MINIATURE COLOR CHARTS MADE FROM THE BRADLEY EDUCATIONAL COLORED PAPERS. T. 1. - i. S. 2 . T.iv-ht Mrriinni. F)nrk OR YO RV. TMEN SPECTRUM SCALlS. (See P<\ 41.) ELEMENTARY COLOR' BY JVEILTON BRADLEY, Author of Color in the Schoolroom" and " Color in the Kindergarten. ' WIT.J4 AN INTRODUCTION BY LKKAVOUR, Professor of Physics, Williams College. Third Edition. MII/TON BRADLEY CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. C4 COPYRIGHTED, 1895, BY MILTON BRADLEY CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. CONTENTS. PAGE. THE THEORY OF COLOR . . . . . ". 9 Why Artists and Scientists Have Disagreed . . 10 The Speculations of the Past . . . . 12 What the Primary Teacher Needs to Consider . . 13 Concerning the Solar Spectrum . . . . 15 Six Spectrum Standards of Color . ... . 17 The Color Wheel and Maxwell Disks . . . 18 The Bradley System of Color Instruction . . 20 COLOR DEFINITIONS . 23 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS . . " . , . . 31 The Color Wheel . .... 31 The Color Top 32 Use of the Disks _ 32 How to Begin the Experiments .... 34 The Old Theories Tested by Mixture of Three Pigments 45 Old Theories Tested by the Color Wheel or Color Top 46 Concerning the Complementary Colors . . .50 Citrines and Russets . . . . . . 54 Olives . . . . . . . 55 Vermilion, Burnt Sienna, Raw Sienna and Indian Red 56 Classification of Harmonies . . . . 56 The W^ork of Chevreul Reviewed . . . . 58 Simultaneous, Successive and Mixed Contrast . 61 Contrasted Harmony . . . . * 64 Color with White . 64 Black with White .... .64 Color with Black . . . . ... . 65 735020 iv CONTENTS. Colors with Gray ' V 65 Contrast of Colors v 67 Dominant Harmonies ... 67 Complementary Harmonies . * . 69 Analogous Harmonies ... .70 Perfected Harmonies ... 70 Field's Chromatic Equivalents . . . 73 Colored Papers .... > 74 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM 76 The Glass Prism ...... 78 How the Bradley Color Standards Were Chosen . 71)' Paper Color Tablets ... . . . 80 Color Wheel or Top . . . ... . 82 The Study of Tones . . . ., . . 85 Neutral Grays ... . 81) Explanation of Bremen CuiOir, . . 1)1 An Exercise m Woken Colors . . . 92 Formulas for a Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales . 95 Certain Color Puzzles ... 9G Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales Completed . . 98 The Work of Cutting and Pasting .... 99 A Variety of Designs . . ... . . . 101 Analysis of Color Materials . . . ., . .. 106 The Bradley Colored Papers . . . . . 112 Engine Colored Papers . . . . . . 116 Water Colors , . . . . ..,!*; ,. 118 Color Blindness . ". . . -. . 121 OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION . ; 124 The Solar Spectrum . . . . . V 125 Pigmentary Spectrum Colors . . . * . 125 Study of Tones . . . . . . . 126 Broken Colors . . . . . , . 127 Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five Tones 127 Advanced Study of Harmonies . . . . 128 INTRODUCTION. -^ THE movement in educational reform at present is in the di- rection of unification. It is held that in framing the pro- gramme for any grade the interest not only of the next higher but of all higher grades must be considered. This is done not solely that those who are to enter the higher grades may be di- rectly prepared for their more advanced studies, but especially because it is felt that better work will thus be done for those whose school training is soon to terminate. For the child's education is never finished and a mind rightly directed at the start will gather from its practical experience that with which it may develop and augment the resources and the ideas al- ready received. No education can be sound which teaches anything that is inconsistent with the more advanced truths, however complex and profound those truths may be. There should be no unlearning in the course of an education nor any expenditure of time on that which has no permanent value. It is of importance therefore to consider in connection with the study of any special subject what the problems are which lie at the end of the educational journey and what basis will be needed in the child's maturer thought. There will thus be the inspiration of the goal to be attained and guidance in the selec- tion of the most helpful methods. There is scarcely any subject that has so many practical and scientific aspects as the subject of color. Its great importance in the arts and its contribution to the enjoyment of life are 2 INTRODUCTION. matched by the multiplicity of problems in the physical and philosophical sciences with which it is connected. Without at- tempting to enumerate all of the scientific problems related to this subject, it may be of interest to briefly summarize those which are most prominent. At the outset we have such purely physical questions as the nature of light, the cause of its emis- sion, the mode of its propagation, the difference in the waves which give rise to the various color sensations, the principles of absorption, of reflection and of refraction, and the nature of material surfaces whereby they acquire their characteristic colors. Then comes the physiology of the eye, including its structure and its function and involving the much discussed questions of primary and secondary colors, and these are closely related to the psychological or psycho-physical study of the nature, duration and delicacy of color vision and color judgment. Next to these comes the study of pigments and of the chromatic effects of their mixture, essentially a chemical and technical question, and finally, the most important of all, the purely psychological or aesthetic problem touching the har- monization and grouping of the various colors and their modi- fications. The recent advance made in experimental psy- chology has given an impetus to the study of the whole subject and we may reasonably expect that rational explanations may be found for questions in aesthetics hitherto considered purely arbitrary. It will be readily seen that there must be a well developed and carefully trained color sense at the basis of an education which is to lead to the consideration of these and similar chro- matic problems. As in the development of any special percep- tive power, a great deal depends upon making a beginning INTRODUCTION. 3 early in life, when the mind is most receptive and there are no preconceptions to be overcome. Every means should be em- ployed that will help the child to distinguish between principal colors and between modifications of principal colors. His at- tention should be directed at as early a stage as possible to the analysis of composite colors and the effects obtained by the combination of colored lights and the results of irradiant light. The principles of chromatic harmony are perhaps not simple, but a child, before whom right standards of color combinations are constantly presented, will acquire a correct aesthetic judg- ment that may become intuitive. The effect of such a training on the higher development of our people and on their apprecia- tion of true art would be of the greatest value. If the instruction in color is to be systematic and efficient, it is unquestionable that there must be a simple nomenclature for the standard colors ; and for the teacher's guidance at least as well as for the use of the older pupils, a scientifically accu- rate system of describing any required modification of these recognized standards. The system presented in this book is based on the well-known principle of the Maxwell wheel and has been elaborated by one who has had in view not only the theory of the subject but also the practical possibilities of its use in preparing educational material. This fact, I feel sure, greatly enhances the value of the conclusions at which he arrives. HENRY LEFAVOUR. Williams College, December 20, 1894. PREFACE. Ever since Newton discovered the solar spectrum it has been referred to in a poetic way as Nature's standard of color. But as soon as the author attempted, some twelve years ago, to use it practically by making pigmentary imitations of the spectrum colors as standards they were decried as vulgar and inartistic. Under such circumstances it was a great pleasure to him to hear a celebrated art professor answer his inquiry if the solar spectrum is the proper place to look for standards of color witn the emphatic assertion, "Certainly, there is no other place to go." Where there are no standards there can be no measurements, and if in color w r e have no measurements of effects, no records can be made, and hence no comparisons of results at various places and times, and consequently no discussion and little pro- gress. Because there have been no accepted standards and no measurements of color very little has thus far been decided re- garding psychological color effects. In dm wing, as at present taught in our best schools from the kindergarten to the university, the foundation of art. in black and white is laid in form study. From the drawing teachers we learn that a good touch and a ne sense for light and shade in all their subtle relations to each other are without value, unless due care has been given to the commonplace con- sideration of lengths and directions of lines, that is to say to the measurement of lines and angles, and to the laws of per- spective. We cannot have measurements without standards. By the foot or the metre we measure lines and by the divided circle we measure angles. 6 PREFACE. Geometrical forms have already been so definitely analyzed by the science of mathematics that if destroyed to-day these solids and surfaces could be reconstructed at any future time from written or printed directions. But suppose all material samples of color to be lost, it would be impossible by the ordi- nary system of color nomenclature to even approximately re- store a single one from written or verbal descriptions. Color is one of the first things to attract the attention of the infant, almost as soon as a sound and long before form appeals to him, so that a collection of colored papers will often prove more interesting and instructive than a picture book to the baby, while the graduate from a two year's course in the kindergarten may have a better color sense than is at present enjoyed by the average business or professional man. If we could determine the colors used by the great masters in the past, we could add much to our knowledge of the fine arts ; and if we knew what colors Chevreul, the master dyer of the Gobelins Tapestry works, refers to in his writings, and which he indicated by hundreds of numbered samples filed away in his cabinet, we should in this generation have a won- derful fund of information to increase our knowledge of har- monies, on which to base our study of color in the indus- trial arts. But alas ! the paintings of the old masters have faded and the great dyer had no language in which to describe his colors in his writings, and therefore it is claimed that little or no ad- vance in color perception has been made in modern times, if indeed we have held our ow r n. The further assertion is made that those semi-civilized nations whose drawings are the least artistic greatly surpass us in natural color perceptions. If color is the one thing in which we are deficient and in which we are making no advance, is it not necessary that we adopt a new line of operations for our color instruction in the pri- mary grades ? It is self-evident that in primary work highest art is not expected in either literature, music, drawing or paint- PREFACE. 7 ing, but as has been the aim in literature for a long time and in drawing and music more recently, so in coloring, our in- struction should be based on those principles on which highest art must rest. When through the introduction of colored papers in the kin- dergartens and primary schools the teachers began to call for better assortments of colors in their papers than were to be found in the market, and some of us in the field attempted to meet their wants, the solution of the problem seemed almost a hopeless task, because no two wanted the same colors ; each teacher was a law to herself and one thought a color u just lovely" which another declared "perfectly horrid." According to the early theories then in vogue the first colors called for were red, yellow and blue for primaries, but no two persons were sure just what they wanted for either of these, and there was no authority to be referred to for a decision. In this strait, which was practically a serious difficulty, the artists were appealed to for a decision as to the three "primary colors," and also for examples showing in what proportions the "ideal primaries" must be mixed to produce the "ideal second- aries." But in this there was no satisfaction because hardly two agreed in the primaries and necessarily the secondaries were much less definite, which was the result that should have been expected. It is a self-evident proposition that if two indefinite prima- ries are combined in indefinite proportions the possible second- aries which may thus be produced must be exceedingly numer- ous, and if this idea is carried out in the production of tertiaries by the combination of the secondaries the resulting colors may be almost infinite. In view of the indifference of the artists and the popular ignorance regarding the subject the solution of this question and the discovery of any solid basis on which to formulate a system of elementary color instruction seemed very problematical. But after much experimenting and many con- ferences with artists and scientists a basis for operation was 8 PREFACE. decided upon and at the end of fifteen years the efforts begun in doubt have resulted in a definite system of color instruction which it is the purpose of this book to concisely set forth. It is prepared in response to inquiries from primary school teachers for a clear and condensed explanation of the Bradley System of Color Instruction. The aim is to offer a definite scheme and suitable material for a logical presentation of the truths regarding color in nature and art to the children of the primary schools. Much of this instruction is so simple that it should be familiar to children who have had kindergarten train- ing and has therefore already been explained in substantially the same form in "Color in the Kindergarten." A few years ago it might well have been thought necessary to preface a treatise on the subject with arguments to prove that color is a legitimate object for school instruction, but to- day this is not a question with thoughtful educators, whether considered from the practical, industrial or aesthetic standpoint. With the establishment of professorships of practical psychol- ogy and the equipment of laboratories, provided with delicate and expensive apparatus for making and recording tests, there comes with increasing force the demand for some means by which the experiments in color made in various localities may be unified both as to the colors used and the terms and meas- urements for recording the result. It is the hope of the author that the system here outlined may be the initial step in gather- ing together such facts regarding color effects as will form a fund of knowledge little dreamed of at the present day. The Theory of Color. r [N ORDER to place the study of color on a broad and safe foundation, the work must commence at the bot- tom with a rational presentation of the subject, based on ex- periments and the use of color material. We must intelligently consider the relation tha- < M r '- ;f colors a-ii'l swne measurement of color effects which can be recorded in accepted terms. Why Artists and' Scientists Have Disagreed. In the realm of art there' is no necessity for any purely scien- tific analysis of sunlight, which is the origin of natural colors, because all the practical value of color is found in its aesthetic effects on the mind, and in order to enjoy these even in the highest degree it is not necessary that we understand the scien- tific origin of the colors, any more than it is necessary for the artist to know the chemical composition of his pigments in order to produce best effects with them on his canvas. Because of this almost self-evident fact, artists have as a rule been very impatient when any reference has been made to the science of color in connection with color education, believing that color is an exception to the general subjects of study to such a de- gree that it lies outside of all scientific investigations. Conse- quently they have not been in sympathy with the physio- psychological investigations which have been prosecuted with such promising results in other lines, when such investigations have been proposed regarding color. While it is not essential for best results in his own work that an expert artist shall know anything of the science of color, still if he is to com- municate his knowledge of art to any others except his per- sonal pupils, he must have some language in which to make known his ideas, and on the same grounds if any psychological THE THEORY OF COLOR. 11 tests are to be made regarding color, it is evident that there must be some accepted terms in which to record the results, which has not hitherto been the case. When the well known Newton and Brewster theory of three primary colors red, yellow and blue, was advocated by those scientists there appeared to be something of interest and value in it for the artists also, because with the three pigments red, yellow and blue, they seemed to be able to confirm the truth of the scientific theories regarding the spectrum colors. But the scientists have long been convinced that there is no truth in this theory and have quite generally accepted the Young- Helmholtz idea of three other color perceptions red, green and violet, from which they claim all color vision is produced, and which they call fundamental colors. This more modern theory has seemed so far removed from the realm of the artists and the colorists that they have not been able to see anything in it of truth or value to them, and so have continued to repeat the old, old story of the three pri- maries red, yellow and blue, from which the secondaries orange, green and purple are made etc., etc., all of which is the more pernicious when accepted as a correct theory because of its seeming approximation to the facts. And yet there is not in it all any scientific truth on which to build a logical system of color education, and some of the effects which are considered prominent arguments for the system are directly opposed to well known facts in the science of color. Consequently, the artist has failed to gain from the investigations of the scientists anything to aid him in his pigmentary worK, and the scientist has not been interested in the aesthetic ideas of the artists which in fact he has generally been unable to fully appreciate, from lack of training and associations. The system of color instruction here presented for primary grades is based on the results of careful study and experiment for many years in which the attempt has been made to bring the scientist and the artist on to common ground, where 12 THE THEORY OF COLOR. they may work in sympathy with each other instead of at cross purposes as has been the case heretofore, and the results with children have already been such as to testify fully to the effi- ciency of this line of work. Thus the feeling for color which every true artist has, inn v be to a certain extent analyzed so that it can be understood by the scientist and recorded for the benefit of fellow artists one hundred or a thousand miles away and in time an aggregation of facts regarding the psychological effects of color collected which will form the beginning of a valuable fund of color knowledge to be increased from age to age. The Speculations of the Past. Ever since Newton produced the prismatic solar spectrum, the so-called science of color as applied to pigments and color- ing, has been a most curious mixture of truth, error and specu- lation. It was supposed by Newton and Bre water that in the solar spectrum the colors were produced by the over-lapping of three sets of colored rays red, yellow and blue. The red rays at one end were supposed to overlap or mix with the yellow rays to make the orange, and on the other side of the yellow the blue rays were supposed to combine with the yellow to pro- duce green. Following the same theory in pigmentary colors, it has been claimed that all colors in nature may be produced by the com- bination of pigments in these three colors red, yellow and blue, and hence they have been called primary colors. It is still claimed by the advocates of this theory that from the three primaries red, yellow and blue the so-called secondaries orange, green and purple can be made, and that the secondaries are complementary to the primaries in pairs ; the orange to the blue, the green to the red and the purple to the yellow. By similar combinations of the secondaries it is claimed that three other colors, in themselves peculiar, and different from the first six, may be made, the orange and green forming cit- rines, orange and violet russets, and green and violet olives Till: THEORY OF COLOR. i;j mid these ;uv called tertiaries. After having accepted this tic- tion as a scientific theory for so many years, it is very difficult to convince the artists and colorists that in it all there is noth- ing of value to any one, but such is practically a fact, because from no three pigmentary effects in red, yellow and blue can the three colors orange, green and purple of corresponding purity be produced, neither are the primary colors complemen- tary to the secondaries as claimed nor are the so-called ter- tiaries new and distinct colors but simply gray spectrum colors. Because the red, yellow and blue theory would not stand the test of scientific investigation the Young-Helmholtz theory of three other primaries red, green and violet, has been quite gen- erally adopted by the scientists of the past generation. What the Primary Teacher Needs to Consider. All these discussions of the scientists are intensely interest- ing and no doubt of great importance in the line to which they pertain, but practically neither the artists nor the primary school teachers care for all these theories and discussions and because the scientists have closely confined themselves to these lines, the artists and teachers have seen nothing of value to them in their theories. In going to the solar spectrum for standards on which to base pigmentary standards, we have given little attention to these various theories in their details, but the one fact of sci- ence has received careful attention, namely, that all color ef- fects in nature and art are produced by light reflected from ma- terial surfaces. Therefore, inasmuch as the light reflected from any surface must be affected by both the material color of the surface and the color of the light which illuminates the surface, it is necessary that every one having to do with this subject be informed as to what color must be expected to result from given conditions. In order that this phase of the subject be discussed and thus more fully understood, there must be a terminology or nomen- clature in which to express the results produced by given con- 14 THE THEORY OF COLOR. ditions, and also standards by which to imaly/e, measure and record these results. In selecting these standards more regard must be given to the aesthetic or psychical effect of the pigmen- tary standards than to the purely scientific or physical proper- ties of colored light. This selection is of great interest to the physiological psychologist because it is only by the comparison and averaging of thousands of experiments made on different people that valuable theories can be formulated. With standards and a nomenclature, color will be placed on an equal footing with other subjects, so that perceptions of color effects may be recorded and discussed with much of the definiteness with which we treat form and tone. Because this has not heretofore been possible, comparatively little advance has been made during the last two decades in the aesthetic con- sideration of material color wliicli is the only practical phase of the subject, and if any greater progress is to be achieved in the future it evidently must be along new lines. From the nursery to the university we are constantly asking two questions, "What is it?" and "Why is it?" and this is what the educator from the Kindergarten to the College is called upon to answer. In his laboratory the psychologist is collecting physical facts by tests regarding the powers of the eye and the ear, the sense of touch, weight, memory, etc., and these experiments when classified, arranged and averaged, fur- nish a basis for formulating theories, all of which is called psychology. In vision, form and color play the principal parts, in fact cover the whole ground if we include light and shade in color where it belongs. Experiments regarding form can be and have long been very definitely recorded but this has not been true with color. To Froebel must be given the honor of introducing logical form study into primary education, and on this has been built the present admirable system of drawing in our higher grades of schools, and the introduction of fie standard forms in solids THE THEORY OF COLOR. 15 mul surfaces has brought about a definite use of geometrical terms by young children which would have seemed very un- naturally mature a generation ago. But in color no correspond- ing advance has been made because there have been no gen- erally accepted standards in color to correspond to the sphere, cube, cylinder, circle, ellipse and triangle in form, nor any means for measurements to take the place of the foot or metre for lengths and the divided circle for angles. It is not expected that the children in the lowest grades will learn much of the science of color, but it is desirable that the teachers have such knowledge of it that they will not uncon- sciously convey to the children erroneous impressions which must be unlearned later in life. Concerning the Solar Spectrum. More than two hundred years ago Sir Isaac Newton discov- ered that a triangular glass prism would transform a beam of sunlight into a beautiful band of color. If the prism is held in a beam of sunlight which enters a moderately lighted room, there will appear on the walls, ceiling or floor, here and there, as the glass is moved, beautiful spots in rainbow colors. If the room is darkened by shutters, and only a small beam of light is admitted through a very narrow slit and the prism properly adjusted to receive this beam of light, a beautiful band of variegated colors may be thrown on to a white ceiling or screen, and this effect is called a prismatic solar spectrum. A perfect solar spectrum once seen under favorable conditions in a dark room is a sight never to be forgotten. The accompanying illustration shows the relative positions of the parts named. A is the beam of light as it enters the room. B is the triangular prism. The dotted lines represent groups of rays extending to the vertical band of colors indicated by the letters V for violet at the top, then blue, green, yellow, orange to red at the bottom. The explanation of this phenomenon is that the beam of sun- light is composed of a great number of different kinds of rays, 16 THE THEOIJY OF COLOR. which in passing through the prism are refracted or bent from their direct course, and some are bent more than others, the red least of all and the 'violet most. It is supposed that light is propagated by waves or undulations in an extremely rare substance termed ether which is supposed to occupy all space and transparent bodies. These waves are thought to be similar FIG. 1. *o sound waves in the air or the ripples on the smooth surface of a pond when a pebble is thrown into it. Because so many i>f the phenomena of light can be satisfactorily explained by uiis theory, it has been very generally adopted by the scien- tists. The amount that rays of light are refracted from a straight line in passing through a prism is in proportion to the number of waves or undulations per second, and in in verse pro- portion to the length of the waves. The red weaves are re- fracted the least and are the longest, while the violet rays are refracted the most and are the shortest. Whether this theory of the spectrum formation is absolutely correct or not, the fact is established that the colors found in a prismatic solar spectrum are always the same under the same conditions and the order of their arrangement is never changed. By mea^a of the quality of spectrum colors called the w r ave length, a ^iven color can always be located in the spectrum, and hencto if a spectrum color is selected as a standard it can always be determined by its recorded wave length. THE THEORY OF COLOR. 17 Six Spectrum Standards of Color. Therefore it seems possible to establish certain standards of color by a series of definitely located portions of the solar spec- trum and in the system here presented six have been chosen, namely red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These six are more distinctly recognized than the others, and from them by combination in pairs of colors adjacent in the spectrum all the other colors can be very closely imitated, and hence these six are selected as the spectrum standards. In these standards the most intense expression of each color is chosen i. e. the reddest red, greenest green, etc. which by the closest scientific investigation have been located by their wave lengths so that if they are in doubt in future they can be re-determined by individuals or if disputed, may be corrected by any authori- tatively established congress, selected for the purpose. The wave lengths of our six standards are represented by the fol- lowing numbers in ten millionths of a millimeter. Red, 6571 ; Orange, 6085 ; Yellow, 5793 ; Green, 5164 ; Blue, 4695 ; violet, 4210. Having thus scientifically established these unchangeable standards the attempt is made to. secure the best possible pig- mentary imitation of each. To any one who has ever compared a piece of colored ma- terial with a good presentation of a spectrum color, it is un- necessary to say that the result in an attempt to match the spectrum color with the material or pigmentary color is a very weak approximation, but the one thing aimed at is to secure nearly as possible the same kind of color. For example in the red, it is the aim to obtain the same kind of red, by which we mean the same location in the spectrum, i. e. a red neither more orange nor more violet than the reddest spot in the spec- trum. This selection must be based on a purely aesthetic per- ception or impression of color. The same is true of each of the six standard colors, as for example, for orange we select the location which has seemed to a large number of good judges to best represent the feeling of orange as between the quite well 18 THE THEORY OF COLOR. defined red on one hand and the equally definite narrow band of yellow on the other, and it is quite wonderful what unanimity of opinion there is on this particular color which would naturally seem to be the one most doubtful in its location. On the other side of the yellow the green seems to offer little difficulty and the pure Paris or emerald green is very nearly the standard. The violet being at the other end of the spectrum is as easily decided as the red, but the blue between the green and violet is not so easily determined, because, from the best blue the hue runs so imperceptibly into the violet on one side and the green on the other. Pure ultramarine blue is the nearest ap- proach to the spectrum standard of blue of any of the perma- nent pigments, but even this is a trifle too violet. For educational purposes papers coated with pigments afford at once the purest colors and the most economical and useful material, and on this plan a line of colored papers has been prepared for color instruction in the kindergartens and primary schools in imitation of the above described spectrum standards. From the pure spectrum standards it is possible by reflected light to combine the two standards to produce a color between them, for example if two small mirrors are held in a spectrum one at the "red" and the other at the "orange" and the two reflected on to the same spot on a white surface, the result is a color between the red and the orange. So also if we mix red and orange pigments together we may produce colors between the two which may be termed orange-red or red-orange ; but un- fortunately there is no means known by which we can measure the proportion of the red and orange color-effect which is pro- duced by any given mixture of these two pigments, because color-effect cannot be measured by the pint of mixed paint or the ounce of dry pigment. The Color Wheel and Maxwell Disks. We, however, have another means for measuring color effect which just in this emergency seems providential. It is a fact well known to every boy that if he rapidly whirls a lighted stick THE THEORY OF COLOR. 19 the fire at the end produces the effect of a circle of light, which phenomenon is explained by a quality of the eye called reten- tion of vision, by which the impression made by the point of light remains on the retina of the eye during an entire rotation. It is a fact, based on the same quality of vision, that if one color is presented to the eye, and instantly replaced by another the effect is a combination of the two colors. Therefore if one- quarter of the surface of a disk of cardboard is covered with orange paper and three-quarters with red paper, and then the disk placed on a rapidly rotating spindle, the color effect is a mixture of red and orange, and the effect is exactly in propor- tion to the angular measurements of the two sectors, so that if the circumference is divided into 100 equal parts the resultant color will be definitely represented by the formula u Red, 75 ; Orange, 25." Less than forty years ago an English scientist named J. Clerk Maxwell while making experiments with such painted disks happily conceived the idea of cutting a radial slit in each of two disks from the circumference to the center so that by joining the disks they could be made to show any desired pro- portion of each and hence they are called Maxwell disks. With such disks made in the six pigmentary standards red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, the intermediate pigmentary spec- trum colors may be very accurately determined by combination and rotation. If we give to each of these standards a symbol as R. for red, O- for orange, Y. for yellow, G. for green, B. for blue, V. for violet, we then have the basis for a definite nomen- clature of colors in imitation of the pure spectrum colors. As all pigmentary or material colors are modified by light and shade thus producing in high light tints and in shadow shades of the colors, we must seek for some means of imitating these ef- fects, and fortunately find them in white and black disks. If with a standard color disk we combine a white disk we may have a line of tints of that color, and with a black disk, shades. Giving this white disk a symbol of W. and the black disk N. 20 THE THEORY OF COLOR. we complete our nomenclature. We cannot use B for black be- cause B has already been used for blue, and therefore we use N. for niger, the Latin word for black. The Bradley System of Color Instruction. Briefly stated then this system of color instruction is com- prised under the six general heads : Spectrum Standards ; Pig- mentary Standards based on the spectrum standards ; Maxwell Rotating Disks in the pigmentary standards and Black and White ; a Color Nomenclature based on the accepted stand- ards and their disk combinations ; .and Colored Papers and Water Colors made in accordance with these standards. For spectrum standards, six definite locations expressing the natural aesthetic or psychological impressions of red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet are selected. Six standards are chosen instead of a larger number as for example twelve, be- cause for the purpose of a nomenclature the smaller number is more convenient than a greater number. The six are selected rather than three, four or five, because while in the considera- tion of colored light alone the smaller number would possibly suffice to form by combinations imitations of all other colors, any number smaller than six is entirely inadequate to form by pigmentary or disk combinations fairly good expressions of the corresponding spectrum color combinations. In selecting the spectrum standards special prominence has been given to the psychological color perceptions of experts in determining those locations in the spectrum best expressing the color feeling of red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, while the purely scientific consideration of these several ques- tions has not been ignored or lightly treated. For pigmentary standards the best possible pigmentary imi- tations of the six spectrum standards are secured and to these are added the nearest approach to white and black that can be produced in pigments. Pigmentary standards on which to base a nomenclature are valueless without some means by which measurements of stand- THE THEORY OF COLOR. 21 ards embraced in a given compound color can be expressed. The Maxwell color disks are the only known means by which we may measure the relative proportions of color effect embodied in a given color, and therefore the eight color disks are the foundation of the original color nomenclature herein advocated. Colored papers are chosen for primary color instruction be- cause paper is a valuable medium for simple schoolroom manual training and because no other pigmentary medium is at once so economical and affords such pure colors as may be secured in specially prepared colored papers, without a glazed surface. Before leaving this part of the subject we do well to remem- ber that in the present conditions of chemistry as applied to the preparation of pigments it is not possible to establish any absolutely definite science of such color combinations. Nor is it possible to establish permanent pigmentary standards without great expense, but if the locations of the standard colors in the spectrum are established by wave lengths the pigmentary stand- ards may be re-determined at any time and produced, in the purest pigments available at the time. In art or harmony ef- fects, the purity of the pigmentary standard is not so important as its hue, i. e. its location in the spectrum, which may always be determined by the established wave length. This last state- ment may be illustrated by the investigations regarding comple- mentary harmonies. Scientifically one color is not considered complementary to another unless when combined in equal quan- tities they produce white light, or in other words when combined by the rotation of disks each color must occupy a half circle and the result must be a neutral gray. But this is not essential iu considering a complementary harmony, as harmonies in dif- ferent tones and in various proportions are pleasing and as yet the proportions and tones which produce the best combinations have not been determined. The entire question of harmonies or pleasing color effects is dependent on individual color perception, and the establish- ment of rules and laws on these points can result only from a 22 THE THEORY OF COLOR. comparison of the opinions of many experts in various locali- ties and at different times. This cannot occur without some means for recording these opinions in generally accepted terms. It is too late for any individual opinion to be accepted as au- thority regarding the relative values of two different harmonies in color and this will- be still less possible as we become better educated in color and able to sense finer distinctions in color combinations. % Color Definitions. NG other advantages to be gained by a logical study of the psychology of color is the establishment of more accurate color terms and definitions. If experiments and dis- cussions based on accepted standards and methods of compari- sons can be carried on we may liope in time to have as defi- nite expressions of color terms as we now have in music and literature. All color terms used by artists, naturalists, manufacturers, tradesmen, milliners and the members of our households are as indefinite as one might naturally expect from the utter lack of a logical basis for the whole subject. Without definitions or means for intelligently naming any color, it is not strange that the terms used in speaking of colors and color effects are so contradictory as to lose much of their force, if perchance they retain anything of their original mean- ing. For example, probably most people apply the term SHADE to any modification of a color, either a hue, tint or shade. It is true that a concise and reasonably full dictionary of color terms must be the outcome of long experience in the logi- cal study of the science of color and its use in our every-day lives, and at the best only suggestions can be made at present. But as there must be a beginning and some* terms seem to be fairly well established, the following incomplete list of defini- tions is offered, always subject to amendment by the majority vote, for whenever such changes indicate advance they should be welcomed. Ray of Light. The finest supposable element of light impression in the eye. Beam of Light. A number of rays. 24 COLOR DEFINITIONS. Standard Colors. As used in this system of color nomen> clature, the best pigmentary imitation of each of the six spec- trum colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet and black and white. These are more specifically called Pigmen- tary Standards in distinction from spectrum standards. Spectrum Standards. The six colors found in the solar spec- trum and definitely located by their wave lengths, as follows in the ten millionths of a millimeter. Red, 6571 ; Orange, 6085 ; Yellow, 5793; Green, 5164; Blue, 4695; Violet, 4210. Pigmentary Colors. All colors used and produced in the arts and sciences. This is in distinction from colors seen in nature, as in flowers and the solar spectrum. The term refers not only to pigments in the strictest sense but to all surfaces coated, painted or dyed artificially. Pure Colors. A pure or full color, also called a saturated color, is the most intense expression of that color without the admixture of white or black or gray. All spectrum colors are pure, while no pigmentary color is absolutely pure, but the pig- mentary color which approaches most nearly to the correspond- ing color in the spectrum must be selected as the pigmentary type of purity of that color. For example, the standard for green must be the best possible pigmentary imitation of the spot in the spectrum which by general consent is called green, and so not only for the six standards but for all their combi- nations which produce the other colors in nature. In pigmentary colors the term pure is entirely one of relative degree. As processes of manufacture are improved and new chemical discoveries made, there is good reason to believe that we shall have much more intense colors and hence much better imitations of spectrum colors than are at present possible. Therefore as our pigments become purer those now accepted as full colors will in time become tints or broken colors and new standards will be adopted. Hue. The hue of a given color is that color with the admix- ture of a smaller quantity of another color. An orange hue of COLOR DEFINITIONS. 25 red is tfie standard ml mixed with a. smaller quantity of orange. With the disks, pure hues are secured only by mixing two stand- ards adjacent in the spectrum circuit. For convenience in speaking and writing about colors in this system of color instruction, all the spectrum colors other than the six standard spectrum colors are designated as intermediate spectrum hues, and often for convenience in 'speaking of them they are called simply spectrum hues. To these are also added the colors between red and violet which are not in the spectrum. When so used the term must be considered as purely technical in this particular relation, because a color between the standard blue and the standard green is in the abstract no more a hue than either of these colors. If two standards not adjacent in the spectrum circuit are combined the result is not a pure spec- trum hue but always some broken spectrum color. Local Color. A term applied to the natural color of an object when seen in ordinarily good daylight and at a convenient dis- tance, as a sheet of paper at arms length, a tree at twice its height, etc. Tint. Any pure or full color mixed with white, or reduced by strong sunlight. In the disk combinations a spectrum color combined with white. Shade. A full color in shadow, i. e., with a low degree of illumination. In disk combinations a spectrum color combined with a black disk produces by rotation a shade of that color. In pigments the admixture of black does not usually produce as satisfactory shades of a color as may be secured with some other pigments, and each artist has his -own preferences in making shades of the various colors on his palette. Scale. A scale of color is a series of colors consisting of a pure or full color at the center and graduated by a succession of steps to a light tint on one side and a deep shade on the other. Tone. Each step in a color scale is a tone of that color, and the full color may be called the normal tone in that scale. In art this word has had such a variety of meaning as to ren- 26 COLOR DEFINITIONS. der it very convenient for Amateur Art Critics, together with such terms as breadth, atmosphere, quality, values, etc., but in the consideration of color it should have this one definite meaning. Warm Colors. Red, orange and yellow, and combinations in which they predominate. Cool Colors. Usually considered to be green, blue and violet, and the combinations in which they predominate. But it is, perhaps, questionable whether green and violet may properly be termed either warm or cool. The term cool as applied to colors is quite indefinite, except in a general way, but red, orange and yellow are universally considered as warm, and blue and green- blue as cool. Neutral Gray. White in shade or shadow. Pure black and white mixed by disk rotation. Black and white pigments mixed do not usually produce a neutral gray, but rather a blue gray. Warm Gray. A neutral gray with the admixture of a small quantity of red, orange or yellow. Cool Gray. A neutral gray with a small quantity of blue or green blue. Green Gray. A neutral gray having combined with it a small quantity of green. As this color could hardly be classed with either warm or cool grays this fourth class of grays is suggested as helpful in giving definiteness to the more general color expressions. Broken Colors. Gray colors, often improperly called broken tints. For simplicity, a tint of a color is described as the pure color mixed with white and a shade as the color mixed with black, and the corresponding broken color is the same color mixed with both white and black or with neutral gray. A tint of a color thrown into a shadow or a shade of a color in bright sunlight gives a broken color. For various reasons a very large proportion of the colors in nature are broken. Broken colors are much easier to combine harmoniously than full colors, or even tints and shades. COLOR DEFINITIONS. 27 In disk combinations when a pure color is combined with both a white and black disk the result will be a broken color. When a color is mixed with both black and white, i. e., with gray, and becomes thereby a broken color, it then belongs to a broken scale and educationally has no place in any pure scale, i. c., a scale in which the key tone is a pure color. Neither has a broken scale of a color any place in a chart of pure scales or spectrum scales. Xvtitrtd Color*. A term often improperly applied to grays, white, black, silver and gold. See passive colors. Passive Colors. A term suggested as covering black, white, silver, gold and very gray colors. The term "neutral colors" is often used in this sense but this is evidently improper if we are to confine the term "neutral gray" to the representation of white in shadow because as soon as a gray has any color in it, it is no longer neutral. Active Colors. Those colors neither passive or neutral. Necessarily both the terms "active" and "passive" used in relation to colors must be quite indefinite. Comptementcury Colors. As white light is the sum of all color if we take from white light a given color the remaining color is the complement of the given color. When the eye has been fatigued by looking intently for a few seconds at a red spot on a white wall and is then slightly turned to the wall, a faint tint of a bluish green is seen, and this is called the acci- dental color of the red, and is supposed to be identical with its complementary color. If with the disks we determine a color which with a given color will produoe by rotation a neu- tral gray, we have the complementary color more accurately than by any other means at present known in the use of pig- mentary colors. Harmony. Two colors are said to be in harmony or to com- bine harmoniously if the effect is pleasing when they are in juxtaposition or are used in a composition. Spectrum Circuit. If a pigmentary imitation of the solar 28 COLOR DEFINITIONS. spectrum with the addition of violet red at the red end and red violet at the violet end be made, and the two ends joined, we shall have a spectrum circuit. This may be in the form of a circle, an ellipse or an oval. Primary Colors. In the Brewster theory red, yellow and blue. In the Young-Hemholtz theory red, green and violet are termed primary colors because it is supposed that from these three sen- sations all color perceptions are experienced. In purely scien- tific investigations of color perceptions these last three or others which are supposed to serve the same purpose are also called fundamental colors. Practically every spectrum color is a pri- mary, because each has its own wave length. Secondary Colors. In the Brewster theory orange, green and purple have been called secondary because it is claimed that they are produced by the combination of primary colors in pairs. Tertiary Colors. A term used in the Brewster theory to de- note three classes of colors called russet, citrine and olive, made by mixing the secondaries in pairs. These are all broken spectrum colors. The orange and purple produce russet ; the orange and green form citrine ; the green and purple, olive. There seems to be no good reason for perpetuating the indefi- nite terms secondaries and tertiaries as applied to color. Values. This word is very freely used in discussing effects in works of art, both in color and in black and white. At present it seems to be a very difficult term to define, and yet each artist is quite sure that he can "feel" it, although few will attempt to put into words a definition satisfactory even to themselves. When an engraver, who is also an artist, attempts to interpret nature in black and white on the metal plate or wooden block, he endeavors to reproduce the " values" of the various parts of the subject before him. In doing this he, for one thing, attempts to produce a variety of neutral grays which will express to the eye by means of black and white lines the same tones of color effect as are seen in the several parts of the subject under investigation. If this were the whole prob- COLOR DEFINITIONS. 29 lem the matter would be easily expressed by the disk nomen- clature. For instance, if we are to consider a certain red ob- ject which may be represented by the standard red disk, we place a medium sized disk of that color on the spindle, and in front of it, smaller disks of white and black united. By rota- tion the white and black disks become a neutral gray at the center of the red disk. If this gray is made nearly white all observers will agree that the gray is lighter than the red, and if it is nearly black the opinion will be equally unanimous that it is darker than the red. Consequently there evidently must be a gray somewhere between these two extremes which a large ma- jority of experts may agree to be equal in depth or tone to the red, i. e., neither lighter nor darker. But the artist-engraver will insist that to him the term "value" expresses much more than this and that he must use different lines in the sky or dis- tance from those which he uses in the foreground ; and some engravers will also insist that two different colors in the fore- ground must receive different treatment with the graver in order to express their true values. We know that true values of colors are not expressed in a photograph, as the warm colors are too dark and the blue far too light. If the term "value of a color" is to be used as expressing something more than a neutral gray of such a tone as to seem equal to it, then possibly this latter quality must be expressed by the word tone, and yet this use of that word will seem to enlarge its scope beyond its present limits as it now is used to express the relations between the different localities in one scale of color, while this new use will extend to the comparison of tones in various color scales, including neutral grays. Luminosity. The luminosity of a color is determined by comparing it with a neutral gray. When a color seems to be of the same brightness as a given neutral gray, i. e., not lighter nor darker, then that gray is its measure of luminosity. A noted authority says: "No colored object can have the luminosity of a white object reflecting practically the whole of 30 COLOR DEFINITIONS. the light impinging upon it. Therefore if we take absolute re- flection as 100 a fraction of 100 will give the relative lumi- nosity of any body." Luminosity is another expression of the quality above described as forming a prominent feature in the term values. Potentiality. The ability or strength of a color to affect other colors by combinations with them. For example, white has a greater potentiality than Mack, yellow greater than red, and violet the least of all the spectrum colors. It is a pertinent question whether any quality is involved iu this term which is not found in value, tone and luminosity, but it expresses a somewhat different phase of a line of color effects. Quality. This term seems to be used rather indefinitely when applied to color, but perhaps it is not far removed from the term hue or kind of color. Practical Experiments Illustrating; the Theory of Color. IN THE foregoing pages an attempt is made ^to^xplaiu 1 clearly and as briefly as possible the principles on which the Bradley system of color instruction is based, and also to sug- gest a few definitions necessary to an intelligent discussion of the general subject of Color, Owing to the peculiar nature of the questions involved, demonstration by actual experiment is more convincing than the mere statement of theories can possibly be, and therefore a few of the following pages will be devoted to the explanation of some valuable experiments, all of which may be tried by the teacher in private, while many of them can be shown the pupils with great advantage. In this system the Maxwell color disks are the means for color combinations and the basis for measurements, and therefore for a color nomenclature. For this reason the pre- sent chapter treats largely of the proper use of the wheel and incidentally the theory of red, yellow and blue primaries with combinations to produce secondaries Fi(i. 2. and tertiaries. No teacher using the material connected with this color scheme can hope to meet with success without a knowledge of the principles on which it is based, and in this subject as in all others, it is essential that the teacher shall know much more of it than he or she is ever required to teach. The Color Wheel. For most convenient use the machine should be clamped to the front of a table and near one end, so that the speaker using it can stand at the end of the table and operate it with the PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. FIG. 3. right hand. Fig. 2 represents the Normal School Color Wheel showing the face of the disks as seen by the audience. Facility in the operation of the Color Wheel is rapidly acquired by practice and the exact position is easily deter- mined by the operator after a few trials. Fig. 3 shows the Primary School Coloi Wheel, which has only two sizes of disks, while the largest ma- chine has four sizes and is much finer in construction. The smaller ma- chine does not require clamping to a table, but may be steadied by the left hand while being operated by the right hand. The Color Top. Many of the experiments of the color wheel can be produced with a small toy called a Color Top, which is shown in Fig. 4. It is composed of a thick cardboard disk forming the body of the top and a central wooden spin- dle on which the disk closely fits. A number of colored paper disks are provided with this top so that very many of the experiments performed/ before a class can be repeated indi-^ vidually by the pupils and in this way the facts which may have been FIG. 4. demonstrated to the class with the color wheel can be fixed in the minds of the pupils by their own experiments with the top. Also as a home toy in the hands of the pupils it can be of value, not only to the children, but to the parents as well. Use of the Disks. Fig. 5 shows the method of joining two Maxwell disks and Fig. 6 their appearance when properly joined to be placed on the rotating spindle of the color wheel. In joining two or more disks for use on a color wheel or top, care should be taken to PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 33 place them in such relation to each other that when rotated the radial edges exposed on the face toward the audience will not "catch the wind." With small disks -on the color wheel this is not important, and if there is no whole graduated disk on the iirbor behind the slitted disks there is no advantage, but in using the larger disks it is well to put the graduated disk behind the others for this purpose, as at best it is quite laborious to keep up speed when' using several of the large disks, even with the best possible conditions. With the thin paper disks of the color FIG. 5. FIG. 6. FIG. 7. top this is an important matter. It will be noticed that the method of joining the disks for use on the Color Top is the re- verse of that to be observed with the disks of the Color Wheel as shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 7 shows the same two color disks placed in front of a large white disk having its edge graduated to one hundred parts, so that the relative proportions of two or more colors to be combined can be determined accurately. ^ As the smaller disks offer so much less resistance in rotation than the larger ones they are most desirable in private experi- ments or before a small class, and the largest disks of the Normal School Wheel are necessary only when more than three expres- sions of color are required to be shown at the same time. In making experiments before an audience those persons in front should if possible be at least ten feet from the color wheel, 34 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. From ten to forty feet there seems to be but little difference in the color perception, but for best tests fifteen to twenty feet is the most desirable position. For private practice with the color wheel a small mirror may be placed five or six feet in front of the wheel in such position as to furnish an image of the disks to the person operating the machine. Owing to a slight loss of light by reflection the closest criticism may not be possible when working with a mirror in this way,, but if a plate mirror is used the results are very good and a bevel plate mirror about 7x9 inches without frame, can usually be procured at small cost ; this method is much more satisfactory for personal experimenting than an assistant to turn the wheel. These disks have heretofore been used as a curious piece of philosophical apparatus rather than because they have been sup- posed to have any practical value in color training, but in estab- lishing a color nomenclature based on six spectrum colors the disks at once assume a great value and are indispensable in a system of color instruction founded on the science of color and on the psychological perception of colors. Let us suppose that the two disks shown in Fig. 7 are yellow and green, 80 parts yellow and 20 parts green ; then by rota- tion we shall have a green yellow indicated by the symbol Y. 80, Gr. 20. No argument is necessary to prove that when an exact expression of color effect is required this is better than the simple statement that it is a greenish yellow. How to Begin the Experiments. For practice it is profitable to commence w r ith the red and orange disks combined on the spindle, with a smaller red disk in front of them, the smallest being preferable. Begin by in- troducing say five per cent of orange and notice that a change from the standard red at the center is visible. Gradually in- crease the orange until it seems difficult to say whether the re- sulting color is more like red or orange, and then exchange the small red disk for an orange disk of the same size, and coij- PEACTICAL EXPEEIMENTS. 35 tinue adding orange in the larger disks until the difference can- not be detected between the small disk and the larger combined disks. The standards may be combined in pairs, as has been indi- cated with the red and orange, to produce all the intermediate hues throughout the spectrum, but it must be remembered that these combinations are to be made by joining in pairs, colors adjacent in the spectrum, red and orange, orange and yellow, yellow and green, green and blue, blue and violet. We then shall have representations of all the spectrum colors, but there are still the colors between violet and red, known in nature and art as purples, which must be produced by uniting the red and violet disks, thus completing a circuit of colors containing all the pure colors in nature. In nature all colors are modified by light and shade, strong light producing tints and shadows more or less deep forming shades. These effects are imitated on the color wheel by the use of a white disk combined with a disk of a standard color for tints and a black disk for shades, and can be tested in the same order as indicated for the hues, by combining each standard disk with a white or a black disk in varying proportions. It will be noticed early in disk experiments that a very small amount of white produces a decided effect in the tone of a color while a comparatively large amount of black is necessary to pro- duce a marked change. As this is exactly the reverse of the effects of white and black pigments it is always a subject of remark. In pigments these effects are imitated by* the mixture of white with a color to produce tints, and black for shades, or more generally instead of black some dark natural pigment approach- ing the hue of the color, may be preferred because a black pig- ment will too often impart an unexpected and undesirable hue to the color. As for example, in making shades of red some natural brown pigment is better than black, and so various dark browns and grays are used for different colors. 36 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. Even with the disks it is impossible to imitate purest tints of all the standard colors, because in some of the colors, as peculiarly in red and blue, the rotation of the white disk seems to develop a slightly violet gray, for which effect there has as yet been no scientific explanation. This gray dulls the purity of the tint as compared with that which is found in the color under a bright illumination, but on the whole both tints and shades as well as the hues can be better illustrated with the disks than" in any other way, and in addition, the advantage is secured of being able to measure and record the tone by the graduated disk in the same way as the hues are measured and recorded. A further advantage is secured in the use of disks in color instruction because with pigments, the only other method by which colors can be combined, much time must be lost not only in the mixing and applying of the colors but in the delay necessary to allow them to dry before the true results can be seen. The shades of yellow as shown on the wheel will not be gen- erally accepted without criticism, but careful comparison with yellow paper in shadow will prove the substantial truth of the disk results. This experiment may be tried as follows : Join two cards with a hinge of paper or cloth to form a folding screen like the covers of a book as in Fig. 8. On the surface A, paste a piece of stand - r ard yellow paper and on B, a piece of yellow shade No. 1. Hold these two surfaces toward the class in such a position that the strong light will fall on B, which is the yellow shade, and thus bring the face A, which is a standard yellow, in a position to be shaded from the light. By varying the angle of the covers with each other and turning them as a whole from side to side, a position will be secured in which the two faces will seem so nearly alike as to convince the class that this color which they may have PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 37 thought to be green, is not green, but a color peculiar to itself, a shade of yellow ; because the darker paper when in full light appears substantially the same as the standard yellow in the shade or shadow. In our experiments thus far with the wheel we have combined the standards in pairs to produce the colors of the spectrum between the standards, which for convenience may be called intermediate spectrum hues, and also have combined a white disk with each of the standards to produce tints of the stand- ards and ti black disk to make shades. By combining a white disk with an orange and a yellow disk, for example, forming a trio of disks, a variety of tints of orange yellow and yellow orange may be made. Also by the use of the black disk instead of the white a series of shades of the in- termediate hues may be produced, and thus a great variety of tints and shades of many spectrum colors shown. Xow if the white and black disks are combined with each other the result will be a shade of white, i. e., a white in shadow, which is an absolutely neutral gray. As the experiments pro- gress it will be seen that this neutral gray is a very important feature in the study of color, and therefore it may be well at this point to make sure that the disk combinations give the true gray of a white in shadow by a test similar to the one used for the shade of yellow, thus disarming criticism. Such a test may conveniently be made by covering the reverse sides of the folding covers with white on one cover and "neutral gray pa- per No. 1" on the other. As the neutral gray papers are made in imitation of combinations of black and* white disks this ex- periment is as convincing as the one regarding the yellow shade. This is but one of many examples of the value of disk combinations in the classification and analysis of colors. In an elaborate chart of colors highly recommended for pri- mary color instruction a dozen years ago no correct understand- ing of the classification of colors is shown, the tints and shades beino- indicated by a very decided change of hue rather than a PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. consistent modification of tone. For example, in the red scale the standard or normal red is vermilion, i. e., an orange red; shade No. 1 is simply a red less orange in hue than the standard, and shade No. 2 a shade of the standard red advocated in thi& system ; while tint No. 1 is a broken yellow orange and tint No. 2 is much more yellow and more broken than No. 1. Similar inconsistencies occur in all the other scales, showing that the author had no correct knowledge of the analysis of colors, and yet this was the best and practically the only aid offered for instruction in color at that time. Neither were there any true standards for neutral grays and the term "neutral" was used in such an indefinite way as to rob it of all actual value, until by the aid of disk combinations it came to be confined to white in shadow as closely imitated by the combinations of white and black disks. O.T.2 O.T.I O.STAND 0.5.1 O.S.2 FIG. 9. With colored papers made in imitation of the six standards and two tints and two shades of each, six scales of colors may be produced by arranging the five different tones of each color in a row, as in Fig. 9, which represents the orange scale with tints at the left and shades at the right. If, in addition to these six scales, we have two scales between each two of the stand- ards, we may have between the orange scale and the yellow scale a yellow orange scale and an orange yellow scale, and if we thus introduce the intermediate scales between each of the other two standards, and include the red violet and violet red, we shall have eighteen scales of five tones each. The eighteen scales as above named may be arranged as PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 39 shown in Fig. 10 to form a chart of pure spectrum scales which is very valuable for study and comparison and espe- cially so in the study of the theory of harmonies. All these tones are called pure tones and this chart is therefore called a chart of Pure Spectrum Scales. The idea that soft, dull, broken colors produce best har- monies when used in combination may or may not be a univer- sally accepted truth, but there is a general belief that it is much easier to make acceptable combinations with broken colors than with pure spectrum colors and their tints and shades, and there- fore the temptation has been strong to select a general assort- ment of colors which easily harmonize because of the pleasing effect, instead of having regard solely to the educational value of colors. Truth in education requires that when colors are classified as spectrum colors they shall all be the nearest approach pos- sible to the true spectrum colors, and in the spectrum there are no broken or impure colors. Therefore, whenever the spectrum is set up as nature's standard or chart of colors and an imi- tation is made in pigments or papers, great care should be used to secure the most accurate imitation possible, but in the past this has not been the case, because of the prevailing- idea that the colors must all be possible combinations of three primaries, and hence the orange, green and violet have often been very broken colors. While pure colors and their tints and shades may be advantageously combined with various tones of broken colors in one composition for artistic effect, they should be definitely divided when classified for educational purposes, and their differences clearly explained to students. In a scale of tones in any color the several papers will har- monize more easily if the tints and shades are not too far re- moved from the standard, but it is thought by many good judges that the educational advantage in learning to see the relationship of color in the more extreme tones is of greater importance in the elementary grades than the facility for mak- 40 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. ing most pleasing combinations. Consequently in the Bradley colored papers the tints are very light and the shades quite dark. If, instead of adding either a white disk or a black disk to a spectrum color, by which we make pure tints and shades, we add both white and black, a line of gray colors or so-called broken colors is formed. This is most beautifully shown with the disks, and in this way a line of true broken colors is secured, because in each case a true neutral gray has been added to the color, which cannot be insured in the mixture of gray pigments. As an example, this may be shown with the three smaller sizes of the orange disks. With the medium size of these three make the combination Orange, 35 ; White, 10 ; Black 55. With the larger size disks make the proportions Orange, 16 ; White, 5 ; Black, 79, and with the smallest size Orange, 43 ; White, 33 ; Black, 24. Place these three sets of disks on the spindle at one time and you have the three tones of a broken orange scale. With similar combinations applied to the six standards and one intermediate hue between each two, there will be material for a chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, as shown in Fig. 11, including twelve scales of three tones each. These are the most beautiful colors in art or nature when combined harmoniously. Because of the loss of color in broken colors it is not advisable to attempt so many different hues or so many tones of each hue as in pure colors, for slight differences in either hues or tones are not as readily perceived. In these two charts of color scales two distinct classes of colors are represented, namely, pure colors and broken colors. The pure colors consist of the purest possible pigmentary imi- tations of spectrum colors, with their tints and shades, and the broken colors are these pure colors dulled by the admixture of neutral grays in various tones. This distinction is readily recognized under proper training, so that if a broken color is introduced into a combination of colors from a pure scale it will be readily detected, which always occurs when the attempt is made to produce a series of spectrum scales by the combina- PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. Color Charts. 41 CHART OF PURE SPECTRUM SCALES. T2 T.I 5.1 S.2 CHART OF BROKEN SPECTRUM SCALES. LIGHT MF.DIUM DARK FIG. 10. FIG. 11. 42 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. tion of the three primary colors red, yellow and blue. By this method, if logically carried out, the orange, green and violet are dark broken colors, and hence to a less extent the intermediate colors also, because each of these is a mixture of a pure color with a broken color. The usual result, however, is that the orange made from the red and yellow seem so out of place in the warm end of the spectrum that it is modified and made much nearer the pure color, usually, however, too yellow, while the greens and violets, which are deep and rich broken colors, may seem more harmonious, but are so dark as to be out of place among spectrum colors. If light broken colors are properly combined a beautiful imi- tation rainbow is produced, which is more harmonious than the spectrum made from full colors. A series of such colors com- bined in spectrum order produce a more pleasing effect when separated by a small space of white, black, gray, silver or gold. The reason for this may be found in the discussion of simul- taneous contrasts. In nature nearly all colors are broken. First, there is always more or less vapor together with other impurities in the air, so that even in a clear day objects a few hundred feet from us are seen through a gray veil, as it were, and in a misty or hazy day this is very evident. In the case of somewhat distant foliage the general color effect is produced by the light reflected from the aggregation of leaves, some of which may be in bright sunlight and others in shadow, with a mixture of brown twigs. All these tints and shades of green and brown are mingled in one general effect in the eye. Also, owing to the rounded forms and irregular illumination of objects, we see very little full or local color in nature. Therefore the study of broken colors becomes the most fasci- nating branch of this whole subject, and it also has an added in- terest because nearly all the colors found in tapestries, hang- ings, carpets, ladies' dress goods, etc., come under this head. In fact it would be hazardous for an artisan or an artist to PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 43 use any full spectrum color in his work, except in threads, lines or dots. A considerable quantity of pure standard green, for instance, would mar the effect of any landscape. It is a very interesting diversion to analyze samples of the dress goods sold each season under the most wonderful names. For example : "Ecru," a color sold a few seasons ago, is a broken orange yellow with a nomenclature O. 12, Y. 15, W. 17, N. 56, while this year "Leghorn" and "Furet" are two of the "new" colors, the former having a nomenclature of O. 16, Y. 54, W. 19, N. 11, and the latter O. 18, Y. 18, W. 8, N. 56, all of which are very beautiful broken orange yellows. "Ashes of Roses" of past years is a broken violet red which can be analyzed as follows : R. 8J, V. 2J, W. 15J, N. 74. "Anemon" of this season is R. 28, V. 7, W. 5, N. 60, which is another broken violet red. "Old Rose" is a broken red : R. 65, W. 24 , N. 10. "Empire" of past seasons is G. 18 , B. 11, W. 16J, N. 54, while "Neptune" of this season is G. 13 , B. 2, W. 11, N. 73, both being broken blue greens. "Topia," a beautiful brown,is O. 10, N. 90, a pure shade of orange, while "Bolide" is a lighter yellow orange with a nomen- clature of O. 18, Y. 2, W. 1J, N. 77J. We might analyze "Elephant's Breath," "Baby Blue," "Nile Green," "Crushed Strawberry" and others common in the market, but while the names will no doubt occur each season the colors will change with the fickle demands of the goddess of fashion and the interests of the manufacturers and dealers. In writing any color nomenclature the letters should be used in the following order : R.-O.-Y.-G.-B.-V.-W.-N., thus always listing the standard colors before the white or black. For ex- ample, never place Y. before O. or R., and never use N. before W. If this order is strictly adhered to the habit is soon acquired and a valuable point gained. It has been shown that combined white and black disks form 44 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. neutral gray, which is a white in shadow or under a low degree of illumination. If to such a gray a very small amount of color is added, as orange for example, by the introduction of an orange disk, this neutral gray becomes an orange gray, but unless the amount is considerable it can not be detected MS an orange, but the gray may be termed a warm gray, denoting that it is affected by some one of the colors near the red end of the spectrum. If blue instead of orange is added to the neutral gray, a cool gray is produced. When green is added to a gray the result can not fairly be called either warm or cool, and hence we have termed it a green gray. According to this plan we have four classes of grays, Neutral, Warm, Cool and Green grays. As there may be many tones of each, and many inter- mediate combinations from red to green, or green to blue, the number of grays in nature is infinite, but these four classes with two tones of eacii in the papers form what may be called standards or stations from which to think of the grays, the same as the six standards in the spectrum constitute points from which to think of pure colors. A careful consideration of the foregoing pages, accompanied with a color wheel or even a color top, can hardly fail to give a student who will make the experiments a clear idea of the use of the disks in the system of color education in which they form such an important feature, and therefore the old theory of three primaries, red, yellow and blue, and all that it leads to can be very intelligently considered and tested by them in the experiments which follow. This old theory briefly restated is as follows : It is said "there are in nature three primary colors, red, yellow and blue ; and by the mixture of these primary colors in pairs, orange, green and violet may be made." In fact leading educators have said that "in the solar spectrum, which is nature's chart of colors, the principal colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet ; of these red, yellow and blue are primaries from which may be made the secondaries, orange, screen and violet." PTJACTH AL EXPERIMENTS. 45 All such cflniemcnts MS heretofore made in any popular treat- ment of the subject are understood to mean that in a pigmen- tary imitation of a spectrum the secondaries as enumerated may be produced by the mixtures of the primary pigments, be- cause pigmentary mixtures are the only combinations generally recognized. This theory has also included the statement that the primaries are complementary to the secondaries in pairs, and that the combination of the secondaries in pairs may produce a distinct class of colors called tertiaries. It will be the aim of the following pages to demonstrate that in all this there is neither scientific or aesthetic truth nor educa- tional value. The Old Theories Tested by Mixture of Three Pigments. Experiments in mixing the three pigments, red, yellow and blue, to produce the secondaries, orange, green and violet, have been very carefully made with interesting and instructive results. All such experiments are valueless unless made with one ac- cepted set of primaries for the three combinations, because it is self-evident that if we select a vermilion red which is very de- cidedly an orange red, and choose for our yellow one of the orange yellows, the mixture will more nearly approach a true orange than if a standard red and standard yellow are used. Also in making a violet, if we mix a carmine, which is a violet red, with a decidedly violet blue, of which there are many, the result will be a better violet than the combination of the stand- ard red and blue. So also in the mixing of blue and yellow to make green, a greenish yellow and a greenish blue will neces- sarily produce better results than the standards. Therefore, to test the matter fairly, the same pigments which are used to coat the standard red, yellow and blue papers have been combined so as to produce the best possible orange, green and violet, and these results when analyzed on the color wheel are as follows : The orange made by mixing standard red and yellow pig- 46 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. ments in the best proportions is equal to O. 46, W. 2, N. 52. The violet is equal to V. 20, W. 1, N. 79, and the nearest ap- proach to a standard green is shown by disk analysis to be GL 37, W. 7, N. 56, which is better than the violet and nearly as good as the orange. These experiments show that heretofore when a line of stand- ards of six colors has been prepared from three primaries, red, yellow and blue, even though the purest possible colors may have been selected for the primaries, the secondaries have not been in the same class of colors, and that all of them are very dark broken colors. Therefore, in using educational colored papers based on such a scheme, the pupil has received no cor- rect impressions of the relative values of the several colors in- volved in pure spectrum scales, but has been shown at the out- set a mixture of pure and broken colors as standards. This is not a matter of opinion regarding best harmonies, because it is easy to demonstrate that less skill is required to combine broken colors harmoniously than pure colors, but it is a choice between truth and error in the early education of color perception. Old Theories Tested by the Color Wheel or Color Top. While it may be impossible for the reader to secure pigments exactly like the standards, red, yellow and blue, used in the above experiments, and therefore the statement here made can not be accurately verified, any one having a color wheel or even a color top may test the same combinations by use of disks. If it is true, as claimed, that a good standard orange can be made by mixing red and yellow, then it should follow that when a red and yellow disk are combined and a smaller orange disk placed in front of them, that it ought to be pos- sible to so adjust the proportion of red to yellow that by rota- tion the outer ring of color will match the central orange disk. A trial of this experiment will show that while the color re- sulting from the best possible combination of red and yellow is a kind of orange, it is not even an approximation to the stand- PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 4? fircl oraiige, but is a shade of orange which may be matched by combining the smaller orange disk with a black disk in the pro- portion of O. 45, N. 55, the larger disks being R. 89, Y. 11. In combining red and blue disks to make a violet the result is more satisfactory, while if we attempt to produce a green by combining the yellow and blue disks the result will be surpris- ing, but probably not convincing, because the statement that yellow and blue make green has been so persistently reiterated as a fundamental axiom that people who have given the subject but little attention will feel that to doubt it is rank heresy. In a text book treating of color is found the following passage : "Green substances reflect the green, i. e., the blue and yellow rays of the sunlight and absorb all the others." It is a fact, however, that in the mixture of blue and yellow light there is little or no trace of green, as a single experiment with a color top or color wheel will readily demonstrate. In response to this convincing experiment a colorist of the "old school," (and there are few others) will doubtless say, "Such an assertion seems to be true when applied to these rota- ting disks, but we see no practical value in experiments of this kind, because in the use of color we must depend on pigmen- tary combinations, and in pigments yellow and blue do make green." The author of a statement of this kind is always honest in making it, and yet it is absolutely untrue, because as has already been shown, the green resulting from the mixture of yellow and blue can not be placed even approximately in the same class as the yellow and blue of which it is composed. In accepting the disk combinations o standard pigmentary colors we are assuming a system of color investigation based on the combination of colored light rather than the mixture of pigments, and to an artist who has given the subject little thought this seems quite radical, not to say startling. But, log- ically, why is it not the most natural as well as the correct basis for this work ? Art in color must be based on the imitation of natural color : 2 ', N.28>. R. 15, 0.7^, W.7^, N. 70. ORANGE. 0.43, W.2*K, N.24&. 0.34^, W. 10, N. 55. 0.15, W.5, N.79>. YELLOW ORANGE. 0.23, Y. 15, W. 27, N. 35 . 0.24^, Y. i 7 > 2 ', W. 15, N.43. O. 10, Y. 4 K, W.6, N.7 9 >^. YELLOW. Y.34, W. 3 o^, N.35^. Y. 24, W.i2>, N.6 3 >. Y. 12%, W. 5, N.82>. GREEN YELLOW. Y.2 4> G. 13, W.28, N.35. Y.25, G. 10, W. 17, N. 4 S. Y. n, G. 13, W. 10, N.66. GREEN. G.i6, W. 9 , N.75. G.34, W. 19, N. 49. G.2 3) W. 4 i, N.36. BLUE GREEN. G.S>, B.7K, W.7, N.77. G. 22, B. 18, W. 12, N. 48. G.2 4) 6.25, W.23, N.28. BLUE. B.22^, W.6, N.7iK- B. 3 S, W.i 3 , N. 49 . B. 3 6, W. 29, N. 35 . BLUE VIOLET. B. 13, V. 9 ^, W.6K,N.7i. B.i 3 , V.2 S , W. 15, N. 4 7. B. 2 o, V. 15, W.2 9 , N. 39. VIOLET. V.20, W. 13, N.67- V. 51, W.2 4 , N.25. V. 61, W. 32, N-7, RED VIOLET. R.i7, V. 10, W.5, N. 68. R.i6X, V. 4 5, W. i 3 ,N.25>. R. 23, V. 4 o, W.26, N. n. In preparing the papers for the Chart of Broken Spectrum Colors the selection of the tones of the several colors has been made in accordance with the aesthetic color feeling of those to whom the matter was intrusted, but the hues of the colors are based on the standards of the pure spectrum colors. If these colors are considered independently of their relation to a general system of color education, it may seem that a stronger and purer line of colors would be more beautiful ; but 90 COLOR TEACHING Itf THE SCHOOLROOM. the more broken or subdued colors have been chosen after very careful consideration, because they are intended for elementary instruction and therefore should be so far removed from the pure color scales as to impress themselves on the minds of the children as a distinct and representative class of colors. When the color sense of the pupils has been sufficiently cultivated to observe smaller distinctions, a variety of color scales much less broken may be shown with the disks. Different selections for a score of charts could be made, all beautiful and representing broken colors, but after much con- sideration these thirty-six were selected from a very large num- ber of hand-painted samples made for the purpose, as furnish- ing a sufficient number of typical broken colors for elementary color instruction, and in such hues and tones as to form a harmonious chart for comparison with the Chart of Pure Spec- trum Scales. Certain "Color Puzzles." When the children have advanced far enough to understand the analysis of a color, i. e., to correctly name a color, exercises which may be called color puzzles can be introduced from time to time with great interest and profit. The idea is simply to suddenly show to the class a series of disks in rapid rotation and ask them to guess what colors it is composed of, i. e., what the definite name of the color is. The following is a suggestion for this exercise, supposing that a broken green yellow is to be shown : Select a green, a yellow, a white and a black disk of medium size and combine them as follows : Y. 20, G. 10, W. 10, N.60. Then, having previously removed the nut from the spindle of the wheel and laid' it in a convenient place, take the combined disks and lay on the top of them any other disk of a larger size, with the center holes of all corresponding with each other and place all these disks on the spindle of the wheel with the larger disk still covering the face of the others. Having pre- viously furnished an assistant with a sheet of cardboard of suf- COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 97 ficient size to conceal the disks from the class have it held in front of the wheel while the disk which conceals the combina- tion is removed, the nut screwed to place and the disks put into rapid rotation ; then order the card taken away and ask the class what color they see, still continuing the rotation. The correct answer should be broken green-yellow, and not a shade of green-yellow, a broken yellow-green, a tint of yellow or a yellow shade ; for there is but one true name and that should be stated. Definite expressions of color are as possible as the terms used regarding other scientific subjects, and should be encouraged. Much interest can be inspired and valuable instruction im- parted to the children by experiments with the color wheel, but whenever color analysis is the object in view, if disks of more than one of the standard colors are used in the same combi- nation they must be of colors adjacent to each other in the spectrum . For example, if a blue and a yellow disk are united and placed in rotation the result may be a "blue gray, a yellow gray, or perhaps very nearly a neutral gray, because blue and yellow are so nearly complementary to each other. But a nomencla- ture of the resulting color effect expressed in terms of blue and yellow is not of practical value, because it is evident that in the analysis of a gray-blue, yellow has no logical place. If in an attempt to match a color which seems to be a broken blue, some- thing else besides the blue, white and black is required, it must be either green or violet, i. e., one of the two standard colors ad- jacent to the blue in the spectrum. In other words, every color in nature is a spectrum color, i. e., either a pure spectrum color, a tint or a shade of a spectrum color, or a broken spectrum color. Hence every color can be matched, and therefore ana- lyzed by the combination of one disk of a standard color with a white disk, a black disk or both, or else by two adjacent spectrum standards with white and black or both. There are many combinations of disks outside the limitations 98 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. above named which are valuable and. interesting in color inves- tigation when not used for simple analysis, but if they are pre- sented as pleasing experiments before the pupils can under- stand their logical relation to the subject of color education, the result may be entirely misleading rather than instructive. In making experiments in broken colors with the wheel the most satisfactory results are secured in orange, violet, green nnd yellow, while the red is fairly good and the blue less satis- factory than the others because of the slight effect of gray or violet which comes into the lighter tones by rotation, to which reference has already been made. As explained on Page 54, the so-called tertiary colors, rus- sets, citrines and olives were formerly supposed to be classes of peculiar colors to which these names were given. The fact that these are all broken spectrum colors was first demonstrated by the use of the color wheel and they are now quite generally accepted as such by those who have given heed to modern methods of color instruction. As already shown the disks have also seemed to correctly define the several scales of colors, so that in contrast to the color charts of a dozen years ago a distinction is clearly drawn between the colors in the yellow and the orange scales, or even between the yellow-orange and the orange-yellow scales, so ac- curately do the disks determine the hue of a color. When the pupils have progressed so far that they can arrange the paper tablets to form the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in three tones and also the Chart of Broken Scales, they will be prepared to intelligently begin the use of papers in cutting and pasting designs in the several classes of harmonies, but before most effective results can be produced the lightest tints and deepest shades of the full chart of pure scales in five tones must be considered. Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales Completed. The entire mastery of these extreme tones will be quite diffi- cult because they are so far removed from the standards, and COLOR, TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 99 the children can hardly be expected to recognize and name them when seen separately. If a pupil is able to correctly arrange them in connection with the other tones of the chart, his ac- complishment will show a high grade of color perception. But these extreme tones are introduced because their use in the more advanced work of paper cutting and pasting produces stronger and more beautiful harmonies and a higher degree of color training than would result were the tints and shades nearer the standards in tone. No detailed rehearsal of the lessons for this work is neces- sary to enable a teacher who has pursued the course of instruc- tion thus far to complete it in a logical way, and relatively little time will be required by the pupils to become sufficiently familiar with these tones for practical purposes, because of their more acute color perception which will be developed at this period. The Work of Cutting and Pasting. In the study of color the work of cutting and pasting designs in educational colored papers affords the earliest and best prac- tical expression of the color feeling which has been acquired and stimulates the further development of color perception. The order in which the use of these papers can be most profit- ably taken up in the occupations of cutting and pasting may be determined by a careful consideration of the subject of har- monies as explained quite fully in the foregoing section entitled "Practical Experiments," Pages 67 to 73. The first in order is Contrasted Harmony, in which cut pa- pers in one color may be mounted on a ground of some passive color as white or gray. In selecting the gray, analogy is usu- ally preferable to contrast, while neutral gray is fairly safe for all colors. According to this suggestion the warm grays may be used with the warm colors and the cool grays with the cool colors, and in a majority of the cases the lightest tone of gray is preferable. Without question Dominant Harmonies or the arrangement 100 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. in families are the most profitable and safe for early practice. In this class a light tint may be used for the background on which to mount any of the other tones of the same scale. Be- yond these two classes of harmonies the order of presentation must be determined by the teacher. If the complementary is attempted with simple geometrical forms a light tint may most safely be selected for a background in the least aggressive of the two colors and the design or pasted forms in some of the complementary tones other than the normal color. Do not at- tempt to combine full complementary colors in elementary work. The Analogous Harmony may be used in simple designs with beautiful effects when judicious selections are made, but owing to the latitude necessarily involved in the definition of this class of combinations the children cannot very early be trusted to make their own selections. It is evident that nothing can be attempted in the Perfected Harmonies in any of the ready-cut forms, but beautiful results can be produced in this class with well-drawn and accurately cut ornamental designs in colored papers, which may even sur- pass in strength and beauty any effects which can be produced in water colors such as can be used by the children. For earliest practice in making designs in colored papers the ready cut forms of the kindergarten, technically called "par- quetry papers" are very convenient and may be procured either with or without gum on the back. These are prepared in va- rjous geometrical forms based on the one-inch standard, among which the most useful for pasting decorative designs are the circle, half-circle, square, half-square and equilateral triangle. Where models and tablets are used in form study the tablets may serve as patterns from which the children can mark out the papers which they can then cut for themselves, and thus the oval and ellipse may be added to the forms, and also practice in accurate cutting secured. In the use of tablets as patterns the outlines should be made on the backside of the paper, by holding the tablet in place COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 101 with one finger and working carefully around it with a well- pointed pencil. The marking to the pattern and cutting to the line provides valuable elementary practice in manual training. As it is the prime object of these papers to treat of color no attempt is here made to give directions for designing units of ornament or for folding and cutting designs. All such exercises furnish the best possible practice in both designing and manual work, but they belong more directly to the department of draw- ing and are fully treated in the band books- explaining modern systems of drawing. We offev h^re a n ember of simple arrange- ments of such forms as may ba/on^d I:i re-id^reut papers or may be marked from the iorm study tablets as before mentioned, with the addition of a few other figures which involve some very simple designs for free-hand cutting. A Variety of Designs. The accompanying illustrations show a number of simple ar- rangements of such forms as are found in ready-cut papers or may be marked from the form study tablets already mentioned, with the addition of a few other figures which include some very simple forms requiring free-hand cutting. Suggestions for more elaborate designs and specific directions for paper cutting can be found in elementary books treating of decorative drawing and those devoted solely to paper cutting. FIG. 17. FIG. 18. FIG. 19. FIG. 20. Figs. 17 to 25 show arrangements of one-inch kindergarten parquetry papers in one color, used as units to form border designs in contrasted harmony on a white or a gray ground, in all of which there is repetition of form as well as color. A nar- 102 COLOK TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. row strip of paper in the same color as the units may be used at top and bottom to finish the design. FIG. 21. FIG. 22. FIG. 23. FIG. 24. FIG. 25- FIG. 26. Figs. 26 to 37 show border designs, each of which is made with one form in two colors or tones in alternation. FIG. 27. FIG. 29. FIG. 28. FIG. 30. FIG. 31. FIG. 32. FIG. 33. FIG. 34. COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 103 FIG. 35. FIG. 36. FIG. 37. Fig, 38 and 39 show border designs in one color, with forms marked from the elliptical and oval tablets and cut by hand. In Fig. 39 borders are made by combining half -squares which may be used with or without narrow strips of the same color. FIG. FIG. 39. Figs. 40 and 41 are made by using one form with alternation of tone and of position. Fig. 41 is derived from Fig. 40 by laying the dark squares with the corners jn contact and placing the light squares over them. Fig. 42 shows alternation of form and color or tone, which is also the scheme employed in Fig. 43 in a design less simple with the addition of the half -circles. Figs. 44 and 45 show two other simple and pleasing designs with alternation of both form and tone or color. Figs. 46, 47, 48, and 49 comprise designs in two forms and 104 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. two tones or colors, in which some hand cutting is necessary on the part of the pupils. FIG. 42. FIG. 43. FIG. 44. FIG. 45. FIG. 46. FIG. 47. FIG. 48. Figs. 50 to 54 are rosettes made from parquetry papers with the addition of a small circle or square at the center cut by hand. COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 105 FIG. 49. Figs. 55 to 60 are principally hand-cut forms, and 61, 62 and 63 show surface patterns made from parquetry squares and half-squares. FIG. 50. FIG. 51. FIG. 52. FIG. 53. FIG. 54. FIG. 55. FIG. 56. FIG. 57. FIG. 58. 106 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. FIG. 59. FIG. 60. FIG. 61. FIG. 62. FIG. 63. Colored papers can be used more advantageously in decora- tive designs than in imitations of natural objects, for which water colors are much better suited, but some copies of natural flowers and autumn leaves have been made in colored papers which were exceedingly close imitations of water color paint- ings when seen at a little distance, rivaling in the case of the autumn leaves the best water color effects in brilliancy and depth of color. There need be no definite rules governing the continuation of color study from this point by a teacher who is interested in the subject and has tried the experiments suggested in the pre- ceding pages. The work will become very interesting at this stage, because now all sorts of material may be introduced for analysis and classification and from this point forward, to the highest achievements of the artist, nature will furnish abundant stimulus to color thought and investigation, if the foundation has been laid according to the true theory of color perception which it is the object of this system to explain. Analysis of Color Materials. A valuable and interesting phase of color investigation and color training may be found in the analysis and naming of the natural colors found in flowers, minerals and the plumage of COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 107 birds. The necessity for a definite and adequate nomenclature which naturalists experience in this department of education has been emphasized by the publication within a few years of a book entitled fc 'A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists, and a Compendium of useful knowledge for Ornithologists." This book has been prepared with great care by Robert Ridgway of the United States National Museum, and contains a large number of hand-painted plates showing nearly two hundred colors which represent selections from three hundred and fifty names of colors which are given in English, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian and Norwegian or Danish.* The fact that a book involving so much technical knowledge and the expenditure of so much time and money was deemed justifiable is an evidence of the great need for some definite nomenclature. In the introduction the author says : ' 'Undoubtedly one of the chief desiderata of naturalists, both professional and ama- teur, is a means of identifying the various shades of colors named in descriptions, and of being able to determine exactly what name to apply to a particular tint which it is desired to designate in an original description. No modern work of this character it appears, is extant, the latest publication of its kind which the author has been able to consult being Syme's edition of 'Werner's Nomenclature of Colors,' published in Edinburgh in 1821. It is found, however, that in Syme's 'no- menclature' that the colors have become so modified by time, that in very few cases do they correspond with the tints they were intended to represent." The following are the opening sentences of the preface: "The want of a nomenclature of colors adapted particularly to the use of naturalists has ever been more or less an obstacle to the study of Nature ; and although there have been many works *A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists and Compendium of use- ful ] ment of '. XX JJNUUJCm IHLlUt? \JL VAJ1UJ 8 1U1 i.1 HLU1 ftllato itllU. VyUUlpdlU LU.111 \Ji UOC- [ Knowledge for Ornithologists by Robert Ridgway, Curator,Depart- ;nt of Birds, National Museum. Boston, Little, Brown & Co., 1886. 308 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. published on the subject of color, they either pertain exclu- sively to the purely scientific or technical aspects of the case or to the manufacturing industries, or are otherwise unsuited to the special purposes of the zoologist, the botanist and the mineralogist." In the same book the Chapter on Principles of Color opens with the following sentences : "The popular nomenclature of colors has of late years, especially since the introduction of aniline dyes and pigments, become involved in almost chaotic confusion through the coinage of a multitude of new names, many of them synonymous, and still more of them vague or variable in their meaning. These new names are far too nu- merous to be of any practical utility, even were each one iden- tifiable with a particular fixed tint. Many of them are invented at the caprice of the dyer or manufacturer of fabrics, and are as capricious in their meaning as in their origin ; among them being such fanciful names as 'Zulu,' 'Crushed Strawberry/ 'Baby Blue,' 'Woodbine-berry,' 'Night Green,' etc., be- sides such nonsensical names as 'Ashes of Roses' and 'Ele- phant's Breath.' " These extracts from this valuable and interesting book by an author of large experience are quoted here to emphasize the practical necessity for more definite color education based on analysis and nomenclature. With the color wheel or color top, the colors of flowers and leaves as well as all other objects in nature and art may be analyzed and named, and the names definitely recorded in the terms of a nomenclature based on permanent standards. The following list of flowers and leaves of plants and trees with their analyses in terms of our nomenclature is taken from a recently published paper entitled "On the Color Description of. Flowers," by Prof. J. H. Pillsbury, to whom the writer is in- debted for some of the earliest suggestions regarding the prac- tical application of the scientific facts of color to color teach- ing, and also for valuable scientific work which he has done in- COLOR TEACHING IK THE SCHOOLROOM, 109 eluding the exact location of the six color standards in the solar spectrum by their wave lengths : "With these standards to work from, I undertook to deter- mine the color analysis of certain of our common flowers. The following results, will, I think, be interesting to botanists. The numbers given indicate per cent, of color required to produce the hue of the flower : Common forsythia, F. viridissima ; Pure spectrum yellow. Fringed polygala, P. paucifolia : R. 48, Y. 52. Wistaria, W. frutescens, wings : R. 11, V. 89. Wistaria, W. frutescens, standard : R. 9, V. 79, W. 12. Flowering quince, Cydonia japonica : R. 95, V. 2, W. 3. Wild cranesbill, Geranium maculatum : R. 28, V. 66, W. 6. The variations of color in the early summer foliage is also interesting. The following analyses* are for the upper side of fresh and well developed healthy leaves. It is not impossible that a little attention to these variations in the color of foliage on the part of artists would save us the annoyance of some of the abominable green which we so often see in the pictures of artists of good reputation : White oak: Y. 7. 5, G.I 1.5, N. 81. Apple: Y. 5, G. 13, W. 2, N. 80. Copper beech: R. 17, V. 2, N. 81. Hemlock: Y. 2, G. 9, N. 89. White pine : Y. 2. 5, G. 11, N. 86. 5. White birch : Y. 5.5, G. 11. 5, W. 1, N. 82. Hornbeam : Y. 5. 5, G. 12. 5, N. 82. Shagbark hickory : Y. 4. 5, G. 9. 5, N.^86. These analyses were made in a moderately strong diffused light with Maxwell disks of the standard hues referred to above." These are but a few of the numerous flowers the colors of which may be perfectly imitated and consequently analyzed and named with the color wheel or the top. In fact for indi- vidual work in natural history the top is more convenient than 110 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. the wheel and sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, while it is a very fascinating occupation for child or adult. In the use of disks for analyzing colors it must be remem- bered that every material color is some quality of some . color in the spectrum circuit, and therefore may be matched with not more than two standard disks, either alone or with white or black or both. If more than two color disks, besides white and black, are used they will neutralize each other more or less, and a neutral gray or a gray and some spectrum color will be the result. For example, if yellow and blue in nearly equal parts are introduced in connection with red and orange, the yellow and blue being nearly complimentary to each other will produce practically a neutral gray, and the result will be the same as if only red, orange, white and black were used. Owing to the recent advances in the art of dyeing there are some textile goods which are too intense in color to be exactly imitated by the disk standards, but this fact need not prevent FIG. 64. a practical analysis of such colors, because by very slightly re- ducing with white the color to be examined the same color is re- tained, the modification making it, of course, somewhat lighter. Fig. 64, showing a small circle representing a disk of the ma- terial mounted on thick paper, illustrates this statement. Sup- pose we have a piece of rich brown cloth, so intense in color that when red, orange and black are combined in the proportions COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. Ill of R. 22, O. 16, N. 62, the material is still a little richer in color than can be made with the disks of the color wheel. If we in- troduce a small amount of white into the brown of the material we may hope to match it with the disks and this may be done by cutting a bit of fairly heavy white paper in the form shown in the diagram and loosening the nut of the color wheel slightly, after which we insert the point of the triangle under the nut so that when tightened the white paper may be held in front of the brown disk, as in the illustration. Trim the outer end even with the disk and then rotate. If the effect of the w r hite is too great trim off a little from the side of the white paper to make it narrower, until a perfect match is secured. The small disk in rotation is then of the same color but not quite so intense as before, or in other words, is a very deep tint of the color. In this way the Nomenclature can be recorded as follows : Brown 95, W. 5,=R. 22, O. 16, N. 62. This result does not often occur, but the subject is noticed here in detail that no one may be in doubt when such cases do come to light, as they will sooner or later. The aniline colors give some purples which are much more brilliant than either the violet or red which otherwise should bj combination produce them, so that with these standards they cannot be made, but must be reduced with white, or possibly with white and black. If a color wheel is not available many of these experiments may be tried on the color top, but not as satisfactorily, because of the accuracy necessary in cutting so small a disk in a w r oveu material. In using the top for analysis of all ordinary colors, the best plan is lay the material on a table or other level sur- face and spin the top on it. If quite an accurate test is desired the cardboard disk of the top may be trimmed down to the size of the largest paper disk, so that there will be no intervening ring of light color to separate the color of the rotating disks from the material on which it is spun. Practical applications of the color top are already being 112 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. made, as for example, in the selection of house furnishings. For this purpose disks of the top are combined at home to produce the desired colors to match the wood finishings and papers or draperies in a partially completed room, the top being used as a guide in preliminary selections of additional materials from the stores. If a number of colors are required it is convenient to use several combinations of disks, each set being slightly gummed together. In this way standards for various colors with a top spindle for rotation in the salesroom may be carried in a very small space. The Bradley Colored Papers. As every competent artisan must understand the use for which each implement is designed, in order to secure the best results with it, possibly a brief explanation of the principles on which the colors in the Bradley Educational Colored Papers are selected and classified may be of value. In the sample books of these colored papers there are four sections. The first section of the book, following the title leaf called "Pure Spec- trum Scales" consists in part of the six standard colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, with two intermediate hues between each two standards, which eighteen colors form the central vertical column in the Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales shown on Page 41. In addition to these eighteen normal spectrum colors, there are two tints and two shades of each, thus producing eighteen spec- trum scales of five tones, in which the normal colors as indicated in the central column aim to be the purest possible pigmentary expressions of the spectrum colors represented. In determining the number of colors to adopt in the prepara- tion of the papers enough have been selected to furnish types of all the colors in the spectrum, and also the hues between red and violet, but at the same time the number has been so restricted as to secure a reasonably simple nomenclature of the intermediate hues. A hue of a color is defined as the result of COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 113 the admixture of that color with a smaller quantity of another color ; thus a hue of red approaching the orange is an orange hue of red, or an orange-red. If a small amount of red is added to orange the result is a red hue of orange, or a red-orange. Therefore in selecting two hues between each two standards, rather than a larger number, the simplest nomenclature possible is secured, and one in which no mental effort is necessary to recall the color indicated by each symbol. For example, we have four colors indicated as R, OR, RO, O ; red, orange- red, red-orange, orange ; or more extended, red, orange hue of red, red hue of orange, orange. Thus by using as symbols fa- miliar terms, no effort of the memory is required to recall the color indicated by each symbol, as would necessarily be the case if there were a greater number of hues and therefore more arbitrary symbols. The use of rotating color disks on the wheel and the top by which an infinite variety of intermediate hues can be made and accurately named by the pupils ^reduces the required number of papers to those types necessary for first primary work, and thus prepares the child for the use of pigments at an earlier age than would be possible without such color instruction. The second section of the sample book contains white, black and grays as indicated on the separating fly leaf. In these the best pigmentary expression of black and white are furnished. In material colors as found in industrial products, there are various so-called blacks and whites. For black there are blue- black, green-black, and brown-black ; and in white, cream- white and pearl-white. Cream- white is a yellow- white and pearl-white a blue-white. In fine white* papers either blue, red or yellow is generally added to the pulp to counteract or cover up the gray tone of the natural material. The standard black here presented is the best possible pigmentary imitation of a very deep black hole, as for example, the projecting end of a large iron water or sewer pipe of considerable length buried in the ground, which is the blackest thing known. 114 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. The white is an imitation of new-fallen snow. Neither of these standards can be very nearly approached although we often hear of things as "white as snow" and as "black as night." In the same group and following the black and white are two examples each of the four kinds of grays : Green gray, warm gray, cool gray and neutral gray. A pure white in shadow is the true neutral gray and a perfect imitation of this is made by the rotation of combined black and white disks on the color wheel. If to the black and white disks we add a blue disk we have cool grays. With red, orange or yellow the warm grays are produced, while the use of a green disk gives green grays. In the papers two tones of each gray are furnished. The papers found in the first two sections comprise all the colors necessary for earliest primary color instruction, and should become familiar to the children before explanation is made of the colors in the succeeding collections. In the third section, designated "Broken Spectrum Scales" will be found a collection of gray colors or broken colors. As has before been stated, a broken color is a pure color mixed with a neutral gray. In the combination of pigmentary colors a tint of a color is the pure color mixed with white, a shade is the color mixed with black, and a broken color is a pure color mixed with both black and white, which is a neutral gray. Therefore if with red, for example, we mix a certain amount of a given neutral gray and call that the normal tone of a broken scale of red, for the tint in that scale we must mix 'with the standard red a lighter gray and for the shade a darker gray. When a comparatively small quantity of neutral gray is com- bined with a pure color the result is a "gray color," as above described, because the color is quite definitely retained, but more or less modified by the gray. On the other hand, if a relatively small quantity of color is added to a neutral gray, the resulting color is properly called a "colored gray," because it is still a gray modified by color, and in this class we have warm grays, cool grays, etc., according to the color combined COLOR TEACHING IK THE SCHOOLROOM. 115 with the gray. The gray colors are quite generally termed "broken colors" and this seems a very useful practice, because it avoids the confusion of the somewhat similar terms "gray color" and "colored gray." By reference to the Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales on Page 41 it will be seen that we have only twelve scales and but three tones in each scale, instead of eighteen scales and five tones, as in the pure scales, for which there is a good reason. For educational purposes in the elementary grades, which is the only place where there is a legitimate use for colored pa- pers, the steps in gradation of hue or tone must not be too short, and if the saturation or intensity of the normal colors in the several scales is reduced by adding gray, as in the broken colors, there is not the possibility for as many steps in either hues or tones without leaving those colors adjacent to each other too nearly alike. Therefore in the broken colors there are but thirty-six, instead of ninety, as in the pure scales. The distinction between p ure colors with tints and shades, and broken colors in various tones, should be made very plain to the children whenever the subject is brought to their notice, because it is a vital point in the clasisfication of colors. Edu- cationally this is one of the most objectionable features in the old red, yellow and blue theory of color composition, because no distinction is observed between pure and broken colors in classification. In the Bradley colored papers the distinction is made very decided for educational purposes, so that no one would for a moment tolerate the mixture of the normal colors from the pure scales with the normal colors from the broken scales in the formation of a spectrum. This may be illustrated by a selection as follows : First lay in order the normal spectrum colors with the pure colors found in the first section of the sample book, thereby forming the central vertical column of Fig. 10. Then substitute for the orange, green and violet, those colors selected from the collec- tion of broken colors, and the result will seem to render the 116 COLOK TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. operation absurd, but it is the same in principle as the results produced in the attempt to form a spectrum by the combina- tion of three primary pigments, red, yellow and blue, because so produced the orange, green and violet, show by disk analysis from 54 to 80 per cent of black and white and are therefore as much broken as the corresponding colors in the papers of the broken scales, but not exactly the same in tone. Engine Colored Papers. Those papers which are termed u Engine Colored Papers" are so named from the process of manufacture as distinguished from "coated papers" which comprise the first three sections of the book. In coated papers a white paper is covered with a coating of colored pigment "fixed" with a small amount of white gum, gelatine or glue, and in this way the pure color of the pig- ment is obtained. In the engine colored papers the color is mixed with the paper pulp in the process of making the paper. In a paper mill the tub or vat in wiiich the pulp is kept stirred up and perfectly mixed is called the engine, and hence this technical term has been applied to such papers as are colored in the pulp. In this class of papers both sides are alike, and for this reason in some of the folding exercises these papers are preferred, also because they are thinner and tougher. Heretofore, it has been impossible to obtain engine colored pa- pers in "families" or scales, but in this assortment the numbers from one to six, furnish six scales of three tones each, compris- ing the normal tones with tints and shades. Following these from seven to sixteen are a collection of unclassified colors in- cluding grays which are much used. All these can be analyzed and classified by the color wheel. Black and white complete this class. It is impossible to make any close approximation to a black in this class of papers, as when they are compared with the coated blacks the result is a very gray black, or very dark gray. All the colors in these papers from No. 1 A to No. 13 are quite light broken spectrum colors, but less broken than the coated papers designated as broken spectrum colors. COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 117 While great care has been bestowed on the original selection of the colors of all these above-described papers and every ef- fort is constantly exercised to keep them the same from year to year, the subject is materially complicated by the guarantee re- quired of the manufacturers that no arsenic colors shall be used in the preparation of any of the papers. This guarantee is strictly insisted on, because, while the writer has never been able to learn of any authentic case where a child has been in- jured by the use of plated or glazed papers, he believes that the opinions of parents and teachers should be respected in the matter, although the arsenic colors are often the most perma- nent and the aniline substitutes which are necessarily used be^ long to a class which is the most fugitive of all colors. " The line of colored papers now in use is the result of many experiments on the part of the writer and careful tests by ex- perienced teachers for s'everal years, and in its present condi- tion affords but small indication of the time and care which has been expended on it. This has been inevitable, because the peculiar system on which the colors are based has been one of growth and the papers have been designed to afford the neces- sary material colors for this special scheme of instruction. In preparing the tints and shades in the papers many expert ments have been made to determine the true effect of light and shadow on each normal color, and then to imitate these effects in the papers. All this is independent of the professional tricks which artists use to heighten their effects, some of which are legitimate, while others may be questionable on sound principles. It is a common habit with artists to introduce very warm ef- fects into all sunlight by the use of orange or yellow in the warm colors. This extreme tendency has been intentionally avoided in the preparation of these papers, however desirable or allowable it may be considered in heightening effects. So also in the shades as in the tints, the aim has been to keep all the tones of one color in the same scale, even though artists 118 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. often run the various tones of the same piece of color into two or three analogous scales. It is the object of color education to train the eye to see color wherever or however it may be produced, either by actual color reflection or contrasted effects, and in order that these ef- fects may be understood as explained under Simultaneous Con- trasts it is necessary that the prepared material be truthful to nature, the more so because these effects are sometimes greatly exaggerated by artists. Water Colors. When the subject of color was introduced into the curricu- lum of the common schools of this country, the use of paints was a novelty. So little was known regarding the possibilities of water colors as a means of education, that the teachers may be excused for having had grave doubts about the practicability of the scheme. Very few teachers in the lower grades of schools had received at that time any definite instruction in the harmonies of colors or the manipulation of pigments ; and what little thought had been given to the subject was based on the three-color theory of Brewster, which was the only one availa- ble at that time. During the intervening years much has been done to make entirely feasible the introduction into school and kindergarten of this pleasing and educating occupation. Color standards have be-en adopted, which are nothing less than selections from the solar spectrum itself, and the manu- facture of pigments has improved so much that it may almost be said to be a new industry. In the training of teachers, also, color instruction is now given an important place, so that the kindergartner and primary teacher can give the attention that it deserves to a subject which is so interwoven with all that is beautiful in the material world around us. Passing from one form of color work to another, it is ex- ceedingly important that children of any grade should find the COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 119 same principles obtaining in each step of the way, and also that the knowledge gained in the earliest stages of the work should be available in the higher forms. This is particularly true of color instruction as it is now found in the best schools, and the principal reason why water colors are so much better adapted to use in the schools to-day than in former years, is because paints are now made to correspond in color with the standards with which the children have become familiar in the colored papers and other material of the kindergarten. At present it is generally conceded that these six colors, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue and Violet, which stand out so prominently in the solar spectrum, are pre-eminently adapted to serve as standards and as the basis of an alphabet of color. There should, therefore, be no question as to the adoption of these same colors as the palette of paints for the earliest color work, even with the babes in the kindergarten, when anything beyond the colored papers and the usual kindergarten occupa- tions is wanted. Not very long ago it was the practice to give the child a box of colors and let him paint at random without any definite instruction as to the relation which each color should bear to the others. In fact, with the usual cheap box of paints then in the market there was no decided correlation of the colors nor any educational selection, both of which we have to-day. Water colors are now furnished which so closely approach the standards of the colored papers that they are of the great- est assistance in developing the aesthetic taste and judgment of the pupils, and it is remarkable how early in the training of children paints can be used with advantage. In some of the previous pages of this book we have treated of the false theory of Sir David Brewster, who supposed that there were three primary colors in the solar spectrum and that all the other colors were produced by the overlapping or mixing of these in pairs. 120 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. This error, being applied to pigments, has worked much harm and has greatly retarded the progress of color study. Even now some teachers recommend the use of the red, yellow and blue palette on the ground of simplicity and economy. All the recent scientific writers on color treat this three-color scheme as already exploded, because the simplest as well as the most complex experiments with colored light prove its falsity. Nevertheless, the fact that yellow and blue, which with light make very nearly white, do in the mixture of pigments produce a green, has deceived many persons. But the best green that can be so procured is a very broken color and not to be successfully compared with the beautiful and brilliant green of the spectrum. Why then, should we not have in our paints imitations of the solar green, orange and violet as well as the red, yellow and blue? It is not well to sacrifice so much for alleged simplicity, and as for economy, it will take but a moment's reflection to see that it would take no more paint to cover a given surface with six colors than with three. Oil colors, of course, are out of the question and pastels almost equally so, for although full colors may be produced in both these mediums, they are not suited to the use of young children, and at best are neither neat nor convenient, while colored pencils are not sufficiently satisfactory in results. Therefore water colors seem to be better adapted to primary work than any other pigmentary material. Of necessity the pupil must later be able to recognize any pigment he may meet and to classify it according to its color value and also to give it a definite name, other than the one by which it is. sold. More than one professional artist has already worked suc- cessfully from nature in oil colors with a palette consisting of only close approximations to the six standard colors with white and a few grays. A person whose color perception has been trained by the use of the color disk in six standard colors with COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 121 colored papers to correspond, will undoubtedly be able to more truthfully reproduce the colors which he sees in nature, on the canvas or paper by means of such a pallette than if he had been taught by any other system and used the ordinary pigments. Color Blindness. The subject of color blindness has received much attention because of its practical importance in the affairs of our daily lives. The use of colored lights as signals on ships and rail- roads has necessitated very strict regulations regarding the em- ployment of persons whose color vision is defective, and there- fore in some states specialists have been employed by the state authorities to examine from time to time the school children regarding their perception of colors. Possibly this condition of things may not at present be con- sidered a serious reflection on the methods of color instruction, or lack of such instruction in our schools because it has become so common as to attract little attention. But if it were neces- sary for the same course to be pursued in any other department of our public education that fact would not fail to occasion very uncomplimentary remarks regarding the methods employed. For example, if a state official were necessary to determine whether pupils are deaf or not after they have been through our grammar schools, and preliminary to accepting positions of re- sponsibility, it would seem that something was wrong, and yet after a child has had instruction in color according to a logical system there should be no more necessity for an examination regarding his ability to properly distinguish colors than there should regarding his ability to hear. Color blindness has quite generally been divided into three classes, red, green, and violet blindness, those afflicted with red blindness being most numerous, and the cases of violet blind- ness being very rare, if indeed there are any which may pro- perly be so called. This classification, known as the Holmgren system, seems to have been based on the Young-Helmholtz theory that all color 12:2 COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. perceptions are the result of three primary effects in the eye, namely, red, green and violet, rather than on any analytical classification of actual experiments concerning color blindness. Color tests should be so arranged as to detect either a defect in the brain which renders it difficult for the pupil to remember the names of the several colors, or in the eye, by which he can- not see a difference between two dissimilar colors. A person totally color blind would se.e in the solar spectrum a band of gray in various tones, and hence if a red and a green should seem to be of the same tone of gray he would call both either red or green, and after much experience would come to give color names to various tones of gray. Such casep,, however, are exceedingly rare, if in fact they exist. Other scientists and physiologists have doubted the truth of the claims made by both Holmgren and Helmholtz, and some have made extended experiments regarding color blindness which seem to oppose the Holmgren theory. In view of these conditions it does not seem necessary for a teacher in the ele- mentary grades to attempt to grasp the situation very fully, and much less to aid in the solution of the problem. Very fortu- nately this is unnecessary, because in all the scientific tests proposed for adults nothing is accomplished which any primary school teacher will not be easily able to determine during the first two or three years of ordinary school work, if the modern system of color instruction is pursued. There is no better material than colored papers for testing the color perceptions, and the exercises of selecting, matching and arranging the spectrum colors by means of the small color tablets generally in use in the first years of school are the very best that can be devised without regard to any of the abstract theories concerning either the cause or the possible classifica- tion of color blindness. For some reason the most common form of color blindness occasions a confusion between red and green, as for example, we are told, by some people, that in picking wild strawberries in COLOR TEACHING IN THE SCHOOLROOM. 123 :i field the fruit can be distinguished from the leaves and grass only by the shape, and the green fruit from the ripe by the touch or taste. If a teacher discovers that a child is unable to readily give the name of a color it may not indicate want of color vision, but merely inability to remember names, and therefore various tests which will naturally suggest themselves can be made to aid in reaching a decision on this point. Should the results of the tests seem to indicate some defect in color vision, the nature of the trouble should be sought and memoranda made from time to time for future reference, and if {he final result shows a radical lack of color perception the parents should be informed of the fact and a physician consulted. It is probable that the number of color blind women is very much less than that of men, and much time has been spent in debating the matter, but some doubt remains as to whether this opinion does not obtain because the girls are brought so much more intimately into relation with colored materials in selecting their articles of dress, and consequently come to know the names of colors much better, and in fact enjoy a much better color education than the men. A more correct decision regarding this question can better be reached when both the boys and girls receive a systematic color education and their color sense is more equally cultivated. Outline of a Course in Color Instruction. JHHE course of color instruction suggested in the pre- -*- ceding pages is not arbitrarily divided into lessons or even years, because the conditions in the city and rural schools in the various states of this country are so varied that no uni- form allotment or division of time can be suggested which will be satisfactory to all. The number of hours that can be devoted to any subject must be determined by those who prepare the school programme and the progress must be more or less rapid, with instruction cor- respondingly superficial or complete at each stage, according to the time allowed, the preparation of the teacher and the natural ability of the pupils. The teaching of color is usually classed with drawing because both relate directly to art, but inasmuch as color enters into our every day experiences so much more largely than the graphic arts there seems to be good reason for teaching it very fully where little attention is given to drawing. Every competent teacher can and will become expert and even enthusiastic in teaching color, if she fully understands the system which it is the object of the foregoing pages to explain. The following brief outline suggests the order in which the facts concerning color may be presented and the material which can be used in an elementary course, beginning with the first primary grade pupils, who for the most part have not had kin- dergarten training. As a part of the material the Bradley Educational Colored Papers, cut to tablets each 1x2 inches, are prepared and put up in four small envelopes which are enclosed in one larger envelope. On the larger envelope these words are printed : OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION. 125 4 'The Bradley Paper Tablets for Primary Color Education, Selections 1, 2, 3, 4 for Complete Course." The four small en- velopes are labeled in this way: "Selection No. 1, eighteen pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, the Normal Spec- trum Colors." "Selection No. 2, forty pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tint No. 1 and Shades No. 1, with White, Black and Neutral Grays." "Selection No. 3, forty-two pieces comprising complete Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales and TTarm, Cool and Green Grays." "Selection No. 4, thirty-six pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tints No. 2 and Shades No. 2." The Solar Spectrum. MATERIAL. A Glass Prism, the cost of which need not exceed a few cents, as almost any lamp or gas pendent in the form of a prism will serve the purpose. By the use of such a prism a small spectrum can be shown on the wall of any schoolroom having a sunny exposure during any part of the day. This spectrum will make plain the fact that sunlight is composed of many colors. METHOD. Show to the pupils the best solar spectrum that can be pro- duced under the controlling conditions. Call attention to the six colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, and the order of their arrangement in the spectrum. Present the colors separately as far as possible, selectipg the best conditions available for each one. Pigmentary Spectrum . Colors. MATERIAL. Neutral gray or white card to cover desk top for a back- ground. Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales. Colored Paper Tablets, Selection No. 1, embracing the six standards and the intermediate spectrum hues, eighteen pieces. Color Wheel or Tops. 126 OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION. METHOD. Ask the pupils to separate the six standards from the twelve spectrum hues. Standards to be arranged in spectrum order. Teach the names of the standards. Test natural color perceptions by the attempts of the pupils to lay the spectrum in the eighteen papers. Explain the intermediate hues by the color disks, and drill with the tablets. Continue the practice of having the pupils lay the entire spectrum with the papers until it is familiar to them. PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. Pasting simple designs in either of the six standard colors, on white or gray background, with ready-cut papers. Mark- ing forms from tablets and cutting and pasting them on back- grounds. Study of Tones. MATERIAL. Folding models to show light and shade. Crumpled satins and plushes. Standard color disks with white and black, on wheel or tops. Paper tablets, Selection No. 2, Tints No. 1, Shades No. 1, White, Black and Neutral Grays. METHOD. Ask each pupil to lay spectrum in eighteen normal colors. Lay tints and shades of the six standards. Have the children complete tints and shades No. 1 of entire spectrum circuit. Illustrate neutral -grays by white in shadow with folding model, also with white and black disks combined. Begin to classify into families the miscellaneous color mate- rial brought by the pupils. PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. Pasting of ready-cut papers in standard and shade on a background of the tint of same scale. OUTLINE OF A COUESE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION. 127 Paste designs in three tones of one scale on white or neutral gray background. Mat weaving in tones of one scale. Mat weaving in neutral gray and one or two tones of one color. Broken Colors. MATERIAL. Disks on wheel or top. Paper tablets, Selection No. 3. Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales. METHOD. Illustrate broken colors by disk combinations. Let the pupils lay paper tablets to form Chart of Broken Scales. Compare this chart with the Chart of Pure Scales laid with the papers. Classifying of miscellaneous materials with reference to pure and broken colors. Analysis of samples of pure and broken colors in cloths and flowers. PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS. Paper cutting and pasting to be continued. Following the broken colors in three tones which form the Chart of Broken Spectrum Colors, the three kinds of colored grays, warm, cool and green, may be considered preparatory to their use in contrasted effects. Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five Tones. MATERIAL. Paper tablets, Selection No. 4. Chart of Spectrum Scales in five tones may be introduced for observation when the chil- dren are able to lay it with their papers.* METHOD. Continue the study of tones with pure spectrum scales in five tones, as was done in the first three tones. From the Chart of Spectrum Scales the study and classifica- tion of harmonies can begin in a simple way. From this time on free-hand paper cutting and pasting may 128 OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COLOR INSTRUCTION. be introduced at pleasure, employing the colored papers in five tones when required. Advanced Study of Harmonies. By taking advantage of the instruction imparted in a course of color study such as has been outlined in the preceding pages the pupil will be able to advance in his ability to perceive colors and to make definite analyses of colors in natural and manu- factured material. In this way the advanced study of harmo- nies can be greatly facilitated so that it will be possible for the student to apprehend and appreciate many delicate and subtle color effects in art and nature never before imagined. In fact the foundation of color study will have been laid in such a logical and fascinating manner that its further advance will be but a pleasure to the pupil and teacher, so that no arbitrary plan will be necessary, because so many lines of work will sug- gest themselves to all who are interested in the subject. Water Colors. This outline would not be complete without a reference to water colors, but this is not the place to give definite instruc- tions as to their use. Kindergartners and primary teachers are now generally competent to direct the children in this work, if they will avail themselves of such aid as is furnished by recently published books on the subject. Non-poisonous paints, cheap and still of fair quality, can now be obtained in standard colors and put up in various forms. The moist paints in collapsible tubes are the most convenient as well as the most economical for school use. This form should be accompanied by a small mixing palette containing several compartments, which can be bought at so small a price that each pupil can have one. The paint in the tubes can then be dealt out only as required for each day's use. MATERIAL FOR COLOR INSTRUCTION. Where the price is preceded by a star the article is too large to be sent by mail. In other cases where no postage is given the goods are sent postpaid on receipt of price. WATER COLORS. In ordering it will be necessary to give only the number of the box. No. Price 1. An enameled box containing eight pans of semi- moist colors, six Standards and two Grays, one brush, per box $ .35 2. An enameled box containing ten pans semi- moist colors, six Standards, Black, White, Cool Gray and Warm Gray, one brush, per box .50 3. Same box as above, containing five pans semi- moist colors. Red, two Yellows, Blue and Gray, one brush, per box .30 4. Enameled box containing four pans semi-moist colors, Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one brush, per box .20 5. Same as above, Red, two Yellows and Blue, per box .20 6. A decorated box containing eight cakes of dry colors, six Standards and two Grays, one brush, per box .25 7. A decorated box containing four large cakes of dry colors. Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one brush, per box .20 8. Same box as above. Red, two Yellows and Blue, two brushes, per box .20 9. Nine tubes moist colors in strong paper box. Six Standards, Warm Gray, Cool Gray and Black, per set .90 10. Photograph Colors. A box of eight colors, the six Standards and a Chinese White and a Brown, with one brush. These colors are expressly pre- pared for coloring photographs, half tone prints, maps, etc .25 Bradley's School Colors, moist in Tubes. The most economical form for school use. These colors are so prepared that they remain moist out of the 1 MATERIAL FOR COLOR INSTRUCTION. tube. The set comprises the following colors : * price Postage Carmine, Crimson Lake, Vermilion, Gamboge, Chinese Yellow, Hooker's Green, No. I, Hooker's Green, No. II, Ultramarine, Prussian Blue, Sepia, Warm Sepia, Burnt Sienna, Payne's Gray, Ivory Black, Chinese White and the six Standards, with Warm, Cool and Neutral Gray, Black and White, per tube .10 Little Artist's Complete Outfit, comprising a Mixing Palette with its seven compartments filled with semi-moist colors and a brush, the whole enclosed in a strong cardboard case .15 .03 ACCESSORIES. Standard Mixing Palette, with seven compartments for paints and two for mixing. Almost indis- pensable in using tube colors. Extra deep, perdoz... .60 .25 Water Cups. An enameled metal cup, practically indestructible, perdoz .60 .13 Camel's Hair Brushes, Quill, per doz .30 .02 Camel's Hair Brushes, Long Handles, per doz .60 .03 Japanese School Brushes, per doz .60 .05 Artists' Camel Hair Brushes, No, 6, Wooden Handles, perdoz .75 .03 Milton Bradley Co.'s Water Color Pads Made of extra quality paper for water color work. No. 1, Pad of 50 sheets, 6x9, each .10 .09 No. 2, Pad of 25 sheets, 9x12, each .10 .10 APPARATUS. High School Color Wheel, with Disks in box. . *10.00 One set of Disks for above, in box *2.00 Primary School Color Wheel, with Disks *3 00 One set of Disks for above in portfolio .75 .06 Color Top, by mail, each .06 Color Top, by mail, per doz .50 No. 1 Prism, at buyer's risk .10 No. 2 Prism, at buyer's risk .15 No. 3 Prism, at buyer's risk .30 Kainy Day Spectrum, made from colored papers, mounted on cardboard, one inch by 13, each. ... .10 .04 2 MATERIAL FOR COLOR INSTRUCTION. Large Spectrum, 5 by 30 inches, mounted on cloth, P ce Postage each .25 .04 Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 1 X, on card- board, 9 by 24 inches, hinged and folded. Ninety papers one inch square, each .50 .10 Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 2 X. Size, 12x48, folded and hinged. Ninety papers two inches square, each .75 .15 Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 1. Size, 9x12 inches, with paper 14 inches square, comprising twelve scales of three tones each .50 .10 Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 2. Size, 12x48 inches, with the same papers as No. 1, three inches square, each .75 .15 Chart of Complementary Colors. On cardboard 18 inches square, each *.50 Standard Color Chart. On two cards 11x28 inches, hinged and eyeleted for hanging. This is a com- bination chart comprising *' Spectrum Stand- ards," " Pure Spectrum Scales," ''Complemen- tary Contrasts," "Broken Spectrum Scales," and u Grays." Printed suggestions for using the charts on the back, each 1.25 .15 BOOKS ON COLOR. Water Colors in the Schoolroom, by Milton Bradley, boards .25 A new book of practical suggestions, valuable to every one who would undertake to teach the use of water colors. Elementary color, by Milton Bradley, cloth .75 Gives the principles on which the Bradley System is based and an explanation of the use of the Glass Prism, Color Wheel, Maxwell Disks, Color Top, Colored Papers, Color Charts and Water Colors. The Little Artist by Marion Mackenzie, cloth .75 .15 A practical book of water color work for chil- dren, with 12 beautiful, colored plates. Size of book, 12 by 14 inches. Color in the Kindergarten, by Milton Bradley, paper covers .25 3 MATERIAL FOR COLOR IXSTRUCTIOX, A manual of the theory of color and the use of price Postage color material in the Kindergarten. A Class Book of Color, by Prof. Mark M. Maycock. Teachers' Edition, cloth 1.00 Pupils' Edition, boards .50 A very complete teachers' handbook in color. Practical Color Work, by Helena P. Cluice, paper. . . .25 A handbook for the educational us-e of colored papers in teaching color in primary and ungraded schools. The Color Primer, by Milton Bradley, paper. Teachers' Edition, 80 pages .10 Pupils' Edition, 24 pages .05 Simple and direct teachings. MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL. Paper Tablets, Set Xo. 1 , 1x2 in 02 Paper Tablets, Set Xo. 2, 1x2 in , 02 Paper Tablets, Set Xo. 3, 1x2 in 03 Paper Tablets, Set Xo. 4, 1x2 in 04 Sample Book, one by four inches, containing the full assortment 05 .01 Package, 4x4 papers, 100 pieces .20 .04 Package, 5x5 papers, 100 pieces .30 .05 Fun, Physics and Pyschology in Color. A box of material for simple experiment, each .25 .07 Complementary Color Contrasts. A box of large material for popular experiments in color vision, each .75 .20 The Dunn and Curtis Illustrative Sewing Cards, in color. Two sets : A. Literature Illustration!. B. Cards for Special Occasions. Set of eight cards 25 Dozen of any Design 40 MILTON BRADLEY COMPANY, Springfield, Mass. RETURN TO the circulation desk ot any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW FEB 271998 12,000(11/95) BERKELEY, 'CA94~720~ YB 096 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY