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GENERAL AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
C. and C. \V lulliiisjlmin, Cliiswick. 
 
GENERAL AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 EXPLANATIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS 
 
 USED IN THE 
 
 ^tt0 of fainting, Sculpture, ^rdjitcctuvr, nnD CFngrabing, 
 
 IN ALL THEIR VARIOUS BRANCHES ; 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 RISE AND PROGRESS OP THEIR DIFFERENT SCHOOLS; 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE 
 
 ACCOUNTS OF THE BEST BOOKS AND TREATISES ON THE FINE ARTS; 
 
 ■anU cberp useful S^optt tonncctcti tljcrcisti^. 
 
 By JAMES l^LMES, M. R. I. A. Architect; 
 
 Author of" Lccliiresoa ArchiUclme ;^ " The Life o/.Sir Christopher Wren;" " An Estay mi the tavi of 
 
 Dilapidations," S^c. ic. 
 
 " Etfuim omne» artes, qll^e ad humanitatem pertinent, habent qiiodriam eommune, vincnliini, et quafi 
 i-u^oatioDe qiiadam inter se eontinentur." Cjcebo pro Archia. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED FOR THOMAS TEGO, 73, CHEAPSIDE: 
 
 B. M. TIMS, DUBLIN ; AND R. GRIFFIN AND CO. GLASGOW, 
 
 1826. 
 
ptSlGM 
 

 TO Tilt: 
 
 RIGHT HONOURABLE ROBERT PEEL, M. P. 
 
 ETC ETC. ETC. 
 
 HIS majesty's principaf, secretary of state for the home department; 
 
 THIS DICTIONARY, 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE OF THOSE ARTS 
 
 WHICH HE so WELL UNDERSTANDS AND SO NfJBLY PATRONISES, 
 
 IS, 
 
 BY HIS KIND PERMISSION, 
 
 MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, 
 
 HY HIS :\IOST FAITHFUL 
 
 AND OULKJED SERVANT, 
 
 JAMES ELMES. 
 
 London, Oit. 15, 18'ij. 
 
 oiog:^ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In the present state of intellectual society, when the Sovereign 
 and the Legislature of the country are giving such splendid 
 encouragement to the Fine Arts; w^hen every class of the 
 people is daily becoming more interested in their cultivation ; 
 when new societies for their encouragement are being esta- 
 blished, and those already in existence are increasing; a 
 Dictionary exclusively devoted to the Literature of the Fine 
 Arts is peculiarly necessary. 
 
 Such a work has never before appeared in the English lan- 
 guage : and, although there are treatises in the French, 
 Italian, and other modern languages, yet they are inappli- 
 cable in many requisites to the English student, professor, or 
 patron of the British School of Art. 
 
 With the French the Fine Arts comprise not only Painting, 
 Sculpture, Architecture, and Engraving, but also poetry, 
 music, and the dramatic art, which in England are sepa- 
 rately classed among the Polite arts, as well as dancing, 
 fencing, mimetic action, and other bodily accomplishments, 
 which we do not admit into either. The Italians are more 
 select in their arrangement, but their disquisitions rarely 
 extend to the English school, and are consequently defective 
 in information concerning an important feature in modern 
 art; as the time is now arrived when no treatise on the Fine 
 Arts can be complete in which the English school, its artists, 
 its mode of practice, and its works are omitted. 
 
 The present Work, therefore, professes to give in alphabe- 
 tical order the essence of the best Treatises in the English, 
 the French, and the Italian languages, on the Theory and 
 Practice of the Fine Arts, divested of all extraneous matter, 
 and adapted to the present state of British Art and Literature. 
 To the various leading articles is added a Descriptive Cata- 
 
Vm PREFACE. 
 
 logue of the best Books and Treatises tlicreon, so that the 
 investigating student may know what authorities to refer to 
 when he wishes or requires further information. 
 
 In saying that this Work is intended to be a complete 
 Manual of the Fine Arts, it may be necessary to name some 
 of the works whicli have been consuked and amalgamated 
 into it. They are Le Dict'ionuaire des Beaux' Arts, par La 
 Combe; Dktmwaire de Peinture et de Sculpture, par 
 Watelet ; Encyclopedie jMethodicjuc ; Theork generak des 
 Beauj: Arts, par Sulzer ; Le Dktwnnaire des Beaux Arts, 
 par MiLLiN ; Abecedarw Pittorko ; Pjincipi d'Architettuj^a 
 civile; Manuale de Pittore per il anno 1792 ; Memork per 
 le Belle Arti. The Biographical Works of Blankenburg, 
 Sulzer, &c. the Catalogues of Paignon Dijonval, Count 
 Stroganoff, &c. &c. &c. ; the Works of Mengs, Lairesse, 
 Hagedorn, Da Vinci, De Piles, Alberti, Winckelmann, Rich- 
 ardson, Reynolds, Barry, Pilkington, Opie, West, Fuseli, 
 &c. &c. : in short, every Work in the libraries of the British 
 Museum, the Royal Academy, and other public and private 
 libraries, to which the writer has access, have been consulted 
 to render The Dictionary of the Fine Arts as useful 
 und as complete as possible. 
 
 The Editor cannot conclude without returnino- his best 
 thanks to his friend Mr. Jai^ies Olijer, whose able assist- 
 ance in the latter lialf of the present work (other engagements 
 pressing much on his own time,) has both expedited and 
 ill) proved it. 
 
 London, (hi. \'t, 182*. 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 OP 
 
 THE FINE ARTS. 
 
 I 
 
 ABA 
 
 Abacisous. In ancient architecture. The 
 square compartments of musaic pavements. 
 
 Abacot. [from abacus.'] In costume. Tlie 
 cap of state, or coronet, worn anciently by 
 the kings of England, somewhat resem- 
 bling in form that of a double crown. 
 
 Abacus. [a/3a?, Gr. abacus, Lat. ubaque, 
 Fr.] In architecture. The square member 
 or parallelopipedon which covers the top 
 of a column. The Greek derivative of this 
 word signifies a table or tablet, which form 
 the ancient Abacus simply assumes. Vi- 
 ti'uvius calls by this name the square 
 bronze or marble slabs with which the an- 
 cients covered the roofs of their buildings ; 
 and also the counting-tables used for va- 
 rious calculations. The one in most ge- 
 neral use was called Abacus Pythagoricus, 
 after the name of its inventor, and served for 
 the purpose of the common multiplication 
 table. The Abacus of architecture is the 
 upper or crown member of every column 
 and pilaster. Its form is various in the 
 different orders, and in the different nations 
 who have used them in their styles or modes 
 of architecture. In the remains of ancient 
 Egyptian architecture it is, in some in- 
 stances, nothing more than a plain cube of 
 stone ; and in others two or more such cubes 
 placed one above the other, either plain or 
 carved. Among the Greeks and Romans, 
 the Abacus is the most essential portion of 
 the capital, as it was in the original column 
 a tile to protect the upper portion of the 
 shaft. In the Tuscan, the Doric, and the 
 Ionic orders of architecture the Abacus is 
 rectangular in plan ; but in the Corinthian 
 and Roman, or composite orders, it is hol- 
 lowed into a circular indentation on its 
 faces ; and; except in a very few instances, 
 as in those of the capitals of the Poikile at 
 Athens, cut off at the angles. These are 
 
 x\BB 
 
 sometimes called the horns of the Abacus. 
 The term Abacus is also, but inapp'-'opri- 
 ately, applied to the upper member of pe- 
 destals, and of the capitals of Gothic pil- 
 lars. It is more properly applied to the 
 coverings of the baskets which are placed 
 on the heads of figures called Caryatides 
 and Canephoras by way of capitals. The 
 word however is most appropriately ap- 
 plied in architecture to a parallelopipedon, 
 covering the summit of any circular body. 
 
 Abaton. [cif5aTov, Gr.] In architecture. 
 This word is used by Vitruvius generally 
 for any impassable place, and specifically 
 to a building at Rhodes, to which every 
 one had not leave of access, from its con- 
 taining a trophy and two statues of bronze 
 placed there by Queen Artemisia, after 
 having surprised tliat city. 
 
 Abbey or Abby. [ufijMTHa, Gr. from 
 a/3/3rt, father; abbatia, hat. abbaie, Fr.] In 
 architecture. A monastery or religious 
 house for persons of either sex,govei-ned by 
 a superior under the title of abbot or abbess. 
 These buildings admit of a great display 
 of architectural splendour, particularly 
 those which were built before the protes- 
 tant reformation, and were in a great de- 
 gree the occasion of much encouragement 
 of all the fine arts. 
 
 Abbreviation, [abhrciiittura, Lat.] In 
 archaiology. A shortening by contraction 
 of words in inscriptions ; as inscribing a 
 letter for a word, &c. A knowledge of liie 
 abbreviations commonly found on the Ro- 
 man coins, monuments, and remains of 
 architecture and sculpture are of the great- 
 est use to the antiquary and student of tlie 
 fine arts. The following collection, in 
 part taken from the Encyclopa-dia Me- 
 tropolitana, will be found useful in read- 
 ing ancient inscriptions. 
 
 b 
 
ABBREVIATION. 
 
 A. Absoho, absohitio, ainnt, aliquando, 
 
 ager, albo, annus, argentum, Augustus, 
 
 &c. . 
 A. A. Auro argento. 
 A. A. A. F. F. Auro argento aire flando 
 
 feriunda. 
 A. A. S. L. M. Apud assum sibi legavit 
 
 monumcntum. Apud agrum sibi locum 
 
 monumenti. 
 AB. Abdicavit, 
 AB. AUG. M. P. XXXXI. Ab Augusta 
 
 millia passuum quadrapjinta nnum. 
 AB. AUGUSTOB. M. P. X. Ab Augusto- 
 
 briga millia passuum decern. 
 A. B. M. Anima ben^ merenti. 
 ABN. Abnepos. 
 A. CAMB. M. P. XI. A Camboduno millia 
 
 passuum undecim. 
 ACCENS. COS. Accensus consulis. 
 A. COMP. XIIII. A Compluto quatuor 
 
 decern. 
 A. C. P. VI, A capite, vel ad caput pedes 
 
 sex. 
 A. D. Ante diem. Agris dandis. 
 AD J ECT . H-S. IX. X. Adjeclis seslertiis 
 
 novera mille. 
 A. D. P. Ante diem pridie. 
 ADQ. Adquiescit tel adcjuisita p'o acqui- 
 
 sita. 
 JED. II.TT. VIR. 11. iEdilis iterum, duum- 
 vir itcrum. 
 jED. II. VIR. QUINQ. iEdilis duumvir 
 
 quinquennalis. 
 .^D. Q. II. VIR. iEdilis quinquennalis 
 
 duumvir. 
 JEL. yElius, ;Elia. 
 JEM. vel AIM. TEmilius, ^Emilia. 
 AER. jErarium Arum, jwo stipcndio. 
 A. K. Ante kalemlas. 
 A.G. Aniniograto: Aulus Gellius. 
 AG. Ager vel Agrippa. 
 ALA. I. Ala prima. 
 A. L. P. Animo libens posuit. 
 A. L. V. S. Animo libens \ otum soh it. 
 A. MILL. XXXV. A milliari triginta 
 
 (|uin(|uc,«t'/ad ii)illiarjatriginta(|uinque. 
 A. 1\I. XX. Ad milliare vigcsinuun. 
 AN. A. V. C. Anno ab urbe condita. 
 AN. C. H. S. Anno cent, hie situs est. 
 AN. DCLX. Anno sexcentcsimo sexagc- 
 
 Binio. 
 AN. II. S. Annos duos semis. 
 AN. IV L. Annos quadraginta sex. 
 AN.N. Aniu)s nntns. 
 ANN. Llll. H. S. E. Annorum quiuqua- 
 
 ginta-triuni iiic situs est. 
 ANN. NAT. LXVI. Anuos natus scxa- 
 
 ginta sex. 
 ANN. P. Annomn prefectus. 
 ANN. PL. M. X. Annos rtl unnis plus 
 
 minus decern. 
 AN.©. XVI. AnnodefunctusdccimoBcxto. 
 
 AN. V. XX. Anno vixit viginti. 
 
 AN. P. M. Annorum plus minus. 
 
 A. XII. Annis duodecim. 
 
 A. N. TR. Argentum novum trevirense. 
 
 AN. P.M. L. Annorum plus minus quin- 
 
 quaginta. 
 AN. P. R.C. Anno post Romam conditam. 
 AN. V. P. M. II. Annis vixit plus minus 
 
 duobus. 
 AN. XXV. STIP. VIII. Annorum viginti 
 
 quinque stipendii, ni stipendiorum octo. 
 A. P. M. Amico posuit monumcntum. 
 A. P. T. Amico posuit titulum, 
 A. P. V. C. Annorum post urbem condit.ani. 
 APVD. L. V. CONV. Apud lapidem quin- 
 
 tum convenerunt. 
 A. RET. P. nr. S. Ante retropedes tres 
 
 semis. 
 AR. P. Aram posuit. 
 ARG. P. X. Argeuti pondo decern. 
 A. RION. A ration ibus. 
 A. V. B. A viro bono. 
 A. V. C. Ab urbe condita. 
 A. V. L. Annos vixit quinquaginta, animo 
 
 vovit libens. 
 AVSP. S. Auspicante sacrum. 
 
 A. XX. H. EST. Annorum viginti hie est. 
 
 B. ;»•« V. berna pro verna, bixit pro a i\it, 
 bibo pro vivo, bictor pro victor, bidua ;«•<> 
 vidua. 
 
 B. A. Bixit annis, bonus ager, bonus ama- 
 
 bilis, bona aurea, bonum aureum, bonis 
 
 auguriis, bonis auspiciis. 
 B. B. Bona bona, bene ben^. 
 BD. D. Bonis deabus. 
 B. F. Bonil tide, bona femina, bona fortuna, 
 
 bene factum. 
 B. F. reversed thus, g- J- Bona femina, 
 
 bona tilia. 
 B. H. Bona hereditaria, bonorum luvre- 
 
 ditas. 
 B. 1. 1. Boni judicis judicium, 
 B. L. Bona lex. 
 B. M. P. Bene merito posuit. 
 B. M. P. C. Ben^ merito ponendum eura- 
 
 vil. 
 B. M. S. C. Bene merito sepulcrum condi- 
 
 dit. 
 BN. liM. lionorum emptoros. 
 liN. H. I. Bona hie invenies. 
 B. RP. N. Bono reipubHca' natus. 
 
 B. A. Bixit, /(/ est, vixit aiuiis. 
 BIGINTI. Viginti. 
 BIX.ANN.XXC'I. M.IV.D.Vn, Vixit 
 
 annis octoginta unum, mensibus quatuor, 
 diebiis septcm. 
 BX. ANDS.VII. ME.VI. DI. XVII. Vixit 
 annua sejjtem, menses sex, dies septem 
 deeim. 
 
 C. (la-sar, ("aio, Cains, censor, civitas, 
 consul, coudcmuu, conscriptus, conjux. 
 
ABBREVIATION. 
 
 C. C. Carissimae conjugi, calumnia causa, 
 
 consilium cepit, 
 C. C. F. Caius Caii filius. 
 C. B. Commune bonum. 
 C. D. Comitialibus diebus. 
 C. H. Custos hortoruni rel liaeredum. 
 C. I. C. Caius Julius Ca;sar. 
 CC. VV. Clarissimi viri. 
 CEN. Censor, centuria, centurio, 
 CERTA. QUINQ. ROM. CO. Certamen 
 
 quinquennale Romae condituni. 
 C. F. C. Clavi figendi causa. 
 CL. Claudius. 
 CL. V. Clarissimus vir. 
 CH.COH. Cohois. 
 C. M, vel CA. M. Causa mortis. 
 C. O. Civitas omnis. 
 
 COH. I. vel II. Cohoi'S prima vel secunda. 
 COS. ITER. ET. TERT. DESIG. Consul 
 
 iterum et tertium designates. 
 COS. TER. vel QUAR. Consul tertiiim vel 
 
 quartum. 
 COSS. Consules. 
 COST. CUM. LOC. H-S. cc D. Custodiara 
 
 cum loco sestertiis mille quingentis. 
 C. R. Civis Romanus. 
 CS. IP. Cffisar imperator. 
 
 C. V. Centum viri. 
 
 D. Decius, decimus, decuria, decurio, de- 
 dicavit, dedit, devotus, dies, divus, 
 Deus, dii, Dominus, domus, donum, da- 
 tum, decretum, &c. 
 
 D. A. Divus Augustus. 
 
 D. B. I. I»iis bene juvantibus. 
 
 D. B. S. De bonis suis. 
 
 DCT. Detractum. 
 
 DDVIT. Dedicavit. 
 
 D. D. Donum dedit, datis datio, Deus dedit. 
 
 D. D. D. Dono dederunt, i:el datum decreto 
 
 decurionem. 
 D.D.D.D. Dignum Deo aontim dedicavit. 
 DDPP. Depositi. 
 
 D. D. Q. Dedit dedicatque vel donavitque. 
 D. N. Dominus noster. 
 D. D. N. N. Domini nostri. 
 D. D. Q. O. H. L. S. E. V. Diis deabnsque 
 
 omnibus liunc locum sacrum esse voluit. 
 DEC. Decimo. 
 DETI. Defuncti. 
 DIG. M, Dignus meraorift. 
 D. IM. S. Diis immortalibus sacrum. 
 D.M. S. Diis manibus sacrum. 
 D. M. JE. Deo magno ajterno. 
 D. N. Dominus noster. 
 D. O. Diis omnibus, vel Deo optimo. 
 D. O.JE. Deo Optimo ajterno. 
 D. O. M. Deo Optimo maximo. 
 DOSC. Dioclesianus. 
 D. P. Divus pius, diis penatibus, patriis, 
 
 vel de pericnlo, dotem petet vel devota 
 
 persona, rel decretum principis. 
 
 DPC. Deprecatio. 
 
 DPO. Depositio. 
 
 D. PF. De prfefecto. 
 
 D. P. ORT. De parte orientis. 
 
 D.PP. Deo perpetuo. 
 
 DPS. Discipuliis. 
 
 DQ. Denique, Diis quirinalibus. 
 
 DR. Drusus. 
 
 DR. P. Dare promittit. 
 
 D. RM. De Romanis. 
 
 D. RP. De Republica. 
 
 DS. Deus. 
 
 D. S. P. F. C. De sua pecunia faciundum 
 
 curavit. 
 DT. Duntaxat. Durat. 
 D. V. Devotus vir, vester vel diis volenti- 
 
 bus, vel dies quintus. 
 DVL. vel DOL. Dulcissimus. 
 D. VS. Deee virgines, de virtutibus, vel de 
 
 verbis. 
 DVS. Devotus, &c. 
 DEC.XIII.AVG. XII. POP.XI. Dern- 
 
 rionibus denariis tredecim, augustalibus 
 
 duodecim. 
 D. nil. ID. Die quarta idus. 
 D. VIII. Diebus novem. 
 
 D. V, ID. Die quinta idus. 
 
 E. Ejus, ergo, esse, est, crexit, exactum, 
 &c. 
 
 E. B. Ejus bona. 
 
 E. C. E comitio, vel capitolio. 
 
 E. C. F. Ejus causa fecit. 
 
 E. D. Ejus domus, vel dominus. 
 
 ED, Edictum. 
 E. E. Ex edicto. 
 
 EE. N. P. Esse non potest. 
 E. F. Ejus filius. 
 
 EG. Egil, egregius. 
 
 E. H. Ejus lia^res, ex luieredibus, vtl c\ 
 bajreditate est. 
 
 EID. Idus. 
 
 EIM. Ejusmodi. 
 
 E. L. Ea lege. 
 
 E. M. Elexit vel erexit monumentum, ex 
 more. 
 
 EMP. Emptor. 
 
 EM. Q. Equitum magister. 
 
 E. N. Etiam nunc,est noster vel nou. Eiiim. 
 
 EOR. Eorum. 
 
 EP. Epistola. 
 
 E. P. Eden dum parie, e palatio, e pub- 
 lico. 
 
 EP. M. Epistolam misit. 
 
 EQ. M. Equitum magister. 
 
 EQ. O. Equester ordo. 
 
 EQ. P. Eques publicus. 
 
 EQ. R. Eques Romanus. 
 
 ER. Erit rel erunt. 
 
 EX. A. D. K. Ex ante dum Kalendas. 
 
 EX. A. D. C. A. Ex autoritate divi Ciesaris 
 Augusti. 
 
 n2 
 
ABBREVIATION. 
 
 K. DEC. AD. PRID. K.IAN. F. R. Forum Roman u m, r^/ filius regun- 
 
 EX.A.D.V 
 
 Ex ant^ diem qiiinto Kalonflas Decem- 
 
 bris ad pridii- Kalendas Jauuarii. 
 EX. H-S. X. P. F. I. Ex sestertiis decern 
 
 parvis fit jussit. 
 EX. H-S. GI^N. Ex sestertiis mille num- 
 
 mum. 
 EX. H-S. X cc CO » . Ex sestertiis quatuor 
 
 millia. 
 EX. H-S. N. CC.L. X D. XL. Ex sestertiis 
 
 nuinmorum ducentis quin{|uaginta miili- 
 
 bus, quingentis quadratjiuta. 
 EX. H-S. DC. X D. XX. Ex sestertiis sex 
 
 centis millibns, quingenlis vij;iiiti. 
 EX. KAL. IAN. AD.KAL.IAN. Ex Ka- 
 
 lendis Januarii ad Kalendas Januarii. 
 EX. S. C. Ex senatus consulto. 
 EX. V. Ex voto. 
 
 F. Fabius, fecit, factum, faciendum, fami- 
 lia, famula, factus, Februarius, felicitef, 
 felix, fides, fieri, fit, feniina, filia, filius, 
 fraler, finis, flamen, forum, lluvius, faus- 
 tuin, fuit. 
 
 FA. Filia. 
 
 F. A. Filio amantissimo vel filiaj amantis- 
 sim;e. 
 
 FAB. Fabrum vel fabrorum. 
 
 FAC. B. Factum bene. 
 FAC. C. Faciendum curavit. 
 
 FA. F. Factum feliciter. 
 FAM. Faniiliaris. 
 FAMA. Familia. 
 
 F. AN. X. F. C. Folio vel felix annorum 
 decem faciundum curavit. 
 
 FB. Fabricant. 
 
 F. C. Fieri vel faciendum curavit, fidei 
 commissum. Fecet reMecerunt. 
 
 F. D. Flamen Diales, filius dedit, factum 
 dedicavit. 
 
 F. D. Fide jussor, fundum. 
 
 FEA. Femina. 
 
 FI'^B. Februarius. 
 
 F. E. Factum est, ret filius ejus. 
 
 FE. C. Ferme centum. 
 
 FF. I'abr^ factum, filius familias, fratris 
 filius. 
 
 F. F. F. Ferro, flamma, fame, fortior, for- 
 
 tuna, fato. 
 Fl''. Fccerunt. 
 FL. F. Flavii filius. 
 F. I''Q. Filiis fiiialnisque. 
 FIX. ANN. XXXIX. M. I. D.VI. HOR. 
 
 S(;iT. NEIVl. Vixit aiinos trii^iiila no- 
 
 vem, mensem umiin, dit'S sex, boras seit 
 
 nemo. 
 FO. FR. Forum. 
 FOIi. I'orlr, lul fori is, rd foras, vel for- 
 
 <una. 
 F. P. Forma piihlirji, fHinn publica, fidei 
 
 prouiJHsor, III fides iiromiasa. 
 I\ I'l*. H. Fiiniin jxtpuli Koniaiii. 
 
 dorum. 
 FK.COR. Forum Cornelii 
 FR. I. Forum Julium. 
 FR. L. Forum Livium. 
 FR. S. Forum Senipronii. 
 FR. T. Forum Trajani. 
 FVNC. Functus. 
 
 G. Gellius, Gaius pro Caius, £:enius, gens, 
 gaudium, gesta, gratia, gratis, &c. 
 
 G. AV. G. Genio Augusti. 
 
 GAB. Gabinius. 
 
 GAL. Gallus, Gallerius. 
 
 G. B. Gens bona. 
 
 G. C. Genio civitatis. 
 
 G. D. Gens desolata. 
 
 GD. Gaudium. 
 
 GEN. P. R. Genio populi Roinaui. 
 
 GEN. CORN. Gentc Corneberis. 
 
 GENS. Gentes. 
 
 GER. Germanicus. 
 
 G. F. Gula filiorum, Germanus frater, ge- 
 mina fidelis. 
 
 GG. Gesserunt. 
 
 GL. Gloria. 
 
 GL. P. Gloria parentum, rel patri.-p, vel 
 populi. 
 
 GL. N. L. Gloria nominis Latini. 
 
 GL. S. Gallus Sempronius. 
 
 GN. Gneus pro Cneus, genius, gens. 
 
 GN. R. S. Genus Romani senatus. 
 
 GNT. Gentes. 
 
 G. M. Gene mala. 
 
 GOTH. Gothicus. 
 
 GRA. Gracchus. 
 
 GRC. Gnecus. 
 
 GR. P. Gloria parentum, vel populi, &c. 
 
 G. S. Genio sacro. 
 
 GX. Grex. 
 
 H. Hie, habet, hastatus, han-es, homo, 
 
 hora, hostis, herus, liadriauus, honestas, 
 
 honor, ivc. 
 H. A. Hoc anno. 
 HA. Hadrianus. 
 HyE. M. Hierodum meum. 
 HC. Hunc, huic, hie. 
 HC. AM-N. Hunc amieum noslnim. 
 II. D. Hie dedicavit (lediiarunt, ret dedi- 
 
 caverunt. 
 H. E.M.TBNR. Ha>c est ineuioria Tribu- 
 
 niM'um. 
 Hl'.R. Ha-res, her»<litalis. Hereiuiius. . 
 HER. r<7 IIHKC. S. Ih leulis saeriim. 
 H. IVI. Honesia mulier, vel liora nuila, rel 
 
 hora mortis. 
 H. iM. I). A, Hoc mandavil dari A\igu3- 
 
 tus. 
 
 II. ME. 11 s.cci )n(f'i:^Dir):) M.N. 
 
 Hoc niouumenluuk erexit sentertiis vi- 
 Kuiti i|uinque luille nummikm. 
 
ABBREVIATION. 
 
 H. M. AD. H. N. T. Hoc monunientum ad 
 liirredes non transit. 
 
 H. M. EXT. N. REC. Hoc monuntentum 
 exteras non I'ecipit. 
 
 H. M. P. Hoc monunientum posuit, vel hie 
 memorise posuit. 
 
 H. O. Hostis occisus. 
 
 HOM, Homo. 
 
 HOSS. Hostes. 
 
 H. R. I. R. Hie requiescit in pace". 
 
 H. S. Hie situs vel sita, sepultus vel se- 
 pulta. 
 
 H-S. N. IIII. Sestertiis mille nummum. 
 
 H-S. CCCC. Sestertiis quatuor centum. 
 
 H-S. X N. Sestertiis mille nummum. 
 
 H-S. 00 CCI33. N. Sestertiis novem mille 
 nummum. 
 
 H-S.CCI33.CI00. Sestertiis viginti mille. 
 
 H-8.XXM.N. Sestertiis viginti mille num- 
 mum. 
 
 H. SRL. M. AVC. Ha3c sepultura modo 
 aucta. 
 
 H. S. S. Hie supra scriptis. 
 
 H. V. B. P. Herus verus bonorum pos- 
 sessor. 
 
 I. Junius, Julius, Jupiter, ibi, idest, im- 
 mortalis, imperator, inferj, in, inter, in- 
 venit, invictus, ipse, iteriim, judex, jus- 
 sit, jus, &c. 
 
 lA. Intra, 
 
 IAD. Jamdudum. 
 
 I. AG. In agro. 
 
 I. AGL. In angulo. 
 
 IAN. Janus. 
 
 lA. RI. Jam respondi. 
 
 I. C. Juris consultus, Julius Caesar, judex 
 cognitionum. 
 
 IC. Hie. 
 
 I. D. Inferis diis, vel in dimidio, vel juris 
 dicendi vel dicendo, vel in domino, Jovi 
 dedicatum, Isidi dea?, jussu deai, judex. 
 
 ID. Idus. 
 
 ID. E. Idem est. 
 
 I. D. M. Jovi Deo magno. 
 
 I. D. T. S. P. In diem tertium sive peren- 
 dinuni. 
 
 I. F. vel I. FO. In foro vel Julii Alius. 
 
 IF. Interfuit. 
 
 I FT. Interfuerunt. 
 
 I. FNT. In fronte. 
 
 I. FO. C. In foro Ca?saris. 
 
 I. FO. P. In foro Palladis vel Pacis. 
 
 I. FO. TR. In foro Trajanis vel Transi- 
 torio. 
 
 IG. Igitur. 
 
 I. G. In agro. 
 
 I. H. Jacet hie, Justus homo, in hones- 
 tatem. 
 
 1. 1. In jure, iuibi, jus juranduni. 
 
 J. J. J. Justa judicavit judicia. 
 
 I. L. A. In loco absente. 
 
 I. L. P. In loco publico. 
 
 IM. Imago, immortalis, imperator. 
 
 I. M. CT. In medio civitatis. 
 
 IMJVT. Immolavit, immortalis, immunis. 
 
 I. MO. In medio. 
 
 IMP. Imperator. 
 
 IMPP. Imperatores viz. de duobus. 
 
 IMPPP. Imperatores viz. dc tribus. 
 
 IN. Inimicus, inscripsit, interea. 
 
 IN. A. P. XX. In argo pedes viginti. 
 
 IN. H. H. In hoc honorc. 
 
 I. N. H. DD. In honerem dedicat>ini. 
 
 I. O. M. D. Jovi Optimo maxiino, dedica- 
 tum. 
 
 I. R. Jovi regi, Junoni regias, jure ro- 
 gavit. 
 
 I. S. vel I. SN. In senatum, judicium solvi, 
 judicio senatus. 
 
 I. S. C. In senatus consulto, vel judex sa- 
 crarum cognitionum. 
 
 I. T. C. Intra tempus constitutum. 
 
 I. V. Justus vir. 
 
 IV. rd IIII. Quatuor. 
 
 IVC. Judicium. 
 
 JVL. Julius. 
 
 JVN. Junius. 
 
 IVV. Juventus, Juvenalis. 
 
 IVVEN. M. Juvenum moderator. 
 
 IIV. Duum-vir vel duum-viri. 
 
 II. V. DD. Duum viris dedicantibus. 
 
 III. V. vel III. VIR. Trium-vir, vel trium- 
 viri. 
 
 IIII. VIR. Quatuor-vir, vel quatuor-viri, 
 
 vel quatuor viratus. 
 mill. V.rd VIR. Sextura-vir, I'd se-vir, 
 
 vel sex-vir. 
 IDNE. vel IND. cut INDICT. Indictio, 
 
 vel indictione. 
 
 K. Calendae, Caeso, Caius, Caio, Cadius, 
 Carolus, calumnia, candidatus, caput, 
 cardo, castra, carissimus, clarissimus, 
 cohors, Carthago, &c. 
 
 K. AVG. Calendas Augusti. 
 
 K. DD. Castra dedicavit. 
 
 KARC. Career. 
 
 KK. Carissimi. 
 
 KM. Carissimus. 
 
 K. S. Carus suis. 
 
 K. Q. Calendar Quintiles. 
 
 KR. Chorus. 
 
 KR. AIM. N. Carus amicus nostcr. 
 
 KR. N. Carus Rex nostcr. 
 
 KS. Calendfe sextiles. 
 
 L. Lucius, Lucia, Lnelius, Lollius, lares, 
 Latinus, latum, legavit, lex, lector, logio, 
 lil)ens vel lubens, liber, libera, libertus, 
 liberta, libra, locavit, &lC. 
 
 L. A. Lex alia. 
 
 L. AN. Quinquaginta aunis. 
 
 LA. C. Latini coloni. 
 
 L. A. D. Locus alteri datus. 
 
 L. AG. Lex agraria. 
 
L. AN. Lucius Annius, td quinquaginta 
 
 anuis. 
 L. AP. Ludi Apollinares. 
 LAT. P. VIII. E. S. Latum pedes octo et 
 
 semis. 
 L. DIV. Locus divinus. 
 [>. yVDQ. Locus adquisitus. 
 L. D. D. D. Locus datus dccrcto decurio- 
 
 num. 
 LECTIST. Lextisternium. 
 LEG. I. Legio prima. 
 L. E. D. Lege ejus damnatus. 
 LEG. Legio. 
 
 LEG. PROV. Legatus provinciae. 
 L. F. Lucius filius tel filii. 
 LG. Legavit. 
 
 L. H. Locum hunc vel locas haeredum. 
 LIB. Libertas, libertus, rcl libcrti. 
 LIB. URB. Liberatori urbis. 
 Lie. Licinius. 
 LICT. Lictor. 
 L. I. D. A. C. Lex Julia de adulteriis coer- 
 
 cendis. 
 L. I. J. Locus in jure. 
 LL. Libentissime, libeii, libertas, Lrelius, 
 
 legibus, Lucii libertus, vcl Lucius liber- 
 tus. 
 L, L. OO. LingufE orientales. 
 L. M. Locus monumento, vel mortuorum. 
 L. N. Latini nominis. 
 LONG. P. VII. L. P. III. Longura pedes 
 
 septem latum pedestres. 
 LVD. SyEC. Ludi sfeculares. 
 LVPERC, Lupercalia. 
 LV. P. F. Ludos publicos fecit. 
 LX. Sexaginta. 
 
 M. Marcus, Marca, Martius, Mutius, ma- 
 ceria, magister, magistratus, magnus, 
 manes, mancipium, marmoreus, m;nti, 
 mater, maxinuis, memor, nicmoria, men- 
 sis, mens, miles, militavit, militia, niille, 
 missus, monumentum, mortuus. 
 
 MA. F. &CC. Manifestum fecit. 
 
 MAG. EQ. Magister cquitum. 
 
 MAG. MIL. Magister militum, 
 
 MAR.VLT. Maisultor. 
 
 MAT. P. FEC. ET. S. ET. S. P.O. E. Mater 
 piissima fecit, et sibi, ct suis posterisque 
 corum. 
 
 M. AVR. Rlarcus Aun-lius. 
 
 INIAX.CS. Maximus Ciisar. 
 
 MAX. POT. Maximus pontifcx. 
 
 M. B. Muliev l)i)ua. 
 
 Ml). Maiidadini. IM. D. Millc quingcnti. 
 
 MED. Mcdicua, inedius. 
 
 M. J'^. M. Manccps ejus numcipii. 
 
 MKNS. Menses. 
 
 MI'".H. i\lcrciiriiis, mercalor. 
 
 MI',U..S. INli-rnirio sacrum. 
 
 MEKK. Mercuriulia, mercatus. 
 
 MES.VII. DIE. B. XI. Mcnsibusbeplem, 
 dicbus iindecini. 
 
 ABBREVIATION. 
 
 M. F. IMarci filing. Mala Gde. Male fidus. 
 
 INI. H. Malus homo. 
 
 M. I. iSIaximo Jovi, matri Idex id Isidi, 
 
 militia? jus, monumentum jusslt. 
 MIL. COH. Miles cohortis. 
 MIL. IN. COH. Militavit in cohorte. 
 MIN. vd MINER. Minerva. 
 MMN. Matrimonium. 
 MMT. Monumentum. 
 M.MON.MNT. MONET. Moneta. 
 M. vel MS. Mensis vel menses. 
 MNF. Manifestus. 
 MNM. Manumissus. 
 M. O. P. Marito obsequens posuit. 
 M. P. II. Millia passuum duo. 
 M. S. Manu scriptum, meraorse sacrum. 
 M. S. P. Memoria; su;e posuit. 
 M. T. C. ve M. IVL. CIC. Marcus Tullius 
 
 Cicero. 
 MV, MN. MVN. MVNIC. Municipium 
 
 vel municeps. 
 M. VI. Mensibus sex. 
 MVL. B. Mulierbona. 
 MVL. M. Mulier mala. 
 MVL. P. Mulier pessinui. 
 
 N. Neptunus, Numerius, Numeria, No- 
 nius, Nero, nam, non, natus, natio, ne- 
 fastus, nepos, neplis, niger, nomen, nonie, 
 noster, numerarius, numerator, numcrus, 
 nununus r>el numisma, numen. 
 NAT. Natalia, natio vel natione. 
 NAV. Navis vcl navibus. 
 N. B. Numeravit bivus pro vivus. 
 NB. vel. NBL. Nobilis. 
 N. C. Neri) Ctesar, ve Nero Claudius. 
 N. C. C. Non calumniae causa. 
 NEG, vd NEGOT. Negotiator. 
 NEP. Nepos. 
 NEP. S. Neptuno sacrum. 
 N. F. C. Nostra lidci commissum. 
 N. F. N. Nobili familia natus. 
 N. H. Notus homo, 
 N. L. Non liquet, non licet, non long^, 
 
 nominis Latini. 
 N. M. Nonius Macriuus, non malum, m u 
 
 minus. 
 NN. Nostri. 
 
 NNH vd Ml. Noslrorum. 
 NO. Nobis re/ nostrum. 
 NOB!'.. Nobilibus. 
 NOB. G. Nobilis geueratus, scu nobilis 
 
 genere. 
 NOB. FN. Nobili familiil natus. 
 NOBR. November. 
 NON. AP. Nonis Aprilis. 
 N.l'. Nihil potest; 
 NO. Nunuiue, nusquam, nunquam. 
 NK. Nosier. 
 
 N. V. N. D. N. P. O. Neipie xemlelur, ne- 
 que donabitur, aequo piguori obligabi- 
 tur. 
 NVi». Nuptia;. 
 
ABBREVIATION. 
 
 O. OflicJum, optimus, olla, omnis, optio, 
 
 ordo, ossa, ostendit, &c. 
 OB. Obiit, Obriacum, vd Obieziacum, 
 
 orbem, obitur. 
 OB. C. S. Ob cives servatos. 
 OB. M. E. Ob merita ejus. 
 OB.ME. P.E.C. Ob menta pietatis et 
 
 Concordia. 
 O. B. O. Omnia bona. 
 OCT. Octavianus, October. 
 OD. Ordo. 
 O. E. B. Q. C. Ossa ejus bene quiescant 
 
 condita. 
 O. H. F. Omnibus honoribus functus. 
 O. L. Opera locavit. 
 OM. Omnium. 
 O. M. Optimus maximus. 
 OMA. Omnia. 
 OMIS. Omnibus. 
 ONA. Omnia. 
 
 ONT. IMP. Ornamentum imperiale. 
 OO. Omnes, omnino, oportuit, oportebit. 
 O. O. Optimus ordo. 
 OP. ABS. Opus absolutum. 
 OP. Oppidum, opiter, oportet, optimus, 
 
 opus. 
 OR. Ornamentjum, ornato vel ordo. 
 ORB. PAR. Orbati parentes. 
 ORD. Ordo, ordiuis. 
 OR.M. Ordomilitum. 
 O. V. D. Omni vertuti dedito. 
 O. V. B. F. Optima viventi fecit. 
 
 P. Publius, passus, patria, pecunia, pedes, 
 perpetuus, pius,plebs, populus, pontifex, 
 posuit, potestas, prseses, prastor, pridie, 
 pro, post, provincia, puer, publicus, pub- 
 lice, primus, &c. 
 
 PA. Pater, patricius vel pater patriae vel 
 pater patratus. 
 
 PACE. P. R. Pace populo Romano. 
 
 PD. vel PA. DIG. Patriciabus dignitas, 
 
 PAE. ET. ARR. COS. Peeto et Arrio con- 
 sulibus. 
 
 P. A. F. A. Postulo an fias auctor. 
 
 PAR. Parens, parilia. Parthicus, paren- 
 tum, 
 
 PAT. Patricius. 
 
 PAT. PAT. Pater patria. 
 
 PBLC. Publicus. 
 
 PC. Procurator. 
 
 P. C. Pactum conventum, vel pecunia con- 
 stituta. 
 
 P. C. Post consultum, patres conscripti, 
 patronus colonae, pouendum curavit, 
 pra;fectus corporis, pactum conyentum. 
 
 P. D. Publice dedit. 
 
 PEC. Pecunia, vel peculium. 
 
 PED. CXVS. Pedes centum quindecim 
 semis. 
 
 PEG. Peregrinus. 
 
 P. F. Pater iamilia. 
 
 P. H. C. Publicus honor curandu!?. 
 
 P. II. cc. L. Pondo duarum semis libra- 
 rum. 
 
 P. II. " Pondo duo semis et trientc. 
 
 PICEN. Piceni. 
 
 PIEN. Pientissimus. 
 
 P. KAL. Pridie Kalendas. 
 
 POM. Pompeius. 
 
 PON. MAX. Pontifex maximus. 
 
 POP. Populus. 
 
 POSTH. Posthumus. 
 
 P. P. P. C. Propria pecunia pouendum 
 curavit. 
 
 P. Q. Post quam. 
 
 P. R. Populus Romanus. 
 
 PR. Prffitor. 
 
 PR. PR. Prfefectus prfctorii, 
 
 P.R.C.A.DCCCXLIIII. Post Romam 
 conditam annus octingentis quadraginta 
 quatuor. 
 
 PRJE. VRB. Pajfectus urbis. 
 
 PR^. PRiES. Prajfectus praesidii. 
 
 PRO. vel PROCOS. Proconsul. 
 
 P. PR. Pro-prastor. 
 
 P. PRR. Propraitores. 
 
 PR. N. Pro nepos. 
 
 PR. NON. APR. Pridie nonas Aprilis. 
 
 PRID. KAL. vel K. Pridie Kalendas. 
 
 PRS. Prajses. 
 
 PRSS. Prassides vel Pra^tores. 
 
 P. R. V. X. Populi Romani rata decenna- 
 lia. 
 
 PS. Passus, plebisciium. 
 
 P. S. Posuit sibi. 
 
 P. S. F. C. Publica saluti faciendum cura- 
 vit, vel publico, vel proprio sumptu faci- 
 endum curavit. 
 
 PVB. Publicus. 
 
 PUD. Pudicus, pudica, pudor. 
 
 PUR. Purpureus. 
 
 Q. Quinquennalis, quartus, quintis, quan- 
 do, quantum, qui, qu;e, quod, Quintus, 
 Quintius, Quintilianus, quaestor, qua- 
 dratum, qu;esitus. 
 
 Q. B. AN. XXX. Qui bixit, id est vixit, 
 annos triginta. 
 
 Q. B. F. Quare bonum factum. 
 
 Q. B. M. V. Qu<-B bene niecum vixit. 
 
 Q. F. Quiuti filius. 
 
 Q. L. Quinti libertus. 
 
 QM. Quomodo, quern, quouiam. 
 
 QN. A. N. N. Quandoque neque ais nequc 
 negas. 
 
 QQ. Quinquennalis. 
 
 QQ. V. Quoquo versum. 
 
 Q. II. Qu;T?stor reipublicae. 
 
 Q. V. A. III.M. N. Qui vel qua; vixit an- 
 nos tres, mense. 
 
 QV. Quartus. 
 
 QVIR. Quirites. 
 
ABBREVIATION. 
 
 II. Roma, Romanus, rex, reges, Rogulus, 
 raticinalis, Ravenna;, recta, recto, re- 
 <Hiii'toriuni, retro, rostra, rudera, &€. 
 
 1(C. Rescriiitum. 
 
 H. C. Komana civitas. 
 
 K. D. Regis domus. 
 
 KEF. C. Reficiendum curavit. 
 
 Kl'lG. Kegio, vel regi. 
 
 REI. M. Rei militaris. 
 
 K. P. RESP. Respublica. 
 
 HET. P. XX. Retro pedes viginti. 
 
 REC. rtHiEQ. Requiescit. 
 
 REG. F. Regis filius. 
 
 RMS. Romanus. 
 
 ROB. Robigatia, Robigo. 
 
 RS. Responsum. 
 
 R^ F. Rufus. 
 
 S. Sacrum, sacellum, scriptus, semis, sena- 
 tus, sepultus, sepukriim, sanctus, servis, 
 serva, servius, sequitur, sibi, situs, solvit; 
 sub, stipendium, licc. 
 
 SAC. Sacerdos, sacrilicium. 
 
 SyE. rcl aiEC. Saicuhnn, sa?culares. 
 
 SAL. Salus. 
 
 S. (;. Senatus consultum. 
 
 SCI. Scipio. 
 
 S. D. Sacrum diis. 
 
 S EQ. «. O. ET. P. R. Senatus, eques- 
 ter(iue ordo et populus Romanus. 
 
 SEMP. Sempronius. 
 
 SER. Servius, Sergius. 
 
 SEX. Sextus. 
 
 SL.SVL.SYL. Sylla. 
 
 S. L. Sacer ludus, sine lingua. 
 
 S. M. Sacrum manibus, sine manibus, sine 
 malo. 
 
 SN. Senatus, sententia, sine. 
 
 S. O. Sine occasio. 
 
 S. P. Sine pecunia. 
 
 SP. Spurius. 
 
 S. P. Q. U. Senatus populusque Romanus. 
 
 S. P. D. Salutein ]>luriniam dicit. 
 
 S. T. A. Sine vel sub tutoris auctoritate. 
 
 SLT. Scilicet. 
 
 S. E. T. L. Sit ei terra levis. 
 
 SIC. V. SIC. X. Sicut quinquennalia, sic 
 dfccnnalia. 
 
 SS'l'Vl'.XVlIII. Slipendiisnoviiudccim. 
 
 ST. XXXV. Stipendiis triginta quinque. 
 
 'I 
 
 . 'I'ilus, Tiliiis, Tuiiius, tantuni, tc 
 tibi, ter, t(;stainenlum, titulus, termi 
 triariu^;,tril)unus,turiiia,tut(ir, lulclii 
 
 . A. 'I'll us iiMuus rii tutoris aucturita 
 
 A 15. 'rabula. 
 
 AKVL. Tabuhuius. 
 
 Alt. Tan|uiniiis. 
 
 . AN'd". Tulcia Au;;us(a'. 
 
 IS. I>. I''. 'I'llii (luU'issiiiiii lilio. 
 
 It. PL. 'rribuiiim picbis. 
 
 IJ, r.rri.n/'I'li;. 'lilMriu... 
 
 rra, 
 nus, 
 ,.^c. 
 Ic. 
 
 T. F. Titus Flavins. Titi filius. 
 
 THR. Thrax. 
 
 TI. F. Tiberii filius. 
 
 TI. N. Tiberii nepos. 
 
 TIB. CS. Tiberius Caesar. 
 
 TIB. CL. Tiberius Claudius. 
 
 T. L. Titus Livius. Titi libertus. 
 
 TIT. Titulus. 
 
 TM. Tantum terminis,thermeE. 
 
 T. M. Terminis, therma'. 
 
 T-M. P. Terminum posuit vel terminus 
 
 positus. 
 TM. D. D. Terminum dedicavit, id dcdi- 
 
 cante vel therma* dedicata?. 
 TR. PC). Tribunitia potestas. 
 TRAJ. Trajcuius. 
 TR. ^R. Tribuni asrarii. 
 TRV. CAP. Triumviri capitales. 
 TRY. MON. Triumviri monetales. 
 TUL. TuUus vd Tullius. 
 TR.V. Triumvir. 
 TT. QTS. Titus Quintus. 
 © vel TH. AN. Mortuus anno. 
 ®\iii. Defunctus viginti tribus. 
 
 TVL. Tullius. 
 
 TVL. H. Tullius Hostilius. 
 
 TVR. Turma. 
 
 V. Quinque, quints, quintum. 
 
 v. Vitellius, Volera, Volero, Volusus, Vo- 
 
 piscus, vale, valeo ; Vesta, vestalis, ves- 
 
 tis, vester, vesteranus, vir, \irgo, vivus, 
 
 vixit, votum, vovit, urbs, usus, uxor, vic- 
 
 tus, victor, Js:c. 
 V. A. Veterano assignatum. 
 V.A. I. D. XI. Vixit annum unum, dies 
 
 undccim. 
 "VAL. Valerius vd Valerianus. 
 VAL. CS. Valerius Ca-sar. 
 V. A. L. Vixit annos quinquaginta. 
 VAT. Vates vel vatum. 
 VB. Viro bono. 
 Y. B. \. Viri boni arbitratus. 
 V. B. F. Vir bona> fidei. 
 V. C. Vale conjux, vivens curavit, vir con- 
 
 sularis, vir clarissinius, (piinluui consul, 
 
 usu ci'.piti, urbis condila, 
 V. D. ViNusdedit. 
 V. CC. Voluerunt constilcs. 
 v. 1). A. ^'alt> dulci amico. 
 V. J)l). Votoiiedicatur. 
 VDL. Videlicet. 
 V. DICT. Vir diclatorius. 
 V. D. N. V. Vale dicus nostr.r urbis. 
 YE. V<Mba. 
 V. E. Vir egngius nut exccllens, visum 
 
 est, venuu etiam. 
 VI'^SP. \'fsiiasiatius. 
 \ I'.T. VeUranus 1(7 Vetaria. 
 VET. AVG. N. Veteranus Augustus nos- 
 
 Iri. 
 
 J 
 
ABB 
 
 VET. LEG. S. Veteranus legionis secun- 
 
 dns. 
 VIC. Victores, victor, vel victoria. 
 
 VI. V. Sextum-vir. 
 
 VII. V. Septem-vir. 
 
 VIII. VIR. Octum-vir. 
 
 VII. VIR. EPVLO. Septem-vir Epulo- 
 num. 
 
 VIX. A. FF. C. Vixit annos ferme cen- 
 tum. 
 
 VIX. A. LUX. Vixit annis quinquaginta 
 octo. 
 
 VIX. AN. X . Vixit annos triginta. 
 
 VIX. A. III. M. XI. D. XV. Vixit annis 
 tribiis, mensibus undecim, diebus quin- 
 decim. 
 
 ULPS. Ulpianus, Ulpius. 
 
 VL. Videlicet. 
 
 V. M. Vir magnificus, vivens mandavit, 
 volens merito. 
 
 VM. Vestrum. 
 
 V. MUN. Vias munivit. 
 
 V. N. Quinto nonas. 
 
 V. N. V. Viro nostro urbis. 
 
 VOL. Volcania, Voltinia, Volusus. 
 
 VONE. Bonce. 
 
 VOT. V. Votis quinquennalibus. 
 
 VOT. V. MULT. X. Votis quinquennali- 
 bus, multis decennalibus. 
 
 VOT. X. Vota decennalia. 
 
 VOT. XX. vel XXX. rel XXXX. Vota 
 vicennalia, aut tricennalia, aut quadra- 
 genalia. 
 
 V. R. Urbs Roma, votum reddidit. 
 
 VV. CC. Viri clarissimi. 
 
 UX. Uxor. 
 
 X, Decern, denarius. 
 
 X. AN. Annalibus decennalibus. 
 
 X. P. Decern pondo, vel decern pedes. 
 
 X.R. OCT. Decimo Kalendas Octobris. 
 
 X. M. Decern millia. 
 
 X. P. Decern pondo. 
 
 X. V. Decimvir. 
 
 XV. VIR. Quindecimvir. 
 
 XV. Quindecim. 
 
 Among the best books on the manner of 
 reading and deciphering the inscriptions 
 of the Romans, a subject so useful to the 
 architect and antiquary, are M. Valerii 
 Probi, de Notis Romanonim interpret. ^yhich 
 may be found at page 1494 of Putchen's 
 Grammar. This treatise has also appeared 
 in a separate form at Venice in 1499, and 
 1518 in 4to. and at Paris in 1510 in 8vo. 
 Traite des Inscriptions, par Jacq. Ravenau, 
 Paris, 16G6, in 12mo. Discoiirs siir le Style 
 des Inscriptiotis, par Boileau. De Stylo In- 
 scriptionorum latinarum, libri III. a Stef. 
 Ant. MoRCELLi, Rome 1780, in folio. This 
 excellent work also contains examples of 
 iuscriptionij and abbreviations, both ancient 
 
 ABR 
 
 and modern. A_lp}iabetum Tironinnum ; sire, 
 Methodus Notas Tironis e.rplica7tdi; a D. P. 
 Carpentier, Paris, 1747, in fo. with plates, 
 and the third vol. Fabricii Bibliotheca Ui- 
 iina, lib. ii. c. ix. vol. ii. page 113. 
 
 See also Inscription, Hieroglyphic, La- 
 pidary, Numismatics, &:c. 
 
 Abolla. {anJSoXy], or avafioXi), Gr. abol- 
 la, Lat.) In costume. An ancient military 
 garment worn by the Greeks and Romans. 
 It is also used by some authors, for the 
 cloak worn by senators and philosophers, 
 and named (a bulla) from the bulhe with 
 which they were decorated. There is great 
 variance in the opinions of critics and anti- 
 quaries as to the form and varieties of this 
 garment. By some it has been thought to 
 be a species of tog^a or gown ; by Nonnius 
 and others a kind of pullium or cloak. 
 Varro and Martial consider the tGg:a to 
 have been a garment of peace ; while the 
 Abolla was generally a part of the camp 
 equipage. There seem to have been vari- 
 ous kinds of abollte, appropriated to differ- 
 ent degrees of persons. Kings appear to 
 have used it; for Caligula is said to have 
 been offended with Ptolemy for appearing 
 at the public games in a purple Abolla,v,hich 
 attracted the public attention from the jea- 
 lous tyrant. 
 
 Abraxas or Abrasax. (a;/3pa?ae,Gr.) In 
 archaiology. A cabalistic compound word, 
 denoting a power which presides over 365 
 others, the number of days in a j ear ; 
 made up according to the Grecian nume- 
 ration of the following letters: a 1, /3 2, 
 p 100, a\,l 60, a 1, c 200, which added 
 together make the mystical number 365. 
 This word was used as an amulet or charm 
 by the disciples of Basil, father of the 
 monks of Pontus and others of his sect. It 
 is also appropriated to a sculptured stone 
 on which the word is engraven, and some- 
 times the names of saints, angels, gods, and 
 even that of Jehovah himself. It is believed 
 that the Abraxas originally came from 
 Egypt, and that specimens as old as the 
 third century are still extant. 
 
 By this name are also known a descrip- 
 tion of small statues, sculptured gems, and 
 stones, with the word Abraxas engraved on 
 them, and ornamented with figures of Egyp- 
 tian divinities, combined with Zoroastical 
 and Judaical symbols, and a whimsical 
 combination of Greek, Phoenician, He- 
 brew, and Latin letters, without any ap- 
 parent meaning. They were used as amu- 
 lets, and were supposed to have great efti- 
 cacy in driving away flies. They are mostly 
 of a coarse and ill designed workmanship, 
 and are supposed by some critics and an- 
 tiquaries not to be of higher antiquity than 
 ihc time of the Gnostics and Basilidiaus in 
 
ABU 
 
 the reign of Hadrian. Ir, tho Royal Li- 
 brary at Paris there are several specimens 
 oi Abraxa.s, as well as in many private and 
 public collections in England. RIacarils 
 and Chiflet have published treatises on 
 them ; and the work of the latter has nu- 
 merous representations of them correctly 
 engraved. Montfaucon has also contri- 
 buted to the knowledge of this subject, by 
 numerous republications of and additions 
 to former works. 
 
 If the Abraxas originally came from 
 Egjpt, as is believed, it may be regarded 
 not only as 5. curiosity fit for the cabinet, 
 but as one of those rich spoils of time v. hich 
 may illustrate the history of that country. 
 
 Absis. In arcliiteciure. See Apsis. 
 
 Absoiujei). {uhsorptus, hat, absorbe,embUj 
 Fr.) In painting. Sucked or swallowed up, 
 sunk in, imbibed. The French critics ap- 
 ply this epithet to a picture, when such a 
 portion of the oil has evaporated or sunk 
 into the canvass or ground on which it is 
 painted, that it leaves the colour flat and 
 the touches indistinct. To remedy this 
 defect, the picture should be well cleaned, 
 rubbed over with a coating of lubricous oil, 
 and varnished. The term is nearly syno- 
 nymous with our picture dealers' phrase, 
 " chilled," or " sunk in." 
 
 Absorbent GROUNDS, are picture grounds 
 prepared either on board or canvass, to have 
 the power of drying up or imbibing the re- 
 dundant oil from the colours, for the sake 
 of expedition, or to increase the brilliancy 
 of the colours : but being mostly prepared 
 with dcstemper or water colour mixture, 
 they are not reckoned so durable as cloth or 
 panel prepared in oil. 
 
 Abutment, (abuttan, Sax. from Bo'ca.) 
 In architecture. The extremities of an arch 
 or bridge. The abutments or butments of 
 a bridge are the extremities ijy which it is 
 joined to the main land or sides of a river, 
 and arc sometimes natural, and sometimes 
 artificial. Natural abutments are rocks 
 sulliciently higli on the banks of a river ; 
 or solid earth, masonry, C\c. to resist 
 tiie drift or shoot of the arch or series 
 of arches, according to tlie disposition of 
 the place and the wants of tiie bridge, 
 'i'liusc must be niiidc st-curc, iininovoahle, 
 and rather more than sullicient to resist tlu; 
 drift of the adjoining arcli ; for if ever obe- 
 tlionce to the ni()ll(t, ",1 lilUe stron^urthan 
 slniuj^ cnttiiiili" hv. requisiCe, it is in Hie ye- 
 leclion or construction of tiio abutments of 
 a briilge. 
 
 For the mathematical principles on wiiieh 
 • hey should lie constructed, tiie student is 
 referred to tlu; article " liriilfic" in the i':N- 
 <;vcix)iM-;i)iA AlinuorouTANA, and to the 
 works of the various architects and ma- 
 
 ACA 
 
 thematicians who have written on bridge 
 building, as Pallvdio, Bei.udor, &c. ; Dr. 
 Hutton's Matheinutical Dictionary ; The 
 Principles of Bridges, 6cc. by C. Hutton, 
 F.R.S. London, 1801. A Treatise on the 
 Properties of Arches and their Abutment 
 Piers, ifc. ^f. with plates, by Samuel AV.vre, 
 Architect, London, 1809. Tracts on Vaults 
 and Bridges, by the same author, 1822. Short 
 Principles fur the Architecture of Stone 
 Bridges, &c. with plates, by Stephen Riou, 
 Esq. Architect, London, 1770. A Treatise 
 on Building in Water, by George Se>iple, 
 Dublin, 1776. Geometry applied to Build- 
 ing, by Battey Langley, Architect, Lon- 
 don, 1726. Essay on Bridge Building, by 
 James Savage, publisiied in the Essays of 
 the London Architectural Society, Lo^DON, 
 1808; Essay on Foundations, by James 
 Elmes, M. R. I. A. published in the same 
 volume, &:c. &:c. ike. 
 
 Acacl\ or Akaklv. (^aKUKta, Gr.) In ar- 
 chaiology. Something resembling a roll or 
 bag, seen on the medals of the Greek and 
 Roman emperors from the time of Anasla- 
 tius. Critics and antiquaries are at vari- 
 ance concerning the Acacia, some thinking 
 it a handkeixhief to be used as a signal, 
 others taking it for a roll or volume of 
 w ritings or petitions ; and others as being 
 a bag tilled with earth to remind them of 
 their mortality. 
 
 Academy. (c'lKa^qpia, Gr. academia, Lat. 
 academic, Fr.) An assembly or society of 
 persons associated for the promotion of 
 any art or science ; so called from the pub- 
 lic school, garden, villa, or grove in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of Athens, called aica^epia, 
 which was built by Cadmus tlie Phuiii- 
 cian, or, as some say, by Academus a phi- 
 losopher. In the language of the arts, 
 those places are called academies in which 
 students arc instructed in the arts of de- 
 sign. In what is commonly called an aca- 
 demy of jiainting, painting, properly so 
 called, is seldom taught; drawing or de- 
 sign, which is the basis of the art, is more 
 properly the duty of the student. An aca- 
 demy of arts, to be complete, should have 
 in its establishment a certain number of 
 approved masters, « ho are called profes- 
 sors, and whose business it is to instruct 
 the students in the dillerent branches of sci- 
 ence, necessarily connected with the arts of 
 <lesign ; but iMincii)ally in a well grounded 
 kiio\\ledge of the hunum figure, which is 
 indispensably necessary to the painter, the 
 sculptor, and the «ngniver, and not totally 
 unnecessary to tlu' architect. 
 
 The knowledge of the bones and princi- 
 pal muscles of the human body is ab.so- 
 liilely necessary to forward the ails of de- 
 sign; and without a knowledge of perspec- 
 
tive, it is impossible to execute either an 
 historical subject, or even a landscape, with 
 any certain degree of truth. In an aca- 
 demy there should be professors of ana- 
 tomy and perspective, besides the more ap- 
 parently necessary ones of painting, of sculp- 
 ture, and of architecture ; which last should 
 not be slighted by the painter, as he often 
 has to introduce buildings in his pictures. 
 These professors should instruct the stu- 
 dents not only in the theoretical rules of 
 art, but also in the practical. To make 
 such an establishment perfect, there should 
 be added « professor of antiquities, and of 
 ancient literature, to explain the customs, 
 the manners, and the costume of differ- 
 ent ages and of different people ; pro- 
 fessors of geometry and the mathematical 
 sciences ; of the character and expression of 
 the passions, who should unite the task of 
 characteristic grouping of the figures (see 
 Group) with pictorial taste; nor should 
 there be omitted in a complete academy of 
 arts a professor of history and historical lite- 
 rature, as connected with the^ne arts. 
 
 Such an establishment should undoubt- 
 edly possess a good and sufficient library 
 of books, particularly of designs. The 
 younger students should be instructed in 
 drawing at large from good originals, 
 either drawn or engraved, the different 
 portions of the human body, as heads, eyes, 
 noses, ears, and at length entire figures, to 
 use them to the exercise of the portcrayon. 
 They should then be instructed in the art 
 of drawing from plaster models, or other 
 detached statues. 
 
 For such purpose, an academy should 
 have a collection of casts or originals, of 
 the best and most celebrated of the ancient 
 and modern sculptors, to form the eye and 
 taste of the students, and to teach them the 
 art of distributing the lights and shadows, 
 and the different portions of the human 
 body in single figures or in groups. 
 
 An academy should also be provided 
 with living models of different characters, 
 both male and female, for the more ad- 
 vanced students, which the professor 
 should place on an elevated platform, in 
 such positions as he thinks proper. Here 
 it may be right to observe, that it will be 
 preferable to inform the model of the in- 
 tended position that he may place himself 
 in it with ease, rather than to move his 
 limbs to the position. This is generally 
 called setting the model. When the model 
 is set, and the students seated round in the 
 most advantageous forms (which places the 
 students again resume till they have finish- 
 ed their drawings), the professor should 
 examine occasionally each pupil's drawing, 
 
 ACADEMY. 
 
 and point out to him its defects, and at tho 
 same time direct him where he appears to 
 be at a loss. When the model is placed at 
 night, the light should be fixed in such a 
 manner as best to imitate the broad clear 
 light of the sun, that the sliadows may be 
 thrown clear and distinct, and should be 
 properly concealed from the eyes of the 
 students. The drawings generally made 
 on these occasions are on a coloured pa- 
 per, of a middle tint, the lights raised 
 by white, and the shadows lowered by 
 black or red chalks. Some artists have 
 of late in the model academy, at Somerset 
 House, introduced the practice of painting 
 in black and white, and some in the natu- 
 ral colours from the living model, not only 
 in the day time, but by lamp light. To 
 render an academy of painting complete, 
 there should be attached a good picture 
 gallery, as a school of colouring and paint- 
 ing; and a collection of prints after the 
 best masters, as examples of distribution. 
 
 grouping, light, shade, expression, &c. 
 Although an academy may not at its first 
 establishment have all these requisites at 
 command, yet they may obviate many dif- 
 ficulties, by procuring access to celebrated 
 galleries for the students, by means of ad- 
 mission tickets. 
 
 In some academies, to a school of design 
 or drawing, is added an academy of artists, 
 that is to say, a society of men distinguish- 
 ed for their abilities in the arts, under the 
 patronage and protection of the govern- 
 ment of their country ; where the primary 
 intention is not so much the elementary in- 
 struction of pupils, as the encouragement 
 and patronizing youthful artists, already 
 instructed in the first principles of art. Of 
 such a description is the Royal Academy 
 of London. Others on the continent, to a 
 similar establishment, add that of a society 
 for the encouragement of arts and able ar- 
 tists, and of procuring treatises, lectures, 
 and able disquisitions on the arts. The 
 members meet at stated times for the pur- 
 pose of conferring on objects interesting to 
 and connected with the arts, and recipro- 
 cally communicate their observations, sen- 
 timents, and discoveries, in the course of 
 their practice, or results of their experi- 
 ments. There has not yet been an academy 
 of arts conducted on the same plan as aca- 
 demies of sciences, although such an esta- 
 blishment would be eminently useful. 
 
 The Venetian painters were the first that 
 formed a regular association for the study 
 of the arts, erecting a society under the 
 name and patronage of St. Luke in 1315. 
 They did not assume the name of an aca- 
 demy, but satisfied themselves with the 
 
ACADEMY. 
 
 title; of " The Society of St. Luke, founded 
 at riurcnce, 1350." 
 
 This society was greatly encouraged by 
 the government, and taken under the espe- 
 «ial patronage and protection of the illus- 
 trious house of the Medici. Geo. Nelli 
 founded also at Florence, in 1758, an aca- 
 demy of architecture. Italy, besides, pos- 
 sessed several academies of painting: that 
 of Rome established by Fed. Zlcchkro in 
 1593, suspended in 1599, on the death of 
 Flamvacca, and reestablished in 1715. 
 The academy of arts of Milan generally 
 attribute its formation to Leonardo da 
 Vinci, who died in 1540 ; but it appears 
 from authentic documents to have existed 
 prior to the birth of that great painter. 
 That of Bologna was founded 1712; of 
 Parma in 1716, and remodeled in 17G0 ; 
 that of Padua in 1710 ; of Mantua in 1769, 
 under the title of the Theresian Academy ; 
 that of Turin was founded in 1777 ; and 
 the French academy of painting at Rome 
 in 1CG6 ; and several others less known. 
 In France, Louis XIV. founded at Paris 
 the Royal Academy of Painting in 1648, 
 and the Royal Academy of Architecture in 
 1671. Ever since the year 1391, the painters 
 at Paris had established themselves into a 
 society called the Academy of St. Luke, 
 which had many privileges granted to 
 them and confirmed at various periods, by 
 diflerent kings of France. 
 
 In 1781, there was one established at 
 Bordeaux; the success or attainments of 
 w Jiich I cannot learn. In Spain there was 
 an academy of painting established at Ma- 
 drid in 1752, which produced many emi- 
 nent i)ainters. {Vide Sciiooi..) 
 
 In Great Britain the arts flourished in a 
 variable manner, from a grand attempt at 
 fixing them in the kingdom by Charles I., 
 till the establishment of an academy at 
 Kdinliurgh in 1754, whicli is not at present 
 in being. This attempt was succeeded by 
 an association of artists in London in 1760. 
 But we had no regular academy till the 
 year 1768, when King George 111. ajjjirov- 
 ed of a plan for the establishment of the 
 l{oy;il Aciidemy, which has met with a 
 <oabi(l«;ra!jle degree of success, and is now 
 in u flourishing state. (Vide English 
 Sriiooi.) 
 
 For more ample particulars of this aca- 
 demy, me J*iiiN(K Hoaue's " Inquiry into 
 the jinstnt State of Arts of De.<ii;;n in I'nff- 
 liuid, London, Mvo. 1H()6," under the head 
 i>( " The llsltildithnirnl, Design, and Pro- 
 uresM if the Itoijal Aeudemy of Arts ; and <f 
 its Annual I'.xhihilions." Also ^^ Academic 
 Annidn of I'ninliiif,^, Snili'lnn , and Aychitec- 
 iure, puhli.shid hij Authonhf nf the lun/nl 
 
 Academy of Arts ; collected and arranged by 
 Prince Hoare, Secretary for Foreign Cor- 
 respondence to tlie Royal Academy. London, 
 4to. 1809." Several other establishments 
 have been founded in Great Britain for the 
 encouragement of the Fine Arts ; the prin- 
 cipal of which are, the Society for the En- 
 couragement of the Arts, &c. in the Adel- 
 phi; the Northern Society for the Encou- 
 ragement of the Fine Arts at Leeds ; the 
 British Institution for promoting the Fine 
 Arts in the United Kingdom, held in Pall 
 Mall, where they have a spacious gallery 
 and an excellent school for colouring, be- 
 sides an annual exhibition and sale of the 
 works of British Artists ; the Architectu- 
 ral Society, &c. ; a similar society and 
 annual exhibition at Bath ; one in Scot- 
 land ; an Academy of Arts in Dublin, in 
 1753 ; and the newly formed Society of 
 British Artists, who meet and have exhibi- 
 tions of their w orks at their new and spa- 
 cious galleries in Sufl'olk Street, Pall Mall 
 East, designed by Mr. Elmes in 1823 ; be- 
 sides others of smaller consequence at Li- 
 verpool, Leeds, and other large commer- 
 cial towns. 
 
 There were formerly in the Low Coun- 
 tries academies of arts at Ghent, Bruges, 
 Antwerp, &c. Amsterdam has also a good 
 school of design, which was erected into 
 a royal academy, by Louis Buonaparte 
 when King of Holland ; and at Brussels 
 was founded an academy of polite arts in 
 1770. In Denmark the academy of polite 
 arts at Copenhagen was founded in 1738, 
 but it was not till 1754 that it obtained a 
 coniirmation of its privileges, and an ac- 
 knowledgment from the crown. The im- 
 perial academy of St. Petersburg was 
 founded in 1757, remodeled and improved 
 in 1764. In Germany the principal aca- 
 demies of the fine arts are, that of Nu- 
 remburg, which is reckoned to be the 
 most ancient in that country, having been 
 founded in 1662 ; the academy of arts 
 at Berlin was founded in 1694, finally 
 constituted an academy in 1699, aud re- 
 established in 1786; that of Dresden, 
 founded in 1697, and united (o that of 
 Leipsigin 1761; that of Augsbnrgii, found- 
 ed in 1712, and revived with additional 
 strength in 1779. Besides these, the Em- 
 peror Joseph 1. foumled that of Vieiiiui, 
 which was finally eslai)lished by Charles 
 VI. in 1726; that of Maiiiieim, founded in 
 1757; the academy of Stulgard, founded 
 in 1761, and unifcd fo thai of Ciiarles in 
 1776; that of Munich, founded in 1770; 
 that of Cassel in 1776 ; and that of Wei- 
 mar in 17SI ; and there are few cities of 
 Gciuiany but ha>e sciiools of design us 
 
ACA 
 
 preparatory to the greater academies of 
 Arts. 
 
 Upon the utility of academies or gratui- 
 tous schools for instruction in the arts, the 
 best works are as follows: "SurV Utility 
 de V Etablissement des Ecoles gratuites," by 
 Descamp, Paris, 1768. " Essai Philoso- 
 phique sur l' Etablissement des Ecoles gra- 
 tuities de Dessin, by Rozoi." The third 
 volume of the work of M. De Ramdohr, 
 intitled " Uber Mahlerei und Bildhaucr- 
 kunst in Rom." (On the Sculpture and 
 Painting of Rome.) Leipzig, 1807. The 
 before cited work of Mr. Prince Hoare. 
 " Barry's Letter to the Dilletanti Society," 
 since published in a collection of his works, 
 4to. by Cadell and Davies, London, 1809. 
 " Robertson on the Fine Arts," 4to. Lon- 
 don, 1784. " A Letter on the Subject of En- 
 couragement of the Fine Arts, by Josiah 
 BoYDEix, Esq." printed in London but not 
 published, &c. &:c. &c. 
 
 Academy figure. In painting. A draw- 
 ing or painting in light and shade, made 
 after a living model, regulated by the rules 
 and orders of an academy. 
 
 Acanthus. laKavOoc, Gr. acanthus, Lat. 
 acanthe, Fr.] In architecture. An ornament 
 representing the leaves of the herb bear's 
 breech, which are large and shaggy. It 
 was at first used by the ancients as an 
 ornament to friezes and cornices, and at 
 length to the other members of architec- 
 ture, but is principally employed as the 
 grand ornament of the Corinthian and com- 
 posite capitals. {See those articles.) The 
 Greeks used for this purpose the leaves of 
 the cultivated acanthus (acanthus mollis), 
 commonly called brank ursine or bear's 
 breech, fi-om its shagginess, which grew 
 spontaneously both in Greece and Italy. 
 The gothic architects and sculptors, on the 
 contrary, have used the wild and prickly 
 acanthus (acanthus spinosa), being smaller 
 in its parts, and more suited to the little- 
 ness of their styles of art. Although 
 architecture has made the greatest use of 
 the acanthus, yet the other arts have also 
 adopted it as a chaste and splendid deco- 
 ration. We find among the ancients, as 
 well as among the moderns, various in- 
 struments, household furniture, and uten- 
 sils, ornamented with leaves of the acan- 
 thus. These artists, in preserving the ge- 
 neral form and character of the plant, have 
 made their sinuosities and curves more or 
 less prominent to suit their purposes, and 
 have thus given them a more sculpturesque 
 effect. In the Corinthian capital they 
 are executed with more fidelity and ele- 
 gance : the whole plant surrounds, with 
 its aspiring leaves, the vase or bell of the 
 
 ACC 
 
 capital, as if attempting to lift up the aba- 
 cus that covers the whole ; they then turn 
 down and form themselves into graceful 
 volutes. 
 
 Ancient authors mention statues as hav- 
 ing been carved from the wood of the 
 acanthus. But we nuist not thereby un- 
 derstand that they meant this acanthus, 
 which is not a ligneous plant. M. Hcyno 
 has conjectured, with much probability, 
 that it is a species of the acacia (robinia) 
 that is spoken of, but it is still a matter of 
 doubt. 
 
 The ancients also called by this names 
 the embroidered borders that were used 
 as edgings to their draperies, which, as tho 
 name implies, imitated the leaves of the 
 acanthus. 
 
 Acanthines. [from the above.] In cos- 
 tume. Garments made of the fibres of tho 
 acanthus. The Romans also gave the name 
 of acanthince vestes, or according to Vurro 
 vestiynenta acanthina, to those garments that 
 were ornamented with acanthus leaves. 
 The words acanthines and acanthina are 
 also applied by Latin authors to draperies, 
 vases, borders, or any other things tliat 
 were thus ornamented. The borders of 
 ancient Greek vases are often seen deco- 
 rated with this kind of ornament. 
 
 AccALiA. In archaiology. Also called 
 Laurentalia. Solemn festivals held in ho- 
 nour of AccA Laurentia, the wife of Faus- 
 tulus, and the nurse of Romulus and Remus, 
 who died rich, and left the commonwealth 
 her heir ; wherefore she was honoured Avith 
 a holiday and sacrifice, in commemoration 
 of this benefaction and the protection which 
 she afforded to the founder of the Roman 
 state, and of an annual custom she liad 
 once a year of making a solemn sacrifice 
 for a blessing upon her fields. Her twelve 
 sons always assisting at the ceremony. At 
 last having the misfortune to lose one of 
 the number, Romulus, to show his grati- 
 tude and respect, offered himself to fill up 
 the number in his room, and gave the com- 
 pany the name of Fratres Arvalcs. Tlieir 
 duties were to go in procession praying for 
 the increase of corn, and were also judges 
 of controversies concerning land. Tliis 
 order was in great repute at Rome, they 
 held the dignity always for their lives, and 
 wore on their heads crowns made of ears 
 of corn. Fw/c Pun. i. 17. c. 2. Pomp. Lat. 
 de Sacred. LivY, lib. i. Plutarch's Life 
 of Romulus, &c. 
 
 Accessories, [accessorius, Lat. accessoire, 
 Fr."] In painting. Additionals. Everything 
 that enters into a composition of art, with- 
 out being indispensably necessary, is call- 
 ed an accessory. In an historical picture, 
 
ACC 
 
 the figures which act are the principal ob- 
 jects : they give the idea of the action 
 which the painter figures to himself; the 
 rest are accessories. 
 
 The artist who aspires to rise above me- 
 diocrity should, above all things, be ex- 
 tremely reserved in the use and choice of 
 accessories in his picture ; he should use 
 and place them in such a manner as not 
 to hinder or spoil the effect of the princi- 
 pal group, with which they should always 
 agree, and at the same time assist the ge- 
 neral effect. 
 
 The most skilful painters and sculptors 
 of antiquity have avoided accessories in 
 their designs, that the eye might not be di- 
 verted by them ft-om the principal figure 
 or group ; and a modern artist would do 
 much better to omit them altogether than 
 to introduce them improperly. Nothing is 
 more insupportable to the ti"ue connoisseur 
 than to see designs crowded with accesso- 
 ries, which have no connection with the 
 principal object, or where they are intro- 
 duced only to fill up and hide the vacuity 
 aud emptiness of the principal subject; 
 they disgrace the name of accessories, and 
 should only be regarded as useless su- 
 pernumeraries, pressed into a service (they 
 seriously injure) without judgment or dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 Accidental, [accidentalis, Lat. acciden- 
 tal, Fr.] In paiiitinf^. Casual, fortuitous, 
 happening by chance; nonessential, Ac- 
 cidentuls or accidents in art are various ; in 
 painting accidental lights are those fortui- 
 tous ellects which, occasioned by rays of 
 light falling casually on certain objects, 
 render tliem more bright and luminous 
 than usual, and produce a strong and 
 marked opjjosition to the shadows, which 
 are rendered apparently still darker by 
 contrast. Tliese accidental circumstances 
 generally i)roduce brilliant and imposing 
 effects if properly managed. Rembrandt 
 above all other painters made the most 
 use of tlieni, and they are with many cri- 
 tics and amateurs of ills works, tlio i)rin- 
 cii)al, if not the sole cause of their admi- 
 ration. 
 
 It is of the greatest service for the yoniig 
 painter to know how to ai)ply liis acciden- 
 tal lights properly and with trutii; and 
 t>hould be a main obj»'ct of his study. A 
 vaulted caNern partly iipen,tiirt)iigli whicii 
 the Hun darts his rays, and discovers to the 
 HiX'clator certain objects in the back 
 ground ; a thick and almost ini])ervi(uis 
 forest, wherein a few rays of liulil pierce 
 througii the foliage, aud disco\er the her- 
 bage, the plants, and the water, art! 
 among those accidental circuinBtuncett (liat 
 
 ACC 
 
 produce an agreeable effect. lu marine 
 subjects, when the painter represents an 
 approaching stonn, he has an oi)portunity 
 of catching a number of varied accidental 
 circumstances, which may result either 
 from the sun veiled by clouds, or from the 
 disorder of the elements, and other circum- 
 stances incidental to the scene. Inunda- 
 tions, conflagrations, volcanic irruptions, 
 interiors of founderies, and such like sub- 
 jects, such as De Loltherbourg, Wright 
 of Derby, and Pether delighted in, offer 
 advantages of accidental lights, very at- 
 tractive to the admirers of such pha^no- 
 meua. Uncommon effects borrowed from 
 romance, from commonly received fables, 
 from facts of which the resemblances ap- 
 pear supernatural, also fui-nish advan- 
 tageous and picturesque subjects of acci- 
 dentals. As do also the suddeu and acci- 
 dental lights produced by the appearance 
 of spectres, demons, or apparitions. The 
 late Mr. West's picture from Pope's elegy 
 on the death of an unfortunate lady, from 
 these words : — 
 
 " What beck'ning ghost along the niooulight shade 
 Iiiviti'S my steps and points to yonder glade ; 
 'Tis sin! but why that blci'ding bo$<>m gored. 
 Why dimly yleatns the visionary sword." 
 
 is again a subject fitted for these acciden- 
 tal introductions. 
 
 The borrowed light whicli R.vffaeu.e 
 has used in his celebrated picture of the 
 Transfiguration, the light emanating from 
 the body of the Bambino or infant Ciirist, 
 in tlie celebrated notte of Coreggio, are 
 also fine examples of a just use of them ; 
 and so is the same subject in Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds's picture in the window of New 
 College Ciiapel, Oxford ; which are all 
 specimens of a judicious introduction of 
 accidental lights and effects. To these 
 supernatural accidents of light and shade 
 we may add the ell'ecls produced by natu- 
 ral accidental lights, which are accessory 
 to the picture; such as from a candle, a 
 flambeau, or a forge, or by the ingenious 
 interposition of any object that may be 
 supposed naturally introduced. 
 
 A study of these subordinate or mecha- 
 nical effects is of importance to the painter 
 of still life antl portraits. 
 
 Accidental point, in pirspcctivc, is a 
 ])oinl ontlu! hori/.(ii\tal liiu', where certain 
 lines parallel in themselves and to each 
 other but not to the principal object in 
 the picture converge. .An accidental point 
 ma\, iVoni the position o( the object repic- 
 senled, be other than in the horizontal line. 
 
 See I'EKSI'KCTIVE. 
 
 Acclamatu»n. \acclanmlh, Lat.] In ar- 
 chaioliigij. A lepresentatiftu in sculpture 
 
ACO 
 
 or on medals, wherein the people are re- 
 presented as expressing their joy in the 
 posture of acclamation ; which was an ho- 
 nour held in high esteem by the Romans, 
 and thought deserving of record. Accla- 
 mations differed from applauses, by the for- 
 mer being always vocal, and conferred on 
 the parties whether present or absent: but 
 applauses were expressed by the hand, 
 and only towards those who were present. 
 Those acclamations which expressed grate- 
 ful and benevolent feelings were called 
 laudationes, and bona rota ; acclamations of 
 reproach were denominated execrationes 
 and conricia. The jnedals on which lau- 
 datory acclamations are recorded are call- 
 ed by antiquaries acclamation medals. See 
 Medals. 
 
 AccoMPANnwENTs. See Accessories. 
 
 AcERRA. [Lat.] In archaiology. An altar 
 set up by the Romans near the body of a 
 deceased person, on which incense was 
 daily burned with religious ceremonies 
 till the time of performing the funereal 
 rites. It is also the ancient name of a 
 small coffer or pot which contained the in- 
 cense and perfumes to be offered on the 
 altars of the gods, and before departed 
 persons. The Romans were obliged to 
 offer incense in proportion to their estate 
 and condition ; the rich in large quantities, 
 called acerra plena, the poor only a few 
 grains. Both descriptions of acerraj were 
 ^ anciently used, and are often found sculp- 
 tured as decorations to the friezes of 
 temples. 
 
 AcLiDEs. [Lat.] In archaiology. Missive 
 weapons used by the Roman soldiery. The 
 aclis was a kind of sharp javelin with a 
 thong fixed to it, whereby it may be drawn 
 back again. Scaliger describes it as round- 
 ish or globular, of a clublike form, with a 
 wooden stem to poise it with. 
 
 AcoNTiuM. [aKovTiag, Gr. acontias, Lat.] 
 In archaiology. A kind of javelin or dart, 
 resembling the Roman pilum, and so named 
 from its similarity to the acontias or dart 
 snake. 
 
 AcoRN. [from Aac, an oak, SsiX.gland, Fr.] 
 In architecture. The fruit or seed of the 
 oak. Imitations of this fruit are much used 
 in modern architecture, and also formerly 
 in Greek and Roman costume formed of 
 gold or gilt metal and suspended at the 
 extremities of their vestments and girdles. 
 The Greeks wore them at the end of tlie 
 chlamys, and called them when thus used 
 
 po'liTKOl, 
 
 Acoustics. [aKacrrtKa, Gr. acoustiques, Fr.] 
 In architecture. The science which treats 
 of the doctrine or theory of sounds. The 
 etymon d/c«w (I hear) demonstrates both its 
 
 ACT 
 
 meaning and its derivation. This science, 
 though not entirely relevant to the fine arts, 
 is of the utmost consequence to the archi- 
 tect, in tiie construction of music rooms, 
 theatres, &c. Its laws are best obtained 
 from the various books on natural and ex- 
 perimental philosophy. 
 
 AcROLiTHES. [dKpdXiOoc, Gr. acroclithc, 
 Fr.] Li architecture and sculpture. A statue, 
 the extremities of which are stone. Ac- 
 cording to Trebellius Pollio, Calpurnia 
 erected in the temple of Venus an acroli- 
 thean statue, gilt. And Vitruvius, after 
 speaking of the palace which Mausolus, 
 King of Caria, built at Halicaruassus, 
 adds, that he had a temple dedicated to 
 Mars, and that he erected an acrolithean 
 statue therein to the honour of that god. 
 
 Acropolis, [from uKoog highest and 
 TToXig a city.] In architecture. A city on 
 the highest summit of a hill. By this name 
 is called the citadel or highest part of the 
 city of Athens, which is built on an emi- 
 nence accessible only on one side, called 
 polis, because it constituted the original 
 city ; and the upper polis to distinguish it 
 from the lower, which was afterwards built 
 round it in a large open plain. On the 
 north side was a wall, built by the Pelasgi, 
 and called Pelasgia; and another on the 
 south constructed by Cimon the son of 
 Miltiades, out of the Persian spoils. From 
 its nine gates it was called Enneapylon, tlie 
 ascent to which was by a magnificent flight 
 of steps of white marble, built by Pericles. 
 In this part of the city was the beautiful 
 temple of Minerva, called Parthenon. (See 
 Parthenon.) For further descriptions of 
 the acropolis see Wilkins's Atheniensia; 
 Stuart's Athens; Williams's Greece; 
 Elmes's Lectures on Architecture, and other 
 similar works. 
 
 Acroteria. [dKpor^pio?', Gr. acroterium, 
 Lat.] In architecture. Small pedestals with- 
 out bases, placed on the middle and two 
 ends of pediments to support statues. The 
 word is also used by some authors for the 
 statues themselves in such situations, and 
 sometimes for {jinuacles or balusters. 
 
 AcT.^ON. In archaiology. A great hun- 
 ter, the son of Aristffius and Autonoe, whose 
 metamorphosis into a stag is related in the 
 Metamorphoses of Ovid. Ancient sculp- 
 tures representing this fable are rarely 
 met with ; but modern painters have often 
 attempted it in their compositions. Many 
 of these differ from the ancient manner of 
 relating this metamorphosis ; for the artists 
 of those times give him a human form with 
 the horns of a stag just branching from his 
 head, because, if they had (like the poets) 
 rendered the metamorphosis complete, it 
 
iED I 
 
 would liave dwindled to a common stag- 
 Inint. Titian lias conformed to this just 
 idea, in iiid picture of Acta'on, which was 
 in the celebrated Orleans gallery. 
 
 Action, [actio, Lat. nction, Fr.] In jniint- 
 ing. The series of events represented in a 
 fable. (See SunjEcr.) Action, in painting 
 Jind sculpture, is that which gives reality 
 to description ; it is the embodying of that 
 moment of time which the author chooses 
 to represent. Action is sometimes con- 
 founded witli motion (see Motion), in say- 
 ing a '^ figure has action," meaning "mo- 
 tion." In the arts as well as in literature, 
 an action should be true, connected, natu- 
 ral, and simple. Any thing that disturbs 
 the unity of tiie action always weakens the 
 interest. 
 
 AcDTiATORES. In urcliaiology. Artisans 
 who went with the Roman annies to 
 sharpen the arms. 
 
 Adamas. In gem sculpture. See Dia- 
 mond. 
 
 AnoNiA. [Lat.] In archaiologij. Festi- 
 vals kept in honour of Venus, in memory 
 of her beloved Adonis, and often the sub- 
 ject of the works of ancient sculptors. 
 
 Adrian's Villa. See Villa. 
 
 Adventitious. See Extraneous. 
 
 Adytum, or Sanctuary. IciSvTov, Gr. 
 adytum, Lat.] In architecture. A secret 
 place or retirement in (he ancient temples, 
 from whence the oracles were given, and 
 into vvliich none but the priests could 
 enter. They were sometimes in the rear 
 of and sometimes under the temple. The 
 only well preserved adytum is that of the 
 little temple at Pompeii. (See Pompeii.) 
 The statue of Diana of Portici was found 
 in its interior, elevated a few steps at the 
 back of the temple, and was kept in per- 
 fect darkness. In Jewish architecture the 
 sanctum sanctorum was a similar part of 
 tii'^ir temple. 
 
 Adze. A kind of crooked axe used by 
 carpenters. 
 
 yl^DEs, Lat. In architecture. An inferior 
 kind of temple, consecrated (according to 
 Varro) to sonu' deity, but not formally, by 
 the augurs; which if they afterwards re- 
 ceived, (hey cliaiigi'd Ihcii- names to ti-ni- 
 l)leH. They were often of tiie same form 
 as the temples, but less sumptuous in their 
 decorations. 
 
 AlmcviA, Lilt. //( architecture. A small 
 house (u- chapel ; but is understood in dif- 
 ferent signiliciilions in Roman authors. In 
 some it is used as a diminutive, and .signi- 
 fies in ancient aicliidcture no more lliau a 
 .smaliir wiles, and in civil architecture, a 
 small house. Sometimes it denotes (lie 
 inner part of the tcmide, tabernacle, alcove, 
 
 yEGI 
 
 or niche, where the altar and statue of (he 
 god was placed, because its exterior re- 
 sembled (he form of an (edes or little tem- 
 ple. Representations of adiculce are often 
 found on medals, and in many sculptures 
 are found the figure of the prince or founder 
 of a temple or church, holding in his hand 
 an asdicula or model of the building which 
 he had erected. The Romans erected one 
 which they called adicula ridicula to the 
 god of mirth, in commemoration of the re- 
 pulse of Hannibal by severe weather, 
 when he was advancinji; upon Rome after 
 the battle of Cann.T. See also Reliquary. 
 
 ^DITUUS. [Lat.] In archaiology. An offi- 
 cer belonging to temples, who had the 
 charge of the offerings, treasure, and sa- 
 cred utensils. The female deities had 
 officers of this kind, called a:ditua?. 
 
 .^GiCR-\NES. [from the Greek.] Heads 
 or sculls of rams, with whicli altars, friezes, 
 and other sculptural monuments are co- 
 vered. See BucRANES. 
 
 jEgina. In architecture. An island in 
 the Saronic Gulf of the jEgean Sea, w here 
 are the remains of a magnilicent temple on 
 the summit of Mount Panliellenius, the 
 sculptures of which were discovered and 
 described by Mr. C. R. Cockerel! in the 
 Journal of Science. 
 
 jEgis. [aiyi'c, Gr. from ui%: JEgis, Lat.] 
 The shield or breastplate of Jupiter and 
 Pallas, supposed to have been made ori- 
 ginally of the skins of a goat, and after- 
 wards by Vulcan, of brass, rendered terri- 
 ble by a gorgon's head being sculptured 
 upon it. Lactantius says that it was made 
 of the skin of the she goat which nursed 
 Jupiter, and that he lirst used it against (he 
 Titans. Mgis is also used for the pieces 
 of goat skin with which the ancient war- 
 riors covered their breasts and shoulders, 
 as a guard against (he weapons of (heir 
 enemies. Variety of anciiiit nioiuiiiients 
 attest the antiquity of this practice. Ho- 
 mer gives lo (li(^ (Cgis of Jupiter the jiower 
 of being both defensive and oU'ensixe, as 
 all his deities, witii whatever circumstances 
 they are endued in common with mortals, 
 are made to possi'ss soiiu' iiecuiiar and sii- 
 pernatiiral jiower. Tlie blood which issued 
 from tiu'ir wounds is <'c7i(>r; their drink is 
 nectar; and their fooil is ambrosia. This 
 jioct al\\(iys pcrsonilics tiie I'lfccts Avhicli 
 the arms of his gods iind heroes, mid tlu; 
 charms of his goddesses possess over mor- 
 tal men; placing in the girdle of Venus 
 (he most attriictive ciiiiiiiis, as love, tender 
 desires, and (hose sweet bu( OMiiiip(i(eii( 
 sensa(ioiis whi<h iiilluence in secret the 
 hearts of (he wises(. Hi', who on the 
 buckler of Agamemnon has jilaccd fear 
 
JEG 
 
 and terror, naturally enough added to the 
 JEgis of Jupiter force, terror, discord, and 
 alarms ; and to add more honour to the 
 arms of this most powerful of the gods, he 
 places in the middle tlie head of the horri- 
 ble Gorgon with its intertwined serpents. 
 These are the arms which gave to Jupiter 
 the name of Mgiochus, the shaker of the 
 j^gis, because by this motion alone, on its 
 exhibition, he made his enemies tremble. 
 
 The vEgis of Minerva witli which she 
 descended into the camp of the Greeks, to 
 excite them to battle, and to dissuade them 
 from the disgraceful intentions they had 
 conceived of abandoning Troy and return- 
 ing home, is also described by Homer. She 
 bears an jEgis which he describes as pre- 
 cious, indestructible, and eternal, fringed 
 with a border composed of a hundred 
 tufts of gold, each valued at a hundred 
 oxen. 
 
 The ferocious custom of cutting off the 
 heads of their enemies, or scalping them, 
 as practised by barbarous nations, and 
 which is undoubtedly the origin of tlie 
 jEgis, is sometimes found even among tiie 
 Greeks ; as in the Iliad we find Diomed 
 cutting off tlie head of Dolon. Among the 
 ancient nations the head, or scalp of an 
 enemy, was carried as a mark of triumph 
 on their shields ; and in later times they 
 imitated it in metal for the centre and or- 
 nament of their bucklers. On one of the 
 vases in the collection of the late Sir W. 
 Hamilton, now in the British Museum, is 
 represented a large buckler, bearing in the 
 middle a human head, which has nothing 
 in common with the Gorgon. In more 
 modern times a head was also placed on 
 the breast of the cuirass. Homer, in de- 
 scribing the jEgis, does not mention it 
 being covered with scales, but only a skin, 
 in the middle of which is a Gorgon's head 
 encircled with snakes. The scales appear 
 to be a posterior addition, and give an idea 
 of greater resistance. Virgil has not omit- 
 ted the scales in describing the iEgis, 
 which the Cyclops forged in the deptlis of 
 ^tna. 
 
 This armour was not peculiar to Jupiter 
 and Mi>icrva, although generally appro- 
 priated to til em by the poets. Apollo, in 
 the fifteenth book of the Iliad, marches at 
 the head of the Greeks, conducting to com- 
 bat the people who followed the miglity, 
 terrific, sliagged, dazzling TEgis, which 
 Vulcan the artist had given to Jove to 
 be carried for the terror of men. When 
 Achilles dragged the body of Hector round 
 the walls of Troy, the pity of Apollo v/as 
 excited, and he covered him Avith a golden 
 ^gis. In the temple of Jupiter Olympus 
 
 TEN 
 
 there was a statue of Victory which had a 
 golden buckler, on which was the /Llgis 
 and Gorgon, probably because Victory pro- 
 ceeded from Jupiter ; and Rome, for a simi- 
 lar reason, namely being under the special 
 protection of Jupiter and Minerva, was 
 personified on a beautiful medallion as a 
 female warrior armed witli the jEgis. 
 
 The ^gis, at length, descended from 
 deities to heroes, warriors, and emperors. 
 On a fine cameo, in the royal library at 
 Paris, an engraving and dissertation upon 
 which is published by Miujn, Ulysses is 
 covered with the jEgis, as a symbol of the 
 protection of Minerva. Tliis allegory of 
 the protection which the gods offered to 
 men became a species of amulet; and 
 above all, the Gorgon, or Medusa's head, 
 was conceived by the ancients to have the 
 virtue of averting witchcraft or enchant- 
 ments ; for which reason the Roman em- 
 perors, without bearing what is more pro- 
 perly the ^gis, have a Gorgon's head 
 sculptured in the middle of their breast on 
 the lorica or brigantine. The only instance 
 generally known of the iEgis being fixed 
 on the arm is on an intaglio in the cabinet 
 of the Emperor of Russia, representing 
 Jupiter Axur, or the Beardless. Jupiter 
 is generally represented with the iEgis on 
 the left shoulder, as in the beautiful cameo 
 of the royal cabinet at Paris, which repre- 
 sents Jupiter Mgiochus. The ^gis on the 
 knees, as in the figure of Tiberius, on the 
 grand cameo of the same cabinet, indicates 
 peace and repose to the world. See Al- 
 legory, Minerva, &c. 
 
 jElurus. [ai'Xapoe, Gr. a cat.] In arclmi- 
 ology. The deity or god of cats ; repre- 
 sented sometimes like a cat, and some- 
 times like a man with a cat's head. 
 
 ^NEAS. In archaiology. A well known 
 Trojan prince. The history of this hero, 
 like those of Achilles, Ulysses, and other 
 great men of antiquity, has often been (he 
 subject of a great number of compositions 
 in the fine arts, both ancient and modern. 
 The details of his life belong more pro- 
 perly to a work on mythology or archai- 
 ology than to the present, and are therefore 
 omitted. 
 
 jEneatores. [Lat.] In scuJptuml archni- 
 ology. Tlie general name of all tlie musi- 
 cians of the Roman army, from the circum- 
 stance of all their instruments being made 
 of brass. Their particular names were 
 according to the instruments they permo- 
 rined on, as tubicines, cornicines, bucciua- 
 toi'es, &:c, 
 
 ^?iNiGMA. [aiviyjia, Gr.] In archaiology. 
 An obscure sentence, a riddle. Under 
 this denomination may be classed the 
 
 c 
 
MS 
 E-ryptian hieroglyphics. Vide IIierocly- 
 
 FUICS. 
 
 j^i!\RiiM. [Lat.] In architecture, and in 
 Roman antiquities, tiie treasun', or placo 
 where the public money was deposited ; 
 when it contained that only of the prince, 
 it was called Fiscus ; although both are 
 sometimes used synonymously. 
 
 /Erial Perspective. That branch of the 
 science of perspective which regards the 
 relative subordination of colour in propor- 
 tion to their distance from the eye. See 
 Perspective. 
 
 j^scuLAPiLS. See Attributes. 
 
 j^EsTiiETiCKs. [at<T0)jroc, Gr. t/stMtiquc, 
 Fr.] The science of sensations. This nr.me 
 is applied to the philosophy of the fine arts 
 (see Piiir.osopnv), or the science of de- 
 ducing from nature and taste the theoreti- 
 cal rules and elementary principles of all 
 tiie arts. Aristotle was one of the first 
 who formed general rules drawn from a 
 variety of unconnected observations ; but 
 his treatises on rhetoric and poetry are not 
 regarded as complete tlieories of these two 
 arts. Later critics have aup,mented the 
 number of rules, but without discovering 
 new principles. Among the moderns, the 
 Ahbt^ Du Bos was the first who (in his 
 Reflexions sur la Pol'sie et sur la Pcinture) 
 attempted to establish the theory of the 
 Arts upon general principles, and to de- 
 monstrate, according to those principles, 
 the truth and justice of appropriate rules. 
 Ual'mgarten, professor of philosophy at 
 Frankfort on the Oder, also taught the 
 philosopliy of the fine arts upon general 
 principles, and it was this author who first 
 gave this theory the name of jI^stiieticks 
 (see Taste). Yet it is extremely diflicult, 
 if not impossible, to establish any clear 
 principles by which certain rules may be 
 deduced ; which difiiculty may proliably 
 proceed from tlie idea of beauty being 
 connected with sensation, and the rules 
 bi'ing dictated by reason, which has, per- 
 hai)S, no relation or intercourse w'Ah sen- 
 sation. 
 
 The principal authors who have treated 
 on the elements of Tl'lslheticks are, a trea- 
 tise iS'////i( J'Hosiifiii nelle lirllc Arti, by 
 EusTA( Hio Zanoiti ; Les Beaux Arts r^- 
 duit d tin seul Principe, by the Ahbi! IJat- 
 TIJ!K ; Cours tie LUti'rature, by the same 
 iMillior; Home's Essiuj on Criticisni ; some 
 essays in a periodical paper, written by 
 eminent i)rorcssional men, called the Ar- 
 tist, liONDON, lH(tH; y\n Jn'iuirii into the 
 reiiuisite Cnltiration anil present Sliite of the 
 Arts of />c.s(^'-H in l".N(ii.\Ni), by J'imnce 
 lloARi;, London, 1H0(); 'llUoyie des lieuux 
 Arts, by Sti.ZER ; Kant's Critique du Jugc- 
 
 JET 
 
 ment ; Watei.ei 's Dictionnairc dc Peinturc ; 
 Milun's Dictionnuire dis Beaux Arts; 
 Hvmuoi.t's Essaies JEsthtti'jues; and many 
 others who have written on the principles 
 and rules of taste in literature and tlie fine 
 arts. 
 
 jEternffas. Vide Eternitas. 
 
 jEtiaioi. Idieriaiot, Gr. aquiUt, Lat.] In 
 architecture. The name given by the an- 
 cient Greek architects to certain stones 
 which formed that part of the temple call- 
 ed ^Tos. (See JEtos and Fastigium.) This 
 Avord is found in the Athenian inscription 
 brought to England by Dr. Ciiandler, and 
 now deposited in the British Museum, re- 
 lative to the construction of the temple 
 called the Erectheum; by which it appears 
 that the iEtiaioi are the slabs which form 
 the face of the yEtos or tympanum of the 
 pediment. The facing of this part of the 
 building is done with vertical Joints, one 
 course of stone in height. For a copy of 
 this curious inscription see Chandler's 
 Inseriptioncs Athenienses and Wilkins's 
 Atlumiensia. 
 
 ^TOMA. See jEtos. 
 
 TEtos. [a'lfrof, Gr.aq«//rt, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture. The name by which the Greeks 
 designated the pediment or tympanum of an 
 edifice. Beger was the first who disco- 
 vered the meaning of this word, to whicli 
 WiNCKLEMAN, iu his Essay ou Architecture, 
 and ViscoNTi, in the MtsEO Pio Clemex- 
 TiNO, have appended some valuable obser- 
 vations. It appears that the custom of 
 ornamenting the apex of the roofs, or 
 ridge, with figures of eagles, called in 
 Greek nifroc, was derived from the Corin- 
 thians; and that the name jEtos, tEtoma, 
 given at first to the ridge, anil afterwards 
 to the pediment or tympanum, was derived 
 from this custom. Some autiiors have ima- 
 gined that the Corinthians borrowed this 
 idea from the sacred havsk with extended 
 wings, which they had seen in the temples 
 of tlie Egyptians ; but they OAve less of the 
 application of the pediment to the Egyp- 
 tians than they do of their capitals. Uinc- 
 kleman supposes, with great probability, 
 tliat tiie ancients originally placed a re- 
 jnesentation of tiie bird of Jove in this 
 situation, as being the summit, and tlieiv- 
 fore in the earliest periods was dedicated 
 to Jupiter. Several ancient medals have 
 been seen witii this bird on tiie roof, par- 
 ticularly the coins of Tarsus and Pergiunos. 
 Besiih's these authorities, in favour of the 
 oi)ini()n liial liiis cusloin gave this sjiecific 
 name to tiie pediment, may be added tin; 
 authority of Shaw, who discovered the 
 figure of an eagle on the pediment of a 
 tenijile near Tunis, built in the time of the 
 
AFT 
 
 Antonines. Various basso rilievos, which 
 decorated the IEtos of several temples, 
 are described and delineated in the eighty- 
 eighth plate of the fourth volume of the 
 Musio Pio Clementino. 
 
 Sometimes the ancients placed an iso- 
 lated figure on the apex of the pediment, 
 and others on the lovper extremities, as in 
 more modern erections ; but they always 
 made some part of an action ; as, for in- 
 stance, Jupiter, placed in the centre of the 
 pediment, destroying Titans with his thun- 
 der ; who recumbently occupied the lower 
 part where there was more room for such 
 figures ; and propriety here is evident. An 
 erect figure is best on the summit; and re- 
 cumbent, reclining or double figures, are 
 also best for the lower extremities. Sir 
 Christopher Wren, with great propi-iety, 
 has observed this rule in the principal 
 front of St. Paul's Cathedral. The centre 
 figure, St. Paul, being erect on the summit 
 of the pediment, and the lower ones (St. 
 Luke and St. Mark), with their attributes, 
 the ox and the lion, occupying, in recum- 
 bent postures, the base. Instances to the 
 contrary may be seen on the pediments of 
 Queen's College, Oxford, and the mansion 
 of Lord Spencer, in the Green Park, Lon- 
 don, where all the figures are single and 
 erect, presenting rather the appearance of 
 pinnacles than of sculpture, though the 
 latter figures, by Spong, are among the 
 finest out-door sculptures in England. See 
 Eagle, Pediment, Apex, Tympanum, and 
 Fastigium. 
 
 Affectation, [affectatio, Lat.] The art 
 of making an artificial or deceitful appear- 
 ance. This fault in art, a species of which 
 is sometimes called by the French con- 
 tournS, and relates to outline only, is 
 equally to be avoided by the painter, the 
 sculptor, and the architect. Affectation is 
 the certain result of an abandonment of 
 the simplicity of nature, in colouring, in 
 drawing, or in action ; or where either is 
 overcharged and false ; or where artificial 
 colouring, drapeiy, outline, or appearance 
 is given to any one of the branches of the 
 plastic arts, instead of a more natural ar- 
 rangement. 
 
 After, [apres, d'apris, Fr.] In painting 
 and sculpture. In imitation of. In art a 
 person is said to draw, to paint, to model, 
 to sketch, to colour after nature ; after 
 Raflaelle, after Titian, &c. The Italians 
 call it appresso, near, close to; and it sig- 
 nifies, as well as our word, following, or 
 in imitation of; and teaches, that to reach 
 the perfection of nature, of Raflfaelie, of 
 Titian, &c., it is necessary to have them 
 
 AGE 
 
 perpetually in the mind, and to be con- 
 tinually studying the proposed original. 
 
 Agai.ma or Agaxmata. \Jiya\pa, Gr.] 
 In sculptural arclmiologij. Originally these 
 words were applied to any ornament upon 
 a statue, or within the temple ; but after- 
 wards to the statue, and sometimes to the 
 temple itself, as well as to representations 
 of them on statues and seals. See Statue. 
 Agaxmatopoios. [ayaKfiara and tizoki, 
 Gr.] In sculptural archaiologij. A maker 
 of ornaments and figures. A sculptor. 
 See Sculptor. 
 
 Agate. [a%ar7jc, Gr. acludes, Lat.] In 
 gem sculpture. A compound mineral or 
 precious stone of the lowest class, used by 
 gem sculptors. It is of two sorts, the ori- 
 ental and the occidental. The former is 
 almost transparent, and of a vitreous ap- 
 pearance ; the latter is of various colours 
 and often veined with quartz and jasper. 
 The ancients made much use of it in tlieir 
 gem sculpture, and named it from the river 
 Achates, in Sicily, where agates were much 
 found. Their varieties were distinguished 
 by the following names from their colours, 
 Icucachates, cerachates, ha-machates, as tliey 
 were principally tinged with white, ivax, 
 or blood colours. We also find they use 
 the term dendrachates, or herborised agates, 
 which were perhaps the modern mocha 
 stone. Pliny relates, that Pyrrhus had a 
 figured agate, which naturally resembled 
 Apollo and the Muses : and it is also re- 
 lated that the golden palace of Nero was 
 embellished with numbers of them. Agates 
 of various species are often met with in 
 shops in London, with pretended natural 
 portraits, figures, &c., but it is now a well 
 known fact, that they are done by art. The 
 different varieties of the agate have been 
 and are still much used in ornamental 
 architecture, for tabernacles, cabinets, bou- 
 doirs, musaick work, &c., generally, in 
 Italy, but particularly at Florence. In the 
 cupola of St.Laurentius, in that city, which 
 is sometimes called the Mausoleum de 
 Medicis, are many very fine agates among 
 the musaicks. ( Vide Mosaick, or Musaick.) 
 The onyx, sardonyx, and cornelian are 
 much used by the gem sculptors of the 
 present day, and are highly valued when 
 they possess tAvo or more strata^, which 
 they remove partially, and form two or 
 more colours, and are called cameos. ( Vide 
 Cameo,Onvx,Sardonyx,Cornelian,Gem, 
 Sculpture, &c. 
 
 Ages. [Ctges, Fr.] In archaiologij. Cer- 
 tain periods of time attributed to some 
 particular man, or race of men ; or to 
 some particular circumstance which cha- 
 
 c2 
 
 /Sf 
 
AIR 
 
 ractciizos its whole duration. In the his- 
 tory of tlie Fine Arts, some celebrated 
 men, patrons of art and literature, have 
 had the ages in which they lived desig- 
 nated by their names. Thus we say, the 
 age of Pirkh's ; the age of Ptolemy ; the 
 Atts^iDitan age ; tlie age of Leo X. ; the age 
 of Louis XIV., called the Augustan age of 
 France, ficc. 
 
 Agonalia. [from uynvoc, Gr.] In archai- 
 ologij. A festival instituted by Numa Pom- 
 pilius in honour of Janus, and attended 
 with the agones, or solemn exercises, from 
 whence, in Ovid's opinion, it took its name. 
 Vide Ovid. Fast. lib. 1. 
 
 Agoxotueta, or Agonothetes. In 
 archuiulogij. The president, or superin- 
 tendant of the agones, or sacred games of 
 the Greeks. 
 
 Agora. See Market, Forlm, &c. 
 
 Agreeable. [agr6ahle, Fr.] In painting, 
 Pleasinf,^, graceful. There are subjects in 
 art which by their nature are susceptible of 
 presenting objects, actions, sites, &c. which 
 we love to see and to recall to our remem- 
 brance; these furnish subjects for an agree- 
 able style. The principal objects to be 
 consulted in forming a composition of this 
 nature are, to avoid aflectation, to give a 
 cliaracter at once pleasing and instructive, 
 and to avoid what is called Manner (i-ide 
 Manner), wiiicli is often occasioned by a 
 strong attaciiment to prejudices, by the 
 feelings of the moment, and by the caprices 
 of luxury and refinement. In general, 
 when a nation has arrived at a high degree 
 of excellence in the Fine Arts, the agree- 
 able style supersedes the grant), and is tlie 
 first step downwards to a state of decline. 
 Thus it was when tlie agreeable or pleas- 
 ing style of Praxiteles, and the artists who 
 flourished under Alexander, succeeded the 
 grand and elevated style of Piiidias and 
 the arlis.ts of the age of Pericles, and was 
 the forerunner of the decline and extinc- 
 tion of the arts in Greece. 
 
 A(;iu;e:»ii;nt. laginneut, Fr.] Concord, 
 union. In every composition, or design, 
 in jiainting, sculpture, or architecture, it 
 is necessary to i)l)lain excell(Mne,tlial every 
 part or jxirtion of its arrangement should 
 bear a certain degre(! of resemblance 
 throughout, in style, cliaracter, and truth, 
 which is called agreement, or hiirmony, 
 resembling concord, or agreement of parts 
 in music. Sec Harmony. 
 
 Am. lu'i'if), Gr. air, Lai.] Jn painting. 
 Tlu! eli'Mii-nt which encomiiasscs llie (crra- 
 <|ueous globe; the medium through which 
 each object is viewed in nature, and sup- 
 posed to be viewed iu every picture. The 
 
 ALA 
 
 density or trai«parency of the air pro- 
 duces different effects upon the appearance 
 of objects, a true knowledge of which is 
 indispensable to the artist. It alters the 
 appearance both of the dimensions and co- 
 lours of objects, according to the relative 
 distance from the eye of the spectator ; it 
 softens the local colours, the lights and 
 shadows, and renders them more or less 
 decided, or characterized, producing what 
 is technically called tone. (See Tone.) 
 The interposition of the air occasions that 
 azure mistiness of distance, which is deeper 
 in tone, as it recedes from the horizon, 
 where it is often lost in a gray obscurity 
 and indistinctness of object. These ap- 
 pearances again differ in different seasons 
 of the year, and different times of the day ; 
 and it strongly behoves the artist, particu- 
 larly such as would excel in landscape 
 painting, attentively to study and lix in his 
 mind these different phenomena, which so 
 well determine the period of time in the 
 works of the best masters. (See ^Erial 
 Perspective.) After a due study of na- 
 ture and the great masters, some excellent 
 observations may be obtained from " Le 
 Grand Livrc des Peintres," by Lairesse ; 
 " Co7isidirations sur la Peinture," by Ha(;e- 
 DORN ; " Le Dictionnaire de Watei.et ;" 
 " La Theorie des Beaux Arts of Sllzer ;" 
 under the article Air, &c. 
 
 Air is also applied in painting and 
 sculpture with the same meaning as in 
 dancing or carriage of the body, and im- 
 plies gesture or. giaceful action. 
 
 Airy, [from air.] In painting. Gay, 
 lively, resembling the effects of air. .•\p- 
 plied to a picture, when the light and 
 aerial tints appear true to nat\ire, and har- 
 monized in colour and eil'ect throughout 
 the piece. See Light. 
 
 Aisle, [ahi, Lat.] In architecture. The 
 side walks of a church, generally sepa- 
 rated from the nave or centre by colunms 
 or i)illars. Also used by some writers for 
 tiie wings of a building. 
 
 Alabaster. [a'X«/3acpoc, Gr. alabaster, 
 Lat.] In sculjiture. The common name 
 •tunong ancient and modern iirtists for g> p- 
 sum, and the calcsinter of modern mine- 
 ralogy. Alabasters have a greater or 
 lesser degree of transi)arency, according 
 to their goodness ; have a granuliirtexture, 
 are softer than marble, do not take so line 
 a p(dish, and are usually of a pure white 
 colour. Till' countries in Furtijie ^^hich 
 aboinnl most in alabaster are d'eiinany to- 
 wards Coblentz; the province of iNIaconnois 
 in the neighbourhood of Cluni in I'rance ; 
 Italy towards Kome, wliere that of Mou- 
 
 ^ 
 
ALA 
 
 taiout is particularly celebrated, not only 
 for its whiteness, but for the size of its 
 blocks, which are large enough for a sta- 
 tue the size of life. There are also many 
 quarries of the granular gypsum, which is 
 used for the manufacture of plaster of 
 Paris, an article so useful in the arts of 
 sculpture and architecture, in Nottingham- 
 shire and Derbyshire. To prepare which, 
 the gj'psum is burned in order to deprive 
 it of the water which it contains, and by 
 grinding it becomes a white powder. In 
 this state, which is plaster of Paris, it has 
 a strong affinity to water, so that when 
 they are mixed, they very soon unite, and 
 form a substance which remsembles gyp- 
 sum in composition, though not in texture. 
 From this valuable material moulds and 
 casts from statues and other sculptures, 
 capitals of columns, friezes, cornices, and 
 other members of architecture are formed, 
 and a very strong cement for the use of the 
 sculptor and mason to form the close 
 joints of marble. It also enters into many 
 other cements used in constructive and 
 ornamental architecture, particularly the 
 mouldings and foliage of the plasterers' 
 art. 
 
 The ancients obtained large blocks of 
 alabaster from the quarries of Thebes, 
 where was a town from which it obtained 
 this name, and formed them into statues and 
 columns. There are two figures of Isis of 
 this material, still in Rome; one in the 
 Konian college, and the other in the villa 
 Albani, where there is also a fine column 
 of the same material. The Romans im- 
 ported a transparent species of foliated 
 hydrous gypsum, or selenite, from the is- 
 land of Cyprus, Spain, and even Africa, 
 for the purpose of lighting their green- 
 houses, and formed vases and other orna- 
 mental articles from the semidiaplionous 
 sorts, many of which are still preserved in 
 different museums. They are believed 
 also to have lighted their temples by means 
 of lamps placed in vases of the same ma- 
 terial. The ancient sculptors sometimes 
 formed statues, the bodies of which were 
 of alabaster, and the heads of some other 
 substance. In the Villa Albani at Rome 
 are several antique busts, and in the British 
 Museum is one of which the body is of ala- 
 baster and the head of bronze : there is 
 also a Minerva of the same description in 
 the Musee des Ai'ts at Paris. Alabaster 
 was also much used for cinerary and fune- 
 ral urns, and for holding perfumes. See 
 Alabastrum, Alabastrites, Onychites. 
 
 Alabastrites. [aXa/3a(TTf)ir£e, Gr. or 
 Alabastrum, from the Lat. dXal^a<TT(>ov, 
 
 ALC 
 
 Gr.] In arehuiology. A box, vase, or oflior 
 vessel to hold perfumes, formed of alabas- 
 ter. Theophrastus, Pliny, and Martial 
 mention these vessels under tlie same 
 name ; the former calling them dXaliaTpov, 
 and the two latter alabastrum; Horace, how- 
 ever, calls them onychites, perhaps, because 
 those which he alluded to were formed of 
 onyx. The alabastrum is always among 
 the attributes of the bathing Venus. The 
 statue of that goddess, formerly in tiie 
 IMuseum of Arts in Paris, which is in- 
 scribed with the name of Bupalus, has 
 near to her an alabastrite of elegant design 
 and workmanship. In the Anthologia, 
 this name is applied to a vase of any ma- 
 terial that is without handles. The most 
 valuable and beautiful species of alabaster 
 were sought after for these purposes, par- 
 ticularly the oriental and tlie sort called 
 onijchites by Pliny. See Onychites. 
 Albani. See Villa. 
 Albarium opus. [Lat.] Sometimes call- 
 ed Album opus. In ancient architecture. 
 According to Pliny and Vitruvius, the in- 
 crustation or white covering of the roofs 
 of ancient houses, which was formed with 
 white plaster, or a sort of stucco made of 
 a pure sort of lime, burned wholly from 
 marble. It differs from tectorium, whicli 
 was a sort of coarser plaster. According 
 to Vitruvius, the baths of Agrippa were 
 covered with the albarium, which he says 
 was also used for the ornaments thereof, 
 and would take the polish of marble. The 
 white chunam of Indian architecture and 
 the white patent stucco of Mr. Chambers 
 the banker are of this description. 
 Alcazar. See Alhambra. 
 Alcinous. In sculpture, A king of tlie 
 island of Corcyra, celebrated by Homer 
 and Virgil for his fruitful gardens, and 
 commended by Orpheus for his rigid ad- 
 ministration of justice. He has often been 
 the subject of the sculptor's chisel and of 
 the pencil. See Sculpture, Statue. 
 
 Alcorans. In Persian architecture. The 
 high towers used by the Persians in tlieir 
 buildings are called Alcorans. They are 
 surrounded on the outside by two or three 
 balconies or galleries, one above the other, 
 from which certain priests, called Mora- 
 riti, repeat fixed prayers from the Koran, 
 several times in the day, walking all round 
 so as to be heard on every side. Like tiie 
 Turkish minarets they are the principal 
 ornaments of their mosques. 
 
 Alcove, lalcova or alcoba, Span.] In 
 architecture. The recess or part of a cliam- 
 ber which is generally appropriated in 
 magnificent houses to the state bed. The 
 
ALH 
 
 wor<l was derived by the Spanish archi- 
 tects from the Arabic word El-kauf, which 
 bears (he same meaning. Tlie ancient 
 arcliitects often made tlieir alcoves in the 
 iorm of a niche, as in the ruins of Hadrian's 
 villa, those of Trajan's villa, at Pompeii, 
 at Tivoli, &c. The alcove of modern times 
 is susceptible of great magnificence and 
 elegance. It may be raised above the 
 other part of the chamber and approached 
 by steps, separated by columns, ant;e and 
 balusters, agreeing with the architecture 
 of tlie apartments, and with dwarf doors 
 in the balustrade for entrance. The inte- 
 rior may be embellished with bassi-rilie^^, 
 panelling, pictures, and tapestry, with a 
 magnificent state bed, or throne, to com- 
 plete the arrangement. If for a bedcham- 
 ber, at the sides of the alcove should be 
 warm and cold baths, dressing and water 
 closets, &c., according to the magnificence 
 of the mansion, and the rank and opulence 
 of the owner; such as are found in the 
 palaces of Italy and the mansions of the 
 nobility in France and Spain. The alcove 
 should correspond in every respect with 
 the style of architecture and of decoration 
 that is used in tlie apartment to which it is 
 an appendage. 
 
 Aldobrandini. See Palace. 
 
 Alder. In architecture. A genus of plants 
 of the class mon;ecia, order tetrandia; 
 the wood of which has the quality of long 
 endurance under water. 
 
 Aleatorium. [Lat.] In Roman architec- 
 ture. An apartment ajipropriated by the 
 Iiomans for playing with aleaj or dice. 
 
 Alhamjjra or Alha!mr.\, the red city. 
 Ih architecture. The Al-cazar, or royal 
 palace of the kings of Grenada. This 
 splendid edifice, which will also be no- 
 ticed under the he-dd Architecture Saracenic, 
 is supposed by some of the Arabian histo- 
 rians to have been so named from the co- 
 lour of its materials, was situated in the 
 most pleasant portion or suburb of the an- 
 cient city of Grenada, when it was one of 
 Hie jirincipal seats of the empire of the 
 Moors in Spain. It was anciently a vast 
 fortress, built on the northern brow of a 
 lofty eminence, which c()niniaiul((l a full 
 view of the city of Grenada on one side, 
 and of a charming country on the other; 
 surrotuidcd on all sides by the waters of 
 tlic \ciiil and (lie Dairo, and di'ttntlcd by 
 a (loul)le circumvallalion of strong forlili- 
 calioiis. Its conunanding situation, its fine 
 prospects, and its natural btautit-s led 
 Aimuiiii iiiin llie Moorish King of (Grenada 
 to si'kM t it for his royal residi iice. Alka- 
 tib or Ibnu-1 Khatib, in his dcBcriptloa of 
 
 ALH 
 
 Granada, preserved in Caeius Biblioiheca 
 Arabicu-Escurialeims, thus speaks of its an- 
 cient and complete appearance : — " Here 
 are seen lofty towers, very strongly forti- 
 fied citadels, superb palaces, and other 
 splendid edifices ; the view of which fills the 
 spectator's mind with admiration. There 
 a vast mass of water, whose loud murmur- 
 ing noise is heard at a distance, flows from 
 various springs, and irrigates both the 
 fields and meadows. The outer walls of 
 the city of Granada are surrounded by 
 most choice and spacious gardens ; where 
 the trees are so thickly set as to resemble 
 hedges, yet not so as to obstruct the view 
 of the beautiful towers of the Alhamra, 
 which sparkle like stars among the leaves. 
 No spot, in short, is without its orchards, 
 vineyards, and gardens ; and so abundant 
 is the produce of fruits and vegetables, 
 reared on the widely extended plain, that 
 the wealth alone of the first princes can 
 equal their annual value." 
 
 The Arabian and Spanish portions of 
 the buildings of the Alhambra form dis- 
 tinct and obvious styles. (See Architec- 
 ture.) The palace is approached from 
 the city of Granada through a narrow 
 street, the Calle de los Gomelles, so call- 
 ed after an ancient Moorish family, which 
 leads to a massive gate, built by the Em- 
 peror Charles V., opening into the outer 
 enclosure of the palace. This is entered 
 by a large tower called the Gate of Judg- 
 ment or of the Law, and is inscribed in 
 Arabic, announcing that it was in this 
 place that the king delivered judgment 
 and distributed justice to the peoi)le, as- 
 signing the date of its erection (A. D. 1348), 
 and praying for long life to the builder of 
 this " lasting monument of glory." 
 
 The Arabian portion of the palace was 
 begun by Muhammed Abu Abdellah Ben 
 Nasr, the second of the Moorish Kings of 
 Grenada, after the height was fortified as 
 mentioned in the commencement of this 
 article. It was contiiuied l)y his son and 
 successors, and the whole of its numerous 
 and noble structures were completed under 
 Al)u-1 Hajjaj, who is represented by the 
 Arabian historians as an ae( (nnpiisiu'd jHU't 
 aiul scholar, in the year of the Ilegira 7 ID, 
 or A. D. 1318. Many of these edifices fell 
 into decay, and (iieir ruins were removed 
 for the commeiuiMuent of the Spanish jwir- 
 tion of the palace by Charles V. The 
 whole design was worthy of that monarch 
 and of the site, but oni> inie suite of apart- 
 ments was ever (inished ; of these, which 
 are fast hastening to decay and ruin, little 
 is worth notice coinpnreil with the sur- 
 
ALH 
 
 rounding buildings and scenery ; while the 
 whole of the Arabian edifices are in a state 
 of surpi-ising preservation, when we con- 
 sider who have been its masters, and the 
 singular vicissitudes of its fate. 
 
 The first court which is entered from the 
 Gate of Judgment is a parallelogram, sur- 
 rounded by an arcade paved with marble, 
 and embellished with musaic and stucco 
 encrustations. In the middle of this court 
 was a deep marble basin in the centre, sur- 
 rounded, in Swinburne's time, with beds 
 of flowers and rows of orange trees. This 
 court is called in Arabian Mesuac, and in 
 Spanish Del Mesuca, or the Communa, and 
 was the common baths of the persons at- 
 tached to the service of the palace. Tlie 
 walls are covered with festoons in high re- 
 lief, painted arabesques, and sculpture gilt 
 and coloured ; the whole of the tablets are 
 filled with passages from the Koran. The 
 ceilings and walls of all the courts are co- 
 vered with fret-work and that description 
 of ornament from which the human figure 
 is religiously excluded, called after the 
 Arabs Arabesque ; together with series of 
 minute and intricate combinations of geo- 
 metrical figures, of which no verbal de- 
 scription can give an adequate account ; 
 but of which Mr. Murphy's splendid work 
 on tlie Arabian Antiquities of Spain, con- 
 tains many beautiful engravings, and to 
 which we refer the inquiring student. 
 
 The court of the Lions, so called from 
 the great marble fountain in its centre, 
 composed of twelve ill shaped lions, bear- 
 ing on their backs an enormous basin, is a 
 parallelogram one hundred feet in length 
 by fifty in breadth, surrounded by a colon- 
 nade of white marble, and paved with co- 
 loured tiles. The pillars, arranged in 
 pairs and sometimes in threes, are slender 
 in proportion, and fantastic in shape and 
 style, but surprising for their lightness. 
 The walls and the ceiling of the colonnade 
 are covered to an amazing extent with 
 gold, stucco, and the most brilliant colours. 
 The large basin of the fountain of lions 
 contains a second smaller one, elevated on 
 a pedestal, from which rises a column of 
 water, which falling down into both basins, 
 passes through the mouths of tlie lions into 
 a reservoir below, which comnnuiicated 
 with pipes to every part of the palace. 
 
