HAND-BOOK 
 
 OF THE 
 
 LlCK OBSERVATORY \ 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 SB 27fi IhS 
 
THE ROBERT E. COWAN COLLECTION 
 
 I'RKSKNTKI) TO TliK 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 r.v 
 
 C. P. HUNTINGTON 
 
 dUNE, 1897. 
 
 Recession No.<6/^$7' Class No, 
 
 m 
 
EDWARD S. HOLDEN, LL. D. 
 (Director of the Lick Observatory) 
 

 THE GREAT TELESCOPE 
 
 From the original design of WARNER & SWASEY, makers of the mounting 
 
 The tube is 57 feet long and is 4 feet in diameter at the centre. The 
 
 objective by ALVAN CLARK & SONS, is 36 inches in diameter. 
 
 The highest magnifying power is 3360 diameter; 
 
 the lowest 180 diameter. 
 
HAND-BOOK 
 
 OF THE 
 
 LICK OBSERVATORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD S. HOLDEN, LL.D., 
 
 Director of the Observatory. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO: 
 THE BANCROFT COMPANY 
 
 Copyright 1888, by EDWARD S. HOLDEN 
 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Information for Intending Visitors ... 5 
 
 II. Sketch of the Life of JAMES LICK . . . .11 
 
 III. A Visit to Mount Hamilton 17 
 
 IV. History of the Lick Observatory . . . .24 
 V. Description of the Buildings 33 
 
 VI. Description of the Instruments . . . .41 
 
 VII. The Work of an Observatory .... 59 
 
 VIII. Telescopes . 67 
 
 IX. Poem : To the Unmounted Lens, by A. V. G. . 75 
 
 X. Astronomical Photography 81 
 
 XI. Clocks and Time Keeping 97 
 
 XII. The Principal Observatories of the World . . 105 
 Index . 127 
 
of the University of California. 
 
 HON. R. W. WATERMAN, 
 HON. S. M. WHITE, 
 HON. W. H. JORDAN, 
 HON. IRA G. HOITT, 
 HON. L. U. SHIPPEE, 
 HON. P. B. CORNWALL, 
 HON. HORACE DAVIS, 
 
 Governor of California ; 
 Lieutenant-Governor ; 
 Speaker of the Assembly, 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction ; 
 President State Agricultural Society ; 
 President Mechanics 1 Institute ; 
 President of the University ; 
 
 REV. HORATIO STEBBINS, D.D ; 
 HON. J. WEST MARTIN; 
 HON. A. S. HALLIDIE; 
 HON. JOHN L. BEARD ; 
 HON. T. GUY PHELPS ; 
 HON. GEORGE T. MAR YE, LL.B ; 
 HON. GEO. J. AINSWORTH, Ph.B ; 
 HON. ALBERT MILLER ; 
 
 HON. JOHN S. HAGER, LL.D; 
 HON. CHARLES F. CROCKER; 
 HON. WILLIAM T. WALLAC <; ; 
 HON. JAMES F. HOUGHTON ; 
 HON. I. W. HELLMAN ; 
 HON. ARTHUR RODGERS, A.B. ; 
 HON. D. M. DELMAS, A. M.; 
 HON. COLUMBUS BARTLETT ; 
 
 J. H. C. BONTE, D.D., Secretary. 
 
 organization of the Liiek Observatory. 
 
 HON. HORACE DAVIS President of the University; 
 
 EDWARD S. HOLDSN, LL.D Director and Astronomer; 
 
 SHERBURNE W. BURNHAM, A. M Astronomer; 
 
 JOHN M. SCHAEBERLE, C. E Astronomer; 
 
 JAMES E. KEELER, A. B Astronomer ; 
 
 EDWARD E. BARNARD Astronomer; 
 
 CHARLES B. HILL...^!S$' Astronomer, Secretary, and Librarian : 
 
 JOHN MCDONALD Machinist; 
 
 CHARLES HARKORT Janitor; 
 
 CHRIS. McGuiRE Laborer. 
 
 (4) 
 
I. INFORMATION FOR INTENDING 
 VISITORS. 
 
 Hotels in San Jose : It may be necessary for visitors to pass the 
 night in Sail Jose. Omnibuses from each hotel meet all railway 
 trains. Good accommodations may be had at the 
 
 St. James' Hotel : Rooms and board at $2 to $2.50 per day. 
 
 Stage Lines: The stages of the Mount Hamilton Stage Co., 
 are large, roomy and very comfortable, open on the sides so that an. 
 extensive view of the surrounding country can be had at all times; 
 the drivers are courteous, and instructed to furnish patrons with 
 information regarding points of interest; frequent change of horses 
 will take visitors through in quick time. Procure your seats of the 
 Agent at office of Wells, Fargo & Co. , San Jose, the night before. 
 Stages start out at 7:30 A. M. You will find the mountain drive 
 itself, in the elegant turnouts of the Mount Hamilton Stage Co., 
 well worth the visit to the Summit; it is old time California 
 Staging on an improved plan, and this drive is destined to be 
 a feature of itself to tourists visiting the observatory, as there are no 
 conveniences for a change of horses on the route, and the distance 
 so great, we would advise tourists to avoid private conveyances. 
 
 Telephone Messages: The private telephone line of the obser- 
 vatory is connected with the Central Office in San Jose and there are 
 several stations along the road to Mt. Hamilton (which the driver 
 will know). 
 15) 
 
INFORMATION FOR INTENDING VISITORS. 
 
 In any case of doubt as to whether the Observatory is open to 
 visitors at a particular time, etc., it is better to telephone to 
 Mt. Hamilton and receive an answer. The Observatory rules are 
 very liberal in regard to the reception of visitors and for that very 
 reason they are rigidly adhered to, in order that equal rights may 
 be secured to each person, where all are equally interested. 
 
 Photographs : Of the Observatory and of the scenery along the 
 road are on sale at LORYEA & MACATJLEY'S, W. D. ALLISON'S, and 
 other places in San Jose, and at TABER'S, 8 Montgomery street, 
 H. A. MATHEWS', 331 Montgomery street, and other places in San 
 Francisco. 
 
 Dress : The summer days are apt to be hot and dusty, and a 
 long linen duster is almost essential. Tie a handkerchief around 
 your neck if there is much dust. In the early mornings of spring 
 and fall a light overcoat is required. 
 
 Shooting on the Reservation : The Regents of the University 
 have caused the following to be posted : 
 
 "This is a reservation for Observatory uses only. No 
 unauthorized hunting or shooting is permitted. No notices 
 or advertisements are to be posted on the Reservation, 
 or painted on the rocks without authority. Horses, cattle 
 and sheep must not be allowed to run at large. 
 
 By order of the Committee of the Board of Regents of 
 the University of California on Grounds and Buildings. 
 
 J. WEST MARTIN, Chairman." 
 
 HOURS FOR VISITORS TO THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 
 
 The Board of Regents of the University of California has estab- 
 lished the following regulations, which have been conspicuously 
 posted in various places. The orders of the Board will be strictly 
 obeyed : 
 
 "VISITORS will be received at the Lick Observatory during office 
 hours, whenever any of the astronomers are present. 
 
 Regular nights in each month, not exceeding one per week, shall 
 be set apart for the reception of visitors, except during inclement 
 weather, and visitors will be received on these nights between cer- 
 tain hours and at no other times. " 
 
 By order of the BOARD OF REGENTS, 
 
 Until further notice, the Observatory will be open to visitors 
 daily except Sunday, from 10 A. M. to 4 P. M., and on Saturday 
 nights from 7 to 10 P. M. There are no hotel accommodations on the 
 summit. 
 
 The following circular has also been widely distributed and will 
 be mailed to any person applying for it. 
 
INFORMATION FOR INTENDING VISITORS. 7 
 
 [CIRCULAR.] 
 
 Hours for Visitors to the Lick Observatory : The Observatory 
 Buildings will be open to visitors during office hours, every day in 
 the year. Upon their arrival, visitors will please go at once to the 
 Visitors' Room and register their names. 
 
 An hour or so can be profitably occupied in viewing the different 
 instruments, and the rest of the stay can be well spent in walks to 
 the various reservoirs, from which magnificent views of the sur- 
 rounding country can be had. At least an hour and a half of day- 
 light should be allowed for the drive from the Summit to Smith 
 Creek. There are no hotel accommodations at the Summit. 
 
 ADMISSION OF VISITORS AT NIGHT. 
 
 For the present, visitors will be received at the Observatory to 
 look through the great telescope every Saturday night, between the 
 hours of 7 and 10, and at these times only. 
 
 Whenever the work of the Observatory will allow, other tele- 
 scopes will also be put at the disposition of visitors on Saturdays be- 
 tween the same hours (only). 
 
 At 10 P. M. the Observatory will be closed to visitors, who should 
 provide their own conveyance to Smith Creek, as there is no way of 
 lodging them on the mountain. 
 
 It is expected by setting apart these times for visitors (which 
 allow freer access to the Lick Observatory than is allowed to any 
 other observatory in the world) that all interested may be able to 
 arrange their visits in conformity to them; and that the remain- 
 ing hours of the week will be kept entirely uninterrupted, in order 
 that the Astronomers may do the work upon which the reputation 
 and the good name of the Observatory entirely depends. 
 
 VISITORS' NIGHT. 
 
 I may be allowed to quote here a paragraph from a public 
 announcement in regard to our visitors' nights, which I made in 
 1886. It will serve to indicate how these evenings are to be spent. 
 
 "We shall regularly appoint in each one of the favorable summer 
 months certain evenings for the reception of visitors to look through 
 the telescopes. We shall usually have three telescopes available for 
 this purpose a 6-inch, a 12-inch and the 36-inch equatorial. These 
 will each be under the charge of an astronomer, and each will be 
 kept directed at a different object in the sky. The visitor will be 
 shown through the various buildings, and will see the various in- 
 struments and will hear their various uses described. With these 
 three telescopes he can see three different and interesting objects, 
 as the moon, a binary star, a nebula, and in a short time he can 
 gain some individual and real knowledge concerning the heavenly 
 bodies, of which he has read and studied, and obtain some insight 
 that will be new to him. 
 
8 INFORMATION FOR INTENDING VISITORS. 
 
 The. visitors' nights will be strictly devoted to these ends: the 
 whole force of the observatory will be employed to making them 
 useful, interesting and pleasant to our guests. Not only will visitors 
 be welcome on these special nights, but they will always be welcome 
 during the daylight hours. The observatory is always open in the 
 daytime during office hours, and at certain times of the day, visitors 
 will be personally conducted through the various rooms. 
 
 In return for this free access, we confidently expect the citizens 
 of California to jealously guard for us the other nights of the 
 month, and to see to it that these other nights are strictly reserved 
 for purely astronomical uses, and to the prosecution of strictly 
 scientific work. I feel entirely sure, when it is known how imper- 
 atively necessary it is, in order that any valuable discoveries shall 
 be made, that the whole attention of the astronomer shall be con- 
 centrated upon his work, with no interruptions and no distractions, 
 that we shall have the loyal assistance of all in preserving for us 
 that freedom. This is an important point to be well understood 
 in the beginning. The observatory fully recognizes its duty to 
 the community, and it allows the freest access of any institu- 
 tion of like character in the world. It also fully recognizes that 
 it is primarily here to advance the science of astronomy, and that 
 unless it does so, the large telescope had better be given to some 
 observatory that will do this, and the buildings and grounds be 
 turned over to the State for a public park. I think the arrange- 
 ment suggested will be all that can be needed. It provides not 
 only for the advancement of knowledge, but for its diffusion. 
 Remember how many thousands of visitors to California there are, 
 and how few nights there are in a year, and see to it that your 
 astronomers have all the time they need. " 
 
 General Remarks : Be sure to have your driver point out to 
 you the objects of interest along the road. Where there is so much 
 to see, you may easily miss something worth remembering. If you 
 will glance over the subsequent parts of this Hand-Book, reading 
 the paragraphs that interest you, ib may serve to call your attention 
 to a view or to a fact that you would wish not to pass by unnoticed. 
 
 On your arrival at the observatory, register your name and address in 
 the Visitors 1 Room. 
 
 Visitors' Room: A room has been set apart in the observ- 
 atory for the use of visitors, and comfortably furnished. A dress- 
 ing room (for ladies only) opens from it, and is provided with fresh 
 water, towels, soap, etc. 
 
 A lavatory for men opens from the long hall. 
 
 It is not allowed to take luncheon in the Visitors' Room. 
 
 If no one is present to receive you, pull the janitor's bell in the 
 room. 
 
 The Secretary's office is immediately across the hall. 
 
INFORMATION FOR INTENDING VISITORS. 9 
 
 Visitors are especially requested not to touch or handle any of 
 the astronomical or other instruments. An idle touch may disturb 
 an accurate adjustment which it has required hours to make. 
 Opening a door with No Admittance upon it may ruin a set of 
 photographic plates which cannot be replaced. 
 
 No books should be removed from the library shelves. Most of 
 them are not especially rare, but they cannot be replaced on this 
 side of the Atlantic. 
 
 Near many of the instruments is a little printed sign giving the 
 chief facts regarding it. All desired information can frequently be 
 had by consulting this. The janitor or, in his absence, the Sec- 
 retary will be glad to answer all questions. 
 
 Finally, recollect that it will be a pleasure to each one of the 
 officers and employes of the observatory to do everything that may 
 be needed to make your visit pleasant. Remember, however, that 
 their time belongs to science and to the State, and do not ask any 
 unreasonable amount of their attention without good cause. 
 
JAMES LICK 
 Born 1796 - Died 1876 
 FOUNDER OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY 
 
 (10) 
 
II. SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JAMES LICK. 
 
 JAMES LICK was born in Fredericksburg, Pennsylvania, August 
 25th, 1796, and died in San Francisco, October 1, 1876. He 
 learned and practised the trade of organ and piano making in Han- 
 over, Pennsylvania and in Baltimore. In 1820 he was in business 
 in Philadelphia. From there he went to Buenos Ayres, making 
 and selling pianos. From the east coast of South America he came 
 to the west, and finally in 1847 he drifted to San Francisco. 
 
 Successful in business but far more successful in his investments 
 in land he became rich and died, leaving an estate of some $3,000,000. 
 This was all devoted to public uses His deed of trust charged the 
 Board of LICK Trustees to expend : 
 
 For a monument in San Francisco to FRANCIS SCOTT KEY (author 
 of the Star Spangled Banner) the sum of $60,000. This monument 
 has been made by the celebrated American sculptor WILLIAM W. 
 STORY and it will be erected in Golden Gate Park on July 4, 1888. 
 
 For statuary to be placed in front of the San Francisco City Hall 
 and to be emblematic of three significant epochs in the history of 
 the State of California, $100,000. 
 
 For a Home for Old Ladies in San Francisco, $100,000. 
 
 For Free Baths in San Francisco, $150,000. 
 
 For a California Institute of Mechanic Arts a manual training 
 school for the boys and girls of San Francisco, $540,000. 
 
 For the Lick Observatory, to contain the most powerful telescope 
 in the world, $700,000, besides many other important bequests, to 
 the Society of California Pioneers, to the California Academy of 
 Sciences and other beneficiaries. 
 
 His exact provisions in regard to the Observatory were : 
 
 EXTRACT FROM MR. LICK'S SECOND DEED OF TRUST. (SEPT. 21, 1875.) 
 
 Third To expend the sum of seven hundred thousand dollars 
 ($700,000) for the purpose of purchasing land, and constructing 
 and putting up 011 such land as shall be designated by the party of 
 the first part, a powerful telescope superior to and more powerful 
 than any telescope yet made, with all the machinery appertaining 
 thereto and appropriately connected therewith, or that is necessary 
 and convenient to the most powerful telescope now in use, or suited 
 to one more powerful than any yet constructed; and also a suitable 
 observatory connected therewith. The parties of the second part 
 hereto, and their successors, shall, as soon as said telescope and ob- 
 servatory are constructed, convey the land whereupon the same may 
 
12 SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JAMES LICK. 
 
 be situated, and the telescope, and the observatory, and all the ma- 
 chinery and apparatus connected therewith, to the corporation 
 known as the 'Regents of the University of California;' and if, 
 after the construction of said telescope and observatory, there shall 
 remain of said seven hundred thousand dollars in gold coin any 
 surplus, the said parties of the second part shall turn over such sur- 
 plus to said corporation, to be invested by it in bonds of the United 
 States, or of the City and County of San Francisco, or other good 
 and safe interest-bearing bonds, and the income thereof shall be 
 devoted to the maintenance of said telescope and the observatory 
 connected therewith, and shall be made useful in promoting science; 
 and the said telescope and observatory are to be known as 'the 
 Lick Astronomical Department of the University of California.' " 
 
 Of all of Mr. LICK'S gifts that one which will be most widely 
 known and in a large sense, most widely useful, is the gift of the 
 Astronomical Observatory which bears his name. 
 
 It will never be known exactly how Mr. LICK finally decided 
 upon the construction of the observatory which bears his name. 
 He was an assiduous reader, and among his favorite books were those 
 of ANDREW JACKSON DAVIS which like EDGAR POE'S Eureka, present 
 a cosmogony more poetic than veracious. It is possible that his 
 thoughts were turned to astronomy by these books. 
 
 It would be of extreme interest if one could give a truly adequate 
 view of the character of Mr. LICK, and of the motives which led 
 him to dispose of his large fortune in public gifts, and especially of 
 the motive.! which led him to found an astronomical observatory. 
 
 Certainly, 110 sufficient exposition of either his character or of 
 his motives has yet appear 3d in print. There is no doubt that a 
 desire to be remembered by his fellow-men influenced him largely. 
 He wished to do something which should be important in itself, and 
 which should be done in a way to strike the imagination. He was 
 only restrained from building a marble pyramid larger than that of 
 CHEOPS on the shores of San Francisco Bay, by the fear that in 
 some future war the pyramid might perish in a possible bombard- 
 ment of the place. The observatory took the place of the pyramid. 
 
 The beauty of the one was to find a substitute in the scientific use 
 of the other. Ihe instruments were to be so large that new and 
 striking discoveries were to follow inevitably, and, if possible, living 
 beings on the surface of the moon were to be described, as a be- 
 ginning. 
 
 It would, however, be a gross error to take these wild imaginings 
 as a complete index of his strange character. A very extensive 
 course of reading had fixed in him the generous idea that the future 
 well-being of the race was the object for a good man to strive to 
 forward. Towards the end of his life at least, the utter futility of 
 his money to give any inner satisfaction oppressed him more and 
 more. The generous impulses and half-acknowledged enthusiasms 
 
SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JAMES LICK. 13 
 
 of earlier days began to quicken, and the eccentric and unsymmetri- 
 cally developed mind gave strange forms to these desires. If he 
 had lived to carry out his own plans, hi 3 fellow citizens might have 
 gained less from his gifts than they will now gain. If his really 
 powerful mind could have received a symmetric training, there is 
 110 question but that the present disposition of his endowment would 
 entirely satisfy him. 
 
 He has been most fortunate in having his desires studied and 
 given an ultimate form by successive sets of trustees, who had no 
 ends in view but to make this strangely acquired gift most useful to 
 the city, the State, and the country. He is buried in the base of 
 the pier of the great equatorial on Mount Hamilton, and has such 
 a tomb as no old-world emperor could have commanded or imagined. 
 
 REMOVAL OF MR. LICK'S REMAINS TO MOUNT HAMILTON. 
 
 Mr. LICK several times expressed his desire to be buried at Mount 
 Hamilton near his great observatory when it should be complete. 
 During the summer of 1886 the brick foundation for the iron pier 
 of the great equatorial was built by Mr. FRASER and a suitable 
 vault was prepared directly under the spot where the great telescope 
 was to be and now is. In January 1887 the Lick Trustees invited 
 a number of representative gentlemen to act as an escort of honor 
 during the transfer of Mr. LICK'S remains from their temporary 
 resting place in San Francisco to their final tomb on Mount 
 Hamilton. 
 
 At San Jose the cortege was met by a delegation of citizens headed 
 by the Mayor of the city; and the coffin was transferred from the 
 cars to a mountain-wagon, and covered by the star spangled banner. 
 Mr. FRASER, who had been Mr. LICK'S confidential man of business, 
 and who was then Superintendent of Construction, conducted this 
 wagon in the lead ; and the body was followed by the escort. 
 
 At the observatory, the procession was met by Captain FLOYD, 
 the President of the Trustees, and after a simple and impressive 
 ceremony the coffin was opened, the remains identified, and the 
 casket sealed within a leaden case and cemented beneath the mas- 
 sive blocks of stone which form the foundation of the great telescope 
 which Mr. LICK has given to his fellow citizens. 
 
 Before the close of the ceremonies Professor GEORGE DAVIDSON, 
 President of the California Academy of Sciences, read to the escort 
 and had signed by them, the following admirable document ofidenti- 
 Jication which had been drawn up by him. 
 
 This document was engrossed on parchment, placed between two 
 fine tanned skins backed with silk, placed again between two 
 leaden plates, soldered securely in a tin box, and finally deposited 
 within the coffin itself. 
 
14 SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JAMES LICK. 
 
 DOCUMENT OF IDENTIFICATION. 
 
 This is the body of 
 
 JAMES LICK, 
 
 who was born in Fredericksburg, Penn., August 25, 1796, and who 
 died in San Francisco, Cal., October 1, 1876. 
 
 It has been identified by us and in our presence has been sealed 
 up and deposited in this Foundation Pier of the 
 
 GREAT EQUATORIAL TELESCOPE 
 this ninth day of January, 1887. 
 
 In the year 1875 he executed a Deed of Trust of his Entire Estate 
 by which he provided for the Comfort and Culture of the Citizens of 
 California; for the Advancement of Handera ft and Rede-craft among 
 the Youth of San Francisco and of the State ; for the Development of 
 Scientific Research and the Diffusion of Knowledge among Men and for 
 
 FOUNDING IN THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA AN ASTRONOMICAL OBSERV- 
 ATORY TO SURPASS ALL OTHERS EXISTING IN THE WORLD 
 AT THIS EPOCH. 
 
 This observatory has been erected by the Trustees of his estate, 
 and has been named 
 
 THE LICK ASTRONOMICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 in memory of the founder. 
 
 This refracting telescope is the largest which has ever been con- 
 structed and the astronomers who have tested it declare that its 
 performance surpasses that of all other telescopes. The two discs 
 of glass for the objective were cast by CH. FEIL of France and were 
 wrought to a true figure by ALVAN CLARK & SONS of Massachusetts. 
 Their diameter is thirty-six inches and their focal length is fifty-six 
 feet two inches. 
 
 Upon the completion of this structure the Regents of the Univer- 
 sity of California become the Trustees of this Astronomical Observatory. 
 [Signed:] The Board of Trustees of the Lick Estate, 
 RICHARD S. FLOYD, President, 
 E. B. MASTICK, 
 CHARLES M. PLUM, 
 GEORGE SCHONWALD, 
 
 The President of the Board of Regents of the University of Cali- 
 fornia and Governor of the State of California, 
 
 WASHINGTON BARTLETT, 
 
 (By J. W. WINANS.) 
 
 The President of the University of California and Director of the 
 Observatory, 
 
 EDWARD SINGLETON HOLDEN, 
 
SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF JAMES LICK. 15 
 
 The President of the California Academy of Sciences and of the 
 Council thereof, 
 
 GEORGE DAVIDSON, 
 
 The President of the Board of Trustees of the California Academy 
 of Sciences, 
 
 GEORGE E. GRAY, 
 The President of the Society of California Pioneers, 
 
 GUSTAVE REIS, 
 A Director and ex-President of the Society of California Pioneers, 
 
 PETER DEAN, 
 The Mayor of the City of San Jose, 
 
 C. W. BREYFOGLE. 
 
 The base of the great pier bears a simple bronze tablet with the 
 inscription 
 
 HERE LIES THE BODY OF 
 
 JAMES LICK. 
 
 His true monument is the Observatory which he reared, and his 
 lasting memorial will be the results of those astronomical observa- 
 tions which his generosity has instituted and endowed 
 
III. A VISIT TO MOUNT HAMILTON. 
 
 Drive from San Jose* to the Summit of Mount Hamilton : The 
 
 regular stages for the Lick Observatory depart from San Jose about 
 half -past seven in the morning in order to have a long day before 
 the tourist. The straight, level avenue leaves the central square 
 of the pretty and prosperous city and makes straight for the foot- 
 hills, some four miles distant. On the left hand (north) are the 
 sloughs of the Bay of San Francisco shining in the sun; on the right 
 hand are beautiful, fertile fields. At the end of the four miles we 
 are 300 feet above San Jose, and we begin the ascent of the Contra 
 Costa range of hills, which border the exquisite Valley of Santa 
 Clara on the east. 
 
 The road is built so that the grade is always kept less than six 
 and a half feet in the hundred (343 to the mile). This maximum 
 grade is only occasionally met in the first portions of the twenty-six 
 miles, while the last seven miles have an average grade of nearly 
 300 feet per mile. In order to keep the gradient as low as this the 
 thirteen miles of distance in an air line is made into twenty-six by 
 the road, which follows the contours of the hillsides, turning into 
 each ravine, following this to its head, and returning on itself 
 along the opposite side. From the time that the ascent is com- 
 menced every moment is full of interest, for in all California there 
 is no mountain road more delightful than this. The descent of St. 
 Helena mountain into Napa Valley and the drive over the summit 
 of the Santa Cruz range from Saratoga to Santa Cruz are the only 
 ones which I know of in the State which can compare with it. 
 
 Finally we have climbed the side of the first range of hills and 
 rest for a moment at the Grand View House (1,500 feet above the 
 sea) before we turn sharply eastward towards the divide (1,838 feet) 
 which separates the Santa Clara Valley from a small interior basin 
 known as Hall's Valley. Before we leave this stopping ^lace we 
 should turn our faces towards San Jose and see how it lies in its 
 lovely valley and mark the dark summit of Loma Prkta (Spanish 
 for Black mountain) which is 3,790 feet high and 30 miles distant. 
 This is the highest peak of the Santa Cruz mountains and its great 
 dome is a landmark for miles and miles. Mt. Choual (3,500 feet) is 
 next north of it and then comes Mt. Thayer (3,550 feet.) We shall 
 see these mountains again from the summit of Mt. Hamilton which 
 is plainly visible right before us. We descend rapidly into Hall's 
 Valley (1,544 feet) along a beautiful road and past some magnificent 
 '17) 
 
18 A VISIT TO MOUNT HAMILTON. 
 
 oaks, and again commence an ascent and reach a stopping place in 
 the journey at the Smith Creek Hotel at the very foot of the moun- 
 tain (2,146 feet above the sea.) Here is a comfortable country hotel 
 and here is the last place on the road where an inn can be found. 
 
 The only buildings on the summit are those of the observatory 
 proper, and the private dwellings of the astronomers. There is no 
 hotel on the summit ; only a visitors' room, in which there are lava- 
 tories where the tired traveler can remove the dust from his face 
 and rest a moment after the long though interesting drive. Those 
 who wish to look through the large telescope on the public nights 
 (every Saturday evening from 7 to 10) must secure rooms at the 
 Smith Creek Hotel ; for at 10 o'clock the observatory is closed to 
 visitors who have to return to Smith Creek for a lodging, leaving the 
 astronomers to finish the night in their regular avocation of ' 'mind- 
 ing the heavens." 
 
 At Smith Creek we are still 2,152 feet below the summit and we 
 have still seven miles to go. The grade is heavy, and even with a 
 good team an hour and a half is required for the ascent. The road 
 is full of turns and twists and the scenery is rugged and wilder, 
 though the beautiful trees relieve its hard outlines. The observatory 
 buildings and especially the great seventy -five-foot dome seem to 
 be directly above us, though each successive mile hardly seems to 
 bring us nearer. Those of us who are vigorous and enterprising 
 get out at the "flat" where the brick-kilns stand and walk up 
 the trail to the summit. The sage ones remain in the wagon and 
 do not lose their breath and have more leisure to view the magni- 
 ficent hills and deed gorges and canons on all sides of the way. 
 
 Finally the stage winds round the base of Mt. Ptolemy, named 
 after the great astronomer of Greece, and emerges just south of the 
 shining white Dome which we have seen for so long. A few words 
 of encouragement to the horses and directly we have passed 
 completely round the base of Observatory Peak (Mt. Hamilton) 
 and come to the narrow saddle where the Astronomers' cottages lie 
 nestled, against the side of the mountain. We make a complete 
 turn about the summit passing once more directly beneath the 
 white Dome and then up to the summit-level and draw up before 
 the western entrance to the building and alight. Here a sign tells 
 us to ring the visitors' bell and the Janitor admits us and shows us 
 to the visitors' room. The routine of the establishment requires 
 us to register our names and addresses in a large book ; and after 
 this is done and the dust removed from our faces, we are ready to 
 look about us and to see what manner of thing it is which the busy 
 hand of man has builded on the summit of these splendid hills. 
 
 From the roof of the building we can see all around the horizon, 
 and we begin to get a connected idea of the great topographic 
 features. First we look back over the tortuous road that we have 
 just left and see where the Santa Clara Valloy and San Jose lie 
 
A VISIT TO MOUNT HAMILTON. 19 
 
 towards the West. Tamalpais (66 miles distant, 2,600 feet high) is 
 plainly visible, and we know that the restless tides of the Golden 
 Gate bathe his feet. Between us and Tamalpais we see first the 
 arms of San Francisco Bay, then a range of summits (Mts. Story, 
 Lewis, and Day, counting from west towards north.) 
 
 On the hither side of these summits is the deep and wild canon of 
 Smith's Creek which breaks through the mountains here on its way 
 to join the Calaveras and to pour its waters into the Bay. Some 
 day or another a large part of the water supply of San Francisco 
 must be gathered here. Just over this canon we see the symmetrical 
 cone of Monte Diablo (39 miles distant and 3,849 feet high) in the 
 north west. Immediately below us on the north is a deep black 
 canon (Canon Negro] which seems to join that of Smith Creek. 
 Looking across it we see a high mountain (Mt. Galileo) about a mile 
 away. Along its flank we can trace the winding road which leads 
 to the springs and reservoir (Aquarius] which supply the observatory. 
 They are 340 feet below us. A narrow saddle connects Galileo 
 with Mt. Copernicus (4,380 feet high, 4,450 feet distant by the road). 
 
 There is a high service reservoir on its summit, 171 feet above 
 the observatory floor (which itself is 4,209 feet above the sea.) 
 
 We are now looking northeast. Still further to the east is Mt. 
 Kepler (4,257 feet), also crowned with a reservoir. Between 
 Copernicus and Kepler is a distant peak, Mt. Hipparchus, named 
 after the father of Greek astronomy. To the right of Kepler and 
 a mile or so distant rises the huge form of Mt. Santa Isabel (so 
 named by the Spaniards) with a profound canon separating it 
 from us. Just below us, on the hither side of the canon, is Mt. 
 Huyghens with a third reservoir and a windmill on its summit. 
 Between Kepler and Jsabel lies the rugged San Anton Valley, 
 used for a cattle ranch. Beyond it, rising in divide after divide, 
 are the ranges of mountains which border the San Joaquin Valley 
 on the west. The highest of these is Mt. Oso (3,363 feet high and 
 eighteen miles away). To the right (south) of Isabel in the distance 
 you may see the Pacheco Peaks, Mariposa and Santa Ana moun- 
 tains. Due south of us is Mt. Toro (fifty-five miles distant and 
 3,500 feet high) and a very rugged mountain Murphy's Peak six 
 miles off. On the horizon near this you may see the waters of 
 Monterey Bay. A little further to the west and we come again to 
 the now familiar landmark of Loma Prieta. Between this and 
 Tamalpais you may catch a glimpse of the sea horizon, eighty-seven 
 miles distant. We have oriented ourselves and begun to know our 
 surroundings. At sunrise the summits of the Sierras (130 miles off) 
 can be plainly seen, and there are times when Lassen's Butte (175 
 miles) is visible. 
 
 Leaving the splendid panorama of the hills, we look at the build- 
 ings immediately around us. We are on the roof of the observatory 
 proper. At the north end of it is the twenty-five -foot dome, which 
 
(20) 
 
(21) 
 
22 A VISIT TO MOUNT HAMILTON. 
 
 covers a telescope of twelve inches aperture. Directly opposite to 
 it, at the south end, is the great seventy-five-foot dome. Towards 
 the northeast are the houses which cover the transit instrument 
 and the meridian-circle; beyond them is the brick dwelling-house 
 of the astronomers. These small buildings nearer to us are for some 
 of the minor instruments. That little dome covers a very perfect 
 six-inch equatorial. 
 
 But it is time to descend and go through the various rooms of the 
 observatory building. There, with the explanations of our guide, 
 we may gain some idea of what all these constructions are for ; why 
 there are so many of them ; and finally, with what object these 
 changes have been made on the summits of the silent hills. Recollect 
 that it was only a few years ago that a wilderness was here. Why 
 has it been so transformed? Was it worth while? What may 
 be expected from all this ? There should be satisfying answers to 
 all these questions. 
 
(23) 
 
 x^" * ri 
 
 if OK TRR 
 
 (( UNIVERSITY 
 
IY. HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 
 
 In 1874 MR. LICK gave $700,000 to a Board of Trustees (MR. D. 
 0. MILLS, President) to provide a telescope ' ' more powerful than 
 any yet made"; and "a suitable observatory connected therewith " 
 was specified in the deed. 
 
