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TRUBNER'8 ORIENTAL SERIES, 
 
 " A knowledge of the commonplace, at least, of Oriental literature, philo- 
 sophy, and religion is as necessary to the general reader of the present day 
 as an acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics was a generation or so 
 ago. Immense strides have been made within the present century in these 
 branches of learning; Sanskrit has been brought within the range of accurate 
 philology, and its invaluable ancient literature thoroughly investigated ; the 
 language and sacred books of the Zoroastrians have been laid bare ; Egyptian, 
 Assyrian, and other records of the remote past have been deciphered, and a 
 group of scholars speak of still more recondite Accadian and Hittite monu- 
 ments ; but the results of all the scholarship that has been devoted to these 
 subjects have been almost inaccessible to the public because they were con- 
 tained for the most part in learned or expensive works, or scattered through- 
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 Post 8vo, pp. 568, with Map, cloth, price 163. 
 
 THE INDIAN EMPIRE : ITS HISTORY, PEOPLE, 
 AND PRODUCTS. 
 
 Bsing a revised form of the article "India," in the "Imperial Gazetteer, 
 
 remodelled into chapters, brought up to date, and incorporating 
 
 the general results of the Census of 1881. 
 
 BY W. W. HUNTER, C.I.E., LL.D., 
 Director-General of Statistics to the Government of India. 
 
 "The article 'India,' in Volume IV., is the touchstone of the work, and proves 
 clearly enough the sterling metal of which it is wrought. It represents th essence 
 of the 100 volumes which contain the results of the statistical survey conducted by 
 Dr. Hunter throughout each of the 240 districts of India. It is, moreover, the only 
 attempt that has ever been made to show how the Indian people have been built up, 
 and the evidence from the original materials has been for the first time sifted and 
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 engaged." Times. 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING WORKS HAVE ALREADY APPEARED: 
 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xvi. 428, price i6s. 
 
 ESSAYS ON THE SACRED LANGUAGE, WRITINGS, 
 
 AND RELIGION OF THE PARSIS. 
 
 BY MARTIN HAUG, PH.D., 
 
 Late of the Universities of Tubingen, Gottingen, and Bonn ; Superintendent 
 of S nskrit Studies, and Professor of Sanskrit in the Pooua College. 
 
 EDITED BY DR. E. W. WEST. 
 
 I. History of the Researches into the Sacred Writings and Religion of the 
 
 Parsis, from the Earliest Times down to the Present. 
 IT. Languages of the Parsi Scriptures. 
 
 III. The Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis. 
 
 IV. The Zoroastrian Religion, as to its Origin and Development. 
 
 " 'Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsis,' by the 
 late Dr. Martin Hang, edited by Dr. E. W. West. The author intended, on his return 
 from India, to expand the materials contained in this work into a comprehensive 
 account of the Zoroastrian religion, but the design was frustrated by his untimely 
 death. We have, however, in a concise and readable form, a history of the researches 
 into the sacred writings and religion of the Parsis from the earliest times d<wn TO 
 the present a dissertation on the languages of the Parsi Scriptures, a translation 
 of the Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis, and a dissertation on the Zoroas- 
 triau religion, with especial reference to its origin and development." Times. 
 
 Post 8vo, cloth, pp. viii. 176, price 73. 6d. 
 
 TEXTS FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON 
 
 COMMONLY KNOWN AS " DHAMMAPADA." 
 
 With Accompanying Narratives. 
 
 Translated from the Chinese by S. BEAL, B.A., Professor of Chinese 
 University College, London. 
 
 The Dhammapada, as hitherto known by the Pali Text Edition, as edited 
 by Fausbbll, by Max Miiller's English, and Albrecht Weber's German 
 translations, consists only of twenty-six chapters or sections, whilst the 
 Chinese version, or rather recension, as now translated by Mr. Beal, con- 
 sists of thirty-nine sections. The students of Pali who possess Fausboll's 
 text, or either of the above named translations, will therefore needs want 
 Mr. Seal's English rendering of the Chinese version ; the thirteen above- 
 named additional sections not being accessible to them in any other form ; 
 for, even if they understand Chinese, the Chinese original would be un- 
 obtainable by them. 
 
 "Mr. Beal's rendering of the Chinese translation is a most valuable aid to the 
 critical study of the work. It contains authentic texts gathered from ancient 
 canonical books, and generally connected with some incident in the history of 
 Buddha. Their great interest, however, consists in the light which they throw upon 
 everyday life in India at the remote period at which they were written, and upon 
 the method of teaching adopted by the founder of the religion. The method 
 employed was principally parable, and the simplicity of the tales and the excellence 
 of the morals inculcated, as well as the strange hold which they have retained upon 
 the minds of millions of people, make them a very remarkable study." Times. 
 
 " Mr. Beal, by making it accessible in an English dress, has added to the great ser- 
 vices he has already rendered to the comparative study of religious history." Academy. 
 
 " Valuable as exhibiting the doctrine of the Buddhists in its purest, least adul- 
 terated form, it brings the modern reader face to face with that simple creed and rule 
 of conduct which won its way over the minds of myriads, and which is now nominally 
 professed by 145 millions, who have overlaid its austere simplicity with innumerable 
 ceremonies, forgotten its maxims, perverted its teaching, and so inverted its leading 
 principle that a religion whose founder denied a God, now worships that founder as 
 a god himself." Scotsman. 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xxiv. 360, price IDS. 6d. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 BY ALBRECHT WEBER. 
 
 Translated from the Second German Edition by JOHN MANN, M.A., and 
 THEODOR ZACHARIAE, Ph.D., with the sanction of the Author. 
 
 Dr. BUHLER, Inspector of Schools in India, writes: "When I was Pro- 
 fessor of Oriental Languages in Elphinstone College, I frequently felt the 
 want of such a work to which I could refer the students." 
 
 Professor COWELL, of Cambridge, writes : " It will be especially useful 
 to the students in our Indian colleges and universities. I used to long for 
 such a book when I was teaching in Calcutta. Hindu students are intensely 
 interested in the history of Sanskrit literature, and this volume will supply 
 them with all they want on the subject." 
 
 Professor WHITNEY, Yale College, Newhaven, Conn., U.S.A., writes : 
 " I was one of the class to whom the work was originally given in the form 
 of academic lectures. At their first appearance they were by far the most 
 learned and able treatment of their subject ; and with their recent additions 
 they still maintain decidedly the same rank." 
 
 " Is perhaps the most comprehensive and lucid survey of Sanskrit literature 
 extant. The essays contained in the volume were originally delivered as academic 
 lectures, and at the time of their first publication were acknowledged to be by far 
 the most learned and able treatment of the subject. They have now been brought 
 up to date by the addition of all the most important results of recent research." 
 Times. 
 
 Post 8vo, cloth, pp. xii. 198, accompanied by Two Language 
 Maps, price 123. 
 
 A SKETCH OF 
 THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 BY ROBERT N. CUST. 
 
 The Author has attempted to fill up a vacuum, the inconvenience of 
 which pressed itself on his notice. Much had been written about the 
 languages of the East Indies, but the extent of our present knowledge had 
 not even been brought to a focus. It occurred to him that it might be of 
 use to others to publish in an arranged form the notes which he had collected 
 for his own edification. 
 
 " Supplies a deficiency which has long been felt." Times. 
 
 " The book before us is then a valuable contribution to philological science. It 
 passes under review a vast number of languages, and it gives, or professes to give, in 
 every case the sum and substance of the opinions and judgments of the best-informed 
 writers." Saturday Review. 
 
 Second Corrected Edition, post 8vo, pp. xii. 116, cloth, price 53. 
 
 THE BIRTH OF THE WAR-GOD. 
 
 A Poem. BY KALIDASA. 
 
 Translated from the Sanskrit into English Verse by 
 RALPH T. H. GRIFFITH, M.A. 
 
 " A very spirited rendering of the Kumdrasambhava, which was first published 
 twenty-six years ago, and which we are glad to see made once more accessible." 
 Times. 
 
 " Mr. Griffith's very spirited rendering is well known to most who are at all 
 interested in Indian literature, or enjoy the tenderness of feeling and rich creative 
 imagination of its author." Indian Antiquary. 
 
 " We are very glad to welcome a second edition of Professor Griffith's admirable 
 translation. Few translations deserve a second edition better." Athenaeum., 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Post 8vo, cloth, pp. 432, price i6s. 
 
 A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY 
 
 AND RELIGION, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 BY JOHN DOWSON, M.R.A.S., 
 Late Professor of Hindustani, Staff College. 
 
 In this work an endeavour has been made to supply the long-felt want of 
 a Hindu Classical Dictionary. The main portion of this work consists of 
 mythology, but religion is bound up with mythology, and in many points 
 the two are quite inseparable. 
 
 This work will be a book of reference for all concerned in the government 
 of the Hindus, but it will be more especially useful to young Civil Servants, 
 and to masters and students in the universities, colleges, and schools in India. 
 
 " This not only forms an indispensable book of reference to students of Indian 
 literature, but is also of great general interest, as it gives in a concise and easily 
 accessible form all that need be known about the personages of Hindu mythology 
 whose names are so familiar, but of whom so little is known outside the limited 
 circle of savants." Times. 
 
 " It is no slight gain when such subjects are treated fairly and fully in a moderate 
 space ; and we need only add that the few wants which we may hope to see supplied 
 in new editions detract but little from the general excellence of Mr. Dowson's work." 
 Saturday Review. 
 
 Post 8vo, with View of Mecca, pp. cxii. 172, cloth, price gs. 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE KORAN. 
 
 BY EDWARD WILLIAM LANE, 
 
 Hon. Doctor of Literature, Leyden, &c., &c. ; Translator of " The Thousand and One 
 
 Nights ; " &c., &c. 
 A New Edition, Eevised and Enlarged, with an Introduction by 
 
 STANLEY LANE POOLE. 
 
 "... Has been long esteemed in this country as the compilation of one of the 
 greatest Arabic scholars of the time, the late Mr. Lane, the well-known translator of 
 the 'Arabian Nights.' . . . The present editor has enhanced the value of his 
 relative's work by divesting the text of a great deal of extraneous matter introduced 
 by way of comment, and prefixing an introduction." Times. 
 
 "Mr. Poole is both a generous and a learned biographer. . . . Mr. Poole tells us 
 the facts ... so far as it is possible for industry and criticism to ascertain them, 
 and for literary skill to present them in a condensed and readable form." English' 
 man, Calcutta. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. vi. 368, cloth, price 143. 
 
 MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS, 
 BEING A SERIES OF IMPRESSIONS, NOTES, AND ESSAYS. 
 
 BY MONIER WILLIAMS, D.C.L., 
 Hon. LL.D. of the University of Calcutta, Hon. Member of the Bombay Asiatic 
 
 Society, Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. 
 Third Edition, revised and augmented by considerable Additions, 
 
 with Illustrations and a Map. 
 
 This edition will be found a great improvement on those that preceded it. 
 The author has taken care to avail himself of all such criticisms on particular 
 passages in the previous editions as appeared to him to be just, and he has 
 enlarged the work by more than a hundred pages of additional matter. 
 
 " In this volume we have the thoughtful impressions of a thoughtful man on some 
 of the most important questions connected with our Indian Empire. . . . An en- 
 lightened observant man, travelling among an enlightened observant people, Prof essor 
 Monier Williams has brought before the public in a pleasant form more of the manners 
 and customs of the Queen's Indian subjects than we ever remember to have seen in 
 any one work. He not only deserves the thanks of every Englishman for this able 
 contribution to the study of Modern India a subject with which we should be 
 specially familiar but he deserves the thanks of every Indian, Parsee or Hindu, 
 Buddhist and Moslem, for his clear exposition of their manners, their creeds, and 
 their necessities." Times, 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xliv. 376, cloth, price 143. 
 
 METRICAL TRANSLATIONS FROM SANSKRIT 
 WRITERS. 
 
 With an Introduction, many Prose Versions, and Parallel Passages from 
 Classical Authors. 
 
 BY J. MUIR, C.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D. 
 
 "... An agreeable introduction to Hindu poetry." Times. 
 
 "... A volume which may be taken as a fair illustration alike of the religious 
 and moral sentiments and of the legendary lore of the best Sanskrit writers." 
 Edinburgh Daily Review. 
 
 In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. viii. 408 and viii. 348, cloth, price 28s. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS RELATING TO INDIAN 
 SUBJECTS. 
 
 BY BRIAN HOUGHTON HODGSON, ESQ., F.R.S., 
 
 Late of the Bengal Civil Service ; Corresponding Member of the Institute ; Chevalier 
 of the Legion of Honour ; late British Minister at the Court of Nepal, &c., &c. 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 
 
 SECTION I. On the Kocch, Bodo, and Dhimal Tribes. Part I. Vocabulary. 
 Part II. Grammar. Part III. Their Origin, Location, Numbers, Creed, Customs, 
 Character, and Condition, with a General Description of the Climate they dwell in. 
 Appendix. 
 
 SECTION II. On Himalayan Ethnology. I. Comparative Vocabulary of the Lan- 
 guages of the Broken Tribes of Ne'pal. II. Vocabulary of the Dialects of the Kiranti 
 Language. III. Grammatical Analysis of the Vayu Language. The Vayu Grammar. 
 IV. Analysis of the Bahing Dialect of the Kiranti Language. The Baling Gram- 
 mar. V. On the Vayu or Hayu Tribe of the Central Himalaya. VI. On tae Kiranti 
 Tribe of the Central Himalaya. 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOL. II. 
 
 SECTION III. On the Aborigines of North-Eastern India. Comparative Vocabulary 
 of the Tibetan, B6d6, and Gar6 Tongues. 
 
 SECTION IV. Aborigines of the North-Eastern Frontier. 
 
 SECTION V. Aborigines of the Eastern Frontier. 
 
 SECTION VI. The Indo-Chinese Borderers, and their connection with the Hima- 
 layans and Tibetans. Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Arakan. 
 Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Tenasserim. 
 
 SECTION VII. The Mongolian Affinities of the Caucasians. Comparison and Ana- 
 lysis of Caucasian and Mongolian Words. 
 
 SECTION VIII. Physical Type of Tibetans. 
 
 SECTION IX. The Aborigines of Central India. Comparative Vocabulary of the 
 Aboriginal Languages of Central India. Aborigines of the Eastern Ghats. Vocabu- 
 lary of some of the Dialects of the Hill and Wandering Tribes in the Northern Sircars. 
 Aborigines of the Nilgiris, with Remarks on their Affinities. Supplement to the 
 Nilgirian Vocabularies. The Aborigines of Southern India and Ceylon. 
 
 SECTION X. Route of Nepalese Mission to Pekin, with Remarks on the Water- 
 Shed and Plateau of Tibet. 
 
 SECTION XL Route from Kathmandu, the Capital of Nepal, to Darjeeling in 
 Sikim. Memorandum relative to the Seven Cosis of Nepal. 
 
 SECTION XII. Some Accounts of the Systems of Law and Police as recognised in 
 the State of Nepal. 
 
 SECTION XIII. The Native Method of making the Paper denominated Hindustan, 
 Nepalese. 
 
 SECTION XIV. Pre-eminence of the Vernaculars; or, the Anglicists Answered: 
 Being Letters on the Education of the People of India. 
 
 " For the study of the less-known races of India Mr. Brian Hodgson's 'Miscellane- 
 ous Essays' will be found very valuable both to the philologist and the ethnologist." 
 Times. 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Third Edition, Two Vols., post 8vo, pp. viii. 268 and viii. 326, cloth, 
 price 2is. 
 
 THE LIFE OR LEGEND OF GAUDAMA, 
 
 THE BUDDHA OF THE BURMESE. With Annotations. 
 The "Ways to Neibban, and Notice on the Phongyies or Burmese Monks. 
 
 BY THE EIGHT REV. P. BIGANDET, 
 Bishop of Ramatha, Vicar- Apostolic of Ava and Pegu. 
 
 "The work is furnished with copious notes, which not only illustrate the subject- 
 matter, but form a perfect encyclopaedia of Buddhist lore." Times. 
 
 "A work which will furnish European students of Buddhism with a most valuable 
 help in the prosecution of their investigations." Edinburgh Daily Re-view. 
 
 " Bishop Bigandet's invaluable work, . . . and no work founded rather trans- 
 lated from original sources presents to the Western student a more faithful picture 
 than that of Bishop Bigandet." Indian Antiquary. 
 
 " Viewed in this light, its importance is sufficient to place students of the subject 
 under a deep obligation to its author." Calcutta Review. 
 
 " This work is one of the greatest authorities upon Buddhism." Dublin Review. 
 
 "... A performance the great value of which is well known to all students of 
 Buddhism." Tablet. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xxiv. 420, cloth, price i8s. 
 
 CHINESE BUDDHISM. 
 
 A VOLUME OF SKETCHES, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL. 
 
 BY J. EDKINS, D.D. 
 Author of "China's Place in Philology," "Religion in China," &c. &c. 
 
 "It contains a vast deal of important information on the subject, such as is only 
 to be gained by long-continued study on the spot." Athenaeum. 
 
 " It is impossible within our limits even to mention the various subjects connected 
 with Buddhism with which Dr. Edkins deals." Saturday Review. 
 
 " Upon the whole, we know of no work comparable to it for the extent of its 
 original research, and the simplicity with which this complicated system of philo- 
 sophy, religion, literature, and ritual is set forth." British Quarterly Review. 
 
 " The whole volume is replete with learning. ... It deserves most careful study 
 from all interested in the history of the religions of the world, and expressly of those 
 who are concerned in the propagation of Christianity. Dr. Edkins notices in terms 
 of just condemnation the exaggerated praise bestowed upon Buddhism by recent 
 English writers." Recwd. 
 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, pp. xxvi. 244, cloth, price IDS. 6d. 
 
 THE GULISTAN; 
 
 OR, ROSE GARDEN OF SHEKH MUSHLIU'D-DIN SADI OF SHIRAZ. 
 
 Translated for the First Time into Prose and Verse, with an Introductory 
 Preface, and a Life of the Author, from the Atish Kadah, 
 
 BY EDWARD B. EASTWICK, C.B., M.A., F.R.S., M.R.A.S., 
 
 Of Merton College, Oxford, &c. 
 " It is a very fair rendering of the original." Times. 
 
 "The new edition has long been desired, and will be welcomed by all who take 
 any interest in Oriental poetry. The Gulistan is a typical Persian verse-book of the 
 highest order. Mr. Eastwick's rhymed translation . . . has long established itself in 
 a secure position as the best version of Sadi's finest work." Academy. 
 " It is both faithfully and gracefully executed," Tablet. 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. 496, cloth, price 183. 
 
 LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL ESSAYS. 
 
 WRITTEN FROM THE YEAR 1846 TO 1878. 
 BY EGBERT NEEDHAM CUST, 
 
 Late Member of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service ; Hon. Secretary to 
 
 the Royal Asiatic Society; 
 and Author of " The Modern Languages of the East Indies." 
 
 " We know none who has described Indian life, especially the life of the natives, 
 with so much learning, sympathy, and literary talent. " Academy. 
 
 " It is impossible to do j nstice to any of these essays in the space at o ur command . . . 
 But they seem to us to be full of suggestive and original remarks." St. James's Gazette. 
 
 ' His book contains a vast amount of information, ... of much interest to every 
 intelligent reader. It is, he tells us, the result of thirty-five years of inquiry, 
 reflection, and speculation, and that on subjects as full of fascination as of food for 
 thought." Tablet. 
 
 " The essays exhibit such a thoro\igh acquaintance with the history and 
 
 antiquities of India as to entitle him to speak as one having authority." Edinburgh 
 Daily Review. 
 
 " The author speaks with the authority of personal experience It is this 
 
 constant association with the country and the people which gives such a vividness 
 to many of the pages." Atkenceum. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. civ. 348, cloth, price i8s. 
 
 BUDDHIST BIRTH STORIES; or, Jataka Tales. 
 
 The Oldest Collection of Folk-lore Extant : 
 
 BEING THE JATAKATTHAVANNANA, 
 
 For the first time Edited in the original Pali. 
 
 BY V. FAUSBOLL ; 
 
 And Translated by T. W. RHYS DAVIDS. 
 
 Translation. Volume I. 
 
 " These are tales supposed to have been told by the Buddha of what he had seen 
 and heard in his previous births. They are probably the nearest representatives 
 of the original Aryan stories from which sprang the folk-lore of Europe as well as 
 India, and from which the Semitic nations also borrowed much. The introduction 
 contains a most interesting disquisition on the migrations of these fables, tracing 
 their reappearance in the various groups of folk-lore legends respectively known as 
 '^Esop's Fables,' the ' Hitopadesa,' the Calilag and Damnag series, and even 'The 
 Arabian Nights.' Among other old friends, we meet with a version of the Judgment 
 of Solomon, which proves, after all, to be an Aryan, and not a Semitic tale." Times. 
 
 " It is now some years since Mr. Rhys Davids asserted his right to be heard on 
 this subject by his able article on Buddhism in the new edition of the ' Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica. ' " Leeds Mercury. 
 
 " All who are interested in Buddhist literature ought to feel deeply indebted to 
 Mr. Rhys Davids. His well-established reputation as a Pali scholar is a sufficient 
 guarantee for the fidelity of his version, and the style of his translations is deserving 
 of high praise." A cademy. 
 
 " It is certain that no more competent expositor of Buddhism could be found than 
 Mr. Rhys Davids, and that these Birth Stories will be of the greatest interest and 
 importance to students. In the Jataka book we have, then, a priceless record of the 
 earliest imaginative literature of our race ; and Mr. Rhys Davids is well warranted 
 in claiming that it presents to us a nearly complete picture of the social life and 
 customs and popular beliefs of the common people of Aryan tribes, closely related to 
 ourselves, just as they were passing through the first stages of civilisation." St. 
 James's Gazette. 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xxviii. 362, cloth, price 143. 
 
 A TALMUDIC MISCELLANY; 
 
 OK, A THOUSAND AND ONE EXTRACTS FROM THE TALMUD, 
 THE MIDRASHIM, AND THE KABBALAH. 
 
 Compiled and Translated by PAUL ISAAC HERSHON, 
 Author of " Genesis According to the Talmud," &c. 
 
 "With Notes and Copious Indexes. 
 
 " To obtain in so concise and handy a form as this volume a general idea of the 
 Talmud is a boon to Christians at least." Times. 
 
 " This is a new volume of the ' Oriental Series,' and its peculiar and popular 
 character will make it attractive to general readers. Mr. Hershon is a very com- 
 petent scholar. . . . The present selection contains samples of the good, bad, and 
 indifferent, and especially extracts that throw light upon the Scriptures. The 
 extracts have been all derived, word for word, and made at first hand, and references 
 are carefully given." British Quarterly Review. 
 
 " Mr. Hershon's book, at all events, will convey to English readers a more complete 
 and truthful notion of the Talmud than any other work that has yet appeared." 
 Daily News. 
 
 "Without overlooking in the slightest the several attractions of the previous 
 volumes of the ' Oriental Series,' we have no hesitation in saying that this surpasses 
 them all in interest." Edinburgh Daily Review. 
 
 " Mr. Hershon has done this ; he has taken samples from all parts of the Talmud, 
 and thus given English readers what is, we believe, a fair set of specimens which 
 they can test for themselves." The Record. 
 
 " Altogether we believe that this book is by far the best fitted in the present state 
 of knowledge to enable the general reader or the ordinary student to gain a fair and 
 unbiassed conception of the multifarious contents of the wonderful miscellany which 
 can only be truly understood so Jewish pride asserts by the life-long devotion of 
 scholars of the Chosen People." Inquirer. 
 
 " The value and importance of this volume consist in the fact that scarcely a single 
 extract is given in its pages but throws some light, direct or refracted, upon those 
 Scriptures which are the common heritage of Jew and Christian alike." John Bull. 
 
 " His acquaintance with the Talmud, &c., is seen on every page of his book. . . 
 It is a capital specimen of Hebrew scholarship ; a monument of learned, loving, light- 
 giving labour." Jewish Herald. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xii. 228, cloth, price 73. 6d. 
 
 THE CLASSICAL POETRY OF THE JAPANESE. 
 
 BY BASIL HALL CHAMBERLAIN, 
 Author of " Yeigo Henkaku Shiran." 
 
 " A very curious volume. The author has manifestly devoted much labour to the 
 task of studying the poetical literature of the Japanese, and rendering characteristic 
 specimens into English verse." Daily News. 
 
 " Mr. Chamberlain's volume is, so far as we are aware, the first attempt which has 
 been made to interpret the literature of the Japanese to the western world. It is to 
 the classical poetry of Old Japan that we must turn for indigenous Japanese thought, 
 and in the volume before us we have a selection from that poetry rendered into 
 graceful English verse." Tablet. 
 
 "It is undoubtedly one of the best translations of lyric literature which has 
 appeared during the close of the last year." Celestial Empire. 
 
 " Mr. Chamberlain set himself a difficult task when he undertook to reproduce 
 Japanese poetry in an English form. But he has evidently laboured con amore, and 
 his efforts are successful to a degree." London and China Express. 
 
TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xii. 164, cloth, price 103. 6d. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ESARHADDON (Son of Sennacherib), 
 KING OF ASSYRIA, B.C. 681-668. 
 
 Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in 
 the British Museum Collection ; together with a Grammatical Analysis 
 of each Word, Explanations of the Ideographs by Extracts from the 
 Bi-Liugual Syllabaries, and List of Eponyms, &c. 
 
 By ERNEST A. BUDGE, B.A., M.R.A.S., 
 
 Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge, Member of the 
 Society of Biblical Archaeology. 
 
 "Students of scriptural archaeology will also appreciate the 'History of Esar- 
 haddon.' " Tidies. 
 
 " There is much to attract the scholar in this volume. It does not pretend to 
 popularise studies which are yet in their infancy. Its primary object is to translate, 
 but it does not assume to be more than tentative, and it offers both to the professed 
 Assyriologist and to the ordinary non-Assyriological Semitic scholar the means of 
 controlling its results." Academy. 
 
 "Mr. Budge's book is, of course, mainly addressed to Assyrian scholars and 
 students. They are not, it is to be feared, a very numerous class. But the more 
 thanks are due to him on that account for the way in which he has acquitted himself 
 in his laborious task." Tablet. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. 448, cloth, price 2is. 
 
 THE MESNEVI 
 
 (Usually known as THE MESNEVIYI SHERIF, or HOLT MESNEVI) 
 
 OF 
 MEVLANA (OUR LORD) JELALU 'D-DIN MUHAMMED ER-RUMI. 
 
 Book the First. 
 Together with some Account of the Life and Acts of the Author, 
 
 of his Ancestors, and of his Descendants. 
 Illustrated by a Selection of Characteristic Anecdotes, as Collected 
 
 by their Historian, 
 MEVLANA SHEMSU-'D-DIN AHMED, EL EFLAKI, EL 'ARIFI. 
 
 Translated, and the Poetry Versified, in English, 
 BY JAMES W. REDHOUSE, M.R.A. S., &c. 
 
 " A complete treasury of occult Oriental lore." Saturday Review. 
 
 "This book will be a very valuable help to the reader ignorant of Persia, who is 
 desirous of obtaining an insight into a very important department of the literature 
 extant in that language." Tablet. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xvi. 280, cloth, price 6s. 
 
 EASTERN PROVERBS AND EMBLEMS 
 
 ILLUSTRATING OLD TRUTHS. 
 
 BY REV. J. LONG, 
 Member of the Bengal Asiatic Society, F.R.G.S. 
 
 " We regard the book as valuable, and wish for it a wide circulation and attentive 
 reading." Record. 
 
 " Altogether, it is quite a feast of good things." Globe. 
 11 Is full of interesting matter." Antiquary. 
 
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 Omar Khayyam (the tent-maker) was born about the middle of the fifth 
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 LINGUISTIC ESSAYS. 
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 CONTENTS. 
 
 Language as the Expression of National 
 
 Modes of Thought. 
 The Conception of Love in some Ancient 
 
 ages. 
 Com 
 
 and Modern Langu 
 The English Verbs of Command. 
 Semariology. 
 Philological Methods. 
 
 The Connection between Dictionary and 
 
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 The Order and Position of Words in the 
 
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 The Origin of Language. 
 
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 THE SARV A - DARSANA - SAMGRAHA ; 
 
 OR, REVIEW OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF HINDU 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 BY MADHAVA ACHARYA. 
 
 Translated by E. B. COAVELL, M. A., Professor of Sanskrit in the University 
 
 of Cambridge, and A. E. GOUGH, M.A., Professor of Philosophy 
 
 in the Presidency College, Calcutta. 
 
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 Post 8vo, pp. Ixv. 368, cloth, price 143. 
 
 TIBETAN TALES DERIVED FROM INDIAN SOURCES. 
 
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 BY F. ANTON VON SCHIEFNER. 
 
 Done into English from the German, with an Introduction, 
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 UDANAVARGA. 
 
 A COLLECTION OF VERSES FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON. 
 
 Compiled by DHARMATRATA. 
 BEING THE NORTHERN BUDDHIST VERSION OF DHAMMAPADA. 
 
 Translated from the Tibetan of Bkah-hgyur, with Notes, and 
 Extracts from the Commentary of Pradjuavarman, 
 
 By W. WOODVILLE ROCKHILL. 
 
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 understanding of the Pali text ; it is, in fact, as yet the only term of comparison 
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 A HISTORY OF BURMA. 
 
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 BY LIEUT. -GEN. SIR ARTHUR P. PHAYRE, G.C.M.G., K. C.S.I., andC.B., 
 
 Membre Correspondant de la Societe Academique Indo-Chinoise 
 
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 THE FOLLOWING WORKS ARE IN PREPARATION: 
 
 Post 8vo. 
 
 UPASAKADASASUTRA. 
 
 A Jain Story Book. 
 
 Translated from the Sanskrit. 
 
 BY A. F. RUDOLF HOERNLE. 
 
 Post 8vo. 
 
 THE SIX JEWELS OF THE LAW. 
 
 With Pali Texts and English Translation, 
 BY R. MORRIS, LL.D. 
 
 In Two Volumes, post 8vo, cloth. 
 
 BUDDHIST RECORDS OF THE WESTERN WORLD, 
 
 BEING THE SI-YU-KI BY HWEN THSANG. 
 Translated from the Original Chinese, with Introduction, Index, &c., 
 
 BY SAMUEL BEAL, 
 
 Trinity College, Cambridge ; Professor of Chinese, University 
 College, London. 
 
 Post 8vo. 
 
 THE APHORISMS OF THE SANKHYA PHILOSOPHY 
 OF KAPILA. 
 
 With Illustrative Extracts from the Commentaries. 
 
 By the late J. R. BALLANTYNE. 
 Second Edition. Edited by FITZEDWARD HALL. 
 
 LONDON : TRUBNER & CO., 57 AND 59 LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 5001/9/83. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 TRUBNER'S 
 
 ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 IV. 
 
BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO. 
 EDINBURGH AND LONDON 
 
A SKETCH 
 
 MODERN LANGUAGES OF THE 
 EAST INDIES. 
 
 ietJ fcjj 
 
 BY 
 
 EOBEET N. GUST, 
 
 LATE OF HER MAJESTY'S INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE, 
 
 AND 
 HONORARY LIBRARIAN OF HIE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. 
 
 ; Amicus Plato, Amicus Socrates : 
 Majc 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 NDON 
 TRUBNEE & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 1878. 
 
 [All rights reserved.] 
 
TO 
 
 EDWARD LYALL BRANDRETH, 
 
 THE OLDEST OF MY FRIENDS, 
 
 AND 
 
 MY FELLOW-LABOURER 
 IN LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL STUDIES, 
 
 75 
 
 DEDICA TED. 
 
 LONDON, July 1878. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I LEFT India abruptly in 1 867 under the pressure of heavy 
 domestic affliction, a few months before my term of service 
 was completed, and I had done my day's work. When, 
 after a year of darkness, I found myself restored to my 
 usual physical and intellectual vigour, my first thought 
 was, "What can I do for India?" 
 
 I was commissioned to draft a Land-Eevenue-Code for 
 the North- West Provinces, and, when that work was done, 
 I applied for employment, as Assistant Secretary in the 
 Revenue and Judicial Department of the India Office, 
 which happened to fall vacant. There were, however, so 
 many gentlemen to be provided for, who had never seen 
 India, nor knew the difference between a " Jajir " and a 
 " Jliagrd" a "fusul" and a "faisala" that I had to fold up in 
 a napkin my experience of a quarter of a century from 
 the lowest to the highest grade in both Departments, and 
 look about me for something else to do. The prospect was 
 not encouraging. Some of my contemporaries had taken 
 to brewing beer ; another had patented a machine for 
 blacking shoes with a rotatory brush ; a third was out in 
 Egypt managing the private estates of the Khedive; a 
 fourth was Director, of a Bank and Treasurer to a 
 Hospital; a fifth was being yelled at in the House of 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 Commons ; a sixth was trying petty cases as a Justice of 
 the Peace. All old Indians must do something. So 
 I turned back to my old love, before I went to India, 
 and took up the skein, where I dropped it in 1842, of 
 Language. 
 
 My stock-in-trade was a good knowledge of twelve 
 Languages, six European, six Asiatic, a good memory, and 
 a great passion for the study. I began by making a 
 general and superficial survey of the whole subject of our 
 existing knowledge, from Chinese to Anglo-Saxon, from 
 Assyrian and Accadian to Finnic and Basque, and was 
 astonished at the progress, that had been made, the 
 number of subjects, the number of workers, the number of 
 books published, the extraordinary energy, interest, and 
 acumen displayed, the number of controversies, which 
 were raging, and the bitterness displayed by scholars 
 towards each other. 
 
 This survey, summary as it was, occupied me three 
 years, and I then desired to find some more particular 
 and specific study in one corner of the subject; and again 
 the old feeling rose within me " What can I do for 
 India?" 
 
 In no department of the great Science of Language 
 had greater progress been made than in that of the Lan- 
 guages of the East Indies. I feel ashamed now at my 
 gross ignorance of the subject, when I left India. In fact, 
 as a highly-paid public officer, I had been for twenty-five 
 years foolishly devoting all my energies and leisure to 
 the discharge of the duties, for which I was paid, and had 
 thought of nothing beyond advancing the public service. 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 As it proved, it would have been more prudent to have 
 dabbled in linguistic and archaeological studies, served out 
 my time, and secured the pension, which from ill-health 
 and overtaxed energies I had forfeited. However, I found, 
 that the information with regard to the Languages of the 
 East Indies was scattered in a great many volumes and 
 serials, so I first consolidated it for my own use, and now 
 publish it, under the idea, that I am still doing something 
 for India. 
 
 K. N. C. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION, I 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ARYAN FAMILY, 28 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DRAVIDIAN FAMILY, . . . . . . . -65 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 KOLARIAN FAMILY, 79 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY,' 87 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 KHASI FAMILY, 117 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 TAI FAMILY, I 19 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MON-ANAM FAMILY, 124 
 
xii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 MALAYAN FAMILY, . . . . i ' . - . . -131 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 CONCLUSION, . . . .148 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 A. TWO LANGUAGE- MAPS, . . . . . . T 57 
 
 B. TABLE OF LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS, . . . ' . 157 
 
 C. LIST OF AUTHORITIES FOR EACH LANGUAGE, . . -173 
 
 D. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF LANGUAGES, DIALECTS, AND PECU- 
 
 LIAR CHARACTERS, 185 
 
 E. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS, AUTHORS, BOOKS, AND 
 
 PLACES, 190 
 
 F. LIST OF ORIENTAL SERIALS, AND BOOKS ON THE GENERAL 
 
 SUBJECT, OR PORTIONS OF THE SUBJECT, . . . 1 94 
 
 G. LIST OF TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE IN THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 THE EAST INDIES, T 9 6 
 
TJHIVERSITT 
 
 THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF THE 
 EAST INDIES. 
 
 CHAPTEK I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I HAVE attempted in all humility to fill up a vacuum, the 
 inconvenience of which pressed itself on my notice. Much 
 had been written about the Languages of the East Indies, 
 but the extent of our present knowledge had not ever been 
 brought to a focus. Information on particular subjects 
 was only to be obtained, or looked for, by consulting a 
 specialist, and then hunting down the numbers of a serial 
 or the chapters of a volume not always to be found. It 
 occurred to me, that it might be of use to others to publish 
 in an arranged form the notes, which I had collected for 
 my own edification. Thus the work grew upon me. 
 
 I claim scarcely a word or a line as my own ; my book 
 is essentially a compilation. It is therefore with grim 
 complacency, that I shall peruse strictures against pas- 
 sages, which my reference-book will bring home to perhaps 
 one of the greatest living or deceased philologists. I 
 have attempted to make my narrative perfectly colour- 
 less as regards my own views. I invite corrections, as 
 I seek for accuracy: I look for scientific and practical 
 suggestions, on the chance of a second edition being 
 required. 
 
2 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 I have drawn upon my friends in England, India, and 
 on the Continent, without compunction, and have been 
 met in a most friendly spirit. Failing to get what I re- 
 quired touching the Languages of the Dutch Colonies in 
 the Indian Archipelago, I went over to Leiden in Holland, 
 and was rewarded by the liberal instructions of Professor 
 Henry Kern, and Professor Veth, President of the Dutch 
 Geographical Society. More than this: The Maps of 
 this volume were published, with Geographical Memoirs, 
 in the " London Geographical Magazine " of January and 
 February 1 878. Copies of these papers, the Maps, and a 
 Provisional List of Languages, have been despatched to 
 some of the Governments of British India, and to Holland, 
 praying for remarks and corrections, asking for particulars 
 in doubtful points, urging the preparation of Language- 
 Maps on larger scale, and Dialect-Maps, for each Province, 
 suggesting the compilation of Grammars, Comparative 
 Grammars, and reprints of serial essays of distinguished 
 authors. Correspondence has ensued with distinguished 
 scholars, and willing co-operators, in every part of the 
 field from Peshawur to Bangkok and Batavia. 
 
 It is really astonishing to contemplate how much has 
 been done in the last quarter of a century, how much is 
 doing, and how much remains to be done. Colebrooke, 
 the greatest and most accurate of scholars, remarked in 
 1 80 1 that there were fifty-seven, or even eighty-four, Pro- 
 vinces in India, all with peculiar Languages. By the 
 term " Language " he clearly meant " Dialects," as well as 
 separate " Languages," and by India he meant the two 
 Peninsulas of Nearer and Further India. Erskine Perry, 
 to whose labours we are indebted for the first idea of a 
 Language-Map, remarked in 1854 that the assertion of 
 Colebrooke was exaggerated, but in 1878 we know, that 
 the wise old man estimated the linguistic varieties under 
 the mark, as the total of Languages and Dialects of the 
 first six Families, now for the first time tabulated, will 
 show three hundred names. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 Different parts of the great Field have been treated at 
 different times with wonderful ability; but knowledge 
 has advanced with leaps and bounds, and left the authority 
 in the rear, and the same fate will in a few years attend 
 this compilation also. We must notice the labours of 
 Buchanan, Leyden, Colebrooke, Marsden, Logan, Bryan 
 Hodgson, Nathan Brown, Eobinson, Stevenson, John Wil- 
 son, Max Miiller, Erskine Perry, Latham, and Crawfurd ; 
 and in later years we have a cluster of scholars, on whose 
 statements we can rest with confidence, such as Caldwell, 
 Beames, Hcernle, Trumpp, John Muir, Dalton, Burnell, 
 Bastian, Friederich Miiller, and Hovelacque. 
 
 It would occupy too much space to notice the scholars, 
 who have treated on one or two Languages only, but to 
 some of whom we are indebted for admirable Grammars 
 and Dictionaries ; and from others we expect further and 
 more enlarged and scientific handling of Languages, of 
 which they have as yet only published Primers. There 
 was a time, when we were grateful for Vocabularies, and 
 delighted to receive short Grammatical Notes. We have 
 got beyond that stage, and are not even satisfied with 
 Primers, which are sufficient for a school, but not for a 
 linguistic scholar ; nor can we rest content with lists of 
 words ranged in alphabetical order, with meanings at- 
 tached to them, and called a Dictionary. Trumpp and 
 Gundert have taught the present generation to be fasti- 
 dious : it is not enough to express surprise at a gram- 
 matical idiosyncrasy or a far-fetched meaning; a sound 
 explanation must also be supplied. 
 
 The geographical limits of this work embrace the whole 
 of that region known for the last three centuries as the 
 East Indies, into which Madagascar and Formosa, from 
 linguistic necessity, have been incorporated. This region 
 is in the possession, or under the political influence, of the 
 English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese Govern- 
 ments. Any attempt to draw the line at a narrower 
 margin failed : it was necessary to exhaust that great 
 
4 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Civilisation, which occupies the vast space betwixt Persia 
 and China. A discussion of the Aryan Family of Lan- 
 guages naturally led on to that of the Dravidian, which 
 owes its culture to the former. Mixed up with portions 
 of the Dravidian, but linguistically separate, we find the 
 Kolarian. A consideration of the Kolarian naturally leads 
 to the vast Family of the Tibeto-Burman, which again 
 approaches in some particulars, or was formerly deemed 
 to approach, the Dravidian, and is indebted to whatever 
 culture some few members of the Family possess to the 
 Aryan. Like an island in the midst of the great Tibeto- 
 Burman sea is the tiny Family of Khasi. The Tibeto- 
 Burman Family is geographically blended with the two 
 other Indo-Chinese Families, the Tai and the Mon-Anam, 
 which, again, with the single exception of the Annamite, 
 owe their culture to the Aryan Family. When I had 
 exhausted them, I found a residuum of the continent of 
 Asia, partly in the kingdom of Siam, partly possessed by 
 the English, and partly independent, occupied by an 
 eighth Family, the Malayan. The same impulse, which 
 compelled me to hunt up the outlying groups of the 
 Tibeto-Burman Family within the kingdom of China, 
 compelled me to follow up the Groups of the great 
 Malayan Family, passing onward "from island unto 
 island at the gateways of the day," until I reached the coast 
 of Africa in Madagascar, and the coast of China in Formosa. 
 I refused to follow out the other branch of the Polynesian 
 Family, and excluded anything with regard to Papuan, 
 except so far as it incidentally affects the Negritos of the 
 Indian Archipelago. Whitmee will tell us all about that 
 in his forthcoming Polynesia Polyglotta. 
 
 But what authority is there for this classification ? The 
 reply is that there is none. It is obvious, that so vast a 
 subject could only be treated in some order, and a neces- 
 sity therefore arose to devise some net, which could be 
 thrown over the whole Field, and this net was necessarily 
 made up of the materials already existing on the authority 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 of the most esteemed scholars. At the best, the present 
 scheme is provisional, and is the one which causes the least 
 amount of difference. The nomenclature of the eight 
 Families was carefully considered, and the reasons for the 
 entry of certain Languages in certain Families was care- 
 fully weighed, and are set out in the narrative of each 
 Family and Language. It was obviously necessary to get 
 rid of such vague terms as Turanian and Allo-Phyllian, 
 and such incorrect terms as Tamulic and Scythian, and 
 such an unduly wide term as JSTon- Aryan. Time will show 
 whether this nomenclature and grouping of Families will 
 be accepted or amended. It has this advantage, that it is 
 tangible, intelligible, and nearly exhaustive. 
 
 When the number of Families were settled, the graver 
 question arose as to the number of Languages. The use 
 of a lax phraseology had complicated the subject. The 
 most esteemed authors use the phrases, "language," 
 " dialect," " tongue," " form of speech," without any degree 
 of precision. Different local names were at random ap- 
 plied to the same Language, drawn sometimes from the 
 physical character of the country, such as Pahari, Pur- 
 batya, Desi ; sometimes from the political divisions of the 
 country, such as Bengali, Gujarati; sometimes from the 
 name of the tribe, such as Dogri, Uriya, Chubhali, Gond ; 
 sometimes from artificial and historical causes, such as 
 Tamil, Pushtu, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Kawi. It was above all 
 things necessary to use two words only " Language " and 
 " Dialect " as major and minor relative terms, and to 
 determine their relation to each other. 
 
 Assuming a Language to be the form of speech of a 
 given population, we have to determine what amount of 
 dialectal variation constitutes a Dialect of a Language, 
 and what extreme degree of variation justifies the claim 
 to be a sister-Language, instead of a child-Dialect. That 
 variation may be of three kinds i. Vocabulary; 2. Gram- 
 mar; 3. Phonetics. It is obvious that Portuguese and 
 Spanish rank as sister-Languages, while Venetian and 
 
6 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Tuscan are only Dialects of the parent Italian. We shall 
 find, as we proceed, the difficulty, from lack of accurate 
 diagnosis, of deciding whether Punjabi and Nepalese are 
 Dialects of Hindi or sister-Languages. But in dealing 
 with forms of unwritten and uncultivated speech, new 
 difficulties arise ; for clusters of clans are found speaking 
 varying, yet obviously kindred, Languages, and it is a great 
 practical difficulty, whether these variations, in the absence 
 of any superior or literary standard, are to be classed as 
 Languages or Dialects. Again, clusters of tribes are found 
 bearing one general name; and yet, upon inquiry, it is 
 found that the component members speak totally different 
 and mutually unintelligible Languages. Thus, in the 
 Tibeto-Burman Family we have the Kiranti, of which 
 Bryan Hodgson records no less than seventeen Dialects ; 
 under the single head of Naga we have three separate 
 Languages, each of which has Dialects. Where there 
 exists a literary Dialect totally distinct from the common 
 Dialect, as in Tamil, and a poetic Dialect, such as Elu 
 with regard to Sinhalese, and an Archaic Dialect, such as 
 " old Hindui," the Language of Chand, and " Hindui," the 
 Language of Tulsee Dass, differing essentially from modern 
 Hindi, they must be noticed. It would be a mistake to 
 suppose, that a sharp line can be drawn as the boundary of 
 a Language. Instances may occur of half a town speaking 
 one Language, and the other half another ; but ordinarily 
 there is a gradual shading off of one Language into another, 
 if they are kindred Languages ; or, in the case of Languages 
 belonging to different Families, the population of the tran- 
 sition or neutral zone is bilingual. We read of the 
 Baluchi Language becoming more Persianised as it ap- 
 proaches the borders of Persia, and of a mongrel Language 
 spoken in the Upper Godavery District of the Central 
 Provinces, composed of Telugu and Hindi. Occasionally, 
 where a great river separates Eeligion, Eace, and Language, 
 the line may be drawn sharply, as on the Indus betwixt 
 Peshawur and Eawulpindi of the Punjab Province. 
 
\ 
 
 INTRODUCTION U N I V E .B S# 1 
 
 V /*,. O^ - 
 
 As far as possible, no name is entered as a Language, or 
 a Dialect, unless it is represented at least by a well- 
 authenticated Vocabulary, and unless it can be pointed 
 .out with some degree of certainty within what geogra- 
 phical limits it is spoken. In British India we are 
 approaching a certain degree of precision. Wherever a 
 survey has been made, the habitat of the speakers of a 
 Language can be indicated ; but on the north-east frontier 
 of Assam and Bengal, on the upper basin of the Irawaddy 
 and Mekong, in the interior of the' islands of the Archi- 
 pelago, there is great uncertainty. Vocabularies are sup- 
 plied, and no habitat can be pointed out ; or the existence 
 of a tribe with a distinct Language is pointed out, and there 
 is no Vocabulary forthcoming. The subject is, therefore, 
 by no means exhausted. Again, as regards classing certain 
 Languages in Families, where there appears to be no 
 ethnical affinity, or even local juxtaposition, a provisional 
 classification has been doubtfully made : thus the Alfurese 
 and Negritos have been, under protest, grouped in the 
 Malayan Family; and with regard to the Languages 
 spoken in certain islands, I have with great hesitation, 
 and contrary to good advice, provisionally grouped them. 
 It is impossible, however, to say what a shipwreck, or a 
 designed deposit of a ship's cargo of slaves, may have in 
 ages past done, with the unintentional result of upsetting 
 linguistic and ethnical theories. 
 
 In late years several valuable books of Vocabularies 
 have been published, notably George Campbell's "Lan- 
 guages of India," Dalton's " Ethnology of Bengal," Hodg- 
 son's Essays, Hunter's "Non- Aryan Languages," Le win's 
 " Chittagong Tribes," M'Culloch's " Munipur Hill Tribes," 
 Garnier's "Exploration of the Mekong," &c., &c., and 
 some difficulty has been experienced in accounting for all 
 these specimens, and yet it would not be satisfactory to 
 leave any unaccounted for ; at least it is admitted, that, 
 in proportion to the number not accounted for, this book 
 is imperfect. The difficulty arises, as regards some of the 
 
& LANGUAGES OF THE EAS7 INDIES, 
 
 t, 
 
 greater collections, that they are necessarily compiled from 
 returns made from a considerable number of districts, and 
 by persons not possessed of linguistic or local knowledge, 
 which would enable them to control double entries under 
 different names, or manifestly erroneous entries. No 
 blame whatever is attached to the compiling authority; 
 and possibly any delay, with a view of testing the return, 
 might have jeopardised the publication altogether. A 
 Language-Map and a Classified List have the necessary 
 result of compelling greater accuracy of nomenclature, 
 and a few years later all these difficulties will disappear. 
 
 In fixing the boundary of Language-Fields, the Census 
 Reports have supplied authoritative data, and, though per- 
 haps not always strictly correct, at any rate such as can be 
 accepted until corrected. The circumstance that the ter- 
 ritory of Native Chiefs is so much intermixed with the 
 Districts of British India, leaves room for great uncertainty, 
 as, for instance, regarding the boundary of the Telugu Lan- 
 guage-Field in the Nizam's territory. Beames, Caldwell, 
 John Wilson, and Erskine Perry have contributed to this 
 part of the subject, but it is at once admitted, that it is 
 only a rough approximation. The same remark applies to 
 the estimated Population of each Language- Field. With 
 the exception perhaps of Bengali, the whole of which Lan- 
 guage-Field is included in one Province, and sharply defined 
 by known boundaries, all other entries are mere approxi- 
 mations, even as regards the great Aryan and Dravidian 
 Languages. As regards the Kolarian Languages, I had the 
 advantage of Colonel Dalton's personal superintendence of 
 the entries in the Map, which may be accepted so far as 
 correct. The relative position of the entries of the Tibeto- 
 Burman Family within the confines of British India may 
 be depended upon, but the entries of the Nepal Group, the 
 Munipiir-Chittagong Group, and Burma Group are only 
 approximate. The same remark applies to the whole of 
 the Tai Family. That portion of the Mon-Anam Family, 
 which falls within the territory of British India and of the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 French Colony of Saigon, may be considered correct, but 
 the rest is approximate. The Malayan Family, being scat- 
 tered in islands, has to a certain extent Language-Fields 
 physically limited ; and as regards this Family I had the 
 inestimable advantage of the personal supervision of Pro- 
 fessor Veth of Leiden, who marked off the Language- 
 Fields in the greater islands. As regards the clusters of 
 smaller islands, certain evidences are demanded to indicate 
 approximately the nature of the Language spoken, but the 
 whole is uncertain from the absence of surveys, and the 
 circumstance of the interior of some of the islands being 
 occupied by Negritos or Alfurese. The Language-Map 
 must not be judged critically, for, though great assistance 
 was supplied by friends in India, and a great advance has 
 been made on any previously existing Language - Map, 
 viz., the one published by Lassen in 1853, by Erskine 
 Perry in 1854, by the Church Missionary Society in 1859, 
 by Beames in 1868, and Hovelacque and Schlaginthweit 
 in 1875, still it can be deemed only a further advance, 
 and as showing the way to better things. 
 
 No one can fail to remark the singular protrusion of one 
 Language-Field into another : this can only be explained 
 by examining carefully prepared physical Maps, showing 
 the hill and plain, and making out the history of the strata 
 of colonisation. The phenomenon of the Hindi-speaking 
 wedge in the heart of Gondwana, south of the Nerbudda, 
 is explained by the fact of the hardy and industrious cul- 
 tivators of Hindostan having pushed the Gonds out of 
 their rich valleys into the mountain-ranges. Probably the 
 present peaceful occupation is the result of a long struggle 
 and bloody feuds, of which no record remains ; and pro- 
 bably the hills and rivers and chief settlements still bear 
 Gond names, the imperishable record of the first settlers, 
 if indeed they were so, for it is not improbable that there 
 were settlers even anterior to the Gonds, who, being of the 
 Dravidian Family, may be presumed to have pushed out 
 the earlier Kolarian hunters and nomads, as they did iix 
 
lo , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 their turn the hypothetical aborigines, who preceded them 
 also. 
 
 Another feature worthy of remark is the capricious 
 chance, by which some tribes have kept their Language, 
 and others have lost it. The consequence of this pheno- 
 menon is, that the ethnical and linguistic strata of the 
 population are not parallel. The weight of evidence seems 
 to be in favour of the fact that the Bhils and Bhars, pre- 
 sumably Kolarians, have lost their Language, and adopted 
 Hindi. Unquestionably the Kuch tribe in the Terai have 
 lost their Tibeto-Burman Language and adopted Bengali. 
 Millions of Pagan Non-Aryans have in the course of 
 centuries passed into Hindooism or Mahomedanism, and 
 adopted a new Language. Some, however, have managed to 
 keep their Language laden with a great burden of loan-words 
 from their neighbours, more powerful and more civilised. 
 On the other hand, we have the phenomenon of the Verna- 
 cular of the conquering race assimilating so much of the 
 Grammar and Vocabulary of the conquered as to be sen- 
 sibly affected by them. This is asserted by some to be 
 the case of the great Aryan Lingua-franca of India, but 
 denied, or reduced to a minimum, by others. The acces- 
 sion of culture from a superior race to an inferior is some- 
 times dangerous to the purity of a Language : the great 
 Dravidian Languages have suffered in this way by the 
 large infiltration of Sanskrit, though it is asserted by some, 
 that they in their turn have influenced Sanskrit. In the 
 same manner the Burmese, Siamese, Mon, and Kambojan, 
 have been sensibly affected by the contact of the sacred 
 Language of the Buddhists, the Pali, an Aryan Prakrit : 
 on the other hand, the rude Dravidian Languages, and all 
 the Kolarians, having come under no influence of culture, 
 have generally escaped linguistic contact. 
 
 The distribution of Languages has been by Families, 
 upon the basis, proved or implied, of ethnical union at 
 some very remote period. It remains to consider the 
 other principle of division the morphological. The first 
 
INTRODUCTION. if 
 
 Family represents the Inflexive Method ; the second and 
 third, the Dravidian and Kolarian, may be considered 
 to represent the Agglutinative Method, notwithstanding 
 that Pope, up to this day, maintains that the Dravidian 
 Family belongs to the same Morphological Order as the 
 Aryan. The Khasi, Tai, and Mon-Anam Families repre- 
 sent the Monosyllabic Method ; and the eighth Family, the 
 Malayan, represents the Polynesian Order, which I will 
 not discuss further here. There remains the fourth 
 Family, the Tibeto - Burman. Such Languages of this 
 Family as have come under the hands of grammarians 
 have been hitherto described as Monosyllabic, but a 
 closer consideration of the subject has led to the opinion, 
 favoured by Max Miiller and others, that it is not so, but 
 rather that they represent a transition stage betwixt the 
 Monosyllabic and Agglutinative methods, or may be classed 
 among the earliest specimens of Agglutination. Much of 
 the Vocabulary is no doubt Monosyllabic. The Chinese 
 Language, the type of Monosyllabism, has rudimentary 
 traces of Agglutination in the use of empty words : the 
 Tibeto-Burnam Family has advanced far beyond this, and 
 it is the extent to which the principle of Agglutination is 
 the rule rather than the exception that must decide the 
 Order, to which the Language belongs. 
 
 I may here briefly state the most approved theory for 
 accounting for the existence of these Families of Lan- 
 guages. Whether there existed a race anterior to those 
 which now exist, and which has been stamped out, or 
 absorbed beyond recognition, is uncertain. The Kolarians 
 were first in the field in Central India, consisting of their 
 present tribes, and those in addition who have lost their 
 Language, like the Bhils, Bhars, and the Northern Savara, 
 or who have become Hindooised, and passed into the lower 
 strata of the Aryans. I will state further on the pro- 
 bable direction from which the Kolarians came. Next in 
 time arrived the Dravidian s from the north-west frontier, 
 entering Sindh by the Bolan Pass, and leaving traces of their 
 
12 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Archaic Language in the Brahui. A connection is asserted 
 of the Language of this Family with the Archaic Language 
 of the second or Scythian tablet of Behistun in Persia. 
 Last in order, but at least 2000 B.C., came the Aryans from 
 their home on the Pamir, where they had dwelt for some 
 period, till the time came when the Iranic branch went 
 to the South-West, and the Indie to the South-East. The 
 Aryans advanced down the basins of the Indus and the 
 Ganges to the estuary of both rivers ; they felt their way 
 into the lower and middle range of the Himalaya, and up 
 the valley of Assam ; they found their way down the coast 
 of the Bay of Bengal as far as Chikakole in the Ganjam 
 District, across the River Nerbudda and Mahanudy into 
 Central India, and along the West coast as far South as 
 Goa. They appear to have chased the Kolarians to their 
 hill-fastnesses, but they adopted a policy of peace and 
 conciliation to the more powerful Dravidians, and imparted 
 to them their religion and civilisation. Another stream 
 of Aryans went by sea to Ceylon, and laid the foundation 
 of the Sinhalese culture and Language. A third went by 
 sea to Java, and did the same work in that island, of which 
 a remnant exists to this day in the island of Bali. 
 
 From the plateau of Tibet, at some remote period, by 
 the numerous passes of the Himalaya, the Cis-Himalayan 
 portion of the Tibeto-Burman Family flowed down into 
 the basins of the Irawaddy, Ganges, and Brahmaputra, and 
 across into Central India, for the Kolarians were of the 
 same stock : the immigration may have gone on for cen- 
 turies. When the Aryans poured down the basin of the 
 Ganges, a final separation took place betwixt the two 
 Families, and no great Tibeto-Burman nationality was 
 ever established in that quarter. In the basin of the 
 Irawaddy arose the great Burmese polity and civilisation. 
 
 From the same plateau of Tibet, in a long and straight 
 course to the Gulf of Siam, at a later period flowed down, 
 like a lava stream, the Tai immigration, cutting through 
 the flank of the Tibeto-Burman Family, and breaking up 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 into three fragments the domain of the Mon-Anam Family, 
 which must have descended from the same plateau at a 
 period anterior to the Tibeto-Burman immigration, and 
 after occupying the basins of the Irawaddy and the Mekong, 
 succumbed before their more powerful successors. 
 
 The origin of the Malayan Family involves considera- 
 tions of too great a length to be touched upon as a subsi- 
 diary point on this occasion. It is a received opinion, that 
 the Malay-speaking inhabitants of the Peninsula of Malacca 
 were immigrants from the adjoining island of Sumatra ; 
 but how they found themselves at Menangkaba, the 
 alleged cradle of their race, remains to be decided. 
 
 I must here notice briefly a very great controversy, of 
 first-rate importance, both from its subject-matter and the 
 fame of the scholars who have taken part in it. William 
 von Humboldt in his posthumous work, " Ueber die Kawi 
 Sprache," arrived at the conclusion, " that Malay was the 
 stem, from which the various Languages spoken by the 
 brown races inhabiting the Archipelago had branched out ; 
 that all the brown races belonged to one family, the 
 Malay ; that a convulsion of nature had broken up a con- 
 tinent, and left a few survivors of the common race in the 
 islands ; that Malay was probably an Indo-European Lan- 
 guage," which last assertion was more particularly pressed 
 by the illustrious grammarian Bopp. Crawfurd brought 
 a local experience of forty years and a knowledge 
 of the vernaculars to bear against the theories of Hum- 
 boldt and Bopp, and in the dissertation in his Malay 
 Grammar (1852) denied that the brown people belonged 
 to one race : he maintained that there were several brown 
 races speaking distinct Languages ; that there were several 
 races of Negritos also, and that the Polynesian Languages, 
 properly so called, were quite distinct from Malayan. 
 There rests the controversy, involving the deepest ques- 
 tions of the sciences of Ethnology, Language, and Geology. 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that Bopp's theory as to the 
 Indo-European connection of the Malayan Family has 
 
14 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 been condemned by all scholars of weight, in spite of their 
 reverence to their great master in Comparative Philology. 
 One great fact stands out, that while the Malayan Lan- 
 guages have had no effect whatever on the higher civilisa- 
 tion of the Asiatic continent, on the other hand, wherever 
 they have been received by other islands of the Archipe- 
 lago, there will be found a higher stage of civilisation. 
 
 Crawfurd and Marsden, however, admit that there is a 
 common element in all the Languages of Oceania. It 
 bears the same relation to the Language of the Malayan 
 Family that the Archaic so-called Aryan does to the Indo- 
 European Family, and, although unwritten and extinct, 
 its former existence is inferred and established by the 
 same arguments and inductions which have demonstrated 
 the former existence of the Aryan parent of the Languages 
 which bear its name. Max Miiller has tried to prove a 
 connection betwixt the Malayan and the Tai Family. 
 Friederich Miiller is totally opposed to this view. He 
 maintains that the Malayan Family has no affinity what- 
 ever to any race now in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula; but, 
 on the other hand, he is of opinion that they must in 
 some very remote past have come down from the Plateau 
 of Central Asia to the Archipelago. It is possible that 
 they were the original, or at least the earlier, occupants of 
 the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and were pushed forward 
 into the sea by the Tai and other Mongol races. 
 
 Another general point may be noticed, to anticipate the 
 necessity of repetition in the narrative of individual Lan- 
 guages. I allude to the 'marked difference, which is found 
 in some cases betwixt the literary Language of books and 
 newspapers and the Language as spoken by the educated 
 classes, placing out of consideration for the time the rude 
 and debased jargon of the uneducated peasants. That there 
 must necessarily be some difference is evidenced by the ridi- 
 cule, which attaches to natives of India educated in English 
 schools, who, in ignorance, converse in Johnsonian English. 
 It is a question of degree rather than principle. It is 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 admitted by capable judges that modern Bengali writers 
 have gratuitously abused the power of borrowing Sanskrit 
 words, preferring technically " tatsumuhs " to good, honest 
 "tadbhavas," just as if we were to use pedantically in 
 English the Latin words " fragilis " and " legalis " instead 
 of " fragile " or " frail," and " legal " or " loyal." It is the 
 peculiar peril, to which the Language of a race in an in- 
 ferior stage of civilisation, and therefore limited in its 
 resources of expression, is exposed to from the overbearing 
 influence of an alien Language, the vehicle of a dominant 
 power in religion or politics. A peril of a different kind 
 arises, when it so happens, that the race is in a fallen state 
 from former greatness, and suddenly finds itself in a posi- 
 tion to re-establish itself, and would willingly ignore the 
 lapse of centuries, and resuscitate an Archaic and dead 
 Language. Thus the Greeks have tried, in their writings, to 
 revivify the Greek of the classic period ; the Eoumanians 
 have done the same as regards the Latin ; the Bengalis, as 
 regards the Sanskrit, have acted in the same way with less 
 show of reason, the consequence being that there is a 
 chasm betwixt the spoken and written Dialects. 
 
 This forces upon us another consideration, as to how far 
 the formation of new Vernaculars is still going on. Purists 
 of all ages have objected to the absorption of foreign 
 elements into their Language, and yet the process has 
 steadily gone on, and the vulgarism and slang of one 
 generation become the ordinary phraseology of the next. 
 The more alien the Languages are to each other, the 
 more distinctly appears the process. The Chinese have 
 formed a Pidgeon or Business English at Hong-Kong, and 
 have done the same for Eussian at Khulja. As the Hin- 
 dustani was formed in the camp at Delhi, so we read that 
 in the ports of Java a mongrel Malay has come into ex- 
 istence, and at Malacca we have a notable instance of the 
 degradation of Portuguese. The verbs have lost their in- 
 flections, and one form acts for all moods, tenses, numbers, 
 and persons. Adjectives become indeclinable, and, in 
 
16 t LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 fact, we have a Eomance Vocabulary adapted to a Malayan 
 structure. A corrupted Portuguese is the Vernacular of 
 the middle classes in every town of importance in Ceylon. 
 In exhausting the subject of the Languages spoken by 
 the inhabitants of a given geographical area, we find that 
 there is a residuum, which will not appear upon a Language- 
 Map, or come within any catalogue of geographically- 
 arranged Languages and Dialects, and yet no other method 
 but the geographical can secure accuracy. It is generally 
 found that wild hill and forest tribes speak the Language 
 of the contiguous plains ; but there remain certain cate- 
 gories to be disposed of. It is notorious that there exist 
 in India domestic Languages of immigrants, and that, in 
 spite of an exile of several generations, the women in their 
 homes speak Arabic, or Persian, or Armenian, in fact, the 
 Languages of their forefathers. Again, there are in India 
 large numbers of Chinese, Arabs, and Africans, who come 
 to India for a short or long time, and become practically 
 bilingual, reserving their own Language for their com- 
 patriots. The predatory classes have a Language of their 
 own, and some of the trades a jargon only understood by 
 the craft. The migratory tribes, who are so numerous in 
 India, have forms of speech ; but whether these are lond 
 fide Dialects of some substantive Language, or only a 
 species of slang or langue verte, remains to be seen. Voca- 
 bularies have been made of such Dialects, but the subject 
 has not yet been disposed of. 
 
 Beyond this we coine upon the foreign Languages cur- 
 rent, but by no means the recognised Vernacular. Thus 
 English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish are, or 
 were, the Languages of the ruling classes at different points 
 of the East Indies. Dutch has already died out in Ceylon, 
 and ceased to be spoken by descendants of Dutch colonists, 
 while Portuguese has laid firm hold of the soil, wherever 
 that nation has settled. Italian is spoken by the Roman 
 Catholic priests from that country. Armenian is the 
 Language of a flourishing and respectable colony. Chinese 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 of a numerous but disreputable one. Arabic is the reli- 
 gious Language of the Mahomedans. Persian is the Lan- 
 guage of Culture, and was till lately of the Court. 
 
 Beyond, again, lie the dead Languages, which rise up 
 before us at every corner of the Field, with a simple enu- 
 meration of the best known of which we must content 
 ourselves. Of the Aryan Family, Iranic branch, there is 
 the Avesta or Old Bactrian, with its descendants the Puh- 
 lavi, Huzvaresh, Pazand or Parsi. Of the Indie branch 
 there is the Sanskrit in its two forms, the Vedic and 
 the Literary, and the Prakrit-Dialects: i. The Pillar 
 Inscriptions ; 2. the Dramatic ; 3. the Gathas of Nepal ; 4. 
 Aprabhansi; 5. Saras vati ; 6. Souraseni ; 7. Maharastri; 
 8. Pysachi ; 9. Magadhi, or in other terms Pali ; which 
 again appears to have variations in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, 
 and possibly Kambodia. Of the Semitic Family we have 
 two dead Languages, which have left a trace in India, the 
 Hebrew and the Syriac. In the Polynesian Family we 
 have the Kawi, which requires fuller notice. 
 
 Like many other nations, the Javanese were found to 
 be possessed of an ancient and recondite Language, in 
 which their literature and religion were enshrined. This is 
 called Kawi, which means " refined," as contrasted to the 
 " Jawi " or ordinary Language. Baffles thought that it 
 was a foreign Language of unknown origin, imported into 
 the island. Crawfurd saw its connection with the Javan- 
 ese, but deemed it to be a written Language of the priests. 
 Friederich saw that it was not so, for Sanskrit occupied 
 that position, and that Kawi was the sacred Language of 
 the people. Yon Humboldt, by a scholaiiike analysis, 
 found that it was merely an Archaic form of Javanese, 
 plentifully interlarded with Sanskrit terms. Kern, of 
 Leiden University, who is one of the greatest living Kawi 
 scholars, has favoured me with the following lines, which 
 are important, as settling the question : 
 
 " Kawi, or more properly Old Javanese, belongs to the 
 Polynesian Family and the Malayan branch. Next akin 
 
 B 
 
i8 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 to it are Malay and Sundanese ; it is the parent of modern 
 Javanese ; it represents the Language, as we have it from 
 800 to 1400 A.D., and it has largely borrowed from San- 
 skrit, just as modern Javanese, Malay, and the Dravidian 
 Languages have. The Grammar is unaffected by foreign 
 influence ; its structure and genius are thoroughly Poly- 
 nesian ; it is no more an artificial Language than English 
 or Persian; it is somewhat richer in forms and more 
 abundant in pronouns than modern Javanese, but the 
 genius and general outline survive in the latter. The 
 style of the literary work is highly elaborate and finished. 
 In the poetry there is much descriptive power, less of 
 feeling and grandeur." 
 
 When the Mahomedans occupied Java, the Hindu 
 religion and the Brahmins took refuge in the island of 
 Bali, which has remained Hindu to this day. There the 
 treasures of Kawi literature have been found, though 
 many manuscripts are found in the island of Java also, 
 and translations of old Kawi works into modern Javanese. 
 Grammars and Dictionaries do not exist, but most in- 
 teresting texts are being published. Short descriptions 
 have been published, and Dutch scholars have made 
 the subject their own. The whole of the literature is 
 thoroughly Brahmanical and Buddhist, for the professors 
 of both faiths lived apparently in harmony together. It 
 must be borne in mind, that both manuscripts and inscrip- 
 tions in pure Sanskrit are also found. Original versions 
 of the great Sanskrit epics are found in Kawi, which are 
 very important in their critical bearing on the original 
 poems as we now have them. It has a peculiar Character. 
 
 Another dead Language, used exclusively by a class of 
 priests, is the Ahom, of the Tai Family, the remnant of 
 the Language of the old conquerors of the valley of Assam. 
 Vocabularies are supplied, and it has a peculiar Character. 
 It is said to be spoken by a few priests, but it has lost all 
 pretence to be a Vernacular. 
 
 The subject of written Characters is too large a one to 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 be noticed except in the most summary manner. It may 
 be accepted as a scientific fact, that all the Characters 
 used in the East Indies can sooner or later be traced back 
 to the Asoka inscriptions, and through them to the Phoe- 
 nician Alphabet, and thence backwards to the Hieratic 
 Ideographs of the old kingdom of Egypt, and thence to 
 the venerable Hieroglyphics of the fourth dynasty. The 
 solitary exception is the Chinese Character used in Annam. 
 Several distinguished scholars have written on separate 
 portions of this subject, among whom we may name 
 James Prinsep, Thomas, Burnell, Bastian, Nathan Brown, 
 and Marsden. Many Languages have never been reduced 
 to writing ; for these it is expedient to adopt the Lepsius' 
 Standard Roman Alphabet. Many have no peculiar 
 Character. Of the three rival Alphabetic systems, the 
 Indian, Arabic, and Roman, no one is without additions 
 or adaptations enabled to represent all the sounds of the 
 different Languages; and unfortunately the question of 
 religion has become entangled with that of the Characters, 
 and many Hindus object to use the Arabic Character as 
 savouring of Mahomedanism, and few Mahomedans could 
 be persuaded to use the Nagari, or Character of the Hindus. 
 The number of different Characters is very considerable, 
 and they are herewith grouped according to the Lan- 
 guage-Family which uses, or has formerly used them, in 
 Languages now dead. The Iranic branch of the Aryan 
 Family has made use of Zend, Puhlavi, and adapted 
 Arabic. The Indie branch of the Aryan Family makes 
 use of Nagari, Kashmiri, Dogri, Gurmukhi, Lundi, 
 Kayati, Mahajuni of several kinds, Nepali, Bengali, 
 Asamese, Uriya, Balbodh, Modi, Gujarat!, Pali, Sinhalese, 
 Maldive, and adapted Arabic. The Dravidian Family use 
 the Tamil, Telugu, Malayalim, adapted Arabic, and for San- 
 skrit Manuscripts the Grantham; and among obsolete Char- 
 acters are the Hala Kannada, Vatteluttu and Old Maldive. 
 The Kolarian and Khasi Families have no Character. In 
 the Tibeto-Burman we find several varieties of Tibetan, also 
 
20 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Limbu, Lepcha, Newari, Burmese, and Munipiiri. Nearly 
 every one of the chief Languages of the Tai Family has its 
 peculiar Character, which gives a high idea of its culture. 
 In the Mon-Anam Family we find the Mon, an Archaic and 
 modern Kambojan, and the Annamite. In the Malayan 
 Family we find the Korinchi, supposed by Marsden to 
 have been the original Character of the Malay Language, 
 before the adoption of the Arabic with Mahomedanism ; 
 the Batta, Eejang, and Lampung in the island of Sumatra; 
 in Java and Bali we find the modern Javanese in use, and 
 manuscripts and inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kawi. In 
 Celebes we have the Bugi Character, and in the Philip- 
 pines the Tagal ; and now the adapted Roman and adapted 
 Arabic are contending for possession of the uncultivated 
 Languages, as they pass from mere vocalism into writing. 
 The first thing is to get specimens of every variety of 
 Character now written ; this can be done in British India 
 by the Educational officers of Government with the co- 
 operation of the postal authorities ; already one postmaster 
 has lithographed specimens of some of the handwriting, 
 which has found its way to the Dead-Letter Office. To this 
 must follow careful palseographical study of the different 
 Characters, used in manuscripts and inscriptions on rock, 
 stone, metal, and pottery ; and beyond that lies the 
 question by what route by land or by sea the Asoka 
 Alphabets found their way to India. While, on the one 
 hand, I deprecate, as injudicious and impracticable, any 
 attempt to supersede the established Characters of culti- 
 vated Languages by the introduction of the alien Roman 
 Character, on the other hand, in the case of Languages, 
 which have hitherto been unwritten, it is very undesirable 
 to adopt a new Character, which is not able to express 
 with accuracy every sound, and on that account Lepsius' 
 Standard Alphabet appears to be the most convenient in 
 every respect. 
 
 The materials, from which only such a narrative as the 
 present can be compiled, have been collecting in a slow 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 and desultory manner since the beginning of this century, 
 when Buchanan, Leyden, Colebrooke, and Marsden gave 
 the first impetus. The Asiatic Researches, and the 
 Journals of the different Asiatic Societies, are mines of 
 information on every branch of the subject. The early 
 Grammars and Dictionaries of the greater Languages were 
 very inferior productions, and the proper study of the 
 Vernacular Languages was notoriously neglected by the 
 elder generation of scholars. It seemed gradually to 
 be admitted that, of the Northern group, Hindi, Bengali, 
 and Marathi were worthy of scientific study, and Tamil 
 and Telugu of the Southern. Csoma de Koros, Hodgson, 
 and the early Indo-Chinese scholars, drew attention to a 
 Field previously ignored ; and as years went on, Grammars 
 of Asamese, Sonthal, Sindhi, and Gujarati, and Gramma- 
 tical Notes of many other Languages, made their ap- 
 pearance. Then approached the era of Collective Voca- 
 bularies, Comparative Grammars of Families, and a 
 wonderful activity began to develop itself in every part 
 of the Field. 
 
 To one class of labourers Science is more indebted than 
 to any other. I allude to the Missionaries, both Protes- 
 tant and Roman Catholic, who have vied with each other 
 in letting light into dark places. The Government of 
 India has been found ready to encourage by purchasing 
 copies of books published at the expense, and sometimes 
 at the loss, of the authors. The Government of Bengal 
 has now, at my earnest request, commissioned the Rev. 
 Mr. Skrefsrud to prepare a Comparative Grammar of the 
 Kolarian Family. The Missionaries, and their parent 
 Societies, felt from the first, that their only course would be 
 to master the Language spoken by the people, and, that 
 this labour of the pioneer might not be done over and over 
 again by a succession of labourers, to publish the results 
 in the shape of Grammars, Vocabularies, and Dictionaries. 
 In many cases the servants of the State have not been 
 backward in contributing to the good work, but it was 
 
22 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 only in specially out-of-the-way corners of the Empire, 
 that the necessity was brought home to them ; and it is to 
 be feared, that in the majority of cases the servants of the 
 State do not speak the Vernacular of the common people, 
 but are content to use a Domestic or Official Dialect, or 
 Lingua-franca, intelligible to their servants and to the 
 habitual frequenters of the Courts. With the Missionaries, 
 their usefulness, and very existence, depended upon their 
 being able to be understood by, and understand, the 
 humblest classes on the roadside and in the villages. 
 Among the Missionaries have risen up great scholars like 
 Caldwell, John Wilson, Gundert, Carey, Bigandet, and Pal- 
 legoix, and useful Grammarians such as Pryse, Skrefsrud, 
 Haswell, Mason, Flex, and others. Some of the Dutch 
 scholars have been Protestant Missionaries, and the nume- 
 rous " Arte " of the Philippines have been prepared by the 
 Roman Catholic Priests ; and to the same class we are 
 indebted for the standard works of the Annamite, and the 
 earliest works on the Tibetan and Tamil Languages. For 
 whatever we know of the Malagasy Language we are in- 
 debted to English and French Missionaries. In reckoning 
 up the advantages to the East Indies of the Missionary 
 bodies, we must not forget their substantial, unsectarian, 
 and benevolent, linguistic labours. 
 
 One great corporate body has done more than the State, 
 more than private individuals or servants of the State, and 
 has sustained the Protestant Missionaries in their efforts. 
 I allude to the British and Foreign Bible Society. Setting 
 aside for the moment the great spiritual and moral advan- 
 tage of the wide dissemination of a book so remarkable 
 and unrivalled in excellence, to no other book of any kind 
 whatever, at any period of the world, has it fallen to be 
 translated into such a variety of Oriental Languages, and 
 to be disseminated so widely in such amazing numbers. 
 As Luther's Bible formed the standard of the previously 
 unsettled High German, and our own Bible became the 
 standard of modern English, so all over the East Indies, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 23 
 
 with the exception of the Philippines and French and 
 independent Annam, the translation of the Holy Scriptures 
 is becoming the first, often the only, and always the 
 typical, representative of Languages, which previously 
 were wholly unwritten, uncultivated, and destitute of 
 phraseology for the expression of feelings and affections. 
 In the great Vernaculars, which already possessed a liter- 
 ature, the Bible, if the selection of a translator was a 
 fortunate one, has greatly helped to fix the standard of 
 purity and good linguistic taste ; in the other Languages, 
 the Bible has been the first expression of the power of 
 conveying ideas to paper. It is a remarkable phenomenon, 
 that the fountains of so many Languages and Dialects 
 should have been unsealed just at the moment, when the 
 intellectual, mechanical, and religious power of England 
 and Holland were at their height, ready to under- 
 take a task of translating the Bible into scores of Lan- 
 guages, for which task, even if the opportunity had offered 
 itself, English scholars were last century as unfitted, as the 
 Spanish and Portuguese are even now unfitted, and as 
 unwilling to lend themselves to the task, as the Italians, 
 French, and Russians are even now unwilling. 
 
 The plan of my work is as follows : I propose to notice 
 briefly each Family collectively, and then each Language 
 in that Family separately. In dealing with the great and 
 renowned Vernaculars, it would be mere waste of time and 
 impertinence to say much, as a reference to Beames and 
 Caldwell is sufficient. On the other hand, some of the 
 savage Languages are but linguistic expressions, repre- 
 sented by a brief, though genuine, Vocabulary, and a 
 tolerably accurate approximate localisation. Under these 
 circumstances, much cannot be said of them. Between 
 these two extremes there is opportunity to throw together 
 all that is known of the boundaries, the number, and 
 religion of the population, the number of Dialects, the 
 Character, the nature of Literature, if any, the linguistic 
 provision made for the study of the Language, and the 
 
24 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 chance of its survival in the struggle for existence. Notice 
 is made of the existence, or not, of translations of the Bible, 
 or any portion, as one great incidental advantage of one 
 book having been rendered into all Languages is the ex- 
 traordinary facility thus supplied of inter-comparison and 
 contrast of the genius, the structure, the Vocabulary, the 
 phonetic laws, and the syntax of each Language with those 
 of other Dialects, Languages, and Families on a large scale, 
 from texts prepared without any idea of the purpose to 
 which they are to be applied. Besides, the easiest way of 
 acquiring a Language is by picking out the meaning of a 
 Gospel with the help of a Dictionary, and compelling the 
 linguistic conscience to resolve an unintelligible group of 
 words into that meaning, which memory has already sup- 
 plied. No attempt is made to describe the Literature of 
 a great Language : the book is meant to meet the require- 
 ments of a linguist, and not a philologist in the ordinary 
 sense. The most interesting Languages are those which, 
 like the Sonthal, have no Literature, and yet have developed 
 a machinery of expression of time and mood, which a Greek 
 might have envied. As we pass down into the Indo- 
 Chinese Peninsula and the Indian Archipelago, the de- 
 scription of the Languages is fuller, because the subject is 
 less familiar to ordinary readers, and the books of refer- 
 ence not so readily available. It is no part of my plan to 
 supply Vocabularies or Grammatical Notes, or to enter 
 into linguistic discussions, or to take more than a passing 
 notice of any of the great controversies, ethnological, mor- 
 phological, grammatical, and palseographical, with which 
 the subject bristles. There is room for abundance of liter- 
 ary polemics, before we arrive at any finality. 
 
 It is hoped, that the Appendices may be useful to illus- 
 trate the text, and for facility of reference ; the primary 
 object of the book being to facilitate the onward march 
 of future students, and to save them the trouble of long 
 search for materials, for which search they may not have 
 the same facility, as I have had, though it has occupied 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 a very long time, and caused a great deal of trouble to my 
 friends at the Library of the India Office and the Eoyal 
 Asiatic Society, to get out the scores of books, which had 
 to be examined, extracted from, and then entered into my 
 classified Note-Book. I might have gone on for a year 
 longer, for the subject seemed still to be opening out, and 
 one book makes a reference necessary to another. Such 
 as it is, the work must now cease, leaving room for addi- 
 tions and corrections in future editions. 
 
 For the Language-Maps I am indebted to the labour of 
 two kind friends, Mr. Edward Brandreth, late of the India 
 Civil Service, and Professor Veth of the University of 
 Leiden in Holland. It has been a work of great labour, 
 and entailing considerable reflection, to prepare the com- 
 plicated list of Languages and Dialects. This was an 
 entirely new field of inquiry, and necessitated a careful 
 examination of everything with regard to any Language, 
 to take notice of any dialectal variation recorded, and then, 
 if possible, to localise that Dialect. This portion of the 
 work may lead to important results. The list of Authori- 
 ties is but a selection of the most esteemed works out of 
 long Lists of Books, Serial Articles, Encyclopaedic Entries, 
 and collective works on particular tracts of country. Many 
 of these are not readily accessible, and it is of no use 
 entering them. In my own list I have not only the name 
 of the particular book of reference, but the Library, where 
 it is to be found, and in the file of papers connected with 
 each Language is an excerpt of the most important refer- 
 ences, and in all cases volumes and pages are given. The 
 question arose in my mind, whether I should load the 
 margin or footnotes of my pages with hundreds of refer- 
 ences, and I decided to make none. My readers must 
 accept the statement on my security, or its own intrinsic 
 worth. The Alphabetical Index of Languages, Dialects, and 
 Characters, the Verbal Index of important Names and 
 Subjects, and the List of Serials consulted will facilitate 
 reference. 
 
26 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 There remains the task of thanking my friends for all 
 the assistance rendered, and the importunate questions 
 answered, the Maps and Books supplied, and the interest 
 shown. I wish particularly to thank Mr. Edward Brand- 
 reth and Dr. Eeinhold Kost of the India Office Library, 
 who have co-operated from the beginning ; Professors Veth 
 and Kern for all that is valuable in the notices of the 
 Malayan Family ; Sir Richard Temple, Bart., Governor of 
 Bombay; Hon. Sir Ashley Eden, Lieut.-Governor of Bengal; 
 Sir William Merewether, Colonel Dalton, Major Fryer, 
 Captain Eorbes, M. Feer of the Biblioteque Nationale of 
 Paris, Professor Des Michels of the Cours Orientales, Eev. 
 W. Wright and Eev. C. Eeid of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, and many other Officers of Government, 
 Missionaries, and Scholars. 
 
THE Languages of the East Indies are provisionally 
 divided into eight Families, upon presumed ethnological 
 affinity. 
 
 I. ARYAN OR INDO-EUROPEAN (a portion). 
 II. DRAVIDIAN. 
 
 III. KOLARIAN. 
 
 IV. TIBETO-BURMAN. 
 
 V. KHASI. 
 VI. TAI. 
 
 VII. MON-ANAM. 
 VIII. MALAYAN. 
 
 Each Family will be treated of in due order. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 ARYAN FAMILY. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 OF this important Family only a portion comes under 
 review, but in some sense the most important. That 
 portion comprises the whole of the Indie branch, the 
 most Eastern, and a portion of the Iranic branch. The 
 other branches are too well known to require enume- 
 ration. No further general remarks are required on this 
 well-worn subject except to notice, that, of the Indie 
 branch, the first two Languages are pre-Sanskritic, and, 
 whatever may be the relation of the other ten to the 
 Sanskrit, these two at least can have none. It is possible, 
 that there may have been an original Aryan Language, of 
 which even Vedic Sanskrit was a cultured derivative, and 
 to which all the Aryan Languages of Northern India, 
 whether Sanskritic, Prakritic, or Neo-Aryan, owe rever- 
 ence, as to a mother; but the only bearing, which this 
 hypothesis has upon the subject of this treatise is, that to 
 such a venerable fount, as is thus indicated, must be traced 
 many of the Archaic words and forms, which cannot be 
 accounted for in Sanskrit. 
 
 IRANIC BRANCH. 
 
 PUSHTU. 
 
 I commence my review with the Iranic branch of the 
 great Aryan Family, which is represented within the ter- 
 ritorial limits, or the orbit of the Political Relations, of 
 British India, by two Languages only, the Pushtu and 
 Baluchi. The Persian Language, though used for purposes 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 29 
 
 of Literature, Society, and Politics, is not the Vernacular 
 of any portion of the population, though used in some 
 families and small clans. 
 
 The Pushtu, or Pakhtu, is the Language of the Afghans 
 or Putans, who fall under three categories, being either 
 subjects of British India in the Province of the Punjab, sub- 
 jects of the Amir of Kabul, or enjoying a rude and lawless 
 liberty. There are also a certain amount of Pushtu-speaking 
 subjects of the Khan of Kelat in the district of Quettah. 
 The limits of the Language- Field are thus defined by 
 Eaverty : It is spoken with variations in orthography and 
 pronunciation from the valley of Pishin, South of Kandahar, 
 to Kafiristan in the North, and from the Eiver Helmund 
 on the West to the Indus on the East, and, I may add, 
 slightly beyond the Indus in the Eawulpindi Division. It 
 extends over the plains of the Yusufzye, the hills of Bajaur, 
 Panjkora, Swat, and Bunir, as far as Astor of Dardistan. 
 
 Dialects are given, Dir, Tirhai, Laghmani, Pashai, 
 Kandahari, and Peshawuri, but there are probably many 
 more, as upon its different frontiers it comes into contact 
 with the Baluchi, the Persian, in several of its Dialects, 
 the Turki, the Dardui, and the Punjabi : it is spoken by 
 tribes living in perpetual warfare, and occupying inacces- 
 sible mountains and valleys, giving scope for a great 
 divergence of Dialects, of which we shall know more, 
 when we get freer access to the country. 
 
 It was maintained, that this Language was of the 
 Semitic Family, which would have been a singular in- 
 trusion. It was attempted to explain this by the legend, 
 that the Afghans were descended from the Ten Tribes of 
 Israel. However, the weight of opinion of the most com- 
 petent judges is in favour of a different view. The 
 Language is undoubtedly Aryan ; but, though grouped in 
 the Iranic branch, it does, in fact, occupy an intermediate 
 position betwixt the Indie and Iranic branches. It is an 
 independent Language, forming the first transition from 
 one branch to the other, partaking of the characteristics of 
 
30 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 both with predominant Prakritic features, for it has pre- 
 served the whole cerebral row of letters, aspirates ex- 
 cepted. There is a large stock of pure Pushtu words 
 derived from Prakrit sources. The whole declensional and 
 conjugational apparatus has the closest analogy with 
 Sindhi of the Indie branch of this Family. 
 
 It would be a mere guess to state the number of the 
 Pushtu- speaking population beyond the frontier of British 
 India. Within that frontier there are at least three hun- 
 dred thousand: all are Mahomedan, wild and untamed, 
 but by no means uncivilised. There is a certain amount 
 of indigenous Literature, but Persian is the Language of 
 the Court and Society, Arabic of their religion. Its use 
 as a written Language is restricted, and it has no peculiar 
 Character, using a modified form of the Arabic. The New 
 Testament, and portions of the Old, have been trans- 
 lated into it in this Character. It is one of the Lan- 
 guages, in which the officers of Government are expected 
 to be qualified. There is no want of linguistic books. 
 
 BALUCHI. 
 
 Passing down the Indus to the sea, we come upon a 
 population which speaks Baluchi ; they are either subjects 
 of British India in the Province of the Punjab, and the 
 Sindh Division of the Province of Bombay, or subjects of 
 the Khan of Kelat, some of whom enjoy a wild and law- 
 less liberty. Their country is bounded by Sindh and the 
 Punjab on the West, Afghanistan on the North, Persia on 
 the West, and the Arabian Sea on the South, 700 miles from 
 East to West and 300 miles from North to South. Within 
 these boundaries, however, live a distinct race, the Brahu, 
 whose Language will be noticed further on. Persian is 
 spoken by the Dehwars, who are analogous to the Tajiks, and 
 by the Babis. There are several Dialects. Mockler main- 
 tains, that the Makrani Baluchi on the Persian side is the 
 real pure Language, and that the variations from this 
 standard are Dialects ; others consider the tract on the 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 
 
 East side of the mixed Baluchi and Brahiii territory, and 
 the mixed Bahichi and Sindhi, to be the real Baluchi, and 
 the Makrani to be a Dialect ; and even go so far as to 
 call this last a Dialect of Persian mixed up with words 
 of Indian origin. Very different, again, is the Dialect 
 spoken by the hill tribes on the Solimani frontier of the 
 Deruh Ghazee Khan District in the Punjab. Here each 
 tribe has some dialectal variation. It possesses no Lite- 
 rature beyond ballads orally handed down. Of the number 
 of the Baluchi-speaking population beyond the frontier of 
 British India we have no certain information, but within 
 that frontier there are one hundred and eighty thousand 
 in the Punjab, and one hundred and forty-five thousand in 
 Sindh. They are exclusively Mahomedans. All corre- 
 spondence is carried on in Persian. There is no peculiar 
 Character. The Arabic Character has been adopted for 
 such printed works as have appeared. Three of the Gospels 
 have been translated into this Character. It is one of 
 those in which the officers of Government are expected to 
 qualify. A Grammar of this Language has appeared, and 
 there exist also Grammatical Notes and Vocabularies, but 
 a good deal is still required for this Language. 
 
 IXDIO BEANCH. 
 
 GENEKAL. 
 
 We now turn back to the extreme North- West corner 
 of the Map; but before I commence the enumeration of the 
 great Indie branch, I must notice one interesting Language, 
 which, though of the Iranic branch, is intimately con- 
 nected with the seed-plot of the Indie. I allude to the 
 Ghalchuh Language of the valleys of Wakhan and Sir-i- 
 kul near the head- water of the Oxus, West and East of 
 the Pamir. Where the Hindu-Koosh range abuts on the 
 Pamir, the Ghalchuh-speaking tribes are in the acute angle 
 above, while the Dards, who will be mentioned further on, 
 are in the obtuse angle below. Beyond the Pamir the 
 people speak Turki of the Altaic Eamily ; so at this point 
 
32 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 meet the Iranic, Indie, and Turki Languages, and not very 
 far to the West is the extreme flank of the Tibeto-Burman 
 Family. Affinities are discovered betwixt the Ghalchuh 
 and the Dardui : the theory may be hazarded, that the an- 
 cestors of both lived together, spoke the same Language, 
 and have since diverged : the home of the undivided 
 Indo-Iranic stem must have been in this neighbourhood. 
 The Indie branch passed over the Hindu-Koosh into India, 
 and developed the great Aryan Vernaculars ; the Iranic 
 branch spread into the plains of Bactria. The Ghalchuhs 
 and Dards remain in situ, retaining in their rude Lan- 
 guages traces of their common origin. Shaw has published 
 Grammatical Notices of the Ghalchuh, and the subject is 
 one fully worthy of fuller and deeper research. 
 
 Provisionally the number of Languages of the Indie 
 branch is fixed at fourteen. It is possible that some may 
 on further research be reduced to Dialects, and that other 
 distinct Languages may be brought to notice. 
 
 I. KAFIEI. VHI. NEPALI. 
 II. DARDUI. IX. BENGALI. 
 
 III. KASHMfRI. X. ASAMESE. 
 
 IV. PUNJABI. XI. URIYA. 
 V. BRAHtfl. XII. MARATHI. 
 
 VI. SINDHI. XIII. GUJARATI. 
 
 VII. HINDI. XIV. SINHALESE. 
 
 KAFIRI. 
 
 With regard to the Language of the Kafirs, our know- 
 ledge is scanty, but there is a general consensus, that it is 
 of the Aryan Family. It is the speech of the Siah-Posh 
 population of Kafiristan, who, amounting to about one 
 hundred thousand, are entirely, and have always been, 
 independent of the Ameer of Kabul. The country is said 
 to be called Wamistan by the natives; the names, by 
 which they are known to foreigners, are obviously derived 
 from the prevailing colour of their dress, and their having 
 refused to accept Mahomedanism. Their country is im- 
 pregnable in a commanding position, dominating all the 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 33 
 
 mountain passes betwixt the Oxus and Indus basins. It 
 occupies the most Western part of the independent High- 
 lands, known as Yaghistan, from the fact, that it has never 
 succumbed to the rulers of Kabul, Kashmir, or Bokhara, 
 just where the summits of the Hindu-Koosh coalesce with 
 the lofty extremity of the Himalaya. The people are quite 
 distinct in race from the Afghans. By some they are 
 considered to be members of the Dardu clan, differing 
 only in being Pagans. To Trumpp of Munich we are 
 indebted for a Grammatical Note of their Language, 
 extracted from the lips of some Kafirs at Peshawur, as 
 no European has ever visited the valley. It is a pure 
 Prakritic Language, which separated from the parent 
 stock at a very remote period. It has no Literature, no 
 Character ; and owing to the isolated life of these moun- 
 taineers in their savage independence, it may be presumed, 
 that it is a poor Language, with but scant admixture of 
 foreign elements. It appears to have taken a step 
 towards decomposition by the use of casal postpositions. 
 One hostile critic goes so far as to deny, that the parties, 
 from whom Trumpp gleaned his knowledge, were Kafirs. 
 At any rate, a remarkable Language is disclosed, and we 
 must wait till further intimacy with this interesting 
 people widens our knowledge. By the irruptions of the 
 Afghan race, and the Mahomedan religion, they have been 
 cut off for centuries from all communication with the 
 other members of the Indie branch, and it is possible, 
 that they have been affected to some extent by their 
 Iranic neighbours. We have Vocabularies supplied by 
 Burnes and Lumsden. 
 
 Trumpp mentions, that he has examined the Kohistani 
 Dialect, which is rude and akin to Kafiri, and spoken by 
 the population of the tract adjoining the country of the 
 Siah-Posh, and understood by them. He states that it is 
 a Prakritic Language, and it is therefore provisionally 
 grouped as a Dialect of Kafiri. No specimens of the 
 Language are available. 
 
34 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 DARDUI. 
 
 I now come to the no less interesting inhabitants of 
 Dardistan, a race of mountaineers, partly subjects by late 
 conquest of the Maharaja of Jummoo and Kashmir, and 
 partly in independent Yaghistan, but nearly all situated 
 beyond the Eiver Indus, in a nook betwixt Afghanistan, 
 Turkistan, and Kashmir. It is a perilous position for in- 
 dependent tribes, as they run the risk of being absorbed 
 into the Mahomedan kingdom of Kabul or the Hindu 
 kingdom of Kashmir, and are open to influences, political 
 or military, from the direction of Badakshan on the Oxus. 
 That they will long remain independent is not probable. 
 They have no Literature, no Character, no civilisation be- 
 yond the rudest, and their chance of survival is small. 
 Their Language has been affected by their neighbours ; for 
 it appears that one portion of the tribe speaks a Turki 
 Language, another a Tibeto-Burman ; that of a third is 
 blended with Pushtu, or at any rate the Dardus of Koli 
 and Palas are bilingual; that of a fourth is tainted with 
 Kashmiri. Their religion is chiefly Mahomedan, but 
 there is a section, who have become Buddhists, and re- 
 side near Ladakh. The confines of Dardistan and Balti- 
 stan are also the confines of Mahomedanism and Buddhism, 
 and of the Aryan and Tibeto-Burman Families, which last 
 will be described further on. It is a singular feature, that 
 both should have passed under the sovereignty of a Hindu 
 within the last quarter of a century. The great Watershed 
 of the Himalayas separates them from a Hindu popula- 
 tion. Of the number of these tribes we cannot form 
 the remotest approximation, as they are scattered over 
 mountains and valleys in a hitherto all but inaccessible 
 country, where Hay ward the traveller lost his life in 1 870 
 at the hand of the Dardu Chief of Yasin. Leitner and 
 Drew have subsequently visited Gilgit within the terri- 
 tories of the Maharaja of Kashmir, and to the former we 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 35 
 
 are indebted for our linguistic, and to the latter for our 
 ethnical and political knowledge, which was previously 
 a blank. Leitner's grammatical facts were reviewed by 
 Trumpp, and this places our knowledge, as far as it goes, 
 on a sure basis. Excluding the Dialects of Dah and 
 Khajuna, which are Tibetan and Turki respectively, the 
 remaining Dialects are pure Aryan of an Archaic stamp. 
 Trumpp coincides in the theory of their connection with 
 the Kafiri, and that the Aryans did not come from Central 
 Asia in their final move upon India, but from these very 
 mountains, in which the Kafir Siah-Posh and Dardus are 
 found in situ. The Aryan Dialects of Dardui are Gurezi, 
 Astori, and Gilgiti, within the kingdom of Kashmir; 
 Durel, Koli, Palas, and Chilas in Yaghistan ; these make 
 up the subdivision of the Shina tribe. In the Arnyia 
 subdivision we find the Dialects of the independent tracts 
 of Yasin and Chitral. The Khajuna or Turki subdivision 
 includes the independent tracts of Hunza and Naga. In 
 addition to the pages of Leitner, and Trumpp working on 
 Leitner's materials, we have Vocabularies by Drew, of the 
 service of the Maharaja, Cunningham of the Indian Army, 
 and Vigue, an English traveller. In addition to these 
 undoubted Aryans in race and Language, Drew thinks 
 that he detects in some of the lower classes unmistakable 
 ethnical evidence of pre- Aryan races, though they have lost 
 their Language, customs, and religion. It is to be hoped, 
 that a better acquaintance will enlarge our knowledge of 
 these interesting mountaineers. 
 
 KASHMfRI. 
 
 The next Language on the list is Kashmiri, mentioned 
 as such by Marco Polo and Abulfuzul, notorious as a 
 sister- Language of Hindi, though perfectly unintelligible 
 to strangers. The Language of a valley visited by Euro- 
 peans in hundreds during the last thirty years, and for 
 many centuries the seat of a local Governor, Mahomedan 
 
36 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 or Hindu, and yet no such, thing as a Grammar or Dic- 
 tionary exists, either Native or European, nor did I ever 
 meet or hear of a European, who could understand or speak 
 it. We have imperfect Grammatical Notes and Vocabu- 
 laries, put together from materials collected from exiled 
 Kashmiris in the Punjab, and a brief Dictionary by 
 Elsmlie, a Medical Missionary, who was a short time in 
 the valley. A portion of the Old Testament and the New 
 Testament have been translated into this Language in the 
 Nagari Character. Drew in his " Jummoo and Kashmir " 
 supplies much general information. 
 
 The linguistic term Kashmiri is held to embrace 
 not only the valley, but the middle range of mountains 
 of the kingdom of Jummoo, inhabited by a race, called 
 generally Pahari, or mountaineers, but with five well- 
 recognised Dialects, Eambani, Bhadarwahi, Padari, Doda, 
 and Kishtwari, which are all provisionally grouped as 
 Dialects of Kashmiri. Clearly we require the eye of a Com- 
 parative Linguist to be cast upon the materials, scanty as 
 they are, already collected, with a view of determining 
 these alleged affinities. An attempt was made in 1 866 by 
 the Bengal Asiatic Society to persuade the Government 
 of the Punjab to make some step forward, but nothing 
 was done. I am comforted by a rumour, that Buhler, 
 who was deputed by the Government of India to cata- 
 logue and purchase Sanskrit Manuscripts in the valley, 
 has it in his mind to compile a Kashmiri Grammar on 
 scientific principles. In his report he remarks, that there 
 are three varieties of Kashmiri spoken; the form used 
 by Brahmans, and loaded with Sanskrit loan-words; the 
 form used by Mahomedans, and loaded with Persian and 
 Arabic words, and affected by them in the pronunciation ; 
 lastly, the form used by women and the uneducated, which 
 .is exceedingly valuable, as giving the old local form and 
 dialectic variations. The study of Kashmiri is of the 
 highest importance for the Comparative Grammar of the 
 Neo-Aryan Vernaculars, because it reveals the manner, in 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 37 
 
 which the new cases of declension were made from the 
 old basis. A Kashmiri Scientific Grammar is, therefore, 
 the greatest desideratum, and I have urged the Govern- 
 ment of the Punjab to press the subject upon the Maha- 
 raja of Jummoo and Kashmir. 
 
 The Puharis above alluded to are Hindus, and not 
 numerous. The Kashmiris are chiefly Mahomedan, with a 
 few Hindus, the celebrated Kashmiri Pundits, the finest 
 types of the Aryan race. The population of the valley is 
 estimated at half a million. Persian is the Language of 
 the Court and correspondence. Dogri, which will be 
 noticed further on, is the particular Dialect of Punjabi, 
 used by the governing classes. There is an old-fashioned 
 Character called the Sharada, but it is now rarely used, 
 as the Arabic Character is usually substituted. The 
 tradesmen -use another called Thakuri. 
 
 The Puharis are backward in civilisation, rude in manner, 
 with few wants ; but the valley has been the seat of an 
 ancient civilisation, and the summer residence of the 
 Mogul Emperors. The people, though impoverished and 
 degraded, are still not uncivilised. Shaw in his remarks 
 above quoted about the Ghalchuh Language, with reference 
 to the great difference betwixt the Aryan of Dardistan and 
 of Kashmir, starts the theory, that the valley was colon- 
 ised by a reflux wave of Aryan civilisation from the 
 plains, after they had made considerable advance from the 
 state, in which they had left their mountain homes. In 
 fact, Kashmir has ever been considered an integral portion 
 and a province of India, ethnically and linguistically, as 
 well as from the point of view of religion and civilisation. 
 
 PUNJABI. 
 
 I pass on to the Punjabi Language, and under that 
 term include the group of Dialects spoken in the Sindh- 
 Sagur, Chuj, Eeclma, Bari, and Jullundhur Doabs, and a 
 certain portion of the tract betwixt the Eivers Sutluj and 
 
38 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Jumna, where an impalpable line about the longitude of 
 Sirhind, on the watershed, which divides the basins 
 of the Indus and the Ganges, separates what is con- 
 fessedly Hindi from what provisionally is called the 
 Panjabi Language. I confess, that this is one of the 
 Languages, which will scarcely maintain a separate 
 existence, but will hereafter be described as the Western 
 branch of the Hindi Language, which will be noticed 
 further on. Beames, of the Civil Service, the author of a 
 Comparative Grammar of seven of the Aryan Vernaculars, 
 admits, that it is only an old Hindi Dialect, and that its 
 declensional and conjugational differences are only dia- 
 lectic, and that its claims to be treated as a separate 
 Language rest on the two other elements, which have to 
 be weighed in differentiating a Dialect from a Language, 
 the degree of divergence of its Phonetic system, and the 
 proportion of local words in its Dictionary. While all 
 the other Aryan Vernaculars are totally unintelligible to 
 strangers, the officers of Government, European and 
 Native, pass backwards and forwards from the Punjab to 
 Hindustan without any necessity, alleged or actual, for a 
 test of linguistic knowledge, and it would be the merest 
 pedantry on the part of any one to enumerate the 
 Panjabi Language, as one of his acquirements, in addition 
 to that of Hindi. I consider it, therefore, as the Western 
 development of Hindi with numerous Dialects spoken 
 in the hill and plains of the basin of the Five Eivers, 
 which united discharge themselves into the Indus at 
 Mithuhkote. 
 
 Trumpp was employed by the Government of India at my 
 suggestion, made in 1858, to translate the Adi Grunth, or 
 Holy Scriptures of the Sikhs, compiled by Nanutand his 
 immediate successors. It is not often in India, that we 
 get at the Language spoken by the people three hundred 
 years ago. Trumpp examined the Grunth of Guru Govind 
 Singh of a later date, and it will be a surprise to some to 
 know, upon so high a linguistic authority, that this last 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 39 
 
 volume is written in pure Hindi of that period, and that 
 the first volume is written in a Hindi Dialect, not a pure 
 one, being full of provincialisms. Nanuk quotes largely 
 from Kabir, and other Hindu Sectarians, who used the 
 Hindi Language of their time, being in opposition to the 
 Brahmins, who used the Sanskrit only. It must not be 
 supposed, that the Punjabi of that period was essentially 
 the same as Hindi, and that the peculiar grammatical 
 forms have been developed at a later date, for Trumpp 
 also critically examined the Junum Sakhi, a legendary life 
 of Nanuk, written specially for the use of the people, and 
 notices grammatical forms, quite unknown to the Hindi, 
 and more approaching to the Sindhi, which will be noticed 
 further on. 
 
 Leaving the Archaic form of the Language, we find no 
 standard form of the modern Language represented at the 
 capital of the Province, or in the Literature. I was one 
 of the first English officers employed in the Punjab in 
 1846, and found Persian the Language of correspondence 
 and official documents, for which the Hindustani, a Dialect 
 of the Hindi, which will be noticed further on, was in- 
 sensibly substituted, and has kept its ground; and in a 
 return attached to the Administration Report of the 
 Punjab for 1874-75, I find that Dialect entered as 
 one of the Vernaculars of every District; and in that 
 sense it is correct, but in that only, as no portion of the 
 population of any one of the Districts within the Language- 
 Field of the Punjabi, as above defined, can be said to have 
 Hindustani for their Vernacular. All official and educa- 
 tional works are published in that Dialect, as well as the 
 native newspapers. 
 
 Beames goes so far as to say, that in every District of 
 the Punjab, or even every Revenue-subdivision, there is a 
 dialectal variation. This is, perhaps, not to be taken as 
 literally correct. No doubt there is an immense difference 
 betwixt the Dialect of the Hills and that of the lower 
 Doabs. At the extreme South the Multani and Uch 
 
40 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Dialects a,re transitional to Sindhi. In the neighbouring 
 District of Mozuffurghur is the Dialect of Jugdwali, 
 probably akin to Multani. In the central Districts 
 the great Jut race dominates, and their Dialect is called 
 Jathki. Drew mentions a Pothwari Dialect spoken in 
 the submontane tracts, which I have never heard of else- 
 where. In the lower ranges of the Himalaya betwixt the 
 Eivers Indus and the Eavi, are the well-known sister- 
 Dialects of Chibhali and Dogri. They are spoken by the 
 same race, which to the West of the River Chenab has be- 
 come Mahomedan, and to the East remains Hindu, and are 
 the dominant clan, of which the Maharaja of Jummoo and 
 Kashmir is the head. Drew gives a Grammatical Note 
 of this Dialect ; it is said to differ so much (probably in 
 pronunciation) as to be unintelligible to outsiders. All 
 the better classes, who come in contact with Europeans, 
 speak Hindustani, with an accent. It has no Literature,. 
 and Persian is the ordinary vehicle of correspondence 
 and record. The Kangra District comprises the hill 
 country betwixt the Eivers Eavi and the Beas, beyond 
 which Hindi proper commences. In this District the 
 Eeport of the Government classes the Dialect by the 
 vague term of Puhari, but we have Vocabularies of the 
 Dialect of the Gudees of Chumba, a pastoral race, and of 
 Kooloo. It may be interesting from a linguistic point of 
 view to have further particulars of the Fields and peculi- 
 arities of the Punjab Dialects, but if Hindi or Hindustani 
 is to be the standard Language, a study of the Dialects 
 will not have much practical importance. 
 
 The population of the Punjab proper, from the Indus to 
 the line drawn through Sirhind on the East, inclusive of 
 the portion of the territories of the Maharaja of Juinmo 
 and Kashmir, which lies South of the middle range of the 
 Himalayas, amounts to about thirteen millions, of which 
 one-half at least are Mahomedan, and the plain has been 
 for eight hundred years under Mahomedan domination, 
 until the time of the Sikh uprising during last century. 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 41 
 
 The whole is now included within British India or the 
 territory of the Maharaja. 
 
 It is an error to attribute to the local variety of the 
 Indian Character, known as Gurmukhi, because it was 
 used to convey to paper the sacred books of the Sikh 
 spiritual teachers, the same extension as that of the Pun- 
 jabi Language/ That Character is used by the Sikhs 
 for their private correspondence, their signet rings, and 
 sacred books. Another variety of the Indian Alphabet is 
 in use by the Dogri-speaking population, which has been 
 modified by the present Maharaja. A third variety, 
 known as the Lundi, is used by mercantile firms ; a fourth, 
 the Thakuri, is mentioned in the Kangra District : but 
 for purposes of general Literature, official business, ac- 
 counts, and correspondence, the Arabic Character has 
 been for many centuries used, and is so still, being the 
 official Character of the Government. The entire Bible 
 has been translated into Punjabi; the word "Sikh" is 
 added as an alternative description, and it is in the Gur- 
 mukhi Character, and its circulation must be limited. 
 
 BRAHUI. 
 
 The Brahui Language, which comes next on the list, 
 has been provisionally classed in the Indie branch of 
 the Aryan Family. The race who speak this Language 
 are intermixed, as regards their habitat, with a totally 
 distinct race, who speak Baluchi, described in the Iranic 
 branch of the Aryan Family. They are entirely illiterate ; 
 not a single book exists in their Language, or specimen of 
 their Language reduced to any form of writing. Nicholson, 
 of the Indian Army, has lately translated a portion of Indian 
 History into the Language, and printed it at the Commis- 
 sioner's press at Kurrachi in the Arabic Character. It is 
 one of the Languages, in which officers of Government are 
 encouraged to qualify, and yet there is an entire absence 
 of all appliances for acquiring the Language. It seems 
 scarcely recognised, that the Brahui is totally different 
 
42 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 from the Baluchi. The Khan of Kelat is himself a Brahu, 
 but Baluchi is the State-Language, and he and his nobles 
 speak both Languages. The two races intermarry, and 
 are both Mahomedan, but the origin of the Brahu race 
 remains in obscurity. No Dialects are known of, and the 
 number of the population is uncertain. Leech, of the 
 Indian Army, as far back as 1838, published Grammatical 
 Notes of this Language, upon which the theory was raised, 
 that it was of the Dravidian Family, which will be 
 noticed further on. Caldwell, in the first edition of 
 his Comparative Grammar of that Family, supported 
 that theory, which was combated by, among others, 
 George Campbell in his Essay on the Ethnology of India, 
 1866. Mockler thinks that the Language is Scythian. 
 However, in 1873 Bellew published a fuller Grammar as 
 an Appendix to his " From the Indus to the Tigris," and 
 thus enabled Caldwell to review the subject upon the new 
 facts, and in the second edition of his Comparative Gram- 
 mar to remark, that on the whole it seems to be derived 
 from the same source as the Panjabi and Sindhi, but that 
 it contains certain Dravidian elements, into which he 
 enters fully, but excludes it from his list of Dravidian 
 Languages. Thus the matter rests, but is by no means 
 settled, and this remains as one of the problems for future 
 Philologists, and it is to be hoped, that the Government of 
 India will take steps to have a proper Grammar prepared, 
 as the materials and access to the people are no longer 
 wanting. The Language is also called Kur Gali, or 
 " False Speech." 
 
 We have two Vocabularies, one of Deruh Ghazee 
 Khan in the Punjab, and a second of Kelat. A material 
 is thus supplied by these Vocabularies and the Gram- 
 matical Notes above alluded to for a statement of certain 
 linguistic facts, without presuming to hazard an opinion. 
 The Numerals "two" and " three " are Dravidian, and a few 
 other words ; but there is no sufficient resemblance in the 
 common words of daily use, and in the Grammar, to class 
 
ARYAN FAMILY, 43 
 
 it as Dravidian. It differs from that Family in the 
 matter of Gender, and resembles the Kolarian in that 
 particular ; it has a relative pronoun. One learned Pro- 
 fessor from Bonn assures me, that the Language is Dra- 
 vidian, and another from Munich maintains, that it is 
 Kolarian, and that this opinion is the result of personal 
 conversation with Brahui-speakers. To settle this point I 
 have solicited the Government of Bombay to forward to me 
 several copies of Nicholson's History of India in Brahui, 
 which I shall circulate among competent scholars. 
 
 SINDHI. 
 
 The Political area of Sindhi does not correspond with 
 the Linguistic, as the populations, who speak Dialects of 
 that Language, are found both to the right and the left. 
 The Division of Sindh in the province of Bombay com- 
 prises the tracts on both sides of the lower course and 
 the Delta of the Eiver Indus, with a population of one 
 million and three-quarters, of whom one-fifth are Hindu, 
 and the remainder Mahomedan. On the proper right 
 are certain portions of the territory of the independent 
 Khan of Kelat, the population of which is Mahomedan, 
 but of uncertain numbers. On the proper left is the 
 Peninsula of Kachh, an independent State within the 
 Province of Bombay, inhabited by a population of half a 
 million, who are Hindu. The inhabitants of Sindh and 
 Kachh are in the ordinary stage of Indian civilisation. 
 
 There is fortunately a scientific Grammar of this 
 Language, which places our knowledge on a sure base, 
 by Trumpp. He describes it as being more intri- 
 cate and difficult than any of its Aryan sisters, and 
 as having preserved more of the original Prakrit forms. 
 It has not been entirely decomposed, and shorn of its 
 inflections, like the other Vernaculars. On the other 
 hand, Sindh was exposed to the first brunt of the Maho- 
 medan invasion, and never recovered itself from its alien 
 conquerors. It is flanked on its proper right by a Baluchi 
 
44 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 population, whose Language is described above, and many 
 of that race dwell within the Sindhi Field. . Thus it has 
 come about, that the Language has borrowed from its 
 Iranic neighbour a system of pronominal suffixes pecu- 
 liar to itself and the Pushtu above described, and it forms 
 a link between the Iranic and Indie branches, as its geogra- 
 phical position would lead us to expect. Trumpp's Gram- 
 mar is Comparative with the chief Aryan Vernaculars, as 
 well as special to Sindhi. The Gospels have been trans- 
 lated into this Language in the Arabic and Gurmukhi 
 Characters, and into the Kachhi Dialect in the Gujarati 
 Character. 
 
 The Dialects are as follows : I. The Jathki, spoken in 
 Kuch Gundava in Kelat throughout the level country right 
 up to the Baluchi hills. 2. Sirai (Upper Sindh). 3. Lari 
 (Delta). 4. Vicholi (Middle Sindh). 5. Thar eli (Desert). 6. 
 Kachhi (Kachh). 7. Jadgali (Mukran). 8. Mendh (sea- 
 coast). Of these we have notices by Trumpp, Beames, 
 Burton, and Hughes. Of Kachhi we have more particular 
 information ; it is a transition Dialect from Sindhi to Guja- 
 rati, and as such interesting linguistically. John Wilson, 
 Missionary of Bombay, remarks, that it is spoken to a 
 small extent in the territory of the Jadega Eajpoots in the 
 North of Kattiawar, but is little used in any form in 
 Literature or business. The Gospel of St. Mark was 
 translated into it by the Chaplain of Bhoj, and published 
 in 1834, and a copy presented by Wilson to the Eao, who 
 remarked, that the Language was generally understood 
 and spoken by the lower orders, but was not used for a 
 single letter, and was not taught in the schools, being 
 supplanted by Gujarati. With regard to the Mendh or 
 Mung Dialect, it is entered provisionally. Sir W. Mere- 
 wether informs me, that it is neither Brahui, Baluchi, 
 nor Sindhi, but that the people are supposed to be 
 early immigrants from India. It is safer, therefore, to 
 leave the question an open one. It is spoken by fisher- 
 men. 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 45 
 
 Stack and Beames remark, that there were twelve or thir- 
 teen varieties of Characters in use in Sindh at the time of 
 the conquest in 1 842, some differing very widely from the 
 others, and this fact is confirmed to me by Sir William 
 Merewether, late Commissioner of the Division, Trumpp 
 mentions, that there is a considerable amount of Literature, 
 and he has adapted the Arabic Character with additional 
 letters to suit the Sindhi sounds. The Language is 
 thoroughly Prakritic, being a descendant of the coarse 
 Aprabhansa Prakrit, and required the Indian Character; 
 but the Mahomedan conquest swept out the Hindu religion 
 and culture, and the converts, disdaining to use their old 
 Character, adopted the Arabic with modifications, rude 
 and insufficient, to represent the peculiar aspirates and 
 cerebrals. Such of the Hindus as remained refused to 
 use this Character, and kept up a variety of indifferent 
 local Characters, varying from time to time. An attempt 
 was made by the Government of Bombay to remedy this 
 by introducing a new Character, the Nagari modified, into 
 the schools, but the scheme was not worked out on 
 scientific principles, and has not received popular ap- 
 proval. To add to the confusion, certain Missionaries 
 committed a great blunder, and persuaded the Bible 
 Society to publish a translation of one of the Gospels in 
 the Gurmukhi Character, used by the Sikhs in the 
 Punjab. Lepsius in his "Standard Alphabet," London, 
 1836, notices the controversy. I hope that Trumpp's 
 opinion, given in 1872, after a careful study of the sub- 
 ject, has settled the matter. 
 
 HINDI. 
 
 It is very difficult to notice this great Language suitably 
 in the brief space available. It has been decided to ex- 
 clude Punjabi, Nepali, and Gujarati from this Field, though 
 many reasons might be brought forward for grouping them 
 as Dialects. Even thus circumscribed, Hindi impinges on 
 all the other great Aryan Vernaculars, melting away so 
 
4 6 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. . 
 
 imperceptibly on each frontier into the cognate Language, 
 that it is impossible to define the exact limit. Their 
 boundaries having been defined, it is unnecessary to repeat 
 them. On the side of the Himalaya, the snowy range 
 divides the Aryan from the Tibeto-Burman Family; on 
 the side of Nepal, an imaginary line is drawn in the Terai, 
 and the details are totally unknown. The Language-Field 
 of Hindi is stated to comprise 248,000 square miles, and 
 the number of the Hindi-speaking population within the 
 Independent States and the Provinces of the Punjab, North- 
 West Provinces, Central Provinces, and Bengal cannot fall 
 short of eighty millions : these figures are mere approxi- 
 mations, as the precise boundaries are not known. The 
 Language-Map, attached to the Census Eeport of the Central 
 Provinces, shows how the hardy Hindi-speaker has quietly 
 obtruded himself across the Eiver Nerbudda into the 
 heart of Gondwana, coming into contact with Uriya, Mar- 
 athi, and Gond. As might be supposed, the Dialects are 
 very numerous, and vary very considerably, different opin- 
 ions having been given on the subject. Hall argues, that 
 the standard is still very unsettled, and that the schools 
 of Agra and Benares pull different ways, one too much 
 towards the Persian, and the other towards the Sanskrit. 
 He denounces the Prem Sagur as a specimen of purism, 
 which never really existed. Kellogg, on the other hand, 
 looks on Eastern Hindi as the standard. He thinks that 
 the Dialects may be reduced to two or three main divisions. 
 We have of this Language the modern standard official 
 and educational types, as printed in books and news- 
 papers at Agra, Benares, and Lucknow. Then we have 
 the Archaic form, as represented in the works of Chand, 
 of a date of at least seven hundred years; and a so- 
 called ' old Hindi ' of a much later date than the above in 
 the writings of Kabir, the Grunth of Guru Govind Singh, 
 and the Kamayuna of Tulsee Dass. Trumpp proposes to 
 call the Language of an older date than the Grunth " old 
 Hindu-i," the Language of the Grunth " Hindu-i," and the 
 
ARYAN FAMILY, 47 
 
 current Vernacular " Hindi." I proceed now to define the 
 Dialects of this last. 
 
 Hindustani or Urdu is not a territorial Dialect, but a 
 Lingua-franca. Trumpp maintains that it is a " Mixed 
 Hindi Language." It can scarcely be said correctly, that 
 it is the common Language of any one District, though 
 freely spoken by many classes. For a long time after the 
 Mahomedan conquest, the conquerors spoke Persian, and 
 the conquered Hindi. At length the Camp-Language be- 
 came settled in the sixteenth century : to me it seems that 
 it is essentially a Dialect of Hindi. Kellogg will not allow, 
 that the difference betwixt Hindi and Hindustani is in Vo- 
 cabulary only (for Kabir and Tulsee Dass in their writings 
 and the rural people in their speech to this day use Arabic 
 and Persian words), but in grammatical forms and syntax 
 also. Moreover, standard Hindi contains a certain pro- 
 portion of loan-words, grammatical inflections, and alien 
 linguistic influence, either Non- Aryan, proceeding from 
 the population anterior to the Aryan immigration, or 
 Semitic and Irano-Aryan from the Mahomedan immigra- 
 tion. Taking the Hindustani of Dehli as the standard of 
 purity, we have in Southern India another variation in the 
 so-called Dekhani, and it is admitted, that there are points 
 of difference in it from the Northern Lingua-franca. A 
 still further degradation or dilution of the Language takes 
 place by the admixture of Eomance- Aryan words in the 
 Dialect of the Portuguese Settlements on the West Coast 
 of India. It may be remarked, that the other great Aryan 
 Vernaculars are heavily charged with Arabic and Irano- 
 Aryan loan-words, but have never developed into a Lingua- 
 franca like the Hindustani, which in some cases contains 
 fifty per cent, of loan-words and incorporates phrases, and 
 grammatical inflections, to a great extent. 
 
 Kellogg considers the Non- Aryan influence on the Hindi 
 as of minor importance. - This remark can hardly apply to 
 the Dialects spoken by Tibeto-Burman and Kolarian races. 
 He looks upon the great Dialects as collateral branches of 
 
48 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 the old Aryan speech of India, in some instances older 
 and less divergent from the Archaic form than the stan- 
 dard Hindi. The great Language-Field may geographically 
 for convenience be broken up into the following Dialect- 
 Fields, each containing several Dialects : 
 
 1. Lower range of Himalaya, betwixt the Eivers Beas 
 and the Gogra, which last is the boundary of the Tibeto- 
 Burman Language-Field. 
 
 2. Northern plain, from the confines of the Punjabi 
 Language-Field to the Ganges. 
 
 3. Trans-Gangetic plain, including the Nepal-Terai, as 
 far as the Eastern frontier of the old Province of Oudh. 
 
 4. Southern plain, from the confines of Eajpootana to 
 the Ganges, as far as the junction of the Jumna. 
 
 5. Eajpootana. 
 
 6. Bundelcund and Bhagelcund. 
 
 7. The old Benares Province, including the Nepal Terai. 
 
 8. Buhar in the Province of Bengal. 
 
 9. Valley of theNerbudda, I ^ ^ Central p rovinces 
 10. Gondwana, J 
 
 In the Appendix a detail of fifty-eight Dialects is given, 
 the materials being collected from very different sources, 
 and, as no test has been applied to differentiate the Dia- 
 lects, or to limit the area within which they are spoken, 
 this first attempt must be accepted as provisional. On 
 the one hand, we have wild uncultivated Dialects, re- 
 presented by scant Vocabularies, laden with Non- Aryan 
 loan-words, but in structure Hindi; and we have hybrids be- 
 twixt Dravidian and Hindi, or Tibeto-Burman and Hindi. 
 On the other hand, we have translations of the Bible in 
 several Dialects, alleged to be of Eajpootana, made at Ser- 
 ampore, and never tested by use. It is clear, therefore, 
 that the subject of the Dialects of Hindi is an open one 
 for future linguists. 
 
 The fact is, that, owing to the very central position 
 occupied by Hindi geographically, and the dominant 
 political status of that Language, on all sides there seems 
 
AR VAN FA MIL Y. 49 
 
 to be a process of other Languages passing into Hindi, 
 which may in truth be said to be the real and original 
 Vernacular of the Hindi people, and that all the other 
 Aryan Vernaculars are variants of it, caused by the influ- 
 ence of Non- Aryan communities. It may therefore be 
 accepted as a rule, that all Aryan Dialects, not brought 
 home to a Sister Aryan Language, must be provisionally 
 classed under Hindi, as a kind of common linguistic reser- 
 voir. It is necessary to make some further subdivision, 
 and the only expedient, that I can devise, is to group them 
 according to their being free from, or affected by, the 
 influence of Sister-Language-Families. I strive thus to 
 account for all names, that appear in any List or Vocabu- 
 lary. The Aryan Dialects are well known. Sir J. Mal- 
 colm, however, alludes to Eangri as the Dialect of Hindi 
 taught in the schools of Central India, and states that it 
 prevails from the Indus to Bundelcund, from Jessulmere 
 and Jypore to the Satpura range, and that with provincial 
 differences the Language is the same. It is clear from this 
 description, that by Eangri he meant at that time Dialects 
 of Hindi, spoken all over Central India, and now resolved 
 into separate Tribal and Political subdivisions. 
 
 Among the Semi-Dravidian Dialects we find the Chentsu, 
 spoken in the hills of District Vizigipatam of the Madras 
 Province; the Eamusi, Lambadi, and Korawur wander- 
 ing tribes and gipsies; the Hulahi of the Chutesgurhi 
 Division of the Central Provinces, spoken by a Gond 
 people. There will be many others, w r hen we come to 
 know the fringe of tribes on the frontier of the two 
 Language-Families. 
 
 Still more numerous are the Semi-Kolarian Dialects. 
 The Language of the Bhils in the Bombay Province, 
 Eajpootana, and Central India is understood to be a Dialect 
 of Hindi. The race has lost its peculiar Language, but 
 kept a great many words, and no doubt phonetic varia- 
 tions. Many persons assert, that the Bhil Language still 
 exists, but the only Vocabulary, which I have seen, is com- 
 
50 LANGUAGES OF 7^HE EAST INDIES. 
 
 posed entirely of Hindi words. In the Central Provinces 
 the Larya or Chutesgurhi Dialect is conspicuous, and the 
 Nimari, and the Hulba, Purja or Tugara, and Bhuttia of 
 Bustar. To these must be added the Dialect of the Bhog- 
 tuhs, near Pala-Mow in Chutia-Nagpore of the Bengal 
 Province, and the Kharwar, Byga, Binjwar, Punka, 
 Mehra, and Katya. Vocabularies are supplied. 
 
 The Semi-Tibeto-Burman Dialects of Hindi are still 
 less known, and with reference to amount of population 
 more important. The tendency of the hill tribes is to 
 descend to the Terai, and adopt a form of the Hindu 
 religion and an Aryan Dialect. Among these are the 
 Durahi, Dah, Deuwar, Kuswar, Tharu, Bhuksa, Pakhya, 
 and Gadi. The subject has been little studied, and in this 
 direction lies the work of the next quarter of a century. 
 I can only bring together scattered names, and ask local 
 inquirers to work out the details. 
 
 The Bible has been translated into Hindi, and many of 
 its Dialects in the Nagari and Kaithi Characters; and 
 in the Hindustani Dialect in Nagari, Arabic, and 
 Eoman Characters. The result of this first attempt to 
 take stock of the Dialects of Hindi, represented actually 
 by books or Vocabularies, is that there are five varieties in 
 the Special Group, twenty- seven in the Aryan proper, five 
 in the Semi-Dravidian, thirteen in the Semi-Kolarian, eight 
 in the Semi-Tibeto-Burman : in all, fifty-eight varieties, in 
 addition to the printed educational, Governmental, and 
 public press, standard, which is sometimes called Khuree 
 Boli, or High Hindi. 
 
 The Character used for Hindi and its Dialects is 
 known as Devanagari for the Hindu sacred books. The 
 same Character is termed Nagari for the ordinary re- 
 quirements of life. A tachigraphic form of the same 
 adopted by the writer class is called Kayasthi or Kaithi. 
 A further degradation is used rn the commercial world 
 under the name of Surafi or Muhajuni. Side by side with 
 these Characters, used by Hindus exclusively, is the Arabic 
 
or 
 
 ARYAN FAMILY. M[J NX V Eil S I T 1 
 
 adapted form used for Hindustani by Mahomedans, the 
 official world, and educated men of the new stamp irre- 
 spective of religion. Both the Nagari and Arabic are used 
 in the documents issued by the State. 
 
 Several living scholars have written on the subject 
 of Hindi, viz., Beames, Kellogg, Grouse, Hall, Bate, and 
 Hoernle, and we may hope to see a comprehensive Essay 
 on the dialectal variations of this great Language. 
 
 NEPiLI. 
 
 I have thought it best to maintain provisionally Nepali, 
 called also Khas, Parbatya, or Paharia, as a separate Lan- 
 guage, though there is good show of reason for classing it 
 as a Dialect of the Hindi. It is the Language of the 
 Hindu Goorkha dominant race, who represent, and main- 
 tain, the independent kingdom of Nepal, lying outside of 
 British India, and paying tribute to the Emperor of China. 
 It must in nowise be confused with any of the numerous 
 Non- Aryan Languages, spoken in the valleys and moun- 
 tains of the Himalayas by the Tibeto-Burman races 
 subject to Nepal, which will be noticed further on. 
 Hcernle in his Essay on the Gauria Languages men- 
 tions it as a distinct Language; as far back as 1820 
 Aiton of the Indian Army published a Grammar, which 
 is the only book which I have seen. The New Testament 
 has been translated into this Language in the Nagari 
 Character. Beames in his Indian Philology gives four 
 Dialects, but three of these apparently belong to Hindi; and 
 there remains the Palpa, spoken in the Western extremity 
 of the valley, of which I have found neither Vocabulary 
 nor description. The number of the population, who speak 
 Nepali, is quite unknown. The jealousy which prevents 
 any European or any stranger entering Nepal, and the 
 ignorance of the Goorkhas, has been the cause of this 
 uncertainty, and yet the presence of so many Goorkha 
 soldiers in the ranks of the Native Army might have led 
 up to the acquisition of better knowledge. They use a 
 
52 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 variation of the Nagari Character. Even if it should 
 prove upon closer examination to be only a Dialect, it is 
 probable, that the admixture of Tibeto-Burman elements, 
 from the contact with the numerous forms of speech 
 surrounding it in Nepal, will present singular phenomena 
 of phonetic changes, and possibly of grammatical forms. 
 Vocabularies, have been published. 
 
 The founder of the Goorkha dynasty emigrated from 
 Tirhut with his clan in the fourteenth century A.D., and 
 there is a strong resemblance between the Nepali and the 
 Bhojpuri Dialect of Hindi. In the Provinces of -Nepal 
 West of the Kali Eiver it has nearly eradicated the Tibeto- 
 Burman pre-existing Vernaculars, and, though less preva- 
 lent in the Provinces East of that River, it has even in 
 them, as far as the Trisool Ganga, divided the empire of 
 speech almost equally with its rivals. It is terse, simple, 
 sufficiently copious in words, and very characteristic of 
 the unlettered but energetic race of soldiers who use it. 
 It is wholly Aryan in structure, and has only one-fifth of 
 Tibeto-Burman loan-words, but some of these are the 
 chief words of the Language. It has no Literature, and 
 only a few trivial books, but it is spoken and written with 
 ease and correctness, and for purposes of business is con- 
 cise and clear. It is impossible to define its limits on the 
 side, on which it melts away into Hindi. A difference 
 of opinion exists as to why it is called Khas. One 
 party, headed by Hodgson, maintain that there was a 
 tribe called Khasya, barbarous mountaineers of a race 
 essentially the same with the other Tibeto-Burman races, 
 for their race is inscribed in plain characters on the faces 
 of the people ; the immigrants from the plains must have 
 intermarried with the natives, and thus created a new and 
 intermediate stock. On the other hand, Beames main- 
 tains, that the word Khas is only the Persian word for 
 " Select," and assumed by the dominant tribe in the usual 
 arrogant habit of conquerors, very much as the Sikhs 
 called themselves the Khalsuh. 
 
ARYAN FAMIL Y. 53 
 
 BENGALI. 
 
 The boundaries of the Language-Field of Bengali are 
 well marked ; it is shut in by the sea, the mountains of 
 the Kolarian Races and the Tibeto-Burman Races, and 
 impinges on the North on Hindi, and on the South-West 
 on Uriya. On the banks of the Mahanunda River both 
 Hindi and Bengali are spoken badly. The Bengali of 
 the Surjapur subdivision is unintelligible to any ordinary 
 speaker of Hindi or Bengali. On the confines of Orissa 
 about the Subarnarekha River, and along the Hijli coast, 
 even to within a short distance of Midnapur, a corrupt 
 form of Uriya is spoken, with corrupt Bengali. The. 
 population of Bengali speakers is officially reported to be 
 thirty-seven millions, a little more than half Hindu, and 
 the remainder Mahomedan, and the whole region is 
 within the Province of Bengal and of a very compact 
 shape, and densely inhabited. There is a divergence of 
 opinion on the subject of Dialects. Missionaries of 
 standing have assured me, that there are none, but this is 
 contrary both to analogy and experience. Beanies re- 
 marks, that the cloud of dialectic forms is bewildering; 
 that apart from the Calcutta standard of the educated 
 class there exists among the peasantry no common stan- 
 dard ; that a peasant of the Eastern Districts would be as 
 unintelligible to a resident of the Central Districts, as he 
 would be to a Maratha or Sindhi. He would class the 
 Dialect of Central Bengal as the standard, and group the 
 variations under the general heads of Eastern, Northern, 
 and Southern. We have seen, how the contact with the 
 kindred Languages of Hindi and Uriya have produced 
 Dialects on both frontiers. Still more marked must be 
 the effect of the contact of Kolarian and Tibeto-Burman 
 Languages on the East and West flank, especially, when it 
 is considered, how many millions of Non-Aryans on both 
 sides have passed into Semi-Hinduism or Mahomedanism, 
 carrying with them much of their ancient Vocabulary 
 
54 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 It so happens that no great Political or Ethnical sub- 
 divisions of the Province have introduced the name 
 of a Dialect, such as we find in Hindi, but, as a fact, we 
 have the Dialects of Purneah, Eungpur, Kuch, Sylhet, 
 Eabha (Pati), Meeyang, and Chittagong ; the people are 
 no doubt Non-Aryan, but they have adopted a debased 
 Aryan Language with its culture and religion. Another 
 marked Dialect is that known as Mahomedan Bengali, in 
 which the Bible is translated into Bengali in Eoman 
 Characters. This Mahomedan Bengali has not vindicated 
 to itself the same literary status, as the Hindustani of 
 Northern India. It is composed of analogous elements, 
 and is the Language of millions, but these Mahomedans 
 were not of the upper, learned, and ruling classes, nor 
 were they of the conquering races from the West, but 
 debased, ignorant Non- Aryans from the East. The literary 
 Language of Calcutta has been already mentioned; it 
 differs from the colloquial more than is the case in any 
 other known Language; obsolete forms are brought for- 
 ward by pedantic authors, and Archaic, and even Sanskrit 
 inflections. Much as the Dialects differ from each other, the 
 measure of difference of the Literary Language from any one 
 of them is much greater. The above has been pointed out 
 by Shama Churn, a most esteemed grammarian, who men- 
 tions one fact, that Bengali had the good luck, like the Eng- 
 lish, of having no grammatical gender, and yet the pedants 
 are introducing it. The misfortune is, that the servants of 
 the State learn their Bengali from books, and expose them- 
 selves to remarks and ridicule by speaking the Language, 
 as it is written. The real Vernacular of a country is that 
 Language, in which the upper and middle classes converse, 
 and to which the speech of the lower order constantly 
 tends to approach. There is no occasion to allude to the 
 Literature, or the linguistic works, of this great Language. 
 It uses a peculiar and very elegant variety of the great 
 Indian Character. On the whole, this is a very strong 
 Language, and not in the least likely to disappear. 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 55 
 
 ASAMESE. 
 
 The Asamese is another of the Languages, regarding 
 which a doubt arises, whether it will maintain its separate 
 existence, or sink down to the position of a Dialect of 
 Bengali. At any rate, it must be carefully distinguished 
 from the Languages of the Non- Aryan tribes, which sur- 
 round the valley of Assam, which will be noticed further 
 on. This is unquestionably an Aryan Language. We 
 have a Dictionary by Bronson, a Missionary, who claims 
 distinctly an individuality to this Language. The Ahoms, 
 Shan invaders from the South, of the Tai Family, 
 who will be mentioned further on, in spite of their long 
 domination, have left no mark on the Language, nor 
 have the Burmese and Kachari, members of the Tibeto- 
 Burman Family, who will also be mentioned further on, 
 nor the Mahomedans. It is the Language of the entire 
 population of the Brahmaputra valley, and the people are 
 not willing to abandon it. It is laden with Sanskrit loan- 
 words ; but the Grammar of the Asamese is quite different 
 from Bengali, as far apart as Italian and French from each 
 other. The Language requires cultivation. The loan- 
 words are used with modified meaning and pronunciation, 
 and some are altered in form. Up to this time the Lan- 
 guage has had no standard : the words of the Dictionary 
 have been caught from the mouth of the people. The 
 valley is now constituted into a separate Province of the 
 second rank, and the officers of Government will be ex- 
 pected to qualify in the Language, which; though only one 
 out of many spoken in the valley, will still be the Court 
 Language. There is scanty Literature, though there 
 is a peculiar Character, in which the whole Bible has 
 been translated. It is difficult to state with precision 
 the population, which uses Asamese as a speech. The 
 Census Returns account for two millions, of whom 
 under two hundred thousand are Mahomedan, and 
 more than a million and a half are Hindu, and we may 
 
56 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 presume that these speak Asamese. There are Voca- 
 bularies in existence. Good prose is found in the Bur- 
 onjies or Histories, written about two hundred to three 
 hundred years ago. Most of the poetic works differ 
 so widely from the spoken Language, that the prose 
 works are better for study ; but one thing is clear, that 
 the Language existed in its present form for centuries, 
 and the pronunciation corresponds rather with the Hindi 
 Language-Field, whence came the emigration of its colo- 
 nists, than with that of Bengal, who had no access to the 
 valley until after the Mahomedan invasion. 
 
 TJRIYA. 
 
 The Uriya or Utkala, or Language of Orissa, has never 
 had fair justice done to it. The idea has ever been, that 
 it was the Language of two Districts in the South-West of 
 the Bengal Province, and Stirling does not hesitate to call 
 it a tolerably pure Basha of Bengali. It is now under- 
 stood to be an entirely independent Language, spoken by at 
 least eight millions, who are chiefly Hindu, over an area of 
 sixty thousand square miles within the Provinces of Bengal, 
 and Madras, and the Central Provinces. A large portion 
 of this Language-Field is situated in the territory of semi- 
 independent, and until lately quite unexplored, feudal 
 chiefs, lying on the confines of the three Provinces. It is 
 obvious, and admitted, that the Dialects on the frontier of 
 the Bengali (the Northern) and Telugu countries (the 
 Southern) must differ considerably. The same remark 
 applies to the Dialect of Sumbhulpur. The Uriyas them- 
 selves state, that the Language is spoken in the greatest 
 purity in the Hill State of Gumsur ; but considering, that 
 this State is occupied in part by Kolarian and Dravidian 
 tribes, this assertion may be doubted. The Language of 
 Cuttack is no doubt the standard. The whole of the 
 Khond country, peopled by a Dravidian people, is an 
 enclave in the midst of the Uriya Language-Field, and 
 the dominant classes and officials in the Khond country 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 57 
 
 are Uriya. We are informed that in one State, Kala- 
 hundi, there is a distinct Dialect; but our knowledge 
 is very imperfect. There is a peculiar Character, with 
 modifications in different parts of the Field, of the Indian 
 Family ; it is the only one of the North Indian Characters, 
 which has adopted the curvilinear form of the upper 
 strokes, which was necessitated by the writing materials 
 being an iron stylus and a leaf of the fan-palm ; straight 
 incised lines would have split the leaf. Uriya has a 
 Literature, the earliest monuments of which date back 
 three hundred years, partly synthetic, and partly analytic, 
 indicating that it existed long before Bengali was a fixed 
 and settled Language. It is fairly well supplied with 
 linguistic books. The study has never been fashionable 
 in any of the Provinces, and, though one of the standard 
 Languages for servants of the State, it is not likely to 
 become popular. The Bible has been translated into this 
 Language in the local Character. 
 
 MARATHI. 
 
 The Marathi is one of the strong Vernacular Languages 
 of North India. It is spoken by a population of ten 
 millions in the Province of Bombay, the Central Provinces, 
 and the territories of the Nizam of the Dekkan, chiefly 
 Hindu. Beames combats the theory, that it is the lineal 
 descendant of the Maharashtri Prakrit, as there is as much 
 of the Magadhi and Sauraseni Prakrits in its constitution, 
 as of the Maharashtri. John Wilson, in the Adminis- 
 tration Eeport of 1872-73 of the Bombay Province, lays 
 down with care the boundaries of this Language-Field, 
 which in this case are peculiarly important, as it impinges 
 on Gujarati and Hindi, and several of the Dravidian and 
 Kolarian Languages, which will be noticed further on. 
 The boundary on the West extends along the coast from 
 the Portuguese Settlement of Daman on the North to Goa 
 on the South. The Eiver Daman Gunga till its emergence 
 from the Ghats forms its Northern limit. Above the Ghats 
 
58 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 it follows the watershed amidst the jungle tribes to the 
 Eiver Tapti, and to the Satpura range. From the neigh- 
 bourhood of Gavilghur, where an offshoot commences 
 from the Satpura Range, the boundary runs East in the 
 direction of Betul and Sioni, terminating to the East at 
 the Ghats between Nagpur and Sioni, whence in a some- 
 what semicircular form with Nagpur for its centre, it 
 turns Southward, Eastward, and Westward, touching on 
 Lanji and Wairagurh, where it meets the Gond and 
 Telugu. It then goes on to the neighbourhood of Chanda, 
 from which place it begins to run to the West to the town 
 of Mahur, along the Eiver Payin Gunga, separating it from 
 Telugu. From Mahur it runs South to the Eiver Godaveri, 
 whence in a very irregular line it begins to. go to the South- 
 West, touching on Bijapur, from which it goes to the Eiver 
 Krishna, which separates it from Kanarese, till the course 
 of the Krishna makes a bend to the North nearly opposite 
 Kolapur. This line then runs South- West to Goa. Now, 
 as this line traverses a large portion of the territory of the 
 Nizam, which is very imperfectly known, we may fairly 
 expect some modification of these boundaries, recorded in 
 1872-73, when our knowledge is more precise. 
 
 Of this Language there is a Dictionary by Moles- 
 worth and Candy, with a Preface by Wilson. Of 
 ordinary Primers there are many, and in 1868 a 
 Student's Manual has been published by a native of 
 India anonymously, based on scientific principles and 
 with a Preface of importance. The Language is the 
 vehicle of a yearly increasing Literature, and has some 
 ancient Literature, the earliest of which dates back to 
 1290 A.D. The Nagari Character is used. The ordinary 
 terms are Balbodh and Modi. Although it possesses 
 20,000 words, it has admitted a great many loan-words 
 from Arabic, Persian, as well as Sanskrit. No inscrip- 
 tions are found in it. The Orthography is unfixed. It 
 is described as copious without order, energetic without 
 rule, and with no fixed standard of classical purity. 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 59 
 
 The Bible has been translated in the Balbodh and 
 Modi Characters. Many authorities have pointed out its 
 Non-Aryan features. It is said to yield one-tenth of 
 Non- Aryan words, but a more precise knowledge of pho- 
 netic laws may possibly greatly reduce this number. 
 The Dialects of the tableland are opposed to those of 
 the coast below the Ghats or the Konkan. I have 
 tried in vain to get precision. A Non- Aryan element, 
 having a slight resemblance to that of the Kolarian 
 Family, according to John Wilson, is found in Marathi, 
 and the wild tribes, by whatever name known, who dwell 
 within the Marathi Language-Field, retain these words, 
 and constitute a Dialect. The tableland round Poona is 
 the centre of the Desi, and to the South is the Dakhini. 
 The Dialect of Nagpiiri is separate. There is no doubt, 
 that the Konkani so called is a Marathi Dialect, but by 
 this term is not meant the slight dialectic difference, 
 which exists between the speech of the population of 
 the narrow littoral in the longitude of Bombay. Pro- 
 ceeding South, in the country converging on the Goa 
 territory, we find a Dialect of Marathi, which John Wil- 
 son states is as different from Marathi as Gujarati is. 
 Independently of the peculiarity of the Dialect, the Kana- 
 rese-speaking population are in this corner of the Pro- 
 vince of Bombay intermixed with the Marathi-speaking 
 population in a manner very remarkable, but not without 
 analogous instances in Europe. As regards the Konkani, 
 we have a guide in BurnelTs Dialects of South India, 
 as he has devoted one volume to this subject. He di- 
 vides the linguistic expression " Konkani " into three 
 Dialects I. The Northern. 2. That of the Goa territory. 
 3. That of a particular class of the inhabitants of South 
 Kanara. The first requires no notice. The second, known 
 as Goadesi or Gomantaki, is illustrated by a large 
 Literature formed by the Jesuits, consisting of a Gram- 
 mar in Portuguese, and a Christian religious book called 
 Puran, the work of a Jesuit named Estava, said to have 
 
60 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 been Stephens, an Englishman. This Literature is three- 
 hundred years old, and it is not often that we get a sight 
 of the Vernacular of the people at so remote a period. 
 The New Testament was translated in 1818 into this 
 Dialect in the Nagari Character, and much Sanskritised. 
 The third is spoken by the Eoman Catholic commu- 
 nity of Mangalore in the Province of Madras. It has 
 no Literature, but Burnell has translated into it the 
 Parable of the Sower, and the Dialect is of great linguistic 
 interest, as displaying the action of the Dravidian Lan- 
 guage of the coast, the Malayalim, and Tulu, which will be 
 mentioned further on, not only on the phonetics, but on 
 the Vocabulary of the Aryan Language. A form of the 
 Eoman Character is used, introduced by the Jesuits, but 
 inferior to the Standard Alphabet by Lepsius. A Kon- 
 kani Grammar is stated to be under preparation. Cunha 
 Eivara has published in 1858 at Goa the interesting 
 Portuguese linguistic works alluded to. 
 
 GUJARATI. 
 
 . The Gujarati Language is the last of the Aryan Ver- 
 naculars, which lie in one ring-fence. It is itself shut in 
 betwixt the Sindhi, Hindi, and Marathi, and occupies the 
 smallest area of all, but it has been adopted, as a Language 
 of commerce, by a large population beyond that area, and 
 this expansion of the Language cannot be shown on the 
 map or estimated in figures. John Wilson, in the Ad- 
 ministration Eeport of the Bombay Government of 
 1872-73, thus defines the Language-Field: Its North 
 boundary is the Gulf of Kachh, and a line drawn from the 
 Eastern extremity of that Gulf through Disa, and running 
 to the South of the Abu mountains to the Western face of 
 the Aravalli range on the East. Its Eastern boundary is 
 the range of hills running from the shrine of Ambabhavani 
 through Champaneer to Hamp on the Eiver Nerbudda. 
 This river forms its Southern boundary also from Hamp to 
 the jungles of Eajpipla, whence it strikes to the South, its 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 61 
 
 Eastern line being that of the Sayadri Ghats till opposite 
 Daman, where its extension to the South terminates, its 
 Southern boundary in this direction being the Daman 
 Gunga Eiver. From Daman to the Gulf of Kachh, includ- 
 ing the Peninsula of Gujarat, the ocean is the boundary. 
 -The population: amounts to six or seven millions, chiefly 
 Hindu, and civilised, in the Bombay Province of British 
 India, or the independent territory of the Guicowar of 
 Gujarat. This Language is largely used beyond this area 
 in the City of Bombay, though in use it is much charged 
 with foreign words, and its Grammar is. so corrupt, as to 
 -form a dialectal variety. It is used by the Mahomedan 
 -Khoj.as from . Kachh, the Boras, the Seths and Bhatias, 
 Hindus from Kachh, the Marwaris, and the Parsis, who 
 do not, like the above named, use Gujarati as a convenient 
 Lingua-franca over and above their own Vernacular, but 
 substitute Gujarati for their national Irariic Language, 
 which is obsolete and forgotten, except as the vehicle of 
 their Sacred Literature. 
 
 Beames remarks that, after all, Gujarati is little more 
 than a Dialect of Hindi; that, like the Hindi and the 
 Punjabi, it has advanced in the course of decomposition 
 (though not quite to the same extent, as it still retains 
 three genders), and for this reason it has been adopted as 
 a Lingua-franca, as the less a Language is encumbered 
 with Grammar, the wider will be its extension, of which 
 fact we have many obvious instances. Similarity of 
 words with the Marathi has been noticed, but it is as- 
 serted, that where both Languages have the same word, 
 they derive it from a common fount of West Aryan words. 
 It is admitted that the Literature is very poor, and has 
 to be created, and that the Orthography is doubtful and 
 has to be settled. There is great activity in the Native 
 Press, and many newspapers are published in the Lan- 
 guage. The Bible has been translated in the Guja- 
 rati Balbodh Character, into the Surati, and Mercantile 
 Dialects of this Language. There are two other Dia- 
 
62 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 lects, the Kattiawari and Ahmedabadi, and as allusion 
 is made to transitional Dialects to Marathi, and to 
 Marwari, a Dialect of Hindi, it is clear, that our in- 
 formation on this branch of the subject is far from 
 complete. Mention is made of Dialects spoken by 
 the Bhils and Pauriya, hill tribes of the West Satpura 
 range. 
 
 The written Character used is an obvious modification, 
 by the omission of the upper line of the Nagari, and 
 is called the Balbodh, but it is defective in letters and 
 clumsy in form, and might with advantage be aban- 
 doned in print. There is no sufficient Grammar or Dic- 
 tionary. The loan words from Sanskrit, Arabic, and 
 Persian are numerous. 
 
 SINHALESE. 
 
 It would have caused surprise some twenty years ago 
 to find Sinhalese ranked among the Aryan Languages of 
 India, but this is a generally received fact now. The 
 history of the colonisation of the Island of Ceylon by 
 Vijaya, son of Sinhala, from Buhar, in the sixth century 
 before Christ, and the subsequent introduction of Bud- 
 dhism by Ananda from the same quarter, have since the 
 publication of the Makavanso by Turner been confirmed 
 by the linguistic investigations of Childers. Friedrich 
 Muller of Vienna and others still doubt. The existence 
 of this Language has been taken back at least two thou- 
 sand years by the inscriptions found by G-oldschmidt 
 of the Archaeological Survey. This places it on a 
 much higher level than the other Aryan Vernacu- 
 lars, and entitles it to rank as a Prakrit with Pali, to 
 which it has a close resemblance. If it ever was the 
 Vernacular of the whole island, that has long ceased to 
 be the case. From time immemorial the North of the 
 island has been occupied by colonies of Hindus, speaking 
 the Tamil Language, a member of the Dravidian Family, 
 which will be noticed further on. A line, drawn from 
 
ARYAN FAMILY. 63 
 
 Ghilaw on the East Coast to Batticaloa on the "West, 
 divides the populations. The Sinhalese are Buddhists, 
 and possessed of an ancient civilisation, amounting to one 
 and three quarters of a million, all subjects of England in 
 the Colonial Department. There is an abundant Liter- 
 ature, although Pali is the Language, in which their sacred 
 books are written. There is no lack of linguistic books. 
 The Bible has been translated into this Language in the 
 Sinhalese Character. Tennant remarks, that Sinhalese 
 compositions are free from that licentiousness, which 
 disfigures the Indian, and the Language is so flexible, 
 that it admits of any kind of rhythm. The Jatakas of 
 Buddha have been translated into Sinhalese, and there 
 have been native Grammarians of repute. The Character 
 is a distinct variation of the Indian, no doubt borrowed 
 from Southern India, as it resembles ancient Kanarese. 
 It is written with an iron style on palm leaves. 
 
 There are several Dialects, and they require special 
 notice. The Elu is the Archaic form of the Language, 
 exclusively used to this day for poetical compositions, and 
 in consequence poetry is unintelligible to those who have 
 not studied this Dialect. Elu books come down from the 
 fifth century of our era. The word is a corruption of 
 Sinhala. The difference of the modern Language is due to 
 the number of new grammatical forms, and to the number 
 of Sanskrit words borrowed at a late period, though these 
 last are not used in the spoken Language of the lower 
 classes. Another Dialect is that of the Veddahs, the 
 descendants of the Yakko aborigines, found in the island 
 by Vijaya. They are wild, dwelling in the forest, and 
 Pagans, but their Language is distinctly Sinhalese, with- 
 out any admixture of Sanskrit or Pali. Many no doubt of 
 the aborigines were absorbed into the ranks of the con- 
 querors, founding the lower castes, for, in spite of Buddhism, 
 the Sinhalese have castes. A singular feature of the 
 Sinhalese Language may be noted, that some of its ingre- 
 dients can be traced to a higher fount than the Pali, viz., 
 
64 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 the Sanskrit. Another Dialect is that of the Eodiyas in 
 the Kandyan Hills, one thousand in number, in a still 
 lower social status and civilisation than the Veddahs. 
 Their Language is formed of corrupt Sinhalese mixed up 
 with unintelligible words. Vocabularies are supplied. 
 
 A more important Dialect is that which is spoken in 
 the Maldive group of islands, dependent upon Ceylon. It 
 is said to contain a population of twenty thousand, with a 
 limited amount of civilisation, converted forcibly to Ma- 
 homedanism by the Arabs. But little is known of the 
 people or the Language, and the fullest Vocabulary is that 
 supplied by Pyrard de Laval, an unwilling resident, as a 
 shipwrecked captive, for several years in the commence- 
 ment of the seventeenth century. Christopher visited 
 them in 1834, and reported, that the Language is substan- 
 tially the same throughout the island, but there was a 
 dialectal variation in the Southern Islands, where there 
 was less intercourse with foreign navigators and settlers. 
 Different Characters are found on tombstones in the 
 islands. A knowledge of the most ancient, called 
 Dewehi Hakura, is nearly lost in the Northern, though 
 still used in the Southern Atolls. They were written from 
 left to right, and w r ere syllabic. Inscriptions in the ordin- 
 ary Arabic Character are also found. The modern Cha- 
 racter, written from right to left, is known as Gabali Tana, 
 and was introduced, when the islands were recovered by 
 the Mahomedans from the Portuguese. The last nine of 
 the old letters have been abandoned in favour of the first 
 nine Arabic numerals. A Grammar is said to be in pro- 
 cess of compilation. 
 
65 
 
 EESITY 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 DRAVIDIAN FAMILY. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 THE second Family is the Dravidian, a name assigned 
 to it "by Caldwell, as more suitable than the old name 
 Tamulic. Although the four great members of this Family 
 lie compactly together in the Peninsula, yet some of the 
 outlying members are at a very great distance to the 
 North in the midst of Aryan populations, and one race of 
 mountaineers approaches the banks of the Eiver Ganges. 
 The number of Languages of this Family amount to 
 fourteen : 
 
 I. TAMIL. 
 
 II. TELUGU. 
 
 III. KANARESE. 
 
 IV. MALAYALIM. 
 V. TULU. 
 
 VI. KUDAGU. 
 VII. TODA. 
 
 VIII. KOTA. 
 IX. KHOND. 
 
 X. GOND. 
 
 XL ORAON. 
 
 XII. RAJMAHALI. 
 
 XIII. KEIKADI. 
 
 XIV. YERUKALA. 
 
 Although the Dravidians held their own, yet in process 
 of time some of them accepted the Brahmanical civilisation 
 of their Aryan neighbours ; but the four Northern races, 
 and two mountaineer tribes of the South, have to this day 
 maintained their savage ways and Pagan religion. There 
 has been and exists still a difference of opinion as to the 
 relation of this Family to the Aryan Family. Pope in 
 the introduction to his Tamil Handbook in 1868, states 
 
 E 
 
66 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 that the more the Dravidian Languages are studied, the 
 closer their affinity to Sanskrit will appear, and the more 
 evident will it appear, that they have a primitive and 
 original relationship to Aryan. He has repeated this 
 opinion in 1876 in the "Indian Antiquary," and his 
 opinion deserves great weight. Gover agreed with Pope. 
 On the other hand, Caldwell, following Eask the Dane, 
 and JSTorris of the Royal Asiatic Society, and supported 
 by Friederich Muller of Vienna and Max Mliller, asserts 
 a distinct individuality to the Family, quite opposed to 
 Sanskrit, from which, however, it has borrowed much, 
 and to which, according to Gundert and Kittel of Madras 
 and Stevenson of Bombay, it has lent much. Caldwell 
 has shown, that this Family once extended over nearly all 
 India, and Burnell adds, that geographical names in all 
 parts of India, in spite of Sanskritised forms and false 
 derivations, attest this fact to this day. To this day it is 
 spoken by forty-six millions in India and Ceylon ; there- 
 fore it is a Language-Family of first-rate magnitude. 
 Caldwell admits, that of all Scythian Language-Families 
 the Dravidian presents the most numerous, ancient, and 
 interesting analogies to Aryan. While Pope finds Keltic 
 affinities, Caldwell finds analogies in Semitic, Australian, 
 and African Languages. There are three Characters, in 
 addition to Archaic forms, employed in this Family by 
 the six Languages, which are cultivated. Burnell, in his 
 " South Indian Palaeography," has discussed the origin of 
 these Characters, and the relation which they bear through 
 the Asoka alphabets, or the Archaic Vattelutto, to the 
 Phoenician Alphabet ; but on this subject there is a divi- 
 sion of opinion. 
 
 The distinctive features of this Family are, that in its 
 gender it distinguishes between rational and irrational 
 objects : it has an oblique form for many of its nouns : 
 it specialises the meaning of a root by the use of forma- 
 tives : it modifies the root itself to convey different mean- 
 ings and relations : it has a negative voice. 
 
DRA VIDIAN FAMILY. 67 
 
 TAMIL. 
 
 The Tamil, called sometimes the Malabar, is the most 
 Southern of the Family, and employs a peculiar 
 Character, derived from the well-known Indian. A 
 distinct Character, the Grantham, is used for San- 
 skrit manuscripts. The limits of this Language- Field 
 are well denned. In the Madras Census Eeport of 1871 
 there is a Language-Map of that Province. Tamil is 
 spoken from a few miles North of the city of Madras to 
 the extreme South of the Eastern side of the Peninsula, 
 throughout the plains of the Karnatic or country below 
 the Ghats, from Pulicat to Cape Comorin, and from the 
 Ghats to the Bay of Bengal. It is also spoken in the 
 Southern portion of the independent kingdom of Travan- 
 core on the Western side of the Ghats, from Cape Comorin 
 to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum, and in the Northern 
 parts of the island of Ceylon as far as a line drawn across 
 the island from Ghilaw to Batticaloa. The extension is 
 even beyond this line, as the labourers in the coffee planta- 
 tions in the Candy Hills, who are immigrants rather than 
 settlers, speak Tamil. It is also the Language of the 
 domestic servants of Europeans throughout the Province 
 of Madras. Add to this, that the majority of the immi- 
 grants from the Peninsula into British Burma and the 
 Straits Settlements, known as Klings or Kalingahs, are 
 Tamil-speakers, and so also are a large proportion of 
 the emigrant coolies to the Mauritius and West Indies. 
 Caldwell estimates the total number at fourteen and a 
 half millions, chiefly Hindu. It is the oldest, richest, 
 and most highly organised of the Dravidian Languages, 
 exceedingly rich in Vocabulary, and cultivated from a 
 very remote period. Shen Tamil is the literary Dialect, 
 and used for poetry. Kodun Tamil is the standard used 
 for ordinary purposes. They are sufficiently distinct to 
 require separate study. A very considerable Literature 
 exists in this Language, among which are native gram- 
 
68 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 matieal works. The study of Sanskrit, and the Hindu 
 culture, have left their mark on the Language. Its earliest 
 Literature dates back to the eighth or ninth century of our 
 era. The whole Bible has been translated in the Tamil 
 Character. The famous Grammar of the Jesuit Beschi 
 led the way, and the Comparative Grammar of Caldwell 
 leaves little to be desired for the study of this Lan- 
 guage, which is a strong Vernacular, not likely to be 
 supplanted. Three less important Dialects are recorded, 
 two spoken by a scant population of Pagan hill-men in the 
 Neilgherries, the Irular and Kurubar, and one by the Male- 
 arasas, wild Pagan hill-men on the Northern slopes of the 
 Anamulli range. Burnell, in his "Dialects of South 
 India," notices the Dialect of Tanjore, and the Dialect of 
 the Brahmins of Tanjore. There is also a Dialect spoken 
 by the Vellulers of the Shervarog Hills. 
 
 TELUGU. 
 
 Next on the list of Dravidian Languages is the Telugu 
 or Telinga. It ranks next to Tamil in respect of culture 
 and glossarial copiousness, and surpasses it in euphonic 
 sweetness. It used to be called the Gentoo, but this 
 term has disappeared. It is spoken by the people of the 
 Northern Circars, Kurnool, Cuddapah, part of North Arcot, 
 Nellore, and some parts of Bellary in the Madras Province, 
 and in a portion of the Nizam's territory, and the Central 
 Provinces. It ranges from Pulicat, where it meets Tamil, 
 to Chicacole, where it yields to Uriya. Inland it extends 
 as far as the Eastern boundary of the Marathi country 
 and Mysore. A large portion of Telugu-speakers have in- 
 truded themselves within the Tamil Language-Field, and 
 there are some in the independent territory of Mysore. 
 Caldwell reckons the whole number at fifteen millions and 
 a half, but all calculations respecting the Nizam's territory 
 are uncertain. No Dialects are recorded by grammarians, 
 but the Language-Field impinges on the Uriya and 
 Marathi of the Aryan Family, and the Gond and Khond, 
 
DRA VIDIAN FA MIL Y. 69 
 
 uncultured members of the Dravidian, and the Savara of 
 the Kolarian Family, to be described further down, and 
 debased Dialects are spoken in Bustar of the Central 
 Provinces, in Jypore of the Madras Province, and by the 
 wandering Eamiisi and Korawar. It has a peculiar Char- 
 acter, a variation of the Indian, and a considerable Litera- 
 ture, dating back as far as the twelfth century of our 
 era. It has borrowed considerably from the Sanskrit. The 
 whole Bible has been translated into this Language in the 
 Telugu Character. It has sufficient linguistic books. 
 
 KANARESE. 
 
 The boundaries of the Kanarese Language may be 
 designated by a line drawn from Sudashivagadh on the 
 Malabar coast to the Westward of Dharwar, Belgaum, and 
 Hiikeri, through Kagal and Karandwar, passing between 
 Keligaum and Pandegaum through Brahmapuri on the 
 Bhima and Sholapur, and thence East to the neighbour- 
 hood of Beder. From Sudashivagadh following the 
 Southern boundary of Sunda to the top of the Western 
 Ghats, it comprehends the whole of Mysore and Coimba- 
 tore, and the line of Eastern Ghats. In certain portions 
 of the Field there is an intermixture of Marathi-speaking 
 population. The number is estimated at nine millions and 
 a quarter in the Provinces of Madras and Bombay, and 
 the independent territory of the Nizam and Mysore, 
 chiefly Hindu. Taking the modern colloquial Lan- 
 guage as the standard, we must enter the classical or 
 ancient form of speech as a Dialect, which differs from the 
 standard by the use of different inflectional terminations. 
 The Dialect of the Badagas or Burgers, a numerous Hindu 
 tribe in the Neilgherries, agricultural immigrants from 
 the plains, is a very ancient one. Many of their songs 
 have been published by Gover, and the Gospel of St. 
 Luke has been translated into this Dialect in the Kanarese 
 Character, which is in all essentials identical with that of 
 the Telugu, but there is an Archaic Character of Sanskrit 
 
70 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 inscriptions found over a large area, called " Hala Kan- 
 nada." There is no lack of linguistic books. Dialects of 
 this Language are spoken by the wild Pagan hill-tribes. 
 
 MALAYALIM. 
 
 The Malayalim Language is spoken along the Malabar 
 Coast on the Western side of the Ghats or Malaya range 
 of mountains, from Chandragiri near Mangalore, where it 
 supersedes Kanarese and Tulu, to Trivandrum, where it is 
 superseded by Tamil. The population amounts to three 
 millions and three-quarters in the Province of Madras, 
 and the independent States of Cochin and Travancore 
 chiefly Hindu, with a sprinkling of Mahomedans, Jews, 
 and Christians. It has a peculiar Character. There 
 is a Dictionary on the Comparative Method by Gundert. 
 The Language is peculiarly related to, and geographi- 
 cally intertwined with, Tamil, of which it is an 
 ancient offshoot, but much altered. The proportion of 
 Sanskrit loan-words is the greatest in Malayalim of all 
 Dravidian Languages. Its Literature has been described 
 by Gundert. A Dialect of this Language is spoken by 
 the forest tribes on the Western slopes of the Anamulli 
 range, and a more remarkable one by the Mappila of the 
 Western Coast, and the inhabitants of the Laccadive 
 Islands. Burnell, in his " Specimens of South Indian 
 Dialects," gives a specimen of this Dialect in the Roman 
 Character and the Mappila adapted Arabic > Character, 
 which is used by all except a few who have retained the 
 Vatteluttu or old Tamil-Malayalim Character, concerning 
 which there is an interesting discussion in the " Palaeo- 
 graphy of Southern India " and the " Indian Antiquary." 
 This Dialect must have been formed a thousand years 
 ago. It has a Literature of its own, and has sub-Dialects. 
 It may be added, that the Mappila- Arabic Character is 
 used by all educated Mahomedans, who know nothing 
 of the Arabic Language. It is not known who made 
 the adaptation of the Arabic Alphabet, but it is very 
 
DRA VIDIAN FAMILY. 71 
 
 ingenious and sufficient. The inhabitants of the Laccadive 
 Islands are immigrants from the Malabar Coast, and they 
 resemble the Mappilas of the coast ; but they all became 
 Mahomedan six hundred years ago. The islands used to 
 belong entirely, and now do in part, to the chiefs of Kan- 
 nanore. One island, Minikoi, lies half-way betwixt the 
 Laccadives and the Maldives, but belongs to the Mappila 
 chief of Kannanore. The inhabitants speak a Language, 
 called Mahl, a corrupt Dialect of Malayalim, and quite 
 unintelligible to strangers. The population exceeds 
 twelve thousand. The Bible is translated in the Malay- 
 alim Character. There is no lack of linguistic books. 
 
 TULU. 
 
 Tulu or Tuluva is a cultivated Language, but occupies a 
 very small Field. It is destitute, however, of a Literature, 
 and has no peculiar Character, and uses the Kanarese. 
 It is one of the most highly developed of the Dravidian 
 Family. The Chandragiri and Kalyanpuri Kivers in the 
 District of Kanara of the Madras Province have, ever been 
 its boundaries. The population amounts to only about 
 three hundred thousand, chiefly Hindu, and the Field has 
 been so broken in upon by other Languages, that Tulu 
 may soon disappear. It is interesting, because it seems 
 to have been cultivated for its own sake, and it is well 
 worthy of a careful study, The Missionaries teach their 
 Christians Kanarese, as well as Tulu. The Tulu Brahmins 
 use the Malayalim Character for Sanskrit manuscripts. 
 It differs far more widely from Malayalim than Malayalim 
 does from Tamil. It differs not so widely from Kanarese, 
 still less so from Kudagu. Brigel has supplied a Grammar. 
 The New Testament has been translated into this Lan- 
 guage in the Kanarese Character. 
 
 KUDAGU. 
 
 The last in the list of cultivated Languages is Kudagu 
 or Coorg, but it is very doubtful, whether it is cultivated. 
 
72 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 There used to be an independent State of that name, but it 
 is now part of the Madras Province. Kudagu is certainly 
 an independent Language, and not a Dialect of one of its 
 great neighbours, and in Caldwell's opinion stands mid- 
 way betwixt Old Kanarese and Tulu. Cole, Superinten- 
 dent of Coorg, has compiled a Grammar, and some songs 
 have also been published. Their retired mountainous 
 position has enabled this tribe to maintain their Language 
 free from change. They are only semi-Hinduised, as they 
 practise Polyandry and worship demons; they number 
 about one hundred and sixty thousand, and have no Litera- 
 ture or Character. The Kanarese is used as the literary 
 Language, and is understood by all ; so the Kudagu will 
 not long survive. Small as is the Language-Field, there 
 are still Dialects, but not distinctly named. Burnell has 
 published specimens in his " South Indian Dialects," using 
 the Kanarese Character. 
 
 TODA. 
 
 Many books and papers have been written upon the 
 subject of the Todas of the Neilgherries, in the Madras Pro- 
 vince, far beyond their deserts. Their residence is in the 
 neighbourhood of Ootacamund, which has brought them 
 under the observation of Missionaries, scholars, and chance 
 tourists. They are Pagans, in the lowest stage of civilisa- 
 tion, and practise Polyandry, and do not exceed seven 
 hundred in number. Their Language presents a different 
 and interesting variation of the Dravidian Family, and is 
 valuable for comparative philology, but both race and 
 Language will soon be extinct. Their Language was 
 once highly inflectional, but, when it lost most of its in- 
 flections, the people, who have evidently degenerated in 
 every way, as the result of isolation, have not replaced 
 them by significant particles, or auxiliaries, to the same 
 extent as the other South Indian tribes, and it has thus 
 dwindled down to a mere skeleton, and barely suffices for 
 the purposes of a barbarous people. It was originally 
 
DRA VIDIAN FA MIL Y. 73 
 
 Old Kanarese, and not a distinct Language, and an emi- 
 gration probably took place from the coast to the hills 
 eight hundred years ago. Vocabularies and Grammatical 
 Notices are supplied. 
 
 KOTA. 
 
 The Kota tribe dwell intermixed with the Todas, but 
 are totally distinct, and to a certain extent submissive to 
 the latter. They are hardworking, peaceful Pagans in a 
 very low stage of civilisation, and are very disgusting in 
 their habits. They have resided from unknown antiquity 
 in the Neilgherries, and their Language is decidedly Dra- 
 vidian, with certain analogies to Tamil, and yet more 
 nearly allied to Kanarese than to any of the other sister- 
 Languages. They have neither Character nor Literature, 
 and it cannot be expected that the Language will long 
 survive. Vocabularies are supplied. The number of 
 people is very small. 
 
 KHOND. 
 
 The tribe known as Khond, Kandh, Kho, Kus, and 
 Ku, speak a Dravidian Language. They have attained an 
 unenviable notoriety amidst the Pagan tribes of India, as 
 having persistently maintained the practice of human 
 sacrifice, known as Meriah, up to a very late date, until 
 it was stamped out by the exertions of British officers. 
 There is reason to believe, that this practice was shared 
 with others, and even with some of the Hindus, at an 
 earlier period, but the special feature of the Khonds is, 
 that they clung to it, while others had abandoned it. 
 They occupy a portion of the hilly tract known as the 
 Cuttack Tributary Muhals in the Province of Bengal, and 
 spread down into the district of Ganjam in the Province 
 of Madras. The Eiver Mahanudy was said to be their 
 Northern boundary, but in the Map attached to the Census 
 of Bengal, 1872, they are described as extending far to 
 the North, and this fact is confirmed by other authorities. 
 
74 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 They seem at least some of them to have practised 
 female infanticide as well. The officers, appointed to the 
 task of suppressing these abominable practices, studied the 
 Language, and Grammars have been published. Several 
 Dialects are noted, as might be expected in a Language 
 which comes into contact with the Uriya of the Aryan and 
 Telugu of the Dravidian Family. The standard is quite un- 
 certain, but there are separate Dialects at I. Goomsur, 2. 
 Daringahadi, 3. Eumes, and 4. in the Orissa Muhals. There 
 is neither Character nor Literature, and it is to be regretted, 
 that the political domination of the Uriya people has led to 
 some Khond books being published in the Uriya Character. 
 Others have been published in the Eoman Character. The 
 Language is now one of those, for the acquirement of which 
 encouragement is given by Government. The number of 
 victims rescued from the Meriah- sacrifice, and trans- 
 ferred to mission schools, gave excellent opportunities of 
 studying the Language. It is quite distinct from Gond, 
 and has a closer resemblance to Tamil and Kanarese than 
 to Telugu and Gond. The number of the Khonds in the 
 Bengal Province amounts to fifty thousand, and in the 
 Madras Province to eighty-eight thousand. A great many 
 books have been published regarding the Khonds. 
 
 GOND. 
 
 The Gond Language comes next under consideration. 
 In old maps of India a large territory was marked Gond- 
 wana, which is now part of the Central Provinces. The 
 tribe of Gonds is found also in the Provinces of Bengal 
 and Madras. In fact, the tract reaches from the Vindhyan 
 Mountains to the River Godavery, and from the country 
 of the Khonds in the Cuttack Tributary Muhals as far as 
 the country of the Bhils in Khandesh and Malwa to the 
 West. It is, however, divided into two considerable en- 
 claves. There are at least a million and a half Gonds in 
 the Central Provinces, and an uncertain population beyond 
 these limits. Some are Pagans; some have adopted a 
 
DRA VIDIAN FAMIL F. 75 
 
 semi-Hindu religion and culture ; some conform entirely 
 to Hinduism, and claim to be Eajpoots ; some are Maho- 
 medan, their chiefs having become so from interested 
 motives ; and now, as there are several Missions at work 
 in their midst, some few are Christians. Many of them 
 have abandoned their native Language, and speak a Dia- 
 lect of Hindi, Uriya, Marathi, or Telugu. Some are re- 
 spectable and civilised agriculturists; others are in the 
 lowest state of wild and shy savagery, and nearly entirely 
 naked. It is admitted, that so late as 1852 Gondwana 
 was a totally unexplored country, a Sahara in our maps, 
 and that the boundaries of the adjoining Languages, 
 Hindi, Uriya, Marathi, and Telugu, were unknown. This 
 tract had, in fact, been a bit of cover, in which, when the 
 plains were swept by hunters, the wild tribes had taken 
 refuge, and thus survived the ever-advancing Hindu im- 
 migration, and the ever-absorbing Mahomedan conquest. 
 So long as the independent kingdom of Nagpur lasted, 
 this was the state of affairs, but, when the Central Pro- 
 vinces were formed into a separate administration, the clouds 
 began to be raised. It was found that among the Northern 
 Gonds the following Dialects existed: I. Gayeti, 2. Eut- 
 luk, 3. Naikude, 4. Kolami, 5. Mahadeo, 6. Eaj. Among the 
 Southern Gonds also the following: 7. Maria, 8. Maree, 
 9. Gotta, 10. Koi or Koitor. We have Vocabularies of these 
 Dialects, and descriptions of these tribes. It is to the Mis- 
 sionaries, that we are indebted for Grammatical Notices, and 
 text and translation of Gond songs. There is clearly a close 
 affinity in the Gond Language to Tamil, Telugu, and Kana- 
 rese, in some particulars to one, and in some to others. There 
 are a great many Hindi loan-words, and on all sides there 
 are transitional forms of debased admixture of Gond with 
 the adjoining great Languages. It has a very elaborate 
 conjugational system, and, as this is not a feature of other 
 Dravidian Languages, the idea is hazarded, that it may 
 have been borrowed from the contact of Kolarian neigh- 
 bours. It is impossible to define its exact boundaries, but 
 
76 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 t, 
 
 generally the Hindi-speaking cultivator has seized the 
 plains, and pushed the Gonds to the hills. Portions of the 
 Bible have been translated into this Language in the Nagari 
 Character. There is every reason to expect, that it will 
 hold its own, and not give way to its encroaching neigh- 
 bours. The Missionaries at Dumaguden report the neces- 
 sity of using in the schools the Koi Dialect of Gond, and 
 the preparation of Grammatical Notes and Vocabularies 
 in that Dialect. The part of the country, where the 
 wildest Gonds live, is in the independent State of Bustar, 
 and a portion of it called Abajmard or Madian, but the 
 name of the tribe is Maree. Much more is required to do 
 justice to this Language. There is neither Character nor 
 Literature. 
 
 ORAON. 
 
 The Oraons of Chutia-Nagpur and other places in the 
 Province of Bengal number six hundred thousand. They 
 are called also Khurukh and Dhangars, and are an indus- 
 trious race, known far and wide as day-labourers. They 
 are Pagans, and dwell to a certain extent intermixed with 
 the Mundaris, who will be noticed further on ; and some- 
 times even the Oraons have been confusedly designated as 
 Koles, with whom, however, they have no connection. 
 Dalton gives a full account of their customs, and 
 Flex has published a Grammar. The Language un- 
 questionably is Dravidian, but the Aryan neighbours and 
 conquerors of this tribe have influenced not only the 
 customs of the people, but their Language to such an 
 extent, that gradually the pronunciation and orthography 
 have been modified. There are a great number of Hindi 
 loan-words. The syntactical structure of the sentence has 
 also been modified. The Dravidian element has survived 
 in the first few numerals, the pronouns, specially the per- 
 sonal pronouns, and the declensional and conjugational 
 structure. The latter is extremely irregular and compli- 
 cated. Flex remarks, that this Language has been severely 
 
DRA VIDIAN FAMIL Y. 77 
 
 handled by the Aryans, and, though struggling hard for 
 independence, bears the stamp of the Aryan mind on its 
 brow. It has neither Character nor Literature, and the 
 Eoman Character is used. It will scarcely survive the 
 struggle for life, which has now commenced. 
 
 RAJMUHALI. 
 
 In the Province of Bengal, in the hills, which actually 
 overhang the Ganges at Eajmuhal, dwell the mountaineer 
 tribe known as the Eajmuhali, or Malers, or Paharis. The 
 skirts and valleys of these hills are occupied by the Son- 
 thals of the Kolarian Family, who will be noticed further 
 on. But these hill-men have attracted notice since last 
 century, when they were weaned from lawless pursuits by 
 the judicious management of Mr. Cleveland. They are 
 still Pagan, and in a low state of civilisation ; and it is a 
 remarkable fact, that they have retained their unmistak- 
 ably Dravidian Language notwithstanding the neighbour- 
 hood of the superior Aryan races and the encroaching 
 Kolarian. We have nothing beyond Vocabularies, but 
 Caldwell remarks, that the evidence of the lowest numerals 
 and pronouns is clear. There is a large admixture of 
 Aryan loan-words ; there is neither Character nor Literature. 
 But as this Language is on the extreme flank of the Dra- 
 vidian Family, and the nearest to the Tibeto-Burman, it 
 deserves a more particular study. In many respects the 
 people and Language resemble the Oraons. Their num- 
 bers are said to amount to four hundred thousand, but it is 
 a question, whether their Language will survive. 
 
 KEIKADI. 
 
 In Hunter's list of Non- Aryan Languages appears a 
 Vocabulary of Keikadi, which is described by Hislop as 
 that of a wandering tribe, whose route lies more remote 
 from the Tamil country than the Telugu, and yet the 
 Language approaches Tamil more than other Dravidian 
 Languages. Nothing further is known of this Language, 
 
78 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 which is only provisionally entered as a separate Language 
 in the present state of our knowledge. Probably it will 
 subside into the position of a Dialect of Tamil on a more 
 intimate acquaintance. 
 
 YERUKALA. 
 
 In Hunter's list of Non- Aryan Languages appears a 
 Vocabulary of Yerukala. In Hodgson's Aborigines of the 
 Eastern Ghats we find that a Madras civil officer sup- 
 plied a Vocabulary of this tribe, and from his notice I con- 
 clude, that their habitat is somewhere in the hilly country 
 of Vijigapatam District of the Madras Province. The 
 tribe is also mentioned in Bustar of the Central Provinces. 
 Nothing further is known, and this Language is provi- 
 sionally entered as a Dravidian Language in the present 
 state of our knowledge. It will probably subside to the 
 position of a Dialect of Telugu. 
 
( 79 ) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 KOLARIAN FAMILY, 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 To George Campbell we are indebted for the word 
 " Kolarian," as the name of a class of Non- Aryans in 
 Central India, who are not Dravidians. Hodgson had 
 first drawn attention to the affinity betwixt the aborigines 
 of Central India and Southern India with the aborigines 
 of the Himalayas. Max Muller, in his celebrated letter 
 on the Turanian Languages to Baron Bunsen, pointed out, 
 that there were clearly two distinct Families of Languages. 
 Caldwell made up the Dravidian Family by the inclusion 
 of some of the tribes of Central India and the exclusion of 
 others. Campbell collected roughly those excluded tribes 
 into a Family of their own, and in 1 866 called them Kola- 
 rian, and that name is now accepted. Like the Dravidian, 
 it is morphologically Agglutinative, but with distinct char- 
 acteristics. Like the Tibeto-Burman, it probably found 
 its way to its present habitat from the plateau of Tibet, 
 but it has so long been cut off from all connection with 
 that Family by the storm- wave of the Aryan immigration 
 down the valley of the Ganges, that nothing but faint 
 analogies survive. It must decidedly be treated, as an in- 
 dependent Family, occupying ground in the Provinces of 
 Bengal and Madras and the Central Provinces, chiefly in 
 the hills, and intermixed with the more energetic Families, 
 the Aryan and Dravidian. . Nearly two millions have kept 
 their Language. Ethnologically the number is greater, 
 
8o LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 but whole tribes, like the Bhils in Khandesh, Malwa, and 
 Rajpootana, the Bhars, Bhuyas, &c., have adopted an Aryan 
 Language in debased Dialects. While, on the one hand, 
 Trumpp is of opinion that Brahui, which I have provision- 
 ally classed as Aryan, is Kolarian; on the other hand, 
 from the necessity of the case, I am constrained to class 
 the Mal-Paharia, or Naia Dumka, as Kolarian, or leave 
 them out altogether, or form a separate Family for them, 
 which would be hardly justified by the scanty material. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that the Kolarian Family has a 
 higher degree of inflection, and more complete indigenous 
 Vocabularies, than the Dravidian. Everything for the 
 present is provisional, and the following Languages are 
 entered : 
 
 I. SONTHAL. VI. KUR. 
 
 II. MUNDARI, BHUMIJ, VII. SAVARA. 
 
 HO, Or KOLE. VIII. MEHTO. 
 
 III. KHARIA. IX. GADABA. 
 
 IV. JUANG. X. MAL-PAHARIA. 
 V. KORWA. 
 
 I can only allude to the hypothesis, based upon alleged 
 linguistic affinities and resemblance of names, betwixt the 
 Language of the Mundas and of the Mons of Pegu in the 
 Mon-Anam Family, which will be described further on. 
 There are names of weight on both sides. A much more 
 intimate knowledge of the structure of Mundari is re- 
 quired, before any opinion can be formed. 
 
 The following characteristics of this Family may be 
 noted. In its genders it makes a distinction betwixt 
 animate and inanimate objects. It has no oblique forms 
 for its nouns. It has a dual number, while the Dravidian 
 Family has not. It has no negative voice. It has two 
 forms for each tense, which in most of the Languages gives 
 the verb a transitive and intransitive meaning. It varies 
 the meaning of a root by infixing syllables, but never 
 changes, like the Dravidian, any of the letters of the root 
 itself. 
 
KOLARIAN FA MIL Y. 8 1 
 
 SONTHAL. 
 
 The beautiful and vigorous Language of the Sonthal s 
 comes first. The tribe is found at intervals much scattered 
 in a strip of the Province of Bengal extending about 350 
 miles from the Eiver Ganges to the Eiver Baitarni, in the 
 Districts of Bhagalpur, Sonthal Perganas, Birbhum, Ban- 
 cooruh, Hazaribagh, Manbhum, Midnapur, Singhbhum, and 
 Balasore. The Sonthal Perganas are the nucleus of the 
 tribe, but only lately occupied by a move forward. They 
 are Pagans, and peaceful agriculturists, in number about 
 one million. Several Protestant Missionaries have settled 
 down among them, and find them very docile. One of 
 these, Skrefsrud, has published in 1873 a Grammar, super- 
 seding the one published in 1852 by Phillips. It is 
 asserted that the Sonthal is as superior to its sister- 
 Languages, as Sanskrit is to its cognate Languages, and 
 that it is not even second to the Osmanli-Turki in gram- 
 matical structure. Its verb- system is artificial and com- 
 plex, yet logical and transparent, for it possesses voice, 
 mood, tense, gender, number, person, case, conjugations, 
 including five voices, five moods, twenty-three tenses, three 
 numbers, and four cases. The Language is unwritten, and 
 is now rendered in Roman and Bengali Characters. There 
 exist common roots for very primitive ideas in Sanskrit 
 and Sonthal. Portions of the Bible have been translated 
 into this Language in the Roman Character, and many 
 educational works published. Four Dialects are recorded, 
 which is not improbable, considering that there has been 
 no settled standard till now; that the Language-Field is 
 surrounded and intermixed with other Kolarian, as well as 
 Dravidian and Aryan, Languages. 
 
 MUNDARI. 
 
 i 
 
 Dalton groups together the following tribes, and gives 
 their number : 
 
 F 
 
8 2 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Mundaris, . . . . 400,000 
 Hos or Larka Koles, . . 150,000 
 Bhumij, . . . -.. . 300,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 Their habitat is on the plateau of Chutia-Nagpore, which 
 is connected with the Vyndha range. Here the aborigines 
 of India have found a secure asylum for many centuries, 
 in a beautiful region, which was a gigantic natural fortress, 
 about 2000 feet above the level of the sea, in extent about 
 14,000 square miles, with rivers flowing in every direction. 
 They are active agriculturists in the Cmitia-Nagpore, Man- 
 bhum, and Singhbhum Districts of the Bengal Province, 
 and Pagans, but in former years they have proved high- 
 spirited, and difficult to govern; but all this has passed 
 away. Protestant Missionaries are established among them, 
 and by one of them a Grammar of the Mundari has been 
 published in 1873. One of the Gospels has been trans- 
 lated into this Language in the Nagari Character. It is 
 an unwritten Language, without any standard, and there 
 are several Dialects diverging very considerably from each 
 other. The Dialect of Mankipati is the one in which 
 Hindi has made the slightest inroad, and the Language 
 is consequently purer. Any one familiar with that Dia- 
 lect will be perfectly well understood by all the Mundari- 
 speaking people of Chutia-Nagpore, and the Larka Koles 
 of Singbhum. Hindi words and phrases are largely used, 
 but attempts are made to restrict the use. The Language- 
 Field is situated in the critical position of the point of 
 juncture of three powerful Aryan Vernaculars, Hindi, 
 Bengali, and Uriya ; and the Dravidian Oraons are inter- 
 mixed with them, and in the struggle for life it may go 
 hard with this Language. The Larka Koles never had 
 submitted to a foreign ruler until now. The Language is 
 also spoken by the Birhors, a Pagan tribe about seven 
 hundred in number, who live in the jungles of Hazaribagh, 
 in the same Province, and to whom is imputed the atrocity 
 
KOLARIAN FA MIL Y. 83 
 
 of eating the dead bodies of their nearest relatives, like the 
 Battas of Sumatra in the Malayan Family, who will be 
 noticed further on. 
 
 The term Kol is certainly a lax one, as for some time 
 the Oraons, who belong to the Dravidian Family, were 
 included in it. As a fact, the Moondas and Oraons dwell 
 together in the same villages, meet in social gatherings, 
 but never intermarry. It is also stated, that the term Kol 
 is one of opprobrium, and that its further employment as 
 the designation of tribes, who call themselves by other 
 names, might with advantage be discontinued. 
 
 KHARIA. 
 
 The Kharias are found in the district of Singhbhum of 
 the Province of Bengal, in a very wild state, living in back- 
 woods and on the tops of hills. They are more civilised 
 in Clmtia-Nagpore, and are agriculturists. They are Pa- 
 gans. Of their Language we have Vocabularies, supplied 
 by Dalton, but nothing beyond. There are affinities to 
 Mundari and Juang. There is no Character, and this 
 Language will probably die away. 
 
 JUANG. 
 
 The Juangs, Malhars, or Puttooahs, are grouped in the 
 Kolarian Family on account of linguistic affinity. Their 
 Language approaches nearest to that of the Kharia. 
 Dalton considers it by no means certain, that the Juangs 
 may not at one time have spoken a different Language. 
 The words for common and familiar objects are identical 
 with Mundari and Sonthal ; but they have lived so long 
 in the Tributary Muhals of Cuttack, among an Uriya popu- 
 lation, that they have adopted Uriya words, and there are 
 words also, which are neither Aryan, Kolarian, nor Dra- 
 vidian. It is possible, that they are the remnant of one of 
 the great Forest-races, which occupied the whole moun- 
 tainous region before the immigration of the Kolarian s. 
 They are found in Dhekanah and Keonjhur of Cuttack, in 
 
84 - LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 the Province of Bengal. They cultivate the steep sides 
 of hills in settlements of their own, of about twenty 
 houses, but intermixed with other tribes. They repudiate 
 all connection with any other tribe, and maintain, that their 
 Language is separate from all others, and that they are the 
 earliest human beings of the locality. They are a most 
 primitive people in habits and customs. They had till lately 
 no knowledge of iron. They neither spin nor weave, nor 
 have the least knowledge of pottery. They practise the 
 Jhum system of agriculture. The women used not to wear 
 a particle of clothing, but bunches of leaves before and 
 behind, hanging to a girdle of beads. They were deterred 
 by superstition from wearing clothes, and believed that, if 
 they did, they would be devoured by tigers. Hunter 
 mentions that within the last few years a large supply 
 of cloth has been distributed by the- State, and engage- 
 ments taken from the men, that the women should hence- 
 forth w r ear clothing. There is nothing but Vocabularies of 
 their Language. They are Pagans, and have no Character. 
 Neither tribe nor Language are likely to survive. 
 
 KORWA. 
 
 In the centre of a dependency of Chutia-Nagpore, 
 called Barwah, live the wretched forest-cultivators, the 
 Korwas, separated from the cognate Kolarians, and inter- 
 mixed with other tribes ; but it is admitted, that they are 
 the earliest settlers, and were once masters of the country. 
 Their number does not exceed fourteen thousand, and they 
 lead a savage and nomadic life. They are Pagans, wholly 
 illiterate. Nothing exists but Vocabularies of this Lan- 
 guage, and a long duration cannot be expected for it. 
 
 KUR. 
 
 The Kur and Kurka dwell in the Central Provinces, 
 on the Mahadeo Hills, and Westward in the forests on the 
 Rivers Tapti and Narbudda, up to the Bhil country. On 
 the Mahadeo Hills they prefer to be called Muasi. They are 
 
KOLARIAN FAMIL Y. 85 
 
 Pagans, and, though residing amidst Gonds, their Language 
 is Kolarian. Vocabularies are supplied by Hislop and 
 Dalton. They are wholly illiterate. In the Districts of 
 Hoshungabad and Be'tul their number exceeds fifty-nine 
 thousand. This Language will scarcely survive very long. 
 
 SAVARA. 
 
 In the Madras Province, and surrounded by Aryan and 
 Dravidian neighbours, we come upon another small Ko- 
 larian tribe, speaking a distinct Language. They are 
 known as Savara, or Sabara, or Sowruh, and supposed to 
 be the Suari mentioned by Pliny and the Sabarce men- 
 tioned by Ptolemy. They are found on the West and back 
 of the Mahendra mountain in the Ganjam district of the 
 Madras Province, and their Language- Field is duly marked 
 off on the Language-Map of the Census Pteport of the 
 Madras Province. They are said to number about eighteen 
 hundred, to dress in leaves, though they have picked up a 
 little civilisation from their Uriya and Telugu neighbours. 
 They are quiet and industrious, and dwell in villages. 
 There are some still wilder members of the Family in the 
 hills. Of their Language little is known beyond Vocabu- 
 laries. They are Pagans. Dalton, in his Ethnology of 
 Bengal, mentions this tribe by name as occupying the 
 country betwixt the Khond Hills and the Godavery, and 
 retaining a primitive speech ; but he adds, that the Bend- 
 kar Savaras speak Uriya, and conform to the customs of 
 Hindus of the lower castes, and dwell in the State of 
 Keonjhur dependent on the Cuttack district of the Bengal 
 Province. It may be expected that this Language will be 
 crowded out by Telugu or Uriya. In the Madras Census 
 Eeport, the Sowruh of the Jypore district in the Madras 
 Province are described as semi-Hinduised, and have for- 
 gotten all knowledge of any Language but Uriya. 
 
 MEHTO. 
 
 The Ethnological Committee of the Central Provinces 
 indicate a tribe called Mangee, or Mehto, in the hilly 
 
86 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 tracts of Belaspur, who are Pagans, and who, judging from 
 the short Vocabulary supplied, speak a Kolarian Language. 
 
 GADABA. 
 
 The tribe of Gudba, or Gadaba, inhabit the Eastern 
 portion of Bustar in the Central Provinces, and Jypore, 
 a dependent State of the Madras Province, where they 
 are numerous. Glasford notices them. Their Language 
 clearly belongs not to the same stock as their neighbours the 
 Gonds, of the Maria Dialect, but to the Kolarian Family. 
 It is interesting to find a Kolarian Language imbedded 
 among the Dravidians down in the South-East. Glasford, 
 in his report of the Bustar District, supplies a Vocabulary. 
 Some of the words are identical with words of the Koorku, 
 Kol, and Sonthal Languages. This same tribe is found 
 again in the highlands of Guddapur, of the Ganjain Dis- 
 trict of the Madras Province. They are Pagans. We can- 
 not anticipate a long life to this Language. In the Madras 
 Census Eeport they are connected with another tribe 
 called Kerang-Kapus, who speak the same Language. 
 
 MAL-PUHAKIA. 
 
 Dalton mentions the existence in the Kamgurh Hills of 
 the Birblmm District of the Bengal Province of a tribe, 
 who call themselves Mal-Puharias, but who are altogether 
 different from the Rajmuhali Puharias, or Malers, of the 
 Dravidian Family. A Vocabulary was collected by Coates 
 from a prisoner in the gaol, but the words seem to be as 
 far removed from Kolarian as Dravidian. They are Pagan, 
 and have their separate customs. It was necessary to enter 
 the Language somewhere, that it might not be overlooked. 
 The classification is entirely provisional. They are also 
 called Naia-Dumka. This Language, and that of the 
 Mehtos, is entered for the purpose of exhausting the 
 subject, and accounting for all the Languages, of which 
 Vocabularies have been supplied. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 
 
 I APPIIOACH the Tibeto-Burman Family with some mis- 
 givings, for the Field is imperfectly explored, it is un- 
 usually extensive, and the classification is new, and I 
 have no authority to follow, as in the three preceding 
 Families. Little has been done in the way of classifying 
 and arranging since the date of Max Miiller's letter to 
 Bunsen on the Turanian Languages a quarter of a century 
 ago, yet in some parts of the Field our geographical, 
 ethnical, and linguistic knowledge has so extended, that a 
 reprint of that letter would do more harm than good. It 
 is my present task to indicate, what has been done, and 
 what remains to be done, and I see signs that something 
 more will soon be done. 
 
 The interior grouping of the members of this enormous 
 Family must for the present be based upon geographical 
 considerations, and upon no other. It extends from the 
 Eiver Indus and the frontier of Dardistan, already 
 described in the Aryan Family, in a South-Easterly 
 direction to the Eiver Mekong and the Isthmus of 
 Kraw, in Siam. It embraces the whole length of the 
 Himalaya range and the kingdom of Tibet, and portion 
 of Yunan in China beyond. It is admitted, that there is 
 a linguistic affinity connecting seven groups out of the 
 eight, which make up this Family. The old phrase of 
 Hodgson, " Tamulic," must be abandoned, as based on an 
 error admitted by that scholar; the term Turanian is 
 decidedly objectionable, as implying too much; the pro- 
 
88 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 posed subdivision of Max Miiller into Gangetic, and Lohi- 
 tic, would at best only apply to part of the Field, and is 
 inappropriate. We must fall back upon a compound 
 name, formed from the two leading Languages of the 
 Northern and Southern branches of the Family. It is 
 a positive fact, that Tibetan and Burmese are the only 
 two great literary and political Languages of the Family. 
 
 It will be observed that in the Himalaya range within 
 the Province of the Punjab and the North- West Province, 
 the Aryans seem to have pushed the Tibeto-Burmans across 
 the great Watershed, and the Languages of this Family 
 to the West of the Eiver Gogra or boundary of Nepal 
 .are all Trans-Himalayan. It is more convenient to ex- 
 haust the groups this side of the Himalayan Watershed 
 Jirst. The following groups are suggested, as a convenient 
 mode of grappling with the subject : 
 
 I. NEPA"L GROUP, . . . 13 Languages. 1 6 Dialects. 
 
 II. SIKHIM GROUP, ... i Language. i Dialect. 
 
 III. ASSAM GROUP, . . . 1 6 Languages. 23 Dialects. 
 
 IV. MUNIPUR-CHITTAGONG GROUP, 24 Languages. 8 Dialects. 
 V. BURMA GROUP, ... 9 Languages. 10 Dialects. 
 
 VI. TRAKS-HIMALA"YAN GROUP, 8 Languages. 23 Dialects. 
 VII. CHINA GROUP, ... 6 Languages. None. 
 VIII. ISLAND GROUP, . 10 Languages. 3 Dialects. 
 
 Total, . . 87 Languages. 84 Dialects. 
 
 This seems the only way of bringing this enormous 
 Language-Field, comprising eighty-seven Languages, and 
 eighty-four Dialects of those Languages, under review. 
 The arrangement is entirely provisional. It is not pre- 
 tended, that the list of Languages is exhausted, that 
 Vocabularies exist for all the entries, or that the habitat 
 of every tribe is indicated. In another particular there 
 is extreme laxitude. Many names have been entered 
 as Languages, which closer scrutiny may reduce to the 
 rank of Dialects of other Languages. On the other hand, 
 many, now entered as Dialects, subordinate to some 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 89 
 
 Language, may assert their right to be classed as inde- 
 pendent Languages. Scanty Vocabularies represent the 
 great portion of these Languages. In some cases we have 
 Grammatical Notes, in others we have Grammars. In 
 this direction emphatically lies the work of the next 
 quarter of a century. We must have Grammars, and in 
 some cases scientific Grammars, which in due course will 
 be followed by Comparative Grammars and Dictionaries, 
 thus making substantial contributions to the sum of lingu- 
 istic knowledge in a most interesting direction, just where 
 the Monosyllabic Method is giving way to the earliest 
 development of the Agglutinative. 
 
 It may be asserted generally, that this Family belongs to 
 the Agglutinative Order. It is distinguished from the two 
 preceding Families, Dravidian and Kolarian, both of the 
 same Morphological Order, by its two tones, or, in the 
 absence of tones, by its peculiar determinative syllables. 
 It has not both the cerebral and dental row. It has no 
 grammatical gender. The genitive follows the substantive ; 
 the verbs in most of the Languages have no person-endings. 
 It is distinguished from the three Monosyllabic Families, 
 with which it comes into geographical contact, the Khasi, 
 Tai, and Mon-Anam, by the position of the determinating 
 noun before the determined, by grammatical relations 
 being denoted by suffixes, by the inverted construction 
 of its sentences, the absence of a relative pronoun, and 
 the verb coming at the end of the sentence. 
 
 Hodgson asserts, that there is distinct evidence of the 
 existence of two classes of Languages, one of the pro- 
 nominalised, or complex type, and the other of the non- 
 pronominalised, and simple type. By this term is meant 
 the use of the pronoun in the form of affixes and suffixes. 
 Brandreth last year published a scheme for the general 
 classification of the whole Family on Morphological data, 
 making a great step in advance. 
 
 The geographical position of this long range of Lan- 
 guages is remarkable. The most Eastern wave of Aryan 
 
90 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 civilisation rolled up against an impassable barrier, the 
 Himalaya mountains, but for which the older culture, 
 which Tibet had imported from China, would have given 
 way to the fresher Aryan culture established at Kanouj 
 and Benares. In spite of this mountain barrier, Tibet has 
 received from India her religion, Literature, and Character, 
 but she has conserved to this day her own Language and 
 type of civilisation, by enforcing a system of absolute 
 isolation, which it must be the work of the next quarter 
 of a century to break down. 
 
 Nepal has in a measure succumbed to Aryan influence. 
 The Mahoniedan conquest drove Brahmins from the plains 
 to these valleys, and not only did the Aryan Nepali thus 
 get a footing, as the ruling Language, but each of the 
 Tibeto-Burman Languages, that has attained any degree 
 of culture, is indebted for it to Aryan influence, and these 
 mountaineers, just in proportion to their ceasing to be 
 savages, began to be semi- Hindus. 
 
 A special connection of some of the Languages of this 
 Family has been asserted with the Kolarian Family. The 
 distance on the map from the extreme point of the 
 Southern mountains of Assam to Eajmuhal is, as the 
 crow flies, not so great as to forbid the idea, that India 
 has been occupied at remote periods by Pre- Aryan immi- 
 grants from Trans-Himalayan regions. But we await a 
 more scientific comparison of Languages, and more com- 
 plete ethnological research, before the theory can be firmly 
 established, that the Nishada dark-coloured Kolarian races 
 were immigrants from the plateau of Tibet. This is a 
 question of Ethnology as well as of Comparative Philology. 
 
 The linguistic phenomenon of tones appears in the Lan- 
 guages of this Family. Eobinson, to whom we are in- 
 debted for Grammatical Notes of some of the Languages 
 of the Assam group, thus describes it. In Languages of 
 monosyllables the colloquial medium is limited. On a 
 new object being presented to the mind, a new name 
 was wanted, and the possibility of uniting two words 
 
If 
 
 T1BETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 91 
 
 x/ 
 to form a new word never occurred. A monosyllable 
 
 already in use must therefore be made use of again, but 
 differentiated by a tone, adding force, length, or rapidity 
 of pronunciation. There are in practice four tones : first, 
 the even and moderate, neither raised nor depressed: 
 " recto tono;" secondly, strong, rough, and vehement; 
 thirdly, strengthening the beginning, and then lengthen- 
 ing the end ; fourthly, short and hasty. It is obvious, that 
 the Agglutinative Method gradually limited the neces- 
 sity of tones, and the Inflexive method superseded it 
 altogether. As a fact there is an entire absence of tones 
 from the Dravidian Family. 
 
 I. NEPAL GROUP. 
 
 The first group represents the area of the independent 
 kingdom of Nepal, between the Eivers Gogra and Tiesta, 
 the plains of British India and the plateau of Tibet. The 
 Himalaya is not an unbroken chain or unsurmountable 
 barrier to separate this plateau from the basin of the 
 Ganges, but is pierced by numerous mountain passes. 
 Max Miiller compares this portion of the range to a hand 
 with five fingers expanded towards India. Each interval 
 marks the basin of one of the four great feeders of the 
 Ganges, the Gogra, the Gunduk, the Kosi, the Tiesta. 
 There is of this region also three climatic transverse 
 divisions, each having a width of thirty miles. The first 
 is the upper region of the crest of the higher range, with 
 an elevation of 16,000 feet down to 10,000; the second is 
 the central region, from 10,000 feet to 4000; the third is 
 the lower region, extending from 4000 feet to the level of 
 the plains. The foot of the hill, and the hill itself, are 
 important points of difference in Indian ethnology. 
 Generally these regions are represented by the terms 
 Hyundes, Khas Des, and Terai. Thirteen distinct Lan- 
 guages, all of Trans-Himalayan origin, are spoken in this 
 region, in addition to the Aryan Language already de- 
 scribed as. Nepali, and the numerous Dialects of Hindi 
 
92 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 spoken all along the fringe of the Terai. These Lan- 
 guages are with difficulty intelligible to their neighbours, 
 and two only, the Newari and Limbu, have a peculiar 
 Character. Another subdivision is that of religion, for 
 there are Hindus, Buddhists, and Pagans. Some are 
 agricultural, some pastoral. They vary also in their 
 degree of civilisation and prosperity. The basin of the 
 Kosi, in the central or temperate region, is occupied by 
 the i. Limbu and 2. Kiranti. The Watershed of the Kosi 
 and Gunduk by the 3. Newar, 4. Murmi, and 5. Pahri. 
 The basin of the Gunduk is the seat of the 6. Sunwar, 
 7. Gurung, and 8. Magar. The 9. Thaksya are in West 
 Nepal. The Terai is occupied by the 10. Vayu, n. Che- 
 pang, 12. Kusunda, and 13. Bramhu. Hodgson revealed 
 the existence of these tribes, and supplies Vocabularies 
 of these Languages. Max Miiller popularised this informa- 
 tion. We have got no further since. 
 
 I proceed to notice each Language separately. Beames 
 has supplied a Grammatical Note on the Magar from authen- 
 tic sources. The groundwork of the Language is Tibetan, 
 but much has been borrowed from Hindi. The tribe is 
 warlike, and supplies six thousand fighting men, many of 
 them in the English army. They have a population of 
 twenty-four thousand, and three clans, of which the Thapa 
 is the chief. They are Hindu, and pretend to be Eajput ; 
 but their appearance is unmistakably Mongolian. They 
 learn to speak Nepali. In their Language we find a jumble 
 of Hindi, debased Hindi, Arabic, Persian, Tibetan, and 
 debased Tibetan words. The Language is a musical one, 
 both as regard words and grammatical structure. 
 
 The Gurung are nominally Hindu, but retain Pagan 
 customs. They also render military service, and many 
 of them speak the Nepali Language in addition to their 
 own. 
 
 The Murmi are very numerous. They are pastoral as 
 well as agricultural, and are settled on mountains from 
 4000 to 6000 feet, and dwell in houses of stone. 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMIL Y. 93 
 
 The Newar were rulers of the great valley before the 
 Goorkha conquest. They supply the great mass of the 
 agricultural and artisan population. Two-thirds are 
 Buddhist, and the remainder Hindu. They are not per- 
 mitted to enlist in the army. They appear to have three 
 varieties of Character, and a small Literature, chiefly 
 translations. No Dictionary or Grammar exists, nor is the 
 cultivation of the Vernacular thought of, as the Buddhists 
 are partial to the use of the Tibetan Language. Nepali has 
 made no effect on this Language. 
 
 The Kiranti is remarkable, as there are no less than 
 seventeen Dialects, and Hodgson supplies a Vocabulary 
 of each. He gives a Grammatical Note on the Bahing 
 Dialect, and a description of the tribe generally. He 
 considers that, on account of their distinctly traceable 
 antiquity as a nation, being the representatives of the 
 Kirata of the Purans and Maha-Bharata, and the peculiar 
 structure of their Language, they are the most interesting 
 of all the races. They are Pagan, number a quarter of a 
 million, occupy a healthy district, and cultivate a fresh 
 portion of the forest year by year. They have also the 
 credit of giving name to the medicine Chiretta. The 
 Language of the Hayu and Vahu is of high antiquity, 
 complex structure, and unintelligible to others. We have 
 Grammatical Notes by Hodgson, and the theory that their 
 name was Hayasvu or horse-faced. They are Pagan, a 
 broken tribe of a few thousands, and on the road to ex- 
 tinction. The Bhramu speak a purely Tibeto-Burman 
 Language, in the valley of Nayakote, West-North-West of 
 the capital, a low and hot valley, but not in the Terai. 
 We have nothing but Vocabularies. They are Pagan. 
 
 Amidst the dense forest of the central region to the 
 Westward of the great valley, dwell in scanty numbers, 
 and nearly in a state of nature, the two broken tribes of 
 the Chepang and Kusunda, having no apparent affinity 
 to the civilised races of the country, and seeming to be 
 fragments of an earlier colonisation. They pay no taxes, 
 
94 . LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 use bows and arrows, and shift their habitation from place 
 to place. The Kusunda are lower than the Chepang, 
 for the latter hold intercourse with civilised men. They 
 are harmless. They have clearly been in former days 
 broken in some struggle and outlawed. Hodgson saw 
 some Chepang and made a Vocabulary, but he never got 
 any access to the Kusunda, and there is no Vocabulary. 
 They are considered by the Goorkhas to be the aborigines. 
 The Chepang have linguistic affinity with the Lhopa of 
 Bhutan, but there has been no intercourse betwixt them 
 time out of mind. In a few generations all will be swept 
 away. 
 
 The Sunwar are found in the Western hills, North 
 of the Magar and Gurung, and are represented by a 
 Vocabulary. The Limbu are on the extreme Eastern 
 flank of Nepal, and some are found in the adjoining king- 
 dom of Sikhim. They are Pagan; but they have a 
 peculiar Character of their own, and some Literature ; at 
 least one book was produced; but the Character seems 
 never to be used now. 
 
 The Thaksya and Pahri are Pagan. Vocabularies are 
 supplied of both. 
 
 The jealous and barbarous system of isolation, enforced 
 by the Goorkha Government of Nepal, has precluded any 
 increase to our knowledge, and any advance in the educa- 
 tion of the people. The Bible has not been translated 
 into any of the Languages of this group. Not a Missionary 
 has access to these hills. But there is no future to any of 
 these Languages, and they only wait their time to be swept 
 off the face of the earth. L T nder ordinary circumstances, 
 one of them, notably the Newari, might have aspired to 
 be the political Language, but the intruding Nepali has 
 prevented the occurrence of this usual phenomenon. All 
 the tribes, who are in any degree civilised, adopt Aryan 
 loan-words, and in the lower valleys the deterioration is 
 more rapid. The numerals give way, and such a change 
 takes place, that the classification has to be altered. Thus 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMIL Y. 95 
 
 the Dafahi, Denwar, Dahi, Kaswar, Pakhya appear in this 
 book, as Dialects of Hindi. 
 
 II. SIKHIM GROUP. 
 
 The Language of the independent territory of Sikhim 
 is Lepcha, with two Dialects, Eong and Khamba. This 
 tribe occupies a tract of one hundred and twenty miles 
 in the basin of the Tiesta, bounded on the West by 
 Nepal, the East by Bhutan, the North by Tibet, and the 
 South by British India. A Grammar has been published 
 by Mainwaring. At the sanitorium of Darjeeling a Pro- 
 testant Mission has been established, which has led to the 
 translation of a portion of the Bible in the Lepcha Char- 
 acter, and other books of an elementary nature. Though 
 closely allied to Tibetan, the Language has a Non- Tibetan 
 Character. The people are Buddhists, but they bury their 
 dead. This Language will probably hold its own. 
 
 III. ASSAM GROUP. 
 
 The Assam Group, consisting of sixteen Languages, is 
 situated within the jurisdiction or political influence of the 
 Province of Assam and the Division of Kuch-Buhaf of 
 the Bengal Province. Perhaps no country in the world of 
 the same extent has so many and various races of mankind 
 collected together. It lies to the East of the Sikhirn 
 Group, bounded on the North by Bhotan and Tibet, on the 
 East by Independent Burma and the Munipiir-Chittagong 
 group, on the South by Kachar and Sylhet districts in 
 the Bengali-speaking portions of the Province of Assam. 
 
 The central or temperate region of the Himalaya is 
 occupied by tribes speaking the Language of this Family 
 in the following order, commencing from the gorge of 
 the Eiver Brahmaputra where it enters the valley : The 
 I. Mishmi, 2. Abor, 3. Miri, 4. Aka, and 5. Dophla. In 
 the third or lower region are the 6. Deoria - Chutia, 
 7. Dhimal and 8. Kachari or Bodo. Crossing the Eiver 
 Brahmaputra at the gorge, and sweeping round the horse- 
 shoe of inferior hills shutting in the valley of Assam on 
 
96 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 the East and South, we come upon 9. Singpho, 10. Jili, 
 ii. Namsang-Naga, 12. Khari-Naga, 13. Augami-Naga, 
 14. Mikir, and 15. Garo, and in the plains 16. Pani-Koch. 
 The exact political position of each tribe towards the 
 Government of British India is not easily denned. Some 
 are entirely subject, and good subjects ; some are entirely 
 independent and uncomfortable neighbours, but they are 
 under our protection against the outer world; some 
 pay revenue ; some receive black-mail ; some are Pagan 
 savages, others civilised Hindus. 
 
 The intrusive Aryan Asamese Language has forced itself 
 up the valley, and there is a gradual subsidence of large 
 bodies of the Non- Aryans into semi-Hinduism and a 
 debased Dialect of Bengali, of which Kuch is an instance. 
 Two other linguistic Families are represented in the valley, 
 the Khasi and the Tai, which will be noticed further on. 
 
 Although Hodgson was first in the field in this Group 
 also, yet considerable progress has been made independent 
 of him. Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal is a mine of wealth. 
 Eobinson, Inspector of Schools of Assam, and Nathan 
 Brown, American Missionary, have contributed to our know- 
 ledge of the Languages. Large portions of the valley have 
 been occupied by tea-planters, and attempts have been 
 repeatedly made to pierce the mountain-range and river 
 gorge into Tibet, China, and Burma. It must be remem- 
 bered, that the point, where the Eiver Brahmaputra bursts 
 its mountain-rampart, is ethnically, linguistically, and 
 politically, one of the highest importance. The last and 
 weakest tidal stream of the great Aryan river of religion, 
 Language, and civilisation, has been more than once met by 
 a Tai counter-current, and may be met again. The incur- 
 sion of the border tribes into settled valleys is often on 
 their part a desperate effort to escape from a superior force, 
 propelling them from their own haunts. By this outlet in 
 times past the population of India has received great ad- 
 ditions, though the superiority in number and calibre of 
 the invaders from the North have borne them down, and 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMIL Y. 97 
 
 the Aryan settler under Hindu, Mahomedan, and Christian 
 rule has held his own. While the tribes of the Nepal 
 Group came exclusively from Tibet, the tribes of the Assam 
 Group have come from the frontier of China proper and 
 the basin of the River Irawaddy. 
 
 I proceed now to notice each Language separately. The 
 Mishmi are subdivided into three clans, speaking differ- 
 ent Dialects, almost amounting to distinct Languages ; the 
 Chulikota or Crop-haired, the Digaru or Taying, and the 
 Mijhu. Of these, the second only dwell within the boun- 
 dary of British India. It is through their territory, that 
 the late Mr. Cooper tried in vain to force his way to Bath- 
 ang in China, and thus open out a land-route. They are 
 savage Pagans, dwelling along the course of the River 
 Brahmaputra proper, and this arm of the river at least is 
 distinctly not connected with the River Sampu of Lassa in 
 Tibet. 
 
 The Abor inhabit the hills on and to the West of 
 the Dihong River. They are disgusting and untamable 
 Pagan savages, having some trade with the Tibetans, 
 but they oppose any attempt of a European to pass the 
 frontier. 
 
 The Miri inhabit both hills and plains, and are Pagan. 
 For a long period they managed to make themselves the 
 channels of communication between the Government of 
 the valley and the savage tribes beyond, and the name 
 means " Mediator," and it is possible, that the Meriah sacri- 
 fice of the Khonds may have the same explanation. 
 
 The Aka, or Hrusso, lie still further to the rear, and are 
 also Pagan. The Dophla are the same. All these tribes 
 used habitually to harry and plunder the adjacent districts 
 in the valley, and now receive some compensatory allow- 
 ance dependent on good conduct. 
 
 The Deori-Chutia are the remnant of a great and 
 powerful tribe, who ruled in the valley before the Shan 
 conquest. A colony has survived in District Lukhimpur. 
 They are Hinduised, but preserve their old Language. 
 
98 ( LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 The Dhimul are one of the subjects of Hodgson's Essay, 
 together with the Kachari or Bodo. The Kachari has eleven 
 Dialects, i. Eabha. 2. Mech. 3. Hozai. 4. Mechee of 
 Bhutan-Dwar are the best-defined Dialects. The Mech 
 are spread over a considerable area in Nepal, Sikhim, 
 Bhotan, and the Assam Province. They never live in the 
 cleared part of the Terai, but keep to the forest. The Kach- 
 ari are exceedingly numerous in the valleys ; they are 
 Hinduised. They are said to have a peculiar Character of 
 their own, derived from Bengali. The Dhimul are fifteen 
 thousand in number, and nomadic cultivators, and are 
 Pagan. The Mechee of the annexed Bhutan Dwars have 
 a Dialect of their own, but fast dying out, and superseded 
 by Bengali. They are quite a separate race. The Eabha 
 dwell in the Gowalpara District, and amount to two thou- 
 sand families. Dalton describes them as divided into two 
 branches, one of which has conserved its ancient customs, 
 while the latter has adopted the Language and customs of 
 Bengal. This statement is confirmed by an official report 
 of the Commissioner of Kuch-Buhar in 1873, who reports 
 the Eabha as similar to Kachari and Garo and others. 
 Closely allied to the Eabha is the Language of the Pani- 
 Koch, whose villages lie along the skirts of the Garo hills, 
 and who are mixed up with that people and the Eabha. 
 They are Pagan. A doubt exists as to their origin, 
 whether they are unimproved representatives of the Kuch 
 tribe, which has nearly become Hinduised, and lost its 
 Language for Bengali, or whether it is part of the great 
 Kachari tribe. Dalton seems to think, that they are neither, 
 but a stranger tribe driven at some remote period from the 
 plains by the Aryan invaders. Under Kachari are seven 
 doubtful and undefined Dialects, alluded to by Hodgson. 
 5. Kiidi. 6. Batar or Bor. 7. Kebrat. 8. Pallah. 9. 
 Ganga. 10. Marahi. n.Dharel. 
 
 Eeturning to the gorge of the Eiver Brahmaputra, which 
 we cross, we find ourselves in the Khamti country, a tribe 
 which belongs to the Tai Family, and will be noticed 
 
T1BETO-BURMAN FAMIL Y. 99 
 
 further on. Adjoining them, with their rear on the Patkoi 
 range, are the Singpho, and their connections, the Jili. The 
 latter are described as a small tribe, who formerly occupied 
 the Highlands on the North part of Burma, but were driven 
 forward by the Singpho. The tribe is nearly extinct. 
 Their Language is closely allied to the Singpho, whose 
 Language occupies a transitional position betwixt Tibetan 
 and Burmese. This tribe is but the advance-guard of a 
 much greater horde lying beyond the Patkoi range, known 
 as the Kakhyer or Kaku, mentioned by all writers on the 
 route from Bhamu to Yunan in China. This Language is 
 said to have a Shan Character. They are to a certain ex- 
 tent civilised, but Pagan. It will be more convenient to 
 notice the Kakhyer here, though their habitat is in Inde- 
 pendent Burma, near Bhamu on the Paver Irawaddy, where 
 the trade-route debouches from Yunan. Singpho, or Ching- 
 paw, means merely " a man." A resemblance physical and 
 linguistic is remarked betwixt the Kakhyer and Karen. 
 They are fully described by Anderson and Bigandet. They 
 occupy an important position on the frontier of Burma 
 and China, and we shall know and hear more of them. In 
 the hills above Bhamu they are living in villages, and 
 agriculturists, but low in civilisation. 
 
 From this point two courses are open to me : one to 
 follow the line of the Watershed of the basins of the Kivers 
 Irawaddy and Brahmaputra into the territory of the Mu- 
 nipur-Chittagong Group, which will be described further 
 on ; and the other to turn round the arc of the horse-shoe 
 valley, and follow the line of lower hills, which separate the 
 Watershed of the Eiver Brahmaputra from that of its afflu- 
 ent, the Surma. Those atrocious savages and Pagans, the 
 Naga tribes, occupy this position. The word " Naga," how- 
 ever derived, is but a general term, and comprises a variety 
 of very distinct tribes, speaking very distinct Languages, and 
 the use of the general term has been a cause of perplexity. 
 Admitting that we still await further information, we may 
 provisionally accept Brown's classification of the Langu- 
 
ioo LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 ages of these tribes into three main classes : i. The Nam- 
 sang, with three subdivisions the Namsang or Jaipuria ; 
 the Banpara or Joboka, called also Sibsagur and Abhay- 
 Punja ; the Tabbing or Mithan and Mulung. 2. The Khari, 
 with four subdivisions the Khari or Hatigarya ; the Nou- 
 gong or Deka Huning; the Tengsa or Dop Darya; the Lhota 
 or Miklai. 3. The Angami Naga, with four subdivisions 
 the Angami, Eengma, Arung, and Kutcha. With such a 
 variety of names there is room for much confusion, especi- 
 ally among a people, who have more than once killed the 
 English officer in charge of the District, in which they 
 are understood to reside. Butler, who died at their hands, 
 supplied Vocabularies of their Language and wrote about 
 them. Nathan Brown has supplied Vocabularies of ten 
 forms of speech. They are the most numerous of all the 
 tribes, and their position is most commanding. They have 
 access to the Assam valley, to the district of North Kachar, 
 and to the Munipur Group. They certainly extend over 
 the Patkoi range into the basin of the Irawaddy, and as 
 far as the Ninghthi Pdver, the great West tributary of the 
 Irawaddy. Butler defines their boundary as the Kopili 
 Biver on the West, and the Bori Dihing on the East, be- 
 tween 93 and 96 East longitude. Northward they extend 
 to the low hills overlooking the Brahmaputra, between 
 23 and 27 North latitude. The Southern boundary is not 
 precisely known. Whether their general name of Naga 
 means " naked," or " a snake/' or " aboriginal," is uncer- 
 tain. The whole population amounts to three hundred 
 thousand. Their Government is a pure democracy. They 
 are Pagan, and bury their dead. The civil officer in 
 charge of them lives at Samaguting, and communicates 
 with them through interpreters. 
 
 Next in order along the range, which backs upon the 
 districts of Kachar and Sylhet, we come upon a Language, 
 which belongs to the separate Family of Khasi, which 
 will be noticed further on. We pass on to the Garo 
 tribe, who occupy the extreme point of the range. Their 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN TAMIL K 101 
 
 Language has been thoroughly studied, and translations 
 made into it by American Missionaries for educational pur- 
 poses. Grammars and Dictionaries are also forthcoming. 
 Keith considers that this Language has Aryan affinities, 
 and the tract is surrounded on three sides by a Hindu- 
 Aryan population. Still they are Pagan, and have only 
 quite lately been brought under entire subjection to the 
 British power. Eobinson compares the Language to 
 Tibetan, and a connection with the Kachari, which has 
 already been noticed, is more than probable. 
 
 The last to be noticed of this Group is the Mikir. They 
 amount to twenty-six thousand. They are found in the Dis- 
 trict of Nougong in the Assam Valley, and in the District 
 of North Kachar, on the other side of the range. They are 
 Pagan. Their name is said to be derived from Mletcha, 
 or " impure." They are peaceable and settled. We have 
 Grammatical Notes and a Vocabulary of their Language. 
 During the course of my inquiries into the Languages of 
 this Group, I have ventured to address the Chief Commis- 
 sioner of the Province of Assam on the subject of consolidat- 
 ing and extending our knowledge, as an important .factor 
 and instrument of the well governing of this most interest- 
 ing Province. I have been met in the kindest and most 
 obliging manner by the Chief Commissioner, who pub- 
 lished my letter in his Official Gazette, and this has already 
 led to communications of both immediate and future im- 
 portance. A Missionary a few weeks ago visited the Eoyal 
 Asiatic Society with a Vocabulary of Mikir, which he had 
 been induced by my appeal to publish. I have received 
 other letters from residents of the Valley, expressing readi- 
 ness to co-operate, and asking for further instructions as to 
 the information required, and the mode in which it was to 
 be presented. I shall have the greatest pleasure in com- 
 municating with all inquirers. Kobinson, Keith, Brown, 
 and Pryse have shown what can be done with some Lan- 
 guages. Let this be done with all, and then we may hope 
 for some master-mind to rise up, who will deal with the 
 
102 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 data thus collected, and, like the prince in the fairy tale, 
 with his linguistic wand, distribute into separate heaps, 
 according to their origin, the confused mass of feathers, 
 bring order out of confusion, and unravel the ethnical 
 mystery brought about by the confused advance and re- 
 trogression of savage and ignorant nomads during pre- 
 historic centuries, of which we have no record. 
 
 IV. MUNIPtm-CHITTAGONG GROUP. 
 
 The Munipur-Chittagong Group contains twenty-four 
 names, which are ranked as Languages, and several more 
 as Dialects, yet, with the exception of Tipura and Munipur, 
 these names are but linguistic expressions, which, as far 
 as conveying any distinct and individual idea, might as 
 conveniently have been represented by algebraic signs as 
 by uncouth syllables. Yet they represent facts, and most 
 interesting ones. It was suggested to me to transfer the 
 Chittagong subdivision to the Burma Group, on account 
 of affinity of Languages, but my Groups are based on 
 geographical data, and I have to account for the Water- 
 shed, which separates the basins of the Rivers Brahmaputra 
 and the Irawaddy, and to find my way down to the Bay of 
 Bengal. This is the Eastern frontier of the Province of 
 Bengal, of direct Hindu civilisation, and the Brahmanical 
 religion. With small exceptions, the tribes which occupy 
 the tract now under description are Pagan, or some of 
 them at best only semi-Hinduised. Beyond them we find 
 the Buddhist religion to be dominant, and we enter into 
 Further India, or the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, where every- 
 thing is essentially different. 
 
 This tract is unsurveyed, and in many parts has never 
 been traversed by Europeans. In the Lushai expedition 
 of 1871, two forces were despatched to chastise the tribes, 
 whom no arts of peace could deter from continued raids, 
 and one detachment advanced Southward from North 
 Kaehar, and the other Northward from Chittagong. Though 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMIL Y. 103 
 
 the objects of the expedition were gained, so entirely un- 
 explored and unknown was the country, that although from 
 geographical calculations they must have been at one time 
 within forty miles of each other, they could get no infor- 
 mation of each other's movements. In preparing the 
 Language-Map I have been unable to indicate the 
 habitat of several tribes, of whose Language we have 
 Vocabularies. Of the twenty-four names, which I now 
 proceed to enumerate, I can identify only thirteen. 
 Here, then, I leave much room for future explorers and 
 linguists. 
 
 The Languages are as follows : i. Munipuri. 2. Liyang 
 or Koreng or Puoireng. 3. Maring, with a Dialect. 4. 
 Maram. 5. Kupui, with two Dialects, Puiron and Sombu. 
 6. Tangkhul, with a Northern, Central, and Southern 
 Dialect. 7. Luhupa. 8. Tipura or Mrung. 9. Khungui. 
 10. Phadung. n. Champhung. 12. Kupome. 13. 
 Andro. 14. Sengmai. 15. Chairel. 16. Takuimi. 17. 
 Anal. 1 8. Namfau. 19. Kuki, with three Dialects. 20. 
 Shendu, called also Pui or Heuma. 21. Banjogi or 
 Lungkhe. 22. Pankho. 23. Sak or Thak. 24. Kyau. 
 
 It would be idle to attempt to particularise the above 
 names, with the exception of a few. The kingdom of Muni- 
 pur is destined to be of importance in the work of civilisation 
 of this frontier. It is under the protection of the Govern- 
 ment of British India, and the residence of a European 
 officer. From the reports of M'Culloch we gather all the 
 modern and trustworthy information which we possess, 
 and he and Damant of the Civil Service are understood to 
 be the only Europeans, who know the Munipuri Language. 
 This, being the stronger tribe, has brought its neigh- 
 bours into political subjection. We have, in addition to 
 Vocabularies, a Munipuri Grammar by Damant, who has 
 ready for the press a Munipuri-English Dictionary, and 
 he has described the peculiar Character, which is a deri- 
 vative of the Indian. An English-Munipuri Dictionary 
 has been published, and the New Testament has been 
 
104 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 translated into this Language, in the Eoman Character. 
 The people are civilised and Hindu. It is also called 
 Kathe or Moitai. 
 
 Tipura is a dependency of the Province of Bengal, the 
 inhabitants of which are semi-Hinduised. They have no 
 peculiar Character. 
 
 The term "Kuki" seems to have as large a mean- 
 ing and as great an expansion as Naga. There ap- 
 pear to be four Dialects. I. Lushai already mentioned. 
 2. Thadu or New Kuki of North Kachar. 3. Old 
 Kuki of the same district. 4. Hallami, whose habitat 
 is fixed in the Tipura Hills. Stewart has described 
 the Old and New Kuki of Kachar. One fact seems 
 clear, that they could not understand each other. Lewin 
 is the authority with regard to the Lushai, and has 
 published two valuable works. He explains that the 
 people call themselves "Dzo;" that they have twelve 
 tribes or clans, Howlong, Syla, and others; but that 
 Lushai is the clan-Language of all ; that they never had 
 any Character. They appear to be far from savages, 
 but civilised in the Asiatic sense, and exercising certain 
 arts. They are all Pagan. 
 
 The position of this Group is interesting. It presented 
 a debatable ground, which neither the ancient Hindu nor 
 the newer Buddhist civilisation had succeeded in winning 
 from Paganism. At one time the dominant political 
 power of the Burmese seemed on the point of absorbing 
 the territory; but the Christian Government of Anglo- 
 India placed an impassable bar to the further progress of 
 Burma and Buddhism. The consequence has been the 
 extension of the Hindu culture and religion. 
 
 V. BUEMA GROUP. 
 
 The Burma Group, though containing only nine names, 
 is of much greater importance than the preceding. It in- 
 cludes the whole of British and Independent Burma, with 
 certain deductions for Tai and Mon enclaves, which will 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 105 
 
 be noticed further on; and a certain tract beyond the 
 Eiver Salwen, which is presumably in the kingdom of 
 Siam. Beyond the limits of British Burma everything is 
 very uncertain in this Group, for the geography of the 
 upper basin of the Eiver Irawaddy has not been surveyed 
 or explored. The names are : I. Burmese. 2. Khyeng or 
 Hiou. 3. Kumi or Quaymi. 4. Kami. 5. Mru or Tung 
 Mru. 6. Karen. 7. Kui. 8. Kho. 9. Mu-tse. 
 
 It would be presumption to write much upon a Lan- 
 guage so well known as Burmese. My object is to place 
 it in its proper position, and indicate its relation to its 
 neighbours. It is a great political and literary Language, 
 with a large admixture of Aryan elements from the Pali, 
 the sacred' Language of the Buddhistic religion, which is 
 the religion of the State and people. It uses a peculiar 
 Character derived from the Indian, but by an uncertain 
 channel. It is amply provided with linguistic books. 
 The Bible has been translated into this Language in the 
 Burmese Character. The Burmese nation has been con- 
 quering and ambitious, and the Burmese Language will 
 probably absorb its weaker neighbours. The written 
 Language appears to be the same everywhere, but the pro- 
 nunciation varies in different parts of the Field. Burmese 
 is called Mugh in Chittagong, but the name is of uncertain 
 origin, and given by foreigners : there are three Dialects : 
 Arakanese in Arakan, and there are no less than sixty- 
 four thousand Mahomedan Arakanese by the late Census : 
 Tavoyee or Taneagsari in Tenasserim: a third Dialect called 
 Yo is spoken in the districts North of the Yoma range in 
 Independent Burma. 
 
 The Khyeng or Hiou or Shiou are Pagan mountaineers 
 extensively diffused on the Western slope of the Yoma 
 range, settling down to quiet agriculture. Fryer, of the 
 Burmese Civil Commission, has published Grammatical 
 Notes and a Vocabulary. There is no peculiar Character, 
 and no Literature. The Language is in the first stage of 
 Agglutination, and the tones are elaborate. They number 
 
106 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 about twenty-eight thousand, half in British and half in 
 Independent Burma. There are slight dialectic differences 
 betwixt the North and South subdivision. 
 
 The Kumi or Quaymi, i.e., " monkey-tailed " (so called 
 because they allow the end of their scanty waistcloth to 
 hang behind them), with the Mru, composed the so-called 
 tribes of the Eiver Kaladyn, the limit of the Kala, the term 
 by which all foreigners are called in Burma. They inhabit 
 the hills bordering on this river, and their Language is 
 known to us by Vocabularies. They are Pagan, and 
 appear to have been driven from place to place in former 
 times. 
 
 The Kami or Kemi appear to be a branch of the pre- 
 ceding, with a distinct Language. Stilson, an American 
 Missionary, lived among them two months, and fixes 
 their habitat seventy miles above the town of Akyab in 
 Arakan. Spelling-books and readers were published 
 in this Language. Stilson gives Vocabulary and Gram- 
 matical Notes. They are Pagan. 
 
 The Mru or Tung Mru are much reduced as a tribe, 
 having been driven from their seat by the Kurni. They 
 occupy now hills on the border of Arakan and Chittagong. 
 They number about twenty-eight thousand. "Tung" 
 means " wild," and they are so called by the Arakanese, 
 who deny their claim to be of the same race as them- 
 selves, but there is little doubt of the ethnical fact. 
 
 The Karen mountaineers are well known in Europe and 
 America from the labours of the Baptist Missionaries, and 
 the rather exaggerated description of the traditions and 
 religious convictions of these wild Pagans. They are very 
 numerous, are divided into distinct clans, and are found in 
 British Burma, Independent Burma, Siam, and in a guaran- 
 teed independence of their own. They all differ in do- 
 mestic and social practice, degree of civilisation, and mode 
 of livelihood, but are united by the common bond of one 
 Language, though spoken in widely different Dialects. 
 The three distinct tribes are the Sgau, the Pwo, and 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 107 
 
 Bghai. Each has separate clans. The distinct Dialects 
 recorded are eight in number: i. Sgau. 2. Bghai. 3. 
 Eed Karen. 4. Pwo. 5. Taru. 6. Mopgha. 7. Kay or 
 Gaikho. 8. Toungthu. 
 
 The Sgau are found from Mergui in latitude 1 2 East, 
 to Prome and Toungu in 19. Some have wandered over 
 the Watershed, that separates the basin of the Kiver Menam 
 from the Salwen, and on the West have migrated to Ara- 
 kan. They are known by their dress. They are called 
 Burmese Karen, are the most numerous of all, and are good 
 agriculturists. The Pwo prefer the banks of creeks, and are 
 scattered along the coast from Mergui up to and on the 
 Delta of the Eivers Salwen, Sittang, and Irawaddy. They 
 are boatmen, and nominal Buddhists. They are called 
 Talain Karen. The Bghai has six clans, the dominant of 
 which is the Eed Karen, so called from the colour of the 
 turban ; they call themselves Kay a or " man; " they inhabit 
 the elevated plateau extending from the Eastern slope of 
 the Pounlong range to the right bank of the Salwen ; they 
 have two subdivisions, Eastern and Western ; the former 
 are friendly to the Burmese, the latter to the English, and 
 they have been declared independent of Burma. 
 
 The Toungthu are a cognate race. Their chief village 
 is Thatom, thirty miles North of Martaban, and other 
 villages are scattered along the banks of the Sittang. The 
 Gaikho Karens are between the Eivers Sittang and Salwen. 
 
 There are at least twenty-five thousand Christians 
 among the Karen ; the Bible has been translated into the 
 Eoman Character; linguistic books are in abundance; 
 they had no peculiar Character, and were quite illiterate, 
 but had many oral legends. The Missionaries have done a 
 work of unparalleled excellence among this people. 
 
 Eytche mentions one tribe in the hill country of the 
 Eed Karen, who may possibly represent an aboriginal race 
 previous to the immigration of the Mons, Shans, and 
 Burmese. They are called Goung-dho. They differ in 
 feature and in skull, and their Language is more guttural. 
 
lo8 ; LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 No specimens are given, but the idea is hazarded that they 
 may be Kalmucks. 
 
 The Kui, Kho, and Mu-tse are beyond the Eiver Sal- 
 wen in the kingdom of Siam. They are mentioned by 
 Gamier -in his expedition up the Eiver Mekong, and he 
 gives Vocabularies. Nothing further is known. 
 
 VI. TRANS-HIMALAYAN GROUP. 
 
 The Tibeto-Burman Family extends beyond the snowy 
 "Watershed of the Himalaya, or rather it may be said to 
 have had its origin there, and passed into the basins of the 
 Eivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Ira waddy over those passes. 
 It appears that pure Tibetan is not spoken in the Northern 
 portion of Tibet, but a certain number of Languages, de- 
 scribed generally, but perhaps not correctly,, as Sifan. 
 They lie beyond our subject, and are only introduced 
 briefly to complete the Family. We are indebted to 
 Hodgson for all we know of this portion of the Trans- 
 Himalayan Group. The latter portion, comprising the 
 Language of Kunawari and Tibetan, fall naturally within 
 our geographical limits. One Language, of which we 
 have a Vocabulary, marking its independence as a Lan- 
 guage, but cannot fix the site, is Bhotia of Lo. 
 
 The Languages are as follows, and will be found ap- 
 proximately marked on the map : I. Gyarung. 2. 
 Thochu. 3. Manyak. 4. Takpa. 5. Horpa. 6. Kuna- 
 wari. 7. Tibetan or Bhotia. 8. Bhotia of Lo. Dis- 
 missing from our consideration all but the sixth and 
 seventh, I proceed to describe them. 
 
 The Kunawari is the Language of a small province of 
 the territory of the Eaja of Bussahir, a dependent State 
 in the Province of the Punjab. It lies beyond the Eiver 
 Sutluj, at an enormous elevation above the level of the 
 sea, occupied by a population of less than ten thousand, 
 who are chiefly Buddhists. Though simple in habit, the 
 people are not uncivilised in the Asiatic sense, and in the 
 .chief Buddhist temple is an extensive library of Buddhist 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FA MIL Y. 109 
 
 works in the Tibetan Character. Small as is the popula- 
 tion, it is divided into lofty snow-surrounded valleys, and 
 thus it happens that six Dialects have survived: I. 
 Milchan. 2. Tibarskad or Bunan. 3. Sumchu. 4. Luh- 
 rung or Kanam. 5. Lidung or Lippa. 6. Sugmim. Of 
 the first we have a Vocabulary ; of the second we have 
 the interesting fact, stated by Jaeskhe, the Moravian Mis- 
 sionary, that it contains features, which are Non- Aryan 
 and Non-Tibetan. If such be the case, we have struck 
 upon the traces of one of the most ancient Languages in the 
 world's history, which have been buried in this remote 
 corner. In the course of this survey we have here and 
 there struck upon a vestige, which preceded any of the 
 great immigrations into India, and the subject is worthy 
 of the most careful consideration. 
 
 Passing on to the great Tibetan Language, we find that 
 it touches British India very slightly, and is felt more by 
 its Dialects than its standard Language, which is repre- 
 sented at Lassa on the Eiver Sampu, in the plateau of high 
 Asia, a Province of the empire of China, but inaccessible to 
 the European traveller. The Language is in the stage of 
 transition from the Monosyllabic to the Agglutinative 
 Order. It is well supplied with linguistic books. It has 
 a vast Literature, four peculiar forms of Character, derived 
 from the Indian, but the pronunciation has long departed 
 from the mode of spelling. The Characters are, first, 
 capitals, used for religious books; second, small letters, 
 for secular and commercial purposes; third, for books; 
 fourth, the ordinary cursive. The New Testament has 
 been translated into Tibetan in the Tibetan Character; 
 but the study of the Language and Literature of this 
 important Field has been so neglected in Europe, that 
 scarcely one scholar exists. Jaeskhe's Dictionary is now 
 ready for the press, and will be published at the expense 
 of the Government of India. The Tibetan Language is 
 written syllabically, each syllable being separated by a 
 wedge-like sign. The influence of the Tibetan Litera- 
 
I io ( LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 ture is felt in Nepal, for vast supplies find their way to 
 that country from the native printing-presses of the 
 Chinese type in that kingdom. Poor traffickers and monks 
 annually visit Kathmandu, and sell books of inferior pre- 
 tensions, as well as religious tracts ; but they are old repro- 
 ductions, and new compositions are said to be very rare. 
 
 Throughout Tibet proper one Language prevails, which 
 is the basis of Dialects, differing in pronunciation and 
 Vocabulary, but not to such an extent as to be mutually 
 unintelligible. The grammatical system is everywhere 
 the same. There is no distinct religious Language, or 
 distinct court Language, but the sacred books have a con- 
 siderable admixture of Aryan words. 
 
 In mentioning the Dialects, I first note, on the authority 
 of the Kesident of Nepal, dated 1 876, the Dialects within 
 the political kingdom of Tibet, i. Serpa. 2. Nouri-Khorson. 
 3. Dokhthol. 4. Hor-Tsang. 5. U-Kombo. 6. Chona. 
 7. Khan. The last is the most divergent of all. I must 
 pass by these, as mere linguistic expressions, as, with the 
 exception of the first, there is no information as to the 
 locality, where they are spoken, and in what respect they 
 differ from the standard and each other, and proceed to 
 notice the Dialects of Tibetan, spoken beyond the political 
 limits of Tibet, viz., in the territory of the Maharaja of 
 Jummo and Kashmir, British India, Bhutan and Towang. 
 
 I must retrace my steps to the Eiver Indus, where I 
 noticed early in this narrative the pre-Sanskritic Aryan 
 Languages, the Kafiri and Dardu. From the junction of 
 the Gilgit Eiver we follow the Kafiri up the course of the 
 Indus, and come to, 8. Balti, 9. Dah, io. Ladakhi, n. 
 Zanskari, and 12. Champas. Thence we cross the great 
 Watersheds of the Eivers Indus and Chandrabhaga or 
 Chenab, and find, 1 3. Kaigili and, 14. Spiti or Lahuli. From 
 this point the Tibetan Language shrinks behind the great 
 Himalayan Watershed, and the Tibeto-Burman' Groups of 
 Nepal and Sikhim, above described, intervene betwixt the 
 great Language and the Aryan Vernaculars, But as we 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 1 1 1 
 
 approach the frontier of Bhutan we come upon further 
 Dialects of Tibetan, 15. Lhopa or Bhutani, 16. Changlo, 
 and, 17. Bhotia of Twang, "beyond which our geographical 
 and linguistic knowledge ceases. 
 
 The Balti, in which there are a great many Persian 
 words, is spoken in the Province of Little Tibet or 
 Baltistan, the capital of which is Iskardo on the Eiver 
 Indus, which by the late conquest has passed under the 
 rule of the Maharaja of Kashmir. The population, though 
 of Non- Aryan origin, is chiefly Mahomedan, and the Char- 
 acter used is Arabic. The adjoining Dah are Dard and 
 Aryan by birth, but have adopted a Buddhist Language, 
 religion, and customs. Further on are the inhabitants of 
 Ladakh, who are Non- Aryan Buddhists, speaking Tibetan, 
 and using the Tibetan Character. Leaving the Indus, we 
 find still within the territory of the Maharaja the kindred, 
 but slightly different, Dialects of Zanskari and Champas, 
 spoken by mountaineers. Drew, in the service of the 
 Maharaja, availed himself of his special opportunities to 
 give Vocabularies and descriptions of the above. The 
 people are fairly civilised. To Jaeskhe, the Moravian 
 Missionary, we are indebted for our knowledge of the 
 Dialects of Tibetan as spoken by the people of the district 
 of Lahul or Spiti, within the district of Kangra of the 
 Punjab Province. This scholar, in 1 865-66, lithographed at 
 Kyelang, the capital of Lahul, a practical Grammar and 
 Dictionary of the living Kyelang Language, with special re- 
 ference to the local Dialect and the wants of his Protestant 
 Missions amidst a sparse and pastoral population occupy- 
 ing very lofty mountains in hitherto inaccessible tracts. 
 
 Bhutan means Bhut-ant, or the end of the Bhut region, 
 and is considered ethnically part of Tibet, though South 
 of the great Watershed. Lho is the native name of the 
 country, and Lhopa and Dukpa are the names of the in- 
 habitants, the former territorial, the latter religious. The 
 people are Buddhists, and civilised, and under an indepen- 
 dent sovereign, and have in times past given trouble on 
 
Ii2 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 our Assam frontier, which, has led to the annexation of 
 the Dwars or lower valleys, and, as the Language of 
 some of the inhabitants of these Dwars is the same as 
 that of Bhutan, Her Majesty has here again a few Tibetan- 
 speaking subjects in the Province of Assam. The 
 Changlo Dialect is spoken along a portion of the 
 Northern frontier of Assam, from 91 to 92 East longi- 
 tude. The depth of extent and number of population is 
 quite uncertain. The people are agricultural. The word 
 Changlo means " black." They use the Tibetan Char- 
 acter. Beyond, again, is the territory of the Towang Eaja, 
 a tributary of Lassa, where the people speak another 
 Dialect called Bhotia of Twang. Here, for the first and 
 only time, the territory of British India marches with the 
 kingdom of Tibet without the intervention of the Great 
 Watershed. 
 
 It may be gathered from the foregoing, that there is 
 much to be added to. our information, and it is incumbent 
 upon the Government of India to break down the barrier, 
 which shuts off the plateau of Tibet from India, and there 
 are evident signs that this will be done. The Russian 
 explorers threaten an invasion from the North. The 
 Trench Eoman Catholic Missionaries are stationed at 
 Bathang ready to advance; and all along the line of 
 frontier from Towang to Kunawur, Anglo-India appears to 
 be pressing upon her neighbours the advantages of com- 
 merce and civilisation. 
 
 VII. CHINA GROUP. 
 
 A very few lines will suffice for the China Group of 
 the Tibeto-Burman Family, for two very good reasons. 
 Firstly, they lie outside our subject, and are only intro- 
 duced for the sake of symmetry ; and, secondly, we know 
 little about them beyond their mere names, and the 
 Vocabularies supplied by Gamier of the French Navy 
 in his exploration of the River Mekong. They are as 
 follows: i. Lisawor Leisa; this Language was noticed by 
 
UNIVERSITY, 
 
 TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY^ ' 113 
 
 Anderson in his journey from Bhamo to Momfo^ijlmcl .lie - 
 gives a Vocabulary. They were blended in daily life with 
 the Kakhyen, but were perfectly distinct in every respect. 
 Cooper notices them East of the Mekong Eiver. They 
 appear on the Language-Map according to the indications of 
 Gamier. 2. The Lolu, 3. Kato, and 4. Honhi are near Yuen- 
 Kiang in Yunan, according to Gamier. The 5. Ikia and 6. 
 Mautse are near Machang and Sechuan in Yunan, according 
 to Gamier, and the latter are stated by Cooper to be bounded 
 on the East by the Tatow Eiver. When the time comes that 
 our linguistic and ethnical knowledge of the Province of 
 Yunan in China is enlarged, it will be exceedingly interest- 
 ing to note the extreme Eastern extension of the Tibeto- 
 Burman Family. For the present, our information is very 
 limited, but in the narrative of Grosvenor's Mission from 
 Yunan to Bhamo, and in the pages of the " Missions Catho- 
 liques," we come upon interesting details, and twenty-five 
 years hence we shall know all about them. 
 
 VIII. ISLAND GROUP. 
 (Annexed to this Family but not belonging to it.) 
 
 I am constrained by the necessity of exhausting the 
 subject to tack an Island Group to this great Family, but 
 this annex must be understood to be entirely provi- 
 sional, based on other than linguistic considerations, the 
 chief object being to obviate the possibility of these in- 
 teresting Languages being overlooked. The Group con- 
 tains three clusters of islands I. The Mergui Archi- 
 pelago. 2. The Andamans. 3. The Nicobars. Eegarding 
 these three Groups from a geographical point of view, it 
 will be observed, that they might have been supposed to 
 have been colonised by the Tibeto-Burman, the Mon- 
 Anam, or the Malayan Family, without any strain on 
 probability. They might have been the place of refuge of 
 earlier tribes ejected by the arrival of these stronger races. 
 
 H 
 
ii4 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Add to this, that they lie on the very road of commerce 
 from India to China and Ceylon. A shipwreck on their 
 shores, the landing of a cargo of slaves, may have added 
 to the ethnical confusion, for on these islands we come 
 first upon unmistakable Negritos, of whom we shall hear 
 more in the Malayan Family further on. However 
 much it may be asserted by some, that Negritos exist in 
 India, Nearer or Further, except in the Peninsula of 
 Malacca and the islands of the Andamans and Nicobars, 
 they never have been exhibited to view. 
 
 The Mergui Archipelago is a cluster of islands lying 
 close to the shore of the lower portion of the Tenasserim 
 Province of British Burma, to which they are politically 
 attached. Their inhabitants are called Silong. They are 
 said to be a kind of sea-gipsy, one thousand in number. 
 They are Pagan. Mason thinks, that they are Polynesian, 
 but they have a Mongolian cast of features. Their Lan- 
 guage, represented by a Vocabulary, is quite distinct from 
 Burmese. They are mild and peaceful. 
 
 The Andamans comprise an area of about 1800 square 
 miles, and have now finally passed into the possession of the 
 Government of British India, and are used as a convict- 
 settlement. Although twenty years have passed since 
 our occupation, still the inhabitants, called Mincopies, are 
 unwilling to have any dealings with the intruders. Cruel 
 massacres have generally been the rule, when any boat's 
 crew or escaped convict fell into their hands. They are 
 intensely black, woolly-haired Negritos, in the very lowest 
 stage of uncivilisation, and totally nude. There is evi- 
 dence of entirely distinct and mutually unintelligible 
 Languages. Wallace considers that these Negritos differ 
 in a marked manner from any Papuan race, but resemble 
 the Samang of the Malacca Peninsula, who will be 
 noticed further on. De Koepstorff, a Dane, in charge of 
 the Nicobar Islands, published in 1875 a Vocabulary of 
 the so-called Andamanese ; but in 1877 Temple of the 
 Indian Army, and Mann, Assistant- Superintendent of the 
 
TIBETO-BURMAN FA MIL Y. 115 
 
 Andamans, put forth a translation of the Lord's Prayer 
 in Bojinjijida, or South Andamanese, with a Preface and 
 Notes, and announce further elementary studies, Gram- 
 matical Notes, specimens of Language, Vocabulary of 
 words, and analysis of the Lord's Prayer. When we 
 receive this, we shall indeed be able to judge as to the 
 classification of this Language; but unfortunately these 
 later authors commence by throwing entire discredit 
 on the labours of all their predecessors, including De 
 Koepstorff, and annihilating all inductions based upon 
 these data. They seem to show that the Language is 
 Agglutinative in its method, but they can hardly mean to 
 imply, that the Language is Dravidian, unless they take that 
 Family as typical of the whole order, which is manifestly 
 not correct. They give the names of seven Languages : 
 
 1. Bojinjijida, South Andaman, near Port Blair. 
 
 2. Bojigiah, South extremity of Middle Andaman. 
 
 3. Akakol, East of Middle Andaman. 
 
 4. Awkojuwai, West of Middle Andaman. 
 
 5. Balawa, Andaman Archipelago. 
 
 6. Yerewa, North Andaman. 
 
 7. Jarawa, Little Andaman and Eutland Island. 
 
 The two first are well known ; of the others nothing is 
 known. They will probably all be traced to one common 
 parent. There are considerable affinities betwixt the two 
 first. We shall hope to know more, when the promised 
 Grammar and Vocabularies appear, but it is disheartening 
 to have all previous knowledge cut away. There may 
 possibly be Australian affinities, but a careful comparison 
 with the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman, Mon, and Malayan 
 Families should be made. 
 
 The Mcobar group is geographically not far from Achin 
 in the island of Sumatra. The island contains an area of 
 less than 600 square miles. Their inhabitants somewhat 
 resemble the Malayan race, being yellow or copper coloured 
 with high cheek-bones, flat noses, thick lips, intellectually 
 greatly superior to the savage tribes of the Andamans. 
 
ii6 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 In the interior of the Great Nicobar Island exists a race 
 of men resembling the Andamanese, termed Shoboeng by 
 the Nicobarese. These are probably the remnants of 
 an earlier race, and savage and shy. Thus we find the 
 further complication of two distinct and totally anta- 
 gonistic races in this restricted area. The Nicobarese 
 Language has a remote connection with some of the 
 Languages of the Malayan Archipelago. The general 
 conclusion drawn is, that they are Malayan. They are 
 Pagan, and backward in civilisation. De Koepstorff, 
 Superintendent of the islands, gives a Vocabulary of four 
 islands: I. Nancowry, 2. Great Mcobar, 3. Car Mcobar, 
 4. Theressa ; he gives also a Vocabulary of the Shobceng. 
 It is remarked of the Nicobarese, that owing to inter- 
 course with foreign ships they speak Malay and other 
 foreign Languages. They have no peculiar Character, but 
 Mr. Ball of the Survey has brought away a flag with 
 figures upon it, which he fancies to be pictorial Characters. 
 We may hope in a few years to get more satisfactory 
 knowledge of the Language of the Andamans and Nico- 
 bars, and to be able to classify them. De BoepstorfFs 
 last communication is, that in 1877 he had had an inter- 
 view with a Shobceng, and found that he was a Mongolian, 
 and not a Negrito, and had no connection with the Anda- 
 manese, though his Language is quite distinct from that 
 of the Nicobarese. 
 
CHAP TEE VI. 
 KHASI FAMILY. 
 
 IN the range of hills which separates the valley of Assam 
 from the district of Sylhet, and the basin of the Brahma- 
 putra from that of the Surma, betwixt the Garo tribe on 
 the West, and the Naga tribes on the East, is the country 
 of the Khasi-Jyntia tribes, in which is situated Shillong, 
 the seat of government of the Province of Assam. Their 
 government is described as that of little republics, but 
 their Language is quite peculiar, and they occupy a lin- 
 guistic oasis in the midst of the Tibeto-Burman Family ; nor 
 can they be classed with any other Monosyllabic Family, 
 though they belong to that Morphological Order. There 
 is an excellent Grammar by Pryse, a Missionary, and a 
 Dictionary ; and the New Testament has been translated 
 into this Language in the Eoman Character ; therefore we 
 have sufficient knowledge to form a judgment, as it has 
 attracted the attention of scholars like Von der Gabelentz 
 and Schott, who have written about it. There are six 
 Dialects ; i. Synteng, 2. Battoa, 3. Am wee, and 4. Lakadong, 
 and 5, 6. two other varieties without names. The Dialects of 
 the Jyntia Hills are almost unintelligible to the Khasi. All 
 grammatical relations are denoted by prefixes ; the genitive 
 relation of a noun is frequently denoted by position, and 
 after the noun on which it depends. There is a complete 
 grammatical gender, like that of the Aryan Languages, 
 but no neuter. The construction of the sentence is direct. 
 There is a relative pronoun. Vowels are sometimes elided 
 under a phonetic law to prevent a hiatus. The population 
 amounts to about two hundred thousand, who are Pagan 
 
ii8 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 and civilised. There is no Character or Literature. The 
 orthography is still unsettled, and words are pronounced 
 differently in different villages. So strictly Monosyllabic 
 is it, that the prefixes still have a meaning and usage of 
 their own, when used alone, and are not meaningless 
 particles. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 TAI FAMILY. 
 
 LOGAN, who had rare opportunities of studying the sub- 
 ject, which he illustrated by a series of learned papers in 
 the Journal of the Indian Archipelago, which died with him 
 in 1859, divides the Language of the Indo-Chinese Penin- 
 sula into two branches: i. The "Western Himalayan or 
 Tibetan, including the Burma Group of the Tibeto-Burman 
 Family, and 2. the Eastern Himalayan or Mon-Anam, includ- 
 ing the Tai and Mon-Anam Families. It is at this point 
 that I leave the "Western Himalayan branch and enter 
 the Eastern. I also leave the region of the direct or in- 
 direct influence of British India, and cross a great physical 
 and linguistic Watershed into a country quite independent 
 of British power, and speaking Monosyllabic Languages. 
 Buddhism and Indian culture have reached thus far also, 
 and at one period the vigour of the Tai Family enabled 
 them to double back and penetrate into what is now 
 British India. In a narrow wedge of inconsiderable width, 
 yet extending no less than fifteen degrees of latitude in 
 length, the Tai Family extends from the Eiver Brahmaputra 
 in the Assam Province to Bangkok on the Gulf of Siam. 
 All the tribes call themselves " Tai," and are Buddhists, and 
 civilised in the Oriental type, but the Siamese alone call 
 themselves " Thai," or " free." The linguistic structure of 
 the whole Family is essentially the same, though in pro- 
 cess of time, owing to laws of euphony and variations of 
 Vocabulary, it has become separated into seven Languages. 
 All are tonal, and accuracy of speech depends upon the 
 
20 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 knowledge of the tone. Nominally Buddhists, the Tai 
 race clings to local Pagan worship of Nats or spirits. 
 With Buddhism has come in a great many polysyllabic 
 Anam words from the Pali, and the religious Language is 
 a Mosaic of Tai, Pali, and Burmese words. The linguistic 
 features, that mark the Tai Family, are, that there is no 
 grammatical gender; that the article follows the noun; 
 that vowels are not elided ; that there are five tones. The 
 tenses are sometimes differentiated by prefixes, and at 
 other times by suffixes. The determining noun comes 
 after the determined. The construction of the sentence 
 is direct, and the verb has no person-endings. 
 
 The Languages are as follows: I. Siamese. 2. Lao. 
 3. Shan of Burma. 4. Tai Mow. 5. Minkia. 6. Khamti. 
 7. Aiton. There is one dead Language, Ahom, already 
 noticed in Chapter I. 
 
 The Siamese Language-Field is of unknown dimensions, 
 as it extends from the boundary of British Burma East- 
 ward to the great lake of Kambodia, and from the Gulf of 
 Siam to the confines of Lao Northwards. Within this 
 area are settled a large number of Peguans, speaking a 
 Language of the Mon-Anam Family, which will be de- 
 scribed lower down. The Siamese proper number about 
 two millions, but they keep in subjection the Lao, who 
 will be next mentioned, the Kambodians, who speak a 
 Language of the Mon-Anam Family, and Malays of the 
 Malayan Family, and other wild tribes, of whom we have 
 no certain knowledge. Bastian remarks, that the Siamese 
 gradually diverged from pure Monosyllabism, by the intro- 
 duction of words from the Pali, and thus it differs very 
 considerably from the Chinese ; on the other hand, it is 
 much more Monosyllabic, and more powerfully accented, 
 than the Burmese. Next to the Chinese, it is richest 
 in tones of the Monosyllabic Languages. It has been 
 known to Europeans for two centuries. An inscription 
 exists in the ruins of the old capital of Ayuthia, dated 
 1284 A.D. There are three Dialects : i. that of the sacred 
 
TAT FAMILY. 121 
 
 Buddhistic books, 2. that of the higher orders, and 3. that of 
 the people. In proportion to the elevation of ideas is the 
 introduction of Sanskrit and Pali words, accommodated to 
 Siamese vocalisation. There is an enormous religious and 
 secular Literature, in which there is a study of euphony 
 and neglect of sense, and it is deemed an elegance to have 
 many words in the same sentence commencing with the 
 same letter. European printing-presses are established at 
 Bangkok, and Government Gazettes are published, but 
 there is no indigenous native printing-press. The king 
 himself talks and writes English, as did his predecessor. 
 There is no lack of linguistic books. One Vocabulary is 
 dated as far back as 1687 A.D., and it is unnecessary to 
 notice later Vocabularies and Grammatical Notes of so 
 great a Language, for they are numerous ; some scientific, 
 others of mere conversational utility. The New Testa- 
 ment has been translated into Siamese in the peculiar 
 Character, which is derived from the Indian, and expresses 
 the tones by accents. This is a strong Vernacular, which 
 will hold its own. 
 
 North of the Province of Siam is the Province of Lao, 
 on the River Mekong, also subject to Siam, with a popu- 
 lation of a million, speaking a Language not very different 
 from Siamese, with two peculiar forms of Character of In- 
 dian origin. We have nothing beyond Vocabularies. Two 
 Dialects, I. Lawa, and 2. Moi, are doubtfully entered. 
 
 The Language of the Shans of Burma is somewhat 
 different, being affected by contact with the Burmese. The 
 peculiar Character feels the same influence, and is circular 
 in shape. Some Shans have settled in British Burma. The 
 Shan States extend from the country of the Karen to the 
 Eiver Mekong and have only been traversed once or 
 twice by English or French travellers. A Grammar 'has 
 appeared. 
 
 'The Tai-Mow are known as Chinese Shans ; they 
 are also called Tai-Khe. The French expedition up the 
 Mekong Eiver passed through their country, and the 
 
122 . LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 English expedition from Bhamo to Momien did so also. We 
 have Vocabularies, and we are informed that the peculiar 
 Character is diamond-shaped : a fact to be attributed to 
 Chinese influence. In China also is a tribe called Minkia, 
 whose Vocabulary is Tai. They are the principal inhabi- 
 tants of the plains of Tali, but are not entered on the 
 Language-Map. A Vocabulary of Hota Shans is also sup- 
 plied, supposed to be a Dialect of Tai-Mow. 
 
 I am compelled to return to the Province of Assam in 
 British India to notice the two Tai Languages, which still 
 exist there. At one period the Tai Family made an irrup- 
 tion over the Patkoi range, and subdued the valley of 
 Assam, and extinguished the old Hindu dynasty. They 
 assumed the title of Ahom from the Sanskrit " Asama," 
 " unequalled," and left this name in the valley ; but it is 
 noteworthy, that their Language has left no trace in the 
 Aryan Vernacular of Asamese, which has been described 
 above. These intruding settlers lost both their Language 
 and religion, but still constitute a large portion of the 
 population of the valley as Asamese-speaking Hindus. 
 Only a few priests have preserved their ancient religion, 
 and the use of the old Ahom as a sacred and dead Lan- 
 guage, and their peculiar Character. 
 
 The Khamti tribe, who entered the valley at a later 
 period, are peaceful subjects of the British Government, 
 dwelling near Sudya, but they are the representatives of 
 a much larger and unknown horde beyond the frontier, 
 whose stronghold is on the Eiver Irawaddy, in the extreme 
 North of Burma. They number about fifteen hundred. 
 They have a peculiar Character. The original name of 
 the tribe appears to have been Nora, and to have had 
 two subdivisions, Ai-Kham or Khamti to the North, and 
 Ai-ton to the South, and this last appears as a separate 
 Language represented by a Vocabulary, but the number 
 ' of the population and the habitat are quite uncertain. 
 
 It appears from the above, that our information with 
 regard to the Language of this Family is quite insufficient. 
 
TAI FAMILY. 123 
 
 "We must look to the kindness of the Chief Commissioner 
 of the Province of Assam for Grammatical Notes on the 
 Khamti and Aiton Languages, and information regard- 
 ing the dead Language of the Ahom, and the extent to 
 which its Vocabulary still survives in the lips of the 
 Asamese. As regards the Languages spoken within the 
 kingdom of Siain, it is to be hoped, that the Consul- 
 General or Missionaries may do something to add to 
 our stock of knowledge. The Language of the Shans of 
 Burma is already fairly well known to us, but the Lan- 
 guage of the Chinese Shans will only be thoroughly 
 studied, when the Province of Yunan in China is laid 
 open to Europeans. 
 
( 124 ) 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 MON-ANAM FAMILY. 
 
 I ACCEPT the provisional arrangement of a Mon-Anam 
 Family out of deference to the expression of opinion of 
 Logan, and with a view of exhausting the subject. 
 It has by no means received universal assent, yet no 
 antagonistic scheme has been started, for in fact very 
 little is known of the Language of this quarter. The 
 Group is composed of twenty Languages I. The Mon or 
 Peguan. 2. The Kambojan. 3. The Annamite. 4. The 
 Paloung. 5-20. The Languages of the sixteen Wild Tribes 
 inhabiting the upper basin of the Eiver Mekong. The 
 group belongs to the Monosyllabic Order, but it has not 
 the coherency of other Groups. It has been less studied, 
 and it seems quite possible, that it may be necessary 
 to disconnect Annamite altogether. The Language-Map 
 shows, that the Language-Field is broken up into three 
 enclaves, which have ceased to have connection with each 
 other, owing to the intrusion of a Tibeto-Burman and Tai 
 flow of linguistic lava. Another marked feature is, that 
 the influence of Indian culture, Indian religion, Indian 
 nomenclature, and Indian Characters cease with Kambojan, 
 and that the Annarnite-speaking population borrow every- 
 thing from the Chinese. At any rate, we walk upon very 
 uncertain ground here. The chief authorities are Logan, 
 Bastian, Gamier, Aymonier, and Des Michels. 
 
 The coast of the delta of the Eiver Irawaddy has, from 
 prehistoric times, been occupied by a race separate in Lan- 
 guage from the Burmese; the race is known as Talain, 
 the Language as Mon, and the Province as Pegu. They 
 
MO N- AN AM FA MIL Y. 1 25 
 
 had tlieir day of greatness, but within the last century 
 have been overpowered by the Burmese, who occupy the 
 middle regions of the Kiver Irawaddy, and during their 
 time of power tried to exterminate this Language, which 
 has, however, revived since, in 1853, Pegu became a British 
 Province, and Eangoon the capital of British Burmah. 
 
 Mason and Phayre have stated their opinion in favour 
 of a connection linguistically between the Mon and the 
 Language of the Hos or Koles, on the other side of the 
 Bay of Bengal, in the Kolarian Family. We have a 
 Grammar by Has well, who does not agree in this theory. 
 Phayre states that it is uncertain from what quarter the 
 Mons came ; they were joined by a Dravidian emigration 
 from the Indian Peninsula, and the word Talain survives 
 as a record of the Telinga connection. 
 
 The Mon Character is of an Indian source through the 
 Dravidian, but there is little trace in the Language of that 
 connection. Bastian says that the Mons adopted for their 
 sole Character (religious and secular) the Pali Character, 
 which is used everywhere else for the sacred books only. 
 There is no Dictionary, but a Peguan Vocabulary is at- 
 tached to the Grammar. The people are Buddhists. Their 
 sacred books are translated into Mon, abundantly inter- 
 spersed with Pali. There are many loan Pali and Burmese 
 words brought in by religious and secular domination. 
 The construction is quite different from the Burmese, the 
 location of words being almost always the reverse. This 
 is one of the Languages, whose days are numbered; it 
 may survive in villages, or among the emigrants settled 
 in Siam, but Burmese will supplant it in the towns. We 
 have a translation of the New Testament in the peculiar 
 Character. 
 
 Adjacent to the prosperous realm and the well-known 
 Language of the Siamese is the fallen and sadly-reduced 
 kingdom of Kambodia, on the Eiver Mekong. All the 
 surrounding nations admit, that the Kambodians were 
 their teachers in religion and science ; but for the inter- 
 
126 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 ference of the French, who have now taken the remnant 
 of the kingdom under their protection, in all probability 
 it would have been totally absorbed in its two powerful 
 neighbours, Annam and Siam. It is calculated, that 
 about one million and a half still speak the modern form 
 of the ancient Language of the Khmer or Khomer, though 
 the kingdom of Kambodia comprises only one million; 
 the remainder are subjects either of Siam or of French 
 Cochin-China. The magnificent ruins of Angeour or 
 Nakhon Wat have drawn attention to the subject, and 
 among these ruins are inscriptions, in an Archaic form of 
 the peculiar Character of Kambojan, the most easterly 
 derivative of the Indian, and in an Archaic form of Lan- 
 guage, imperfectly understood, if at all, by the modern 
 Buddhist priesthood ; at least, these inscriptions have not 
 been satisfactorily translated. 
 
 The great Khmer people differed essentially from their 
 neighbours of Annam and Siam ; they are an elder race, 
 having descended the Eiver Mekong at a period anterior 
 to the Tai, and before the powerful race of Annam crossed 
 the dividing range. The present Kambodians are Bud- 
 dhists, with marked Pagan customs. Their Language 
 differs materially from any other Monosyllabic Language. 
 It has no tones, being spoken recto tono : the numeration 
 is quinary. Gamier remarks, that modern Kambojan is a 
 transition Language betwixt the Polysyllabic Language of 
 the Malayan and the Monosyllabic Language of the Tai. 
 It is full of Siamese words, and Bastian remarks, that it is 
 so full, that for a long time it was mistaken for Siamese. 
 Many loan-words are found contracted in the manner 
 required by the tendency of the .Kambojan Language, 
 which is certainly towards Monosyllabism. It has also 
 loan-words from Malay, Pali, Annamite, and Mon. The 
 written annals go back to A.D. 1 346, but there is evidence 
 of a much higher antiquity to the power and civilisation 
 of the nation. We have Vocabularies, a Dictionary of 
 French and Kambojan, and a Grammir in French. We 
 
M ON- AN A M FA MIL Y. 1 2 7 
 
 clearly may expect, that our knowledge of this important 
 Language, so accessible, and so abundant in Archaic 
 monuments, and spoken to this day by a civilised people, 
 should be speedily brought up to a proper level. 
 
 There are two modern Characters. I . The sacred, which 
 is used also in Siam ; and, 2. The vulgar. Fundamentally 
 they are identical, but differ in detail. It is proposed by 
 French scholars to use the sacred Character for printing 
 purposes, to the exclusion of the vulgar form, which will 
 not make a good printing medium. Three Dialects are 
 indicated of this Language: i. Xong, 2. Samre, and 3. 
 Khamen-Boran, which are duly shown in the Language- 
 Map, and represented by Vocabularies; but there are 
 sixteen Wild Tribes inhabiting the upper basin of 
 the Eiver Mekong, the connection of whose Language 
 with the polished Kambojan is a subject of perplexity, 
 which will be discussed further on. The remaining great 
 question of the relation of the Kambojan to the Anna- 
 mite must be disposed of at once. It has been assumed, 
 on the authority of Logan, whose experience is anterior 
 to the occupation of Saigon by the French, that there is a 
 linguistic connection betwixt these neighbour Languages, 
 as unquestionably exists betwixt Mon and Kambojan. I 
 referred the question to Professor Des Michels of the Ecole 
 des Etudes Orientales at Paris, and am assured by him, that 
 not only the two Languages are completely distinct (which 
 was not doubted), but that contact between the races, both 
 as regards physical and moral organisation, was actually 
 non-existent. No linguistic work has as yet been pub- 
 lished on this important subject, and attention is invited 
 to the necessity of setting forth the true state of the case, 
 which must cause the breaking up of, or the firm estab- 
 lishment of, the Mon-Anam Family. 
 
 I now pass on to the Language called Annamite, alias 
 Annamese, or Cochin-Chinese. Descending the river Me- 
 kong to the sea, we find ourselves in French Cochin- China, 
 and the nucleus of a new civilisation. Whether this 
 
128 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 settlement will pay commercially is a question ; at any 
 rate, linguistically, it is a great step in advance, and we 
 find sweetness and light thrown rqund the hard questions 
 of Grammar. The French have more than a century med- 
 dled in the affairs of Cochin-China, and such meddling 
 generally ends in annexation. The kingdom of Annam 
 consists of two Provinces, Tonquin and Cochin-China, and 
 occupies the whole length of the Eastern face of the Indo- 
 Chinese Peninsula, extending from latitude 8 to 23. The 
 central portion comprises the old Malay kingdom of 
 Champa, of which the Language, religion, and nationality 
 have perished. Yule gives the history of this forgotten 
 State, and Crawfurd, in his Malay Grammar, analyses 
 the vocables, and considers that it was fundamentally a 
 local Language, mixed up with much Malayan. Of the 
 three capitals, Huet, Hanoy, and Saigon, the latter has 
 passed by conquest into the hands of the Trench. The 
 people are Buddhists, but of the Chinese type. The lower 
 classes use many words of uncertain origin, because they 
 have been altered to suit the euphonic laws of a Mono- 
 syllabic Language, in which the use of tones presents a 
 great difficulty to the student. There are abundance of 
 particles, which have no independent existence as words, 
 and yet they do not coalesce, so as to form one word with 
 the word which they are employed to qualify. The 
 sounds are easy enough to acquire, and the Roman Catholic 
 Mission, which has existed more than a century, has by 
 ingenious additions adapted the Roman Character to these 
 sounds, which makes the study of the Language indepen- 
 dent of the acquisition of the peculiar Character, which is 
 composed of a selection of Chinese Ideographs, used phone- 
 tically as a Syllabary, with upwards of nine hundred varie- 
 ties. So clumsy is this arrangement, that the highest 
 literati set it aside and use the Chinese ideographic signs. 
 In such a Language the meaning has to be gathered from 
 the position of the words and the context. The idea of 
 past, present, and future is expressed by particles, or 
 
MO N- AN AM FAMIL Y. 1 29 
 
 omitted ; three-fourths of the nouns are formed by addi- 
 tion of particles to the verb ; there is no passive voice ; all 
 animate objects have one determined prefix, and inanimate 
 another ; and as an instance of the redundancy of vocables, 
 it may be stated, that there are nine different words for 
 " carrying " with reference to the hand, head, &c. The word 
 " strong " is a portion of seventy- five compounds, and the 
 word " to do," implying a sense of action, appears in one 
 hundred and thirty-five compounds. There is an abun- 
 dant Literature. The nation is civilised, strong, and, until 
 the French occupation, warlike and ambitious. Within 
 the memory of man the sovereigns were too proud to give 
 a personal audience to the ambassadors of the rulers of 
 India. The Dialect of the three provinces varies to a cer- 
 tain extent. A Dictionary was published at Home in 1654 
 A.D. with a short Grammar. The standard Dictionary is 
 in Latin. A Grammar and Vocabulary was published at 
 Paris for the special use of students and the French offi- 
 cials. The Language is included in the course of the Ecole 
 des Langues Orientales at Paris. 
 
 The Paloung Language is spoken by a race residing in 
 an enclave within the territory of Independent Burma, 
 surrounded by Tibeto-Burman and Tai populations. Our 
 knowledge of this is very scanty indeed. Logan assigns 
 this Language, of which we have Vocabularies, to the Mon- 
 Anam Family, but by other authorities, such as Bigandet 
 and Anderson, it is claimed for the Tai Family. A British 
 agent is now established at Bharno, so we have hope for 
 light in these dark places. 
 
 In addition to the Kambojan and Lao Languages above 
 described, there are at least a score of Languages spoken 
 on the banks of the Eiver Mekong, and its numerous con- 
 fluents, and in the mountain chain extending from Ton- 
 quin to French Cochin-China. According to the custom 
 of these polyglot regions, every town has at least four names, 
 being known under a different combination of syllables by 
 the Siamese, Annamites, Kambodians, and savage people. 
 
 I 
 
130 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Thus these wild savage Pagan races are themselves called 
 Penoms by the Kambodians, Khu by the Siamese, Moi by 
 the Annamites. All these words mean " savage," and the 
 Chinese use Lawa in much the same sense. Gamier re- 
 marks on the important affinity of the Kambojan with the 
 Languages of some of these savage races. We are in an 
 absolutely incognita terra, and require a master-mind, like 
 that of Hodgson, to collect materials during a patient note- 
 taking of twenty-five years, and a fine discernment, like 
 that of Max Muller, to arrange them. They have no 
 peculiar Character, no Literature, no Grammatical Notes, 
 and but very scant Vocabularies. Among some, like the 
 Stieng, there is a Roman Catholic Mission maintained by 
 devoted Frenchmen. Our authorities here are Gamier and 
 Bastian. Their lists have been carefully analysed, and, 
 whenever the Vocabulary indicated Tibeto-Burman and 
 Tai affinities, they have been transferred to those Families. 
 I have been informed by Des Michels, that in his opinion 
 the Languages of none of these tribes have affinity to the 
 Annamite. It follows, that they must be provisionally 
 classed as congeners of the Kambojan, and though they 
 read as a collection of meaningless syllables, still they 
 represent facts: I. Mi. 2. Khmu. 3. Lemet. 4. So. 5. 
 Nanhang. 6. Banar. 7. Cedang. 8. Huei. 9. Kat. 10. Sue. 
 ii. Stieng. 12. Proom. 13. Hin. 14. Sue. 15. Lawa or 
 Doe. 1 6. Binna. 
 
 There is still a residuum on my list of Languages, or 
 Dialects of Languages, indicated by name only, and not 
 represented by Vocabularies, or attached to any location. 
 These must be left to the care of future explorers and 
 linguists. While I am writing, I hear of one traveller 
 having for the first time traversed the Watershed, which 
 separates the basin of the Upper Mekong from the China Sea. 
 Another traveller has forced his way from Bassac on the River 
 Mekong up into the Lao country, and thence into Yunan. 
 Twenty-five years hence the Maps of Indo- China may be 
 as full of accurate detail, as those of British India are now. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MALAYAN FAMILY. 
 
 I NOW pass into the Indian Archipelago, and, with the 
 exception of the narrow Peninsula of Malacca, leave the 
 continent of Asia, and find myself in a new terminology 
 of Polynesia, Indonesia, and Malaisia, besides numerous 
 other compounds of the word for island. In some lingu- 
 istic books the whole Family of Languages as far as Easter 
 Island is called the Polynesian, including the Malayan as 
 a sub-Family. There is, therefore, a wider and narrower 
 use of the term. Indian culture, Indian religion, the In- 
 dian Character, and Indian names accompany me, but the 
 race and the Language have wholly changed. As there is 
 no actual physical boundary to this portion of the inquiry, 
 such as was supplied by the coast-line of the Indo-Chinese 
 Peninsula, I must proceed to draw a line on the outer edge 
 of the Shallow-Sea region, so as to include all the islands 
 on that submarine plateau, whose Fauna is absolutely, and 
 whose Flora and Ethnic and Linguistic features to a great 
 degree are distinct from the Deep-Sea region, or Papua- 
 nesia. It exceeds the line at some points, so as to include 
 particular islands, such as the Celebes, Molucca, and 
 Timour Groups. Two strongly contrasted races occupy 
 these islands, which, if lumped together, would form a 
 large continent. First, the Malay, a brown race with lank 
 hair ; secondly, the Negrito, with black skin and curly 
 hair. Between these are the Alfurese, the exact position 
 of which it is hard to determine. Wallace, in his survey 
 of the whole Malay Archipelago, gives specimens of fifty- 
 nine Languages, but he omits some, which did not come 
 
132 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 within his scope. Here lies the work of the philologists 
 of the next generation, who are advised to leave the well- 
 worn tracks of the Aryan Family, and bring order out of 
 the existing confusion in the Malayan Family. Geo- 
 graphically and linguistically this region is part of Asia, 
 while the portion, which we reject, is for the same reasons 
 part of Australasia. A somewhat different method has 
 to be pursued in the description of this Family. Islands 
 Mo not make good Language-Fields. If large, like Java, 
 Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo, they may comprise several 
 Languages ; if small, they may be included in part or 
 entirely within the Language-Field of their larger neigh- 
 bours. All islands are liable to the linguistic difficulty of 
 their littoral being occupied by a superior seafaring and 
 commercial race, either continuously or in detached " camp- 
 ongs," while the interior and unexplored mountains become 
 the refuge of shy and uncivilised indigenes. In some 
 cases there is a well-settled Language, if not literary, at 
 least uniform and notorious. In other cases there is a 
 score of ill-defined mutually unintelligible Languages, 
 without any specific name, lumped together under a 
 general name, such as Alfurese, or not attempted to be 
 defined at all. I have tried by the device of conventional 
 pecked lines to break up the Archipelago into enclaves, so 
 as to render description intelligible. In some cases tribes, 
 speaking separate Languages, communicate with each other 
 in a form of Malay more or less pure, which has thus be- 
 come the Lingua-franca of the Archipelago. Any approxi- 
 mation of the amount of population, except in the island 
 of Java, is impossible, and the tribes, which are not stated 
 to be Mahomedan, are Pagan, and often very savage ones. 
 My method of gathering Languages into groups has been 
 throughout this essay geographical and not linguistic, sub- 
 ject to the provision that Families have been kept distinct. 
 For instance, the Khamti Language, though obviously 
 within the valley of Assam, has not been included within 
 the Assam Group of Languages, because it is of the Tai 
 
MALA VAN FAMIL Y. 1 33 
 
 Family, and not the Tibeto-Burrnan. But here an ethno- 
 logical difficulty meets me, and I am constrained to add 
 an ethnological group collected from several islands to 
 comprise the Languages of the Negritos and Alfurese, 
 as obviously there is no affinity either in Language or 
 race betwixt them and the members of any other group. 
 I proceed to enumerate my ten groups: I. Sumatra- 
 Malacca. 2. Java. 3. Celebes. 4. Borneo. 5. Philippine. 
 6. Molucca. 7. Timour. 8. China. 9. Madagascar. 10. 
 Alfurese-Negrito. 
 
 The Sumatra-Malacca Group comprises several islands, 
 and the Peninsula of Malacca on the continent of Asia. 
 There are eleven Languages in this group : I. Malay. 
 2. Achinese. 3. Batta. 4. Eejang. 5. Lampung. 6. Kor- 
 inclii. 7. Nassau. 8. Mas. 9. Enganoes. 10. Ourung 
 Binwuh of Sumatra. 1 1 . Ourung Binwuh of Malacca. 
 
 The Malay Language is spoken in portions of the island 
 of Sumatra and of the Peninsula of Malacca, the islands 
 of Banca, Billiton, the Ehio-Lingga Archipelago, the 
 islands lying West of Sumatra, portions of the coasts of 
 Borneo, of the Moluccas, and other islands. It is said to 
 be spoken by ten and a half millions, but all calculations 
 must be vague. The Bible has been translated both into 
 Standard and Low Malay in both Arabic and Eoman 
 Characters. 
 
 The Malays had their ancestral home in the interior of 
 Sumatra, the region of Menangkaba ; thence they colonised 
 the coasts of Sumatra, the Peninsula of Malacca, the coasts 
 of Borneo, and made their influence felt far beyond as ad- 
 venturous pirates and merchants. Their Language being 
 simple, has readily adopted loan-words from the Sanskrit, 
 Arabic, Persian, English, Portuguese, Dutch, Javanese, 
 Telugu, and Chinese Languages, avoiding allusion to the 
 disputed main ingredients of primitive Malayan and the 
 great Polynesian. In the Dialect spoken the Malay pre- 
 ponderates ; in Literature the learned exotics. It is as- 
 serted, that the Malay of Singapore and of Queddah in 
 
134 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Malacca is the most pure. If there ever was a peculiar 
 Character, it has not survived the introduction of the 
 adapted Arabic. A considerable Literature exists, chiefly 
 prose, but nothing of an original nature. Van der Tuuk 
 pronounces all Dictionaries, whether English or Dutch, to 
 be insufficient, and not up to the mark. There are two 
 Dialects worthy of notice. I . The Malay spoken at Batavia 
 in Java differs very much from that spoken in the original 
 country. It is called the Low Malay, and is most readily 
 acquired. It contains no hard gutturals or difficult conso- 
 nants. It is soft and musical, and has a nice blending of 
 vowels and consonants. It has become the Lingua-franca 
 in the Dutch colonies. All servants are addressed in it, 
 and European children speak it before they know their 
 own Language. 2. The Samsans of Queddah in the Penin- 
 sula of Malacca are Siamese by race and Mahomedan by 
 religion, and speak a Dialect of Malay mixed with Siamese. 
 
 The written Language is called Jawi, a word in Java cor- 
 relative of Kawi. It means " ordinary," and is antithetical 
 to the other, which means " abstruse " Language. As the 
 Malays have no learned Language of their own, they use the 
 word Jawi as correlative to Arabic, the depository of all 
 their learning, chiefly translations. In some species of 
 composition the writers introduce Arabic terms, as a proof 
 of their learning and religious attainments, but very few 
 Semitic words have become actually part of the Malay 
 Language. 
 
 The nouns have no accidents; gender is only sexual; 
 number is indicated by a word of plurality ; cases by pre- 
 positions. The only instance of an inflexion is to express 
 a possessive. The idea of time in the verb is indicated by 
 particles, but they are often omitted. The relation of the 
 genitive- is expressed by juxtaposition, and the governing 
 words precede the governed. A verb is changed from 
 neuter to active by affixing or prefixing certain insepar- 
 able particles. The adjectives follow the substantives. 
 One part of speech is formed from another with great ease 
 
MALA VAN FA MIL Y. 135 
 
 by prefixing a particle, and the same word in its primitive 
 form is often used colloquially for several different parts 
 of speech. As in the Hindustani, Arabic and Sanskrit 
 words can be incorporated into the Malay at the pleasure 
 of the speaker. It has been for centuries the Lingua-franca 
 of the Archipelago, and its simplicity, power of adaptation, 
 and smoothness of pronunciation, make it one of the strong 
 Vernaculars likely to absorb its weaker neighbours. 
 
 The Malay is remarkable for its uniformity. The style 
 of Language may be degraded and vulgar, but it is still 
 the same Language, and the written form is everywhere 
 identical. 
 
 But in the island of Sumatra there are other Languages 
 akin to, but quite distinct from, Malay. First in order is 
 the Achinese, the Language of that State in the North 
 extremity of the island of Sumatra, which has waged a 
 gallant, though unsuccessful, war with the Dutch Govern- 
 ment. The population is Mahomedan, and they use the 
 Arabic Character. 
 
 Next in order is the Batta, called also Batak, which has 
 been illustrated by Van der Tuuk. There are three Dia- 
 lects : i. Toba. 2. Mundailung. 3. Dairi. The Battas 
 are divided into many independent States, are Pagans and 
 cannibals, but are becoming Mahomedan ; yet they are not 
 uncivilised, have a peculiar Character, and write with a 
 twig and ink made of soot upon bark and bamboo staves 
 from bottom to top, the lines being arranged from left to 
 right. They have a Literature both in prose and verse. 
 Vocabularies are not wanting. The Language is said by 
 Van der Tuuk to be nearest of kin to the old Javanese and 
 Tagal. Schreiber considers it to have closer affinity with 
 Malay. The New Testament is being translated into this 
 Language in the peculiar Character by Nommensen. 
 
 Next is the Eejang, the name of one of the most civilised 
 tribes of Sumatra, who, though Pagan, have a peculiar Lan- 
 guage and Character of their own. They write on bam- 
 boo slips. Their habitat is chiefly inland, and they are 
 
136 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 quite independent. There does not appear to be much 
 Literature. The English settlement of Bencpolen was 
 situated in their territory. Marsden gives a Vocabulary. 
 
 Next is the Lampung. The people, who speak this Lan- 
 guage, live on the coast separated from Java by the Straits 
 of Sunda. The Language is quite distinct, and has a pecu- 
 liar Character ; one-third of the words appear to be original. 
 The people are rude, partly Pagan, partly Mahomedan. 
 A Vocabulary is given by Marsden, but Van der Tuuk has 
 published Grammatical Notes, but nothing amounting to 
 a Dictionary or Grammar. 
 
 To these tribes in the island of Sumatra may be added 
 the Korinchi, the inhabitants of a hitherto unexplored 
 tract. They are Mahomedan, and speak a Language 
 akin to Malay, but use a peculiar Character, of which 
 Marsden gives a specimen, and it is certainly of Indie 
 origin. On the other hand, well-informed persons at 
 Leiden doubt, whether any such Character ever existed, 
 though in a late book of travel it is specially, though 
 incidentally, mentioned that there were Korinchi settlers 
 at Perak in the Peninsula of Malacca, who had their 
 peculiar Character. There is an expedition of exploration 
 now in the island, and we shall probably soon have more 
 certain information. In the smaller islands lying to the 
 West of Sumatra in some instances a corrupt form of 
 Malay is spoken. We have a Vocabulary of the Language 
 spoken in Nassau or Pagai Island. We have a translation 
 of a portion of the New Testament into the Language of 
 Nias in the Roman Character. Of others we have Vocabu- 
 laries. The Language of the Enganoes is quite unintelli- 
 gible to Malays from Sumatra. We have Vocabularies. 
 
 Somewhat akin to these last are the Ourung Binwuh, 
 or " Men of the Soil," of the island of Sumatra and Pen- 
 insula of Malacca. They are unquestionably Malayan in 
 race, and their Language is a rude Malay. They are wild, 
 Pagan, and wholly illiterate. The following are found in 
 the interior of Sumatra: i. Lubu. 2. Oelo. 3. Kubu. 
 
MALA VAN FAMILY. 137 
 
 4. Abung. 5. Kumring. The following are in the in- 
 terior of the Peninsula of Malacca, under the general name 
 of Eayet Utan, " Men of the Forest : " i. Jakun. 2. Udai. 
 
 3. Sakai. 4. Basisi. 5. Sabimba. 6. Mintira. Add to 
 these, 7. the "Men of the Sea-shore" or Eayet Laut, 
 or Akhye. Crawfurd, Logan, Newbold, and others men- 
 tion them. I have thought it best to enter them as Dia- 
 lects provisionally. A French author, on the authority of 
 Eoman Catholic Missionaries, mentions the Mintiras or 
 Mantras in some detail. Vocabularies of the Lubu and 
 Oclo are supplied by Wilier and Netscher in Holland ; and 
 other names occur, such as Bantas and Ourung Guja, 
 showing how imperfect is our knowledge. 
 
 The Java Group consists of four great 'and interest- 
 ing Languages: I. Javanese. 2. Sundanese. 3. Madurese. 
 
 4. Baliriese. It belongs entirely to the Dutch. This 
 group is well supplied with linguistic books. 
 
 The Javanese is the chief Language of the island of 
 Java ; it has a Low Dialect ; it is the most improved and 
 copious of the Malayan Family. Its Character, derived 
 from the Indian, is used by the Sundanese, Balinese, 
 Madurese, and the people of Lombok, whether Balinese 
 or Sassak, and also in Borneo and Sumatra. The letters 
 are not in the well-known classification of the Nagari. 
 The Characters are perfect to suit the sounds of the Lan- 
 guage. The foreign ingredients of the Language are very 
 much the same as those of the Malay. The Grammar is 
 very simple, and much is left to be gathered from the 
 context. The general features are the same as those 
 described in the Malay. The number of Javanese- 
 speakers amounts to thirteen millions. The Javanese 
 is one of the most copious Languages in the world, but 
 it is exuberant and redundant in some particulars, and 
 meagre in others; and the phraseology of deference is 
 made a study and science. The Literature is threefold, 
 Hindu, Arabic, and indigenous, and chiefly poetry. 
 Arabic has made but a small impression on the Javanese, 
 
138 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 as the people are only semi-Mahomedan. They write on 
 palm-leaves or European and Chinese paper. The great 
 proportion of words are dissyllables. There are a great 
 number of derivatives formed by inseparable particles. 
 No native Grammar existed, but there was a Vocabulary 
 of synonyms. The Bible has been translated in the pecu- 
 liar Character. 
 
 The Sundanese is the Language of the mountaineers of 
 the West of Java, who are Mahomedan, and spoken by 
 four millions. The letters are fewer. This was probably 
 the ancient Language of the island, and has escaped the 
 influence of foreign innovations. An obsolete Character 
 has been discovered on ancient and rude inscriptions. 
 The Bible has been translated into Sundanese in the 
 Eoman Character. It is spoken by four millions. 
 
 The Madurese is the Language of the people of the 
 island of Madura, of the immigrants from that island into 
 Java, about one and a half millions, and Mohamedan. It 
 has one Dialect, the Surnanap. It is poorer and' ruder 
 than Javanese. Although the arm of the sea is only ten 
 miles in width, the two Languages are scarcely more alike 
 than any other two of the Western Archipelago. The 
 letters are fewer. It has a phraseology of deference and 
 correspondence, but Javanese is the Language of business. 
 It is spoken by one and a half millions. 
 
 The Balinese is the sole Language of the island of Bali. 
 It is spoken by half a million ; rude and simple, yet more 
 improved than the Sundanese and Madurese, and supplied 
 with a phraseology of deference, borrowed from Sanskrit 
 and Javanese. In Bali writing is on the palm-leaf only, 
 as was the old practice of Java. The religion of the 
 people is still Brahmanical and Buddhist, but blended 
 with Pagan customs, and thus the strict tenets are 
 much perverted. Buddhists and Brahmins live in 
 perfect harmony. The lower classes speak a very 
 distinct Dialect indeed, such as was spoken before the 
 arrival of the Javanese into Bali. Separated by a narrow 
 
MALA VAN FAMILY. 139 
 
 strait from Bali is the island of Lornbok, which, was con- 
 quered by the Balinese, who have preserved their religion 
 and Language, and a certain amount of independence. 
 The aborigines of the island are Sassaks, whose Language 
 will be, noticed in the Timour Group. The Balinese- 
 
 ^peakefe^number_twenty thousand. The Bible is being 
 translated in the Koman Character. 
 
 The Celebes Group comprises eight Languages: I. 
 Macassar. 2. Bouton. 3. Mandar. 4. Bugi. 5. Sala- 
 yar. 6. Garontolo. 7. Menado. 8. Tomore. Separated 
 from the Java Group by the Macassar Straits is the 
 curiously-shaped island of Celebes, the centre of a civilisa- 
 tion independent of Java. The population at a remote 
 period were Hindu. The Mahomedans had only just 
 arrived, when the Christians came on the field. A certain 
 proportion of the people are Protestant Christians, as the 
 Dutch power is paramount. The Language and Litera- 
 ture essentially differ from the two preceding groups. 
 There is a peculiar Character in use, preserving the classi- 
 fication of the Nagari, but differing in appearance. 
 There is also an obsolete Character. There are two great 
 Languages, with a Literature, the Bugi or Wugi, and the 
 Mangkasara or Macassar. There are other Languages, 
 the Mandar, Bouton, Salayar, Garontolo, Menado, and 
 Tomore. The Bugi are a powerful people, and their 
 Literature copious, but botli Languages have a soft and 
 vocalic pronunciation. The Grammar is exceedingly 
 simple, but differing in many particulars widely from 
 the Malay and Javanese. Out of 1700 words 1300 are 
 native, the remainder loan-words from Malay and Java- 
 nese. The Bugi Language has exerted an influence upon 
 the Languages of other islands. They have an ancient 
 Literature, and by some are asserted to have an Archaic 
 Language, but no specimen has been obtained. The 
 Macassar and Bugis have much in common, but they are 
 mutually unintelligible. To Matthes we are indebted for 
 Grammars, Dictionaries, and a translation of a portion of the 
 Bible, both in Bugi and Macassar, in the peculiar Character. 
 
HO LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 The Borneo Group comprises twelve Languages, which 
 are enumerated below. Borneo, situated on the Equator, 
 is the greatest island in the world, three times the size of 
 Great Britain. Of the interior we know little or nothing. 
 Crawfurd is of opinion, that there may be scores of tribes 
 speaking different Languages, but they are all savages, and 
 mostly cannibals. No respectable indigenous civilisation 
 has sprung up on the island. The coasts have been 
 occupied by Malay settlers for more than two thousand 
 years, who in due time brought with them Mahomedan- 
 ism. Bugis have settled from the East, and are of the 
 same faith. The Javanese have made settlements and 
 introduced Hinduism, leaving traces in ruined temples 
 and names of places. The Chinese have settled on the 
 northern coast. The indigenous population is Pagan, and 
 called by the generic word Dhyak. There is no peculiar 
 Character, but an inscription in an undecipherable Charac- 
 ter has been found in the interior. The natives have a kind 
 of symbolic mode of communication by notches on arrows. 
 The greatest known tribe is the Kayan, of which we have 
 a Vocabulary by Burn of eight hundred words. Crawfurd 
 gives a Vocabulary of ten Languages : i. Kayan, 2. Pido, 
 3. Petak, 4. Binjuk, 5. Suntah, 6. Sau, 7. Milanau, 8. Meri, 
 9. Malo, and 10. Sakaran. With the Mahomedan religion 
 the Malay Language is adopted. Latham remarks, that the 
 Binjuk are maritime and the Dhyak landsmen. The Dutch 
 possess half the island, with a population of one million and 
 a quarter. The Bible has been translated in the Eoman 
 Character. We have to thank Von der Gabelentz and 
 Hardeland for Grammatical Notes and a Dictionary of 
 Dhyak. An ample field lies open in this island to 
 the scholars of the next generation. Tiedtke gives a 
 Vocabulary of the n. Sampit, and 12. Katingar Lan- 
 guages. 
 
 The Philippine Group, with its twelve Languages, intro- 
 duces us into a new linguistic world, and a colony of the 
 Spaniards. The two great Languages are: i. The Tagal, 
 and 2. The Bisayan ; but there are many hundred islands, 
 
MALA VAN FAMIL Y. 141 
 
 and we need not be surprised to hear of many Languages, 
 among which are the 3. Pampanga ; 4. Iloco; 5. Pangasinar; 
 6. Cagayan ; 7. Camarines ; 8. Batanes ; 9. Chamena ; 
 10. Zambal; n. Bicol; 12. Zebuana. The residents of the 
 different islands are not mutually intelligible. Out of a 
 population of three millions and a half, called by the 
 Spaniards the Indios, one-third speak a variety of Bisa- 
 yan, and two-thirds a variety of Tagal. Vocabularies 
 exist. The Eoman Catholic priests have played a great 
 part here, and the majority of the population is nomi- 
 nally Christian. One of the islands enjoys independence 
 and Mahomedanism. Savage unsubdued tribes occupy the 
 mountainous interior of the chief island, Luzon ; some 
 of them are Negritos, of numbers unknown, and all Pagans. 
 There is one peculiar Character, though the Spanish 
 authors assert the existence of many, but produce no 
 specimens. It is said to be written with an iron style on 
 bamboos or palm-leaves, and in Chinese fashion from top 
 to bottom. 
 
 The great feature of the Languages of this group is poly- 
 syllabism, and the blending of noun and verb into a single 
 word, and the difficulty of tracing the roots of either is 
 a cause of perplexity. The changes are most complex; 
 perfect familiarity with every form that a word can 
 assume, not only by addition of particles, but interchange 
 of letters, is necessary to enable a person to detect the 
 radix, which, according to Leyden, is more disguised than 
 in Arabic derivatives. Nouns have no accidents ; verbs 
 have moods or tenses, but have no pronominalisation to 
 indicate number and person ; the inverted sentence-con- 
 struction of the passive is preferred to that of the active ; 
 the plural of nouns is formed by a particular prefix : 
 in verbs inseparable particles are used, instead of auxili- 
 aries, to mark time. 
 
 The number of synonyms to represent one idea is 
 enormous. Crawfurd remarks, that several of the Lan- 
 guages have arrived at a high degree of culture, and differ 
 
142 , LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 greatly in structure from Malay and Javanese. Humboldt 
 asserted, that the Tagal was the most perfect specimen, 
 and the parent Language of the Malayan Family, which 
 is denied by Crawfurd. We have a plentiful linguistic 
 Literature in Spanish, and Crawfurd describes the Lan- 
 guages scientifically in the preface to his Malay Grammar ; 
 but of an indigenous Literature we have but an uncertain 
 account, for it appears that the Roman Catholic mis- 
 sionaries extirpated the original memorials of the race 
 with pious care, supplanting the remains of national and 
 Pagan antiquity with hymns and church-legends. 
 
 The Molucca Group comprises ten Languages, and is 
 better known under the name of the Spice Islands. It 
 was here that the Portuguese were met in 1521 by Magcl*" 
 te-and the Spaniards, who had crossed the Pacific from 
 the "West. We find that then, as now, the Malay Lan- 
 guage was the medium of commerce, yet each island, Am- 
 boyna, Tidor, Ternate, Banda, Gilolo, and Ceram, had 
 preserved their Languages different from Malay. There 
 is no peculiar Character ; the Eoman and Arabic are used, 
 and the people of Amboyna are nominally Protestant Chris- 
 tians. In the other islands the inhabitants are Pagan, 
 with a sprinkling of Mahomedans. Van Hoewell has pub- 
 lished Grammatical Notes on the five leading Languages 
 of Amboyna, viz. : i. Sassariia; 2. Hurunka ; 3. Nusalaut; 
 4. Hila; 5. Nagari-anpat ; with a Vocabulary. Vocabu- 
 laries of different degrees of fulness are available for the 
 other five islands. 
 
 I come now to the most difficult portion of the subject, 
 the Timour Group. It consists of the long stretch of 
 islands from Lombok to Timour Laut. Of the number and 
 degree of civilisation of the people it is impossible to speak 
 except in the vaguest terms. On some of the islands are 
 Dutch Settlements, and on the island of Timour is the 
 solitary Portuguese Settlement, Dili. Here they speak Malay. 
 On the island of Floris is a Bugi " campong." With this ex- 
 ception, the enumeration of the eighteen Languages of this 
 
FAMIL v. fm IT 1 V BE S I T Y 
 
 Group is but a string of names, represented ohlj by imper- 
 fect Vocabularies, and the list is by no means exhaustive. 
 First in order comes the island of Lombok, which I 
 mentioned in the description of the Java Groups as having 
 been overrun by Balinese conquerors, who, however, only 
 occupy the littoral. The interior is possessed by the Sas- 
 saks, who are Mahomedan, and whose Language is akin to 
 the Language of the West end of the adjoining island of 
 Sumbawa. There is no peculiar Character, but the Sassaks 
 use the Javanese Character. We have Vocabularies. 
 
 Separated by a narrow strait from Lombok is the island 
 of Sumbawa. There are three Languages; those to the 
 West and East are the Sumbawa and the Bima. The 
 people are all Mahomedan, with the exception of a few 
 wild mountaineers. There is no peculiar Character, but 
 traces have been found of an Archaic and obsolete one ; 
 the Bugi Character is used. The third Language, the 
 Timoura, has kept its own numerals. There is nothing 
 beyond Vocabularies. 
 
 The large island of Floris is said to have six distinct 
 Languages: I. Endeh. 2. Mangarei. 3. Kio. 4. Eoka. 5. 
 Ivonga. 6. Galeteng. To judge from the Vocabularies 
 of two supplied by Crawfurd, there is an admixture of 
 Malay and Javanese. The inhabitants are intermediate 
 between Malayan and Papuan. The Solor and Allor 
 islands, and the island of Somba, have distinct Languages, 
 though imperfectly known. 
 
 The next island, Timour, bears that name as the most 
 Eastern of the Malayan settlements ; it is occupied by Ma- 
 layans and Negritos; the number of Languages is two ; that 
 to the West is Timourese, to the East Teto or Manatoto. 
 
 In the island of Serwate the Language is Kissa. 
 
 The islands of Savoe and Eotti have a population with 
 great ethnical and linguistic differences from their neigh- 
 bours. We have Vocabularies. There are no peculiar 
 Characters, and no Literature or civilisation whatever in 
 this Group. 
 
144 * LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 The China Group consists of one Language in the 
 island of Formosa or Tai-wan, part of the Chinese Empire. 
 Its coasts and plains are occupied by Amoy-Chinese im- 
 migrants, "but its mountainous interior is occupied by 
 people of the Malayan race, the furthest Eastern out- 
 work of that great Family. European Missionaries are 
 now settled among this people, and we have from several 
 quarters Vocabularies accompanied by Grammatical No- 
 tices. There is reason to believe, that the Malay race 
 passed from the Philippines into this island ; they are 
 Malays in exterior, and some are in a semi-civilised state, 
 given to agriculture, and known as Kabaran or Pepu- 
 khwan, residents of the plain; others as Yukan, wild savages 
 of the hill. They have never made any real progress, 
 being either in subjection to the Chinese, or in savage 
 liberty ; they have neither Character nor Literature ; there 
 is an entire absence of Sanskrit words, which marks the 
 period of the Malayan colonisation to be anterior to the 
 Hindu conquest of Java ; intercourse with the rest of the 
 Malayan race must have been very slack, and the in- 
 fluence of the Chinese immigration and culture upon the 
 Language very strong. Four dialects are reported : 
 I. Sideia. 2. Favorlang. 3. Tackais. 4. Tilois. 
 
 I arrive at the Madagascar Group, consisting of one 
 Language the Malagasy. At a distance of many 
 degrees to the West, separated from Africa by the 
 Mozambique Channel, is the island of Madagascar, the 
 most Western outwork of the Malayan race. Crawfurd 
 asserted, that the Malagasies were a Negrito people 
 of African blood, with a slight admixture of the Malay 
 in their blood and Language, from pirates or tempest- 
 driven vessels off the island of Sumatra. Humboldt 
 led the van in the theory of a Malayan origin; and, 
 since the island of Madagascar has become better known, 
 and the residence of Missionaries, his opinion is gaining 
 ground. A Dictionary was published in English forty 
 years ago, and in French more than two hundred years 
 
MALA VAN FAMILY. 145 
 
 ago. Grammars have been published, and a translation 
 of the New Testament, in the Koman Character. The 
 latest opinion is that of Cousins, a Missionary of standing 
 (who has been selected by all the Protestant Missions in 
 the island to the task of revising the Bible), that the Lan- 
 guage is one of the Malayan Family, with an admixture 
 of foreign words brought in in the intercourse of trade. 
 Van der Tuuk agrees in the above, and remarks that the 
 Malagasy resembles the Toba Dialect of the Batta Lan- 
 guage in the island of Sumatra, above described; that 
 there are resemblances to Javanese, Malay, and Dhyak ; 
 and that the Language must have come from the West 
 coast of Sumatra, after an admixture with a Language 
 resembling that of the island of Nias. Certainly the 
 words in Malagasy are very long indeed; Malay and 
 Javanese roots are bisyllabic, and prefixes monosyllabic ; 
 while in Malagasy we have prefixes and affixes of three 
 syllables, extending the length of some words to a mon- 
 strous extent ; arid it must be admitted, that the Mala- 
 gasies are a dark race, speaking apparently the Language 
 of the brown races of the Archipelago. There are no 
 Sanskrit words, therefore the connection must date back 
 to a period before the immigration into Java of the 
 Hindus. They number about two and a half millions. 
 There is no peculiar Character, and the Missionaries have 
 introduced the Eoman Character. According to French 
 authorities, the Arabic Character was once used. 
 
 It is admitted, that there is great variety in the physical 
 appearance and colour of the different races, and great 
 admixture, and it may be possible, that a person, not a 
 scholar, living on one part of the island, might have diffi- 
 culty in understanding the spoken dialect of another part ; 
 but it is notwithstanding confidently affirmed, that there 
 is no essentially different Language spoken by the diffe- 
 rent tribes, and on closer study the apparent discrepancies 
 would disappear. The same translation of the Bible is 
 used throughout the island. I am informed by Cousins 
 
 K 
 
1 46 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 that "there are ten Dialects ; I. the Hova is the most culti- 
 vated, and spoken by the inhabitants of the Central 
 Province of Imerina. 2. The Sakalava is spoken by a 
 widely scattered tribe occupying most of the Western 
 seaboard, and part of the Northern end of the island. 
 Many of this tribe are quite dark, and among them, living 
 as they do on the West coast, an African element may 
 reasonably be expected to exist, and yet the grammatical 
 forms of the Dialect are the same as those of the Hova, 
 though the Vocabulary is very distinct. 3. The Betsima- 
 saraka is the chief Dialect spoken on the Eastern coast. 
 In the interior of the island South of Imerina is the 
 4. Betsileo, allied to which Dialect is 5. the Ibara Dialect, 
 spoken by a tribe lying still further South. Between the 
 high tablelands of the interior and the Eastern coast are 
 the tribes of the 6. Tanala, the 7. Bezanozano, and the 
 8. Sihanaka, whose Dialects are closely allied to the Betsi- 
 misaraka. Other Dialects such as the 9. Taimora an$ 
 10. Taifasy are spoken, but little is known of them. At 
 my request a paper was read at the London Philological 
 Society, and published in the Proceedings of 1878, by the 
 above-named distinguished scholar, which places our 
 knowledge on a sure basis. 
 
 The last Group is that of the Alfurese-Negrito. It is 
 confessedly not a geographical Group, but merely a device 
 to bring under review certain savage tribes, which can in 
 no way be held to be Malayan in race or in Language, yet 
 are necessarily included in a description of that Family. 
 From the great islands of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo both 
 Alfurese and Negritos are entirely absent ; possibly they 
 have been killed down. From the Celebes Negritos are 
 absent, but Alfurese are there in abundance ; they are also 
 found in the Molucca and Philippine groups. Negritos 
 are found in the peninsula of Malacca on the main- 
 land, in the Timour Group in great abundance, in the 
 Philippines, Molucca, and the Madagascar Groups. The 
 Alfurese are totally distinct from the brown Malay and 
 
MALA VAN FAMIL Y. 147 
 
 black Negrito ; they are wild, savage, Pagan head-hunters. 
 Their name is derived from a combination of Arabic and 
 Portuguese, term " al-f uori," the " outsiders," and is written 
 Alfora, or Harafora, or Turaja. The Negritos are black, 
 woolly-haired savages. I have already noticed their 
 existence in the interior of the Great Nicobar, and in each 
 of the Andaman islands. The Negrito tribe in the penin- 
 sula of Malacca is called Samang. Vocabularies have 
 been recorded, both of the Languages spoken by Alfurese 
 and by Negritos. We have a translation of the Bible in 
 one of the Alfurese Languages by Hermann, and linguistic 
 and religious works in others. There is no peculiar 
 Character, and indeed very little is known as to the names 
 of these Languages and tribes, and the origin of the parti- 
 cular races. Millies is said to have collected materials 
 for an Alfurese Dictionary, and Schneider and Bleeker 
 have published Grammatical Notes on the Language 
 spoken at or near Minahassa in the Northern arm of the 
 Celebes. We invite one of the distinguished scholars at 
 Leiden or Delft, to publish an essay in the English Lan- 
 guage, bringing up to mark the existing knowledge of the 
 Language and customs of these interesting and peculiar 
 tribes. All that I can do is to record the seven Alfurese 
 Languages, of which we have Vocabularies : I. Bolaang- 
 Mongonbo. 2. Menado. 3. Tomohon. 4. Amcerang. 
 5. Minahassa. 6. Toombulus. 7. Tounsea. 
 The whole Family stands thus : 
 
 i. SUMATRA-MALACCA.. 1 1 Languages 14 Dialects. 
 
 n. JAVA 4 Languages 3 Dialects. 
 
 in. CELEBES 8 Languages None. 
 
 iv. BORNEO 12 Languages None. 
 
 v. PHILIPPINE 12 Languages None. 
 
 vi. MOLUCCA 10 Languages None. 
 
 vii. TIMOUR 1 8 Languages None. 
 
 vni. CHINA i Language 3 Dialects. 
 
 ix. MADAGASCAR i Language 9 Dialects. 
 
 x. ALFURESE-NEGRITO. 1 1 Languages None. 
 
 Total 88 29 Dialects. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 I REMARKED in my Preface, that I began this task, as if by 
 a mere chance, and knowing nothing, and, though the 
 materials have accumulated round me, and kind friends 
 have helped me, I seem to be about to lay down my pen, 
 knowing little better than nothing. I wish that my time 
 of life allowed me to go over again my course of reading, 
 as set out in Appendix C., and, following the Horatian 
 maxim, defer publication for the next nine years. But 
 that policy might eventuate in nothing being done at all, 
 and something ought to be done. 
 
 No one will sit in severer judgment on this work than 
 I shall myself, and my first step after correcting the last 
 proof-sheet will be to make corrections and additions in 
 the first interleaved copy. I shall welcome criticisms, 
 however severe, if made in good faith, and based upon 
 truth ; and the enormous extent of the line occupied by 
 my work, from Peshawur to the Philippines, will expose 
 me to attack from specialists at one end of the line, who 
 will swallow as Gospel-truth all my errors at the other 
 end. From the remarks, that have been made to me in 
 conversation, by letter, and in print, I think in all humility 
 that these pages will be useful ; and that is my one object : 
 in fact, to do in my old age something for India. 
 
 The Table of Languages shows no less than two hundred 
 and forty-three names, and the Table of Dialects no less 
 than two hundred and ninety-six names ; so that in all 
 there are five hundred and thirty-nine varieties of speech. 
 
CONCLUSION. 149 
 
 In passing over so vast an expanse, and much of it un- 
 trodden ground, many of my statements must be accepted, 
 as the result of mere surface knowledge, or rather want of 
 knowledge, and a more ample supply of materials, and 
 greater judgment in the use of them, must lead to great 
 modifications, and I shall gladly avail myself of any oppor- 
 tunity to do so ; and, while I am maintaining a correspon- 
 dence in every part of the Field, I have my eye upon 
 every publication in Europe and Asia, so that I may fairly 
 hope to make my foundation broader and surer before a 
 Second Edition is called for. 
 
 What about the Future ? As regards the Peninsula of 
 Nearer India, scores of these Languages will disappear 
 under the pressure of the magnificent Aryan Vernaculars 
 of Northern India, the Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi, and 
 the two great Dravidian Vernaculars of Southern India, 
 Tamil and Telugu, which will become the linguistic 
 media of two hundred millions, fully charged, perhaps 
 immoderately, with loan-words from Sanskrit, Arabic, Per- 
 sian, and English. In these Languages will be developed 
 a new Anglo-Indian culture, and perhaps a new Eeligion. 
 The Characters, in which these Languages will appear in 
 the future, is 1 uncertain, and there will probably exist, as 
 now, two Northern varieties, the Nagari and Bengali, and 
 two Southern, the Tamil and Telugu, while the adapted 
 Arabic and the adapted Eoman Characters will be largely 
 used by the State, the Missionaries, the Foreign Com- 
 munities, and all who stand outside the great Brahmanical 
 religion. If we are wise in time, all those teeming 
 millions, who are ready to pass from Paganism and Sava- 
 gery into some form of Book-Eeligion and Civilisation, will 
 be led gently into Christianity and the use of the Eoman 
 Character : their Language must depend upon the innate 
 strength of their own Non- Aryan form of speech in the 
 death-struggle which must take place with the great 
 Aryan Vernaculars. It appears to me a waste of time, 
 and an impertinence, and an offence against National 
 
ISO LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 rights, which should be respected by the strongest 
 Government in dealing with the weakest tribe, to attempt 
 to introduce the English Language, as a Vernacular in 
 any part of India. It would be resented by a Nation 
 with any sense of freedom, and our mission in India is 
 to lay the foundation of Civilisation, Eeligion, and Free- 
 dom. The only place, which English ought ever to 
 occupy, is that of an esteemed and acquired medium of 
 Civilisation and Science. 
 
 As regards the Peninsula of the Farther India and the 
 Archipelago, it is hard to form any linguistic horoscope. 
 The great Vernaculars of Burmese, Siamese, and Annamite 
 will probably dominate on the Continent, and Malay and 
 Javanese in the Islands, for these two last only have 
 received into their fibres that infiltration of Aryan and 
 Semitic strength, which will enable them to supply a 
 medium of culture. For Malay, as for Hindustani, a 
 magnificent futuie may be anticipated among the great 
 Speech-Media of Asia and of the World. They manifest 
 that capacity for the absorption and assimilation of 
 foreign elements, which we recognise as making English 
 the greatest Vernacular that the World has ever seen. 
 
 And some of the secrets of the Past may be revealed, 
 when we arrive at a full knowledge of the Grammar, Voca- 
 bulary, and Phonetic Laws of the Languages of the East 
 Indies ; for in no other part of the world is there such a 
 wealth, such variety, such rich combinations of antagonistic 
 systems. 
 
 The range of the Himalayas are a great linguistic 
 Watershed of a most unique and interesting kind. A 
 study of the Languages of India, the Indo-Chinese Penin- 
 sula, and the Indian Archipelago, may some day furnish 
 materials for a wider induction of the Laws of Language, 
 than was possible to the limited data, available to Bopp, 
 Von Humboldt, and Max Miiller. We seem to catch the 
 first efforts of the human race in sitd, not in a dead level 
 of savagery, as in Australia, Africa, and America, but in a 
 
CONCLUSION. 151 
 
 graduated scale of improved and improving Languages. 
 In the rear of the Himalaya is the great Monosyllabic 
 Chinese ; their flank is turned by various combinations of 
 the Agglutinative method ; in their front is the great 
 Inflexive Word-system of the elder branch of the Aryan 
 Family, destined in its later Vernaculars to incorporate 
 Semitic loan-words. Thus from these Languages may, 
 possibly, at some future period, be gathered the connect- 
 ing links between the great Orders of Human Speech. 
 
 But a critic of this book, of the lively Competitive 
 Examination- class may say, Quorsum hcec tarn putida? 
 What practical advantage is there in collecting together 
 specimens of these savage media of speech ? If I had 
 invented them, or proposed to translate the Bible into 
 them, or galvanise into an unprofitable extension of linguis- 
 tic life, Dialects, which will soon perish if left alone, I 
 should be open to such criticism. But if the fact be 
 admitted of the existence of these Languages and Dia- 
 lects, evidenced by Vocabularies, testified to by the local 
 use of officials and travellers, we have before us the 
 wonderful phenomenon, that scores of tribes in a low state 
 of civilisation, who only require the use of a few hundred 
 words for all purposes, have from the uncontrolled license 
 of their inventive and logical powers developed special 
 and peculiar systems of Sound-Lore, Word-Lore, and 
 Sentence-Lore, and surely this is as worthy of record, as 
 the classified investigations of the Botanist, the Concholo- 
 gist, and the Entomologist, who do not pause to ask, why 
 their countless specimens existed, but examine and record 
 their distinguishing characteristics, before they cease to 
 exist. 
 
 And something more. The life of human beings was aptly 
 compared by Homer more than two thousand years ago to 
 the life of the leaves of the forest. Still more apt would 
 be that comparison to the life of Languages and Dialects. 
 Two thousand four hundred years ago Xerxes, son of 
 Darius, King of Persia, issued orders to the rulers and 
 
152 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Governors of the one hundred and twenty-seven pro- 
 vinces of his empire, and these orders were written to each 
 people according to their Vernacular and the . peculiar 
 Character of each province. Now, with the exception of 
 the Hebrew (which since then has changed its Character), 
 the Samaritan, the Phoenician, the Greek of Ionia, the old 
 Bactrian of the Avesta, the Demotic of Egypt, the three 
 Languages of the Tablets of Behistun, the Languages of 
 Accad and Susa, and possibly that of the Asoka Inscrip- 
 tion at Kapur di Giri, all the other Languages and 
 Characters have perished, and left us not a trace on a 
 fire-burnt brick or cylinder, or the legend of a coin. Of 
 what interest would it have been, if Herodotus had written 
 an account of the Languages of the Persian Empire ! Of 
 all the living forms of speech, catalogued in Appendix 
 B. of this work, it cannot be proved by monumental or 
 documentary evidence, or assumed with any degree of 
 probability, that, with the exception of the Sinhalese, 
 any one has existed in its present colloquial form more 
 than twelve hundred years. In no portion of human 
 history have chance and caprice played a wider and more 
 enduring part than in the death or survival, the rise and 
 fall, the domination and subjection, of rival Languages 
 and Characters. The rude Languages of the moun- 
 taineers appear to be still more transitory and unstable 
 than that of nations settled in towns and villages. And 
 yet many of the roots, of which these words are com- 
 posed, have an appearance of absolute indestructibility and 
 a proved antiquity, which is startling. The temples and 
 edifices may be built and fall to ruins, and new edifices be 
 built of the old materials ; but the bricks bear the mark 
 of their original mould. Thus, in the ordinary Lingua- 
 i'ranca of British India, Vedic and Mosaic roots jostle each 
 other in the mouths of those, who are scarcely aware, that 
 these precious waifs from past ages bore the same mean- 
 ing in the mouths of Aryan and Semitic speakers more 
 than three thousand years ago. 
 
CONCLUSION. 153 
 
 In the Vocabularies of all the Aryan Vernaculars of the 
 Indie branch there is found a residuum, which cannot 
 possibly be admitted to be of Aryan or Semitic origin. A 
 careful exclusion from the Vocabularies of the Non- Aryan 
 Languages of the East Indies of every word, which can 
 possibly be Aryan or Semitic, will leave likewise a residuum 
 of ISTon- Aryan vocables. These should be submitted to a 
 careful inter- comparison with each other, and will present 
 valuable data for the Comparative Philologist of the next 
 generation, to whom will devolve the task of comparing 
 Family with Family. 
 
 My object has been twofold : to display the extent of 
 the Field, and to bring to one focus the labours of the 
 past, and, at the same time, to organise some scheme of 
 general co-operation for the future. The Bengal Asiatic 
 Society, and the Eoyal Asiatic Society of London and 
 its Branches, have consistently placed their Journals at 
 the disposal of the contributors to linguistic knowledge 
 in every part of the Field. Something more seems re- 
 quired, w r hich I can only shadow out. Each Society 
 should make itself the centre and medium of linguistic 
 research, and all labourers and inquirers should be en- 
 couraged to apply to them for information and guidance ; 
 and that this may be done thoroughly, in each Society 
 one or two Members should specially charge themselves 
 with the duty of keeping abreast with the subject, so 
 as to hold together the scattered threads, very much as, 
 forty years ago, James Prinsep made himself the centre 
 of Archaeological inquiry in every part of India. The 
 Annual Eeports of these Societies should bring together 
 the notices, which may appear in independent periodicals, 
 religious or secular, such as the " Indian Antiquary," 
 " Calcutta Eeview," " Indian Church Intelligencer," &c., 
 &c., for the great difficulty of labourers is to get informa- 
 tion as to what has been published. The Eoyal Asiatic 
 Society has, for the last two years, done this work at home 
 thoroughly, and will continue to do it. From time to time 
 
154 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 the scattered contributions of distinguished authors, such 
 as Hodgson, Eobinson, and others, should be collected, 
 carefully edited, and published in a collective form. Each 
 Society should have corresponding Members in different 
 parts of the Field, that it may know where to turn to in 
 times of need for any particular information. And when 
 particular portions of the Field require light being let into 
 them, search must be made for the right man. I may 
 illustrate this by what I have myself been able to do. 
 Great uncertainty prevailed as to the Malagasy Language. 
 I happened last year to hear a Missionary in Exeter Hall 
 describing Mission-work and Bible-work in Madagascar. 
 I made his acquaintance, found that he was actually em- 
 ployed in conducting the translation of the Bible in 
 Malagasy, and he was good enough to read a paper before 
 the Philological Society, which set all doubts at rest. So 
 again about the Kawi Language, and the Language Field 
 of the Malayan Family generally; in no other way but by 
 application to the learned scholars at Leiden could I have 
 arrived at any results. During the last three years I, and 
 my fellow-labourer, Mr. E. L. Brandreth, have been con- 
 stantly stopped in our researches, until some reply from 
 India or the Continent has removed an obstacle. This 
 is pre-eminently a work, in which a number of co-opera- 
 tors, and central points of reference, are required. 
 
 It cannot be expected that the Officers, charged with the 
 Government of the Provinces of India, should have leisure 
 to initiate linguistic researches; but I have ventured to 
 trouble several, and have ever been received with the 
 promptest courtesy. This may have arisen from the con- 
 descending kindness of those distinguished Statesmen to 
 an old friend of many years, as well as from an intuitive 
 feeling, that a knowledge of the Vernacular of a people is 
 one of the important factors of good government. At the 
 same time, I have received letters from accomplished and 
 earnest young officers, who have their linguistic life before 
 them, and to encourage, and assist, and guide whose 
 
CONCLUSION. 155 
 
 labours it must be the pleasing duty of the Asiatic 
 Societies. Among all the Governors of Provinces, I must 
 specially thank my dear friends Sir George Campbell and 
 Sir Eichard Temple, who have deemed no corner of the 
 great Indian Problem unworthy of their touch, and have 
 touched no portion, which they did not adorn, whose 
 .genius and industry have found time amidst the cares of 
 State to make solid and lasting contributions to linguistic 
 knowledge. 
 
 The silent and unobtrusive labours of the Missionaries, 
 and behind them of the great British and Foreign Bible 
 Society, must be fostered, encouraged by grants in aid, and 
 duly noticed year by year. A scholar, who has brought a 
 previously unknown and unwritten Language under the 
 eyes of Europe, or who has compiled a Dictionary, where 
 none previously existed, or who has passed a Family of 
 Languages under scientific review, has done a great work, 
 which is worthy of honour and recognition from the State. 
 The Missionary, able to speak the Languages of the people 
 and teach the arts of peace, may, armed with translations 
 of the Bible in the Language of the people, prove to be the 
 best pioneer of civilisation among the wild Tribes of the 
 Frontiers of Bengal, Assam, and Burma. The soldier, with his 
 periodical expeditions, burning villages, and slaughtering 
 ignorant savages, has failed. The Civil Officer, with his 
 inelastic Law and his uncompromising Eevenue-demand, 
 has not succeeded. Let us try what the Missionary, with 
 the translation of the Bible in one hand, and implements 
 of agriculture and domestic manufacture in the other, can 
 do towards the pacification, civilisation, and christianising 
 of wild nomads living on a Jhum system of cultivation, 1 
 and raids upon their neighbours. A power of using the 
 Language of the people, and of communicating to them in 
 that Language new ideas of right and wrong, may do what 
 
 1 Jhum or Forest-clearing. " Arva in annos mutant et superest ager. " 
 TACITUS. 
 
156 '- LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 the sword and the policeman's staff have (by the aid of 
 interpreters) been unable to perform. 
 
 I have been asked by inquirers in the Field to draw up 
 a list of leading questions, and a Skeleton Grammar for 
 the guidance and assistance of those, who have the oppor- 
 tunity of collecting information. I do not think that this 
 would be advantageous. The old Eton Latin Grammar, 
 being the solitary conception of a Grammar to many, has 
 done much mischief, and called into existence rows of cases 
 and tenses, which have no existence. If assistance is re- 
 quired in recording Vocabularies, copies should be supplied 
 of Max Miiller's "Outline Dictionary for the Use of Mission- 
 aries and Explorers" (Triibner, 1867). If it is desired to 
 know how the characteristics of an unwritten Non- Aryan 
 Language may best be introduced to European students, 
 copies should be supplied of Bryan Hodgson's famous 
 Essay on the Kooch, Bodo, and Dhimul Tribes of Assam, 
 reprinted in Calcutta (Baptist Mission Press, 1847) from 
 the pages of the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society. 
 
 My task for the present is finished. 
 
 Ef /caXws, ws ^ov\6fJLtjv ' ei 5 tvdeeaTep&s, (5s 
 
 E. K C. 
 
 ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY, 22 ALBEMARLE STREET, 
 LONDON, July 16, 1878. 
 
( 157 ) 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 TWO LANGUAGE-MAPS. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 TABLE OF LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS OF THE EAST 
 
 INDIES. 
 
 ARRANGED .ACCORDING TO FAMILIES, BRANCHES, AND GROUPS. 
 
 MEMORANDUM. Where there is an accepted Standard, it is entered ; 
 where none exists, the word uncertain is entered. Where there is no chief 
 political or literary representative of a Language, independent of the 
 recorded Dialects, but two or more Dialectal varieties of equal rank, with 
 or without special designations, the number of Dialects is entered, as one 
 less than the number of varieties, so that in all cases the figure entered 
 below each Language-Name represents one less thau the actual varieties 
 of that Language. 
 
 Example. Hindi has 49 varieties I Standard; 48 Dialects. Kiranti 
 has 17 varieties no Standard; 17 Dialects. Malagasy has 10 Dialects, 
 but one of these is accepted as the Standard, so 9 Dialects only are 
 counted. 
 
 Without this precaution in many cases a Name would have been counted 
 twice, as a Language, and as a Dialect of that Language, thus unduly 
 swelling the total of varieties of human speech. 
 
 I. ARYAN FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 16; Dialects, 133.) 
 
 i. IRANIC BRANCH. 
 
 (Languages, 2; Dialects, 8.) 
 
 'Name of Standard TnoiUMr 
 
 Language. and Dialects. 
 
 1. Pushtu Standard Kdbul. 
 
 (6) Dir Swat. 
 
 Tirhai do. 
 
 Laghmdni South- West Districts. 
 
 Pashai do. 
 
 Kandahdri Kandahdr. 
 
 Peshdwuri Peshdwur. 
 
 2. Baluchi (uncertain] Baluchistan. 
 
 (2) Mekrdni Mekran. 
 
 Solirna'ni Deruh Ghazee Khan District, Punjdb. 
 
158 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 2. INDIC BRANCH. 
 (Languages, 14; Dialects, 125.) 
 
 Name of Standard. T ... 
 
 Language. and Dialects. -Locality. 
 
 1. Kafiri (uncertain) Yaghistan. 
 
 (i) Kohistjim Kohistau. 
 
 2. Dardui (uncertain) 
 
 (8) Gure"zi Kingdom of Kashmir. 
 
 Astori - do. 
 
 Gilgiti do. 
 
 Darel Yaghistan. 
 
 Koli do. 
 
 Palas do. 
 
 Childs do. 
 
 Yasin do. 
 
 Chitrfl do. 
 
 3. Kashmiri ...Standard Valley of Kashmir. 
 
 (5) Rambdni Middle Range, Jummoo Mountains. 
 
 Bhadarwa'hi do. do. 
 
 PaMari do. do. 
 
 Doda do. do. 
 
 KishtweCri do. do. 
 
 4. Punjabi (uncertain) Punjab Proper. 
 
 (10) Archaic do. 
 
 MuMni or Uch ...Southern Doabs, Province of Punjab. 
 
 Jugdwali Mozuffurghur District, do. 
 
 Jathki Central Doabs, do. 
 
 Pothwdri Western Punjab. 
 
 Dogri Lower Range, Jummoo Mountains, 
 
 Kingdom of Kashmir. 
 
 Chibhdli Lower Range, West of River Chenab, 
 
 Kingdom of Kashmir. 
 
 Gudee Middle Range, Kangra Mountains, Pro- 
 vince of Punjab. 
 
 Kooloohi do. do. do. 
 
 Puha"ri Kangra District, do. 
 
 5. Brahui (uncertain) Baluchistan. 
 
 6. Sindhi Standard Kurrdchi. 
 
 (8) Jathki Kuch-Gandava, Baluchistan. 
 
 Sirai Upper Sindh, Province of Bombay 
 
 La"ri. Sindh Delta, do. 
 
 Vicholi Central Sindh, do. 
 
 Thar^li Desert, do. 
 
 Kdchhi Kachh Peninsula, do. 
 
 Judgdli Mekrdn, Baluchistan. 
 
 Mendh Sea-coast of Baluchistan. 
 
 Special (5). 
 
 7. Hindi Standard Agra, Benares, Lucknow, North-West 
 
 (58) Provinces of British India. 
 
 Old-Hindui Language of Chand. 
 
 Hindui Language of Tuisee Dass. 
 
 Hindustani or 
 
 Urdu Lingua-franca of Northern India. 
 
 Dekhani Lingua-franca of Southern India. 
 
 Portuguese Hin- Lingua-franca of Portuguese Settlements 
 dustani... , on the We^t Ccast. 
 
APPENDICES. 159 
 
 Aryan (27). 
 
 Name of Standard TnpaKfv 
 
 Language. and Dialects. 
 
 Hinddri ) Lower Range of Himalaya, betwixt the 
 
 n , ... v Beas and Gogra Rivers, Province of 
 
 urllwal1 . \ Punjab, and North-West Provinces. 
 
 Kumdoni ; 
 
 Bhatti Sirsa District, Province of Punjab. 
 
 Bagri Sirsa and Hissar Districts, do. 
 
 Bruj Northern. Plain, North-West Provinces. 
 
 Kosali Trans- Gangetic Plain, do. 
 
 Baiswdri do. do. 
 
 Eastern Hindi do. do. 
 
 Kanoji Southern Plain, do. 
 
 Rangri Rajpootdna, Central. 
 
 Alwa"ri do., Alwdr. 
 
 Jypuri do., Jyptir. 
 
 Bikaniri do., Bikanir. 
 
 MarwjCri do., Joudhpur. 
 
 Harouti do., Kotah. 
 
 Udipuri do., Udipur. 
 
 Ujdyini do., Malwah. 
 
 Bund^li Bundelcund. 
 
 Bhag^li Bhag^lcund. 
 
 Ganwdri Benares Division, North -West Provinces. 
 
 Bhojptiri do., and Buhdr, Province of 
 
 Bengal . 
 
 Patna Buhdr, Province of Bengal. 
 
 Gya do. 
 
 Maithili do. 
 
 Mdigadhi do. 
 
 West Purneah do. 
 
 Semi-Dravidian (5). 
 
 Chentsu Masulipatam Hills, Province of Madras. 
 
 Ramusi Wandering Gypsies. do. 
 
 Lambadi do. do. 
 
 Kord,wur do. do. 
 
 Huldhi Bustar, Central Provinces. 
 
 Semi-Kolarian (13). 
 
 Bhil Central Provinces, Rajpootdna, and 
 
 Province of Bombay. 
 Chutesgurhi or 
 
 Larya Central Provinces. 
 
 Nimdri do. and Province of Bombay. 
 
 Hulba do. 
 
 Purja or Tagdra... do. 
 
 Bhuttia do. 
 
 Bhogtuh do. 
 
 Kharwar do. 
 
 Byga do. 
 
 Binjwar do. 
 
 Punka do. 
 
 Mehra do. 
 
 Katya do. 
 
160 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Semi-Tibeto-Burman (8). 
 
 Name of Standard T ,.. 
 
 Language. and Dialect. auty 
 
 Darahi ............... Terai, Kingdom of Nepal. 
 
 Dab. ................... do. do. 
 
 Denwar .............. do. do. 
 
 Kuswar ............ .. do. do. 
 
 Tharu ......... ...... do. and Oude Terai, North- West 
 
 Provinces. 
 Bhuksa .............. Nayakote, Kingdom of Nepdl. 
 
 Pakkya .............. do. do. 
 
 Gadi ....... . .......... do. do. 
 
 8. Nepali ...... (uncertain) ......... Central Valley, do. 
 
 (i) Palpa ............... Lower Ranges, Western Frontier, do. 
 
 9. Bengali ...... Standard ......... Calcutta, Central, Province of Bengal. 
 
 (12) Northern ......... Frontier of Hindi-Field, do. 
 
 Southern ............ Frontier of Uriya-Field, do. 
 
 Eastern ............ Frontier of Tibeto-Burman-Field, do. 
 
 ^Western ............ Frontier of Kolarian-Field, do. 
 
 /JS. Purneah ......... East of Province of Bengal. 
 
 ' Rungpur ............ do. 
 
 Kuch ............... do. 
 
 Sylhet ............... do. 
 
 Rabba (Pa"ti) ...... Province of Assam. 
 
 Meeyang ............ Muniptir State. 
 
 vQhittagong ......... Chittagong Frontier Tribes. 
 
 Mahomedan ...... Dialect of Mahomedans in the Province 
 
 of Bengal. 
 
 10. Asamese ...(uncertain) ......... Assam Valley, Province of Assam. 
 
 11. Uriya ...... Standard ............ Cuttack, Province of Bengal. 
 
 (5) Northern ......... Frontier of Bengali-Field." 
 
 Southern ............ Frontier of Dravidian-Field. 
 
 Western ............ Frontier of Hindi-Field. 
 
 Gomsur ........... . Province of Madras. 
 
 Kalahundi ......... Central Provinces. 
 
 12. Mara'thi ...Standard ............ Bombay and Poona. 
 
 (7) Wild Hill-Tribes Western Ghats, Province of Bombay. 
 
 Desi .................. Poona, do. 
 
 Dakhini ............ South Plateau, do. 
 
 Nagptiri ............ Central Provinces. 
 
 Konkani ............ Littoral of West Coast, Province of 
 
 Bombay. 
 Goadesi or Sawuntwari and Portuguese Territory. 
 
 Gomantaki ...... 
 
 Roman Catholic Mangalore, Province of Madras. 
 
 Community ... 
 
 13. Gujara*ti ...Standard...* ........ Gujardt State. 
 
 (6) Sura"ti ............... Surat, Province of Bombay. 
 
 Kattiawa>i ......... Kattiavrar, do. 
 
 Ahmedabadi ...... Northern Districts, do. 
 
 Mercantile ......... Bombay. 
 
 Bhil .................. West Satpura" Range, Province of Bom- 
 
 bay. 
 Pauriya ............ do. do. 
 
 14. Sinhalese... Standard ............ Colombo, Island of Ceylon. 
 
 (4) Elu .................. Language of Poetry, do. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 161 
 
 Name of Standard T -.__m._ 
 
 Language. and Dialects. 
 
 Veddah Forest Tribes, Island of Ceylon. 
 
 Rodiya Kandyan Hills, do. 
 
 Maldive Maldive Islands, Dependent on the 
 
 Government of Ceylon. 
 
 II. DE AVID I AN FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 14 ; Dialects, 30.) 
 
 1. 'Tamil Standard Madras (Kodun or Colloquial). 
 
 (6) Literary Language of Literature, or Shen. 
 
 flrular Neilgherries, Province of Madras. 
 
 Kurubar do. do. 
 
 Malearasa Annamulli Range, Northern Slope, do. 
 
 Vellular Shervaroy Hills, do. 
 
 Tanj ore Southern Districts, do. 
 
 2. Telugu Standard Madras. 
 
 (4) Bustar Central Provinces. 
 
 Jypore Vizigipatam District, Province of 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Ramusi Wandering Gypsies, do. 
 
 KoraVar do. do. 
 
 3. Kanarese ...Standard Mysore State. 
 
 (3) Archaic Classical Language, do. 
 
 Badaga Neilgherries, Province of Madras. 
 
 Wild Hill-Tribes do. 
 
 4. Malaydlim . . . Standard West Coast, do. 
 
 (4) Forest Tribes Annamulli Range, Western Slope, do. 
 
 Mappila Kannanore, do. 
 
 Laccadive Laccadive Islands, Dependent on Pro- 
 vince of Madras. 
 
 Mahl Minikoi Island, do. 
 
 5. Tulu Standard West Coast, Province of Madras. 
 
 6. Kudagu .... (uncertain) Coorg State, do. 
 
 7. Toda do Neilgherries, do. 
 
 8. Kota do. do. do. 
 
 9. Khond do Frontier of Provinces of Bengal and 
 
 (3) Madras. 
 
 Gumsur Ganjam District, Province of Madras. 
 
 Daringabaddi do. do. 
 
 Rumes do. do. 
 
 Orissa Muhals Province of Bengal. 
 
 10. Gond (uncertain) Central Provinces. 
 
 (9) Gayeti Northern Districts. 
 
 Rutluk do. 
 
 Naikude do. 
 
 Kola"mi do. 
 
 Mahadeo do. 
 
 Raj do. 
 
 Maria Bustar, Central Provinces. 
 
 Maree do. do. 
 
 Gotta do. do. 
 
 Koi or Koitor North of the Nerbudda River, Province 
 
 of Madras. 
 
 11. Oraon (uncertain) Shahabad and Belaspur Districts. 
 
 (i) 2 Dialects Province of Bengal, x 
 
 L 
 
1 62 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Name of Standard r nna .-\-i 
 
 Language. and Dialects. Locality. 
 
 12. Rajmuhdli.. (uncertain} Bhdgulpore Hills, Province of Bengdl. 
 
 13. Kaikddi do Wandering Tribes of Dekhan. 
 
 14. Yerukdla.... do. Vizigapatam District, Province of 
 
 Madras. 
 Bustar, Central Provinces. 
 
 III. KOLAEIAN FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 10 ; Dialects, 5.) 
 i. Sonthdl (uncertain) Bhagulpore, Birbhum Districts, &c. &c. 
 
 (3) 
 Munddri , 
 
 (2) 
 
 4 Dialects Province of Bengal. 
 
 ..(uncertain) Chtitia-Nagpur, Province of Bengdl. 
 
 Mankapati do. 
 
 2 Dialects do. 
 
 3. Kharia (uncertain) Singhbhum District, Province of Bengdl. 
 
 4. Juang do. Tributary Muhals of Cuttack, Province 
 
 of Bengdl. 
 
 5. Korwa do. Chiitia-Nagpur, Province of Bengdl. 
 
 6. Kur do. Central Provinces. 
 
 7. Savdra do Ganjam District, Province of Madras. 
 
 8. Mehtu do. Hill Tracts, Belaspur, Central Provinces. 
 
 Gadaba do. Bustar, do. 
 
 9- 
 10. Mal-Puhdria do. 
 
 .Birbhum District, Province of Bengal. 
 
 IV. TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 87 ; Dialects, 84.) 
 
 i. NEPAL GROUP. 
 (Languages, 13 ; Dialects, 16.) 
 
 1. Magar (uncertain) Kingdom of Nepdl, Lower Hills. 
 
 2. Gurung do. do. Higher Hills. 
 
 3. Murmi do do. between EiversGun- 
 
 duk and Kosi. 
 
 4. Newdri do Kingdom of Nepdl, between Rivers Gun- 
 
 duk and Kosi. 
 
 5. Kiranti do Kingdom of Nepdl, East Basin of Eiver 
 
 (16) Arun. 
 
 Rodong 
 
 Rungchenbung .... 
 
 Chinghtangya 
 
 Ndchereng 
 
 Wdling 
 
 Yakka 
 
 Chourasya 
 
 Kulungya 
 
 Thulungya 
 
 Bahinggya 
 
 Lohorong 
 
 Lambickhong 
 
 Baldli 
 
 Sangpang 
 
APPENDICES. !6 3 
 
 Name of Standard T ,., 
 
 Language. and Dialects. Locality. 
 
 Dumi 
 
 Khaling..., 
 
 Dungmali 
 
 6. Vayu (uncertain] Kingdom of Nepal. 
 
 7. Bramhu do. .; do. Nayakote. 
 
 8. Chepang.... do Kingdom of Nepal, Forests of Central 
 
 Region. 
 
 9. Kusunda.... do Kingdom of Nepal, Forests of Central 
 
 Region. 
 
 10. Sunwar do Kingdom of Nepal, Basin of River 
 
 Gunduk. 
 
 11. Limbu do Kingdom of Nepal, Basin of River Kosi. 
 
 12. Thaksya do do. Interior. 
 
 13- Pahri do do. North of Newdri. 
 
 2. SIKHIM GROUP. 
 (Language, I ; Dialect i.) 
 
 Y i. Lepcha (uncertain] Sikhim State. 
 
 (i) Rong 
 
 Khamba... 
 
 3. ASSAM GROUP. 
 (Languages, 16; Dialects, 23.) 
 
 1. Mishmi (uncertain] Eastern extremity of the Valley, Pro- 
 
 (2) Chulikota vince of Assam. 
 
 Digaru do. 
 
 Mijhu do. 
 
 2. Abor (uncertain] North Side of the Valley in the Hills, 
 
 Province of Assam. 
 
 3. Miri (uncertain] do. do. 
 
 (i) Abor 
 
 Sibsdgur 
 
 4 Aka (uncertain] do. do. 
 
 Dophla do. do. do! 
 
 Deori-Chutia do do. Tera'i. 
 
 Dhimal do. do. do." 
 
 Kachdri or do. do. do. 
 
 Bodo Rabha 
 
 (11) Mech 
 
 Hozai 
 
 Mechee of Bhutan 
 
 Dwar 
 
 Kftdi 
 
 Batar 
 
 Kebrut 
 
 Dallah 
 
 Ganga 
 
 Marahi 
 
 Dharel 
 
 9. Pani-Koch.. (uncertain] South Side of the Valley, Skirts of the 
 
 Hills, Province of Assam. 
 
164 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Name of Standard T ,., 
 
 Language. and Dialects. Locality. 
 
 10. Singpho or 
 
 Kakhyern..(wwcertaw) South Side of the Valley, in the Hills, 
 
 Province of Assam, and in the Upper 
 Basin of the Eiver Irawaddy, Inde- 
 pendent Burma. 
 
 11. Jili do South Side of the Valley, in the Hills, 
 
 Province of Assam. 
 
 12. Namsang- 
 
 Naga do South Side of the Valley, in the Hills, 
 
 (2) Banpara Province of Assam. 
 
 Tablung 
 
 ^3. Khari-Naga(Mncertoiw) do. do. 
 
 (3) Nougong 
 
 Tengsa 
 
 Lhota 
 
 14. Angdmi- 
 
 JSTaga (uncertain) do. do. 
 
 (3) Rengma 
 
 Arung 
 
 Kutcha 
 
 15. Garo (uncertain) ..South Side of the Valley, in the Hills, 
 
 Province of Assam. 
 
 1 6. Mikir .-(uncertain) do. do. 
 
 (1) Dialect 
 
 4. MUNIPUR-CHITTAGONG GROUP. 
 (Languages, 24 ; Dialects, 8.) 
 
 1. Munipuri... (uncertain) Muniptir State. 
 
 2. Liyang do. Watersheds of the Rivers Ganges and 
 
 Irawaddy. 
 
 3. Maring do. do. do. 
 
 (i) Khoibu 
 
 4. Mara"m (uncertain) do. do. 
 
 5. Knpui do do. do. 
 
 (2) Puiron 
 
 Sombu 
 
 6. Tangkhul . . . (uncertain) do. do. 
 
 (2) North, Central, and 
 
 South 
 
 7. Luhupa (uncertain) do. do. 
 
 8. Tipura do Chittagong Division, Province of Bengdl. 
 
 9. Khungui.... do Muniptir Hills. 
 
 10. Phadung.... do do. 
 
 11. Champhung do do. 
 
 12. Kupome do. do. 
 
 13. Andro do do. 
 
 14. Sengmai.... do. do. 
 
 15. Chairel do. do. 
 
 16. Takuimi.... do do. 
 
 17. Anal do. do. 
 
 18. Namfau do. do. 
 
 19. Kuki.. do. Independent Tribes. 
 
 (3) LushaM. North-East of Chittagong, Province of 
 
 Bengal. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 165 
 
 Name of Standard T _... rf 
 
 Language. and Dialects. .Locality. 
 
 Old Kuki North Kachar, Province of Assam. 
 
 Thadu, or New do. do. 
 
 Kuki 
 
 Halla"mi Tipura Hills, Province of Bengal. 
 
 20. Shendu Chi ttagong Hills, do. 
 
 21. Banj<5gi do. do. 
 
 22. Pankhu (uncertain) do. do. 
 
 23. Sak do do. do. 
 
 24. Kyau do do. do. 
 
 5. BURMA GROUP. 
 (Languages, 9 ; Dialects, 10.) 
 
 1. Burmese Standard British and Independent Burma. 
 
 (3) Arakanese Arakan Division, Province of British 
 
 Burma. 
 
 Tavoyi Tenasserim Division, do. 
 
 Yo Independent Burma, North of Yoma 
 
 Kange. 
 
 2. Khyeng (uncertain) Sandoway District, Province of British 
 
 Burma. 
 
 3. Kumi do. Koladyn River, do. 
 
 4. Kami do. do. dp. 
 
 5. Mru do. do. 4 do. 
 
 6. Kare'n do. British and Independent Burmah. 
 
 * (7) " Sgau do. Hills and Plains. 
 
 -Bghai do. 
 
 Red-Kare'n do. 
 
 ^Pwo do. 
 
 Taru do. 
 
 Mopgha do. 
 
 Kay or Guikho do. 
 
 Toungthu do. 
 
 7. Km (uncertain) East of Sal ween River, Kingdom of Siam. 
 
 8. Kho do do. do. 
 
 9. Mutse do do, do. 
 
 6. TRANS-HIMALAYAN GROUP. 
 (Languages, 8; Dialects, 23.) 
 
 1. Gyarung (uncertain) North-East Tibet, Kingdom of China. 
 
 2. Thochu do do. do. 
 
 3. Manyak do. do. do. 
 
 4. Takpa do. do. do. 
 
 5. Horpa do North- West Tibet, do. 
 
 6. Kuna"wuri... do. KunaVur, Bussahir State, Province of 
 
 (6) Punjab. 
 
 Milchan do. do. 
 
 Tiberskad or do. do. 
 
 Bunan do. do. 
 
 Sumchu Lahoul, Kangra District, Province of 
 
 Punjab. 
 
1 66 ( LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Name of Standard Trw.nlit-0- 
 
 Language. and Dialects. 
 
 LuhrungorKanam.Kunawur, Bussahir State, Province of 
 
 Punjab. 
 
 Lidungor Lippa... do. do. 
 
 Sugnum do. do. 
 
 7. Tibetan or Standard Tibet, Kingdom of China. 
 
 Bhotia Serpa Central Tibet. 
 
 (17) Ngari-Khorsum.... do. 
 
 Dokkthol do. 
 
 Hortsang do. 
 
 U-kompo do. 
 
 Chona do. 
 
 Khan do. 
 
 Balti Iskardo, Kingdom of Kashmir. 
 
 Dab Ladakh, do. 
 
 Laddkhi do. do. 
 
 Zanskdri do. do. 
 
 Champas do. do. 
 
 Kaigili HimaUya Mountains, Province of 
 
 Punjab. 
 
 Spiti do. do. 
 
 LhopaorBhota"ni..Bhotan State. 
 
 Changlo North-East of Province of Assam. 
 
 Bhotia of Twang... Towang State, Frontier of Assam. 
 
 8. Bhotia of Lo (uncertain) Tibet, Kingdom of China. 
 
 7. CHINA GROUP. 
 (Languages, 6 ; Dialects, o.) 
 
 1. Lesaw (uncertain} Yunan, Kingdom of China. 
 
 2. Lolu do do. do. 
 
 3. Kato do. do. do. 
 
 4. Honhi do. do. do. 
 
 5. Ikia do do. do. 
 
 6. Mautse do do. do. 
 
 8. ISLAND GROUP. 
 (Languages, 10 ; Dialects, 3.) 
 
 1. Silong (uncertain) Mergui Archipelago, Province of Burma. 
 
 2. Bojinjijida.. do. Andaman Islands, Dependency of 
 
 British India. 
 
 3. Bojigiah do do. do. 
 
 4. Akakol do. do. do. 
 
 5. Awkojawai.. do do. do. 
 
 6. Balawa do. do. do. 
 
 7. Ye're'wa do do. do. 
 
 8. Jarawa do. do. do. 
 
 9. Nicoba"ri Nancowry Nicobdr Islands, do. 
 
 (3) Great Nicobar 
 
 Car Nicobar. 
 
 Theressa 
 
 10. Shoboeng . . . (uncertain) Great Nicobar, do. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 167 
 
 V. KHASI FAMILY. 
 
 (Language, i ; Dialects, 5.) 
 
 Name of Standard T ,., 
 
 Language. and Dialects. 
 
 i. Khasi (uncertain).... South Side of Valley in the Hills, Pro- 
 
 (5) vince of Assam. 
 
 Synteng 
 
 Battoa 
 
 Amwee 
 
 Lakadong 
 
 Dialect (without name). 
 
 VI. TAI FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 7; Dialects, 6.) 
 
 1. Siamese Standard Kingdom of Siam. 
 
 (3) 3 Dialects do. 
 
 2. Lao (uncertain) On the River Mekong, Kingdom of Siam. 
 
 (2) Lawa do. do. 
 
 Moi do. do. 
 
 3. Shdn of 
 
 Burma ....(uncertain) British and Independent Burma. 
 
 4. Tai-Mow ... do Yunan, Kingdom of China, on the 
 
 (i) River Mekong. 
 
 Hota Shan do. do. 
 
 5. Minkia (uncertain) do. do. 
 
 6. Khamti do Northern Extremity of Valley, Province 
 
 of Assam. 
 
 7. Alton do do. do. 
 
 VII. MON-ANAM FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 20 ; Dialects, 4.) 
 
 1. Mon Standard Province of British Burma. 
 
 2. Kambojan... (uncertain) Kingdom of Kambodia, on the River 
 
 (4) Mekong. 
 
 Archaic Inscriptions of Nakhon- Wat, Kambodia. 
 
 Xong West of Kambodia. 
 
 Samre North of Kambodia. 
 
 Khamen-Boran ...West of Kambodia. 
 
 3. Annamite... Standard Kingdom of Annam, or Cochin China. 
 
 4. Paloung (uncertain) Near Bhamo, on the River Irawaddy, 
 
 Independent Burma. 
 
 5. Mi do. East of River Mekong. 
 
 6. Khmu do. do. 
 
 7. Lemet do do. 
 
 8. So do do. 
 
 9. Nanhang.... do. do. 
 
 10. Banar do. do. 
 
 11. Cedang do do. 
 
i68 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Name of Standard 
 
 Language. and Dialects. 
 
 1 2. Huei (uncertain) East of River Mekong. 
 
 13. Kut do do. 
 
 14. Sue do. do. 
 
 15. Stieng do do. 
 
 16. Proom 
 
 17. Hin 
 
 1 8. Sue 
 
 19. LawaorDoe 
 
 20. Binna.... 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 .South-West Yunan, Kingdom of China. 
 . (uncertain. ) 
 
 VIII. MALAYAN FAMILY. 
 
 (Languages, 88 ; Dialects, 29.) 
 
 i. SUMATRA-MALACCA GROUP. 
 
 (Languages, II ; Dialects, 14.) 
 
 1. Malay Standard Island of Sumatra, Peninsula of Malacca. 
 
 (2) (Lingua-franca of the Archipelago.) 
 
 Low Batavia, Island of Java. 
 
 Samsan South Frontier of Siam. 
 
 2. Achinese ...(uncertain) Northern Extremity of the Island of 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 3. Batta do Interior of Island of Sumatra. 
 
 (2) Toba 
 
 Mandailung 
 
 Dairi 
 
 4. Rejang (uncertain) Western Coast of Island of Sumatra. 
 
 5. Lampung... do. Southern Extremity of Island of Sumatra. 
 
 6. Korinchi ... do. Interior of Island of Sumatra. 
 
 7. Nassau do Islandof Nassau or Pagai, West of Island 
 
 of Sumatra. 
 
 8. Nias do Island of Nias, West of Island of Sumatra. 
 
 9. Enganoes... do. Island of Enganoes, West of Island of 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 10. Ourung 
 
 Bin\v uh... (uncertain) Interior of Island of Sumatra. 
 
 (4) Lubu 
 
 Oelo 
 
 Kubu 
 
 Abung 
 
 Kumring 
 
 11. Ourung 
 
 Binwuh... (uncertain) 
 
 (6) Jakun Interior of Peninsula of Malacca. 
 
 Udai 
 
 Sakai 
 
 Basisi 
 
 Sabimba 
 
 Mintira : 
 
 Rayet Laut, or 
 Akhye 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 169 
 
 2. JAVA GROUP. 
 (Languages, 4 ; Dialects, 3.) 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Standard 
 and Dialects. 
 
 Name of 
 Language. 
 
 1 . Javanese . . . Standard Island of Java. 
 
 (i) Low do. 
 
 2. Sundanese Standard do. 
 
 3. Madurese... do Island of Java and Island of Madura. 
 
 (i) Samunap 
 
 4. Balinese ...Standard. Island of Bali and Island of Lombok. 
 
 (i) Low 
 
 3. CELEBES GROUP. 
 (Languages, 8 ; Dialects, o.) 
 
 1. Macassar ...Standard South of Island of Celebes. 
 
 2. Bouton (uncertain) Island of Bouton. 
 
 3. Mandar ... do. West of Island of Celebes. 
 
 4. Bugi Standard South of Island of Celebes. 
 
 5. Salayar (uncertain) Island of Salayar. 
 
 6. Garontalo do. North of Island of Celebes. 
 
 7. Menado ... do. do. 
 
 8. Tomore ... do Island of Celebes. 
 
 4. BORNEO GROUP. 
 (Languages, 12 ; Dialects, o.) 
 i . Dhyak (uncertain) Island of Borneo. 
 
 2. Kayan do. 
 
 3. Pido-Petak do.] 
 
 4. Binjuk do. 
 
 5. Suntah do. 
 
 6. Sah do. 
 
 7. Milanau ... do. 
 
 8. Meri do. 
 
 9. Malo do. 
 
 10. Sakaran ... do. 
 
 11. Sanpit do. 
 
 12. Katingan... do. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 5. PHILIPPINE GROUP. 
 (Languages, 12; Dialects, 9.) 
 
 1. Tagdl (uncertain) Island of Luzon. 
 
 2. Bisayan ... do Bisayan Islands. 
 
 3. Pampanga 
 
 4. Iloko 
 
 5. Pangasinar 
 
 6. 
 
 9- 
 10. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Cagayan ... do. 
 Camarines do. 
 Batanes ... do. 
 Chamena... do. 
 Zambal . . . do. 
 
 Island of Luzon. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Batanes Islands. 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Island of Luzon. 
 
i;o LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Name of Standard T rt/ , o1 j 4 . TT 
 
 Language. and Dialects. Locality. 
 
 1 1. Bicol (uncertain) (uncertain) 
 
 12. Zebuana .. do. ...Island of Zebu. 
 
 6. MOLUCCA GROUP. 
 (Languages, 10; Dialects, o. ) 
 
 1. Sassarua ...(uncertain) Island of Amboyna. 
 
 2. Hurunka ... do. do. 
 
 3. Nusalaut ... do do. 
 
 4. Hila 1 do. do. 
 
 5. Nagari- 
 
 anpat do. do. 
 
 6. Tidor do. Island of Tidor. 
 
 7. TernjCte ... do Island of Tern^te. 
 
 8. Banda do. Island of Banda. 
 
 9. Gilolo do. Island of Gilolo. 
 
 10. Ceram do. Island of Ceram. 
 
 7. TIMOUR GROUP. 
 (Languages, 18 ; Dialects, o.) 
 
 1. Sassak (uncertain) Island of Lombok. 
 
 2. SumbaVa... do. Island of Sumbdwa. 
 
 3. Bima do do. 
 
 4. Timoura ... do. do. 
 
 5. Endeh do Island of Flores. 
 
 6. Mangarei... do. do. 
 
 7. Kio do. do. 
 
 8. Roka do. do. 
 
 9. Konga do. do. 
 
 10. Galeteng ... do do. 
 
 11. Solor do Island of Solor. 
 
 12. Allor do. Island of Allor. 
 
 13. Sumba do. Island of Sumba. 
 
 14. Timourese do Island of Timour. 
 
 15. Teto, or 
 
 Manatoto do do. 
 
 16. Kissa do. Island of Serw^te. 
 
 17. Savoe do Island of Savoe. 
 
 1 8. Rotti... do. ...Island of Rotti. 
 
 8. CHINA GROUP. 
 (Language, I ; Dialects, 3.) 
 
 I. Formosan... (uncertain) Island of Formosa or Taiwan. 
 
 (3) Sideia 
 
 Favorlang 
 
 Tackais 
 
 Tiiois ., 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 171 
 
 9. MADAGASCAR GROUP. 
 (Language, I ; Dialects, 9.) 
 
 Name of Standard TQiiHr 
 
 Language. and Dialects. ailty - 
 
 I. Malagasy ...Standard Island of Madagascar. 
 
 (9) Hova Imerina or Central Province. 
 
 Sakalava Western Sea- Coast. 
 
 Betsimasa'raka. ...Eastern Sea- Coast. 
 
 Betsileo Interior to the South. 
 
 Ibara Southernmost Province. 
 
 Tanala Interior. 
 
 Beza'noza'no do. 
 
 Sihanaka do. 
 
 Taimoro do. 
 
 Taif% do. 
 
 10. ALFURESE-NEGRITO GROUP. 
 
 (Languages, n ; Dialects, o.) 
 
 1. Bolaang- 
 
 Mongonbo (uncertain) Alfurese Tribe, Island of Celebes. 
 
 2. Menado ... do. do. do. 
 
 3. Tomohon . . . do do. do. 
 
 4. Amoerang... do. do. do. 
 
 5. Minahassa do. do. do. 
 
 6. Toumbulus do do. do. 
 
 7. Tounsea do. do. do. 
 
 8. Samang ... do Negrito Tribe in Peninsula of Malacca. 
 
 9. Unknown... do. do. in Philippine Group. 
 
 10. do. ... do. do. in Molucca Group. 
 
 11. do. ... do do. in Timour Group. 
 
172 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 ABSTRACT. 
 
 Family. 
 
 Branch or Group. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Languages. 
 
 I. Aryan I. Iranic 2 
 
 do 2. Indie 14 
 
 Total 16 
 
 II. Dravidian 14 
 
 III. Kolarian 10 
 
 IV. Tibeto-Bur- 
 
 man i. Nepal 13 
 
 2. Sikhim i 
 
 3. Assam 16 
 
 4. Muniptir-Chittagong 24 
 
 5. Burma 9 
 
 6. Trans-Himalayan 8 
 
 7. China 6 
 
 8. Island 10 
 
 Total 87 
 
 V. Khasi . i 
 
 VI. Tai 7 
 
 VII. Mon-Anam 20 
 
 VIII. Malayan ... i. Sumatra- Malacca ... n 
 
 2. Java 4 
 
 3. Celebes 8 
 
 4. Borneo 12 
 
 5. Philippine 12 
 
 6. Molucca 10 
 
 7. Timour 18 
 
 8. China i 
 
 9. Madagascar i 
 
 10. Alfurese-Negrito ... II 
 
 Total 88 
 
 Grand Total... 243 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 Dialects. 
 
 8 
 125 
 
 133 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 16 
 i 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 14 
 3 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 3 
 9 
 o 
 
 29 
 
 296 
 
 539 
 
( 173 ) 
 
 APPENDIX G 
 
 SELECTED AUTHORITIES FOR EACH LANGUAGE 
 OR FAMILY OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 N. B. These books are selected from a larger and more complete Register 
 of Books, Essays, Vocabularies, &c. , which have appeared in the last 
 quarter of a century, in separate Publications, or in Periodicals. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 Voc Vocabulary. 
 
 G. N Grammatical Notes. 
 
 G Grammar. 
 
 C. G Comparative Grammar. 
 
 D Dictionary. 
 
 J. of R. A. S Journal of Royal Asiatic Society. 
 
 J. of B. A. S Journal of Bengal Asiatic Society. 
 
 J. of Bo. A. S Journal of Bombay Asiatic Society. 
 
 Cal. Rev Calcutta Review. 
 
 J. of Ind. Arch Journal of Indian Archipelago. 
 
 App Append ix. 
 
 C. P Central Provinces. 
 
 N.S New Series. 
 
 O.S Old Series. 
 
 D. M. G Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesellschaf t. 
 
 ARYAN FAMILY. 
 
 IRANIC BRANCH. 
 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Pushtu Standard Dorn, G., 1840, St. Petersburgh. 
 
 Trumpp, G., 1873, London. 
 
 Raverty, C. and D., 1860, London. 
 
 Bellew, G. and D., London. 
 Baluchi Mekra"ni Mockler, G., 1877, London. 
 
 Pierce, J. of Bo. A. S., 1875. 
 Solimdni Gladstone, G. N., Voc., 1874, Lahore. 
 
174 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 INDIC BRANCH. 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Kafiri (wncertow)....Lumsden, " Mission to Kandahar," 1860, Voc. 
 
 Trumpp, G. N., J. of R. A. S., vol. xix., O.S. 
 Kohista'ni ....Burnes, Voc., J. of B. A. S., vol. viii., 1837. 
 
 Dardui (uncertain).... Leitner, Dardistan, 1870, 1877. 
 
 Trumpp, Cal. Rev., No. cviii., 1872. 
 Shaw, on Ghalchuh, J. of B. A. S., 1877. 
 
 Kashmiri (uncertain)... .Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1841, 1844, 1866. 
 
 Buhler, G. N., J. of Bo. A. S., vol. xii., 1877. 
 Elmslie, Voc., 1872. 
 
 Dialects Drew, " Jummu and Kashmir," 1875, G. N., 
 
 App. II., London. 
 
 Punjabi (uncertain).... Reames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 
 Trumpp, "Adi Gruuth," G. N., 1876, London. 
 D., Lodeanuh, 1854. 
 G., do., 1866. 
 
 Dogri Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir, G. N., 1875, 
 
 App. II., London. 
 
 Multdni Burton, G. N., J. of Bo. A. S., 1849. 
 
 Dialects Cuningham, Ladakh Voc., 1854, London. 
 
 Brahui (uncer 'tain).... Caldvv ell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Bellew, "Indus and Tigris," G. N., 1873, 
 
 London. 
 
 Leech, G. N., J. of B. A. S., vol. vii., 1838. 
 Lassen, G. N., Zeitschrif t, D. M. G., vol. v. , p. 358. 
 Nicholson, Translation of Indian History, 1877, 
 Kurrdchi. 
 
 Sindhi Standard Trumpp, G., 1872, London. 
 
 Eastwick, Voc. J., of Bo. A. S., 1843. 
 
 Stack, D., 1855. 
 
 Beames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 
 Jathki Hughes, G. N., Baluchistan, 1877, London. 
 
 Ka'chhi J. Wilson, G. N., Administrative Report, 
 
 Bombay, 1872-73, Bombay. 
 
 Judgali Hughes, G. N., "Baluchistan," 1877, London. 
 
 Mendh Mockler, G. N., Baluchi G., 1877, London. 
 
 Hindi Standard Kellogg, G., 1876, Benares. 
 
 Bate, D., 1875, Calcutta. 
 Beames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 Hoarnle, G. N., J. of B. A. S., vols. xli., xliii. 
 Fitz-Edward Hall, "Reader," 1870, London. 
 Old Hindui... Beames, "Chand," J.of B. A.S.,vol. xlii., 1873. 
 
 Hindui Growse, Tulsee Dass Ramayuna, 1876. 
 
 Hindustani.... Platt, G., 1870. 
 
 Fallon, D., 1874-75. 
 Shakespeare, D., 1849, London. 
 
 Dekhani Cradock, G., 1851, Madras. 
 
 Semi-Dravi- Hodgson, J. of B, A. S., vol. xxv., 1856. 
 dian Dialects Caldwell, C. G., 1875, London. 
 
 Beames, Indian Philology, p. 96, 1868, London. 
 Glasfurd, Bustar, Records of Govt. of India, 
 
 F.D. xxxix., 1863. 
 Semi-Kolarian Gazetteer Central Provinces, 1870. 
 
 Dialects People of India, vol. i., Kaye and Forbes Watson. 
 Dalton, Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
APPENDICES. 175 
 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Semi-Tibeto- Hodgson, Language, Literature, and Religion 
 BurmanDia- of Nepal, Part II., p. 55, 1874, London, 
 lects. Elliott, Glossary, 1868, 2d edit. (Beames). 
 
 Oudh Gazetteer, 1874, London. 
 
 Nepali (uncertain).... Hodgson, Language, Literature, and Religion 
 
 of Nepal, Part I., pp. I, 2, 1874, London. 
 
 Bengali Standard Yates and Wenger, 1864, G., Calcutta. 
 
 Shama Churun Sirkar, G., 1861, Calcutta. 
 Beames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 Haughton, D., 1833, London. 
 
 Dialects Grierson, J. of B. A. S., 1877. 
 
 Dalton, Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 M'Culloch, Muuipur Hill Tribes, Records of 
 
 Govt. of India, F.D. xxvii., 1859. 
 Hodgson, Kooch, Bodo, Dhimal, 1877, Calcutta. 
 
 Asamese (uncertain). ...Bronson, D., 1877, Sibsagur. 
 
 Brown, G. N., 1848, Sibsagur. 
 Robinson, G. N., J. of B. S. A., 1849. 
 
 Uriya Standard Maltby, G., 1875, Madras. 
 
 Beames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 Sutton, D. 
 
 Dialect.. Glasfurd, Records of Govt. of India (Kala- 
 
 hundi), Bustar, F.D. xxxix., 1863. 
 
 Mardthi Standard Beames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 
 Molesworth, D., 1857. 
 Student's Manual, 1868, Bombay. 
 Stevenson, J. of R. A. S., vol. vii., 1843. 
 
 Dialect Burnell, Specimens of South Indian Dialects 
 
 (Konkani), 1872. 
 
 Gujardti Standard Shapurji Edelji, G. and D., 1867, Bombay. 
 
 Beames, C. G., 1872, London. 
 
 Sinhalese Standard D'Alwys, G., 1852. 
 
 Clough, D., 1830. 
 
 Childers, J. of R. A. S., vol. vii., 1874, N.S. 
 
 Dialect Gray, J. of R. A. S., vol. x., 1878 (Maldives), 
 
 N.S. 
 
 Tennant, Ceylon, 1859 (Veddah), (Rodiyuh). 
 Rhys, David, J. of R. A. S., vol. vii., N.S., 
 p. 158 (Elu). 
 
 DEAVIDIAN FAMILY. 
 
 Tamil Standard Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Pope, G., 1867, Madras. 
 
 Rottler, D., 1834. 
 Telugu Standard Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Brown, G. and D., 1857, Madras. 
 
 Arden, G., 1873, Madras. 
 Kanarese Standard Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Reeve, D., 1858, Bangalore. 
 
 Hodgson, G., 1864, Bangalore. 
 
 Gover, Folk-songs, Madras. 
 
 Dialect Burnell, Specimens of South Indian Dialects, 
 
 1873 (Badaga). 
 
176 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Malaydlim Standard Peet, G., 1860, Cottayam. 
 
 Gundert, D., 1872, Mangalore. 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Dialects Burnell, Specimens of South Indian Dialects, 
 
 1873 (Mappila). 
 Robinson (Laccadive), 1874, Madras. 
 
 Tulu Standard Brigel, G., 1872, Mangalore. 
 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Kudagu (uncertain).... Cole, G., 1867, Mangalore. 
 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 Burnell, Specimens of South Indian Dialects, 
 
 1873- 
 Toda (uncertain).... Metz, Specimens of South Indian Dialects, 
 
 1873- 
 
 Pope, G. N., 1873. 
 
 Breeks, Voc., Neilgherry Hills, 1873, London. 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Kota (uncertain).... Metz, J. of Bo. and Madras Literature and 
 
 Science, 1859. 
 
 Breeks, Voc., Neilgherry Hills, 1873, London. 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Khond (uncertain).... Smith, G., Cuttack, 1876. 
 
 Macpherson, Records of Govt. of India, 1854. 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Gond (uncertain).... Hislop, Voc., Aboriginal Tribes of Central 
 
 Provinces, 1866, Nagpur. 
 Dry berg, G. N., 1849. 
 Dalton, Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Dialects Gazetteer, Voc., 1870 (Maria) (Maree), Central 
 
 Provinces (Koi) (Gotta). 
 Glasfurd, Bustar-Voc., Records of Govt. of 
 
 India, F.D., No. xxxix. 
 
 Ethnological Committee, Central Provinces, 
 Report, 1868. 
 
 Oraon Flex, G., 1874, Calcutta. 
 
 Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit.', 1875, London. 
 
 Raj-Muhali Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1672, Calcutta. 
 
 Caldwell, C. G., 2d edit., 1875, London. 
 
 Kaikddi Hislop, Voc. , Aborigiu al Tribes of Central Pro- 
 vinces, p. 27, 1866, Nagpur. 
 
 Yerukala Hodgson, Voc., J. of B. A. S., vol. xxv., 1856, 
 
 P-39. 
 
 KOLARIAN FAMILY. 
 
 Sonthdl (uncertain).... Skref Brad, G., 1872, Benares. 
 
 Phillips, G., 1852, Calcutta. 
 
 Dalton, Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 Munddri (uncertain).... Whitlej, G., 1873, Calcutta. 
 
 Bhumij, Ho or Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 Lurka-Kole. Tickell, Voc., G. N., J. of B. A. S., xxxv., 1866 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 177 
 
 Language. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Kharia (un certain] . 
 
 Juang (uncertain), 
 
 Korwa (uncertain) . 
 
 Kur or Kurka (uncertain) 
 
 SavaVa (uncertain) . 
 
 Mehtu or 
 Mangee. 
 
 (uncertain). 
 Gadaba (uncertain). 
 
 Authority. 
 Ruhal Das Haldar, Yoc., J. of B. A. S., xl., 
 
 1871. 
 
 ..Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 .. do. also J. of B. A. S., vol. xxvi., 1857. 
 .. do. also J. of B. A. S., 1848 
 .. do. also Hislop, Aboriginal Tribes of 
 
 Central Provinces, 1866, Nagpur. 
 ..Madras Census Report, 1874. 
 Shortt, Hill Ranges of South India, 1871, 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Latham, Voc., Comp. Philology, 1862, London. 
 ...Report of Ethnological Committee, Central 
 
 Provinces, 1868, Voc. 
 G. Campbell, Voc., Languages of India, 1874, 
 
 Calcutta. 
 ,.. Report of Ethnological Committee, Central 
 
 Provinces, 1868, Voc. 
 Glasfurd, Bustar, Voc., Records of Govt. of 
 
 India, F.D., xxxix., 1863. 
 Madras Census Report, 1874. 
 ...Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 TIBETO-BURMAN FAMILY. 
 
 Magar. . . . 
 
 (uncertain).... 
 
 Gurung. . 
 
 (uncertain).... 
 
 Murmi... 
 
 (uncertain).-.. 
 
 Newa"ri... 
 
 (uncertain).... 
 
 Kiranti... 
 
 17 Dialects,.. 
 
 Vayu 
 
 (uncertain).... 
 
 Bramhu. . 
 
 (uncertain).... 
 
 Chepang 
 Kusunda... 
 
 .(uncertain)... 
 .(uncertain}... 
 
 Sunwar (uncertain).. 
 
 NEPAL GROUP. 
 
 .Beames, G. N., J. of R. A. S., vol. iv., 1870. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Hodgson, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1833. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Hodgson, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1848. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 ..Hodgson, Language, Literature, and Religion 
 
 of Nepal, 1874. 
 
 Wright, History of Nepal, 1877, Voc. 
 ..Hodgson, J. of B. A S., vol. xxvi., 1857. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Hodgson, G. N., J. of B. A. S., vol. xxvii., 1858. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Hodgson, J. of B. A. S., vol. ix. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Hodgson, J. of B. A. S., vol. v., 1857. 
 .Hodgson, J. of B. A. S., vol. v., 1857. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Hodgson, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1848. 
 
 M 
 
178 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 Languages. 
 
 Limbu (uncertain).... Hodgson, J. of B. A. S., 1848. 
 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 Languages. 
 
 Thaksya (uncertain).... Hodgson, Voc., J. of B. A. S.,.i857. 
 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 Languages. 
 
 Pahri ....(uncertain).... Hodgson, J. of B. A. S., 1857. 
 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 Languages. 
 
 SIKHIM GKOUP. 
 
 Lepcha Standard Mainwaring. G., 1877. 
 
 Dr. Campbell, J. of B. A. S., vol. ix., 1840, Voc. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Buusen on Turanian 
 Languages. 
 
 Mishmi (uncertain)., 
 
 3 Dialects 
 
 Abor (uncertain). . . 
 
 Miri (uncertain). 
 
 Aka (uncertain). 
 
 Dophla (uncertain). 
 
 Deori-Chutia .(uncertain). 
 Dhimul (uncertain). 
 
 Kachdri or (uncertain). 
 
 Bodo. 10 Dialects 
 
 Singphu or (uncertain).. 
 Kakyen. 
 
 ASSAM GROUP. 
 
 .Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Robinson, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1856. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Brown, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1849. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta, 
 Robinson, G. K, J. of B. A. S., 1859. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Robinson, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1852. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta, 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 . .Hodgson, G. N., Kooch, Bodo, and Dhimal, 1847. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Hodgson, G.N., Kooch, Bodo, and Dhimal, 1847. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 ..Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Robinson, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1859. 
 Max Muller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 Anderson, Mandalay to Momien, Voc., 1876. 
 Bigandet, J. of Ind. Arch., vol. ii. 
 
 S 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 179 
 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Naga. .(uncertain) Dalton, Yoc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 3 Languages Robinson, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1859. 
 
 8 Dialects Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 Brown, Voc., J. of American Society, 1851. 
 Butler, Yoc., J. of B. A. S., 1875-76. 
 Peet, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1871. 
 
 Mikir (uncertain).... Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 Neighbor, Voc., 1878, Calcutta. 
 Robinson, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1859. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 Languages. 
 
 Garo Standard Dalton, Voc., Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 Keith, G., 1874, Sibsagur. 
 Ramnauth Chuckurbutty, Voc., 1867, Calcutta. 
 Pani-Koch (uncertain).... Dalton, Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 MUNIPUR- CHITTAGONG GROUP. 
 
 Munipuri (uncertain). 
 
 .English, Bengali, and Munipuri, D., 1837, Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 Damant, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1875-1877. 
 
 M'Culloch, Munipur and Hill Tribes, Records 
 of Govt. of India, F.D., 1859. 
 
 Liyang 
 
 . . (uncertain). 
 
 ...M'Culloch, 
 
 do. 
 
 Maring 
 
 ..(uncertain). 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Khoibu. 
 
 
 
 Mara"m 
 
 (uncertain). 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Kupui 
 
 ..(uncertain). 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 2 Dialects. 
 
 
 
 Tangkhul .. . 
 
 ..(uncertain). 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 2 Dialects. 
 
 
 
 Luhupa 
 
 ..(uncertain). 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Tipura 
 
 .. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Khungui 
 
 ,. do. 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Phaduug 
 
 .. do. 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Champhung. 
 
 .. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Kupome 
 
 .. do. 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Andro 
 
 .. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Sengmai 
 
 .. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Chairel 
 
 .. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Takuimi 
 
 ..do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Anal 
 
 .. do. 
 
 ... do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Namfau 
 
 .. do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 Kuki 
 
 do 
 
 ...Lewin. Hill 
 
 Tracts of Chittagong, 1869. 
 
 
 3 Dialects. 
 
 T T 1 
 
 
 Shendu (uncertain). 
 
 Banjogi do. 
 
 Pankho do. 
 
 Sak do. 
 
 Kyau do. 
 
 Stewart, New Kuki or Thadu, G., J. of B. A. S., 
 
 1856. 
 Stewart, Notes on N. Kachar, J. of B. A. S., 
 
 1855. 
 
 .Lewin, Hill Tracts of Chittagong, 1869, Calcutta. 
 .Lewin, do. % 
 
 . do. do. 
 
 do. do. 
 
 . do. - do. 
 
i8o LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 BURMA GROUP. 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Burmese Standard Latter, G., 1845. 
 
 Judson, D., 1866. 
 
 Phayre, J. of B. A. S., 1868-69. 
 
 Khyeng (uncertain).... Fryer, G. N., J. of B. A. S., 1875. 
 
 Kumi do. ...Latter, J. of B. A. S., 1846, Lewin, Chittagong, 
 
 Hill Tribes, 1869. 
 
 Kami do. ... Stilson, G. N. , J. of American Oriental Society, 
 
 vol. viii. 
 
 Mru do. ...Lewin, Hill Tracts of Chittagong, 1869, Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 Kardn do. ...Wade, G., 1861, Bennett, Voc., 1846. 
 
 8 Dialects. Mason, G. and D., 1846, J. of B. A. S., 1858, 
 
 1868. 
 
 Sgau and P wo. Brown, J. of Amer. Oriental Society, vol. iv. 
 Red Karen.... O'Riley, J. of Ind. Arch., N.S., vol. iii. 
 Toungthoo....Bastian, J. of R. A. S., 1868. 
 
 Kui (uncertain). ...Gamier, Exploration of River Mekong, 1872, 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Kho do do. do. 
 
 Mutze do do. do. 
 
 TRANS -HIMALAYAN GROUP. 
 
 Gyarung (uncertain). ...Hodgson, Language, Literature, and Religion 
 
 of Nepa"!, 1874, London. 
 
 Thochu do do. do. 
 
 Manyak do do. do. 
 
 Takpa do do. do. 
 
 Horpa do do. do. 
 
 KunaVuri do Cuningham, Ladakh, 1854, Voc. 
 
 Milchan. 
 Tibarskad or 
 
 Bunan Gerard, J. of B. A. S., 1842. 
 
 Jaeskhe, J. of B. A. S., 1865. 
 Sumchu, &c.. Latham, Comparative Philology, i862,London. 
 
 Tibetan Standard Csoma de Koros, G., 1834, Calcutta. 
 
 Foncaux, G., 1858, Paris. 
 Schmidt, G., 1841, St. Petersburgh. 
 Jaeskhe, D., 1866, G., 1865, Kyelang in La- 
 
 hul. 
 Hodgson, Language, Literature, and Religion 
 
 of Nepa*l, 1874, London. 
 
 Dialects G. Campbell, Languages of India, 1874, Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
 Changlu Robinson, Voc., J. of B. A.S., vol. xviii., 1849. 
 
 Lada"khi Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir, 1875, London. , 
 
 Zanska"ri do. do. 
 
 Champas do. do. 
 
 Balti do. Austen, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1866. 
 
 Dah Drew, Jummoo and Kashmir, 1875, London. 
 
 Kaigili Jaeskhe. 
 
 Spiti : do. 
 
 Bhotia of Lo (uncertain).... G. Campbell, Languages of India, 1874, Cal- 
 cutta. 
 
APPENDICES. 181 
 
 CHINA GROUP. 
 
 Language. Dialect. Authority. 
 
 Lesaw (uncertain). ... Anderson, Mandalay to Momien, i876,London. 
 
 Cooper, Pioneer of Commerce, London. 
 
 Gamier, Exploration of Mekong, 1872. 
 
 Lolu do do. do. 
 
 Kato do do. do. 
 
 Honhi do do. do. 
 
 Ikia do do. do. 
 
 Mautsee do do. Cooper, Pioneer of Commerce, Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Margary, Journal, London, 1877, 
 
 ISLAND GROUP. 
 
 Silong of Mergui (uncertain} J. of Ind. Arch. , vol. iv. 
 
 Ind. Ant., vol. i., Voc., Bombay. 
 
 Andamanese do. Temple and Man, The Lord's Prayer, 1877, 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Qth Edit., 1876. 
 
 Marsden, Polynesia, 1834. 
 
 Calcutta Review, 1878. 
 Nicobdri do. De Roepstorff, Voc. of Dialects, 1875, Calcutta. 
 
 Geographical Mag. Feb. 1875, and Feb. 1878. 
 
 Man, Voc., J. of B. A. S., 1872. 
 
 Records of Govt. of India, H. D., 1870, Ixxvii. 
 
 Calcutta Review, 1870. 
 
 TAI FAMILY. 
 
 Siamese Standard Pallegoix, D., 1854, G. 1850, Paris. 
 
 Loubere, Voc., 1687, Bangkok. 
 De Rosny, G. N., Paris, 1855. 
 Schott, G. N., 1851, Berlin. 
 Bastian, Travels, 1839, Berlin, 
 do., J. of R. A. S., N.S., vol. iii. (Cha- 
 racter. ) 
 
 Lao (uncertain}.. . . Garnier, Exploration of Mekong, 1872, Paris. 
 
 Lawa 
 
 Moi Mouhot, Travels, 1864, London. 
 
 Shan of Burma (uncertain) Gushing, G., 1871, Rangoon. 
 
 Tai Mow do Garnier, Exploration of Mekong, 1872, Paris. 
 
 Hota Shan. ...Anderson, Mandalay to Momien, 1871, London. 
 
 Minkia (uncertain)... Garnier, Exploration of Mekong, 1872, Paris. 
 
 Khamti do Dalton, Ethnology, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 Aiton do G. Campbell, Languages of India, 1873, Cal- 
 cutta. 
 Ney Elias, History of Shans., 1876. 
 
 MON-ANAM FAMILY. 
 
 Mon or Peguan... Standard.. .Haswell, G., 1874, Rangoon. 
 
 Phayre, J. of B. A. S., vols. xlii., xliii. 
 Mason, J. of American Oriental Society, vol. iv. 
 Bastian, J. of K. A. S., N.S., vol. iii. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Language. Dialect. 
 
 Kambojan (uncertain). 
 
 Xong 
 
 Samre 
 
 Khamen 
 Boran 
 
 Annamite Standard 
 
 Paloung (uncertain). 
 
 Wild Tribes 
 on the Upper 
 Mekong do. 
 
 Authority. 
 .Gamier, Exploration of Mekong, 1872, Paris. 
 
 .Bastian, Travels, 1839, Berlin. 
 
 .Aymonier, G. D., Voc., 1874, Paris. 
 
 Feer, J. of Socie'te' Asiatique, 1877. 
 .De Rhodes, D. and G., 1654, Prome. 
 
 Taberd, D. (Latin), 1838, Serampore. 
 
 Aubaret, G. and Voc., Paris, 1867. 
 
 Des Michels, Dialogues and Texts, 1869, Paris. 
 
 Schott, Bastian, De Rosny, De Grammont, 
 G. N. 
 
 Bastian, Travels, 1839, Berlin. 
 
 Yule, Geographical Magazine, 1877 (Champa). 
 
 Logan, J. of Ind. Arch. 
 
 Truong, G., 1867, Saigon. 
 .Logan, J. of Ind. Arch., N.S., vol. ii. 
 
 Bigandet, do. do. do. 
 
 Anderson, Mandalay to Momien, 1876, London. 
 
 Gamier, Exploration of the Mekong, 1872, 
 
 Paris. 
 .Bastian, Travels, Voc., 1839, Berlin. 
 
 Mouhot, Travels, 1864, London. 
 
 MALAYAN FAMILY. 
 
 SUMATRA-MALACCA GROUP. 
 
 Malay, 
 
 ...Standard 
 
 Low... 
 
 Achinese \uncertain).. 
 
 Batta do. 
 
 Toba 
 
 Maindailung. 
 
 Dairi 
 
 .(uncertain).., 
 
 .Crawfurd, G., 1852, London. 
 .Marsden, D., 1812, London. 
 Pijnappel, D., 1862, Amsterdam. 
 Van der Tuuk., J. of R. A. S., N.S., vol. i. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian 
 
 Languages. 
 
 .Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th Edit., 1876. 
 .Veth., Achin., 1873. 
 
 Rejang 
 
 Lampung ... 
 
 Korinchi 
 
 Nassau Island 
 Nias Island.... 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 Enganoes Is... do. 
 Wild Races do. 
 
 of Sumatra... 4 Dialects.. 
 Wild Races.. . . (uncertain). . 
 
 of Malacca 6 Dialects.. 
 
 .Van der Tuuk, G. D., 1871, Amsterdam. 
 .Crawfurd, Malay G., Diet, of Ind. Arch., 1852. 
 
 do. do. Marsden, Sumatra. 
 
 do. do. do. 
 
 .Marsden, Sumatra. 
 
 .Asiatic Researches, 1799, vol. vi., Voc. 
 .Crawfurd, D. of Ind. Islands, 1856, London. 
 Marsden, Sumatra. 
 .De Straaten, Voc., 1855, Leiden. 
 .Wilier and Netscher, 1855, Leiden. 
 .Crawfurd, D. of Ind. Islands, 1856. 
 .Newbolt, Malacca, London. 
 .Logan, J. of Ind. Arch. 
 Favre, Wild Tribes of Sumatra, 1875, Paris. 
 Revue de, Philologie (Mantras), 1872, Paris. 
 Crawfurd, D. of Ind. Islands, 1856, London. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 183 
 
 Language. 
 Javanese . . . 
 
 Sundanese.. 
 Madurese... 
 Balinese. ... 
 
 Dialect. 
 .Standard... 
 
 Low 
 
 .Standard... 
 
 .Standard... 
 
 Samunap... 
 .Standard... 
 
 Low... 
 
 JAVA GROUP. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 ...Roorda, D. G., 1875, Amsterdam 
 ..Favre, D., Paris, 1866. 
 ...Blisse, D., 1876. 
 
 Rigg, D., 1862, Batavia. 
 ...Vrede, Handbook and Glossary, 1876. 
 ..Spelling-book, 1866, Batavia. 
 ..Van-Eyk, D. and G., 1874-76. 
 ..J. of R. A. S., N.S., vols. viii. ix. x. 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, gtb edit., 1876. 
 
 CELEBES GROUP. 
 
 Macassar Standard Matthes, D., 1859, Amsterdam. 
 
 do., G., do. 
 
 Bouton (uncertain).... Wallace, Raffles, Voc. 
 
 Mandar do Raffles, Voc. 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Qth edit., 1876. 
 Bugi Standard. Matthes, D. and G., 1876, Amsterdam. 
 
 Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, 1852. 
 
 Salayer (uncertain) . . . Wallace, Voc. 
 
 Garontalo do Rosenberg, Voc., 1865, Amsterdam. 
 
 Menado do Latham, Comp. Phil. Voc., 1862. 
 
 Tomore do Wallace, Voc. 
 
 BORNEO GROUP. 
 
 Dhyak (uncertain).... Von Gabelentz/ G. , 1852, 
 
 Hardeland, G. and D., 1850. 
 Brook, Crawfurd, Voc. 
 
 Kyan do Crawfurd, Malay Gram., 1852, London. 
 
 PidoBetuk.... do Tieddke, Holland, 1872. 
 
 Bin juk and others do Encyclopaedia Britannica, Qth edit., 1875. 
 
 Burn, Voc., Logan, J. of Ind. Arch. 
 
 PHILIPPINE GROUP. 
 
 Tagdl (uncertain).... Buy eta., G., De los Santos, V. Noceda D., 
 
 Madrid, 1850, Manilla, 1794, 1754. 
 ....Montrida, G. and D., Manilla, 1818, 1841. 
 
 Bergnano, G. and D., Manilla, 1732, 1736. 
 
 ....Lopez, G., 1792, Sampaloc. 
 
 Bergnano, G., 1729, Carro, D., 1849. 
 
 Bisayan do. 
 
 Painpagna do. 
 
 Iloco... do. 
 
 And eight other 
 Languages do. 
 
 ....Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, 1852, London. 
 
 do., Diet, of Ind. Islands, 1856, London. 
 F. Miiller, Reise der Novdra, 1872, Vienna. 
 
184, 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Language. Dialect. 
 
 Amboyna and (uncertain). 
 other Islands 
 
 MOLUCCA GROUP. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 .Van Hoewell, G. K, Holland, 1877. 
 Wallace, Crawfurd, Raffles, Voc. 
 Ludeking, Ekris. Holland, 1874. 
 Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, 1852, London, 
 do., Diet, of Ind. Islands, 1856, London. 
 
 TIMOUR GROUP. 
 
 Sassak (uncertain).... Raffles, Zollinger, Wallace, Voc. 
 
 SumbaVa do do., do., do. 
 
 Floris do Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, 1852, London. 
 
 do., Diet, of Ind. Arch., 1856, London. 
 
 Sumba do Logan, J. of Ind. Arch. 
 
 Timour and other 
 
 Islands Marsden, East Insular Languages. 
 
 Malayan Miscellanies, 1820. 
 
 CHINA GROUP. 
 
 Forrnosan (uncertain). ...Medhurst, D., 1840. 
 
 4 Dialects.... Guerin, Paris, 1868, Voc. 
 Von Gabelentz, G. N. 
 Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, 1852, London. 
 Favre, G. N., Paris. 
 Van der Vlis, Utrecht. 
 
 MADAGASCAR GROUP. 
 
 Malagasy Standard Cousins. G. K, Proceedings of Philological 
 
 9 Dialects Society, 1878. 
 
 Van der Tuuk, G. N., J. of R. A. S., N.S., 
 
 vol. L, 1860. 
 Freeman, D., 1835. 
 Sewell, D. 1875, Antananarivo. 
 Baker, G., 1864. 
 
 Cousins, Synopsis of G., 1873, Antananarivo. 
 Marre de Marin, G. D., 1876, Paris. 
 
 ALFURESE-NEGRITO GROUP. 
 
 Alfurese (uncertain). ...Niemann, G. N., 1869, Holland. 
 
 Negrito do Jansen, G. N., 1856, do. 
 
 Riedel, G. K, 1871. 
 
 Wilken, G.K, 1863. 
 
APPENDIX D. 
 
 i. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF LANGUAGES. 
 
 Abor, 97. 
 
 Dardui, 34. 
 
 Katingan, 140. 
 
 Achinese, 135. 
 
 Deori-Chutia, 97. 
 
 Kayan, 140. 
 
 Alton, 122 
 
 Dhimul, 98. 
 
 Keikadi, 77. 
 
 Aka, 97. 
 
 Dhyak, 140. 
 
 Khamti, 122. 
 
 Akakol, 115. 
 
 Dophla, 97. 
 
 Kharia, 83. 
 
 Allor, 143. 
 
 
 Khasi, 117. 
 
 Amcerang, 147. 
 
 Endeh, 143. 
 
 Khmu, 130. 
 
 Anal, 103. 
 
 Enganoes, 136. 
 
 Kho, 108. 
 
 Andro, 103. 
 
 
 Khond, 71. 
 
 Annamite, 127. 
 
 Formosan, 144. 
 
 Khungui, 103. 
 
 Asamese, 55. 
 
 
 Khyeng, 105. 
 
 Awkojawai, 115. 
 
 Gadaba, 86. 
 
 Kio, 143. 
 
 
 Galeteng, 143. 
 
 Kissa, 143. 
 
 Balaam-Mougando, 147. 
 
 Garo, 100. 
 
 Kiranti, 93. 
 
 Balawa, 115. 
 
 Garontolo, 139. 
 
 Konga, 143. 
 
 Balinese, 138. 
 
 Gilolo, 142. 
 
 Korinchi, 136. 
 
 Baluchi, 30. 
 
 Gond, 74. 
 
 Korwa, 84. 
 
 Banar, 130. 
 
 Gujara"ti, 60. 
 
 Kota, 73. 
 
 Banda, 142. 
 
 Gurung, 92. 
 
 Koto, 113. 
 
 Banjdgi, 103. 
 
 Gyarung, 108. 
 
 Kudagu, 71. 
 
 Batanas, 141. 
 
 
 Kui, 1 08. 
 
 Batta, 135. 
 
 Hila, 142. 
 
 Kuki, 104. 
 
 Bengali, 53. 
 
 Hin, 130. 
 
 Kumi, 1 06. 
 
 Bhotia or Tibetan, 109. 
 
 Hindi, 45. 
 
 KuntCwuri, 108. 
 
 Bhotia of Lo, 108. 
 
 Honhi, 113. 
 
 Kupome, 103.* 
 
 Bicol, 141. 
 
 Horpa, 108. 
 
 Kupui, 103. 
 
 Bima, 143. 
 
 Huei, 130. 
 
 Kur, 84. 
 
 Binjuk, 140. 
 
 Huruuka, 142. 
 
 Kusunda, 93. 
 
 Binna, 130. 
 
 
 Kyau, 103. 
 
 Bisayan, 141. 
 
 Ikia, 113. 
 
 
 Bojigiah, 115. 
 
 Iloko, 141. 
 
 Lampung, 136. 
 
 Bojinjajida, 115. 
 
 
 Lao, 121. 
 
 Bouton, 139. 
 
 Jara"wa, 115. 
 
 Lawa, 130. 
 
 Brahui, 41. 
 
 Javanese, 137. 
 
 Lemet, 130. 
 
 Bramhu, 92. 
 
 Jili, 99- 
 
 Lepcha, 95. 
 
 Bugi, 139. 
 
 Juang, 83. 
 
 Limbu, 94. 
 
 Burmese, 105. 
 
 
 Lisaw, 112. 
 
 
 KachaVi, 98. 
 
 Liyang, 103. 
 
 Cagayan, 141. 
 
 Kafiri, 32. 
 
 Lolu, 112. 
 
 Camarines, 141. 
 
 Kakhyen, 99. 
 
 Luhupa, 103. 
 
 Cedang, 130. 
 
 Kambojan, 125. 
 
 
 Ceram, 142. 
 
 Kami, 106. 
 
 Macassar, 139. 
 
 Chairel, 103. 
 
 Kanarese, 69. 
 
 Madurese, 138. 
 
 Chamena, 141. 
 
 Kar^n, 106. 
 
 Magar, 92. 
 
 Champhang, 103. 
 
 Kashmiri, 35. 
 
 Malagasy, 144. 
 
 Chepang, 92. 
 
 Kat, 130. 
 
 Malo, 140. 
 
1 86 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Malay, 133. 
 
 Ourung Binwuh (Su- 
 
 SontMl, 81. 
 
 Malaydlim, 70. 
 
 matra), 136. 
 
 Stieng, 130. 
 
 Mal-Puharia, 86. 
 
 Ourung Binwuh (Ma- 
 
 Sue, 130. 
 
 Ma-utse, 113. 
 
 lacca), 136. 
 
 Sue, 130. 
 
 Mandar, 139. 
 
 
 Sundanese, 138. 
 
 Mangerei, 143. 
 
 Pahri, 94. 
 
 Suntah, 140. 
 
 Manyak, 108. 
 
 Paloung, 129. 
 
 Sun war, 94. 
 
 Mardm, 103. 
 
 Pampanga, 141. 
 
 Sumba, 143. 
 
 Maring, 103. 
 
 Pangasinar, 141. 
 
 Sumbawa, 143. 
 
 Mara"thi, 57. 
 
 Pani-koch, 98. 
 
 
 Mehto, 85. 
 
 Pankhu, 103. 
 
 Tagil, 140. 
 
 Menado (Celebes), 139. 
 
 Phadang, 103. 
 
 Taimow, 122. 
 
 Menado (Alfurese), 
 
 Pido Petak, 140. 
 
 Takpa, 1 08. 
 
 147- 
 
 Proom, 130. 
 
 Takuimi, 103. 
 
 Meri, 140. 
 
 Punjabi, 37. 
 
 Tamil, 67. 
 
 Mi, 130. 
 
 Pushtu, 28. 
 
 Tangkhul, 103. 
 
 Mikir, 101. 
 
 
 Telugu, 68. 
 
 Milinau, 140. 
 
 Rajmuhjili, 77. 
 
 Terndte, 142. 
 
 Minahassa, 147. 
 
 Rejang, 135. 
 
 Teto, 143. 
 
 Minkia, 122. 
 
 Roka, 143. 
 
 Thaksya, 94. 
 
 Miri, 97. 
 
 Rotti, 143. 
 
 Thochu, 108. 
 
 Mishmi, 97. 
 
 
 Tibetan, 109. 
 
 MOD, 125. 
 
 Sak, 103. 
 
 Tidor, 142. 
 
 Mru, 1 06. 
 
 Sakarau, 140. 
 
 Timoura, 143. 
 
 Munddri, 81. 
 
 Salayar, 139. 
 
 Timourese, 143. 
 
 Munipuri, 103, 
 
 Samang, 147. 
 
 Tipura, 103. 
 
 Murmi, 92. 
 
 Sanpit, 140. 
 
 Toda, 72. 
 
 Mu-tse, 108. 
 
 Sassak, 143. 
 
 Tomohon, 147. 
 
 
 Sassarua, 142. 
 
 Tomore, 139. 
 
 fNamsang, 100. 
 
 Sau, 140. 
 
 Toombulus, 147. 
 
 Naga < Khari, 100. 
 
 Savdra, 85. 
 
 Tounsea, 147. 
 
 ( Anga"mi, 100. 
 
 Savoe, 143. 
 
 Tulu, 71. 
 
 Nagari-Anpat, 142. 
 
 Sengmai, 103. 
 
 
 Namfau, 103. 
 
 Shan, 121. 
 
 Uriya, 56. 
 
 Nanhang, 130. 
 Nassau, 136. 
 
 Shendu, 103. 
 Shobceng, 116. 
 
 Vahu, 93. 
 
 Nepdli, 51. 
 
 Siamese, 120. 
 
 
 Newa"ri, 93. 
 
 Silong, 114. 
 
 Yerukala, 78. 
 
 Nias, 136. 
 
 Sinhalese, 62. 
 
 Yerewa, 115. 
 
 Nicobdri, 115. 
 
 Singphu, 99. 
 
 
 Nusalaut, 142. 
 
 Sindhi, 43. 
 
 Zambal, 141. 
 
 
 So, 130. 
 
 Zebuana, 141. 
 
 Oraon, 76. 
 
 Solor, 143. 
 
 
 2. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF DIALECTS. 
 
 Abor-Miri, 97. 
 
 Badaga, 69. 
 
 Betsilio, 146. 
 
 Abung, 137. 
 
 Bagri, 159. 
 
 Betsimasjiraka, 146. 
 
 Ahmedaba'di, 62. 
 
 Bahingya, 162. 
 
 Bezanoza"no, 146. 
 
 Akhye, 137. 
 
 Baiswdri, 159. 
 
 Bghai, 107. 
 
 Alwa>i, 49. 
 
 Balali, 162. 
 
 Bhadarwdhi, 36. 
 
 Amwee, 117. 
 
 Balti, in. 
 
 Bhatti, 159. 
 
 Anga"mi, 100. 
 
 Banpdra, 100. 
 
 Bhageli, 159. 
 
 Arakanese, 105. 
 
 Basisi, 137. 
 
 Bhil \ ( Hindi )>49- 
 
 Arung, loo. 
 
 Batar, 98. 
 
 11 \ (Gujaniti), 62. 
 
 Astori, 35. 
 
 Battoa, 117. 
 
 Bhogtuh, 50. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 187 
 
 Bhojpuri, 159. 
 Bhotdni, ill. 
 
 Gomsur- j /jrv, n d) 74.' 
 
 Konkani, 59. 
 Kooloohi, 40. 
 
 Bhotia of Twang, 112. 
 Bhuttia, 50. 
 
 Gotta, 75. 
 Gudee, 40. 
 
 Kord- ( (Hindi), 40. 
 war \ (Telugu), 69. 
 
 Bikanlri, 159. 
 
 Gaiko, 107. 
 
 Kosali, 159. 
 
 Bin j war, 50. 
 Bruj, 159. 
 
 Ganga, 98. 
 Gurezi, 35. 
 
 Kubu, 137. 
 Kuch, 54. 
 
 Bunan, ill. 
 
 Gurhwali, 158. 
 
 Kudi, 98. 
 
 Bundeli, 159. 
 
 Gya, 159- 
 
 TT- i . ( Old, 104. 
 Kuki, { -vr 
 
 Bustar, 69. 
 
 
 ' ( New, 104. 
 
 Byga, 50. 
 
 HalMmi, 104. 
 Harouti, 
 
 Kulungya, 162. 
 Kumdoni, 158. 
 
 Car Nicobar, 116. 
 Champas, in. 
 Changlo, 112. 
 Chentsu, 49. 
 
 Hindui, 46. 
 Old Hindui, 46. 
 Hinduri, 158. 
 Hindustani, 47. 
 
 Kuinring, 137. 
 Kurular, 68. 
 Kuswar, 50. 
 Kutcha, 100. 
 
 Chibhdli, 40. 
 ChiMs, 35. 
 
 Hota-shan, 122. 
 Hor-Tsang, no. 
 
 Laccadive, 70. 
 
 Chingtangya, 162. 
 Chitrd,!, 25. 
 
 Hova, 146. 
 Hozai, 98. 
 
 Lada~khi, no. 
 Laghmdni, 29. 
 
 Chittagong, 54. 
 Chona, 10. 
 Choorasya, 162. 
 Chulikota, 97. 
 Chutesguhri, 49. 
 
 Hulba, 50. 
 Hula~hi, 49. 
 
 Ibdra, 146. 
 Irular, 68. 
 
 Lambddi, 49. 
 Lambickhong, 162. 
 Lakadong, 117. 
 Lari, 44. 
 Larya, 50. 
 Law a, 121. 
 
 Dah 5 ( Tibetan ) '" 
 D * h \ (Hindi), 50. 
 
 Jakun, 137. 
 
 jathki | ggj^t 
 
 Lhopa, in. 
 Lhota, ioo. 
 Lid ting, 109. 
 
 Dairi, I35 
 Daringabaddi, 74. 
 
 Judgali, 44. 
 Jugdwdli, 40. 
 
 Lippa, 109. 
 Loharung, 162. 
 
 Dekhani { AT ^ i*-\ 
 
 Jypdre, 69. 
 
 Low Balinese, 138. 
 
 Desi, 59. 
 Denwar, 50. 
 Dharel, 98. 
 Digaru, 97. 
 
 Jypuri, 159- 
 
 Kachhi, 44. 
 Kaigili, 1 66. 
 Kalahundi, 57. 
 
 Low Javanese, 137. 
 Low Malay, 134. 
 Lubu, 137. 
 Luhrung, 109. 
 Lushai, 104. 
 
 Dir, 29. 
 
 Doda, 36. 
 Dogri, 40. 
 Dokhthol, 1 10. 
 
 Kanam, 109. 
 Kandahdri, 29. 
 Kanoji, 159. 
 Kattiwdri, 62. 
 
 Mdgadhi, 159. 
 Mahadeo, 75. 
 Mahl, 71. 
 
 Dumi, 162. 
 Dungmali, 162. 
 Durahi, 50. 
 Durel, 35. 
 
 Katya, 50. 
 Kay, 107. 
 Kebrat, 54. 
 Khaling, 162. 
 
 Mahomedan-Bengdli, 
 
 54- 
 Maithili, 159. 
 Maldive, 64. 
 
 
 Khamba, 95. 
 
 Mankipati, 82. 
 
 Elu, 63. 
 
 Khamen-Booran, 127. 
 
 Mappila, 70. 
 
 
 Khan, no. 
 
 Marahi, 98. 
 
 Favorlang, 144. 
 
 Khari, 100. 
 
 Mari, 75. 
 
 Forest tribes (Tamil), 
 
 Kharwar, 50. 
 
 Maria, 75. 
 
 68. 
 
 Khoibu, 164. 
 
 Marwdri, 159. 
 
 
 Kishtwdri, 36. '" 
 
 Mech, 98. 
 
 Gadi, 50. 
 
 Kodun, 67. 
 
 Mechee, 98. 
 
 Ganwdxi, 159. 
 
 Kohistdni, 33. 
 
 Meeyang, 54. 
 
 G.iyeti, 75. 
 
 Koi, 75. 
 
 Mehra, 50. 
 
 Gilgiti, 35. 
 
 Kolami, 75. 
 
 Mekrdni, 30. 
 
 Goadesi, 59. 
 
 Koli, 35. 
 
 Mendh, 44. 
 
i88 
 
 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Mercantile-Bombay, 6i. 
 
 Rabha J ( Ben ^ li ) 54- 
 
 Tablung, 100. 
 
 Mijhu, 97. 
 
 ( (Kachdri), 98. 
 
 Tackais, 144. 
 
 Milchan, 109. 
 
 Raj, 36. 
 
 Tagara, 50. 
 
 Mintira, 137. 
 
 Rambdni. 
 
 Taifasy, 146. 
 
 Moi, 121. 
 
 P , ( (Hindi), 49. 
 
 Taimoro, 146. 
 
 Mopgha, 107. 
 
 ( (Telugu), 69. 
 
 Tanala, 146. 
 
 Multdini, 39. 
 Mundailung, 135. 
 
 Rangri, 159. 
 Rayet Laut, 137. 
 
 Tanjore, 68. 
 Taru, 107. 
 
 Nachereng. 
 Nagpuri, 59. 
 JNaikude, 75. 
 Namsang, 100. 
 
 Red Karen, 107. 
 Rengma, 100. 
 Roddyah, 64. 
 Rodong, 162. 
 Roman Catholic (Man- 
 
 Tavoyi, 105. 
 Tengsa, 100. 
 Thareli, 44. 
 Tharu, 50. 
 Theressa, 116. 
 
 Nancowry, 116. 
 Ngari-Khorsun, no. 
 Nicobar (Great), 116. 
 
 galore), 60. 
 Rong, 95. 
 Rumes, 74. 
 
 Thulungga, 162. 
 Tibarskad, 109. 
 Tilais, 144. 
 
 Nimdri, 50. 
 Nougong, 100. 
 
 Rungpore, 54. 
 Runchengbung, 162. 
 
 Tirhai, 29. 
 Toba, 135. 
 
 Oelo, 137. 
 
 Rutluk, 75. 
 
 Toungthu, 107. 
 
 Orissa Muhals, 74. 
 
 Sabimba, 137. 
 
 Udai, 137. 
 
 PfCdari, 36. 
 
 Sakai, 137. 
 
 Udiptiri, 159. 
 
 Pakhya, 50. 
 
 Sakalava, 146. 
 
 Ujayini, 159. 
 
 Palas, 35. 
 
 Samre, 127. 
 
 U-kombo, no. 
 
 Pallah, 54. 
 
 Samsan, 134. 
 
 Urdu, 47. 
 
 Palpa, 51. 
 
 Sumanap, 138. 
 
 
 Pashai, 29. 
 
 Sangpang, 162. 
 
 Veddah, 63. 
 
 Patna, 159. 
 
 Serpa, no. 
 
 Vellular, 161. 
 
 Pauryah, 62. 
 
 Sgau, 107. 
 
 Vichdli, 44. 
 
 PeshaVuri, 29. 
 
 Shen, 67. 
 
 
 Portugese-Hindustani, 
 
 Sibsagur-Miri. 
 
 Wild Hill Tribes (Kana- 
 
 47- 
 
 Sideia, 144. 
 
 rese), 70. 
 
 Pothwdri, 40. 
 
 Sihanaka, 146. 
 
 Waling, 162. 
 
 Puha"ri, 40. 
 
 Sirai, 44. 
 
 
 Puiron, 103. 
 
 Solima'ni, 31. 
 
 Yakka, 162. 
 
 Punka, 50. 
 
 Sombu, 103. 
 
 Yasin, 35. 
 
 Purja, 50. 
 
 Spiti, in. 
 
 Yo, 105. 
 
 Purneah, W. (Hindi), 
 
 Sugnum, 109. 
 
 
 159- 
 
 Sumchu, 109. 
 
 Xong, 127. 
 
 Purneah, E. (Bengali), 
 
 Surdti, 6l. 
 
 
 54- 
 
 Sylhet, 54. 
 
 Zanska"ri, in. 
 
 Pwo, 107. 
 
 Synteng, 117. 
 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 189 
 
 3. ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF PECULIAR 
 CHARACTERS. 
 
 Ahom, 1 8, 122. 
 Annamite, 19, 128. 
 Arabic, 19, 30, 31, 37, 
 41, 46, 50, 64, ill, 
 
 134. 
 
 Asamese, 19, 55. 
 Balbodh, 19, 58, 62. 
 Batta, 20, 135. 
 Bengali, 19, 54, 81. 
 Bugi, 20, 131. 
 Burmese, 20, 105. 
 Dewehi Hukara, 64. 
 Dogri, 19, 41. 
 Gahali Tana, 64. 
 Grantham, 19, 67. 
 Gujantti, 19, 62. 
 Gurmukhi, 19, 41, 46. 
 Hala Kannada, 19, 70. 
 Javanese, 20, 137. 
 Kachari, 98. 
 Kakhyen, 99. 
 Kambojan, 20, 127. 
 
 Kambojan (Archaic), 
 
 20, 126. 
 
 Kashmiri, 19, 37. 
 Ka"wi, 1 8, 20. 
 Kdyati, 19, 50. 
 Khamti, 122. 
 Konkani, 60. 
 Korinchi, 20, 136. 
 Lampung, 20, 136. 
 Lao, 121. 
 Lepcha, 20, 95. 
 Limbu, 20, 92, 94. 
 Lundi, 19, 41. 
 Mahdjuni, 19, 50. 
 Malayalim, 19, 70, 71. 
 Maldive, 19, 64. 
 Mappila, 70. 
 Modi, 19, 58. 
 Mon, 20, 125. 
 Munipuri, 20, 103. 
 Ndgari, 19, 46, 50, 51, 
 
 58, 60, 76, 82. 
 
 Nepali, 19, 52. 
 Newdri, 20, 92, 93. 
 Pali, 19, 125. 
 Rejang, 20, 136. 
 Sharada, 37. 
 Sha"n, 121. 
 Siamese, 12 1. 
 Sindhi, 46. 
 Sinhalese, 19, 63. 
 Sura"fi, 50. 
 Tagal, 20, 141. 
 Tai Mow, 122. 
 Tamil, 19, 67. 
 Telugu - Kanarese, 19, 
 
 69, 71, 72- 
 Thakuri, 37, 41. 
 Tibetan, 19, 109, III, 
 
 112. 
 
 Uriya, 19, 57, 74. 
 Vattelutto, 19. 
 
190 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF SUBJECTS, AUTHOKS, 
 BOOKS, AND PLACES. 
 
 Abajmard, 76. 
 Abulfuzul, 35. 
 Adi Granth, 38. 
 Afghan, 29. 
 Africa, African, 16. 
 Agglutinative, n, 79, 
 
 89, 151- 
 
 Ahom, 8, 55, 122. 
 Aiton, 51. 
 Alfurese, 7,9,^3 I > I 33, 
 
 146, 147. 
 Allo-phyllian, 5. 
 Alphabets, 19. 
 America, 150. 
 Anderson, 99, 113. 
 Angeour, 126. 
 Annamulli, 68, 70. 
 Appendices, 24. 
 Arab, 16. 
 Arabic, 1 6, 17, 19, 134, 
 
 149. 
 
 Arakan, 105. 
 Archipelago, 7, 13, 14, 
 
 131,150- 
 Armenian, 16. 
 Aryan, 4,8, 10, n, 12, 
 
 14, 28. 
 
 Arte, 22. 
 Asama, 122. 
 Asoka, 19, 20. 
 Assam, 7, 12, 95, 122. 
 Australia, 115, 150. 
 Authorities, 25. 
 Avesta, 17. 
 Aymonier, 124. 
 Ayuthia, 120. 
 
 Ba"bi, 30. 
 Badakhshan, 34. 
 Bali, 12, 38. 
 Ball, 116. 
 Baltistan, 34, in. 
 Baluchistan, 30. 
 Bangkok, 2, 119. 
 Banca and Billiton, 
 133- 
 
 Bassac, 130. 
 
 Bastian, 3, 19, 120, 124, 
 
 126, 130. 
 Batavia, 2, 184. 
 Bate, 51. 
 Bathang, 112. 
 Beames, 3, 8, 9, 23, 36, 
 
 44, 5i, 57, 61. 
 Bellew, 42. 
 Behistun, 12, 152. 
 Bencoolen, 136. 
 Bengal, 7, 12, 102. 
 Beschi, 68. 
 Bhamu, 99, 113, 122. 
 Bhar, 10, n, 80. 
 Bhil, 10, ii, 80. 
 Bhumij, 82. 
 Bhutan, 98, no, in. 
 Bhuya, 80. 
 
 Bible Society, 22, 155. 
 Bigandet, 22, 99. 
 Birhor, 82. 
 Bleeker, 147. 
 Bolan Pass, n. 
 Bombay, 61. 
 Bopp, 13, 150. 
 Borneo, 132. 
 Brahmaputra, 12, 95, 
 
 96, 98, 108, 119. 
 Brandreth, 25, 26, 89, 
 
 IS4- 
 
 Brigel, 71. 
 Bronson, 55. 
 Brown, 3, 19, 96, 99. 
 Buchanan, 3. 
 Burma, 8, 99, 121, 122, 
 
 123. 
 Burnell, 3, 19, 59, 66, 
 
 72. 
 
 Buronjie, 56. 
 Burton, 44. 
 Bussahir, 108. 
 Butler, loo. 
 
 Caldwell, 3, 8, 22, 23, 
 42, 65. 
 
 Campbell, 6, 42, 79, 
 
 155. 
 
 Campong, 132, 142. 
 Cannibal, 83, 135. 
 Carey, 22. 
 Cargo of Slaves, 6, 
 
 114. 
 
 Celebes, 131. 
 Census Report, 8, 85. 
 Central Provinces, 75. 
 Ceylon, 12, 16, 17, 62, 
 
 67. 
 
 Champa, 128. 
 Chand, 6, 46. 
 Changlo Black, 112. 
 Chandrabhaga, no. 
 Chief Commissioner, 
 
 IOI. 
 
 Chikakole, 12. 
 Childers, 62. 
 China, Chinese, 4, 90, 
 
 96,97, 112, 133, 144, 
 
 n, 15, 16, 120, 124, 
 
 128, 140. 
 
 Chittagong, 102, 105. 
 Christopher, 62. 
 Chumba, 40. 
 Church Missionary So- 
 ciety, 9. 
 Chutia-Nagpur, 50, 76, 
 
 82. 
 
 Cleveland, 76. 
 Coates, 86. 
 Cochin, 70. 
 
 Cochin-China, 127, 129. 
 Colebrooke, 2, 3. 
 Controversies, 13, 24. 
 Conventional Pecked 
 
 Lines, 132. 
 Cooper, 97, 113. 
 Cousins, 144. 
 Crawfurd, 3, 13, 128, 
 
 140, 141, 144. 
 Csoma de Koros, 21. 
 Cunningham, 35. 
 Cuttack, 56, 73. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 191 
 
 Dalton, 3, 8, 76, 81, 
 
 83, 85, 86, 96, 98. 
 Damant, 103. 
 Darius, 151. 
 Darjeeling, 95. 
 De Koepstorf, 114. 
 Desi, 5. 
 Des Michels, 124, 127, 
 
 130. 
 Deruh Ghazi Khan, 31, 
 
 42. 
 
 Dihong, 97. 
 Dialect, 5. 
 Dialect-Field of Hindi, 
 
 48. 
 Dialects of South India, 
 
 59, 68, 72. 
 Dili, 142. 
 Doab, 37. 
 Domestic Language, 
 
 16, 22. 
 Dravidian, 4, 8, 9, 10, 
 
 II, 12, 115. 
 
 Drew, 34, 36, 40, in. 
 Dutch, 16, 40, 135. 
 Dukpa, in. 
 Dumaguden, 76. 
 Dzo, 104. 
 
 Ecole des Langues Or- 
 
 ientales, 127, 129. 
 Elsmlie, 36. 
 English, 16, 149, 150. 
 Estava, 59. 
 Ethnical, 10. 
 Ethnology of Bengal, 
 
 85- 
 
 Exploration of Me- 
 kong, 7. 
 
 Families, 27. 
 
 Fauna and Flora, 131. 
 
 Flex, 22, 76. 
 
 Floris, 143. 
 
 Forest Languages, 16. 
 
 Forest Kace, 83. 
 
 Formation of New Ver- 
 naculars, 15. 
 
 Formosa, 3, 4, 144. 
 
 Fragilis, Frail, 15. 
 
 French, 16, 126, 127, 
 128. 
 
 Friederich, 17. 
 
 Fryer, 105. 
 
 Further India, 102. 
 
 Fytche, 107, 
 
 Ganges, 12, 48, 65, 77. 
 
 Indo-Chinese Penin- 
 
 Gangetic, 88. 
 
 sula, 14, 102. 
 
 Ganjam, 12. 
 
 Indus, 12, 34, in. 
 
 Gamier, 7, 112, 124, 
 
 Inflexive, n, 151. 
 
 ISO- 
 
 Inscriptions, 58, 62, 
 
 Geographical Maga- 
 
 1 20, 126, 138. 
 
 zine, 2. 
 
 Iranic, 12, 28, 31. 
 
 Ghalchuh, 31. 
 
 Irawaddy, 13, 97, 99, 
 
 Gilgit, 34. 
 
 100, 103, 107, 108, 
 
 Goa, 12, 59. 
 
 122, 124. 
 
 Godavery, 6, 74. 
 
 Iskardo, in. 
 
 Gogra, 88, 91. 
 
 Island-Group, no. 
 
 Goldschmidt, 62. 
 
 Italian, 16. 
 
 Gondwa"na, 9, 46, 75. 
 
 
 Goorkha, 52, 94. 
 
 Jaeskhe, 109. 
 
 Goung-dho, 107. 
 
 Jataka, 63. 
 
 Gover, 66, 69. 
 
 Java, 12, 15, 133, 137, 
 
 Govind Singh, 38, 47. 
 
 I3 8 139- 
 
 Grammatical Notes, 
 
 Jawi, 134. 
 
 22. 
 
 Jessulmere, 49. 
 
 Greek, 15, 152. 
 
 Jesuits, 59. 
 
 Grouse, 51. 
 
 Jews, 70. 
 
 Gundert, 3, 22, 66. 
 
 Jhum Cultivation, 84, 
 
 
 155- 
 
 Hall, 46, 51. 
 Hanoy, 128. 
 Haswell, 22, 125. 
 
 Junum Sakhi, 39. 
 Jyntia, 117. 
 Jypore, 49. 
 
 Hayasvu, 93. 
 Hayward, 34. 
 Headhunter, 147. 
 Hebrew, 17. 
 Hermann, 147. 
 Herodotus, 152. 
 Hieratic, 19. 
 Hieroglyphic, 19. 
 Himalaya, 12, 90, 119, 
 
 Kabaran, 144. 
 Kabir, 39, 46. 
 Kachh, 43. 
 Kachar, 95. 
 Kala, 1 06. 
 Kalmuck, 108. 
 Kambodia, 120, 125. 
 Kashmir, 37, no, in. 
 Kathmandu, no. 
 
 ISO- 
 Hindu Koosh, 31, 33. 
 Hindu Religion, 18. 
 Hislop, 85. 
 Ho, 82. " 
 
 Kattiawar, 44. 
 Kawi, 5, 13, 17. 
 Keith, 101. 
 Kelat, 29, 42, 43. 
 
 Hodgson, 3, 6, 7, 21, 
 79, 87, 89, 98, 130, 
 156. 
 
 Kellogg, 46, 47, 51. 
 Keonghur, 51, 83, 85. 
 Kerang-Kapus, 86. 
 
 Hoernle, 3, 51. 
 Hong-Kong, 15. 
 Hovelacque. 3, 9. 
 Huet, 128. 
 Hughes, 44. 
 Hunter, 7, 77, 78. 
 Hyundes, 90. 
 
 Kern, 2, 17. 
 Khajuna, 35. 
 Khas, 52. 
 Khas Des, 91. 
 Khmer, 126. 
 Khulja, 15. 
 Khurree Bolee, 50. 
 Kittel, 66. 
 
 
 Kling, 67. 
 
 Ideographs, 128. 
 
 Knowledge of Vernacu- 
 
 Imerina, 146. 
 
 lar, 22. 
 
 India Office, 25. 
 
 Kolarian, 4, 8, 9, 10, 
 
 India, 12, 28. 
 
 II, 12, 79. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Kole, 76. 
 Krah, 87. 
 Kuch, 10. 
 
 Kuch-Buhar, 95, 98. 
 Kuch-Gandava, 44. 
 Kur-Gali, 42. 
 Kyelang, in. 
 
 Laccadive, 70. 
 Language, 5. 
 Language-Field, 8. 
 Language-Map, 8, 9, 23. 
 Language Shortlived, 
 
 152. 
 
 Langue Yerte, 16. 
 Larka Kole, 82. 
 Lassen, 9. 
 Lahul, in. 
 Latham, 3, 140. 
 Latin, 15, 129. 
 Leech, 42. 
 Legalis, Legal, 16. 
 Leiden, 17, 23. 
 Leitner, 34. 
 Lepsius, 19, 20, 45, 60. 
 Letter to Bunsen, 79. 
 Lewin, 7, 104. 
 Leyden, 3, 141. 
 Lho, in. 
 Lingua-franca, 22, 61, 
 
 135- 
 Linguistic connection 
 
 of Mon with Munda, 
 
 80, 125. 
 Literary Language, 14, 
 
 54- 
 
 Literature, 24. 
 Logan, 3,119, 124,127, 
 
 129. 
 
 Lohitic, 88. 
 
 Lombok, 137, 139, 143. 
 Lord's Prayer, 1 14. 
 
 M'Culloch, 7, 103. 
 Madagascar, 3, 4, 133. 
 Mahanudy, 8, 12. 
 Mahendra, 85. 
 Malacca, 13, 15, 131, 
 
 133, 137, H7. 
 Malayan, 7, 9, 13, 131. 
 Malcolm, 49. 
 Maldive, 64. 
 Malhar, 83. 
 Man, 114. 
 Marco Polo, 35. 
 Marsden, 3, 14, 19, 21, 
 
 36. 
 
 Martaban, 107. 
 
 Nerbudda, 9, 12. 
 
 Matthes, 139. 
 
 Netscher, 137. 
 
 Mauritius, 67. 
 
 Nicholson, 41, 43. 
 
 Max Miiller, n, 14,66, 
 
 Nishjida, 90. 
 
 79, 87, 136, 150. 
 
 Nizam, 8, 58, 68, 69. 
 
 Mekong, 7, 87, 108, 
 
 Non-Aryan, 
 
 112, 121, 125, 126, 
 
 Nora, 1 22. 
 
 127, 129, 130. 
 
 Notches on Arrows, 140. 
 
 Menam, 107. 
 
 
 Menangkaba, 13, 133. 
 
 Oceania, 14. 
 
 Merewether, 44, 
 
 Outline Dictionary for 
 
 Mergui, 107. 
 
 use of Missionaries, 
 
 Meriah, 73, 74, 97. 
 
 156. 
 
 Migratory Tribes, 16. 
 
 OxilS, 31. 
 
 Millies, 147. 
 
 
 Minikoi, 71. 
 
 Pagai, 136. 
 
 Mincopie, 114. 
 
 Pali, 10. 
 
 Missionaries, 21, 155. 
 
 Pallegoix, 22. 
 
 Missions Catholiques, 
 
 Pamer, 12, 31. 
 
 U3- 
 
 Papuan, 4. 
 
 Mletcha, 101. 
 
 Parable of Sower, 60. 
 
 Mockler, 30, 42. 
 
 Parbatya, 5, 51. 
 
 Molucca Group, 131. 
 
 Patkoi, 99, 100, 122. 
 
 Momien, 113, 122. 
 
 Pdzand or Pars i, 17. 
 
 Mongol, 14, 92, 116. 
 
 Penom, 130. 
 
 Mon-Anam, 4, 8, 13. 
 
 Pepukhwan, 144. 
 
 Monkey-tailed, 106. 
 
 Perak, 136. 
 
 Monosyllabic, n, 89, 
 
 Perry, 2, 3, 8, 9. 
 
 117, 119, 120, 126, 
 
 Persia and Persian, 12, 
 
 151- 
 
 i 6 , 17, 37, 39- 
 
 Moravian, 109. 
 
 PeshaVur, 2, 6. 
 
 Morphological, 10, n. 
 
 Phoenician Alphabet, 
 
 Mosaic, 152. 
 
 19, 66. 
 
 Mozambique, 144. 
 
 Philippine Group, 133. 
 
 Muasi, 84. 
 
 Phillips, 81. 
 
 Mugh, 105. 
 
 Philological Society, 
 
 Miiller, Fred., 3, 14, 62, 
 
 146. 
 
 66. 
 
 Phraseology of Defer- 
 
 Muir, 3. 
 
 ence, 137. 
 
 Muniptir Hill Tribes, 7. 
 
 Pidgeon-English, 15. 
 
 Muniptir - Chittagong 
 
 Pliny, 85. 
 
 Group, 13, 95, 102. 
 
 Polyandry, 72. 
 
 Mysore, 68, 69. 
 
 Polynesian, 4, 13, 17, 
 
 
 133- 
 
 Nagpur, 75. 
 
 Polysyllabic, 126. 
 
 ISTaia Dumka, 80, 86. 
 
 Pope, 65. 
 
 Nakhun Wat, 126. 
 
 Portuguese, 15, 1 6, 17, 
 
 Nanuk, 38. 
 
 45, 47, 64, 142. 
 
 Native Presses, 119, 
 
 Prakrit, 5, 10, 57. 
 
 121. 
 
 Pre-Aryan, 35, 90. 
 
 Negrito, 4, 114, 116, 
 
 Predatory Tribes, 16, 
 
 131, 133, 143, 144, 
 
 Prem-Sagur, 46. 
 
 146. 
 
 Prinsep, 19, 113. 
 
 Neilghurries, 68, 69, 
 
 Pronominalization, 89. 
 
 72, 73- 
 
 Pryse, 22. 
 
 Nepal, 7, 9, 13, 88, 90, 
 
 Ptolemy, 85. 
 
 91. 
 
 Puhlavi, 17. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 193 
 
 Purbatiya, 5. 
 
 Shaw, 32. 
 
 Timour Group, 131. 
 
 Puttoah, 83. 
 
 Shipwreck, 6, 114. 
 
 Tipura, 102. 
 
 Pyrard de Laval, 64. 
 
 Siah-posh, 32. 
 
 Tones, 90, 105. 
 
 
 Siam, 4, 12, 87, 108, 
 
 Tonquin, 128. 
 
 Queddah, 133, 134. 
 Quettah, 29. 
 
 121, 123, 126. 
 
 Sikhim Group, 95. 
 Sindh, n. 
 
 Trans - Himalayan 
 Group, 88, 90, 108. 
 Travancore, 67. 70. 
 
 Raffles, 17. 
 Rangoon, 125. 
 Raverty, 29. 
 Rawulpindi, 6. 
 Reflux of Aryan Civili- 
 
 Singapore, 133. 
 Sir-i-kul, 31. 
 Sittang, 107. 
 Skrefsrud, 21, 22, 31. 
 Societies, Duties of, 
 
 Trumpp, 3, 33, 43, 44. 
 Tulsee Dass, 6, 46. 
 Turanian, 5, 87. 
 Tutsamuh, 15. 
 Tung, 106. 
 Tumour, 62. 
 
 sation, 37. 
 Residuum of Words, 
 
 Spanish, 16, 141. 
 Stevenson, 3, 66. 
 
 Turki and Turkistan, 
 29, 31, 34, 35, 8 1. 
 
 Rhio Lingga, 133. 
 
 Stewart, 104. 
 Stilson 1 06. 
 
 Twang, no. 
 
 Robiuson, 3, 90, 96, 
 
 IOI. 
 
 Sumatra - Malacca 
 
 Van der Tuuk, 134, 
 
 Roman Catholic, 16, 
 
 22, 60, 112. 
 
 Roman Character, 20, 
 149. 
 Romance, 16. 
 
 Group, 13, 133. 
 Sumbhulpore, 56. 
 Surma", 99, 117. 
 Sylhet, 95. 
 Syllabary, 128. 
 
 135, 136, 145. 
 Van Hoewell, 142. 
 Vedic, 152. 
 Vernacular of a Coun- 
 try, 54- 
 
 Rome, 129. 
 
 Syriac, 17. 
 
 Veth, 2, 9, 23. 
 
 Roots indestructible, 
 
 152. 
 Roumanian, 15. 
 
 Tadbhava, 15. 
 Tai Group, 4, 8, 12, 
 
 Vigne, 35. 
 Vijaya, 62. 
 Vindyan Mountains, 74. 
 
 Rost, 26. 
 Russian, 15, 112. 
 
 Taiwan, 144. 
 
 Vizigipatam, 79. 
 Vocabularies, 22. 
 
 
 Tajik, 30. 
 
 Von der Gabelentz, 140. 
 
 Saigon, 9, 127, 128. 
 
 Talain, 124. 
 Tamulic, 5. 
 
 Von Humboldt, 13, 17, 
 
 Salween, 107. 
 
 Temple, Lieut., 114. 
 
 4 5 ' 
 
 Sanpu, 97, 109. 
 
 Temple, Sir Richard, 
 
 Wakhan, 31. 
 
 Sanskrit, 5, 10, 15, 17, 
 64, 70, 71, 144, 145. 
 
 155- 
 
 Tenasserim, 105. 
 
 Wallace, 131. 
 W^amistan 32. 
 
 Satpura, 49. 
 Schlagenthweit, 9. 
 Schneider, 147. 
 Schreiber, 135. 
 
 Terai, 10, 50, 91, 98. 
 Thadu, 104. 
 Thai, 119. 
 Thapa, 92. 
 
 Whitmee, 4. 
 Wilier, 137. 
 Wilson, John, 8, 22, 44, 
 57, 59, 6o - 
 
 Scythian, 5, 12, 42, 66. 
 
 Thomas, 10. 
 
 
 Semitic, 17, 151. 
 
 Tibet, 12, 90, 96, 97, 
 
 
 Serampore, 48. 
 
 108. 
 
 Yaghistan, 33, 34. 
 
 Shallow Sea Region, 
 
 Tibeto-Burman, 4, 8, 
 
 Yoma Range, 105. 
 
 131. 
 
 12, 13, 87, 133. 
 
 Yukan, 144. 
 
 Shama Churn, 54. 
 
 Tiedke, 140. 
 
 Yunan,87,99, 113, 123. 
 
( 194 ) 
 
 APPENDIX F. 
 
 LIST OF ORIENTAL SERIALS, AND BOOKS ON THE GENERAL 
 SUBJECT, OR PORTIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 SERIALS. 
 
 Journal of Bengal Asiatic Society, Calcutta. 
 Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, London. 
 Journal of Bombay Branch of do., Bombay. 
 Journal of Madras Branch of do., Madras. 
 Journal of Ceylon Branch of do., Colombo. 
 Journal of Indian Archipelago (extinct], Singapore. 
 Journal of Societe* Asiatique, Paris. 
 Journal of German Oriental Society, Leipsig. 
 Journal of American Oriental Society. 
 Journal of Dutch Oriental Society, The Hague. 
 Asiatic Researches (extinct), Calcutta. 
 Transactions of Royal Asiatic Society (extinct). 
 Malayan Miscellanies (extinct), 1820. 
 Indian Antiquary, Bombay. 
 Calcutta Review, Calcutta. 
 
 COLLECTIVE WORKS. 
 
 G. Campbell, Languages of India, 1872, Calcutta. 
 
 W. W. Hunter, Comparative Dictionary of Non- Aryan Languages of India 
 
 1868, London. 
 
 Crawfurd, Dictionary of Indian Islands, 1856, London. 
 Latham, Comparative Philology, 1862, London. 
 Latham, Descriptive Ethnology, 1849, London. 
 Dictionary of Languages, 1873, London. 
 Hovelacque, La Linguistique, 1876 (French), Paris. 
 Science of Languages, 1876 (same as above in English), London. 
 Bagster, Bible in Every Land, 1860, London. 
 Max Miiller, Letter to Bunsen on Turanian Languages Appendix to 
 
 Christianity and Mankind, 1849, London. 
 Marsden, East Insular Languages, 1834, London. 
 Max Miiller, Lectures on Science of Languages, 1871, London. 
 Fried. Miiller, Voyage of the Novara, 1867, Vienna. 
 Bastian, Voyages (German), 1839, Berlin. 
 Ballhorn, Grammatography, 1861, London. 
 
APPENDICES. 195 
 
 Hislop, Aboriginal Tribes of Central Provinces, 1866, Nagpur. 
 
 Hodgson, Language, Literature, and Religion of Tibet and Nepdl, 1874, 
 
 London. 
 
 Report of Ethnological Committee of Central Provinces, 1868, Nagp&r. 
 Reports of the Census of Different Provinces of India. 
 Gazetteer of Bengal (Hunter), 1877, London. 
 Gazetteer of North-West Provinces (Atkinson), 1876, Allahabad. 
 Gazetteer of Central Provinces (Grant), 1870, Nagpur.* 
 Shortt, Hill Ranges of Madras, 1871, Madras. 
 Caldwell, Comparative Grammar, Dravidian Languages, 1875, London. 
 
 2d Edition. 
 
 Beames, Comparative Grammar, Aryan Vernaculars of India, 1875, London. 
 Wallace, Malay Archipelago, 1868, London. 
 People of India, Races and Tribes, by Forbes Watson and Kaye, 1868, 
 
 London. 
 
 Breeks, Aboriginals of Neilgherries, 1873, London. 
 Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, 1872, Calcutta. 
 Forsyth, Highlands of Central India, 1876, London. 
 Selections from Records of Government of India and Bengal, Calcutta. 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, gth edit., 1875, London. 
 Catalogue of Works published in Holland on Oriental Languages from 
 
 1800-74, Brill, 1874, Leiden. 
 
( 196 ) 
 
 APPENDIX G. 
 
 LIST OF TRANSLATIONS OF THE BIBLE, IN PART OR ENTIRETY, 
 IN THE LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Language. 
 Pushtu 
 
 Baluchi 
 
 Kashmiri 
 Punjabi 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Siudhi 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Hindi 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do, 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 ARYAN FAMILY. 
 
 IRANIC BRANCH. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Character. 
 
 Translator. 
 
 Standard 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Leyden, Carey 
 
 
 
 Lowenthal, Clark 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Do. 
 
 Leyden, Carey 
 
 
 INDIC 
 
 BRANCH. 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Sdrada 
 
 Carey 
 
 Standard 
 
 Gurmukhi 
 
 Carey, Newton 
 
 Mooltdni j 
 
 Debased ) 
 Ndgari \ 
 
 Carey 
 
 Dogri 
 
 Nagari 
 
 Carey 
 
 Standard 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Carey 
 
 Do. 
 
 Ndgari 
 
 Stack 
 
 Do. 
 
 Gurmukhi 
 
 Burn 
 
 Kacchi j 
 
 Gujardti j 
 and Arabic ) 
 
 Gray 
 
 Standard 
 Do. 
 
 Ndgari ) 
 Kaithi } 
 
 Several persons 
 
 Hindustani 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Several persons \ 
 
 Do. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Do. 
 
 Dukhani 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Sell 
 
 Portuguese ) 
 Hindustani ) 
 
 Roman 
 
 New stead 
 
 Gurhwali 
 
 Na"gari 
 
 Carey 
 
 Kumdoni 
 
 Do. 
 
 Carey 
 
 Bruj 
 
 Do. j 
 
 Carey and Cham- j 
 berlain j 
 
 Kandji 
 
 Do. 
 
 Carey 
 
 Kosali 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Magadhi 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Start 
 
 Bhuge'li 
 
 Do. 
 
 Carey 
 
 Bhatti 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Jypuri 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Bikaniri 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Marwdri 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Bombay Auxiliary 
 Committee 
 
 Date and Place. 
 1811-1819, Serampore 
 1857, Peshawur 
 1811-1815, Serampore 
 
 1820-1832, Serampore 
 1813, Serampore 
 1843-1857, Ludianah 
 
 1812-1819, Serampore 
 
 1814-1826, Do. 
 1815-1825, Do. 
 1855, Bombay 
 1859, Do. 
 
 1835, Do. 
 
 At several places and 
 
 dates 
 At several places and 
 
 dates 
 1875, Madras 
 
 1826-1833, Colombo 
 
 1816-1832, Serampore 
 1815-1826, Do. 
 
 1813-1832, Do. 
 
 1815-1822, Do. 
 
 1820, Do. 
 
 1814-1824, Do. 
 Still in manuscript 
 
 1814-1821, Do. 
 
 1821-1824, Do. 
 
 1815, Do. 
 
 1813-1823, Do. 
 
 1814-1821, Do. 
 
 1866, Bombay 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 197 
 
 Language. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Character. 
 
 Translator. 
 
 Date and Place. 
 
 Hindi 
 
 Harouti 
 
 Na"gari 
 
 Carey 
 
 1815, Serampore 
 
 Do. 
 
 Udipuri 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1815, Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Uja'yuni 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1820-1824, Do. 
 
 Nepali 
 
 Standard 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1815-1821, Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Start 
 
 1850, Calcutta 
 
 Do. 
 
 Palpa 
 
 Do. 
 
 Carey 
 
 1807-1832, Serampore 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Standard 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Several persons 
 
 Several dates, Calcutta 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Koman 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Mussulman 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Paterson and Hill 
 
 1873, Calcutta 
 
 Asamese 
 
 Standard 
 
 Asamese 
 
 Carey 
 
 1811, 1815, Serampore 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Nathan Brown 
 
 1811-1819, Serampore 
 
 Uriya 
 
 Do. 
 
 Uriya 
 
 Carey, Sutton 
 
 1844-1854, Cuttack 
 
 Marifthi 
 
 Do. 
 
 Na*gari 
 
 Carey 
 
 1804-1825, Serampore 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Modi 
 
 Carey, Taylor j 
 
 1807, Serampore 
 1819, Bombay 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 Dixon and others 
 
 1835-1855, Bombay 
 
 Do. 
 
 Konkani 
 
 Ndgari 
 
 Carey 
 
 1808-1811, Serampore 
 
 Gujara'ti 
 
 Standard 
 
 Gujara'ti 
 
 Do. 
 
 1813, Serampore 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 Skiuner and Fy vie 
 
 1823, Bombay & Surat 
 
 Do. 
 
 Mercantile 
 
 Gujara'ti j 
 
 Bombay Auxiliary 
 Committee 
 
 1864, Bombay 
 
 Sinhalese 
 
 Standard 
 
 Sinhalese 
 
 Armour, Tolfrey, ( 
 &c. 
 
 1823, Serampore, 
 Colombo 
 
 DEAV1DIAN FAMILY. 
 
 Tamil 
 
 Standard 
 
 Tamil 
 
 Several persons 
 
 At several dates, Ii 
 
 
 or Kodun 
 
 
 
 
 Telugu 
 
 Standard 
 
 Telugu 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Kanarese 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 Badaga 
 
 Telugu 
 
 
 
 Malayalim 
 
 Standard 
 
 Malaydli m 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Tulu 
 
 Do. 
 
 Telugu 
 
 Amman and Griener 1844, Mangalore 
 
 Gond 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Roman 
 
 Dawson 
 
 1873, Allahabad 
 
 KOLAEIAN FAMILY. 
 
 Sonthal 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Roman 
 
 Phillips and Puxley 
 
 1868-1875, Calci 
 
 Munddri 
 
 Do. 
 
 Nagari 
 
 Nottrott 
 
 1876-1877, D< 
 
 TIBETO-BUEMAN FAMILY. 
 
 Lepcha 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Lepcha 
 
 Start and Niebel 
 
 Munipuri 
 
 Do. 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Carey 
 
 Burmese 
 
 Standard 
 
 Burmese 
 
 Several persons 
 
 Karen 
 
 Sgau 
 
 Do. 
 
 ' ' 
 
 Do. 
 
 Bghai 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Pwo 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Tibetan 
 
 Standard 
 
 Tibetan 
 
 Jaeschke 
 
 1872, Calcutta 
 1814-1824, Serampore 
 
 1863 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
198 LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 KHASI FAMILY. 
 
 Language. 
 
 Dialect. 
 
 Character. 
 
 Translator. 
 
 Date and Place. 
 
 Khasi 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 Bengali 
 
 Carey 
 
 1824, Serampore 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Lish 
 
 1834, Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Jones 
 
 1845. Calcutta 
 
 
 
 TAI 
 
 FAMILY. 
 
 
 Siamese 
 
 Standard 
 
 Siamese 
 
 Gutzlaf, Jones 
 
 1829, Singapore 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Robinson 
 
 1850, Bankok 
 
 MON-ANAM FAMILY. 
 
 Mon or ) 
 Peguan \ 
 
 Standard 
 
 Burmese 
 
 Haswell 
 
 1847, Maulmein 
 
 MALA YAN FAMIL Y. 
 
 Malay 
 
 Standard 
 
 Arabic 
 
 Leidekker and Van 
 der Worm 
 
 1758, Batavia 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Do. 
 
 1733, Amsterdam 
 
 Do. 
 
 Low 
 
 
 Robinson,Medlmrst 
 
 1833, Singapore 
 
 Batta 
 
 Toba 
 
 Batta 
 
 Van der Tuuk 
 
 1859, Amsterdam 
 
 Do. 
 
 Mandailung 
 
 Do. 
 
 Nommenseii 
 
 1878, Preparing 
 
 Nias 
 Sundanese 
 
 (uncertain) 
 Do. 
 
 Roman 
 Do. 
 
 Denninger 
 Grasshuis 
 
 1873, Germany 
 1866, Rotterdam 
 
 Japanese 
 
 Standard 
 
 Javanese 
 
 Gericke and Roorda 
 
 1848, The Hague 
 
 Balinese 
 
 (uncertain] \ 
 
 Roman j 
 Javanese ' 
 
 Van Eck 
 
 1878, In the press 
 
 Macassar 
 
 Standard 
 
 Bugi 
 
 Matthes 
 
 1864, Holland 
 
 Bugi 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1866, Do. 
 
 Dhyak 
 
 Pelopetak 
 
 Roman 
 
 Hardiland j 
 
 1845, Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 Formosan 
 
 (uncertain) 
 
 
 Gravius 
 
 1 66 1, Holland 
 
 Malagasy 
 
 Standard 
 
 Roman 
 
 Jones and Griffiths 
 
 1828-35, Antananarivo 
 and London 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Revision 
 
 1865 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Joint-Revision 
 
 Proceeding 
 
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