 Among the various ornaments which 
 literally cover the walls and ceilings ai-e 
 inscribed various passages from the Koran, 
 which every good Mussulman repeats in- 
 cessantly ; such as, God is great; God is 
 the sole conqueror ; there is no God, but 
 God, &c. 
 
 Swinburne, in liis Travels iJu-ougk Spain, 
 
 ALL 
 
 has given several interesting views of (he 
 Alhamljra; as has also Ai.exander La- 
 BORDE in his Voijagc Pittoresqne en Espafinc 
 But the best work for the artist to consult 
 is Murphy's Arabian Antiquities of Spain, 
 fol. to which may be added for farther re- 
 ference A Collection of the Historical No- 
 tices and Poems in the Alhamhra of (irena- 
 da, which appears as a supplement to the 
 History of the Mahometan Empire in Spain, 
 4to. 1816. The Encvclop.5;uia Metropo- 
 UTANA has also a very interesting account 
 of it under the head Alhambra, in its Lexi- 
 cographical division. The Spanish go- 
 vernment some years since had draAvings 
 made of this extraordinary edifice, but the 
 artists and the architects whom they em- 
 ployed, mixed in a clumsy manner the an- 
 cient and modern buildings, and took more 
 pains to represent the comparatively insig- 
 nificant buildings erected near the ancient 
 palace by Charles V. and Phillip II. than 
 the more ancient and more splendid works 
 of the Arabians. 
 
 Allegory. [dX\r]yop!n, Gr. allcgoria, 
 Lat.] In painting and sculpture. A figura- 
 tive representation, in which something else 
 is intended than is contained in the repi-e- 
 sentation. Milizia ingeniously describes 
 an allegory as a crystal which covers but 
 does not conceal the object which it covers. 
 Images chosen by an artist for an allegory 
 should not be too arbitrary in character or 
 too obscure, but should be a universal lan- 
 guage apparent in itself and intelligible to 
 all ; for oftentimes when artists would 
 compose general allegories or allegorical 
 figures, they have fallen into intelligibili- 
 ties, and mere puns or plays upon words. 
 Of such a class is the well known picture 
 of Agostino Caracci, which represents the 
 god Pan conquered by love, by which the 
 painter would insinuate allegorically that 
 love is the vanquisher of all; and, instead 
 of being a perfect allegory, is a mere pun or 
 play on the double acception of the Greek 
 word ndv, the name of the silvan deity 
 and all. The resemblance of an allegory 
 to its real and intrinsic meaning may also 
 be too obvious ; but equal care should be 
 taken that it be not too obscure. 
 
 Under the head of Allegory, rather than 
 that of hieroglyphics, may be classed tlie 
 two representations of a lizard, which is 
 called in Greek Savpof, and a frog, called 
 Bctrpaxoe, which were sculptured upon an 
 antique Ionic capital, to perpetuate the 
 name of two architects, Suurus and Batra- 
 chus. A man of genius knows how to give 
 a natural signification to his figures, as 
 I'oussin has Iiidden the head of his alle- 
 gorical figure of the Nile, to indicate that 
 
ALLEGORY. 
 
 its sourre is unkno^vn; and thus also on would employ their skill 
 
 the base of the statue of Nilus little genii 
 are represented throwing a veil over his 
 urn ; and at the same time, being about 
 him, express its fecundity, as does the one 
 measuring his foot denote its grandeur of 
 size. 
 
 Allegorical images composed of human 
 figures may be carried to a high degree of 
 perfection, by means of character, attitude, 
 and action. In this manner allegories, in 
 themselves apparently trilling or insignifi- 
 cant, such as representations of cities and 
 countries, may be rendered completely in- 
 telligible, as in the instances of the cities 
 of Asia, rebuilt by Tiberius after an earth- 
 quake ; and a beautiful allegorical com- 
 position of Angelica Kaufiman's of Mars 
 restoring peace to two provinces, by unit- 
 ing the hands of tw o interesting females ; 
 but this rather should be classed under per- 
 sonification. See Personification, 
 
 Allegories may be divided into physical, 
 moral, and historical. Physical allegories 
 are those where the artist represents some 
 natural objects, such as a season, night, 
 day, the hours of the day, &c. Moral alle- 
 gories are truisms or general observations 
 taken from the moral world, such as on the 
 antique gem, which represents Cupid as 
 seated on a lion, and also anotlier w here 
 he is taking away the sword and shield of 
 Mars, &c. ; indicating that love softens the 
 most ferocious spirits. Another similar 
 instance is where Cupid is sculptured as 
 supplicating Apollo to lend him his lyre, 
 intimating the power of genius or culti- 
 vated talents, to inspire or give birth to 
 love. Historical allegories are those where 
 an event is celebrated, as on most of the 
 medals of ancient and modern times. This 
 last species of the allegory is the most dif- 
 ficult; for it should not be a narrative or 
 a confused series of events, but should re- 
 present a single (and that the most impor- 
 tant) fact of a well known circumstance, 
 shown in a single point of view. 
 
 The perfection of allegory depends in a 
 great measure on the degree towards per- 
 fection, to which the component images 
 attain, and their signification is determined 
 by their action. 
 
 The uses of allegory arc much varied. 
 In architecture, allegory may be used to 
 impress U|M)n tliework its destinati\f cha- 
 racter, as tlie two teiui)les dcdicntt'd l)y 
 MarcelluK to ^ iitue and Honour, wiiich 
 were conjoined in such manner that you 
 could not enter otu' wit liout jiassiiigtlirougii 
 the other. Sonir gem sculptors liaNt- esin 
 carried allegory so far as to gtivern them 
 in tlie choice of tiie material on which they 
 
 Such as these 
 would engrave bacchanalian subjects or 
 divinities on amethysts ; infernals, deities 
 on the obsidian gem or other black stone ; 
 aquatic deities on emeralds, aqua mari- 
 nas, and other greenish stones. The anci- 
 ents used allegories even in their furniture, 
 and thereby gave them much additional 
 interest. (See Mr. Thomas Hope's Book on 
 Household Furniture.) Allegory however 
 should be used with much circumspection, 
 and only when a better method cannot be 
 found of expressing the subject. Few mo- 
 dern artists have used this dillicult branch 
 of art w ith more success and grandeur than 
 Rubens, in his Luxembourg gallery and 
 in many separate pictures ; and Albano, 
 in various compositions. 
 
 Allegory is better suited for medals and 
 medallions than for the other branches of 
 art, but not always then in an equally hap- 
 py manner. It is sometimes used in paint- 
 ing, as descriptive of persons, places, and 
 ti7nes: and lias been often mingled with 
 historical personages. Du Bos has justly 
 exclaimed against such absurd practices, 
 which is perhaps nowhere more absurdly 
 used than in the ceiling of the great hall 
 at Greenwich, painted by Sir James Thorn- 
 hill. There we see a British monarch and 
 his attendants mixing with allegorical 
 figures of commerce, rivers, deities, trades, 
 genuine miners, and coalmen. 
 
 Annibale Caracci, in one of his pictures 
 for the Farnese gallery, for fear of the sub- 
 ject being mistaken, has written in it Ge- 
 nus unde laliuuin, to indicate that it means 
 the allegory of Venus and Anchises. 
 
 The simplest allegories are in general 
 the best, such as wings being added to 
 some divinities, to denote swiftness ; the 
 hand placed upon the head to signify re- 
 pose, the finger on the mouth, s//<?iff; the 
 the legs crossed, or a torch reversed, sleep 
 or death ; the caduceus of Mercury ; the 
 quiver and bow of Cupid, 6vc. which were 
 invented when arts and literature were at 
 a high pitch of excellence, but rather may 
 be considered as emblems. (See Emblem.) 
 Tlie abuse of allegory and its consequent 
 obscurity may be dated frun> the time of 
 the decadence of the arts and lili rature. 
 
 A knowledge of the allegorical sjstem 
 of the ancients is indispensably necessary 
 towards a right understanding j)f tlieir mo- 
 nunu'nts of art, and to direct us in the art 
 of composition. A collection of the best 
 allegories reduced to a system, under the 
 liiderent species into which liie> might with 
 pr(tpriely bc-divi(ie(l,\\ illi llieir \ arioussub- 
 divisions, would be a work of primary uti- 
 lity to artists and men of letters. The best 
 
ALT 
 
 works extant on the subject are the admi- 
 rable treatises on allegory, by Winckle- 
 MAN ; the article Allegory in the Dic- 
 tionary of AVatelet ; the Dictionnaire des 
 Beaux Arts, de Sllzer ; and the Dictionnaire 
 des Beaux Arts, de Millin. The Pohjmetis 
 of the Rev. Mr. Spence, and the explana- 
 tions of monuments of art given by Buo- 
 
 NAROTTI, WiNCKLEJVIAN, "VlSCONTI, HEYNE, 
 
 Boettiger, Lessing, Klotz, and other mo- 
 dern antiquaries. 
 
 Alley, [idl^e, Fr.] In architecture. A 
 place whei'e it is possible to go or pass. 
 Applied particularly to walks leading from 
 the door of a mansion or other building 
 into and through a garden, and to narrow 
 streets, passages, or paths from main streets 
 or roads. See Gardening, Walks, &c. 
 
 Altar, [altare, Lat. from alta ara.'] In 
 architecture and sculpture. A place whereon 
 offerings to the deity are placed. Among 
 the ancients, altars differed as much in 
 their form and ornaments as in their appli- 
 cation. Among the Jews they were raised 
 to receive offerings to Jehovah; to the 
 gods in the mythology of the heathens ; 
 and in many Christian communities it is 
 applied to the place whereon the sacra- 
 ment of the Lord's Supper is administered. 
 The first altars we read of are those erect- 
 ed by Cain and Abel for their various offer- 
 ings ; and in sacred history we are perpe- 
 tually reading of them from the simple 
 stone or heap of stones to the embellished 
 altars of incense, of burnt offerings, and of 
 shew-bread, in the temple of Solomon at 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 The Greeks had three kinds of altars in 
 their mythological worship : one sort, like 
 tliose of the Jews, served to burn incense 
 on and to make libations ; another for the 
 service of their sanguinary sacrifices ; and 
 another to receive their burnt offerings and 
 sacred vases. The latter were called ejx- 
 TTvpoi, from their application to the use of 
 offerings by fire; those without fire were 
 called airv^oi, and those where no blood 
 was suffered to approach avaifiaKroi. Ve- 
 nus had an altar at Paphos which was 
 avatfiaKroQ, but not uTTvpog ; and Tacitus 
 says she was worshiped, " precibus solis et 
 igue puro," by prayers and fire alone. 
 
 The forms of altars among the ancients 
 were various: sometimes a perfect cube, 
 which was the most common among the 
 Greeks, at others a parallelopipedon ; 
 sometimes round, at others octangular, 
 ti-iangular, &c. according to the material 
 of which they were formed ; and from some 
 ancient medals we find there also existed 
 altars of a circular figure. Those which 
 were constructed of metal were generally 
 
 ALT 
 
 triangular in their plan, and formed like 
 a tripod ; others, constructed of brick or 
 stone, were mostly cubical ; and some liave 
 sculptured bases and pedestals like cande- 
 labra;. (See Candelaur^'e.) Some, accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, were even constructed 
 of wood ; but by far the greater number 
 that have been preserved to our times are 
 of marble. 
 
 The height of the ancient altars varied as 
 much as their shape ; sometimes the height 
 of a man's knee, and at others, as high as 
 the middle of his body. On solemn festi- 
 vals the ancients decorated the altars of 
 their deities with leaves or branches of the 
 trees that were sacred to them ; as those 
 of Minerva with the olive, Venus with 
 myrtle, Apollo with the laurel. Pan with 
 the pine, &c. ; and it was from these tem- 
 porary decorations that the ancient sculp- 
 tors drew those elegant elements of foli- 
 age which embellish the altars of anti- 
 quity. On others that were intended for 
 their sanguinary oblations, and were hol- 
 lowed at the top to receive the blood of 
 their victims and the offered libations, are 
 found heads and skulls of animals, vases, 
 patera;, and other instruments ; vessels of 
 sacrifice, mingled with garlands of flowers, 
 such as were used to bind the victims, 
 bands, and other sacrificial accessories. 
 When inscriptions were added, they al- 
 luded to the epoch of their consecration, 
 the name of those who erected them, to 
 whose honour they were dedicated, the 
 motive of erection, &c.; the most elegant 
 were decorated with bassi rilievi of the 
 beforementioned sutyects, with the divi- 
 nity to whom it was dedicated, or with his 
 attributes. 
 
 The altars of the ancients in their tem- 
 ples were placed, according to the direc- 
 tions of Vitruvius, towards the east; and, 
 probably, hence arose the custom of pla- 
 cing the Christian altar or sacramental 
 table at the eastern end or side of the early 
 churches. Among the ancients it appears 
 to have been invariably observed that the 
 altar should be placed next to the pedes- 
 tal of the statue of the god. 
 
 Altars were erected either in temples, 
 porticoes, or peristyles, and sometimes in 
 the open air. Sacrifices were even per- 
 formed upon an altar formed of turf and 
 green earth (the aspes vivus of Horace), 
 and were according to Hesychius termed 
 Ovinai a7ro/3w;uo. The altars of the Greeks 
 were originally made of heaps of earth, and 
 sometimes of ashes,as thatof the Olympian 
 Jupiter, mentioned by Pausanias; there 
 was also another altar of ashes at Thebes, 
 consecrated to Ai)ollo, who derived from 
 
ALT 
 
 it the cognomen of ^ttoSioc. In process of 
 time tliey were formed of brick and stone ; 
 such was the material of the famous altar 
 at Delos. They were at first erected in 
 groves, in the highways and streets, as 
 well as upon the tops of mountains ; but 
 after tlie introduction of temples, they were 
 of course transferred to those edifices. 
 
 Altars as well as temples were account- 
 ed so sacred by the ancient Greeks, that 
 most of them had the privilege of protect- 
 ing malefactors, debtors, and even rebel- 
 lious slaves who fled to tliem for refuge. 
 Plutarch infoi'ms us that those who killed 
 Cylon and his followers, when holding by 
 the altars, were afterwards stigmatized 
 with the epithet aXirj;ptoi, impious and 
 profane; and Justin, in his history, ob- 
 serves that tlie murder of Laodamia, who 
 had fled to Diana's altar for protection, by 
 Milo, was the cause of his death, and of 
 the public calamities of jiiolia. In the 
 comedy of the Mostellaria by Plautus, the 
 inviolability of altars and temples appear 
 to have existed among the Romans. Every 
 temple however was not a sanctuary, but 
 only those which had received that privi- 
 lege from the manner of their consecration. 
 The first asylum is generally supposed to 
 have been founded at Athens by the He- 
 raclidae ; but some writers assert that there 
 was one previously erected at Thebes by 
 Cadmus. 
 
 Independent of the public altars of the 
 Creeks and Romans, they had also private 
 or domestic altars, which were dedicated 
 to the lares or penates, the household 
 gods of tiie ancients. They were called 
 by the Greeks tax'^P^h '^^'^ '^y ^lic Romans 
 foci. The foci contained a peri)etual fire, 
 which was considered as sacred to the lar 
 familiaris or the domestic ^at/twv, a genius 
 of the family. 
 
 In Christian churches, the altar is gene- 
 rally ii square table i)liut'(l at the eastern 
 <"n(l, and sonielimes the wliole of the jjlat- 
 form on which it stands is elevated above 
 the floor, and s(;t apart for the reception of 
 tlie holy comnuiiiion, marriage, baptism, 
 bic. The Roman Catholics denoniiiuile 
 them altars with more i)ropriely tliau the 
 I'rolcsfaufs, as they regard (hi- celelira- 
 tion of tlie sacrament of llie ]-iu Iiarist as 
 a real and ])ropcr sacrifice. In many 
 churches tlie altar is of stone, and formed 
 in (he shiijie <if a tomb or sareopliagus ; a 
 ciiHtuiii ]ir(ibal)ly derived iVoni (he earliest 
 periods of Cliristianity, when their reli- 
 gious assemblies were, for fear of perseeii- 
 fioii, obliged to bi- held in the eatacomhs, 
 and (he ttiml) of a martyr whs chosen for 
 tlie jiurpose <if an altar. For this reason it 
 
 AM A 
 
 was formerly a rule in the Romish church 
 never to erect an altar witliout enclosing 
 in it the relics of some saint. When the 
 church was in the form of a cross, it was 
 usual to place the high altar in the centre 
 of its intersection. The Romanists have 
 carried the execution and decorations of 
 their altars to a degree of splendour unex- 
 ampled in other churches, embellishing 
 them with sculptures, tapestry, cloth, and 
 vessels of gold, richly sculptured and de- 
 corated tabernacles, splendid pictures, co- 
 lumns, cornices, musaics, 6>.c. of the most 
 splendid designs and costly materials. The 
 Protestant churches affect more simplicity, 
 and in many they are simply a plain table, 
 covered only with a cloth on the day of ce- 
 lebrating the sacrament of the Lord's Sup- 
 per. 
 
 Altimetry, [from a//«s, high, and utrpov, 
 to measure.] In archilccture. The act of 
 taking or measuring altitudes or heights. 
 
 Ai.TiTLDE. [ultitudo, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. The perpendicular height of the 
 vertex of any solid body. 
 
 AltoRiuevo, [Ital.] In sculpture. High 
 relief. See Riuevo ; ScxLPTtRE. 
 
 Amateur. [Fr.] InuU the arts. A French 
 term much applied in tl»is country to per- 
 sons who are attached to any of the arts, 
 but who do not practise them : but in France 
 it is granted by academies to such as asso- 
 ciate with them with similar qualities. Al- 
 though we have no such description of 
 members in our Royal Academy of the fine 
 arts, the annual exhibition generally pro- 
 duces a consider.-xble number of amateur 
 artists of much talent, who are honoured 
 by an exclusive catalogue of their names 
 uiulcr the appellation or title of " Hono- 
 rary ExhUnters," and arc admitted to all 
 the public lectures given in tlie academy, 
 in the same manner as the members, stu- 
 dents, and professional exhibiters. 
 
 To be a genuine amateur, it is necessary 
 that tiie person so called should possess, 
 besides a sufficiency of critical knowledge, 
 some practice, and an allowed good taste, 
 or he will fall under Milizias' censure of 
 " Amatori senza amore, conoscitori senza 
 coni/.ilioni," wliich is similar (o (hat of (he 
 Itussian Coun( Slrogaiioll' in the ])reface to 
 the Catalogue IJaisonne of iiis fine collec- 
 tion of jiicliires," Delivre nous, grand Uieu, 
 de ces connoisseurs sans conni>issance et 
 ces amateurs sans amour." The French 
 phrasi' " II ne salt pas peindre, mais il est 
 amateur," well expresses the character of 
 (he erilieal amateur. 
 
 Aaia/.ons. (tVoni a vithoul, //(i^er, a 
 breast.] In sculpture anil paintinn-. A na- 
 tion of warlike women, in Scydiia, near 
 
AMAZONS. 
 
 Maeotis. A nation or colony of them is 
 said to have established themselves near 
 the river Thermodon in Cappadocia, and 
 aftervrards to have extended their settle- 
 ments along the Euxine, as far as the Cas- 
 pian sea. According to some historians, 
 the amazons formed a nation who origi- 
 nally murdered their husbands, and in 
 which they allowed the male sex to have 
 no permanent settlement, being only occa- 
 sionally admitted for the purpose of conti- 
 nuing their race. Authors do not agree 
 respecting the treatment of the children 
 thus obtained; but all agree that only the 
 female infants were reared by them for 
 the service of the state. These females 
 were carefully educated and were trained 
 up for war by the labours of the field, and 
 by the constant practice of manly exer- 
 cises. They cut or burned off their right 
 breasts, to enable them to command their 
 bow and arrow with more expertness, and 
 weild their battle axes with more vigour. 
 According to Strabo (book xi. chap. 5. sec. 
 5), they built the cities of Ephesus, Smyr- 
 na, Cuma, Myrrhina, and Paphos ; and Dio- 
 dorus Siculus (book iii. chap. 55.) men- 
 tions that they built the cities of Cyme, 
 Pitane, Prynea, and Mitylene. 
 
 The arms of this people were the javelin, 
 the bow, the battle axe, and the shield, 
 which was in the form of a half moon. 
 Their costume, according to Quintus Cur- 
 tius, reached only to the left breast, and 
 just below the knees, covering the defect 
 of the right side. In the Phigaleian mar- 
 bles the diversity of costume among the 
 Amazons is very apparent and remarkable. 
 In some instances they are represented in 
 long tunics reaching to the ground, in 
 others, with a short vest reaching only to 
 the knees, and in another, an equestrian 
 Amazon has her arms covered with long 
 sleeves, and her legs clothed with a sort 
 of trowsers ; all of which dresses, accord- 
 ing to the testimony of ancient authors, 
 were in use among the Amazons. In some 
 instances their heads are without any cover- 
 ing, while in others they are defended by 
 a close helmet; their legs, with only one 
 exception, are protected by boots. Quin- 
 tus Curtius, in his history of Alexander the 
 Great, gives a detailed account of an inter- 
 view between that prince and an Amazo- 
 nian queen, named Thalestris, which was 
 avowedly for the patriotic purpose of con- 
 tinuing her race by so gallant a warrior. 
 Thalestris made no secret of her errand, 
 and urged her claim to the honour of giving 
 an heir to the Macedonian throne. She 
 was received and entertained by Alexan- 
 
 der for thirteen days, but died shortly after 
 her return home. 
 
 There are various representations of the 
 figures and costume of Amazons among 
 the terra cottas in the British Museum ; 
 and the chief authors who have described 
 them are Justin (lib. 2), Herodotus, Dio- 
 DORus Siculus, Strabo, and Quintus Cur- 
 tius. Plutarch in his life of Theseus says 
 of them, that " they clearly resemble fable 
 and fiction." Strabo the geographer, a 
 native of Cappadocia, strenuously opposes 
 the opinion of their existence ; and an able 
 writer in the Encyclopedia Metrgpoli- 
 tana, under the head " Amazon," thinks 
 their existence is founded upon circum- 
 stances not at all more substantial than the 
 structure of most Grecian fables ; although 
 their existence has found advocates in the 
 celebrated names of Petitus and Dr. John- 
 son; the former of whom published alearn- 
 ed dissertation on this subject at Paris, in 
 1605 ; which was attached by our learned 
 countryman, Bryant, in his Mythology, 
 vol. i. page 52; and vol. v. page 110; to 
 which work the inquiring reader is refer- 
 red for further information upon their fa- 
 bulous attributes. Gibbon, in his " De- 
 cline and Fall of the Roman Empire," as- 
 serts his unbelief upon this point witli great 
 success. 
 
 The actions of the fabulous race of he- 
 roines were often the subject of the ancient 
 sculptor's chisel. Besides the terra cottas 
 beforementioned, are the celebrated battles 
 of the Athenians and the Amazons on the 
 friezes of the temples of Theseus at Athens, 
 and of Apollo Epicurius on Mount Coty- 
 lion, near the ancient city of Phigileia in 
 Arcadia. In the latter sculptures, which 
 are now in the British Museum, the Ama- 
 zons are all with perfect and well sliaped 
 breasts, which gives some authority to tlie 
 derivation of their name by Eustathius (ad 
 Hom. Iliad, i. p. 402. 38 edit.Romffi,1542). 
 That their name is derived from a priva- 
 tive and fiala bread, from the savage mode 
 in which they lived, feeding on the flesh of 
 wild animals. Others again suppose the 
 name to have been derived from iifia ^i]i>, 
 as they lived together without the society 
 of men. But at all events, in this cele- 
 brated frieze as well as in all the odier an- 
 cient works in which the Amazons were 
 represented by the ancients, they are inva- 
 riably sculptured witii both breasts entire, 
 but they have generally, like tiie hun- 
 tresses attendant on Diana, one exposed, 
 and tjie other concealed by drapeiy. Such 
 representations may be found in these ce- 
 brated sculptures, and the beautiful engra- 
 
A ME 
 
 vin^s made from them and published by 
 llie trustees of the museum, edited by 
 Tayior Combe, Esq. London, 4to. 1820. 
 In a basso rilievo in the same museum re- 
 presenting a group of captive Amazons ; 
 in the Museum Capitolinum, vol. lii. pi. 
 ■1(» ; in the Museo Pio Clementino, vol. ii. 
 pi. 38; Bronzi di Ercolano, vol. ii. plates 
 63, 04; "VVinckleman, Monument! Inediti, 
 pi. 237. 
 
 Among the ancient artists who are re- 
 ported to have painted those heroines, 
 Pausanias (Attic c. xv. and xvii.) describes 
 the walls of the temple of Theseus to have 
 been painted with the battle of the Athe- 
 nians under the command of Theseus 
 against them, but does not mention the 
 names of the artists ; but Pliny says that the 
 paintngswere executed partly by Poligno- 
 tus and partly by Micon. Arrian and Aris- 
 tophaies on the contrary relate that the bat- 
 tle between the Athenians and the Ama- 
 zons vas painted by Micon. See Aristoph. 
 LysisL v. 679. Arrian de Exped. Alex. 
 lib. vii. c. 13. 
 
 In t^c late collection at Paris was a very 
 fine arlique statue in Parian marble of an 
 Amazon ; and there is also a very beauti- 
 ful one of a Queen of this nation, at Wil- 
 ton, a Jcat of the Earl of Pembroke, among 
 his loidship's numerous and fine collection 
 of ancient marbles, sculptured by Cleo- 
 nienes. 
 
 Amuer. lambar, Arabic, amber, German.] 
 In f^cm sculpture. A sort of resinous, yel- 
 lowish. semitransparent substance, used by 
 the an;;ients in gem sculpture, and other 
 ornaments. See Electrum. 
 
 Anuo. [a/Lt/3wv, Gr.] In architecture. An 
 elevated place, rostrum, or pulpitum, used 
 in th( early churches, for tiie pur])ose of 
 sayinj or chanting some parts of the ser- 
 vice, and from whence religious orations 
 and exhortations were deli\eved. 
 
 Amktuvst. [rt'/u^iiffror, Gr. umithi/.stus, 
 Lat.] In gem sculpture. The name of a 
 l)recif us stone of a violet colour, of the fa- 
 mily if llie (juarlz, well known to tlie 
 Greeks, from whoiii the coloured variety 
 received its name (a privative and /ifOi/oTof 
 «lrunk), on account of the power wliich 
 tiiey inagiiK'd it (o poss<'SS of r<'slraiiiing 
 ilrunkenness, or jireM'nting intoxication, 
 'i'lie while amethysts are both natural and 
 produte<l by the action of lire upon the co- 
 loured varieties, whilst its tiauspiirency 
 causes a double refraction, and sueii a 
 gplendil brilliancy that it is sometimes 
 .substituted for the diiiniond; from which it 
 can only be dislinguished liy its waul of 
 adanmnline hardness. The i)urple umc- 
 
 AMP 
 
 thyst was alone received by the ancients 
 as the true sort, and the opinion of its 
 anti inebriating qualities arose from the 
 similarity of its colour to the weaker or 
 diluted wines. Plutarch, however, in his 
 morals, combated the idea. This preju- 
 dice, however, prevailed to such a degree 
 that it was usual with great drinkers, 
 among the ancients, to wear one round 
 their necks, or set in a ring as an amulet, 
 that they might drink without fear of in- 
 toxication. The larger sorts were formed 
 by tlie lapidary into cups, that were highly 
 prized for the same supposed quality, which 
 is made the subject of a smart epigram in 
 the Anthology. The ancient artists also 
 took this gem for the figure of Bacchus, to 
 whom the stone was sacred, and for Bac- 
 chanalian subjects. See Allegory. 
 
 Amicilc:m. [Lat.] In ancient costume. 
 According to Titus Livius, an upper gar-j 
 ment worn by females, distinguished from 
 the palla (see this word), as being shorter. 
 According to Cicero and Valerius Maxi- 
 mus, who calls it amiculum acoreum, it 
 was a robe of state ; and other writers call 
 by this name the short upper cloak worn 
 by the men, which was also called chlamys 
 and Paludamentum (see these words). 
 
 Ampiiiprostyle. [of dp^ii, on both sides, 
 TTpo, before, and arvXog, a column with co- 
 lumns in front.] In architecture. An order 
 of temples that had a portico in front and 
 rear of the cell, like the Ionic temples on 
 the Ilissus, and dilferent from the perip- 
 teral, whicli had the cell surrounded on all 
 sides by columns. See tiie works of Vi- 
 truvius, Pal lad io, Scanu)/./.i, &;c., Elmes's 
 Lectures on Architecture, &c. 
 
 A:MPiiniiEATRE. [dfi<pi9harMy, Gr. awi- 
 phitluulrum, Lat. umphithnltre, Er.] In 
 architecture. A building of a circular or 
 oval form, having its area encompassed by 
 rows of seats one above another, at first 
 called Theatrum Venatorum, orTiieatre for 
 Hunting. This word, as its etymon de- 
 clares, means a building formed of two 
 tluatres, each part facing the other; the 
 middle of wiiicii was lulled the arena, 
 from the sand which was spread on its 
 surface to absord the blood of the conibal- 
 aiits. The word is compound from d/t^i 
 about, and OKWfiai I behold. 
 
 Tiie arena was tiiat part of the amphi- 
 theatre in which the dilferent sorts of 
 games, or spectacles, with which tiie lio- 
 mans used to anuise the people, sucii as 
 combats of gladiators and wild beasts, 
 were reprcsculed. The nat\ire of these 
 sjjorts (M- games, ol)Iiging tin- coml)atants 
 uccHsiunally to ]>ursue and at other times 
 
to fly from their opponents, occasioned 
 them to be built of a circular or oval form. 
 Round the arena were vaults called caveas, 
 or carcerap, in which were confined the 
 wild beasts appointed for the shows. Im- 
 
 AMPIUTHEATRE. 
 
 amphitheatrum caslrrnfiis, said to have boon 
 built by Tiberius, for the gladiators of tlio 
 imperial guard. It was of a small size, 
 and situated near the CoUis Esquilinus in 
 the fifth region or ward of the city. Ths 
 
 mediately above these vaults (carcercs) ruins are still to be seen to the left of the 
 was a peristyle, or portico of columns. Holy Cross of Jerusalem. It was of brick, 
 called the podium, in which the emperor, cased witii stone, and of the Corinthian 
 senators, and other distinguished person- order. 2. The amphitheatre of Vespasian, 
 ages were accommodated. Above, or called the Colosseum (see Colosseum), of 
 around this portico, or gallery, were rows which says a modern poet, quoting after 
 of benches as high as the upper part of the historian of the Decline and Fall of tiie 
 the walls, from every part of which the Roman Empire, 
 arena might be seen. The avenues, &c. 
 by which this part was entei-ed,were call- 
 ed vomitoria: The lower parts of these 
 public seats were appropriated to the 
 highest classes of the citizens, and those 
 above them, progressively, for the more 
 inferior and lower class of the people. 
 The whole building was uncovered, and 
 its exterior face divided into several sto- 
 ries, ornamented with arcades, columns, 
 and pilasters, and oftentimes with niches 
 and statues. It is calculated they could 
 hold from thirty thousand to eighty thou- 
 sand people. 
 
 Amphitheatres were peculiar to the Ro- 
 mans, being unknown to the Greeks, who 
 never encouraged such barbarous pursuits 
 as were practised in Rome. 
 
 Ancient authors have not given us any 
 details of the manner of construction, or of 
 the distribution of these vast edifices. Vi- 
 truvius mentions them, but unaccompanied 
 by any details. What we do know on the 
 subject has been collected from actual 
 observation of the state of those that have 
 escaped the ravages of time ; the most 
 perfect of which are that of Vespasian 
 called the Colosseum, that of Verona in 
 Italy, and that of Nismes in France. The 
 first who erected an amphitheatre in Rome 
 was Caius Scribonius Curio, in the cele- 
 brations which he gave the people on the 
 occasion of his father's funeral obsequies. 
 He determined to surpass all others of his 
 time, if not by magnificence, which his for- 
 tune would not allow, at least in novelt^f. 
 
 " While stands the Colosseum Rome shall st.in(l ;" 
 
 translating a saying of the Anglo-Saxon 
 pilgrims who visited Rome in the early 
 part of the eighth century, " Quamdiu 
 stabit Colosseus, stabat Roma, quantlo 
 cadet Colosseus, cadet et Roma ; quaiido 
 cadet Roma, cadet et mundus." 3. That 
 of Statilius Taurus before described ; the 
 situation is uncertain, but Kennet places 
 it to the south of the Tiber, nearly oppo- 
 site to the mausoleum of Adrian, now called 
 the Castle of St. Angelo ; and Millin sup- 
 poses it to have been erected in the lesser 
 Campus Martius. 4. The amphitheatre 
 built by Trajan in the Campus Martius, 
 and destroyed by Adrian. Of these four 
 amphitheatres the Colosseum is the most 
 remarkabls^ and is one to which the Ro- 
 mans gave the name of the Amphitheatre, 
 by way of distinction ; it probably was the 
 only one of any magnitude or stability in 
 Rome, being large enough to contain its 
 whole population ; the enormous expenge of 
 such a building not allowing them to have 
 several. 
 
 Pliny gives a description of these mova- 
 ble amphitheatres which has somewhat 
 puzzled the laborious antiquary Count 
 Caylus, but of which M. Weinbrenner, a 
 German architect, has given a very satis- 
 factory explanation, in a memoir which has 
 been translated into French by M. C. 
 Winckler, in the " Magazin Encyclope- 
 dique." Amphitheatres in the first ages of 
 the commonwealth were only temporary 
 buildings constructed of wood, which, ac- 
 cording to Pliny, sometimes tumbled down 
 with great destruction of lives. The sin- 
 gular invention of Curio was succeeded 
 
 Full of these intentions, he constructed 
 
 two theatres of wood, back to back, and 
 
 which, after the theatrical repi'esentations 
 
 were closed, turned with the spectators in 
 
 them, leaving the stages and scenery be- by the construction of regular amphithea- 
 
 hind, and thus forming a perfect amphi- tres, which, as above, being only for tem- 
 porary purposes, were of wood, and mostly 
 erected in the Campus Martius, or some 
 place out of the citj . When Julius Ca>sar 
 performed the grand ceremony of the in- 
 
 theatre, in which he again gratified the 
 people by giving them a show of gladia- 
 tors. See Casalius de Urb. Rom. et imp. 
 Splendor e, lib. 36. cap. 15. 
 
 The principal amphitheatres of Rome, 
 which are now known either through his- 
 tory, or the ruins that remain, are, 1 . The 
 
 auguration of his new forum, and the tem- 
 ple of Venus, which he built and dedicated 
 to that goddess, he gave the people, among 
 
AMP 
 
 oilier public games, gladiatorial combats, 
 for which ho constructed an edifice pro- 
 vided w ith seats all around the arena ; 
 ^vhich, however, was but of timber, which 
 was demolished at the close of the games. 
 From these temporary wooden buildings, 
 the form and disposition, as well as the 
 name of amphitlieatres were derived. 
 
 The fragileness and insecurity of these 
 timber buildings at last induced the Ro- 
 mans to think, of making them more secure 
 and permanent. Accordingly they after- 
 wards erected their amphitheatres of stone, 
 and the lirst that was erected of that dura- 
 ble material was in the reign of Augustus, 
 by Statilius Taurus, in the Campus Mar- 
 tins ; the inauguration of which was per- 
 formed by gladiatorial and other combats. 
 It appears that only part of his amphithea- 
 tre was of stone (perhaps only the walls, 
 and the interior fittings of wood), for it 
 was partly destroyed by fire in the reign of 
 Nero. Caligula afterwards proposed erect- 
 ing a noble amphitheatre of stone, but nei- 
 ther that emperor, nor Claudius, nor Nero, 
 all lovers of gladiatorial sports, ever com- 
 pleted the design. Nero, however, erect- 
 ed, in less than a year, another amphi- 
 theatre of wood, in the environs of the 
 Campus Martins. This building was a 
 very stong and solid structure, and built 
 with the largest and strongest timbers. 
 Pliny relates, that it had one beam or 
 girder of larch wood, above one hundred 
 and twenty feet long, and two feet in diame- 
 ter. Tiberius caused this immense piece of 
 limber to be brought from llhoetia to Rome, 
 for the purpose of being used in the build- 
 ing of a naumachia; and it was preserved 
 as a curiosity till it was thus employed by 
 Nero. 
 
 About this period, they erected amphi- 
 theatres also in several provincial cities. 
 Under Tiberius, a freedman named Atilius 
 built a large one of timber, the construc- 
 tion of which was so bad, and the founda- 
 tion so insecure, that it gave way and fell 
 (hiring tiie re])resenta(ion of the games, 
 and which cost the lives, according to Ta- 
 citus, of fifty tjiousand persons. Near to 
 J'laccntia tlu^y also had an ani]iliillu'alrc 
 of wood, which was burned iluring tlie 
 siege of that city, in the civil war between 
 "Vitcllius and ()tho. 
 
 TIh! i)rin(ip;il amphitheatres of which 
 the rcnuiins are still in existence are one 
 at Alba, a small city of Lalium ; anodur 
 n(!nr the Tiber, at Oliicolo; anothci- near 
 the Carigliano, anciently the river F^yris, 
 built of brick; another at Pozzuoli, of 
 which |)art of (he arcades and (he cavea> 
 for wild beasts slill renuiin ; also one at 
 
 AMU 
 
 Capua ; another at Verona ; one at the 
 foot of Mount Cassin, in the vicinity of the 
 Villa of Varro ; one at Paestum ; one at 
 Syracuse ; one at Agrigentum ; one atCa- 
 taneo ; one at Argos ; and another at Co- 
 rinth. There is a very magnificent one at 
 Pola, in Istria; also one of no less gran- 
 deur at Hipella, in Spain. 
 
 In France they have one at Aries ; one 
 at Frejus ; one at Saintes ; and one at 
 Autun. But that which has most suflered 
 from time and accident is that of Nismes, 
 called the Arena. {Vide Arena.) At 
 Nice, in the quarter of Cimiez, there is 
 also a Roman amphitheatre, which con- 
 stantly attracted the curiosity of travellers. 
 The present proprietor has uncovered 
 uealy the whole of this ancient edifice, 
 which in several parts is in high preserva- 
 tion, pulled down the modern encroach- 
 ments, and enclosed the whole with a wall. 
 He has been rewarded for his pains by 
 the discovery of some fine medals. ( Vide 
 Monthly Magazine for September, 1809.) 
 In almost all the provinces that were un- 
 der their dominions, the Romans erected 
 amphitheatres, which are lasting monu- 
 ments of their power and skill in the art of 
 building. See Architectl're, Arena, Co- 
 losseum, Theatre. 
 
 Amphora. [Lat. aV^opfi'cGr.] In sculp- 
 ture and ornamental architecture. A kind 
 of vase, or liquid measure, which had two 
 ears or handles, so named from a^iipi, both, 
 and ^fpw, I bear. There are several in the 
 department of antiquities in the British 
 Museum. They were used as a measure 
 for liquids by the Greeks and Romans. 
 The Roman amphora, sometimes called 
 the italic amphora, containe<l two urnir 
 or forty-eight sextuaries, equal to about 
 seven gallons one pint English wine mea- 
 sure ; and the attic amphora, which was 
 tiiat in use auu)ng the Greeks, contained 
 throe Roman urna; or seventy-two sextua- 
 ries, or a))oul ten gallons five and a half 
 pints English wine measure. 
 
 Ampi'Ixa. [Lat. from a7'i3(i/\Xa, Gr.] In 
 tireliitioli><:^il. An oI)long vessel bellying 
 out like a jug, chiefly of earth or glass, 
 with a large round belly, used by the an- 
 ciiuts to contain oil for anointing their 
 bodies. A vessel of (his kind, bearing the 
 saiiu' niMue, is still used in the coroualion 
 of the kings of l''.ngland and France. 
 
 Amulet, [umuletum, I^at. from awoliemlo, 
 to remove, or nullify.] In arcliaiolo^iij. An 
 apiK'udcd renii'dj worn alxiul llu' ncik as 
 a charm, or preservative against mischief, 
 witciu:raf(, or diseases. Aniulets were an- 
 ciently nuide of stone, me(al, simples, ani- 
 mals, in short, of every thing that caprice 
 
ANA 
 
 or fancy suggested. Sometimes they con- 
 sisted of words, characters, figures, &c. 
 engraved on various substances. The 
 British Museum have a great number of 
 them in the eighth room of the department 
 of antiquities, of great variety and cu- 
 riosity. Pliny describes several sorts as 
 used in his time. See Abraxas. 
 
 Anadem. [dva5)]na, Gr. from dvaS'sio, to 
 bind round, anadema, Lat.] Li ancient cos- 
 tume. A kind of ornament, garland, or fil- 
 let, which women wore on their heads. It 
 is also applied to the fillet anciently worn 
 by the Kings of Persia. Our poet Dray- 
 ton speaks of " aiiadems of flowers," and 
 W. Browne, in his British Pastorals, of 
 " sweet anadems to gird thy brow." See 
 
 DiADEJI. 
 
 Anadyomene. [from d%>acvoiiai, Gr. to 
 emerge from.] In the history of painting. 
 A celebrated picture of Venus, painted by 
 Apelles, which originally adorned the 
 temple of ^sculapius at Cos. It repre- 
 sented tlie goddess rising out of the sea, 
 and wringing her hair. Augustus ti-ans- 
 ferred it to the temple of Julius Cajsar, 
 and remitted to the inhabitants of Cos a 
 tribute of one hundred talents in return. 
 The lower part of the figure having been 
 injured, no Roman painter could be found 
 to supply it. 
 
 Anaglyphic. [dvay\vfa, Gr. anangli/pha, 
 Lat.] In antique sciilptiire. The art of cha- 
 sing, engraving, or embossing metals, or 
 any work in relief. This kind of art, when 
 in stone, is also called Cameo (see Cameo). 
 The opposite kind of work, which is done 
 by engraving or indenting, is called Dia- 
 glyphic or intaglio. See Diaglyphic. 
 
 Anamorphosis, [from dva, and ixoptpumg.'] 
 In drmving. The art of deformation in de- 
 sign, or perspective projection, so that in 
 one point of view it shall appear deformed, 
 in another an exact representation. Ana- 
 morphoses are also projected on a plane, 
 or curved surface ; which when the rays 
 are collected in a mirror (sometimes a cy- 
 lindrical one), they appear regular and in 
 proportion. See Optics. 
 
 Anancites, or Ananchitis. [Lat. dvay- 
 xinc, Gr.] In gem sculpture. A kind of 
 engraved stone, or talisman, also called 
 synochitis, celebrated in hydromancy for 
 its magical virtue of raising the shadows 
 (umbrae) of the infernal deities. 
 
 Anapiesma, or Anapiesmata. [Lat.] In 
 architecture. The name given by the an- 
 cients to those machines by which figures 
 of the infernal deities, ghosts, or shades of 
 the departed were made to arise in their 
 theatres. The anapiesmata were of two 
 sorts, one of which was fixed under the 
 
 ANA 
 proscenium for the use of the marine gods, 
 such as Neptune in the Troads of Euri- 
 pides, where this deity consults with Mi- 
 nerva on the punishment of the Greeks 
 after the destruction of Troy; the other 
 was behind the staircase that led from the 
 postscenium into the orchestra, where the 
 furies rose, as in the Thyestes of Seneca, 
 and where Megara drives into hell the 
 shade of Tantalus. In the forty-first plate 
 of the second volume of D'Hancarville's 
 Vases is an engraving in which a fury 
 is thus rising from the earth to torment 
 Orestes. 
 
 Anathema. [Lat. dvaQefia, Gr. from dva- 
 riQifiai, set up.] In archaiology. An oflfer- 
 ing or present made to some deity, so called 
 from its being hung up in the temple. This 
 species of dedication was most u sual, among 
 the ancients, when a person left ofl" his em- 
 ployment; thus the shepherd would dedi- 
 cate his pipe to Pan, the fisherman his net 
 to Neptune, the retired soldier his shield 
 to Mars, and the bygone beauty her mir- 
 ror to Venus. Persons who had escaped 
 shipwreck or other imminent peril seldom 
 failed to testify their gratitude in this man- 
 ner. See Horace, &c. 
 
 Anatomy, [anatomia, Lat. dvarofiia, Gr. 
 from dva and rifxvu), I cut.] In painting and 
 sculpture. The doctrine of the structure of 
 the animal body, particularly that of man. 
 By this science an artist can alone obtain 
 the knowledge of the bones, or osteology, 
 and of the structure of those external layers 
 of muscles, on which depend, in a great 
 measure, a. jnst ponderation, motion, and ea*- 
 pression of his figures. 
 
 For this reason anatomy is one of the 
 principal elements of art ; and the study of 
 it should not solely be confined to proper 
 anatomy, but should also, if the artist 
 would attain eminence, be extended to 
 comparative anatomy. The best course of 
 study, for a student in the arts, is to obtain 
 a general knowledge of the principal bones 
 and external muscles, their names and uses, 
 to accustom himself to draw often, both from 
 the skeleton and occasional dissections. To 
 compare his drawings and his observations 
 with the most perfect and beautiful speci- 
 mens of ancient and modern statues, and 
 the living model. To do the same with 
 those masters whose paintings are most 
 celebrated for anatomical expression and 
 correctness, as RaflTaelle, Michael Angiolo, 
 the Caracci, &c. and observe the defects 
 of others. He will finally, by this means, 
 obtain a confidence and correctness of de- 
 lineating the wonderful human machine. 
 The best books for study Avould be pointed 
 out by any medical friend ; but he must 
 
ANT 
 
 not omit consulting that admirable work, 
 Bell's Anatomy of Expression in Painting, 
 where tlie science is treated both as an 
 artist, and as an anatomist. 
 
 Anchor. Innchora, Lat. ayKvpa, Gr.] In 
 ornamental architecture. A sort of carving 
 something resembling an anchor, intermix- 
 ed with eggs, and sometimes called a tongue 
 from its resemblance to the barbed tongue 
 of a serpent. It has been used indiscrimi- 
 nately in all the orders, and in almost every 
 circular moulding. 
 
 Anclabris. See Altar. 
 
 Andronitides or Andron. [Lat. dvSpoJV, 
 Gr.] In the doinc.stic architecture of the 
 Greeks. The apartment devoted to the 
 male branches of the establishment, and 
 was in the lower part of the house. The 
 gynacea or women's apartment was in the 
 upper part. See Gyn.ecea. 
 
 Anemoscope, [from dveiioQ, the wind, 
 (Tkottt), which may be seen.] In mechanical 
 architecture. A machine invented to fore- 
 tell the changes of the wind. According to 
 Vitruvius's description, it is done by means 
 of an index moving about a perpendicular 
 circular plate or dial, divided like a mari- 
 ner's compass ; the index being turned by 
 a horizontal axis, and the axis by an up- 
 right stall', at the top of which is a vane, 
 moved about by the Avind. 
 
 Animation or Animated, [animatio, Lat.] 
 In painting. Lively, vigorous. An expres- 
 sion given to a figure in painting or sculp- 
 ture, when it exhibits a sort of momen- 
 tary activity in its motions. It is also used 
 figuratively when a painting or statue is 
 executed with that truth and vigour that it 
 appears alive or animated. 
 
 Annulets, [from nnnulns, Lat. a little 
 ring.] In architcclure. The snuill square 
 members in the Doric capital, under the 
 echinus. They are also called armilUv 
 (bracelets), listels, and lillets. The num- 
 ber of annulets vary in several examples 
 of the order. In the Doric capitals of (he 
 theatre of Marcellus, in those designed by 
 Palladio, and other Uoman examjjles, 
 there are tliree; whereas in those of Ihe 
 tenijjle at I'astum, and in several Greek 
 cxainj)Ies, they consist of four. 
 
 Anta. [Lat.] In urchilecture. A squart; 
 pilaster, generally narrower on its flank 
 tlian on its front, ])lace<l at (lie angles of 
 the <'('ll of tiu' temples and l)eliin(l porticos 
 of columns, differing but little from pilas- 
 ters. Some architects confini^ this Mord 
 to lhos(! pilasters wliicli iia\ e ncillier Ijiisc, 
 cai)ital, nor other moulding; but it is more 
 properly applied when (he base and capital 
 dill'er from the onler it is used with, as in 
 most of tho Grecian examples, or wlu ii it 
 
 ANT 
 
 is used by itself, and the base and capital 
 do not exactly conform to an order, as in 
 the example of the Choragic monument of 
 Thrasyllus. Vitruvius calls those angular 
 antie, which have but too faces out of the 
 wall, to distinguish them from which, 
 placed at the ends of walls or porticos, 
 have three. See Stuart's Antiquities of 
 Athens, the Ionian Antiquities, Sec. also the 
 words Pilaster, Par.vstat.t:. 
 
 Antepaoienta. [Lat.] In ancient archi- 
 tecture. The jambs of a door; also orna- 
 ments carved in wood or stone, and placed 
 on the architrave or round the doors. 
 
 Antes. See Ant_e. 
 
 Antech.vmber. [from ante, before, and 
 chamber.] In architectui-e. A chamber 
 leading to the chief apartment of a dwell- 
 ing. According to Vitruvius, in the houses 
 of the Greeks, the thalatnus, or bed cham- 
 ber, was separated from the antifhahimus, 
 or antechamber, by a passage called jros- 
 tas. The use, as well as the form of the 
 antechamber, diflers in various countries. 
 In the palaces of Italy, the lirst antecham- 
 ber is of considerable dimensions ; in 
 France it is smaller; and in England, ex- 
 cept in a few large mansions, still smaller. 
 The first antechamber or hall, in the conti- 
 nental architecture of Europe, is for the 
 domestics, and but plainly ornamented ; 
 the second is more decorated, and some- 
 times serves them for an eating or dancing 
 room ; and to most of their grand rooms is 
 attached a small antechamber, which is a 
 sort of cabinet or boudoir : these ajiart- 
 meuts are susceptible of much taste in 
 their ornamenting. 
 
 Antick. [antiquux, Lat.] In the arts. 
 Odd, ridiculously wild. In painting and 
 sculpture, it denotes a fantastical compo- 
 sition of men, birds, beasts, foliage, &c. 
 formed out of each other, according to the 
 fancy of tiie artists. There are several 
 curious specimens of this fancy sculjjture 
 among the basso rilievos in terra cotta at 
 the llrilish IMiisenm. See Grotesquk. 
 
 Anticum. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 A ])orch to a door southward, to distin- 
 guish it from the north, which was called 
 liorticnin. Also (hat jiart of the (emi)Io 
 that was between (he cell of (he temi>lo 
 and the colunms of the portico. See Ea- 
 «;ai)K, Pounco. 
 
 A.NTiNoi siu lii'i.viDERE. In sculpture. A 
 fine statue,formerIy in the INIuseuni a( Paris, 
 l)ut restored, at the peace, (o its situation in 
 the Hch i<Ifie Palace at liome. It is by 
 some called a IVlercury. See IVIerci ky. 
 
 Antipendium. See Ai.tar. 
 
 ANruji \m. \anliqtiiirius, I-nt.] In all 
 the arts. A man devoted to the study or 
 
ANT 
 
 pursuit of that which is ancient. The 
 science of an antiquary consists in the 
 study of ancient coins and medals, inscrip- 
 tions upon buildings, statues, &c. so as to 
 attain, or lead to a knowledge of the cus- 
 toms, laws, and religion of ancient times. 
 See Archaiology, Inscriptions, Medals. 
 &c. 
 
 Antiquaries. [Society of, in London.] 
 This society was instituted in 17.51, and is 
 principally directed to the study of Eng- 
 lish or local antiquities, rather than the 
 extended science called Arcliaiologj-. They 
 have weekly meetings every Thursday 
 evening in the winter season, at their 
 rooms in Somerset Place. A similar so- 
 ciety was founded in Edinburgh, in 1780. 
 See Archaiology. 
 
 Antique. [Fr. antlquus, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. That which is of genuine antiquity. 
 This term, as used in the language of the 
 Fine Arts, denotes such works as were 
 executed by the ancient Greeks and Ro- 
 mans ; thus we say, an antique bust, an 
 antique statue, an antique torso, &c. See 
 Sculpture. The French speak of it with 
 just admiration, and have named it le bel 
 antique. In those works of genuine an- 
 tiquity that possess real merit (for it is not 
 to be antique alone that justifies the praise 
 of the judicious critic), their distinctive 
 character is beauty of form in general ; 
 and the supreme beauty of the human form 
 in particular ; but above all,majestj", gran- 
 deur, and elevation of character in their 
 heads ; a true and noble expression of the 
 passions, subordinate however to that of 
 beauty. In general we find that the an- 
 cients rather sought to represent ideal 
 beauty than simply to imitate nature, ex- 
 cept in those splendid and unique excep- 
 tions to this practice, the Elgin marbles. 
 
 To arrive at great perfection in any of 
 the three branches of the Fine Arts, the 
 artist must zealously study the antique, 
 and form his taste in contemplating them, 
 so that he may attain that truth and gran- 
 deur of stj le which characterize the artists 
 of antiquity. The artists of the modern 
 Roman school, who endeavoured more than 
 any others to carry into their studies these 
 grand models of perfection, were for this 
 reason superior, in their day, to any other 
 modern school, and a similar reason is 
 raising that of ^reat Britain to a like 
 superiority. London, Paris, Rome, Flo- 
 rence, and other large cities have collec- 
 tions of the finest antiques that have been 
 found in Greece and Italy, for the use of 
 their students in art; and the labours of 
 industrious and able artists have brought 
 into our libraries the finest remains of 
 
 A PC) 
 
 architectural splendour, as studies of the 
 highest order. Almost every country in 
 Europe has collections of antique sculp- 
 tured gems and medals : and tliose who 
 are deprived of the enjoyment of using or 
 seeing the originals are amply supplied 
 by casts and impressions, taken in the 
 manner invented by our ingenious coun- 
 tryman Tassie, which are superior to en- 
 gravings or drawings. The study of the 
 antique is decidedly indispensable to ar- 
 tists, for it was by the assistance of this 
 study, and a careful observance of nature, 
 that formed the greatest modern artists, 
 such as Raffaelle, Michael Angiolo, Pous- 
 sin, Caracci, See, and which has rendered 
 then) such universal objects of admiration. 
 The finest collection of antiques are in the 
 Museum at Paris (see Museum) ; the Bri- 
 tish Museum, London (see Museum, Bri- 
 tish) ; Wilton House ; Lord Elgin's match- 
 less collection (see Museum, Elgin ),&c.&:c. 
 
 Antiquities. See Archaiologv. 
 
 Apartment, [from a parte mansionis.^ 
 In architecture. Part of a house, or set of 
 rooms complete in themselves, and set 
 apart from the rest of the house, where 
 one or more persons, or a family, may in- 
 habit, and is in itself a complete habita- 
 tion. 
 
 Apertures, [apcrtura, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. The openings in a building, such as 
 doors, windows, staircases, outlets, and 
 inlets, for light, smoke, &c. They ought 
 to be as few in number, and as moderate 
 in dimension as possible, and never made 
 too near the angles of tlie walls. Win- 
 dows and doors ought also to be over 
 each other, solid over solid, and aperture 
 over aperture. 
 
 Aplustrum. [Lat. a-XovsTpa, Gr.] In 
 sculpture. An ancient ornament at the lof- 
 tiest part of the stern of the sliip, com- 
 posed of various coloured materials. It 
 is probable it might be their colours or 
 flag. It was sometimes used as an orna- 
 ment for the frieze, the pediment, and por- 
 ticos of temples dedicated to Neptune. 
 
 Apodyterium. [Lat. inrocvTiipiov, Gr.] 
 In architecture. Among the ancients the 
 apodyterium was the undressing room for 
 the bathers before they entered into the 
 bath ; also a similar room in the palestra, 
 for undressing before the gymnastic exer- 
 cises. See Bath, Palestra. 
 
 Apollo. In mythological sculpture and 
 painting. A celebrated deity of Greece 
 and Rome, the supposed inventor and pa- 
 tron of all the fine arts. He was the son 
 of Jupiter and Latona, born in the island 
 of Delos, at the same birlh with Diana. 
 He was accounfed tlie god of physic, divi- 
 
 D 
 
APO 
 
 nation, and poetry, and was called Sol in 
 heaven, Bacchus on eartli, and Apollo be- 
 low the eartlj. The statues and busts of 
 this god are always to be distinguished by 
 the beauty of the face, being represented 
 in all the antique statues with an air of su- 
 preme divinity. He is handsomer than 
 Mercury, and not so efl'eminate as Bac- 
 chus, who is his rival for beauty. His 
 features are extremely fine, and his limbs 
 exactly proportioned, with as much soft- 
 ness as is consistent with strength. The 
 ancient sculptors always represent him as 
 young and beardless ; and his long beauti- 
 ful hair, according to the poets, w hen un- 
 conlined, fell in natural easy ringlets down 
 his shoulders, and sometimes over his 
 breast, from which ciicumstances he is 
 sometimes distinguished by the epithets 
 crinitus and intonsus. See Ovid's Met. 
 lib. i. ver. 56-1. Hor. lib. vi. od. vi. ver. 
 1. 3. od. iv. ver. 02. jEn. lib. ix. ver. 638, 
 &:c. On account of the hair, a Bacchus 
 miglit sometimes be mistaken for an Apollo. 
 Virgil in the third ^neid, v. 119. calls 
 him the beautiful ; and TibuUus, lib. 2. 
 el. 3. v. ii. the v/ell shaped god. The 
 various characters of Apollo among the 
 Komans were Apollo Venator, who pre- 
 sided over the chase; in which clmracter 
 is the Apollo Belvidere (see Apoixo Belvi- 
 dere); the Musical Apollo, called Vates, 
 or Lyristes (see Apollo Musagetes); the 
 Actiun Apollo, who assisted Augustus at 
 the battle of Actium, a statue of whom 
 stood on the promontory of Actium, or 
 Leucate, on a place called the Lo\er's 
 Leap (see Ovid's Epis. 15. v. 175), wiiich 
 was visible a considerable distance at sea, 
 and was worshiped by tlie mariners (Tir^--. 
 jEv. 2. V. 275), to whicii Augustus is said 
 to liave addressed ins demotions before 
 llie battle of Actium ; the Apollo IMedicis 
 (r«/e the Lycian Apom^); Apollo the 
 Tormcntiir, from an anti(iuo statue repre- 
 senting him (laying Marsyas alive witli 
 his own Imnds. Tiuv linest antique sta- 
 tues of Apollo now in existence are tiu) 
 following : — 
 
 Apoli-o Belvidkiie is csteenu'd tiio 
 most excellent and sublime of all the an- 
 cient productions. It was fouiul about 
 twelve leagues from Itonu', in the ruins of 
 ancient Antium, and purchased by I'ope 
 Julius II. when a cardinal, who removed 
 it to liie Belvidere of (lie N'adean, from 
 whence it takes i(s nanu', and where it 
 remained three hundred years. There is 
 U go()<I cojiy l)y Willon, and also an admi- 
 rable cast from it in tlic Koyal Acaddnj 
 of London. 
 
 Apollo Mt'sAGETEs. Auodier celebrated 
 
 APO 
 
 antique 8^atue, which takes its name from 
 its occupation as Musagates,or conductor 
 of the songs of the muses. It is of Pen- 
 telican marble, about five feet eight or 
 nine inches high, dressed in a long loose 
 tunic, fastened round the waist by a girdle ; 
 the chlamys is fastened on his shoulders, 
 and falling into graceful folds beliind him, 
 he appears listening attentively, and is ac- 
 companying the songs on the greater lyre. 
 ViscoNTi, who was formerly conservator 
 of the statues in the Napolean museum, 
 in which was placed this statue, thinks 
 that this dress is that of the Citharides, 
 or players on the lyre, and that it is 
 an antique copy of the Apullo Citharides of 
 Timarchides, which was formerly in the 
 portico of Octavia at Rome, with the nine 
 muses of Philiscus. 
 
 This statue was found at Tivoli in 1774, 
 in the ruins of the country house of Cassius, 
 called the pianella di Cassio. The head, 
 bound with laurels, has been broken oft", 
 but is the original; the right hand and 
 part of the lyre are modern restorations. 
 In the British Museum is a fine basso ri- 
 lievo, representing a Victory oHering a 
 libation to this deity. 
 
 Apollo the Yolng. Anotlier antique 
 statue, of Greek marble, about three feet 
 six inches high. It has sullered mudi 
 from the dilapidation of time and frac- 
 tures, and has several modern restorations 
 wiiich are not eflected in a ha])py or con- 
 genial style wi(h the antique. The head is 
 modern, and the hair ill disposed. 
 
 Tiie torso alone is antique, and in so fine 
 a style that it occasions much regret at (lie 
 loss of the other parts of the figure. He 
 is represented as holding an ill formed 
 modern lyre on the trunk of a tree. In 
 enumerating the best statues of Apollo, 
 we nuiat not forget a fine bronze one of 
 the god, in the fourdi room of the Town- 
 ley Gallery, or dejiartment of antiques in 
 the Bri(ish Museum; and a head of him 
 in the same room, of very early Greek 
 workmanship. 
 
 Apollo [(he Lycian or Lycican]. A fine 
 anti(|ue statue, of Greek marble. He is 
 erect, in an a(ti(ude of repose, w ith his left 
 arm on (he trunk of a tree, round which a 
 serpent is en(\\ined, and his righ( hand 
 placed gracefully on itis head, in anac(ion 
 of reimse. He is entirely naked, in th« 
 maniu'rof (hes(a(ue of tha( gotl whicli was 
 in (he Ljceuin at .\(hens. From which 
 coincidence antiquaries have given it its 
 name. Tiie serpent is an adribule of 
 Apollo as (he inven(or of medicine, or as 
 the ancien(s called him, in this capacity, 
 (he Apollo Midicus. If ar.dqunrios have 
 
APO 
 
 named this statue from the Lycaeum, it 
 should be written the Lijcaan, but if from 
 the oracle at Lycia, the Lycian. 
 
 Apophyge. [Lat. aVo^i^yj), Gr.] In archi- 
 tecture. That part of a column where it 
 begins to spring out of its base ; sometimes 
 called the shoot of the column. 
 
 Apotheca. [Lat. aTroOijKi], Gr.] In an- 
 cient architecture. A storehouse, ware- 
 house, or cellar where corn, wine, oil, itc. 
 were deposited. 
 
 Apotheosis. [Lat. cnroQiwaiQ, Gr. from 
 aTTO and 6eojQ.'\ In mythological indnting and 
 scuiptiire. The act of deification or placing 
 among the number of the gods. The custom 
 of thus honouring eminent men is of very 
 ancient date among the Greeks, who also 
 consecrated on their medals the greater 
 number of those whom they considered as 
 the founders of colonies and of cities. At 
 length, living princes often had the name of 
 gods given to them on public monuments. 
 This ceremony had its origin among the 
 Romans at the deification of Romulus, as 
 founder of their city ; but was afterwai'ds 
 discontinued till the time of the emperors, 
 when it was performed in imitation of the 
 Greeks, by Augustus for Julius Caesar. 
 The Roman ceremony of apotheosis or dei- 
 fication is preserved to us on many monu- 
 ments of antiquity, as well as in ancient 
 writers ; the most accurate of which is in 
 the second chapter of the fourth book of 
 the Works of Herodian. On these monu- 
 ments the emperor is generally represented 
 as being taken up to heaven by an eagle ; 
 on this account it was, that at the conclu- 
 sion of the obsequies, an eagle was loosed 
 from the highest part of the funeral pile, 
 which, ascending with the flames towards 
 the sky, amidst the shouts and cries of the 
 people, was supposed to carry the prince's 
 soul to heaven. In the representation of 
 the apotheosis of an empress a peacock 
 was often used in the stead of an eagle. 
 The most remarkable sculptural descrip- 
 tions of this ceremony are the apotheosis 
 of Homer, which has been engraved and 
 explained in sevei'al works, and princi- 
 pally in the Museo Pio Clementino. The 
 apotheosis of Romulus is represented on a 
 diptych, belonging to the counts of Gher- 
 ardesca, and published by Buonarotti, in 
 his Observations on Ancient Glasses; that 
 of Julius Ctesar, upon an engraved stone 
 in the treasury of Brandenburgh ; that of 
 Augustus, upon a large sardonyx, in the 
 royal cabinet of France, and upon another 
 in the cabinet of Vienna; that of Germa- 
 nicus upon a sardonyx, also in the French 
 cabinet; the apotheosis of Gerraanicus 
 and Agrippiua, under the characters of 
 
 AQU 
 
 Ceres and Triptolemus, on a cameo in the 
 same cabinet; the apotheosis of Titus, 
 carved on the arch of Titus, at Rome ; and 
 that of Hadrian, on a basso rilievo, deli- 
 neated in the 5th vol. Mus. Pio. Clem. 
 This same museum also contains another 
 basso rilievo, representing the apotheosis 
 of Antoninus Pius and Faustina ; and the 
 apotheosis of Faustina, upon a l)asso ri- 
 lievo of the capital, is delineated in the 
 5th vol. of the supplement to Montfaucon. 
 This manner of consecration is described 
 differently on medals, as those of the em- 
 peror by a radiated bust, by the eagle 
 which conveyed the soul to heaven, by the 
 thensa, draM^n by four elephants or horses ; 
 by a phoenix; a funeral pile; an altar; a 
 temple ; and often by the word consecratio 
 on the reverse. The apotheosis of em- 
 presses Avas designated on medals, by a 
 peacock, by the carpentum, drawn by two 
 ujules, or by the lectisternium of Juno. 
 (Sec those several words.) 
 
 Applique. See Musaic, Gem Sculp- 
 ture. 
 
 Apsis. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. The 
 embowed or arched roof of a room, the ca- 
 nopy of a throne, &c. 
 
 Aqua Fortis. [Lat.] In engraving. A 
 corrosive liquor used in etching; made by 
 distilling purified nitre, and therefore call- 
 ed by chy mists spirits of nitre. It is divided 
 into double and single, the single being 
 only half as strong as the other. Artists 
 who are in the habit of using these two 
 sorts of acids call them generally aqua 
 fortis; and only the more concentrated 
 acid, which is much stronger than even 
 the double aqua fortis spirit of nitre : 
 this is a practical distinction of much 
 utility, and will be retained in this work. 
 See Etching, Engraving. 
 
 Aqua Marina. [Lat.] In gem sculpture. 
 A gem, the beryllus of Plinj', of a transpa- 
 rent green blue, which ranks but low in 
 value among the precious stones; but was 
 often used by the gem sculptors of anti- 
 quity. It received its more common name 
 from its seagreen colour. 
 
 Aqueduct, [aqnceductiis, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture. A conveyance of any kind made 
 for conducting water. This word is a com- 
 pound derived from aqua Avater, and duc- 
 tus led; and although any pipe or conduit 
 is an aquseduct, yet the word is generally 
 confined to a canal constructed of brick or 
 stone, for conducting water through an 
 irregular country to a city or town, with a 
 regular necessary descent. An aquaeduct 
 may be either below or above gi-ound, and 
 sometimes is elevated on high piers and 
 arches, forming a grand and regular ar- 
 
 d2 
 
AQU 
 
 cade, supporting a canal. Aqueducts have 
 been divided into two species, visible and 
 subterranean; the first are those carried 
 across plains or valleys, and formed of 
 piers and arches like those in the Campa- 
 nia of Rome, in the vales of Churk and 
 Llangollen in North Wales ; and in seve- 
 ral parts of Italy and Franco. This sort 
 of aquaeducts are single, double, and some- 
 times treble; being composed of one, two, 
 or three tiers of arches one above the other. 
 Subterranean aquaeducts are those which 
 are carried through mountains or under 
 ground, as in several parts of England and 
 France. Aquaeducts were unknown to the 
 Greeks, and are, without question, among 
 the noblest inventions of the Romans. 
 
 Sextus Julius Frontinus, a Roman au- 
 thor, of consular dignit), who had the solo 
 direction of the aquteducts under the em- 
 peror Nerva, and has written a treatise on 
 this subject; affirms them to be the clear- 
 est marks of the grandeur of the empire. 
 He mentions nine aqueducts which had 
 thirteen thousand five hundred andninetj'- 
 four pipes of an inch and upwards in dia- 
 meter. 
 
 The first invention of them is attributed 
 to Appius Claudius, the censor, in the year 
 A. V. C. 441, who brought by this means 
 the water into the city, by a channel eleven 
 miles in length; which was inconsitierable 
 when compared with those that were after- 
 wards carried into the city by the empe- 
 rors and other persons; several of which 
 were cut through the mountains, and other 
 impediments for distances of thirty, fort)', 
 to sixty miles In length; and of sucii a 
 height, tiuit a man on horseback, as Pro- 
 copius informs »is, might ride through them 
 without the least difficulty ; {Hoe Procopius 
 de Bell, (iotlt. lil). 1.) the vaults and anhes 
 being in some places one hundred and nine 
 feet high. Procopius makes the aquaHhicts 
 in his time (about the year A. V. C. 530) 
 to be fourteen; but Victor, in his Desaiit. 
 Urb. Region, makes the number to be 
 twenty. These aquaeducts are generally 
 distinguished by the name of tlie place 
 whence the waters flow, or of the per- 
 son who built them, joined to tiie word 
 aqua water; as follows A<iun Marcia, by 
 some su]>posed to be the most ancient, and 
 to have been erected by A,NCls IMxitcns; 
 Aqua Appiit, which Fuontinls declares to 
 be the first; Aqua Tipula; Aqua Julia; 
 Aqua Virfio ; Aqua Vt'fus : Aqun Alsittimt, 
 or Auf>uxlii; Aqua ('tuiidiii: Aqua ('ratmi, 
 itrDainuata; Aqua Trqjani ; Aqua Aliwan- 
 ilrina; Aqua Siptimiaua, Ike. The grandest 
 of which was the AuiA Claluia, erected 
 under the emperor Claudius. 
 
 All A 
 
 The Romans, animated by a spirit of im- 
 provement and magnificence, erected aqua-- 
 ducts in almost every place under their do- 
 minion; as at Cataneo, at Salona, at Smyr- 
 na, Ephesus, Alexandria Troas, Evora, 
 Athens, &c. Among the most magnificent 
 of which were the aquaeducts of Segovia, 
 of Metz, and that of Nismes, known by the 
 name of the Pont du Gard. At Arcueil 
 are also the remains of an ancient aquae- 
 duct built by the Romans. 
 
 Modern aquaeducts must not be com- 
 pared with the magnificent ones of the Ro- 
 mans, altiunigh eminent for utilit)'. The 
 largest work of this kind is the aquaeduct 
 of Caserte, called Aquedotto Carolino, built 
 by Vanvitelli ; and which conducts the 
 waier a distance of nine leagues to the 
 palace and gardens of the King of Naples. 
 The aquaeduct of Mainteuon, near Ver- 
 sailles, if it had been finished, would have 
 been the grandest modern effort to rival 
 the ancients. It is seven thousand fathoms 
 long, and contains two hundred and fortj'- 
 two arcades. England has but few aqua;- 
 ducts of large size ; that built by the Duke 
 of Bridgewater over the river Irwell is one 
 of the largest. It is six hundred feet long 
 aud thirty-six feet wide, crossing the Ir- 
 well on three large arches, the centre of 
 which is sixty-three feet in span, and is 
 carried with amazing labour through a 
 valley filled up to receive it. The effect 
 of coming down the river with barges of 
 great burden, towing along it, and looking 
 up to another navigable river supported in 
 the air, with barges, &c. sailing upon it, 
 forms a grand and singular scene. The 
 whole aciuauluct (as it may be termed) is 
 not su))portcd upon the arches only, but is 
 embanked up on each side, across a large 
 valley. There are several other aquaeducts 
 in (he course of the duke's canals, some 
 over roads and others over rivers, through 
 all of which the navigation is kept up. For 
 an account of Roman niiuanlucts, see Jv- 
 i.iLs I'rontim >i, (/r Aquuduclilius, i'rbis 
 Romce, INlorNTFArcoN, vol. iv. plate 128. 
 PiiN. Hist. \at. lib. xxxvi. cap. 15; and 
 for an account of modern acpueducts see 
 Phil. Trau.i. Ahridiyfd, vol. i. p. 594. 
 
 AuAHKsgiK. [Fr.] Ju paindufr and sculp- 
 tuf: After the Arabian nuinner. .\ra- 
 bcsinies or moresiiucs are a sl\le of orna- 
 ments whiiii are composed ol a wiiinisical 
 mixture of flowers, fruits, luiildings, and 
 other objects; to which are joined, by some 
 artists, the ligun-s of nu-n, wonu'u, aninuils, 
 real and imaginary nu)nsters, ivc. used in 
 painting, sculjiturc, and architecture. In 
 juire ancient arabesques, such as are found 
 in the Alhambrii, no animal representations 
 
ARABESQUES. 
 
 are used. Although the Arabians may 
 have been the restorers, or modern inven- 
 tors of this species of decoration, yet it cer- 
 tainly had its origin in very ancient times. 
 Some vs^riters find its origin in those leaves 
 and flowers with which the Egyptians, and 
 even the Greeks, decorated their edifices, 
 and which were used as borders to many 
 of the antique vases; but the resemblance 
 is too slight to stamp much credit on the 
 conjecture. A more rational idea is, that 
 the arabesque ornaments were suggested 
 to the Greeks by the oriental tapestries, 
 which they much admired, on which were 
 Avrought the most fantastical composi- 
 tions of plants, animals, &c., and which 
 'probably gave rise to many of the fabulous 
 animals of poetry ; such as centaurs, grif- 
 fins, chimerae, &c. The Greeks named 
 these cloths Zodia, from the animals they 
 contained. It is not possible to say now 
 whether the Greeks first employed this 
 species of ornament in painting to deco- 
 rate panels, vases, &c. in the interior of 
 their apartments; or in sculpture for the 
 exterior : how far the fact may direct us of 
 the Temple of Apollo Didymeeus, near to 
 Miletus, in Ionia, erected during the best 
 time of Grecian art, which had its frieze 
 ornamented with foliage and griffins, and 
 its pilasters with ornaments similar to 
 those called arabesque, and which had 
 genii springing from the foliage of the 
 acanthus, is difficult to ascertain. This 
 species of ornament was not known in 
 Rome till near the time of Augustiis, when, 
 it is probable, they were introduced from 
 Alexandria ; for Vitruvius, who lived at 
 this period, speaks of them with the ex- 
 pression audacia JEgyptiormn in plctura, as 
 novel introductions into Rome. The Ro- 
 mans loved the arts, from the opportunities 
 they afforded them of displaying their 
 riches, and of gratifying their love for 
 splendour and magnificence. This dispo- 
 sition introduced by degrees a greater lati- 
 tude in their composition, and which be- 
 came more and more costly in their mate- 
 rials, and varied in their designs ; such as 
 the most showy flowers and beautiful fo- 
 liages, delicately and agreeably entwined, 
 and figures springing from the calices of 
 flowers. The ornaments upon many an- 
 tique Greek vases, upon the walls of Her- 
 culaneum, tlie ruins of the baths of Titus 
 at Rome, Hadrian's villa at Ti^oli, the 
 palace of Diocletian, the edifices of Pom- 
 peii, and others, are among the most ele- 
 gant ancient examples of this species of 
 decoration. In spite of the censures of 
 Vitruvius and Pliny, arabesques not only 
 prevailed but increased in Rome down to 
 
 the last edifices of the lower ages. They 
 have also been discovered in gothic build- 
 ings, in glass, in musaicks, and in pavings, 
 in all varieties of exuberant, unrestrained 
 ornaments. The Arabians, in giving their 
 name to these works, in which they so 
 much excelled, carried the style to all the 
 perfection to which it was susceptible. Yet, 
 from the restrictions of their religion, which 
 prohibited the introduction of men, women, 
 and animals, they are inferior, in variety 
 and beauty, to those of the ancients. The 
 arabesque of the Goths, or, as it has been 
 called, the arabotedescho, was more exag- 
 gerated, but less elegant. A novel mixture 
 of Christian and Pagan subjects rendered 
 them, in many instances, complete bur- 
 lesques. These defects, and the consequent 
 discredit brought upon it, and upon the 
 style of architecture it was intended to em- 
 bellish, caused it to decline till the disco- 
 very of the ruins of ancient art, which pre- 
 sented the purest models, restored the taste 
 of this wild and romantic species of orna- 
 ment, and of the arts in general. Ralfaelle 
 perceived, in the style of the arabesque, a 
 gaiety and freedom of style that would sof- 
 ten the arid stiff manner of his predeces- 
 sors and cotemporaries : and therefore em- 
 ployed it in the decoration of his grandest 
 works. No painter has since employed it 
 with such taste as Rafl['aelle, and the only 
 good modern arabesques are of this great 
 artist's school. One of his most admired 
 compositions, in this style, is the fine alle- 
 gory of the seasons, with an arabesque 
 which represents the ages of life, under 
 the forms of Parcte. After the death of 
 Raffaelle, arabesque degenerated in Italy, 
 both in design and execution, till at last it 
 changed botli its forms and proportions. 
 To the light and playful grottesque suc- 
 ceeded the gigantesque of decoration, of 
 which Michael Angiolo, in the Sisline ciia- 
 pel, has given the most imposing and grand 
 models. After the discoveries of Hercii- 
 laneum, Pompeii; and of the Villa Ne- 
 groni,&c. the imitation of the antique began 
 to spread the taste of the arabesque again 
 in Italy. Primaticcio, Rozzo, and other 
 Italian artists, brought by Francis I. into 
 France, introduced there a style of deco- 
 ration less approaching the arabesque than 
 the gigantic style of Michael Angiolo, as 
 may be judged from the sculptures in the 
 chateau de Gaillon, and in the paintings 
 at Fontainbleau. This taste prevailed in 
 Italy at the time of Louis XIV. supported 
 by the Caracci and other artists of cele- 
 brity. The French artists followed the 
 style, and Versailles shows their talents. 
 It prevailed from Le Brun to Mignard, 
 
ARC 
 
 and governed all the ornamental style of 
 the seventeenth century. Audran executed 
 some arabesques in a good style, and with 
 much spirit and invention, in the castles of 
 iSeaux, Meudon, and Chantiliy. The ara- 
 besques of Berin, of (iillott, and Vatcau, 
 which were designed as patterns for the 
 manufactory of the Gohilin.s, of tapestry, 
 &c. for tiie king's apartments, to which, as 
 well as to the furniture, they injudiciously 
 applied these ornaments, did not obtain 
 much praise, either for invention or faith- 
 ful imitation of approved models. Ara- 
 besques, however beautiful, should only 
 be applied to small objects, or tiicy lose 
 their character; tliey should never be used 
 in such places where gravity of gtyle is 
 required, or regularity of design agreeable. 
 See Alhambr.\. 
 
 Akabo-tedescho. In paintinf^ and satlp- 
 tnre, [From aruljo and tedescho, German.] 
 A style of art exhibiting a mixture of the 
 Moorisli, or Low Grecian, with the Ger- 
 man Gothic. 
 
 Ar^ostyle. [from dpaioQ wide, and 
 oTiiXoc 3- column.] In architecture. Co- 
 lunms tliin set. One of the five manners 
 of arranging intercolumnations mentioned 
 by Vitruvius, which are pycnostyle, systy le, 
 eustyle, decastyle, and antostyle. The 
 arajostyle is almost restricted to the Tus- 
 can order, which, from originally having 
 wooden architraves, was best adapted to 
 it. This distance of the columns in araeo- 
 style should be four of the diameters of 
 the sliaft of the columns, which diameter 
 should be an eighth part of their height. 
 See Pycnostyle, Systyle, Elstyle, and 
 Decastyle. 
 
 Ak.eosystyle. [From arao and systt/lc] 
 In architecture. A modern manner of ar- 
 ranging intercohnnni;itii)iis, invented and 
 named by Perrault, and lirst used by him 
 in the principal front of the Louvre : it 
 consists of placing colunuis in pairs, and 
 tiirowiiig the two intcrcolunmiatioMS into 
 one. lilondel coiulemns this method with 
 much severity in his work on architecture. 
 
 Akcade. [Fr.] In anhilrcture. A con- 
 tinued arcii, or series of ardies, elevated 
 on piers or colunuis. Arcades art; con- 
 structed for various purposes ; sometimes 
 for the carrying an aciua'diict (see Aql'.k- 
 ui'(t), or a I)ri(lgc, or in the thickness of 
 a wall of a building fur apertures. They 
 are most cluiiacti ristic when cmphtyed in 
 buihiings of a solid and simple slylc, such 
 as nutrkets, exchanges, interior lourls of 
 palaies, &c. 
 
 AiUM. [arcux, Luf.] In architecture. A 
 iiuildiiig formed of a segincn) of a circle, 
 used for bridges, covering apertures, \c. 
 
 ARC 
 
 supported by piers, columns, or abut- 
 ments (See these words). The most usual 
 denominations of arches are circular, el- 
 liptical, cycloidal, parabolical, hyperboli- 
 cal, caternarian, equipollent, equilibrial, 
 &c. according to their figure or quality. 
 There are also semicircular, semielliptical, 
 segmental, and compound arches, of vari- 
 ous denominations. Circular arches are 
 of several kinds, according to the dillercnt 
 parts of a circle. A semicircular arch is 
 composed of half a circle ; a scheme, or 
 segmental arch, is any segment less than 
 a circle; and gothic, or pointed arches, 
 consist of two circular arcs excentric, and 
 joined in an angle at the top, each being 
 one-third, or one-fourth, &c. of the w hole 
 circle. Elliptical arches are formed of a 
 portion of an ellipsis (see Ellipsis), and 
 are, in the opinion of some mathematicians, 
 the best calculated for the construction of 
 bridges, as they look bolder, are stronger, 
 and require less materials and labour than 
 the others. . Cycloidal arches are con- 
 structed of the cycloidal curve, and reckon- 
 ed, by Dr. Hutton, the best, after the ellip- 
 sis, for the above purpose. The learned 
 doctor reckons the circle next. And as to 
 the others, the parabola, hyperbola, cate- 
 naria, &c. he says they should not be at 
 all admitted into the construclion of bridges 
 of several arches; but may, in some cases, 
 be used for a bridge of a single arch, w hich 
 is to rise very high, because then tiiey are 
 not much loaded on the haunches. (See 
 Vaults, RnincEs, fee.) The best treatises 
 on the subject of arches are Dr. Hutlon's 
 jMathematical Dictionary, and the same 
 books recommended under tlie article 
 Abutment, which see. 
 
 Aiuii [Triumphal]. See Triumphal 
 
 AlUM. 
 
 Aucu [Sepulchral]. See Sepulchral 
 Arch. 
 
 AitcHAiOfiHAPHY. [from ap\a~ioc ancient, 
 and ypuijiio I write.] In archainlogi/. A 
 writing or treatise on antiquity, applied 
 by some writers to descriptions of works 
 of ancient art; but now superse<led by the 
 word archaiology. See .VKCiiAioLociv. 
 
 Arciiaiolocy. [from <'r()\'ai()s; ancient, 
 and \oyoc a discourse.] A discourse on 
 anli(|uity, or on the mauuers and customs 
 of the ancients. Archaiology, or the sci- 
 ence of antitiuities, is a stu<ly as ccmipre- 
 hensive and extensive as any in Ihc circle 
 oflhe ar(s or sciences: siiue it implies all 
 testimonies or authentic accounts that have 
 conu' tlown to us, illustratixe I'itlur of the 
 particular or uiii\crsal history of ancient 
 niitions. This study is so essential in the 
 education of an artist, that no historical 
 
ARC 
 
 painter can arrive at eminence without it. 
 To enter elaborately into this useful sci- 
 ence would be to occupy more space than 
 the whole of the present work, and to re- 
 write numberless treatises. Archaiology 
 embraces the manners, customs, theology, 
 political constitution, religious ceremonies, 
 the laws, policy, private lives, the works 
 of authors and artists, diplomas, public 
 acts, inscriptions, monuments of the arts ; 
 such as remains of architecture, sculpture, 
 painting, glyptics, numismatics ; of ancient 
 nations and people ; the remains of their 
 mechanical arts and inventions, as their 
 utensils, arms, machines, &c. This science 
 has been divided by some into several 
 subdivisions, as archaiology, properly so 
 called, when devoted to the description of 
 the antiquities of a nation, as the works of 
 Josephus and Dionysius of Halicarnassus ; 
 archaiology literary and plastic ; the former 
 when directed to the study of alphabetical 
 characters, manuscripts, inscriptions, &c. 
 (see Inscriptions); which is again divided 
 into palaiographic, when relating to inscrip- 
 tions on stone, &c. ; and iliplomatic, when 
 ^ it investigates papers, titles, or diplomas. 
 Plastic archaiology is that which investi- 
 gates the tine arts of the ancients, and is 
 directed to the study of the remains of an- 
 cient painting, sculpture, and architecture. 
 However, many nations of the ancient 
 world (which refers generally to those be- 
 fore the Christian era) may have arrived 
 to a certain degree of perfection in the 
 arts, yet this latter branch of the science is 
 particularly understood to refer to the four 
 principal ; namely, the Egyptians, the 
 Greeks, the Etruscans, and the Romans. 
 Among the best treatises on this science 
 are Ai'dicEologia Attica, bij Hoiis, 1C70. 
 The Asiatic Researches, by Sir. W. Jones, 
 1788, and London, 1801. The Antiquities of 
 Rome, by Dionysius Halicarnassus. Rosi- 
 Nus's Antiquities. Cauteuus de Romana 
 Rejmblica. Manutiis de Legibus Roma- 
 nis. The works of Herodotus, Pausanias, 
 Strabo, Diodurus Siculus, Plutarch, Pocock, 
 Norden, Sonnini, Dcnon, Dio Cassias, Taci- 
 tus, Ccesar, Pliny, Scaliger, Casnubon, Gra- 
 rins, the Daciers, Ferrarius, Ruhenius, Pau- 
 lus Mimitius, Kirchnutn, Ammianus Marel- 
 linus, 6ic. Josephus's Antiquities of the Jt ws. 
 The Works of the Antiquarian Society of 
 London, l^c. Calmet's Dictionary of the 
 Holy Bible. Jablouski's Pantheon Egyptia- 
 cum. Maurice's Indian Antiquities. Stu- 
 art's Antiquities of Athens. The Ionian 
 Antiquities. Voyage Piftoresque de la Grece. 
 The Museum Worsleyanum, Hamilton's 
 Egyptiaca, &:c. 
 The Ijnest relics of plastic archaiology 
 
 ARC 
 
 are in the British Museum, formerly call- 
 ed the Toioilcy Marbles; the Arundelian 
 and Pomfret collection at Oxford; Lord 
 Elgin's stupendous collection from Atiiens ; 
 and the Phygaleiau marbles also in the 
 British Museum; and the various galleries 
 of antiquities in Paris, Vienna, Naples, &c. 
 Architect. [apxiVsKT-wr, Gr. from <u>xoq 
 chief, and rk-rtov a workman, artificer, or 
 artist; architecton, Lat.] A professor of 
 the art of building; a chief builder ; one 
 skilled in planning or designing buildings. 
 The mental acquirements and natural 
 qualifications necessary for a professor of 
 tins art, as insisted upon by Vitruvius 
 (lib. i. c. i.) and other writers on architec- 
 ture, are numerous and difficult of attain- 
 ment ; have caused the study of arcliitec- 
 ture to be ranked among the highest 
 branches of human knowledge ; have dig- 
 nified the excellent among its professors, 
 and have enlisted in its ranks enliglitened 
 men from every class of society. 
 
 Pythius, an ancient architect, who de- 
 signed a magnilicent temple, at Prieue, de- 
 dicated to Minerva,whose writings are cited 
 among others by Vitruvius, says, that an 
 architect should be more expert in every 
 profession connected with his art than the 
 ablest professors of each art respectively. 
 Vitruvius, however, does not assent to this, 
 but observes " that the human mind can- 
 not arrive at perfection in so many diflicult 
 and various parts of knowledge. It is 
 even rare in the course of a century to find 
 a man superlatively excellent in any pro- 
 fession ; why then is it expected that an 
 architect should equal Apelles in painting, 
 Myron and Poiycletus in sculpture, Hip- 
 pocrates in medicine, Aristoxenus in mu- 
 sic, or Aristarchus in purity of language. 
 Pythius should have remembered that 
 every art consists of two parts, theoi-y and 
 practice ; the latter of which appertains 
 peculiarly to its professors; but the former 
 is common to them, and to the learned in 
 general. If, therefore, an architect be suf- 
 ficiently master in all the arts connected 
 with his profession, to judge perfectly of 
 the merit of their productions, it is the 
 most that should be insisted upon ; and, if 
 so qualified, he shall not need to blush at 
 his own insufiiciency." 
 
 An art, therefore, which like architec- 
 ture requires a theoretical knowledge of 
 such a variety of studies, connected re- 
 motely therewith, as well as a practical 
 acquaintance with so many others of im- 
 mediate importance, is only to be acquired 
 by an entire devotion to its pursuits, and a 
 long and constant application to its stu- 
 dies. "Chi vuol esser architetto," says 
 
ARCH 
 
 Milizia, " abbiauna niediocrita rli fortuna, 
 e possegga un p-an capitale di morigera- 
 tezza, e di disinteresse. II disinteresse 
 deve esser in ragione dell' iinportanza dell' 
 arte. Qual' arte piii importante dell' 
 architettura ? Ella h I'arte pa' eccellenza, e 
 regolatrke (Idle alfre." It is, therefore, 
 not to be wondered at, that able architerts 
 have always been held in high esteem and 
 honour by the great and powerful. The 
 architects of Greece and Rome were thus 
 honoured, and even those monarchs who 
 have been calumniated by the title of 
 Goths have duly estimated such acquire- 
 ments. In a letter, extant, from Theodo- 
 ric. King of the Goths, to Simmachus his 
 architect he concludes his instructions 
 and wishes concerning his proposed pa- 
 lace, with observing that the public dis- 
 tinctions which he shall confer upon his 
 architect are, that he shall in all public 
 processions anrl n)eetings stand next to his 
 royal person in the centre of a numerous 
 cortege, should bear a wand of gold in his 
 hand, and other distinctions which should 
 announce tlie high confidence with which 
 the king was pleased to honour the avclii- 
 tect to whom he entrusted the building of 
 his royal palace. 
 
 It is unnecessary to refer back to ages 
 long since past away, for the origin of the 
 builders' art. From the period that men 
 began to apply remedies to the inconve- 
 niences of the seasons may be dated its 
 rise among the infant arts, and its progress 
 may be traced wherever the severities of 
 the climate demanded either shelter or 
 shade, or the increased knowledge of the 
 people introduced the cultivations of the 
 nrts anil of literature. Tlu; theories of 
 f;ome aiitliors, who trace the origin of 
 architecture from the huts of the antedilu- 
 ^ ian world, which were formed of branches 
 of trees, thatched and covered with leaves, 
 may not be far fetched, but there is no oc- 
 tasion to search so far back into the re- 
 cords of time for the origin of its primitive 
 ••lenunils, when it may be traced in the 
 present day in the Indian's hut, or the Lap- 
 lander's cave ; and still exhibits from what 
 mean originals it rapidly sprung up to 
 Grecian perfection. As necessity was its 
 parent, so was convenience its first object : 
 decoration, ornament, and m(ignilicen<(! 
 were, tiie results of relinemenl, and inlro- 
 fluced to flutter the osteiilatioii, or to dis- 
 play the wealth of the owner of \hv fabric; 
 but convenience, the first and best object 
 of tin- art, Hlionid e\ er be the primary view 
 of the arehitecl. ICvery building is erect- 
 ed to answer some particular purpose, and 
 the most ob\ i<uis and simjile means are nl- 
 
 ITKCT. 
 
 ways the best adapted to obtain the end 
 required. When a plan so constructed is 
 uniformly, consistently, and characteristi- 
 cally arranged, w hen all its required pur- 
 poses are obtained, when all its uses may 
 be comprehended at once, and it appears 
 applicable and adjusted to its proposed ob- 
 ject, then the architect is at liberty to add 
 suitable ornament, decoration, elegance, 
 and grandeur of st\le, to convenience, 
 strength, and propriety, and to finish the 
 whole with the full blown splendour of 
 beauty and grace, which are never to be 
 obtained, bnt by the union of propriety 
 w ith what is merely ornamental. 
 
 By this division of the elements of archi- 
 tecture into utilitj- and beauty, it is obvi- 
 ous that it is both an art and a science, 
 and that the architect should be both an 
 artist and a philosopher ; that it is a use- 
 ful and a fine art; the first or scientific 
 l)art of architecture is mechanical, and 
 may be acquired ; the latter, or the art, 
 depends much upon what is called genius, 
 which like poetry is partly innate, and 
 though diliicult to acquire, where a natural 
 predisposition is wanting, may be con- 
 siderably improved by study and a con- 
 templation of works of acknowledged 
 taste and superiority. The one requires 
 the aid of imagination and fancy, grows 
 poetical in design, and picturesque in de- 
 coration, and is innate ; the other lays 
 down fixed and stated rules, proceeds in 
 the same track of reasoning, and comes, 
 for obvious reasons, to the same conclu- 
 sions, and is to be acquired. Hence many 
 a self called architect, whose Corinthian 
 face is his most valuable qualitj', has prov- 
 ed to be nothing but a mere mechanic ; 
 and many a would-be genius to be igno- 
 rant even of the elements of the art w hich 
 he had made it his duty to understand. 
 To form a complete architect, both must 
 be united; for the necessities of a plan 
 are often misunderstood, anil a glaring pile 
 of useless beauty mocks the possessor 
 with a dream of grandeur which he can- 
 not enjoy. 
 
 The true foundation of the education of 
 an architect are the mutheniaties, and the 
 superstructure, those many and singularly 
 opposite attainments which have been be- 
 fine recited. 
 
 The architectural student who is being 
 educated, as Sir William Chambers pro- 
 perly observes, " rather fo be a learned 
 judge than a skilful operator," having 
 (jualilied himself for the world by a projier 
 si-hotil education at least, should begin 
 with AruTHMETic-, which is the ground 
 «<)rk of Ills future o[>erations in mensura- 
 
 \ 
 
AIICIIITECT. 
 
 tion, either as to extent or solidity ; being 
 the medium of all calculation, and the 
 only road to a practical knowledge of 
 mathematics. " For he," as an able cotem- 
 porary (Mr. Joseph Gwilt) forcibly ob- 
 serves, " is a sorry architect who is a bad 
 mathematician." 
 
 Geometry follows ; the importance of 
 which science is beyond calculation. It 
 is, indeed, the foundation on whicii the 
 student can alone build his future works ; 
 and it cannot be impressed too often or 
 too strongly upon their minds, that it is 
 impossible to attain any perfection in 
 architecture without it. It is geometiy 
 alone that can lay doyrn all the first 
 principles in construction, that adjusts 
 bearings and proportions, and measures 
 ■points, angles, and solids. In short there 
 is no being a master of architecture with- 
 out being an adept in the science of geome- 
 try, and the architect who is so, though he 
 may perchance err in decoration and orna- 
 ment, can never do so either in strength, 
 proportion, or construction. 
 
 Masonry, both in brick and stone, which 
 is a part of constructive architecture, or 
 the mechanical executive means of raising 
 perpendiculars, turning arches, building 
 walls, with their various apertures, as 
 dooi's, windows, recesses, chimneys, &:c. ; 
 erecting bridges, forming staircases, and 
 other works in operative masonry, is an- 
 other important branch of the architect's 
 studies ; which with Carpentry, and the 
 inferior mechanical arts, must be under- 
 stood by him with accuracy, and be prac- 
 tised with readiness, as being the execu- 
 tive department of his ait. 
 
 Surveying, levelling, hydrostatics, and 
 other of the mixed and applied sciences 
 are likewise of primary importance to the 
 architect, and must be cultivated both the- 
 oretically and practically. Levelling at 
 once enables him to comprehend the va- 
 lue of local situations, and ofien to amend 
 them when bad; and hydrostatics, when 
 applied to his wants, directs him in the 
 conveyance, direction, and raising of wa- 
 ter, the construction of hydraulic machines, 
 the draining of low and marshy grounds, 
 and the means of collecting and managing 
 reservoirs, and employing them to the most 
 advantage both for use and beauty. In 
 short on these studies depend, not only the 
 necessary supply of water for domestic 
 use, but also all the beautiful effects that 
 can be produced by a judicious combina- 
 tion of tJie chaotic parts of uncultivated 
 nature, by the construction of basins, lakes, 
 fountains, cascades, and other ornamental 
 and useful application of this element. 
 
 Mechanics is also another indispensable 
 science to be studied by the architect. It 
 is by a due understanding of mechanics, 
 its powers and eft'ccts, which the learned 
 Dr. Wallis defines as being the geometry 
 of motion, that such machines are invented 
 and constructed as alone are able to raise 
 up tlie heaviest weights to the greatest of 
 required heights ; to empty waters from a 
 bottom, to drain a morass, or force the wa- 
 ter by the laws of hydrostatics, to situa- 
 tions where art directed by taste would 
 dictate or necessity require. These vari- 
 ous studies, together with the arts of sketch- 
 ing and drawing, are among some of the 
 studies that are requisite in forming a com- 
 plete mechanical architect. But when he is 
 thus thoroughly initiated in them, so as nei- 
 ther to err in principle nor practice, if he 
 cannot add as many more innate qualities 
 of his own mind, towards their application 
 to design, he is fit for nothing better than 
 the overseer of a work, or a judge of the 
 best methods of carrying on and finishing 
 another's designs. But in one, whose du- 
 ties and high station require him to de- 
 sign, "direct and manage gi-eat works, to 
 govern and contiol numerous bands of 
 clerks, inspectors, artists, artificers, work- 
 men, and labourers *," additions of a very 
 high mental class are requisite. 
 
 The architect's profession is both an art 
 and a science, and to the preceding me- 
 chanical requisites, the mind, the art of de- 
 sign, and taste, are yet wanting to form a 
 great master, such a one as would produce 
 works that could vie with the ancient 
 beauties of Greece and Rome. But if these 
 qualities are not innate, they cannot be ac- 
 quired. To be able to accomplish these 
 great ends it Is necessary that the student 
 should possess good natural abilities, a 
 fruitful imagination, abundant in mental 
 resources, a pure taste for beauty both of 
 forms and of colour, and a judgment, cool 
 and sedate enough to direct his genius ; 
 without which the most brilliant imagina- 
 tion would Vv ander as if blindfolded, and 
 exert itself in vain. Genius, to borrow 
 a beautiful idea from our great lyric 
 poet Moore, should never be without the 
 guidance of common sense. Without this 
 superintendence, that great qualitj' of the 
 soul called genius, would run asti-ay, par- 
 ticularly in an art like architecture, whose 
 aim is utility, decorated with taste and 
 beautj'. Without this guide we should 
 have to censui-e the wildness, instead of 
 having to admire the beauty ; we should 
 be dissatisfied with the unnecessarv' irre- 
 
 * Intiodiictiou to SirWm. Chambers's Treatise on 
 Civil Architecture. 
 
pcularity, instead of being deliphted with 
 the harmony of decorated magnificence. 
 Though genius, or that quality of the mind 
 which is so named, cannot be acquired 
 ■where it is entirely wanting ; yet w here it 
 exists even in a small degree, it may be 
 cultivated and improved ; and, though the 
 talent of design or invention is innate and 
 coeval with the intellect, it is to be me- 
 thodized and trained by study and obser- 
 vation, or it will be but a barren tree from 
 exuberancy and wildness. 
 
 The principal points, therefore, that the 
 architectural student should keep in view, 
 when he commences the art of design or 
 composition, are convenience, strength, 
 and beaut>'. As to convenience no gene- 
 ral directions can be given, since it is no 
 more than contriving all the requisites be- 
 longing to the composition in the most clear 
 and lucid order, and then arranging them 
 in the most perfect and economical manner 
 in the proposed space. Strength is ac- 
 quired by just construction, and the fewer 
 materials by which it is obtained, consis- 
 tent with proportion, the better. Beauty 
 is the key stone of the fabric, it completes 
 the structure, and gives it a determined 
 character. Magnificence and splendour 
 are excesses of beauty, simplicity its great- 
 est charm. Yet neither magnificence, splen- 
 dour, nor simplicity are inconsistent in 
 themselves with beauty, although they may 
 and often do exist without it. The elements 
 of beauty and magnificence in architecture 
 are boundless; therefore they require judg- 
 ment in their application; and although 
 many volumes have been written upon 
 them, many more may yet be added. Sim- 
 plicity, symmetry, and proportion are most- 
 ly the ground works of lieauty and deco- 
 ration ; ornament and splendour of niagni- 
 ticence. The one is the loading character 
 of the Grecian style of architecture, and 
 tiie other of the Roman. What can be 
 more simple, or possess more of synnnelry 
 and proi)or(ion without exuberance, tiiiin 
 the sacred buildiTigs of the Greeks, or what 
 more decorated and magnificent than many 
 of th(! gorgeous edifices of the JJunians; 
 and yet both styles possess the rhaiaclcr 
 of beauty. Many of the architects of the 
 present day have yet to learn the fatal ef- 
 fects of j)e(lan(ry and ser\ ilc imitation ; mis- 
 taking on one hand baldness lor beauty, iind 
 on the other, overloaded ornament for de- 
 coration. It is certain, that the fewer parts 
 of which a buibling is composed, if distri- 
 but(!d with iuirmony atul jiroportiim, the 
 more ijeautiful it will ai)pear: not agree- 
 ing, however, with Mr. Hurke's doctrine of 
 small ness, smoothness, and delicacy being 
 
 ARCHITECT. 
 
 essential to this character. The eye is best 
 pleased in seeing the whole of a composition 
 at once, without travelling from object to 
 object for the purpose of comprehending it, 
 which is accomplished only with difficulty 
 and pain; attention is distracted, and the 
 mind forgets one moment what it had ob- 
 served before, carrying away but an imper- 
 fect recollection of the whole: yet contrast 
 is however necessary in this austere sim- 
 plicity, and is always to be found in the 
 best examples of the elements of composi- 
 tion in architecture, which like those of the 
 same department in music, are various, and 
 in themselves discordant, till arranged and 
 harmonized by the skill and judgment of a 
 master. Monotony in form betrays a po- 
 verty in imagination, and is a similar de- 
 fect in architecture, as dullness is in lite- 
 rature. The mind is satiated, and turns 
 away dissatisfied. An architect with but 
 one idea is like the painter who, it is re- 
 lated, could paint no subject but the judg- 
 ment of Solomon, and repeated it in large 
 and small in every room of his patron's 
 mansion. A principal thing tlierefore in 
 architecture is to design simply and with 
 sufficient variety for interest and contrast. 
 Not, however, with as many different sorts 
 of windows in a front as if it was intended 
 for a pattern card of dressings. 
 
 The art of drawing and of designing in 
 perspective is also another essential por- 
 tion of a young architect's education. It 
 demands a considerable share of his atten- 
 tion, as few things contribute more to a co- 
 incidence of parts and unity of design 
 than a knowledge of its laws and their de- 
 pendance upon optics. 15y working the 
 entire composition in perspective, the rela- 
 tion of the several parts to each other, as 
 they would appear when finished, are per- 
 ceived; and a just subordination of parts, 
 like what the ])aiuters term Acc/j/ni", is pre- 
 served. This is the more necessary, for in 
 all buildings, as in all pictures there must 
 be one principal or leading feature, to 
 wiiich all the otiiers must be subordinate; 
 from whence the spectator must commence 
 liis examination of tiie i)arls, and to which 
 he must return to sur\('y the whole. 
 
 l)L;uitATU)N, or the choice and distribu- 
 tion of ornament, is also an important re- 
 quisite towards forming a nuisler in the 
 arts. This jxtrtion of tiie art dcpenils 
 l)artly on innate genius, and i)artly on ac- 
 quired taste and fancy, but both must bo 
 under the direction of tiie jud^riuent. Or- 
 naments are ill placed when ihey may be 
 spared without being nussed ; ill chosen, 
 when at variance with tiieir situation, or 
 with tl»e character of the building they aro 
 
ARCHITECT. 
 
 intended to decorate. Such as fetters, 
 chains, shields, or thunderbolts in the thea- 
 tre or ball room, the sculls of oxen, sheep, 
 and other animals, with paterrae, sacrificial 
 knives and other instruments and symbols 
 of Pagan superstition in a Christian church. 
 Ornaments may also be used with too 
 sparing as well as with too lavish a hand. 
 For empty spaces are absurd where naked- 
 ness is offensive to the eye, and where pro- 
 priety would dictate or admit of appropri- 
 ate decoration. All buildings of magnifi- 
 cence should be composed with regard to 
 the principal part from which they are to 
 be viewed. If they are to be viewed, or 
 can be seen from a distance, their compo- 
 nent parts should be simple, large, and 
 broad. If only at a short distance the parts 
 may be smaller, be in more abundance and 
 executed with neatness and elegance ; that 
 both may be seen and understood as the 
 nature of their situation will admit. Upon 
 the whole, nothing but nature, refined by 
 a long study of the best ancient and mo- 
 dern examples, can enrich the mind and 
 facilitate the hand suiBcient to excel in this 
 noble art. 
 
 The principal architects who have made 
 themselves celebrated by their works and 
 writings are the following; to which is 
 added a brief account of their most impor- 
 tant works, arranged chronologically, as to 
 period in which they flourished. 
 
 Among the ancients : Erysichthon, the 
 son of Cecrops of Athens, who built the 
 temple of Apollo in Delos, which being 
 afterwards enlarged at the expense of all 
 Greece, was one of the noblest edifices of 
 antiquity. 
 
 Theodorus of Samos, who flourished 
 about the year 700. His works were the 
 Labyrinth of Lemnos, which Pliny even 
 prefers before those of Crete and Egypt ; 
 some buildings at Sparta, and the temple 
 of Juno at Samos. To this artist the an- 
 cients ascribe many inventions of great uti- 
 lity in architecture. 
 
 Kermogenes of Alabanda, B. C. 650 : 
 He built the temple of Bacchus at Teios ; 
 and the temple of Diana at Magnesia. 
 Agamedes of Delphi, B. C. GOO : The first 
 magnificent temple of Apollo at Delphi 
 was the work of this artist and of Tropho- 
 nius. Trophonius of Delphi, B. C. GOO : 
 (See Agamedes, above.) Memnon of Per- 
 sia, B. C. 600 : A palace of King Cyrus at 
 Ecbatana. Chersiphron of Ephesus, B. C. 
 600 : The first temple of Diana at Ephe- 
 sus, which was burned by Erostratus. De- 
 metrius of Ephesus, B. C. 540 : He con- 
 tinued the building of the first temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus, begun by Chersiphron. 
 
 P.^oNius of Ephesus, B. C. 420 : He com- 
 pleted the building of the same temple, 
 which took from two liundred and twenty 
 to two hundred and forty years. Eupali- 
 Nos of Megara, B. C. 500 : Many edifices 
 in Samos; a celebrated aquieduct there. 
 Mandrocles of Samos, B. C. 500 : The 
 wooden bridge which was constructed, by 
 command of Darius, over the Thracian 
 Bosphorus. Chirosophos of Crete, B. C. 
 500 : The temple of Ceres and Proserpine ; 
 the temple of the Paphian Venus ; the tem- 
 ple of Apollo, all at Tegea. Pythius of 
 Priene, B. C. 450 : Design for the temple 
 of Pallas at Priene ; the celebrated mauso- 
 leum of Artemisia in Caria, in which work 
 he was assisted by Satirus. Spintharus 
 of Corinth, B. C. 450 : He rebuilt the tem- 
 ple of Apollo at Delphi after it had been 
 destroyed by fire. Agaptus of Elis, B. C. 
 450 : Portico at Elis. Libon of Elis, B. C. 
 450 : The temple of Jupiter Olympius at 
 Olympia: equally celebrated for his archi- 
 tecture and for the statue of the same god 
 by Phidias. Amphion of Thebes, B. C. 600: 
 The citadel of Thebes, called Cadmea. 
 IcTiNus of Athens, B. C. 450 : The temple 
 of Pallas Athene or the Parthenon on the 
 Acropolis at Athens ; the temple of Ceres 
 and Proserpine at Eleusis ; the temple of 
 Apollo Epicurius in Arcadia. Calucrates 
 of Athens, B. C. 450 : He assisted Ictinus 
 in the erection of the Parthenon. Mne- 
 siCLES of Athens, B. C. 450 : The Propy- 
 lyea of the Parthenon at Athens. CoR.«- 
 Bus of Eleusis, B. C. 450 : The Celeste- 
 rium at Eleusis, Antistates of Athens, 
 B. C. 450 : A temple of Jupiter at Athens. 
 Archias of Corinth, B. C. 400 : Many tem- 
 ples and other edifices at Syracuse. Cal- 
 LiAS of Aradus, B. C. 400 : Many temples 
 and other edifices in Rhodes. Argelius, 
 B. C, 400 : The temple of the Ionian 
 jEsculapius. Mnesthes, B. C. 400 : The 
 temple of Apollo at Magnesia, Cleo- 
 menes of Athens, B. C. 359: The plan of 
 the city of Alexandria in Egypt. Dino- 
 chares of Macedonia, B. C. 350 : He re- 
 built the temple of Diana at Ephesus ; con- 
 tinued the builing of Alexandria; and pro- 
 posed to transform Mount Athos into a co- 
 lossal figure. Andronicus of Athens, B. C. 
 350 : The tower of the winds, still stand- 
 ing at Athens. Epimachus of Athens, B. C, 
 300 : A storm tower. Sostr/Vtus of Gui- 
 dus, B. C. 300: The Pharos of Alexan- 
 dria. Philo of Athens, B. C. 300 : He 
 enlarged the arsenal and the Piranis at 
 Athens ; and erected the great theatre in 
 that city, which was rebuilt by order of 
 Hadrian. Eupolemus of Argos, B. C. 300 : 
 Several temples and a theatre in that city. 
 
AllCIUTECT 
 
 Pii.EyVX of Agrigentum, B. C. 200 : Seve- 
 ral works at Agrigentuni. Cossltils of 
 Rome, 13. C. 196: Design for the temple 
 of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. Hermo- 
 DORLS of Salainis, B. C. 100: The temple 
 of Jupiter Stator in the Forum at Rome; 
 the temple of Mars in the Circus Flami- 
 nius at Rome. Mlzils of Rome, B. C 100 : 
 The temple of Honour and Virtue, near the 
 trophies of Marius at Rome. Valerrs of 
 Rome, B. C. 100 : Several ampliitheatrcs 
 •with roofs. Batrachis of Laconia, B. C. 
 40 : Several temples at Rome were built 
 by him and Sauros. (See Allegory.) 
 The churches of St. Eusebius and S. Lo- 
 renzo fuori le mura at Rome, contain 
 some columns whose pedestals are sculp- 
 tured with a lizard and a frog, as al- 
 luded to in that article. Salros of Laco- 
 
 pia, B. C. 40 : (See the preceding). Po- 
 LYCRiTis. Dexiphanes of Cyprius, B. C. 
 40: He rebuilt the Pharos of Alexan- 
 dria, bj^ command of Cleopatra, after the 
 former one had fallen down. Cyrus of 
 Rome, B. C. 35 : Cicero's Villa Tuscu- 
 lana, or at least some of the buildings 
 belonging to it. 
 
 PosTUMiL'S of Rome, B. C. 30 : Many 
 works at Rome and Naples. Cocceius 
 Aucixs of Rome, B. C. 30 : The grotto of 
 Pozzuolo and likewise the grotto of Cuma? 
 near the Lago d' Averno. FissiTius of 
 Rome, B. C. 30 : Several works at Rome. 
 He was the first who wrote on the subject 
 of architecture at Rome. Vitruviis Pol- 
 Lio of Formiii', after Christ, 1 : A Basilica 
 Justitiip, or a court of justice at Famo. He 
 is chielly eminent for his invaluable works 
 on architecture. Vitruvius CERDOof Ve- 
 rona, A. C. 1 : A triumphal arch at Ve- 
 rona. Celer of Rome, A. C. 50 : The 
 golden house of Nero, built by him and 
 Severus. Severls of Rome, A. C. 50 : See 
 Celer. Raririis of Rome, A. C. SO : The 
 palace of Domitian on IVIount Palatine. 
 Ml'stil's of Rome, A. C. 90: A temiile of 
 Cere:; at Rome. Frontinus of Rome, A. C. 
 100: He was the autli(jr of a remarkaldc 
 work, still extant, on the Roman aqu.r- 
 ducts, and (juoled in the article AqUjEOIct, 
 Avhicli see. Ai'OLi.onoiuis of Damascus. 
 The celebrated l^'onini Trajani at Rome; 
 1 li(> Ididge over the Danube in Lower Hun- 
 r.ii\. Lacer of Rome : A bridge over the 
 Tagus in Spain; and a temple, now dedi- 
 cated to San Giiiliano. DirruiAMs of 
 lionie. The ]\l(dcs Hadriana and the con- 
 tigiinuK Pons yElius ; the present Clasteilo 
 and P(i:i(e Sant Aiigelo. Several other 
 niagnilicriit edifices in and near l\ome. 
 Antoninus, the senator of Rome. A pan- 
 theon at Epidaurus; the !)aths of jlilscula- 
 
 pius. HiPPiAs. Various baths. Nicon of 
 Pergamus, A. C. 150. Several admirable 
 works at Pergamus. Besides these are 
 Ctesiphon, Metagenes, Cleeta, Calu- 
 MACHL's, D-EDALLS, RHitcts of Samos, HlP- 
 PODAMUS, Polycletes, Satyrls, Metro- 
 Doris, Allipias, Cirias, Isidorls, An- 
 THEMius, and many others whose names 
 only are preserved by Virtruvius. 
 
 Among the principal architects of the 
 modern Roman or Italian schools, and its 
 branches, are Metrodorls, Persia, A. D. 
 320. Many buildings in India, whither he 
 travelled : some at Constantinople. He is 
 the first known Christian architect. Ali- 
 Pius of Antioch, 350: By command of Ju- 
 lian the Apostate, he laid the foundation 
 of a new temple at Jerusalem ; but the 
 work was interrupted by flames of fire, 
 which issued from the earth. Ciriades 
 of Rome, 400: A church and a bridge. 
 Sennamar of Arabia, 450 : Sedir and 
 Khaovarnack, two celebrated palaces in 
 Arabia. Aloisius of Padua, 490: He as- 
 sisted in the erection of the celebrated ro- 
 tunda at Ravenna, the cupola of which is 
 said to ha^e been of one stone, thirty-eight 
 feet in diameter, and fifteen feet thick. 
 He also displayed his talents in the repa- 
 ration of many ancient edifices under the 
 direction of Cassiodorus. St. Germain 
 of Paris, 500 : The plan of the church of 
 St. Germain, previously dedicated to St. 
 Vincent, at Paris. A convent at Mans. 
 He was bishop of Paris. St. Avrris of 
 Clermont, 500: The church of IVIadonne 
 du I'ort. lie was bishop of Clermont. 
 St. Agricoua of Chalons, 500 : Cathedral 
 of Chalons, with many other churches in 
 that diocess; of which he was bishop. 
 Eterii's of Constantinople, 550: Part of 
 the imperial palace at Constantinople, 
 called Chalci. Antiieaius of Tralles in 
 Lydia, 550 : The celebrated church of St. 
 Sophia, at Constantinople, now the princi- 
 pal mosque of that city ; and several other 
 buildings there. His style was remark- 
 ai)le for grandeur and dignity. Isidorls 
 of i\lUetus, 550: He assisted in the erec- 
 tion of the church of St. Sophia, at Con- 
 stantinople. Ckkvsin of Dar.-., in I'ersia, 
 550 : He coii.strncted the celebrated il\ kes 
 along the Euripus, near Darn, to keep the 
 river in its channel, and to prevent the 
 water of the sea tVom eiilering the river. 
 He excelled in Indraulic architecture. 
 IsinoRi s of Byzantium, (iOO : The city of 
 Zenobia in Syria was built by him and 
 Johannes. His taste was not p\ire, and 
 too aliecled. Johannes of Miletus, 000: 
 (See Isidorus.) Romi'AI.diis of France, 
 HIO: The cathedral of Rheims ; the ear- 
 
ARCHITECT. 
 
 liest example of what is termed gothic ar- 
 chitecture. TiETLAND of Switzerland, 900 : 
 The celebrated convent of Einseideln, in 
 Switzerland. Tioda of Spain, 900 : The 
 palace of King Alphonso the Chaste, at 
 Oviedo, now the episcopal palace. The 
 Churches of St. Salvator, St. Michael, and 
 St. Mary. Buschetto of Dulichium, of 
 Greek extraction, 1016 : The celebrated 
 cathedral, or duomo of Pisa ; the earliest 
 example of what is termed Lombard eccle- 
 siastical architecture. It was built in 
 1016 ; is in plan a Latin cross, four hun- 
 dred and fifteen feet long, and one hundred 
 and forty-five feet wide. This architect 
 died at Pisa, where there is a monument 
 and inscription to his memorj'. Pietro 
 Di UsTAMBER of Spain, 1020 : The cathe- 
 dral of Chartres. Alvaro Garria of Es- 
 tella, in Navarre, 1070 : Raimond of 
 Montford, in France, 1139 : The cathedral 
 of Lugo. DiotiSalvi of Italy, 1150: The 
 celebrated Battisterio of Pisa, near the 
 Campo Santo. His works were in the 
 Lombard style, overloaded with minute 
 ornaments. Buono of Venice, 11,50 : The 
 celebrated tower of St. Mark, at Venice, 
 three hundred and thirty feet high, and 
 forty feet square, in 1154 : A design for 
 enlarging the church of Santa Maria Mag- 
 giora, at Florence, tlie master walls of 
 which are still in being. The vicaria, with 
 tlie Castello del' Uovo, at Naples. The 
 church of St. Andrew, at Pistoia La Casa 
 della Citta, with a campanile at Arezzo. 
 SuGGER of St. Denis, 1150: He rebuilt 
 the church and abbey of St. Denis, near 
 Paris. He was distinguished by perfec- 
 tion in what is called the gothic style. 
 PiETRO DI Cozzo da Limena, of Italy, 
 1170 : The celebrated great hall at Padua, 
 which is two hundred and fifty-six feet 
 long, eighty-six feet wide, and seventy two 
 feet high, built in 1172, burnt 1420, and 
 restored by two Venetian architects, Rizzo 
 and Piccino ; dismantled by a whirlwind 
 in 1756 ; again restored by Ferracina, who 
 traced a meridian line therein. Wilhelm, 
 or Guglielmo of Germany, 1170: The 
 hanging tower of marble at Pisa, built in 
 1174, upon which Bonnano and Tomaso, 
 sculptors of Pisa, were also engaged. This 
 tower was originally built perpendicular ; 
 but the ground consisting of sea sand, sunk 
 during the progress of the works in such 
 a manner, that its centre diflers with its 
 periphery about 15 feet. Robert of Lu- 
 sarche, in France, 1220 : The cathedral of 
 Amiens, continued by Thomas de Corniont, 
 and finished by his son Renauld. Etienne 
 DE Bonneveil of France, 1220 : The 
 church of the Trinity, at Upsal, in Sweden, 
 after the model of Notre Dame, at Paris. 
 
 Jean d' Echelles of France, 1250 : The 
 portico at Notre Dame at Paris. Pierre 
 DE MoNTEREAu of France, 1250 : The holy 
 chapel at Vincennes. Tlie refectory, dor- 
 mitory, chapter house, and chapel of Notre 
 Dame, in the convent of St. Germain de3 
 Prez, near Paris. Eude de Montreuil 
 of France, 1250 : Church of the Hotel 
 Dieu at Paris. The churches of St. Ca- 
 therine du Val des Ecoliers, of St. Croiz de 
 la Bretonnerie, of Blancs Manteaux, of the 
 Mathurins, of the Cordeliers, and of the 
 Carthusians at Paris. His style was dark 
 and heavy. San GoNS.Aivo of Portugal, 
 1250 : Stone bridge at Amaranto. San 
 Lorenzo, of Portugal, 1250 :^ Stone bridge 
 at Tui. San Pietro, of Portugal, 1250: 
 Stone bridge, called II Ponte de Cavez. 
 L.APo, or Jacolnis of Germany, 1250 : Con- 
 vent and church of St. Francesco. The 
 church contains three stories, containing, 
 in fact, three churches, finished in four 
 years, 1218 : Palazzo del Bargello, and 
 the facade of the archbishop's palace, at 
 Florence. Nicola da Pisa of Pisa, 1250: 
 Convent and church of the Dominicans at 
 Bologna; cliurch of St. Michile, some 
 palaces, and the octagonal campanile of 
 the Augustin's at Pisa ; great church del 
 Santo, at Padua ; the chui'ch of Santa 
 Maria at Orvietto ; church de' Frati Mi- 
 nori, at Venice ; abbey and church in the 
 plains of Taliacozzo, in the kingdom of 
 Naples, built in memory of the famous vic- 
 tory obtained there by Charles I. over 
 Conrad ; plans of the church of St. Gio- 
 vanni, at Sienna ; tlie church and convent 
 della Santissima Trinita, at Florence ; the 
 church of which so delighted Michael An- 
 giolo, that he was never satiated with its 
 beauties, and used to call it " La sua dama ;" 
 and also for those of the Dominicans at 
 Arezzo, which were built by Maglione his 
 scholar ; the repairs and alterations to 
 the duomo at Volterra; the church and 
 convent of the Dominicans at Viterbo ; he 
 intermixed the Gotliic with the Lombard 
 style ; about twenty-eight years later com- 
 menced the building of the cathedral of 
 Florence by two monks, Fra. Giovanni and 
 Era. Ristoro. Fnccio of Italy, 1270: 
 Church of St. Mary sul' Arno, at Florence. 
 The gates against the ri\er Volturno, at 
 Capua; he finished the vicaria and cas- 
 tello deir Uovo, at Naples, which were 
 commenced by Buono ; and was distin- 
 guished for his skill iu fortification. Fer- 
 RANTE Maglione of Pisa, disciple of Ni- 
 cola da Pisa, 1270 : The cathedral and 
 the church of S. Lorenzo at Naples ; the 
 Palazzo Vecchio in the same city, in con- 
 junction with Giovanni Benin Casa; the 
 church and convent of the Dominicans at 
 
ARCHITECT. 
 
 Arezzo. M.vsucao of Naples, boru in 1230, 
 died in 1305. The church of Santa Maria 
 della Nuovo at Naples ; churches of St. 
 Dominico Magg. and St. Giovanni Magg. ; 
 the archiepiscopal palace, and Palazzo co- 
 lombrano in the same city. Makino Boc- 
 CANERA of Genoa, 1280 to 1300 : The mole, 
 arsenal, and harbour of Genoa were de- 
 signed and begun by him. Aknolfo 
 FiORENTiNO of Florence, born in 1232, 
 died in 1300: The church of St. Croce; 
 the walls of the city, together with the 
 towers ; the Palazzo della Signoria, now 
 il Palazzo Vecchio ; the model and plan 
 of the cathedral St. Maria del Fiore, to 
 which Bruneleschi added the cupola ; the 
 abbey, and the Piazza San Micheli ; the 
 Piazza dei Priori at Florence. His fel- 
 low citizens were so well pleased with 
 his works that they made him free of 
 their citj. Piktko Perez of Spain, 1280 : 
 The cathedral of Toledo. Robert de Co- 
 vey of France, 1280 : He rebuilt the ca- 
 thedral at Rheims. Erwin von Stein- 
 bach of Germany, 1280 : The celebrated 
 minster of Strasburg was superintended by 
 liim for twenty-eight jears. His style was 
 the purest gothic. See the plates to Mol- 
 ler's Essay on the Origin and Progress of 
 Gothic Architecture, Darmstadt, fo. 1819 — 
 22 ; and a translation, without the plates, 
 London, 8vo. 1824. Giovanni da Pisa, son 
 and scholar of Nicola da Pisa, 1220 to 
 1280 : The celebrated Campo Santo, or 
 public cemetery at Pisa, ^^hich contains 
 fifty ships' freight of earth from Jerusalem, 
 brought hither in 1228. Christina of Swe- 
 den called this cemetery " Non un ceme- 
 terio ma un museo ;" tlie tribune of the 
 Duomo in the same city; Castel Nuovo, 
 and the church of Santa Maria della 
 Nuovo at Naples; the fac^ade of tlie cathe- 
 dral of Siena ; many other churches and 
 palaces at Arezzo, and in other towns of 
 Italy. He is reniarkal)!!' as the first archi- 
 tect in the modern style of forlitication. 
 His churches and other buildings are grand 
 and cli(!(>rful. Andrea da I»isa of Pisa, 
 born in 1270, died in 1345: Plan of the 
 fortress della Scarperia at Mugello, at the 
 foot of the Apennines; plan and model of 
 tile chiircli of Han Giovanni at Pisloia ; 
 the ducal Palazzo (iualtieri at I'^loriiiii-. 
 He was distinguished in i'orlilicalioii. 
 A<iosTiNo, brollier of Angelo of I'isa, called 
 also da Siena, 1300 : The north and west 
 fa<;ades of tlie catliiMlral of Siein, as also 
 the two pates; the church ami convent of 
 St. IVancis ; the Palazzo de" novc Magis- 
 Irati ; the grand fountain in the |)iaz/a (>i)- 
 positc the Palazzo della Signoria ; the hall 
 of llu! council < haiiil)er, and the Palazzo 
 Publico in the same city ; the church di S. 
 