 Just before this time Professor YOUNG had been making observa- 
 tions at Sherman, in the Rocky Mountains, and Professor DAVIDSON 
 had made several reports on the fitness of the high Sierras as a site 
 for an observatory. Mr. LICK was advised to choose a mountain 
 site for his new observatory and was seriously considering the 
 selection of a place near Lake Tahoe. This site was subsequently 
 abandoned on account of the severe winters, etc. In the fall of 
 1874 Mr. MILLS came to Washington to consult Professor NEWCOMB 
 and myself and others in Washington. The whole matter was 
 thoroughly discussed between us and a project for the buildings 
 and instruments of the new observatory was made. This was 
 reduced to writing by me in October, 1874, and rough sketches 
 were made of the principal buildings, etc., by Professor NEWCOMB 
 and myself. As it was then a question whether "the most power- 
 ful telescope" should be a reflector or a refractor, Dr. HENRY 
 DRAPER'S counsel was asked for and freely given. Sir HOWARD 
 GRUBB also gave much time to projects for the observatory. A 
 frame of photographs at the observatory exhibits some of these 
 early projects. One of Sir HOWARD GRUBB'S plans advises placing 
 a large telescope at the bottom of a great well excavated in the 
 rock and closed by a sliding lid at the level of the summit. These 
 early projects have great interest, as they show through what 
 changed conditions the observatory has passed. 
 
 ACT OF CONGRESS GRANTING THE SITE FOR THE LICK 
 OBSERVATORY. 
 
 Forty-fourth Congress. 
 
 CHAPTER 120. An Act granting a site for an observatory to the 
 Trustees of the Lick Observatory of the Astronomical Department 
 of the University of California. (Approved June 7, 1876.) 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America, in Congress assembled : 
 
 That, whereas, JAMES LICK, of San Francisco, California, has, by 
 deed of trust, given a large sum of money for the erection and 
 equipment of an observatory, dedicating the same to the Astronom- 
 ical Department of the University of California, for scientific and 
 (24) 
 
HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 25 
 
 educational purposes, and has selected Mt. Hamilton, in the County 
 of Santa Clara, the State aforesaid, as the site for said observatory, 
 and which is situate on the public lands of the United States, in 
 township seven south, and range three east, Mt. Diablo meridian, 
 the following described land in said township is hereby reserved 
 from sale or disposal under the general laws of the United States, 
 to wit: 
 
 Section nine, the north half of section ten, the south half of sec- 
 tion three, and the fractional section seventeen. 
 
 SEC. 2. That so much of said land as is not already granted or 
 disposed of by the United States, to wit, section nine, the north 
 half of section ten, the south half of section three, and fractional 
 section seventeen, be, and the same is hereby granted to the Trust- 
 ees of the Lick Observatory of the Astronomical Department of the 
 University of California, with authority and in trust to convey the 
 same to the Regents of the University of California, and their suc- 
 cessors, in trust for the use and benefit of the Astronomical Depart- 
 ment of the University of California; provided, that if the land 
 herein granted shall be used for any other purpose than the site of 
 said observatory, and the necessary purposes in connection there- 
 with, the same shall revert to the United States. 
 
 In 1875 Professor NEWCOMB was asked to go to Europe to see 
 where glass discs of a large size could be had. It was strongly 
 urged upon Mr. MILLS that Mr. BURNHAM should test the excellence 
 of the various sites under consideration by actually making astronom- 
 ical observations at each of them before a final selection was 
 made. This suggestion was not carried out till 1879, however. 
 When Mr. MILLS returned to California, he found that Mr. LICK 
 was not satisfied with the policy of his Trustees, and after a time 
 the Board resigned and a second Board was appointed. Mr. LICK 
 was equally dissatisfied with the policy of the second Board and 
 finally a third set of Trustees was selected in 1876, which has acted 
 until the present time. On Mr. LICK'S death, in 1876, many distress- 
 ing legal complications arose, and it was not until 1879 that they 
 were finally disposed of, and work on the observatory was begun. 
 
 In 1876 I met Capt. FLOYD, the President of the Lick Trustees, 
 in London, and together we visited various observatories and 
 astronomers. Capt. FLOYD also spent some months on the continent 
 on the same business. In the mean time Mr. LICK had agreed to 
 build his observatory at Mt. Hamilton in Santa Clara county, on 
 condition that the county should build a road to the summit. This 
 road, 26 miles long, costing $78,000, was built in 1876. The selec- 
 tion of Mt. Hamilton, rather than Mt. Diablo, Loma Prieta, St. 
 Helena, or a mountain further south was made by Mr. LICK on the 
 report of Mr. FRASER, who has been the efficient superintendent of 
 construction of the Lick Observatory from 1876 to November, 1887. 
 
26 HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 
 
 In 1879 Mr. BURNHAM was invited by the Lick Trustees to bring 
 his six-inch telescope to Mt. Hamilton and to observe double stars 
 there, so that he could test the quality of the vision and compare it 
 with that of Chicago, Hanover (N. H.) and Washington. Mr. 
 BURNHAM spent August, September and part of October on the 
 mountain, in camp. In a capital report to the Lick Trustees (1880) 
 he gave the results of his work. It was found that the nights of 
 summer and autumn, say April to October or November, were ex- 
 cellent both as to clearness of vision and as to steadiness. The 
 daylight hours are less satisfactory. Mr. KEELER has lately shown 
 that the vision in winter time is not specially better than that at 
 lower elevations. The secret of the steady seeing at Mt. Hamilton 
 lies in the coast fogs. These roll in from the sea every afternoon 
 in summer, rising 1,500 to 2,000 feet. They cover the hot valley 
 and keep the radiation from it shut in. There are no fogs in the 
 daytime and few inthe winter. A portion of Mr. BURNHAM 's inter- 
 esting and valuable report is reprinted here. 
 
 REPORT OF MR. S. W. BURNHAM (1879). 
 
 Situation of Mt. Hamilton : "The City of San Jose, the nearest 
 point of railroad communication from Mt. Hamilton, is 50 miles 
 south of San Francisco. Mt. Hamilton, by the highway, is 26 miles 
 from San Jose, nearly east, and is reached by a good road, con- 
 structed by the County of Santa Clara. In order to keep the grade 
 within the limit of six feet in one hundred, the last portion of the 
 road is carried up the ridges of the mountain by a circuitous route. 
 The distance between the Observatory and San Jose, in an air line, 
 is only 13 miles. 
 The approximate geographical position of the Observatory peak is: 
 
 Longitude , 2h. 58m. 22.2s. (Washington.) 
 
 Latitude 37 20' 24.6". 
 
 The elevation of this point is 4,209 feet above the level of the 
 sea. The north peak, which is about four-fifths of a mile distant 
 is 171 feet higher. The ridge between is lower, along which is a 
 good trail connecting the two peaks. The sides of the mountain, 
 in most directions are very steep, and form an acute angle ,at the 
 summit. The view from the peak is unobstructed in every direc- 
 tion, there being no higher ground within a radius of 100 miles. 
 
 At sunset the Pacific Ocean is seen over the summit of the Coast 
 Range at various points ; and occasionally a snow-covered mountain 
 was seen in a northerly direction, supposed to be Lassen Butte, the 
 distance of which is about 175 miles. The great range of the Sierra 
 Nevada, about 130 miles distant, came out sharp and distinct at 
 
HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 27 
 
 Weather : The kind of weather for astronomical purposes dur- 
 ing the whole period of 60 days from August 17 to October 16, 1879, 
 inclusive, was briefly as follows: 
 
 First-class nights 42 
 
 Medium 7 
 
 Cloudy and foggy 11 
 
 By first class seeing I mean such a night as will allow of the use 
 of the highest powers to advantage, giving sharp, well -defined 
 images, and when the closest and most difficult double stars within 
 the grasp of the instrument can be satisfactorily measured. In 
 ordinary situations, the clear nights would be divisible into at least 
 four classes, which might be described as very good, good or medium, 
 poor, and very poor. While there might be some difference in the 
 nights on Mt. Hamilton I have described as first doss, the difference 
 seemed not to be sufficient to place any of them in a lower grade. 
 The conditions were generally very permanent for the entire night, 
 and this is not often the case in eastern localities where I have 
 used a telescope. It may grow better, and may get worse, but 
 rarely continues the same the whole night. On many nights, at 
 Mt. Hamilton, I remained at the instrument until daylight, and so 
 had abundant opportunities to observe this important fact. 
 
 The average daily maximum temperature in the shade, for the 
 first five weeks, was 88 and the minimum 64. The thermometer 
 at 9 P. M. would ordinarily be 12 or 15 lower than at 3 P. M. 
 
 In connection with the dryness of the air the heat did not seem 
 to be excessive, and it was seldom uncomfortably warm in the shade. 
 The extreme range of the barometer during this time was between 
 25.30 and 25.45 inches from August 17 to October 16. During the 
 last two weeks a much lower temperature was reached, on one oc- 
 casion the minimum thermometer indicating 30. 
 
 Observations : Many celestial objects in all the different classes 
 were examined with the telescope at different times, and if they are 
 not all referred to here, it is for the reason that the observations 
 would furnish no satisfactory evidence of what could be done at 
 this place with a 6-inch object glass. The appearance presented by 
 the moon, planets, nebulae, etc., under high powers in a steady air, 
 may be satisfactory to the observer who is familiar with them un- 
 der other circumstances, but such observations would have no value 
 in aiding others to form an opinion of how much could really be 
 seen. There is but one class of objects by which the atmospheric 
 conditions of a locality, or the perfection of an object glass or 
 mirror, can be thoroughly tested and a record made. This is by 
 discovering, observing, and measuring difficult double stars, and 
 particularly those which are less than the theoretical separating 
 power of the instrument, and those which are both close and un- 
 equal. It is well known what a first class refractor of any given 
 
28 HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 
 
 aperture will do in dealing with test objects. The catalogues fur- 
 nish a great variety of stars suitable for this purpose, many of 
 which I have examined and measured, as the accompanying obser- 
 vations show. The value of this work, as bearing upon the question 
 at issue, will be best appreciated by those who have had practical 
 experience in this class of astronomical work. 
 
 I prepared a series of cardboard discs, with apertures from one 
 inch up to the full aperture of the object glass, and observed a 
 great many familiar objects, cutting down the light until the small 
 star was just distinctly visible. Most of these stars have been used 
 for a similar purpose elsewhere, and are well known to astronomers 
 as well as to amateurs having the smallest portable instruments. 
 The advantage of these tests is, that the observations can be re- 
 peated by any one, at any place, with a large or small telescope. 
 Some of these observations are remarkable, considering the difficulty 
 of the objects, with much larger apertures, in other localities. 1 
 am confident that Mu Herculis, Alpha Capricorni, etc,, have never 
 been seen before with so small an object glass. They have always 
 been beyond the reach of this instrument in Chicago. 
 
 NEW DOUBLE STARS. 
 
 It is evident that the most satisfactory and conclusive proof of 
 the quality and kind of seeing would be furnished by the discovery 
 of new stars. Whatever advantage might be supposed to exist in 
 the observation of familiar objects, from knowing where to look for 
 a difficult star, would certainly be wanting in discovering and fix- 
 ing the position and distance of a star, never before seen. Partly 
 for this reason, I gave some time to an examination of the heavens 
 for the detection of new double-star systems, and particularly to 
 that portion lying more than 30 or 35 south of the celestial equator. 
 Most of the time was spent in the southern zones, as that to me 
 was a new heavens, and the most promising field for such research. 
 The result is very gratifying, and furnishes some of the most inter- 
 esting discoveries, and among the prominent and well known stars, 
 and at the same time shows the wonderful purity and steadiness of 
 the air almost down to the very horizon. It might be supposed there 
 would be little left to do, at least for a small instrument, among the 
 naked -eye stars, even in the southern hemisphere, and particularly 
 when at Mt. Hamilton these stars had to be observed within a few 
 degrees of the horizon. Sir JOHN HERSCHEL had traveled over this 
 whole field at the Cape of Good Hope, where these stars are nearly 
 overhead, with his "twenty-foot reflector," giving nearly ten times 
 the light of the six-inch telescope I was using on Mt. Hamilton; and 
 one not familiar with what large reflecting telescopes have done, and 
 have failed to do, might suppose that but little would be left for dis- 
 covery, at least among the large stars. So far from this being the 
 case, the fact is that almost nothing has been done in this great 
 
HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 29 
 
 department of discovery and work, by any observer in the southern 
 hemisphere. It is a work which requires too perfect an instrument 
 to be successfully undertaken by any of the large reflecting teles- 
 copes heretofore used. The catalogues of HERSCHEL contain very- 
 few first class objects, the great proportion being very wide, insigni- 
 ficant, and easy pairs, suitable as tests only for the smallest refrac- 
 tors. Fortunately, a zone of 15 or 20, too far south for any other 
 American or European observatory, can be observed at Mt. Hamil- 
 ton, and it is to be hoped that the work now commenced will not 
 be neglected when the new observatory is established. In the 
 mean time these stars will remain for the most part unobserved, 
 since but very few of them can be sufficiently well seen at any of 
 the northern observatories. 
 
 The small refractor on Mt. Hamilton has divided again the prin- 
 cipal components of several wide pairs previously catalogued by 
 HERSCHEL, STRUVE and SOUTH, transforming a wide pair into a 
 close triple. 
 
 In regard to the northern new stars, it is sufficient to say that 
 some of them are excessively difficult, and make excellent tests for 
 the condition of the air. Good weather and good definition are as 
 necessary in observing such stars with a large instrument as a small 
 one. After my return to Chicago I examined one of the new stars 
 I had discovered at Mt. Hamilton with the six -inch telescope by 
 means of the 18|-inch refractor of the Dearborn Observatory, and 
 the first night nothing could be done with it. The large star did 
 not appear to be double at all. Subsequently, when the air was 
 better, it was well seen and measured carefully on two occasions. 
 
 Besides the new double stars discovered, a great many known 
 double stars were picked up independently, both north and south. 
 In fact, most of the closer stars in the southern zone, previously 
 observed by Herschel and others down to 45 decl. , were found 
 on different occasions. 
 
 These stars will show, better than anything else can, what may 
 be done at Mt. Hamilton. Remembering that they were discovered 
 with what, in these days of great refractors, would be considered 
 as a very inferior instrument in point of size, we may form some 
 conception of what might be done with an instrument of the power 
 of that at the Naval Observatory at Washington (26 inches), hav- 
 ing a light power about nineteen times as great, or with the Pulkowa 
 glass (30 inches) of twenty-five times the power. 
 
 Daylight Observations : A great many objects were examined 
 by daylight, but the air, during the greater part of the day at least, 
 appears to be no steadier than would ordinarily be found elsewhere. 
 The heat of the sun during the warmer part of the season produces 
 a disturbance of the air which disappears very soon after sunset. 
 The sun, planets and double stars were frequently looked at and 
 some measures of double stars made. Double stars like Epsilon 
 
30 HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 
 
 Bootis and Epsilon Lyrce, could be very easily seen. The fifth and sixth 
 stars of the trapezium of Ori<m were beautifully seen in broad day- 
 light just before sunrise. The sixth star was measured on this oc- 
 casion without artificial illumination, and continued to remain visible 
 as long as it was looked at, which was up to within seven minutes of 
 the actual appearance of the sun above the horizon. Venus was 
 readily seen with the naked eye at any hour of the day, and easily 
 found without an instrument to indicate the place. 
 
 Conclusions : So far as one may judge from the time during which 
 these observations were made, there can be no doubt that Mt. 
 Hamilton offers advantages superior to those found at any point 
 where a permanent observatory has been established. The re- 
 markable steadiness of the air, and the continued succession of 
 nights of almost perfect definition, are conditions not to be hoped 
 for in any place with which I am acquainted, and, judging from 
 the published reports of the various observatories, are not to be 
 met with elsewhere. The low altitude at which observations can. 
 be made is a matter of no small importance, particularly in connec- 
 tion with the portion of the southern sky not ordinarily accessible 
 to observatories in the northern hemisphere. The ease with which 
 difficult objects can be seen almost down to the horizon will be ap- 
 parent from the southern declination of many of the new double 
 stars. Close pairs can be observed at least down to 43 degrees 
 south declination. The permanent steadiness of the air during the 
 whole night will greatly increase the amount of telescopic work 
 over what could ordinarily be done in good nights in most places. 
 An examination of my observations at Chicago during the summer 
 of the present year shows that the good seeing very rarely con- 
 tinued the whole night, even when it remained clear. In many 
 instances the conditions favorable for the observation of the most 
 difficult objects would only last an hour or two, sometimes occurring 
 in the first part of the night and sometimes not commencing until 
 after midnight. On Mt. Hamilton there is but little variation of 
 any kind during the dry season. Each day was very much like 
 every other day, and as already shown, the same statement would 
 apply equally well to the nights. Apparently there is but little to 
 be feared from the ocean fogs, as they seldom reach this elevation. 
 Nearly every night, commencing at or soon after sunset, this fog 
 comes in from the Pacific at the Golden Gate on the north and the bay 
 of Monterey on the south, and covers the whole valley between 
 the base of Mt. Hamilton and the Coast Range with a dense mass 
 of vapor, resembling, when seen from above, a great white sea, the 
 tops of the lower hills standing up through it like islands. Ordi- 
 narily it is perhaps 2,000 feet lower than the summit of Mt. Ham- 
 ilton. It does not appear to have any effect on the seeing so long 
 as it is below the summit. 
 
HISTORY OF THE LICK OBSERVATORY. 31 
 
 What has been said about the advantages of Mt. Hamilton for 
 astronomical purposes is, of course, based upon what was seen 
 during the time spent on the mountain. This was my first visit to 
 the Pacific Coast, and hence I have no personal knowledge concern- 
 ing other seasons of the year. From inquiries in various quarters 
 I am satisfied there was nothing unusual about this season, and 
 there seems to be every reason for supposing, as the same cloudless 
 sky and dry air prevails from about March until the commence- 
 ment of the rainy season, near the close of the year, that the whole 
 of this interval would be equally favorable for the use of the tele- 
 scope. Even if nothing could be done in the winter time and the 
 nights were as favorable throughout the dry season as I found them, 
 Mt. Hamilton would be much more desirable, and more could be 
 accomplished there with a large telescope than at any other place 
 where an observatory has yet been established. So far as there 
 have been opportunities for judging, it is obviously an appropriate 
 place for erecting and maintaining the telescope to be constructed 
 under the LICK Deed of Trust, and required to be 'superior to and 
 more powerful than any telescope ever yet made. ' " 
 
 In 1879 Capt. FLOYD and Mr. FRASER visited Prof essor NEWCOMB 
 and myself in Washington and the plans for the Observatory were 
 drawn. These are practically the same as those discussed in 1874. 
 
 The plans have proved to be entirely adequate and have been 
 closely followed in most essential respects. Improvements have 
 been made wherever it was possible, and many ingenious devices 
 and details have been worked out by Capt. FLOYD or by Mr. 
 FRASER, or by others under their direction. The plans for the 
 buildings will be best understood by consulting the cut on page 32. 
 
Q 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 *j 
 
 1-2 
 
 c 
 td 
 
 . 
 
 (32* 
 
V. DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDINGS. 
 
 At the south end of the observatory is the seventy -five-foot dome. 
 At the north end is the twenty-five -foot dome. They are connected 
 by a hall, 191 feet in length. On the west is a series of study and 
 work rooms. For the next twenty years there will be space in these 
 rooms and in the hall for all the work of the observatory. When it 
 is necessary a second row of rooms can be built on the east side of 
 the hall. Any possible expansion of the Observatory can be 
 provided for by such additional rooms, and by separate detached 
 observing rooms in the immediate vicinity. The visitor should 
 notice the fine set of astronomical drawings (by M. TROUVELOT, of 
 Paris) which hang along this hall. They have been kindly pre- 
 sented to the Observatory by the Hon. JOHN R. JARBOE, of San 
 Fraacisco, and serve to give a very good general idea of the celes- 
 tial objects depicted. 
 
 The building is of brick, painted. It has a slate roof. Tin was 
 found to be better and has been used for the other buildings. 
 Although the building is one story (with a shallow air space be- 
 neath), there is a great deal of floor room on the principal floor and 
 in the low attic. The roof is also utilized by platforms and galleries. 
 
 THE DOME FOR THE THIRTY-SIX-INCH REFRACTOR. 
 
 The computations for the strength of the arches and of the walls 
 of this dome were made by Prof. BULL, of Madison, Wis., in 1885, 
 and forwarded to the Lick Trustees. The contract for the dome 
 proper was awarded to the Union Iron Works of San Francisco, in 
 1886, and the dome was finished in place in October, 1887. The 
 details of plans were thoroughly worked out by Mr. DICKIE, of the 
 Union Iron Works, and by Mr. FRASER. No adequate notion of 
 the design can be had without wood cuts which I have no way of 
 producing here. It may suffice to say that the outside diameter is 
 75 feet 4 inches ; the inside 71 feet. The dome stands on a smooth 
 cylindric wall of brick 3 feet 2 inches thick at base, 2 feet 3 inches 
 at the top. This wall has few openings in it. 
 
 The original design of the brick cylinder, drawn by Prof. BULL 
 from my sketches, is indicated on the plan of the buildings accom- 
 P-TV- ing this. It provided for thorough ventilation and for rapid 
 coo' ing off of the large masses of brick. This is a very important 
 point and it is not yet certain that it has been secured by the 
 modification actually adopted. 
 
 ( 33 ) iii 
 
34 DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDINGS. 
 
 The dome itself is admirably constructed by the makers. The 
 moving parts weigh 199,000 pounds, and can be set in motion by a 
 pull of less than 200 pounds. That is, one pound can move 1,000. 
 The usual motive power is obtained from a water engine which will 
 rotate the dome 360 in less than nine minutes. 1 here are several 
 novel features in the construction ; perhaps the most important is 
 the system of expansion bedplates for the track. The diameter of 
 the dome changes one-half an inch in the extremes of temperature, 
 and the track is given a smooth and oiled surface to slide upon (in 
 and out). 
 
 The guide rollers are placed on the outside of this dome instead 
 of on the inside, as is usual. Most of the bearings of axles in the 
 dome are anti-friction (bicycle ball) bearings. 
 
 The shutters weigh 16,000 Ibs. 
 
 Total weight of cupola 174,000 
 
 " " live ring 25,000 
 
 " " " moving parts 199,000 
 
 " " metal in dome 269,000 
 
 " " " elevating floor 50,000 
 
 Total number of rivets and bolts 250,000 
 
 The observing slit is nine and one-half feet wide. 
 
 THE ELEVATING FLOOR. 
 
 A very ingenious plan was proposed by Sir HOWARD GRUBB to the 
 Lick Trustees for placing the observer at a proper height (any where 
 from zero to thirty-seven feet above the floor). The idea was to 
 have a portion of the floor move bodily up and down, like an ele- 
 vator. This plan was adopted by the Lick Trustees and the floor 
 has been built by the Union Iron Works. My recommendation to 
 the Lick Trustees was that the floor should move at the rate of four 
 feet per minute. The motive power originally provided (a three 
 cylinder 8x6 water engine) required ten times as long. It is 
 probable that this speed can be materially increased by changes 
 in the hydraulic arrangements, which are now being made by the 
 Lick Trustees, and if not the motive power can be replaced by 
 steam or electricity, should the present speed be found materially 
 too slow. 
 
 The moving floor is 61 J feet in diameter and weighs 50,000 
 pounds, which is nearly all counterpoised. By suitable changes it 
 is certain that the ingenious plan of Sir HOWARD GRUBB can be 
 made available and convenient. The speed actually required can 
 hardly be definitely fixed until a series of observations has been 
 made. 
 
 THE DOME FOR THE TWELVE-INCH EQUATORIAL. 
 
 This dome is a hemisphere 25 feet 6 inches in diameter, made of 
 thin plates of nickel-plated copper secured to a light frame -work of 
 
(35) 
 
36 DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDINGS. 
 
 wood. The slit for observation is 3 feet wide and extends beyond 
 the zenith. The shutter is part of a cylinder tangent to the sphere 
 of the dome, and was made by WARNER & SWASEY in 1887. The 
 mechanism for revolving the dome is novel, simple and efficent, and 
 is the invention of Capt. FLOYD and Mr. FRASER. An endless rope 
 passes around the outside of the dome just above the base-plate, 
 over guiding pulleys and down around a groove in a two-foot wheel 
 placed in a recess in the wall of the room below. This wheel is 
 rotated by a crank geared in the proportion of 3 : 1, and the friction 
 of the rope on the outside is sufficient to turn the dome. To give 
 the dome a complete revolution requires forty-one turns of the 
 crank, and it can easily be effected in less than two minutes. The 
 approximate weight of the dome is eight tons. 
 
 MERIDIAN CIRCLE HOUSE. 
 
 The Meridian Circle house, completed in 1884, from drawings 
 made from my plans by Professor COMSTOCK, is 43 x 38 feet with a 
 wing 27 x 11 feet on the east. The walls are double throughout. 
 The outer frame carries a louvre work of galvanized iron, which 
 completely prevents the sun from striking any part of the building 
 proper. The inner walls are of California redwood, and between 
 these and the outer walls is an air-space twenty-four inches wide, 
 which extends completely around the building. The ceiling is also 
 of redwood. It is sixteen feet above the floor, flat in the centre of 
 the room and arched over to connect with the side walls. A 
 very large air-space above the ceiling communicates with the room 
 itself and with the air-spaces of the walls. On the west the rooms 
 open into a ventilating tower two stories in height, which also 
 adjoins and is connected with the house for the meridian transit 
 instrument, which lies still further to the west. The design of 
 this construction is to keep the temperature of the two houses 
 and of their air-spaces precisely the same as that of the external 
 air, and it is probable that this object has been practically attained. 
 The upper room of the ventilating tower ought to furnish an admir- 
 able exposure for meteorological instruments. 
 
 The wing on the east side projects eleven feet from the main 
 building, and contains an office room for the observer and an alcove 
 to receive the glass house which protects the instrument when not 
 in use. The slit for observation is 3 feet 4 inches wide. At the north 
 and south it is closed by double shutters 20 feet high, and overhead 
 by four shutters, each 25 feet long and 2 feet wide, hinged at the 
 side of the slit and opening outward. These shutters were devised 
 by Mr. FRASER, are perfectly weathertight and very convenient in 
 use. They are the best that I have seen. 
 
 THE TRANSIT HOUSE. 
 
 The Transit house adjoins the Meridian Circle house on the west. 
 It is built of iron with a wooden lining, after the manner of the 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDINGS. 37 
 
 Meridian Circle house, but the air-spaces are smaller. The room 
 measures 18 feet in an east and west and 14 feet in a north and 
 south direction. The roof is arched, and the central opening is 
 covered by a curved shutter, which is controlled by levers inside on 
 the plan of Sir HOWARD GRUBB. Sliding shutters on the north and 
 south allow the instrument to point to the northern horizon and to 
 the object glass of the photoheliograph which serves as a south 
 collimating lens. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY. 
 
 This is in a small wooden house with brick foundation, 16 feet in 
 an east and west and 12 feet in a north and south direction, situated 
 60 feet s outh of the Transit house. The tube of the photoheliograph 
 telescope enters the building 2^ feet to the east of the center. The 
 laboratory is 13x12 feet. It is lighted by two windows, one of 
 which is of red glass, in the west end. Both are provided with 
 shutters. On the north is the brick pier which supports the plate- 
 holder of the photoheliograph. A room on the second floor of 
 the main building next to the seventy-five-foot dome is also fitted 
 for photography. 
 
 THE DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 The astronomers' dwelling consists of a brick building 63 x 60 feet 
 and three stories high, situated on a level bench of ground excavated 
 for the purpose to the eastward of the observatory and about 22 feet 
 below the summit. A long flight of steps leads up from the plateau 
 on which the cottages are situated to the principal entrance. 
 
 The building contains two distinct and precisely similar dwellings, 
 which, however, may be made to communicate when desirable by 
 doors in the partitions. The floors of the third story and the sum- 
 mit plateau are on the same level, and are connected by a bridge, 
 which gives easy access to the observatory. 
 
 SHOPS, BARNS, AND COTTAGES FOR ASTRONOMERS AND WORKMEN. 
 
 The cottages are situated on the saddle of the mountain connect- 
 ing the Observatory peak and Mt. Tycho, where a level place was 
 cleared for the purpose. At the foot of the flight of steps leading 
 up to the astronomers' residence is a large double cottage containing 
 eleven rooms, formerly occupied by the superintendent. One large 
 cottage and two smaller ones are but a short distance off, with sheds 
 for poultry, etc. A little further along is a large barn with stables, 
 and north of this a long, low house which has been used by 
 workmen. 
 
 On the observatory plateau, earb of the main building is a low 
 brick building containing a carpenter shop and separate rooms for 
 oil, paints, a olacksmith s forge, etc. 
 
s w 
 
 (38) 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE BUILDINGS. 39 
 
 THE WATER-SUPPLY. 
 
 The principal source of water is a spring, (Aquarius), situated on the 
 southern slope of Mt. Galileo, about f of a mile from the observatory. 
 A reservoir holding 27,000 gallons collects the water, which is then 
 forced by a steam pump through a 2-inch pipe f mile long into 
 the reservoir on Mt. Kepler, 388 feet above the spring. Steam is 
 supplied to the pump from a 20 horse-power boiler, for the trans- 
 portation of which a road had to be cut from the observatory in the 
 side of the mountain. The reservoir on Kepler is built of brick and 
 cement, and has a capacity of 85,000 gallons. Pipes lead from ifc 
 to supply the buildings of the workmen, the astronomers' dwelling 
 and the observatory. The head of water at the level of the plateau 
 is 48 feet. A l|-inch pipe also leads to a reservoir on Huyghens' 
 Peak, an elevation near the workmen's quarters. This reservoir 13 
 built in the same manner as the first, and has a capacity of 65,000 
 gallons. It is below the level of the buildings on the summit, and 
 in the winter and spring is kept full of rainwater collected by their 
 slate roofs. For this purpose a 2-inch pipe was laid deep in the 
 ground before blasting was begun on the mountain. As the carry- 
 ing capacity of this pipe is not sufficient during very heavy rains, a 
 reservoir 10x6x4 feet, in which the surplus of water can accumulate, 
 is provided under the main building. In the summer or dry season, 
 the reservoir on Huyghens' Peak is filled from the main one on Kepler 
 by means of the l|-inch pipe above mentioned. In addition to these 
 reservoirs four wooden tanks, two of 5,000 gallons each, one of 
 2,000 gallons and one of 1,000, collect the rainwater from the roof 
 of the Meridian Circle House. 
 
 During the summer of 1886 a third reservoir, to contain about 
 30,000 gallons, was built on Mt. Copernicus, 171 feet above the 
 observatory floor and 4,000 feet distant. This can be filled either 
 directly by the steam-pump at the springs, or by a windmill -pump 
 erected on the Huyghens' Peak reservoir. The water from this 
 source serves to turn the large dome and to elevate its lifting-floor. 
 It is also an important safeguard against fire. Until this water 
 supply was developed all our water had to be hauled from Smith 
 Creek 2,000 feet below the summit and 7 miles distant. 
 
(40) 
 
VI. DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL 
 INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 THE THIRTY-SIX-INCH TELESCOPE. 
 
 There is no way for the visitor to obtain any adequate idea of 
 the great size and of the mechanical perfection of the large telescope 
 except by seeing it and by verbal explanation. Therefore I simply 
 give below a few of the dry statistics, and leave the visitor to form 
 hia own impression from an actual view. It is far more difficult to 
 convey in untechnical language any idea of its optical superiority over 
 all other instruments. In section VIII following this, I have given 
 a short sketch of the development of the telescope as a seeing 
 instrument, and in section X some account of its use in Astronomi- 
 cal Photography ; these sections may therefore be referred to in this 
 connection. It is very difficult also to obtain any satisfactory picture 
 of this instrument. In short, it is necessary to see the telescope 
 itself to know what it is like. 
 
 The visual objective is 36 inches clear aperture and 672 inches 
 focus. One second at the focus is therefore about To 3 oir f an inch. 
 The image of the sun at the focus is about 6 inches in diameter. The 
 photographic lens is 33 inches in aperture and about 550 inches focus. 
 The photographic image of the sun is therefore 5^ inches in 
 diameter. The history of the objective is as follows: The flint disc 
 was obtained from FEIL, in Paris, in April, 1882. After nineteen 
 failures, the crown was successfully cast in September, 1885. In 1886 
 a third (photographic) crown disc was purchased also from FEIL, 
 which was cast at the same time with the successful crown disc for 
 the visual objective ; it broke in the hands of the Clarks in 1886. 
 In 1887, Mr. ALVAN G. CLARK went to Paris and procured the 
 crown glass from FEIL, which has been worked into a third lens. 
 
 The visual objective was completed by the CLARKS and delivered 
 in 1886, so that it has waited for a year for the dome and hydraulic 
 apparatus. Those who are interested in the methods of manu- 
 facture of object-glasses will find an excellent popular account in 
 the Scientific American for Sept. 24, 1887. The mounting is by 
 WARNER and SWASE Y and all the details of its construction have 
 been worked out by them except those of the eye-end, which were 
 drawn by Professor BULL of Madison, from sketches by Professor 
 LANGLEY and myself. The tube is nearly cylindric in shape, with a 
 suitable port for access to the photographic focus. The counterpoising 
 is arranged so that the photographic lens can be put on and taken off 
 (41) 
 
42 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 safely and quickly. There are three regular finders, 6, 4 and 3 
 inches in aperture. In addition to these, the 12-inch equatorial can 
 be quickly attached as a pointer for photographic work should the 
 controlled driving clock not prove satisfactory. 
 
 The following mechanical movements are provided: 
 
 An observer at the eye -end can 
 
 1. Clamp in declination. 
 
 2. Give slow motion in declination. 
 
 3. Read the declination circle (two verniers). 
 
 4. Clamp in right ascension. 
 
 5. Stop the clock. 
 
 6. Give slow motion in right ascension. 
 
 7. Read right ascension circle (one microscope). 
 
 An assistant on cither side of the balcony below the axes can 
 
 8. Clamp in declination. 
 
 9. Give rapid motion in decimation. 
 
 10. Give slow motion in declination. 
 
 11. Give quick motion in right ascension. 
 
 12. Give slow motion in right ascension. 
 
 13. Clamp in right ascension. 
 
 14. Stop or start the driving clock. 
 
 15. Read the right ascension circle (two microscopes). 
 
 16. Read a dial showing the nearest quarter degree of declin- 
 ation. 
 
 The original design of the makers allowed everything which is 
 now done by an assistant on the balcony to be done by a person on 
 the floor. The distance from the base of the iron pier to the center of 
 motion is 37 feet 10 inches exactly, and to the lowest position of the 
 (movable) floor is 35 feet 11 inches, leaving a clearance of 7 feet 10 
 inches for the eye-piece, or of about 3 feet 7 inches for the star spectro- 
 scope. The eye-end is so arranged that the micrometer can be quickly 
 removed, and two steel bars inserted in bearing;*. These bearings 
 are part of a jacket around the eye-end. This jacket revolves 
 smoothly 360 in position-angle. Spectroscopes, photometers, en- 
 larging cameras, etc., can be readily attached to these bars. In 
 this way this telescope mounting is made entirely convenient for 
 micrometric, photographic or spectroscopic work. It is, in fact, 
 three mountings in one. 
 
