UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CIRCULAR 302 January, 1926 THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 1 R. L. ADAMS Fig. 1. — The largest sugar beet factory in the United States, that of the Spreckels Sugar' Company, located in Monterey County. Capacity 4200 tons of beets every 24 hours. Built in 1898. Salinas River in foreground. BISE OF THE SUGAR BEET INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA The sugar beet industry in California has been commercially important for more than half a century. Beet raising for sugar making purposes began in 1870 with the erection and successful operation of a factory at Alvarado in Alameda County. The initial run of this plant marked the first successful commercial venture in extracting sugar from beets in the United States, although other attempts, all unsuccessful, had been previously made in other localities. By 1900 the sugar beet acreage in California had increased to a total of 41,242 acres and produced a crop valued at about $1,500,000. Ten years later the acreage had again increased to nearly double (78,957 acres), while the product had practically trebled ($4,320,532). This increase in income was largely due to higher yields per acre. 2 i Rewritten and revised to take the place of College of Agriculture Circular 165, published May 1917. 2 Figures from United States Department of Agriculture Yearbooks. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION PRESENT STATUS OF THE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA Since 1921 the sugar beet business has declined in California. The reasons for decreasing acreage are several. Perhaps the most out- standing is the limitations set by a small leaf hopper (Eutettix tenella Baker) which causes the so-called "sugar beet blight," a description of which is included under "Beet Troubles. " Competition with other crops which can be grown on lands best suited to sugar beet culture has had its effect. In the lower Salinas Valley, lettuce, artichokes, peas and other truck crops are being planted on lands formerly used for sugar beets. In the Watsonville district, apple orchards and berry plantations now occupy the land once utilized for beets. In Alameda County, truck crops and orchards vie with sugar beets for the use of the land. In southern California, territory formerly in beets has been taken over for suburban resi- dences, for truck gardens, for citrus and walnut orchards, and in a few instances for outfits drilling for oil. At times scarcity of sufficient labor to do the necessary hand work of thinning, hoeing, pulling, topping and loading has had its effect. Occasionally high prices tem- porarily obtainable for competing crops have caused a swing from beets to some other annual crop. Damage by nematodes has caused some loss of acreage. The following table rather strikingly shows what has happened to the sugar beet industry during the past twelve years : TABLE 1 Sugar Beet Acreages and Sugar Manufactured in California Year r Number of factories in operation Acreage harvested (acres) Beets worked (tons) Sugar made (tons) Average length of run (days) 1913 12 10 11 11 14 13 10 10 9 7 6 8 127,610 104,000 122,737 141,097 161,909 100,684 107,000 123,000 121,000 57,000 61,000 84,000 1,138,003 1,082,000 1,249,111 1,462,895 1,321,716 845,728 805,000 1,052,000 1,040,000 424,000 579,000 783,000 171,208 169,004 195,393 236,322 209,325 122,795 131,000 168,000 171,000 73,000 100,000 131,000 99 1914 97 1915 97 1916 108 1917 92 1918 81 1919 76 1920 90 1921... 84 1922 74 1923 88 1924 77 Figures from United States Department of Agriculture Yearbooks. Circ. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA BEET GKOWING AEEAS OF CALIFORNIA, 1925 Sugar beets are grown commercially in three general areas of California. The general boundaries of these three areas are indicated on the accompanying sketch map (fig. 2). Fig. 2. — Sketch map showing principal beet growing areas of California, and locations of factories (as of July 1, 1925). Key numbers refer to factories as listed in table 2 of text. The largest is that showing the five factories at Alvarado, Spreckels, Hamilton City, Manteca, and Tracy. This territory includes the Salinas Valley to King City in Monterey County; the Pajaro Valley in the vicinity of Pajaro to the bay in Monterey and 4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Santa Cruz counties; the San Juan and San Benito Valley in San Benito County ; the Pleasanton Valley in Alameda County ; the terri- tory around Alvarado; relatively small acreages in the southeastern part of Marin County, in southern Napa County, and central Solano County; the lower San Joaquin Valley from Modesto north to and including the Stockton delta ; the Sacramento Valley south from near Tehama to and including the Sacramento delta; and the territory in the vicinity of Gazelle and Macdoel in Siskiyou County. Much of the beet acreage of the deltas extends from Antioch to Marysville and includes Reclamation Districts 1660, 1500, and 108; the territory in the area lying south and east of the city of Sacramento ; the Holland Land District, Hastings Tract, Egbert Tract, Pearson Tract, Bethel Tract, Grand Island, Liberty Island, Brannan Island, Sherman Island, Terminus Island, Jersey Island and Quimby Island. Some acreage is to be found along the American, Feather, and Yuba rivers in the vicinity of Marysville. All the lands enclosed in this big area are not in proven sugar beet territory. Planting in the Sacramento Valley above the general latitude of Sacramento is still in the experi- mental stage, and the same statement generally applies to the San Joaquin Valley south of Modesto. The south-central-coast area is a relatively small but highly pro- ductive territory, supplying the Betteravia mill. Beets are here raised in a relatively compact territory extending from just south of the town of San Luis Obispo south to include the Arroyo Grande Valley, the Santa Maria Valley, the Lompoc Valley, the coastal area of the Santa Ynez Valley and lying generally in the southwestern corner of San Luis Obispo County and the northwestern corner of Santa Barbara County. The southern coast area takes in the territory around Oxnard adjacent to the coast and up the Santa Clara Valley in Ventura County, the San Fernando Valley in Los Angeles County, the terri- tory laying south and east of the city of Los Angeles, an area in the extreme southwestern corner of San Bernardino County in the vicinity of Chino, and an area in the western portion of Orange County including some territory in the general vicinity of Anaheim and Santa Ana. Extension of the sugar beet growing acreage during recent years has occurred in the Stockton and Sacramento deltas. In 1920 there were but 57 acres reported planted to beets on the islands lying between Antioch and Sacramento. In 1921 the acreage rose to 250 acres, in 1922 to 400 acres, in 1923 to 4000 acres, in 1924 to 7000 acres, and in 1925 to 30,000 acres. CIRC. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 5 Some experimenting is being done with the object of extending the acreage into the San Joaquin Valley. Company officials are unanimous, however, in pointing out that if a way can be found to combat the blight California farmers are in a position to raise more beets than have ever been grown before. The blight is the greatest limiting factor to the extension of acreage, and is the one outstanding thing to be considered by the prospective grower of beets in new territory. It is futile to attempt to raise sugar beets under condi- tions which expose the plants during the early stages of growth to infection by feeding leaf hoppers. Commercial plantings were seeded in the vicinity of Gazelle and Macdoel in Siskiyou County in 1925. The feasibility of sugar beets for these localities is still unproved. Fig. 3. — Sugar beets growing in the Sacramento delta, near Knight 's Landing. LOCATION OF SUGAR BEET FACTORIES Ten factories are available for milling sugar beets. Three are located in Orange County, two in San Joaquin County, and one each in Ventura, Santa Barbara, Monterey, Alameda, and Glenn counties. The names of the various companies, location of plants, year when built, and present milling capacity are set forth in table 2. These factories are the survivors of sixteen plants erected at various times in California. In 1891 a 400-ton plant was erected in Chino, later enlarged to 1100 tons, in 1895. In 1925 this plant was dismantled and part shipped to Nebraska. The Anaheim Sugar Com- pany's 1200-ton plant, erected in 1911 at Anaheim in Orange County, was moved in 1925 to Montana. Others which have been moved away, dismantled, or are seeking new locations include a 1000-ton plant at Huntington Beach, Orange County, which has not been operated since 1920; the Visalia plant, built in 1906, which has been removed b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION to Hooper, Utah ; a 1000-ton plant first built at Crockett, later moved to Corcoran in Kings County and from there moved to Preston, Idaho, and a 600-ton plant erected in New Delhi, in Orange County, in 1908. The old Watsonville plant, built in 1888 — the second mill to operate successfully in California — was dismantled so that parts could be used in the building of the Fallon (Nevada) plant, and in the Cooperative plant at Santa Ana. TABLE 2 Location of Sugar Beet Factories in California Key No. (on map), page 3 Name of company Location of plant Year plant was built Present capacity (e.g., tons of beets per per 24 hrs.) 1 Alameda Sugar Co Alvarado, Alameda County. Los Alamitos, Orange Coun- ty. Oxnard, Ventura County Betteravia, Santa Barbara County. Spreckels, Monterey County Hamilton City, Glenn Coun- ty. Huntington Beach, Orange County. Dyer, Orange County 1870 1897 1898 1899 1899 1906 1911 1912 1917 1917 800 2 3 4 Los Alamitos Sugar Co American Beet Sugar Co Union Sugar Co 900 3,000 1,200 4,200 5 Spreckels Sugar Co 6 7 8 Sacramento Valley Sugar Co. Holly Sugar Corporation.... Holly Sugar Corporation... Spreckels Sugar Co 700 1,400 1,200 9 Manteca, San Joaquin Coun- ty. Tracy, San Joaquin County.. 