\\zns |,vf7^ *-LA AT ATHENE PLATE 2 16 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the capital, the base and the capital being subdivided into different parts, each of which had its name and proportion. Indeed, the column is so important a part of classic architecture that the exact proportions of each part are settled by rule, according to the order used. (Fig. 1.) Q. What is an abacus? A. A flat slab or tablet forming the upper member of a capital. In the Tuscan and Doric orders it is square, but in the other orders it is hollowed out at the sides and the corners cut off. Q. What are pilasters? A. Pilasters are flat, square columns attached to a wall, behind a column or along the side of a building, and projecting from the wall about a fourth or a sixth part of their breadth. The Greeks had a slightly differ- ent design for the capitals of pilasters and made them the same width at top as at bottom, but the Romans gave them the same capitals as the columns and made them of diminished width at the top, similar to the columns. Q. What is a colonnade? A. A colonnade is a range of columns, and the name is usually prefixed to it, signifying the number of col- umns it contains, and founded on the Greek word for that number. Q. Give examples of these different names. A. A colonnade with four columns is called tetra- style; with six columns, hexastyle; with eight columns, octastyle; with ten columns, decastyle, and so on. If the space between the columns is equal to one and a half diameter of the column it is called pyenostyle; if to two diameters, systyle; if to two and a quarter EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 17 diameters, ustyle; if to three diameters, diastyle, and if to four diameters, arseostyle. Q. What is a colonnade called when in front of a building ? A. It is then called a portico (Fig-. 2), and when entirely surrounding the building, peristyle; and when the columns are double or treble of depth, polystyle. (Fig. 3.) Fig. 3. Q. What is an arcade? A. An arcade is a series of arches and pillars, either open or attached to a wall, and is, perhaps, one of the most beautiful and pleasing combinations which archi- tecture affords. Q. What are the spaces between the arches in an arcade called? A. Spandrils, which in mediasval architecture are often carved with a diapered pattern or decorated with tracery or paneling. Q„ What is the chief use of an arcade? 18 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A. An arcade, when outside of a building, is gener- ally used to support a balcony or promenade outside the first floor windows. Arcades also afford shelter from rain and heat; the only real objection to their use is that they obstruct the light from the ground floor. They are more frequently used on the continent of Europe than in this country. Q. Describe the entablature. A. The entablature comprises the whole of the parts between the tops of the columns and the pediment, and consists of the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. (See Fig. 1.) Fig. 4. BESS Fig. 5. l^mmMi Q. What is the architrave? A. The architrave (or principal beam, as the name implies) is the lowest division of the entablature, rest- ing immediately on the tops of the columns. (See Fig. 4.) Q. What is the frieze? A. The frieze (or ornamental part) is the division between the architrave and the cornice, and in the an- cient Grecian examples was beautifully sculptured. In the Tuscan order it is quite plain, as that order is desti- tute of ornament. In the modern Italian style it is EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 19 sometimes plain, but swelled out, or, as is technically termed, cushioned. (See Fig. 1.) Q. How is the frieze ornamented in the Doric order? A. By triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs con- sist of three vertical angular channels or flutes separated by flat spaces, and were generally placed by the Ro- mans over the tops of the columns. Metopes (Fig. 5) are the spaces between the triglyphs, and originally were left open, and when filled in were quite plain. In Roman buildings they were usually carved with a representation of an ox skull, but sometimes shields and other devices were used. The Romans considered it essential that the metope should be an exact square. Fig. 6. Q. "What is the cornice? A. The cornice (Fig. 6) is the horizontal molding on the top of the frieze, and the division between the cornice and the frieze is generally marked by a row of small square locks, called dentals, placed at regular intervals of about two-thirds or three-fourths of their breadth. The cornice is varied for each of the orders. Q. What is the pediment? A. The pediment is the triangular crowning part of a portico, and corresponds with a gable in Gothic 20 EASY LESSONS IN AKCHlfECTURE architecture, excepting that the angle is much more ob- tuse than that of a gable. The angle of the pediment corresponds with the slope of the roof. (Fig. 3.) Fig. 7. Q. To what other uses are pediments applied? A. In the modern Italian styles the tops of door- ways and windows are often arranged as pediments, Fig. 8. which are supported on consoles, trusses or brackets, and in later examples such pediments are often seg- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 21 mental or circular at top, instead of angular. (Fig. 7.) Q. What are caryatides? A. Caryatides (Fig. 8) are colossal emblematical figures, made to do duty as columns, to support por- ticoes, etc. There is no doubt that, as a means of sup- port, columns would answer the purpose much better, but they were often used by the Greeks when an extra amount of decoration was required. Male figures are called Telamones and Atlantes, or Persians. ON THE ORDERS OF GRECIAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Q. What do you mean by an order? A. An order, in Grecian and Roman architecture, consists of the column, base, pedestal, capital, frieze, cornice, and moldings belonging to it. Q. How many orders are there ? A. Five. There are three primary Greek orders, viz. : The Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. Two mose were added by the Romans, viz. : The Tuscan, a modification of the Doric, and the Composite, a modifi- cation of the Corinthian. Q. Describe the principal features of the Doric order. A. The Doric order was the oldest and simplest of the three Greek orders. The shafts of the columns are fluted, and the flutings, which are twenty in number, are not quite a semicircle in depth, are separated only by a sharp edge and not by a fillet. As used by the Greeks, this order was without base or pedestal. Q. What is the proportionate height of a Doric column? 22 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A. The height of a Doric column is usually from seven to eight times its diameter at the bottom. Q. How is the Doric column surmounted? A. The Doric column is surmounted by a capital, consisting of a perfectly plain square abacus, with a single line of molding underneath it, technically termed a quirked ovolo. J«iB8B«HHM Fig. 9. DORIC ORDER. A— Plan of the Sofite Corona. B— Plan of the Capital. C— Plan of Base. Q. Describe the Tuscan order. A. The Tuscan order, which was founded by the Romans, is a variety of the Doric, and is principally distinguished by its massiveness and strength. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 23 Q. What is the proportionate height of the column, and how is it surmounted? A. The columns are seldom higher than from five- and-a-half to seven times their diameter at the bottom; they have a simple square abacus and ovolo for a capital, and rest on a massive cubical base, with a torus mold- ing. The shafts are never fluted. (Fig. 10.) Fig. 10. TUSCAN ORDER. A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. Q. In what position is this order placed in modern erections of more than one story and where several or- ders are used? A. In such a case this order would be used for the basement or lower stories, which would give an air of strength and solidity to the whole. 24 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. Describe the Ionic order. A. This order is the second of the orders adopted by the Greeks and is of lighter character than either the Doric or the Tuscan. The shafts are generally, though not always, fluted, with a fillet between the flut- ings. iW^ J tt.fi-ffE « ; K¥*« B «'•& E'»" Bi * lr ? Fig. 11. IONIC ORDER. A — Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. Q. What is the proportionate height of the Ionic column ? A. The total height of the column ought not to ex- ceed nine times its diameter at the base, including the pedestal, if there is one. As used by the Grecians, this EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 25 order was without a pedestal, but the Romans added one. Q. How is the Ionic column surmounted? A. It is surmounted by a capital, having spiral- shaped scrolls at each side, termed volutes. It has also a molded base at the bottom, in height about half the diameter of the shaft. (Fig. 11.) Fig. 12. CORINTHIAN ORDER. A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. Q. Describe the Corinthian order. A. This order is the lightest and most elegant of the three orders used by the ancient Greeks. The shaft of the column is fluted and the cornices and mouldings are richer than those of the Ionic or Doric orders. 26 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. Wlhat is the proportionate height of the Corin- thian column? A. The Corinthian column is generally about nine- and-a-half or ten times its diameter in height, including the molded base. It generally, though not invariably, rests on a pedestal. w - V/j s i pfla = i )M&n = L JIPl | I H =3 L^ru all HMIIHHIIIH V / Fig. 13. COMPOSITE ORDER. A— Plan of Sofite of Cornice. B— Plan of Capital. Q. How is the Corinthian column surmounted? A. It is surmounted by a very beautiful capital, which is the distinguishing feature of the order. It is richly carved and surrounded by three rows of acanthus leaves. The abacus at the top is hollowed out at the sides, and has the corners cut off. (Fig. 12.) EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 27 Q. Describe the Composite order. A. The Composite order, used by the Romans is, as its name implies, composed of a combination of other orders. It is extremely light and elegant, partaking of the character of both the Ionic and Corinthian orders, and usually possessing rather more ornament. Q. Wliat is the proportionate height of the column, and how is it surmounted? A. It is of the same proportion and height as the Corinthian and has a capital consisting of a combina- tion of the Ionic and Corinthian; it has two rows of acanthus leaves, with a modification of the Ionic scrolls. The abacus is hollowed out at the sides, like the Co- rinthian. (Fig. 13.) ON PLANS, FOUNDATIONS, AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF ARCHES. Q. What are the first steps generally taken by an architect in the erection of a building? A. The preparation of plans and drawings showing the design of the building intended to be erected. Q. 'How many sets of plans are necessary to convey an accurate idea of the appearance and arrangement of the intended building? A. Four, viz., the ground plans, the elevations, and the perspective, and sectional plans. Q. Of what do the ground plans consist ? A. The ground plan is a representation of a hor- izontal section of the intended building, showing the shape of the ground plot whereon it is to be erected, the outlines of the walls and the distribution and ex- tent of the various parts. When necessary this plan is 28 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE repeated for each floor. In a ground plan the solid parts, such as walls and piers, etc., are shaded or col- ored dark to distinguish them from the open parts. Q. What is meant by an elevation? A. The elevations are correct drawings of the front and sides of the proposed building, showing its height and proportions. Q. What is the perspective drawing? A. A representation of the intended building as viewed from a given point, showing the general effect of - its appearance. Q. What are the sectional drawings? A. Drawings representing a perpendicular section of the building cut in two from the top to the bottom, showing the internal arrangement of floors, staircases, chimneys, etc. Q. What are the next steps to be taken in the erec- tion of a building? A. The preparation of the foundation, which must be of sufficient firmness to insure that there shall be no settlement or sinking of the building at any part. Q. When the ground is not naturally firm enough to insure the stability of the building, how is this reme- died? A. Artificial foundations are prepared of concrete. A trench is dug about twice the width of the thickness of the wall at the foundation, and of a depth in pro- portion to the height of the building or as the ground is more or less to be trusted, and is filled with a mix- ture of broken or small loose stones, sand, and Portland cement. This mixture, which is dropped into the trench from some height, speedily sets, and becomes almost as hard as solid rock. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 29 Q. Are the walls then raised on this foundation? A. Yes, and they should be twice as thick for the basement as for the rest of the building. In fact the remainder of the wall is sometimes slightly reduced in thickness for each succeeding story. Q. When openings are required in the basement walls, how are they constructed so as not to diminish their strength? Fig. 14. SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. A A— Abutments. S S— Springers. V V— Voussoirs. I 1 — Imposts. IN— Intrados. K— Keystone. PP— Piers. EX— Extrados. Fig. 15. INVERTED ARCHES A. In such cases inverted arches are used, and the opening above is covered by means of an ordinary arch or iron girder. Q. Explain the principle of the inverted arch. (Fig. 15.) A. Inverted arches are used to prevent the weight of the superstructure pressing the piers into the earth at any point, which might occur owing to their not be- ing sufficiently broad in surface at the bottom. The inverted arches distribute the weight along the whole length of the foundation wall. 30 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. What is an arch? A. An arch is a curved structure, open below and closed above, and when properly constructed is sup- ported by the pressure of its component parts. Q. In what style of ancient architecture was the arch systematically employed? A. In that of the ancient Romans, by whom it was used both for engineering and ornamental purposes, but it enters most largely as a constructive principle into the mediaeval styles. Fig. 16. BRIDGE OF ST. ANGELO OVER THE TIBER AT ROME. Q. Was not the arch used by the ancient Greeks? A. No. They seem to have been unaoquainted with the principle of the arch, all their doorways, windows and spaces between columns being on the principle o£ the architrave. Q. How do you account for the absence of the arch in Greek architecture and its frequent use in Roman? A. The reason is apparent when the natural features of the different countries are considered. In Greece there are few or no rivers, in fact, they can hardly be called more than rivulets or streams, and the means of crossing them were simple, but in Italy the width of the rivers necessitated the use of arched bridges. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 31 Q. Name some of the uses of the arch. A. The arch is most frequently used where there is weight to be supported and open spaces are needed be- low, for instance, in bridges, viaducts, and the walls of churches, between the nave and aisles. Fig. 17. ROUND ARCH. Fig. 18. EQUILATERAL ARCH. \ \ t / / / \ \ ! i / / W Fig. 19. PLAT ARCH. Q. ' Give an example of the use of the arch by the ancient Romans. A. The ancient Romans employed the arch in their viaducts or artificial roads, in their bridges, and in their aqueducts, and for ornamental purposes, chiefly in their triumphal arches, which were erected to honor the re- turn of their victorious generals and to celebrate their triumph Q. Describe the construction of an arch. A, An arch is composed of voussoirs or wedge- shaped pieces of stone or brick, and the lines formed by the interstices between the voussoirs all point to the 32 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE center of the arch, or to the center of the segments of arcs which form the arch, as will be clearly seen from the diagrams. The outer line is called the extrados and the inner line the intrados. Q. What are the abutments of an arch? A. The abutments are the solid pieces at the sides of the arch, and it is obvious that these must be suffi- ciently strong to bear the thrust of the arch. Q. How is the arch measured? A. The distance between the piers is called the span of the arch; and from the level line of the springing to the point or top of the arch, is its height. Fig. 20. ROUND ARCH WITH CROSSETTES. Q. Are there not other modes of shaping the vous- soirs ? A. Yes; but they are only variations of the prin- ciple already explained, and are perhaps resorted to more for ornament than for additional strength; the principal is the same in each case, as will be seen by the diagrams. In Fig. 20, six of the voussoirs have cros- settes or elbows, overlapping the adjoining stone, which gave them a horizontal as well as a central bearing; in Fig. 21, the voussoirs are cut to fit into each other, or in technical phrase joggled. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 33 Q. What is the name of the uppermost or middle voussoir ? A. The keystone; it is generally larger than the other vonssoirs and it is so named because it forms, as it were, a key to bind the whole arch firmly together. Q. Is the arch capable of supporting much weight ." A. Yes, if the arch is properly constructed it is capable of supporting an equal, if not greater weight, than a solid wall. Fig. 21. FLAT ARCH, JOGGLED. Q. Is this the case with brick work without any masonry ? A. Decidedly. If the brick are gauged to the proper shape, and the arch rightly constructed, with a double or treble course of bricks to form the arch, it will, after the wall has been carried up a little way, be capable of supporting as much weight as if there were no open- nig. 34 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE GENERAL DETAIL OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. Section I. — Ecclesiastical. Q. Name some of the chief features peculiar to me- dieval or Gothic architecture. A. Arches, pillars, buttresses, towers, spires, and pinnacles, traceried windows, and high pitched roofs. Fig. 22. TARRAGONA CATHEDRAL. Q. How many different kinds of arches are there, and name them? A. Nine, viz. : 1. Semi-circular, used in the Roman, Saxon and Nor- man styles, but rarely met with in the Gothic. 2. The lancet or sharp-pointed, belonging to the Early English period. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 35 3. Equilateral. J belonging to the Geometrical and Cur- 4. Ogee vilinear Decorated periods. 5. Four centered, belonging to the Perpendicular period. 6. Drop 7. Straight and • 8. Shouldered used in the various transitional periods. 0. Rampant, used in either style for staircases. There are some variations of these occasionally met with, for instance, the horseshoe in the Moorish and the stilted arch in the Norman, the three and five-cen- tered in the Perpendicular period, and the flat arch; but those enumerated above are the principal. (Fig. 23.) Q. What is the difference between a Gothic pillar and a classic column? A. The Gothic pillar is generally clustered, giving an appearance of several small pillars united together, and often consists of a large central shaft with four smaller shafts surrounding it. A common form of pillar con- sists of a. square with rectangular recesses at each of the corners a circular shaft in each of the recesses, and a semi-circular one on two or on each of the faces. In the decorated period a lozenge-shaped pillar is often met with, beautifully carved. Q. What kind of capitals and bases are used for a Gothic pillar? A. The bases are generally molded, the capitals also sometimes consist ' of a series of moldings, but as the style was developed, and as more decoration was used, they are richly carved with foliage and flowers copied M EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE from nature, oak leaves, ivy leaves, and the leaves of the whitethorn, hazel, and marsh-mallow, being often met with. Fig. 23. DIFFERENT SHAPE ARCHES. Q. What is a buttress? A. A buttress is a mass of masonry or brickwork, built on the outside of a wall to give it additional strength to resist the strain of the roof, etc. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 37 Q. Are the buttresses alike in all the English styles? A. They are on the same principle, but vary accord- ing to the period. The Early English buttresses stand Fig. 24. PLYING BUTTRESS, BATH ABBEY. A— Buttress with Pinnacle. B -Flying Buttress supporting Clerestory. C— Vaulted Roof of Aisle. D— Pier dividing Nave from Aisle. E— Vaulted Roof of Nave. out very boldly and are generally broken into two or three stages, and reduced in thickness at each stage. In 38 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the decorated examples they are also divided into stages and ornamented with niches and canopies to contain figures. In the Perpendicular period they are but slight- ly different, excepting that they are more often orna- mented with the paneling peculiar to that style. They are often surmounted by pinnacles. Q. What are flying buttresses? A. Flying buttresses are arched buttresses, used when extra strength is required for the upper part of the wall of the nave, etc., to resist the outward thrust of a vaulted ceiling; the lower part of the flying buttress generally rests upon the buttress of the outside wall of the aisles. Such buttresses are most common in the great conti- nental churches; but some beautiful specimens can be seen at Westminster Abbey, Veils Cathedral, Bath Abbey Church, and St. Mary Redeliffe, Bristol. (Fig. 24.) Q. What is a tower? A. A tower is a lofty, square structure, of several styles, and strengthened by buttresses. The object of a tower is to give dignity to a building and also to con- tain a peal of bells, which are placed in an upper cham- ber of the tower called a belfry. (Fig. 25.) Q. Mention some of the best examples of towers in England. A. The towers of Gloucester Cathedral, York Min- ster, Beverley Minster, Canterbury and Lincoln Cathe- drals, and Magdalen College, Oxford, are, perhaps, the finest amongst the many noble towers in Great Britain. Q. What counties in England are celebrated for the fine towers to their parish churches? A. Somersetshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk, which possess a very large number of magnificent towers, any EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 30 one of which might well be the pride of a whole county. Q. What is a spire? A. A spire is a lofty structure built on the top of a low tower, and tapering gradually to point at the top. (Fig. 25.) Heckinerton. SPIRE. Fig. 25. AH Saints" Derby. TOWER. Q. Of what shape is the tapering part? A. The tapering part is generally octagonal, and the angles are often crocheted, i. e., ornamented with carved figures like leaves curling over. There are often 40 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE little windows or niches, and canopies made at intervals. The name of steeple is often applied to either a tower or a spire, or to the combination of both. Fig. 26. GEOMETRICAL FIGURES USED IN TRACERY AND PANELING. Q. Mention some of the finest spires in England. A. The spires of Salisbury and Norwich Cathedrals, and St. Michael's Church, Coventry. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 41 Q. What are pinnacles? A. Pinnacles are small spires used to ornament the tops of buttresses, gables, etc. Q. What are turrets ? A. Turrets are little towers which are used to orna- ment different parts of Gothic buildings ; frequently the high towers of churches and cathedrals are finished off by turrets or pinnacles at the corners. Fig. 27. Q. Are not towers and spires used in classic build- ing? A. They were not used in any ancient examples, but modern buildings often have steeples and the idea is evidently taken from the Gothic, though not with very great success. The best specimens are those by Sir Christopher Wren, St. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, Christ Church, Newgate Street, and St. Michael-le-Querne, Fos- ter Lane, are, perhaps, the three best examples that can be mentioned, though there are many copied from them. Q. What is tracery? 42 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A. Tracery is the ornamental stonework in the head of windows forming geometrical and flowing patterns, or caused by the intersection and combination of mull- ions. (Figs. 26, 27, 28 and 29.) Q. What are mullions? A. Mullions are the upright divisions of the stone- work, dividing the windows into compartments or lights. (Figs. 26 and 27.) Q. What was the origin of mullions and tracery? A. No doubt the first idea of mullions and tracery was obtained by the combination of two or more narrow windows of the Early English period. S. Ouen. Rouen. Fig. 28. York. Q. How many kinds of tracery are there? A. Two; plate tracery and bar tracery. Q. What is plate tracery? A. Plate tracery is the very earliest form of tracery and belongs to the later periods of the First Pointed or Early English style. It consists simply -of apertures cut in the flat surface of the stonework between the tops of the narrow windows. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 43 Q. Is this, properly speaking, tracery? A. No; the complete idea of Gothic tracery requires not only the lights and figure (or figures) above them shall be combined by label and arch, with mullions in- stead of portions of wall, but that the spandrils in the window-head shall be pierced. Tattershall Castle. S. George's Chapel. PERPENDICULAR WINDOWS AND DOORWAYS. Aylsham. Norwich. Fig. 29. Q. What is bar tracery? A. Bar tracery is the most elaborate form of this kind of ornament and belongs chiefly to the Geometrical and Curvilinear Decorated periods. Its name is derived from the supposed resemblance to bars of iron twisted and bent to form geometrical and floriated patterns. 44 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE Many most beautiful examples are to be found in York Minster. <,). Is the use of tracery confined to windows? A. No; it is also used in paneling and in open screen work of wood or stone. Q. What are transoms? A. Transoms are the horizontal divisions across the mullions and are used in the windows of the continuous or Perpendicular period and are occasionally of great size; indeed, the tracery of windows of this period very often partakes more of the character of open paneling, filled in with glass than is consistent with a true Gothic effect, and this is one of the later features of the period marking the decline of the style. GENERAL DETAIL OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. Section I. — Ecclesiastical. Q. What other feature exists in the windows, panel- ing and screens of Gothic architecture? A. The little arches formed by the mullions are often cusped, that is, there are projections from the curve of the arch, as though another arch were going to spring out. These cusps in the Perpendicular style are often decorated by a flower at the point. Two cusps in the arch form a trefoil, tnree a quatrefoil, and so on. Q. What other shapes do windows assume in Gothic architecture ? A. The wheel or rose, and the squarehead. Q. Describe these. A. The wheel or rose window is circular and is filled with tracery like shafts, radiating from the center, re- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 45 sembling the spokes of a wheel, as in Westminster Abbey, or in waving lines, as in the Flamboyant buildings of France (Fig. 28). The square-topped window used only in the Perpendicular style is divided by mullions and transoms. (Fig. 29.) Q. What is meant by the hood molding ? A. The hood molding, also called the dripstone, is a projecting molding over the tops of traceried windows and doorways. It seldom extends lower than the spring of the arch, and is used for the double purpose of orna- ment and to protect the tracery from the rain. Per- pendicular windows and doorways are almost invariably hooded. Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Q. Describe the construction of a roof. A. The principal parts are the rafters, trusses, posts, purlinsi and braces. Their forms and uses are shown in the diagrams. It will be observed that the object of the tie-beam is to prevent the sloping rafters from spreading out. The king-post stands on the tie-beam and reaches up to the ridge-piece, which it supports, and the braces or struts reach from the foot of the king-post to the middle of the sloping rafters, preventing them from bending in or bulging out, and the purlins are horizontal rafters, running along the sloping rafters at the top of the braces. Sometimes there are two posts on the tie-beam, in which case it is called a queen-post roof. (See Figs. 30 and 31.) 46 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. What is meant by a high-pitched roof? A. Gothic roofs of the Early English and Decorated periods are often of a high pitch, i. e., the sides and base of the roof form an equilateral triangle, the insides being open so that the woodwork is visible. In the Per- pendicular period the roofs were more depressed, that is, the angle at the top was more obtuse, which marks an- other sign in the decline of the true Gothic principle?. (Fig. 32.) Q. What material was used for covering the roof? A. Shingles or thin slabs of oak, which, however, gave way to tiles, and ultimately to lead, as being more durable. Q. What were the means used for conducting the water from the roof? A. The water was collected by a gutter and dis- charged from the roof by spouts called gargoyles, which were frequently carved into a representation of a gro- tesque figure, which threw the water from its mouth. Q. What are corbels? A. Corbels are projecting pieces of timber or stone set in a wall for an arch to spring from, or to support the beam. Q. What is a gable? A. A gable is the upper part of the end wall of a building above the eaves and conforming to the angle of the roof. Q. What is a vaulted roof ? A. A vaulted roof, or more properly a vaulted ceil- ing, as there is always an additional outside roof to cover it, is built on the principle of the arch and is often richly groined and ornamented with bosses and pendants. In some mediaeval building's, probably owing EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 47 to the walls not being of sufficient strength to bear the weight of stone, blocks of wood have been used instead and made to look like stone. (Fig. 32.) Q. What is a groined ceiling? A. Most vaulted ceilings are groined, the groins being the angles formed by the intersection of the arches. In many cases they are rendered more prominent by being ribbed or molded, a boss or ornament being generally placed where all the ribs meet at the top. Fig. 32. VAULTED CEILING. Fig. 33. PENDANT. Q. What other ways are there of ornamenting the ceiling*? A. In the Perpendicular style there is a kind of tracery leading from the pillars and spreading all over the vaulted ceiling. This is called fan tracery. There are also in this style some beautiful examples of flat ceilings divided into panels, the divisions of which are richly molded and ornamented with bosses. Q. What is a pendant? A. A pendant is a hanging ornament, sometimes of large size and often covered with molding or sculpture. It is placed at the conjunction of the fan tracery, or of the ribs at the top of the vaulted roof. The way in 48 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ■which it is supported is shown in the diagram. Pend- ants are principally used in the Perpendicular style, and there are some beautiful specimens in Henry VII 's chapels. (Fig. 33.) Q. How is a Gothic church divided? A. Into nave and aisles, choir and chancel. The nave and aisles are for the congregation, the choir for the singers and the chancel for the celebration of Holy Communion. This arrangement is that which is gener- ally adopted in cathedrals and minsters, but it is not universal, as many small parish churches have no aisle or choir, but simply consist of nave and chancel. Q. What is a lady chapel? A. A small chapel attached to collegiate and other large churches, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and often forming a projection from the main building, generally to the eastward of the chancel. Q. Are these divisions all under the same roof? A. No. The nave is divided from the aisles by arches and pillars and has a roof to itself; the roofs of the aisles are not nearly so high as the nave, and the roof of the choir and chancel is generally either higher or lower than the nave. (Fig. 34.) Q. What are clerestory windows? A. The clerestory, or clear-story, is the name of a series of windows which are often seen over the arches which divide the nave from the aisles, and are so called because they form a clear story above the other parts of the building and to distinguish it from the triforium, which was called the blind story. They are useful to in- crease the light in the nave. (Fig. 34.) Q. What is the triforium? A. The triforium, sometimes called the blind story, is a gallery with small open arches in front built over the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 49 aisles, sometimes in the thickness of the wall, and often between the vaulted ceiling of the aisles and the out- side roofs. (Fig. 34.) Q. What is a porch ? A. A porch is a roofed structure outside the princi- pal doorways, and most usually in height only just covers the doorway, though in some examples there is a room over them. In the debased or Elizabethan style, porches are sometimes carried up as high as the rest of the building and with uniform stories. Fig. 34. Q. What is a canopy? A. A canopy is projecting ornamented covering over doors, windows and niches for receiving statues, etc. They are used in all the Gothic styles, though chiefly in the Perpendicular. Q. What is meant by tessellated pavement, and by whom was it originally used? A. Tessellated pavement is composed of pieces of different colored marble or tiles arranged to form geo- metrical patterns. The Romans often used baked tiles, 50 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE also, which were colored and shaped to form patterns. Many remains of those have been exhumed recently, among which may be mentioned a very fine specimen recently found at Canterbury, and now deposited in Canterbury Museum. Tessellated pavements were large- ly used by mediaeval architects. Q. Did the ancient and mediaeval architects employ the aid of color in their buildings ? A. Yes: color was largely employed by both in the way of coloring the walls by means of frescoes, etc., and in drapery as well as in painted windows. Much of the bareness and coldness noticed in some mediaeval remains is no doubt caused by the absence of drapery and tapes- try hangings, intended to be used by the architect, but which have not been replaced. Q. What great lesson may be learnt from a survey of the remains of both ancient and mediaeval buildings besides their style and form of architecture? A. That ancient architects worked throughout on principle, employing in their construction only such forms as were necessary. We seldom find in the remains of their buildings anything made of plaster while pur- porting to be of stone, or any inscriptions painted while purporting to be incised. Nearly everything is what it seems to be. If Greeks and Romans had erected their buildings as many large modern buildings are erected, we should have but few models from which to take pattern. Evidently their buildings were meant to last, and each stone was laid with the intention that their children in a remote age might find it as perfect as they left it. Their motto was not "this is the cheapest and easiest way to do it, and at any rate it will last our time." The remains of our mediaeval buildings, many EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 51 of which were brought to their present state by sieges and fires, and battering of war engines and yet, the masonry, in many instances remains practically unin- jured. From this we can form some conception of what the whole must have been when just completed by those master builders. ON MILITARY AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. [Although many of the features just described are used both in ecclesiastical and military or domestic architecture, the following are used only in the latter and it is therefore deemed best to describe them in a separate section.] Q. What was the character of the domestic archi- tecture of the ancient Greeks ? A. Very poor; their entire attention was paid to their temples. Q. Was this the case with the ancient Romans? A. No. The ancient Romans paid greater attention to civil and domestic architecture, as the remains of their triumphal arches, amphitheatres, baths and houses testify. Q. .What was the Basilica of the ancient Romans ? A. *Basilica was the name given to the public Hall of Justice ; it generally contained an altar for the adminis- tration of oaths, and a raised platform for the judges. Many of these basilicas were afterward converted into Christian churches. Q. What buildings next to the ecclesiastical struct- ures received the greatest amount of attention from the mediaeval architects? A. The castles of the barons and nobility. Q. What is a castle? A. An edifice of great strength and solidity, being a fortress and palace combined. They were used as dwell- 52 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ing places by the nobility, and were strongly fortified so as to be able to withstand the attack of an invading force. Q. What are the general characteristics of a Gothic castle ? A. Convenience was evidently sacrificed for secur- ity, the apartments were often gloomy, bed-chambers few and small, passages narrow and intricate, and the stairs steep and dark. Q. What was the general plan of defence? A. They were surrounded in most instances by a moat or deep ditch, which was generally kept filled with water so as to render it difficult for the attacking party to get near enough to make a breach in the walls. Q. What were the means of exit and entrance to the inhabitants of the castle? A. A drawbridge or platform which could be lowered or raised when necessary. Q. Supposing the drawbridge was inadvertently left down, what was the defence of the doorway? A. A portcullis, which was a kind of crossbarred gate of great strength, sliding in grooves, which was kept lowered in front of the principal entrance. Q. Describe the principal entrance to a castle. A. The principal entrance was often very imposing, consisting of a long passage with a vaulted ceiling and portcullis at either end, and capable of resisting a pro- longed attack. Q. What was the next defence to the castle? A. The barbican, which was a kind of tower often separated from the castle and strongly fortified to guard the drawbridge and principal entrance. Q. What was the principal tower called? A. The keep. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 53 Q. What is a parapet? A. A low wall to afford protection to soldiers fight- ing on the ramparts of castles and the roofs of other buildings. Q. What is an alur? A. A hidden passage behind a parapet for the pur- pose of watching unseen the operations of besiegers. Q. What are battlements? A. Notched or indented parapets. The solid parts are called merlons, and the openings embrasures, or cre- nelles, through which archers could shoot. Battlements are sometimes employed for ornaments in ecclesiastical structures. Q. What is a bartizan? A. A small overhanging turret projecting from the corners of a tower or from the parapet. They are more commonly used on the Continent than in England. Q. What was the chief apartment in a mediaeval castle ? A. The hall, where all meals were had, and which was often strewed with rushes for the servants to sleep on at night. Q. *What is a bay or oriel window? A. Bay windows were chiefly used in the Perpendic- ular style, and formed a bay or recess at the upper end of the hall. These recesses were either rectangular or polygonal, and when used for an upper story were sup- ported on the outside by corbels, or a projecting series of mouldings. Bay windows or bow windows of semi- circular shape are often used in the modern Italian styles. Q. What was the next important apartment in the castle ? A. The kitchen, which on account of the number of 54 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE retainers and frequent visitors at the castle of a baron, formed a most important feature. It was sometimes a separate building, but was most usually in direct com- munication with the hall. Q. What was the postern gate? A. A private or concealed gate in a castle or mon- astery by which means of exit was obtained or message sent for aid during a siege. Q. What are cloisters? A. A covered arcade on three sides of a quadrangu- lar space in front of a church or monastery; they were used as places of study by the monks, and the space en- closed within them was used for recreation. Q. What were the lavatories? A. Places for washing in monastic buildings, some- times consisting of a fountain or reservoir of water and a stone trough in the cloisters. Q. What is a lantern tower? A. A small turret usually erected on the roof of a hall, or at the junction of a transept ; they were open to view from the ground nearly the whole of their height. The name was also applied to an open erection at the tops of towers, as at Boston Church, Lincolnshire, Eng- land. Q. What are dormer windows? A. They are small windows built out of a high- pitched roof; they are very picturesque in appearance, and are so called because they were originally used for dormitories, or sleeping-chambers. Q. What is the meaning of the term ''batter"? A. Walls leaning inward are said to batter, that is, the top part of the building would be of less circum- ference than the base. Walls of wharves, embankments and fortifications generally batter. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 55 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OP MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. Q. What is meant by the term Gothic? A. The name of Gothic was given to the various Mediaeval styles at a period in th^ sixteenth century Fig. 35. Early English Facade. Fig. 36. when ;a great classic revival was going on, and every- thing not classic was considered barbarian or Gothic. The term was thus originally intended as one of stig- ma, and although it conveys a false idea of the character of the Mediaeval styles, it has been long used to dis- tinguish them from the Grecian and Roman. Q. What change was produced by the general adop- tion of the pointed arch? A. The true principle of Gothic architecture was firmly established. Q. What is the true principle of Gothic architec- ture? 56 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A. The vertical, division, relation, and subordination of the different parts, distinct and yet a unity with each other, and while this principle was adhered to, O^^Mjn ~ fa mm Fig. 37. YORK, Equilateral or Decorated Arch and Pillars. Fig. 38. ST. GEORGE'S CHAPEL. Tudor or Perpendicular Arch and Pillars. Gothic architecture may be said to have retained its vitality. Q. Describe the distinguishing features of the earlier stage of Gothic architecture. mm Fig. 39. Fig. 40. A'. The chief features of the earliest periods are high-pitched roofs, sharp-pointed arches, and narrow windows, and a more severe treatment generally than is apparent in succeeding styles. Lincoln and Salisbury EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 57 Cathedrals and Westminster Abbey are among the most beautiful examples of this period which has been desig- nated as the Early English, First Pointed, or Lancet, on account of the sharp-pointed arches. (Figs. 35, 36, 37, 38.) Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Q. What further progress was made in Gothic archi- tecture at this period, and to what did it give rise? A. The grouping together of two or more windows and inclosing them with an arch. The spaces between Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Fig. 46. the tops of the windows were then pierced, which gave rise to the adoption of plate tracery, which at first con- sisted only of the openings made in the walls between 58 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the tops of the windows. The upright pieces of wall between the windows became narrower and ultimately gave way to mullions, and the two or more windows grouped together became one window, consisting of two or more lights. Q. "What were the next changes introduced into Gothic architecture? A. The principal changes next made were such as further developed the principle of subordination, viz., the widening of the arches and the general adoption of the equilateral form; the use of bar tracery instead nn-nfln n°fifH> Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. of plate tracery, the patterns being worked in geo- metrical forms; the clustering of shafts and the ex- quisite moldings around the arches, doors and windows. (Fig. 26.) Q. "What name has been given to the style now adopted ? A. This style has been called the Geometrical Dec- orated, or Second Pointed, and during this period Goth- ic architecture may be considered to be in its prime, for whatever may be the beauty of succeeding styles — and the question of beauty is quite distinct from that of principle — the departure from the true Gothic principle becomes more and more apparent. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 59 Q. Did these changes take place suddenly or rapid- ly? A. No. The change was very gradual, and many examples exist which partake of the character of both Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. the Lancet and Geometrical Decorated styles. Many buildings were erected exhibiting some of the new features of the former period after they had passed out of general use. These are called transitional. Fig. 5; Fig. 56. Q. Is not this mixture of styles a great hindrance to the assignment of exact dates to mediaeval buildings? A. Yes; but the development of the art rendered 60 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE necessary a period of transition between each stage, and we are indebted to such periods for some of the most beautiful designs. Q. Give some examples of the Geometrical Decorated style. A. Parts of Ely, Exeter, Norwich, York and Litch- field Cathedrals contain exquisite specimens of the work- manship of this period. Q. "What was the next change in principle? A. The next change was one which ultimately re- sulted in the downfall of Gothic architecture; and this Fig. 57. Fig. 58. was the introduction into the tracery of windows of curved forms, blending one into the other, instead of the pure geometrical forms which preserved a separate character, while existing in perfect unity (Fig. 60). This style, which commences the second division of Gothic architecture, is called the Curvilinear or Flow- ing Decorated, and corresponds ' with the Flamboyant style of France. Q. Describe the Flamboyant style of architecture. A. The Flamboyant style was contemporary in France with the Curvilinear and Continuous styles of EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 01 Groat Britain. This name was given to it because of the resemblance of its tracery to the waving of flames. The Church of St. Ouen, Rouen, and the Cathedral of Har- fleur in Normandy, contain beautiful specimens of this style. Q. How did this change lead to the downfall of Gothic architecture? A. Because it involved a departure from the true Gothic principle, the unity of separately exist ing parts, and allowed to the flowing of one form into another, thereby acting upon a new principle — viz., the absorp- tion or blending together of different parts. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Q. Describe the next stage of Gothic architecture. A. In this stage the principle of continuity is car- ried out to its greatest extent, the capitals of columns become smaller, and ultimately are disused altogether; string courses and bands are more seldom seen, and the perpendicular lines are carried up to the top of the building, until they are finally lost in the fan-tracery of the vaulting. This style has been designated the Tu- dor, Rectilinear Continuous, or Perpendicular style. 62 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. What is the shape of the arches in this style? A. Pointed hut much depressed (Figs. 71-73). This style is remarkable for the introduction and use of the four-centered arch, which is used for hoth pier arches, idoors, and windows, hut which gets more and more de- pressed, until hoth doors and windows are made with square tops, like those of Aylsham and Norwich. Fig. 61. Q. Describe tin 1 window tracery of this period. A. The perpendicular principle of this style is further carried out by the extension of the iiiiillions up to the tops of the windows in place of the flowing tra- cery of the preceding style. The immense size of some of the windows necessitated the use of transoms to sup- port the mullions. Q. What were the other characteristics of this period ? A. The abundant use of paneling hoth for doors and walls, which partakes largely of the character of the window tracery. The moldings are not quite so rich as those of the preceding styles, but the excess of orna- EASY LESSONS IN T ARCHITECTURE 6tt ment generally is so great as to obtain for this style the designation of "Florid." Q. Name some examples which may be considered as specimens of this style. Pig. 62. Fig. 64. Fig. 63. Fig. 65. A. Many very beautiful specimens are in existence, e. g., Henry VII. 's Chapel at Westminster, parts of Fig. 66. Flamboyant Window. Fig. 67. Flowing Tracery. Gloucester Cathedral, Winchester College and Cathe- dral, St. Michael's, Coventry, and Trinity Church, Strat- ford-upon-Avon. 64 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. What was the style of architecture in use in this country in the sixteenth century? A. It was termed Debased, or Elizabethan, and an- swers to the Renaissance of the French, being a curious mixture of the Perpendicular style with the Grecian and Roman architecture which was then being revived. It is remarkable how few churches were erected dur- ing this period, but many very beautiful country man- sions belonging to this time are still in existence. Q. What is the meaning of the term Renaissance? A. The Renaissance is the name given by the French to the style which was developed in their country in Pig. 68. Continuous Window Head. Fig. 69. Arcade, Romsey Church, Hampshire. the sixteenth century from a revival of classic detail, which was mixed up with French Gothic. SOME GENERAL REMARKS. The term Gothic was fundamentally incorrect, be- cause the architecture to which it was applied was nothing more than the natural sequel and outgrowth of the Romanesque style, which in turn was derived from the Roman architecture. The changes of style which came about in the early centuries were due largely to alterations in principle of construction, the use of the round arch by the Romans taking the place of the lintel construction of the Greeks. Official recognition by the Emperor Constantino in the year 328 A. D., and his zeal in building places of worship, brought about the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 65 construction of basilicas. Many of these basilicas were formerly Koman halls of justice and were afterward used as churches. The arch was used extensively in their construction, and their plan had formed the basis for almost all places of worship up to the present day. The gradual evolution of Christian architecture from Italy and elsewhere brought about the style which was appropriately called Romanesque. Speaking of Eng- land prior to the Norman conquest, there was little or no architecture worthy of mention. The few extant Fig. 70. HIP-KNOB, COVENTRY. Fig. 71. remains of Saxon buildings consisted mostly of towers and bore a remarkable resemblance to some built in Italy about the same period. Their chief peculiarity was an arrangement of alternating long and short stones at the corners and in vertical strips on the ex- terior, which was known as long and short work. With the Norman conquest there came extraordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys. These new churches were of the Romanesque type, though differ- ing somewhat from the Norman-Romanesque churches 66 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE of the same period. Gothic architecture was derived from the Norman-Romanesque, the great change taking place in the use of the pointed arch instead of the semi- circular one. The pointed arch was the outcome of the difficulty of making two arches or vaults over two ad- joining spaces of different width, so that they should be of the same height. At the end of the twelfth cen- tury architects were working out this problem, and with the power of the church becoming greater and greater, ecclesiastical architecture made rapid strides, and there was a remarkable variety in unity to be found in the resultant efforts. This variety was due to subdivision Fig. 72. Fig of labor in the design. The builder seemed to have planned only the main scheme of the building, leaving the precise form of each detail to be determined ac- cording to the skill or fancy of the artisan to whom the work was entrusted; and yet, with all this variety, the general scheme was much the same. The period of Gothic architecture lasted about four centuries, in which there were three distinct varieties, known as early English, decorated and perpendicular, as shown by the changes in the form of window tracery, doorways, vaulting and the different forms of moldings characteristic of each period. The period of the build- ing or portion of the building could most easily be dc- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 67 termined by the window tracery, the elaboration of which was due to the increased use of stained glass. The windows not only became more ornate, but much larger, until in the late perpendicular period the walls seemed to be almost a continuous surface of stained glass. At the same time that this occurred the vaulting became more and more elaborate, and with the decad- ence of Gothic architecture at the end of the fifteenth century the vaulting had almost the likeness of lace work. ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF SUCCEEDING STYLES FROM THE ANCIENT GRECIAN TO THE ROMANESQUE. Q. What different races would be likely to have used the primitive forms of habitation you have men- tioned, viz., the cave, the tent and the hut? A. The cave hollowed out of the earth would be most likely to be used by those races who adopted hunting and fishing for their pursuits, and would not have much, time for mechanical occupation. The tent was used by those engaged in pastoral duties, on account of the frequent removals necessitated by changing pasture for their flocks; and the hut was no doubt used by those who were engaged in agricultural occupation, and required a permanent dwelling near the scene of their labors. Q. What styles of architecture are most likely de- veloped from these original sources? A. The architecture of India, Assyria and Egypt was no doubt derived from caves and excavations, that of China, etc., from the tent, while that of Greece and Rome was derived from the wooden hut. Q. Explain very briefly the grounds for assuming 68 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE that the excavated cave was the model for Egyptian and Indian architecture. A. The remains which exist at the present day of the Indian rock-cut temples and the similarity between these and their edifices above ground go far to prove the theory as regards India, while the massiveness and the converging walls of Egyptian architecture give rise to a similar belief. Q. Explain, in a similar manner, the reason for be- lieving the tent to have been the model of Chinese ar- chitecture. A. The principal proof is the form of the roofs, which nothing but a tent could have suggested, and the extreme lightness of appearance which character- izes the style. (See Figs. 73 and 74.) Q. Why may it be believed that the principle of Grecian architecture was derived from the wooden hut ? A. The chief features of Grecian architecture al- ready enumerated all give evidence of their having been copied in stone from what were originally timber structures; and perhaps it will be well to enumerate each portion separately. Q. What was the origin of the column? A. Trunks of trees driven into the ground to sup- port a covering for shelter were the origin of the col- umns used to support the porticoes of temples, etc., which became one of the chief features of the style. As the trees were wider in diameter at the bottom than at the top, so the columns were made to diminish in thickness as they rose. Q. What was the origin of the capitals and bases? A. The first step in the formation of an architec- tural capital was no doubt a flat slab of stone, tile or EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 69 wood placed on the top of the column to give it a larger surface to receive the architrave. The Doric capital consists simply of this square slab or abacus, with an echinus and annule or ring below it, and it has been suggested that the bases were added to raise the columns from the earth to prevent rot from dampness. It must, TEMPLE Of APOLLO EP1CUHIH5 AT BA5&E CS ARCADIA TJ U I OOP o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o OOP o o o ■ ■ i t t tf Plate 3. however, be remembered that the Doric, the earliest of the Grecian orders, had no base. (Plate 3.) Q. What was the origin of the fillets at top and bot- tom of the shafts? A. The column, being originally of wood, no doubt had ties or rings of iron at top and bottom to pre- vent the wood from splitting, and these were afterward imitated in the stone column. 70 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. What was the origin of the architrave? A. The architrave, as its name implies, was the chief beam of wood laid horizontally on the tops of the col- umns, and was intended to support the covering of the entire building. Q. What was the origin of the frieze ? A. The joists of the ceiling rested on the architrave, and the space occupied by their height was the origin of the frieze, the ends of the joists being ornamented with triglyphs, and the open spaces between the joist formed the metopes, which were afterward filled in solid. Q. What was the origin of the pediment ? A. The inclined rafters of the roof projected beyond the face of the building and the angle formed by the pitch of the roof gave the form of the pediment. Q. Explain the different parts of the cuts. (Figs. 30 and 31.) A. aa. The architraves. bb. The ridge piece or columen. c. The king post or columna of a roof, dd. The tiebeam or transom, e. The strut or capreolus. ff. The rafters or contherii. gg. The purlins or templa, hh. The common rafters or asseres. Q. Which of the three Grecian orders gives most encouragement to the theory of the wooden model ? A. The Doric, which was the most ancient, from its severe simplicity gives great weight to the theory of its having been founded upon a translation into stone of previous wooden structures. Q. What was the next step in the advancement of Grecian architecture ? A. The Ionic order, which appears to have sacri- ficed a certain amount of solidity to the attainment of EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 71 elegance and finish, and to have lost a great many of the characteristics of the wooden model. Q. About what period was this? A. About the time of Alexander the Great, at a period when there was a general outburst of talent, both for sculpture and architecture, throughout Greece. Q. What was the next advance made in the art? A. The Corinthian order, which exhibits still further the progress of the art. The beautiful capital of acanthus leaves, the elegant frieze and the costly mar- bles used in its construction combined to make this the most elegant and delicate of the three Grecian orders. Fig. 74. 75. Q. Are the remains of Grecian workmanship nu- merous ? A. No; unfortunately, they are very scarce; and it is conjectured that owing to the value of the materials employed many of the most splendid buildings were taken down by the Romans after their conquest of the country and re-erected in Rome to increase the glories of their own capital. Q. What put a stop to the further development of Grecian architecture? A. The entire subjugation of that country by the Romans. 72 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. To whom must we now look for the further de- velopment of the art? A. To the Romans, who, although they had a style of their own, founded on the principle of the arch, acknowledged the intellectual superiority of the Greeks and submitted to their teaching in the matters of art; and much that was thoroughly good in their own style was disguised or concealed by Greek decoration. Q. Did the Romans go the proper way to work to develop their own style of architecture? A. No; they sacrificed their own superior construc- tive genius, which, if strictly adhered to and properly developed, might in their hands have produced the most stupendous results, for the sake of a foreign ornamen- tation which, however beautiful, was entirely unsuited to their peculiar principle of construction, the Greek capital and entablature being thoroughly antagonistic to the principal feature of pure Roman work. Q. What was the constructive principle of pure Ro- man work? A. The real principle of ancient Roman architecture was that of the arch, and the remains of their build- ings where Grecian decoration was abstained from prove that they were constructed with a massiveness and strength which has rarely been equaled since. Q. What was probably the origin of the arch? A. It is not improbable that the first idea of the arch was suggested by the inclined struts which were often used in timber structures to lessen the strain on a beam, and which were placed from the sides of the columns to the under side of the beam. But in truth the theories which profess to account for the origin of this form of construction are almost endless. Q. What was the character of Roman workmanship? EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 73 A. The detail of Roman workmanship was more meretricious in effect and possessed greater richness than the Grecian, but was destitute of the chaste sim- plicity, sublimity and grandeur of the Grecian model. Q. What was the first symptom of decay in Roman architecture ? A. The abandonment of columns from their natural and legitimate use as a means of support and their em- ployment merely for ornament, in many instances being half imbedded in the walls. Q. "What was the immediate cause of the decline of Grecian and Roman architecture? A. The overthrow of the Roman power by the northern races of Europe, who stripped the temples, etc., of all the gorgeous decorations with which they were adorned, and so revealed the genuine principle of con- struction, which became in their hands the germ of a style which, when fully developed, contained in it all that was beautiful and grand. ON THE ROMANESQUE STYLES. Q. What was the next step toward the development of a new style and the disuse of the ancient? A. The transition period from the Roman style to the succeeding one was marked by the abandonment of the use of the Grecian entablature above the columns, and the use of arches of a semicircular form for win- dow and other openings which sprung immediately from the imposts of the columns. Q. What was the name given to the architecture which succeeded that of Rome? A. The Romanesque. Q. What particular styles of architecture are in- cluded in the Romanesque? 74 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A. The term Romanesque embraces all those styles of architecture which prevailed between the destruc- tion of the Roman Empire and the use of the vertical Mediaeval style, and in it may be included the Saxon, Norman and Lombard styles. Q. What are the chief characteristics? A. They partake much of the character of the de- based Roman style, which accounts for the name of Ro- manesque. The style is also called Byzantine from its introduction at Byzantium. This style may be con- sidered as the progenitor of the Mediaeval styles, as in it may be found the germ of many features which were afterward developed and brought to perfection in them. Q. What peculiar kind of roof is often introduced in Romanesque or Byzantine buildings? A. The cupola, which is a kind of dome, and con- structed on the principle of the arch. Q. What model did the Romanesque builders em- ploy in their erection of the early Christian churches? A. The earliest Christian churches appear to have been built upon a model of the Roman Basilica or Hall of Justice, which was divided down the middle by rows of columns forming aisles, and in many cases had a semicircular recess at the end, no doubt suggesting the idea of the apsidal termination to the chancel, no- ticeable in the remains of many Saxon and Norman churches. Q. Describe the Saxon style. A. The Saxon style was that species of Romanesque which was in use in England before the Norman was introduced. It was of simple character, and no doubt the greater portion of the churches, etc., were of wood, the existing remains exhibiting evidence of their having EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 70 been copied in stone from previous wooden models. The round arch was used and occasionally the pillars were octagonal. The remains of Saxon workmanship in the old parish churches are very numerous, but they are of a very fragmentary character. Q. What was the Norman style? A. The Norman style was that species of Roman- esque which was practiced by the Normans, and which was introduced and fully developed in England after they had established themselves in it. Q. Describe the chief features of the Norman style. A. Plainness and massiveness are the chief charac- teristics of the earlier examples. The arches, windows PIS., 76. CORNICE SUPPORTED BY CONSOLES and doorways were semicircular. The pillars are very massive, and are often built of small stones laid like brickwork. (Fig. 45.) Q. Are the later examples as plain as the earlier? A. No; as the style progressed the ornamentation was more elaborate, and in later examples the arches, doorways and windows are most richly molded (Fig. 42), and often sculptured with grotesque figures. Many beautiful examples of Norman art remain, e. g., parts of Petersborough, Ely, Norwich, Hereford, and Gloucester Cathedrals, and the Chapel of St. Cross, Winchester. 