 TWELVE-INCH REFRACTOR BY ALVAN CLARK & SONS. 
 
 The objective and tube of this instrument were originally made 
 by ALVAN CLARK & SONS for DR. HENRY DRAPER, and were mounted 
 in his private observatory at Hastings-on-the-Hudson. 
 
 The objective is of the very finest quality. It was disposed of by 
 DR. DRAPER in 1879, in order that he might replace it by the photo- 
 graphic objective of 11 inches aperture, now at Harvard College 
 Observatory. The objective was in the hands of the Messrs. CLARK 
 
INTERIOR OF THE NORTH DOME THE TWELVE-INCH TELESCOPE 
 
 (FROM "THE CENTURY" FOR MAY, 1886) 
 
 Objective and Mounting by Alvan Clark & Sons. (Magnifying powers from 
 100 to 1000 diameters) 
 
44 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 until September, 1880, during which time a substantial mounting 
 was fitted to it. It was mounted at the Lick Observatory in 
 October, 1881. 
 
 FOUR-INCH COMET-SEEKER BY ALVAN CLARK & SONS. 
 
 The objective has an aperture of four inches and a focal length 
 of about thirty-three inches. The rays from the objective fall on a 
 reflecting prism midway in the tube and are bent into a horizontal 
 plane. The observer has only to move his eye in azimuth while the 
 telescope tube is moved in altitude, in order to cover the whole sky. 
 
 PHOTOHELIOGRAPH BY ALVAN CLARK & SONS. 
 
 The photoheliograph is mounted due south of the Transit house. 
 The transit instrument serves to determine the position of the axis 
 of the photoheliograph ; and conversely the photoheliograph is used 
 as a south collimator for the transit. 
 
 It is essentially of the same form as those employed in the U. S. 
 Transit of Venus expeditions of 1874 and 1882 which have been 
 described (with plates) in the "American Observations of the 
 Transit of Venus, 1874, Part I." 
 
 It was used by Capt. FLOYD and Professor TODD to observe the 
 transit of Venus in 1882. (See the cut previously given in Section V.) 
 
 THE SIX-AND-ONE-HALF-INCH EQUATORIAL. 
 
 (Objective by A. CLARK & SONS; mounting by WARNER & SWASEY.) 
 In ordering the Repsold Meridian Circle it was stipulated that 
 the three objectives of equal size which belonged respectively to the 
 circle and t > the two collimators, should be made by ALVAN CLARK 
 & SONS. The north collimator is to remain always in position. The 
 south collimator will be used in connection with it for determination 
 of the horizontal flexure by the method of opposite collimators, but 
 can be replaced for determinations of collimatiou by the south mire, 
 about eighty feet distant. 
 
 Its objective thus becomes available for other purposes, and 
 Messrs. WARNER & SWASEY have provided a portable mounting for 
 this objective. It is the work of a few minutes to detach the colli- 
 mator objective in its cell and to adapt it to the tube of the six-inch 
 mounting. The cast iron column of this mounting is hollow and 
 contains the driving clock and weights. It can be taken apart just 
 below the clock for greater convenience in transportation when the 
 instrument is used on eclipse or other astronomical expeditions. 
 
 The driving clock has several features of interest. The double 
 conical pendulum is so hung that its period of revolution is very 
 nearly independent of the height of the balls, which always assume 
 the position proper to their velocity of rotation, although the 
 retarding friction increases continually as the balls diverge. The 
 performance of this clock is very satisfactory. A similar clock, 
 
WARNER & SWASEY'S SIX AND ONE-HALF INCH 
 
 PORTABLE EQUATORIAL 
 Objective by ALVAN CLARK & SONS 
 
 y 
 
 (45) 
 
46 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 with the addition of an electric control, is provided for the 36-inch 
 refractor. This telescope is mounted in a small dome south of the 
 Meridian Circle House, and serves many useful purposes. 
 
 THE SIX-AND-ONE-HALF-INCH REPSOLD MERIDIAN CIRCLE. 
 
 (Object Glass by ALVAN CLARK & SONS.) 
 
 This instrument was ordered in 1882 and delivered in 1884. 
 Previous to its dispatch to America it was thoroughly inspected by 
 Prof. AUWERS and by Prof. KRUEGER who were kind enough to do 
 this at the request of the Lick Trustees. In a letter of May 6, 
 1884, Professors AUWERS and KRUEGER say that : "The Meridian 
 Circle ordered of the Messrs. REPSOLD is in its construction in every 
 way suited to be the chief instrument in an observatory of the first 
 class." Its uses are described in section VJJ, following. 
 
 FOUR-INCH TRANSIT AND ZENITH TELESCOPE, COMBINED, BY 
 FAUTH & CO. 
 
 This instrument was ordered, on the recommendation of Pro- 
 fessor NEWCOMB, in 1880, and delivered in 1881. The aperture is 
 4. 1 inches. It is essentially of the same pattern as the Meridian 
 Circle of the School of Science at Princeton, New Jersey, by the 
 same makers. It was mounted in October, 1881, and has since 
 served for time determinations. In 1885 it was remodeled by the 
 makers. The objective (which is a very excellent one, by ALVAN 
 CLARK & SONS) received a new cell. The eye-end was changed so 
 that the micrometer can be used either in B. A. or Z. D. A sensitive 
 level was added. In this way the instrument becomes a zenith tele- 
 scope also, and can be used for an independent determination of the 
 latitude by TALCOTT'S method. The piers were originally iron 
 frames ; they have been built solid with brick. 
 
 UNIVERSAL INSTRUMENT BY REPSOLD. 
 
 A universal instrument, by KEPSOLD, was ordered in 1884 and 
 delivered in 1885. Its telescope tube is broken at the middle where 
 a reflecting prism sends the rays through the axis to the eye. Its 
 aperture is 2. 15 inches; the horizontal circle reads by two micro- 
 scopes to 2". The vertical circle reads by two microscopes to 2". 
 The circles are 10 inches in diameter. This instrument may serve 
 for special investigations on the refraction ; and it is a very perfect 
 geodetic instrument. Together with the six-inch equatorial and a 
 chronometer it constitutes an outfit which can be packed in a few 
 hours and which is very suitable for astronomical expeditions. All 
 these instruments pack readily into boxes of convenient size and 
 shape. 
 
 CLOCKS. 
 
 There are two dead-beat clocks by HOHWU ; two gravity escape- 
 ment clocks by C. FRODSHAM and DENT respectively; a mean time 
 
(47) 
 
48 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 clock for time-service work by HOWARD (dead-beat) ; several 
 chronometers by NEGUS and a thermometric chronometer by C. 
 FRODSHAM. It was originally intended to have a fine clock in each 
 observing room, but a set of controlled clocks (GARDNER'S pattern) 
 has replaced the finer clocks which are now kept in the clock room. 
 
 CHRONOGRAPHS. 
 
 There is a FAUTH chronograph in the transit room, one in the 
 meridian circle room and a WARNER & SWASEY chronograph in each 
 dome. 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 It is entirely proper to count the Library of an observatory as 
 one of its most important astronomical instruments. For the object 
 of all scientific activity is either to learn new things or to know old 
 ones better. To do either it is first necessary to know what has 
 already been learned, and a library gives this essential information. 
 Our special library is not as extensive as it should be, but it con- 
 tains a selection of the most important books such as Treatises on 
 Astronomy in general, on special departments, on Mathematics, 
 Meteorology and Physics, Catalogues and Maps of Stars, of Comets, 
 of Nebulae, etc. It is to be hoped that the Library may be largely 
 increased by gifts in the future. 
 
 MINOR INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The Messrs. REPSOLD have furnished the observatory with a level - 
 trier of refined construction. An engine for measuring photographs, 
 scales, etc., has been made by STACKPOLE & BRO. from designs by 
 Professor HARKNESS. It is similar to the one constructed for the 
 U. S. Transit of Venus Commission. For use in connection with 
 the measuring engine, Professor W. A. ROGERS, of Harvard Col- 
 lege Observatory, has provided a standard bar 20| inches long, 
 containing a half -yard divided into inches and tenths, with two in- 
 ches at one end minutely subdivided. A delicate spherometer, by 
 FAUTH & Co., is provided, beside resistance-coils, galvanometers, 
 a disc photometer, small spectroscopes, spare prisms, eye-pieces, 
 etc. The most important of the minor instruments are the filar micro- 
 meter for the 36-inch, by FAUTH & Co., and the duplex micrometer, 
 by GRUBB. The Lick Observatory possesses a very powerful star 
 spectroscope which has been devised by Mr. KEELER and made 
 by J. A. BRASHEAR, of Pittsburg, as an improved form of the spec- 
 troscope employed by Professor C. A. YOUNG of Princeton. Plans for 
 a large solar spectroscope have been worked out by Professor LANG- 
 LEY and myself, but the instrument has not been ordered as yet. 
 
 SPECTROSCOPES. 
 
 One of the most important attachments to the telescope is the 
 spectroscope. The telescope forms the image of a star at its focus 
 and this image can be viewed with an eye-piece; or it can be photo- 
 
 (iv; 
 
FOUR-INCH TRANSIT INSTRUMENT AND ZENITE1 
 
 TELESCOPE, by FAUTH & Co. 
 For determining Time and Latitude 
 
 (49) 
 
50 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 graphed by means of a sensitive plate. The image itself is a minute 
 brilliant point, or a very small disc of light. If instead of causing the 
 beam of light from a star to fall 011 the object glass and to form an 
 image at the focus, we let it pass through the objective and then 
 fall upon a glass prism or prisms near the focus, we shall no longer 
 have an image but a colored ribbon or spectrum. The star's light 
 is no longer concentrated into a brilliant disc but spread out into 
 a spectrum in which the rays of various colors are separately shown 
 in the order, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. This 
 is the order of the colors of the rainbow. The larger the objective 
 of the telescope the brighter each of the colors will be. The 36- 
 inch objective will allow us to examine the spectra of very many 
 stars which are too faint to be examined with smaller glasses. 
 
 A solid body heated so intensely as to give off light is found by 
 experiments (in our laboratories) to produce a continuous spec- 
 trum; that is one in which the colors are evenly spread over the 
 entire spectrum. A gaseous body so heated, ordinarily gives a dis- 
 continuous spectrum; that is a series of bright lines separated by 
 dark spaces. Different gases give more or fewer lines arranged in 
 different parts of the spectrum, but the same gas always gives the 
 same bright lines in the same places. If the gas is under enormous 
 pressure (as in the case of our sun) it acts like a solid and gives a 
 continuous spectrum. 
 
 Moreover we find from laboratory experiments that a gas will 
 absorb when relatively cool the same rays that it emits when heated. 
 That is, if the light from a hot body passes through a surrounding 
 atmosphere of gas before it reaches the spectroscope, we shall find 
 the resulting spectrum to be the continuous spectrum of the hot 
 body, with dark lines in the places where the gaseous atmosphere 
 alone would have showed bright lines. All this is known from labor- 
 atory experiment to be true on the earth. It is also true for celes- 
 tial bodies. 
 
 The spectrum of the sun is continuous except for many narrow 
 fine dark lines crossing it which are easily seen and measured in a 
 spectroscope. They can also be photographed. One group of these 
 dark lines occupies the places of the group of bright lines of 
 hydrogen gas; another group of dark lines corresponds to the 
 brig] it lines of the vapor of sodium; another to the lines of mag- 
 nesium of iron, etc. From this it is known that the atmosphere 
 of the sun contains the vapors of magnesium, of iron, of sodium, 
 hydrogen gas, etc., etc. 
 
 The constituent vapors of the atmosphere of other stars or planets 
 can be (and have been) investigated in the same way. First the 
 dark lines actually existing in the spectrum are carefully measured 
 and mapped. Then the coincidences between the position of groups 
 of these dark lines with the groups of bright lines of vaporized 
 metals are noted, and the conclusions drawn. 
 
WARNER & SWA3EY CHRONOGRAPH 
 
 pen is marking the beats of a clock pendulum (on the right hand side 
 of the revolving barrel in the cut.) 
 
 (51) 
 
52 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The sun is, in this way, shown to be a gaseous body under 
 enormous pressure, surrounded by a highly complex atmosphere of 
 vaporized metals. Stars are suns. Comets are gaseous bodies 
 composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and in some cases sodium. 
 The Nebulae are chiefly gaseous, and their principal constituent gas 
 is nitrogen. The spectrum of the moon is simply an enfeebled sol- 
 ar spectrum (reflected from the moon's surf ace ). The planets show 
 a solar spectrum together with certain peculiar lines, due to the 
 selective absorption of their several atmospheres. Ihe gases sealed 
 up in the cavities of meteoric stones have been examined in our 
 laboratories and these gases show the characteristic spectrum of 
 comets. Here then is a new proof of the intimate connection of 
 meteor-streams and comets. 
 
 Some of the principal uses of the spectroscope may be inferred 
 from what has just been said. One of its most important applica- 
 tions, however, will be to determine the motions of the stars towards or 
 from the earth. 
 
 MOTIONS OF STARS IN THE LINE OF SIGHT. 
 
 The observation of a star's position of its longitude and latitude 
 is really nothing but the determination of the place where the 
 line joining eye and star pierces the celestial sphere. If the star is 
 moving directly towards or from us this position will remain un- 
 changed, and the methods of ordinary astronomy are quite power- 
 less to detect even its existence and still more to determine its 
 amount. But we have in the spectroscope a means of measuring 
 , such motions of stars in the line of sight. The principle of the 
 method is simple. Its application is most difficult. Every one has 
 noticed, in travelling upon an express train, the sudden clang of the 
 bell of a train passing in the contrary direction ; and how the note, 
 the pitch, of the sound of this bell rapidly changes from high back to 
 low again. Nothing is more certain than that the bell has but one es- 
 sential pitch. Why then does it change ? The engineer of the passing 
 train hears his own bell giving always the same note, and this note 
 is determined by the length of the sound waves that reach his ear. 
 Suppose them to come at the rate of about 500 per second to him. 
 He is always moving at the same rate as his bell. But to us in the 
 other train the case is different. When the bell is just opposite to 
 us 500 waves reach us in a second ; when we are approaching the 
 passing train more than 500 come to us (not only the 500 sent out by 
 the bell, but those others which we meet by our velocity); as we 
 leave the passing train, less than 500 waves overtake us per second. 
 Hence the pitch (the number of waves per second) varies. The 
 same thing happens in the case of light. In the spectrum of a star 
 there are certain dark lines whose presence is due to hydrogen in 
 the star's atmosphere. If the star is at rest with respect to the 
 earth, these lines are not displaced in its spectrum ; a definite num- 
 
EARTHQUAKE INSTRUMENT BY EWING 
 
 During a shock the pen remains steady and writes the horizontal 
 movement of the earth on the (moving; plate of smoked glass. 
 
54 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 ber of waves (say A) come to us from the spectrum on both sides of 
 these lines per second. If the star is approaching us more waves 
 than A reach us ; if the star is receding fewer waves reach us. The 
 pitch of the line, so to say, is altered ; and the spectroscope can 
 measure this change of pitch and we can calculate how much change 
 of pitch corresponds to how much velocity of approach, or recession, 
 in the star. When this is done with respect to the principal 
 stars the most interesting results follow: Vega is found to be 
 approaching us at the rate of 45 miles per second, Pollux is 
 approaching us at 40 miles, Arcturus at 42 miles etc., etc.; while 
 Castor is receding from us at 26 miles per second, Requlm is receding 
 at 20 miles, Procyon at 44 miles, and so on. No adequate idea of 
 the delicacy of the measures upon which these results depend can 
 be briefly given; but delicate and difficult as they are we have 
 evidence that they can be trusted. Independent observations 
 made at different times at London, Greenwich and Potsdam sub- 
 stantially agree. 
 
 The great telescopes of Washington, Pulkowa, Princeton, the 
 University of Virginia, Vienna and of the Lick Observatory are 
 especially suited to this research. Professor YOUNG at Princeton 
 has already begun the work and the LICK telescope is provided 
 with powerful spectroscopic appliances especially designed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 The observatory is not primarily destined for a meteorological 
 station. Its very exceptional situation, however, creates a respon- 
 sibility on its part to engage to some extent in making meteorolog- 
 ical observations, and a suitable outfit for this purpose has been 
 obtained. 
 
 A self -registering rain-gauge, a self -registering barometer (DRAP- 
 ER'S pattern), and a self -registering wind-gauge (U. S. S. S. pattern) 
 are provided, together with two mercurial barometers (by GREEN 
 and by ROACH), and a number of standard thermometers (by 
 GREEN). 
 
 SEISMOMETERS. 
 
 A complete set of apparatus for the registration of earthquake 
 movements has been provided by the Cambridge Scientific Instru- 
 ment Co., from designs by Professor EWING. The separate in- 
 struments are as follows: 
 
 1. A Horizontal Seismograph, with clock and driving plate. 
 The clock is started by an electric contact at the beginning of the 
 earthqiiake, and the two rectangular components of the horizontal 
 motion are registered side by side on a moving plate. 
 
 2. A Vertical Motion Seismograph, to register the vertical 
 movement of the surface of the earth on the same plate. 
 
\ 8 R A^p^ 
 
 OF THE 
 
 IVERSITY 
 
 EARTHQUAKE INSTRUMENT, BY EWING 
 
 The three pens stay still during a shock, while the glass-plate moves with 
 the earth. The right hand pen writes the earth's East and West motion, the 
 next pen, the North and South motion ; the left hand pen writes the earth's 
 vertical motion. 
 
56 DESCRIPTION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 3. A Duplex Pendulum Seismograph, to give independent re- 
 cords of the horizontal motion on a fixed plate, the pencil being free 
 to move in all azimuths. 
 
 4. A chronograph attachment which is set in motion at the be- 
 ginning of a shock, and records the time of its occurrence by one of 
 the standard clocks. It also marks the clock seconds upon the 
 revolving plate of No. 1. An instrument by Professor MILNE de- 
 signed to do the same work as No. 3 is also provided. 
 
 A catalogue of earthquake shocks in California from 1769 to 1887 
 has been compiled, and arrangements looking to a systematic 
 registration of such shocks in various parts of California have been 
 made. 
 
 A copy of No. 3 has been made in a cheap form by the California 
 Electric Works (35 Market street, San Francisco) and is sold by 
 them for $15. I hope to see many such instruments distributed 
 throughout the State. 
 
 In this description, which is already too long, I have been obliged 
 to pass over many things of real importance, and to merely mention 
 obligations of the observatory to individuals, which ought to be set 
 out in full. 
 
 My object in what is here written has been to show the condition 
 of the observatory as regards its fitness for work, and to outline 
 the history of the successive steps by which the desolate summit of 
 a mountain 4,300 feet high has been turned into the site of one of 
 the most important observatories in the world. From the inception 
 of the plan until now, this history will reflect credit on all who have 
 been concerned in the work. MR. LICK made the most splendid 
 gift of the whole world to a noble science. The successive Boards 
 of Trustees were composed of the best citizens of the State. The 
 President of the present Board has given the best ten years of his 
 life to make the observatory a success, and he has been most ably 
 assisted. Astronomers all over the world have given their time and 
 their advice generously without compensation. The Regents of the 
 University have resolved to maintain the observatory in the most 
 liberal and intelligent manner. The press and the public of 
 California have been most friendly to the undertaking. 
 
SELF-RECORDING BAROMETER-fDRAPER'S PATTERN) 
 
 As the barometric pressure changes more or less mercury is in the bulb 
 whose weight changes therefore; these changes of weight are registered by 
 the pencil on the moving tablet. 
 
 (57) 
 
SELF-RECORDING RAIN GAUGE (DRAPER'S Pattern) 
 As the box becomes fuller and fuller of rain water, it becomes more and more 
 heavy. Its weight extends the spiral springs and causes the pencil to trace a hue 
 on the tablet. 
 
 (58) 
 
VII. THE WORK OP AN OBSERVATORY. 
 
 I should like to be able to give a vivid picture of the work of an 
 astronomical observatory; of its daily routine; of the results 
 which it seeks for ; of the ideals it keeps in view ; of its relation to 
 the community, and, finally, of the relation of each member of the 
 community to it. I do not know how I can do this better than by 
 reprinting here a few extracts from a lecture which I delivered on 
 this subject before the Society of California Pioneers in May, 1887. 
 After giving a brief history of the observatory, and after enumera- 
 ting its instruments and equipment, which was soon to be complete, 
 I went on to say : 
 
 "You will shortly have your grand observatory that is, the teles- 
 copes, the other instruments, the buildings and all the necessary 
 appliances to make the whole of this magnificent outfit useful. 
 Suppose they are all standing there, silent, waiting. What next. 
 There must be a corps of observers to utilize them to bring out the 
 results they are capable of giving. The Regents of the University 
 have taken a large-minded and liberal view of the situation, and they 
 have appointed a staff of competent astronomers who will do credit to 
 their unrivalled opportunity. 
 
 THE WORK OF ASTRONOMERS. 
 
 The prevailing ideas about an astronomer's work are singularly 
 erroneous, as they are really inheritances from the days of astrology. 
 It is very commonly supposed that the astronomer's business is to 
 sit at the eye-piece of his telescope in a costume more or less pictur- 
 esque and outlandish, and to watch the heavens go by and to "make 
 discoveries." Exactly what these discoveries are is usually not 
 stated, but unless a sufficient number are forthcoming the astron- 
 omer is held to be blameworthy. There are plenty of discoveries 
 to be made, but the times are changed since GALILEO took his" very 
 rst look through a small telescope hardly more powerful than an 
 ordinary field glass. He saw that Venus, the mother of love, 
 emulated the phases of Cynthia, the moon, and by that simple obser- 
 vation overturned the theory that all the planets shone by their 
 own light, and finally that the planets revolved round the earth. 
 You must mark, though, that the discovery was in the astronomer's 
 interpretation of his observation, not in the observation itself. Again, 
 GALILEO'S discovery of the four satellites of Jupiter, HERSCHEL'S of 
 the planet Uranus, LE VERRIER AND ADAMS' discovery of Neptune, 
 HALL'S of the satellites of Mars perhaps such as these can never 
 (59) 
 
60 THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 
 
 be repeated. It may well be that there are no more than eight 
 planets that all the satellites have been already discovered. So 
 it may be that these glaring, obvious and popular discoveries, 
 so to say, are come to a natural limit. I do not say that this is so. 
 I say it may well be so. If there is a satellite more to Mars or Nep- 
 tune or a satellite to one of the satellites of Jupiter or Saturn we may 
 hope to find it. If there is not, the fruitless hours we may have 
 spent in the search for these objects do not show for much. You 
 cannot know how many such hours there are in an astronomer's 
 life. I believe that the elder STRUVE spent twenty years looking 
 for Neptune, but it is not even in the books that he looked at all. What 
 we know is that in his search f or Neptune he discovered and measured 
 thousands of double stars, and that'he laid the firm foundations of 
 a Science of Double Stars. He said nothing of his unsuccessful 
 search because he found nothing. In that one respect we shall be 
 more fortunate than other possessors of large telescopes. What we 
 cannot see with our telescope, the most powerful of all, in our ele- 
 vated situation, the best in the world, need not be looked for with 
 inferior telescopes in less favored situations. We shall be justi- 
 fied in publishing our negative results. 
 
 Let me give you a picture of what you might see any night in 
 visiting the Lick Observatory, and then let me try to tell you what 
 the meaning of it all may be. You enter a large room lighted 
 feebly by a lamp, and if you stand a moment you can see 
 that somewhere near the center, is a large and complicated 
 instrument, a meridian circle, composed of a telescope, of 
 microscopes, of divided circles. The room is almost perfectly 
 dark except for the feeble glimmer of a hand lamp which the 
 observer carries, and by whose light he examines alternately the 
 face of the clock, whose beats you hear, and the list of the star 
 which he is to observe. Soon you see him point the telescope out 
 through the opening in the roof of the building, and at the expected 
 moment the star he seeks enters the field of view of his telescope. 
 He is already seated, and looking through the eye-piece at the star 
 as it slowly moves along. If your eye could replace his, you 
 would see the star as a brilliant and very small disc moving slowly 
 and regularly across the field of view and coming up to, crossing 
 and leaving each one of a set of fine spider lines stretched in the 
 eye -piece. As the star crosses each one of these the observer taps 
 a telegraph key, and this tap and the clock-beats are all that you 
 can hear standing where you are. The telegraph key registers a little 
 mark on a revolving sheet of paper in another room among rows of 
 marks made by other telegraph signals automatically sent from the 
 pendulum of the standard astronomical clock, to the chronograph. 
 As soon as the taps have ceased the observer leaves the telescope and 
 writes down five numbers in a little book he carries, and this star is 
 * 'observed." Another and another and another star is observed 
 
THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 61 
 
 in the same way, and thirty or forty such , observations make 
 a night's work of this one astronomer. Another and another 
 and another night's work is added to the first one, and so on for 
 years and years. What is the meaning of all this ? 
 
 In the firstplace let us see what data the observer has gained from 
 his observation of a single star: 
 
 On the next morning he consults the register on the revolving 
 barrel and he finds that a certain star has crossed the spider lines 
 in the telescope at so many hours so many minutes so many seconds 
 and so many hundredths of a second. He finds from his little book 
 which registers the readings of his microscopes and divided circles 
 that the same star was so many degrees, minutes and seconds and 
 decimals of a second from the north pole of the sky. The whole of 
 his night's work on this star has given him two numbers. One number 
 that tells the exact time by his clock, when the star crossed the merid- 
 ian, and one that tells him the angle between the star and the north 
 pole. Now, these two numbers have to be corrected in various com- 
 plicated ways by calculation for refraction, aberration, precession, 
 nutation, and after an hour's computation on each observation he 
 finds two new numbers and these give him the star's longitude and 
 latitude as they would have been if the star had been observed ex- 
 actly at the beginning of the year 1875. That is the whole outcome, 
 so far, of the observation of this one star which took, say five 
 minutes and of its calculation, which took, say 60 minutes. The 
 thirty other stars "observed " on this night ; the thirty stars of 200 
 other nights in the same year ; the 6,000 observations of each of 
 ten years, say, are finally printed in a book. There are only three 
 columns, one gives the star's name and the two others give its 
 longitude and latitude as they would have been observed had each 
 of the 60,000 observations been made at the exact inctant which 
 separates Dec. 31, 1874, from Jan. 1, 1875. That is a catalogue of 
 stars. It has taken a strong and an able man ten, fifteen, twenty 
 years to make, and he is proud of it and glad to sacrifice his ease 
 and his life to it. But how disappointing all this is ! What has 
 become of the romantic aspect of that dark and silent room, with 
 its roof uncovered to the stars, with no sound heard but the monot- 
 onous beating of the clock ; with no light but the feeble glimmer of 
 the astronomer's lamp ? Do you think the dignity and romance is 
 all gone ? Vanished into two columns of figures ? Let us see. 
 First, let me tell you that many and many an astronomer 
 has been content to look no further than this himself. To leave all 
 beyond to others. There have been others, too, who made their 
 catalogues of these same stars, it may have been fifty, it may have 
 been a hundred years ago. If we compare two catalogues of the 
 same stars made fifty years apart we shall find that the positions 
 of the fixed stars are not fixed at all. Just such observations as 
 these were made by HIPPARCHUS two thousand years ago, and were 
 
62 THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 
 
 compared with earlier observations than his own, and to him we 
 owe the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes. Just such 
 observations as these were made by the Moors in Spain a thousand 
 years ago, and to them we owe the determination of the laws of 
 astronomical refraction. Just such observations as these were made 
 by JAMES BRADLEY, astronomer royal at Greenwich 140 years ago, and 
 to him we owe the discovery of aberration. One hundred years 
 ago SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL showed that after all the effects of 
 precession, refraction, aberration, had been allowed for, still the 
 stars were not at rest. Each one had what HERSCHEL called a 
 proper motion one proper and peculiar to the star. The unexplained 
 residual proper motions were examined by HERSCHEL, and he an- 
 nounced his grand discovery that the sun and the whole solar 
 system was whirling through space, away from some of the fixed 
 stars towards others of them. The stars we move away from 
 crowd toward each other by their proper motion, just as the two 
 rails of a railway seem to meet behind a flying train. The stars in 
 front press away from each other as the groups of trees in a forest 
 seem to open as we approach them. Just such observations as these 
 led two of the greatest living astronomers, in Sweden and in Ger- 
 many, less than five years ago, to suspect that, allowing for all the 
 discoveries of HIPPARCHUS, of AL HAZEN, of BRADLEY, of HERSCHEL, 
 there was yet a motion of all the stars in the sky in a grand vortex 
 parallel to the milky way itself ; that every star might be moving 
 in a gigantic orbit swayed by the attraction of that noble galaxy 
 which spans our winter skies. Have I shown you that there is 
 still a romantic aspect, a real dignity, in the numbers which como 
 from the taps of the astronomer's telegraph key, from the inscription 
 of the readings of his divided circles and of his microscopes ? Is it not 
 plain that we must not turn away from the silent room where the mo- 
 notonous routine is unbroken, and say that we are disappointed : If 
 we are disappointed, does it not show that we were simply ignorant ? 
 May we not say of the true astronomer, that "to him the fates are 
 known of orbs dim hovering on the skirts of space ?" Just such 
 conclusions as these are at the end and on the way in every one of 
 the myriad series of observations will be made at your own Lick 
 Observatory, and at all other observatories this year, this decade, 
 this century ; next year, next decade, next century. The day of 
 glaring discoveries, startling announcements may be over, as I said 
 before but the reward of patient, continuous, faithful, intelligent 
 labor is just as sure now, as it has been as it always will be. I 
 have described to. you how catalogues of stars are made with a 
 meridian circle and what they lead to. Similarly many of the ob- 
 servations with the great telescope are just as much apparently 
 mechanical and routine and uninteresting on the surface. Night 
 after night, and year after year, Mr. BURNHAM will measure the 
 angle between the two component stars of a binary system, and 
 
THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 63 
 
 finally we shall compute the period of revolution of one of these 
 suns about another, and their distance apart. Other series of labo- 
 rious and seemingly mechanical observations will lead to a knowl- 
 edge of the distance of this system from the earth, and then we 
 can say just how much mass the system has in terms of the sun's 
 mass just how heavy it is compared to the earth. This has to be 
 done for one system, for another, for another and another, and 
 finally we shall know just what order of magnitudes are to be 
 expected in the scheme of creation. 
 
 We have already learned that our sun is a star like other stars, 
 but small among its fellows, though infinitely important to us. 
 Again, suppose the telescope is used to examine the surface of a. 
 planet, of Mars, of Jupiter, of Saturn. The astronomer does not 
 sit there and let the planet "drift into his gaze," as the poet has it, 
 but he seeks it out, he questions every aspect of it, not only with 
 his imagination but with carefully planned micrometric measures- 
 executed with painful laborious accuracy night after night. It is 
 a refined land-survey by novel methods that he makes, and it is after 
 all only an extremely accurate map that he constructs. There is no- 
 way in which an appreciation of the art of the practical astrono- 
 mer can be so quickly and so thoroughly gained as by looking 
 through a large telescope at a planet like Mars, for example, and see- 
 ing how almost infinitely little detail can be made out in any one view * 
 of this minute flaring disc, and then to examine carefully the maps 
 that we have of the surf ace of Mars, where hundreds and hundreds of 
 particulars have been carefully and correctly recorded, as the results- 
 of thousands and thousands of hours' work. The first feeling of an 
 amateur in looking at such an object is invariably one of utter dis- 
 appointment. Where is the promised glory of the heavens ? It is- 
 not here. Whose fault is it ? Should we blame the telescope ? 
 our eyes ? our minds ? or the canopy of heaven itself ? WORDSWORTH: 
 has asked these and other questions in his poem Star-Gazers, and 
 he goes on to say 
 
 Whatever bo the cause, 'tis sure that they who pry and pore 
 Seem to meet with little gain, seem less happy than before. 
 One after one they take their turn, nor have I one espied 
 That does not slackly go away as if dissatisfied. 
 
 This is the dissatisfaction of inadequate knowledge. More knowl- 
 edge brings more light, and more light brings deep pleasure and 
 deep satisfaction. As it is with simple looking through the tele- 
 scope so it is with our spectroscopic observations. It is not the 
 rainbow tinted beauty of the spectrum that we admire, but the 
 minute displacement of its lines that we measure, and measure with 
 pain and labor and fatigue, with faithful, conscientious, endless 
 care. Again, in photography, what do you think it costs to- 
 produce a map of the stars with our immense camera? It is- 
 
64 THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 
 
 not simply to point the telescope, to prepare the plate, to 
 expose it and develop it, for no instantaneous exposures will 
 do here. Our exposures must be for two or three hours suc- 
 cessively, and during this whole time the telescope must be 
 made to follow the stars from rising to setting with perfect pre- 
 cision. During all this period the astronomer's eye must be 
 there to see, and the astronomer's hand must be there to correct 
 the slightest deviation in the pointing of the telescope itself. Three 
 hours of exposure will give us a map of four square degrees in the 
 sky. There are more than 40,000 square degrees in the whole sky, 
 so that 10,000 maps are needed to cover it. Say, twenty-five long 
 years, 200 nights in each year, must be spent to cover the sky 
 once only. Art is long and life is short. 
 
 I assume that I have already made it plain what kinds of work 
 we shall undertake at the new observatory, and in a general way 
 how we are going to do it. You will see that it is not going to be a 
 place for idlers neither for idle astronomers nor for idle guests. 
 If we are to make the Lick Observatory a place which the whole 
 State and the whole country is to be proud of, and to which astron- 
 omers of the whole world will come to confirm their previous inves- 
 tigations or to resolve their previous doubts, it is our sacred duty 
 to preserve for ourselves the right to uninterrupted and con- 
 tinuous work. It is only in this way that our real duty to the 
 community can be done, and any other course will be sure to end 
 in dissatisfaction and disappointment. 
 
 Mr. LICK'S original gift to the Lick Observatory was $700,000. 
 The deed of trust was so drawn that this $700,000 alone was avail- 
 able, and all the expenses of building the observatory have been 
 paid out of this sum ; none of the interest which this sum has 
 earned during the thirteen years of the trust is available for the 
 observatory but goes to the residuary legatees, who are the Society 
 of Pioneers and the California Academy of Sciences. More than 
 $575,003 have been expended in leveling off the top of the mountain, 
 constructing waterworks, building all the buildings, providing a water 
 supply, buying all the instruments, etc. There will remain for 
 the benefit of the observatory less than $125,000. The Regents 
 of the University have to invest this in such securities as they can 
 find as 
 
 A PERMANENT ENDOWMENT FUND. 
 
 From this and from such other funds as the Regents may appro- 
 priate, and as may be given by private persons, must be paid all 
 the expenses of the observatory, for salaries, for maintenance, 
 repairs and additions, which requires not less than $20,000 a year, 
 and Mr. LICK'S endowment does not produce the half of this. The 
 State of California has generously printed volume one of our publica- 
 tions. It is, perhaps, hardly safe to assume that the State will be 
 willing to continuously print such very technical work always, and 
 
THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 65 
 
 it is of great importance that a publication fund should be estab- 
 lished. The publication fund should not be less than $25,000, the 
 interest on which ($1,250) will enable us to publish our work in a 
 suitable manner. It must be remembered that under the most 
 favorable circumstances the State can only pay for such publications 
 as can be printed with ordinary types. One of the principal objects of 
 the observatory will be to make a photographic map of the heavens, 
 by means of the large telescope and its photographic objective. To 
 express the results of this work it will be necessary to publish maps 
 by photo-lithography or otherwise. These maps could, under no 
 circumstances, be paid for by the State, unless by a special appro- 
 priation. This photographic work is of immense importance, and 
 the most brilliant results may be expected to follow from it if it is 
 prosecuted intelligently and faithfully. To do this, the observa- 
 tory should have, a fund available for photographic and spectro- 
 scopic work only. The largest part of the interest of this fund 
 should be expended in paying the salaries of two persons one an 
 astronomer who attends to the spectroscopic work and overlooks the 
 photographic operations, the other a professional photographer of 
 the highest skill, who attends to the very delicate photographic 
 manipulation. The best gift that could be made to the observatory 
 would be one which should provide for the salaries of these two men 
 by the interest on a special fund. 
 
 THE LIBRARY. 
 
 In administering the observatory, the Lick Trustees felt 
 obliged to cut down the appropriation for a library to its very lowest 
 limits. A proper astronomical library should contain some seven- 
 teen or eighteen thousand volumes, and should cost about $25,000. 
 The Lick Trustees purchased about two thousand volumes of 
 these, making selection of the ones that are absolutely essen- 
 tial for our work, and have trusted to the generosity of private 
 citizens of California to provide a library for the Lick Observatory, 
 which should bear the name of the donor. A gift of $25,000 out- 
 right for the purchase of a large astronomical library, and the 
 provision for an annual income of about $2,000 for subscription to 
 astronomical and mathematical periodicals, and the purchase and 
 binding of books, would be one of the most practical and valuable 
 additions to our equipment. The observatory has been built with 
 a careful eye to its annual running expenses being kept small. It 
 is very completely equipped as to its instruments. Its chief need 
 is, and will be, funds producing an annual income for the paymc nt 
 of enough astronomers to utilize its magnificent outfit. - 
 
 I trust that I have given something like an adequate view of the 
 Lick Observatory what it is and what it ought to be. I beg you 
 to remember that it can only become and remain an honor to the 
 State by doing the strictly scientific work for which it was intended 
 
66 THE WORK OF AN OBSERVATORY. 
 
 in the best possible manner. Remember that the success of the 
 observatory depends finally upon the observers upon their skill 
 and upon their number. 
 
 I can promise you for myself and for my colleagues that we will 
 spare no labor to bring out all the results which the splendid instru- 
 ments can give. We will give our whole force all our efforts and 
 all our lives to this end. We ask from you your most hearty and 
 loyal support ; we feel sure that we shall have it. Secure for us the 
 time to work in, and help us to maintain a sumcent number of ob- 
 servers to fully utilize the opportunity. If you completely under- 
 stand the case as it is, if you take the large view of it which is the 
 only true view, I feel sure that the Lick Observatory will not dis- 
 appoint California." 
 
OF THK 
 
 -> -N^lVER^T 1 
 
 VIII. TELESCOPES. 
 
 THEIR HISTORY AND THE DISCOVERIES MADE WITH THEM. 
 
 It may not be superflous to give here a brief sketch of the pro- 
 gress and improvement of telescopes, from the time of their invention 
 down to the present day, when the king of them all has just begun 
 his reign. This is perhaps an appropriate place to trace the gene- 
 alogy and to describe the ancestry of the most powerful telescope 
 in the world. 
 
 THE INVENTOR OF THE TELESCOPE. 
 
 GALILEO is popularly regarded as the inventor of the telescope, 
 since in his hands it performed such prodigies. But he himself says 
 he got the idea of combining two lenses, to produce an enlarged 
 image of an object, from Holland. There is no doubt that the 
 telescope was invented there by either METIDS, LIPPERHEY or 
 JANSEN, for the States General in November, 1608, refused to 
 grant a patent for such a device on the ground that it was 
 already known and in use for military purposes. GALILEO 
 heard of this invention in 1609, and at once made a telescope, which 
 he exhibited at Venice. It is noteworthy that the telescope was 
 invented for use in war ; its applications in science began with GA- 
 LILEO'S return to Florence. Here he made several instruments, 
 some of which I have myself seen. They were on the principle of 
 the ordinary opera-glass, but they were single -barreled. The most 
 powerful only magnified some thirty times and its vision was far 
 from good, since the art of grinding lenses was in its infancy. To 
 understand the revolution that GALILEO'S discoveries made, we should 
 comprehend the times in which he lived. 
 
 GALILEO'S DISCOVERIES. 
 
 The sun was then regarded as pure fire, immovable and immacu- 
 late ; but GALILEO found spots upon its disc, and showed that it 
 rotated on an axis. Perhaps then, it was the earth after all that 
 rotated on an axis and not the whole universe that turned around 
 nightly to display the glory of the stars to contemplative men. The 
 number of the stars was limited had not PTOLEMY catalogued them? 
 and the milky way was just a shining path through heaven. But 
 GALILEO'S telescope showed innumerable stars which the eye had 
 never seen and introduced unknown complexities in the place of 
 the simple order which had reigned before. The number of the 
 planets was then seven ; the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, 
 (67) 
 
68 TELESCOPES. 
 
 Jupiter, Scutum. But in January 1610, GALILEO found that Jupiter 
 was accompanied by satellites in no wise different from our moon. 
 The sacred number seven had become eleven : PYTHAGORAS had not 
 constructed any harmonies with eleven as a basis. There were not 
 eleven studies in the curriculum. The planets themselves were no 
 longer bright points of light, but worlds with discs and faces like 
 the sun and moon. Saturn aged Saturn had servitors to help him 
 on his journey. 
 
 Venus in particular resembled the moon in the most special way. 
 Her disc, which at one time was round, became a half-circle, and 
 finally a thin crescent like the new moon. In doubt as to the exact 
 significance of this, GALILEO recorded his doubts and concealed his 
 discovery in an anagram, as follows: 
 
 "Hsec immatura a me jam frustra leguntur o. y." That is to 
 say, "These things as yet not ripe are vainly gathered by me." His 
 discovery was hidden in this sentence al?o, for when its letters are 
 transposed it makes the declaration: "Cynthise figuras semulatur 
 mater amorum" that is, " Venus imitates the phases of the moon.' 
 
 RESULTS OF GALILEO'S OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 The first observation of GALILEO on Venus was made in September, 
 1610, and the result of it was to prove that the planets revolved 
 round the sun and not round the earth. For centuries, man and 
 the earth on which he lived had been considered the true center of 
 the universe, which, therefore, was made for him. But if Venus 
 'had ; phases like the moon, she shone like the moon, by virtue of 
 the sun's reflected light ; and it took but a little calculation to 
 show that the observed phases changed as Venus revolved round the 
 sun, and were in no way dependent upon the position of the earth. 
 Here, at one blow, the ' 'optick tube" which MILTON saw when he 
 visited GALILEO at Florence, had overturned the theories of cen- 
 turies and had directed human inquiry along new channels along 
 the channels, in fact, which the world is following to-day. KEPLER, 
 NEWTON, CUVIER, LYELL, HUXLEY, DARWIN would have been im- 
 possible if GALILEO had not struck this first blow. It is important to 
 notice that it was not the observation that GALILEO made, but the 
 interpretation of the observation, that did the work. It was, after 
 all, by a man that man was dethroned as the king and center of the 
 universe. It is precisely the same to-day. Powerful telescopes and 
 . grand observatories are of no use unless the facts which they reveal 
 are co-ordinated and interpreted by competent observers. The man 
 is more than half the telescope, and of ten a discovery has been chiefly 
 valuable, not in and for itself, but as a means to free some master- 
 mind and to give it opportunity. I never see the planet Uranus 
 without remembering that its almost chance discovery gave HEB- 
 SCHEL thirty years of leisure, and that the study of its motions by 
 
TELESCOPES. 69 
 
 ADAMS and LE VERRIER led not only to the discovery of Neptune, 
 but also devoted the whole lives of two great philosophers to the 
 service of mankind. 
 
 TELESCOPES OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES. 
 
 The glasses which were available to GALILEO and his successors 
 were of poor quality and of small dimensions. The largest pieces 
 were only five inches or so in diameter. These were made into ob- 
 ject glasses by HUYGHENS (about 1670), and to avoid the aberra- 
 tions of form and color the focal length of these had to be 40, 50, 
 even 100 feet. The mechanical difficulties of handling such long 
 telescopes were (and are) great. Yet in the hands of CASSINI, 
 HUYGHENS and others great discoveries were made by them. The 
 real nature of Saturn and his ring was unfolded ; satellites to Saturn 
 were discovered ; the nebulae were for the first time seen ; the sur- 
 faces of all the planets were studied. 
 
 The difficulties in procuring glass led NEWTON to the construction 
 of a reflecting telescope in 1668. This was an inch in aperture and 
 magnified thirty-nine times, and its mirror which took the place of 
 the glass objective was made of an alloy of copper and tin. Never- 
 theless the long and clumsy refractors of HUYGHENS held their own 
 until HADLEY (1723) constructed a reflector only five feet long which 
 was superior to the best of the refractors. 
 
 REFLECTING TELESCOPES. 
 
 In the last half of the eighteenth century SHORT constructed 
 admirable reflectors, and HERSCHEL began the manufacture of 
 others which surpassed even these. About 1785 HEESCHEL'S twenty- 
 foot reflectors had an aperture of eighteen inches and were instru- 
 ments of extreme precision. 
 
 The advantages of reflectors are found in their cheapness and in 
 the fact that, supposing the mirrors perfect in figure, all the rays of 
 the spectrum are brought to one focus. Thus the reflector is suit- 
 able for spectroscopic or photographic researches without any 
 change from its ordinary form. This is not true of the refractor, 
 since the rays by which we now photograph (the blue and violet 
 rays) are, in that instrument, owing to the secondary spectrum, 
 brought to a focus slightly different from that of the yellow and 
 adjacent rays, by means of which we see. Reflectors have been 
 made as large as six feet in aperture, the greatest being that of 
 Lord ROSSE, but those which have been most successful have hardly 
 ever been larger than two or three feet. The smallest satellite of 
 Saturn (Mimas) was discovered by Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL with a 
 four-foot speculum, but all the other satellites discovered by him 
 were seen with mirrors of about eighteen inches in aperture. 
 With these the vast majority of his other discoveries were made. 
 The satellites of Neptune and Uranus were discovered by LASSELL 
 
70 TELESCOPES. 
 
 with a two-foot speculum, and much of the work of Lord ROSSE has 
 been done with his three-foot mirror, instead of his more celebrated 
 six-foot one. 
 
 From the time of NEWTON till quite recently it was usual to 
 make the large mirror or objective out of speculum metal, a 
 brilliant alloy liable to tarnish. When the mirror was once tar- 
 nished through exposure to the weather, it could be renewed 
 only by a process of polishing almost equivalent to figuring and 
 polishing the mirror anew. Consequently, in such a speculum, 
 after the correct form and polish were attained, there was great 
 difficulty in preserving them. In recent years this difficulty has 
 been largely overcome in two ways: First, by improvements in the 
 composition of the alloy, by which its liability to tarnish under 
 exposure is greatly diminished, and, secondly, by a plan proposed 
 by FOUCAULT, which consists in making, once for all, a mirror of 
 glass, which will always retain its good figure, and depositing upon 
 it a thin film of silver, which may be removed and restored with 
 little labor as often as it becomes tarnished. 
 
 In this way one important defect in the reflector has been avoided. 
 Another great defect has been less successfully treated. It is not a 
 process of exceeding difficulty to give to the reflecting surface of 
 either metal or glass the correct parabolic shape by which the incident 
 rays are brought accurately to one focus. But to maintain this 
 shape constantly when the mirror is mounted in a tube and when 
 this tube is directed in succession to various parts of the sky, is a 
 mechanical problem of extreme difficulty. However the mirror 
 may be supported, all the unsupported points tend by their weight 
 to sag away from the proper position. When the mirror is pointed 
 near the horizon the flexure is one thing ; it is quite a different thing 
 when the telescope is pointed near the zenith. 
 
 As long as the mirror is small (not greater than eight to twelve 
 inches in diameter), it is found easy to support it so that these varia- 
 tions in the strains of flexure have little practical effect. As we in- 
 crease its diameter up to 48 or 72 inches the difficulties become almost 
 insurmountable. In fact no good mirror has been made larger than 
 36 inches. Mr. COMMON, of England, is now engaged on a large 
 reflector of 60 inches aperture, and if any one can make such a 
 mirror successful it is he. But up to this time his 36-inch mirror 
 is the largest reflector which has been really successful. 
 
 THE ACHROMATIC TELESCOPE. 
 
 Although refractors of the simple form used by HUYGHENS were 
 wonderful instrument in their day, yet they would not 
 now be regarded as satisfactory owing to the aberrations with 
 which a single lens is affected. When ordinary light passes 
 through a simple lens it is partially decomposed, the different 
 rays coming to a focus at different distances. The focus for 
 
TELESCOPES. 71 
 
 red rays is most distant from the object-glass, and that for 
 violet rays the nearest to it. Thus arises the chromatic aber- 
 ration of a lens. But this is not all. Even if the light is but of a 
 single degree of refrangibility, if the surfaces of a lens are spherical 
 the rays which enter the edges of the lens will come to a focus 
 quicker than those which enter near the center. This latter 
 defect of spherical aberration was partly cured by the enormously 
 long focused lenses constructed by HUYGHENS. 
 
 But of the two defects, the chromatic aberration is much the 
 more serious ; and no way of avoiding it was known until the latter 
 part of the last century. The fact had, indeed, been recognized 
 by mathematicians and physicists, that if two glasses could be 
 found having very different ratios of refractive to dispersive pow- 
 ers, * the defect could be cured by combining lenses made of these 
 different kinds of glass. But this idea was not realized in practice until 
 the time of DOLLAND, an English optician who lived during the last 
 century. This artist found that a concave lens of flint glass could 
 be combined with a convex lens of crown of double curvature 
 in such a manner that the dispersive powers of the two lenses 
 should neutralize each other, being equal and acting in opposite 
 directions. But the crown glass having the greater refractive 
 power, owing to its greater curvature, the rays would be brought 
 to a focus without dispersion. Such is the principle of the con- 
 struction of the achromatic objective. As now made, the outer or 
 crown glass lens is double convex ; the inner or flint one is gen- 
 erally nearly plano-concave. 
 
 CONTEST BETWEEN REFLECTORS AND REFRACTORS. 
 
 The struggle for supremacy between reflectors and refractors, 
 which began before the time of HERSCHEL (1750) is not yet con- 
 cluded, but by the invention of the achromatic combination of 
 DOLLAND the refractor was placed on equal terms. About 1803 the 
 four-inch telescopes of DOLLAND were successfully competing with 
 much larger reflectors of that day. In 1830 the manufacture of 
 glass had improved so far that objectives of nine inches and more 
 could be made ; and several of about that size were constructed for 
 the observatories of Dorpat, Rome and Munich by FRAUENHOFER, 
 the successor of GUINAND. There was nothing which could be seen 
 by the forty-foot reflector of HERSCHEL which was not equally well 
 seen by means of these far more convenient instruments. Ihe form 
 of their mounting was also vastly improved and the permanence of 
 their adjustments was a capital advantage. 
 
 When FRESNEL invented the modern system of lighthouse illumin- 
 ation the demand for good glass became very great, and in this 
 
 *By the refractive power of a glass is meant its power of bonding the 
 rays out of their course, so as to bring them to a focus. By its dispersive 
 power is meant its power of separating the colors so as to forma spectrum, 
 or to produce chromatic aberration. 
 
72 TELESCOPES. 
 
 case as in others every advance made in the service of the arts was 
 quickly utilized by science, which had given the original impetus. 
 The refractor became the standard instrument, while the reflector 
 did wonders in the hands of a few observers, who made their own 
 instruments and who knew how to obviate each one of the many 
 difficulties in their use. The 15-inch telescopes of Harvard College 
 and of St. Petersburg remained the most powerful refractors from 
 1845 to 1861. In the mean time, the two-foot reflector of LASSELL 
 had made numerous and important discoveries. Ihe satellites of 
 Uranus and Neptune were discovered by its aid, and Mr. BOND, at 
 Harvard College, anticipated LASSELL' s discovery of the seventh 
 satellite of Saturn by a few hours only. 
 
 THE TELESCOPES OF ALVAN CLARK. 
 
 The refractors made by ALVAN CLARK (1845 -60) were of extreme 
 excellence, and some of his smaller telescopes (7 and 8 inches) had 
 found their way to England. In 1861 the CLARKS made a telescope 
 of 18 inches aperture. In 1873 the 26-inch refractor of the ^Naval 
 Observatory at Washington was mounted and soon proved itself to 
 be a master work. No other telescope in the world has done so 
 much and so brilliant work in the fifteen years just passed. A 
 duplicate of this was made by the CLARKS for the University of 
 Virginia, one nearly as large (23-inch) for Princeton, then a 30-inch 
 for St. Petersburg and finally the 36-inch for the Lick Observatory. 
 The most important matter in a telescope is perfect definition, 
 i. e., neatness, accuracy in the image of the object looked at. This 
 allows the use of high magnifying power provided there is light 
 enough collected by the object-glass. It is precisely in respect 
 of definition that the Clark telescopes are pre-eminent. 
 
 LIGHT-GATHERING POWER. 
 
 It is not merely by magnifying that the telescope assists the vision, 
 but also by increasing the quantity of light which reaches the eye 
 from the object at which we look. Indeed, should we view an ob- 
 ject through an instrument which magnified but did not increase 
 the amount of light received by the eye, it is evident that the bril- 
 liancy would be diminished in proportion as the surface of the 
 object was enlarged, since a constant amount of light would be 
 spread over an increased surface ; and thus, unless the light were 
 brilliant, the object might become so darkened as to be less plainly 
 seen than with the naked eye. How the telescope increases the 
 quantity of light will be seen by considering that when the unaided 
 eye looks at any object, the retina can only receive as many rays as 
 fall upon the pupil of the eye. By the use of the telescope as many 
 rays can be brought to the retina as fall on the entire object-glass. 
 The pupil of the human eye, in its normal state, has a diameter of 
 about one-fifth of an inch ; and by the use of the telescope the retina 
 is virtually increased in surface in the ratio of the square of the 
 
TELESCOPES. 73 
 
 diameter of the objective to the square of one-fifth of an inch. Thus, 
 with a two-inch aperture to our telescope, the number of rays col- 
 lected is one hundred times as great as the number collected with 
 the naked eye. 
 
 THE POWER OF THE EYE AND OF THE TELESCOPE CONTRASTED. 
 
 If the brightness of a star seen with the eye alone is 1, with a 2- 
 inch telescope it is 100 times as bright, with a 4-inch telescope it is 400 
 times as bright, 8-inch telescope it is 1,600 times as bright, 16-inch 
 telescope it is 6,400 times as bright, 32-inch telescope it is 25,600 
 times as bright, 36-inch telescope it is 32,400 times as bright. That 
 is, stars can be seen with the 36-inch telescope which are 30,000 
 times fainter than the faintest stars visible to the naked eye. While 
 the magnifying power which can be successfully used on a 5-inch 
 telescope is not above 400, the 36-inch telescope will permit a 
 magnifying power of more than 2,000 diameters on suitable objects, 
 stars for example. This power cannot be used on the moon and 
 planets with real advantage for many reasons, but probably a power 
 of 1,000 or 1,500 will be the maximum. The moon will thus appear 
 under the same conditions as if it were to be viewed by the naked 
 eye at a distance of say 200 miles. This is the same as saying that 
 objects about 300 feet square can be recognized. So that no village 
 or great canal or even large edifices can be built on the moon with- 
 out our knowledge. Highly organized life on the moon will make 
 itself known in this indirect way if it exists. 
 
 If one were looking at the earth under the same conditions, the 
 great works of hydraulic mining or the great operations on Dakota 
 farms or California ranches would be obvious. 
 
 LARGE TELESCOPES. 
 
 A great enemy to large telescopes, and indeed to all telescopic 
 vision, is the unsteadiness of our own atmosphere. It is just in this 
 respect that the site for the Lick Observatory has been well chosen. 
 We are sure that we can use higher magnifying powers to advan- 
 tage there than at any other stations. Whatever advantages be- 
 long to large telescopes (and there are many), we shall come nearer 
 to realizing there than at other sites. We have lately heard much 
 of the disadvantages and failures of large telescopes, in some cases 
 from persons who are not skilled in their use. It will be far more 
 satisfactory to point to the results of observations at Mt. Hamilton 
 th#n to dogmatize about what those results are to be. If we stop 
 to inquire what results we might like to hear of, we may see that 
 some of them are unlikely to be reached or impossible of attain- 
 ment. Mr. LICK wished to prove or disprove the existence of 
 animals in the moon. If there are city building animals we shall 
 know this indirectly. We should all like to know if Neptune is 
 the last planet of our system, but this is probably not a question 
 
74 TELESCOPES. 
 
 for large telescopes at all, but one for photographic maps of the 
 sky to settle. If there are more faint satellites we ought to be 
 able to see them, and so with many other similar problems. 
 
 But leaving such questions to one side for the present, let us con- 
 sider the subject in another way. The whole earth is dotted with 
 powerful telescopes in the hands of able astronomers. There is not 
 a single telescope so powerful as our own ; there is no one so ad- 
 vantageously situated ; some of our observers are the equal of any 
 on the globe. There will be a natural limit to the performance of 
 other telescopes, and that limit will yet remain within our powers. 
 In this very simple way the Lick telescope will become the final 
 arbiter in very many important and difficult questions. If it does 
 no more than this and if it does this well and faithfully it will jus- 
 tify its existence and all the labor that it has cost. What it does 
 more than this will be still more to its credit. 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC OBJECTIVE 
 
 I have spoken elsewhere in this book of one of the chief adjuncts 
 of the great instrument namely the photographic lens of 33 inches 
 aperture, which Mr. ALVAN G. CLARK has lately completed. When 
 this is applied to the large telescope it converts it into a gigantic 
 photographic camera. 
 
 The automatic records which this will give of the features of the 
 moon, the planets and the stars, will unquestionably be far beyond 
 what has been attained elsewhere. I prefer in this case also to 
 point to results actually attained rather than to say what they are 
 likely to be. 
 
IX. 
 
 THE UNMOUNTED LENS 
 
 OP THE 
 
 GREAT TELESCOPE AT MOUNT HAMILTON. 
 
 By A. V. G. 
 
 I. 
 
 Mysterious Eye, dim shrouded from the light, 
 
 Bound with dark bands like Lazarus in his tomb, 
 
 Shut in by muffled doors from sight and sound 
 
 Of the world's outer life, soft speech of men, 
 
 And neigh of steed, and tramp of busy feet ; 
 
 No sound about thee save the sullen wind 
 
 That moans and raves around thy mountain crypt ; 
 
 No light save thine own inward radiance 
 
 That links thee with the space -embosomed stars : 
 
 Close-lidded sleep 'st thou in thine inner court 
 
 Of dark and silence the while men do forge 
 
 With bolt and rivet and strong bands of steel, 
 
 The mighty orbit for thy wondrous sphere. 
 
 Know'st thou thy power ? Dost feel thy destiny ? 
 
 Beneath these grave-like cerements thrill'st thou not 
 
 Thro' all thy bright circumference with dim 
 
 Prophetic visionings of the Abyss 
 
 That from gray evening till the purple dawn, 
 
 From dawn until the evening gray, will smite thee 
 
 With awful splendor3 of uncounted suns ? 
 
 O mighty Eye ! say what wilt thou reveal, 
 
 When from the tomb men Christ-like bid thee forth, 
 
 Unbind thy bands, and set thee like a star 
 
 Upon Earth's grave and cloud-encircled brow, 
 
 Eye unto eye with heaven's dread mystery, 
 
 Lidless against intolerable light ? 
 
 II. 
 
 O blindfold, enfettered, now hath Time 
 Unto its golden fullness come along 
 (75) 
 
76 TO THE UNMOUNTED LENS. 
 
 The dim horizon glows the dawn awake, 
 
 O slumber-held ; unclose, wondrous Eye; 
 
 A world awaits the breaking of thy sleep. 
 
 bright Evangelist come forth ! Earth s way 
 
 Lies lonely thro' the trackless void ; a waste 
 
 Of cloud and storm, and darkness vast and deep, 
 
 Betwixt her and the stars, and far beyond 
 
 The farthest glint of star lies Heaven so far 
 
 We cannot see the road the souls must tread 
 
 Who thither go. Perchance that thou mayst span 
 
 The gloomy sea, and set the Gates of Death 
 
 A little way ajar. Perchance that thou 
 
 With cloudle33 vision slowly sweeping up 
 
 The mighty Nave that cleaves the galaxy, 
 
 God's visible Tabernacle in the skies, 
 
 Star-built from shining undercroft to dome, 
 
 Past pillared pomp of worlds, and columns wrought 
 
 With fair entangle of amethyst and pearl, 
 
 Thro' jacinth portals hung with mist of stars, 
 
 And fiery fringe of suns mayst come at last 
 
 Even to the Chancel of the Universe; 
 
 And so thro' glories veiled and far, behold 
 
 The Choral Stars that sang so loud and sweet 
 
 On the first Morning when Creation sprang 
 
 In dewy beauty from Jehovah's hand. 
 
 Mayhap that thou, with swiftness unconceived, 
 
 Wilt overtake the light and see the things 
 
 That have been, and that shall be nevermore ; 
 
 Follow the dying star in her swift flight 
 
 Athwart Eternity; track the lost world, 
 
 That drifting past our ken, still gleameth fair 
 
 Upon the confines of some far off realm; 
 
 Perchance the Star which first spake peace to men 
 
 Will dawn through thee upon the waiting earth ; 
 
 And O far-seeing Eye, perchance mayst thou 
 
 Reveal the City Beautiful which lies 
 
 Foursquare in midst of heaven, whose shining walls 
 
 Are of fair jasper builded and pure gold ; 
 
 Whose battlements are crystal, and whose ways 
 
 Are sapphire-paven, and whose gates are pearl. 
 
 III. 
 
 Thou answerest not ; but this we know that thou 
 Wilt lift the world one step anearer heaven. 
 Thou art the topmost pace of that vast stair, 
 Builded by Titan souls up thro' the gloom 
 
TO THE UNMOUNTED LENS. 77 
 
 Of churchly tyranny and priestly scorn ; 
 Still standeth Galileo at the base, 
 Forever, straining his grand sightless eyes 
 Towards the light, groping with shackled hands 
 For the next step, where Newton stands and weighs 
 The Universe. Slow climbed those God-like souls, 
 Building this mighty stairway as they went 
 One step between the cradle and the grave. 
 Leverrier set this landing, whence he saw 
 Uranus swerve a hair-breadth from its path, 
 And cried, ' 'A world ! a world ! no eye has seen, 
 Behold 'tis such a weight, 'tis such a size !" 
 And lo ! the world is there and Herschel, this 
 Grand, patient Herschel, watching thro* the years 
 The rythmic revolutions of the spheres, 
 Seeing in the store house of the Infinite, 
 The star- dust of the uncreated worlds. 
 
 IV. 
 
 Through thee will Holy Science, putting off 
 
 Earth's dusty sandals from her radiant feet, 
 
 Survey God's beauteous firmament unrolled 
 
 Like to a book new-writ in golden words 
 
 And turn the azure scroll with reverent hand, 
 
 And read to men the wonders God hath wrought. 
 
 Gazing thro' thee, her eye will wander o'er 
 
 Infinity's illimitable fields 
 
 Where bloom the worlds like flowers about God's feet; 
 
 Rose worlds and purple suns, and seas on seas 
 
 Of lily stars that make a way of light, 
 
 And golden orbs that border all the way , 
 
 And meadows fair of greenest emerald, 
 
 And billowy seas that palpitate and flash 
 
 Now seen, now lost beyond all vision's ken ; 
 
 Where, cradled on the glowing ether, swing3 
 
 As 'twere our Lord Christ's blue forget-me-not, 
 
 The planet-petaled blossom of our sun, 
 
 That mystic flower, whose filaments of flame, 
 
 From burning anthers fling life manifold, 
 
 And bloom and beauty on its crown of worlds; 
 
 Where, striving o'er the dim ethereal plain, 
 
 Orion brandishes his flaming sword 
 
 And shakes ajar the awful vestibule 
 
 Of heaven's stupendous treasury of suns 
 
 Set for a jewel in the mighty hilt. 
 
78 TO THE UNMOUNTED LENS. 
 
 V. 
 
 O patient hands that wrought this crystal pure, 
 
 Rest now, 'tis meet that ye should rest, O touch 
 
 More soft than down that swathes the eider's breast, 
 
 More delicate than the Virgin's threads that float 
 
 Athwart the sunshine on a summer's morn. 
 
 No grosser toil shall henceforth thee engage 
 
 No grander task remaineth therefore rest. 
 
 O patient hands ! we bless you, seeing how 
 
 Ye bridged for us the fair and starry way; 
 
 O quiet hands ! we kiss you where ye lie 
 
 Enfoldeii in a calm and perfect rest; 
 
 For death hath touched you lightly, lovingly, 
 
 And clothed you with a beauty unbeheld, 
 
 Even as ye touched, so light, so lovingly, 
 
 This lucent sphere and made it clear and pure 
 
 The world's one matchless gem. Rest gentle hands ! 
 
 VI. 
 
 And thou who didst conceive the mighty thought 
 
 This marvellous window of the world's vast soul 
 
 Who walked the ways of dull and sordid men 
 
 Nor asked the world for love, nor sought its praise; 
 
 Who, scorning ease, wrought early and wrought late 
 
 That thou might'st leave a legacy of Light 
 
 To all the generations yet to come ; 
 
 While dull of heart and brain, men did not know 
 
 How with them walked a messenger of God, 
 
 Until Death clove the mortal husk and showed 
 
 The Soul magnificent within until 
 
 The toil-worn hands relaxed and showed them Heaven. 
 
 Thou art more grandly sepulchered than kings. 
 
 No obelisk of old, nor sculptured pile, 
 
 Nor oriel stained, in dim Cathedral Fane, 
 
 So fair as this Memorial Window set 
 
 In God's vast Temple, builded not with hands; 
 
 Across its disk the armies of the skies 
 
 Will pass with jeweled feet slow moving to 
 
 The solemn Miserere of the night ; 
 
 Above thee, mirrored fair, the Morning Star, 
 
 Will lead the Hallelujahs of the dawn ; 
 
 Earth's wise and good will gather at thy shrine 
 
 And link thy name forever with the stars. 
 
TO THE UNMOUNTED LENS. 79 
 
 VIT. 
 
 Priest-ministrant within this mighty Fane, 
 
 Whereon thou standest now is holy ground; 
 
 Divinest gift is thine to gaze the first 
 
 On glories yet unseen by mortal eyes. 
 
 Gird up thy loins, clothe thee with righteousness, 
 
 Cast the world's glamour from thee and its cares; 
 
 And if thine eye be single, thy heart pure, 
 
 Perchance in the still watches of the night 
 
 When slumber lieth on the eyes of men, 
 
 Thou 'It catch the effulgent shadow of His feet, 
 
 As walking in His garden in the cool, 
 
 He plucks some world that bursts to sudden bloom 
 
 Of beatific life beneath His hand. 
 
 Not death, as men do say naught dies the soul 
 
 Looks from the windows of her falling house 
 
 Calm with the reflex of some fairer sphere; 
 
 So worlds die not: sublimed by touch divine, 
 
 Their beauty and magnificence depart 
 
 To brighter realms; or viewless grown to eyes 
 
 Too weak to bear the excess of light which veils 
 
 The Throne-place of the glory of the Lord, 
 
 In fair invisible orbits softly sweep 
 
 To unimagined harmonies of sound 
 
 Around the Central Glory, whither tend 
 
 Suns, moons and stars and all the hosts of heaven, 
 
 Things seen and things invisible and past, 
 
 AH beauty and all truth, all harmony 
 
 All things that be and all that are to be, 
 
 Life beyond Life, Time and Eternity. 
 
(80) 
 
X. ASTRONOMICAL, PHOTOGRAPHY*. 
 
 In order to appreciate the present state of Astronomy, its new- 
 methods, its novel instruments, its recondite problems, it is necessary 
 to glance at its condition a half a century ago. The great astronom- 
 ers, BESSEL and W. STRUVE, were then contending in friendly 
 rivalry to found the science on a sure basis. They had a perfectly 
 definite object, and that object has been attained through their 
 efforts, and through the efforts of the school of young men whom 
 they trained either directly or indirectly ARGELANDER, SCHOEN- 
 FELD, KRUEGER, AUWERS, WINNECKE, WAGNER, SCHIAPARELLI in 
 Europe, WALKER, COFFIN, HUBBARD, GOULD in America. 
 
 The attention of astronomers was then almost exclusively directed 
 to the question of the motions of the heavenly bodies, as determined 
 by the law of universal gravitation. The vast catalogues of stars 
 which have been made in the past half century, as well as the 
 accurate discussion and re-discussion of the older observations of 
 BRADLEY (1750), at Greenwich, were all undertaken for this sole 
 object. The school of mathematical astronomers founded by EULER, 
 LAPLACE, LA GRANGE, GAUSS, utilized these observations to the 
 utmost. The examination of the surfaces of the planets was an 
 entirely secondary question, and was largely left to amateur astron- 
 omers. The surface of the sun was studied only in the crudest 
 manner, simply for the enumeration of the solar spots. 
 
 The fact that these spots were periodic, was only established in 
 1851. Sir JOHN HERSCHEL was almost the only astronomer by 
 profession who devoted himself to observations not "of precision." 
 
 In this last fifty years, an entirely new science has arisen Astro- 
 physicswhich is, indeed the daughter of Astronomy, but the 
 cousin-german of Chemistry, Technics, Physics. 
 
 This new science always had its cultivators, even before it had a 
 name. The elder HERSCHEL set himself the problem ' 'to find out the 
 construction of the heavens," arid this is the problem of Astrophy- 
 sics, in contradistinction to the problem of exact Astronomy "to 
 find out how the heavenly bodies move." The modern form 
 of HERSCHEL'S phrase is, "to determine the present constitution 
 and the evolution-history of the stars, the comets, the sun, the 
 planets." 
 
 We must regard Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL as the founder of the 
 science. He has had great followers: SCHROETER, Sir JOHN HER- 
 SCHEL, BEER, MAEDLER, FRAUENHOFER, KIRCHHOFF,BUNSEN, LAS- 
 
 *This section originally appeared in the Overland Monthly for November 
 1886, under the title: Photography the Servant of Astronomy. 
 (81) *fvi; 
 
82 ASTRONOMICAL, PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 SELL, BOND, DE JA RUE, RUTHERFURD, DRAPER, SCHIAPARELLI, 
 VOGEL, JANSSEN, LOCKYER, YOUNG, LANGLEY, PICKERING, not to 
 speak of a host of other familiar names. 
 
 To-day there are several observatories devoted exclusively to the 
 new science, and their number is growing. This should be so. 
 There are too many astronomical observatories which are idle. If 
 the charm of the new fields is enough to make them efficient in for- 
 warding the science as a whole, we must welcome the new impetus. 
 But there is a note of warning to which we must give attention. 
 We must keep strictly before us the methods by which the older 
 astronomy has arrived at its proud position as the chief of the 
 physical sciences. For hundreds, yes, thousands of years, one 
 principle has run through all of Astronomy. Assiduous observa- 
 tions must be made according to well-considered plans, matured 
 after deep reflection. The results of these observations must be 
 compared with a theory expressed rigorously in the terms of mathe- 
 matics. The differences between observation and theory must be 
 treated by a profound analysis, so to derive corrections to the 
 provisional theory. This provisional theory must in its turn become 
 the basis of comparison with nature, and so on, until the ideal is 
 reached by successive approximations. This ideal is simple and in 
 many researches it has been attained already. It is reached when 
 we have pushed the successive approximations so far that we can 
 predict the position or the motion of a heavenly body as accurately 
 as we can observe it. When this stage is reached we may leave the 
 special problem in hand, until the methods of observations are them- 
 selves improved. 
 
 If Astrophysics will accept this ideal and strive for it, there is no 
 future so brilliant that we may not claim it for her portion. If 
 this straight and narrow way is departed from, although the new 
 science is followed never so assiduously, no essential progress can 
 be expected, and real harm is sure to follow. 
 
 Astrophysics has three well marked lines of research, namely: 
 Spectrum Analysis (now a quarter of a century old), Celestial Photo- 
 metry (half a century), Celestial Photography (dating back exactly 
 forty-six years). SCHIAPARELLI'S theory of meteor-streams and their 
 connection with comets, belongs to this science in so far as it throws 
 light upon the material out of which comets are built ; and every 
 part of physics which treats of the action of one body upon another 
 body at a distance, whether through gravitation, heat, magnetism, 
 electricity, has close relations to it. But the three main paths are 
 Spectroscopy, Celestial Photometry, and Celestial Photography. It 
 is of the latter path that I speak at this moment. We shall follow 
 it assiduously at the Lick Observatory, and we shall have unrivaled 
 opportunities to do so. 
 
 Spectroscopy in certain of its lines, we shall also follow, and our 
 opportunities in this branch also are unique. Photometry is so 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 83 
 
 thoroughly done at the Harvard College Observatory that it would 
 be a waste of energy for another American observatory to devote 
 any great part of its time to such researches. 
 
 I assume that some slight explanation of the differences between 
 a photographic telescope and an ordinary one, will not be super- 
 fluous. The object glass of an ordinary telescope brings the rays 
 by means of which we see (those having a wave-length of about 
 6,000 ten-millionths of a millimetre), to an accurate focus. These 
 cannot be photographed except by special plates and with special 
 difficulty. The rays which affect the photographic salts of silver 
 have a wave-length of about 4,000 ten-millionths of a millimetre, 
 and to bring these special rays to a focus, the two lenses of the 
 ordinary achromatic object glass must be supplemented by a third 
 lens. This third lens is so arranged that it can be placed in front 
 of (and close against) the ordinary objective, and it turns the tele- 
 scope from a seeing instrument into a camera. It is also necessary 
 to say that if the telescope remains fixed, while a bright star is 
 passing across its field of view, the image of the star will pass across 
 the sensitive plate, and will leave a "trail" which is the visible 
 representative of the direction of the star's diurnal motion; that is, 
 of its motion from rising to setting. Equatorial stars as faint as 
 the 8th or 9th magnitude will give trails. 
 
 If, on the contrary, we attach an accurate driving clock to the 
 telescope, and cause it to follow the star in its motion from east to 
 west, we shall have instead of a trail, a bright point, the 
 photographic image. If we wish to make a picture of the sky, we 
 must register the stars by such points as these. 
 
84 ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 The figure page 83 may serve to illustrate the meaning. We can 
 point the large telescope at the sky with its photographic third-lens 
 in front of the ordinary object glass and attach the driving clock so 
 as to cause the tube always to point accurately to the same group 
 of stars as it moves from east to west from rising to setting. We 
 can put a sensitive plate in the proper position and expose it to the 
 stars just as we expose a plate to a landscape. Only in this case 
 the exposure must be very long, from 5 or 10 seconds to an hour or 
 so, depending upon how faint and feeble the light of the stars may 
 be. When the plate is developed we shall have a picture of the. 
 sky a star map. Each star will appear of its proper relative 
 brightness and in its proper relative position. Suppose we had not 
 attached the clock ; what would have been the result ? Each star 
 would have moved from east to west from rising towards setting, 
 across the field of view across the sensitive plate. Ihe image of 
 each star would have rested only for a moment upon any particular 
 portion of the plate perhaps not long enough to make any impres- 
 sion at all. Hence the fainter stars would have left no trace what- 
 ever of their existence. The brighter ones would each have left a 
 trail a succession of instantaneous images like this: 
 
 This trail will represent the direction of the star's motion from east 
 to west perfectly. It is in this way, indeed, that we determine the 
 east and west line on our plates. 
 
 The trails have various advantages over the images, one of which 
 is that they cannot be mistaken for dust, or for pin holes on the 
 plate itself. The position of the dots in latitude and longitude can 
 be very accurately measured. The latitude of the star can be even 
 better determined from its trail, but its longitude must then be de- 
 termined by special devices, which I need riot describe. In the 
 ordinary methods of observing, the astronomer views the visual 
 images of the heavenly bodies with his eye, and either examines 
 their surfaces, or determines their positions with reference to adja- 
 cent bodies (as for example, the positions of satellites relative to 
 their planet), by means of extremely accurate and refined micro- 
 meters, forming a part of the eye-piece of his telescope. In the 
 photographic methods he allows the stars to impress themselves on 
 negative plates automatically. 
 
 To utilize photographic plates fully, and especially to make them 
 a substitute for micrometric measures, it is necessary to contrive 
 elaborate measuring engines to take the place of the costly micro- 
 meters, ordinarily used with telescopes. These engines measure 
 the positions of the dots or trails on the plates, after they have been 
 removed from the telescope. 
 
 Mr. RUTHERFURD first made a satisfactory engine of this kind ; 
 it was then improved upon in the design of Professor HARKNESS 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 85 
 
 adopted by the U. S. Transit of Venus Commission, in 1874, and the 
 Lick Observatory owns the finest specimen of this class, which was 
 made for it under the personal supervision of Professor HARKNESS. 
 This can be seen in the instrument-room of the observatory. 
 
 The very first essay in Astronomical Photography was that of 
 Professor JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER, of New York, who in the year 
 1840, took a satisfactory daguerreotype of the moon. The experi- 
 ments of Dr. DRAPER were repeated by GEORGE BOND, Director of 
 the Harvard College Observatory, in 1850, and a lunar daguerreotype 
 made by him was exhibited at London in 1851, at the World's Fair, 
 where it attracted much attention. 
 
 During the years 1853 to 1857, Mr. DE LA RUE, of London, made 
 lunar daguerreotypes and photographs, some of great excellence. 
 In 1864, Dr. LEWIS RUTHERFURD, of New York, constructed an 
 eleven and one half inch objective, which was corrected only for the 
 photographic rays, and by means of this he obtained the finest 
 photographs of the moon which have yet been made. Dr. HENRY 
 DRAPER, about the same time, made a fifteen inch reflecting tele- 
 scope with which he also took excellent lunar photographs. These 
 latter have been enlarged to three and even to four feet in diameter, 
 from the original picture of about two inches and a half. A long- 
 focus telescope is of great advantage in these researches. The pic- 
 tures in the principal focus of the great Melbourne reflector are 
 some six inches in diameter, and I have seen a few of these of great 
 excellence. Such pictures can be enlarged in printing, from six to 
 twelve times. The photographs of the moon in the focus of the 
 Lick equatorial, will be five inches in diameter, and will probably 
 stand an enlargement of twelve times, so as to be five feet finally. 
 Lunar photographs have not advanced our knowledge in any im- 
 portant degree up to this time, however, though I hope for some- 
 thing from them. 
 
 Solar daguerreotypes were first taken by FOUCAULT and FIZEAU 
 in 1845 at Paris, on the advice of ARAGO. In 1857, Mr. DE LA RUE 
 contrived the Photoheliograph for the Kew Observatory, by which 
 solar photographs have been taken since that time daily at Kew 
 and Greenwich. 
 
 Mr. JANSSEN of Meudon, near Paris, about 1878, succeeded in 
 making his exquisite photographs of the sun on glass, which show 
 an astonishing amount of detail. I understand that these are 
 chiefly made by means of a six-inch refractor, and I have never 
 been able to comprehend how so much detail can be shown with an 
 objective of such a small separating power, nor to rid myself of an 
 impression that some, at least, of these details are due to atmos- 
 pheric disturbances. A telescope of a certain aperture can only 
 separate two dots of light when they are no closer together than a 
 certain definite angle. A telescope of twice the aperture will sepa- 
 rate dots of half this distance and so on. It almost seems as if 
 
86 ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 gome of the beautiful Meudon photographs went beyond this theo- 
 imit. If the exposures are made 
 
 retic limit. If the exposures are made extremely short 
 TT ^ of a second), very successful results can be obtained in solar 
 photography. There is, undoubtedly, an important field of re- 
 search still open here, especially with large objectives of great 
 separating power. 
 
 The first photographs of a solar eclipse were made by BUSCH, at 
 Koenigsburg, in 1851, and by BARTLETT at West Point, in 1854 ; 
 but these where merely interesting experiments. The eclipse photo- 
 graphs of DE LA RUE in 1"860, were the first of real scientific impor- 
 tance, since they established beyond doubt the fact that the solar 
 protuberances were really appendages of the sun and not of the 
 moon. 
 
 I believe the first photograph of the spectrum of the Sun at a solar 
 eclipse was taken at the Egyptian eclipse of 1882, by Professor 
 SCHUSTER, and also by the party under Mr. LOCKYER. Very per- 
 fect photographs of the solar spectrum were taken at the total 
 eclipse of 1883 in the Pacific Ocean, by the English parties and by 
 the French parties, and the subject does not now present any great 
 difficulties. 
 
 Photography served a very useful purpose in its application to 
 the transits of Venus of 1874 and 1882. The photographs of both 
 these transits, taken by means of the horizontal photoheliograph, 
 invented by LAUSSEDAT and WINLOCK, and used by the United 
 States observing parties, were of extreme value, and it is probable 
 that the values of the solar parallax derived from the American 
 photographs at these two transits will be found to be extremely 
 near the truth. 
 
 According to Professor PICKERING, the first daguerreotype of a star 
 was taken at Harvard College Observatory, on July 17th, 1850, 
 under the direction of the elder BOND. The star Vega was satis- 
 factorily daguerreotyped, and later the double star Castor gave an 
 elongated image, which war* plainly due to its two component stars. 
 The sensitiveness of the daguerreotype plates then in use was so 
 small that even such bright stars as these gave faint images, and no 
 impression whatever was obtained from the pole star, no matter 
 how long the exposure. These experiments were repeated with 
 various stars and clusters, but finally the work was abandoned on 
 account of the photographic difficulties. In 1857 the younger BOND 
 resumed the research. At this time the collodion process had 
 greatly reduced the time of exposure, and the plates were of much 
 greater sensitiveness. An impression of the double star Zeta, Ursae 
 Majoris was obtained in eight seconds. A trail was obtained from 
 the image of the bright star Vega. The faintest star photographed 
 was the companion of Epsilon Lyrae, which is of the sixth magnitude, 
 that is, just visible to the naked eye. 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 87 
 
 A series of measures was made of the relative positions and 
 distances of the various double stars photographed, in order to see 
 whether measures made upon a photographic plate could be used to 
 replace those made in the ordinary manner at the telescope. It 
 was found that a single measure made upon the plate was about of 
 the same value as a single measure made by an astronomer with the 
 ordinary micrometer. Professor BOND pointed out very clearly 
 how photographic images might be used to determine accurately the 
 relative brightness of stars, and also what the advantages of photog- 
 raphy were for the permanent registration of star positions. Mr. 
 BE LA RUE and Doctor RUTHERFURD soon after repeated these ex- 
 periments of Proles. sor BOND, and a very extended investigation was 
 undertaken in 1864 by Doctor RUTHERFURD, and continued by him 
 for many years. Most of the principal clusters in the northern 
 heavens were photographed, as well as most of the brighter double 
 stars. These researches have never been fully utilized for the follow- 
 ing reason; the photographs were measured in the most careful 
 manner on a measuring engine, in which the distances of one star 
 from another were determined by means of a very accurate screw. 
 After the series of measures had been continued for several years, 
 it was discovered that the screw itself had worn considerably, so 
 that the value of its revolutions was not the same as it had formerly 
 been. It was impossible to discover at what time this wear com- 
 menced, nor how it progressed, and therefore these excellent photo- 
 graphs have remained undiscussed up to the present time. The 
 distances, which must be accurately measured, are about -^oij- of 
 an inch. The faintest stars shown in Doctor RUTHERFURD'S eleven- 
 inch telescope are about of the ninth magnitude. The plates used 
 by Doctor RUTHERFURD were, I believe, exclusively wet plates. 
 
 Doctor HENRY DRAPER attacked the same problem in 1880, using, 
 however, the most sensitive dry plates then available In 1881 
 with an eleven-inch refractor constructed by the CLARKS, he ob- 
 tained a photograph of the Nebula of Orion, in which one of the 
 stars is shown whose magnitude is not more than 14J. This star 
 is barely visible with a telescope of the same aperture as that with 
 which the photograph was taken. The photographic plate now had 
 become as efficient an instrument of research as the eye itself. Mr. 
 JANSS'EN also'photographed the Nebula of Orion in 1881; but the best 
 of all such photographs has been made by Mr. COMMON, of Eng- 
 land, with his three-feet silver-on-glass reflector. 
 
 Doctor B. A. GOULD, in his expedition to the southern hemisphere 
 (1870-1884), carried with him a photographic lens of eleven inches 
 aperture, and during his entire stay of more than ten years, employed 
 all the available time at his command in accumulating negatives of 
 the principal southern double stars and clusters. These photographs 
 have not yet been discussed, and Doctor GOULD has discovered that 
 
88 ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 there are signs that the films on the negatives (from wet plates) are 
 now beginning to deteriorate. Probably this extensive and impor- 
 tant series will soon receive discussion. 
 
 The Royal Astronomer at the Cape of GoocJ Hope, Doctor GILL, has 
 undertaken to make a map of the whole southern heavens, by photo- 
 graphic means only. The Rev. T. E. ESPIN, of Liverpool, has publish- 
 ed a catalogue of the magnitudes of 500 stars, determined by means of 
 photography alone. Mr. ISAAC ROBERTS, of Liverpool, has also done 
 capital work of the kindr'with his reflecting telescope. The most ex- 
 tensive investigation is that of the brothers PAUL and PROSPER 
 HENRY, of the Observatory of Paris. Important investigations have 
 also been made at the Astrophysical Observatory of Potsdam, and 
 at two Physical observatories in Hungary. 
 
 In 1863, Doctor HUGGINS, of London, obtained a photographic 
 image of the spectrum of Sinus , but no lines were visible in this 
 spectrum. The first successful photograph of the spectrum of a 
 star was obtained by Doctor HENRY DRAPER, in 1872. Each of 
 these astronomers succeeded in 1876 in obtaining valuable spectrum 
 photographs of the brightest stars. In 1882 they each obtained a 
 photograph of the spectrum of the nebula in Orion. Since 1882 
 many astronomers and observatories have devoted themselves to 
 photographic researches, but little has been published, except by 
 the Observatory of Harvard College. Here the years 1882-1885 
 were spent in very elaborate experiments, preliminary to undertak- 
 ing larger and more important researches. The photographic tele- 
 scope employed is eight inches in aperture. The chief results up 
 to now have been the establishing the relative brightness of one 
 hundred and seventeen stars within one degree of the pole. 
 
 A very extensive programme is now being followed at Cambridge 
 by the use of the photographic telescope formerly owned by DR. 
 HENRY DRAPER, supported by a fund provided by his widow, MRS. 
 ANNA PALMER DRAPER. Prisms of glass 12 by 12 inches are placed 
 in front of the object glass and the spectra of all the stars in the field 
 of view, down to the 8th magnitude, are simultaneously photograph- 
 ed on the plate. An enormous saving of time is thus effected. The 
 method has many other advantages also, which I need not enumer- 
 ate here. If some generous citizen of California will provide such a 
 prism for the 36-inch telescope (and such a prism is possible) the 
 spectra of very faint stars can be photographed. If a planet exterior 
 to Neptune exists, this is the quickest and surest way to discover it. 
 
 In 1882 Dr. GILL, at the Cape of Good Hope, succeeded in pho- 
 tographing the great comet of that year, and in doing this he proved 
 the practicable possibility of making star maps, which should con- 
 tain all the stars down to the tenth magnitude. In 1885 the Royal 
 Society granted 300 to the Cape of Good Hope Observatory for 
 photographic purposes. Doctor GILL has set himself to the solution 
 of two problems. First, that of securing as soon as possible a. com- 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 89 
 
 plete photographic map of the southern heavens, containing every 
 star visible down to the tenth magnitude, so as to continue the 
 Durchmusterung of ARGELANDER. For the first purpose Mr. GILL 
 makes use of one of DALLMEYER'S rapid rectilinear combinations, 
 composed of two concavo-convex achromatic combinations of six 
 inches aperture. This camera is mounted on an equatorial stand, 
 and is pointed by means of a telescope of forty-five inches focal 
 length and three and one half inches aperture. The exposures are 
 an hour long when the sky is clear. Each plate is six inches square, 
 and covers an area of about thirty-six degrees. Every such area 
 is photographed twice, so as to render it impossible to confound the 
 images of faint stars with minute dust specks. In this way a great 
 portion of the southern sky has already been photographed in du- 
 plicate. 
 
 The same observatory has recently obtained a much more power- 
 ful optical apparatus through the generosity of Mr. JAMES NASMYTH, 
 who has purchased a specially corrected photographic objective of 
 nine inches aperture and nine feet focal length, made by GEUBB, 
 of Dublin. The field of this NASMYTH lens will be much more 
 limited than that of the DALLMEYER apparatus, but it is expected 
 to obtain from it a photograph of all stars to the twelfth or thir- 
 teenth magnitude inclusive, within a circle of a radius of one or 
 one and one-half degrees. 
 
 Mr. ROBERTS, in England, has erected a reflector of twenty inches 
 aperture, and of one hundred inches focus, for stellar photography 
 alone, and has made considerable progress in the work of charting 
 the northern heavens. The size of the field of Mr. ROBERTS' tele- 
 scope is two degrees in declination, and one and one-half degrees in 
 right ascension. The time of exposure is fifteen minutes in a clear 
 sky. The companion to the pole-star is just visible in four seconds 
 under the best circumstances. Mr. ROBERTS refers to an important 
 difficulty, which is, that in most photographic plates, there are 
 small specks in the film, many of which look like stars, and which 
 are extremely difficult to distinguish from stars even when they are 
 viewed through a microscope. Dr. GILL, at the Cape of Good 
 Hope, avoids this difficulty by taking two photographs of the same 
 field successively, giving to each an exposure of one hour. At 
 Paris, thiee exposures ofan hour each are made, on the same plate. 
 
 Mr. COMMON'S experiments commenced in 1879. At this time, 
 using dry plates with his three-foot reflector, he took successful 
 pictures of the Pleiades, with one and one half minute's exposure, 
 showing all the stars to the eighth and ninth magnitude. In 1882, 
 he devoted his time to photographing the Nebula in Orion, and has 
 obtained wonderful results. 
 
 After making such a splendid success with his three-foot re- 
 flector, Mr. COMMON is now making one of five feet in aperture. 
 There is no doubt that a mirror of this apejrture can be accurately 
 
90 ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 figured by the optican. The difficulties in using it, come from un- 
 equal flexure of its various parts and from their differing tem- 
 peratures. Difficulties of this nature have never yet been success- 
 fully overcome for reflectors of more than thirty-six inches of 
 aperture, but Mr. COMMON'S great mechanical skill, knowledge and 
 experience, encourages the hope that he may succeed in this im- 
 portant undertaking. 
 
 In September 1884, Dr. LOHSE used the eleven-inch refractor of 
 the Potsdam Observatory to photograph the star cluster in Perseus. 
 An exposure of forty -five minntea was given, and stars as faint as 
 the tenth and eleventh magnitude were registered. 
 
 A number of other star clusters have also been photographed by 
 Dr. LOHSE. The Savilian Observatory at Oxford (England), has 
 undertaken to study two constellations (Lyra and Cassiopeia), by 
 photography on plates one degree square. 
 
 The early experiments at the Paris Observatory, 1884, were made 
 with a telescope with an aperture of 16-100 of a metre (6.3 inches), 
 and they were so successful that it was decided to make a large 
 instrument specially for photography, and soon an objective of 34- 
 100 of a metre aperture (13.4 inches), and 3 metres and 43-100ths 
 focal length (134 inches), was made. Parallel to this photographic 
 telescope, one of about the same focus, and of 24-100ths of a metre 
 (9.5 inches) aperture, is placed as a directing telescope. In May, 
 1885. the new photographic telescope was first brought into use, and a 
 few of the important results that have been reached by it are 
 mentioned below. Stars down to the fifteenth magnitude are 
 photographed with an exposure of one hour, the plates being some- 
 thing more than two degrees square. From one to two thousand 
 stars are shown to each cquare degree with this exposure, using 
 dry plates. On these plates three separate exposures of an hour 
 each, are given, the instrument being moved between each ex- 
 posure, so as to change the position of the image on the plate about 
 five seconds of arc each time. The three images of the same star 
 thus form a little triangle. By means of this telescope, a new and 
 very faint nebula has been discovered in the Pleiades, which would 
 never have been discovered, if we depended on the eye alone. Ad- 
 mirable photographs of Saturn have been taken by direct enlarge- 
 ment of the primary image, through a non-achromatic eye-piece, 
 which gives a magnifying power of eleven times. Hyperion, the 
 faintest satellite of Saturn, a difficult object in the twenty-six 
 inch telescope, at Washington, has been photographed with an ex- 
 posure of thirty minutes, and the satellite of Neptune can be taken 
 in any part of its orbit, as it is situated at present. With an ex- 
 posure of one hour the eleventh and fifteenth magnitude stars have 
 an actual diameter of about 1-1, 000th of an inch, that is in arc 
 about one and one-half seconds. Stars of the fifth and sixth magni- 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 91 
 
 tude are about one minute in diameter, with long exposures. With 
 a properly limited exposure, these also are of extremely minute 
 dimensions. 
 
 The proper exposure for a first magnitude star, like Siriits^ or 
 Vega, is not more than 5-1000 of a second. For a star just visible 
 to the naked eye, half a second is sufficient. For stars of the tenth 
 magnitude, twenty seconds; of the twelfth, two minutes; of the 
 thirteenth, five minutes; of the fourteenth, thirteen minutes; and 
 for the faintest visible, an hour and twenty-three minutes. These 
 results are, of course, a minimum, and also they are but approxi- 
 mate. 
 
 As far as is known, the growth of the image of a star upon the 
 photographic plate is equal, and concentric with the point of the 
 plate, on which the center of the star falls. 
 
 At the suggestion of the Director of the Paris observatory an 
 International Congress of Astronomers was held in Paris in April, 
 (1887), to decide upon a plan according to which a series of photo- 
 graphic charts of the sky might be made by a large number of 
 observatories co-operating on a single plan. The conference wag 
 composed of many celebrated astronomers and they decided to ap- 
 prove of the plan proposed by Admiral MOUCHEZ. The observato- 
 ries of Paris, Algiers Toulouse, Bordeaux, Melbourne, Sydney, 
 Rio Janeiro, La Plata, Santiago de Chili, San Fernando, and Mexico 
 have already agreed to join in the work, and those of Vienna, 
 Oxford, etc., may also assist. 
 
 The resolutions of the Congress maybe summarized as follows: 
 
 I. A photographic chart of the heavens containing all stars down 
 to the fourteenth magnitude is to be at once undertaken, the plates 
 to be in duplicate. 
 
 II. A second series of photographs with shorter exposure to in- 
 clude stars of the eleventh magnitude, is to be made concurrently 
 with the first for the purpose of forming a catalogue, and to deter- 
 mine fundamental positions in the first series. 
 
 III. All the photographic plates are to be prepared from the 
 same formula. 
 
 IV. All the photographic telescopes are to be like that now at 
 the Paris observatory. 
 
 There are 41,000 square degrees in the whole heavens, and if six 
 square degrees can be registered on a plate (with one hour's expos- 
 ure), 7,000 such plates must be made, requiring at least 7,000 hours. 
 To avoid mistakes, at least two exposures must be given for each 
 region, or 14,000 plates and 14,000 hours are absolutely necessary. 
 
 If we allow one hundred clear nights in a year (which is a fair 
 allowance for all observatories, except the Lick observatory, where 
 we can count on at least two hundred), it would require one 
 hundred and forty years at any one observatory to do this work, or 
 fourteen at ten observatories taking one plate per night. 
 
92 ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Although it seems presumptuous to differ from the conclusions of 
 a congress of astronomers so eminent as those who formed the Paris 
 conference yet I personally have grave doubts whether the strict 
 adherence to a plan, which is indispensable to success, can be main- 
 tained at so many different establishments for a period of even five 
 years, within which time the congress hopes to complete the 
 work. Photographic processes are now changing with wonderful 
 rapidity and the methods of even two years ago are to-day practi- 
 cally obsolete. 
 
 The whole subject still seems to me to be in too unsettled a state 
 to warrant an international undertaking of such magnitude, at 
 present. A number of years must perhaps be spent in tentative 
 researches before the rght paths are struck out. I give some of the 
 most obvious directions for these trials in what follows. 
 
 The two hundred and sixty or more small planets (asteroids) 
 which lie between Mars and Jupiter have all been discovered by the 
 slow process of comparing a star map, night after night, with the 
 heavens. A star not on the map is either an omitted star to be 
 inserted, or a minor planet, known or unknown. A photographic 
 objective of twelve inches aperture will show a trail for a star of the 
 magnitude of the brighter asteroids with an exposure of half an 
 hour. An hour's exposure will probably show the trail of the 
 faintest asteroids (12-13 magnitude). One of the immediate results 
 of the application of photography will undoubtedly be to greatly 
 increase the number of known asteroids. 
 
 There are reasons to believe in the existence of a major planet 
 exterior to Neptune. If such a planet exists, it is not likely to be 
 brighter than the tenth magnitude, and its motion will be very slow. 
 Hence it is unlikely, at least, that such a planet can be discovered 
 by its trail on the plate. The method of three exposures on the 
 same plate employed at Paris probably might not disclose the 
 existence of a trans -Neptunian planet, though it would suffice for 
 the detection of Neptune itself in most parts of its orbit. Probably 
 the surest way to detect such a body, if it exists, would be to take 
 photographs of the same region on successive days. Such plates 
 would then have to be laboriously compared, star by star. Doubt- 
 ful cases would require a third night's work to be done in order to 
 decide. A blue-print of two such plates will enable all the brighter 
 stars to be quickly compared and disposed of. The real labor will then 
 be confined to the stars less bright than the faintest which can be 
 blue-printed. 
 
 The problem of the constitution of the stellar universe must be 
 studied, it seems, by some kind of celestial statistics derived from 
 counts or gauges of the stars. Nearly all the conclusions we 
 have so far reached, are based on the counts made by Sir 
 WILLIAM HERSCHEL. I have myself spent much time in continuing 
 these. All such work is now useless. Photographic maps will give 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 93 
 
 us all the requisite data, and will throw much light, too, on another 
 closely connected problem the extinction of light in space pro- 
 vided, only that all negatives taken from this object are made 
 strictly comparable in every respect. This proviso is of the utmost 
 importance, and is very difficult to be lived up to in any work done 
 by co-operating observatories. It is just possible that photometric 
 measures of the photographs of a very eccentric asteroid can now be 
 made with sufficient delicacy to settle the question whether light is, 
 or is not, extinguished in space. 
 
 The precision of the photographic images of stars is so great that 
 there is no doubt that measures of the negatives of double stars, of 
 star clusters and groups, will, at least in most instances, take the 
 place of the painful and laborious micrometric measures which are 
 now employed by observers. The photographs have their own 
 errors, and many of them ; but these are all susceptible of in- 
 vestigation. 
 
 The shrinkage of the gelatine films of the negatives is likely to 
 prove a grave difficulty in the application of photography to exact 
 astronomy, but this can always be detected by photographing a net 
 work of lines on glass. Very serious difficulties of this kind have 
 lately been met with by Professor PRITCHARD, of Oxford, in his 
 researches on the (photographic) parallax of 61 Cygni. 
 
 But photographic plates have also many capital advantages. For 
 example, the photographic impress of a star gives really its mean or 
 average position, freed from those accidental and transitory vari- 
 ations of place which are due to variations of atmospheric refraction 
 a constant source of error. The saving of time is also important. 
 An exposure of an hour has given (at the Paris observatory) a map of 
 5, 000 stars in four square degrees in the constellation Cygnus. The best 
 maps we now have give 170 of the brightest stars only, in this place. 
 To map 5,000 stars by the eye alone would require several years. 
 The writer spent all the time he could spare from routine obser- 
 vations during four years with the twenty-six inch equatorial, at 
 Washington, in a study of the Nebula of Orion. Every important 
 result reached by that study, and very many not comprised in it, 
 was attained by Mr. COMMON'S photograph, (subsequently taken), 
 which required an exposure of forty minutes only. 
 
 Another important advantage of the new methods is that they do 
 not require highly skilled observers. It required a BESSEL or a 
 STKUVE to determine the parallax of 61 Cygni or of Vega. But 
 photographic exposures can be made, and glass negatives success- 
 fully measured by well trained assistants, after the plan of obser- 
 vation has once been thoroughly thought out. This is no slight 
 benefit. The skill of the astronomer is reserved for real difficulties, 
 and the merely laborious work can be done in duplicate, if necessary, 
 by younger men. 
 
94 ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Again, the chemical plate is sensitive to a whole series of rays, 
 which produce no effect on the human eye. Only half of the faint- 
 est stars of e.ny photographic map, are visible to the eye in the 
 same telescope. Photographic methods thus increase the range of 
 our vision immensely ; they also increase its sharpness. The pho- 
 tographic plate will register the sum of all the impressions it re- 
 ceives. It does not tire, as the eye does, and refuse to pay attention 
 for more than a small fraction of a second, but it will faithfully 
 record every ray of light that falls upon it, even for hours, and 
 finally it will produce its automatic register, so that the eye can 
 see it, and so that this can be measured, if necessary, again and 
 again. The permanence of the records is of the greatest impor- 
 tance, and so far as we know it is complete, when the best modern 
 plates are employed. We can hand down to our successors a pic- 
 ture of the sky, locked in a box. What would we not give for 
 such a record bequeathed to us by HIPPARCHUS or by GALILEO ! 
 
 It will be of interest to briefly state how far the equipment of 
 the Lick observatory will fit it to engage in this important branch 
 of research. It is known that the situation of the observatory is 
 the finest in the world, both as to the number of clear days, and as 
 to the quality of steady atmosphere. The observatory will be com- 
 pletely equipped for all micrometric work, and also for all spectro- 
 scopic researches. We may summarize its facilities for excursions 
 in the fields of astronomical photography as follows : We have a 
 photographic objective 33-inches in aperture, which is six times 
 more powerful than any objective now made ; the largest Paris 
 glass is 13 inches in aperture. This is mounted in the most perfect 
 manner, and we can employ the 12-inch Clark telescope, now in the 
 north dome, as a pointing telescope for the large objective. The 
 12-inch telescope will be mounted alongside the other. An elec- 
 trically controlled driving clock will keep the two telescopes accu- 
 rately directed during the exposure. Our objective will collect six 
 times the light of any other photographic telescope now made. We 
 should therefore be able to photograph fainter objects. The focal 
 length of the photographic combination will be about 550 inches, 
 and 1" on the plate will therefore be about 0.003 inches. This is a 
 quantity whose J^Q" P a *"t can be measured. 
 
 A single exposure will give us a map of the sky comprising 
 four square degrees on a plate 22x22 inches. A few minutes will 
 impress on this plate a permanent record of the position and bright- 
 ness of all the stars visible in even the largest telescopes. A com- 
 parison of two such plates taken on different nights will point out 
 any changes which might easily escape the most minute observa- 
 tion by other methods. The sun's image unmagnified will be five 
 inches in diameter ; a large sunspot will be the size of one's finger 
 
ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 nail. Beautiful photographs of the planets can be taken so as to 
 register with perfect accuracy the features of their surfaces. Comets 
 and nebulae can be studied at leisure from their automatic registers 
 as one studies a copper-plate engraving. The variations of refrac- 
 tion from the horizon to the zenith can be made to record them- 
 selves for measurement. There is absolutely no end to the problems 
 lying close at hand, and their number and their importance will 
 develop with time. We are merely at the threshold of this subject. 
 There is no question but that the large telescope with its two objec- 
 tives in its absolutely perfect site is the most important astronomical 
 instrument in the world. Mr. LICK'S desire has been fulfilled so 
 far, and more than fulfilled. But a mere instrument is nothing but 
 a splendid monument (to more than one man) without intelligent 
 use. Californians must not point at this telescope and say that it 
 is the largest in the world, but it must also be their effort to make 
 it the most useful. 
 
 Although the whole plan of the observatory has been made with 
 direct reference to keeping its running expenses low, it is clear that 
 the work of our observers must be concentrated on the large equa- 
 torial, and even then that their energies will not be sufficient to 
 utilize every moment. It is not our intention to jealously guard the 
 immense scientific opportunity for ourselves, for California, or even for 
 the United States. The real gift of Mr. LICK was to the world. We 
 mean to put the large telescope at the disposition of the world, by in- 
 viting its most distinguished astronomers to visit us, one at a time, 
 and to give them the use of the instrument during certain specified 
 hours of the twenty-four. Each day there will be certain hours 
 set apart when the observatory staff will relinquish the use of the 
 equatorial to distinguished specialists who will come upon our invi- 
 tation from the United States and from Europe, to solve or to attack 
 some one of the many unsolved problems of astronomy. In this 
 way we hope to make the gift of Mr. LICK one which is truly a 
 gift to science, and not merely a gift to California and to its Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Even under such circumstances it will be impossible to utilize the 
 instrumental outfit to the full. It was clearly the duty of the Lick 
 Trustees to make this observatory perfect in every respect, and to 
 provide it with all the instruments necessary to a complete equip- 
 ment. This they have done as economically and wisely as they could. 
 The instruments are all necessary, and they are mounted in the most 
 perfect manner. Each one is directly subordinate to the large 
 equatorial and accessory to it. Nothing has been purchased, and no 
 work has been done, which does not directly tend to make the 
 observations made by the large equatorial either more complete, or 
 more immediately useful. The cost of the whole observatory may 
 fairly ba said to be the cost of the great telescope in place, and en- 
 tirely ready for work. 
 
XI. CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 
 
 It ia not so very long since the regulation of time in the United 
 States, and indeed all over the world, was considered a very minor 
 matter. I have been informed by a naval officer now living, that 
 when he was on duty at the Norfolk Navy Yard, the only time-piece 
 depended upon to regulate the hours of hundreds of Government 
 workmen was a sun-dial situated in the grounds. As is well known, 
 a sun-dial gives apparent solar time, which is sometimes fifteen 
 minutes fast of mean time the time ordinarily used and some- 
 times sixteen minutes slow. This variation of half an hour apparently 
 made no difference to the officers of a government service only a 
 few years ago. The introduction of railways, the growth of large 
 cities and the increasing value of the moments of men of business, 
 have created quite another state of things. The public has been 
 educated by these means; but perhaps more rapidly and effectively 
 by the use of the telegraph between cities separated by many 
 degrees of longitude. A telegram from the House of Commons, in 
 London, at one o'clock in the morning, reaches San Francisco in 
 time to be printed in the later editions of the evening papers of the 
 day before. Railway travelling, which is so common in America, 
 where distances are large and the public highly intelligent, has also 
 familiarized us with the fact that there are different standards of 
 time and that these change from place to place. In November, 
 1884, all the railway times of the United States were suddenly 
 changed from their old local values to one set of uniform stan- 
 dard values, and this was done without any apparent friction 
 or annoyance; yet the interests of thousands of citizens were 
 directly affected. I believe there is no other country in the world 
 which could take such a step with such complete intelligence on 
 the part of its citizens. Up to 1884 each railroad had a standard of 
 time of its own. For instance, the Pennsylvania Railway was run 
 on Harrisburg time between Philadelphia and Harrisburg, and at 
 that place a sudden change was made and the rest of the journey 
 to Pittsburgh was accomplished on Pittsburgh time. Similarly the 
 New York Central was run on Poughkeepsie and Rochester time in 
 its different divisions, and so with other railways. This at last 
 grew to be an intolerable nuisance, and in searching for the remedy 
 the Railway Convention, which met in 1883 in Chicago, settled on 
 a very philosophic and simple plan. It has its disadvantages, of 
 which we need not speak here, since the system has already become 
 firmly rooted and since its advantages are many and obvious. 
 (97) . (vii; 
 
98 CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 
 
 Standard time, as it is understood in the United States, is a time 
 of which the minutes and seconds are exactly the same as those of 
 a standard mean time clock at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 
 England. The hour only is different. Inter-colonial time serves for 
 the British Provinces about New Brunswick and for the extreme 
 East of the United States ; it is four hours slower than Greenwich 
 time. Eastern time is exactly live hours slower than Greenwich time 
 and corresponds nearly to the local time of Philadelphia. Central 
 time is six hours slower than Greenwich time and corresponds nearly 
 to the meridian of St. Louis and "New Orleans. Mountain time is 
 seven hours slower than Greenwich timo and corresponds roughly 
 with the local time of the meridian of Denver, while Pacific time is 
 eight hours slower than Greenwich time and corresponds approxi- 
 mately to the local time of Sacramento. As we on this Coast are 
 more particularly interested in Pacific time, I give the exact figures : 
 The local time of the astronomical station of the Coast Survey in 
 the Plaza in San Francisco is 8 hours, 9 minutes, 38.35 seconds 
 slower than Greenwich time. The local time of Mount Hamilton 
 (Lick Observatory) is 8 hours, 6 minutes, 34.3 seconds slower 
 than Greenwich time. So that Mount Hamilton local time is 3 
 minutes, 4 seconds faster than San Francisco time. All the 
 railways in California run on Pacific time, therefore this time is 
 9 minutes, 38.4 seconds faster than San Francisco time and 6 
 minutes, 34. 3 seconds faster than Lick Observatory mean time. 
 
 When an observation is taken at Mount Hamilton it determines 
 the exact local time of the meridian of the instrument with which 
 the time was observed. The standard clock is not kept, however, 
 to this local time, but it is regulated so as to be 6 minutes, 34. 3 
 seconds faster than this. That is, it is set to Pacific standard time 
 and kept at this point. 
 
 The work of astronomers is usually very far removed from what 
 is called practical utility. The American public is highly interested 
 in all scientific results which can be stated in popular form, includ- 
 ing those in astronomy, but there is almost only one point where 
 the work of astronomical observatories touches the business interests 
 of communities directly. This point is in the distribution of time 
 by electric signals from an observatory to railroad and telegraph 
 companies, to city and tower clocks, to private business firms and to 
 manufacturing and other corporations, for commercial purposes. 
 Nearly every observatory of importance takes great pains to see 
 that the cities and individuals in its vicinity are fully supplied with 
 correct time. The advantages of these observatory time-services 
 are manifold and scarcely need be pointed out. A high degree of 
 accuracy and uniformity is secured by them, and an immense 
 amount of petty vexation is spared. Anyone who has looked at the 
 public clocks of San Francisco, which often vary five to six minutes 
 between themselves, and especially anyone who has lost an ap- 
 
CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 99 
 
 pointment through this variation, can appreciate this point. In all 
 sea-ports the chronometers of merchant vessels can be well regulated 
 and rated by the dropping of a time ball by an observatory ; and 
 this is a valuable indirect aid to navigation. A less obvious but 
 not less important consideration is the connection thus formed 
 between the more abstruse work of the observatory and the ordinary 
 affairs of every day life, which brings continually before the public 
 mind the practical application of astronomical science and inspires 
 it with confidence in the precision of scientific methods. The 
 increased punctuality which is insured by the knowledge of the 
 correct time is a positive moral benefit to the community. Punctu- 
 ality is one of the minor mechanical virtues, but it is no less a virtue. 
 It has been said that punctuality is the politeness of kings; if so, it 
 is positively obligatory upon us common people. 
 
 THE LICK OBSERVATORY TIME SERVICE. 
 
 One of the first works undertaken at the Lick Observatory was to 
 fit it to be the center of a system of time distribution for the sur- 
 rounding country, and to provide the railways radiating from San 
 Francisco with time signals which should traverse the immense 
 distances separating California from the observatories of the Eastern 
 States. In the early part of 1886 I made an arrangement for 
 supplying the time signals automatically from the clocks of the 
 Lick Observatory to the Southern Pacific and other railway com- 
 panies, as well as to jewellers in San Jose. These arrangements 
 were authorized by the Lick trustees, who had a full sense of their 
 duty to the community to provide such service. I have thought 
 that it might be interesting to give a popular account of exactly 
 how this work is done, in order that the public at large may have 
 confidence in the service and that they may appreciate the amount 
 of trouble that is taken to see that the time signals are correct. In 
 order to send out these signals from the observatory, a special clock 
 was constructed by HOWARD & Co., of Boston, fitted with an 
 electric apparatus for making signals over any telegraph line. This 
 clock is kept to standard time by means of observations with the 
 transit instrument. The time kept by the clock is mean solar time and 
 the clock can be regulated by observations of the sun ; but as the 
 sun only crosses the meridian once a day and therefore can only be 
 observed once, it is found more convenient in practice to observe 
 stars, of which many are available whose positions are as accurately 
 known as that of the sun. The theory of determining the time by 
 transit observations is very simple. The transit instrument is 
 placed exactly in the meridian that is, so that when it is revolved 
 it will describe a North and South line in the sky. At the instant 
 that a star of known position is crossing the meridian on its way 
 from rising toward setting, the exact moment by the clock at which 
 the star crosses a spider line stretched across the eye-piece of the 
 
100 CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 
 
 transit instrument is noted. Knowing the position of the star, we 
 know by a calculation exactly the time at which the star ought to be 
 on this thread. Looking at the clock we observe the minute, 
 second and tenth of a second by the clock at which it actually is 011 
 the middle wire. The difference between these two quantities gives 
 us the correction of the clock as derived from the observation of this 
 particular star. Several stars are observed on each night in order 
 to get from their average a more correct determination than could 
 be obtained from any one, and in order to correct for any slight 
 deviations in the position of the transit instrument itself with 
 respect to the meridian. In this way on each night of observation 
 the error of the clock is determined accurately within two or three 
 hundredths of a second of time. Such observations as have been 
 described are made every two or three nights upon a set of four or 
 more stars. The clocks we use can be trusted to run accurately 
 enough in the interval between observations to insure that the error 
 of the time signals shall be at no time greater than two or three 
 tenths of a second, but for greater security the standard clock is 
 daily compared with each one of four other astronomical clocks and 
 with two chronometers, so that even if the weather should be 
 cloudy, we could depend upon the average running of these time- 
 pieces for a much longer period than two or three days. To give an 
 idea of the accuracy of running of these clocks I quote from the 
 observatory register of 1887. It should be understood that these 
 finer clocks are allowed to run as they will, and that their errors 
 are allowed for by a calculation, instead of meddling with the hands 
 and correcting their indications by small quantities. This clock, 
 which was made by DENT in England and cost $550, is of the finest 
 possible construction. Watchmakers will understand this when 
 I say that the pinions have eighteen leaves. On the 1st of March, 
 1887, it was .08 of a second fast ; on the 4th it was .06 of a second 
 fast ; on the 6th it was .08 of a second fast ; on the 8th it was . 13 of a 
 second fast, and so on until the 7th of April, when it was .02 of a sec- 
 ond fast. That is, between March 1st and April 7th its total varia- 
 tion was .06 of a second. The other clocks of the observatory are 
 practically as good as this. It will be evident, as the time at the 
 observatory is known from each night's observations to about .03 of 
 a second, that it can be well kept between the observations by means 
 of admirable clocks like these. 
 
 HOW THE TIME IS SENT OUT FROM THE OBSERVATORY. 
 
 The next question is : How do we transmit the time from the 
 observatory to the railway station in San Jose ? This is done auto- 
 matically by one of the clocks itself. This particular clock is not 
 allowed to accumulate any error, but it always kept exactly right. 
 At 9 o'clock in the morning of each day it is compared with the 
 other clocks and its error determined; and if any exists, this is 
 
CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 101 < 
 
 corrected by placing small weights upon the pendulum, so that in 
 a short time less than an hour usually the clock indicates exact 
 Pacific time. Inside of this clock there is a simple arrangement by 
 which an electric current is interrupted every two seconds of the 
 clock. This electric signal is sent over our own telegraph line to the 
 Southern Pacific railroad station at San Jose and received on the 
 telegraph instrument there, precisely as if the beats made by 
 the clock automatically had been made by a telegraph operator 
 at Mount Hamilton. In order to distinguish the end of each 
 minute one of these beats is always omitted, namely that one which 
 corresponds to the 58th second of each minute. That is, if you were 
 listening to the signals in the railway station you would hear the 
 clock beat seconds, 2 seconds, 4 seconds, 6, 8, 10 etc., and finally 
 52, 54, 56, not 58 and then 60. So that if you knew that your 
 watch was not more than half a minute wrong, you would stand 
 before the telegraph instrument at San Jose with your watch in 
 your hand and listen for a pause longer than usual in the beats 
 which were being repeated from our clock. When this long pause 
 occurred, you would observe the second hand of your watch; and the 
 first dot that came on the telegraph instrument after the long pause 
 would mark the beginning of a minute. But you may not always 
 know the error of your watch so closely as this, and the clock is 
 arranged to automatically leave out the 52nd, 54th, 56th and 58th 
 beats of every fifth minute ; that is, of course, every minute whose 
 number ends with or 5. Suppose, for example, that you knew 
 that your watch was within two minutes of correct time about three 
 or four minutes before 10 o'clock in the morning. In order to know 
 exactly its error, you would have to stand again before the telegraph 
 instrument and listen to the beats of the Mount Hamilton clock as 
 they are repeated until you heard a pause in the beats which was 
 longer than usual, a pause, indeed, as long as ten seconds from 
 lifty seconds to sixty seconds. You know that that pause is at the 
 end of the minute immediately preceding 10 o'clock, and the first 
 dot after this long pause, will mark the beginning of the hour. The 
 method is much simpler in practise than it appears to be from the 
 description and a child can use it. 
 
 At this telegraphic instrument in San Jose, methods are provided 
 for repeating the beats of our clock over four different circuits. One 
 of these circuits extends over the Southern Pacific line east of the 
 bay to the Oakland mole, and every day at 12 o'clock the beats of 
 the Mount Hamilton clock are transmitted from San Jose over this 
 line to the Oakland mole. At this point they are received on a 
 ticker at one end of the table. At the other end of the table sits 
 an operator with his hand on a telegraphic key, and he beats on 
 this key in exact coincidence with the Mount Hamilton clock sig- 
 nals, which are thus sent over all the lines of the Southern Pacific 
 Company as far east as Ogden, as far south as El Paso, and as far 
 north as Portland. 
 
102 CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 
 
 Another, pair of points at San Jose leads to the telephone office of 
 the Sunset Telephone Company, and they can, at will, allow a 
 ticker to beat in their local office. If desired, this ticker can be 
 heard in San Francisco in any telephone. The owner of the tele- 
 phone has simply to call the central office and to ask that the Mount 
 Hamilton clock be placed in connection with his telephone. The 
 operator will do this promptly and the beats of the clock can be 
 readily heard, and anyone's watch can be set in San Francisco 
 without difficulty from the audible beats of a clock 60 miles distant. 
 
 A Circular of the Telephone Company is reprinted here. 
 
 SUNSET TELEPHONE-TELEGRAPH co. 
 LICK OBSERVATORY TIME-SIGNAL. 
 
 Pacific Standard Time. 
 Post this Notice near your Telephone. 
 
 To hear the beats of the Lick Observatory Standard Clock, call 
 the Central Office and ask that the San Jose Operator put on the 
 Lick Observatory Clock Signal. When this is done the beats of 
 the Lick Observatory Clock will be heard every two seconds. At 
 the end of every minute the 58th second is omitted. At the end of 
 every 5th minute (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35. 40, 45, 50, 55, 60) the 
 52d, 54th, 56th and 58th seconds are omitted. 
 
 TO SET YOUR WATCH RIGHT 
 
 Get the beats of the Lick Observatory Clock in your telephone and 
 hold your watch where you can see the second hand ; listen to the 
 beats which are heard every two seconds, until a pause of more 
 than two seconds comes ; the first dot after such a pause begins 
 some minute. If the pause is ten seconds long, the minute is one 
 of the numbered minutes of your watch-dial. 
 
 Another pair of points at San Jose to the jeweler shop of Mr. 
 ALLISON, a leading jeweler, who is establishing a local service of 
 controlled clocks. Also, still another pair of points was intended 
 for use on the South Pacific Coast Railway ; but as this has become 
 a portion of the Southern Pacific system, these are not used at 
 present. 
 
 In this simple way the standard time determined by observation 
 at Mount Hamilton, is distributed to the railways and used by them 
 at every telegraph station between San Francisco and Ogden, El 
 Paso and Portland, Oregon. Besides this, every telephone sub- 
 scriber in San Francisco can use our time by simply calling the 
 central office to give it to him. 
 
 The standard time is regularly determined at the private obser- 
 vatory of Professor DAVIDSON in San Francisco. At the United 
 
CLOCKS AND TIME-KEEPING. 103 
 
 States Coast and Geodetic Survey office and the Branch Hydrogra- 
 phic office the accurate time can always be had. Messrs. LARSEN 
 and WILSON, 201 Kearny street, have dropped a small time-ball 
 daily at noon for the past ten years. Several of the chro- 
 nometer makers in the city also determine their own time by 
 observations of the sun with small instruments. For the sake of 
 uniformity it would be better if they took their time from the Lick 
 observatory signals or from those which are daily set at noon by 
 the observatory at the Mare Island Navy Yard. This latter obser- 
 vatory is under the charge of a competent lieutenant in the navy 
 who makes the necessary observations and sends the signals which 
 drop the time-ball on Telegraph Hill and regulate the clock in 
 the Merchants' Exchange. 
 
 At the Chabot observatory in Oakland, Mr. BURCKHALTER (who 
 is in charge) regularly determines the time ; and during the college 
 year the same is done at the Students' Observatory of the University 
 of California, by Professor SOULE. 
 
 At any one of the places named some time -piece is kept running 
 nearly to standard time, and a comparison with this time-piece, 
 (after allowing for its small error) will enable one to set his watch 
 exactly to time. Any telephone subscriber can at any hour of the 
 day call the Central office, and ask that the Mount Hamilton clock 
 be allowed to beat for 5 minutes on his circuit. The beats of the 
 clock can also be heard at the conversation-room of the Sunset 
 Telephone Company, in the operating-room of the Western Union 
 Telegraph Company (at noon only) and (also at noon) on a sounder 
 at the shop of Mr. McCoNNELL, 618 Market street. The time-ball 
 on Telegraph Hill is dropped with accuracy and can be used by all 
 who can see it. 
 
 It will be seen that we have unusual facilities for obtaining 
 accurate time. A very little observation of our public clocks will 
 show that some of them are not regulated with sufficient care. 
 Every public clock is, or ought to be, under the care of some 
 jeweler, and it should be his pride as well as his duty to keep the 
 hands of its various dials indicating the same time, and to have the 
 time shown by its hands and by its bells, (if it strikes) exactly and 
 precisely right. 
 
 I trust that I have made it plain that there is a real value to the 
 whole community in accurate time-keeping, and that the Lick 
 Observatory is already doing it3 best to care for the public interest 
 in this regard. Every railway train west of the Rocky Mountains 
 runs more safely for the observations which are nightly made at 
 Mount Hamilton, and every ship-master who will take the trouble, 
 can make a better land-fall at the end of a long voyage because the 
 observatory has fine instruments, good clocks and competent and 
 faithful observers. 
 
FOG IN THE MOUNTAIN RANGE 
 
 (104) 
 
XII. THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF 
 THE WORLD. 
 
 It may fairly be assumed that the reader of this hand-book will 
 wish to know something, at least, of the other principal observatories 
 of the world, if for no other reason than to intelligently compare 
 their equipment and conditions with those of the Lick Observatory. 
 
 For this reason I have collected in this place brief notices of the 
 instrumental outfit, the personnel, etc., of the chief observatories 
 now in existence, and give them in this chapter. 
 
 I have made free use of the capital article on observatories written 
 by my friend Dr. DKEYER, director of the Armagh Observatory, for 
 the last edition of the Encydopcedia Britannica, and I take pleasure 
 in referring those who wish more extended information to his 
 original article. It is worthy of notice that the establishment of the 
 Lick Observatory on a high mountain has influenced the selection 
 of the sites of several of the later established observatories. I have 
 naturally given a fuller account of American, and especially of 
 Calif ornian, institutions than of others. It not infrequently happens 
 that in our search for information we neglect the most obvious 
 sources. It is also especially important to Americans to realize the 
 vast instrumental equipment of American observatories ; to inquire 
 why so many of them are comparatively idle ; and to reflect that a 
 few thousand dollars judiciously expended in an endowment fund 
 for the payment of skilled observers to use the instruments already 
 provided, will be of more service to astronomy, and redound more to 
 the credit of the giver, than ten times the sum spent in establishing 
 one more of the expensive observatories in which no observations 
 are made, of which we already have too many. 
 
 It is not too much to say that astronomy would not suffer if no 
 new observatory were to be founded in the United States for the 
 next half century, provided that a few generous and far-seeing men 
 would furnish the means to keep our present establishments fully 
 active. The Lick Observatory itself could easily keep twice its 
 present staff of observers and computers at work. A glance over 
 the list of German observatories here printed will show with what 
 slender instrumental equipment the greatest works have been 
 accomplished. Co-operation is also a golden word. With this 
 preface, which will seem the more essential the more one is familiar 
 with the facts, I proceed to give the list of the chief observatories 
 of the world, arranging them by countries. 
 (105) 
 
106 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 Royal Observatory of Greenwich : Founded in 1675 for the promotion 
 of astronomy and especially of navigation. The chief observations 
 therefore have always been devoted to the accurate determination of 
 the places of the moon and of the fundamental stars. Since 1873 daily 
 photographs of the sun and spectroscopic observations of sun and 
 stars have been made. The director is called the astronomer-royal: 
 and the astronomers -royal have been some of the most noted men 
 of England, namely FLAMSTEED, HALLEY, BRADLEY, MASKELYNE, 
 POND, and Sir GEORGE AIRY (18351881). The present astronomer- 
 royal is W. H. M. CHRISTIE, who succeeded Sir GEORGE AIRY in 
 1881. At present the staff consists of the director, nine astronomers 
 and a large number of computers. The annual expenses of the 
 observatory are about $42,000. The principal instruments are the 
 LASSELL reflecting telescope of 24 inches aperture ; a refractor by 
 MERZ of 12.8 inches aperture ; a meridian-circle of 8 inches aperture ; 
 an alt-azimuth of 4 inches aperture ; with photographic, meteorolog- 
 ical and other instruments in great variety. A daily time-signal 
 is sent all over England, and time-balls are dropped at various sea- 
 ports. A meteorological and magnetic observatory has been main- 
 tained since 1838. 
 
 The observations since 1836 have been published annually, with 
 commendable promptness, in large quarto volumes and freely dis- 
 tributed to other observatories and to men of science. It is truer 
 now than when DELAMBRE said it half a century ago, that if the 
 whole work of all observatories save that of Greenwich alone were 
 irrevocably lost, the entire science of astronomy could be recovered 
 from the Greenwich observations. 
 
 Oxford ; the Raddiffe Observatory : It was founded in 1771. Since 
 1839 observations have been regularly made and published in octavo 
 by the Radcliffe observer and his assistants. (There are now 3 
 assistants employed. ) The instruments are mostly small, but they 
 have been used with great advantage to astronomy by the able 
 observers who have presided over this establishment namely 
 JOHNSON, MAIN and STONE. 
 
 Oxford University Observatory : was founded in 1875 ; the Savilian 
 Professor, Dr. PRITCHARD, is the director, who is aided by two 
 assistants. The chief instruments are a 12^-inch refractor by 
 GRUBB and a 13-inch reflector made and presented by WARREN DE 
 LA RUE. Celestial photometry and photography are especially 
 attended to. The observations are regularly published in quarto. 
 
 Cambridge University Observatory: This observatory was founded 
 in 1820 and under its noted directors, AIRY, CHALLIS and ADAMS 
 has done most valuable work. The chief instruments are a CAU- 
 iioix refractor of 11 ^-inch aperture and a fine meridian circle by 
 SIMMS (8 inches). There are two or more assistants. The obser- 
 vations (1828 1865) are printed in 21 quarto volumes. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 107 
 
 Liverpool (Birkenhead) Observatory: Founded in 1838 and chiefly 
 devoted to a time service for Liverpool, and to the investigation of 
 the rates of ships' chronometers. 
 
 Kew Observatory: Established in 1842. This is the central meteoro- 
 logical observatory of Great Britain. Daily photographs of the sun 
 were taken from 1863 to 1872. 
 
 Royal Observatory of Ediriburg: Founded in 1811. The Royal 
 Astronomer for Scotland is director and at present he has two 
 assistants. T. HENDERSON (Director from 1833 to 1845) made and 
 published a most valuable and accurate series of observations of 
 star positions. Observations of subterranean temperature have 
 been carried on since 1837, and the present Royal Astronomer (C. 
 PIAZZI-SMYTH) was the first to demonstrate the advantages of 
 mountain sites for astronomical observatories, by his expedition to 
 Teneriffe, (during 1856). His spectroscopic observations are 
 also well known, as well as his researches on the Great Pyramid. 
 
 Glasgow Observatory : Founded in 1840. The chief instrument is a 
 meridian circle, with which the present Director (R. GRANT) has 
 observed an admirable catalogue of 6,415 stars. 
 
 Dublin Observatory: (at Dunsink) ; founded 1785. The principal 
 instruments are an 1 1 f inch CAUCHOIX refractor and a 6. 4 inch PISTOR 
 & MARTINS' meridian circle. Both these instruments have been 
 energetically employed by BRFENNOW and by his successor, the 
 
 E resent Director (Sir R. S. BALL) in determinations of stellar paral- 
 ix, etc. The observations are regularly published in quarto. 
 
 Armagh Observatory : Founded in 1791, enlarged in 1827. Very 
 important star catalogues have been published from observations 
 made by Dr. T. R. ROBINSON (1823-1882). Dr. J. L. E. DREYER is 
 now Director. 
 
 Mr. A. A. Common's private observatory, Eating, is noted for the 
 work done with the 36-inch reflector (1879-1885) and especially for 
 admirable celestial photographs. Mr. COMMON is now building a 
 63-inch reflector. 
 
 Earl Crawford's private observatory at Dun Echt, Scotland, is one of 
 the best equipped of modern observatories, and has made itself a 
 name by solid work in various fields. The chief instruments are a 
 15-inch refractor, by GRUBB, a fine meridian circle, etc., with 
 spectroscopes, etc. The observations are printed in quarto form. 
 
 Mr. R. S. NewaWs private observatory at Gateshead has possessed 
 a 25-inch refractor by COOKE since 1870. The instrument is very 
 fine in every respect, but it has remained idle, so far as science is 
 concerned, all these years. 
 
 Lord Rosse's observatory at Birr Castle. In 1839 a 3-foot reflector, 
 in 1845 the famous 6-foot reflector, were made and mounted by the 
 father of the present Earl. Much interesting work has been done 
 here in various fields. 
 
108 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OP THE WORLD. 
 
 Many other private observatories might be mentioned here which 
 well deserve a place, but they are omitted for want of room. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 National Observatory of Pans: Founded in 1667. The CASSINIS, 
 BOCTVARD, ARAGO, LE VERRIER and DELAUNAY have been directors. 
 The present director (Admiral MOUCHEZ) aided by a most efficient 
 staff, has infused a new life into practical astronomy in France and 
 has again placed this great establishment in y a foremost position. 
 The principal instruments are a 29-inch, a 15-inch, a 12-inch, two 
 94-inch refractors, two meridian circles and very many minor instru- 
 ments. Besides these, photographic refractors of various sizes (the 
 largest 13 inches in aperture) have been lately used with splendid 
 results by the brothers PAUL and PROSPER HENRY. There are many 
 astronomers, assistants, etc. The work is regularly published in 
 quarto volumes (about 60 of which have been printed). The 
 University observatories of Lyons, Bordeaux and Toulouse are 
 allied with the National observatory and are well equipped. 
 
 Meudon Observatory: Founded in 1875 by JULES JANSSEN the pres- 
 ent Director. This observatory is devoted to spectroscopic obser- 
 vations and especially to solar photography. There are several 
 assistants. 
 
 Marseilles Observatory: Founded 1749 ; rebuilt 1869. The princi- 
 pal instruments are a 94-inch refractor and a 32-inch reflector. The 
 director (E. STEPHAN) has several assistants. 
 
 Nice Observatory : Founded in 1880 by M. BISCHOFFSHEIM, the 
 banker, and presented to the Bureau of Longitude. It is on Mont- 
 Gros, near Nice. It has a 30-inch refractor by the HENRY broth- 
 ers, a fine meridian circle of 8 inches aperture and many other 
 instruments of the finest kind. The director is M. PERROTIN and 
 there are several assistants. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 The principal observatories of Germany are connected with the 
 great Universities or with Academies of Science. They have in 
 general been distinguished not by great instruments but by great 
 men. 
 
 Royal Observatory of Berlin: Founded in 1705, rebuilt in 1835. 
 The principal instruments are a 94-inch FRAUENHOFER refractor (with 
 which the planet Neptune was first seen in 1846) and two PISTOR & 
 MARTINS' meridian circles of 4 and 7 inches aperture respectively. 
 All the instruments have been actively employed. The observa- 
 tions are regularly printed. 
 
 Observatory of Bonn : Founded in 1841. A refractor of 6 inches 
 and meridian circles of 4^ and 6| inches aperture are the chief in- 
 struments. Here the Durchmusterungen of the sky (catalogues of 
 every star from the first to the tenth magnitude) have been made by 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 109 
 
 ARGELANDER, KRUEGER and SCHOENFELD. The positions of more 
 than 500,000 stars have been determined at this observatory. 
 The results are printed in 8 quarto volumes. The present director 
 is Professor SCHOENFELD who has several assistants. 
 
 Strassburg Observatory: completed in 1881, contains an 18-inch re- 
 factor by MERZ, a 6| -in chREPSOLD meridian circle, alt-azimuth etc. , 
 etc. The observatory is built in the best manner and is intended 
 to be perfect in all respects. There are several astronomers attached 
 to it. The present director is W. KOBOLD. 
 
 Royal Observatory of Munich: Founded in 1809. The principal 
 instruments are an 11 -inch refractor and a meridian circle. The 
 director (Professor SEELIGER) has several assistants. The obser- 
 vations are regularly published in octavo. 
 
 Royal Observatory at Potsdam: This observatory is devoted to 
 astrophysical researches. The chief instruments are two refractors 
 of 11^ and of 8 inches aperture made by SCHROEDER and GRUBB, 
 respectively, besides photometers, spectroscopes, etc. The obser- 
 vatories of Potsdam and of Lund, working jointly, have recorded 
 the spectra of each one of the principal fixed stars. The results 
 are printed in quarto volumes. 
 
 Observatory of Leipzig : Founded 178790, rebuilt 1861. Its 
 principal instruments are an 8 J-inch STEINHEIL refractor and a 6.3- 
 inch PISTOR & MARTINS' meridian circle. It has long been noted for 
 the important work done by the various astronomers who have been 
 attached to it during the past 50 years. The present director is 
 Professor BRTJNS. 
 
 The observatories of Bothkamp, Dresden, Gotha, Gottingen, 
 Hamburg, Kiel, Koenigsberg, Karlsruhe, etc. would all deserve 
 mention in a more extended notice. 
 
 AUSTRO-HTJNGARY. 
 
 Imperial Observatory of Vienna: Founded 1756, rebuilt 1826, 
 again rebuilt in a new site 1879. The principal instruments are a 
 27-inch refractor by GRTJBB, a 12-inch by ALVAN CLARK, meridian 
 circles, etc. The director (Professor E. WEISS) is aided by a corps 
 of assistants, one of whom, Dr. J. PALISA, has discovered more 
 than 60 miner planets. The observations have been regularly 
 published since 1821. 
 
 Private Observatory O/DE KONKOLY at O'Gyalla, Hungary : Estab- 
 lished in 1871 and specially devcted to spectroscopy, photography 
 etc. The principal instrument is a 10-inch Merz refractor. The 
 results are published in quarto volumes. The observatories of Pola, 
 Kalocza, Hereny etc., should be named among the more important 
 establishments of Austro-Hungary. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Observatory of Geneva : Founded in 1773, rebuilt in 1830. A 10- 
 inch refractor is the principal instrument. The observatories of 
 
110 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Ziirich, Berne, and Neuchatel are important. Especial attention is 
 devoted in all Swiss observatories, to providing accurate time sig- 
 nals to watch-manufactories. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 The observatories of Madrid, Cadiz, Lisbon and Coimbra are 
 among the more important. They possess some excellent instru- 
 ments; but comparatively very few observations come from these 
 establishments. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Observatory of Milan: Founded in 1763. In 1875 an 8-inch MERZ 
 refractor was mounted and in 1885 an 18-inch by the same artist. 
 The director (Professor SCHIAPARELLI) has regularly published the 
 results of the important investigations of himself and his assistants. 
 
 The Observatory of the Roman College, Rome : Founded in 1787 by the 
 order of Jesuits, and made celebrated by the labors of DA Vico and 
 SECCHI. Its principal instrument is a FRAUENHOFER refractor of 9.6 
 inches aperture. Professor TACCHINI, the present director, devotes 
 his attention chiefly to solar spectroscopy. Minor planets are as- 
 siduously observed by his coadjutor Professor MILLOSOVICH." It is 
 the central meteorological station of Italy. 
 
 The observatories of Naples, Palermo and others, are among the 
 most important in Italy. 
 
 Observatory on Etna : In 1880 an observatory was established on 
 Etna 9650 feet above the sea. During the inclement weather of 
 winter the object-glass (only) is removed to Catania, where a dupli- 
 cate mounting is provided for it. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 The Observatory of Athens (founded 1845) remained one of the 
 most active in Europe during the directorship of SCHMIDT (1845 
 1884.) Here his great map of the moon, six feet in diameter, was 
 constructed from the observations of 20 years. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Imperial Observatory of Pulkowa : This observatory, "the astro- 
 nomical capital of the world " was founded by W. STRUVE in 1839. 
 At his death in 1861, his son, OTTO STROVE, succeeded him. His 
 grandsons HERMANN and LUDWIG STRUVE are among the corps of 
 observers. The staff consists of the director, four astronomers, four 
 assistants, two computers, a secretary and a number of laborers and 
 workmen. The principal instruments are a 6-inch ERTEL transit, a 
 6-inch ERTEL vertical circle, a 6-inch REPSOLD meridian-circle, a 
 prime-vertical transit, a 7^ -inch MERZ heliometer, a 15-inch MERZ 
 refractor and finally the great 30-inch refractor ( objective by AL VAN 
 CLARK, mounting by REPSOLD). The most important and accurate 
 observations of modern astronomy have been made here and are 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. Ill 
 
 published in 1 1 quarto volumes. Besides being the central astro- 
 nomical observatory, Pulkowa is also the headquarters for the 
 geodetic observations over all Russia. 
 
 Observatory of Moscow: Built 1850. The principal instruments 
 are a 10. 7 inch refractor and a meridian circle. The late director 
 (Tn. BREDICHIN) has made the study of comets a speciality and 
 has formulated a theory by means of which the shape of their tails 
 can be predicted in advance in somewhat the same way that their 
 orbits become known after three observations. Ten volumes of An- 
 nals have been printed in quarto. 
 
 The observatories of Helsingfors, Dorpat, Wilna, Warsaw, Kasan, 
 Kieff, and others would deserve special mention in a more extended 
 notice. Many of them are excellently equipped with instruments 
 and observers. Daily photographs of the sun were taken at Wilna 
 from 1869 to 1876. 
 
 SWEDEN, NORWAY AND DENMARK. 
 
 Observatory of Stockholm,: Founded in 1750. Its principal instru- 
 ments are a 4|-inch ERTEL meridian-circle and a 7 -inch REPSOLD 
 refractor. The" latter is employed by the director (Professor GYL- 
 DEN) to determine the parallax of fixed stars. Very important 
 theoretical investigations are also carried on by Professor GYLDEN. 
 The observations are regularly printed in quarto form. 
 
 Observatory of Copenhagen: This observatory is the oldest in 
 Europe, for it was founded in 1641, rebuilt in 1728, 1741, 1780 and 
 again in 1861. The principal instruments of the new observatory 
 are an 11-inch MERZ refractor and a meridian-circle by PISTOR & 
 MARTINS of 4| inches. The various astronomers who have observed 
 here have made the name of the observatory well known in all 
 civilized countries. 
 
 The observatories of Upsala, Lund and Christiania possess refrac- 
 tors of 9 inches, 9| inches and 7 inches respectively, besides meridian 
 circles etc. At Lund especial attention has been paid to mathemat- 
 ical astronomy by the director (Prof. AXEL MOLLER) and to double 
 stars and stellar spectra by Dr. DUNER. At Upsala Dr. SCHULTZ 
 has made important researches on nebulae etc. 
 
 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 
 
 Observatory ofLeyden: Founded in 1632 ; anew observatory built 
 in 1860. The chief instruments are a 7 -inch refractor by MERZ and 
 a 6.3-inch meridian circle by PISTOR & MARTINS. With the latter 
 instrument extremely accurate positions of the fundamental stars 
 have been established. The Director (V. D. S. BAKHUYSEN) has 
 several assistants. The observations are published in quarto. 
 
 Royal Observatory of Brussels : Founded in 1834. In 1877 a 15- 
 inch refractor, by COOKE, and a 6J-inch meridian circle, by REPSOLD, 
 were mounted. Twenty-eight quarto volumes have already been 
 printed. 
 
112 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA, ETC. 
 
 Observatory of Tacubaya (Mexico) : Founded in 1880 at Chapul- 
 tepec ; moved to its present position in 1883. Its principal 
 instrument is a 15-inch refractor by GRUBB. The Director ( ANGEL 
 ANGIANO) has several assistants. The observations are regularly 
 printed. 
 
 Observatory of Cordoba (Argentine Republic) : Founded in 1871. 
 During the years 1871-1885 an enormous amount of work was 
 done by the Director (Dr. B. A. GOULD, of Boston) and his 
 assistants. The principal instruments are a 11 -inch refractor by 
 FITZ, which can also be used photographically, and a meridian 
 circle by REPSOLD, of five inches aperture. The present Director 
 (Dr. THOME) is engaged in determining the position of every star 
 from the first to tiie tenth magnitude in the Southern sky. 
 
 The Observatory of Rio Janeiro : This institution, founded in 1845, 
 is completely equipped with instruments and has a staff of as- 
 tronomers. 
 
 The Observatory of Santiago de Chili was founded in 1849 by 
 Lieut. GILLISS, U. S. Navy, and rebuilt in 1860 by Dr. MOESTA, 
 the then Director. It possesses a 9^ -inch refractor. Little work 
 is now done. Two quarto volumes of observations have been 
 printed. 
 
 AFRICA, INDIA, AUSTRALIA, ETC. 
 
 Royal Observatory, Cape oj Good Hope : Founded in 1820. The 
 successive Astronomers, FALLOWS (1829-1831), T. HENDERSON (1832- 
 1833), T. MACLEAR (1833-1870), E. J. STONE (1870-1879) and 
 DAVID GILL (1879-date) have done work of the first importance in 
 exact astronomy and geodesy, in photography, etc., etc. Very 
 exact determinations of stellar parallax have been made here by 
 HENDERSON and latterly by GILL and ELK.IN. A photographic map 
 of the whole southern sky is now being made at the Cape of Good 
 Hope; other extensive operations are in hand. It was near this ob- 
 servatory that Sir JOHN HERSCHEL established his observatory in 
 the years 1834-38. Its principal instruments are a meridian circle 
 of 8 -inches aperture, like that at Greenwich, and several small 
 refractors of 7 -inches of aperture and less. Its observations are 
 regularly printed in octavo. 
 
 Observatory of Madras : This observatory was founded in 1831. Its 
 principal instruments are a meridian circle, and an equatorial by 
 SIMMS, of 8-inch aperture. Much work has been done here by the 
 Director (N. POGSON) and his assistants, but I am not aware of any 
 publications since the eight 4to volumes which cover the observa- 
 tions of the years 1831-1854. 
 
 Observatory of Sydney, N. S. W.: Founded in 1855. The princi- 
 pal instruments are a 6-inch SIMMS meridian circle and a 11^-inch 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 113 
 
 SCHROEDER equatorial. The observatory regularly publishes meteor- 
 ological and other observations. The Director is Mr. H. C. RUS- 
 SELL. 
 
 Observatory of Melbourne: Built in 1863. It possesses a great 
 reflector of 4 feet aperture, by GRUBB, which was mounted in 1869, 
 but which has rendered comparatively little service to science. 
 An 8-inch refractor by COOKE and a meridian circle have, however, 
 been very actively and efficiently used, the latter by Mr. WHITE. 
 The results are printed in quarto form. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Dudky Observatory (Albany), observatory of Union College : found- 
 ed in 1851-56. The chief instruments are a 13- inch refractor by 
 FITZ, and a PISTOR& MARTINS' meridian circle of 6 inches aperture. 
 Its directors have been Dr. B. A. GOULD, Professor O. M. MITCHELL, 
 Professor G. W. HOUGH and Professor LEWIS Boss. There is one 
 assistant. The meridian circle has been vigorously employed in ob- 
 serving a zone of stars for the Astronomische Gesellschaft by the present 
 director, Professor Boss. A railway time service is maintained. 
 Two volumes of observations, etc., have been printed. 
 
 Allegheny Observatory, observatory of university of Western Penn- 
 sylvania : Founded in 1860. Its principal instruments are a 13- 
 inch Frrz refractor and physical apparatus, such as spectroscopes, 
 bolometers, photometers, etc. An extensive railway time service 
 is maintained. There are two assistants. Under the enlightened 
 direction of Professor LANGLEY, (1860-1887) this observatory be- 
 came the chief authority in the world on questions relating to solar 
 physics. Its chief financial support has been derived from the 
 liberal gifts of the Hon. WM. THAW, of Pittsburgh. 
 
 Amherst College Observatory : Founded in 1857. A 7^ -inch refrac- 
 tor by ALVAN CLARK is its chief instrument. Assiduous observa- 
 tions of the satellites of Jupiter are kept up here by the director, 
 Professor D. P. TODD. 
 
 Annapolis Observatory (U. S. Naval Academy) : The observatory 
 has a 7f -inch CLARK refractor and a 4-inch meridian circle by E/EP- 
 SOLD which latter has become well known through the writings of 
 Professor CHAUVENET, the first director. The observatory is only 
 used for purposes of instruction. 
 
 Ann Arbor Observatory Observatory of University of Michigan : 
 founded in 1854 under Professor BRUENNOW. Its chief instruments 
 are a 12^ -inch refractor by FITZ and a 6 -inch PISTOR & MARTINS' 
 meridian circle. Twenty-one asteroids were discovered with this 
 refractor by Professor WATSON, the second director, and the merid- 
 ian circle has been assiduously used by Mr. SCHAEBERLE (now 
 an astronomer at the Lick observatory) in observations of stars. 
 Professor M. W. HARRINGTON is the present director. He has one 
 assistant. 
 
 (viii) 
 
114 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Harvard College Observatory : This establishment has a most hon- 
 orable history under the distinguished astronomers who have had it 
 in charge, namely W. C. BOND, G-. P. BOND, JOSEPH WINLOCK and 
 E. C. PICKERING. The principal instruments are a 15-inch MEHZ 
 refractor (a companion to that of Pulkowa, Russia, ) with which G. 
 P. BDND discovered a new satellite is Saturn, made extensive studies 
 on this planet, on the nebula of Orion, on the great comet of 1858, 
 etc., etc. There are two meridian circles ; the largest by SIMMS has 
 an aperture of 8^ inches and has done most important work in fix- 
 ing stellar positions in the hands of Professor W. A. ROGERS. A 
 great variety of other work has been done and published here. 
 The last director (Professor E. C. PICKERING) wisely turned much 
 of the energy of the establishment into researches in astronomical 
 physics spectroscopy, photometry and photography. He has de- 
 termined the brightness of all the lucid stars visible at Cambridge; 
 and his researches on stellar spectra by photography (which are 
 largely carried on with instruments belonging to the late HENRY 
 DRAPER and with funds furnished by his wife, Mrs. ANNA PALMER 
 DRAPER), are among the most important of modern astronomy. The 
 observations are regularly and promptly published in quarto vol- 
 umes. A time service is kept up. The regular income of the ob- 
 servatory was in the neighborhood of $18,000 before the BOYDEN 
 FUND of more than $200,000 became available. It is now of course 
 much greater. More than twenty astronomers and assistants are 
 employed here. The whole history of this observatory is an admir- 
 able comment on the text that to those who already have and prop- 
 erly use a large instrumental equipment, more should be given. In- 
 tending founders of observatories would do well to study the history 
 of this observatory in order to see how comparatively small sums of 
 money placed rightly, will produce relatively great results. 
 
 Chicago University, (Observatory of Northwestern University) : 
 This observatory was founded in 1862 and purchased the 18J-inch 
 Clark refractor with which ALVAN G. CLARK discovered the 
 companion to Sinus. This telescope long remained the largest and 
 most perfect in the world and many brilliant discoveries were 
 within its reach. It was not fully utilized, however, until Mr. S. 
 W. BURNHAM (now an astronomer at the Lick Observatory) contin- 
 ued his work on double stars by its means. A 6-inch meridian 
 circle by REPSOLD is also part of the equipment. The observatory 
 is about to be moved to Evanston, Illinois. Professor G. W. 
 HOUGH is the present Director. A regular time service has been 
 maintained here by Professor HOUGH, and physical observations of 
 Jupiter and measures of difficult double stars are kept up. There 
 are no assistants. 
 
 Cincinnati Observatory, Observatory of University of Cincinnati : 
 Founded in 1842 by Professor O. M. MITCHELL. The principal in- 
 strument is an 11 j-inch equatorial by MERZ, which was assidu- 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 115 
 
 ously used by Professor 0. STONE in double star observations dur- 
 ing his directorship. The present Director (Professor J. G. PORTER) 
 has shown what valuable work may be done by small instruments 
 by his catalogue of 4150 southern stars observed with a 3-inch 
 transit. A regular time service is kept up here. The observations 
 are published in six volumes. 
 
 Clinton Observatory, Observatory of Hamilton College : Founded 
 in 1855. Its principal instrument is a SPENCER refractor of 13| 
 inches aperture. This instrument has in the last thirty years been 
 in the hands of Dr. C. H. F. PETERS, who has discovered no less 
 than forty-two minor planets by its means, and made a series of 
 ecliptic charts of the highest value, besides a long series of sun-spot 
 observations and a catalogue of ecliptic stars. This he has done 
 for the most part without assistance. 
 
 Georgetown Observatory, (D. C.}: Erected 1844. A 6-inch re- 
 fractor and a small meridian circle are available. The observatory 
 is used for instruction only. 
 
 Glasgow Observatory (Missouri] : Founded in 1876. Its instruments 
 are a 12J-inch CLARK refractor and a 6-inch SIMMS meridian circle. 
 Both have been actively used by Professor C. W. PRITCHETT and 
 by his son, Professor H. S. PRITCHETT. 
 
 Hanover Observatory (N. II.) , Observatory of Dartmouth College : 
 Founded in 1853. The instruments are a 9J-inch CLARK equatorial, 
 a 4-inch meridian circle, and spectroscopic apparatus with which 
 Professor C. A. YOUNG has done his work on the sun. 
 
 Madison Observatory, (Wisconsin), Observatory of the University 
 of Wisconsin : Founded by Governor WASHBURN in 1878. The 
 first director was Professor J. C. WATSON, who died in 1880. 
 The principal instruments are a 15|-inch CLARK refractor, with 
 which Mr. S. W. BURNHAM (now astronomer at the Lick Ob- 
 servatory) made many valuable discoveries and measures of double 
 stars ; and a 4.8-inch REPSOLD meridian circle, with which much 
 work was done by the second director (Professor E. S. HOLDEN, 
 now of the Lick Observatory) and the present director (Professor 
 G. C. COMSTOCK), then assistant, and others. The work of 1881- 
 1884 has been printed in four octavo volumes. A fifth volume was 
 printed by Mr. UPDEGRAFF and Miss LAMB, assistants, completing 
 the plan of the first four volumes. An extensive time service is 
 maintained here. A separate student's observatory is attached to 
 the Washburn Observatory, containing a 6-inch CLARK refractor 
 (by means of which Mr. BURNHAM discovered more than 500 double 
 stars) and a 3-inch transit. 
 
 New Haven Observatory, Observatory of Yale College : Founded 
 in 1881. It contains a REPSOLD heliometer of 6 inches aperture, 
 one of the most important instruments of the world ; an 8-inch 
 Grubb refractor and minor instruments. The heliometer is used by 
 Dr. W. L. ELKIN for determining stellar parallaxes. The observa- 
 
116 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 tory extends facilities for testing thermometers and chronometers, 
 and has done much useful work in this direction under Dr. L. 
 WALDO. There are several assistants. This observatory owns a 27- 
 inch flint disc and presumably intends to erect a large refractor at 
 some future time. An extensive time service is kept up. 
 
 New York Observatory: The instruments formerly owned (and 
 partly constructed) by Dr. L. M. RUTHERFURD, have been trans- 
 ferred to Columbia College Observatory (Professor J. K. REES, 
 director.) The chief instrument is a 13-inch refractor, whose 
 objective is corrected for the photographic rays. With this instru- 
 ment Dr. RUTHERFURD made his beautiful photographs of the moon 
 (the best yet made) and many photographs of star clusters, etc., 
 the results of which have not yet been published. 
 
 Norihfield Observatory, University of Carlton College, Minnesota : 
 Erected 1878. Professor W. W. PAYNE is director and the editor of +4 
 the Sidereal Messenger (8vo, monthly). The principal instruments ' 
 are an 8|-inch CLARK refractor and a 4.8-inch REPSOLD meridian 
 circle. An extensive time service is maintained. 
 
 Princeton Observatory, Observatory of Princeton College : The 
 student's observatory (erected 1877) has a 9J-inch refractor by 
 CLARK, a 4-inch meridian circle, etc. The Halstead Observatory 
 has a 23-inch CLARK refractor with a CHRISTIE half prism spectro- ; 
 scope. The director is Professor C. A. YOTTNG ; the principal assis- 
 tant is Mr. McNEiLL. 
 
 Rochester Observatory, (N. Y.) : Erected by H. H. WARNER in 
 1880. The principal instrument is a 16-inch CLARK refractor. 
 Dr. LEWIS SWIFT, the director, is the discoverer of many comets 
 and has lately found many new nebulae. Mr. WARNER regularly 
 offers $100 as a prize for each newly discovered comet. 
 
 University of Virginia: This observatory contains a 26-inch CLARK 
 refractor with which Professor 0. STONE is observing a large list of 
 double stars and nebulae. 
 
 Washington Observatory, U. S. Naval Observatory : The first obser- 
 vations date from 1845. The first staff of observers contained Pro- 
 fessors COFFIN, HUBBARD and WALKER among others. The Wash- 
 ington observations from 1845 to 1848 are equal to any printed at 
 that epoch. The methods followed were the German methods of 
 GAUSS and BESSEL, and one of the greatest services of the Washington 
 Observatory to American astronomy has been to set a high standard 
 of excellence, both in theoretical and practical astronomy. COFFIN, 
 HUBBARD and WALKER are the fathers of American astronomy. 
 The director of the observatory from 1844 to 1861 (M. F. MAURY, 
 U. S. N. ) turned its activity more and more towards hydrography, 
 and as a result produced his excellent Wind and Current Charts. 
 Astronomy languished, however, till his successor, Lieut. J. M. 
 GILLISS, was appointed in 1861. The older astronomers had in the 
 mean time left the observatory and they were succeeded by a new 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 117 
 
 school, of which Professors NEWCOMB and HALL were the chiefs, 
 who have maintained the old standard amid many difficulties, and 
 have even added to it. The instruments at present available are 
 a mural circle of 4 inches aperture, a transit of 5. 3 inches aperture, 
 a PISTOR & MARTINS' meridian circle of 8^ inches aperture, a MERZ 
 refractor of 9.6 inches aperture, a CLARK refractor of 26 inches 
 aperture, besides photoheliographs and many minor instruments. 
 The staff of the observatory consists of from five to eight officers of 
 the navy, four professors of mathematics, three assistant astrono- 
 mers, two or three computors, besides workmen and meteorological 
 observers. Fifteen to twenty persons are thus employed in scientific 
 work. An extensive time service is maintained and time balls are 
 dropped at various places. The observatory at Mare Island Navy 
 Yard is a branch of the Naval Observatory. The observations are 
 annually printed in quarto. The large refractor has been actively 
 employed from 1873, when it was mounted, till now. Professors 
 NEWCOMB, HALL and HOLDEN'S observations of the satellites of 
 Neptune, Uranus and Saturn have fixed the masses of the three outer 
 planets. Professor HALL'S discovery of the satellites of Mars has 
 given him a new determination of the mass of Mars also. Professor 
 HALL has also determined the parallax of several stars with high 
 accuracy, and has measured many difficult double stars. Other 
 miscellaneous work of value has been done with this instrument. 
 The history of the 26 -inch refractor during the past 15 years is a 
 complete answer to the question whether large telescopes have been 
 specially useful to astronomy. It is proposed to move the observa- 
 tory from its present site to one more removed from the smoke and 
 fogs of the city. 
 
 Williams College Observatory : This is the oldest existing observa- 
 tory in America. It was founded in 1836. Under the present 
 director (Professor T. H. SAFFORD) the 4.8-inch REPSOLD meridian 
 circle is actively employed in making a catalogue of polar stars. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 In a recent number of the San Francisco Chronicle Mr. CHARLES 
 B. HILL, assistant astronomer at the Lick Observatory, printed a 
 short account of various public and private observatories in Cali- 
 fornia. I have somewhat abridged this and have made a few addi- 
 tions, and reprint it here with Mr. HILL'S permission. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF OUR LOCAL OBSERVATORIES. 
 
 By C. B. HILL. 
 
 "With so formidable a rival as the most extensive astronomical 
 observatory in the whole world to contend against, there exist, 
 nevertheless, in San Francisco and adjacent towns of this State, 
 many private and public observatories which have their own field 
 of usefulness and demand their proper share of attention. For it 
 must not be imagined that the larger telescopes and observatories 
 
118 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 make all the discoveries, or even do any more than their propor- 
 tionate share of research. The Lick Observatory itself has all its 
 reputation yet to make to justify the expectations formed, and that 
 it will succeed in this, is not doubted. At the same time the 
 astronomical work, upon which, as Professor HOLDEN himself says, 
 "the good name of the observatory entirely depends," is yet barely 
 commenced; while several of the less widely known observatories 
 of this coast to be described in this article have been for some time 
 doing good work, either in the way of study or public instruction. 
 
 It would be but a fair recognition to give the first position in the 
 list to what was doubtless the pioneer institution of California, al- 
 though itself of quite recent construction. 
 
 THE DAVIDSON OBSERVATORY. 
 
 The instrumental outfit here consists of a 6. 4-inch CLARK object- 
 glass, equatorially mounted, which is the private property of Professor ^ 
 GEORGE DAVIDSON of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
 The telescope is placed in a convenient portable observatory, situated 
 within the inclosure at the junction of Clay and Octavia streets, 
 San Francisco, and devoted, by act of the Supervisors, to the use of 
 the Coast and Geodetic Survey as the standard telegraphic longi- 
 tude station of the Pacific coast. The neat picket-fence inclosure 
 bears on the door the legend "United States Coast and Geodetic 
 Survey, Lafayette Park Astronomical and Telegraph Longitude 
 Station, San Francisco, 1880;" and above this a separate sign 
 indicating the "Davidson Observatory." The dome-shaped building 
 contains Professor DAVIDSON'S equatorial, and the other portable 
 observatories protect the time, latitude, gravity and magnetic in- 
 struments belonging to the United States Coast and Geodetic 
 Survey. 
 
 A great deal of fruitful investigation has been carried on by 
 means of this small equatorial. The telescope with its present 
 FAUTH mounting was exhibited by the maker at the Centennial 
 where it obtained a gold medal, and whence it was brought 
 to this city by Professor DAVIDSON. He has had the teles- 
 cope and its mounting, with the portable observatory, at the sum- 
 mit of Santa Lucia mountain (5,960 feet) in Monterey county, 
 where it was taken to observe the total solar eclipse of January 11, 
 1880. The solar eclipses of 1883 and 1886 were observed at the pres- 
 ent location. In 1882 while DAVIDSON was in New Mexico in charge 
 of the United States Transit of Venus party, he gave assistant 
 GILBERT of the Coast Survey the use of his private observatory, and 
 the second of the only two "transits" visible during this century 
 and the next was successfully observed with the DAVIDSON 
 equatorial, and with other smaller telescopes at the same place. 
 Some close investigation of the planet Saturn during the opposi- 
 tion of 1884 85, when the rings were at the widest opening, 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 119 
 
 has been published in the proceedings of the California Academy 
 of Sciences by Professor DAVIDSON. A detailed drawing of Saturn, 
 fifteen inches in diameter, has been for some time in the hands of 
 BRITTON & REY for reproduction by the photogravure process. Be- 
 sides this he has made many drawings of Jupiter and Mars. In 
 addition to this work a large number of observations of star occulta- 
 tions and comet positions have been made and published in the 
 proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society, London, the Sidereal 
 Messenger, Minnesota, and in the bulletins of the California Academy 
 of Sciences. Classes from the High Schools have also been permit- 
 ted to use the observatory. 
 
 THE CHABOT OBSERVATORY. 
 
 In the center of one of the public squares of the city of Oakland 
 stands a neat frame structure which will for many years to come 
 serve as a most fitting monument to the intelligence and public zeal 
 of one of her citizens. The CHABOT Observatory was do- 
 nated to the city of Oakland, to be held in trust by the Board of 
 Education, by the late ANTHONY CHABOT, in the year 1883. It is 
 situated in the middle of Lafayette square, which is bounded by 
 Tenth, Eleventh, Jefferson and Grove streets. 
 
 Its exact geographical position is in latitute 37 deg. 48 min. 5 sec. 
 north ; longitude 122 deg. 16. min. 34.4 sec. west from Greenwich, 
 or, in time, 8 hr. 9 min. 6.3 sec. west from Greenwich ; 3 hr. min. 
 54.2 sec. west from Washington. 
 
 The active existence of the observatory may be said to have com- 
 menced in May, 1886, for although prior to that the then Super- 
 intendent of Schools, J. C. GILSON of Oakland, spent much of his 
 private and official time in the establishment of the observatory, etc., 
 still it was not until the present director, FRED. M. CAMPBELL, took 
 charge of the School Department that assistant astrocomers were 
 appointed and tl e observatory opened to the public on four even- 
 ings of each week. Of the other two nights, each Monday night is 
 reserved to the High School classes and Friday is occupied with 
 observations by the two assistants to correct the clocks which fur- 
 nish the official time to the city of Oakland. 
 
 In a pamphlet published by the Oakland School Department Mr. 
 CAMPBELL has said : 
 
 "It may not have occurred before to those who read this article 
 that in no other city in the world is there an astronomical observ- 
 atory devoted to the public instruction, and more particularly to 
 the public school education ; but this is undoubtedly the case, and 
 the fact would be well appreciated by non-professional students in 
 many other cities in this and transatlantic countries, where the 
 many and magnificently equipped observatories are so closely and 
 entirely devoted to the grand problems of astronomical research 
 that the admission of some private student of the science with no 
 
THE CHABOT OBSERVATORY-OAKLAND, CAL. 
 
 (120) 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 121 
 
 facilities of his own is only acquired as a rare privilege upon stated 
 occasions. Of course, all the great colleges and universities possess 
 attached observatories, hut these are entirely devoted to their 
 special uses, whereas the open sesame of the CHABOT Observatory is 
 a card obtained at the office of the Superintendent of Schools, to 
 receive which are only needed a formal application and a proper 
 appreciation or the privilege." 
 
 The outfit of the CHABOT Observatory consists of an eight-inch 
 equatorial telescope, with circles, driving- clock, spectroscope, mi- 
 crometer, and all necessary accessories; a 4J-inch transit, a 
 sidereal clock, chronometer, mean- time clock, chronograph, and 
 valuable meteorological instruments, all of the most modern and 
 approved construction. There is a small library and a very desir- 
 able collection of maps, photographs and engravings to illustrate 
 different features to the visitors. 
 
 Mr. CAMPBELL has thoroughly succeeded in carrying out the 
 broad ideas of the projector. The institution is decidedly popular, 
 and the available evenings are invariably engaged for over two 
 months in advance. Every day at 12h. of 120th meridian (Pacific 
 standard time) the City Hall bell is struck three times by automatic 
 signal from the CHABOT Observatory; beyond this duty there is very 
 little time for astronomical work. A few observations have been 
 printed in the Sidereal Messenger. 
 
 The assistant astronomers are CHARLES BURCKHALTER of Oak- 
 land and CHARLES B. HILL (now assistant astronomer at the LICK 
 Observatory). The citizens of San Francisco and Oakland and 
 Eastern visitors receive cards of admission in order of application 
 and without favor, and every clear night a party of from eight to 
 twelve persons is shown all the principal and characteristic 
 objects in view at the time and listens to the explanations of 
 the astronomers in charge. 
 
 Mr. CHABOT'S will left a bequest of $10,000 to the observatory. 
 It has not been decided how this shall be spent. Possibly a reflect- 
 ing telescope of 15 inches aperture will be added to the equipment. 
 
 PRIVATE OBSERVATORY OF MR. BURCKHALTER. 
 
 Before becoming attached to the CHABOT observatory Mr. BURCK- 
 HALTER had erected at his own home, on Chester street, West Oak- 
 land, au observatory which is a model of its kind. His equipment 
 consists of a 1 0|-inch reflecting telescope by BRASHEAR of Pittsburg, 
 Pa. This fine instrument, with its outfit of eye-pieces, prisms and 
 spectroscope, is equatorially mounted on a solid brick pier in a com- 
 modious and very convenient building, with revolving dome, etc., 
 and is supplemented by a small transit instrument, with sidereal 
 clock, etc., in an adjoining building. The transit has one and five- 
 eighths inches clear aperture and is also mounted on a brick pier. 
 
 One of the most interesting facts in connection with this observ- 
 
122 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 atory, and the proudest feature about it to the owner, is that all the 
 mechanical work, the masonry and carpentering, and even the del- 
 icate clockwork for the equatorial movement, has been done by Mr. 
 BURCKHALTER himself, in the limited time he has been able to 
 devote to this purpose during an active business life. 
 
 After obtaining the speculum the necessary flat, and the optical 
 arrangements from Mr. BRASHEAR, Mr. BURCKHALTER had the ne- 
 cessary castings made from his own drawings, and completed every 
 detail for the equatorial with his own hands. The mirror is a fine 
 one. Mr. BURCKHALTER'S reflector is a first-class specimen of the 
 maker's skill and in power is equal to, if not slightly greater than, 
 the 8 J -inch refractor of the CHABOT observatory. 
 
 THE BLINN OBSERVATORY. 
 
 The reference to the astronomical establishments of Oakland 
 would be far from complete without mention of the private obser- 
 vatory of F. G. BLINN, at Highland Park, East Oakland. His obser- 
 vatory consists of two adjoining rooms, like Mr. BURCKHALTER'S. 
 The larger room contains a 5-inch CLARK achromatic, equatorially 
 mounted, with circles, slow-motion and an effective battery of eye- 
 pieces. The annexed apartment is for the protection of his If -inch 
 LATIMER-CLARK transit, with a mean-time clock and a sideral clock, . 
 thus giving him very complete and reliable means for determining 
 and keeping his local time for special observations. From his loca- 
 tion there may be obtained on an extraordinarily clear day a first- 
 class view of the three peaks of Mount Hamilton and the Lick 
 observatory. Mr. BLINN is also an effective mechanic, and designed 
 and constructed a great portion of his observatory. He is quite 
 interested in telescopic comets, and rarely fails to examine the 
 latest cometary discoveries of the * 'professional" astronmers. 
 
 THE STUDENTS' OBSERVATORY. 
 
 This is connected with the University of California and is under 
 the direction of Professor FRANK SOULE of the university. The 
 Lick observatory on Mount Hamilton is under the control of the 
 Board of Regents of the University of California, and is styled the 
 "Lick Astronomical Department" of that college ; but, as intended 
 by the donor, its aim is principally that of a great laboratory 
 of astronomical research and study, where graduates of the 
 scientific department may be received for a higher course after 
 completing the elementary astronomical work. This duty of 
 purely scientific investigation is the function of every great 
 observatory attached to the larger colleges, as for example 
 the Harvard College observatory and those of Princeton, Michigan 
 and the University of Virginia, in this country, the Cambridge 
 University and numerous other colleges in Europe. About four 
 years ago, an appropriation of $10,000 was obtained from the 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 123 
 
 Legislature, out of which a "Students' Astronomical Observatory" 
 has been constructed and equipped under Professor SOULE'S care. 
 The following instruments have been purchased : From FAUTH & 
 Co., of Washington, a 6-inch equatorial refractor, with a BYRNE 
 objective, having a cast-iron pier, solar eye-piece, micrometer eye- 
 pieces, driving clock and mountings complete, a spectroscope, with 
 ROWLAND'S gratings ; a DAVIDSON combination transit-and-zenith 
 telescope of three inches aperture, complete; an electro-chronograph ; 
 a first-class sidereal chronometer, with electric break-circuit attach- 
 ment, from NEGUS BROTHERS, of New York; and a first-class astro- 
 nomical clock, from the HOWARD Watch and Clock Company of 
 Boston. To the chronograph and clock are attached the electric 
 connections necessary to determine longitude by the telegraphic 
 method. 
 
 The building is picturesquely situated on a rise a short distance 
 northwest of the main buildings of the university, near rolling 
 ground and surrounded by foliage. There are five rooms, including 
 the equatorial room, transit room, library and office, sleeping-room, 
 and an apartment for the earthquake registers (of which there are 
 three), known as the seismograph house. 
 
 This observatory affords opportunity for practical application of 
 the principles of geodesy as taught in the class-room, and enables 
 students in engineering to acquire facility in the astronomical de- 
 termination of time, latitude, longitude, etc., as required in ex- 
 tended surveys, navigation and practical astronomy. 
 
 The equatorial and the spectroscope furnish means for prosecut- 
 ing studies in solar physics and similar fields of investigation. One 
 room in the observatory is provided with a set of meteorological 
 instruments, comprising maximum and minimum thermometers, 
 two of GREEN'S barometers, a DRAPER thermograph, hygrometer, 
 anemometer, etc., and observations are regularly taken, recorded 
 and forwarded to the United States Signal Service Office in San 
 Francisco. 
 
 OBSERVATORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE PACIFIC. 
 
 The above-named college, situated in San Jose, has lately, 
 through the liberality of Captain CHARLES GOODALL, of San Fran- 
 cisco and DAVID JACKS, Esq., of Monterey, been well equipped with 
 a small telescope and working observatory. The outfit, for which 
 these two gentlemen each subscribed equally, comprises a 6-inch 
 CLARK equatorial, a 3-inch DAVIDSON meridian instrument, manu- 
 factured by FAUTH & Co. , and a sidereal chronometer ; all properly 
 mounted and protected by a neat and practical observatory build- 
 ing, with dome for the large telescope in the center, and the 
 reception-room and transit-room on either side. Rev. Dr. A. C. 
 HIRST is president of this college and Professor T. C. GEORGE has 
 c large of the observatory and the science department. 
 
124 THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 
 
 MILLS COLLEGE OBSERVATORY. 
 
 Still another educational institution of California is provided 
 with facilities for the study of astronomy. The observatory 
 building is finished but it is not yet completely equipped. A 
 good 5-inch telescope has been mounted in the dome, and before 
 long it is expected to have a transit and other accessories of a 
 working observatory. 
 
 From the foregoing it is seen that, including the Lick Observa- 
 tory, there are eight astronomical observatories in this State, the 
 seven smaller ones being all located in the cities and towns on 
 either side of San Francisco bay. These, with location, aperture 
 of principal telescopes and the geographical positions, are enum- 
 erated in the following table : 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 Lick Observatory of the University of California, Mount Hamil- 
 ton Three telescopes, 36-inch, 12-inch and 6-inch ; all refracting. 
 Position, 37 deg. 20. min. 24 sec. north latitude ; 121 deg. 38 min. 
 35 sec. west longitude. 
 
 Chabot Observatory, Oakland Telescope, 8^-inch ; refracting. 
 Position, 37 deg. 48 min. 5 sec. north latitude ; 122 deg. 16 min. 34 
 sec. west longitude. 
 
 Davidson Observatory, San Francisco Telescope, 6|-inch ; re- 
 fracting. Position, 37 cleg. 47 min. 24 sec. north latitude ; 122 deg. 
 25 min. 40 sec. west longitude. 
 
 Burckhalter Observatory, Oakland Telescope, 10|inch ; refract- 
 ing. Position, 37 deg. 48 min. 22 sec. north latitude ; 122 deg. 17 
 min. 37 sec. west longitude. 
 
 Blinn Observatory, Oakland Telescope, 5-inch ; refracting. Po- 
 sition, 37 deg. 47 min. 37 sec. north latitude ; 122 deg. 14 min. 7 
 sec. west longitude. 
 
 Students' Observatory of the University of California, Berkeley 
 Telescope, 6-inch ; refracting. Position, 37 deg. 52 min. 21 sec. 
 north latitude ; 122 deg. 15 min. 37 sec. west longitude. 
 
 University of the Pacific, San Jose Telescope, 6-inch ; refracting. 
 Position, undetermined, 
 
 Mills College, Brooklyn Telescope, 5-inch ; refracting. Position, 
 37 cleg. 46 min. 44 sec. north latitude ; 122 deg. 10 min. 50 sec. west 
 longitude. 
 
 Elevation above the sea Lick, 4,209 feet; Davidson, 373 feet; 
 University, 320 feet, and Blinn's 159 feet. 
 
 To these should be added the observatory at Mare Island Navy 
 Yard, where the time is daily determined and from which the time 
 ball on Telegraph Hill is dropped by an automatic signal. 
 
 Besides the more pretentious establishments there are several fair 
 or average astronomical glasses in the possession of gentlemen 
 
THE PRINCIPAL OBSERVATORIES OF THE WORLD. 125 
 
 interested in the science, some of excellent power and definition. 
 Captain CHARLES GOODALL, on McAllister street, in San Francisco, 
 has an excellent CLARK achromatic, of 5 inches aperture, Dr. 
 J. H. WYTHE, of Oakland, has an 8^-inch BRASHEAR reflector 
 and Dr. JAMES MURPHY, of San Francisco, a fine 4-inch achromatic ; 
 St. Matthew's Hall College, San Mateo county, Cal., has anS^-inch 
 BRASHEAR mirror permanently mounted, with observatory building, 
 etc., but without transit instrument; Santa Clara College is pro- 
 vided with a suitable telescope, as is also the Boys' High School, of 
 San Francisco. The last-mentioned instrument, of 3^ inches aper- 
 ture, was used by the present writer, through the kind permission 
 of the proper authorities, to observe the transit of Venus in 1882. 
 It is reported that Principal REID 'sBelmont school will, before long, 
 be provided with a telescope and accompanying observatory. The 
 Raymond Hotel, Pasadena, has a 4 inch CLARK telescope. 
 
 Any interesting occurrence taking place in the heavens is watched, 
 say at Greenwich, until daybreak puts an end to the observation. 
 Farther west day has not yet commenced, and study of the occur- 
 rence may be continued until, say at Washington, five hours' 
 additional time has been gained ; and so on, still farther 
 west, three hours more to San Francisco, and then the Pacific ocean 
 intervenes, and nothing can be done until the great observatories 
 of Adelaide and Melbourne can commence observations, six and one 
 half hours of longitude having been lost in the mean time. It is 
 plain, therefore, that for several hours on each night this object, 
 whatever it may be, will be in view of the Calif oinia observatories 
 when no other telescopes in the world will be available for the 
 examination required. " 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
o 
 
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 Street, 
 
 FOR SALE BY 
 
 H. A. MATHEWS, 
 331 BJ:ontgom.ery JStreet* 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 
 
 AND BY 
 
 D. ALLISON 
 
 SAN JOSE, 
 
 W. 
 
 ^^This Book is illustrated mainly from H. E, Mathews' Views 
 1-1-90 
 
 W 
 
 -2 
 D 
 
 Ol 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 W 
 
 * 
 
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 to 
 
 3 
 
 v 
 
 
 
 Hand-Book of the Lick Observatory is issued from 
 the Press of 
 
 3D t^p art in cut 
 
 STREET 
 
 Where a specialty is made of HIGH ART PRINTING from 
 New Type and by Skilled Workmen. 
 
 Customers waited on either at the Printing Office as above 
 or at the Store 
 
 721 mfl^KET STREET 
 
INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Achromatic Telescopes 70 
 
 Act of Congress granting Site 24 
 
 Aquarius 19 
 
 Astronomers of the Lick Observatory 4 
 
 Astronomers' Work 59, 98 
 
 Astronomical Instruments (description of) 41 
 
 Astronomical Photography 63,81 et seq. 
 
 Astro-physics....^ 81 
 
 AUWERS (A) 46- 
 
 BARNARD (E. E.) 4 
 
 Barometer (view of) 57 
 
 BOND (G. P.) 85, 86, 114 
 
 BOND (W. C.) 86, 114 
 
 Boss(L.) 113 
 
 BRASHEAR (J. A.) 48 
 
 BRUENNOW (F.) 113 
 
 Buildings (plan of) 32 
 
 " (description of) 33 
 
 BULL (Professor S.) 33 
 
 BURNHAM (S. W.) 4, 23, 26, 62, 114, 115 
 
 California Time-Service 101 
 
 Canon Negro 19 
 
 Catalogues of Stars 61 
 
 CHAUVENET (W.) 113 
 
 Chronographs 48 
 
 (view of) 51 
 
 CLARK(ALVAN) ..41, 44, 72, 78, 114 
 
 Clocks 46 
 
 Clocks and Time-Keeping 97 
 
 Clock of Lick Observatory (view of) 96, see also 100 
 
 COFFIN (J. H. C.) 116 
 
 Comet-seeker..... 44 
 
 COMMON'S five-foot reflector 70, 89 
 
 COMMON'S photographs of nebulae, etc 87, 89 
 
 COMSTOCK (G. C.)..... 36, 115 
 
 Congress grants the site 24 
 
 Congress of Astronomers 91 
 
 (127) 
 
128 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 DAVIDSON (Professor GEORGE) 13, 24, 118 
 
 DE LA RUE (W.)..., 85, 86 
 
 DENT (E.) 46, 100 
 
 DICKIE (Mr.) 33 
 
 Dome (75-foot) 33 
 
 " (25-foot) 34 
 
 Double Stars 27 
 
 DRAPER (D.) Barometer 57 
 
 " Rain-Gauge 58 
 
 " (H.) 24, 42, 85, 114 
 
 " (J. W.) 85 
 
 Fund of Harvard College Observatory 88 
 
 DRAPER'S photographs of nebulae 87 
 
 Dress (for a visit to Mt. Hamilton) 6 
 
 DREYER (J. L. E.) 105 
 
 Drive from San Jose to Mt. Hamilton 17 
 
 Driving Clocks 44 
 
 Dwelling-Houses 37 
 
 Earthquake Instruments 54 
 
 (views of) 53, 55 
 
 Elevations above San Jose 17, 18,19 
 
 Elevating Floor 34 
 
 ELKIN (W. L.) 115 
 
 Endowment Fund Needed 64 
 
 Equatorial (6-inch) 44 
 
 (view of) 45 
 
 (12-inch) view of, etc 42, 43 
 
 (36-inch) see Great Telescope 
 
 ESPIN'S star-maps 88 
 
 Exposure of astronomical photographs 91 
 
 FAUTH & Co 46, 48 
 
 FEIL (On.) 41 
 
 FLOYD (R. S.) 13, 14, 25, 31, 36, 44, 56 
 
 Foreign A stronomers to visit the Lick Observatory 95 
 
 FRASER (T. E.) 13, 25, 31, 36 
 
 FRODSIIAM (C.) 46 
 
 GALILEO'S discoveries 67 
 
 GEORGE (T. C.) 123 
 
 GILL'S Southern star-maps 88, 89 
 
 GiLLiss(J. M.) 116 
 
 GOULD (B. A.) 87, 113 
 
 GOULD'S photographs 87 
 
 Great Telescope (view of) Frontispiece 
 
 41 
 
 GRUBB (Sir H.) 24, 34, 37, 48 
 
INDEX 129 
 
 Page 
 
 HALL (A.) 117 
 
 Hall's Valley 17 
 
 HARKNESS (W.) 48, 85 
 
 HARKORT(C.) 4 
 
 HARRINGTON (M. W.) 113 
 
 Harvard College Observatory 42, 83, 86 
 
 Harvard College Observatory photographs 88 
 
 Heliostat (view of) 38 
 
 HENRY (PAUL and PROSPER) photographs at Paris 90 
 
 HILL (C. B.) 4, 117 
 
 HoHWU(A.) 46 
 
 HOLDEN (E. S.) 4, 25, 31, 48, 115, 117 
 
 Hotels in San Jose 5 
 
 HOUGH (G. W.) 113,114 
 
 HOWARD (E.) 48, 96 
 
 HUBBARD (J. S.) : 116 
 
 Hunting on the Reservation 6 
 
 International Photographic Congress 91 
 
 JANSSEN(J.) 85 
 
 JARBOE (J. R.) 33 
 
 KEELER (J. E.) 4, 26, 48 
 
 KRUEGER(A.) 46 
 
 LAMB (A.) 115 
 
 LANGLEY (S. P.) 48, 113 
 
 Large Dome 33 
 
 Large Telescopes 72, 73 
 
 Library 48, 65 
 
 Library-Fund (needed) 65 
 
 LICK (JAMES) portrait of 10 
 
 life of 11 
 
 LICK (JAMES) 78 
 
 Burial at Mt. Hamilton 13 
 
 Character 12 
 
 Deed of Trust 11 
 
 Gifts to California 11 
 
 Lick Observatory (costof) 64 
 
 (history of) 24 
 
 (Long, and Lat.) 26 
 
 -(map of reservation) 23 
 
 (open to distinguished men of science) 95 
 
 (publications) 64 
 
 (36-inch prism needed) 88 
 
 (view of buildings) 20, 21 
 
 (view of) 35, 40, 80 
 
 Lick Trustees 14, 25, 56 
 
130 INDEX 
 
 Livery Stables in San Jos 5 
 
 LOHSE'S photographs 90 
 
 Lord BOSSE'S Telescope 69 
 
 MASTICK (E. B.) 14 
 
 MCDONALD (J.) 4 
 
 McGuiKE(C.) 4 
 
 Me NEILL (M.) 116 
 
 MAURY (M. F.) 116 
 
 Melbourne reflector 85 
 
 Meridian-Circle House 36 
 
 Meridian-Circle 46 
 
 " (view of) 47 
 
 " observations 60 
 
 Meteorological Instruments 54 
 
 MILLS (D. O.) 24, 25 
 
 MITCHEL (O. M.) 113, 114 
 
 Moon (how near it can be brought) 73 
 
 Moon-photographs 85 
 
 Mt. Choual 17 
 
 Mt. Copernicus 19 
 
 Mt. Day 19 
 
 Mt. Diablo 19 
 
 Mt. Galileo 19 
 
 Mt. Hamilton 18 
 
 Mt. Hipparchus 19 
 
 Mt. Huyghens 19 
 
 Mt. Kepler 19 
 
 (Lassen's Butte) 19 
 
 Mt. Lewis . 19 
 
 Loma Prieta 17 
 
 Mt. Mariposa 19 
 
 (Murphy's Peak) 19 
 
 Mt. Oso 19 
 
 (Pacheco Peaks) 19 
 
 Mt. Ptolemy 18 
 
 Mt. Santa Ana 19 
 
 Mt. Santa Isabel 19 
 
 Mt. Story 19 
 
 M;t. Tamalpais 19 
 
 Mt. Thayer 17 
 
 Mt. Toro 19 
 
 Mt. Tycho-Brahe 37 
 
 NEWCOMB (S.) 23, 25, 31, 117 
 
 Observations at Mt. Hamilton 27, 29 
 
INDEX 131 
 
 Page 
 OBSERVATORIES : 
 
 Albany 113 
 
 Allegheny 113 
 
 Amherst 113 
 
 Annapolis 113 
 
 Ann Arbor 113 
 
 Armagh 107 
 
 Athens .. 110 
 
 Berlin 108 
 
 Berne -,. 110 
 
 Birr Castle 107 
 
 Blinn Observatory 122 
 
 Bonn 108 
 
 Bordeaux 108 
 
 Bothkamp 109 
 
 Brussels. Ill 
 
 Burckhalter Observatory 121 
 
 Cadiz \ 110 
 
 California Observatories 117 
 
 Cambridge (Eng.) 106 
 
 Cambridge (Mass.) 114 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 112 
 
 Catania 110 
 
 Chabot Observatory 119 
 
 Chicago. 114 
 
 Christiania Ill 
 
 Cincinnati 114 
 
 Clinton 115 
 
 Coimbra 110 
 
 Columbia College 116 
 
 Copenhagen Ill 
 
 Cordoba 112 
 
 Davidson Observatory 118 
 
 Dorpat Ill 
 
 Dresden 109 
 
 Dublin 107 
 
 DunEcht 107 
 
 Ealing , 107 
 
 Edinburg 107 
 
 Gateshead 107 
 
 Geneva 109 
 
 Georgetown 115 
 
 Glasgow 107 
 
 Glasgow (Mo.) 115 
 
 Gotha 10U 
 
132 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 OBSERVATORIES : Continued. 
 
 Gottingen 109 
 
 Greenwich 106 
 
 Halstead 116 
 
 Hamburg 109 
 
 Hanover 115 
 
 Harvard College 114 
 
 Helsingfors Ill 
 
 Hreny 109 
 
 Kalocsa 109 
 
 Karlsruhe 109 
 
 Kazan Ill 
 
 Kew 107 
 
 Kieff Ill 
 
 Kiel 109 
 
 Koenigsberg 109 
 
 Leipzig 109 
 
 Leyden Ill 
 
 Lisbon 110 
 
 Liverpool 107 
 
 Lund Ill 
 
 Lyons 108 
 
 Madison 115 
 
 Madras 112 
 
 Madrid HO 
 
 Marseilles 108 
 
 Melbourne 113 
 
 Meudon 108 
 
 Milan 110 
 
 Mills College Observatory 124 
 
 Moscow Ill 
 
 Mt. Etna 110 
 
 Munich 109 
 
 Naples 110 
 
 Naval Observatory (U. S.) 116 
 
 Neuchdtel - 110 
 
 New Haven 115 
 
 New York 116 
 
 Nice 108 
 
 Northfield 116 
 
 O'Gyalla 109 
 
 Oxford 106 
 
 Palermo 110 
 
 Paris 108 
 
 Pola 109 
 
 Potsdam 109 
 
INDEX 133 
 
 Page 
 OBSERVATORIES Continued. 
 
 Princeton ' 116 
 
 Pulkowa 110 
 
 Radcliffe 106 
 
 Rio Janeiro 112 
 
 Rochester 116 
 
 Rome 110 
 
 Santiago 112 
 
 Savilian.... 106 
 
 Stockholm Ill 
 
 Strasburg 109 
 
 Sydney 112 
 
 Tacubaya 112 
 
 Toulouse 108 
 
 University of California 122 
 
 University of Michigan 113 
 
 University of the Pacific 123 
 
 University of Virginia 116 
 
 University of Wisconsin 115 
 
 Upsala Ill 
 
 Vienna 109 
 
 Warsaw Ill 
 
 Washburn 115 
 
 Washington 116 
 
 Williams College 117 
 
 Wilna Ill 
 
 Yale College 115 
 
 Zurich 110 
 
 Officers of the Lick Observatory 4 
 
 Paris Observatory photographs 90 
 
 PAYNE (W. W.) 1 6 
 
 PETERS (C. H. F.) 115 
 
 Photogra phic Laboratory 37 
 
 Photographic Star-maps (proposed) 91 
 
 Photographic Telescopes 74 
 
 Photographic Telescopes of Dr. RUTHERFURD 85 
 
 of Dr. GOULD 87 
 
 of Dr. DRAPER 35,87 
 
 of Harvard College Observatory.. 86 
 
 of Paris Observatory 90 
 
 of Lick Observatory 94 
 
 Photographs of Mt. Hamilton 6 
 
 Photography (advantages of) ( .)3, 94 
 
 Photography at Harvard College Observatory 88 
 
 Photography at Paris Observatory 90 
 
 Photography see Astronomical Photography 
 
134 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Photoheliograph 44 
 
 '* (view of) 38 
 
 Photometry 82 
 
 PICKERING (E. C.) .....86,114 
 
 Plan of Buildings 32 
 
 PLUM (C. M.) 14 
 
 Powerof Telescopes 73 
 
 PRITCHETT (C. W.) and (H. S.) 115 
 
 Publication-Fund (needed) 65 
 
 Publications of Lick Observatory 64 
 
 PublicClocks , 103 
 
 Public Nights at Lick Observatory 7 
 
 Railway Time Service 99 
 
 Rain-Gauge (view of) 58 
 
 REES (J. K.) 116 
 
 Reflecting Telescopes 69, 71 
 
 Reflectors and Refractors 69, 71 
 
 Regents of the University 4 
 
 REPSOLDS... 46, 48 
 
 Reservoirs 39 
 
 Road to Mt. Hamilton (view of) 16 
 
 ROBERTS' Star-Maps 88, 89 
 
 ROGERS (W. A.) 48, 114 
 
 RUTHERFURD (L. M.) 84, 85, 116 
 
 RUTHERFURD'S Photographs 87 
 
 SAFFORD (T. H.) 117 
 
 San Anton Valley 19 
 
 San Jose Time-Service 101 
 
 San Francisco Time-Balls 103 
 
 San Francisco Time-Service 101 
 
 Santa Clara County Builds the Road 25 
 
 SCHAEBERLE (J. M.) 4,113 
 
 SCHONWALD (G.) 14 
 
 Seismometers 54 
 
 Shooting on the Reservation 6 
 
 Smith Creek Hotel 5, 18 
 
 Solar-eclipse photographs 86 
 
 Solar-spectrum photographs -. 86 
 
 SOULE (F.) 122 
 
 Special Fund needed 65 
 
 Spectra of the Sun, Stars, Comets, etc 51, 52 
 
 Spectroscopes 48 
 
 Spectroscopic observations 63 
 
 Spectrum Analysis 82 
 
 STACKPOLE & Bro 48 
 
OF THE 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 Stage Lines .................................... ............................ 5 
 
 Standard Clock (view oi) ............................................. 96 
 
 Standard Time ............................................................ 97, 98 
 
 Star-Maps by Photography ........................................... 83 
 
 Star-Positions by Photography ...................................... 84 
 
 Stars (motion in line of. sight) ....................................... 52 
 
 STONE (0.) ............................................................... 115, 116 
 
 Sun (photographs of) .................................................. 85 
 
 SWIFT (L.) .................................................................. 116 
 
 Table oi Contents ........................................................ 3 
 
 Telephone Line to Mt. Hamilton ................. ................ 5 
 
 Telephone Time-Service ............................................... 101 
 
 Telescopes (history oi) ................................................. 67 
 
 Temperature at Mt. Hamilton ....................................... 27 
 
 Thirty-Six inch Telescope .......................... see Great Telescope 
 
 Time-Balls ........ ......................................................... 99, 103 
 
 Time (how determined) ............................................... 99 
 
 Time-Service of the Lick Observatory ............................ 99 
 
 Time-Signals (how sent) .............................................. 100 
 
 TODD(D. P.) .............................................................. 44,113 
 
 Transit-House ............................................................ 36 
 
 Transit Instrument ..................................................... 46 
 
 (view of) ......................................... 49 
 
 Transit of Venus photograph s ....................................... 86 
 
 TROUVELOT Drawings ................................................... 33 
 
 Universal Instrument ................................................. 46 
 
 UPDEGRAFF (M.) ......................................................... 115 
 
 Visiting Astronomers .................................................. 95 
 
 Visitors (a caution to) .................................................. 9 
 
 Visitors' Hours at Lick Observatory .............................. 6, 7 
 
 Visitors (information for) ............................................. 5 
 
 Visitors' Room ............................................................ 8 
 
 WALDO (L.) ................................................................ 116 
 
 WALKER (S. C.) .......................................................... 116 
 
 WARNER & SWASEY .................................................. 36, 44, 48 
 
 Water-Supply ............................................................ 39 
 
 WATSON (J. C.) ......................................................... 113, 115 
 
 Weather atMt. Hamilton ............................................. 27, 30 
 
 WINLOCK (J. C.) ......................................................... 114 
 
 Work of an Observatory ............................................... 59 
 
 Work of Astronomers.." ................................................ 98 
 
 YOUNG (C. A.) ........................................... 24, 48, 54, 115, 116 
 
BEACfi, 
 
 Sf. JA^^ iMf, S^n Jojse, 
 
 HEADQUARTERS FDR EASTER^ TOURISTS 
 
 
 This house has just been enlarged to more than double its 
 former size, and re-furnished with all modern improvements. 
 Kggs, Milk and Butter fresh daily from ranch of the proprietor 
 
 OFFICE OF MT. HAMILTON STAGE COMPANY 
 
 Where magnificent four-horse coaches leave the ST. JAMKS 
 HoTKiy every morning for the Lick Observatory, over the finest 
 road and through the most magnificent mountain scenery in the 
 world to an elevation of nearly 5,000 feet. A full description of 
 which can be found in this Guide Book. 
 
 Write or telegraph to the ST. JAMKS HoTKi, for rooms and 
 reserved seats in Mt. Hamilton Stage Company's coach. 
 
 Hotel Rates, $2 to $2.50 per day 
 
f S CIIADBOURNE A. H. BOOMER S. S. BRASTOW 
 
 President Vice- President Treasurer 
 
 U. S. MAIL LINE 
 
 San Jose to 
 
 OQognt Hamilton 
 
 ELEGANT SIX-HORSE OBSERVATION COACHES 
 
 CAREFUL DRIVERS * * * QUICK TIME 
 
 MOUNTAIN SCENERY UNSURPASSED 
 
 * 
 
 Intending Visitors should purchase Round Trip Tickets at 
 
 S. p. Office, (Jrapd JHot<?l 
 
 S. p. Offie<?, Baldu/ii? Jtotel 
 
 S. p. Tkk et Office, 4^7 T ou >95 ei ?d 
 
 SAP^ FItAlVCISCO 
 
 at the office of the Company, at Wells, Fargo & Co. 
 
 Street, San Jose 
 
NEW-HOME 
 
 THE BRIGHTEST STAR 
 
 In the Firmament, 
 can be seen all day long 
 
 With the Naked Eye 
 
 725 
 
 Market Street 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 
 
 BANCROFT HISTOR Y BUILDING 
 (Cars to the door from all R. R. Depots) 
 
 The Popular 
 
 New Home 
 
 Sewing Machine 
 
 We have recently moved into our elegant New Home, at 
 the above address. 
 
 Call any time at our New Home, and make yourself 
 completely at home. Our * 'NEW HOME" is for universal 
 home use you must have a New Home at your home, it makes 
 home a happy home; all the people admire New Homes. 
 Try the New Home and you will buy only the New Home. 
 Yours truly, always at home, 
 
 The New Home Sewing Machine Company 
 
 CHAS. E. NAYLOR, Gen'l Manager 
 
TURKISH, RUSSIAN, ELECTRIC AND 
 
 (Dedicated 
 
 BATH HOUSE 
 
 IN CALIFORNIA 
 
 KOR. MAI^BS AND 
 
 Dr. Loryeas* New Hammam 
 
 tfr"*--*-* S>^-'-^^-H-< "^ ^ $ ^ 
 
 218 POST STREET 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 OPEN DAY AND NIGHT 
 
 Best attendants and appliances and patronized 
 by the Elite. 
 
 Sii?c3le Ball?, '$1.00 Six TKK et S $5*oa 
 
HOW TO REACH THE 
 
 CK OBSERVATORY 
 
 FROM SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 TAKE THE CARS OF 
 
 SouTsenn PACIFIC 
 
 DIVISION) 
 
 ROUXP TRIP TICKHXS (Including Stage) 
 
 Townsend Street Depot or Valencia Street Station, S. F. 
 
 SPHCIAU NOTICE 
 
 The mount Hamilton Stage Co. runs from SAN JOSE, CAL., first-class 
 Coaches in charge of attentive and experienced drivers, to 
 
 ^ LICK OBSERVATORY <pv^ 
 
 lyeaving their office, No. 55 North First Street, DAILY, at 7.30 A. M. 
 
 Returning, arrive same day in time to connect with the p. M. trains for 
 San Francisco and Monterey. 
 
 Open coaches, with sun-shades, insure comfort and afford opportunities 
 for viewing the beautiful scenery. The time at the summit of the mountain 
 is from two to three hours, and by special arrangement passengers will 
 receive attention and admission to the finest observatory in the world. 
 
 Passengers called for at all the principal hotels. 
 
 TIOU-CTQ^ Can be obtained at any of the S. P. Co's Ticket 
 I lUKt I V\ Offices in San Francisco. 
 
TOURISTS ! 
 
 in 1 1 in I'linii in 1 1 1 ii 
 
 
 WILL BE CALLED FOR AND DELIVERED BY 
 
 PRINCIPAL OFFICE: 
 
 . .66 
 
 Thirteenth Street, between Folsom and Howard 
 
 All ordinary Mending, Sewing on of Buttons, etc., free of Charge. 
 Orders may be left at Offices or Laundry, or a Postal card, 
 will receive prompt attention. 
 
 REDUCE!) PRICES 
 
 Shirts, without collars lOc. each 
 
 Nightshirts lOc. 
 
 Undershirts lOc. 
 
 Drawers lOc. 
 
 Vests and Coats 15c. 
 
 Plain Chemise lOc. 
 
 " Night Dresses 15c. 
 
 11 Skirts 15c. 
 
 ' Dresses 25c. 
 
 BedSpreads 10to25c. 
 
 Table Cloths [ordinarysizej-lOc. 
 
 Sheet 50c. per doz. or 5c. 
 
 Pillow Slips, 
 
 Starched..50c. " 5c. 
 
 Pillow Slips, not Starched f 
 
 Towels At the 
 
 Handkerchiefs J rate of 
 
 Napkins f 25c. 
 
 Hose per doz. 
 
 Collars I 
 
 Cape Collars 35c. per doz. 
 
 Cuffs 50c. per doz. or 5c. per pair 
 
 Blankets 50c. per pair 
 
 Children's plain starched 
 
 gieces $1 per doz. 
 Iren's plain pieces, not 
 starched 50c. per doz. or 5c. each 
 SINGLE SMALL PIECES, 5c. " 
 
 THESE PRICES apply only to plain pieces. Goods requiring extra 
 time and labor will be charged accordingly. 
 
 Open from 7 A. M. to 9 P. M. Saturdays, 10 P. M. 
 

 Office: <;or. ist ai?d /TVssioi? U/orl^s: potn?ro 
 
 Op 
 
 tat Donje and Elevating FIooi 1 
 
 FOR THE LICK OBSERVATORY 
 
 ONLY IRON * STEEL SHIP BUILDERS 
 
 ON THE PACIFIC COAST 
 
 ]>1OGU BO 111 DI HO FOR THE U. S. flHVY 
 
 The Cruisers "Charleston" and "San Francisco" 
 
 HYDRAULIC DRY DOCK 
 
 45 O Keet Long 66 Keet "Wide 
 
 DESIONKRS AND BUILDERS 
 
 OF ALL- DESCRIPTIONS OF 
 
 UOF THE 
 NIVERSITY 
 
TOURISTS ! 
 
 R glance at the following list mill shoca 
 that all PliERSU^H and TOURIST RESORTS 
 of importance in California are located di>* 
 feetly on the lines of the 
 
 acific oiripaiiy 
 
 Yosemite Valley; Tahoe and Donner Lakes; The Geysers; 
 
 Big Trees; Mts. Shasta, Hamilton and Diablo; McCloud 
 
 and Pitt Rivers ; Napa Soda, Paraiso, ^Etna and 
 
 Paso Robles Springs; Monterey, Hotel del 
 
 Monte, Pacific Grove, Santa Cruz, 
 
 Santa Barbara, Long Beach, 
 
 Santa Monica, Los An- 
 
 geles, Sierra Madre 
 
 Villa, Riverside, 
 
 San Jose, 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Excursions a*e imn duping Toutnst Season to 
 prominent points at Special Reduced Rates. 
 
 Pullman Palace Sleeping Cars and Elegant Passenger 
 Coaches. 
 
 I>AII.V KXPRHSS TRAILS 
 
 THROUGH AND LOCAL TICKET OFFICES I 
 
 613 MARKET STREET B13 
 
 OAKLAND FERRY and BALDWIN HOTEL ROTUNDA 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
THE BANCROFT COMPANY 
 
 T-T TQ^T A r^T*>"V T~T TT T T^TTVIT^ 
 l~lC> JL LJiX. Y JtD O lJ_y LJ L IN, VJT 
 
 721 MARKET STREET -i- SAN FRANGISGQ 
 
 PIANO DEPARTMENT 
 
 A. M. BENHAM, Manager 
 
 Pacific Coast Agents for the following First-class Instruments 
 
 ( HENRY F, MILLER & SONS 
 
 The First Choice of the Great Pianists 
 
 BEHNING & SON 
 
 Endorsed by Eminent Musicians of this and other 
 Countries 
 
 STULTZ & BAUER 
 
 Beautiful in Tone and Action, and Durable 
 
 . KURTZMANN & GO. 
 
 t_ Elegant Cases, Medium Price, Fully Warranted 
 
 STANDARD REED PIPE 1 
 
 Guaranteed to Produce the Tone and Effect of Pipe 
 Organs of double the price 
 
 FARRAND & YOTEY 
 
 Contain more Improvements than any other Reed 
 Instrument 
 
 WILGOX & WHITE 
 
 Largest Capital, Largest Factory, Greatest Variety 
 
 of Styles j 
 
 Our Prices are the lowest consistent with quality and durability; our terms 
 
 the most liberal; our assortment the largest, and the established 
 
 reputation of the house makes our guarantee an 
 
 absolute protection to customers 
 
 SAN JOSE BRANCH, 40 WEST SANTA GLARA ST. 
 
 In Charge of MRS. I*. A. RODERICK 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 LOAN DEPT. 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 7AprS - 
 
 
 
 
 REC'D L 
 
 D 
 
 -OiJ- 
 
 MJG 1 8 
 
 
 v ft wfe i 
 
 91QO/ 
 -. - ^^ 
 
 LD 21A-50m-3,'62 
 (C7097slO)476B 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of California 
 
 Berkeley 
 
17124