 Maria in Piazza Manetti, likewise at Siena, 
 was built by him and Angelo jointly. An- 
 gelo, brother of Agostino of Pisa, called 
 also da Siena, 1300. See Agostino. Gia- 
 coma Lanfrani, of Italy, 1330 : Church of 
 St Francis at Imola ; church of St. Anto- 
 nio at Venice. Jean Raly of France, 1340: 
 He finished the building of the church of 
 Notre Dame at Paris. Wilixoi Rede of 
 Chichester, England, 1350: The castle of 
 Amberly, Sussex. William Wykeham of 
 Wykeham, in England, 1350: Plan of 
 Windsor Castle ; cathedral of Winchester. 
 FiLippo Bruneleschi of Florence, born in 
 1377, died in 1444 : Cupola of the cathe- 
 dral of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence. 
 In 1420 a council of artists was held at 
 Florence to consider and advise on his 
 scheme. In this council even English ar- 
 tists are said to have assisted. After a 
 diversity of opinions Bruneleschi's project 
 was approved and adopted. This cathe- 
 dral is about four hundred feet long, and 
 three hundred and eighty feet high to tlie 
 top of the lantern. Palazzo Pitti, at the 
 same place, begun and about half finished 
 by him, and completed by Luca Fancelli ; 
 a great part of the church of San Spirito ; 
 tlie church degl' Angeli, designed and be- 
 gun, but not completed for want of money; 
 the monastery de' Camaldosi. He also 
 built the fortress of Milan, and several 
 works about the cathedral of that city; 
 drained the country round Mantua ; a mo- 
 del for the fortress of Pesaro ; the old and 
 new citadel at Pisa; some other works in 
 the same city, at Trento, and other parts 
 of Italy. He set the first example of the 
 purer style in the architecture of Italy, and 
 educated 6e\eral pupils: the two most 
 eminent were Luca Fancelli, before men- 
 tioned, and Leo Battista Albert i. Miche- 
 u»7.zo Mkhei.ozzi of Florence, 1400: The 
 Palazzo de JMedicis, now dei Marchesi Ric- 
 cardi, built instead of the great i)alace 
 which was designed by Bruneleschi, for 
 Cosimo di Medici, but not executed on ac- 
 count of the expense; the Palaz/o Cafla- 
 giulo; the convent oi the Dominicans; 
 tiie Noviziato di Santa Croce ; the chapel 
 in the church dei Scrvi ; the Palazzo della 
 ^ ilia Cari'ggi; and the Palazzo Torna- 
 bu()ni,n()w dei Marchesi (.^orsi ; and se\e- 
 ral other palaces, churches, and coinents 
 at Florence. This architect was so great 
 an aiiinircr of Cosimo that li(> followed hiin 
 ill his exile to \ eiiice; during which time 
 he built the library in the monastery of the 
 Black BciiiMiiclines at Cosimo's expense; 
 the palati' di Callaggiuolo, l)y order of the 
 same inuiiiricent jiatron of the arts, and (he 
 Palazzo della \illa Careggi, both at Mu- 
 gello; some buildings at ireiilo; a beautiful 
 
ARCHITECT. 
 
 fountain at Assisi, la cittadella vecchia at 
 Perugia ; the alterations to the palace pre- 
 sented to Cosimo by Francesco Sforza; and 
 other great works in various parts of Italy. 
 His style was distinguished for a purity 
 little known in his day. Giuuano of Ma- 
 jano, near Florence, born in 1377, died in 
 1447: The palazzo del Poggio Reale at 
 Naples ; a Corinthian triumphal gate at 
 the Castel Nuovo ; as also many of the 
 fountains in the same city ; the cortile S. 
 Damaso, in the Vatican at Rome, whither 
 he was invited by Paul II ; the palace and 
 church of St. Marco in the same city, in 
 which he employed many of the ruins of 
 the Colosseum; he also enlarged the 
 church at Loreto, under the orders of Paul 
 II.: the cupola, however, was completed 
 by Benedetto his brother ; or, according to 
 others, by Giuliano Sangallo. He was an 
 artist of distinguished merit, much esteem- 
 ed by Alphonso, by whose orders he was 
 buried with distinguished honours. An- 
 drea CicciONE of Naples, died in 1455 : 
 The convent and church Monte Olivito ; 
 the palace of Bartolomeo da Capua, and 
 several other palaces and convents at Na- 
 ples. Leon Battista Alberti of Florence, 
 born in 1398: Church of St. Francis at Rimi- 
 ni, ornamented by the desire of Sigismondo 
 Malatesta ; church of St, Andrew at Man- 
 tua, for the Duke Lodovico Gonzaga ; the 
 cupola was designed and added by Giova- 
 ra. The principal facade of Santa Maria 
 Novella at Florence has by some been at- 
 tributed to Alberti ; but Gwilt thinks, from 
 the circumstance of its being gothic, that 
 it may with more propriety be assigned as 
 the work of Bettini. The gate and Corin- 
 thian Loggie are however from the designs 
 of Alberti, as also the Doric fa<;ade of the 
 Palazzo Rucellai, and the choir and tri- 
 bune of the church della Nunziate, all at 
 Florence ; where he died at an advanced 
 age. He also repaired the Aqua Vergine 
 and the fountain of Trevi at Rome, under 
 Nicolas V ; the palace for the Duke Fede- 
 rigo Feltre at Urbino, and a great number 
 of other buildings in Italy. Christobolo 
 of Italy, 1450 : A mosque at Constantino- 
 ple, with eight schools and eight hospitals, 
 on the site of the chui'ch of the Apostles, 
 by command of Mahomet II. Baccio Pin- 
 TEixi of Florence, 1450 : Church and con- 
 vent of S. Maria del Popolo at Rome ; the 
 celebrated Capella Sistina in the Vatican ; 
 the hospital of S. Spirito in Sassia ; the 
 Ponte Sisto ; designs for the church of S. 
 Pietro, in Montorio ; the church of S. Sisto, 
 under the Pontificate and by the orders of 
 Sixtus IV ; the church of S. Agostino, and 
 the church of S. Pietro, in Vincula at 
 
 Rome ; the palace for the Duke Federigo 
 Feltre at Urbino is by some attributed to 
 this architect, who rebuilt the church and 
 convent of St. Francis at Assisi, and built 
 the palace for the Cardinal del Rovere at 
 Borgo Vecchio. He first set the example 
 of grandeur in the architecture of chapels. 
 Bartolomeo Bramantino of Italy, 1450 : 
 The church San Satiro at Milan, and many 
 other buildings in various cities of Italy. 
 Giovanni del Pozzo of Spain, 1450 : the 
 Dominican convent, and a great bridge over 
 the river Huccar, near Cuenza. Fran- 
 cesco Di Giorgio of Siena, born in 1423, 
 died 1470 : The ducal palace at Urbino. 
 RiDOLFO Fioravanti of Bologna, 1450: he 
 restored the hanging tower of the church 
 of S. Biagio at Cento, to its perpendicular 
 position, and built many churches at Mos- 
 cow. Bramante Lazzari, better known 
 by the name of Bramante d' Urbino, of 
 Castel Durante, near Urbino, born 1444, 
 died 1514 : He first designed and com- 
 menced the building of St. Peter's at Rome 
 in 1513 ; a small model was executed after 
 the same design for an isolated church 
 without the walls of Todi ; he executed 
 many works in the Vatican, among which 
 are the library and the Belvidere Court, 
 besides a magnificent design for alterations 
 thereto, under Julius II, of whom he was 
 a great favourite ; the Rotunda in the con- 
 vent of S. Pietro Montorio ; the palaces of 
 S. Giocomo Scoscia Cavalli ora de' Conti 
 Geraud ; del Duca de Sora, della Cancel- 
 laria, del Nuovo dell' Imperiale ; the 
 churches of S. S. Euloy de' Orfano, Lo- 
 renzo and Damaso; the cloisters of the mo- 
 nastery della Pace, &c. at Rome ; the Strada 
 Julia in that city ; the ducal palace at Ur- 
 bino ; a detached circular temple near Tod i ; 
 the Palazzo Publico at Breschia, and de- 
 signed many plans for other edifices, among 
 which is the church dell' Umilta at Pistoria, 
 built by his pupil Vitoni. He manifested 
 a decided predilection for the ancient Greek 
 style, and Avas Raffaelle's master in archi- 
 tecture. Ventura Vitoni of Pistoja, 1479 : 
 the church dell Umilta, at Pistoja. Fran- 
 cesco GiAMBERTi of Florence, 1470 : He 
 designed numerous plans for buildings at 
 Florence and Rome, but was chiefly re- 
 markable for a work composed by him, 
 containing many drawings of ancient mo- 
 numents, about Rome and in Greece, upon 
 parchment, which is preserved in the Bar- 
 berini library at Rome, and has never been 
 published. Guiliano di San Gaixo, son 
 of Giamberti of Florence, born 1443, died 
 1517: the cloister of the Carmelites di 
 Santa Maddelena de Pazzi at Florence ; a 
 cloister for the Frati Eremitani di St. Agos- 
 
ARCHITECT. 
 
 tino. From the circumstance of its beins; 
 built out by the gate San Gallo tlie archi- 
 tect obtained his name. La Gran fabbrica 
 del Poggio Imperiale, a fortress near the 
 Porto a Prato, and other works at Flo- 
 rence ; a magnificent palace at Poggio Ca- 
 jana for Lorenzo di Medici ; the cupola of 
 the church della Madonna at Loreto being 
 in a dangerous state, repaired and strength- 
 ened ; restoration of the roof and decora- 
 tions of the ceiling of the church of S. iNIa- 
 ria Maggiore; restoration of tlie church 
 deir Anima ; the Palazzo Rovere, near S. 
 Pietro, in Vincula at Rome ; the Palazzo 
 Rovere atSavona; an unfinished palace at 
 Milan ; the fortress and gate of S. Marco, 
 of the Doric order, and many palaces at 
 Pisa, and the fortifications at Ostia. He 
 was eminent for his skill both in architec- 
 ture and in the modern style of fortifica- 
 tion. He was much mortified by the em- 
 ployment of Bramante instead of himself, 
 for the rebuilding of St. Peter at R(mip. 
 The conduct of the works was afterwards 
 offered to him by Leo X. ; but he then de- 
 clined the acceptance on account of old 
 age. Leonakdo da Vinci of Castello da 
 Vinci, near Florence, born 1443, died 1518 : 
 The aqua'duct of the Adda(see Aqu.'EDI'ct), 
 at Milan, under the orders of Ludovico 
 Sforza, by wiiich the waters of the Adda 
 were brought to Milan, and the navigable 
 canal of Mortesani rendered navigable up 
 to the valleys of Chiavcnna and Valtel- 
 lina, being a distance of two hundred 
 miles ; various machines, plans, and works 
 on architecture. Simone Poi.'.vjiolo of 
 Florence, born 1454, died 1509: Fa(;ade 
 of the Palazzo Strozzi at Florence ; the 
 churcii of St. Francis at S. Miniato, near 
 Florence, called by Michael Angiolo, La 
 Bella \'illanella ; convent of the Padri 
 Serviti ; the sacristy of Santo Spirito, and 
 the council chamber at Florence. His 
 style <lisi)layed great taste. Andrea Con- 
 Tucci di Monte Sansovino, born 1400, died 
 1529 : The beautiful ciia])el del Sagra- 
 mento in the church di Santo Si)irito at 
 Florence; the palace della (Janonica at 
 Loretto, under the orders of Leo X. ; a 
 cloister for the monks of S. Agoslino. and 
 a little cluipel without the walls <if Monte 
 Sansovino ; some works at \enice, and 
 many buildings in Portugal. Baccio d' 
 AGN()u>of Florence, born lltiO, died l.')i:{: 
 The beautiful bell fovvcr or campaiiilt' of 
 San Spirito; the lantern aliove the cupola 
 of Sta Maria del Fiore, the great altar and 
 choir of whicli was built by his son (iliu- 
 liano; the pahu-e for Giovanni iSartollini 
 in the Piazza di Santa Trinitu ; whidi was 
 the first modirn i>ala(i' wherein dressings 
 
 to the windows and doors were used, they 
 excited mucli ridicule in Florence at the 
 time ; the Palazzo Salviato at Rome. No- 
 VEixo DA San Licano of Naples, 1500: 
 The palace of Prince Robert Sanseverino, 
 Duke of Salerno at Naples ; and the resto- 
 ration of the church of San Domenico Mag- 
 giore, which was built by Lucano. Raf- 
 FAELLO d' Ukbino of Uibino, born 14S8, 
 died 1520 : Continuation of the cathedral 
 of St. Peter at Rome, after the death of 
 Bramante, his master in architecture ; 
 subordinate buildings of the Farnesina; 
 church of Sta Maria in Navicella, repaired 
 and altered ; stables of Agostino near the 
 Palazzo Farnese ; the Palazzo Caflarelli, 
 now Stoppani ; the gardens of the Vatican ; 
 all at Rome ; the Fa(;ade of the church of 
 S. Lorenzo, and of the Palazzo Uggoc- 
 cioni, now Pandolfini, at Florence ; several 
 other buildings in a tasteful style, in vari- 
 ous parts of Italy. Gabrieli.o d' Agxclo 
 of Naples, 1500: Church of S. Giuseppe, 
 church of S. Maria Egiziaca ; palace for 
 Ferdinando Orsini, Duke of Gravina, at 
 Naples. GiAN Francesco Normando of 
 Florence, 1500: Church of S. Severino, 
 Palazzo Filomarini, Palazzo Cantalupo in 
 the Posilipo at Naples ; several buildings 
 in Spain. Antonio Fiorentino of Flti- 
 rence, died 1570 : Church of Santa Cate- 
 rina a Formello at Naples, with a cupo- 
 la, which is said to have been the first 
 erecte«l upon a large scale in that city. 
 Baldassare Periz/.i of Voltcrra, born 
 1481, died 1536: Plan and model of the 
 cathedral or duomo at Carpi; two designs 
 for the fa«;ade of San Petronio, and the 
 gate of San Michele in Bosco at Bologna; 
 fortificaticms at Siena; the little palace 
 built for Agostino Chigi, now called the 
 Farnesina in the Langara ; the Palazzo 
 Massimi, near the church of San Panta- 
 leo ; the Villa di Papa Giulio III ; the cor- 
 tile of the palace de Duchi Aitenips; the 
 casino at the Palazzo Chigi ; the tomb of 
 Pope Hadrian IV. in the church dell' Ani- 
 ma ; tile Palazzo Spinosa, now tiie hospi- 
 tal degli Kretici converlili, at Rome; he 
 assisted in the erection of St. Peter's in 
 that city, and was distinguished for a taste- 
 ful style; lie died in Rouu', and v> as inter- 
 red by the side of Hall'aelle in the Pan- 
 theon. Fra. Gkhomh) of Veiona, bt)rn 
 M;<5 : Many bridges, especially that of 
 Notre Danu' at Paris; the publie hall and 
 the I'onle della ]»ietra at Verona; the for- 
 tifications lit Treviso; the cleansing of the 
 Laguncs, and a design for the Poule Hialto 
 at Venice; he was engaged in the erection 
 of St. Peter's at Rome, after the death of 
 Bramante. in omjunction with Rairnelle 
 
ARCHUECT. 
 
 and San Gallo ; they raised and strength- 
 ened the arches and contreforts on whicli 
 the structure is raised. Pietro Lombakdo 
 of Venice, 1500: The tomb of Dante, 
 the poet, in the church of St. Francis at 
 Ravenna, by command of Cardinal Bem- 
 bo ; churcli of S. S. Paolo, e Giovanni, and 
 monastery adjoining the church of Santa 
 Maria Mater Domini, and clock-tower 
 in tlie square of St. Mark ; the German 
 VFarehouse on the Rial to, and the school 
 della Misericordia at Venice ; the cloister 
 of Sta Giustina at Padua, Martino Lom- 
 BARDO of Venice, 1500 : The school or Con- 
 fraternita of San Marco, and perhaps the 
 church of S. Zaccaria at Venice. Barto- 
 LEMEO BuoNO of Bergamo, died 1529 : 
 Church of S. Rocco; some parts of the 
 Campanile di San Marco, and the Frocu- 
 razie Vecchie at Venice. Antonio San 
 Gallo of Mugello, near Florence, died 
 1534: The churches of the Madonna di 
 Loretto near Trajan's column, of Sta Ma- 
 ria di Monserrato, of S. Giovanni de Fio- 
 rentini ; the Palazzetto de' Conte Palma ; 
 the Paliizzi di Santo Buono for himself, 
 now that of the Marchesi Sacchetti; Far- 
 nese begun by Paul III. when a cardinal ; 
 the fortifications of Civita Vecchia of Ci- 
 vita Castellana, of Parma, Ancona, and 
 many other strong places in Italy; the mole 
 of Adrian altered to its present foi-m of the 
 castle of St. Angelo; the triumphal arch 
 in the square of St. Mark at Venice ; a 
 temple to our lady at Monte Pulciano. 
 He commenced the building of the Palaz- 
 zo Farnese at Rome, which was finished 
 by Michel Angiolo; built the Capella 
 Paolina del Vaticano, and assisted in the 
 works at St. Peter's till 1546 ; he made a 
 large model for finishing this fabric, which 
 is still preserved in the apartments di Bel- 
 vedere, behind the great niche ; he dis- 
 played great perfection in all the parts of 
 the styles adopted in modern architecture, 
 and combined grandeur with good taste 
 and solidity. Sante Lomeardo of Venice, 
 born 1504, died 1560 ; the Palazzo Ven- 
 dramini; the staircase and facade of the 
 school of S. Rocco, and the palaces Trevi- 
 sani and Gradenigo at Venice. Guglie- 
 LOMO Bergajiasco of Bcrgamo, 1520 : The 
 Capella Emiliana of the Camaldulenses at 
 Murano, an island of the Lagunes ; the 
 Palazzo di Camerlinghi near the Ponte 
 Rialto at Venice ; Palace at Portogruato 
 in the Friuli ; the gate di Santo Tommaso 
 at Treviso; the admirable gate called il 
 Portello at Padua. Giovanni Maria Fal- 
 CONETTO, a native of Verona, born 1458, 
 died 1534: The church della Madonna 
 delle Grazie, for the Dominicans, at Pa- 
 
 dua; a palace in the Castel d' Usopo i?» 
 the Friul ; the palace for Luigi Cornaro 
 near the Santo; thq Doric gate to the I'a- 
 lazzo Capitano; liie gales of S. S. Gio- 
 vanni and Savonarola; a music hall mucli 
 admired by Serlio,who called it '' La Ro- 
 tonda di Padoua." It is said that tliis 
 building gave Palladio the hint for his 
 Villa Capra. Girolamo GENGAof Urbino, 
 born 1476, died 1558 : A palace built for the 
 Duke of Urbino, sul monte dell' Imperiale ; 
 the court of the palace restored ; and the 
 church of S. Giovanni Battista, built at 
 Pesaro ; facade of the cathedral and the 
 Bishop's palace at Mantua ; the convent 
 de' Zoccolanti at Monte Baroccio : his son 
 Bartolemeo is also the arcliitect of several 
 esteemed works at Mondavio Pesau and 
 other parts of Italy. Michelo San Mi- 
 CHELi of Verona, born 1484, died 1559 : 
 Cathedral of Monte Fiascone; the cele- 
 brated church of St. Dominichino at Orvi- 
 etto y, a great number of fortresses in tlie 
 Venetian territory, in Corfu, Lombardy, 
 and the ecclesiastical state ; those at Pia- 
 cenza and Parma were in conjunction with 
 Sangallo, and at Legnano, Orri Nuovi, and 
 Castello by himself; the palaces di Canos- 
 sa della Gran Guardia on the Bra; Pel- 
 ligrini de' Versi ; the Prefecturate and the 
 facade ofthe Palazzo Bevelaqua at Verona; 
 the chapel Guareschi in the church S. Ber- 
 nardino ; design for the campanile of the 
 duoffio ; the churches of Sta Maria in Or- 
 gano de Monaci, di Monti Olivetti, di San 
 Giorgio, and della Madama di Campagna 
 in the same city ; the gates Nuova, del 
 Pallio, di S. Zenono, del Palazzo Preto- 
 rio, and del Palazzo Prefettizio at Verona, 
 of which that del Pallio is the most cele- 
 brated ; the fortifications of the same city 
 are also by him, being the first wherein 
 triangular bastions were introduced, the 
 first bastion, that of della Madellina was 
 erected in 1527, and distinguished for his 
 improvements in fortification. Michel 
 Angiolo di Buonarotti of Florence, born 
 1474, died 1564 : The library ofthe Medici, 
 generally called the Laurentian Library, 
 at Florence ; model for the fa(,-ade of the 
 church of San Lorenzo, preserved in the 
 Medicean library ; the second sacristy of 
 Lorenzo, commonly called the Capella del 
 Depositi, at the same place ; tlie church 
 San Giovanni, which lie boasted, if finish- 
 ed, would surpass all the works of the an- 
 cients ; it w as not finished during liis life, 
 and the model is now lost; fortifications at 
 Florence and at Monte San Miniato ; mo- 
 nument of Julius II. in the ciiurdi of S. 
 Pietro in Vinculis at Rome ; plan of the 
 Campidoglio ; Palace of the Conservatori ; 
 
 E 
 
the Ijiiildin^ in the centre und tl\e iliglil of 
 steps in the CampidooUo or Capitol at 
 Rome ; continuation of tlie palace Farnese 
 and several gates at Konie, among which 
 the Porta Nomentana or Pia deserves par- 
 ticular mention ; the steeple of S. Michaele 
 at Ostia ; the Carthusian church of Santa 
 Maria degli Angeli ; the gate to the vine- 
 yard del Patriarca Grimani ; the tower of 
 S. Lorenzo at Ardea ; the church of S. Ma- 
 
 ARCHITECT. 
 
 dflla Modona del Orto ; Palazzo Ciccia 
 
 porci alia strada di Banclii ; Palazzo 
 Cenci sulla Piazza S. Kustachio near 
 tlie Palazzo Lante ; and other buildings 
 in Rome ; the celebrated Palazzo del T. 
 at Mantua; the palace at Marmiruolo, 
 five miles out of Mantua; the moder- 
 nising and enlarging of the ducal pa- 
 lace; the duomo and some triumphal 
 arches for the entrance of Charles V., be- 
 
 ria in the (^ertosa at Rome ; many plans of sides many other buildings in that city; 
 
 churches, chapels, and palaces; among facade of S. Petronio at Bologna, and some 
 
 others, that of the Capella Strozzi at Flo- works at Vicenza; his style was highly 
 
 rence, and the College Sapienza at Rome, cheerful and pleasing. JacopoTaiti, sur- 
 
 over the gate of which he inscribed " Ini- 
 TiL.M Sapienti.e Timor Domini ;" after 
 the death of Sangallo, he was engaged in 
 prosecuting the works of St. Peter's at 
 Rome, especially those parts which sup- 
 port the cupola; a set of his designs are 
 
 named Sansovino, of Florence, born 147J>, 
 died 1570 : Church of S. Marcello, begun, 
 and that of S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini 
 built to rival the churches then building 
 at Rome, by the German, Spanish, and 
 French nations. Raliaelle, Antonio Sau 
 
 still preserved in the Vatican ; his chief Gallo, and Baldassare Peruzzi gave in de- 
 merits were grandeur, boldness, beauty, signs for it. It was founded too near t!ie 
 and solidity. Maestro Fimppo of Spain, banks of the Tiber; and its failure in con- 
 1520 : Restoration of the celebrated cathe- sequence thereof brought the architect into 
 dral of Seville. Giovanni di Oi.olzaga of such disgrace that he retired to Florence, 
 Biscay, 1520: Cathedral of Huesca in where he soon after fell into a similar error. 
 Arragon ; he blended the modern Greek He also built the Loggia on the Via Fla- 
 style with the Gothic, in the manner called minia, just out of the Porto del Popolo, for 
 Araba-tedescho (see this word). Pietro MarcoCoscia, and the Palazzo Gaddi, now 
 m Gamiel of Spain, 1520: Convent of S. de' Nicolini at Rome; church of S.Frances- 
 Engracia at Saragossa; college of Alcala co della Vigna, finished by Palladio, who 
 in the Greco-Gothic style. Giovanni much admired the works of this master. 
 
 Alonzo of Spain, 1520: The celebrated 
 sanctuary of Guadaloupe. Fra Giovanni 
 D' KscoBEDO of Spain, 1520: The grand 
 aqua>duct of Segovia, constructed by order 
 of Queen Isabella, the first celebrated 
 aquanluct of modern times. (See Aql.?-> 
 DutT.) Giovanni CAiviPEHoof Spain, 1520: 
 The churcli and convent of St. Francis at 
 Fordelaguna, erected by command of Car- 
 dinal Ximenes : its stjle is heavy and 
 gloomy. Marco ni Pino of Sienna, 1530: 
 Churcii della Trinita di Palazzo niodern- 
 
 parlicularly the library of S. Mark ; the 
 Palazzo Cornari, sul canal Grande at San 
 Maurizio; the mint, and many otlior pub- 
 lic buildings at Venice; beautiful cluircli 
 of San Fantino; church of San Geminiano, 
 with many other churches in tlie same city ; 
 he displayed a remarkably pure taste in 
 the Lombard style. Giovanni Meri.iano 
 OA Nor.A, 1530: The Strada di Toledo; 
 the church of S. Giorgio de' Genovesi ; 
 the ciiurch of S. Giaconu) degli Spagnuoli ; 
 plan of the palace del Principe di San Se- 
 
 ised, and the church and convent of Gesu vcro, and the palace of the Duca della 
 
 Vecchio at Naples, built. Anokea Buioso 
 of Padua, 1530: Beautiful church of S. 
 Giustina at Padua, in conjunction with 
 Alessandro Lepano, a Venetian. Ai.essan- 
 i)Ko Bassano of Bassiino, 1530: The Log- 
 gia and counsel-house in the Piazza di 
 Signori at I'adiia, erroneously attributed 
 to Sansovino, linished in 152(i. 1''ehi)i- 
 nando Manuo of Naples, 1530: Church 
 and hos])i)al della Nun/.iala; the Strada 
 di Porta Nolana and di Monte ()li\etlo, 
 wKii other slr(;efs and jialaces at Najjles; 
 and a bridgt; at Ca])ua. (iiii.io Pumm, eoni- 
 inoidy called Giti.io Romano, of Riuue, 
 J.om lt'»2, died 1510: The \ilia IMadanin, 
 witii a beaii(it"ul little iialace, now destroy- 
 ed ; the Palazzo Liinte at S. IMetro; church 
 
 Torre; tiie Castel Capuano altered to a 
 court for law proceedings; a fountain at 
 the extremity of the mole, and some trium- 
 phal arches for the entry <)f Charles V. on 
 his return from Tunis, at Naples. (Jio- 
 VANNi Gil de Hontanon of Spain, 1630: 
 Plan of the cathedral of Salamanca. Ron- 
 RicoGiiDi: Hontanon of Spain, 1510: He 
 superintended the erection of the cathe- 
 <Ir:d of Salamanca ; the cathedral of Sego- 
 via. Piicriio i)i: I'm \ of Sjiain, 1510: The 
 celebrated bridge of .Ahuaraz over the Tn- 
 gus. A).oN/.o Die CoiiVRRiniAs of Spain, 
 1510: Repair of the church of Toledo, 
 erected in 5H7, during the reign of King 
 Reccaredo; facade of th<' Alciziar in the 
 same city; convent and elmrdi of S. Mi- 
 
ARCHITECT. 
 
 chael at Valeuza. Diego Siloe of Toledo, 
 1540 : The cathedral and Alcaziar at Gre- 
 nada; the church and convent of St. Je- 
 rome in the same city. Damiano Forment 
 of Valenza, 1550: Facade of the church 
 of S. Engracia at Saragossa. Martino de 
 Gainza of Spain, 1550: The magnificent 
 chapel royal at Seville. Alonso Berru- 
 GUETE of Parades, near Valladolid, 1550 : 
 Plan of the former royal palace at Madrid ; 
 gate of S. Martino at Toledo ; Palace of 
 Alcala in that city ; he assisted in the erec- 
 tion of the cathedral of Cuenza. Pietro 
 UE Valdevira of Valdevira, 1550 : The 
 remarkably beautiful chapel of S. Salva- 
 dor at Ubeda, and likewise a palace in the 
 same place ; the hospital and chapel of 
 S. lago at Baeza. Pietro Ezguerra of 
 Ojebar, near Perayas, 1550: Cathedral of 
 Plasencia; church of S. Matteo de Ca- 
 ceres ; church of Malpartida. Ferdinan- 
 Do Ruiz of Cordova, 1550 : He heightened 
 the great steeple of the cathedral of Se- 
 ville, called the Torre della Giralda. Ma- 
 chuca of Spain, 1550 : Royal palace of Gre- 
 nada. DoMENico Testocopoli of Greece, 
 1560 : College of the Donna Maria D'Ar- 
 ragona at Madrid ; church and convent of 
 the Dominican nuns, and also the Ayun- 
 tamiento at Toledo; church and convent 
 of the Bernardine nuns at Silos ; style 
 heavy and gloomy. Garzia D' Emere of 
 Spain, 15G0 : Parochial church of Valeria 
 near Cuenza. B.4JItolemo di Bl'stamente 
 of Spain, 1560 : Hospital of St. John the 
 Baptist near Toledo. Giovan Battista di 
 Toledo of Toledo, 1560 : The celebrated 
 palace of the Escurial was built after his 
 designs ; he assisted in planning the street 
 of Toledo at Naples, the church of S. Jago, 
 belonging to the Spaniards ; and a palace 
 at Posilipo in tlie same city ; the Escurial 
 was the first palace upon an extensive scale 
 in Europe. Giovanni D'HERRERAof Mo- 
 vellar in Austria, 1570 : He continued the 
 Escurial after the death of his master Gio- 
 van Battista ; plan of the cliurch of S. Jago 
 near Cuenza; bridge of Segovia at Ma- 
 drid ; the palace of Aranjuez. 
 
 Among other celebrated foreign archi- 
 tects not before enumerated, are Alessan- 
 BRO Algardi, born 1G02, died 1654, who 
 was principally employed at Rome ; Ar- 
 NOLFo DI Lapo at Aresso, Assisi, and Flo- 
 rence ; Bartolemeo Pintelli ; Bartolemeo 
 Ammanati, born 1511, died 1586, who ex- 
 ecuted the Palazzo Petti and the beautiful 
 bridge of Santissima Trinita. Francesco 
 Borromini, the author of numerous absur- 
 dities in Rome and Florence. Cavalier 
 Carlo Fontana, whose excellent works at 
 Rome, Frescati, and Monte Fiascene have 
 
 obtained him an excellent reputation, one 
 of the last architects of St. Peter's at Rome. 
 Carlo L(mibardo at Rome; the Cavalier 
 Cosimo da Bergamo ; Carlo Maderno, wlio 
 altered Michel Angiolo's design of St. Pe- 
 ter's at Rome from a Greek to a Latin cross. 
 Domenico Castelli ; FilippoGagliardi; the 
 Cavalier Francesco Fontana; Giacomo 
 della Porta ; Giacomo Barozzi da Vigno- 
 la, a celebrated writer as well as a good 
 architect, whose works are to be found at 
 Bologna, Piacenza, Assisi, Rome, Pei-u- 
 gia, Villibo, Caprarola, and other parts of 
 Italy. The Cavalier Lorenzo Bernini, who 
 designed the celebrated piazza, colonnade, 
 and staircase at St. Peter's, and many 
 other fine works at Rome, Parma, Aric- 
 cia, Castel Gandolfo, Civita Vecchia, ckc. 
 Martino and Onorio Lunghi ; Pietro da 
 Cortona ; Vincenzo Ammanati ; Vincenzo 
 Scamozzi, of great celebrity and the sup- 
 posed inventor of the angular Ionic capi- 
 tal ; he was one of the masters of the art. 
 Sebastian Serlio ; Pietro Cataneo ; An- 
 drea Palladio, to whose works justice will 
 be attempted in the article Architecture, 
 and Schools of Architecture. Domenicho 
 Zampieri, &c. &c. &c. 
 
 Of the more eminent English architects 
 are William of Wickham, the architect of 
 Windsor Castle ; Aldred, Bishop of Vv^or- 
 cester ; Sir Reginald Bi-ay ; Robert Keyes ; 
 Rodolph Simmons ; Robert TuUy, Bishop 
 of St. David's ; Henry Fitzallan, Earl of 
 Arundel; Archbishop Chicheley ; Theo- 
 dore Havens, who erected Caius College, 
 Cambridge, a fair specimen of the archi- 
 tecture of the day, pedantic, eccentric^ and 
 affected ; John Shute, a painter and archi- 
 tect, who flourished in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth ; Waynefleete ; John Thynne, 
 who built Somerset House in 15C7, in a 
 mixed style of Italian and Gothic ; Robert 
 Adams, superintendent of royal buildings 
 to Queen Elizabeth ; Inigo Jones, the ar- 
 chitect of Whitehall ; Sir Henry Wotton; 
 Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. 
 Paul's and the new city of London after 
 the fire ; Nicholas Hawksmoor, his pupil, 
 who designed the church of St. George, 
 Bloomsbury, and St. Anne, Limehouse ; 
 Robert Hook, the associate of Wren, and ar- 
 chitect to Bethlem Hospital, Ashe's Alms- 
 houses, and the British Museum ; Sir John 
 Vanbrugh,the architectof Blenheim; John 
 Benson, the successor of Wren ; William 
 Kent, painter and architect ; John Thorpe ; 
 Colin Campbell, autlior of the Vitruvius 
 Britannicus, and architect of Wanstead ; 
 Rev. H. Aldrich; John Evelyn; James 
 Gibbs, architect of Radclifle library, Ov- 
 ford, the New Churcli in the Strand, and 
 
 E 2 
 
ARCH IT 
 
 •St. Ma; tin's in the Fields; John IJretting- 
 ham, who designed Holkliam in Norfolk ; 
 the Earl of Burlington, Chiswick House, 
 and Burlington House, Piccadilly ; George 
 Dance, the elder, Shoreditch Church and 
 the city Mansion House ; John Gwynn ; 
 James Wood of Bath ; John Gandon, many 
 fine buildings in Dublin, particularly the 
 ('ustom House ; James Paine ; William 
 Pain ; Robert Adam and James Adam, 
 who designed the Adelphi Terrace, &c. ; 
 Sir William Chambers, Somerset House; 
 John Carr of York ; James Wyatt, cele- 
 brated for his villas and pure taste ; Robert 
 Milne, Blackfriars' Bridge, &.c. 6<:c. &c. 
 
 Among the leading French architects, 
 not before enumerated, are Jaques le l\Ier- 
 cier, Jaques de Brosse, Francois Mansart, 
 Pliilibert de Lorme, Pierre Lescott, Louis 
 le Foix, Jaques Audrouet du Cerceau, 
 Clement Metazau, Pierre le Muet, Louis 
 le Veau, Francois Blondel, author of Le 
 ('oursd' Architicturc, Claude Perrault An- 
 toine le Pautre, Jules Hardouin Mansart, 
 Alexandre Jean Baptiste le Blond, Jean 
 Aubert, Robert de la Cotte, Guillott Au- 
 brey, Gilles Maria Oppenord, Jaques Fran- 
 <^ois Blondel, author of U Architecture Fran- 
 fois ; Jaques Germain Soiifliet, Jean Chris- 
 tian Gair d' Isle, Edni. Bouchardon, Jean 
 Nicholas Servandoni, De Wailly, &c. 
 
 Architecture. [apx'TfKTovia, Gr. archi- 
 tect ura, Lat.] The art or science of devising 
 or drawing designs for buildings. The 
 name of this branch of the fine arts is de- 
 rived from apxoc chief, and nKrovia, and 
 is the art of building according to rules 
 and proportions. Among all the arts, the 
 progeny of pleasure and necessity which 
 men have invented to alleviate the pains 
 of life, and to transmit their names to pos- 
 terity, a very high and distinguished situ- 
 ation must be assigned to architecture, 
 whether for its antiquity, utility, or beauty. 
 It is both a tine art and a science, and 
 will bo considered as such in this Dic- 
 tionary, referring to distinct treatises for 
 details of its im-chanical and scicnlilic; 
 parts of building and construction. The 
 distinguishing characteristics of a good 
 style are order, conretiieitce of hilrrinr ilis- 
 trihulion, heaidji of J'vriii, rr^idnriti/, and a 
 good taste in the incention, selection, or (//»- 
 jdicatimi of ornaments. Architecture is 
 again divisible into three branches; ciril, 
 mililari/, and naval; the fornuT of which 
 only will be treated of in this work. The 
 style of civil architecture dillers among 
 dillorc.-nt people, and among tin* sanu> jx'o- 
 pl<! of a ditlerent era. Among the people 
 who have given names to styloa in urchi- 
 Iccture are the Efri/ptian, JJuhijlonian, Pa- 
 
 ECTL'RE. 
 
 sian, Indian, Phaniclan, Ilebraick or Jewish, 
 (ireelc, Roman, Etruscan, Moorish, Arabian, 
 Saxon, English, Gothic, Chinese, Sarr-acenic, 
 Turkish. And among the characteristics 
 resulting from dillerent era? are the best 
 ages of the antique, of the lower empire, 
 and modern architecture. See those differ- 
 ent articles. 
 
 Architecture is both a science and an 
 art, has been cultivated in either way with 
 great but doubtful success ; the aimer at 
 mere science often degenerating into a 
 skilful artizan, and the boaster of pictu- 
 resque skill into a pictorial theorist. 
 
 Without science architecture is an efle- 
 minate and useless pastime ; and without 
 tlie higher feelings of art a mere construc- 
 tor of huts and cabins. 
 
 The scientitic part of the art embraces 
 and requires geometiy, arithmetic, and 
 everj' branch of the mathematics, mecha- 
 nics, chemistry, mineralogy, and practical 
 philosophy in general ; which are to be 
 applied with judgment to composition, con- 
 struction, design, and execution. See 
 Architect. 
 
 The artistlike part of architecture soars 
 to the sublimest heaven of human inven- 
 tion. To the skill of the practical mathe- 
 matician, mechanic, chyniist, philosopher 
 must be added the genius and feelings of 
 the artist, to go towards the composition 
 of a Palladio or a Wren. 
 
 Architecture, as an art, stands entirely 
 alone, and distinctive frtmi every other art, 
 and is essentially the most original of them 
 all. It is not imitative of originality like 
 painting and sculpture, nor imitative of 
 imitations like engraving; but if it resem- 
 bles either in its mechanical part, it is in 
 its theoretical resemblance to music. Ar- 
 chitecture is fundamentally original, and 
 shows the power of man's invention more 
 than any art, and eqiudly with any science. 
 It calls in the aid of all the other arts, 
 uses and rejects them by turns, and has 
 been in every age the fosterer, protector, 
 and promulgator of them all. 
 
 Architecture will therefore be consi- 
 dered both as an art and as a science in 
 this work ; which is addressed nu)re im- 
 mediately to the anuiteur and student than 
 to the professor; and also to the inquiring 
 cognoscenti and persons of taste, whose 
 prospects or situations in lite may render 
 them patrons of the arts. 
 
 Architecture, being the first and earliest 
 of the arts, embraces of necessity in itself 
 a general knowledge of the critical or phi- 
 losophical part of fine art in genera), 
 which, thus forming the taste on the purest 
 models, is best fitted to enlarge the mind, 
 
AKClllTECTI lU:. 
 
 and prepare it for the reception of the law3 
 and governing principles of the whole cir- 
 cle of the fine arts. It is an art which has 
 " undoubtedly a dignity that no other art 
 possesses, whether we consider it in its 
 rudest state, occupied in raising a hut, or 
 as practised in a cultivated nation, in the 
 erection of a magnificent and ornamented 
 temple." 
 
 A recent critic* beautifully says, that 
 " nothing, certainly, can be more destruc- 
 tive to the hopes of an enlightened age, of 
 fame among remote posterity, than the de- 
 cay of an art, whose monuments are so 
 lasting, and whose triumphs are so sure of 
 continuance. Its venerable relics convey 
 to us all we know of mighty nations long 
 sunk into oblivion. Among piles which 
 seem only to have partaken of the decay, 
 and shared in the revolutions of nature, 
 we feel transported, through long vistas of 
 the short-lived generations of man, into 
 the glories of the earliest nations of the 
 woild ; we catch the mysterious spirit of 
 patriarchal times, and image to ourselves, 
 among these romantic solitudes, shepherd 
 kings propounding their pure ordinances, 
 simple tribes adoring the God of heaven, 
 and untutored bards catching inspiration, 
 in all its wildness, from the skies. We 
 must leave such memorials of our glory 
 behind us, as, can be shaken only with the 
 pyramids of Egypt, and the pillars of the 
 universe." But what a contrast do the 
 frail memorials of our times present to 
 those immortal structures ? and how is the 
 art patronized now in comparison with 
 those of our Charleses and Annes, which 
 produced a Jones and a Wren, a Whitehall, 
 a St. Paul's, and the solid churches of Lon- 
 don after the fire. 
 
 " All who feel interested by the sub- 
 stantial progress of the fine arts, all who 
 have feelings to admire the sacred solem- 
 nity, and the awful grandeur of those ve- 
 nerable'piles, \\ hich the genius of Egypt, 
 of Greece, of Rome, and of the middle 
 ages, have left us, nuist be deeply inter- 
 ested by a discussion of the means by 
 Avhicii that spirit may be revived, which 
 raised these works of unfading enchant- 
 ment, and which now seems slumbering 
 beneath them." The season is most apt 
 for a proper awakening; and we may in- 
 dulge the hope that both our patrons and 
 our architects may exert themselves with 
 effect, to give dignity and stability to our 
 national structures. 
 
 Architecture, considered as the art of 
 building or construction, has three princi- 
 pal characters or primary divisions ; nanie- 
 
 ' 111 \ alpy's new llt\itH. 
 
 ly, civil, military, and naval. The former, 
 civil architecture, is the subject of the pre- 
 sent article, and may be sul)divided into 
 three principal classes, or orders, as Mo- 
 numental, Sacred, and Domestic. 
 
 Monumental Architecture, may be al- 
 most called the primitive branch of the 
 art, for tlie rude stone erected in the sim- 
 plest manner is a primitive monument. 
 
 In making a sketch of the history of 
 architecture among the most ancient na- 
 tions of the world, we find them almost in- 
 variably alike. The primitive town, or 
 incipient city, was a number of low strag- 
 gling huts, scattered about irregularly, 
 accoiding to the caprice of each proprietor, 
 built with turf and rude stones, and thatch- 
 ed with straw or reeds, without any liglit 
 but what they received by a door, so low 
 that it could not be entered upright. The 
 suburban architecture of the best towns 
 in our unhappy sister country, Ireland, is 
 a type of the origin of the art in the must 
 ancient times. 
 
 Monumental architecture in its most 
 ancient practice is scarcely separated from 
 sacred ; the monumental stone became an 
 altar, and it is easy to conceive the rapid 
 progress from this rude and simple place 
 of adoration to the deity, to the more 
 solemn temple. First we find tlie single 
 monumental stone, reared on end, comnu> 
 morative of some event, or testimonial of a 
 treaty or boundary of property ; used also 
 as an altar of sacrifice or offering to the 
 deity. This becomes surrounded by a pave- 
 ment to prevent the earth from being sod- 
 den by the blood of the animals, and the 
 moisture from the wet offerings trodden 
 about by the feet of the primaeval priests. 
 The next step is to surround the sacred 
 precinct with a row of rude upright stones, 
 such as are seen at the present day in various 
 parts of Ireland, which being covered over 
 to protect the sacrifices, priests, and offer- 
 ings, from the sun and rain, becomes a pri- 
 maeval temple with its roof, its cell, and 
 its altar. 
 
 Such examples of monumental architec- 
 ture have been found in all countries, have 
 been consecrated to every religious creed, 
 and are used to commemorate all sorts of 
 actions, and to this day, in Ireland, the 
 memory of a nuirder is always preserved 
 by a rude heap of stones, every passer by 
 contiibuting one. These monuments, sucJi 
 as altar stones, cromlechs, druidical cir- 
 cles, cairns, &c. bear tiie genuine charac- 
 ter of simplicity, which infant societies 
 and primitive religion impress at their 
 origin on every thing connected with them. 
 An able French \nti(iuary, i\I. Mazois, 
 says, " A few stones, either naturally rising 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 above the soil, or placed without art in been cultivated, that an attentive examina- 
 
 solitary spots, in the depth of forests, or tion of its origin and progress is the most 
 
 on the summits of hills, were the first efl'ectual way to discover the genius, the 
 
 altars." Such are common in everj' part manners, and tlie mental characteristics of 
 
 of our island, except where the demon the various nations of the world. " Art," 
 
 innovation has swept them away. These says Wieland, " is the half of our nature ; 
 
 primitive monuments soon became sancti- and without art, man is the most miserable 
 
 lied by the veneration of the people, and of animals." 
 
 were received as emblems of the divinity. Among the Antediluvians, architecture 
 Such rustic monuments are found in every could not have made much progress as a 
 country in the world. The Arabs and the fine art. The principal objects of these 
 other nations of the East represented their ancient heroes, were the chase, and otlier 
 gods by rough unhewn stones. It was modesof providing food and clothing with- 
 even considered as sacrilegious by the outtliclabour of cultivating tlie soil. San- 
 Persians to give them the human form. coniatho says (Apud. Euseb. pncp. Evang. 
 
 The Greeks themselves, who were so 1. i. c. 9. p. 35.) that " fishing was one of 
 well acquainted w ith the art of embellish- the earliest inventions which the ancients 
 ing every tiling, originally represented attributed to their heroes." The Bible 
 their divinities under tlie form of simjile and Homer are full of the manners of our 
 stones. In the time of Pausanias, there earliest ancestors. Fishing, hunting, the 
 were still to be seen, near Phera;, thirty care of their flocks, and in later times, 
 blocks of stone, consecrated to the thirty agriculture were the employments of tlieir 
 gods who were the earliest objects of Gre- monarchs and heroes — their shepherd 
 cian adoration. Even Love and the Graces kings. Cookery, washing, making gar- 
 had at first no other images. In the time ments, and other domc-^tic business were 
 of Titus, Venus was still at Paphos, but a those of their women of rank, their prin- 
 simple pyramidal stone. cesses, and their queens. 
 
 Thus Greece, the country of the fine The history of architecture before the 
 arts, presents us even in the epoch of her flood, although it forms a large portion in 
 splendour with a number of these primi- the history of the art by a French author 
 live monuments. We find that they were (Millin), furnishes but few authentic facts, 
 equally venerated by almost every other The great historian and legislator of the 
 people. The Romans, in the time of Nu- Jews, Moses, has only related those load- 
 ma, entertained the same notions as the ing events which were necessary to his 
 Persians, with regard to the manner of history, and omitted those details which 
 representing the deity. It was by tliem are only requisite for tlie gratification of 
 also deemed an impiety to impart to their curiosity. 
 
 gods a mortal shape; simple boundary Our groat philosopher. Sir M illiam 
 
 stones were their images, and the name of Jones, in discoursing of this great event, 
 
 Jupiter Tf^rminus is a proof of the exist- the deluge, says, " the sketch of antodilu- 
 
 ence of that ancient usage, Egypt was vian liislory, as given by most ancionl his- 
 
 formerly covered witii those sacred stones, torians of the race of Adam, in which Ave 
 
 the original type of wliich is still manifest find many dark passages, is followed by 
 
 in the Pyramids; tiiose haughty and too llio narrative of a deluge wliich destroyed 
 
 (silent depositories of Egyjitian mythology the whole race of man except four pairs, 
 
 are only (so to speak) the ennobled do- an historical fact admitted as true by every 
 
 scendants of primitive monuments. In nation to whose literature wo ha\e access, 
 
 short, those symbolical stones are lo be soon and parlieularly by the aneiont Hindus, 
 
 in the heart of Asia, as shall be hereafter \\ ho lia\o allotted a whole ptintiia to the 
 
 shown. Kempfer declares that at Jajmn detail of that event, wliich thoy relate ns 
 
 they are even yet the olyocts of the vene- usual in symbols or allogorios. 1 conour 
 
 ration of the multitude. most heartily," says this learnod philoso- 
 
 Among the most ancient people, whose pher, " with those who insist, that in pro- 
 
 history has reached our times, are (hos(^ 
 inlial)ilanlH of the globe who lived hoforo 
 the Hood, and whose deeds and oecupations 
 are recorded in the books of IVIosos. The 
 history of architecture, considered i)liilo- 
 Hoi)lii(iilly,and as eonnoeted willi tlio other 
 arts of design, with science, and with lo- 
 ^islature, is a history of the huinfin mind. 
 It boars so strong an-- impression f»f llii> 
 (liaractor of llio pooi>Io, by v\ h'>ni it Iim, 
 
 jjortion as any fact i.iontionod in history 
 sotMus ro])ugnanl to the coinso of nature, 
 or, in one word, miraculous, the stronger 
 evidence is ro((uirod to induce a rational 
 belief of it; but we hoar that cities have 
 been overwholinod by oruj>lions from burn- 
 ing mountains, toriitoriis laid waste by 
 hurricanes, and whole islands depopulated 
 l)y oartliijua'-os ; if then wo look at the fir- 
 iiMiiii'iil, •■luiiililed ^^ itli innunurable stars, 
 
 I 
 
ARCUriECTLiUK. 
 
 we conclude by a fair analogy, that every 
 ^tar is a sun, attracting like ours, a system 
 of inhabited planets; and if our ardent 
 fancy, soaring hand in hand with sound 
 reason, waft us beyond our visible diurnal 
 sphere into regions of immensity, disclos- 
 ing other celestial expanses, and other 
 systems of suns, and worlds on all sides 
 without number or end, we cannot but 
 consider the submersion of our little sphe- 
 roid, as an infinitely less event in respect 
 of the immeasurable universe, than the de- 
 struction of a city, or an isle, in respect of 
 this habitable globe. Let a general flood, 
 however, be supposed improbable, in pro- 
 portion to the magnitude of so ruinous an 
 event, yet the concurrent evidences of it 
 are completely adequate to the supposed 
 improbability." 
 
 The state of mankind immediately after 
 this general deluge, is shown in the Mo- 
 saic history. The families of Noah which 
 emerged from the ark, after paying their 
 grateful adoration to the Deity, who had 
 preserved them in order to perpetuate 
 their race, erected an altar of unhewn 
 stones, and offered sacrifice thereon. This 
 is one of the most ancient examples of 
 postdiluvian monumental architecture on 
 record. 
 
 The descendants of Noah remained no 
 longer united in one society than was neces- 
 sary for their increase and security. As 
 soon as they were sufficiently numerous, 
 they dispersed themselves into the different 
 regions of the earth, about a century and a 
 half after the flood. It does not, however, 
 appear that it was their intention at first to 
 separate permanently, though they were 
 often obliged to separate in search of sub- 
 sistence. " With this view they formed 
 the design of building a city, and of raising 
 a tower of a great height in the centre of 
 it, as a signal, and as a point of union." 
 It was for this purpose that the French 
 antiquai-y De Goguet, in his Orighie des 
 Loix, attributes the erection of that vast 
 structure called the tower of Babel, while 
 the best translators of the Hebrew Bible, 
 render the fourth verse of the eleventh chap- 
 ter of Genesis, " Let us build us a city, 
 and a tower, whose top may reach unto 
 heaven ; and let us make ns a name, lest 
 we be scattered abroad ;" giving the de- 
 sire of perpetuating their fame by an inde- 
 structible monument, as their motive for 
 this undertaking. 
 
 We learn the simple manners and cus- 
 toms of the ancient Israelites, and the na- 
 tions in their immediate vicinity, from their 
 ancient writers. And Homer, iiv describ- 
 ing the manners of the Cyclops, gives a 
 
 corroborating idea of the uncultivated stale 
 of many of the ancient nations. " The 
 Cyclops," says the poet*, " know n() 
 laws ; each governs his family, and rules 
 over his wife and children. They trouble 
 not themselves with the affairs of their 
 neighbours, and think not themselves in- 
 terested in them. Accordingly, they have 
 no assemblies to deliberate on public af- 
 fairs. They are governed by no general 
 laws to regulate their manners and their 
 actions. They neither plant nor sow. Tlicy 
 are fed by the fruit which the earth pro- 
 duces spontaneously. Tlieir abode is on 
 the summits of mountains, and caverns 
 serve them for retreats." 
 
 This unsocial, uncultivated mode of liv- 
 ing could not be of long continuance with 
 regard to a great part of mankind. So 
 many motives must have concurred to in- 
 duce families to associate and mingle willi 
 each other, that several must have united 
 early. 
 
 The connection of architecture, and the 
 rest of the arts and sciences, with the laws, 
 government, and manners of a people, are 
 curious and useful subjects of inquiry. 
 Tlieir relations with the history of tlie hu- 
 man mind, is clear and indisputable. 
 
 Architecture takes its styles, its varie- 
 ties, its colouring, if it may be so called, from 
 the people who successively invented or 
 introduced it, and their moral characters 
 as a people may be deduced from their na- 
 tional styles of architecture, as will be 
 hereafter shown. 
 
 Among the earliest specimens of monu- 
 mental architecture, of which we read, 
 Josephus acquaints us that the children of 
 Seth erected two pillars, one of brick and 
 the other of stone, on which they engraved 
 the principles of astronomj-. The making 
 of bricks, the building with hewn stone, 
 and the art of sculpture here shown, are 
 proofs of a high degree of civilization, and 
 a knowledge of the arts and sciences by 
 no means contemptible. 
 
 In the second age of the world, which 
 is calculated from the building of the Tower 
 of Babel by the posterity of Noah, to the 
 foundation of Athens by Cecrops, in the 
 year before Christ, 3 556, many large cities 
 were founded. Early in this period, Nim- 
 rod laid the foundation of the Assyrian 
 empire, and built Nineveh the celebrated 
 metropolis of Assyria. Nearly at the same 
 time Troy was founded by Scamander. 
 aiizraim, the son of Ham, led a colony 
 into Egjpt, and laid the foundation of a 
 kingdom ; and Cadmus, the reputed in- 
 
 * 0•l>^^l•) , 1. ix. \. 100. auU seq. 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ^ entor of letters, with Moses the Jewish 
 legislator, and Aaron his brother, flou- 
 rished. 
 
 In this early period of history, the Assy- 
 rians cultivated the arts, and excelled in 
 tliat of architecture. This second epoch, 
 or age, is distinguished by tiie building of 
 the Tower of Babel, and by the design 
 formed by the posterity of Noah, and in 
 part executed, of building a city in the 
 plains of Shinai *. According to some his- 
 torians, Belus, known in the scriptures by 
 the name of Nimrod, the first King of As- 
 syria, was the reputed projector of this 
 structure. He built afterwards, in the 
 same place, the celebrated city of Babylon, 
 Avhere he arrogated to himself the honours 
 of divinity. Ninus, his son, erected to him 
 the first linown temple, consecrated a sta- 
 
 tue to his memory, and ordered it to be 
 worshiped, which is the first recorded 
 instance of idolatry, 
 
 Babylon was a large and beautiful city. 
 Pliny relates (lib. vi. c. 26) that it was 
 sixty miles in circumference, that its walls 
 were two liundred feet high and fifty thick, 
 and that the magnificent temple of Jupiter 
 Belus was standing there in his time. 
 Herodotus says it was four hundred and 
 eighty furlongs in circumference ; that it 
 was full of magnificent structures, and ce- 
 lebrated for the temple of Belus ; and that 
 it had a hundred gates of brass, which 
 proves that the fusion and mixture of me- 
 tals were known, and that other arts, de- 
 pendent on design, were then practised. 
 
 In less than two centuries after the flood, 
 architecture was cultivated in Chaldea, 
 China, Egypt, and Phoenicia. Moses t has 
 preserved tiie names of several cities 
 which Nimrod built in Chaldea. The 
 Ciiinese, say the Fohi, enclosed cities and 
 towns with walls (Martini, 1. i. p. 28); 
 and Scmiramis, the wife of Ninus, finishetl 
 the stupendous wails of Babylon, which 
 were reckoned among the seven wonders 
 of the world, and her palace which is ce- 
 lebrated by historians, for tlie historical 
 and emblematical sculptures wilh wiiich 
 the walls were covered, and for tlie colos- 
 sal statues of bronze and gold of Jupiter 
 Belus, Ninus, Semiramis, and of iier prin- 
 cipal warriors and oflicers of state. 
 
 Architeclure liaving tlnis been success- 
 fully practised among the Assyrians, was 
 carried by them into Kgypt, the most an- 
 <ient country of whicii we have any au- 
 thentic monuments existing, and also into 
 olhcr countries, the peoph- of which they 
 subjugated. Tlie Mgyplian sl> le of archi- 
 
 (jcii. xi. 4. 
 
 I Oil. \. Id. 
 
 tecture is characterized by a solidity* of 
 construction, by an originality of concep- 
 tion, and by a boldness of form. The 
 civilization of this people, and the conse- 
 quent cultivation of the arts commenced in 
 Upper Egypt. The architectural monu- 
 ments of this portion of Egypt are more 
 numerous, more ciiaracteristic, and more 
 ancient than those of Lower Egypt, whose 
 inhabitants, for a long period after tiie 
 knowledge of architecture in Upper Egjpt, 
 lived in natural caves and excavations in 
 the mountains. The excavations now re- 
 maining and mentioned by travellers are 
 possibly of this period ; but the hierogly- 
 phics and other figures with which they 
 are sculptured are of a later period than 
 that of their first reputed inhabitants. 
 
 Before entering on the details of the 
 Egyptian monuments, I will first briefly 
 analyze and describe the cliaracter of their 
 architecture. Tlie characteristics or ele- 
 mentary principles of Egyptian architec- 
 ture are walls of great thickness, roofs 
 generally of a single block of stone, which 
 reached from wall to wall, a multitude of 
 columns of various forms, proportions, and 
 ornaments ; seldom with bases, and w hen 
 with that addition, they are mostly simple 
 plinths. The capitals vary considerably, 
 as may be seen in the works of Denon, 
 Dr. Pococke, Belzoni, and other travellers. 
 In some instances they are ornamented 
 with foli age, in others tiiey resemble a > ase, 
 and again in others a bell reversed. In 
 Egyptian architecture there is no frieze, 
 nor, correctly speaking, any cornice or 
 architrave, and their substitutes may be 
 called by either name, for something re- 
 sembling them may be traced in the epis- 
 tylia, or beams of stone which reacii from 
 column to column. 
 
 Anotlier characteristic of Egyptian ar- 
 chitecture is a peculiar narrowness of in- 
 terrolumniation, being often not more (Iian 
 three feet and a half in width. The ab- 
 sence of arches, which are supplied by 
 epistylia or st(me beams, or lintels, is also 
 anotlier and ])eruliar ciiaracteristic of tills 
 original and singular style. 
 
 Dr. Pococke thinks that the ancient 
 Egyjitians were not ignorant of the ciui- 
 struction of the arch, liiit does not give 
 satisfactory proofs of ihe cause of his con- 
 viction. And the president Dc Goguet, in 
 his learned <lissertation on the origin of 
 laws, arts, and sciences, assuiiu'S from their 
 not using it that they did not understand 
 it. The proofs whicli he givj's of tliis ig- 
 norance iiiiglit with as great jiropricty be 
 adduced of (heir cont<>ni)>l of this mecha- 
 nical means of covering aiiertures. The 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 nearest approach to the principle is to be 
 seen in the entrance of the great pyramid 
 at Memphis; of which an engraving is 
 given in that work. 
 
 Belzoni agrees in opinion of their know- 
 ledge of the arch, and found specimens at 
 Thebes and at Gouruon, under the rocks 
 which separate that place from the valley 
 Babel el Malook. 
 
 However conjectural the origin of the 
 Egyptian style may be, thus far at least is 
 certain, that it is the fountain whence all 
 succeeding people have drawn their most 
 copious draughts, and is deserving of mi- 
 nute investigation. This style bears all 
 the marks of freshness of invention drawn 
 from native materials and national symbols. 
 It is in the country of its origin that those 
 colossal wonders, those architectural mon- 
 sters, the Pyramids, are situate. It is 
 needless to dwell upon a long description 
 of these structures. They have been the 
 theme of literati and travellers for centu- 
 ries, and bear authentic testimony to the 
 truth of history. 
 
 The largest of the three pyramids, said 
 to have been built by Cheops or Chemnis, 
 forms a square, whose base is six hundred 
 feet, and its height nearly five hundred feet, 
 or an area the size of Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
 which has been said to have been con- 
 structed of this specific size by Inigo Jones, 
 for the purpose of illustration; and its 
 apex nearly a third higher than the sum- 
 mit of the cross of St. Paul's. 
 
 This mountain of masonry is constructed 
 with stones of an extraordinary size, many 
 of them being thirty feet long, four in 
 height, and three in thickness. Herodo- 
 tus, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny say, that 
 the stones employed in building the pyra- 
 mids were brought from Ethiopia and Ara- 
 bia. This fact De Goguet affects to doubt, 
 for he says it is not likely that the kings 
 of Egypt, having excellent materials at 
 hand, would have unnecessarily expended 
 immense sums to have fetched them from 
 afar. And that the stones of the pyramids 
 bear too great a resemblance to those which 
 are found in the neighbourhood for him to 
 imagine that they were not taken thence. 
 Yet it is no less probable that the stones 
 referred to by these ancient historians may 
 have been the marble with which they 
 were coated, and may have been fetched 
 from the neighbourhood of the Red Sea, 
 and from Upper Egypt. 
 
 The origin of the pyramids, the causes 
 of their erection, and by whom are differ- 
 ently related; but Belzoni has, in some 
 measure, set the question at rest by his 
 
 recent discoveries, and proved that they 
 were tombs of their founders. 
 
 Herodotiis, the father of Pagan history, 
 records, with an interesting accuracy, the 
 methods used in constructing the greater 
 pyramid, that leaves notliing to doubt. He 
 relates that a hundred thousand work- 
 men were employed at the same time in 
 the construction of this pyramid. They 
 were relieved by an equal number every 
 three months. Ten years he reports on 
 the authority of the Egyptian priests were 
 employed in hewing and conveying the 
 stones, and twenty more in finishing this 
 enormous structure, which contained gal- 
 leries, chambers, and a well. 
 
 An eminent writer in the Asiatic re- 
 searches (Captain Wilford), in a very curi- 
 ous dissertation on this subject, translated 
 from the ancient books of the Hindus, says, 
 the pyramids are there called three stu- 
 pendous mountains of gold, silver, and of 
 precious stones. They might be so named 
 in the hyperbolical style of the eastern na- 
 tions, but he conjectured they were so 
 named from the coating with which they 
 were covered, and that the first was said 
 to be of gold, because it was covered with 
 yellow marble ; the second of silver being 
 coated with white marble ; and tlie third of 
 jewels and precious stones, because it ex- 
 celled the others in magnificence, being 
 coated with beautiful variegated marbles, 
 of a fine grain and exquisite lustre. 
 
 If these pyramids were entirely faced 
 with marble and ornamented by sculpture, 
 if these tremendous masses of eternal ma- 
 sonry were but cores to ornamental struc- 
 tures, such as have been described, they 
 may, nay, they must have been, particu- 
 larly if their summits were surmounted 
 by the sky piercing obelisk, the grandest 
 architectural monuments ever produced by 
 the little builder man. 
 
 Near to these pyramids is the colossal 
 head, called the Sphinx of Ghiza, the face 
 of which resembles a woman, and the body 
 that of a lion. This extraordinary figure 
 is said to have been the sepulchre of the 
 Egyptian King Amasis ; and is one entire 
 stone, being sculptured out of a solid rock. 
 
 Count Cabillia, who investigated this 
 spot a short time previous to the enterpris- 
 ing Belzoni, succeeded, after much labour 
 and diificulty, in uncovering the front of 
 this colossus, and found a small temple 
 between its front paws, and a large tablet 
 of granite on its breast, inscribed with 
 figures and hieroglyphics. 
 
 Among other celebrated examples of 
 monumental architecture among the Egyp- 
 
ARC 11 IT 
 
 tians arc their obelisks, which have been 
 considered not only purely Egyptian in 
 use, but also in origin. But if what He- 
 rodotus says be true, it must have been in 
 Asia, and not in Egypt, that they had their 
 origin. 
 
 This ancient author speaks of a pyra- 
 midal spire, erected by command of Semi- 
 ramis, on the road to Babylon, wliich was 
 a single stone one hundred and tliirty feet 
 in height, and twenty -five broad at its base. 
 Pliny, howe^ er, insists on their Egyptian 
 origin, and that a King of Heliopolis, call- 
 ed Mestres, was the first who caused one 
 to be raised. Be this as it may, the nio- 
 narchs and people of Egypt appear always 
 to have had a great taste for obelisks, and 
 the names of tliose who erected such may 
 be found in the works of the elder Pliny. 
 
 Two of the principal of these grand mo- 
 numents of art were erected by Sesostris, 
 with the design of informing posterity of 
 the extent of his power, and the number 
 of the nations which he had conquered. 
 They are each of a single piece of granite 
 one hundred and eighty feet high. 
 
 Augustus, according to Pliny, trans- 
 ported one of these obelisks to Rome, and 
 raised it in tlie Campus Martins. Of the 
 three now in Rome, doubts have been 
 raised whether either of them are of those 
 raised by Sesostris, on account of their 
 want of height. Tliat now by the foun- 
 tain of the Piazzo del Popolo is seventy- 
 four feet without its modern pedestal ; that 
 of tlie Vatican, in front of St. Peter's, se- 
 venty-eiglit feet; and (hat on Trinita de 
 Monte, forty-five feet without tiieir pedes- 
 tals ; while those of Sesostris were of the 
 enormous height of one hundred and eighty 
 feet. 
 
 The obelisk of the Piazza del Popolo 
 is that which was brought to Rome by Au- 
 gustus, after being spared from the ra- 
 vnges of Cambyses, from respect to its 
 origin, when lliat furious conqueror put all 
 lo fire and sword in Egypt, sparing ncitlier 
 j)alac(!S, nor temples, nor Ihosc su]K'rl) mo- 
 numents whicli, ruined as tliey are, are still 
 the admiration of travellers. 
 
 From Hie j)lace wiicre it was originally 
 clevateci by Augustus, it was removed to 
 its present situation by I'ope Sextus V., in 
 l.'iHO, under the direction of lh(! Caviilicr 
 l''oiitana, wiio also dcsii^ned lis jjcdcslal 
 ami the contiguous founlain. The <uie 
 now so great an ornanuuit in the front of 
 St. I'eti^r's is also said ti> hav(! b(>en one of 
 (hose erected by Sesostris at MeliojMilis, 
 the city of llii! sun, and was brougiit (o 
 Homo by Caligula, in a vessel, llien (he 
 
 ECTUllE. 
 
 largest that iiad ever been seen at sea, and 
 was afterwards sunk to form the port of 
 Ostia. Caligula erected it in his circus at 
 the Vatican, which was destroyed by Con- 
 stantine the Great to build the first basi- 
 lica of St. Peter; but he left the obelisk 
 standing on the spot now occupied by the 
 sacristy. It was removed at an expense 
 of nearly £10,000 sterling, in 1586, by Sex- 
 tus V. to its present situation, nearly <a 
 century before the construction of the fine 
 colonnade which now surrounds it. 
 
 Of the great and beautiful temple of 
 Dendera, or Tentyra, it is diflicult to say 
 whether it be monumental or sacred ; 
 but it may class with the former. The 
 inhabitants of this place were great wor- 
 shipers of Isis and Venus. From the ruins 
 it appears, that the temples of this city 
 were more beautiful and splendid, and 
 in a better style of art and workmanship 
 than any other now remaining in Egypt. 
 Dr. Pocock, Captain Norden, Paul Lucas, 
 Granger, Rlaillett, Cassas, and Denon have 
 been diffuse and enthusiastic in their de- 
 scriptions of Tentyra. Denon was so en- 
 raptured when he stood beneath the por- 
 tico of the great temple at Tentyra that 
 he exclaimed, " I thought myself, nay, I 
 really was in the sanctuary of the arls 
 and sciences. I was agitated by tlie mul- 
 tiplicity of objects, amazed by their no- 
 velty, and tormented by the fear that I 
 should never behold them again." The 
 extent of this temple was such, that the 
 Arabs had formerly a village on its roof, 
 the ruins of which are still to be seen. 
 
 Belzoni, in his travels in Egypt, speak- 
 ing of this temple, says, "On the 19th, 
 early in the morning, my curiosity was at 
 a high pitch, the noted temple of Tentyra 
 being the only thought 1 had in my head. 
 On arriving before it, I was for some time 
 at a loss where I should begin my exami- 
 nation. The numerous objects before me, 
 all equally attractive, left me for a while 
 in a state of suspense and astonishnu-nt." 
 The enormous masses of stone eini>loy<'d 
 in the edifice are so well disposed, that 
 the eye discovers tlie most just proportion 
 every where. The majestic ai>i>earance 
 of its coustruition, the variety of its orna- 
 ments, and above all, the singularity of its 
 preservation, had sucli an oU'ect on Bel- 
 zoni, that he seated iiiniself on the ground, 
 and was for a considenihle tin\e lost in ad- 
 miration. It is the tirst Egvptiau temple 
 (he traveller sees on ascending the Nile, 
 and is certainly the most magnificent. It 
 has an advaulage over most otiiers, from 
 (lie good slate of preservation it is in. li 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 is tlie cabinet of Egyptian art, the product 
 of study for many centuries, and deserves 
 all the praise that has been given to it. 
 It was in this grand monument of the art 
 that the celebrated Zodiac of Tentyra was 
 found which M.M. Saulnier and Leloraine 
 have recently carried away to Paris. 
 
 There are few subjects on which men of 
 learning and taste have differed more than 
 upon the art of the Egyptians. Some raising 
 it to the skies, others scouting it as the bar- 
 barous of barbarism. De Goguet and his fol- 
 lowers treated it with the utmost contempt. 
 Denon and Belzoni overflow with praises of 
 its beauties, and find no defects. Sonnini 
 describes his sensations atthe sight of their 
 temples as difficult to define, so grand, so 
 majestic did he find them. It was not a 
 simple admiration merely, but an ecstasy 
 which suspended the use of all his facul- 
 ties. He remained for some time immove- 
 able with rapture, and felt himself more 
 than once inclined to prostrate himself, in 
 token of veneration, before monuments, the 
 rearing which appeared to transcend the 
 strength and genius of man. 
 
 Yet after all the Egyptian style is mo- 
 notonous, sombre, heavy, and unfit for our 
 use ; and, if studied exclusively till regard 
 for antiquity engenders love for ugliness, 
 is destructive of a pui-e taste. What made 
 probably a delightful parlour in Egypt 
 would make an excellent coal cellar in 
 England. Yet, from its antiquity and ex- 
 cellence of consti'uction, there are few 
 styles more interesting to the antiquary, 
 more delightful to the traveller, or bearing 
 greater testimony to the truth of ancient 
 history. 
 
 Although the lively Frenchman Sonnini 
 says, that before it the so much boasted 
 fabrics of Greece and Rome must come 
 and bow down, yet, when it is calmly in- 
 vestigated and brought to the standard of 
 judgment, it will not bear a momentary 
 comparison with either for chasteness, real 
 beauty, and true sublimity. 
 
 Architecture among the ancient Jews is 
 a much darker and mere inexplicable sub- 
 ject. The Hebrews, Israelites, or Jews, 
 by a residence in Egypt of nearly four 
 hundred years, had attained a considera- 
 ble degree of civilization. After their de- 
 liverance from captivity in that country, 
 they led a wandering life for forty years. 
 The temples which they had seen in Egypt 
 dedicated to Egyptian idols, led them to 
 consecrate a temple, where they might as- 
 semble in public worship of the true God. 
 As it was necessary, from their mode of 
 life during their sojournment in the wil- 
 derness, that it should be portable, they 
 
 constructed it in tlie form of a spacious 
 tent. In the plan and arrangement of this 
 temporary erection, known by the name 
 of the tabernacle, they took the form, it 
 has been conjectured, of the Egyptian tem- 
 ples for their guide, they adopted in the 
 details and ornaments a peculiar and na- 
 tional style. Conjecture and written de- 
 scription is all that is left us of the archi- 
 tecture of the Hebrews. 
 
 The architectural ruins of the monu- 
 ments of the old inhabitants of that great 
 empire, improjierly called by Europeans 
 Persia ; the name of a single province be- 
 ing applied to the whole empire of Iran, 
 as it is correctly denominated by the na- 
 tives, and by the learned Mussulmans who 
 resided in British India, are conclusive 
 proofs of the grandeur of this ancient peo- 
 ple. They differ in style both from the 
 Egyptian and the Hindu, yet possess a 
 general affinity. Sir Wm. Jones, after due 
 investigation, (and who was ever a more 
 ardent and laborious investigator than he ?) 
 concludes, from the most unexceptionable 
 evidence, that the Iranian or Persian mo- 
 narchy must have been the most ancient in 
 the world ; but he was doubtful to which 
 of the three stocks, Hindu, Arabian, or 
 Tartarian, the first kings of Iran belonged. 
 He also, after a most learned and interest- 
 ing disquisition, holds this proposition 
 firmly established, that Iran, or Persia, 
 was the true centre of population, of know- 
 ledge, of languages, and of arts. Of such 
 a people an account of their architecture 
 cannot but be of consequence ; and it is 
 therefore lamentable, tliat so few faithful 
 delineations of their monuments have been 
 taken. 
 
 The ruins of Persepolis are the principal 
 existing remains of Persian architecture. 
 This city was taken by Alexander, mis- 
 named the Great, who was persuaded by 
 Tliais, a shameless courtesan, during a 
 drunken revel, to set it on fire. At the 
 place now called by the natives Kilmanac, 
 or Ischilmanar, the forty columns, from 
 the circumstance of there having been that 
 number standing when the Mahometans 
 invaded that part of Iran ; but at present, 
 there are not above nineteen left. Tlie 
 splendid edifice of which these ruins are 
 the remains is supposed to have been 
 erected by their King Huished, or Schems- 
 cheddin. 
 
 The style of the architecture and sculp- 
 ture proves their antiquity. From the fact 
 of every column being surmounted by a 
 figure of some animal, and the well known 
 circuinstance of tl>e ancient Persians per- 
 forming their religious duties in the open 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 air, proves, in opposition to Millin (for the 
 building could never have had architraves 
 or a roof) tliat it was a temple. These 
 singular columnar ruins are formed of a 
 beautiful ^^ hite marble, wiiich is found in 
 the mountain Rachmed, near the spot. 
 
 Count Caylus thought he perceived, and 
 endeavoured to draw an analogy between 
 tiie Persepolitan and the Egyptian styles ; 
 but we have not sufficient authority of the 
 former to cxiunine these claims. 
 
 The Hindu style of architecture, as ex- 
 emplified in their monuments, appeals to 
 liave been drawn from their original dwel- 
 lings, caves, and excavations. Rlau is by 
 joature a burrowing animal, and mostly 
 carries his original propensities into states 
 of refinement. 
 
 The period of authentic history in India, 
 as in other countries, is comparatively of 
 recent date. It is scai'cely more than three 
 tiiousand years since the most ancient and 
 only genuine historical records of the an- 
 cient w orld, ascribed to Musah, or as we call 
 liim after the Greeks and Romans, Moses, 
 were composed. Herodotus, the most an- 
 cient heathen historian whose works have 
 reached our times, flourished a thousand 
 years later ; and Homer, the tliird ancient 
 autlior who speaks of our art, is of too 
 doubtful a period to establish dates. 
 
 The remains of architectural monuments 
 in India, from style and construction, seem 
 to prove an early connexion between tliat 
 country and Egypt. The pyramids, the 
 colossal statues, the obelisks, the spliinx, 
 the mummy pits, and subterranean temples 
 with colossal figures, and tlie lion headed 
 sphinxes, recently discovered by Belzoni 
 in Egypt, indicate the style and system of 
 mythology to be akin to those of tlie inde- 
 fatigable workmen who formed the vast 
 excavations of Canarah, Elephanta, and 
 Ellora. Tlie various inunense jnigodas, 
 pillars, and colossal images of IJuddhaand 
 other Indian idols. Tiiese subjects will 
 be farther discussed in the article Sa( kku 
 
 Ak( IIITHfTUKE. 
 
 Another proof of a similarity of style 
 between tlic ancient Egyptians and Hin- 
 iliis is their mutually using lofty spires or 
 olxlisks, like the pillar of Allahahad ; a 
 striking resemblance to wJiich is seen in 
 tlie ancient round towers of Ireland ; and 
 also between the pyramids of I'gypt and llu; 
 <<>I(>ssal biicU building in the 1 !a<l jiporedis- 
 tri( t,near the (Jiinduc river. This inunense 
 pile of brick is about two days journey up 
 the fiiindiic, one of the tributary streams 
 of the (Jangcs near Kessereah. 
 
 Mr. Burrows, who visited it about the 
 
 year 17b5, and took its diiiu-nsions, con- 
 
 ceives it to be evidently intended for the 
 well known image of the god iMaha Deo; 
 having originally been a cylinder placed 
 upon the frustum of a cone, for the purpose 
 of being seen at a distance. It is at pre- 
 sent very much decayed ; and it is not very 
 easy to tell whether the upper part of the 
 cylinder has been circular or conical. A 
 considerable quantity of the outside has 
 fallen down, but it is still seen a great dis- 
 tance up and down the river. 
 
 The dimensions of this colossal edifice, 
 as gi^en by Mr. Burrow, in the Asiatic 
 Researches, are the diameter of the column 
 at the base, three hundred and sixty-three 
 feet; height of the conic frustum on which 
 the cylinder is placed, ninety-three feet ; 
 diameter of the cylinder, sixty -four feet, 
 which is nearly two-thirds of the size of 
 the diameter of the base of the cupola of 
 St. I'aul's Cathedral; height of the present 
 remains of the cylinder or round tower, six- 
 ty-five feet ; entire height, one hundred and 
 fifty-eight feet, or nearly tlie height of the 
 monument, near London Bridge, without 
 its pedestal. Both the cylinder and the 
 cone are constructed of well burnt bricks, 
 many of them two spans long and one 
 broad, and others of the common size, but 
 thinner. 
 
 The pillar of Allahabad, as described 
 by the late Captain Hoare, is a loftj^ coni- 
 cal structure, covered with inscriptions, 
 which are given in the second volume of 
 the Transactions of the Asiatic Society, 
 with an engraving of its elevation ; but 
 neither Captain Hoare, INIr. Colebrooke, 
 nor Moonshee Mohammed Morad, ^^ ho ac- 
 companied the captain to Allahabad, could 
 obtain any information respecting it. 
 
 Architecture is of too much importance 
 in the atl'airs of nations to be neglected or 
 despised by the political economist : being 
 the art by which we can best distinguish 
 man in a civilized state from that of simple 
 barbarity ; and forms a scale of compara- 
 tive cultivation, and of the progress of in- 
 tellect l)etwe(>n nation and nation. 
 
 IMato acknowledges that the science of 
 politics and legislation began with the 
 building of cities (Flat, de leg. I. 3 aiul (»): 
 (iius has architecture its political us«', pub- 
 lic buildings being the must distinguished 
 and most durable ornaments of a country. 
 It establishes a nation, draws pe<)ple, 
 creates commerce, miikes the people Unv. 
 and respt'ct their native countrj, which 
 passion is the origin of all great actions in 
 a commonwealth. " Tlic emulation of the 
 cities of (ireece," sa>s Wren, "v\as the 
 true cause of their greatness, the obstinate 
 valour of the Jews, occasioned by tlie love 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 of their magnificent temple, was a cement 
 that held together that people for many 
 ages, through infinite changes." 
 
 The care of public decency, and conve- 
 nience was a great cause of the establish- 
 ment of the LoAV Countries, and of many 
 cities in the world. Modern Rome sub- 
 sists still, by the ruins and imitation of its 
 glorious ancestor; as does Jerusalem, by 
 the temple of the sepulchre, and other re- 
 mains of Helena's zeal. 
 
 Architecture aims at eternity ; and is 
 therefore the only art incapable of modes 
 and fashions in its principles the Orders. 
 (See Orders.) It is also the most faithful 
 recorder of the great and noble deeds of 
 nations long since past away, and its works 
 are speaking witnesses of the truth of his- 
 toi-y. 
 
 By the gigantic pyramids, by the lofty 
 obelisks, by tlie stupendous temples and 
 other arcliitectural monuments of Egypt, 
 we have authentic documents and ocular 
 demonstration of the veracity of the histo- 
 ric pen which records the numbers and the 
 power of the mighty people that once in- 
 habited the extensive shores of the prolific 
 Nile. 
 
 The Parthenon, the Erectheum, and the 
 other brilliant gems of attic taste, which 
 embellish the solitary wastes of ancient 
 Athens, bear similar testimony to that re- 
 fined taste which the ancient historians and 
 critics of antiquity attribute to the people 
 of Greece. The Acropolis and its lovely 
 structures vouch for Pausanias ; the Pyra- 
 mids and Obelisks of Egypt for the vene- 
 rable father of Pagan history (Herodo- 
 tus) ; and Rome, the eternal citj', owes its 
 most lasting celebrity to architecture. 
 
 By architecture, too, we are informed 
 how painting and how sculpture flourished 
 among the ancients. For it has not only 
 preserved upon its walls, as in the temple 
 of Tentyra, in the magnificent baths of the 
 Roman emperors, and on the walls of Her- 
 culaneum and Pompeii, positive vestiges of 
 their pencils ; but by ratifying, as it were, 
 the truth of the historians' account of their 
 architecture gives us a point whereon we 
 may fix our belief in their descriptions of 
 the powers of tlieir ancient painters. Thus 
 the existing works of Phidias, Ictinus, 
 Callicrates, and Mnesicles prove the reality 
 and the power of the highly and justly 
 lauded productions of Zeuxis, Parrhasius, 
 and Apelles, of which Ave have only written 
 testimony (See Painting). 
 
 Much may be said of the political utility 
 and moral advantages of a cultivation of 
 architecture; but, a few words on an en- 
 
 lightened patronage of it may not be deem, 
 ed extraneous from the subject. 
 
 This proper and judicious mode of ad- 
 ministering patronage, or in other words 
 justice, to a national art, of necessity in- 
 cludes a patronage of all the arts, and em- 
 bellishes the names of monarchs and princes 
 with unfading lustre ; equal to any, and 
 superior to most. A great and good prince 
 is rendered yet more illustrious by such 
 encouragement; and the infamy of a bad 
 one is even gilded over to his cotempora- 
 ries, and overpowered to posterity by the 
 brilliancy of its lustre. The bloody and 
 drunken insanities of Alexander, by some 
 called the Great, are shaded by his patron- 
 age and love of art; and the nameless 
 atrocities of Hadrian are softened by his 
 deeds in art almost to a name of repute ; 
 while the mild lustre of a Titus receives a 
 brilliant accession from the same causes. 
 So is the tyranny of Pericles adorned and 
 neutralized by his enlightened patronage 
 of Phidias. The Parthenon has remitted 
 his sins, and Hadrianopolis, with its taste- 
 ful structures, sheds rays of glory round 
 the head of the otherwise contemptible and 
 infamous patron and associate of Anti- 
 nous. 
 
 This art was held in such esteem by the 
 Greeks, that none but the well born were 
 allowed to study it, and princes gloried in 
 its practice. If, as Sir Josliua Reynolds 
 asserts, the value and rank of every art be 
 in proportion to the mental labour employ- 
 ed in it, then should architecture rank very 
 high. As this principle is observed or neg- 
 lected, architecture becomes either a libe- 
 ral art or a mechanical trade. In the 
 hands of one man it makes the highest pre- 
 tensions, as it is addressed to the noblest 
 faculties and becomes a matter of pliiloso- 
 phy ; while in those of another it is re- 
 duced to a mere matter of ornament, and 
 the architect has but the humble province 
 of building elegant trifles. 
 
 In a preceding section an assertion was 
 made that architecture was a less imitative 
 art than either painting, sculpture, or en- 
 graving ; that its elements are more purely 
 original than those of the other arts, yet it is 
 in a certain degree imitative of its own ori- 
 ginal types or prefigurations, which are 
 first the cavern, as exemplified in the Egyp- 
 tian and the Indian styles (see Egyptian, 
 Indian), which has been imitated also in 
 our ancient British architecture, as may be 
 seen in many examples, such as the ancient 
 crypt of St. Peter's, Oxford, at Lastingham 
 Priory, &c. where tlu^ resemblance Is abun- 
 dantly striking. Tlie tent as in the Chinese 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 (see Chinese) and its species, and the cafcijt light, feeble, and fragile; and the Creek 
 or wooden hut, as displayed in the Greek or cabin style is at once solid and light, is 
 and its imitators : that is to say, tiiat the susceptible of being made more or less 
 Egyptians, the Indians, and tiieir like imi- solid or light according to necessity or re- 
 lated in tlieir buildings, tiieir ancient ex- quired character; is the richest in its com- 
 cavations, their primeval dwellings. That binations, and that which unites in itself, 
 the Chinese in their pagodas and other in the highest degree, the advantages of 
 public buildings imitated their tent; that solidity and an inlinite agreeableness of 
 tlie Greeks imitated and refined carpentry variety. Of the elements of the cabin or 
 in their marble temples; that the Romans Greek style, the elegant critic Algarotti 
 followed the Greeks, that the early archi- says in his Safcgis Sopra V Architctiura, that 
 tects of Britain followed the Ramans ; that is the material the most capable t)f furnish- 
 many architects of the present day follow ing the art with the greatest number of pro- 
 the Greeks to a servile pedantrj', and that files, modifications, and varied ornaments, 
 the architects erroneously called Gothic whidi said profiles, modifications, and va- 
 iniitated their primitive places of worship, ried ornaments so highly prized by the Ita- 
 tlieir sacred groves. lian critic the Greeks have indurated, 
 Our great architect Sir Christopher sublimed, and immortalized; while the 
 Wren,whose merits as a writer are scarcely Romans have debased them, and in many 
 sufficiently acknowledged, carries this hy- instances lowered them below even their 
 pothesis still farther and in a most beau- original types. 
 
 ful manner. He says, '' Vitruvius hath led While upon the subject of that imitation 
 
 lis the true way to find out the originals of which is essential to a pure style in archi- 
 
 the orders. When men first cohabited in tecture, an imitation by no means de- 
 
 civil commerce, there was a necessity of structive of legitimate invention ; a few 
 
 forums and public places of meeting. In words may be allowed by way of elucida- 
 
 cold countries people were obliged to shut tion. 
 
 out the air, the cold, and the rain; but in tlie By imitation is not meant that servile 
 hot countries where civility first began, they counterfeiting of an original which is so 
 desired to exclude the sun only, and admit mucii the practice of some of our modern 
 all possible air for coolness and health. This Greeks,whoc()py the very fractions of lines 
 brought in naturally the use of porticoes and profiles, instead of composing in the 
 or roofs for shade set upon columns. A same spirit. But tliat bold pursuit of a 
 walk of trees is more beautiful than the sublime original by parallel images and 
 most artificial portico ; but these not being examples, sometimes more refined but 
 easily preserved in market-places, they neverbelowtheirtype,wliichdistinguishes 
 made the more durable siuules of porticoes, true genius cultivated and improved by 
 in wiiich we see they imitated nature ; ])ractice and study from tlie common herd 
 most trees that are in their jirime, tiiat are of lineal copyists nioihiles,of minutes, and 
 not saplings or dotards, observe near the of lines. Such a free imitation as the 
 jiroportion of Doric columns in the length iEneid is of llii; Iliad ; sudi a bold and ori- 
 of their bole before they part into jjranches. ginal imitation as IMilton is of Homer and 
 1'liis I tliink the more natural comparison of Virgil; such imitations in siiorl as bear 
 than that to the body of a man, in wiiich the marks of real genius; " that quality 
 there is little resemblance of a cylindrical without whicli judgment iscol(l,and know- 
 body. The first columns were the very ledge is inert ; tiiat energy which collects, 
 boles of trees turned or cut in prisms of combines, amplifies, and animates." 
 many sides. A little curiosity would in- Tiiere are two ways by whicli a people 
 duce to lay the torus at tiie top: and the can imitate tlie style of arclutecture of 
 conjecture is not amiss, to say it was first anotlu'r country; the one true and the 
 
 a liand of iron to keep the clefts occasioned 
 by llie sun from opening with flie weight 
 aiiove ; and to keep the Aveather from 
 piercing these clefts it was necessary to 
 cover it with tlic plinth or square board ; 
 and t\\i' architrave conjoiiu-d all tiie co- 
 JuMuis iu length ;" as may be seen in the 
 drawing of the flank of the Grecian temple 
 Of these i)rimitive styles, tliat of the 
 
 other false. The true mode is less an imi- 
 tation tliiiu an adoption, and consists in re- 
 (•t'i\ ing as an alphabet in their entire shape 
 the system, the rules, and the taste of a 
 stylo of architecture. It was thus that the 
 Romnns adoi:led the architecture of the 
 Greeks, or ix-riiajis I should say of the 
 Ktrusians, which was inconteslibly the 
 same. It was thus alst) with the nations 
 
 Kgyplian or cavern style is dark, heavy, of modern I'.urope, v^ ho, abandoning the 
 and monotonous. The Chinese or ^'Ji^atyle Gothic and the incongruities of the middle 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ages, have appropriated the Greek and Ro- 
 man styles by legitimate adoption. 
 
 It was after this true mode that Palla- 
 dio, in liis imitations and inventive restora- 
 tions of Roman magnificence, has founded 
 a legitimate school. It was thus that 
 Michel Angiolo fairly imitated the Pan- 
 theon of Agrippa in his tremendous cupola 
 of the Vatican. And it was thus that our 
 illustrious countryman Wren, whose trans- 
 cendent talents I have recently endeavour- 
 ed to display to the public, rivalled in de- 
 sign, and surpassed in purity of taste and 
 scientific construction, the Basilica of St. 
 Peter's at Rome, the work of more than 
 twenty aixhitects, supported by the trea- 
 sure of the Christian world, and by the 
 protection and under the reigns of twenty 
 successive popes; in his unrivalled and 
 splendid work of St. Paul, London, that 
 glorious, though unfinished monument of 
 the piety and magnificence of our an- 
 cestors. 
 
 Such imitations are far from plagiarisms, 
 being, on the contrary, skilful adoptions or 
 adaptations, bearing proofs of legitimate 
 and inventive talents. " Genius," says 
 Reynolds, " at least what is generally so 
 called, is the child of imitation ; it is in 
 vain to endeavour to invent without mate- 
 rials on which the mind may work, and 
 from which invention must originate. No- 
 thing can come of nothing." (Disc. 1). 
 
 The other or false mode of imitation is 
 plain plagiarism, and nothing better than 
 downright theft, without e^en that inge- 
 nuity to conceal the theft, which, among 
 the Lacedaemonians, always procured par- 
 don for the thief. This mode consists, as 
 it were, in importing by wholesale such 
 portions of a foreign or ancient style as 
 appears suited to the purposes of its im- 
 porters, and converting them to their own 
 use, not as their original inventors would 
 have done in their time and place, but for- 
 cibly torturing ancient art to modern uses ; 
 like as the gipsies are said to do wiien 
 they steal children, to disfigure them that 
 they may not be known. These are 
 mean copiers and importers of architec- 
 ture, common borrowers. The others, li- 
 beral adopters of the gi*eat works of the 
 great masters of our art, fi"om whom " the 
 modei*n arts wex"e revived, and by whose 
 means they must be restored a second 
 time." " However it may mortify our 
 vanity," says Reynolds, " we must be 
 forced to allow them to be our masters ; 
 and we may venture to prophesy, that 
 when they cease to be studied, arts will 
 no longer flourish, and we shall again 
 relapse into barbarism," (Disc, vi.) 
 
 It was not in this way that the Greeks 
 borrowed the idea of the Corinthian capi- 
 tal from the Egyptians. They boldly 
 adapted and naturalized it, as well as 
 other types of their orders, which may 
 be seen by comparing them ; and con- 
 cealed it with Spartan skill, gratifying 
 their national vanity in giving curn.'ncy to 
 the poetical hypothesis of Callimachus and 
 the votive vase. The primitive types of 
 the two capitals are the same, as may be 
 seen by comparison ; the original of each 
 is a vase surrounded by foliage and cover- 
 ed by an abacus, and a verbal description 
 of the two would very nearly assimilate. 
 The other orders, namely, the Doric and 
 the Ionic, are as evidently drawn from the 
 same sources. Yet in the essentials of a 
 national style, they widely diil'er. The 
 Eg7ptians properly used the plants and 
 flowers of Egypt, and the Greeks those of 
 Greece. 
 
 If, however, the architecture of Greece 
 be, as is often and perhaps truly asserted, 
 borrowed, adopted, or stolen from that of 
 the Egyptians, the Greeks have certainly 
 most gorgeoTisly embellished their rob- 
 bery; and if from their own primaeval huts 
 and cabins, the metamorphosis of the cabin 
 into the temple is as rapid and comi)lete 
 as that of the cottage of Baucis and Phile- 
 mon, in the Metamorphoses of Ovid : 
 
 " Ilia vetus, (lominis ctiam casa parva diiobus, 
 Vcititur in templum : fnicas subieie coliiinna"." 
 
 Ov. lib. \iii. 
 
 See Imitation. 
 
 The principal remains of the most an- 
 cient examples of the Indian or Hindu 
 style, which have been recently discover- 
 ed, are of a singular and extraordinary- 
 kind, being mostly excavations in the solid 
 rock. They are supposed by some anti- 
 quaries to have been subterranean tem- 
 ples ; but many portions of them are un- 
 doubtedly monumental or commemorative. 
 Immense sculptured caverns, of this des- 
 cription, have been discovered in various 
 parts of the Indies, which are wonderful 
 monuments of the skill and industry of 
 the people who achieved them. These sub- 
 terraneous caverns are apparently as an- 
 cient as the oldest Egyptian temples ; and 
 M. D'Ancarville, in his Recherches sur 
 rOrigine, I'Esprit, et les Progres des Arts 
 de la Grece, thinks them anteri(n- to the 
 time of about two thousand years before 
 Christ. 
 
 Some archaiologists have supposed these 
 wonderful sculptured caverns to be no 
 older than the first ages of Christianity, 
 after the natives of India had received the 
 knowledge of tiie liberal arts and sciences 
 fiom the Greeks. Tlie ii.iprobability of 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 is apparent at the first beautiful. Several Hindu temples enibel- 
 
 this hypothesis 
 glance ; for, in the first place, the Greeks 
 did not practice excavations ; and secondly, 
 the style, character, and execution are as 
 diflereut as light and darkness from the 
 ."ityle, character, and execution of the archi- 
 tecture of the Greeks. 
 
 Dr. Robertson, on the contrary, thinks 
 them monuments of veiy remote antiquity, 
 as the natives cannot, either from history 
 or tradition, give any information concern- 
 ing the time in which they were excavated, 
 but universally ascribe them to the power 
 of a superior race of beings. Thus Stone- 
 henge has been attributed to the magical 
 power of Merlin the enchanter; and the 
 devil is often celebrated as an architect of 
 first rate skill, and has given his name to 
 Jiiany a monument of human power. 
 
 The columns found in these caverns are 
 rudely formed ; and although much inferior 
 to Grecian beauty, are, in many instances, 
 more agreeable to the eye of taste than 
 those of Egypt. Their capitals represent 
 round cushions pressed down by the su- 
 perincumbent weight. The elegance of 
 some of these columns is confirmed by Col. 
 Call, formerly chief engineer at Madras, 
 who urges this circumstance as a proof of 
 the early and high civilization of the Hin- 
 diis. " It may safely be remarked," says 
 he, " that no part of the world has more 
 marks of antiquity for arts, sciences, and 
 civilization than the peninsula of India, 
 from the Ganges to Cape Comorin. I 
 think the carvings on some of the pagodas 
 and choultries, as well as the grandeur of 
 the work, exceed any thing of the present 
 day, not only for the delicacy of the chisel, 
 but the expense of construction, consider- 
 ing, in many instances, to w hat distances 
 the component parts were carried, and to 
 what heights raised. 
 
 The column from a building near INIud- 
 dumporc, as engraved in Daniels' Views, 
 although of great antiquity, has the ele- 
 ments of a beautiful style. The gradation 
 from the octangulai' base to the multangu- 
 lar sliaft, settling oil' to the circular ujjpcr 
 shaft, is at once elegant, anil possessed of 
 tlie greatest constructive strength. The 
 masculine style of the recking, under the 
 •juadrifrontal capital, is bolil and charac- 
 teristic. 
 
 Another fine example of a monumental 
 column worlliy of notice is from an an- 
 cicnl Indian t('mi)le near lo IJi-Dares, a 
 splendid, rich, and ])opulous cify, on the 
 north side of the Ganges, which is here 
 very broad and the banks very high. 'Ihe 
 appearance of I'.enares from the waiter is 
 repr<'S( nl( il l)y travellers as IxMug very 
 
 lish the banks of the river, and many other 
 buildings, public and private, ancient and 
 modern, of a style and execution truly 
 magnificent. 
 
 This singular and most beautiful column, 
 which to the variety of India adds many 
 of the ornamental graces of the Grecian 
 style, is thought by Mr. Hodges, ^vho 
 made the drawing whence the plate in his 
 work was engraven, to have been of the 
 age of Alexander. This eminent artist 
 and indefatigable traveller conceived, from 
 the striking resemblance which many of 
 its parts bear to the Greek style, that it 
 must have been executed by Grecian ar- 
 tists shortly after Alexander's expedition 
 into India ; which, according to Dr. Ro- 
 bertson, was about one hundred and sixty 
 years after the reign of Darius Hystaspes. 
 The biographer of Apollonius Tyraneus 
 (ibid. J relates, that when he visited India, 
 three hundred and seventy-three years 
 after Alexander's expedition, twelve stu- 
 pendous altars or monumental stones, 
 which he erected in commemoration of 
 his exploits, were still remaining with 
 legible inscriptions. Be this as it may, 
 the elements and style of this beautiful 
 monument of antiquity completely bear 
 out the hypothesis of Mr, Hodges. Its 
 elements, perhaps from compliment to the 
 country, are in every respect Indian ; its 
 ornaments are purely Greek. Its base, 
 its shaft, its capital are all, in shape, situa- 
 tion, and distribution, completely Hindii ; 
 with its multangular and mixed circular 
 shaft, its quadrifronlal capital, and tress- 
 shaped abacus. Its decorative sculptures 
 are essentially and finely Greek. In its 
 pedestal is found the Grecian honeysuckle 
 in its greatest purity ; the angles of the 
 shaft are embellished with the sacred vv a- 
 ter leaves of the Hindu mythology ; above 
 these are Doric flutes; and in the capital 
 are found the leaves of the Creek acan- 
 thus. 
 
 For beauty of outline, ft»r a graceful 
 setting off from a si|uare U) an octagon, 
 and thence to a circle, fiu- richness and 
 purity of style, the column of P.enar<s 
 stands unrivalled iu Eastern art. 
 
 A few more speeinu-ns of Indian nionu- 
 ment.Hl art are the series of examples 
 from the early periods of the Mogul em- 
 pire, vhich exhibit their modes of con- 
 struction both S(|iiare and circular, and 
 prove their early knowledge of the arch, 
 the cupola, and other ditlieult and scien- 
 tilic modes of construction; and to which 
 liie preceding ob.servatious are equally ap- 
 pliciible. 
 
nesi. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Another proof of a similarity of style 
 between the architecture of tiie ancient 
 Egyptians and Hindus, is their mutually 
 using lofty spires like the obelisks of the 
 former, and the monumental towers of the 
 latter, as in the tower of Allahabad, and 
 the lofty conical obelisk on the Shikargah 
 or hunting place of Feeroz Shah ; the 
 Pyramids of Egypt, and the conical brick 
 monument in the Hadjepore district, refer- 
 red to and described in the last section. 
 
 The monumental style of architecture 
 among the Greeks comes into a smaller 
 compass than most other nations. The ob- 
 servations on their pure and line style will, 
 therefore, be reserved to another section, 
 when descanting on their sacred buildings. 
 Their principal monuments are the tower 
 of the winds, which was also a clepsydra or 
 water clock, and the beautiful little chora- 
 gic monument of Lysicrates, so celebrated 
 for its elegant variation upon the theme of 
 the Doric order. Another no less beauti- 
 ful is the choragic monument of Thrasyl- 
 lus, sometimes called the lanthorn of De- 
 mosthenes, so well known to every stu- 
 dent of Athenian antiquities. 
 
 The triumphal arches of the Romans are 
 among their grandest architectural monu- 
 ments or luxuries of this magnificent peo- 
 ple. Nothing which could tend to per- 
 petuate the fame of the conquei'ors was 
 omitted in the design. Some were con- 
 structed with two and others with three 
 openings, and the most magnificent were 
 erected on the public road, called the tri- 
 umphal way. 
 
 On a triumph being decreed, the Roman 
 senate received the conqueror at the Porta 
 Capena, near the Tiber, which was the 
 entrance to the city from the Appian way. 
 A brief description of them, for they very 
 nearly resemble each other, is all that the 
 limits of this work will allow. 
 
 The arch of Augustus at Rimini has 
 but a single opening, about thirty feet in 
 width, crowned with a pediment, contrary 
 to the usual practice, Avhich was to leave 
 them flat for a triumphal car. It is a beau- 
 tiful specimen of construction, but much 
 mutilated. 
 
 The arches of Titus at Rome and of 
 Trajan at Beneventi bear a great resem- 
 blance to each other. The former is com- 
 posed of that beautiful composite order, 
 which is said to have been the earliest use 
 of this order. 
 
 The arch called the Arch of the Gold- 
 smiths at Rome is a curious example. It 
 is small in size, has but a single opening, 
 is covered by a flat lintol, and is much em- 
 bellished by sculpture. 
 
 The arches of Scptimius Scverus and of 
 Constantine are of three openings. The 
 latter is embellislied with ornaments shame- 
 lessly stripped from the arch of Trajan, 
 and from tlieir absurd application, we are 
 the more disgusted with tlie barbarism of 
 the despoilers. The arch of Severus, the 
 ruins of which are represented in P 
 
 ira- 
 
 is in fine preservation, and serves 
 as a portico to the church of St. George in 
 Vellario. 
 
 The Roman style of architecture pos- 
 sesses more variety of style and buildings 
 than that of Greece. The Roman people 
 had also a more extended dominion, more 
 personal and natural pride, and were more 
 partial to show and magnificence than the 
 graver and more philosophical Greeks. 
 Hence arose the greater number and more 
 splendid embellishments of their architec- 
 tural achievements. 
 
 They also erected edifices to commemo- 
 rate every great event ; and much of their 
 architecture may be classed under the mo- 
 numental syle. " When the Romans wish- 
 ed to commemorate and perpetuate," says 
 Tacitus, " the remembrance of any re- 
 markable event, they raised an altar stone, 
 and engraved thereon the particulars of 
 the transaction," 
 
 This great historian relates in his ac- 
 count of the public discussions which en- 
 sued in Rome on the death of Augustus, 
 that the objectors to the honours paid to 
 that emperor complained that the honours 
 due to the gods were no longer sacred. 
 Temples were built and edifices erected to 
 hbii. A mortal man was adored, and 
 priests and pontiffs were appointed to pay 
 him impious homage. This species of 
 homage Augustus Avas wise enough to 
 decline when alive ; and Suetonius says, 
 " although Augustus knew that temples 
 were often raised in the provinces in ho- 
 nour of the proconsuls, allowed none to be 
 raised to himself, unless they were at the 
 same time dedicated to the Roman people. 
 In the city, he absolutely refused all ho- 
 nours of the kind." These facts prove 
 that the raising and dedicating a temple 
 was a common, nay almost an every day 
 transaction. 
 
 Tacitus is perpetually adverting to the 
 numerous architectural monuments of his 
 public spirited countrymen. But unfortu- 
 nately their character in taste was inferior 
 both to their wealth and their vanity. They 
 cultivated ftw things supremely but elo- 
 quence and the art of war. And oratoiy 
 and the sword were the only steps to 
 power and greatness in Rome. Greece 
 was fallen into a state of degeneracy. 
 
ARCHIT 
 
 Point, antithesis, and conceit, were the de- 
 light of vain preceptors who filled the city 
 of Rome, and lield schools of declamation 
 (which Cicero properly called ludus im- 
 pudentia^) ; and novelty, ornament, and 
 bad taste, crowded tlieir public monu- 
 ments. 
 
 With such a people architecture could 
 not but flourish; and had they, like the 
 Greeks, ennobled the profession of archi- 
 tecture, as they did that of the orator, as 
 fine a taste would doul)tlessly have pre- 
 vailed in the one country as in the other. 
 Their very wars encouraged the arts. Sta- 
 tues and triumphal arches followed victory 
 like a shadow, and the spoils of the con- 
 quered, prisoners of war, with various pic- 
 tures of battles, mountains, and rivers, 
 were displayed with great pomp. 
 
 Another instance of the arcliitectural 
 grandeur of the Romans, on the authority 
 of Suetonius, is Avorth reciting. Augustus, 
 to perpetuate the memory of his glorious 
 victory at Actium, built the city of Nico- 
 polis, near the bay where he obtained his 
 victory, establishing quinquennial games ; 
 and having enlarged an ancient temple of 
 Apollo, adorned it with naval spoils, and 
 dedicated it to Neptune and to Mars. 
 
 On tlie death of Germauicus triumphal 
 arches were ordered to be erected at 
 Rome, on the Rliine, and Mount Anianus 
 in Syria, with inscriptions setting forth the 
 splendour of his actions, and in direct 
 terms declaring that he died in the service 
 of his country. At Antioch, where his 
 remains were burned, a mausoleum was 
 erected ; and at Epidaphne, where he died, 
 a cenotaph was constructed to his memory. 
 Of the several statues, and the places wliere 
 they were to be worshiped, " it would be 
 diilicult," says Tacitus, " to give a regular 
 catalogue. It was farther proposed tiiat 
 a shield of pure gold, exceeding the ordi- 
 nary size, sliould l)e dedicated to him in 
 tlie place allotted to orators of distinguish- 
 ed eloquence." 
 
 Tiiese marks of respect are of less value 
 to tiic dead than to the li\ ing, and fliose 
 who witn(!ss such grateful remembrances 
 acquire thereby an additional stimulus to- 
 wards ri\ai]ing them. 
 
 "Victory and Westminster Abbey" was 
 a sentiment up[)ermost in the mind of Nel- 
 son, and they who are bcnclited by the 
 services of slatcsmen, and by tlio vittorics 
 of warriors, sIkhiM not be spiiring of dura- 
 ble n)onunu;nts of gratituiUs cNcn if it he 
 only with the view of exciting the asjiira- 
 tion of ciintcnipoi-iiiies. 
 
 Of Hoiiiaii iircliitecture the concealed 
 autlior of Guy Maunering says, " their for- 
 
 ECTURE. 
 
 tiiications, their aqua>ducts, their theatres, 
 their fountains, all their public works bear 
 the grave, solid, and majestic character of 
 their language ; and our modern labours, 
 like our modern tongues, seem but con- 
 structed out of their fragments." Yet with 
 all this grandeur of conception and soli- 
 dity of execution, their works surprise 
 more from their inunensity of size than the 
 beauty of their detail. This produced an 
 tmnatural exaggeration of style in all their 
 arts. Their architecture has given us the 
 swoln composite order; their sculpture the 
 exaggerated style of the Gladiator, and 
 their latter poetry the hyperboles of Lucan 
 and of Statins. The Colosseum alone con- 
 sumed more materials and cost more money 
 than perhaps all the temples of Athens put 
 together; and the Roman forum would 
 possibly have contained them all. Impe- 
 rial Rome vied with the republic in archi- 
 tectural splendour, and Julius Caesar com- 
 menced a career of magnificence in tlie pro- 
 vinces, and his nephew Augustus led the 
 way among the emperors; justly boast- 
 ing that he found Rome of birch and left it 
 of marble. It would be well if a British 
 Minerva could arise in imitation of the 
 Athenian goddess, and by her magic lance 
 convert the half burnt bricks and compo 
 and mastic of modern London into even 
 decent stone ! 
 
 One more species of monumental stnic- 
 tures, used by the ancient Romans, alone 
 remain to be mentioned ; their commemo- 
 rative columns. 
 
 They have several still remaining, one 
 dedicated to the Emperor Phocas stands 
 near the temple of Concord. Il is of Greek 
 marble, fluted and of the Corinthian order, 
 four feet diameter aiul fifly-four high in- 
 cluding the pedestal. Another worthy of 
 notice is that of Marcus Aurelius, erect- 
 ed by the Roman senate and people in ho- 
 nour of that emperor for his victories over 
 the Marconumni. Aurelius afterwartls de- 
 dicated it to his father-in-law Antoninus 
 Pius, as is expressed on the pedestal ; 
 hence it is mostly called the colnnm of An- 
 toninus. It is of the Doric order, eleven 
 feet six inches in diameter and one hun- 
 dred and forty-eight feet liigh. 
 
 The lofliest, however, in Rome is 
 
 " Traj.iii's colniiiii tall, 
 From wlmsr low li:i!<c llio !iriil|)tiir>-.s wliul iiloll ; 
 And Ic.iil lliri)ii!;l> varums liiils ii|) the iiiiii;li sloop 
 lis 111 TO I.I Iho skies." DvKK. 
 
 This colunui is one of the most celebrated 
 monuments of antiquity, and has endured 
 the stormy waste of time ui)\var(ls of sev(>n- 
 teen huiulred years. Tlie column «)f Alex- 
 andria, commonly called Ponipey's pillar, 
 
ARCHITECTUllE. 
 
 is about ninety-five feet in height; Tra- 
 jans, including the pedestal and statue, 
 one hundred and thirty-two feet; and 
 Wren's fine monumental column near Lon- 
 don Bridge, commemorative of the destruc- 
 tion and rebuilding of the British metro- 
 polis, including the pedestal and vase of 
 flames, two hundred and two feet. The 
 latter is quoted to show its superiority in 
 point of height and size over those of an- 
 cient Rome. 
 
 British immuniental architecture. The 
 next section of my subject leads us to the ob- 
 scure days of the ancient British monumen- 
 tal style, and I confess tiie more I search 
 the more I am bewildered in fiction, fable, 
 and hypothesis. 
 
 The commencement of the art in England 
 was similar to its commencement in every 
 other country. Tlie caverns and huts of 
 the aborigines of these islands were gi'a- 
 dually improved from mere necessaries of 
 life to comforts and luxuries. 
 
 There exist in this country the most in- 
 disputable proofs of a primitive or abori- 
 ginal style of architecture and successive 
 introductions of foreign styles at various 
 periods of our history ; and here again it 
 may be observed, does architecture prove 
 the truth of history. 
 
 Egypt may boast of its pyramids, India 
 of its excavated temples, Italy of its Pa-s- 
 tum, and Greece of its Cyclopean works, 
 alike defying history and conjecture ; yet 
 England and Ireland possess antiquities 
 as primitive, as aboriginal, and as remote 
 from accurate date in the Avebury, the 
 Cromlechs, the Stonehenge of England, the 
 round towers, the excavations, the ruins 
 of the seven churches, and the bed of 
 St. Kieven in Ireland. 
 
 The origin of the architecture of a na- 
 tion is so intimately connected with that 
 of the nation itself, that an inquiry into the 
 one necessarily involves the other ; tliere- 
 fore, rejecting the fables of our earlier 
 chroniclers, we must search for the truth 
 in the monuments themselves. 
 
 Sir William Jones in his luminous dis- 
 course on the origin and families of nations, 
 says, with our great Newton, " We must 
 not admit more causes of natural things 
 than those which are true, and sufficiently 
 account for natui-al phenomena;" and that 
 one pair at least of every Jiving species must 
 at first have been created, and that one hu- 
 man pair was sufficient for the population 
 of our globe, in a period of no considerable 
 length (on the very moderate supposition 
 of lawyers and political arithmeticians, 
 that one pair of individuals left on aver- 
 age tivo children, and each of them two 
 
 more) is evident from the rapid increase 
 of numbers in geometrical progression, so 
 well known to those who have ever taken 
 the trouble to sum a series of as many 
 terms as they suppose generations of men 
 in two or three thousand years. 
 
 This profound philosopher them proceeds 
 with all the learning and scepticism of a 
 genuine searcher after truth, to compare 
 the Mosaic account of the peopling of our 
 globe v/itli probability and with history; 
 and comes, after a series of incontroverti- 
 ble arguments, to the supposition that the 
 children of Jafet seem from the traces of 
 Sklavonian names, and the mention of their 
 having been enlarged, to have spread them- 
 selves far and wide, and to have produced 
 the race which for want of a correct appel- 
 lation we call Tartarian; the colonies form- 
 ed by the sons of Ham and Shem appear to 
 have been nearly simultaneous; and among 
 those of the latter branch he found so many 
 names preserved to this day in Arabia, that 
 he hesitated not to pronounce them to be the 
 same people, whom hitherto we have de- 
 nominated Arabs ; while the former branch, 
 the most powerful and adventurous, of 
 whom were the progeny of Cush, Misr, 
 and Rama, names remaining unchanged to 
 this hour in Sanscrit, and highly revered 
 by the Hindus, were, in all probability, the 
 race denominated Indian. 
 
 From several tours recently made in the 
 most interesting parts of Ireland for archi- 
 tectural antiquities, and from considerable 
 investigation into its history, the author 
 is of opinion that that country was ori- 
 ginally peopled from the east. The ancient 
 architecture, the ancient religion, the an- 
 cient language of Ireland and those of the 
 inhabitants of Hindustan and other orien- 
 tal countries coinciding in a wonderful 
 manner. 
 
 Equal coincidences in their architecture 
 occasionally recur ; the pyramids of Egypt 
 have narrow passages leading to dark 
 chambers or temples under ground. At 
 Benares, the most ancient seat of Bramini- 
 cal learning, there are also pyramids on a 
 small scale with subterraneous passages, 
 vviiich are said to extend many miles. 
 These narrow passages leading to the cell 
 or adytum of the temple appear to render 
 the only apartment less accessible and to 
 inspire the votaries with more awe. There 
 we find a perfect resemblance between the 
 worship of the ancient Egyptians and the 
 ancient inhabitants of Hindustan. The 
 caves of the oracle at Delphos, of Tropho- 
 nius, and of New Grange in Ir<>land, had 
 narroAV passages answering the purposes 
 of tliose in Egypt and India ; " nor is it un- 
 
 1.-2 
 
ARCHITECTIRE. 
 
 reasonable to suppose," says Captain Wil- 
 ford in his learned dissertations on EgTpt 
 from the ancient books of the Hindus, 
 " that the fabulous relations of the Grot in 
 Italy, and of the purgatory of St. Patrick 
 in Ireland were derived from a similar 
 practice and motive which seem to have 
 prevailed over tlie whole Pagan world, 
 and are often alluded to in scripture." 
 
 New Grange is one among many caverns 
 in Ireland, which tiie author of tliis work 
 lias visited. It is a large mound or pyramid, 
 surrounded by a circle of stones, near the 
 county town of Drogheda, about twentj'-five 
 miles north of Dublin. The gallery is sixty- 
 two feet long, and the arms of the cross 
 or transepts twenty feet each. The cupola 
 over the centre of tiie temple at the inter- 
 section of the cross is formed of long flat 
 stones projecting one over the other, till 
 they meet in the centre like one of the 
 openings in the great Egyptian pyramid. 
 
 Tlie cavern is, he doubts not, of as great 
 antiquity as any in Europe, and was a 
 burying place of the ancient Irish, although 
 its cross-like form has induced some to 
 think of the time of Christianity ; on its 
 first opening, a gold coin of the Emperor 
 Valcntinian was found in it, which Dr. 
 Llhwyd observes might bespeak it Roman, 
 but that a rude carving at the enti-y of the 
 cave seems to denote it to be of a barbarous 
 origin. 
 
 Nothing is here said of the similarity be- 
 tween the names of Erin (Ireland) and Iran 
 (Persia), conjectural etymologies being too 
 vague for iiistorical research. 
 
 The round towers of Ireland of which he 
 has a list of nearly seventy now remain- 
 ing in various parts of the island, from 
 Cork to the Causo*vay, and from Wexford 
 to Limerick, tlie greater part of wiiich 
 he visited and investigated ; their large 
 and singular cromlechs and innumerable 
 other antiquities wliicii deserve a course 
 of investigation to themselves, will be far- 
 ther discussed in a future part of this 
 dictionary. See Hound T(mEH. 
 
 II. SAriiED ARCiiirECTiiiiE. To trace 
 fully tlie origin and progress of sacred ar- 
 chitecture among th<; anlcdilinians, after 
 ^^llllt lias liccti said of the moniinienta! ar- 
 chitecture of tliat ancient period, would be 
 to go over almost the same ground, which 
 was reviewed in the early jiarl of tlu? first 
 Kection. Tliereforc a I)ri(.'f survey of tliesi? 
 niici(Mit and problematical times, with an 
 account of tiie principal works in this class 
 of arcliiteclure and an analysis of princi- 
 pli^s, will be all Hint is necessary for this 
 portion of our work. 
 Among uncultivated nations, such as 
 
 mod(!rn refinement are pleased to term sa- 
 vage, Architecture as a fine art is scarcely 
 known, and their painting and sculpture 
 are as rude as tiieir manners. We find 
 those arts, with music, dancing, eloquence, 
 and poetry, in every country and among 
 every people which have arrived at the 
 first degiee of civilization ; and mankind 
 was certainly in this state in the earliest 
 antediluvian times, after the families of 
 Adam's immediate progeny settled them- 
 selves. 
 
 The connexion between architecture and 
 the rest of the arts and sciences, with the 
 laws, government, and manners of a peo- 
 ple are curious and useful subjects of in- 
 quiry. Their relations with the history of 
 the human mind are clear and indisputa- 
 ble, although some shallow reasoners have 
 affected to think them beneath the notice 
 of statesmen and philosophers ; and that 
 the fine arts are to be considered only as 
 mere amusements and relaxations to supe- 
 rior minds. 
 
 Sacred Architecture commenced with 
 the first adoratiim of man to Jiis Creator. 
 The first altar of a single stone surrounded 
 by our grateful forefathers olTering the first 
 fruits of their flock, and corn, and fruit, 
 was the first temple. Such were the 
 cromlechs of Ireland and Britain, which 
 soon increased from the circle of stones to 
 the beauty of the rotunda, and from the 
 wood covered temple of ancient Attica to 
 the full blown perfection and splendour of 
 tlie Parthenon. 
 
 Idolatry, added to the splendour of an- 
 cient temples, and Ninus, the first recorded 
 idolater, the son of Belus or Niinrod, erect- 
 ed the earliest t(>mple to the human gods 
 of antiquity, in commemoration of his fa- 
 ther, whom he ordered to be worsJiiped, 
 and dedicated a temple to him as Jupiter 
 Belus. This temple, which Herodotus de- 
 scribes as of splendid diiiieiisions and de- 
 sign, contained the celebrated brazen sta- 
 tue of Jupiter Belus, which was cast about 
 two hundred years after the flood, and is 
 the same idol mentioned in the Scri])- 
 tures, under the name of Baal, and Baal 
 Phegor. 
 
 In less than two iiundred years after 
 the flood, architecture was cultivated in 
 Clialdea, China, Egypt, and Phcvnicia. 
 Sacred edilices were among tin- most sjilen- 
 did and costly of their productions. Among 
 the sovereigns recorded in these ancient 
 days is Seniiramis, tiie wife of Ninus, wiio 
 finished in this age the stupeiulous walls 
 of Bah) Ion, which were reckoned among 
 the se\eii wonders of the world. This il- 
 lustrious princess, (,o whom the adniinis- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tration of the government was left by her 
 husband, ascended the throne about one 
 thousand seven hundred years before the 
 Christian era, and is one of the earliest 
 examples in histoiy of a throne being filled 
 by a female. 
 
 Diodorus and other ancient writers re- 
 late that among the splendid works of this 
 princess were the statues of Jupiter Belus, 
 Ninus, herself, her son Nimas, and her 
 chief men of her kingdom, both warriors 
 and statesmen. She also erected a mag- 
 nificent temple to Jupiter Belus, on the 
 summit of which she erected three statues 
 of gold, representing Jupiter, Juno, and 
 Rhea. 
 
 Many other similar works of grandeur 
 and idolatry are mentioned in history, as 
 having been erected by this princess, of 
 which the necessary limits of this work 
 will not find room even for enumeration. 
 But it is well known that there were seve- 
 ral queens of Assyria of this name ; and 
 these authors may have attributed to the 
 great Semiramis, the spouse of Ninus, the 
 works that were probably of another age, 
 and by another princess of the same name. 
 
 From these ancient examples founded 
 on the authority of the most ancient histo- 
 rians, we find that sacred architecture 
 flourished in a splendid manner even in 
 these remote ages. None of these rela- 
 tions, magnificent and splendid as they 
 now appear, not even the walls of Baby- 
 lon, the tower of Babel, nor the extent of 
 ancient Nineveh, which is said to have in- 
 cluded a circuit of nearly sixty miles? 
 should surprise us into an unbelief of their 
 authority from their stupendous dimen- 
 sions alone : for if we reflect upon the ex- 
 isting pyramids of Egypt, and know that 
 the great wall of China, also a work of 
 high antiquity, is fifteen hundred miles in 
 length, forty-five feet in height, and eigh- 
 teen feet in thickness, with towers of cor- 
 responding proportions and reasonable 
 distances, we need not doubt on these 
 grounds. Here again we find architec- 
 ture bearing testimony to the truth of his- 
 tory. 
 
 Architecture having been thus success- 
 fully cultivated among the Assyrians, was 
 carried by them into Egypt, and other 
 countries which they conquered. 
 
 " The first temples," says Wren, " were, 
 in all probability, in the ruder times, only 
 little celhe (cells) to inclose the idol within, 
 with no other light than a large door to 
 discover it to the people when the priest 
 saw proper, and when he went in alone to 
 oflTer incense, the people paying adoration 
 without doors ; for all sacrifices were per- 
 
 formed in the open air, before the front of 
 the temple ; but in the southern climates 
 a grove was necessary, not only to shade 
 the devout, but, from the darkness of the 
 place, to strike some terror and recollec- 
 tion in their approaches ; therefore trees 
 being always an adjunct to the cellae, the 
 Israelites were commanded to destroy not 
 only the idols, but also to cut down the 
 groves which surrounded them : but trees 
 decaying with time, or not equally grow- 
 ing (though planted at first in good order) 
 or possibly not having room; when the 
 temples were brought into cities, the like 
 walks were represented with stone co- 
 lumns, supporting the more durable shade 
 of a roof instead of the arbour of spread- 
 ing boughs ; and still in the ornaments of 
 stone work was imitated (as well as the 
 materials would admit), both in the capi- 
 tals, friezes, and mouldings, a foliage, or 
 sort of work composed of leaves, which re- 
 mains to this age." 
 
 This was, in our ingenious countryman 
 Sir Christopher Wren's opinion, the true 
 origin of colonnades environing the tem- 
 ples in double and single aisles ; and there 
 is no doubt but it was equally the origin 
 of the orders instead of being derived from 
 the proportions of the human body, as have 
 been assigned to them by imaginations 
 more fanciful than correct; and to which 
 they bear no reasonable analogy. What 
 resemblance is there between a doric co- 
 lumn and a man of herculean proportion, 
 an Ionic column and a matron, or a Corin- 
 thian column and a beauteous virgin, who 
 by the way is more overloaded with enta- 
 blature, and has more to sustain than either 
 of the other orders. 
 
 In looking at a Grecian doric 'column 
 it is asked, referring at the same time 
 to the historical origin of the order, does 
 it more resemble a trunk of a tree cut 
 off immediately above the root, and at the 
 beginning of the spreading of the branches, 
 or the proportion of a man ? or at the Ionic, 
 which the Vitruvians called a decent ma- 
 tron, with her locks parted over the fore- 
 head ? does it not more resemble a slimmer 
 trunk ornamented with an abacus, and the 
 spirals formed of the ornamented bark ? 
 The Corinthian certainly more resembles 
 in sober practice the foliage of a tree than 
 the braided locks of a youthful female; 
 but, more of this in its proper place, when 
 investigating the classical orders of anti- 
 quity. See Orders. 
 
 Few nations of antiquity cultivated sa- 
 cred architecture with greater devotion or 
 with more splendour than did tlie ancient 
 Egyptians, particularly in that part of their 
 
country called Thebais, or Upper Egjpt. 
 The chief pride of this country was its 
 principal city Thebes. The Thebais is the 
 most southerly part of Egypt nearest to 
 Etiiiopia, and was nearly as large as the 
 other two parts of Egypt together, includ- 
 ing in its boundaries all the country on 
 both sides of the Nile down to Heptanomis. 
 
 At the time of the Trojan war Thebes 
 ■was reckoned the most opulent and tiie 
 best peopled city in the world. Among 
 the principal edifices of the Thebais was 
 the magnificent palace and temple of -^lem- 
 non, which, according to Strabo, stood in 
 the city of Abydus, the second city of 
 Thebes, about seven miles and a half to 
 the west of the Nile ; that a celebrated 
 temple of Osiris was near to it, that it was 
 also famed for a deep well or pool of wa- 
 ter, with winding steps all round it ; that 
 the stones used in it were of an astonish- 
 ing magnitude, and the sculpture on them 
 excellent. 
 
 Among other principal structures AAhich 
 embellished this portion of Egypt was the 
 palace of Ptolemy, at Ptolemais, a city 
 which he decorated with many costly sa- 
 cred buildings. Under the Ptolemies the 
 style of architecture in Egypt sustained a 
 complete revolution, and their buildings 
 approached the style which was afterwards 
 so beautifully refined by the Greeks, who 
 brought it to complete perfection ; yet they 
 never reached that pure and noble style 
 which distinguished the tasteful inhabi- 
 tants of Attica. 
 
 These works were probably executed 
 by Greek architects called into Egypt by 
 the Ptolemies and their successors. Tliis 
 conjecture appears the better founded since 
 a modern traveller (Granger) describes a 
 temple which he had seen of the Corin- 
 thian order; and farther observes, in speak- 
 ing of a palace wliich lie believes made 
 part of ancient Thebes, that the capitals of 
 tiic columns were of the ctmiposlte order, 
 highly finisiied. 
 
 The Thebes, just alludtnl to, Avas distin- 
 guished from Thebes in Hocotia by the 
 epithet Hecatonpylos, the hundred gated 
 Thel)es. It was not only the most beautiful 
 city in all Eg> jjt, but is supjiosed by Diodo- 
 rus, and otiuir ancient writers, to have sur- 
 passed all others of its liuu' in (lu' known 
 \v<»rl(l, !is well for the splendour of its 
 l)Mil(lings, as for extent, and the number 
 of its iniiabitants. 
 