7G EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Q. What other features do the later specimens of Norman work present? A. The elevation of the interior, and the division into the triple range of pier arch, triforium, and cleres- tory. This is a great advance toward the pure Gothic principle, but it is as yet only partial, as the horizontal lines between each remained unbroken. Q. What further advance was required to develop fully the Gothic principle? A. The transitional progress of the Norman style from a Romanesque to a Gothic character was further marked by the introduction of small vertical shafts Fig. 77. Fig. 78. running up the piers of the roof, dividing the triforium and clerestory into parts. The effect of the horizontal division into layers of the Romanesque style is now gone, and the vertical principle of Gothic architecture begins to establish itself. In many later examples of Norman work, the departure from the Romanesque principle is so great as to remove them entirely from the Romanesque class to the Gothic. Q. What other change was now necessary to es- tablish fully the principle of Gothic architecture? A. The universal adoption of the pointed arch, in place of the semicircular, was alone needed to estab- lish fully the principle of vertically, which is one of EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 77 the principal characteristics of pure Gothic architec- ture. Q. "Were the Normans good builders? A. It can hardly be said that they were good builders, for notwithstanding the massiveness of their works they appear to have been careless with their foun- dations, often commencing new work upon the founda- tions of old buildings. Very many of their towers fM!iJ&l*SeBWSHi*SSfc-*r«? '?_ fg*£E?> f P t> &¥*M Fig. 79. have fallen from this cause, and the fact of our having so many remains of their work may be attributed to the immense masses of stone employed in their ma- sonry, rather than to the skill with which they were laid. Q. What is the Lombard style? A. The Lombard style was that species of Roman- esque which was in use on some parts of the Continent 78 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE of Europe during the periods when the Saxon and Norman styles were in use in this country, and corres- ponded with them in its development into the Conti- nental Gothic. ON THE MODERN STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. Q. What course was adopted by architects on the decline of Gothic architecture? A. They tried to adopt the ancient Grecian and Ro- man styles to modern requirements, an attempt which resulted in the production of what is now termed the Italian stvle. Fig. SO. Q. Describe the Italian style. A. The Italian, which embraces the Florentine, modern Roman and Venetian schools, may be considered as an adaptation of the Greek and Roman orders. (Figs. 76, 77, 78 and 70.) Q. What are the chief features of the Florentine style? A. The Florentine, a variety of the Italian style, is characterized by the absence of columns on the* outside and by massive cornices with which the buildings are crowned. This style has rather a heavy appearance. EASY LESSONS IX AUCI I ITK< TITKE 79 The Pandolfini Palace, Fig. 80, at Florence is a very good example. Q. Describe the chief features of the modern Roman style. A. The buildings of this style present a most im- posing appearance, which is not marred by the too great severity of the Florentine school, and the use of columns in the facades renders them more light and pleasing. The Farnese Palace at Rome, Fig. 81, is a beautiful example of this style. The churches at Rome Fig. 81. • built in this style are characterized by an excessive amount of ornament. (See also Fig. 82.) Q. What special feature is introduced in the style known as the Venetian? A. The use of rustic work for the basement and ground floors, which consist in the front edges of the stones being beveled or molded, so that there is a space of one and a half inches or two inches round each stone on the face. The Pompeii Palace, Fig. 82, at Verona, and the Church of St. Mark at Venice are beautiful specimens of this style. Q. What is a Mezzanine? 80 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A. A low intermediate story which is sometimes made in the Italian styles, to run between two stories of greater height. Q. Give the names of two celebrated architects who introduced the Italian style into England with great success, with examples of their works. A. Inigo Jones, who designed the banqueting house at Whitehall, and Sir Christopher Wren, who de- signed St. Paul's Cathedral, St. Stephen's Walbrook, Fig. 82. it nd nearly all the other churches in the city of Lon- don, which were rebuilt after the greal fire. Q. What is the present style of architecture? A. There is no style of architecture that can, strictly speaking, be called that of the present period. The architecture of the present day is chiefly copied or modi- fied from the ancient and mediaeval styles; and archi- tects seem to hope that by strictly adhering to the genuine principles of both, a new style may gradually be developed. THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLES OF ANTIQUITY. PART II. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. ROCK-TEMPLES. 1. Our knowledge of Indian architecture is essen- tially of modern growth, inasmuch as no reference to the subject is to be found in ancient European writ- ings. Although, however, modern research and infor- mation are in general only partial, still they are suffi- cient for the acquisition of a knowledge of the peculiari- ties of Indian art. Our investigations on this subject are favored by the fact that the ancient Hindoo race has subsisted to our own day, and has erected its monu- ments in the same distinctive type, although many minor •alterations may have supervened with the lapse of time. 2. When we take into consideration the great in- fluence which the religion of the Hindoos exercised on the form of their buildings, it may be advisable, before proceeding further, to mention some particulars of the principal features of their worship. In the religion of the Hindoos a distinction must be observed between the creeds of Brahma and of Buddha. They conceive Brahma, as the Supreme Being, to be formless. All emanations from him are worshipped and placed in their temples as idols: Siva, the great god, 81 82 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the productive and at the same time destructive power of Nature, whose symbol is fire, and Vishnu, the pre- serving power, whose symbol is water. These three chief gods, Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu, are also worshipped conjointly as a three-headed figure. Besides them, there is a large number of gods of in- ferior rank. 3. Various sects exist among the Hindoos, the prin- cipal, however, are the Brahmins and the Buddhists, which are essentially antagonistic. The religion of Bud- dha claims to be a purer form of Brahminism, and Gautama, king of Magadha, surnamed Buddha, i. e., The Sage, is considered as its founder. The epoch when he lived is uncertain ; it was, however, not later than 543 B. C, with which date, as that of the introduc- tion of Buddhism into Ceylon, the chronology of the island begins. The religion of Buddha still prevails in Ceylon, as also in the Malay peninsula and in many of the East Indian islands, in the greater part of the Chinese empire, in Thibet, and amongst the Mongolian tribes. 4. Two classes of monuments are to be distinguished in Indian architecture, besides later Mahometan build- ings, which are not to be considered amongst the con- structions of the Hindoos: viz., real structural build- ings and cave-temples, hewn out of the solid rock. 5. The latter kind of structure is frequent in the mountainous district of the Deccan and in the islands of Elphanta and Salsette, in the neighborhood of Bombay, especially at Kanneri ; in the interior of the country and caves at Karli and Mhar, and those near Nassuk and Ajunta, and above all, the marvellous and magnificent temple of Ellora, are especially worthy of mention. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 83 6. We possess but little reliable information regard- ing the age of Indian architectural remains. The dawn of Indian civilization began, speaking in round num- bers, between 2000 and 3000 B. C, while the date of the earliest sacred writings of the people, viz., the Veda, may be assigned to about 1400 B. C. ; and that of the great epic poems, the principal of which are the Ram- ayana and the Mahabharata, to about 1000 B. C. It was in these poems and through these poems as in the case of the Greeks, that the diversified religious system of the Hindoos, namely, Brahminism, was developed. In the middle of the sixth century B. C. the above-mentioned establishment of Buddhism took place, and in the sixth century A. D. the extirpation of that religion from India, by Avhieh time, however, it had extended itself over the countries which have been previously enumer- ated. 7. The cave-temples are earlier than the structural ones; and amongst these a distinction is to be drawn between the Brahmin, which are the older, and the Buddhjst. Their general characteristics are rendered obscure by the multiformity of Indian architecture, and by a want of any settled method: since in excavating the rock neither organic laws nor constructive principles guided Hi.' work, as must needs be the case with structural buildings, but a purely arbitrary scheme based on an uncultivated taste, as well as an uncontrolled fancy, determined the shape of the design. The following points may, however, be selected as being, to a certain extent, normal : — 8. . The Brahmin cave-temples (Fig. 1) are. as a rule, open in front, and are sometimes connected with an 84 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE independent structure hewn out of the solid rock. They consist, generally, of a main quadrangular space, on which the sanctuary containing the image of the god stands; in some instances side spaces also occur. This space is low, with a flat roof, supported by col- umns or piers, the front row of which forms the facade of the temple. Courts with colonnades and side spaces in front of them are also met with. In some cases several temple-spaces are found in continuous proces- sion. Pig. 1. CAVE-TEMPLE OF DUMAS-SEYNA AT ELLORA. A — Entrance. B — Rock-Temple. C — Small Shrine. A clear space, open above, is hewn out of the rock, and surrounds the detached and independent portions of the temple, which consequently has the appearance of being formed of a block left in the center, the ex- ternal configuration of which is shown by Figure 2, which represents the so-called Kylas at Ellora, which was formed about 1000 A. D. In the interior a grotto has been excavated, with several smaller caves in the background. The walls of rock which surround the open space are pierced with galleries containing little shrines. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 85 9. The Buddhist cave-temples differ principally from the Brahmin in not having an open exterior. The in- ternal design of these temples is invariably an oblony space terminating in a semi-circle at the further ex- tremity, surrounded by a narrow passage, which is Fig. 2. KYLAS AT ELLORA. separated from the main space by rows of pillars. The vault-like roof is excavated in the shape of an elongated semi-circle, and at times assumes a horse-shoe form. The roof of the passage is flat. In the background of the central space is the shrine, with the constantly re- curring symbol of Buddhism, the so-called Dagoba, a hemispherical block resting on a cylindrical pedestal, and figurative of a water-bubble, to which the creed of 86 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Buddha likens the human frame, and which is especially intended to portray the transient nature of all that is earthly. 10. The following peculiarities of detail should be especially noticed in the Indian rock-temples. The vegetable kingdom is but little represented in the deC- fc-^ "" ~ j^^-^- ; - ' . ^- ^y '■----— :-7.i_-r-~- ^ Fig. 3. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF BUDDHIST CAVE-TEMPLE AT WISNA KARMA AT ELLORA. orations, which consist on the contrary of combinations of straight and curved lines, and of globular and flat shapes. Animals are also employed in the ornamenta- tion, with a preference for the more powerful beasts, such as lions and elephants; these are introduced as guardians in front of the entrances, while in the in- terior they answer the purpose of supports, or are em- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 87 ployed as ornaments in the capitals and friezes. These animals have probably a symbolic meaning, for both are considered sacred, and according to the Hindoj conception of transmigration, the souls of the mighty are destined to inhabit the bodies of the most powerful beasts. The bulk and weight of these animal forms is in entire accordance with the architectural style of Fig. 4. INDIAN PILLAR FROM THE ROCK-TEMPLE OF PARASONA RAMA AT ELLORA. the whole structure ; as is also the case with the colossal human figures, which are ranged along the walls, cut out in prominent relief. These figures must have cre- ated an impression of awe in the dim twilight which reigned in the temple. 88 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 11. The supports, which in every other style, whether as piers or columns, constitute the distinctive element, assume a vast variety of forms. In some instances, especially in the Buddhist caves, they are quite plain, quadrangular or octagonal in shape, and ornamented at the top with a shallow carved moulding, and surmounted by an abacus. They are generally, however, richer, and composed of four principal parts: (1) of a quadrangu- lar base, which is higher than it is broad, and which terminates above in a sharp arris or in a kind of volute. Fig. 5. INTERIOR OF ROCK-TEMPLE OF INDRA AT ELLORA. On this rests (2) a short round shaft, which springs like a stem from its socket, and which is ornamented either with vertical bands or with flutes. Three circu- lar bands of the same type constitute (3) the neck, on which rests (4) the capital, which generally assumes the shape of a flattened sphere, and which, as is shown in Pig. 5, in most instances supports a quadrangular su- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 89 perstructure, with corbels and an architrave above, on which rests the roof. Since, consequently, none of the individual parts, which have astragals carried round them, stand out prominently, the unity of the pier must Fig. 6. INDIAN PILLAR. naturally suffer, and the columns appear squat and heavy, owing to their want of height in comparison with the breadth. This form of pier is also the basis cf the columnar construction in structural edifices. 90 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 12. Other capitals have the form of a cube instead of a sphere, and have volutes of a ram's-horn shape below. In this case the structure over the quadrangular pedestal is not round, but octagonal and ornamented at the sides. The capitals are, moreover, sometimes covered with figures of animals, as has been mentioned above. At a much later period supports are met with in structural buildings, though not in rock-temples, formed of carv- ings of symbolical figures in high relief, as is shown by the pillar in Figure 6. 13. The pillars in the Buddhist cave constructions are, for the most part, when compared with the Brahmin rock-temples, more slender and more beautiful, their rows closer, their ornamentation less excessive; the walls are not covered with semi-detached figures, and the whole is altogether simpler and freer. In the same way as the most massive forms were in accordance with the precepts of the religion of Siva, so the more enlightened creed of Buddha called forth a simpler form of structure, and the architectural develop- ment maintained its connection with the religious. These heavy massive shapes, these gloomy recesses, en- cumbered with gigantic carvings, are very deficient as "works of art; but, by their very shortcomings, they ac- cord with the dark fantastic spirit of the heathen creeds of Hindostan. 14. With a view to the preservation of the relics of Buddha, or of priests and kings who were considered as sacred, dagobas of various sizes were constructed, called in the vernacular Topes, from the Sanscrit stupa (tumulus) i. c. body-hiding (Fig. 7). They consist of a cylinder-shaped substructure with pilasters, on which rests a second substructure without pilasters, supporting EASY LESSONS IN AKCHITECTURE 91 a superstructure like a cupola. The upper part of this spheroidal dome is in every instance destroyed, aud it is consequently impossible to discover what further adornment crowned the whole edifice. The cupola con- struction is, however, only external, for the interior con- sists entirely of massive masonry, with the exception of some small spaces, in which, for the most part, wen; found valuables, such as jewels and coins of the period of from 100 b. c. to 600 A. d. This cupola form is con- Fig. 7. TOPE OR STUPA. sidered to typify the water-bubble (which was held S> the Buddhists to be the symbol of earthly transitori- ness), inasmuch as the art of vaulting was still unknown, and the massive masonry only assumes that shape in the exterior. 15. Many such monuments are to be found in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, especially in the island of Java; as particularly noteworthy may be mer • tioned those of Brambanan and Boro-Budor, which, however, are supposed to have been erected not earlier than 1100-1300 a. d. A great number of them are to be 92 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE found on the Indus at Monikyala and Beloor, and also in Cabul, on both sides of the highway which leads from India to Persia and Bactria. As mentioned above, similar dagobas of small dimen- sions, proportionate to the size of the construction, are erected in the sanctuaria of the temples. r ■ ■ :. ■ ■ ? € a • '^ m ■ loI ='FFl: iuar n li LJ I I Fig. 8. GROUND-PLAN OF THE PAGODA AT CHILLIMBARAM. PAGODAS. 16. According to the description of a town given in the epic poem of Ramayana, an art, which was at the same time nourishing and magnificent, had given rise to structural buildings as early as 1000 years before the Christian era. Nothing reliable can be adduced con- cerning the age of the existing structural temples of India, which are called pagodas, from the word bhagar- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 93 ati, i. e. sacred house. They belong both to antiquity and modern times. Some of these pagodas are wonderfully large and mag- nificent. They consist (Fig. 8) of one or more quad- rangular courts with towers at the corners, surrounded by a wall (a). Large pyramids (6) rising in stages eover the entrance (Fig. 9), behind which extend colon- Fig. 9. ENTRANCE TO A PAGODA. nades. Inside the courts are lustral pools, colonnades, large halls, called Tschultris, which are used to lodge pilgrims in. Small side-temples appear with cupolas surmounting the accessory buildings. Behind the court is often a second and a third, in which, finally, the chief temple stands. Although the architecture of all these 94 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE constructive designs has no pretensions to artistic or stylic importance, still the drawings, Figures 10 and 11, illustrate, in forming an opinion of these buildings, how a wonderfully fantastic effect is produced by a tasteless excess in peculiar ornamentation and architectural fea- tures. Fig. 10. TEMPLE OP VIMALA SALE (JAINA ARCHITECTURE 12th CENTURY). 17. The most important of these pagodas are those of Madura, Tanjore, and Chillimbaram. The island of Ramisseram furnishes also a large number of these sacred buildings, which are, in their way, magnificent. The most celebrated is the Pagoda of Juggernaut, which was only completed towards the end of the twelfth cen- tury after Christ. This was built after the model of the older temples which are now in ruins, and to be EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 95 found in numbers in the neighborhood of the existing building. Monstrous swarthy idols, with eyes of spark- ling diamonds, are ranged in the interior. The chief Pig. ?1. PILLAR IN FEIMAL NAIK'S TSCHULTRI. temple stands in the middle of a large square court, which is surrounded by a wall, and at the vast entrance are placed two enormous griffins, or winged lions in a 90 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE sitting posture, facing eastwards. The main building consists of an octagonal tower, 180 feet high, resting Fig. 12. PAGODA. j^gjgj^^SJ Fig. IS on a square base. Theangles of the eight sides of the tower are cut off diamond-wise, by which sixteen sides EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 97 are formed, which are ornamented with flutes, and, ap- proaching one another above in arched curves, form a sort of dome, on the top of which a knob or crown unites all the sixteen sides together. From the vestibule in front of the entrance an uninterrupted view is obtained of the idol which stands in the midst of the temple. Be- hind the principal temple are colonnades, towers, and shrines of inferior gods. The whole is encircled with mouldings, human and animal figures, embellishments and inscriptions. Pig. 14. ELEVATION OF THE ENTRANCE-GATE OF THE TEMPLE AT CHILLIMBARAM. 18. All these buildings are of a pyramidal shape, with vertical stages, which are separated by curved roofs and terminate above in the form of a cupola (Fig. 12). Rows of small cupolas stand out from the roofs of the stages. The walls of these stages are covered in a be- wildering way with pilasters and niches, with intricately cut cornices, with varied intersecting mouldings, and with manifold and fantastic embellishments and carv- ings. The pillars, which are round or octagonal, resem- 98 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ble the columnar structure of the rock temples, and are richly ornamented in every part. The inner spaces are low and dark, but the cupolas are high and narrow. (The cucurbitaceous, i. e., gourd-shape cupolas of the more recent pagodas, with fluted pointed arches, are borrowed from Mahometan architecture.) i iil>» i: ■ i i ri SMWinMlllMM Fig. 16. To sum up, it should particularly be observed that in these structures full massive forms, instead of simple and suitable ones, predominate; that a pyramidal super- structure takes the place of the rectilineal and rectangu- lar; and that, finally, neither the main outlines nor the minuter details are determined by fixed laws, but rather by arbitrary discretion. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 99 Figure 13 represents a pilaster at the entrance-gate of the temple at Chillimbaram (Fig. 14), Figure 15 a column, Figure 16 a moulding, and Figure 17 a front of a temple of late Indian style. Fig. 17. ENTRANCE-GATE OF A TEMPLE AT BEJANUGGUR. 16th Century. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 19. We possess varied information regarding the ex- istence of an early civilization in Egypt, both from the Bible and from Greek and Roman authors. Religion, as well as peculiar manners and customs, exercised a great influence on the form of architecture. Besides other gods, Osiris and Isis were especially venerated ; perhaps because a peculiar relationship was established between the inundation of the Nile and the synchronous 100 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE change in the sun's orbit. This yearly inundation of the Nile was of the very highest importance, as it was only from this source that the land derived its fertility. Many of the gods were represented with heads of beasts: and various animals were themselves accounted sacred, as cats, serpents, dogs, ibis, hawks. Two bulls met with especial veneration; Apis at Memphis, and Mneris at Heliopolis. 20. It is supposed that Egyptian religion and culture took their rise in the district of Meroe in the interior of Africa, and that following the course of the Nile they thence spread over Egypt, where, at first, Thebes and Memphis, and in later times under the Greek kings, Alexandria especially, were powerful and important places; particularly the first-mentioned of these towns, as its mighty ruins testify, which are situated in the neighborhood of the present town of Shenay, and not far from the villages of Assur, Naha and Messura. 21. The development of Egyptian culture is to be sought in the primeval history of this people, and its origin may be assigned to as early a date as about 1700 b. c, when the country was freed from the nomad race of the Hyksos, which had burst over it several centuries previously. The essentially brilliant period of Egyptian art was in the middle of the twelfth century, b. c, in the reign of Sesostris or Ramases at Thebes, as is to be seen by the stupendous monumental buildings and figurative repre- sentations of that king, which have reference to his glorious campaigns, and on which his name shines re- splendent. This flourishing condition of Egypt lasted for centuries; till about the middle of the seventh cen- tury, b. c, Psammcticus by the admittance of foreigners EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ' 101 partially put an end to the exclusiveness which the country had hitherto enjoyed. From the beginning of* the sixth century, b. c, however, the country was sub- jected to the Persians under Cambyses, then, from the time of Alexander the Great, to Grecian rulers, till it finally passed under the sway of Rome. Still, however, during these various periods, Egyptian nationality main- tained its existence till the epoch of the extension of Christianity. Through this agency, and especially in consequence of the concpiest of the country by the Arabs at the beginning of the Middle Ages, the old order of things was changed, and a new condition was effectuated. 22. From the expulsion of the Hyksos till about the third century, b. c, a culture, which lasted for 2,000 years, is to be traced in the monuments of Egypt. Tn all probability, however, the epoch of the origin of mmiy of these monuments must be accepted as a much earlier one: for when the yearly average rise of the soil through the inundation of the Nile is taken into consideration, the present elevation of the surface above the old level on which the monuments of Thebes were erected, leads us to the conclusion that they must have been con- structed about 4,760 years before the commencement of the present century, that is to say, 3,000 years before the birth of Christ. In these monuments at Thebes frag- ments have been found which were wrought in a similar style on the reverse side, and which must therefore have formed part of former buildings, and this fact points to the conclusion of the existence of an already long-estab- lished culture at the time of the construction of the pres- ent monuments. 23. The monuments of the golden age of Egyptian art, namely, the time of Sesostris, arc those of Homer's 102 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE hundred-gated Thebes, the capital of ancient Egypt, the diameter of which city was two geographical miles each way. Its ruins are called after the villages which now stand on its site, as the temples and palaces of Luxor and Karnak, with an avenue of colossal sphinxes 6,000 feet long; a palace and the sepulchers of Medinet Abu and Kurnah. Here, too, in the neighborhood are to be seen the Rock-Tombs, the so-called ' ' graves of the kings, ' ' and still further-, below Thebes, the Temple of Tentyris (Denderah). Fig. 18. PYRAMID OF GHIZEH. 24. The most important of the monuments of Nubia, and which have only become known in our own times, are the Rock-Temples of Ipsamboul, the monuments of Derri, Kalabsche, &c. In Upper Egypt, the well-preserved temples in the islands of Philas and Elephantina; those of Syene, Om- bos, Esneh, &c. In Central and Lower Egypt no important remains exist: of the capital, Memphis, we find only tombs, and the pyramids, the sepulchers of the kings. The Egyptian monuments, of which we possess any EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 103 knowledge, consist for the most part of pyramids, the tombs of the kings, and their palaces and temples. 25. The pyramids (Fig. 18) form a distinct class by themselves in Egyptian architecture, and present no points of resemblance with other structures. Their form is substantially invariable — a simple mass resting on a square, or sometimes approximately square, base, with the side facing with slight deviations towards the four principal winds, and tapering off gradually towards the top to a point or to a flat surface, as a substitute for this apex." The proportion of the base to the height is not always the same, nor is the angle of inclination uniform. The pyramids were constructed in platforms, and then reveted or coated with blocks or slabs of granite, as may still be observed in incomplete pyramids. Recently the supposition has been maintained that in the case of the h-rgest pyramids, a smaller one was first erected as a nucleus, and subsequently enveloped by another layer. The interior of these massive structures contains nar- row passages and some totally dark halls or chambers, and probably served as the burial-places of the kings wh i had caused them to be constructed. The entrance to these buildings is raised considerably above the level of the base, and was blocked-up by a portcullis of granite, so as to be on ordinary occasions inaccessible. In the pyramid of Cheops the entrance is raised about 47 ft. 6 in. above the base. From thence a passage about 320 ft. long conducts at an angle of 26° 41' downwards to a ehamber whose roof is about 90 ft. beneath the base of the pyramid. From this chamber leads a corridor which has not yet been explored. As the section in Fig. 19 sh ws. another passage, starting in an upward direction 104 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE from the above-mentioned downward-sloping corridor leads to another chamber, and a still further passage w -/.'/.■;..; I I ' I I 1 I ', ■ ! I- |- //, jno Meters, -4 .v A v- Fig. 19. SECTION OF THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS AT GHIZEH. branching off again, and groAving smaller as it ascends (Fig. 20) conducts to the so-called Crowning Hall or tarn, 7 ■ HKgE | m i : Sam 1 nn i w&MtL I — "' ffl&i - 1 mm i? mm i Wm 1 Sw WL mm m ^m W\ rJ/K-a ■*■'«*» ■ . - ».v . „.■ Fig. 20. SECTION OF A CORRIDOR IN THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. King's Chamber, which is 34 ft. 3 in. long, and 17 ft. I in. bread. The roof of this apartment is formed of massive blocks EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 105 of granite, over which, with a view to supporting the weight, other blocks are laid, with clear intervals be- tween (Fig. 21). The size of the pyramids is various, 5 10 Fig. 21. SECTION OF GRANITE BLOCK ROOFED CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. but for the most part very considerable. The largest is one of those at Ghizeh, and has a perpendicular height of 448 ft, and a breadth of 728 ft. on each side of the base. 106 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE In an aesthetic point of view, these buildings occupy an inferior rank. The impression which they make is to be ascribed to their size and striking simplicity as well A ~~ — A m B B Fig. 22. TEMPLE OF EDFU. A — Pylon. B — Obelisks. C — Entrance. D — Temple-Court. E — Porti- cus. F — Pronaos (Court with colonnades). (3 — Noas. H — Sanctuarium. as to the associations which fancy may link with them. 26. The principal elements in the designs of the Temples (Fig. 22) consist, firstly, of the temple building EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 107 itself, with its vestibules and side-buildings which served as dwelling-places for the priests; secondly, of a closed court which surrounded the actual temple ; and, thirdly, of a stupendous entrance-gate of peculiar shape, called the Pylon. In some instances a second forecourt occurred, before which was likewise a pylon, and occasionally even a third pylon was found. Fig 23. SPHINX AT THEBES. The avenues to these pylons, which are in many in- stances 6,000 ft. long, lead through rows (dromns) of colossal sphinxes or rams (Fig. 23), and through various other smaller entrance-gates, resembling the pylon in form. 27. The pylon (Figs. 24 and 25), the main entrance- gate, which conducts into the front-court, overlooks all the other gates and the whole structure of the temple. The pylon consists of three parts — namely, of two flank- ing towers, and the gateway thus formed between them. This gateway again is flanked by perpendicular jambs 108 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Fig. 24. PYLON AT THE PALACE AT LUXOR. Fig. 25. PROFILE OF PYLON. Fig. 22, WITH COLOSSAL STATUE AND OBELISK. adorned with sculptures, and covered by an entablature consisting of a fillet and a large cavetto. A symbolical carving (Fig. 26) is introduced into this entablature and repeated over every doorway in the interior of the temple, namely an (.'L' the temple produces is maintained by the smaller details, while the slanting form of the outer walls gives the temple an appearance CCCDCC EECC Fig. 31. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF CHENSU AT KARNAK. of solidity and isolation. On this account, and especially owing to its simple unbroken lines, the exterior, although monotonous and heavy, is still imposing. The chief pecu- liarity in the construction of these buildings is that they Fig. 32. BACK VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF PHILAE. produce the effect of being composed of an agglomera- tion of separate parts, which resemble one another, but become smaller and smaller towards the rear of the structure (Fig. 32 ). The Avails of such a temple are covered with rows of sculptures painted in bright colors, and which are sep- 114 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE < a a. <; a j ft. H Eh H a H fa O o t— < H CO eo — fa EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 115 arated by bands, the lower rows on high walls being of greater breadth than the upper. The interior (Fig. 33) has a richer appearance, chiefly owing to the use of col- umns of a round cylindrical shape. These are, moreover, of the most varied form, and without exception represent objects drawn from the vegetable world. Fig. 34. PILLAR OF THE TEMPLE OF EDFU. Fig. 35. PILLAR OF THE PALACE LUXOR. 30. The shaft is sometimes thick and sometimes slen- der, but never diminishing. Its height varies from 3 to 4Mi times the diameter of the base, or, in some in- stances, even 5 to 5% times. This shaft is occasionally smooth, and only ornamented above and below, but it is generally marked off by horizontal lines into divisions, which are covered with sculptures and hieroglyphic^ (Fig. 34). It often consists of convex bands placed ver- tically, which resemble a bundle of thick reeds, and 116 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE which in their turn are surrounded by several horizontal belts (Fig. 35). The shaft almost invariably rests on a circular plinth as a base, which projects more or less in different in- stances. 31. The capitals of the columns display an immense variety. The most beautiful have a crater-like form, and appear like the projecting bell of a flower, with leaves standing out from the surface (Fig. 37). At the lower iWP'WTOfflBii Fig. 36. ORNAMENT ON THE LOWER PART OF THE CAPITALS IN THE TEMPLE AT EDFU. Fig. 37. CAPITAL IN THE TEMPLE AT EDFU. part of the capital there frequently occurs an ornament of diminishing triangles, resembling the sheath from which the stalk of a plant springs (Fig. 36). The siime ornament often occurs at the base of the shaft, and seems to a certain extent borrowed from the shape of the lower portion of the papyrus plant (Fig. 34). Other capitals imitate an unopened bud or seed-pod, as in Fig. 35. In both cases the lotus, which is the sacred plant, is typified. In other instances (though these may perhaps belong to a later period) the pillars are imita- tions of a palm tree, and have a smuoth slender shaft, EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 117 a neck-moulding of several rings, and then, without any intermediate architectural division, a capital formed of the graceful leaves of the palm (Fig. 38). In some tem- ples the pillars have, in lieu of capital, the face of a goddess, probably of Isis, with a drooping sacerdotal hood, and supporting a temple on the head (Fig. 39). This face is repeated on four sides of the circular shaft. 32. In Egyptian architecture the structures are of stone. The coverings of the apertures as well as of the courts were effected by immense blocks of stone laid horizontally to which form of construction the wealth Fig. 38. CAPITAL IN THE TEMPLE AT EDFU. Fig. 39. CAPITAL IN THE TEMPLE AT DENDERAH. of the country in durable kinds of stone conduced. An admirable skill was called forth and developed through this employment of stone, which was for the most part of a kind laborious to work. This style of construction, operating as it did on the form of the structures, must have exercised an influence on Egyptian architecture generally, inasmuch as short, bulky, closely-ranged col- umns were requisite for the support of the nonderous blocks of stone which formed the architraves and roof- beams. 118 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE The blocks of stone which form the architraves do not rest immediately on the capital, but on a quadrangular block of the breadth of the diameter of the upper part of the column. The columns and capitals are in general w r '.' :'.':" 1 raffli Fig. 40. PROFILE OF A COLOSSAL STATUE ON A PIER AT THE PALACE AT LUXOR. Fig. 41. FRONT VIEW OF COLOSSAL STATUE. not uniform, but recur in symmetrical succession. Their unity is preserved by the harmony of the lines for the horizontal divisions in the decorations of the shaft, as well as the upper and lower lines of the neck and the capital have always a uniform height. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 119 33. Instead of columns square piers are not unfre- quently introduced in the tombs. In structural buildings they only occur in connection with colossal statues; in which case the pier supports the roof, and the statue, while connected with the pier at the back, has its head free, without supporting anything (Figs. 40 and 41). 34. These human figures on the square piers are three or four times the size of life, but are perfectly uniform height, features, and attitude; they are in- variably in a standing posture, the head is decked with the lofty priestly tiara, while the only covering of the Fig. 42. MURAL FRIEZE-LIKE DECORATION FROM THE TEMPLE OF ESNEH. body is the Egyptian apron round the loins. In the right hand is the mystic token of the Nile-key, in the form of a cross, with a handle at the upper part ; both arms are crossed over the breast or hang close by the side ; the feet are either parallel and close to one another, or with one slightly projecting; and the arched breast is rendered prominent by the upright position. 35. To the multiplicity of form is added the varia- tion of bright coloring. The stone is never suffered to retain its natural tint either inside or outside the build- 120 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ;£5 u z<-/ r ^i aw Spa ttljRC.CT.il UQ IB n til's «iS! § I Kiij. 43. MURAL DECORATION WITH HIEROGLYPHICS FROM THE GREAT TEMPLE AT PHILAE. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 121 ing Everywhere it is covered with sculptures and orna- ments, plastered with stucco, and painted in bright colors, which have lasted unchanged to the present day. These sculptures consist mostly of rows of sitting or standing profile figures in similar or nearly similar posi- tions, either following each other as in a procession, or fronting each other in the attitude of worship or conse- cration. Groups of this sort are repeated symmetrically Fig. 44. ORNAMENT AT THE FOOT OF THE WALL FROM THE GREAT TEMPLE AT PHILAE. on the walls on both sides, and have a direction towards, or at any rate a reference to, the center. They are generally of smaller dimensions in the interior, so that the walls or columns of the same chamber contain several rows of such representations. Between and over them are often found ornamented bands like friezes (Figs. 42 and 43), and at the bottom of the walls, as in the case of the columns, are introduced more decora- tions, representing lotus-plants (Fig. 44). 122 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Architectural unity was not essentially disturbed by the confusion of the sculptures, although the Egyptians laid on their colors in bald and heavy tints, without a knowledge of blending, toning, or shading. 36. Another element in Egyptian monuments which is worthy of study is the hieroglyphics (Fig. 43), which mean, literally, sacred sculptures, and that not only be- cause the condition and direction of architecture are thence to be learnt, but because also of the historical disclosures which they bring about. Modern research has succeeded in deciphering many of them, and also in gaining a satisfactory insight into the whole graphic system of the Egyptians. These hieroglyphic writings are of two kinds. The first is when single signs express entire ideas. In the other kind, which was much more frequently used, the signs express only single letters, or rather sounds, namely, always the initial letter with which the designated object began. This sort of hiero- glyphic is called the phonetic. Both kinds are intermingled in the inscriptions, but, in order that no ambiguity of interpretation may be possible, the signs which served as conceptions were not used as phonetic hieroglyphics. Not only natural objects were chosen as hieroglyphic signs, but geometrical figures, such as squares, circles, ovals and lines of various kinds, both simple and double, also often occur. Articles, pronouns and prepositions, as well as gender and number, were principally ex- pressed by these geometrical signs. No settled law was followed in the distribution of hieroglyphic writing. Whether it is to be read from right to left or vice versa, must be gathered from the direction in which the heads of the animals therein represented are turned. The EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 123 vowels were omitted for the sake of brevity. Besides hieroglyphics, the Egyptians possessed a form of writ- ing which was employed by the priests, as also a current, popular form; neither of these, however, need be taken into consideration here, since hieroglyphics were ap- plied to architecture. As regards the meaning of the inscriptions, the expectation of important disclosures and discoveries was disappointed, for they are generally only records of a religious ritual ; in the case of the mummies they are always funeral prayers, and in the Pig. 45. SMALL TEMPLE IN THE ISLAND OP ELEPHANTINE. case of the monuments, eulogies and forms of consecra- tion of the prince by whose order they were constructed. 37. Besides the temples the designs of which have already been described, another form" of temple exists which are called Typhons. They consist of a simple house in the shape of an ob- long square, which has the entrance on the shorter side, and two or three consecutive chambers in the interior: whilst a colonnade surrounds all the four sides of the exterior (Fig. 45). At the corners, however, of this 124 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE colonnade, columns did not occur, but only simple piers of masonry without a capital or entablature, so that the columns, which are thus shut in by the wall-work, do not form an uninterrupted colonnade. The space be- tween the columns on the narrow side is considerably smaller than that on the longer. There are in conse- quence only two columns between the masonry piers on the narrow side, whilst in the longer sides generally six. hul sometimes as many as nine, columns are introduced. Fig. 46. FACADE OF THE LITTLE TEMPLE AT ELEPHANTINE. The whole temple stands on a perpendicular sub- structure, the outline of* which is only broken in the middle of the smaller frontside by a flight of steps which leads up to the entrance into the building (Fig. 46). The columns are besides throughout connected with a wall about half the height of the shaft (as in the case of the polystyle entrance-halls), and a break in the con- EASY LESS< INS IX ARCH ITECTURE 125 tinuity of the same only occurs in the interval between {lie middle columns of the front of the edifice where a door, corresponding to the flight of steps, takes the place of this wall. Fig. 47. EXTRAXCE-HALL OF THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAM B0UL. These temples possess in every respect a purely Egyptian form. The external walls are not, however, slanting, hut entirely perpendicular, as was necessitated 126 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE by the mural connection of the pillars. It is neverthe- less probable that this kind of temple is of later date, and they are only found as subsidiary-buildings in con- nection with the larger temples. 38. The arrangement of the excavated structures corresponds with that of the temples. Fig. 48. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. In most rock-temples a court, which is sometimes open and sometimes hewn out of the rock, or a covered vestibule forms the entrance, which opens into an en- trance-hall, with smaller chambers beyond, in which pil- lars or columns are introduced according to the exi- gencies of the case. The ground-floor (Fig. 48) and the section (Fig. 49) of the rock-temple at Ipsamboul il- lustrate this construction. In the latter figure is seen one of the four sitting colossal statues which are hewn out of the rock in front of the entrance, and which at- tain a height of 681/2 feet. Fig. 47 gives a perspective EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 127 view of the entrance-hall, in which are seen eight stand- ing colossal statues 33 feet high, supported by square piers. Fig. 50 gives a view of the entrance with the colossal statues. The larger rock-tombs have a similar arrangement : the vestibule is generally open to the air, then more or less halls and chambers, and finally narrow passages issuing from them, in which are placed the mummy-cases in well-like recesses. Fig. 49. SECTION OF THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 39. In essential particulars the palaces are adorned and arranged in the same way as the temples, with the exception that in their case the successive steps to the inner sanctuarium are not so clearly marked, and that the whole space with its entrance-courts and many-pil- lared halls is surrounded by a continuous wall. Fig. 51 may perhaps serve to give an idea of the design of these palaces, which were executed with the utmost magnificence. 128 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE An avenue of crio-sphinxes, 810 feet long, and in con- tinuation of the same a road, which passed through four pylons erected at various intervals, leads in an oblique direction of the side entrance of the palace (Fig. 51X). On the contrary the main entrance leads through a co- lossal pylon to a court (A) surrounded by colonnades, and which is 332 feet long by 269 feet broad, and in- Fig. 50. ENTRANCE TO THE ROCK-TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL WITH COLOSSAL STATUES IN FRONT. tersected at one side by a temple let in obliquely by Rameses III. ; while through a second pylon the mag- nificent pillared hall (B) is reached. This hall is 170 feet long by 332 feet broad, and its roof is sup- ported in the middle by 12 columns 75 feet high, and by 122 lesser columns, which are divided into seven rows. EASY LESSON'S IN ARCHITECTURE 12! • Fig. 52 shows how t ho middle passage is made more imposing by this arrangemenl of elevating the columns in the middle, and how at the same time a means is con- trived of lighting the whole hall by the raised side- lights. A pillarless court (C) leads from this hall to a fourth pylon. Between the two stand two enormous Fig. 51. GROUND-PLAN OF THE PALACE AT KARNAK. obelisks. The following chamber (D) is equally an open ehamber surrounded with statues in connection with piers, and in it also two obelisks were erected. A small- er open court leads thence through other pylons to chambers (E) and the sanctuary, surrounded by gal- leries and small columns ; while at the extreme end of the whole construction at the end of the open space be- yond the sanctuary is a small columnar temple (F). 130 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Fig. 52. SECTION OF THE HALL OF THE PALACE OF KARNAK. WEST-ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. 40. We possess but scanty information regarding the art of the ancient races of Western Asia, and the re- mains of their monuments which have been preserved to our own times are few and insignificant. Through the excavations and researches of quite recent times, how- ever, an entirely new field has been opened out, which, although poor in architectural remains, properly so called, gives an interesting insight into the colossal con- structions of Babylon and Nineveh, owing to the numer- ous sculptured representations which have been discov- ered, and the deciphering of inscriptions written in the cuneiform character. BABYLONIAN ( CHALDEAN) AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. 41. Babylonian buildings belong to an epoch pre- vious to the year 1400 b. c, after which period their subsequent development was checked by the growth of the more powerful kingdom of Assyria. The most con- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 131 siderable architectural activity did not occur till the epoch of the monuments of Nebuchadnezzar, viz. about 600 b. c. Both these Babylonian and Assyrian build- ings were constructed of baked or unbaked bricks, which were not calculated to be durable ; and this is the reason that we now possess no well-preserved monuments, but only rubbish-mounds of old building materials, which still, however, by their vast extent bear witness to the compass and greatness of the towns of Nineveh, in the neighborhood of Mosul, and of Babylon, near the modern Bagdad ; at which places, according to the description of ancient Greek writers and quite recent investigation, structures must have been erected on a gigantic scale. The latest excavations of the Assyrian ruins of Nim- roud, Khorsabad, and Koyundschick, near Mosul, and which are for the most part ascribed to the old town of Nineveh, have led to the conclusion that the royal pal- aces, which united formed a kind of citadel, as well as the temples, were erected on artificially raised mounds or terraces. These terraces were not, however, constructed of embankments of earth, but of clay-bricks regularly dried in the sun, while natural elevations of the soil were taken advantage of to form these superstructural ramparts. In this way platforms of from 30 to 40 feet high were reared, on which the real building was subse- quently erected. In the buildings themselves unburnt bricks were in a great measure employed ; the walls con- sequently have a thickness of from 5 to 15 feet. They were reveted both on the inside and the out with ala- baster or limestone slabs, on which were engraved bas- reliefs and inscriptions in the cuneiform character (Fig. 53). In the exterior, freestone was also employed for the lower parts of the coping. In the interior the walls 132 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE consisted, above the line of the reveting slabs, which reached a height of from 9 to 12 feet, of richly-painted burnt or unburnt bricks, coated with stucco painted with various kinds of ornamentation. In some instances the entire walls are covered with painted stucco, with- out any facing of slabs. ?im 9- I ^ * W « I « V - Fig. 53. CUNEIFORM WRITING. Another kind of mural casing, especially in external walls, was effected by driving conical terra-cotta studs about 3V-> inches long into the surface of the wall on 2mk$j 1U CIO cnglF Fig. 54. WALL-MOSAIC FROM THE TERRACE RUINS AT WORKHA. which convex mouldings had been formed. The pointed ends of these studs, which were of various colors, white, red, black, &c, were imbedded in clay which had been worked up with chaff, and the broader bases of the cones wei*e made to form simple ornamental patterns of al- ternating colors on the exterior, as is shown in Fig. 54. 42. The excavations at Nineveh, although of great importance for the attainment of a knowledge of the de- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 133 sign of Assyrian buildings and the condition of art, have afforded no definite information regarding the ar- chitectural appearance of their structures as a mass. "We are able to determine anything definite about one branch only, and that is the decorative. This we are enabled to do by the many specimens which have been Fig. 55. PART OF A PAVEMENT-SLAB IN THE NORTH PALACE AT KOYUNDSCHICK. discovered. The most interesting point under this head is a certain accordance with the Grecian style of decora- tion, as is shown by Figs. 55 and 56. The latter of these represents an ornament which occurs very fre- quently on vessels and drapery, but which is also used in mural decorations, and by comparing it will be ob- 134 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE served what a marked .affinity exists between the Grecian and Assyrian patterns. Since, however, it is net the ob- ject of this volume to enter into any critical investiga- tions, but only to characterize and point out peculiarities of style, and only to admit artistic assertions when they are definitely allowed and established, it must be left an open question whether in these productions of Assy- ria and West- Asia generally, a germ is not visible of many forms which the Greeks, with their keen eye for the beautiful, subsequently borrowed, and expanded in accordance with their own more advanced rules of art; Fig. 56. GUILLOCHE ORNAMENT PAINTED ON BURNT CLAY, FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEH. or whether on the other hand it is not more probable that these forms had their original home in Greece, and from thence made their entrance into Assyria. The former of these views is supported by a comparison of Fig. 57 with a Grecian griffin and by the fact that these forms were features of Assyrian buildings before the Persian conquest, i. e. before the sixth century b. c. The accompanying drawings are only intended, in the total absence of all authentic records of the main archi- tectural principles, to give at least an insight into the style of ornamentation, as far as it is possible to convey EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 135 any idea from the few specimens which have as yet been discovered. 43. One peculiarity is visible in all Assyrian build- ings, namely, that all the chambers are very narrow in proportion to their length. Nothing definite is known of the manner of constructing the roof, and views on this subject are much at variance. It may, however, be ac- cepted as established that the chambers were in general Fig. 57. SCULPTURED GRIFFIN FROM THE SCULPTURES IN THE RUINS OF NINEVEH. lighted by windows, which were inserted in the walls either high up or immediately under the roof, and that only large halls received their light from above through cpenings in the roof. The dwelling-houses which are represented in the sculptures, show at least traces of these windows let into the upper part of the walls. 44. Colossal winged-bulls or lions with human heads form the main entrance into the halls, where battles, victories, triumphal entries, hunting scenes, and relig- ious ceremonies and processions were engraved on the 136 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Fig. 58. GROUND-PLAN OF THE NORTH-WEST PALACE OF NIM ROUD. Fig. 59. WINGED-BULL FROM NLMROUD. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECT! -HE V.Y slabs of the casing, and painted in the most brilliant colors. Over these sculptures were painted other royal acts of the king surrounded by his eunuchs and warriors, and these representations were in their turn surrounded by an ornamental border, in which winged-bulls and monstrous beasts, as well as the sacred tree, principally figured (Fig. 60). At the top of the walls the roof w r as probably con- structed of wooden beams, divided into coffers by wainscoting, which were painted with flowers or ani- mals, or inlaid with ivory. Graceful borders and cor- ner-pieces surrounded each division. The brilliancy of the chambers was increased by employing rare woods and coatings of metals, especially gilding. Fig. 60. SCULPTURED ORNAMENTAL BORDER FROM THE RUINS OF NINEVEH. All the buildings that have hitherto been discovered in Assyria have precisely the same character, so that in all probability the palaces and temples were united in one building: for the deeds of the king and nation are therein associated with the symbols of religion and the statues of the gods. It may be accepted as a general principle that it was not the temple, or the building destined for worship, which formed in Babylonian, As- syrian, and the Persian architecture which is to be de- 138 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE scribed hereafter, the most important and distinctive element of the style, as it did in the case of other culti- •vated races; but rather that it was the palace of their despots which enjoyed a paramount importance in the minds of those races. The building destined for worship was only to be distinguished by a pyramidal terrace- like substructure, whilst the structure of the temple itself was by no means in accordance with the com- manding position which raised it above the whole sur- rounding district : raised palaces were also erected on terrace-shaped substructures. One especially distinctive mark, however, of temple-terraces was this, that they were covered with glazed tiles in such a way that each platform had a distinct color. 45. No trace of the column is to be found in Assy- rian ruins. That columns were not, however, unknown to the Assyrians is proved by two which are represented in the older sculptures of Nineveh, as supporting a kind of pavilion. The total absence of shafts and capitals in Assyrian ruins, as well as the insignificant breadth of the cham- bers in proportion to the length leads to the conclusion that independent columns were not used as main sup- ports. On the supposition of a wooden roof to the chambers this might, it is true, have been supported by wooden posts, but such a presumption is difficult to reconcile with the otherwise massive character of the structure. 46. One of the Babylonian buildings, the Temple of Baal or Belus, which is known in the Bible under the name of the Tower of Babel, was a pyramidal structure consisting of eight stories, and was GOO feet broad at each side of the base, and also 600 feet high. In the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 139 top story was a large temple. A staircase winding round the eight stories led to the temple and also to the interior of the building. The appearance of one of these terraced pyramidal structures is shown by a Relief from Koyundschick (Fig. 61), which unfortunately has not been preserved complete. It there is represented as rising on a mound- shaped substructure, on which two paths are marked out, and in which an entrance-gate is introduced, which reminds one in miniature of the gigantic Egyptian temple-gates or pylons. On this substructure rests a Fig. 61. TERRACE-PYRAMID. RELIEF FROM KOYUNDSCHICK. terrace supported by buttresses, and on that again a second with an entrance-gate, and then a third with a quite narrow entrance, and lastly a fourth terrace, whose termination the delineation leaves doubtful. 47. The other monuments, known to us, date from the later times of the Chaldeo-Babylonian kingdom, the most flourishing period of which was during the reign of Xebuchadnezzar, about 600 b. c. The celebrated hang- ing gardens of Semiramis belong to this epoch. Prob- 140 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ably those Avere terraces disposed in stages one above the oilier, so that each formed ;i garden-plateau. No clue is left amidst the numerous masses of ruins, by which the style of these structures can be determined. D Fig. G2. PILLAR OF A TABLE IN AN ASSYRIAN RELIEF. Fig. 63. Still, however, the bas-reliefs which have brought to light present much that is worthy of note. Figs. 62, 63, and 64, amongst others, bring out prominently the sim- ilarity of many details with Grecian art. Fig. 62, rep- Fig. 64. Q Fig. 65. CAPITALS AND BASE OF A COLUMN IN A BAS-RELIEF FROM KOYUNDSCHICK. resenting the pillar of a table, bears a strong resemblance to an Ionic capital as displayed in Asia Minor. Other reliefs portray small facades of temples with capitals like Figs. 63 and 64, and of these Fig. 63 shows an af- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 141 finity, although it be a remote one, with the Corinthian capital. A base is shown in Fig. 65. In the fragment of a relief from Koyundschick columns occur which rest on a cushion-shaped base on a lion's back, just as is the case in the doorways of Gothic churches (Fig. 66). It may finally be mentioned as a remarkable peculiar- ity that, totally contrary to the usual belief that the semicircular arch was applied by the Etruscans and sub- sequently by the Romans, arches of this description have Fig. 66. PILLAR ON A LIONS BACK. been found represented in the reliefs of the ruins of Ximroud, and that it thence also appears that the point- ed arch was thus early employed both for niches and doors. This may be gathered not only from reliefs in which such constructions occur, but also from still exist- ing arches of both descriptions applied to gateways and vaulted drains, which have been discovered, although the dimensions of the same are but small. Although the conclusion cannot positively be deduced that broader spaces were also vaulted over, still it thence appears far from improbable that chambers may have had arched roofs. 142 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE PHOENICIAN AND ISRAELITISH ARCHITECTURE. 48. "Whilst at best heaps of ruins alone bear witness to the existence of Babylonian buildings, the fabrics of the Phoenicians and of the Jews have disappeared with- out leaving any traces. With a view, however, of render- ing the present work as complete as possible, mention must be made of those of their considerable buildings of which we possess a knowledge; so that, as far as may be, a conception may be formed of the architecture of those remarkable nations, which have exercised so im- portant an influence on European civilization. Of the Phoenicians we only know in general terms that their eities were splendid and magnificent, as also were their colonies of Carthage and Gades, of which equally no remains exist ; and that wood and metals, especially gold, were employed in covering the internal walls, and that brass was used for columns. 49. Something at least of architecture amongst the Jews may be gathered from the Old Testament: and it may have had much affinity with that of the Phoenicians. As early, however, as the Exodus from the land of Egypt, 1500 B. c, a peculiar architectural development may be traced, which is exemplified by the description of the Tabernacle, which was a movable temple- structure shaped like a tent. Since the people were continually wandering in the wilderness, this Tabernacle can have had no permanently structural character, but was composed of wooden walls, covered with gold plates. Hangings formed the roof, and divided off the Holy Place, and the richly adorned Ark of the Cove- nant, The Court of the Tabernacle was surrounded with hangings and brazen pillars. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 143 50. Solomon's Temple was built at Jerusalem, 1000 b. c, after the pattern of the Tabernacle. This temple was destroyed 420 years later, at the time of the con- quest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and subsequent- ly, on the return from captivity under Cyrus and Darius, was rebuilt by the Jews from about 536 to 515 b. c, in probably the same style as the former temple. Herod the Great had this temple pulled down, and in b. c. 20 caused a new and magnificent temple to be erected, which in a. d. 73, at the time.of the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, experienced the same fate as the former one. Herod's building was, it is true, in accordance with the main plan of the former temple, but was executed in the then prevailing Grecian style. 51. Regarding Solomon's Temple we know that it was of small size, that the material was a combination of stone and wood, and that the fabric rested on strong foundation walls of blocks of stone. The building had two outer courts, the exterior one for the people, and the interior, which lay somewhat higher, for the priests. In the court were dwelling-places for the Levites and door-keepers. The actual temple consisted of the outer hall, or Holy Place, and of the Holy of Holies. On both sides of the building, and also at the back, was a side building, which was a third lower than the main building, and contained chambers disposed in three stories one over the other. The walls were of stone, but the interior was entirely covered with lining of cedar- wood. Beams of cedar formed the roof, and beams of cypress the floor. All this woodwork was adorned with carving at the doors and windows; the devices repre- sented palms, cherubim, and coloquints, and were over- 144 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE laid with gold. In the Holy Place stood the altar of burnt incense, the table for shewbread, and five golden seven-branched candlesticks. At the upper part were let in lattice-shaped windows, which probably answered the purpose of carrying- off the smoke of the incense. A wall of cedar and hangings divided this place from the Holy of Holies, in which stood the wooden Ark of the Covenant, overlaid with gold both inside and out- side. At the side of it were two immense cherubim, carved from wild olive wood, and also overlaid with gold. No reliable details can be given of the exterior. The actual temple probably rose higher than the courts and side buildings. No columns surrounded the temple. At the entrance of the courts, however, stood the two celebrated pillars, Jachin, i. e., firm, and Boaz, strong; made of cast brass, and which probably possessed a symbolical meaning. 52. Owing to the utter want of all representations nothing definite can be adduced regarding the style of this temple or of Jewish architecture generally. The sole relic of the temple which has endured till our days, consists of part of a foundation constructed of large blocks of stone in the Roman fashion, and it may con- sequently be attributed to the last temple, which was executed in the time of the supremacy of Rome, al- though, judging by comparison with similar stone foundations in Assyrian ruins, the date might be set down as a much earlier one. That no employment of Egyptian models occurred, as many have believed, may be determined by the heterogeneous nature of the materials employed; and indeed the whole design of the temple gives no evidence of any direct connection with Egyptian architecture. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 145 Egyptian architecture lias essentially stone as its basis; and the heavy beams of stone required many supports of stone, i. c, columns. On the other hand, the extensive beams of wood rendered columns unneces- sary amongst the Jews. Then again, the universal em- ployment of glittering metal and costly wood leads to the conclusion that amongst the Jews there was no prevalent aesthetic taste for noble forms, as was the case amongst the Egyptians, but that a luxurious love of ostentatious display obtained amongst them, which was more in accordance with Phoenician than Egyptian art. The Jewish tombs, which still exist around Jerusa- lem, are either sepulchers hewn in the rock with a chamber in front, or independent structures hewn out of the rock, as has been seen to have been already cus- tomary amongst the primitive Indian nations. The bodies were disposed in these sepulchers in the same way as one sees in the catacombs at Rome, either rest- ing immediately on shelves of the rock in the surround- ing walls, or stowed away in trough-like recesses, or in holes excavated in the depth of the rock of the size of the human contour. The sepulchers have a kind of facade, or merely a framework and setting for the stone which blocked up the entrance. Both in these caves and in the independent structures details bor- rowed from or akin to Grecian and Roman architecture are perceptible: for instance, Ionic columns and Doric triglyphs; it may therefore be taken for granted that they belong to the later period of the Jewish kingdom. The sarcophagi also, which have been discovered in the sepulchers, show a Roman or Grecian influence, as well as that of the established Phoenician style. 14G EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE MEDIAN AND PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. 53. At the overthrow of the Babylonian kingdom, at the end of the eighth century b. c, its culture and art passed into the hands of the Medes, and from them in turn to the Persians, when that people freed them from Median supremacy in the sixth century, b. c. : it is therefore easily to be accounted for, if considerable conformity exists between Persian and Babylonian monuments, both as regards terrace-built structures and various other details. Religion was not favorable to constructive art amongst the Persians. They worshipped Ormuzd as god of light and good, under the symbol of fire, as opposed to Ahriman, the god of darkness, and promoter of evil. They had consequently no images, and they had also no temples, because sacrifices were conducted in the open air: the essential element was therefore wanting for the rise and development of constructive art. 54. In later times, however, when Egypt and the Greek colonies of Asia Minor were subjected to the Per- sians, we know that the Persian kings employed Egyp- tian and Grecian artists in building their palaces. The monuments which have been preserved to us show, how- ever, a peculiar character in spite of every imitation of foreign architecture. Many of these structures belong, it is true, to the fourth century, the period of the Sas- sanides, but considerable remains have been discovered dating from the times of the successors of Cyrus. In the neighborhood of Murghab are those of Pasar- gada?, a town founded by Cyrus, where was the burying- place of the Persian kings. At this place is the tomb of Cyrus. Seven stages form a pyramidal building 40 feet EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 147 high, 44 feet long, and 40 feet broad at the base, and constructed of enormous blocks of white marble. On the topmost surface is a little house with a gable-shaped roof of marble, in which formerly stood the golden cof- fin, surrounded by all kinds of costly vessels. x ;'^ ^% '<$ *=<*i' Mfe'. ■u. 7-r : —^ZZZJ=rv*£ __ Fig. 67. VIEW OF THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS. 55. The most important monuments of Persian art, besides the tombs of the later Persian kings, are the magnificent ruins of Chehil Minar (the forty pillars). They are remains of the great palaces of Persepolis, which were overthrown by Alexander the Great, and rise in terraces at the foot of Mount Rachmed ; they are constructed of the blackish-grey marble of the mountain itself, and are 1,400 feet long by 900 feet broad. Ac- cording to the modern deciphering of the inscriptions, 148 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE these palaces were built partly by Xerxes, and partly by Darius. A magnificent double staircase runs along the walls of the terrace (Fig. 67), and leads to a portal, on the entrance piers of which are hewn gigantic, fanci- ful animal forms, resembling the Assyrian; beyond A 1 ' M' f ^j**JRHftite ! & Fig. 68. ELEVATION OF PLATFORM Fig. 69. CAPITAL AND AT PASARGADAE. ENTABLATURE FROM THE ROCK-TOMB OF DARIUS. which, colonnades and another similar staircase conduct to the second terrace, on which are found the remains of large polystyle halls. Ruins of other considerable buildings are to be seen close by, but lying rather high- er: these were richly adorned with bas-reliefs. On the third terrace are situated other buildings of various de- scriptions, as also colonnades, the walls of which are EASY LESSON.- IN \BCHITECTUBB 140 adorned with sculpture, and contain smaller chambers, which possihly constituted the habitable rooms of the palace. The original intention of other large ruins close at hand cannot be conjectured. The whole is surround- ed by a wall which abuts on the rocks which lie behind 56. The workmanship of the white marble columns, and of the large squared stones which are joined with- out cement, shows a cultivated skill (Fig. 68). The walls are covered with sculptures and inscriptions in the Persian cuneiform character; those which have already been deciphered betoken the forms of consecration and titles of Darius and Xerxes. The columns in the ruins of Persepolis arc 1 circular and slender, and have capitals and bases. The capital generally consists of two half- horses or bulls, whose fore feet overlap the Dorder of the shaft, and which are placed back to back (Fig. 69). Probably a beam was inserted between their necks, which served as a support for the real transverse roof- beams laid upon it. Other capitals are more compact (Figs. 70 and 71), where from the lower part, which is in the shape of a globular vessel, rises a slender cup, supporting a lofty member with double volutes or scrolls on the four sides, which correspond with those of the Grecian Ionic capitals (Fig. 72). but which are intro- duced not horizontally but perpendicularly. The base consists of fillets and a leaf-covered torus resting on a circular plinth. The columns have fine flutings and stand tolerably far apart from each other, from six to seven times the diameter, and consequently have a very light appear- ance. The entablature, of which nothing has been pre- served, was probably of wood. To judge by the exist- ing entablature in the tombs, a certain resemblance must 150 EASY LESSONS IN AROIUTIX'TIRE Fig. 71. CAPITAL FROM THE RUINS OF PERSBPOLIS. Fig. 70. CAPITAL (RESTORED), FROM THE RUINS OF PER- SEPOLIS. Fig. 72. VOLUTE OF THE PERSIAN COLUMN. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 15] have existed in this feature to the Grecian Ionic style. On an architrave consisting of three projecting stages, an upper beam rested on small blocks similar to t lx- Ionic dentils, on which was a broad frieze with sculp- ture, such as a row of bulls or dogs. But in the mote ornate and slender structure of the palaces at Persepolis, the entablatures were doubtless more elegant than those which were constructed for the tombs. The doors have a square border and a cornice similar to the Egyptian entablature, consisting of a cyma with a facia over an astragal. With this exception, nothing at all is found that refers to or coincides with Egyptian taste, although we know that after the subjugation of Egypt Cambyses caused architects to be summoned to erect the royal palaces. It must, however, be understood that by this term only artisans are meant, to whom was entrusted the task of carrying out the works in the usual native style. The development of a peculiar architectural style amongst the Persians is to be accepted as prob- able, but a style based upon foreign models intro- duced by them. Remains of other Persian monu- ments present traces of terrace-like designs with im- mense Mights of steps, which are also, as we have seen, characteristic of Babylonian architecture. Though the Persians had adopted, beside these terraces, many other characteristics of Assyrian architecture, still the Persian style is essentially to be distinguished by its light porti- coes instead of the heavy massive walls, and by the simpler and more regular ground-plan of its buildings; but, above all, by the peculiar formation of its columns 152 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. 57. At the conclusion of that portion of this work which treats of the architectural styles of tlie ancient races of Asia, a short reference must be made to Chinese architecture. Indian art made its entrance into China with the wor- ship of Buddha. But still diversities, corresponding to the different nationalities, were gradually introduced. Instead of the Indian dagoba there appears a tower-like construction of many stories, growing smaller towards the top and with the stages distinctly marked, and covered with gay-colored curved roofs to which bells were attached (Fig. 73). These tower-like edifices, which were, for the most part, octagonal, were constructed, like the temples, for the purpose of religious worship. The details of Chinese architecture show much affin- ity with late Indian. For example, in the upper part of the column, curved brackets were employed instead of a capital for the support of the architrave. Chinese structures have nothing durable about them, for perishable wood forms an essential element in their construction, and they were more remarkable for their elegance and slender proportions than for their vast dimensions. The roofs are especially characteristic, the most striking peculiarity being that they are always ei uved, and have figures on them in high relief, as well as at the corners, from which hang bells, and that they are decorated with all kinds of embellishments, such as gilt dragons, and other fantastic carvings (Figs. 74, 75, and 76). EASY LESSONS IN Ai;< I1ITECTURE 153 Fig. 74. CHINESE PAVILION. 77/tu\\tk •■ Fig. 73. PORCELAIN T i\VER AT NANKIN. Fig. 7... PART OF CHINESE PAVILION. The introduction of bright colors and of glittering porcelain and glazed tiles, forms a peculiar feature in Chinese architecture. The architecture of the Chinese temples does n it dif- 154 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE fer from that of the other buildings. They are, for the most part, small, and consist of one chamber surrounded by porticoes (Fig. 77). The palaces are constructed in the same way as the temples, and are more remarkable for their size than their beauty. Fig. 76. ENTRANCE-GATE TO THE TEMPLE OF CONFUCIUS AT SHANGHAI. The Chinese do not possess the art of arching large spaces, consequently numerous columns are introduced for the support of the ceilings and roofs; these are of wood, and sometimes carved and some times plain, but invariably painted. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECT UHE 155 It is essential to the complete character of a Chinese villa that its neighborhood be adorned with a supple- ment of artificial rocks and woodland scenery, with water-courses with bridges, and with fountains, grottos, and fantastic rockeries. Fig. 77. PAVILION OF THE GREAT TEMPLE AT CANTON. Chinese architecture is as invariable as everything else in the Celestial Empire, and Chinese art, generally, is the same as it was many hundreds of years ago. 156 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. ROMAN CHRISTIAN BASILICAS AND CIRCULAR ARCHITECTURE. 78. Christianity, as well as the influx of the Ger- manic races, could not fail to exercise an essential in- fluence in the transformation of the Roman state, and this influence was naturally extended to Roman art. The same effect was wrought in the East by the Arabs, and by the dissemination of the creed of Mahomet. That branch of art which belongs to totally different periods and races after the propagation of the two religions has been denominated the Romanesque, in order to express in one word the contrast to the calm repose and noble simplicity of classical art. This denomination does not, however, express the new artistic development in all its phases, as has been shown in Section 161, inasmuch as the new growth was synchronous with the decadence of art and the ingression of barbarism; and it was only some centuries later that a more untrammelled move- ment and a more poetic flight were destined to spring into life, whilst it was not before the Middle Ages that the new art reached its full development. Consequently this title — "Romanesque Art" — must here be applied only to a synoptical review of a whole group of different styles, and in contradiction to pre-Christian and Modern. 79. The new elements mentioned in the preceding paragraph have been entitled "Early Christian Art," inasmuch as they were called into existence by the new religious requirements of the nations of antiquity that had embraced Christianity. As, however, these new re- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 157 ligious requirements demanded other architectural con- ditions than those which already existed, a new style oi building was naturally necessitated. The deterioration of art was, however, so complete, that the new require- ments could not be supplied in an independent and or- ganic manner, but recourse was had to novel and pecu- liar combinations of old artistic forms; consecpiently an ensemble arose, constituting the Roman Early Christian Style, which differed essentially from the styles already in existence. The northern races, which streamed into Italy, namely, the Ostrogoths and Lombards, were able to render no assistance in the work of development: on the contrary, being rude and uncultivated in com- parison with Roman civilization, they swallowed it up and rendered the Roman Christian Style the common property, not only of Italians, but also of Franks and Anglo-Saxons. 80. Through the division of the empire into the East and West, a. d. 395, and through the foundation of the new capital, Constantinople, on the site of the old Byzantium, a "Byzantine" art grew up side by side with the Roman Christian : this will be subsequently treated in a separate chapter. It was during the sixth century, especially, that Early Christian art assumed a distinctively Byzantine form in the Eastern portion of the empire : and this form was the more independent because the nationality of the peo- ple was not effaced as it was in Italy by the influence of northern nations. Since the Christians, forming no distinct people, and constituting no entire nationality, possessed no well- defined art of their own, and were obliged to employ the architects, builders, and sculptors whom they found 158 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE amongst the Greeks and Romans for the erection and adornment of their buildings, it may easily be supposed that the first Christian buildings did not differ ma- terially from the heathen buildings which were already in existence. Consequently the title "Early Christian Style" must be understood to apply only to churches as converted basilicas, seeing that in the construction of dwelling-houses the ancient methods were retained for a considerable period. Any alteration in that respect could only take place after protracted and gradual transformation of the manners and customs of the Ro- mans, and as the new religion acquired a greater influ- ence over architecture. Whilst Roman art in the West passed over into the hands of the barbarians, it settled into a new independent system at Bazantium. Roman Early Christian Architecture found its chief application in Roman Christian basilicas and in circular churches. The continuance of this description of architectural style lasted till the end of the ninth century — that is, till the time when the ancient elements were forced to give way before independent new ones, which sprang up as described in a subsequent chapter. Classical forms, however, maintained their ground in Italy, and especial- ly at Rome. 81. When the Christians were first allowed to build churches for themselves, they thought that the best model for the buildings, in which the Christian congre- gations were to meet together for worship, was to be found in the basilicas, the very name of which was re- tained as suitable, seeing that it means kingly hall. It is probable that the first Christian basilicas were very like their model; with the exception, however, that the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 159 central part of the Roman basilica, which was generally open, was in the Early Christian basilicas covered with a roof. But ere long, about the end of the fourth century, a gradual transformation in the original de- sign was perceptible. A form of basilica was developed from the genius of Christianity, which was retained un- altered for succeeding centuries. Although the main outline remained the same, different proportions were assumed : and it was particularly the architecture of the interior that gave its peculiar appearance to the Chris- tian basilica. Owing to the fact of the nave being roofed over, an essential modification took place compared with the Roman basilicas, which were not vaulted, but formed a kind of open court surrounded by colonnades; where- as the new buildings assumed the form of an enclosed nave, of which the colonnades became aisles, and termi- nated by a recess called the tribuna, which was less iso- lated than in the ancient basilicas. The typical form of the Christian basilica is as follows: — 82. The interior was divided by two rows of columns into three aisles, of which the central one (a Fig. 78) was broader and higher than the side-aisles (see Fig. 79) & for men and c for women, and was terminated at the opposite end to the entrance by the apse. The columns were sometimes surmounted by the old archi- trave, the weight being supported by flat relieving arches; but they were generally connected by semi- circular arches, which supported a wall pierced with small narrow windows; these, like those in the walls of the side-aisles, had a semicircular head. Sometimes a transept was introduced in front of the apse, the elonga- tion of which in later times gave rise to the cross-like form of churches. This transept was separated from 160 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the main aisle by semicircular arches, and the ground form of the whole building assumed the form of the let- ter T. L&J...&A. Fig. 78. GROUND-PLAN OF THE Fig. 79. CHRISTIAN BASILICA CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN OF SAN PAOLO FUORB CLEMENTE AT ROME. DELLE MURA AT ROME. Large basilicas sometimes have as many as five aisles (see Fig. 78) — namely, a main-aisle in the middle, and two lower aisles on each side (Fig. 79). EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 161 The roofing of the basilicas consisted of beams with a flat panelling, which was richly gilt in earlier times, or the rafters of the timberworks were left without a easing, and were ornamented with colored embellish- ments (Fig. 80). 83. At the east end in the transept in front of the apse stood the altar (Fig. 81, e) ; this was frequently covered by a baldachino supported on four pillars. Be- Fig. 80. SECTION AND INTERIOR VIEW OP THE FIVE-AISLED BASILICA OF S. PIETRO AT ROME, BEFORE ITS RESTORATION. hind, in the tribuna itself, was the seat of the bishop in the middle raised on steps, the cathedra (/), and in a semicircle on both sides, the seats of the higher eccle- siastics (g). In front of the altar, at the end of the middle-aisle, was a long space surrounded by barriers of marble (h) for the lower clergy, who formed the choir, whence the place itself received the name of the choir. 1G2 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE A marble pulpit (Ambo) (/), richly adorned for the most pari with mosaic, was placed on each side of the choir; from one of these the Gospel was read, and from the other the Epistle. In some instances only one such ambo was erected, and it then had two divisions, from the higher of which the Gospel was read, while the Fig. 81. PROFILE AND VIEW FROM BENEATH OF THE RAFTERS IN THE CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN MINIATO AT FLORENCE. Epistle was read from the lower. The arrangement of the choir, with the two pulpits, is shown by the per- spective view of the interior of the described basilica of San Clemente (Fig. 83). The whole of the space which is shut off round the altar is designated the Sanctuary, and is raised by one or two steps above the level of the church. At both EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 163 sides of it, at the end of the side-aisles, an especial place was occasionally shut off — namely, the Senatorium (fc), for men of rank; and the other, the Matroneum (I), for women of rank. Fig. 82. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN CLEMENTE AT ROME. 84. Adjoining the entrance there was frequently a narrow space, shut off by a barrier drawn breadthways across the building, designed as a locality for such peni- tents as had regained the right of access to the Sanct- 1G4 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE nary. This space was called the Narthex, or scourge. A portico (m) in front of the church, and other porti- Fig. 83. INTERIOR VIEW OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN BASILICA OF SAN CLEMENTE AT ROME. coes which surrounded an outer court (n) (Atrium, Paradise, Vestibule, Pronaos) were designated by the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 165 same name, and were intended for such penitents as were entirely out of the pale of the Catholic commun- ity. In the middle of this Pronaos was the Cantharus, or bowl for washing the hands, and intended as a symbolic type of the inner purification, which subse- quently ensued from the sprinkling of the holy water. 85. One remarkable peculiarity of basilicas is that a subterranean chapel, or crypt, for the reception of the bones of the saint to whom the church was dedi- cated was constructed under the principal altar, which stood before the tribune. The word "principal" altar has been used advisedly, because in process of time side-altars were introduced in various positions. Some- times this crypt is a mere vault, but more generally it is an architecturally arranged structure with pil- lars to support the vaulting; a sort of subterranean hall, which was probably suggested by the chapels of the catacombs at Rome. "When these multifarious sub- terranean passages, which had originally been excavated for the purpose of obtaining stone, were used by the persecuted Christians as places for refuge and burial, they made alterations which converted them into crypts, resembling chapels, to serve as a meeting-place for the congregation. Subsequently, when the Christian re- Ligion was recognized at Rome, larger churches were built over these graves of the martyrs, or over the entrances to the catacombs; and probably these sepul- chral chapels suggested the idea of the construction of a crypt in other situations also, destined to fulfil the same offices as the structure from which it was copied. 86. The form of the Christian basilica, as it has just been described, owed its origin more to customs and 166 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE requirements which were necessitated by religious wor- ship, than to artistic deliberation. Still, though on the one hand, an already vitiated, and on the other a still embryo art were instrumental in their construc- tion, these basilicas produced on the whole a sublime and peaceful effect, which is principally to be as- cribed to the beautiful simplicity of Christian archi- tecture that pervades their principal features. The simple ground-plan of later Christian churches is more clearly and intelligibly traceable in the Basilica than it is in more elaborate structures. The most characteristic feature in the basilica are the three, or sometimes five, parallel aisles, the length of each of which is easily recognizable, owing to the nave being higher than the side aisles. 87. The ornamentation of the basilica corresponded with its architectural form. It did not consist of plas- tic sculpture, but of paintings and mosaics, which were introduced on the side walls of the nave, as well as on the so-called triumphal arch: but they were princi- pally employed in the apse, which formed the termina- tion of the church and the end of the whole perspective for the eye of a person entering the building (see Fig. 80). These apse mosaics generally represent large, de- tached figures, turned towards the spectator, wrought on a ground-work of blue or gold, with bold and sim- ple drapery, and produce an imposing effect. 88. Whilst the general impression is therefore sig- nificant, the appreciation of detail is entirely wanting in these early Christian edifices. The columns, which are generally of the Corinthian order, were for the most part taken from older buildings of the heathen period, and differed in material and workmanship; EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 167 sometimes even those of dissimilar dimensions were placed next each other. The intercolumination. and even the breadth of the side aisle are often unequal, the side walls without ornament, while the entablature consists merely of the projecting ends of the beams ; and generally speaking altogether a fine architectural feeling is wanting; but the low standard of an anaes- thetic age is still more forcibly expressed by the mean- ness of the exterior of the basilicas with their bald walls and windows and doors devoid of moulding. The latter were generally covered with a horizontal stone with a plain arch-head to relieve the weight. Sometimes there was in front a portal resting on two columns and covered with a cross-arched vaulting, or a portico was introduced along the whole length of the facade. In spite of the unassuming simplicity of the external con- struction it is commendable that it seems to have been caused, at least in the main arrangement of its pro- portions, by a wish to render the characteristic expres- sion of the interior, for the lower aisles are connected with the more lofty central portion by a slanting en- tablature corresponding to the roof. The material was for the most part brick, which was sometimes left quite plain, whereby the construction was emphasized, and at others received a marble coating, as for instance at the church of San Miniato at Florence. The form of the Christian basilica which has been described was retained for several centuries in Italy, and especially at Rome. So true did the architects remain to the oldest models, that the buildings of the twelfth century are hardly to be distinguished from those which have been erected since the fourth. 89. The most complete specimen of the arrange- 168 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE -.iffffflltaaa- ment of an ancient basilica is presented by that of San Clemente at Rome (Fig. 83). One of the most notable instances of a five-aisled basilica is that of S. Paolo, out- ide the walls of Rome, which was burnt down and subsequently rebuilt in accord- ance with the old plan. During the later period of the construc- tion of basilicas, an isolated tower, of a simple rectangular shape, and with no taper, was often erected near the front facade of the building. Amidst the con- flicting views which have been arrived at concerning the origin and object of this new construction, which first occurred in connection with basilicas, the supposition that it was originally intended to collect the congregation for service, may probably be correct; and the designation bell-tower, as answering to the Italian expression Campanile, may be suitably employed to describe it. 90. In the period under consideration, chapels, convents, and other buildings, such as triclinia, or large halls for the reception of pilgrims were constructed in a style resembling that of the basilica. There was, however, another usual form of church which was synchronous with the basilica and which must now be described. In this class of structure the principal and often the only constituent part of the building consisted in a space, which was generally round or octangular, covered with a dome; while sometimes a circular passage or other parts of the building abutted Fig. 84. Tower of Early Christian Ba- silica of S. Maria in Cosmedin at Rome. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECT U RE 169 on it (Figs. 85 and 86). But when the entire building does not consist of the one dome-covered space, it always constitutes the central portion, and the other parts abut on it. Fig. 85. SECTION OF THE CHURCH OF S. CONSTANTIA AT ROME. 91. The simplest descriptions of this kind of build- ing are the baptisteries (Figs. 86 a, b, c, d), for which Fig. 86. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF S. CONSTANTIA AT ROME. the ancient Therma? furnished models. They generally have a circular or octangular ground-plan, a main space covered with a round or polygonal dome, and a 170 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE circular passage separated therefrom by pillars in the same way that the side aisles are separated from the main aisle in basilicas (see Figs. 85 and 86). Some- times they were without this passage, and only had gal- leries running round the interior like boxes in a the- atre. These buildings were generally erected in the vi- cinity of cathedrals. Other churches were constructed in the West in a similar simple way, but only in isolated instances; or some times in such a manner that several side domes, resting on pillars were grouped round the main dome: in which case the one which contained the altar always stood out prominently from the rest. Fig. 87. GROUND-PLANS OF BAPTISTERIES. 92. This circular architecture only occurs in isolated cases in early Roman Christian architecture; on the other hand in the Eastern empire it became the preva- lent form of church from the sixth, if not from the fifth century, and must be considered as the principal type of that architectural style, which will be con- sidered under the name of the Byzantine in the suc- ceeding subdivision. 93. In the ornamentation of basilicas, as in all works of early Christian art, and particularly in the case of EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 171 tombs, symbolic representations form a characteristic feature. It will not be inappropriate, with a view to a due understanding of the same, to consider some of the most usual and most important of these symbols or emblems. Christ is naturally the principal subject of these sym- bols; then come the Christian virtues and attributes. The earliest and most universal is the sign of the Cross, to which the monogram of Christ was subse- quently added. The fish was, moreover, an emblem of Christ, because the letters for the Greek word for a fish, taken as initials, give the words, "Jesus Christ, the Son of God, Saviour." A very favorite symbol is the lamb, whether as typi- cal of Christ, with the addition of a Cross, or of the Apostles, or of all Christians, as the flock of the Good Shepherd. The Dove is the symbol of the Holy Ghost and of mildness and gentleness. The hart is an em- blem of Christian longing, in consequence of the well- known verse in the Psalms: "Like as the hart de- sireth the water-brook, so longeth my soul for Thee, God;" the peacock, which was already an emblem of immortality for the heathens, retained that symbolic meaning among Christians ; the phoenix was a very natural emblem of the Resurrection ; and the cock of Christian watchfulness. In the earliest times, when the Christians celebrated their worship in the depths of the catacombs, the angel, the lion, the bull, and the eagle, were already emble- matic of the four Evangelists. A leaf is a very com- mon symbol : the olive-leaf as sign of peace, sonic- times with, and sometimes without, a dove : the palm- leaf, as reward of victory for martyrs and the departed, 172 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE because they had triumphed over death: the crown and the garland had the same signification; the vine-leaf was in early times the most favorite emblem; the an- chor and lyre were symbols of Christian confidence and joy; the horse, a ship under sail, and footsteps were probably typical of the journey of life and the accomplishment of the Christian struggle; the Rock was emblematic of our Blessed Saviour and of the character of firmness; and the pitcher was a symbol of the agape or of Holy Baptism. 94. Besides these shorter symbols, other more elab- orate ones are drawn partly from the Old and New Testaments, and partly from imagination. Their artistic value is insignificant, and on a par with heathen productions of the later Roman period. Of Old Testament symbols the following are the most common : As a memorial of man 's sinfulness, the Fall, with Adam and Eve at both sides of a tree round which is coiled the serpent: as typical of obedience, the sacrifices of Cain, Abel, and Abraham : as incentive to the hope of help in danger, Noah in the Ark on the approach of the dove, frequent representations of the prophet Daniel in the den of lions, and of the Three Children in the fiery furnace, and of the passage of the Red Sea: as proof of heavenly nourishment and strengthening, Moses striking water from the rock or receiving the Tables of the Law from the hands of the Lord: as symbolic of the Resurrection, the ascen- sion of Elijah. An especial favorite *was the story of Jonah, which combined several of these references, and representations of his sleeping in the gourd-booth, of his being swallowed by the whale and cast up again, were very frequent. i:.\sv LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 173 !)."). The mosl important events in the life of Christ afford materials for emblems drawn from the New Tes- tament: these only occur in works of a later period — such are representations of the Passion— of the cruci- fixion, the crowning' with thorns, and the derision. Some of the miracles of the Gospel narrative w T ere greatly in favor, as: the raising of Lazarus, the miraculous feeding of the people, the healing of the woman with the issue of blood, of the paralytic man, of the blind man : then more historic subjects, as the conversa- tion with the woman of Samaria, the entry of Christ into Jerusalem, the washing of feet, Christ before Pi- late, Peter's denial and leading away into prison, the delivery of the keys to Peter, etc. 96. The favorite and most usual representation of Christ is as the Good Shepherd, generally in a shep- herd's dress, bearing the lost sheep on His neck or cares- sing it : sometimes merely sitting amongst the sheep with a shepherd's staff or a flute. Besides these forms Christ is often represented without relation to a par- ticular incident, generally teaching, surrounded by His disciples or the twelve Apostles, either sitting or stand- ing on a mountain, from which issue four springs as symbols of the rivers of Paradise and of the Evan- gelists. Christ is also represented as Orpheus, in a short gar- ment, covered with the Phrygian cap. with the lyre in His hands and playing on it, sitting under the trees, whilst lions and camels and birds in the branches listen to Him. God the Father is generally represented simply by a hand stretched forth from the clouds. Whilst these representations are, it is true, weil cal- 174 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE culatod to stir religious thoughts in the beholder, still their artistic worth must be described as insignificant, with the exception of a few pictures of Christ in the apses, which portray considerable grandeur and dig- nity. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 97. After the separation of the Roman Empire into the Eastern and Western divisions (395 A. D.), a new order of things arose in the Eastern portion, and es- pecially in its new capital of Constantinople. On the site of the ancient Byzantium, and with an infusion of oriental elements, the Byzantine style was conse- quently developed. The sixth century, which witnessed the reign of Justinian, was the most important for the formation of this new style. Soon afterwards the in- roads of the Arabs and the conquest of whole provinces by that race began to exercise an influence on the form of Byzantine architecture. On the other hand Byzantine architecture had a reflex action on Arabian, as will be shown in the succeeding subdivision. The Crusades in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the supremacy of the Franks in the Greek empire which arose from those religious movements, tended to ex- tend the scope of Byzantine architecture over other countries also. But when the old line of emperors re- turned they were unable to withstand the victorious inroads of the Turkish Sultan, and the Western Empire became the prey of the resistless Turks in the year 1453. It has been usual hitherto to call Art in the west during the early period of its development in the Mid- KASV LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 175 die Ages Byzantine, but, although the influence of By- zantine forms is to be traced, it was far from stamping its impress on the western styles. The architecture of the Byzantine empire, properly so-called, has exclus- ively to be dealt with here, and the extraneous influence which it exercised will be considered in the fourth di- vision of the second book under the head of Later Ro- manesque architecture. Moreover, owing to various causes, buildings were erected in other countries in the Byzantine style but these, although they do not belong to the national architecture of the countries in question, must be classified w r ith the buildings built in the prev- alent style. 98. Two epochs must be distinguished in Byzantine architecture. The first, which begins with Constantine and ends with Justinian in the middle of the sixth cen- tury, is that of the formation of the new style, till the completion of a settled system : domical construction is its essential feature. The second and longer period exhibits a rigid imita- tion of the settled system, with an addition of oriental forms, and is finally, at least in some localities, sub- jected to the influence of Western Art. 99. The essential element in the formation oT the Byzantine style is the vault, which did not assume a free and independent character till it reached the East- ern Roman Empire; for hitherto in the west it had always been subordinate and unsuitable to the Grseco- Roman columnar construction. Massive piers and wide arches with a dome rising over them in the main space, and vaulted side-spaces in connection with it : these are the prominent characteristic elements of the archi- tectural design. Columns, if they were employed at all, 176 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE were made to be subordinate to the main form of the vault construction, and were introduced between the large piers and the arches. The construction of the vault influenced the whole structure of the building. The principle of vaulting that had already been introduced by the Romans, in which the walls no longer served as supports, but as enclosures, was carried to its utmost, limits in the new Byzantine style : for the pressure and thrust of the vault, which is held together by the counterpoise on the opposite side of the dome and strengthened by but- tresses, is distributed only on individual points. The Roman decorative principle was, however, aban- doned, inasmuch as a change took place in the indi- vidual details and in the manner of their application. Thus, for instance, projecting cornices, if not entirely given up, were only employed to crown the building, and its component parts, particularly intermediate cor- nices, became tame and flat in their outline. As only a subordinate position was allotted to the columnar architecture, the usual proportions of the columns and their capitals were abandoned and altered after an ar- bitrary fashion. During the early period various ground-plans were followed in the construction of churches. Sometimes they were octagonal, after the manner of the West- Roman central style, at others they formed oblongs, approaching a square, with a dome over the center. 100. The Byzantine style of this first period reached its highest example and splendor in the church of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople. After this church, which was originally built by Constantino, had been burnt to the ground, it was rebuilt, witli the utmost care, and EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 177 at great expense, by Justinian. It remained a peer- less model for ;ill Later buildings of this description, and was celebrated far and wide, not only i'or its size, but for the span of its vaults and the splendor of its decorations. A short description of this building will Fig. 88. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA, A1 CONSTANTINOPLE. therefore explain the main characteristics which were subsequently universally followed, for though the pro- portions in other buildings of a similar nature were diminished, yet they were always constructed in ac- 178 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE cordance with the same plan, which will he rendered intelligible by Figs. 88, 91 and 92. The external ground-plan of the building (Fig. 88) approaches a square, being 252 by 230 feet, in the center of which four massive piers, connected by semi- circular arches, form another square, and by means of triangular vaultings (pendentives) which span these arches, support a flat dome. Fig. 89. DOME-SYSTEM OP THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. Right and left on both sides of this central square, as viewed from the entrance, stand four pillars, which are connected by arches, and support the women's gal- lery. On each of the open sides of the dome-covered square there abuts a semi-circle with semi-domes of somewhat inferior height to the main dome. (Fig. 91.) These semi-domes are penetrated on each side by three smaller vaults (Fig. 89) ; the middle one of the three is a barrel or cylindrical vault (Fig. 90) and on the entrance-side forms the main-entrance, and opposite, on the further side, it forms the apse : whilst the two re- maining vaults on each side assume the form of immense niches with semi-domes, resting on two rows of columns one above the other. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 179 a B i- a j - o i— t Eh z, < H o 5 a K c- o m w O PL, s J J H BJ O a £3 k a a o « o X o g o •— ' H C H DO DO o 73 H M PL, 180 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE In this way the whole inner space forms an oval nave, which is terminated towards the west by a vault with a square end, and towards the east by the apse : whilst in its height it appears as an entire whole, owing to the vaults of various descriptions and altitudes that radiate from the central dome. Round this lofty central space, except on the side of the altar, are ranged side-aisles of two stories, which do not however assume the form of a continuous aisle, Fig. 91. BARREL VAULT. but are divided into three divisions on each of the long sides, in the second story of which are the women's galleries, so that the whole does not appear an open space, but rather an oval hall with side-halls and arches. These two-storied aisles are shown in Fig. 88 by hatch- ings, and the nave in the middle, having been left plain, is brought out more prominently. The embellishment was rich to the highest degree: the walls and piers, and even the floor, were inlaid with colored stones, and the vaults were enriched with mosaics on a ground of gold, and the columns were constructed of various marbles of the most precious kind. The nave was lighted from above by windows pierced in che main and in the semi-domes. Besides the Narthex, there was a second vestibule: both extended the whole breadth of the building. In EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ]Sl Fig. 92. INTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. front of it was an entrance court surrounded by a colon- nade, which was entered through an arch resting on four pillars. 101. The most striking point of difference in the impression conveyed by the interior of this Byzantine church and the interiors of Roman-Christian basilicas 182 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE is that while the latter carry the eye longitudinally to their apsidal termination, the former arrests it by the prominence of the central portion of the building; that is to say, by a stupendous dome constructed on a quadrangular substructure, in which all other details culminate. But notwithstanding this system of cen- tralization, and the majestic appearance of the dome, the perspective effect of length is not entirely aban- doned, as it was in the case of octangular and circular buildings; which constructions were, however, rarely employed for large churches. Fig. 93. EXTERIOR OF THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. Although the impression conveyed by this church is not so pure and simple as that which the basilicas pro- duce, still its outlines are magnificent and imposing. The exterior displayed a novel divergency from the normal standard. Whilst hitherto the antique form of the roof had been preserved, it was now replaced by a totally different one: inasmuch as the vaulting, at least of the domes, was visible from the outside without any screen, or the only covering it had was one of polished metal. (Fig. 93.) EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 183 According to this model it became the normal rule in buildings in the Byzantine style for the domes to spring from a square, and to introduce around it, except on the altar side, galleries for the women and to allow the vaulting to be visible externally. Fig. 94. GRCLND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF ST. MARK AT VENICE. Fig. 95. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE THEOTOKOS. AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 102. Contemporaneously with the church of Sta. Sophia, another form arose, which being subsequently frequently repeated, constitutes a second period of the Byzantine style, and forms the most eminent charac- teristic of Byzantine churches, namely, the ground-plan of the Greek cross with a vault-system consisting of five domes. The cross is formed by the intersection of the nave and transept and a dome is raised on piers 184 BAST LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE at the point of intersection, whilst over the extremity of each arm of the cross is a similar dome, only with- out windows. (Fit}-. 04.) The arms of the cross are often covered by a barrel-vault instead of a dome. (Figs. 95 and 96.) On the front side of the church there is generally a narthex, or a front-hall of consid- erable dimensions covered by vaultings. Fig. 9G. SECTION OF THE CHURCH AT THE TIIEOTOKOS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. But the ground-plan of a square with the central dome resting on piers or columns, and with four smaller domes at the corners, is more common and more charac- teristic of the Byzantine style. The women's galleries EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE is; were then introduced between the principal piers, open- ing on to the central space. As a rule, two small side apses were constructed on each side of the main apse: They were not, however, visible from the outside. Fig. 97. FACADE OF THE CHURCH OF ST. TAXIARCHOS AT CYTHNUS. 103. The principal difference between these build- ings and those of the first period consists in the treat- ment of the dome, which no longer, as in the church of Sta. Sophia, assumes the shape of a flat vault, but that of a hemisphere, whereas externally it often appears 186 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE as a flat vault resting on a perpendicular substructure. Whilst internally the windows pierce the vaulting, ex- ternally they are let into the vertical wall. (Fig. 97.) In this arrangement may be recognized the origin of the drum which subsequently became common in the west. In buildings of this period there are found, as has already been remarked, several domes in one building; sometimes three, but more often five; the four smaller ones either forming a cross with the central dome, or being introduced at the four corners. mm -,., -,j--j,7 • J -r L i t ! L ' J rr^;^i7 J - L ' 1 - Fig. 98. CHURCH OF ST. NICODEMUS AT ATHENS. 104. The vaultings are always without covering ex- ternally. Only in instances, where regard for climate or western influence have been brought to bear on their construction, are they covered with tiles or slabs of stone: and even then the shape of the various vaultings, whether domes, or barrel-vaults, or cross-vaults, remains almost always undisguised. The roofing of the church, beside the vaultings, consists either of plain slopes, or the outside walls are raised so high that they are only overtopped by the principal dome, whilst they screen the smaller ones, and so terminate the facade by a hor- izontal line. (Fig. 98.) The barrel- vaults of the arms EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 187 of the cross were afterwards converted into circular pediments, and finally all the upper portions of the building were terminated by rounded lines only. The exterior always remained extremely simple, and the oriental love of magnificence was in preference de- veloped internally. Sometimes the uniformity of the facade was broken by alternate rows of tiles and stones, or of stones of various colors. The windows were in- troduced in the women's galleries, and were narrow, and covered by round arches, or a double window was formed by the interposition of a pillar. Fig. 99. FROM THE CHURCH Fig. 100. FROM THE CHURCH OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. 105. The walls of the interior were cased with costly marble, and in later times were ornamented with mo- saics, representing either figures or arabesques, com- posed of very small precious stones or glass dice, and subsequently with frescoes : both the latter kinds of or- namentation were affected on a dark-blue, but after- wards always on gold ground. Owing to this extensive 188 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE employment of mosaics, a traditional style, both for de- sign and coloring, was formed for these figurative rep- resentations, which may be called the mosaic style: it was, as has been shown, employed in the Roman ba- silicas, and had great influence over the plastic art of Later times. In these mosaics the arabesques are of slender, intertwining patterns, whilst the representations of figures are stiff and conventional. Fig. 101. FROM THE CHURCH Fig. 102. FROM MARCIAN'S OF THE THEOTOKOS AT COLUMN AT CONSTANTINOPLE. CONSTANTINOPLE. 106. The essential characteristic of the Byzantine style is therefore, in short, that the vaulting, and es- pecially the dome, constitutes the main feature, to which all else is subordinate. With the Romans vaulting was associated with the Grecian column, and formed an isolated feature in their constructions, but in the By- zantine style it became an independent system ; although its artistic productions may never have surpassed medi- ocrity as regards detail. It was a consequence of this EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 189 system that the architrave of the Grecian orders, which is so essentially antagonistic to the vault construction, was entirely abandoned. The predominance of the dome and the vault was only a natural consequence of the development which this system was left free to assume by the abandonment of the outer roof and the associa- tion with the dome of the semicircle in place of the gable, at the termination of the outer walls. 107. Besides the main design, many of the details of the Byzantine style present novelties and peculiari- Flg. 103. FROM THE CHURCH OF ST. MARK AT VENICE. ties, in which the wish for diversity and picturesque effect point indubitably to an oriental influence. The servile imitation of the Grecian column is abandoned ; new forms of capitals arise, which suit the vaulted arches better, and evince more supporting power than the Greco-Roman would have done. This result is pro- duced by the introduction of a kind of support placed under the arch at the top of the capital. (Figs. 99 and 190 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 100.) This may be accounted as the most remarkable and most peculiar of the details of form in the Byzan- tine style. The capitals are of various kinds; gener- ally with pointed acanthus leaves, and resembling the Grecian Corinthian column (see Figs. 101 and 102): others are like the capitals of the Composite order, as, for instance, Figs. 103 and 104. Capitals like that de- Fig. 104. FROM THE CHURCH OF STA. SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. picted in Fig. 100, short and cubical in shape, with trapeziform sides and incised foliage or other orna- mentation, are peculiar to the Byzantine style. In other respects the purely architectural details are very deficient, and are generally replaced by mosaic ornaments. A love of splendor and varied richness of color predominates over the taste for the artistic work- ing of architectonic details. Byzantine ornaments are in general to be distin- guished from those of the Grecian and Roman styles, to the former of which, as well as to Asiatic sources, they owe their origin, by a rougher and more unpleasing EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTI'KK 191 treatment, and by the leaves in the sculptures being deeply indented, sharp-pointed, and hollowed out in the middle. The running foliage is generally poor and un- interrupted. 108. The forms which have been described are in use at the present day in the construction of churches in Greek Catholic countries; namely, a square or oblong ground-plan with a dome visible from the exterior ris- ing on four piers over the central space, and having cylindrical vaults over the sides and small domes over the corners, and as a rule three apses. The narthex, also, is not wanting, and it sometimes has a portico in front of it. Such are the regularly recurring elements of most Greek churches, though here and there some modifica- tions occur, as, for instance, the separation of the sanc- tuary from the main-space by traverse-walls. 109. No remains exist of Byzantine palaces, and we only know by the description of Byzantine writers that they were richly adorned with costly materials, such as precious stones and mosaics. On the other hand. Byzantine buildings of another kind have escaped the ravages of time, namely, the cisterns, which were con- structed principally in Constantinople and Alexandria as early as the time of Constantine. They are large reservoirs, covered with little domes or cross-vaultings, resting on columns. Sometimes several shafts were placed one over another. In connection with these cis- terns were large aqueducts, after the manner of the Roman. 110. Byzantine Art gained a footing also in the West. Italy especially, even after the division of the i mpires, and after the separation of the churches, still 192 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE maintained relations and intercourse with the East. Many Byzantine elements were communicated to the rest of the West by trade, and in later times by the Crusades directly, whilst indirectly they passed thither through Italy; and here and there buildings in the Byzantine style are to be found, either pure or modified. In this respect Ravenna, on the east coast of Italy, is most remarkable, which for a long time was under Greek rule, and was therefore subjected at the same time to the influence of both Rome and Constantinople. The church of San Vitale deserves especial mention, which was built at very nearly the same time as the church of Sta. Sophia at Constantinople. It forms an octagon with a dome resting on eight piers; the spaces between these piers form niches, covered by semi-domes, with two rows of arcades one above another, cutting into the main domes; as in the church of Sta. Sophia. (Compare Fig 91.) In the north-eastern parts of Europe and in Asiatic countries the Byzantine style spread simultaneously with the Greek church, and exercised a great influence over the formation of native Art, as, for instance, in Armenia, and Georgia, and in the Russian empire, in which countries the working of Byzantine style merits a special consideration; the influence that Byzantine Art exercised over Arabian architecture will be considered in that portion of the work to which it properly be- longs. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 193 Byzantine Architecture in Armenia and Geor<;i\. 111. Church architecture in these countries must be viewed as an offshoot of the Byzantine style. The By- zantine typical plan is sometimes found combined with the basilica ; while the dome in the center of the build- ing, the barrel-vaults of the side portion, the construc- tion of the apses and sometimes the narthex are all accepted. Fig. 105. EAST FACADE OF THE CHURCH. Fig. 106. GROUND-PLAN OF A CHURCH AT VAGHARSCHABAD. The churches of Armenia and Georgia, which were built in the tenth and eleventh centuries, show a devia- tion from tliis; form. Their plan is a parallelogram, from which the apse, if it is not concealed in the thick- ness of the wall, and the gateways project polygonally. Sometimes, instead of these projections, there are tri- angular recesses in the walls as shown in Figs. 105 and 194 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 10G. The roofs of the aisles slope from the wall of the nave as in Western buildings. The doors generally have circular or horseshoe arches over them, although in later times they were pointed or pyriform. The windows, which are as narrow as loop- holes, have sometimes straight and sometimes circular heads, and are often surrounded by ornaments, which do not lay claim to any importance, and which, in the more important churches are freely introduced on the arehivolts, cornices, and doors. Intertwined lines as showD in Fig. 107, enriched with foliage, are of very frequent occurrence. Fig. 107. PART OF AN ORNAMENTED WINDOW CASING. Fig. 108. CAPITAL OF A COLUMN. 112. The exterior walls are, generally, as in many Kvzantine churches, relieved by half columns, connected by arches, which have the appearance of marking off the wall into several subdivisions. Fig. 108 shows the capital of one of these columns, which seldom occur in any other part of the building. The cornices consist of full and massive mouldings. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 195 As regards the exterior, it must be remarked, that where the basilica construction has been retained, a sort of transept extends right and left from the dome, the gables of which resemble those of the western and east- ern facades. 113. The central dome rests. either on four inde- pendent piers; or, when the central form predominates, • in the walls which slope inwards, so that totally discon- nected spaces are formed at the corners, which, so far as concerns the impression conveyed by the interior, might as well not exist; in fact, internally no endeavor is made to produce any perspective effect. A polygonal form also occurs, with a number of niche-like project- ing buildings corresponding- to the number of the sides. The main dome is not spherical but conical in shape, and vaulted with layers of stone projecting one over the other. RUSSO-BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 114. Russian architecture may properly be called a deterioration of the Byzantine style, though it was modi- tied by many influences, and deviated considerably from it. It has maintained its peculiarities and errors of taste for centuries from the time of its formation from the Byzantine style down to the present day. The Slavonic races that dwelt in the broad expanses between the Adriatic and Black Seas and the Baltic, which were intersected by forests, morasses, and steppes, had received the first germs of their civilization by their intercourse with the Byzantine provinces: and Byzantine architecture found acceptance, owing to the 190 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE building of numerous churches by order of Vladimir the Great (981-1015), in whose reign a general profession of Christianity todc place in Russia, whilst that sov- ereign had continual intercourse with Constantinople- Fig. 109. CATHEDRAL OF THE ASSUMPTION AT MOSCOW. The nature, however, of the country and of the peo- ple was net conducive to a national development of the elements which had been implanted. A further obstacle EASY LESSONS IX AUGHITECTURE 197 was presented by the inroads of Mongols from Asia, and their establishment in the country under the rule of Ghengis in 12157. After their ascendency had been overthrown by Ivan III. (1462-1505), and the relations between Russia and Constantinople had ceased with the capture of the latter city by the Turks, that emperor procured artists of all kinds from the West, and par- ticularly from Italy, for the erection of the numerous buildings which he caused to be constructed; amongst others was the celebrated architect, Fioravanti, of Bo- logna, in the year 1175, who was summoned to build the still existing church of tlie Assumption at Moscow, exactly after the model of the Cathedral of Vladimir, which was the oldest metropolitan church of Russia, and therefore it is only in some few details and in the improvement of the proportions that the better taste of the Italian architect is perceptible. 115. It is only at the end of the fifteenth century that Russian architecture begins to exhibit a divergency from the Byzantine ; for then forms crop up that denote a Tartar origin, as the bulb-shaped dome, &c. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Russian architecture assumed a highly peculiar form, to which the church of Vassili Blanskenoy, at Moscow, with its fantastic shapes, greatly contributed (Fig. 11 0V In this building the merit both of art and style had fallen even lower than before. 116. The first churches were built at Tchernigow, Kief, and Novogorod, during the first half of the elev- enth century, after the model of the church of St. Sophia, by Byzantine architects and workmen. A de- viation, that had already ben introduced into the Byzantine style in the Eastern empire became the in- 198 EASY LESSONS IN AKC'I IITE< TURE Fig. 110. CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF VASSILI BLANSKENOY, AT MOSCOW*. dispensable type for all Large churches of this descrip- tion up till the present day, namely, the construction of five domes in such a way thai the four lesser domes are introduced over the four corner spaces of the square that forms the base. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 199 117. Russian architecture displays it s most peculiar feature in the shape and number of the domes; the dia- meter of which often exceeds that of the drum that forms the substructure. These domes no longer have a regular spherical shape, but run up into a point at the top, while the sides have swelling curves in the shape of a pear or bulb, and some are even broader and Hatter than those objects. The turriform substructure becomes still higher and slenderer with these bulb-like domes. The number of the domes is increased in buildings which have pretensions to magnificence, in such a way that either all the domes form part of a central system, the lesser domes being grouped round the central one, and diminishing in height as they recede from the center, and arranged on parallel or diagonal lines which form squares, or several square centralized systems of domes are introduced contiguous to one another. At the top of the dome is a gilt cross, which often springs from a half-moon, and from it gilt chains hang down and are fastened to the dome. The impression of this mass of domes is heightened and rendered more grotesque by the application of colors. The roofs which are covered with sheet-metal are painted yellow, red, or white, whilst the domes them- selves are green or blue, stucVled with gold stars, or entirely gilt or silvered : the central ones being more richly decorated than the outside ones. 118. The exterior surface of the walls is broken by slightly projecting pilasters, but in other respects it is tasteless. The windows are small and covered by a circular arch or by two connected together; the ends of which have no supports. They are often introduced 200 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE in two rows one above another, which seems a meaning- less imitation of the Byzantine double row of windows which was necessitated by the women's galleries. One characteristic peculiarity in the construction of Russian churches consists in the hip-roof, in which the main dome at the top and the side domes at the corners, being raised on drums, terminate in a very unartistic manner (Fig. 111). Fig. 111. HIP-ROOF WITH SUPERINCUMBENT DOMES. Fig. 112. BELL-TOWER. 119. The domes are supported in the interior by lofty piers, either circular or angular. The plastic por- tion of architecture is entirely wanting inasmuch as no sculpture exists "in Russian buildings. The principal divisions are only embellished by painting and gild- ing. The chief ornament of the interior consists of the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 201 iconostasis, which is a high screen reaching as far as the vaulting, and shutting off the altar from the con- gregation. On this iconostasis are painted pictures of saints in three or four horizontal compartments, ac- cording to an arrangement which is fixed and sanctioned by ritualistic use. The figures are painted on a gold ground, with gold and silver drapery, and always in accordance with one normal type, and the whole screen is scantily lighted by lamps. In other respects the in- terior is generally dark and gloomy. 120. Bell-towers (Fig. 112) are generally detached from the church, and it is only in quite modern times that they have been connected with them. They gener- ally consist of several diminishing stories, either circu- lar or octagonal in shape, which usually, but not always, have a square base. They are frequently crowned by an obelisk, terminating in a bulb-shaped dome, like a gi- gantic steeple-knob. 121. Even in the later Russian style, which retains few reminiscences of the Byzantine, the circular arch is prevalent ; and is introduced for the roofing of the inner spaces, in the* form of a barrel-vault, without the cross- vaulting being used. It is only in external details that the keel-arch is met with, which is of such frequent oc- currence in the Mahometan buildings in Persia and India, and which consists of two vaultings uniting in one point. (See Mahometan Architecture, Fig. 118.) 122. In the reign of Peter the Great, at the be- ginning of the eighteenth century, the vitiated taste of the West found its way to Russia, and by encroaching on the native fantastic architecture, if not entirely sup- planting it. it followed the same course as it did in other countries; and it is only quite lately that an imperial 202 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE edict has been promulgated to retain the old Byzantine style as much as possible in Russian churches. Rus- sian architecture can only produce an advantageous effect for the aesthetically cultivated eye when cities are viewed as an entirety, for then the great variety of the numerous variegated towers and domes, although quaint and wanting in repose, has a rich and imposing effect. MAHOMETAN ARCHITECTURE. Arabian Architecture in General. 123. During the course of the seventh century, A. D., the religion of Islam, which had been founded by Ma- homet, united in a short space of time the nomad tribes of the Arabs, who had hitherto lived in wild freedom, into one mighty people, which spread this new religion from the Atlantic to the Ganges. The Avant of buildings for the new Avorship neces- sarily called into existence the architectural and artis- tic elements amongst these united races. But since the roving life which they had led was little calculated to foster art, or effect an independent civilization, they were obliged to appropriate and use for their own pur- poses the existing forms of art in the various countries over which they disseminated the creed of Mahomet. These forms, however, were transmogrified in the hands of the conquerors according to their own genius and taste, so that the Arabian style was gradually developed out of the forms which were found ready to hand, and which belonged for the most part to Early Christian art EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 203 of the later Roman period, together with an admixture of Asiatic elements. This style, however, received a different impress in the various countries in which it was developed : thus, for instance, in Egypt it was blended with the rigid conformity of the Egyptian, and in India with the voluptuousness of the Indian. Arabian architecture was developed on the basis of the Early Christian, that is to say, on that of the basili- cas of the Byzantine stvle. Its formation and peculiarity, apart from the in- fluence of the fantastic genius and lively imagination of the Arabs, was necessarily in part determined by the fact that every kind of figurative representation, whether of man or animal, is forbidden by the Mahome- tan creed. 124. In the earliest times Christian churches were made use of for the practice of the new religion. It was only when the whole of the East had become united through Islam that independent Arabian art was de- veloped. After the empire of the Caliph had spread from the confines of India to Spain, Arabian architec- ture diffused itself from Bagdad as a center by the erection of many splendid palaces and mosques. These last-mentioned buildings, however, did not have such an effect on the formation of the style as was the case with the sacred buildings of nations professing other religions, whose worship required certain settled forms. Mosques, however, have aLso their essential parts, that must never be wanting; but their design is not normal, and consequently the main form of the mosque is not a settled one. The requisite parts of a mosque are as follows : the Mihrab, or Hall of Prayer, which mark the direction of Mecca (Kibleh), and which must conse* 204 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE quently have had a different position in different coun- tries; then a place for the ablutions, which precede prayer; and finally a large space for the entry and departure of the faithful, for the reading of the Koran and prayers. In this space are the Maksura, or seat of the Caliph, when one was required; as also a place for the preservation of the Koran, and finally the Mimbar, or kind of pulpit. A further requirement is the Min- aret, a kind of tower, from which the Iman calls the hour of prayer, and of which the larger mosques generally possess four or six. Fig. 113. GROUND PLAN OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN TOULOUN AT CAIRO. 125. Two main forms are noticeable in the design of mosques. The one, which belongs to the western countries of Islam, and is the older of the two. is a lengthened square shut in by walls and surrounded with arcades on the inside, without a roof, and often planted with trees (Fig. a, 113). A well (b) covered by a EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 205 cupola always constitutes one of the chief ornaments of this court-like space. On one side is a covered build- ing (A), in which are introduced the hall of prayer (dj and the sanctuary and pulpit (e), and which often con- sists of several rows of arcades running one behind another with a flat roof. Besides the portals and battlements, the only orna- mentation that the exterior receives is the slender tower or minaret (f, Fig. 114). There seems to be no fixed rule for its position. This design seems more impor- tant, when the Mausoleum of the founder is connected Sf^^B j Fig. 114. PART OF THE SECTION OF THE MOSQUE OF IBN TOULOUN AT CAIRO. with it, rising in a high vaulted dome over the main body of the building. The buildings and arcades are covered with domes of various shapes. 126. In the other kind of mosques, which are con- structed on the model of the Byzantine style, the body of the building forms an independent and separate feature, in which the main space, as well as the side spaces, are covered by vaultings in the Byzantine fashion, the roof of the former being a dome. The outer court, surrounded by arcades, also occurs, and these arcades have likewise small dome-vaultings. The exterior is 206 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE more gracefully constructed, and the introduction of several minarets, from two to six, at the corners, has an elevating effect. Although a Byzantine model is recognizable in the main design, still an Asiatic, and chiefly Indian influence is unmistakable in the external forms, and especially in the domes. 127. Taken as a whole, Arabian architecture, in ac- cordance with the oriental manner of life, may be described as internal rather than external ; especially in palaces and dwelling-houses. Whilst the tasteless ex- terior of buildings only displays to the eye high walls FIG. 115. DETAIL OF THE EXTERNAL BATTLEMENT MARKED y IN Fig. 114. Fig. 116. DETAIL MARKED x IN FIG. 114. which are irregularly pierced by small windows, and those few in number, everything in the interior is richly decorated. The richest ornamentation is lavished on the most essential part of these buildings, namely, on the porticoes which surround the open court. There are no fixed orders or proportions for the pillars, as there are in Grecian and Roman architecture: some- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 207 times they are squat and heavy; at others slender and graceful, especially in the later period. 128. In the different countries which were subjected to the sway of the Arabs, three different forms of arches, besides the circular arch, which is of rare oc- currence, are met with in the arcades, and in connec- tion with the doors and windows. In Egypt and Sicily occurs the pointed arch (Fig. 117), which consists of curves, and resembles the arch, which was subsequently employed in the West in the Pointed or Gothic style, only that it is more elliptical. It occurs in monuments which are perhaps rightly attributed to the earliest period of Mahometan architecture : but there is no doubt that it is met with in buildings which belong to the beginning of the ninth century. Fig. 117. Fig. 119. Fig. 118. ARABIAN ARCHES. In Persia and India the keel-arch occurs (Fig. 118), which differs slightly from the pointed-arch, the ends of the curves being bent slightly upwards, in the shape of the keel of a vessel. In Spain the horse-shoe arch (Fig. 119) is the most frequent form, which consists of a larger segment of a circle than that formed by a semi- circle. These different forms of arches were not architec- turally determined and systematically carried out in the various buildings in which they occur, but employed rather in an arbitrary manner. 208 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 129. The walls over these arches are covered, as all flat surfaces generally were, with embellishments in the shape of arabesques, which either consist of flat relief in stucco, or are painted in lively colors. They are Fig. 120. MOORISH WALL DECORATION IN THE ALHAMBRA AT GRANADA. formed of the most multifarious entwinings of straight or curved lines or belts, sometimes bearing a resemblance to vegetable forms, as Figs. 120, 121, 122, and 123 demonstrate. Each of these patterns is extended over considerable surfaces. A brilliant but not a staring EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 209 general effect is produced, in spite of the lively colors, which must be attributed to the fact that each color is spread over a very small surface, and consequently does not become too prominent. Fig. 121. In conformity with religious regulations, the orna- mentations never express a symbolic meaning. On the other hand, numerous inscriptions form an essentially characteristic part of the embellishment of Saracenic buildings: they are principally passages from the Koran, or proverbs, and are introduced in the principal parts of the ornamentation. The inscriptions of the older style, in the Kufic character, so called from Kufa 210 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE a town on the Euphrates (Fig. 124), is ornamental in form, and blends harmoniously with the other embellish- ments. At a later period the Italic character (Fig. 125), which is less stiff, came into use for the same purpose. Fig. 122. 123. WALL DECORATION FROM THE ALHAMDRA AT GRANADA. 130. For the roofing of buildings straight beams and vaultings were both in use. For the latter Arabian ;;ichitecture has created a quite peculiar and highly characteristic form. The vaulting consists of small cavities, or miniature domes, which rise one above another till the topmost forms a kind of point at the top (Figs. 126 and 127). The effect of these vaultings, which resemble stalactite grottoes, and which are richly EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 211 ornamented with coloring, is complicated rather than worthy of imitation. Properly speaking, they do not deserve the name of vaultings, inasmuch as they have nothing in common with that kind of construction, and Fig. 124. KUFIC CHARACTER EMPLOYED AS DECORATION. should be considered rather as fantastic eccentricities. They almost always consist of plaster or Avood and are strengthened by beams and roofing. Fig. 125. ITALIC CHARACTER EMPLOYED AS DECORATION. The domes are for the most part flat and plain ex- ternally, or ornamented with stripes like a gourd ; in buildings of importance they are larger, and either semi- circular or tapering. 212 EASY I^SSONS IN ARCHITECTURE It now remains, after the above remarks on Arabian architecture in general, to describe the peculiarities of Fig. 126. SECTION OF PART OF THE ROOF OF THE CAPELLA PALATINA AT PALERMO. PROFILE OF FIG. 126. Fig. 127. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OP i'AKT OF A VAULT FORMED UY SMALL SUPERINCUMBENT ARCHES. style which arose in the various countries in which Saracenic buildings were erected. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 213 2. Arabian Architecture in Spain. 131. Spain was conquered by the Arabs in the year 711 a.d., and in 755 Abd el Rahman founded an inde- pendent Arabian empire in that country, and after he had reigned for thirty-five years began to adorn his capital, Cordova, with buildings; especially by the con- struction of a large mosque; and Arabian architecture in Spain may be said to commence with that structure. The Roman style that was prevalent in the country was to a certain extent retained, and the fragments of Roman buildings were employed in the new structures. The most flourishing period of Arabian art in Spain was during the reign of Abd el Rahman III., from 912 to 961, under which monarch Cordova reached the high- est pitch of its splendor. He caused buildings to be erected in many of the cities of the country, especially in the newly-founded town of Zahra, in which the simple forms of the earlier centuries appear already giving way to rich and fantastic shapes. In the same way as the Roman style had at first formed the model, so now the Byzantine style was preferred, on account of its yielding richer forms. But independent features were employed in connection with these Byzantine elements, and forms, which were quite peculiar to the Arabs, such as the horse-shoe arch, were mingled with them. The relations with Byzantine art were finally entirely broken off, when after long internal struggles with the Christian knights, Arabian Spain passed under the voice of the African Moors, and Morocco became the seat of government. 214 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 132. Buildings were erected at Seville, as well as at Cordova: and amongst these the Minaret, which is called the Giralda, is especially remarkable. It was erected in 1195, and is still in existence; in it the forms of the Early Arabian and Byzantine styles have already disappeared. The Alcazar is also worthy of notice, and though it has undergone many changes through subse- quent restorations, still it exhibits essentially the same forms as the Giralda. For instance, the capitals, which are still Corinthian, are of a graceful, slender shape, instead of being heavy, as heretofore, and the arches assume a pointed character instead of the broad circu- lar. They never, however, take the shape of the simple pointed arch, but are indented at the top and on the inner sides with various little arches. Similar towers to the Giralda are found at Morocco, Tunis, and Tetuan, whilst the minarets at Cairo and in the East are differ- ent. 133. Whilst the Arabian buildings at Cordova (Fig. 128), as well as similar isolated remains in other towns of Spain, belong to the first period of Arabian archi- tecture in that country, as is evidenced by their clumsy application and imitation of Roman and Byzantine forms, the buildings at Seville belong to the second period, which was that of the freer development of the strictly Moorish style; although it still retained some reminis- cences of earlier times. In the third period the forms were entirely independent, and were also richer and more peculiar, and the buildings were characterized by variegated and magnificent ornamentation. This style is illustrated by the buildings of Granada, and, above all, by the Alhambra. It was only during the latter period of Saracenic rule in Spain, after Cordova and Seville were again in the EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 215 possession of Christian kings, and Andalusia had In- come the last place of refuge for the Mahometan popu- lation, that Granada, which had been founded in the tenth century, became powerful and important as the point of concentration for Moorish power and civiliza- tion in Spain, and as the seat of a brilliant court and Fig. 128. VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE AT CORDOVA. a school of arts and sciences. The city attained the zenith of its splendor in the fourteenth century. But small remains exist of its numerous palaces. Besides the Generalife, which is a graceful garden-pavilion in the style of the Alhambra, only the Alhambra itself remains as the most important and best-preserved speci- men of its romantic splendor. 216 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 134. The Alhambra tonus a portion of the town which was entirely surrounded by fortifications; in fact, the citadel on which were built, besides the royal palace, public buildings and the houses of the court officials, and displays externally only the walls and towers of a fortress. The castle was founded in the thirteenth century, during the reign of Abou Abdallah Fig. 129. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA AT GRANADA. ben Nassar, who died in 1270. But the richest and most beautiful parts of the building which are still remaining, were carried out by Abou-el-Walid (1309- 1325), and by Abou Abdallah (1325-1391). One of the last kings, Muley Hassan (1445-1453), only added some smaller portions. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 217 Though part of the castle was turned into a modern palace under Charles V., yet the most beautiful parts of the interior are still preserved. They consist of splendid halls and dwelling-rooms grouped round two courts, the one, the Court of the Alberca, with its double row of myrtles, and the other the celebrated Court of the Lions. (Fig. 130.) (For plan, see Fig. 129.) This Court of the Lions, so-called from the fountain, which is placed in the center, and supported by twelve of these animals, is a hall surrounded by graceful columns and arches, while in the middle of the narrow side of the court the projecting columns form pavilions, in which are other fountains. On the south side is the Hall of the Abencerages (a), so-called because the knights of the race of the Abencerages were murdered lie re. while on the north side is the Hall of the Two Sisters (b). The most celebrated amongst the magnificent and graceful dwelling-chambers and banquet-halls are the following: The Audience Hall, or Hall of the Ambas- sadors, with a banquet hall in front: the Hall of the Abencerages; the Hall of the Two Sisters, in which were the women's apartments, and which consisted of a large hall with two side-halls and a cabinet ; and finally a long, narrow hall called the Hall of Judgment, which took in the east side of the Court of the Lions. The combination of all these graceful halls and courts, with fountains and arcades, and with delightful little gar- dens attached to them, and gleaming with rich and mag- nificent coloring, lends a romantic charm to the whole. The whole of the interior is of a highly ornamental character, and displays in the design of the decorations 218 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE Q < < o E- spite of a lavish richness of ornamentation, a desirable harmony is attained, which causes the various parts to hlend concordantly, and produces a general impression of repose. The designs of the enrichments contribute to this effect, for being on a small scale, and not concen- trated or strongly marked, so as to claim the eye's ex- clusive attention, they do not detract from the general effect. The patterns in the various panellings have no connection with each other, and present the appearance of detached carpet-patterns, without exercising any in- fluence on the architecture as a whole; and even if the eye be arrested and employed by one particular detail, it has no power to disturb the general survey. The patterns of these embellishments are, it is true, often very similar, but they are never quite alike, in- variably differing in .some of their numerous combina- tions. The inscriptions are introduced sometimes in bold Kufic character, at others with the letters inter- lacing both in a horizontal and a vertical direction, that is from the bottom to the top of the wall, so that they can only be read conveniently by a person in a recum- bent position. 138. It is only in the ornamentation of these surfaces that any artistic taste is displayed in Arabian architec- ture in Spain ; constructive forms are either non-existent or thrown into the background. The more new peculiar- ities of formation gain ground, the more do the archi- tectonic and constructive elements vanish, and the latter remain in Arabian architecture generally, with its in- complete knowledge of technics, subordinate to the dec- orative principle. Attention was consequently more di- rected to the fantastic and elegant, than to the massive and magnificent. 224 EASY IJDSSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 3. Arabian Architecture in Egypt and Sicily. 139. Egypt was subjected to the sway of the Arabs, and to Islam by the Caliph Omar. It formed at firsl a province of the Great Caliphate, and though it subse- quently passed under the rule of independent rulers, it never again attained its former prosperity. The genius of the land remained as before serious and gloomy, and continued to exercise an influence on its artistic produc- tions. The most important buildings of the Arabs in Egypt which are known to us, and from which our opinion has to be formed of the style of architecture which they in- troduced into that country, which was modified by its genius, are to be found at Cairo or Musa, which was founded in the tenth century, and became one of the largest and most important cities of the East. The earlier buildings, of which the oldest is the Mosque of Amrou at Old Cairo founded in 643, are very simple; the latter ones are richer. The richest and most important mosque is that of Sultan Hassan (Melik- el-IIassan). which was constructed in the year 1356 a. n.. /'. e., 758 of the Hegira. The design varies from the usual form, and the exterior is imposing, 140. In the buildings of Arabian architecture in Egypt, a more solid construction and more powerful forms are perceptible than in the more graceful struc- tures in Spain and Persia, but still a thorough execution and an organic perfection are wanting. Its simplicity has at times something magnificent, which borders, how- ever, on vacuity, a fact which is principally owing to the deficiency in all definite constructive parts. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 223 The style of Arabian buildings in Egypt and Sicily is principally to be distinguished from those which occur in Spain, India, and Persia by the frequent occurrence of the pointed arch, which first came into common use among the Egyptian Arabs. Sometimes it occurred in its simple shape, as in the West, in the so-called Gothic style, but it was generally depressed (see Fig. 117), frequently with a straight prolongation of the haunch. The keel-arch of Persia, and the horseshoe arch are not entirely excluded, but they are of rare occurrence. Still, however, in no building does one distinct form of arch occur to the total exclusion of others. The arches rest either on pillars, or on plain or mould- ed piers adorned at the "corners with half -columns. Al- though the arch construction is on the whole predomi- nant, it was not used for the vaulting of large spaces, which were, on the other hand, provided with flat roofs : this was probably partly owing to deficiency in techni- cal knowledge. When vaultings occur, they are general- ly secured by braces, beams and cement; whilst they are often entirely of wood. 111. The mosques, at least the older ones, consist (see Section 125) of an open court, in which the side of the sanctuary is only distinguished from the rest by various rows of columns. Jn the middle of the court stands the quadrangular, or octagonal building, covered with a dome, which is intended for ablutions. In the minarets (Fig. 136) the slender circular shape occurs, as it does in Persia and India, but also th< j square shape, with round or octagonal substructures. The dwelling-houses are tasteless externally, accord- ing to Oriental custom, with small windows pierced high up in the walls, and with overhanging balconies in the upper stories (Fig. 137), the windows of which, as 226 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE taiiFii * IS, ; l -/vv\ i ; ; T3i • . i. i Fig. 137. BALCONY AT CAIRO. Fig. 136. MINARET AT CAIRO. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 227 well as those of the lower stories, are secured by wooden lattice-work, which, with its variously intertwining patterns, i'orras the only, or, at any rate, principal charm of the exterior of the houses. The interiors, on the other hand, display riches and luxury: a spacious court, paved with various kinds of marble or stone, in varied patterns, and provided with .1 foundation, is surrounded by open vestibules, beyond which are the doors that conduct to the various apart- ments, which also have latticed windows. Ornamentation, as in the Arabian architecture in Spain, plays here too an important part, especially in the embellishment of surfaces. The same fantastic com- binations and the same brilliant coloring produce the same effect and exhibit the same shortcomings. 142. In the course of the ninth century Sicily was also subjected to the sway of the Arabs. After the island had attained great prosperity in the tenth cen- tury under its new masters, it was again conquered by the Normans under Count Roger, 1090 a. d. But the Arab element had now become engrafted in the population, and consequently the Norman chiefs favored and advanced the Arabian arts and sciences which they found already existent, and caused buildings to be erected by Arab architects, which accounts for the fact that those structures which were reared during the Christian rule of the Normans still bear an Arabian im- press, although Christian elements are mingled with them. Nearly all the numerous castles and towns which were built in Sicily by the Saracens are destroyed. Two buildings, however, have been preserved at Palermo, in which the style of the Arabs is indubitably recognizable ; 228 EASY LESSONS IN \K< IllTKCTURE the palaces of La Ziza and La Cuba (Fig. 138)> which were erected before the period of Norman rule, proba- bly in Hie tenth century. These buildings, which are less allied to Moorish constructions in Spain than to those a1 Cairo, have much in common with the latter, as the solid workmanship of the material, the long divisions of the Fig. 138. LA CUBA AT PALERMO. plain and lofty walls, and especially the pointed arch and the way it is introduced; and finally the favorite embellishment of the facade by the alternation of stone oi- glazed tiles of different colors, which were introduced in horizontal bands. 4. Perso- Arabian Architecture. 143. In consequence of the battle of Kadesia, 636 a. d., the Persian rulers of the dynasty of the Sassanides were compelled to yield to the Arabs, who burst upon them with the impetuous fury which marked the follow- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 229 ers of that creed which rapidly spread over the whole of Persia. But being a nomad race, and possessing few acquirements, and particularly no architecture of their own, the victors adopted the civilization of the con- quered people, in the furtherance of which Greek Chris- tians were also employed. Under the Abassides, in the course of the eighth and ninth centuries, the Arabian and the Old-Oriental elements were amalgamated into one whole. Bagdad was the splendid capital of this dynasty, where under Haroun-al-Raschid, who died in 809, arts and sciences were especially cultivated: still more was this the case under the rule of Mahmoud Jemin-el-Dowlah, who died in 1029 at Ghazni, on the confines of India and Persia. In the ninth century the artistic reputation of the Arabs was so considerable that the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus caused a summer-palace to be constructed after the design of the palace of the Caliph at Bagdad. Perso- Arabian architecture owes an especial impetus to the construction of fresh capitals, which was necessitated by the frequent change of dynasties. Owing to the Buides, whose seat was at Shiraz (932-1056), and still more owing to the dynasty at Ghazni, on the Indian border (977-1184), Old-Oriental, that is Old Persian and Indian elements exercised an ever-increasing in- fluence, and during the rule of the Mongols (1220-1405 . as well as under the Turkish races of the Sofides (from 1505), the same tendency was continued. 144. The strict difference of style between these epochs, which are thus designated by their dynastic names, cannot be indicated, owing to our imperfect knowledge of the buildings in question. But still it may be gathered from the judgment of travellers, who could 230 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE scarcely distinguish old from new, that no material al- teration had supervened in the constructions of the Ma- hometan period. Our information, however, regarding the buildings of a later period is more accurate; as, amongst others, of those of Ispahan, which was founded hy Shah Abbas the Great (a. d. 1585-1629), of the dynasty of the Sofides, or Sufis. He caused magnificent buildings, which were mostly of public utility, such as bazaars, caravansaries for travellers, consisting of quadrangular or octagonal courts surrounded by halls and buildings of various kinds, to be erected in his capital. 145. The principal characteristic of the Perso- Ara- bian style is the arch. Although they are sometimes round or pointed, still they are generally broad with a swelling line and terminal point, not unlike the shape of the keel of a vessel, and therefore called the keel-arch (see Fig. 118). They are, however, devoid of con- structive importance, as they do not serve to supporl anything, but on the other hand, require support them- selves; they convey the impression of lightness and freedom, and generally rest on broad piers without columns. Pillars appear only to occur of wood, as sup- ports for horizontal roofs in the halls of the palaces. A further essential component part, at least in all the larger buildings, is the dome. Whilst sometimes of simple hemispherical shape, it frequently is slightly con- tracted at the base, and runs up into a point above (Fig. 139), it has the bulging form as in Russian archi- tecture, but its shape is nobler and more lofty. The d mes are adorned with variegated colors in different patterns. Internally the vaultings have the stalactite shape, and EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 231 I ( lompare are sometimes formed of small flat niches Figs. 12G and 127). The mosques and palaces generally have portals, which consist of a large hall or recess, with a gleaming stalactite vaulting of azure and gold. The minarets r,V : l — . "o~"? t> © . 3 _ <.~ "■„ ooc jo ■> o c_>_ e lr - Fig. 139. PERSO-ARADIAN PORTAL WITH DOME AND MINARETS. are slender and decorated with glazed tiles (Fig. 139 ). Private buildings are lightly constructed of tiles, and the exteriors are painted in bright but not nnpleasing colors, and adorned internally with mirrors and paint- ings from which the human form is not excluded for the Persians do not observe the prohibition of the Koran in 232 EASV LESSONS IX ARCIIITKCTKKE this respect. These paintings however, have no artistic value, inasmuch as they are deficient in expression, shad- ing and perspective. Fig. 140. SECTION OF THE TOMB OF SULTAN KHODABENDAH (A. D. 1303— 1316.) AT SULTANIEH. The Perso- Arabian system of ornamentation is not so pine as the Moorish; an effort at immediate representa- tion of nature, such as plants and flowers, is especially noticeable. Fig. 140 gives the section of a tomb in the shape of a large octangular dome. EASY LESSONS L\ ARCHITECT UKE 233 5. Arabian Architecture in India. 146. At the end of the twelfth century hordes, which were principally Turco-Tartar in their origin, poured irresistibly into Hindustan, and there founded a perma- nent Mahometan empire, of which the capital was Delhi. So quickly did this city increase in importance and pop- ulation, that, at the end of the thirteenth century, it con- stituted the most brilliant court of the then world, and becoming the largest town in the East, and like a second Rome, was filled with public buildings, mosques, palaces, and mausoleums. This prosperity reached its highest pitch under the rule of the Toglucks (a. d. 1321-1398, particularly under that of Feroze), but it collapsed with their downfall. For the Mongols, who under Timour drove out the Tartars, destroyed Delhi in such a way that only insignificant remains of its former magnifi- cence are remaining. A new conqueror, the Emperor Baber, founded in 1526 the dynasty of the great [Moguls, whose residence was Agra, not far from Delhi. Agra soon threw the capital of the former dynasty into the shade, and was adorned with buildings of great splendor. Numerous specimens of their buildings are still in exist- ence, both at Agra and at other places in India, as, for instance, in the neighborhood of the river Jumna, which testify to the love of magnificence and the excellent tech- nical skill of these Tartar races. 147. As characteristic of the monuments erected dur- ing the Pathan dynasties, which flourished from the con- clusion of the twelfth century till about the end of the fourteenth, it must in general be remarked that the ruins of Old Delhi exhibit an application and pureness 23-4 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE of ornamentation in common with all other Mahometan styles, but at the same time they display to larger pro- portions and dimensions, and the forms are grand throughout. The domes which occur here, as in all Mahometan styles, are often simply spherical, surround- ed at the lower margin with a circuit of battlements re- sembling foliage; the walls are generally divided by straight belts in a perpendicular and horizontal direc- tion. The openings are sometimes spanned by simple pointed arches of the form prevalent in the West, and at others with keel arches; and in the case of small pa- vilions with straight entablatures resting on pillars or piers. Still more development and execution is evinced by the monuments of Pathan architecture which were erected at Beejapore in the Deccan. In the middle of the fifteenth century this place was the capital of an in- dependent Mahometan kingdom, but was subjected to the Great Mogul during the latter half of the fifteenth century, and is now only a city of ruins, where, haw- ever, many splendid buildings are still standing. 148. In these structures there usually rises over the center of the building the dome, surrounded by battle- ments resting on a platform, and with a quadrangular substructure. This dome is generally bulbous in shape, bulging out beyond the line of its base, and terminating in a point above; whilst sometimes, but rarely, it is hem- ispherical. The main plan of the building is generally square, and less frequently octagonal. The walls are al- ways divided by broad perpendicular pilasters which are connected by keel arches, whilst above them massive rectangular entablatures project obliquely, which sup- port galleries, over which battlements of the shape pe- culiar to this style of architecture, namely, oval shaped, EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 235 pointed leaves, form the finish. Octagonal or round towers with small domes distinguish the corners of the building. The arches are always supported by strong square piers without capitals. The mosques have, as generally in Inaia, the snape of a square, the simple, massive walls of which are orna- mented with towers at the corners (Fig:. 141). The en- trance consists of a large, projecting, tower-like struc- ture, with a lofty gate with a keel arch. In the interior Fig. 141. THE JUMNA MOSQUE AT DELHI. the court is surrounded on three sides by a simple arcade, whilst the fourth, on which is the sanctuary, is raise. 1 somewhat higher, and the doors not being shut, a view into the inner halls is obtained. The mosques are only moderately ornamented internally, whilst the palaces, on the other hand, which have several stories, display every possible richness in embellishment. 149. The gorgeous mausoleums are especially im- portant, of which that of Mahomed Shah is massive and 236 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE heavy, but .still of striking simplicity, and possesses a dome the span of which exceeds thai of St. Paul's, Lon- don; while that of his father, Ibrahim Adil Shah, who died in 1626, is Lighter and more graceful. The tombs occupy the middle of a tank, which is sur- rounded by broad garden -walks, accessible to the public, and connected with mosques, from which the monumen- tal portion stands out prominently. This building gen- erally consists of a square or octagon, bounded by towers or minarets, with four large entrances spanned by arches, which lead to the central space, where the coffins stand under the dome on a raised platform, shut off by a balustrade, richly adorned with mosaics. This form, al- though the usual one, is not of universal application, for there occur, also, pyramidal designs something similar to the Dagoba, consisting of open halls with stories. The richest and most charming of all these tombs is that of the Taje Mehal. In general all these buildings exhibit a stately yet simple character, which is decidedly an improvement on the ordinary Mahometan styles. This is joined with a certain richness of details and with the full and luxuri- iant forms of the East, whilst here and there the in- fluence of early Indian architecture gave rise to curious details, which did not correspond with the otherwise noble forms of these structures, as, for instance, the bar- barous ornament of chains of stone worked out of a single block. The style of the buildings at Beejapoor is similar to that of those at Agra, and the splendor of the whole of the designs corresponds: the walls of the in- terior are richly inlaid with mosaics formed of precious stones. 150. The magnificent buildings with which Shah EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 23*3 Jehan-Abad richly adorned New Delhi in the seven- teenth century are essentially the same in style as thos at Beejapoor, but their character is more elegant and Less stately. The forms still are, however, praiseworthy, the main lines are well denned and uninterrupted, and the divisions symmetrical. The walls arc higher and simpler, the entablatures are less projecting, and the bastion-like corner towers do not always occur. A very customary composition consists of a large gateway in the center of the wall, with a broad keel arch, on both sides of which the walls, which are relieved by windows or arches, are divided by perpendicular belts and horizontal lines (Fig. 141). 6. Turkish Architecture. 151. The last stage of Arabian architecture is thai of the modern Turkish Empire. After the conquest of the Grecian Empire by the Turks, that people made use of the buildings which they found ready at hand, as they had done in other in- stances previously, and they fell into the Byzantine style, with the admixture of oriental forms in the details When, after the fall of Constantinople in 14.18, Ma- homet II. began to adorn his new capital, he made use of Christian art and Christian architects. The Christian churches were dedicated to Islam, and under the gnise of a mosque, the Church of Sta. Sophia soon came to be considered as very sacred. We consequently find thai Arabian architecture, in its Turkish phase, did not un- dergo the .same development ;is it did in the other coun- tries where Mahometanism was the prevailing creed. 238 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Owing to this imitation, of existing Byzantine forms, of which the Church of Sta. Sophia was the highest model, and to the employment of the materials such as pillars. &c, which were available from the older Byzantine buildings, a very great similarity exists between the mosque and the Christian church. The principal differ- ence consists in the lively decoration of the interior, and ■7 V I ■ t _ s ; r M ! m x a l i r I II II II II II II" II. II I II III "It It ii is 10 ii n Fig. 142. FACADE OF THE SULTAN AHMED MOSQUE AT CON- STANTINOPLE. the introduction of inscriptions instead of sculpture, which is common to all Mahometan buildings, and finally in the addition of slender minarets and the indispensable fore court. The most splendid of all the mosques of Constanti- nople is that of the Sultan Ahmed (a. d. 1600) (Figs. 142 and 143) ; which, after Byzantine fashion, forms a large square, and supports in the center a vast dome on EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 239 massive fluted piers; from the central dome depend lour semi-domes, whilst four still smaller domes are intro- duced at the corners. In the newest of the domes of im- portance, which was completed by the Sultan Osman at the end of the seventeenth century, one dome covers the entire building. Fig. 143. GROUND-PLAN Fig. 142. In the architecture of palaces the modern western con- struction has lately been adopted at Constantinople and Alexandria. 152. The essential particulars of the individual Arabian styles amongst the various [Mahometan nations having now been considered, it remains to take a general survey of them when treated as a whole. It must firstly be remarked that owing to the immense diffusion and difference of origin of the nations which 240 EASTf LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE embraced the creed of Mahomet, and owing to the hetero- geneousness of the older native styles which prevailed at the time of its expansion, it was impossible that one uni- form style should be developed in one and the same way, although it started from one and the same point, This accounts for the little similarity that exists between buildings in the Arabian style as they occur in India or in Spain, or amongst the Turks in the Byzantine em- pire. But in spite of the heterogeneousness of the na- tions of Islam, a common stamp is visible in all ; and consequently their buildings, although they vary con- siderably from one another, display a common peculiar- ity, which distinguishes them clearly from those of other nations, and which is highly characteristic of the tendencies of Mahometanism. 153. Speaking generally, a definite totality of design is wanting in Mahometan buildings; for it is obvious at the first glance that the faulty forms of the exterior by no means correspond with those of the rich and elab- orate interior, and that the essential" constructive parts appear incomplete and meaningless. Unity of form yields to arbitrariness, as is shown by the manner in which piers and pillars, vaults and arches, of the most differ- ent kinds are jumbled together; so that by the want of constructive skill in the treatment of these forms, both pillars and arches lose their intended effect, and appear unreal and feeble. Domes are readily introduced every- where, but they are never in organic connection with their rectilineal substructures, but always seem to rest on them in a capricious manner. It must further be remarked of Arabian architecture collectively, that the system of ornamentation is based principally on the decoration of flat surfaces. The plastic EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE '24 1 clciiicnt could not be developed or even admitted, chiefly in consequence of the prohibition of sculptural repre- sentations by the Koran, and partly because all taste for this branch of art was wanting. The application of the pointed arch is also characteris- tic of Arabian architecture, but it was not carried out constructively and harmoniously as in the Gothic styles of the West, but employed rather as a decorative detail. 154. From all these peculiarities viewed collectively, it appears that the main characteristics of Mahometan architecture are caprice and a striving after contrast. The latter tendency, however, is manifested in such a way, that, in spite of all its shortcomings, it asserts a certain pre-eminence, so that its deficiencies are not always apparent. In details, however much they vary in the different Mahometan countries, the skill and quaintness of a versa- tile and bold imagination are always manifest. l.V). Still more characteristic and universally met with is the stalactite vaulting' which has been described in section 130, as also the decoration of the walls with the arabesques, which are peculiar to Arabian art, and have given their name to that species of ornament. These arabesques display so much ingenuity and taste, and such variety and grace in their designs, that they attain perfection in their own branch, in spite of the exclusion of everything imitative. Although regularity is persistently avoided, yet certain rules are recognizable. Thus, for instance, the straight line, which is employed in most of these ornamentations, never forms a right angle, at least not one that appears so, for when the de- sign seems likely to produce one, the line is slightly pro- longed, so as to bring about a complication of the pat- 242 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE tern, or the right angle, if already begun, is broken off, and the line produced in another direction, so as to give rise to fresh intricacies. These lines have, moreover, generally an oblique bordering, so that they never form diagonals of the panelling. By the different disposition of the lines, besides many irregular designs, various Fig. 144. MURAL DECORATION AT THE ALHAMBRA AT GRANADA. polygonal forms, such as stars, &c, are produced, the lines of which are extended beyond the point of an in- tersection, as shown in Fig. 144. In arabesques in which circular lines are predominant, the treatment is free, but they seldom form a circle or any other mathematical figure, but rather flowing curves, which have a rich and graceful effect. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 243 A very simple and characteristic way of forming a marked contrast is by repeating the design in two colors in an inverse direction. (Fig. 145.) Fig. 145. ARABESQUE, WITH REPETITION OF THE DESIGN IN AN INVERSE DIRECTION. 156. Colors are universally employed in these arab- esques, as they are in Arabian art in general, with great taste, and with a due appreciation of moderation : not only the usual decorative colors, as red, blue, white, and gold, but also green, violet, brown, yellow, and even black. In the lower decorated portions green, white, ^•14 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE black, violet, blue, and dark yellow predominate ; on the walls the ground is red, the borders sky-blue, and the letters gold, while the stalactite domes and the little niches are generally gilt, or brightly painted with red and blue enrichments on a white ground. THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE. 157. The series of original styles of architecture closes, strictly speaking, with the various styles that have been described in the foregoing divisions of this work, for all the new phases which have presented them- selves in the domain of architecture since the abandon- ment of the Gothic style are more or less imitations of what previously existed, or, at the most, new combina- tions of elements which had already been employed. The manner of their reapplication exhibits, on the other hand, a decided change, and many forms which were un- known in earlier times were developed in consequence of this reapplication, especially in the later period of the Renaissance style. As early as the beginning of the fifteenth century, art commenced to take a new course of development, which, accompanying the employment of the pointed arch dur- ing the latter part of the prevalence of the Gothic style, was speedily extended in all directions. The discovery of the productions of the ancients in statuary and painting, and the study of these works of art which was thereby stimulated, as well as the re- newed interest in classical literature which was contem- poraneously aroused by the long-hidden stores of Greek and Latin MSS. being brought to light, as, for instance, EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 245 the work of Vitruvius on the architecture of the ancients, could not fail to bring Roman buildings into prominent notice, and to predispose the public mind in favor of the classic style. Science, moreover in accordance with the spirit of the age, began, like art, to be classical rather than romantic. A new system was consequently developed, during the first stages of which, namely, the Transition period, the elements of Roman architecture came again into use, al- though the forms which belong to the Later Romanesque period, as, for instance > the division of the window- arches by mullions, were not entirely abandoned. 158. This new style of architecture, which is known by the distinctive name of the Renaissance, that is to say, the new birth of Roman architecture, first sprang into existence in Italy as early as the beginning of the fifteenth century. It reached its zenith in that country in the course of the same century, and at the beginning of the following became a model for all other countries, in which, however, the Gothic style prevailed for some time longer, and maintained its ground against the en- croachments of its rival. In Italy, on the other hand, the Pointed style "was abandoned, except in isolated in- stances, and notably in Lombardy. The style which was thus introduced into the countries north of the Alps was consequently accepted there as one which was already developed, and the buildings constructed in it were mere imitations of the Italian ; moreover, after it was intro- duced, it underwent no further change or development, and on that account was designated, especially in Ger- many, as the Italian style. It will therefore be sufficient to describe its phases and characteristics as they appear in Italian buildings. 246 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE The same reasons which militated against the develop- ment of the Gothic style in Italy were instrumental in occasioning the ready and definite acceptance in that country of the forms of ancient architecture. The large number of monuments of classical antiquity existing in Italy must have been favorable to the change, particular- ly as their influence had remained effective during the whole period of the Middle Ages. 159. At the early epoch of its existence the new style of architecture displays not so much an alteration in the arrangement of the spaces and of the main features of the buildings, as in the system of ornamentation and in the aspect of the profiles. The object and construction of the buildings of the period in question were very dif- ferent from the colossal monuments of ancient Rome, which were now to serve as an example, and consequently the model was mainly copied in the decorative details, principally in the columnar orders with their various entablatures. It is owing to this cause that the facades appear to a certain degree to be merely appendages to the main building. Architects, moreover, could not at once abandon the customary freedom of conception which had been permissible in the Romanesque style, nor subject their imagination to the strict rules of Roman architecture by surrendering all endeavors to attain picturesque effects. Roman architecture was consequent- ly not at first a model which secured that slavish obedi- ence which became its prerogative in later times. At the outset, moreover, the essential character of Roman archi- tecture was not fully understood, as far as material and construction are concerned. It was consequently only in the case of buildings which did not require a total aban- donment of the prevalent style that Roman architecture was at first employed. EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 247 In accordance with the tendency of the age, eccle- siastical architecture, which had assumed such promi- nence during the prevalence of the Byzantine, Roman- Fig. 146. VIEW OF A PORTION OF THE CERTOSA AT PAVIA. esque, and Gothic styles, was now thrown into the back- ground, whilst the style of the Renaissance was broughl to the front in the construction of castles and palaces. 248 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE The varieties that occur in the style of the Renaissance are therefore not to be considered, as in the case of the previous styles, as the result of time and national pecu- liarity, but rather as the effects of individual and as- sumptive personal conceptions. The first period of this modern style of architecture is also its brightest one. The facade of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 146) may be cited as the most notable in- stance. This was begun by Ambrogio Borgognone in 147:5, and is very rich in sculpture; but the rest of the building, with the exception of the dome, which is also Renaissance, belongs still to the Gothic period. Fig. 147. BOSSAGE OR RUSTIC-WORK. During the early period the endeavor was maintained to adapl classical forms with more or less freedom to modem buildings, whilst later, that is in the sixteenth century, a scheme based on ancient architecture was universally prescriptive. Two distinct styles belong to this first period, each possessing its especial peculiarities. These are: The Early Florentine and Early Venetian Renaissance styles. In the Roman Renaissance the system of the second period, which confines itself more closely to classical elements, is more prevalent. Tins Roman Renaissance EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE lM9 was subsequently most widely extended, and was intro- duced into Venice, and to a less degree into Florence. The invention of printing exercised a considerable in- fluence on the development of -this second system. The works of Vitruvius were translated into Italian and printed in 1521, and were soon extensively circu- lated. Owing- to the tendency and predilection for clas- sical antiquity which were then beginning: to be dis- played, as well as to the scanty knowledge of Roman architecture which the world then possessed, it is not to be wondered at that these works soon came to be viewed as an authority. But although the writings of Vitruvius, and laws of architecture based on the classical monu- ments themselves, were considered as authoritative, still the traditional forms were employed in a new spirit and in a new manner. A striving for the picturesque is per- ceptible amidst the massiveness of the new style. At first this tendency was confined within discreet bounds, but after the first twenty years of the sixteenth century it was extended to an undue degree. 160. The Pitti palace, which was constructed by Brunelleschi, may be considered as the lasting type of the Florentine Renaissance style, at least as far as the architecture of palaces is concerned. These palaces (as is shown by Figs. 149 and 150) are constructed in rustic- work, that is to say, of large blocks of stone with broad joints, of which, during the early period, only the splayed or rounded beds and joints were dressed, but at a later epoch these ashlar-blocks were more elegantly treated, and rustication was of more frequent occurrence. The effect of this bulky rustic-work is considerably heightened by its advancing prominently before the Hue of the facade; indeed this projection is often to the ex- 250 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE tent of from a half to a whole foot. The facade, which thus obtains an appearance of great solidity (Fig. 148), is terminated by a very massive and widely projecting cornice supported by consoles, and is pierced by windows with semi-circular heads and deeply-moulded architraves. The windows constitute a space which, being kept plain, forms a pleasing contrast with the heavy appearance of V" '■•""■ "'■ i . ', ■ J^yi 'Trf >■-•ps^.-^I^T-r^'^ , " , "' ''**& Fig. 163. PART OF THE FACADE OF THE CANCELLERIA AT ROME. Upper Italy, exhibits more originality together with Romanesque proclivities, as for instance the Choir of the Church of S. Maria delle Grazie at Milan: whilsl the later is more strictly in conformity with the an- tique; a result which was brought about by the archi- 270 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE tect's study of ancient Roman monuments. TJie most remarkable productions of Bramante at Rome are the Cancelleria Palace (Fig. 163), with the Church of San Lorenzo in Daaso contained within its precincts, the Giraud Palace, now the Torlonia (Fig. 161 and Fig. 165 with details of the same), and the Court of the Vatican, with the celebrated Loggie, decorated by Ra- phael. Bramante also drew the plan of St. Peter's, Fig. 1C4. GIRAUD PALACE AT ROME. which was afterwards subjected in so many alterations. According to the original design, the church was to have been constructed in the form of a Greek cross, with each of the four ends terminating in a semi-circle, and with a central dome. In the severer forms of this architect's productions a poverty and insipidity is al- ready discernible, which contrasts strongly with the more imaginative and poetic treatmenl of other struc- tures which are remarkable for their gracefulness. A EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 271 want of power in details is one of the most conspicuous of Bramante's failings, and this of course is more no- ticeable in his later productions, when ancient Roman models were his study, than in his earlier works. Fig. 165. DETAILS OF Fig. 164 ON AN ENLARGED SCALE. 169. The pupils of Bramante and other renowned architects pursued the path which he had marked out ; as, for example. Balthazar Peruzzi (1481 to 1536. Fig. 166) ; as the principal of his works may be mentioned 272 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE the Farnesina at Rome: Ant. di Sangallo of Florence (died 1546), whose principal work in the Farnese Palace at Rome (see Fig. 167, and parts of the same on an enlarged scale in Pigs. 168, 169, 170). The third story of this palace is, however, the work of Michel-Angelo. Tin- Farnese Talace forms to a certain ■i) ■«.«).■ Fig. 166. SMALL PALACE AT ROME, BY BALTHAAZAH PERUZZI. extent the type of a distinct class in the architecture of Roman palaces, and its chief characteristics is, that the facades arc not divided by any orders of columns or pilasters, as for instance in Fig. 166; but the same effect and impressions are produced by the architraves, cornices, and plinths of the windows, which invariably have rectilineal terminations, as well as the doors, and also by the string-courses which divide the stories, and by a far-projecting cornice: at the same time especial consideration is devoted to the effect of good pmpor EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 273 linns. Ornaments are 1ml sparingly introduced; whilst, on the other hand, the corners are generally marked by rustications. These palaces convey the impression of solidity with- out eumbersomeness, of richness without luxury, and above all, of simplicity in conjunction with dignity. In the constructions of Bramante's nephew and pupil, the celebrated painter, Raphael Sanzio (1483 to 1520), there is perceptible a certain tendency towards pic- ii^jtiiijivooauiAUUiiiiLULili/jJ joi uii i; .r.i ii .iiiii " 4" Fig. 167. FARNESE PALACE AT ROME. turesque effect and attention to detail: this is evidenced in the palaces built by him at Rome, and especially in those at Florence: but this tendency is displayed with more freedom in the works of Raphael's pupil, (iiulio Romano (1492 to 1546), who, amongst other works, was the architect of the Villa Madama at Rome, and the Palace Del Te at .Mantua. 170. Another school, which displays a still stricter imitation of classical forms than that of which Bra- mante was the founder, was represented and advocated by (iiaeomo Barozzio, who is known under the name of 274 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ^feLZL_k^:.-U.."j U !^S? g fr' p| "IHP^ j-< - ! -t -i -M_- -* -f — ' — I -f TH~ J twl#a Fig. 169. CORNICE OP Fig. 107 ON AN ENLARGED SCALE. Fig. 170. WINDOW OF THH CPPER STORY OF THE FACADE OP THE FARNESE PALACE IN Fig. 169. Fig. 108. PORTION OF Fig. 109 ON AN ENLARGED SCALE. EASY LESSONS IN AK( IIITECTURE 275 Vignola (1507 to 1573). This architect, by his works and his teaching:, exercised very great influence on his contemporaries and successors, and the effect of his ex- ample is, like Palladio's, to be traced not only in the architectural bias of his own times, but also in thc- course of the eighteenth century. This result was principally brought about by means of his book on the live columnar orders of antiquity, and this treatise has been regarded as an authority down to the latest times. His most noteworthy construction is the Castle of Caparola, between Rome and Viterbo (Fig. 171). Fig. 171. CASTLE OF CAPRAROLA. BETWEEN ROME AND VITERBO, BY VIGNOLA. 171. The third school was developed contemporan- eously with the above by Michel-Angelo Buonarotti (1474 to 1564^. This - l-l pq o f- Q f H < O X tf c H 33 V. o CI bo EAST LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 277 found universal acceptation. His manner, therefore, of treating- architectural forms savored of arbitrariness ^ Fig. 173. BACK VIEW OF ST. PETER'S, ROME. rather than of conformity with constructive and aes- thetic principles, and aimed more at picturesqueness of effect than at strictness of stvle. 278 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Michel-Angelo assumed such a considerable and prominent position by his genius and authority, that his example necessarily entailed imitation and produced ef- fects on subsequent times. When his deviations were moderate, they were considered by his imitators merely as marks of the originality of his wonderful talent, and by this means proved stepping-stones to the degenera- tion which marked the ensuing period of the Rococo style. Amongst his architectural works, the design of the Capitol at Rome, with its wings (Fig. 172), may be considered as the most pleasing, whilst as a testi- mony to his lofty genius the mighty and glorious dome of St. Peter's at Rome (Figs. 173 and 174), and which has no rival in the world, must be adduced as a striking instance. This dome was only completed after Michel- Angelo 's death. Both as regards its colossal dimen- sions, as well as its beautiful proportions and lines, it produces, bcth internally and externally, a most wonder- ful impression. It should be remarked that Michel- Angelo, like Bramante before him, selected the form of the Greek cross for his church, and planned the dome accordingly, and that the nave, which is by Carlo Maderno, is, both externally and internally, prejudicial to the effect of the dome (see Fig. 175). 172. Though the individual productions of the above- mentioned architects naturally differed from each other, yet the palaces of the Roman Renaissance have this in common, that they all convey the impression of marked dignity and of size in conjunction with simplicity. The most important of the causes that conduce to this re- sult are the proportions and large dimensions. The mouldings and other architectural details are clearly de- fined, but not so prominent as in the Florentine palaces, EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 270 Fig. 174. SECTION OF THE DOME OF ST. PETERS, ROME. and for the most part traced upon purely classical Roman principles. This remark is applicable to the earlier period of the Renaissance, for in the later period the bent, broken, and twisted forms which occur, es- 280 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE pecially in the jambs of windows and their pediments, differ entirely from those of antiquity. But the palaces which belong to the good period of the Renaissance Fig. 175. GROUND-PLAN OF ST. PETER'S, ROME. are, in fact, isolated examples, as the above-mentioned buildings by Bramante, Balthazar Peruzzi, and some others. The Farnese Palace, by Antonio Sangallo, which is the most imposing in Rome, must be considered as EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 281 a solitary exception to this rule. This palace would represenl the Roman palatial style in the most com- plete manner were it no1 for the fact that the third story, which was designed by Michel-Angelo, detracts so greatly from the facade by its windows, which are in the Rococo style, and do not at all suit the others, that the harmonious unity of the whole is seriously im- paired. The desire of novelty, and the abandonment of traditional laws, have, in this instance, clearly given rise to a fault. Not only is it open to censure that the semi-circular heads to some of the windows lack uni- formity with the rest of the building, in which hori- zontal lines are predominant, but even the treatment of their architraves, etc., is very ill-judged, mainly owing to the fact that through a deficiency in height the arches of the windows have been carried up to the hori- zontal line of the pediments, and that consequently the horizontal architrave and frieze of the window entab- lature had to be abandoned (see Fig. 170). The worst of the characteristic mistakes of the decadence of an- cient Roman architecture are, moreover, here introduced anew, namely, the introduction of columns which, do not rest on the ground, but which are supported by brackets, and which support architraves with a profile which coincides with that displayed by the debased pro- file of the decadence architecture. Fig. 176 presents a type of the majority of the palaces of the Roman Renaissance style, at least so far as regards the architectural features and their arrangement ; for the most important palaces in this style are both more im- posing by their great length, whilst at the same time they are less simple and less correct in their details. The Roman palaces are for the most part without any 282 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE important sculptural accessories, and without ornamen- tation, unless ;m exception be made as regards the decorated mouldings of the cornice, which is generally Corinthian: .such enrichments are usually ovoli, den- tils, and consoles. It is the very simplicity of the Roman palaces, in conjunction with their vast dimen- sions, which gives the impression of dignity. If this Fig. 176. VEROSPI PALACE AT ROME. style is applied to our modern dwellings with their curtailed dimensions, more ornamentation is requisite than was the case with the vast Roman palaces, for otherwise the impression would be feeble and uninterest- ing as soon as the effect produced by the extent of the structure was wanting. 173. The vestibules are generally spacious, but still they do not produce the impression which is conveyed by a richer style of architecture. A more pleasing ef- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 28:$ feet might have been attained by the employment of columns where now heavy pilasters support the vaults <>f the vestibule. The arrangement, however, of the vesti- bules and courts is carried out with some view to pic- turesque effect: sometimes there are colonnades, while at others they are wanting; niches with statues are introduced opposite the entrance; whilst a fountain at the background of the first court, or still more effec- tively at that of the second, is seldom wanting. The perspective effect is naturally increased by these courts. It is rarely that the staircase is included in the first Fig. 177. PLAN OF THE TURSI-DORIA PALACE AT GENOA. coup cVccil, it is usually placed at the side, and behind a gallery. The remaining space of the ground-floor is generally taken up with stables and coach-houses and other subordinate appliances. The rooms which are used for ordinary or state purposes are on the first floor, whilst the second floor is appropriated to the same purpose, and between or below is the entre-sol, or mez- zanine, which generally has windows of a square shape. 174. The buildings of the sixteenth century at Genoa form a distinct species of the Modern Roman style, mainly owing to the fact that they were designed by 284 EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE ITS. HALF OF THE FACADE OF A PALACE AT GENOA. one single artist, Galeazzo Alesso (1500-1572). They are large palaces, which bear an independent character and differ from those of other towns, especially in the ar- rangement of the interior. The uneven and circum- scribed nature of the ground on which they are built EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 285 is mainly conducive to this, and picturesque and im- posing effects are skillfully produced by the arrange- ment of the vestibules, halls, and steps (Fig. 177). In this respect the palaces of Genoa are unrivalled, for the Florentine palaces, as well as the Venetian, are entirely wanting in such vestibules. At Rome, on the other hand, where the palaces were not restricted by want of ground, and where the vestibules and courts assume even larger dimensions than at Genoa, no such pic- turesque effects of light and perspective are produced as, in the latter city, rise from the architecture itself, and from effects of perspective and light and shade. ■M , m\ 4. m ^ffl^ .M-A^a^^.jg^- «c.--. Jgja. jl± jg* fcrqbt')'.-c: d,M ^ Fig. 179. FACADE OF TUB TURSI-DORIA PALACE AT GENOA. The purity of style, how T ever, of the Genoese palaces is not so great as in the Roman, particularly as re- gards the heavy, ungraceful forms of details. This is shown by Fig's. 178 and 179, and there are other in- stances in which the faults are more marked than in the palaces in question. The palaces of Genoa may, how- ever, be favorably contrasted with the Roman as re- gards height; for the mound-floor and the mezzanine are raised considerably, in order to gain more light and 2S6 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Fig. 180. PAINTED VAULT OF THE FLORENTINE PALACE IN ROME. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 237' 288 KASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE a better view from the main story. Owing, however, to the extreme narrowness of the streets and the conse- quent difficulty in obtaining a satisfactory point of view, the object is not obtained to the desired degree. 175. The decoration of the interiors of the build- ings of the Renaissance is also copied from ancient Ro- man architecture. The rooms are either vaulted or have flat ceilings, but in both cases they are adorned with paintings after the manner of those discovered in the Baths of Titus, as is shown in Fig. 180, or by panel- nnnnnn Fig. 182. CAPITAL OF A PILASTER FROM VENICE. work, that is, sunken coffers with a regularly distributed enrichment (Fig. 181). These panels are themselves often adorned with historical or allegorical paintings, or with arabesques. Ornamented panels were employed in large palaces for horizontal ceilings, as also in churches, though in the latter case they were more often applied to cupola vaultings, as notably in St. Peter's (Fig. 181). Amongst other details, a type of composite capital is worthy of notice, because it is of very frequent oc- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 289 currence, with but very slight modifications (Figs. 181, 182, 183). During the later period of the Renaissance style a very extensive application of a kind of carved scutcheon was prevalent; the ends were generally rolled up in imitation of parchment (Figs. 185 and 186). 176. When the monuments of Roman antiquity be- came a subject of study at the commencement of the era of the Renaissance, the belief was entertained that the architecture of bygone days was to be invested with Fig. 183. CAPITAL OF A PILLAR FROM FLORENCE. a new lease of life. But the organism of the Classic style did not provide for every modern requirement, and for buildings of several stories, the only types which were available were the Roman theaters and amphitheaters, and the then existing Septizonium of Severus: the temples had to serve as models for halls, whilst the triumphal arches were taken as copies for other public buildings, and for the interior vaults the baths were employed as a pattern. Consequently. the early Renaissance style bears an essentially 290 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE decorative character, inasmuch as it employed the in- dividual forms of ancient architecture after adapting them to the creations of modern times, not as construc- Fig. 185. Fig. 184. PORTION OF A DECORATED PILASTER WITH CAPITAL, IN THE CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA DEI MIRACULI AT VENICE. Fig. 186. ORNAMENTATION PECULIAR TO THE LATE RENAISSANCE STYLE. tive but rather as decorative elements, which, however, the Renaissance endeavored to reproduce in a manner that was at the same time regular and noble. "When the awakened perception of the beauties of Grecian and EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 291 Roman buildings led to the resumption of the horizontal architrave instead of the pointed arch, the grotesque treatment of the pointed, angular, and swelling foliage which was employed in the capitals and friezes of the Gothic style, had to give place to the acanthus leaf and other more graceful forms of ornament. When the gloomy spirit of the Middle Ages was forced to vanish be lore the new zeal for classical studies and the de- light which they occasioned, the whole appearance of buildings, in their totality as well as in their details, seemed to be brightened up, and to be imbued with that spirit of regeneration which permeated at the same time through social life. 177. The above-mentioned development of the dec- orative element of the Renaissance style took place es- pecially in interiors, and sculpture and painting, the sister arts of architecture, working harmoniously to- gether, produced most excellent results. The walls and ceilings were covered with paintings, whilst a method of colored decoration, which came into vogue in con- sequence of the excavation of the Baths of Titus, was very generally employed. This consists of objects taken from the vegetable kingdom blended in a fantastic man- ner with figures of men and animals, of masks, of ves- sels, of shields, and even of entire pictures; and com- bined with the architectural details of the building, and in conjunction with statuary. The whole forms one of the most praiseworthy features of the Renaissance, and the celebrated Loggie of Raphael are instances of this mode of treatment (Fig. 187). The decorative paint- ings of Raphael's pupil, Giulio Romano, and of many others, are likewise remarkable. The Gothic method of ornamentation with its mere combinations of lines EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE Fig. 187. WALL-PIECE PROM THE LOGGIE OF RAPHAEL AT ROME. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE -'J'-', and perpetually recurring borderings and panel-work seems tame and insipid beside the bright and graceful decoration of the Renaissance, in which such ample scope was allowed to the play of the fancy. 178. Besides the walls and ceilings of the interim'. the facades were frequently decorated with sculptured figures, and the flat spaces between the windows and mouldings underwent ornamentation. This took place either by a manner of painting called sgraffito., in which the undercoating was black, with a thin surface-coating of white laid over it, and then the design or shading was engraved or scraped away down to the black grounding; or similar designs were executed in bas-re- lief, as is shown by Fig. 188, whilst Fig. 188 repre- sents part of a facade painted in sgraffito. 179. During the flourishing period of the Renais- sance, architecture showed less hankering after mere richness of detail, and strove rather after noble sim- plicity : and this tendency was exhibited even in in- teriors, although in a modified degree. This flourish- ing period lasted scarcely fifty years, and occurred at the middle of the sixteenth century, and during its prevalence decoration was kept within due bounds, and in harmony with the principal forms. At the same time it cannot be denied that a certain architectural beauty, or at least a pleasant effect, was often produced in the later period of the Renaissance when the decora- tion was no longer so well regulated and when the de- tails were not in such strict accordance with the main object of the design. 180. Whilst the Florentine and the Venetian Renais- sance styles remained, with trifling exceptions, confined to their respective districts, the Roman Renaissance 294 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Fig. 189. PART OF A FACADE IN BGNAPPITO AT Fig. 188. PART OF THE FACADE OF ROME. THE SPADA PALACE AT ROME. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 295 style, as well as the Rococo style which succeeded it, ex- tended over all Western Europe. The adoption of this style, however, took place later than in Italy itself, where the Pointed style had never gained such a firm hold as in other countries. The first influence upon the later developments of this style of the Italian or Renaissance manner is perceptible in a return to horizontal lines with the flat and the semi-circular arch, particularly in secular buildings. This altered treatment of the Pointed style during the last period of its employment forms the only transi- tion which took place to the Italian Renaissance style. In Germany, this latter is called simply "the Italian style. ' ' There is, properly speaking, no transition style, as in Italy; but the Renaissance style was at once ac- cepted as a complete and developed one, and adopted with the principles which prevailed in the land of its birth. It is only in France, where it was introduced somewhat earler than elsewhere, that many buildings exhibit a free treatment with reminiscences of the Ro- manesque style. The alterations and modifications which the Renais- sance style underwent in Italy were carefully copied in the countries in which it prevailed. It was, moreover, precisely at the epoch of its greatest deterioration that this style was most extensively employed in non-Italian countries. No characteristic national features and no local points of difference are therefore to be sought for in the build- ings of the various countries, except in those subtle shades of variety which owe their origin to the higher or lower [esthetic development and artistic status of these countries. 29 G EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE EASY LESSON'S IN ARCHITECTURE 297 181. The artistic influence of Italy came into opera- tion in France sooner than in other European countries. for as early as the fifteenth century the Renaissance style was introduced there by Italian architects, as. for instance, by Fra Giocondo, who was summoned thither by Louis XII. But at that epoch the Flamboyant style was still in its vigor, and the buildings then erected could not extricate themselves from its influence. The con- sequence was that a blending of the two styles tempo- rarily prevailed, as, for instance, in the Chateau de Gail- Ion, which was built between the years 1502 and 1510, part of the facade of which is preserved in the court of the Ecole des Beaux-arts at Paris, as well as in the Chateau de Blois, which Louis XII. caused to be built, and which has lately been restored by Duban. It was in these country residences of the nobility, especially on the banks of the Loire, that this architectural activity was displayed during the earlier period of the Renais- sance; amongst their number the Chateau de Chambord (Fig. 190) is most worthy of notice. The pilasters and the mouldings of the Renaissance style were, it is true, somewhat rudely carried out, and in the earlier period were combined with certain elements of the Flamboyant style. Highly ornamental gables and dormer-windo\v<, especially, were executed in the latter style. Buildings were contemporaneously constructed entirely in the Flamboyant style, as, for instance, the Cathedral, the Palais de Justice, and the Hotel Bourgtheroulde, all at Rouen, and the Hotel de Ville at Compiegne. The Italian Renaissance had. as has been shown, to struggle with the Flamboyant style during the reign of Louis XII. It made, however, decisive progress under Francis L, who summoned Serlio and other Italian ar- 298 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE chitects from their native country (1515-1547), and under his successor, Henry II. From that time forward the ancient columnar orders were universally substituted for the architectural features which had hitherto pre- vailed, as, for instance, in the Hotel de Ville at Paris, which was built by Domenico Cortana in 1533. It must, however, be remarked that the Italian architects who were resident in France modified their ideas, consciously or unconsciously, to suit the French taste. A style =ili*=^-™4aL • ■ '_.-__-r?_ "&- if(ifil(fiil Fig. 191. SECTION OP THE INNER FACADE OP THE LOUVRE. was thereby produced which may be culled French or Malum, according as the proclivities and influence of the <»ne or the other nation predominated. After the period of Philibert Delorme, who completed the chapel of the Chateau d'Anet in the Renaissance style in the year 1552, the Gothic style was, as a rule, abandoned, in spite of the opposition of many French architects, who struggled against the foreign style of architecture at Beauvis as late as 1555. At the same time the general EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 299 arrangement of the Gothic churches was retained, and it was only tho Renaissance sj^stem of decoration which was substituted for the Gothic: the ground-plan, the proportions, and the whole structure with its flying buttresses, pinnacles, clustered columns, deeply recessed portals, etc., is borrowed from the pointed style, and it was only in the details and in the ornamentation that the Renaissance was followed. The Church of St. En- stache at Paris and the Church at Gisors are instances of this architectural phase. The three prominent architects, Pierre Lescot (1510- 1578), who designed the celebrated Western Facade of the Louvre (Fig. 191 and a portion of the same on a larger scale), Philibert Delorme and Jean Buillant, who was the architect of the earlier portions of the Tuileries (Fig. 193), and of the Chateau d'Ecouen, exerted such an influence over the architecture of their native coun- try that the Italian Renaissance Style became thence- forward the predominant one in France. The above- mentioned chateau gradually assumed a typical char- acter. The facade of the Louvre is, however, essentially French in contradiction to Italian, and this is especially noticeable in the ornamentation. Jean Goujon and Paul Ponce executed for this facade the best sculptures which marked the Renaissance in France. Under these joint influences an elevation was produced in which rich- ness is perceptible without excess, and symmetry is at- tained without stiffness; in fact, a design in which aesthetic laws are fully considered, and the details har- moniously, if not magnificently, executed. Although the French architects who flourished in the reign of Francis I. inclined towards the Italian style of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and especially to that of Bramante, 300 EASY LESSONS IX AK< ' 1 1 ITKCTURE Fig. 192. PART OF THE INNER FACADE OF THE LOUVRE AT PARIS. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 301 yet they succeeded in imparting a peculiar grace to that style, as it was developed in France, which neverthe- less vanished Inwards the end of the sixteenth century. At the same time, however, it must be admitted that the French Renaissance Style cannot for a moment be coin- pared with the Italian during its palmy period, cither as regards purity or novelty of design. Fig. 193. PART OF THE OLDEST FACADE OF THE TUILERIES. 182. Little by little a method of ornamentation was introduced by successive decorators and architects, which was eminently suited to the French ta.ste. An- drouet Du Cerceau and Jean Lepautre are especially noticeable as representatives of this school of embell- ishment. The sumptuous Apollo Gallery in the Louvre is a characteristic example of the productions of the 302 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Fig. 194. FRAGMENTS FROM THE APO.LLO GALLERY IN THE LOUVRE AT PARIS. EASY LE3S0NS IN ARCHITECTURE 303 latter. Fig. 582 exhibits a portion of the system of decoration which pervades the whole gallery. Du Cerceau, who ilourished during the reign of Henry IV., connected the block of buildings which be- longed to the Louvre, and had been constructed under Catherine dei Medici, by a gallery with the Tuileries (Fig. 195). This architect abandoned the characteris- tic feature of the French Renaissance, which had pre- Fig. 195. THE FLORE PAVILION AND PART OF THE GALLERY OF THE LOUVRE, BEFORE THE MODERN RECONSTRUCTION OF THE FACADE. vailed hitherto, namely, of giving its peculiar columnar order to each story, and assimilated his designs to those of the late Roman Renaissance, in which a striking effect was produced at the expense of truth by continuous columns and pilasters extending over several stories and row r s of windows. 304 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Although Du Cerceau was obliged to leave France in the year 1604, the impulse which he had given in the direction of the afore mentioned manner led to its being generally adopted. The new buildings were more cor- ns. l!t<;. I'AKT ok a facadk in tub place ROYALE AT PARIS. red. hut Less picturesque than those built (luring the earlier period of the French Renaissance, and a cer- tain insipidity seems to characterize the various struc- tures erected during the reigns of Henry IV., and es- pecially Louis XIII. As is shown by Fig. 196, a com- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 305 bination of free-stone and brick was resorted to in such a way that the former was employed for the mould- ings, and for the quoins and dressings of the doors and windows, whilst brick was used for the spaces between. In the case of the windows the free-stone introduced as- sumed the form of quoins. If ornamentation had been previously excessive, it now retired into the background, and was only employed in moderation; and the method of its treatment began to be distinguished from that of 1 lie former period. The forms of tlu details above all began to lose in purity: rustications were inappro- priately introduced in the walls and columns, and the roofs were made high and steep, which gave the rest of the building a heavy and squat appearance, wiiilst the numerous turret-shaped chimneys, which were ne- cessitated by these high roofs, formed a peculiar feature in the construction. The Rococo, or Baroque Style, which forms a subject of itself, was beginning at the same time to exert its influence. Commencing from the second half of the seventeenth century, this new r architectural deviation became prevalent in all civilized countries, owing to the splendor and influence of the French power and manners, and the influence of Italian art was consequently paralyzed. Fig. 107 gives a characteristic example of the French archi- tecture of this period of the Later Renaissance, showing the peculiarities which have been described above. At the same time that the better tendencies of the Renaissance period disappear in the second half of the seventeenth century, and the new edifices display proofs of a deterioration of taste, the degeneration which had set in continued to increase with time, as may be gathered from the various buildings of the reign of 306 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Louis XIV. The natural laws ol' architecture were more and more neglected, and replaced by certain con- ventional rules for the application of the Roman colum- nar orders. Amidst all this desire for show, this mag- nificence and a great confusion of means, especial ly of the popular column and pilaster arrangement in large Pig. 197. THE CHATEAU DE BEAU MESNIL. dimensions, as, for instance, the over-praised Colonnade of the Louvre, there is still a certain insipidity peculiar to the constructions of the period. In accordance with the disposition of Louis XIV., architecture was for the future only to give expression to that proud pomp which characterized all the undertakings and the whole reign of the Grand Monarque. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 307 The principal architectural activity of this period was displayed by Jules Ilardouin Mansard, who was head architect to the king and the head of an influential Fig. 198. THE INVALIDES AT PARIS. school, as Lenotre at the same time was principal horti- culturist. Mansard built the palaces of Versailles (1647- 1708^, Marly, the Grand Trianon, as also the Invalides at Paris (Fig. 198). 308 KASV LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE The internal system of decoration which had been brought in by Lepautre was modified by Mansard and Berain. Mirrors were freely introduced in the embell- Km <^r — Fig. 199. PORTION OF Fig. 200 ON A LARGE' SCALE. ishment of rooms, especially in connection with the fireplaces, and may be said to have now become a dis- tinctive feature in the decoration of interiors. It was in the seventeenth century, contemporaneously with the decadence of Italy, that the domineering in- EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 309 fluence of France uu other countries began to be recog nized. This result was mainly attained by the power and glory of Louis XIV., as well as by the brilliancy oi* liis court. In many [daces French gardens and cas- tles were imitated^ and French architects were employed in their construction. On Mansard's death a considerable alteration took place in French architecture. An entirely new system of decoration arose for interiors, which is often known under the designation Rococo. This is somewhat dif- ferent from the Italian Rococo style which will be de- scribed in §§ 190 and 191, and properly belongs to that division of the work in which the Rococo style is dis- cussed, but it is inserted in this place in order to secure continuity, and to trace the whole course of the French Renaissance without interruption. 183. It was principally the above-mentioned system of Rococo decoration and architectural detail which characterized the architecture of the time of Louis XV.; it is, consequently, sometimes designated as the style of Louis XV. Fig. 199 gives a portion of an interior drawn in perspective, whilst Fig. 200 depicts the entire wall from which this portion is taken. Internal arrangements and decorations are the main characteristics of the style of this period, and in this direction the best results were doubtless produced. Large and lofty rooms, as well as scope for display, were indispensable; consequently this style of embellishment was most happily carried out in state apartments, es- pecially in the princely castles and palaces, or, as the French call them, the "Hotels'' of the aristocracy. De Cotte must also be mentioned as well as Berain, as his plans and buildings exercised considerable influence, 310 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE and caused the princes of foreign countries to be de- sirous to avail themselves of his services. Indeed French artists were in great request at this period in Europe, for Paris had become the model which was thought worthy of imitation in other lands. Fig. 200. DECORATIONS OF A SMALL SALOON IN THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES, OF WHICH Fig. 199 GIVES A POFTION ON A LARGER SCALE. 184. Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV. a reaction set in, which was caused partly by the excess and caprice displayed in the application of this style, and partly by the tide again setting in the direction of the antique. This is evinced by the Colonnades de la EASY LESSON'S IX A IJ< ' 1 1 1TKCTURE 311 Place de Concorde, and by the Church of Ste. Genevieve, which was begun by Soufflot in the year 1755, and sub- sequently received the name of the Pantheon (Fig. 201). From thenceforth imitations of ancient buildings came into vogue, as they also did in other countries. As Fig. 201. WEST FRONT OF THE PANTHEON AT PARIS. a counterpoise to the former license, a certain strict- ness and moderation in ornamentation was now resorted to, which at last almost approached deficiency. Percier set himself the task of correcting this false step, and suc- ceeded in again placing the art on a proper footing. His 312 EASY LESSONS IN -ARCHITECTURE intelligence, his capability and his knowledge were very considerable, and in the year 1792 he opened a school, which must be considered as one of the most influential that ever existed; for the most efficient and renowned architects of the whole of Europe who attained reputa- tion during- the first half of the nineteenth century had there acquired their knowledge of their art. The founder of the school himself was considered as an indisputable authority both under the first Empire and in the days of the restored Bourbons; and, in con- junction with Fontaine, he erected structures in the Roman style, amongst which may be mentioned the Madeline, and the Bourse, and the triumphal arch in the Carousel. His numerous freely-treated decorative achievements in the Roman Renaissance style, in castles and palaces, have for half a century been regarded as models, and frequently imitated. 185. The Renaissance style was not employed in Germany before the middle of the sixteenth century, and the most noteworthy instances of it are the Belve- dere of Ferdinand I., on the Hradsehin at Prague, and the so-called Otto Henry buildings at Heidelberg Cas- tle (1556-1559). The fagade of the last-mentioned struc- ture, of which Figs. 202 and 203 represent portions, is peculiar for a richness and variety of details which almost border on excess. At the same time a certain heaviness prevails, which forms a. contrast to the grace- ful elegance of the best Italian buildings in the same style: in fact these faults may be said to characterize the productions of the German Renaissance style in general. A further instance of this is afforded by Pig. 204, which represents, a portion of the facade, though, properly speaking, if belongs to the Rococo style. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 313 ■jg TjacTir^j. &553ftg " " ! ; ""hSJiK(*""-" Figs. 202, 203. PART OF THE FACADE ON THE OTTO HEINRTCU BUILDINGS IN HEIDELBERG CASTLE. 314 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE *ig. 204. PORTION OF THE FACADE OF THE BUILDINGS OF HENRY THE WISE IN HEIDELBERG CASTLE, 1G01-1607. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 315 Fig. 205. VIEW OF THE CLOTH HALL AT BRUNSWICK. The three illustrations which have been taken for this work from Pfnor's very meritorious "Le Chateau de Heidelberg" should tend to moderate the excessive ad- miration which is bestowed on this the most esteemed of all the buildings of the German Renaissance. The pic- turesque beauty of the present ruins ought not to screen 316 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the lack of pure and graceful forms of detail when nudging of the architectural and artistic merits of the building. Fig. 205 shows an interesting and pleasing example of the German Renaissance. In Germany, as in other countries, the elements of the preceding style are intermingled with those of the Ren- aissance during the early period of its prevalence, particularly as regards details. It was not till the seven- teenth century that any architects of note flourished : amongst these may be mentioned Elias Holl of Augs- burg (died 1636), in which town he built the Town- Hall and the Arsenal, and Holzsehuher, who was the ar- chitect of the Town-Hall at Nuremberg. The architectural activity, which had so long been hampered by the Thirty Years' War, followed the method of treatment advocated by Bernini and Bor- romini, which is marked by great capriciousness in the treatment and disposition of the architectural forms. Dietterlein also contributed greatly by his publications to the extension of this school. In the year 1685 Neh- ring began the Arsenal at Berlin which was finished by Schlueter, the architect of the Palace, who died in 1714. The latter was followed by Knobclsdorf, the ar- chitect of Frederick the Great; he built the palaces of Charlottenburg and Sans Souci and the new palace at Potsdam. The Zwirner Palace at Dresden, which was built in 1711 by Poepelmann, must also be mentioned as a noteworthy example of this style. 186. In Spain an Early Renaissance Style appears, a kind of transitional Renaissance belonging to the first half of the sixteenth century. It consisted of the a] (plication of Moorish and pointed arch forms in con- junction with those of classical antiquity : in this way a EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 317 conformation was produced which was peculiar to Spain, and the style is characterized by bold lightness, hy luxuriance in decoration, and by a spirit of romance Naturally there was no harmony founded on a duly concerted organic arrangement: it is rather the excess of magnificence which dazzles the sense and causes a favorable impression in the spectators of the buildings, such, for example, as the quadrangles of the palaces and monasteries of the period. In the reign of Charles V. this ornate early Renais- sance style Ljave place to a later one, which in reality belongs to the Rococo style. It came into universal use in the second half of the sixteenth century, and was much aided by the extensive architectural undertakings of Philip TT. Its principal expositors were the archi- tects Giovanni Battista de Toledo and Giovanni de'Her- rera, who were both pupils of Michel-Angelo. 187. The Italian Renaissance style was introduced into England about the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury by John of Padua, the architect of Henry VIII., towards the closing years of the reign of that monarch. In the reign of Elizabeth to the end of that of James I., Dutch architects were in vogue in England in conse- quence of religious and political sympathies. Their peculiarities of taste are reflected in that English branch of the Renaissance style usually known under the name of Elizabethan. It must be remarked that, as a rule, English build- ings in the Renaissance style are distinguished by ca- pricious treatment of forms, and generally exhibit a deficiency in that grace and dignity both in details and ensemble which lend a peculiar charm to Italian struc- tures in the same style. English Renaissance buildings 318 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ako differ in the same respects from the French; they display more similarity with those of the Later German Fig. 206. WOLLATON HALL. Fig. 207. GROUND-PLAN OF Fig. 206, WOLLATON HALI* Renaissance, as, for example, the Castle of Heidelberg; where there is much similarity, at least in the treatment of details, to the style known as th: Elizabethan. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 319 It is especially this vitiated taste in form and details which character- ized the Elizabethan Renaissance (see Fig. 206.) The usual Rococo Renaissance forms also occur in it, as, for instance, the quadrant-shaped gables curving alternately inwards and outwards, as also pilasters and columns intersected by quoins and bands; and various grotesque and debased forms. Enriched quoins are also freely used at angles and jambs. Fig. 208 may serve as a specimen of the details of the Elizabethan style. Inigo Jones, who was an imitator of Palladio, and who designed the Palace of Whitehall in London, de- serves mention as the only English architect of this period who, to a certain extent, preserved the classical Renaissance style in its purity, and free from numerous extraneous inno- vations. Christopher Wren (1675- 1710) followed in his footsteps; he was the architect of St. Paul's, Lon- don, a building which, by its dome, recalls St. Peter's at Rome, and though marked neither by elegance of form nor vigor of style, still pos- sesses considerable architectural im- portance. 188. Fig. 210 and 211 are intended to convey an idea of the details of decoration which characterized the .%tait. ' ■!' ii^R mm Be ■. ■:-" : > D8 Corner of a Fi«- Place in the Elizabeth Gallery at Windsor Castle. 320 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE Renaissance style during its best period, and which dis- play considerable grace and finish. They arc based on the antique Roman type, but still display a peculiar independent treatment, an in the deeply under-cut foliage in the arabesques and the lightness and clearness of the stalks and tendrils. Fig. 209. ST. PAUL'S, LONDON. The ornamentation of the Later Renaissance is less vigorous in tone, and allows the admixture of animals with vegetable forms, and in this way serves as an introduction to the Rococo style. Festoons are of fre- quent occurrence, as also cornucopias and garlands, as EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 321 Fig. 210. PORTION OF FRIEZE AT VENICE. Fig. 211. PORTION OF FRIEZE AT VENICE. 322 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE well as fabulous subject such as dragons, satyrs, dolph- ins, masks, lions' heads, and so on. In conclusion, it must be remarked that the sculptured ornament of the Early Renaissance was distinguished by its excellent effect, due partly to the fact that the separ- ate portions of the decoration were varied both in their bulk and in the degree of projection given to them, but more, to vigorous undercutting and skilful disposition of light and shade, so that when seen from a distance only a few salient points stood out in prominent relief. It is only on a close inspection that the more delicate iines of the leaves, tendrils, and figures which connect together these large masses display themselves. The masterly manner with which Renaissance ornament is treated appears chiefly in the fact that all -portions are not dealt with alike, the finest effects being obtained by the subordination of individual portions and the prominence given to those which are most important. The ornaments are also so arranged as to form a pleasing contrast with the containing or adjoining architectural lines; and are fitted and subordinated to them; a mat- ter of the highest importance. In this respect the later Renaissance cannot boast of ecpial success. On the contrary, more salient ornaments began to be uniformly employed, and in too great profusion. Increased rich- ness of effect was, it is true, thus arrived at, but the productions lost in grace what they gained in richness. As a sort of counterpoise to this tendency the archi- tectural mouldings and details were executed in a more decisive and prominent way, so as to keep the decorative del ails in subordination to the main plan. On the other hand ornamentation tried by dint of increased extravagance to accommodate itself to the exaggerated EASY LESSONS IX ARCHITECTURE 323 architectural features. The result of this was that the style became heavy and inartistic. fe£rfa Fig 212. CANOPY OF THE TOMB OF CARDINAL D'AMBOISE AT ROUEN. Fig. 212 represents a characteristic specimen of French Renaissance decoration, and with this we will conclude our chapter on Renaissance Architecture. 324 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE THE ROCOCO STYLE OF THE RENAISSANCE. 189. As has already been shown in the preceding por- tion of the work, the tendency was displayed soon after the revival of ancient Roman architecture to consider the columnar orders as the most essential element, and to construct everything in accordance with established rules. As early, however, as the middle of the sixteenth century an opposite tendency was observable, and ex- cessive freedom in the employment of objectless and unusual forms became apparent, which by no means tallied with their original purpose and which conse- quently led to the total decadence of architecture. It is true that antique forms were still continually em- ployed, but in a manner which was not in accordance with, and even antagonistic to, the original intention. As has been mentioned in the previous chapter, Jlichel-Angelo was the first who, with his genial but at the same time untractable proclivities, displayed his un- willingness to conform in imitative art with the laws laid down by nature, and as regards construction, to observe the conditions necessitated by static and archi- tectural canons. For the sake of novelty, he introduced strange and discordant forms which were called into existence neither by actual necessity nor by the original design, and his intention appears to have been to excite astonishment rather than admiration. It was, moreover, a special misfortune for art that his admirers and imitators endeavored not only to copy but to surpass the faults which could only be pardoned in the case of the towering genius of the Italian archi- tect. EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 325 When the principles of noble simplicity and purity of form were no longer followed, a predilection began to be manifested for magnificence and luxuriance. This tendency was in accordance with the spirit of the age, and attained its zenith during the reign of Louis XIV. The characteristic and constructive element, with its great moderation in the employment of ornamentation which marked the age of Louis XIII., had to give way before this new tendency, and solidity and sterling worth were superseded by a more flimsy and highly-embellished method of construction. One advantage, however, is attained in the productions of the Rococo style, at least as regards the productions of the best architects ; namely, that the effect of masses and the picturesque arrange- ment both of the external features and the internal spaces seems to have been thoroughly grasped, and a splendid and imposing result thereby attained; and although the details may display bad taste, yet the effect of the whole is often grandiose and not inharmonious. This is especially the case with interiors, because the whole architectural ornamentation, as well as the furni- ture and other decorative objects, are fashioned, even to the smallest detail, in the same style and taste, and complete harmony is consequently secured. This offers a great contrast to our own times, when the objects which influence the general effect of our sitting-rooms, and even of our state apartments, are huddled together in the most heterogeneous way, without any reference to the character of the architectural enrichments. This evil seems only to be avoided in cases where the guiding hand of an artistically trained architect directs not only the architectural ornamentation of such apartments, but also the furnishing and introduction of the smallest details. 326 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE The essential points of difference between the Roman, Florentine and Venetian styles cease with the introduc- tion of the Rococo style of the Renaissance. Apart from some modifications "which were based on local traditions and influences, and which bear traces of the foregoing period, the Roman Rococo style may be viewed as that universally prevalent. 190. The Rococo style may, in its turn, be divided into two periods, which are to be distinguished by variety of style. The first period comprises the time between its first appearance, in the middle of the six- teenth century, and the beginning of the seventeenth, during which the pure and simple forms of the Renais- sance were not yet entirely abandoned, and the advan- tages which have just been alluded to are more observ- able, while the defects which have also been enumerated are less so than is the case in the second period. Dur- ing this latter the greatest freedom in the treatment of architectural forms prevailed to the disregard of all laws, and free scope was given to the most fantastic com- binations. This state of things was mainly brought about by the influence of Lorenzo Bernini (1589-1680), as well as by that of Francesco Borromini (1599-1667). The denomination Rococo is distinctively assigned to the taste of the second period of the style. Many shades of difference have been traced in it, especially of late years, which have been classified as the Jesuit Style, the Capuchin Style, the Spanish Rococo Style, etc. Within its domain fall all the architectural productions from the commencement of the second period till the latest re- vival of classical architecture during the last century. During this period the deterioration of architecture and taste went hand in hand with the contemporaneous un- natural fashion of wigs, and the senseless want of taste EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 32' in the employment of pigtails and powder; and a certain affinity between the architecture of the seventeenth anil eighteenth centuries, and a method of dressing the hair Pig. 213. DECORATIVE FRAGMENT FROM THE JESUIT CHURCH AT ROME. which then prevailed, has led to the expression "Pigtail and Periwig Style" being- employed to describe the period under consideration. 191. The main essentials in all the Rococo Styles are a certain independence in the ornamentation of the 328 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE main architectural organism, the prominence of this ornamentation itself, and finally its shapes and design. A luxurious elegance is displayed in the treatment of Fig. 214. PART OF FACADE OF THE CHURCH OF ST. PAUL AND ST. LOUxS AT PARIS. interiors, which was most happily employed in the em- bellishment of the state apartments. Fig. 213 gives an EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 329 example of the absence of connection among the various ornaments employed in the system of decoration, such as was especially peculiar to the churches of the Jesuits. In this style curved lines of the most varied description supersede all straight lines both in ground plans and in Fig. 215. PART OF THE BACK OF THE PITTI PALACE AT FLORENCE. designs, whilst the most ordinary and characteristic embellishments are volutes, shellfish, and scrolls; groups of fruit and garlands of flowers, hangings, curtains, etc. (Fig. 214.) Columns, pilasters, and mouldings are intermingled and intertwined in a fantastic and mean- 330 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ingless manner, the cornices are often interrupted; the essentially component parts of the architecture are fre- quently mutilated; for instance, columns and wall- pilasters are executed in rustic work, i. e., formed of extensively projecting hewn stones, yet are furnished with a capital and base as is shown by Fig. 215, which is an illustration taken from the Late Italian Renais- sance. For the sake of peculiarity, the various com- Fig. 216. ponent elements assumed a form diametrically opposed to their original designation; mere decorative and secondary details were raised to the rank of essentials, whilst the real principal forms sank to an entirely sub- ordinate position. The greatest variety is displayed in the gables of .selling-houses. Figs. 216 and 217 illustrate the high- est pitch of tastelessness in this respect. At first the same were only boldly curved, or consisted of perpen- dicular stages, the central one of which was crowned either by a straight sided or a gently curved pediment, whilst the usual scrolls were introduced at the sides (either simple or sculptured). (Fig. 214.) EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 331 The following figures, which arc taken from French buildings, are intended to illustrate the treatment of the various decorative features during the seventeenth Pig. 217. GABLES OF TWO HOUSES AT HAMBURG. C3 Pig. 219. century : Figs. 218 and 219 represent capitals, Fig. 220 a cornice, Fig. 221 the termination of a pilaster-strip with panel, Fig. 222 a decorative deskm in a similar 332 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE panel, Fig 1 . 223 the canopy of a panel. All these belong to the period of Louis XIV. Fig. 22-i represents the setting of a panel, Fig. 225 the keystone of an arched ^IjWP F'S- 222. Pig. 223. DECORATIVE DETAILS OF THE TIME OF LOUIS XIV. head-piece, Fig. 226 the same with a rectangular set- ting, and Fig. 227 a console supporting a balcony, the iron railing of which is also characteristic of the Rococo EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 333 Fig. 224. Fig. 225. Style. These last four Figures belong to the time of Louis XV. 192. A deficiency in organization of form, from which fault the Renaissance was not free from its very commencement, becomes still more perceptible in the Rococo Style, and continues to increase, till at length 331 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE the utmost license became usual. But in spite of all this it is indisputably necessary to accord the Rococo Style its due merits, and accurately to determine, on the one hand, in what its defects consist, and, on the other, what were the causes and advantages which secured for it during a space of two hundred years (1580-1780) a predominance over the whole civilized world in spite of Fig. 226. Fig. 227. DECORATIVE DETAILS OF THE TIME OF LOUIS XV. the degeneracy of forms which it displayed. In Italy, especially, the numerous buildings constructed in the Rococo Style must be taken into consideration when the architecture of that country is viewed collectively, and its details become the subject of observation and study. During the time that the license of the Rococo Style prevailed, the elements of the ancient columnar orders were often misapplied, engaged columns and pilasters EASY LKSSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 335 were frequently so connected with other side-pilasters \vhich were recessed behind them to the number of one, two, or even three, that the cornices and, in fact, all horizontal mouldings were separately profiled over each column or pilaster. (See Fig. 214.) The shape of the various architectural features was also strikingly arbi- trary, especially that of the gables with their varied slopes and curves. Individual forms no longer possess an organic or constructive expressiveness; they were only employed as a means to insure the picturesque grouping of the masses, and were generally constructed in high relief, in order to bring out the due effect of light and shade. The advantage which it is admitted rose out of so unshackled a mode of treatment was that it became easy to secure beautiful proportions, as neither traditional meaning nor constructive motives were taken into consideration, and the object, regardless of these, was merely to create forms and proportions which were pleasing to the eye, and above all a picturesque effect. 193. Churches, more than any other buildings, un- derwent an entire change as regards interiors during the prevalence of the Rococo Style. Pillars only occur in the naves in isolated instances, and were mainly used in external ornamentation, their place as supports to the broad and lofty upper spaces bein<: taken by masses of masonry and heavy piers with galleries. Domes were frequently introduced, and were found, as they could be lighted from above, to secure fine effects of illumination. The same love of the picturesque which compelled such changes in both essential and subordinate archi- tectural features led to the employment of a system of internal decoration in which statues were combined with frescoes. This was the case principally, and to an 336 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE excessive extent, in the churches of the Jesuits, and this mode of embellishment became so general and so marked in the churches of that order that the expression "Jesuit Style" has been adopted to designate it. The painting of the roofs played a most important part in the decora- tion of churches. Various kinds of settings were made use of, and other embellishments, such as festoons of flowers and fruits, and conchoidal designs, were freely introduced. The system of well disposed panelled ceil- ings, which was so prevalent in the Renaissance Style, as exemplified in St. Peter's and elsewhere, had to give way to the new system of painting in fresco. The whole space of the vaulting was frequently taken up by a single painting which covered the entire surface, representing "glories," surrounded by other groups in a sitting or recumbent posture, with architectural de- tails painted in perspective, and the heavenly canopy represented in blue and gold. In order to give an appearance of reality to the hovering figures, detached parts of the same were frequently allowed to extend beyond the setting or enclosing border. Fresco painting consequently became all-important, but its very promi- nence not unfrequently militated against the general harmonious effect of the architecture. The same license in the treatment and application of forms is also displayed in secular buildings. The facades and their details were especially treated with llic greatest freedom, and the original constructive in- tention of the latter was no longer a matter of considera- 1 ion. Fig. 228 gives an example of the Rococo style as jipplied to dwelling-houses. The taste for picturesque effect which plays such an important part in the productions of this style, found EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 337 ~" ■% rm; „ . : n ■ ■■ •• :,;,i • ■ - *■ - . '-fas. aA •ii,,.-*!:' Fig 2^8L PORTION OF THE FACADE AT PARIS IN THE STYLE B ' OF LOUIS XV. 338 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE ample scope in the designs for vestibules and courts. The object which the architects were eager to obtain was that the view from the gateway should comprise some important detail, and convey an imposing or, at least pleasing perspective effect. Particular attention was also paid to staircases. They were generally con- structed with a view to effect, and had several landings with broad low steps, and had for the most part stone balustrades, and were covered over with rich vaults. 194. In the eighteenth century circumstances oc- curred, which were favored by the national tendency of that epoch, and set a bound to any further deterioration in architecture, though it was scarcely possible to sink to a lower pitch than that which it had then attained. These altered circumstances were, however, not power- ful enough to bring about an entirely new development. Rational, or rather restrictive criticism, was, in accord- ance with the spirit of analysis, more suited to restrain further advance in a false direction than to call a new line of art into existence by means of creations demon- strative of genius. By the discovery of ITerculaneum and Pompeii a veneration for antiquity was again aroused, which was, moreover, fostered by engravings of the best works of art that were preserved in museums, such as views of the temples at Paestum, as well as by Piranesi's masterly views of Rom;m monuments, and, finally, by new editions of Hie writings of Vitruvius, wilh suitable explanations and illustrations. Although in other countries than Italy the Rococo style pre- vailed for a considerable time longer, yet a reaction set in in favor of the efforts and tendencies of the six- teenth century. The further progress of the Rococo style was prevented, but, on the oilier hand, artists were EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 339 withdrawn from the sphere of art into the colder and reflective regions of science. 195. Although the classical architecture of antiquity came thus again into repute, yet, owing to the want of thorough studies of the monuments themselves, the precepts of Vitruvius and the most celebrated architects of the sixteenth century still remained in vogue, espec- ially those of Vignola and Palladio. The studies were consequently only second-hand, instead of being de- rived from the original sources. The architects were imitators of imitators. It is therefore natural that their constructions, to which they strove more than ever to impart repose and severity of style, appeared only spirit- less and insipid. Architecture seemed especially to lose in life and activity. Although no retrogression took place, still no progress was brought about; but a con- dition of lassitude supervened, which, after the excesses of the period which had so recently elapsed, had not internal strength enough to expand into a free, reno- vated, and independent artistic activity. TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. 196. In the preceding divisions of the work the peculiarities of those architectural styles have been described which required consideration either owing to their monumental and artistic importance, or to the reference they bore to and inlluence which they exercised upon the succeeding style. It still remains to take notice of a method of building which occurs in con- nection with several of the styles which have been de- scribed, and displays the features appropriate to each, 340 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE but in which the material employed, namely, wood, has given rise to a certain general similarity of aspect, differing in this respect from stone or brick. But even in buildings constructed of this material two varieties occur; that is to say, those framed or half timbered houses in which wood is employed in connection with brick, and those in which it forms the only constructive Fig. 229. VIEW OF THE WOOD CHURCH AT BURGUND. material, and no stone or brick is introduced. To this latter class belong the ancient wood monuments of Nor- way and the houses which occur in mountainous dis- tricts, of which Switzerland, and especially the Bernese Oberland, offers the most beautiful examples. Conse- quently the designation, Swiss houses, or Swiss cottages, is that which is most generally applied to the entire EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE 341 class of houses which are peculiar in a more or less similar shape to other mountain districts, especially the Tyrol. The Russian block or log-houses must also be mentioned as being- constructed on a similar plan. Fig. 230. FRONT VIEW OF BAY-WORK HOUSE AT HALBERSTADT. The wood buildings of Norway lay claim to a certain monumental and historical importance, partly because they belong to the oldest class of buildings of this description, and partly owing to the purpose for which they were erected, namely, to serve as churches. The case is different as regards the merit of their artistic construction and beauty of shape, in both of which 342 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE points the standard attained is not a high one, as is shown by Fig'. 231. The details principally show traces of the architectural styles prevalent at the time Fig. Arabesque fretwork 1 72 Anthemion 185 A wrought iron design 213 A circular ornamental design 215 Arrangement of flutes and fillets 222 Arrangement of Doric order 228 Advice to student 241 Alphabets 246 A method of hatching showing materials 258 A parting word 262 B Beam compasses 31 Brown's ellipsograph 34 How pens and pencils 43 Boxwood scales 46 Brick cottage plans IDS Brick foundations 114 Blocked coursed work 118 Bond in brickwork 119 Brick courses 120 Brickwork generally 121 Bonding in 0-inch walls 122 Bed of arch 130 Brick and stone arches 145 Box frame weights 102 Balusters 175 Barge boards 179 Border mouldings 1 s;! Border, Egyptian style 186 VII VIII INDEX Page Border, Byzantine style 189 Byzantine Rosette 189 Balustrades 202 Balcony 209 Block letters 240 Blue prints 261 C Cheap drawing boards 19 ( Cartridge paper 20 Cleaning pen 52 Circular ornaments 60 Circular segments »>l Curves of various grades 63 Circles and straight lines mixed 07 Curved mouldings 68 Compass drawn scrolls 85 Cutting lead pencils 98 Cellar plan for cottage 108 Crown of arches 129 Casings for door and window finish 158 Cornice for frame building 159 Cornice for brick building 161 Curved and straight lines 162 Complicated fret work 173 Chain moulding 177 Continuous moulding 177 Curved line ornaments 178 Cut scroll work 179 Conventional flower 184 Conventional lotus 186 Cut Gothic border 190 Cinquefoil Gothic ornament 193 Curves for cut work 198 Cut work for barge boards, etc ! 199 Carvers' ornaments 200 Cut work for balustrades 202 Columns 219 Columns, fluted 220 I '<>l in mis with fillets 221 ( Columns with fillets and reeds 222 ( Corinthian order of architecture 236 Column and section, Corinthian 237 Colors used in drawings 249 Colors representing materials 254 I) Drawing hoards. How to make IK 1 hawing board grooved 19 Drawing paper 20 INDEX 1 Page Damp-stretching 22 Drawing table 24 Drawing pens < 88 Drawing lines 53 Drawing circles 54 Drawing concentric curves 55 Drawing eccentric curves 55 Drawing circular ornaments 57 Drawing variable curved ornaments 58 Doric mouldings 73 Describing ellipses by aid of trammel ~s Dotted line work ss Dimension lines 92 Different grades of pencils it!) Drawing arches 1 27 Doorway entrance 151 Diagonals and squares 164 Drops for porches and verandas 203 Drops for balcony 20'J Drawings for iron work 213 Drawing sections of fluted columns 220 Dividing circumferences of columns 221 Drawing of Tuscan order 226 Doric order of architecture 228 Drawing the Doric order 22.S Design of Ionic capital and entablature 234 Designs for letters 244 Description of colors. 250 Defining use of colors 253 E Ellipsograph „ 33 Ellipsograph illustrated 34 English drawing instruments 39 Elliptical mouldings 76 Elliptical curves by string 77 Elliptical curve by trammel 78 Egg shaped figures, How to draw them 82 Examples in line work 86 Erasions 98 End elevations and section of cottage 113 English bond of brickwork 124 Elevation of brickwork 125 Extrados of arches 129 Elliptical arches in brickwork 134 Elevation of doorway 151 Elevation of window 153 Elevation of inside door and finish 155 Egyptian ornament 180 Elaborated scroll 182 £ INDEX pip T/> Egg and dart 183 Echinus 183 Egyptian lotus border 186 Elaborate tracery 197 Eave boards " 207 Elliptical wrought iron scroll 213 Elliptical ornamentation 216 Entasis of columns 225 Elevation of Tuscan order 226 Elevation of Doric order 228 Elevation of Composite order 230 F Free-hand drawing 11 French curves 26 Flat scales 30 Figured plans 105 Floor plans for cottage 110 Front elevation of brick cottage 112 Foundation footings 114 Fourteen-inch brick wall 12") Flat arches in brickwork 141 Finish of inside door 155 Fret work 171 Figured ornaments , . 175 Finished scroll work 179 Fence boards, ornamental 211 Fluting columns 218 Flutes and fillets 221 Figures for drawings 242 Flowing of colors 250 G Good tools 17 Greek mouldings 69 Gothic brick arches 134 ( rothic arches generally 135 ( rothic ogee arches 138 Gothic arches of various kinds 146 ( Jutter and cornice 159 Gutter and cornice open 161 Gothic perforated work 166 (ireek fret work 171 Greek lily 184 Greek anthemim 185 Gothic ornament in border 190 Gothic tracery 194 (ireek Ionic 233 INDEX 3 Page H Hard rubber scales 49 Handy method of drawing scrolls 84 Hatching lines 89 How to hold the lead pencil 95 Herring bone brickwork 1 2<\ How to describe an elliptical arch 134 Horseshoe arches 139 Horseshoe arches of several styles 140 Hexagon ornament 167 Handling brushes in coloring 251 Hatching, showing materials , 258 I Introduction 11 Instruments in Morocco case 36 Instruments in wooden box 37 Inserting ink in pen 51 Ink brush 52 Inking in 52 Inking lines 53 Intrados of arches 129 Inside shutter finish 152 Inside window finish 153 Inside finish of sliding doors 156 Introduction to the order of architecture 218 Ionic mouldings 234 J Joining curves 66 Joining straight lines to curved lines 67 Joints in masonry 119 Joints in brickwork 120 Joints in bonded work 121 Joints in arches 130 Joints shown in brick arches 140 Jamb in section 151 Joint of sliding doors 157 K Keystone of arch 129 L Linework 85 Linework in shade and shadow 88 Laying off dimensions 91 Lead pencils cut to shape 93 Lancet arches 186 Lintels of stone 145 4 INDEX Page Laying out diagonals 165 Laying out hexagon work 167 Laying out turned ornaments 175 Laying out scrolls 178 Lotus ornamentations 186 Laying out tracery 196 Laying out cut work 806 Laying out flutes of columns 218 Laying out fillets and flutes 221 Laying out letters 243 Lettering generally 244 Laying on of colors 252 M Manner of sharpening pen 42 Manner of closing pen 43 Mouldings 69 Methods of describing Greek mouldings 71 Method of describing ellipses 77 Method of describing arch 134 Moorish arches 139 Moorish arches of various kinds 146 Miscellaneous arches 149 Mixed ornament 168 Moorish fret work 1 72 Mixed Greek ornament 1 74 Mouldings of Tuscan order 226 Mouldings for Doric order 228 Modillions 238 Miscellaneous matters 241 Making of letters 242 Methods of coloring 250 Mixing colors 252 Materials shown by hatching 258 Method of mixing ink 260 O Ornamental curves 59 Ornaments from circles 60 Ovals 81 Ornamental line work , 87 Ogee arches l87 Ogee Tudor arches 13s Ogee Gothic arches 188 Openings in stone work 143 Ornamental Gothic work 166 Ornamental cut work 1 99 Ornamental balustrades 205 Ornamental iron work 215 Order on architecture 223 INDEX 5 Page Open letters 244 Old style letters 245 P Preface 2 Paper tacks 21 Prices of drawing pens 39 Pens, with and without ink 51 Proper method of holding pen 90 Position of hand when drawing 95 Pencil lines and erasions 97 Preliminary rough sketches 102 Plans in part 105 Plan of cellar , 108 Plan of courses in brickwork 125 Plan of details 150 Pocket for sliding doors 157 Plan of pocket for sliding doors 157 Perforated stone work 166 Panel work in fret 201 Pickets for ornamental fence 211 Proportions for Tuscan order 226 Proportions of Doric order 228 Plan and elevation of Ionic column 234 Plan and elevation of Corinthian order 236 Proportion of Composite order . . 239 Proportion of letters 243 Preparing paper for coloring 249 Preparing colors 252 Preventing ink from "creeping" 260 Q Quatrefoil 191 Quatereal columns 218 R Roman mouldings 70 Rubber for erasing 98 Rough sketches 100 Rough sketches figured 102 Rough sketches of details 103 Random rubble work 116 Rough stone work 116 Rubble work coursed 116 Rustic stone work 117 Running bond in brickwork 123 Rubble arches 146 Rosette, Egyptian 186 Roman border 187 6 INDEX Page Roman Rosette 188 Roman ornament 188 Running elliptical ornament 216 Roman Ionic order 233 Runic letters 245 Retouching colored drawings 252 Rough shading 259 Reissman's "Blue print making" 261 S Set squares 26 Swivel squares 28 Straight edges 29 Scale-triangular 30 Splices 33 Swiss drawing instruments 38 Steel scales 47 Showing various curves 63 Scrolls, how to draw them 83 String and pencil 84 Sharpening lead pencils properly 94 Sketches of windows 104 Scale for work 107 Section of brick cottage 1 13 Side elevation of cottage 113 Stone foundation 114 Stone walls ." 115 Squared stone work 119 Semi-circular arches 127 Span of arches 129 Spring of arches 129 Segmental arches 132 Segment of Tudor arches 132 Semi-elliptical arches 133 Stone arches with offsets 143 Segmental Gothic arches 147 Section of door jamb 151 Shutter linings : 152 Splay of window jambs 154 Section of window jamb and finish 154 Sliding doors 156 Section of sliding door pocket 156 Section of corner studs 158 Section of window finish 158 Section of cornice 159 Section of cornice for brief building 161 Section for box frame 162 Section for window sill 162 Straight and curved lines 163 Squares and diagonals 164 INDEX 7 Page Straight line ornamentation . . ; 169 Strap work 170 Star work 170 Scroll work 178 Scroll work for carvers 200 Scroll work on elliptical plan 216 Something on architectural orders 218 Sections of columns 219 Section of Doric order 228 Sections of Ionic order 234 Single line letters 245 Shaded letters and figures 247 Stone, wood and iron shown by colors 257 Shading for different forms 259 T Thumb tacks 21 Tee squares 25 Trammel 31 The drawing pen discussed 41 Triangles 47 The lead pencil 93 Tee square and pencil 95 Thrust in arches 130 Tudor arch 132 Tudor arches of various kinds 148 Ti les and diagonals 166 Trefoil ornament 173, 191 Turned ornaments 175 Tracery 194 The Tuscan order of architecture 225 The Grecian Doric 230 The Ionic order of architecture 234 The Corinthian order of architecture 238 The Composite order of architecture 239 The use of colors in drawing 249 Tints in coloring 252 U Use of bow-pen and pencil 44 Uses of pencils generally 46 Urns 175 Use of colors in drawings 249 Use of hair pencils for coloring 252 Use of heavy ink lines 260 V /ariable curves 27 Various mouldings 76 8 INDEX Page Vertical measurements 10fi Voussoirs T2!> Versed sine of arches 129 Various arches 140 Verge boards 179 Veranda cut work 202 Volutes in Ionic order 2:! 7 Various letteri 244 W Walls of stone 114 Walls of brick 114 Window openings in brick walls 142 Window linings 152 Window frame with weights 162 Window finish at sill 102 Wave mouldings 1 77 Wave scrolls 178 Work for balconies 202 What materials are represented by colors 255 Plate 1. Plate 2. Plate 3. Plate 4. Plate 5. Plate G. Plate 1. Plate 8. Plate 9. Plate 10. Plate 11. Plate 12. Plate 13. Plate 14. Plate 15. Plate 16. Plate 17. Plate 18. PLATES PAGE Eighteen illustrations 16 Plan of Cottage 32 Full Frame for Cottage 48 Showing Disposition of Joists 64 Elevation of Front and End of Cottage 80 Constructive Details 96 Showing Cornice, and Roof Construction 112 Shows Plans of Windows, Doors, etc 128 Inside Finish of Windows and Doors 144 Elevation and Section of Finish 160 Doors and Door Finish 176 Stairs, Newels and Balusters 192 Elevation and Details of Mantel 208 Elevation of a Book-case 224 Kitchen and Student's Desk 232 Section and Plans of Window 240 Cellar Window in Stone Wall 248 Sections of Windows in Wood 256 9 Architectural Drawing Self Taught INTRODUCTION Before entering into the subject on which this work is being prepared, the editor and compiler would like to say a few words to the reader, in connection therewith. It will be noticed that the title of this work is "Architectural and Builders' Drawing Self- Taught"; and this title fairly conveys to the intelligent reader, the scope of the volume, as the work is intended solely for young progressive carpenters and builders who are not going to drag out a tiresome existence by remaining at the bottom of their trades, and who have not had an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of architectural drawing or the use of drawing instruments. Many of the best draftsmen in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, came from the ranks of the working men; men who had gained the most of their knowledge of the laws of construction and exactness in the work- shop, at the bench, or on the buildings where 11 12 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT they were employed; and I may say that it is within the power of ninety per cent of workmen to become fairly good draftsmen, by their own efforts, and the aid of such books as the one I have now prepared for this purpose; and the young man who has by his own efforts, per- severance and ability, succeeded in being able to place on paper or board with pen and pencil, a plain elevation of a door, window, house, stone wall, or veranda, drawn to scale, and so made as to convey to his fellow workman a correct idea of what is intended, that man has achieved a result which should — and generally does — advance his wages, increase his importance, and make him a more valuable and useful citizen. It is not to be supposed that this little work alone, even though thoroughly digested, will enable the reader to become a finished drafts- man, nor is it so intended, but it will aid him materially in acquiring such knowledge as will give him a good start on the highway to success. Wherever the student can attain access to a school for drawing, there he should at once proceed, for a few hours spent over a drawing board under competent supervision, will do more towards giving him an insight into the methods arid practice of good draftsmanship than if is ARCHITKCTUHai DRAWING BELT TAUGHT 13 possible to obtain by many days of book study. Where there are no such schools available the student should try and get into an architect's office, or into the office of some mechanical draftsman, and either pay for, or work for, a series of lessons on drawing, but when none of these conditions exist, he should take up a series of studies in practical geometry in connection with drawing; as a knowledge of geometry as presented in either "Modern Carpentry and Joinery", or other works published in this series of work-manuals, by Messrs. Frederick J. Drake & Co. The construction of geometrical figures is exceedingly good exercise and will not only give the reader good theoretical knowledge, but will help him in his drawing lessons and practice him in exactness. By application and determination "to fight it out to a finish" the earnest student will be sure to make a good — perhaps a first-class — drafts- man, for, to the really earnest man, nothing is impossible within the range of human accomplishments. I have referred in the foregoing to "exactness." This is the first "necessity" in a drawing that is intended to be used as a guide for actual work. 14 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A drawing may be rough, dirty and inartistically done, but if it be complete and correct it serves its purpose, and is immeasurably superior for practical uses to the inexact artistic one, which may dazzle with its shade and shadows and fineness of execution, but leads to confusion and failure and consequent chagrin and loss. I have thought it necessary to inject into this little work a few remarks and a few illustrations on Free Hand Drawing, as many persons are gifted with the power of being able to make a fair drawing of objects on sight, and it was thought that, perhaps, a few hints in this direc- tion would be necessary to make the book complete, as these hints may aid those who have these gifts, and stimulate those who have them not, to cultivate the art, as a knowledge of it is one of the most useful aids the drawing student can possess. It must be remembered this work does not pretend to lead the student beyond the realm of plain practical drawing, such as the everyday workman will find useful and convenient, when- ever he wishes to convey to others an idea of what he intends to erect, or to lay out on paper or board a piece of work he is about to execute. I have eschewed perspective, and ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 15 elaborate drawings of any kind, but, should it be thought wise, I may hereafter, prepare a work for this series, dealing with perspective and a higher grade of work than is herewith presented. SOMETHING ABOUT DRAWING INSTRUMENTS In all kinds of geometrical, architectural and mechanical drawing, the accuracy of the work will depend much, in theory, on the excellency of the drawing instruments used. Practically, these instruments are not quite perfect, and any carelessness or negligence of the draftsman when using them, may render them unfit for accuracy of operation. Indeed, the hand and eye of the operator, viewed simply as instruments, for executing conceptions of form, are vastly superior and more varied than the best of appliances used by the draftsman, and well directed efforts should, and will, bring out this capacity so that, other things being equal, he will make the most expert and elegant drafts- man whose eye is most reliable in its estimate of form and size, and whose free hand is most skilled in expressing these elements of figure. Instruments, however, are necessary, and a little talk on the subject will not be out of place, and may prove of practical value to the reader. 10 AKCH1TKCTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE i. This plate exhibits some eighteen different sketches. No. i shows a plain method of laying out a room having sliding doors in it. No. 2 shows the same room presented on another method. Xo 3 exhibits another simple plan ot marking off the same room, while No. 4 shows the walls in plain black. These four examples are intended to convey to the student some idea of the various methods of illustrating. No. 5 shows the layout of a porch, with an angle on one corner. No. 6 shows the plan of the porch roof. Nos. 7 and 8 show plan of semi-octagon bay-windows, and roof plan, while No. 9 shows the roof plan for a pentagon bay-window. Nos. 10 and 1 1 show two plans of stairs that are suggestive. Nos. 12 and 13 exhibit two styles of laying out a bath room. No. 14 shows several ways of laying out fireplaces, while 15, 16 and 17 show portions of a pantry and kitchen. 3- € ■ *i Po*lCH y S^S ffl -i h- i r «*£* K°°r / PlAH IlL^S i .";"'") F' s s . EO • j. 'r ,j>n»u — v/rm ■innii r. gg?S \ &*Y Window Plate.I Y ♦ 14 > k 17 \ Ck. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 17 Almost, in every department of life the best results can only be obtained by the skilful employment of the best means available. Some- times a genius accomplishes supreme results with the most primitive of means, but it is not for geniuses this work is prepared, but for everyday sort of people, people - who do not expect to build houses without materials, or become draftsmen without long and careful preparation; and such being the case it is in order that the reader be advised to purchase the best instru- ments and accessories his means will admit of. "A fine workman requires fine tools," and no man can do a fine piece of work not having the proper tools wherewith to do it, so no man can do a good piece of drafting without having the necessary tools; therefore, it will not be out of place to commence with a description of the instruments required, and the manner of using them. The first thing the young student will require, will be a drawing board. This may be made at home, but should be true on its face and the edges should be exactly at right-angles with each other, or perfectly square. The board may be made in size, to suit requirements, but should never be less than 12 by 17 inches. Indeed, it is 18 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT better to have two or three boards of sizes varying from 12x17 to 36x60 inches. They may be clamped on the ends with stuff about 1 % inches wide and the thickness of the board, or they maybe held together with battens either screwed on to the underside as shown at Fig. 2. Fig. i, or dovetailed into the board across the grain as shown a, rig. 2. At Fig. 3 a much ARCHITECTURAL DR.VWINIi SELF TAUGHT 19 Fig. 3- better board is shown and one I can recommend as possessing nearly all the qualities of a perfect board. A glance at the illus- tration will explain the good qualities of this style of board. The wood used should be carefully selected pine or basswood with hardwood cross-bars at back. To pre- vent the warping of the wood, the board is sawed half way through at about every two inches, and for the purpose of allowing to con- tract and expand, the cross bars are not glued on, but fastened with screws, which run in oblong metal slots. At the ends, pieces of hardwood are inlaid, to give the T-square a smooth work- ing edge. They are also cut at every few inches, to allow for contraction and expansion of the board. While the cheapest boards are made of white pine or basswood, it doesn't necessarily follow that boards may not be made of other woods; cedar, mahogany and straight grained walnut make very fine boards and answei very well where you do not require to use pins for securing the paper to the board. When, then, hardwood 20 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT boards are used, it is as well to employ glue or mucilage in fastening paper to the board. Drawing paper comes in rolls of indefinite lengths, and from 36 to 54 inches wide, and in sheets of various sizes. It is made in different tints, is generally very tough, and is chiefly used for details; it is much cheaper than Whatman's, and for many purposes answers just as well. There is also a paper comes in rolls called "Cartridge paper" of a buff color, very strong and cheap, and admirably suited for details and like work. Tracing cloth, also, comes in rolls, 18, 30, 36, and 42 inches wide; it is convenient and durable, and may be folded up almost any number of times without injury. Tracing paper is made of different qualities and sizes; it is rendered transparent, and qualified to receive ink lines and tinting without spreading. Like tracing cloth, when placed over a drawing already executed, the drawing is distinctly visible through the paper, and may be copied or traced directly by the ink instruments; thus an accurate copy may be made with great expedition. We cannot give reliable price quotations of these papers, as they vary some- what, and mav be different prices in different localities. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 21 The paper should be fastened to the board with pins or thumb-tacks similar to those exhibited in Fig. 4. These are made with a broad flat head, of brass, white metal , r — jf ^ ** - or silver, and rounded so as to permit I the square to slide easily over them, lg ' 4 and the stem should be of steel and riveted or screwed into the head. Fig. 5 exhibits several styles of "thumb-tacks," all of which are well enough in their way. There is a number of other styles of tacks of various kinds besides the ones shown. When the young student gets down to "real work" and makes use of good paper, he should first damp the edges of the paper, then glue the edges and place fairly on the board, holding it in place with pins or other suitable appliances, which may be removed when the work is dry and ready to operate upon. This method of fastening is sufficient where no shadowing or coloring is to be applied, and if the sheet is not too long a time upon the board. It has the ^ Fig. 5. ^> ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT advantage, too, of preserving to the paper its natural quality of surface. With mounted paper, there is no other proper way of fastening. For large, colored, or elaborate drawings, however, a damped sheet is preferable, and where the coloring is a flat tint, damp stretching is indis- pensable, as the partial wetting by water color causes the surface to buckle; partial wetting of loose paper by water color causes the surface to buckle. Damp-stretching is performed in the following manner: lay the sheet on the board, with the face side under, and have the thick edges trimmed from the paper; draw a wet sponge freely and rapidly over the upper side, beginning at the center, damping the entire surface, and allow the sheet to rest for a few minutes till it be damped through, and the surface-water disappears. Those parts which appear to revive sooner than others, should be retouched with the sponge. The damping should be done as lightly as possible, as the sponge always deprives the paper of more or less of its sizing. The sheet is now turned over and placed fair with the edges of the board— sufficiently clear of the working edges to permit the free action of the drawing- iquare. The square, or an ordinary straight- AKfHITKCTUKAI, DRAWING SKLF TAUGHT 23 edge, is next applied to the paper, and set a little within one edge, which is then turned up over the square and smeared with glue. The paper is then turned down and pressed on the board, after which it is rubbed down all along the "lap" with some smooth article. The same process is performed on the other edges of the paper. The w hole is V< A then left to dry, which, when completed, leaves the sur- face flat and tense. It is not likely the ordinary workman will want to color his drawings, there- fore he will find it safer, and less trouble, to simply tack his paper on the board with the thumb tacks, and then make his drawings first in pencil, then in ink, but I have thought it well to give some hints regarding the manner of preparing the papers for coloring. Further on, I will have more to say on this subject and on the subject of color. Fig. 6. v>4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT I laving prepared a drawing board, the next thing will be to provide a table or desk to rest the board on. I show a very good scheme for this purpose in sketch Fig. 6, and which can readily be made by any workman who can use tools. This should be fixed in some place where there is an abundance of light and in such a position that the light will fall on the board from the left side as shown in Fig. 7. The height and Fig. 7- projection of the table or desk are marked in Fig. 6, and a movable block of about 3 inches square is shown at A, which can be moved in such a fashion that the angle of the board may ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 25 be made to suit the operator. This block must of course be as long as the drawing board. Fig. 7 shows the board in position with the paper tacked on, and the proper position of the hands are shown as they should appear while making the drawing. The next thing to be considered is the T square. This needs but little description, a s every workman is supposed to ^ know what this instrument is; it may, however, be noted that T-squares differ in construction. In the common- est the "blade", or thin portion, is fixed flush with one side of the "butt", or "head", as at A, Fig. 8. In other forms the blade is fast- ened in the middle of the butt, B, and this is the preferable form for large squares; others, at C, Fig. S, have the blade above the level of the Fig. 8. 26 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT head, to permit set-squares to go over it. Very large squares have a couple of little studs, as shown in the figure B, to steady them. French curves, L, Fig. 9, are made in a great variety of combinations. They are extremely handy for draw- ing curves not easily struck by the compasses, and also for ec- centric curves, which the com- passes are not able to describe as in medieval mouldings of some forms. In i n k i n g - i n a curve by the aid of one of these appliances the edges must be turned about on the pencilled drawing until some part is found which corresponds, when the edge of the curve will guide the drawing-pen. There are a great variety of these curves as may be seen at Fig. 10. These variable or irregular curves are made of thin wood, hard rubber or celluloid, and are sold for a few cents each. Fig. 9. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 27 The set square or squares, similar to those shown at Fig. 9, C, D, K and B, are great aids Fig. 10. to drawing as they may be employed in conjunc- tion with the T-square, for lining off angles, or laying off parallel lines as shown by the dotted lines EG, and FH. These set squares are made Fig. 11. to suit different angles, and in many styles, as will be seen in Fig. 11. The manner of 28 ARCHITECTURAL, DRAWING SELF TAUGHT using them will suggest itself as the work pro- ceeds. T-squares of a superior kind may be obtained from any dealer in mathematical instruments for from $1.00 to $6.00 each, but in most cases the workman can make his own squares, as well as his own drawing boards, and save money by the operation. The squares shown at Fig. 12 are of a superior kind, the blades and one edge Fig. 12. of the stocks having ebony or other hard wood glued on the edges to prevent them from wear- ing. The lower square has a movable stock, which is operated by a thumb screw, thus enabling the draftsman to set the blade to any angle desired. The working of this will be easily understood by the reader. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 29 Another accessory, and one the workman can make for himself, is a straight edge — or several of them — which may be made of hard-wood, or it may be made of good clean straight grained soft wood, and have hardwood edges glued on as shown in Fig. 13. Perhaps it would be well to have three or four of these straight edges in different lengths and widths, say one 16 in. long. Fig. 13. one 30 in. long, and another 40 in. long. The widths may be 2 in., 2^2 in., and 3^ in. respectively. They should not be more than three-sixteenths of an inch thick, but would be better if they were thinner. A rule or scale is always necessary, for all architectural or other drawings that are intended to be worked from, must be made to scale. Usually, in this country, scales are made and marked off to some proportion of the English foot, when intended for architectural work. One sixteenth of an inch may represent one 30 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT foot or one yard, as the case may be, so also may one eighth, one quarter, or one half of an inch represent one foot or one yard, just as the draftsman determines. One eighth of an inch is the most used, though one quarter of an inch is Fig. 14. the scale generally employed. For workmen's use three quarters of an inch scale is handy, as this makes one sixteenth of an inch represent one inch of the actual work, which is quite con- venient in a working drawing. Scales may be had flat or triangular, and in boxwood, ivory or hard rubber, and one foot Fig. 15. long. The flat scales are very handy, but are sometimes confusing, because often two or more scales are laid off on one edge. Perhaps the handiest scale for actual use, is the triangular one, which is similar to Fig. 14. There are six ARCHITKC-irUAI. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 31 edges on this scale, each edge having a different marking or scale. The flat scale is shown at Fig. 15. This scale is 12 inches long, with 16 scales, as follows: yi, A, %, H, l A, H, Y\, 7 A> 1, 1%, i}4, i*A, 2, 2%, 2j4, and 3 inches to the foot, the first division of each scale subdi- vided in 12 parts, each. Besides these there are many other kinds of scales made use of by Architects, En- gineers, and Sur- veyors, but these shown and de- scribed, will suffice for the purpose for which this book is prepared, as it is not intended to embody in this work other than the simplest methods of plain architectural work, and such as can be executed with the simplest kind of instruments. There is a number of other accessories used in drawing besides these mentioned, that are not placed in a regular box or case of instru- Fig. 16. Si ARCHITECTURAL UKAWINU SELF TAUGHT PLATE 2. Following up the ideas presented in Plate i, I give herewith the plans for a small cottage and show the cellar plan, first floor plan and chamber plan. This is drawn to a scale of j? of an inch to the foot, but I would advise the student to double the size, which, as a matter of fact, the original drawings of these examples is the scale to which they are made, namely f\ of an inch to the foot. Every item necessary for a house of this description is shown on these plans. wpzzinzsmmzznmizm 2 i i CsJ r 3 mmmnnnmmmsswzm i i ^Mzzzzzzzmz Hzm nn mnzzz L. • *■** 20 — 2. - , IV x it ; S3 f^ou/Jo^TioK Plate? • 2. < it It' x J 3 B*o S\poty 3 A V t"x if B€D Hoo^j 12.- x I* ST FoJ>o^ cStcoKo fk?°f^ r- ^uumm mum v< «-X : I ■■■■Buiaipslai ! V - •MMfMC J» £ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 33 ments, such as splines, ellipsographs, and beam- compasses; the latter being designed for drawing circles of large diameter, and are so made that the points can be moved to the desired distance apart. One steel point may be removed and a pencil or inking pen inserted. Set screws hold the heads in position on the sliding bar A, Fig. 16. This bar may be of wood, or of metal, preferably the former, and it may be of any desired length. Fig. 17. Splines are flexible strips of wood or metal, and are used for forming curves — regular or variable — and are held in position by a peculiar attachment which serves to hold the curve in position as shown at S S S, Fig. 17. These attachments are made of lead. The ellipsograph is a costly instrument and one which the ordinary workman would seldom require; besides, there are a number of ways by which an ellipse may be drawn, and figures approaching an ellipse, so I would not advise 34 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the young draftsman to purchase the more expensive one until his means or business warranted it. I give an illustration, however, of Fig. 1 8. Browne's patent ellipsograph in order to acquaint my readers with the style of instrument. This is an excellent device, and can be adjusted to ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 35 form ellipses or ovals of all kinds within the limits of the instrument. It is shown with some of the attachments at Fig. 18. The price of this device varies from $9.00 to $14.00. A very good one may be obtained for about $12.00. Apart from the conventional box of instru- ments, the appliances now described will be about all the young workman will require unless, of course, he intends to study for an architect or mechanical engineer, when, of course, he will have passed beyond the limits of this work which is intended only for such work- men as have no other opportunities of learning the rudiments of draftsmanship. It will be in order now to say something about the instruments proper the beginner will require, so I will, as briefly as possible, describe the instruments, explain their uses, and offer a few suggestions as to their care and management. A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS It is not my province to recommend any particular make of instruments for, so far as I am aware any of, the ordinary makes — that are not intended for school children — will serve the purpose of learning their use, and afterwards, the student, when advanced sufficiently, a more 36 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT /**/**)>;!■ -ww..* ■■'T -v^u^^a^nmm costly and more complete set may be obtained if found necessary. While, of course, purchasing drawing instruments is like purchasing tools, that is, it is always better to buy the very best that can be bought, and I may say that the best may be obtained in single pieces or in boxes containing only three or four pieces. However, perhaps, it is best in our case to get a set similar to the case shown at Fig. 19. This is a Morocco case which con- tains two divid- ers, pen and pen- cil points, draw- ing pen, and a six inch flat scale. This case can be bought for about $4.00, for which sum instruments ought to be fairly good; if, however, the student can afford it, and feels that he had better purchase a set of instruments that will meet all his needs, present and future, why then he had better invest in a better quality of goods, and purchase a case containing a greater number of instruments and of a finer grade, such as I show at Fig. 20, which may be obtained for about $20.00 or $25.00. This case Fig. 19- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 37 contains, besides the box, one 5}^ in. dividers, with pen, pencil and needle points, lengthening bar; $}4 in. dividers, with pen, pencil and needle points; 5 in. plain dividers; 5 in. hair spring Fig. 20. dividers; spring bow dividers, pen and pencil, needle points, ivory handle; 4^2 in. ivory handle hinged drawing pen, needle point; 5^ in. ivory handle hinged drawing pen, needle point; German silver protractor, ebony rule and scale. 38 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT These instruments are made of fine German silver with superior steel points. m Fig. 21. Fine Swiss made instruments cost more than German ones, as some of the Swiss cases run up ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 39 to $150.00 and $175.00. English and American made instruments are high priced, but as a rule are more substantial and in the end give bet- ter satisfaction than other makes. The first things to be considered in a set of instruments are the compasses. These generally fnclude dividers and pen and pencil attach- ments. It is not necessary to illustrate or de- scribe the form of these instruments, as they may be seen in the case as shown in Fig. 20, and the interchangeable parts will easily find the place they are intended for when required for use; so I will not dwell on the subject of com- passes longer. Perhaps the most important article in the case to the young student is the pen, and I will there- fore devote more space to a description of it than I will to any other of the instruments, as a proper knowledge of its use and care will be of great assistance in the work before us. A DRAWING PEN This is the most useful and the most used instrument in the case. Fig. 21, which is taken from Keuffel and Esser Co.'s catalogue, shows a variety of pens of the very best make, pens that are suited for any kind of line drawings in ink. 40 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The prices of these, with ivory handles, range from $1.40 to $2.50 each, and they are warranted to be the best of their kind. A few words as to the use and care of this instrument may not be out of place at this juncture, as it is important the instrument should be well understood by the student so that he may the better be able to make the best of it. The man who devotes himself exclusively to any particular vocation, day after day, for several years, acquires an intimate knowledge of its details that is not easily imparted to the novice through the medium of pen and ink, and often when it is attempted, the finer details which con- tribute so much to success are passed over lightly or are omitted altogether. "In the course of his experience he acquires ways and means of prosecuting his work, if he be intelligent and progressive, which makes its execution easy and places him on the list of "skilled operators." The art of mechanical drawing contains a few of those mysteries which, if published at all, have not been given a very wide circulation. Our scientific libraries and dealers in technical works are copiously supplied with books on mechanical drawing, in any of which may be found the illustrations of tools, curves, inks, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 41 colors, etc., carefully reproduced from the catalogues of dealers, but the accompanying description does not always give a clear idea of the relative merits of the different tools shown, how they should be selected, handled, and kept in repair, and, while it is not intended in this work to describe the methods of caring for and repairing all the instruments a box contains, it is necessary the pen should have more than a passing notice. It is a custom with many makers of first-class instruments to hinge one jaw of the ruling pen to the little separating block above the adjusting screw, so that it may be opened after the adjust- ing screw is removed. In a pen of this kind the joint should be very snug, as the least amount of play will allow the point of one jaw to slip ahead of the other, which would destroy the efficiency of the pen. In the opinion of the writer this joint is altogether unnecessary. It increases the first cost as well as complicates the instrument, and if used often, will get out of order, even with the very best workmanship. If used properly the points need never be separated further than the adjusting screw will permit. Many draftsmen have the hinge joint brazed or soldered so as to fix the movable jaw to the 42 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT separating block and make it permanent. The points of a pen should never be separated for sharpening, which is the only purpose for which the hinge is made. When the point has become dull from use it will be found with a shape similar to Fig. 22. To restore it to the proper form the jaws should be closed by the adjusting screw, so that the points press gently against each other; then with a fine oilstone worked with a circular motion on the high corners it should be ground to a shape similar to Fig. 23. The point will then be blunt, but will have the proper working when the sides are reduced, which should be care- fully done by laying the side of the pen on the stone at an angle with its surface that will allow the metal to be ground in ^"^ a straight line to a distance of about one quarter of an inch from the point. The jaws should be opened frequently as the work progresses and the points examined Fig. to avoid grinding through the point of 23. one jaw into that of the other. The sides are to be reduced till the points of each jaw are equal and just fine enough to slide smoothly over the paper without producing a ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 43 cutting or scratching sensation. When the points are not sharp enough to make a clean fine line the blunt part is easily visible with the naked eye, but when it is sufficiently re- duced it is hardly possible to see it. The shape of the curves in the sides, or jaws, of a pen is also an important feature. If the pen is too open near the point on account of the jaws being too much curved, as in Fig. 24, it will leave too much space for ink, causing it to dry quickly or to fall out in using. Fig. 25 shows about the proper amount of curve in the jaws ..." F 'g- 2 4- to give sufficient ink space. Wooden handles, though not quite as elegant as bone, are preferable as they are not liable to break when accidentally swept off the drawing-board — an accident that destroys nine-tenths of the bone handles. For spring bow pens and pencil com- passes it is advisable to have on the adjusting screw, when the pen or pencil is set to draw its largest circle. With a rig. ^ 3 . pen that is not too strong in the springs an experienced draftsman will never change his centers to draw a shade line on one side of 44 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the circle, as this may be easily accomplished by springing the pen gently toward the side to be shaded, as he continues the movement of drawing the circle. The pivot, or needle point, should always be adjustable. When it is made solid with the leg of the instrument it is generally shaped like the point of a sewing needle, and will pierce a large hole through the paper or tracing cloth with the slightest pressure if used several times in the same center; and should a small piece be broken off the point, the pen will be useless unless a similar length be ground off the nibs of the pen. A very common source of annoyance in nearly all bow pens and pencil compasses is found in the eye or socket provided for the pencil. In many cases it is found too large to hold the ordinary naked lead, and too small for those covered with wood. Frequently draftsmen are obliged to overcome this difficulty by the clumsy makeshift of reducing the wood till it fits the socket. Sometimes a small bushing is provided with the compass, that will fit in the eye and hold the lead. This is unsatisfactory, as the pencil cannot be readily adjusted as the point wears away. The most effective treatment an instrument of ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 45 this kind can have is to file away the metal in the parting or "split" of the socket and close in its sides so as to reduce the eye sufficiently to grasp the hexagon lead of a 6H pencil; this makes the pencil-holder very convenient as well as economical, the butts of worn pencils may be stripped of their wood and the leads used in the compasses. So much for the pen in its various forms; and now a few words concerning some of the other instruments. Among these may be found some possessing various degrees of usefulness, and others having no merit whatever. Some of the devices that have been invented for making broken or dotted lines maybe classed among the latter. The proportional compasses or dividers is a very good tool to have in stock, but it should never be used for transferring drawings from one scale to another when accuracy is required; not only is the instrument liable to be in error, but if there should be any mistakes in measure- ment in the original drawing they will be trans- ferred to the new in a greater degree. A much more effective and convenient pointer than that usually found in sets of instruments may be made on the one end of a 6H pencil by reducing it to a fine point. The dot or point left 46 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT by it, indicating the dimension, is always easily found, and, as the other end of the pencil may be made "chisel shaped" or flat for drawing lines, the operation of laying off dimensions and drawing the lines may be carried on without changing tools or losing time. For sharpening pencils, it is very convenient to have a fine file, attached by a string to the under side of the drawing board, or what is still better, as the file very soon gets dull, a piece of wood made about the shape of a small flat file with a piece of emery cloth glued to each side. In using, the pencil should be rubbed on the emery. The boxwood scale with triangular section, same as shown at Fig. 14, has served its purpose well, but it, too, has its weak points. The requirements of a good scale are that the graduations and figures shall be plain and indelible, that it be perfectly straight and the edges sharp, so that the division lines may be brought close to the paper. The boxwood scale does not possess the first of these features as the lines will be often dimmed or partially obliterated with two or three years' use. Some draftsmen have a habit of taking off dimensions by placing one leg of the dividers on any particular division and extending the other ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 47 to the distance required. When this is done with a boxwood scale its usefulness is limited to a very short time. The grain of the wood must be straight, or it will be apt to warp or spring. Some excellent scales are made of hardened steel, by a firm in Providence, R. I., which seem to me to be as near perfection as possible. Draftsmen as a rule, however, object to making use of steel scales, and they have not come into general use; and for this reason, these scales, we are informed, cannot be obtained unless specially ordered at the factory. Every metallic instrument the draftsman uses should, when possible, be nickel-plated. There is nothing contributes so much to their pres- ervation, no amount of careful polishing and wiping will so effectually prevent rusting and discoloring, and nothing improves their appear- ance so much or makes them so agreeable to handle. The cost of plating is insignificant compared with the benefit derived, as the average cost of plating would not exceed ten cents for each tool or instrument. In selecting triangles it is essential to have them of a material that will not change shape with each atmospheric disturbance. For a number of reasons hard rubber is the best that 48 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 3. On this Plate I show the side frame of the small cottage with all the openings for windows, also two sections of the framework, with the heights marked on for the different stories and sizes of timbers. The stonework and cellar windows are shown. 1' . will be the center of the required circle. The example shown at Fig. 48 is a little more difficult to deal with, as in this figure the lines which it is desired to join by a curve, are not at right angles. Therefore inside these, and at a distance from them equal to the radius of the curve which it is desired to use, draw two parallel lines. To do this, take the radius in the compasses and strike two arcs at some distance apart along the inside of each line. Tangent to these draw the two inner straight lines shown dotted, and their intersection will give the center required. The exact points of junction of the straight lines with the curve can be found by drawing perpendiculars from the center to the straight lines by the method shown on the left hand side of Fig. -48. The illustration, Fig. 49, on the left side, is exactly similar to Fig. 48 with the exception that it represents a sharper angle than that shown by the angle or corner of the previous example. At Fig. 50 is shown a method of joining a curve to a straight line by a smaller curve. In this example, after drawing the given straight line and circle, set the compasses to the required radius, and from any point in the circumference of the circle describe a short arc outside it. 66 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT From the center of the circle draw a straight line through this last point, and its intersection with the arc will give the radius of an arc concentric with the large circle, which must be drawn towards the given line. Then, with the required radius, again set off arcs from the given line to give a parallel line, as in Figs. 47 and 48. The intersection of this parallel line with the larger arc will give the center to use for the connecting Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. curve. In every case it will be observed that the perpendicular line from the center of the junction curve to the line, or the line joining the centers of the two curves, will give the exact termination of the junction curve. Fig. 51 is practically the same as Fig. 49 with different radii. Fig. 52 shows two circles of different size joined by two curves of equal radii set off upon the same principle as Figs. 50 and 51. Fig. 53 shows a straight line cutting a circle ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SKLF TAUGHT 67 and joined by small curves on the inside. After drawing the circle and straight line, take the required radius of connecting curve and draw a short arc on the inside of large curve — say, on the center line — and from the main center draw an arc concentric with the large circle, but inside it. Then, with the required radius, obtain a line parallel to the given line, and the intersections Fig. 53- Fig. 54- of this parallel line with the large arc will give the centers for the connecting curves. Fig. 54 shows two given parallel straight lines which are to be joined by an ogee or reversed curve. Select a point on one of the lines from which the curves may start, draw a horizontal line and also an inclined line, making an angle of 6o degrees with it. The latter line produced to cut the other given straight line will mark the termination of the curves. Bisect this inclined line, and it will give the junction point between the two curves. Bisect each half of the inclined line and produce the bisection to meet the 68 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT horizontal lines, to give the centers for the curves. Before drawing the curves, join these centers, to see that a straight line will pass exactly through the junction of the two curves, and then put in the curves with a radius equal to half the length of the inclined line. This is a very useful curve, and is similar to those used for cross-over roads on railways. In architecture the best curves are produced from conic sections or freehand. Circular curves have a harsh appearance. There are nevertheless, many cases where they are necessary or desirable. The draftsman will often be called upon to describe mouldings of various kinds, and it is proper he should know how to form these so that they may accord with the style for which they are intended, whether this be Greek, Roman, or otherwise. .? The following exam- . \fp pies are old, but are of a kind that will always be in vogue — ' and it is but fitting the young student and workman should know how to draw them correctly. The example shown at Fig. 55 is a Scotia or Fig. 55. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 69 Fig. 56. cove and is drawn as follows: Divide a, b into three equal parts; with c as a center and the radius c, a, describe the semi-circle e, a, d. Then with d as a center and d, c as radius, describe the quad- rant c, b, then a, c, b, will form the line of moulding. Fig. 56 shows an- other method of getting a deeper moulding. Let a, a, be the upper line and c, c, the lower; from a, drop a perpendic- ular to c\ divide a, c, into seven equal parts, through the third of these, from a, draw a line . •-.:".------,.. _ parallel to a, a; V ■ j ' '' ■? „i — from b, with b, a. ) '• y& draw the semicir- cle b, d, and from d, draw to e, per- pendicular to b, d ; produce a, a, to e\ from e, as a center, r, with e, m, as radius, describe part of a circle to u. Fig. 57 shows an "echinus," or "ovolo." This is one of the most useful of mouldings, and was 70 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SKLK TAUGHT employed largely by the Greeks in many positions. Let a, b be the two points; join them by a line a, b\ divide this into seven equal parts; from b, with b, c, and from a, with the same radius, describe arcs cutting in c\ from c, with c, a, describe the arc a, b. Another method of describing an ovolo is shown at Fig. 58. Let a, b, and c, d, be the two horizontal lines of the figure. Divide b, d, into four equal parts; make d, e, equal three of these; draw c, /; then with any radius greater than half of d,f, with d, and f as centers respectively, describe the arc, cutting at g, from which, as a center, describe the arc, d, /. At Fig. 59 I show a moulding called a ''quirked ovolo." The projection in this case is made equal to five-sevenths of its height, as seen by the divisions, and the radius of the circle b, c, is made equal to two of the divisions, but other proportions may be taken. Describe the circle b, c, forming the upper part of the contour, and from the point g, draw g, h, to form a tangent to the lower part of the curve- Draw ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 71 g, a, perpendicularly to g, h, and make g, /, equal to the radius d, c, of the circle 6, c\ join/, Fig. 59. d, by a straight line, which bisect by a line per- pendicular to it, meetings, a, in a; join a, d, and Fig. 60. produce the line to c. Then from a, as a center, with the radius a, c,ora, g, describe the curve c, g. Fig. 60 is a method where the tangent d, r, 72 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT and the projections are given. Through the point of extreme projection b, draw the vertical line g, h, and through b, draw b, c, parallel to g, /i, and produce it to a, making c, a, equal to c, d. Divide e, b, and c, b, each into the same number Fig. 61. of equal parts, and through the points of division in c, b, draw from a, straight lines, and through the points of division in c, b, draw from d y right lines, cutting those drawn from a. The inter- sections will be the points through which the curve is traced. In Fig. 61 I exhibit a method of describing the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT T.l hyperbolic ovolo of the Grecian Doric capital, the tangent a, c, and projection b being given. Draw d, e, g, k, a, perpendicular to the horizon and draw g, //, and e, f, at right angles to d, e, g, k, a. Makef, a equal to g, d, and e t k equal \ ' to d, c\ join //, k. Di- vide k, k and /, h into the same number of parts, and draw lines from a, through the Fig. 62. divisions of k y h, and lines from d through the divisions of J, //, and their intersections are points in the curve. In Pigs. 62 and 63 I show a cove or "cavetto" mould. To de- "ct" ~\ b scribe it let ad, cd, Fig. 63, be the lines at top and bottom. From b, draw to d, perpendicular to a,b; divide bd, into three equal parts; from d, lay on dc to e equal to two of these parts; join be, from e and b, with radius greater than half eb, draw arcs cutting in/; from/, with / b, draw the arc be. Fig. 63. 74 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SKLF TAUGHT Another method of describing this moulding is shown at Fig. 64. ab and cd, are the two lines, divide the perpendicular into five equal parts, make de equal to «. fc £ Fig. 64 five of these and proceed as in the last example. The next exam- ple is the cynta recta moulding. This is considered the most beautiful of mouldings; and this figure is the simplest form, and is easily described; ab, and cd, Fig. 65, are top and bottom lines of the moulding, be the height and de the projection. LHvide the line d, \67ub into twelve equal parts; take six of these parts as radius, with b and 6 as centers, describe the arcs g, with 8 as a center, and the same radius, describe the arc 67b, then with 1 and 6 as centers describe the arcs at h, with h as a center, describe the arc d, 6. Fig. 66 shows a cyma recta formed by two ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 75 opposite curves, shown by the use of ordinates. By taking a greater number of points than shown, as centers, the figure will resemble an elliptical curve. The manner of drawing the curves is shown on the diagram and may be easily followed. Fig. 66. Fig. 67 shows a cyma recta formed with true elliptical quadrants. These curves may be obtained by following the lines in the diagram, or by- any of the methods given for obtaining elliptical curves. This moulding can best be described by the use of a trammel, an instrument 1 will describe later on; or the curve may be obtained by the use of the ellipsograph, shown in Fig. 18. 70 ARCHITKCTIHAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT These examples will fully suffice to give the learner good practice on circular curves, as by a combination of these, nearly every form of moulding may be made. A few words on elliptical and some of the higher curves may not be amiss, but I do not think it wise to over- Fig. 67. burden this work with examples and instructions that the ordinary draftsman or workman may never be called upon to make use of. One of the simplest methods of forming an ellipse is by the aid of two pins, a string and a lead pencil as shown at Fig. 68. Suppose F B to be the major or longest axis, or diameter, and D C the minor or shorter axis or diameter, and E and K the two foci. These two points are ARCHITKC TIKAI. DRAWING sill TAUGHT 77 obtained by taking the half of the major axis A B or F A on the compasses, and, standing one point at D, cut the points E and K on the line F B, and at these points insert the pins at E and K as shown. Take a string as shown by the dotted lines and tie to the pins at K, then stand the pencil at C and run the string round it and carry the string to the pin E, holding it tight and winding it once or twice round the pin, and then holding the string with the finger. Run the pencil around, keeping the loop of the string on the pencil, and it will guide the latter in the formation of the curve as shown. When one- half of the ellipse is formed, the string may be used for the other half, commencing the curve at F or B, as the case may be. This is commonly 78 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT called "a gardener's oval," because gardeners make use of it for forming ornamental beds for flowers, or in making curves for walks, etc., etc. This method of forming the curve is based on the well-known property of the ellipse that the sum of any two lines drawn from the foci to their circumference is the same. The illustration shown at Fig. 69 shows a trammel and the method of using it which is very simple. The in- strument consists of two principal parts, the fixed part in the form of a cross as C D, A B, and the movable tracer H G. The fixed piece is made of two triangular bars or pieces of wood of equal thickness, joined together so as to be in the same plane. On one side of the frame when made, is a groove forming a right-angled cross; the groove is shown. In this groove, two studs are fitted to slide easily. These studs are to carry the tracer and guide it on proper lines. The tracer may have a sliding stud on the end to carry a lead-pencil, or it may have a number of small holes passed AKCHITKCTUKAL DRAWING SELF TAIGHT 79 through it, as shown in the cut, to carry the pencil. To draw an ellipse with this instrument, we measure off half the distance of the major axis from the pencil to the stud G, and half the minor axis from the pencil point to the stud H, then swing the tracer round, and the pencil will describe the ellipse required. The studs have little projections on their tops, that fit easily into the holes in the tracer, but this may be done away with, and two brad-awls or pins may be thrust through the tracer and into the studs, and then proceed with the work. With this instrument an el- lipse may easily be de- scribed. A figure that approximates an ellipse may be described by the compasses, and it is well for the draftsman to acquaint himself with the manner in which this is done, and to this end I submit perhaps the most useful method for this purpose. Let us describe the oval shown at Fig. 70. Lay off the length C D, and at right angles to it and bisecting it lay off the width A B. On the larger diameter lay off a space equal Fig. 70. bU AKC1UTECTI JKAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 5. This elevation shows the front and side eleva- tion of the cottage in finished order. Two styles of drawing are shown, the one being in plain line and the other shaded. I would not advise the student to attempt shading until such time as he feels assured he can make a presentable piece of work. Of course, I mean, he should not attempt to shade any drawings for exhibition until he has had good practice on preliminary work. This plate is a very good one to copy. ^Q~. ~7 Vf I 1 1 II l I l.' i.l li 1 ,1 . 1 1 i i mirrxx-— V' 1 1 1 ii' nxrgcrtx £LLi.T ^rixrl > : ? =3 r^ p= Plate.5. PrpnT ^Nfo 5 iCi ■ffl=5E zqf i Jk "T ^~ jvp.Tioh^ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 81 to the shorter diameter or width, as shown l>y I ) E. Divide the remainder of the length or larger diameter E C into three equal parts; with two of these parts as a radius, and R as a center, strike the circle GSFT. Then, with F as a center and F G as a radius, and G as a center and G F as radius strike the arcs as shown, intersecting each other and cutting the line drawn through the shorter diameter at O and P respectively. From O, through the points G and F, draw OL and OM, and likewise from P through the same points draw PK and PN. With O as center and OA as radius, strike the arc LM, and with P as center and with like radius, or PB which is the same, strike the arc KN T . With F and G as centers, and with F D and C G which are the same, for radii, strike the arcs NM and K L respectively, thus completing the figure. The oval is not an ellipse, nor are any of the figures obtained by using the compasses, as no part of an ellipse is a circle, though it may approach closely to it. The oval may sometimes be useful to the draftsman, and it maybe well to illustrate one or two methods by which this figure may be described. Let us describe a diamond or lozenge-shaped 82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT figure, such as shown at Fig. 71, and then trace a curve inside of it as shown, touching the four sides of the figure, and a beautiful egg-shaped curve will be formed. For effect we may elongate the lozenge or shorten it at will, placing the shorter diameter at any point. Fig. 71. An egg-shaped oval may also be inscribed in a figure having two unequal but parallel sides, both of which are bisected by the same line, perpendicular to both as shown in Fig. 72. These few examples are quite sufficient to satisfy the requirements of the ordinary draftsman, as they give the key by which he may construct any oval he may ever be called upon to form. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 83 Scrolls often have to be drawn by draftsmen, and these may be obtained, more or less accurately, by various methods. One method employed, is by making use of two lead pencils well sharpened and arranged as shown in Fig. 73. A piece of string is tied tightly around one of the pencils and wound around the conical end as shown, while the point of the second pencil Fig. 72. Fig. 73- either pierces the string or the string is looped to hold the pencil, near the other pencil, which leaves the arrangement ready for work. To draw the scroll the pencils must be kept vertical, the point of the first kept firmly in the hole or center of the figure, and the second pencil must then be carried around the first, with the mark- ing point held in touch with the paper, the distance between the two increasing regularly as the string unwinds. This is a rough-and-ready means of drawing a 84 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT scroll, but it has the quality of being fairly correct. Another similar method is shown in Fig. 74, only in this case the string unwinds from a spool on a fixed center A, D, B. Make loop E in the end of the thread, in which place a pencil as shown. Hold the spool firmly and move the pencil around it, unwinding the thread. A curve will be described, as shown in the lines. It is evident that the proportions of the figureare determined Fig. 74. by the size of the spool. Hence a larger or smaller spool is to be used, as circumstances require. A simple method of forming a figure that corresponds to the spiral somewhat is shown in Fig. 75 This js drawn from two centers only, a and e, and if the distance between these centers is not too great, a fairly smooth appearance will be given to the figure. The method of describ- ing is simple. Take ai as radius and describe ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 85 a semicircle; then take ei and describe semi- circle 12 on the lower side of the line AB. Then with a2 as radius describe semicircle below the line AB; lastly with a 3 as radius describe semi- circle above the line and the figure is complete. These examples, and what may be deduced from them, will be quite enough to satisfy the requirements of the draftsman who does not intend to follow this art further than as an aid F'g- 75- to his profession as a builder and workman, so now I will offer a few pages on straight line work. LINE WORK In previous pages I gave a few suggestions regarding line work done with the ruling pen, and I now supplement them by submitting the following examples numbered from Fig. 76 to 78 inclusive, which the student is advised to 86 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT draw and redraw, first by measuring off the distances, and then by attempting to get the exact distances without measurement. If the lines in the examples are placed less than one- sixteenth of an inch apart, they will appear, at a little distance, like an even tint of shading, and the closer they are the more difficult will it be to get the appearance quite uniform, but this □ Fig. 76. Fig. 77- Fig. 78. kind of work makes excellent practice for the pen. These examples are selected from a large number of possible combinations, as giving variety of practice while not appearing too difficult. They are, however, more difficult than they appear, so that they must be com- menced with the determination to produce very neat and accurate drawings. After drawing the border line in pencil, % in. from each edge of the paper, find by measure- ment the center of the paper, so that the second ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 87 square, Fig. 77, may be placed in the middle, rule a horizontal line for the square to rest upon, draw the middle one in outline first, and then the others, each measuring 3 in. along one side. The spaces between the border line and each of the squares should be equal. In the upper half of the first square, Fig. 76, mark off equal divisions of % in. each, and draw hori- zontal lines; then, in the lower half, mark off similar distances and draw vertical lines. In the second square, Fig. 76, equal distances must be set off from each of the sides, and parallel lines drawn, so as to make a number of com- plete squares. These should be drawn with a fine chisel-pointed pencil, and then tested by drawing diagonal lines from opposite corners. If the squares have been correctly set out, all the angles will be upon one or other of the diagonal lines. In the third square, Fig. 78, the inner squares are drawn with their angles tangent to the sides of the one next larger. If very fine pencil lines are drawn across opposite angles of the outer square, and then two other lines bisecting the sides, it will be found easy to join up the inner squares to the points so found. After the squares are completed in pencil, fill in or line over with the ruling pen and ink. 88 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The set of lines shown at Fig. 79 are of different strength or breadth, all of which may be drawn by a skil- — ful use of the pen. ~ mm B ^ — mm wmm ^ ^ mm ^^ In simple work of 55 this kind the lines — need not be pen- ciled only perhaps, to define the limits of the lines. Fig. 80 gives practice in draw- ing dotted lines. Such lines are Fig. 79- necessary in all kinds of working drawings. The more important ones should be first drawn with pencil. These methods of lining should be practiced until the student can make them clear and clean without much effort. The illus- tration shown at Flg 8o - F"ig. 81 exhibits a method of cross lines, in « ^^»« ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 89 making of which the student must be careful and see that one set of lines are perfectly dry before being crossed by the others. It is well to try the pen upon a separate piece of paper before applying it to the drawing. W here the drawings are complex or very particular, they should always be made first in pencil and inked in afterwards; then, if any cor- rections are nec- essary, they may be made before the inking is done, and the superficial lines can be taken out by erasing them. To erase strong pencil marks requires hard rubbing, which destroys the surface of the paper. Be careful in making pencil lines and do not get in more than are wanted, as confusion in inking is sure to follow if too many lines are in evidence. The penciling being done, the drawing may be inked in, but before starting the following instructions must be considered. The drawing ||| | | ||[|||||| rrrT- Ujiii ___ _ _ __ __ lliiii. . . _ ■ m _ m «j — — — — — — — ■■■. f f JU J --- — — *■ — — — — — W^ — — — — ■ — ■ ■!■! ■ ■- Hmf -- — —._ — — . — _ __ mp — ■ ■ ■ ■ Fig. Si. 90 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT pen is filled by dropping the ink between the nibs while held in a nearly vertical position, as before stated. The pen can be used with a straight edge ruler; the taper to the point is sufficient to throw it far enough away from the edge to prevent blotting if care is taken. The breadth of the line is regulated by adjusting the screw. If the pen is not in use, even for a short time, be sure to take out the ink with a blotter and dry the pen thor- oughly. The nibs should be kept per- fectly bright and clean. The liquid India ink which comes in bottles is nowgenerallyused. This much being thoroughly understood, I will now try and give a few hints as to the proper method of using the drawing pen. Fig. 82 shows the method of holding the pen. The pen is held between the thumb and two forefingers, and carried along the ruler from left to right, with the flat blades always parallel to the direction of the line; otherwise the pen will either be Fig. 82. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 91 running on the edge of the blade only, or in such a position that the ink cannot flow freely from its points. The result in either case would be a broken or ragged line, a condition to be avoided, or a bad drawing will result. In marking off dimensions on a drawing, a system of rough lines is generally adopted which is illustrated at Fig. 83, when a dimension is shown guiding the sight from arrow-point to < > < > Fig. 83. arrow-point. These lines should consist of strokes not more than one-sixteenth of an inch long and should have not less than a quarter of an inch space between them. It will be worth while to measure these distances for a few times at first when drawing them so as to get into the practice of getting them about right, though in a very short time the draftsman will be able to strike the distances near enough with- out measuring. When making finished draw- ings in practice, it is found best, when inking in, to use straight blue or red ink lines terminating at the ends by black arrow-heads. When it is desired to show the interior con- 02 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT struction of any object, an imaginary cut is made through it, and the representation of the cut surface is called a section. The direction of the cut is marked upon the original drawing by a Fig. 84. line of section, formed of strokes and dots placed alternately, with a letter at each end, as A B upon Fig. 84. This line is usually in red ink, but as all the work in the present lessons is black and white, this dotted section line may be made the same as the other lines. The mode of marking off distances between two points is shown at Fig. 85, where the 6.4/2 . Fig. 85. arrow-heads mark the limitation; that is, the distance between the lines which are touched by the points of the arrows, is 6 feet four and a half inches. This is marked off regardless of scale, and the method will be found useful when roughing out a house plan, elevation, or other similar work, as the dimensions of rooms, sizes ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING BELF TAUGHT J)3 of windows and doors, heights of ceilings, and all other dimensions can be given without draw- ing to scale. I will have more to say of this later on. THE LEAD PENCIL So far I have said but little regarding the lead pencil, which is a very important factor in the Fig. 86. Fig. 87. draftsman's hands. As before stated, all draw- ings of any importance should first be made in pencil; and a hard pencil should be used for the purpose; in fact, there should be two pencils, one of which should be pointed similar to those shown at Fig. 86, and the other should be sharpened with a chisel-point similar to those shown at Fig. 87. These two illustrations, Figs. 86 and %y, show two methods of sharpening, either of which will answer the purpose quite well. 94 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The pencil should be used solely at first for practicing, and the most expensive drawing pencils are often the most economical to use in drawing. There are many well-known makes that may be depended upon to work smoothly and evenly without grittiness or inequality of texture. The number of H's marked upon the pencil indicates its relative hardness. For general use those marked H or HH will be suitable, while for particularly fine work HHHHHH may be necessary. For roughly sketching details on a large scale, a very soft lead, such as BBB, will be found pleasantest to work with. Pencils of unvarnished cedar are to be preferred, and those of a hexagonal section do not roll off the sloping surface of the draw- ing-board or desk. Almost the first lesson for a draftsman is how to properly sharpen a pencil, which is not easy for the beginner to accomplish satisfactorily. A pencil point should be well sharpened so that when the pencil is passing along the edge of the square it should be close against it; and in ordinary drawing or tracing, a clear view should be obtained completely around it on the paper. A round point wears away very rapidly, and will hardly make even one fine line, whereas if ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 9/5 ..he edge be kept the full thickness of the lead in the direction of the line the pencil will last very much longer and produce better work; the flat faces of the lead point may be slightly rounded. If properly sharpened, one operation of the knife on the wood will be sufficient to allow of several re-sharpenings of the lead, whilst a badly-sharpened point requires further hacking Fig. 83. Fig. 89. of the wood every time the lead is slightly worn. Fig. 88 shows the T-square and pencil with the two hands in position for drawing an ordinary horizontal line. The pencil should be upright when looking in the lengthways direction of the line, and sloping about five degrees from the upright in the direction in which it is being drawn, as would be seen at right angles to the line, and in Fig. 89 the method of holding the pencil for freehand or tracing work is shown. This is on a larger scale in order to show the 96 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 6. This plate shows the draftsman how to prepare details so that they may be followed by the actual workman. This shows some details of the porch, giving the construction of cornice and other work. This is shown here to a scale of one quarter of an inch to the foot. It represents, of course, a portion of the cottage. u - \' \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ D KTAI I_ olf Porch 'h ZL \ T 777777) , i ! Wi f ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 97 manner of holding the pencil for this kind of work. After this from each edge of the paper mark off Y\ in. and draw a border line all round, with plain square corners. The three fingers at the back of the stock of the T-square keep it close to the edge of the board, which is not easy to do at first starting, but with a little patience and perseverance every border line can be drawn with equal facility. It is important to note that all pencil lines upon a drawing should be thin; 4- »~ » v - «j « «/\ ■ Fig. 90. Fig. 91. if made thick they cannot be inked over so neatly, and the paper will have a greasy feel to the pen. The india rubber should be used very sparingly and if possible only after a drawing is completely inked in. A pencil line drawn in error should have a wavy mark across it, as in Fig. 90, and one drawn full, but intended to be inked in dotted, should be marked as in Fig. 91; this is instead of rubbing them out at the time. Another fundamental principle is always to draw a line far enough at the first attempt, but not to draw it beyond the distance it is known to be wanted. 98 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT An unnecessary line takes time to draw, wastes the pencil point, and takes time to rub out; all matters of moment when excellence is in view. Of course, all corrections must be made whilst the drawing is in pencil, for a drawing, while in ink, cannot be corrected, without great injury being done to it, as erasions of ink spoil the surface of the paper and disfigure the whole work. Fig. 9 2 - When a drawing is completed, the pencil lines may be erased by using a proper rubber similar to that shown at Fig. 92, which can be pur- chased for a few cents. Some of these erasers are made so that one end of them is specially devised for rubbing out pencil lines while the other end is intended for erasing ink lines. Never use the ink end when it can possibly be avoided, as it will destroy the fine surface of the paper and disfigure the drawing. When it can be afforded, it is best to buy a case of assorted pencils. They will come cheaper this way, and a case will last for years ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 99 and the draftsman will always have at hand pencils to suit all sorts of work. Faber's pencils were considered the best for many years, but they are rapidly being driven out of the market by pencils of American manufacture. Dixon's pencils are excellent and may be relied upon to give good results, but, in my own practice I make use of "Eagle Pencils" and find in them the best of satisfaction. This, however, is per- haps after all merely a matter of taste, a pref- erence for a name or firm. Pencils — like all other drawing appliances — should be kept in a case and should always be in order for work, so that in a hurried job, there will be no need to hunt all over for a pencil, or a knife to sharpen it. These few hints regarding pencils will, I hope, prove useful to the young draftsman. PRELIMINARY ROUGH SKETCHES Often workmen are called upon to make a rough sketch of a piece of work before making a drawing of it in order to get a fair under- standing with the employer. A rough sketch taken off-hand with dimensions put on in figures will often give to the person ordering the work a clear idea of what he intends and thus 100 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT -4W I C |. ^ t -2,1.0 ^ I rrk-- -^/--^? ZZHl S. p(w*t % \ ZQ> I T^drloi* , -c*» ^S^.sm^Jl 1 6 " Fig. 98. pencil every one of a long series of circles or arcs which are alike; it will be more expeditious to mark the centers only after drawing one or two, for in the inking-in of the work when the compasses are once set to the correct radius, the centers will be all that is required to draw them in full. Every working drawing when it leaves the draftsman should be carefully and completely figured as shown in Fig. 98. A little time spent in figuring builders' drawings, so that the sizes 106 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT of window and door openings, thickness of walls, etc., are clearly stated, will save time, worry and inconvenience. A measurement of feet only should always have a cipher in the place of the inches as 280", and arrow-heads, as before described, should show the extreme limits of the intended dimensions. Perhaps it may not be necessary to explain to the student the use of the foot and inch marks, ' and ' which should always be placed over dimensions figures The single mark denoting feet, and the double mark representing inches, when employed they greatly assist in reading of plans. Vertical measurements showing the height of rooms or stories are best figured from floor to floor — rarely from floor to ceiling — but allowance must be made for the depth of joists and thick- ness of floor and ceiling. The height of windows should be always figured from the top of the sill to the underside of the head, and their position from the level of the floor to the top of the sill, this giving exactly the opening in the frame or brickwork. When a drawing is carefully figured it is much easier for the workman to understand, and mistakes and misunderstandings are less liable to occur. We have now reached a point where the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 107 student may venture to attempt a rough draw- ing for a small cottage, and to this end the following illustrations are submitted. We will suppose that a brick cottage 31 feet long and 196" wide is to be built, having three rooms and a hall on main floor, a cellar, and attic containing three bedrooms, and attic. The foundation is to be of stone, the superstructure of bricks, and the roof of wood, shingled. Having the paper properly tacked on the draw- •> y& <■■, Wm^ w_± !fe ■ , H ' 1 ;J— . - **mfcM I f- Tj // /y r .:,i|S Fig. 107. foundation footing is shown at O; the projection of door-steps is also shown on the ground line. All these examples should first be made in pencil, after which, when corrected, they may be "filled in" with ink. I have mentioned something regarding "foot- ings" for foundations and it may not be out of place at this point to say something more of 116 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT them. The illustration shown at Fig. 105 shows the footing and a portion of section of wall that would be suitable for / / / / / the brick partition £ ^1 — 1 ' 1 ' i I — J running through the cellar of the cottage we have just dis- cussed. Here is a flat stone footing with three courses of bricks on top before the regular wall com- mences. The dotted lines show the top of cellar floor whether it be plank or cement. When the whole foundation and wall are to be of stone, the student may lay it off in accordance with the class of ma- sonry employed. One method of showing square rubble work in a wall, is exhib- ited at Fig. 106. Pig. 108. Fig. 109. This shows a section of the walkthrough B,at Fig. 107. Coursed rubble work is shown at Fig. 108, while random rubble work is shown at Fig. 109. \K('HITFX'TUR.\L DHA\VI\(i SELF TAUGHT 117 In this style of masonry, the wall is brought to a level throughout its length at about every 12 or 14 inches, in height, so as to form courses of that depth. This wall is built of stones rough from the quarry, regardless of size or shape. Another style of masonry built up of irregular stones that have been broken up from large field stones is shown at Pig. no. The foundation and corners are built up of squared stones. This kind of work is some- times called irreg- ular rubble, rustic work, or field stone masonry. It does Fig. 110. very well for garden walls, retaining walls, cel- lar walls for small buildings, but should not be used where great strength is required. Block course masonry is where the courses of stone run in straight horizontal lines as shown at Fig. in. Ashler masonry is built up in courses of more or less uniform depth, generally from 10 to 14 inches deep, ranging with the quoins or corners, and other dressings; it goes 118 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT by different names, according to the face put upon the stone — from quarry-pitched, or rock ashler, to wrought ashler. A sample of the work is shown in Fig. 112. There are many other forms of stonework, but the examples given are quite sufficient for the purposes of this work, and other forms may well be left to the trained architect. Perhaps a Mini r |'^|i|!illlil!i.- - ■ .jii" iriiiMl.B|||nj.|! , 'i ff' : '" -.^ ■•i:IIIU! |,„ "'u.J __!j.i ■■";: ..ill l||iiiiiii'ii.iii ■■■ • ii'illl ^ ..It'll 'Willi' 'I ||; ' II II , ,: ' .'I!. ■ ' '"'I 11 T!7r7T : ! i iii IP* "I'jr y '■ ra !,;>■ ^nilll-l.'.llilllllllNl II! H- | !" ,, :.,i h;i!' lESfil ' ,..,llW" .!.!.„ii,i." i; 4 i-||l>i! i'-'.V. 1 . 1 ^.. |||i'.. M.I. Illl HIT' 1*1- - l||illl|j.'|l" -.. IM'II- ; nil fln!|i' : b.- Fig. in. few examples of brickwork will not be out of place at this point, as they will give to the student a slight insight into the manner of 'bonding," which is quite an important matter in brickbuilding. At Fig. 113, the end section of a single brick, or 9 inch wall, is shown, having a two brick or 18 inch footing. This will be easily understood as will also the section shown at Fig. 114. The ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 11!) latter shows the section of a brick and a halt wall, known generally as a 14 inch wall. The tooting for this is formed of three bricks, /■ f* " |ti. ;l r •" , w I r ' llllli' Hill- ■I .l">- ;;!»■ |! :,| I!"-' Ill" I'JllJI in?' ..iiiiiiiii kjr*$ji Fig. 112. making it 28 inches wide. The footing is diminished until it is only two bricks wide on which the actual wall commences. Other thick- 1 ' » 1 1 1 1 1 1 Fig. 113. Fig. 114. nesses of walls are formed on the same principle so other examples of this kind are unnecessary. At Fig. 115 I show two plans of an 18 inch 1*0 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT wall which illustrates the method of "bonding-" or breaking joints. I also show a section of the wall shaded. Before proceeding further, it may be well to explain the meaning of the term "bond," or "bonding." "Bond" is an arrangement of bricks PUtMtfGnams l.S.5 1 | Stcticn 2-Brick Wall. 6 5 4 S 2 1 mwsamm e.4.e Fig. 115. or stones placed in juxtaposition so as tc prevent the vertical or plumb joint between any two bricks or stones falling into a continuous straight line with that between any other two. This is called "breaking joint," and when it i c not properly carried out, that is, when two or more joints do fall into the same line, as at x y ARCHITECTURAL Dli.VWINC SELF TAUGHT 121 Fig 116, they form what is called a straight jomt. Straight joints split up and weaken the part of the wall in which they occur, and should therefore be avoided. A good bond breaks the vertical joints, both in the length and thickness of the wall, giving thej^ricks or stones a good lap over one another iifcboth directions, so as to afford as much hold as possible between the different parts of the wall. 11111 i g lit --I | _/A ss 1 I I V 7 y Fig. 1 1 6. A further effect of bond is to distribute the pressure which comes upon each brick over a large number of bricks below it. Thus, in Fig. 116, there is a proper bond among the bricks forming the face of the wall, and the pressure upon the brick A is communicated to every brick within the triangle A, B, C. A defective bond, either in brickwork or masonry, may look very well upon the face of the work, as in Fig. 116, where the bricks regularly break joint vertically, but in which 122 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT there is no bond whatever across the thickness of the wall, which, it will be seen, is really composed of two distinct slices of brickwork, each 4>4 inches thick, and having no connction with one another, except that afforded by the mortar. To avoid this defect, the bricks or stones forming a wall are not all laid in the same direction as in Fig. 116, but some are laid parallel to the length of the wall and others at right angles to them, so that the length of one of the latter overlaps the width of the two below it, as shown in Fig. 115. In this figure, a wall is shown in section at the top, two bricks in thickness. The second diagram shows a plan of the courses, 2, 4, 6, as numbered in the section, while the lower diagram shows the plan of the courses, as they are laid in the wall, of the courses numbered 1, 3, 5, in the section. When bricks are laid lengthwise in the wall, as shown in Fig. 1 17, they are called "stretchers"; when they are laid across the wall, as in Fig. 118, they are called "headers." "Stretchers" are bricks or stones which lie parallel to the length of the wall, those in the exterior of the work showing one side in the face of the wall. "Headers" are bricks or stones whose lengths lie across the thickness of the walls, the ends, or ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 123 "heads," of those thin walls like the diagram, or in the outside of thick walls, being visible on the face. If the student copies these examples and thinks as he draws, grasping the reasons why Fig. H7- Fig. nS the bricks are laid in the manner shown, he will accomplish two purposes, learning to draw and acquiring a constructive knowledge. There are a variety of "bonds" in brickwork, all of which it will be necessary for the archi- tectural student to be familiar with, and I pro- pose to offer a few examples for practice and to explain them at the same time. The bond chiefly used in this country for ordinary work is called running "bond." This consists of three, four or five running courses of stretchers, and then a course of headers, as shown in Fig. 119, where there are three courses of stretchers and one course ot headers. The small portions of bricks, or "bats," designated by 1-24 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT XXXX, are termed closers, and are required to fill out the courses. In English 'bond" there is in the face wall a course of headers, then a course of stretchers, and so on all the way. This arrangement is for the front of the wall, and in the thick walls the bricks are made to join in to the best advantage. 14 1 \ \ \ 1 W 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) * 1 III 1 1 \ H II MM Fig. 119. Thus, an English bond nine-inch wall will have for each course of stretchers two rows side by side, breaking joint horizontally. The joints in the inside courses should be one-half the width of the brick from the vertical joints of the stretchers above and below. A fourteen inch wall in English bond is shown at Fig. 120, which represents four courses in elevation, and the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING M.l.l fAUGHT 125 second course and the top course, from the top, in plan. It is absolutely necessary in this wall to have a row of headers back of the stretchers, as if they were all stretchers in this course, there would be a mortar joint all the way up through I v I T — I I r-r—i V I V t — i r I :llvation PLAN < DF COUKSE A PLAN OF COURSE B Fig. i 20. the wall along the line A B. There are shown two ways to make the headers in any course; break joints with the stretchers in the same course. In the plan of course A at the left- hand end there will be seen a closer X, which is half of a brick split lengthwise. This piece. 126 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 9x2^x2X1 being put in next to the last stretcher. In the plan of course B it will be seen that the same thing is done by using three-quarter bricks laid flatwise. The example shown at 121 exhibits several 1 1 1 1 1 ^(7> l l l 1 1 1 11 11 /sAV//\ 1 11 11 11 11 s\ \ W / / x 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 j \ 1 1 1 1 1 /\L 1 1 1 1 1 II II \ 1 1 1 1 1 t^ s\ | I ' v^ rA 1 ' ' 1 l~~~~l \i 1 1 yy$&£$%$$/2^ -*- 1 1 1 1 1 s 1 1 1 1 . -1 r 1 1 1 w - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 F I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II II 1 1 1. 1 1 1 || |l II 1 !. 1 Fig. 121. styles of laying bricks; C shows the arch A, herring bone filling over a window, S, a stone sill, F the general brickwork and W the window opening. This is a good example to draw, though it is not by any means good architecture. These examples are sufficient for my purpose, AfcfiUTKCTUHAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT \27 and should the student desire to know more about the bonding of brickwork, he may procure a copy of a manual on brick and stone work I have in preparation, and which will be published by Drake & Co. shortly. DRAWING ARCHES It is absolutely necessary the draftsman should know how to draw the forms of arches that are in common use, and in order to instruct Fig. 123. him on this point, the following examples are submitted for him to study and work out. The arch shown at Fig. 122 is simply a semicircular one, and the simple line of arch is drawn from a center as shown. When an arch of this form is used for brick or stone work as shown at Fig. 123, a new set of conditions arise, as the joints of the bricks or stone must be shown so that the right bevels or angles may be given them. These joints all radiate to the center of the arch as shown. It may not be out of place at this 128 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 8. This plate shows the outside of a plain window frame, a door frame, corner board, and a sectional elevation of sash and frame. This is a very simple plate, and the young draftsman will find no difficulty in re-drawing these details AF\ Plrte.8 Out Jhde Frames and C o k *■ i • i zzmi \ \ l ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 129 point to give a description of the arch, with the terms used in connection therewith, and, I may say, the definitions given apply to all other arches as well as to the one in Fig. 123: (1) The SPAN of an arch is the distance between the points of support, which is generally the width of the opening to be covered, as A B. These points are called the springing points; the mass against which the arch rests is called the ABUTMENT. (2) The RISE, HEIGHT OR VERSED SINE of an arch is the distance from C to D. (3) The SPRINGING LINE of an arch is the line A B, being a horizontal line drawn across the tops of the support where the arch commences. (4) The CROWN of an arch is the highest point, as D. (5) VOUSSOIRS is the name given to the stones forming the arch. (6) The KEYSTONE is the center or upper- most voussoir, D. so called because it is the last stone set, and wedges or keys the whole together. Keystones are frequently allowed to project from the faces of the wall and in some buildings are very elaborately carved. (7) The INTRADOS or SOFFIT of an arch ISO ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT is the under side of the voussoirs forming the curve. (8) The EXTRADOS or BACK is the upper side of the voussiors. (9) The THRUST of an arch is the tendency which all arches have to descend in the middle, and to overturn or thrust asunder the points of support. The amount of the thrust of an arch depends on the proportions between the rise and the span; that is to say, the span and weight to be supported being definite, the thrust will be diminished in proportion as the rise of the arch is increased, and the thrust will be increased in proportion as the crown of the arch is lowered. (10) The JOINTS of an arch are the lines formed by the adjoining faces of the voussoirs; these should generally radiate to some definite point, and each should be perpendicular to a tangent to the curve of each joint. In all curves composed of arcs of circles, a tangent to the curve at any point will be perpendicular to a radius drawn from the center of the circle through that point, consequently the joints in all such arches should radiate to the center of the circle of which the curve forms a part. (11) The BED of an arch is the top of the abutment; the shape of the bed depends on the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 131 quality of the curve, and is explained in the diagrams. (12) A RAMPART ARCH is one in which the springing lines are not on the same level (13) A STRAIGHT ARCH or, as it is more properly called, a plat-band, is formed of a row of wedge shaped bricks or stones of equal depth placed in a horizontal line; the upper ends of the pieces being broader than the lower, prevents them from falling down. (14) ARCHES are named from the shape of the curve of the underside, and are either simple or complex. The simple curves may be defined as those that are described from one center, as Fig. 122, or by a continuous motion, as the ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, cycloid, and epicycloid; and complex arches are those which are described from two or more fixed centers, as many of the Gothic and Moorish arches are. Fig. 124 shows the manner of drawing a segmental arch. The center of this is below the springing lines. A segmental arch, drawn out for brickwork; is shown at Fig. 125, in which the joint lines are marked off. 132 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A segmental arch drawn from two centers is shown at Fig. 126. The centers are shown so that the student will have no trouble in describ- t t .••" ,.*"' • ' 4 Fig. 126. Fig. 125 ing it. The joints for brick or stone work may be laid out around this arch, by using the centers as fixed points and running radial lines through the curved lines. The diagram shown at Fig. 127 illustrates a V Fig. 127 Fig. 128 Tudor arch. It is struck from three centers as shown. It is sometimes called an elliptical Gothic arch, and may be struck as follows: ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 133 Divide the span, ad, Fig. 128, into three equal parts by the points, ef. From a, with radius a, J, describe an arc, and from e,f, and d, describe similar arcs, which intersect at ij. Now bisect the span, ad, and raise a perpendicular to 1. Draw a line through it and jc, and produce these lines. With compasses from f with radius, fd, describe arc to/, and from e, with the same radius, describe a similar arc to nh. Then from i with radius ij, describe arc, ji, and from j same radius, the curve hi, when the interior curve of the arch will be completed, the remainder of the arch being set out in the usual manner. The elliptical arch can best be described with the trammel shown at Fig. 69, or with a string as described at Fig. 68, but the joints for brick or stone work must be obtained by a method very different from that illustrated for circular arches. To obtain the correct lines for the elliptical arch shown at Fig. 129, we must pro- ceed as follows: Let ZZ be the foci, and B a point on the intrados where a joint is required; from ZZ draw lines to B, bisect the angle at B by a line drawn through the intersecting arcs D produced for the joint to F. Joints at 1 and 2 are found in the same manner. The joints for the opposite side of the arch may be transferred 134 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT as shown. The semi-axes of the ellipse, H G, G K, are in the same ratio as G E to G A. The voussoirs near the springing line of the arch are thus increased in size for greater strength. The diagram shown at Fig. 130 shows a lancet a— i Fig. 130. Fig. 131. arch. This is drawn by placing the centers of the curves outside the figure as at G and F. E O, show the width of the opening, and H J, the height. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 135 A completed lancet arch is shown at Fig. 131, the radial or joint lines being exhibited. These lines are drawn from the centers in all cases. The diagram shown at Fig. 132 represents an equilateral, Gothic arch. This is drawn with the compasses set to the width of the opening, one leg being placed at the junction of the springing line when the other leg describes the curve of Fig. 13a. Fig. 133. one side. The same process forms the other side of the arch. The completed equilateral arch is shown at Fig- l 33> with the method of laying out the curves. The centers being X and Y. As before stated, the joints in all these arches should be struck at right angles to tangents of the curve, which in the case of arcs of circles will cause the joints to radiate to the center from which the curve is struck. There are cases, however, when this rule cannot be followed, as take the ,«ist illustration Fig. 133, for instance, when the SG ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. 134 bonding is not what a good workman would desire, yet it is better than the bonding shown in Fig. 134, though perhaps not so handsome; that, however, is a matter of taste. The employ- ment of the method shown at Fig. 133 gets rid of the small angle closers which show in the crown of Fig. 134. To get the lines properly, as shown in Fig. 133, run up the two dotted lines at an angle of fifty degrees, with the springing line X Y, on each side of the arch. These are produced to cut through the curve lines at C and D. The joints of the arch from X to C are radiated to Y, those from D to Y to X, and those in the upper portion of the arch to the intersection of the two inner lines at B, whereby the bricks at the crown are eased off. In pointed or two-centered arches, other than equilateral, the same method may be followed, the angles of the dotted lines being greater or less as the circumstances of the case may require. In setting out gauged arches care must be taken to draw first a middle or "key" brick at the crown of the arch, the object being to pro- vide a brick to resist the increased strain at the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 137 g- 135- point; and secondly, to have the effect of pro- ducing an equal number of bricks in the arch excluding the key, so that it may be finished the same on each side. The next arch is drawn upon the same principles as the ogee curve shown in Fig. 135, and with the construction lines given re- quires no further explanation. It is defective as a scientific arch, but occurs often in the Deco- rated Period, towards the end of the fourteenth century. After that period the arches were made flatter, examples of which are the seg- mental, or two-centered, and the Tudor, or four-centered, arches. To describe an equilateral ogee arch, like Fig. 136, proceed as follows: Make YZ the given span; make YX equal YZ, bisect YZ in A; on A as center, with A Y as ra- dius, describe the arcs Y B and Z C; on B and X as centers describe the arcs B D and X D, and on C and X as centers de- scribe the arcs C E and X E; on E and D as centers describe the arcs B X and C X. The flat ogee arch shown at Fig. 137 requires E, X- ->[ \ Fig. 136. 138 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A B some little different treatment to the previous one. To obtain the proper curves and centers for this style of arch proceed as follows: Let A B be the outside width of the arch, an4 C D the height, and let A E be the breadth of the rib. Bisect A B in C, and erect the perpendicular C D; bisect A C in F, and draw F J parallel to C D. Through D draw J K parallel to A B, and make D K equal to D J. From F set off F G equal to A E, the breadth of the rib, and make C H equal to C'G. Join G J and H K; then G and H will be the centers for drawing the lower portion of the arch, J and K will be the centers for describing the upper portion, and the contrary curves will meet in the lines G J and H K. This style of arch is seldom used in substantial work other than in Gothic architecture; the carpenter, however, often makes use of it in porch, veranda and arbor work, and sometimes in grille work, so it is well to have a knowledge of it. Another arch, not in common use, is the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 139 horseshoe or Moorish arch; two examples are shown at Figs. 138 and 139. In the first the curve is struck from a center situated above the springing line. This is said to be the strongest Fig. 138. Fig. 139. of all arches when properly constructed and is often employed for tunneling and other heavy work where great resisting strength is required. The figure shown at 139 is sometimes called a Gothic horseshoe arch because of its being pointed. It is somewhat similar to the last, but is struck from two centers, I and J. The special peculiarities of these arches is, that they are nar- rowed in on the springing lines, which gives to them a pleasing appearance. Often arches are formed by having them two or more bricks deep, or they may be rough and turned in half-brick rings, 4 T /2 inches thick, as shown at hh in Fig. 140. In arches of quick curve, with not more than 2 or 3 feet radius, this method is absolutely necessary to prevent 140 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT very large points at the extrados. In the section of portions of small arches shown in the illus- tration, of which one ww is turned, in nine inch rings consisting of headers. It will be seen that tl,:-' --. w Fig. 140. the mortar joints in this are much wider at the top than those of the portion hk, built in rings half a brick in thickness. The line of joints in both these examples are radial, all being drawn from the center point. The most common — so-called arch — is what is termed "gauged straight arches," and with these, in brickwork, the draftsman will have the most to deal, and I purpose showing him several examples. Such arches are in very common use, and are generally 12 inches, or four courses of brickwork, in depth. The somniering or splay of the bricks depends ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT HI Fig. 141 upon the angle given to the skewbacks or springing*, and varies with the distance of each voussoir from the springing. The skew- backs are gen- erally inclined at 6o° from the horizontal, and are struck by prolonging the sides of an equilateral triangle, as shown on Fig. 142. The joints give a better appearance when horizontal as at B, Fig. 141; but to save labor they are frequently formed as at A, and care- fully concealed by rubbing over, false horizontal joints being marked on the face, though in course of time the true joints are sure to show- up and expose the sham. The arch shown at Fig. 142 is sometimes called a French Fi S- J + 2 - or Dutch arch. It is sometimes used by builders when intended to be plastered or covered over. Such arches 142 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT are unreliable, and the draftsman should never make them if intended to be built, unless they are to be built up in good Portland cement mortar. The joints may be arranged as shown at A or at B ; if, as at A, only whole bricks should be used. Sometimes, in building arches of this kind, it may be necessary to "plug" the brickwork as shown at PPPP, Fig. 143, for the purpose of Fig. 143- attaching finished work to them by screws or other devices, and the draftsman must note this on his drawings in order to save future trouble. The manner of forming the skewbacks is shown in this illustration, at o o; the angle of this line should be about sixty degrees. In placing in arches of this kind, there must always be timber or concrete lintel behind the face bricks to carry the wall, and over this lintel, there should be a relieving arch built. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 143 This latter arch is generally built up roughiy unless it is intended to carry a great weight, then care must be taken in its construction. Before leaving the subject of arches it may be well to exhibit some examples in stone, and should the student never be called upon to prepare drawings for such work, their con- Fig. 144. struction on paper will make good practice. The example shown at Fig. 144 is a very common one in stonework and shows how the style of work is prepared. It will be seen that the joints are generally radial, while horizontal joints are formed to receive the stone above. Another style of opening in stonework is shown at Fig. 145, where the head of the 144 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 9. Plate 9 shows three examples of inside finish — a door, a window, and sliding door — opening with trim. These like the other examples shown in Fig. 8 are easily understood. «=■ V !l Plate. _, , S_ '/l\ — I ARCHITECTURAL DKWVING SELF TAUGHT 145 window or door is flat. There is a relieving arch thrown over the lintel or cap to carry the RUBBLE ARCH Fig. 145. weight over to the jambs. The face of the window is all of dressed stone, while the walls are formed of irregular stones. Another style of work is shown at Fig. 146, where the walls are formed of square stones laid 146 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A?W^ v W X V c mm R I Fig. 147. up in irregular courses, and the relieving arch ends against a regularly prepared skewback. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 147 At Fig. 147 are grouped some of the principal forms of arch shown in architecture. At A is the semicircular arch, describing half a circle. B is a form of elliptical arch, not unfrequently employed. It is not, in reality, elliptical at all, save in appearance, being a segmental arch, or one formed by the segment of a circle, which is struck from below the springings. The elliptical arch C is formed of several circles. The stilted arch D rises from points below its center. The Gothic architects employed various forms of the pointed arch at different epochs. E is what is usually termed an equilateral arch, so called because the two springing points and the crown of the arch form an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. F, the lancet arch, is more pointed than the preceding. It is struck from outside the springings, and has the outline of an isosceles or equal-legged triangle, of which the base is, of course, less than the sides. G, the "drop" arch, in contradistinction to the last example, is less pointed than the equilateral arch. It is struck from within the springings, and has a triangular outline, in which the base is longer than the sides. H, the "segmental Gothic arch", is composed of two segments of a circle, meeting obtusely. I, the "ogee" arch, was introduced at 148 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT a late period of Gothic architecture, and is struck from four points. K, the "Tudor," arch prevailed during the close of the Gothic, and takes its name from the then ruling family of the English dynasty. It has a much flattened arch, low mouldings, and a profusion of panel- ings. I now come to arches of the form that are designated "foiled" arches, imitating the foils or leaflets of a leaf, which are generally divided into three varieties, viz., trefoils, cinquefoils, and polyfoils. L, M, N exhibit three forms of the "trefoil" or three-lobed arch, O is an example of the cinquefoil or five-lobed arch, and P, one of the "polyfoil" or many-lobed arch. The latter form is principally confined to Romanesque and Saracenic architecture, and is especially met with in Moorish and Saracenic buildings. The latter people also employed a peculiar arch, special to themselves, and generally styled the "horseshoe" arch, shown at Q. This is only found in Arabic or Moorish buildings. The so- called "flat" arch, R, is in reality not an arch at all, though the voussoirs are so arranged as to radiate from a center, and are laid in parallel courses. This arch is employed in doorways, windows, and fireplaces of buildings, and the intrados are generally supported by a bar of ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 14!) iron or beam of wood. In some very ancient examples the voussoirs are cut to a peculiar form, with the idea of securing great stability and strength, as shown at Fig. 148, which is copied from the fireplace of Coningsbergh Castle. I think the foregoing illustrations of arches and the accompanying description are quite sufficient for my purpose, as the student can =1 -i^\\\ 77M1H. Fig. 148. gather from them all he will immediately require to know, and after a thorough mastery of these examples he will have no difficulty in obtaining a higher knowledge from the thousand and one other sources that are available, should he so desire. SOME MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICE Suppose it is necessary to show a door and casings in a brick wall, with jamb linings, grounds 150 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT and other finishings, we commence by first laying out the plan as shown at Fig. 149; we decide upon the height and width of door, also mzrz Fig. 149. style of door, and finish, and work to scale accordingly. In this case I show an elevation, Fig. 151, and plan respectively with a four paneled door with jamb and soffit lining. Fig. 150 shows a por- tion of the plan en- larged. In this case it will be seen that the door is hung to the jamb lining itself; the lat- ter is attached to a Fig. 150. backing ba dovetailed in between the framed grounds, and secured to wood bricks in the wall, the edges of which may be seen in section Fig. 152. In some cases the grounds are tongued into 1RCHITECT1 RAT DRAWING SF.UF iaUGHT 151 the jamb linings, but this is very seldom done. ? 1 Elevation Fig. 151. Fig. 152. The jamb linings go right through the depth of the opening, and on one side of the wall have their edges rebated to receive the door; the 152 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT edges on the other side of the wall being (in superior work) similarly re- bated to corre- spond. The soffit lining is secured to cra- dling or backing c, consisting of rough stuff attached to the under side of the lintels over the opening. Of course the doorway might be spanned by a rough brick arch, or by a concrete beam, w i L h o u i wood lintels, i n i*iJ which case the framing would be secured to plugs let into the arch or beam. The enlarged AKC1IITKCTUKAL DKAW1XU SELF TAUGHT 153 plan in Fig. 150 differs slightly from Fig. 149, inasmuch as a smaller architrave is shown on the inside of the doorway. The paneling of the soffit lining is often shown in dotted lines upon the plan of the doorway. The whole ele- vation of one side of the door is shown at Fig. 151, and a section is shown at Fig. 152, with a portion of the jamb lining re- moved. This latter is a good scheme as it shows the workman exactly what is required of him. The illustration shown at Fig. 153 shows a vertical section oi a window and frame for a brick house. It is purposely cut short in order to show all the parts. It will be readily understood, as \VL stands for wood lintel, b j for bottom joints, ib inside blinds, etc. Fig. 154 shows the same win- dow in elevation with shutters or blinds in sight. Fig. 154 154 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT The plan is shown at Fig. 155. This shows the shutters box splayed from the wall. The dotted lines show the shutters partly folded. In redrawing these examples the student should make them at least twice or three times the size shown herewith; this can readily be Fig. 155- done by taking the distances on a compass and transferring to the paper on which the drawing is to be made. If the drawing is to be twice the size of the original, then space off the distance of each feature twice, if to be three times the distance, then space off three times, and so on for other sizes. By following this advice, the student will become familiar with his instru- ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 155 ments and with the various kinds of work. Indeed, this work is intended, besides being a teacher of primary drawing, to be a helper in obtaining some knowledge of architectural con- struction as well; for, it is supposed, it will fall chiefly into the hands of young stu- dents, apprentices, and fellows who have not had a fairly good opportunity of ac- quiring a knowledge of either drawing or construction, but who are desirous of learn- ing what they can of both, during their spare moments. The plates, follow- ing the general illus- trations, will place before the student many things not as yet touched upon, but I have deemed it necessary to show a few miscellaneous items both for practice, and because of their con- structive value to the young builder. The door and casing shown in Fig. 156 is a Fig. 156. 1.56 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT good example for drawing; its proportions are nearly perfect, and the style is modern. This is an inside door as shown by the base. The sliding doors shown at Fig. 157 are very nearly built in the same style as the single door Fig. 157 shown in Fig. 156. These may be drawn to any special scale, or they may be transferred from the illustration. I show a section of the wall into which the sliding doors run at Fig. 158. This drawing shows the method of construction. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 157 the end-wood of the studding being seen; also, the linings to protect the pocket. The illustration, as Fig. 159, shows a method Fig. 158. of adjusting the joint at the junction of the doors. The section shows clearly how the joint is hidden from view. A section and elevation of trim for a door is shown in Fig. 160. In this drawing the door, the step, the stud, the plaster and the trim are shown in place, and at the bottom, the plinth block and base are also Fig. 159. 1.58 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT shown in section. This style of finish is called "block finish," because of the turned block being placed on the corner. Fig. 161 exhibits a corner of a balloon frame, showing the manner of placing the studs, corner boards and other finish. I show at Fig. 162 a drawing of a cor- nice for a balloon frame house. The • V ,c._.6 — ■\ I '] , — ~~ Yr ^ ____ Fig. 160. Fl "g- l61 - ' method of construction is made quite apparent and can easily be followed. The walls are boarded or "sheeted" on the outside, and then covered with siding or clapboards. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 159 The next drawing, Fig. 163, shows a section uf a corner for a brick wall. The gutter and com- 1 iiii ■1 5 v. Ik BLOCKING STUDDINO Fig. 162. plete finish for cornice are shown; also, an iron rod or anchor built into the wall, having a nut on the top which is intended to hold the plate IfiO ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 10. This plate shows a number of details half life size. A portion of elevation and section of trim head are given, also section of casing, picture frame mould, plinth-block, base and floor step. The face of plinth-block is also shown. Jac. IcDtTflIU* PL f I I 11)1' Vtt>v oy - \ 1 [ (({ \ 1 i v-5 1 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 161 in its place on the wall. A section of a box window frame is shown at Fig. 164. The weights are seen in the box, the stud forming part of the box. This is designed for a balloon frame house, and it will be seen that the inside trim "Fig. 163. forms one side of the box. This is an exceed- ingly cheap way to make a frame as but very little stuff is required in its construction. The section of window frame shown in Fig. 165 exhibits the portion cut at the sill. This 162 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. 164. shows the construction of the frame at the bottom, including inside and outside finish. It will be in order now to follow the plates I have pre- pared, in which a large number of constructive de- tails are presented. I would advise that the student copy each item as pre- sented, making each one twice the size as shown on the plates; this will make instruc- tive practice and will soon fit the young draftsman for work of a higher and more elab- orate kind. The foregoing illus- trations have been especially prepared and drawn, with a view of leading the student by easy steps to a fair knowledge of the use of his instruments and the laying out of work on paper. Fig. 165. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 168 Each item, too, has a constructive value, as all are drawn from examples of actual work, and will, therefore, convey in some measure a true knowledge of construction, without which the work of the mechanical draftsman has bui little value. Straight Line. Carved Line. Fig. i 66 SOME ORNAMENTAL EXAMPLES We have now reached a stage where an attempt at ornamental geometrical drawing is permissible, and though it is not my intention to go deeply into this subject, a few examples along with brief descriptions will probably start some of my readers on a course of drawing extending far beyond the limits of this work. This kind of drawing — like most other drawing — is composed of straight lines, curved lines and mixed lines, as shown in Fig. 166, but H)4 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT such lines are regular, and are made by the aid of compasses, or other instruments, and this fact distinguishes geometrical drawings from drawings wrought freehand. Suppose we desire The dotted lines V/\ //i \ /£\ / / / show the construc- / tion, the distance / between the dia- mond as e f g h, a b c d, being equal to the distance a f, tig. 173. a d e. The use of this is probably shown at Fig. 173, when a design for tile patterns is shown, the lines a b c d f are drawn to the angle shown and are parallel to Fig. 174. each other, the distances being shown at i h g. Another illustration of a square being set diagonally is shown at Fig. 174, which illustrates ARCHITF( TIHAI. DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 167 an open balustrade in Gothic style. The student should have no difficutly whatever in laying this diagram off, as it is a very simple matter. Figs. 175 and 176 show another design having \ Fig. 175- six sides, which is often employed in decoration and in Gothic architecture. The manner of lay- ing it out is shown in Fig. 175, and completed figures are shown at Fig. 176. Fig. 177. The same figure in conjunction with the square is shown in finished work at Fig. 177. This represents a perforated balustrade or parapet; the curved lines are obtained by the compass, centers being easily found. 168 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT A still more complicated figure is shown at Pig. 178. This may be formed as follows: If the points 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 67, 78 are joined, an octagon will be formed, and a square by joining 9 10, 12 11. The octagon forms the basis of the combination, and is the first thing to be drawn, ! JJ. 1 Fig. 178. which may be done as in Fig. 179, by forming a square, and thereafter an octagon the side of which is equal f e, f g. Draw lines, i i m, distant from each other equal to the distance between the rhomboids in Fig. 178. Parallel to the diagonal lines c b, a d, draw lines equal to i i. From e, one end of the octagon side, draw a line ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 109 perpendicular to c d, joining the diagonal a d in h. From n, the end of another side of the octagon, draw parallel to c d, a line cutting the diagonal d a in o, parallel to e h, k t; draw lines p t, n s; two of the rhomboids will thus be formed; the remainder are drawn in a similar way. These being obtained, the squares, as in Fig. 178, are easily drawn. Some good examples in straight line work are shown in the following illustrations. Thus, we -—& Fig. 179. Fig. 1 So. see by making diagonal lines, as shown at Fig. 180, the character of the example becomes ornamental, and this maybe very much changed again by the introduction of small circles at the junction of the lines, as shown in one instance. This may again be elaborated by adding a line or dot to the circle as shown. Another example formed of squares and half 17C ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT squares is shown in Fig. 181. This arrangement shows how "squares" may be placed so as to exhibit stars or other pointed ornaments. The shaded portion shows the star figure. Another example partaking of the same nature is shown at Fig. 182. This may be Fig. 181. Fig. 182. termed a basket pattern and is formed of inter- lacing straps. This pattern is an exceedingly good one for exercise, as it is composed of short lines and requires careful work to prevent over- lapping, which would spoil the work. In starting and ending a line, endeavor to have the line clear and distinct and of an even thickness as shown in the example. Lines must not be left short, but must join the cross lines as though they were under them. To draw a panel of interlacing strap work, as shown in example, without a flaw, is fairly good workmanship. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 171 The example shown at Fig. 183 is a little more difficult to plot out than either of the previous ones, and the student will have to use his 9- U H u n 1 1 u n 1 1 u n u n u £Tl Fig. 183. D □ Fig. 184. compasses and set squares and exercise consid- erable judgment. This example is a strapwork fret, and is a good one to follow for practice. Fig. 184 is a modifica- tion of the same orna- ment, a quarter circle be- ing used on all external angles instead of having the lines join with a right angle. In other words, the ornament is a com- bination of curves and straight lines. Copy these examples four or five times and you will be astonished at your own expertness. For practice I offer a few simple examples of frets; the first three figures, 185, 186, and 187, are Fig. 185. 17-2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. 186. purely Greek examples, the first being the simplest form of running Greek fret. Its con- struction is very simple and easy, and may be reproduced with a T and set squares alone. Fig. 185 is ! constructed nearly J in the same man- ner, there being two more angles in the latter than the former. The next fret is a little more difficult to lay off, but I appre- hend the student will have no great difficulty in producing Fig. 186. Another style of fret, partaking somewhat of the arabesque, is shown at Fig. 187. This can be repeated or con- tinued at will. After one complete figure, itscombi- Fig. 187. nation will prove quite easy, though some little trouble and care will be experienced in forming the first complete figure as shown. At Fig. 188 a very different kind of fret is ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 173 shown. This is composed of different figures, as e e forms a complete square, a number of which are set off at regular intervals, then arrange so that the points a o d will be covered, tt r 1 . * c_ nns m e e U Jl u by the points b o c, and continue the fret to the required length. In working or- naments having curved lines in them, many examples can be pre- sented, but I do not intend to illustrate more than I think will be necessary to enable the student Fig. 188. at It /\ /'-- N >r ) Fig. 189. to fairly understand the principles on which the ornamentation is based. The diagram shown in Fig. 189 will suggest to the draftsman something of the method in which combination of circles 174 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT may be used for ornamental purposes. Here a diagonal square, c d f g, is first formed, one side of which is equal to the distance between the centers of the circles, as a, b, c, d. The radii of the circles described a, from the points d c g f is equal to ^^ half the side, as d m, f n, etc. ZZN Exemplifications of this figure are | often found in Gothic perforated \/1 parapets and similar work. Another class of drawing is shown in Fig. 190, where parts of circles and straight lines are used in order to form the ornament. In order to make this, proceed as follows: Draw the base line b first, then make a b at right angles to the first line. The respec- tive depths of the moulding must then be meas- ured off on this line, as d, h, m, o, and r, z, t, show the center line of the torus s, and e f, and u v show the centers of the ogees, and g n, the quarter round. Here in this example we have most of the mouldings in use in architecture — the ogee, or cyma recta, and the reverse ogee, or cyma reverse, the torus, the astragal, the quar- ter-round, and the fillet. Fig. 191 shows a design for a baluster that can ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 175 readily be drawn by the student, as the centers for the various curves are given. The center of the lower curve is at a; centers for the upper curves may be found by drawing a line c b; from a and b describe arcs cutting in d, with radius d W - X 1 7 J s V \d : >•.'» Fig. 191. Fig. 192. a describe an arc cutting the line c d in c; c in the center of the curve which is continued to the dotted line c b; a straight line is then continued to the neck of the baluster. The other curves and lines are readily obtained. The urn-shaped ornament shown in Fig. 192 is somewhat more complicated than the previous 176 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE ii. Plate ii shows four doors of the style to be used in the cottage. These doors are drawn to a scale of one-half inch to the foot. The same character prevails in these four examples, the sliding doors being merely one of the second floor doors. The front doors are chamfered around the panels instead of being moulded, as the others are. The front and rear door may be fitted with glass if so desired, in the second panel from top. pTAjq (Vj»j Jtet\«\ J m ■ — J U 5wy/o fS?r, d^r PlateJI. 5lJ0ir/6 0?®R^ =Lfc. _|W= R^^OetRs. f^sVf D~R^ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 177 Fig. 193. example. It is suited to many purposes, par- ticularly that of terminal. To form it we first draw a center line b h, then the base a b, c c, the fillet d, and the curved lines f f, g g; f f and e e are the centers of the circles; join g h; bisect it by the line i i, cutting g g in k k; from k, with the radius k h, describe arcs g h, and the line n n, the centers of the cap moulding are found. The last three examples are of a purely practical kind, and their determination suggests many other forms which will doubtless appeal to the student's imagination. The ornament shown at Fig. 193 is called a Guillochc, or chain, and is formed by concentric circles overlapping each other. This pattern is easily drawn with com- passes, but is here given as a freehand study, in order to give the student an exercise in severity and accuracy of form. Figs. 194 and 195 are studies of the wave-line. Fig. 194. 178 AKCH1TECTUHAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT They are, in fact, the cyma recta repeated, the depth being lessened in Fig. 195. Fig. 196 is a study of the elementary lines of a running scroll, formed of the wave-line, with the addition of spirals. Care must be taken in drawing these spi- rals, so that they may proceed from the stem in a smooth and continuous manner. They should start as a continuation of the wave-line so gradually, that Fig. 195. Fig. 196. if the stem beyond the spiral were removed the scroll would be perfect, and that if the scroll were Fig. 197. taken away the wave-line would remain unin- jured. This should also be the case in Fig. 197, in which tendrils are added to the scrolls. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 179 Fig. 198 is a further elaboration of the same design, the lines being doubled. Fig. 199 is another simple running pattern based on the wave-line. The example shown at Fig. 200 is an orna- Fig. 198. mental moulding adapted for wood-carving, and gives the pattern and half the repeat. Having drawn the upper and lower horizontal lines, draw A B, C D, E F, and G H; the distance between them being equal. Then it Fig. 199. will be seen that C D and G H are the center lines of the heart, and that A B and E F are the center lines of the tongue or leaf between the hearts. Now draw the curve J, and balance it by the curve I. It will of course be understood that although 180 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the instructions and lettering refer to the com- plete figure, it is intended that the corresponding lines in the repeat are to be drawn at the same time; in fact, whatever length of the moulding is to be drawn, these divisions or compartments should be first set out, and the single curve Fig. 200. drawn in each before proceeding any further. On no account should one portion be completed before the others have been sketched, for as each set of curves is drawn the drawing becomes more complex, and the difficulty of accurate balancing is increased. When these curves have been completed, the interior ones which depend upon, but are not parallel to them, are to follow. In drawing these the greatest care is necessary so that the curves AUCHITECTURAL DRAWING 8ELF TAUGH1 181 may run gracefully downwards, the space between the inner and outer curves becoming gradually narrower. The center part at C is now to be drawn, following the plan already laid down, viz.: to draw first the left and then the right side of the figure; and after this the leaves between the hearts are to be drawn in the same manner. The pattern shown at Fig. 201 is for a running, arranged so as to repeat; a will therefore join on to 6, and thus the design may be continued. It will be seen that in order to equalize the spaces so as to carry out this arrangement, the whole is divided into squares, and the central flower is placed on the intersection of the diagonals. In commencing this design, the general form is to be sketched of each scroll rising out of the previous one. At this stage no notice should be taken of the husks or foliage c d, etc., but the scrolls should be sketched as if consisting of the main stem only, and the husks should then be drawn outside the original form. Great care must be exercised to insure the smooth, spiral character of the curves. There must be no angular breaks, but the eye must be carried onward towards the center of each t82 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT o ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 183 scroll, and the husks must appear as additions, but not as excrescences. In order to test the correctness of the forms, turn the sketch upside down, place it vertically, or in any other direc- tion, and if the design has been correctly sketched, the scrolls should be equally perfect in whatever position they may be viewed. This itoooooo Fig. 202. OOC IK IK 1) Fig. 203. should be repeatedly done during the progress of the work, so that any part which may be too full or too flat may be improved before the husks, flowers, foliage, or other details are added. The ornament shown in Fig. 202 is called the Echinus, the egg and tongue, or egg and dart moulding. It is much used by carvers for borders and similar work. 184 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT / The moulding shown at Fig. 203 is the Greek astragal, chaplet, or knuckle-bone ornament: this, also, is quite a favorite moulding with carpenters and cabinet-makers, because it can Fig. 204. be turned in a lathe and then split in two or quartered. Fig. 204 shows the Greek conventional lily form. It has a faint resemblance to the Egyptian lotus, but has a Grecian delicacy about it that is absent in Egyptian forms. The ornament shown in Fig. 205 is the Greek ARCH1TKC Tl HAI. l)It.\Wl\(i SELF TAUGHT 185 . Intkemion. This is a very good example for practice. It can all be drawn by the aid of compasses. Fig. 205. The border shown at Fig. 206 is purely Kgyptian, and is partly made up of the open lotus flower and the bud. This is a very 186 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT common ornament for stenciling, incised work and low relief carving. A circular or rosette ornament is shown at Fig. 207 which is formed of a circle and four Fig. 206. lotus flowers. This may be drawn free-hand or by the aid of compasses. A conventional form of the lotus, in a more finished and elaborate state, is shown in Fig. 208. This or- nament was much in use with the an- cient Egyptians, and was considered as being a sort of sa- cred emblem with them. Indeed, the lotus was known by Egyptians as "the sacred flower." The illustration shown at Fig. 209 is a Roman border, and is composed of curved and straight Fig. 207. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 18? lines. This border is found on many of the old Roman buildings now extant and appears to have been a favorite ornament with the old designers. Fig. 209. The ornament or rosette shown in Fig. 209^2 is a Roman one used largely during the period of 188 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the decay of art, about the second century of our era. It is quite elabo- rate, but is not by any means effec- tive. The orna- ment shown in Fi^. 210 is also Roman but is the product ARCHITECTURAL DKAWIXC SELF TAUGHT 189 of a better period and offers some advanced lines for the student's consideration. Fig. 21 i. The scroll border shown at Fig. 211 is of the Byzantine style of architecture- and is quite Fig. 212. effective in its way The rosette shown in Fig 212 is also of that style and offers good practice to the student. These latter examples are taken mostly from 190 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT classic executed work, and while they only touch the fringe of classic ornament, they will, to some extent, give to the student an idea of the "ornaments employed in the historical styles, and thus enable him to design his work on these lines with intelligence. GOTHIC ORNAMENT Gothic style is so much different to the styles that preceded it, that a separate chapter may well be devoted to it in order that the student Fig. 213. may have a fair opportunity of judging for him- self the peculiarities of the style. The first example presented is a Gothic border, Fig. 213, which, it will be seen, has a character of its own, that is far apart from other ornamentation. The main features of this style lie in the fact that its members all have a vertical ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 191 tendency as may be noticed in its pointed arches, its sharp spires, its pinnacles, its but- tresses, its cluster columns, and its wonderful traceried windows and doors. Its chief elements are window tracery, trefoils, quatrefoils, cinque- foils, zigzags, gargoyles, fleur-de-lis and ball flowers. These, along with many other examples of ornamentation, and peculiar lay- out of plan and elevation, may be said to constitute the Gothic style. The illustration shown at Fig. 214 represents the tre- foil ornament, as used in windows and other decoration, and is formed as follows: Draw the equilateral triangle as shown by the dotted lines a b c, then bisect it as at c f and a e, cutting the line c f, which gives the center for the surrounding circles; a b and c are the centers of the trefoil curves. The next illustration, Fig. 215, is the quatrefoil and is described from the corners, h m, f g, of a Fig. 214. 192 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 12. This plate shows a portion of the stairs, com- plete and under construction. The newel post and balusters are plain and chamfered. The bottom step is rounded off at the newel. grgllo e^ffipKs , — __■ y 1 i « r LATE.IZ. T-&m ARCHITECT! HAL DKAWING SELF TAUGHT 1!).'? square ; a is the center of the surrounding circles, found by the intersection of the diagonals, a b, c d, of the square; the curves, s s s s, are drawn fro in the center a; while those meeting in a t 1 1 t are described from the centers, h m, f and g. The cinquefoil, Fig. 216, is de- scribed from the corners of the pen- Fig. 215. tagon, a b, d e f; by dividing e d equally on the point g, and draw- ing a line from a to it, cutting the perpendicular e c in h, the center n is the point from which the sur- rounding circles are drawn. The other parts of this ornament are easily drawn. Fig. 216. 194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Two more examples, and then I have finished in this style, but these are elaborate and will, doubtless, try the skill and patience of the stu- dent, but the results will well repay for the labor, If Fig. 217. and will open up new and unexplored fields for practice, for hundreds of designs may be formed by aid of the knowledge gained in understanding the examples herewith presented. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 195 The diagram shown at Fig. 217 exhibits the skeleton work for the finished tracery shown at Fig. 218. The centers for all the curves of one third of the work are all shown by the heavy black dots. By a little study and patience the Fig. 218. student will soon be able to draw the completed work, Fig. 218. In Fig. 219 we have another skeleton for a still more elaborate piece of work. The centers !!)(> ARCHITECTURAL DHA\Vl.\(i SELF T.U'GHT are all shown by Mack dots, and portions of the curves are also given. The completed work shown at Fig. 220 has a very rich and ornate appearance. These two examples are quite Fig. 219. sufficient to give the student a good insight into Gothic tracery work, but it must be remembered that in Gothic work the designs of this character are innumerable. Portions of these designs are ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SEL1 TAUGHT 1H7 used in window and door heads, and in a hundred other places, always with effect. It will be noticed that in these two designs given, that the trefoil, or three circles, forms the foundation of the whole of the work. All the other ornamentation seems to cluster around the three larger circles; this is the peculiarity of these two examples, but it must be borne in 198 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT mind that the trefoil is not the only basis around which the old Gothic designers built their tracery; but these are sufficient for our purposes. SOME PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF ORNAMENTATION The studious draftsman will soon discover many new worlds to conquer if he pays much attention to his 1 work, and he will — | — — — find that, for or- namental work, the power of his compasses is al- Fi s- 221 - most without limit. I offer a few simple examples herewith, Fig. 222. and will follow them up with others of a more complicated nature. The illustrations shown at Figs. 221 and 222 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT lf)9 show the finished work, and working diagrams. The method of drawing these curves and orna- ments is quite apparent, the centers are all given, and the dotted lines show the direction of the curves. A very little practice on these \ Fig. 223. examples will enable the draftsman to describe them in quick time, and will give him an insight into the methods employed in designing orna- ments of this kind. Another very simple design, and one that requires but little description on the manner sJOO ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT of making it, is self-evident, and is shown at Fig. f»23. This is a very effective ornament, and at cne time was much in vogue. The ornament shown at Fig. 224 is drawn right and left, one-half being complete, and the other half exhibiting the various centers from Fig. 224. which the curves of the pattern are drawn. The method of forming scrolls has been described in a previous chapter, so that it is unnecessary to repeat at this stage. The design is simple, the centers being all given and the dotted lines snow the radii of the curves. ARCHITECTURAL nU.WVl.VC 8ELF TAUGHT 201 The design shown at Fig. 225 is taken from an old example of panel work and has rather a quaint look. The draftsman will have no great difficulty in lining out this design. The ornament shown at Pig. 226 is intended for a double barge-board, having a belt running along the center, di- viding the upper from the lower portion. This design is some- what complicated, and I therefore give herewith a full de- scription of the meth- od of describing it. To properly divide the diameter a, b, of the circle a b, c, d, into six equal parts, through the third of these, drawing the line c, d, e, f, g, at right angles to a, b. From 3, with distance equal to one of the parts on a, b, set off the line a, c, to the points 6 and 7, and through the points, 2, 4, 6, and 7, draw lines, forming a square. Then from the point 3 as a center, with 35 or 31 as radius, describe the circle hi, i 54 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the sixth and seventh points. All the circles and arcs of circles are either equal to parts or multiples of the standard circle as k, or f, any one of the six divisions on the line a, b. The design shown at Fig. 227 is also a pattern for a verge board, and is a very good example of the kind. The centers for the circles are all shown in the working diagram, the cutting lines all being represented by the dotted lines. I purposely leave this without a further descrip- tion so that the draftsman may exercise his own skill in working it out, not a very difficult matter when the reference letters are given. The drawing shown at Fig. 228 is a design for a balcony panel, showing frame and drop mould- ings. Suppose a, b, to be the total height; then divide it into seven equal parts and through the fourth of the points draw a line c, d at right angles to a, b. Make the facia at top equal to the distance between the sixth and seventh points. From the line d, set off to e, and f, and make f,'g; e, h, each equal to two-thirds of one of the parts on a, b, as 7, 8. Through the point 2, draw a line parallel to c, d, through e, f; g, h, draw lines parallel to a, b. Make b, j, equal to e, f, and through j, draw a line parallel to c. d, joining f, e, Bisect 2, j, in the point k, and ARCHITECTURAL DHAWIMi SELF TAUGHT 205 through k, draw m, k, 1, parallel to c, d. With one-fourth of the distance of g, h, or e, f, set off Fig. 2*8. from the points j, k, o, and m, on each side of the center lines, as to o, and n, from 2, and 1. £0G ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT From these points as centers, as o, and n, with radii equal too, i, describe arcs cutting as at p, and from p, describe an arc joining o, n. Do the same at all the other points, and describe the double arcs. Divide one of the parts into which a, b, is divided, as the lowest part b, I, into four equal parts, as in the points of r, and s. With two of these as radius, from the point k, in center describe the circle k, t, u, and put in the ornament with the arcs as shown. Through the points I, s, 2, and q, as the line a, b, draw lines with distance q b set off from q to v, and from v draw a line parallel to a b, parallel to m, k, 1. With r, s, as radius, from v, as center describe the arc v, x. With half the distance q, v, set off from x, to y, and through y, draw a line parallel to v, w, as y, z; the point z, is the -center of the arc y, a. The arc from a, is described with radius x, y, and through the center a line to b, is drawn parallel to w, v. The arc c, is described from the point d. The dotted lines and radii show how the other parts are put in. The ornaments at f, are put in the lines drawn from the center k, to the corner points, as at e. These examples make splendid practice for the young student, and if repeated two or three times, they will become so impressed on the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 207 mind that they may be produced at will without copy, and enable one to form designs, with the aid of rule and compass, to suit almost any situation. All these examples are formed in exact architectural proportions, a matter that is often lost sight of by the draftsman, who is sometimes astonished at his own uncouth creations, which become as offensive to the trained eye as vulgar language does to the cultivated ear. In the formation of ornaments, like everything else in this world, there is an "eternal fitness," a fact which should never be lost sight of. The design shown at Fig. 229 is a very useful one and will answer very nicely for a drop or an eaves board. Suppose a, b, to be the height of the lower part of the design which is divided into thirteen equal parts. Then, through the second, sixth, seventh, and eleventh of these, draw lines at right angles to a b. From point I, with half the distance of the space between points I and 2, as radius, describe the circle d. From the point 2, draw lines at an angle of 45 to the line c f, cutting the semicircle; these points, as g and h, give the centers of the semi- circles. From one center of the circle described between the points 3 and 4 draw lines at right £08 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 13. Plate 13 shows a mantel in elevation and section, also a plan of the shelf, with construc- tion lines. This is drawn to a scale of % of an inch to the foot. V u u or^ Vgs TTTTr- M V V W " V g Q vv>y v 9 \j KS \j rj v w' /wr PLRTEI3. •VA- < u uuvvyy ' 5 tm? ?. ^^ ^v ■* *■* a *■■ ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT "200 Fig. 229. 810 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT angles to the line e, f, to i and j. These are the centers of the parts of circles thus shown. Finishing the circle at the point k draw the line k, 1, parallel to a b; on this line the center m, of the arcs n and o, is found. 6 and p are the centers of the arcs q and r. The remaining portions of the design may readily be put in from the lines, curves and centers given. The example shown at Fig. 230 illustrates an elaborate design suited for a balustrade and many other purposes. Let a b be the height; divide this into two equal parts in the point c, through c, draw a line at right angles to a b, as d c d. Draw the distance a b, into eighteen, or a c, into nine equal parts. With one of these, from the center c, describe the circle e, f, g, h, and from the point where this cuts the line. a b; d, d, describe circles, the radius of which is one-fourth of one of the parts, or a, c. Then with the distance as h, g, from these points as centers, describe arcs cutting in the point i, from i, as a center with e, the same radius still kept on the compasses, describe an arc ]. Do the same from the other points, as g, f; f, e; e. h, and thus find the centers from which the arcs corresponding to j, are described. From the points k, 1, where the outside of the small circles ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 211 Fig. 230. ^1-2 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT e and g, cut the line d, d, as centers with i, j, or c, g, as radius, describe arcs as t, r, s, or u, q, v, stopping at lines n, m; o, p, drawn through the points k, and 1, parallel to a, h. Next, from i, set off to the point p, and do the same at the other and corresponding points, thus finding the four centers m, n, o, and p. From these, with e, c, d, or i, j, as radius, describe arcs which are joined by straight lines with the semicircles w, and x, at the upper and lower ends of the design. To find the centers of these semicircles, divide the distance between the points I, and 2, on the line a b, into four equal parts, and at the points draw a line z, z; from the point y set off in the line z z, a distance equal to b g, to the points a and b. From these points a and b with a radius equal to y, I, or y, 2, describe semicircles, as w, c; x, c. Join the points w, and x, by straight lines e, e, with the arcs described from the points p, and n. From a point in the center between b, and c, and a, and c, describe a small arc, and join this with another arc with the points, as d, d; the center of the arcs being at c, c. The lower arc, d, f, is described from the center g, which is on a line drawn through a point the third in the distance b, I, on the line b a. To describe the part marked A, cut out the part B, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 21. 'J B. From the point m, o, and n, and p, describe small circles, the radius being one-fourth part of one of the parts on a b. With a radius equal to half of one of the parts as I 2, on the line a b, describe circles from the point f, f ; k, k, having a Fig. 231. space between them equal to the space at c, as 1, 1, and with a radius equal to the diameter ot these circles, describe from the points I, 1, the arcs m, n ; m. n. From n, n, which are equidistant from the center line, a space equal to the radius of the small circles n, p; describe with radius of these small circles the arcs meeting in the point 214 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT o. With w, v, or s, t, as radius, set off on the line h, h; from the points 1, 1, to h, h, and from h, h, describe the arcs 1, p, 1, p, the centers of the arcs p, p, are q. q. These examples are quite sufficient for our purpose so far as woodwork and decoration are concerned, but it may not be amiss to supple- ment them with a few on the same line, that will answer for iron, for wood, or for designs in stencilling or other decorative work. To this end, I present an ornament in Fig. 231, that is suitable for a central ornament, and one that may be employed for many purposes. Carvers frequently make use of this as a skeleton figure for carved panel work as it may be elaborated to almost any extent. The manner of drawing it is as follows: Let, a a, be the center line, and a, b, the distance from upper rail to center of lower part of design; through b, draw the line c, d, at right angles to a, b; c, d, in the length of the lower part of the design. Divide c, b, b, d, into two equal parts in the points e, and f, with radius e, c, describe an arc cutting in the point i; from i, with i, a, describe the arc b, a, h. From the point b, set off the distance e, f, to the point j; and through j, draw a line k, k, parallel to c, d. From j, with the distance b, f, set off to the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 215 points I, and in, and these will be the centers of arcs forming the upper part of the design. The lines and centers for the spiral terminations of the leading curves thus described as shown in the drawing. The skeleton shown in the illustration, Fig. 232, exhibits an ornament drawn altogether with the compass. The centers are all shown and lettered for reference; r being the general 2lfi ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT center, while a, j, (1, i, m and c show the divis- ions and radia- ting lines of one- half of the fig- ure. As the cen- ters may all be framed at the intersections of the dotted lines, further explan- ations are un- necessary. I close this department by illustrating a n ornament in which the ellipse predominates, Fig. 233, which exhibits a run- ning scroll suit- ed to many pur- poses. On the continent of Eu- rope scrolls of ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 217 this kind are often used as window screens, being attached to the frame and covered with gauze, or woven wire, to prevent insects getting in the house when the window is open. This shows OiJy half the design. The height of this section, a, b, is divided into nine equal parts, the width of the framework is equal to one of these parts. From c, at right angles to c, d, draw the line c, f, and with the distance a, b, from the point c, set off to the points e and f, and through these points draw lines at right angles to c, f; f, g, is the center line of the design. From the point f, with four of the parts on the line a, b, set off to the point h, and through h, draw at right angles to f, g, the line i, i. From the point h, set off to i, i, five of the parts in a, b, making i, i, equal to ten of these parts; divide i, i, into five equal parts; the first j, and fourth k, are the foci of the elliptical ornament, which draw as shown. Through the point 4 on a, b, draw a line 41, and make the distance m, 1, equal to h, i; put in the elliptical part as shown, and finish as in the diagram, in which all the centers and center lines are given. Rules for describing the ellipse were given in previous pages, that should the student experience any difficulty in describing the 218 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT elliptical curves, he may refer to those pages for assistance. SOMETHING ON ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE It is not my intention to enter deeply into a description of the orders of Architecture or to give the student a history of their rise and growth, or analyze their peculiarities; it is Fig. 234. enough for our purpose, to be able to draw them, and to give to each order its own pro- portion and arrangement. Before we can do this, however, it will be necessary for us to be able to lay off a section of a column, showing ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 219 the position of flutes and fillets in plan and elevation. This is brought out nicely in Fig. 234, where the dotted lines show the width of flutes and fillets as they will appear on the elevation. Suppose a b Fig. 234 to be the diameter of the column, then bisect it in c; and c a- d.jr Fig. 235. draw c d. Make lines corresponding to these, and from the point c, with c b, describe the semicircle a d b, representing half the column. Bisect the quadrant a d, in the point e, and divide the arcs a e, e d, by points g, f, h, m. Mark the position of these by radial lines from c, as in the example. Divide the part a g into eight equal parts; and with three of these as radius, from the points in the quadrant, as g, f, 220 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT etc.,' describe semicircles. Six parts will thus be given to each flute, and two to each fillet; and the column will have twenty-four flutes. To describe the flutes in a Doric column with- out the fillets, proceed as follows: Lay out the portion of column as in the previous example, by dividing the quadrant bee, Fig. 235, into six c O Fig. 236. equal parts, as e, m, n, etc., giving to the entire column twenty-four flutes as before. Draw radial lines from b. Divide a f into four equal parts, and lay one of these on a b produced to e; from b, with b e, describe a semicircle as e m n, cutting the radial lines. Bisect a f in o, and with f o as radius, from the points— where the dotted semicircle intersects the radial lines— as ARCHITK(TURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 221 centers, describe the arcs as in the example. Another method is shown in Fig. 236, which is formed as follows: Make the semicircle a d e and divide the quadrant bad into five equal parts, so as to give twenty flutes to the column. Produce a b to f; bisect a e in h, and from e lay off e h to m; join h m, and with distance h e lay 77V C Fig. 237- off on the radial line b e to n. From b, with b n, describe the dotted semicircle, f n o. The centers f the flutes are placed where the radial lines intersect this semicircle. From n, with n m, describe the lines as shown, and finish the section. A section of a column having flat flutes and fillet is shown at 237. To describe this draw the semicircle a d c, and divide the quadrant bad into six equal parts, divide a e into five equal 222 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT parts. With two of these from the radial line lay off on each side, as f h. With one part lay off from c to m, and from m, with b m, describe a semicircle c d a; complete the diagram as shown. This will give the depth of the flutes, one; the width four, and the width of the fillets, one. In Fig. 238 we give a method of describing the cabled moulding with fillets between. Divide the semicircle a c d in the same proportion as in Fig. 234, giving an equal number as in that example. From b, with b e on the compass, describe the semicircle c f f. From the points where the radial lines intersect this, as centers, with a e, describe the curves as in the example. I will now endeavor to explain what are known as "The orders of Architecture," showing their ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2"Z Q various members, their proportion, and the manner of arrangement. "Order, in architecture," says an authority, "is a system or assemblage of parts subject to certain uniform established proportions, regu- lated by the office each part has to perform. An order may be said to be the genus, whereof the species are Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite; and consists of two essential parts; a column and an entablature." These again are subdivided, the first into three parts, namely: the base, the shaft and the capital; the second also into three parts, namely: the architrave or chief beam, C Fig. 239, which stands immediately on the column; the frieze B, which lies on the architrave, and the cornice, A, which is the crowning or uppermost member of the order. In the subdivisions certain horizontal members are used, which from the curved form of their edges are called mouldings, the con- struction of which depends on a certain knowl- edge of geometry. This application may be seen in the illustration; thus a is the ogee, b, the cornice, c the ovolo, d the cavetto, which with fillets compose the cornice, f f the facia. The capital of the column consists of the upper members or abacus, g, the ovolo moulding 2z± ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 14. This plate shows an elevation for a cheap book- case suited for the cottage under consideration. The end elevation is also shown with the face of drawers laid off. The scheme for a box stall shown in the drawing is somewhat out of the usual course, but may be found very convenient in stable construction. Plati J 'A B<5X h" ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 225 c, the astragal i i, and the neck h. The base consists of the torus k, and the plinth 1. The character of an order is displayed, not only in its columns but in its general forms and details, whereof the column is, as it were, the regulator; the expression being of strength, grace, elegance, lightness, or richness. Though a building be without columns it is nevertheless said to be of an order, if its details be regulated according to the method prescribed for such order. In all the orders a similar unit of reference is adopted for the construction of their various parts. Thus, the lower diameter of the column is taken as the proportional measure of all the other parts and members, for which it is subdi- vided into sixty parts, called minutes, or into two modules of thirty minutes each. Being pro- portional measures, modules and minutes are not fixed ones like feet and inches, but are vari- able as to the actual dimensions which they express — larger or smaller according to the actual size of the diameter of the column. For instance, if the diameter be just five feet, a minute being one-sixtieth, will be exactly one inch. Therefore, before commencing to draw an elevation of any one of the orders, the diameter of the column must be determined, and 226 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT — r —4 i i : 4' Fig. 5. i j f i \ J i | ! \ — i £ A — [j "3 r " - ! i i i i #• I i i i *< — ; «i -j "*■ — i "i — j j i »ji -\ a »f 2*— -- 2# «* j i » ! 1 j »J5 | j a* a* i 1 * ■ 1 i n t » 1 i— , ,, rf 1 1 \t \ 1 ■Ifl Fig. 1. — 1 1 u * H * ! C „ t I*-— 21*— \ — — r 'X=t=3 X -■* *i ' * ! 5 Tuscan Order j" m— j ! 1 s i i kk D s 1 / Co * ! i j i 1 ; ■" r L -» .♦ i ! i : i i ! i ; Fl« 9 (T \ L« 1 J 8 * j»- • ■ J» 1 u )M JO L-SIJ '•» 1 Fig. 239. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 2£7 from that form a scale of equal parts, by sixty divisions, then lay off the widths and heights of the different members according to the propor- tions of the required order as marked on the body or on ;he sides of the illustrations. Fig. 239 presents an illustration of the Tuscan order, considered by architects as a spurious or plain sort of Doric, and hardly entitled to remark as a distinct order. E in the frieze correspond- ing to the triglyph, illustrates still further the connection of the two orders; but by many architects this member is not introduced. No. 1 is an elevation of capital and entablature, No. 2 of the base, and No. 3 of a detached capital. Our example is constructed according to the rules given by Vincent Scamozzi. Examples of two capitals are given, differing merely in the number of mouldings in the abacus. In fact, this introduction of simple mouldings is about the only variety allowable in the order. Ornament is not admitted, nor are the pillars ever fluted. A slightly convex curvature, or entasis, is given in execution to the outline of the shaft of a column, by classic architects, just sufficient to counteract and correct its appearance, or fancied appearance, of curvature in a contrary direction 228 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Fig. 240. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 229 (i.e., concavely), which might else take place, and cause the middle of the shaft to appear thinner than it really is. No. 4 represents the form of a half column from the Pantheon at Rome. In No. 5 another example of entasis, the lower third of the shaft is uniformly cylindrical; the two upper thirds are divided into seven equal parts. On the semicircle shown in the figure, is a chord cut off parallel to the diameter, the length of which is fifty-two parts only one-half being shown. Divide the part a b of the circumference between the diameter and chord into seven equal parts, and draw parallel lines from each division to those of the upper part of the column, which will give the diameter of the shaft at each division; by increasing the number of the divisions, more diameters for different parts of the shaft may be found. Fig. 240 exhibits an example of the Doric order, from the temple of Minerva in the island of Egina. The dimensions are given in parts of the diameter, as in the preceding example, and the same capital letters denote corresponding parts. No. 1 is an elevation of the capital and the entablature. No. 2 of the base, and a part of the Podium. No. 3 shows the forms of the 230 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT flutes at the top of the shaft, and No. 4 at the base. No. 5 the outline of the capital on an enlarged scale. The Doric order may be said to be the original of the Greek orders, of which there are properly but three; the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- thian, which differ in the proportion of their parts and in some of their ornaments and mouldings. Of the Doric, the mutules a a, the triglyphs b b, the guttae or drops d d of the entablature, the echinus f and the annulets g g of the capital, may be considered characteristic. With regard to the arrangement of triglyphs, one is placed over every column and one or more inter- mediately over every inter-column — a span between two columns — at such a distance from each other that the metopes c, or spaces between the triglyphs, are square. In the best Greek examples of the Doric order there is only a single triglyph over each inter- column. One peculiarity of the Grecian Doric frieze is, that the end triglyphs, instead of being like the others in the same axis or central line as the column beneath, are placed quite up to the edge or outer angle of the frieze. The mutules are thin, plates or shallow blocks anaciied to the under side of soffit of the ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 231 corona, over each triglyph and each motope, with the former of which they correspond in breadth, and their soffits, or under surfaces, are wrought into three rows of guttae or drops, conical or otherwise shaped, each row consisting of six guttae, or the same number as those beneath each triglyph. Though a few excep- tions to the contrary exist, the shaft of the Doric column was generally what is technically called fluted. The number of channels or flutes is either sixteen or twenty, afterwards increased in the other circles to twenty-four, for they are invariably of an even number, capable of being divided by four, so that there shall always be a center flute on each side of the column. Fig. 241 presents an example of the Ionic order, taken from the temple of Minerva Nolias at Athens. No. i is an elevation of capital ana entablature, No. 2 the base, No. 3 is a half of the plan of the column at the base and the top; No. 4 an elevation of the side of the capital. In the proportions of its shaft, which are more slender, and the addition of a base, it differs from the Doric; but the capital is the indicial mark of the order by which it is immediately recognized. It is far more complex and irregular than the other orders of capitals; instead of 232 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 15. Plate 15 exhibits an odd piece of furniture, termed a "kitchen desk." Twelve students can sit around this desk and work with ease. The elevations show the manner of finish, with drawers on top of case under the desk top, and doors below, that cover shelves, intended for books or other similar materials. ■■'■■ P Lfl T E.I5. 3 fyTCtf fo^Twi )ESt\ - -w-J— " ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT £33 showing four equal skies, it exhibits two fronts, with spirals or volutes parallel to the architrave and narrowed, baluster sides (No. 4), as they are termed, beneath the architrave. When a colonnade was continued in front and along the flanks of the building, this form of capital occasioned an offensive irregularity; for, while all the other columns on the flanks showed the volutes, the end one showed the baluster side. It was necessary that the end column should, therefore, have two adjoining volute faces, which was effected by placing the volute at the angle diagonally, so as to attain their two voluted surfaces placed immediately back to back. This same diagonal disposition of the volutes is employed for all capitals alike, in Roman and Italian examples of this order. The capital admits of great diversity of character and decoration — it sometimes is with- out necking, sometimes with; which may either be plain or decorated, to suit the entire design. The capital may also be modified in its pro- portions, first as regards its general proportion to the column; secondly, as regards the size of the volutes compared with the width of the face. In the best Greek examples the volutes are much bolder than in the Roman. The spirals ^34 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT Zj 'mwwj&p" K-.-.J/o I --"■ i Fl« I Fig. 241. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 235 also of the volutes may be either single or maniold, and the eye or center of the spiral may be made larger or smaller, flat or convex, or curved as a rosette. Fig. 242 represents an example of the Corin- thian order, from the Arch of Hadrian, at Athens. This order is distinguished from the Ionic, more by its deep and foliated capital than by its porportions — the columns of both have bases differing but little from each other, and their shafts are fluted in the same manner. Although the order itself is the most delicate and lightest of the three, the capital is the largest, being considerably more than a diameter in height, varying in different examples from one to one and a half diameter; upon the average about a diameter and a quarter. The capital has two rows of leaves, eight in each row, so disposed that of the taller ones, composing the upper row, one comes in the middle, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming between the stems of the latter; so that in the first or lower tier of leaves there is in the middle of each face a space between two leaves occupied by the stem of the central face, above them. Over these two rows is a third series of 230 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT P=L m rr ,.... -«■- 7 -.??/•> X -32 J ,i Corinthian Order. Fig. 24.2. ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 237 eight leaves, turned so as to support the small volutes which, in turn, support the angles of the abacus. Besides these outer volutes, which are invariably turned diagonally, as in the four-faced Ionic capital, there are two smaller ones, termed caulicoli, which meet each other beneath a flower on the face of the abacus. The abacus itself is not, properly speaking, a square, although it may be said to be so in its general form. But instead of being straight, the sides of the abacus are concave in plan, being curved outwards so as to produce a sharp point at each corner, which is usually cut off. The proper Corinthian base differs from that of the usual Ionic or Attic, in having two smaller scotiae, separated by two astragals; however, both kinds are employed indiscriminately. The shaft is fluted, in general, similarly to that of the Ionic column, but sometimes the flutes are cabled, as it is called; that is, the channels are hollowed out for only about two-thirds of the upper part of the shaft and the remainder cut so that each channel has the appearance of being partly filled up by a round staff or a piece of rope, hence the term cabling. The cornice is very much higher than in the other orders, which makes more projection also. 288 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT From this greatly increased depth of cornice, it consists of a great number of mouldings beneath the corona, for that and the cymatium over it invariably retain their places as crowning members of the whole series of mouldings. In the illustration square blocks or dentels are introduced, but often to the dentels is added a row of modillions immediately beneath and sup- porting the corona. These modillions are ornamental blocks, curved in their under surface somewhat after the manner of the letter S laid on its edge, and between them and the dentels, also below the latter, are other mouldings, sometimes cut, at others left plain. Sometimes a plain, uncut dentel band is substituted for dentels; sometimes, in simpler cornices, that is omitted altogether and plainer blocks are employed instead of modillions; or else both dentels and modillions are omitted. The dentel is not peculiar to this order, but is considered as more properly belonging to the Ionic. The composite order is very much akin to the Corinthian, and is sometimes called the Roman Corinthian. It is frequently formed with square plinths oi' pedestals beneath the column. The base is nearly like those of the Doric and Ionic. The shaft is channeled with twenty-four flutings ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELE TAUGHT tM separated by fillets. I" The capital consists of two rows of acanthus leaves, eight in each row; the upper row be- ing placed over the meeting points of those in the lower row. Four spiral volutes in each face spring from two bunches of acanthus leaves; and two of them are so connected at the corners as to support the abacus of the cap- ital. (See Fig. 243.) Each face of the aba- cus, besides being moulded into an ovolo form, is a slight differ- ence between the Cor- inthian and Composite. The Corinthian archi- trave is divided into three facias, the Composite into two; the facias being in both cases separated from another by small enriched mouldings. Fig- -43- 240 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 16. Plate 16 shows sections and plans or windows, for wood and for brick buildings, with weights where the mullion is narrow and will not admit of two weights passing each other. One section shows the manner of constructing the angle of a bay window where boxes and weights are required. This is a very useful plate for the young draftsman. . /fDi^e /iov t^sANSSSV V \ 1 TEBSSEBBS PU\TE.Ik jlBE PLAN OF WINDOWS FOK W OOD BU I LDI N AND FO(\ BF^ICK, Eff 5) : ajq ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT '240 tint is obtained, before applying to the drawing. Dark tints are formed by applying a number of light ones over each other, but a second tint should not be applied until the first one is perfectly dry. Always finish tinting one portion of drawing before leaving it. Otherwise it will be cloudy. See that the paper is damp before you begin to tint. Ink in all lines after the tinting is completed and the drawing is perfectly dry. The colors used for representing wood, iron, and other materials, are as follows: For soft pine, a very pale tint of sienna; for hard pine, burnt sienna with a little carmine added; for oak, a mixture of burnt sienna and yellow ochre is used. Mahogany is represented by burnt sienna and a portion of dragon's blood. For walnut, dragon's blood and burnt umber are used. For bricks, burnt sienna and carmine make a good color. Gray stones are represented by a mixture of black and white, with a little Prussian blue and carmine added — pale ink alone is sometimes used for stone work. Brown freestone is rep- resented by burnt sienna, carmine, and ink. Wrought iron is represented by a light tint ot Prussian blue, and cast iron by a gray tint com- posed of black, white, and a little indigo. Brass 250 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT is tinted with gamboge. Gamboge, slightly mixed with vermilion, makes a good color for copper. Silver is represented by an almost invisible blue. Many draftsmen have a natural talent for using suitable colors, and putting them on in a suitable manner, but others must go through the drudgery of careful practice according to rule. A perfectly uniform tint such as desired on an engineer's drawing is not required on an architect's drawing, and still less on that for use by a builder; but unless the draftsman learns first to lay on a flat and uniform wash of any tint, he is not likely to be able to put on an appropriate rough tint. For water-color sketch- ing a flat tile with shallow recesses is suitable for mixing the colors, but this is quite unsuited for a draftsman's use. He should invariably use the nests of round saucers fitting one on the other, and of a size to hold as much color as would be required to completely finish the color- ing of any one material on one sheet. The saucers should be kept covered while in use, and washed out when done with. The lightest tints should, as a rule, be put on first, and the brush should always be of ample size. Color brushes should be kept scrupulously clean, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 251 never put in the mouth, always washed after using, the surplus moisture shaken out, and then put away in the box and not laid on a dusty shelf to dry. A little practice in the laying of colors one over another will be used for impressing on the memory the general effect of combination, and also a knowledge of the primary colors and their secondaries. Nearly all water-colors are transparent, and a medium tint of any one color, if laid over another after it is dry, will allow the first color to show through. A more intimate combination may be made by mixing the colors together in the same palette and putting them on with the brush in one operation. Wipe the brush lightly on the edge of the saucer to remove the surplus color, and hold it as described for a lead pencil when about to draw a vertical line; commence at the top left hand of the space to be colored; pass the brush downwards, then along the top, then down by short strokes from the top to the length of the first stroke, and so carry the color downwards for the whole width, finishing at the bottom right-hand corner. To produce good and uniform coloring, never damp the paper before commencing, refill the 252 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT brush often, gently wiping it on the edg^ of the saucer each time. The margin of the color must not dry before the next stroke reaches it, and a part once colored must never be retouched, even though it looks uneven. Retouching is a fruitful source of failure; for color, looking uneven when wet, may dry even, but if touched again when partially dried it is certain to show uneven when dry. There is an advantage in having plenty of color in the brush, but when nearing the bottom boundary the amount must be reduced, so that there is not a pool left at the lower corner. By regulating the amount of color any slight excess may be picked up with the brush by simply raising it slowly, point last, from the corner. The brush should not be wiped in any way, but simply washed in clean water, when done with, or before use with another color. It will soon be found that with a given amount of color in the brush more or less of it may be left behind as the brush is allowed to trail or is used side- ways, and it is by unconscious adjustments of this kind that a good colorist produces uniform results. There are certain tints employed by architects to designate works of various kinds, and I give ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 258 them herewith so that the student may have them within reach if he has occasion for their use. It must be understood, however, that nearly every drawing office of any note has rules of its own for marking and coloring drawings, so that the rules given herewith may differ materially from many others in vogue. Banks (Steep)— Shaded with graduated warm sepia, darkest at top of bank; vertical hill- shading in India ink or dark sepia. Brass — Gamboge with yellow ochre or burnt sienna. Bricks (Blue) — Elevation, indigo and India ink; section, indigo. (Red) — Elevation, light red (pale); section, India red (dark). Brickwork (New) — Elevation, Roman ochre; section, crimson lake. (Old) — Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink (dark). Buildings (Brick or Stone) — Crimson lake. (Wood) — Sepia. Cast Iron — Payne's grey; neutral tint. Chain — Elevation, Prussian blue (dot and stroke); section, no color. Concrete — Sepia with black marks; or indigo, or Payne's grey with black marks and small light spots left. Copper — Gamboge with lake; elevation, 254 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT crimson lake and burnt sienna; section, crimson lake and burnt sienna (dark). Earth — Burnt umber or warm sepia, left jagged at edges; or sepia, light and dark. Electric-bell Wires— Yellow. Fields and Vacant Lands — White. Fir and Deal (rough) — Elevation, burnt sienna or gamboge; section, burnt sienna (edged round and hatched). Footpaths (Flagged) — Yellow ochre. Glass — Green; Prussian blue; neutral tint. Glass Roofs — Cross-hatching of Prussian blue. Granite — Purple madder; pale India ink. Greenheart — Elevation, indigo and gamboge; section, indigo and gamboge (dark). Gun-metal — Elevation, Indian yellow; section, Indian yellow (dark). Lead — Indigo; indigo with India ink. Leather — Elevation, burnt umber (very pale); section, burnt umber (dark). Mahogany — Elevation, light red and burnt sienna; section, light red and burnt sienna (dark.) Meadows and Cultivated Grass— Prussian green; Hooker's green. Oak — Elevation, burnt umber (pale); section, burnt umber (dark). ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 255 Pine and Spruce (wrought) — Elevation, burnt sienna (pale); section burnt sienna (dark rings). Pipes (Cold-water) — Prussian blue. (Gas) — Indigo with lake. (Hot-water) — Crimson lake. (Rain-water) — Elevation, Prussian blue (outline); section, Prussian blue (outline). (Soil) — Eleva- tion, burnt sienna; section, burnt sienna (out- line). Plaster — Payne's grey. Plaster and Cement--- Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink (dark). Railways — Neutral tint between the rails of each track. Rope — Elevation, burnt sienna (dot and stroke); section, no color. Rosewood — Burnt sienna with lake. Sewers and Drains — Prussian blue. Skies (in perspectives) — Cobalt blue. Slate — Elevation, Payne's grey; section, Payne's grey (dark). Steel — Elevation, violet carmine (very pale); section, violet carmine (dark); or indigo with a little lake. Stone — Yellow ochre; gamboge with Indian red and burnt umber; sepia; Prussian blue. Representing stone in section by Prussian blue is to be avoided, though in common use. 256 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT PLATE 1 8. This plate shows two elevations and sections of windows, one designed for wooden build- ings, and the other for brick buildings. The vertical sections of frames and sashes are shown in both cases, and the manner of constructing the sills is given. The segmental headed window shows finish around the frame suited for brick. Both frames show exterior finish, and that designed for wood shows the lines of siding on one side. These examples are drawn to a scale of Vz of an inch to the foot. PLRTE.I8. n s/ q h » P^_„ BL 3ECTi?lv r wiND^Wi '"> w?sD *"»sStsnf BUILDINGS ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 257 Prussian blue should be retained entirely for wrought-iron work. Stone Dressings — Elevation, French blue (very pale); section, French blue (dark). Streets (Paved) — Neutral tint. Timber (Existing) — Elevation, India ink (pale); section, India ink (etched). Tubes (Speaking) — Green. Water — Elevation, Prussian blue (washed); section, Prussian blue (lines). Water may have graduated blue edges. Windows Inside — Elevation, French blue (pale); section, Hooker's green, No. 2 (dark). Windows Outside — Elevation, Payne's grey (dark); section, Hooker's green, No. 2 (dark). Wrought-iron (Bright) — Elevation, Prussian blue (very pale); section, Prussian blue (dark). (Rough) — Payne's grey. York and Soft Stone — Elevation, sepia (very pale); section, sepia. Zinc — Elevation, French blue (very pale); section, French blue (dark). Often various materials are shown by the manner in which the sections of such materials are hatched or lined off as may be seen by the illustration shown at Fig. 251, where a large number of sections are given. By this method 258 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT the material is recognized by the method of hatching, and no color is required, the whole being done in black and white. It may be necessary sometimes for the drafts- man to shade portions of his work, and, though this book does not pretend to deal with the -i } 3 " Autxm. £ mAsat maeu imc*xia> co#c*£r£ 6L»c*A*vr#» fig 251. higher class of drawing, it may not be out of place to say a few words on shading, and offer a few rough illustrations, showing how some objects maybe shaded even by an inexperienced hand. The principles of shading are very simple, but do not seem to be generally under- stood, even by architects. All the exhibition drawings of an Architectural Association were ARCITTTFXTT~RAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 259 spoilt one year by the roof shading being reversed, presumably in order to comply with some fancied natural requirement. The prin- ciples are as follows: (i) The more distant the object the less distinct the light- and shade, h .'v m j ? s '» a -/".B | ^1 ELEVATIONS i PLANS Fig. 252. and vice versa; (2) for the sake of uniformity the light is usually supposed to come from the left, and on a drawing is generally taken as coming down the long side of a 45° set square, when one edge is placed diagonally on the paper and at right angles to it; (3) on inclined surface in the light the farthest part is the darkest and in the shade the nearest part is the darkest; (4) cylindrical surfaces follow the same rules, but on the right hand or lower sides the effect appears as though some reflected light were shown towards the edge. The accompanying 260 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT illustrations, Fig. 252, show the application of these rules. When ink lines to any considerable extent have to be erased, a small piece of damped soft sponge may be rubbed over them till they disappear. As, however, this process is apt to discolor the paper, the sponge must be passed through clean water, and applied again to take up the straggling ink. For small erasures of ink lines, a sharp erasing knife should be used; this is an instrument with a short triangular blade fastened to a wooden or ivory handle. A sharp rounded pen-blade applied lightly and rapidly does well, and the surface may be smoothed down by the thumb nail or a paper-knife handle. In ordinary working drawings a line may readily be taken out by damping it with a hair pencil and quickly applying the india rubber; and, to smooth the surface so roughened, a light applica- tion of the knife is expedient. In drawings intended to be highly finished, particular pains should be taken to avoid the necessity for corrections, as everything of this kind detracts from the appearance. A little Prussian blue, mixed with the ink makes it flow freer and adds to the color. In inking in on ordinary tracing cloth, the student ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT 261 will find the ink will "creep" in such a manner that the lines will be broken. This can be pre- vented if a drop of ox-gall be mixed with the ink, but where ox-gall is not available, Prussian blue may be substituted, and this will, to some extent, work freer over the cloth. As this book is not intended for making- finished draftsmen, I have avoided in all cases — except in the orders of Architecture — offer- ing any very elaborate or finished examples, as the student can find a number of works in the market that will lead him to a higher plane if he so determines, after he has well mastered what I have served up to him. Neither have I thought it desirable to describe the method of making blue prints, as this method, or methods, has been rendered over and over again in the technical journals, for years past. If, however, the student desires to iearn how to make blue prints, I would advise him to purchase a copy of "Blue Print Making" by P. Reissmann, which can be had from the publishers of this book, price 25 cents. This is an excellent little work, and goes into the subject thoroughly. It must be understood that this work is pre- pared purposely for the workman who has no time to attend night school, or money to spare 262 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF TAUGHT to take a course in any one of the excellent correspondence schools; therefore, the illustra- tions have been left in a plain state, so that the student would not be frightened on the threshold of his work by fancy and elaborate drawings. I state this fact, partly to make it easy for the student, and partly to disarm critics, who can, if they are so disposed, find many defects in the illustrations. FINIS HOUSE PLAN SUPPLEMENT PERSPECTIVE VIEWS AND FLOOR PLANS of Fifty Low and Medium Priced Houses Full and complete working plans and specifications of any of these houses will be mailed at the low prices named, on the same day the order is received. OTHER PLANS We illustrate in all books under the authorship of Fred T. Hodgson from 23 to 50 plans, none of which are duplicates of those illustrated herein. For Further Information, Address the Publishers. SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO. CHICAGO, ILL... U. S. A. Estimated Cost It is impossible for any one to estimate the cost of a building and have the figures hold good in all sections of the country. We do not claim to be able to do it. The estimated cost of the houses we illustrate is based on the most favorable conditions in all respects and does not include Plumbing and Heating. Possibly these houses cannot be built by you at tht prices we name because we have used minimum materia? and labor prices as our basis. The home builder should consult the Lumber Dealer, the Hardware Dealer, and the Reliable Con- tractors of his town. Their knowledge of conditions in your particular locality makes them, and them only, capable of making you a correct estimate of the cost. OF WHAT OUR PLANS CONSIST ALL OF OUR PLANS Are accurately drawn one-quarter inch scale to the foot. We use only the best quality heavy Gallia Blue Print Paper No. 1000X, taking every precaution to have all the blue prints of even color and every line and figure perfect and distinct. We furnish for a complete set of plans: FRONT ELEVATION REAR ELEVATION LEFT ELEVATION RIGHT ELEVATION ALL FLOOR PLANS CELLAR AND FOUNDATION PLANS ALL NECESSARY INTERIOR DETAILS Specifications consist of several pages of typewritten mat- ter, giving full instructions for carrying out the work. We guarantee all plans and specifications to be full, com- plete and accurate in every particular. Every plan being designed and drawn by a licensed architect. Our equipment is so complete that we can mail to you the same day the order is received, a complete set of the plans and specifications of any house illustrated herein. Our large sales of these plans demonstrates to us the wis- dom of making these very low prices. ADDRESS ALL ORDERS TO SEARS, ROEBUCK & CO. CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. W "2 - c - - - o u t/! .13 c c ^ "S .2 C *-. u- • — ■J r* l -' o 1> •;: -- ^_ ^ •- c ^ • — « & /. . _ OS t/; ""~" o 3 if o T-H 4-1 o ° s V, C W) 7. 2 .£ o '5 "5 ■- Cfl i_ en U C hi * Uj w in O s and to 127 c x ° — o C.O 1 bo » s s ■a s is 0, C w- a! O . — « *-• — i« 3 O u, u 2 o 2 O m p u, o w < O O c V) (LI o t— < •» „C CO 4-» 4-* t/J 3 •o c U !> (L> X z T3 g 2 c o -- o ■*-» J -^ K a a *-» U/ V *— . r: i> w • — ■ -n 4J rt t/i bC T3 * >> *-> -*-» »-~ ^ c u o T3 C a; Sf i- 4-» 2 c ~ O 3 O G *"• *J m fli *r '53 c ■*-• u a Ct *_l i2 -c c S o (L) o 3 u 3 w c rd (/] I* c £ o — u , s u o Ifi 7. C.J 1) 4J u. — ; fj ,Q ~ « / _= ' n *-i ■„ •C 3 O o O o SB 3 O o X I-H . en o M o M 6 55 O >— • c/) W Q U. O w < a. o o VI 11 JZ u M u. ■ 4-» o 0) a. w u «-*-! «-*-« o > t— 1 CO CM "0 C/3 .a ■»-» in ■*-< hn 3 - — c o £ i> h-5 11 P] — • --- a; t o J -o ~ *-» — c '-~ re -X o u c i> re r D irt •n n *-< *-> — c - i~ - re t is , ■— ■~™ u ■-= •*•■> ^ " , «. — <— •j c — re — ffl Vi — — /. &> •— z. V> c ,~5 rt 1/ >. re (/I •a u u c 3 - ? fi 4-* *— . *-> "d 9 c re re -^ re > •— u — i/i 11 u - IE 1) u *j r Pu - •r. ^ — r- 4-> A ~~ — Q « tf X V. c « •2 J3 »— • _ *-» c o c - ■ 1—1 z to re c w u •- in '_C "O O X a y !/) fl ' and S750 lans to Q. O .. so .a 6 - 2 3 o £ - , 1) "** — *^ i> C .2 >- o 4J 4-> 1* P n a O o c o a. c C t/) o to « a c u « 4-* o . . i2 "> .2 •« 1/1 «-» c u O T3 <-> hi in .2 C 4> -M •- «-• rt 'G u s rs I/l & u a 17 o in o Z .3° *c75 Q Z <^> c UJ N 0) CU Cfl u - j: O — Kb o "3 c Ci. 5 ^ w. * » I i 3 c , u w o *♦-« * - c nl in u C:iC o o o o O »— « CO Hi Q U< O CO < o o -J 00 CO CO m ~ r -3 CO cj u o O 1) 51 X u VI C *■» CO > u 0) u z 73 < _1 en a. as *-t O h? o CO J ID Ih Ex< Q a Z O In u . ^ w (/) to c JO a ■_ o o C o o 4-* «0 G u tn c 73 cu 4_l 3 •»-» (0 k. 4-» CO I* <3 C- >. a *~ CO «M •— * o a. VI c in 4) i- Q. CL CO in o ~ X C/J c C/3 -J c 1- la *• 1 « o c JT-{ = 00 — of ce irst fl an; fr c "a **- — 03 u TS °- • - O 10 fi >— fc« GEO •S 43 43 "3 ts CO n pla n; ro tions c tfl ™ "° .. 43 43 j= a- «c« £ * 3 3 S 0) CQ-2 rt-s; O - c t rt o 8 £ 'v. a. • ^ C o CD O u J3 H OS C O 4-1 CO o H c 03 O O N 55 3 I s o r « > V V t/i c in a •O •— c o rt _ c l/J o o rt C 4) rt J= D. pi* <— * o o (0 c o r m nl ( ) u. i*^ fj o ii o D. V- v> w- r o D 4-» •J r. * o o 1) a. >, V) c V j- a> u D. E o OJ O S CO o c r_i rt rt Du o o K ID # () Tl Q. c o o 8 in c c ID H *W o V 'J) c bo D a 'a G Q_ . — o " E en N (75 w "S JJ " «£ o lN . o _c ■£ 4> ^ ~" o c« .. V -- to s-« O rt c o ■c ° to ^ . * V, a g 8.8 O .. o o c ■- ^r c« ni *" o f&| «> *> •c c « D- ° »i 4) rt^ 3 "O to CO g-o o C o to °§ v»- cd "^ 8 1 -o c rt OQ 01 C a CO o 0- o o o ^7 .12 o i- a. X I/) u 4 \ \ey$> 1- 1 nwrmj rot, ^ mu. **v-takMj Jill ft fef. — *.>& R*».V« o q u-j T3 X w C **- ■X3 T3 B r. o Oh H C O o — ■ — N , ^ oo -S-S 5$ 'J o c D- C c o o rt (/) to ha c Jt o 4) o D. (0 >, c to k- 9) U- U. 1 E c CD O -a c m a O o o § in U a. n o O O irf*"^ M^tk''^ r ^wlk •7 \w ■• SjSwIk Sill F— ■--■- M ABB' " 1 s; i .V,: ! ,! ntifesitarid ■1 -.-■ kiiij ^3 o ^ rt OJ *Jf& f\ s p © '"«j.^4 vV ••£ o J3 o o C/5 o o 4> V 4) *— m CO in UJ (N N . J3 .c V) •5 to c z < _> a. q/ 2 — o ^ O l) Si 2 in ■a c rt +4 c o k* x- c rt a ««- o o i- . p CO c rt a to C u rt O O D w- O CO 40M C V a! m a o c a! o CU >•— ' r. (4 C * 3 to O r Hrt o T3 C nl rt o w- nl o 4) a Q. o co IM r o 4) V) If. Im -> o 4) »• O D- fc to >* o — o c 4> 4) u. a. D. 0. — B o I to o VJ I 7\ ■ i / C O o C/J O o c C o in Ih Du -•-» rt <& 4) -a C X •o c c o c 1) C - O o CD N CO u o **- H » x: .r fin ■a c "5, c * o c "2 « c5 2 rt o 1} D. O 1" «•- B O u n 'in C a o o p. C u CO O T) C rt *•-« l > o **— 0) o u CD k- Q n. Ul OS bo Ui o O O q O o H c O O *-~ **— o jd x: nt ■-J c P 4J _1 rt > V V y) " OS M a ~ C o [4 »- D C M o J= »*- o (fl -: V td _c o. *♦- > n o l/J C) ri m ( i 0. i»— o CJ hi u D- ^~ VI kIM r. V n c * a a. >* n B V u Q. w a o o Q. 2? c a ° E Z o w o O c a > o I) (U c T3 G rt oo f/i c n o o M— (J tm n. Q- CO o o SO v .JL .? o T3 c £ ►J o X J) c o > T3 C c o c id o o in c TO •5.-S o w S3 .e c 3 o T3 33 »- ^ rt o O J) | e c * o S ° £ c B — o CO Q 8 *. j=> -o +- . o ^ ^ 2 o w « s § 2 Si to c o ! 1> "n ■V en c o i- C c o o v) •£ £ -a tv> o o to c ■5- 5 o **- G ° c «> "• o c rt O « 3 <0 .2 C — O c rt n) o >- ? << o = t) d a. o CO >— c O 4) ■ c c a U a. E o CD O o 3 < ■o c w in C c rt o CU v- ( > o **— O i— ri Q- CO 8 4^- G O c I- > c o c *^- o yQ ■<*• ( ') » ,r. jr. tV> y. c I o o >- . . e rt wj a % >- o a o ■** c u c in «i p. c o ♦* -fl en -— C % 3 m O ~ *— o T3 .s c: (U rt o b V*— «! o " — ; 4> 4) a. O W *** c O 4) m m c o o 4) (X m *■» G 4) — a. 3> a 4> e ca 3 % ^^^ f' 73 C c c _rt o o .— o q o o Q, CO O a, 1) C C U H ?£ o w S-i »~* (D x: x: W (J S £ a) £ ^ o 0) o 00 — • o x: x: *- w o bo c -5 X- o o o c o en o o o ex ~ ■g £ rt w o s ^ 00 - S 6 -* 2 £ J2 -*- JD a. E o o -a c re w o X I/) D o c o 4) en O a, V a. O "J o a) c * O :-» 5) — - u C c~ a - E a X o § o o •- \. I O O 0- CO l> 8 ''#**& o '^* L^*^#&W D O i»r«te-** c o » > o T3 U a) c o C O -G H to c 03 O O N o 0) Q a C X x: Co c TD 3£ c o o 10 c >*- (X 2 o I) o T3 £ "2 * 3 o -o c5 V O. O 10 10 — 1 s w — c «> i. u o- o. § E — o « O -a o c w 0) 2 C/J 5 = 3 o ^* tx H c o o E u H C O o *_ 0) « « «> '— UJ N (M (/") JS -C IV) 32 a o o u w c rt a e* o o J — a «- c o rt ** ■J a w c o 3 rt « T3 j= C •^ 3 O > «~ CO T3 c C o rt u o a %*- o n a co o rt C > V *i i> co _±. '55 « l~ §■8 a. CO >% 10 V i_ rt «> Q. a. tu c 3 O E CO — O s T3 t/i C c X o c o Cu o 8. V c/) o -— < >- CL ^O 3 is g in ~ «* 3 c O rt o oo o s <^ bo _ .5 £ ■*■» 10 *a o £ •* o <" o 2 •s 2 a ° B to "3 o 6. O 3 o > V en (A 3 J3 H c en O o E 8 a* > -J •o c o .2 fl O Q O — X». O o v c 3 O M C 5 "> rt u >- >^ £ 5 6 c o en \~ Oj Oh V JZ H ■5. o -/I E O 3 ° 3 o c o £ — < UJ o in U ■a ■a B cil c o la •»- in c rt "a u O _o **- c • a! l/J C a. til **— a. o o o a c rt o w *^ jr rt ■a c > 3 m o c **- o ■o '^ c (9 A O k -— (fl <) ;__! V 2 < V u. O in J *•- c a. o V m in ~ n i* o j in c o o u. a. H >> m to *■* v. c V a. L 4> a a. 3 E o CQ O c O c o o N CO r i a) U CO •3 B a) j5 a. o o 10 B c5 a o **- C o 3 W U u a! «- "° '5 c => 2 w *" o -a s c rt rt o >- ^ n! o ■ZL t> f the STANDARD AMERICAN ELECTRICIAN $6.00 THIS COMPLETE AND AUTHORITATIVE WORK IN- CLUDES ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION. WIRING. DIA- GRAMS AND DESCRIPTIONS. ELECTRICAL WIRING CONSTRUCTION TABLES. DYNAMO TENDING FOR EN- GINEERS, and is PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. No. 3R9230 STANDARD AMERICAN ELECTRI- CIAN. OUR SPECIAL PRICE $2.68. If by mail, postage extra, 20 cents. SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. Builders' Reliable Estimator ■nB^HHOMHDDBi and ■■■^■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■i Contractors' Guide By FRED T. HODGSON. Two volumes in one, nearly 550 pages. Fully illus- trated with diagrams. Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. HODGSON'S MODERN ESTIMATOR AND CON- TRACTORS' GUIDE, for pricing all builders' work. By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.50. THE BUILDERS' AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE to correct measurement for estimating. By Fred T. Hodgson and W. M. Brown, C. E. Retail price $1.50. FIFTY HOUSE PLANS, showing perspective views and floor plans. Retail price $1.00. A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR PRICING ALL BUILDERS' WORK. It contains many tables, rules and useful memoranda. GUIDE TO CORRECT MEASUREMENTS is found in the second part of this work. This shows how all kinds of odd, crooked and difficult measurements may be taken, to secure correct results. Profusely illustrated. No. 3R9120 BUILDERS' RELIABLE ESTIMATOR AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE. OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.45. If by mail, postage extra per set, 23 cents. SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. a American Biachsmiihing, Tooismiihs' AND: Steel workers' Manual By HOLMSTROM and HOLFORD. Two volumes in one. 600 pages. Fully illustrated. Bound in silk cloth. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Frederick J. Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roebuck & Company. Contains: MODERN BLACKSMITHING, RATIONAL HORSESHOEING AND WAGON MAKING. By J. G. Holmstrom. Retail price $1.00. CORRECT HORSE, MULE AND OX SHOEING. By J. G. Holmstrom. Retail price $1.00. TWENTIETH CENTURY TOOLSMITHS' AND STEEL WORKERS' MANUAL. By Holford. Retail price $1.50. BLACKSMITHING. It comprises particulars and de- tails regarding the anvil, tool table, sledge, tongs, hammers, how to use them, correct position at anvil, welding, tube expanding, the horse, anatomy of the foot, horseshoes, horseshoeing, hardening a plow- share, babbitting, etc. TOOLSMITHING AND STEEL WORKING. Covers composition of cast tool steel, heating, forging, ham- mering, hardening, etc. Tempering, welding, anneal- ing, cause of tools cracking when hardening. LINE ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS. The book is very fully illustrated and contains numerous work- ing rules and recipes. Experienced blacksmiths, steel and tool workers, as well as beginners, will get pleasure and helpful suggestions from this book. No. 3R9240 AMERICAN BLACKSMITHING TOOL- SMITH AND STEELWORKERS' MANUAL. OUR SPECIAL PRICE, $1.62. If by mail, postage extra, 22 cents. SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. Modern Painting, Hardwood Finishing and Sign Writing Covering Every Branch of this Profession. By ARMSTRONG, HODGSON AND DELAMOTTE. Three volumes in one. Nearly 700 pages. Fully illus- trated. Special, Exclusive Edition. Printed by Fred- erick J. Drake & Company expressly for Sears, Roe- buck & Company. Contains: THE PAINTER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA. By Geo. D. Armstrong. Retail price $1.50. THE UP-TO-DATE HARDWOOD FINISHER, in- cluding manipulation of wood of all kinds. By Fred T. Hodgson. Retail price $1.00. SIGN WRITING. By F. Delamotte. Retail price $1.50. Including PAINTS AND PAINTING, WOOD FINISHING, MODERN UP-TO-DATE ARTISTIC SIGN PAINTING, AND PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. No. 3R9150 MODERN PAINTING, HARDWOOD FINISHING AND SIGN WRITING. OUR SPECIAL PRICE $1.89. If by mail, postage extra, 23 cents. SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY, Chicago, 111. ^ONVSO^ "%HAIM-J ^OF-CAllFQRfc 0FCA1IF(% 3? ^J\ v Ej -5JMIVEK/A. ^clOSAK %imim3\\v s ^HJBRARYOc <&UIBR. ^OJIWJJO^ AWEUNIVEBI/a aV10S-ANCEL% v/jfMAINMlfc AOFCAIIFO% y 0ANVH8ltt^ ^•UBRARY<9a ^OJITYDJO^ ^■LIBRARY 1 1/ so ^ojuvoj ™iVEW/A ^iHONY-SOl^ "%HHA * so wer% : ^e-univers:-: s" Ms y J