1,200 10 Alameda Sugar Co 500 Of the ten plants listed in table 2, only six have been operated regularly each season for the past five years. These six are the plants at Alvarado, Los Alamitos, Oxnard, Betteravia, Spreckels, and Dyer. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION California is climatically well adapted to the production of sugar beets because absence of rain from May to October permits the beets to mature normally, and to be readily harvested, while the control of soil moisture by irrigation is of material assistance in providing satisfactory conditions. Sugar beets will yield profitable crops on widely varying soils, ranging from sandy loams to heavy adobes, provided the land is properly handled. Depth is essential for the best development, and CIRC. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 7 two, three, or more feet of uniform soil free from hardpan or a high water table is necessary. The heavier types of soil tend to produce the largest tonnage, but are somewhat more difficult to work. While beets will tolerate more alkali than most field crops, lands heavily charged with sodium salts will not produce the best crops. Sodium sulphate is less injurious than sodium chloride or sodium carbonate. Ideal land for beet culture is smooth, with a gentle fall sufficient to insure good drainage, yet suitable for furrow irrigation, and consists of soil of a friable clay loam nature, four or more feet in depth. The subsoil should be free from hardpan or preponderating amounts of gravel. Organic matter and plant food must be abundant and alkali must not be present in harmful quantities. Soils producing good yields of barley, potatoes, beans, alfalfa, corn, or any other ordinary field crop, usually prove to be good beet soils. Beets can use generous amounts of water profitably, and in fact, ample moisture is essential for the production of heavy tonnage. Different soils require different amounts of water, but as nearly as a general rule can be given, from eighteen to thirty acre-inches of water, properly distributed or available throughout the growing season (as explained under irrigation) are required to mature the crop. To make its best growth the sugar beet requires a long growing season. Once established the growing plants are not especially sen- sitive to either light frosts or temporary spells of hot weather. Sections having a growing period of from 150 to 200 days, where temperatures do not drop below 20° F. or rise much above 100° F., with ample sunshine to promote sugar formation, and not subject to too severe drying winds or sudden changes in temperature are suited to sugar-beet production. Obviously such conditions are to be found in areas lying along the coast and subject to ocean influence. BEET GROWING CONTRACTS In arranging for the growing of beets, the interested grower and the mill sign a contract, the terms of which govern the growing and sale of the crop. This contract is signed early in the season, even before the seed is planted, and stipulates the conditions under which beets must be raised if they are to be acceptable to the sugar company. Usually the contract indicates the acreage to be sown, binds the com- pany to advance and supply the seed at a given price, limits the grower to the use of this seed, regulates the time of harvesting and 8 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION delivery," points out the place of delivery, sets the rate of payment, and allows deductions for improperly topped or dirty beets. Printed forms are used for the purpose of setting forth the various stipulations. Blank spaces provide for recording the date of agreement, name and address of grower, description of land where beets are to be grown, acreage to be planted, point where beets are to be delivered, terms of lease if rented property, and signatures. The full standard agreement as used in California is rather brief. The wording and conditions vary somewhat as between different factories but in effect the differences are slight. It begins somewhat at follows : COMPANY California. This Agreement made this day 192 between of County of , State of California, the Grower, and Sugar Company, a a corporation, as follows: 1. The grower agrees to plant, cultivate, harvest and deliver, during the cropping season beginning and ending when the crop is harvested, not later than the close of the factory season, 19 , in a good, farmer-like manner, acres of sugar beets on the following described land County, California: Then follows a statement of the conditions governing the planting, caring for, harvesting and delivering of the final crop. Paragraphs inserted in the standard contracts in use by California sugar com- panies provide as follows : Grower furnishes land for beets, prepares it, plants, replants, blocks, thins, cultivates, irrigates, harvests, and delivers crop in a farmer-like manner and in conformity with the directions of the company. Company furnishes necessary beet seed at a cost to the grower of fifteen cents per pound; use of other seed is prohibited. Seed furnished by the Company is not to be planted upon any land not covered by the contract ; any seed fur- nished and not planted is returnable in good order to the Company, the Grower to receive credit. Grower agrees that nil beets grown by him under contract will be delivered, in quantities as ordered by the Company, to the Company 's factory shed or aboard cats, as the Company may direct, properly topped at the base of the bottom leaf, Circ. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA free from dirt, stones, trash and other foreign substances, and subject to proper deduction for tare. The Grower agrees to protect beets from sun while in the field after removal from the ground. Irrigation after July 15 without written permission is forbidden in the contract of the northern California companies. BEET PKICES AND METHODS OF PAYMENT Practically all sugar beet contracts now in force in California provide for payment to the grower for all beets coming up to specified requirements delivered by him to the sugar company, on a double sliding basis according to (1) the sugar content of his beets, and (2) the price obtained by the company for the sugar secured from the season's run of beets. Only occasionally are contracts drawn on the flat rate basis, the terms of which provide that the company will pay a stated sum per ton for all beets delivered to it in accordance with stipulations governing the growing of the beets, sugar content, and purity. Two schedules of payment are in force in California. The "southern contract," as the agreement in use by the American Beet Sugar Company, the Holly Sugar Corporation, and the Los Alamitos Sugar Compan}^ is called, specifies payment for beets in accordance with the f ollowing schedule : THE "SOUTHEBN" CONTEACT Net selling Sugar content of beets price of sugar 12% 13% 14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% $5.00 $ 6.00 $ 6.50 $ 7.00 $ 7.50 $ 8.00 $ 8.50 $ 9.00 $ 9.50 $10.00 $10.50 $11.00 6.00 7.20 7.80 8.40 9.00 9.60 10.20 10.80 11.40 12.00 12.60 13.20 7.00 8.40 9.10 9.80 10.50 11.20 11.90 12.60 13.30 14.00 14.70 15.40 8.00 9.60 10.40 11.20 12.00 12.80 13.60 14.40 15.20 16.00 16.80 17.60 9.00 10.80 11.70 12.60 13.50 14.40 15.30 16.20 17.10 18.00 18.90 19.80 10.00 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 19.00 20.00 21.00 22.00 The agreement provides that "sound beets shall be bought and paid for at a price per net ton based on the average net price f.o.b. Factory received for sugar sold by the Beet Sugar Companies of Southern California (after deducting any tax on sugar, not now, but hereafter imposed by law), during the period of twelve months, beginnning July 1st." A price for his beets based on five-cent sugar is guaranteed the grower. Fractions of sugar prices and tests are 10 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION provided for. Initial payments on the basis of a five-cent net selling price for sugar are made on the 15th of each month for beets delivered during the previous month, or on such higher basis as may be con- sistent with the outlook as to the probable net selling price of sugar. Further settlements are made from time to time in accordance with the net selling price of sugar, final settlement being made not later than August 1st of the following year. All payments except the final payment are based upon the anticipated net price to be received for sugar from harvest until August first of the succeeding year. If it develops that the Company anticipated a price higher than the price ultimately received, or through inadvertence overpays the grower, the grower is then called upon to repay the factory an amount equal to such overpayment. Freight is paid by the company for beets loaded at a company dump and for fully loaded cars shipped from parts where growers must attend to the loading. In addition the grower is allowed 15c per net ton if he does the loading. The "northern contract" or schedule used by growers delivering to the Union Sugar Company, the Spreckels Sugar Company, and the Alameda Sugar Company is as follows : THE "NORTHERN" CONTEACT Net price re- Sugar content of beets ceived for sugar 12% 13% 14% 15% 16% 17% 18% 19% 20% 21% 22% Cents 5 $ 4.66 $ 5.05 $ 5.44 $ 5.83 $ 6.22 S 6.61 $ 7.00 $ 7.38 $ 7.77 $ 8.16 $ 8.55 6 5.60 6.07 6.53 7.00 7.47 7.93 8.40 8.87 9.33 9.80 10.27 7 6.80 7.37 7.93 8.50 9.07 9.63 10.20 10.77 11.33 11.90 12.47 8 8.20 8.88 9.57 10.25 10.93 11.62 12.30 12.98 13.67 14.35 15.03 9 9.60 10.40 11.20 12.00 12.80 13.60 14.40 15.20 16.00 16.80 17.60 10 10.66 11.55 12.44 13.33 14.22 15.11 16.00 16.88 17.77 18.66 19.55 Fractions of sugar prices and beet tests are figured to the nearest one-tenth and prices of beets testing above or below percentages shown in table are increased or diminished proportionately. Company sales as a means of determining net prices received for sugar, period for completing payments, and manner of making initial and subsequent payments are substantially the same as the corresponding provisions in the southern contract. The conditions governing payment of freight by the company, rejecting beets testing less than 11 per cent (appearing in the contract of one company), payment by the grower of demurrage charges if caused by the grow- CIRC. 302] THE SUG AR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 11 er's delay in loading, and permission to take field samples for testing sugar content are incorporated in the northern contracts. The southern contract was placed in force on the theory that farmers would be paid for one-half of the sugar in the beets, the mill retaining the other half to cover its expenses and to provide a profit. The factory does not extract all the sugar from the beets. For a typical five year period the extraction* in California has varied from 90.4 to 94.4 per cent of the sugar in the beets. To put it another way, from 15.97 to 17.33 per cent of the weight of the beets delivered to the mill is recovered as sugar in the factory processes. The sugar percentage of the beets themselves analized from 17.66 to 18.35 per cent sugar. Other general provisions set forth in all the California agreements include : Permission for grower, at his own expense, to place a representative in scale house, tare room, and beet laboratory to check weights and work done; such representative to be experienced in the line of work to be performed and satis- factory to the company. Kelease of company if causes arise over which the company has no control which make impossible the working up of the beets. This provision usually calls for a payment by the company for seeded land at the rate of $15.00 per acre, the grower being allowed to retain all undelivered beets. Eight of company to enter lands under contract when money has been advanced by company for the purpose of properly caring for any beets growing thereon. Grower 's agreement not to assign contract or to mortgage crop without written consent of the factory. The California schedules are the most advanced and the fairest of any in the United States, because they require testing the beets of each individual grower, a job entailing considerable expense and the maintenance of a large laboratory, but resulting in payment for quality and thereby stimulating effort among growers to produce more and better beets. CULTURAL METHODS Half a century of experiment and experience has resulted in the accumulation of a mass of information concerning the best methods to be used in raising sugar beets. Preparation of Seedbed. — A good seedbed is essential in the pro- duction of sugar beets. If maximum crops are to be secured, the * As reported in the Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agri., 1919-1923. 12 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION land must be placed in a fine state of cultivation. This means sub- jection of raw land, eradication of the residue of former crops, such as alfalfa roots or corn stubble, breaking' up of plow soles, and destruction of weed growth. Usually a plowing is given two months or more in advance of seeding and the soil worked down to a fine seedbed. Since the beet is a deep-rooting crop, the land should be plowed as deep as is consistent with its past handling, regulating the depth of plowing to prevent the bringing up of more than an inch or two of soil heretofore unplowed. When deep plowing is not possible or when a hard layer or plow pan exists beneath the depth reached by the plow, it is. well to follow the plowing- with subsoiling to an additional depth of four to six inches. This tends to break up any plow pan which may exist and provides a still deeper seedbed. The objects of thorough preparation are : (1) To furnish a medium in which the beet can freely develop and which permits the root to penetrate downward and thus discourage growth above ground; (2) to provide a deep feeding area; (3) to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil; and (4) to destroy such insect and fungous troubles as are susceptible to control by this means. The operations following plowing consists of frequent use of land cultivator, ringroller, plank drag, harrow, and possibly a replowing, to conserve moisture, destroy weeds, and prepare and preserve a seedbed until the planting season opens. Thorough cultivation of this sort results in a seedbed capable of germinating a high percentage of seed and in conditions favorable to the growth of the young seedling from the beginning. In plowing land left rough from the harvesting of previous crops or from a previous plowing, it is advisable to roll or disk the field in advance with a view to breaking up clods which if turned under would interfere with the preparation of a good seedbed. The degree of packing which must be practiced depends on the season, being less when rainfall is expected and more when the rainy season is nearly over and drying conditions prevail. The aim is to secure in the final result a firmed cultivated area well united with the undisturbed subsoil beneath. When much manure, weeds, or similar material has been turned under, special care is needed to insure a proper contact. If the amount of green stuff is excessive, it is sometimes necessary to reirrigate and rework the land before a satisfactory seedbed can be secured. In general, the fall and early winter preparation is the more important. In the spring, plowing may not be required, unless weed CIRC. 302] THE SU GAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 13 growth or packing is excessive. In fact, in handling all types of heavy soil the less they are opened up in the spring the better, as the limits of their either being too wet or too dry are very close. Fall plowing a little on the dry side, immediate harrowing, frequent use of the weed cutter during the winter, followed in the spring, by a shallow cultivation, ringrolling, dragging, and harrowing to settle the seedbed is the best procedure. Since irrigation is generally practiced in sugar-beet production, the necessary ditching, levelling, checking and preparation of the field for the handling of the water precedes the preparation of the seedbed. Time of Planting. — The time of commercial planting in California extends from November 1 to June 1, local conditions largely influenc- ing the time when the seed is sown. In general, fall planting — November and December — is more common in the southern portion of the state; winter planting — January and February — in the beet growing sections of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys ; and spring planting in the coast sections, such as Monterey and Santa Barbara counties. Local conditions will determine the best time to sow, but as a general recommendation, early planting is recommended. Although early planting carries with it attendant difficulties of soil preparation, danger of root rot and crusting, the increased tonnage of beets and sugar per acre obtained warrants early planting, even though it becomes necessary to replant occasionally. In the interior valleys where warm weather begins at an early date, early planting is essential to insure well-established growth before the heat and dry- ness of late spring and summer descend upon the fields. The danger of beet blight further justifies the general recommendation that early planting should be the rule. In certain sections, especially in the Sacramento Valley and some of the central coast sections, it is possible to plant beets so early that a considerable percentage will send up seed-stalks. As seed formation progresses, the sugar content of the root is reduced, and the beets become too woody for profitable working. "Early planting," there- fore, must be construed as meaning the planting of the seed as early as possible while guarding against planting so early that seed pro- duction replaces satisfactory maturing. Experience indicates that the limits of the preferable time of planting for various sections is : Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, January 1 to March 15. Southern California, November 15 to April 1. Central Coast counties, February 1 to June 1. 14 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION Late planted beets sometimes look greener and have larger and more luxuriant tops than early planted beets, but the actual tonnage of roots secured is generally greater from the early plantings. If cool weather exists when early planted seedlings are coming up, the beets will develop a small, compact top, but the greater supply of available moisture and the longer growing season tend to result in bigger roots. When planting in advance of copious anticipated rains, followed as they usually are by heavy winds which crust the soil, planting should be made early enough to give the seedlings time enough to form several true leaves in advance of the storms, or else seeding should be delayed until after these storms are past. If seeding is done in late spring when sufficient moisture is not available to germinate the seed, an irrigation should be given before seeding. Success does not usually attend any effort to germinate seed by flood irrigation, as crusts form to a detrimental extent, but the furrow system of irrigation can sometimes be practiced to advantage. If a crust forms before the seed germinates, care to break this crust is essential before the young germinating plantlets turn yellow (noted by turning over the crust and inspecting the germinating seed). This can be done on most soils by a light harrowing diagon- ally across the rows with the spike-tooth harrow, inclining the teeth to the rear or setting them back to the point where they merely penetrate the crust, or by a rolling with Culti-packer. Usually, however, under such conditions replanting is advisable and, in fact, necessary if the seedlings are yellowed or the final stand irregular. In some sections, especially if the land is charged with alkali, early planting is practiced, even though the land is dry, the seed being placed very close to the surface, and the winter rains counted upon to firm the seedbed, germinate the seed, and keep the plants growing. Planting. — The company furnishes the necessary seed to the farmer at a fixed price. Such seed is imported from Europe. The Netherlands, Germany, and Denmark are the principal sources of sugar beet seed, although some is supplied by Russia and France. No seed for commercial planting is grown in California. The seed is sowed by drills capable of planting four or eight rows at once, spaced to distances ranging from sixteen inches to twenty- four inches between rows, with twenty or twenty-two inches the more common spacing. The drills place any desired amount of seed at depths ranging from one-half inch to three inches or more, cover the seed and if desired, compress the soil above them. The width of row ClEC. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 15 depends on the size of beet desired and the growing conditions. Profit- able close spacing is possible only on fertile lands with proper conditions of water and climate, and careful attention to the care of the growing crop. On less fertile lands, or where water is insuffi- cient, greater spacing is desirable. A seedbed properly prepared for the reception of the seed will permit a one-inch or shallower planting and insure a stand. If deeper planting is necessary, greater attention to the preparation of future seedbeds will be in order. The depth of planting should be carefully determined. The rut in which the seed is dropped is comparatively narrow so that large seed balls will not reach the bottom unless care is exercised when using a supply having a majority of large seed balls to set the seeder so that the seed will be placed at the desired depth. Early in the season, when the subsoil is inclined to be cold and future rains are expected, quick germination is desired, and shallow planting to secure surface warmth should be the rule. Under these conditions, the minimum amount of seed is used, with little or no pressure being applied to the press wheels of the machine. Later in the season, when the moisture is receding or evaporating rapidly, more seed is provided and placed deeper in the soil. In instances where the moisture is three inches or more from the surface, it is desirable to clamp "clod pushers" upon the runner brace, just in advance of the runner and at an elevation of about one and one-half inches in a parallel line above the bottom of the runner. This reduces the amount of soil through which the young sprouts must penetrate to reach the surface. To conserve the moisture and to hasten ger- mination, some pressure is applied to the press wheels which pack the soil directly over the seed. From twelve to twenty pounds of seed are required per acre, with fifteen pounds the general rule. When a large acreage, 100 acres or more, is to be seeded, the work should be so planned that a delay in seeding occurs sufficiently often to lengthen the thinning time, and to prolong the ripening season. A four-row drill will seed about ten acres a day and thinners can handle about one-fourth to one-half an acre per man daily, thus indicating something of the limits of time in which the work should be completed. Cultivation. — Some growers roll their fields with a smooth roller as soon as the crop is well up, in advance of any cultivation. The rolling disturbs any crust which may occur, packs the land, insures a more event distribution of moisture, facilitates the use of the culti- vator, and materially lessens the labor of thinning. Cultivation is 16 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION started as soon as the rows are well defined and is designated to provide the three-fold object of weed destruction, aeration, and main- tenance of a loose earth mulch. The first cultivation precedes the thinning, cultivators being used which are equipped with weed knives for removal of weeds between rows, cutting as close to the beets as possible. Subsequent cultivations, three or more in number, are given at intervals of ten days to two weeks and continued until the size of the plants prohibits horses and implements from passing down the rows. The narrow chisels (1% inch to IV2 inch) and the duck-foot cultivator teeth with weed-cutter attachment are generally used, being attached to special two-horse adjustable cultivator frames capable of cultivating four rows at a time. The wheels are built "to castor" and are controlled by a foot pedal enabling the operator to shift the direction in following the rows. Deep cultivation should be the rule as the season progresses, to permit even expansion of the growing beets, and easier plowing-out at harvest time. The total number of cultivations given the crop vary in different sections, but more rather than less than the usual practice should be the rule. Destruction of all weeds is important. Morning glory or Johnson grass must not occupy the land given over to beets, and to a lesser degree the same statement applies to bur clover, pigweed, mustard, dock, and other common weeds. Thinning. — Since each seed-ball contains several beet seeds, more plants will be produced than are needed, and when the young beets are established, they must be thinned to provide sufficient area for unobstructed development of the selected plants. Hand labor, using short-handled beet hoes, is the only practical method of doing this work as no machine for the purpose has thus far been perfected. Sufficient labor should be available to complete the thinning within the time limits best suited to this work. In sediment soils thinning starts when the beets have four true leaves, but in peat lands a later age is deemed to be decidedly better and thinning is delayed until the beets are six inches high. Blocking ahead of thinning where it can be done, is advisable. Blocking consists in first hoeing out the spaces to be left, leaving the remaining beets in small bunches from which the beet selected to remain will be chosen in the final thinning. Spacing varies from eight to eighteen inches, the same qualifica- tions holding in determining the distance as pointed out above with reference to the distance between rows. Spacing to ten or twelve inches is the more general practice. In thinning, care should be Circ. 3021 THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 17 observed to space accurately, to reserve the sturdiest beets, to pull by hand the beets close to the one which is to be left, to hoe deep enough to prevent resprouting, and to avoid unnecessary digging around the plant to be left. Thinning should be regulated to result in the selection of the strongest beets, their even distribution throughout the row, and the destruction of all weeds in the row or immediately around the beets. Irrigation. — As sugar beets draw heavily upon the moisture supply in the soil, irrigation is necessary except under unusually favorable natural conditions. Proper regulation of soil moisture Fig. 4. — The furrow system of irrigation, which is replacing the older method of flooding. requires that sufficient moisture be available to germinate the seed and bring it well through the thinning period, a maximum supply from the eight- or ten-leaf stage until six or eight weeks before har- vest, and a gradually diminishing supply during these last six or eight weeks to permit proper ripening with its attendant increase in sugar content. The need of moisture may be determined by exam- ination of the soil itself to the depth to which the root system is developing, by a darkening to a purplish or bluish green of the light green color of normal beets, by increasing flabbiness of root or leaf stem, by lack of vigor, and by a wilting not caused by excessive heat. On large tracts it is better to start irrigating too early rather than too late, as complete recovery will not follow when beets are permitted to reach the stage of acute suffering for want of water. 18 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION The flooding system of irrigating, long the prevailing custom in this state, is being replaced by furrow irrigation. This is a wise change in method, because flooding is not only wasteful of water but results in greater evaporation, and increase in baking and cracking of the heavier soils. In the new beet growing districts of the deltas fully 90 per cent of the acreage is irrigated by sub-irrigation. What- ever the system used, care must be exercised to provide ample mois- ture without over-irrigation throughout the soil area occupied by the root system. An insufficient amount will reduce tonnage, while an oversupply is not only uneconomical, but detrimental. The rule in irrigating should be to study the movement of the water in the soil by means of a probe, soil augur, or shovel, and aim to provide only the optimum amount of water. The quick going-back of beets once they show the need of water emphasizes the necessity of applying water to promote a steady, uniform growth before. the first signs of distress appear. A few days of insufficient moisture are enough to check growth seriously, the length of time depending on the climatic conditions which in turn regulate the movement of the moisture. In hot, dry, windy weather, "going back", will be much more rapid than during cool, foggy spells. Growing beets which become very yellow for lack of water are beyond the stage when they can give the largest returns from irrigation, but even then an application will usually pay. Water applied to mature beets during hot summer weather tends to preserve the beets. It also assists by loosening the ground so that plowing-out is easier. Applied at this time, however, water will not increase tonnage to any appreciable extent. During cool weather, or at a time of year favorable to beet growth, water may prove detri- mental, by causing renewed growth, especially if this growth results in the formation of seed stalks. The beets may weigh a trifle more because of the water taken up, but the actual sugar content is not improved. Every irrigation should be followed by a cultivation as soon as the land is dry enough to work. Such cultivation will prevent baking, crusting, and cracking, with resultant loss of moisture and pinching of the beets. Fertilization. — Commercial fertilizers are not in general use in connection with growing sugar beets in this state. Trials with differ- ent fertilizing ingredients are being made by various mills, but thus far the results are not sufficiently conclusive to justify extensive applications of mineral fertilizers. Doubtless as time goes on more Circ. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 19 attention will be given to fertilizers, especially on the lighter, or the longer farmed, or on peaty types of soil. Application of barnyard manures to beet lands is receiving more attention in all parts of the state. Stable manures are a valuable asset in continuous beet production and deserve extensive use, espec- ially on the lighter soil types. Green manuring (the growing and plowing under of green crops of such plants as rye, vetch, bitter clover, bur clover, and field peas), is under trial but the results are as yet inconclusive. Fig. 5. — -Sugar beets nearirig maturity. This crop was grown under coast conditions of cool weather, fogs, and long growing season. On land utilized for more or less continuous beet growing, plow- ing under the beet tops, rather than feeding them to stock, is meeting with, increasing favor. Harvesting. — The time of harvest is usually designated by the mill contracting for. the beets. This varies somewhat from season to season, as the starting of the mill campaign is postponed until there is reasonable assurance of an ample and steady supply of satisfactory beets. So far as the beets themselves are concerned, harvest may start at any time after maturity. Maturity is indicated by a circle of dead outer leaves on the individual plant, and a general yellowing 20 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION appearance of the entire field, while mill laboratory tests for sugar of typical field samples provide an additional and very satisfactory check. The time required to reach maturity varies with the time of planting. Fall-sown beets require from seven to eight months, early spring-sown beets from six to seven months, while late spring-sown beets in favorable localities will mature in from four to five months. The quickest maturing takes place in spring plantings in localities of hot summer weather, and on light soils; the opposite is true in cooler sections, on the heavier types of soil, or in fall plantings. Harvesting starts with "lifting" the beets. Specially constructed implements are run down the rows to loosen the plants in place. The beets are then removed by hand, several rows thrown together in long windrows or in piles and the tops cut off by hand labor, using heavy butcher knives. A very satisfactory method is to throw the beets from nine rows into one row, tops all pointing one way, and to follow down this row in topping, standing each beet on its cut surface. A space of nine rows allows sufficient room for wagons to pass through and places the beets in a position for quick loading. In different sections, however, the prevailing custom must be followed to a large extent, since the type of labor doing the hand work has its own way and is not easily changed. All beets to be correctly topped must have the leaves and all green portions of the crown removed. This means topping at the ground line. The men who do the topping must be closely watched in this regard and required to practice proper topping. The green crowns contain salts which interfere with sugar extraction in the mill, and deductions to cover the weight of such beets is made by the factory men. In addition to paying for the transportation and handling of a portion of the crop for which he receives no return, the grower who ships green tops is taking from his land the plant food elements most valuable to him. Analyses indicate that of all plant foods removed by a beet crop in making its growth, approxi- mately 75 per cent of the total is contained in the leaves and crowns, with but 25 per cent in the roots. The importance of proper topping cannot be too strongly emphasized. After being topped, the beets are loaded on specially constructed or specially equipped wagons for delivery to the freight cars or to the mill. CIRC. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 21 YIELDS Yields of beets vary within wide limits, ranging from yields which are not large enough to pay operating expenses to exceptional yields of thirty tons or more. In general, ten tons represents about an average yield in this state, while fifteen tons is considered a good yield. Some experienced growers, who operate under favorable conditions, obtain an average of twenty and even twenty-five tons. Yields of beets is an important item affecting unit costs of pro- duction. This is shown in the findings of a United States Department of Agriculture survey.* When yield per acre was Cost per acre Cost per ton 10 tons or less $54.11 65.51 77.98 $6.21 11 to 15 tons 4.91 16 tons or over 4.26 Although these actual costs are no longer directly applicable to present-day conditions, the principle still holds that the larger the yield obtained under efficient and economical management, the less is the cost per ton of product. THE SUGAK BEET IN CROP ROTATIONS Crop rotation is perhaps the outstanding development of the past decade in sugar growing. Changing crops from time to time is proving helpful in maintaining sugar beet yields and in reaping the benefits of sugar beet growing with subsequent and different crops. On land annually receiving the beneficial effects of mill waste waters, crops of sugar beets can succeed one another for several years, and perhaps indefinitely, without exhausting the fertility of the soil. The amounts of plant food and lime deposited in the waste water are usually more than enough to replace that removed by the beet crop. In such cases, only with increases in weeds or other influences detri- mental to beet production, must beet culture be abandoned. On land not receiving waste water the number of crops which can be grown consecutively cannot be specifically stated. New land will produce crops for several years, but ultimately a rotation of crops is advisable and usually necessary. Crop rotation is being consistently stressed by all the California sugar beet companies. * Bulletin 760, U.S.D. A, Office of the Secretary, < ' Farm Practice in Growing Sugar Beets in Three California Districts," 1915-1916 conditions. 22 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Two reasons justify rotation of sugar beets with other crops. The first is based on gradually decreasing yields of beets through diminish- ing fertility or increase in beet troubles. Rotation then follows as a means of rebuilding the crop producing power of the land. The second reason for rotation is the advisability of securing the beneficial effects of the sugar beet crop upon succeeding crops. Increased yields of cereals, corn, sorghums and beans usually follow sugar beet culture. The deep preparation of the soil necessary to provide a seedbed for beets, the careful cultivation and deep working of the land in remov- ing the crop, the available plant food freed in the decaying beet tops and roots all help to provide an environment capable of producing increased yields of many of the field crops adapted to local conditions. In planning a sequence of crops to be grown it is advisable not to precede beets with any crops which will leave conditions which render the growing of beets difficult, such as the presence of undecayed corn or sorghum stubble or half -killed alfalfa stands. BEET TOPS Beet tops are a valuable stock feed and a source of additional income whenever live stock is available for feeding, and the tops can be spared. Care must be taken to avoid feeding decayed or moldy tops and to watch cattle for choking if they are unused to this kind of feed. Some dry roughage should be fed with the tops to avoid scouring. If these precautions are taken the tops, green or dry, form a valuable addition to the feed supply. Tops are salable whenever stock is available, at either so much per head per day (e.g. 10 to 15c for mature cattle, 1 to l%c for sheep), or at so much per ton of beets delivered to the mill (e.g. 50c per net ton, or $5.00 per acre for a 10-ton yield). In selling or feeding tops the grower should either have them fed on the land, or return the equivalent in manure, and provide for the removal of all stock whenever the land is wet enough to be in danger of suffering from the tramping of the stock. CONTRACT LABOR As beet production requires much hand work, especially in thinning, hoeing, irrigating, pulling, topping, and loading, a class of labor able and willing to do this kind of work must be available. The usual California farmer, even though raising but a few acres, does not attempt to do this work either personally or with his regular men. CIRC. 302] the SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 23 Much use is made of Mexican and Filipino labor. Some Japanese, Mohammedan and Hindu help is occasionally used. Lab or Contracts. — A formal agreement is signed by grower and contractor, setting forth the terms governing the supplying of labor, manner of doing the work, and the amount, time, and method of payment. If the entire season's work is contracted, a single instru- ment is drawn, but if the term of employment is for a specific job, separate agreements may be used for (1) thinning, (2) hoeing, (3) pulling, topping and loading. A typical season's contract in use by growers and contractors is shown below. Typical Season Contract Covering Hand Work on Sugar Beets (1925) This Agreement, made and entered into this day of 192 between hereinafter called "Grower" and hereinafter called ' i Contractor. ' ' WITNESSETH : That for and in consideration of the covenants herein con- tained on the part of Grower, and the sum of One Dollar ($1.00) in hand paid by Grower to Contractor, receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, Contractor hereby covenants and agrees with Grower to do the hand work on acres, more or less, of sugar beets planted or to be planted for the season of 192 , in the valley, County, California, the particular tracts now being selected and agreed upon between Grower and Contractor, to wit.: Contractor Agrees : First — To commence to thin beets as soon as directed by Grower, and to provide sufficient men to complete the thinning before the beets shall be 4 inches high. Second — To thin out beets inches apart in rows to satisfaction of Grower, leaving beets to each 100 feet of row; to hoe the entire soil between rows after beets are thinned; and to carefully pull or hoe out all weeds growing thereafter, until beets are harvested Third — When plowed by Grower, to pull, shake free from adhering earth, row up, top and load beets into wagons; beets to be topped cleanly and squarely with one blow of the knife at base or bottom of last leaves. Beets Avill be carefully plowed out by Grower, but any beets not loosened by the plows shall be dug out by Contractor. Fourth — When beets are harvested, Contractor shall provide sufficient men to top and load into wagons as many tons of beets each day as Grower shall direct. Fifth — Contractor agrees to personally superintend the work of cultivation and harvesting of beets, and to have it done in a proper and farmer-like manner and to the satisfaction of Grower. Grower shall have the right to keep an Inspector in the field to oversee the work of Contractor and remove incompetent workmen; and it is further agreed that if Contractor or any of his men shall neglect or refuse to comply with the above conditions, or neglect or refuse to perform any of the operations at the time set or in the manner prescribed by Grower, Grower shall have the right and option to cancel this contract and any money that may have become due to Contractor on account of work performed, shall be retained by Grower, as liquidated damages, or it shall be optional with Grower to put in men to complete any work unfinished or neglected by Contractor or any of his men, and to charge the cost of such labor to Contractor. 24 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION In Consideration Whereof Grower Agrees: First — To provide the necessary transportation to and from the land afore- said for men and baggage of Contractor from the nearest town or railroad station. Second — To provide Contractor with hoes, files and knives to be used in cul- tivating and harvesting beets. Said hoes, files and knives to be returned in good order as soon as work on beets is finished. Third— To provide houses or tents, wood for cooking purposes and water for men. of Contractor while they are engaged in the cultivation and harvesting of the crop. Fourth — To do all horse cultivation between beet rows. Fifth — After beets are all thinned and hoed to the satisfaction of Grower, to advance to Contractor the sum of per acre, for each acre of beets so thinned and hoed; the amount of said advances to be deducted from first moneys that shall become due under this contract until Grower is reimbursed. Sixth — To pay Contractor for all handwork performed in accordance with the terms of this agreement within fifteen days after said crop is delivered, said payment to be computed upon actual weight of clean beets weighed over the scales of the Sugar Company at at the rate of per ton. It is further agreed that in the event that said growing crop or any portion thereof is destroyed or damaged by the elements or by disease or by insect pests of any kind, or from any other cause, to such an extent as to make it in the opinion of Grower unprofitable to continue its cultivation, Grower may cancel this contract as to such portion of said crop as in his opinion is so damaged or destroyed, in which event Grower will pay to Contractor for the work actually performed to such time. Witness our Hands the day and year first above written. Witness : Grower. Contractor. These contracts are formal standard documents containing date, names of contracting parties, acreage, location of fields, signatures. Thinning contracts set forth when thinning is to be commenced, number of men to be supplied, distance to be left between plants, quality of work, and amount of hoeing to be done. Hoeing contracts usually call for a careful hoeing and weeding at time of thinning, and one or two additional hoeings thereafter as the grower may direct. Harvest contracts stipulate how pulling, topping, and loading is to be done, number of men to be furnished, and amount of supervision to be supplied. The grow T er agrees to cultivate beets, to plow out beets carefully, provide transportation from nearest town or railroad station, to furnish hoes, files, and knives, housing and cooking facilities, make prompt payment in accordance with agreed terms. The grower retains right of inspecting and passing upon work, removing incom- petent or intractable workers, and completing unfinished work. ClEC. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 25 Damages in the event of unfinished or poor work, intoxication or committing of nuisance are provided by (1) holding back a portion of the money due the contractor until the crop is thinned or har- vested, or (2) by cancellation of contract. Cancellation of contract is permitted if crop proves unprofitable because of damage by elements, disease or insects. If the grower carries workmen's compensation insurance, the contractor may be called upon to pay his prorata. Hiring labor away from other growers is prohibited in some contracts. Labor must be available in sufficient numbers to complete each task within the available time limits and in a proper manner, Insuffi- cient help or insufficient work resulting in delaying thinning until the beet plants are over-large, carelessness in blocking, spacing, and remov- ing beets, improper topping, and incomplete removal of the crop at harvest time, all affect the final returns by reducing tonnage or quality or both. BEET TKOUBLES The limiting factor of sugar beet production in California today, so far as beet troubles are concerned, is the curly-top (curly leaf or blight), a disease resulting from the attacks of a small insect (Eutet- tix tenella Baker), a leaf -hopper one-eighth of an inch long. This insect, feeding upon the plant, infects it in such a way that all leaves subsequently produced come forth curled, stunted and distorted, while masses of fine, hairy rootlets and blackened rings develop upon and within the beet root — the typical blight condition. Doctor Henry H. P. Severin of the University of California for the past eight years has been investigating curly-top. He contributes the following descriptions of symptoms, beet leaf -hoppers, flights, and planting suggestions. SYMPTOMS Symptoms on Leaves Leaf Curling. — The earliest symptom of curly-top to appear in most blighted beets is an inward rolling of the lower and outer margin of the youngest leaves. Later the entire blade may show a pronounced inward curling toward the midrib (fig. 6). Transparent Venation. — A reliable and constant symptom of curly-top plainly visible to the eye is a transparent network of minute veins (fig. 7) generally occurring on the innermost or youngest leaves of the beet. The cleared veinlets sometimes appear on the youngest leaf of beet seedlings within two days after 26 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION infection by the leaf-hopper. In older beets in the field, this symptom may develop in from one to two weeks or longer after infection, the time depending upon vigor of growth, temperature, and moisture of soil. Protuberances on Leaves. — Another reliable and constant symptom of curly- top is the roughened appearance of the lower surface of the leaves, developing usually after the veinlets have become transparent. A closer examination of this roughened condition upon its first appearance reveals numerous small elevations on the veins resembling tiny warts (fig. 8). As the disease progresses, nipple- like papillae and knot-like swellings resembling galls develop here and there on the distorted veins. The diseased leaves are dark green in color, thick, crisp and brittle. Fig. 6. — Side view of sugar beet top affected with curly-top, showing inward curling of leaves toward midrib. Exudation from Leaves. — When a large number of curly-top beets are examined in the field an occasional plant may show a few drops of clear, viscid liquid exuding from the petioles, midrib, or veins on the lower surface on the leaves. Later this liquid becomes black and sticky, and upon drying, forms a brown crust. This syrupy substance often oozes out of many blighted beets after the first irrigation, and attracts enormous numbers of insects which feed upon the sweet drops of beet juice. Yellowing. — When curly-top beets are irrigated they sometimes show a tem- porary improvement but later the leaves often turn yellow. It is not to be inferred, however, that the yellowing of the foliage occurs only after the fields have been irrigated, the leaves of blighted beets, especially young plants, will turn yellow without irrigation. Sun-scorched Foliage. — During very hot days in the San Joaquin, Sacramento and upper Salinas valleys, the sugar beet foliage wilts and the outer leaves resting on the soil become sun-scorched, turn brown, and die. When the appar- ently healthy outermost leaves of badly blighted beets become dry on account of sun-scald, there remains a tuft of diseased leaves and the beet root does not increase appreciably in size. The beet often becomes soft, loose in the soil, Circ.302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 27 shrivels, and dies, leaving a woody, shriveled peg in the center of a hole in the ground. Small patches of dead beets soon appear in the field, giving a greater opportunity for other leaves to become sunburnt and thus increasing the size of the barren areas as the season advances. 9 10 Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. — Transparent venation (7) and protuberances (8) resulting from curly-top infection. The insect (enlarged 12 times) which is the cause of curly-top (9 and 10). Symptoms on Eoots Hairy Boots. — When a badly blighted beet is pulled from loose soil, particles of dirt sometimes cling to the rootlets and shake off with difficulty. It is has been described as "hairy root" or "woolly root" or "whiskered beets." In harder soil these roots often tear off when the beet is pulled. Darkened Eings in Beet Boot. — A cross section of a blighted beet often shows black concentric rings which alternate with light circular areas (fig. 11). A longitudinal section shows the dark discoloration extending lengthwise through the beet. 28 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Fig. 11. — Cross and longitudinal sections of beet affected with curly-top. The transverse sections show black concentric rings alternating with light circular areas. The longitudinal sections show the dark discolor;) tions extending length- wise through the beet. CIRC. 302] THE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 29 FLIGHTS OF BEET LEAF-HOPPEES The spring brood beet leaf-hoppers which fly into the beet fields are pale green in color, the summer brood adults may also be pale green, light gray or straw-colored (fig. 9), while the over-wintering specimens have dark markings on the wing covers (fig. 10). Sprifig Flights. — After the pasture vegetation becomes dry on the plains and foothills of the Coast Kange from Mount Diablo to the Tehachapi Mountains in the San Joaquin Valley and on the Gabilan Range in the upper Salinas Valley, the pale green spring brood females fly into the cultivated areas. Most of the males remain behind on the plains and foothills and die. The invasion is not in a single flight. The insects invade the cultivated regions during a period of from four to six weeks. After the flights cease in the San Joaquin Valley the insects are far more abundant on weeds of the saltbush family (Chenopodiaceae) to which the sugar beet belongs and on plants of closely related families than on sugar beets. The multi- plication of the beet leaf-hopper, however, in the Salinas Valley occurs chiefly on beets. The beet leaf-hopper has been bred from eggs deposited in over fifty different Weeds, thirty of which are infected with curly-top under natural conditions. Autumn Flights. — During October and November, the dark over- wintering adults fly from the cultivated areas of the San Joaquin Valley to the plains and foothills. In the Salinas Valley the over- wintering beet leaf-hoppers fly to the foothills, following the Salinas River and its tributaries. PLANTING IN INTEEIOE EEGIONS The fact that most of the beet leaf-hoppers leave the cultivated areas of a natural breeding ground in the autumn has an important bearing with reference to the time of planting beets. If beets are planted in December, January and February in the interior regions of California and weather conditions are favorable for planting early, a disease-free crop can usually be obtained. Early planting, however, is not always safe in the San Joaquin and upper Salinas valleys, as was evident in 1919 when over one-half of the beet crop was blighted by the over-wintering bugs which remained behind in the cultivated areas. 30 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION PLANTING IN FOG BELTS In the fog belt early planting should be discontinued from March first until after the spring flights cease. In the fog belt of the Salinas valley late plantings in May and June usually result in a good crop. In 1925, however, the late plantings were badly blighted, owing to the fact that a second brood developed on the foothills. OTHER TROUBLES Other troubles, which occur occasionally or in certain localities attract the attention of the growers but need little more than passing notice here, are ground squirrels, gophers and moles, two species of nematodes or eelworms, (a) the garden nematode which produces galls on the rootlets, found in sandy soil, and (b) the beet nematode, found in heavier soils, which does not form galls. Among the beet root-feeding insects is the beet root aphis which is controlled, accord- ing to reports, by keeping the moisture content of the soil at the optimum, also by crop rotation and clean cultivation. Wire worms and white grubs also attack the beet root. Several species of small black beetles (Blapstinus) , one-fourth inch long v destroy the tiny seedlings as these are coming up. They can be controlled with bran mash containing a soluble poison such as sodium arsenate. Among the insects feeding on the leaves are the beet army worm and cutworms which can be controlled with poisoned bran mash as made up for grasshoppers ; a green beetle with twelve spots (twelve-spotted Diabrotica) ; flea beetles; beet leaf miner; red spider; thrips and aphis. Among the diseases of the beet, other than curly top dis- cussed above, are the following: leaf spot (Cer corpora beticola), rust (Uromyces betae), downy mildew (Peronospora schactii), mosaic disease of sugar beets, and seedling root rot (Corticium vagum, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium sp.). ECONOMICS OF SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION The cost per ton or per acre of producing sugar beets is very variable. Capacity of operator, quality of land, suitability of en- vironment, distance of haul, size of acreage, prevailing wages, pests, and costs of water are factors which vary with different growers and in different communities. CIRC. 302] T HE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA 31 In 1915 and 1916 the United States Department of Agriculture conducted a survey to determine costs in the Los Angeles, Oxnard, and Salinas areas, collecting records from 165 California sugar beet farms. The findings are available in Bulletin No. 760, office of Secretary, U.S. D. A., Washington, D.C. Conditions have changed since the data were assembled and the costs are no longer applicable unless present-day figures are substituted. The description of meth- ods is, however, pertinent and the list of items which enter into the cost of production is a valuable guide. A complete listing of cost items usually involves the inclusion of most of the following groups : 1. Preparation of seedbed. This includes removal of crop residues left from previous seasons, applications of manure, irrigations, plowings, chiselings, diskings, rollings, and other operations required to prepare a suitable seedbed. 2. Seeding. 3. Care of growing crop. This includes cost of harrowing, rolling, thinning, hoeing, cultivating, and irrigating. 4. Harvest. This involves costs of lifting, pulling, topping, loading, and delivery. 5. Kent or interest on the investment in land. 6. Interest on investment in equipment. 7. Interest on moneys used for operating expenses. The costs of the different operations include most or all of the following : 1. Value of operator's time utilized in: a. Manual labor. b. Attending to business details. c. Supervising hired help. 2. Cost of hired labor, including: a. Wages. b. Value of board, housing, and other perquisites. 3. Use of work horses: A cost made up of: a. Feed. b. Care (at barn, or pasture, veterinary, shoeing, etc.). g. Depreciation. d. Mortality. e. Taxes. /. Shelter. g. Corrals. h. Use of harness, collars, halters, tie ropes, etc. i. Interest on investment. 32 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION 4. Use of motor equipment — tractors, trucks, trailers, automobiles, being a cost made up of: a. Fuel. b. Oil. c. Waste, grease, etc. d. Eepairs and parts. e. Use of shelter. /. Depreciation. g. Taxes. h. Insurance. i. Use of extra tools, shop facilities, etc. j. Interest on investment. 5. Use of farm equipment: A cost made up of: a. Eepairs and parts. b. Depreciation. c. Taxes. d. Insurance. e. Interest on investment. 6. Outlay for materials: This group includes: a. Beet seed. b. Irrigation water. 7. Freight to destination. Many growers now have a fair idea of their operating costs. This serves as a rough guide. A complete presentation of costs to Cali- fornia beet raisers cannot be given, however, until preceded by a care- ful survey for the purpose of obtaining reliable data. When a need arises for such data its collection presents no insurmountable obstacles. Some idea of the existing situation can be gleaned, however, from the following data: Beet seed costs 15c per pound. Teamsters are being paid at the rate of $3.00 to $4.00, this rate including the value of board. During harvest season the rate is approximately $1.00 per day higher. Horse labor costs on an average (from unpublished data collected by the Division of Farm Management) approximately $152 per horse per year. Thinning and hoeing costs vary with the stand, size of job, and weeds. In some sections thinning and hoeing cost $10 per acre. In more favored sections the cost is less, while in weedy sections the cost climbs to $15 or $18 per acre. Costs of hand work vary with the size of field, condition of stand, probable yield, working and living conditions, and reputation of grower and contractor. For example, in 1925 thinning costs and 1924 harvest costs varied as follows: Thinning $4.50 to $6.50 per acre Hoeing 3.50 to 8.00 per acre CIRC. 302] T HE SUGAR BEET IN CALIFORNIA Pulling, topping and loading: If yield was Range in prices paid 8 tons per acre 88e to $1.35 per ton 10 tons per acre 83 to 1.20 per ton 12 tons per acre 80 to 1.10 per ton 14 tons per acre 75 to 1.10 per ton 16 tons per acre 70 to .90 per ton 33 Man labor is the biggest single item entering into the cost of producing beets. Attainment of increased profits therefore suggest that efficient use be made of man power. In percentage the item of man labor constitutes close to half the total cost of production, and necessitates the use of 89 hours of man labor per acre.* SUMMAKY Sugar beets have been grown in California for half a century, since the initial run at Alvarado of the first financially successful sugar beet mill to operate in the United States. The acreage in sugar beets is now declining in California. Sugar beets are grown in three general areas of California for nine factories. One mill is idle. Several other mills have been dismantled during the past few years. The blight, known as curly top, which is transmitted by a leaf hopper, is the principal factor limiting expansion of acreage. Cali- fornia possesses satisfactory conditions of soil, moisture, climate, market and labor. Sugar beets are commercially grown only under contract made between grower and a sugar mill. One general type of contract is in use, providing that payment to grower shall be based on the sugar content of his beets and the net selling price of sugar. Two schedules for payment are in operation, one set of rates being used by factories in the southern part of the state, and another set by factories in the northern area. Deep soil preparation, formation of a good seedbed, early planting, frequent cultivation, proper thinning, optimum moisture supply, and mainteance of soil fertility are particularly necessary if the best results are to be obtained with sugar beets. Preferable times of planting are : Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, January 1 to March 15. Southern California, November 15 to April 1. Central coast counties, February 1 to June 1. *U. S. Department of Agriculture Bull. 760:1-48, 1919. 34 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION In harvesting, the beets should be topped at the ground line to insure minimum removal of plant food. Beets are placed in rotation when yields begin to decrease or to secure the beneficial effects of their culture on subsequent crops. Sugar beet tops are of value for stock feed. Much hand work is necessary in producing a crop, and labor able to do the manual work must be assured. Mexican and Filipinoes comprise the principal supply of hand workers. Labor contracts are in use between farmers and workers. Given a good soil and good crop management, blight is the limiting factor in sugar beet production. Its control may be materially aided by regulating planting and providing good growing conditions. Other troubles occurring from time to time, or in certain localities, are of lesser importance. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FEEE DISTRIBUTION BULLETINS No. No. 253. Irrigation and Soil Conditions in the 361. Sierra Nevada Foothills, California. 261. Melaxuma of the Walnut, "Juglans 362. regia." 363. 262. Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba Compared with Those of California. 364. 263. Size Grades for Ripe Olives. 268. Growing and Grafting Olive Seedlings. 365. 273. Preliminary Report on Kearney Vine- 366. yard Experimental Drain. 275. The Cultivation of Belladonna in 367. California. 276. The Pomegranate. 368. 277. Sudan Grass. 278. Grain Sorghums. 369. 279. Irrigation of Rice in California. 280. Irrigation of Alfalfa in the Sacra- 370. mento Valley. 371. 283. The Olive Insects of California. 285. The Milk Goat in California. 372. 294. Bean Culture in California. 304. A Study of the Effects of Freezes on 373. Citrus in California. 374. 310. Plum Pollination. 312. Mariout Barley. 313. Pruning Young Deciduous Fruit 375. Trees. 319. Caprifigs and Caprification. 376. 324. Storage of Perishable Fruit at Freez- ing Temperatures. 377. 325. Rice Irrigation Measurements and 379. Experiments in Sacramento Valley, 3 80. 1914-1919. 328. Prune Growing in California. 381. 331. Phylloxera-Resistant Stocks. 334. Preliminary Volume Tables for Sec- 382. ond-Growth Redwood. 335. Cocoanut Meal as a Feed for Dairy 383. Cows and Other Livestock. 339. The Relative Cost of Making Logs 384. from Small and Large Timber. 340. Control of the Pocket Gopher in California. 343. Cheese Pests and Their Control. 385. 344. Cold Storage as an Aid to the Mar- 386. keting of Plums. 346. Almond Pollination. 387. 347. The Control of Red Spiders in Decid- 388. uous Orchards. 348. Pruning Young Olive Trees. 389. 349. A Study of Sidedraft and Tractor 390. Hitches. 350. Agriculture in Cut-over Redwood 391. Lands. 352. Further Experiments in Plum Pollina- 392. tion. 394. 353. Bovine Infectious Abortion. 354. Results of Rice Experiments in 1922. 395. 357. A Self-mixing Dusting Machine for 396. Applying Dry Insecticides and Fungicides. 397. 358. Black Measles, Water Berries, and Related Vine Troubles. 398. 359. Fruit Beverage Investigations. Preliminary Yield Tables for Second Growth Redwood. Dust and the Tractor Engine. The Pruning of Citrus Trees in Cali- fornia. Fungicidal Dusts for the Control of Bunt. Avocado Culture in California. Turkish Tobacco Culture, Curing and Marketing. Methods of Harvesting and Irrigation in Relation of Mouldy Walnuts. Bacterial Decomposition of Olives dur- ing Pickling. Comparison of Woods for Butter Boxes. Browning of Yellow Newtown Apples. The Relative Cost of Yarding Small and Large Timber. The Cost of Producing Market Milk and Butterfat on 246 California Dairies. Pear Pollination. A Survey of Orchard Practices in the Citrus Industry of Southern Cali- fornia. Results of Rice Experiments at Cor- tena, 1923. Sun-Drying and Dehydration of Wal- nuts. The Cold Storage of Pears. Walnut Culture in California. Growth of Eucalyptus in California Plantations. Growing and Handling Asparagus Crowns. Pumping for Drainage in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Monilia Blossom Blight (Brown Rot) of Apricot. A Study of the Relative Values of Cer- tain Succulent Feeds and Alfalfa Meal as Sources of Vitamin A for Poultry. Pollination of the Sweet Cherry. Pruning Bearing Deciduous Fruit Trees. Fig Smut. The Principles and Practice of Sun- drying Fruit. Berseem or Egyptian Clover. Harvesting and Packing Grapes in California. Machines for Coating Seed Wheat with Copper Carbonate Dust. Fruit Juice Concentrates. Cereal Hay Production in California. Feeding Trials with Cereal Hay. Bark Diseases of Citrus Trees. The Mat Bean (Phaseolus aconilifo- lius). Manufacture of Roquefort Type Cheese from Goat's Milk. Orchard Heating in California. CIRCULARS No. No. 87. Alfalfa. 154. 113. Correspondence Courses in Agriculture. 117. The Selection and Cost of a Small 155. Pumping Plant. 157. 127. House Fumigation. 160. 129. The Control of Citrus Insects. 164. 136. Melilotus indica as a Green-Manure 166. Crop for California. 167. 144. Oidium or Powdery Mildew of the 170. Vine. 151. Feeding and Management of Hogs. 173. 152. Some Observations on the Bulk Hand- ling of Grain in California. 178. Irrigation Practice in Growing Small Fruit in California. Bovine Tuberculosis. Control of the Pear Scab. Lettuce Growing in California. Small Fruit Culture in California. The County Farm Bureau. Feeding Stuffs of Minor Importance. Fertilizing California Soils for the 1918 Crop. The Construction of the Wood-Hoop Silo. The Packing of Apples in California. CIRCULARS — No. 179. Factors of Importance in Producing Milk of Low Bacterial Count. 184. A Flock of Sheep on the Farm. 190. Agriculture Clubs in California. 199. Onion Growing in California. 202. County Organizations for Rural Fire Control. 203. Peat as a Manure Substitute. 209. The Function of the Farm Bureau. 210. Suggestions to the Settler in California. 212. Salvaging Rain-Damaged Prunes. 214. Seed Treatment for the Prevention of Cereal Smuts. 215. Feeding Dairy Cows in California. 217. Methods for Marketing Vegetables in California. 220. Unfermented Fruit Juices. 228. Vineyard Irrigation in Arid Climates. 230. Testing Milk, Cream, and Skim Milk for Butterfat. 231. The Home Vineyard. 232. Harvesting and Handling California Cherries for Eastern Shipment. 233. Artificial Incubation. 234. Winter Injury to Young Walnut Trees during 1921-22. 235. Soil Analysis and Soil and Plant Inter-relations. 236. The Common Hawks and Owls of California from the Standpoint of the Rancher. 237. Directions for the Tanning and Dress- ing of Furs. 238. The Apricot in California. 239. Harvesting and Handling Apricots and Plums for Eastern Shipment. 240. Harvesting and Handling Pears for Eastern Shipment. 241. Harvesting and Handling Peaches for Eastern Shipment. 242. Poultry Feeding. 243. Marmalade Juice and Jelly Juice from Citrus Fruits. 244. Central Wire Bracing for Fruit Trees. 245. Vine Pruning Systems. 247. Colonization and Rural Development. 248. Some Common Errors in Vine Prun- ing and Their Remedies. 249. Replacing Missing Vines. 250. Measurement of Irrigation Water on the Farm. 251. Recommendations Concerning the Com- mon Diseases and Parasites of Poultry in California. 252. Supports for Vines. 253. Vineyard Plans. 254. The Use of Artificial Light to Increase Winter Egg Production. 255. Leguminous Plants as Organic Fertil- izer in California Agriculture. 256. The Control of Wild Morning Glory. 257. The Small-Seeded Horse Bean. (Continued) No. 258. 259. 260. 261. 262. 263. 264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269. 270. 271. 272. 273. 274. 275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 281. 282. 283. 284. 285. 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. 294. 295. 296. 297. 298. 299. 300. Thinning Deciduous Fruits. Pear By-products. A Selected List of References Relating to Irrigation in California. Sewing Grain Sacks. Cabbage Growing in California. Tomato Production in California. Preliminary Essentials to Bovine Tuberculosis Control. Plant Disease and Pest Control. Analyzing the Citrus Orchard by Means of Simple Tree Records. The Tendency of Tractors to Rise in Front; Causes and Remedies. Inexpensive Labor-saving Poultry Ap- pliances. An Orchard Brush Burner. A Farm Septic Tank. Brooding Chicks Artificially. California Farm Tenancy and Methods of Leasing. Saving the Gophered Citrus Tree. Fusarium Wilt of Tomato and its Con- trol by Means of Resistant Varieties. Marketable California Decorative Greens. Home Canning. Head, Cane, and Cordon Pruning of Vines. Olive Pickling in Mediterranean Coun- tries. The Preparation and Refining of Olive Oil in Southern Europe. The Results of a Survey to Determine the Cost of Producing Beef in Cali- fornia. Prevention of Insect Attack on Stored Grain. Fertilizing Citrus Trees in California. The Almond in California. Sweet Potato Production in California. Milk Houses for California Dairies. Potato Production in California. Phylloxera Resistant Vineyards. Oak Fungus in Orchard Trees. The Tangier Pea. Blackhead and Other Causes of Loss of Turkeys in California. Alkali Soils. The Basis of Grape Standardization. Propagation of Deciduous Fruits. The Growing and Handling of Head Lettuce in California. Control of the California Ground Squirrel. A Survey of Beekeeping in California ; The Honeybee as a Pollinizer. The Possibilities and Limitations of Cooperative Marketing. Poultry Breeding: Rpcords. Coccidiosis of Chickens. The publications listed above may be had by addressing College of Agriculture, University of California, Berkeley, California. 10m-l.'26