 Hdiuer says tliat Thebes wa8 a])le to 
 funiisii twenty thousand chariots of war. 
 JJy this we may judge of the number of 
 mhaliilanls which it conlaiued. Taci- 
 tus relates, that Avhen (lermanicus visited 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 its magnificent ruins, there were still to be 
 
 seen, on ancient obelisks, a pompous de- 
 scription, in Egyptian characters, of the 
 wealth and grandeur of the place. From 
 the account of an elderly priest who inter- 
 preted to him the meaning of the hierogly- 
 phics, it appeared that Thebes at one time 
 contained within her walls no less than 
 seven hundred thousand men capable of 
 bearing arms. The objects, however, 
 which most concern the present work are 
 its sacred edifices. Its four principal tem- 
 ples were of an immense size, and of a sin- 
 gular beauty of workmanship. The gold, 
 ivory, precious stones, and other costly and 
 valuable ornaments witii whicli they were 
 decorated were stripped oil' and carried 
 away by the Persians when Cambyses con- 
 quered and ravaged Egypt. 
 
 At Cnuphis, a city of the Thebais, so 
 called from the god of that name, was a 
 magnificent temple dedicated to that idol. 
 At Carnack, another large city near Thebes, 
 tliere are still the remains of a superb 
 temple of Jupiter, now the most perfect in 
 that part of Eg7pt. The magnificent tem- 
 ple of Apollo, at Apollonopolis, was one 
 hundred and seventy feet long, one hun- 
 dred and eighty feet broad, and seventy 
 feet high, as appears by the ruins which 
 still remain. The characters of all these 
 buildings bear a close resemblance to each 
 otlier, and are standard characteristics of 
 Egyptian architecture. The inhabitants 
 of Tentyra, or Dandera, were great wor- 
 shippers of Iris and of Venus. From the 
 splendid ruins of this city it appears tiiat 
 their temples were juore beautifid and 
 sj)lendi(I, and in a better style of art than 
 any other in Egypt. 
 
 The resemblance between many ancient 
 and distant nations, in tiieir language, 
 manners, customs, architecture, and sculp- 
 ture are very great, but when lirst causes 
 are investigated, by no means surprising. 
 Sir William Jones, in ids invaluable dis- 
 courses, which are the concrete of many 
 volumes, observing on the language, man- 
 ners, and anti(iui(ies of the ancient iidiabi- 
 taiits of India, eonies to tlu' in(lispu(id)le 
 residt that liuy had an iuunemorial atliuity 
 with the ancient Persians, Ethiopians, and 
 ICgvptians; the Phirnicians, (Jreeks, and 
 Tuscans; the Scjtiiiaus or (>olhs, and 
 Celts; the Chinese, Japanese, and Peru- 
 vians: and it will be our endeavour to show, 
 in the course of this article, in which the ar- 
 ciiifecturi^ of tlu'se >arious countries are 
 respectively tliscussed, that their ancient 
 buildings ail corroborate and i)ro\e this 
 inipoit.inl fad in the history of mankind. 
 The singular and extraordinary subter- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 raneous temples at Elephante, Ellora, and 
 other parts of India, are curious objects of 
 investigation, and are alluded to in the 
 first section of this article. Mr. Golding- 
 ham, one of the honourable the East India 
 Company's astronomers at Fort St. George, 
 who had applied himself with great assi- 
 duity to the study of the antiquities of Hin- 
 dustan, visited the Elephanta Cave in 
 1795, and published an interesting and 
 faithful account of this wonderful ettbrt of 
 human skill in the fourth volume of the 
 Asiatic researches. This gentleman argues 
 with great ability in favour of it having 
 been a Hindu temple ; but General Car- 
 nac of Calcutta, who introduced and pre- 
 faced Mr. Goldingham's paper, and under- 
 stood the antiquities of India in no com- 
 mon way, does not assent to this opinion. 
 These immense excavations, cut out of the 
 solid rock, appeared to the general to be 
 operations of too great labour to have been 
 executed by the hands of so feeble and 
 effeminate a race of beings as the Abori- 
 gines of India have generally been held, 
 and still continue to this day; and that 
 the few figures which remain entire repre- 
 sent persons totally distinct in exterior from 
 the present Hindus, being of a gigantic size, 
 having large prominent faces, and bearing 
 much resemblance to the Abyssinians, who 
 inhabit the country on the west side of the 
 Red Sea, opposite to Arabia. 
 
 There is no tradition, says the general, 
 of these caverns having ever been fre- 
 quented by the Hindus as places of wor- 
 ship ; and at this period, he adds, on his 
 own authority, that no poojah, or sacred 
 adoration is ever performed in any of them, 
 and that they are scarcely ever visited by 
 the natives. He says that he recollects 
 particularly the Ragonath Row, a Bramin 
 versed in the archaiology of the East, 
 when at Bombay, did not hold them in any 
 degree of veneration ; and yet an intelli- 
 gent writer in the Archaiologia (vol. vii. 
 p. 286, &c.), who visited the Cave of Ele- 
 phanta in 1782, states that he was accom- 
 panied by a sagacious Bramin, a native of 
 Benares, who, though he had never been 
 in it before that time, recognised at once 
 all the figures, was well acquainted with 
 the parentage, education, and life of every 
 deity or human personage there represent- 
 ed, and explained with fluency the mean- 
 ing of the TarJous symbols by which the 
 images were distinguished. This is un- 
 doubtedly a clear proof that their mytho- 
 logy of the present day is not materially 
 different from that delineated on the walls 
 of these excavations ; the most remarkable 
 of which is at Elephanta, a small island 
 
 in the harbour of Bombay. An elephant 
 of black stone, large as the life, is seen near 
 the landing phice, and proljably gave its 
 name to the island. The cavern is about 
 three quarters of a mile from the beach ; 
 the path leading to it passes through a 
 valley ; the hills on either side are beau- 
 tifully clothed, and, except when inter- 
 rupted by the tuneful notes of the birds 
 whicli dwell upon the island, a solemn still- 
 ness prevails, which admirably prepares 
 the mind for contemplating the approach- 
 ing scene. 
 
 The cave is formed in a hill of stone, is 
 about one hundred and thirty-five feet 
 square, and nearly fifteen feet high. Its 
 massy roof is supported by rows of co- 
 lumns, and are disposed with great regu- 
 larity. Gigantic figures, in relief, are 
 sculptured on the walls; which, as well 
 as the columns, are shaped out of the solid 
 rock by artists of some ability, and of un- 
 questionable and astonishing persever- 
 ance. 
 
 The excavations of Salsette, which is 
 about ten miles north of Bombay, are other 
 astonishing specimens of the sacred archi- 
 tecture of ancient India. The artist em- 
 ployed by Governor Boon to make draw- 
 ings of them, asserted that it would require 
 the labour of forty thousand men for forty 
 years to excavate and carve them. They 
 are situate near to Ambola, a village about 
 seven English miles distant from Tanna, 
 
 This excavation resembles that of Ele- 
 plianta both in style, design, and execu- 
 tion ; but being wrought in a softer rock, 
 the sculptures are not so perfect as that, 
 nor of another at Canara, which is situate 
 about ten English leagues from Tanna on 
 the north of the excavations at Ambola, 
 a similar example of subterraneous sacred 
 architecture. There are others in the 
 country, but none equal in beauty to those 
 just mentioned. Some of tliem are very 
 lofty and appear from apertures in the 
 sides, as if for floors, that they have been 
 used for dwellings, which surmise is 
 strengthened by the entire absence of 
 sculpture in them. 
 
 The excavated pagoda of Indur Subha, 
 or Sabha, is also a fine specimen of the 
 sacred architecture of this ancient people. 
 It is situated near Dowlatabad ; in which 
 neighbourhood is also anotlier called the 
 Pagoda of Paraswa Rama Saba. Dowla- 
 tabad is a fortified town in the Deccan of 
 Hindustan, fifteen miles from Aurungabad 
 the capital of Dowlatabad or Amednagure. 
 They are also cut out of the natural rock, 
 and for the space of nearly two leagues 
 there is little else to be scon than a sue- 
 
cession of fhese subterraneous pagodas in 
 which there are thousands of figures, ap- 
 pearing from the style of their sculpture 
 to have been of ancient Hindu origin. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Egypt to colonize ancient Greece, where 
 some authors assert that he built twelve 
 cities. He taught the GreeliS the art of 
 building, and founded a city, which he 
 
 The height of the excavated pagoda of named after himself Cecropia ; and to put 
 
 Inrtur Subba is forty feet, its depth fifty 
 four feet, and its breadth forty-four. Tlie 
 height of the obelisk by the side of the 
 pagoda is twenty-nine feet, including its 
 pedestal and a group of human figures 
 which is on the top. The obelisk is fluted 
 and ornamented with some taste, and lias 
 a light appearance. On the otlier side is 
 the representation of an elephant, whose 
 back just rises above the front wall, but is 
 witliout rider or ho da. TJie plans of these 
 excavated temples are as regular as if 
 they were built; and the piers, pilasters, 
 or square columns, are equidistant and 
 sculptured in a bold and original style. 
 Compare tlie excavated temples of India 
 witli the constructed ones of Egypt, and 
 their resemblance will be found most 
 striking. Both these styles are evidently 
 derived from excavations, and in both are 
 found close intercolumniations, low and 
 short architraves, and columns of short 
 stature rudely sculptured. Nor is there 
 any very apparent diflTerence to show whe- 
 ther the construction be not an excavation 
 or the excavation a construction. 
 
 Before leaving the sacred architecture 
 of Hindustan, the beautiful and pictu- 
 resque ruins of the ancient mosque of 
 Dacca should not be omitted. This me- 
 tropolis is a city of Bengal lying on the 
 banks of the Ganges ; is the third city in 
 tlie province for extent and population, and 
 has large manufactories ofthe finest muslins 
 and silks. This interesting part of India 
 was not visited by the Messrs. Daniclls, 
 nor till recently by any European artist. 
 The striking peculiarities of this fine sjie- 
 cimen of sacred architecture, to which my 
 attention was first called Ijy the beautiful 
 engravings of live anticiuities of Dacca, by 
 Mr. Landseer, are their ligiitness and ele- 
 gance, their square rectangular panellings, 
 which arc peculiar to tliese structures, 
 their arched i)erforati(ins sonicM iiat re- 
 sembling tlie gothic, their lofty light octan- 
 gular minarets, the beautiful play of light 
 and shade over the elcNalion and the cle- 
 ganliy proportioned cupola wiiich croAvus 
 and finishes the whole, renders it a valua- 
 ble study for the young arcliitecf, and 
 »;((ually interesting to the amatoir and an- 
 tiquary. 
 
 During liie e;irlier period of the chrono- 
 logy of this section, that is aI)out one thou- 
 sand (i\(> hundred arxi eiglity-tvvo years 
 before the Christian era, Cccrops left 
 
 his new colony into a state of perfect secu- 
 rity, he erected a fortress on rising ground, 
 where they afterwards built the temple ; 
 and to about the same period is attributed 
 the founding of Troy by Scamander. 
 
 Athens, Sparta, Cranaus, and Grecian 
 Tiiebes also owe their origin to this pe- 
 riod. Egypt was overrun by the jEthio- 
 pians, but its indestructible edifices bade 
 defiance to the flames. 
 
 Tyre was built about the year 1060 be- 
 fore Christ, and a curious example of their 
 sacred architecture is in the temple of 
 Dagon, which the Bible represents to have 
 been destroyed by Sampson, who pulled it 
 down, and destroyed himself and all the 
 people who were assembled to worship the 
 idol and to make sport with their captive. 
 The temple is described to have had two 
 main pillars or columns on which it stood, 
 and that Samson standing between the 
 two pulled them down, and hurled the 
 temple into inevitable destruction. 
 
 The structure of such a building has 
 puzzled many a commentator and critic, 
 but Sir Christopher Wren, whose learning 
 and reading were equal to his skill in 
 architecture and mathematics, has given 
 so clear an elucidation, as to render its 
 mode of construction perfectly intelligible. 
 In considering what this fabric must be, 
 that could at one pull be demolished, he 
 conceived it to have been an oval amphi- 
 tiieatre, the scene in the middle, wlure a 
 vast roof of cedar beams resting round 
 upon the walls, centered all upon one 
 short architrave, that united two cedar 
 pillars in the middle; one pillar would 
 not be sufficient to unite the ends of at 
 least one hundred beams that tended to 
 the centre; therefore he says there must 
 be a short architrave resting upon two 
 pillars, upon which all the l)eams tending 
 to the centre ofthe amphitheatre might be 
 supported. Now if Samson, by his mi- 
 raculous strength pressing upon one of 
 these pillars, moved it from its fiasis, the 
 wlioU? roof nuist of necessity fall. 
 
 iU'fore leaying this portion ofthe \\<n'k, 
 a few lines must be devoted to the mauso- 
 leum or temple of Ti'shoo Lama at Thibet, 
 and the temple or pagoda of Shoonmdoo 
 at l*egu,both sacred buildings of high iin- 
 ti(|uily. 
 
 'Ihe mausoleum requires no particular 
 •lescription, its cliaracterislics arc the most 
 ancient and siniplesl Chinese, its proper- 
 
AUCHITECTURE. 
 
 tions in good taste, and its mode of execu- 
 tion excellent. 
 
 The other, which is a large and splendid 
 conical structure, is the great temple or 
 pagoda, called Shoomadoo Praw, situated 
 between India and China, but partaking 
 more of the style of the latter people than 
 of the Hindus. Its pyramidal shape is 
 graceful, its apex approaches even to the 
 elegant, and, except a tendency to the 
 florid style, its accessories are rich and 
 beautiful. 
 
 This singular building is called the tem- 
 ple of Shoomadoo, or the Golden Supreme, 
 compounded of the Birman word shoo 
 golden, and madoo a corruption of the Hin- 
 du word maha deo. Its addition Praw, 
 signifies in the Birman language Lord, 
 and is always annexed to the name of 
 every sacred edifice. As a farther proof 
 of this hypothesis of the Indian derivation 
 from Egypt, may be added that plira is the 
 proper name, under which the Egyptians 
 first adored the sun, before it received the 
 allegorical appellation of Osiris, or author 
 of time. 
 
 This extraordinary sacred edifice, ac- 
 cording to Col, Symes, who delineated 
 and described it a few years since, is built 
 upon a double terrace, one raised above 
 the other. The lower and greater terrace 
 is quadrangular, and raised about ten feet 
 above the natural level of the ground. 
 The upper terrace is smaller, of a like 
 shape, and raised about twenty feet above 
 the lower. 
 
 The length of one side of the lower ter- 
 race is about one thousand three hundred 
 and ninety feet, and of tlie upper six hun- 
 dred and eighty-four. These terraces are 
 ascended by flights of stone steps, and 
 on each side are dwellings of the Rahans 
 or priests. The temple itself is an octan- 
 gular pyramid, built of bi'ick and fine 
 shell mortar, without any excavation or 
 cavity of any sort. Each side of the octa- 
 gon, at the base, measures one hundred 
 and sixty two feet. This immense breadth 
 diminishes abruptly to a spiral top, and 
 may not be inaptly compared in shape to 
 a speaking trumpet. 
 
 In defining the styles which prevailed 
 at this period of history, we should con- 
 sider that the orders are not only Greek 
 and Roman, but Phoenician, Hebrew, Egj'p- 
 tian, and Assyrian ; therefore are found- 
 ed upon the experience of all ages, pro- 
 moted by the vast treasures of all the 
 great monarchs, and skill of the greatest 
 artists and geometricians, evei-y one emula- 
 ting each other : experiments in this kind 
 being very expensive, and errors incorrigi- 
 
 ble, is the reason that the principles of 
 architect)ire should be founded more on 
 the study of antiquity than a dependance 
 on fancy. Beauty, firmness, and conveni- 
 ence are the principles ; the first two de- 
 pend upon geometrical reasons of optics 
 and statics, the thiid only makes variety. 
 
 Wren well observes that there are natu- 
 ral causes of beauty. Beauty is a har- 
 mony of objects begetting pleasure by the 
 eye. There are two causes of beauty, na- 
 tural and customary. Natural beauty 
 arises from geometry, consisting in uni- 
 formity (that is equality) and proportion. 
 Customary beauty is begotten by the use 
 of our senses, to those objects which are 
 usually pleasing to us for other causes, as 
 familiarity or particular inclination breeds 
 a love to things not in themselves lovely. 
 Here lies the great occasion of errors ; 
 here is tried the architect's judgment ; but 
 always the true test is natural or geome- 
 trical beauty. (See Beauty.) 
 
 " Geometrical figures," he continues, 
 " are naturally more beautiful than other 
 irregulars ; in this all consent as to a law 
 of nature. Of geometrical figures, the 
 square and the circle are most beautiful ; 
 next the parallelogram and the oval. 
 Straight lines are more beautiful than 
 curved ; next to straight lines equal and 
 geometrical flexures ; an object elevated 
 in the middle is more beautiful than if 
 depressed." See Parentalia p. 352, and 
 Elmes's Life of Wren. 
 
 The Egyptian, Hindu, Chinese, and 
 other styles, having no immediate relation 
 to the present section, the next step will 
 be to the wisdom of the orders as practised 
 by the Greeks. The Greek style of arclii- 
 tecture is divided into three modes or or- 
 ders ; namely, the Doric, the Ionic, and 
 the Corinthian ; named from the countries 
 which gave them birth, or are said to have 
 been the first to use them. The sacred 
 edifices of the Greeks are the most anci- 
 ent as well as the most beautiful of all 
 the buildings of that tasteful people that 
 have reached our times. The great supe- 
 riority of the Greeks in architecture is to 
 be traced to causes similar to those which 
 occasioned their preeminence in every 
 thing else ; namely, a deep investigation 
 into first principles, and an accurate percep- 
 tion of the elements of all that they attempted 
 to execute. 
 
 A similar investigation, and a similar 
 perception or knowledge, and nothing else, 
 will produce the like eflects in our coun- 
 try and in our times. In Greece, no painter 
 pi-oceeded without acquiring a knowledge 
 of anatomy and drawing. Their sculptors 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 carved their own marble, and their archi- 
 tects understood design, construction, per- 
 spective, and composition, and had a clear 
 preconception of elTect. 
 
 It has been said that the Greeks did not 
 understand anatomy and did not dissect ; 
 tiiat we are uncertain as to their know- 
 ledge of geometry, because Euclid, the 
 earliest author in that science with whom 
 we are at present acquainted, lived con- 
 siderably after the construction of their 
 best edifices, and that our certainty as to 
 their knowledge of perspective is still less. 
 It has also been asserted in corroboration 
 tliat the Greeks had laws prohibiting dis- 
 section ; therefore they did not dissect. 
 " The exception," says the great Lord 
 Coke, " proves the rule," therefore, even 
 did not those sculptural wonders, which 
 now grace our national museum, and the 
 anatomical details which are so abundant 
 in the poems of Homer, prove the depth 
 of their anatomical knowledge, this very 
 exception proves that they did dissect, 
 and that it was necessary to enact laws 
 against the practice. Among the most re- 
 markable proofs of the deep knowledge of 
 the Greeks in anatomy, the Theseus and 
 the Ilyssus of the Elgin collection, exhibit 
 the perfection of art, and show the most 
 scientific research into anatomy and the 
 natural history of man. 
 
 The divisions and subdivisions of the 
 orders will come more appropriately in 
 another section ; therefore, we proceed to 
 the history of sacred architecture among 
 the Greeks. 
 
 The religion and laws of the Greeks are 
 acknowledged to have been derived from 
 the creeds and institutions of Egypt, and 
 their styles of aichitecture, in spite of the 
 hypotheses and splendid fables of Vitru- 
 vius, were no less adopted and imjjroved 
 from the same source. Herodotus assures 
 us that the worship of the greatest part of 
 the first gods tliat were adored in Grei'cc, 
 came from Egypt, and that all antiquity 
 regarded the Egyptians as the first who 
 paid a solemn and i)ublic worship to the 
 deity, and therefore were the first inven- 
 tors of sacred architecture. In this deri- 
 vation he ("xcepts only Nejjtuno, aiul says 
 farther tiiat the worsliip of this deity was 
 derived from Libya. Saturn, JupKcr, Cc- 
 res, ^:c. were the lirst gods of (Jrecce; 
 hence it is probable that tlie Titans intro- 
 • lucf'd these deities, and consequently, 
 that those |)rinces came from J'-g\ i)t ; for 
 the worshiii of Saturn, Jupiter, and Ceres 
 was eHtal)lish(Hl, according to Diodorus, 
 from time ininiernorial. The Titans also 
 taught the Greeks the first elements of the 
 
 arts and sciences, and their earliest sacred 
 edifices were first borrowed from them. 
 
 The principal examples of sacred archi- 
 tecture among the Greeks are their exqui- 
 siteljr beautiful temples, a list of which 
 may be found in numerous works given at 
 the end of this article. 
 
 (Cadmus, who lived about 1500 years 
 before the Christian era, and was the 
 grandson of Agenor, King of Tyre, brought 
 the arts and sciences into Greece, five hun- 
 dred and sixty-two years after the building 
 of the walls of Babylon, In the part of 
 Greece where he settled, he built a city 
 which he named after the celebrated 
 Thebes in Egypt, and doubtlessly imitated 
 the Egjptian style of architecture in his 
 earliest structures. In corroboration of 
 this, Pliny expressly states that Daedalus, 
 the architect of the Grecian labyrinth, imi- 
 tated that of Eg-jpt in every respect. This 
 same Thebes afterwards became so cele- 
 brated, that Germanicus made a journey 
 purposely to survey its magnificent ruins. 
 
 Ogyges, Inachus the first King of Argos, 
 Cecrops, Cadmus, Lelex, and Dauaus, 
 founded successively the kingdoms of 
 Athens, Argos, Sparta, and Thebes; but 
 it was in the colonies of Asia Minor that 
 sacred architecture began to exhibit its 
 greatest splendour. The inventor of the 
 first two Grecian orders is attributed solely 
 to the inhabitants of these countries, as 
 their names Doric and Jonic evidently im- 
 port. The Corinthum did not appear in 
 its full perfection till long after these two 
 orders. 
 
 It seems to have been invented in Greece, 
 properly so called, and is tiie riciiest, the 
 most magnificent, and the most elegant of 
 all tlie Grecian orders, and perlmps of any 
 tliat architecture has ever invented. 
 
 The first materials used by the Greeks 
 in tiu'ir sacred buildings was timber; next 
 brick,which they learned the art of making 
 from the Egyptians, Stone next succeed- 
 ed, as in the temple of Apollo at l)elplu>n, 
 built l)y Ampliution; ami afterwards when 
 they had accomplished the complete glo- 
 ries of their style, (hey immortali/ed it in 
 marble. 
 
 The character of the genuine architec- 
 ture of the Greeks, in their brigiitest days, 
 the (la>s of I'cricles, Alexander, INafo, 
 Aristotle, Apelles, IMiidias, Sophocles, and 
 Euripides, is that of an imposing grandeur 
 united to ])leasing simplicity, elegance of 
 ornanuiit, and harmony of proportion in 
 an eminent degree, together with a certain 
 relation or coincidence of parts, as neces- 
 sary in works of art as in those of litera- 
 ture. 
 
ARCHITECTUllE. 
 
 Sacrej) architecture was carried to the 
 highest perfection by the Greeks. Indeed 
 the greater part of their fine and pure style 
 which has reached our times may be ar- 
 ranged under this class or department of 
 civil architecture. 
 
 Besides the beautiful simplicity and ele- 
 gance of style which distinguished the 
 Greeks above all otlier nations, their able 
 and sufficient style of construction is wor- 
 thy of study for its simplicity and for effect- 
 ing its purpose by legitimate means, al- 
 though they did not aim at the arch or 
 vault by which their successors, the Ro- 
 mans, so signalized tliemselves. And as 
 their works surpassed all others so did the 
 beauty and excellence of their materials. 
 
 In the time of Pericles the Athenians 
 used Pentelican marble, and a species 
 from Mount Hymettus in their buildings. 
 The sort called Parian was the most ad- 
 mired, but it was almost exclusively ap- 
 propriated to sculpture. Bronze was al- 
 so occasionally used for building in some 
 of their early structures ; and Pausauias 
 mentions several buildings of tliis costly 
 material, particularly a small temple of 
 Minerva, called on this account Chalcice- 
 cus, which was standing in his days at La- 
 ceda?mon. Stones of an almost incredible 
 size after tlie manner of the Egyptians, 
 were also amongst their earliest modes of 
 construction, whence originated the tradi- 
 tion that they were the works of the Cy- 
 clops. In later periods they used stones 
 of a smaller size, of irregular polygonal 
 figures of four, five, and six sides, joined 
 with the utmost care and nicety. 
 
 The walls of the ancient city of Pa?stum 
 are thus built of huge polyhsedric masses. 
 Chandler, the Grecian traveller, discover- 
 ed walls of this method of construction near 
 to Troiizene, Epidaurus, and Ephesus ; and 
 Dr. Pocock also in the island of Mytelene. 
 See Construction. 
 
 As architecture and mechanical skill ad- 
 vanced they used cubical and oblong stones, 
 with which they constructed their walls, 
 after two methods : one called Isodomon, 
 which as the word implies, was with 
 courses of equal thicknesses and of equal 
 lengths ; and the other Pseudisodomon, 
 where the heights or thicknesses and 
 lengths of the courses differed. The first 
 or true manner was always used in their 
 grandest buildings as being the most beau- 
 tiful, and the latter or false method where 
 beauty of appearance was of less conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Another and still inferior mode was also 
 used by them for works of less consequence, 
 and was called Emplecton. The front 
 
 stones only in this manner of construction 
 were wrought, and the interior was left 
 rough and filled in with stones of various 
 sizes or with rubble. It was principally 
 used in walls of great tliicknesses, such as 
 those wherewith they surrounded their 
 cities. In some instances they built their 
 walls of brick or common stone, and faced 
 them with marble. Cement was seldom 
 used by the Greeks in their best works, as 
 the size and ponderosity of the blocks, and 
 the great exactness with which they were 
 squared, were sufficient for solidity, and 
 made more perfect and complete joints. 
 (See iETAioi.) 
 
 The ancient Greek architects were more- 
 over very careful that every ornament or 
 decoration which they used should always 
 accord in character and situation with the 
 order and the building to which they ap- 
 plied it ; and both the order and the orna- 
 ment were characteristic of the destination 
 of the edifice : never building a prison of 
 the Corinthian order, nor a theatre of the 
 Doric. The external ornaments were bold, 
 simple, and distributed with a judiciously 
 sparing hand. The pediment of the tem- 
 ple and the metopes of the frieze, as in the 
 temples of Minerva and of Theseus at 
 Athens, and of Jupiter Panhellenius at 
 Egina Avere decorated with bassi rilievi, 
 and the angles of the walls with pilasters 
 or antce. The porticoes which surrounded 
 their public squares in which they often 
 exhibited pictures, statues, and other works 
 of art, appear to have been more elabo- 
 rately decorated than their temples, their 
 theatres of declamation, and gymnasia ; 
 and, with regard to interior ornaments, 
 little can be known, from the general de- 
 struction of those parts. 
 
 The Greek style of architecture may be 
 classed under ^re different epoclis, accord- 
 ing to the historical periods which gave 
 rise to Jive corresponding styles or modes. 
 The first embraces the works of Tropho- 
 nius who built the temple at Delphos, and 
 those of Agamedes and Dtcdalus. 
 
 This early period of Grecian histoiy, 
 which may be termed the lieroic age, does 
 not furnish any remains of architecture of 
 positive certainty. Yet those lights which 
 are wanting from the deficiency of existing 
 ancient ruins, are supplied in some degree 
 by ancient writers, who, however, are not 
 sufficiently explicit or circumstantial in 
 those details which alone could give us tlie 
 information we require. 
 
 Homer, for instance, in speaking of the 
 palace of Priam, says that it had at the 
 entrance fifty apartments, well built, in 
 which the princes, his sons, lodged with 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 their wives, and that it was surrounded by 
 porticoes, wrought with the greatest care. 
 At the bottom of the court there were 
 twelve other apartments for the sons-in- 
 law of that monarch, and a magnificent 
 dwelling for Paris, who is reported to have 
 been a skilful architect. These all tend 
 to prove that arcliitectiire was cultivated 
 as an art in Asia Minor, although it aflbrds 
 us no information as to style or taste. 
 
 The second epocli includes from the time 
 of Rhaecus of Samos and Theodorus, who 
 lived about seven hundred years before the 
 Christian era, down to the time of Peri- 
 cles ; in which period flourished Ctesiphon, 
 Metagenes, Andronicus, Eupolemus, Cal- 
 limachus, Libon, and other eminent and 
 celebrated architects. 
 
 The third epoch is the period from Peri- 
 cles to that of Alexander the Great ; under 
 the former architecture reached the summit 
 of its perfection ; a perfection of which Sir 
 William Jones, with his accustomed truth 
 and perspicuity, says, " In those elegant 
 arts, which are called fine and liberal, it is 
 really wonderful how much a single na- 
 tion has excelled the whole world : I mean 
 
 Pope, " I have long since had an idea how 
 that might be done ; and if any body would 
 make me a present of a Welsh mountain and 
 pay the workmen, I would undertake to see 
 it executed. I have quite formed it, he con- 
 tinued, in my imagination. The figure must 
 be in a reclining posture, because of the 
 hollowing that would otherwise be neces- 
 sary, and for the city's being in one hand. 
 It should be a rude unequal hill, and might 
 be helped with groves of trees for the eye- 
 brows, and a wood for the hair. The na- 
 tural green turf should be left wherever it 
 would be necessary to represent the ground 
 he reclines on. It should be so contrived 
 that the true point of view should be at a 
 considerable distance. When you were 
 near it, it should liave still the appearance 
 of a rough mountain; but at the proper 
 distance such a rising should be the legs, 
 and such another an arm. It would be best 
 if a river, or ratlier a lake were at the bot- 
 tom of it, for the rivulet that came through 
 his other hand, to tumble down the hill and 
 discharge itself into it." 
 
 It is somewhat singular that Mr. Pope 
 should have thougiit this mad project prac- 
 
 the ancient Greeks, whose sculpture, of ticable; but it appears that there are still 
 
 which we have excellent remains both on 
 gems and in marble, no modern tool can 
 equal ; whose architecture we can only 
 imitate at a servile distance, but arc un- 
 able to make one addition to it, without 
 destroying its graceful simplicity ; whose 
 poetry still delights us in youth, and 
 amuses us at a maturer age ; and of whose 
 painting and music, we have the concur- 
 rent relations of so many grave autiiors, 
 that it would be strange incredulity to 
 doubt their excellence." In this brilliant 
 period flourished Hippodanuis of Miletus, 
 Phidias, Ictinus, and Callicrates, who 
 were conjointly emi)]()yed in the building 
 of the great temple of Minerva at Athens, 
 called the Parthenon. 
 
 Thafourili great epoch is that wliich ex- 
 tends from the decease of Alexander the 
 Great to that of A^igustus. Alexandria, 
 under the dominion of the (irecian mo- 
 narciis, was Ihc; i)rin(ii)al sciu)ol of the 
 great architects oftiiis period, among whom 
 Dinocratcs, whose proposal of forming 
 Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander 
 tlu! Grciit, and siil)S('(|uent founding of 
 Alexandria is celebrated by Vitruvius,and 
 Sostrates were the most eminent. 
 
 " I cannot conctMve," says Spence,in his 
 onlerlaining anecdotes of the great men of 
 Ids tln)e, " how Dinocrates could ever have 
 carried his proposal of fonniiig Moiinl 
 Alhos intoaslainc of Alexander (heCireat 
 into execution." " For my part," replied 
 
 persons who dream of such extravagant 
 and fruitless undertakings. Some modern 
 Dinocrates had suggested to Buonaparte 
 to have cut from the mountain called the 
 Simplon, an immense colossal figure, as a 
 sort of genius of the Alps. This was to 
 have been of such an enormous size, tliat 
 all the passengers should have passed be- 
 tween its legs in a zigzag direction. 
 
 During this fourth epoch are found the 
 names of Saunis and IJatrachus, who ex- 
 ecuted several works in Rome ; not being 
 allowed to inscribe on them their names, 
 used tlie expedient of carving a lizard and 
 a frog upon the pedestals as aiuigrams of 
 their names, aavpog signifying in Greek a 
 lizard, and /SarpaxoCj a frog. See Alle- 
 gory. 
 
 The J{f'th and last great epoch of Grecian 
 architecture compreiiends from the time of 
 Augustiis, in wlutse days ^'itru^ius is su])- 
 pi>sed to liave flourished until the reniu\al 
 of Jlie seat of ICnipire lo C'onslantinople. 
 
 Tin; pure architecture of Greece is su- 
 perior to ail that preceded it, and nil that 
 lias been desigiu'd and execute«l siiu'c. Its 
 architects and sculptors never violated the 
 inherent properties of any object for an 
 arlificial ed'ecl ; wlule those of Konu> ])er- 
 petually connnitted siu'h \iolations, dele- 
 rioratingnll thatthey laid thcirhandsupon. 
 The irregular and fantastic variety t>f their 
 (MHlers pro\es the truth of this accusation. 
 and powerfully opposes itself to the beau- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tiful simplicity of the Greeks. The Ro 
 mans executed works containing gross in- 
 fringements of the sounder laws of archi- 
 tectural taste, which have however obtain- 
 ed a general and lasting reputation. 
 
 Such is the colosseum, such is the thea- 
 tre of Marcellus, such are their amphi- 
 theatres, such is the Pantheon ; structures 
 that excite wonder and seize upon our ad- 
 miration, certainly not for the faults with 
 which they abound, but in spite of them. 
 
 The architecture of the Romans undoubt- 
 edly posse. -ses splendour, vastness of con- 
 ception, a noble carelessness of expense, 
 and a profuse redundancy of decoration in 
 all their public buildings ; which, as Quin- 
 tillian observes, is more easily cured than 
 barrenness ; and if they are to be praised 
 for their great knowledge of scientific con- 
 struction, and bold command of the arch, 
 the vault and the cupola, they most amply 
 deserve it ; but certainly they were never 
 eminent for that purity of taste, elegance, 
 and simplicity of invention and construc- 
 tion which characterize the Greeks above 
 all others. Hence are to be found so 
 many more models of a fine style among 
 the Greeks than among the Romans. Give 
 me simplicity and good design, and keep 
 your ornaments for children. 
 
 The Romans are indebted for all the ex- 
 cellencies of their style of architecture to 
 the Greeks, and its deiiciencies and redun- 
 dancies are all their own. Their earliest 
 architects were all Greeks, and it was not 
 till late in their history, that they made 
 any figure in the arts of design. Thus all 
 the Roman architects, with Vitruvius at 
 their head, follow the plans that were laid 
 down for them by the great master-spirits 
 of Greece. They every where imitate the 
 Greeks, and every where misrepresent 
 them, as may be seen in comparing the 
 Doric of the temple of Minerva Parthenon, 
 with that of the theatre of Marcellus, the 
 very best of the Roman specimens, and the 
 Ionic capitals selected from Greek and 
 Roman specimens. Compare them toge- 
 ther and they will be found comments upon 
 each other ; the one showing the command- 
 ing excellence of purity of style, the other 
 the glitter and frivolity of false decoration. 
 
 That which Cicero says so truly of the 
 qualities requisite to a fine oration may as 
 correctly be applied to the qualities neces- 
 sary to a fine piece of architecture : " Let 
 ornament," he says, " be manly and chaste 
 without effeminate gaiety or artificial co- 
 louring ; let it shine with the glow of health 
 and strength." 
 
 Had the taste of Vitruvius been as refined 
 and as unsophisticated as that of Cicero, 
 
 the Roman purity in architecture would 
 have been upon an equality with that of 
 their fine and majestic language. But on 
 the contrary we find very many of tlieir 
 buildings frivolously and effeminately rich 
 in ornament, and miserably deficient in in- 
 vention and good ta^te. For with fillets 
 upon fillets, with bands over beads, and 
 beads over bands, cavettos and cimas both 
 right and reversed, with ornamented plain 
 faces (excuse the bull), carvings, and den- 
 tels and denticles, drops and flowers and 
 festoons, and other tawdry misplaced and 
 misapplied ornaments ; they disfigured 
 their spoliations from the Greeks. As 
 examples, look at any Roman specimens, 
 particularly that of the temple of concord 
 at Rome, and compare it with any of its 
 lovely originals from Greece. Of these 
 expensive barbarisms may be truly said 
 that they are 
 
 Of such a frightful mien, 
 As to be hated need but to be seen. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Yet such things find their admirers even 
 in our days, and we need not travel out of 
 the metropolis to witness them. Little, 
 however, was it to have been expected after 
 the many introductions to this country of 
 the pure forms and fine proportions of 
 Greece, by Stuart, Wilkins, Cockerell, and 
 other eminent architectural travellers, that 
 Batty, Langley, and Borromini would in 
 our days have driven the Athenian anti- 
 quities from our shelves, and the purity of 
 Grecian art from our streets, and substi- 
 tuted imitations of the altogether inferior 
 productions of Rome and modern Italy. 
 
 To the sacred architecture of Greece, as 
 exhibited in their various temples, we are 
 indebted for the purest and best canons of 
 architecture that the world has ever seen. 
 
 The elements of this pure style are three 
 classes or modes called orders, while those 
 of the Roman style, its despoiling imitator, 
 are five. 
 
 Nature dictates but three essential 
 modes of building, which are clearly and 
 distinctly visible in every style of their 
 art. Namely, the i-obust, the chaste, and 
 the elegant. Those three essentials in the 
 art the Greeks have embodied in their Do- 
 ric, their Ionic, and their Corintliian. But 
 the Romans, restless after innovation, sigh- 
 ing for more worlds of art to conquer, and 
 pining after more tlian all, would have one 
 more robust than the robust, and one more 
 elegant than the elegant. Hence their 
 Tuscan, which is but, as a musician would 
 say, a variation upon the theme of the Do- 
 ric ; and the Composite, which is any thing 
 but an improvement upoa the Corinthian. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Architecture, that is to say, classical from Vilniviue, he miiist be our j^uide 
 architecture is senerally divided into cer- liiroush this obscure path. In my descrip- 
 tain modes or systems called orders, which tion of the orders I must confine myself 
 are named from the country whence tiicy briefly and generally to the three classical 
 are supposed to have been derived or in- orders of antiquity, or run the risk of ex- 
 vented; as the Tuscan from Tuscany, the ceeding the limits of this section. 
 Doric from Doria, the Ionic from Ionia, the Vitruvius, our best authority, indifferent 
 Corinthian from Corinth, and tlie Compo- as he is for historical truth, informs us that, 
 site or Roman from Rome. Now, although when Dorus, the son of Helenus, and the 
 t!ie preceding orders form five in number, nymph Optice reigned over Achaia and all 
 yet three only are to be received as such, Peloponesus, he built in the ancient city 
 in the pure or Grecian style of architec- of Argos a temple to Juno, wliich was 
 ture. The Tuscan, as I have already said formed by chance of the order since called 
 and will hereafter prove when I arrive at Doric. Afterwards the Athenians, accord- 
 Ihe Roman system is merely a variati<m of ing to the responses of the Delphian Apollo, 
 the Doric ; and the Composite a corruption ^y the common consent of all Greece, sent 
 of the Corinthian, and too much like it, out thirteen colonies at one time into Asia, 
 both in essence and in character, to be dis- and appointing a leader to each colony, 
 tinguished by an untutored eye, or to be th.ey gave the command to Ion the son of 
 acknowledged a distinct genus or order by Xanthus and Creusa, w hom Apollo of Del- 
 the critic. phos also acknowledged to be his son. 
 
 Thomson, who may be called the poet These colonies were led into Asia by Ion, 
 of the fine arts, and whose taste was formed '^^^o seized upon the country of Caria, 
 by a long residence at the seats of ancient ^vhere he built the large cities of Ephesus, 
 arts, with the son of the Lord Chancellor Miletus, Myunta, Priene, Samos, Teos, &c. 
 Talbot, beautifully and characteristically These states were called from tlieir 
 depicts the three orders in his "Liberty." leader Ionia; and here they began to erect 
 In the second part of that poem he pei-- and dedicate temples to their deities ; and 
 sonifies public virtue in Greece as a god- ^'ist they built one to Apollo Panionios, in 
 
 this numner in Aciiaia, and which tlu-y 
 named Dork because they had first ob- 
 served it in the Dorian states. In this 
 temple they intended to use columns, but 
 not knowing their symmetries, and while 
 considering how tliey should proportion 
 them so that they might support the weigiil, 
 and at tlie same time havt; a graceful a])- 
 pearance, tliey measured the length of the 
 human foot, which, as they found to be 
 nearly the sixth part of the height of a man, 
 they used this proportion for their columns, 
 making the thickness of the shaft at tlie 
 bottom one sixth part of the height includ- 
 ing the capital. Thus the Doric column, 
 having tlie proportions of tiie human bodv, 
 began to be used in buililing witii solidity 
 and beauty. 
 
 Afterwards, l)eing desirous of building 
 n temple to Diana, they invented a new 
 order on similar principles, using the pro- 
 portions of alVinaie. 'I'hiy mack' the Iml- 
 toiii dianictcr the eiglilli \)n\[ of its lu'igiit, 
 and that it might ai)pear tlie more grace- 
 of till! first inhabitants of th(^ world, and f"'? 'hey added mouldings rtuind its l)ase 
 
 dess, and the sister arts of painting, sculp- 
 ture, and arcliitecture as, 
 
 "Tlie Graces they 
 To dress tliis sacred Venus." 
 
 And farther on he states that architecture 
 
 was 
 
 " By Greece refined. 
 And sniilinc; high to biisjht perfection broiiglit. 
 Such tliy sure niks, tliat Gotlis of every ai;e, 
 Who scorned tluir aid, luive only loaded earth 
 With laboinrd licavy moimmeiils of shame, 
 Not these gay domes that o'er thy splendid sliore 
 Shot all proportion up. 
 
 First, unadorned 
 And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ; 
 Til' Ionic then, with decent matron grace. 
 Her airy pillar heaved ; luxuriant last. 
 The rich Corinthian spread her Avaiiton wreath. 
 The whole so measured true, so lessened off 
 J}y line proportion, that the marble pile, 
 I'Virmed to repel the still or stormy waste 
 Of rolling ages, light as fabrics hxiked. 
 That from the magic wand aerial rise. 
 These were the wonders that illumined Greece 
 From end to end." 
 
 These orders undoubtedly tbriNcd tlicir 
 origin from tlie cliance btiilt huts and cahins 
 
 which as (l(>iii)tl('ssly conlaiiicd in them- 
 selves the constiliieiit elements of iiicliitec- 
 tiire, till drawn forth by tiie hand and eye 
 of taste, as the marble block contained tiie 
 stattK!, wlience Citnora drew forth his 
 sliining Hebe ever young. Ah wc cannot 
 derive our knowledge of the origin of t hese 
 elements of slyk- from a better source than 
 
 to represent the shoe, and volutes to the 
 ciipiliils to imitate the twisted binids of 
 hair falling on each side, and the eyma- 
 tium and encariiie, the locks of hair braid- 
 ('(1 and arranged on each side oxer tli(> 
 foreliead. Thej also fluted the shaft iVoiii 
 bottom to lop like the folds in the gar- 
 ments. Thus were the two species or 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 orders of columns invented; one repre- 
 senting the strength and simplicity of man, 
 tlie otlier the elegance and fine proportions 
 of woman. This latter order was called 
 Ionic, says Vitruvius, because it was in- 
 vented by the lonians. But subsequent 
 architects, who wished for lighter propor- 
 tions, have often made the heights of the 
 Doric column seven diameters, and that of 
 the Ionic eight and a half, destroying the 
 character and beauty of each. 
 
 The third Grecian order, which is called 
 the Corinthian, is imitative of the delicacy 
 of shape and slenderness of proportion of 
 a young virgin. " For the limbs," says 
 Vitruvius, " at that eai-ly age, are formed 
 more slightly, and admit of more graceful 
 decoration." The invention of its capital 
 is thus related by Vitruvius. 
 
 A Corinthian virgin just marriageable, 
 being attacked by a fatal disorder, died. 
 After her interment her nurse collected 
 some vases and toys, which pleased her 
 when living, put them in a basket, and 
 placed it on the top of her tomb, covering 
 it, that it might endure the longer in the 
 open air, with a tile. The basket being 
 placed on a root of acanthus, depressed it 
 in the middle, occasioning the leaves and 
 stalks which grew up in the spring to en- 
 circle and twine round the basket ; but 
 being resisted by the angles of tlie tile, 
 they convolved at the extremities in the 
 form of volutes. This was seen by Calli- 
 niachus, called on account of his taste 
 and skill in sculpture Catatechnos, who, 
 delighted with the novelty of its figure 
 and its delicate and appropriate form, 
 encircled by the beautiful foliage, formed 
 from its model a new capital to some co- 
 lumns he had sculptured for Corinth, thus 
 composing this most elegant and beauti- 
 ful of the orders. 
 
 The above hypothesis is nothing but a 
 splendid fable ; notwithstanding Mr. Wil- 
 kins says, that of all the opinions enter- 
 tained by Vitruvius on the origin of the 
 orders of arcliitecture, that relating to the 
 invention of the Corinthian capital seems 
 alone entitled to any attention ; both be- 
 cause the reputed age of Callimachus, its 
 supposed inventor, approaches within cer- 
 tain limits to the first recorded instances 
 of the introduction of the order into Greece; 
 and because the recital is less open to the 
 charge of absurdity and fiction. Notwitii- 
 standing this, the account just quoted of 
 the origin of the Doric and the Ionic is 
 not only less open to the charge of absur- 
 dity and fiction, but may be considered as 
 nearly historically true ; while the Vitru- 
 
 vian hypothesis of the vase of toys, tlie 
 protecting tile, and the accommodating 
 acanthus, appears more worthy the reve- 
 ries of a poet, and a fine poetical episode 
 it certainly is, than of the historian of such 
 an art as architecture. 
 
 The Corinthian order is clearly derived 
 from the architecture of Egypt adapted, 
 refined, and naturalized. First, Cecrops, 
 the founder of Athens, was an Egyptian ; 
 next Daedalus, the earliest Athenian artist, 
 visited Egypt to investigate and study the 
 principles of the fine arts. Added to these 
 facts, it is also well known that the Greeks 
 borrowed their laws, their manners, and 
 their customs from the Egyptians, purify- 
 ing them in the alembicks of their own 
 brighter genius. 
 
 A colony at first always imitates its mo- 
 ther country ; and afterwai'ds as surely 
 does all in its power to render its origin 
 forgotten. When we refer to examples of 
 both styles, surely the Egyptian origin of 
 the Corinthian capital cannot be denied. 
 Their elements are incontestably the same, 
 namely, a vase surrounded by flowers and 
 covered with an abacus. The story of the 
 Corinthian girl was probably invented by 
 a Grecian poet, and related as authentic 
 by Vitruvius. 
 
 Mons. Quatremere de Quincy, secretary 
 to the French academy of arts, corroborates 
 this opinion, and siipposes even the Ionic 
 capital also to have been borrowed from 
 Egypt. He metamorphoses the ears of the 
 head of Isis, in an Egyptian capital, into 
 the Ionic volutes, the braids of hair on the 
 forehead into the helices, or threads of the 
 capital ; tlie throat into the alarino, or 
 necking, and so on. 
 
 Following this ingenious hypothesis, 
 the Doric may also be said to have been 
 drawn from the rude types or prefigura- 
 tions of the Egyptians, which contain all 
 the primitive elements of the beautiful ex- 
 amples of the Greeks. Belzoni farther 
 corroborates it by saying, that the Isis of 
 the Egyptians is the same personage with 
 the lo of the Greeks ; therefore capitals 
 designed after the head of this goddess 
 are Isislike, lolike, or Ionic. 
 
 Referring to any of the ancient Grecian 
 temples, it will be seen that the metopes, 
 or spaces between the trylyphs in the en- 
 tablature are filled, and sometimes with 
 sculpture, as in the Parthenon, which were 
 occupied by those wonderful efforts of the 
 chisel now in the British IMuseum, repre- 
 senting battles of the Centaurs and Lapi- 
 th?s. These metopes, in the earliest Greek 
 buildings, were open, and the tiylyphs 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 justly represented the ends of the beams The hj-paethral is the seventh order of 
 of which they are the types ; as the fol- sacred buiklings, and is decastyle, or ten 
 lowing quotation from the Iphigenia of columned, both in front and rear ; the 
 
 Tauris proves. Pylades is counselling 
 Orestes to scale the Doric temple of Diana, 
 and says to his friend, 
 
 " But when the eye 
 Of uight conies daikliii<; on, then niiist we dare, 
 And take the polished iniaije from the shrine, 
 Attemptint; all things ; and the vacant space 
 Jietiveen the tr/jtyphs, marl: it well, enough 
 Is open to admit ns ; by that way 
 Attempt we to descend." 
 
 Iph. in Tau. Potter's Venter. 
 
 The first general division of architecture 
 being its orders, the next division in sacred 
 architecture is the several orders of temples 
 or sacred edifices. The orders of sacred 
 
 otiier parts are distributed the same as in 
 the dipteral, but it has a double row of 
 columns in its interior, one higher than 
 the other, continued on all sides, and re- 
 sembling an interior portico. The middle 
 part has no roof. A fine specimen of this 
 order of temples is to be found in that of 
 Jupiter Olympus at Athens, and in one of 
 tlie three at Piestum. In Rome there is 
 not a single example of the hypa^thral 
 order. 
 
 Before leaving the pure sacred architec- 
 ture of Greece, a short space must be de- 
 voted to that of its colonies and other dis- 
 
 I 
 
 buildings or temples of the Greeks are tant parts. 
 
 seven : — first, the Antis ; second, the Pro- The ancient temple at Corinth is an 
 
 style ; third, the Amphiprostyle ; fourth, architectural structure of unknown anti- 
 
 the Periptoral ; fifth, the Dipteral; sixth, quity. It is of the Doric order, and the 
 
 Preudo Dipteral; and, seventh, the Hy- proportion of its columns, from actual mea- 
 
 X>ethral. surement, is shown in Aikin's Essay on 
 
 The first order of sacred buildings, called the Doric Order. Its character is simple, 
 
 antis, is that wherein the ends of the flank 
 walls finish in pilasters or antae. Of this 
 order is Inigo Jones's fine Tuscan portico 
 of St. Paul's Church, Covent Garden. 
 
 Tiie second or prostyle diflfers from the 
 antes by having columns in front of the 
 pilasters or anta- ; both these orders of 
 temples have only a portico at one end. 
 
 The third or amphiprostyle order of tem- 
 ples is nearly the same as prostjle ; but 
 as its name imports, lias aposticumor por- 
 tico at the rear the same as the principal 
 front. 
 
 The fourth order, the peripteral, has 
 also porticoes at both ends of six columns 
 
 pure, and bold, inferior to the three prin- 
 cipal examples found at Athens, but still 
 partaking of the purest characteristics of 
 the order. 
 
 Among other curious and interesting 
 ruins are the three ancient temples of 
 Picstuni. One of them differs from every 
 other temple in tlie world, having nine 
 columns in the front, witii a central range 
 down the middle of the cell, the use of 
 which appears to have been to support 
 tlie roof. 
 
 The centre or hypajthral temple is gene- 
 rally supposed to have been tledicatcd to 
 Neptune, the tutelary di\ inity of Pa>stum 
 
 each, and eleven, counting the angle co- or Possidonia. Mr. Wilkins thinks it to 
 
 lumns at each side. It has, as its name have been a temple of Jupiter, from its being 
 
 imports, columns all round about the cell, of th(! hypa-thral order, whicli is a class of 
 
 as in the temjile of Theseus, which by the building generally conlined to the temples 
 
 way has two columns in (lank more than ofjujjiter. Its columns possess, in common 
 
 the rules of Vitruvius prescribe. with all its other parts, the Greek charac- 
 
 The fifth or dipteral order, whicii Vitru- ter in the highest degree ; and there is no 
 
 vius places after the i)seudo dipteral, is 
 octastyle, or eight columned, like tiu" jxir- 
 tico of the Parthenon, ])ut has a ilotible 
 row of columns all round tlie cell. 
 
 In the sixth, that is, the pseiulo dipteral, 
 or false dipteral, tlie porticoes are octa- 
 style, or eight columned, in front, and on 
 each side fifteen colunms, including those 
 of the angles. Tht; Partlienon is of this 
 order of sacred buildings, but has seven- 
 
 doubt of its being coeval with the earliest 
 migration of the Greeks to the south of 
 Italy. Tliese examples, with that of Co- 
 rintli, possess the characteristic energy of 
 the early style of the Greeks, whicli may 
 be distinguished from liieir later and more 
 liiiished style by tiie ItiUowiiig delinitions; 
 namely, a shaft diminishing rapidly, and of 
 low stature, a large and massy ca{)ital 
 willi a very bold iinijcclion of tiie abacus, 
 
 teen cohunns on the sides ; for the ancient a necking composed of tlirce grooves, and 
 
 architects of Greece did not servilely fol- an extremely massive entablature of nearly 
 
 low (!very dogmatical rule of the critics, one half llio height of the column, 
 yet in tlieir variations lliey never lost llu? 'I'lic aullior of llie Pleasures of iMemory 
 
 true spirit of the original. in some lines of characteristic energy, 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ■written at Paestum, in March 1815, says of 
 these temples : 
 
 " They stand between the mountains and the sea 
 Awful memorials, but of whom we know not. 
 
 Time was they stood along the crowded street, 
 
 Temples of gods ! and on their ample steps. 
 
 What various habits, various tongues beset 
 
 Tlie brazen gates, for prayer and sacrifice ! 
 
 Time was perhaps, the third was sought for justice. 
 
 And here the accuser stood, and there the accused ; 
 
 And here the judges sat, and heard and judged ; 
 
 All silent now I as in the ages past. 
 
 Trodden under foot, and mingled dust with dust." 
 
 They are indeed silent yet speaking me- 
 morials of time and eternity. Of Paestiim 
 and its twice blowing roses, what lover of 
 poetry has not heard of those lovely flow- 
 ers which 
 
 " Now a Virgil, now an Ovid sang 
 Paestum's twice-blowing roses. 
 
 The next division of this section is the 
 analysis of the Etruscan school of archi- 
 tecture ; which is, however, so lost in the 
 lapse of ages that it leaves but little room 
 for architectural research. 
 
 The Etruscans are generally reported to 
 have been equally distinguished in archi- 
 tecture as in the other arts of design. The 
 Romans employed Etruscan architects in 
 the building of the capitol, the temple 
 of Jupiter, and many other large and 
 splendid edifices. The walls of Etruscan 
 cities were lofty and constructed of huge 
 polyhaedric masses of masonry ; remains of 
 which have been discovered at Volaterra, 
 Cortona, Faesula, and other parts of an- 
 cient Etruria. 
 
 The earliest temples of Etruria were 
 small in size, being, in many instances, not 
 able to contain more than a statue of the 
 divinity to whom it was dedicated, and 
 sometimes an altar. 
 
 The sacred architecture of the ancient 
 Romans, under their kings, is undoubtedly 
 derived from the Etruscans. This people, 
 a colony from Greece, were antecedent to 
 all the rest of the Italian peninsula in cul- 
 tivating the arts, which they had prac- 
 tised even before the reputed time of Cad- 
 mus. 
 
 The natural tendency of the ancient 
 Romans was to the grand and wonderful, 
 the colossal, the showy, and even the pro- 
 digality of expense; hence their amphithea- 
 tres, their circuses, their temples. Of all the 
 antique temples now remaining in Rome, 
 the Pantheon is at once the most cele- 
 brated and the most beautiful; and may 
 be considered the master-piece of Roman 
 architecture, whether we estimate it as 
 when entire, or, as at present, stripped of 
 all its statues and other ornaments. It is 
 
 supposed to have been built by Marcus 
 Agrippa, son in law of Octavius Augustus, 
 in his third consulship, before the Chris- 
 tian era, and was dedicated to Mars and 
 Jupiter the Avenger, in memory of the vic- 
 tory obtained by Augustus over Marc An- 
 tony and Cleopatra ; but it is more proba- 
 ble, as Palladio thinks, that the body of 
 the temple was built in the time of the 
 Republic, and that Agrippa added the 
 portico, and perhaps some other decora- 
 tions, as the double pediments seem to 
 prove. It was repaired by Septimius Se- 
 verus and Caracalla. The interior was 
 decorated with bronze ornaments in the 
 panelling of the cupola, and contained in 
 niches statues of all the gods. The inte- 
 rior is no less fine and striking than the 
 outside ; and from its circular form is call- 
 ed by the Italians Rotondo ; as from it 
 containing statues of all the gods, it was 
 named by the ancients Pantheon, from 
 Ilav and Oeog. The diameter, exclusive of 
 the large niches, is one hundred and 
 thirty-two feet, being nearly thirty feet 
 more than the cupola of St. Paul's, and the 
 height from the pavement to the summit, 
 the same as the diameter; the thickness 
 of the walls is nineteen feet, which is re- 
 lieved by the beautiful Corinthian niches 
 now^ used as chapels and altars. 
 
 Among other specimens of the sacred 
 architecture of the Romans is the temple 
 of Concord, whose ugly capital has been 
 before discussed ; the temple of Janus and 
 of Romulus, of the Sun and Moon, of For- 
 tunaVirilis, Vesta, Minerva Medica, Nep- 
 tune, Antoninus and Faustina, Jupiter Sta- 
 tor, whose beautiful entablature is so well 
 copied in the portico of Carlton House, 
 and the Temple of Peace. The three mag- 
 nificent arches now standing of this latter 
 edifice have been finely adopted by Sir 
 Christopher Wren in the choir of St. Paul's 
 Cathedral. 
 
 The declension of style from the days of 
 Roman splendour may be witnessed in the 
 modern Italian churches, particularly in 
 the churches of St. John the Lateran, and 
 St. Paul without the walls ; and most of 
 their buildings were executed from the 
 ruins of the antique temples which they 
 barbarously despoiled for this purpose, 
 and when they had no longer skill to 
 place the connecting architrave, they sub- 
 stituted ugly and uncharacteristic arches, 
 as may be seen in the fine plates of it by 
 Piranesi. 
 
 The fine, original, and striking stjie of 
 sacred architecture, called Gothic, is of 
 too much importance for a portion of so 
 small a share of a brief work like the pre- 
 
 o 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 sent ; but a short view will serve better Now it certainly is the very reverse of 
 
 than a total omission. this definition, and is not quite so much 
 
 The earliest British style is called Saxon ; opposed to Grecian art as was thought 
 
 and its elements are heavy round co- by the professor before quoted ; but on the 
 
 lumns, and semicircular arches, bad re- contrary is a style of architecture pure, 
 
 semblances of the worst Tuscan, covered grand, impressive, and characteristic. The 
 
 with the round arch of the middle ajjes. elements of it are spires, pinnacles, lofty 
 
 As a proof that the decline of the Ro- pointed or lancet sliaped windows, and 
 
 man style produced the Saxon, which was elevation as opposed to the horizontal line 
 
 called by the monks Opus Romanum, we of tiie Greeks. Its character somewhat 
 
 have only to conceive a country mason, resembles that of the old German school 
 
 ignorant of art, but skilful with his chisel, of painting; and a fine Gothic building, 
 
 to have observed a composite capital of witli its elaborate and carefully marked 
 
 the dejjraved style of those of the temple details, its gaudy colours, its vermilion, 
 
 of Bacchus, on the Mount Viminalis at and its leaf gold, reminds one of Albert 
 
 Rome, or the Ionic capitals of the temple Durer and his hard but correct school, 
 
 of Concord, or even a respectable Corin- England is the classic soil for this style 
 
 thian, and to be desired at some consider- of architecture, as ancient Greece is for 
 
 able interval of time, to carve some capi- tliat of tlie orders; and here the student 
 
 tals as nearly resembling them as possible 
 from men)ory. Imagine this, and it mtiy 
 be asked whether it be not more than pro- 
 bable, that they would resemble the Saxon 
 capitals of St. Bartholomew the Great in 
 Smithfield, or those of the crypt of Lasting- 
 bam Priory. Hence we may fairly con- 
 clude that the origin of the Saxon style 
 may be traced to the decadence of the Ro- 
 man ; and that the introduction of the Sa- 
 racenic, Arabesque, and Grotesque styles, 
 aided by the practical and scientific im- 
 provement of the workmen, and by tlie 
 knowledge of the society of travelling ar- 
 chitects, the early freemasons, produced 
 that singularly romantic and beautiful 
 style called the Gothic. 
 
 " A Doric temple diU'ers from a Gotliic 
 cathedral," says Mr. Hazlitt, " as Soi>lio- 
 cles does from Shakspeare." The princi- 
 
 inust come to measure and to study it. 
 York Minster is the Parthenon of Gothic 
 architecture, Westminster Abbey the The- 
 seum, and the Chapel or Mausoleum of 
 Henry VII. tiie choragic monument of 
 Lysicrates. Among the finest specimens is 
 the venerable Abbey Church of St. Alban 
 in Hertfordshire, whicli is also one of the 
 most ^'aluable documents in tiie archaiolo- 
 gical history of the country'. 
 
 Gothic architecture disdains the tram- 
 mels and the systems of the schools ; ne- 
 vertheless it has its own laws, its genera, 
 and its species, although they have not 
 yet been arranged in a grammatical form. 
 Baffy Langley endeavo\ired, it is true, to 
 reduce it to a system, and to engraft on it 
 the five orders of the Palladian school, 
 instead of a more natural and i)hilosoj)hi- 
 cal arrangement ; but his eH'orts were alto- 
 
 ])le of the one is simplicity and luirinoin, getlier \ain and nugatory, 
 that of tiie otlier richness and power. The Hi. Domestic Auchitecitue, perhaps 
 one relies on form and proportion, the the most interesting department of the art, 
 other on quantity and variety, and pronii- is indigenous to every country where liu- 
 nence of parts. Tlie one owes its charm man reason has in any degree manifested 
 to a certain union and regularity of feel- or developed itself. Like all the produc- 
 ing, the other adds to its elfects from com- tious of nature, architecture assumes dif- 
 
 plexity and the combination of the greatest 
 extreme. 'J'lie classical ajipeals to sense 
 and habit, the gotliic or romantic; strikes 
 from novelty, strangeness, and contrast. 
 Both are founded in essenlial and iiide- 
 slniclible ])riueiples of huniau nature. 
 
 The style now before us has been sweep- 
 ingly designated, as being any tiling that 
 is ni>t (jreciaii; but whether (his ali'ected 
 Aidilhesis jiroceed from hiiiiiotir or con- 
 teiiipt is not certain. 
 
 Our illiistriouscountryman Wren, whose 
 mechaniciil and mathematical skill eie- 
 viiti'S him above all modem arehileels, 
 
 ferent forms, according to (he propertii>s of 
 the climate, the wants it may sui)i'rintlu<-e, 
 the quality of the soil, the building mate- 
 rials, and the personal character of the 
 human beings composing the \arious na- 
 tions which i)raetise it. 
 
 The first dwellings of the most ancient 
 inhaliitanls of the earth, were doubtless 
 m(i\al)le huts or tents, in (he manner of 
 tlu! modern Arabs and 'I'artars. I'nin- 
 s(ru(ted nalurt? first demands personal 
 dodiing; next a shelter from the per- 
 (inhed elemeids; (hen a s(ore for boused 
 pro\ isioiis, clodiing, anil odier necessaries 
 
 called this fine style a gross concameration against winter and inclement seasons. The 
 of hea\y melancholy and monkish piles. Ilr.^l demand will inlrodnce mere drapery ; 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 the second a hut or cabin, at first movable, 
 next stationary, then secure, and after- 
 wards improved and embellished as secu- 
 rity' increased. 
 
 Domestic architecture is a portion of the 
 art which comes home to every man's bu- 
 siness and bosom. " Every man's proper 
 mansion, house, and home," says Sir Heni-y 
 Wotton, " being the theatre of his hospi- 
 tality, the seat of self fruition, the com- 
 fortablest part of his own life, the noblest 
 of his son's inheritance, a kind of private 
 princedom ; naj', to the possessors thereof, 
 an epitome of the whole world ; may Avell 
 deserve by these attributes, according to 
 the degree of the master, to be decently 
 and delightfully adorned." It is, there- 
 fore, no mean part of the art, although it 
 has been seldom so much studied and cul- 
 tivated as it deserves. 
 
 The first buildings recorded both in 
 the Bible and in the earliest historians 
 are of the simplest forms, materials, and 
 design, and only fitted to keep the humble 
 minded inhabitants from the severity of 
 the weather. The primeval dwelling was 
 either a natural cavern, or the simplest 
 contrivance against the asperity of the 
 weather. 
 
 The Egj'ptians are among the first who 
 built solidly and well ; and their domestic 
 architecture, as displayed in the palatial 
 style, is described by ancient writers as 
 being magnificent, costly, and splendid. 
 - The earliest dwellings were originally 
 simple huts or cabins to protect the inha- 
 bitants from the weather ; who then began 
 to coalesce into cities, hamlets, and other 
 congregations for safety and association. 
 The wall and gates next succeeded, and 
 security giving birth to luxury, added to 
 the single living or sleeping room a se- 
 cond and a third, as the wants and the re- 
 finements of the inhabitants required. The 
 separation of the elder from the younger, 
 the males from the females, the married 
 from the single, and other necessary con- 
 sequences of an increase of civilization 
 and refinement, all added to the increase 
 in size and improved convenience of the 
 primeval dwelling. These are the origins 
 of the parlour, the eating room, the kitchen, 
 the chamber, and the hall. 
 
 More solid materials, more elegance, 
 more convenience were soon added to the 
 original cabin, as men advanced in refine- 
 ment and civilization, and became more 
 convinced of security, and felt the desire 
 of possessing their own, their private 
 home. 
 
 Egypt is undoubtedly the first country 
 
 where stone was used in domestic archi 
 tecture, unless, perhaps, Babylon may be 
 considered its rival, either chronologically 
 or in splendour. Egypt abounded more in 
 stone than in timber, and its inhabitants 
 have proved themselves to be among the 
 ablest workers in that material, which the 
 world has ever produced. 
 
 Of the early and private domestic ar- 
 chitecture of the Egjrptians, we have not 
 many or sure grounds ; but their immense 
 palace or congeries of palaces, called the 
 Labyrinth, which the Greeks imitated in 
 their no less celebrated Labyrinth at Crete, 
 by Daedalus, proves them to have advanced 
 in the palatial style of domestic architec- 
 ture to as great a perfection of splendour 
 as they had in the sacred styles. 
 
 It has been doubted whether any ruins 
 of this wonderful structure have ever been 
 discovered ; but Captain Wilford, an en- 
 terprising searcher into antiquities, asserts, 
 in a very able paper in the Asiatic Re- 
 searches, that its ruins are still to be seen 
 near the Lake Mceris, at a place which 
 the Arabs have named the Kasi, or Pa- 
 lace of Karan, whom they suppose to have 
 been the richest of mortals. We must, 
 however, rely upon the credit of ancient 
 authors for an account of it ; and the autho- 
 rity of Herodotus is undoubtedly the best 
 we can refer to on this head. There is 
 great diversity of opinion upon the exact 
 period to which this much boasted edifice 
 should be assigned. Herodotus (lib. ii. 
 n. 148) attributes its construction to the 
 twelve kings who reigned in Egjpt at the 
 same time, about six hundred and eighty 
 years before the Christian era. Pomponius 
 Mela agrees in most points with Heiodo- 
 tus ; and from these two authors we may 
 gather a tolerably clear idea of this great 
 example of the palatial domestic architec- 
 ture of Egypt. 
 
 Herodotus, who had visited and ex- 
 amined this edifice with great attention, 
 affirms that it surpassed eveiy thing that 
 he had conceived of it. Within one and 
 the same circuit of walls, it contained 
 twelve magnificent palaces, regularly dis- 
 posed, and communicating with each other. 
 Each of these palaces contained three 
 thousand halls, twelve of which were of a 
 particular form and beauty. Half of these 
 halls or chambers were interspersed with 
 terraces, and were arranged round the 
 twelve principal halls, communicating with 
 each other, but by so many turns and 
 windings, that, without an experienced 
 guide, it Avas impossible to escape wan- 
 dering; the other half were underground, 
 
 g2 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 cnt out of the rock, and were said to have cotemporary (Mr. Wilkins) has endeavour- 
 
 bi-eu used for the sepulchre of their kinps. ed to convert the temple of Solomon to a 
 
 Herodotus assures us, that he visited all firecian temple of the pure Doric order, 
 
 the apartments above ground ; but those there can be no question that the style of 
 
 which were subterraneous, they would architecture, both of the temple and of the 
 
 not, from motives of superstition, pennit palace of Solomon, was strictly Egyptian 
 
 hiin to enter. Captain Wilford thinks that in every particular but in its materials, 
 
 the various apartments under ground had The ancient historian who records the 
 
 been used for depositing the chests or chronicles of the Jewish kings assures 
 
 coflins of the sacred crocodiles, called us that Phoenicia produced the most skil- 
 
 Sukhus or Sukkis in old Egyptian, and ful artisans in wood, or as our translation 
 
 Soukh to this day in the Coptic or vernacu- renders it, hewers of wood, and were pro- 
 
 lar language of Egypt. The halls had an bably skilful carpenters, joiners, carvers, 
 
 equal number of doors, six opening to the and such like. A supply of these able 
 
 north, and six to the south; and at each workmen and materials of all descriptions 
 
 angle of the external walls of this laby- were sent froniTjTC to Jerusalem to build 
 
 rinth was erected an immense pyramid, this palace, which was also designed by 
 
 for the sepulchres of its founders. The Phwnician or Tyrian architects. In cor- 
 
 whole of the labyrinth, walls, floors, and roboration of the opinion that the style of 
 
 ceilings, were of white marble, and ex- the architecture of this palace was the 
 
 hibited a profusion of sculpture. Each same as the Egyptian, it should be remeni- 
 
 of the before mentioned tAvelve halls, or bered that Solomon married the king of 
 
 galleries, were supported on columns of Egj'pt's daughter, and built it for her ac- 
 
 the same sort of marble. This splendid commodation and in her honour. The 
 
 palace, or rather city of palaces, is also artists of Phenicia were then the most skil- 
 
 inentioned by DiodorusSiculus, who thinks ful of their day; and much of the work was 
 
 it was a magnificent cemetery for the executed in their own country, and sent over 
 
 Egj'plian monarchs and their families; to Judea for constructing these edifices, 
 
 and it is also described by Strabo and This palace was thirteen years (I Kings, 
 
 Pliny, who confirm the accounts and de- vii.) in building, and is described to have 
 
 scriptions of Herodotus. been built of hewn stones, of beams, and of 
 
 Among other splendid examples of the columnsof cedar wood, with spacious wiu- 
 
 palatial style of domestic architecture of dows, porticoes, and porches. In one of 
 
 this wonder-working people, are the mag- which he constructed a lofty throne where- 
 
 nificent palace of Memnon, in the Thebais on he sat to administer justice to the peo- 
 
 or Upper Egypt, which, according to S(ra- pie. The description of this magnificent 
 
 bo, stood in the splendid city of Abydus, 
 the second in I3gypt after Thebes; and the 
 celebrated palace of the Ptolemies, under 
 whom the national style of architecture 
 expeiienced a coni])lete change, and aimed 
 at the suptTior graces of the Greek style. 
 
 palace, and of the columns of wrought 
 and cast brass, executed by Hiram the ar- 
 chitect, in the first book of Kings, is worth 
 referring to, in corroboration of tlie perfec- 
 tion to which domestic architecture and, 
 in fact, all the other arts had reached in 
 
 The vast and splendid city of Thebes is this period of ancient history. 
 cclcl)ratcd l)y ancient writers for tiie l)cauty In tliese I'arly ages, as well as those so 
 
 and sijjcndour of itsdi)incsti( arcliitecture, bi-aulifully descril)ed in Homer, the jiatri- 
 
 as well as for its great perfection in sa- archal form of government was so preva- 
 
 cre(I,moniiin('ntnl, and defensive architec- lent that tlie piilaces of i)rinces were used 
 
 tare. This style, <lt>nieslic art, must June for every onlinary pul)lic use, and they 
 
 arrived to a high degree of perfection 
 among tiic Thei)ans; for Diodorus says, 
 that lli(! houses of the ])rivate citizens in 
 Thebes were of four and (i\e stories in 
 height; which proves their knoAvledg(' of 
 
 seem to have been the only buildings de- 
 dicated to public puri>oses. The royal 
 palace of Troy is descrilied by Hon»er as 
 \ery sjiacious; the material, stone artfully 
 wrought; the apartments numerous. iJut 
 
 floorH, stairs, and the other necessary v\e have no accounts of tiie iletail. 
 
 njeeliiiiiism of storie<l duellings. Of jin 
 atili(pnly ne;irly as remote as these splen- 
 did examples of the Egyptian kings is the 
 celebrated ])alace of Solomon, who pro- 
 posed to construct the most magnificent 
 temple and the most splendid palace that 
 had yet been seen. Although a very able 
 
 The Willis of Troy are celebrati'd as 
 Iiii\ ins; been the works of gods ; wliiili tal)le 
 l)ro\es nothing but that neither the (Jreeks 
 nor tlu! Trojans of those days excelled in 
 such works, which had been raised, like the 
 temple and palace of Solouuui, by foreign 
 artists. The Israelites before Solomon and 
 
 I 
 
ARCH IT 
 
 the Greeks in Homer's time seem to have 
 made about equal progress in domestic 
 architecture. 
 
 Among various ancient specimens of do- 
 mestic architecture of Eastern nations, is 
 the ruins of the beautiful stone building at 
 Delhi, called the Shikargah or hunting pa- 
 lace of Feeroz Shah. The lofty pillar of a 
 single stone upon its summit is called the 
 lat, or walking staff of the same monarch. 
 From a translation made by Colonel Fol- 
 lien of its inscriptions, it would appear as 
 old as the year 97 of the Christian era, but 
 from another version made by Mr. Henry 
 Colebrooke (who is celebrated as a Sans- 
 crit scholar for his translation of the digest 
 of the Hindu law, compiled under the su- 
 perintendence of Sir William Jones), it is 
 made much later (1164). One date may, 
 however, refer to the pillar and the other 
 to the building. 
 
 The Feeroz Shah, whose name is attach- 
 ed to the building, which is acknowledged 
 to be a very ancient Hindu monument, ap- 
 pears from Ferishtuh's history to have 
 reigned at Delhi between the years 13.51 
 and 1388, in the last of which he died, at 
 the age of ninety ; and this historian, ac- 
 cording to his translator Colonel Dow, 
 gives him the following character : that 
 " though no great warrior in the field, he 
 was by his excellent qualities well calcu- 
 lated for a reign of peace." He reigned 
 thirty-eight years and nine months, and 
 left many memorials of his magnificence 
 in the land. He built fifty great sluices, 
 forty mosques, thirty schools, twenty cara- 
 vanseras, a hundred palaces, five hospitals, 
 a hundred tombs, ten baths, ten spires, one 
 hundred and fifty wells or public fountains, 
 a hundred bridges, and the pleasure gar- 
 dens he made were without number. 
 
 Moliammed Ameen Rasee, a native his- 
 torian, who wrote a history of the world in 
 the reign of Akbar, affirms that this palace 
 was a hunting place of Feeroz Shah. It 
 is a building of three stories, in the centre 
 of which is a column of red stone of a sin- 
 gle piece, round which are engraved seve- 
 ral inscriptions of a character wliich has 
 hitherto remained undeciphered. The his- 
 torian says only one third of this column is 
 visible, and that the remaining two thirds 
 are concealed by the ruins. Its length or 
 rather height above the roof is thirty-seven 
 feet, and its circumference, as measured 
 by Captain Hoares Moonshee, Mohammed 
 Morad, ten feet four inches ; some authors 
 say that the column is a monument of re- 
 nown to the Rajahs or princes of Hindu- 
 stan, and that Feeroz Shah erected the 
 building on which it stands for a mena- 
 
 ECTIJKE. 
 
 gerie and aviary, as an atonement for the 
 severities which he practised on the inha- 
 bitants of Cumassa. It is a beautiful re- 
 main of ancient Hindu domestic architec- 
 ture, and is agreeably varied in its several 
 stories for effect of light and shade. When 
 perfect, with its verandas and porticoes, 
 it must have presented a very graceful and 
 elegant appearance. Other specimens of 
 the domestic architecture of this people are 
 the palace of Gazipoor, Oude, &c. &c. 
 
 The Phoenician artists who executed the 
 palace and temple of Solomon are gene- 
 rally supposed to be those descendants of 
 Noah, who settled on the coast of Pales- 
 tine, and are the same people who are 
 spoken of in the Old Testament as Ca- 
 naanites, a word signifying merchants, and 
 Avere afterwards called by the Greeks 
 Phoenician. Sidon their capital, so often 
 spoken of by Homer, which was after- 
 Avards eclipsed by its own colony Tyre, 
 was founded by Sidon the eldest son of 
 Canaan. Inhabiting a barren country, they 
 applied themselves to commerce and the 
 arts, and were distinguished for their ex- 
 cellence in manufactures and works of 
 taste. Their first settlements were in the 
 isles of Cyprus and Rhodes, and they pass- 
 ed successively into Greece, Sicily, and 
 Sardinia; afterwards into Gaul, and al- 
 ways advancing, discovered the southern 
 and western coasts of Spain, and lastly 
 Britain. It is even thought that the islea 
 of Cassiterides, whence they obtained their 
 tin, were the Solingues and part of Corn- 
 wall. Of their beautiful city Tyre, the 
 twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth chap- 
 ters of Ezekiel give a grand and poetical 
 description; describing it as of perfect 
 beauty, situate in the midst of the sea. Its 
 public and private buildings and fortifica- 
 tions were of great extent ; " the men of 
 Arvad with thine army," says the writer, 
 " were upon thy walls, and the Gammadims 
 were in thy towers; tliey hanged their 
 shields upon thy walls round about." The 
 whole of the two chapters are wortliy of 
 reference for their striking descriptions. 
 
 The Phoenicians built several cities dis- 
 tinguished for the magnificence of their 
 domestic architecture, their wealth, manu- 
 factures, and extended commerce. Among 
 the principal were Joppa, Damascus, and 
 Baalbeck. Herodotus mentions among 
 other celebrated Phoenician structures a 
 splendid temple dedicated to Hercules at 
 Tyre; and Hiram, King of Tyre, the 
 friend and ally of Solomon and the patron 
 of Hiram the great architect, is men- 
 tioned as the founder of many palaces and 
 cities. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 It is probable that the style of Phoeni- 
 cian architecture difl'ered from that of other 
 contemporary nations, as Strabo, in speak- 
 ing of Tyrus and Aradus, two islands in 
 the Persian Gulf, says they had temples 
 (and other structures) resembling those of 
 the Phoenicians. 
 
 It has been conjectured, and with much 
 probability, that the Pha?nician architects 
 constructed the principal part of their edi- 
 lices with timber, as JMount Lebanus sup- 
 plied them with great quantities, and its 
 cedar is nuich celebrated : and from what 
 we can learn of the construction of the 
 palaces and other buildings of Solomon by 
 Phoenician architects and workmen, much 
 timber was used in its erection. 
 
 Of the domestic architecture of the Chi- 
 nese, both ancient and modern, for they 
 scarcely differ, little need be said. Tents 
 and pavilions were the original types of its 
 style, and appear to have served as models 
 of design to this extraordinary people. 
 From this origin arises its essential cha- 
 racter, lightness ; and its essential de- 
 fects, weakness and bad taste. The ma- 
 terials principally used by the Chinese are 
 wood of ditlercnt sorts, bricks and tiles 
 burned in the sun. Marble and stone are 
 not often used, which may perhaps be 
 attributed to their climate. The heat and 
 humidity of the southern provinces render 
 it extremely unhealthy to reside in houses 
 built of stone ; and, according to the mis- 
 sionaries who were at Pekin, they would 
 in the northern pros tnces be uninhabitable 
 for more than half the year. Tiie general 
 style of Chinese architecture cannot but be 
 familiar to any one who has ever drunk 
 from a China tea-cup, or who lias seen 
 many of the signs of our grocers' shops. 
 Sir William Chambers's pagoda in Kew 
 Gardens, or the Pavilion at Hrighton. 
 
 The Chinese are governed more by the 
 laws of their police than by either theory 
 or good taste in their domestic architec- 
 ture. These laws prescribe with the great- 
 est accuracy how the lou or palace siiould 
 be built of a prince of the first, second, or 
 third order of the imperial family ; of a 
 grandee of the empire, or of a mandarine ; 
 and they regulate, like our building act of 
 parliament, the public edifices of the capi- 
 tal, anil of provincial edifices, cities, and 
 towns, according to their several ranks or 
 grades in the empire. According to these 
 laws, which are said to bo very ancient, 
 the number of courts, the dimensions of the 
 terraces, the length of the bnildings, and 
 the height of the roofs are ordered by pro- 
 f;ressive degrees of increase, from the sim- 
 ple citizen to the man of letters ; from the 
 
 man of letters to the mandarine, from the 
 manilarine to the prince, and from the 
 prince to the emperor himself. 
 
 All these measurements are fixed to 
 witiiin a few inches ; and these laws have 
 of course produced a unifonuiiy in the 
 houses of individuals ; and after the gra- 
 dation prescribed among all buildings, it 
 is not astonishing that the common houses 
 are but merely huts of a single tloor; but 
 the climate may also prevent tliem build- 
 ing of many stones. Their plan is also as 
 uniform as their elevation, more thiui half 
 the ground-floor is occupied by courts and 
 passages. The fronts of Chinese dwelling 
 houses next the street have no windows, 
 except when the building is used for a shop. 
 There is but one opening, niunely the door, 
 before which they hang a mat or place a 
 screen to prevent the passers by from look- 
 ing it. The form of the Chinese roof is 
 characteristic of their style, always pro- 
 ducing the idea of the tent or pavilion, as 
 the primeval t^pe of their architecture. 
 
 In the domestic architecture of the Chi- 
 nese are often found doors of a circular 
 form at the top, approaching somewhat to 
 the idea of tlie arch ; but resembling more 
 the door of a bird cage than that of the en- 
 trance of a dwelling house. The palaces 
 of China, especially those of the emperor, 
 are distinguished by their vast extent, by 
 the number of large courts, turnings, gal- 
 leries, porticoes, halls, i\:c. of which they 
 are composed. 
 
 Some of their public buildings are of 
 a more substantial and durable nature 
 than their domestic architecture ; but there 
 is nothing in their style, even after atten- 
 tively perusing the best European Chinese 
 critic and architect. Sir AVillijuu Chambers, 
 and inspecting the best designs both exe- 
 cuted and on paper, to commend either 
 on the score of propriety, beauty, or good 
 taste. 
 
 The domestic architecture of the Greeks 
 cannot be accurately ascertained; but that 
 i>f tiu' Romans can be well gathered from 
 some of their ruins, and the relations of 
 their authors. The palaces and dwelling 
 houses of the ancient Romans were in a 
 profuse style of grandeur and superb deco- 
 ration. Their \illas, baths, and town houses 
 were of vast extent, and embraced everj- 
 luxury that «loniestic architecture could 
 demand, aideil by painting, sculpture, and 
 all the arts of ilesign ami decoration. 
 
 Anu>ng their most splendid and costly 
 examples of domestic architt'cture were 
 their baths, their theatres, and their am- 
 phitheatres. In Che latter description o( 
 building they aimed so much at prodi- 
 
ARCIIlTECTlJUi:. 
 
 g;ility that the relations of their most au- 
 tlieutic writers almost appear fabulous; 
 as, the account of the temporary theatre of 
 Marcus Scaurus, erected while he was 
 edile, which he embellished with three 
 hundred and sixty marble columns, and 
 tiiree thonsand bronze statues. It was 
 capable of holding eighty thousand per- 
 sons. The shafts of the lower range of 
 columns were thirty-eight feet long, and 
 their weight so groat that Scaurus was 
 obliged to give security for the reparation 
 of the great sewers over which they were 
 to pass, if they should be damaged by their 
 conveyance : and this, we should remem- 
 ber, was only for an occasional temporary 
 amusement. 
 
 Such, also, in character was tiie timber 
 edifice, erected by Curio, for the cele- 
 bration of the funeral games in honour 
 of his father ; which Avas so contrived as 
 to form, according to the nature of the 
 exhibition, either a theatre or an amphi- 
 theatre. When to be used in the former 
 manner, the circular backs were placed 
 against each other, thus becoming two 
 separate theatres ; so that the declama- 
 tions, music, and applauding acclamations 
 of the one were not heard in the other. 
 After tlie theatrical i)erformances were 
 concluded, the two edifices, turning on 
 pivots, were rolled round by machinery, 
 with all the audience within them, and 
 the circle or amphitheatre was completed : 
 the pit, cleared of the populace, forming 
 the arena. 
 
 The splendour of the balhs of the Ro- 
 mans were equal to their other structures. 
 Anunianus Marcellinus describes tluim of 
 inunense size. Some idea of their splen- 
 dour may be gathered from the ruins of 
 the batlis of Titus, and from the Pantheon ; 
 which Cameron, in his dissertation on the 
 baths of the ancients, says was only a ves- 
 tibule to the vast and magnificent baths of 
 Agrippa, who is the reputed founder of its 
 tine portico. 
 
 Before the introduction of pure taste 
 and the importation of Grecian arts and 
 artists into Rome, we have the authority 
 of all historians to prove that its architec- 
 ture was as rude as that of any people of 
 antiquity. Their Etruscan neighbours led 
 them to copy Greek originals; and one of 
 their earliest kings, Tarquinius Priscus, 
 was a native of Greece. Hence the origin 
 of the Roman style. Nor was it the ar- 
 chitecture of Greece alone that the Ro- 
 mans imitated ; but also their literature, 
 tiu'ir eloquence, their manners and cus- 
 toms were all borrowed from their illus- 
 trious X)redecessors. Vitruvius founded 
 
 his code of architectural laws upon those 
 of the Creeks; Virgil inntaled llcmur ; 
 Cicero Demosthenes; the early Roman 
 plays were translations from the Greek, 
 and their later ones imitations. 
 
 The elements, or constituent parts of 
 Roman architecture, like those of the Gre- 
 cian, are the orders ; which consist in the 
 style now before us of live, as the Grecian 
 does of three ; aiul are named the Tiscan 
 the Doric, the Ionic, the Couintiiian, and 
 the Composite. 
 
 Before describing the elementary prin- 
 ciples of Roman architecture, it may, per- 
 haps, be necessary to define the primary 
 constituent parts of an order. 
 
 Every order is divided into two great 
 or principal parts, viz. the column and the 
 entablature, which again have their sepa- 
 rate and several subdivisions: First, the 
 column, which is in general divided into 
 three equal parts, the base, the shaft, and 
 the capital ; except the Doric, which has no 
 base. The base is the lowest part of the 
 column, being that collection of mouldings 
 which project all round and encircle the 
 bottom of the shaft. The shaft is the frus- 
 tum of a cone, and is that plain or fluted 
 part of the colunui which is situate be- 
 tween the base and the capital. The 
 capital is the ornamental part, which 
 crowns or finishes the upper part of the 
 column, and difl'ers in the various orders, 
 as will be hereafter described. The capi- 
 tal is as useful as it is ornamental, embel- 
 lisliing the upper part of the column, while 
 at the same time it prevents its angles from 
 being fractured, and the architrave from 
 being damaged. Thus far, the column or 
 first grand division of an order. The next 
 grand division is the enlablaturc, or hori- 
 zontal part of the order, which is supported 
 by the column. This is also divided into 
 three principal parts, namely, the archi- 
 trave, the frieze, and the cornice. The 
 architrave is the undermost division of the 
 entablature, and is composed of one or 
 more faces, according to the order, and is 
 capped with a simple or compound mould- 
 ing. The frieze is the i)art comprised be- 
 tween the upper surface of the architrave 
 and the under side of the cornice: it is 
 sometimes plain and sometimes embellished 
 with sculptures and inscriptions. The 
 cornice is that assemblage of mouldings 
 which crowns the entablature from the 
 frieze upwards, and is divided into simple 
 and compound mouldings, plain faces, &c. 
 6«:c. according to the order. 
 
 The Tuscan order, the first in rotation 
 according to the Roman system is, as may 
 be perceived by inspection, and comparison 
 
of its component elements, almost the same 
 as the Doric, and is evidently derived 
 from it. Having no complete example re- 
 maining of this order, all that we at pre- 
 sent know of its use among the ancients is 
 from the descriptions of Vitruvius, whose 
 authority is the only rule for those who 
 wish to use it ; yet the Doric, divested of 
 a few mouldings and its trylyphs, and of a 
 small portion of its height, will answer 
 every purpose for which the Tuscan can 
 be required. As an historical evidence 
 alone is it valuable. 
 
 The purest specimen of this order in 
 England, and perhaps in the world, is the 
 church of St. Paul, Covent Garden, by 
 Inigo Jones, which some critics have cried 
 up as a prodigy of art, while others have 
 debased it to a merely decorative barn. 
 The truth, however, as is generally the 
 case, lies midway ; for it is unique in itself, 
 a very fine specimen of the order, and re- 
 flects credit both on its architect and his 
 patron, the illustrious predecessor of the 
 Duke of Bedford. 
 
 This order, as described by Vitruvius, 
 and as practised by our able countryman, 
 Inigo Jones, with its great projection of 
 the crown members over the long cantili- 
 vers or trusses, may be applied with the 
 greatest propriety to market places. The 
 simplicity of its elements, and the extra- 
 ordinary projection of its cornice, render- 
 ing it peculiarly suitable to such jnirposes. 
 
 Palladio asserts, that he found some 
 ancient remains of this order in Italy, and 
 gives an example restored from the frag- 
 ments ; but it is so different from that de- 
 scribed by Vitruvius, that it is not so much 
 a genuine Tuscan as a fancy order, founded 
 upon a spoliation of the Doric. 
 
 Scamozzi, and other Italian architects 
 have also tried their hands on a Tuscan 
 order, but with little success. Their abor- 
 tions may be found in JCvelyn's parallel. 
 
 The next Roman order is tiitir Doair, 
 ■which has been so altered and abused by 
 various architects since the decline of Gre- 
 cian purity, that some examples hardly 
 appear to belong to the same or(l(>r : for 
 instance, compare the jjorlico of llii" ciiurch 
 of St. Leonard, Shoreditch, by the late 
 Mr. Dance, the finest ('xanii)le of Ihc Ko- 
 nuin Dorie in I'ligliiiid, willi that of liic 
 portico of Covent Garden Theatre, the 
 finest of (he Greek we have, notwithstand- 
 ing its grievous misapplication, and it will 
 rcijuirc no |)i(>))hct to predict tlie result in 
 the mind of any man of taste. 
 
 This order is by Palladio restored and 
 compounded from all the best anti(|iic spe- 
 rimens found iiy him in Home find otlu'r 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 parts of Italy. His column is purer in 
 
 style than any single ancient remain; and, 
 indeed, has been elevated to the rank of a 
 canon of the order. Let us, however, offer 
 it to the test of criticism, and try how it will 
 bear it. The bed moulding, or under part 
 of the cornice, is too complex and enriched 
 for the simplicity and manly character of 
 the order. The frieze is divided, as he 
 found the best remains in ancient Rome, 
 and the tryglyphs are consequently misdi- 
 vided. The frieze has two faces, and the 
 whole entablature is too small for its 
 height. In its detail it is no less faulty ; 
 the capital is overloaded with ornament, 
 the abacus is destroyed by the addition of 
 mouldings, the echinus is converted into a 
 quadrant, the annulets are stuck out of 
 sight, and the graceful channelling of the 
 Greek hypotrachelian is omitted, to make 
 room for a clumsy necking, which he calls 
 coloreno, belonging to any order but the 
 Doric. He has also added a base to the 
 shaft, and omitted the beautiful mutnles 
 which support the corona over every tri- 
 glyph and metope of the Greek original. 
 
 The next order in the Roman system is 
 their Ionic, which diflers almost as much in 
 its essentials and detail as the rival Dorics, 
 as may be seen in the comparative view 
 of two of the best specimens. In its lead- 
 ing character of the column, its volutes, it 
 has not, however, been so much violated 
 as the Doric. The specimens from the 
 temples of Manly Fortune at Rome, and of 
 Minerva at Athens, are fair examples of 
 each, and the difference is palpable. Com- 
 pare the two, and let every person of taste 
 judge for himself. Look at the small size 
 of the volutes in the one, coming down 
 scarcely below the sculptured echinus, 
 which is as high as the first spiral of the 
 volute, by which means the entire of the 
 beautiful hem, which hangs so gracefully 
 pendent over the Greek examples, is omit- 
 ted. Its al)acus is altered from a simj)le 
 to a compound moulding. Yet the builder 
 of A\'aterloo Place, in front of the king's 
 palace of Carlton House, with Mr. Hol- 
 land's tasteful Greek screen in his <'ye, 
 has rejected the orthodoxy of the one for 
 tlie heresy of the other. 
 
 One more e\ani[>le of this order after 
 the manner of the Romans needs he cited, 
 the very singular one of the Temple of 
 Concord ; which, it is wonilerful, has nt)t 
 yet been introduced in New l^ondim. The 
 cornice has mutules, or modillons, like 
 the Doric; denlids like the Ionic; and 
 three faces to the frieze like the Corin- 
 tliian ; thus stealing from all its neigh- 
 bours. The capital has angular \olutes, 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 and an angular abacus like the Corinthian, 
 and a row of leaves like no legitimate 
 order whatever. 
 
 Such are the leading features and cha- 
 racteristics of the Roman Ionic order ; and 
 it remains for the student to inquire from 
 which source, Roman or Greek, he can 
 draw the most graceful proportions of this 
 beautiful and useful order. In the Roman 
 specimens, their overloaded cornices, their 
 ill proportioned entablature, their vulgar 
 profiles, and the broken spiral lines of 
 their volutes, render them, in my opinion, 
 utterly unfit for models. 
 
 There is little in the Roman specimens 
 of the Ionic order to entitle it to considera- 
 tion, till the time of the compositions of 
 Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, Serlio, De 
 Lorme, and others of that school, which 
 are certainly in better taste, as they ap- 
 proach more nearly to the legitimate stan- 
 dard of the order. 
 
 The next step in the Roman system of 
 the orders is to the Corinthtan. 
 
 The origin and description of this splen- 
 did order are well known : and the prin- 
 cipal examples, now remaining in Italy 
 and Greece, do not differ so much as in 
 the other orders. 
 
 The Corinthian orders, as exemplified 
 in the portico of the building called the 
 Pantheon, although rather coy in orna- 
 ment, is of beautiful proportions, is chaste, 
 correct, and a good model for imitation. 
 The entablature bears a just proportion to 
 the column ; the architrave, frieze, and 
 cornice are in perfect harmony with each 
 other ; and the ornaments, though spar- 
 ingly, are judiciously introduced. Sir 
 Christopher Wren has used it with great 
 judgment in the lower order of the cathe- 
 dral of St. Paul; and Mr. Hardwick, in 
 the portico of St. Mary-le-bone Church, in 
 the New Road. Both these architects, 
 however, might have carved the dentel 
 face of the bed mould into dentels, without 
 violating the character of their order. 
 Particularly the latter, whose portico fac- 
 ing the North, receives only the declining 
 rays of the sun, which, entering the bed 
 mould, makes this member appear like a 
 second corona, and destroys the harmony 
 of its light and shade, producing spotti- 
 ness rather than breadth. In St. Paul's 
 the shade is deeper, and the defect not so 
 conspicuous, particularly since the friendly 
 soot of the city has formed an artificial 
 shade over the portion complained of. 
 
 Among other fine antique specimens of 
 this order found in Rome are the beautiful 
 columns of the Campo Vaccino, supposed 
 
 to be the remains of the Temple of Jupi- 
 ter Stator. 
 
 The capital and entablature of this tem- 
 ple have been judiciously adapted, by Mr. 
 Holland, to the portico of his Majesty's 
 palace of Carlton House ; and a complete 
 set of moulds and casts from them are also 
 in the museum of Mr. Jos. Gvdlt. 
 
 There only remains one more of the 
 Roman order of columns, the Composite, 
 which is the fifth and last in the Roman 
 system. It proves the restless desire 
 which that ambitious and innovating peo- 
 ple had of converting to their own use the 
 materials, the arts, the sciences, and the 
 custom of the countries whose people they 
 vanquished in arms. 
 
 This order is evidently derived from 
 those of the Ionic and Corinthian, but can 
 in no case be applied with superior effect 
 to the latter. It was first used by the Ro- 
 mans in the triumphal arches, which they 
 erected to show to posterity their dominion 
 over the conquered provinces. Of this 
 order there are many existing antique re- 
 mains ; but the best is that of the arch of 
 Titus, fine casts of every part of which 
 have recently arrived in this country to 
 enrich the museum of the gentleman be- 
 fore alluded to as possessing the casts 
 from the Campo Vaccino and Tivoli. This 
 triumphal arch, as mentioned in the sec- 
 tion on Monumental Architecture, was 
 erected by the senate and people of Rome 
 in honour of Titus after his conquest of 
 Jerusalem. This example may be selected 
 as a very proper model of the order, and 
 was used by Sir Christopher Wren in the 
 upper order of St. Paul's. It is no less 
 well employed by Inogo Jones in the upper 
 story of Whitehall Chapel. The appear- 
 ance of these examples are grand, impos- 
 ing, and picturesque ; but differs only in its 
 capital, and greater height of shaft from 
 the Corinthian. 
 
 The constituent elements of the two 
 leading or classical systems of domestic 
 civil architecture, the Grecian and the 
 Roman, having been described; a few 
 specimens of Domestic Architecture of 
 more recent date, and some examples, 
 though not strictly domestic, yet more so 
 than either sacred or monumental, will 
 come in appropriately in this place. 
 
 Among these are the aqua?ducts of the 
 Romans, which are, as their name imports 
 channels or ducts for the conveyance of 
 water. They were named either from the 
 place whence the waters were brought, or 
 from the name of its founder, joined to the 
 word aqua or water. See Aqu.educt. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 - The ruins of a large edifice on the high 
 grounds of Baiaiiear Naples, so celebrated 
 by all the Roman writers; those of Ha- 
 drian's villa at Tivoli, and in fact all that 
 remains are proofs of the superlative gran- 
 deur of the Romans in their domestic style 
 of architecture. 
 
 Our next step will be to some of the 
 modern villas of Italy and France. Tiie 
 Italian style, as may be seen in the best 
 Palladian specimens, aims at shade, at 
 excluding the sun, and even the air; and 
 the French style the direct opposite, being 
 tliat of nearly all windows. The Palla- 
 dian style has Avide piers, small openings, 
 and is more retired, private, and plain tiian 
 the French, as may be seen in any of their 
 palaces, particularly in the Chateau de 
 Richelieu, which is by no means selected 
 for a contrast, but is a common specimen of 
 their domestic architecture. 
 
 The style of the earlier part of this pe- 
 riod, in various parts of the continent, was 
 debased by the pictorial vagaries of Borro- 
 mini, IMichel Angiolo, Bernini, and Raf- 
 faelle ; whose twisted columns were better 
 suited to accommodate, by their waving 
 lines, the composition of his celebrated 
 cartoon of the beautiful gate than to adorn 
 or support a portico. His relation Bra- 
 inante was little better; together with the 
 fantastic Borromini, whose vagaries in the 
 church of St. Giovanni Lateruni before 
 alluded to in tlie section on Sacred Archi- 
 tecture, witli his compound pediments, his 
 grottesque columns, cartouches, scrolls, &c. 
 are huddled together in that expensive 
 and tasteless compound of absurdity and 
 deformity. 
 
 The character of this period was a con- 
 ceited affectation of novelty and invention ; 
 adding embellishments to the already em- 
 bellisiied ancient Roman style, decorating 
 tlie shafts of the columns, witli ijlocks 
 and bossages; inventing grottes(|ue orders, 
 twisted and double shafted columns, enta- 
 blatures without friezes, friezes withoutar- 
 cliitraves, and architraves witiioiil friezes: 
 all used and omitted by turns. Dorics 
 with Corinthian foliage to their capitals 
 and bases; Corintiiian witl\ Doric tri- 
 glyplis; and arches springing from co- 
 linnns, as in tlie churcli of St. Paul, with- 
 out tlie walls at Rome, the line marble co- 
 lumns of which were stolen from the niau- 
 Sdli-um of Hadrian, and which tiic (aslc- 
 Icss appnipriators had not tlie ability to 
 cover with arciiitraves. 
 
 This is but one of the many errors « hich 
 have arisen from the beautiful invention of 
 the arch. Many imitations of these taste- 
 
 less innovations have sprung up in our 
 metropolis, and are daily excluding the 
 classical introductions of Wyatt, Stuart, 
 Chambers, and Revett. 
 
 Before concluding this section, the do- 
 mestic architecture of the ancients must be 
 farther considered. 
 
 No two things in the subject before 
 us present a greater contrast than the 
 domestic architecture of the Greeks and 
 Romans. The passion for architecture 
 among the Greeks vented itself in public 
 buildings alone, while that of the Romans 
 was as profuse in the one as in the other. 
 The stern public spirit of tlie Greeks would 
 not suffer one of their chief magistrates to 
 boast of a structure worthy the name of a 
 pulace. The far famed city of Athens has 
 been well characterized in the Quarterly 
 Review, as possessing national edifices sur- 
 passingly magnificent, and private ones 
 despicably mean ; temples and statues in 
 profusion, and no supply of one of the most 
 necessary conveniences of common life, 
 water: porticoes crowded with paintings, 
 and a stream which the citizens were 
 obliged to wade through for want of a 
 bridge. Exterior modesty by the way was 
 esteemed a primary virtue among the an- 
 cient Greeks. 
 
 A contrary feeling pervaded the Ro- 
 mans, even in the sternest days of their re- 
 public, when every man vied with another 
 in the magnificence of his villa or palace. 
 Pompey had a palace of superlative gran- 
 deur. The villa of Caius Marius at Mise- 
 num was so vast and grand that the repub- 
 lican spirit of his contemporaries began to 
 feel offended ; and yet that of Lucullus, 
 afterwards built on the same site, left the 
 former in comparison a mere cabin. Pliny 
 informs us that there were at one time in 
 Rome above a hundred j)alaces, the habi- 
 tations of private individuals, e(|ual in 
 splendour to that of Lepidiis in its lirst 
 state, which covered the ground occupied 
 by a hundred ordinary houses. 
 
 As a single examjile of the e\lt"nt of Ro- 
 man magnilicence in domestic areliitecture, 
 a brief description of the celebrated edifice 
 of Hadrian at Tivoli near Rome, known to 
 anti(|uaries by the name of llaili'ian's\'ilia, 
 of which the circuit was nearly ten Italian 
 miles, may be (pioted. To form an idea of 
 the immensity of this imperial villa we 
 must imagine to ourselves a town or rather 
 a city j'omposed of ttMU])les, palestia*, gym- 
 nasiie, baths, pleasure houses, lodgings for 
 odieers, friends, slaves and soldi<'rs, and 
 an inlinily of other buildings both of utility 
 and for show. The theatre is still partly 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 remaining as a witness of its former splen- 
 dour. In this villa Hadrian imitated with 
 much good taste all the best buildings of 
 Greece ; such as the Lyceum, the Acade- 
 my, the Prytaneum, the Portico, the beau- 
 tiful temple at Thessaly, and the Poihile 
 or painted portico at Athens. He had also, 
 among the gardens and pleasure grounds, 
 representations of the Elysian fields and of 
 the realms of Pluto. 
 
 The statues and other remains of ancient 
 sculpture, which have been discovered 
 among the ruins of this mass, during the 
 last two hundred and fifty years, have en- 
 riched all the cabinets in Europe, and 
 there are considerable excavations yet to 
 be made. This villa of Hadrian appears 
 from all descriptions to have excelled even 
 the splendour of Asiatic magnificence. The 
 liberality of the emperor to the cities of 
 Greece, which were reviving in his time, 
 and particularly towards Athens, induced 
 the Athenians to name after him the new 
 part of their city Hadrianopolis. 
 
 At this juncture the Greek style of archi- 
 tecture was thoroughly understood by the 
 Romans, and was employed by them with 
 more chasteness than in any other period 
 of their history, the florid style of decora- 
 tion being mostly confined to the interior 
 of their buildings. This epoch of Roman 
 architecture being thus the most pure and 
 important, the following summaiy may be 
 useful as a recapitulation of its leading 
 features. 
 
 After the burning of Rome, in the reign 
 of the Emperor Nero, he employed the ar- 
 chitects Celer and Severus, in the rebuild- 
 ing of several edifices, and principally his 
 golden palace, which surpassed in richness 
 and decoration all that had previously been 
 constructed. Infinite decoration and crowd- 
 ed ornament flourished ; and true taste in 
 architecture declined till the time of Ves- 
 pasian, when a better style began to pre- 
 vail. The purest days in architecture and 
 the other arts among the Romans were 
 from the time of Augustus to that of Ha- 
 drian ; they retrograded a little to that of 
 Septimius' Severus, but from his time the 
 declination became rapid and decisive. 
 
 Domestic Architecture in England. In 
 considering the early domestic architecture 
 of this country, we must revert to times, the 
 history of which is almost fabulous, to seek 
 its origin. During that early pei'iod of our 
 history which is before the Roman inva- 
 sion, our ancestors appear to have had 
 scarcely any other dwellings than thickets, 
 dens, and caverns ; and according to Tacitus 
 and Cassar, they could have been little bet- 
 ter in point of civilization than many of the 
 
 recently discovered inhabitants of the South 
 Seas. Examples of their ancient caverns 
 are still to be seen in the western isles of 
 Scotland, and in parts of Cornwall. In 
 some parts of southern England, however, 
 particularly in Kent, the inhabitants ap- 
 pear to have acquired a sufficient know- 
 ledge to build houses somewhat more sub- 
 stantial and convenient. 
 
 The earliest style of domestic architec- 
 ture practised in Britain appears to have 
 been similar to that which is still used in 
 the smaller hamlets of England, a sort of 
 daubing or rude plastering over the chinks 
 and crevices of the wattled walls of their 
 wicker worked cabins with clay, or by fill- 
 ing up the interstices with moss. The roofs 
 were formed much after the present mode, 
 with boughs of trees thatched with straw, 
 as a security against the weather. 
 
 The best authorities relate that the form 
 of the wooden houses or huts of the ancient 
 Britons or Gauls was circular, with lofty 
 conical roofs ; at the top or centre of whicli 
 was an apertui'e for the admission of light 
 and the emission of the smoke. This de- 
 scription of building seems to have been 
 the original house, and the early periods 
 of the history of most countries exhibit it 
 as the type and origin of their architecture. 
 We can trace it from the ancestors of the 
 polished Greeks to the aboriginal Britons, 
 and the villagers of the Hottentots and 
 CafTres of Africa exhibit it to this day. 
 
 The foundations of some of the largest 
 of these ancient British mansions were of 
 stone, of which there are yet vestiges in the 
 island of Anglesea and other thinly popu- 
 lated parts of these islands. It is proba- 
 bly in imitation of these primeval wooden 
 huts that the oldest stone buildings, of 
 Avhich there are remains in the western 
 isles of Scotand and parts of Ireland, were 
 built circular in their plan and conical in 
 their elevation, with circular apertures at 
 the top ; so that what was a mansion among 
 the ancient Britons, and served the noblest 
 of our ancestors for withdrawing rooms, 
 boudoirs, parlours, and similar apartments, 
 would make an excellent though probably 
 small sized tile kiln of the present day. 
 
 When the Romans first invaded this 
 country, they found nothing according with 
 modern notions of towns or cities, but 
 merely scattered assemblages of huts ; for, 
 according to Strabo, what the Britons call- 
 ed a town was a tract of woody countiy, 
 surrounded by a mound and a ditch for the 
 security of themselves and their cattle from 
 the ravages of their enemies. 
 
 The palaces of their chiefs resembled 
 those of the common people in construe- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 tlon, and differed only in size and solidity 
 
 of their workniauship. From tiie expres- 
 sion of Caractacus, who when taken cap- 
 tive and sent in triumpli to Rome wonder- 
 ed, in passing through its streetsof palaces, 
 how it was possible that a people possess- 
 ed of such magnificence at home, could 
 envy his humble cottage in Britain ; it might 
 be inferred as coming from the mouth of a 
 primeval British monarch, that his subjects 
 had made no considerable improvement in 
 their architecture for at least a hundred 
 years after the first invasion of the Romans. 
 Among the most ancient regular works 
 of architecture in Britain (as A. D. 82) 
 "Were the chain of forts built by Julius 
 Agricola between the Firths of Clyde and 
 the Forth, and the walls of Antoninus 
 called the Picts Wall. Agricola is sup- 
 posed also to have erected several temples, 
 and as he is well known, on the authority 
 of Suetonius, to have encouraged the arts 
 of peace, we may be assured he did not 
 neglect private conveuiencies and domes- 
 tic comforts. 
 
 Architects, sculptors, painters, and other 
 artists and artisans always accompanied a 
 Roman legion ; and splendid marks of their 
 footsteps are visible wherever they obtain- 
 ed admission. The first Roman colony 
 was planted at Camelodunum, the first 
 city on the site of our present metropolis, 
 as early as the fifteenth year of the Chris- 
 tian era ; and when it was destroyed by the 
 Britons, in revenge for the cruel treatment 
 of Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, about ele- 
 ven years afterwards, it was a large and 
 well built town, embellished w ith statues, 
 temples, theatres, and other public struc- 
 tures. From many circumstances it is ap- 
 parent that these, like the early and pro- 
 vincial theatres and amphitluiatres of Rome, 
 were mostly of wood till the time of Agri- 
 cola, who finally established the dominion 
 of the Romans in Britain, and governed it 
 during the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and 
 Domitian with equal courage and huma- 
 nity. I wish to lay some stress upon these 
 ]M)ints, as conclusive of the Roman style 
 of architecture having preceded all others 
 in this island, the hut and cabin alone ex- 
 cepted. The Romans not only constructed 
 a great nundjer of S()li<l, convenient, and 
 magnificent edifices for tlu-ir owu accom- 
 modation, but instructed, exhorted, and 
 encouraged the Briloiis to imitate them. 
 
 Domestic AitciinKcn hi: flourished ai)un- 
 dantly in our island from the lime of the 
 first invasion of the Romans to the middle 
 of the fourth century ; and the sanu' taste 
 for convenient, beaiitiful, and solid bnild- 
 iuga which hud long prevailed iu Italy, 
 
 was introduced into Britain. The country 
 at this period abounded with well built 
 villages, towns, forts, and fortified stations ; 
 and the whole was defended by that high 
 and strong wall, with its numerous towers 
 and intervening castles, which reached 
 from the mouth of the river Tyne on the 
 east, to the Solway Firth on the west. 
 This spirit of building, which was intro- 
 duced and encouraged by tiie Romans, so 
 much improved the taste and increased the 
 number of the British artists, that in the 
 third century this island was celebrated in 
 that respect. When the Emperor Constan- 
 tine, the father of Constantine the Great, 
 rebuilt the city of Autun in Gaul (A. D. 
 290), he was chiefly furnished with work- 
 men from Britain, which (says Eusebius) 
 much abounded with the best artificers. 
 
 Not long after this enlightened perioil 
 architecture and the other arts declined ; 
 and soon after the final departure of the 
 Romans from Britain, their pure taste in 
 architecture was entirely superseded by 
 new and depraved styles. 
 
 In the time of the Saxons, previous to 
 the disturbed periods of Hengist and Hor- 
 sa, domestic and public architecture are 
 related to have been constructed with 
 much splendour. In the year A. D. 480, 
 Ambrosias, a British commander of Ro- 
 man descent, who had assumed the regal 
 government of Kent, built for himself a 
 splendid palace at Canterbury. During the 
 heptarchy, domestic as well as sacred archi- 
 tecture flourished, and houses and ecclesi- 
 astical buildings of various denominations 
 began to be built in the most populous 
 parts of the island. The monks, tlie only 
 architects of the day, erected those build- 
 ings and formed that style now called the 
 Saxon; which from its similarity in parts 
 to the worst Roman, nuiy warrant the con- 
 clusion, that they designed them from me- 
 mory of what they had seen in R(une. 
 
 The elements of the Saxon st\li' are 
 short rouiul columns and semicircular 
 arches, such as in the crypt of Lastinghani 
 I'riory, Boxgrave Church in Sussex, M'al- 
 Iham Abbey in Essex, and in nuiny other 
 parts of I'nglaud. Their capitals, as nuiy 
 be seen by referring to the examples and 
 their comparatives, are often clumsy imita- 
 tions of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Coriiitliian 
 of the lower ages of tlu> Roman empire. 
 This origin of the Saxon from thedtcadence 
 of the Roman is clear as demonstration can 
 admit; and forms in itself an historical and 
 substantial style of domestic architecture 
 finely calculated for entrance lodges, tow- 
 ers, and gates to a demesne, where the 
 scenery is grand and awful. Its prcpon- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 derating massive and gigantic features if 
 well applied accord with such purposes, 
 particularly wliere the material is solid 
 and durable, and of rather a sombre hue in 
 its colouring tints. A Saxon castellated 
 entrance tower of dark blue lime stone, so 
 common in the mountainous districts of the 
 county of Kilkenny, is an appropriate ad- 
 junct to the beautiful romantic scenery of 
 Ireland. 
 
 As excellence is never stationary, the 
 vicissitudes of architectui-e in England 
 may be arranged into classes or epochs as 
 follow : namely, from the splendour of the 
 Augustan age, an emanation or ray of 
 which had reached us under the adminis- 
 tration of Claudius, Antoninus, and Agri- 
 cola, to the declension and after hatred of 
 Roman art and customs, on the expulsion 
 of the Romans from the island, and to the 
 complete establishment of the style called 
 Saxon. Next arose another style, that now 
 called Gothic, with all its rich and fasci- 
 nating varieties, from the plainness of its 
 Norman branch to the full embellishments 
 of the florid styles ; which romantic styles 
 flourished resplendently to its meridian in 
 t!ie times of the Tudors and Plantagenets, 
 and declined with the revival of classical 
 literature in the reigu of Elizabeth, when 
 Roman or rather Italian architecture began 
 to mix itself with our native Saxon and Bri- 
 tish styles, as its words did with our lan- 
 guage ; and we were then, Shakspeare and 
 Bacon excepted, pedants in both. 
 
 PHlladio,whowas the father of that style 
 of Roman architecture which was intro- 
 duced into England by Inigo Jones, read 
 Vitruvius's works in the true spirit of their 
 author ; and restored the actual ruins of 
 ancient Rome in a purer style, and with 
 greater gusto than were found in the most 
 of their originals. His style of domestic ar- 
 chitecture may be gathered from Lord Bur- 
 lington's adaptation of one of his quadri- 
 frontal villas at Chiswick, and his villa of 
 Biaggio Saraceno at Vicenza. 
 
 Had Palladio, however, engaged him- 
 self in a similar examination of the splen- 
 did ruins of ancient Greece, as they were 
 in his days, still informing himself with the 
 opinions of Vitruvius,he might have found- 
 ed a school of architecture as much supe- 
 rior to that now called after him as are 
 the works of Ictinus, Callicrates, and Phi- 
 dias to the Colosseum and the theatre of 
 Marcellus. 
 
 Classical architecture shone forth in the 
 Roman style in the beginning of the reign 
 of Charles I. perished with the Iconoclasts 
 and roundheads of the commonwealth ; 
 rose again under Charles II. with a mo- 
 
 mentary lustre; was partially eclipsed by 
 ignorance and bigotry in the reign of 
 James II. and from that period till the 
 reign of George III. a mere blank is pre- 
 sented in the history of the art. 
 
 Of our ancient domestic architecture 
 after something like a style had been in- 
 troduced, is Hampton Court in the county 
 of Hereford ; the ancient seat of Lord Co- 
 ningesby, which was built by Henry IV. 
 king of England, when he was Duke of 
 Hereford, above four hundred years since. 
 It was restored and repaired about one 
 hundred years ago by the then Lord Co- 
 ningesby, at a considerable expense ; it 
 then contained seven very noble apartments 
 of state richly furnished, and numerous 
 convenient private dwelling rooms, with 
 fine gardens, a large park, and noble de- 
 mesne, a well stocked decoy, and every 
 other advantage both for pleasure and con- 
 venience. 
 
 The Roman or Italian style of architec- 
 ture, as fitted for domestic purposes, was 
 first introduced with any thing like order 
 by Inigo Jones, whose distinguished works 
 at Greenwich, Whitehall, and Covent Gar- 
 den will ever secure him a place among 
 names of the greatest reputation. 
 
 This illustrious English architect (Inigo 
 Jones) had a capacious intellect, a fine 
 imagination, and original conception. His 
 style was grand but unequal, as may be 
 seen in his celebrated work the chapel at 
 Whitehall, the conception of which as a 
 part, and that but a small part of an im- 
 mense palace, is certainly noble ; its pri- 
 mary divisions few and simple, its open- 
 ings large and handsome ; but as a whole 
 it is unequal in composition and in style. 
 The play of light and shade produced by 
 the breaks over each column is, in a mi- 
 nute taste, the very opposite to grand. 
 The Ionic specimen is one of the worst 
 and the most impure that he could have 
 selected ; the modillons do not belong to 
 the order, and approach too nearly to those 
 of the Corinthian. If one order upon an- 
 other be ever admissible, the Corinthian 
 should not have been excluded for the 
 purpose of introducing the composite. 
 
 Sir Christopher Wren, an eminent ma- 
 thematician and philosopher, as well as a 
 skilful and scientific architect, executed 
 many of the finest buildings in London 
 and other parts of England, in the Roman 
 or Italian style. His style of domestic 
 architecture was inferior to his public 
 works, as depending more on the fashion 
 of the day. He borrowed it from France, 
 but did not copy it so servilely as his friend 
 Robert Hookc did at Montague House, 
 
ARCHITECTURE 
 
 now the British Museum, and in Bethlem 
 Hospital, recently taken down for the city 
 improvements. Wren's best works in do- 
 mestic architecture are the two fine man- 
 sions at Chichester, Marlborough House 
 Pall Mall, the late Mr. Wren's in Great 
 Russell Street, the house of Mr. Tegg the 
 bookseller in Cheapside, and a few others 
 of the same character. St. Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, inferior to none but St. Peter's in 
 point of magnitude, and much its superior 
 in construction and design, will perpetuate 
 his name to the latest posterity. 
 
 Wren was more equal and consistent 
 than Jones ; was possessed of more mathe- 
 matical knowledge ; was a man of a more 
 expanded mind ; but less of an architect 
 and artist by education, and had (gene- 
 rally speaking) less taste. Perhaps no- 
 thing of Wren's is equal in invention and 
 taste to Jones's, and nothing of Jones's 
 equals in scientific construction any thing 
 of Wren's ; or for beauty of conception 
 and at the same time wonderful execution. 
 Wren's transcendent spire of St. Dunstan's 
 in the East, the finest thing of its kind in 
 Europe. In St. Mary Aldermary, Wren 
 is bold in execution, if not quite pure in 
 his Gothic, and is still better in his tower 
 and pinnacles of St. Michael's, Cornhill. 
 St. Stephen's, Walbrook, has been extolled 
 above its merit, for although novel in prin- 
 ciple, it is less ingenious in construction, 
 and more faulty in taste than any other of 
 his best works. His spire of Bow would 
 alone immortalize any man ; so beautiful 
 is it in form, so novel in design, and so 
 dexterous in construction. It is not only 
 Wren's masterpiece in composition and 
 design, but stands unrivalled in this class 
 of art, as well for its beauty as for its in- 
 genious and scientific construction. 
 
 This beautiful spire, like all of Wren's, 
 commences from the ground, unlike many 
 of its tasteless successors, from Gibbs's 
 St. Martin's in the Fields, to our present 
 new churches, the steeples of which 
 ride a straddle on the tops of their pe- 
 diments. It stands at tiie north-west 
 angle of the church, and rises nearly plain 
 to a luMglit above tlic houses; the doors 
 on the (external sid<'s are tnulosed in rus- 
 ticated niches. The decorations to the 
 doorways are of the Palladian Doric, em- 
 bellished witli cli('riil)ini and fesloons. 
 The tower is surmounted by a l)l()ck cor- 
 nice and a well proi)ortioned balustrade. 
 Eacli angl(^ is rc-licvcd by a i)yraini(lal 
 group of bold scrolls, sup)>orlii)g a vase, 
 between which rises a lofty circular stylo- 
 bate, or (UdiliiHicd pedestal, wiiich sup- 
 .ports H i)eautirul I'eripteral temple of the 
 
 Corinthian order, the cell of which sup- 
 ports the upper part of the spire, while it 
 beautifully relieves the columns of the 
 perystj le like an ever varying back ground. 
 This temple is likewise surmounted by a 
 balustrade, whence spring a series of beau- 
 tifully proportioned and elegantly carved 
 flying buttresses of a highly original shape 
 and construction. These elevate and ma- 
 gically support another temple of a species 
 of composed or composite order, forming 
 four porticoes of two columns each, the 
 entablature breaking fancifully over them. 
 The whole is surmounted by a very ele- 
 gant obelisk or spire, supporting a colossal 
 vane, in the semblance of a dragon of 
 copper gilt, and a red cross under each 
 wing; the heraldic emblem of the citj-. In 
 this romantic composition, Wren has em- 
 ployed four of the orders, rising above 
 each other in due proportion. The Doric 
 in the doors, the Ionic in the tower, the 
 Corinthian in the lower circular temple, 
 and the Composite in the upper. 
 
 The works of Vanbrugh, a contemporary 
 of Wren's old age, and one of his succes- 
 sors in the art, are solid and judicious ; 
 but he neglected the lighter graces of his 
 art, and is in spite of all his picturesque 
 beauties, cumbrous and inelegant in de- 
 tail. Swift's epigram on this architect is 
 well, and in some instances he merited 
 the satirist's 
 
 Lie licavy on him, earth, for he 
 Laifl many a heavy load on thcc. 
 
 Yet Castle Howard and 151enheim will 
 keep alive the memory of the witty and 
 accomplished Vanbrugh, among those of 
 our greatest architects. A fair specimen 
 of this architect's picturesque and singular 
 style, may be gathered from his own house 
 near the Privy Gardens, which was also a 
 subject of Swift's satire. 
 
 The state of architecture at the end of 
 tlie reign of George II, and for some time 
 previous thereto, had been as low as at 
 aluKJst any jieriod of the English history. 
 From the death of Kent ami tiie great 
 Earl of Burlington, two accomplished 
 ardiitects of tlu' Anglo-Paladian school, 
 to the coMuncucenuMit of the r<'ign of 
 George IH, we have no record or account 
 of any native architect worthy of notice. 
 'J'hc profession seemed almost to be aban- 
 doni'd ; and new buildings, repairs, and 
 alterations, to have been performed by that 
 anomalous being, that sort of unodual mix- 
 ture of artist and artisan, tlic Iniildiiig 
 surseyor, or surveyor and builder, as he 
 generally termed himsell'. 
 
 Rent, Gibbs, and Burlington were gone, 
 and had left no disciples ; so was Hawks- 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 moor the pupil of Wren, who designed 
 the churches near the Post Office in Lom- 
 bard Street, Limehouse, and St. George's 
 in the East. And Archer, the Groom 
 Porter as Walpole justly calls him, whose 
 balderdash of St. John's, Westminster, 
 that looks like the four clumsy ill carved 
 legs of a butcher's block reversed, or an 
 elephant on iiis back, had left no followers. 
 The elder Dance, whose mansion house 
 was preferred to a design of Palladio's 
 offered to the city by Lord Burlington, 
 but rejected because Palladio was a non- 
 freeman and a papist, was a man of some 
 genius, as his Shoreditch, a free and not 
 unhandsome imitation of Bow Church 
 Spire, bears witness ; was not a regular 
 bred architect, but tlie best and nearly the 
 only one of his day. Batty Langley had 
 a school or academy, but his disciples 
 were all carpenters ; and although his 
 taste as an architect was deservedly de- 
 rided, he formed a school of excellent 
 workmen, and gave form to many a skil- 
 ful artisan in a certain line of art. 
 
 Such was about the state of architecture 
 when our late monarch ascended the 
 tiirone ; and it was fortunate for this art, 
 as well as for painting and the other arts, 
 that he was endowed with a love for, as 
 well as considerable knowledge of them 
 all. When Prince of Wales he studied 
 architecture, and was taught to delineate 
 its proportions with accuracy from the 
 rules of Palladio, by the late Sir Wm. 
 Chambers, who was then a naval man, 
 fond of the study, and who had travelled. 
 His Majesty also studied perspective 
 closely under the late Kirby; and his 
 drawings were correct, and, for their day 
 and style of art, tasteful and elegant. 
 
 Chambers became the Royal Architect, 
 but threw no new lights on the art. In 
 its practice and more scientific department 
 of construction he was totally ignorant. 
 His taste was Roman and impure ; yet his 
 works have a chastened correctness of de- 
 tail of the best style of Italian art. In 
 the course of his travels Chambers had 
 visited parts of China, and published a 
 treatise on the gardening and architecture 
 of that strange people. To him we owe 
 the introduction of their fantastic, bar- 
 barous, and inelegant style. 
 
 Yet the Somerset Place of this architect 
 has many redeeming beauties, and his 
 work on Civil Architecture, in spite of his 
 bad taste in reviling the architecture of 
 ancient Greece, which he was not able to 
 comprehend, abounds with sound remarks. 
 His Vitruvius he read in English, and ap- 
 parently from a bad translation. 
 
 The first symptom of a regular bred 
 genuine architect, in tlie late reign, was 
 the tasteful and scientific Wyat. The son 
 of an eminent and opulent builder, he 
 acquired the elements of his art at home, 
 and refined and purified Jiis taste abroad 
 from the purest sources; an absolute ne- 
 cessity in those days, for there was neither 
 master or school in England till that 
 which he formed. On his return, he 
 astonished the connoisseur and travelled 
 patricians by his Pantheon, which was 
 afterwards unfortunately destroyed by fire ; 
 by his designs, and by his knowledge of 
 his art; qualifications till then unknown 
 since the days of Jones and Wren, and 
 which had led to the employment of Ita- 
 lian architects when any aflair of conse- 
 quence was required. Possessed of ge- 
 nius, taste, and feeling, Wyatt first intro- 
 duced a correct style, remote it is true 
 from all the transcendent purity of the 
 genuine Greek school, but nearer ap- 
 proaching to it than the best Italian 
 known. The architecture of the country, 
 tlie venerable, the spoiled, and the pam- 
 pered Gothic, came under his observation, 
 and in the majestic Castle of Windsor, the 
 Abbey at Fonthill, and the fine Cathedral 
 of Salisbury, he executed with a chastity, 
 refinement, and skill equal to the originals. 
 His houses, villas, and mansions, are 
 among the most convenient, splendid, and 
 tasteful in the country, and bear upon their 
 face, that their builders were not their 
 own architects. 
 
 In a similar school, and with similar 
 advantages, did Milne, at scarcely the age 
 of manhood, carry away the first prize in 
 the first class of architecture at Rome, and 
 had the honour of being the first Briton 
 who obtained a premium for art in that 
 city. Before he had completed his stu- 
 dies, he sent over in competition, and con- 
 quered all his opponents for his Black- 
 friars' Bridge, a work of skill and of some 
 originality'. Milne's style was too de- 
 cidedly Roman for the day ; but to his ho- 
 nour be it spoken, his love and affection 
 for our great metropolitan structure, St. 
 Paul's, of which he long held the place of 
 surveyor, was such that he never would 
 see it defaced, or altered or spoiled in any 
 way, and scarcely a week of his long life 
 passed without him giving it a personal 
 survey. 
 
 The encouragement in those days shown 
 to architecture and regularly educated 
 men, by the sovereign and the nobility of 
 the country ; the establishment of the 
 Royal Academy ; the titles conferred on 
 Sir Wm. Chambers and Sir Robert Taylor, 
 
one of the architects of the Bank of Ens- 
 land ; and the biennial premium for archi- 
 tecture, founded a school from which 
 emanated many able and tasteful men: 
 Holland, Dance (whose simple and effec- 
 tive elevation of St. Luke's Hospital for 
 Lunatics, shows what genius can do with 
 even what is called the poorest of mate- 
 rials, brick), Soaue, Harrison of Chester, 
 Wilkins, Smirke,Gwilt, Savage, and other 
 eminent cotemporaries are among the scions 
 of this school, and their works bear testi- 
 mony to their talents. 
 
 The front of Carlton House, by Holland, 
 and many of the apartments by him in 
 that palace, possess a harmony of propor- 
 tion and greatness of style, which consider- 
 ing the difficulties of patching up an old 
 house, are quite admirable. 
 
 The new part of the Bank of England 
 possesses many noble and tasteful halls. 
 Its exterior is massive and in good taste ; 
 its construction, genuine stone, brick, and 
 iron ; by which the opulent and munificent 
 directors of this great establishment have 
 proved themselves to be the most economi- 
 cal as well as the best builders. When 
 London is fallen, 
 
 " And such as Memphis is must London be." 
 
 Old Play. 
 
 this building, with those of Wren, and the 
 bridges, will be almost the only ruins to 
 indicate its present greatness, unless more 
 of the same description shall be permitted 
 to be built, and an edict issued against the 
 Mary-le-bone and St. George's Fields school 
 of temple builders. 
 
 A little stronger than strong enough is 
 the best maxim in building, said the 
 anonymous author of 01KIAIA,and should 
 be written over the desk of every archi- 
 tect's office. But this is flat heresy in the 
 new school. Strong enough to last till it 
 is sold is all that is now re([uired, and 
 great ingenuity is certainly called forth in 
 its professors to accomi)lish it. 
 
 The custom house is a very useful strong 
 building, not remarkable for its taste, nor 
 for much propriety of adaptation in its 
 ornamental detail. Furnivars Inn is con- 
 temptible as a work of art, and has no one 
 fine ((ualily ; and the excellency of its 
 workmanship renders it more grievous 
 that it should be designed with so little 
 taste. 
 
 The new strciet now in formation from 
 I'all Miill to I'ordiind Tlace is a great 
 and usel'ul undertaking; possessing, as a 
 whole, a grand and conmianding charac- 
 ter, wilh more arcliileclural fi alures and 
 tariety llian any large work tiiat we lia\e 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 seen since the rebuilding of Londim after 
 the great fire. Yet it has many blemishes ; 
 some of the architectural specimens being 
 in a taste absolutely barbarous, and mixed 
 with others equally pure and refined. Its 
 masses, great parts, and divisions are 
 grand and effective ; and its breaks and 
 general outline productive of a great va- 
 riety of light and shade, while, at the same 
 time, it is free from that dull monotony of 
 elevation which is so wearisome in many 
 of our new streets. It is also the finest 
 work now in process, and has given an 
 architectural feature to the metropolis, 
 much wanted as a relief from the eternal 
 two windows, iron railings, and a door, of 
 the new squares and streets of St. Mary- 
 le-bone. 
 
 Until this undertaking our domestic ar- 
 chitectui-e seemed selfish and internal. 
 Windows undecorated externally, and 
 made solely to give light and air to the in- 
 terim ; and doors placed in square brick 
 holes, whose only service seemed to be to 
 exclude strangers, were the prevalent fea- 
 tures of modern English domestic build- 
 ings. Whereas architecture, on the con- 
 trary, should exhibit the taste and wealth 
 of the master of the mansion, by its exte- 
 rior, to the observing stranger, as well as 
 contribute to the internal comfort and 
 splendour of the family, and those friends 
 formally introduced. 
 
 Other works which add to the architec- 
 tural beauty and service of the Metropolis 
 are the bridges recently thrown over the 
 Thames; the best are Waterloo*, West- 
 minster, and Blackfriars; which are all 
 built of stone, and with architectural ele- 
 vations. 
 
 Among recent English works, the por- 
 tico of Covent Garden Theatre, imitated 
 in form from the tetrastyle portico of the 
 Agora at Athens, but copied in detail from 
 (he temple of Minerva Parthenon, is, per- 
 hai)S, (he most chaste in s(yU', altliough its 
 apprK'a(ion would more become a (o\\ n 
 hall than a dramatic theatre. The exte- 
 
 • Waterloo Bridge is one thousand two hundred 
 iiMil lil'ty fill loim ; Westiniiisler, one lliousnnd two 
 hnnihiil auil twenty IVel ; and HlacktViars nine hun- 
 diid and ninelj live feet. ^^■atelllK) Hililue has nine 
 eliplleal arches, of one Inuidreil anil iwi iitv feet span, 
 over the river, wilh piers of twenty feel thick, hnilt 
 enlinly of uranile, and forty hricl; arclies for a cause- 
 way on Ihe Smrey side : and the entire len^lh of ils 
 land and water arches is two Ihonsand ciiihl hundred 
 aiul ninety feel. Weslniiusler has Ihii lien lari;e and 
 two seiniiiieul.ir small arehes, wilh fourlceii inirr 
 iniili.ile piers. The arehes of this bridge all .sprinu 
 alioul two liel below low water : il was coniinenci il 
 in I7:is, ami opened to the piihlic in 17511. Black- 
 friars' Uriiltje has nine lari;e eliplical .Trrhts, \\n» 
 hei;iui in 17(10, by Mr. Milne, and fuiished in tin 
 yenrs and three qiuirter.s. 
 
ARCHITECTUIIE. 
 
 rior of Drury Lane Theatre appears to be 
 more consistent in its application ; and we 
 should not forget, in speaking of this edi- 
 fice, that an Ionic portico, the antae of 
 which arc only executed, originally com- 
 pleted the design. 
 
 The columns of the portico of the Col- 
 lege of Surgeons, in Lincoln's Inn Fields, 
 from the Ionic of the Ilyssus, are in them- 
 selves fine and well executed, but do not 
 belong to the front to which they are at- 
 tached. The beautiful Ionic portico to the 
 house of the Board of Control, Cannon Row, 
 Westminster, one of the purest, finest, 
 and best applied in Loudon, also taken 
 from the same exquisite original, is worthy 
 of examination. 
 
 Another very beautiful example of this 
 order is in a chapel near Grosvenor Place, 
 by Hyde Park Corner, designed by Mr. 
 Smirke ; where, in the portico, according 
 to the best examples of the Greeks, and to 
 the natural fitness of the thing, is not a 
 mei"e applique stuck on as an after thought, 
 but a natural continuation of the roof, sup- 
 ported by necessary columns for shelter and 
 for shade. See Style, Order, Column, 
 Capital, Base, and the other words re- 
 ferred to in this article. 
 
 The principal books in architecture that 
 are the most useful to the student are the 
 following: An Inquiry into' the Principles 
 of Beauty in Grecian Architecture, by the 
 Earl of Aberdeen, 8vo. Lond. 1822. Ro- 
 bert and James Adam's Works in Archi- 
 tecture, fol. 3 vols. Lond. 1764 and 1822. 
 Robert Adam's Ruins of the Palace of 
 Dioclesian at Spalatro, fol. Lond. 1764. 
 Robert Adam's Buildings in Scotland, 
 fol. Lond. 1764 ; Architectural Remains 
 in Rome, Pola, and Naples, from drawings 
 by Clerisseau, under the direction of Ro- 
 bert Adam, Esq. F. R.S. Edmund Ai- 
 kin's Essay on the Doric Order of Archi- 
 tecture, fol. Lond. 1816 ; Designs for Villas, 
 by the same, 4to. Lond. 1817. L. B. Al- 
 berti's Architecture, by J. Leoni, Italian 
 and English, fol. Lond. W. Adam's Vi- 
 truvius Scotticus. H. Aldrich's Elements 
 of Civil Architecture, English and Latin, 
 8vo. Oxford, 1789. T. Allason's Pic- 
 turesque Views of the Antiquities of Pola, 
 fol. Lond. 1819 ; Ancient Relics ; or. Deli- 
 neations of Monastic, Castellated, and Do- 
 mestic Architecture, 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 
 1812 ; Antiche d'Ercolano, fol. 1765 ; An- 
 tiquities of Ionia, published by the Society 
 of Dilettanti, fol. Lond. 1769 and 1817 ; 
 the same, with the Additions of Sir William 
 Gell, Mr. Gandy, and Mr. Bedford, fol. 
 Lond. 1821. Architectural Ornaments by 
 Agho, large 4to. Loud. 1820. The anti- 
 
 quities of Athens, by Stuart and Revett, 
 4 vols. fol. Lond. 1709. W. Atkinson's 
 Views of Picturesque Cottages, with plans, 
 4to. Lond. 1805. Atwood's Theory of 
 Arches, 4to. Loud.; The unedited Anti- 
 quities of Attica, comprising the Architec- 
 tural Remains of Eleusis, Ramnus, Su- 
 nuim, and Thoricus, by the Society of Di- 
 lettanti, fol. Lond. 1817. G. Baglione 
 Vite de Pittori, Scultori, Architetti, &c. 
 4to. Rome, 1642 ; the same, con la Vita di 
 Salv. Rosa, da G. B. Passari, 4to. Naples, 
 1773. Baldwin's Designs for Chimney 
 Pieces, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 1766, 9. Bar- 
 BAULT, Plus beaux Monumens de Rome 
 ancieune, fol. Rome, 1761 ; Vues des plus 
 beaux Restes des Antiquit^s Romaincs, 
 telles qu'elles subsistent encore a Rome et 
 en divers Endroits de I'ltalie, fol. Rome, 
 1775. J. Barrow's Description of Pocket 
 and Magazine Cases of Mathematical 
 Drawing Instruments, 8vo. Lond. 1803 ; 
 Account of the Abbey Church of Bath, 
 illustrated with Plans, Elevations, and 
 Sections, published by the Society of An- 
 tiquaries, Loud. 1801. J. Britton's, F.S.A. 
 Account of the Abbey Church of Bath ; 
 Illustrations and History of most of tiie 
 English Cathedrals, by the same, now in 
 progress, 1824 ; the Architectural Anti- 
 quities of Great Britain, by the same, 
 4 vols. 4to. Lond. 1807, 14; Fine Arts of 
 the English School, by the same, including 
 Plans, Elevations, and Section of the Ca- 
 thedral Church of St. Paul, London, by 
 James Elmes, Aixhitect, M. R. I. A. ; His- 
 torical and Architectural Essay relating 
 to Redcliff"e Church, Bristol, by the same, 
 and Charles Wild ; Chronological and 
 Historical Illustrations of the Ancient Ar- 
 chitecture of Great Britain, by the same, 
 4to. Lond. 1818, 20; Account of Corshain 
 House, Wilts, by the same, 8vo. Lond. 
 1800. Blondel, Cours d'Architecture. 
 P. S. Bartoli, Admiranda Romanorum, 
 &c. fol. Rome, 1693 ; Gli autichi Sepolcliri 
 ovvero Mausoleo Romani et Etruschi, &c. 
 fol. Rome, 1727. O. A. Bayardi, Pro- 
 dromo delle Antichita d'Ercolano, 2 torn. 
 4to. Naples, 1752 ; Dictioiinaire des beaux 
 Arts, faisant Partie d'Encyclopedie M6- 
 thodique par Ordre de Matieres, 3 tom. 
 4to. Paris, 1788, 1805. Boisseree, Ca- 
 thedrale de Cologne, Paris, 1823, 1824. 
 Dictionnaire des beaux Arts, par A. L. 
 MiLLtN, 3 tom. 8vo. Paris, 1806. Dizio- 
 nario delle belle Arti del Disegno, estratto 
 in gran parte dalla Enciclopedia Metodica, 
 da Francesco Milizia, 2 tom. 8vo. Bas- 
 sano, 1797. Belgrado, Architettura Egi- 
 ziana, Dissertatione d'un Corrispoudente 
 dell' Accademia delle Scienzi di Parigi, 
 
 H 
 
&c. 4to. Parma, 1786. 
 tecture Hydraulique, 4 torn. 4to. Paris, 
 1737, 1810. J. P. Bellorii, Veteres Ar- 
 ciis Augustonim triumphis Insigncs ex 
 Reliquiis qu;B Romas, &:c. fol. Paris, 1690. 
 Rev. J. Bentham's Ely Cathedral. P. 
 Benvenuti, Le Tre Porte del Battisterio, 
 di S. Giovanni di Firenze, incise ed illus- 
 trate, fol. Florence, 1821. P. Berettini, 
 Barberinae antae Fornix Romje, fol. Rome. 
 J. B. Brx)NDEL, Plan, Coupe, Elevation, 
 et Details du Nouveau March6 St. Ger- 
 main, fol. Paris, 1816. P. Bonanni, Tem- 
 pli Vaticani Historia, fol. Rome, 1696. 
 A. BoRiONi, Collectanea Antiquitatum Ro- 
 manorum, Notis, &c. fol. Paris, 1736. Dom. 
 J. BoLRGET, History of the Royal Abbey 
 of Bee, near Rouen, in Normandy, 8vo. 
 Paris, 1779. M. Brettingham's Plans, 
 Elevations, and Sections of Holkham, in 
 Norfolk ; and also a Description of the 
 Statues, Pictures, and Drawings, fol. Lond. 
 1773. R. Bridgen's Antiquities of Sefton 
 Church, near Liverpool, fol. Lond. 1822. 
 A. G. Brizguz, Escuebe de Arquitectura 
 Civil, 4to. Valencia, 1738; Builder's Dic- 
 tionary, 2 vols. 8\ o. Lond. 1534 ; Builder's 
 Magazine, 2 vols.4to. Lond. 1800. Buck- 
 ler's, J. C. English Cathedrals, 8vo. The 
 Earl of Burlington's Designs of Palla- 
 dio, with the Details, fol. Lond. 1730. C. 
 A. Busdy's Series of Designs for Villas ; 
 Plate of the celebrated Wooden Bridge 
 across the Delaware at Trenton, Lond. 
 1822. Cabinet du St. Giraruun, Sculp- 
 teur du Roi, fol. Paris. O. Calderari, 
 Disegni e Scritti d'Architettura, 2 toni. fol. 
 Vicenza, 1808. C. Campbell's Vitruvius 
 Britannicus, 4 vols. fol. Lond. 1715, 27, 
 31, 67, 71. WooLF and Ganoon's Sup- 
 plement to the same work, fol. Lond. 1715, 
 17, 71. C. Cameron's Baths of the 
 Romans explained and illustrated, with 
 the Restorations of Palladio, corrected and 
 improved, fol. Lond. 1772. J. Carter's 
 Ancient Architecture of England, 2 vols, 
 fol. Lond. 1795 ; Account of the Cathedral 
 Church of Exeter, by the same ; Account 
 of the Catliedral Church of Durham, liy 
 the same. R. Casteij.'s Villas of the An- 
 cients illustrated, fol. 1728. Series of the 
 Cathedrals of England, published by the 
 Antiquarian Society of London, cleitluint 
 fol., consisting of tiu^ Abbey Chiircii of St. 
 Alban's, 1810; the Cathedral Churches of 
 Exeter, 1797, of Durham, 1801, of Glou- 
 cester, 1809; tlie AI)bi'y Ciiurch of Bu(ii, 
 1798; the Collegiate Chapel of St. Stephen, 
 Westminster, 1795 ; and a Sui)i)l('mi'nt to 
 th« same l)y Sir IL C. Engm:i iki.d, 1811. 
 Sir Wii.i.iAM CiiAMiucRs's Treatise on Civil 
 Architecture, fol. Lond. 1768 ; a New Edi- 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Belidor, Archi- tion of the same Work, with new Plates, 
 Notes, and an Examination of Grecian 
 Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, F. S. A, 
 is now (1824) being published ; as also an 
 edition with the old plates, and an addi- 
 tional Chapter on Grecian Architecture 
 by William Purser; Buildings and Views 
 in Kew Gardens; Designs for Chinese 
 Buildings ; Dissertation on Oriental Gar- 
 dening, by the same. R. Chandler's Tra- 
 
 vels in Asia Minor and Greece, or an 
 Account of a Tour made at tlie Expense of 
 the Society of Dilettanti, 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 
 1817, Caristie's Plans de Forum, atlas 
 fol. Paris, 1821. Clerisseau et Le Grand, 
 Antiquit^s de la France, fol. Paris, 1804. 
 Cochin and Beucard's Observations upon 
 the Antiquities of Herculaneum, 8vo. 1756. 
 P. Columbani, Capitals, Friezes, and Cor- 
 nices, 4to. ; Collection de Peintures An- 
 tiques qui ornoient les Palais, Thermes, 
 Mausolees, Chambres sepulchrales des 
 Empereurs Titus, Trajan, Adrian, et Con- 
 stantin, fol. Rome, 1781. M. de Corde- 
 MOY, Traits de toute I'Architecture, 4to. 
 Paris, 1714. J. S. Cotman's Specimens of 
 the Architectural Antiquities of Norfolk, 
 containing sixty finished Etchings, repre- 
 senting exterior and interior Views of the 
 most celebrated Remains of Antiquity in 
 the County, large fol. Lond. 1818; Anti- 
 quities of St. Mary's Chapel at Stourbrid ge, 
 near Cambridge, imperial 4to. Lond. 1819, 
 by the same ; Architectural Antiquities of 
 Normandy, 2 vols, imperial fol. Lond. 1821, 
 1822, by the same; Etcliings of Castel- 
 lated and other ancient Buildings, fol. 
 Iiond. 1811, by the same. J. Cotelle, 
 Livre de divers Ornemens pour Plafonds, 
 Suites surbaissez. Galleries, et autre de 
 I'Invention, fol. Paris. L. N. Cotting- 
 ham's Plans, Elevations, Sections, and 
 Views of King Henry the Seventh's Cha- 
 pel, atlas fol. Lond. 1822. Crunden's 
 Convenient and Ornamental Architecture, 
 Lond. D'Aluaret et Pouij.eau, Ditlerens 
 Projets relatifs au Climat et ii la Maniere 
 la plus convcnable do batir dans les Pays 
 ehauds, et plus particulierement dans les 
 Indes Occidentales, large fol. Paris, 1776. 
 Rev. J. D\i.i.\WAv's, F.S. A. Observations 
 on Englisii Architecture, royal 8vo. Lond. 
 1806. G. Daij,' Olio, Pregi del Kegio 
 Palazzo di Modena, 4to. Modena, 1811. 
 M. David, Fragmensd'Arciiitecture, Paris, 
 1H04. W. Dwison's Series of original 
 Disigns for Shop Fnmts, fol. Lond. 1816. 
 T. D. W. Dearne's Sketches in ArchiUc- 
 lure, 4lo. Lonfl. 1814. C. M. Dklacar- 
 i)i:i TIC, Ruines de Pa<stum, ou Posidonia, 
 ancienne Ville de la Grand Grece, Icm-os, 
 mesurees, et dessinees aur les Lioux, 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 royal fol. Paris, 1799. Dickinson's Ar- 
 chitectural Antiquities of Southwell. De- 
 scriptions of the Cathedral Church of Sa- 
 lisbury, with the Chapels, Monuments, 
 Grave Stones, and their Inscriptions, 4to. 
 Lond. 1774. Description du Pont en Fer 
 cout^, construit a Paris, sur la Seine, en 
 Face du Jardin du Roi. — Pont en Pierre, 
 et construire sur la Seine a Rouen, 2 torn. 
 4to. Paris, 1815. Descrizzione di Roma, 
 antica e moderna, 2 torn. 8vo. Rome, 1697. 
 Rome Ancienne et Moderne, avec toutes 
 ses Magnificences et ses Delices, savoir, 
 ses principaux Theatres, Amphitheatres, 
 Cirques, Naumachies, Arcs de Triomphe, 
 &c. &c. par le Sr. Francois Deseine, 
 10 torn. Svo. Leyden, 1713. II Mercuric 
 Errante delle Grandezze di Roma, tanto 
 antiche che moderne, di Pietro Rossini, 
 antiquario, Svo. Rome, 1760. Ritratto de 
 Roma Moderna, par Lodovico Totti, Svo. 
 Rome, 1638. Descrizzione di Roma, mo- 
 derna e antica, 2 vols. Svo. Rome, 1708. 
 A. Desgodetz, Edifices de Rome, dessinees 
 et raesui'^es tres exactement, fol. Paris, 
 1682 ; the same translated by G. Marshall, 
 2 vols. fol. Lond. Designs of Inigo Jones 
 and otliers, published by J. Ware, 4to. 
 Lond. Detournelle et Vaudoyer, Grand 
 Prix d' Architecture, Projets Couronnes, 
 par 1' Academic d' Architecture et par I'ln- 
 stitute de France, fol. Paris, 1806. M. De- 
 tournelle, Recueil d'Architecture Nou- 
 velle, fol. Paris, 1807. W. Dickinson's 
 Architectural Antiquities of Southwell, &c. 
 4to. Lond. ; Antiquities, Historical, Archi- 
 tectural, &c. in Nottinghamshire and" the 
 adjacent Counties, by the same, 4to. Lond. 
 1801. DucAREL, Antiquites Anglo-Nor- 
 mandes par Danisy, Svo. Caen, 1823, 1824. 
 J. N. L. DuRAND, Recueil et Parallele des 
 Edifices de tous Genres, anciens et mo- 
 dernes, remarquables par leur Beauts, 
 Grandeur, et Singularity, large fol. Paris, 
 1800. Precis des Lemons d'Architecture 
 donn^es a I'Ecole Royale polytechnique, 
 par le merae auteur, 2 toms. 4to. Paris, 
 1819, 21 ; Partie Graphique des Cours 
 d'Architecture faits a I'Ecole Royale poly- 
 technique, 4to. Paris, 1821, par le meme. 
 Dugd^vle's St. Paul's, fol. Lond. ; and 
 Monasticon, fol. The Earl of Elgin's 
 Pursuits in Greece, Svo. Lond. 1811. E. 
 Edwards's Practical Treatise on Pers- 
 pective, 4to. Lond. 1806. James Elmes, 
 M. R. I. A. Lectures on Architecture, com- 
 prising the History of the Art from the 
 earliest Times to the present day, delivered 
 at the Surrey and Russell Institutions of 
 London, and the Philosopliical Institution 
 of Birmingham ; dedicated, by permission, 
 to bis Majesty George IV. Loud. 8vo. 1821 
 
 and 1823 ; Life of Sir Ciir. Wren, witli an 
 Account of his Works, by the same, 4to. 
 Lond. 1823 ; Hints for the Construction of 
 Prisons, published under the sanction of 
 the Select Committee of the House of Com- 
 mons, 4to. Lond. 1819, by the same ; A 
 Practical Treatise on the Law of Dilapi- 
 dations, &c. Svo. Lond. 1820 and 1823, by 
 the same ; Plans, Elevations, and Section 
 of St. Paul's Cathedral, by the same, 41o. 
 Lond. 1813. Essay on Architecture, Svo. 
 Lond. 1755. Essays on Gothic Architec- 
 ture, by the Rev. T. Warton, the Rev. J. 
 Bentham, Captain Grose, and the Rev. J. 
 Milner, Svo. Lond. 1808. Essays of the 
 London Architectural Society, 2 vols. Svo. 
 1808, 1810. J. Essex on Stone Buildings 
 in England. Observations on Lincoln Ca- 
 thedral, on Round Churches, &c. 4to. 
 Fabbriche diverse ed antichita di Verona, 
 4to. Verona. G. B. Falda, Fontane di 
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 Cathedrals of Lincoln, Worcester, &c. fol. 
 Loud. 1822, 1823. Wieeeking on Bridges, 
 Draining, &c. 4 vols. 4to. the same, des 
 Ponts a Arches de Charpente, 4 to. Wil- 
 lis's Cathedrals, 4to. R. Wood's Ruins of 
 Balbec, fol. Lond. 1757 ; Ruins of Palmyra, 
 by the same, fol. Lond. 1753. J. AYood's 
 Series of Plans for Cottages, &c. 4to. 
 Lond. 
 
 Architrave, [upxoc, Gr. and trabs, Lat.] 
 hi architecture. The chief or principal 
 beam in a building, which, lying horizon- 
 tally on the summit of the column, forms 
 one of the three principal divisions of the 
 entablature (see Entablature). The an- 
 cient architects in their most costly stone 
 edifices, in general used but one stone, 
 reaching from column to column to form 
 the architrave ; which occasioned them, 
 as may be observed in the best an- 
 
ARE 
 
 cicnt specimens, to lessen the intercoluni- 
 niation ; from the closeness of which result 
 the grand and imposing effects of their an- 
 cient peristyles and colonnades (see Inter- 
 columniation). From the examination of 
 the construction of many Roman buildings, 
 it is clear that their architects were not 
 ignorant of the manner of constructing ar- 
 chitraves of more than one stone, as often 
 done by the moderns ; and that they pur- 
 posely followed the Monolithean manner, 
 by preference, both as to its real and appa- 
 rent solidity. In modern times, when from 
 economy of labour, the scarcity of marble, 
 and the comparative perishability of other 
 materials, the Monolithean architrave be- 
 came difficult to the inferior architects of 
 those days, they ob%iated rather than 
 cured the difficulty by plat-bands (see 
 Plat-Bands), keystones, and other paltry 
 substitutes. Architraves thus constructed 
 were composed of a number of stones which 
 mutually sustained each other by their 
 wedge like form, and were in fact a flat 
 arch. The form and number of the mould- 
 ings, faces, and members of which an ar- 
 chitrave is composed, varies according to 
 the character of the order to which it is to 
 be applied. In the Tuscan order it is a 
 plain surface, surmounted by a fillet; in 
 the Doric order it has sometimes two faces ; 
 in the Ionic and Corinthian, it has some- 
 times two, and at others three faces ; and 
 in the Composite, always three. 
 
 Archives. [apxfToi^, Gr. archivum, Lat.] 
 In architecture. Buildings where public 
 papers or records are deposited. Edifices 
 for tills and similar purposes should be 
 erected on a dry soil, be w ell drained, and 
 in a secure situation ; should be construc- 
 ted of stone, well burned brick, or other 
 incombustible material ; be vaulted, the 
 walls, floors, and ceilings secured from 
 damp, and made fire proof in every re- 
 spect. 
 
 Archivolt. [archirolt, Fr. from ai-ciis and 
 voliUus, Lat.] In archiliclurc. The circu- 
 lar mouldings round tiie voussoirs of an 
 arch, tt^rminating on the imposts or capi- 
 tals of the piers. Sometimes tiio entire 
 arch when divided into faces, and capped 
 with a simple or compound member, like 
 an arched architrave, used to enibillish 
 arcades, is so called. It is (hen governed 
 by the same rules in regard to the order it 
 is used with, as architraves. See Import, 
 Arcade. 
 
 Arena. [Lat. from nrcndo, whence are- 
 nas; a sandy place.] In arcliileclnre. The 
 middle <>rI)o<ly ofatrmpie or other enclosed 
 building ; but is more i)arliculiirly applied 
 to that povlinii (if (he amphitheatre where 
 
 ARE 
 
 the gladiators fought, which was strewed 
 w ith the finest sand to ease the falls of the 
 combatants and to absorb their blood when 
 wounded. See Amphitheatre. 
 
 Areiopagls. [Lat. from apfioc and ardyof. 
 The hill or rock of Mars.] In architectural 
 history and archaiology. A place in Athens 
 celebrated for the meetings of a judicial 
 tribunal, which was held in great reputa- 
 tion among the Greeks. It is said to have 
 received its name from the circumstance of 
 Mars being the first person here tried for 
 tlie murder of Hallirhotius, a son of Nep- 
 tune. He was acquitted, and the site was 
 ever after held sacred by the people of 
 Athens. The tribunal took the same name, 
 and at one period of its histoi-y rendered 
 itself infamous by the condemnation of 
 Socrates, no less than two hundred and 
 eightj' of its members voting against him. 
 It was also in this place that Paul is de- 
 scribed to have preached to the Athenians, 
 standing in the midst of Mars' Hill (2ra- 
 Oiig ck 6 IlavXog iv fi'«7(^ ra 'Aj)n'« Trdys, 
 i^ij" Aj'cptg 'AQi]vaioi, Acts, chap. xvii. 22), 
 concerning the erection of an altar by them, 
 with an inscription "to the unknown 
 god" (ArNQ'2 TQ't eEQ~(). The arei- 
 opagus, according to the authority of Col. 
 Leake, whose excellent map embellishes 
 his topography of Athens, was situated to 
 the westward of the acropolis, near the 
 middle of the city, on an eminence which 
 sloped down towards the north, to a plainer 
 site, on w hich stood the temple of Theseus. 
 Dr. Spon and Sir George Wheler, who 
 fortunately travelled before the Venetians 
 besieged Athens, found some remains of 
 what tlie former conceiv ed to have been the 
 areiopagus still existing in the middle of 
 the temple of Theseus, which was formerly 
 within tiie city, but is now ^^ ilhout the walls. 
 The foundation of the areiopagus he de- 
 scribes as being a semicircle, built with 
 stones of a prodigious size, with a terrace 
 round it of one hundred aiul forty paces, 
 which properly made the hall of this court. 
 There is a tribunal cut in the middle of a 
 rock, with seats on each side of it, on 
 which the areiopagites were seated, and 
 which are exposed to the ojien air. The 
 members of this judicial tribunal assem- 
 bled (lirice e\ery month ; tlieir meetings 
 were ah\ ays in the open air, and they de- 
 termined all causes at niglit, and in the 
 dark. The first circumstance was owing 
 to a superstitious notion of the pollution 
 which would be contracted by being under 
 the same roof with nuirdi-rers and other 
 flagitious criminals, whose oflences fell 
 within their cognizance; and the second 
 custom was obdcrved, that the minds of 
 
ARM 
 
 members might be wholly intent upon the 
 evidence. 
 
 ArijVdne. In the history of sculpture. A 
 beautiful statue of Parian marble, now in 
 the Vatican. She is represented sleep- 
 ing on the rocks of Naxos, where she was 
 ungratefully left by Theseus after she had 
 enabled him to extricate himself from the 
 celebrated labyrinth of Crete, in which he 
 had been confined. The supposed state of 
 her mind is beautifully represented by the 
 disorder of her drapery and the expression 
 of her countenance, although in slumber. 
 On the upper part of her left arm is a 
 bracelet in the form of a little serpent, call- 
 ed by the ancients Ophis ; and which had 
 long occasioned this statue to be taken for 
 a Cleopatra. See Ovid. Met. viii. fab. 3. 
 Fash. iii. v. 4G2. Nonnus in Dionys. 47. 
 
 Armilla. [Lat.] In costume. A brace 
 or bracelet for the arm, such as captains, 
 among the Romans, gave to their soldiers 
 for their good services. By this name the 
 small rings or braces that go round the 
 neching of the Doric capital are sometimes 
 called. See Annulets. 
 
 Armour, \arma, Lat. from apfib^, Gr. 
 and annus, Lat.] In painting, sculpture, and 
 costume. Weapons and clothing of de- 
 fence. See Arms. 
 
 Armoury, [from armour.'] In architec- 
 ture. A storehouse to contain armour. 
 An armoury, to be complete in its construc- 
 tion and appiopriate in its design, should 
 be plain, strong, and simple in composition. 
 Its sculptural and other oinaments, and 
 whole effect should be large and broad. 
 An armoury thus designed, and properly 
 embellished by trophies composed from the 
 national arms of the counti-y for which it 
 is intended, if properly executed and well 
 grouped, is capable of producing a striking 
 efi'ect in architectural composition. 
 
 Arms, [arma, Lat.] As above. Weapons 
 of ofl'ence and defence. The arms and 
 armour of the Greeks and Romans were 
 mostly of bronze or brass, seldom of iron, 
 and often ornamented with gold and silver. 
 But in Homer such ornaments are referred 
 to, as belonging more to the luxurious and 
 effeminate than to the brave and enter- 
 prising. The ancient Persians crowded 
 upon their arms and armour ornaments 
 formed of the most valuable metals, pre- 
 cious stones, and sculptured gems, which 
 continually became the prey of the Greeks 
 in battle, and excited the cupidity of all 
 their enemies. Trophies formed of arms, 
 armour, or sculptured representations of 
 them, were placed as honourable distinc- 
 tions on the tombs of their warriors ; the 
 bravest of whom were alone entitled to 
 
 ARM 
 
 such marks of respect, inscribed with tes- 
 timonials of the bravery and heroic deeds 
 of the departed hero. See Trophy, In- 
 scription. 
 
 It was a practice among the Romans to 
 raise trophies formed of arms and armour 
 on the field of battle after a victoiy, and 
 to preserve the memoi-y of such distin- 
 guished events, they had representations 
 of the trophies, with the name of the van- 
 quished people, struck on medals. In the 
 triumphal processions of the victors, the 
 arms taken from the conquered people were 
 carried reversed in the triumphal proces- 
 sion of the victorious general. In naval 
 triumphs they carried the ornaments and 
 arms of the enemy's ships in cars. The 
 ancient sculptors always had the care to 
 represent the conquered nations with arms, 
 clothing, and costume, difl"erent from the 
 Greeks ami Romans. This attention to 
 propriety of costume characterizes all the 
 ancient compositions which have come 
 down to our times, and distinguishes them 
 from modern artists, who have been by no 
 means so attentive to these essentials. 
 In the number of those monuments of an- 
 cient art, which have best preserved to 
 our times the models of their arms, the 
 dresses and armour of their soldiers, and 
 other important customs, are Trajan's co- 
 lumn in Rome, the Temple of Mars at 
 Evora in Portugal, the fine trophies said 
 to have been dedicated to Marius in the 
 Via Flaminia, for his triumph over Ju- 
 gurtha King of Numidia, which are, how- 
 ever, of a less ancient date, as Suetonius 
 relates that they were destroyed by Sylla, 
 and reconstructed by Julius Caesar; and 
 the various representations of the tro- 
 phies on the coins and commemorative 
 medals of Vespasian, Hadrian, of the An- 
 tonines, &c. (See Costume.) On this de- 
 partment of ancient art, namely, the arms 
 and military costume of the ancients, the 
 elaborate and well authenticated work of 
 Mr. Thomas Hope holds an eminent rank, 
 whether it be considered for the learning 
 which is displayed in the execution and 
 general conception of the whole work, 
 or for the curious and important facts 
 which it contains, in the correct delinea- 
 tion of figures, dresses, implements, and 
 weapons of war, furniture, musical instru- 
 ments, &c., engraved with the utmost fide- 
 lity', from the most authentic documents of 
 the ancient world. 
 
 It is a common opinion that modern 
 arms and modern military accoutrements 
 and dresses will not compose well in tro- 
 phies and other armorial compositions. 
 This is not exactly true, for althougii cus- 
 
ARR 
 
 torn may lead us to give somewhat of a 
 preference to antique forms, from an admi- 
 ration of antique art, yet in the hands of a 
 man of genius the difficulty will vanish. 
 At the entrances of many of our naval 
 arsenals and military depots are armorial 
 trophies composed entirely of the imple- 
 ments and weapons of modern warfare, 
 with great success and effect. The French 
 have also succeeded in this branch of com- 
 position, and many fine specimens are to 
 be found in various parts of their king- 
 dom. Perciev in some trophies to the 
 base of a car of victory, erected by the 
 French at Venice, from that architect's de- 
 signs, and Moreau in the trophies at the 
 angles of a design for a national monu- 
 ment for Paris, have been eminently suc- 
 cessful in the grouping and arranging of 
 these modern elements of military tro- 
 phies. The before quoted work of Mr. 
 Hope, and the several treatises on cos- 
 tume, &c., by Captain Grose, Dr. Mey- 
 RiCK, WitLEMAiN, GuYOT, and Lens, all 
 contain excellent representations and de- 
 scriptions of antique arms and armour, 
 fit for the study of the artist. 
 
 Arrotino. In sculpture. A celebrated 
 antique statue in the Gallery of the Great 
 Duke of Florence. It represents an old 
 man naked, resting upon one knee, and 
 whetting a knife upon a stone, with his 
 head in an attitude of listening. In the pa- 
 lace of the Tuileries is a fine copy of this 
 statue in bronze, cast by the brothers Kel- 
 ler, and in the Royal Gardens at Ver- 
 sailles another in marble. There are some 
 copies in England, among which is a very 
 good one at the Royal Academy. It is 
 called by the French antiquaries and 
 critics, Le rotateur, or remouler, and has 
 excited much discussion as to its action, 
 expression, and meaning. A writer in the 
 Encyclopa'dia Metropolitana conceives 
 that it denotes an attitude of listening, as 
 if cautious not to be observed. Millin 
 thinks he discovers in its expression a fe- 
 rocious smile, and conceives it to be the 
 image of a slave, who, while dissembling 
 to sharpen his knife, is overhearing a plan 
 of a conspiracy; perliaps that of Vindex, 
 wlio discovered tlie conspiracy of tlie sons 
 of Hrutus ; or of Milichus, who informed 
 Nero of tlic projects of his master Scevinus 
 and the Pisos against him. Others con- 
 jecture it to represent the Augur Navius, 
 who severed a (lint with a razor in tlu; 
 presence of Tar(|uiniiis Priscus. Neither 
 of these conjectures can bt- supported by 
 the aiilli(nity of antiquity, for the statue is 
 naked, whic h is contrary to the ordinary 
 practice of the Roman sculptors, although 
 
 ART 
 
 not to that of the Greeks. Winckelman 
 in his Monumenti inediti, and M. Biettiger 
 in an excellent dissertation upon the flute, 
 printed in the Attic Museum of Wieland, 
 a translation of whicli is to be found in the 
 fiftli volume of the Magazin Encyclop^- 
 dique, think it to represent the slave em- 
 ployed by Apollo to flay Marsyas. 
 
 Arrow, [from the Anglo-Saxon arcwe.'\ 
 In archaiology. A pointed weapon, usually 
 shot from a bow. Representations of these 
 weapons of offensive warfare are often dis- 
 covered, among others, on ancient monu- 
 ments. They were among the principal 
 missiles of ancient warfare, and were of 
 various forms and sizes. On a Pantica- 
 pean medal is a representation of a Scy- 
 thian bow, with an arrow of a singular 
 form ; and on a Greek vase, described and 
 delineated in tlie first volume of A. L. Mil- 
 lin's 3Ionumens Inedits, is another of the 
 same form, introduced in a combat which 
 that author tliinks is between Theseus and 
 the Amazon Hippolyta. 
 
 Arsenal. [Italian, from arx, Lat. a 
 tow'er, fort, or citadel.] In architecture. A 
 public manufactory or repository of arms, 
 ammunition, and other warlike stores. 
 The ancient Romans had arsenals (arma- 
 mentaria) on every frontier of their vast 
 empire ; and the moderns of all nations 
 have them also in every fortified city. 
 England, naturally fortified by the sea and 
 her floating wooden walls, possesses some 
 of the finest naval arsenals in the world, 
 at Plymouth, Portsmouth, Chatham, and 
 Woolwich ; and for tlie same reason has 
 neither frontier towns, nor, strictly speak- 
 ing, military arsenals. The naval arsenals 
 of Great Britain, which have also military 
 appointments, are for extent, excellent 
 arrangement, and construction, among the 
 finest in the world, and may vie w ith many 
 of the wonders of the ancient world. Of 
 the arsenals on the continent of Europe, 
 that of Paris is said by Millin to be ajnong 
 the most ancient, although it does not 
 class among tlie best, as was proved on 
 the capture of that metropolis at the close 
 of the last war. That of Berlin is reckon- 
 ed one of tlie finest, and is excellently 
 situated, luuing its rigiit wing on tiie 
 banks of the Spree, which renders it com- 
 modious for water carriage. Tlie arsenal 
 of Venice is one of the largest and most 
 convenient in Europe, being entirely insu- 
 lated, juul occui)y ing several small islands. 
 Like those of England it is principally 
 naval, and contains the celebrated vessel 
 of the rei)ul)lie the Bucentaur. 
 
 AuT. See Arts. 
 
 AktemIMA. In the history nf the urt$. 
 
ART 
 
 The queen of Mausolus, King of Caria, a 
 woman of renowned chastity. After the 
 death of her husband she drank his ashes 
 mixed with wine, and built to his memoiy 
 such a stately tomb, that it was reckoned 
 one of the seven wonders of the world, 
 and has given the name of Mausolea to all 
 buildings of that description. See Mau- 
 soleum. 
 
 Articul.\tion. [from articulutio, Lat.] 
 In anatomy, painting, and sculpture. The 
 juncture or joint of the bones for the due 
 performance of motion ; or, a movable con- 
 nection of bones, when two bones joined 
 togetlier may be moved to and from each 
 other. A knowledge of the diiFerent kinds 
 of articulation is a necessary part of anato- 
 my, and particularly essential to the painter 
 and sculptor, for if the just articulation be 
 not correctly expressed in a figure, it will 
 always appear lame, deformed, and im- 
 perfect. Articulation is considered by the 
 best anatomists as the union of one bone 
 to the extremity of another, whether the 
 two bones can be moved upon each other 
 or not. The movable connection is divided 
 into three kinds : namely, Diarthrosis, 
 where there is obvious motion ; Synarthro- 
 sis, where there is obscure motion ; and 
 Amphiarthrosis, where the motion is im- 
 perceptible. They have again their seve- 
 ral subdivisions, which are bfest learned 
 from distinct treatises, and the lecture and 
 dissecting rooms. 
 
 Artilise. [from artJ] To give the cha- 
 racter of art. " If I was a philosopher," 
 says Montaigne, " I would naturalise art 
 instead of artilising nature. The expres- 
 sion is odd but the sense is good." Bo- 
 lingbroke's Works. 
 
 Artist, [/irtifex, Lat. from artus and 
 facio.'] The professor of an art. The Greeks 
 and Romans do not seem to have distin- 
 guished by names the difference between 
 the artist and the artisan, or workman. 
 Tf/ci-iTijc with the one, and artifex with the 
 other, being indifferently applied to either. 
 The Italians on the contrary appear to 
 have been the first to give them their just 
 appellations. " Artista," says Milizia, 
 " e chi esercita le belle arti. Artigiano e 
 chi pratica qualche arte mechanica." The 
 words have come to our language through 
 the French, with the Italian or proper 
 meaning. 
 
 An artist is one who professes or prac- 
 tises a liberal art ; an artisan, one who 
 follows or exercises a mechanical trade. 
 The mason, the bricklayer, the carpenter, 
 the smitli, the house painter, the paper 
 hanger, the room decorator, and such like, 
 
 ART 
 
 are artisans ; the architect, the sculptor, 
 the painter, the engraver, &c., are artists. 
 For too great a length of time iiave arti- 
 sans been permitted to usurp the title of 
 artists. A name which they have assumed, 
 perhaps, because they follow some inferior 
 branch of art, carried on after the manner 
 of a trade. But it is time that the correct 
 definition of the word should be adhered 
 to, and that the honourable title of an art- 
 ist should only be allowed to such who 
 practise a liberal art after a liberal man- 
 ner. Custom in England does not give 
 the name of artist to the poet, the musi- 
 cian, or the comedian, although the arts 
 which these professors exercise are liberal 
 in the fullest extent of the word, because 
 their own distinctive titles are sufficiently 
 high and specific; and because, perhaps, 
 that the professions of the painter, the 
 sculptor, the architect, and the engraver, 
 with their several subordinate depart- 
 ments, have each of them a certain portion 
 of mechanical art, and are of more obvious 
 and immediate use to community. While 
 the art of the poet, the musician, the dra- 
 matist, have nothing, or at least should 
 have nothing of mechanical art, or what 
 was formerly termed handy work, the art.es 
 manuaricB of the Latins, to distinguish them 
 from the artes liberates, in them, and are 
 more the results of the wants of the mind 
 or sentiment, than of the body. In France 
 the custom is somewhat different, for in 
 the vocabulary of its language, the come- 
 dian, the pantomimist, the dancer, the 
 juggler, the cook, the hair dresser, are all 
 artists. This honourable title should not, 
 however, be thus indiscriminately prosti- 
 tuted, but bestowed after the manner of 
 the great men of the best days of Italian 
 art and literature upon the professors of 
 the fine arts only; and then only upon 
 such as practise them as an art, and do 
 not mix them up with trade, or lower 
 them by their practice to assimilations 
 with the most sordid parts of commerce. 
 The builder should not be called an archi- 
 tect, nor should the sign painter, the figure 
 caster, or plasterer, the chair sculptor, 
 commonly called cabinet maker, the paper 
 hanger and wall decorator be called art- 
 ists. Their proper appellation, artisan 
 or tradesman, and the certain profit at- 
 tendant on all their labours are suffi- 
 cient for their exertions ; because their 
 employment does not consist in the exer- 
 cise of the higher faculties of the mind, 
 but in practising lower departments of 
 art, or, in executing the thoughts, the de- 
 signs of others ; without possessing that 
 
ART 
 
 arilouv, tliat enthusiasm, those sentiments 
 and feelings for the sublime and beautiful 
 in art, that sensibility which approaches 
 to, or calls in the aid of poetry, and nou- 
 rishes a brilliant fancy, and those inde- 
 scribable faculties of the mind which alone 
 can constitute the artist. The artist, es- 
 pecially the architect, is particularly in- 
 debted to Mr. Soane, professor of architec- 
 ture in the Royal Academy, for the zeal 
 with which he has ever defended the dig- 
 nity of art in his lectures to the students, 
 and for the manner in wliich he has con- 
 ducted the profession itself. He has de- 
 fended his own profession with the feel- 
 ings of a real artist, in an essay on the dig- 
 nity of the professional character, against 
 the ignorant pretensions of artisans, in 
 Mr. Prince Hoare's periodical paper call- 
 ed "The Artist." 4to. Land. 1807. 
 
 Arts, [artes, Lat. from utto rj)c uptTtjg 
 virtue, manly skill.] Works performed 
 by the power, skill, and ingenuity of men. 
 The arts are usually divided into mechani- 
 cal, scientific, and liberal. The wants of 
 the body produced mechanical arts and 
 skill ; the wants of the mind the scientific 
 arts and ingenuity ; and the wants of re- 
 fined sensibility, or the eft'usions of the 
 heart the liberal arts and genius. The 
 liberal and the scientific arts are such as 
 require the greater faculties of the mind, 
 as poetry, architecture, painting, sculp- 
 ture, grammar, rhetoric, music, physic, 
 mathematics, ^;c. &:c. The mechanical, on 
 tlie contrary, are such as demand more 
 labour of the hand and body than of the 
 mind; such as the whole body of mechani- 
 cal trades, carpentry, masonry, turnery, 
 carving, &c. The liberal and scientific 
 arts are again divided into the fine arts 
 and the sciences: the fine «?•<«, which alone 
 appertain to this Dictionary, is a term 
 synonymous with the French expression 
 lieuux arts, and the Italian belle arti, from 
 \\ hich languages it has been adopted into 
 our own. The fine arts are architecture, 
 painting, sculpture, and engraving. Sec 
 Aiuiutkctuue, I'mnting, Sculptuke, En- 
 craving. 
 
 The Greeks had no general expression 
 whereby they distinguished what we term 
 the arts from tra(l(>s or handicrafts. One 
 word in tlicir language rixvj] (ars), signi- 
 fied both an art and a trade ; and TixrirTic 
 ( artifex J, both an artist and a workman ; 
 yet they characterized every artist by a 
 proper name which indicated tin; depart- 
 nuiit of art which he practised. The word 
 T^xvi} is (Irrived from Tii'Xi^, 1 construct 
 or prepare ; because the Ttxvinjr con- 
 
 ART 
 
 structed and provided every thing that 
 was requisite for the wants of life. Among 
 the Komans, the word ars, from which we 
 have derived art, had the same meaning as 
 the Greek word rtx*"?- The word Art 
 is derived by different philologists from 
 different roots; by some from the Greek 
 ^erb upu> (inde Latin ars), I arrange or 
 dispose ; because art arranges dillerent 
 parts to form a whole, while others derive 
 it from aptTTj virtue, or manly skill. Art 
 generically consists of the union of differ- 
 ent arts, called the arts, or the fine arts, 
 and comprehend painting, sculpture, archi- 
 tecture, and engraving. The term Fine 
 Arts sufficiently denotes that they are a 
 conjunction of the pleasing and the useful, 
 and are employed in the embellishment of 
 objects invented by the mechanical arts, 
 ^c. They are also called liberal (liberales 
 artes) from being freeborn, of good paren- 
 tage, well bred ; and owe their origin to 
 the natural desire of embellishing the 
 things we use. The fine arts, like every 
 other human invention or discovery, de- 
 rived their incipient excellencies at first 
 from chance, and appeared but of little 
 importance ; but when they began to be 
 investigated, they obtained a due consider- 
 ation and became studies of utility and 
 consequence. The intention, end, and ap- 
 plication of the fine arts is to impress 
 striking and distinguished characters upon 
 objects which they embellish ; to commu- 
 nicate a lively emotion to tiie soul ; and to 
 elevate the heart and mind. 
 
 It is erroneous to attribute the inven- 
 tion of the fine arts to any single people, 
 from whom they were communicated to 
 other nations. They are, on the contrary, 
 indigenous in every country wliere human 
 reason has, to a certain degree, de^ eloped 
 itself; but like the productions of the 
 earth they take different forms, according 
 to the nature of the climate and the wants 
 it produces, while they renuiin unknown 
 among entirely savage nations. We find 
 music, dancing, eloquence, and poetry, in 
 e\ery nation that has arriNcd to the first 
 degree of civilization, and it has doubt- 
 lessly been so in all times. To seek for 
 an origin of the fine arts, it is not neces- 
 sary to go back to the J'gy]>tiaiis or tlie 
 aboriginal Greeks, for they may be ob- 
 served in a state t)f infancy among nations 
 of the sanu- degree of civilization, in i-very 
 age and <'lin»e. We therefore perceive 
 that tlie term art is »])plied to the imita- 
 tion of nil forms in their highest degree of 
 natural or ideal l>eanty h\ niechanicul 
 means. It comprehends in lliis nccepta- 
 
ARTS. 
 
 tion the union of all the arts which depend 
 upon a knowledge of design, as painting, 
 modelling, sculpture, architecture, engrav- 
 ing, musaick*, &c. 
 
 A narration and description of the dif- 
 ferent changes and varieties of style which 
 have prevailed among different people, in 
 the various departments of the arts, fui-- 
 nishes what is properly called the history 
 of the arts, and which is the principal sub- 
 ject of the works of Winckelman, Heyne, 
 and other authors who liave written upon 
 archaiology, (See Archaiology.) Opi- 
 nions have differed as to what people first 
 practised the fine arts ; but it is an unne- 
 cessary inquiry as it is innate with all. 
 Love, celebrated by the mythologists as 
 the governor of nature, was the parent of 
 the arts ; and music, after their system, 
 was his first born. According to a d'ecian 
 apologue, a young girl was the first artist, 
 who, perceiving the profile of her lover's 
 features cast on the wall by the strong 
 light of a lamp (Pliny, lib. 35, cap. 12), 
 drew the first recorded outline from this 
 cherished object of her affections. From 
 such a slight beginning, accoi'ding to this 
 fable, arose those arts whose softening and 
 humanizing qualities have moderated the 
 barbarism of man, and alleviated the dis- 
 astrous effects of vice ; those arts by 
 which an inspired musician appeased, 
 with the tones of his harp, the ragings of 
 a barbarous prince ; by which a poet, by 
 an ingenious and applicable apologue, re- 
 called a mob to truth and reason ; by which 
 a sculptor or a painter, under the veil of a 
 pathetic allegoi-y, presented to the de- 
 praved the forgotten traits of virtue. 
 
 In attempting a slight sketch of the his- 
 tory of the fine arts, the first steps are 
 doubtful, and must be in a great degree 
 hypothetical. The fiist epoch is that pe- 
 riod before the universal deluge, which 
 has left an immense blank in the history 
 of the times which preceded it. All that 
 passed in the lapse of ages, anterior to 
 that catastrophe, is almost lost, for the 
 chronologies of different nations are so 
 contradictory to each other, that they attest 
 nothing but the fact of a deluge. The 
 arts, both libei-al and mechanical, must 
 have been understood previous to the de- 
 luge, as the construction of Noah's ark, 
 and other accounts mentioned in the scrip- 
 tures, sufficiently prove. The people who 
 could construct that vast floating receptacle 
 of a family, with two couple of every species 
 
 * We prefer this etymology to Mosaic, which ap- 
 pears as if it was derived from Moses, whereas its 
 proper derivation is from opvs musivum, mvsea, 
 iimsiva, inde mvsaic. 
 
 of living animals, with necessary subsist- 
 ence for a great space of time; a work 
 which puts in rivalry the great floating 
 towers of our times, that waft the riches 
 of the world from pole to pole, could not 
 but have made great progress in the me- 
 chanical arts. They must have also made 
 some progress in the liberal arts, as we 
 read that music was known to them from 
 the invention of Jubal, and that Tubal- 
 Cain was skilled in the art of working and 
 casting metals. 
 
 The second epoch is that period after the 
 deluge till the more certain ages of Egypt 
 and Greece. Architecture was the first of 
 the arts which reai'ed her head after the 
 universal destruction of the world. This 
 epoch is distinguished in the sacred writ- 
 ings by the building of the Tower of Babel, 
 &c. In less than tAvo centuries after the 
 deluge the arts were cultivated in Chal- 
 dea, China, Egypt, and Phoenicia. Nim- 
 rod laid the foundations of Babylon ; Assur 
 built the celebrated Ninevah, whose prin- 
 cipal street was reported to be of three 
 days journey in length. Many cities were 
 built, in the times of Abraham and Jacob, 
 in Palestine, and the neighbouring coun- 
 tries. Tosorthus, successor to Menes, the 
 first King of Egypt, is said to have in- 
 vented the art of cutting stones, and Vene- 
 phes, or Cephrenes, had already constructed 
 the first pyramid, which served as a model 
 for the others that shortly followed. The 
 accurate graphic and literary descriptions 
 given by modern travellers, of the enor- 
 mous edifices of this period, many of which 
 are now existing, give us an idea of the 
 state of arts in those days. Thej^ bear the 
 character of the infancy of art, rude in 
 their design, yet imposing in their massive- 
 ness and extraordinary size ; they attest 
 more the vast exertion and perseverance 
 of the bodily powers, than great exertions 
 of cultivated minds. The spectator views 
 them with but a mournful satisfaction, and 
 they appear to bear the epitaph of departed 
 centuries, which have prostrated them- 
 selves before them. The origin of the sin- 
 gular style which pervades these, as well 
 as other Egyptian edifices, is to be found 
 in the nature of the climate, and in the 
 productions of their soil. First, their ex- 
 cavating for themselves retreats in caverns 
 from the ardent rays of the sun, established 
 the sepulchral style which is the tjpe of 
 their architecture, and is impressed upon 
 all their edifices. Thus the climate stamp- 
 ed the character of their architecture, and 
 gave birth to other useful arts. Tlie rarity 
 or total want of the refreshing dews of 
 heaven, in certain parts, taught the iuha- 
 
 % 
 
ARTS. 
 
 bltants of those regions the science of hy- 
 draulics, and caused them to form and 
 multiply continually the quantity of canals, 
 lakes, reservoirs, and cisterns, to regulate 
 and confine, within necessary limits, the 
 inundations of the Nile. 
 
 About the year 2040 of the vulgar era 
 the famous lake at Moeris was excavated. 
 This astonishing work is alone sufficient 
 to impress upon our minds the extent of 
 their acquirements and skill at this early 
 period ; and others, no less wonderful, 
 justly surprise us, the flourishing state of 
 the arts in these ancient times, which has 
 covered all Egypt with the scattered ruins 
 of antique splendour. On all sides are 
 seen enormous fragments of columns, obe- 
 lisks, sphinxes, and statues; among which 
 some travellers have pretended to have 
 discovered the celebrated statue of Mem- 
 non, which emitted sounds at tlie rising 
 and setting of the sun. A colossal bust of 
 this description is among the Egyptian 
 sculpture at the British Museum. Archi- 
 tecture was not the only art which then 
 flourished. Sculpture preserved an equal 
 rank, and Painting was not altogetlier un- 
 known. The walls of their edifices were 
 covered with hieroglyphic figures, the 
 paintings in some of which are still remain- 
 ing. These sculpturesque paintings, or 
 painted sculptures, it is true, do not pre- 
 sent any of the modern beauties of light 
 and shade, but their simple contours are 
 boldly designed, and exhibit, in many in- 
 stances, considerable knowledge of the 
 human form. Examples of these curious 
 paintings were accurately copied by the 
 lamented IJelzoni, and exhibited in his 
 interesting Egj'ptian exhibition in Picca- 
 dilly. One of the most celebrated works 
 of art of this epoch is, the vast labyrinth 
 which was finished in the reign of Psal- 
 metichus, two hundred years before the 
 Trojan war. It was composed of thirty 
 jjrincipal apartments, which corresponded 
 witli the number of nomes or governments 
 of Egypt. These were again suljdivided, 
 and comi)osi;d, in tiio whole, with (lie sub- 
 terraneous chumljers, thrcM; thousand thrt-e 
 liundrod apartments. At the opening of 
 tlic! doors, it is said, tlie vibrati(m of tlie 
 (•oliiinn of air produced a noise like thun- 
 <li'r. Tlie beams were of aca('ia, beauti- 
 fully polished, and the ornaments were of 
 Ilie liij;Iicst degree of costliness and splen- 
 dour. This building contained in its cir- 
 cuit several temples and pyramids, ami 
 Apion relates, that lie saw a Serapis of a 
 single em(.-rald,nine culjils in heigiit. Souie 
 authors have thought, from tliis circum- 
 stance, that tliey iiad (lie art of makinv 
 
 glass, and that this statue must have been 
 of this substance, of the emerald colour : if 
 this be true, it serves to explain the extra- 
 ordinary circumstances of the column in 
 the temple of Hercules at Tyre, which, He- 
 rodotus says, was of emerald, and cast a 
 brilliant light in the night. 
 
 Man, in all ages, is the imitator of na- 
 ture, even in the most artificial of the arts. 
 This has made him form tlie ornaments of 
 architecture after natural subjects, as in 
 Egypt the capitals of columns are imita- 
 tions of branches of palm or leaves of the 
 lotus and papyrus, plants indigenous to 
 the soil ; and in Greece the acanthus was 
 used in forming the beautiful Corinthian 
 order, in which they have imitated the 
 Egyptians in selecting their ornaments 
 from the plants of their own country. The 
 works of art of the Egyptians, from their 
 intrinsic value, are deserving of much and 
 serious inquiry, to illustrate the works of 
 Nimrod, of Assur, of Ninus, and Semira- 
 mis. In Egypt facts are proved, and po- 
 sitive remains attest the truth of the histo- 
 rian's pen, and puts an additional value 
 on all his other writings. It is in Egypt 
 that granite and porphyry are speaking 
 witnesses to every eye, in the hinguage of 
 truth. Among the monuments of art which 
 still exist, the most extraordiuiiry are those 
 which are attributed to Sesostris, one of 
 the earliest of their kings, who, after hav- 
 ing conquered a vast extent of territory, 
 occupied himself strenuously in making 
 his kingdom flourishing, and in conveying 
 the wonderful relations of his prowess and 
 wisdom to posterity. To i)revent the in- 
 cursions of his enemies, with which his 
 country was threatened, he built a wall of 
 five hundred stadii in length, from Pelu- 
 bium to Heliopolis. Intent upon every 
 project to extend and facilitate conunarce, 
 he conceived the project of joining the 
 Red Sea to the Mediterranean by a canal, 
 and w hicli lie only abaiuhuied lor the more 
 important object of enclosing his cities 
 \\ith \\;i!ls and vast ramparts, (o jjreserve 
 them from the oiu-roachments of tiie Nile; 
 \vhich, towards the commencement of sum- 
 m*!r, extended itsi'lf like a vast sea over 
 the whole surface of l'2gypf. The neces- 
 sity wliieh led the iniiabitants to opjxise 
 this inundation witik enormous walls, em- 
 bankments, and terraces, imposed u])ou 
 tiiem tiiiil iuimense solidity in their edi- 
 fices, w iiich are now sucii great (irnaments 
 to tlieir country even in their ruins. At 
 tlie time of this beiu'llcial inundation, the 
 sigiit (if tlie eoldssi, the py raiiiitis, obelisks, 
 moles, and other edific(>s of ancient Egypt, 
 niii:;t ha\T been a grand and imposing oh- 
 
ARTS. 
 
 ject : an azure crystal, forming a perfectly 
 level base to these enormous structures, 
 whose summits appeared to pierce the 
 clouds, and whose forms reflected in the 
 water, appeared to be lost in the profun- 
 dity of the abyss, and, at the same time, 
 the ponderous immobility of these archi- 
 tectural masses must have formed a singu- 
 lar contrast with the light vessels, gliding 
 with rapidity in all directions on the sur- 
 face of the water, and would form a splen- 
 did subject for the pencil of Martin. 
 
 This same enlightened prince (Sesos- 
 tris) founded that celebrated society, or 
 college of priests, which was so long the 
 depository of the arts and sciences. He 
 besides built in every city a temple in ho- 
 nour of the deity he more particularly 
 revered. At Thebes he erected two obe- 
 lisks or meridians, each one hundred and 
 eighty-two feet high, and furnished it with 
 those clusters of architectural and sculp- 
 tural magnificence which rendered its ce- 
 lebrated hundred gates but as inferior 
 curiosities. The magnificence of Sesos- 
 tris is probably overrated by Diodorus, 
 who relates that this monarch offered to 
 the gods a vessel of two hundred and 
 eighty cubits long, built of cedar wood, 
 and covered inside and out with plates of 
 gold and silver. Although not entirely 
 without foundation, the same writer, in 
 speaking of four temples, cites the first 
 that was erected as a prodigy of size and 
 beauty, its circumference being thirteen 
 stadii, its walls twenty-four feet tliick, and 
 forty-five cubits high. He has also left a 
 description of one out of forty-seven of the 
 tombs constructed by the earliest kings in 
 the environs of Thebes, which is attributed 
 to Osiraandes, one of the successors of Se- 
 sostris. The entrance to this mausoleum 
 was by a vestibule of two hundred feet 
 long, and sixty-seven high, ornamented 
 with the finest marbles. This led to a 
 square perystyle, supported by columns, 
 in the form of animals, and spangled with 
 golden stars, on a ground of sky blue. 
 Next to this was another vestibule, similar 
 to the other, but more richly ornamented 
 with sculpture. Among the most remark- 
 able of their kind were three enormous 
 figures, of which the principal, fifty feet 
 high, represented the founder of the build- 
 ing. After this was another grand pary- 
 style, where the exploits of Osiniandes 
 were engraved on the walls. In the cen- 
 tre, by the side of an altar of valuable 
 marble and of exquisite workmanship 
 were seated two statues, twenty-seven cu- 
 bits high. Between these, three doors led 
 to a spacious hall, two hundred feet square, 
 
 supported by columns, in which were a 
 number of statues carved in wood, repre- 
 senting a numerous auditory, Avith judges 
 seated on rising seats, appeared as admi- 
 nistering justice. Adjoining this was a 
 gallery, with small apartments or cabinets 
 on each side, where were tables decorated 
 with representations of victuals : and far- 
 tlier on in the same gallery Osiniandes, 
 prostrating himself before Osiris, is offer- 
 ing sacrifices to that deity. Another part 
 of the building contained the library, near 
 to which sculptured images of the gods of 
 Egypt were religiously preserved. Not 
 far from there was an elevated saloon, 
 where the statues of Jupiter, Juno, and 
 Osiniandes were represented reposing on 
 couches : and several recesses in the sa- 
 loon contained the representation of the 
 most useful animals revei-ed by the Egyp- 
 tians. At last the ascent led to a platform 
 on the upper part of the tomb, where was 
 that celebrated circle of gold which had 
 the days of the year marked on its circum- 
 ference, and which Cambyses took away 
 in his conquest of Egypt. 
 
 This description, and many others less 
 exact, which are corroborated by modern 
 travellers, give but an imperfect idea of 
 the magnificence of the Egyptians. A 
 few lines may be spared for the immense 
 woiks of art which covei'ed the soil of 
 ancient Tliebes. The Nile runs for the 
 space of four leagues in the middle of the 
 ruins of this vast city. Here the masses 
 of antique splendour contrast themselves, 
 with far more modern edifices pulverized 
 at their feet. The different ages, indi- 
 cated by different constructions, are heap- 
 ed one upon the other. On one side an 
 edifice, contemporary with the first ages of 
 the world, is covered by the ruins of its 
 junior, that may be enumerated by centu- 
 ries ; and, on the other, an artificial rock 
 of building serves but for one side of a 
 temporary wooden cabin. The first strik- 
 ing object on the western side of the river 
 is an arena, forming a parallelogram, of a 
 league in length, by half a league in 
 breadth. A small distance from thence is 
 the palace of Medinet Abo, whose walls, 
 built slopingly, are crowned with a gigan- 
 tic torus ; a row of columns, isolated above, 
 and united at the bottom by a low wall, 
 separates the first court from the entrance 
 gate, which is guarded by two moles. 
 Two of these columns are surmounted by 
 capitals, and crowded with hieroglyphics, 
 which are covered, and still preserve a 
 considerable portion of brilliancy. With 
 the exception of a few walls, a portico of 
 square pilasters, some statues and bassi 
 
ARTS. 
 
 rilievi, the rest of this once splendid edi- 
 fice is but a heap of ruins, mingled with 
 demolitions and rubbish of modern struc- 
 tures. Proceeding northwards on the 
 plain, in the middle of several fragments, 
 are two statues thrown down, but in the 
 ordinary attitude, and tlie arms placed per- 
 pendicularly by the sides of the body ; and 
 at a small distance farther are two seated 
 figures, that have often been described, 
 and well known by the name of the Co- 
 lossi of Memnon : they are without grace, 
 but also without any striking faults of 
 proportion ; the simplicity of their atti- 
 tudes and their paucity of expression give 
 them a grave character perfectly archi- 
 tectural, with somewhat of a monumen- 
 tal aspect, and does not lessen tlieir gigan- 
 tesque appearance. On their seats are 
 sculptured two standing figures and seve- 
 ral hieroglyphics, which the French tra- 
 vellers, who visited them in their expedi- 
 tion to Egypt, say, are so well executed, 
 that they are truly admirable, particularly 
 the plumage of the birds. On the left leg 
 of one of these statues is engraved the 
 names of those celebrated personages of 
 different nations, who bear witness in dif- 
 ferent times of their having heard the mu- 
 sical tones which proceeded from the sta- 
 tue of Memnon, on the rising and setting 
 of the sun. According to Herodotus and 
 Strabo the statue of Osimandes was placed 
 between these two colossi, which are the 
 largest in Egypt. Several artists, wlio 
 accompanied the French expedition to 
 Egypt, speak with entliusiasm of an im- 
 mense fragment of statue of basalt, which 
 they discovered near this spot, with its 
 face turncnl to the ground. Notiiing, say 
 they, could equal their astonisliment when, 
 after having brought it to ligiit by remov- 
 ing tlie sand in which for ages it Iiad been 
 buried, they found it as perfect and in as 
 fine preservation* from this circumstance, 
 as if it had just come from the sculptor's 
 chisel. Their first intentions were to have 
 brought it away, but tins the enormous 
 size of the mass prevented. So tiiese en- 
 lightened travelleis, convinced that in l)ar- 
 barous countries, and among uncivilized 
 peojjle, the hand of man is often more de- 
 structive to works of art than llic lapse of 
 ages, covered up and conliiied to its former 
 protector the care of this fine production 
 of ancient ail, \\here it remained till the 
 indefiitigable Ilelzoni renio\ed it to Lon- 
 don. The fragments wiiicli remain near 
 the portico of the grand court are yet more 
 enormous in jsize, and are reckoned to be 
 
 * Tlii'< in tlir i-uIoskiiI lu-ad of Mrniiiou spokcli of 
 befoif as bcini; in the Urilisli Mnsuum. * 
 
 tiie remains of the colossus of Memnon : 
 the shoulders are twenty nine feet across, 
 which would make the statue eighty-five 
 feet high ; its material is of red granite. 
 In the British Museum are several very 
 fine fragments of Egyptian art, and parti- 
 cularly an enormous hand of the same 
 stone, obtained, with many others, at the 
 capitulation of the French, to Sir Ralph 
 Abercrombie, in 1803. 
 
 It is in the tombs of the kings of Eg>-pt 
 that we must seek for the best preserved 
 specimens of their paintings and for the 
 most correct information on their costume, 
 their arms, furniture, utensils, musical in- 
 struments, their religious ceremonies, and 
 tlieir triumphal celebrations. The deserts 
 of Egypt seem to have been at all times 
 the asylum of death; their arid soil ap- 
 pears naturally fitted to preserve the me- 
 mentoes of departed friends, and the silent 
 dreary aspect of nature appears to promise 
 eternal rest to the souls of the departed, 
 which the ancients thought hovered about 
 the place of the bodies' interment. The 
 sepulchres in the western part of Thebes 
 are placed in the middle of a solitary val- 
 ley, surrounded by a circle of rocks, which 
 have the appearance of a multitude of grot- 
 toes excavated in the solid stone. The 
 principal object which strikes the atten- 
 tion is a doorway, ornamented in its upper 
 part with a scarabeus, and a man with the 
 head of a sparrow-hawk enclosed in a cir- 
 cle ; outside of which are two kneeling 
 figures. The interior is disposed in the 
 form of galleries ; the walls are covered 
 with hieroglyphics, carved in the stone, 
 and coloured. All the sepulchral cham- 
 bers do not resemble this; being some- 
 times surrounded with porticoes of square 
 columns, and tiie galleries having apart- 
 ments on tlu> sides, embellished wilii all 
 the luxuriance of Egyptian art. In spite 
 of the dilapidations occasioned by time, 
 and the filtration of water through the 
 joints, the gn^ater part of the ualls are 
 covered with paintings in perfect preser- 
 vation. Tiie figures on the ceiling are 
 painted in yellow, on a sky blue ground ; 
 they areprinfii)ally representations of arms 
 of various sorts, armour, arrows, bows, 
 «iuivers, sabres, helmets, lances, and other 
 w eaiions of tilVence and defence. In other 
 l)laces are re])resentations of utensils, fur- 
 niture, seats of various sorts, beds and 
 coiuhes, vases, baskets, instruments of til- 
 lage, arni tools of \arii)us sorts. Some of 
 the i)aintings are (lescribed by a French 
 artist, who visited fiu'm with the expedi- 
 tion; lie describ(>s a husbandman sowing 
 his grain on liie banks of a river, where 
 
ARTS. 
 
 the inundation has subsided ; another cul- 
 tivating rice. In another, he was delighted 
 with a figure dressed in white, performing 
 on a harp with eleven strings. (See the 
 great work on Egypt, published by the 
 French Government.) These and other 
 similar domestic subjects are mixed with 
 mysterious subjects ; among which are 
 some black figures, whose heads are sepa- 
 rated from their bodies ; and others in red, 
 in the attitude of executioners. The vast 
 extent of the temple of Karnak or Carnak, 
 situated in a modern village of the same 
 name is another source of admiration at 
 the wonderful state of the arts in that very 
 early period of the world ; but not having 
 room to describe every grand work of 
 Egyptian art, the inquiring reader is re- 
 ferred for more ample particulars to the 
 works of NoRDEN, PococK, Denon, Hamil- 
 ton's Egyptiaca, the Cours Historique du 
 Mus^e Napoleon, &c. (See also Hierogly- 
 phic.) At Lucqzor are many fine speci- 
 mens of art deserving notice, of which ac- 
 counts may be found in the beforemen- 
 tioned works. 
 
 Another most astonishing production of 
 ancient art is the portico of Hermopolis, 
 a building of one hundred and twenty feet 
 long, and sixty feet high. The columns, 
 surmotinted by capitals different from any 
 others, in Egypt, are formed of bundles of 
 the lotus, and are upwards of thirty-five 
 feet in circumference. The architrave is 
 composed of five stones, of twenty -two feet 
 long each, and that which remains of the 
 cornice is twenty-four feet in length. The 
 richness and luxuriance of the ornaments 
 are well preserved, and kept subordinate 
 to the general effect of the whole. It has 
 a globe with wings, sculptured on the 
 astragal, on the two sides of the portico, 
 and on the sofiit between the tw^o middle 
 columns. The temple of Dandera or Ten- 
 tyra, anciently Tentyrus, is considered by 
 the most able critics as a model of excel- 
 lence in art ; it proves that the perfection 
 of architecture does not consist only in the 
 use of the classical orders, but in the result 
 of the perfect agreement of the different 
 parts among themselves. This splendid 
 temple is covered Avith bassi rilievi, in- 
 scriptions, and sculptures of historical and 
 mystical subjects. The simplicity of plan 
 which it possesses is one of its greatest 
 beauties, and the ordonnance of the lines 
 of its composition are so striking, as to ren- 
 der the ornaments, as they always should 
 be, accessories only to the design, and 
 leaves to the elevation all its nobleness 
 and grandeur of appearance undisturbed. 
 A large cornice, in the middle of which is 
 
 a fine head of Isis, majestically crowns tlie 
 uppermost part of the building. In the 
 frieze is the winged globe, and the plat- 
 bands of the middle intercolumniation are 
 likewise so decorated. A large torus, 
 which encircles the whole building, gives 
 an appearance of solidity to the sloping 
 walls, and takes away from the meagreness 
 of the plain angles without hurting the ge- 
 neral mass. The columns of the portico are 
 finished with capitals formed by the head 
 of Isis, and the whole exterior is covered 
 by innumerable hieroglyphics. The inte- 
 rior is decorated with all the mysticism of 
 the arts and sciences ; astronomy, morality, 
 and metaphysics, have here desposited 
 their secrets. Among the principal deco- 
 rations, the sphynx is predominant; but 
 the most wonderful one is a large celestial 
 planisphere, which is painted on the ceil- 
 ing of the upper apartment of the main 
 biiilding. This picture is divided into two 
 equal portions by a large figure, which is 
 supposed to be of Isis, having its feet on the 
 earth, its arms extended towards heaven, 
 and occupying the space between the firma- 
 ment and the terrestrial regions. In the 
 other half is a similar figure in a similar 
 situation, surrounded with globes and in- 
 numerable hieroglyphics. Next to this is 
 a second chamber, also covered with hiero- 
 glyphic paintings. The principal part of 
 the subjects on the ceilings relate to the 
 motions of the heavenly bodies ; and those 
 on the walls to the movements of the earth, 
 the influence of the air and the water; and 
 Isis representing, with her attributes, the 
 particular divinity revered in tlie temples 
 of Tentyra. Many of the smaller temples, 
 wiiich are hidden under the ruins of mo- 
 dern Arabic buildings, contain sculptures, 
 among which the zodiac is particularly 
 distinguished. (See also section I. of the 
 article Architecture.) Besides this, Ten- 
 tyra possesses the earliest known exam.- 
 ples of truncated figures (caryatides), sup- 
 porting entablatures instead of columns. 
 The fine temple of Esnay, the ancient Lo- 
 topolis, is a fine example of Egji'tian ar- 
 chitecture ; it has eiglit columns, w^hich 
 are richly sculptured, and have capitals 
 composed of representations of the vine, 
 lotus, and palm leaves, but notliing in all 
 Egypt surpasses the beauty of Etfu, the 
 ancient ApoUinopolis, being magnificent 
 and splendid in its detail, and picturesque 
 in its effect. The building is situated on 
 a rise, commanding a spacious valley. Its 
 general aspects are a long suit of pyrami- 
 dal doorways, courts, galleries, porticoes, 
 &c. constructed with immense masses of 
 stone, that give to the different ornaments 
 
 I 
 
ARTS. 
 
 the sharpness and beauty of the finest 
 marble. 
 
 The preceding brief accounts may serAe 
 to give a general idea of the state of the 
 fine arts among the Eg> ptians. Architec- 
 ture, on account of being better preserved 
 to us than others, is, of course, the princi- 
 pal feature. What has been said of the 
 pyramids of Memphis may serve for those 
 of Ghisa,Sakhara(the ancient Necropolis), 
 and others, as they are all much alike in 
 their general aspect. 
 
 II. The next stage in the histon,' of the 
 fine arts directs us towards the Jews, the 
 early part of whose history is so closely 
 connected with that of Egypt. The fine arts 
 cannot be supposed to have made any 
 great progress among the Hebrews, whose 
 principal object was the culture of their 
 lands and care of their flocks, and the most 
 simple means to maintain a wandering or 
 pastoral life. They began, during their 
 residence in Eg>"pt, to study the arts ; but 
 their law forbidding the representation of 
 men and animals, and particularly the 
 Deity under the human form, which, though 
 it was not obeyed to the strictness of the 
 letter, produced an impression on their 
 minds unfavourable to the arts, and obliged 
 their artists to confine themselves to the 
 representation of flowers, leaves, ikc. It 
 appears that they were acquainted with the 
 art of forging and casting metals, and carv- 
 ing in wood or stone ; but though the high- 
 priest had the names of the different tribes 
 engraved upon precious stones on his 
 breastplate, it is doubtful whether they ex- 
 celled in that art. It is certain, that in the 
 most flourishing times of their monarchy 
 they employed foreign artists, as is evident 
 by those of Tyre and Sidon being engaged 
 in the construction of the magnificent tem- 
 ple of Solomon. Their st\"le forms no 
 epoch in art, as it so much resembled the 
 Egyptian. It is surprising that there re- 
 mains no vestige of art of this people, who 
 have been so celebrated, and who, under 
 the reigns of David and Solomon, at least 
 professed some taste ; which may be as- 
 cribed to the jealousy of their cotempora- 
 ries, and indeed the contempt with which 
 they are spoken of by all tiie ancient au- 
 thors, except Plutarch. This contempt 
 cannot alter their character in the present 
 day, but still suppresses in them all regard 
 for the arts. There are very few Jews 
 who have been celebrated in the arts since 
 their recovery. Nothing certain is kno>\ n 
 respecting their ancient dresses, but from 
 circumstances it may be conjectured tiiut, 
 in cities it consisted of a short or long tu- 
 nic, with long sleeves, confined in the mid- 
 
 dle by a girdle, as is the custom with some 
 Jews of the present time. Fleurv" judici- 
 ously observes, that most mtKlern painters 
 have given us a false idea of Jewish cos- 
 tume, by representing them like the Levan- 
 tines at Venice or elsewhere. Thus are 
 we accustomed to see the patriarchs repre- 
 sented with turbans and beards down to 
 their girdles, and the Pharisees with hoods 
 and pouches. Besides the tunic, the He- 
 brews wore a cloak, ornamented with 
 fringes and embroided purple borders. 
 M'hite and purple were their favourite co- 
 lours. In war or in travelling they wore 
 a cloak resembling the chlamys of the 
 Greeks. They are seen so clothed upon 
 several medals of Vespasian and Titus, 
 struck in commemoration of the taking of 
 Jerusalem, and having this inscription, 
 " Judce Capta :" they are engraved in Spe- 
 cimen rei Sunuiria de Ge«\er, Imper. Rom. 
 tab. 55, 56, 59, 60. Boys and girls had 
 coats of many colours ; such was Joseph's 
 tunic, who was sold by his brethren. 
 The Jews had discovered the art of making 
 robes with sleeves of a single piece, as is 
 related in that of Christ's being w ithout 
 seam. In mourning, their clothes were of 
 a coarse stuff, straight without plaits, and 
 of a black or brown colour ; at those times 
 they cut and shaved the hair and beard, 
 which in every other case tliey wore long; 
 they also carried their head bare, which, 
 when out of mourning, they covered with 
 a part of their mantle, or often w ith a kind 
 of turban or bonnet. The dress of tlie fe- 
 males was a tunic without sleeves, resem- 
 bling that of the Greeks. Some of the 
 medals of the time of Vespasian and Titus, 
 of which engravings may be seen in the l>e- 
 fore cited work of Gesner, representing the 
 Jewish nation subjugated under the figure 
 of a woman, sitting under the shade of a 
 palm-tree, dressed in a tunic with short 
 sleeves. On one of these medals the same 
 female is represented with a long tunic 
 and long sleexes, which corresponds with 
 the stola of the Romans. In the most flou- 
 rishing and opulent peri>ds of the Jews 
 they decorated their persons with crescents, 
 earrings, necklaces, bracelets, chains, rings 
 of gold, and wire, and jewels. The habili- 
 ments of their priests were, a train of fine 
 while linen. The high-priest wore an ad- 
 ditional tunic decorated ^^ith little bells, 
 and the fyiAod, a sort of short tunic, which 
 was worn above the other two. .Although 
 history does not relate any particular de- 
 ficriptiun of the costume of the Jewish 
 kings, it is probable that it was a settled 
 point. All the Israelites were soldiers; 
 their offensive weapon> were the bow 
 
ARTS. 
 
 and arrows, darts, lances, swords, both hmicce, 1712, in 8vo. 
 
 long and short, hung on the left thigh, and 
 slings. Their defensive weapons were a 
 shield, helmet, and cuirass. Under their 
 kings they used war chariots, but their 
 form and decoration have not reached our 
 times. It has been said, but without proof, 
 that their ensigns or standards were of 
 coloured cloth, distinguishing every tribe 
 and troop. Gymnastics were not encou- 
 raged under their early kings by the Jews, 
 but they had foot races, dances, and mili- 
 tary exercises. Under Antiochus the 
 Great they built a gymnasium, after the 
 manner of the Greeks but this novelty soon 
 lost its attractions, which it never pos- 
 sessed among the more serious and rigid 
 classes. We are not acquainted whether 
 they had dramatic representations, but 
 they cultivated music and poetry, which 
 they carried to great perfection. Em- 
 balming the body after death was prac- 
 tised by tiiem, and so horrible was the 
 thought of wanting interment, that one of 
 the most terrible maledictions among them 
 was a refusal of the rite of sepulture. 
 Buonarotti, in the Obserrazloni snpro akuni 
 Frammenti di Vasi di Vetro, plate vii. fig. 1, 
 2, and 3, gives the form of three examples of 
 the earliest times of Christianity, where is 
 represented three dead bodies of the Jews, 
 envelojjed in bands like mummies; and 
 the appearance of 1 and 3 would lead to 
 a conjecture, that mausoleums, with co- 
 lumns, &:c. were in use at these times. 
 But few authors have spoken of the tine 
 arts among the Hebrews ; it is therefore 
 necessary to consult those authors who 
 have treated on their institutions and cus- 
 toms, religious, political, civil, and mili- 
 tary, to obtain any information on this head : 
 among the principal of which are, Blassii 
 Ugounc), Thesaurus AntiquiUdum Hebrai- 
 carwrn, Venetius, 1744 and 1769, fol. 34 vols, 
 which is a valuable collection of disserta- 
 tions concerning the government, manners, 
 customs, &c. of the Jews. Lcs Macurs des 
 Israi'lUcs, by Claude Fleury, Paris, 1802, 
 1 2mo. Bernardi Lam y. Apparatus ad Inli'l- 
 ligendam Sacram Bihiiam, &c. Lugd. Bat. et 
 Amstelod. 1711, in 8vo. ; and an enlarged 
 edition of the same, Lyons, 1723, 4to. ; the 
 same work, translated into French by Fr. 
 BoYER, under the title of Inlroduction li la 
 Lecture de I'Ecriture Sainte, Lyons, 12mo. 
 Meixh. Leydeckeuie, De Republica Hebrcc- 
 orum, lib. xii. Amstelod. 17J0, fol. Thomm 
 Lewis, Origines Hebrccai ; the Antujuities 
 of the Hebrtnv Reprulilic, Sic. Lond. 4 vols. 
 1724, 172.5, in 8vo. Conraui Ikinii, Anti- 
 quitates Hehrtea, Bremen, 17.52, in 8vo. 
 Theod. Dassovii, Hafnicn Andquitates He- 
 
 L'Archa'oliigie des 
 Ih'breux de Jean Krnst. Fabfr'^, Halle, 
 1773, in large 8vo. in German. Les Anti- 
 quiti's lUbraiques, de Georges Lorentia 
 Bauerl, Loipsic, ]7»7, in 8vo. Tiiom.-e 
 GoDiviNi, Moses et Aaron, seu Civiles et 
 Ecclesiastici Ritus Antiquorum Hebraorum, 
 UUrejecti, 1698, in 8vo. ; and the coinnien- 
 tary which Caui'sovii has published on the 
 work. Moijse considire comme Legislateur 
 et comnu Moraliate, par De PASTORirr, Paris, 
 1788, in 8vo. Manuel d'Antiqnid's lid- 
 hraiques, de Henry Warnekros, Weimar, 
 1794, in 8vo. Bkuning's Compendium An- 
 tiquitatum Jlebra'arum ; Francofurti adMce- 
 nnm, 1765, in 8vo. (Ceremonies el (Umlumes 
 des Juifs, trad, de I'ltalien, de Leon de Mo- 
 dene, par Kjchari) Simon; Paris, 1681, in 
 12mo. Otton Nathan Nicoi.ai, Disser- 
 tatio de Prophetarum veterum Indeorum Ves- 
 titu, Magdeburgi, 1714, in 4to. Beneu. 
 Day. Carpzovii, Dissertatio de Pontificum 
 Ilebraorum restilu sacro, Gena>, 16.55, in 
 4 to. John Pihueaux's Oratio de Vestilms 
 Aaronis, OxonifP, 1617, in 4to. John Ai.- 
 dermann's De Vestibus Byssinis Ponti/icis, 
 maxima in cxpiationis Festo, Helmstadii, 
 1717, in 4to. Rudoi.pho Hospiniani, De 
 Festis Judcpornm et Eth7ncorum, &cc. lib. iii. 
 Genevte, 1675, fol. GuHX. Outram, De 
 Sacrificiis Judaornm, lib. ii. Amstelod. 
 1688. Otton. Chris. Fischeri, Disserta- 
 tio de Suppliciis llebrceorum, Helmstadii, 
 1717, in 4to. Just. Frid. Lacharcae, Dis- 
 sertatio de Re militari Veterum Hebra-orum, 
 Kiloni, 1735, in 4to. Joan Hieron. So- 
 prani, Diffressio de Re restiaria Hebraorum, 
 Lugduni, 1643, fol. Petri Zovnii, Dis- 
 sertatin de Armis convivalibus veterum He- 
 bra-orum, Amstelod. 1735, in 8vo. Mar- 
 tini Geieri, Traetatus de Hebrworum lecta 
 Luf(entiurnque ritibus, Francofurti ad Moe- 
 ntim, 1683, in 12nio. In addition to other 
 works on the antiquities of the Jews, the 
 student should consult the Jewish Antiqui- 
 ties of Flavius JosEPHts; the dissertations 
 which AuGUSTiN Calmet has inserted in 
 his Cotnmentarij on the Bible ; Bishop Stack- 
 hol'Se's History of the BilAe, and, indeed, 
 any of the numberless authors that have 
 written upon the general or particular his- 
 tory of the ancient Hebrews or the modern 
 Jews. 
 
 IIL The next grand works of ancient 
 art, that tend to form an epoch are the 
 immense wonders of Babylon, which, how- 
 ever fabulous they may appear, are fully 
 justified by the structures of Egypt and 
 the East Indies ; and the traveller who 
 has seen the pyramids of the former, or 
 tlie no lesB wonderful excavations of the 
 latter, can beat appreciate the relations of 
 
 I 2 
 
ARTS. 
 
 tlie palaces of Pharaoh or of Semiramis. 
 That tlie Babylonians had the art of found- 
 ing and chasing in brass appears from the 
 accounts of Herodotus, the father of history, 
 who describes the city to have had a hun- 
 dred gates of brass, and, with other ancient 
 authors, relates that walls were sculptured 
 or modelled in brick, and painted of their 
 natural colours. Semiramis, and Ninus 
 her husband, were also represented, the 
 former killing a tiger with her dart, and 
 the second fighting with a lion. Jupiter 
 and Bel us had statues in bronze. They 
 had also a grand group of the king and 
 his spouse, accompanied by all the princi- 
 pal officers of state and their attendants. In 
 a grand temple, in the centre of the city, 
 was placed a statue in gold of the father of 
 the gods, and those of Juno and Rhea, each 
 forty feet high. Juno held in the right 
 hand a serpent, and in the left a sceptre, 
 enriched with precious stones. Rhea was 
 seated in a golden chariot, having two 
 lions in front, and two enormous dragons 
 at the side. The I'est of the accessories 
 to these magnificent statues and temples 
 were in the same style of richness and 
 splendour, and proved the great perfection 
 to which the Babylonians carried the fine 
 arts. Yet, in relating but a few of the 
 splendours of this great city, the great 
 temple of Belus is deserving of attention. 
 Diodorus Siculus says its height was al- 
 most incredible : but Strabo fixes it at a 
 stadium, a measure which exceeds six 
 hundred English feet, and was of those ex- 
 traordinary dimensions, that when Alex- 
 ander the Great would have rebuilt it after 
 its demolition by Xerxes, the entire ope- 
 ration of ten thousand workmen, for two 
 months, did not complete the preliminary 
 operations of clearing the ruins. The ce- 
 lebrated gardens of this city need but be 
 mentioned to be remembered witii all their 
 wonders; and in the same state are the 
 immense wharfs and quays, that bordered 
 the banks of the luiplirates, the imnuMise 
 canals that intersected the kingdom, and 
 joined seas and rivers, and otlicr works 
 that prove the complete triumph of Baby- 
 lonian art. 
 
 IV. The aiiove slight skelcli of a very 
 early period in the history of tiie world, 
 proves tin- great advances then made in 
 the fine arts; and pr(!Senl frt)m the eailiest 
 period down to one thousand and nineteen 
 years before thi; ("hristian era u continued 
 ciiain of gigantic projects in art. 'I'hey 
 were certainly far from tliat perfection 
 which subsi'tpicnt nations, particularly the 
 Greeks, attained; but tliey opened the 
 way and cultivated u pure taste which 
 
 afterwards beamed over the world of art. 
 Painting, in particular, does not seem to 
 have arrived even at that degree of per- 
 fection to which the other arts had in this 
 period, although design or drawing was 
 used for the later invention of written lan- 
 guage. Its progress from tliis useful pur- 
 pose to that of art, may be dated from the 
 time that certain geometrical and other 
 figures were substituted for the graphic 
 representations of material objects. A 
 ladder and a tower represented the siege 
 of a city ; two armed hands, one holding 
 a shield, and the other a bow or a sword, 
 a battle ; a palm indicated victory. Their 
 object was not to make a very natural 
 representation, but only to record facts 
 of which they would perpetuate tlie me- 
 mory, which may account for their deep 
 incision in their walls, and for the solidity 
 and durability of their colours, which has 
 resisted so long the outrages of time. 
 These causes kept painting, as an art, 
 longer in its infancy than it would other- 
 wise have been ; } et as a fine art it was 
 very early known. Homer speaks of it 
 as being part of the employment of the 
 beauteous Helen at the time of the siege 
 of Troy ; as well as the art of embroidery. 
 
 Moaiitiiiie, to beauteous Helen, from the skii-s 
 The various ijoddess of the rahihow flies, 
 (Like fair Laodice in form and face, 
 Tile loveliest nymph of Priam's royal race). 
 Her in the palace, at her loom she found ; 
 The golden web her own sad story crown'd. 
 The Trojan wars she weavcd (herself the prize). 
 And the dire triumphs of her fatal eyes. 
 
 If Helen could draw the representation 
 of a battle, it is probable she knew how to 
 fill up the outline with colours ; and tlie 
 existence of the rich tints of Tyre and 
 Sidon proves they not only had a splendid 
 variety of colours, but were also acquaint- 
 ed with their preparations. 
 
 It is saiil that the Egyptians were un- 
 acquainted witli anatomy ; but Atothes, 
 one of their most ancient kings, v^Tote a 
 treatise on that science. Besides, if we 
 reflect on the funeral ceremonies of this 
 people, whicit emhowi-Med, and to a de- 
 gree dissected tiieir dead, it is not proba- 
 ble that they would not have directed their 
 intpiiring minds into the structure and 
 mechanism of the human i)ody. 
 
 Anu)ng the illustrious men who invent- 
 ed or carried the arts to great jierfection, 
 ancient authors and jioets mention, with 
 the must reno\\n, Ami)hi()ii. the eeleliriitcd 
 imisician, wiio is said to have built tlic 
 walls of Thebes by the .sound of his lyre ; 
 Ilyaguis, a famous Phrygian performer on 
 lite lliile ; Mart-yas and Olympus, his dis- 
 ciples ; Tnmiris, the finest singer of his 
 
ARTS. 
 
 time ; and Daedalus, the celebrated artist, 
 who excelled in architecture, sculpture, 
 and mechanism, who maybe considered as 
 the type of the liberal arts, of which he 
 was the inventor, or at least the earliest 
 improver, and to which he has given his 
 name, " Daedalian arts." Among the pro- 
 ductions of this artist, Pausanius mentions 
 several which he had seen, and particu- 
 larly alludes to a species of thione which 
 was at Corinth ; a naked Hercules, carved 
 in wood, placed near the temple of Venus 
 Chalinitis ; another also of wood, erected 
 in the temple of Hercules at Thebes ; and 
 a figure of Trophonius. They also had a 
 Britomartis at Olynthus, a city of Crete ; 
 a Minerva ; and a representation of a 
 chorus. Among other eminent artists of 
 this time are, Memnon of Syene, a painter 
 and sculptor ; Epeus, no less celebrated, 
 and who executed a Mercury in wood, 
 which the Corinthians regarded as a mas- 
 terpiece of art; but the work for which he 
 was more particularly celebrated was the 
 wooden horse, by means of which the 
 Greeks entered Troy. This fable, of 
 which so much is made in Homer and 
 other poets, is probably a poetical licence, 
 founded upon the circumstance of the bat- 
 tering ram, which had probably the head 
 of a horse, and of which Epeus is said to 
 have been the inventor. Cadmus should 
 not be omitted, who left Phoenicia to found 
 the city of Thebes, which he named after 
 Thebes in Egypt, his native country ; and 
 who enriched his new city Avith three sta- 
 tues of Venus, carved from the materials 
 of the vessels in which he had crossed the 
 sea. This circumstance proves that Greece 
 was peopled from Egypt and Phoenicia. 
 
 V, The fine arts among the Greeks. Art 
 begun now to enlighten the colonies of 
 Greece, and like a bright star shone over 
 the whole country with such benignant 
 rays, that it soon, in that happy climate, 
 roused the energies of the people to the 
 highest point of perfection. Nature, in 
 Greece, did not exhaust itself in gigantic 
 productions, and the genius of man was 
 never abandoned to mere flights of imagi- 
 nation ; without utility it did not seek for 
 grandeur in the extension of dimension, 
 but found it in exact proportion, which 
 being in perfect harmony in all its parts, 
 has fixed in an invariable manner the i"ules 
 of taste ; and if the Greeks Avere at first 
 the disciples of the Egyptians, they were 
 soon as much their masters in the produc- 
 tion of the fine arts as they are ours. 
 
 It may be inquired why, in so short an 
 interval as exists between the times of the 
 Egyptians and the Greeks, such a diffe- 
 
 rence in favour of a fine style siiould exist ? 
 In the former country, restraints on art by 
 law, religion,and policy,operated to depress 
 it, or keep it from rising above its earlier 
 attempts ; which causes also affected in a 
 great degree the arts of the ancient Is- 
 raelites. While, on the contrary, in Greece 
 the arts, free as the air the natives breath- 
 ed, grew and prospered in all the gay and 
 unrestrained luxuriance of unfettered li- 
 berty. All the country of ancient Greece, 
 that is to say, Macedonia, Thessaly, Greece 
 properly so called, the Peloponnesus, and 
 the Grecian isles, with the after additions 
 of Epirus and lUyrixim, encouraged and 
 patronized the arts, but not all with equal 
 ardour or with equal success. The reli- 
 gion of Greece, abounding with all the 
 splendour of mythology, presented the 
 most captivating and favourable subjects 
 to form the brilliant imagination of the 
 poet, the painter, the architect, and the 
 sculptor. Their form of government was 
 most favourable to the fine arts ; and their 
 manners and customs, the aliment of a fine 
 and manly taste, gave them that purity of 
 style and amenity of form for which the 
 arts of Greece are so preeminent. 
 
 The arts of Greece were much influenced 
 by their mythology, they worshiped twelve 
 principal deities, and named them Zivq 
 Jupiter, 'lipa Juno, UoffuSwv Neptune, 
 'AprjQ Mars, 'AttqWwv Apollo, 'Ep;u?/c Mer- 
 cury, HaXXae Minerva, "AprifiiQ Diana, 
 Arjfir'iTTip Ceres,' Atppodiri] Venus,"H^at(Troe 
 Vulcan, 'Earia Vesta. The inferior order 
 of deities were the genii and lieroes, who 
 after their death Avere placed among their 
 gods. This multiplicity of deities neces- 
 sarily occasioned a want of places for their 
 worship, Avhich much extended the domain 
 of the arts. They not only erected tem- 
 ples to their honour, but often dedicated 
 Avoods and forests to their exclusive ser- 
 vice. Two motives led the Greeks to 
 erect these temples, fear and acknowledg- 
 ment ; to implore favours and to acknoAV- 
 ledge benefits. These were generally done 
 by offerings, consisting of animals, spoils 
 of vanquished enemies, floAvers, and fruits. 
 The arts were not backAvard in contribut- 
 ing to this sentiment, for vases of bronze, 
 of silver, or of gold, tripods, crowns, altars, 
 candelabra;, &c., Avere an)ong the dedica- 
 tions of the great and opulent. The num- 
 berless festivals instituted in honour of 
 their gods, also opened a vast field for the 
 cultivation of the genius of the arts. Some 
 of these festivals were celebrated every 
 year ; some every five years, as the feasts 
 of Eleusis ; some every nine years, as the 
 Daphneplu)ra\ The Panathenaea Avas one 
 
of the most important of these feasts or 
 mysteries, and was sacred to the worship 
 of Minerva. They were founded by Eric- 
 thonius, and originally called Athenaea,but 
 becoming much neglected, they were re- 
 established and much augmented by The- 
 seus, who wished not only Athens, but all 
 the cities of Attica should join in their 
 celebration ; and from Uciu (all) they re- 
 ceived their additional epithet, and became 
 Panathenaea. The foregoing causes, and 
 the frequency and splendour of the public 
 games, concurred in bringing to perfection 
 the arts of Greece ; and their decadence 
 may be dated from the time when the cele- 
 bration of public games occurred less fre- 
 quently. The Lacedemonians, that rigid 
 and virtuous people, however simple and 
 plain might be the exterior of their pri- 
 vate dwellings, were not deficient in ele- 
 gance and convenience, either of works of 
 art, or of furniture within. Desiring a 
 beautiful and healthy race of children, 
 without deformity of limbs or features, 
 they embellished the chambers of their 
 females with the most exquisite models of 
 beauty and fine forms, that their wives, 
 having their imaginations filled with ideas 
 of beauty, might bring forth a handsome 
 race of children. Thus did all the cities 
 of Greece, particularly Athens, encourage 
 the genius of the peaceful arts, which has 
 given immortality to heroes, and has en- 
 nobled even voluptuousness. The people 
 of Greece consecrated woods, and dedi- 
 cated temples ; and the arts peopled them 
 with images of the gods. This is a slight 
 and rapid sketch of some of the causes 
 which have contributed to raise the arts 
 of Greece to such pcrfecfion; causes ^^■■hi(■h 
 could not but have been favourable to 
 them, as they always flourish best when 
 unfettered ; and when a people by a state 
 of freedom und liberty are fit for their 
 reception, they are seldom backward in 
 ofTering their contributions on the shrine 
 of indei)endence. 
 
 Hefore this article is dismissed, it nmy 
 not be improper or uninteresting (o name 
 some of the principal of those eminent 
 artists of Gret-ce, wlio have conferred such 
 lasting iionours ni)on their country. (;ie- 
 anthes and Ardices, painters of Corinth; 
 T('l('))han('S and Cleoplianlus, names men- 
 tioned l)y IMiny as painters, wiio flourished 
 before the days of Homer; Bularchias, 
 called !)> IMiny," I»ictor prastantissimus," 
 is the first who may be j)laced in a less 
 uncertain epoch, because C^amlaules, the 
 King of Lytlia, who purchased his cele- 
 brated picture of tiie combat of the INIag 
 
 ARTS. 
 
 seven hundred years before the Christian 
 era ; Hygiemon and Dinias, which last 
 was celebrated for monoctoromes, or pic- 
 tures of one colour ; Charmades, who is 
 said to have been the first who distin- 
 guished the sexes in painting. According 
 to the account of Pliny, much advance 
 was made in this art by Eumarus, and 
 Cimon, a pupil of his, who first gave mo- 
 tion and attitude to his figures, marked 
 the articulation of the bones and muscles, 
 and dressed his figures with grace and 
 elegance. Between Phidias and Zeuxis, 
 are several celebrated names, and the art 
 was now fast advancing to its glory and 
 the memorable epoch of Apelles. Panw- 
 nus, brother of Phidias ; Polygnotus of 
 Thasos, valde notus ; Apelles of Cous, 
 pictor eximius ; Protogenes ; Antiphiius, 
 the noble rival of Apelles ; Nicophanes, 
 victor illustris ; Nicomachus ; Micon, who 
 painted the Poekile ; Dionysius of Colo- 
 phon ; Aristides of Thebes, the first painter 
 who attempted to express the passions; 
 Parrhasius of Ephesus, Timanthes, both 
 rivals of Zeuxis, the former of w hom ob- 
 tained the mastery. Apollodorus of Athens 
 and Zeuxis were among the principal 
 painters of this day. 
 
 VI. The fine arts among (he Romans. 
 The arts were looked upon in a different 
 light among the Romans to what they 
 were among the Greeks ; the latter loved 
 and cherished them, because they con- 
 ferred honour and dignity on their coun- 
 try ; the former suil'ered them because they 
 embellished their empire. In Greece no 
 man was disgraced by following the pro- 
 fession of an artist ; in Rome it was the 
 business of slaves ; with one the arts were 
 an object of love and desire; with the 
 other, of convenient decorative necessity. 
 In the early period of the Roman history, 
 as well as of every otiier rising nation, 
 except the Greeks, the arts were not nuicli 
 encouraged ; as from the expulsion of the 
 TarquinSjtothecloseoflhc third Punic war, 
 the most illiislriiuis and (•(>nsi(l('rable fami- 
 lies in Rome atlVcted an austerity of life, 
 which bore more the appearance of vanity 
 tiian a real love for virtue. This ignorance 
 of the beauties of the tine arts among this 
 warlike people, lasted for several centuries ; 
 in short, till having no more countries (o 
 con(|U('i in the interior of Ital>,tht'y began 
 to explore the seas, and penetrate into the 
 fertile regions of Sicily, Avhcre they were 
 struck with amazement at the j)omp and 
 gramlfur of the cities, and the beauties of 
 the works of art in these highly cultivated 
 regions. With such customs, laws, and 
 
 ncsians, was assassinated by Gyges, about dispositions, the Roman people were not 
 
ARU 
 
 Very likely to make the line arts flourish 
 rapidly. As a proof, the example of their 
 athxing the epithet or cognomen, Pictor, to 
 a branch of the Fabian family, and per- 
 petuating what they esteemed his disgrace 
 for having derogated from his nobility, by 
 practising the art of painting. Rome was 
 for a long time the prey of civil wars, and 
 of course the arts did not rise above a ne- 
 cessary mediocrit>' till the more settled 
 times of Augustus. The tyranny of Nero, 
 whose name, branded as it is in exery 
 light by which he is viewed, to the painter 
 Amulius, who decorated his golden pa- 
 lace, must have checked the growth of art, 
 and will ever be held in detestation. The 
 arts flourished under Vespasian and Titus, 
 who were both men of liberal sentiments 
 and greatness of mind ; but the parsimony 
 of Galba, the short reign of Otho, and the 
 odious debaucheries of Vitellius, were 
 every way unfavourable to their advance- 
 ment, and they consequently declined. 
 Rome did little more than acquiie a repu- 
 tation for the possession of the Laocoon, 
 the Apollo, the Venus, and other master- 
 pieces of foreign art. It is not for the 
 mere possession of gi-eat monuments of 
 art, wrought by others, that a people will 
 deserve the gratitude of posterity-, or ob- 
 tain a reputation for originalitv' or great- 
 ness in art. On the contrary, to have cre- 
 ated, cultivated, and brought to perfection 
 a fine stjle, is of more real dignity than 
 having the possession alone of all the mas- 
 terpieces in art that the world has ever 
 produced. The rest of the histoiy of the 
 fine arts, being more defined, and on more 
 positive data, may be found in distinct 
 treatises, and are therefore not considered 
 in this brief sketch of the fine arts among 
 some of the earliest natives of antiquitv". 
 See School, Architecixre, P.\ixtixg, 
 Sculpture, AcAOE^ri', &c. &c. 
 
 Arundeuan marbles. In the archai- 
 ology of sculpture. A series of ancient 
 sculptured marbles, discovered by IMr. Wil- 
 liam Pett^-, an ancestor of the Lansdown 
 family, who travelled and explored, some- 
 times at the risk of his life, the ruins of 
 Greece, the Archipelago, and the shores 
 of Asia Minor, at the expense of, and for 
 Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, who 
 lived in the time of James and Charles 
 the first, and devoted a large portion of his 
 fortune to the collection of monuments, 
 illustrative of the arts and of the history 
 of Greece and Rome. The noble Earl 
 himself had resided for a long time in 
 Italy, where he had frequent opportuni- 
 ties of adding to his store ; but not satis- 
 fied with his own unassisted exertions, he 
 
 ARU 
 
 employed Mr. Petty and other men of en- 
 terprise and learning to travel, at his ex- 
 pense, in search of such treasures. 
 
 These marbles, named in honour of their 
 noble collector, arrived in England in the 
 year 1627, with the rest of the collection ; 
 which, a -writer in the Encyclopaedia 
 Metropolitana, says, consisted of thirtj^- 
 seven statues, one hundred and tsventj'- 
 eight busts, and two hundred and fifty in- 
 scriptions ; together with a large number 
 of altars, sarcophagi, fragments of sculp- 
 ture, and an invaluable assemblage of 
 gems. The inscriptions were inserted in 
 the walls of the garden at the back of 
 Arundel House in the Strand, and were 
 examined, soon after they had been placed 
 there, by the celebrated John Selden and 
 two other scholars, at the recommenda- 
 tion of Sir Robert Cotton. Those learned 
 men decipheied twenty-nine of the Greek 
 and ten of the Latin inscriptions, selected 
 from those which Selden thought to be of 
 the greatest importance ; and in the fol- 
 lowing year he published them, in a thin 
 folio volume, under the title of Marmora 
 Arnndelliana, 4to. Lond. 1628. 
 
 The noble family of Arundel being ob- 
 liged to abandon the mansion during the 
 civil wars, the parliament put it under se- 
 questration, and suflered the collection of 
 marbles, deposited in its garden, to be 
 plundered and defaced in a shameless 
 manner ; and it is supposed that not more 
 than half of the original number escaped 
 destruction. The remainder of these in- 
 estimable relics were presented by Henry 
 Howard, Duke of Norfolk, grandson of 
 the collector, to the University of Oxford, 
 where they still remain. The whole col- 
 lection were published in 1676, by the 
 learned Humphry Prideaux, Dean of Nor- 
 wich. They were again printed under 
 the control of Michael jNIattaire, and sub- 
 sequently, in a more exact and splendid 
 manner by Dr. Chandler, the celebrated 
 archaiologist, in 1763. 
 
 These inscriptions are records of trea- 
 ties, public contracts, thanks of the state 
 to patriotic individuals, sepulchral, and 
 many entirely of a private nature. The 
 most curious and interesting is one usually 
 kno%vn by the name of " the Parian Chro- 
 nicle," from having beew kept in the island 
 of Paros. It is a chronological account of 
 the principal events in Grecian, and par- 
 ticularly in Athenian history, during a pe- 
 riod of one thousand three hundred and 
 eighteen years from the reign of Cecrops, 
 B. C. 1450, to the archonship of Diognetus, 
 in the year before Christ, 264. 
 
 The authenticity' of this Chronicle has 
 
ASP 
 
 been called in question by Mr, Robertson, 
 who in 1788, published an essay entitled 
 " Tlie Parian Chronicle." These objections 
 have, however, been fully and ably dis- 
 cussed, and the authenticity of this curi- 
 ous ancient document, vindicated by Pro- 
 fessor PoRSON, in liis Review of Mr. Ro- 
 bei'tson's essay, in the Monthly Review of 
 January, 1789, p. 690, which is republish- 
 ed in Porson's Tracts by Kidd, p. 57 ; and 
 also in Selden's Marmora ArundelUana ; 
 in the Marmora Oxoniensia ; Mi-moires de 
 I'Acad. des Inscriptions, vol. xxvi. p. 157 ; 
 Lenglet Dlifresnoy, Tablettes Chrono- 
 logique, vol. i. p. 29. ed. 1778, 12nio. ; 
 Hewlet's Vindication of the Parian Chro- 
 nicle ; Archaologia, vol. ix. No. 15 ; Brew- 
 ster's Encyclopedia; and in the English 
 lexicon of the Encyclopaedia IMetropoli- 
 TANA, article Arundelian Marbles, where 
 Mr. Robertson's objections, entitled " Hie 
 Parian Chronicle," Lond. 1788, are stated 
 and answered seriatim. 
 
 Ashlar. In architecture. Free stone as 
 it comes from the quarry. It is a term 
 more generally applied to slabs of stone, 
 from six to nine inches in thickness, used 
 for facing brick buildings, worked in imi- 
 tation of regular courses of solid masonry, 
 with mouldings, dressings, &c. 
 
 Ashler or Ashlering. In architecture. 
 Quartering of timber placed perpendicu- 
 larly from the floor of the attic story, to the 
 rafters of the roof, where rooms are in- 
 tended to be formed in the roof, to ob^ iate 
 the useless acute angle formed by the 
 junction of the roof and the floor. 
 
 Asiatic. See Architectlre, Persian, 
 Indian, Chinese, kc. 
 
 AspAsiA. The daughter of Hermotinus, 
 a Phocian. She»was celebrated for her 
 wit and resplendent beauty, was at one 
 time the mistress of Cyrus, and afterwards 
 beloved by Alexander. There is a fine 
 terminal bust of this celebrated woman in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 Aspect, [aspectus, Lat.] 7;( architecture. 
 Direction toward any point; disposition of 
 a building in regard to any thing else. The 
 aspect of a house and particularly of the 
 principal rooms, demands the greatest at- 
 tention from the architect, and most so in 
 bleak or exposed situations. The south- 
 east is generally the best for Brilain ; and 
 the south and ilue east Ihe next best. The 
 houtli-west Mr. Humphrey Repton consi- 
 ders the worst, because frimi (hat quarter 
 it rains oflener than from any other; and 
 llie windows are dinunrd and the views 
 obstructed by the slightest shower, which 
 will not be percc-ptible in the windows 
 facing the south or east. A Jiorth aspect 
 
 AST 
 
 is gloomy, because deprived of sunshine ; 
 but it deserves to be remarked, that woods 
 and other verdant objects look best wheu 
 viewed from rooms which ha\e a north as- 
 pect, because all plants and trees are most 
 luxuriant on the side next the sun. A north 
 aspect is also the best for a study or artist's 
 painting room, on account of the clearness 
 and steadiness of the light. An aspect due 
 east is considered by Reptou to be nearly 
 as bad as the north because there the sun 
 shines only while we are in bed ; and the 
 aspect due west is intolerable, from the 
 excess of sun dazzling the eye through the 
 greatest part of the day. " From hence 
 we may conclude," says he in his frag- 
 ments on landscape gardening, 6cc. " that 
 a square house placed with its front duly 
 opposite to the cardinal points, will have 
 one good and three bad aspects." 
 
 Aspect is also understood in ancient 
 architecture for the manner of distributing 
 the parts of the sacred buildings or tem- 
 ples, and are divided by Vitruvius into 
 seven orders : first, the Antis ; second, the 
 Prosty le ; third, the Amphiprosty le ; fourth, 
 the Peripteral; fifth, the Dipteral; sixth, 
 the Pseudodipteral ; and seventh, the Hy- 
 pa^thral. See these several w ords in this 
 Dictionary, and in Elmes's Lectures on 
 Architecture, page 216. 
 
 Assisi. In the history of architecture. An 
 ancient city of Italy, near Spoleto in Um- 
 bria, where are the ruins of a temple de- 
 dicated to IMinerva, built about the time 
 of Augustus. The portico consisted of 
 six fluted Corinthian columns, each having 
 a distinct pedestal, but otherwise in good 
 proportion and taste. It is now used as 
 the portico of the church of Santa Maria di 
 Minerva. In the neighbourhood of Assisi 
 are other vestiges of Roman magnificence ; 
 ruins of baths, temples, and an aqu;educt. 
 
 Astragal. [dffrpayaXof, Gr. astragalus, 
 Lat.] In architecture. A small compound 
 moulding consisting of a torus, a fillet, 
 and a hollow which separates the shaft of 
 the column in the Corinthian and Compo- 
 site orders from the capital ; and used in 
 some Riunan examples of the Doric and 
 Ionic orders, and in the Tuscan. Its origin 
 was doubtlessly to conceal the junction of 
 the two jiarts. Its etymology is <Ierived 
 from its rrsemhlance to the bone of the 
 heel, called aslrugtilox,iuui is thence called 
 by the !'"renci> architects, talon. \Vhen ap- 
 plied round the necking of the colunui as 
 in the Tiisciiu and ivoiiian doric orders it 
 is more properly called from its oflicc and 
 situation, Colurino. See tliat word. 
 
 Avrv. ['Airrv, Hr. urlis, Lat.] In Ihe his- 
 loni (f architecture. A town or <itv. The 
 
A r H 
 
 name of that part of Athens which encir- 
 cled the acropolis, and is so called in con- 
 tradistinction thereto. The word is used 
 by Vitruvius in describing the temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius, which he says is situa- 
 ted in Asty, the city. The words of Vitru- 
 vius (in Prof. lib. vii.) are " In asty 
 vero Jovem Olynipium amplo modulorum 
 comparatu, Corinthiis symmetriis et pro- 
 portionibus architandum, &c. &c. The 
 translation by Daniel Barbaro renders it, 
 " In asti si dice ancho, che Cossutio si 
 piglio la impresa di far Giove Olimpio con 
 aplisscini moduli, e di nusure, e propor- 
 tioni Corinthii, &c. &c. Mr. Wilkins has 
 also used the word in the sense here given 
 in his Atheniensia ; and says, in a note to 
 the translator of the Athenian inscription, 
 " The aci'opolis was anciently called t) 
 TToXic, the city (Pausan. i. 26). When the 
 habitations had begun to spread around 
 the foot of the rock, the new city was call- 
 ed Asty, in contradistinction to the citadel. 
 To dffTv rj]v rt 'AGijvag Trpocra/yoptucrf. Plut. 
 in Thes. See Acropolis. 
 
 Athen.eum. J[d9))vcaov, Gr.] hi architec- 
 ture. A public building erected for re- 
 hearsals, lectures, &c. denoting its name 
 from Minerva {' AO^vaia), who as the god- 
 dess of wisdom was supposed to preside 
 over it. In ancient times they were used 
 as theatres, where the professors of the 
 liberal arts held their assemblies, the rhe- 
 toricians declaimed, and the poets re- 
 heai-sed their performances in public. The 
 most celebrated of these buildings was the 
 principal one at Atliens, which named the 
 rest. Hadrian built one in Rome in the 
 year 135 of the Christian era; Caligula 
 one at Lyons, which still gives its name to 
 a literary society of that city. In modern 
 times, the name Athenamm has frequently 
 been conferred upon establishments con- 
 nected with literature and art, as the above 
 named society at Lyons, and a very flou- 
 rishing institution at Liverpool. 
 
 Athenian, [from Athens.] In all the arts. 
 Relating to or after the manner of the peo- 
 ple of Athens. See Academy, Architec- 
 ture, Painting, Sculpture, Schools, &c. 
 
 Athens. ['AOrivag, Gr. from 'AQrjvaia, 
 Minerva.] In the history of the arts. A 
 celebrated city, the capital of Attica, 
 founded by Cecrops, a native of Sais in 
 Lower Egypt (Diod. lib. i. p. 33), and 
 originally named Cecropia; afterwards 
 Athens from its patroness. Athens was 
 in its flourishing days the most celebrated 
 seat of learning and the arts in the world, 
 and was called by Cicero, " Omnium doc- 
 trinarum inventrices Athenas;" and in 
 
 ATH 
 
 another place " unde humanitae, doctrina, 
 religio, fruges, jura, leges orta;." 
 
 Before the days of Cecrops, little is 
 known of the state of this city. From 
 Ogyges, who is placed by most chronolo- 
 gers, one thousand eight hundred and fifty- 
 six years before Christ, Attica received the 
 the name of Ogygia. Between this leader 
 and Cecrops, a contemporary of Moses, 
 several kings are named, but their history 
 is quite luiknown. To Cecrops, however, 
 is Athens indebted for her complete esta- 
 blishment ; he introduced the building of 
 altars and temples, the offering of sacri- 
 fices to the gods, and first enacted mar- 
 riage and other social laAvs and customs. 
 The arrival of Cecrops, with a colony of 
 his countrymen the Egyptians, is a farther 
 proof of the origin of Grecian architecture. 
 See Architecture. 
 
 After the death of Cecrops there was a 
 succession of sixteen kings. Among whom 
 Erectheus VI. (Apollod. lib. iii. p. 198, et 
 seq.) or Ericthonius raised a statue of olive 
 wood to Minerva, in the Cecropia (the 
 rock of the acropolis), and instituted fes- 
 tivals called Athenaea, to be celebrated in 
 honour of the goddess, by the twelve cities 
 of Attica. The spot in the Cecropia where 
 he was buried still bears the name Erec- 
 theium. From Erectheus to Theseus, the 
 history of Athens offers little that is re- 
 markable in art ; but the latter, the chief 
 of a race of heroes and philosophers, is 
 identified with all its greatness. By him 
 the city was enlarged and adorned (Iso- 
 crat. Plut. p. II), he erected it into the me- 
 tropolis of Attica, established the Pryta- 
 neium, a court of judicature for the whole 
 province ; and instituted sacred festivals, 
 the Panathenaja to be kept in the Erec- 
 theium every five years. Under his admi- 
 nistration the power and population of 
 Attica, and particularly of Athens, mate- 
 rially increased ; the government was con- 
 centrated, and he deservedly obtained the 
 title of the second founder of Athens. For 
 these and other public services, on his re- 
 turn from Crete they erected and dedicated 
 several temples to him; he accepted four, 
 and made them dedicate the rest to Her- 
 cules his kinsman. The principal of these 
 structures is that known by the name of the 
 temple of Theseus, which contains in the 
 Metopes of the eastern front ten of the 
 labours of Hercules, and on the returns 
 of the portico eight of the achievements of 
 Theseus himself. This temple is a fine 
 example of the Doric order in its greatest 
 purity; and casts from twenty-four of its 
 metopes are among the invaluable coUec- 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 lion of Athenian antiquities in the British 
 Museum, for which our country is indebted 
 to the Earl of Elgin. These beneficial 
 changes in the government and aflairs of 
 Athens, are assigned by the best authori- 
 ties to about the year 1300 before Christ. 
 
 The Pelasgi, a people of uncertain ori- 
 gin, increased the stiength of the city by 
 the fortifications of the Acropolis. It is to 
 them that the beautiful specimens of poly- 
 gonal masonry, which are still to be found 
 in the ancient fortresses of Greece, and in 
 parts of Italy, are commonly attributed. 
 In the long interval betveeen the settle- 
 ment of this people, and the usurpation of 
 the enlightened and magnificent Peisistra- 
 tus there is not much of the progress of the 
 arts to record. To this eloquent and learn- 
 ed Athenian is Athens indebted for its first 
 library and many elegant jrablic buildings. 
 He proved himself a great patron of litera- 
 ture and of the arts ; he was the intimate 
 friend of Crotoniates the epic poet, who 
 wrote the adventures of the Argonauts ; 
 and there is good reason to suppose, says 
 the author of the article Pisistratid;v in the 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, that the ce- 
 lebrated fabulist jEsop was his friend 
 and favourite. He founded the celebrated 
 temple of Apollo Pythias, and to him and 
 his sons Athens owes much of her early 
 grandeur; they founded the temple of Ju- 
 piter Olympus, and it was Peisistratus who 
 claims the honour of having digested the 
 works of Homer into the form under which 
 they now appear. 
 
 Hipparchus,who reigned conjointly with 
 his brother Hippias, succeeded his father. 
 Hipparchus was distinguished for Ins love 
 and patronage of art and literature, and 
 was himself a considerable scholar. Simo- 
 nides, the elegiac poet of Ceos was a pe- 
 culiar favourite, and he despatched a galley 
 on purpose to bring the celebrated Anacreon 
 to Athens. At the Panathen;ea he caused 
 the bards to sing all the poems of Homer, 
 that the Athenians might be instructed and 
 entertained by them. He also caused seve- 
 ral statues of Mercury to be erected in va- 
 rious parts of the city, inscribed with laco- 
 nic sentiments of truth and virtue. 
 
 The invasion of Atlu-ns by tlio I'ersians 
 under Xerxes, occasioned the entire de- 
 structiim of their city, which vmis tiie ob- 
 ject of the most mighty armament which is 
 known in the history of mankind. After 
 tliis complete destruction of the rising city 
 of Athens, it arose from its ruins on un 
 enlarged and improved scale ; and the 
 wealth <leriv(til from their maritime pos- 
 KesBionii and extensive cummeccc was enw 
 
 ployed during the fifty years between the 
 victory of Salamis and the breaking out of 
 the Peloponnesian war, in the embellish- 
 ment of the city of Minerva. Herodotus 
 (ix. 13.) asserts that after this invasion, so 
 completely was the work of destruction 
 carried on, that evei-y street and building 
 was to be restored, from their very foun- 
 dations. This, however, is not literally 
 true, for in the time of Pausanias there re- 
 mained several monuments anterior to the 
 date of the Persian war; but the devasta- 
 tion was sutticiently great to occasion the 
 future Athens to be called a new city. 
 
 The restoration of Athens commenced 
 under the administration of Themistocles, 
 who restored its military defences. Cimon, 
 with unbounded liberality, used his own 
 private opulence upon public works, and 
 to him Athens and the world are indebted 
 for the temple of Theseus, the Poekile, the 
 Dionysian theatre, the Stoas, tlie Gymna- 
 siae, and the ornaments of the Academy 
 and the Agora. But to Pericles is the 
 gloi7 due, of making his native city the 
 wonder of nations, and the exemplar of 
 latest posterity. Among the principal of 
 his numerous and magnificent works, are 
 the Ordeium, the Propyljea, and the Par- 
 thenon (see Architectire). Athens was 
 in the days of Pericles at her utmost pitch 
 of glory and greatness, and its ruins now, 
 after more than nineteen centuries of deso- 
 lation, decay, and misfortune, show its for- 
 mer magnificence by its present grandeur, 
 although in dust. 
 
 The various misfortunes that befell this 
 beautiful city were the Peloponnesian war, 
 which did but begin in Petto the work 
 of destruction. Tiie size of the Macedo- 
 nian empire diminished the power of 
 Athens, but did not aflect her arts, as ad- 
 ditions were even made to her public 
 buildings, even when under the control of 
 a Macedonian governor and garrison. The 
 lirst severe blow which Atlu'ns received 
 was from the Macedonians under Philip, 
 for lu'r fidelity to tiie Romans. The fury 
 of the invader directed itself to tlie ravage 
 of the suburbs and the surrouiuling coun- 
 try. The Cynosarges (hospital for l)as- 
 tard children) and the Lycteum, every re- 
 treat of pleasure and sanctuary of di-vo- 
 tion, slirines, temi)les, images, aiul tombs 
 were rudely overthrown ; ami the precious 
 marbles with which Attica abounded, and 
 whicii would not yield to liri'.were broken 
 and crumbled to dust by the impotent rage 
 of tiie barbarian (Liv. xwi. 21). Sylla 
 again attacked and ravaged this sanctuary 
 of the arts, lie levelled the Pcirajic for- 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 tifications, destroyed the long walls and 
 arsenal of Philo, plundered Epidaurus 
 and Olympia, felled the groves of the Aca- 
 demy and the Lycaeum, and violated the 
 sacred deposits of Delphi. (Plutarch in 
 Vita SyWx.) 
 
 Athens, however, still remained the de- 
 pository of science and the school of arts ; 
 and although during the civil convulsions 
 of Rome the Athenians adhered to Pom- 
 pey, yet they had to enumerate Julius 
 Caesar as among their greatest benefactors, 
 for he contributed to the erection of the 
 Propylaea to the new Agora. Brutus, 
 Cassius, Anthony, and Augustus, conflict- 
 ing and opposite as were their parties, in- 
 terests, and enmities, were all patrons of 
 Athens, and were all publicly acknow- 
 ledged as such. 
 
 But of all the emperors Hadrian was 
 the greatest benefactor and patron which 
 Athens enjoyed after the downfall of her 
 temporal power. Every part of the city 
 and suburbs of this interesting site abound 
 with monuments of his taste and magnifi- 
 cence ; the new portion of which was 
 called after him by the name of Hadriano- 
 polis. By his munificent aid they finished 
 the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which 
 was commenced by Peisistratus, continued 
 by Antiochus Epiphanes, three hundred 
 and sixty years afterwards, and wliich, on 
 its completion by Hadrian, exceeded in 
 magnitude every other Athenian structure. 
 This great benefactor to the Attic metro- 
 polis testified his liberality and attachment 
 to the people of Athens by many other 
 costly buildings, and by large supplies of 
 corn and money. 
 
 Great and munificent as were the bene- 
 factions of the Emperors, and other public 
 men, private liberality also contributed to 
 its beauties. The horologium in the Agora, 
 commonly called the temple of the winds, 
 was the gift of Andronicus Cyrrhestes. 
 Agrippa constructed a splendid theatre, 
 and the ruins of another, built by Herodes 
 Atticus, are still to be seen at the foot of 
 the Acropolis, towards the south west. 
 The casing of Pentelican marble, with 
 which the same munificent patron of arts 
 covered the seats of the Stadium Panathe- 
 naicum, on the southern bank of the Ilyssus 
 was scarcely equalled by imperial prodiga- 
 lity. Under the Antonines Athens attained 
 unrivalled splendour, having been increas- 
 ed by the accumulated patronage of the 
 wealthiest personages in the world for 
 nearly six centuries ; and so careful were 
 they of their ancient glories, that Plutarch 
 declares, in his Life of Pericles, that the 
 buildings of his age, notwithstanding this 
 
 lapse of time, still retained the freshness 
 and bloom of new erections. Pausanias, 
 oppressed, apparently, with the copious- 
 ness of his subject, generalizes his account 
 of Athens, when compared with his de- 
 tailed particulars of other countries which 
 he visited. Strabo, who preceded him, is 
 yet more brief; yet, as eyewitnesses, they 
 have preserved information of the utmost 
 value to the history of the arts. 
 
 The decline of Athens proceeded from 
 similar causes as that of the Roman em- 
 pire ; yet it escaped comparatively harm- 
 less in the Roman spoliation of Greece. 
 The change of religion from Paganism to 
 Christianity, by the extinction of supersti- 
 tion, destroyed a great portion of the sculp- 
 tor's employment, and, in many instances, 
 a destruction of the works of art them- 
 selves from the violence of early zeal 
 against the emblems of idolatry. The early 
 Byzantine emperors continued their pro- 
 tection to Athens, and when Christianity 
 established itself, the temples were for the 
 most part dedicated to the service of the 
 cross. Even Alaric himself, the Goth, for- 
 bore to accelerate the ruin of this city of 
 the arts ; and the colossal statue of Mi- 
 nerva Promachus (the defender), still 
 towered in proud magnificence above the 
 eagles of the uninjured Parthenon. The 
 ceremonies of the Romish branch of Chris- 
 tianity had, in other places as well as in 
 Athens, invested the humble mother of the 
 Saviour of the world with the attributes 
 of the virgin goddess of the Greeks ; and 
 it was not in Assisi (see this word) alone, 
 that a temple of Minerva was converted 
 by them into a Christian church, dedi- 
 cated to Santa Maria Minerva, St. Peter 
 also was decorated with the beard and 
 locks of Jove, and St. George of Cappa- 
 docia became an equivalent for the Athe- 
 nian Theseus. 
 
 For ages after this, and during the go- 
 vernment of the Franks, we at present 
 know but little. It dwindled from metro- 
 politan splendour into a provincial insig- 
 nificance, and sunk into complete degra- 
 dation when Omar, in 1436, took posses- 
 sion of its citadel in the name of the victo- 
 rious Mahommed. While Athens remain- 
 ed under Turkish despotism, three short 
 days of modern warfare, conducted by a 
 people renowned for their love of and skill 
 in arts, inflicted more injuries upon the 
 works of Pericles than had been caused 
 by repeated conquests ; and the Venetians, 
 under Count Koningsmark, a Swede, 
 struck that blow at their beauties which 
 had been withheld by Romans, Goths, 
 and Turks. In 1687 nine thousand Vene- 
 
A T II 
 
 tians, under the command of the Venetian 
 Vandal, disembarked at the Peirsecus, 
 erected batteries on the Puyx, and at the 
 eastern base of the Acropolis. From these 
 they bombarded the citadel and destroyed 
 the temple of victory without wings, which 
 had been used by the Turks as a powder 
 magazine ; the frieze of which is preserved 
 in the British Rluseum. The Parthenon 
 shared a similar fate from a shell which 
 fell into a magazine, and reduced all the 
 middle of the temple to ruins. Athens 
 was surrendered, after this destruction of 
 her chief glories, to the Venetians ; who, 
 after a few months occupation and destruc- 
 tion of other treasures of art by the idle 
 vanity of the Doge Morosini, and the care- 
 lessness of his followers, were compelled 
 to abandon their conquests, and the cres- 
 cent once more soared triumphant over the 
 Acropolis. 
 
 For a long time after this event Athens 
 attracted but inconsiderable attention, and 
 little was known concerning its antiquities 
 in Europe. One learned Theban called 
 the temple of Minerva the Pantheon ; 
 others, among whom was the French am- 
 bassador to the Porte, spoke of it as the 
 temple of the unknown God mentioned by 
 St. Paul ; and the ambassador, although 
 he had actually visited Athens, described 
 the Parthenon as an oval. Tlie first ac- 
 curate idea which the people of Europe 
 received of the Athenian antiquities was 
 given by the publication of Dr. Spon and 
 Sir George Wheler, who both fortunately 
 travelled before the Venetian siege. See 
 Architecture. 
 
 Travellers to Athens became now more 
 numerous, and particular in their descrip- 
 tions. In 17.51, Stuart, surnamed the Athe- 
 nian, employed three years, assisted by 
 Messrs. Pars and Revett, in studying and 
 drawing from the principal antiquities in 
 Athens. In 17«1 tiie Dilett;inli Society of 
 London employed Dr. Chandler, a learned 
 and investigating man, in the examination. 
 Le Roi also visited Atliens about the time 
 of Stuurt, and foisted erroneous accounts 
 and delineations of them upon the i)ublic. 
 Th(! works of these traviillers are all be- 
 fore the piiblic, and are referred to for ad- 
 ditional information. 
 
 Till- I'.arl of Elgin has, however, by his 
 indefatigable industry, skill, and perse- 
 verance, cdnferred an invaluable ser\ ice 
 upon his country and upon the arls, by 
 ])lncing beyond the reach of destruction 
 many of the most precious reli<;s of the 
 ciioict'st ])('ri(>(!s of the history of AtluMiian 
 art ; which an; deposited in li>e liritish 
 Museum, and known by the name of the 
 
 ATR 
 
 Elgin marbles, after their noble preserver. 
 This nobleman, on his appointment as am- 
 bassador to the Porte in 1799, on the re- 
 commendation of Mr. Harrison, of Ches- 
 ter, the distinguished architect obtained 
 permission from the Turkish government 
 to have drawings made and moulds formed 
 of every part of these celebrated monu- 
 ments of antiquity. His lordship after- 
 wards, on finding their liability to daily 
 destruction, by which they would soon 
 have been lost to the world, removed them 
 by the same permission to England, and 
 disposed of them to the government for 
 £3.5,000, by a grant of parliament, who 
 have deposited them for the use of artists 
 and the gratification of the public. See 
 Elgin Marbles. For an interesting ac- 
 count of the removal of these interesting 
 fragments of ancient art, the reader is re- 
 ferred to a " Memorandum on tlie Subject of 
 the Earl of Elgin's Pursuits in Greece," 
 8vo. Lond. 1815. This work is generally 
 attributed to the pen of Wm. Hamilton, 
 Esq. the learned author of Egjptiaca, and 
 secretary to Lord Elgin's embassy. To 
 the articles "Athens" and "the Peisis- 
 TRATiDiE," in the Encyclopedia RIetro- 
 POLiTANAjto which the author of this work 
 is indebted for much valuable information. 
 A Letter from the Chevalier Antonio Ca- 
 NOVA ; ami two Memoirs read to the Royal 
 Institute of France, on the Sculptures in the 
 Collection of the Earl of El§:in, by the Che- 
 valier E. Q. ViscoNTi ; translated from the 
 Italian and French, 8vo. Lond. 1816. .\the- 
 NiENSiA, or Renmrks on the Topography and 
 Buildings of Athens, by \\'illl4M M'ilkins, 
 A.M. F. A.S. 8vo. Lond. 181G. R. Chand- 
 ler's Travels in Asia Minor and Greece, 
 2 vols. Lond. 1817. The Elgin M.^rbles, 
 selected from Sluart and Revett's Antiquities 
 of Athens; with the Report of the Select 
 Committee of the House of Commons, 4 to. 
 Lond. 1810. INI. De Choiseil Golffier, 
 Voyage Pittoresijue de la Grice, 2 vols. fol. 
 Paris, 1782—1809. Tlie Antiquities of 
 Athens, measured and delineated, by Ja^ies 
 Stuart, F.R.S. and F.S.A. and Nuiio- 
 I.AS Reveit, i)ainters and architects, 1 vols. 
 fol. 17G8. T/if Topography of Athens, by Col. 
 Leake, with an excellent Map, to which 
 the student is particularly referred for 
 much valuable infonualion. 
 
 Atijvntes. [arXavrtc, Gr. from rXiuo, 1 
 b»'ar, anil probahly from Atlas.] In archi- 
 trcture and sculpture. A \Nor(l used by \ i- 
 truvius for the ligures of men, placed in 
 the stead of columns to support the enta- 
 blatures. See (.;ar\atu)es. 
 
 A rim iM. jfrom a'tOpior according to Scali- 
 gcr, Scil, Area subdialcs ante ledes, and ac- 
 
ATT 
 
 cording to Barbara and others, from Atria, 
 a town of Tuscany.^ In ancient domestic 
 architectare. A court yard or portal open 
 to the air in the front of a dwelling. The 
 atrium must not be confounded with the 
 vcstibulum, for the former, according to 
 Vitruvius, was a species of covered por- 
 tico, composed of two rows of columns, 
 which formed t^vo narrow aisles and a 
 wide centre. It was situated between the 
 cavcsdium, which was similar to the mo- 
 dern court or quadrangle, and the tabli- 
 num or cabinet. Vitruvius gives different 
 rules for the proportions of the length and 
 breadth of the atrium. It was in this 
 apartment that the Romans were used to 
 place statues of their ancestors, to keep 
 their table plate, and furniture, and some- 
 times to dine. 
 
 Attic. ['Attikoc, Gr. atticus, Lat.] In 
 the history of the arts. Of or belonging to 
 the Attics or Athenians, hi architecture. 
 An upper story or false order, of dwarfish 
 proportions, placed on the summit of a 
 real order, is called an attic story, or an 
 attic order, probably because from con- 
 cealing the roof it imitated the buildings of 
 Attica, which were without, or with very 
 flat roofs, for there are no attics existing 
 in the ruins of Athens. In the best an- 
 cient examples the attic order or story was 
 generally formed of pilasters, with capi- 
 tals and entablatures composed Avithout 
 regard to the rules which govern the re- 
 gular orders. In modern examples ter- 
 mini, terminal busts, and even caryatides 
 liave been used to fonn the attic of a 
 building. The Roman architects employed 
 the attic, to great advantage, over the en- 
 tablatures of their ti-iumphal arches. The 
 solidity of their forms compensated for the 
 voids below, and form appropriate pedes- 
 tals for the chariots and horses with which 
 they were crowned. Their divisions form- 
 ed also excellent panels for sculpture or 
 inscriptions. If an attic be introduced in 
 an architectural design, it should be so 
 managed as not to appear an afterthought, 
 or, that the building had been raised since 
 its first erection ; it should bear a just 
 proportion to the other parts, and is better 
 when the building has a proportionate 
 basement or stj'lobate, than when the co- 
 lumns or antse of the principal order are 
 standing on the ground. If windows be 
 required, they should be either circles or 
 as nearly square as possible. An oblong 
 parallelogram also looks better in an attic 
 order than a perpendicular aperture of the 
 same dimensions. The attics of Sir Wil- 
 liam Chambers, at Somerset House, and 
 
 A T T 
 
 of Mr. Soane, in the Lothbury Court of the 
 Bank of England, are cited as good exam- 
 ples of attics. 
 
 Attic base. See Base. 
 Attica. In the history and archaiology of 
 the arts. A district of Greece between 
 Achaia and Macedonia, the capital whereof 
 was Athens. This region of ancient Greece 
 is celebrated for its chief city Athens (see 
 Athens), for its quarries of white marble, 
 principally in Mount Hymettus, near 
 Athens, which was also famous for its ho- 
 ney ; in Mount Pentelicus, and Laurium, 
 near the Sunium promontory, celebrated 
 also for its silver mines. 
 
 Eleusis was the next Attic city in rank 
 to Athens. The road between these two 
 cities was dignified by the title of the sa- 
 cred way. The temple of Ceres and Pro- 
 serpine, built of Pentelican marble in the 
 time of Pericles, regardless of expense, 
 stood on a hill above Eleusis. Its dimen- 
 sions were three hundred and eighty-four 
 feet by three hundred and twenty-five. In 
 this temple the famous Eleusinian myste- 
 ries were celebrated. Ten miles to the 
 north east of Athens stood the town of 
 Marathon, immortalized by the victory 
 gained by Miltiades over the Persians. 
 The Athenians erected on the plain small 
 columns, on which the names of those war- 
 riors who fell in the battle wei"e inscribed. 
 That which was afterwards raised to Mil- 
 tiades was only set apart a small distance 
 from the rest : and in the intervals between 
 each were placed trophies, bearing the 
 arms of the Persians. On an eminence 
 near to Marathon and Rhamnus stood the 
 temple of Nemesis, the goddess of ven- 
 geance. Her statue was sculptured by 
 Phidias, from a block of Parian marble, 
 which the Persians had brought thither to 
 assist in erecting a trophy of their proposed 
 victory. It was ten cubits high, and was 
 inscribed, not with the name of the artist 
 himself, but with that of his favourite pupil 
 Agarocrutus. 
 
 Attitude. [Fr.] In painting and sculp- 
 ture. The position or gesture fitted for the 
 display of some grace, or beautj", or other 
 quality of form. As attitude is of the first 
 importance to the artist, and of primary 
 utility in gi'ouping, a knowledge of ana- 
 tomy is absolutely necessary to prevent 
 the introduction of constrained or impos- 
 sible attitudes. An attitude may be fixed 
 or transitory, meditated or accidental, and 
 should be applied with propriety to the 
 action represented, or the figure will be 
 unnatural. 
 
 Attributes. {attributa,'La.t.'] Inpai7iting 
 
AITRIBUTES. 
 
 and sculpture. Symbols which characterize 
 and distinguisli the qualities, rank, and 
 persons of the gods and heroes of anti- 
 quity. The settled and known allegorical 
 representations of the ancient poets and 
 artists must be attentively studied by every 
 artist. Their clearness and simplicity are 
 such, that mistakes would be fatal to the 
 composition wherein they are made. 
 
 The ligures of the ancient deities of the 
 Pagan mythology have always some dis- 
 tinctive attribute to point out their quali- 
 ties and perfections. Thus the attributes 
 of Saturn are a serpent with a tail in his 
 mouth, representing eternity, and a scytiie, 
 of which he was the reputed inventor, 
 having first tauglit husbandry, as being 
 the destroyer of all things. Those of Ju- 
 piter are an eagle and thunderbolts; Nep- 
 tune a trident and marine productions ; 
 Pluto a bident or sceptre of two points, 
 and a crown of iron ; Mars a spear ; Mer- 
 cury a caduceus ; Momus a cap and mask ; 
 Harpocrates, the god of Silence, is repre- 
 sented with his finger on his mouth ; ^s- 
 culapius has a larger serpent than ordi- 
 nary to distinguish it from the other ser- 
 pents which are the usual attributes of 
 other deities who presided over health ; 
 Hercules and Theseus are represented 
 with a club ; but the principal distinctive 
 character of Hercules is that of immense 
 strength, characterized by greatness of 
 size, smallness of head, thickness of neck, 
 breadth of shoulders and chest, with a 
 great displaj^ of rigid and strongly marked 
 muscular power. His other attributes are 
 a lion's skin, representing his conquest 
 over the NemiKan lion, a club, and a bow. 
 The famous Hercules of the Belvedere is 
 represented naked, supporting himself on 
 his club with his right arm, and liolding 
 the golden apples of the Hesperides iu 
 his left hand behind him. The simplicity 
 and clearness of these attributes are nnu h 
 to be admired, for the story is clearly de- 
 veloped of his reposing from his twelfth 
 and last labour after gathering the golden 
 fruit, and slaying tiie dragon tliat guarded 
 (hem. Bacchus is cro\\n('(l with ivy, and 
 has a thyrsus or spear pointed with a pine 
 cone; Apollo a laurel and a i)ow (see 
 Apoi,r,o); VuUaii a sledge hammer; Cy- 
 l)eie and Khea a crown of turrets; Juno 
 a crown and peacock ; Amphilrite a shell ; 
 Bellona a whip of many thongs ; Minerva 
 an a;girt (see TLciis), and Ceres a sickle. 
 Venus is known by her ineimiparablu 
 beauty, by the i)re8ence of Cupid, by a 
 mirror, and when as vietrix, willi the apple 
 which Paris adjudged to her. The Right 
 
 Hon. Robert Peel has a fine statue of Ve- 
 nus in this character by Thorwaldsen. 
 
 The virtues and other allegorical per- 
 sonifications have also their distinguish- 
 ing attributes. They should be expressed 
 plainly and forcibly ; and, if possible, by a 
 single circumstance. Thus Prudence, the 
 best guide of human actions, has for her 
 attribute a rule or wand ; Justice a balance 
 or pair of scales ; Fortitude a sword, and 
 sometimes resting on a truncated column ; 
 Temperance a bridle to restrain ; Health 
 is distinguished by a serpent, and Liberty 
 with a cap on the summit of a lance ; Ho- 
 nesty was represented by the ancients with 
 a transparent vest; Modesty as veiled, 
 and Tranquillity as standing firm against 
 a column; Clemency and Peace both bear 
 an olive branch ; the Fates or Destinies a 
 distafl"; Foitune a rudder, and Devotion 
 is represented as casting incense upon an 
 altar. These and similar distinctions as 
 used by ancient artists, are obvious and 
 conventional. They point out the charac- 
 ter and essence of the personification re- 
 presented in a more direct and intelligible 
 manner than by a variety of symbols ; 
 while, on the contrary, a multiplicity and 
 bad choice of attributes, as given by many 
 modern artists to their allegorical personifi- 
 cations, are nothing better than complicated 
 enigmas. Instances of such errors may be 
 witnessed in the royal gardensof Versailles, 
 and even in the collections of Rome itself, 
 with tiie simple beauties of the ancients be- 
 fore the eyes of the oileuders. But the great- 
 est number of these enigmatical attributes 
 and allegories are in the Icoiiolofiia of 
 RiPA, and in a series of Illustrations of 
 the Emblems of Horace, by Onio Venius, 
 the master of Rubens. Among these odd 
 conceits. Flattery, represented by a fenuile, 
 with a fiule in her hand and a stag at iu-r 
 feet, because stags are said to be so fond 
 of music as to sulVer themselves to be taken 
 if a ilute be played ; Beauty by a naked 
 woman with a globe and compasses iu her 
 hand, because a true idea of beauty is dif- 
 ticuil to be imagined ; I'raud by a woman 
 witli two dillerent iieads and faces, a scor- 
 pion's tail and eagles legs, two hearts iu 
 one hand, and a mask in the other ; Ca- 
 price by a man \\itli a pair tif bellows and 
 a spur, because the capricious sometimes 
 encourage virtues, and at others strike at 
 them ; Libcrly with a cat at her feet, be- 
 cause a cat lo>es liberty. When Horace 
 says " Pede pjena clnudo," tlie artist has 
 represented I'unishment with a wooden leg; 
 for "virtus est vitiuni fugere," lie gives 
 Virtue fleeing before aevcn or eight vices i 
 
AVI 
 
 and *' dominum vehit," a ricli man riding 
 upon the back of a poor one ; Envy he de- 
 picts as feeding upon her own heart; Po- 
 verty with a cabbage, and numerous other 
 similar puerilities. 
 
 A correct method of composing and se- 
 lecting attributes is as necessary to the 
 architect as to the painter and sculptor; 
 as by them he may designate the character 
 of his building. In conformity with their 
 general practice, the ancients decorated 
 the friezes of their temples with sacrificial 
 vessels and instruments ; afiixed an eagle 
 on the astos or summit of the temples which 
 they dedicated to Jupiter (see ^tos); a 
 lyre in the metopes of the temples of 
 Apollo, an example of which is in the clas- 
 sical ruins of Delos ; aplustra and spurs 
 denoted the temple to be dedicated to 
 Neptune (see Aplustrum); victories, 
 crowns, palms, &c. were used to decorate 
 their tiiumphal arches; bigae and qua- 
 drigas were placed on the summits of cir- 
 cuses, stadii, and gymnasii ; the Muses 
 and their attributes designated the build- 
 ing to be devoted to poetry and the drama. 
 Thus did a proper choice and adoption of 
 attributes, of which even the orders were 
 included, testify to the spectator and to 
 posterity the usages of every public build- 
 ing. The study and proper selection of 
 attributes and appropriate decorations to 
 buildings has been too much neglected by 
 modern architects, or we should not wit- 
 ness theatres decorated with the sacred Do- 
 ric, nor churches with the skulls, paterae, 
 and instruments of the heathen mythology. 
 For further details of this useful subject 
 the student is referred to Spence's Polij- 
 metis, or an Inquiry concerning the Agree- 
 ment between the Works of the Roman 
 Poets and the Remains of the ancient Art- 
 ists, fol. Lond. 1747; Rfpa's Iconology ; 
 the works of Otho Venius, &c. 
 
 Avenue. [Fr. from ad venire, Lat.] In 
 architecture. A way to, access, approach. 
 A long walk of columns, arcades, statues, 
 trees, &c. used for the decoration of an 
 approach to a palace or mansion. The 
 avenue, in the hands of a man of taste, is 
 susceptible of great variety and beauty of 
 design. 
 
 Aviary, [ariarium, Lat.] In architecture, 
 A building erected for the breeding, rear- 
 ing, and keeping of scarce and curious 
 birds. As luxury increased among the 
 ancient Romans, among other artificial 
 wants they were desirous of obtaining and 
 rearing a variety of rare and curious birds 
 from every part of the habitable globe. 
 The better to train them to the hand, to 
 tame them, and to enjoy their beauties, 
 
 AVI 
 
 they were particularly choice in the ele- 
 gance and conveniences of their aviaries. 
 Varro, in the third chapter of the third 
 book of his work entitled " De Re rustica," 
 says, that his ancestors knew no other 
 birds than fowls and pigeons, which were 
 kept in a court yard ; but in his time they 
 built aviaries, to which they gave the 
 Greek name of b^viQw', which were more 
 extensive than even the dwelling houses 
 of former times. He also relates, in the 
 following chapter, that in his days there 
 were two sorts of aviai'ies, one for contain- 
 ing birds intended for the table, and the 
 other the birds which were kept for their 
 song or plumage. The former sort, like 
 the modern dove-cote, were built entirely 
 for use, but the latter were often beautiful 
 pavilions, with an apartment or saloon 
 in the centre, for the company to sit in 
 and enjoy the melody of the feathered 
 songsters. Leenius Strabo, an opulent and 
 luxurious Roman, is looked upon as the 
 first who introduced aviaries upon an ex- 
 tensive scale, and erected a splendid one 
 at his villa near Brundusium. Lucullus 
 followed this example, and constructed 
 one at his Tusculanum, which far sur- 
 passed the former in size and beauty. 
 Varro, however, outshone them both in his 
 ornithological buildings, and built an ele- 
 gant and spacious aviary at his country 
 house, near Casinum, which he has de- 
 scribed (De Re rustica, lib. iii. c. v.), with 
 evident satisfaction. Castell (in his Vil- 
 las of the Ancients Illustrated, page 19), 
 and other authors have endeavoured to 
 throw light, and even to delineate this 
 splendid structure. I. A. de Segner has 
 devoted an entire work (de Ornithone Var- 
 ronis) to it, and Goiffon has also pub- 
 lished " Observations sur la Voliere de 
 Varron." Both these ti-acts are reprinted 
 in Schneider's Commentary upon the first 
 Volume of " Scriptores Rei nasticae." 
 Schneider did not publish the engravings 
 of Segner's work, which, however, were 
 republished in Gesner's edition of the 
 " Scriptores Rei rusticae," Leips. 1773 ; to 
 which Gesner has added a plate of his 
 own conceptions of this celebrated aviary 
 of Varro. In the " Recueil de Memoires 
 concernant I'Architecture, pour I'ann^e 
 1800, is a letter from M. Rode to M. Hirt 
 on the occasion of a publication by the lat- 
 ter, entitled " une Dissertation sur la Vo- 
 liere de Varro a Casinum," and M. Hirt's 
 reply, which throw considerable light upon 
 the subject. M. Steiglitz, a German ar- 
 chaiologist of great attainments, has also 
 given a dissertation and description of his 
 ideas upon the same strucbire iu the third 
 
AUS 
 
 %'olume of liis " Archaeolopie de I'Archi- 
 tecture des Grecs et des Remains ;" for 
 Mhich see pp. 274 to 28, and plate 36. 
 
 Aviaries of modern times have never 
 equalled the splendour and extent of those 
 of the Romans ; yet the aviarj' at Woo- 
 burn Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Bedford, 
 is comparatively of great extent and value ; 
 the pheasantry at Goodwood, near Chi- 
 chester, the residence of the Duke of Rich- 
 mond, is spacious, and once was elegant. 
 A beautiful pavilion at one extremity of it, 
 which commands extensive and delightful 
 views, contains, on the ceiling, an excel- 
 lent copy of Guido's Aurora, and many 
 other subjects on the walls, tastefully ar- 
 ranged in stucco framed panels. They 
 are, however, much dilapidated by decay 
 and neglect. At Malmaison also, one of 
 the palaces of the late Emperor Napoleon, 
 was a veiy fine aviary, the plan and design 
 of which was copied from one of the pic- 
 tures at Herculaneum. 
 
 AuGUSTALES. [Lat.] In archaiolo^y. The 
 title of the flamens or high priests, who 
 were appointed to sacrifice to Augustus 
 after his deification. Also the ludi or 
 games instituted by universal consent of 
 the people, and celebrated in honour of 
 the same prince on the fourth of the ides 
 of October (the 12th of our computation). 
 Dio, lib. 5 , G ; Suet, califi;. 5, 6. 
 
 AuGUSTALiA. [Lat.] In archaiolo^y. A 
 festival instituted by the Roman people in 
 honour of Augustus Caisar, on his return 
 to Rome, after having made peace in Si- 
 cily, Greece, Syria, Asia, and Parthia ; on 
 which occasion tliey erected an alUir to 
 him, inscribed I'ortunce rcduci. Ibid. 
 
 Aureola. [Lat.] In paintini;:. The old 
 painters called by this name the crown of 
 glory with whicli they adorned the heads 
 of the saints, martyrs, confessors, ^c. But 
 the aureolus was originally a jewel, which 
 was proposed as a reward of victory in 
 public disputes. 
 
 Aurora. In the archuioloffy of painting. 
 A daughter of Titan and Terra, liie god- 
 dess of the morning. Hesiod, howeviM-, 
 makes her the daughter of Hyperion iunl 
 Thia, and sister of Sol and Luna. Hoiium* 
 describes her very poetically, and Guido 
 has painted her, in his c('lel)riited ]ii(tiitt', 
 with a kindred spirit. This first of poets 
 distinguishes her us rosy fingered, and 
 names her two horses Lamjuis and l'h:e- 
 ton, Virgil assigns her a car with four 
 horses, and calls them rosy, but Theocri- 
 tus calls tiiein white, and Lycopliron gives 
 lier I'egarus as a courier. 
 
 Ai'sTKRi:. [ai'irrrfjKjf, Gr. auslcrus, Lai.] 
 In the critichm of Ihc avis. A severity or 
 
 A II T 
 
 dryness of style; equally applicable as an 
 epithet to a composition in painting, sculp- 
 ture, architecture, and engraving. Auste- 
 rity in art, if not carried to a vicious ex- 
 cess, which becomes dryness and poverty, 
 in general prescribes correctness in de- 
 sign, firmness in execution, simplicity' in 
 composition, rejecting every unnecessary 
 ornament, correctness more than suavity 
 or brilliancy of colouring. Truth is more 
 its object than eflect ; and although differ- 
 ing from severity, as going beyond that 
 quality in the rejection of all extraneous 
 ornament, it is nearly allied to it. 
 
 Authority, laitthoritas, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. Countenance, warranty, testimony. 
 Certain works of art; certain artists who.se 
 preeminence entitles them to the rank of 
 masters; and certain ages of the world 
 are properly taken as aiithnrities in all 
 matters of art. In painting the great 
 works of Michael Angiolo, Raffaelle, the 
 Caracci, Rubens, and other great masters 
 are the standards of authority. In sculp- 
 ture, the works of Phidias, the marbles of 
 Lord Elgin, and the ancient statues of 
 Greece and Rome. In architecture, the 
 splendid ruins of Attica and Rome; and 
 in engraving the best of the ancient and 
 modern masters. 
 
 Automaton, [avrofiaror, Gr. automat urn, 
 Lat.] In mechanical sculpture. A machine or 
 figure that possesses apparently a sponta- 
 neous motion. When automata are made 
 to resemble human figures, they are called 
 Androides ; all other automata are classed 
 according to their respective uses or forms. 
 The earliest mention of automata is in Ho- 
 mer; who describes Vuli an as being occu- 
 pied upon them, when Thetis went to Vul- 
 can to beg arms of inuiiortal proof for her 
 son Achilles. " He had made twenty tripods 
 to stand beside the wall of his well-found- 
 ed palace. Under them he i)laced golden 
 wheels, on the bottom of each, that of 
 tlieir own accord they niiglit enter the 
 heavenly meeting, and again return to his 
 house — wonderful to be setii." Hind xviii. 
 V. ;n 1, 375. I'iato and Aristotle (Ma-non, 
 42(i, Eulypliron, 8. ed. Francforf, 1002') 
 both mention statues being nuule by Da>- 
 dalus which could not only walk, l)ut 
 whicii it was necessary to tie in order to 
 prevt'ut them from nu)ving. The latter 
 speaks of a wooden Venus of this kind. 
 IVTaiiy wonderful tilings June been related 
 of tlir power of the ancients in making 
 automaton tigures, and (he nuuierns have 
 certainly in the famous <-hess j)layer, the 
 llute jiiayer »)f \'ancaus(Mi, tlu- Androides 
 of Mailliinlel, and other ingenious vvorks, 
 fully ciniallfd thnn. For a \ery interest- 
 
AXI 
 
 ing account of Automata, the reader is re- 
 ferred to the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, 
 part vii. ; Beckmann's History of Inven- 
 tions ; " An Attempt to Analyse the Au- 
 tomaton Chess Player," 8vo. Lond. 1821. 
 
 Axe. [eax, Sax. d^iv7], Gr. axia or ascia, 
 Lat.] In jiractical architecture. A carpen- 
 ter's tool, consisting of a long wooden 
 handle, and a metal head with a sharp 
 edge. 
 
 Axe, Battle. See Battleaxe. 
 
 Axis, [axis, Lat. a?wi', Gr.] In architec- 
 ture mid sculpture. A real or imaginary 
 line passing through tlie centre round 
 which it may revolve. The axis of a co- 
 lumn is a straight line drawn through its 
 centre ; that of the Ionic volute is a line 
 
 AZU 
 
 drawn through the eye to the circumfe- 
 rence botli ways ; and a spiral axis is the 
 centre of a twisted column drawn spirally 
 to answer the circumvolutions. 
 
 A^URE. [Fr.] In painting. A light or 
 sky-coloured blue. Tins woi'd is presumed 
 to be derived from the Arabic lazul, which 
 has the same meaning. The fine sky co- 
 lour of lapis lazuli, and the pigment made 
 from it, called ultramarine, are of the 
 gi-eatest use to painters, both in oil and 
 water colours. See Ultra Marine. In 
 herald painting azure means the blues in 
 the arms of any persons below the rank of 
 baron. In engraving, this colour is always 
 represented by regular horizontal lines. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baal. In archaiology. An ancient idol 
 whose emblem was at first a bull. The 
 earliest idolaters worshiped the solar fire, 
 which they supposed to be the ruling prin- 
 ciple of the universe ; the word Baal sig- 
 nifying ruler. Baal, Belus, or Bel, was 
 the principal god of tlie Carthaginians, 
 Sidonians, Babylonians, and Assyrians; 
 and as he was supposed to delight in hu- 
 man sacrifices, he was probably the same 
 as the Moloch of the Ammonites, the 
 Kpoj'oc of the Greeks, and the Saturn of 
 the Romans. High places were always 
 chosen for the temples and altars of Baal, 
 in which was preserved a perpetual fire. 
 His priests were numerous and the wor- 
 ship of the idol frantic and ferocious. 
 
 Baalbeck or Balbeck. In the history 
 of the arts. An ancient city of Phrygia in 
 Coelosyria, below Antilibanus, formerly 
 called Heliopolis, or the City of the Sun. 
 The Grecian and Roman historians do not 
 afford much information concerning this 
 once flourishing town. Although it pos- 
 sessed such, striking ruins of ancient art, 
 it was scarcely known to Europeans till 
 about the end of the seventeenth centu- 
 ry, when some English merchants, being 
 at Aleppo, had the curiosity to witness 
 how far Arabian recitals concerning its 
 magnificence were true. Yet it was not 
 till the publication of " The Ruins of 
 Baalbeck," by Messrs. Dawkins and Wood, 
 in 1757, that the public were enabled to 
 form opinions upon its beautiful remains 
 of architectural and sculptural magnifi- 
 cence. 
 
 If an opinion is to be formed concerning 
 the date of the extraordinary buildings 
 whose ruins are to be found at Baalbeck, 
 from considering only the analogy of their 
 
 style and taste, with others of a similar 
 construction ; their age would be fixed at 
 a much later period than appears to be 
 consistent with truth. The age of Aure- 
 lian, which is the period of the building 
 of the temples at Palmyra, would appear, 
 from their resemblance to each other, to 
 be also that of the buildings at Baalbeck ; 
 yet there are many and powerful reasons 
 for supposing them to have been construct- 
 ed during the reign of Antoninus Pius. 
 In the styles of architecture, adopted both 
 at Baalbeck and at Palmyra, may be traced 
 that epoch of the arts Avherein a bad taste 
 Avas sought to be concealed by cost, luxury, 
 and extravagance. In the buildings at 
 Baalbeck is perceived a tasteless com- 
 pound of Asiatic luxuriance and Grecian 
 simplicity, forming a fantastical style of 
 ornament that quite disfigures the gran- 
 deur of their architecture. Although 
 erected in an age distinguished for its ex- 
 travagance and bad taste, yet there is 
 exhibited in these works a grandeur of 
 design, a boldness of conception and exe- 
 cution, and a knowledge of construction 
 which must be admired in spite of the bad 
 taste of their decorations ; and proves their 
 architects to have been men of science and 
 well acquainted with the practical part of 
 their art. 
 
 Travellers cannot behold without asto- 
 nishment the magnitude of the materials 
 used in the construction of these edifices. 
 Many of the blocks of marble with wliich 
 the walls are built, are sixteen feet in 
 length, and the columns of granite and 
 marble are a,lmost innumerable. Their 
 number and dimensions, and perhaps their 
 situation, in the middle of immense deserts, 
 are perhaps the only accountable reasons 
 
 & 
 
why they have been so long preserved from 
 tl»e barbarism of the Arabs or the cupidity 
 of the Turks, The circuit of the walls of 
 Baalbeck, as they appear at present, is 
 about a league, and their construction ap- 
 pears to have been the ill assorted work- 
 manship of different ages. They are con- 
 fused masses of masonry, composed of a 
 mixture of broken capitals, friezes, other 
 parts ofentablatures, sculptures, Greek and 
 Latin inscriptions, &c. On tlie upper part 
 of one of the walls is elevated a Doric 
 column, the only one of the order to be 
 found at Baalbeck. 
 
 The ruins of the temple of Baal, or of 
 the Sun, is the skeleton of one of those 
 magnificent enterprises in art, which may 
 enter competition with the ruins of ancient 
 Egypt. Its length is about nine hundred 
 feet, and its width four hundred and fiftj . 
 The entrance to the pronaos, or portico, is 
 by a row of twelve columns, flanked by 
 two wings ornamented with pilasters. It 
 was approached by a magnificent flight of 
 steps, of which there are but few remains. 
 The interior of the portico is choked up 
 with heaps of ruins, which, when sur- 
 mounted, leads to an hexagonal court of 
 one hundred and eighty feet diameter, 
 strewed with broken shafts of columns, 
 mutilated capitals, wrecks of pilasters, 
 bases, and other architectural and sculptu- 
 ral fragments. The buildings in this and 
 tiie adjoining court, appear to have been 
 appropriated for academies, and lodgings 
 for the priests of the temple. Through an 
 opening at the end of this court is per- 
 ceived a vast perspective of ruins, which 
 are best viewed from tlie top of a slope tliat 
 was formerly a staircase, which communi- 
 cated with a rectangular court three hun- 
 dred and fifty feet long and three hundred 
 and forty-six wide. At tht; end of the 
 court are six enormous columns, and to 
 the left is another row of columns which 
 formed the peristyle to the body of the 
 temple. The buildings to the riglit and 
 left of this court form a sort of gallery, 
 which is divided into seven parts, to each 
 of the great wings or lateral buililings. 
 At tlie extremity of tliis court is the cell 
 or body of the temple itself, wiiere are 
 the beforemcntioned six colossal colnnnis. 
 Their shafts measure twenty-two feel in cir- 
 cumference, and fifty-eight in height; and 
 the whole height of the onltr (the Corin- 
 thian) nearly seventy-two feet. On ex- 
 amining tlu! circumjacent site, a row of 
 bases were discovered arranged in a \)h- 
 rallelogrannnatic form of two hundred and 
 seventy feet in length, and one hundred 
 and fil'iy in width. This belt of column.^ 
 
 BAALBECK. 
 
 encompassed the cell or body of the tem- 
 ple, which was decastyle (ten columned) 
 in front, with nineteen columns in flank, 
 and of the fourth or peripteral order of 
 temples; but its intercolumniations do not 
 accord with any of the five species de- 
 scribed in the system of Vitruvius. These 
 buildings are all of the Corinthian order, 
 with the exception of some pilastral ele- 
 vations, which are of the Composite. 
 
 The second temple is situate near the 
 southernmost part of the city upon an 
 irregular site. It is pseudodipteral (see 
 that word) and does not appear to have 
 been surrounded by a peristyle and court 
 
 like the former. It is, however, more 
 entire, has eight columns in front and 
 thirteen in flank, of the Corinthian order. 
 Their shafts are nearly sixteen feet in 
 circumference and forty-four in 'leight. 
 There are few architectural remains of the 
 ancient world more ricii in decoration than 
 those of Baalbeck. The soflites and ceil- 
 ings of the peristyle are panelled in lo- 
 zenge forms with representations of Jupi- 
 ter and his eagle, Leda and the swan, 
 Diana with her bow and crescent, and va- 
 rious busts in the costume of emperors and 
 empresses. All the members of the inte- 
 rior entablatures are overloaded with a 
 profusion of ornaments. The archivolts, 
 the heads of the niches, the frieze of the 
 principal order are loaded with the most 
 sumptuous embellishments of sculpture. 
 The interior columns are all fluted, and 
 those of the exterior plain. Dr. Pococke 
 conceives that nothing can be finer than 
 the entrance to the great temple. Almost 
 all the members are enriched with sculp- 
 tural representations of flowers and fruit, 
 and the frieze with ears of corn of admira- 
 ble execution. According to Volney, the 
 walls of the smaller temple sulVered nnich 
 from the earthquake of 1751); which is 
 confirmed by our countrymen, who, in 
 1781, found but six columns jof the great 
 temple standing out of the nine, which were 
 erect in 1751 ; and twenty only out of 
 twenty-nine belonging to the smaller tem- 
 ple. Tiie rapacity of the Turks has also 
 contributed to their destruction, from their 
 desire of possessing the iron pins and 
 cramps with wliich the huge blocks nf 
 masonry ari- joined. 
 
 IJaalbeck also possesses the remains of 
 a singular and curious mouunu'iit of the 
 art. It is in tlie southern part of the city, 
 and its lower story is used for a Greek 
 church. This curious relic is a circular 
 temple, ditfering in every respect from the 
 precepts of Vitruvius. Its plan is ex- 
 trinicly whimsical, and all its details pre- 
 
B AC 
 
 sent a mass of liberties and abuses. See 
 Dr. Pococke's Travels in the East; R. 
 Wood's Ruins of Baalbeck, 1 vol. fol. 
 Loud. 1757 ; R. Wood's Ruins of Palmyra 
 and Baalbeck, 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1757. 
 
 Babylon. In the history of the arts. 
 From Babel. One of the most ancient 
 cities recorded in history, and for a long 
 time the capital of Chaldea. It vpas on 
 or near the site of Babylon that the de- 
 scendants of Noah began to build a city 
 and a tower, the size and height of which 
 were to surpass any thing human, and to 
 enable them to reach the skies. Josephus 
 ascribes the building of this celebrated 
 tower to Nimrod, who according to Bo- 
 chart (Phaleg. i. 10.) was, even if then 
 born, too young to have had any part in 
 its construction. The punishmeut of these 
 ambitious mortals is well known to every 
 reader of the Old Testament. Plato (PoZ«7. 
 p. 272. ed. Steph.) mentions a similar tra- 
 dition, as does Abydenus, as quoted by 
 Eusebius {Prapar. Evangel, ix. 14). These 
 traditions show that traces of the Mosaic 
 account were scattered far and wide 
 among the peoplp of Asia. See Archi- 
 tecture, Arts, &c. 
 
 Babylonica. \yestes vel textu.m.'\ In ar- 
 chaiology. A sort of rich weaving or hang- 
 ings, so called from the city of Babylon, 
 when the art of weaving hangings with a 
 variety of colours was first invented. 
 
 BAccHiE or Bacchantes. [B«kx«i, Gr.] 
 In archaiology. Priestesses of Bacchus. 
 They are sometimes called Manades, ou 
 account of the frantic ceremonies used in 
 their festivals, and also Thyades, after a 
 mad priest of Bacchus named Thyadis, 
 from the same cause. They ornamented 
 their heads with horns, and carried a thyr- 
 sus in their hands, using the most frantic 
 gestures in these orgies, which were mostly 
 in the night (see Ovid. A. M. i. 353). The 
 chorus of the play of Euripides, entitled 
 Bacch^, is composed of these priestesses, 
 whence it derives its name. 
 
 Bacchanalia. In archaiology , Festivals 
 instituted in honour of Bacchus at Rome, 
 similar to the Dionysia of the Greeks. 
 They were divided into two principal cele- 
 brations, the greater and the less. The 
 former were held in the city in the spring 
 with much pomp, and called by the Greeks, 
 Dionysia; and the latter in the autumn, 
 and celebrated in the Holds and vineyards. 
 Of the enormities practised under the veil 
 of these festivals, Livy has left us a parti- 
 cular account (xsxix. 8, &c.) The Bac- 
 chanalia were first introduced from Greece 
 into Etruria, and soon found their way 
 into Rome. 
 
 B AC 
 
 Bacchus. {Hcikxoq, Gr.] In the mythology 
 of the arts. Tiie son of Jupiter by Semele, 
 the daughter of Cadmus, King of Thebes 
 in Boeotia. For his history see Ovid, the 
 Hymns of Orpheus, and the other writers 
 of the mythology of the ancients. In 
 works of art, as well as in the poets, tliis 
 god is generally represented crowned with 
 vine leaves and ivy, as the god of wine ; 
 the thyrsus in his hand is a distinguishing 
 symbol (see Attributes, Thyrsus). His 
 car is drawn by lions and tigers ; and Bac- 
 chantes, Satyrs, &c. make up the proces- 
 sion (HoR. I. Od. XII. V. 21. Mn. VI. V. 805. 
 ]Met. iy. V. 21. Fast. hi. v. 729). Bacchus 
 is described by the ancient writers as a 
 great and bloodless conquei'or: he tra- 
 versed a great jjart of the world, and made 
 considerable conquests in India, before 
 the Theban war. Not far from the Ganges 
 he erected two columns as the oriental ne 
 plus ultra. During these travels he bene- 
 fited every nation that he visited by im- 
 parting some improvement in civilization 
 (see Stat. Theb. vii, v. 567). The charac- 
 ter of this god has been much misrepre- 
 sented by modern artists, in making him 
 very fat ; whereas, the best ancient artists 
 and poets always i-epresented him as of 
 that media etas which Ovid (fasti iii.) else- 
 where calls utilis, and of almost feminine 
 beauty. The Roman poets have given 
 him eternal youth (see Tibullus, i. 4. who 
 decks Bacchus and Apollo with eterna 
 juventa), and reckon him next to Apollo 
 for beauty, and the length and flow of his 
 hair. The jollity and carelessness of this 
 god is another misrepresentation into 
 which many modern poets have fallen ; 
 whereas, ancient authors expressly say, 
 that for valour and achievements he gol a 
 place in the highest heaven; hence too he 
 was styled liber pater, or Bacchus the great 
 prince ; and Quintus Curtius says, the great- 
 est compliment the flatterers of Alexander 
 the Great could pay that prince, was to 
 say, he exceeded Bacchus and Hercules 
 (Curt. l. viii. c. 18). The heads of Apollo 
 and Bacchus, as was observed under the 
 article Apollo (see Apollo), were so simi- 
 lar, they could hardly be known from one 
 another without some other attribute. Ou 
 a gem at Florence is represented several 
 heads upon a tree, which is explained by 
 a passage from Virgil (Geo. ii. v. 392), 
 who speaks of little heads of Bacchus 
 being hung up by countrymen on trees, 
 from a notion that his regard gave ferti- 
 lity to the grounds. The poets generally 
 attributed horns to Bacchus, to show, as 
 Clemens Alexandrinus observes, that he 
 was theson of Jupiter Ammou, but they are 
 
 K 2 
 
seldom met with in liis statues, 
 learned author of Pulijmetis thinks may be 
 owing to the ijinorance of the early anti- 
 quaries, w ho, when they found such a head, 
 attributed it to a fawn, and then added 
 some attribute of these silvan deities to 
 the figure. The horns are so positively 
 an attribute of Bacchus, that no artist 
 "who would correctly respresent this deity 
 should omit them. For Ovid in his Fasti (in 
 V. 790), Horace in his Epistles (Ep. xv. v. 
 24), Ovid again, in his Art of Love (i.v.232. 
 Jb. m. V. 348). The Thebais of Statius 
 (ix. V. 136. Jb. vii. V. 131), and otiier au- 
 thors continually mention them, antl Ovid 
 relates (Fast, iu, v. 500) that Ariadne fell 
 in love with him on this account. The 
 most usual attributes with which an artist 
 should decorate and distinguish this god, 
 are his thyrsus, his vine, and ivy crowns, 
 his Syrma or long triumphal robe, his He- 
 bris or fawn skin, his Cothurni or buskins; 
 his head is sometimes decorated with a 
 golden mitra, and sometimes with wreatiis 
 of flowers {Vide Her. Fur. Act. ii. Sc. 3. 
 V. 475. Oei). Act. II. Chor. v. 415. Virgil 
 Geo. II. V. 8, &:c. &c.) The cantharus, 
 calathus, or scyphus, in the hand of Bac- 
 chus, and the tiger at tlie feet of his sta- 
 tues, seem equally to relate to his charac- 
 ter as the god of wine or jollity, because 
 he is said to have first introduced the vine 
 into Europe; which he brought with him 
 after his concjuest of India, where it natu- 
 rally grew, especially al)out Nysa, a city 
 built by him, and afterwards spared by 
 Alexander the Great for their devotion to 
 Ills favourite god (Quint. Curt. xii. 7. 
 Arrian, v). But although the ancients 
 gave him the character of the god of drink- 
 ing, he is never represented as drunk by 
 the ancient artists, and seldom by the 
 poets. Ovid represents him as rather pre- 
 tending to be drunk tiian really so (Met. 
 III. v. 009). The modern ideas of Bac- 
 chus seem to be a mixture of tiie two cha- 
 racters of Bacchus and Silenus. Tiie 
 youth of the one is joined to the sottisli- 
 ness of the othtM-, and llie niisrepresenti'd 
 god is placed astride upon a tun. So that 
 from th<! finest s!iiii)e and fiic(> hv is de- 
 gra(U-(l, by iiKidi'rn paiiilers and s( iil|)lorH, 
 to a fat jolly boy half drunk. Horace 
 calls him the modest joyous g()<l (lloit. i. 
 Oi). 27. V. 4. Id. IV. Oi). 15). 'I'lie anci.nl 
 poets, who should iihvays be our guides 
 in matters of this kind, consider IJacchus 
 as their joint iiis[)irer with Apollo. Tluir 
 Parnassus rose with two suiiuiiils, one 
 was called Nysa, sacred lo IJacclius; and 
 the other (Jyrrha, sacred (o Apollo; and 
 the Itomaii jioets seem lo \m\v worn (he 
 
 BACCHUS. 
 
 This the iv^ crown of Bacchus, even more than 
 the laurel crown of Apollo (Vide Virg. 
 EcL. VIII. V. 13. HoR. I. Ep. hi. v. 25, &:c. 
 Sec.) which may serve to explain some 
 bassi rilievi, where Bacchus is attended 
 by the nine muses, which are properly 
 enough allotted to him under this charac- 
 ter. 
 
 The finest antique representations of 
 this god are some bassi rilievi of the 
 bearded or Indian Bacchus in the British 
 Museum; some statues, 6«:c. which were 
 formerly in the Napoleon iNIuseum at Pa- 
 ris, but restored to their rightful owners 
 at the peace of 1814. One of these is 
 above six feet high, and of Greek marble. 
 This beautiful and elegant statue is en- 
 tirely naked. The head accords with the 
 foregoing quotations, the hair is long and 
 flowing, bound round with a band and 
 crowned with wreaths of vine and ivy, as 
 descriljed by Horace (iii. Od. 25. v. L'i.t. 
 lo. IV. Ou. 8. v. Ult.), and in the Thebais 
 of Statius, (Lib. v. v. 259). This beautiful 
 relic of ancient art was brought from the 
 Chiitcau de Riclnliiii, and is entirely an- 
 tique, except the two arms, which are of 
 modern workmanship. Another represen- 
 tation of this god, formerly in that splen- 
 did collection of works of ancient art, is a 
 fine statue, nearly seven feet high, of the 
 bearded or Indian Bacchus, which for a 
 long time was thought to be of Sardana- 
 palus, the King of Assyria. This statue 
 is dressed in a long tunic with large folds, 
 wrapped in a vast mantle, which only 
 leav(=s his right hand at liberty. His long 
 hair is dressed in a formal numner, and 
 joins his ample beard, which flows down 
 his breast. Tliis statue is of Pentelican 
 marble, and was discovered about forty 
 years ago, six leagues from Rome, in the 
 village of Monte Porzio, the spot where it 
 is supi)Osed a palace of Lucius \'arius for- 
 merly stood. In the same collection was 
 also a bust of this same Bacchus, of Pen- 
 telican marble, with formal braideil hair 
 and beard. Another exciuisite statue of 
 the }outhful Bacchus was also in this 
 museum^ It is about the same height 
 as thi' last, about six feet eight or nine 
 inches, and is of Pentelican marble; it 
 stood in the hall of Apollo, aiul was called 
 in the French catalogue, " Bacchus en Rc- 
 pos." It possesses all the bel'oreniention- 
 ed characteristics of the god, he is recli- 
 ning his left arm on the trunk of a tree, 
 round which winds the stem of a vine, 
 loaded with griipesof the largest size, and 
 his right arm is placed on his head. En- 
 gravings of these last named statues, with 
 learned disscrlalions upon them, are to be 
 
BAL 
 
 found in Annales du Musde, par C, P. Lan- 
 DON, 16 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1815, and other 
 works descriptive of ancient statues. 
 
 Bacchus was worshiped by different na- 
 tions under as great a variety of names, as 
 are the acts, which are attributed to him. 
 In Sicily he was called Morichus ; in Ara- 
 bia, Oracal and Adoneus ; in Sparta, Scy- 
 thites and Milichius. Ausonius (ep. xxix.) 
 has commemorated the principal titles of 
 this god in the following lines : — 
 
 Ogygia me Baccliuin vocat, 
 Osiiim yEg) ptus pntat, 
 Mjstse Phanaccm nomiiiaiit, 
 Dionysoii Iiidi cxistimant, 
 Roinana sacra Liberum, 
 Aiabica gens Adoneum, 
 Lucanianus Paiitheuni. 
 
 For further accounts of this extensively 
 adored deity, the reader is referred to the 
 first fable in the Metamorphoses of Ovid, 
 Banier in the second volume of his Mytho- 
 logy; Nonnius, the poet of Panopolis in 
 Egypt, in his Dionysiaca; the third book 
 of Diodorus Siculus, and the vai'ious au- 
 thors and passages cited in the course of 
 this article. 
 
 Baetylia. [from BniTvXoc, Gr. The 
 stone wliich Saturn is said to have de- 
 voured instead of his son Jupiter.) In ar- 
 chaiolog-y. Anointed stones, worshiped by 
 the earlier Phauicians and other nations, 
 before they emerged from a state of barba- 
 rism. 
 
 Balbec. Vide Baalbeck. 
 
 Balcony, [balcone, Ital.] In architec- 
 ture. A projection from the front of a 
 house, surrounded by a balustrade or open 
 gallery. In common houses these are sim- 
 ple projections, supported by trusses of 
 wood, stone, or iron, and surrounded by a 
 plain or ornamental railing ; but they are 
 susceptible of considerable elegance of de- 
 coration, and may be supported by co- 
 lumns, caryatides, carved trusses or can- 
 talivers, and covered by elegant canopies, 
 supported in a similar manner. 
 
 Baldachin, [baldachino, ltcil.'\ In archi- 
 tecture and sculpture. A kind of canopy 
 ornamented with sculpture, and supported 
 by columns for the embellishment of altars ; 
 but more particularly used to those which 
 are insulated like the great altar in the 
 church of St. Peter at Rome. 
 
 Ballium. In ancient architecture. The • 
 court within a fortified castle. There 
 were generally two, the outer hallium im- 
 mediately within the gates, separated by a 
 wall from the inner hallium, which con- 
 tained the apartments for the garrison and 
 governor. St. Peter in the Bailey, at Ox- 
 ford, stands in the outer ballium of the 
 
 BAP 
 
 castle. The Old Bailey in London is so 
 named for occupying a similar situation, 
 Balteus. In ancient architecture. See 
 
 PlJ.«CINCTIO. 
 
 Baluster. {Imlaustrio, Ital.] In architec- 
 ture. A small turned column usually in- 
 troduced between piers, on the upper parts 
 of large buildings under windows, and on 
 balconies, &c. 
 
 Balustrade. [Fr.] In architecture. A 
 row of balusters. 
 
 Bamboo. See Architecture, Indian, 
 
 Band. [^Ijende, Dutch, hande, Fr.] In ar- 
 chitecture. Any flat low moulding face or 
 plinth. Bands are constituent members 
 of architraves, imposts, archivolts, &c. and 
 are often called faciae, from the Latin 
 facia (see Vitruvius, iii. 3). They diifer 
 in size and number according to the order 
 they are employed in. See Plat Band. 
 
 Bank. In architecture. See Mole. 
 
 Baptistery. [fiairTKJTtiQiov, Gr. baptis- 
 terium, Lat.] In architecture. The place 
 where baptism is administered, and some- 
 times the vessel in which the water for 
 this ceremony is held (see Font). Bap- 
 tisteries are susceptible of much decora- 
 tion, and are in general of a circular or 
 octagonal form, detached from the body of 
 the church. The most celebrated baptis- 
 teries are, that in the Basilica of San 
 Giovanni Lateranense at Rome, which is 
 reckoned the most ancient in Europe, and 
 is called the baptistery of Constantine ; 
 that of the church of St. Sophia at Con- 
 stantinople, which is so spacious that it 
 has served as a hall of assemblage to a 
 very numerous council ; that of Florence, 
 M'hich is said to have been formerly a tem- 
 ple of Mars ; it is an octagon of nearly 
 ninety English feet in diameter, and is 
 covered with a cupola of the same figure, 
 which is decorated with musaicks, by An- 
 drea Tasi, a disciple of Cimabue. For- 
 merly the centre was ornamented Avith a 
 magnificent octagonal baptismal font, the 
 base of which is still seen in tiie pave- 
 ment. The exterior is covered with mar- 
 ble, and has three principal entrances, 
 which are embellished with statues and 
 other works of the most eminent modern 
 sculptors. Lorenzo Ghiberti made for the 
 principal those celebrated gates which 
 Michael Angiolo said were worthy of 
 being the portals of Paradise. The others 
 were executed under the direction of An- 
 drea da Pisa. Pisa has also a cele- 
 brated baptistery, which was begun in 
 1152, and finished in eight years by Dioti 
 Salvi, an architect of that city. In the 
 middle of this building is an octagonal 
 basin or font beautifully sculptured, and 
 
BAS 
 
 large enough for the entire immersion of 
 infants in baptism. Both the interior and 
 exterior of this fine baptistery have deserv- 
 edly excited the admiration of travellers, 
 and is particularly alluded to by Addison 
 in his travels. Other baptisteries, being 
 only appendages to churches, are not so 
 much worthy of notice as the above, which 
 are in themselves splendid insulated build- 
 ings. It does not appear that any build- 
 ing devoted expressly to the purpose of 
 baptism was ever erected in Great Bri- 
 tain ; but the nearest approach to those of 
 Italy is that of Ely. We have, however, 
 many extraordinary fonts, which are de- 
 scribed under that head. See Font. 
 
 Baruows. [from the Saxon.] Inarchaio- 
 logy. A hill or mound of earth, which was 
 anciently raised over the bodies of the de- 
 ceased heroes and persons of distinguished 
 characters, and are considered by some an- 
 tiquaries as the most ancient sepulchral 
 monuments in the world. See King's 
 Munimenta Antique!, 4 vols. fol. Lond. 1799 ; 
 Googh's Sepulchral Monuments of Great 
 Britain ; Douglas's Nenia Britunnica ; 
 Stackhouse's Illustrations of Tumuli and 
 ancient Batrows ; Salmon's Roman Anti- 
 quities in Great Britain; and Oxley's 
 Journals of Two Expeditions into the inte- 
 rior of New South Wales. 
 
 Base, [jiaffig, Gr. basis, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture and sculpture. The foot or bottom 
 of any figure. The word base is used, ge- 
 nerally, for any body which bears another, 
 but particularly for that portion of the 
 lower part of a column, which is between 
 the shaft and pedestal (when a pedestal is 
 used), (see Pijnth, Pedestal) and differs 
 in the various orders and species of archi- 
 tecture. In Egyptian architecture the 
 bases of columns are mostly simple plinths ; 
 and although Dr. Pococke exhibits the 
 base of a column found in Egypt with seve- 
 ral tori, yet this circumstance indicates tiie 
 style to be of the time of Greek architec- 
 ture prevailing in Egypt. The base of 
 the Tuscan cohunn consists of a torus and 
 fillet; tjie Doric has none, except a plain 
 plinth, on which it is sometimes elevated, 
 but it is more generally jjlaced on a con- 
 tinued plinth or upper sleii of tiie tein|)le, 
 as in tiie temples at 'J'horicus, ('orintji, 
 Agrigentuni, I'oestum, Athens, Sunium, 
 and yEgina. Although, in nuxlern tinu-s, 
 tlie attic base has been giviii lo (lie lioinau 
 siolialioii of tiie Doric, yet in the best 
 time of the Roman architecture (according 
 to N'itruvius) the Doric was used, as by its 
 inxiitors, without the base. 'I'he Ionic 
 column, in the « arliest sjiecimenB, has a 
 base, of wiiich the hcigiif was half its di.i- 
 
 I 
 
 BAS 
 
 meter, and composed of a variety of mem- 
 bers. The bases to the columns in the in- 
 terior of the Propylea at Athens, have the 
 base, which is now called the attic from its 
 having its origin in Attica. Those of the lit- 
 tle temple near the Iljssus, at Athens, also 
 bear some resemblance to the attic as well 
 as the beautiful example of Hermogenes, 
 in the temple of Bacchus at Teos, and 
 those in the temple of Minerva Polias at 
 Priene. The Greeks seldom used a plinth 
 to this base, but placed it immediately on 
 the upper step or plinth of the temple ; 
 but the Romans always used a plinth, as 
 in the temple of Fortuna Virilis, and the 
 theatre of Marcellus at Rome ; and Vitru- 
 vius also allows it a plinth. The attic 
 base is composed of a large torus, imme- 
 diately on the plinth, on which, receding 
 beyond the axis of the projecting curve, is 
 a small fillet, and on that a Scotia (see 
 ScoTL\), crowned with another tillet, also 
 receding from the perpendicular of the 
 lower fillet ; from the perpendicular of 
 this, another torus projects somewhat 
 smaller than the lower one, on which is 
 superadded a larger fillet than either of 
 the others, from which the apophyge, with 
 a gentle sweep, joins the fust or shaft of 
 the column. This base may be considered 
 as more perfect than any of the others, 
 and is composed with so much taste ; its 
 members are disposed with such skill and 
 harmony of proportion ; and its profile or 
 contour so pleasing, that it is no wonder 
 at its frequent occasional adaptation (al- 
 though improperly in some instances) to all 
 the orders. The bases to the Corinthiiin 
 and Composite orders emanate from tlie 
 attic ; a torus or two more, a greater num- 
 ber of fillets or beads, two scotia', .i>.c. are 
 the general characteristics of these bases. 
 DiU'erent bases have been invented, and 
 used both by Greek as well as Roman 
 architects for the Ionic order, but all fall 
 short of the purity of style which charac- 
 terizes the attic. Examples of the Greek 
 varialion, wliiiii thus yield to the attic, 
 are to be found in the temple of Apollo 
 Dydemeus near Miletus, and that of Mi- 
 nerva I'olias at Priene, which, according 
 to the published engravings, has a i)rofile 
 so far from pleasing as scarcely to deserve 
 imifation. The (irroks and Romans have 
 also both used the atlic base to the Corin- 
 thian order, as in the Ciioragic iiioiiument 
 of Lysicratis at Athens; and in liie arch of 
 Constantiue at Rome. Specimens of good 
 exanipli's of Corinthian bases may be fomul 
 in the columns of the portico and interior 
 of the Pantheon, and those of the temple 
 of Jupiter Slalor a( Iviuiu . The lower of 
 
BAS 
 
 Andronicus Cyrrhestes at Athens, has Co- 
 rinthian columns without bases ; the arch 
 of Septimius Severus has columns of the 
 Composite order, with attic bases ; and 
 the arch of Titus, columns of the same 
 order with Corinthian bases. See Stuart's 
 Athens, the Ionian Antiquities; Vasi, 
 Desgodetz, and others, on the Antiquities 
 of Rome ; Vitruvius, Paixadio, Sir Wil- 
 liam Chambers, and others on civil Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 In sculpture, the word base implies that 
 part of a piece of sculpture on which a 
 statue stands. These are sometimes plain 
 blocks, and at others architecturally deco- 
 rated, in which they are susceptible of 
 much beauty and ornament, and call for 
 taste and judgment in the artist to design 
 it characteristically. They are often de- 
 corated with bassi rilievi, which should 
 always be relative to the insistent work. 
 See Pedestal. 
 
 In geometry, the base is the lowest side 
 of a figure, as the base of a triangle is 
 whichever of its sides is lowest or paral- 
 lel to the horizon, &c. 
 
 Base line. In perspective. The common 
 section of a picture and the geometrical 
 plane. See Perspective. 
 
 Basement, [from Base, low.] In archi- 
 tecture. The lower part or story of a build- 
 ing when it is in the form of a pedestal or 
 stylobate with a base or plinth, die, and 
 cornice. Also in modern or practical 
 English architecture, those stories of 
 houses which are below the base or level 
 of the street, and are generally lighted by 
 areas, &c. 
 
 Basilica. [J5a<n\iK6g, Gr. basilicus, Lat.] 
 In architecture. A royal, princely, magni- 
 ficent building. A large hall, magnificent 
 church, or public place with aisles, por- 
 ticoes, galleries, tribunals, &c. and so 
 called because princes sat and adminis- 
 tered justice in person, or tliat magistrates, 
 with the power of kings, heard causes in 
 them (see Cic. ad Att. xi. 29. In Verrem 
 vi. Pro Murena). The basilica among the 
 ancient Romans was distinguished from 
 the forum by the latter being without a 
 roof. The form of an ancient basilica was 
 that of a parallelogram, with a portico at 
 each end, and covered with a roof sup- 
 ported by rows of columns. They were 
 the places where the practitioners of the 
 law assembled and gave replies to the 
 consultations of their clients, and contain- 
 ed, also, halls for the exercise of young 
 orators in declamation. The lower portico 
 was occupied by tradesmen, and the cen- 
 tre parts for the assembling and perambu- 
 lation of the people ; so that these build- 
 
 BAS 
 
 ings were at the same time exchanges and 
 courts of judicature. 
 
 Many of the continental churches re- 
 semble the ancient basilicas more than any 
 other kind of edifice, and the name from 
 the similarity of form has also been ap- 
 lied to them. They consist generally of a 
 large hall or space three times its width 
 in length, divided by several ranges of co- 
 lumns, the centre one being always the 
 widest. In some instances they were en- 
 closed by walls, and in others they were 
 open on every side for the free access of 
 the public, and that the galleries might 
 better communicate with the street. But 
 when the sides were enclosed, the prin- 
 cipal front was provided with an open 
 colonnade, free to every one. When the 
 entrance to the basilica was at one extre- 
 mity, the other was terminated by a semi- 
 circular recess, where the tribunal or 
 throne was mostly situated, but sometimes 
 it was placed on the exterior of the build- 
 ing. In these edifices a second order of 
 columns Avas placed upon the lower ; 
 which supported the ceiling, and formed 
 a gallery on every side, except over the 
 circular part. The second order was se- 
 parated from the fiist by a considerable 
 space, which served for a support to those 
 above, as well as for the stylobate or con- 
 tinued pedestal to the order. The form 
 and disposition of basilicas were well cal- 
 culated for large halls, and their construc- 
 tion united the merits of solidity and eco- 
 nomy. Their solidity is proved by their 
 duration, for some of them have lasted for 
 above four centuries, and their economy 
 resulted from the lightness of the parts of 
 support, and the roof, which was of tim- 
 ber. The lower colonnade had a ceiling, 
 which served as a floor to the upper gal- 
 lery ; which also having a ceiling, sup- 
 ported that of the great nave and principal 
 truss of the roof. Light was obtained by 
 openings in the wall, where the basilica 
 was enclosed, and from the intercolumni- 
 ations where open. The upper galleries 
 had also windows, which lighted the inte- 
 rior of the building. It appears that the 
 only part of the basilica which could 
 have the form of an arch, was the semi- 
 circular recess, or the place where the 
 tribunal was erected ; and was only a por- 
 tion of an hemispherical dome, or a sort of 
 large niche head. The multiplicity of co- 
 lumns in these buildings was one of their 
 principal beauties, and rendered their ap- 
 pearance magnificent. The Romans often 
 used the Corinthian order, in their basilica, 
 as the one which was discovered upon the 
 Palatine Hill, by Bianchini ; and that of 
 
Fano, were both of that order 
 ings of the upper and lower galleries, and 
 the grand nave were embellished with 
 cornices, panellings, sculptures, and otiier 
 decorations of art ; but the circular recess 
 appears to have been the part most orna- 
 mented, being often d(;corated with statues 
 and other works of sculpture. The basi- 
 lica discovered at Otricoli has thrown 
 much light upon the form and nature of 
 those of antiquity, the others being almost 
 
 BASILICA. 
 
 Tiie ceil- modern buildings that only the plan and 
 interior arrangement can be recognised. 
 Shortly afterwards he built the basilica of 
 St. Peter upon the Vatican hill, demolish- 
 ing the circus of Nero and two temples to 
 make room for the new edifice. This was 
 replaced by the present church, which 
 bears the name without having tiie true 
 form of a basilica. The tliird basilica of 
 Constantine, namely, that of St. Paul, on 
 the jEstian Way, now called Santo Paolo 
 
 all destroyed. The construction of a basi- fiwr delli 3Juri, still exists nearly as at 
 
 lica was an afl'air of such consequence, 
 as often to have been comme^norated on 
 medals. The basilica ./Emiliana is repre- 
 sented upon a copper coin of the family 
 of jEmilia; and that which Trajan built, 
 called the Basilica Ulpia, is found upon 
 a medal of gold and another of bronze, of 
 the time of that emperor. 
 
 Palladio calls that description of civil 
 buildings basilicas, which are met with in 
 several cities of Italy, and are appropri- 
 ated to the same use as the ancient basi- 
 licas. The basilica of modern times dif- 
 fers from those of the ancient, inasmuch 
 as the latter were level with the ground, 
 whilst the former are elevated upon arches, 
 the lower parts of which are occupied by 
 shops, prisons, and other public places. 
 Another difference is, that the ancient ba- 
 silicas had porticos only in the interior, 
 whilst the moderns have them only on the 
 exterior. One of this kind is at Padua • 
 another at Brescia, which is remarkable 
 for its grandeur and ridmess of ornaments. 
 But the most cidebrated is the basilica of 
 Vicenza, called II Palazzo dclla Ra^'ione ; 
 the exterior and fa(;ade of which is from a 
 design of Palladio, and has given rise to 
 tlie opinion of its being entirely his work, 
 tliough the principal body of the building 
 is much more ancient. It is well repre- 
 sented in the works of Palladio, by O. B. 
 Scamozzi, mentioned at the close of the 
 article Architecture. 
 
 The term basilica is also applied to those 
 churches which seem to have arisen from 
 Constantine having assigned, for their 
 worship, several of the ancient basilicas, 
 which were more agreeable to the ancient 
 Oliristians than the temi)ies, which were 
 subjects of tJHur aversion ; as, iucb'cd, was 
 i.'Muy thing tiial related to the niytiioiogy 
 or customs of the Pagans. The finest that 
 now remain in Rome still bi'ar the name 
 of this prince; who, with the zeal of a new 
 convert, gave his own palace upon Mount 
 ('(xlius to be converted to u Christian 
 ciiurch ; which is allowi'd to be the most 
 ancient Christian basilica in the world. It 
 is at present, however, so enveloped by 
 
 lirst constructed by Constantine and Theo- 
 dosius, who completed it about fifty years 
 afterwards, and may be regarded as af- 
 fording a complete specimen of the ancient 
 church, which differed but little from the 
 basilica of Paganism, being a quadrilate- 
 ral hall, witii a tlat ceiling, divided by co- 
 lumns into thi"ee or five aisles. This church 
 was partly destroyed by an earthquake, 
 and restored by Pope Leo III. in 816. The 
 roof and part of tiie decorations are the 
 works of Bernardo Rosselini, the high altar 
 and choir of Onorio Lunghi, and the por- 
 tico of AlessandroSpecchi, a pupil of Carlo 
 Fontana ; its ancient form and construc- 
 tion alone being of the time of Constantine. 
 The basilica of St. Rlaria-majore, with its 
 .modern embellishments, distributed with 
 good choice, presents a rich and tine ex- 
 ample, is reckoned by many the most per- 
 fect model of a Christian church, and the 
 most correct copy of an ancient basilica. 
 The church of St. Agnese, without the 
 walls, the united labours of Borromino 
 and Carlo Rainaldi, is yet more like the 
 ancient basilica in form, altliough it does 
 not bear the name. This church wiis also 
 originally constructed by Constantine, at 
 the entreaty of Constance, his sister or 
 duugliter, and restored by the above named. 
 architects. 
 
 Since the time of Constantine all the 
 Christian edilices of the A\'i'sl assunu'd, in 
 various degrees, the form of tlie Pagan 
 basilica, and it is to be found even in Go- 
 thic buildings. The i)rincipal architects 
 of Italy, in their largest works, seem Ut 
 have endeavoured to unite the dimensions 
 of the basilicas of the West, with the man- 
 ner of construction practised in the East, 
 \\ iiich has so altereil the form that scarcely 
 any resemblance to the ancient basilica 
 can be traced in their works. 
 
 The form of the eastern basilicas took 
 its origin from that of St. Soiiliia at Con- 
 stantinople, built by Constantine in imita- 
 tion of the ancient church of St. Peter at 
 KoMp'. It was several times burnt and 
 rebuilt, till at length, during tlu- reigns of 
 Justinian, Authemius of Trallcs, and Isi- 
 
BAS 
 
 dorus of Rliletus, the most celebrated ar- 
 chitects of the time, united in the design of 
 erecting a temple which should surpass in 
 grandeur all that had then been built, and 
 resolved to use no timber in its construc- 
 tion, that it might not be subject to fire. 
 The plan of this church, as rebuilt by Jus- 
 tinian in the form of a cross, was thought 
 so excellent that it has been almost gene- 
 rally imitated by every succeeding eccle- 
 siastical architect. It formed a square, in 
 the centre of which rose a dome or hemis- 
 pherical cupola, perforated by twenty-four 
 windows, and surmounted by a lantern. 
 On each side was a smaller collateral cu- 
 pola, which added to the effect of the prin- 
 cipal ; and at the exti-emity of the church 
 was a large niche or demi-cupola, under 
 which was placed the grand altar. The 
 points of the cupola, where the building 
 commences to change its plan from a square 
 to a circle, is supported by pendentives ; 
 which manner was then a novelty in con- 
 struction. Constantinople at that period 
 was the principal seat of learning and the 
 arts, and set the example therein to all 
 Europe. For which reason the Venetians 
 who, in their church of St. Mark, copied 
 with fidelity and judgment the best parts 
 of the plan and construction of St. Sophia, 
 were led to imitate the bad style of the 
 interior decorations. The form and con- 
 struction of the basilicas of the East can 
 be traced in the different churches built 
 since that of St. Mark at Venice, till that 
 of St. Peter at Rome, approaching or re- 
 ceding, in various grades, from those of 
 the West. In later times, however, the 
 ancient form has been revived. The mo- 
 notony of pilasters, the heaviness of the 
 piers which support the arcades, the cum- 
 brous appearance of the arches, especially 
 in small interiors, the difficulty of uniting 
 the four names without the cupola, and 
 other inconveniences, led them to adopt a 
 new style for the disposition and construc- 
 tion of churches. 
 
 The best treatises on the forms of basi- 
 licas, both ancient and modern, are Basi- 
 lica di S. Blarco di Ve7iezia, fol. ; Costa- 
 GUTi, Architethira di S. Pietro, fol. Rom. 
 1684 ; Carlo Fontana, Desmzione del 
 Vaticano, fol. Rom. 1644 ; an Essay on the 
 Churches of the early Christians, by Le Roy, 
 6cc. &c. (See also Architecture, Cathe- 
 dral, Cupola, Dome.) 
 
 Basis. [Bctffic, Gr. basis, Lat.] In ancient 
 architecture. The foot, base, or foundation 
 of a building, kc. See Foundation, 
 Base. 
 
 Basket. See Capital Corinthian. 
 
 Bas kelief. See Basso kilievo. 
 
 BAS 
 
 Basso rimevo. [Italian.] In sculpture. 
 That kind of sculpture in which tlie figures 
 do not stand out from the ground in their 
 full proportion : low or flat sculpture. 
 The term belongs exclusively to modern 
 art. Pliny (xxxiii. 11.) applies the word 
 avdyXvTTTa to workmanship of this kind ; 
 but it is a term by no means so distinctive 
 as the Italian basso-rilievo. See Ana- 
 glyphic. All works in sculpture are class- 
 ed as bassi rilievi when the subjects re- 
 presented are not isolated, but are adhe- 
 rent to the ground, whether they are of a 
 similar or different material, and applied 
 or fixed thereto ; or form a part of the ma- 
 terial in which they are wrought. There 
 are three sorts of relief in sculpture, alto 
 rilievo, mezzo rilievo, and basso riliero, which 
 will be found more fully investigated under 
 the article Sculpture. 
 
 Alto rilievo is that relief in which the 
 figures are entii'e, or nearly so, being at- 
 tached only in a few places, and are re- 
 lieved from the ground like the metopes 
 of the Parthenon ; mezzo rilievo is that in 
 which half the figure stands clear from the 
 ground, and the other appears buried 
 therein ; and basso rilievo, properly so 
 called, is that in which the figures lose 
 their projecture, and represented as nearly 
 flat, like the Panathenaeic procession of 
 the same temple. Custom, however, has 
 nearly abolished two of these terms ; and 
 basso riliero is often applied to each sort, 
 be the projections what they may. The 
 word anaghjphum, in the ancient writers, 
 indicates a particular manner of this sort 
 of sculpture, and is equivalent to the mo- 
 dern chasing or embossing; which, when 
 executed in metal, according to Cicero, 
 they gave the name of toremna: but the 
 specific name, and which Pausanias always 
 uses, is TuTTOQ, indicating a type, copy, or 
 figure of any thing. 
 
 The true basso rilievo, which has but 
 small projection, requires more skill in the 
 sculptor than that in which the projection 
 is more considerable ; because it is ex- 
 tremely difficult to give a natural effect to 
 a figure which is of its proper height and 
 size, but falls short of its real thickness. 
 What is more difficult even than this, in the 
 style of sculpture now under considera- 
 tion, is picturesque composition in group- 
 ing the figures, because the artist cannot, 
 as in painting, employ different back- 
 grounds remote from each other; and as 
 the shadows in sculpture are real and not 
 imitative, he must calculate his composi. 
 tion and arrange its form for the light in 
 which it is to be placed. 
 
 The ancients used bassi rilievi in deco- 
 
BASSO RILIEVO. 
 
 rating architectural designs, and in orna- 
 menting their domestic furniture. All na- 
 tions, however, in the history of the arts 
 have used them, and they resemble in style 
 that of their other works. The Egyjitians 
 ornamented their temples with an innumer- 
 able quantity of figures and hieroglyphics, 
 of which the greater part have the outlines 
 only sunk, and the area thus formed only 
 painted ; but many of them are of the class 
 bassi rilievi. (See Denon's Travels in 
 Egypt, Captain Norden, and Dr. Pococke ; 
 also the Egyptian sculptures in the British 
 Museum, those brought to Europe by Bel- 
 zoni, &c.) Their manner of executing 
 these sculptures is singular: they first 
 channeled an outline in the stone, and 
 sunk it round the figure, so that it did not 
 project beyond the original face ; being in 
 fact more a species of engraving than sculp- 
 ture. The cabinet of the Royal Library 
 at Paris possesses a very curious Egyp- 
 tian sculpture thus wrought, and many of 
 the same description are found in Egypt, 
 principally on the frontispieces of the tem- 
 ples where the Scarabeus extends his 
 reign. 
 
 The Persians were also partial to the 
 use of bassi rilievi. The walls of Tschcl- 
 minar, the ancient Persepolis, have pre- 
 served a great number, and among others 
 worthy of note, that singular procession 
 which is engraved in the works of Char- 
 din, Le Brun, Niehbuhr. (See Persepo- 
 us.) They are executed in very high re- 
 lief, so that in the same figure the head 
 and other principal parts were detached 
 from the ground, which has made them 
 peculiarly liable to mutilation. 
 
 The Etruscans also used bassi rilievi ; 
 but Winckelman errs in attributing to this 
 ancient people all those works in which 
 the figures are clothed in draperies, with 
 straight s<]uare folds, designed in a stiff 
 formal style like the anti(|uo altar of the 
 Cardinal Albani, on which is represented 
 their twelve principal gods. On tiie con- 
 trary, every well informed arrliaiologist 
 allows these and other siniilur monunu-nis 
 of art to belong to the very earliest period 
 of the Greeks. Some bassi rili('\i of clay, 
 painted in water colours, found near the 
 country of the Volscii, winch are pre- 
 ser\ed in the; caliiiu't of the Cardinal Bor- 
 gia, and piil)lisli('(i under his j)atronag(', 
 proves, beyond a doul)t, that the Etrus- 
 cans, like the Greeks, often painted their 
 sculptural figures. Milliu oijservcs, that 
 this is a praclice exclusively belonging to 
 the infancy and decline of art ; a remark 
 which the recent discoveries of Mr. C. R. 
 Cockercll, and other mo<lern travellers, as 
 
 well as the Icnown practice of Phidias, 
 who belonged to its brightest days, fully 
 refute. 
 
 The bassi rilievi used by the ancients 
 for decorating their architecture, and with 
 which they sometimes ornamented the 
 fronts of their temples, were often formed 
 of baked clay. (See Terr.4 Cotta, Pedi- 
 ment, Tympanum.) They also executed 
 works of this description in ivory and va- 
 rious metals, but oftener in marble. 
 
 Among the most celebrated bassi rilievi 
 of antiquity are those which Phidias car\'ed 
 in ivory, upon the shield and the base of 
 the statue of Minerva at Athens. (See 
 Ivory.) Those which ornamented the 
 throne of Jupiter Olympus, executed by 
 Alcamenes ; those of Apollo at Amyclre, 
 in Laconia; the bassi rilievi of the tem- 
 ple of Hercules at Thebes, executed by 
 Praxiteles; those of the temple of Delphos, 
 the joint work of Praxias and Andros- 
 thenes ; the celebrated funeral monument 
 of Mausolus, called the Mausoleum, exe- 
 cuted by Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and 
 Leochares ; the thirty-six columns of the 
 temple of Diana at Ephesus, &;c. 
 
 The ancient artists that have most dis- 
 tinguished themselves in the execution of 
 that beautiful kind of basso rilievo, with 
 which they ornamented their vases, accord- 
 ing to Pliny, were jNIentor, Acragas, Boe- 
 thus, Mys, Calamis, Antipater,Stratonicus, 
 Praxiteles, &c. See Vases. 
 
 The sculptures in the metopes and pedi- 
 ments of the Parthenon at Athens, w liich 
 were entire in the time of Spon, who has 
 described them, are in alto rilievo, like 
 statues affixed to aback ground of marble. 
 Their great size and height preserved 
 them from those accidents to which they 
 would have been liable in a lower situa- 
 tion, and to which, on the same account, 
 they gavf a less projection. Many of 
 these invaluable relics of the brightest 
 days of Grecian art, were brought to Eng- 
 land by Lord Elgin, and are preserved in 
 the IJritish Museum. See Parthenon, 
 Arcihtectire, 6<c. 
 
 As the greater part of the antique bassi 
 rilie\i, now renuiiniiig, are executed in 
 marble, they form the principal criterion 
 by which we can judge of the excellency 
 of their sculptors. Many of the best pre- 
 served VMTc used to ornament their altars, 
 as is seen in those which are in Ihe Mu- 
 seum Ca])itoliuum. Oiu" of these beautiful 
 relics re|trcsints the education of Jupiter, 
 and the others the lalxuirs of Hercules. 
 They were also used as decorations to the 
 bases of statues, and oftener to their tombs ; 
 and even sonulimcs to the pedestals or 
 
BASSO RILIEVO. 
 
 marginal stones at the brinks of wells, as 
 may be seen in one belonging to the last 
 mentioned museum, which represents the 
 education of Achilles ; and a beautiful 
 one of fawns and nymphs in the British 
 Museum. (See Puteal.) In the deca- 
 dence of the Greek empire, they used to 
 erect bassi rilievi in memory of those 
 men who had deserved well of their coun- 
 try, instead of statues, which had been the 
 practice of their ancestors ; such were 
 these which, according to Pausanias, se- 
 veral cities of Arcadia erected to Poly- 
 biiis. In their sacred places were kept 
 the bassi rilievi, which represented the 
 images of the gods, or their mythological 
 adventures. Among the number of those 
 which are cited as particularly celebrated, 
 were two fine ones of Pentelican marble, 
 of colossal magnitude, executed by Alca- 
 menes, and dedicated by the Athenians in 
 the temple of Hercules, at Thebes, after 
 the expulsion of their tyrants ; and which, 
 according to Pausanias, represented Her- 
 cules and Minerva, Another singular 
 custom to which the Greeks appropriated 
 this kind of sculpture has reached our 
 times, through tlieir works, although it is 
 not mentioned by any author of antiquity ; 
 namely, that of teaching mythology and 
 poetical history by means of palpable 
 images. Such was the use of that cele- 
 brated relic of antiquity called the Iliac 
 table, now in the Museum Capitolinum; 
 such the basso rilievo of the repose or 
 apotheosis of Hercules, in the "Villa Al- 
 bani ; such the fragments of the mytholo- 
 gical tables of Verona ; and those in the 
 cabinet of the Villa Borgia. These curi- 
 ous monuments of antiquity are conjec- 
 tured to have been a portion of a mytholo- 
 gical circle, or even of an entire cyclic 
 history. These didactic sculptures were 
 accompanied by epigraphs, which explain- 
 ed the subjects, and which were often 
 arranged in the form of chronological 
 tables, like the list of the priestesses of 
 Juno Argeus ; the basso rilievo of the 
 apotheosis of Hercules, and the fragment 
 of Verona. 
 
 From the time that the arts and artists 
 of Greece were brought to Rome, to em- 
 bellish their city, they employed bassi 
 rilievi to commemorate their victories, 
 and to embellish with explanatory orna- 
 ments their triumphal arches and columns, 
 and other similar usages. Under the go- 
 vernment of the emperors, they made an- 
 other use of this species of sculpture, 
 which is met with more frequently, and 
 from whence we derive the greater part 
 
 of those subjects which are now preserved 
 to our times. The custom of burning their 
 dead had fallen into disuse, partly from a 
 scarcity of fuel, and partly because they 
 had acquired many of the religious opi- 
 nions of the eastern nations, 'from whom 
 they adopted the custom of occasionally 
 interring the bodies of their dead in coffins 
 of marble and other valuable materials, 
 which they generally called Sarcophagi. 
 (See Sarcophagus.) Their numbers at 
 length became immense, both in the city 
 and in the environs of Rome, if we may 
 judge only from those which are to be 
 found in the cabinets of the curious. The 
 bassi rilievi, with which these sarcophagi 
 are ornamented, are usually wrought with 
 little care, and by sculptors of minor ta- 
 lents; but they preserve to us many of 
 the finest compositions of their greatest 
 artists, which were the admiration of anti- 
 quity. In many of the Greek bassi ri- 
 lievi, the face of the deceased only is 
 finished, and many antiquaries, from this 
 circumstance, have conjectured that it was 
 a sort of manufacture in Greece, to make 
 sarcophagi for the Romans, and that they 
 were to be finished after they were sold. 
 The bad style of these sculptures is no 
 reason for supposing that these marbles 
 were not carved in Greece, because in the 
 time of the emperors, the best Grecian 
 artists were removed to Rome, and those 
 of meaner talents remained at home. 
 From the great quantity of marble that 
 Greece, and indeed all Attica, possessed, 
 it is natural to suppose that those sculp- 
 tors who remained behind in their country 
 would execute bassi rilievis for sarcophagi, 
 when so ready a sale was found for them 
 at Rome. Many archaiologists have sup- 
 posed that the greater part of the compo- 
 sitions which are found on these sarco- 
 phagi, were copied from the great masters, 
 of which the originals (as the paintings of 
 Panaenus and Poiignotus in the Poekile, 
 &c.) perished, when the cities of Greece 
 were pillaged and ransacked. 
 
 The study of the ancient bassi rilievi is 
 of great service in the histoiy of the arts ; 
 as from them may be collected many im- 
 portant facts of the mythology, customs, 
 costume, &c. of the ancients. The finest 
 collections of bassi rilievi, now existing, 
 are those of the British Museum, formerly 
 the Townly Collection ; the Elgin Marbles 
 in the same museum; the collections of 
 Mr. Thomas Hope, Mr. Soane the Profes- 
 sor of Architecture in the Royal Academy 
 of London ; several fine casts in the Royal 
 Academy. In Paris they had some fine 
 
BAT 
 
 antique bassi rilievi in the Royal Mu- 
 seum; in the Museum of the Augustins; 
 and many private collections. The appli- 
 cation of bassi rilievi among the modems 
 is the same as among the ancients ; being 
 used to decorate public buildings, palaces, 
 churches, triumphal arches, theatres, con- 
 cert rooms, and private houses ; furniture, 
 tombs, and other subjects of ornamental 
 architecture. The most celebrated speci- 
 mens of bassi rilievi fproperly so called) 
 of modem art in England, are those of the 
 tympanum of the pediment of the East In- 
 dia House, by Bacos ; the monument of 
 Captain Miller in a panel of St. Paul's Ca- 
 thedral, by Fl-Vxmax. Several others on 
 the public monuments, erected in that 
 cathedral and in Westminster Abbey, by 
 Bacon, Banks, Bacon, jun. Rossi, Chlcn- 
 TREY, Kendeick, Hopper, and We«t>la- 
 COTT. And on the continent, most of the 
 sculptures are thus decorated ^see Sctlp- 
 tire), and embrace the names of the most 
 celebrated artists. The French critics 
 particularly admire the bassi rilievi on 
 the " Porte St. Denys," began by Girar- 
 DON, and finished by Michel Anguiere, 
 and those on the Fountain of the Innocents, 
 called the Nymphs' Fountain, by the cele- 
 brated JE-VN GOIJON. 
 
 In almost all treatises on sculpture, are 
 found dissertations and delineations of 
 bassi rilievi, more particularly in the Ad- 
 miranda Romanorum ; the different descrip- 
 tions of the triumphal arches of the an- 
 cients, as the Cohnna Trajani, Antaniniis 
 and Marcus Aurelius,ihe Monumenta Inedita 
 of W'iNCKEOiAN, L'Antiquite expliqu^e de 
 Monfalcon; the Musevm Pio Clementi- 
 num, the Monumenta Mathcriana, the Mtuee 
 de Ver<me,de Cortone, la Villa Pinciana, and 
 the collection of ancient monuments of 
 CoLNT Caylis, of Gi ATTANi, and of Mil- 
 LiN, the Galleria Giunliniani, ifc. 
 
 Bath. [bai5, Saxon.] In architecture. 
 A place to bathe in. The baths of the 
 ancients were either magnificent pul> 
 lie buildings for general accommodation, 
 or private conveniences attached to the 
 houses of the rich. They generally con- 
 tained porticos, walks, gloves, fish ponds, 
 tennis courts, halls, and an immense va- 
 riety of apartments for undressing, sweat- 
 ing, &c. which were adomed with paint- 
 ings, sculptures, musaick work,&c. Thty 
 are also called Tlierma? from the Greek 
 word yipfuii hot, which term is only pro- 
 perly applicable to hot baths. 
 
 During the time of the republic, the Ro- 
 mans hud no buildings that rould be com- 
 pared to the gymnai>ii of the Greeks, it 
 
 BAT 
 
 being not till the time of the emperors that 
 thermes were erected ; chiefly devoted, it 
 is true, to public bathing, but to which 
 they united halls for games and exercise* 
 in the mamner of the gymnasii of the 
 Greeks. See G'i'SPi.AssfM. The bath be- 
 came a necessary of life to the later Ro- 
 meins, but in their earliest days they were 
 satisfied by bathing in the rivers. The 
 rich at length built baths in their own 
 houses for the use of their families, and 
 public ones for the serv ice of the people. 
 They were at first constructed with great 
 simplicity, but towards the close of the 
 republic, they gave them a more commodi- 
 ous and elegant disposition, dressing and 
 conversation rooms, and other splendid 
 apartments, and afterwards added hot and 
 cold baths. In the time of Augustus, 
 neither palestrae or gymnasii were known 
 in Rome, for Vitruvius, who lived at that 
 time, speaks expressly to the fact of their 
 being unknown to the Romans. Nero ap- 
 pears to have been the first Roman that 
 added gvmnasii to the bath, but after- 
 wards they always built them in an exten- 
 sive manner, which comprehended, in ad- 
 dition to the t>athing apartments, ail the 
 different parts of a gymnasium- 
 Titus imitated the example of Nero, 
 and built baths on the side of his <unphi- 
 theatre. Domitian and Trajan also built 
 baths, and Hadrian reestablished those of 
 Agrippa. Commodus, Septimius Severus, 
 and Caracalla erected splendid establish- 
 ments for this purpose : those of the latter, 
 built at Rome, were distinguished for their 
 grandeur, but were not finished till the 
 time of Heliogabalus. Alexander Seve- 
 rus added porticos to those of Caracalla, 
 and built new ones on the side of those of 
 Nero; from this the whole of the build- 
 ings received the name of Thermje Alex- 
 andria?. The remembrance of them is re- 
 corded on some bronze and silver medals 
 of .\Iexander Sevems ; on the reverses of 
 which are represented a magnificent edi- 
 fice, ornamented with statues and columns, 
 which is thought to be, with great proba- 
 bility-, the thermes of this emperor. Au- 
 relian and Dioclesian were the last em- 
 perors who built baths on an extensive 
 scale; and those of the last named empe- 
 rors are said to surpass all the others. 
 We can scarcely form a precise idea of the 
 plan and disposition of the ancient thermes, 
 their authors not having left us a sufficiently 
 detailed description, and ihore which re- 
 main arc either in such a dilapidated 
 state, or surrounded with s«i many minlem 
 building9, as to prevent our knowing with 
 
BATH. 
 
 certainty the form of the whole, or dispo- 
 sition of the parts. They were so nume- 
 rous in Rome, that dift'erent autliors have 
 reckoned as many as eight hundred pub- 
 lic. 
 
 Ammianus Marcelunus observes (lib. 
 10) that they built them in modum provin- 
 ciaruin, as large as provinces, whicir Va- 
 LESius supposes to be a corruption of pisci- 
 narum; yet the many accounts of their 
 ornaments, furniture, and luxury may 
 make that assertion less problematical. 
 Seneca says (Epis. 80), that they were 
 arrived to such a pitch of nicety and deli- 
 cacy, as to scorn to set their feet on any 
 thing but precious stones. And Pliny 
 (lib, 33. cap. 12) says, the seats were of 
 solid silver. Statius has also pleasantly 
 described one in his poem upon the batlis 
 of Claudius Etruscus, the steward of the 
 Emperor Claudius. 
 
 Nil ibi plebeium ; niisqiiam Teinesaja videbis 
 ^la, sed aigenlo fclix propellitur unda, 
 Argentorjue cadit, labiisque iiitentibua instat, 
 Dclicias mirata snas, et abirc recusat. 
 
 The baths of Dioclesian are said to have 
 had accommodations for eighteen hun- 
 dred bathers. The names of the difl'erent 
 bathing apartments were the cold bath 
 (frigid avium), the Iiot (calidarium), the 
 tepid (tepidarium), the stone (hypocau- 
 stum), the sweating room (sudatormm), 
 the undressing room (apodyterium), the 
 perfuming room (unctiiarium). Wliatever 
 pains that Palladio, Serlio, and other au- 
 tliors took in tlieir designs for restorations 
 of the baths of the Romans, they do not 
 appear to have been very successful, for 
 the designs of the same building, by dif- 
 ferent artists, differ considerably. Ac- 
 cording to Alberti, in the eighth book of 
 his Architecture, the extent of an ancient 
 Roman bathing establishment was at least 
 a hundred thousand square feet. Now, 
 if we consider the great extent of their 
 ruins, the great number of their apart- 
 ments, courts, and halls which were en- 
 closed and served for recreation and exer- 
 cise, Alberti does not err on the side of 
 excess. They were generally of a square 
 or oblong form, and surrounded with 
 walls; this space had three enclosures, 
 each of which surrounded the building, as 
 it were, one placed within the other. The 
 first, or what surrounded the exterior, con- 
 tained the halls in which the philosophers 
 gave their instructions, and those which 
 were used by the athletae. The second 
 division contained open places, planted 
 with trees, for the exercise of the youths. 
 In the third division, situated in the mid- 
 dle of the building, were the baths, sur- 
 
 rounded with porticoes and open courts. 
 Sometimes the entire building was en- 
 closed by a park, like that of Alexander 
 Severus, which contributed greatly to the 
 embellishment of the whole structure. 
 
 They were carefully observant to place 
 their public baths in a warm situation ; to 
 protect them from the north winds, and ex- 
 pose them to the south or south-west as 
 much as possible, that they might receive 
 heat from the sun during the hours in 
 which the bath was generally used. In 
 the batlis of individuals, especially in 
 towns or cities, they sometimes made a 
 distinction between summer and winter 
 baths. In the first, they placed the cold 
 bath towards the north, and in the winter 
 baths, towards the south. 
 
 The finest and most complete of the 
 ancient baths were composed of six prin- 
 cipal parts : tlie apodyterium of the Greeks, 
 and spoliatorium of the Romans (see those 
 words), where they undressed, and where 
 the guards, called capsarii, who took care 
 of the clothes, were stationed. Vitruvius 
 does not mention the apodyterium, by 
 which appears tliat all baths did not have 
 them; the frigidarium or tepidarium, ap- 
 pearing to have supplied its place. The 
 second part, containing the cold baths, 
 was named \ovTp6v by the Greeks, and 
 frigidarium by the Romans. The third was 
 the tepidarium; the principal use of which 
 was to prevent, by its temperate air, the 
 dangerous effects of suddenly passing from 
 a very hot to a very cold temperament. 
 The tepidarium united the hot and cold 
 baths, for which reason Pliny calls it the 
 middle chamber (cella media). The fourth 
 apartment was that of the dry hot bath, 
 called sudatio or laconicum, from the name 
 of the stove that heated it, and from the 
 custom having originated in Laconia. The 
 laconicum was a round apartment, sur- 
 mounted by a cupola ; and generally as 
 wide as the height from the springing of 
 the arch. In the centre of the cupola they 
 left an opening, closed by a bronze cover 
 suspended to a chain that it might be 
 opened at pleasure. By this means, they 
 could exactly vary the temperature of the 
 air. Under the laconicum they had a par- 
 ticular stove, as is seen by a picture found 
 in the baths of Titus, which not only serv- 
 ed to heat the pavement, but conveyed the 
 heat through pipes into the laconicum to 
 promote perspiration. The fifth was the 
 balneum or hot water bath, called Otppo- 
 Xovffia (from 0f p/xog, hot and \ov(yoJ, I wash 
 or bathe) or caldariu7H, and was the most 
 frequented. Round it was a gallery, 
 called schola, which was terminated on 
 
BATH. 
 
 the side of the basin by a dwarf wall. 
 This gallery was sulficently large to hold 
 those who waited their turn, or Avho came 
 to entertain the bathers or to keep them 
 company. The middle was occupied by a 
 basin, called piscina; or they had in the 
 pavement baths called labrn, solea, or alvei. 
 According to Vitruvius, the baths were at 
 least six feet wide; but the basin of the 
 frigidarium was sometimes sufficiently 
 large to swim in. The form of the basins 
 w as either square, oblong, round, or oval ; 
 and they were of marble or other stone, 
 bricks or bronze. The sixth apartment 
 was the mictuarium, where they kept the 
 oils and perfumes for the use of those who 
 had bathed. The unctuarium was con- 
 structed to receive a considerable degree 
 of heat from the hypocaustum, or the sub- 
 terranean stone, which was under all the 
 apartments of the bath. However, all 
 baths, especially those of individuals, had 
 not the same arrangements, as is evident 
 from those described by Pliny, Lucian, 
 Vitruvius, Sec. Publius Victor, in his To- 
 pography of Rome, mentions that there were 
 in that city eight hundred and fifty baths, 
 public and private ; and the ruins now 
 remaining of the baths of Agrippa, Nero, 
 Titus, Doniitian, Trajan, Antoninus, Cara- 
 calla, Dioclesian, and Constantine, were 
 published by Charles Cameron, in fol. 
 London, 1772. The pavement of the hot 
 bathing apartment was constructed hol- 
 low, so that the pipes from the hypocau- 
 stum communicated its heat. For more 
 ample particulars the reader is referred to 
 the works of Vitruvius, Palladio, and the 
 beforementioned work of Cameron on the 
 Baths of the Ancients. The Chevalier 
 Houel describes, from actual observation, 
 some baths of this description, which he 
 saw in the island of Liparus at Cataneo, 
 and several other places. 
 
 The baths or thermie of the Romans, as 
 well as the gymnasii of the Greeks, were 
 sumptuously decorated with bassi rilievi, 
 statues, and paintings ; the basins were of 
 marble, the pavements of niusaick, and 
 the vaults and cupolas splendidly deco- 
 rated. The remains of liiose at Rome 
 prove, more than any other of (iieii- archi- 
 tectural ruins, the love of magnificence 
 and luxury which characterized the an- 
 cient Romans; ami as the jjuhiic halhs 
 W(!re intended to collect t()getli(>r a great 
 number of people, they were divided into 
 so many various apartments, which afford- 
 ed their architects an ample field for the 
 display of taste and splend(uir of orna- 
 ment. Agrii)pa ornamented the apart- 
 ments of hiB baths with encaustic paint- 
 
 ing, and covered the walls of the calda- 
 rium with slabs of marble, in which were 
 inserted small paintings. In the earlier 
 period of the Roman history, before the 
 arts and luxuries of Greece were much 
 known to or practised by the Romans, 
 their baths were small and simple, only 
 calculated for the mere act of bathing, 
 like that of Scipio Africanus, described 
 by Seneca. While the ruins of the baths 
 of Titus, Caracalla, Nero, Dioclesian, and 
 Antoninus are the most splendid examples 
 of these kinds of buildings, and anciently 
 contained the finest statues that were 
 brought from Greece. The Laocoon was 
 found in the baths of Titus, and the Far- 
 nese Hercules in those of Caracalla. In 
 addition to the information these splendid 
 ruins afl^ord, are the descriptions of Pliny 
 and other ancient authors. 
 
 The public baths of the East are in ge- 
 neral vast buildings, for the purpose of 
 hot vapour bathing, and are accurately 
 described in Denon's Voyage to Egjpt. 
 See Denon's Egypt. 
 
 Among the principal public baths of the 
 present day, are to be reckoned a few in 
 London, of no great magnitude but of con- 
 siderable conveniences ; those of Bath and 
 a few other places ; many vapour baths in 
 St. Petersburg, where this species of 
 bathing is in much esteem ; some fine 
 ones in Florence, one of which, as a pub- 
 lic establishment, is worthy of imitation 
 in every large city. On the borders of 
 the Arno is an enclosure, where there is 
 a large bath excavated, big enough for 
 swimming, with seats on two sides of it 
 for the bathers, and appropriated to the 
 public. The rest of the enclosure is di- 
 vided into private baths, gardens, walks, 
 and other pleasure grounds. The baths 
 of Paris are much like those of London, 
 confined to private houses, or the hotels. 
 
 MovAiii.E Baths were a species of 
 large vases or cisterns, that stood on the 
 floors of private or public baths, for 
 bathing ; generally formed of marble, and 
 much ornamented with sculpture. Seve- 
 ral of these cisterns were in Rome, at the 
 fountains and in gardens. The most cele- 
 brated of tiiem are tliose iu the l'"arnese 
 palace, one of which is of a single block 
 of granite. There was also a magnKicent 
 one of porplivry, in the cathedral of Met/.. 
 The British IMuseum has also t«<n)f Greek 
 or Roman workmaiishij), and two of F.gyp- 
 tian ; which latter are much the sid)ject 
 of disi)ule, as to their original destination 
 (See S\R((>i>ii vr.is ok Ai.exanoer). One 
 of the former is an ol)long square basin of 
 gianile, similar to such as wer<- used in 
 
BAT 
 
 the temples, to contain the water necessary 
 for the purification of those who sought 
 admission to the sacrifices ; and the other, 
 a beautiful highly polished cistern of green 
 basalt; on the sides are carved two rings, 
 in imitation of handles, in the centre of 
 which is a leaf of ivy. In the Royal Li- 
 brary of Paris is also a very fine one of 
 porphyry, which was formerly in the abbey 
 church of St. Denys, and is called the bath 
 of Dagobert. 
 
 Batterdeaux. See Cofferdam. 
 
 Battleaxe or Axe. In the archaiology 
 of painting and sculpture. A weapon in the 
 form of an axe used in warfare. The 
 common axe is used in antique sculptural 
 ornaments, to indicate an agricultural in- 
 strument, a weapon used in the sacri- 
 fices, or as appertaining to the mechanical 
 arts. Vulcan cleft with his axe the head 
 of Jupiter, when Minerva was produced 
 from his brain, armed at all points. The 
 bipennis, or two-edged battleaxe, called 
 by Homer a^ivr}, appears to have been a 
 weapon much used bj'^ the inhabitants of 
 Thrace and Scythia. Pisander attacked 
 Agamemnon with a battleaxe of this de- 
 scription, the blades of which were of brass. 
 The battleaxe is, however, rarely mentioned 
 in the works of Homer, for in the field the 
 Grecian warriors used only the sword and 
 lance ; but in naval combats the two par- 
 ties used battleaxes, because the area of 
 combat was too confined for the use of the 
 lance. Though this weapon is more par- 
 ticularly attributed to the people of the nor- 
 thern parts of Europe and Asia, artists have 
 sometimes given them to Grecian heroes be- 
 fore the time of Homer. Alcamenes sculp- 
 tured upon the posterior pediment of the 
 temple of Olympia, a celebrated Centaur- 
 omachia, in which Theseus was repre- 
 sented fighting with an axe the ravishers 
 of the wife of Pirithous. A basso rilievo, 
 published by Buonarotti in the Etruria 
 Regalia, represents a warrior combating 
 a centaur with a bipennis or twy-bill. In 
 the British Museum are several bassi ri- 
 lievi of this description, one of which 
 represents Perseus armed with a battleaxe 
 in each hand. It is to be regretted, that 
 in the celebrated frieze of the temple of 
 Apollo Epicurius (the deliverer), now in 
 the British Museum, and known by the 
 name of the Phigaleian marbles, that none 
 of the offensive arms with which the Ama- 
 zons fought are preserved; for it would 
 have thrown a considerable light on this 
 subject, as we know from Virgil, 
 
 "Nunc validam dextra rapit indefessa bipeiinem;" 
 JEs. lib. xi. V. 650. 
 
 that they used the double edged battleaxe 
 
 BAT 
 
 or bipennis in their combats; and Pliny 
 attributes its invention to Penthesilea, 
 Queen of the Amazons, wlio was slain by 
 Achilles in the Trojan war. In a fine 
 antique painting, on a vase, published in 
 Millen's Monumens in^dits, which repre- 
 sents a combat of warriors and Amazons 
 before the Trojan ; the use this weapon is 
 supposed to have known before the period 
 abovementioned. Plutarch carries back 
 the use of the bipennis among the Ama- 
 zons to a date prior to the expedition of 
 Hercules against their nation ; for, accord- 
 ing to his account, when Hercules had 
 vanquished Hippolyte, Queen of the Ama- 
 zons, he took away her bipennis, and pre- 
 sented it to Omphale, Queen of Lydia. 
 This princess transmitted it to the kings, 
 her successors, who held it in veneration 
 as a sacred bequest, till Candaules, dis- 
 daining tlie custom, gave it to one of his 
 officers. During the revolt of Gyges, Ar- 
 selis, who had come to his assistance witii 
 a body of troops from Mylassa, defied Can- 
 daules, and killed him, as well as his 
 friend who bore the bipennis. This sacred 
 deposit was taken by Arselis into Caria, 
 where he erected a statue to Jupiter in 
 commemoration of his success, and placed 
 it in its hand ; calling it Jupiter Labradetis, 
 from Aa/3poe, signifying in Caria an axe. 
 The figures of Jupiter Labradeus, armed 
 like the above, are to be found on various 
 medals and coins of Mylassa ; and among 
 the antique sculptured marbles at Oxford, 
 is an altar consecrated to the same god, on 
 which is the bipennis, his distinguishing 
 attribute. The bipennis is rarely found 
 in the hands of the armed Amazons, in 
 very antique examples. Those before- 
 mentioned among the Phigaleian marbles, 
 being of bronze or other metal, have be- 
 come detached and lost. In more modern 
 works it is oftener found among their arms ; 
 particularly in those habited in the Dorian 
 costume ; as may be seen in a fine statue 
 of an Amazon thus armed, which was for- 
 merly in the celebrated Napoleon Museum, 
 an engraving of which may be seen in the 
 collection of engravings called the Musee 
 Napoleon. The bipennis is also to be 
 found upon several medals of cities, which 
 were founded by these warlike women. 
 
 The bipennis is a weapon which no less 
 characterizes the warriors of Thyatira 
 than it does those of the Amazons ; for as 
 they attributed the foundation of their 
 state to Thyatira the Amazon, they used 
 it upon their medals as a sign of their ori- 
 gin, sometimes separately, and at others 
 in the hand of Apollo their protector. 
 
 The battleaxe was also one of the arms 
 
BATTLE AXE. 
 
 of the ancient Eg;}'ptiaiis, but was princi- 
 pally used in their maritime operations ; 
 for in their other engagements they used 
 long spears and crooked swards. Upon 
 the medals of Alexandria, struck during 
 the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, 
 Neith, or the Egyptian Minerva, is armed 
 with an axe or bipennis, precisely like 
 those of the Amazons. 
 
 The Romans made but little use of the 
 axe, except for the operations of carpentry, 
 for sacrifices, and in their naval battles ; 
 it made, however, part of the insignia, be- 
 ing encircled by a bundle of rods, bound 
 together with bands called fasces, which 
 was carried before the consuls. (See 
 Fasces.) The people of Gaul and Gei-many 
 used the axe in their wars, and it was the 
 distinguishing weapon of the ancient kings 
 of France, whence, according to Millin, it 
 was called Francisca : but Sidonius Apol- 
 linaris so calls the axe which was borne 
 in the fasces before the ancient consuls of 
 Rome. 
 
 The Franks, or ancient inhabitants of 
 France, in their battles used to hurl their 
 battleaxes at their enemies, in order to 
 break their armour before they fell upon 
 them with the sword. Clovis I. cleft the 
 skull of an insolent soldier of his army at 
 Rheims with his battleaxe, who, in defi- 
 ance of his orders broke a vase, which he 
 was anxious to restore to the cathedral of 
 that city, to which it belonged. There is 
 preserved in the royal library at Paris, a 
 francisca, or bipennis, which is said to 
 have been tliat of Childeric, the father of 
 Clovis. The francisca attributed to Chil- 
 deric is but a simple axe. It, however, 
 appears that the bipennis Avas used in 
 those days, for Gregory of Tours and other 
 authors of his period give this name to the 
 francisca. See Francisca. 
 
 The nations of the east often made use 
 of the battleaxe as a weapon in their 
 combats. The Royal Library at Paris has 
 several belonging to the Mamelukes, and 
 there are also several of tlie Siinie descrip- 
 tion in the armoury at Carlton Pahicc. 
 M. Denon, the celebrated Egyptian travel- 
 l(!r, has also engraven resi)rcscntations of 
 several in his splendid \M)rk. 
 
 The bipennis or ancient l)attle axe was 
 sometimes cutting on one edge iind ixiinled 
 at the other, like the nuxlcsm iiaiherd ; aTid 
 more commonly with (wo cutting l)lad('S of 
 axes. Tiiis latter is the form oftenest met 
 with in ancient representations ; particu- 
 larly in tiiosc of tli(! most ancient diilc 
 'J"he lusid (»r blades were of bron/.c, ui(li 
 a handle of wood. That of Pisunder waa 
 of olive wood. Tiio bronze was in sonic 
 
 instances encrusted with silver, as was 
 that which /Eneas proposed as the prize 
 in his games. The battleaxes of the Asiatic 
 nations were splendidly ornamented, and 
 often damasked, and inlaid with silver. 
 
 Upon many of the sepulchral monuments 
 of the ancients are found the figure of an 
 axe, with an inscription "Slu ascia dedi- 
 CAviT," — " Sub ascia poslit," — " ab ascia 
 FECIT," &c. This formula has given rise 
 to many discussions, and many critics be- 
 lieved, for a long time, that they were only 
 to be found on the monuments of ancient 
 Gaul. But Gori, Gruter, Fabretti, Doni, 
 and Muratori agree that such inscriptions 
 have been found in and belong to other 
 countries. 
 
 Aldus Manutics was the first who 
 sought an explanation of these formula' in 
 a law of the twelve tables restricting pub- 
 lic luxury, which forbade the Roman peo- 
 ple to smooth with the axe, or otherwise 
 to work the wood with which they con- 
 structed their funeral piles. He informs 
 us that the ascia sculptured on these mo- 
 numents indicated that they had complied 
 with that law in erecting a tomb simple 
 and without art. Reinesius understands 
 by these inscriptions, that those who are 
 supposed to speak in the epitaph, presided 
 over the construction of the monument from 
 the first cut of the ascia which prepared the 
 soil, to the last finish of the work by the ascia 
 of the stonecutter. Faruettf, after having 
 referred to the before quoted laws of the 
 twelve tables, which prohibited luxury and 
 prodigality in the construction of their 
 tombs, thinks that the expression '' Sun 
 ASCIA facere" signifies, that they had bow- 
 ed to the enactments of that law by de- 
 claring that the tcuub, elegant as it was, 
 was entirely finished with the ascia. Maf- 
 FEi oilers a curious elucidation, which he 
 thinks he finds in a passage of Vitruvius, 
 who mentions the ascia as an instrument 
 used in the mixing of the lime, and there- 
 fore concludes that the moaning is, that 
 the tomb is wrought, finished, and whiten- 
 ed with lime. This opinitui he thinks 
 confirmed by the expression " consumma- 
 tuni hoc opus sub ascia est," found in an 
 epitaph reported by Guichenon; but Gru- 
 ter produces many epitaphs containing 
 ascia; sculptured on single i)locks of marble 
 or conunon stone, which had never been 
 whitened. Father MAnii.io\ c-injcctun's 
 that the ancients, in de<lici»ting their tombs 
 to tiie nmnes or spirits of the dead, invoked 
 iniprccntions of punishments \ipon those 
 who should dare to\iolate tluir sanctity 
 and that these invocations were implied 
 by the figure of the (isc/./, witii which their 
 
BAT 
 
 heads were threatened. According to 
 MuRATORi the formula " sub ascia dedica- 
 vit," or the ascia itself sculptured upon 
 the tomb, was a silent but commonly known 
 prayer, supposed to be addressed by the 
 person there interred to the owner of the 
 ground, soliciting him to weed its environs, 
 to check the briars and noxious plants that 
 would impede its view, and to keep the 
 earth secure over the ashes of the de- 
 ceased. 
 
 A weapon which Count Caylus has en- 
 graved in tlie (irst volume of his collection 
 was, in his opinion, the ascia of the Ro- 
 mans ; and he viewed the formula in ques- 
 tion in the same lights as Mabillon and 
 Muratori. He supposes that clearing the 
 ground from the weeds and other incum- 
 brances with the ascia, and a certain form 
 of prayer and dedication, were the first 
 ceremonies used in consecrating a piece of 
 ground to the use and rites of sepulture, 
 and that the inscription denoted the cere- 
 monies complete. For more particular de- 
 tails the reader is referred to the discus- 
 sion itself iu the first volume of the Count's 
 works. 
 
 MoRCELLi, in his elaborate work on the 
 style of Latin inscriptions, adopts the opi- 
 nions of Maff'ei, and thinks that " sub ascia 
 dedicavit" means that " this monument 
 was consecrated from the first stroke of 
 the axe." He adds, that in the Museum 
 Kircherianum he had often seen a weed- 
 ing hook of bronze, with the inscription 
 " Sub ascia p," which he conceived to 
 have belonged to some temple, and that 
 it indicated that it had been consecrated 
 before any person ha,d used it. From 
 whence he concludes that the word ascia 
 denoted in general any instrument with 
 which a work was finished. The medals 
 of the Valerian family are inscribed with 
 the figure of an axe (ascia), as an anagram 
 of the proper or surname of the family 
 Asciculus. 
 
 The inquiring reader is referred to the 
 following works on this subject for further 
 and more detailed particulars ; namely, 
 BuoNAROTTi £/»«ria Regalis; Ant. Franc. 
 GoRi, Selccta Monumenta eruditcc Antiqui- 
 tat'is, Florentiae, 1750, 8vo. ; Matth. Asp, 
 de Stylo lapidari, Upsal, 1737, 8vo. ; Jam 
 Gruteri, Inscripfionum Romaiiorum Corpus 
 ex Officina, Commel. 1603, 2 vols. fol. cum 
 Notis ; Marq. Gudii, emend, cura Jo. 
 Grajvii, Amstel. 1707, 4 vols. fol. with en- 
 gravings ; Fabretti, Inscriptiones Antique 
 qute in JEdihus paternis asservantur, Roma, 
 l(i99 and 1702, fol.; Step. Ant. Morcelli, 
 de Stylo hiscriptionum Latinariim, lihri III. 
 Roma, 1780, fol. ; LuDOVici Antonii Mu- 
 
 BAT 
 
 RATonii, Novis Thcsnurna veterum Jnscrip- 
 tionum, Mediol. 1730, 17'r2, 4 vols. fol. 
 with engravings ; Aldus Manutu's, Quast. 
 p. cpist. Ven. 1570, 8vo. ; Scipione Maffei, 
 Museum Veroiiense, h. e. Antiq. Inscription 
 nuni atquc Anaglyphorum Collect io, \er, 
 1749, fol. ; the works of Guichenon, Pere 
 Mabillon, Le Compte Caylus, Recueil 
 d'Antiquitds, &c. &c. 
 
 Battlements, [from battle.] In archi- 
 tecture. A parapet or other wall, witli in- 
 dented interstices, in the form of embra- 
 sures, to look or fire through. 
 
 Battle Pieces. In painting. Pictures 
 descriptive of fights or battles. Animated 
 descriptions of battles and combats afford 
 subjects of peculiar energy to painting as 
 well as to poetry ; for in general we love 
 that which excites emotion, and keeps the 
 imagination in full activity. The painter 
 of battles who possesses genius may ex- 
 press passions and character in his leading 
 figures, although, from the nature of his 
 subjects, it may be more diflicult to pre- 
 serve unity of character, and to direct the 
 action to one end, in battles than in histo- 
 rical pictures of a more quiet nature. 
 Among the subjects that can possess this 
 unity of action may be reckoned combats, 
 such as that of the Trojans and Greeks 
 for the body of Patroclus, the Horatii and 
 Curiatii, the single combats between Ajax 
 and Hector, Menelaus and Paris, &c. In 
 battle pieces the artist has scope to give 
 animation, spirit, and action to his figures 
 and horses ; while a bold and vigorous 
 style, with firm and decisive touches, and 
 freedom of outline, are preferable to high 
 finishing, delicate penciling, or too deter- 
 mined outline, unless in cabinet sized pic- 
 tures of a few figures. The battle painter 
 of talent will place the heroes of his action 
 in striking or aflfecting situations, and 
 thereby decide the point of time that his 
 picture represents. Leonardi da Vinci, in 
 the G7th chapter of his Treatise on Paint- 
 ing, gives some useful obser\ ations on bat- 
 tle painting; and as examples of some fine 
 battle pieces may be cited the battles of 
 Alexander, by Le Brun, which have been 
 finely engraved by Audran, and indiffer- 
 ently by the Dutch engraver Sch^Jicbek. 
 
 The most distinguished painters of bat- 
 tles are the following: Piet. delta Fran- 
 cesca, who died in 1580 ; 3Iart. Fiore, 1610 ; 
 Es. Van de Velde, 1630; Ant. Tempesta, 
 1630 ; Paul SteveJts, 1638 ; Robert Van 
 Hoeck, 1640 ; Gioc. Piet. Possenti, 1640 ; 
 Paul de Ros, 1640; Vine. Leckerbetien, sur- 
 named Manciol, 1650 ; Jean Peters and 
 Corn. Henri Vroom, both for seafights, 
 1650; Vul Castelli, 1659; Michel Angiolo 
 
 L 
 
BEA 
 
 Cerquossi, surnanied delta Bataglie, 1C60 ; 
 Jea7i Asselyn, 16C0 ; Juan de la Cork; 
 1G60; Pierre Snayeis, 1(JG2; Gaspar Van 
 Eijck, seafiglits, 1G()0; Anicllo Falcone, sur- 
 nanied the Oracle of Battles, 1605 ; Jean 
 de Lin, surnamed Stilheid, 1GG7 ; Jatcj. 
 Courtois, surnamed Buurguignon, 1G7G; 
 Charles Herhel, 1G80 ; Charles Le Brun, 
 1G90 ; Henri Verschiniring, 1G90; Ant. 
 Franc. Vander Menlen, 1G90 ; Rom. Panf, 
 1690; Guill. Van de Velde, for seaQghts, 
 1C93; Pundolf Reschi, 1700; Pict. Gra- 
 ziuni, 1700; Const, Frank, 1700; Cor7i. 
 Verhuyk, 1702 ; Jes. Parrocel, 1704 ; Franc, 
 Monti, surnamed Brescianino delle Bataglie, 
 1712; Georges de Bammel, 1723; Ant. 
 Calza, 1725 ; Chret. Renter, 1729 ; Jean de 
 Ilugtenburij, 1723 ; Guil. Parmigiano, 1734 ; 
 J. B. and Phil. Martin, about 1735 ; Georges 
 Phil. Rugeiidas, 1742; Franc. Simonini, 
 1744 ; Joach. Fr. Beich, 1748 ; Ch. Parro- 
 cel, 1752 ; Franc. Mar. Raineri, 1758 ; Rob, 
 Paton, for seafights, 1759; Aug, Qnerfurt, 
 17G1 ; Jea7i Pierre Verdusseii, 17G3 ; Hiac. 
 de la Peigne, 1764. Many modern artists 
 of the English, French, iind Italian schools 
 have obtained considerable reputation in 
 this branch of painting ; but being living 
 artists are, of course, not mentioned in this 
 work. 
 
 Bayeux tapestry. In the history of the 
 ai-ts. A celebrated piece of tapestry re- 
 presenting the conquest of England by 
 William of Normandy, preserved in fhe 
 cathedral of Bayeux in Normandy, the 
 ancient Beducussum or Baiocas. This 
 curious work of art is supposed to have 
 been the work of Matilda, the wife of AVil- 
 liam, or of the Empress Matilda, daughter 
 of Henry I. It consists of a web of linen, 
 four hundred and forty-two feet in length, 
 and about two feet in breadth. 
 
 Bead, [bea'^e, Saxon.] In architectiire. 
 A small circular moulding usually placed 
 on the edges of facia-, architraves, door- 
 cases, &c. It is sometimes carved into 
 representations of pearls and olives, or 
 ellii)tical and circular beads. 
 
 liEAK. [U/koc, Gr. hecco, Ital.] In archi- 
 tecture. See UosTKDM. 
 
 Beam, [licam Saxon, a tree.] In archi- 
 tecture. A long and large j)ieci' of limber, 
 into which the feetof tlic principal raflcrs, 
 king posts, &c. are framed ; inliiidcil also 
 to tie the walls of the building together ; 
 contradislinguished from tiiose used in 
 th(! Iloors, wiiicii are called girders (see 
 Gii(i)EHs), and those which are used (o 
 8ui)port the fronts of houses, which are 
 called brestsomers (see BuEsrsoMEits) ; for 
 an account of an extraordinary sized beam 
 or girder, see Ami'ihtiilvike. 
 
 BEA 
 
 Bear, [according to Hesychius /Sfipof, 
 ursus.] In arcluiiohgy. Among other wild 
 beasts, the Romans tamed and used bears 
 in their games and to draw chariots in 
 public processions, the slaves who kept 
 them were called ursarii, wiiich is found 
 inscribed on various ancient marbles. 
 Montfaucon, in the thirty-second plate, 
 part i. of the fifth volume of his Antiquite 
 Ex'pliq. has given the representation of a 
 sepulchral urn, on which is a bear con- 
 quered by a satyr, who, in the manner of a 
 victor, is holding a palm, and is being 
 crowned by a winged genii or victory. 
 In the third volume, part II. plate one 
 hundred and fifty -eight, the same author 
 has published an engraving from a stone 
 representing a slave with a whip in his 
 hand scourging a bear. On several an- 
 tique Roman lamps are representations of 
 bears led by men. There was a place 
 formerly in Rome where was painted or 
 sculptured a bear dressed with the pilcus, 
 and which was called, from this custom, 
 ad wrsum pileatum. The combats with 
 bears and other wild beasts in the circus 
 or amphitheatre, took place in the morn- 
 ing, and at noon they produced their gla- 
 diators ; therefore the morning sports are 
 always to be understood of the combat of 
 beasts, and tlie noon of men ; as may be 
 seen in the following passage : — 
 
 lu inatiitina nuper spectatiis arena Mucius, 
 Imposiiit qui sua nu-iiibra foci.-*. Martial, I. 10. 
 
 Beakd. [beap>, Saxon.] In costume. 
 The hair growing on the lips and chin. 
 To keep up the character of correct cos- 
 tume, it is necessary, both to the painter 
 and the sculptor, to know what nations 
 encouraged, and what others shaved the 
 beard. The I'.gyptiaus, as appi-ars from 
 their sculptures, shaved the beard ; ami 
 Herodotus further says, that it was in 
 mourning only that they suffered the beard 
 and hair to grow. The Assyrians, as we 
 are told by Strabo, (xvi.) resembled the 
 i:gyptians in this act of mourning, and 
 l)ermilted their beards to grow in seas(>ns 
 of grief. The Persians on the contrary, 
 shaved themselves, and even cropped the 
 manes and tails of their horses in honour 
 of the defunct (Her. ix. 21). The heroes 
 of Greece are represented either beardless 
 or with a short and curled beard. An- 
 li([ue scul|)tures and ancient authors dif- 
 fer as to the use of the beard among (he 
 Macedonians; allh(mgli IMutareh says ex- 
 pressly in his life of Theseus, that Alexan- 
 der ordered his soldiers to shave the beard, 
 that tiieir enemies might not sie/.e tiieni 
 by it in battle. Moses conceived the beard 
 of sufficient consequence to introduce n re- 
 
t 
 
 BE A 
 
 gulation concerning it into his code of 
 judaical laws (Levit, xix. 27), which arose 
 from the leading policy of the Theocracy, 
 whicli sought to create a people in every 
 thing distinct from, and unmixed with, tJie 
 idolaters by whom they were surrounded. 
 About the time of Justinian, long beards 
 began to be in favour both with tlie Greeks 
 and Romans, wlio regarded them as attri- 
 butes of philosophy. The Romans wore 
 the beard for a great length of time, but it 
 was about the year 454, A. U. C. that they 
 began to disuse it, except in token of 
 mourning or affliction, of being under dis- 
 grace, or as poor philosophers. Various 
 passages in ancient autliors, as Ovid {Art. 
 Am. part i. ver. 108 ; part ii. ver. 28) ; 
 Juvenal {Sat. xvi. ver. 32.) ; and Horace 
 (lib. xi. Sat. iii. ver. 35 and 117 ; lib. i. 
 Sat. i. ver. 134), prove them to have been 
 held in contempt. On a medal of Marc 
 Antony he is represented with a beard, 
 indicative of his misfortunes ; and on an- 
 other of Augustus, struck about the years 
 711 or 718, he has a beard as mourning 
 the death of Ca'sar. The youth of some 
 of the emperors is also another cause of 
 their being represented with short beards, 
 as it was not till they arrived at a certain 
 age that they began to shave : Nero is thus 
 represented on some of his earlier coins. 
 Hadrian is the first Roman emperor from 
 the time of Augustus, who is represented 
 with a long and thick beard, which some 
 critics have thought was to conceal the 
 scars and wounds on his face, and others, 
 with more probability, that he might as- 
 sume the appearance of a philosopher ; 
 perhaps remembering the sarcasm of Dio- 
 genes, who asked a smooth chinned volup- 
 tuary, " whether he quarrelled with na- 
 ture for making him a man instead of a wo- 
 man," (xiii. 2). This custom was followed 
 for several successive reigns ; as the cus- 
 toms of Hadrian and the Antonines were 
 venerable in the eyes of the Romans. The 
 wretched Commodus was fearful of trust- 
 ing his throat to a razor in another per- 
 son's hands. Constantine the Great again 
 introduced the custom of shaving ; and 
 Julian, as a mark of sectarism, revived 
 the former custom of tlie philosophical or 
 long beard. Till the time of Jovian, all 
 the succeeding emperors are represented 
 on their medals without beards ; and Pho- 
 cas introduced it again. 
 
 WhenCfcsar invaded Britain, the natives 
 shaved their chins, and wore simple mus- 
 taches on their upper lip ; and accord- 
 ing to Diodorus Siculus and Tacitus the 
 Germans also shaved off their beards. In 
 France the princes of the race of the Me- 
 
 BEA 
 
 rovingians were distinguished for their 
 flowing locks and bearded chins ; and arc; 
 described by Eginhard, the secretary of 
 Charlemagne, as sitting in council barhik 
 suhmissH. From the time of Hugh Capet, 
 the kings of the third race are more or less 
 bearded ; but Philip I. has a large beard. 
 Tlie statues and portraits of the French 
 kings, the successors of Philip II. till 
 Philip Valois, are beardless. Under this 
 latter king beards began to be worn larger 
 and more flowing till the time of Francis I. 
 when they were introduced in all their 
 philosophical magnitude, and began insen- 
 sibly to decline till Louis XIV. when they 
 were finally abolished. 
 
 From this brief view of the history of 
 beards is proved the necessity of studying, 
 even so apparently a trifling portion of cos- 
 tume as the beard, to enable the artist or 
 critic to judge of the age of the antique 
 statues and paintings, as well as the coun- 
 try of the persons which they represent. 
 The beard has also an ideal character of 
 an attribute, and distinguished, by its un- 
 dulating curl, the Jupiter Olympius from 
 the Jupiter Serapis, who has a longer and 
 straighter beard ; the lank beard of Nep- 
 tune and the river gods, from the short 
 and frizly beards of Hercules, Ajax, Dio- 
 mede, Ulysses, &c. It is observable that 
 Virgil (so much were long beards disused 
 in his time), in copying Homer's famous 
 description of Jupiter, has omitted all the 
 picturesque descriptions of the beard, the 
 hair, and the eyebrows of the thunderer ; 
 for which he has been censured by Macro- 
 bius and praised by Scaliger. Yet Virgil's 
 description was the fittest for the fashions 
 of the Romans, and Homer's the noblest 
 for those of the Greeks. For further dis- 
 cussions on the beard, see a very amusing 
 article in the miscellaneous and lexicogra- 
 phical department of the Encyclopaedia Me- 
 tropolitana ; a trea.tise de fine Barba, by 
 Ulmus, a logician of Padua, wlio wrote 
 four hundred folio pages upon it, and left 
 it unfinished at his deatli. Bulwer's 
 Anthropometamorphosis ; the various au- 
 thentic collection of portraits, &cc. 
 
 Bearsbreech. In architecture. See 
 Acanthus. 
 
 Beau Ideal. In pamting. See Ideal 
 Beauty. 
 
 Beauty, [beauts, Fr.] In painting, sculp- 
 ture, and architecture. A term of most ex- 
 tensive application, which denotes that 
 assemblage of agreeable forms and graces 
 which charms or pleases the senses, par- 
 ticularly the eye and ear ; as colour, form, 
 and motion, and their several combina- 
 tions. Although much has been written 
 
 l2 
 
BEA 
 
 on tho principles of beautiful forms, yet 
 notliing lias been positively decided as to 
 the nature and properties of abstract beau- 
 ty itself, even if such a quality be ac- 
 knowledged. 
 
 If an Asiatic artist was to treat this sub- 
 ject, his principle, it is evident, would dif- 
 fer from that of a European. This must 
 not, however, prevent us from studying 
 our own principles of beauty, as they are 
 the foundation of the ornamental part of 
 sculpture, painting, and architecture ; and 
 govern the proportion of the human figure. 
 Modern artists seem to have implicitly 
 adopted Grecian ideas ; which circum- 
 stance may account for the prevalence of 
 the antique profile in modern pictures, 
 which is certainly a great inconsistency, 
 when the subjects are chosen from any 
 other than Grecian history; there being 
 one principle of beauty in the form of the 
 Greeks, another in that of the Romans, 
 and another in that of the modern Euro- 
 peans, and yet they are all beautiful. 
 Professor Camper, in his book upon the 
 different forms of the human cranium, has 
 endeavoured to trace this style of the 
 straight or Grecian profile from a probable 
 source. The projection of the mouth and 
 depression of the forehead, with a flat 
 nose, marks that kind of face which is the 
 nearest allied to the brute creation ; there 
 being but one degree between a dog, mon- 
 key, ape, ourang-outang, Calmuc, and ne- 
 gro. From the negro to the European 
 countenance are many degrees, which may 
 be traced by an attentive study of the hu- 
 man species ; and again, between the best 
 modern faces and those of the antique, 
 there are also many gradations of form 
 and outline. Perhaps from tiie Greeks 
 observing the resemblance between the 
 lowest class of human coiintenances and 
 those of m«)ukeys, may be the reason why 
 they conceived beauty to be as far as pos- 
 sible removed from all resemblance to 
 them. As the lower part of the brutal 
 face projected, in sucii j)roportit>n liiey 
 thougiit the same position of the human 
 face should recede; and as in tiie former 
 there was a descent from tlie forehead lo 
 the nose, in llie latter it should l)e perjjcn- 
 dicular. As a small space between the 
 ♦•yes gives the ap|)earanc(! of an ape, they 
 made the distance of iiiaii wide. As a 
 great breadth of cranium at the eyes, end- 
 ing iil)ov(> in a narrow forehead, and below 
 in a pointed chin, marked (lie face of a 
 savage ; they gave a sipiareness of fore- 
 head and a breadtii of lace lielow, to ex- 
 press tiignity of cJiaracter. Hence may be 
 the origin of liiat i<lt al beauty, which has 
 
 BEL 
 
 occasicmed so many feuds and schisms in 
 art, and which nothing but a recurrence to 
 nature, who is seldom wrong, can remedy. 
 See Ideal Bemty. 
 
 Bed. In costume. See Couch. 
 
 Bed. [bedden. Germ.] In anhilccture. 
 A course, layer, or range of stones ; also 
 the plain surface on the under side of 
 stones or bricks, which is placed on the 
 cement. The upper part being hollowed 
 to receive it. 
 
 Bed MoL'i.niNGs. In architecture. Those 
 mouldings in a cornice which are situated 
 between the under side of the corona and 
 the upper side of the frieze; they differ 
 according to the order they belong to. 
 See Order. 
 
 Belfry. In architecture. A tower or 
 other place where bells are hung. This 
 word is derived from 'the French heffroi, 
 and Menage in his dictionary gives him- 
 self much trouble to discover its etymolo- 
 gy; which he explains in one place, as 
 from his-ejfrois ; but the most probable is 
 that of Ducange, who derives it from bell 
 a clock, and fried peace. The form of a 
 belfry must be according to its situation 
 and application, and therefore must be 
 left in its design to the discretion of the 
 architect. See SpiRE, Campanile. 
 
 Bellona. In the imjthology of painting 
 and sculpture. The goddess of war, and 
 sister or wife, or sister-wife and chario- 
 teer of Mars. The temple of Bellona, 
 in Rome, stood in the Circus Ftuinijiius, 
 near the Porta Carmentalis, and was the 
 place where foreign ambassadors, and ge- 
 nerals returning from their campaigns 
 were received by the senate. Before its 
 gates was raised a column, called C(dumna 
 Bellica, against which a javelin was hurled 
 as one of the previous forms in the decla- 
 ration of war (Ov. Fast. vi. 201). Her 
 l)ricsts were named after her lietlonarii. 
 Lactantius(i. 21.) describes tiiem as cutting 
 their llesh most ferociously in her wor- 
 ship : and T.Mtullian (I and 9 de Pallia) 
 adds, that having collected the i)lt)(ul. 
 which flowed from tiiese gashes, in tiie 
 palms of their hands, they pledged the 
 Ne(>i)h\tes, who were initiated into their 
 mysleries, and then broke out into the 
 ravings of vaticination. 
 
 Bi:i.\ r:i)r.UE. .\ beautiful view. In archi- 
 tecture. The name of a house which com- 
 man<ls a line prospect ; or of a small tem- 
 ple or other erection, built on an eminence 
 or on the top of a house, for the i)urpose 
 of nijoyinga line prospect. Tn Italy, par- 
 ticularly ill Rome, almost every largo 
 house and palace has a belvedere attached 
 to it. The linest of these buildings are the 
 
BEN 
 
 Palazzo Pontifico nel Vaticano, called the 
 Belvedere, from the beautiful views which 
 it commands of the Campagna and the 
 city of Rome. This building contains a 
 splendid collection of antique scidptures, 
 &c. called the Museum Pio Clcmcntino ; 
 from whence the celebrated statue of 
 Apollo received its name of the Belvedere 
 Apollo, which, with the group of the Lao- 
 coon, and many other admirable pieces of 
 sculpture, are among the most valuable 
 monuments of ancient art in Rome. 
 
 Bench. [Bene, Saxon.] In architecture. 
 A seat. The seat or benches of the an- 
 cients, as may be conjectured from various 
 remains of art and ancient writeis, were of 
 various forms and materials. The suhsel- 
 lium was a species of throne for heroes or 
 kings ; the curule chair was appropriated to 
 the magistrates ; and when represented on 
 medals, as on those of the families of the 
 Lollia, Cornelia, Cestia, &c. denote the fa- 
 milies to be of that order. (See Throne, 
 Seat, &c.) The range of benches in the 
 Grecian and Roman theatres were appro- 
 priated to diflferent classes of people. In 
 the former the first row were reckoned the 
 most honourable, and were reserved for 
 the agonotheta or judges, who decided on 
 the pieces represented, and decreed the 
 rewards ; also to magistrates, to military 
 chiefs, and priests ; which places were 
 taken by the magistrates in the public 
 assemblies of the people, that were held in 
 the theatres. The benches behind tliese 
 Avere the places of the youths. The higher 
 and more distant seats were filled with 
 the rest of citizens and common people. 
 In Athens the benches of the rich w^ere co- 
 vered with cushions, and had carpets under 
 them for their feet. In the Roman theatres 
 the orchestra was reserved for tlie sena- 
 tors. In the most ancient times they had 
 no particular seat, but were intermixed 
 generally with the audience. This cus- 
 tom was abolished by the two anliles, 
 Atilius Serranus and Lucius Scribo, by 
 the advice of Scipio Africanus. After 
 which time the patricians were always 
 separated, in the theatres, from the ple- 
 beians ; but this innovation was the cause 
 of Scipio almost losing the favour of the 
 people. The senators occupied the seats of 
 the orchestra, not even ambassadors or 
 foreign sovereigns being permitted to sit 
 there. The benches were of wood, and 
 the pra?tor's seat alone was a little elevated 
 above the rest. Caligula afterwards al- 
 lowed them to use cushions. In the other 
 seats there was no distinction from the 
 most ancient times of the republic. From 
 the time of Pompey they preserved a par- 
 
 BEN 
 
 ticular row for the knights, and upon the 
 proposition of Luclns Roscius, a tribune 
 of the people, the first four rows of benches 
 were appropriated to them. This law was 
 observed under the emperors ; but the 
 number of Roman knights having been 
 considerably increased, these four rows 
 Avere not sufficient. Augustus made se- 
 veral new arrangements relative to the 
 benches. The soldiers had particular 
 ones, divided from the rest of tlie people. 
 The seats immediately behind those of the 
 knights were assigned to the younger 
 branches of eminent families and their 
 tutors ; behind them were the most distin- 
 guished plebeians; and again behind those, 
 being the most elevated, were the com- 
 monalty. The women, who were formerly 
 seated among the men, were now only 
 allowed the space behind the last men- 
 tioned ; except the vestals wlio had a seat 
 in the orchestra, near that of the prjetor. 
 Afterwards the place befoi-e the lower 
 rows of seats in the orchestra was con- 
 sidered a place of distinction, they called 
 it Podium, and it was sufficiently large to 
 place two rows of seats. See The;Vtre. 
 
 Benevento. hi the history of the arts. 
 The capital of a small duchy of Italy situ- 
 ated on a steep declivity, and at the point 
 of a hill between two narrow valleys. Few 
 places in Italy, except Rome, can boast of 
 more antiquities than Benevento; one of 
 the most celebrated of these remains is 
 the triumphal arch which was erected 
 A. D. 114, in honour of the Emperor Tra- 
 jan (see Triumphai, Arch). It is now one 
 of the five gates by Avhich the city is en- 
 tered, and is called porta aurca. Bene- 
 vento also possesses several fine pieces of 
 ancient sculpture, and those of a Roman 
 amphitheatre. 
 
 BENTVOGEr. Society. In the history of 
 painting. A celebrated society of Flemish 
 painters, establisiied at Rome, into which 
 they received all of their own nation who 
 came to reside at Rome, and desired to be 
 admitted as members. The introduction 
 was made at a tavern, where a repast was 
 prepared at the expense of the new mem- 
 ber, when, after some wliimsical and bur- 
 lesque ceremonies, he was inaugurated 
 with a new name, expressive of some pe- 
 culiarity of person or style, as Peter Van 
 Laen was named by them, Bamboccio ; 
 Philip Roos, Rosa da Tivola, and others 
 with the various sobriquets or nick names, 
 by which they are known. The ceremony 
 was kept up all night, and in the morning 
 they marched in procession to the tomb 
 of Bacchus, where it concluded. See Pit- 
 Kington's Dictionarii of Painters, ice. 
 
BID 
 
 Bevei. or Bevil. In architecture. Any 
 angle that is not a right angle or square, 
 or is more or less than DO degrees ; but if 
 it has an angle of 45 degrees, it is called 
 a viitre. Also an instrument resembling 
 a square, but having its blade movable 
 for the proper adjusting of angles for the 
 workmen. It differs from the square and 
 the mitre, the blades of which are fixed at 
 their i-elative degrees of aperture. 
 
 Bible. (j3i/3\()c, Gr.] In the history of the 
 arts. The collection of sacred writings or 
 the holy scriptures of the Old and New 
 Testament, so called by way of eminence. 
 This book has furnished more subjects for 
 the pencil and chisel of modern art than 
 any other in existence ; many of them have 
 been illustrated by engravings from the 
 works of the greatest artists ; among 
 which may be reckoned as the principal, 
 either for antiquity or beauty, a celebrated 
 one \vith wood cuts, described by Camus, 
 in his treatise " sur un Lirre iinprim^ a 
 Bamberg:" Raffaelle's Bible ; the Artist's 
 Bible, a magnificent copy, published in 
 Holland, with engravings after the best 
 works of the greatest masters; Macklin's 
 Bible, by British artists, published in Lon- 
 don ; and one engraved by Fittler, from 
 old masters, and published by Bowyer, 
 London, are among the principal illus- 
 trated bibles. 
 
 Bice or Bise. [bisiiis, Lat.] In painting. 
 A pale blue colour prepared from the 
 lapis armenius (smalt), being inclined to 
 be sandy. Bice requires good and care- 
 ful grinding, and after ultramarine (which 
 is too expensive for common use), it is 
 one of the best of blues. A green colour 
 formed by mixing the blue with orpimont, 
 bears the same name; as do also certain 
 compositions of indigo and verditer with 
 chalk. 
 
 BiDENT. [bidens, Lat.] In pictorial and 
 sculptural archaiolojiy. An instrument or 
 weapon with two prongs. The bidcnt has 
 been imjjroperly attril)uled by modern 
 artists to Pluto instead of a sceptre which 
 is given him by all the best writers of 
 antiquily. Ovid particularly describes 
 him (Met. 5. v. 420) as holding a sceptre. 
 See Sceptre. 
 
 BiDENTAi,. [Lat.] In Roman archaiology. 
 From tlic hi(l'>nlesoves or two tootlied ((wo 
 year old) sheep whicii was oflered to (he 
 gods at the death of any person by light- 
 ning. The pliu'o wliere an occurieiice of 
 this nature took place, was immediately 
 deemed sacred, enclosed wi(h a wall of 
 .stones, and the body of the suderer 
 buried (herein. The place was called 
 Bidcntul from the sacrifice being a sheep 
 
 BIT 
 
 of two year old ; and there were priests 
 especially appointed to perform the neces- 
 sary ceremonies wherever such an incident 
 occurred ; the Romans considering it as 
 an indication that the gods desired to have 
 such a spot sacred to their worship. 
 
 " Miiixcnt in sacros cineics, an tristc bidt'ntal 
 Movcrit incestiis." HoR. 
 
 BiPENNis. [Lat.] In the archaiology of 
 art. See Battleaxe. 
 
 Birds. [bip'T> or bpi'c, Saxon.] In ar- 
 chaiology. The general name of the fea- 
 thered class of creation. On several sar- 
 cophagi of the earlier Christians are sculp- 
 tured, birds devouring fruit ; aud as they 
 are mostly pigeons, it has been supposed 
 they were intended as symbols of the soul, 
 nourished by the fruits of faith in Chris- 
 tianity. But these figures cannot have the 
 same meaning on the tombs of the Pagans, 
 where the same symbols may be found. 
 In vol. i. plate 13, of Monumcns aniiqucs 
 inidits, by A. L. Milun, is an engraving 
 of a sarcophagus, whereon is represented 
 baskets of fruit being overturned by birds, 
 and which he conjectures to be an emblem 
 of the destruction of the body, and the ces- 
 sation of life. According to Clemens of 
 Alexandria, quoted by Winckelman, the 
 early Christians used the representation 
 of a bird (perhaps a dove, the usual perso- 
 nification of the Holy Spirit) on their rings 
 and seals. 
 
 BiREMis. [Lat.] In the aixhaiology of art. 
 An ancient ship with two rows of seats for 
 the rowers. A galley. 
 
 BilJRis. \jil(>f>og, CJr.] In archaiology. A 
 short woollen cloak worn by the Roman 
 soldiery. 
 
 BiscinT. [Fr. from bis and coquo, Lat.] 
 In sculpture. Twice baked. A spi'cies of 
 white baked clay, with which figures and 
 groups are formed. A sort of ungla/.ed 
 porcelain. 
 
 Bistre or Bistek. In painting. A co- 
 lour made from the soot of dry wood, of 
 which I)eoch is (he best, boiled half an 
 hour in water, of the i)ropor(ion of a gal- 
 lon to two pounds of soo(. After it has 
 settled, the water is poured from it, and 
 when evaporated to dryness aud made 
 into cakes with gumwu(er, it is good 
 bistre. Bistre is much used by architects 
 and jiainters in washing (heir drawings 
 and ske(eiies. The king of Creat Bri(aiu 
 has a considerable number of fine draw- 
 ings in bistre by the old masters ; and 
 (here aie also a great quaiiti(y of (hem 
 in (he sallc D'Apollon, in (iu- Louvre at 
 Paris. 
 
 lirriNc. In engraving. The act of cor- 
 rosion upon copper l)y aqua fortis, for the 
 
I 
 
 BLO 
 
 purpose of executing etchings, aquatints, 
 &c. See Etchings. 
 
 Bitumen, ^bitumen, Lat.] A fat unc- 
 tuous matter dug from the earth or scum- 
 med ofl' lake?, and used by the artists as a 
 cement. Liquid bitumen is still the prin- 
 cipal cement both in Japan and China, 
 where it abounds. Semiramis also used 
 it in building the walls of Babylon. See 
 Cement. 
 
 Black, [blac, Saxon.] Inpainthig'. The 
 darkest of all colours. This colour ab- 
 sorbing all the rays of light and reflecting 
 none, occasions its darkness. There are 
 several species of blacks used in painting, 
 of which the following are tlie principal. 
 Frankfort Bl-vck, of which there are tAvo 
 sorts, one a natural earth inclining to 
 blue ; and the other made from the lees 
 of wine burnt, washed, and ground with 
 ivory, bones, or peach stones. This black 
 is much used by the copper-plate printers, 
 for their fine ink to work their engravings. 
 Ivory Black is burnt ivory, or bones re- 
 duced to powder, and ground in oil or 
 water as required. Spanish Black is 
 burnt cork reduced in a similar manner. 
 Harts Black is that which remains in 
 the retort after the spirits, volatile salt, 
 and oil have been extracted from harts- 
 horn, and when properly levigated, an- 
 swers the purpose of painters nearly as 
 well as ivoi-y black. Lamp Black is ori- 
 ginally the soot collected fiom lamps, but 
 is generally prepared in England at the 
 turpentine manufactories, by burning the 
 dregs after the refining of pitch or other 
 resinous matter, or small pieces of pitch 
 pine in furnaces constructed for the pur- 
 pose ; the smoke is made to pass through 
 a long horizontal flue, terminating in a 
 close boarded chamber, which has its roof 
 covered with a coarse cloth, through which 
 the air passes, and leaves the soot or 
 lamp black behind. The goodness of this 
 black depends much on its lightness and 
 depth of colour. 
 
 Blacklead. In dmicing;. A mineral 
 used for making pencils for artists ; called 
 also Graphite and Plumbago. It occurs 
 naturally in large roundish masses, im- 
 bedded in different kinds of rock. The 
 most extensive mine of it in the world is, 
 at present, that at Borrodale in Cumber- 
 land. 
 
 Block, [from the Teutonick.] In sculp- 
 ture and architecture. A square mass of 
 marble or other stone. The ancients used 
 blocks of stone in their architectural works, 
 of a prodigious size. (See Architecture, 
 Egyptian, Grecian, &c.) The art of ma- 
 sonry or construction in stone has been 
 
 BOL 
 
 brought by the moderns to such perfec- 
 tion that large blocks of stone are not so 
 necessary in our constructions as in those 
 of the ancients (See Construction). The 
 largest blocks of stones that have ever 
 been removed from their quarries, and 
 used in building by the art of man are 
 the roof of the temple of Latona at Bntis, 
 which Herodotus aflirms was brought from 
 the island of Philse, a distance of nearly 
 two hundred leagues, and contained above 
 fourteen thousand five hundred cubit feet, 
 being above sixty feet square and four 
 feet thick; the immense obelisk in the 
 front of St. Peter's at Rome; the two 
 basins of granite in the British Museum ; 
 the great rock which serves for the pedestal 
 of the statue of Peter the Great at St. Pe- 
 tersburg; the two angles of the pediment 
 belonging to the perystyle of the Pantheon 
 at Paris, each of which measures nine 
 French feet square by five high ; and 
 contains more than four hundred cubit 
 feet of stone. See Construction. 
 
 Block Book. See Engraving. 
 
 Block Engraving. See Engraving. 
 
 Blocking Course. In architecture. The 
 course of stones or bricks erected on the 
 upper part of a cornice to make a termina- 
 tion. 
 
 Blood Stone. In gem sculpture. A 
 species of heliotrope, so called from the 
 blood coloured spots of jasper with which 
 it is mixed. See Heliotrope. 
 
 Blue. In painting. One of the seven ori- 
 ginal colours. This colour, for the use of 
 painters, is variously prepared ; the best 
 is ulti'amarine, which is prepared from 
 lapis lazuli, finely pulverized by ignition, 
 quenched in a strong acid, and subse- 
 quently levigated. The principal blues 
 used in painting, are, Prussian Blue. 
 This excellent colour is so named from its 
 discoverer, Diesbach of Berlin, who in 
 precipitating a decoction of cochineal with 
 fixed alkali, unexpectedly found a beauti- 
 ful blue precipitate formed. There are 
 various ways of making it, for which see 
 Ure's Chemical Dictionary. Blue bice 
 is a colour next to Prussian blue in quality 
 (See Bice). Indigo Blue is a chemical 
 extract from the colouring matter contain- 
 ed in the plant anil, or the indigo plant. 
 
 Boar. See Wild Boar. 
 
 Boldness. In all the arts. The Anglo 
 Saxon words byldan, byld, bylded, bold, 
 and bolt were used indifferently for what 
 we now call a building (builden) or stiong 
 edifice. In art the epithet means fearless, 
 firm, strongly constructed, and character- 
 izes the artist who, certain in his aim, and 
 grounded in the soundest principles of his 
 
BOU 
 
 art, builds, designs, paints, or sculptures 
 witli intrepidity and dauntless courage. 
 Such was Michel Angiolo in all his works, 
 particularly in his sculpture, at which he 
 worked as if inspired, and was only knock- 
 ing off the incumbering marble which con- 
 cealed his ligure. Such were also the un- 
 known architects of our Gothic cathedrals, 
 and such were most of the painters of the 
 Italian and Roman schools. Boldness in 
 art, if tempered by knowledge, gives a 
 vigour to all its productions that is sure to 
 charm. Its opposite is tameness or insi- 
 pidity. 
 
 BoLOGNESE SCHOOL. See School. 
 
 Bones. See Osteology. 
 
 Boots. /» costume. Coverings or pro- 
 tections for the legs. The Roman soldiers 
 wore boots protected by nails, which came 
 half way up the leg, and were called 
 caligje, from KaXi'ya; whence Suetonius 
 (1. 2. c, 25.) calls the common soldiers ho- 
 mines cnliguti. 
 
 Border, [from bord, German, bordure, 
 Fr.] In all the arts. The outer part or 
 edge of any thing. This term in art is ap- 
 plied to the outer part, which is raised, 
 being either square, round, or otherwise, 
 and often sculptured, painted, or gilt, and 
 applied to the exterior extremities of pic- 
 tures, panels, or bassi rilievi. The bor- 
 ders on the vases of the ancients are re- 
 markable for their beauty and elegance, 
 and are mostly composed from the leaves 
 of different vegetables, as the acanthus, 
 the honeysuckle, the polypodium, or oak 
 fern of Pliny, and sometimes of the circu- 
 lar or angular nueander or scroll. In 
 others they are composed from the foliage 
 of animals, which may have given rise 
 to the style called arabestpie. (See 
 Arauesque.) The borders of these kind 
 of ^ases, of which a splendid collection 
 are in the British Museum, in Mr. Thomas 
 Hope's collection, and also in a collection 
 published by M. Tisclibicn, have been co- 
 pied and used as borders to vestments. 
 (See AcANTHiNiE Vestes.) Wherever the 
 foliage border or majanderwas enii)loyed, 
 liie Greeks always placed the fornier on 
 the upper part, and the latter on the lower 
 part, as a base. See INLtianuer. 
 
 BoRGHESE. See Vh.i.a, Palace, Rome. 
 llo'.sAdi;. [1m-.] In archilcctior. A pro- 
 jecting stone vvhicii is intended to lie sculji- 
 tured. Also rustic work which jjrojects 
 beyond tlie jjlain face of the masonry. See 
 J{( sue. 
 
 Koi Doiit. [l''r.] luavchitirtin-c. A small 
 a|i;irliiiiiit or <'aijinet for i)rivate retire- 
 ment; ;;(ner;illy ,-.ilu:iled near the bed- 
 iliamber and dre.ssiM^room,and mostly a]>- 
 
 BOW 
 
 propriated to the use of the females. The 
 boudoir requires much luxurious ease in 
 furniture and decoration ; the light should 
 not be glaring by too many windows, and 
 the most cheerful aspect should be cho- 
 sen for it. Its furniture may be sofas and 
 couches ; its decorations small and de- 
 licately finished pictures, small statues, 
 vases, gems, and other delicacies of art. 
 Boldness of finishing and grand subjects 
 should be left entirely for the gallery. See 
 Cabinet, Gallery. 
 
 Bow. In architecture. A circular end 
 to a church, a room, or building. 
 
 Bow. In the arts. An engine of war. 
 The bow is one of the most ancient wea- 
 pons of ofl'ence, and differs much in shape 
 among various people, although its me- 
 chanism is upon the same principle. The 
 oldest bow on record is that of Pandarus, 
 described in the Iliad (IV. v. 105, et seq.) 
 which he made at the suggestions of Mi- 
 nerva for the purpose of shooting at INIenc- 
 laus. Being described by the poet with 
 great accuracy, it may be of service to the 
 artist to quote it as an example of an an- 
 tique bow. " He drew forth his polished 
 bow, made from a wanton wild goat which 
 he once striking on the breast had pierced 
 to the heart. His horns grew from his 
 head of the length of sixteen palms, and 
 the artist, the polisher of horns, had with 
 labour prepared them, and having smooth- 
 ed every part properly, put upon them a 
 
 golden tip." " The string he moved 
 
 close to !iis breast, and tlie iron of the 
 arrow to the bow." In the East the horns 
 of the antelope are still in like manner 
 fashioned into l)ows. They consist of t\\ o 
 pieces tirndy jointed at the centre, and sel- 
 dom exceed four feet in length. 
 
 The Greciiin bow is obser\ed by Mont- 
 faucon (iv. GS.) to be uniformly sculpturcil 
 in the same manner in the monuments 
 which are left to us ; and he describes it 
 as closely resembling the letter S. 
 
 The Scythian bow was distinguished by 
 its remarkable curvature. A\'heu unbent 
 it was almost semicircular; when strung 
 tiie en(^s\^I\i<■h were before inflected weri' 
 draw n on tlie opposite sidi's, anil it diliered 
 but little from tlie ordinary bows of Greece. 
 The Scythian:; are said to have been am- 
 bidextrous. 
 
 The licunan archers, or sa^ittarii, were 
 attached to (he Tegular legion as light 
 (roops. C'a'sar often nuikes mention of his 
 Nuinidian and Cretan archers. In the 
 time of the succeeding emperors, as wo 
 learn from Dion CJassius, and other autho- 
 rities, the liow was much in use in Britain. 
 Our aruestorSj before the discoveiy of iiun- 
 
BRA 
 
 powder and the invention of fire arms, ex- 
 celled in the use of the bow. See Akuow. 
 Bracelet, [from the Latin brachialc ; 
 hrasselet, Fr.] An ornament or piece of 
 armour worn on the arm. The bracelets 
 of the ancients were often ornamented 
 with the richest g;ems sculptured in the 
 finest manner. Those of the Grecian fe- 
 males were mostly representations of ser- 
 pents, such as are on the wrists of a pre- 
 tended statue of Cleopatra, in the Vati- 
 can ; but which is now more properly 
 called Ariadne asleep. (See Ariadne.) 
 The Roman generals distributed bracelets 
 called armillcc, as marks of valour to the 
 bravest of their soldiers. 
 
 Bracket, [brachietto, Ital.] In architec- 
 ture. A small support against a wall for 
 a figure, lamp, clock, &c. which are sus- 
 ceptible of considerable elegance of de- 
 sign and decoration. 
 
 Branchid.e. In archaiology. The priests 
 of a temple of Apollo at Didjona in Mile- 
 sia. The temple stood on the promontory 
 of Posideium, rather more than two miles 
 from the sea. It was of great antiquity, 
 long anterior to the Ionian migration. 
 After many vicissitudes the Milesian tem- 
 ple was rebuilt, with great magnificence, 
 about the eighty-seventh Olympiad. The 
 names of its architects, Peonius of Ephe- 
 sus and Daphnis of Miletus, have descend- 
 ed to us through the care of Vitruvius, 
 who numbers it among the four temples, 
 the splendour of which deserved to immor- 
 talize their builders. 
 
 Brasier. [from brass.] In domestic archi- 
 tecture. A metal pan for burning charcoal, 
 &c. ; the Greeks and Romans having no 
 chimneys in their apartments, they used 
 pans, in which they placed lighted coals 
 for the purpose of warming them. These 
 were made of diflTerent metals, but most 
 commonly of brass, and are therefore call- 
 ed brasiers. Caylus lias published some 
 ancient brasiers, which are supported by 
 a tripod. A niimber of them were found 
 in the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
 of Avhich the greatest part have been en- 
 graved in the 3d volume of the Bronzes 
 found at Herculaneum. In 1761 a square 
 pan, or bronze grate was discovered, in a 
 temple of Herculaneum, like those used 
 in Italy for heating the large apartments. 
 It is as large as a middling sized table, 
 and placed upon lion's paws. The borders 
 are inlaid with foliage worked in copper, 
 bronze, and silver. At the bottom was an 
 iron grating, very thick, supported or 
 walled up with bricks above and below, 
 that the coals might not touch the under 
 part of the grating, nor fall through at the 
 
 BRI 
 
 bottom. This fine example was taken out 
 in pieces. They use no other numncr in 
 Italy at present to heat the apartments? 
 than by moans of pans, which are propor- 
 tioned to the size of the rooms, and orna- 
 mented according to the opulence of the 
 proprietors. In most palaces they are of 
 silver : the greatest number are of copper, 
 and the most common form is a basin, sup- 
 ported by a border of Avood, plated with 
 copper, which rise from three to four feet. 
 In ancient churches they used a pan 
 mounted on wheels to warm the priests 
 and assistants. 
 
 Brass. See Bronze. 
 Breastsomer. See Brestsomer. 
 Brechia, or Breccia. See Marble. 
 Breeches. In costume. A garment reach- 
 ing from the waist to the knees. The 
 Greeks wore their knees and legs bare, 
 but the more barbarous nations of anti- 
 quity covered them with vestments, which 
 Avere called ava^v^lSic, These vestments 
 were also worn by the Scythians (see Phi- 
 lost. Icon. lib. ii. 5, and the Phigaleian 
 Marbles), the Aramaspi, the Amazons, the 
 Phrygians, Syrians, &c. Among the Greeks 
 this garment indicated slavery, and thence 
 foreigners, or slaves brought from other 
 countries were always represented so 
 clothed by their artists. The nations of 
 the north, as the Dacians, the Parthians, 
 the Sarmatians, &c. usually wore them, as 
 may be seen by the sculptures on the Tra- 
 jan column. They were also worn by the 
 Gauls; and that part which was under the 
 Roman dominion was called Gallia Braccata 
 from this circumstance. 
 
 Brestsomer, or Brestsummer. In ar- 
 chitecture. Pieces of timber laid horizon- 
 tally on piers or posts, into which the 
 joists of a floor are framed. When this 
 happens in the ground floor it is called a 
 sill, and when to the upper a beam. 
 
 1. Brick; 2. Brickl^vyer; 3. Brick- 
 laying; 4. Brickmaker ; .5. Brickmaking. 
 In practical architecture. 1. [hrick, Dutch, 
 brique, French.] A mass of argillaceous 
 earth, sometimes mixed with coal ashes, 
 chalk, and other substances; formed in 
 cubical moulds, dried in the sun, and 
 baked into a kind of artificial stone for the 
 use of builders. 2. An artisan who builds 
 with bricks, and whose business consists 
 of building walls, &c. with brick, under 
 the direction of an architect, or bricklaying 
 proper, tiling of its several kinds, and 
 paving with bricks or tiles ; to which is 
 sometimes added, building and construct- 
 ing ovens and furnaces, setting stoves, cop- 
 pers, stills, &;c, 3. The art of building 
 witii bricks. 4. One whose trade it is to 
 
BUI 
 
 make bricks. 5. The art of making 
 bricks. 
 
 BnicKLWiNG. The art of bricklaying 
 or building with bricks is of great anti- 
 quity, and appears to be coeval \\Hh the 
 earliest buildings on record. Joscphus 
 relates that the children of Seth erected 
 two pillars, one of hrick and the other of 
 stone, on which they engraved the princi- 
 ples of astronomy. The walls of Babylon, 
 which are attributed by Herodotus to Se- 
 miramis, and a pyramid in Egypt, des- 
 cribed by the same author, were built with 
 bricks, which were a common and durable 
 material among all the nations of anti- 
 quity. Pausanias mentions several tem- 
 ples and other structures built with bricks 
 in various parts of Greece ; and Rome, we 
 know, abounds with many large and splen- 
 did edifices thus constructed. 
 
 Brickmaking. The art of making bricks 
 for building has been variously practised 
 among different nations of every period. 
 The bricks of the ancients differed from 
 ours inasmuch as they were dried in tiie 
 sun, instead of being burnt or baked by 
 fire, and Avere mixed with chopped straw 
 to give them a tenuity of substance. Brick- 
 making, we are informed in sacred histoiy, 
 was one of the laborious indignities by 
 which the Israelites were oppressed dur- 
 ing their bondage in Egypt. 
 
 The ancient Babylonians often impress- 
 ed or engraved inscriptions on their bricks, 
 in a character which has given rise to 
 much discussion among the learned. Spe- 
 cimens of them may be seen in the arcliai- 
 ological department of the British Mu- 
 seum, the Museum of the East India (Com- 
 pany, and in the library of Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 The ancient Greeks chiefly used three 
 kinds of bricks, the AtOwpov, bricks of two 
 palms in length; the TtrpntTofiov, 1 hose of 
 four palms; and tlie Wivraco^^ov, those of 
 five palms. 
 
 The Romans, from a comparative defi- 
 ciency of marble, built more with bricks 
 thantiie Greeks, and spoiled more with Ihc 
 powers of the arch and the vaull, to A^ hicii 
 this useful material so much contributed, 
 than their predecessors. Their ptrfcction 
 in this art may be dated fnnn the decline 
 of the republic, and during the splendid 
 times of the Ca-sars. The bricks most in 
 use ;iniong the; Romans, according to the 
 authority of I'liny, and liiose discovered 
 in various parts of England were about 
 si'venteen inches long and eleven broad 
 (l^nglisii nuj'.sure), and scarcely thicker 
 than our pa\ ing l)ricks. I'alladio, iSir 
 Chritflopher Wren, an<l other eminent mo- 
 
 BUI 
 
 dern architects have constructed beautiful 
 and well proportioned edifices in brick, 
 and proved it to be as fit for domestic ar- 
 chitecture as stone. 
 
 Bricks, as manufactured in England, 
 are always burned or baked. Unburnt 
 bricks, after the ancient mode, are still in 
 use in Egjpt and n)any parts of the East. 
 The modes of making bricks in this coun- 
 try are various. Those manufactured in 
 the country differ from those made in the 
 neighbourhood of the metropolis, and are 
 known by their colour, the former being a 
 deep red, and the latter yellow, stone co- 
 lour, and gray. The counti-j- bricks, which 
 are baked in a kiln, are made of a stronger 
 earth, and have no internal firing. But 
 the London method is beginning to be 
 adopted near all large towns, both in Eng- 
 land and in Ireland, where cinders and coal 
 ashes can be procured ; and by far the 
 greatest quantity of bricks are now made 
 in that manner. For a very particular 
 description of the various modes of making 
 bricks, as practised by the best makers in 
 England, see the article Brick in the 
 Lexicon of the Encyclopaedia Metropoli- 
 tan a. 
 
 Bridge. [hrijgg;a, Swed.] In architecture. 
 A building erected over rivers, &:c. for the 
 conveniency of passage. Bridges are 
 among the noblest works of art that man 
 is capable of performing, and are con- 
 structed either of carpentry, masonry, iron, 
 or temporary constructions of boats, &c. 
 The necessary component parts of bridges 
 are arches, piers, abutments, parapet walls, 
 raised footways for passengers, a paved 
 road for horses, carriages, &c. decorated 
 according to the taste of the architect, and 
 acconmiodated to the necessities of the 
 place. A bridge should be erected in a 
 rectangular direction to the line of the 
 stream, and should not, if jiossible, be in a 
 narrow part of the river on account of the 
 greater Aelocity of water in such parts. 
 The number of arches are generally made 
 unequal, that the centre may have an open- 
 ing to rt'ceive the current, instead of a pier 
 to stop it and endanger the safety of the 
 bridge. Bridges should be formed of as 
 few and as large arches as possil)le; and 
 one single arch, when the situation of the 
 place will admit, is best. One t)f the most 
 ancient bridges mentioiu'd by iiistorians is 
 that which, according to Herodotus (i. IS(i), 
 Queen Nitocris constructed over the l'".u- 
 piiralfs at Babylon. Dioilorus Sicuiiis 
 reports this bridge; to have been five fur- 
 longs long. Roliin, in his Ancient His- 
 tory, supposes it could not ha\e been so 
 lon;v, as the Euphrules, at Babylon, was 
 
BRIDGE. 
 
 genprally only one furlong in width ; but 
 as at particular seasons it might have 
 been more, the length of the bridge was 
 commensurate, no doubt, to the width of 
 the river during its overflow. This bridge 
 was very far from the perfection of mo- 
 dern works. It consisted only of several 
 large stone piers, built at equal distances 
 and without arches, upon which they 
 placed lintols or pieces of timber to enable 
 them to pass from one to another. 
 
 It would appear that the Greeks, who 
 were a maritime people, and more accus- 
 tomed to navigation than the ancient Ro- 
 mans, did not value the consti'uction of a 
 bridge so much, nor succeed so well as the 
 last named people. In their brightest days, 
 when their fine style of architecture was 
 complete, when their porticoes were crowd- 
 ed with paintings, and their streets with 
 statues, the people of Athens were com- 
 pelled to wade the Cephisus for the want 
 of a bridge. The Romans did not distin- 
 guish tliemselves by the extraordinary 
 size of the arches of their bridges, their 
 span seldom exceeded sixty or sixty-five 
 feet. The form of the arch was the most 
 simple of all, being either a semicircle or 
 a very extended portion of a circle, which 
 rested upon the piei's or arch next the land : 
 which is a form that the imagination pro- 
 longs to complete the sweep. Solid piers, 
 at least a fifth, often a quarter, sometimes 
 a third, and even at times more, of the 
 width of the arch, support them. A foun- 
 dation composed of huge blocks of the 
 hardest stone or marble, supported the 
 piers ; and massive decorations, agreeing 
 with the subject, gave these buildings a 
 beautj"^ and simplicity of form which mo- 
 dern architects have too often neglected. 
 These ancient bridges convince the eye at 
 one view by means of their real and scientifi- 
 cally formed voussoirs of their real strength. 
 Tlie greatest part of them afterwards were 
 employed as bases to support trophies, 
 colossal figures, heroical or rostral co- 
 lumns, triumphal arches, and similar orna- 
 mental structures. Such was the trium- 
 phal bridge of ^lius, and such the bridge 
 of Augustus near Rimini. When they 
 thought it necessary, for the sake of greater 
 solidity, to give a greater thickness to their 
 piers, they sometimes turned counter arches 
 in them; and when they were narrower 
 they left this part solid, and placed deco- 
 rative niches in them for elfect, as in the 
 aforesaid bridge of Augustus at Rimini, 
 one of the finest works of the Romans of 
 this kind, and which a few years since 
 was in admirable preservation. The 
 
 bridges which most'approach, in their form 
 and boldness of decoration, to the plan of 
 the ancients in this respect, are, that at 
 Paris, called Pont Neuf, began in 1578, 
 from the designs of J. Androuet du Cer- 
 ceau, and finished in 1604, under the direc- 
 tion of G. Marchard; the Pontde Neuilly 
 over the Seine by Perronet ; and the Wa- 
 terloo bridge over the Tliames by Rennie. 
 
 The bridges at or adjacent to Rome Avere 
 eight in number. The most ancient was 
 that called Sublictus, because it was con- 
 structed with girders or beams of timber, 
 put together without iron bolts or nails. 
 It was situated at tlie foot of Mount Aven- 
 tine, and served to unite the valley at tlie 
 bottom of that hill to the Janiculum. It 
 was this bridge that Horatius Codes de- 
 fended with so much courage, and was 
 for a time called from this circumstance 
 Pons Horatius. It was rebuilt of stone by 
 Emilius Lepidus, and thence called Pons 
 EmiUanus ; Tiberius repaired it ; when 
 having again gone to ruins, it was rebuilt 
 by Antoninus Pius in marble, and then 
 took the name of Pons Marmoratus. At 
 present there is hardly any remains of it. 
 
 The triumphal bridge near the Vatican, 
 which is also called Pons Vaticanus, is the 
 next in succession of the bridges of Rome, 
 it leads from the Campus RIartius to the 
 Vatican ; and its supposed remains are 
 still to be seen near the hospital San Spi- 
 rito. The generals who had obtained 
 triumphal honours for victories gained in 
 Spain and Gaul passed over this bridge to 
 make their triumphal entry into the city. 
 
 The Senatorial Bridge was placed be- 
 tween the Forum and the Janiculum : it 
 had this name because the solemn proces- 
 sions or entries of the senate passed over 
 it. Marcus Fulvius built the piers ; the 
 arches were finished and vaulted under 
 the censorship of P. Scipio and L. Mum- 
 mius. At present this bridge has the name 
 of Santa Maria, but it is nearly in ruins. 
 
 Two other bridges form the communica- 
 tion between the city and the isle of Tiber : 
 the one called after the name of Fabricius, 
 who built it, being curator viarum (inten- 
 dant of the roads), during the conspiracy 
 of Catiline, as is seen by the inscription at 
 present remaining. A Janus Quadrifons 
 placed near it has given it the name of 
 Ponte di quatro Capi ; it is also called the 
 Jew's bridge, because their quarters are 
 near to it. The other bridge, which made 
 the communication between the island 
 with the Janiculum, was named Pons Ces- 
 tius, and was built by Cestius G alius, in 
 the time of Tiberius ; it was repaired by 
 
the Emperors Valentinian, Valens, and 
 Gratian, as appears by a long inscription. 
 At present it bears the name of Ponte 
 Santo Bartolomeo, from the adjacent 
 churcli of that name. 
 
 Tlie Pons Jmiiciilc7isis, or of Aurcliiis, 
 Avhicli leads from the Cami)us Martius to 
 the Janicuhim, was reliiiilt in marble un- 
 der tlie reign of Antoninus Pius ; rebuilt 
 by Sextus V, it received the name of 
 Ponte Sisto. 
 
 The bridge Mlius or Hadrianus, from the 
 name of the emperor who built it, remains 
 to the present time ; it passes the Tiber, 
 and unites the city to the fortress which 
 succeeded the Moles Hadriani, or Ha- 
 drian's Mausoleum, now called Castel 
 Sant' Angelo. The Popes Nicholas V. 
 and Clement IX. caused it to be restored, 
 and placed upon the balustrade, on each 
 side, a series of colossal statues of angels, 
 who bore the instruments of the punish- 
 ment of the Saviour, from whence it de- 
 rived its present name, Ponte di S. An- 
 gelo, and is the finest bridge in Rome. 
 
 Pons Milvius (now called Ponte Molle 
 since Pope Nicholas repaired it) was 
 ))uilt in the time of Sylla, under the Cen- 
 sor Marcus Emilius Scaurus. It was upon 
 this bridge that, by order of Cicero, the 
 ambassadors of the Allobroges were stop- 
 ped, and their letters seized, which dis- 
 covered the conspiracy of Catiline. 
 
 The eighth and last bridge is three 
 miles from Rome, upon the Anio or Tevc- 
 rone leading to the Via Salario, called at 
 present Ponte Salario, from Salarius. By 
 an inscription it appears that Narses re- 
 built it after its destruction by Tolila. 
 
 There are other l)ridges in the environs 
 of Rome; as the bridge Lucarius upon the 
 Anio or Teverone, built probaljly under 
 the Knipcror Claudius (luring his expedi- 
 tion against the Britons. The bridge JMam- 
 mccus or Mummolus, built by Alexander 
 Severus, upon th(i Anio near Rome, and 
 thus called in memory of the motlier of 
 that i)rince ; the bridge I^oincntanus, upon 
 the same river, over the Nomentana, now 
 called I'onte della IMonlana. Plans aiul 
 descriptions of sev(^ral of llii- i)ridges men- 
 tioned in this iulicle may be found iu 
 Rccucil et Ptiralliic. dcs iAlifices dc tout 
 (ioirc, (iiicii'iis (i iiiotlirncs, tkc. by I. N. 
 Di'HANi) and J. 0. i^icciK and, plate 22. 
 
 The bridge of Trajan was built by liiat 
 emperor, over the Danube, to facililate his 
 inii[>tioiis inlo Dacia. According lo the 
 description of Dion Cassius, it had twen- 
 ty i)iers, which, without reckoning (he 
 
 foundations, were one hundred aiul lifly 
 
 BRIDGE. 
 
 feet high and sixty wide. They were 
 united by arches of one hundred and se- 
 venty feet span. Paulus Jovius gives 
 them thirty-four piers, and the Count de 
 Marsigli, in his work descriptive of the 
 Danube, only twenty three. Authors have 
 differed much about the situation of this 
 bridge. The celebrated geographer Bus- 
 ching has given very plausible reasons to 
 suppose that it was situated between Zer- 
 nigrad, a ruinous castle upon the Danube, 
 and Czernecz, a town inhabited by the 
 Valachii, about two leagues below Or- 
 sova, in a place where the Danube is but 
 a thousand paces wide. This bridge did 
 not remain any considerable time ; for 
 Hadrian caused it to be demolished, and 
 put Apollodorus, its architect, to death, 
 assigning as a reason that the bridge had 
 facilitated the irruptions of the barbarians 
 into the Roman empire, but really through 
 jealousy and pique. Several authors ha^ e 
 charged Dion Cassius with exaggeration 
 in what he has reported of this bridge ; 
 but Montfacon errs in opposing to his de- 
 scriptions the representation of it upon 
 the Trajan's column (engraved, among 
 others, in Antitjuid': Expliqiiic, Ith vol. 
 part II. pi, 115), because it was not intend- 
 ed in that place to give a portrait or even 
 an idea of the extent or beauty of the 
 bridge, but merely an indication of its ex- 
 istence. 
 
 The bridge of Alcantara upon theTagus 
 is s])oken of as one of the most beautiful 
 remains of Ronuin splendour. From an 
 inscription it appears to have been erected 
 by a governor of the country, in honour of 
 the Emperor Triijan. Tliis bridge is six 
 hundred and seventy feet long, and formed 
 of six arches, of which each is twenty-four 
 feet si)an. The piers are stpiare, and are 
 f\\enty-se\eu or twenty-eight feet across. 
 The height from the surface of the water 
 is two hundred feet. 
 
 The most imposing and sujierb work of 
 this class, left us b) the Romans, is that 
 known by the name of the Pont du Gard 
 (engra\ed in Antiq. llxpUq. vol. iv. part ii. 
 jilate ll(»; and in the collection of M. M. 
 Durand and Legrand, plate 21). It is 
 built over the space i)etween two moun- 
 tains, and forms a cimtiniuition of the 
 a(|u;educt that ctnncys the water of the 
 springs of Euve to Mnies, It surjjrises 
 the spectator by the height of the third 
 story <ir i>rder, for three bridges ari' placed 
 one upon the otiii-r : the first has si\ arches, 
 • lie second, eleven, and the third, thirty-six. 
 It serves two \)urposes besides the acpux- 
 iluct, which is in the third tier; the lirsl 
 
BRIDGE. 
 
 gives a free passage over the river. It is 
 not less admirable for its proportions than 
 from the strength of its execution, the 
 joints of the stones being worked exactly 
 true, and put together without cement. 
 
 Palladio built some excellent bridges at 
 Vicenza, and designed several others, with 
 architectural decorations after the manner 
 of the ancients, but has given a greater 
 degree of lightness to the piers. He fixes 
 the proportion from a fourth to a sixth of 
 tlie opening of the arches, which some 
 architects think too little. Independently 
 of the different characters that bridges 
 may have to present by means of their 
 ornamental parts, their mathematical con- 
 struction is a difficult and particular branch 
 of study; and those architects have suc- 
 ceeded the best Avho have made it almost 
 their exclusive study. 
 
 Of modern bridges, perhaps, the tvvo 
 finest are those of Westminster and Wa- 
 terloo, over the Thames at London. See 
 Architecture, and note thereto. 
 
 Of other bridges in the British islands, 
 the most ancient one in the Gothic style is 
 the triangular bridge at Crowland, in Lin- 
 colnshire, which was erected A. D. 8G0. 
 Loudon bridge is an old Gothic structure, 
 originally built with twenty small arches, 
 each twenty feet wide ; but there are 
 now only eighteen open, two having been 
 thrown into one in the centre, and another 
 on one side is closed; it is nine hundred 
 and forty-six feet long, and is condemned 
 to destruction as soon as the new one, 
 now building, is completed. The longest 
 bridge in England is that over the Trent 
 at Burton, built in the twelfth century, of 
 squared freestone, containing thirty-four 
 arches, and is one thousand four hundred 
 and forty-five feet in lengtli. But this 
 falls short of the wooden bridge over the 
 Drave, which, according to Dr. Brown, is 
 at least five miles long. 
 
 One of the most singular bridges in all 
 Europe is that built over the Taaf in Gla- 
 morganshire, by William Edward, a poor 
 country mason, in the year 175G. This 
 remarkable bridge consists of only one 
 stupendous arch, which, though only eight 
 feet broad, and thirty -five feet high, is no 
 less than one hundred and forty feet span, 
 being part of a circle of one hundred and 
 seventy-five feet diameter. 
 
 In France, the construction of roads and 
 bridges has been for a long time intrusted 
 to a corps of civil engineers, for whose in- 
 struction a particular school has been in- 
 stituted, which has justly acquired cele- 
 brity, especially since P^ronnet and De 
 Chezi had its direction. Thoy may in- 
 
 deed be regarded as the founders of tliis 
 school. These learned men introduced a 
 new system into the construction of bridges, 
 and have left many fine examples for imi- 
 tation, in the bridges of INIantes, Melun, 
 St. Maxence, Neuilly, and especially in 
 that of the Pont de la Revolution, now de 
 la Concord, which unites the Champs 
 Elysees to the palace of the Legislative 
 Body. The architect endeavoured in this 
 bridge to render the piers as light, and the 
 arches as extended and lofty as possible. 
 
 In the system of the ancients, the eye is 
 in general less astonished, but the mind 
 is more satisfied : and the repairs that time 
 renders necessary are easy to be done. 
 According to M. Legrand, the architects 
 just mentioned have not given that cha- 
 racter of strength and solidity to their 
 bridges that the ancients did. 
 
 To build a bridge advantageously, the 
 number and size of the piers should be 
 regulated by the rapidity of the river, and 
 by the velocity of its waters and inunda- 
 tions. The extent of the arches, their 
 curve, and height, should equally have 
 their proportional regulations. M. Le- 
 grand proposes as models the modern 
 bridges before mentioned, which unite 
 practice with a theory founded upon sci- 
 entific calculations. He infers, from ex- 
 perience, that many advantages would 
 arise from building the arches of a mid- 
 dling span and elevation, suflicient to 
 diminish the weight of the voussoirs, with- 
 out making at the same time a too great 
 ascent for carriages. Necessary precau- 
 tions should also be taken to preserve the 
 arches from sudden or extraordiuai-y in- 
 crease of the waters ; and it is absolutely 
 necessary to provide, in building them, 
 proper means of repairing the pai'ts most 
 exposed to destruction whenever requi- 
 site. The twenty-third plate of the Re- 
 cueil et Parallele of M. M. Durand and 
 Legrand, before mentioned, presents seve- 
 ral examples of different methods for this 
 purpose, and exhibit various degrees of 
 richness to which this kind of buildings 
 may be brought. Among the otlier kind 
 of bridges in modern use are triumphal, 
 covered (such as the bridge of Schaufl- 
 hausen in Switzerland), iron, &c. 
 
 Among the principal bridges not before 
 mentioned, whose excellencies of construc- 
 tion or beauty of design are most worthy 
 of attention, may be reckoned the Pont St, 
 Esprit, over the Rhone, which has nineteen 
 considerable arches, besides several small 
 ones in one of the butments. The cele- 
 brated one at Rimini, which Temanza, a 
 Venetian architect, who published an ac- 
 
BRI 
 
 count of it, says, that all the voussoirs, and 
 other stones of that fine work, have their 
 faces that lay one to the other so exactly 
 joined, that a hair could not pass between 
 them. He also believes that there were 
 particular artificers among the ancients, 
 whose business it was thus to smooth the 
 joints of the stones, and quotes the Tlteodn- 
 sian code as mentioning such by tlie title 
 of quadrntarit. Tlie Ponte Sf. Ang'wlo at 
 Rome ; the Ponte Rialto at Venice, which 
 consists of one very flat and bold arch, 
 nearly one hundred feet span, and only 
 twenty-three feet high above the water. 
 A bridge in the city of Munster, in Both- 
 nia, much bolder than the Kialto. Kir- 
 cher mentions a bridge in China three 
 hundred and sixtj' perches long, withcnit 
 any arch, but supported by three hundred 
 columns. In the Philosophical Transac- 
 tions is the repi'esentation of a bridge in 
 the same country, built from one mountain 
 to anotlier, consisting of a single arch four 
 hundred cubits long, and five hundred cu- 
 bits high, whence it is called the flying 
 bridge. 
 
 Bkidges (Iron). Iron bridges are the 
 exclusive invention of British artists. The 
 first that was erected is that over the Se- 
 vern, at Colebrook Dale, in Shropshire, 
 which is composed of five ribs, each of 
 which has three concentric arcs connected 
 by radiating pieces. The interior arc 
 forms a simecircle, but the others extend 
 only to the cills under the road waJ^ 
 Upon the tops of the ribs are laid cast iron 
 plates, wliich support the road way. The 
 arch of this bridge is one hundred feet in 
 span : it was constructed in 1777, by Mr. 
 Abraham Darl)y, iron master of Colebrook 
 Dale. The second liridge of this material 
 was designed by Thomas Paine, the po- 
 litical writer, and was constructed after 
 his directions, by Messrs. Walker, at Ro- 
 therham, in Yorkshire, and brought to Lon- 
 don. It was erected and exhibited for 
 some time in a bowling-green at Pancras, 
 near the old church. It was intended for 
 America; but the materials were after- 
 wards used in constructing tlie bridge at 
 Wearmoutli. This bridge whidi isthiown 
 over the river Wear, at Bishops Wear- 
 mouth, in Sunderland, was projected by 
 Kowlanrl Burdon, l''s(|. M. P. It coiisisls 
 of one arch of I wo liuiidred and tiiirly-si\ 
 feet span, being a segnuMit of a circle of 
 four hundred and forty-four feet diameter ; 
 tlie whole heiglit from tiie low water is 
 about one iiundred feet, and will ailniil 
 Vessels of from two to three hundred tons 
 burden to pass under without striking 
 their masts. A seriea of one Inindred and 
 
 BRI 
 
 five blocks form a rib, and six of these 
 ribs complete the width of the bridge, 
 which is thirtj-two feet. The spandrels 
 are filled by cast iron circles, ^^ hich touch 
 the outer extremity of the arch, and support 
 the road way, which is formed by a strong 
 frame of timber, planked over and covered 
 with a cement of tar and chalk, then lay- 
 ers of marl, limestone, and gravel. The 
 abutments are masses of solid masonry, 
 twenty-four feet in thickness, fortj-two 
 feet in breadth at bottom, and thirty-seven 
 at top. There is a beautiful model of this 
 bridge in the antiroom of the great room at 
 the Society of Arts, &;c. at the Adelphi. 
 
 Timber bridges, bridges of suspension, 
 and the mathematical principles of con- 
 structing bridges of every sort, belong 
 more to a work devoted to science, thiui 
 to a dictionary of the tine arts. The stu- 
 dent, therefore, is referred for such par- 
 ticulars to the article Bridge in the En- 
 cycloptedia Metropolitana, to which the 
 present article is much indebted ; to Dr. 
 Brewster's Cyclopaedia, and to that of 
 Dr. Rees ; to many of the books referred 
 to in the article AitciUTEfTURE; and tlie 
 list at the end of the article in the Ency- 
 clopaedia first above referred to. 
 
 Bridle, [bpi'f el, Saxon.] In the aixha- 
 iolo^ll of painting- and sculpture. The head- 
 stall, bit, and reins, by which a horse is 
 governed. The origin of this invention is 
 of the highest antiquit^i', and has been va- 
 riously assigned. Pausanius attributes 
 its invention to Minerva ; Virgil (Georg. 
 lib. iii. ver. 115.) and Pliny, to the Lapi- 
 tha Pelethronius. IMany of the coins 
 struck in the ancient towns of Thessaly 
 represent a horse, siunetimes w ith a rider, 
 but often running loose with a long rein 
 trailing on the ground, to show that the 
 bridle was the invention of the Thessa- 
 lians. It has been used by all nations 
 Avho em])loyed horses in war or otherwise, 
 aiul many representations of it are found 
 in antiiiue sculjjture. An entire work has 
 been ])ul)lislie(I by M. 1\\em7.i, called 
 De Pruuis ; ivome, 1785, in Hvo. 
 
 Bright, [beopt, Saxon.] In /w/h/jw.c. 
 L\u-id, glittering, full of light. A picture 
 is said to be bright when the lights so 
 much prevail as to overcome the shadt)ws, 
 and kept so clear and distinct as to pro- 
 <liu-e a brilliant appearance. 
 
 Brilliant, [hrillant, Fr.] Siiining, 
 sparkling. This word is varicnisly ap- 
 plied ; as a hrilliunt tune, n brillinni lifi:lil, 
 In-illiant colouring-, SiC, and signities that 
 clear bright imitation of nature in various 
 objects, which is the effect of much study 
 and practice. 
 
BRO 
 
 Brocatelli. See Marble. 
 
 Broker. See Picture Dealer. 
 
 Bronze. Ibronzo, Ital. bronze, Fr.] In 
 sculpture and architecture. A compound 
 metal, consisting chiefly of copper, with a 
 small proportion of tin, and sometimes of 
 brass, or other metals. Statues and other 
 works of art, cast in thiji metal, are called 
 bronzes. 
 
 Bronze is one of the most ancient, as 
 well as one of the best materials in which 
 sculptors cast their figures ; for, besides 
 possessing the advantage of being less 
 subject to rust or corrosion by exposure to 
 the air than other metallic compounds, it 
 acquires a fine dark green colour from the 
 oxyde formed upon it, which is much ad- 
 mired. The ancients used this compound 
 metal for many purposes for which iron 
 and steel are now used, as instruments, 
 swords, springs, and nails. 
 
 Many fine specimens of bronzes, such as 
 statues, penates, vessels remarkable for 
 their size and elegance, fine large cande- 
 labra, miscellaneoiis articles, ancient ar- 
 mour consisting of helmets, breastplates, 
 standards, swords, belts, heads of spears, 
 points of arrows, steelyards, scales, knives, 
 patenie, simpula, mirrors, caps, bells, 
 mortars ; measures and wine strainers ; 
 large vessels for culinary and other pur- 
 poses, several small candelabra, an entire 
 lectisternium, fragments of lectisternia, 
 armillae, chains, bits, spurs, and ornaments 
 for harness ; buckles, fibula?, specimens of 
 locks and keys, handles and other parts of 
 vases, &c., are in the magnificent collec- 
 tion of antiquities in the British Museum. 
 Philo, of Byzantium, asserts, that the 
 broad spring plates of the catapulta, for 
 throwing darts, was formed of bronze, 
 whose component parts were copper, al- 
 loyed with tin. The art of casting in 
 bronze was not unknown to the Greeks or 
 Egyptians ; but the only remains we have 
 of the latter are very small specimens, 
 such as the idols in the eighth, or Egyp- 
 tian room of the department of antiqui- 
 ties in the British Museum. It appears 
 that the ancients did not possess the art of 
 founding very large pieces of bronze sculp- 
 ture, but cast them in small pieces, and 
 joined them afterwards. Indeed, this art 
 is of late date or recovery. The statues 
 of Marcus Aurelius at Rome, of Cosmo di 
 Medicis at Florence, and of Henry IV. at 
 Paris, were thus made. The equestrian 
 statue of Louis XIV. in the Place de Ven- 
 dome at Paris, is one of the largest pieces 
 of bronze sculpture ever made. This co- 
 lossal group contains a weight of upwards 
 of sixty thousand pounds weight of bronze. 
 
 BRU 
 
 and was formed in one cast, and without a 
 joint. The operation of casting large 
 works in bronze is a Avork of considerable 
 difficulty, and requires much scientific 
 knowledge and great practice. Various 
 artists have diflerent modes for conduct- 
 ing this operation, which are too numer- 
 ous for this work, and more properly be- 
 long to metallurgy or chemistry. Mac- 
 quer's instructions are, however, sufiici- 
 ently brief and simple. He directs a brick 
 furnace to be erected, nearly in the shape 
 of a baker's oven. The floor of this oven 
 is concave, and consists of a composition 
 of sand and clay. In the hollow floor the 
 metals are placed. The furnace has four 
 openings. The first has a lateral mouth, 
 at which the flame of the fuel enters, 
 which is placed in a second furnace on 
 one side of the first. The second opening: 
 is a chimney placed on the side opposite 
 the mouth, by means of which the flame is 
 drawn over the metal. The third opening 
 is a hole, which can be opened or shut at 
 pleasure, to inspect the state of the inside 
 of the furnace and its contents. When the 
 metal is in the state required, a fourth 
 aperture is opened, communicating with 
 the hollow floor, through which the metal 
 flows by channels into the moulds pre- 
 pared to receive it. These moulds are 
 made on the model of the figure intended 
 to be cast, with a mixture of one part of 
 plaster of Paris and two parts of brick, 
 dust. The mould is then to be taken from 
 the figure, and lined on the inside with a 
 thin layer of clay, the thickness the bronze 
 is intended to be ; the mould is then to be 
 put together, and the cavity within the clay 
 tilled with a similar composition to the 
 mould which forms the core, which, if 
 large, must be previously supported by 
 bars of iron. When this is done, the 
 mould is to be taken off, the clay tho- 
 roughly cleaned out, and the mould and 
 ore completely dried ; the mould is then 
 to be placed thereon, and the vacuity 
 formed by the removal of the clay is the 
 channel for the metal, in a state of fusion^, 
 which must be properly conducted to it, 
 and care taken that proper vents are left 
 in the mould for the expansion of the air 
 by the heat of the metal. 
 
 Brown, [bpun, Saxon.] In painting. A 
 dusky colour, inclining to redness. The 
 word indicating something that has been 
 burned. Of this colour there are various 
 shades or degrees, distinguished by dif- 
 ferent appellations, as Spanish brown, 
 umbers, London brown, various burnt 
 earths, &:c. 
 
 Brush. See Penctl. 
 
BUL 
 
 BucENTALR. [BsKivravpoc of /3h a par- 
 ticle aufimentivc, and KfjToujxie a centaur, 
 or l3iiQ a bull, or, and Kivravncg a cen- 
 taur.] In painting: An ideal monster, 
 half a man and half a bull. (See Centaur.) 
 Also the stately galley in which the doge 
 and senate of Venice go annually in tri- 
 umph to espouse the sea, by dropping a 
 ring into it, with the following words, 
 " Desponsamus te, mare, in signum veri 
 perpetuique dominii." 
 
 Buckler. See Shield. 
 
 Buffet. [Fr. from beo'o, Saxon, a ser- 
 vice or course of dishes, and pit, Saxon, 
 a receptacle.] In architecture. A kind of 
 cupboard, in which are placed the orna- 
 ments and utensils of the dinner table. 
 
 Build (To), [byl'oan, Saxon.] In archi- 
 tecture. To confirm, estal)lish, make firm, 
 sure, and fast. According to the strict 
 meaning of this word, huts, hovels, and 
 other weak and fragile buildings are 
 merely raised; but confirmed, established, 
 and permanent structures are built. See 
 Architecture. 
 
 Builder. See Architect. 
 
 Bull, \boll, Ger. from bellan, Saxon.] 
 In itnintinji and sculpture. The male of 
 black cattle. This animal was the most 
 frequently used in the sacrifices of the an- 
 cients, particularly to Jupiter, Mars, Apol- 
 lo, Minerva, Juno, Venus, anil Ceres. They 
 mostly chose a black bull for Neptune, 
 Pluto, and the infernal deities. This ani- 
 mal has often been the subject of the ar- 
 tist's pencil and chisel. There are two 
 vei-y fine ones represented as being sacri- 
 ficed by two victories, in the department 6f 
 antiquities of the British Museum. At 
 Constantinople was formerly a very fine 
 bull in bronze, which was said to have 
 been the celebrated bull of I'halaris ; and 
 in wliicii the martyr Antipaswas ijurncd. 
 
 Bulla. [Lat. j8h\»;, Gr.] In ancient cos- 
 tume. Small golden ornaments, formed 
 like a heart, at lirst worn only by the 
 children of persons of the highest rank till 
 they were fourteen years of age, and then 
 hung up and dedicated to the household 
 gods (I'ers. v. 30). This anuilet was bor- 
 rowed by liu' Ivomans from the I'.truscaus 
 (Juv. V. 164.) ; and was imported by Tul- 
 lus Hostilius (Macrob. Sat. i. (i). One of 
 great anticpiity is preserNed in tiie ISrilish 
 Muse\im. For some learned discussions 
 on this ornament see Plutai((H in Konuilo; 
 Bavfu's de re Vostiaria ; the lirst volume 
 of Whittaker's llisliiiij (if iManrhcslir 
 (p. 7'.>.), on some hulUe dug up at Manchcs- 
 t«!r; in AuciusTiN, apud (Iraiii Thesauruni 
 Auliijuiliiluin Uoinavorum, xi. ; and in Si'ON, 
 l\lisceH. Vaw\. Act. § '.). See Aiioll.v. 
 
 BUS 
 
 Bull's eye. In architecture. A small 
 circle or elliptical window. 
 
 Buskin. See Sandal. 
 
 Bust or Busto. [husto, Ital. basic, Fr.] 
 In sculpture. A piece of sculpture repre- 
 senting only the head, breast, and shoul- 
 ders of a human being. Though this word 
 has been applied ^o painting, yet, on the 
 authority of Felibien, and other eminent 
 critics, it is best to confine it to sculp- 
 ture. This branch of sculptiire is one of 
 the most ancient modes of representing the 
 human species in art. Busts were in com- 
 mon use both among the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, and -were employed sometimes to 
 ornament their votive bucklers ; and, at 
 others, to show the portraits of their illus- 
 trious ancestors, which was a custom al- 
 lowed only to those families whose ances- 
 tors had most distinguislied themselves, 
 and had arrived at the first magistracy in 
 the republic, and which they called ima- 
 gines majorum. 
 
 The manner of executing portraits in 
 relief or busto is the same as the other 
 branches of sculpture. (See Scuu>ture.) 
 The ancients often formed their busts of 
 two or more materials, incrusting the eyes 
 Vvith precious stones or valuable metals, 
 as are seen in some of the antiquities of 
 Herculaneum, and some busts of very 
 early workmanship in the department of 
 antiquities of the British Museum. The 
 ancients, it should seem, were acquainted 
 with the manner of taking masks from the 
 face for the purpose of making busts. And 
 according to Pliny, Lysistratus of Sycion, 
 the brother of Lysippus, was the inventor 
 of this art. Busts are of the same nmte- 
 rials as statues, being made of bronze, 
 marble, plaster of Paris, terra cotta, &c. 
 They are peculiarly valuable for convey- 
 ing to posterity the features of great men : 
 and their authenticity is discoverable 
 cither by the inscription or resemblance to 
 the portraits on medals, coins, &c. The 
 most valuabl<> now in existence are two 
 (U)lossal heads of Minerva sospita ; i\ si- 
 milar one of Hercules, dug up at the foot 
 of Mount Vesuvius, and another of the 
 same god, of very early (Jreek sculpture; 
 one of Jupiter Serapis, of which the paint 
 is still jn'rceptible ; busts of Heraclites, 
 of /I'uo, I'erich's, Kpiiurus, Aspasia, I'e- 
 riander, two of Homer, Trajan, (iordia- 
 niis, Africanus, IMarcus Aurelius, I'ontifex 
 Maxinius, Lucius Verus, Nero, Hadrian, 
 (aracalla, Aratus, IMaulilla, two of Ado- 
 nis, Sabiua, Messalina, Nc. in tlu- British 
 Muswmi ; one of Hiero, king of Syracuse, 
 another of Alcibiailes, and other very liiu> 
 ones, in the nuisrum Pio CKnientino. 
 
CAD 
 
 Some busts of Tragedy, Comedy, Euri- 
 pides, Homer, the Indian Bacchus, So- 
 crates, Hippocrates, &c. formerly in the 
 Napoleon Museum at Paris ; but now re- 
 stored to their rightful owners. See Sculp- 
 ture. 
 
 BuTMENT. See Abutment. 
 
 Butterfly. [buttepFleje, Saxon.] In 
 archaiology . An insect. Among the an- 
 cients the butterfly was a symbol of the 
 soul ; the same Greek word ^I'x'/j signi- 
 fying both a butterfly and the soul. Cupid 
 fondling or holding a butterfly over a torch 
 is the same as his caressing Psyche or the 
 soul. On one antique Cupid is drawn in 
 a triumphal car by two Psyches, and in 
 another by two butterflies. On a fine 
 bassi rilievi at Rome is the representation 
 
 CAL 
 
 of a young man stretclied on a bed, and a 
 butterfly issuing from his mouth ; em- 
 blematical of the departure of the soul 
 from the body. For the beforcmentioned 
 reason Psyche is ahvays represented with 
 the wings of a butterfly. IMontfaucoD, in 
 his Antiquity Expliqu^e, has given seve- 
 ral plates and explanations of antiques of 
 this description, particularly plate 74, vol. 
 5, part II. and plate 120, vol. 1, part I. 
 
 Buttress. In architecture. A prop, or 
 any thing to support another. They are 
 used as ornaments in Gothic and old Ena;- 
 lish architecture, against the angles of 
 steeples, churches, and other buildings ; 
 against walls to support them from the 
 thrust of hea'VT^ roofs, arches, &:c. See 
 Abutment. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cabinet. [Fr. the diminutke of cabin.'] 
 In architecture. A small apartment in a 
 palace or mansion, usually set apart for 
 the private use of the owner. Its use is 
 nearly the same as the boudoir (see Bou- 
 uoir), and has given its name to small 
 highly finished pictures that are well 
 adapted for furniture, to the elegance of 
 this apartment. The ancients as well as 
 the moderns had several kinds of cabinets ; 
 as the cubiculiun, a small apartment or 
 study; the tablinum, which is synonymous 
 with the cabinet ; the pinacotheca, which 
 was the picture room or gallery. Vitru- 
 vius dii-ects that it should be spacious, and 
 turned towards the north, that the light 
 may be equal. 
 
 Cables or Cabled. [/ca/ijjXoc, Gr.] In 
 architecture. Wreathed circular mouldings 
 resembling a cable rope ; also the staff or 
 cable which is left in the lower part of the 
 flutings of some examples of the Corin- 
 thian and Composite orders. 
 
 Caduceus. [Lat.] In archaiology. The 
 golden rod or wand assigned by the my- 
 thologists to Mercury. It was represented 
 by the Egj'ptians like two serpents knit 
 together in the middle. This wand was 
 given him by Apollo in return for surren- 
 dering the honour of inventing the lyre. 
 The caduceus afforded him the power of 
 bringing souls out of hell, and also to cast 
 any one into sleep (see Homer's Hymn to 
 Mercury, v. 526). It is sometimes repre- 
 sented with wings ; and Mercury is thus 
 equipped by Virgil when he is sent to 
 iEneas by Jupiter, /En. iv. v. 257 ; and by 
 Statins, in his Thebaiad, i. v. 311 ; and also 
 in the Vatican manuscript. The caduceus 
 is also used on antique coins and medals 
 
 as the emblem of commerce. See Attri- 
 butes. 
 
 C.^Lius (Mons.) In the history of archi- 
 tecture. One of the seven hills of Rome, 
 originally called Querquetulanus, from the 
 numerous oaks which grew upon it. Its 
 second name was derived from Ctelius Vi- 
 benna, whom Tacitus (ann. iv. 63), makes 
 an Etruscan ally of the elder Tarquin. 
 The church of S. Stefano in Rotondo, one 
 of the most ancient churches in Rome, is 
 situated on the Ceelian mount. 
 
 Caisson. [Fr.] In architecture. A kind 
 of chest or flat-bottomed boat in which 
 brick or stone work is built ; then sunk to 
 the bottom of the river for forming the 
 foundations. Some of the caissons which 
 were used by Labelye for the erection of 
 Westminster Bridge contained above one 
 hundred and fifty load of fir timber, of 
 forty cubic feet to the load, and was of 
 more tonnage or capacity than a forty gun 
 ship of war. (See Bridge). Huttons 
 Principles of Bridges. 
 
 (Jalathus. [Lat. Ka\a9oQ, Gr.] In an- 
 cient architecture. A sort of basket in 
 which women anciently kept their work ; 
 and also a sort of cup used in sacrifices. 
 The baskets which are on the heads of ca- 
 nephorae are also called by this name, as 
 well as the baskets on the heads of Jupi- 
 ter Serapis, Juno of Samos, Diana of Ephe- 
 sus, &:c. See Vitruvius. 
 
 Calcography. [from KayKoc, brass, and 
 ypa<p(t), I engrave.] The art of engraving. 
 See Engraving. 
 
 Caldarium. See Laconicum and Stove. 
 
 Caliducts. (from cako and ductus.] In 
 architecture. Pipes or canals disposed in 
 or along the walls of houses, for convcy- 
 
 M 
 
C A M 
 
 in$r hot air or steam to distant apartments, 
 f'rcmi a common or central furnace, after 
 tiie manner of the ancients. This method 
 lias been adopted in modern buildings 
 with much success and economy. Several 
 modes, descriptions, and models for this 
 purpose may be seen in the repository of 
 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, 
 &c. in the Adelpiii. The inquiring reader 
 is also referred to Tredgold's Treatise on 
 the Ventilation of Buildings, and a work 
 by Mr. Sylvester of Derby, on the same 
 subject. 
 
 Callimachus, of Corinth. In the history 
 *>/ architecture. A Grecian architect who 
 flourished about 540 years before Christ. 
 He was tlie inventor of the Corinthian 
 order, which is said to have originated by 
 his seeing the leaves of an acanthus grace- 
 fully spreading over the basket upon a lady's 
 toinb. See Corinthian Capital, Moreri, 
 Pliny. 
 
 Calvaries, [from Calvary, the death- 
 place of Christ.] In architecture. Tiie 
 names of certain chapels in Catliolic coun- 
 tries, wherein are represented the myste- 
 ries of Christ's passion and death. They 
 are generally built upon a hill, the better 
 to imitate the place. Devotion has multi- 
 plied these kind of chapels in Italy and 
 some parts of France. 
 
 Calyx. [Lat. KaXvK, Gr.] hi architec- 
 ture and sculpture. The cup of a flower, 
 or the small green leaves on the top of tlie 
 fitalk in plants. Also sculptural repre- 
 sentations of the same parts of the leaves 
 of various ornamental foliage. See Capi- 
 tal, Corinthian. 
 
 (Iamayeu. See Monochrome. 
 
 (3AMEA. See Cameo. 
 
 Camel. [K^^r/Xor, Gr. Cimclus, Lat.] 
 Ill the archaioloKy of the arts. An animal 
 or beast of burden very common in Arabia, 
 India, and the neighbouring countries. 
 The camel is often found represented on 
 ancient medals, and is the symbol of Ara- 
 bia. On an ancient splendid vase of gold, 
 which is in the Royal Collection at Paris, 
 is a representation of Silcnus mounted on 
 a camel : and on an ancient bassi rilie\i, 
 representing tlie tiiumph of Bacchus, the 
 Indian kings ani sealcil on camels. This 
 animal is also much inlroduced in pictures 
 from sacred history. 
 
 Cameo, [camineo, Ilal. or from comma, 
 Arab, an amulet.] In ffcm sciiliilurc. A 
 cameo is generally unilerstood to be a pre- 
 cious stone carved in relief, but is more 
 particularly used for those stones of dif- 
 ferently coloured lamina-. Thcne laminie 
 arc- left or removed with much art, for the 
 head, the beard, <he hair, and olher co- 
 
 CAN 
 
 lours of a bust. Some antique cameos 
 have four layers, as the fine one of the 
 apotheosis of Augustus, and that of Ger- 
 manicus in the Royal Library at Paris ; 
 one of the same subject as the tirst men- 
 tioned, and another of 14ome and Augus- 
 tus, in the cabinet at Vienna. See Gem 
 
 SCULPTLRE. 
 
 Camera Obsctra [Lat.] or dark cham- 
 ber. In painting. An optical machine or 
 apparatus wherein the images of external 
 objects are represented in their proper 
 colours. It is used to delineate objects 
 Avith accuracy, and is useful to the painter 
 of artificial effects of the weather. 
 
 Camera Llcida [Lat.] or light chamber. 
 In painting. An optical instrument which, 
 by means of lenses, a stile, &c. gives the 
 outline of external objects on the paper or 
 canvass with much clearness and accu- 
 racy, so that the artists can sketch the 
 subject without his hand moving in a dark 
 box like the camera oI)scura. It is the 
 invention of the learned and scientific Dr. 
 Wollaston. 
 
 Campanile. [Lat.] In architecture. A 
 clock or bell tower. This word is now 
 adopted into the English language, and is 
 applied to such erections as the two wes- 
 tern towers of St. Paul's cathedral, Lon- 
 don, St. Peter's at Rome, &:c. and to de- 
 tached buildings in some parts of Italy, 
 erected for the purpose of containing bells. 
 The most celebrated are the campaniles 
 of Cremona, Florence, and Pisa. From 
 their great height and the smallness of 
 their bases, several of them have mucli 
 deviated from their original perpendicu- 
 larity. Those at Ravenna, Pisa, Padua, 
 Mantua, and Bolonga are particularly so. 
 
 Canara. See Architecti re, Indian. 
 
 Canuelabri'M. [Lat. from candela and 
 Xajiiif.'] A high and ornamental candle- 
 stick. Among the ancients candelabra 
 were more used as stands for lamps than 
 in their modern acceptation. They are 
 generally divided into three parts, the 
 pedestal, the fust or sluift, and the bell or 
 \ase which holds the light. 'J'he form of 
 canilelabra are various, and susceptible of 
 great decoration, and among the ancients 
 wer(! exquisitely beauliful in forui. and 
 splendid in sculptural emhelli^iinuMits. 
 They sometimes represented the trunk of 
 a tree, sonu'times a decoral<>d column, and 
 every Naricd form that artists could invent. 
 In the earliest periods of (irecian history 
 the cantlelabrum was a subject of gran- 
 deur and elegance. Homer in his Odys- 
 sey, describing the palace of Alcinous, 
 King of Corcyra, speaks of candelabra of 
 solid gold, in the form of youths, placed 
 
CAN 
 
 on pedestals in the shape of altars, hold- 
 ing lights in their hands. Cicero also 
 mentions one that was ornamented with 
 precious stones, and was intended for the 
 temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The forms 
 of antique candelabra may be collected 
 from the examples left on various bassi 
 rilievi, and actual specimens. On some 
 coins of Septimius Severfts, and of his 
 sons, are several representations of cande- 
 labra ; and in a painting at Herculaneum, 
 are two in the form of doves. There are 
 also two under the portico of the Pantheon 
 at Rome ; and several, beautifully sculp- 
 tured, in the collection of antiquities in 
 the British Museum, and a very splendid 
 one in the Radclifl'e library at Oxford. 
 
 Canephor.e. {^Kavr]<p6poc, Gr.] In sculp- 
 ture. The young and noble females who 
 carried baskets of flowers on their heads 
 at the festivals of Minerva (see Ovid, Met. 
 2); also statues representing them. Ca- 
 uephorae have been sometimes erroneously 
 called caryatides, as in the synopsis of the 
 antiquities contained in the British Mu- 
 seum, where the fine canephorae in Room 
 2 is called a caryatide, which may have 
 arisen from the false application of one 
 for the other, by modern architects. Ca- 
 nephorae are only properly used by the 
 side of an altar, and were never applied 
 by the Greeks in this manner to columns ; 
 a more modern architect has applied some 
 fine antique canephoras in the Villa Al- 
 bani, to support a cornice in the manner of 
 caryatides (see Caryatides). It is sup- 
 posed that these are copies of the cele- 
 brated ones of Polycletes. Messrs. In- 
 wood's have also used them in the wings 
 of their handsome church of St. Pancras 
 in the New Road, London. 
 
 Canon. [Lat. (cai^wi', Gr.] In all the arts, 
 A rule, law, or constitution. A canon is 
 \, one of those works of art whose merits 
 are received and style adopted as guides 
 for students ; such as most of the cele- 
 brated antique statues, works of the best 
 masters in painting, elegant buildings, &c. 
 According to Pliny, ancient artists distin- 
 guished by this name, the celebrated Do- 
 ryphorus (a statue of the spearmen who 
 attended the Grecian kings) of Polycletes, 
 because they regarded it as a model of 
 perfection in art; and, according to Cicero, 
 Lisippus perpetually kept it before him as 
 a study. 
 
 Canopum. In architecture. A temple to 
 the Egyptian god Canopus, which from 
 the story related by Suidas, repi'esented 
 the element water. There was a building 
 of this name in the Villa Hadriani at Ti- 
 voli. 
 
 CAP 
 
 Canopy. Kavojiruov, Or. covopntm, Lat.] 
 In architecture. An ornamental covering- 
 over head ; mostly applied to the covering 
 which is extended over thrones and seats 
 of state, altars, &c. 
 
 Canvas, [cannabis, Lat. from Kdwaftig, 
 hemp.] In painting: A sort of coarse linen 
 cloth used by painters for their pictures. 
 See Painting. 
 
 Capit.\l. [capitalis, Lat. capitcllo, Ital.] 
 In architecture. An ornament on the top 
 of a column. Capitals to columns are of 
 early invention, and are as useful as they 
 are ornamental. They embellish the up- 
 per part of the column, and prevent its 
 angles from being fractured or from da- 
 maging the architrave. In the earliest 
 times columns were used without capitals, 
 and a short time afterwards with only an 
 abacus, as in some Egyptian specimens, 
 particularly in the ruins of Thebes. This 
 afterwards was improved to a sort of a 
 bell formed capital, at first plain, and 
 afterwards sculptured with hieroglyphic 
 figures, foliage, &c. The fruit or flowers 
 of the lotus probably gave rise to the bell 
 formed capital, which was afterwards em- 
 bellished with palm leaves, as in some ex- 
 amples found at Esne. In some temples 
 at Amara, and iu the island of Philse, the 
 capitals are formed of the head of Isis. 
 Variety of other capitals, more or less 
 ornamented, are to be found in the works 
 of Dr. PococK, Capt. Norden, and Mons. 
 Denon. See Architecture Egyptian. 
 
 The capitals used in Persian architec- 
 ture are of three kinds, one of which is 
 nearly half the height of the shaft of the 
 column, and resembles a plume of feathers 
 which falls down all round, in the middle 
 of which rises another plume, and from 
 thence an unknown ornament. The others 
 are composed of the anterior moieties of 
 the fabulous unicorn, in the manner of the 
 heads of Janus of the Romans, Capitals 
 of this kind are found in the royal tombs 
 at Persepolis, near the palace ; examples 
 may also be found in the works of Nie- 
 buhr and Chardin. 
 
 The capitals of the temple or pagoda, 
 in the island of Elephanta, are like broad 
 and flat cushions, somewhat compressed, 
 consisting of a double echinus, one turned 
 to the other and separated by a fillet. 
 
 In the architecture of the Greeks and 
 Romans, the following are the usual divi- 
 sions of the capitals. See also Order. 
 
 Tuscan. According to Vitruvius, the 
 height of the Tuscan capital from the 
 astragal at the bottom, must be half the 
 diameter of the body of the column below. 
 And this height being divided into three 
 
CAPI 
 
 l);irts, the first ami uppermost part goes to 
 the abacus, the second part goes to the 
 echinus and fillet under it, and this part 
 is subdivided into four parts, of which 
 three go to the ecliinus, and one to tiie 
 liliet; the third and last part is divided 
 into two parts, one of which is the breadth 
 of the astragal under it, which consists of a 
 semicircle, and a fillet under it. The as- 
 tragal again is divided into three parts, of 
 which two are given to the semicircle, and 
 one to the fillet. The projecture of the 
 capital to be one eighth part of the dia- 
 meter of the body of the column below. 
 The astragal projected from a square. 
 According to Scammozzi, the height of the 
 capital, from the astragal at the bottom, 
 must also be one half the diameter of the 
 column below. And this height being di- 
 vided into sixty parts, twenty of them are 
 to go to the abacus or plinth, as he calls it, 
 fifteen to the echinus, which Vitruvius 
 calls the boulter, five to the roundel or 
 bead moulding, which is a semicircle, 
 three to the listella, which Vitruvius calls 
 a fillet, and seventeen to the neck or frieze. 
 Again, seven such parts must go to the 
 ovolo of the astragal, and three to its lis- 
 tella. According to Palladio, the height 
 of the capital is half the diameter of the 
 body of the column below, viz. at the as- 
 ti'agal, which none of them reckon a part 
 of the capital, though in propriety it ought 
 to be so esteemed ; and tliis height is divi- 
 vided into three equal parts, the upper- 
 most of which goes to the abacus, which 
 he calls the dado or dye ; the next part 
 goes to the ovolo or echinus ; the rest is 
 divideil into seven, of which one is for tiie 
 listella under the ovolo, and the other six 
 parts go to the coUarino or neck ; he aiso 
 calls it the hypotrachelium or frieze of the 
 capital. The best examples are, the church 
 of St. Paul, Co\cnt Garden, wiiich is the 
 true Vitruvian Tuscan; the descriptions 
 and designs of Palladio, Scammozzi, 
 Sir William Chambers, kc. This order 
 is well adapted to market i)laces, &c. as 
 tiie simplicity of the parts and the extra- 
 ordinary projecture of the cornice renders 
 it suitable to that purpose. 
 
 Doric. According to Vitruvius, the 
 height of the Doric (■ai)i1al from llic astra- 
 gal at the bottom is eijual to iuilf the dia- 
 meter of the body of tiie column below. 
 And this height being divided into thret; 
 parts, the first and lo\vermost goes to the 
 neck, tile next part goes to tlie echinus, 
 by which term he here comprehends seve- 
 ral luetiibers ; he describes tills p:iri in tvvo 
 forms, one of which is an ecliinus and tliree 
 tillets under it: the other an o\olo, and 
 
 lAL. 
 
 an astragal under it, and this portion is 
 divided into three parts, two of which go 
 to the echinus, and the other to the three 
 fillets or to the astragal, and the fillets are 
 all of an equal size. In tiie astragal the 
 fillet is one third of the whole; the third 
 and uppermost part of the capital is again 
 divided into three, the two lowermost of 
 ■which go to th^quare, and the other to the 
 cimatinm, which is an ogee with the hol- 
 low downwards, and a fillet over it. An 
 ogee or cima recta is a moulding, some- 
 what resembling an S, which Vitruvius 
 makes of two quarter circles joined toge- 
 ther, and this cimatium being also divided 
 into three parts, two of them go to the ogee 
 and one to the fillet; the astragal under 
 the capital is equal to half the neck. 
 
 Sca:mmozzi makes the capital of the 
 same height, which he divides into sixty 
 parts, of which three go to the fillet of the 
 cimatium, five to the ogee of the cimatium, 
 twelve to the square, fourteen to the boul- 
 ter, five to the rondel, two to the fillet of 
 the astragal under the boulter, and nine- 
 teen to the neck. The astragal contains 
 ten such parts, of which six and a half 
 go to the rondel, and three and a half to 
 the fillet. 
 
 Palladio also makes the capital of the 
 same height with Vitruvius, which he 
 divides into three parts ; the uppermost of 
 which he subdivides into five parts, two 
 of which go to the cimatium, and is again 
 subdivided into three parts, one of which 
 goes to the listella or annulet, and the otiier 
 two to the cima recta. The other three of 
 the first subdivisions of this part, go to 
 the abacus; the second of the three grand 
 divisions of the capital is subdivided into 
 three parts, two of Avhich go to the av olo or 
 echinus, and the other to the annulets un- 
 der it, which are three and are equal ; the 
 third principal part goes to the hypotrache- 
 lium or frieze. The astragal under the 
 neck is as high as all the annulets. 
 
 In every Grecian Doric onler the aba- 
 cus of the capital is always plain, being 
 a solid i)arallelo])iped()n ; of which its 
 two horizontal sides are eipial s(|uares, 
 and its vertical or perpendicular sides are 
 equal rectangles ; the inward recesses of 
 the annulets in the cajiital are in the same 
 curve line as the ovolo above them (the 
 Doric portico at Athens excejited) ; and 
 tluir outward extremities are etpial to 
 their inward recesses. The iiest exam- 
 ples of this noble order are, the remains of 
 the Greek temples at Tlioricus, Corinth, 
 the teniiile of Aiiolloat Delos, the temples 
 of Theseus, the Piptlieiion, the Prop: l<a, 
 the Doric portico at Athens, the temple of 
 
CAP 
 
 Minerva on the Sunium Promontory, the 
 temple of Jupiter Nemeus, between Ar- 
 gos and Corinth, the temple of Selinus, 
 and those of Juno and of Concord at Ag- 
 rigentuni, that of Jupiter Panhellenius in 
 the island of Egina, and those at Poestum, 
 See Stuart's Antiquities of Athens. Le 
 Roy, Rui.nes des plus beaux Monumens de la 
 Grece, fol. Paris, 1758. Major's Ruins of 
 Pcestum, fol. Lond. 1768. Wilkins's Mag- 
 na Grecia, and other Avorks mentioned in 
 the article Architecture. 
 
 Ionic. According to Vitruvius, the 
 Ionic capital is formed thus ; divide the 
 semidiameter of the body of the column 
 below into eighteen parts ; take nineteen 
 parts, of which three must go for the cima- 
 tium, one to the fillet, and two to the cima 
 or ogee under it. Then take four parts 
 for the trochilus of the volute or scroll 
 (the trochilus is that member from whence 
 the scroll begins); then take four parts 
 for the boulter, which is one fourth of a 
 circle, and is to be carved with eggs and 
 anchors. Then take two parts for the as- 
 tragal under the boulter. The astragal is 
 carved with beads, and has a fillet on each 
 side of it ; each one fourth of the whole. 
 The six remaining parts must go to the half 
 of the volute below ; then take eight more 
 such parts, which must go to make the re- 
 mainder of the frieze or neck of the capi- 
 tal, and three more such parts for the 
 astragal, under the neck on which one 
 part goes to the fillet. Scammozzi's de- 
 scription of the Ionic is not worth tran- 
 scribing; and Palladio's description agrees 
 with that of Vitruvius ; the best examples 
 are the capitals of the columns of the tem- 
 ple near the Ilyssus, those of Bacchus at 
 Teos, Minerva Polias at Pryene, and Mi- 
 nerva Polias at Athens, Apollo Dyda;- 
 mjeus near Miletus, of Erectheus, For- 
 tuna Virilis at Rome, &c. of which there 
 are many line fragments in the British 
 Museum. See Stuart's Antiquities, and 
 the Ionic Antiquities, published bij the Di- 
 lettanti Society, Lond. 1769 — 97. 
 
 Corinthian. According to Vitruvius, 
 the height of this capital from the astra- 
 gal at the bottom, is equal to the diameter 
 of the body of the column below, one 
 seventh part of which goes to the abacus, 
 which consists of an ovolo, a fillet, and a 
 cavetto. The abacus being subdivided 
 into three parts, one of them goes to the 
 ovolo, and a third part of the next goes to 
 the fillet, and the rest to the cavetto. The 
 height of the astragal below the capital 
 is one twelfth part of the diameter of the 
 body of the column below, and is divided 
 into three parts, whereof the fillet con- 
 tains one part, and the boulter two. Scam- 
 
 CAP 
 
 mozzi makes this capital one diameter and 
 one sixth of the column high, wliich divi- 
 ded into seventy-live parts, four of them 
 go to the boulter, one to the fillet, nine to 
 the plinth, and the rest to the neck. I'al- 
 ladio also makes the height of the capital 
 equal to the whole diameter of the body 
 of the column below, and one sixth part 
 more, which is allowed for the abacus, 
 by which I understand he meant all the 
 mouldings above the acanthus leaves. 
 
 The best examples of this order are, 
 the tower of Adronicus Cyrrhestes at 
 Atliens ; the portico called Poekile, the 
 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at 
 Athens, built in the time of Alexander the 
 Great, the portico of the Pantheon at Rome, 
 the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the 
 porticoes of Octavius and Septimins Seve- 
 rus, the arch of Constantine, the temples 
 of Jupiter Stator and Jupiter Tonans, the 
 bat'is of Dioclesian, &c. 
 
 Roman or Composite. Vitruvius di- 
 vides this capital like the Corinthian, and 
 so does Scammozzi and Palladio, only the 
 carving of it is somewhat diflerent, and is 
 so little used that it is not worth describing 
 (see Architecture Order). See Stuakt, 
 Piranesi, Le Roy, Desgodetz, Vasi, &c. 
 on the Antiquities of Greece and Rome. 
 
 Capitol. In archaiology. The temple 
 of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, built on 
 the Tarpeian Mount, in consequence of a 
 vow made by Tarquinius Priscus, in tiie 
 Sabine war (Liv. lib. i. c. 55). Also seve- 
 ral other edifices in the Roman empire, 
 where the magistrates assembled. And, 
 in imitation, the Roman colonies had each 
 their capitol. The most celebrated edi- 
 fices of this description, were those of 
 Constantinople, Jerusalem, Carthago, Mi- 
 lan, Ravenna, Verona, Augsburg, Treves, 
 Cologne, Rheims, and Thoulouse (Alex. 
 ab. Alex. vi. 11 ; and Hoffman, Lexicon ad 
 vocem). The Capitol at Rome was enrich- 
 ed by Sylla, with Grecian columns, brougiit 
 from the temple of Jupiter Olympius at 
 Athens (Liv. lib. 35. 38. Pmn. lib. 35). It 
 was burnt in the time of Vitellius, and re- 
 built by Vespasian ; was again burnt about 
 the time of his death, and rebuilt a third 
 time with magnificence and splendour by 
 Domitian, in which the expenses of tiio 
 gilding amounted to twelve thousand ta- 
 lents (Plutarch in Poplicola). The pre- 
 sent Capitol or the Campidoglio, is wor- 
 thy of notice for its splendour; and its 
 design is attributed to Michael Angiolo 
 Btionarotti, during the pontificate of Paul 
 III. On the sides of the grand approach 
 are the colossal statues of Castor and Pol- 
 lux, each holding a horse by the bridle, 
 and in the centre of the court is a fine 
 
CAR 
 
 equestrian statue of Marcus AureUus, and 
 many other beautiful antiquities of ancient 
 itome. It is in the wings of this building 
 tiiat the museum called the Museum Ca- 
 pitolinum is kept. Among the treasures 
 of art preserved in this Museum, are the 
 Capitolinc marbles or Fasti consukires whidi 
 were dug up in the Forum, not far from 
 the church of Sta Maria Liberatrice, in the 
 year 1415. They were found in several 
 fragments, of which one was excavated so 
 recently as 1819. They contain a list of 
 the consuls and all public officers from 
 Romulus to the year U. C. 724. 
 
 In the ancient capitol the most impor- 
 tant public documents were preserved. 
 Polybius (iii.) mentions it as the deposi- 
 tory of the treaties between the Romans 
 and the Carthaginians ; and Livy, that with 
 the Latins, the iEtolians, Antiochus and 
 Attains. Here also are placed the Sena- 
 tus Cousulta and Plebiscita. Here the 
 most solemn thanksgivings, sacrifices, and 
 vows were offered ; and hither was direct- 
 ed the march of triumphal processions. 
 
 Capitolinus (Mons). In the htsforij of 
 architecture. One of the seven hills of 
 Rome, anciently called Saturnius as the 
 residence of Saturn, and Tarpeins from the 
 maid who betrayed it to the Sabines. It 
 is believed to have been first enclosed when 
 Romulus admitted Titus Tatius into the 
 partnership of his throne ; and then to 
 have been decorated with a temple of Ju- 
 piter Feretrius. The thatched cottage of 
 their first king, which crowned the Capi- 
 tolinc Mount, was long an object of vene- 
 ration to the Romans. It is mentioned by 
 Vitruvius in the reign of Augustus, and 
 still later by Lactantius and Macrobius in 
 llie fourth century. See Bduton's Dc- 
 scription of the Antiquities and other Curio- 
 niiies of Rome. 
 
 Car. [Icarr, Germ.carn<s,Lat.] In archui- 
 olot^ij. A sort of carriage drawn by beasts 
 of burden ; a war ciiariot. Ca-sar is sup- 
 posed to have introduced this word from the 
 German into the Latin language during l>is 
 war in Germany. In different an<ienl ex- 
 amples, cars are. represented either with 
 two or four wheels, drawn by diHercnt ani- 
 mals ; as horses, mules, elephants, lions, 
 panthers, &c. The invention of cars is at- 
 tributed by some to ICrichthonius, Kingof 
 Athens, whose distorted legs i)revented 
 his wnlking; by others to Trii)lolenius, or 
 Trocliilus. Tlic Athenians dedicated them 
 to Pallas. Hesychius relates, that Nep- 
 tune taught the inhabitants of llarca tin; 
 use of cars. The coursing cars or ctlia- 
 riots were also used in public festivities 
 and games ; these were in the form of a 
 shell mounted upon two wlieels, hi).'h(;r 
 
 CAR 
 
 before than behind, and ornamented with 
 
 painting and sculpture. When they were 
 drawn by two horses, they were called 
 higa, when with three trigce, and quadriga: 
 when they were drawn by four horses, 
 which were always abreast. Upon some 
 Roman gems, cars are engraved drawn by 
 twenty horses ; but this most probably was 
 a fancy of the artist. 
 
 The covered cars (currus arcuati), which 
 were in use among the Romans, differed 
 from the others only by having an arched 
 covering above, whicii sheltered those in 
 the car from the wind and bad weather. 
 Some of the eastern nations used, in their 
 wars, cars armed with scythes and other 
 cutting insti-uments on the wheels; they 
 were drawn by strong horses, and made 
 dreadful havoc in the iirmy of their ene- 
 mies. It is hardly possible to determinate 
 the period when cars were tirst invented ; 
 but their use in war is more ancient than 
 that of cavalry. The heroes of Homer 
 did not fight on horseback, but in chariots, 
 from which they alighted to attack their 
 adversaries. The chariots used in cours- 
 ing were the same as those used in war. 
 The Greek vases present a multitude of 
 examples of both, of every form, and deco- 
 rated with more or less elegance. Mont- 
 faucon, Willeman, and Roccheggiani, have 
 given different examples of chariots in their 
 works upon costume. When the art of 
 war became improved, these cars became 
 not only useless, but even dangerous to 
 those who used them. 
 
 The cars of the different divinities are 
 drawn by those animals which are sacred 
 to each, as that of Mercury by rams, of 
 Minerva by owls, that of Venus by swans 
 or doves, that of Apollo by gritlins, of Juno 
 by peacocks, and that of Diana by stags. 
 There is the extremity of a beam of an an- 
 cient car in Uie Cabinet of Antiquities at 
 Paris ; it is a fine head of INIedus;!, wiiich 
 was considered as a kind of amulet, to 
 pi-otect them from injuries, and to insure 
 them \ ictory. The public i)laces and tem- 
 ples of Greece were ornamented with u 
 vast nnniber of cars in bronze, which, in 
 conseqvu'nce of victories, were collected in 
 pul)lie ]>laees. 
 
 The Kiinians adopted them to i)er|ietuate 
 tlie remembrance of victories; bron/.e cars 
 ornamented their triumphal arches, which 
 vere often surniuunted with them. These 
 triumphal curs were e\e( uted in marble. 
 One is preserved in tiu- nuiseum of the 
 Vatican at Konu'. The use of triumphal 
 cars WHS introdiured, acc(u-(ling to some, by 
 Romulus, and others by Tarquiu the elder, 
 or Valerius Poplicola. IJefore \\\v. time 
 of the emperors, (hey were in general gilt, 
 
CAR 
 
 and of a round form ; the victor held the 
 reins himself, and when he had young 
 children, they were placed beside him ; or 
 if youths, they accompanied the car on 
 horseback. A gieat number of imperial 
 medals represent the victor in his cha- 
 riot. 
 
 The term car was also applied to certain 
 long carriages mounted upon four wheels, 
 which were sometimes co^ ered with alle- 
 gorical paintings, and filled with people 
 disguised, and led in particular ceremo- 
 nies or public fetes, under the name of the 
 car of victory, of war, the car of industry, 
 or of peace, &c. They were in general 
 drawn by six or eight horses magnificently 
 caparisoned. Examples of these sort of 
 cars may be found in all the works that 
 give representations of antique fetes, cere- 
 monies, or public entries ; they may also 
 be seen in the prints which accompany the 
 poems, to which Petrarch has given the 
 name of Triumph of Love, the Triumph of 
 Death, &c. 
 
 Caravansary, or Caravansera. [Turk- 
 ish and Persian.] In architecture. A large 
 house or public building erected for the 
 reception of travellers. These buildings 
 are seldom moi"e than one story high, and 
 are usually of a quadrangular form, with 
 porticos in the interior for the horses and 
 camels ; cliambers for the merchants and 
 travellers, and warehouses for the mer- 
 chandise. See Voyages de Chardin (ii. 
 142) ; Morier's Journey through Persia, 
 p. 131, 
 
 Carceres. See Circus. 
 
 Carchesium. [Lat. Kapxt'mov, Gr.] In 
 ancient architecture. A machine described 
 by Vitruvius, as used to raise stones and 
 timber for building ; a sort of crane. 
 
 Caruenes. See Lobby. 
 
 Caricature, [^caricatura, Ital. from cari- 
 care, to charge, to load, caricature, Fr.] 
 In painting. The exaggeration of blem- 
 ishes, and concealment of real beautj' ; a 
 distorted resemblance of a person. This 
 word is also sometimes applied, though 
 improperly, to comic painting. Although 
 some critics have been veiy severe on the 
 practice of caricaturing, yet this practice 
 is not unimproving to the artist, particu- 
 larly the portrait painter, by accustoming 
 him to discover and arrange the peculiari- 
 ties by which the character of separate 
 faces are determined. It was practised 
 by the ancients, as well as by many emi- 
 nent modern artists ; there are several on 
 the walls of Herculaueum, one of which 
 in particular, represented jEneas, An- 
 chises, and Ascanius, with the heads of 
 hogs and an ape. Leonardo da Vinci 
 
 CAR 
 
 practised this branch of art, and Count 
 Caylus has published a collection of them 
 in fifty-eight plates, entitled, " Rccueil i.lcs 
 Tetes de Caracteres et dcs Charges, d'apres 
 h's dessins de Leonard da Vinci." Anui- 
 bale Caracci, although one of the first mas- 
 ters in serious painting?, yet occasionally 
 practised caricature ; and RaflTaello made 
 one, of the celebrated Laocoon, represent- 
 ing the figures as apes. Among more mo- 
 dern artists, Pierre Leon Ghezzi, who 
 died in 1755, is celebrated for caricatures 
 of a striking character; the title of one of 
 his works is, " Racolfa di XXIV. Carica- 
 tures designate colla penna del cclcbre, Cav. 
 P. L. Ghezzi, conservate ncl gahinetto, di 
 S. M. il Re di Polonia. Presd. 1750, fol, 
 and Dotsd. 176G, fol." Our countrymen 
 have long been celebrated for indulging 
 the satirical vein in painting, and multi- 
 tudes of caricatures are daily making tlieir 
 appearance on public men and manners. 
 If Hogarth is excepted as a painter of a 
 higher class, no one has excelled Gillray 
 in this branch of art. The two Cruik- 
 shanks at present are at the head of this 
 department, and have often approached the 
 best of Gilhay's works. 
 
 Captain Grose has left some amusing 
 rules for drawing caricatures, to which 
 the reader is referred for further informa- 
 tion. 
 
 Carnation, [from caro, carnis, flesh, car- 
 nardino, Ital. flesh colour.] In painting. 
 Those parts of a picture Avhich represent 
 the flesh, or are naked without draperj. 
 Titian, Coreggio, Rubens, and Vandyke, 
 peculiarly excelled in this bi'anch of art. 
 See Painting. 
 
 Caroon beled. In the history of archi- 
 tecture. An extensive mass of ruins, near 
 the margin of the lake of that name, sup- 
 posed to be the remains of the ancient la- 
 byrinth. See Labyrinth, Architecture. 
 
 Carr.\ra marble. In sculpture. A fine 
 kind of marble, the quarrii-s of which are 
 on the south side of the Apennines, at Car- 
 rara, a principality and town of Italy, in 
 the Duchy of Massa. These quarries were 
 well known to the ancients, who called 
 the marble Luncnse, and Ligustrum (Lom- 
 bard) ; and the places are still shown from 
 which the marble was dug for the con- 
 struction of the Pantheon. It is often 
 raised in very large masses, and is of dif- 
 ferent colours as well as properties ; some 
 being best adapted for building, others for 
 statuary. See jVI.4JJble. 
 
 Cartoon, [cartone, Ital. carton, Fr.] In 
 painting. A drawing or painting upon 
 large paper, usually made as patterns fcr 
 painting in fresco, tapestry, musaick, &c. 
 
(' A K 
 
 III I ifliri III ilicHi iiiiiniiiirii III ili'hncHllon*, 
 itii< i«iltii( (Anni^l Irnoc IiIn milvn •mlllnc, 
 ii» till llid <inii\M»», lliiM'rfiii'i- lie U itliili'l 
 (III- ni'l'liHIilly ••) liitll^lhH till' I'lllU'c (IcMKII 
 
 lh<« full nif.c of lhi> tnlnndi'il uiiil«,iiii lnr|i;i^ 
 )iii)ii'i |i>lnc<1 tii^i'lhiM^ llic- oiilllMc t» llion 
 ii(>)ill\ |iitiii Iiii'imI ^^llh n iiii'illr, pin, m 
 nihil |)oii)l, nml liiii oiillino IIiiim littn^ 
 IcrrKtl, Mil ^^)lnllnH, ii)iiin llu' \M)ik. The 
 DiirHl \Vi>lk>i III Itiln kliiil iil'i' Ihiiiir^ Cnlr- 
 tiDili'il iiMi M 1)1 Kiilliii lli\ III llii> iiimMcoiHiiin 
 <>l lh<< KliiK, Hiiil ih'cimimmmI tti U\r\ rnynl 
 l»tlHO(^( Hi )l)ii)i|il<wi (oiii'l, oMtlril cmplinli- 
 c«llv the «'«i7(t(i»*. TIk'v •••«' pHi'l «»f n 
 nitiliiM III' ildhii^iiH iiiMili- lor liipoMlry, niiil 
 wrrc pinclinMo^l hy C'hHiiw lh« VirnU 
 Thiv «r(( ihvai I'M-illy rockoni'il niiiouR llu^ 
 lliiuhl ot )t>il)')u'lli<'n \^'ol'k^, Mill! I'oiixc- 
 <|iiiml)\ iiinou^ I ho Ihinul uoikit til mi. 
 Itichni'ilMon htiM ii.iM'^w hii im^ciii'mIi^ hlMloil 
 I ))l rMiil I rllii'til ilitM( rijilion ol Ihcm, imuI, 
 In hiM opinion, llicy htc nioi'r IIIU'il lo run 
 vt'\ n li'iio iili>H ol lh(> K'riDiiM ol KhIIhoIIk, 
 Ihnii i<vtMi lhi> IokkIi* •>' ((>*' \'Hti«iin. 1'ho 
 l)i|ii<hlrii<M tlwil liiiM< lii'i'U Mroiifilii iVom 
 (lioin, ni'c Inil rliHilown ol' Ihc oii^in»tlh ; 
 y«l «rc T>vc«»«M'v«<fl wilh lyvonl voncrHlion ni 
 liiinio, mill only hhmvn on H tv\\ i\»\*> in 
 I III' ytwii, in lite f;'iilliiry vhich IoiiIm iVoin 
 St. Polpv'n to th«i ViiliOHn, and nr-vc.r fail 
 nlh'iullnn «n Inimcnno cvowrl lovirw Ihrm, 
 TiiwnriN llu' ciul ol' Ilic yojii Kl»7, Iho 
 I'l'riu'h (;'oM-i'nniont cxliiliiloil, in Ihc Sxlon 
 ilii MnMi'C, HrAM'nl ln|iiis<ri(»t \voi'ki<il iil 
 UruMxi Ih, vhich ^^•c'l•«^ hhiiI lo hiivc hccii 
 cAiM'iiti'il nllci Ihi' ili'hiniixof liiilViicllc. 
 
 Th(^ 1 'iii'looiiM lit llinn)>lon Coiirl htixt* 
 liccn hcv(M'hI linii^M ni^i'HVcd, AvmI liy Ori- 
 Imlin III t^iii'fii Aiiiii'V I'cin'n, iidvl hy l>o 
 vl^n^,nllll Hiiice tliiit, liy MiniTMl inrnioi 
 Hi'liMlM, nioht |>i'oh«Uly iVoin tho other en- 
 KinvinnH. Th«'\ h«vr iiImo hi'im «>n(!,Twv(Ml 
 tiilcly in hniiill l>y )''illl('i, nnil ol a vnry 
 lai'K'r Hi'/i> Hiiil in n M|ilrnili<l ainl siipciioi' 
 mnnnci hy Holloway. (Si<(^ Moiilli. Mhr. 
 lol .^in. IHOti, vol. WVl. i>. Mil.") Ah- 
 ollii'i vi^iy llni' cartoon, li\ KalV(icll(',of lhi> 
 ^1lll'<lM ol till' InnoconlK, in in tin lolloc- 
 tion of 1*ijiN«i<: lloAim, Knq. mxi't'laiy for 
 l\>r«ii>{n c«>n"o)t|)onilon('(> In the Koynl Aoa 
 ilciny , 
 
 t'*i<T«Mi('H or l'\«T«>r».K. \V\. tuirtooHn, 
 llal.j In uwhitrvlurr. An oniaincnl in (he 
 k( y Mtonr of Mn ai'rh, thi> coiitri' ol an <>ii- 
 (ntilHtnrr, \('. roiivosrnlinK a mcI'oII of pa- 
 Vii' iinrolloil, for Ihc pnipoMc of iiiMcri)!- 
 lionn, \c. ; Uify «rc r«r<>l,v used by uiiiMtit 
 
 of H'OOll turtle. 
 
 i'KU\ \Tiiiv.'v. |fi'o)nt:Hr>'fy, u oily «»f l*c- 
 loponnoHiiH, " ('HryMtitli<*i oohinuiir, 1^ V.m- 
 vvH, l.uconiji' oppido." N'tt.] /» arvkitot' 
 
 tMVt, l''ij;mi h 111 lonn (Srniurx , iihimI lo 
 
 C A S 
 
 <mymm » MmMNliiroi knntcntl of «(il«ilMiii 
 and pHnMm'h, Ihr oii|jin of whl<h, nccnrd- 
 liiH to NitltiMiiM (I. I,), In thdt the inhnlil' 
 IhiiIm ol I'niyH, II <'lty nl I'dnpoiiiii >>ii>, 
 made H lonKtii* with thr huitmiiiinii in ttii* 
 PiM'Mian war, anHinnl the ollu r pcoplf of 
 
 (•'I'ccrc , lull till' I'l I'MUliM liciiiK I'liililiu'r- 
 
 »'d, Ihr I'Hi'yatoi «rrr nl'tcrwiifil* l>c»ir(H'<l, 
 Ihrif city taken and ri-diii f»d to iimIic», llm 
 men pill to the xxMii'il, and the vonien 
 carried away to nla\ei\. To pi i pi i 
 the liienioly ol Ihin \lcloiy, the ciiiuiiii 
 OIIuh(m) piihll<> i*di(l('«H \o he eleded, in 
 whii'h, ax II iiialk of ilcfiiailiiliiin and m-I*- 
 Mllly , the li^iilen ol the i iipl iM'k, HI their 
 iiialronal rot>i<M and onianienlM, weir tinod 
 illnlead of eoliiiiiiik, in the nelMle otiit'e ol 
 loipptiiiiiiK I'lilaliliiliii'cM ; Ihiin Iriinnniiltiiii; 
 lo ptmlerlly tlK^ir infamy and pnniKhmenl. 
 Tlu' inoxl <innple(r> gcninne »pei imeii of 
 lhe»ie hliitiloM Ih to lie loiiml in Ihc I'lili- 
 droMciiiiii al Allieioi; one of ^^ hii h in in 
 the liiilinh MiiMciim. \K ht^n llitiirc.M ol the 
 main nex arc Htted, Ihey ni'c dnlled l*p|v 
 hiailH ov I'crMeh (See !'*•- i ). 
 
 The moyil heaiililiil cai ' ' > ii 
 
 woiknnm»ihip, Hiippoil Ihc trilninc of the 
 Salle (lex (4aiil«>h in the l,ouM( , thc\ are 
 li'oiii the ehlMcl of ,li<aii (•omoii. ScwimI 
 i'cpvoacnl4itioim of t'.aiyatidca «r«> to he 
 found in SIiimiI'm and Le RoyV Ant4qui- 
 lioM of (Ji'eccc, Sil V illiani I'liiUiilierii'H 
 ('lA il Architi'iluic, .Sc 
 
 I'AnvsTA Makiii.i^. a lieanliiiil nmrlilc 
 found at C'aryMta or (^aiiMlim, a city upon 
 till* hhore iif )''ill>iica. 
 
 ( 'AHr:Mi':N'i . [I'HHHHwnln, 1lul.| hi uiyhi' 
 tovtmr. A window opening on hinncH. 
 
 Cast. |A(i*/<, l>an.| 7w «« mZ/i/wiv . Any 
 thlll^ which iM cant in a iiioiilil. The art 
 of cHxfinK alMliicH, t\c. of xanoiix ninlenalM 
 in inoiiliU iH >er\ Mncii-nt. It wa» prac- 
 tiMcd III i;rcat perfection anion(i the (•icckn, 
 and aflciwanlh no nnich anions the- Ko- 
 niaim, thai Ihc luiiiiUei of hlntiicH coiixe- 
 crnted lo the (;-ndM und heroim aiirpMaaed 
 all hclicf. .Sec UnoNvl., S« i 
 
 C'.AS'iici.t.Ai'icn. hi iivihilii. ' IohciI 
 
 wilhin H caxUe ; h hiiildintl in the alyle of 
 a cahll(^. Sec I'akTI.i;. 
 
 lAxriNo Ol DiiAriciuKs. tu luunhng. 
 The proper disliihutioii of the folds of 
 ^itriniMitM in paiiilin^ or »icnlpliirc: lliej 
 ahoiilil appear lo he lli<< result ol i liiincc 
 ralhcr than of sliiil> iiiul liilioiii. Nalui'i*, 
 w hii h IS the surest nu'dc m cvciy tiling of 
 nil, IS tlie Uesl model. ()r«Jer, propriety, 
 contrast, aiid ili\cisit> in the (lr.ipci>, kit 
 neciessuiy In contrihiilc Ix the hiiriiioiiy of 
 thr whole. 
 
 CAH'I'I.F.. (c)il Vrl, S:i\ ■■</>ii (((.;», l'»l I hi 
 
 mrhifnUuri, A forlilii-ii hiuUlmj; for de- 
 
CAT 
 
 fence ; also a house furnished with towers, 
 encompassed by walls and ditches, and 
 strengthened by a moat or donjon in the 
 midst. Many plans of ancient English 
 castles may be found in the numerous to- 
 pographical works that have been pub- 
 lished in England, particularly King's 
 Munlmenfa Antiqua, 4 vols. fol. 1799. Se- 
 quel to the same, published in the sixth 
 volume of the Archaeologia. Grose's An- 
 tiquities of England and Wales, of Ire- 
 land and of Scotland. 
 
 Catacombs, [from Kara/coi/iaw, I sleep 
 out or away, or from Kara and Kvixj3oc, a 
 hollow or cavity.] J71 architecture. Cavi- 
 ties or subterraneous places, used for bury- 
 ing the dead, and which the ancients called 
 hypogenm, crypta, and ccemeterium fornix 
 subterranea, &c. They are monuments of 
 great curiosity, and may be traced back to 
 the remotest antiquity. In some places 
 the catacombs were also devoted to other 
 uses ; as in Syracuse they served for the 
 double purpose of a prison and a public 
 cemetery. In the first ages of Christianity 
 the word catacomb conveyed the idea of a 
 tomb of the martyrs, and they have been 
 transformed to places of devotion, under 
 the idea that they likeAvise served as places 
 of retreat to the early Christians from per- 
 secution ; and some authors have main- 
 tained the absurd idea that they were ex- 
 cavated by them for that purpose. It is, 
 however, probable that these subterrane- 
 ous places naturally presented themselves 
 as places of retreat, under the impression 
 that the respect and inviolability in wiiich 
 the ancients held those places, as conse- 
 crated to the dead, would add to the safety 
 of their asylum. It is likely that the cha- 
 pels and altars found in ancient catacombs 
 were only used when the Christian reli- 
 gion had become public, and protected by 
 the emperors, and that the believers in 
 Christianity, who assembled there for de- 
 votion, were permitted to celebrate its 
 rites upon the tombs of their martyrs and 
 saints. The greatest part of the cata- 
 
 » combs appears to owe their origin to the 
 necessary works of quarries near great 
 towns, for stone or sand proper for their 
 construction. Such were, undoubtedly, 
 those of Naples and Rome ; the first exca- 
 vated on a soft sandy stone, which served 
 for various purposes in building; the 
 others in puzzuolana, which is so excel- 
 lent in the composition of cement, particu- 
 larly for masonry in water. The cata- 
 combs of Rome are a labyrinth of subter- 
 ranean streets or narrow galleries of small 
 height, some dug in hard or soft stone, but 
 more often in puzzuolana, which are some- 
 
 CAT 
 
 times eighty feet below the level of the 
 ground. They extend to a great and almost 
 unknown length, and branch out in various 
 directions. The ground of the country 
 round Rome is nearly all a sandy soil, but 
 the few interesting discoveries that have 
 been made, and the little order observed 
 in the excavation, have led to the aban- 
 donment of a regular search after their 
 entire plan. There are, however, more 
 than thirty known and distinguished by 
 particular appellations, such as Cwmete- 
 riiim, Calixti, Lucince, Aproniani, Feliciani, 
 Valentini, &c. The two sides of the galle- 
 ries of these catacombs, from top to bottom, 
 are used for the reception of sarcophagi, 
 placed in niches, and enclosed by thick 
 bricks, or sometimes slabs of marble. 
 These niches were ranged in rows one 
 above the other, the number according to 
 the depth of the excavation. The names 
 of the deceased were sometimes inscribed 
 upon the urn or upon the bricks, by which 
 it was enclosed, sometimes with a branch 
 of palm and the word " Christ" But 
 tliere are also frequently found marks of 
 Paganism, which proves that these coeme- 
 teries were indiscriminately used for the 
 reception of those who had professed dif- 
 ferent kinds of worship. 
 
 The catacombs of Naples arc larger and 
 finer than those of Rome ; in them have 
 been found monuments in marble, with 
 Greek and Latin inscriptions. Several 
 towns in Sicily, as Catano, Palermo, Agri- 
 gentum, and Syracuse, possess the same 
 kind of excavation, and which are used 
 for the same purposes. The catacombs of 
 Syracuse are the largest and best preserved 
 that exist, and perhaps are the best to 
 give an idea of them in general. They 
 may be compared to a subterranean town, 
 with its great and little streets, its cross 
 streets, and places cut in the rock, in seve- 
 ral stories, and evidently dug for burying 
 places ; there are also other excavations 
 of the same town, which were certainly 
 quarries. The catacombs which are just 
 mentioned could hardly have been for the 
 digging of stone, the openings being nei- 
 ther large nor commodious. The orna- 
 ments which are to be met with in diiTcrent 
 parts, and have been added in later times, 
 are reduced to some bad Greek paintings 
 executed about the latter period of tlie em- 
 pire, upon plastering affixed to the rock, 
 having Greek or Latin letters, as well as 
 symbolical paintings of the martyrs, in the 
 interior of the tombs. In general the ca- 
 tacombs of Syracuse have not the funereal 
 appearance of those of Naples and Rome ; 
 there reigns a mysterious stillness, which 
 
CAT 
 
 proclaims it to be the sanctuary of repose. 
 By this monument we may form an idea 
 of the grandeur of the city, formerly so 
 powerful and so thickly peopled. The 
 catacombs of Malta are very small, but in 
 good preservation ; they appear to have 
 been constructed, at the same time, for the 
 interment of the dead, for concealment, 
 and to celebrate the ordinances of Chris- 
 tianity-. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal 
 catacombs in the world. The most ancient 
 are probably — 1. Those of Egypt; five 
 series or sets of which have been described 
 by modern travellers in various degrees of 
 preservation ; namely, those of Alexan- 
 dria, Saccara, Silsilis, Gournou, and the 
 tombs of the kings of ancient Thebes. 
 II. The catacombs of Italy. Those of the 
 greatest antiquity in this part of Europe 
 are probably those of Etrusia. There are 
 also catacombs at Rome, in Naples, at Sy- 
 racuse, at Malta, at Gozzo. III. The ca- 
 tacombs of Paris, which were formerly 
 quarries whence the ancient inhabitants 
 obtained their free stone. They were con- 
 verted into catacombs for the relics of the 
 dead by M. Lenoir, lieutenant-general of 
 the police, in 1780. The most valuable 
 works on this head are Clarke's Travels 
 in Europe, Asia, and Africa, vol. v. p. 388 — 
 394. Richaruson's Travels along the Me- 
 diterranean, &c. vol. i. p. 19—21, 266—269. 
 Denon, Voyage dans r Haute et Basse Egypte, 
 p. 117, 119, 172, 235, 242, Paris, 1802. 
 Bki.zoni's Narrative of Operations and Dis- 
 coveries in Egypt and Nubia, p. 156, 157, 
 4t(). Loud. 1822. Malte Brun, Annates 
 des Voyages, torn. xiii. Bulletin, p. 254. 
 EusTACu's Classical Tour through Italy, vol. 
 ii. p. 90 — 94, 8\o. ; Voyage dans tes i'atu- 
 comhes de Rome, pur un Membre de VAcadimie 
 dc Crotone, l*uris, 1810. Wilson's Journal 
 of two successive Tours on the Continent, 
 vol. iii. p. 20 — 24. Ulcjiiks's Travels in 
 iSicily, &c. vol. i. p. 75—79. Sir R. C. 
 Hoard's Classical Tour through Italy and 
 Sicily, ]). 409. Till HV, Descriplion des ('a- 
 tacombe.s dc Paris, part. I. p. 44, 8\o. Paris, 
 1815. 
 
 Catalocl'K. [KnTaXoyuc, (ir. catalogus, 
 Lai. catalogue, Fr.] In all the arts. An 
 enumeration of particulars. A catalogue 
 of works of art, with anecdotes of tlie art- 
 ists wiiose works are enunuiralcd, particn- 
 lara of the pictures, &c. is one of the most 
 useful aids to an artist or a critics that can 
 l)e imagined. Catalogues sliouiil ha\e iwn 
 objects; one, that of directing the inquirer, 
 in his visits to the best <'oll<!(lions, (o the 
 leading olyects; and the «<!ur, that of in- 
 forming those who cannot s<'e tbe originals 
 
 CAV 
 
 with their respective and comparative me- 
 rits. There is another sort of catalogue 
 extremely useful in the history of the arts, 
 which does not refer to any entire collec- 
 tion, but gives, under a systematic arrange- 
 ment, lists of all the great works of one 
 school, of all the works of one great mas- 
 ter, and the respective places where they 
 are to be seen. Some distinguished col- 
 lectors have published descriptive cata- 
 logues of their collections, and which are 
 usually called. Catalogues raisannes. 
 
 Catenaria. See Arch. 
 
 Catania. In the history of the arts. An 
 ancient city of Sicily, situated in the Val 
 Demona, on the borders of the Val di 
 Noto, at the foot of Mount iEtna. It is 
 the ancient Catana, and has been three 
 times overwhelmed by the lava of iEtna, 
 or desolated by earthquakes ; but it has 
 always risen from its ashes more splendid 
 than before. 
 
 Cathedral. [Ka9!:<!pa, Gr.] Tlie su- 
 preme church of any diocess, so called 
 from possessing the episcopal chair called 
 Cathedra; which anciently meant any easy 
 commodious chair. " Supinte in delicias 
 cathedrae," says Pliny ; and the epithet 
 may still apply. The ancient cathedrals 
 of Europe, especially those of Germany 
 and England, are remarkable as being the 
 oldest monuments of Gothic, Saxon, Old 
 English, and Roman architecture in exist- 
 ence. (See Arcihtectire, Basilica, 
 ChV'RCH.) The cathedral or bishop's church 
 in the African canons is frequently termed 
 ccclesia matrix, that which required llie 
 care and residence of the bishop, as tiie 
 principal church of the diocess ; and .so 
 called in contraili>'inction to the ecdesia 
 diacesan(C, u])on which only pres!)yters re- 
 sided. The council of Carthage in its de- 
 crees, terms the ccclesia tnatrl.r " princliiales 
 cathedra." See Stavely's History of 
 Churches in England, vol. v. 
 
 (^Av.KOinM. [Laf.] In ancient urchitect are. 
 An ojxui (u>urt within ihc' body of a house. 
 The cavu'dium dill'ers from the atrium and 
 the vestibulum, although some authors 
 consider thi-m synonymous. Vitruvius de- 
 scribes live S(U'ts of ca\;cdia, Toscavicnni 
 (Tuscan), I'orinthium (Corinthian), tctras- 
 iylon (tetrasty le), displuviatum (uncovered), 
 tesludinalum (mwxWciX). See ViTRiMis. 
 
 Cavk. [from ravea, Lat. cave, I'r.J A 
 hollow place under ground. See Ceij.ar. 
 
 (;a\ea. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 The dens or stables for the wild beasts, 
 under the seats and round the arches of 
 the ainpliitheatre : also used by some au- 
 thors for (he ami»hithcalre itself. See 
 Ai>ll*lllllli;AT«E. 
 
C£L 
 
 Cavetto. [Lat.] In architecture. A con- 
 cave moulding of a quarter of a circle. 
 
 Cauucou. [cauliculus, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture. Small stalks or stems like twists 
 or small volutes under the flower, or the 
 abacus in the Corinthian capital. 
 
 Cal'sia. [Lat.] In archaiology. The name 
 of the Macedonian hat ; and in costume it 
 characterizes this people as much as the 
 tiara does the Persians, and the mitre 
 does tiie Phrygians. The form is pre- 
 served to us on the medals of Alexander 
 I. King of Macedon. 
 
 Cecropium. In the history of architecture. 
 An ancient name of Athens after its foun- 
 der Cecrops. See Athens. 
 
 Cedar. [Ktcfpog, Gr. cedrus, Lat.] In 
 architecture. A tree whose timber is some- 
 times used in building. Its wood is so 
 bitter and distasteful to insects, that it is 
 reckoned almost incorruptible. It is much 
 used in the east, and is often mentioned in 
 the Old Testament. The temples of Je- 
 rusalem and of Diana at Ephesus were 
 constructed of this wood. Pliny mentions 
 it as much used from its great dui'ation ; 
 and Pausanias and other ancient authors 
 speak of statues of cedar wood. 
 
 Cell. See Cella. 
 
 Cella. [Lat.] In architecture. A cha- 
 pel or private part of a temple. It signi- 
 ties the interior part of a temple : the sanc- 
 tuary in which the statue of the divinity 
 to whom the temple is dedicated is placed. 
 It is also called in Greek vaoc dofjioc (ttikoq, 
 and from thence the porticoes which pre- 
 cede them were called pronaos, prodomos. 
 There was often behind the cella a cham- 
 ber to contain the treasure of the tem- 
 ple, which was termed opisthodomiis, that 
 is, the hinder part of the cell. The length 
 of the cell was double its width, the width 
 was divided into four equal parts, the 
 length accordingly was divided into eight; 
 the cella, properly so called, occupied eight, 
 comprising the wall, which separated the 
 pronaos, and in which was the entrance to 
 the cella. The three other parts from this 
 wall to the centre formed the pronaos or 
 the portico which preceded the cella. 
 Tfiey always gave the antse the same pro- 
 portions as the columns of the portico. In 
 those temples, the cella of which were not 
 sufliciently wide, the space between the 
 antae was left open, and the entablature 
 supported by the ante alone. Of this, we 
 have an example in the temple on the Ilis- 
 sus, near Athens. When the cella was 
 more than twenty-feet wide, they placed 
 two columns between the antae, as in the 
 temple of Theseus at Athens, and that of 
 Minerva on the Sunium promontory. The 
 
 CEL 
 
 three intercolumniations between the antac 
 and the columns were enclosed by balus- 
 trades of marble or wood, in which they 
 left a door to enter the pronaos. When 
 the cella was more than forty feet wide, 
 they placed other columns in the interior 
 of the pronaos, opposite the columns that 
 were between the antas to support the cicl- 
 ing of the pronaos. Such are the rules 
 that Vitruvius has given for the disposi- 
 tion of the cella. But the ruins of some 
 ancient temples are opposed to tliis ar- 
 rangement, especially as to the length and 
 width of the cella, which is proved by the 
 measurements of that portion of the temple 
 and of the pronaos. From which it is found 
 that they sometimes gave a dilTerent dis- 
 tribution to the hypasthros ; hence we may 
 conclude, that Vitruvius only spoke of the 
 other kinds of temples. One of the pecu- 
 liarities of the cella of the hypaethros was, 
 that the upper part was not covered : that 
 its length was more than double its width, 
 and as each facade had an entrance, there 
 were both a pronaos and a porticus. The 
 other kinds of temples have generally but 
 one entrance, and, indeed, the little extent 
 of the cella needed but one. This may be 
 seen in many of the existing ancient tem- 
 ples, as that of Theseus, that formerly on 
 the bank of the Ilissus at Athens, the tem- 
 ple near Mylasa, that of Jupiter, Nem;eus, 
 between Argos and Corinth, and Apollo 
 Didymaeus, near Milet\is, &c. But if the 
 length of the cella required it, they gave 
 two entrances to the hypaethros, one at 
 each extremity. This is what Vitruvius 
 says in distinct terms, and it is further 
 proved by the ruins of several remains of 
 this kind; as the great temple atPiestuni, 
 the Parthenon at Athens, and the temple 
 of Jupiter Panhellenius in the island of 
 Egina. Pausanias mejitions a temple 
 Avhich had no entrance at all ; that of Ju- 
 piter Lycffius, in the public square of Me- 
 galopolis, the capital of Arcadia. It is 
 probable that this temple was very small, 
 and rather a species of monument than a 
 regular cella of a temple ; the altars, ta- 
 bles, and eagles, which, according to Pau- 
 sanias, were consecrated to the god, appear 
 not to have been in the interior, but in the 
 front and side of the temple. For which 
 reason the temple and the consecvc;ted 
 place which belonged to it were surround- 
 ed by a dwarf wall or peribolos. 
 
 To cover a part of the cella of the hypa?- 
 thros, the ancients often erected an inte- 
 rior portico, which was continued all round, 
 and consisted of two ranges of columns 
 placed one above the other. This portico 
 had two stories or galleries. The lower 
 
CELLA. 
 
 «nc formed a covered place in the cella, that of the portico, consequently there 
 and the hij?hest served to reach the upper were always steps at the entrance, as is 
 part of the statue of the divinity that was seen in tlie Parthenon, the two temples 
 placed in the temple. Such double galle- at Paestum, that of Jupiter Panhelle- 
 ries were found in the temple of Jupiter nius, and several others. The exterior 
 Olympius ; and the great temple of Paes- sides of the cella were very simple, and 
 turn appears also to have a smilar arrange- had scarcely any ornament. At the four 
 ment. There were large stones placed corners are the anta% which, originally, 
 upon the architrave, that was supported were evidently built for strength, ascoun- 
 by the lower columns, large stones wliich terforts ; and whicli afterwards they orna- 
 united the walls to the cella, and formed, mented with bases and capitals to give 
 at the same time, the ceiling of the lower them a more agreeable form. The wall 
 gallery and the floor of that above. between these antas was without ornament; 
 
 Generally each temple had but one they were satisfied by adding a base to the 
 cella, and there is but one kind of Tuscan lower part, sometimes the same as the 
 temple which had three cellar, one on the base of the anta;, sometimes diti'ering from 
 side of the other. Sometimes they divided it in having fewer members. The upper 
 the cella of the Greek temples into several part was ornamented with several mem- 
 divisions, and in that case they are not bers, or with an entablature like that of 
 placed one on the side of each other as the portico, but less complete. The frieze 
 in Tuscan temples, but one behind the was not so high ; sometimes it iiad tri- 
 «ther. At Sicyone, there was a temple glyphs, as in the great temple at I'a'stum, 
 having two cella? or divisions ; in the first and that of Apollo Epicurius at Phigaleia ; 
 there was erected a statue of sleep, and sometimes it was without, as in the temple 
 the last was consecrated to the Casnean of Jupiter Panhellenius in the Lsle of 
 Apollo ; which no one was allowed to Egina. 
 
 enter but the priests. Near Argos, on the In some temples the cella was orna- 
 road to Mantineas, there was also a temple mented Avith bassi rilievi, v\ ith which they 
 with cella; ; in one of which was a statue also ornamented the frieze ; as in the tem- 
 of Venus, carved in wood, and had its en- pie of IMinerva on the Sunium promontory, 
 trance towards the east; and the other, where is represented the combat of the 
 which was consecrated to the worship of Centaurs and LapithiP ; upon that of the 
 Mars, was towards the west. At Manti- Parthenon, sacrifices and solemn proces- 
 nea, thei-e was a temple of the same kind : sions of tlie Athenian people, called Pana- 
 in one division of the cella was a statue of then;ca ; and at tiie temple of Theseus at 
 iEsculapius, and in the otiier Latona and Atiiens, the combat of the Centaurs; and 
 her infants, executed by Praxiteles. A that of Apollo Epicurius ■\;ilh similar sub- 
 temple of Ilithyia, in the sacred wood of jects. Abo\ e the doors, botii in the pro- 
 Altias at Olynipia, had also a double cella. naos and porticus, of the cella of the tem- 
 In the first was the altar of Ilithyia, in the pie of Jupiter Olympius at Olympia, is 
 one behind they worshippe<l Sosipolis, the represented the labours of Hercules ; on 
 titular divinity of the Eleates; no one the front entrance are five ; — the taking of 
 dared enter into this cella but the priestess the Erymanthean boar; the death of Dio- 
 of the temple, and she at such times was mede. King of Thrace; the combat A\ith 
 always veiled; during which time, the Geryon; Hercules sustaining the heaNens 
 young girls sacrificed upon the altar of in the room of Atlas; and the cleansing 
 Ilithyia. In this class may also be ranked the Augean stables. And on the rear en- 
 Ihe Erechtlieium at Athens, of \\irKli the trance are represented six others; namely, 
 anterior part was consecrated to iuc-ctheus, 
 and the jiosterior to Minerva Polias. At 
 Sparta there was an ancient temple a\ Iiicli 
 had two cella-, the one below the otiicr; 
 in each there was a statue of Venus, and 
 that of the ui)per cella bore the surname 
 of IM()r[)li(i ; Pausanias considers this sin- 
 gular (li.sjjosition as unique of its kind. 
 
 Th(! cella was almost always built of 
 large; stones, in the manner called by tin- 
 ancients isiihimiiin. (see this word and 
 (iiiKi;K AitciirniLTi uii), but sonu'tiiius 
 with the stones of the ordinary size. 'J'he 
 
 thi' ciuuiuest of Hippolyte ; his taking 
 the stag with brazen horns ; the con(iucst 
 of the Cretan bull; the destruction of 
 Stymplialiihe ; the ei>n(iuest of the Ler- 
 naan hydra; and of the Nemuan lion. 
 IVl. (iuatremere de Quincy, in his Jupiter 
 Olvmpien (p. -Jlil. 1)1. xii. fig. :>.), imagines 
 that these reijresentations formed a con- 
 tinued series of bassi riliesi, but Mr. C 
 K. Cdckerell is of «)pinitui that they were 
 separate in the metopes, as in the tenqjles 
 of Theweus and of Apollo Eiiicniius. in 
 the interior of the cella was placed the 
 pavement was always raised higher than statue of the god to whom the temple was 
 
CEM 
 
 dedicated ; it was always raised upon a 
 base opposite the entrance, and placed 
 against the rear wall. In the hypsethros 
 it was placed near to the door of the rear 
 front, at the place where the galleries and 
 porticos of the interior joined and formed 
 a canopy over the statue ; but as this was 
 hardly sufficient to protect it from the in- 
 juries of time, they placed a veil or curtain 
 before it, when they were not sacrificing. 
 There was a most magnificent curtain in 
 the temple of Jupiter Olympius ; it was a 
 present from Antiochus, made of wool, cu- 
 riously wove in the manner of tlie Assy- 
 rians, and coloured with Phoenician pur- 
 ple : one of the same kind was in the tem- 
 ples of Diana at Ephesus and at Athens. 
 (See Peplum.) When they wished to ex- 
 pose the statue, they lowered the curtain, 
 as in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, or 
 raised it as in that of Diana. This curtain 
 was not used, as Stuart thinks, for a cover- 
 ing to the middle of the cella of the hypas- 
 thros, and cannot be compared with the 
 velaria of the Roman theatres and amphi- 
 theatres. The Romans also used this word 
 for the name of apartments in their baths, 
 as cella caldaria, cella frigidaria, Sfc. See 
 Bath. The reader is also referred to 
 A Description of the Collection of Ancient 
 Marhles in the British Museum, part iv. 
 4to. Lond. 1820 ; Stuart's Antiquities of 
 Athens, vol. ii.; Wilkins's Antiquities of 
 Magna Grecia ; Le Jupiter Olympien, ou 
 L'Art de la Sculpture antique considM sous 
 un nouteau point de vue, par Quatremere 
 
 DE QUINCY. 
 
 Cellar, [cella, Lat.] In architecture. The 
 lowest apartment of a building when un- 
 der ground, and used for stores, &c. 
 
 Cement, [cccmentum, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. An adhesive binding compost of 
 sand, lime, or other materials. The matter 
 with which bricks, stones, &c. are made to 
 cohere. The principal cement in building 
 is called mortar, and is composed of calca- 
 reous earth, or lime made from chalk, 
 limestone, marble, spars, gypsum (which 
 forms plaster of Paris), shells, and various 
 other similar substances. The proportions 
 of calcareous cements for the purpose of 
 building is best derived from experience, 
 as the strength and other qualities of the 
 component pai-ts differ so much. The ge- 
 neral manner of making mortar, or com- 
 mon building cement, should be as fol- 
 lows : — the lime should be slaked with 
 water and a layer of sand, in the propor- 
 tion of about twice as much sand as lime, 
 covered over, and so on, layer upon layer, 
 till the whole is wetted. The heap should 
 be covered over with sand, to prevent the 
 
 CEM 
 
 steam and vapour of the slaking lime (<> 
 evaporate. It should then be screened 
 and quickly made into mortar, by wetting 
 it, and well beating it with shovels or 
 beaters for use. There are many other 
 kinds of cements, which are omitted, as 
 not appertaining to this Avork ; but their 
 component parts and comparativements, 
 may be found in Ure's Dictionary of Che- 
 mistry. 
 
 Cemetery. [Koi/xjjrj^piov, Gr. coemcterium, 
 Lat.] In architect ui-e. A sleeping place. 
 A building, or where the dead are depo- 
 sited. In the allegorical language of the 
 ancients. Death was the sister of Sleep ; 
 hence it is not surprising that the word 
 cemetery or dormitory should be applied to 
 places destined to public burial, particu- 
 larly by Christians, to whom death itself 
 is but a sleep. The most ancient cemetery 
 we are acquainted with, and perhaps the 
 largest in the world, is that of Memphis, 
 which was discovered in a circular plain 
 without the toAvn, of about four leag^ies 
 diameter, and which is called the plain of 
 mummies. The care of tiie Egyptians in 
 burying their dead appears to have been 
 directed to the preservation of the bodj', 
 rather than to perpetuate the memoiy of 
 the deceased. The Greeks and Romans 
 were not so careful to preserve the body ; 
 being in general satisfied in merely bury- 
 ing them. The custom of burning the 
 body and preserving the ashes, seems to 
 show that their aim was rather to preserve 
 it from violation than from destruction. 
 We may rank among public cemeteries those 
 numerous sepulchres which are in the 
 suburbs of almost all the ancient cities ; 
 the laws having proscribed them from the 
 interior of the town. The avenues and 
 roads, subterranean places and fields, re- 
 served for this pious use, became them- 
 selves a kind of town, the houses of whicli 
 were the sepulchres. Each family had 
 their own, and at certain times were ac- 
 customed to visit the manes of their ances- 
 tors. They sometimes gave these funereal 
 towns the name of Elysian fields. Though 
 ages have passed since they Avere used ; it 
 is impossible to visit those wdiich encircle 
 the town of Puzzuoli in Italy, and near 
 D 'Aries in France, or any of the catacombs, 
 without emotion. 
 
 Of all the ancient burial places, no one 
 conforms so nearly to modern ideas of ce- 
 meteries, as that of Aries. A large plain, 
 strewed with sarcophagi and funeral mo- 
 numents, present only remains of what 
 once resembled a town. In the early ages 
 of Christianity, the cemeteries were esta 
 blished without the cities, and upon the 
 
CEMETERY. 
 
 high roads, and dead bodies were prohi- putrefaction. 
 
 bited from being brought into tlie churches, 
 but this was afterwards abrogated by the 
 Emperor Leo. The custom of burying in 
 churches was derived from the earliest 
 times of Paganism, for we know that tlie 
 Egyptians always constructed their sepul- 
 chres in the neighbourhood of their tem- 
 ples ; or, from the habits of the early 
 Christians celebrating their religious rites 
 in the catacombs or cemeteries, upon the 
 tombs of their martyrs. It was also in ce- 
 meteries that they built the first churches 
 of which the subterranean parts were cata- 
 combs. These were soon appropriated to 
 the rich, and the enclosures of the church 
 were reserved for the burial of the multi- 
 tude. It is to such as these that the name 
 of cemeteries more particularly apply. 
 The custom of burying in churches and 
 their enclosures, was mostly confined to 
 country places, for in cities and towns, 
 from a regard to public salubrity, they 
 always constructed their burial places 
 without the outer walls, which was more 
 necessary, as by the enlargements of the 
 towns, the portions which were appropri- 
 ated to public cemeteries would not only 
 be too small for the population, but in time 
 become situated amidst the habitations of 
 the citizens, by which their health would 
 be continually exposed to their dreadful 
 influences. 
 
 The cemeteries of England and most 
 other modern countries are merely graves, 
 either private or common, in which they 
 pile one generation upon another ; and at 
 times, as in Paris before the adaptation of 
 the catacombs, were obliged to empty 
 these mortuary fields, from which many 
 inconveniences frequently arose. 
 
 Naples and Pisa have cemeteries, which 
 may be regarded as models not only for 
 good order and conveniency, but for the 
 cultivation of the arts and the interest of 
 humanity. The arrangement of the grand 
 cemetery at Naples particularly lends to 
 the preservation of health. It is composed 
 of a large enclosure, having three hundred 
 and sixly-five openings or sepulchres, an- 
 swering to the days of the year, symmetri- 
 cally arranged. Each opening is closed 
 by a stone, which serves as a covering. 
 To this common depot corpses were brought 
 from all parts of the town. Each ilay one 
 of tiiese graves was opcmed, which at the 
 end of the day was closc-d and sealed, afler 
 having used the precaution of throwing in 
 a quantity of lime, which, by the time of re- 
 oi)eniiig at the end of the year, had con- 
 sumed (he bodies in such a manner (hat 
 nothing could be feared from Iheeflcctsof 
 
 This method of burying is 
 particularly necessary in those places 
 where the immense jjopulation allows no 
 interest to supersede that of salubrity. 
 
 The Campo-sunto, or cemetery of Pisa, is 
 on eveiy account worthy of attention. As 
 a work of art it is one of the first in which 
 the classical style of architecture began to 
 be revived in modern Europe, and by the 
 extent of its plan, by the grandeur of its 
 conception, and the excellent purposes to 
 which it is devoted, it is one of the most 
 remarkable monuments of Europe. Ubal- 
 i)o. Archbishop of Pisa, in 1200, first pro- 
 jected the idea of this vast undertaking. 
 John of Pisa, the most celebrated archi- 
 tect of his time, was entrusted with its 
 construction, and he displayed in it great 
 ability. The length of this cemetery is 
 about four hundred and ninety feet, its 
 width one hundred and seventy, height 
 sixty, and its form rectangular. It con- 
 tains fifty ships freights of earth from Je- 
 rusalem, brought hither in 1288. The 
 facjade of the southern front is composed 
 of forty -four pilasters of a good propor- 
 tion, which support an equal number of 
 arches, proving that the Pisan architects 
 had already abandoned pointed arches and 
 gothic forms. At the top of each capital, 
 and where the arches unite, is a grotesque 
 mask carved in marble, the work of which, 
 as well as that of the capitals, partake of 
 the capricious style that was prevalent at 
 that time. The whole of the edifice is 
 constructed with white marble, the greatest 
 part from the mountains of Pisa, regularly 
 squared and jointed with great care. Two 
 side doors att'ord entrance to tlie interior, 
 which forms a vast court of four hundred 
 and sixty feet long, surroundeil by an ar- 
 cade formed by sixty-two arches of a de- 
 migothic form. The two larger sides have 
 each twenty-six arches ; five only compose 
 the two smaller sides. The arches, wliich 
 are of the s(yle of the; exterior, are sup- 
 ported upon colunuis, lo which a continued 
 surbase serves as a pedestal. The galle- 
 ries are paved wi(h line marble, and orna- 
 mented with \arious specimens of early 
 painting, the works of Giotto, C'imaleue, 
 and other ancient masters. Queen t'liris- 
 tina of Sweden, called this cemetery 
 " Non uu ciini terio ma on inuseo." Fine 
 aiiti(|ue sarcoi)hagi ornament the whole 
 lircumferencc, raised up«>u consoles, and 
 |)laeed upon a surbase bnnisl high. I'n- 
 der (liese funereal porticoes, (he nionu- 
 nients of celebrated men are still to be 
 seen, of whom (lu; republic of Pisa preserv- 
 (h1 (he resemblances and honoured the me- 
 morv. It was there (he King of Prussia 
 
CEN 
 
 raised a monument to the celebrated Alga- 
 rotti, -nitli the inscription — Algarottus non 
 omnis. The cemetery of Pisa completely 
 accords with the idea of the simplicity and 
 funeral grandeur that would be supposed 
 to belong to such a building. Upon this 
 form and model cemeteries should be es- 
 tablished near all populous cities. The 
 enclosure in the middle should constitute 
 the common burial place, and the divisions 
 of the sepulchres may be formed after 
 those of Naples, or by establishing public 
 and private vaults or graves, as might be 
 thought most proper. The galleries which 
 surround the interior, could be reserved 
 for mausoleums, cenotaphs, tablets for in- 
 scriptions, and monuments of every kind to 
 perpetuate the mernoiy of the dead. The 
 most ancient manner of embellishing insu- 
 lated cemeteries, was by planting trees, 
 cypress being generally used. These were 
 placed along the most cheerful places, 
 along rivers and roads, and upon small 
 hills, accompanied by monuments which 
 invited passengers by their form and in- 
 scriptions, and by the hospitable shadows 
 the trees afforded to contemplation. The 
 Turks always erect their cemeteries out- 
 side the towns ; and they endeavour to 
 render them as agreeable as possible by 
 planting odoriferous shrubs, especially in 
 the environs of Smyrna, where there are 
 an abundance of cypress trees and rose- 
 maiy plants, which spread a salubrious 
 fragrance. This custom of planting trees 
 about cemeteries, has also been found to 
 be practised in the ftliddlebourg and So- 
 ciety Islands. It serves not only to desig- 
 nate the character of the places where 
 they are planted, but also to purify the 
 air. 
 
 Cenotaph. See C(enotaph. 
 
 Centaur. \JLkvTavpoc, Gr. from keitsw to 
 goad, and ravpoq a bull, centanrus,\,ixi.'] In 
 arckaiology. A poetical being of Thessalian 
 origin,supposed to be composed of aman and 
 a horse. The inhabitants of Thessaly being 
 great horsemen, and their country abound- 
 ing with wild bulls, they became expert in 
 their chase, and hence acquired their name 
 and ga^ e rise to the fable. The most usual 
 way in which these fabulous beings are re- 
 presented by ai'tists, is with a human head, 
 arms, and trunk, joined to the body and 
 legs of a horse, just above the chest. Their 
 mythological origin was from the gallantry 
 of Ixion with the cloud w hich he mistook 
 for Juno. According to Pausanias, there 
 was represented upon the ancient monu- 
 ment called the sarcophagus of Cypselus, 
 a centaur, of which the fore feet were 
 those of a man, and the hinder ones of a 
 
 CEN 
 
 horse; and they have been simihuly repre- 
 sented on various other monuments. Far 
 from always considering them as deformed 
 monsters, Ovid, on the contrary, celebrates 
 the beauty of several of them, especially 
 of Cyllarus and his wife Thylonome, (Met. 
 xii.) Ancient artists were fond of intro- 
 ducing in their compositions the represen- 
 tation of imaginary beings, composed of 
 two natures, as centaurs, tritons, and 
 sphinxes, and they often employed them 
 with advantage. The quarrels of the cen- 
 taurs and lapithae at the nuptials of Pero- 
 theus, is alluded to in the article Amazon 
 (see Amazon), has been sung by Hesiod 
 (in Scuto Here.) and Ovid (^Md. xii.), and 
 been commemorated in the sculptures of 
 various ancient temples. Representations 
 of centaurs are found upon a great number 
 of ancient monuments, and in the most va- 
 ried attitudes. Phidias was the first that 
 ennobled and almost naturalized them in 
 his sculptures of the metopes of the Par- 
 thenon. He has been followed by a great 
 number of imitators, and none more cele- 
 brated, or nearer approaching him, than 
 the fine sculptures of the Phigaleian frieze 
 in the British Museum. There ai"e very 
 fine centaurs of both sexes also upon many 
 of the Greek vases ; and likewise in the 
 paintings of Herculaneuni. The car of 
 Bacchus is sometimes described as being- 
 drawn by a centaur, armed with a club or 
 lance, and another holding a lyre or some 
 other musical instrument ; and they are 
 also occasionally affixed to the cars of 
 other divinities, especially on medals. 
 Zeuxis was the first of record who ven- 
 tured to personify a centaur in painting, 
 and Lucian (Zeuxis), who gives a descrip- 
 tion of this picture, regards it as one of the 
 finest and boldest of his pictures. (See Lu- 
 cian, vol. 1. p. 579. fr. ed.) In his time 
 Athens possessed a very correct copy of 
 it; the original had been sent by Sylla to 
 Italy, but the ship which conveyed it was 
 lost, with all its other valuables. The 
 lower part of this centaur was that of a 
 mare, reclining on one side ; the upper 
 part Avas that of a fine woman, leaning on 
 her elbow, holding in her arms one of her 
 two young ones, and presenting it the 
 breast ; the other is sucking its mother in 
 the manner of colts. Towards the top of 
 the picture was another centaur, the hus- 
 band of her that was suckling the young 
 ones ; only a part of his body appeared, 
 and he seems to be upon the watch, and 
 inclining towards the children, to whom he 
 is smiling ; in his right hand he is holding 
 a young lion above his head, and appears 
 to be amusing himself with its fear. Lu- 
 
C ER 
 
 rian observe3, that the genius of Zeuxis is 
 displayed in tiiis picture, of uniting in one 
 object all his excellencies, by giving to the 
 centaur a fierce and savage air, a bushy 
 mane disposed with stateliness, a body co- 
 vered with hair, which appeared equally" 
 to belong to the human portion as well as 
 the other. Philostratus gives a descrip- 
 tion of a painting of the same kind, repre- 
 senting a family of centaurs. Nonnus 
 mentions horned centaurs, as satyrs are 
 represented. The term centaur has also 
 been given to other beings composed of a 
 human body and other animals, such as 
 Onocentalra, from ovoe an ass, Blcen- 
 TAURE, Taurocentaure, which see. 
 
 Centre. See Cintre. 
 
 Ceramicl's. [Lat. Kspanixog, Gr.] In the 
 hiatory of architecture. One of the quar- 
 ters of the city of Athens, situate on the 
 south west side of the Acropolis. Pausa- 
 nias says, that it received its name from 
 Ceramus, the son of Bacchus and Ariadne ; 
 and Pliny relates, that it was so called 
 from the manufactory of Chalcostinis,a ce- 
 lebrated modeller of statues in clay, which 
 is sufficiently probable, because the Greek 
 word KspafioQ signifies potters clay. 
 
 Ceres. In archaiology. The goddess of 
 corn, tillage, and husbandry, the daughter 
 of Saturn and Ops. In the Vatican are 
 some fine antique statues of this goddess ; 
 one of them is nearly nine feet high, and 
 was for nearly three centuries the princi- 
 pal ornament of the theatre of Pompey at 
 Rome. Another of these is smaller, not 
 above three feet six inches high. 
 
 Ceroma. [Lat. K//()(ii/Ltrt, Gr.] In ancient 
 architecture. That part of the ancient baths 
 which was set apart for the use of the 
 batliers to anoint tiiemselves with a com- 
 position of oil and wax. Also a similar 
 place in the gymnasia for the wrestlers. 
 Its name is derived from the oil tempered 
 with wax, wherewith tiie wrestlers and 
 bathers anointed tiieir bodies. 
 
 Ceropi,astic. [from cei'o wax, and plais- 
 tic.'] In srulpiurc. Tiie art of modelling in 
 wax. The art of modelling in wax, called 
 ceroplastic, is of great antiquity. It was 
 at first altcnii)tcd by forming figures in soft 
 matter, before^ working liicm in nioic hard 
 substances. This art liad probably ils ori- 
 gin in Eg\pt and I'lisia, for the inhabi- 
 tants of tlujse countries used wax in the 
 cmhahiiiiig of bodies. Some aulliors say 
 that inuinmij is derived from mum, an an- 
 cient Egyptian word, signifying wax. By 
 the title of tiie tenth ode of Aiiacreon, ad- 
 <lressed to a Cupid modelletl in wax, it 
 appears the art was then known among the 
 Greeks, who probably learnt it from tiie 
 
 CER 
 
 Egyptians. M. WirnELHACSKN, in a small 
 German work upon the uses of ceroplastic, 
 says, according to the testimony of Pliny, 
 Lysistratus, the brother of Lysippus, was 
 the first that modelled human figures, and 
 also the first that used wax for that pur- 
 pose, running it in moulds. This artist 
 was born at Sicyona, and lived in the 
 114th Olympiad, in tlie time of Alexander 
 the Great. He also first applied ceroplas- 
 tic to natural history. This idea of M. 
 Wichelhausen is not perfectly correct, 
 for in reading the passage in Pliny, it ap- 
 pears he only intended to say that, by this 
 invention, Lysistratus succeeded in making 
 perfect resemblances of figures. He only 
 made portraits cast in moulds, which were 
 taken from nature, like many that are 
 preserved in difl'erent cabinets of antiqui- 
 ties. 
 
 The Romans, the imitators of the Greeks, 
 also had figures cast in wax. Pliny re- 
 lates, that the Roman families placed busts 
 of their ancestors, modelled in wax, in the 
 vestibules of their palaces, and carried 
 them in the pr<icessions of funerals before 
 the deceased, which they considered as a 
 mark of distinction. It was also the cus- 
 tom of those who sought the patronage of 
 the great, to place in their houses a bust 
 in wax of their patron, often accompanied 
 with flattering inscriptions. M. A\ ichel- 
 hausen thinks that the lares and penates 
 of the poor were most probably made of 
 wax. The altar placed in the lararium of 
 the Roman houses was covered or plaster- 
 ed with wax, and was polished by fre- 
 quent rul)bing, in the manner of encaustic. 
 It was intended to receive the secret pray- 
 ers and vows addressed to the divinities 
 and jienates, which they engra%od upon if. 
 The Greeks and Romans also used colotir- 
 ed wax for a kind of painting, called en- 
 caustic. See Encai'stic. 
 
 In the middle age, this art met the fate 
 of tiie others. Religious ceremonies ap- 
 pear to have contributed to its preserva- 
 tion. \i least it is known that tlie faces 
 of the figures of the saints were in wax. 
 
 The first artist who in the nutdern times 
 attempted tlie imitation of the faces of per- 
 sons ali\»' or (lead, ill w ax, ap\)eiU's to have 
 lieen Andrea del N'errociiio, master of An- 
 drea da Vinci, who lived in the middle of 
 tiie 15lh century. The idea of making 
 aiiiitoiuiral prciiaratioiis in wax, is un- 
 iloiibtedly due to i'djitnno .hilio Zr^nio, 
 born at Syracuse in Sicily, in the year ICiO. 
 According to some, lie was a gentleiiian, 
 and to others, a secular priest; but lioth 
 these opinions may be easily reconciled. 
 He had a particular talent in imitating 
 
CEROPLASTIC. 
 
 every thing he had seen ; and an assidu- 
 ous and profound study of anatomy and 
 the antique, enabled him to make at Bo- 
 logna, Florence, Geneva, and Marseilles, 
 works which are reckoned masterpieces. 
 What particularly draws the attention of 
 all connoisseurs, says Millin, to his works, 
 are the degrees of putrefaction in the hu- 
 man body, and the different influences of 
 the plague upon man, which he has de- 
 picted to an extraordinary degree of truth. 
 These preparations were for a long time 
 in the gallery of Florence, till the Grand 
 • Duke Leopold gave them to his physician 
 Lagusi. 
 
 By this it appears that the art of making 
 anatomical preparations in wax originated 
 about the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. It was at first cultivated at Bologna. 
 Ercole Lelij, born in that citj', studied de- 
 sign with great success in the Clementine 
 Academy, and afterwards applied himself, 
 by an order from the pope, to the study of 
 anatomy, and made several models both in 
 wood and wax, for the use of the students 
 in surgei-y and the arts of design. It was 
 under Lelli that Giovanni ManzoUini, a 
 celebrated artist in cei'oplastic, born in 
 the same town in 1700, studied anatomy ; 
 and under Giuseppo Carlo Pedretti and 
 Francesco Monti that he studied sculp- 
 ture. Lelli endeavoured to profit by the 
 distinguished talents of this artist ih ana- 
 tomy, and was assisted bj' him in the pre- 
 paration of several models in wax and 
 wood. ManzoUini alone executed almost 
 all the mechanical part, though Lelli pass- 
 ed himself off as their author, which irri- 
 tated ManzoUini, and they separated. He 
 afterwards executed several preparations 
 in wax for the King of Sardinia, for differ- 
 ent individuals, and for some societies in 
 ^ London. He died in 1755, and his wife, 
 Anne ManzoUini, continued executing the 
 same sort of works ; she had received in- 
 structions from her husband and Ercole 
 Lelli, and had herself acquired much sci- 
 entific knowledge. She improved greatly 
 in the preparations of wax, and applied to 
 them their natural colour. She designed 
 the veins, nerves, arteries, and other parts, 
 from a list and description which she had 
 herself composed. She executed the dif- 
 ferent parts, as the eye or the ear, two or 
 three times larger than nature, for the pur- 
 pose of study. Several of her productions 
 were preserved in Turin and Petersburg. 
 The institute of Bologna still possess a 
 considerable collection of the anatomical 
 preparations of this celebrated artist, and 
 they have honoured her memory by an in- 
 scription in marble. The preparations 
 
 occupy five cabinets, which are called in 
 the institute, supellex anutomica of Anne 
 ManzoUini. They have also several of her 
 books, instruments, skeletons, bones, &c. 
 &c., her portrait, and also that of her hus- 
 band. Antonio Galu, professor of surgery 
 at Bologna, is incorrectly supposed by 
 some to be the inventor of those kinds of 
 preparations. He had made, in 1750, by 
 different artists, uteri with the foetus in 
 different situations, for his own use, in his 
 course of study. This collection is valua- 
 ble, perhaps, rather from the number of 
 the preparations, than for their correct- 
 ness. 
 
 Amongst the more modern artists, the 
 most distinguished are ; L. Calza, Filippo 
 Balugani, and Ferini. The first exe- 
 cuted in 1760, the collection of Professor 
 Sografli at Padua. Balugani executed, in 
 1768, some anatomical preparations in wax, 
 which merit comparison with those of Er- 
 cole. Lelli Ferini Avas the first that prac- 
 tised the art at Florence. The celebrated 
 Chevalier Felice Fontana carried this art 
 to a degree of perfection till then unknown. 
 This learned man and distinguished artist, 
 who has rendered his name celebrated by 
 his knowledge in the different parts of 
 physic and natural history, travelled for 
 three years through the most interesting- 
 countries of Europe, at the expense of the 
 grand duke, and afterwards employed the 
 knowledge he had acquired for the benefit 
 of his native country, Tuscany. The grand 
 duke gave him the power of making expe- 
 riments, and defrayed the necessary ex- 
 penses for the use of the museum. Be- 
 sides the excellent preparations in wax, 
 with which he enriched the museum of 
 Florence, he had also executed, under his 
 direction, an anatomical statue in wood, 
 which took to pieces, and was composed 
 of more than three thousand pieces. France 
 has also produced several artists, who 
 have made anatomical preparations in 
 wax. 3Ille Biheron, who was born in 
 1719, and died in 1795, made anatomi- 
 cal pieparations of this description, and 
 at the same time, painted subjects of na- 
 tural history upon vellum, which are at 
 present in the museum of natural history 
 at Paris. Vicq. d'Azyr presented a me- 
 moir in 1777, to the Academy of Sciences, 
 upon these preparations. The Empress of 
 Russia bought several for her cabinet, 
 which are at present in the museum of 
 natural history at Petersburg. 
 
 There is also a tine collection of ana- 
 tomical subjects, modelled in coloured 
 wax, after nature, in the Anatomical The- 
 atre of Trinity- College, Dublin. They are 
 
 N 
 
C H A 
 
 tJie work of a French artist on real skele- 
 tons, and represent various stages of par- 
 turition, dissections, monsters, &c. Tiiey 
 were presented to the college by John 
 Lord Carteret when Lord Lieutenant of 
 Ireland. 
 
 Cerostrotum or Cestrotum. [Lat. Kjj- 
 p6(TTp(j)Tov, Gr. from Ki]poQ wax, and 
 (Trpwroc a layer.] In paintirig. A species 
 of painting somewhat resembling encaus- 
 tic, which was used by the ancients. It 
 was generally executed on ivory or bone, 
 with colours mixed with wax, applied with 
 an instrument or tool of ivory, called ces- 
 trtcm or ca'strum, pointed at one end, and 
 flat at the other. See Pun. Nat. Hist. 
 lib. ii. 
 
 Cestopiiorus. [from cestus a girdle, and 
 <poptw, Gr. I bear.] In sculpture. The name 
 of female statues which bear the cestus or 
 raan-iage girdles in the bridal ceremonies 
 of the ancients. 
 
 Cestrotum. See Cerostrotum. 
 
 Cestrum. [Lat.] In painting. The tool 
 with which the ancient artists executed 
 those kind of pictures called cerostroti. 
 See Cerostrotum. 
 
 Chair. In the history of the arts. A 
 movable seat, often embellished with or- 
 naments in sculpture. 
 
 Chair, Curule. Isella curulis, Lat.] In 
 archuiologij. A sort of raised embellished 
 chair or seat of ivory, gold, &c. placed in 
 a chariot, wherein the chief officers of 
 Rome were wont to be carried into coun- 
 cil. It was also a mark of distinction for 
 dictators, consuls, pretors, censors, and 
 ediles, who were from this circumstance 
 called curules. The pontiffs and vestal 
 virgins had also a right to a species of 
 curule chair. Repi'esentations of the shape, 
 form, and ornaments of this honourable 
 seat, are to be found on many J<^truscan 
 monuments from whicli pe()i)lt! tlie Ro- 
 mans received the custom througliTartj-.M- 
 nius Priscus. Numa had before given 
 this honour to the flamen of Jupiter, as a 
 mark of liis dignity. The curule chair was 
 at tlie latter perioil of the republic, and 
 under the emperors, given to foreign 
 princes ; as Titus Livius relates, that Eu- 
 menes. King of Purgamos, received from 
 the Roman people a curule chair and ii 
 sceptre of ivory. They were sometimes of 
 bronze, two of which are in llie cabinet of 
 Portici. 
 
 CiiAixiDicuM. [Lat.] Inarchifecfiirc. Ac- 
 cording to Vitruvius, tliis was tluit part of 
 any large buihling tliiit was approjirialcd 
 to tlie purposes of administering justice. 
 Some interpreters of Vitruvius have fiiij)- 
 posed it to be tlie tribunal itself, but this 
 
 CHA 
 
 could hardly be, when it is observed that 
 in each basilica there was but one tribu- 
 nal, but there were more than one chalci- 
 dicum. Festus says it was a kind of build- 
 ing or banquetting house, named from 
 Chalcidicus, a city of Euba;a. " Chalcidi- 
 cum genus anlifici ab urbe chalcidica dic- 
 tum." 
 
 Chalckecus. [XoXkioikoq, Gr.] In the 
 history of architecture, A celebrated tem- 
 ple of Minerva built of brass. 
 
 Chalcography, [from XciXkoq brass, 
 and ypd<pii} I write or paint.] The art of 
 engraving on brass or copper. See En- 
 graving. 
 
 Chalk, [cealc, Saxon.] In architectiire. 
 A species of calcareous earth, of an opaque 
 white colour, and used when burned into 
 lime, for tlie basis of cements. Relined by 
 a particular process, it is used in tiie arts 
 to heighten the lights in drawing on co- 
 loured papers, as well as red chalk (which 
 is clay coloured by the oxide of iron), to 
 mark the middle tints and shades. Char- 
 coal and black chalk is also used for the 
 same purposes ; "\v hen more colours are 
 used, they are known by the term crayons. 
 See Crayons. 
 
 Ch.«iber. [^Kaiiupa, Gr. chambre, Fr.] 
 In architecture. An apartment or room in 
 a house, generally appropriated to lodg- 
 ing. The Latin camera and the Greek 
 Kctfidpa, both properly mean a vault or 
 arched roof, but has been adopted in our 
 language, through the Italian and French, 
 in its present meaning. In French the 
 word chambre has a more extensive mean- 
 ing, and their architects have their cham- 
 bre d coucher, chambre de parade, chambi-e en 
 estradc, chamlire en alcove, chambre en niche, 
 and chambre en galetas ; wiiile with us the 
 word chamber almost exclusively means a 
 bedchamber, witii a single exrei)tion per- 
 liaps of presence chamber, in a royal palace. 
 In magnilicent houses the hedchamber af- 
 fords much scope for architectural decora- 
 tion ; the bed may be placed in a handsome 
 niche or alcove, and separated if wished 
 by a balustrade, and raised as a tribunal. 
 On one side should be a dressing room, 
 and on tlie other or near it a water closet. 
 It would be as well, ^\hen possible, if for 
 a lady, that it should be near the witli- 
 drawing room, and contiguous to her own 
 boudoir. The attic or uj)per story of most 
 houses is usually divided into chambers 
 or dormitories for the servants. See Al- 
 cove. 
 
 Cma-uimuu or ('ii\Mri:n. [iVoiu tiui 
 I'rench.J In arcbitertuie. To channel, fur- 
 row, or make hollow. Also to bevel off 
 the edge of a docu- or \\ indow Jamb. 
 
CH A 
 
 Chancel, [cancelli, Lat. chancel, Franco- 
 Norman.] In ecclesiastical architecture. 
 Lattice work. An enclosed place at the 
 east end of a church, in which the altar is 
 placed, separated from the rest of the 
 church by cancelli or lattice work. Also 
 a similar place in the ancient basilica, si- 
 milarly divided to keep the judges, &c. 
 separate from the people. 
 
 The right of a seat and of sepulture in 
 the chancel belongs, in most parishes, to 
 the rector or vicar, as the king and par- 
 liament at the reformation (in spite of the 
 vehement remonstrances of Bucer and 
 othei's, against retaining the distinction be- 
 tween the body of the church and the 
 chancel as tending to magnify the priest- 
 hood) ordained, in the rubric, that " the 
 chancels shall remain as they have done 
 in times past ;" and that part of the church 
 is consequently repaired by him. 
 
 Chancery or Chancellery, [chancel- 
 leries Fr.] In architecture. The palace or 
 residence of a chancellor for the time be- 
 ing. It should consist of large and splen- 
 did apartments, as audience and council 
 chambers, &c. The chancellery at Rome, 
 the work of Bramante, is one of the finest 
 modern buildings in that city. 
 
 Change. See Exchange. 
 
 Channel, [cannalis, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. A small furrow or gutter upon a 
 column, also indentings cut in plain faces 
 instead of raised mouldings. See Flute. 
 
 Chantry or Chauntry. In ecclesiastical 
 architecture. The place in churciies where 
 they chant. In Catholic countries a chan- 
 try, like that described in Shakspeare's 
 Henry V, 
 
 " I liave built two chauntries 
 Where the sad and solemn priests slug still 
 For Richard's soul." 
 
 was a little chapel or private altar in a 
 church, endowed with lauds and revenues 
 for t\\fi maintenance of one or more priests 
 to pray for the release of the souls of the 
 founder or his friends from purgatory. 
 All chantries in England were dissolved 
 by 1 Edward VI. 14. There were no less 
 than forty- seven chantries in old St. Paul's 
 at that period. 
 
 CH.4PEL. [capella, Lat. chapelle, Fr.] In 
 ecclesiastical architecture. A building for 
 the performance of religious ceremonies, 
 either adjoining to a church or erected se- 
 parately from it. The general distribution 
 of a chapel of the protestant religion does 
 not essentially difler from that of a church, 
 except as to its size, and seldom being so 
 expensively decorated. An architect's 
 first aim in designing a chapel should be 
 to accommodate it to the style of worship 
 
 CH A 
 
 it is intended for, and all other minor con- 
 siderations follow of course. Chapels are 
 also annexed to churches, and are some- 
 times called after the names of persons 
 who are buried in them, and are, in fact, 
 a species of mausoleum; and at others 
 chapels of ease. 
 
 In Roman Catholic countries similar 
 chapels are annexed to their churches, 
 and called after the name of the saint 
 whose statue decorates it. The best mo- 
 dels of these last kind of chapels are those 
 to the church of St. Maria Maggiore, and 
 the Pantheon at Rome ; the chapel of 
 Hemy VII. at Westminster Abbey ; the 
 chapel of St. George at Windsor ; and the 
 morning prayer chapel, St. Paul's, Lon- 
 don ; the saijite chapelle in the ancient 
 palace of Saint Louis at Paris, a venerable 
 Gothic monument ; and the chapels of Ver- 
 sailles and Vincenues. 
 
 Chaplet. [chapclet, Fr. from the Latin 
 caput.'] In architecture. An ornament 
 carved into round beads in imitation of a 
 garland or wreath for the head, or of tlie 
 beads used by the Catholics to count the 
 number of their prayers. By analogy, 
 similar mouldings of leaves, &c. are some- 
 times called chaplets. 
 
 CH.4PTER House, [capitulum, L3.t. cha- 
 pitre, Fr.] In ecclesiastical architecture. A 
 building attached to a cathedral in which 
 assemblies of the clergy are held. The 
 arrangement and fitting up of a chapter 
 house should be with benches, stalls, chairs, 
 &c. arranged for the different orders of the 
 clergj , and sufficient to accommodate the 
 numbers and rank belonging to the dio- 
 cess ; for whose use it is intended. The 
 ecclesiastical court in St. Paul's cathedral 
 is a beautiful example for such a court. 
 
 Ch-Ulvcter. [Lat. Xapai:-))p, Gr.] In 
 all the arts. Description, title, or quality. 
 Originally a stamp, seal, or branding iron. 
 Although this word, in its primitive sense, 
 signifies a mark or figure impressed upon 
 an object by which it may be known ; yet, 
 in the language of the arts, it is figura- 
 tively applied to those adventitious quali- 
 ties which are or may be conferred by any 
 external or internal means ; and deter- 
 mine in a distinctive manner the qualities, 
 whether good or bad, of any person or ^ 
 thing, whether virtues or vices, merits or 
 demerits, eflects or defects. 
 
 Character is general and particular. Ge- 
 neral character is that form which is most 
 apparent, and is determined at first sight ; 
 such as the form of the head, the body, the 
 arms, and legs of human beings and ani- 
 mals ; the form of a building, the manner 
 and order in which it is built ; the shape 
 
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CHI 
 
 its acquirement cannot be given, than to 
 study the worka of those masters who are 
 reckoned the most successful in its appli- 
 cation, to investigate their principles, and 
 to follovir them, with natiire for a guide. 
 The best treatises on the subject are to be 
 found in the works of Sir Josliua Rey- 
 nolds, the lectures of Fuseli and Opie, 
 delivered in the Royal Academy of Lon- 
 don, and several of the works referred to 
 in the article painting. See Painting. 
 
 Chiaroscuro is also understood in ano- 
 ther sense, as painting in chiuroscuro signi- 
 fies such as are painted in light, shade, 
 and reflexes only, without any other colour 
 than the local one of the object, as repre- 
 sentations of sculpture in stone or marble. 
 There are some tine ones in the Vatican 
 at Rome, by Polidoro da Caravaggio, and 
 on the walls of the staircase of the Royal 
 Academy of London, by Cipriani and 
 Rigaud. 
 
 Child, in the plural Children. [cilt>, 
 Saxon.] In painting and sculpture. A re- 
 presentation of the young of the human 
 species. It is somewhat singular that we 
 find no delineations of children upon any 
 of the Greek vases nor among their ear- 
 liest sculptures. Pausias, a painter of Sy- 
 cion, who is mentioned by Pliny, is said to 
 have been the first artist who excelled in 
 this branch of the art. Before his time 
 they were ignorant of the true beauty of 
 the infantine figure; but after his success, 
 the taste expanded with his reputation. 
 Horace names the style after him, Pau- 
 saicus. After his period the practice be- 
 came prevalent of representing children as 
 genii, bearing the attributes of their deities. 
 Others, as maybe seen in the pictures disco- 
 vered at Herculaneum, are represented as 
 carrying the implements and tools of various 
 trades, and engaged in the various occupa- 
 tions of man. Upon many ancient sarco- 
 phagi are found children as genii, employ- 
 ed in various gymnastic exercises ; and even 
 in guiding chariots around tiie.v/i/Hrtof a cir- 
 cus. On a bassi rilievi in the Villa Pin- 
 ciana is represented Andromaclie and the 
 Trojans assembled at the Sca>:in gate to 
 receive the dead body of Homer; all the 
 [)ersonagc3 of which are children, .sonic 
 with and others without wings, lluona- 
 rotti has luiblislicd ciigraN iiigs of ;uili(itie 
 gems, upon which arc genii carrying >uri- 
 ous attributes of iieathen deities ; and upon 
 some sarcophagi in the sanu! work are 
 also genii of llacciius, invested wilii tiie 
 attributes behnigingto tiiat god. 
 
 Among the most Ixautifu! representa- 
 tions of children now in existence are the 
 Ixautiful sleeping Cujud ut the Villa Al- 
 
 CHI 
 
 bani, of which there are some duplicates 
 in England; the Cupid riding on a tiger, 
 at the Villa Negroni; the two Cupids, 
 one affrighting the other with a mask at 
 the same villa ; the infant faun, formerly 
 in the Villa Albani, but now in the Mu- 
 seo Pio Clementine, which Winckelmann 
 thinks is the most beautiful infant left to 
 us by the ancients. Another very beauti- 
 ful child in the same museum, of white 
 marble, with a bird by its side. The beau- 
 tiful Cupid known to antiquaries by the 
 name of the Genius of the Vatican ; the 
 equally beautiful fragment of a Cupid in 
 the Elgin gallery of the British IMuseum, 
 which some antiquaries have conceived to 
 be the master work of l-'raxiteles. 
 
 Some of the children which are sculp- 
 tured on various ancient monuments hai e 
 an allegorical meaning. See Allegory. 
 The sixteen infants which sunound the 
 statue of the Nile are intended to desig- 
 nate the sixteen cubits which that river 
 rises at its periodical inundations.. Upon 
 some of the imperial medals of Rome, the 
 felicity of the time is represented by four 
 children, representing the four seasons of 
 the year, each of which carries some pro- 
 ductions analogous to the season of which 
 he is the symbol. Upon a fine medal of 
 Hadrian, Judtea is represented by three 
 children, who represent its three pro- 
 vinces; namely, Judiea, Galilee, and Ara- 
 bia Petra. In the well known bassi rilie- 
 vi, known by the name of the Apotheosis of 
 Homer, a cast of which is in Mr. A. Day's 
 collection, formerly in the King's Mews, 
 London, and which is engraved in the 
 Museum Capitolinum, and in tlie Museo 
 Pio Clementino, nature is rejjresenterl 
 under tiie figure of an infant witliout a 
 single attribute. Upon a medal of Marcus 
 Aurelius, the J'elicitij of the empire is figured 
 by a fenude dressed in a stole, liolding a 
 caducous in one hand, and a child on the 
 other arm. 
 
 Since the regeneration of the arts in Eu- 
 rope, many of the most eminent artists 
 iiave attempted the re])resentatioii of in- 
 fants and children, liesides allegorical 
 figures, they have rejuesented Cupids, 
 Loves, and Genii; and e\on Christian 
 subjects lune gi\ en tlu'in Angels and Che- 
 rubim, which are idwajs represented as 
 children ; perhaps from Christ's declara- 
 tion, that of such was the kingdom of 
 heaven. Amcuig those who Inn e excelled 
 in the rej)resentation «>f children, is Al- 
 bano, particidariy in iiis charniing picture 
 of Venus and Cupids ; Titian also has suc- 
 ceeded in his t'hildren to a nuirvel ; while 
 I'oussiu, Algardi, and many other of that 
 
CHI 
 
 time have equally succeeded in the infan- 
 tine character. Coreggio is proverbial for 
 his charming expressions of this lovely 
 age; the smiles of his children are quite 
 captivating, particularly in his wonderful 
 picture called II Notte. 
 
 The painters of the Bolognese school 
 endeavoured to carry the delineation of 
 children and infantine angels to an ex- 
 treme of perfection. In many of the pic- 
 tures of Domenichino, the cherubim and 
 infant angels are of great beauty. Bagna- 
 cavallo is quoted by Millin for the grace 
 with which he invested his children. Al- 
 bano has been before spoken of; but his 
 beautiful wife and dozen lovely children 
 left him no excuse of the want of models 
 of grace and character. Pietro Pacini, of 
 the same school, produced many pictures 
 which have admirable groups of lovely 
 children ; those have been particularly ce- 
 lebrated which form the group of infant 
 angels in his excellent picture of the Pa- 
 tron Saints of Bologna. The infant angels 
 of F, Brizio of the same school are also of 
 admirable beauty. Bartolemeo di S. Mar- 
 co, a Florentine painter ; Nicolo Soriani 
 of Ferrara ; Domenico Piola of Genoa ; 
 Camillo Boccaccino of Cremona; and 
 Giovanni Battista GauUi, surnamed il 
 Bacciccio, are also celebrated by continen- 
 tal critics for their excellent representa- 
 tion of children. 
 
 The English school have eminently ex- 
 celled in the natural representation of 
 children, their sports, and their loveliness. 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds's Infant Academy, 
 his Muscipula, his Cupid as a Link Boy, 
 and his Mercury as aPickpocket, his Puck, 
 and a hundred others stand alone for 
 archness, simplicity, and character. De- 
 vis, though less known, excelled in de- 
 picting this lovely branch of creation ; 
 and Sir Thomas Lawrence, in his portraits 
 of children, has thrown a light and cha- 
 racteristic expression upon a difficult sub- 
 ject. 
 
 Chilled. See Absorbed. 
 
 Chimera. [Lat. Xlfiaipa, Gr. from 
 X/juapof a goat.] In archaiology. A poeti- 
 cal monster, like a lion in the forepart, a 
 dragon behind, and a goat in the middle ; 
 also a general term for any compound ani- 
 mal that does not exist in nature. The 
 parents assigned by Hesiod {Bibl. 2.) to 
 this monster, are Typhon and Echydna ; 
 and its form was triple. The chimaera 
 was conquered and slain by Bellerophon, 
 mounted upon his celebrated steed Pe- 
 gasus. 
 
 Chimney. [Ka/iivcg, Gr. caminiis, Lat. 
 cheminde, Fr.] In architecture. The pas- 
 
 CHO 
 
 sage through which the smoke is conduct- 
 ed from the fireplace. It is uncertain 
 whether the ancients had fireplaces to 
 warm the apartments of their houses, and 
 apertures in the walls or chimneys to con- 
 vey the smoke above the roof, as we have 
 no authority except some recent discove- 
 ries at Herculaneum, of which only gene- 
 ral accounts have yet reached us; but 
 that they had chimneys for the conveyance 
 of the smoke from those manufactories 
 which required the aid of fire, and from 
 the hypocaustum of their houses and baths 
 is certain. See Bath, Hypocaustum. In 
 the houses of England, and other northern 
 countries, fireplaces for the burning of sea 
 coal, for the purpose of warming the rooms, 
 are both common and conducible to health, 
 by the outlet it affords in warmer or 
 crowded apartments to the respired and 
 rarified air. In Italy and Spain, on the 
 contrary, chimneys are rarely met with, 
 and in some parts of Germany and Russia 
 they are partial to the stove. See Stove. 
 Formerly, both on the continent as well as 
 in England, fireplaces and chimneys were 
 decorated with architectural ornaments, as 
 columns, entablatures, statues, &:c. like the 
 entrance to a small temple ; now they are 
 mostly made of marble, and more the office 
 of sculptural decoration than for the or- 
 ders of architecture. The multitude of 
 chimneys in London and other northern 
 cities are a great disfigurement to the 
 grandeur of their architectural views, par- 
 ticularly to the eye which is used to those 
 of Italy. An architect's great aim should 
 then be, where they cannot be avoided, or 
 concealed, to make them as uniform and 
 as ornamental as possible. 
 
 Chlamys. [Lat. XXa/ivc, Gr.] Li cos- 
 tume. A tunic or loose coat, worn by the 
 ancients over the vest or doublet. Also a 
 short cloak worn by the Roman soldiers 
 and by children till thirteen years of age ; 
 thence Apuleius, " Ephebica chlamyda 
 sinistrum tegebat humerum." 
 
 Choir, [^opoe, Gr. chwur, Fr.] hi arcki 
 tecture. That part of a cathedral, collegi- 
 ate, or abbey church, where divine service 
 is performed. 
 
 Choragic monuments, [from xociog, Gr.] 
 In architecture. Monuments erected by 
 the Greeks in honour of those who gained 
 a prize at Choragus, or leader of the cho- 
 ruses in their games. 
 
 The Greeks had t^vo kinds of games ; 
 gymnastic, which were held in the Pales- 
 tra^, gyranasiae and stadii ; and thcatrul.or 
 musical games, to which the tlieatres and 
 odeonwere appropriated. In themusiv-al 
 games, it was customary at Athent^, that 
 
CHORAGIC. 
 
 each of the ten tribes of the city should tions are plain, with the exception of a 
 choose a choragus, who overlooked and tripod in relief, w inch ornauicnts the up- 
 arranged the games at his own expense, per part. The arcliitrave divided into 
 These chorage endeavoured to outshine three faciae, bears a Greek inscription in 
 eacli other, and he who was declared,con- three lines, to the following purport : " Ly- 
 qiieror, obtained a tripod as a reward, sicrates of Kykyna,the son of Lysitheides, 
 Avhich prize of all others was held in the was Choragus. The tribe of Akamantis 
 greatest esteem, and was considered as ex- obtained the victory in the chorus of boys, 
 ti'emely honourable to all the family of the Theon was the performer on the flute, 
 victor. These tripods were executed in Lysides, an Athenian, was the teacher of 
 bronze, and generally the work of some the chorus. Eva?netus Archon." Eva;ne- 
 great artist. The conqueror was obliged tus held this high office in Athens, the 
 publicly to exhibit the prize he had ob- second year of the 111th Olympiad, three 
 tained ; for which purpose they erected a hundred and thirty-five years before the 
 particular building or a column, where it vulgar era, in the time of Demosthenes, 
 was placed ; the inscription recorded the jEschines, Menander, Diogenes, Epicurus, 
 choragus and the epoch where the games Zeno, Lysippus, Praxiteles, and Alexan- 
 
 were celebrated. (See Tripod.) The cus- 
 tom of awarding tripods as prizes existed 
 in the earliest ages of Greece. Upon He- 
 licon were different tripods of the same 
 
 der the Great; an age equally celebrated 
 for philosophy, successful military ex- 
 ploits, and the fine arts. The frieze of this 
 exquisite monument of attic taste is en- 
 
 kind, of which the most ancient, according riched with bassi rilievi, beautifully sculp- 
 
 to Pausanias, was the one given to Hesiod 
 when he bore the prize. Echembrotus de- 
 dicated to Hercules, at Thebes, a tripod 
 which had been adjudged to him as a 
 prize, in a musical combat at Delphos. 
 
 There were a great number of choragic 
 monuments in the city of Athens, and 
 
 tured. They represent the adventures of 
 Bacchus with the Tyrrhenian pirates. Lord 
 Elgin brought casts from them, a\ hich are 
 in the British IMuseum, and engravings 
 from them are in Stuart's Antiquities of 
 Athens. 
 
 The exterior of the cupola is executed 
 
 there was a particular street which they with great art, and has the appearance of 
 
 called the street of tripods, wherein they 
 stood. Some of these monuments have 
 been preserved to the present time, as the 
 choragic monument of Lysicrates, com- 
 monly called the Lanthorn of Demos- 
 thenes ; the monuments of Thrasyllus and 
 Thrasycles, and some columns, which are 
 all in the street of tripods, mentioned by 
 Pausanias. The most magnificent of these 
 buildings, and the one that has the most 
 ornaments, is that of Lysicrates. It is 
 
 being covered with laurel leaves, finely 
 sculptured in marble. There are also 
 three great volutes of flowers, and all 
 round it is embellished with ornaments 
 terminating in volutes. 
 
 This monument is vulgarly called the 
 Lantern of Demosthenes, from a false tra- 
 dition that this celebrated orator was ac- 
 customed to retire to ijin order to exercise 
 himself without interruption in the art of 
 declamation. Without referring to tiu; in- 
 
 placed upon a raised surbase, built of scription which decides the original pur- 
 
 large freestones, to which the ascent is by 
 four stei)s. Above Ibis surbase, rises a 
 circular building, composed of six Corin- 
 thian columns, the intercolunmiations be- 
 ing filled uj) by a partition, formed by 
 pieces of marble ; al)ove the columns is 
 placed a cupola, in the middle of wiiicli is 
 Taised a flower, the leaves spreading three 
 •lidercnt ways, and no doubt the tripod 
 was placed upon lliis which Lysicrates re- 
 ceived when he was choragus. Tiio co- 
 lumns project more than half their diame- 
 ter from the nuirble facing which I'ornis the 
 ]):irlition between them. 'I'he hases are 
 attic, the cai)itals beautifully composed 
 and wrought with extreme elegance, dif- 
 fering in many j)arfi('ulars of detail from 
 every other known ancient specimen. Se(! 
 Stu.vkt's a >ili(iitities of Alhins. The slabs 
 of marble uliicli occupy lln; inb icolumnia- 
 
 port of the building; I'lutarch determines 
 it to be an error when he informs us that 
 the place where Demosthenes shut himself 
 UJ) for three months lor the purpose above 
 stated, was subterraneous ; while this has 
 all the structure, surbase, and all above 
 ground, and is besides much too snnill for 
 such a purpose. 
 
 The elegant ami original style of the 
 architecture o< this charming little slrue- 
 ture,a8 well as of the sculpturewith which 
 it is adorned, and the boldness of its exe- 
 cution, renders it a nuuunnent of the art 
 most worthy of consideratiivn, or even of 
 reproduction. l""or ilraw ings alone, how- 
 ever correct and well linished they may 
 be, can never give sculpture its true re- 
 lief, nor this jewel of art a snllieienl repre- 
 sentation. Casta from every part of it 
 nuiy easily be procured, and ought to be 
 
CHR 
 
 executed at the public expense. Indeed, 
 an architectural museum of easy access, 
 either connected with, or distinct from the 
 Royal Academy, is among the greatest 
 ■wants of the English students of architec- 
 ture. 
 
 The choragic monument of Thrasyllus 
 and Tlirasycles is excavated in the rock 
 on the southern side of the Acropolis, and 
 is used at the present time as a church. 
 The facade consists of three antae or pilas- 
 ters, the capitals of which somewhat re- 
 semble those of the Doric order. Between 
 these pilasters were tv^^o apertures, which 
 are now closed, with the exception of a 
 small door. The pilasters support an en- 
 tablature, the frieze of which is ornament- 
 ed with wreaths or chaplets of laurel 
 leaves and fruit. Upon the top of three 
 steps, which form a sort of receding block- 
 ing course between a kind of attic order, 
 was a sitting figure of great beauty, much 
 injured by time. It is now in the Elgin 
 gallery of the British Museum. Upon the 
 architrave is inscribed in Greek, the pur- 
 pose of the building, the name of the 
 builder, and the date of its construction. 
 
 As such monuments were necessarily 
 costly, the choragi were often satisfied 
 with a single choragic column ; upon the 
 capital of which they placed the comme- 
 morative tripod. In a similar way also 
 they erected columns as sepulchral monu- 
 ments, on which were placed cinerery vases 
 or statues. Choragic columns have been 
 erected at Athens, upon the Acropolis 
 above the choragic monument of Thrasyl- 
 lus. There are also two isolated Corin- 
 thian columns of diiferent proportions, 
 which' consequently could not belong to 
 the same building ; but were, according to 
 all appearance, choragic columns, and, 
 from the triangular shape of their capitals, 
 which has a hole in each horn of the aba- 
 cus, they doubtless bore a tripod. See 
 Tripod, Stuart's Antiquities of Athens, 
 and other similar works enumerated in 
 Architecture. 
 
 Ckorobates. [Lat. Xopo/3dr»;e, Gr. from 
 X^pog a region, and jSaivio I perambulate.] 
 In architecture. A measure of length, 
 mentioned by Vitruvius, twenty feet in 
 length, and used for measuring land. Mil- 
 lin, however, makes it a species of level 
 ^ith two weights, used for the purpose of 
 ascertaining falls of rivers, aquaeducts, &c. 
 
 Chrysoberyl. [Xpv(Toj3-lj()vX\oe, Gr. 
 chrysoberyllus, Lat.] In gem sculpture. A 
 precious stone of a pale green colour, re- 
 sembling the beryl and aquamarine, and 
 much paler than chrysolite. Its primitive 
 form is a parallelopipedon, nearly similar to 
 
 "ii 
 
 CHIJ 
 
 that of tiie chrysolite, and the secondary 
 crystal are not very different. It is scarce- 
 ly inferior to the sapphire in hardness, and 
 its specific gravity generally 3. 6. 
 
 Pliny mentions the chrysoberyl with a 
 few details ; but Theophrastus does not 
 mention it under that name. Messrs. 
 Briickmann and Hill, in their observations 
 on the last named author, have collected 
 that he means this gem in his description 
 of the beryl. 
 
 Chrysolite. [XovaoXiOug, Gr. from 
 XpvcTog gold, and Xi6oc a stone, chrysoli- 
 thos, Lat.] In gem sculpture. A precious 
 stone of a yellow colour, intermediate in 
 hardness between amethyst (or quartz) and 
 feltspar. Its primitive form is a rectangu- 
 lar parallelopipedon, and its specific gra- 
 vity 3. 4. Millin thinks from the descrip- 
 tion of Pliny, that he means the modern 
 topaz in his account of the chrysolite. 
 
 (Church, [cipce, Saxon, Kv^iaKi); Gr.] 
 In architecture. A building erected for 
 the performance of Christian worship. 
 In the early period of the Christian era, 
 the first Christians were obliged by perse- 
 cution to hold their religious assemblies in 
 caverns, and other secret places. Con- 
 stantino released them from this oppres- 
 sion, and gave them some of the ancient 
 basilicas for their churches. This form 
 they adopted in their new buildings, and 
 from this circumstance the earliest forms 
 of Christian churches have been derived. 
 (See Basilica.) The first that was erected 
 in Rome was by Constantine, in the year 
 326 ; the seat of the empire having been 
 transferred to Constantinople. The church 
 of St. Sophia was erected after the model 
 of the ancient basilica of St. Peter, at 
 Rome. This church was rebuilt by Con- 
 stantius, destroyed and repaired under 
 Arcadius, burned under Honorius, and re- 
 built by Arcadius the younger. It was 
 again reduced to ashes under Justinian, 
 who rebuilt it as it now remains, and it 
 was then that cupolas upon pendentives 
 were first constructed. The church of St. 
 Mark, at Venice, was built in imitation of 
 that of St. Sophia, at which time the use 
 of cupolas was first introduced into Italy. 
 (See Dome, Cupola.) But the Gothic and 
 Saracenic style afterwards prevailed. See 
 Architecture, Gothic, Sar.\.cenic, INIo- 
 DERN, and Cathedral. 
 
 The two largest and most magnificent 
 churches in Europe are those of St. Pe- 
 ter's at Rome, and St. Paul's, London. 
 Both may be ranked amongst the most 
 considerable works of architecture. Bo- 
 NANM, a Jesuit, has written a comprehen- 
 sive history of the church of St. Peter, un- 
 
der the title of Historia Templi Vaticani ; 
 Rome, 1700, in folio. The whole of this 
 astonishing building is composed of the 
 church itself, and a large oval forecourt, 
 four hundred feet long, and one hundred 
 and eighty feet wide. This circuit, called 
 the Piazza di San Pietro, is enclosed bj' two 
 covered peristyles, composed of three hun- 
 dred and twent\' columns. The roof which 
 covers them is flat, and ornamented with 
 eightj'-six statues of saints, more than 
 
 CHURCH. 
 
 Over the centre rises a cupola, construct- 
 ed by Delia Porta and Fontana, after the 
 designs of Michael Angiola. At the prin- 
 cipal entrance is a portico three hundred 
 and fourteen palms long, and sixtj- wide. 
 
 This buildingwas begun under Julius II. 
 by Bramante,in 1513 ; after which, the most 
 celebrated architects and artists were suc- 
 cessively employed, as Giuliano Sangallo, 
 Rafl^aelle, Antonio Sangallo, Fra. Giocondo 
 Michel Angiolo Buonarotti, Giulio Roma- 
 
 double the size of life. In the centre of no, Pirro Ligorio, Domenico Fontana, Gio- 
 
 the court, facing the principal entrance of 
 the church, is the celebrated obelisk of 
 Sesostris, which the Emperor Caligula 
 brought from Egjpt to Rome, and which 
 was afterwards raised in its present situa- 
 tion, during the pontificate of Sixtus V. 
 by the celebrated architect Domenico Fon- 
 tana. This obelisk is composed of a sin- 
 gle piece of granite, one hundred and 
 twenty feet high without the pedestal, 
 which is nearly forty feet. Its entire 
 weight is estimated at one million of 
 pounds. Many designs were offered to 
 the pope for its removal and reerection, to 
 the number it is said of several hundreds. 
 
 vanni Fontana, Giacomo della Porta, Carlo 
 Maderno, Luigi Cigoli, Francesco Borro- 
 mini. Carlo Rainaldi, Giovanni Lorenzo 
 Bernini, Carlo Fontana, Filippo Ivara, 
 Antonio Cannevari, iiic. were engaged 
 upon it. Fontana, who composed a work 
 upon this church, supposes that in his time 
 it had already cost eighty millions of 
 scudi. The beaut>- of the paintings, sta- 
 tues, and monuments, which ornament the 
 interior, correspond with the grandeur and 
 magnificence of the building. 
 
 The best works for reference, as to the 
 architecture and description of this church, 
 are, Castagitii, Aichitettura di S. Pietro, 
 
 Fontana, who was at the time without foUo, Rome, l6iH;Diyioyr, Detail d'Archi- 
 name and reputation, his project, though 
 approved, was ordered into execution un- 
 der the superintendance of Giacomo della 
 Porta and Bartolemeo Ammauati. Upon 
 Fontaua's representations to the pope, that 
 no one could better carry the scheme into 
 execution than he who devised it, those 
 architects were superseded, and the entire 
 management of the work entrusted to 
 Fontana. 
 
 On the 30th April, 1586, the removal of 
 this colossal obelisk was commenced. Six- 
 tus on this occasion, after giving his bene- 
 diction to Fontana, told him his head 
 should be the forfeit if he failed. By the 
 7th May, the obelisk was prostrate. On 
 the IStli June, it was moved oft' towards 
 its destination, and on the 10th September 
 following, its reerection was completed. 
 On its completion, Fontana was made a 
 knight of the golden spur, and ennobled. 
 On the base of the pedestal is inscribed, by 
 order of the pope, 
 
 DOMENKLS FO.NTANA. 
 
 E.X. PAGO. AC.lll. NOVOtOMKNSIS 
 
 TKANSTULIT. ET EREXIT. 
 
 The church it.self is built in the form of 
 a cross ; its length, including the walls, is 
 nine hiiiidred and sc\('iit\ Itonian jtalins. 
 The width of the arch over the nave, one 
 hundred and twenty-three palms, and the 
 whole width of the aisle, including the 
 walls, four hundred and fourteen palms. 
 
 lecture de S. Pierre, &c. 2 vols, folio, 
 Paris, 1763 ; Falda, Vedttta di Roma An- 
 tica e moder7ia, folio, Rome, 166.5 ; D. Fon- 
 tana, Delia Transportaziitue del Obelisco 
 Vatieu7io e delle Fahbriche di Paim Sisto V. 
 folio Rome, 1540 ; Carlo Fontana, De- 
 scrizione del Vuticano, folio, Rome, 1644. 
 
 After St. Peter's at Rome, St. Paul's, 
 London, is generally allowed the second 
 place among churches, and the first among 
 protestant cathedrals ; to attempt a long 
 description of which is unnecessarj' in this 
 work, as it is so well known, and so many 
 descriptions of it published. It is built in 
 pursuance to an order from the leading 
 men of the day, in the form of a cross. 
 Over the space where the lines of tlmt 
 figure intersect each other, rises a stately 
 dome, from the topof which springs a lan- 
 tern, adorned with Corinthian columns, and 
 sxirrounded at its base by a balcony. On 
 the top of the cupola of the liuilern is a 
 magnificent ball of copper gilt, surmount- 
 ed by a bold and handsome cross. This 
 ball and cross has been recently restored 
 in a very scientilic manner under the di- 
 rections of Mr. V. K. Cockerell. 
 
 The length of the whole structure, in- 
 cluding the portico, is fixe hundred and 
 niiu- feet, the breadth two hundre<I and 
 ninety-six ; the heiglit to the top of tlie 
 cross, three hundred and seventy feet, the 
 exterior dianicltr of the Peristyle of the 
 cupola, one hundred and forty, and the 
 
CHU 
 
 entire circumference of the building, near- 
 ly two thousand three hundred feet. A 
 dwarf stone wall, supporting a handsome 
 ballustrade of cast iron, suiTounds the 
 church, and separates a large area, used 
 as a cemeteiy, from the spacious carriage 
 way on the south side, and a broad foot'pave- 
 ment on the north. The expense of erect- 
 ing this cathedral was £736,752. 2*. 3-U/. 
 exclusive of iron railing and gates, which 
 amounted to £11,202 more. The church 
 has three porticos ; one at the west en- 
 trance, and the others facing the north 
 and south, at the extremitj' of the tran- 
 septs. The west front is surmounted with 
 two tine campanile towers; and the whole 
 building is surrounded by a balustrade 
 parapet,* surmounted with colossal figures 
 of tlie apostles. 
 
 More detailed descriptions of this church 
 are published in the different accounts of 
 London ; and engraved plans, elevations, 
 and sections, from actual measurements, 
 by the author of this dictionary, are to be 
 found in " The Fine Arts of the English 
 School, 4to. London, 1810;" in "Plans, 
 Elevations, and Sections of St. Paul's Ca- 
 thedral, folio, Lond. 1S23, by J. Euie?, 
 M. R. I. A. Architect ; and an account of 
 its erection, &c. in the Life of Sir Christo- 
 pher AVren, by the same author, 4to. Lond. 
 1823." 
 
 Churches have been divided into seven 
 different species, pontifical, or where a 
 pope governs in person, as at St. Peter's 
 at Rome ; patriarchal, of a patriarch, like 
 St. jNIark's at Venice ; metropolitan, or of 
 an archbishop, as London, Canterbury, 
 and York ; cathedral, of a bishop, like those 
 of every cit^' in England ; collegiate, of a 
 college ; parochial, belonging to a parish ; 
 and conventual, belonging to a convent. 
 
 The interior of churches are generally 
 divided into the portico, the nave, the 
 aisles, and the choir. The porch or por- 
 tico is the same as of any other building ; 
 the nave is the large central part, in which 
 the congregation assemble ; the aisles are 
 side walks, usually for access to the other 
 parts of the church ; and the choir is the 
 part w'liere the service is performed. The 
 altar is generally placed at the east end 
 of the choir, and surrounded by a balus- 
 trade raised on steps. See Altar. 
 
 In churches erected for the service of 
 the protestant religion, in which preaching 
 forms a striking feature ; gaietj-, splen- 
 dour, and magnificence of ornament are 
 inappropriate and unbecoming. A digni- 
 fied simplicitj' and subservient decoration 
 should be strictly attended to. The build- 
 ing should be well lighted, the preacher 
 
 CIB 
 
 should be placed in a situation visible to 
 all the congregation, and itsliould be con- 
 structed according to the laws of acoustics. 
 The Grecian Doric, or simplest of the 
 Ionics, are the most proper orders for this 
 purpose. On the building of churches in 
 general, the following works may be con- 
 sulted. The fifth book of The Architecture 
 of Seb.\stian Serlio ; the fourth book of 
 that of P.4XL.\Dio ; the sixth and seventh 
 chapters of the third volume of Cours 
 d' Architecture de Blondei. ; Elhation du 
 Portail, Coup, Profil, et Plan d'une Eglise 
 puroissialle, par C. Dupin, folio ; Egliscs 
 et Autels, par Neufforge, folio; Aigle ; 
 ou, Lutrin pour un Chaur d'Egbjse, par De 
 LV Fosse, in folio ; Plan et Elevation d'un 
 Chaur d'Eglise, par Corneille ; Nouveaux 
 Dessins d' Autels et de Baldaquins, par Pi- 
 NEAU, folio ; Divers Dessins pour Taber- 
 nacles, Autels, Epitaphes, par Rudolph, fo- 
 lio ; a w ork in German, by Schueler, upoa 
 the ornaments of churches ; and a work ia 
 the same language, by F.csch, upon altars. 
 Brixton's Cathedral Antiquities, &c. &c. 
 Upon the history of church architecture, 
 the following works are among the princi- 
 pal : — L'Histoire des Temples des Pai'ens, 
 des Juifs, et des Chretiens, par L'Abhi Bal- 
 let, Paris, 1760, 12mo. ; Histoire de la Dis- 
 position et des Forms differcntes que les 
 Chretiens ont donnees « leurs Temples, de- 
 puis Co7istantin-le-Grand jusqu'u present, 
 par M. Le Roi, Paris, 1764, in Svo. ; Delle 
 Basiliche antiche, e Specialmcnte di quella di 
 Vicenza dal C, Enea ARN.ALDi,Vicenza, 1767, 
 in 4to. with engravings ; Temples anciens et 
 modernes ; ou. Observations hisioriques et cri- 
 tiques sur les Monumens d' Architecture grc- 
 cique et gothique, par M. L. M. London, 
 1774, Svo. 
 
 CiBORiuM, [Lat. KijSoipiov, Gr.] Tn 
 architecture. An insulated building, com- 
 posed of an arched vault supported on 
 four columns. The name is probably de- ' 
 rived from the Greek Kii3io-ug an arch. 
 It is also the name of the coffer or case 
 which contains the host in the ceremonies 
 of the church of Rome. The tomb of a 
 martj r, when sculptured and used as an 
 altar, is also called a ciborium ; and in 
 Italy, any insulated tabernacle. Cibo- 
 riums are erected in Catholic countries on 
 tombs and altars, sometimes several in the 
 same church ; but they are more often con- 
 fined to the ornamenting of the grand 
 altar. The ciborium which Justinian built 
 in the twelfth year of his reign, when he 
 rebuilt the church of St. Sophia, is spoken 
 of by contemporary w riters as exceeding 
 any thing then witnessed for splendour 
 and elegance. 
 
C I M 
 
 CiELiNG. [from del, Fr.] In architecture. 
 The top of a room ; the inner roof of a build- 
 ing. The cieling is generally formed on 
 the under sides of the joists or rafters, 
 with laths and plaster. In public rooms 
 and elegant houses, the cieling is often 
 decorated with sculptural ornaments in 
 stucco, and painted. Painted cielings in 
 the French manner, as seen in many 
 houses built about the time of Charles II. 
 are now but little used, owing perhaps to 
 the small size of our houses, and a better 
 taste for the beautiful in art, which does 
 not relish those Avails and cielings 
 
 *' Where sprawl the saints of Verrio and La Guerre." 
 
 The custom of painting cielings, vaults, 
 and cupolas, has however, given birth to 
 some of the finest works in art ; and the 
 greatest architects, as Jones, Wren, Bra- 
 mante, Palladio, Vignola, De I'Orme, 
 Lunghi, Borromini, &c. have employed the 
 pencils of Rubens, Thornhill, Zucchero, 
 Pellegrini di Tibaldi, Priniaticcio, Lan- 
 franc, Pietro di Cortona, Vouet, Bourdon, 
 Mignard, &c. in decorating tlieir cielings. 
 Among the finest works of tiiis description 
 are the cielings in Whitehall Chapel, by 
 Rubens; the cieling of the hall, Green- 
 wich ; the cupola of St. Paul's, London ; 
 the cielings of Montague House, noAv the 
 Britisli Museum ; the cieling of the coun- 
 cil room in the Royal Academy, painted by 
 West, Angelica Kaufl"man,and other emi- 
 nent artists ; f lie library of the same insti- 
 tution, by Sir Joshua Reynolds; and many 
 others in England. And on the continent, 
 at Versailles, Fontaincbleau, Paris, the 
 church at Todi, the palaces of Caprarola, 
 Pitti, the Tiiuilleries, the Luxembiirgii, 
 the church of the invalids at Paris, is;c. 
 the celebrated loggia at the Vatican, by 
 Raffaelle ; (he Villa Albani, by Mengs ; 
 tlie cupola at Parma, by Coireggio ; the 
 Institute at Bologna, by Tibaldi, &c. 
 
 Tiie painter of cielings should possess 
 great knowledge in perspective and fore- 
 shortening, a l)oldness of style, and a vi- 
 gour of execution, a brilliancy of light, a 
 depth and boldness of shadow, fitting for 
 tlie tlistance and situation from wliich Ihcy 
 are to be viewed. If the ground or sub- 
 stance of the cieling is fit for it (tiiat is, if 
 it is of plaster), painting in fresco is lo be 
 preferred before all otiiers for lliis pur- 
 pose ; but if it is on boards or on canvass, 
 distemper is then better; butoilheris pre- 
 ferable to oil (-((lours for this purpose, al- 
 ihoiigli much used. See Fresco, DiisTtM- 
 i'i;u, and Painting. 
 
 CiMA. See Cyma. 
 
 ( iMETEUY. See Cemetehy. 
 
 CIP 
 
 Cincture, [cinctura, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. A ring or list at the top or bottom of 
 a column ; it represents a ferule or hoop 
 of metal, anciently used in wooden co- 
 lumns to keep them from splitting. See 
 
 COLARINO. 
 
 CiNERAR'jM. [Lat.] In sculpture. A ves- 
 sel made to hold the ashes of the dead ; 
 from whence a building erected to hold 
 them has also been called by the same 
 name. 
 
 Cinnabar, [cinnabari, Lat. Kiwdj3api, 
 Gr.] In pdintiug. An ore or sulphuret of 
 Mercuiy, consisting of that metal united 
 with sulphur. Artificial cinnabar, or ver- 
 milion, is a colour used by painters, being 
 a vivid red, but dries very slowly. 
 
 CiNTRE. [Fr.] In architecture. The tim- 
 ber framing erected in apertures between 
 piers, to support voussoirs or materials of 
 an arch while building, till they are keyed 
 in and otherwise rendered secure, when 
 they are taken away. Cintres should al- 
 Avays be formed of the exact shape of the 
 intended arch, groin, 6>.c. convex as that is 
 to be concave. They should always be 
 also of a strength more than sufficient to 
 bear the weight of the intended arch. For 
 a mathematical account of the best cintres 
 see the article Bridge in the Eucyclopa'dia 
 Metropolitana. 
 
 CiPPOLiNo [Marble]. See Marble. 
 
 CipPLs. [Lat.] In archaiology. A small 
 gravestone. Among the ancients the cip- 
 pus was generally a small column, some- 
 times without a base or capital, and its 
 greatest ornament an inscription, which 
 preserved the memory of some event, or 
 the remembrance of some deceased per- 
 son. They were used by the ancients for 
 several pui-poses, as marking distances. 
 These were the miliary columns, some- 
 times having the names of roads, serving 
 as directing posts, sometimes marking the 
 boundaries, with inscriptions indicating 
 the consecrated grounds for burial of par- 
 ticular families. The form and ornaments 
 of those last mentioned have often caused 
 them to be mistaken for allars. They 
 were consecrated to infernal deities, and 
 (111! manes of tiie deceased. Tlie upper 
 part was often hollowed into the form of a 
 cup, like the upi)er jiart of certain allars. 
 AVhen the ancients traced the enclosure of 
 a new to\vi> with the plough, they tixed 
 cipi)i from space to space, ui)()n whi( h 
 (hey first ofl'ered sncrilices ; they after- 
 wards built towers in their places, (ippi 
 are often represented iijjon medals, and 
 engraved gems, and are always placed 
 near sonu' divinity, who are supijortcd by 
 (hem, and generally bear some symbolical 
 
CIR 
 
 figures. Thej"^ were of varied and elegant 
 proportions. 
 
 The British Museum, in their depart- 
 ment of antiquities, have some fine ones, 
 one of which has an inscription to Viria 
 Primitiva ; and another, which appears 
 never to liave been used, a blank space 
 being left for the name. There is another 
 in the same collection also without a name, 
 on the front of which is represented, in 
 fine sculpture, two birds perched on the 
 edge of a vase, out of which they are 
 drinking, beneath a festoon composed of 
 fruits and foliage, suspended from two 
 bull's sculls. Another of them has an in- 
 scription to M. Caelius Superstes ; another 
 to T. Claudius Epictehis ; another to Clau- 
 dia ; a very large one, with an inscription, 
 to M. Clodius Herma, Annius Felix, and 
 Tyrannus ; another to Agnisi Agatha ; be- 
 sides several without inscriptions. 
 
 Circle. Icircidus, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 A geometrical figure used in the arts ; it 
 is a plain figure, bounded by a single line, 
 which is curved, and called the circumfe- 
 rence or periphery, and to which all the 
 right lines which can be drawn from a 
 point in the middle of it, called its centre, 
 are equal. 
 
 CiRci^ (Mythic). See Mythic Circle. 
 
 Circus. [Lat. Kiokoc, Gr.] In architec- 
 ture. An open' space or area for sports. 
 Among the Romans the circus was a long 
 narrow building, whose length to its 
 breadth was generally in a proportion of 
 five to one, and resembled, in its form and 
 usages, the stadia of the Greeks. The 
 cii'cus was divided down the middle by an 
 ornamented barrier called the Spina, and 
 enclosed at one end by the carceres, or 
 starting place ; while the stadium was 
 clear in the middle and open at one end. 
 See Stadium. 
 
 These buildings were used for the cele- 
 bration of games, horse and chariot racing, 
 gladiatorial combats, combats of wild ani- 
 mals, and sometimes for making harangues 
 to the people. Those who wished to ex- 
 cite the popular feeling against their go- 
 vernors often took the occasion of the cir- 
 curian games to accomplish their object. 
 
 In the eaidiest period of the Roman his- 
 toiy, Romulus established courses and 
 public games, in honour of the god Consus, 
 and called them Constialia. It was at the 
 celebration of one of these games that the 
 famous rape of the Sabine women took 
 place. They were celebrated annually on 
 the 15th of the ides (18th day) of August. 
 In the end they took the name of ludi cir- 
 censes, from clrcnm and ensis, as the cha- 
 riots and horses in rimning their career. 
 
 CTll 
 
 described circuitous lines in turning the 
 meta or goal ; and the building in which 
 they were celebrated was called, from the 
 same reason, circus. The games were 
 called Ludi, fi-om the Lydians, of whom 
 the Romans borrowed them. 
 
 The first circus of stone Mas erected by 
 Tarquinius Priscus, after his defeat of the 
 Latins. It was three furlongs in length, 
 and was called Circus Maximus, and Hip- 
 podromius. Julius Caesar improved and 
 adorned it with stately and sumptuous 
 buildings, and supplied it with channels of 
 water called Euripi, after the straight sea 
 between Greece and Negi'opontis, for the 
 purpose of occasionally using it for nauma- 
 chiae or naval combats. Its situation was 
 betAveen the Palatine and Aventine mounts. 
 All the cnrice, or divisions of the people, 
 as established by Romulus, had their pro- 
 per places assigned to them. The lower 
 orders were separated from the rest ; the 
 nobles, the gentry, and magistrates were 
 seated according to their qualitj'. The 
 nearest and most convenient place to the 
 shows vvas the ojvAesfra, which was assign- 
 ed to the senators and persons of the no- 
 blest qualitj\ Before it was a large plat- 
 form called podium, where the throne of the 
 emperor was usually placed, and was also 
 appropriated to the nobles and foreigners 
 of the highest distinction, the senate, the 
 ti-ibunes of the people, the vestal virgins, 
 and the person who appointed the games 
 and paid the expenses. He was styled 
 by the various names of Editor, Munera- 
 rius, Agonotheta, and Brubeuta ; as pub- 
 lisher or declarer of the sports and their 
 conditions, as the giver of them at his own 
 expense, as judge of the victors, and as 
 distributor of the prizes. And the prize 
 that was bestowed upon the victors was 
 called Brabium, or Brabeum, from BpajSJioi', 
 premium. 
 
 In the beginning of the Roman empire 
 kings were always the agonothetce. After- 
 wards the oflBce devolved upon the pro-tor, 
 but if absent a dictator was employed for 
 this purpose : and when the empire was 
 arrived to its highest grandeur, not only 
 the emperors, but also the consuls and 
 other magistrates gratified the people with 
 such kind of sports at their first admittance 
 into their offices. 
 
 The Romans were so extravagantly 
 fond of these practices, that they spent 
 days and nights in seeing them without 
 caring for eating or drinking. It is true, 
 however, that they who gave these sports 
 did also occasionally feast the people. The 
 popular outcry of panem et circenses is ce- 
 lebrated in their history. 
 
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CIR 
 
 we consider the various enlargements 
 which took place in this place of public 
 resort, at different epochs of the Roman 
 empire, as its population increased. 
 
 The Chxus of Flaminius, also called the 
 Circus Apollinai'is, from being situated near 
 a temple of Apollo, was erected in the 
 vicinity of the Partus Carmetitalis and the 
 Pantheon of Agrippa. It was built by the 
 Consul Caius Flaminius, who also con- 
 structed and gave his name to the Flami- 
 nian way. It was of considerable dimen- 
 sions, and was very magnificent. Augus- 
 tus improved and repaired it, and pre- 
 pared it with water, as a naumachia for a 
 combat of crocodiles. Lucullus also em- 
 bellished it and ornamented it with arms 
 and trophies taken from his enemies. 
 There are scarcely any ruins left of this 
 once spacious and splendid building. Its 
 space is now occupied by the church and 
 monastery of St. Catherine of the Rope- 
 makers, so called because about a century 
 and a half ago the ruins of the circus was 
 used as a ropewalk. The beforementioned 
 chuixh, by Giacomo della Porta, and the 
 Mattel Palace, by Carlo Maderno, were 
 both built from its august ruins, and there 
 is scarcely a vestige of it left to tell tiie 
 world the munificence and splendour of 
 its founder. 
 
 The Circus Agonalis or Alexandrinus was 
 built by the Emperor Alexander Severus, 
 near to his baths in the place now called 
 the Piazza Navona. It was a spacious 
 and costly edifice, and in the early days 
 of the Christian history is stigmatized as 
 being the scene of the martyrdom of St. 
 Agnes. 
 
 Tlie Circus Sallustius, named after Sal- 
 lust, who built or, at least, restored it, in 
 the time of Julius Caesar. 
 
 The Circus Floruits, called also the Cir- 
 cus Vaficanus, from its situation, and Ne- 
 ronis, from the Emperor Nero, \\ ho linisli- 
 ed it in a splendid manner after it had 
 been left by Caligula its founder. It 
 was situated near tli(> Qiiirinal Mount, in 
 the Campus Vaticanus, and is partly co- 
 vered by the basilica of St. Peter. On 
 the spina of tiiis circus was placed tlu; ce- 
 lebratc^d obelisk whicii was remoNcd by 
 Domenico Fontana at the desire of Sextus 
 Y, to tlie centre of the Perystile of St. 
 Peter. Tacitus (Annal. Ixv.) says, that 
 Nero took pleasure in witnessing the tor- 
 ture of the early Cliristiiins, whom lie or- 
 dered to be butchered in tiiis cinrus. There 
 was also another circus l)uill l)y Nero in 
 the gardens of Dcunitia, his aunt, near the 
 mausoleum of Hadrian; and theuce called 
 the ("iicus Domiti.T. 
 
 cus. 
 
 The other circuses which once embel- 
 lished Rome, as those of Antoninus and 
 Aurelian, the one on the site of the Villa 
 Ludovisia, the circus of Heliogabalus, 
 called by some authors the circus of Au- 
 relian, who repaired it, and some others 
 are no longer even in ruins ; except their 
 foundations be concealed under the accu- 
 mulated mass of ancient ruins on which 
 the papal city stands. Some authors aleo 
 speak of another circus which was situ- 
 ated near the gate of St. Sebastian. Pan- 
 vini thinks its construction may be dated 
 in the time of Constantine. Fabretti at- 
 tributes it to Gallienus, and Guattani to 
 an emperor who reigned in the latter part 
 of the fourth century. 
 
 The principal component parts of a Ro- 
 man circus were, its enclosing ivalls, the 
 carceres, the area or arena, the seats, the 
 podium, the orchestra, the spina, the meta, 
 and in some the euripus, when used for 
 uaumachiffi. 
 
 The walls generally surrounded three 
 sides of the circus, and being circular at 
 the end, gave this species of building its 
 distinctive name. The carceres were the 
 barriers or starting place for the horses or 
 chariots, as described in the beginning of 
 this article. The area or arena was the 
 the floor or open space on which the racers 
 ran. It obtained its latter name from the 
 sand or gravel with which it was strewed. 
 The seats were ranges of benches on which 
 the people sat. The podium was the open 
 place or gallery in front of the orchestra, 
 appropriated to the emperor, the senators, 
 the vestal virgins, the ediles of the people, 
 and other persons of distinction. The or- 
 chestrawAS the gallery behind and on each 
 side of the podium, and was set apart for 
 the same description of spectators as the 
 podium, which was but a principal or ele- 
 \ ated part of the orchestra, raised for the 
 emperor's throne. The spina or spiiu- of 
 the circus was a divisional wall i>r barrier 
 down the middle of the area, which was 
 often decorateil with statues, Iropliies, and 
 obelisks. Tlie mcta was a column or pil- 
 lar in form of a cone, fixed in tlie centre of 
 the circular end round which thi- cimriots 
 and horses turned. The curijius was a 
 channel of water nuide round the circus, 
 when used for naumachi;e. The best au- 
 thors to consult on this head after the va- 
 rious descriptions of ancient Rome are 
 S.\i..MAsits, Obscrrutions upon Solinus; the 
 yth vol. of the Tresor de Ofi-tvius; and 
 the .'ith vol. of Poi.i:niis. 
 
 C'lHCiis, in moilirn architecture ; means 
 a circular row of buildings, with architec- 
 tural dec(U-ations like those at Rath and 
 
CIS 
 
 at Buxton. Where they are segments they 
 are mostly called crescents. 
 
 Cist. [ciMa, Lat. Kiarr), Gr.] //i archi- 
 tecture and sculpture. A case, chest, or 
 basket. Also the name of the mystic 
 baskets which were carried in the proces- 
 sions of the Eleusinian mysteries, and 
 which were presented to the public as ob- 
 jects of veneration. These baskets were 
 originally made of osiers, and when in 
 later times they were made of metal, they 
 were wi'ought and chased in imitation of 
 wicker work. On antique monuments the 
 cist indicates the mysteries of Ceres or 
 Bacchus. The cist was often delineated 
 on medals andcoins, which for this reason 
 were, according to Cicero, called Cisto- 
 phores. Upon some ancient medals the 
 cist is represented uncovered, and a ser- 
 pent creeping from its recess, surrounded 
 by a garland of ivy. 
 
 According to Athen^us the cista? which 
 were carried in the Eleusinian processions 
 contained corn, various sorts of cakes, 
 salt, and poppies ; to which, says Clemens 
 Alexandrinus, they added pomegranates, 
 ferulae, and ivy. Various antique cists 
 of metal are preserved in the different 
 cabinets of Europe. There is a fine one 
 engraved in the Museum Kircherianum, 
 of which Winckelmaun speaks in his de- 
 scription of the engraved gems of Storch. 
 On the cover of this cist, Bacchus is re- 
 presented erect, supported by two fauns. 
 The drapery of Bacchus is spangled with 
 stars. Another ancient cist is in the cabi- 
 net of G. Visconti, who has given a de- 
 scription of it in the first volume of the 
 Museo Pio Clementino. The bearers of 
 the mystic cists in the Ceresian and Eleu- 
 sinian processions were called Cistophori 
 and Canephorae. See Cistophori and 
 Canephor.^, 
 
 Cistern, [cisterna, Lat. from cista a 
 chest.] In domestic architecture. A recep- 
 tacle or reservoir of water for domestic 
 use. When made of lead cisterns are 
 susceptible of various ornaments in bassi 
 rilievi; as armorial bearings, dates, ara- 
 besques, kc. Vitruvius gives many direc- 
 tions concerning their construction and 
 management, which, however, belong more 
 to a work on mechanics than on the tine 
 arts. At Alexandria are the remains of 
 the admirable public cisterns that were 
 constructed by the Ptolemys. They were 
 mostly lined with marble, and are support- 
 ed by lofty columns of the same valuable 
 material. Among the number of remark- 
 able cisterns, must be reckoned the piscina 
 mirabilis at Bala, which was two hundred 
 
 CLA 
 
 feet in length, and one hundred and thirty 
 in breadth; supported upon forty-eight 
 columns. The great cistern at Constanti- 
 nople is reckoned one of tlie most ^ ast and 
 fine that was ever constructed. This im- 
 mense reservoir is supported by two rows 
 of columns, each row consisting of two 
 hundred and twelve columns, of two feet 
 diameter, disposed in a circular form, and 
 tending like rays to a column in the centre. 
 Cistophori. [Lat. Kiarofpopoc, Gr.] In 
 architecture and sculpture. The liearers of 
 the sacred cists or baskets in the mystical 
 processions of Ceres, Eleusis, and Proser- 
 pine. In Muratori's collection of ancient 
 inscriptions, the goddess Isis has the names 
 of Cistophorus and Cistophora applied to 
 her. Among the Greeks the Cistophorje 
 were selected from the young virgins of 
 noble birth. See Canephor.'e. 
 
 The same name is also given by Cicero 
 and other Roman authors to coins or me- 
 dals which were stamped with the sacred 
 cista upon them. 
 
 Citadel. . [citadelle, Fr.] In architecture. 
 A fortress or small castle, generally built 
 in the highest part of a city or fortified 
 place ; whence supplies and forces could 
 be issued till the last extremity. The most 
 celebrated citadel in the world is, per- 
 haps, the Acropolis or citadel of Athens. 
 (See Acropolis.) It is engraved upon a 
 fine Athenian medal in the Travels of 
 Anacharsis, by the Abb^ Barthelemy. 
 
 City, \cit6, Fr.] In architecture. A 
 large collection of houses and inhabitants, 
 having a cathedral, and being the see of a 
 bishop. In ancient architecture, the word 
 city generally indicates the original or 
 most ancient part of the town, as distin- 
 guished from the additions or the suburbs. 
 Thus the ancient part or city of Theseus 
 at Athens is distinguished fi-om that of 
 Hadrian. 
 
 Cities in ancient times were defended 
 from their enemies by walls of huge stones, 
 such as Ptestum, the walls of Tyrius, which 
 Pausanias (ii. 25.) reckoned among the 
 early wonders of Greece, and similar 
 works. Before the wall which surround- 
 ed the Acropolis of Athens was built by 
 the Pelasgi, it was protected by a palisade 
 formed of the trunks of trees. The walls 
 of Mantinea, according to Pausanias (viii. 
 8.), were built of unburnt clay. Those of 
 the city of Gelonus are said by Herodotus 
 (iv. 108.) to have been wholly of timber. 
 See Athens, Asty, Town. 
 Civic crown. See Crown. 
 Classic, [classicus, Lat.] In the history 
 of the arts. Antique authors and artists, 
 
 o 
 
CLE 
 
 or llieir works of the first class. Cellius 
 (vii. 13.) defines the origin of this word to 
 have been derived from classicus, which 
 originally meant the prime or first class of 
 citizens, " hinc classicus scriptor," An ac- 
 quaintance with the writings of those au- 
 thors which are called classic is indispen- 
 sable to the artist ; as an ignorance of 
 their contents not only abridges the num- 
 ber of the choicest subjects for the painter 
 and sculptor, but will occasion those mis- 
 takes in chronology, costume, and charac- 
 ter, that so often disfigure the works of 
 many of the greatest painters. 
 
 Classification, [from class.] In criti- 
 cism and the history of the arts. An ar- 
 rangement according to some stated me- 
 thod of distribution. In order to obtain a 
 proper classification in any department of 
 the fine arts, it is necessary that the person 
 attempting it sliould be possessed of a me- 
 thodical mind, and an extensive know- 
 ledge of the subject which he proposes to 
 submit to his arrangement; that he may 
 place them each in its proper department. 
 The science of method is therefore of pri- 
 mary utility, particularly in the fine arts ; 
 " in which," as an able writer in the En- 
 cyclopaedia Metropolitana justly observes, 
 " certain great truths, composing what are 
 usually called the laws of taste, necessarily 
 predominate ; but in which there are also 
 other laws, dependant on the external ob- 
 jects of sight and sound, which these arts 
 embrace." 
 
 Paintings should be arranged first as to 
 schools, and then according to the chrono- 
 logical order of the masters ; statues, bassi 
 rilievi, and engraved stones, after the va- 
 rious divisions of history and mythology ; 
 medals in the order of the countries where 
 they were struck, and the princes whose 
 head and superscription they bear; antique 
 monuments and buildings, at first accord- 
 ing to the people to whom they belong, 
 and then according to their various classes, 
 orders, and subdivisions. See Archaio- 
 I.OGY, Museum, Catalogue. 
 
 Cleopatra. \K.\toTntT(ui , Gr. i. e. nhiria 
 ])utri(r.'\ In urchaiology , \iaintinix, and sculp- 
 turc. A celebrated Queen of Egypt, whose 
 liistory is well known. The name of Cleo- 
 patra is given by antiquaries to many an- 
 cient statues, which have a serpent either 
 in their hands, or added as an accessory. 
 A celebrated statue, now in the Vatican, 
 passed for many years as a Cleopatra, 
 from tile circumstance of its lia\ ing a small 
 serpent entwined round one of its arms. 
 It is now acknowledg('d, and its expres- 
 sion proves it, that the supposed asp is u 
 
 CLl 
 
 bracelet of the sort called Opheis among 
 the Greeks, and that the dying Cleopatra, 
 is Ariadne asleep on the rock of Naxos. 
 See Ariadne, Bracelet. 
 
 Clepsydra. [Lat. KXt;//i?pa, Gr.] In ar- 
 chitecture and archaiology. A vessel or 
 building measuring time by the running of 
 water or of sand. The former was a sort of 
 hourglass by which orators and pleaders 
 were allowanced to time, much used by 
 the Greeks; introduced among the Ro- 
 mans by Pompey, after his third consu- 
 late ; w hereas before that period any one 
 might speak as long as they pleased. 
 
 The most celebrated building of this 
 kind is the octagonal temple of Androni- 
 cus Cjarhestes, commonly called the tower 
 of the winds. This ancient monument is 
 situated to the eastward of the Agora. 
 Varro is the oldest writer who has de- 
 scribed this building, which he, as well as 
 Vitruvius, calls an horologium. Mr. A\ il- 
 kins, in his Atheniensia, thinks that this 
 building, which he compared on the spot 
 with his author, corresponds so correctly 
 with the account given by Vitruvius, that 
 no doubt can exist of its identity with the 
 subject of his description. Tlie earliest 
 buildings erected for the purpose of mea- 
 suring time were dials which showed the 
 hour when the sun appeared ; but in win- 
 ter, when the sun was sometimes obscured, 
 the lapse of time could no longer be indi- 
 cated by such expedients, and the passing 
 hours were marked by means of a machine, 
 worked by a constant and equable supply 
 of water. See Wilkins's Atheniensia; 
 Stuart's .I/Zkha-; Vitruviis; Varro, 
 
 CuiMATE. [clima, Lat. KXi'/tn, Gr.] In 
 criticism and the history of the arts. A 
 space upon the surface of the earth, mea- 
 sured from the equator to the polar circles ; 
 in eacli of w hich spaces tiie longest day is 
 half an hour longer. 
 
 On the subject of the climate, as far as 
 concerns the genius of the fine arts, the 
 French and Gorman critics are inclined to 
 be very fanciful. Willi them, le ciel triste 
 et pluvieux of England can never foster 
 genius in the arts. The fine sky of Italy, 
 Greece, Germany, and France alone can 
 develope its full powers, and the banks of 
 the Thames must be from its fogs and 
 damps, the modern Ha>otia. Nt)us verrons. 
 Th(! arts are howi'ver settling on its banks, 
 and England, in spite of Du Bos and Winc- 
 kelmann,w'ill add the genius of the line arts 
 to the plume of tlu' Urilannic Miner\a. 
 
 In architecture, however, the alVair of 
 clinuite has a jiosilive and visible efiect. 
 The high northern latitudes iuive produced 
 
CLU 
 
 the lofty roof to shield and protect the 
 building from their snows and frosts, the 
 long and pointed window, the lofty arch, 
 the elevated pinnacle, the pointed spire, 
 the perpendicular and aspiring style, of the 
 nortliern architecture, misnamed Gothic. 
 The genial clime of Greece allowed the 
 flat roof, the low tympanum of the Parthe- 
 non, and other Grecian temples. The more 
 austere climate of Rome demanded more 
 lofty roofs, and their fastigii are conse- 
 quently of higher proportions. So much 
 did fashion follow necessity, that Cicero 
 complains, that if a Roman architect was 
 employed to erect a Capitol in heaven, 
 where it never rains, he would erect a roof, 
 and its symbol a pediment. Climate forms 
 the original style of architecture in every 
 country, as may be seen in examining its 
 details and comparing its first principles 
 with the exigences of the people and of the 
 climate. 
 
 The subject of climate should be studied 
 and attentively observed by the architect ; 
 and particularly the effects of the vicissi- 
 tudes of the seasons upon its materials. 
 
 Cloaca. See Sewers. 
 
 Clock-tower. See Steeple, Campa- 
 nile. 
 
 Cloister, [claurrep, Sax. clamtrum, 
 Lat.] In architecture. A peristyle or piaz- 
 za for retirement in a religious house. 
 Under this name are embraced the arcades 
 or piazzas which are erected about an en- 
 closed spot of ground, used sometimes as 
 a garden and sometimes as a cemetery. 
 Their' use is to furnish shade and shelter 
 for exercise and reflection, and should ac- 
 accordingly communicate on all sides with 
 the main buildings to which they belong. 
 In the greater part of the principal religi- 
 ous edifices, the cloister is generally the 
 next feature after the church or cathedral 
 to which it is attached, and is embellished 
 by sculptural monuments and other memo- 
 rials of the dead. In Italy they are richly 
 decorated with marbles and splendid in- 
 crustations. In England the principal 
 cloisters are of the pointed or Gothic style 
 of architecture, like that of Westminster 
 Abbey and many of our most beautiful 
 cathedrals. In Italy they are often arcades, 
 supported on piers or columns of various 
 orders of architecture. The most cele- 
 brated are those of the Chartreux at Rome 
 and Naples, that of S. Giorgio Maggiore 
 at Venice, by Palladio, and those of the 
 Annunziata and Santa Maria Novella at 
 Florence. 
 
 Club. In the archaiology of painting and 
 sculpture. The most usual attribute and 
 
 coc 
 
 often the symbol of Hercules (see Attri- 
 bute). Montfaucon in his SuppUment de 
 VAntiq. expli. plate 10, gives the represen- 
 tation of an altar dedicated to Hercules, 
 on which is sculptured in relief a club with- 
 out knots, the handle of which has bands 
 round it to prevent it slipping through 
 the hand. The club of Hercules is as re- 
 nowned in mythology as the caduceus of 
 Mercury. On an engraved gem in Stosch's 
 collection, Hercules is represented cloth- 
 ed in a lion's hide, forming a club from the 
 trunk of an olive tree. On a sardonyx of 
 the same collection, the club of Hercules 
 terminates like a caduceus ; the artist al- 
 luding to the tradition that Hercules dedi- 
 cated his club to Mercury, This weapon 
 is also given by ancient artists and writers 
 to Theseus, who, as the avowed imitator 
 of Hercules, is generally represented as 
 fighting with a club, and bearing on his 
 arm the skin of a lion instead of a shield. 
 Theseus is thus represented on two of the 
 sculptures of the Phigaleian marbles at the 
 British Museum, one of the clubs, which 
 was of bronze, is wanting, the other sculp- 
 tured in marble, is knotted. He is also de- 
 scribed as being thus armed, and in imita- 
 tion of Hercules, by Diodorus Siculus (lib- 
 iv. c. 59.) and by Plutarch in his life of 
 Theseus (Vit. Thes. viii). 
 
 Cupid is also occasionally represented, 
 on various sculptured gems, with the club, 
 to intimate his victories over the son of 
 Alcmena. Bacchus, fauns, and satyrs may 
 also be seen in ancient sculptures, armed 
 with this rude weapon. See Caylus, 
 Montfaucon, MiLLiN Die. Mythol. et Monu- 
 mens inedit. 
 
 The club was also a weapon used by the 
 ancient Germans, and in the sculptures of 
 the Trajau column, the Dacian soldiers 
 are armed with clubs. 
 
 Cock, [cocc, Saxon.] In archaiology. 
 The male of the domestic fowl. The em- 
 blem of Minerva, on account of his vigi- 
 lance and his bravery. In mythologic 
 history Alectryon or Gallus, the former 
 being the Greek, and the other the Latin 
 name for this bird, is related to have 
 been the especial favourite of Mars, and 
 so entrusted by him, that he made him 
 guard in his nocturnal interviews with 
 Venus, lest Sol should surprise them. On 
 one of these occasions he fell asleep, and 
 not giving the alarm at the approach of 
 Sol, he discovered the guilty pair, and in- 
 formed Vulcan, who covering them with a 
 net of chains, exposed them to the derision 
 of all the gods. Mars in revenge changed 
 Alectryon into a cock, who, say the My- 
 
 o2 
 
COF 
 
 thologists, remembering his fault, always 
 gives notice, by crowing, of the approach 
 of the God of day. 
 
 The cock is also an attribute of Mars, 
 and is represented by the side of the heads 
 of that God, on the medals of Metapon- 
 tuni, and on the copper coins of the family 
 of the Volteii. It is also struck as the 
 reverse to figures of Pallas on the medals 
 of Anxur, Aquiniun, and Galium in Italy. 
 Pausanias mentions having seen in the 
 citadel at Elis a statue of Minerva, the 
 helmet of which was ornamented with the 
 figure of this bird. He also relates that 
 Idomeneuswas represented with a similar 
 emblem upon his shield. Apollo has 
 sometimes this bird, as an emblem, because 
 by its crowing it announces the rising of 
 the sun. Plutarch says that this daily 
 event should be announced by a trumpet 
 in war, and by the bird of Minerva in 
 peace. It was also dedicated to Mercury 
 as a symbol of that vigilance and early 
 rising which are so essential to the suc- 
 cess of commerce. It was also sacred to 
 Esculapius. To announce the termination 
 of any serious malady, the convalescent 
 sacrificed a cock to the god of medicine. 
 Socrates when dying ordered one to be 
 sacrificed to that deit\\ The Romans used 
 a sort of divination by this bird, which 
 they named after its Greek appellation, 
 Alectnjomantia. 
 
 CtEMETERY. See Cemetery. 
 
 CcENACL'LUM. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. According to its etymology and to 
 the best authorities, the coenaculum is pro- 
 perly the eating or supper room of the an- 
 cient Romans, IJut in the early times of 
 their history, when their houses consisted 
 rarely of more than two stories, the upper 
 story was called by this name. It was 
 also used for lodgings lot out for iiire, and 
 for the upper stories of the Roman cir- 
 cuses, which were generally divided into 
 small shops or rooms, which wt-re let for 
 hire by the censors for the advantage of 
 the pul)lic treasury. 
 
 CcKNATio. [Lat.] In ancient archill, -tiire. 
 An apartment in the lower part of the Ro- 
 man houses, or in a garden to sup or eat 
 in. Or, according to Suetonius, a ban- 
 queting or summer house. Pliny de- 
 scribes in his elec;ant epistles, a spacious 
 eating room (Cunatio) in his Laurentinuni, 
 which was situate<l in the superior part of 
 a lofty tower. The Romans had ccxMia- 
 tioncH for the dillerent seasons of the year, 
 with (iiUcrent aspects and decorations. 
 
 CoiiKit. [coppe, Saxon.] In seulijtnrr. 
 A chest or case to keep money, jewels. 
 
 COF 
 
 and other valuable commodities of small 
 dimensions. Coffers are articles of taste, 
 susceptible of great decoration, and may 
 be rendered elegant as well as costly ap- 
 pendages to a splendid apartment. 
 
 Among the most ancient as well as the 
 most celebrated monuments of Grecian 
 art, may be reckoned the coffer, or, as it is 
 sometimes called, the chest of Cypselus ; 
 in which he was preserved by his mother 
 Labda, from the fury of the Corinthians, 
 when the oracles had foretold that he 
 would become the t\'rant of the kingdom. 
 The leading people thereupon sent ten 
 picked men to slay him, but the smiles of 
 the infant disarmed them. Afterwards, 
 fearing the blame of their commanders, 
 they entered the house again for the pur- 
 pose of executing their commission, but 
 his mother had concealed him from their 
 rage ; according to Herodotus in a heap 
 of corn, but according to Pausanias and 
 others, in a coffer or chest. 
 
 This coffer was afterwards consecrated 
 by the Cypselidre in the temple of Juno at 
 Oljmpia. It was formed of costly mate- 
 rials, and beautifully embellished with 
 sculptures. The description of its form 
 and workmanship is given by Pausanias, 
 and has furnished the materials for a 
 learned dissertation upon it by M. Heyne. 
 
 The subjects of the sculptures which 
 embellished its sides and cover were, on 
 one of the smaller sides, first the race be- 
 tween Pelops and Q!lnoniaus, the father of 
 Hippodamia. They are represented each 
 in his biga^ ; the horses of Pelops being 
 winged as indicative of their Heetness. 
 Peloi)s is holding his bride Hippodamia 
 in his arms. This celebrated chariot 
 course (where thirteen suitors lost the 
 race, their bride, and their li\es, till the 
 treachery of Myrtilus, the diarioteor of 
 Ginomaus, procured the victory for I'e- 
 lops), was a favourite subject with ancient 
 artists, and was often rt'i)resentcd on their 
 monuments. Among otiiers it formed the 
 subject of the bassi rilievi on the tympa- 
 num of the pediment to the temple of Ju- 
 piter at Oljnipia. 
 
 The second subject is tiie departure of 
 Amphiaraus for the Theban wars, which 
 he altsented himself fnmi, having been 
 foretold liiat he should ne\ er rel\irn. He 
 concealed himself for a time, hut his wife 
 Kuriphyle, at the persuasions of her bro- 
 liier Adraslus and Polyniccs, two of the 
 leaders, and the brihe of a chain of gold, 
 told where he was hidden. He dei)arted, 
 and lost his life, first conunanding his son 
 .Mcniicon to slay his uiolhcr in revenge of 
 
COFIER OF CYPSELUS. 
 
 his death. In this compartment tlie scene 
 is represented before the house of Amphi- 
 araus, before the door of which stands an 
 aged female with his infant son Amphilo- 
 cus in her arms. Near to her is Euripliyle 
 holding the golden reward of her treache- 
 ry in her hand, and by her side stands her 
 son Alcmason and her daughters Eury- 
 dice and Demonassa. Amphilaus himself 
 has one foot placed in his chariot, and 
 turning round with a sword in his hand, 
 seems to threaten her treachery with his 
 vengeance. 
 
 The third compartment represented the 
 games and combats instituted in honour of 
 Pelias. The fourth, Hercules conquering 
 the Lernian hydra. The fifth, Phineus, 
 King of Arcadia, blind and tormented by 
 the harpies ; Zethes and Calais, two of 
 the Argonauts, and sons of Boreas his 
 wife's brother, chasing them away and de- 
 stroying them. 
 
 The second side, which was one of the 
 longer ones, contained the twelve follow- 
 ing subjects ; namely — First, Night under 
 the figure of a woman, is holding in her 
 hands death and sleep, figured under the 
 resemblances of a black and a white boy. 
 Second, Dice (Aikjj) the virgin daughter 
 of Jove, and goddess of justice, punishing 
 Adicia [ASiKia), or injustice. Third, two 
 females, probably Medea and one of the 
 daughters of Pelias, compounding magical 
 herbs. Fourth, the carrying away of Mar- 
 pessa, daughter of Evenus King of Etolia, 
 by Idas a son of Neptune. Fifth, Alc- 
 mena receiving presents from Jupiter, un- 
 der the form of her husband. Sixth, Me- 
 nelaus threatening Helen with death after 
 the siege of Troy. Seventh, Medea and 
 Jason seated and attended by Venus. 
 Eighth, Apollo and the Muses. Ninth, 
 Atlas supporting the heavens, and holding 
 the apples which Hercules is demanding 
 of him. The representation of Hercules is 
 remarkable, as he is arzned with a naked 
 sword instead of his club. Tenth, Mars 
 armed carrying away Venus. Eleventh, 
 Thetis and Peleus, the parents of Achilles. 
 Thetis, according to the mythologists, as- 
 sumed various frightful shapes to avoid 
 the importunities of Peleus. In this bassi 
 rilievi, she was represented as under 
 the transformation of a serpent, slipping 
 through the hands of Peleus the moment 
 that he would have embraced her. Twelfth, 
 Perseus pursued by the Gorgons, who 
 were represented with the extraordinary 
 addition of wings. 
 
 The third series, which appears to have 
 been upon the cover, represented a com- 
 
 bat between soldiers on foot and in cha- 
 riots, some of which appearing to recog- 
 nise each other, are embracing. Accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, it represented the Eto- 
 lians under the command of Oxylus, at- 
 tacking the ancient Eleans. 
 
 The fourth, whicii was the second long 
 side, had also twelve subjects ; namely, — 
 First, Boreas, who is represented with his 
 lower extremities terminating in the tail 
 of a serpent, carrying away Orithya, 
 daughter of Erectheus King of Athens, 
 with whom he was in love, by force. Se- 
 cond, Hercules conquering Geryon. Third, 
 Theseus with a lyre, and Ariadne holding 
 a crown. Fourth, Achilles and Memnon 
 combatting with Achilles ; near to whom 
 are Thetis and Aurora, their mothers. 
 Fifth, Melanion and Atalanta the daugh- 
 ter of Jasius, with a fawn. Sixth, the 
 combat between Hector and Ajax, foment- 
 ed by Discord, who is between them. Se- 
 venth, the Dioscuri, Helen and iEthra. 
 Eighth, the battle between Agamemnon 
 and Coon over the dead body of Iphida- 
 mas. On the shield of Agamemnon is 
 represented a figure of terror with the 
 head of a lion. Ninth, the judgment of 
 Paris, near whom is a winged Diana with 
 a panther and a lion. Tenth, Ajax carry- 
 ing away Cassandra. Eleventh, Poly- 
 nices the son of CEdipus, killed by his 
 brother Eteocles. Near to whom is the 
 terrible KHP, or personification of the 
 inevitable destiny of death. Twelfth, the 
 bearded Bacchus, clothed with a tunic, 
 which Visconti thinks is the Indian Bac- 
 chus or Sardanapalus. He is holding a 
 vase of gold in his hand, and near to him 
 are vines, apple-trees, and pomegranates. 
 
 The fifth portion, or second small side, 
 had upon it the five following subjects. 
 First, a female asleep upon a bed in a 
 grotto with a man. Pausanias considers 
 them to be Ulysses and Circe, because 
 there are four servants in attendance, 
 their number and employments corres- 
 ponding with the story as related by Ho- 
 mer. But Circe, according to the poet, 
 inhabited a palace in a wood, and not a 
 grotto by the sea shore. It is, therefore, 
 more probable that it is Ulysses and Ca- 
 lypso. Second, a centaur, of which the 
 forefeet are those of a man, i)robably Chi- 
 ron. See Centaur. Third, Thetis re- 
 ceiving fiom Vulcan the armour which he 
 had forged for Achilles. Fourth, Nausi- 
 caa attended by a slave, and drawn in a 
 car by mules. Fifth, