UC-NRLF 
 
 $C 31 331 
 
Attitude of organized lator toWard vocational education, 
 
 By 
 John Lawrence I^erchen 
 
 THESIS 
 
 BubmiLted in oartial satisfaction of the requirements for the dej^ree of 
 
 LiASTl^H OF ARTS 
 in 
 
 Sducation 
 
 in the 
 GRADUATdl DIVI3I01T 
 of the 
 U1JIVER3ITY OF CALIFORInIA 
 June, 1919 
 
LB6 
 
 • . . • • 
 
 • • •«• . 
 
 eoucAT.osoi*^- 
 
I Introduction 
 
 1. The choice of a life 
 
 2. Close relation to industry 
 
 3. Necessity of industrial efficiency 
 
 4. Opportunity for growth 
 
 5. Freedom from specialization 
 
 6. Larger "control of industry 
 
 7. Democracy in education 
 
 8. Motivation 
 
 9. iixtension of Knowledge 
 
 10. Opportunity to impart labor's ideals 
 
 11. Greater chance of leisure 
 
 12. Continuance of labor's tradition to education 
 IS. Securing vocational education control 
 
 14. itelease from poverty 
 
 15. Purpose of thesis 
 
 II The Economic Framework of our -iocial ^structure 
 
 1. jiconomic foundations 
 
 2. iiusiness enterprise 
 
 I 
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II 
 
 COmTifiliTS 
 
 3. Fave relationships of capital and labor 
 
 4. Sale of labor power 
 
 5. Loss of control of means of life 
 
 6. '-^he significance of great economic power 
 
 7. ■'i'conomic determinism 
 
 III Labor Organizations 
 
 1. Lack of creditable standing 
 
 2. Reasons for this 
 a. The fallacy of it 
 
 4. Organized labor and the Mediaeval gild 
 
 5« Betterment of conditions of wage earners 
 
 6. '■^he collective bargain and the individual bargain 
 
 7. •'■he three forms of labor unions 
 
 8. Labor unions and progress 
 
 IV The iiarly -educational Attitude of Labor 
 
 1. Labor and free schools 
 
 2. I'he "--dueational ii-evival" of 1820-1850 
 
 0. ihe factory system of industry and the growth of 
 cities 
 
 4. -^he extension of suffrage 
 
 6. Argiunants for and against tax-supported schools 
 
 6* Resolutions of Labor on education 
 
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 oaer-osai to "lijviv^- laacitB- .a 
 
 ■t-i<^<-.rit.n-xi?.., . .iaoma . ' 
 
7, The nature of the opposition 
 V The Attitude of the American i'ederation of Labor 
 
 1. Kind of organization 
 
 2. Its reports on industrial education 
 2. Its favorable attitude 
 
 4. Jieeicing to control vocational education 
 
 5. Summary 
 
 VI Some Objections to Vocational -education from Labor's 
 
 Point of View 
 
 1. Recapitulation 
 
 2. Life of the wage earner 
 
 5. The fixity of labor 
 
 4. The effect of the reduction of skill in industry 
 
 5* Scientific management 
 
 6. Economic safety 
 
 7. The "creative impulse" 
 
 8. Vocational education 'and industrial re-organization 
 
 9. Vocational education and poverty 
 
 10. The reduction in educational esiientials 
 
 VII Kecommended School Curriculum 
 
 1. The three educational constants 
 
a: 
 
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 v: .V 
 
 ' ! Tr .^ r. A 
 
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 01 
 
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IV 
 
 £• Productional icnowledge 
 
 2. Distributional icnov.ledge 
 
 4. GonsTimption knowledge 
 
 6. Outline of a school curriculum containing 
 
 the essentials of the above forms of 
 
 knowledge 
 
rt;v 
 
 .3 
 
 
Hot long ago the attitude of organized labor on the sub- 
 ject of vocational education would have been considered by the 
 majority of educators as of little consequence, indeed,, at 
 the present time, many members of the teaching profession, due 
 to leisure class tradition, education and training look upon 
 the demands of labor in matters of education with no small 
 degree of suspicion. This situation is due to the fact that 
 labor has had to fight for its place in the educational field, 
 and that it has had a long and tortuous path to tread before 
 being admitted into educational councils with a reputable stand- 
 ing. The old institutional furniture of the past, heritages of 
 slavery, serfdom, peonage, indentured service, apprenticeship, 
 and contract labor, were remnants of an unhappy history of sta- 
 tus and servility and lack of rights which created a distrust 
 that (whether we wish to admit it or not), has been difficult 
 to remove in order that unprejudiced recognition be granted the 
 demands of labor in educational circles. 
 
 Labor has an attitude toward vocational education for the 
 following reasons: 
 
 1. Because upon the choice and practice of a vocation there 
 follows the determination of a life. One's choice of a vocation 
 and the capacity to practice it defines a person's social and 
 
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and civic status. Whether you will live in the slums, occupy 
 a modest bungalow, or a more pretentious residence depends cniefly 
 upon your choice of a vocation. ..hether you will be just one of 
 the workers of the world "bowed by the weight of centuries" and 
 upon your back the burden of the world, or a member of a profes- 
 sional class with increased opportunities of worthy leisure, dis- 
 tinction, and influence, depends upon your choice of a vocation. 
 In a general way, perhaps, more than any other single factor, the 
 making for better or for worse of a life, is the choice of a vo- 
 cation. 
 
 2. Labor has an attitude toward vocational education because 
 vocational education comes from the field of industry more than 
 from the interests of education as such, xhe meaning of this is 
 that the pace set and the courses olfered at present do not come 
 from the schools and colleges but from industry itself, it is the 
 institution of industry waich affects the lives of the laboring 
 class so completely that an indifference for labor to the prob- 
 lems of vocational education is impossible, ihe problems of 
 vocational education for labor are more of an industrial nature 
 than educational, that is, they function chiefly in the field of 
 industrial enterprise, and it is cniefly in this capacity that 
 labor's interests function the most fruitfully. 
 
 S. Labor has an attitude toward vocational education, be- 
 cause it feels that American industry re«iiares industrial effic- 
 

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iency, tiiat it must have trained workers for the good of all, 
 is she is to take her place among the competing nations in the 
 world of industrial enterprise. Our efficiency or our ineffic- 
 iency will be tested by our ability to adapt the technical arts 
 and machine production to the industrial process. This is a 
 national ideal of labor and capital alike which can only be at- 
 tained through vocational education of a technical character, 
 
 4. Labor has an attitude toward vocational education be- 
 cause it realizes perhaps more fully than any other force in 
 society that industry and its problems constitute the most fertile 
 field for adventure, development, and growth, and nence for ed- 
 ucation. It is in this field that the "creative impulse" in 
 industry and the "instinct of workmanship" may best be realized; 
 that when the scopy of industry is thrown open for first hand 
 experiment and cooperative enterprise it will be fully demon- 
 strated that the industrial process and the educative process are 
 one, and that there can be little social growth while where is 
 conflict between "growth in wealth (which is industry) and growth 
 in individuals (which is education)". 
 
 '-, Labor has an attitude toward vocational education because 
 in the movement for vocational education it sees the opportimity 
 for redemption from the deadening results of macnine specialization, 
 "This division of the workers into eyes, arms, fingers, legs, the 
 
eri;t at eatitJiin %atiBo lOa sobI ax ©lia e 
 
 aJiw iiioii.Aoeo ' "^ .law y, 
 
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 -ja ecf AjJ - .:oinw eaiils Lp.iic ■ i ' ^ ■* ^.t''!^l 
 
 ni soiol leriJo ^^riii hb-ij t^H-uI eiciu aqBriieq ses tli^o - o 
 
 oil? aJwi-JtctaHoo sjialdoiq 8d"i Ma ^jid"8ifJ&ni ;fsi ioos 
 
 ;besilHH't 9d <ft TtnsrfjRi.ijt'iow l-o tonivJ'ani" b 
 
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4 
 
 plucking out of some one of his faculties and discarding the rest 
 of man as valueless, has seemed to be an organic requirement of 
 machine evolution."* 
 
 6, Labor has an attitude toward vocational education because 
 it realizes that in a participation in this uovement taere lies 
 opportunity for a larger control of industry by wnich and from 
 wnich labor must survive. The cnief signii'icance of the evolu- 
 tion of machine industry for 1( bor has been in the fact that it 
 has separated the laborer from his means of life, that the con- 
 trol once his, due to the possession of tools, materials, and es- 
 pecially, his skill, constituted for the worker a reliance, an 
 independence, wnich the "new power" in machine industry has placed 
 in the hands of his employer. Vocational education directed in 
 the interests of labor will restore much of this lost power and 
 independence, 
 
 7. Labor has an attitude toward vocational education because 
 it realizes that in the vocational education curriculum there 
 lies the greatest opportunity for the democratization of educa- 
 tion, never before in the history of education have democratic 
 deriiands been so urgent as at the present and never have they 
 seemingly been so near of realization, i^emocracy for labor has 
 a specific content. It means that for an educational criterion 
 
 *Marot, "The Creative Impulse in Industry," p. 5, 
 
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the school curriculiim shall mean a participation in social life 
 in which the interests of the group shall be shared by all its 
 members, The curriculum must not only offer an opportunity to 
 share but to participate in all that is included in school life 
 on equal terms, 
 
 8, Labor has an attitude on vocational education because 
 vocational education offers the very best opportunity for educa- 
 tional motivation. This does not mean that each school activity 
 should be evaluated solely in terms of i^ercenary considerations, 
 or that most of our school work must function economically, but 
 that school work should reflect life's work, not only reflect it 
 but supplement and enrich it at every possible point, ijchool 
 
 work snould not necessarily be a preparation for life but a par- 
 ticipation in life at its best. 
 
 9. Labor has an attitude on vocational education because it 
 sees in the vocational education curriculum the opportunity for 
 the individual fo function as an economic unit and tnis is the 
 chief interest of organized labor. Labor claims and insists 
 that any and all school curriculums in order to meet the require- 
 ments of a democracy must include the tnree following forms of 
 knowledge, 
 
 1. Productional knowledge, 
 £. Distributional jmowledge, 
 3. Consumptional knowledge. 
 Labor demands that all the knowledge of the vocational curriculum 
 
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6 
 
 shall not be productional, as is now the tendency in nearly all"^ 
 vocational schools. Labor demands that there shall be taught 
 the meaning of distributional ijiowledge and that the safest 
 guarantee against economic exploitation is a ioiowledge of the 
 subject matter of the economic production of wealth. Labor " 
 realizes that no person is so poor as he who is poor for the lack 
 of nlgher wants, that in any well-ordered school curriculum ample 
 provision must be made for the best use of leisure as may be ex- 
 pressed in the fine arts, languages, music, literature, acting, or 
 any knowledge that improves leisure moments. 
 
 10. Labor has an attitude on the subject of vocational educa- 
 tion because it believes that in the vocational education movement 
 there will develop opportunity to present the subject matter of 
 labor's problems. It is to the interest of labor that labor 's**^ 
 interests be represented in the vocational education programs, 
 '■^•'hiB is necessary for labor's interests in the vocational educa- 
 tion movemont. "hen labor sees to it that the children of those 
 who toil are taught by teachers who have been trained in the in- 
 dustry they teach; who know that the trade they are imparting is 
 only a small part of an ethical code of labor and labor's claims 
 
 in the social order; it is then that labor can begin to exert its 
 xeal service in the cause of vocational education. 
 
 11. Labor has an attitude on the subject of vocational educa- 
 
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tion, because it cannot help but realize that in the scientific 
 management and consequent organization of industry, there will 
 be eliminated most of what economists know as "economic waste" 
 in the production and distribution of economic goods; that by 
 the avoidance of unnecessary duplication in business enterprise, 
 by the elimination of skill due to machine specialization, and 
 the substitutions of mechanisms for men, there will be such a 
 release from the drudgery of labor that a much greater share of 
 leisure may be shared by all workers, 
 
 12, Labor has an attitude on the subject of vocational ^ 
 education for the very good reason that it has always nad an 
 interest in educational matters, in the development of a free 
 public school system in the united States, organijjed labor played 
 the most important role. .M-bout the only contribution iunerica 
 has made to education is a l^&i^ii, public school system and the 
 FHiSjS part of the system is due to che militant interest that 
 organized labor took in the general education movement during 
 the early half of the nineteenth century, 
 
 13, Labor has a very decided attitude on the subject of 
 vocational education because it realizes there are other Inter--^ 
 ests bidding for the control of the vocational education move- 
 ment whose internsts in the subject are widely divergent and 
 often antagonistic to the interests of organized labor, that is, 
 the interests of "Big business", manufficturer 's associations. 
 
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employer's associations, and employers of labor in general. Labor 
 realizes clearly the fact that the interests of labor and cap- 
 ital are not wholly the same no matter how much we desire them 
 
 to be identical. Labor is emphatic in its demands that its 
 
 well 
 children shall not be trained "Hands" for the exploitation of 
 
 those who make a profit from their industry. If there is one 
 lesson above all others that the late war has taught us, it is 
 the refined brutality of the Prussian vocational education sys- 
 tem, 'x'he perfection of the Uerman industrial supremaoy was due 
 to the fact that Germany made it imperative that the youth of 
 her country should be "consecrated and sacrificed" to a voca- 
 tional scheme wherein the youth of the country were as carefully 
 moulded to fit the industrial scheme as the machines themselves. 
 Labor wants initiative, not submission, in industry, inis view- 
 point necessitates the inquiry, "In whose interests is vocational 
 
 education to be conducted?" Shall it be in the interests of the 
 
 voo-6 on; T 
 
 employer (vocational education with the education left out), the 
 
 creation of a willing group of wage earners, trained to fit into 
 the machines of the employers, or shall vocational education be 
 conducted for the purpose of developing intelligent workers satu- 
 rated with the ideals and dignity of labor? if one can enter into 
 
 the setting of this situation, the attitude of labor toward voca- 
 
 y b« . 
 tional education can be easily understood, 
 
 14, Organized labor has an attitude on vocational education 
 because it is hoped that the knowledge of vocations therein gained 
 
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 -aoov 3 oJ "f)9oi^J:iy38 Jbns jbeJBioesaoo" ed JbXuorls v:iJmfoo -xert 
 
 Y,£lisJ&iP.o 83 Bisw v-rJ-fluoo erlJ- to rij.uov: 9f^<J" -Txeie:'?; 9n?r*oe lenot* 
 
 XfifTi f.tanov ai 3^3913 Jilt eaoiiw nl" ,7t rjronr srfJ' soJisiJtnaeosn ^niocr 
 Sfij "io aJuQiiiJaj. a:iJ ax sa O'X ii^uiw " v^eJOiii-xiOCj sg oj au i J jauiJ :.';■> 
 
 o.t •\r,Ti^Rit ,aT3.Tii^(5 9-^sw to rruoi-a -Qiflrlltrr a Iro ffottsaio 
 
 9d iiox««ui.j-.© Uuv/XJaucv ixijiis 10 ,an6-^oxtjiuo saj xt asiixiit;-.,! wnj 
 
 -iXi^aa etwliow Jna^tLlBiii. giniqpXevei) to 9eo<tiW'i e:U lol 6e*oi;bflOo 
 
 o,tr, ; f^r-. f. Mao enc 1. . -. .. ... io xj;r.trfaJ:£) ban elBobi. sdi d&tv9 boSet 
 
 -auo7 Diana J ,%od.3x io •ahuixiii^ eriJ,aoiJB*rJx3 &xaJ io ^axjjoa eiiJ' 
 
 .i)00J"3'i9l)au ^Xieae etf xtao floxJBoxrfio lanoit 
 
will offer some release from the blight of poverty that it is 
 now the curse of labor to bear. When three-fourths of the labor- 
 ing population is underfed, under-clothed, and under-educated, 
 chiefly due to the problem of poverty, it well behooves labor 
 to become interested in the poverty problem or it will sink to 
 still lower depths of degradation and dependence. The question 
 of poverty is perhaps the most far-reaching of all, for such 
 phrases as "democracy" in industry, "equal opportiinity", etc., 
 are meaningless when sixty per cent of the wealth of the united 
 States is in the hands of two per cent of the population and two 
 per cent of the wealth is owned by sixty five per cent of the 
 population,* 
 
 It shall be the purpose of this thesis to establish beyond 
 a reasonable doubt the fact that labor, be it organized or un- 
 organized, has and will continue to have a most vital attitude 
 on the subject of vocational education; that its attitude and 
 record in the past is of such character that it may well be 
 proud, and that its attitude at present is in accord with the 
 best that has been thought, said, and done in the vocational 
 field; further, that labor's attitude is determined by the sta- 
 tus of laborers as wage earners in an industrial system, that 
 whatever this attitude may be, it must be interpreted in terms 
 
 From the Manley i^eport of the industrial xielations GomLdttee, 
 
sx .tt tsrfJ" yttevoa to ^riri,tL(i erlJ" moil ssroIoi eniorj is^lo II tw 
 
 -iua.i-L diij i iJuUi-oair.J as; .... •. u aciiuu &;iJ \'/on 
 
 ,beJ^aow£>o-i©JbajJ i)fls ,6ejti;folo— x©J)m; ,bet^ei3xuj el noxi'aXifqoq gnl 
 
 ■xotfal nsvcodod IIow J-? ,'!j;)"i9vca 1o ,^91^01'^ er) . .Ltetrfo 
 
 floijasup ariv ,eonei)neqeb brta flolJ^jsiie^aefi to erlJqefe TewoTXIi^a 
 
 riowa io"i ,IlB 5:0 ^gnrdossi-ia" Jaom sxiJ srrRiiorf af vttsvoa 'i-o 
 
 ,,.'jJ"Q ,"TiJi:nirj:tO(iqo XsiJpa" ."^tJsifoni: ax ' Tjosiooffie;: aa sessiaq 
 
 betlnj edi to rftlaew ertJ 3-0 Sneo leq ijJ'xla aorfw saelgninBeoi »*xb 
 
 o»r}" hnfi no t.t",Ii;croq ertJ "io JTrer; tot ow:)" to r bnii^/i f*d:f nt a f- ast.Rjg 
 
 oiiJ 10 JflQo IS , dvxi ^Jxia '^d ij&awo ai. ciilBQfj ©nj lo J-neo leq 
 
 *.nol;J-BliTqoq 
 
 ^;^9 oJ 8ise^> lo 9fj ., 9cf jr^. >••: >t 
 
 -iu 10 x)6sxaji3iio J"x ed ,iOiiaI ieAS toni &ciS tcfxfoJb eldanoaaet b 
 
 9i)Xf;^£Jd"B iB^t^iv tBoc\ H BVBii OJ Bitaltnoo Iliw orts aari ^besifiB^io 
 
 f,,T.- ^^tl.t^ r.trt rt.ti iJaoor to ;l"09ocfire erf* no 
 
 3d Xlew \ijsjai J^x Jail J iQiOtsiaaij tiujja lo ax ^aaq erf J ax bioo&T. 
 
 •3\\$ riJ^iw f)io;r3J2 nl ai Jfi989tq Ja e^u^itta ail tstii baB ,fcuoiq 
 
 '"""-rfiL- - . ,„ ■■"■ '''"^ , bx38 ..t'"^' ""f-^ ■tp.ecf 
 
 ado ^(i i)eaxffli9ifisb bx ebui" Li'i'a e'lodai Jij.iw « xfc»xi>J''ii/l ;i)i9J:l 
 
 iiJi J" ,aie>fs^8 laliiBssbni ns ai anemBe a'gsw aa atetodsl lo bjxJ 
 
 auito i.r He.TotL , 9cJ YOffl 9l)x/ct_;j • t 'xeve;tBriw 
 
 .99J'ti..unoO aaolJ'8l9ji ItJii^J-airijrti arid' lo ;)"ioq9.-. ^el . H snoil* 
 
10 
 
 of the economic life from which it receives sustenance and sup- 
 port; that this interpretation manifests Itself in nearly the 
 whole round of the laborer's life; hence labor's insistence upon 
 an exhaustive program for vocational education; further, that while 
 labor may look upon some of the efforts of vocational education 
 
 with more or less suspicion, yet, on the whole, organized labor 
 • 
 
 is in favor of an extensive program for vocational education, 
 providing it has a liberal share in its direction. Labor is in 
 the vocational education business because it wishes to control it, 
 which ia the very reason why any other group is in it, and in the 
 main it seeks th: s control because through the vocational educa- 
 tion curriculum it can best propagate the ideals and aims of or- 
 ganized labor. 
 
