subjugation of Italy to the Gracchi. 
 
 (2G6 133.) 
 
 Foreign wars. 
 
 119. The first Punic war. 
 
 (264241.) 
 
 1. Campaign in Sicily. 
 
 Causes. 1. In order to secure their Sicilian possessions, 527 
 the Carthaginians had supported the Tarentines in their 
 
250 EUROPE. ROME. [528. 119. 
 
 (527) struggles against Rome, and thus*violated the treaty which 
 
 A had been renewed with the Romans in 347. 2. War 
 having been proclaimed by Hiero II., king of Syracuse, 
 against the marauding Mamertines (Sabellian mercenary 
 troops), who had made themselves masters of Messana and 
 the surrounding territory, those freebooters separated into 
 two parties, one of which admitted a Carthaginian garrison 
 into the citadel of Messana, whilst the other applied for 
 assistance to the Romans. Although these disputes had 
 been settled previously to the arrival of the Romans, by a 
 compromise between Hiero and the Mamertines, they 
 landed nevertheless, and were admitted into Messana, 
 where they were blockaded by the Carthaginians and 
 
 B Syracusans. The place was, however, soon relieved by 
 Appius Claudius Caudex, who overcame both the blockad- 
 ing armies, and proceeded to lay siege to Syracuse. Most 
 of the cities (sixty-seven), in the interior of Sicily having, 
 in the following year (263), submitted to the Romans, 
 Hiero concluded a peace with the invaders, who were 
 enabled, with this reinforcement, to blockade the Cartha- 
 ginians (under Hannibal, the son of Gisgon), for seven 
 months in Agrigentum. An army which had marched, 
 under the command of Hanno, to the relief of the place, 
 having been utterly routed, Agrigentum was stormed and 
 sacked, and 25,000 of its inhabitants sold into slavery 
 (262). 
 528 2. Sicily the theatre of war by sea and land 
 
 c (260257). 
 
 In order to obtain possession of the maritime towns, 
 which were still in the hands of the Carthaginians, the 
 Romans now determined to create a naval force ; and 
 taking a stranded Carthaginian galley for their model, built 
 and equipped within sixty days a fleet of 130 ships, the 
 command of which was given to C. D u i 1 i u s, who gained 
 the first naval victory ofFMylaB, in the year 260. For 
 this success, which was obtained by boarding the enemy 
 (on bridges invented by the commander), and thus giving 
 to a naval engagement the character of a battle on land, 
 
 D Duilius was honored with a columna rostrata. The Ro- 
 mans now ventured to attack the Carthaginian settlements 
 in Sardinia and Corsica, and to establish themselves in 
 those islands, whilst their land forces subdued one city 
 
529, 530. 119.] EUROPE. ROME. . 251 
 
 after another in Sicily. An attempt was even made, by (528) 
 M. Atilius Regulus, to transfer the war to Africa itself, A 
 and thus bring the struggle to a speedy issue. Steering 
 for that coast with a fleet of 330 sail, Regulus fell in with 
 a Carthaginian fleet of 350, off cape Ecnomus, on the 
 southern coast of Sicily, and having dispersed them, landed, 
 without opposition, near Clupea in Africa. 
 
 3. Campaign in Africa (256254). 529 
 Regulus sent back the greater part of his fleet and army, 
 
 and, with the remainder, subdued almost the whole of the 
 Carthaginian territory, and made preparations for laying 
 siege to the capital. In their distress, the Carthaginians B 
 sued for peace, but, being dissatisfied with the unreasonable 
 conditions required by the Romans, they placed their army 
 under the command of the Spartan general Xanthippus, 
 who had recently landed with a body of Greek merce- 
 naries. The Roman soldiers, although superior in num- 
 bers, were unable to withstand the assaults of 100 ele- 
 phants, and fled in confusion, leaving their commander, 
 Regulus, a prisoner in the hands of the' Carthaginians. A 
 fresh fleet, dispatched to Africa by the Romans in the 
 same year, annihilated the naval force of the Carthaginians 
 off the Hermsean promontory, and effected a landing 
 near Clupea. Again the Romans were victorious by land, c 
 but want of provisions soon compelled them to re-embark 
 on board their ships, most of which were lost in a terrible 
 storm off the coast of Sicily. 
 
 4. Sicily a second time the theatre of war by 530 
 sea and land (254 242). *\(* 
 
 Another Roman fleet captured Panormus and several 
 other Carthaginian settlements on the coast of Sicily, and 
 plundered the rich coast of Africa, bordering on the lesser 
 Syrtes ; but on the homeward voyage it was overtaken by 
 a storm (off the promontory of Palinurus), and nearly 
 annihilated. On receiving intelligence of this new calam- D 
 ity, the Roman senate determined to renounce naval \v ar- 
 fare. Meanwhile the war was prosecuted vigorously by 
 land. In the year 250, L. Csecilius Metellus gained a 
 splendid victory near Panormus, and carried off 104 
 elephants to adorn his triumph. In consequence of this 
 disaster, the Carthaginians were obliged to abandon the 
 whole of the island except Lilybseum and Drepanum. 
 
252 EUROPE. ROME. [531, 532. 120 
 
 (530) Regulus was sent to Rome with proposals of peace, which 
 A were rejected. 1 On the other hand, the endeavors of the 
 Romans to obtain possession of Lilybaeum and Drepanum 
 were rendered abortive by the obstinacy of the besieged ; 
 and an attempt to renew the war by sea, ended in the 
 destruction of a Roman fleet commanded by that P. Clau- 
 dius Pulcher (son of Appius Caecus), who had ordered the 
 sacred chickens to be thrown into the sea. This loss, the 
 third which they had sustained by sea, induced the Romans 
 B again to abandon naval warfare. The Carthaginians main- 
 tained themselves in Sicily seven years longer, under the 
 command of Hamilcar Barcas (father of the renowned 
 Hannibal), who principally occupied the fortress of Eryx. 
 At length, in the year 242, the war was terminated by a 
 decisive victory gained by a Roman fleet (which had been 
 fitted out by private enterprise, and placed under the com- 
 mand of the consul, C. Lutatius Catulus), over the 
 Carthaginian fleet commanded by Hanno, near the ^Ega- 
 t i a n islands. The exhausted condition of both nations now 
 rendered them desirous of peace, which was concluded on 
 the following terms : the Carthaginians renounced all 
 authority over Sicily and the adjacent islands, delivered up 
 the Roman prisoners without ransom, and engaged to pay 
 c a sum of 3200 talents (241). The whole of Sicily, with 
 the exception of the Syracusan possessions, became the 
 first Roman province. 
 
 531 A few years later (238), the Romans, availing them- 
 selves of the confusion occasioned by the war of the Car- 
 thaginian mercenaries (see 40, iii.), took possession of 
 Sardinia and Corsica, which, in all probability, they had 
 never entirely abandoned since their first settlement in 
 those islands. 
 
 120. War with the Illyrians. 
 (230228.) 
 
 532 Having in vain demanded satisfaction from the Illyrian 
 queen, Teuta, for acts of piracy committed in the Ionian 
 
 1 The death of Regulus, by torture, after his return to Carthage, 
 is not mentioned by Polybius, and is pronounced by Dion Cassius to 
 be a mere legend. 
 
533 535. 121.] EUROPE. ROME. 253 
 
 sea, the Romans, after the murder of one of their ambas- (532) 
 sadors, declared war against the Illyrians. After the loss A 
 of several cities, which soon yielded to the combined forces 
 of the Romans, and the Illyrian traitor, Demetrius, the 
 queen concluded a peace with the invaders, pledging her- 
 self to pay a considerable tribute, to resign the greater 
 part of her dominions, and to confine the navigation of her 
 fleets within very narrow limits. 
 
 In gratitude for their deliverance from Illyrian piracy, the Greeks 533 
 conferred on the Romans the privilege of taking part in the Isth- j, 
 mian games, and the Eleusinian mysteries, together with the freedom 
 of the city of Athens. 
 
 121. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. 
 
 The distribution among the plebeians (in consequence of 534 
 the agrarian law of the tribune, C. Flaminius), of the ager 
 Picenus, which had been forcibly taken from the Senones, 
 occasioned a general rising of the Boii, Insubres, and trans- 
 alpine Gsesatae (226). The insurgents penetrated into 
 Etruria, where they defeated a praetorian army (near 
 Fsesulse?), but were soon afterwards attacked near Tela- 
 mon by both the consuls, and utterly routed. After the c 
 defeat of the Boii, the Romans prosecuted the war on the 
 other side of the Padus, in the territory of the Insubres, 
 where they gained fresh victories (Flaminius, on the river 
 Addua ; Cl. Marcellus near Clastidium, on the Padus), took 
 the most important cities of the Insubres (Mediolanum, 
 Comum), and subdued the whole of Gallia Cisalpina (221). 
 For the security of this nevvly-acquried territory colonies 
 were established in Placentia and Cremona. 
 
 From the year 238 to 230 the Romans were engaged in wars with 535 
 the Ligurians, but their campaigns, although repeated almost an- 
 nually during the whole of that period, produced as yet no decided 
 advantage. 
 
254 EUROPE. KOME. [536, 537. 122. 
 
 122. Second Punic War. 
 
 (218201.) 
 Pedigree of the Scipios. 
 
 L. Cornelius Scipio 
 Cn. Cornelius Scipio Calvus. P. Cornelius Scipio. 
 
 P. Corn. Scipio L. Corn. Scipio 
 
 His grandson Afric. Major Asiaticus 
 
 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica , * > 
 
 | a son ; Cornelia, the 
 
 P. Corn. Sc. Nasica Serapio. who adopted mother of the 
 
 | two Gracchi. 
 
 P. Corn. Scipio, son of Paulus jEmilius 
 (thence surnamed JEmilianus), Africa- 
 nus Minor, Numantinus. 
 
 536 Causes. With the view of indemnifying his native 
 B city for the loss of her best provinces, Sicily and Sardinia, 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas had commenced the subjugation of 
 Spain, which was carried on by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, 
 Until his progress was stopped by the conclusion of a treaty 
 with the Romans, in which he pledged himself not to pass 
 the Iberus, and to respect Saguntum as an ally of Rome. 
 After the assassination of Hasdrubal, the command of 
 the army devolved on Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barcas, 
 who took Saguntum, after a siege of eight months. The 
 c result of this act of aggression was a war, which Hannibal 
 at once resolved to carry into Italy; and leaving his 
 brother, Hasdrubal, in Spain, he crossed the Pyrenees 
 (after subduing all the nations between the Iberus and those 
 mountains), traversed southern Gaul, forced a passage 
 through the Rhodanus [Rhone'], crossed the Alps in fifteen 
 days (by the Little S. Bernard), and, in the month of Octo- 
 ber, 218, appeared in Italy with 20,000 infantry, 6000 
 cavairy, and a few elephants. 
 
 537 The Romans had resolved, after the capture of Saguntum, to attack 
 the Carthaginians both in Spain and Africa. In pursuance of this 
 plan, one of the consuls, Tib. Sempronius, was dispatched into Sicily 
 (in the year iilB), with orders to effect a landing on the African 
 coast, whilst the other, P. Cornelius Scipio, marched into Spain. 
 Learning, however, on his arrival at Massilia, that Hannibal had 
 
538, 539. 122.] EUROPE. ROME. 255 
 
 already advanced as far as Gaul, Scipio sent his brother, Cneius 
 Scipio, into Spain, and himself returned to Italy, to await the arrival 
 of Hannibal. 
 
 A. The war in Italy (218203). 538 
 
 In the year 218, Hannibal overthrew both the consuls ; A 
 P. Cornelius Scipio on the banks of the Ticlnus, and 
 afterwards (with the aid of a Gallic reinforcement), Tib. 
 Sempronius Longus, on the Tre bi a. The latter of these 
 generals had been recalled from Sicily, and had effected a 
 junction with the remnant of Scipio's beaten army. In the 
 year 217 Hannibal traversed the marshes on the banks of 
 the Arnus, and gained a third victory near the lake Tra- 
 si menus, over the raw legions of the consul Flaminius, 
 who was slain with most of his soldiers. Instead of ad- B 
 vancing at once on Rome, Hannibal now marched into 
 Apulia and thence into Campania, in the hope of inducing 
 the allies of Rome to revolt. These movements were 
 closely watched by the dictator, Q. Fabius, who hoped, by 
 avoiding an engagement, to weary out the enemy (hence 
 his surname of Cunctator [the Delayer^). In the year 216 
 Hannibal forced the consuls, C. Terentinus Varro, and L, 
 ^Emilius Paulus, to give him battle near Cannae, and ob- 
 tained a decisive victory through the superiority of his 
 cavalry. ^Emilius Paulus with 40,000 Romans and allies c 
 lay dead on the field. The most important result of this 
 victory was the accession to the Carthaginian cause of the 
 nations and cities of central and lower Italy, together with 
 the Campanians and Samnites, none remaining faithful to 
 tne Romans except the Latins and a few insulated cities 
 of central and lower Italy. The Romans nevertheless 
 strained every nerve to equip a fresh army, with which Q. 
 Fabius Maximus and M. Claudius Marcellus checked the 
 advance of Hannibal in Campania, defeated him twice 
 near Nola, forced him to retreat still further southwards, 
 and endeavored to bring back the revolted states to their 
 allegiance. 
 
 Whilst Hannibal was occupied in besieging Tarentum (which ^nn 
 surrendered, with the exception of the citadel), the city of Capua, * 
 where he had established his head quarters, 1 was closely invested D 
 
 1 Livy's account of the enervation of Hannibal's army by the 
 luxuries of Capua is worthy of little credit ; for the troops, although 
 
 12* 
 
256 EUROPE. ROME. [540. 122. 
 
 (539) by a Roman army. On receiving this intelligence, Hannibal, who 
 A had failed in his attempts to reduce the citadel of Tarentum, re- 
 turned into Campania, attacked the blockading army, and spread 
 universal consternation by advancing almost to the gates of Rome * 
 (Hannibal ante portas!). Finding however that no relief could be 
 afforded to Capua, the Carthaginian leader fell back on Bruttium, 
 and the Romans, storming Capua, avenged themselves by putting to 
 death seventy of her senators. Meanwhile, the war was prosecuted 
 with various success in the south of Italy, where Marcellus was three 
 times victorious in one year (209), but in the following he was drawn 
 into an ambuscade by Hannibal, and lost his life. Tarentum was re- 
 taken by Fabius. 
 
 540 Being unsupported by the government at home through 
 B the intrigues of his adversary Hanno, Hannibal endea- 
 vored to obtain the assistance of foreign powers. But 
 Philip III., king of Macedonia, with whom he had 
 concluded an alliance immediately after the battle of 
 Cannce, was prevented from landing in Italy by a Roman 
 fleet which cruised in the Ionian sea ; and at the same 
 time Syracuse, where the Carthaginian party had ob- 
 tained the ascendency, was blockaded by sea and land by 
 M. Claudius Marcellus, and after an obstinate defence, 
 which lasted two years, was taken (212) by means of the 
 engines invented by Archimedes, among which, if we may 
 c believe tradition, were several burning glasses. Agri- 
 gentum having also been betrayed into the hands of the 
 Romans, the remaining cities surrendered voluntarily, and 
 in the year 210 the whole of Sicily became a Roman 
 province. It was at length resolved by Hannibal to recall 
 the Carthaginian troops from Spain, where they wefe 
 stationed under the command of his brothers, Hasdrubal 
 D and Mago. The former of these generals crossed the 
 Alps, but, before he could join his brother, he was attacked 
 on the banks of the Metaurus by both the consuls of the 
 year 210 (M. Livius Salinator and C. Claudius Nero, the 
 latter of whom had misled Hannibal by the abandonment 
 of his camp near Canusium), his army completely routed, 
 and himself slain. Mago, who had landed in Liguria 
 from the Balearic islands, after struggling for three years 
 
 unsupported by the Carthaginian government, remained in Italy four- 
 teen years after the capture of that city. Niebuhr. 
 
 * The story of a battle before the gates of Rome being twice pre- 
 vented by a storm is a mere poetical fiction. Niebuhr. 
 
541, 542. 122.] EUROPE. ROME. 257 
 
 against the Romans without any important result, was (540) 
 recalled by the Carthaginian government, together with A 
 Hannibal, whose operations since the battle of the Me- 
 taurus had been restricted to Bruttium. Mago died on 
 the passage of wounds received in his Italian campaign. 
 
 B. Contemporaneous war in Spain (218 206). 541 
 Cn. Scipio, supported by several Spanish tribes, which 
 
 were struggling to liberate themselves from the Punic 
 yoke, opened the campaign with the conquest of the 
 whole line of coast between the Pyrenees and the Ebro. 
 In the second year of the war, Publius Scipio arrived in 
 Spain ; and for six years the two brothers fought with 
 uniform success against Hasdrubal and his brother Mago 
 (who had been sent from Carthage to his assistance). At B 
 this period, nearly the whole of Spain was in the hands of 
 the Romans, but the brothers having imprudently divided 
 their forces (in 211), with the view of ending the war at 
 once by a simultaneous attack on the two hostile armies, 
 both were surrounded by the Carthaginians and Numidians 
 (under Masinissa), themselves slain, and their armies 
 almost annihilated. The Carthaginians now commenced 
 the re-conquest of the revolted Spanish provinces, but the 
 arrival of P. Cornelius Scipio the younger (afterwards 
 Africanus), gave another direction to the war. After c 
 storming New Carthage, the head-quarters of the Car- 
 thaginian army, Scipio, who had made himself exceedingly 
 popular among the Spanish tribes, overthrew Hasdrubal 
 (near Bsecula, to the north of the Baetis [Guadalquiver]), 
 and after the departure of that general gained a victory on 
 the same spot over Mago, who retreated to Cades, and 
 eventually followed his colleague into Italy. Spain was D 
 now (206) divided by the Romans into two provinces, 
 which they named Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. 
 Scipio, who, on his return to Rome, had been elected 
 consul, instead of receiving Africa as his province (the 
 opposition of the veteran generals rendering such an 
 arrangement impossible), was nominated governor of 
 Sicily, permission being at the same time granted him to 
 transport an army of volunteers into Africa. 
 
 C. Conclusion of the war in Africa (204202). 542 
 With this force and the ships of his allies, Scipio (in 
 
258 EUROPE. ROME. [543, 544. 123. 
 
 (542) 204) effected a landing in Africa, where he was joined by 
 A Masinissa, king of the eastern Numidians, who had been 
 deprived of his kingdom by Syphax, king of western 
 Numidia. As the husband of Sophonisba, daughter of 
 Hasdrubal, Syphax allied himself to the Carthaginians, 
 and in conjunction with his father-in-law planned an attack 
 on the Roman camp. But their design was anticipated by 
 Scipio and Masinissa, who burnt the enemy's camp, and 
 annihilated the combined Punic and Numidian forces. 
 Syphax then retreated, but was pursued into his own 
 B dominions and taken prisoner. Several cities having 
 fallen, and the capital itself being threatened by the united 
 forces of Scipio and Masinissa, the Carthaginian govern- 
 ment deemed it advisable to recall Hannibal and Mago 
 from Italy. The latter of these generals died, as we have 
 already mentioned, on the voyage. Hannibal, after fruit- 
 less endeavors to negotiate a peace, sustained a signal 
 defeat near Zama, on the 19th October, 202. Carthage, 
 being now blockaded by sea and land, was compelled to 
 accept peace on the following terms : All her ships of 
 war (except ten triremes) and elephants were lo be de- 
 livered up to the Romans, 10,000 talents to be paid within 
 fifty years, and no war to be undertaken without the con- 
 sent of Rome. 
 
 Masinissa was rewarded with the sovereignty of the two Numi- 
 dias. Scipio obtained a triumph which was conducted on a scale 
 of unprecedented magnificence, Syphax, the captive monarch walk- 
 ing in the procession. He was also honored with the surname of 
 Africanus (the first instance of such a name being bestowed in com- 
 memoration of a victory). The states of Lower Italy, which had 
 revolted to Hannibal, were reduced for the most part to the condition 
 of vassalage. 
 
 123. The Two Wars against Philip III., king of 
 Macedonia. 
 
 544 Having thus established on a firm basis their supremacy 
 pin the west, the Romans commenced a struggle for pre- 
 ponderance in the east, for which the protection of the 
 Greeks furnished them with a convenient pretext. The 
 foresight with which these plans of conquest were laid; 
 
545547. 123.] EUROPE. ROME. 259 
 
 and the patience displayed in the execution of them, were 
 the best security for the durability of their triumphs. 
 
 First Macedonian war ^214 204). 545 
 
 Philip of Macedonia having formed an alliance with Hannibal [cf. A 
 540, B], the Romans endeavored to defeat his ambitious projects in 
 Illyria ; but being unable to attain this object, they courted the 
 friendship of Philip's enemies, the warlike >T!i< >l i;ms, with their allies, 
 the Eleans and Lacedaemonians, Attalus of Pergamus, and the 
 Messenians, who had been ill-treated by the Macedonian king. By 
 thus creating a diversion, they hoped to find sufficient employment 
 for Philip at home, and thus to prevent his passing over into Italy. 
 A protracted war between Philip and the ^Etolians with their re- 
 spective allies (in which the Romans latterly took hardly any part), 
 ended in a general peace (204), which contained the seeds of fresh 
 hostilities, in the provision that neither party should make war on 
 the allies of the other. 
 
 Second Macedonian war (200 197). 546 
 
 Notwithstanding this agreement with the Romans, Philip B 
 continued to persecute their allies, the Illyrians, and sent 
 to the assistance of the Carthaginians a body of auxiliaries, 
 who fought against Scipio in the battle of Zama. After 
 the conclusion of the second Punic war, the Romans 
 availed themselves of an opportunity of punishing Philip, 
 afforded by the applications made to them by Attalus, 
 king of Pergamus, and the republic of Rhodes, for pro- 
 tection against his tyranny. The war nevertheless was 
 prosecuted with little vigor or success, until the time of 
 T. Quinctius Flaminius (son of that Flaminius who 
 was slain in the battle of the Trasimene lake). This c 
 general soon made himself master of the whole of Epirus, 
 compelled the Achaean league to form an alliance with the 
 Romans, and, being supported by the most important 
 Grecian states, put an end to the war (in 197), by the 
 victory ofCynoscephale, in Thessaly . Philip was com- 
 pelled to renounce the Hegemony of Greece, and to 
 evacuate all the Greek districts and towns of which he 
 had taken possession. These places were proclaimed free 
 by Flaminius at the Isthmian games in 196. 
 
 Before he quitted Greece, Flaminius compelled the tyrant Nabis 547 
 to deliver up the maritime cities of Laconia and his possessions in _ 
 Crete ; but he was still allowed to exercise some authority, as a 
 counterpoise to the influence of the Achaeans. 
 
260 EUROPE. ROME. [548, 549. 124, 125. 
 
 124. War with Antiochus III. of Syria. 
 (192190.) 
 
 For the Syrian war, see 80. 
 
 548 During the war in Asia, the ^tolians, encouraged by a false 
 A report of the total defeat of L. Scipio, had violated the armistice 
 
 and renewed the war with the Romans. They were however 
 speedily subdued (by the consul iM. Fulvius Nobilior), and compelled 
 to recognize the supremacy of Rome. 
 
 The two Scipios were charged by the tribunes of the people (at 
 the instance of M. Porcius Cato Censorius), with having received 
 bribes from Antiochus during the negotiations for peace. Publius 
 retired to his estate near Linternum, where he died in the year 185. 
 Lucius was condemned to pay a multa, for the discharge of which 
 his property was sold. , 
 
 B The Romans having called on Antiochus to deliver up Hannibal, 
 that general fled to Prusias, king of Bithynia, and being apprehensive 
 of treachery on the part of his new protector, he swallowed poison 
 in the year 183. 
 
 125. Third Macedonian war. 
 (171168.) 
 
 549 Philip III., who had been greatly irritated by the 
 c vexatious tyranny of the Romans, was engaged in pre- 
 parations for a new war, for the purpose of recovering the 
 dominions of which he had been despoiled, when death 
 put an end to his projects. The preparations were con- 
 tinued by his son and successor Perseus, a man of un- 
 decided character, who endeavored to strengthen his 
 cause by alliances with various nations in Greece, lllyria, 
 Rhodes, Syria, &c., but was often impeded by his own 
 avarice and cruelty. The breaking out of war was pre- 
 cipitated by the conduct of a crafty and contemptible 
 prince, named Eumenes, of Pergamus, who, fearing for his 
 Thracian possessions, went to Rome and. disclosed the 
 
 D proceedings of Perseus to the senate. The first three 
 campaigns were indecisive ; but discipline having been 
 restored by the appointment to the command-in-chief of 
 L. JEmilius Paulus (son of the general who fell at 
 Cannae), a battle was fought at Pydna, which lasted 
 only one hour, and decided the fate of the Macedonian 
 monarchy. Perseus, who had fled to Samothrace at the 
 
550, 551. 125.] EUROPE. ROME. 261 
 
 commencement of the engagement, was compelled to sur- (549) 
 render, and died in captivity at Alba. With a show of A 
 generosity the Romans declared Macedonia a free state, 
 but in order to prepare the country for submission to their 
 sovereign rule, they divided it into four districts, which 
 were precluded from connubium and commercium with 
 one another, and required to pay the half of the tribute 
 hitherto exacted. The booty brought by jEmilius to 
 Rome was so enormous, that from that time until the reign 
 of Augustus no direct taxes were paid by the Roman 
 citizens ; but the effect of this apparent indulgence was to 
 deprive the people of the means of resistance which they 
 had hitherto possessed in refusing the tribute, and thus to 
 throw the whole management of foreign affairs into the 
 hands of the senate. 
 
 Illyria (after the defeat of king Genthius) was divided, 550 
 as a punishment for its alliance with Perseus, into three B 
 districts; whilst in Epirus, which had yielded to the 
 Romans almost without striking a blow, seventy cities 
 were sacked in one day, and 150,000 inhabitants sold into 
 slavery. About 1000 of the principal Achseans (among 
 whom was Polybius), being falsely accused by a party of 
 traitors (headed by Callicrates) of attachment to the cause 
 of Perseus, were summoned to Rome (ostensibly that they 
 might purge themselves from the charge) and detained 
 there, without being allowed a hearing, for seventeen years, 
 at the end of which time (in 151), the 300 who still 
 survived were permitted to return to their own country. 
 
 Thenceforward there existed a predominant Roman c 
 party in each of the Grecian cities ; and the disputes of 
 these states with one another were fostered by the Romans, 
 that they might have a pretence for acting the part of 
 arbitrators, as they had lately done in Syria and Egypt. 
 
 Antiochus IV. Epiphanes was compelled by the Romans to 551 
 abandon his warlike designs on Egypt After his death, Demetrius, 
 the rightful heir to the throne, was detained at Rome as a hostage, 
 and Antiochus V., a boy of nine years old, appointed king in his 
 room, that the Romans might be enabled to act as his guardians. 
 Demetrius, however, escaped and regained possession of his throne. 
 With the view of weakening Egypt, the Romans divided the sove- 
 reignty of that country between two brothers, Philometor and 
 Physcon. 
 
262 EUROPE. ROME. [552554. 126, 127. 
 
 126. The last Wars with Macedonia and Greece. 
 
 552 Relying on the discontent occasioned by the abolition of 
 A the royal authority in Macedonia and the measures gen- 
 erally adopted by the Romans, one Andriscus (who gave 
 himself out as Philip, the brother and adopted son of 
 Perseus, and thence is commonly named Pseudo-Philippus), 
 made an attempt to re-establish the Macedonian monarchy. 
 
 % After taking possession of the whole of Macedonia, and 
 making two inroads into Thessaly, the impostor was de- 
 feated in two battles by the Roman praetor, Q. Csecilius 
 Me tell us, and taken prisoner. As a punishment for its 
 revolt, Macedonia was made a Roman province in the 
 year 148. 
 
 553 Of the thousand Achaeans who hatl been sent to Rome, 
 B three hundred at length returned to their country after a 
 
 captivity of seventeen years ; amongst them were Critolaus 
 and Diaeus, who endeavored to persuade their countrymen 
 to resist the Romans ; upon this the latter, availing them- 
 selves of a dispute between the Achaean league and Sparta 
 (for the territory of Belmina), declared the league dis- 
 solved. Critolaus now came forward in the character of 
 demagogue, and proclaimed war against Sparta ; but was 
 utterly defeated near Scarphea in Locris, by Metellus (who 
 had arrived in that country after the destruction of the Mace- 
 c donian monarchy). Critolaus himself disappeared during 
 the engagement. The more sensible among the Achseans 
 now sued for peace, but the party of Critolaus, headed by 
 Diaeus, persisted in carrying on the war. Metellus was 
 superseded by the barbarian L. Mummius, who, after 
 gaining a victory atLeucopetraon the isthmus, sacked 
 and burnt the city of Corinth, partly plundered and partly 
 destroyed the other towns, which had taken part against 
 Rome, and carried off the fairest works of Grecian art to 
 adorn his triumph. In the year 146, Hellas, with the 
 Peloponnesus, was proclaimed a Roman province, under 
 the name of Achaia, by ten commissioners sent from 
 Rome for that purpose. 
 
 127. The Third Punic war. 
 (150146.) 
 
 554 The Carthaginians having made war on Masinissa with- 
 out the permission of the Romans, it was resolved by the 
 
555. 128.] EUROPE. ROME. 263 
 
 Roman senate, on the motion of M. Porcius Cato (whose (554) 
 mediation had been rejected by the Carthaginians), in A 
 opposition to the opinion of P. Corn. Scipio Naslca, to 
 declare the peace at an end. The Roman consuls then 
 compelled the Carthaginians to give up all their ships and 
 weapons ; and having thus disarmed them, required them 
 to abandon their city and build another, two miles from 
 the sea. In their despair the Carthaginians offered a 
 furious resistance, which continued for two years. At the 
 end of that time P. Corn. Scipio Africanus (147) being 
 appointed commander-in-chief, cut off all communication 
 by land with the besieged city by establishing an in- 
 trenched camp on the isthmus, and at the same time 
 blockaded the harbor by means of a dam. In the follow. B 
 ing year the inhabitants, worn out by famine, surrendered 
 after bravely fighting from street to street for six days. 
 The city was then plundered and destroyed ; and the 
 whole of the Carthaginian empire, except that portion which 
 belonged to Numidia, became a Roman province, under 
 the name of Africa, with Utica for its capital. 
 
 128. Further Wars in Spain. 
 (200133.) 
 
 Although the Romans had been accustomed since the 555 
 year 20(> to consider Spain as one of their provinces, it c 
 was full 200 years from the first invasion before they 
 obtained quiet possession of the peninsula, the last Canta- 
 brians having yielded to Augustus B. c. 19. Until 133 
 they were perpetually occupied in putting down revolts of 
 the Spanish tribes. A brilliant victory over the Celtiberi 
 (195) placed the whole of Spain on this side the Iberus at 
 the disposal of the consul M. Porcius Cato, who com- 
 manded the inhabitants of all the towns to demolish their 
 walls on the same day. The war nevertheless continued, D 
 not only with the Lusitani in further Spain, but with the 
 Celtiberi on this side the river and from 153 to 133 
 without intermission. The most determined opposition 
 was offered by the Lusitani until the death of their leader 
 Viriathus, a brave herdsman, who was assassinated 
 during sleep by his faithless comrades. The war which 
 was still carried on successfully by the Celtiberians, and 
 
264 EUROPE. ROME. [556558. 129, 130. 
 
 (555) especially by the Numantians, was at last terminated by P. 
 A Cornelius Scipio ^Emilius Africanus Minor, who 
 destroyed the fortress of Num ant ia on the Durius after 
 a siege of fifteen months (133). Hence his surname of 
 Numantlnus. From that time the whole of Spain, with 
 the exception of the northern highlands, became subject to 
 the dominion of the Romans. 
 
 $ 129. Wars against the Gauls, Ligurians, Carnians, and 
 Istrians. 
 
 556 During the progress of these events in Spain the 
 B Romans were constantly engaged in struggles with the 
 
 Cisalpine Gauls, who had been subdued previously to the 
 second Punic war, and with the Ligurians. The result 
 of these disputes was the subjugation of the dislrict termed 
 "Provincia" in Transalpine Gaul. 
 
 557 During the second Punic war the Gauls had attached themselves 
 to Hannibal. After the conclusion of that war, the Gallic and Ligu- 
 rian campaigns were repeated almost annually ; the former for 
 eighteen (200182), and the latter for forty yesrs (193 154). The 
 aid given by the Romans to the city of Massilia against the neigh- 
 boring Gallic tribes afforded them an opportunity of making con- 
 quests also in Transalpine Gaul, where the first Roman colonies, 
 
 c Aqua Sextiae and Narbo, were established in 123. Fresh conquests 
 speedily followed their interference in the disputes of the Gallic 
 tribes the Arverni became dependent on Rome under the name of 
 allies, and the Allobroges Roman subjects The territories thus 
 acquired formed a Roman province, which in later times was deno- 
 minated pre-eminently " Provincia" (hence the modem name of 
 Provence). 
 
 The Carnians, Istrians, and Dalmatians, were also sub- 
 jugated (colony of A quilei a founded), as well as the Bale- 
 aric islands. 
 
 130. First Insurrection oftlie Slaves in Sicily. 
 (136131.) 
 
 558 The cruelties to which they were subjected in Sicily 
 D occasioned a general insurrection of the slaves, who invited 
 the Syrian Eunus to become their king (Antiochus). At 
 the head of 70,000 men, this leader made head for a while 
 against the Roman armies; but the reduction of tlxir 
 principal fortresses, Tauromeniurn and Enna(by Rupilius), 
 
559 561. 131.] EUROPE. ROME. 265 
 
 and the capture of Eunus himself at length put an end to 
 the insurrection. 
 
 131. Domestic History during this period. 
 
 During this period the republic reached its highest state 559 
 of development. The distinction between patricians and A 
 plebeians had become obsolete (hence since the year 174 
 both consuls had frequently been plebeians), and the 
 struggles between the hereditary nobility and commons 
 were at an end. The term " Populus " now comprehended 
 the entire population (the comitia centuriata), including of 
 course the plebs. On the other hand, there arose a new 
 order of nobility, consisting of persons whose ancestors 
 had filled curule offices (the consulate, prsetorship, sedile- 
 ship). In contradistinction to these nobiles or opiimates, B 
 the families which had never produced .any magistrates of 
 the higher order were termed ignoWes or obscuri, and 
 their members homines novi. The nobles not only endea- 
 vored, like the patricians at an earlier period, to retain as 
 far as possible all the higher offices among themselves, but 
 were anxious also to give them more importance and a 
 more extensive sphere of action (the censorship and 
 auspices). 
 
 The exclusion of all but the richest families from this order was 5gQ 
 the necessary consequence of a practice, which prevailed from the 
 time of the first Punic war, of defraying the expenses of the public 
 games, not out of the exchequer, but from the private resources of 
 the aediles. Thus none but wealthy men were admissible to the 
 sedileship, which was the first step to the higher offices of state. 
 The equestrian dignity was also in the hands of the rich, the rank 
 having no longer any connection with actual military service in the 
 cavalry, but belonging to all who possessed a certain census equester 
 (1 mill, asses). Thus there arose eventually a distinction between 
 equites and ordo equester. The knights, on account of their pecu- 
 niary transactions and the farming of the public revenues, were in a 
 variety of ways dependent on the senate and the censors, and were 
 obliged in consequence to take part with the optimates ; as were also 
 the allies, whose affairs were administered by the senate. 
 
 Increase in the number of Praetors. In addition 561 
 to the prsetor urbanus, a second praetor was appointed in D 
 242, for the settlement of disputes between foreigners re- 
 sident at Rome and between foreigners and Roman citizens. 
 Four praetors were soon added for the administration of 
 
266 EUROPE. ROME. [562, 563. 131. 
 
 (561) the provinces viz. two for Sicily and Sardinia (in 227), 
 A and two for the two Spains (199). But latterly all these 
 magistrates remained at Rome, during their year of office, 
 as presidents oTthe four standing criminal tribunals (quae- 
 stiones perpetuse), which had been established for the trial 
 of the more common offences, in the room of the comitia 
 centuriata. At the commencement of their second year 
 the whole body of praetors, who then assumed the title of 
 propraetors, set out for the provinces assigned to them by 
 lot, accompanied by legates and quaestors. 
 
 The four qusestiones perpetuae (from 144) were 1. De repetundia 
 concerning extortion ; 2, cle ambitu obtaining office by undue 
 means ; 3, de majestate treason ; 4, de peculatu peculation of 
 public moneys. 
 
 562 Administration of the Provinces. 
 
 a. Meaning of the term "province." A province comprehended, 
 strictly speaking, only those cities of a conquered country which had 
 been reduced to the condition of subject and tributary states ; con- 
 sequently, the imperium of the praetor did not extend to those 
 which had either always retained their independence and been ad- 
 mitted into the rank of allies, or which, after their subjugation, had 
 been restored to freedom, or had received extraordinary privileges, 
 such as exemption from taxes and other burdens. Colonies were 
 also gradually established in the provinces ; and these, whether 
 Roman or Latin, were exempted from the imperium of the praetor. 
 C b. Constitution of the provincial government. As a general rule, 
 the provinces received, immediately after their subjugation, a form of 
 constitution (forma) from the hands of the conqueror, or through a 
 commission of ten senators. The duty of the provincial governor 
 was threefold. 1. The executive government; 2, police and th? 
 administration of justice ; 3, command in- chief of the garrisons 
 establishe 1 in the country. 
 
 c. Taxation in the provinces. The provincial imposts were differ- 
 ent in different provinces, but consisted generally of a poll-tax and 
 property-tax ; the latter being paid partly in coin and partly by a 
 tithe of the produce. This tax was not collected immediately by the 
 government, but farmed out to private speculators. To these may 
 be added money paid for the use of the public pastures, duties, taxes 
 on mines, and salt works, &c. The provincials were never required 
 to serve in the army, except in cases of extraordinary emergency. 
 The garrisons were always sent out from Rome. 
 
 563 Relations of Rome with other free States. 
 
 These relations were based on treaties, concluded either on equal 
 terms* (aequo foedere) with nations previously unconnected with the 
 Romans, or which had made a successful stand against them, or on 
 unequal terms (foidere iniquo) with weaker states; for instance, 
 with Carthage, after the first and second Punic ware. Alliances 
 were also concluded, on equal or unequal terms, with foreign sove- 
 reigns, who were styled the friends and allies of the Roman people. 
 
564, 565. 132.] EUROPE. ROME. 267 
 
 Attempts were made to check the progress of luxury 564 
 and the increasing adoption of foreign manners, by the A 
 enactment of laws (respecting female ornament, the ex- 
 penditure at feasts, the senatus consultum de Bacchanali- 
 bus), and by severe censors ; among whom M. Portius 
 Cato Censorius was the most conspicuous. 
 
 (For the lex annalis, see 103.) The tribes were in- 
 creased to thirty- five. 
 
 cc. From the Gracchi to the autocracy of Au- 
 gustus, 13330. Decline and Fall of the 
 Republic. 
 
 Civil and Foreign Wars. 
 
 132. The two Gracchi. 
 (133121.) 
 
 The population of Rome consisted at this period of the 565 
 nobiles (who had enriched themselves by holding lucrative B 
 offices at home and in the provinces), and an indolent and 
 poverty-stricken commonalty. The former were tenants 
 of the whole ager publicus ; and the free peasantry, ground 
 down by military service and compelled by absolute want 
 to sell their birthright, were gradually disappearing. Under 
 these circumstances, a tribune of the people, named Tibe- 
 rius Sempronius Gracchus, revived in the year 133 
 an obsolete agrarian law of Licinius, by which it was enact- 
 ed that no individual should hold more than 500 jugera of 
 ager publicus. Half the quantity was allowed in addition 
 for each non-emancipated son. The remainder was to be c 
 restored to the state (a reasonable compensation being 
 made for buildings erected thereon), and to be divided as 
 a fief among the poorer classes. One of the tribunes 
 (M. Octavius), who had been persuaded by the senate to 
 interpose his veto, having been removed from office, the 
 project of law was adopted by the tribus, and three com- 
 missioners appointed to carry out its provisions. Attalus 
 III., king of Pergamus, who had bequeathed his king- 
 dom to the Roman people, dying about the same time, 
 Tiberius proposed that his treasures, instead of being in- 
 trusted to the senate for distribution, should be divided 
 among the people, for the purpose of forming agricultural 
 establishments on the farms about to be assigned to them. 
 
268 EUROPE. ROME. [566, 567. 132. 
 
 (565) In the following year, Tiberius, whose re-election was 
 A eagerly desired by the people, was assassinated, with 300 
 of his adherents, by the senators, at the instigation of 
 P. Corn. Scipio Naslca Serapio. Under color of an em- 
 bassy, Scipio Nasica was banished into Asia, where Aris- 
 tonlcus, a pretended son of Eumenes, who was endea- 
 voring to establish his claims to the throne of Pergamus, 
 was overthrown by the consul Perperna. Asia Propria a 
 Roman province. 
 
 566 The commissioners for carrying out the agrarian law of Gracchus, 
 succeeded at length in effecting a partial distribution of the land. 
 Scipio Africanus Minor, the leader of the Optimates, who had suc- 
 cessfully resisted the proposal of Papirius Carbo, that the same in- 
 dividual should be permitted to hold the office of tribune for several 
 successive years, was soon afterwards found dead in his bed 1 (129). 
 
 567 Caius Sempronius Gracchus (who had been em- 
 B ployed by the senate for three years as quaestor in Sicily) 
 
 revived, as tribune, the agrarian law of his brother, with 
 the addition, that a certain number of estates belonging to 
 the republic should be annually divided among the poor. 
 By this and similar proposals, Gracchus secured the favor 
 of the people, and, being a second time elected tribune, 
 obtained the passing of a lex judiciaria, by which the ju- 
 dicial authority was transferred from the senate to the 
 knights ; the former being deemed unfit for the office on 
 account of the partiality which they had displayed towards 
 c their own order. Another candidate for popular favor 
 was brought forward by the senate in the person of the 
 tribune, M. Livius Drusus, whose efforts to outbid his rival 
 were aided by the circumstance of C. Gracchus being sent 
 to Carthage to establish a colony. " After his return, 
 Gracchus brought forward a lex de suffragiis sociorum, 
 by which it was proposed to grant the full privileges of 
 Roman citizenship to the Latins, and perhaps the right of 
 suffrage to all the Italian allies ; but the passing of this 
 law was arrested by the veto of Livius Drusus. In the 
 year 122, Gracchus and 3000 of his adherents lost their 
 lives in a brawl with the aristocrats, occasioned by the as- 
 sassination of a lictor. (His head weighed against gold 
 a temple of Concordia built !) 
 
 1 F. D. Gcrlach, " Historical Sludieg" [p. 201254], shows that 
 Scipio was murdered, the assassin being probaby C. Papirius Carbo. 
 
568, 569. 133.] EUROPE. ROME. 269 
 
 The Optimates availed themselves of this victory over the com- 568 
 mons to neutralize the agrarian law of Gracchus, by allowing the ^ 
 poor to sell the portions of land allotted to them ; and when by these 
 means the rich had obtained possession of all the landed property, 
 the lex Thoria was passed, prohibiting any further distribution of 
 the ager publicus. The pauper citizens, whose numbers were greatly 
 increased by this measure, were now supported principally by bribes 
 received from the rich, who exercised unlimited control over the 
 votes given by their dependents at the comitia. This influence was 
 restricted by a law proposed by C. Marius, a homo novus [cf. 559, B], 
 who had been elected tribune ; but the bribery still continued. 
 
 133. The War with Jugurtha. 
 (112106.) 
 
 Micipsa, the son of Masinissa, had divided his kingdom 569 
 of Numidia between his sons Hiempsal and Adherbal, and B 
 his adopted son Jugurtha. In the year 116, Jugurtha put 
 Hiempsal to death, and made war on Adherbal, who ap- 
 pealed to the Romans. A partition of the kingdom between 
 Jugurtha and Adherbal was proposed by those members of 
 the senate who had been bribed by the former ; but 
 Jugurtha, in defiance of this intervention, attacked Ad- 
 herbal, blockaded him in his capital, Cirta, took him pri- 
 soner, and put him to death. The Romans now declared 
 war against Jugurtha, at the instance of C. Memmius ; 
 but the African prince purchased terms of peace from the 
 consul L. Calpurnius Piso (111), which Memmius refused 
 to ratify. Jugurtha was now summoned to appear at c 
 Rome, where he assassinated a grandson of Masinissa 
 (named Massiva), who laid claim to the Numidian empire 
 as heir of his grandfather. This daring act produced a 
 renewal of the war, in which the Romans were at first 
 unsuccessful, until the appointment to the chief command 
 of Q. Caeciiius Metellus, who took C. Marius with him 
 as his lieutenant ; and, rejecting all the overtures of Ju- 
 gurtha, overthrew him in a battle, ravaged his dominions, 
 and compelled him to fly for refuge to his father-in-law 
 Bocchus, king of Mauritania. Meanwhile, the intrigues of D 
 Marius at Rome had obtained for him the consulate and 
 chief command of the army in Numidia. He overthrew 
 the two kings near Cirta (capite censi in the legions), and 
 his qusestor, L. Cornelius Sulla, induced Bocchus to 
 deliver up Jugurtha (106), who was exhibited in chains in 
 the triumphal procession of Marius, and then starved to 
 
270 EUROPE. ROME. [570 572. 134 136. 
 
 A death in prison. Numidia was divided between Bocchus 
 and the descendants of Masinissa. 
 
 134. War with the Cimbri and Teutones. 
 (113101.) 
 
 570 A short time before the Jugurthine war, the Cimbri, a 
 German race, had wandered from their home (on the 
 shores of the Baltic ?) as far as Styria, and overthrown a 
 Roman army (under Cn. Papirius Carbo) near Noreia. 
 Thence they directed their march westwards, and skirting 
 the northern edge of the Alps reached the Rhine, where 
 they united their forces with those of the Teutdnes (Tiguri- 
 ni and Ambrones) and demanded from the Romans a grant 
 
 B of territory in Gaul. This being refused, they attacked 
 and routed three Roman armies in Gaul, the last of which 
 is reported to have lost 120,000 men. They then sepa- 
 rated, and were cut off in detail by C. Mar i us, who held 
 the consulate for four successive years (104 101). The 
 Teutdnes (and Ambrdnes) were defeated near Aquae 
 Sextise in 102, and their leader Teutoboch taken ; and 
 the Cimbri, who had entered Italy from Rhsetia, and de- 
 feated the consul Catulus on the Athesis, were overthrown 
 
 c near Vercellae (in campis Raudiis) in the year 101. The 
 number of slain and prisoners amounted in each of the 
 battles to 100,000. Marius was rewarded with a triumph, 
 elected consul for the sixth time (100), and honored with 
 the title of third founder of the city. 
 
 $ 135. Second Insurrection of the Slaves in Sicily. 
 (10399.) 
 
 571 The Roman praetor in Sicily having only partially car- 
 D ried' into effect a decree of the senate, by which freedom 
 
 was granted to those persons who were unjustly detained 
 in slavery, a new servile war broke out, which seems to 
 have cost a million of slaves their lives, and was termi- 
 nated, after several skirmishes, by a decisive battle. 
 
 136. To the Social War. 
 (10091.) 
 
 572 From the time of his sixth consulate, Marius had been 
 steadily endeavoring by every means in his power to 
 
573 575. 137.] EUROPE. ROME. 271 
 
 undermine the influence of the senate and place himself (579) 
 at the head of affairs. His first step was to persuade L. A 
 Apuleius Sat urn in us, a wretch who had obtained the 
 tribunate by murder, to propose a distribution of land 
 among his veterans (chiefly Italian allies) ; the senators 
 being, at the same time, warned of the consequences which 
 would follow the rejection of his plan. Q. Metellus Nu- 
 midicus, who stood alone as an opponent of this proposal, 
 was banished to Rhodes. The assassination of the consul 
 elect (for the year 99), C. Memmius (to make way for 
 Glaucia, a friend of Saturninus), occasioned an insurrec- 
 tion, in which both lost their lives. 
 
 There was now a cessation of domestic feuds, until the B 
 breaking out of a civil war occasioned by the jealousy 
 between M a r i u s and Sulla, which had gone on ii.creasing 
 since the conclusion of the Jugurthine war. The com- 
 mencement of actual hostilities was, however, deferred in 
 consequence of an unexpected quarrel with the Italian 
 confederates. 
 
 Metellus having been recalled in 99, Marius, as the only means of 573 
 sustaining his declining influence, travelled into Asia, and persuaded 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, to make war on the Romans. Mithri- 
 dates commenced his conquests in Asia Minor with the occupation of 
 Cappadocia, from which he was expelled by Sulla, at that time pro- 
 praetor in Asia, who thus became unintentionally a rival of Marius. 
 
 137. The Mar sic or Social War. 
 
 (9188.) 
 
 Most of the Italian nations, although compelled to serve 574 
 in the Roman armies and pay taxes, were excluded from c 
 any participation in the government ; the admission of the 
 Latins to the full rights of citizenship and of the other 
 Italians to the privilege of voting, as proposed by C. Grac- 
 chus, having been negatived by the veto of M. Livius 
 Drusus. His son and namesake, M. Livius Drusus, having 
 lost his life in a fresh attempt to obtain these concessions, 
 Ihe Italian confederates resolved to deliver themselves from 
 he Roman yoke. 
 
 Immediate causes of the War. The gross acts of injustice 575 
 perpetrated in the provinces by the knights, as farmers of the public 
 13 
 
272 EUROPE. ROME. [576. 137. 
 
 (575) revenue, remaining unpunished, because the offenders themselves 
 A were the judges, an attempt was made by M. Livius Drusus to 
 deprive them of their jurisdiction, at least in part, by admitting 
 300 knights into the senate, and then choosing the judges from the 
 whole body of senators. In order to carry out this plan, Drusus 
 urged the Italian allies to exercise their influence over the citizens 
 of Rome, for the purpose of securing their votes in favor of his 
 " rogatio," promising to procure for them in return the political 
 rights which they were so anxious to obtain. The project of Drusus 
 became law ; but when he went on to propose the admission of the 
 allies to the rights of citizenship, he was assassinated, and his law 
 repealed. * 
 
 576 All the Italian nations, with the exception of the Latins, 
 B Etruscans, and Umbrians, now formed themselves into a 
 confederacy against Rome. Their plan was to establish a 
 republic, under the name of Italica, with the city of Cor- 
 finium for its capital the government to be in the hands 
 of a senate (consisting of 500 deputies from all the states), 
 two consuls, and twelve praetors. The Latins and some 
 tribes of the Etruscans were propitiated by a grant of 
 Roman citizenship, made to them at the commencement of 
 the war by the lex Julia (a law of L. Julius Caesar). The 
 theatres of war were three. 1. Northwards in Picenum, 
 where the city of Asculum (the inhabitants of which had 
 commenced hostilites with the murder of a praetor) was 
 c taken by Cn. Pompeius Strabo. 2. In central Italy, in 
 the territories of the four united cantons, where the Romans 
 were for the most part unsuccessful, except against the 
 Marsians (under the command of Marius). Here also the 
 war was terminated by Pompeius. 3. In the south, in 
 Samnium and Campania, where Sulla (libertini in the le- 
 gions) fought with distinguished success. As the war with 
 Mithridates threatened Rome at the same time, the rest of 
 the Italians, as fast as they submitted, were invested (in 
 accordance with the lex Plautia Papiria) with the privi- 
 leges of Roman citizenship, which were soon afterwards 
 D conferred on all the municipia. Lest, however, the great 
 numbers of the new citizens should give them a prepon- 
 derance over the old, they were formed into eight new 
 tribes, instead of being incorporated into the thirty-five 
 which already existed. 
 
577, 578. 138.] EUROPE. ROME. 273 
 
 138. Civil War between Marius and Sulla, 88 82; 
 and first War against Mithridates, 87 84. 
 
 1. The civil War to the death of Marius (88577 
 86). 
 
 Sulla, after his glorious campaign against the Italian A 
 confederates, was elected consul, and received Asia as his 
 province, with the command-in-chief of the army destined 
 to act against Mithridates. On the other hand, Marius, 
 through the instrumentality of the tribune P. Sulpicius, 
 who was supported by a number of young knights (anti- 
 senatus) and gladiators, obtained the distribution of the 
 freedmen (who had hitherto been confined to the four 
 tribus urbanse) amongst the ancient thirty-five tribes, and 
 by means of their votes procured the removal of Sulla, 
 and his own appointment to the command-in-chief. Ma- B 
 rius, on receiving intelligence of these proceedings, at once 
 returned to Rome, which (after a skirmish at the Esquiline 
 gate) was stormed for the first time by Roman legions. 
 The Sulpician laws were immediately repealed, and Sul- 
 picius himself put to death. Marius, after various adven- 
 tures, reached Minturnae (attempt to assassinate him), and 
 thence passed over into Africa. Whilst, however, Sulla 
 was carrying on the war against Mithridates, one Cinna, 
 a consul of the popular party, whose election Sulla had 
 been unable to prevent, was endeavoring to compel the 
 re-enactment of the Sulpician law, and procure the recall 
 of Marius, through the votes of the new citizens. He c 
 was, it is true, expelled from the city by the Optimates, 
 but succeeded in gaining over the army, which was still 
 kept on foot in Campania to oppose the Italian confederates, 
 and in joining Marius, who had returned from Africa. The 
 .wo leaders then invested Rome, which was compelled by 
 famine to open its gates ; and this success was followed by 
 the proscription and murder of Sulla's friends, not only at 
 Rome, but throughout Italy. Cinna and Marius nominated 
 themselves as consuls for the year 86 ; but Marius died at 
 the'commencement of his seventh consulate, and was suc- 
 ceeded by L. Valerius Flaccus. 
 
 2. First War against Mithridates, 87 84. 578 
 Mithridates, availing himself of the confusion occasioned 
 
274 EUROPE. ROME. [579, 580. 138. 
 
 (578) by the Social war, proceeded to carry out his plans for 
 A checking the progress of the Roman arms in Asia, by 
 the establishment of a union among all the nations of the 
 east. His first step towards the accomplishment of this 
 mighty project, was the subjugation of Asia Minor, for 
 which an occasion was furnished by disputes respecting 
 the possession of Paphlagonia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. 
 Mithridates then sent his general Archelaus with an army 
 and a fleet into Greece, where he was joined by most of 
 the inhabitants. In order, however, to prevent his arrival 
 in Italy and junction with the Italian confederates, the 
 Romans put an end to the war at home by various conces- 
 Bsions, and then dispatched Sulla into Greece. After 
 storming Athens, which made an obstinate resistance, Sul- 
 la quitted the exhausted territory of Attica, and entering 
 Boeotia gained two brilliant victories at Chaeronea and 
 Orchomenus. The Marian party at Rome now assigned 
 the province of Asia and the conduct of the Mithridatic 
 war to the consul, L. Valerius Flaccus, who was murdered 
 by his own lieutenant, Fimbria. The war was carried on 
 by this new leader with such success, that an Asiatic peace 
 was soon afterwards concluded at Dardanus, on the fol- 
 lowing terms 
 
 579 Mithridates was required to withdraw his garrisons from the pro- 
 c vince of Asia and Paphlagonia, to evacuate Bithynia and Cappadocia 
 
 in favor of Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, to deliver up seventy (or 
 eighty ?) ships of war, and pay 2000 talents as an indemnity for the 
 expenses incurred by the Romans in carrying on the war. Sulla 
 then demanded that Fimbria should resign the command of the 
 legions to him as the legitimate governor of Asia, whereupon Fimbria 
 committed suicide ; and Sulla, after extorting a fine of 20,000 talents 
 from the revolted cities of Asia Minor, returned to Rome. Cinna, 
 who was embarking troops at Ancona, in order to dispute his land- 
 ing, was slain by his own soldiers. 
 
 580 3. Termination of the civil War. 
 
 D In the year 83, Sulla, at the head of his victorious army 
 (40,000 strong), landed at Brundusium, and having re- 
 ceived a reinforcement of troops, raised for his service by 
 the younger Pompey and other Optimates, advanced by 
 slow marches as far as Campania, where he was met by 
 the united armies of the two consuls. Whole squadrons 
 of the consular force, including the entire army of Scipio, 
 were induced by bribery and fair promises to go over to 
 
581, 582. 138.] EUROPE. ROME. 273 
 
 * 
 
 the enemy. The other consul (Norbanus) was left dead (580) 
 on the field. In the following year (82) Sulla overcame A 
 C. Marius (consul of that year, and probably a son of the 
 Marius who had been seven times consul), and having left 
 one of his lieutenants to blockade him in his strong-hold 
 of Prseneste, proceeded to Rome, and thence into Etruria, 
 where the other consul (Cn. Papirius Carbo) still offered 
 considerable resistance, which the continual subdivision of 
 his forces compelled him at last to abandon, and escape 
 into Africa. The Samnites (who had never laid down 
 their arms since the Social war, and in consequence 
 had not been admitted to the privileges of Roman citizen- 
 ship), after an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Praeneste, 
 advanced to Rome with the intention of storming and 
 sacking the city, but were completely routed before the 
 gates, and many thousands of them captured and put to 
 death. Praeneste was also taken and plundered, the Sam- u 
 nites and Prsenestines proscribed en masse without any 
 investigation, and Marius himself slain by a slave at his 
 own request. 
 
 The numerous proscriptions at Rome as well as through- 581 
 out the whole of Italy, of persons who had supported 
 Marius, afforded Sulla an opportunity, not merely of 
 avenging himself on his enemies, but of rewarding also his 
 soldiers and supporters, and utterly destroying the sove- 
 reignty of the people. In pursuance of this plan, he 
 caused himself to be nominated Dictator for an unlimited 
 period, and, with unrestricted authority, assumed the sur- 
 name of Felix, and celebrated a triumph over Mithridates, 
 which lasted two days. At the end of two years he so- c 
 lemnly laid down the dictatorship, and died at his country 
 house near Puteoli. His funeral rites were celebrated 
 with great pomp by his adherents. 
 
 Cn. Pompeius, after the conclusion of the war in Italy, 582 
 in which he had taken an active part, undertook the anni- 
 hilation of the Marian party in Sicily, Africa, and Spain. 
 
 He captured and put to death the consul Carbo, who had returned 
 into Sicily, and overthrew Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus (Cinna's son- 
 in-law), with his ally Hiarbas, king of Numidia. On his return he 
 received, probably from Sulla himself, the surname of Magnus, and 
 celebrated his first triumph against the wishes of his patron. (For 
 his war in Spain, see 140.) 
 
276 EUROPE. ROME. [583. 139. 
 
 139. Changes effected in the Constitution ly Sulla. 
 (8279.) 
 
 583 Instead of rendering his victory and the sovereign au- 
 
 A thority with which he was invested available for any plans 
 of personal ambition, Sulla directed all his efforts towards 
 the re-establishment of the aristocracy. 1. In pursuance 
 of this object, he, in the first place, deprived all the cities 
 belonging to the opposite party (especially in Samnium, 
 Lucania, and Etruria) of the rights of citizenship, and con- 
 fscated their lands, which he bestowed on his own soldiers, 
 with the view of securing their support to the new con- 
 stitution. Thus military colonies were created with the 
 
 B full rights of citizenship. At the same time, in order to 
 secure a popular party, he granted liberty and political 
 privileges to 10,000 slaves belonging to the proscribed 
 families. These new citizens were named after their patron 
 Cornelii. 2. The tribunitial power, which had degenerated 
 into licentiousness, was restrained within its original 
 bounds ; the tribunes being deprived of the right of pro- 
 posing laws and addressing the people, as well as of be- 
 coming candidates for the higher offices. If would seem 
 that the " intercessio " was the only privilege which they 
 
 c were allowed to retain. 3. On the other hand, Sulla 
 endeavored to raise the senate, by filling up the number 
 of its members principally from the equestrian order 
 (though not always with discretion), and restoring to it the 
 judicial authority, the right of assigning provinces, and 
 conferring commands-in-chief, as well as of previous de- 
 liberation on questions about to be proposed to the general 
 assembly of the people. The quaestors were declared ex 
 officio members of the senate ; and, in order to render the 
 filling up of the senatorial list a less difficult task in future, 
 
 D their number was augmented to twenty. 4. Another plan 
 adopted by Sulla for strengthening the aristocracy, and 
 especially his own party, was by increasing the number 
 of pontifices, augurs, and guardians of the Sibylline books 
 (which had been restored after the burning of the Capitol) 
 to fifteen, who were no longer to be chosen by the people, but 
 elected by the members of their respective colleges. 5. In 
 order to diminish the influence of the people in the courts 
 
584 586. 140.] EUROPE. ROME. 277 
 
 of justice, and at the same time to increase the .power of (583) 
 the judges, who were now exclusively men of senatorial A 
 dignity, Sulla added two new courts to the four which 
 already existed, an arrangement which rendered it neces- 
 sary to increase the number of praetors from six to eight; 
 but it is not distinctly known what sort of questions were 
 decided by the new magistrates. 
 
 The order in which the higher offices might be held, as settled by 584 
 the lex annalis (see 103), was again defined, and the acceptance of 
 the same office a second time within ten years prohibited as before. 
 Several criminal laws were also re-enacted by Sulla, and rendered 
 more stringent (lex de sicariis, a law against assassinations ; de falso, 
 against fraud ; de majestate, defining more accurately the crime of 
 high treason ; lex repetundarum, lex de injuriis, &c.) 
 
 Immediately after the death of Sulla, the repeal of all 585 
 his laws was proposed by the consul ^Emilius Lepidus ; B 
 but this could only be effected gradually, on account of 
 the opposition which the aristocracy (under Catulus and 
 Pompey [Pompeius]) offered to such a measure. The first 
 step was to render the tribunes eligible to the higher offices 
 of state. Then Pompey, who on his return from Spain (see 
 140) had abandoned the senatorial party, effected the 
 restoration of the tribunitial power in its fullest extent, 
 and procured the enactment of a law (the lex Aurelia), by 
 which the knights were declared admissible to judicial 
 offices. Thus he became the man of the people. 
 
 140. The War against Sertorius. 
 (8072.) 
 
 Q. Sertorius, who at the breaking out of the civil 586 
 war had joined the party opposed to the nobles, and been c 
 rewarded with the proprietorship of further Spain, having 
 been proscribed by Sulla and deprived of his province, 
 fled to Africa (where he conquered Mauritania). The 
 Lusitani, who at that great distance scarcely recognized 
 the authority of Rome, recalled him from his banishment, 
 and chose him as their leader against the governors ap- 
 pointed by Sulla (81). Thus supported by the Lusitani 
 and the remnant of the Marian party, Sertorius made head 
 not only against the feeble Q. Metellus Pius (son of 
 Numidius), but against Pompey himself. Mithridates, 
 
278 EUROPE. ROME. [587589. 141, 142. 
 
 (586) who observed with delight that the Romans were becoming 
 A more and more occupied with the civil war, and with their 
 enemies on the shores of the Atlantic, now concluded an 
 alliance with Sertorius, who was soon afterwards assas- 
 sinated at a banquet at the instigation of his own lieutenant 
 Perperna. The command of the army was then assumed 
 by Perperna, who was defeated by Pompey and executed. 
 This victory put an end to the war ; but the dominion of 
 the Romans over Spain was not yet completely re-estab 
 lished. 
 
 141. The Servile War; or War of the Gladiators .ind 
 Slaves. 
 
 (73-71.) 
 
 587 Some gladiators, principally Thracians and Gauls, who 
 B had escaped from a school at Capua, placed themselves 
 
 under the command of a Thracian named Spartacus, 
 and collected an enormous band of gladiators and slaves, 
 with which they defeated four Roman armies. Spartacus 
 would have quitted Italy, but his comrades, who thirsted 
 for booty and revenge, determined to attack Rome itself. 
 The Romans, panic-stricken, as they had been at the 
 approach of Hannibal, conferred the supreme command, 
 during the absence of Pompey, on the praetor M. Licinius 
 Crass us, who put an end to the war by two decisive 
 battles; in the second of which, on the Silarus, Spartacus 
 lost his life. A remnant of the defeated army (5000 men) 
 having crossed the Alps, fell in with Pompey, on his march 
 homewards from Spain, and was utterly annihilated. 
 
 588 On his return to Rome, Pompey, who boasted that he had de- 
 stroyed every vestige of the servile war, obtained a triumph (together 
 with Metellus Pius), on account of his victories in Spain, and was 
 chosen consul, with Crassus for his colleague. In this office he con- 
 ciliated the favor of the people by restoring the tribunitial power, and 
 abrogating the law of Sulla concerning the administration of justice. 
 (See 139, ad finem.) After his consulship he did not accept the 
 command of a province, but remained at Rome till the chief com- 
 mand against the pirates was conferred upon him. 
 
 142. War against the Pirates. 
 
 (7567.) 
 
 589 Causes of their power in Cilicia and Isauria. 1 . The 
 oppression of the inhabitants of Asia Minor through the 
 
590, 591. 143.] EUROPE. ROME. 279 
 
 avarice of the Roman governors, farmers of the revenue, (589) 
 and usurers. 2. Neglect of maritime affairs by the A 
 Romans since the destruction of Carthage. During his 
 three years' government in Asia, P. Servilius had wrested 
 from them several towns on the southern coast of Asia 
 Minor, subdued Isaura (hence his surname of Isauricus), 
 and settled Cilicia as a Roman province (75). But these 
 losses, so far from weakening the freebooters, merely 
 served to augment the ferocity with which they carried on 
 their system of robbery and murder. From Cilicia and 
 Crete they swept the whole of the Mediterranean with 
 more than 1000 vessels, landed on the coasts, especially 
 of Italy, plundered the cities and country houses, carried 
 off the inhabitants (Caesar himself fell into their hands at 
 sea), and intercepted the remittances of money and cargoes 
 of grain. The famine which in consequence prevailed at B 
 Rome induced the people (on the motion of the tribune 
 Gabinius) to confer on Cn. Pornpeius for three years the 
 uncontrolled command of the Mediterranean and its coasts 
 (67). Pompey surprised the pirates, whom he chased 
 from one haunt to another ; and in two short campaigns (of 
 forty and forty-nine days) cleared first the western and 
 then the eastern Mediterranean almost without a battle, 
 demolished their strongholds, and granted to those who 
 surrendered cities and lands in Cilicia (Pompseopolis, an- 
 ciently Soloe). Crete, one of the principal stations of the c 
 pirates, after a three years' war, surrendered to Q. 
 Ca3cilius Metellus (thence surnamed Creticus), and be- 
 came a Roman Province. 
 
 143. The two last Wars against Mithridates. 
 
 The second War (83 81). As Mithridates, after the con- 590 
 elusion of peace, still continued his preparations, and refused to with- 
 draw his forces entirely from Cappadocia, Murana, propraetor of 
 Asia, established garrisons in that country, and made predatory 
 excursions into the Pontic territory ; but being overthrown at the 
 river Halys, he was compelled to abandon Cappadocia. 
 
 The third War (74 64), began when NicomedesIII., 591 
 king of Bithynia, and brother-in-law of Mithridates, be- D 
 queathed his dominions to the Romans, who formed them 
 into a new province. Mithridates now concluded an alli- 
 ance with Sertorius, and sent a force into Bithynia, which 
 13* 
 
280 EUROPE. ROME. [592. $ 143, 
 
 (591) overthrew the consul Aurelius Cotta by water as well as 
 
 A by land near Chalcedon, and laid siege to the city of 
 Cyzicum, on the island Cyzicus, which had remained faith- 
 ful to the Romans. The place was relieved by the other 
 consul L. Licinius Lucullus, who advanced in pursuit of 
 the king as far as Pontus, and after a succession of fresh 
 victories compelled him to fly for refuge to his son-in-law 
 Tigranes, king of Armenia. This monarch having refused 
 to deliver up his father-in-law, Lucullus crossed the 
 Euphrates and Tigris, and overthrew the army of Tigranes, 
 which was 20 (?) times as numerous as his own, near 
 Tigranocerta (69), and both the sovereigns at Artaxata 
 
 B (68). The refusal however of his soldiers (who were 
 seldom allowed to pillage) to advance any further into 
 those inhospitable regions, prevented him from profiting 
 by his victories, and Mithridates with little labor re- 
 conquered his dominions. Heavy charges being at the 
 same time brought against Lucullus by the Roman knights 
 in Asia, whose avarice he had endeavored to repress, the 
 entire direction of the war against the two kings was com- 
 mitted by the people to Cn. Pompeius Magnus (who 
 had unexpectedly put an end to the piratical war and was 
 still in Asia) agreeably to the lex Manilia, which was 
 
 c supported by the eloquence of Cicero. After a battle by 
 night, in which he was defeated, Mithridates fled to 
 Colchis, and Tigranes, who had surrendered without 
 striking a blow, was allowed by Pompey to retain a por- 
 tion of his dominions as a barrier against the Parthians, 
 surrendering Syria, Phoenicia, the Lesser Armenia, and 
 parts of Cilicia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. After following 
 Mithridates as far as the river Phasis, Pompey gave up 
 the pursuit, and turned his arms against the nations on 
 the eastern coast of the Mediterranean and the Arabian 
 and Persian gulfs. 
 
 D On his return he introduced the Roman provincial 
 administration into Pontus, marched into Syria, which he 
 proclaimed a Roman province, and in Palestine restored 
 the high priest Hyrcanus (who had been deposed by his 
 brother AristobOlus), and compelled the inhabitants to pay 
 tribute to the Roman government. 
 
 592 Having received intelligence that Mithridates had destroyed him- 
 elf (at Panticapeeum on the Tauric Chersonesus) in a fit of despair 
 
593. 144.] EUROPE. ROME. 281 
 
 occasioned by the treason of his son Pharnaces, Pompey re-entered (592) 
 Pontus, and having confirmed Pharnaces in the sovereignty of j^ 
 Bosporus, and re-arranged the constitution of the Asiatic provinces, 
 returned to Rome, where his second triumph, which lasted two days, 
 was celebrated with unprecedented magnificence (61). 
 
 144. Catiline's Conspiracy. 
 (66-62.) 
 
 A conspiracy to assassinate the consuls elect was set on 593 
 foot by L. Sergius Catilina (an accomplice of Sulla in 
 his murderous proscription), who had been rejected as a 
 candidate for the consulship on account of certain charges 
 brought against him of extortion practised during his pro- 
 prsetorship in Africa. His project having miscarried 
 through the indecision of the conspirators (young and 
 ambitious Romans, and bad characters of every descrip- 
 tion), Catiline was brought to trial, and being acquitted, 
 became a candidate for the consulship, which however was 
 conferred (in 63) on M. Tullius Cicero 1 and C. Anto- 
 nius (a friend of Catiline). In consequence of this dis- B 
 appointment Catiline renewed his conspiracy, and endea- 
 vored to increase the number of his adherents, in order 
 to secure his election for the year 62. Cicero, to whom 
 Catiline's intention of assassinating him during the election, 
 and then seizing on the consulship, had been communi- 
 cated by one of the conspirators (Curius), through the 
 intervention of Fulvia, appeared at the comitia with such 
 an escort, as rendered an attack impossible (Silanus and 
 Murena were chosen consuls for 62). All further 
 attempts of the conspirators were rendered fruitless by the 
 vigilance of Cicero, whose eloquent denunciations drove 
 Catiline from the city. He then joined one of his fellow- c 
 conspirators, Manlius, who had raised an army in Etruria. 
 Both were immediately proscribed, and five of the con- 
 spirators at Rome (who had been discovered through their 
 correspondence with the ambassadors of the Allobroges) 
 were executed in prison (speeches of Cicero and Cato in 
 opposition to Caesar ; Cicero pater patrise). The army of 
 
 1 Born at Arplnum in 106, fought under Sulla in the war of the 
 confederates, travelled to Athens and Asia Minor. Quaestor in Sicily 
 in 76, impeached Verres in 70, aedilis curulis in 69, praetor urbanus 
 66, declined the administration of a province aa propraetor. 
 
282 EUROPE. ROME. [594596. 145. 
 
 Etruria was routed by M. Petreius, lieutenant of C. 
 Antonius, near Pistoria"(62), where Catiline himself fell. 
 
 145. The First Triumvirate, 60. 
 
 594 C. Julius Caesar, 1 whose acute mind had long since dis- 
 A covered that the republic was in its dotage, resolved to 
 
 overthrow the power of the nobility through the people 
 and their idol Pompey, and then reign triumphantly over 
 both parties. 
 
 595 This plan he followed out with unwearied perseverance, but with 
 such moderation and prudence, that for a long time his object was 
 not suspected. He became a supporter of all measures calculated to 
 undermine the influence of the nobility (such as the restoration of the 
 tribunitial power, and the partition of the judicial functions), attached 
 himself to Pompey, as soon as that general abandoned the party of 
 the senate, and endeavored by every means in his power to render 
 himself popular and the nobility odious. This systematic resistance 
 to the dominant party subjected him to the suspicion of being con- 
 cerned in Catiline's conspiracy, especially as he spoke against the 
 infliction of capital punishment on the conspirators. 
 
 596 On his return to Rome, Pompey demanded the con- 
 B firmation of all the measures which he had adopted in 
 
 Asia, and a distribution of lands among his veterans : but 
 both these proposals were vehemently resisted in the 
 senate. About the same time Caesar returned from 
 further Spain, which he had governed as propraetor, and 
 notwithstanding the opposition of the Opli mates, was 
 chosen consul for the year 59, but with Bibulus, a violent 
 aristocrat, for his colleague. A reconciliation having been 
 effected between Pompey and Crassus, through the inter- 
 vention of Caesar, the three entered into a compact to op- 
 c pose the aristocracy. This " union of talent with reputation 
 and wealth, by means of which the one party hoped to 
 rise, the other to retain, and the third to win," is called 
 the first Triumvirate. Caesar now, in defiance of all 
 
 1 Born on the 12 Quinctilis 100 ; as son-in-law of Cmna, an 
 opponent of Sulla, by whom he was proscribed but afterwards par- 
 doned. He served in Asia and was taken prisoner by the pirates ; 
 was quaestor in Spain, pontifex maximus in 63, praetor 62, propraetor 
 in Lusitania in 61, after Crassus had become security for his debts 
 (830 talents). 
 
597, 598. 146.] EUROPE. ROME. 283 
 
 opposition from the senate, obtained from the people the (596) 
 assignment of lands in Campania to 20,000 citizens, prin- A 
 cipally veterans of Pompey's army, gave his only daughter 
 Julia in marriage to Pompey, and procured his own 
 nomination to the propraetorship for five years of Cisalpine 
 Gaul and lllyricum. This last usurpation of their rights 
 by the people occasioned such alarm to the senate, that 
 they resolved to anticipate further encroachments by as- 
 signing to Caesar in addition the still more important pro- 
 vince of Transalpine Gaul. Before he set out for his pro- 
 vince, Caesar contrived (by means of the tribune P. 
 Clodius) to withdraw from Rome the two leaders of the 
 senate, M. Porcius Cato and Cicero. The former was B 
 sent to Cyprus, with a commission to reduce the island, 
 without a show of justice, to the condition of a Roman 
 province. Cicero, after an unsuccessful attempt to gain 
 over Caesar, was banished to Thessalonica (58), in conse- 
 quence of a charge brought against him by Clodius of 
 having occasioned the execution of Catiline's conspirators. 
 From this exile, however, he was recalled at the end of 
 sixteen month's (on the motion of the tribune, T. Annius 
 Milo), to support Pompey and the senate against Clodius. 
 
 In the year 56 the triumviri held a meeting in Caesar's winter 597 
 quarters at Luca, at which it was agreed that Pompey and Crassus c 
 should be the consuls of the following year, and be appointed to 
 provinces and the command of armies, Caesar not only consenting to 
 such an arrangement, but pledging himself to use all his influence 
 with the people that it might be carried into effect. In return for 
 these concessions, Cesar's Colleagues insured him the prolongation 
 of his government for five years ; and Pompey, who anticipated im- 
 portant advantages from his own residence at Rome, continued to 
 supply him with fresh legions. 
 
 146. Casar's War in Gaul 
 (5851.) 
 
 The object of Csesar in carrying on the Gallic war, was 598 
 not merely the extension of the Roman dominions, but the D 
 more important advantage of keeping together a body of 
 veterans, attached to his person, and ready at all times to 
 render him unconditional obedience. With this view he 
 formed a regular standing army. 
 
284 EUROPE. ROME. [599602. $ 146. 
 
 599 Gaul, like Spain, was peopled by a multitude of small clans, 
 A which, instead of uniting against Rome, continued to prosecute their 
 
 own petty feuds. This circumstance, joined to their superiority in 
 the art of war, rendered the struggle comparatively easy for the 
 Romans ; but at the same time prolonged the war, which, instead of 
 being terminated, as in the east, by one or two decisive engagements, 
 qould only be decided by the subjugation of the tribes one after an- 
 other and by means of each other, and by the suppression of repeated 
 insurrection*. 
 
 600 In the year 58 the Helvetii, who had migrated from 
 B eastern Gaul in search of a better settlement, threatened 
 
 the Roman province and plundered the territories of the 
 -<Edui. These applied for assistance to Caesar, who over- 
 threw the Helvetians, cutting some to pieces and driving the 
 rest back into their own country. At an earlier period the 
 Arverni in a war with the JSdui had taken into their pay a 
 German army commanded by Ariovistus. The ^Eduans 
 applied to Caesar for protection ; and the Germans, after 
 sustaining a defeat at Vesontio (Besan9on), were com- 
 pelled to recross the Rhine. 
 
 c In 57 the Belgians, who had the reputation of being 
 the bravest nation between the Rhine and the Pyrenees, 
 prepared to resist the advance of the Romans, by a levte 
 en masse of 300,000 men. This force was separated by 
 Caesar, who pursued the different divisions and overcame 
 them in detail. The most obstinate combat was with the 
 warlike Nervii (between the Schelde and Sambre), and 
 their neighbors ; but even here the superiority of their 
 discipline insured victory to the Romans. 
 
 601 In the year 56 the Vengti on the north-western coast were 
 D vanquished by a sudden attack (by Decimus Brutus), their chief 
 
 men executed, and the rest sold as slaves, whilst the Aquitani, in 
 south-western Gaul, were subjugated by the younger Crassus (son of 
 the triumvir). Thus the conquest of Gaul was accomplished, with 
 the exception of a few tribes on the Belgic coast and at the foot of 
 the Pyrenees. 
 
 602 In 55 the Usipetes and Tenchteri, who had been 
 driven by the Suevi across the Lower Rhine into Belgium, 
 were compelled to return by Caesar, who now, in order to 
 find employment for his legions, not only crossed the 
 Rhine into the territory of the Sicambri, but even visited 
 Britain, without however making any conquest in either of 
 those countries. His second expedition to Britain (in 54), 
 
603, 604. 147.] EUROPE. ROME. 285 
 
 with 800 ships, and a second campaign in Germany (in 
 53), had no better results. 
 
 In the years 54 51 the Gauls, who, in addition to the 603 
 loss of their freedom, were grievously oppressed by taxa- A 
 tion, the winter quartering of troops, and pillage of their 
 estates, made repeated attempts to throw off the Roman 
 yoke. A combined insurrection of the Treveri and 
 Eburones, under the crafty Ambiorix, having failed, the 
 whole nation of the Gauls rose as one man, 
 under the command of Vercingetdrix (an Arvernian), by 
 whom the war was carried on with great circumspection 
 and patience. Their leader being besieged by Caesar in 
 the fortress of Alesia, the united army of the Gauls (about 
 250,000 strong) appeared before the place, but were 
 utterly defeated ; whereupon Vercingetorix surrendered to 
 the Romans. A few Gallic tribes still resisted, but were B 
 overcome in the year 51. As the conclusion of his five 
 years' government drew near, Caesar, by means of gentle 
 treatment, conferring honors on their chiefs, and main- 
 taining their laws and constitutions, succeeded in tran- 
 quillizing the Gauls, and thus securing his conquest. 
 
 147. The Civil War between Casar and Pompey. 
 
 (49_48.) 
 
 Pompey and Crassus had been a second time elected to 604 
 the consulship (55), and obtained the provinces which they c 
 desired, viz. Crassus Syria, where he was slain in a cam- 
 paign against the Parthians, and Pompey the two Spains, 
 the government of which he intrusted to a lieutenant, and 
 remained at Rome in the expectation that the disturbed 
 times would require his appointment to the dictatorship. 
 With this object in view, he caused the election of consuls 
 for the year 52 to be deferred, under the pretext that the 
 auspices were unfavorable, and by fostering intestine dis- 
 turbances (assassination of Clodius by Milo), succeeded 
 in obtaining his own appointment to the consulship (with- 
 out a colleague), for the purpose of suppressing them. 
 The Optimates were so besotted as to suppose that it 
 would be possible to disarm Caesar by an act of the senate, 
 or at all events by means of Pompey 's army. 
 
286 EUROPE. ROME. [605607. 147. 
 
 605 Their first step was to withdraw from him two legions under pre- 
 A tence of their being required for the Parthian war ; but they were 
 
 still retained in Italy under the command of his rival. Then he was 
 required, before the expiration of his second five years, to resign his 
 command and retire from the provinces. Caesar having offered to 
 do this, if Pompey would follow his example, the senate pronounced 
 him contumacious, and notwithstanding the veto of two tribunes, 
 resolved to proscribe him as an enemy of the republic, unless he con- 
 sented to resign the command of his army, which consisted of eleven 
 legions. 
 
 606 Irritated by these and similar insults, Caesar determined 
 B to cross the Rubicon (the boundary of his Cisalpine pro- 
 vince), before the forces of Pompey could be brought into 
 the field. Pompey, accompanied by the iwo consuls and 
 a majority of the senate, fled to Brundusium, and being 
 closely pursued by Caesar, crossed over into Greece. 
 Meanwhile, Caesar, who, within two months had become 
 almost without opposition master of Italy, Sicily, and 
 Sardinia, employed the time which must elapse before a 
 fleet could be built for the transport of his troops to 
 Greece, in visiting Spain, where the lieutenants of Pompey 
 
 c submitted without a battle. Returning to Rome, he was 
 appointed dictator by a senate composed of his own 
 friends, and having laid down this dignity at the end of 
 eleven days, was a second time chosen consul ; whilst on 
 the other hand the senators who had fled with Pompey 
 re-elected the officers of the past year. 
 
 During these proceedings, Caesar's lieutenant, Curio, had subdued 
 Sicily, but lost his life in an engagement with Juba, king of Numidia, 
 who supported the party of Pompey, because Curio, as tribune, had 
 proposed the annexation of Numidia to the Roman dominions. 
 
 607 In the beginning of the year 48, Caesar landed in southern 
 D Illyria, and cut Pompey off* from Dyrrachium, his chief 
 
 arsenal, but was repulsed in the first encounter. Instead, 
 however, of pursuing and cutting to pieces the scattered 
 forces of his enemy, Pompey persisted in his plan of 
 starving him into surrender ; until at length, on the ninth 
 of August, 48, Caesar, by a feigned flight, brought on the 
 decisive battle of Pharsalus, in which his admirable 
 tactics gained him a complete victory over the Optimates, 
 whose army consisted of 52,000 men, whilst his own num- 
 bered only 23,000. By the advice of one of his favorites, 
 
608 610. 148.] EUROPE. ROME. 287 
 
 Pompey sought an asylum at the court of Ptolemaeus (607) 
 Dionysus, king of Egypt, whose father had been indebted A 
 to him for the restoration of his crown ; but the intrigues 
 of the Egyptian courtiers soon occasioned his assassination. 
 A few days after his death Caesar appeared before Alex- 
 andria, and bewailed the fate of his son-in-law. 
 
 When Caesar quitted Greece, in pursuit of Pompey, he had de- 608 
 spatched M. Antonius with a portion of his army into Italy, to secure 
 that country, and obtain for his patron the sovereign power, under a 
 title recognized by the constitution. So well did Antony discharge 
 the duty intrusted to him, that Caesar was not ohly^lected dictator 
 for a year, but also invested with the tribunitial authority for life, and 
 the power of making war and concluding peace, and of nominating 
 the provincial governors. 
 
 148. Casar's Wars in the East. 
 
 (4847.) 
 
 1. The Alexandrian War, 48 and 47. 609 
 On his arrival in Egypt, Caesar found the country dis- B 
 
 tracted by disputes between Ptolemseus Dionysus and his 
 sister Cleopatra, who were required by their father's will 
 to marry one another, and reign conjointly. Cleopatra, 
 being expelled by her brother, applied for aid to Caesar, 
 who was so captivated by her charms that he at once pro- 
 posed to act as arbitrator. A general insurrection in 
 Alexandria was the consequence of this interference. 
 Caesar intrenched himself in Bruchium (the quarter ad- 
 joining the port), burnt the Egyptian fleet in harbor 
 (destruction of the largest of the three Alexandrian libra- 
 ries), with the aid of a reinforcement from Asia overthrew 
 Ptolemy (who was drowned in the Nile in attempting to 
 escape), and placed the crown on the heads of Cleopatra 
 and her younger brother. 
 
 2. The War against Pharnaces, 47. 610 
 Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates, availed himself of the c 
 
 disruption of the Roman republic to extend the limits of 
 his little empire on the Cimmerian Bosporus. He had 
 already occupied the lesser Armenia and Cappadocia 
 (countries which at an earlier period had been governed 
 by the Romans), overthrown Caesar's lieutenant, Domitius 
 Calvinus, whose defeat enabled him to take possession of 
 the whole northern coast of Asia Minor), and was on the 
 
288 EUROPE. ROME. [611613. 149. 
 
 (610) point of returning to quell an insurrection of his lieutenant 
 A on the Bosporus, when he was overtaken by Caesar, who 
 after a campaign of only five days (hence " veni, vidi, 
 vici") compelled him to retreat in disorder to the Bos- 
 porus, where he was defeated and slain by his lieutenant. 
 
 149. Casar's last Wars against the Partisans of Pompey. 
 (46-^5.) 
 
 611 1. The War in Africa, 46. 
 
 B Towards the end of the year 47, Caesar landed in Africa, 
 where Pompey's son Sextus, his father-in-law Metellus 
 Scipio, Cato, Petreius, and other Optimates, had assembled 
 after the death of their leader, and formed a league with 
 Juba, king of Numidia. Csesar overthrew the united army 
 of :he republicans and Numidians at Thapsus (where 
 the allies lost 50,000 men and Caesar only fifty), took 
 Utica, the chief residence of the Optimates, and made 
 Numidia a Roman province. Cato died by his own hand; 
 and his example was followed by Juba, Scipio, and Pe- 
 treus : the rest (S. Pompeius, Labienus, &c.) escaped into 
 Spain, and joined Cn. Pompeius. 
 
 gj2 After the conclusion of the African war, new and unprecedented 
 honors were heaped on CcEsar. A solemn thanksgiving was ordered 
 C for forty days, and a statue erected of the conqueror, who was in- 
 vested with the dictatorship for ten years, and the censorship, with- 
 out colleagues, for three, with the modest title of prafectus moribus. 
 Triumphs were celebrated on three several days for his victories in 
 Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa : the people were feasted at 22,000 
 triclinia, presented with doles of money, corn, and oil, and gratified 
 with public spectacles ; whilst the soldiers were rewarded with grants 
 of money and land. Caesar then took measures for the restoration 
 of order, by means of sumptuary laws and enactments, against vio- 
 lence and treason ; limited the duration of provincial governments, 
 and increased the number of the senators. As pontifex maximus, 
 he undertook a reformation of the calendar, in which he was assisted 
 by the Alexandrian mathematician SosigSnes (see 4.) Great 
 offence was caused by the arrival of Cleopatra at Rome, and by her 
 haughty behavior. 
 
 613 2. The War against the sons of Pompey in 
 D S p a i n, 45. 
 
 The last campaign of Caesar was against the sons of 
 Pompey (Cnaeus and Sextus), who, after the battle of 
 Thapsus, had collected a considerable force in Spain. By 
 
614. 150.] EUROPE. ROME, 289 
 
 the most extraordinary exertions, he was enabled to win (613) 
 thebattleof Mundain Baetica, where 33,000 of Pom- A 
 pey's adherents were slain. Cn. Pompey, who attempted 
 to fly, was betrayed into the hands of the conqueror and 
 put to death : Sextus escaped into north-eastern Spain. 
 On his return to Rome, Caesar celebrated his fifth triumph, 
 and was honored with a festival of thanksgiving, which 
 lasted fifty days. 
 
 150. Death of Casar. 
 
 The senate, dazzled by the brilliancy of Caesar's exploits, 614 
 and eagerly flattering him from motives of fear or self- B 
 interest, outstripped the dictator himself in the revolu- 
 tionary race. In addition to the other honors, some of 
 them almost divine, which were heaped upon him, they 
 voted him the dictatorship, the prsefectura morum, and title 
 of Imperator for life, invested him with the consulship for 
 ten years, gave him the entire control over the army and 
 the exchequer, named him father of his country, altered 
 the title of the month in which he was born from Quintilis 
 to Julius, and proclaimed their recognition of his supremacy 
 by granting him authority to coin money with his own 
 effigy. During the last months of his life, the giant mind c 
 of Julius Caesar was occupied with plans for erecting 
 public buildings, framing a code of laws, and establishing 
 public libraries ; and, more than all, with preparations for 
 an invasion of Parthia to avenge the fall of Crassus. His 
 intention was first to subdue the Dacians on the banks of 
 the Danube, and the Getae ; and then marching onwards 
 into Asia, and conquering the Parthians, to traverse the 
 countries on the Caspian and Black seas, and return to 
 Rome through Germany and Gaul ; thus extending his 
 dominions on all sides, as men believed, to the very shores 
 of the ocean. No important steps had, however, yet been D 
 taken for the permanent organization of this absolute 
 power. His friends had made several ineffectual attempts 
 to present him publicly with a diadem, which he was com- 
 pelled on each occasion to refuse, because the offer was 
 unconfirmed by the people. At length, they discovered in 
 the Sibylline books (which had been burnt in Sulla's time, 
 and replaced in part by forged documents) a prophecy to 
 
290 EUROPE. ROME. [615, 616. 151. 
 
 (614) this effect " that Parthia could only be subdued by the 
 A Romans under a KING" and immediately demanded that 
 their leader should be invested with sovereign authority 
 beyond the limits of Italy. Meanwhile a conspiracy to 
 assassinate Caesar was organized by sixty Optimates, partly 
 adherents of Pompey, and partly disappointed followers of 
 the Dictator ; with the praetors C. Cassius and M. Brutus 
 at their head. At a meeting of the senate (in the curia of 
 Pompey), on the 15th of March, 44, Caesar received 
 twenty-three dagger wounds, and fell lifeless at the base 
 of Pompey's statue. 
 
 151. Consequences of Casar's Assassination. 
 
 615 The murderers, having perpetrated their bloody deed, 
 B were content to leave all further proceedings to the senate, 
 
 who endeavored to conciliate both parties by confirming 
 the laws and ordinances of Caesar (on the motion of the 
 Consul, Marcus Antonius [Mark Antony]), and at the 
 same time passing an act of indemnity for his assassination. 
 Antony alone refused to sanction this amnesty, and 
 delivered over the body of Caesar a funeral oration, 
 which excited the people to fury, and drove the assassins 
 from the city into the provinces assigned them by Caesar ; 
 Decimus Brutus into Gallia Cisalpma, M. Brutus into 
 
 c Macedonia, C. Cassius into Syria. No sooner were they 
 departed, than Antony, who had obtained possession of the 
 late dictator's papers immediately after his death, contrived 
 by the most unscrupulous falsification of his ordinances to 
 dispose, as he thought fit, of offices, provinces, estates, pri- 
 vileges, and civil rights. These proceedings were soon 
 resisted by Octavianus, a youth of nineteen, great 
 nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar, who availed 
 himself at first of the assistance of the aristocracy, then 
 annihilated them by the aid of Antony, and finally de- 
 stroyed Antony himself. 
 
 D Desiring, like Caesar, to have an army and a province in 
 the neighborhood of Rome, Antony persuaded the people 
 to pass a resolution, calling on D. Brutus to exchange Gaul 
 for Macedonia. The refusal of Brutus to recognize this 
 decree, unsanctioned as it was by the senate, occasioned 
 
 616 The civil war of Mutlna, 4448, between M. 
 
617, 618. 152.] EUROPE. ROME. 291 
 
 Antony and D. Brutus. Antony blockaded his adversary (616) 
 in M utfna [now, Modena], and was denounced by the senate A 
 (on the motion of Cicero ; his Philippic orations), as an 
 enemy of the republic. The two consuls of the year 43, 
 Pansa and Hirtius, then marched to the assistance of Brutus, 
 accompanied by Octavian (as propraetor) ; Pansa fell in the 
 first engagement, and Hirtius in the battle of M u 1 1 n a, where 
 Antony was defeated. Octavian now took the command, 
 as the only surviving general ; but finding himself at pre- 
 sent too weak to encounter both Antony and the conspirators, 
 he determined, in the first place, to destroy the murde:ers 
 of Caesar, and in order to effect this, abandoned his pursuit 
 of Antony, who escaped into Gaul. This change of plan 
 was the more easy, as the senate had intrusted the duty 
 not to himself, but to Brutus. 
 
 152. The Second Triumvirate. 
 
 Octavian, on his return to Rome, obtained the consul- 617 
 ship by means of his troops, and persuaded the people to B 
 institute proceedings against the murderers of Caesar, not- 
 withstanding the amnesty. Then he marched nominally 
 against Antony (with whom he had already entered into 
 negotiations through M. Lepidus, propraetor of Gaul), 
 compelled the senate to recall its decree against him, and 
 established a union on an island near Bononia [now Bo- 
 logna'] (in the Lavinius ?), with Lepidus and Antony, for 
 the administration of the government during a period of Jive 
 years, and the annihilation of the parly of Brutus and Cas- 
 sius. This was called the second triumvirate. The 
 people, on their part, were required to confirm the trium- 
 viri in their office for five years. 
 
 Before, however, they commenced the war against the 618 
 assassins of Caesar, it was desirable to remove the most c 
 influential of their enemies at Rome, lest, during their 
 absence, S. Pompeius, who still maintained his position in 
 Sicily, should be invited to return. With this view they 
 revived the proscription, and under pretence of avenging 
 the murder of Caesar and restoring peace to the state, 
 denounced more than 100 senators and 2000 knights, the 
 confiscation of whose estates would supply funds for a 
 fresh war. Among these victims was Cicero. Antony and 
 
292 EUROPE. ROME. [619621. 152, 
 
 (618) Octavian now marched into Macedonia and took the field 
 A against Brutus and Cassius. Two battles were fought at 
 Philippi. In the first, Brutus routed the army of Octa- 
 vian, and Antony that of Cassius, who compelled one of 
 his slaves to put him to death ; in the second, Brutus also 
 was defeated by Antony, and fell on his own sword. 
 
 After the battle the victors separated ; Antony under- 
 taking to raise the money promised to the troops in the 
 countries which they had wrested from the murderers of 
 Caesar, whilst Octavian returned to Italy for the purpose 
 B of allotting lands to his veteran soldiers. Cleopatra had 
 been summoned to Tarsus by Antony, to answer for her 
 conduct in supporting Cassius, but the charms of the 
 Egyptian queen so captivated the conqueror, that he fol- 
 lowed her into Egypt. Meanwhile, the attempts of his 
 wife, Fulvia, to compel his return by stirring up insurrec- 
 tions at home occasioned the 
 
 619 Perusian civil war, 41 40. 
 
 Octavian had experienced considerable difficulty in arranging the 
 distribution of lands among his veterans, the original proprietors re- 
 quiring indemnification, and the soldiers themselves being dissatisfied 
 with their allotments. At the instigation of Fulvia, L. Antonius, 
 brother of the triumvir, came forward as the champion of these dis- 
 contented spirits, but was compelled to surrender (at Perusia), at the 
 beginning of the next year (41). 
 
 620 M. Antony had returned to Italy, and was in the act of 
 c negotiating an alliance against Octavian with S. Pompeius, 
 
 who had subdued Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, when the 
 death of Fulvia smoothed the way for a reconciliation. 
 The triumviri having met at Brundusium, a final division of 
 the empire was arranged, Octavian receiving the western 
 provinces, Antony the eastern, and Lepidus Africa. To 
 cement their friendship, Antony married Octavia, the sister 
 of Octavian. The blockade of Italy by S. Pompeius hav- 
 ing occasioned a famine in the city, the triumviri concluded 
 an armistice (at Misenum), by which the province of 
 Achaia and the consulate were guaranteed to him, together 
 with an indemnification for the loss of his property, Pom- 
 pey, on his part, pledging himself to supply Italy with 
 D grain. The,. imperfect fulfilment of these conditions by 
 both parties occasioned 
 
 621 A renewal of the war between- Octavian and S. 
 Pompeius. The war was carried en at first with indif- 
 
622, 623. 153.] EUROPE. ROME. 293 
 
 ferent success by Octavian, who received very little assist- (6*1) 
 ance from his colleagues. A considerable naval force A 
 having however been assembled by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, 
 and reinforced by a squadron from the fleet of Antony, a 
 battle was fought off M y 1 ae, in which Pompey was defeated. 
 He fled to Asia Minor and was assassinated at Miletus. 
 Lepidus had also landed in Sicily, and claimed the sove- 
 reignty of the island ; but his troops being gained over by 
 Octavian, he was compelled to resign his provinces and 
 the office of triumvir, and retired to Circeii (where he lived 
 as pontifex maximus until B. c. 13). Having thus set aside 
 two of his rivals, Octavian prepared for a decisive struggle 
 with the third. 
 
 153. Foreign Wars of Antony and Octavian. 
 
 War of Antony with the Parthians. In the yea? 322 
 39 the Parthians, who in the preceding year had overrun 
 Syria, Palestine, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, were driven 
 across the Euphrates by Ventidius, the lieutenant of An- 
 tony. A considerable portion of the Roman possessions in 
 Asia (Phoenicia, Ccelesyria, and parts of Cilicia and Ju- 
 daea), was presented to Cleopatra by Antony, who had 
 entered Asia for the purpose of putting an end to the war, 
 and now (in 36) undertook an expedition against the Par- 
 thians, in conjunction with Artavasdes, king of Armenia. 
 In a very short space of time he had penetrated, by forced 
 marches, as far as Media ; but the constant alternation of 
 flight and attack, with which he was harassed by the ene- 
 my, the scarcity of provisions, the advanced season of the 
 year, and the defection of the Armenians, compelled him 
 to retreat. At a later period (in 34) the faithless king c 
 of Armenia was taken prisoner, and conveyed in triumph 
 to Alexandria. The Roman provinces in Asia were pre- 
 sented by Antony to Cleopatra, her children, and Csesarion 
 (whom the triumvir declared to be the legitimate son of 
 Caesar, in order to invalidate the claims of Octavian), and 
 soon afterwards (32) letters of divorce were forwarded to 
 his wife Octavia. 
 
 Wars of Octavian. 62i 
 
 In order to find employment for his legions, and replen- D 
 ish his military chest, Octavian undertook several expedi- 
 
294 EUROPE. ROME. [624626. 154. 
 
 A tions against the imperfectly reduced tribes among the 
 Julian Alps and on the shores of Illyria. The lapydae, 
 Pannonians, and Dalmatians were now subjected to the 
 authority of Rome. 
 
 154. The War between Octavian and Antony. 
 (31 and 30.) 
 
 624 The term of the triumviral league, which, although twice 
 B confirmed for five years by the people, had for a long time 
 been little more than a name, expired at the end of the 
 year 33. War was declared by the senate against Cleo- 
 patra, who now exercised unbounded influence over An- 
 tony, and hoped, through him, to become mistress of the 
 Roman empire. The immediate cause of hostilities was 
 a demand on the part of the Egyptian queen, that the 
 extravagant grant of Antony should be confirmed by the 
 senate. 
 
 g25 Antony, instead of crushing his enemies (as he might easily have 
 done in their unprepared condition), by a sudden descent on the 
 shores of Italy, wasted his time in dalliance with Cleopatra ; and on 
 the appearance of Octavian in the Ionian sea, with a fleet under the 
 command of Agrippa, determined, in obedience to the will of his 
 mistress, to risk a naval engagement. 
 
 626 On the 2d of September, 31, a brilliant victory was 
 gained by M. Agrippa off the promontory of Actium. 
 Cleopatra and Antony fled, before the fortune of the day 
 was decided, and sought refuge in Egypt ; their fleet was 
 burnt, and the land forces surrendered to the victor. Oc- 
 tavian proceeded into Syria, and thence invaded Egypt, 
 where he urged Cleopatra to rid him of his adversary. 
 Egypt became a Roman province. 
 
 D Antony, who had been abandoned by his fleet and cavalry, was 
 now informed, by command of Cleopatra herself, that she had com- 
 mitted suicide ; and fell on his own sword. Finding her efforts to 
 captivate Octavian utterly fruitless, and having learnt that she was 
 destined to adorn his triumph, Cleopatra also destroyed herself (pro- 
 bably by taking poison), and was buried by the side of Antony. 
 
627 629. 155.] EUROPE. ROME. 295 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 C. Rome under Emperors. 
 
 (B. c. 30. A. D. 476 ) 
 
 155. C. Julius Caisar Octaoianus Augustus. 
 (B. c. 30. A. D. 14.) 
 
 In the month of Sextllis (named from him Augustus), 627 
 B. c. 39, Octavian returned to Rome, where he distributed A 
 largesses among the citizens, and celebrated a triple 
 triumph for his victories in Dalmatia (and the neighboring 
 countries), at Actium and in Egypt. The temple of Janus 
 was now closed for the third time. Perceiving the impos- 
 sibility of establishing his authority on a permanent footing 
 by acts of violence, Octavian determined to obtain from 
 the senate, as free concessions (at least in appearance), the 
 recognition of those privileges which he had already vir- 
 tually conferred on himself. With this view he persuaded B 
 them to invest him with all the highest offices of state, and, 
 at a later period, to commit to him the legislative authority 
 and emancipate him from the control of the laws. At the 
 same time most of the magistracies were retained in name, 
 but were entirely dependent on the will of the emperor ; a 
 form of constitution which lasted for more than 300 years. 
 The title of Augustus, conferred on him in the year 27, 
 was also borne by his successors. 
 
 The constitution under the emperors to the reign628 
 of Diocletian. c 
 
 J The imperial prerogative comprehended the levy of the 
 army, the imposition of taxes (the right of deciding questions of war 
 and peace), the command-in-chief of all the legions, and the power 
 of life and death. The princeps exercised, at the same time, the 
 censorial and tribunitial authority, was pontifex maximus and a 
 member of the other sacerdotal colleges, and his edicts and ordinances 
 had the force of laws and decrees of the senate. The election of his 
 successor was, it is true, pronounced by a decree of the senate and a 
 resolution of the curiae (lex regia), but for the first two centuries the * 
 choice regularly fell on the person whom his predecessor thought 
 fit to indicate by adopting him as his son, or by conferring on him 
 the title of Caesar, or admitting him, as his colleague, to a share in the 
 government. 
 
 2. The senate was limited by Octavian [Augustus] to 600 mem- 629 
 bers, all of whom were devoted to his person. At a later period Italians 
 and other provincials as well as Romans, were nominated by the 
 14 
 
'296 EUROPE. ROME. [630633. 155. 
 
 (629) princeps, provided they possessed a census of 1,200,000 sesterces and 
 . were twenty-five years of age. Instead of the senate, the advisers 
 of the Imperator were generally the members of his privy council 
 (concilium, or consistorium principis). From the time of Tiberius 
 the people ceased to have any share in legislation, their decisions 
 being superseded by senates consulta and edicts of the emperors, 
 which latter soon became the chief sources of law. 
 
 630 3. The magistracies. 
 
 a. The ancient magistrates. The Consuls were generally elected 
 every two months, and retained merely the privilege of presiding in the 
 senate, and a share in the jurisdiction ; the Praetors, -Kdiitf*, and Tri- 
 bunes, continued to exercise their functions with certain alterations ; 
 the Censors (of whom the Princeps was always one), were suppressed 
 in the second century ; the Quaestors (from the time of Claudius), were 
 charged also with the superintendence of the gladiatorial combats. 
 B b. New officers, a. The Praefectus urbi, who was intrusted with 
 authority sufficient for the preservation of public order, and with the 
 jurisdiction in criminal cases (at first in conjunction with the quaes- 
 tiones). /?. The Praefecti praetorio, originally only the commandants 
 of the body-guard (of ten praetorian cohorts), raised by Octavian, but 
 employed, soon after the institution of the office, in the administra- 
 tion of justice and other duties. They took precedence immediately 
 after the emperor, y. The Praefectus annonae, who superintended 
 the supply of corn. 
 
 The Emperor always exercised considerable influence over these 
 appointments, which after the third century were entirely in his own 
 hands. 
 
 631 4. Rome and Ital y. After the admission of all Italians to the 
 c rights of citizenship, Rome, instead of being itself the state, became 
 
 merely the capital of a more extended empire. Octavian divided the 
 city (which had been considerably embellished by his exertions), 
 into fourteen, and Italy, as far as the Alps, into eleven regiones. 
 The other cities were distinguished by the titles of municipia, colonise, 
 and praefecturae, but their internal constitution was the same in all 
 essential particulars. The population of these cities was presided 
 over by magistrates elected annually, and by a senate or ordo decu- 
 rionum. 
 
 632 5. The provinces were divided by Octavian into a. provincial 
 principis, the more important provinces, which were always occupied 
 by a considerable military force, and regarded the emperor himself 
 as their governor. Consequently the administration was always 
 committed to imperial lieutenants with praetorian authority (termed, 
 
 D at a later period, praesides and correctores). b. Provincial senates, 
 comprehending all the others, which required only a small force, and 
 were administered by proconsuls with the assistance of lieutenants 
 and quaestors. 
 
 633 6. T a x a t i o n. In addition to the public exchequer, Octavian 
 established from taxes, and other sources, a military terarium, for the 
 remuneration and maintenance of his soldiers ; and a fiscus, or privy 
 purse. ^ 
 
 For the protection of the frontiers, standing armies were quartered 
 in castra Btatlva on the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. 
 
634, 635. 155.] EUROPE. ROME. 297 
 
 The wars of Augustus. 634 
 
 The object of these wars was not so much the acquisi- A 
 tion of fresh territory as the security of that which Rome 
 already possessed. Thus, for the purpose of tranquil- 
 lizing Spain, the hitherto unconquered Cantabrians and 
 Asturians were completely subjugated by Agrippa (19). 
 The eastern frontier of the empire was secured by a cam- 
 paign against the Parthians, whose king (Phraates) 
 no sooner heard of the arrival of Augustus in Syria (20), 
 than he restored the standards and prisoners captured from 
 the army of Crassus. To protect Italy and Gaul against B 
 the invasion of the Germanic tribes, Drusus and Tiberius, 
 step-sons of Augustus, first subdued the Alpine clans in 
 Rhaetia, Vindelicia, and Noricum, as far as the 
 Danube (15). Then expeditions were undertaken, by 
 Drusus, and after his death by Tiberius, from Gaul into 
 the interior of Germany (comp. B. ii. 3). Although 
 the people of lower Germany were rather won by fair pro- 
 mises and alliances than subdued by the sword, the 
 Romans nevertheless treated the whole country from the 
 Rhine to the Elbe as their province, built fortresses, and 
 introduced the Roman language, laws, and system of tax- 
 ation. The oppressive administration of the governor L. c 
 Quinctilius Varus at length occasioned an insurrection 
 of the tribes of Lower Germany (Cherusci, Bructeres, and 
 Marsi), under Herman or Arminius, the son of a prince 
 of the Cherusci. Varus, misled by a false report of the 
 revolt of some remote German tribe (the Amsivarii [al. 
 Ampsivarii], or Sigambri ?), allowed himself to be drawn 
 into the trackless waste of the Teutoburgian forest, 
 where he was attacked by Herman, and three of the best 
 Roman legions were cut to pieces, A. D. 9. 
 
 For the golden age of arts and sciences (under Augus- 
 tus), see 165. 
 
 The remaining days of Augustus were rendered miserable by the 535 
 excesses of his daughter, Julia, and his granddaughter, and by the 
 unscrupulous perseverance with which his third wife, Livia, labored 
 to secure the succession of her son, Tiberius, whom Augustus was 
 at last persuaded to adopt and nominate as co-regent. The emperor 
 died at Nola in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 
 
298 
 
 EUROPE. ROME. 
 
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636, 637. 156.] EUROPE. ROME. 299 
 
 156. Four Emperors of the House of Livia. 
 
 (14-68.) 
 
 1. Tiberius, 14 37, the chief traits in whose character 636 
 were envy, dissimulation, and cruelty, 1 had been persuaded A 
 by his mother Livia, to adopt his nephew Germanicus, 
 whom he was now eagerly striving to set aside. With this 
 intention he recalled him from Germany, (where he had 
 made three campaigns, (especially against the Chatti and 
 Cherusci), and overthrown Arminius (at Idistavisus), and 
 was in the very act of wiping out by fresh victories the 
 disgrace which the Roman arms had sustained in that 
 country,) and sent him into ihe east, where he reduced 
 Cappadocia and Commagene to the condition of Roman 
 provinces, and soon afterwards died of poison. For the B 
 security of his person, Tiberius assembled the guards, 
 who were scattered throughout Italy, and quartered them 
 
 in a camp near Rome. Their commander Sejai/us was 
 also allowed to exercise considerable influence over the 
 government, which had now assumed an entirely despotic 
 character. The anxiety of Tiberius was so effectually 
 fostered by Sej anus, that after a little time he quitted the 
 Capitol, and retired to the luxurious island of Caprese, 
 leaving Sejanus as his lieutenant at Rome. After nine c 
 years of tyranny at Rome and throughout Italy, Sejanus 
 fell a victim to his own ambitious project of raising himself 
 to the imperial throne. Tiberius, in the seventy-seventh 
 year of his age, was smothered with pillows, near Misenum. 
 
 2. His successor, C. Caligula, in the very first year of 637 
 his reign squandered the enormous treasure of Tiberius in 
 public entertainments, magnificent spectacles of every 
 description, useless buildings, &c. A severe illness gradu- 
 ally deprived him of his understanding, and after a reign of D 
 four years, rendered infamous by the most atrocious cruel- 
 ties, he was hurled from his throne by a conspiracy. The 
 senate now wished to re-establish the republic ; but this 
 proposal was resisted by the guards, who raised to the 
 throne the weak-minded uncle of the murdered emperor. 
 
 1 [He possessed, however, " a strong intellect, great wit, unwearied 
 industry, a body of the happiest organization, and a beautiful and 
 majestic figure." Niebuhr.] 
 
300 EUROPE. ROME. [638, 639. 156. 
 
 638 3. Claudius, 41 54, who resigned the reins of go- 
 A vernment into the hands of his profligate wives Messa- 
 lina and Agrippina, and a gang of abandoned freedmen, 
 among whom Polybius, Narcissus, and Pallus were the 
 most conspicuous. In this reign began the Roman con- 
 quests in Britain, to which country Claudius himself under- 
 took an expedition ; Mauretania, Lycia, and Thrace became 
 Roman provinces, and Judaea (after the death of Herod 
 Agrippa) was again ruled by Roman governors. 
 
 After the execution of Messalina, Claudius married his niece 
 Agrippina, who at once persuaded him to adopt her son Nero) in 
 the place of his own (Britannicus). Then she poisoned her husband, 
 in the hope of exercising more uncontrolled power in the name of 
 her son. 
 
 639 4. Nero, 54 68, reigned at first with wisdom and 
 B moderation, under the direction of his praefectus prsetorio 
 Burrus, and the philosopher Seneca, both of whom opposed 
 the ambitious designs of Agrippina. The murder of his 
 step-brother (Britannicus) was however deemed necessary 
 for his security, and was speedily followed by that of his 
 mother, and the execution of his wife Octavia at the insti- 
 gation of his mistress Poppsea Sabina. After the perpe- 
 tration of these acts of cruelty, and the death of Burrus, 
 Nero gave the reins to his naturally capricious and ferocious 
 disposition, appeared in public, both in Italy and Greece, 
 as a charioteer and stage-player, and incurred the suspicion 
 of having occasioned the great conflagration at Rome, by 
 which fourteen regions of the city were destroyed, only 
 c three remaining uninjured. The blame of this atrocity was 
 thrown by Nero on the Christians, whom he persecuted 
 with unrelenting severity. When the city was rebuilt, 
 Nero erected a palace called his golden house, which 
 occupied the whole of the Palatine hill, and a considerable 
 space beyond. Repeated conspiracies furnished a pretence 
 for a great number of executions ; but the excesses and 
 cruelties of Nero having at length occasioned a general 
 insurrection throughout the empire, Sulpicius Galba, go- 
 vernor of Hither Spain, a veteran of seventy-three years of 
 age, was proclaimed emperor by his legions. On receiving 
 intelligence of this revolution, Nero fled from Rome, and 
 caused himself to be put to death by one of his freedmen. 
 
640643. 157, 158.] EUROPE. ROMR. 801 
 
 157. Three Emperors proclaimed by the Legions. 
 (68,69.) ' 
 
 Sulpicius Galba (June, 68 Jan. 69), on his arrival at 640 
 Rome, rendered himself odious by the cruelty of his A 
 punishments (some of which were however necessary), 
 his avarice, and the partiality which he displayed towards 
 his favorites. He was put to death by a conspiracy 
 headed by 
 
 Otho (Jan. April, 69), a former favorite of Nero's, 641 
 who had purchased the adherence of the guards. The B 
 legions on the Rhine had, however, already chosen (at 
 Cologne), their own commander Vitellius, who was speedily 
 recognized by the entire western portion of the empire. 
 His generals entered Italy, and defeated the army of Otho, 
 who died by his own hand. 
 
 Vitellius (April December, 69) returned to Rome, 642 
 where he expended enormous sums on the luxuries of the 
 table. The legions employed against the Jews in Palestine 
 having proclaimed their commander Vespasian, almost the 
 whole army and all the provinces abandoned Vitellius, who 
 was murdered before the arrival of Vespasian at Rome. 
 
 158. The Three Flavii. 
 
 Vespasianus (69 79) endeavored, by every means 643 
 in his power, to repair the injuries inflicted on the empire c 
 by his tyrannical predecessors. He restored discipline in 
 the army, and order in the finances ; completed the rebuild- 
 ing of the city ; reinstated the senate in its ancient privi- 
 leges, after he had improved its character by increasing the 
 number of members, and removing those who were unworthy 
 of the office ; countenanced every useful undertaking, pa- 
 tronized the arts and sciences, and supported at his own 
 expense professors of eloquence. He himself afforded an D 
 example of severe morality, and practised a frugality which 
 sometimes degenerated into parsimony. Wars. 1. He 
 committed to his son Titus the task of crushing a revolt 
 of the Jews which had broken out in the reign of Nero, 
 and which was terminated by the storming of Jerusalem, 
 4.. D. 70 (see 81, 6). 2. An insurrection of the 
 
302 EUROPE. ROME. [644646. 159. 
 
 (643) B at a vi, who were soon joined by other German and Gallic 
 A tribes, was suppressed by Vespasian's general, after a 
 bloody engagement near [Augusta Treverorum] Treves. 
 3. The war in Britain was commenced afresh by 
 Agricola, whose mild and just administration reconciled 
 the Britons to the Roman yoke. His eldest son 
 
 644 Titus (79 81), surnamed amor et deliciae generis 
 humani, on account of his distinguished qualities, was the 
 wisest and noblest of all the Roman emperors. During 
 his short reign occurred the unexpected and terrible 
 eruption of Mount Vesuvius (which destroyed the cities of 
 Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabise), a conflagration which 
 lasted three days, and the pestilence at Rome. His 
 younger brother 
 
 645 Domitian (81 96) commenced his reign auspiciously, 
 B but soon brought back the abuses of Nero's time. With a 
 
 vanity utterly ridiculous in one whose chief amusement was 
 the slaughter of flies, he assumed the titles of " Lord " and 
 "God;" combining with this childish folly a disposition 
 to extravagance, which led him to commit acts of gross 
 oppression and cruelty. Agricola had already reduced 
 England and Scotland, as far north as Edinburgh, to tho 
 condition of a Roman province, when the suspicious jea- 
 c lousy of Domitian occasioned his recall. The tyrant him- 
 self undertook an expedition into Germany, during which 
 he probably made Swabia a province of Rome, and carried 
 on an unsuccessful war against the Dacians, whose tur- 
 bulence he appeased by the promise of an annual tribute ; 
 and then celebrated his triumph as if a victory had been 
 gained. Domitian was murdered at the instigation of his 
 wife (whom he had destined to the same fate), and his 
 name erased from the records of the Roman Empire. 
 
 159. The most flourishing period of the Empire. 
 (96180.) 
 
 646 (M. Cocceius) Nerva (96 98), an aged senator, was 
 D called to the imperial throne after the assassination of 
 Domitian. His parsimony occasioned discontent among 
 the people, and disgusted the Prcetorians, whose vengeance 
 he avoided by adopting their favorite general Ulpius 
 'Frajanus. 
 
647, 648. 159.] EUROPE. ROME. 303 
 
 Trajanus [Trajan] (98 117), a Spaniard (the first 647 
 foreign emperor), whilst he exhibited the most commenda- A 
 ble anxiety for the improvement of every branch of the ad- 
 ministration, more especially directed his attention to the 
 aggrandizement of the empire. The Dacians, on his refusal 
 to continue the tribute granted to them by Domitian, resumed 
 their predatory incursions, and were finally subdued after 
 two campaigns ; the events of which are represented in relief 
 on Trajan's column. In two (?) campaigns against the Par- 
 ihians (who had placed a vassal on the throne of Armenia), 
 Trajan reduced Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria to the 
 condition of Roman provinces, stormed Ctesiphon the 
 Parthian capital, and advanced towards Arabia as far as 
 the Persian Gulf. Some advantages were also gained by 
 the governor of Syria in Arabia Petraea. The revolt of B 
 some nations and cities in his rear, especially of the Jews, 
 compelled the emperor to commence a retreat, during 
 which he died, leaving his throne to his learned, but vain 
 and pedantic, countryman and kinsman, 
 
 (P. jElius) Hadrianus (117 138), who concluded a 648 
 peace with the Parthians, to whom he restored the almost 
 untenable conquests of his predecessor on the other side of 
 the Euphrates (Armenia also received back her kings, as 
 vassals of Rome). The attention of the new emperor was 
 directed exclusively to the improvement of the internal 
 administration of his empire. To promote this object, he c 
 travelled through all the provinces, generally on foot, 
 embellished the capitals Athens by the addition of " Ha- 
 drian's town" erected monuments (in Rome the moles 
 Hadriani) and frontier fortresses (in Britain a rampart of 
 earth against the Picts, in Germany a line of palisades from 
 the Main to the Danube) ; commanded Salvius Julianus 
 to compile from the edicts of the praetors a code of civil 
 law, which was termed edictum perpetuum ; selected the 
 members of his consistorium principis chiefly from the 
 college of jurists, and introduced a new arrangement of the 
 offices of state, which continued to the latest period of the 
 empire (officia palatina, publica and militaria). Thej 
 establishment of a Roman colony (jEliaCapitollna), with 
 a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the ruins of Jerusalem, 
 occasioned a terrible insurrection, which was only sup- 
 
 14* 
 
304 EUROPE. ROME. [649651. 160. 
 
 A pressed after an obstinate struggle of three years (131 
 133). Hadrian was succeeded by his adopted son, 
 
 649 Antoninus Pius (138 161), of whose peaceful and 
 mild reign we possess only a few detached notices, relating 
 chiefly to his private life, and anxiety for the internal 
 welfare of his empire. A small portion of his time seems 
 to have been occupied in unimportant wars with the 
 Germans and Dacians, and the suppression of revolts in 
 some of the provinces. Antoninus had already, at the 
 desire of Hadrian, adopted the stoic philosopher, 
 
 650 M. A u re li us Antoninus (161 180), and the weak and 
 B profligate L. Verus, who ascended the throne together. 
 
 At the request of M. Aurelius, Verus undertook the 
 conduct of a war against the Parthians, who had 
 invaded the eastern provinces. The management of the 
 campaign was, nevertheless, intrusted by Verus to his lieu- 
 tenants, who brought the war to a satisfactory conclusion ; 
 whilst their general, both in the east, and after his return, 
 seemed only to live for his dissolute pleasures. During 
 the Parthian war, the southern provinces of the Roman 
 empire, already devastated by a pestilence brought into 
 them from the east, were ravaged by the Marcomanni, 
 Quadi, and other German tribes, who extended their 
 c conquests to Italy itself. Their audacity occasioned 
 the great war of the Marcomanni, which was carried 
 on by Marcus Aurelius in person (166 180). Thrice 
 he crossed the Alps, and remained several years in the 
 countries on the other side of those mountains. The 
 two first wars were terminated by treaties; but these 
 attempts to conciliate the barbarians proving ineffectual, 
 Aurelius again attacked them, and gained an important 
 victory, but died before he could bring the war to a con- 
 clusion. 
 
 160. Decline of the Empire vnderthe Pr&toriaiis. 
 (180284.) 
 
 651 Commodus (180 192), the feeble-minded son of 
 
 D Marcus Aurelius, granted peace to the Marcomanni and 
 
 Quadi, on condition of their furnishing a yearly contingent. 
 
 The flatterers of the young emperor availed themselves of 
 
652655. 160.] EUROPE. ROME. 305 
 
 his weakness to lead him into the most scandalous excesses, (651) 
 and of the mistrust occasioned by the discovery of several A 
 conspiracies, to counsel acts of ferocious cruelty. The 
 government was intrusted to the praefect of his guard for 
 the time being, whilst the emperor exhibited himself as 
 Hercules Romanus in gladiatorial shows (735 times) and 
 combats with wild beasts. His insane pranks at last so 
 terrified even his favorite courtiers, that, in order to save 
 their own lives, they put him to death, and raised to the 
 throne Pertinax, the preefectus urbi, who enjoyed the con- 
 fidence of the senate. 
 
 Pertinax (193) was murdered by the guards (whose 652 
 excesses he endeavored to restrain), after a reign of three B 
 months. The imperial throne was now offered to the 
 highest bidder, and purchased by 
 
 Didius Julianus. In three provinces, however, the 653 
 legions declared against him, and proclaimed their own 
 generals, one of whom, the commander of the lllyrian 
 legion, 
 
 Septimius Severus, being the first to appear in Italy, 654 
 was recognized by the senate, after the assassination of 
 Pertinax, and enabled to bid defiance to his rivals. All 
 the leisure allowed him by his constant wars, was devoted 
 by this emperor to the correction of various abuses, which 
 had crept into the administration, and to the amendment of 
 the legal code, a task in which he was assisted by the 
 jurists Papinianus, Paulus, and Ulpianus. In extreme old c 
 age, Severus, in conjunction with his sons Geta and Cara- 
 calla, undertook an expedition into Britain, for the purpose 
 of chastising the Scottish Highlanders, who had broken 
 through the rampart of Hadrian. After penetrating the 
 most remote recesses of the Highlands, and strengthening 
 the former mound (probably that of Hadrian) by a wall, 
 Severus died at York, partly of grief occasioned by the 
 ingratitude of his sons, who succeeded him on the imperial 
 throne. 
 
 C a r a c a 1 1 a (211 217), in the first year of his reign, murdered 655 
 his brother, and soon afterwards put to death 20,000 men, women, D 
 and children, under pretence of their being his adherents. Among 
 these victims was the advocate Papinianus, who had refused to defend 
 the fratricide. In order to satisfy the greediness of his soldiers, and 
 at the same time procure sufficient funds for his own prodigal 
 
306 EUROPE. ROME. [656 658. 160. 
 
 (655) expenditure, Caracalla, after exhausting the treasures accumulated 
 A by his father, put to death a number of the richer citizens, granted 
 the full privileges of Roman citizenship to the inhabitants of all the 
 provinces (constitutio Antoniniana de civitate), that he might subject 
 them to the payment of heavier taxes, and visited the provinces in 
 person for the purpose of extorting money. On these excursions he 
 appeared in Macedonia as Alexander, and in Asia as Achilles. At 
 Alexandria he put to death a great number of persons in revenge for 
 eome insult offered to him by the citizens. After invading and 
 ravaging Media, he was murdered at the instigation of the praef. 
 praet. 
 
 656 Macrlnus (217), who succeeded him on the throne. This em- 
 B peror purchased peace from the Parthians, who had entered the 
 
 Roman dominions with the intention of making reprisals for the 
 invasion of Media by Caracalla. The withdrawal of several privileges 
 hitherto enjoyed by the army in Syria, so disgusted the soldiers, that 
 they raised to the imperial throne a priest of the sun, named Bassianus 
 Heliogabalus, a youth of fourteen, the son, as they pretended, of the 
 late emperor, Caracalla. Macrinus was defeated near Antiochia, and 
 lost his life in attempting to escape from his pursuers. 
 
 657 Heliogabalus (217 22^) gave himself up to every sort of 
 sensual enjoyment ; whilst his mother and grandmother administered 
 the affairs of his empire, and even attended the meetings of the 
 senate. He was persuaded to adopt his cousin Alexander Severus, 
 whom he afterwards wished to destroy, and lost his own life in endea- 
 voring to carry his murderous intentions into effect. 
 
 658 Alexander Severus (222 235), under the direction 
 c of his excellent mother Mammsea, and a council of sixteen 
 
 senators (among whom was Ulpianus), reigned with as 
 much credit as was possible, considering the military 
 tyranny to which the empire was now subjected ; but the 
 severity with which he treated the soldiers occasioned 
 several mutinies in the legions. In the year 226 the 
 Parthian empire was dissolved, and the new Persian, 
 founded by a Persian, named by the Greeks Artaxerxes, 
 who boasted of being a descendant from the ancient Persian 
 D kings. The new sovereign having, in his eagerness to 
 extend his empire, passed the Roman frontier, and pro- 
 ceeded as far as Cappadocia, the emperor undertook an 
 expedition into the east, where he gained many important 
 advantages. At a later period of his reign an irruption of 
 the Germans into Gaul rendered his presence necessary on 
 the banks of the Rhine, where his severity occasioned a 
 mutiny among the Gallic legionaries, which ended in the 
 murder of himself and his mother, by whom he had been 
 accompanied in all his expeditions. 
 
659 667. 160.] EUROPE. ROME. 307 
 
 Under his successors, until the reign of Aurelian, the 659 
 empire continued to decline, partly through the incessant A 
 incursions of neighboring nations (particularly the Ger- 
 mans), and partly through intestine divisions, which occa- 
 sioned the elevation of rival emperors (nineteen against 
 Gallienus, the so-called thirty tyrants). The nine em- 
 perors, who reigned during this period of thirty-five years, 
 as well as the anti-Caesars, obtained and lost the throne, 
 generally speaking, through assassination. 
 
 In opposition to Maximinus (235 238), a Thracian herdsman, 660 
 of gigantic size and strength, two rival emperors were proclaimtd in 3 
 Africa Gordian I., and his son, Gordian II. The son was slain in 
 an engagement 'rith the governor of Mauretania ; the father died by 
 his own hand. The senate now nominated to the imperial dignity 
 two members of their own body, Maximus and Balbinus ; to whom, 
 at the request of the people, they added Gordian III., grandson of 
 Gordian I. Maximinus, on his return from Germany, was murdered 
 by his own soldiers during the siege of Aquileia ; the two senators 
 were slain by the Praetorians. 
 
 Gordianus (238 244), who governed well during the lifetime 661 
 of his father-in-law Misitheus, was assassinated, after the death of his 
 adviser, by the Arabian 
 
 Philippus (244 249), who celebrated with great magnificence 662 
 the thousandth anniversary of the building of Rome. The Pan- 
 nonian Decius, having been sent into Moesia for the suppression of a 
 revolt, was proclaimed emperor by the legions quartered in that 
 country, and overcame Philip, who lost his life in the engagement. 
 
 Decius (249 251) [the persecutor of the Christians] was slain 663 
 in battle against the Goths, who had invaded Thrace. The legions 
 now proclaimed their commander 
 
 Gallus (251 253), who consented to pay a yearly tribute to the 664 
 Goths ; and on that account was deposed and murdered by JEmi- 
 lianus, governor of Moesia, by whom the Goths had been attacked 
 and compelled to relinquish their booty. 
 
 ^Emilianus (253) was put to death by his soldiers after a reign 665 
 of four months, and succeeded by 
 
 Valerianus (253260), who had entered Italy with the inten- 666 
 tion of avenging the murder of Gallus During the reign of this D 
 emperor, the Roman dominions were invaded on all sides by the 
 Franks, Alemanni, Goths, and Persians, who were feebly resisted by 
 Valerian and his son Gallienus. The emperor himself was taken 
 prisoner in a war against the Persians. 
 
 Gallienus (26n 268) was opposed by about nineteen rival em- 667 
 perors (the so-called thirty tyrants), whose conflicting claims occa- 
 sioned the most hopeless confusion. Most of them, it is true, were 
 soon set aside ; but Tetricus maintained his position in Gaul and Spain, 
 whilst Odenathus of Palmyra, after his victory over the Persians, 
 obtained, as co-regent with Gallienus, the sovereignty of the east, 
 which after his assassination (267) was assumed by his widow Ze- 
 nobia. Under these two sovereigns, Palmyra became one of the 
 
308 EUROPE. ROME. [668 670. 160. 
 
 A most flourishing cities of the east. Gallienus, whilst besieging his 
 rival Aureolus in Milan, fell by the hand of an assassin, and was 
 succeeded by the bravest of his generals, 
 
 668 Claudius II. (268270), who took Milan, and put Aureolus 
 to death. This emperor materially weakened the power of the bar- 
 barians by a victory over the Alemanni who had invaded Italy, and 
 by thrice defeating the Goths and their allies. He died of the 
 plague, after recommending the ablest of his generals, Aurelian, aa 
 his successor. 
 
 fi69 Aurelianus (270 275), on his accession, found the 
 empire divided ; Tetricus reigning in the west, and Zenobia 
 being mistress of the whole Syrian empire, and most of 
 the provinces of Asia Minor and Egypt. His successful 
 endeavors to restore the integrity of the empire obtained 
 
 B him the surname of restitutor patriae. Before, however, 
 this object could be accomplished, he was compelled to 
 sustain several invasions of the German tribes. The pro- 
 vince of Daria, which it was almost impossible to protect, 
 was abandoned to the Goths, the Roman inhabitants being 
 transplanted to Mcesia (Dacia Aureliani); but on the 
 other hand, the Marcomanni and Alemanni (the latter of 
 whom had penetrated as far as Umbria) were driven back 
 into their own country. A new wall was also erected for 
 the security of Rome against the barbarians. Aurelian 
 then marched against Zenobia, who was in the act of sub- 
 duing the rest of Asia Minor. After two defeats (at 
 Antiochia and Emesa) she retreated to her capital, which 
 
 c was besieged by Aurelian. Zenobia escaped from the 
 city, but was afterwards taken prisoner and conveyed to 
 Rome, to adorn the triumph of her conqueror. Palmyra, 
 which had opened its gates after the capture of the queen, 
 was at first spared ; but the citizens having, after the em- 
 peror's departure, murdered the Roman garrison, Aurelian 
 returned, butchered most of the inhabitants, and destroyed 
 the city, with its magnificent temples and palaces. Having 
 subdued Egypt also, he marched into Gaul, where Tetricus 
 weary of sovereignty, suffered himself to be taken pri 
 soner in a battle near Chalons. The emperor, whose 
 severity had rendered him odious, was assassinated, during 
 an expedition against the Persians, at the instigation of his 
 secretary. 
 
 670 Tacitus (who was nominated to the imperial dignity by the se- 
 nate), and his brother Florianus, reigned only a few months. 
 
671 673. 161.] EUROPE. ROME. 309 
 
 Probus (276 282) strained every nerve to restore (670) 
 the ancient military discipline, and resisted with great zeal A 
 and success the numerous inroads of German tribes (Bur- 
 gundians, Alemanni, Vandals, and Franks) into the Roman 
 provinces. He advanced into Germany as far as the Elbe, 
 compelled nine princes to pay tribute, strengthened the 
 frontier lines from the Rhine to the Danube, and enlisted a 
 number of Germans into the Roman legions (Return of 
 the Franks from the Black sea to the Rhine ?). After a 
 campaign in the east, followed by a magnificent triumph, 
 the emperor put in execution a plan for re-peopling the 
 deserted provinces with German settlers. The discontent B 
 of his soldiers (who were compelled to plant vineyards, 
 dig canals, make roads, drain swamps, &c., for the new 
 colonists) having occasioned the assassination of Probus, 
 the army chose as his successor the prsefectus praetorio 
 
 Carus (282, 283), who appointed his sons Carinus and Numeria- 671 
 nus to be his co-regents, defeated the Sarmatae (who had invaded 
 Illyria), and lost his life (probably by assassination) during a cam- 
 paign against the Persians. 
 
 Carinus and Numerianus (284). Numerianus, on his march 672 
 back from Persia, was murdered by his own father-in-law. The c 
 soldiers, who were disgusted at the extravagant luxury in which 
 Carinus lived at Rome, having raised to the imperial throne Dio- 
 cletian, commander of the household troops, Carinus took the field 
 against his rival, and lost his life in Mcesia. 
 
 161. Period occupied by partitions of the Empire, until 
 
 the reign of Constantine. 
 
 (284324.) 
 
 Diocletianus (284 305) appointed as co-regent his 673 
 comrade In arms Maximianus, to whom he committed . 
 the administration of the western district. Diocletian him- 
 self established his residence in Nicomedia, where he in- 
 troduced the oriental court ceremonies, whilst his colleague 
 resided alternately at Treves, Aries, and Milan. The in- D 
 creasing audacity of the Germanic tribes on the banks of 
 the Rhine and Danube, soon compelled each of the two 
 emperors to appoint a colleague (Constantius Chlorus and 
 Galerius). The four sovereigns now apportioned among 
 themselves the administration of the provinces and the 
 defence of the frontiers ; but, in spite of this arrangement, 
 rival emperors established themselves in the provinces 
 (Carausius in Britain, and afterwards Allectus and Achil- 
 
310 EUROPE. ROME. [674 676. 161. 
 
 (673) leus in Egypt), where they continued to reign for many 
 A years. On the other hand, the inroads of the neighboring 
 tribes were repressed ; and Galerius, in a war with the 
 Persians (which he had undertaken for the purpose of 
 settling the succession to the throne of Armenia), obtained 
 possession of five provinces on the other side of the Tigris, 
 and compelled the Persians to renounce their claims on 
 Mesopotamia. At the instigation of Galerius, Diocletian 
 prohibited the celebration of Christian worship, and com- 
 menced a cruel persecution of the Christians throughout 
 B the empire. Finding himself, after a severe illness, too 
 feeble to transact the business of government, Diocletian 
 abdicated (contemporaneously with Maximian), and passed 
 the rest of his life at Salona in Dalmatia, where he amused 
 himself with the cultivation of a garden. 
 
 674 The practice of apportioning the government among 
 four sovereigns still continued ; Constantius and Galerius 
 being proclaimed Augusti, and nominating each a colleague. 
 Aler the death of Constantius (306), which happened 
 during an expedition into Britain, his son Constantinus 
 was proclaimed emperor in that country. He deposed all 
 the coadjutors, the number of whom now amounted to five, 
 and became in the year 324 sole occupant of the imperial 
 throne. 
 
 675 After the death of Constantius, his son Constantinus was pro- 
 c claimed emperor by the troops in Britain, and Maxentius, the 
 
 feeble son of Maximian, by those at Rome ; Galerius nominated 
 his friend Licinius as his coadjutor ; Maximian again appeared 
 in the character of emperor, and Maxim in also assumed the title of 
 Augustus. Thus in the year 308 there were six emperors. 
 
 Constantius caused his father-in-law Maximian (who had at- 
 tempted his life) to be secretly strangled ; and defeated his son 
 Maxentius in three engagements (at Turin, Verona, and Saxa rubra 
 on the Tiber). In the last of these battles Maxentius was drowned 
 in the Tiber. Galerius died in consequence of his excesses 
 Maximinus was defeated by Licinius, and took poison. 
 (J7Q Constantinus, and his brother-in-law Licinius (313 324). 
 Constantine soon quarrelled with his brother-in-law (who had be- 
 come too powerful since his victory over Maximin), and after two 
 defeats forced him to content himself with the Asiatic provinces, 
 Thrace and eastern Moesia. In a second war, Licinius was again 
 defeated in two engagements (at Adrianople and Chalcedon). Being 
 shut up in Nicomedia, he consented to abdicate on condition of being 
 permitted to depart unmolested ; but this compact was violated by 
 Constantine, who put him to death at Thessalonica, and thus became 
 monarch of the entire Roman empire. 
 
677, 678. 162.] E JROPE. ROME. 311 
 
 162. Constantine the Great, sole Emperor. 
 
 (324337.) 
 
 Constantine, who from the commencement of his reign 677 
 had permitted the free exercise of their religion to the A 
 Christians, himself embraced Christianity, in conse- 
 quence of a miraculous appearance in the heavens, imme- 
 diately before his third victory over Maxentius, and pro- 
 claimed it as the religion of the state, but deferred his 
 baptism until the close of his life. He assembled the 
 first oecumenical council at Nicsea (325), where the 
 doctrine of Arius (that the SON of GOD is inferior to GOD 
 the FATHER [even ' as touching his Godhead ']) was con- 
 demned, and the doctrine of the SON'S essential equality 
 with the FATHER' asserted in the Symbdlum Nicsenum 
 [* the Nicene Creed '], in which it is expressed by the term 
 oftooiaioi; (consubstantialis). 
 
 2. New organization of the Empire. 678 
 
 Constantine laid the foundation of a future division of B 
 the empire in the establishment of a new capital at 
 Byzantium, which was restored on a scale of great magni- 
 ficence, and repeopled, but not without the commission of 
 many acts of violence and oppression. At its dedication 
 in 330 or 334, this city was called Nova Roma, but at a 
 later period it received the name of Constantinopolis. 
 The two capitals were placed on an equal footing, each 
 having its own senate and prsefect of the city. The re- 
 mainder of the empire was divided into thirteen dioceses, 
 which were subdivided into 116 provinces. At the head of 
 the state was the emperor, who in most cases received the 
 title of Caesar and Augustus from the armies, or was ad- 
 mitted to that dignity by his predecessor. His lieutenants c 
 were, as before, the prsefecti prsetorio, whose influence 
 Constantine weakened by increasing the number to four 
 (I, for the East with Thrace; 2, for lllyria, with Mace- 
 donia and Greece ; 3, for Italy and Africa ; 4, for the 
 
 1 This question tills an important place in the history of the inva- 
 sion and the revolutions which followed it. Many of the Barbarians 
 embraced Arianism, and their subsequent hostility to the Romans, 
 or to other barbarian tribes, may often be traced to this circumstance. 
 Gibbon's iilst ch. contains a masterly exposition of the whole sub- 
 ject, to be used always with due precaution. 
 
312 EUROPE. ROME. [679 681. 162. 
 
 (678) West). He also transferred the military command from 
 A those officers to a magister peditum and magister equitum. 
 The dioceses were administered by vicars (deputies of the 
 prsefeets), and the provinces by rectors. The commanders 
 of the troops in the provinces were termed duces, and 
 sometimes also comites. 
 
 679 The seven chief court offices were 1. The praepositus sacri 
 cubiculi (grand chamberlain), who superintended the internal ar- 
 rangements of the imperial palace. 2. The magister officiorum (im- 
 perial chancellor), who was charged with the care of the solemn 
 representations at the imperial court, and exercised a jurisdiction 
 over all the other officers. 3. The quaestor sacri palatii (secretary 
 of state), through whom all new laws and the decisions of the em- 
 peror on petitions were made known to the public. He also counter- 
 signed the cabinet orders. 4 The comes sacrarum largitionum 
 (minister of finance). 5. The comes rei privatae (privy-purse). 6 
 
 J and 7. The two comites domesticorum, commanders of the household 
 troops, which occupied the place of the disbanded praetorians. These 
 seven officers, with the prsefectus praet., the praef. urbi, and the 
 counsellors of state properly so called (comites consistoriani) , com- 
 posed the council (consistorium) of the emperor, by whom they were 
 especially consulted on questions of legislation. Many of the insti- 
 tutions of former days were also retained a senate, for instance, in 
 each of the capitals, which were sometimes consulted respecting the 
 laws, or commissioned to decide the more important criminal cases 
 two consuls, praetors and quaestors, dignities from which a heavy 
 expenditure was inseparable. The highest civil and military officers 
 down to the comes rei privatae were designated " illustres ;" next to 
 them were the " spectabiles," then the " clarissimi," " perfectissimi," 
 and last of all the " egregii." 
 
 680 The Taxes. 1. An annual land and poll-tax, levied by an im- 
 (i perial edict termed indictio. This tax, which was paid partly in 
 
 cash and partly in agricultural produce, was founded on a census, 
 renewed every fifteen years. 2. A tax on manufactures and trade. 
 3 Revenue derived from harbor dues and duties on articles brought 
 overland, mines, coinage of money, and imperial manufactures. 
 4. Golden crowns (aurum coronarium), presented to the emperor on 
 solemn occasions as marks of honor. 
 
 681 Towards the end of his reign, Constantine assisted the 
 Sarmatae and Vandals in a war against the Goths ; and 
 when the latter entered Moesia with the intention of 
 avenging themselves, they were driven back into their own 
 
 D country. A great number of the Sarmatse (300,000) were 
 settled by Constantine in the Roman provinces on the 
 Danube. His eldest son Crispus having been put to death 
 on the accusation of his wife Fausta (who was herself 
 stifled in a bath), his three younger sons divided the empire 
 among themselves. 
 
682685. 163.] EUROPE. ROME. 313 
 
 163. The successors of Constantine the Great to the per- 
 manent division of the Empire. 
 
 (337395.) 
 
 Of Constantino's three sons, Constantius (337364) 682 
 became at last sole emperor, through the death of both his A 
 brothers ; one of whom was murdered by the other, and 
 the assassin himself destroyed by a conspiracy. The rival 
 emperors were also all set aside. 
 
 Constantine II. inherited the west, Constantius the east with Con- 683 
 stantinople, anc. Constans the country lying between the dominions 
 of his two brothers. Whilst Constantius was engaged in a long war 
 with the Persians, by which great injury was inflicted on both nations, 
 Constantine lost his life in an attempt to depose his brother Constans ; 
 who rendered himself contemptible by his excesses, and fell a victim 
 to a conspiracy. Thus Constantius (after also expelling two usurpers) 
 became sole occupant of the throne. 
 
 The Alemanni and Franks having invaded Gaul, Con- 684 
 stantius intrusted the defence of that province to his ne- B 
 phew Julian, who compelled the Alemanni and a portion 
 of the Franks to recross the Rhine, and assigned settle- 
 ments in Belgium to the Sajian Franks, who were vassals 
 of Rome. The military reputation of his nephew, and 
 his admirable administration of Gaul, excited the envy of 
 the emperor, who was engaged in an unsuccessful war 
 against the Persians, which he made a pretence for with- 
 drawing several legions from Julian. Instead, however, 
 of marching eastwards, the Gallic legions proclaimed Jul- 
 ian emperor at Paris, and Constantine died in Cilicia on 
 his march homewards to oppose the nomination. 
 
 J ulianus Apostata (361 363), who had been edu- 685 
 cated in the Christian faith, was perverted to paganism by c 
 the study of heathen literature and initiation into the 
 Greek mysteries. He endeavored to re-establish the an- 
 cient idolatrous worship, wrote against Christianity, and 
 manifested his hatred of the religion from which he had 
 apostatized by protecting the Jews ; but his attempts to 
 restore the temple at Jerusalem were rendered abortive by 
 the bursting forth of flames out of the ground. In an 
 expedition against the Persians, whose proposals of peace 
 he had rejected, Julian crossed the Tigris, and gained a 
 
314 EUROPE. ROME. [686 689. 163. 
 
 A decisive victoiy near Ctesiphon ; but was mortally wound- 
 ed on his return. He was succeeded by a Christian em- 
 peror, 
 
 686 Jovian us (363 364), who accepted the conditions of 
 peace offered by the Persians (for thirty years), ceded the 
 five provinces on the other side the Tigris, which had 
 been conquered by Diocletian, and left Armenia to its fate. 
 After his death, which happened on the homeward march 
 from Persia, the army chose the commander of the house- 
 hold troops, 
 
 687 Valentinianus I. (364375), who appointed his 
 B brother Valens (364 378) co- regent, and assigned him 
 
 the eastern half of the empire, the frontiers of which were 
 at that period invaded in almost every direction by the 
 barbarians. Thenceforward the empire continued to be 
 divided into eastern and western, except in the last year 
 of Theodosius, when the two portions were re-united. 
 
 688 Valentinian I. was occupied during the whole of his reign with 
 war against the Alemanni, who had ravaged Gallia and Rhaetia. 
 The enemy were compelled to re-cross the Rhine, and for several 
 years maintained the conflict in their own country. A chain of for- 
 tresees was established on the Rhine from B&sle to Mainz (Mayence), 
 and another on the Neckar. Finally, Valentinian drove the Quadi 
 and Sarmdta, who had invaded Illyricum, across the Danube, and 
 died of hemorrhage, occasioned by the excitement of an angry dis- 
 cussion with the ambassadors of the Quadi. Britain, which had been 
 overrun by the Picts and Scots, was re-conquered in some sort by 
 Theodosius, father of the next emperor, who extended the frontier 
 as' far as the rampart of Antoninus, and formed a new province, 
 named Valentia, out of the territory thus acquired. 
 
 c Valens, as an Arian, persecuted the orthodox party, and at the 
 same time ill-treated the pagan favorites of Julian. His incapacity 
 and worthlessness favored the elevation to the throne of P roc op ius, 
 a relation of Julian, who owed his election to the bought votes of 
 the soldiers at Constantinople. After maintaining his position for 
 nearly a year, Procopius was delivered up to his rival by his own 
 soldiers Wars of Valens. 1. The West Goths or Thervingians 
 (under their " Judge " Athanaric) were kept at bay for three years, 
 and prevented from crossing the frontier by an irregular army col- 
 lected from all parts of the Roman provinces and sent across the 
 Danube. 2. A war with the Persians respecting the right of nomi- 
 nation to the throne of Armenia and Iberia was not yet concluded, 
 when fresh outbreaks rendered the emperor's presence necessary on 
 the banks of the Danube. 
 
 Commencement of the immigrations. The 
 
 689 Huns having entered Europe from Eastern Asia and 
 
690 692. 164.] EUROPE. ROME. 315 
 
 joined the Alani (between the Caspian and Black sea), (689) 
 attacked the Goths, a partially christianized people, dwel- A 
 ling between the Don and the Danube. A portion of the 
 West Goths were permitted by Valens to settle in Mresia ; 
 but the severity of the Roman governor having driven 
 them to revolt, they in company with the Ostro-Goths 
 forced their way into Thrace, traversed Macedonia as far 
 as Thessaly and defeated Valens near Adrian o pie (378), 
 where the emperor and two-thirds of his soldiers were 
 slain. His successor in the east, 
 
 Theodosius (379 395), terminated the war with the 690 
 Goths by assigning to whole tribes of that r ation tracts of B 
 waste land in Moesia, Thrace, Phrygia, and Lydia. In 
 the last year of his reign, Theodosius re-united the eastern 
 and western empires, which he again divided between his 
 two sons, Arcadius receiving the east, and Honorius the 
 west, 395. 
 
 In the west, Valentinian I. was succeeded by his sons Gra- 691 
 tianus, and Valentinianus II. a child of seven years old- c 
 Gratian defeated the Alemanni near Colmar, and having received 
 intelligence of the death of his uncle (Valens), dispatched the 
 younger Theodosius into the east, and after he had delivered the 
 empire from the Goths, rewarded him with the eastern portion. 
 Gratian having rendered himself odious by favoring the barbarians, 
 the legions quartered in Britain called Maxim us to the throne, 
 and Gratian lost his life in attempting to escape from his rival. 
 Maximus reigned many years in Gaul, but having entered Italy, he 
 was defeated and put to death by Theodosius, to whom Valentinian 
 II. had fled for safety. Thus Valentinian became sole emperor, but 
 the management of public affairs was intrusted to Arbogastes, a 
 Frank, who had conquered Gaul for Theodosius. An attempt on 
 the part of the emperor to circumscribe the power of this favorite 
 occasioned his own assassination. The murderer did not however D 
 himself assume the imperial crown, but proclaimed Eu genius, the 
 magister ofiiciorum, who was defeated and executed by Theodosius, 
 upon which Arbogastes slew himself. Thus Theodosius became sole 
 emperor in the year 394. 
 
 164. The Western Eoman Empire to its Fall. 
 
 (395_476.) 
 
 Honorius (395 423), under the guardianship of the 692 
 Vandal Stilicho. Imperial residence at Ravenna (since 
 404). 
 
316 EUROPE. ROME. [693696. 164. 
 
 693 The two first wars with the West Goths [Visi- 
 A goths], Alaric, king of the West Goths, having invaded 
 
 Macedonia and Greece, and threatened Italy itself, under 
 pretence that the subsidy granted by Theodosius to his 
 countrymen had not been paid, Stilicho unexpectedly ap- 
 peared with a small fleet off Peloponnesus, whereupon 
 Alaric withdrew to Illyria. Having recruited his army, 
 the Gothic prince entered Upper Italy with his whole force, 
 but was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia ancl Verona, and 
 again retired into Illyria. 
 
 694 Several German tribes who had also imaded Italy under 
 B the command of Radagais, were permitted by Stilicho to 
 
 advance as far as Florence, where he blockaded them 
 with the assistance of other barbarians, and compelled the 
 greater part of them to surrender at discretion. 
 
 695 Stilicho having recalled the legions quartered in Britain 
 and on the Rhine for the protection of Italy, the German 
 tribes overran the western provinces without opposition, 
 the Alemanni settling in Alsace and Lorraine, the Franks 
 in north-western Gaul, the Burgundians in the districts 
 bordering on the Jura, and the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi 
 in Spain, whilst the tracts of country on the banks of the 
 Danube, which the invader had quitted, were occupied by 
 the Gepidse, Sarmatce, and especially by the Huns, who 
 took possession of Pannonia. 
 
 696 The third war with the West Goths. Stilicho 
 c having persuaded the senate to grant Alaric an indemnifi- 
 cation for sums expended in abortive preparations for a 
 common expedition (against Constantinople ?), was accused 
 by Olympius (a favorite of the emperor) of trafficking 
 with the barbarian, and suffered death. Alaric, who 
 probably had never received the subsidy voted to him, 
 now advanced into Italy, and blockaded Rome ; but con- 
 sented to raise the siege on payment of a large sum of 
 money by the inhabitants. The court at Ravenna having 
 refused his claim to rank as the first general in the service 
 of Honorius, Alaric persuaded the praef. urbi Attalus to 
 accept the imperial dignity ; but soon deposed him, and 
 
 D resumed his negotiations with Honorius. An ambuscade 
 near Ravenna occasioned another siege of Rome, which 
 was taken and given up to plunder during six (?) days in 
 the year 410. Alaric died at Consentia, on an expedition 
 
697, 698. 164.] EUROPE. ROME. 317 
 
 into Lower Italy. His brother-in-law and successor (696) 
 Ataulphus, concluded a peace with Honorius (whose sister A 
 Placidia he married), and led the West Goths into Gaul 
 (in 412), and Spain (414). 
 
 The western empire was now tottering to its fall for not only 697 
 were Gaul and Spain almost entirely in the hands of barbarian 
 invaders, but several rival emperors were striving with each other 
 and with Honorius for possession of the remaining portion. An 
 attempt was also made by the governor of Africa to depose Honorius 
 by landing in Umbria, but his whole army was cut to pieces in a 
 single engagement. Constantius, an Illyrian, who had subdued the 
 usurpers in Gaul, held the reins of government during the last years 
 of Honorius, married Placidia, the emperor's sister, and was in- 
 vested with the imperial dignity ; but died a short time before the 
 decease of Honorius. 
 
 Honorius (after the short usurpation of his secretary Johannes B 
 (423 425), who was never recognized by the court of Constanti- 
 nople) was succeeded by his son 
 
 Valentinianus III. (425 455), a child of six years 698 
 old, under the guardianship of his mother Placidia, who 
 conferred on Aetius the command-in-chief of the army 
 and the presidency of her council of state. The intrigues 
 of this minister involved his mistres in a dispute with 
 Bonifacius, governor of Africa, whom he advised the 
 empress to recall in order to test his fidelity, warning the 
 governor at the same time not to obey the command. On c 
 receiving this intelligence, Bonifacius, whose province was 
 infested by marauding African hordes, called in Genseric, 
 the fierce and cruel king of the Vandals. The barbarians 
 who landed in Africa in consequence of this invitation 
 soon forgot the distinction between friend and foe; and 
 after ravaging the whole northern coast, established a 
 Vandalic pirate state, of which Carthage was the capital. 
 Mauretania and Numidia remained faithful to the Roman 
 empire, but the rest of the province was entirely subject 
 to the barbarians, whose fleets rendezvoused in the African 
 ports, and rendered the navigation of the Mediterranean 
 exceedingly insecure. Britain, since the departure of the D 
 Roman legions, had been torn by intestine divisions and 
 harassed by the repeated incursions of hostile tribes. In 
 his distress one of the British princes called in some bands 
 of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, who landed under 
 Hengist and Horsa in the year 445 (?), expelled the Picts 
 
318 EUROPE. ROME. [699, 700. 164. 
 
 (698) and Scots, and settled in Britain, where they gradually 
 A established the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Genseric, 
 king of the Vandals, formed an alliance against the West 
 Goths and Latins with Attila, king of the Huns, who 
 invaded Gaul with an enormous force, composed of all the 
 nations subjected to his dominion from the Volga to the 
 Rhine. This army was defeated fey Aetius, in conjunction 
 with the West Goths (under Theodoric I.), the Burgun- 
 dians, and a portion of the Franks (under Meroveeus), in 
 the Catalaunian Fields (near Chalons-sur-Marne), in 
 the year 451 . Attila then invaded Italy, where he sacked 
 Aquileia, and ravaged the plains of Lombardy northwards 
 from the Po, driving a part of the inhabitants to tfee 
 lagunes of the Adriatic sea, where they founded the city 
 B of Venice. An attack on the capital was averted by the 
 intercession of a Roman deputation, headed by Bishop Leo. 
 The sudden death of Attila in the following year (453) was 
 succeeded by the dissolution of the Hunnish empire (com- 
 pare B. II. 6). Valentinian murdered Aetius (who 
 seems to have manifested a desire to secure the imperial 
 throne to his family by the marriage of his son with the 
 emperor's daughter), and was himself openly assassinated 
 on the Campus Martius by two senators, friends of Aetius, 
 at the instigation of the senator Procopius Maximus, whose 
 wife he had debauched. 
 
 699 Maximus (455) was called to the throne by the 
 c soldiers, whose support he had in all probability secured 
 
 previously to the death of the late emperor. The widowed 
 empress, Eudoxia, indignant at being compelled to marry 
 Maximus, avenged herself by calling in Genseric, king 
 of the Vandals, who entered the Tiber with his fleet, 
 plundered Rome, ravaged the whole line of coast from the 
 Tiber to Naples, and carried off the principal Romans to 
 Africa, in the hope of obtaining large sums for their 
 ransom. Maximus in attempting to fly was slain by his 
 own soldiers. 
 
 700 After his death the empire, which now comprehended 
 D little more than Italy itself, was ruled by eight emperors, 
 
 who followed one another in rapid succession. Of this 
 number, the six first were entirely dependent on the 
 Gothic chief, Ricimer, commandant of the foreign troops 
 in the service of Rome ; nor was the authority of any one 
 
701, 702. 164.] EUROPE. ROME. 310 
 
 of them respected beyond the limits of the district in which A 
 he actually resided. 
 
 1. The immediate successor of Maximus was Avitus (455, 456), 7QJ 
 Commander-in-chief of the Roman troops in Gaul, who rendered 
 himself contemptible by his excesses, and lost his throne and life in 
 consequence of a conspiracy. After an interregnum of seven 
 months, during which the Greek emperor (Marcianus) was re- 
 garded as regent, the imperial title was assumed by 
 
 2. Majorianus, commander-in-chief in the west, who seems to 
 have recovered the eastern coast of Spain in a war with the West 
 Goths. During his reign a Roman fleet fitted out against the 
 Yumlals was burnt by Genseric, but, on the other hand, the almost 
 yearly invasions of those barbarians were terminated by the con- 
 clusion of a peace with their leader. In consequence of an attempt 
 on the part of Majorian to circumscribe the influence of Ricimer, 
 he was deposed and murdered by that general, who now exercised 
 sovereign power in the name of his puppet 
 
 3. Livius Severus (461 465), but only in Italy, Marcellinus u 
 refusing to recognize his authority in Dalmatia, and ^Egidius (father 
 of Syagrius) in Gaul After the death of Severus, the western 
 empire was governed by Ricimer, in the name of the Greek emperor 
 Leo, who at last, with the consent of Ricimer, nominated 
 
 4 Anthemius (467 472). A large fleet fitted out by this 
 emperor, in conjunction with Leo, for the re-conquest of Africa, was 
 utterly destroyed by Genseric. Anthemius having quarrelled with 
 Ricimer, the latter caused 
 
 5. Anicius Olybrius to be proclaimed emperor, took posses- 
 sion of Rome in his name, and put Anthemius to death ; but soon 
 afterwards himself died, together with Olybrius, of a pestilential 
 disease. 
 
 6 Glycerius, who had assumed the imperial dignity without C 
 the sanction of the Greek emperor, was soon compelled to resign his 
 throne to 
 
 7. Julius Nepos, and he to his general Orestes, who proclaimed 
 his son 
 
 8. Romulus Augustulus. 
 
 Since the death of Ricimer, Italy, instead of being 702 
 ruled by one sovereign, had been divided between 
 Odoacer and Orestes, each of whom exercised supreme 
 authority in the district occupied by his army. Scarcely 
 had Orestes placed his son Romulus Augustulus on the 
 imperial throne, when he was besieged in Pavia by an 
 army composed- of Heruli, Rugii, and other German 
 tribes under the command of Odoacer, who carried the 
 city by storm, and having put Orestes to death, deposed 
 his son Romulus, and caused himself to be proclaimed king 
 of Italy in the year 476. 
 
 15 
 
320 EUROPE. ROME. [703, 704. 165 
 
 165. Religion, fyc. of the Romans. 
 
 703 1. Religion. 
 
 A The Romans were accustomed to ascribe the establish- 
 ment of their religion to their king, Numa Pompilius, to 
 whom they also attributed the formation of the sacerdotal 
 colleges, and the publication of the most ancient religious 
 records. To the original Sabino-Latin clement of the 
 Roman national religion was soon added a Tuscan, and 
 under the later kings the influence of Greece was also 
 manifested in the adaptation of her representations of the 
 gods and religious ceremonies to the peculiarities of the 
 Roman faith, which they served to develope rather than 
 
 B to destroy. Thus men believed concerning Jupiter, Juno, 
 and Minerva, all that was related by the Greeks of Zeus, 
 and Here, and Athene, as far as that belief was consistent 
 with the Roman character and history. The decline of 
 the Roman religion at the commencement of the first 
 century, before Christ, may be attributed to the introduc- 
 tion of the mystic worships of Egypt and of Asia, with 
 their dark superstitions, and to the distinction established 
 between the popular religion and that of the philosophers 
 and poets. In the last years of the republic there seems 
 to have been a complete dissolution of all religions as well 
 
 c as political relations. Notwithstanding the efforts of the 
 earlier emperors to check the propagation of strange 
 doctrines, idolatry and irreligion continued to increase, 
 whilst on the other hand Christianity, in spite of ten 
 fearful persecutions, steadily extended its sphere of action, 
 until its establishment as the state religion by Constantine 
 the Great. 
 
 704 The chief Deities of the Romans. 
 
 a The three Capitoline divinities. 1. Jupiter, as prince of the 
 air, is the author of all changes in the atmosphere ; rain and storm, 
 D thunder and lightning. He is supreme among the gods, and the 
 most powerful agent in the direction of human affairs (optimus 
 maximus), the protector of probity and virtue, the guardian of oaths, 
 landmarks, and all obligations which are based on fidelity and credit. 
 Among the many festivals celebrated in his honor, the most re- 
 markable were, the Capitoline, or great Roman Games, in the circus 
 maximus, and the Feriae Latinaj on the Alban mount. 2. Juno, the 
 queen of heaven, afforded the same protection to the female sex as 
 Jupiter to the male, and was the especjal patroness of all relations 
 
705 710. 165.] EUROPE. ROME. 321 
 
 founded on marriage ; she accompanied the woman from the cradle (704) 
 to the tomb, and befriended her in all the important occurrences of .4 
 life. 3. Minerva was the patroness of arts and manufactures. 
 She bestowed on the housewife the dexterity requisite for her handi- 
 work, inspired the warrior with cunning, prudence, and courage, 
 and imparted creative energy to the artist and the poet. 
 
 b. Of the planets only the two most important, the sun (sol) and 705 
 moon (luna) were invoked as deities. The earth was personified 
 under the name of Tellus. 
 
 c. Deities of the lower world. The infernal empire (like its ruling 706 
 divinity, was termed Orcus, Dis (i. e. dives). To him belongs in 
 
 all probability the name Consus, and the festival Consualia. His 
 consort, the queen of this shadowy realm, was called Libitlna. 
 
 d. Deities of the elements. 1. Of water: Neptunus. 2. Of fire: 707 
 Vu lean us, the god of furnaces and forges; and Vesta, or the fire B 
 of the hearth, who was honored by the women in every private 
 house at each meal, as well as publicly in her temple, under the 
 direction of the Vestal virgins (see 712, 5). 
 
 e. Deities presiding over agriculture and the rearing of cattle. 7Q8 
 The introduction of agriculture was ascribed by the Latins to their 
 ancient king Saturn us ; to whom they also attributed the first esta- 
 blishment of civilization (hence the golden age). His wife Ops 
 
 (t. c. wealth) was worshipped on earth under the title of Demeter. 
 The Saturnalia, or feast in honor of Saturn, as guardian of all fruits 
 in gardens and fields, was the general harvest festival especially 
 designed for the recreation of slaves. To these Latin rural deities 
 were added, about B.C. 500, three Grecian, viz. Ceres, Liber, and 
 Libera, who had their temples and feasts (Cerealia) in common. 
 The protectress of the flocks was Pales, whose feast, the Palilia, C 
 was held on the anniversary of the building of Rome, probably be- 
 cause Romulus established her worship when he founded the city. 
 Mars, also, their highest divinity next to Jupiter, and the father of 
 their founder by a vestal virgin, was honored by the ancient Latius, 
 not only as the god of war, but as the patron of agriculture and all 
 other industrial pursuits of the male sex. On the Campus Martius, 
 which was dedicated to him, were held races twice a year, and every 
 four years a census of the Roman citizens. (For the Salii, see 
 712, 6.) 
 
 f. The oracular deities of the Latins were 1. Their deified king 709 
 Faun us, whose responses were given in dreams, or by mysterious 
 voices in forests. 2. Fauna, a daughter, sister, or wife of Faunus. D 
 This deity, who was known among mortals as the " good goddess," 
 communicated her oracles exclusively to females, as Faunus to males. 
 
 3. Carmentisand the C amen as, prophetic nymphs, among whom 
 the most renowned was Egeria, the instructress of king Numa. The 
 worship of Apollo was introduced at a later period, but that of 
 Diana seems to have been established contemporaneously with the 
 settlement of the Sabines and Latins as plebeians at Rome. 
 
 g. Deities presiding over physical and moral events. 1. Janus, 7JQ 
 who directs the commencement of every undertaking, opens and closes 
 
 all things ; and at the beginning of every year, month, and day, be- 
 holds with his double countenance both the past and future. His 
 
322 EUROPE. ROME. [711, 712. 165. 
 
 (710) principal festival was on New Year's day. At the commencement of 
 A a war the temple of Janus, founded by Numa (strictly speaking, a 
 mere gate), which was kept closed in time of peace, was solemnly 
 opened by the consul. 2. The Pare, or goddesses of fate, who 
 indicate the unchangeable destiny of man, as settled at his birth, in 
 contradistinction to 3. Fortuna, or chance, the directress of 
 variable events, to whom men addressed themselves at every important 
 crisis of their lives. 4. The worship oi Venus, an ancient national 
 divinity of the Latins, derived its importance from the identification 
 of that goddess with the Greek Aphrodite. 5. Divine honors were 
 also paid to personifications of abstract ideas ; such as Salus, Pax, 
 Concordia, Libertas, Felicitas, Faustitas, Bonus Eventus, Juventus, 
 Victoria, Terminus, and especially to moral qualities ; as Mens, 
 B Pietas, Pudicitia, Virtus, Honos, Spes, and, above all, Fides. Amor, 
 Cupido, and Voluptas, were known only through the Greeks and the 
 poets. 6. Among the deities of t r a d e and gain the most important 
 was Mercurius (from mercari). 7. B e 1 1 o n a was the goddess 
 of war. 8. A temple was first erected to Roma in the reign of 
 Augustus. 
 
 7U h. Life, death, and existence after death are severally represented in 
 the Roman religion by 1. The Genii, or guardian spirits, who 
 attend men as constant companions from their birth to the hour of 
 their death. 2. The Manes, or souls of the dead in general. 
 3. The L a r e s, a sort of saints, who either protected the common- 
 wealth, like the great Greek heroes (such as Romulus, Remus, Qui- 
 rinus, Numa, Tatius, &c .), or were worshipped as the guardians of 
 private families. The Lares were also distinguished according to 
 the places in which they were supposed to exercise their power ; and 
 in this point of view the most important were the House-Lares, or 
 Penates. 
 
 712 The principal priesthoods. 
 
 a. The priestly colleges. 1. The P o n t i f i c e s, four, eight, fifteen, 
 sixteen, chosen for life by the college, were charged with the super- 
 intendence of public and private worship, as well as the management 
 of the entire priesthood and the administration of ecclesiastical law. 
 The president of this college, the pontifex maximus, who was chosen 
 by the people, regulated the calendar, announced the festivals, and 
 wrote the Annales Maximi. 2. The Augur es, three, four, nine, 
 fifteen, chosen also for life by co-optatio, ascertained the will 
 of the gods on all public questions by means of a. Atmospheric 
 phenomena, as thunder, lightning, the shooting of stars, &c. ; 6. the 
 flight and cry of birds ; c. the manner in which certain sacred aniinnls 
 D devoured their food. The inspection of victims was conducted by 
 the Harusplces (foreigners hired for that purpose). Auspicia are 
 those signs which present themselves unsought ; auguria those which 
 are vouchsafed in answer to prayer. 3. The inspectors of the 
 Sibylline books, two, ten, fifteen, who, on important occasions 
 and in times of great difficulty, were empowered by the senate to 
 consult (in presence of the chief magistrates) the books purchased, < 
 according to tradition, by Tarquinius Superbus. 4. The twenty 
 F e t i a 1 e s, appointed by Numa, or Ancus Martius, for the purpose ot 
 proclaiming war, and concluding treaties of peace and alliance in the 
 
713 717. 165.] EUROPE. ROME. 323 
 
 name of the Roman people. 5. The Vestal Virgins (four; from (712) 
 the time of Tarq. Priscus six), subject to the Pontifex Maximus, by A 
 whom they were chosen between the ages of six and ten. They 
 were required to continue in the service of the temple thirty years ; 
 of which the first ten were employed in learning their duty, the next 
 ten in discharging it, and the last in instructing others. Their most 
 important duties we~e the keeping watch over the Palladium, and 
 maintaining the sacred fire. 6. The Salii Palatini, established by 
 Numa, as guardians of the shield of Mars (anclle), which fell down 
 from heaven, and of the eleven made in imitation of it. 
 
 b. The priests of particular deities were termed Flamines, and 713 
 their wives Flaminicae. They were distinguished as Flamines ma- 
 jores and minores. To this order belonged the priests of the three 
 principal guardian deities of Rome, Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus 
 (Flamen Dialis, Martian's, Quirfnalis) . After the expulsion of the B 
 Tarquins, the duty of offering public sacrifices, which had previously 
 been discharged by the kings, was intrusted to a rex sacrorum, or 
 rex sacrificulus. 
 
 M odes of worship. 714 
 
 The holy places were either mere consecrated inclosures (fana, 
 delubra) or temples (templa, redes,), with two altars; one of which 
 (ara) was intended for libations and incense, and the other (generally 
 termed altare) for burnt sacrifices. The sacred usages consisted of 
 prayers, vows, consecrations, purifications, sacrifices, feasts, and public 
 games. 
 
 2. The art of war was more successfully cultivated 715 
 by the Romans than by any other nation of antiquity. 
 
 a. Land force. Every Roman citizen, from his six- c 
 teenth to bis forty-fifth year, was bound, or, in the language 
 of the best days of the republic, privileged to perform 
 military duty in the field ; the capite censi and freedmen 
 alone being exempt, until the time of Marius. In the 
 arrangement of the legions, they adopted, until the time of 
 the Punic wars, the principle of the centurial constitution 
 of Servius Tullius. 
 
 The legion consisted originally of three divisions of 1200 men, of 716 
 which the two first were heavily and the third lightly armed. At a D 
 later period (from the time of Camillus) there were five divisions, 
 or cohorts (hastati, principes, triarii, rorarii, accensi) ; each cohort 
 consisting of fifteen maniples, each maniple of two centuries, a Roman 
 and Latin, and each century of thirty men, besides the centurion ; in 
 all 4500 men (at a later period 6000). To each legion was attached 
 a body of cavalry, generally 300 strong. Two legions composed, in 
 most instances, a consular army. The wings of the main army were 
 covered by the auxiliaries, who were organized in the same manner, 
 but with a much greater proportion of cavalry. 
 
 Towards the end of the republic, the citizens, and at a 717 
 later period the allies, were excused from military service, 
 
324 EUROPE. ROME. [718, 719. 165. 
 
 (717) which was performed by mercenary troops from various 
 A countries. The emperors organized a standing body-guard 
 (the ten cohortes praetorianae). The army was commanded 
 at different periods by the kings, consuls, dictators, prae- 
 tors, and emperors, to whom a quaestor and a certain 
 number of legati were assigned as lieutenants. At the 
 head of each legion were the tribuni militum, and under 
 them the centuriones. Constantino the Great placed in 
 command of his entire force a magister perditum and ma- 
 gister equitum. Some sort of remuneration seems to have 
 been granted under the kings, but the practice of giving 
 regular pay to each legionary was not introduced until a 
 short time before the Veientine war (compare page 236, D). 
 B Rewards were also given in the shape of participation in 
 the booty, crowns of different descriptions, weapons of 
 honor, and after the civil wars allotments of land, the 
 title of imperator for the Commander-in-chief, solemn 
 thanksgivings, and, above all, the triumph (or at least the 
 ovatio). 
 
 718 b. The maritime force. (For its origin, see page 250, c.) 
 The Roman fleets consisted of vessels of burden, light 
 transports, and from 100 to 300 ships of war, with three 
 or five banks of oars, manned with citizens of the lowest 
 class, freedmen, and foreigners, who served either as sea- 
 men or marines. 
 
 719 3. Literature. 
 
 c The history of Roman literature may be divided into 
 four periods ; of which the first begins with Livius Andro- 
 nicus, about 240 years before Christ. Of the period an- 
 tecedent to that date we possess nothing beyond a few 
 religious hymns, oracular responses, table songs, a kind of 
 popular drama (the Atellanae), some meagre chronicles, 
 and fragments of laws and inscriptions. The foundation 
 of Roman literature, properly so called, was laid in the 
 year 240 in the adaptation of some Greek poetical works, 
 which were scon followed by similar attempts in prose. 
 
 D The second period, from the death of Sulla to that of 
 Augustus, was the golden age of Roman literature, which 
 flourished under the influence of Greek civilization and 
 learning. Eloquence especially developed itself as an in- 
 dependent study, and pervaded every department of lite- 
 rature, which assumed in consequence a decidedly rhe- 
 
720, 721. 165.] EUROPE. ROME. 325 
 
 torical character. The different kinds of poetry (with the (719) 
 exception of satire) were formed on Greek models, the A 
 subjects being borrowed from the Greek mythology, and 
 the lack of invention supplied by elaborate diction. 
 
 The silver age, from the death of Augustus to the reign 
 of Hadrian, was distinguished by an attempt to surpass the 
 elegance and sublimity of the classical period by means of 
 exaggeration, refinement, and rhetorical bombast. This 
 depraved taste was not merely displayed in poetry, which 
 had now lost its simplicity and natural character, and in 
 eloquence, the chief employment of the Romans, and the 
 groundwork of all scientific instruction ; but pervaded all 
 their studies, and gave to the works of this period a de- 
 clamatory character. 
 
 In the last, or brazen age, from A. D. 410 to 476, the B 
 belles lettres [rejected almost all extraneous support, and] 
 daily became more worthless and insignificant : subtle re- 
 finement, exaggeration, and the most ridiculous bombast in 
 language and expression, now reigned in every department 
 of literature, and drove good taste entirely from the field. 
 
 A. Poetry. 720 
 
 a. The Epos. The first attempts of the Romans in 
 Epic poetry consisted partly of translations from Greek 
 poems, especially those of Homer, and partly versified 
 narratives of the wars and heroic deeds of the republic. 
 Thus Ennius wrote an epic history of Rome from the 
 most ancient times to those in which he lived (Annales, 
 eighteen books), introducing at the same time the Hex- 
 ameter metre into Roman literature. A more intimate c 
 acquaintance with the correct and polished productions of 
 the Alexandrian school directed epic poetry into two princi- 
 pal channels, viz. the historical and didactic epos. Both 
 these departments were represented by P. Virgilius 
 Maro (B. c. f 19), and the didactic by Ovidius Naso 
 (A. D. f 17), in his Ars amandi, Remedia amoris, Meta- 
 morphoseon libri, and Fastorum libri. 
 
 b. The drama. In tragedy the Roman writers (Livius 721 
 Andronicus, Cn. Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Attius, and D 
 in Nero's time L. Annaeus Seneca) distinguished them- 
 selves merely as polished translators or imitators of Greek 
 models. In comedy, also, they confined themselves at 
 first to the imitation or free translation of the so-called 
 
326 EUROPE. ROME. [722726. 165. 
 
 (721) New Comedy of the Greeks ; as we find in the instances 
 
 A of M. Aldus Plautus(f 184) and P. Terentius Afer 
 
 (Terence: f 
 
 That they had, however, also a Roman drama, strictly so called, is 
 evident from the distinction between comcedia togata and pa Ilia ta ; 
 the former being the national drama, the latter an imitation of the 
 Greek models. One form of the comcedia togata was the Mimes, 
 which represented, like the Atellan farces, only scenes of Roman 
 life, but in more polished language, and with more of dramatic unity. 
 By degrees language ceased to be essential to these Mimes, which 
 degenerated into a mere exhibition of gesticulation, with dancing and 
 music, termed Pantomimus. 
 
 722 c. Lyric poetry, which developed itself at the period 
 when Greek influence was predominant, always retained 
 in some degree its character of being a mere imitation. 
 The most remarkable performances in this department are 
 the elegiac poems of Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius, 
 Ovid, and the Odes and Epodes of Horace (B. c. f 8). 
 
 723 d. Satire is a species of poetry, purely Roman, origi- 
 B nating in an ancient popular theatrical representation, 
 
 termed Satura, which was raised by C. Lucilius to the rank 
 of a literary production. A more severe as well as polished 
 character was given to satirical poetry by Q. Horatius 
 Flaccus [Horace], who good humoredly exposes the per- 
 versities and absurdities of vice ; whilst his graver suc- 
 cessors (in the first century after Christ), Persius and 
 Juvenal is [Juvenal], lash with extreme severity the gross 
 immoralities of their time. 
 
 724 e - The epigram was introduced in the reign of Augustus, but the 
 c only complete collection which we possess of such poems is that of 
 
 Martialis [Martial]. 
 
 725 f' ^ ne fbl e an d ^yl found few admirers. P h se d r u s published 
 a Latin imitation of the Greek fables of ^Esop, and Virgil of the 
 Idyls of Theocritus. 
 
 726 B. Prose. 
 
 a. History (see page 198). 
 
 D b. Oratory was the most distinguished and influential 
 branch of Roman literature. At an early period Roman 
 generals and statesmen, such as Brutus, Camillus. the elder 
 Cato (in more than 150 speeches), the younger Scipio Afri- 
 canus, and the younger Gracchus, were wont to influence 
 "their con temporaries by the force of natural eloquence, long 
 before the introduction (in defiance of repeated decrees of 
 
727, 728. 165.] EUROPE. ROME. 327 
 
 the senate) of a regular system of instruction in oratory, (726) 
 by Greek rhetoricians. From this period a rhetorical and A 
 philosophical education was the surest road to honor and 
 influence. Among the distinguished orators who displayed 
 their talents in the forum were Crassus, Antonius Orator, 
 Hortensius, and above all M. Tullius Cicero (106 43), 
 the great master of Roman eloquence. 
 
 With the decline of the republic, oratory lost its influence over the 727 
 government, and gradually confined its exhibitions to the courts of B 
 justice, and schools of rhetoric. The orations pronounced in honor 
 of the later emperors, in imitation of the panegyricus of Pliny on 
 Trajan, display it in its most debased character. Besides the practice, 
 the theory and history of eloquence were also taught (the former, in 
 some measure, according to Greek systems), principally by Cicero 
 and Quinctilian. 
 
 c. The letters of C i c e r o and of his imitator, the younger Pliny, 
 furnish us with much valuable information concerning the domestic 
 life of the Romans, and the character of their contemporaries. 
 
 d. In philosophy the Romans confined themselves to the c 
 study of the various Greek systems (especially those of 
 the Academy, of Epicurus, and of the Stoa), and their 
 eclectic application to practical life, especially as regarded 
 oratory, without attempting the formation of any inde- 
 pendent system. The philosophical writings of Cicero 
 entitle him to the highest praise as the introducer and dis- 
 seminator of the Greek philosophy at Rome. 
 
 In the earlier days of the monarchy, the most attractive system 726 
 seems to have been that of the stoa [or the Stoic Philosophy], to 
 which Seneca, the tutor and counsellor of Nero, manifests a de- k 
 cided inclination in his numerous writings. In the second century, 
 stoicism, which still found a worthy admirer in the emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius, was compelled to give place to Neoplatonism. 
 
 e. Under this head we may also class natural philosophy. A most D 
 valuable attempt to add to the results of Alexandrian learning by 
 discoveries of his own, was made by the elder P 1 i n y in his great 
 encyclopaedia, to which he gave the title of Historia naturalis. In 
 the other practical sciences Rome possesses few writers of reputation. 
 
 /. Jurisprudence. At a very early period the Roman jurists (jure 
 consulti), began to frame a system of legal science by examining the 
 existing laws, reducing them to first principles, collecting precedents 
 and authoritative legal maxims, &c., but it was not until the second 
 and third centuries, that jurisprudence attained its highest degree of 
 excellence under Gaius, Papinianus, Ulpianus, and Paulus, whose 
 authority as jurists was confirmed by imperial edicts. Their writings 
 were the groundwork of later compilations, especially of the corpus 
 juris civilis, published by Justinian. 
 
328 EUROPE. ROME. [729, 730. 165. 
 
 729 4. Arts. 
 
 A a. Architecture. Under the kings, and for a considerable 
 time after the establishment of the republic, the temples 
 and other public works (circus, capitol, cloacae, water- 
 courses, military roads), were completed with the assistance 
 of the Etruscans. After the subjugation of Sicily and 
 Greece, and especially since the time of Sulla, the columns 
 and statues brought from conquered countries served to 
 adorn the Roman edifices ; Greek artists also visited Rome, 
 and the massive Etruscan masonry was partly superseded, 
 and partly amalgamated with the columnar architecture of 
 
 B Greece. In the latter days of the republic, and under the 
 first emperors, the glory of Grecian art was revived at 
 Rome, but its grand and majestic character was soon 
 destroyed, especially after the time of the Antonines, by 
 a load of meretricious ornament. In opposition to this 
 superfluity of decoration, the Roman architects, about the 
 time of Constantine the Great, fell into the contrary ex- 
 treme of excessive, and almost rude, simplicity. For an 
 account of the principal public buildings, see 433 (p. 210). 
 
 c b. Sculpture. The earliest specimens of Roman art are 
 of the coarsest material, generally wood or terra cotta. 
 Bronze seems to have been employed from the year of the 
 city 300, at first for statues of celebrated men, and soon 
 afterwards for representations of the gods. The translation 
 to Rome of the best specimens of Grecian art, from the con- 
 quered cities of Sicily, Macedonia, and Greece, succeeded, 
 as it shortly was, by the arrival of a crowd of Grecian 
 sculptors, improved in the highest degree the taste of the 
 Roman artist. Notwithstanding, however, the eagerness 
 with which he copied these Grecian models, enough of 
 peculiarity still remained to give a decidedly Roman 
 character to his productions. 
 
 730 The demand for works of art gained ground with the increasing 
 taste for magnificence in public and private buildings. The decora- 
 tion of the numerous edifices erected by Augustus and his friends, 
 as well as by succeeding emperors until the reign of Commodus, 
 employed a number of artists, whose names for the most part are 
 unknown. After the time of the Antonines, works of art abounded, 
 in the shape of statues of the emperors and their relatives, sarco- 
 phagi and urns in marble, alabaster, and other materials ; but in all 
 these productions there was a want of vigor, study, and system ; 
 nor has the name of a single artist of that date been handed down 
 to posterity. 
 
731, 732. 160.] EUROPE. ROME. 329 
 
 c. Painting. Until the reign of Augustus, the professors (730) 
 of this art at Rome were almost exclusively Greeks, whose A 
 pictures represented the triumphs of Roman generals, and 
 mythological subjects. The fresco paintings so common 
 in the time of the empire, were, for the most part, mere 
 mechanical copies from ancient masters. 
 
 Trade and manufactures. 731 
 
 The Romans, like the Greeks, abandoned trade and 
 manufactures to foreigners, freedmen, and slaves, as being 
 employments unworthy the attention of free citizens. In 
 the latter days of the republic, however, associations were 
 formed by the knights for farming the revenue, transacting 
 the business of bankers and money-changers, and conduct- 
 ing various commercial enterprises. The trade of Rome B 
 was entirely passive, no productions either of nature or art 
 being exported to foreign countries. The imports were 
 grain (from Sicily, the province of Africa, Egypt, Syria, 
 Asia Minor, and Pontus), slaves, and, in the latter days 
 of the republic, and under the emperors, various articles 
 of luxury from India, Arabia, Syria, Egypt, &c. 
 
 166. Historico-Geograpldcal View of the Roman Empire* 
 A. European countries. 
 
 1. Italia, as far as the Rubicon and the Alps, from 732 
 266. Gallia Cisalpina, which had been subjugated as early 
 
 as the year 221, was considered a part of Italy in Caesar's 
 time (49), but Liguria and the dominions of the Garni, 
 Istri, and Veneti were not included until the reign of 
 Augustus. 
 
 2. S i c i 1 i a, with its circumjacent islands. The Cartha- c 
 ginian portion from 241, the whole island from 210. 
 
 3. Sardinia and Corsica from 238. 
 
 4. Hispania treated as a province from 206, entirely 
 subjugated in 19, divided into H. citerior or eastern, and 
 H. ulterior or southern. The whole peninsula divided by 
 Augustus into three provinces, Lusitania, Bsetica, and 
 Tarraconensis. 
 
 5. Gallia Transalplna. The province or country on D 
 the southern coast from the Alps to the Pyrenees as early 
 as the year 121 ; the remainder after the year 51. The 
 
330 EUROPE. ROME. [733, 734. 166. 
 
 (732) whole country divided by Augustus into four provinces. 
 
 A a. G. Narbonensis. b. G. Aquitanica. c. G. Lugdu- 
 nensis. d. G. Belgica. The last of these provinces was 
 subdivided in the time of the empire into three portions, 
 Belgium proper, Germania superior on the Upper Rhine, 
 and Germania inferior on the Lower Rhine. 
 
 6. Britannia Roman a (or England with southern 
 Scotland), from A. D. 85. Its frontier towards Britannia 
 Barbara or Caledonia often varied, and was protected by 
 walls and mounds. Divided by Septimius Severus into 
 Britannia superior and inferior. 
 
 B 7. In north-western Germany the Batavi, from the 
 time of the campaigns of Drusus, and the Frisii and 
 Chauci, until the Balavian war of liberation, were subject 
 to the Romans, who reckoned also the Chatti and Cherusci 
 among their vassals, until the defeat of Varus. 
 
 In south-western Germany. The Mattiaci between the Main 
 and Taunus, and the inhabitants of the decumates agri were Roman 
 vassals. 
 
 The agri extended eastwards from the upper Danube, and the 
 lower Main to the limes transrhenanus, or great Roman line of forti- 
 fication (a ditch protected by palisades), which ran from the Main 
 across the Jaxt and Kocher, and joined the limes Rhaeticus (devil's 
 wall). This territory was perhaps acquired in Domitian's campaign 
 against the Chatti, A. D. 84. 
 
 c 8. Rhaetia (with Vindelicia), from the year 15. 
 
 9. Noricum, from 15. 
 
 10. Pannonia, conquered in 33, reduced to the con- 
 dition of a province probably by Tiberius, divided into 
 P. superior and inferior. 
 
 11. Mcesia, from 29, divided into M. superior and 
 inferior. 
 
 12. Thracia, after its subjugation in the year 74, was 
 still governed by tributary kings, until the reign of Claudius 
 or Vespasian, when it became a Roman province. 
 
 D 13. lllyricum or Dalmatia. A part of the Illyrian 
 coast was subdued in 228, and the whole country in 168 
 became a dependency of Rome. To this province were 
 added the dominions of the Japydse and Dalmatians (con- 
 quered in 33), and of the Liburni, who, it would appear, 
 submitted voluntarily to the Romans. 
 
 734 The whole district was called the province of Dalmatia, from the 
 oame of that nation which had withstood the Romans longer than 
 
735. 166.] EUROPE. ROME. 331 
 
 any other. At a later period it was denominated Illyria. The (734) 
 southern portion, or Illyria Graeca, belonged to the province of Ma- A 
 cedonia. 
 
 14. Macedonia, conquered in 168, a province in 148. 
 Thessaly and Illyria added. 
 
 15. Epirus from 167. 
 
 16. Achaia, or central Greece, and the Peloponnesus, 
 from 146. 
 
 17. Dacia, from A. D. 106 to 270. 
 
 18. Greta, 66, formed a province in conjunction with 
 the empire of Gyrene, conquered in 96. 
 
 B. Countries in Asia. 
 
 1. Asia Proconsularis, from 130, comprised Mysia, 735 
 Lydia, Caria, and the greater part of Phrygia. B 
 
 2. Pamphylia, with the southern portion of Pisidia, 
 from about 78. Lycia was added to this province by the 
 emperor Claudius. 
 
 3. Cilicia (proper or eastern), from 75. 
 
 4. Cappadocia, from A. D. 18, to which was added the 
 greater part of Pont us (governed until the reign of Nero 
 by its own tributary kings), together with Armenia 
 minor (by Tiberius). 
 
 5. Galatia (from 25), to which Augustus annexed c 
 almost the whole of Paphlagonia. 
 
 6. Bithynia, from 75, to which Pompey added the 
 districts of Pontus and Augustus, the western portion of 
 Paphlagonia. 
 
 7. Armenia major, from A. D. 106 117, then under 
 tributary kings until A. D. 363. 
 
 8. Mesopotamia, A. D. 106 11 7, then again 165 363. 
 
 9. Assyria, A. D. 106117. 
 
 10. Syria with Phcenice from 64, and CommageneD 
 from the time of Tiberius. To this province was added 
 Palsestina (dependent from the year 63), as a part of 
 the Roman province of Syria under procurators unin- 
 terruptedly from the year of our Lord 44. Also Arabia 
 Petrsea, from A. D. 105. 
 
 11. Cyprus from 58. 
 
 12. The provincia insularum comprised, from the 
 time of Vespasian, the islands of Lesbos, Samos, Chios, 
 and Rhodes. 
 
332 EUROPE. ROME. [736, 737. 166. 
 
 736 To the Romans were subject also the kings of Colchis 
 A (or Lazica), and of the empire of the Bosporus, on the 
 
 Tauric Chersonesus, after the conclusion of the third 
 Mithridatic war, as well as the kings of Iberia, at least 
 from the time of Trajan. 
 
 C. African Countries. 
 
 737 1. jEgyptus, with the sandy line of coast, as far 
 westward as Cyrene (from 30). 
 
 2. Africa propria with Numidia. The Cartha- 
 ginian portion (Zeugitana and Byzacium) from 146. Nu- 
 midia (eastwards as far as the altars of the Philaeni) from 
 46. The former was termed Old, the other New, Africa. 
 B 3. Mauretania, or Mauritania, a province from the 
 time of Claudius, divided into M. Tingitana (so named 
 from the city of Tingis), and M. Csesariensis, which derived 
 its name from its ancient capital Csesarea. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 FIRST PEBIOD. From the rise of the most ancient states to the 
 reign of Cyrus, B. c. 2000558. 
 
 2000-1000. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 About 
 2000 
 About 
 1500 
 
 ABRAHAM. Nirarod. Niraus. Semiramis. Invasion of Egypt 
 
 by Hyksos. 
 MOSES. Return of the Israelites from Egypt to Palestine. 
 
 Sesostris. 
 1194__'H84. The Trojan War. 
 
 1104. Migration af the Dorians, or Heraclldae, to Peloponnesus. 
 1095 975. MONARCHY IN PALESTINE. Saul, David, Solomon. 
 1068. Abolition of monarchy at Athens. Archons. 
 
 1000-900. 
 975. Division of Palestine into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 
 
 900800. 
 880. Lycurgus. Carthage founded. 
 
 800700. 
 
 776. First Olympiad. 
 753. ROME FOUNDED. 
 747. JEra. of Nabonassar. The Babylonians and Medes throw off 
 
 the Assyrian yoke. 
 
 722. Conquest of the kingdom of Israel by Salmanassar [Shalma- 
 neser]. 
 
 700600. 
 
 656. Psammetichus sole monarch in Egypt. 
 624. Dracon legislator at Athens. 
 
 604. Dissolution of the Assyrian Empire. Defeat of Necho nea. 
 Circesium. 
 
 600500. 
 
 694. Solon legislator at Athens. 
 586. Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 560. Pisistratus at Athens. 
 
 558. END OF THE MEDIAN, AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PERSIAN 
 EMPIRE, BY CYRUS. 
 
334 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. From Cyru* to the death of Alexander the Great, 
 
 B. c. 558323. 
 B. c. 
 
 558529. Cyrus. 
 538. Babylonia a Persian province. 
 529522. Cambyses. 
 525. Egypt a Persian province. 
 522. Pseudosmerdis. 
 521-485. Darius I. 
 
 510. Expulsion of the Pisistratidae from Athens. Clisthenes. 
 509-^30. ROME A REPUBLIC. 
 500 449. Insurrection of the lonians. 
 
 500400. 
 
 494. Secession of the plebs from Rome. 
 
 492 479. Defensive war of the Greeks against the Persians. 
 
 490. Victory of Miltiades at Marathon. 
 
 485465. Xerxes I. 
 
 480. Battles of Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis. The Carthagi- 
 nians defeated by Gelon, near Himera. 
 
 479. Battles of Plattete and Mycale. 
 
 478 449. Aggressive war of the Greeks against the Persians. 
 
 477 (?). Transfer of the maritime Hegemony from Sparta to 
 Athens. 
 
 469. Victory of Cimon on the Eurymedon. 
 
 465424. Artaxerxes I. 
 
 465 456. The third Messenian war. 
 
 451 450. Legislation of the decemviri at Rome. 
 
 449. Battle at Salamis in Cyprus. 
 
 444. Rogations of the tribune C. Canuleius and his colleagues. 
 
 431404. 1 HE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 430. The plague at Athens. 
 
 429. Pericles dies. 
 
 428. The island Lesbos revolts from Athens. 
 
 424. Xerxes II. Sogdianus. 
 
 424405. Darius II. Nothus. 
 
 422. Cleon and Brasidas slain at Amphipolis. 
 
 421. Peace of Nicias. 
 
 418. Renewal of the war. 
 
 415 413. Enterprise of the Athenians against Sicily. 
 
 410. Victory of Alcibiades at Cyzicus. 
 
 407. Return of Alcibiades to Athens. His disgrace. 
 
 406. Callicratidas defeated off the Arginusian islands. 
 
 405. Lysander victorious at JEgospotamos. 
 
 405 362. Artaxerxes II. 
 
 404. Athens taken by Lysander. The thirty tyrants. 
 
 404 395. Last war of the Romans against Veii. 
 
 403. Expulsion of the thirty tyrants from Athens. 
 
 401. The younger Cyrus slain at Cunaxa. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 335 
 
 400300. 
 B. C. 
 
 394 387. The Corinthian war. 
 
 394. Lysander slain at Haliartus, Conon victorious at Cnidus. 
 389. The Romans defeated on the Allia. ROME TAKEN BY THE 
 
 GAULS. 
 
 387. Peace of Antalcidas. 
 378 362. War between Sparta and Thebes. 
 376. The Lycinian rogations accepted in 336. 
 371. Victory of Epaminondas and Pelopidas at Leuctra. 
 366. The praetura urbana. The curule aedileship. 
 365. L. Sextius the first plebeian consul. 
 362. Epaminondas falls at Mantinea. 
 362338. Artaxerxes III. 
 359336. Philip II. of Macedonia. 
 357 355. War of the confederates against Athens. 
 355346. The Phocian, or holy war. 
 342 340. First war of Pome with the Samnites. 
 339337. War of Rome with the Latins. 
 338. Philip II. defeats the Greeks at Chaeronea. 
 336330. Darius IV. Codomannus. 
 336 323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 334. Alexander defeats the Persians on the Granicus. 
 
 333. at Issus. 
 
 332. conquers Syria, Cyprus, Phoenicia, Palestine, 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 331. vanquishes the Persians at Gaugamela. 
 
 327326. Alexander's expedition to Western India. 
 326324. Return of Alexander to Babylon. 
 325 304. Second war of Rome with the Samnites. 
 323. Death of Alexander. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. From the death of Alexander the Great, to the 
 reign of Augustus, B. c. 323 30. 
 
 323322. The Samian war. 
 
 323 321. EGYPT FLOURISHES UNDER THE THREE FIRST PTOLEMIES. 
 
 321. Defeat of the Romans at Candium. 
 
 314 301. Two wars of Antigonus with the satraps of the west. 
 
 312 64. THE SYRIAN EMPIRE UNDER THE SELEUCIDJE. 
 
 309. Victory of Q. Fabius Maximus over the Etruscans at Perusia. 
 
 301. Antigonus defeated at Ipsus. 
 
 300200. 
 
 298290. Third war of Rome with the Samnites. 
 295. Victory of Q. Fabius Maximus over the Samnites and their 
 
 allies at Sentinum. 
 
 282 272. War of Rome with Tarcntum and Pyrrhus. 
 280. Pyrrhus victorious at Heraclea. 
 
 Macedonia and Greece invaded by the Gauls. 
 
 Formation of the jEtolian, and renewal of the Achaean 
 
 league. 
 
336 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 279. Pyrrhus victorious at Asculum. 
 
 275. - defeated at Beneventum. 
 
 266. Italy completely subjected to Rome. 
 
 264241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. 
 
 260. First naval victory of the Romans, gained by C. Duilius, off 
 
 242. Victory of C. Lutatius Catulus at the ^Egatian islands. 
 
 241. Sicily the first Roman province. 
 
 218201. SECOND PUNIC WAR. 
 
 218. Hannibal victorious on the Ticinus and Trebia. 
 
 217. ---- - - Trasimene lake. 
 
 216. - at Cannes. 
 
 212. Syracuse taken. 
 
 210. The whole of Sicily Roman. 
 
 207. Defeat of Hasdrubal on the Metaurus. 
 
 206. Spain a Roman province. 
 
 202. Hannibal defeated at Zama. 
 
 200100. 
 
 200 133. Wars of the Romans in Spain. 
 
 197. T. Quinctius Flaminius defeats Philip III. at "Cynoscephalae. 
 196. T. Quinctius proclaims the freedom of Greece. 
 192190. War of the Romans with Antiochus the Great, of Syria. 
 171 168. War of the Romans with Perseus. 
 167. Defeat of Perseus at Pydna. 
 
 The Jews revolt from Antiochus IV. 
 
 167 39. The Jews under the Asmonaeans or Maccabees. 
 
 150 146. THIRD PUNIC WAR. 
 
 148. Macedonia a Roman province. 
 
 146. Carthage destroyed by Scipio Africanus Minor, and Corinth 
 
 by Mummius. 
 133. Numantia destroyed by Scipio Africanus Minor. 
 
 Agrarian law of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus. 
 123 121. C. Sempronius Gracchus. 
 
 113. Invasion of Illyria by the Cimbri. 
 112106. War of the Romans with Jugurtha. 
 102. Marius defeats the Teutones at Aquas Sextiae. 
 101. - the Cimbri at Vercella?. 
 
 From 100 to the birth of our Lord. 
 91 88. The Marsian war, or war of the Confederates. 
 88 82. CIVIL WAR BETWEEN MARIUS AND SULLA. 
 87 84. First war against Mithridates. 
 83. Return of Sulla to Rome. 
 8279. Sulla'i dictatorship. 
 74 64. Third war against Mithridates. 
 66 62 Catiline's conspiracy. 
 64. Syria a Roman province. 
 
 63. Catiline's conspiracy crushed by the consul, M. Tullius Cicero. 
 60. CJESAR, POMPEY, AND CRASSUS ESTABLISH THE FIRST TRIUMVI- 
 RATE. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 337 
 
 B. C. 
 
 58 51. Caesar conquers Gaul, crosses the Rhine twice, visits 
 
 Britain twice. 
 
 49 48. CIVIL WAR BETWEEN C.KSAR AND POMFEY. 
 48. Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus. 
 48 47. Caesar's Alexandrian war. 
 47. Caesar's war against Pharnaces. 
 46. Caesar defeats the partisans of Pompey at Thapsus. 
 
 the sons of Pompey at Munda. 
 
 44. CJESAR ASSASSINATED. 
 
 44 43. The civil war of Mutina against Antony. 
 
 43. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE BETWEEN OCTAVIAN, ANTONY AND LE- 
 
 PIDUS. 
 
 42. Brutus and Cassius defeated at Philippi. 
 39 A. D. 70. The Jews under the Herodians. 
 31 30. War between Octavian and Antony. 
 31. Battle of Actium. 
 30. AUGUSTUS EMPEROR. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. From the reign of Augustus to the fall of the 
 western empire, B. c. 30 A. D. 476. 
 
 30 A. D. 14. C. Julius Ctesar Octavianus Augustus. 
 
 4 (?) or 6. CHRIST BORN. 
 9. Herman defeats Varus in the Teutoburgian forest. 
 
 1437. Tiberius. 
 
 37 41. Caligula. 
 
 4154. Claudius. 
 
 54 68. Nero. Conflagration of Rome. 
 
 6869. Galba, Otho, Vitellius. 
 
 69 79. Vespasian. Complete subjugation of Britain. 
 
 70. Jerusalem destroyed by Titus. 
 
 79 81. Titus. Eruption of Vesuvius, Herculaneum, and Pompeii 
 destroyed. 
 
 8196. Domitian. 
 
 9698. Nerva. 
 
 98 117. Trajan. Greatest extension of the Roman empire. 
 117 138. Hadrian. Restoration of Trajan's Asiatic conquests. 
 138 161. Antoninus Pius. 
 161180. M. Aurelius Philosophus. 
 166 180. War of the Romans with the Marcomanni. 
 180192. Commodus. 
 180 284. Decline of the empire under the usurped power of the 
 
 Praetorian guard. 
 
 226 651. The new Persian empire. 
 
 284 305. First partition of the empire between Diocletian and 
 Maximian. Two Caesars. 
 
 324 337. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, SOLE EMPEROR. 
 
 325. The first oecumenical council at Ntccea. 
 330 (?) The imperial residence transferred to Byzantium. 
 375. COMMENCEMENT OF MIGRATIONS OCCASIONED BY THE INVASION 
 OF THE HUNS. 
 
338 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 - - 
 395. THEODOSIUS DIVIDES THE EMPIRE between his sons Hononua 
 
 and Arcadius. 
 
 410. Rome sacked by Alaric. 
 
 451. -<Etius and Theodoric I. defeat Attila in the Catalaunian fields. 
 455. Some plundered by the Vandals. 
 476. Romulus Augustulus deposed. Odoacer king of Italy. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 * The most remarkable forms of the year. 
 
 [2J DESCRIBE Jie variable solar year of the Egyptians. Wnat 
 
 c form of year are the Chaldeans and Babylonians generally sup- 
 posed to have adopted ? Into what kind of months did all 
 
 D the Semitic nations probably divide their years? Did the 
 Athenian year consist of lunar or solar months ? What in- 
 tercalations took place ? Are the Athenians the only Greek 
 nation with whose chronology we are fully acquainted? 
 How was their month divided ? When did their day begin ? 
 What form of the year did the Romans use under Romulus? 
 
 A What under Numa? How often was an intercalary month 
 added ? When and by whose authority was the solar year 
 adopted by the Romans? How was the Roman month sub- 
 divided ? How were the days of a Roman month reckoned ? 
 
 B What were Nundinae ? When did the day begin ? What ca- 
 lendar did the Christians use ? What division of time did the 
 Christians borrow from the Jews? What did the council of 
 Nicaea decide with respect to Easter ? In the middle ages was 
 
 c the beginning of the year uniform in different nations? When was 
 the 1st of January made the invariable commencement? By 
 whom was the Julian calendar amended ? What amount of 
 error had accumulated, when the ' new style ' was adopted ? 
 What Christian nations still reckon their time according to the 
 
 D Julian calendar (the old style) ? How do the Mahometans 
 reckon their time ? Describe their year. Do they reckon the 
 day from sunset or from sunrise? Describe the Republican 
 calendar of the French. 
 
 * The most important historical (Bras. 
 
 [3] What was the aera of Nabonassar ? Give the dates of the 
 
 A destruction of the first Temple, the Seleucian aera, that of the 
 
 Maccabees, and the aera of the world. What is meant by an 
 
 Olympiad ? With what year B c. does the beginning of the first 
 
 Olympiad coincide ? When did this mode of computing time 
 
 come into general use among the Greeks ? Did it supersede the 
 
 B more ancient mode of naming the year after some person in 
 
 authority ? After whom was the year named at Sparta ? 
 
 at Athens ? Among the Romans what was the only aera 
 
 recognized in public proceedings? When did the aera ab 
 
340 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [11 13. 
 
 ur ba conditd come into general use ? Give the Varronian and 
 the Catonian date of the founders of Rome. What was the 
 
 c sera of the Seluecidae ? Amongst whom is this aera still in use ? 
 How did the Christians of the West in the first centuries dis- 
 tinguish the year? On what was the Indiction -Cycle founded? 
 
 D Who invented the ffira/rom the birth of CHRIST? What 
 amount of error was probably made in fixing the year of our 
 LORD'S birth ? What sera is still in use among the Coptic and 
 
 E Abyssinian Christians ? Among the Mahometans what aera is 
 used ? With what day of what year does this a3ra commence ? 
 
 A What method of computation has been in general use since the 
 middle of the eighteenth century ? 
 
 6. HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 
 
 I. From Adam to Noah. 
 
 [11] Give the probable date of the creation. By what was the 
 
 B sentence of our first parents' expulsion from Paradise alle- 
 
 c viated ? How did the sons of Adam employ themselves ? Who 
 
 first offered sacrifice ? and what was the probable origin of that 
 
 rite ? How was the union of the first family dissolved ? Who 
 
 A built the first city ? By what is the Bible account of the deluge 
 
 confirmed ? Who escaped the otherwise universal destruction 
 
 B of the Rood ? How were these persons saved ? 
 
 II. From Noah to Abraham. 
 [12] Where did Noah's descendants settle ? What caused their 
 
 c dispersion ? Over what countries did the descendants of Shem 
 spread themselves ? What countries were peopled by the de- 
 scendants of Japheth ? What by the children of Ham 1 What 
 was the only family in which the knowledge and worship of the 
 one true God were not entirely lost ? From whom was Abraham 
 descended? What was the first command that Abraham re- 
 ceived from God ? What was promised on the condition of his 
 
 D obedience ? What was the land of his fathers, which he quitted ? 
 In what respect did the original promise of a Saviour now be- 
 come more definite ? 
 
 III. From Abraham to the Conquest of Palestine. 
 
 13] With whom did Abraham enter the land of Canaan ? What 
 
 B circumstances soon compelled them to a separation ? Where did 
 Lot settle ? What cities were overthrown by GOD, as a monu- 
 ment of his vengeance against sinners ? When these guilty 
 cities were overthrown, what did the plain in which they stood 
 
 c become ? Who was ancestor of the idolatrous Moabites and 
 Ammonites ? Who were the parents of Ishmael ? Why was 
 Isaac called the son of promise ? What great and mysterious 
 
 D trial of his faith did Abraham undergo? How was his faith 
 rewarded ? By what rite was every male of Abraham's family 
 to be incorporated into the covenant made between him and 
 GOD? What became of Ishmael? Who became the heir of 
 
 A Abraham's possessions? Who were Isaac's children? Of 
 what profane act was Esau guilty ? Of whom did he become 
 
 
14.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 341 
 
 the ancestor? After Isaac's death who became the head of the 
 Tsraelitish family? Give the history of his favorite son Joseph. 
 
 B Into what country, and into what district of that country did 
 Jacob migrate with his family ? Under whose command, and 
 
 D when did the Israelites quit Egypt? Give an account of 
 Moses. Who was Aaron ? How was the army of the Israelites 
 
 A guided ? How did the Israelites cross the Red Sea ? Where 
 did Moses deliver to the people a code of laws ? How did GOD 
 punish their faithlessness and disobedience ? How were Moses 
 and Aaron punished for having on one occasion failed to sanctify 
 Jehovah before the people ? 
 
 * The Mosaic Laws. 
 
 [14] By whom were the Mosaic Laws given to Moses? * What 
 
 B parts are especially mentioned as having been so given ? * What 
 confirmations of ancient patriarchal usages do the Mosaic laws 
 contain ? * What is the first principle of religious worship as 
 
 c laid down in the laws of Moses? * How was the presence of the 
 Almighty indicated to the Jews? * In what way might that 
 presence not be represented? * Describe generally the taber- 
 nacle. * What tribe were charged with the administration of 
 all that related to public worship ? * To what family was the 
 
 D priesthood itself confined ? * Who discharged the lowest offices 
 connected with public worship ? * What duties were performed 
 by the Levites besides those that related to the ceremonial wor- 
 ship ? * Where did the Levites dwell ? and how were they sup- 
 
 A ported ? *. Who was the supreme judge ? * What did the 
 High Priest do on the great Day of Atonement? * What was 
 the object of the Sabbath ? * Explain the terms Sabbatical 
 Year and the year of Jubilee. * What took place in the year 
 
 B of Jubilee? * At what three annual festivals were all the 
 males required to visit the place where the ark of God was de- 
 posited ? * Describe the object, &c. of the Passover (Passah). 
 
 * Of the Feast of Weeks, or 7iwrr/*offrj. * Of the Feast of 
 c Tabernacles. * By what yearly penitential observance was their 
 
 dependence on Jehovah especially recalled ? * What was the 
 Feast of Trumpets ? * Where were the sacrifices offered ? * And 
 into what kinds were they divided ? * Besides these sacrifices, 
 what were the Israelites required to bring before the Lord ? 
 
 D * Mention some other religious observances. * What was the 
 political constitution of the Israelites ? * How were the people 
 divided ? * How were the tribes governed ? and what did each 
 tribe form? * To whom was the whole nation subject? * Who 
 governed it as his visible representative ? * On what extraordi- 
 nary occasions were the people called together? * For what 
 case was a special provision found in the Mosaic law ? * De- 
 scribe the administration of justice after the conquest of Pales- 
 
 A tine. * For what offences was the punishment of death in- 
 flicted ? * How was this punishment inflicted ? * Mention the 
 other punishments and penalties inflicted by the Jewish code. 
 
 * Was any (and, if so, what) escape provided for one who had 
 killed his neighbor without malice prepense? * Who were 
 
342 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [15 17. 
 
 required to serve in the army ? * How was it divided ? * What 
 B regulations were made with respect to sieges? * What re- 
 gulation was made for the avoidance of idolatry? * What 
 c life were the Israelites required to lead ? * What social virtues 
 were strictly enjoined by the law ? 
 
 Who succeeded Moses, and how was his commission ratified ? 
 How many princes of the Canaanites did this leader subdue ? 
 How was the land of Canaan divided ? After whom were the 
 tribes named ? 
 
 IV. .from the Conquest of Palestine to the establishment of the 
 
 Monarchy, Period of the Judges, 
 
 [15] How were the twelve tribes united into one federal common- 
 A wealth? Where was the tabernacle first pitched in Canaan? 
 
 Where was the general assembly held ? What great command 
 B of GOD was in a great measure disregarded ? Who were the 
 
 Judges? Mention some of them. Who founded the Schools 
 c of the Prophets? How came the Israelites to desire to have a 
 
 visible king ? Who was highly displeased at this request ? Did 
 D GOD accede to their demand 1 Who was anointed to be king 
 
 over Israel 1 
 
 V. From the establishment of the Monarchy to the separation 
 
 of the two kingdoms. 
 [16] What oath did Saul take when he received the homage of 
 
 A the Israelites ? What tribes did he subdue ? What prohibition 
 did he disregard in the case of the Amalekites ? Of what pre- 
 vious violation of GOD'S law had he been guilty ] Who was 
 then privately anointed to be the future king of Israel 1 Give 
 some account of this future king's youth How came he to be 
 
 B persecuted by the jealousy of the king 1 How did Saul end his 
 life 1 Was David at once acknowledged by all the tribes ? 
 
 c What city did David choose to be the royal residence I Where 
 was the ark of the covenant now placed ? For what purpose was 
 the booty taken in David's wars set aside ? Did he execute his 
 plan ? Describe David's conquests and the extent of his king- 
 
 D dom. Describe the splendor of his court and monarchy. 
 
 A What were the distinguishing characteristics of David's personal 
 religion 1 What grievous sins did he commit ? What sentence 
 of punishment was pronounced against him because he had 
 given occasion to the enemies of the LORD to blaspheme ? Who 
 
 B deposed David ? What was this leader's fate ? In whose favor 
 did David abdicate before his death 1 Who was the mother of 
 his successor ? 
 [17] How was the wisdom of Solomon displayed ? What was his 
 
 C great work? By what artisans, and in what time was the 
 temple finished ? How was it divided ? What did Solomon 
 build besides the temple ? With whom did Solomon renew a 
 
 D commercial league ? What countries did his fleet probably visit ? 
 In what did his love of magnificence and luxury manifest itself? 
 
 A How did Solomon alienate the affections of his people ? By 
 whom was a conspiracy organized against him ? What countries 
 fell off from Solomon ] 
 
18 30.] OP ANCIENT HISTORY. 343 
 
 [18] What schism took place under Rehoboam? What tribes 
 B formed the kingdom of Judah? and what the kingdom of 
 Israel ? What modes of false worship did the Israelites gene- 
 rally adopt? 
 
 VI, The Kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 
 
 [19] What was the capital of the kingdom of Israel? To what 
 D year did it last, and under how many kings ? By whom were 
 the idolatrous kings opposed ? What Assyrian king took most 
 A of the cities of Israel by storm ? Who put an end to the king- 
 dom of Israel ? What mixture of tribes produced the Sama- 
 ritans ? To what year and under how many princes did the 
 B kingdom of Judah last ? Mention the country or countries to 
 which the kingdom of Judah became tributary. 
 
 VII. The Israelites under the rule of the Persians. 
 
 [2U] By whom and after how many years of exile were the Jews 
 D permitted to return to their own land ? What other favor did 
 
 this prince show them ? How many at first returned to Palestine ? 
 
 To whom was the administration of civil affairs principally left? 
 
 During the reigns of Cambyses and Smerdis, was any (and if 
 A so, what) progress made in building of the Temple ? Under 
 
 whose reign was the second Temple completed ? By whom and 
 
 under what leaders was the colony established in Judaea ? 
 
 7. Literature, Arts, and Sciences. 
 
 [21] To whom was the learning of the Hebrews in early times 
 B confined ? In what did it consist ? In what does the poetry of 
 c the Israelites differ from all other national poetry? Into what 
 D classes, as to form, may their poems be divided ? What arts did 
 A not flourish among the Jews? What art did flourish? Had 
 the Jews any foreign trade ? 
 
 9. Fragments of the Ancient History of India. 
 '29] What Indian expeditions are quite legendary? What is 
 D known of India before the time of Alexander ? What forms of 
 government did Alexander find in the Punjab ? What go- 
 A vernore did he place over the conquered provinces? What 
 native prince expelled the governors appointed by Alexander? 
 What extent of empire did this prince found ? By whom was 
 it finally destroyed? Enumerate the other nations or tribes 
 who established dynasties in India. 
 
 * 
 10. Religion, political Condition, Literature, $-c. of the ancient 
 
 Indians. 
 
 [30] In what principles does the Brahminical religion appear to 
 c consist? What are the two forms of popular worship which 
 arose in Northern India with Brahmaism ? 
 
 * What are the so called deities that form the Trinity of Indian 
 D mythology ? * Which of the Indian deities is said to have as- 
 sumed the human form ? * How many incarnations of this sup- 
 
344 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [31 43. 
 
 posed deity are asserted to have occurred? * What are the 
 religious observances of the followers of Brahman ? * Amongst 
 whom does the practice of burning widows prevail ? 
 [31] What is the date of the Buddhist reformation? Who 
 
 A effected this reformation ? What was believed concerning him ? 
 
 B What institutions or practices did he reject? Give some 
 
 general account of the progress of the Buddhist reformation. 
 [32] What form of government prevailed amongst the Hindoos? 
 Was the sovereignty hereditary or elective 1 Describe the 
 
 o tenure of land. * State generally what is known with respect 
 
 to the administration of the government. 
 [33] Enumerate, each in its order, the four castes into which the 
 
 A people were divided. Describe the privileges of the first caste. 
 What office could only be held by one who belonged, by birth, 
 to the second caste ? 
 
 [34] Under what title are the sacred writings of the Hindoos com- 
 prehended ? What compositions stand at the head of these ? 
 
 c Of what do the remainder treat? With what do the sacred 
 
 D writings conclude ? * What is known of the progress of the 
 Hindoos in science ? * For what are we indebted to them ? 
 
 A * Name their most famous epics. * What is known of the 
 Indian drama? * Who was the most renowned dramatic 
 writer? * About what time did he flourish? 
 [35] ART. Architecture. What are the principal monuments of 
 
 B Indian architecture? What are the most famous subterra- 
 
 c neous temples? and rock-temples? In what respects do the 
 ancient buildings of India often, and in what nearly always, 
 surpass the monuments of Egypt? By what law was the 
 attainment of excellence in sculpture rendered almost impossi- 
 ble ? What is known of their progress in painting ? What of 
 their attainments in music ? 
 [36] COMMERCE. How was the home traffic of the Hindoos carried 
 on ? What were the principal markets for domestic produce ? 
 
 B Give a general notion of their foreign trade : 1, to the North- 
 
 c East ; 2, to the East ; 3, to the West. * What were the prin- 
 cipal exports? 
 
 12. History of the Babylonians. 
 
 [42] W T hich was the more ancient state, Babylon or Assyria? 
 
 o Who was the founder of Babylon ? About what period was it 
 founded? * Whom do the Greeks mention as the founders of 
 the Babylonian and Assyrian empires respectively ? 
 
 43] How many dynasties were there from the deluge to the 
 
 D Persian conquest ? What was the duration of the sixth ? Does 
 the statement of Berosus with regard to the sixth receive any 
 
 A support from Herodotus ? By whose assistance were the Baby- 
 lonians delivered from the Assyrian domination? When did 
 the sera of Nabonassar begin? Did the Assyrians attempt to 
 
 B repossess themselves of Babylon? Who put an end to the 
 Assyrian empire ? What countries were comprehended in the 
 western portion of the empire? Who overthrew the invader 
 Necho near Carchemish ? What city is supposed to be tho 
 
44 52.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 345 
 
 Carchemish of the Scriptures ? Who succeeded Nabopolassar ? 
 
 c In his pursuit of the Eygptians, how far did this monarch 
 advance ? Why did Nebuchadnezzar lay siege to the city of 
 Jerusalem ? How long did the city withstand him ? Give the 
 date of the city's destruction. Who was the king of Judah at 
 this time ? How were he and his captive subjects treated ? 
 
 D What became of those who remained in Judah ? Why did 
 Nebuchadnezzar wage war against the Phoenicians ? What 
 great undertakings did he enter upon after his return ? 
 [44] * During Nebuchadnezzar's madness by whom was the go- 
 vernment administered ? * In what way did this queen show 
 
 A her activity and ambition ? Who was the last king of Babylon, 
 and what is the name given to him by Herodotus ? What 
 means did Cyrus employ to effect the fall of Babylon ? To what 
 condition was Babylon reduced? 
 
 13. Religion, Literature, tyc. of the Babylonians. 
 
 '45] What was the religion of the Shemites, and of the ardent 
 
 * B Asiatics generally ? What is meant by the religion of nature ? 
 
 How does the religion of the Hebrews differ from that of 
 
 c nature ? What is the most common idea of the Godhead among 
 Asiatic nations, who profess the religion of nature ? Which is 
 the active and which the passive power of nature? What 
 seems to have occasioned the grammatical distinction of genders, 
 
 D as applied to inanimate objects? What may be considered a 
 
 A later step in the development of material religion? What is 
 the last step in this notion ? Who were generally the guardian 
 deities of cities ? Who held the first rank among the Shemitic 
 
 B divinities ? Give the signification of the word Babel. 
 [46] * Of the five planets, which were considered beneficent 
 
 c powers ? * which destructive ? and which varied according to 
 his position? * Did the Chaldaeans place great reliance on 
 their position, rising, and setting ? 
 [47] What honors did the king of kings receive from his people ? 
 
 D Did he govern responsibly? How was the empire divided, and 
 how governed ? Who were termed pre-eminently " Chal- 
 daeans ?" Who were the sole possessors of all the learning of 
 those days ? How was it communicated to members of their 
 own caste ? 
 [48] What were the advantages of Babylon as a place of trade'? 
 
 A * How was the land trade carried on ? * with what countries 
 eastward and westward ? * What were their exports to these 
 countries ? * How was the trade on the Euphrates carried on ? 
 * How was the maritime commerce carried on ? * and with what 
 countries ? 
 
 [49] What were the principal arts and manufactures of the Baby- 
 lonians ? 
 
 15. History of the Assyrians. 
 
 [52] Who was the founder of the Assyrian empire ? About what 
 B period was the Assyrian empire founded ? How far did Semi- 
 
346 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [53 61. 
 
 c rarais push her conquests? * What was the amount of the 
 forces which she marched against the Indians, and what the 
 result of the expedition? 
 [53] Who succeeded Semiramis? When did Sardanapalus ascend 
 
 A the throne? What was the result of the insurrection of the 
 Babylonians and Medes against this monarch ? Did the Assy- 
 
 B rian empire still continue to subsist? Does there exist any 
 record of the kings who succeeded Sardanapalus ? * Who com- 
 pelled the Israelites to pay tribute ? 
 
 [54] Under what king, and about what period, did the Babylonians 
 revolt? How were the Assyrians indemnified for this loss? 
 
 c Why did Salmanassar destroy the kingdom of Israel ? What 
 became of the Israelites afterwards ? What was the next con- 
 quest of this king ? Was the siege of Tyre successfully con- 
 ducted ? * Does the historian Ctesias's account of the dissolution 
 of the Assyrian empire correspond with that given in the Bible ? 
 
 A About what period did Sennacherib ascend the throne ? What 
 success had Sennacherib against Judah? Who succeeded 
 
 B Sennacherib ? About what period ? Who was the last king of 
 Assyria? Who formed an alliance against Assyria? and with 
 what success? How long did the Scythians keep possession 
 of Media ? About what time was Nineveh utterly destroyed ? 
 
 16. Religion, Literature, <$-c. of the Assyrians. 
 
 [55] Were the Assyrians remarkable for their civilization ? How 
 
 A for did their religion resemble that of the Babylonians ? What 
 
 political constitution did the Assyrian constitution resemble ? 
 
 18. History of the Medes. 
 
 [59] In what author is the earliest mention of the Medes found ? 
 
 A In whose reign did the Medes emancipate themselves from the 
 dominion of the Assyrians, to whom they had become subject? 
 Who first became king of the whole nation ? How long did he 
 reign? What city did he build? Who succeeded Deioces? 
 What nation did he subdue? What became of him? Who 
 
 -B succeeded Phraortes ? What improvements did this prince in- 
 troduce in the army ? With what king did he form an alliance ? 
 
 c Who defeated Cyaxares ? How far did their conquests extend ? 
 
 * Whilst the Scythians were dominant in Asia, against whom 
 
 was Cyaxares carrying on a war ? What was the pretence for 
 
 this aggression ? How was the war terminated ? 
 
 [60] Against whom did Cyaxares turn his arms at the departure 
 
 D of the Scythians? Who succeeded Cyaxares? How did he 
 
 A lose Persia ? Was he successful against the rebels ? 
 [61] Give Herodotus's account of the relation which Cyrus bore to 
 
 B Aatyages. According to Ctesias, was Cyrus related to Asty- 
 ages ? How did Cyrus treat Astyages ? What is Xenophon's 
 account ? What confirmation do we receive of this account ? 
 
62 80.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 347 
 
 19. Religion, Literature, $-c. of the Medea. 
 
 "62] What was the religion of the Medes 1 Who was the author 
 c of this doctrine ? Into how many parts was the Zend-Avesta 
 
 divided ? How many have reached us 1 
 
 [63] What are the principal doctrines taught in the Zend-Avesta ? 
 B State the moral precepts taught in the Zend-Avesta. Into how 
 many castes were the people divided ? Name them. Was there 
 any limit to the king's power 1 
 
 [64] To whose care was the code of laws intrusted 1 How can 
 
 the great influence of these persons be accounted for? Had 
 
 c they any temples? Could the king's ordinances be recalled? 
 
 * For what were the Median stuffs celebrated ? * With whom 
 were they the favorite dress? 
 
 21. History of the Persians. 
 
 [75] On what account were the Persians partly Nomades and 
 
 c partly agriculturists ? How many castes does Herodotus enu- 
 merate, as governing the inferior castes and supplying the higher 
 offices of state ? Which was the most distinguished of these castes ? 
 After the Persians had been subdued by the Median king Phra- 
 ortes, did they retain their own kings ? Name the first king. 
 Who was the father, and who the grandfather of Cyrus ? 
 [76] What was the original name of Cyrus ? How did he become 
 
 D lord of the whole Persian empire ? Who was king of Lydia at 
 that time ? What success had Croesus in his attempt to avenge 
 himself on Cyrus for the expulsion of his brother-in-law, Asty- 
 
 A ages? Whom did Cyrus send to subdue the Greek cities on the 
 coast of Asia Minor ? On what terms were these cities ready to 
 pay tribute ? Did all the Greek cities receive tyrants ? What 
 
 B became of the Phocseans? Was Harpagus successful in this 
 
 expedition against the Greek cities ? 
 [77] What were the triumphs of Cyrus himself? What liberty 
 
 c was granted by Cyrus to the Jews ? * How many different ac- 
 counts are there of the death of Cyrus ? * State the substance 
 of them. Who was nominated the successor of Cyrus ? Who 
 was appointed viceroy of the eastern portion of the empire ? 
 Where was Cyrus buried ? 
 [78] When did Cambyses begin to reign ? How long did his reign 
 
 A last? What additions did Cambyses make to the countries 
 already subdued by his father? * Why did he undertake the 
 expedition against Egypt and Libya ? * What king did he take 
 prisoner, and how did he treat him ? * What nations surren- 
 dered themselves voluntarily to the conqueror ? 
 [79] How was the plan of Cambyses for extending his conquests 
 
 B in Africa rendered abortive ? What became of the forces which 
 
 c he had raised for this purpose ? * On his return to Memphis, 
 what insult did he offer to the worshippers of the god Apis? 
 
 * How did he treat his brother Smerdis ? Give an account of 
 D his other extravagant acts. Where did he die? 
 
 J80] Who succeeded Cambyses ? Who was the Pseudo-Smerdis 
 or False-Smerdis? How did he endeavor to render his usurpa- 
 
348 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [81 87. 
 
 A tion popular? How was the usurper's reign put an end to? 
 
 What festival was instituted in commemoration of this event ? 
 [81] How came Darius to be king of Persia? Whose son was 
 
 B he ? Trace the pedigree of Darius up to Cyrus the great-grand- 
 son of Achaemenes. What improvements did Darius introduce 
 into the government ? 
 
 [82] * What were the duties of the sattaps ? * By whom were 
 they assisted ? * How do you account for the rapidity of royal 
 mandates ? * How were the civil and military administration of 
 each province, as well as the cultivation of the land, managed? 
 
 c * How was the tribute paid ? * What were the sources of the 
 
 A revenue ? * How did the inferior officials receive their remune- 
 ration ? * How were those of higher rank rewarded ? * How 
 were the wants of the most exalted personages supplied ? In 
 what direction did Darius extend his conquests? and why? 
 * To whom did Darius grant the power of liberating Samos ? 
 [83] Give an account of the reduction of the revolted province of 
 
 B Babylon ? What reward did Zopyrus receive for his services ? 
 
 c Describe the expedition against the Scythians ? Who were left 
 in charge of the bridge over the Ister ? What service did His- 
 tiaeus render Darius ? What submission did Amyntas offer to 
 
 D Megabazus ? Where did Darius next turn his arms ? Who 
 
 was previously dispatched into that country ? 
 [84] About what period did the Persian wars with Greece com- 
 
 A mence ? How did Histiaeus become an object of suspicion to 
 the king ? On his recall to Susa, who was appointed tyrant of 
 Miletus ? What rendered the security of this appointment pre- 
 carious ? What success attended the combined efforts of An- 
 
 B stagoras and Histiaeus against the Persian government? What 
 circumstance hastened the commencement of the Persian 
 war? 
 [85] Who conducted the first expedition of the Persians against 
 
 c Greece ? What happened to this commander's fleet and army ? 
 Did Darius invade Greece a second time ? Under whose advice 
 did he act ? Who commanded the expedition ? What was its 
 date ? Where did they first sail ? Where was the battle fought 
 between the generals of Darius and the Athenians ? What were 
 
 A the numbers of the respective forces? Who commanded the 
 Athenians ? What was the result of the battle ? Did Darius 
 attempt to invade Greece a third time ? Who did ? Where did 
 
 B his land and naval forces assemble ? * Give a summary of the 
 
 principal events during the march of this vast army. 
 [86] Where did Xerxes first encounter a firm resistance ? Who 
 withstood him ? Who betrayed this brave band ? How did 
 
 c Xerxes wreak his vengeance on Athens ? What was the result 
 
 D of the battle of Artemisium? Where was the Persian fleet 
 totally defeated ? Give the date of this battle. What became 
 of Xerxes ? Who was left in charge of the Persian army ? 
 [87] What battles were fought? With what success ? In which 
 
 A was Mardonius slain ? In these two engagements who com- 
 
 B manded the Athenians and Lacedaemonians respectively? 
 After these successes what course did the Greeks take ? Who 
 
88 101.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 349 
 
 c won the battle of Eurymedon 1 How did Xerxes meet with his 
 
 end ? Who succeeded him ? 
 [88] Give an account of the Persian tear with the Egyptians and 
 
 D Greeks. Who commanded the Grecian fleet 1 
 [89] Why did Megabyzus throw off his allegiance to Artaxerxes 1 
 
 A Account for the frequent revolts of the satraps. What tended 
 
 B to extinguish the once martial spirit of the Persians ? Who 
 succeeded Xerxes 1 How long did he reign ? Who succeeded 
 
 c Xerxes II. ? Who succeeded Sogdianus ? Why was his reign 
 marked by repeated revolts of the satraps ? How long did the 
 Egyptians retain the independence which they asserted success- 
 fully in this reign 1 Who succeeded Darius II. 1 
 [90] Who endeavored to establish his right to the succession 1 
 On what grounds 1 Under what pretext did he march against 
 
 D the reigning monarch 1 Who supported him ] Who warned 
 Artaxerxes of Cyrus's real intentions ? What battle was fought ] 
 
 A In what year 1 What became of the Greek auxiliaries ? Who 
 
 commanded them in their retreat 1 
 
 [91] What was the reward of Tissaphernes for his timely inform- 
 ation to the king ? Who made considerable progress in the 
 liberation of the Asiatic Greeks ? How were his plans frus- 
 
 B trated ? What was his policy 1 What Spartan general fell at 
 Haliartus 1 Who took the command in the Corinthian war 1 
 Where did Conon defeat the Lacedaemon'ans ? What became 
 
 c of the Greeks of Asia Minor during the peace of Antalcidas ? 
 
 * Why did the attempt to reconquer Egypt miscarry 1 * Who 
 
 poisoned Artaxerxes II 1 * and who succeeded Artaxerxes II. 7 
 
 [92] Did this prince succeed in suppressing the revolt of of the Phoe- 
 
 A nicians and Egyptians ? Who was king of Egypt 1 What became 
 of him 1 Who poisoned Artaxerxes and all his sons except one ? 
 
 B Who succeeded him 1 What was his fate ? Who succeeded 
 Arses ? What was the fate of Bagoas 1 Enumerate the three 
 great victories of Alexander over Darius. Give the three dates 
 respectively. Who murdered Darius 1 * What were the causes 
 of the decline of the Persian empire 1 
 
 [93] Give some account of the religion of the Persians. 
 [94] From whom was the Persian constitution borrowed ? What 
 was its character ! Was there any limit to the power of the 
 
 A " Great King?" From whom did he receive tribute 1 Where were 
 his palaces situated 1 Through whom were all communications 
 conveyed to the king 1 Who exercised an influence over the ad- 
 ministration of public affairs, and even over the succession to the 
 
 B throne 1 What was deemed necessary to secure the possession 
 of conquered countries? Was the constitution allowed to re- 
 main unchanged 1 How was their dependence on Persia re- 
 cognized 1 
 [95] To what was the Persian literature confined ? Have any re- 
 
 c mains of Persian architecture been discovered ? 
 
 25. Fragments of Phoenician History. 
 
 [1011 To what race did the Phoenicians belong 1 Who alone with- 
 * stood the invasions of the Nomadic tribes and the Israelites ? 
 
350 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [102 122. 
 
 B Who was king of Tyre in the days of Solomon ? When did 
 
 Tyre and Sidon become separated ? 
 
 [102] * What mention is made of Sidon by Homer ? * For what 
 
 c was it famous and also notorious ? * Name its earliest foreign 
 
 settlements. * Why did Nebuchadnezzar destroy Sidon ? * Did 
 
 it become again prosperous ? * What led to its ruin a second 
 
 time 1 
 
 [103] * Was Tyre or Sidon the older city ? * At how early a 
 D period did Tyre become remarkable for its wealth and power ? 
 
 * To whom was Solomon indebted for assistance in building the 
 Temple 1 * Who founded Carthage ? * About what time ? 
 
 * Against whom did Tyre maintain its independence 1 
 
 [104] Under the Persian dominion did the Phoenician cities retain 
 A their own kings 1 If so, on what conditions ? Did the Phoeni- 
 cians assist in any of the Persian and Grecian wars ? What 
 effect had the fame of Alexander's arms on the cities of Phoeni- 
 cia generally 1 How long did Tyre hold out against Alexander I 
 What damaged the future prosperity of Tyre ? 
 
 26. Religion, $-c. of the Phoenicians. 
 
 [105] Why are we to consider the religion of the Phoenicians as a 
 B subject of unusual importance I Describe their religion. Why 
 c were the sun and moon worshipped ? What names did they 
 give to the sun ? What suggested to them the idea of separate 
 D deities? How did they believe that the supreme Being go- 
 A verned the world ? Who was this manifestation of Baal ? 
 [106] Enumerate some of the principal inventions of the Phoenicians. 
 [107] Was their maritime trade extensive 1 What was this owing 
 B to 1 Name the chief goals of their maritime enterprise. What 
 c were the chief imports 1 Which of their voyages were kept 
 secret ? What voyage did the king of Egypt prevail on them 
 to undertake ? * What obstructed the commercial intercourse of 
 the Greeks and Phoenicians ? * What Phoenician articles were 
 D imported by the Greeks? * Give a general account of their 
 Arabian and Egyptian land traffic. * What was imported by 
 A them from Palestine and Syria? * what from Armenia and the 
 Caucasian countries ? * By what means was the trade of Phoe- 
 nicia principally carried on ? 
 
 What are we to understand by the term Tyrian purple? 
 **or what other manufactures were the Tyrians celebrated ? 
 
 28. History of the Kingdom of Lydia. 
 
 [119] Who were the original inhabitants of Lydia? Into how 
 D many dynasties is the history of the Lydian sovereigns divided ? 
 State the extent of the conquests of Crcesus. What caused the 
 ruin of this monarch ? 
 
 [120] In the conversation between Crcesus and Solon the Athenian, 
 A whom did the latter pronounce the happiest of men ? What 
 battle took place between Crcesus and Cyrus, and with what 
 B result ? How was the life of Croesus saved on two occasions ? 
 How, and by whom, was Cyrus advised to secure the subjection 
 of the Lydians? 
 [121] What his'ory remains to us of the other states 1 
 
122 145.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 351 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 [122] By what name was Africa known to the Greeks? Hovf 
 c much of it was known to them ? Give a general account of the 
 peculiar features of this quarter of the globe. What are the 
 A principal disadvantages it has to contend with ? What are the 
 great obstacles to communication with the interior 1 What pro- 
 gress has Africa made in civilization 1 
 
 34. The State of Meroe. 
 
 [130] Give a summary account of the history of the ancient state 
 
 B of Meroe. How soon did it attain considerable importance ? 
 
 c What was the advantage of its position I When did the power 
 of its priests cease 1 What traces were there of this kingdom 
 in Nero's time 1 
 [131] What was the character of the Ethiopian religion ? How is 
 
 A the similarity between the Ethiopian and Egyptian systems of 
 worship testified 1 In what respect did the religion of the 
 Ethiopians resemble the religion of Brahma ? Under what con- 
 stitution did the Ethiopians live ? How was the power of the 
 
 B monarch restricted 1 What ruins of Temples are found in 
 Ethiopia? What difference is observable in the style of the 
 ancient and the more recent Ethiopian Temples? Do the 
 Ethiopian works of art bear any resemblance to the Egyptian ? 
 
 c For what countries was Meroe th* great centre of traffic? 
 
 * How was this traffic conducted? * Which were the three 
 principal establishments of the priestly caste.? 
 
 36. History of the Egyptians. 
 
 [142] Who founded the most ancient states of Egypt ? Which was 
 
 c the most ancient and the mightiest ? During the period anterior 
 
 to Sesostris how many dynasties are said to have filled the 
 
 throne ? * Who is generally supposed to have been the first 
 
 A king ? * Who built Memphis ? * How many sovereigns followed 
 
 him ? * Who was the builder of Thebes and Osimandyas ? 
 
 * How early did Abraham found a kingdom established in Upper 
 Egypt ? * Where did Joseph probably live when in Egypt ? 
 
 [143] What was the most important event of the first period? 
 Who are the Hyksos supposed to have been ? What accounts 
 B for the blank in the early history of Egypt ? Who expelled the 
 Hyksos ? * To whom does Herodotus ascribe the excavation of 
 the lake Moeris and the building of its two pyramids ? * What 
 colonies were established about this period? * Were the 
 Israelites then in Egypt ? 
 
 [144] How are the mighty conquests ascribed by tradition to 
 c Sesostris limited by Herodotus? How did the range of his 
 A reputation become extended ? Mention the chief acts for im- 
 proving the country introduced by this monarch. Did his suc- 
 cessors long retain the territory acquired in Asia and Europe 1 
 How far did the authority of the later Pharaohs extend ? 
 "145] What Egyptian king is mentioned as having made war on 
 B Rehoboam ? 
 
 16* 
 
352 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [146 156. 
 
 [146] Give the date of Sabaco's invasion of the country. How 
 
 c did the warrior-caste treat Sethos, and why ? How was the 
 
 D invader compelled to raise the siege ? How was Egypt gov- 
 
 A erned after Sethos ? How long did the Dodecarchy last ? 
 
 Who re-established the monarchy I By whom was he assisted ? 
 
 [147] How did Psammetichus offend the wa rrior- caste I What 
 
 B was the consequence of this quarrel ? From this period who 
 
 c formed the flower of the Egyptian army ? How long did the 
 
 siege of Azotus last 1 What city became the usual residence of 
 
 the sovereign 1 From whom did the caste of the interpreters 
 
 spring 1 
 
 [148] Who succeeded Psammetichus ? What body of troops did 
 
 D this prince encourage 1 What great canal project was attempted 
 
 in this reign? What expedition did he undertake, and with what 
 
 success 1 How did he carry out the plans of conquest set on foot 
 
 by his father 1 Who circumnavigated Africa about this time 1 
 
 [149] Who succeeded Necho ? What expedition did he under- 
 
 A take? 
 
 [150] Who succeeded Psammis ? How did he show his warlike 
 disposition? What accusation was brought against Apries? 
 B What became of Apries ? 
 
 [151] Who was then called to the throne? Why was this prince 
 
 lightly esteemed ? How did he endeavor to propitiate the 
 
 c priesthood ? How did he establish his authority on a firm basis ? 
 
 When did he die ? 
 [152] Who succeeded him? What was Egypt reduced to under 
 
 this prince ? 
 
 [153] What excited a spirit of national hatred against the Persians? 
 A How was it rendered comparatively easy for the Egyptians to 
 throw off their allegiance to Persia ? In whose reigns were the 
 efforts to throw off the Persian yoke made ? What success at- 
 tended them ? When did Egypt become a Macedonian province ? 
 
 37. Religion, #c. of the Egyptians. 
 
 [154] Did the objects of worship differ in different Nomes ? Mention 
 B some of the animals which were objects of worship ; and the 
 
 care that was taken of them. Name the inanimate objects of 
 c worship. Enumerate the local divinities. Did the religion of the 
 
 priests differ from that of the people ? On what peculiar notion 
 A did their belief in the immortality of the soul depend ? What 
 
 excluded the dead from being admitted into the realms of the 
 
 blessed ? How was the right to these honors ascertained ? 
 
 Were there any oracles ? 
 
 [155] What do the Nomes appear originally to have been ? 
 [156] What were the seven castes? Where had the priestly caste 
 B its principal stations? How was the hierarchy supplied with 
 
 priests ? What offices were filled by the priestly caste ? How 
 
 was their income derived ? What do you observe further of them ? 
 c Where were the warrior-caste settled? and why? Of what 
 D did the army consist ? Where were the herdsmen settled ? What 
 A is known about the caste of the swineherds ? What did the castt 
 
157 170.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 353 
 
 of tradesmen comprise 1 Were these employments hereditary or 
 not 1 What caste was of especial importance 1 Who formed 
 the medium of communication between the Egyptians and 
 foreigners 1 
 
 '157] What name was common to the kings of Egypt ? How was 
 B their power circumscribed 1 Name the several residences of 
 their kings. How were their revenues derived ? Who com- 
 manded the army in time of war 1 How were judicial questions 
 investigated I How were the proceedings conducted, and 
 sentence given? 
 
 [158] What were the sciences cultivated by the priestly caste? 
 
 c How was Astronomy applied! What rendered Geometry so 
 
 necessary a science ? What were the restrictions placed on the 
 
 A medical profession ? In what did the Historical learning of the 
 
 Egyptians consist ? 
 
 *159] Of what do the monuments of Egypt exhibit great proofs? 
 What prevented the Egyptian artists from rising to the repre- 
 sentation of the beautiful ? 
 
 *160J How were architecture and sculpture connected? 
 
 *16l] Name the chief objects of art. How were the walls of the 
 
 c Temples adorned? Describe the interior of the Catacombs. 
 
 What was the form of an Obelisk ? What was their average 
 
 height and base ? Where were they hewn and polished ? How 
 
 D were they conveyed to their destination? Where were they 
 
 placed ? * What became of several of these Obelisks ? Where 
 
 A are the Pyramids only found? Describe them. What is the 
 
 B name of the largest ? What was its height originally, and what 
 
 is it now? Mention the particulars that are known with regard 
 
 to this pyramid. How many pyramid? are there near Memphis, 
 
 and what is their position ? Which is the most celebrated group ? 
 
 c For what were these huge massed probably reared ? What did 
 
 a Sphinx represent? What Droves the accurate astronomical 
 
 knowledge of the Egyptians? Where were Sphinxes chiefly 
 
 jbund, and in what numbers ? Who built the Labyrinth ? Give 
 
 some account of it. 
 
 [162] What is our knowledge of the Egyptian inscriptions? 
 *163] How were tte hieroglyphical characters employed? How 
 
 * A many styles & kinds of hieroglyphics were used ? How were 
 
 the hieratic characters employed ? how the demotic ? 
 "164] What compelled the Egyptians to confine themselves to in- 
 
 * B land and river traffic ? What rendered Egypt the centre of an 
 
 extensive commerce by means of caravans ? How were corn 
 
 and cloth transported from Egypt into Arabia and Syria ? Who 
 
 c extended the commercial relations of Egypt ? and how ? What 
 
 was the consequence of these arrangements ? 
 
 U65] How is our knowledge of Egyptian handicrafts obtained? 
 Enumerate the principal arts of the Egyptians. 
 
 40. History of the Carthaginians. 
 
 [170] Why did the Phoenicians select the northern coast of Africa 
 c for the establishment of a colony? When was Carthage 
 founded ? By whom ? 
 
854 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [171 181. 
 
 [ 1 7 1 J What is the legendary account of the founda tion of Carthage 1 
 [172] How did Carthage extend itself? What important voyages 
 
 A were undertaken I Who made an attempt against Carthage ? 
 [173] What was the first step towards the downfall of the Car- 
 
 B thaginians? Did the Carthaginians choose an opportune mo- 
 
 c ment for the subjugation of Sicily? What success had they? 
 
 On what terms was a peace granted ? 
 [174] What occasioned fresh hostilities? Did the Carthaginians 
 
 D secure a firmer foot again in the island ? Did the Syracusans 
 attempt to throw off" their subjection to the Carthaginians? 
 What success attended their efforts ? 
 
 175] Who was Agathocles? Give an account of the war between 
 
 "c him and the Carthaginians. What course did the Cartha- 
 
 giniana take on the death of Agathocles ? Who was Pyrrhus ? 
 
 How was he ruined in Sicily ? 
 
 [176] What was the result of the first war between the Romans 
 
 D and Carthaginians? What troops were employed in this war? 
 Why did these troops mutiny ? and what was the result of the 
 
 A mutiny ? Who brought this insurrection to a satisfactory termi- 
 nation ? What possessions did the Romans acquire during this 
 war ? Why were proceedings taking against Hamilcar I How 
 did the accused repel the charge ? What two parties sprang up 
 about this time ? What was the first step towards the destruc- 
 tion of the Carthaginian constitution ? 
 
 [177] What did Hamilcar do in order to indemnify his country fbi 
 
 B the loss of her best provinces ? Who succeeded Hamilcar in 
 the command 1 What success had these generals in Spain? 
 How was a period put to their conquests in that quarter ? Who 
 founded Carthago Nova? What was the fate of Hasdrubal f 
 Who succeeded him in the command ? 
 
 [178] What occasioned the second war with Rome? Who was to 
 
 A have supported Hannibal itv a new war with Rome ? Who be- 
 trayed his project ? What did Hannibal do ? What was his 
 end ? Who now started hostilix^s with the Carthaginians ? Of 
 
 B what provinces did he deprive them ? To what straits were the 
 Carthaginians reduced ? 
 
 [179] How did the third Punic war terminate ? * Who founded a 
 new city near the ruins of Carthage ? * How did it rise in im- 
 portance ? * When was it destroyed? * What town was built 
 from its ruins ? 
 
 41. Religion, $c. of the Carthaginians. 
 
 [180] What was the character of the Carthaginian leligion? 
 
 D * Who were the chief divinities of the Carthaginians ? * Which 
 was supposed to be the peculiar residence of Melkarth ? * How 
 then did the Carthaginians show their homage ? What sacri- 
 fices were offered to Moloch? * Whom did the god Esmun re- 
 
 A semble? * Did the Carthaginians confine themselves to the 
 
 worship of the gods of the mother country ? 
 [181] What was the nature of the Carthaginian government? 
 
 B How was a difference of opinion between the kings and the 
 Bcnate settled ? What power did the kings possess? Why waa 
 
182 231.] OP ANCIENT HISTORY. 355 
 
 c the council or college of a hundred established? What power 
 had they ? Was there any other college appointed ? How were 
 their magistrates chosen 1 
 '182] * What were the sources of revenue? 
 
 [183] * Of how many vessels did their naval force, before their 
 D wars with the Romans, consist ? * What amount of naval force 
 was employed against Regulus ? * Of what troops did their 
 army consist ? 
 
 [184] What account can you give of Carthaginian literature? 
 B What sciences attained a high state of perfection 1 What was 
 the language of the Carthaginians ? 
 
 Did the Carthaginians allow an open trade to their olonies ? 
 Why not ? How was the intercourse with foreign countries 
 c facilitated ? What was the extent of their navigation ? What 
 trade did they share with the mother country beyond the Pillars 
 A of Hercules ? What coast was secretly visited on the western 
 
 side of Africa ? 
 
 [186] * What were the chief exports and imports of Carthage? 
 How was the internal traffic conducted ? What was brought 
 from the interior of Africa 1 
 
 [ie \ 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [187] What advantages does Europe possess over all the other 
 B quarters of the globe 1 In what respects is it inferior to Asia 
 c and America ? What compensates for these points of inferiority ? 
 
 What greatly facilitates its commercial intercourse ? How is 
 
 Europe indebted to the East ? In what respect may Europe be 
 A considered superior to the rest of the world ? How has their 
 B excellence in arts and arms been displayed ? How is Europe 
 
 naturally divided ? What remarkable distinctions are there 
 
 between eastern and western Europe ? 
 
 53. The earliest Population of Greece. 
 
 "230] Who were the most ancient inhabitants of Greece ? Were 
 
 A they spread over any other countries ? * How had they, 
 
 probably, already acquired a degree of civilization ? * Where 
 
 B did they send out colonies to ? How was the appellation of 
 
 Hellenes used originally] What names were applied to the 
 
 people collectively 1 Who was the founder of the Grecian race, 
 
 and of its principal tribes? 
 
 '231] How soon are the legendary foreign immigrations said to 
 
 B have commenced? Give some account of Cecrops. Who was 
 
 Cadmus? Give some account of him. What improvements did 
 
 c he introduce into Thebes ? Who migrated to Argos? * What 
 
 became of the fifty sons of ^Egyptus ? When did Pelops come 
 
 from Phrygia to Arcadia ? Who extended his dominion 1 
 
356 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [232 2 
 
 54. Myths concerning the Migrations of the Hellenic 
 
 Tribes. 
 
 [232] What story is related of Deucalion 1 Who is said to have 
 
 A succeeded Deucalion on the throne ? and who Hellen 1 How did 
 
 B the ^Eolians spread themselves 1 How did the Dorians spread 
 
 themselves ? What success attended the youngest son of Hellen ? 
 
 What sons had he 1 Name the four phylae then established. 
 
 55. The Heroic Age. 
 
 \233] What effect did the wanderings of the Hellenic tribes pro- 
 
 D duce 1 What was the natural consequence of political division 
 
 A into separate nations 1 * How is Hercules described in mythical 
 
 history 1 * Who persecuted, and who protected him ? * At 
 
 whose command does Hercules undertake his twelve labors? 
 
 c * Enumerate these. * What became of Hercules? * Who was 
 
 Theseus'? * How does he show himself a benefactor to the 
 
 human race ? * Who was his protector ? 
 
 [234] Give an account of the Argonautic expedition. Whence did 
 A the Hellespont derive its name ? Name the most renowned 
 
 heroes who accompanied this expedition. 
 
 [235] What led to the exposure of QEdipus on Mount Cithaeron 1 
 
 c What crime did he inadvertently commit 1 How did he show 
 
 his horror on the discovery 1 Who were his sons 1 Name the 
 
 D heroes who-accompanied Polynices against Thebes. What was 
 
 the result of it 1 
 
 [236] Why was the war of the Epigoni undertaken ? 
 [237] How did the war against Troy originate 1 At whose instiga- 
 tion was this contest undertaken 1 Name the principal leaders 
 B engaged in it. What was the amount of the forces ? What 
 detained them at Aulis 1 How were they released ? What 
 c time did the siege last 1 * What was their mode of warfare ? 
 * Why did Achilles refuse, after a time, to take any part in the 
 war? 
 
 [238] What was the fate of Agamemnon after his return 1 Give an 
 
 D account of Orestes. Where did Menelaus wander 1 What 
 
 A became of Diomedes ? What was the form of government that 
 
 prevailed in the heroic age ? What offices did the kings hold ? 
 
 How was their revenue obtained ? Who were the counsellors of 
 
 B the kings ? Why were assemblies of the people called 1 * In 
 
 many of the Grecian states what does the king seem to have 
 
 been 1 * How was Attica divided by Theseus 1 * How did 
 
 aristocratic constitutions arise 1 
 
 56. The Migration of the Dorians, or Heraclida. 
 [239] Who gave the name of Thessaly to Pelasgicon? What be- 
 c came of the aborigines of the district afterwards named Bceotia 1 
 A How did they treat the ancient inhabitants 1 Why was the 
 conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians undertaken ? Who 
 B headed this expedition ? What was its success ? How were the 
 conquered districts divided? How happened it that Attica re- 
 tained her independence ? How much of this account seems 
 c to be historically certain 7 Were other Doric kingdoms founded? 
 
240 247.] OP ANCIENT HISTORY. 357 
 
 Who alone continued to occupy their ancient habitations? 
 What was the fate of the Acheeans ? 
 
 57. The Greek Colonies on the western coast of Asia Minor, 
 
 and the adjacent islands. 
 
 240] By what was the movement of the Heraclldae followed ? To 
 A what country or countries did the expelled Achaeans migrate ? 
 
 Enumerate the cities of note founded by them. 
 
 [241] Where did the lonians betake themselves? What was their 
 B common bond of union ? Name the most considerable cities 
 c they raised. Who burnt the famous temple of Artemis ? 
 [242] Where did the Dorians emigrate ? Where was Herodotus 
 D born ? 
 
 58. Origin of Republican Constitutions. 
 
 [243] What caused the absolute sovereignty of individuals to ex- 
 
 A pire ? What constitutions followed the regal ? Where did two 
 kings continue to reign ? Where was the monarchical constitution 
 retained ? Was Greece united, or split into independent states ? 
 
 B How were the different independent cities united? What ad- 
 vantage attended this arrangement ? What occasioned the 
 establishment of Tyrants ? What is meant by the term t y r o n t ? 
 
 c How did this kind of tyranny arise in those states which were 
 
 not exclusively Dorian ? 
 [244] * What changes of constitution were experienced by Co- 
 
 D rinth? * What Corinthian colonies were founded during this 
 period ? What institutions served to unite the little independent 
 states into which Greece was divided ? 
 [245] What were the Amphictyoniae ? How did they differ from 
 
 A the ordinary confederacies ? Which was the most celebrated ? 
 
 B How was the term subsequently used? What altered its 
 original character ? What privileges belonged to the Amphic- 
 
 c tyons ? What oracle obtained influence through its connection 
 with the Amphictyons ? How was the Amphictyonia super- 
 seded ? From this period to what were the duties of the con- 
 
 D federacy restricted ? Of what avail were its exertions now ? 
 [246] Were the congresses exclusive ? Which were the most re- 
 
 B nowned of all the games ? Who founded them ? Who revived 
 them ? From what time was a regular record kept of the con- 
 querors ? Where were the games celebrated ? and how ? How 
 
 c was the ceremonial closed ? * Name the exercises of the Pen- 
 tathlon. * What was meant by Pancration? * What rendered 
 the Olympic Panegyris favorable for public advertisements, and 
 the exhibition of works of art ? * How were the victors re- 
 
 D warded on the spot ? and how at home 1 Name the other great 
 national games. Where were they severally kept, and in 
 honor of whom 1 
 
 59. Sparta. 
 
 1 24 7J How was the throne of Sparta always occupied 1 How long 
 did the contest with the Achasans continue 1 Which was of all 
 
358 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [248 257. 
 
 these straggles the most obstinate ? What character did the 
 c population of Laconia assume ? Who were the Helots 1 Give 
 D some account of them. Who was Lycurgus ? At whose re- 
 quest did Lycurgus give his native city a constitution ? Were 
 A the kings retained ? What were their functions ? What privi- 
 leges did they enjoy 1 How was the government administered ? 
 How were they elected 1 What were the duties of this council ? 
 [248] What power had the popular assembly ? How were the 
 c Ephori chosen ? What were their duties ? How did Lycurgua 
 
 apportion the lands ? 
 
 [249] To what were the regulations of Lycurgus with respect to 
 
 A education and domestic life directed ? How were the strong 
 
 B children brought up 1 Why did Lycurgus institute 'public 
 
 meals 1 What was the only circulating medium allowed ? 
 
 What was the chief occupation of the free citizen ? How were 
 
 the Perioeci employed ? and the Helots 1 What course did 
 
 Lycurgus take to secure permanence to his laws ? 
 
 60. The two first Messenian Wars. 
 
 [250] Narrate the legend concerning the cause of the first Messe- 
 
 A nian war. How did the Spartans commence the war ? Who 
 
 assisted the Messenians in this struggle ] Who commanded the 
 
 Messenians 1 What followed his death 1 * What became of 
 
 the Parthenii ? 
 
 [251] What roused the next generation of Messenians to insurrec- 
 
 C tion ] Who assisted them ? Who commanded the forces on 
 
 each side ? How long did they keep possession of the fortress 
 
 D of Ira ? How did Aristomenes escape from prison ? Why 
 
 were the Messenians compelled to abandon their post 1 What 
 
 was the plan of Aristomenes 1 What became of most of the 
 
 Messenians 1 
 
 61. Athens. 
 
 [252] Is the catalogue of Athenian sovereigns until the reign of 
 
 A Theseus of any value 1 When does the historical period of 
 
 Athens begin 1 What arrangements of the people did he intro- 
 
 B duce? Who was Melanthus? Who were the sons of Codrus? 
 
 What afforded the Eupatridac an opportunity of abolishing the 
 
 kingly office ? What became of Neleus ? Who were made 
 
 chief magistrates ? To whom were they responsible ? Under 
 
 what title ? 
 
 [254] How long did the Archonship remain in the family of 
 
 c Codrus ? 
 
 [255] When were nine annual Archons first elected ? What title 
 D had the first of these 1 the second ? the third ? How were the 
 remaining six named ? Why was a system of written laws 
 A called for by the people or commonalty 1 Who was commis- 
 sioned to draw up a code of laws 1 
 
 [256] * Who attempted to make himself absolute at Athens ? 
 * Who put to death the partisans of Cylon ? * Why were the 
 Alcmaeonidse compelled to quit the city ? 
 [257J * What measures did Solon introduce in order to re- 
 
258 271.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 359 
 
 move the misunderstanding between the Eapatrids nnd the 
 c Demos ? How was Salamis recovered to the Athenians ? 
 How was its possession finally secured to his countrymen? 
 D What caused the first Sacred War ? How were the Crisajans 
 punished I What factions now sprung up in Attica? What 
 A forms of government did these factions respectively advocate ? 
 Why was the sovereign authority offered to Solon ? What fol- 
 lowed his refusal ? 
 
 ;]258] What were the measures adopted by Solon ? 
 [259] * Who were the persons excluded from civil rights ? * What 
 B was the condition of the HITOIKOI 1 * How was the condition of 
 
 the slaves improved ? 
 
 [260] How was a democratic character given to the constitution of 
 
 c Solon? How were the citizens divided? Which class was 
 
 eligible to the Archonship? Were the other offices of state 
 
 A open to the other classes ? What was the effect of Solon's 
 
 measures ? * What classes served in the cavalry ? * What as 
 
 heavy nd light armed troops ? 
 
 [261] Frcm what class were the Archons chosen? What exam- 
 B ination were they required to undergo before entering on their 
 
 office ? 
 
 [262] What number of members constituted the senate at dif- 
 ferent periods? How were they chosen? What were their 
 various functions ? 
 
 [2G3] How often was the assembly of the people held? What 
 c was the nature of the questions they decided ? How did they 
 
 vote? 
 
 [264] Who composed the court of Areopagus ? Where were its 
 
 A sittings held ? What duties were committed to this court ? 
 
 B * How were the lower courts of justice formed ? What respect 
 
 was shown to Solon's laws ? Did his measures allay the factious 
 
 spirit of his time ? 
 
 [265] What means did Pisistratus use to become absolute in 
 
 Athens ? Did he obtain the confidence of the people ? 
 [266] How was the government afterwards carried on ? Who 
 c assassinated Hipparchus? From what motives? How was. 
 the administration conducted after this event? Who expelled 
 Hippias ? Where did Hippias seek an asylum ? 
 [267] Who now established the democracy ? How did he en- 
 A deavor to obliterate all historical family reminiscences ? Who 
 attempted to overthrow the new constitution ? Who supported 
 B him ? Why ? Did this attempt succeed ? What was Ostra- 
 cism ? What power did it give the democratic party ? 
 
 62. The Grecian Colonies. 
 
 [268] Where were colonies established during this period ? For 
 c what purposes ? What constitution did these settlements adopt 1 
 D Did they degenerate or not ? How far did they depend on the 
 mother country ? 
 
 [270 1 Name the Dorian colonies in Lower Italy. 
 
 [271] What Achaean colonies were in Lower Italy? What hap- 
 
360 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [272 281. 
 
 A. pened to Sybaris 1 * Who founded Metapontum and Posei- 
 
 donia ? 
 
 [272] What name had the peninsula between the "Thermaic and 
 
 Strymonic gulfs ? Mention the Chalcidian settlements on the 
 
 B Thracian coast. Which was the most ancient of all the 
 
 Grecian settlements in the west ? in Lower Italy 1 and in Sicily 1 
 
 How was Zancle afterwards named ? 
 
 [273] Name the Dorian colonies in Sicily ? What other settle- 
 c ments had they on the coast of the Ionian sea ? Had they any 
 D on the Thracian coast and Bosporus ? * Did Syracuse undergo 
 any (and if so, many or few) changes of constitution ? * How 
 long did the Aristocratic constitution last ? * In whose hands 
 was the supreme authority lodged during this period I * Name 
 A the three Tyrants of Syracuse. * Why was the last deposed 1 
 * When was Hiero II. chosen king ? and why ? * Who suc- 
 ceeded him 'I * What alliance occasioned the capture of Syracuse 1 
 [274] Name the colonies of Miletus on the Hellespont on the Pro- 
 
 B pontis and on the Pontus Euxinus. 
 [275] What colonies had the Phocaeans 1 
 [276] Mention the colony of Zacynthus. 
 
 63. The Persian Wars. 
 
 [277] What caused the Persian wars? 
 
 [278] Who was at the head of the frst campaign against the 
 Greeks 1 Who was at the head of the second ? When was the 
 
 A battle of Marathon fought 1 After that battle what design did 
 Miltiades form? How far did this project succeed? What 
 followed his failure at Paros ? Who ruled Athens after the 
 
 B decease of Miltiades? How did Themistocles obtain the ostra- 
 cism of his rival ? What decree did he prevail on the people to 
 
 c pass ? What was the real intention of this measure ? 
 [279] What was the date of the third campaign of the Persians ? 
 
 D Who sided with them ? Who opposed them ? Who defended 
 the pass of Thermopyla ? Who betrayed Leonidas ? What 
 
 A did he then do ? Did the Persian army advance ? State the 
 names and events of the three naval engagements which were 
 fought. 
 [280] How was Xerxes induced to hasten his return into Asia? 
 
 B What army did he leave behind him ? When did Mardonius 
 invade Attica ? Where did the Athenians flee for refuge ? 
 
 c Where was Mardonius utterly defeated? By what forces? 
 What became of the Medizing Thebans? What other victory 
 was gained on the same day? Which was the first aggressive 
 
 A movement on the part of the Greeks ? How was the vigor of 
 Themistocles's administration shown ? What popular enactment 
 did Arietldes obtain ? 
 [281] With what view did the allied fleet commence operation? 
 
 B Why was Pausanias superseded in the command ? How did 
 
 c the Spartans take this ? * In what did the Hegemony of 
 Sparta over the other Peloponnesian states consist? What 
 were the duties of the allied powers under the protection of 
 Athens? 
 
282 290.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 361 
 
 ^282] What fierce antagonism commences about this period ? 
 A Who procured the banishment of Thcmistocles ? by what 
 B means ? To what city or country did Themistocles retire in the 
 
 first instance? Whose protection did he afterwards seek? 
 
 WJiat was his reception? What was the fate of Pausanias? 
 
 How did Aristides end his days ? What leaders now rose into 
 c importance? What policy was pursued ? Who was appointed 
 
 commander-in-chief of the army ? What success attended his 
 
 arms ? How was the booty expended ? 
 
 64. The Third Mcsscnian War. 
 
 [283] What checked the Spartan invasion of A tica ? Who 
 D attempted at this time to throw off the Spartan oppression ? 
 A Who opposed them? To what place did they retreat ? Who 
 B afforded aid to the Spartans ? What led to Cimon's banish- 
 ment by ostracism ? Where were the Messenians allowed to 
 retire to ? 
 
 65. The Age of Pericles. 
 
 [284j When did the democratic supremacy commence at Athens ? 
 
 c Who was the most powerful of all the Athenian popular leaders ? 
 Who was he ? How was he enabled to carry on his various in- 
 
 D novations ? State the use (or abuse) that the Athenians now 
 
 A made of the contingents of the allies. What increase was made 
 to their allies ? What further burdens were imposed on them ? 
 
 B How did Pericles employ the resources at his disposal ? Who 
 introduced the practice of paying the army '? What institution 
 was now the sole remaining representative of aristocratic inte- 
 rests ? How did Pericles abridge the rights of this institution ? 
 [286] How did the participation of the Athenians in the insurrec- 
 
 c. tion of the Egyptians and of the satrap Inarus end ? 
 [237] What was the real intention of the Spartans in sending an 
 
 D army into central Greece ? Who were victorious at Tanagra ? 
 
 A and what neutralized the advantages there gained ? Who now 
 joined the Athenian confederacy ? Why did Pericles consent, to 
 the recall of Cimon? What was obtained through Cimon's in- 
 tervention ? 
 
 [288] At whose instance was a fresh campaign against the Per- 
 sians undertaken ? Describe the fortunes of the commander and 
 his fleet. 
 [289] When was the battle at Coronea fought? by whom, and 
 
 B with what result ? Why did the Peloponnesians invade Attica 
 on the conclusion of the armistice ? For how long a period did 
 
 c the Athenian commander conclude a truce ? What were the 
 conditions of this treaty? What arrangement laid the founda- 
 tion of fresh disputes ? 
 
 66. The Peloponnesian War. 
 
 290] Give the date of the Peloponnesian war. What were the 
 D causes that led to it ? What were the most prominent signs of 
 A the jealousy between Athens and Sparta ? How was this feel- 
 ing aggravated ? 
 
362 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [291 - 298. 
 
 [291] How did the war between Corcyra and Corinth originate? 
 c How did it terminate ? What occasioned the revolt of Potidaa 
 
 from Athens ? Who supported the Potidaeans ? Who were the 
 
 instigators of the war against Athens? 
 [292] * What states were the allies of Athena ? * What of Sparta ? 
 
 I. Ten Years' War [b IOCKT^ wdAc^oj] to the Fifty 
 Years' Truce of Nicias. 
 
 [293] How did the Peloponnesians commence the war? What 
 A retaliation was made by the Athenians? What prevented 
 
 either party from obtaining any decided advantage 1 What 
 
 calamity overtook the Athenians? Who was tarried off? 
 
 What change now took place in the government ? When was 
 B Potidrea reduced ? Why were the Lesbians compelled to sur- 
 
 render at discretion ? What was the advice of Cleon ? How 
 
 was it executed ? 
 
 [295] What success had the Athenians in 424 ? What ill fortune 
 D followed ? Who was dispatched for the purpose of reconquer- 
 A ing the lost cities? Who fell in the engagement at Amphi- 
 
 polis? What peace was then made ? On what terms? 
 
 II. from the Renewal of the War to the Issue of the 
 Expedition against Sicily. 
 
 [296] * What states were dissatisfied with the peace of Nicias? 
 * How was their opposition manifested? * Who persuaded the 
 Athenians to renounce their alliance with Sparta ? * How was 
 the peace respected ? * Was Sparta able or not to prevent a 
 renewal of the treaty between Argos and Athens? 
 [297] What gave rise to the expedition against Sicily ? Of the 
 
 B Athenian statesmen, who advised and who opposed the expedition ? 
 What generals commanded the expedition? Which of the 
 Athenian generals was recalled? What charge was preferred 
 
 c against him? To what city did he escape? What Sicilian 
 general prevented Nicias from taking Syracuse ? Who com- 
 manded the reinforcements sent to Nicias ? By whose advice 
 did a Spartan fleet sail to assist the Syracusans? Who com- 
 manded the Spartan fleet? Who now opposed the Athenians? 
 
 A What success was obtained against the Athenian fleet ? De- 
 scribe the failure of the last attempt of the Athenians, and the 
 fate of their army and its commanders. 
 
 III. The Decelean War. 
 
 [398] How was the war continued by the Spartans? Who joined 
 
 c them ? What grievance occasioned the revolt of many of the 
 
 Athenian allies in Asia Minor? From whom did Sparta re- 
 
 ceive subsidies for the war? What change took place in the 
 
 D government of Athens ? How was the authority of the people 
 
 limited ? What support did the democratical part of the con- 
 
 stitution now obtain ? Who was now recalled I On whose 
 
 advice ? Who persuaded Tissaphernes to renounce the lejjgue 
 
 A with Sparta ? How long did the oligarchical faction last I 
 
299 306.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 363 
 
 What hastened their overthrow 1 Who now regained the su- 
 preme authority 1 
 
 [299] Describe the successes of Alcibiades against the LacedsEmo- 
 
 B nians. Describe his return to Athens. Why was he deprived 
 
 c of his unlimited command ? Who were appointed to succeed 
 
 him ? Who succeeded Lysander ? Where was he defeated 1 
 
 * On what charge were the Athenian generals condemned to 
 
 death ? * How many were executed 1 
 
 300J Describe the successes of Lysander. Where was the naval 
 D power of Athens annihilated ? How many ships escaped ? 
 A What was the perilous position of Athens at this \ime 1 On what 
 humiliating terms did Athens surrender ? When did the demo- 
 cratic principle perish ? 
 
 67. The Hegemony of Sparta. 
 
 [101] Why did the Hegemony of Sparta prove odious and oppres- 
 B s>ve? Why did Thebes and Corinth take a part in the war? 
 
 What did they never intend? How far did they change their 
 
 political creed ? 
 
 [302] Give the date and duration of the supremacy of the thirty. 
 A What change did Lysander introduce into the government 1 
 
 Describe the conduct of the Thirty. Which of their number 
 
 was put to death by his colleagues? On what grounds? 
 B Describe the death of Alcibiades. Narrate the proceedings of 
 
 Thrasybulus. What success attended him? How were the 
 c places of the Thirty supplied ? " What were the changes made 
 
 by Pausanias in co-operation with Thrasybulus ? 
 J303] What were the causes of the war of the Spartans with the 
 
 D Persians ? 
 
 [304] How did Tithraustes divert the war from Persia ? Did the 
 A Athenians join the confederacy ? What was the pretext for the 
 B war? Where did Lysander fall ? Why was Agesilaus recalled 
 c from Asia ? Where did Conon defeat the Lacedaemonians ? 
 
 What followed his victory ? Where did Agesilaus obtain a 
 
 victory ? What did Conon and Pharnabazus next effect ? 
 D What proposals did the Spartans make in order to withdraw 
 
 the Persians from their alliance with Athens ? When was the 
 
 peace of Antalcidas concluded ? What did Sparta gain by it ? 
 A * What islands did the Athenians continue to hold ? 
 [305] * Give a general account of the Olynthian war. 
 
 68. The War between Thebes and Sparta. 
 
 .306] Who were now at the head of Theban affairs ? Of what 
 B dishonorable action was Phcebidas guilty ? What was the fate 
 
 of Ismenias ? Where did the other democrats betake them- 
 c selves to ? Describe the course of Pelopidas and his companions. 
 D How was the Spartan garrison treated ? What fresh attempts 
 A were made by Sparta? With what success ? What victories 
 
 were gained by the Athenians ? Under what commanders ? 
 
 What was now the policy of Athens ? What impediment was 
 B presented ? Who now rose into importance ? What victory 
 
 did this leader obtain over Sparta ? Who was killed ? What 
 
364 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [307 315. 
 
 c ambitious design was formed by Thebes ? How was this pro- 
 moted ? Who joined the Thebans ? Why were they compelled 
 to abandon their attempt on Sparta itself? What plan did 
 Thebes form in order to restrain the Spartans from any further 
 encroachments on Peloponnesus ? Why was the Theban army 
 
 D compelled to retire 1 * What did the second and third inva- 
 sions of Peloponnesus effect 1 
 [307] Why did the Thebans attack the tyrant of Pherae 1 With 
 
 A what success ? Where did Pelopidas fall ? What dissensions 
 induced Epaminondas to undertake a fourth campaign in Pelo- 
 
 B ponnesus ? What was the nature of these dissensions ? Where 
 did Epaminondas fall ? Give the date of his death. Why did 
 Sparta refuse to accede to a general peace 1 Why was Agesi- 
 laus sent into Egypt ? 
 
 69. The War of the Confederates against Athena. 
 [308] Why did the allies renounce their allegiance to Athens? 
 c Why were the Athenians compelled to recognize the independ- 
 ence of their revolted allies, and remit the tribute ? 
 
 70. The Phocian or Sacred War. 
 
 [309] What caused the Phocian or Sacred war ? What had the 
 B Phocians done 1 Why did the Spartans join the Phocians ? 
 c What measures were taken by the Spartans and Phocians ? 
 
 Who united in the cause of the Thebans ? 
 
 [310] Who was chosen generalx>f the Phocians? How did Philo- 
 melus avoid falling into the hands of the enemy ? Who suc- 
 ceeded him in the command ? How was he enabled to continue 
 D the war ? Which was the principal theatre of hostilities ? 
 why ] Why were the Phocians compelled to yield ? How was 
 A Onomarchus slain ] Against whom were hostilities still carried 
 on ? Why were the Thebans compelled to call in Philip II. of 
 B Macedonia ? What was the termination of the war ? What 
 was the decree of the Amphictyonic council ? 
 
 71. The War against Philip II. of Macedonia. 
 [311] With what view had Philip captured Amphipolis and Pydna? 
 
 c Why did he give up Potidaea to the Olynthians ? 
 [312] What was Philip's first pretext for interfering in the affairs 
 D of Greece 1 Did Philip comply with the request of the tyrants 
 of Pherae ? Why did he permit the tyrants to remain ? Who 
 came to their aid ? How did Philip then act ? 
 [313] What was the policy of Philip with regard to the Grecian 
 B states generally ? To what did Philip now direct his chief atten- 
 tion ? What city offered the most obstinate resistance ? Who 
 sent them assistance? How did Philip favor, the Messcnians 1 
 c Who was his bribed orator ? What cities did he blockade on 
 recommencing his plans of conquest ? How was the capture of 
 these cities prevented ? 
 [314] How did Philip get a fresh excuse for marching an army into 
 
 A Greece ? Did any thing he did indicate ulterior objects ? 
 [315] Who had the courage to oppose Philip ? How did this great 
 B man show his activity ? Where was the allied army defeated ? 
 
316 323.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 365 
 
 In what year ? How wns the fortune of the day decided ] Did 
 Thebes surrender ? What appointment did Philip receive ? 
 
 72. Religion, Literature, tyc. of the Greeks. 
 
 [316] * How was the notion formed that Greek civilization 
 
 c was derived from Egypt 1 * Do we find any traces in proof 
 
 of this ? 
 [317] Give some account of the religion of the Greeks. What 
 
 A traces do we find of a belief in one supreme being ? Where 
 
 B was the residence of Zeus and the other deities? How were 
 the national divinities amalgamated at a very early period? 
 Name the twelve principal deities. 
 [318] * Give some account of Zeus. * What was Juno named by 
 
 c the Dorians and lonians ? * Who was Persephone ? * What 
 
 D is her history ? * Who were the deities of light ? * Give an 
 account of Athene. *. Whose children were Apollo and Arte- 
 
 A mis ? * Where were they born ? * How is Apollo also named ? 
 
 B * Mention his attributes and epithets. * What does Poseidon 
 denote ? * What gave occasion to the fable of Vulcan's being 
 the cup-bearer of the gods ? * Why was he represented as a 
 
 c blacksmith ? * Give an account of Mercury : of Vesta. * Who 
 was Mars ? * Who was Venus ? * Describe the manner in 
 which Bacchus was represented. What were his epithets ? 
 [319] What inferior classes of deities were there ? Who were the 
 
 A Dasmones? What is meant by heroes ? What notion, produced 
 the deities of the lower world? Name these. How were 
 
 B the gods approached ? What were their offerings ? In what 
 other modes did the Greeks honor the gods? Which of 
 all the sorts of divination was held in the greatest esteem? 
 Which were the most renowned oracles ? Name the other sorts 
 of divination. 
 [320] What necessities were pressed on the Greeks when they 
 
 A became engaged in wars with Persia ? At Athens who re- 
 stored the constitution of Solon ? Where was democracy intro- 
 duced 1 Where did oligarchy prevail ? When were these two 
 
 B forms of government placed in a state of antagonism ? When 
 was the oligarchical system t its greatest height? What was 
 
 c the signal for a general rising agamst Sparta? How was 
 
 Greece prepared to receive the yoke of a foreign master ? 
 [321] Where did epic, lyric, and dramatic poetry first develope 
 
 themselves? 
 r 322] What was the character of epic poetry before the days of 
 
 D Homer? How did Homer improve the plan of the epic? How 
 were the Iliad and Odyssey made known to the world? 
 
 A Who composed the Homeric hymns? Had Homer any 
 
 B imitators? Where was the school of the Homeridae ? Who 
 was at the head of the rival school ? What peoms of his are 
 extant ? 
 [323] When did lyric poetry develope itself? To whom is the 
 
 D elegiac measure ascribed ? Who was the last of the great 
 elegiac poets ? How was the elegiac metre most commonly 
 employed? How did Simonides distinguish himself in this 
 
366 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [324 328. 
 
 A way ? Who invented the Iambic ? How did it differ from the 
 epic and elegiac ? How was the lyric poetry of the Greeks 
 
 B divided ? Distinguish the two. How did the subject matter 
 
 c vary ? Who were the most distinguished poets of the JEolic 
 school? Name them. Under whom did the Doric choral 
 poetry develope itself, and attain perfection 1 What composi- 
 tions of Pindar's are extant? What is their character ? 
 [324] When did the choral hymns first assume the form of tra- 
 
 A gedy ? Who introduced a second actor on the stage ? How did 
 /Eschylus excite the astonishment and delight of the Greeks? 
 Who introduced a third actor ? What was the chief object in 
 this addition ? What number of tragedies were ^Eschylus and 
 
 B Sophocles accustomed to bring forward at one representation ? 
 
 c Where was Euripides born ? What innovations did he intro- 
 duce ? How did Euripides differ from ^Sschylus and Sophocles 
 in the treatment of his heroes? 
 [325] How did this form of composition arise, and what was its 
 
 A character ? What specimen have we left of the Satyric drama ? 
 Whence did the Old Comedy derive its origin I Who moulded 
 it into a more artistical form ? When did Aristophanes flourish ? 
 How many of his comedies remain ? What representation have 
 
 B we in them of Athenian manners] When was all satirical 
 
 notice of living characters strictly prohibited ? What was the 
 
 result of this injunction ? What was the object of the Middle 
 
 Comedy ? 
 
 [326] How can we account for the Greeks being so many centuries 
 
 c without accurate historical records ? Who first broke the ground ? 
 With what did the compilers of history antecedent to Hero- 
 
 D dotus content themselves I Describe the character of Hero- 
 
 . A dotus as an historian. Describe the great historical work of 
 
 Thucydides. What unfounded charge has been made against 
 
 Xenophon ? 
 
 [327] Where alone was eloquence cultivated as a political science ? 
 
 B Characterize the orations of Pericles. Who originally culti- 
 
 c vated rhetoric as an art ? What combination produced the 
 elaborate eloquence of the senate and the bar ? How was the 
 
 D eloquence of Lysias distinguished ? l Who was a famous teacher 
 of oratory ? What orator was the great opponent of Demo- 
 sthenes? Did Demosthenes exert all the resources of his 
 eloquence ? 
 [328] Where was philosophy first cultivated? Who was at the 
 
 A head of the Ionic school ? Upon what does the reputation of 
 the 'seven wise men' seem to have been founded? What was 
 
 B principally taught by the Sophists? Who resisted their abuse of 
 this art? How did he attempt to stem the torrent of irmno- 
 
 c rality ? Who held him up to ridicule ? Why was he sentenced 
 to death ? Who has preserved his doctrines ? What school did 
 
 1 [What is said in the text gives a false notion of this orator. 
 The Epitajihios is probably not a genuine work of his. His pleadings 
 are mostly on private causes, and are exceedingly clear, correct, and 
 nervous, though plain J 
 
329 343.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 367 
 
 D Plato found ? Who founded the Peripatetic school ? * Where 
 are the earliest traces of mathematical science found ? * Who 
 made an attempt to introduce medicine into ordinary life 1 
 * Who was the real founder of the healing art ? 
 
 [329] Describe the Cyclopian style of architecture. What re- 
 mains have we of this style ? Who has described the palaces 
 
 B of the heroic age 1 What are the most important architectural 
 monuments of antiquity ? How were the fronts of Grecian 
 
 c temples ornamented ? Where are the most ancient of the archi- 
 tectural monuments still in existence found ? Where may those 
 of the most flourishing period of Grecian architecture be seen 1 
 [330] What ornamental works in sculpture were produced? When 
 
 D was the period of their greatest perfection ? What ornaments 
 
 A decorated the temples? Who was the most distinguished 
 master in sculpture ? What were his chief works ? Name the 
 other celebrated masters. 
 [331] To what was painting for a long time confined ? How long 
 
 B was it considered subordinate to sculpture? Who were the 
 principal painters of note ? Who attained the highest degree 
 of perfection ? Of what did his works consist ? 
 [332] What trade did the Phoenicians carry on with the Greeks ? 
 
 c Who were notorious for their acts of piracy 1 Which were the 
 
 chief commercial states of Greece ? 
 [333] * Name the principal branches of Greek commerce. * What 
 
 A were the principal articles of import ? of export ? 
 
 74. History of Macedonia to the Reign of Philip II. 
 [340] What traditions exist respecting, the establishment of the 
 c Macedonian monarchy ? When do the first continuous notices 
 D of Macedonian history commence ? How did the Macedonian 
 A Alexander serve Xerxes I Why did Perdiccas II. break with 
 B the Athenians ? Whom did he support ? Enumerate the im- 
 provements Archelaus introduced into his country. What was 
 its condition after his death ? 
 
 [341] * What was the nature of the constitution of Macedonia 
 c during this period ] 
 
 75. Philip II. 
 
 [342] How was the disputed succession in Macedonia settled ? 
 A Who was sent as a hostage to Thebes ? How did he benefit 
 by his residence there ? How did Philip obtain the throne 1 
 B What was this prince's grand object ? How did he increase 
 the efficiency of his army .' Wherein did its great power con- 
 sist ? Why did he endeavor to make himself master of the 
 c coasts of Thrace ? Who assassinated Philip ? why ? 
 
 76. Alexander the Great. 
 
 '343] When was Alexander the Great born ? What remarkable 
 " A event took place on the night of his birth ? Who conducted hia 
 education ? What were the first acts of his reign ? Who 
 opposed the Hegemony of Alexander ? Who was chosen 
 commander-in-chief of the forces destined .o act against the 
 Persiana ? 
 
 17 
 
368 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [344 356. 
 
 [344] What expedition did Alexander now undertake ? What false 
 
 c report was raised ? How did Alexander treat the Thebans ? 
 
 [345] Who was left as regent in Macedonia 1 What was the state 
 
 D f the Persian empire at this time ? What forces had Alex- 
 
 A ander ? Which was his first battle ? Who favored the designs 
 
 of Alexander ? Who offered resistance 1 Who was the favorite 
 
 B general of Alexander ? What was assigned to him ? Why did 
 
 he cut the famous knot at Gordium 1 How was Alexander's 
 
 march interrupted? Between whom was the battle of Issus 
 
 c fought ? when ? with what result ? What fell into the hands of 
 
 Parmenio 1 On what terms was Darius anxious to purchase a 
 
 peace ? 
 
 [346] Enumerate the conquests which followed. How was Tyre 
 D taken ? How long did the siege of Gaza last 1 How did Alex- 
 ander perpetuate his name in Egypt 1 
 
 J347] Describe his visit to the temple of Zeus Ammon. What 
 A advantage attended his conquest of Phoenicia and Cyprus'? 
 B Where did he again overthrow Darius? Where did the de- 
 feated monarch fly to for refuge ? What provinces did Alex- 
 ander take possession of ? Who murdered Darius ? 
 [348.] How did the death of Darius assist the schemes of Alex- 
 c ander 1 How was the rapid subjugation of the eastern portion 
 
 of the empire effected ? 
 
 [349J What was the fate of Bessus? With what view did he 
 A undertake an expedition against the Scythians, &c. ? Why did 
 
 he retrace his steps ? 
 
 [350] * Where did discontent manifest itself? Why were the 
 B Macedonians discontented ? * Name some of the most dis- 
 tinguished Macedonians who refused Alexander divine homage. 
 * What caused disturbances in Greece ? * Who supported 
 Agis II. ? 
 
 [351] Who composed the Indian army of Alexander? Why did 
 D Poms submit to Alexander ? How was Alexander induced to 
 A return ? Who commanded the fleet ? Describe its course. 
 B How did Alexander return to Persia ? 
 
 [352] Why did Alexander keep in sight of his fleet ? How did he 
 c proceed after this became impracticable ? How were the last 
 
 years of his life spent ? 
 
 [353] * How were the oppressive barbarian satraps treated ? 
 D * In what way did Alexander still further conciliate the barba- 
 rians ? * How did he alienate his own veteran soldiers ? 
 [354] Where and when did Alexander die? What caused his 
 A death ? 
 
 77. Partition of the Pervico-Macedonian Empire. 
 [355] Who was to be proclaimed the successor of Alexander? 
 B Who was to govern as regent ? in Asia ? in Europe ? Whom 
 did the army recognize as king? Who obtained the satrapy 
 of Egypt ? of Phrygia ? of Caria ? What province fell to Anti. 
 gonus ? to Eumenes ? to Lysimachus ? 
 
 [356] What were the plans of Perdiccas ? How were they 
 
 c frustrated ? Who succeeded to the regency ? When did he 
 
 die ? Who next obtained the guardianship of the two young 
 
357366.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 369 
 
 A kings ? What followed this arrangement 1 What led to a con- 
 federacy against Antigonus ? Who comprised this confederacy ? 
 
 B Who was the son of Antigonus ? When and where was An- 
 tigonus defeated ? Who shared his dominions 1 
 [357] * What was the policy of Antigonus? * How did he 
 
 c attempt to weaken Cassander of Macedonia 1 * What pre- 
 vented his crossing into Europe 1 * What did he do in order to 
 reconquer the east 1 
 [358] * How did the war break out afresh ? * Who was now com- 
 
 A missioned to effect the liberation of Greece ? * How was h 
 rewarded for this service ? * What victory did Demetrius now 
 obtain? * What titles did he and his father now assume? 
 * Who imitated them? * Why did Demetrius attack Rhodes? 
 
 B * What were his exertions? * Were they successful ? * Who 
 solicited the aid of Demetrius? * What alliance was then 
 formed ? * How were the territories of Antigonus divided I 
 
 78. Macedonia and Greece. 
 
 [359] How did the Greeks receive the intelligence of Alexander's 
 
 A death? Who was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied 
 
 army ? To what country did he transfer the theatre of war ? 
 
 B What success attended the allied army? On what condition 
 
 was peace granted to Athens ? What was the fate of Hyperides 
 
 and Demosthenes? 
 
 [360] How did the kings of the new Macedonian empire content 
 B themselves ? How were their plans continually rendered abor- 
 tive ? What was another obstacle to the complete subjugation 
 of Greece? What Greek province alone remained to Mace- 
 donia ? What relation did the other states bear to Macedonia ? 
 When were Macedonia and Greece invaded by the Gauls ? 
 r hat hordes of barbarians made an irruption into Greece? 
 Whom did the first horde overthrow ? Who drove them sub- 
 sequently out of the country ? Under whom did the second 
 B horde march to Delphi? Describe their repulse. Where did 
 
 they settle ? 
 
 [362] What had the ^Etolian and Achaean confederacy for their 
 c object ? Where was the JEtolian confederacy held ? Who gave 
 D importance to the Achaean confederacy ? How were the Athe- 
 nians persuaded to join it ? 
 
 [363] What struggle took place between the two confederacies ? 
 [364] * In the Cleomenumwar, who formed an alliance with Sparta ? 
 A * With what intent ? * Who prevented the Achaeans from sub- 
 B mitting to Sparta ? How ? * How was Cleomenes vanquished ? 
 * How did the war of the confederates arise ? * What was the 
 success of Philip III. ? * What made him think of attacking 
 Rome ? 
 
 [365] What was the object of New Comedy? Who was the 
 c most successful writer of this description of comedy ? For 
 D whom did he furnish a model ? Where was eloquence chiefly 
 
 cultivated ? Name the five philosophic schools. 
 *366] * Who founded the Peripatetic 1 * What was the teaching 
 ' A of the Epicurean school ? * Who founded the Stoic ? * What 
 
 [361] 
 A Wl 
 
370 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [367 376. 
 
 was the character of its teaching 1 * Who founded the Skeptic ? 
 
 * What was its teaching ? * Who founded the New Academy ? 
 
 * To what school was it opposed ? 
 
 [367] Name the principal commercial places after the decline of 
 Grecian freedom. 
 
 79. Egypt under the Ptolemies. 
 
 [368] Who received the smallest division of the Macedonian 
 B monarchy? What advantages attended the allotment of the 
 c Ptolemies ] Give the surnames of the three first Ptolemies. 
 What was their policy with respect to Egypt, and particularly 
 A Alexandria 1 What proof have we of their injudicious foreign 
 policy 1 ? What was the consequence of their obstinate perse- 
 verance ? , 
 
 [369] * How did Ptolemy Philadelphus facilitate the commerce 
 B between India and the Mediterranean ? * Why was this mode 
 of communication but little used 1 * Which was the great em- 
 porium for the Indian and Arabian trade ? 
 
 [370] When does the decline of the Egyptian empire date its com- 
 c mencement? What was the character of succeeding sove- 
 reigns ? How did the people submit to their oppression ? How 
 D did the Romans find an opportunity for intervention? What 
 A wars followed with the Romans 1 When did Egypt begin to 
 take the place of Athens as the seat of learning ? What differ- 
 ence was there in the character of the Alexandrian and Grecian 
 literature ? 
 
 [372] Where do the Alexandrian poets fail? Who excelled in 
 B lyric poetry 1 in epic and didactic poetry ? Have we any frag- 
 ments of Theocritus ? 
 
 [373] Who raised philology to the position of a substantive science? 
 What was the plan of these literati? Who were the most 
 celebrated grammarians ? 
 [374] * What great mathematicians flourished at this period ? 
 
 * What philosophic sect sprung up here in the second century ? 
 
 80. The Syrian Empire under the Seleucida. 
 
 [375] Relate the victories of Seleucus. What was the extent of 
 B his dominion ? What bad policy did the Seleucidae adopt ? 
 c What would have been their better course? What was the 
 
 result of their system of government ? 
 
 [376] Who averted the ruin of the declining empire for a time? 
 A What was his first attempt I Whose independence was Antio- 
 
 chus compelled to recognize? What was his conviction with 
 
 regard to the north-western portion of the Persian empire ? 
 B What war was now successfully renewed ? Who interrupted 
 
 Ahtiochus in his career of victory ? How did the Romans seek 
 c war with Syria ? For what purpose did Antiochus visit Greece ? 
 A Who deceived him ? Who declared war against him ? Under 
 
 these circumstances how did Antiochus act ? Where did the 
 
 Romans gain a second battle at ? To what condition was 
 B Antiochus obliged to submit ? Who then renounced their alle* 
 
 giance to the Seleucidae ? 
 
377 388.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 371 
 
 [377] On the death of Antiochus III., what causes undermined 
 D the empire of the Seleucidae ? How did Antiochus IV. show 
 his ignorance of his real position? Who compelled Antiochus 
 A to disgorge his Egyptian conquest ? What occasioned the de- 
 fection of the Israelites from the Syrian monarchy ? How was 
 this empire shaken to its foundation ? Who reduced it to the 
 condition of a Roman province ? At what date ? 
 
 81. Kingdoms which revolted from the Syrian dominion. 
 
 [378] Who supported the Romans in their war against Antiochus 
 
 B III.? What was his reward? Who was the founder of the 
 
 c celebrated library of Pergamus? To whom did Attalus III. 
 
 bequeath his kingdom ? Who overthrew Aristonlcus 1 
 [379] How did Nicomedes treat the Gallic tribes? Who migrated 
 A to Asia Minor? How did Caesar favor Deiotarus? Who as- 
 sassinated Agathocles ? What was the extent of the kingdom 
 of Parthia afterwards ? Who deposed Arsaces XXX. ? Of what 
 B provinces did the emperor Galerius deprive Narses? 
 [381] Wh notices have we of Bactria ? 
 
 [382] When was Armenia divided? What misfortune attended 
 the alliance of Tigranes with his father-in-law Mithridates VI. ? 
 Enumerate the successive changes in the government of Arme- 
 nia. Who ruled the Lesser Armenia ? 
 
 [383] Who acquired Palestine on the death of Alexander the 
 B Great ? What was the Greek translation of the Old Testament 
 called ? How long did the Jews remain subject to the Seleuci- 
 dae ? What occasioned their revolt ? 
 
 [384] How long did they maintain their independence ? Who was 
 c recognized by Demetrius as high-priest and independent prince 
 of Judaea ? What struggles prepared the way for the depend- 
 ence of their country on Rome? How did the leader of the 
 Pharisaic party obtain promotion to the high-priesthood 1 
 [385] * How did the Pharisees and Sadducees differ in doctrine ? 
 A * Who were the Essenes? What was the consequence of the 
 new high-priest's neglect of public affairs ? Whose son was 
 Herod ? How was he enabled to bid defiance to the enmity of 
 the Pharisees? 
 
 [386] Why was the government of Herod the Great hateful to 
 B every Jewish patriot? What was Herod's policy ? When was 
 JESUS CHRIST born ? Of what province did Judaja form a 
 part ? Who was its most notorious procurator 1 What hap- 
 pened during his government ? 
 
 387] * Did Palestine again become a kingdom 1 * Under whom ? 
 
 Who destroyed Jerusalem ? When ? How many Jews lost 
 
 their lives? Where was the seat of government now trans- 
 
 A ferred ? What occasioned another general insurrection of the 
 
 Jews ? What new city rose on the ruins of Jerusalem 1 
 
 82. The Kingdom of Pontus. 
 
 [388] When did Pontus become independent? To whom did 
 B Mithridates II. submit ? Who expelled Antigonus from Pon- 
 tus ? Describe the career of Mithridates VI. On whom wag 
 c Pontus conferred at a later period 1 
 
372 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [389 457. 
 
 83. Bithynia and Cappadocia. 
 
 [389] Who are the best known of the Bithynian kings ? 
 D Who inveigled him to Rome 1 Who was the last king of 
 Cappadocia ? * 
 
 91. Legend concerning the Immigration of the Trojans 
 
 into Latium. 
 
 [447] Who visited Latium previously to the Trojan immigration ? 
 
 A What did he do 1 Where did ^Eneas land ? WV>m did he 
 
 marry ? How was the first settlement in Italy named by the 
 
 B Trojans ? What city did they found afterwards ? * What was 
 
 the fate of Turnus, king of the Rutuli 1 * What becomes of 
 
 ^Eneas 1 * Who was his son ? 
 
 [448J Who founded the city of Alba Longa 1 * On what grounds 
 c would you doubt the catalogue of kings from Ascanius to Amulius ? 
 
 92. Legend concerning the Building of Rome. 
 
 [449] * Under what two forms is the legend concerning the build- 
 of Rome known 1 
 
 93. Romulus. 
 
 [450] How long did Romulus reign 1 How was the new city of 
 c Rome soon peopled 1 How did Romulus act when his matri- 
 monial proposals were rejected ? What wars did this give rise 
 A to 1 How were they terminated 1 What became of Romulus ? 
 
 94. Numa Pompilius. 
 
 [451] How long did Numa Pompilius reign? Who was he? 
 B Name the different orders who formed his religious establish- 
 ment. What were his other remarkable acts ? 
 
 95. Niebuhr's view of the origin of the earliest Inhabitants 
 
 of Rome. 
 [452] Why have we the term Quirites associated with that of 
 
 c Populus Rom anus ? 
 
 [453] Of what did the Roman people consist before the formation 
 A of the plebs ? How did this distinction originate ? What was 
 
 the nature of the connection between client and patron ? 
 [454] Who were styled gentes minores ? Name the three tribes of 
 c the Roman people. How were these subdivided 1 Who pre- 
 A sided over a tribe ? curia ? gens 1 Who formed the senate ? 
 
 96. The earliest Constitution of Rome under Sereins 
 
 Tullius. 
 
 [455] How was the supreme authority divided ? How was the king 
 c chosen? What was the nature of his authority 1 How was his 
 
 revenue derived ? 
 
 [456] Of what numbers did the senate consist at different periods ? 
 [457] What^was the comitia curiata ? Who acted as interreges ? 
 A For how long time did each rule ? 
 
458 469.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 37$ 
 
 97. Tullus Hostilius. 
 
 [458] How long did Tullus Hostilius reign? How was the wal 
 B with Alba Longa decided ? How was the attempted desertion 
 c of Mettius Fuffetius punished ? What was the fate of Tullus ? 
 
 98. Ancus Marcius. 
 
 ~459] How long did Ancus Marcius reign ? What were his prin- 
 D cipal public works ? 
 
 99. L. Tarquinius Priscus. 
 
 [460] How long did L. Tarquinius Priscus reign ? Who was he ? 
 A Mention his great architectural labors. What changes did he 
 effect in the constitution ? What was Tarquin's fate ? 
 
 100. Servius Tullius. 
 
 [461] How long did Servius Tullius reign? What was his origin ? 
 B How did he come to the throne 1 What temple did he build 1 
 Who murdered him 1 Who supported Servius Tullius 1 
 
 101. The Constitution of Servius Tullius. 
 
 [462] What new order in the state was now become influential t 
 
 c Describe the origin and progress of this order. What was the 
 
 chief object of the constitution of Servius Tullius '? What was 
 
 A his policy with regard to the plebs 1 How did he commence his 
 
 reforms? 
 
 [463] What new division of the inhabitants did he introduce ? 
 
 c How many equites or knights were there ? How were those who 
 
 served on foot divided ? What amount of property was to be 
 
 D possessed by these classes respectively ? What class or classes 
 
 comprehended the third part of the whole ? Name the centuries 
 
 of this part. 
 
 [464] How was the voting conducting ? What connection existed 
 A between the military and civil constitutions of the kingdom ? 
 B Who were the serarii ? 
 
 [465] * How was the property qualification settled ? * How often 
 
 was a census made ? * What items did it comprehend ? * To 
 
 whom was the administration of the public exchequer intrusted 1 
 
 [466] Who formed the comitia centuriata ? What privileges were 
 
 c conferred on this assembly by Servius ? How was its power 
 
 A limited in elections and legislation ? To whom were the judicia 
 
 capitis committed ? 
 
 [467] * What state allowances were granted to the knights ? * How 
 
 B were the classes divided ? * Of how many men did the Roman 
 
 legion consist originally ? * How were the classes armed ? 
 
 * What was the office of the accensi and velati ? * When were 
 
 the proletarii armed ? 
 
 102. L. Tarquinius Superbus. 
 
 [468] How long did L. Tarquinius Superbus reign ? How came he 
 
 c to ascend the throne ? What oppressive measures did he adopt 1 
 
 [469] How was he enabled to build the Capitoline temple ol 
 
374 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [471 482. 
 
 D Jupiter, and the temples of Juno and Minerva 1 How were the 
 A Sibylline books obtained I Who preserved them 1 
 [471] What was the dispute between the sons of the king and L. 
 B Tarquinius ? What was the fate of Lucretia ? and who avenged 
 c her death? Who were the first consuls? * What inconsisten- 
 cies occur in the chronology of this period ? 
 
 $ 103. The Consuls. 
 
 [472J What was the original title of the Consuls ? How long did 
 
 A they retain it ? When did plebeians first become eligible to the 
 
 office of consul ? What were the necessary qualifications for the 
 
 consulship ? * How was the election made and sanctioned ? 
 
 * When did the consuls enter on office 1 
 
 [473] To whom were the priestly duties committed? How was 
 B the great power of the consuls gradually circumscribed ? When 
 were the consuls invested with unlimited powers ? How long 
 did the consulship nominally exist ? 
 
 104. Consequences of the Expulsion of the Tarquins. 
 
 [474] Who was at the head of a conspiracy to restore the Tar- 
 c quins? Who succeeded Collatinus as consul? How had the 
 number of senators been diminished ? Who were now admitted 
 in their number ? 
 
 [475] * How was the battle between Aruns and Brutus decided ? 
 
 A * What important law did P. Valerius obtain for the plebeians ? 
 
 [476] What heroic deeds did the war with Porsenna produce? 
 
 B On what terms were the Romans compelled to conclude a peace 
 
 with Porsenna ? 
 
 '477] What power had the Dictator ? How long did his office last ? 
 
 c When was the first dictator appointed ? What was the advantage 
 
 of such an office ? * From what class was the dictator chosen ? 
 
 105. Secession of the Plebs, 494. 
 
 [479] When did the patrician party begin to press heavily on the 
 
 B plebeians ? With what view was the dictatorship created ? How 
 
 c had the plebeians been ruined ? To whom was the term nexus 
 
 applied? What became of those who failed to redeem their 
 
 pledge within a given time ? 
 
 [480] Why did the people refuse to serve in the army? Who 
 D persuaded them to take the field ? What did the people do 
 when they found the promises of their commanders unfulfilled ? 
 A Who brought about a peace ? How were the tribunes chosen ? 
 B What was the object of their appointment ? What power did 
 they possess ? How were questions decided in the college ot 
 c tribunes ? To what comitia could they summon the people ? 
 Where was this assembly held? Whom did the resolutions 
 there adopted affect ? What wer such resolutions called ? 
 [481] What duties were intrusted to the adiles plebeii ? 
 [482] * Who attempted to obtain for the plebs a share of the ager 
 publicus ? * Was his law adopted ? * What charge did Genu- 
 ciua make against the consuls I 
 
483 496.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 375 
 
 106. Wars to the period of the Decemvirate. 
 
 .483] How did Cn. Marcius obtain the surname of Coriolanus? 
 " B Why was he condemned by the comitia tributa 1 What step 
 
 did he take 1 What demands did he make when before the city 
 
 of Rome 1 How was he induced to raise the siege 1 What 
 
 became of him afterwards 1 
 
 [484] With what view was the war against Veii undertaken ? 
 [485] * What success had the Fabii against the Veientines 1 
 [486] How far had the Ausonian tribes (^Equi and Volsci) ex- 
 A tended their authority 1 Who rescued the Romans when beaten 
 
 on the Algidus 1 
 
 107. Struggle of the Plebeians with the Patricians for 
 equality of Civil Rights. 
 
 [485] Who proposed the formation of a code of written laws ? 
 
 c why? What advantages would the plebeians gain by these 
 
 laws? Why did the patricians attempt to render this " rogatio" 
 
 D ineffective ? . How did the struggle terminate ? * On what 
 
 grounds has it been supposed that the Roman code was derived 
 
 from that of Athens ? 
 
 [488] Who were appointed to frame the new code of written laws ? 
 
 B What was the result of this commission ? How long did these 
 
 laws form the groundwork of Roman legislation ? What most 
 
 important change was consequent on the formation of this 
 
 code? 
 
 [489] How did the second decemvirate act ? How was the discon- 
 D tent of the people blown into a flame ? By whose means was 
 A peace restored ? On what terms ? Who impeached the decem- 
 viri ? What was their fate ? What became of their property ? 
 [490] What was the first endeavor of the newly-elected consuls? 
 
 B In order to this what laws were enacted ? 
 
 [491] What essential change in the constitution was effected by C. 
 c Canuleius ? What other changes were introduced by his col- 
 leagues? What was the number of the Military Tribunes? 
 What law was passed yearly with regard to the appointment 
 of chief magistrates? 
 
 [492] From what order were the Censors chosen ? How long did 
 A their office continue ? What were their functions ? 
 [493] * How was the generosity of Sp. Malius rewarded ? * How 
 c was the senate now recruited ? 
 
 [494] How had all questions hitherto been decided in the college 
 
 D of Tribunes ? What enactment was now made ? Was this 
 
 serviceable to any order in the state? What practice was 
 
 now introduced in the army? What was set aside for this 
 
 purpose ? 
 
 108. The last War against Veii. 
 
 [495] What wars preceded the last against Veii ? 
 [496] What led to the war with Veii? How was Veii taken? 
 B What dependence is to be placed on the account df its c'apture 1 
 17* 
 
376 QUESTIONS TO MANUAI [497 507. 
 
 [497] * What did the oracle and aruspex announce about Veil? 
 
 c * What was done in consequence ? 
 
 [498] How was the Veientine territory disposed of 1 What charge 
 was made against Camillus? What was his punishment 1 
 
 $ 109. War with the Gauls, 389. 
 
 [499] Who now crossed the Alps and entered Italy 1 Who com- 
 
 A manded the Italian division? What amount of forces were 
 
 B engaged on the Allia? When was this battle fought? With 
 
 what event? On what conditions did the Gauls consent to 
 
 withdraw from Rome? Who interfered at this juncture? 
 
 c What followed? Why was Camillus surnamed the second 
 
 founder of the city ? Who re -peopled Veii? 
 
 [500] * How were many persons reduced to insolvency at this 
 A tune ? * What was the conduct of M. Manlius ? * How was 
 he treated ? 
 
 110. Termination of the struggle between the Patricians 
 and Plebeians by the Licinian Rogations. 
 
 [501] Who attempted to relieve the continued embarrassment of 
 c the plebeians ? What laws did they propose ? Who stopped 
 
 the reading of these rogations? When were they adopted? 
 D To what condition were they made subject? Why was the 
 
 praetura urbana established ? Who held the curule aedileship ? 
 
 Who was nominated the first plebeian consul ? 
 
 [502] Who was the Praetor Urbanus ? What was his principal 
 B duty ? How was his authority indicated ? What guide had he 
 
 for his decisions in cases to which the law did not extend ? On 
 c what did he sit? What other praetor was now appointed? 
 
 Why was the appointment made necessary ? Were the number 
 
 of praetors further increased ? How were they increased by 
 
 Sulla and Caesar I 
 
 [503] What were the duties of the Curule ^Ediles ? How long was 
 A it before the plebeians were established in the possession of 
 
 their newly -acquired rights? How was the election of Consuls 
 
 frequently interrupted ? 
 
 111. Their Wars to the Samnite Wars. 
 
 [504] With what nation or tribe had the Romans several ware 
 B about this time ? How were they decided ? 
 
 112. First War with the Samnites. 
 
 [506] What was the extent of the Samnite dominion ? Was the 
 
 D population of this territory large ? Who applied to the Romans 
 
 for aid against the Samnites ? Who were consuls at this time ? 
 
 A What engagements took place? What booty fell into the hands 
 
 of the Romans ? Who gained the victory at Sueseula ? What 
 
 was the condition of peace between the Romans and Samnites ? 
 
 1 13. War with the Latins, 339337. 
 
 [5071 When was the alliance between Rome and Latium renewed ? 
 c What led to the complete subjugation of the Latins ? Where 
 
508 518.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 377 
 
 did the Romans meet the Latins in conflict? Under whose 
 command? How and why did Manlius punish his son? Where 
 was a second victory gained ? What followed this victory ? 
 [508] * How were the inhabitants of the subdued cities treated 1 
 
 114. Second War with the Samnites. 
 
 [509] * What were the causes of the second Samnite war? 
 
 [510] How did the Romans divide the forces of the Samnites? 
 
 B How many times were the Samnites defeated ? Under whom ? 
 
 Where was a Roman force intercepted and beaten ? On what 
 
 c terms did they capitulate ? * How long did the war with the 
 
 Samnites last ? * In whose favor did it terminate ? 
 
 [511] With what states did the Romans now maintain war suc- 
 
 A cessfully? What favorable opportunity did the Etruscans 
 
 seize to re-establish their ancient boundaries? Who opposed 
 
 them ? Where were they defeated ? How was the conqueror 
 
 rewarded ? Who obtained the victory near Longula ? What 
 
 B success attended Fabius as proconsul? Over whom did the 
 
 consuls of the ensuing year gain victories ? What other battles 
 
 were fought ? Did the Samnites afterwards recognize the 
 
 supremacy of Rome ? On what terms was a peace concluded ? 
 
 [512] * How were the revolted cities of the Hernicans treated? 
 
 c how the Volscians and ^Equians who had afforded assistance to 
 
 the Samnites? 
 
 115. Third War with the Samnites. 
 
 [513] What gave rise to the third war with the Samnites ? By 
 A what alliance did the Samnites seek to strengthen themselves ? 
 
 Where were they defeated 1 By whom 1 Who checked the 
 
 advance of the Gauls 1 What victories did the Romans gain ? 
 B What was the fate of C. Pontius? Who terminated the war 
 
 with the Samnites? * How far did the sovereignty of Rome 
 
 now extend? 
 
 116. War with Tarentum and with Pyrrhus of Epirut. 
 
 [514] What caused the war with Tarentum ? 
 [515] Whom did the people of Tarentum call to their assistance ? 
 A What victory did this ally gain ? On what terms did he offer 
 peace to the Romans ? By whose advice was this proposal re- 
 jected ? 
 
 [516] What battle was won by Pyrrhus in the following year? 
 c What induced Pyrrhus to conclude an armistice with Rome? 
 
 Why did Pyrrhus quit Italy ? 
 
 [517] When was he compelled to abandon Sicily? Why did he 
 D return into Italy ? Who defeated his mercenaries ? where ? 
 What did Pyrrhus then do ? What was his fate ? Who deli- 
 vered up Tarentum to the Romans ? 
 
 117. Complete Subjugation of Italy. 
 
 [518] Who now opposed the Romans ? Who was sent against 
 A them? With what success? What became df the Etruscan 
 cities? 
 
378 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [519 530. 
 
 [519] What states were now compelled to receive Roman colo- 
 B nists ? 
 
 [520] Where were the Picentians sent ? why ? 
 [522] * What was the connection of the conquered States with 
 
 c Rome ? 
 
 [523] * What privileges belonged to the Municipia ? * What usage 
 
 A had the Romans for the purpose of retaining a conquered 
 
 people in a state of dependence ? What lands were assigned 
 
 B to the colonists ? * Who had the administration of public 
 
 affairs? * What advantage attended this plan of colonizing 1 
 
 c * By whose order were colonies established ? * What were the 
 
 prefecture 1 
 
 118. Domestic History of Rome during this period. 
 
 [524] When did the importance of the patrician order begin to 
 
 decline ? 
 
 [525] Who took the first decided step towards a complete equaliza- 
 D tion of the two orders ? What were the three laws that he pro- 
 A posed in order to achieve this? What was gained by the lex 
 B Ogulnia ? What was the object of the lex Mamia ? What led 
 
 to the complete establishment of democracy? 
 
 [526] * With what view did Appius Claudius admit the libertini 
 c into the plebs? * Who set aside this arrangement? * What 
 privilege did this office confer? * Why were three censors 
 deemed necessary 1 
 
 119. The First Punic War. 
 
 [527] When did the first Punic war break out? Why did the 
 Carthaginians support the Tarentines in their struggles against 
 
 A Rome? What led to the introduction of Roman troops into 
 Sicily ? Where were the Romans admitted ? Who blockaded 
 
 B them ? Who relieved Messana ? How many cities submitted 
 
 to the Romans ? Did Hiero make peace with the invaders ? 
 
 What did the Romans now do ? What was the fate of Agri- 
 
 gentum ? 
 
 [528] With what view did the Romans create a naval force ? 
 
 c How soon was a fleet equipped ? Who conquered the Cartha- 
 
 D ginians by sea ? Where ? What honorable distinction was 
 granted to this commander ? What was the next bold step of 
 
 A the Romans ? Who commanded the Romans when the war was 
 transferred to Africa ? Where did Regulus defeat the Cartha- 
 ginians? What were the number of ships on each side ? 
 
 529] Give an account of the campaign in Africa. Who was 
 
 B placed in command of the Carthaginians ? What contributed 
 to the defeat of the Romans? What became of Regulus? 
 Where was the naval force of the Carthaginians annihilated ? 
 
 c Where was the fleet lost? 
 [530] What success attended a second Roman fleet? What de- 
 
 A termination did the disaster lead to? Whom did the Cartha- 
 
 ginians send to Rome to sue for peace ? How were the eridea- 
 
 * vore of the Romans to obtain popsession of Lilybaeum and 
 
 B Drepanum rendered abortive ? Why did the Romans deter* 
 
531 541.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 379 
 
 mine again to abandon naval warfare ? Who commanded the 
 Carthnginians in Sicily I What decisive victory was at length 
 gained by the Romans ? On what terms was a peace con- 
 c eluded ? In what year did the first Punic war end 1 
 [531] What opportunity did the Romans take to get possession of 
 Sardinia and Corsica 1 
 
 120. War with the Illyrians. 
 
 [532J On what ground diefr- the Romans declare war against the 
 A lllyrians ? On what terms was a peace concluded ? 
 
 [533] What privileges did the Greeks confer on t^e Romans in 
 B gratitude for their deliverance from Illyrian piracy 1 
 
 121. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. 
 
 [534] What tribes of either cisalpine or transalpine Gaul now rose 
 up against Rome ? What occasioned this rising ? How did the 
 rebellion terminate 1 What plans did the Romans adopt for the 
 security of the newly-acquired territory 1 
 
 $ 122. Second Punic War. 
 
 [536] Give the pedigree of the Scipios. With what view did 
 B Hamilcar commence the subjugation of Spain ? How was this 
 c intention frustrated ? Who besieged Saguntum ? What was 
 
 the result of this act of aggression I What natural obstacles did 
 
 Hannibal overcome on his march towards Italy? What 
 
 victories did he gain on his way ? What amount of forces had 
 
 he on arriving in Italy ? 
 
 [537] * How did the Romans resolve to carry on this war? 
 D * Who was dispatched into Sicily? and with what further 
 
 orders ? * Who marched into Spain ? * Why was this plan 
 
 altered ? 
 
 [538] What victories did Hannibal gain, and over whom ? What 
 A fatal error did Hannibal commit after the battle of Trasimenus? 
 B Where did he march ? With what hope 1 What was the plan 
 
 ofFabius? Whence his surname I What was the issue of the 
 c battle of Canns ? What most important result followed ? 
 
 What success attended the fresh army of the Romans ? 
 [539] What city was Hannibal now occupied in besieging? 
 A * Where did he establish his head-quarters ? * What did he 
 
 do after failing in his attempts to reduce the citadel of Taren- 
 
 tum? * What success had Marcellus over Hannibal ? * What 
 
 was his fae ? 
 
 [540] Why was Hannibal compelled to seek assistance from foreign 
 B powers? How were the Macedonians and Syracusans pre- 
 c vented from aiding him? In what year did the whole of Sicily 
 
 become a Roman province ? Who commanded the Cartha- 
 D ginian troops in Spain ? Where was Hasdrubal defeated ? By 
 
 whom ? How long did Mago struggle against the Romans ? 
 A Who was recalled with him ? What was his end ? 
 [541 J How did Cn. Scipio open the campaign? Who was sent 
 B into Spain to his assistance ? Who joined Hasdrubal ? What 
 
 was the career of the Scipios in Spain ? How did it terminate 1 
 
380 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [542 550. 
 
 c Who was now sent out against the Carthaginians ? Mention the 
 
 victories of this commander. How was Spain divided ? How 
 
 named? What appointment did C. Scipio receive on his return 
 
 to Rome ? What permission was granted to him ? 
 
 [542] Who joined Scipio on his landing in Africa 1 What plan of 
 
 B attack did Syphax and the Carthaginians form 1 How was it 
 defeated? Why did the Carthaginian government deem it 
 advisable to recall Hannibal and Mago from Italy? Where 
 were the Carthaginians finally defeated? when? On what 
 terms were they compelled to accept peace ? 
 [543] * How was Masinissa rewarded? * What honors were 
 
 c conferred on Scipio 1 * How were the revolted states of Italy 
 treated ? 
 
 123. The Two Wars against Philip ///., king of 
 Macedonia. 
 
 [544] What pretext had the Romans for commencing a struggle for 
 D preponderance in the east ? 
 
 [545] * Why did the Romans endeavor to defeat Philip's 
 A ambitious projects in Illyria ? * Not attaining this object, 
 whose friendship did they court ? * How did the war between 
 Philip and the ^Etolians terminate ? 
 
 [546] How did Philip make aggressions on the Romans ? What 
 B opportunity did the Romans take of punishing him? Who 
 c prosecuted the war with vigor? What battle put an end to 
 the war? Its date? To what terms was Philip obliged to 
 submit ? When were the Greek districts proclaimed free ? 
 [547] * How did Flaminius limit the power of Nabis ? * Why did 
 D he allow it to remain ? 
 
 124. War with Antiochus III. of Syria. 
 
 [548] * What occasioned the revolt of the ^Etolians ? * Who 
 
 A subdued them? * What charges were made against the two 
 
 Scipios ? * By whom ? * To what country or place did Publius 
 
 B retire ? * How was Lucius punished ? * What was the end of 
 
 Hannibal ? 
 
 125. Third Macedonian War. 
 
 [549] How was Philip occupied when death stopped his projects ? 
 c Who carried them forward ? How did this prince strengthen 
 himself? How was he often defeated 1 How was the breaking 
 D out of war precipitated ? What battle decided the fate of the 
 A Macedonian monarchy ? What became of Perseus ? How did 
 the Romans prepare the country for submission to their sove- 
 reign rule ? What advantage did the Roman people derive from 
 these conquests? How did they prove injurious to their 
 liberties ? 
 
 [550] How was Illyria punished for its alliance with Perseus? 
 B How were the cities and inhabitants of Epirus treated ? How 
 c were the 1000 falsely accused Achaeans treated? What waa 
 the policy of Rome with regard to the Grecian states? 
 
551 558.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 381 
 
 [551] * Who compelled Antiochus IV. [Antiochus Epiphanes] to 
 abandon his warlike designs on Egypt ? * Who was detained 
 at Rome as a hostage ? * Why was Antiochus V. placed on 
 the throne ? * Did Demetrius escape ? * With what view did 
 the Romans divide Egypt ? 
 
 126. The last Wars with Macedonia and Greece. 
 
 [552] Who made an attempt to re-establish the Macedonian 
 A monarchy ? Who defeated the impostor ? How was Macedonia 
 
 punished for its revolt ? 
 
 [553] How many of the thousand Acheeans who had been sent to 
 
 B Rome returned ? Who of these endeavored to persuade their 
 
 countrymen to resist the Romans? Who proclaimed war 
 
 c against Sparta ? Who defeated him ? where ? Who persisted 
 
 in carrying on the war ? Who superseded Metellus ? What 
 
 victory did he gain? Mention his other acts. When was 
 
 Greece proclaimed a Roman province ? Under what name ? 
 
 127. The Third Punic War. 
 
 [554] What interrupted the peace between the Romans and Car- 
 A thaginians ? On whose motion was the peace declared at an 
 
 end ? What unreasonable demand did the Romans make, which 
 B led to the third war ? How was the city taken ? By whom was 
 
 it destroyed ? Under what name was Carthage made a Roman 
 
 province ? 
 
 $ 128. Further Wars in Spain. 
 
 [555] When did the Romans first consider Spain as one of their 
 
 c provinces 1 How long was it before they got quiet possession of 
 
 the peninsula ? What period were they perpetually occupied in 
 
 putting down revolts of the Spanish tribes ? Who gained a 
 
 brilliant victory over the Celtiberi? What command did he 
 
 D give the inhabitants of all the towns ? Who was Viriathus ? 
 
 A What was his fate ? Who took Numantia ? How long did the 
 
 siege last? Whence Scipio's surname of Numantinus ? 
 
 129. Wars against the Gauls, Ligurians, Carnians, 
 and Istrians. 
 
 [556] What was the result of the disputes with the Cisalpine Gauls 
 
 B and Ligurians ? 
 [557] * How long were the Gallic and Ligurian campaigns carried 
 
 c on ? * What territory was denominated pre-eminently " pro- 
 vincia 1" What other conquests did they make ? 
 
 130. First Insurrection of the Slaves in Sicily. 
 
 ' 558] What led to an insurrection of the slaves in Sicily 1 Who 
 D was invited to become their king? How many troops had he? 
 How was an end put to the insurrection ? 
 
382 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [559 569. 
 
 131. Domestic History during this period. 
 
 [559] When did the distinction between patricians and plebeians 
 A become obsolete ? What struggles were consequently at an 
 end 1 What did the term " Populus" now comprehend ? Who 
 B composed the new order of nobility ? Who were termed 
 ignobiles or obscuri ? Who were homines novi ? What ambi- 
 tion had the nobles with regard to the offices of state ? 
 [560] * How were the expenses of the public games defrayed 1 
 c Which was the first step to the higher offices of state ? * To 
 whom was the equestrian dignity confined ? * Who were 
 obliged to take part with the nobles ? why ? 
 
 [561] Why was a second praetor appointed? Why were four 
 A other praetors soon added ? when ? Why did these magistrates 
 remain at Rome ? What titles did the praetors assume in the 
 second year 1 How weie provinces assigned to them ? * Men- 
 tion the four quaestiones perpetuae. 
 
 [562] * What was the meaning of the term "province?" * How 
 
 c did the provinces generally receive their constitution 1 * What 
 
 was the duty of the provincial governor 1 * How were taxes 
 
 imposed in the provinces 1 * Who collected them ? * How 
 
 were the provincial garrisons furnished with soldiers ? 
 
 [563] * What was the nature of the relations of Rome with other 
 
 D free States ? 
 
 [564] What attempts were made to check the progress of luxury 
 A and the increasing adoption of foreign manners ? Who was the 
 most conspicuous of the censors ? 
 
 132. The Two Gracchi. 
 
 [565] What was the condition of the population of Rome at this 
 
 c time? Who revived the agrarian law of Licinius? What was 
 
 the object of this law ? Who had been persuaded by the senate 
 
 to interpose his veto to it ? How did Tiberius wish to dispose 
 
 of the treasures bequeathed to the Roman people by Attalus III. 1 
 
 A At whose instigation was Tiberius assassinated 1 What became 
 
 of Scipio Naslca 1 
 
 [566] * How far did the commissioners for carrying out the agra- 
 rian law of Gracchus succeed ? * What proposal did Papirius 
 Carbo make with regard to the tribunes ] * Who resisted it ? 
 * What was his fate 1 
 
 [567] What advantages did Caius Sempronius Gracchus obtain for 
 c the people 1 Who appeared as a rival tribune to C. Gracchus ? 
 Where was Gracchus sent? What law did he propose on his re- 
 turn ? Who resisted this law ? What was the end of Gracchus ? 
 [568] * How did the Optimates use this victory over the com- 
 A mons ? * What was the lex Thoria ? * How were the pauper 
 citizens now principally supported ? * Who came to the as- 
 sistance of the people ? 
 
 133. The War with Jugurtha. 
 
 [569J How had Micipsa divided his kingdom ? How did Jugurtha 
 B treat Hiempsal and Adherbal ? Who proposed a partition of 
 
570 578.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 383 
 
 the kingdom ? Did Jugurtha accept this proposition ? Who in- 
 duced the Romans to declare war against Jugurtha? What 
 u daring act did he now perform ? Who overthrew Jugurtha 1 
 D Where did he fly for refuge ? Who induced Bocchus to deliver 
 up Jugurtha ? Who was now rising into importance ? In 
 whose triumphal procession was he exhibited ? What was his 
 A fate ? How was Numidia divided ? 
 
 134. War with the Cimbri and Teutones. 
 
 [570] Who were the Cimbri ? Describe their advance. What was 
 B "their demand ? What was their success 1 Who cut them off? 
 c Where were they defeated 1 How was Marius rewarded 1 
 
 135. Second Insurrection of the Slaves in Sicily. 
 
 [571] What occasioned a second insurrection of the slaves in 
 D Sicily 1 How was it terminated 1 
 
 $ 136. To the Social War. 
 
 [572] What ambitious views did Marius entertain? What was 
 A his first step ? Who opposed this proposal ? Who lost their 
 B lives ? Why was the commencement of actual hostilities de- 
 ferred ? Whose quarrels occasioned a civil war ? 
 [573] * How did Marius attempt to sustain his declining influence ? 
 * How did Sulla become a rival of Marius ? 
 
 137. The Marsic or Social War. 
 
 [574] What ground of complaint had the Italian nations against 
 c the Romans ? What aroused the Italian confederates to deliver 
 
 themselves from the Roman yoke ? 
 
 [575] * Mention the immediate causes of the war. * What was 
 A the project of Drusus? * Did it become law? * What was 
 
 his end ? 
 
 [576] Who now formed themselves into a confederacy against 
 B Rome ? What was their plan ? What was the lex Julia ? 
 c Name the three the^res of war. Who commanded in each of 
 D these ? What was done to prevent the new citizens from gain- 
 ing a preponderance over the old ? 
 
 138. Civil War between Marius and Sulla, 88 82 ; 
 and First War against Mithridates, 8784. 
 
 [577] When was Sulla elected consul? What command did he 
 B receive ? How did Marius supplant Sulla ? What became of 
 c Sulpicius ? Who was Cinna ? With whom did he act in con- 
 cert? Did the army favor them? What was done? Who 
 nominated themselves to the consulship? Who succeeded 
 Marius ? 
 
 "578] What plan did Mithridates adopt for checking the progress 
 
 A of the Roman arms in Asia ? What was his first step towards 
 
 the accomplishment of this mighty project? How was he 
 
 furnished with an occasion ? Where was Archelaus sent ? 
 
 B How was- his arrival in Italy prevented? What splendid 
 
384 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [579 588. 
 
 victories did Sulla obtain ? Who had now the conduct of the 
 Mithridatic war ? Who murdered him ? On what terms waa 
 a peace concluded ? 
 [579] * Describe and account for the death of Fimbria. * Did 
 
 c China oppose Sulla's return to Rome ? 
 
 [580] Describe Sulla's return to Rome. Where did C. Marius 
 
 A retire after his defeat 1 Who blockaded him ? What attempt 
 
 B was made by the Samnites ? With what success 1 How were 
 
 the Samnites and Prsenestines treated ? What was the fate of 
 
 Marius ? 
 
 [581] Who were now proscribed ? What opportunity did this 
 c afford Sulla 1 How did he show his authority 1 When did he 
 
 lay down his power 1 Where did he die ? 
 
 [582] Who undertook the annihilation of the Marian party? 
 * Relate his successes. 
 
 139. Changes effected in the Constitution by Sulla. 
 
 583] What was the nature of the changes introduced into the 
 
 B constitution by Sulla 1 What was his first plan 1 What did he 
 
 do in order t secure a popular party ? How were these new 
 
 citizens named 1 How was the tribunitial power restrained 1 
 
 What was the only privilege which the tribunes were allowed to 
 
 c retain 1 How did he endeavor to raise the senate ? Who were 
 
 D declared ex officio members of the senate 1 Why was their 
 
 number augmented to twenty? What other plan did he adopt 
 
 for strengthening the aristocracy ? and his own party ? What 
 
 did he do in order to diminish the influence of the people in the 
 
 A courts of justice ? 
 
 [584] * What was settled by the lex annalis ? * What criminal 
 
 laws were re-enacted by Sulla ? 
 
 [585] Who proposed the repeal of all Sulla's laws 1 Who opposed 
 B the measure ? What was the first step ? Who effected the 
 restoration of the tribunitial power in its fullest extent ? What 
 other enactment did he procure ? 
 
 140. The War against Sertorius. 
 
 [586] Who was Q. Sertorius ? Who chose him as their leader ? 
 c Who supported him ? Whom did he make head against ? 
 A Who concluded an alliance with Sertorius ? Who assassinated 
 
 Sertorius ? What was the fate of his murderer ? Did this 
 
 victory put an end to the war ? 
 
 141. The Servile War; or War of the Gladiators 
 and Slaves. 
 
 [587] Give an account of the war of the gladiators. By whom 
 B were they headed? Who defeated them? Who utterly de- 
 stroyed them ? 
 
 [588] * Who claimed the merit of putting an end to the servile 
 c war ? * What means did Pompey take to secure popular favor ? 
 What command was conferred upon him ? 
 
589 596.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 385 
 
 142. War against the Pirates. 
 
 [589] Mention the causes of the power of the pirates in Cilicia and 
 A Isauria. Give an account of the ravages committed by the 
 B pirates. Who fell into their hands ? What scourge visited 
 
 Rome in consequence of their depredations ? Who defeated! 
 
 these pirates 1 How long did his campaigns last 1 How did he 
 c dispose of the pirates 1 How long did Crete hold out ? Who 
 
 subdued it 1 
 
 143. The two last Wars against Mithridates. 
 
 [590] * Did Mithridates observe the terms of the peace 1 * Who 
 
 resisted him 1 * With what success ? 
 
 [591] Who bequeathed his dominions to the Romans? What 
 
 A alliance did Mithridates form ? Whom did he overthrow 1 
 
 where ? Give an account of the successes of Lucullus against 
 
 B Mithridates. What prevented Lucullus from profiting by his 
 
 victories ? By whom was Lucullus superseded in his command ? 
 
 c why? Where did Mithridates fly to? How did Pompey treat 
 
 Tigranes ? What portion of his dominions did he surrender ? 
 
 D How far did Pompey pursue Mithridates ? On his return what 
 
 did he do in Pontus, Syria, and Palestine ? 
 
 [592] * What became of Mithridates? * Who succeeded him? 
 A * How was Pompey hailed at Rome ? 
 
 144. Catiline's Conspiracy. 
 
 [593] What conspiracy was set on foot by Catiline ? Why had he 
 been rejected as a candidate for the consulship ? Who favored 
 
 B the project of Catiline ? By whom was his conspiracy detected ? 
 Who rendered all further attempts of the conspirators fruitless? 
 
 C How was Catiline driven from the city ? Where did he go ? 
 How were some of the conspirators discovered ? How were 
 they treated? What battle was fought? Who routed the 
 rebel forces ? Who fell in the battle ? 
 
 145. The First Triumvirate. 
 
 [594] What discovery did Caesar make with regard to the republic ? 
 A What resolution did he form in consequence of this discovery ? 
 [595] * How did he follow out his plan ? * What popular mea- 
 sures did he support ? * What subjected him to the suspicion 
 of being concerned in Catiline's conspiracy ? 
 
 7596] What demand did Pompey make on his return to Rome? 
 'B Who resisted Casar as candidate for the consulship? Who 
 was chosen his colleague? Who effected a reconciliation be- 
 c tween Pompey and Crassus ? What was ' the first triumvirate ?' 
 What was the aim of each of its members? What measure did 
 Caesar carry in defiance of all opposition from the senate ? 
 A Who obtained his only daughter in marriage ? What appoint- 
 ment did he procure for himself? How did the senate meet 
 B this last usurpation of their rights ? By whose means did Caesar 
 get Cato and Cicero out of the way? Where was Cato sent? 
 
386 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [597 610. 
 
 What was assigned to him? How was Caesar treated ? When 
 was he recalled ? On whose proposal ? 
 [597] * Where did the triumviri hold a meeting ? * What was 
 
 agreed at it ? * Who supplied Caesar with fresh legions ? 
 
 
 146. Caesar's War in Gaul. 
 
 [598] With what view did Caesar form a standing army ? 
 [599] * How did the subjugation of Gaul differ from that of the 
 A east ? 
 
 [600] Where did the Helvetii come from ? Whose territories did 
 B they plunder ? Who checked them 1 Where were the Ger- 
 c mans defeated? Who commanded them? What reputation 
 had the Belgians? What was the amount of their forces 1 
 How did Caesar overcome them ? Who offered the stoutest re- 
 sistance to the arms of Caesar ? 
 [601] * Who vanquished the Veneti? the Aquitani? * How much 
 
 D of Gaul was now subjugated ? 
 
 [602] What tribes had been driven by the Suevi across the Lower 
 Rhine into Belgium ? Who compelled them to return ? How 
 did Caesar now find employment for his legions ? Were Caesar's 
 expeditions to Britain attended by any important results ? 
 [603] What grievances, besides the loss of their freedom, induced 
 the Gauls to make repeated attempts to throw off the Roman 
 A yoke ? Who headed the insurrection ? Did it succeed 1 Who 
 B surrendered ? By what means did Caesar succeed in tranquil- 
 lizing the Gauls 1 
 
 147. The Civil War between Casar and Pompey. 
 [604] What province was assigned to Crassus? What was his 
 c fate? Who was appointed to the two Spains? Who governed 
 them ? Why did Pompey remain at Rome ? Why did he defer 
 the election of consuls ? 
 
 [605] * What was the first step taken by the senate to reduce 
 A Caesar's power 1 * What did they next require ? * What was 
 
 Caesar's offer ? * How was it treated ? 
 
 [606] What did Caesar determine to do? What measure did 
 
 B Pompey adopt ? Describe the success of Caesar. How did he 
 
 employ his time till vessels were built to transport his troops ? 
 
 c Who appointed him dictator ? How soon did he resign this office 1 
 
 * What advantage did Pompey gain ? * How was this lost? 
 [607] Where was the decisive battle fought between Pompey and 
 A Caesar ? with what result ? What forces met on each side ? 
 
 What became of Pompey ? 
 
 [608] * Why did Caesar dispatch M. Antonius into Italy ? * How 
 far did he succeed in his object ? 
 
 148. Cesar's Wars in the East. 
 
 [609] In what state did Caesar find Egypt on his arrival there? 
 What was the consequence of his interference ? Whom did 
 Caesar make queen of Egypt ? 
 
 [610] Who availed himself of the disruption of the Roman re- 
 c public to extend the limits of his empire I How far did his 
 
611 620.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 387 
 
 A attempt succeed? Who checked and defeated him? What 
 was his end? 
 
 149. Caesar's last Wars against the Partisans of 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 "611] What party was formed against Caesar in Africa? Where 
 B were they overtnrown ? What were the losses on both sides 1 
 
 What was the fate of Cato ? 
 
 [612] * What honors awaited Caesar at Rome ? * How were the 
 c people and soldiers treated ? * What measures did Caesar take 
 for the restoration of order ? * Who assisted him in his reforma- 
 tion of the calendar? 
 
 [613] Where had the sons of Pompey collected a considerable 
 A force ? Where was the decisive battle fought ? Who was 
 victorious ? Did he obtain an easy victory ? How many of 
 Pompey's adherents were slain ? What was the fate of Cn. 
 Pompey ? what of Sextus ? How was Caesar honored on his 
 return? 
 
 150. Death of Casar. 
 
 [614] Enumerate the offices to which Caesar was appointed by the 
 
 B senate, and the honors that were heaped upon him. What act 
 
 c was a formal recognition of his supremacy ? How was Caesar 
 
 D occupied during the last months of his life ? What were his 
 
 military plans? Why did he refuse the diadem when presented 
 
 to him ? When were the Sibylline books destroyed ? What 
 
 A prophecy was discovered in the forged books ? What demand 
 
 was then made ? Who formed a conspiracy against Caesar ? 
 
 Describe the death of Caesar. 
 
 151. Consequences of Casar's Assassination. 
 [615] How did his murderers proceed after his death ? Who re- 
 B fused to sanction the acts of the senate ? How did Antony 
 c drive the assassins from the city ? What powers did Antony 
 D assume ? Who resisted him ? What was his course ? 
 [616] What occasioned the civil war of Mutina? Why was 
 A Antony denounced by the senate ? Who marched to the assist- 
 ance of Brutus? Where was Antony defeated? What was 
 the present plan of Octavian as to Antony ? 
 
 152. The Second Triumvirate. 
 
 [617] How did Octavian obtain the consulship ? Who formed the 
 second triumvirate ? Who were required to confirm the trium- 
 viri in their office ? For how long a period ? 
 
 [618] How did the triumviri proceed before they commenced war 
 c against the assassins of Caesar? Who was among these victims ? 
 A Where were Brutus and Cassius defeated? What was their 
 B fate ? Where did the victors proceed ? Who was summoned 
 
 to Tarsus by Antony ? why ? 
 
 J619] * Who occasioned the Perusian civil war ? * Give an ac- 
 count of this war. 
 
 [620] What smoothed the way for a reconciliation between Antony 
 c and Octavian ? How was the empire divided among the trium- 
 
388 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [621 633. 
 
 viri ? How was the friendship of Antony and Octavian cement- 
 ed 1 Who blockaded Italy ? On what terms was an armistice 
 concluded ? 
 
 [621] What occasioned a renewal of the war between Octavian and 
 A S. Pompeius? Where was Pompey defeated? What was his 
 end ? How was Lepidus defeated in his design on Sicily ? 
 
 153. Foreign Wars of Antony and Octavian. 
 [622] What countries were overrun by the Parthians ? Who 
 B drove them across the Euphrates ? What portion of the Ro- 
 man possessions in Asia was presented to Cleopatra ? What 
 expedition was undertaken by Antony in conjunction with Arta- 
 c vasdes? Why was he compelled to retreat? Who was de- 
 clared to be the legitimate son of Caesar ? why ? 
 623] What expeditions were now undertaken by Octavian? why? 
 A Who were now subjected to the authority of Rome ? 
 
 154. The War between Octavian and Antony. 
 
 [624] When did the term of the triumviral league cease ? Against 
 B whom did the senate declare war ? What was the immediate 
 
 cause of hostilities? 
 
 [625] * How did Antony meet his opponents ? 
 [626] Describe the battle of Actium and its result. Where did Oc- 
 D tavian then proceed ? * What became of Antony ? * What 
 of Cleopatra ? 
 
 155. C. Julius Ctesar Octavianus Augustus. 
 
 [627] When did Octavian return to Rome ? What victories were 
 A celebrated by a triple triumph ? What took place in consequence 
 B of the general peace that now prevailed ? How did Octavian 
 seek to establish his authority ? How far, if at all, was the old 
 constitution respected I When was the title of Augustus con- 
 ferred on Octavian ? Who bore this title afterwards ? 
 [628] * What did the imperial prerogative comprehend ? * How 
 
 c was the election of a successor conducted? 
 
 [629] * How did Octavian limit the number of the senate ? * How 
 A were members of the senate now appointed ? * Could any but 
 Romans be appointed ? * If so, on what terms ? * Who were 
 the advisers of the Imperator ? * When did the people cease 
 to have any share in legislation ? * How were their decisions 
 superseded ? 
 
 [630] * What was the power of the ancient magistrates ? What 
 B new officers were appointed ? * What was the duty of the Prae- 
 fectus urbi ? of the Prsefecti praetorio ? of the Preefectus annonae ? 
 Who exercised considerable influence over these appoint- 
 ments ? * When were they taken entirely in their own hands 
 by the emperors ? 
 
 [631] * How were Rome and Italy divided ? * How were the 
 c other cities distinguished ? * Who presided over the population 
 
 of these cities ? 
 
 [632] * How were the provinces divided by Octavian ? 
 [633] * From what sources was the military ararium raised ? 
 
634 644.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 389 
 
 * By what kind of troops were the frontiers protected ? * Where 
 were they quartered 1 
 
 [634] What was the main object of the wars of Augustus? How 
 
 B was the eastern frontier of the empire secured? Who were 
 
 sent to protect Italy and Gaul against the invasions of the 
 
 Germanic tribes ? How were the people of lower Germany 
 
 won ? How did the Romans treat the country from the Rhine 
 
 c to the Elbe ? What occasioned an insurrection of the tribes of 
 
 Lower Germany ? How was Varus misled ? What was the 
 
 consequence ? 
 
 [635] * How were the remaining days of Augustus rendered 
 D miserable ? * Where did the emperor die 1 * At what age 1 
 
 156. Four Emperors of the House of Lima. 
 
 [636] What were the chief traits in the character of Tiberius 1 
 
 A Whom did he adopt ? by whose persuasion ? Why did Tiberius 
 
 recall Germanicus from Germany ? What successes had he ob- 
 
 B tained there ? What did he achieve in the east ? What was 
 
 his fate ? What measure did Tiberius take for the security of 
 
 his person ? Who was Sejanus ? Why did Tiberius retire from 
 
 c Rome ? What ambitious project did Sejanus form 1 How did 
 
 Tiberius die 1 ? 
 
 [637] Who succeeded Tiberius? Give some account of him. What 
 D form of government did the senate wish to re-establish ? Who 
 A resisted them ? 
 
 [638] Who succeeded Caligula ? How did this prince conduct 
 A himself? What important conquest began in this reign ? 
 
 * What was the character of Agrippina ? 
 
 [639] How did Nero begin his reign ? Under whose direction was 
 B he ? What horrible murders did he perpetrate ? When did he 
 let loose his ferocious disposition ? What inconsistencies was 
 c he guilty of? On whom did Nero throw the blame of having 
 set Rome on fire ? Who was supposed to be the real criminal 1 
 Describe the situation of his palace. What occasioned a gene- 
 ral insurrection throughout the empire ? Who was proclaimed 
 emperor in his place ? What was the fate of Nero 1 
 
 157. Three Emperors proclaimed by the Legions. 
 
 [640] How did Sulpicius Galba render himself odious ? Who put 
 
 A him to death ? 
 [641] Who was Otho ? Who disputed his appointment? How 
 
 B did he die ? 
 [642] Who proclaimed Vespasian ? 
 
 158. The Three Flami. 
 
 [643] Enumerate the measures of Vespasian. What was his 
 
 c character ? Who was appointed to crush the revolt of the 
 
 Jews ? When was Jerusalem stormed ? Who suppressed the 
 
 A insurrection of the Batavi ? Who commenced afresh the war 
 
 in Britain ? What was the character of his administration ? 
 '644] What was the surname of Titus? why? What occurred 
 during his reign ? 
 
390 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [645 659, 
 
 [645] Who was Domitian ? How did he commence his reign ? 
 B What was his chief amusement ? How did he expose his 
 c vanity ? Why was Agricola recalled from Britain ? How did 
 
 he appease the Dacians 1 How was this expedition celebrated ? 
 
 What was the fate of Domitian ? 
 
 159. The most flourishing period of the Empire. 
 
 [646] Who succeeded Domitian ? How did he give discontent 1 ? 
 
 D How did he avoid the vengeance of the Praetorians ? 
 [647] Who was Trajanus 1 How did he exert himself? What 
 A success had he against the Dacians 1 How are these events 
 represented ? How did his campaigns against the Parthians 
 B terminate ? Why was he compelled to retreat ? 
 [648] Who succeeded him 1 ? What was his character ? To what 
 c was his attention exclusively directed ? How was this object 
 D promoted ? What occasioned a terrible insurrection in this 
 A reign ? How was it suppressed ? Who succeeded Hadrian 1 
 [649J What was the character of his reign 1 How was a portion 
 
 of his time occupied 1 
 
 [650] Who succeeded Antoninus ? Who ascended the throne 
 
 B with him ? At whose desire 1 Who undertook a war against 
 
 the Parthians ? Who had the management of the campaign ? 
 
 c What occasioned the great war of the Marcomanni 1 Who 
 
 conducted it 1 With what success ? 
 
 160. Decline of the Empire under the Preetorians. 
 
 [651] Who succeeded M. Aurelius ? On what terms did he grant 
 
 A peace to the Marcomanni and Quadi ? To whom was the 
 
 government intrusted ? How did the emperor conduct himself? 
 
 What was the consequence ? 
 
 r 652] Who was Pertinax ? How long did he reign 1 How did 
 
 B Didius Julianus obtain the throne ? Who set Julianus aside ? 
 [654] What were the measures of Severus ? Who assisted him in 
 c the amendment of the legal code ? What expedition did Severus 
 undertake in his old age 1 Where did he die 1 Whose ingrati- 
 tude occasioned his death ? 
 
 [655] * How did Caracalla begin his reign ? * Who was among 
 D the victims I * What did he do in order to satisfy the greedi- 
 ness of his soldiers, and procure sufficient funds for his own 
 A prodigal expenditures? * What characters did he assume in 
 
 Macedonia and Asia ? * Who murdered him ? 
 [656] * Who succeeded Caracalla? * How did he make peace 
 
 B with the Parthians ] 
 
 [657] * What led to the promotion of Heliogabalus to the throne? 
 * Who was he? * What was his character? * How did he 
 forfeit his life ? 
 
 [658] What was the character of Alexander Severus*s reign ? 
 
 D What new empire was now founded ? How far did the new 
 
 sovereign advance ? Who gained important advantages over 
 
 him ? What led to the death of Alexander Severus ? Who 
 
 accompanied him in all his expeditions ? 
 
 [659] What waa the condition of the empire under the successors 
 
600 674.] 01 ANCIENT HISTORY. 391 
 
 A of Alexander Severus ? How did the nine emperors who 
 reigned during tins period of thirty-live years generally lose 
 their lives ? 
 
 [GGO] * Who was Maximinns * Whom did the senate now nom- 
 B inate to the imperial dignity? * What was their fate? what 
 
 that of Maxiniinus ? 
 [661] * How did Gordianus govern? 
 [665] * What was the reign of Philippus celebrated for 1 
 [6831 * Who was Decius ? * Where was he slain? 
 [fi()4] * Why was Gallus deposed and murdered ? * By whom ? 
 [(>(>;>] * Who put JEmilianus to deatli ? 
 [660] * Who invaded the Roman dominions during the reign of 
 
 D Valerianus ? * Who took the rmprror prisoner'? 
 
 [667] * How ninny rivals had (Jallicnus? * Who maintained his 
 
 position in Gaul and Spain ? * Who obtained with Gallienus 
 
 the sovereignty of the east ? * Under whom did Palmyra be- 
 
 A come a most flourishing city? * How did Gallienus meet with 
 
 his death ? * Who succeeded him ? 
 
 [668] With what success did Claudius II. begin his reign ? * What 
 victories did he gain over the barbanens? * What was his 
 death? * Who succeeded him? 
 
 [669] What obtained for Aurelianus the surname of restitutor 
 B patriae ? What province was abandoned ? What tribes were 
 driven back into their own country ? Who was Zenobia ? Give 
 c an account of Aurelian's victories over Zenobia. Why was she 
 conveyed to Rome ? How were Palmyra and its inhabitants 
 treated ? What were Aurelian's next victories ? Why was the 
 emperor become odious ? At whose instigation was he assassi- 
 nated ? 
 
 [670] * How long did Tacitus and Florianus reign ? What were 
 
 A the questions of Probus on ascending the throne ? How far did 
 
 he succeed ? What plan did the emperor put in execution for 
 
 re-peopling the deserted provinces ? What occasioned the dis 
 
 content f his soldiers? How did they show it? Who was 
 
 chosen as his successor ? 
 
 [671] * Who were appointed his co-regents ? * How did he lose 
 
 his life ? 
 
 [672] * Who succeeded Carus ? * What was the fate of Carhms 
 c and Numerianus ? 
 
 161. Period occupied by partitions of the Empire, 
 until the reign of Constantine. 
 
 [673] Who succeeded Carinus and Numerianus ? To whom was 
 committed the administration of the western district? Where 
 did Diocletian establish his residence? Where did his colleague 
 D reside ? Why were the emperors compelled to appoint col- 
 leagues? Who w ere they? What was their task ? What rival 
 A emperors established themselves ? What were the successes of 
 B Galerius? How were the Christians treated? Which of the 
 emperors abdicated ? why ? How did he spend the rest of his 
 days ? 
 
 [674] When did the death of Constantius happen? Who was pro- 
 18 
 
392 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [675 688. 
 
 claimed emperor in Britain? In what year did Constantinua 
 
 become sole occupant of the imperial throne ? 
 [675] * How many emperors were there in the year 3U8 ? 
 
 c * Name them. 
 [676] * What became of Constantine's competitors? 
 
 162. Constantine the Great, sole Emperor. 
 
 [677] What induced Constantine to embrace Christianity? Who 
 A assembled the first oecumenical council ? where ? What doc- 
 trine was discussed ? What was the result of the council ? 
 [678] How did Constantine lay the foundation of a future division 
 B of the empire? How was the new capital named at its dedica- 
 tion ? How afterwards ? Were the capitals placed on an equal 
 footing ? How was the empire divided I Who was at the head 
 c of the state ? What titles did he receive ? How many praefecti 
 praetorio were appointed ? Why did Constantine increase their 
 A number ? Name their districts. To whom was the military 
 command transferred ? How were the dioceses administered ? 
 and the provinces ? What were the commanders of the troops 
 termed ? 
 
 [679] * Enumerate the seven chief court offices. * What were 
 
 B the duties of these respectively ? * Who composed the council 
 
 of the emperor? * What institutions of former days were 
 
 retained ? * How were the civil and military officers designated ? 
 
 [680] * What taxes were imposed ? 
 
 [681] To whom did Constantine give assistance towards the end of 
 his reign ? What people did he settle in the Roman province 
 on the Danube 1 What was the fate of his eldest son ? and Ilia 
 wife] 
 163. The successors of Constantine the Great to the 
 
 permanent division of the Empire. 
 [682] Of Constantine's sons who became at last sole emperor ? 
 
 A What became of the others ? 
 
 [684] Who invaded Gaul ? To whom did Constantius intrust the 
 B defence of that province ? \Vhat excited the envy of the 
 emperor ? Why did he withdraw several legions from Julian ? 
 Did the legions obey ? 
 
 [685] How was Julian perverted to paganism ? How did he show 
 
 c his hatred against Christianity ? Did he restore the temple at 
 
 Jerusalem? What military expedition did he undertake? 
 
 A. With what success? What caused his death ? Who succeeded 
 
 him ? 
 [686] Did Jovianus accept the conditions of peace offered by the 
 
 Persians? What were they ? Who was chosen his successor 
 [687] Who was appointed by Valentinianus to be his co-regent? 
 
 B What part of the. empire was assigned to this co-rc^nit I 
 [688] * How was Valentinian occupied during th' whole of his 
 n-ign? * \Vh.-it occaaioned his death I * Who ravaged Hritain 
 at thia time? * Who re-conquered it? * How far di<l In- 
 extend the frontier? * Give an account of Valens. * How 
 did Procopius secure his e. Action? * What was his fate? 
 * What wars did Valens carry on ? 
 
689 702.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 393 
 
 [689] Who attacked the Goths? Where did Valens grant them 
 A settlements I \Vliat drove them to revolt? Where did tlu-y 
 defeat Valens? 
 
 [G90] Who succeeded Valens? How did Theodosius terminate the 
 B war ? Who were his sons ? 
 
 164. The Western Roman Empire to its Fall 
 
 [692] Who had the guardianship of Honorius? Where was the 
 
 A imperial residence fixed ? 
 
 [(>!>.'{] Give an account of the war with Alnric, king of the West 
 A Goths [or Visigoths]. Where was he defeated ? By whom? 
 [695] Why were the legions quartered in Britain and on the 
 Rhine recalled ? What tribes overran the western provinces 
 without opposition ? Where did these settle ? Who occupied 
 the tracts of country which the invaders had quitted ? 
 [696] On what ground was Stilicho condemned to death ? Why 
 c did Alaric persuade Attalus the praef. urbi to accept the im- 
 D perial dignity ? Was he soon deposed ? In what year was 
 A Rome besieged and taken? Where did Alaric die? Who 
 succeeded Alaric ? Did he conclude a peace with Honorius ? 
 Where did he lead the Visigoths ? 
 [697] * What was the state of the western empire ? * Who 
 
 attempted to depose Honorius? 
 
 [698] -Who was guardian of Valentinian III. ? What appoint- 
 ment did Aetius receive ? What troubles did the intrigues of 
 c this minister involve his mistress in ? To whom did Bonifacius 
 D apply for aid ? How did the barbarians behave ? What was 
 the then state of Britain ? Whose aid did a British prince solicit? 
 A Who commanded the expedition ? What kingdoms did they 
 establish ? Who formed an alliance against the West Goths 
 and Latins ? Of what nations were the forces composed ? 
 Who defeated them ? where ? Describe the progress of Attila. 
 B What was the ambition of Aetius? Who murdered him? 
 
 Who assassinated Valentinian ? 
 
 [699] Who was next called to the throne? How did Eudoxia 
 c show her indignation at being compelled to marry Maximus ? 
 
 What was the fate of Maximus ? 
 [700] How was the empire ruled after the death of Maximus ? 
 
 D What authority did these persons possess ? 
 
 [701] * Who was the immediate successor of Maximus? * Who 
 was he ? * What was his fate ? * Who was regarded as 
 regent during the interregnum ? * Who assumed the imperial 
 title? * Describe the chief events of his reign. * Who 
 occasioned his death ? * Who now exercised sovereign power ? 
 B * Who governed the western empire after the death of Severus? 
 
 * By whose consent was Anthemius appointed emperor ? 
 
 * Why was Anicius Olybrius proclaimed emperor? * What 
 c caused the death of Olybrius and Ricimer? * Why was Glyce- 
 rins soon compelled to resign his throne ? * Who followed 
 him ? 
 
 [702] Who had ruled Italy since the death of Ricimer? How did 
 Odoacer get possession of the throne ? In what year ? 
 
394 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL [703 715. 
 
 165. Religion, $c. of the Romans. 
 
 [703] To whom were the Romans accustomed to ascribe the esta- 
 
 A blishment of their religion ? What was the original element of 
 the Roman national religion? What was afterwards added? 
 
 B What Greek deities correspond to Jupiter, Juno, and 
 Minerva ? To what circumstances may the decline of the 
 Roman religion at the commencement of the first century be 
 attributed ? What was the condition of religion in the last years 
 
 c of the republic ? What opposition had Christians to contend 
 
 with before Christianity became the religion of the empire ? 
 [704] * Name the three Capitolinc divinities. * How was Jupiter 
 
 D regarded ? * Which were the most remarkable festivals cele- 
 brated in his honor ? * What was under the special protection 
 
 A of Juno ? * What was Juno's office ? * Who was the patroness 
 of arts and manufactures ? * Who supplicated her aid? 
 
 705 
 706 
 707 
 708 
 
 * Which of the planets were invoked as deities? 
 
 * Who were the deities of the lower world 1 
 
 * Name the deities of the elements. 
 
 Name the deities who presided over agriculture and the 
 rearing of cattle. * To whom did the Latins attribute the first 
 establishment of civilization ? * Who was worshipped on earth 
 c under the title of Demeter ? * What were the Saturnalia ? 
 * Who was the protectress of the flocks ? * When was her feast 
 held ? why ? * What was the rank of Mars among the Roman 
 gods ? * Where was the census held ? 
 
 [709] * Mention the oracular deities of the Latins. * In what way 
 D were the responses of Faunus given ? * How was Fauna 
 
 styled ? * To what class did she confine her oracles ? 
 [710] * What deities presided over physical and moral events? 
 A * Give an account of Janus. * Who were the Parcae 1 who 
 Fortuna ? * FYom what did the worship of Venus derive its 
 B importance ? * To what personifications of abtract ideas and 
 moral qualities were divine honors paid? * Who was the god 
 of trade ? who of war ? 
 
 [711] * How were life, death, and existence after death repre- 
 sented in the Roman religion? 
 
 [712] * Who were the Pontifices? * Who was the president of 
 c their college I * What were his duties ? * How did the Augurs 
 D ascertain the will of the gods ? * Who conducted the inspec- 
 tion of victims ? * What is the difference between auguria and 
 auspicia ? * What duties were assigned to the inspectors of the 
 A Sibylline books ? * Who were the Fetiales? * Who chose the 
 Vestal Virgins ? * What was their number ? * How was their 
 time employed ? * Why were the Salii Palatini established ? 
 713] * How were the priests of particular deities termed? * What 
 priests belonged to the order of Flamines ? * Who discharged 
 the duty of offering public sacrifices after the expulsion of the 
 Tarquins ] 
 [714] * What were the holy places ? * Of what did the sacred 
 
 usages con 
 [715] Did the Romans cultivate the art of war with success 1 
 
716 727.] OF ANCIENT HISTORY. 395 
 
 c What citizens served in the array? At what age? Who were 
 exempt ' 
 
 716] * How was the legion originally divided? * What was the 
 
 D division at a later period? * How many Icgious composed a 
 
 consular army ? 
 [717] Who were excused from military service towards the end of 
 
 A the republic ? What were the ten cohortes praetorianue ? Who 
 commanded the army at different periods? Who were at the 
 head of each legion? Who were under them? Whom did 
 Constantine place in command of his forces ? When was the 
 practice of giving regular pay to each legionary introduced? 
 
 B What rewards were distributed for military service I 
 [718] Who composed the mnritimc. force 1 Describe the Roman 
 
 vessels. 
 [719] Into how many periods may the history of Roman literature 
 
 c be divided ? When did the first begin ? Have we any thing of 
 the period antecedent to this date ? When was the foundation 
 
 D of Roman literature, properly so called, laid? Which was the 
 
 A second period ? What was the character of this age ? When 
 did the silver age commence? when terminate? What was its 
 
 B character? What period did the brazen age include? What 
 
 was its character ? 
 [720] What were the first attempts of the Romans in Epic poetry ? 
 
 c What epic history did Ennius compile ? Who cultivated the 
 historical, and who the didactic epos? Give a list of Ovid's 
 works. 
 [721] Who distinguished themselves as translators or imitators of 
 
 A Greek models ? Who were the principal representatives of 
 New Comedy? * How does it appear that they had a Roman 
 drama, strictly so called? * What was the character of the 
 Mimes ? * How did these degenerate ? 
 
 [722] When did lyric poetry develope itself? What was its 
 character? What were th most remarkable performances in 
 this department ? 
 
 723] What was the origin of Satire? Who raised it to the rank 
 
 B of a literary production? Who gave a more polished character 
 to it ? What was the character of the Satires of Juvenal and 
 Persius ? 
 [724] * When was the epigram introduced ? * What collection or 
 
 c collections of the kind is still extant ? 
 
 [725] * Whom did Pbuedrus imitate ? Whom did Virgil imitate ? 
 [726] Which was the most distinguished and influential branch of 
 Roman literature? Who first cultivated it? Which was the 
 surest road to honor and influence ? Who were the most dis- 
 tinguished orators ? 
 [727] * When did oratory lose its influence over the government? 
 
 B * Where was it retained ? * Where have we it in its most de- 
 based character ? * Who were the great teachers of eloquence ? 
 * On what accounts are the letters of Pliny and Cicero valu- 
 
 c able ? To what systems did the Romans confine themselves in 
 the study of philosophy ? On what ground do the philosophical! 
 writings of Cicero entitle him to the highest praise ? 
 
396 QUESTIONS TO MANUAL, ETC. [729 731. 
 
 f728] * Which was the most attractive system in the earlier days 
 of the monarchy ? * To what system did Stoicism give place ? 
 n * What was the great work of the elder Pliny I * When did 
 the science of jurisprudence attain its highest degree of ex- 
 cellence ? * Of what compilations were their writings the 
 groundwork ? 
 
 729] In what great architectural works were the Romans assisted 
 A by the Etruscans ? What were the great architectural changes 
 c from the time of Sulla to that of Constantine ? Give some 
 
 account of Roman sculpture. 
 [730] For how long a time were the professors of the art of paint- 
 
 A ing almost exclusively Greeks? 
 
 [731] How were trade and manufactures regarded by the Romans? 
 What associations were formed in the latter days of the repub- 
 B lie ? What was the character of Roman trade ? What were 
 the imports? 
 
 THE END. 
 
tfnglisjj. 
 A MANUAL 
 
 OP 
 
 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 BY DR. E. F. BOJESEN, 
 
 Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in the University of Son* 
 Translated from the German. 
 
 EDITED, WITH NOTES AND A COMPLETE SERIES OF QUESTIONS, B7 TH 
 
 REV. THOMAS K. ARNOLD, M. A. 
 REVISED WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 
 
 One neat volume, 12mo. Price SI. 
 
 The present Manual of Greek and Roman Antiquities 19 far superior to any taring on tN 
 ame topics as yet offered to the American public. A principal Review of Germany saya : 
 Small a he compass of it is, we may confidently arhrm that it is a great improvement on all 
 preceding wor w s of the kind. We no longer meet with the wretched old method, in which sub- 
 jects essentially distinct are herded together, and connected subjects disconnected, but hav a 
 simple, systematic arrangement, by which the reader easily receives a clear representa 1 '"" o( 
 Roman life. We s longer stumble against countless errors in detail, which though Jong ago 
 assailed and extirp^ed by Niebuhr and others, have found their last place of refuge in our Ma- 
 nuals. The recent investigations of philologists and jurists have been extensively, but carefullj 
 and circumspectly used. The conciseness and precision which the author has every when 
 prescribed to himself, prevents the superficial observer from perceiving the essential superiority 
 of the book to its predecessors, but whoever subjects it to a careful examination will discover 
 this on every page." 
 
 The Editor says : "I fully believe that the pupil will receive from these little works n 
 correct and tolerably complete picture of Grecian and Roman life; what I may call the POLI- 
 TICAL portions the account of the national constitutions and their effects appear to me to be 
 of great value; and the very moderate extent of each volume admits of its being thoroughly 
 mastered of it? being GOT UP and RETAINED." 
 
 " A work long need H! in our schools and colleges. The manuals of Rennet, Adam, Potter, 
 and Robinson, with .:>e more recent and valuable translation of Eschenburg, were entirely too 
 voluminous. Here is nc -her too much, nor too little. The arrangement is admirable every 
 subject is treated of in its proper place. We have the general Geography, a succinct historical 
 Tie w of the general subject; the chirography, history, laws, manners, customs, and religion of 
 each State, as well i ""the points of union for all, beautifully arranged. We regard the work aa 
 the 7 ery best adj unf to classical study for youth that we have seen, and sincerely hope that 
 (Metiers may be bri A ht to regard it in the same light. The whole is copiously digested into 
 appropriate questions." #. Lit. Gazette. 
 
 From Professor Lincoln, of Brown University. 
 
 u I found 0.1 my table after a short absence from home, your edition of Bqjecen's Greek an 
 Roman Antiquities. Pray accept my acknowledgments for it. I am agreeably surprised to 
 find on exam'ning it, that within so very narrow a compass for so comprehensive a subject, tha 
 book contai is so much valuable matter ; and, indeed, so far as I see, omits noticing no topics es- 
 sential. It will be a very useful book in Schools and Colleges, and it is far superior to any thing 
 that I know of the same kind. Besides being cheap and accessible to all students, it has tha 
 great merit of discussing its topics in a consecutive and connected manner." 
 
 Extract of a letter from Proftasor Tyler, of Amfarst College. 
 
 "I have never found lime till lately to look over Bojesen's Antiquities, of which you were 
 lind enoush to send me a copy. I think it an excellent book; learned, accurate, concise, and 
 ferspicuous; well adapted for use in the Academy or the College, and comprehending ma 
 >nall compass, more, '^at ia valu?.b!e on the subject thau many extended treatises " 
 
 s 
 
HAND BOOK 
 
 MEDIEVAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 BY 
 
 WILHELM PUTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR IN THE GYMNASIUM OF DURCN. 
 
 Translated from the German by 
 
 REV, R, B, PAUL, M, A,, 
 
 Vicar of St. Augiistine's, Bristol, and late Fellow of Exeter Collect, Oxferd. 
 1 volume, 12mo. 75 cts. 
 HEADS OP CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Germany before the Migrations. 
 II. The Migrations. 
 
 THF MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 FIRST PE.HIOD. From the Dissolution of the Western Empire to the Accession of ti 
 giutia iid Abbasides. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. From the Accession of the Carlovingians and Abbasides to the first Crusad* 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. Age of the Crusades. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. From the Termination of the Crusades to the Discovery of America. 
 
 " The characteristics of this volume are : precision, condensation, and luminous arrangement 
 It is precisely what it pretends to be a manual, a sure and conscientious guide for the studeni 
 through the crooks anu tangles of Mediaeval history. * * All tin- great principles of tlii 
 
 ex'ensj^a Peiiod are carefully laid down, and the most important facts skilfully grouped around 
 them. There is no period of History for which it is more difficult to prepare a work like this 
 an 1 none for which it is so much needed. The leading facts are well established, but they are 
 scattered over an immense space ; the principles are ascertained, but their development was 
 slow, unequal, and interrupted. There is a general breaking up of a great body, and a parcelling 
 of it out among small tribes, concerning whom we have only a few general data, and are lei; p 
 analogy and conjecture for the details. "Then come successive attempts at organization, each 
 more or less independent, and all very imperfect. At last, modern Europe begins slowly to 
 emerge from the chaos, bat still under forms which the most diligent historian cannot a!w"av<> 
 comprehend. To reduoa such materials to a clwar and definite form is a task of no small diffi- 
 culty, and in which partial success deserves great praise. It is not too much to say that ' ha^ 
 never been so well done within a compass BO easily mastered, as in the little volume wli.Ji i? 
 now offered to the public." Extract Jrom American Preface. 
 
 "This translation of a foreign school-book embraces a succinct and well arranged body of 
 facts concerning European and Asiatic history and geography during (he middle ages. It it 
 furnished with printed questions, and it seems to bi well "adapted to its purpose, in all r- 
 The mediaeval period is one of the most interesting in the annals of the world, and a knowledge 
 of its great men, and of its progress in arts, arms, government and religion, is particularly ID:- 
 portan', since this period is the basis of our own social polity." Commercial Advertiser. 
 
 " This is an immense amount of research condensed into a moderately sized volume, in a way 
 T-hich no one has patience to do but a German scholar. The beauty of the work is iis lnininiu 
 arrangement. It in a guide to the student amidat the intricacy of Medieval History, ih mos 1 
 difficult period .if '.he world to understand, when the Roman Empire was break ing tip and par 
 celling out into smaller kingdom , and every thing was in a, transition stale. It was a period O' 
 chao troin whii-h tpodem Europe was at length to a : 
 
 The author has briefly taken up the principal political and social influences whicl' wert 
 
 . 'v, and shown their bearing from the nine previous to ihe ;nigraiious of tl.e 
 
 Northern nations, down through the mi ' tteenth century. The r: ve* on ihr 
 
 rti.-nlarly valuable, and lh not only Em r;ie bin 
 
 the East. To ih student it will be a m : I .nd book, savin? him a world of trouble 
 
 fa hunting up authorities and facts, "--/icr. Dr. A7/>, in AUmny State Rtgistet. 
 
PROF. MANDEViLLE'S READING BOOKS. 
 
 I. PRIMARY, OH FIRST READER. Price 10 cents. 
 
 II. SECOND READER. Ptice 10 cents. 
 
 These two Readers are formed substantially on the same plan ; an< the sctoml is a continue 
 tlon of the first. The design of both is, to combine a knowledge of the meaning and proiiur^ia- 
 Jon of words, with a biowltdge of their grammatical functions. The parts of speech are in- 
 nx'uccd successively, beginning with (he articles, these are followed by the Demonstrative pro- 
 nouns ; and these again by others, class after class, until all that are requisite to form a rentenc* 
 Qi?e been separately considered ; when the common readin-r lessons begin. 
 
 Tte Second Reader reviews the ground passed over in the Primary, but adds largely to the 
 amount of information. The child is here also taught to read writing as well H printed matter; 
 and in the reading lessons, attention is constantly directed to the different ways in which 
 eulences are formed and connected, and of the peculiar manner in which each of them is deliv 
 ered. All who have examined these books, have pronounced them a decided and iinportuu, ad- 
 vance on every other of the same class in use. 
 
 III. THIRD READER. Price 25 cents. 
 
 IV. FOURTH READER. Price 38 cents. 
 
 lii the first two Readers, the main object is to make the pupil acquainted with ine meai.inf 
 and functions of words, ami to impart facility in pronouncing them in sentential connection : th 
 leading design of these, is to form a natural, flexible, and varied delivery. Accordingly, tKi 
 Third Reader opens with a series of exercises on articulation and modulation, containing numer- 
 ous examples for practice on the elementary sounds (including errors to be corrected) and on th 
 ditlert-iu movements of the voice, produced by sentential structure, by emphasis, and by the pas- 
 aions. The habits formed by these exercises, which should be thoroughly, as they can be easily 
 mastered, under intelligent instruction, find scope for improvement ana confirmation in the 
 reading lessons which follow, in the same book and that which succeeds. 
 
 These lessons have been selected with special reference to the following peculiarities : 1st. 
 Colloquial character; 2d, Variety of sentential structure; 3d, Variety of subject matter; 4th 
 Adaptation to the progressive development of the pupil's mind; and, as far as possible, 5th, 
 Tendency to excite moral and religious emotions. Great pains have been taken to make th* 
 books in these respects, which are^ in fact, characteristic of the whole series, superior to any 
 O-hers in use ; with what success, a brief comparison will readily show. 
 
 V THE FIFTH READER; OR, COURSE OF READING. Price 75 cents. 
 
 VI THE ELEMENTS OF READING AND ORATORY. Price *1. 
 
 These books are designed to cultivate the literary taste, as well as the understanding and voca. 
 powers of the pupil. 
 
 THE COURSE OF READING comprises three parts ; the first part containing a more elaborate 
 description of elementary sounds and the parts of speech grammatically considered than was 
 deemed necessary in the preceding works ; here indispensable : part second, a complete classifi- 
 cation and description of every sentence to be found in the English, or any other language ; ex- 
 amples of which in every degree of expansion, from a few words to the half of an octavo pag 
 in length, are adduced, and arranged to be read ; and as each species has its peculiar delivery a* 
 well an structure, both are learned at the same time ; part third, paragraphs ; or sentences in 
 Ihei- connection unfolding general thoughts, as in the common reading books. It may be ob- 
 served that uie selections of "sentences in part second, and of paragraphs in part third, comprise 
 ome of the finest gems in the language : distinguished alike for beauty of thought and facility 
 Of diction. If not found in a school book, they might be approprately called " elegant extracts " 
 
 The ELEMENTS OF READING AND ORATORY closes the series with an exhibition of the whole 
 theory and art of Elocution exclusive of gesture. It contains, besides the classification of sen- 
 tences a'ready referreu u>, but here presented with fuller statement and illustration, the laws of 
 piractuation and delivery deduced from it : the whole, followed by carefully selected nieces lor 
 sentential analysis and vocal practice. 
 
 THK RESULT. The student who acquaints himself thoroughly with the contents of thai 
 book, will, as numerous experiments have proved ; 1st, Acquire complete knowledge of the 
 structure of the language; 2d, Bi able to designate any sentence of any book byname at a 
 gi&r.ce ; bJ, Be able to declare with equal rapidity its proper punctuation ; 4th, Be able to debate, 
 and with sufficient practice to give Its proper delivery. Such are a few of the general character- 
 istics of the series of school books which the publishers now offer to the friends and patrons 
 of a sound common school and academic education. For more particular information, reference 
 is respectfully made to the " Hints," which may be found at the beginning of each volume. 
 
 N. B. The punctuation in all these books conforms, in the main to the sense and proper de- 
 livery of every sentence, and is a guide to both. When a departure from the proper punctuation 
 tccuns the proper delivery is indicated. As reading books are usually punctuated, it io a mattei 
 of surprise that children should learn to read at all. 
 
 "/ The above series of Reading Books are already very extensively introduced anrt com- 
 mended by tne most experienced Teachers in the country. "Prof. Mandeville's system is emi 
 nently original, scientific and practical, and destined wherever it is introduced to tmpenwd* at 
 once 11 others." 
 
fttglislj. 
 fHE SHAKSPEARIAN READER; 
 
 A COLLECTION OF THE MOST APPROVED PLAVS OF 
 
 SH AKSPE ARE. 
 
 CuJhlly Revised, with Introductory and Explanatory Notes, and a Memoir 
 
 of the Author. Prepared expressly for the use of Classes, 
 
 and the Family Reading Circle. 
 
 BY JOHN W. S. HOWS, 
 
 Professor of Elocution in Columbia College. 
 
 The MAN, whom Nature's self hath made 
 
 To mock herself, and TRUTH tc imitate. Spenser. 
 
 One Volume, I2mo, $1 25. 
 
 At a period when the fame of Shakspeare is " striding. the world like a co.ossus, '* and edi 
 Cims of Ml works are multiplied with a profusion that tesnfies the desire awakened in all claeo*) 
 yf society to read and study his imperishable compositions, there needs, perhaps tat little 
 apology "for the following selection of his works, prepared expressly to gender them unexcep- 
 tionable for the uw of Schools, and acceptable for Family reading. Apart from the fact, tliat 
 Shakspeare is the " well-spring " from which may be traced the origin of the purest poetry in 
 our language, a long course of professional experience has satisfied me that a necessity exifts 
 for the addition of a w^-k like the present, to our stock of Educational Literature. His writings 
 are peculiarly adapted for the purposes of Elocutionary exercise, when the system of instruction 
 pursued by the Teacher is based upon the true principle of the art, viz. a careful analysis of 
 the structure and meaning of language, rather than a servile adherence to the arbitrary and me- 
 chanical rules of Elocution. 
 
 To impress upon the mind of the pupil that words are the exposition of thought, and that in 
 reading, or speaking, every shade of thought and feeling has its appropriate shade of modulated 
 tone, ought to be the especial aim of every Teacher; and an author like Shakspeare, whose 
 every line embodies a volume of meaning, should surely form one of our Elocutionary Text 
 Books. * * Still, in preparing a selection of his works for the express purpose contem- 
 plated in my design, I have not hesitated to exercise a severe revision of his language, beyond 
 that adopted in any similar undertaking " Bowdler's Family Shakspeare " not even excepted ; 
 and simply, because 1 practically know the impossibility of introducing Shakspeare as a Class 
 Book, or as a satisfactory Reading Book for Families without this precautionary rovisi ;n. 
 tiff Kt from the Preface. 
 
 niSTORY AND GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OP 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES 
 
 (CHIEFLY FROM THE FREV:U.) 
 
 BY G.W.GREENE, 
 
 instructor in Brown University. 
 
 PART I: HISTORY. One volume, 12mo. $1. 
 
 Extract from Preface. 
 
 "This rolume, as the title indicates, is chiefly taken from a popular French \york, which 
 +r rapidly passed through several editions, and received the sanction of the University. It 
 Will be founu to contain a clear and satisfactory exposition of the Revolution of the Middle Ages, 
 With fiich (.'cniTal VICWH of literature, society, and manner*, as arc rc>|uircd to explain the pas- 
 age from ancient to modern history. At the IHM 1 of rarh chapter there is an analytical sum- 
 mary, which will be found of great assistanr.- m inanimation or in review Instead of a single 
 list of sovereigns, I have preferred giving full genealogical tables, which are much clearer and 
 Infinitely more satisfactory. " 
 
 10 
 
CLASS-BOOK OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 ZOOLOGY- 
 
 DESIGNED TO AFFORD PUPILS IN COMMON SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES A 
 KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, ETC. 
 
 BY PROFESSOR J. J/EGER. 
 
 One volume, ISmo, with numerous Illustrations. Price 42 cents. 
 
 "The distinguished ability of the author of this work, both while engaged during nearly ten 
 years as Professor of Botany, Zoology, and Modern Languages, in Princeton College, N. J., and 
 since as a lecturer in some of the most distinguished literary institutions, toother witli the ran; 
 advantages derived from his extensive travels in various parts of the world, under the patronage 
 of the Kmperor of Russia, affording superior facilities for the acquisition of knowledge in lua 
 department, have most happily adapted Professor Jffiger to the task he ha with K much ability 
 performed, viz. : that of presenting to the public one of the most simple, engaging, and useful 
 Class-Books of Zoology that we have seen. It is peculiarly adapted to the purpose ho had in 
 view, namely, of supplying a School Book on this subject for our Common Schools and Acade- 
 mies, which shall be perfectly comprehensible to the minds of beginners. In this respect, he 
 has, we think, most admirably succeeded, and we doubt not that this little work will become one 
 of the most popular Class Books of Zoology in the country." 
 
 From Prof. Tayler Lewis. 
 
 " Your Class-Book of Zoology ought to be introduced into all the public and private school* 
 of this city, and 1 should rejoice for your own sake, and for the sake of sound science, to hear of 
 its obtaining the public patronage which it deserves." 
 
 From Dr. T. Romeyn Deck, of Albany. 
 
 " The copy of your book of which you advised me last week, reached me this morning. I 
 am pleased with its contents. Of its accuracy I can have no question, knowing your long and 
 ardent devotion to the study of Natural History. It will be peculiarly useful to the young pupil, 
 in introducing him to a knowledge of our native animals." 
 
 From Rev. Dr. Campbell, Albany. 
 
 " Your ' Class-Book ' reached me safely, and I am delighted with it ; but what is more to 
 the purpose, gentlemen T^ho know eomething about Zoology, are delighted with it, such as Dr. 
 Beck and Professor Cook, of our Academy. I have no doubt that we shall introduce it." 
 
 PRIMARY LESSONS: 
 
 BEING A SPELLER AND READER, ON AN ORIGINAL PLAN. 
 
 In which one letter is taught at a lesson, with its power; an application being immsdiatel/ 
 
 made, in words, of each letter thus learned, and those words being 
 
 directly arranged into reading lessons. 
 
 BY ALBERT D. WRIGHT, 
 
 AUTHDR OP "ANALYTICAL ORTHOGRAPHY," "PHONOLOGICAL CHART," ETC. 
 
 One neat volume, 18mo, containing 144 pages, and 28 engravings. Price 12 cents, bound. I 
 
 EASY LESSONS IN LANDSCAPE, 
 
 FOR THE PENCIL. 
 BY F. N. OTIS, 
 
 IN THREE PARTS, EACH CONTAINING SIXTEEN LESSONS. 
 
 Price 38 cents each part. 
 
 These Lessons are intended for the use of schools and families, and are so arranged that wttfc 
 the aid of the accompanying directions, teachers unacquainted with drawing may introduce it 
 successfully into their schools ; and those unable to avail themselves of the advantages of a 
 teacher, may pursue the study of drawing without difficulty. 
 
 17 
 
<0rrrk nnft IMrrtn. 
 
 GREEK OLLENDORFF; 
 
 BEING A PKOGRESSIVE EXHIBITION OF THE PRINCIPLES 
 OF THE GKEEK GRAMMAR, 
 
 Designed for Beginners in Greek, and as a Book of Exercises for 
 Academies and Colleges. 
 
 BY ASAHEL C- KENDRICK, 
 
 Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in the University of Rochctttr. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. SI. 
 
 Extract from the Preface. 
 
 The present work is what its title indicates, strictly an Ollendorff, and aims to apply the 
 methods which have proved so successful in the acquisition of the Modern languages to tha 
 etutly of Ancient Greek, with such differences of course as the different genius of the Greek, 
 and the different purposes for which it is studied, would suggest. It differs from the modern 
 Ollendortfs in containing Exercises for reciprocal translation, in confining them within a smaller 
 compass, and in a more methodical exposition of the principles of the language. 
 
 It differs, on the other hand, from other excellent elementary works in Greek, which have 
 recently appeared, in a more rigid adherence to the Ollendorff method, and the greater sim- 
 plicity of its plan : in simplifying as much as possible the character of the Exercises, and in 
 Keeping out of eight every thing which would divert the student's attention from the naked con- 
 struction. 
 
 The object of the Author in this work was twofold ; first, to furnish a book which should 
 serve as an introduction to the study of Greek, and precede the use of any Grammar. It will 
 therefore be found, although not claiming to embrace all the principles of the Gnimmar, yet 
 complete in itself, and will lead the pupil, by insensible gradations, from the simpler con- 
 structions to those which are more complicated and difficult. 
 
 The exceptions, and the more idiomatic forms, it studiously leaves one side, and only aims 
 to exhibit the regular and ordinary usages of the language, as the proper starting point for the 
 student's further researches. 
 
 In presenting these, the Author has aimed to combine the strictest accuracy with the utmost 
 simplicity of statement. He hopes, therefore, that his work will find its way among a younger 
 class of pupils than have usually engaged in the study of Greek, and will win to the acquisi- 
 tion of that noble tongue many in our Academies and Primary Schools, who have been repelled 
 by the less simple character of our ordinary text-books. On this point ha would speak ear- 
 nestly. This book, while he trusts it. will bear the criticism of the scholar, and be found 
 adapted to older pupils, has been yet constructed with a constant reference to the wants of the 
 young ; and he knows no reason why boys and girls of twelve, ten, or even eight years of age 
 may not advantageously be put to th study of this book, and, under skilful instruction, rapidly 
 maker its contents. 
 
 GESENIUS'S HEBREW GRAMMAR 
 
 Fourteenth Edition, as revised by Dr. E. RODIGKR. Translated by T. J. CONANI 
 Professor of Hebrew in Madison University, N. Y. 
 
 With the Modifications of the Editions subsequent to the Eleventh, by Dr. DAVIES 
 
 of Stepney College, London. 
 
 To which are added, A COURSE OF EXERCISES IN HEBREW GRAMMAR, and a HEBREW CHRB*< 
 TOMATHT, prepared by the Translator. One handsomely printed vol. 8vo. Price f& 
 
 Extract from the Translator's Preface. 
 
 "The fourteenth edition ol tin- ll-im \\ (.i.umnur of Gesenius is now offered to the public 
 by the translator nf the eleventh edition, by whom ihi-- wm-k \va* tii>t made accessible to stu- 
 dents in the English lau^u;i^t:. Tin' COnvK'lon rxpav-^d lit Ins pit-fare to tLit i-diii-m. that iu 
 publication in would subst.-rv.- tin: inii-n-ns !' llrbruw literature, ha> been fully 
 
 KUMuincd by the result. After a full trial of the merits of this work, both in America and in 
 E iglaod, ita republicatum is naw demanded in its latest ami most improved form." 
 
 36 
 
A MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, 
 
 COMPRISING : 
 
 I. ASCIKNT HisroRk', r.oiii;ii:iiii- tin- Political History, Geographical Position, and Socia/ 
 State of Ihe Principal N uions of Antiquity, carefully digested Iron) the Ancient \Vntcrs, an-l il- 
 i>.istrated by tin dhc oveiu-s of Modern Travellers and Scholars. 
 
 II. MODERN His ronv, containing tin- Rise and Progress of the principal European Nation*, 
 Jinr Political History, and tin- chan-jes in their Social Condition: with a History oi the Colmiiei 
 Founded by Europeans. Hy \V. COOK K TA VI. ( )H. LI.. I) .. i fTrinity College, Dubl n. Revised, 
 wwi Additions on American History, by C. S. Henry, I). 1)., Professor nf Hi-inry in the Univer 
 r.y of N V., and (Questions adap'ed for the l'se of Scliools and Colleges. One handsome voj., 
 &vo, of SOO pages, *J,2f> : Ancient History in 1 vol. l,'j;, .rfodern History in 1 vol., 1.50. 
 
 The ANCIBNT IIISTOHY division comprise* Eighteen Chapters, whh \ include the general 
 outlines of the History of Bgypt the Ethiopians -Babylonia and Assyria Western Asiii Pul 
 estine t'.ie Empire of the Meiles and Persians Phoenician Colonies in Northern Africa Fountw 
 ation and History of the Grecian Slates Greece the Macedonian Kingdom .u,,| Eu.pire the 
 States that a row irotn the dismemberment of the Macedonian Kingdom and Empire Ancionf 
 Italv Sicily the Roman Republic Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Kmnirt- 
 --IJNtory o'fthe Roman Empire and India with an Appendix of important illustrative article* 
 
 This "portion is one of the beat Compends of Ancient History that ever yci has appeared h 
 ?otitams a complete tex' for the collegiate lecturer; and is an essential hand-book for thestiidem 
 who is desirous to become acquainted with all that is memorable in general secular archaeology. 
 
 The MODERN HISTORY portion is divided into Fourteen Chapters, on the followniL' genera] 
 subjects : Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire Rise and Establishment of the 
 Su.icenic Power Restoration of the Western Empire Growth of the Papal Power- -Revival 
 of Literature Progress of Civilization and Invention Reformation, and Commencement of thi 
 States System in Europe Augustan Ages of England and France Mercantile and Colonial Sys- 
 temAge of Revolutions French Empire History of the Peace Colonization China the 
 tows with Chronological and Historical Tables and other Indexes. Dr. Henry has appended a 
 new chapter on the History of the United States. 
 
 This Manual of Modern History, by Mr. Taylor, is the most valuable and instructiv worh 
 concernins the general subjects which h comprehends, that can be found in the whole department 
 of historical literature. Mi. Taylor's book is fast superseding all other compends, and is already 
 fclopted as a text-book in Harvard, Columbia, Yale, New- York, Pennsylvania and Brown Un> 
 rsrsities, and several leading Academies. 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 ON 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 By THOMAS ARNOLD, D.D., 
 
 Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford, and Head 
 Master of Rugby School. 
 
 EDITED, WITH A PREFACE AND NOTES, 
 
 By HENRY REED, LL.D., 
 Profetsor of English Literature in the Univertity qf Pm. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. $1,25. 
 
 Extract from the American Editor's Preface. 
 
 In H r sparing this edition, I have had in view its use, not only for the general reader, but also 
 fc. . leit-book in education, especially in our collejre course of study. * " ' * The introduction of 
 Jh t work a a text-book I regard as important, because, as far as my information entitles me to 
 Bwak, theie is no book better calculated to inspire an interest in historical study. That it naa 
 this power over the minds of students I can say from experience, which enables me also to add, 
 that I have found it excellently suited to a course of college instruction. By intelligent and e- 
 ig members of a class especially, it is studied as a text-book with zeal and animation. 
 11 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 AND 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY RICHMALL MANGNALL. 
 
 first American, from the Eighty-fourth London Edition. With large Audition* 
 
 Embracing the Elements of Mythology, Astronomy, Architecture, 
 
 Heraldry, &c. Adapted for Schools in the United States 
 
 BY MRS. JULIA LAWRENCE. 
 
 Illustrated with numerous Engravings. One Volume, 12mo. $1. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 A Short View of Scripture History, from the Creation to the Return of the Jews Qu^stioni 
 from the Early Ages to the time of Julius Caesar Miscellaneous Questions in Grecian History 
 Miscellaneous Questions in General History, chiefly Ancient Questions containing a Sketch 
 of the most remarkable Events from the Christian Era to the close of the Eighteenth Century- 
 Miscellaneous Questions in Roman History Questions in English History, from the Invasion of 
 Caesar to the Reformation Continuation of Questions in English History, from the Reformation 
 to the Present Time Abstract of Early British History Abstract of English Reisns from the 
 Conquest Abstract of the Scottish Reigns Abstract of the French Reigns, from Pharamuad to 
 Philip 1 Continuation of the French Reigns, from Louis VI to Louis Phillippe Questions Re- 
 lating to the History of America, from its Discovery to the Present Time Abstract of Roman 
 Kings and most distinguished Heroes Abstract of the most celebrated Grecians Of Heathen 
 Mythology in general Abstract of Heathen Mythology The Eleinenia of Astronomy Expia- 
 tion of a few Astronomical Terms List of Constellations Questions on Common Subjects 
 Questions on Architecture Questions on Heraldry Explanations of such Latin Words and 
 Phrases as are seldom Englished Questions on the History of the Middle Ages. 
 
 " This is an admirable work to aid both teachers and parents in instructing children an-J youth, 
 ttnd there is no work of the kind that we have seen that is so well calculated " to awaken a spirit 
 Of laudable curiosity in young minds," and to satisfy that curiosity when awakened." 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 From the Invasion of Julius Casar to the Reign of Queen Victoria. 
 
 BY MRS. MARKHAM. 
 A new Edition, with Questions, adapted for Schools in the United States. 
 
 BY ELIZA ROIJBINS, 
 Avtfior of " American Pojrular Lessons," " Poetry for Schools," $c. 
 
 One Volume, I2mo. Price 75 cents. 
 
 There is nothing more needed in our schools than good histories ; not the dry compends U 
 prevent ne, but elementary works that shall suggest the moral uses of history, and the provi 
 di'iice of God, manifest in the affairs of men. 
 
 Mr. Markham'H history WHS used by that model for all teachers, the late Dr. Arnold, manto) 
 
 of Ihe ere;i' Kncli-h school at Rushy, find aerees in its character with hi* rnliirhirnrd and pioui 
 
 View* of teaching history. It is now several vears since I ada|rvd iliis history to the form anC 
 
 price acceptable in the schools in the United Stales. I have recently revised it, and trum that i 
 
 be extensively serviceable in education. 
 
 The pnncipal alterations from the. original are a now ,-nuI more convenient division of parn 
 
 Cirphn, and entire omission of the MIlTWMtiolM annexed to the chapters. In the place of thow 
 
 >ifTli*d question* to every page thai may nt once facilitate th> work of the teacher and 
 
 Ihr; pupil. Th rational and rnornl feature* of this book first commended it to me, nd I H 
 
 uveu i uccifully with my own cholan. Extract from the American Editor's Preface. 
 
THE 
 
 FIRST HISTORY OF ROME, 
 
 WITH QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY E. M. SEWELL, 
 
 Author of Amy Herbert, &c., &c. One volume, 16mo. 50 eta. 
 Extract from Editor's Preface, 
 
 ' History is the narrative of real events in the order and circumstances in which they oc 
 curml ; and of all histories, that of Rome comprises a scries of events more interesting and ia- 
 strunive to youthful readers than any other that has ever been written. 
 
 "Of the manner in which Mrs. Sewell has executed this work, we can scarcely speak ia 
 terms of approbation too strong. Drawing her materials from the best that is to say, the most 
 reliable sources she has incorporated them in a narrative at once unostentatious, perspicuous, 
 and graphic ; manifestly aiming throughout to be cleariy understood by those for whom sh 
 wrote, and to impress deeply and permanently on their minds what she wrote; and in both ol 
 these aims we think she has been eminently successful." 
 
 Norfolk Academy, Nc~/i'Jc, Va. 
 
 I must thank you for a copy of "Miss Sawell's Roman History." Classical teachers hava 
 long needed just such a work : for it is admitted by all how essential to a proper comprehension 
 of the classics is a knowledge of collateral history. Yet most pupils are construing authors be- 
 fore reaching an age to put into their hands the elaborate works we have heretofore had upoi 
 Ancient History. Miss Sewell, while she gives the most important facts, has clothed them in 
 style at once pleasing and comprehensible to the most youthful mind. 
 
 R. B. TSCHUDI, 
 
 Prof, of Anc'l Languages. 
 
 THE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 BY THOMAS KEIGHTLEY. 
 
 One vol. 16mo. 42 cts. 
 
 " This is a volume well adapted to the purpose for which it was prepared. It presents, in 
 rery compendious and convenient form, every thing relating to the subject, of imp? tance to tha 
 young student." 
 
 GENERAL 
 
 HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE, 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 BY M. G UIZOT. 
 
 Eighth American, from the second English edition, with occasional Notes, by C. S. HENRY, D.D, 
 One volume, 12mo. 75 eta. 
 
 "M. Guizot, in his instructive lectures, has given ua an epitome of modern history, distin- 
 guished by all the merit which, in another department, renders Blackstone a subject of such 
 peculiar and unbounded praise. A work closelv condensed, including nothing useless, omit- 
 tinsr nothiri? essential ; written with grace, and conceived .nd arranged with consummate 
 ability." Boston Traveller. 
 
 This work is used in Harvard University, Union College, University of 
 Pennsylvania, New- York University, $c. $c. 
 
 13 
 
ENGLISH SYNONYMES, 
 
 CLASSIFIED AND EXPLAINED, 
 
 WITH 
 
 PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE TUITION. 
 BY G. F. GRAHAM, 
 
 Author of ' English, or the Art of Composition,' &c. 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND ILLUSTRATIVE AUTHORISES, 
 
 BY HENRY REED, LL.D., 
 Prof, of English Literature in the University of Perm, 
 
 One neat Vol. 12mo. 81. 
 
 CONTENTS. SECTION I. Generic and Specific Synonymes. JfL Actire 
 and Passive Synonymes. III. S} T nonymes of Intensity. IV. Positive 
 and Negative Synonymes. V. Miscellaneous Synonymes. Index to 
 Synonymes. General Index. 
 
 Extract from American Introduction. 
 
 "This treatise is republished and edited with the hope that it will be found useful as a ten- 
 boos in the study of our own language. As a subject of instruction, the study of the English 
 tongue does not receive that amount of systematic attention which is due to it, whether it be 
 combined or no with the study of the Greek and Latin. In the usual courses of education, it has 
 no larger scope than the study of some rhetorical principles and practice, and of grammatical 
 rules, which, for the most part, are not adequate to the composite character and varied idiom of 
 English speech. This is far from being enough to give the needful knowledge of what is the 
 livin? lantMiatre, both of our English literature and of the multiform intercourse oral and writ- 
 ten of our daily lives. The language deserves better care and more sedulous culture ; it needs 
 much more to preserve its purity, and to guide the progress of its life. The young, instead of 
 ha vinir only such familiarity with their native speech as practice without methvxl or theory gives, 
 should be HO taught and trained as to acquire a habit of using words whether with the voice or 
 the pen fitly and truly, intelligently and conscientiously." 
 
 'For such training, this book, it is believed, will prove serviceable. The Practical Exer- 
 cises,' at ached to the explanations of the words, are conveniently prepared for the routine of 
 instruction. The value of a course of this kind, regularly and carefully completed, will be more 
 than the amount of information gained respecting the words thai are explained. It will tend to 
 produce a thoughtful and accurate use of language, and thus may be acquired, almost uncon- 
 sciously, thai which is not only a critical but a~ moral habit of mind the habit of giving utter- 
 ance to truth in pimple, clear and precise terms of telling one's thoughts and feelinss in wonto 
 that express nothing more and nothing less. It is thus that we may learn how to escape tlie 
 evils nf v;iL'iii-ne*s. ob.-cnrity and perplexity the manifold mischiefs of words used thought- 
 lessly and at random, or words used in ignorance and confusion. 
 
 ""In preparing this edition, it seemed to me that the value and literary interest of the book 
 might !> increased liy the introduction of a series of illustrative authorities. It is in ihr mldi- 
 maineo within brackets under each title, and also of a sieneral index 
 to facilitate reference, that this edition differs from the original edition, which in other , 
 
 y reprinted. I have routined my choice of authorities to poetical quotation*. c'iir|ly ho- 
 H in poetry that laiiL'u.-i'.'c H found in in hi'/hest purity and perfection. The selection* 
 [iin:i'!i Iron- three of the I each a L'reat'aiuhoriiy. and each nelom'tii'.,' to 
 
 a d'lli- ent period. BO that in thin wiy tome hi-mrical illustration of The lanirua'-e is L-nvn at 
 llvu Mine time. The quotations from Shakspeare (horn A. n. hV.l, died li',ic,) m,iy \,fi <-. 
 ut illu I at the do -c o| tin- Kith and beginning of the l?th century ; 
 
 >m Milton (born 1'KK died lf',7l) the surceeiliir,' hall century, or middle erf" the l/'ik 
 entury ; and those from Wordsworth (born 1770) the contemporary use in the 19/h century. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 TIIK PRONUNCIATION, ETYMOLOGY, AND EXPLANATION OF ALL WORDS .AC. 
 TIIOiUZED BY EMINENT WRITERS; 
 
 To which are added, a Vocabulary 01' the Roots of English Words, and an AvAGlod 
 List of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names 
 
 BY ALEXANDER REID, A.M., 
 
 Rector of the Circus School, Edinlturgh. 
 
 Wha a Critical Preface, by HENRY REED, Professor of English Literature in the University 
 
 Pennsylvania and an Appendix, showing the Pronunciation of nearly 3viOU of 
 
 th ;OM important (JeoinMpliical Names. One volume, l'2tno. 
 
 of nearly GOO j)ages, bound in Leather. Price $1 
 
 Among tne wants of our time was a -rood dictionary of our own language, especially adapted 
 for academies and schools. The books which have long been in use were of luile value to the 
 junior students, being too concise in the definitions, and unmethodical in the arrange tvent 
 Reid's English Dictionary was compiled expressly to develop the precise analogic aim v irious 
 properties of the authorized words in general use, ty the standard authors a~'d orators who use 
 our vernacular tongue. 
 
 Exclusive of the large number of proper names which are appended, this Dictionary includes 
 four especial improvements and when their essential value to the student is considered, the 
 sterling character of the work as a hand-book of our language will be instantly perceived. 
 
 The primitive word is distinguished by a larger type ; and when there are any derivatives 
 from it, they follow in alphabetical order, and the part of speech is appended, thus furnishing a 
 complete classification of all the connected analogous words of the same species. 
 
 With this facility to comprehend accurately the determinate meaning . f the English word, in 
 Conjoined a rich illustration for the linguist. The derivation of all the p. 'mitive words is dis- 
 tinctly given, and the phrases of the languages whence they are deduced, wi.ether composite or 
 simple; so that the student of foreign languages, both ancient and modern, by a reference to 
 any word, can ascertain the source whence if has been adopted into our own form of speech. 
 This is a great acquisition to the person who is anxious to use words in their utmost clearness 
 
 To these advantages is subjoined a Vocabulary of the Roots of English Words, which is of 
 peculiar value to the collegian. The fifty pages which it includes, furnish the linguist with a 
 wide-spread field of research, equally amusing and instructive. There is also added an Ac 
 cented List, to the number of fifteen thousand, of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names. 
 
 RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 REID'S Dictionary of the English Language is an admirable book for the use of schools. 
 Its plans combine a greater number ol desirable conditions (or euch a work, than any with 
 which 1 am acquainted: and it seems to me to be executed in general with great judgment, 
 fidelity, and accuracy. 
 
 C. S. HENRY, 
 Professor of Philosophy, History, and Belles Lettre % 
 
 in the University of the City of New- York. 
 
 Reid's Dictionary of the English Language is compiled upon sound principles, and with 
 judgment and accuracy. It has the merit, too, of combining much more than is usually looked 
 for In Dictionaries of small size, and will, I believe, be found excellent as a convenient manual, 
 for genera' use and reference, and also for various purposes of education. 
 
 HENRY REED, 
 Professor of English Literature in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 After a careful examination, I am convinced that Reid's English Dictionary has strong 
 laims upon the attention of teachers generally. It is of convenient size, beautifully executed, 
 nd seems >\ell adapted to the use of scholars, from the common school to the university. 
 
 D. II. CHASE, 
 
 Principal of Preparatory School. 
 
 MlDDLETOWN, Ct 
 
 Af'er a thorough examination of" Reid's English Dictionary," I may safely say that I con 
 sider it superior to any of the School Dictionaries with which I am acquainted. Its accurate 
 and concise definitions, and a vocabulary of the roots of English words, drawn from an author 
 of such authority as Bos worth, are not among the least of iuTexcellencies. 
 
 M. M. PARKS, 
 Chaplain apul Professor of Ethics, U. S. Military Academy, West Point 
 
 15 
 
<ITngi!0|f. 
 
 A TREATISE ON ALGEBRA. 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 
 BY S. CHASE, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN DARTMOUTH COLLEGE. 
 
 One volume, 12mo, 340 pages. Price SI. 
 
 **The Treatise which Prof. Chase has written for the use of schools and colleges, seems to ut 
 to be superior in not a few respects to the school Algebras in common use. The object of the 
 writer was, " to exhibit such a view of the principles of Algebra, as shall best prepare the stu- 
 dent for the further pursuit of mathematical studies." He has, we think, succeeded in this at- 
 tempt. Hi* book is more complete in its explanations of the principles of Algebra than any 
 text-book with which we are acquainted. The examples for practice are pertinent, and are suf- 
 ficiently numerous for the illustration of each rule. 
 
 "Mr. C. has avoided, by his plan, the common fault of text books on Algebra uselessly nu- 
 merous examples, and meagerness of explanation as respects the principles of the science. The 
 order <>f treatment is judicious. Mr. C. has added a table of formula:, for convenience of ufer- 
 ence, in which are brought into one view the principles exhibited in different parts of the book. 
 It will be of great use to" the student. We think the book is well adapted to schools and college^ 
 into many ol which it will, no doubt, be introduced." Ch. Recorder. 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN GEOMETRY, 
 
 UPON THE MODEL OF COLBURN'S FIRST LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC. 
 BY ALPHEUS CROSBY, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN DARTMOUTH COLLEGE. 
 
 One volume, 16mo, 170 pages. Price 37J cents. 
 
 This work is approved of as the best elementary text-book on the subject, and is very gen 
 rally adopted throughout the States. 
 
 BURNAM'S SERIES OF ARITHMETICS, 
 
 FOR 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 
 
 PART FIRST is a work on MENTAL ARITHMETIC. The philosophy of the mode of teach. -4 
 adopted in this work, is: commence where the child commences, and proceed as the child pu 
 ceeus : fall in with his own mode of arriving at truth; aid him to think for himself, and do n it 
 the thinking for him. Hence a series of exercises are given, by which the child is made famili if 
 with the proi -i -.-. which he has already gone through with in acquiring his present km> 
 
 i-liild, and prepare him for future rapid progress. The plan is so 
 
 clearly unfolded by illustration and example, that he who follows it can scarcely fail to secure, 
 on the part of his pupils, a thorough knowledge of the subject. Price, 20 eta. 
 
 PART SECOND is a work on WRITTEN ARITHJETIC. It is the result of a long experience 
 in tcachiiiL'. and contains sufficient of Arithmetic for the practical business purposes of life. It 
 illu-'ratfs more fully and applies more extendedly and practically the principle of Cancellation 
 than any other Arithmetical treadle. This method as here employed in connection with the or- 
 . ; : rirty of illustrat ions, which canno! fail in miriv-i and m~trnrt the scholar. 
 i : throughout, to Impress upon the mind of ihe scholar the truth that he will 
 
 never discover, nor need a new principle i.ryond the simple rule-*. The piwil is showo, DJ 
 Tiriety ol IH-W modes of ilhi'-'iraiion. thai new nanir-i and m-w p.i VIOIH IntrOQUCe no m;w prin- 
 ciple, but that they are merely mat ten of convenience. Fr-n-iion* aiv treated an 1 explained the 
 whole numbers. Formulas are also Riven for drilling the scholar upon the Blackboard 
 which will be found of service to many teacher* of Common Sclxools. Price, 50 cu. 
 
 16 
 
(Prrrk ntrtt Intin. 
 
 TITUS LIVIUS. 
 
 CHIEFLY FROM THE TEXT OF ALSCIIEFSKL 
 WITH 
 
 ENGLISH NOTES, GRAMMATICAL AND EXPLANATORY 
 
 TOGETHER 
 
 WITII A GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL INDEX. 
 
 BY J. L. LINCOLN, 
 
 Professor of Latin in Hrown University. 
 
 WJTil AN ACCOMPANYING PLAN OF ROME, AND A MAP OF THE PASSAdE OP HAN5IBAL. 
 
 One volume, I2mo. Price $1. 
 
 The publishers believe that, in the edition of Livy herewith announce' 1 , a want la supplied 
 which nas been universally felt ; there being previous to this no American edition furniaheo wilL 
 Ibe requisite apparatus for the successful prosecution of the study of thib Latin author. 
 
 OPINIONS OF CLASSICAL PROFESSORS. 
 
 From Professor Kingsley, of Yale College. 
 
 11 1 have not yet been able to read the whole of your work, hut have examined it enough to f 
 satisfied that it is judiciously prepared, and well adapted to the purpose intended. We use it 
 for the present year, in connection with the edition that has been used for several years. Most 
 of the class, however, have procured your edition : and it is probable that next year it will be 
 used by all." 
 
 From Professor Tyler, of Amherst College. 
 
 " The notes seem to me to be prepared with much care, learning, and taste ; the grammatical 
 illustrations are unusually full, faithful, and able. The book has been used by our Freshman 
 Class, and will I doubt not come into general use in our colleges. 
 
 From Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College. 
 
 " I have recommended your edition to our Freshman Class. I have no doubt that your labors 
 will give a n *.w impulse to the study of this charming classic. 
 
 From Professor Anderson, of Wateroille College. 
 
 " A careful examination of several portions of your work has convinced me that, for the use 
 of students it is altogether superior to any edition of Livy with which I am acquainted. Among 
 its excellences you will f armit me to name, the close attention given to particles to the sub- 
 junctive mood the constant references to the grammars the discrimination of words nearly 
 synonymous and the care in giving the localities mentioned in the text. The book will be neie 
 after used in jur college." 
 
 From Professor Johnson, of New - York University. 
 
 u I can at present only say that your edition pleases me much. I shall give it to one of nrj 
 eUsses next week. I am prepared to find it just what was wanted." 
 
 WORKS OF HORACE. 
 
 WITH ENGLISH NOTES, CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 
 BY J. L. LINCOLN, 
 
 Professor of Lsnin in Brown University. 
 
 WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 One volume, 12mo. 
 
 The text of this edition is chiefly that of Orelli ; and the Notes, besides embodying whatever 
 IB valuable in the most recent and approved German editions of Horace, contain the results of 
 the Editor's studies and experience as a College Professor, which he has been gathering and 
 maturing for several years with a view to publication. It has been the aim of both the Pub- 
 lishers and the Editor to mak this edition in all respects suitable to the wants of America*, 
 chools and colleges. 
 
 33 
 
frtrft (mil Intiu. 
 
 C. JULIUS (LESAira COMMENTARIES 
 
 ON THE 
 
 GALLIC WAR. 
 
 With English Notes, Critical and Explanatory; A Lexicon, 'icographical and 
 Historical Indexes, &o,. 
 
 BY REV. J. A. SPENCER, A.M., 
 
 Editor of" Arnold's Series of Greek and La. in Books," eie. 
 
 One handsome vol. 12mo, with Map. Price 81. 
 
 T; e press of Messrs. Appleton is becoming prolific of superior editions of the classics used 
 in schools, and ihe volume now before us we are disposed to regard as one of the nost beautiful 
 aiiil liish'y finished among them all, both in its editing and its execution. The classic Latin in which 
 the greatest general and the greatest writer of his age recorded his achievements, has leen sadly 
 corrupted in the lapse of centuries, and its restoration to a pure and perfect text is a work re- 
 qiiirin<r nice discrimination and sound learning. The text which Mr. Spencer has adopted is that 
 of Oudendorp, with such variations as were suggested by a careful collation of the leadin? critics 
 of Germany. The notes are as they should be, designed to aid the labors of the student, not to 
 supersede them. In addition to these, the volume contains a sketch of the life of Caesar, a brief 
 Lexicon of Latin words, a Historical and a Geographical Index, together with a map of the 
 country in which the great Roman conqueror conducted the campaigns he so graphically de- 
 scribes. The volume, as a whole, however, appears to be admirably suited to the purpose lor 
 which it was designed. Its style of editing ana its typographical execution reminds us of Prof. 
 Lincoln's excellent edition of Livy a work which some months since hud already passed to a 
 second impression, and has now been adopted in most of the leading schools and colleges of the 
 country. Providence Journal. 
 
 " The type is clear and beautiful, and the Latin text, as far as we have examined it, extremely 
 accurate, and worthy of the work of the great Koman commander and historian. No one edition 
 lia< In rii entirely followed by Mr. Spencer. He has drawn from Oudendorp, Achaimre. Lamuire. 
 Oberlin. Schneider, and Giani. His notes are drawn Kunewbai from the above, and also from 
 \ . l)avit-s, ('lurke, ami Stutgart. These, together with his own corrections and nou-s. and 
 
 an excellent lexicon attached, render this volume the most complete and valuable edition ol 
 Commentaries yet published. Albany Spectator. 
 
 EXERCISES IN GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE 
 
 FIRST BOOK OF XENOPHON'S ANABASIS. 
 
 BY JAMES R. BOISE, 
 
 Professor in Brown University. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. Price seventy-five cents. 
 
 V For the convenience of the learner, an English-Greek Vocabulary, a Catalogue of the Irre- 
 gular Verbs, and an Index to the principal Grammatical Notes have been appended. 
 
 " A Rchool-book of the highest order, containing a carefully arranged series of exercises de- 
 rived from ihe first book of Xenophon's Anabasis, (which is appended entire,) an Kng'ish and 
 Gretk vocabulary and a list of the principal modifications of invirular verbs. We regard it ai 
 on. p., u liar excellence of this book, that it presupposes both the diligent scholar and the pains- 
 taking teacher, in tther hands it would be not only useless, but unusable. We like it also, be 
 ,-iead of aimin? to five the pupil practice in a variety of styles, it places before him but 
 a single model of Greek composition, and that the very author who combines in the greatest de- 
 gree, purity of language and idiom, with a simplicity that both invites and rewards imitation." 
 On Lilian Register. 
 
 'Mi I: I : "-->-or <>i Creek in Brown University, and has prepared these exercise* 
 
 a. ;ni accompaniment to die First Book ol tin- An ih.i i- of Xenophon We have examined tho 
 
 pl,u with atirnMon. .in. I an- -truck wiih its utility. The exercises consist of sh" 
 
 tences, i . ! m the trxi ol ilu- Ai, iU isis, and mvolviii'.' ihr < .inn- construc- 
 
 tions; ami ihe sv-'ifin. if faithfully pursued, must not on!v Ir.i.l to I. militarily with the author. 
 .mal a.iop'ion ol IPS style, but also to great ease and faultlea* excellence in Greek con> 
 position." Protestant Churchman. 
 
 34 
 

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