-qjj-i .jiij', acvu. ■ juaijU'-' ■ .'.0 
 
 6ti;T Ajlisea ai tleaJr aiaetla&si nc iJaJeiqnejni airft ^Bft* ; ^Tioq 
 
 rroqij ©orrets. ' : ; . ; teiocfal Q!i& lo Jbittio-t alorfw 
 
 flo ^aaoii.aaov to sd-iotle ©riJ 1g »mo3 aoqtj tLoo£ ^jb® todsl 
 
 lOc ',^ i:«fjr3'io .elortw erit no ,te\r ,notot:cf ef to e«or rftfYr 
 
 , .ii^c^'i oi ex 
 
 ni .«ot3'os:iiJD sifi al eiane laiedli b aan Ji gnifclroiq 
 
 oitttor: jrfacw ir^oscf seBfiiajJcf aolino'iiba iRnoitf-oov orit 
 
 , ;x ill 8x qijo'i-§ ipujo y,aa •\jxiw nosiJoa ^^lav an -. rtoinw 
 
 -tfojjbe :J"B00'7 Ligx/oii'.J' QSisaQsd lor&cioo iTlese itl atam 
 
 -'to '!:>.. ->!,)■_ j.>(i'j fil«ebi of.B-^p,n mulwcifiwo no^t 
 
 .iocJi!i iesxnB-s^ 
 
UHAP'Jiiiit TWO— ffHifi ifiCOi^OMIG ifHAMiiWORK 
 OP OUK bOGIiiL JiTHUGTURii: 
 
 Before an intelligent understanding of the interests of 
 labor can be acquired on the subject of vocational education, 
 there must be kept clearly in mind the enormous importance of 
 economic considerations in our daily life, aix exaggeration 
 of this economic factor can hardly be made. If it were not 
 for this economic background shaping and directing the move- 
 ments of labor, industry, and education too, there could be 
 no problems for vocational education to solve, and no variety 
 of interests and attitudes for labor and for industry to strug- 
 gle over. In none too ampliatio terms is it slated, 
 
 "The material framework of modern civilization is the 
 industrial system, and the directing force which animates 
 this framework is business enterprise. To a greater extent 
 than any other phase of culture modern Ghristendom takes 
 its complexion from its economic organization. I'his mod- 
 ern economic organization is a system of industry based on 
 capital, 'The modern Industrial system' so called. Its 
 characteristic feature and at the same time the forces by 
 which it dominates modern cultxire are the macnine process 
 and investment for profit."* 
 
 It must follow from even the most cursory observation that 
 
 modern business is dominated by cnnsiderations of loss and gain. 
 
 Investment is made almost solely with an eye to a profitable re- 
 
 *William T. Veblin, "Theory of Business ii-nter prise." 
 
X. 
 
 c^-JliOli 
 
 inoiJi 
 
 1X0 eaoii/tt 
 
 u 3'lb. 
 
 V:j ft :,Ti^' 
 
 'IjiJX- .. 
 
 ,i>- 
 
 tlBOC 
 
 iOii tli ."XtiVO dii 
 
 .t: 
 
 r'/j-f pf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !i^q■IeJx^ 
 
12 
 
 turn upon capital invested. Business is capitalized more and 
 more upon this Toasis, that is, profit-yielding capacity. Accord- 
 ing to good business ethics, a reasonable profit is normally ex- 
 pected from any business, i'his is the pace set by business enter- 
 prise and persons who work upon other bases do not stay in business. 
 This form of business principles and customs has come about by 
 virtue of the fact that the employer of labor with his capital, 
 and the laborer with his productive power applied to the natural 
 resources of the earth, produce a social surplus. The object of 
 the employer is to secure as much of this joint enterprise as 
 possible, and it is the problem of the laborer to retain as great 
 an amount of the same surplus as he can. 
 
 John iiobson* points out that there are five relationships to 
 be considered in the co-operation of capital and labor in a trans- 
 forming process. 
 
 1. The ownership of the laaterial 
 
 2. The ownership of the tools, 
 
 3. The ownership of the productive power. 
 
 4. The relationship existing between the xmits of labor, 
 
 5. The place of workmanship, 
 
 **"Under the Gild System the material was sometimes own by 
 the master workman, and sometimes by the consumer, the tools usu- 
 ally belonged to the workman. The workman furnished his own pro- 
 
 * "involution of Modern Capitalism." 
 
 "iiconomics ajid Industrial History," by H. W. Thurston. 
 
hOJa Mi"-'. I WU-LXi^-J K-\'' c; t SbS;; . ,L't"J ^. ti -J l '\LJ 'J auqjj nix' 'J 
 
 ^bioook ,-%^l!i»qao ^nibiBtZ'-trtoic[ ,aJ , xeflrf alrfJ aoqn ©70oi 
 
 -X8 ^liamton at StJoi-i slrfonoeao-: •»,r;o{:;i?e aaeniaurf fcoo^ ot -srri 
 
 -is;fno aaealewd ^cf Jsa aoaq enj ai si^-t. .aaeaxaxid 'saa aio-xi joejoeq 
 
 '^niauo >i) Bdsstf i6fiJ"0 aoqxi a[io»f .noaieq 6nc ealiq 
 
 •■> fijtn Bfllfl-tnnfTO- ssanfairrf "i-o mTo"? aiif2 
 
 itJiw lOUiJi io •xs^oiqae an." sujacv 
 
 Isiu^ifaa Sit* o* betlqqs Tcewoq ev; tq Blrf n aiodsl erit fins 
 
 iasi?. HZ ^Ai ^o meio tt fins «eX 
 
 0* Sq^i leaox JaXei evil: si-s aisad' SnaJ iiju ad'iiioq ^ncbu^ 
 -sxibie;!^ b at lotfax fiaa Iditiqao !t. foieqo-oo 9dt al Bftisbtamio td 
 
 .- " ^ exiJ lo . ^ 
 
 •nodiix to Qttiw 6ri* fleew^sd ^nl3"8xxe < . 
 
 ,qiii8naij3iicv.' 
 
 ^d nwo 8oaixJ"©moa asw laiteJisui edi^ n?o*ei^ci bll^ 
 -oict ■"■'•'*^ °-^^ i»»r«i Xxi-xxi X ii'5i,iKioA- t)' . .ION oi.i.7 cj nii-'^aoioo ^Ilb 
 
 .aoj^ . . .H ^d ".^cif*^ ^I^ ^"* 80X, 
 
duotive power; the relation "between the workers were those of 
 appreotice,- journeyman, and laaster workman, who were usually 
 neighbors and socially one about as good as another, and the 
 workplace was the laborer's home, the nome of the master work- 
 man, or the home of the consumer who was having the work done. 
 
 "Under the Lomestio "System the tools usually belonged to 
 the workman, but sometimes to the master workman, or to their 
 common employer. The r.-aterial was owned by the employer, the 
 motive power or skill was still largely tnat of the worker. The 
 relations of the workers were still those of equals, though 
 the employer might be far removed from the workers, '^he work- 
 ers who performed one partial process might be far removed from 
 those that performed another partial process, i'he workplace was 
 usually the shop of the ixiaster workman. 
 
 "Under the ••'actory ^^ystem, materials, tools, productive power, 
 and the workplace have passed completely out from the wage 
 workers," The social relation under this system no longer re- 
 tains its personal interetit, and hence is iion-operative as an 
 economic factor. 
 
 It might be asked that since there are only five relation- 
 ships and these have been lost in the industrial revolution and 
 the development of the factory system, what is there that remains 
 for the worker? There remains for him just one possession, his 
 labor power. This he must take to the labor market just the same 
 
- . 'JPW rXi>(3 TO tB' jtcw 
 
 -81 1 Oix mBib joa 9/ 
 
 Its 8 ( 9Vi - , 
 
 Bit ,aoiasaaaoci aao i^aui; «iii »oi Bnl^nex pi-. ^ ?"tS2iiow aiiS vA 
 
 : I ' ■ ■ J rj -» J ' 
 
as any other commodity and its value on the market depends upon 
 the supply and demand as is the case with other coiiiinodities, 
 i'or the employer it is an indispensable factor in economic pro- 
 duction. It is apparently to the interest of the eciployer to 
 have many competing units in the labor market seeking employment, 
 for this reduces the market price of labor. It to the inter- 
 est of the employer that these labor units be highly skilled, 
 hence his interest in vocational education. 
 
 ■^he significance of this to the wage earner — there are many 
 of him — is that in the industrial transformation, due to machine 
 industry, the laborer has lost control of the necessary forces 
 that once made him a relatively independent human being. In the 
 more primitive forms of industry the family unit was the indus- 
 trial unit, and around this organization there clustered the 
 group of economic activities that sufficed for a more or less 
 complete mode of living, '-^he lives of our grandparents illus- 
 trated forcibly this status. On their farms the raw economic 
 goods were produced; in their shops and by their firesides the 
 raw material was transformed into the desired utility, and in the 
 same environment these necessities of life were consumed, xvela- 
 tively speaking, our forebears enjoyed a greater measure of econ- 
 omic security than the wage earner of our modern industrial system, 
 because the whole economic process from production to consumption 
 was under his own initiative and control. Of course this situa- 
 
. i_i;;iun> :.! it,. IJW lyii' aj3 
 
 ;fT9<Yfi t •^((l n rev.oT 
 
 -TS^nl erf* 0* ■: .torfflj 
 
 ,::'eiLx:nK Til;:.]^!.; on 
 
 i^tQOisbe lot 
 
 
 sao' 
 
 axf* BoTioitstrl. 
 
 loiai- 
 
 myciejoax ifilsv. 
 
 •fi^ ai — : 
 
 roTOt" 
 
 tviJuij oiin. 
 
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 n^4 iTii; 
 
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 vaj 
 
tion will never return again, but there are luore and more 
 workers who are beginning to feel that since their power, con- 
 trol, and independence in the economic world has been lost 
 because of the separation of the worker from his interest and 
 possession of the means of life, that, to regain this power, con- 
 trol and independence, he must regain a greater control of the 
 economic necessities upon which his life depends. 
 
 The greatest power in the world today is economic power. 
 Also the greatest dependence is economic dependence. In our 
 present wage^^systera of industry, the wage-earner must eecure 
 employment in order to live. In other words, he must have ac- 
 cess to capital goods in order to exist, 'xhe owner of capital 
 naturally wishes to state the terms upon which the worker shall 
 have opportunity to work. In a very true sense of the word, he 
 has the power of life and death in his hands. Undoubtedly the 
 worker must feel that when any person can dictate to him his 
 hours and days of work, where l^e shall work, and how long, and 
 whether he shall work at all or not, the price he shall receive, 
 the conditions entailed, etc., that this person somehow, some- 
 where, or in some manner, owns him only in less degree than did 
 the feudal lord of the past. All this is a part of the economic 
 framework of society and in specific terms it is at the base of 
 labor's problems. On the other hand, labor is militantly organ- 
 
(J io 
 
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16 
 
 ized in many cases to prevent its exploitation and to protect its 
 interests at every point. Otherwise, "strikes", "lock-outs", and 
 "boycotts" would have no significance or, in fact, no existance. 
 The scope of economic forces that seem to form such a dom- 
 inant position in our social relations has given rise to an 
 explanation of the world, and of history in particular, called 
 the "iiconomic Interpretation of History", "iiconomic i/eterminism", 
 and "Hi storlc iiaterialism". While it is true that economic factors 
 have been neglected by historians in the past, it is also true 
 that economic factors cannot be made to explain everytning, iiow- 
 ever, the layman is far too prone to err by neglecting economic 
 influences, it was Mark Twain who said that "i'here were reasons 
 and reasons and then there were real reasons". The real rei^sons 
 are usually the economic reasons, ^iconomic determinism weans that 
 the things we do, the thoughts we think, and the laws we make and 
 the ethical codes we practice and preach, are determined chiefly 
 by the way in which we make our living. That is, our economic rela- 
 tions. The following illustrations make this point clear: The great 
 city with Its millions of people — unknown before tiie industrial re- 
 volution — is an economically determined institution, it is nothing 
 more tnan an industrial enterprise, and is made possible because of 
 centralized machine production. "Wars and rumors of wars" are, and 
 always have been, determined chiefly by economic considerations. 
 Of course, when they are waged, all sorts of reasons, ethical, patriotic 
 
ax 
 
 
 jLiJS'i 
 
 .lavs'i yoa-ia ''■'■: ■ : ns. -Dssi 
 
 tCiD-nrf" 
 
 '!>« 1* 
 
 IfllOOr. 
 
 IlJQI i^l 
 
 , v» 
 
 if ert.' 
 
 
 
 olloi-ioa-i ,iii;>x-i^e,aao<4*33'i lo aJioii ixa ,ii«iiiA oxj^ ^tsuj nyiiw ,b£.iiJOu - ■ 
 
and otherwise, are given and should be emphasized, but these are 
 not so exclusive as they are said to be. In the last analysis, 
 when the final arbitration boards meet to make final adjustment^, 
 economic considerations that have been in the backgroxmd during the 
 performance come to the front and final settlement is made almost 
 solely upon the considerations of economic terms, -i-he whole list 
 of such coLjmon every-day terms as tariffs, duties, excises, monop- 
 olies, trusts, "swollen fortunes", "combines", etc, are all insti- 
 tions that are economically determined. Interstate commerce and 
 all the laws that pertain to trade and industry and the welfare 
 of the workers therein are economically defined, 
 
 iilven such popular movemants as "2he safety first movement" 
 has at its roots the economic fact that it is a profitable edu- 
 cational campaign, ■■^•'he real reason for the "safety first move- 
 ment" is economic, and the educational part of it is not much more 
 than a by-product, 
 
 Basic economic considerations are traced on policies that 
 hage always been popularly claimed as purely generous and pnilan- 
 thropic, -cor example, our so-called "Open-door" policy toward 1/ 
 the immigrant. We have always congratulated ourselves upon the 
 thought that we were generous, liberal, and even solicitous of 
 the welfare of the immigrant that we welcomed to our shores. But 
 
■fciciiils &ba:: e- alii-- oJ q 
 
 - . ■...-;■ D.- •.i.jcao; SiiOijjtj-i- J 0aJ acij^j ^i.©*os 
 
 -j:ji>e eld'ijli'tO": 
 -SVOiu J:-:iiX \J^li 
 Joe t; 
 
 as 8/ 
 
 ':)<! fio' 
 
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 .J^aJ" oelolloq nc 
 
 ebtanov oi 
 
 s'jpwIj^ 0"^3rf 
 
 
 iev7 ©w ^J'^rfJ Jrf-airorf* 
 
 • 'i^ - iotiif.' • iji.j.iuflii sflJ '±0 Q-itftLitv &tii 
 
18 
 
 just now we are not feo interested in his welfare. In fact, Just 
 a few days ago Congress passed a law that for a number of years 
 practically excludes him from our shores, i'he change in attitude 
 is due to the ff:ct that the immigrant was a necessary factor in 
 the early development of our country. He was an economic necessity, 
 More than that, he represented a golden stream of wealth for the 
 United btates. But since our natural resources have diminished 
 and the labor problem has become acute, in order words, since 
 he is no longer economically profitable, we take a cnange of atti- 
 tude in the matter. 
 
 Just to what extent the Vocational movement is an economic 
 one, it is very difficult to say, but very lively economic consid- 
 erations determ. ne its origin, growth, and trend more than all 
 other considerations put together, ^here is a general belief 
 abroad in the land that the movement is very closely allied to 
 modern industrialism, ^he following quotations from very dis- 
 tinguished educational autriorities show this very clearly, 
 
 "The fundamental values of the practical and vocational 
 arts in the secondary school are to be determined, of course, in 
 terms of their relation to the economic-vocational aim of second- 
 ary education."* 
 
 ♦ n 
 
 Principle* of 'Secondary i:iducation", by Iglis, p. 575. 
 
at "sotoel ^•^ii^av.eor 
 
 doula ,&iiiow xoii'Xb 
 -ij-j-^ 'r.o & 
 
 . a'S-a't-I&v? eirf nt be^Bftt^tqi o^ +0; 
 
 '^w !^oft teifli 
 
 oxmoxioo6 oa 8l J'aafflevotv. 
 
 :rtt to xt »r :'h et 
 
 Jixoaq TillBotmoacoe 19:9x101 on al erf 
 claooV eri* JnaJx© cf 
 
 'bit:. 
 
 ;l9a[ix "?a»\r Jwu ,v,Ba oi iluoltttb vieyr ai 
 
 '"f s* 
 
 ot ijaill- t&aev'- iit brrsl en rvfB 
 
 •^Iiaeir/ 7.19V axi(;r worie aetitio: tua LBaoliROisbe 
 
 -inooea io mis IjMioiJ-aoo7-oi:jnoaoo9 erld' oS 
 
 r-i 'T'^Q 
 
 . 'i V ti • 
 
 , ■^lOiJ'BOuJ&lii ^lafcriooe 
 
*"Tlie great increase in the importance of conspicuous indus- 
 trial processes have invariably brought to the front questions 
 having to do with the relationship of schooling to industrial 
 
 life." 
 
 i'red -i^onser says, in speaking of the vocational counsellor, 
 "He must .-^now the relationship between the present and the probable 
 supply and demand, the relative wages, and the cnanges in methods 
 and devices and organization affecting the workers must siLl be more 
 or less at his immediate command,"** 
 
 The corollary of the Vocational movement is the Vocational 
 Guidance movement, i'his is almost wholly an economic study, i'he 
 economic character of the Vocational Guidance movement is easily 
 ascertained in the titles of such books as the following: "What 
 Shall Our Boys i^o for a Living?" by ^harles Wingate, "Careers for 
 Coming ilen" (a collection of articles by oallsfield publishing 
 Company), ""hat Shall I Do?" by J. S. Stoddard, and so forth. 
 
 The reaction against the educational dominat on of vocational 
 education by those who conduct industry, both employers and labor- 
 ers, has bee L so violent that it has been thougnt wise to take the 
 whole subject from the hands of school men. 'x'his reaction has been 
 due to the fact that pedagogues, as such, have not seen and have 
 refused to see the economic pnases of vocational education. 
 
 *John Iiewey, in "i»emocracy and -"ducation, " p. 366. 
 **"Readings, in Vocational ouidance" p. 110. 
 
-ai; 
 
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 St. 
 
 ItOJilOW 
 
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 cJjjIei ©dj ,fc. 
 
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 >£lqctif8 
 
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 The purport of this part of this paper is to show that, more 
 than anything else, modern industrial society is the product of 
 an economically determined situation in which the machine technol- 
 ogy sets the standards of conduct, i\iearly all the questions of 
 society that focus finally in what are termed attitudes of labor 
 and capital, are to be found and analyzed in the light of this 
 economic framevirork, ^he purpose of this chapter is not to 4^dge 
 but to explain, not to blame but to understand, 'xhe inherent 
 reason why labor has an attitude on the subject of vocational 
 education is due to the fact that vocational education is an 
 industrial subject, and, as such, labor cannot ignore it. It is 
 a vital challenge that affects the laborer's economic status; 
 whether he will accept and control it, or whether hewill reject 
 it, depends upon the amount of interest or indifference with 
 which he views it. 
 
lO ttOT* 
 
 -Ion 
 
 
 &©j;io- oxt'- 
 
 as^I^na 
 
 :;=3UdJJe 
 
 .to ebiii kitx 
 
 ilBOtssioaooB tM 
 
 ■.biahnp& fi + os mo 
 
 Oct «is ,Ia;f ^n[«o hna 
 ..s[\ -xod&l \dw noaaei 
 
 ^iX 
 
 OitOJiu xGdal ,aoita 8us «fif , oldui- 
 ' ,t ©anal 
 
 i&tttDai 
 
 .91© J;:, 
 
 J"niiOGV' 
 
 iv en 
 
CHAPTiiK THRBE— LABOR ORGAiJIZATIOHS 
 
 If labor unions were thoroughly, in educational oircles, 
 this part of this paper might without much loss be omitted. 
 But whatever our effort may be to disguise it, the fact re- 
 mains that labor unions and labor organizations savor of a 
 certain lack of standing, a lack of honorary status, as it 
 were, that cannot be easily concealed, '^'his places upon 
 labor the necessity of naving to explain its reason of being 
 before it can enter with dignity into educational matters. 
 Only too often has the shop teacher met this significant com- 
 plaint of the solicitous parent, "I don't want my boy to be 
 a carpenter or a blacksmith." And he or slie asks that the 
 child be excused forthwith from industrial work. It is true 
 that education is doing much to overcome this prejudice, but 
 the faot remains thit the v>forthiness of such labor is still 
 questioned, i^ver since the iiistorical epoch in which Adam 
 and -"ve were rudely ejected from the Garden of i^-den and in- 
 curred the dreadful curse, "In the sweat of they brow shalt 
 thou earn thy bread," there has been felt the lack of esteem 
 due labor, ihe essence of this edict was the deprivation of 
 a life of leisure and the entrance upon a life of labor, 
 i'ron this event and the descriptions of the raradise to come 
 
.0^i» 
 
 Ic 
 
 B ano 
 
 noqjj ae 
 
 ed or \ro,i vja *n- 
 
 ;0*iorIcs 8 
 
 \t>o>is Linji'iojaii' it!. 
 -iti bna fisb^i Ito aebnaa . 
 
 j x.» ■ ■ ' 
 
 .i-U 
 
 
 ,Laai 
 
 fi<nocy oi B3 : 
 
 l}aa 
 
it would appear thai the Lord has looiced upon the lot of the 
 toiler as being the most inviting the day he quits it. The 
 laborer is the emancipated, or to be more exact, he is on the 
 way to emancipation. He carries with him the legends of ser- 
 vitude, x'he Greeks fixed the notion for us .that knowing is 
 more worthy than doing, ihe labor that had to be done was the 
 work of the slave. Being the v/ork of the slave it became as 
 disreputable as thB slave himself, 
 
 irerhaps the most real cause of the feeling that labor is 
 somewhat dish norable is the economic fact that labor is sub- 
 ject to the dictates of another, and hence indicates the weak- 
 ness of subjection to a master. It shows a lack of independ- 
 ence, is therefore inferior and unworthy of man as a free 
 being. Labor is the antithesis of leisure. Leisure means the 
 disposal of your own time in the manner that you choose. Labor 
 means that your own time is at the disposal of another. Apropos 
 of this same thought, Veblin says,* 
 
 "The archaic distinction between the base and the hon- 
 orable in the manner of a man's life retains much of its 
 ancient force even today, fcio much so that tnere are few 
 of the better class who are not possessed of an instinct- 
 ive repugnance for the vulgar forms of labor." 
 
 It is needless to argue tne fallacy of this situation; it 
 
 is self-eivdent to all who stop for a moment to reflect, uhen 
 
 educators discard the infj.uence of leisure class ideals, and be- 
 
 *Theory of the Leisure Class, p. S7. 
 
9£iJ to Soi Bat aoqu h^jiool etsa broil edt ^ad^ tjBeqqd bJjsow ii 
 
 eri«J , ... . ■• 'J'tov. :. . 
 
 -a 
 
 ■?ia©»'' e.u!" Hot. 
 
 tiO 
 
 09 eAJ BX 
 
 ■roth 9rf* OCf ;+ 
 
 .lb 9rit *a al eatlJ^ nw<. aJ onisoni 
 
 *,a^:..:^ TilcfeV , ;Oni' f»ms3 ?iriJ . 
 
 ,^ai)OJ iievs ©oto't o 
 
 
 -6 'J 
 
 rte-liss 
 
£S 
 
 come enthused with the notion that democracy in education means 
 a participation in education in its best sense by those who wort 
 (whether the work be mental or manual), and that socially, neces- 
 sary work must connote an honor to all wno participate in it, 
 the old educational division of a liberal education ior those 
 who will live a life of leisure, and a practical education for 
 those who will live a life of toil, will be discarded. Just to 
 be one of the workers of the world in the sense of being a con- 
 tributor to its wealth, and an asset to its welfare, it shoujd 
 be the function of education to conserve. It is hoped that vo- 
 cational education will do much to destroy this old, peisistent, 
 and obsolete dualism. It should be the effort of those in charge 
 of vocational education to provide a program of studies that will 
 get brains and hands into partnership on nearly equal terms with 
 social distinctions eliminated, with leisure a reward for all 
 rather than a privilege for a few. 
 
 Labor organizations are a response to the industrial revo- 
 lution of the nineteenth cnetury, '-^'hey must be studied with 
 reference to tneir causes. Aiie fact that they are nere is in- 
 evitable, "e should try to understand the economic forces which 
 brought them into existence, x'wo significant facts must be neld 
 firmly in mind if we are to see the shaping forces of lauor 
 unions; first, (^§ has been pointed out in a previous part of 
 
'biiiwe *e^a acl-i ai ctoi^rt 
 
 .'rfcf -je 
 
 'to »5r JsXtO 
 
 J ecf fix reloR 
 
 Iff iliABa no taq ojaj 
 
 i&n Jsa 
 
 -0-/y 
 
 9ri* t 
 
 .i'B'xi'i: jaac 
 
this paper), the separation of the worker from ds means of live- 
 lihood, and second, the great increase in the roductive powers 
 of the worker due to machine production. 
 
 During the handicraft period, labor unions as we ..now them 
 did not exist, for when workers own ihe tools and tiaterials of 
 production they are not wage earners, ijefore a modern trade union 
 could arise, theru must have preceded it an industrial group, a 
 part of whose business it was to exploit labor for financial gain. 
 In other words, the factory system of production is responsible 
 for the growth, strength, and organization of labor iinions. 
 
 At this point it may be asked, was not the mediaeval gild 
 a form of labor organization? It was not essentially a labor 
 organization. Sidney Webb in his "History of ITrade unionism" 
 gives U8 a definition of a trade union which rings substantially 
 true; "A trade union, as we understand the term, is a continu- 
 ous association of wage-earners for the purpose of maintaining 
 or improving their employment." He also says, * "The powers and 
 duties of the kediaeval gild have been broken up and dispersed." 
 Thurston states the essential differences betv.een the modern 
 labor union and the mediaeval craft guild in iiis "iiconomic and 
 Industrial history." He says, 
 
 "The trade union consists only of wage-earners while 
 the craft gild was made up of owners of land and capital. 
 
 *"History of Trade unionism", p. 117. 
 
-evi ; ic MoiT: isjfi'yv ^r{>r lo aoi:i-.c!Ti?T9S erf* .(iDasa s:.:t 
 
 is'ie^'y.' .ii 3U-JO'. .ijiiouai, Lias ,t)' 
 
 
 
 aiSiiJ wf'i '.notixi/ lodal , 6oi':dri t^oiiolbitBr art^ anil .i 
 
 9880 iou new tasiti. to stnol s 
 
 be^ oiit %o e^liab 
 
 .Vi. . ."iriBiooxi iu ^Od 
 
managers and wage workers; the trade union consists of 
 trade workers in the same occupation, not only of one 
 town bu; of jnany towns, while the typical craft guild 
 was usually confined to the industries of a single town; 
 the trade unions have gained political power but slowly, 
 while, from ihe first, members of gilds were infliien- 
 tial citizens of their towns and finally became polit- 
 ically dominant," 
 
 It will be seen from the above that the modern labor organ- 
 ization bears few similar points of comparison to the mediaeval 
 guild, which was not necessarily an organization of wage-earners, 
 but an organization of a social group for a common purpose. It 
 was not till the masters of tho eld gild became capitalists in 
 the economic sense of ^he term that labor found it necessary to 
 organize. 
 
 In regard to the second point, namely, the enormous increase 
 in the productive capacity of the worker due to the umchine, it 
 was hardly even dreamed that the drudgery and toil of thw world 
 might be greatly mitigated due to the work of mechanical mecnan- 
 isms, 'i'he possibility of a reduction of working hours from 
 twelve, fourteen, or even sixteen hovirs a day to eight or ten 
 has been made possible by machine production, ^ven now the Eng- 
 lish Labor jr-arty has gone on record for a seven-hour day, and 
 maintains that there should be a reduction of hours till all are 
 employed, ■^he direct object of unionism is to better the condi- 
 tion of the wage-earner. And this increase of betterment means 
 a greater share of economic goods. 
 
'isx&aofi 
 
 {ir 
 
 • J (. J. ..' 
 
 -a£'Ut 
 
 niQDc 
 
 
 iriw .biiixsj 
 
 OJ ^liJdofcOefi 
 
 :uea oiiooiiouo exu^ 
 
 isjiio 
 
 rft to ifol br 
 
 
 -^it- y. 
 
 01 
 
 aasje s 
 
 UUi,0' 
 
 •laJJ"!.- 
 
 
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 -Tiewt 
 
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 £)JrfO' 
 
Labor unions cannot "be mentioned in any explanatory sense 
 without si^eaking of their increa..ed efficiency as expressed in 
 the collective bargain. L'his is more impressively seen wjien com- 
 
 ared with the individual bargain of the past. In a status of 
 slavery there was no bargain for the individual, xhe slave had 
 no rights, ihe rights were all on the side of the master, ^ven 
 as late as 1776 Justice Chase of karyland gave the following 
 decision: 
 
 "iiegroes are property, and no more members of the state 
 than cattle. "* 
 
 ■^he serf was little better off. He was tied to the soil as 
 completely as tho agricultural machinery of the age, yet he had 
 some rights, '^he whole range of nis life was not covered as in 
 the cas^e of the slave, ihe serf was economically bound, but it 
 was possible for him to obtain freedom in case he could manage to 
 pay for it. •*''his was some gain. Peonage, indentured service, 
 apprenticeship, and contract labor are the mile posts to the 
 evolution of a free wage-earner. 2hey also remind him of the 
 inefficiency of the individual bargain. 
 
 Collective bargaining means the power gained through the 
 cooperative power of ihe group, ihe merchants of early times 
 gained the right to bargain collectively and risk their capital 
 
 *Wilson, "History of the iiise and -ca-l of the 6lave Power 
 in America, vol, 1, p, 15. 
 
to «w . oivii'; i riJiw jbeis 
 
 Stxixwoj. , lo ©ajariv) ooiJaui, 6VVI a« e;fB^ 
 
 ni 83 ' on 8«w ^til b wt^josi sionw eri* .bs 
 
 .iic- hlribnl edt la TCon©iol'il©«i 
 
in foreign trade on many occasions, *he encouragement of mer- 
 cantilism under the extensive charters granted by itings and 
 queens of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are cases in 
 point. The many advantages of collective bargaining iiave been 
 noted by capital long before labor awakened to its possibilities. 
 Corporations, pools, trusts, manufacttirer 's associations, employ- 
 er's associations, are the most gigantic, refined combinations 
 of capital for collective bargaining purposes, ihe labor union 
 is just such a combination and exists for the same purpose, that 
 is, to enhance its own economic interests. All the interests of 
 labor that nave been mentioned and implied in tnis paper in some 
 way relate to the power of collective bargaining. One may well 
 argue that labor is free to go wnere it ciiooses and work wnere 
 it pleases, but the fact remains that it must work somewhere in 
 order to live, and the fact that the employer owns the opportun- 
 ity to work gives him an immense advantage in the contract ne is 
 able to make. '*he spectecle of a poor, starving, unemployed shop 
 girl driving a wage bargain with a millionaire departr:,ent store 
 representative does not connote an equality of bargaining power, 
 
 *he individual bargainer is unable to hold his services from 
 .the market very long because he would starve. in icnowledge of the 
 value of his services and in his ability to refrain from working 
 the individual is at a decided disadvantage in comparison with 
 
bna egnxit %di bQtna'l^ eisd''XBrio evLaae:tK& siii lebau aiatLiin&o 
 .altiiii .OV98 bass riitnoe.txjta 91 inesrjn 
 
 -/. Lfms , BnO t J"R f or. riR.ft 3 ' Tft1tr*.0 -iT-crni^ ■ ,R.tRi''i.+ .P.rrK>iT , SSi^n F.tR-rn.-rfn J 
 
 iioiiuj lodiil 9dx .aoaoqiuq gal J evlJoelioo lo^ laJ^iqao %o 
 
 eiaoE rtx aat^q aixll" fl± bellajal bn& baaoi-- ied ©vjs- 
 
 ai ©ft sfi • ^iJitavbis weiaeu. oevx'«i iiow o# v^J^i 
 
 .lewoq ^iTtiax«<i"Xi: v;f ti^ijpe naaaiqei 
 
 lliXjtAiovr iVLOit ail on %^tilda 8ii .la asatviea aiit to eirXBV 
 
his employer. But a combination of workers in any industry fiiay 
 utilize the best intelligence of the group and by combination 
 hold their services for a longer time than otnerwise. 'x'he with- 
 holding of services by a labor union constitutes the right to 
 strike. ^he right to strike or the right to quit work is the 
 one fundamental right that labor possesses, if there were any 
 method of compelling the laborer to work, the vt.lue of labor 
 unions would not amount to much. Of course, if the laborer 
 could be compelled to work he would no longer be a free man but 
 a slave, 
 
 i\ 2. Carlton" in his "History of Organized Labor" classifies 
 tliree different kinds of labor unions 
 
 (The common labor union in which all classes of wage-earners 
 were associated is' the first type, i^o distinctions were made on 
 the basis of craft, and frequently the small employer may be a 
 member. *he organization was idealistic and humanitarian and 
 its objects were general uplift rather t/ian the detection of class 
 doctrine, x'he leaders of this type of union made much of the 
 fact that the interests of labor and capital are identical and 
 that mutual sympathy and aid were the method to promote the welfare 
 of all. nearly all the early unions tht^t began in the United 
 States, beginning in 1825 and extending to and including the 
 Knights of Labor, were of the general labor union type, in this 
 type of union there is a lack of class consciousness and a feel- 
 
'it ^1. 
 lotfiii. lo ei; iJ ,3faow o# leiodaX ©: IXerfcaoo to 6ori;t©ffl 
 
 Jua aiii.i aa-iT tj a > oa Ji>1jjow Sii x-jow oJ- feelieqiaoo ©o blaoo 
 
 aiemae-s-^Bw to aaaaalu Joxrtw ax aoin« lOdV 
 
 8uJ io ijouai ej3«i:u auxxuj lo aq^^/ aioj 'to ht xitooD 
 
 ietxaj »iij ux nj3:9eu Janj anoxriw ^tlias snj IXjb xitBon »Lla tc 
 
 -ieot o bna sBenauoJtOiiiioy bbsIo lo atoBl a 8l eieriJ aoini; to eq^t 
 
2y 
 
 ing of solidarity that characterizes later labor groups. 
 
 i'he second type of trade union is the organization of a 
 group of workers in a given craft, its policy is an extension 
 of the collective barg-aining principle and for the most part 
 adheres to "Alair wage for a fair day's work," Its weapon is 
 the strike and the boycott, xhe American i'ederation of Labor 
 is such an organization, 'xhus far it takes no decided stand in 
 politics but depends upon economic pressxire for the gaining of 
 its ends, '^he weakness of the craft union lies in the fact 
 that an industry canxiot be controlled by the organization of a 
 the crafts in an industry and also the fact that machine indus- 
 try has so specialized the crafts that they no longer exist in 
 a cooprehensive form. Further, crafts-unionism does not take into 
 consideration the unskilled, which now in many industries is 
 the greatest labor force. 
 
 '^'he third type is the industrial union, the most recent 
 type of all. The industrial xmion ignores craft lines and unites 
 all the workers in an industry, "hen a strike is ordered, all 
 the workers in the industry are ordered out regardless of their 
 occupation, i'he "One big union" idea has dominated the control 
 of many of the greatest strikes of recent years, it is ba^ed 
 upon the notion that the solidarity of labor regardless of craft, 
 color, or nationality, ihis form of union has made much headway 
 in -aurope. The Syndicalists of France and the British Labor 
 
a to ^olJB^: 
 
 a"lt; iJOOXiOi> sx. 
 
 ■i;' lofjiTTsSeu .'TSctTsai. •J'cJ'OD^od ©rfJ ins eiLiite > • 
 
 -Ji Oil Bt' • u;iJij;; ' 
 
 to ^iii: (aeeicf ^ ^itjtloq 
 
 toiit nrL 9ffJ J ■ 1-jia-ow erf* .35ne 
 
 ■atrtfli er Joal erfi" oale fcii« Y^tauijn .^f'ta-io erf* 
 
 fi'^o eriT be 
 
 .*• 
 
 A/ai ebon: se .i^tUmttotSRn no .noloti 
 
Party are examples of the newer idea of industrial unionism and 
 a greater solidarity of the workers in an industry, in America 
 this type of labor organization, of which the industrial Workers 
 of the "orld is a form, needless to say is very much to the "bad 
 ■because of its advocacy of the decrease of output, bitter antag- 
 onism of the workers against emnloyers, and the advocacy of the 
 practice of sabotage, 
 
 iiowever, industrial unionism is increasing and the American 
 i'ederetion of iiabor now takes into its organization industrial 
 unions of this form." ihe united iiine Workers is an example. 
 
 Labor organizations today are the most vital, progressive, 
 and hopeful forces in organized society, ihis is true because 
 they come in closer contact with living, throbbing, pulsipg 
 industrial life, xhe problems of progress are the problems in- 
 volved in the transformation of the present economic system of 
 industry, ihe workers in mill, factory, and mine and store are 
 In closex^ relation to this economic stress and strain than the 
 more protected members of society tjiat are exempt from the in- 
 dustrial process, xhe greatest educator in the experience of 
 man is the machine, it is also the most exact disciplinarian, 
 The worker subject to this discipline acquires habits of thought 
 that are at least free from the antiquated theories of past 
 . centuries. The IJew Democracy of today is not the product of 
 the sheltered and protected classes of i^^urope but it comes from 
 

 ii lo ycittti 
 
 to 9f 
 
 9dJ tv 
 
 >iib d; 4OJBOC , 
 
 56 *»niB5i3 BtftlftOW ©rfct 
 
 to 
 
 OBolxeaik ©It* iwB sniaBetoai ax amtaola. ssabai .levaw. 
 
 
 
 tf'.^T t T:n f^tlrfx'.n r^e-rtunofi en^Xcrtoalfe 3lri.h o:!" Josfiffrrs ts^itow off? 
 ta3o vi-iosiiJ ijeJaupiJ,-; ; artJ iijcii esxi Ja^ej 
 
 as.Tlo becToatoiq boo fietetl rtt 
 
the laboring masses. Perhaps the Uew Program of the British 
 Labor Party is the best expression of democratic ideals that 
 has been uttered since the opening of the war. The significance 
 of this is that labor is interested not so much in the old ques- 
 tions of better hours, better pay, minimum wage, indmstrial and 
 accident insurance, and social insurance, prevention of child 
 labor, etc., but in a social re -organization of society in which 
 labor shares in the enterprise to the fullest extent. This gen- 
 eral feeling of social reconstruction could have coiae only from 
 those wiio have borne the brunt of conflict in the war and the 
 burdens of industry during its operation. The employer of today 
 has repeated again and again his anxiety to return again to the 
 industrial situation that preceded the war. On the other nand, 
 organized labor is asking and demanding a greater control of in- 
 dustry and insists, through such enterprises as the bhop iiteward's 
 Movement, upon a greater share in the managemant of industry. 
 Labor is demanding at the present time the right to assume and 
 shoulder greater responsibilities than it ever has done in the 
 past. Today labor's problem is the sum total industrial problem 
 with all its social ramifications touching every phase of social 
 and democratic ideals. 
 
liiiiiis'i ,86 ^nt-fodal 8ri. 
 
 aisitatttiii: , 
 
 ■>t;f»d ^r. 
 
 i"n01^ '-' Tr 
 
 ^ai)OJ- 
 
 nx ifoll'trio 
 
 '"id t>iij ©uii 
 
 -f! 
 
 ■ TO'o t&t.B'^t-'^ ? "^frffc' 
 
 ,^iJc to JCU: 
 
 .-ii.ow-i- liiiiraxfbai IsJ-oJ- curs er^j 8t meltfoi 
 
 ♦ GiiiiSJiX ox JiJ'iOOiilGxi i)ilii 
 
CHAPTim i'OUR— THiS ii^^HLY ATTITUDii Oi' LABOR 
 TOWAHD ilDUC^TIOiJ 
 
 In order that a conprehensive understanding of labor's 
 attitude on the subject of vocational education may be devel- 
 oped, it is very necessary to know what the attitude of labor 
 in the past has been on the subi^oct of education in general. 
 It is the purpose of this part of the paper to show that 
 labor's part in the educational program of iimerica has been 
 very much underrated, 
 
 '•^•'he important role that labor took in the early develop- 
 ment of the free public school system of America has never 
 been given the recognition due it from educators, (There will 
 be scarcely any dissent from the siatement that the most con- 
 spicuous contribution that .america has made to the educational 
 thought of the world is its absolutely free, tax-supported 
 school system for all who perhhance can afford to attend. It 
 cannot be too strongly emphasized that the Fxtcliii part of it is, 
 more than any other factor, here because of the militant atti- 
 tude of the early labor organizations of the early nineteenth 
 Century, 
 
 The years from 1820 to 1860 represent an "iiducational xie^ 
 vival", or at least an intense educational awakening wiilch makes 
 the period one of great interest in ^onerican educational history. 
 
slits: 3r(J .j^ ■:,\r^c^r>fir< /•> or i . 
 
 .i:ii9iio% ijx floiJ-auiJij© lo Ji, ^aa sxij no iiot»J eari iaan ©ti-J ai 
 
 iiued :■.'•.' ct-^-^oT-.i f t.td f + Rfjrhfi f*f 
 
 -i'OO ;ffc til vTeoijaoB »d 
 
 X i*f! ■ .' 7 a?) : h« 
 
 -6- vtqsi oJ- 0S6I ffloi^ ciiiso'vj eriT 
 
It is true that preceding this time there were numerous schools 
 in the colonies and newly added states, ihe i>istrict schools, 
 the Latin Grammar iichools, the Academies, and the strictly pri- 
 vate denominational schools, most of which received municipal and 
 state aid, served thousands of pupils, but they were not free as 
 we now know free schools today, 'tuition was required, or some 
 privilege in the way of speciel recognition, or a scholarship 
 requireinent. i'he "iiducational itevival" nerein mentioned can be 
 accounted for by the following economic cnanges in the mode of 
 living of the people, 
 
 (1) Tiie introduction of the factory L;ystem of industry 
 (£) 2he growth of cities made possible by this fact 
 (3) The labor organizations made possible by the con- 
 centration of wage-earners. 
 
 In the early part of the nineteenth Century the demand for 
 an extension of suffrage became popular. The newly admitted 
 states granted sxiffrage to males without the property qualifica- 
 tions and this forced the older states to make concessions, Kew 
 York did this in 1830, I'he extension of the rif-nt of suffrage 
 was very closely related to the educational demands of the period. 
 In fact, the accomplishment of free education would nave been 
 impossible without it. ihe granting of siiffra^^e to the laboring 
 classes meant political power. This power enabled thei^ to mek e 
 
 demands with the possibility of securing some recognition. The 
 extension of suffrage opened up all the powers of the political 
 arena, 7/ith this gain labor became an important power in American 
 

 919* 
 
 9d 
 
 ■id'iTftj 
 
 daoxJ«ii 
 
 i.ne:i»«»*l ■ ^.f^SI 
 
 ;vji»v'yw J5 
 
 .slqoeq srtJ to -^alvil 
 
 1. .... ... ui/ijCT 
 
 tot b: \5l1st fuit al 
 
 ,Jboi:t«q 
 
 ■xev stjw 
 
 Cif*?"^ 
 
 a asra o-t ' daae tewoq ef 
 
 tftB6£n IBP 
 
 I>; 
 
 i9T»oq 
 
 i^eae 
 
 iiifci to ftoiexieJ^x^ 
 
political life. iiO important was the political factor in the 
 ranks of labor tnat R. T. jily says, "The birth of Workingmen's 
 Organizations for political purposes was just as prevalent as 
 the organization of trade unions",* 
 
 P, X, Carlton gives a summing up of the arguments that were 
 made for and against the question of free tax-supported schools,** 
 In the light of what we have accomplished along that line, they 
 seem antiquated indeed, ■^hose in favor of the free school sys- 
 tem are as follows: 
 
 (1) iiducation is necessary for the preservation of 
 
 free institutions, 
 
 (2) It prevents class distinctions. 
 
 (3) Education tends to diminish crime, 
 
 (4) iiducation reduces the amoimt of poverty, 
 
 (5) It increases production. 
 
 (6) iiducation is the natural rignt of all. 
 
 It will be noted tnat all of the arguments are economic in 
 their nature except the first, which might be called humanitarian, 
 and the last, wiiich is a natural right hold-over from the eighteenth 
 century. The arguments against a free, tax-supported public school 
 system were : 
 
 (1) An undue, intolerable increase in taxation. 
 
 (2) Violation of the rignts of the individual. 
 
 (3) Opposition from religious sources, 
 
 (4) It would not benefit the masses, 
 
 (5) It would injure the private schools. 
 
 ** 
 
 *"History of the Labor Llovement in -^merica", p. 34, 
 
 "iiconomic influences on iiduc at ion" (doctor's thesis). 
 University of «»isconsin publications, p. 45. 
 
ci 'ii'^ ,i'4nxii-v , . .K ^aricT lodMl la R-Aant 
 
 -^{,: ja 6 8 il aiij aaod* ,Jbe«f)fli baiaixxy'tin^: oieae 
 
 :awoIi-. .->.. 
 
 lo aoxJaviesQi aa ai noiJ'ijoijJbA ili 
 
 .s 7et0 *I (a) 
 
 iXffliB 03- :;) 
 
 •xonx JI (d) 
 .Ilij It. tan 8X1? si aoi^-aowfiii 
 
 ,n,GxiijJxiixi».uxrt Js©lj.i»o d^^ ..u A-uXaw ,JGai-. saj jqaoxa oiujau ixoacr 
 
 tnsecf lii' iaoi*t levo-bl Ui Xjaiifi'JBfi b Bt nolaw ,;raal erf* 6ixo 
 
 .rtoi^BX«;f ni: eetiatoaf eldaiftlocfal ,exjl>nu nA 
 .XaiJi)ivlJ3£il 8Xi;r !to ^o noiJ 
 
 . 4on r , >) 
 
 , ( s "n 3 i * f: ' t c . "ao t •; 
 
 .anoiJ-so liianooet iJxB^evxnu 
 
The following quotations selected from this study indicate 
 the position of labor on this new educational program, 
 
 "Indeed to conceive of a popular governiiient devoid of a sys- 
 tem of popular education is as difficult to conceive as a civil- 
 ized society destitute of a system of industry." 
 
 "It is to education, therefore, that we must mainly look for 
 
 redress of that perverted system of society which dooms the pro- 
 ducer to ignorance, to toil, to penury, to moral degradation, 
 physical want, and social barbarism" 
 
 At a meeting of a workingman's party held in «ew York City 
 in November, 1829, the following resolution, which has become his- 
 toric was adopted: 
 
 "Resolved, that the most grievous species of inequality 
 is that produced by inequality in education, and that a nat- 
 ural system of education and guardianship which shall furnish 
 to all the children of the land equality of instruction at 
 public expense is the only effective remedy, for this and for 
 almost every other species of injustice, Resolved, that all 
 other modes of reform are, comt)ared to this particular one, 
 inefficient or trifling,"*** 
 
 The following two resolutions are especially significant for 
 students of vocational education. The first is a resolution of 
 the Pointers' Society of the t;ity and County of I^ew York: 
 
 "V/e are of the opinion that the state should furnish 
 throughout the land, at public expense, state institutions 
 
 ^^'"Farmer's and Me c ban i c ' s J ou r na 1 " New York, April 7, ibiil 
 *«*!!S,i'^PSon, in "iJlanual for Workingmen", p. 214, 
 ***"The Fre inquirer", iJov. 7, 18l9, » ^' ^-^ • 
 
■-■■V '. ^ 1 .•■ 
 
 'Jl.ii'0 
 
 nBtni.i5^ ftltiv 
 
 arn 
 
 '■' '^ It ,. 
 
 J 'lev 
 
 , edraev 
 
 yiiot 
 
 .tft 
 
 TTT 
 
 r ir- 
 
 y 1 1) 
 
where every yoxuig citizen should be maintained from youth 
 till manhood and where each should obtain (besides the 
 various branches of a liberal education) a complete knowl- 
 edge of at least one trade or occupation by which even 
 while completing his education he may earn a laving."* 
 
 A committee on education at a woritingmen's convention held 
 in -ooston, Uctooer 22, 1825, recomi^ended a general system of edu- 
 cation by means of Manual Labor schools "free to all at the ex- 
 pense of the state." 
 
 in 1830 a Mechanics, jj'armers and Workingmen's party of ueyr 
 York which nominated i:;rastus Koot for governor made the follow- 
 ing resolution: 
 
 "iiesolved, that a system of education more universal 
 in its effects be established, so that no child in the 
 ivepublic, nowever, poor, should grow up without an oppor- 
 tunity to acquire at least a competent ^inglish education, 
 and that the system be adapted to the condition of the 
 poor in the city and in the coimtry,"** 
 
 ■^he ioregoing quotations are sufficient to make the fact 
 almost obvious that the labor organizations of this period were 
 thoroughly inbued with the notion of benefits of a free public 
 school system, -^he greatest single factor in the accomplish- 
 ment of these ends was the newly acquired political issues 
 of the day and labor's demand caught the over-sensitive earn of 
 the office-seeker. Labor also saw very plainly that if it were 
 
 *From the "i'ree ^nguirer", Jan. 9, 1850 
 **J!'rom "The *- raftsman", uept. 4, 1820. 
 
rfjr.'i : ciez:tf'zt) "^nvov. yiavo aiefiw 
 
 ■J 
 
 aT89 
 
 la oi^ eei^" aloo ,d nox^tao 
 
 ".ej'.--', re eril 'to seneq 
 
 uiolituloee'i 5nt 
 
 ,iooq , '/fi ,oI " ■ 
 
 ; "=>I is. L ,. Jfi OJ" .. -J 
 
 .'<,iJiUJOu siii.f ni bsLB \iio erf 
 ttra SIB Baol^BtOirp ^^nto^ei 
 
 oil . Llsno. jiJOrt siiJ lUiw jjeudnt ^iiii^jjoiori^ 
 
 ft fti rtijnte tQe^^B^*?-^ erf* .aie;}"sv8 loorios 
 
 9ifJ J BnsMSl) a'notfaX iJna xat odi lo 
 
 ,.# 
 
 
 *♦ 
 
S-i 
 
 to compete on equal terms with the employing class it must pos- 
 sess an educated membership, j'or. economic reasons it aaw this 
 Just a little more urgently and militantly than any other groups 
 of the time of which we speak, -curing these years of militant 
 agitation (1823-1837) the most urgent demand of the platform of 
 workingmen's organizations everywhere was its educational section. 
 In contrast to this alignment of forces was the conservative 
 group, which comprised chiefly the property interests of the 
 nation. k>ome of the statements of these safe, sane and conser- 
 vative people are amusing, interesting and educative, J or exaiiiple, 
 the following from pages 59-60, ihid, "The present (iiew York 
 School Law of 1849) odious school law is worse than highway 
 robbery." Clark Aice, a wealthy citizen of Watertown, Mew York, 
 defines a free school law as follows: "What is a free school 
 law? ^llow me to answer. It is in one particular a poor law. 
 The latter is for filling the belly and covering the h&olf. at 
 the expense of the taxpayer, the former for conferring an ac- 
 complishment — a useful one, to be sure — the driving of lOiowl- 
 edge into the head." '-^here can be no doubt as to the source from 
 which this man drew his inspiration, ^ 
 
 i'ree schools were called charity schools. Upon them the 
 taxppying interests sought to bring every epithet of contempt* 
 It was claimed that the state had no right to compel the rich 
 
ao eteqanoti oi 
 
 :£7/ SeOT T.trfno 
 
 r> X . . . ■ f p rrm 
 
 i-xul TV8,*i uU6' , JjxJx ,uo-c<i ae^iiq aiC-^1 jjiixv/oilcl drf;f 
 
 eeTc il 1:n w«J. loorioti 
 
 loorioB eenl : ewollol ai loorioe eei'!: b aentlefc 
 
 .jt-aI toot g -fjilirr. ft-rn-f er: .tb-,vp.o.i oe^ OTt ■well.. ?W3I 
 
 ffloi^ eoiiji. oJb oa ed .jbijen en J otnl e^Jbs 
 
 -Tiaeitf air* wbiB naa! elTil rfoidw 
 9ii3 a^iii no . luoaoe osa'4 
 
to pay for the education of the poor. It was repeated often 
 that the shildren of the poor would become yet wore lazy and 
 worthless if education were to be given free of all charge. 
 Threats were made that if any attempt wero made to tax the com- 
 munity "resistance would be made at the point of the bayonet." 
 In a case of this nature, individuals are not to be blamed for 
 their beliefs, neither are they to be very much praised. It 
 is all just one more evidence that economic considerations must 
 be taken into account in the determination of events. Such an 
 attitude upon the question of a free public school system was 
 to be expected from the rich, reputable, and weltto-do. But 
 if there had not been the strong sentimeiit (due to economic rea- 
 sons, too) of labor for a free public school system during this 
 epoch-making educational period, undoubtedly free public schools 
 would not have been realized. 
 
baa T?;sa t oior/ Tov bcctoc- ^ ^w fcca Pin 
 
 1 atf c 
 
 lO'X 
 
 19 Ol 
 
 
 
 • -«.' V" :■; J- X o 
 
CHAPTiiH FIVE~:rHil AETITUlJii OF TfLi AI/IEHICAU 
 FiiDKiiATIOI^ OF LuliiOB. 
 
 'x'he Amerioan Federation of Labor is the largest, most 
 extensive and powerful organization in America. It is what 
 one has in mind when organized labor is spoken of in general 
 terms. It is the representative of the second type of labor 
 organization spoken of in this paper. It is a craft organ- 
 ization based upon the union of skilled trades. A'he very 
 influential part tfiat labor took in the industrial situation 
 during the progress of the war was adjusted and controlled 
 through the representatives of the American Federation of 
 Labor. Hence it follows that the attitude of this body of 
 the labor movement is the one that carries the most weight 
 and prestige where attitudes count. In fact, wnen an attitude 
 of labor is spoken of it is tacitly understood that it is the 
 American Federation of Labor. 
 
 In the early part of this century, when vocational educa- 
 tion began to assume an industrial aspect for the first time, 
 the American Federation of Labor appointed its first commit- 
 tee on education. This was at its twenty-third annual conven- 
 tion in 1903. The work of this coi.Jtnittee considered only the 
 
team ^f^e^ral teraA eif^ 
 
 Is"t©nd8 a uosloo^io asitw balm ai aail eno 
 
 10>'fA tfiTiCift ftp i ir f .t ft.t f^t*?' ""' . ,. V, ^unfTCkf 
 
 -'--_ 1 axao ,xJ"asin«?jio 
 
 ^i^ev er^"* .'ieb'^icf bdXIJrsiB ^o noifn; erit no\7tr baasrf aoltusi 
 
 b&ilotiaoo bn& botsijlbs 8«ir t[«w ecif Yo asei^oiq eAi •^aiisJb 
 
 ■±o ^od to ©EifJxJj-^ 9di Jam awoli' .-xodaJ. 
 
 Jr1-:^i6w JaoiD arid" asiitao tarisT eno sdt si ^nsmovom iod«I ext:J" 
 
 >od'at»&mf ■^IJiosJ' t to ae^Ioqe ei totfBl Iro 
 
 , ' n"^a Pit -^ 
 
 o« XriiioiJaoov at , m&neo eiho lo « ilxae art^ jjlI 
 
 -H8V. i3 SAW atrtl" .aol^soube no s©;^ 
 
form of manual training and industrial training that was under 
 the direct control of the union labor. The committee reported 
 that "The subject of maniial training and technical education 
 to be given by trade unions is of such a general character that 
 this convention could not very well give any plan or policy that 
 would apply to all unions, on account of the diversity of condi- 
 tions and difference in skill required." In 1904, and again in 
 1905, committees were appointed but no report was ever nmde by 
 either committee. In 1906 there was a revival of interest and 
 the convention recommended that the comiaittees already appointed 
 make investigations into the subject of apprenticeship, trade, 
 manual training, and technical schools. In 1907, at the Jjorfolk 
 convention, the secretary of the national society for the Jrromo- 
 tion of Industrial i:iducation addressed the convention, and the 
 following resolution was the result: ^ 
 
 " Whereas , an organization has been formed, known as the 
 national society for the Promotion of Industrial jiducetion, 
 having or its object the raising of the standards of educa- 
 tion along industrial lines, and 
 
 " Y/here?i s , some misapprehension exists as to the atti- 
 tude of organized labor upon this subject, be it therefore 
 
 " Resolved , that this, the twenty-seventh annual conven- 
 tion of the iimerican Federation of Labor, having in mind the 
 Experience of many of our national unions with the so-called 
 trade school, which attempted to teach a short-cut to trades 
 and v/hich upon some occasions was used as a weapon against 
 the trade-union movement, do not favor any movement having 
 

 t - • 
 
 \ia t ere asw Jioge- 
 
 w ^ie J>iwoo noiJ^aevnoo elrft 
 
 -OfllOt, 
 
 . Xooiloe iBoinfloei baa .^ninirfiJ- Imm.iii 
 
 
 .v^-f, I 
 
 ibat 
 
 
 ; > 
 
 3«-i 
 
 am aolmx-«r 
 
this ulterior object in view, and be it fiirther resolved, 
 
 "That we do indorse any policy, or any society or as- 
 sociation, having for its object the raising of the stan- 
 dard of industrial education and the teaching of the higher 
 technique of our various industries," 
 
 'x'he committee appointed in 1907 made its report at the 1908 
 convention. The following is a summary of its report, "Indus- 
 trial education is necessary and inevitable for the progress of 
 an industrial people, and there are two groups, with opposite meth- 
 ods, seeKing antagonistic ends, now advocating industrial education 
 in the United otates. One of these groups is largely composed of 
 anti-union employers of the country, who advocate industrial edu- 
 cation as a Special privilege under conditions that educate the 
 student to anti-union sympathies and prepare him as a skilled 
 worker for "scab" labor and strike-breaking jurposes, thus using 
 the children of the workers against the interests of the organ- 
 ized fathers and brothers in the various crafts. Organized labor 
 has the largest personal and the highest px^blic interest in the 
 subject of industrial education, and should enlist the ablest 
 and best men in beJialf of the best system, under conditions that 
 will promote the interests of the workers and the general welfare." 
 Then followed a resolution recommending a committee of fifteen to 
 report at the next meeting, 
 
 in 1909, the "Committee of Fifteen" made its report. It was 
 a comparehensive study and viewed the industrial education situation 
 
.Jbevloe©-; 
 
 -©3 tr 
 
 ie; 
 
 liefLii aids 
 
 o'jvx en-: 
 aoltjioishe ialiSi. 
 
 ^ ! '. f) fip. ."1/^ <'iri •" \* r«''a ' 
 
 
 9.KJ ft^HO/fl>© i oi:xoo \onrfff ©t^eIlvJ-io[ Xslos^nre rtol-tao 
 
 ei .^aoa93'nl orlduq Jeert^xa sxiJ' JbOB Xanoaieq Jse- it B&d 
 
 ".9i3iIeY Iflien '1% exiJ bxi iff J lo aJseieJnl siiJ sJ-omoiq IIlw 
 
 oj n&stiL osli-t: '. 3nibneiiuaooe*i ciottnl set ■> fcewclfo^ nerfT 
 
 . ■ tt ei>sra "no6v.r eeJ-J-LamoO" edi ,6061 ni: 
 
from a three-fold point of view: 
 
 (1) A thorough investigation of the need of industrial 
 
 education 
 
 (2) A statement of the extent to which needs are met by 
 
 existing institutions, 
 
 (3) AS a result of such investigation, some definite 
 
 suggestions for the promotion of indiistrial educa- 
 tion in such manner as might serve the interests 
 of the whole people. 
 
 President Gompers clearly stated the position of the i'eder- 
 ation. He replied to the accusation of the national Association 
 of manufacturers, that the American ^federation of Lahor was in 
 favor of true public industrial education. He also spoke in op- 
 position to narrow specialization in the trades, 
 
 The following are- some of the recommendations of the commit- 
 tee : 
 
 "V«e favor the establishment of schools in connection 
 with the public school system, in which pupils between the 
 ages of fourteen and sixteen may be taught the principles 
 of the trades, not necessarily in separate buildings, but 
 in separate schools adapted to this particular kind of edu- 
 cation, and by competent and trained teachers, 
 
 "The course of instruction in such a school should be 
 jinglish, mathematics, pnysics, chemistry, elementary meohfc.n- 
 ics, and drawing, xhe shop instruction for each trade rep- 
 resented shoulc; be drawing, mathematics, mechanics, physical 
 end biological science applicable to the trade, the history 
 of that trade, and a soimd system of economics, including 
 and emphasizing the philosophy of collective bargaining. 
 
 "In order to iieep such scnools in close touch with the 
 trades, there snould be local advisory boards, including rep- 
 resentatives of the industries, employers, and organized 
 labor," 
 
 ^'he committee continued till 1910, at which time the united 
 
 iitated I'epartment of »-0Ui.erce and x.abor was requested to investi- 
 
:wei:v to : n 5Xo^-e©irU a moi^ 
 
 \(i tarn •-'Ts •:bo9i7 rfot. w ot trLr-ty:' ■_ , 
 
 JjjJx;! 
 
 ii Sa (S) 
 
 '1= to aoiJ'taoq oxli' 'nebtaaiH 
 
 AJ ^0 artoiJjsjbnefflflioodi )ta ^rctwoXXol 
 
 9iii ui-,. , dtiv 
 
 aeXqioniic^ srfd' r etf v ^ nee lo eem; 
 
 , ■■ ■ • ■ . ^0 
 
 •eJ beaiBiJ Aax' JflQJsqnioo xd ban .not^jj 
 Grf J&fiTcrl3 It , 'I'jt.'P nf rroiJ'ox'-r^tgni lo osirK 
 
 15 ,e^&^oi(' , tu aevi- 9i 
 
 r 
 
 
gate the subject here and abroad. It was reconunending to co- 
 operate with the Department of uonimerce and Labor in seeking as 
 mucn infori.itit ion ae was possible on the sobject. 
 
 At the 1911 convention, there was no report of the educa- 
 tional comn-jittee. However, another special committee was ap- 
 pointed to review the subject. It made the follov/ing recommendation 
 before adjournment: 
 
 "Your committee recommends the continued advocacy 
 of Labor's bill for vocational education, known as the 
 Dolliver J3ill, which as you will recall jirovides for 
 educational cooperation between the iitaxe and Federal 
 Governments and for State and jcederul control and super- 
 vision of public industrial education." 
 
 'xhe 1912 report of the i'ederation was, perhaps, the high- 
 tide effort of the ■«».merican i'ederation of Labor, xhis report, 
 compiled and edited by >-harles H. Wlnslow, contains 114 pages, 
 and is the joint product of a committee of fifteen of the 
 American -federation of L-jibor and the united states -i^epartment 
 of Labor. The pamphlet spates the problem, classifies the def- 
 initions, gives a point of view, makes recomnendations, and 
 submits conolusiona. It recorints and speaks enthusiastically of the 
 "progressive" attitude of labor toward education in general and 
 vocational education in particular. It presHnts a resume of 
 trade union schools, public trade schools, co-operative schools, 
 apprenticeship schools, independent industrial schools, phil- 
 anthropic schools, industrial education for girls, industrial 
 education for negroes, vocationtil guidance, etc. 
 
"fioubi. tioffet o.r? SiW eiorfj ,no ; 1161 ©ff,t d"A 
 
 -qs ci^w xsnjo , .9r:jJiui..ioo IsaoiJ 
 
 not rsbnsBunooei ^r(;r ei .^toetofWB arf;f wsjcvei Oif ^eitnloq 
 
 ■ ft 
 lol BebJtvoin 11 Cliw v , - ; 
 
 " ,r.: i li^otffi© lettfii'.tbni. oildiiq !to noiaiv 
 
 -rtg f ■ t>"ii' ,r.i-.' , .n r Tr^TshflS ?=rf.' -ir,r'^>T SfSI arfV 
 
 ^as-^acf MI oriiaTrtoo .wolent;? .K aeLtad^ y,(^ 6e*i5e ftna beliqmoo 
 
 arij xo noGJ" - eojiiuimou ■laiJDoi.i j^axut, u.' ;jax; 
 
 *nem*i3qfeu. aeJ-a^'u betiflu erit f>aa lotfaj; lo noiJ'a'ieJbe * xxaolTemA 
 
 .-rocfsJ. 1-0 
 
 &di ^o ^zf.^ ?£8url.tno R>l.«if»qe fsrtfi a^trtifoosi &1 .arro t»«f onoo s^thmcftrs 
 
 io ©flUJsei a aJciassiq J^X .iBliroi:ifi.aq ni aoiiaosJbe XsuoiJsoov 
 
 ,3Xooflo8 avi^stecro-oo ,3lo<'"or'. e jilcfwrr .sfoorfoe notni; efcoi.t 
 
 -Itrtq , do3 i.'ii.iJiii:LLii jasinii'qabal , .i.uiu;. i Jiieiqqfl 
 
 iBix^taubai ,aXii^ lol QotJisoub© L£tiiBUba.t .aloodoa olqtirfJna 
 
44 
 
 Its chief recommendations are included under four captions, 
 as follows: 
 
 (1) A recommendation for supplementary technical educa- 
 tion not differing much in character from the con- 
 tinuation school of today, 
 
 (£) Industrial pahlic schools for pupils between the ages 
 of fourteen and sixteen years in wHich the princi- 
 ples of trades are taught, 
 
 (3) 'Jrade union schools, for example, of the type of the 
 
 international -tyjiographical union, or the cjchool 
 for Carpenters and Bricklayers at "-hicago, Illinois, 
 
 (4) "V/e finally recommend schools under public adminis- 
 
 tration, with a broad endliberal course of instruc- 
 tion, which shall demonstrate practical efficiency 
 in the training of workers in the highly skilled 
 trades." These' schools shall be xinder the control 
 of representatives of both employers and labor. 
 
 If one is desirous of a coii^rehensive survey of the vocation- 
 al education problem from labor's point of view, this report fur- 
 nishes it, 
 
 in 1913 the standing committee simply recommended that the 
 iixecutive Council continue its activity in seeking the best inter- 
 ests of organized labor in the field of vocational education. 
 
 At the 1914 GOiivention a brief report and recouii^endations were 
 made indorsing the Lever Bill. It recommends that further action 
 be left in the hands of the jixecutive Council, 
 
 At the 1915 convention the educational committee recommended 
 the following, which was adopted: 
 
 "jiqual attention shoiad be given to general education and 
 vocational studies of school children, 
 
 "That industrial education shall include the teaching of the 
 sciences underlying the industries and the industrial pursuits 
 

 
 JiOiJijO 
 
 iiiOiii. 
 
 
 
 -ilOO 
 
 otivt i 
 
 noi't 
 
 1C 
 
 
 
 a 9^ 
 
 3 9hJ- 
 
 
 
 5 J 
 
 Cii 
 
 -to-. 
 
 f^ri Oi 
 
 ;. 
 
 
 ',V 
 
 nx 
 
 08 Olic'wq I ' .Jbili IS) 
 
 .^ ... ^ bn.i; neeftij-^ 
 ^i eii'. selijyi;t Ito esl r 
 lol ,eJ ., ei)Bi^ IS) 
 
 __- .. .(i:i30q[^i-t _ ^JfTi 
 
 -OxriJaj.. _. 931U00 : _. ±. :;w ,nc - 
 
 ^Ofleiuxlls IsotSoBTq ©Jsi^aaomeb I iotdw ,aoiJ 
 
 r)9lli> ' ■ erlJ ax 
 
 loiJiioo ^.. . .. jj ed 11^. — . ^ : 
 
 .■xoJuI inj ene^olqine ritocT lo eeTii^BtaseauqeT. ^o 
 
 -rror.ti500v erit ^6 v^QViua evf !2rvftri sTry: no i* '^n !:rrott8e£) R^ errn H 
 
 -iwi oioqoi Binj ,wexv Ic liiloq a'-iuoisi rao-s.1 meltfonq aoUeouf)© la 
 
 ,Ji serfain 
 
 -"xe^rni. cfeed aaa gniidee ni TcJ"iviioa ad^i ewiixj . ovwou svi. 
 
 wxew snoii'jtjiine-i^.ooei baa iraoqei tetid a auiju9Viiot) >it;i oni ;^m. 
 aoiio» 'istitiu't ie. looei ;tl ,LLtE toveJ ert;^ ^aia-tobni efiam 
 
 ,f:-:iia;oJ evrtiroexSi erf.t 1:c abrtcri orf.t at :f^9L etf 
 
 ti)8iJ-qo6« aaw riolrlw .gatwollot srfd" 
 
 ■■- rat.^ ■ ; r. ti/f F. r>.r.rfc i.j.Tt to f^ TnJfr'.V" 
 
 .aeiiiXino iooaoa lo aoiijaJa imioii^jBoov 
 
•±u 
 
 being taught, their history, economics, and social bearings. 
 
 "All studies must come under a united control, 
 
 "Whilst urgent for industrial education, there is evident •" 
 the apprehension that industrial education may give way to an 
 attempt on the part of the large commerical interests whereby 
 the opportunity of the worker's children for a general education 
 will be limited and which will tend to make the workers more 
 submissive and dependent, io prevent this possible menace it 
 is essential tnat some standard is agreed to determine whether 
 the education fostered tends to the full development of Ameri- 
 can freedom and American Llanhood and womanhood." 
 
 At the 1915 convention, the educational committee, after 
 reaffirming its favorable sentiment toward vocational education, 
 sounds this warning: 
 
 "If we permit politicians to direct the energies of voca- 
 tional educe tion ther-; is danger that it may become a mere 
 political adjunct of the party in power." 
 
 ihe -educational t-ommittee of the 1917 convention recommend- 
 ed the following: 
 
 Increases in trade training, the close union of general '^ 
 and vocational education, vocational and pre-vocational educa- 
 tion, when given shall be for the purposes of education only, 
 and xuider no circumstances shall it be commended through the 
 management of products for sale, in all courses of study, cit- 
 izenship shall be taught more vigorously and effectively than 
 
• if .yijnij eraoo inuij, b^xLu^Q Ilk" 
 
 ^daaeiiw ai^ei&Jiii lisuiit iiaq exiJ" no ^rqmeJd'a 
 
 hj. (jI aaibX ' isTiiow erf t timr^iorrgo »rf;)- 
 
 e- ..'.tiaiii ju iliw 
 
 J^l 9US£[uu'. eXdtseuq aXaj ^neveiq o- .4'aeiiadr|Si} laws Qvtsatsadua 
 
 ".booxinjsfflott onjB booduBiu flJsotieaiA boA mobeeil aao 
 
 f^.iimow atdJ^ abasjos 
 -aoov 10 asisiens tJiu JooaxJa OJ aaaioxJiioq J'laneq ew ll" 
 
 eieui ^^ amooad -sja^;' St Sairi ts-gaab at • tarf^f ttoitf^oisbe LaaotS 
 
 -faasijuaoost notxasvnou Viex ©rfJ" ^0 eeJJtj jno£j«oiJi)*» eri-. 
 
 Xtfteat-:^ 'to noxiiiJ aaoXu oaj ,^ai.. ictj ooiiij nr asa-j'^xunl 
 -aowbe XjeaoiJaoov-siq Joaa Xbxio1J"boo7 .noli'eoube lAitoUflOO'/ baa 
 • ,. nA ?f. .f^«^p.n.Trn . ■^^d.^ to''- fid" f ri^.•f?^ rrsTlTi nsrfw ,rrolt 
 oiij ii.,.i'>i 'J i>&ijj\ai.ttiioo act -IJt iXiina aooi\ksjaiiijjoixo cii loiiiu; jdiuq 
 -;J^to .^.buJ-s to SBBiiioo IS» tti .eLss 10^ aiosibotq lo tnom. 
 
Is done in the traditional civics classes. 
 
 At the convention of 1918 at v>t. Paul, the rlxecutive Council 
 made a recomiaendation which was referred to the CoEomittee on ^d.u- 
 cation. This is among the latest utterances of the American i'ed- 
 eration of Lahor and represents most adequately its present atti- 
 tude on the subject of Vocational liducation. 
 
 The following are a few extracts that seem especially per- 
 tinent in portraying labor's feeling in this matter. 
 
 ""We recommend that this convention approve the three 
 model laws offered b^ the iiiXecutive Council, providing 
 well-balanced representative otate Boards of iiducation 
 and Advisory Local Gomrait tees, and a Part Time Compulsory 
 ■^School Attendance Law, and we further recommend that all 
 state and local bodies be urged to make every effort to 
 secure the enactment of similar legislation, 
 
 "The provision of increased facilities in public 
 and normal schools for men and women in the trades who 
 desire to prepare themselves for teaching industrial and 
 vocational subjects, 
 
 "The insistence that in all courses of study, and in 
 industrial and vocational courses in particular, the priv- 
 ileges and obligations of intelligent citizenship must be 
 taught vigorously and effectively; that, at le-'iSt in all 
 industrial and vocational courses, an unemasculated indus- 
 trial history must be taught, which shall include an accur- 
 ate account of the organization of the workers and of the 
 results thereof, and shall also include a summary of all 
 legislation, both state and federal, affecting the indus- 
 tries taught," 
 
 In addition to the urgent demand for a Part Time Compulsory 
 School Attendance Law, the same federation made r commendations 
 on nearly every form of progressive school legislation now being 
 considered. It made recommendations that Americanization classes 
 
uilo soivtn lfinot:ttbBtS &il& ni 000 h -t 
 -^ ■ .11 ,x... . . oUaaynoo ca: 
 
 -uo- :?j.trt(BaoO etit oi ibe-rielert eaw rioiriw not*.' - ,- - 
 
 .aolv^Bc iiifiolJ"aooV lo tor sinrJ 
 
 .loJ^jjca 3inJ nx :^iiii.«*el a'loujsl iguiiioiJ'xoq ax taant* 
 
 ddtdi^ »xlJ evo a jliciernoo eld^t S sdS ba&amooei eW" 
 
 SitlJoxvoiq ,Ixoai/oj evivTuoex^ 9i-l;f .;ci beisilo awBl leJboiu 
 Gu' ■" •"■ "^ - ..^.-, --. -"-'j-c, eviir*- ■ -iqei '"- --^- ' '- rie?r 
 
 ILa ii. vJ8i leuJ-ujl ew bats ,wj8a eoneDnev/J-A i 
 
 o;t Si'^ . .. -.J .- 'V-9 65tj3ia oJ l)D:si'itr ecf seiJbod IbooI fans 
 •xiolJiJl^Jr^eJ Teiiinta to Jtreratof^'ie ©tiT *• 
 
 oriw eebtj-Xif erii" ax netno.v Jbt. lol alooaop. Isruion i>ne 
 
 i)ar> IfiiiJai/bfli T^aido&nj lo^ aevleaae.-fj ©•. . ot eitseb 
 
 ,a.to: '''■'- • r ^ ■••ov 
 
 ill D^ii ,\. "■ 00 11X5 Xli JBJlJ 
 
 -vii J arid" , aoaiuoy laaoi^x, . ; ai/fant 
 
 ed i&ism qlniiaesiS to ^a^-^t'iLletnl to axioi Jaslldo Jbna eo^gll 
 
 IXb ni T- ^ .-- ,SsAS ;xl'^ ' "^ "^oIIb Jbna -vilst;' ~^^ =•" t- -ai' 
 
 ^ noixiw , TJ 
 
 J" to no 1 _ J J a 
 
 ILs 'to VI ij eopl-jal oaia llaAa baa ,loe*iertJ BtLnsa&i 
 
 -Qvbiii ent ^j. . jl ^ osll: ?. .Icieijsl: bne a^i^xe ri;focf .notJals i^^el 
 
 XioalijqtiioO 9ini^ ... r... :t.. ; ^,. aorttbba nl 
 
 afloitabiisminoo 1 eJjsia noiits'iebei emtta ericr ,w«a eonaineJ^A ioorfoii 
 
 antecf wo.^ no ttnls x^pI XociffaE f^vxaasfsioi;!- to iiriot viavs rXt-pon no 
 
 abciLiA:.Xo uoiJ'i^^^xrij^ioi .&hxja. Jinii aaoxJ'ai)ne.^iiiioue'X ei>«fca <^i .bbietiixanoo 
 
47 
 
 be established, that more adequate facilities for playgroxinds, 
 for dental inspection, for jxinior.high schools, for increase in 
 teachers' salaries, for subnormal classes, for the extension of 
 a free textbook system, for the security of teachers' tenure of 
 position, for a wider use of the school plant and for "ihe estab- 
 lishment of a federal Uepertment of iiducation, headed by a cabi- 
 net officer," 
 
 To cite further cases would be a needless and useless waste 
 of space in establishing what is so obvious that even "he who 
 runs may read," In the ranks of the American Federation of Labor 
 there never lias been opposition to any movement of an educational 
 nature, be it cultural, practical, or otherwise. On the other 
 hand, as has been shown in this paper, labor from its first organ- 
 ization has been the ardent advocate of free fublic education for 
 all, This assertion is verified by every report it hais ever made 
 on the subject from the yoars 1819 to 1919, 
 
 It is very true that the American Federation of Labor has 
 often taken a critical attitude on the subject and made strenuous 
 insistence that industrial and vocational education be not con- 
 trolled by selfish interests, ihe American Jjsderation of Labor 
 is an institution that represents a group with special interests 
 the same as other groups with special interests, and seeks to 
 control any pertinent movement that concerns it. For this reason 
 it seeks to control the movement for vocational education, .-ince 
 
.abauo-t^^JBiq lol aelJ-iliOijl etjawpeJba eic. , heriailda^tse erf 
 
 Hi •aao'toai loi ,3loorit»a d-^tn lotnul lo't .nottoftnant Isin^b roJ. 
 
 " "■'■ ^ ^ " •' ae -t. 
 onw 9d" ns- 09 ei Jflrtw ^'ttxasiXdijJBe ui ©ojsqe io 
 
 tod. .ots'iT fi^'oi-sriuV 9ri;t lo 8^X181 .li ",f>a3T , ittui 
 
 73ri*o «fit Aj .oelwieri^"© no ,£»oti&»tj ,.t^*rwJlifo J^ i: sd ^eauJan 
 
 -U.J.-;-!, Jt.iii aj 1 .;i<j-i: .'lyqii^ 30 ^bnijii 
 
 tot. no- iildii ; oeil to b^^boovqb JfieDia eriJ need, 8«jn nolifasl 
 
 oi)a.a t9V9 li Jioqsi ^levn v:J feoili-iev 8i act&ie^p.ft 8' .lis 
 
 »exei -'->X 3i3.j^j s.-^j- liiox; jyai,a>Jii a^J no 
 
 n atf noiJBOirbe i fiii iBtttBt relani 
 
 o* aiiee*?? tmM ,Bis» . Aitn aquoi:^ ledio e« emoa erid" 
 
 3^._,^ ... ^u.. ; ' iM^- -n.^ roi^noo 
 
 ©aiij . •flolJ'sociY "101 Jaomavoai oa^ loiJa .o oj tiie&B li 
 
48 
 
 it happens to represent a working population of from 75/o to 9070 
 of the people, it is readily seen that it is a very democratic 
 movement if the terra "democracy" is to be n^easured in terms of 
 niunbers and a sharing in educational opportunity by all. "All 
 the children of all the people" is a term that more nearly fits 
 the interests of organized labor than almost any other, 
 
 lo sum up the case for the American i'ederation of juabor tne 
 following points are made: ^ 
 
 Jl) Organized labor wants equal opportunity for both cultu- 
 ral and vocational education because uneducated workers are a 
 menace to progress in every and any form. It insists that this 
 education shall be public and free, that it is an unijustif iable 
 discrimination to ask the young worker to pay tuition in a pri- 
 vate school to secure the kind of an education that will permit 
 him to take his place as a worker and es a craftsman, 
 
 (2) Organized labor wants a practical education which will 
 serve a purpose in strengthening the economic and social position 
 of the worker. Organized labor objects to the undue stress placed 
 upon so-called "cultural education" and the unnecessaryy invid- 
 ious distinctions i;iade betv/een it and the odious "practical" edu- 
 cation which, in so many cases, does not receive adequate social 
 rating. It insists that enough cultural and scientific content 
 be given the commerical, trade, industrial, and vocational subjects 
 to place tiiem upon ai equal footing with other school, subjects. 
 
^o jf.i oi ajt "TtooTOooisb" mie sicsvoui 
 
 eJii viiitsen uioui JeJii^r uiiej « ai ' eloo&q acss Xia lo a»i^Ixfto eriJ 
 
 V 'i ii;.' ;.■ I . r't 
 
 .1 9iis eJnioq s^niwollot 
 
 B o'la 3i93tiow DSJiioi/Xi3mf saiiaJGd noiustjwi;© laijjxJiioov i>nB Xai 
 ain^J- ti3fi\r a^faieni . ^^na fines ^jtere ni aseiaiO-. ^oanera 
 
 -iiq a ai ixQiJi&n \a^ OJ lexiow aniJo>j; exScr aiaa od" noii^jiaLTiiioaiti 
 ttwxaq XI.. xor^sovfee itH to bnt^^ »!i& eino*»B oJ- loorfos otflv 
 
 XXtw rfaXriw iioX;reoui)9 XaotJ^; iOcfsX £i©sinfi:5iO (S) 
 
 jbeyain aamjK »CTjbnxj ant oJ «d'oe(,oo Toosi b»sin.- .Teiiow erij ^o 
 
 -hiyni y^taseaoennu orlit bnn ' -oirfie Xisij/J'XjJo" bftlfpc-oe noaff 
 
 - - ' Xaoi3'ai3'iq*' ajj-oX&o anx naa J. noewJed ©JbJ3..i eaoiJoaxJaliJ ejjoi: 
 
 Xfi' 31 Ion yaob ,B9asei ^^naoi oa al ,rfotrtw aoXcTao 
 
 8J'0ai,iiire X«fl.<^ic3oov , , , iuxieiuiiioo ouJ aevi^ »cf 
 
 • sJ-oeQcfw ;:>« isdJo ifd-iw gai^ool Xaixyife cc eoalq oj 
 
(3) Organized labor wants a form of education that is not 
 based upon the old traditional notions of culture and class. 
 Class demarcations have no place in a modern industrial society. 
 
 (4) Organized labor insists that vocational education shall 
 prepare for good citizenship and that good citizenship shall be 
 defined in terms of the ideals of the working class; that is, 
 the creation not of dutiful, obedient, servile wage-slaves, but 
 self-assertive, independent workers who possess the power of 
 economic self-respect. 
 
 (5) Organized labor demands that craftsmanship be preserved 
 and the ideal of the craftsman be cultivated, i'or this reason 
 
 it objects to extreme specialization in industry, and the ^ind 
 of a school that prepares in a few months workers for the partial 
 trades in industry. 
 
 (6) Invariably, organized lebor is opposed to private influ- 
 ences in education in any and all forms. 
 
 17) In schools of the cooperative or continuation type in 
 which both employers and laborers are concerned, local boards com- 
 prising representatives of both labor and employers should be in 
 control, 
 
 (8) Organized labor deaands that school pupils should not be 
 shtmted off into the vocations at too early an age. vhis warning 
 has been given in many of it^i reports. Jj'or example, in the 1912 
 report it is delcared, I'here is no doubt that the first eight years 
 
,^t**'ioo3 Lairtaubaj: nisbom b al eonLtj on svjRff BnottBO-rsfflRb bsbIO 
 iiri.ta uci Li's 0x1 x>e xanci Jisoov IjanJ sjsxaii. locisl ceEinis^iu \*i 
 
 ed XIafia rrlrtanesid^to Jbo qrrfenesitxo boo-s» idx aiaqatq 
 
 ( ■ - • 
 
 to Tcawoq aa^ SBeesoq oriw aieiiow ^neijnen-eftn !: ,©TJftt6as»-itIes 
 
 Asvieaeiq sd qiriRxiSiiieJ"lBi; ot/al 6es .) 
 
 finii> iji fix ftwiJajjixeioeqa ameaJxe.oJ aJosL^^o »?i 
 
 Ijsl*iaq ea:t lol aieoiiow a£l;tcom wsl 6 nt eetaaet^r Sf^tit Loodoa a ^o 
 
 -aX!t£ri e^avitq Oit Jbeaoqqo b1 tod^X fcesinaTiio .^XdAitarnl (d) 
 
 nl Bq%t aoliaaaiiaoo 10 erit»t&<iooo arid" ^o elooritfa ai (Vj 
 -ffioe abiBOd li^ooX .b^n'tsonou ete sie-i^ atftv.oXqiiie rftof Kofr'w 
 
 DJ.iJiy;'.a uie^^olqiuo bas icjc; to bp leasT'-it'T "iiiii^i-xq 
 
 .XoiJ-noo 
 Sff Jon hluona BX'tnriTrr Xoorf-iP. ^«:{.T sbnB 1 bss ins-^fO (8) 
 
 'iiiiaisif .e^fl as \jXaiie ooJ .xoiJaoov srii o*nl llo beJmrria 
 
 SX^J snt ni ,©Xainj^xe to'4 ,s*t0"9-i rti 1:0 y. ■ nevH n©<»d 8«ri 
 
 aai;»-, x'l.ite ji-'ii- uiij^ j:",aj ju>ic... ■ ,. 
 
of the school work should be cultural in its nature, because of 
 the fact that the boy's occupational bent is not developed and 
 his likes and dislikes are subject to change." 
 
 (9) Organized labor demands efficient trade and technically 
 trained teachers, not only with education, and masters of taeir 
 craft, but in the sentiments of organized labor and that for which 
 
 it stands, 
 
 ilO) Organized labor insists that vocational education be 
 given chiefly for its educational value. It snould be "construc- 
 tion for instruction" rather tharfinstruction for corBtruction". 
 "xhere must be the minimiun of production and the maximum of edu- 
 cation." 
 
 (11) finally, organized labor demands that the human element 
 must be recognized in the vocational education process. i>oys and 
 girls must be educated as human beings and not as automatic mech- 
 anisms, xhis means that vocational educational courses must be 
 rich in related material concerning the trade. in the strictest 
 sense of the word it must be vocational education with the educa- 
 tion left in. This warning is well-phrased in an address of i^res- 
 ident uompers in which he says, 
 
 "Our movement in advocating industrial education pro- 
 tests most emphatically against the elimination from our 
 public school system of any line of lecrning now taught, 
 vocational education must be supplementary to and in con- 
 nection with our public system. xhat for wuich our ;u0ve- 
 ment stands will tend to make better workers of our future 
 citizens and better citizens of our future workers," 
 
10 e&if;509d ^etjjttui eit nl la-w^s-liso 9d bluociu altOT/ loorioa arid" 1o 
 has i>eqolev&b ioi iaoliaqfso&o e'^od eriJ" cfaxiJ^ d^oa^ edi 
 
 11 -' 8T.Bi&Bei Jons ,ao£jBOwi)6 ilcriw v.Ino i'on ,aiefto«eJ nsalsTJ 
 /f^*^ V i oasins^io tc du ne.rrf.trrri:-. nrl.t n'- ,.tTRTO 
 
 ."flOld^OiJidffico lO'i aotJauTJeni'taBfl^f ^esiisii "aoid^owid"ani aol flol.t 
 
 -iJbo ^c flitiaiixui;., oiis tiui noi:toux)Oia lo au/minxai etli &d iautci r^isd'l*' 
 
 ianiMile asiiUfrf »ft^ -.ocfal 6estfti5Sio .^Xlani'i (IX) 
 
 -rioe.i oiJBinoljjA as Jon ba£. a^nied asmud 8« beJBoirfee ed Jaixm alti-^ 
 9d J"30ra eseii-oi) iBnolJaoifbe lisrroiJeao? Jnrid" ajruisa'. ax . metns 
 
 -ijotri)9 onJ riJiw neiJaoyJw IjBnoiJsoov etf 3^ i: J&iow orU ^o danss 
 
 ,a-'ii5o ea xiuiavv xix aictviiaov JusDx 
 -oTq notJBOiifca IfltiJaufenx artitaoovJba ni 
 
 9cf JBXJi'.i nc iBftOX 
 
 --;. ■•. .Ui■ 
 
 i-tufiil i« lo anesiJi red oaa aaasxJxu 
 
CHAPCjixt mx. — iiOMii 0BJii;U!i}IUi4i> TO VOUiiilUiiAL 
 liDUCATIOii FKOM LABOR 'b POIiiT 0¥ VliiW 
 
 The subject matter contained in the follov/inf'' pages does 
 not represent e. i^ajority report of organized labor by any means, 
 however, many of the individu&l members of organized labor believe 
 in varying degrees much of the material of the following pages. 
 
 The following discussion relates more closely to the facts 
 of economic theory than does much of the argtunent of the Ameri- 
 can Federation of Lftbor, hence economic students may find more 
 educational significance in this analysis than in the more 
 conservative attitude of the American -cederation of Labor, stu- 
 dents of labor problems and labor groups that seek for a larger 
 responsibility in the production of economic goods will find here 
 a viewpoint more in consonance with social reconstruction tiian 
 that given heretofore in this paper. 
 
 Before taking up the thread of reasoning that begins this 
 chapter a return must be made to the chapter on the jiconomic 
 ij'ramework of society, in which it was pointed out that in the 
 progress of the industrial revolution the worxer lost control of 
 the essentials that msde his economic independence possible; that 
 *he ownership of life's necessities that once in the handicraft 
 stage of production made him more or less independent had passed 
 
A M.£1^A \J 
 
 
 . \^ -.i .L ^ ■.! . 
 
 3.: Ab ■^rri-'^flot srfT 
 
 3J^iiet>xits oiaioaooB ooneri ,iocf|jJ. 1</ notd". 
 
 9io.-n 9- jHi^o f■tirr^,l:^-. 
 
 iC-xowecuBf '1 
 
 691 Jt«^8*»0^!^ a'f' 
 
 ■.7 0i.j:v 1 k 
 
 / 
 
into the hands of a small group in a position to dictate terms 
 upon whioh the worker shall have access to his means of life; 
 that the worker has remaining his labor power, and in the pro- 
 tection of that lies his economic salvation, succinctly, it is 
 this situation that must be realized to be at the botton of nearly 
 all labor's problems. 
 
 It should be remembered, too, that the life of the average 
 wage-earner is not an enviable one. It is so distasteful, in 
 fact, that nearly every wage-earner only looks forward to the day 
 wlien he can leave it permanently, ao greater misfortune can be- 
 fall one who is in possession of economic security than to be 
 compelled to return to the uncertainty and n.eagre income of a 
 mere wage-earner, and compete again in the labor market for a 
 job unless he or she is possessed of a special skill that is in 
 immediate demand. 
 
 When industries are new »*»«- natural resources are undevel- 
 oped, the opportunity is apparently open for the industrious and 
 efficient to escape the wage-earner's burdens, and, for a time 
 at least, go into the more invigorating ? nd stimulating chance 
 at business. In fact, a generation or so ago it was a badge of 
 inferiority to remain a wage-earner all one's life, jjut however 
 distasteful the situation becomes, the wage-earner must recognize 
 the fact that it is opportunity tuat enables him to rise, and that 
 
-O'tO 
 8i 
 
 vIt-^S; 
 
 '?<>rtTyv.j ori 
 
 . zi 
 
 :ii ^o aold^sftJ* 
 
 r ■ ;:» r , ' f 
 
 ^I*i 
 
 X91 ed JJIiioda tl 
 
 "• -♦^ a i~- •: 
 
 . IcTiiBnamisq it evBSl aso 
 
 .iJTteouii 
 
 :&i OJ 
 
 saiBO-s'^jiw BTswa 
 
 . Ij :;.;'. "■ ^' 9. 
 
 -t-^- BefT-tSffbnr 
 
 
 oitle 
 
 •^s^?^wo 
 
 
opportunity in a modern in{iui:trial system does not even knock 
 
 the proverbially "onoe at every man's door" as it was thought 
 
 to in the past. In other words, the status of the wage-oarner 
 
 is becoming more and -..ore fixed. (The following describes the 
 
 situation admirably; though it may be a little over-drawn, the 
 
 figures and presentation are essentially correct. 
 
 "The maximum amount of income v.hlch the workingman 
 may earn is limited. I'o be sure, there is always a chance 
 to rise out of the ranks of the v.orkers and become a man- 
 ager or a capitalist, i'he existence of this chance to 
 rise has never been questioned, tnough its mathematical 
 boundaries ai-e not always understood. Consider, for ex- 
 ample, one of the greatest si.i. le industries in the unit- 
 ed iitates, the '•'•ailroad Industry, employing nearly a 
 million and three-quarters of men. What are the possibil- 
 ities of advancement in this industry, as shown by the 
 statistics of the Interstate Commerce Commission? 
 
 "There were, in 1910, 5,476 general officers direct- 
 ing the activities of the million and three-quarters of 
 employees, xherefore, in the business life of the gen- 
 eral officer and in the business life of the employee, each 
 employee should nave one chance in three hundred to become 
 a general officer at some time during nis life, provided 
 that the employees live as long as the general officers, 
 and provided furtlier that all the general ofiicers are 
 drawn from the ranks of the employees, iieither of these 
 assumptions is correct, because, in the firijt place, in- 
 surance tables indicate that the life of the general 
 officer is longer than the life of the average workman; 
 Hnd, in the secjond place, the general officers are not 
 always drawn from the ranks. Leaving these two consider- 
 ations out of account, it is apparent that the mathemat- 
 ical proDability of the average railroad eiiiT loyee becoming 
 a general manager is about one-third of one per cent, 
 
 "Supposing that your term of service is twenty years. 
 
 *nw 
 
 Financing a l^age-earner 's iiomily," by\>eot i<ef.ring. 
 
^'^'^ Jinsst 
 
 ^^•' ijTtiaooed at 
 
 * 
 
 imrofaa fin 
 -Jin a oil aJ \o 6i(j , 
 
 noj..- 
 
 9VlI 
 
 
 .Sfli-x.iOki Soo^A y.6 ",x-t 5iiia©-eiBX « BnionanllL 
 
 V* 
 
the chances are one to one that during that time you will 
 be injured, and one to six that you will be killed: so 
 that the Ciiance of your being injtired is three hundred times 
 as great, and of your being killed ;s fifty time as great, 
 as it your chance of becoLiing a general officer in the 
 company which is employing you." 
 
 In other words, modern industry tends to ^eep the worker 
 in his place. Machine tenders are not hired for the purpose 
 of becoming superintendents, but to remain machine workers, because 
 it is more profitable for them to remain as such, xhis tenden- 
 cy is noted in the effort of employers to reduce the labor turn- 
 over, ihe reduction of the labor turnover to a minimum means 
 that the industry has become static and the workers fixed in 
 their positions with a minimumchanoe to rise, -^he significance 
 of this is that economic emancipation for the wage-earner does 
 not lie in the opportunity to escape the vage-systera, but in 
 making more tolerable, acceptable, and inviting the lot of the 
 wape-earne. . 
 
 What is the answer of Vocational ^.ducation to this situa- 
 tion? It depends up^n the trend of the Vocational movement. 
 Vocational education in Germany, where it was the most perfect 
 expression of an educational system, tended to make more secure 
 the status of the worker, 'x'he severest criticism that can wall 
 be uttered against the German system is the fact that, early in 
 the elementary graaes, it enlisved the rank and file of tiie work- 
 ing people into an industrialism from which it was impossible for 
 
3 m 
 
 'C?:, 
 
 to et 
 
 toe 
 
 tpbom ,8btow lerfto til 
 
 -n©dn' 
 
 ot nert; 
 
 ni: be 
 
 Oi 
 
 ■i.iawuu. 
 
 3 oimonc- 
 
 erfif 
 
 stteiv 
 
 oyerf io 
 
 r» \,'>>.L'^.U — 
 
 to coi Jsi/Jb^a 
 
 .levo 
 
 iU Tj, 
 
 e ' 
 
 .siaaiTiieoo- 
 
 sti i'on 
 
 ic 
 
 .0:11 iB»iiS£iJB '!« ojnr eiffoeq ?iflt 
 
the industrially trained worker to escape, '.^-'he German Continua- 
 tion school meant a continuation as a poor wage-earner for the 
 German worker, whether we meet the same fate in ■'i-merican depends 
 upon whether vocational education is directed in the interests 
 of democracy or in the interests of the commercially dominant 
 regime. It may be that special training, due to vocational edu- 
 cation, will enhance the opportunity of those specially trained. 
 But if vocational education becomes general the special cases 
 will not be such a vital consideration. 
 
 A second very pertinent economic considera^ion that thrusts 
 itself into the vocational education field for cont;ideration is 
 the wjiole tendency of the reduction of individual skill due to 
 the industrial revolution. In the age of handicraft production, 
 the skilled vorker set the pace in industry, ^he production of 
 economic goods depended upon the training of the vorkers, which 
 was provided for by an adequate apprenticeship system. It was 
 during this stage of industry thav Gibbons speaks of the "Golden 
 Age of Labor" during the : ourteenth and fifteenth centuries."* 
 It was a golden age for labor, not because labor or society in 
 general was far advanced or possessed much that we value highly 
 today, but becf.use labor was secure in what it did possess, name- 
 ly, it9 craft. 
 
 *"Industrial iiistory of -ngland, p. 79/ 
 
■^"'^ . • >^ tuH 
 
 • AoiJ aoy Xisi/y d i: OA XXivic 
 u.Ty» :>e Jrrert it-xe^ rrtev ; 
 
 oJ .i9j ©It; .t; ailJ" 
 
 ,noltO' riiSit. . vi* ill .nol.t£,fIo'/9i L^lt^ci nJ- 
 
 'to , Ji-'i J ^ »■• i-^-' - . --:' - -jaijii.! •■ixxiiie aiiJ 
 
 , .5.*;;'':; • , f f /. '• f5 ? trfMlii ';nAn' fsA-h i ■■ : 
 
 \ii\ ., .oxisis^n'- xO \';-io;i:8i;a latt^reiu. 
 
The most significant event for labor in the whole industrial 
 
 revolution has been the loss of the craft or the diminished value 
 
 of individual skill. *"ith the invention of the machine, there 
 
 passed into the machine the skill once contained in the ne.nd of 
 
 the worker. [This single fact accounts, more than all others, for 
 
 the breaking down of the apprenticeship system of industry, ivith 
 
 the elimination of the craft there passed the necessity for the 
 
 apprentice with his long and continuous training. In a word, the 
 
 machine industry merns thft the various kinds of skill that the 
 
 trained trades-man practices in an art are separated, reduced, 
 
 and simrslifled till the process no longer represents a craft, but 
 
 a series of simple, special operations, ^his is so characteristic 
 
 of modern industry that the r,'age norm is established in terms of 
 
 the unskilled in many ca:;os. -^he following illustrates this trend; 
 
 "Large as is the proportion tnat unskilled labor forms 
 of the total labor force in the iron and steel industry, 
 steel experts have noted the fact that the tendency of re- 
 cent years has been steadily toward the reduction of the 
 number of highly skilled laen employed and the establishment 
 of the general wage on the bauis of conimon or unskilled 
 labor, i«or is this tendency likely to diminish,, since each 
 year sees a wider use of ijuchanical appliances which un- 
 skilled labor can easily be trained to handle."* 
 
 The dominance of nandicraftism has passed, and to the econ- 
 omist at least it nas gone forever, ^he world will not likely 
 
 *Senate i>ocument ilo, SOI, •-'umuary of the "apes and Hours 
 of Labor in the Iron and Bteel Industry. 
 
57 
 
 retrace its steps to a recrudescence of hand production. I^chine 
 production means refinement of function and more perfect control; 
 and while there must always be c nximber of Jiighly skilled opera- 
 tors to set the pace for the machine, yet this group does not con- 
 stitute the rank and file of the workers in industry. 
 
 •i-'he third economic consideration Vvhich is closely related to 
 the above and, in fact, is a part of it, is the receiitly developed 
 practice of scientific management, ocientiiic management, if it 
 means anytliing at all to labor, must forecast a dismal, dark and 
 hopeless prospect for labor organizations based on craft control, 
 
 (The following shows the import of scientific manageii.ent for 
 labor, organized or unorganized;* 
 
 "Scientific management at its best, furthers the modern 
 tendency toward the specialization of the workers, 
 
 "xhe inherent tendency of scientific management to spec- 
 ialization is buttressed, broadened in its scope, and perpetu- 
 ated by the progressive gathering up and t^ystematizing in the 
 hands of the employers of all the traditional craft icnowledge 
 in the possession of the workers. With this inforination in 
 hand, ^nd functional foremanship to direct its use, scientif- 
 ic management claims to have no need of cra:ftsmen , . , i^nd 
 as this body of systematized knov/ledge in the hands of the 
 employer grows, it is enabled to broaden the scope of its op- 
 eration, to attack and specialize new operations and new in- 
 dustries so ihat the tendency is to reduce to more and more 
 simple operations, and more and uiore workers to the positions 
 of narrow specialists," 
 
 Prof, x>., i', iioxie's report in the Mfinely iieport of 
 Industrial Relations Goiiiinission, 
 
 the 
 
;iaT*aoo tfoeiTSii 9io. ; Jono" xecaan aaeta aottouboiq 
 
 erfj i; . 3ui«J8^^4 has qsi -^ai xq eii* x^ ^ 
 
 ,881/ 8j£ itO&tl|> oj qi :>ioi i , bnBil 
 
 -qo I oqooa erij neisiioicj oJ belosne ah Ji , i-% tv 
 
 anolJ .tow 9"ioai 
 
 
00 
 
 ocientiflc management expresses itself in at least three 
 ways of importance to labor: 
 
 (1) It eliminates the skill of the worker. 
 
 (2) It incref'Ses the production of goods. 
 
 (3) It replaces men by raechanisms. 
 
 What reply has Vocational iidueation to tnese tendencies? 
 Por labor, the elimination of the skill of the worker means 
 the end of nis power over his craft, uf course it should be 
 noted that skill can never be entirely depleted, but if the major 
 part of it can be done away with in the industrial process the 
 tendency of labor specialization will be toward an unskilled 
 basis, xhis does not i.ortend a hopeful future for organized 
 labor, as in the history of the labor movement, the greatest 
 obstacle to labor organization has been the unskilled worker, m 
 no other way can scientific management be so efficient in its 
 power to break down the solidarity of the organized crafts. 
 Whether vocational education has any significance here depends 
 upon whether it constitutes an increase of skill, or an increase 
 of economic knowledge pertaining to the production and distribu- 
 tion of economic goods. An increfise in the number of skilled 
 workers will not be a beneficial contribution to organized labor 
 unless there is a corresponding demand from industry for them. 
 But if these skilled workers are taught to desire a larger share 
 in industry, and therefore to assume greater responsibilities 
 and make greater demands for social betterment, they may become 
 
3-t^- ^f- B9889'xq[X© in ottttne 
 
 .1; 
 
 sd BX 9310 . TO towc dJ 
 
 . 9iic>" aaeooiq Laltiexi'Dai. enj iii: iiJiw .jawa encij so a^jo Ji lo J'l^q 
 ieliiiBcuf aJ8 fiiiSwoJ^ ed Iliv? nolJasil-Sloeqa -xocfBl 'to '^oaeba^^ 
 
 jsiaa^io 6. tewoq 
 
 -x/dxTJLiD Dfla fl , 09 to 
 
 h'rl ' \'. 'to 10^ rtOit 
 
 .u.e :iJ "lOT: ^i4"8JuiJnx fflotl liaaaiet snlDaoqeextoo « ai i^lnu 
 
 aei Jiixdienoqao-i leO^seis •auiatss oJ aiol»i»ft,t ban ,^ii ixi 
 
 offlooed ^eai ^BAi tia.wai9iS«6 lalooe lo* aJbnBneb leJjseTS ajtcm Jbiui 
 
a valuable asset to any organization of labor. 
 
 i'he second consideration, namely, the increased production 
 of goods, brings immediately into the field of disucssion, how 
 shall these goods be snared? ahould all the benefits of the in- 
 crease go to labor, or snail it go to the employer, or shall 
 both share equitably? xhis phase relates to the social side of 
 the case, and one of the reasons of organized labor is to pro- 
 tect its interest here. Any considerable increase in the econo- 
 mic production of goods means that these goods have to be dis- 
 posed of, either consumed by those who reap the surplus, or sold 
 in foreign markets; or a reduction haa to be lijade in the number 
 of workers who produce these goods. Over-production is not a 
 new term in the economic world but it signifies a calamity for 
 labor. It means that the foreign markets have not absorbed the 
 surplus and that the workers have not been paid enough to re-pur 
 chase the surplus, and the result is a bus;.ness depression. 
 
 It is quite difficult to see just now an increase in the pro- 
 ductive powers of the workers is going to offer release in this 
 situation. Vocational education means better business organization 
 and increased production, but increased production is at the heart 
 of the trouble. Vocational knowledge — if it is a knowledge of 
 industry — will do good provided It reaches the real probleiiiS of 
 labor on its organized basis for better hours, better pay, and 
 better educational opportunity, tiuch a condition can be solved 
 
« ■ ^iai'Xd ,8i)oo i "to 
 
 oif ai aodiii 6«Kia»?jio to stioa&e-r to eno fena ,oaBc 
 
 -onoo6> 9riJ" fii: esaeioai elrfisiBi^lanoc vn,\ .btriI tROTe^trr Joe? 
 
 blOB -so «BjjIqiJja orlt qaet oriw e ro ,lo i)»8oa 
 
 j(f 6I10W oiaonoo9 erii' «1 artei wen 
 
 {»( .t Fi -j.f-f r. a;. ,-r ■. r 
 
 .iiwiaeeicfeb 886., 
 
 csiaj lit eaaaiei idl ;§ii-tos) si 8X9:^x0 to a'l' ^vlJowb 
 
 iiolti^sinis^to a8»ni8t/cf isttecf Hnsem notJ^^onb© I»ttott«ooV .notd^auittB 
 
 t'l 
 
 I o§i)8Xwoitii s si Ji tx — e^JjsXwonjt XaaoiJaoov , .sldwoxJ ariv)' lo 
 ±0 auiaidoxa Ia»i ori^ asrfoBsi t i: bei)ivoiq 600"^ ob Xrtw — ^jiJaubni 
 
 baa ,z^ui ..-.j. , - ^ locfal 
 
 J&9vIoa e<f nao aoi^iJonoo a doira ^^Jixii/J-ic <oi5be iei:t9d 
 
60 
 
 only by the workers sharing more fully in the industrial process. 
 
 A'he third consideration, namely, the replacement of men by 
 mechanisms, brings to view the full significance of machine indus- 
 try and the factory system, xhis is a viewpoint only too much 
 neglected by the promoters of vocational education. A needle in 
 the hand of an operator, subject to the operator's will, skill, 
 and control, is a t ol, but wnen it passes into a mecnanism and 
 operates independently of the skill of th^ operator then it is a 
 machine in the economic sense of the word. Whe ordinary jack-plane, 
 to which so much attention has been paid in manual training annals, 
 is a tool in the best sense of the term; but wnen txiis same cut- 
 ting bit leaves the hand of the operator and forms a series of bits 
 rotated by mechanical power, then it is that the craft virtue of 
 the tool is eliminated. It must be quite evident to the student 
 of machine technique that in a great i..easure this is jru-st what 
 has taken place in most of the highly specialized industries of 
 the world at the present time. Ihe tendency of machine production 
 is to Dring every part of the process under "rule of thumb" con- 
 trol, in factories that turn out standard utilities, such as 
 typewriters, watches, snoes, textiles, nails, screws, bolts, auto- 
 mobiles, farm machinery, and tools of many varieties, the substi- 
 tution of mechanisms for men has been so complete that by far the 
 greater part of the work ia done by the unskilled, or at least 
 
, , vTisiaqo bill OJ Josi,ajj& ^lOJuTSqo a^: 
 
 lie ^ttin' <j;niMn nl bts^q need eari flOtJn»/J-^ rioiriw tyt 
 
 11 
 
 ' 1 y I ) w o ju v 
 
 iit tani euprn 
 
 :90:T! n "fi 
 
 -noo ."o lai/tixf saeooiq eriJ Tto fiaq, y^evo -gxiii 
 
 -Ij , ..I to alo. , oiJta «r 
 
partially skilled, worker. The most convincing evidence of this 
 fact was presented to us during the late war when it was found 
 quite possible to utilize both young and old, male and female, 
 vocationally trained or untrained, in the industries of the coun-- 
 try and at the same time do it econon;ically and profitably from 
 the standpoint of production of economic goods, m the shops of 
 England it was found advisable to use untrained female help to 
 the extent, in some cases, pf from 60^b to 80^ of the workers. 
 Such a situation was made possible only by the prevalence of ma- 
 chine industry. 
 
 Another interesting sidelight on tnis same pnase of the 
 question is in the special training schools for riveters, steam 
 fitters, lathe hands, and many special operations that required 
 only a few weeks' preparation, xhis was maue possible by the 
 fact that mechanisms had so largely displaced the ancient nandi- 
 c rafts. 
 
 All classes interested in the subject of vocational educa- 
 tion see in it, along with waatever other content it may possess, 
 the common attributes of economic safety, independence, and well- 
 being. Its purpose is too frequently sumr.ied up in the phrase, 
 "Learn a trade, for when you have learned a trade you nave some- 
 thing raoi-e valuable than money; your money you may lose, but your 
 trade you always keep," ihis sentiment, while it is not wholly 
 
sinj lo eoaebtvB ^aioat-vaoo taom erf'*' .7'??f^o■T• ,6Birx:^s 
 
 ,6l.5.ie^ bus I ,oiu una ^auu)t dtod estli^Tir 03" eldlaaoq eti^p 
 
 X.C >i oriJ ai ,Hboo^ oIcoosxooq lo nottt) to tnioqfixiaJ'e Bdi 
 
 ot qle-A eiBiv.91 ben a? olrfaBfTba fcnuo"^ sr ., .,.. 
 
 • ^ ^ ■ 
 
 il ^nsiona erlJ fceoplanii. vle'^iri 03 fcnri arte frtr^rloeni i..:- 
 
62 
 
 otsolete, is so much so that it hardly applies with the peculiar 
 force it once possessed. it rather implies an economic condition 
 in which the prevailing mode of production is that of the handi- 
 crafts, dependent upon the individual skill of the worker. aIso, 
 a situation in which the opportunity for transition from worker 
 to master, and finally to entrepreneur, is the rod for the thrifty 
 and enterprising, 'x'wentieth century industrialism has placed a 
 different aspect on this situation, namely, xhat economic safety, 
 independence, and well-being lies not so much in an education that 
 protects the craft, as in an organization of labor, that has for 
 its object the securing of a larger share of the fruits of indus- 
 trial cooperation. 
 
 Another angle of the vocational education proposal is, what 
 relation will it systain in the "creative impulse" in industrial 
 life.. It is quite evident that the mass production of goods has 
 lost much of its original impulse to create, participation in 
 machine production is not made for the "joy of work." .,ith the com- 
 ing of the iijachine and the loss of the individual initiative due 
 to personal tasks,- there has come a corresponding loss of interest 
 in the tasks, -^his is due chiefly to the fact ti.at formerly the 
 worker knew a whole job and now tie knows only a small part of it. 
 Ho one has put this issue belter than nerman ochneider, Kean of 
 the College of j:,ngineering, university of Cincinnati, who says, 
 

 .a o« ai ,o;J"eJ!oecfo 
 
 _-Tv mcT'^ no?r*rart 
 
 .3f»lB cicfT^t te &nn 
 
 r..->-r 
 
 
 -atoo e 
 
 
 JpaaeJiii 10 fctsoX 3111' iiiotj 
 
 J.lJCi 
 
 to oeed .leMeni 
 
 sTon ei noiJouuoiq enirioac: 
 
 J Bub ai airf* . 'i oti 
 T toaCed 0088 1 ©xria" ^yq eart onu ott 
 
0«3 
 
 "xhe situation then sifts down to this; energizing 
 work is decreasing, enervating work is increasing. »Ve 
 are rapidly dividing mankind into a staff of mental work- 
 ers and an army of purely physical workers, 'xhe physical 
 workers are becoining more and more automatic, with the 
 sure result that their minds are becoming more and more 
 lethargic. L'he work itself is not cnaracter-building; 
 on the contrary, it is repressive, and, when self-expres- 
 sion comes, it is nardly energizing mentally."* 
 
 The answer of the advocate of vocational education is that 
 this is a prolific field for amelioration by vocational education; 
 that, if a scientific and artistic content be embodied in the train- 
 ing of the worker, he will more v/illingly undergo the discipline 
 of the machine because he will see more intelligently and vividly 
 the relation he bears to the whole industrial process. 'I'he valid- 
 ity of this assumption Is open to the most drastic criticism, jr'rob- 
 ably the truth lies nearer in the statement that the less energizing 
 the job, the less intelligent the worker o ight to be. perhaps noth- 
 ing is so deadening and soul-killing, as the realization of a work- 
 er that he possessses capacity far in excess of the work to which 
 he is attached, ihe greatest calamity that can bef aU a worker in 
 an industry is to be demoted from a director of enterprise to that 
 of a process worker. m other words, if the increased education 
 is not to function, interest ceases for the worker. 
 
 It may now be asked wJiether vocational education will re-or- 
 
 *"j^;dr-catlon for industrial "orkers." 
 

 rtHv»T 
 
 
 1 f>tij 
 
 -■ A 1 
 
 . ■ . I V .r 
 
 ST 
 
 eiu8 
 
 00 
 
 aois 
 
 If' 1^ , 
 
 TCXJ&aan ex 
 SiM-. ... :iiOOvh. 
 
 d;^ al &el/>otfiBe ed tcieinco oLtBli-ti' Ltadtoe ,tmAS 
 
 ^liiviv ai IX ©lOiu oea li iw ii/uoed ©aiiiuism erf* io 
 
 -ill It',' . :p.eociq f5 titaff&f! r eloffw or, ;f/;efr ©d noi-tplet '"►rfJ 
 
 ^Isla-xafl© aeel •3'a ei; to'ieefi eetl d&is-Li sriJ ^Xds 
 
 -i';l- .;- ij-^ ,f*rf oj- i'rf'ft - TosJtOT? oii3^ o^nea 1 1 lo Jn 1 389.: erij' ,dot orft 
 
 -x..--,v -> iu aoiJ^aiii , aiaQJaasi -ax 
 
 rioxriw.oj" iiow Rrit to aaeoxo ctl lijt yjti. aaeeaoq ia 
 
 Jij. 38£iqt9;fii* lo tofo jttb a mcii fietomei) ea oi ai v nii 
 
 . hh -n- _ . ,al>iow iDrti'O ~; .lejiiow »*aoaotg 8^0 
 
 -10-91 li!./ notJaoi/bc / lieMaa ecf von -vixsiti ti 
 
 •tSBisbai 
 
ganize industry with the purpose of eliminating the enervating 
 positions. It can hardly he expected that this will result from 
 the general practice of vocational education. It will rather 
 accent than retard the present tendency toward machine special- 
 ization. It can hardly he expected that there will ever be an 
 appreciable return to the handicrafts. This was the object and 
 also the failure of the Arts and Grafts Movement during the nine- 
 ties of the last century, '^he ^.rts and Crafts Movement in educa- 
 tion had little influence on industry because it did not sense 
 the significance of machine technique and i;iodern industrialism 
 upon which it was based. Industrial and vocational education 
 took its place because it was more in consonance with present 
 day production of economic foods, 
 
 5^he function of vocational education in such a situation 
 will not be in the immediate advantage of better adaptation of 
 the worker to the machine but rather in an emphasis of the thir- 
 ty-fourth clause of the recent Report of the Uommittee on -^ouca- 
 tion of the Hew York btate Js'ederation of Labor, v/hich is as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 "We recommend that courses of study be organized in 
 history, civics, labor, health and compensation laws, and 
 econoriiios, under the guidance of the State i)epartment of 
 Education, for if labor is to intelligently exercise its 
 fullest political power, the members of unions and other 
 wage-earners should have exact and scientific knowledge of 
 the subjects mentioned," 
 
•ooijjbi .tuuiev J baa &i .xtu&neo tsal eAi \o seit 
 
 mat ^. iiifaijiini ateboa! boji Qisptasioe^ eninoam lo eorujollln-gla aril 
 nolj-floxrba lAno tvtis'jov iia-3 Xxjiiiaiiinil .baeBd arrw J-i rioi:''w aoc^u 
 jnaeJ&-iq ilJ"iw eoa*jiioan.oo a: :* il e&aaoe6 eoaXcj 
 
 .ehoo'i oliiiortooe lo nottoifboicf ^^^6 
 aoiliitrJi' -fB ai aoljtfowije Xiuioi jboot lo iioisoois'x (. t 
 
 io rtoJtJ"Ajq«.b4t -xe^trfed lo ei^i. jtaci) 00110:1 e'i>t nl- ed ton IIlw 
 
 fit jDesin'-^-^io erf 'rbuJ^ io aeeii" joet ©W" 
 
 JbiiA2 .Livirx'. ; !0u brus iiJX , 'hX ,aoivJto ,^(:■ 
 
 ■"■ '" - :. dJ •xobou ,r- ' 
 
 leril^o baa ecoiau lo e r 
 
 ".Jbenoi Jfi6ia aJ-oet^J^"' 
 
65 
 
 Another phase of the vocational education movement that 
 greatly interests all classes of labor is the relation of voca- 
 tional education to poverty, poverty ia the especial charac- 
 teristic of those who do the world's work; and since vocational 
 education is offered in so many instances for the relief of the 
 poverty-stricken rather than for the elevation of their souls, 
 it is very pertinent, indeed, to determine Just how much-v&lidity 
 there is in the assumption. 
 
 Marshall says : 
 
 "It is poverty in the sense of economic insufficiency, 
 its wide extent, its assumed necessity, its tragic conse- 
 quence, that forms the real problem. There are great bodies 
 of people in the city and in the country who from birth 
 have less than enough food, clothing, and shelter, who from 
 childhood must toil long and /lard to secure even that in- 
 sufficient amount; who can benefit but little from the 
 world's advance in material coiofort and in spiritual beauty 
 because their bodies are undernourished, their minds over- 
 strained, and their souls deadened by the bitter struggle 
 with want. These are the real poor of every community — 
 the rriasse8--not lacking in industry and thrift, yet never 
 really able to earn enough for a decent existence, and 
 toiling in the constant fear that even these bare necessi- 
 ties may fail,"* 
 
 The existence of poverty need not be argued in this paper, 
 
 Studies have been made running into many volumes that prove its 
 
 existence. Wherever any survey such as the Pittsburgh purvey of 
 
 the Russell iiage jsoundation of the lives of the working classes 
 
 ♦ ft 
 
 Erinciples of i^conomics," p, 2 and 3, 
 
-30or lo notJ^Ia- 3t lOff.-.'.I to asasBlc Ilr, stfiATP.t xi \jlcr'-«'r^ 
 
 lanoiJaooT sonia !>«« ;iiow "s'bliow ©riJ" ob orfw eeodi ^o ol^latiet 
 
 ,siiJ08 -xieficr "io rtoia^vaie ortcr lol aadt leAiBi a»AotiiB'%ii9roq 
 
 .xiuxJ'qaujaatj »iiJ ni. 
 
 : av,iia IlarfataM 
 
 j'j;."-:. i.^ , x'i^-.^:! . ox. jo;. c Ji'' 
 
 -tf&iioo •ji^e.iJ Svfl , , . ef)tw eSt 
 
 a&lbod iaQ^:^ eiB oi- .neldo^q Idea eriJ aanc r ,eon9i;p 
 
 rftil^rf {i-^"-' 't nl baa ^;fto ©rid^ p.x s ^ "0 
 
 iuoi^ ori.7 ,-\ ,. 10 ,I)Oot riB^onr^ n-v^J «r; .,•.. -, 
 
 •at a6v© extfoea o.t b^.B'^ baa yiol II. .i ^ooxiJblirfo 
 
 eaj uioil: 9l:r;JrI ^ucf fl'' ' ^ "" ' 
 
 \iijaQd iauililqa ai baa tiv .'■■■/ 
 
 -18V0 ebaia liBiiS ^bea&liuoniebajj ena aoJtbod iteriJ eax/BOScf 
 
 eX^ -~ --t^id 9ri;f ^d --'--■ - ,-oa i±-'" "~" ^.-....^♦.^ 
 
 — \, -J ^T8V9 lo etfl f ^ . / 
 
 Tsven J6V , .taJ baa ^i^Bubax ni .osi ion — e 
 
 bojB ,.. ' ■" ' "Tob s to^ rivjv-c: -- .- " ♦■ aXu;; v,j..l^6l 
 
 -Isaeoen e j Jsrf;}- -XBei J^ ni •?nxIlo:t 
 
 .legso Bint nt betr^ia ed *on been v.-ttovoq lo eoned"8txe erPT 
 lo ^evxaii riBiud8*Jl<i erfJ aa rtous ijevxi/s ^xib aeveie .gone^elxe 
 
 t 
 
 .; ., ' ,80 trao cioo*:* to aelqlont'ta'^* 
 
is nade, poverty is found to be the cencerous growth at the root 
 
 of many of the evils, if not the most of them, in the worker's 
 
 budget of ills. 
 
 As Marshall notes, poverty is in the main not due to lack of 
 
 personal thrift or enterprise. In fact, in the slum regions, where 
 
 hours of labor are the most hard and grinding, the prevalence of 
 
 poverty is the most conspicuous. It seems as tnough those who are 
 
 the most ndustrious are the most heavily Sifflicted with it. In 
 
 fact, a class that can secure a large measure of leisure is fai 
 
 more likely to be economically independent than the more het-vily 
 
 burdened toilers. 
 
 Probably the verdict of most students of the poverty problem 
 would give as its cause chiefly that it is an incident of the 
 modern industrial states, At le.st where the machine has set the 
 pace and machine nroduction has become the prevailing mode of pro- 
 duction, there will be found in the most acute form the v/orst 
 cases of poverty, jroverty is a concomitant of large industrial 
 centers, and incongruent as it may seem, in these same industrial 
 centers there is amassed the huge fortunes of thd time. 
 
 Poverty does not exist because there is a dearth of economic 
 goods and not enough to go around. In fact, the workers' indus- 
 trial capacity has increased many fole v/ith the increased use of 
 machine technique, Surplus weajth has increased at the most satis- 
 
8*"ia>i0¥/ odif ni .taoii. aoia erid^ *^Ort 1L ,8liv lo \tnijni lo 
 
 ill .ti. (ftlw fee^ttvU^tfl ^Itwert teom ©rf* siii atrotTtHufefr Jeooi ed^t 
 
 ^le^iiJ eiofli 
 
 -01 'l)oai ': reiq eriJ ©fflooecJ aari iiotfouooi eoaq 
 
 . ,jj-.. hrfi/n"*- erf ^f^^^ , ^touf) 
 
 ifcjjimoofloo a. 6i ^t:t»vc . Jiavo ieaao 
 
 . L .III J Si I J i ' . ^. 55 . • 
 
 oxtaofloo- 
 to 9»iJ Deaasio; beaat 
 
factory rate. In fact, it .oas forced into prominence the ques- 
 tion of world markets, and, in the case of the last year, the prob- 
 lem of the world's domination. 
 
 Hollander, in summing up his little book on "The Abolition 
 of Poverty", concludes that "The three great supply Bources of 
 wealth are: 
 
 (1) The underpaid, 
 
 (2) The unemployed, 
 
 (3) The unemployable, 
 
 "Chronic underpyament arises from the failure to substi- 
 tute collective for individual bargaining in wage contract- 
 ing, or from excessive gains of enterprisers, or from social 
 undervaluation of product, 
 
 "Unemployment, understood as the involuntary idleness 
 of competent workmen, is the result of cyclical depression, 
 of seasonal fluctuation, and of the disposition of modern em- 
 ployers to keep on hand a reserve fund of unemployed labor 
 which is available In seasons of exceptional activity, 
 
 "Finally, for the residuum of unemployebles , due to 
 industrial accident, sickness or old age, a comprehensive 
 system of social insurance must form the main line of attack." 
 
 Essentially, too, unemployment is due to the fact that there 
 are more persons seeking employment than there are positions. This 
 is due to the fact that in a large measure, as has been pointed out 
 in this paper, tnere has been a substitution made of mechanisms for 
 men, 
 
 For the underpaid, vocational education must offer not more 
 efficient workmen SKilled in the technique of tneir profession, 
 but rather intelligently directed courses in labor organization. 
 The reply to underpayment is a solidly organized labor group for 
 
xTOW . 
 
 8»JB. lo fliel 
 
 10 Sdyi^- ,"^«^' 
 
 uiJ aoi^ifJitt- 
 
 ■••w 
 
 .oic . J 
 
 9 
 
 
 irY^sfino o^ "^Xcfet »ii- 
 
the purpose of protecting its own interests, 
 
 For the unemployed due to lack of skill it must furnish 
 special short xinit courses in the skilled crafts to moet the 
 needs of industry. It is here that vocational education can 
 function the most efficiently, i'or the unemployed who are out 
 of work due to the fact thft their services are not required 
 in industry, vocational education must again enrich its content 
 and face the economic situation that a decrease in the number 
 of working hours will provide employment for an increased num- 
 ber of workers, and the question becomes again one of labor 
 
 organization. 
 
 For the unemployable due to industrial accident, sickness 
 
 end old age, vocational education may recover some of them but 
 its work in this field must remain quite confined. Of course, 
 in the case of accident much can be done, such as is being done 
 by the Government in the rehabilitation of wounded soldiers. 
 But labor's interest lies more in the direction of social insur- 
 ance tnan in education for special tasks, 
 
 ihe ijignificance of a situation in vtoich unen^ployment is 
 due to the fact that there are i^iore workers tnan tnere are pos- 
 itions in which mecnanisms nave been substituted for men, may 
 also indicate that tiie cultivation uf foreign trade has not been 
 carried on or organized, i'his opens up a new field for the vo- 
 cational educator of the most highly specialized and technical 
 
''^^' '"''" ■■■ ■^■•^HL OCT -f- J5e^0Xq...ai...j t»ii^ ID'S 
 
 ff^^' lo x}eIXx:tL8 eriJ- ni eeaiuoo item d"ioria laiosqa 
 
 1130 avlJ'oisbB ii.... jov ^flifj- e-ien ai J- 1 .v-ttriffhrit lo 8l>o©a 
 
 : . uiv.'f Ds>iolq . : o. .: ,xl3a9Loizli> Juc^ tixiJ noiJ-ooal 
 
 JbeiijJt'ei Jon qia ae-jl^nea itaiii ind& J'oe^ eriJ oJ^ suJb itow ^o 
 
 leooiun oxi«r ai efc.38io©i> b Tanl ro tsssji la oimonooe erf3" «ob1 fins 
 
 -fajjn Jb9tii?aionl na to^ tnaarrol-rtrio ebtra-rn rfrw ntru-.-f t;rTf-}:Triw to 
 
 looai to aao iii.j^*! aooioo&d noUaoiip arij- i»ai3 ,rti9iiiow "io -tad 
 
 ae".T': ,jTreM - ■-■■ t 10'i 
 
 Jucf meriv -^voost ^am rtotJjouLe iBnoiJaoov jega i)Xo boB 
 
 .a-teibloa bebru/ow lo «oi-tfl,tiItdan9n ©rft nt JrrewmevoO edS ^jcf 
 
 .BiaaJ laxoe^a lol aoitaoubo at na^.s eona 
 at liT> trolquieaij .^ . - ^- ^iOn^t>i 
 
 -. •!« D^euJ luauJ ait*3tio.v eiuui stiis eieriJ JadJ Jowl &iiS oH 9ub 
 
 %Bm « aei;i TOt 6eJ03'iy8tfu8 neecf evBrt amatrtaMoem fiotriw ax anoiJi 
 
 erti- -xo'l clexl v/en « qa anacio si osi£ia:§'io to nc botztso 
 
type. A disposal of surplus goods in the foreign markets of the 
 world means an increase in the demands for workers, and hence a 
 
 relief for unemployment. It should be noted here, however, that 
 other nations are in the same business with the same objects in 
 view, and also that peoples soon learn the art of production for 
 themselves, and then the foreign market relief ceases soiiiewhat. 
 
 To conclude the problem of poverty, if vocational education 
 la going to fiinction to any appreciable extent it must include 
 courses in labor p'ro'blems, economics, and social studies, for 
 relief from poverty lies more in this direction than in offering 
 more and diversified shop courses, though these should be no 
 means be neglected. 
 
 Finally, if the past and present demands of labor have any 
 significance at all it is the fact that there shall not be elim- 
 inated from educational courses the essential subjects deemed nec- 
 essary to a general education, which is necessary for the laborer 
 to function as a citizen. If the demands of labor Jiava meant any- 
 thing in the past they nave meant just exactly this. <2he interest 
 of labor has been far more militant for general education than it 
 ever 'has for vocational education, and labor has in no uncertain 
 terms voiced its protest against any movement to rob education of 
 its in' -'llectual or cultural content. It is somewhat in this 
 spirit that tJamuel Gompers enlightens us with the follov/ing: 
 
 "Organized labor has opposed ■ and will oppose some enter- 
 prises which have been undertaken in the name of industrial 
 
&lj...- 
 
 ©auo'ioiil ft£ f olioir 
 
 at. aioel<io wmu 
 
 .wslv 
 
 aoiftyt 
 
 , ^jievoq 10 melfScyiKi exiJ" ©l)i; 
 
 gnj 
 
 10 1 ,df5C 
 
 jii &i> 
 
 -0- 
 
 :iui evsii lOv 
 
 Oto X*i 
 
 ;9tl Y;t' 
 
 ill aeeiuoo 
 
 ;rf aOHO. 
 
 J a eoftiioil ingts 
 
 
 to 
 
 Te 
 
 Xj-J us 
 
 XiJiu. 
 
 ft 
 
 -leJfl© emoa eaoqqo ilv!7 bn 
 
education ; . . . With regard to such enterprises where they 
 are instituted by employers with a single eye to the profits 
 of such employers, organized labor is from Missouri." 
 
 It should be born constantly in mind tiiat there is no phase 
 of education in which organized Ir.bor is not interested and upon 
 which it has no attitude. A perusal of the Gomi-dttee xieports dur- 
 ing the lost year on the subject of education indicates attitudes 
 favorable to every form of democratic education proposed during the 
 last few years. Prom an increase in kindergartens to a Minister of 
 ilducatlon in the President's Cabinet, in fact the whole gamut of 
 educational reformation has been passed upon by organized labor. 
 
-aoo atod e 
 
 eta ill . ' .t3£'"i3i fli 98<ieT0fti a.a mo' 
 
 t o. , ■ ' ,t ,' a T'l r ; ' -I '-' ~il :■ 
 
 'Xo ^G i>t»3aaj aosii 
 
GHAPTiiJR S£V]Jll!l~ilbiCOI^iMi;)i^'Di!:i/ iiCHOOL 
 CUHRIGULUM 
 
 In making the following recommendations, the writer of this 
 paper has seen no reasons for proposing an educational program fca: 
 labor that difiers in its prime essentials from an educational cur- 
 riculum for any other class in a democratic state. It is true that 
 education should he differentiated not in terms of classes, but on 
 the basis of indivld^^al capacity. Opportunity should be provided 
 upon equal terms for the exercise of this capacity to its fullest 
 extent, rixcessive poverty should not be a handicap to this oppor- 
 tunity, enither should prodigious wealth, 
 
 iiducation should be evaluated in terms of man's relation to 
 his environment. In fact, education is nothing else but a reaction 
 to this environment, Education, then, must be considered valuable 
 to the extent that It articulates with the environment in which we 
 live, Latia was practical for a xioman; Chinese is valuable for a 
 Chinaman, but are these languages valuable for an American? ij'unB- 
 tional knowledge can be determined for classes and occupations where 
 there is a common experience lor that class and occupation, The 
 business of education should be to approximate these needs as nearly 
 as possible. 
 
 To evaluate knowledge for the individual would require an 
 
Jselliil: 
 
 QS 
 
 amies 
 
 
 oltsiODbii. 
 nsmnottvnt 
 
 'ii 
 
 i,JBOi;: 
 
 <^ ;2 f : A 
 
 
acquaintance with the role he is to perform and the relation he is 
 to sustain in his environment. Lhis for most people is not def- 
 initely determinable, '-^o ascertain this information one must kijOW 
 the profession followed, the place in which one lived, and numerous 
 other details, such as marriage, children and special inierests. 
 
 "ith this practical interpretation of education in view, it 
 necessarily becomes imperative that some sort of a classification 
 of knowledge be made to meet the most frequently recurring exi- 
 gencies of life. J'or labor this means a classification of iOiowl- 
 edge based upon the economic life of the workingclass. j;or, as 
 has been stated at previous times in this paper, it is from these 
 economic institutions that labor receives its inspiration, [ijhe 
 economic relations of an individual are his social relations, oome 
 jUiowledge may fall outside the economic classification, but xiot an 
 appreciable amount, ijiducation requires tnat there run tiir^ugh it 
 well-defined, or at least quite clearly defined, constants. In 
 economic terms these constants are the three "fundamental social 
 processes of Prodiiction, Distribution, and Consumption."* 
 
 Productionsl knowledge treats of the science of the produc- 
 tion of wealth, Vhe evolution of man from a "pain economy" to ^ 
 status of "pleasure economy" is the transition from a condition in 
 which poverty was explained by the "niggardliness of nature" to a 
 
 *"!Z'he iiducation of Tomorrow", by ^rland Weeks, 
 

 '^t vl 
 
 aoiti , , xediQ 
 
 ;cPi.J3on. ^ stri- 
 
 --'• J mott el ,1 ax aeiniJ euolv©;. ; B«ri 
 
 eraoc .anotJciei iax aio laixbiTiJoni iijj - lux oituonoo© 
 
 it tkj^i^taJ Lu:i e'lfnu j-^ad" s»-'ii ■.•.'ei iiotJiiOJ' . ' • -• exui 
 
 j.ij,. ;jvjc: 
 
 
 "■jx'Boiq- Sri .-saotbB v 
 
 riljiaoo a aoxt ac 
 
 itXaew ^ 
 
 --ovcT .-fotrfrr 
 
 '•ii-cf nrfir. 
 
situated in which we enjoy a social surplus. Naturally, it is 
 to be expected that around the fundamental work of the production 
 of economic goods there is to be found un extensive fund of ac- 
 cumulated kuov/ledge. All the occupations related to the extrac- 
 tion, transference, and the transformaticn of economic goods §re 
 to be classified as Productional Knowledge, ^ill the knowledge 
 relating to the arts, crafts, and sciences, from the most simple 
 operation to the most complex mechanical formula, are one and all 
 to be included in Productional Knowledge. All forms of useful 
 work on the farm, in the mines, in the mills, etc., every worker 
 from the lowest to the highest grade are contributors to this form 
 of knowledge, 
 
 distributional Knowledge is included in a study and applica- 
 tion of the economic and social sciences with increased efficiency 
 in production; there inevitably arises the question of sharing the 
 
 product, This form of knowledge is of equal or even of more impor- 
 tance than Productioxial Knowledge, for unless in some manner the 
 wealth produced by the workers in industry is snared, starvation 
 and death result, i'he enormous contrast in the possession of wealth 
 is not due to the fact that these "takers of wealth" possess greater 
 productional efficiency, but greater distributional power, i'he 
 Greek slaves, and in fact the wkilled working producers of all an- 
 cient and ilediaeval times, were expert in productional ^unowledge, 
 but they wer j ignorant as to •'distributional Knowledge. 
 
f ' DOS tiiii lo 
 
 ©■x«* abooj t :>© 10 flolJii , , 
 
 BLqsath .'iavae , , -t 
 
 LL^ biu ^. , Ino in adoeai xe' t noitaisnro 
 
 lulesjj lo Bnno'i ii^ »&-%Dolifoa.. laaolioisboi'i ni b&bisS.ol^l 6d Oo 
 
 isji , . ,8liira edt rrl ,aonini &cii as , low 
 
 'iOiiyioii'ib iioSii-jioai uJxw aaoaeiofe laloc • otcaoaooa aricT to ooli^ 
 
 -loqaii eiotfi to iisvo 10 laupe to i jjXwoox to iino'i eiriT •d'ouboiq 
 
 ■ , .».■,- 
 
There always has existed in the social order a class of per- 
 sons that may be termed the "getters of wealth". Those who follow 
 this profession are seldom efficient producers. Trusts, pools, 
 combines, employers' and manufacturers* associations on the one 
 hand, and labor organizations on the other, are expressions and 
 manifestations of i^istributional Knowledge, burely vocational edu- 
 cation must include in its curriculum an ample share of this form 
 of knowledge, for the Subject matter of this field of education 
 from labor's viewpoint has been sorely neglected. The production 
 
 of economic goods has been more nearly solved than have the prob- 
 lems of an equitable distribution of these same goods. 
 
 Consumptional Knowledge has to do with all the occupations 
 that treat of the use of leisure time. 
 
 It might be noted that this states one of organized labor's 
 most fundamental aims, that is, the secure possession of a greater 
 amount of free time. 
 
 Consumption Knowledge is the knowledge that really makes 
 life worth while. It is the knowledge that distinguishes the per- 
 son of refinement. It does not mean in any sense of the word the 
 aping of the custoniS and employments of a wealthy leisure class, 
 but to know the "rational, satisfying use of wealth". It means a 
 relief from the humdrum monotony of the "work conscience" of the 
 slave who thinks that a life is to be voted the most successful that 
 included the greatest amount of toll. 
 
«alooq ,oJ'8u letoir 
 
 . ' . ■ ' iier.c ■ , 
 
 ijiK. afloia8o*X'fx© , no eaoJtJ' 
 
 jUTL_ lUiJXJJ-'. 
 
 aoi^fioi/Jbe lo bl^fi lo ■i8;r;»^i3fli .foetcfifg art 
 
 yiioi r.sqyoot.- __^ 
 
 .on^t fiTr/etoI 1:o **^ir «»rft to t; 
 
 ie;Jid(^ig 
 
 U9H:'.:^ -. 
 
 . it ai ©T* --a aoiiv 
 
 rs 
 
 ^PffC'i-f. ^I0» 
 
 ,88310 dTtnetei iew & X<- %aiq3 
 
 encr lo "' -i-iov.' 
 
 Xix'iaseoojji. erl3- fceJ-ov oo 
 
It means an appreciation of wholesome play and recreation, 
 and in addition a ioiowledge of much of the best that has heen 
 thought, said, and done in the world. Much of the subject mat- 
 ter included in the classical high school or college fills this 
 requirement, but the mistake must not be made of excluaing the 
 other two forms of knowledge, productional , and distributional . 
 
 In a democracy, an education must include a liberal evaluation 
 of these three forms of knowledge, xhey should be ranked as con- 
 stants in all the years of the secondary school training. 
 
 The following is an outline of subjects that should be in?* 
 eluded under these forms of knowledge: 
 Productional Knowledge 
 
 (1) Language (vernacular) 
 (£) Applied Mathematics 
 
 (3) iilements of Mechanics 
 
 (4) Agriculture 
 
 (5) xhe General iiciences 
 
 (6) The Various iihop Trades 
 
 (7J Mechanical Drawing and Designing 
 Distributional Knov/ledge 
 
 (1) Current Events 
 
 (2) iilementary -economics 
 
 (3) iiconomic History 
 
 (4) Political Parties 
 
^.iGtiBQioer baa TjaXq 6flioaeIo;i (lolJ-aioaiqcttB aa aaaem *I 
 
 -»fll ed I s;toetrfua lo enii^i' :woIi< 
 
 oXwortx to aanolt ect. 
 
 8oin 
 
 ©t:rt£uoiT9,A (^) 
 
(5) Government 
 
 (6) Labor Organizations 
 
 ( 7 ) Money 
 
 (8) Insurance 
 
 (9) Investment 
 
 (10) Banking 
 
 (11) Wages 
 
 (12) Applied iithics 
 Gonsumptional knowledge 
 
 (1) Literature 
 
 (2) History 
 
 (3) Musio 
 
 (4) Art 
 
 (5) Languages (foreign) 
 
 (6) acienoes 
 
 (7) Hecreations 
 
 (8) xithios (social usages and relations) 
 
 In final conclusion, if organized labor is to profit by the - 
 federal Grants for Vocational iiiducation, it must see that schools 
 organized under said Board shall include not only the type of pro-- 
 ductional education represented by a trade school and its closely 
 allied science and drawing, but also, --which is of more importance- 
 an education liberal In Its quantity of Distributional and Consump- 
 
anol. 
 
 '.raevnl (e) 
 
 eta i HI' 
 
 it:-- Ui 
 (agte 
 
 Baolieeioeii (Vi 
 
 -rod.".! Berl , 
 
 -o*c i<i%^ &iii ton BbuLout l oiL btaa ie: :;u 
 
 TstiTGaettr^T not. '. towb 
 
 — eOflO^iotxDU ©10M lo ai xto --, , vraib cii 
 
tional Knowledge, Further, this education must not he adminis- 
 tered by leisure-class, academic servants of "husiness interests" 
 
 hut by workers in the industries with a social vision and the 
 
 ideals and ethics of Organized Labor, 
 
 THii KUD 
 
• loa^u. Do£ inii^^iu ^o 8olfiJ-o Baa dXaafii 
 
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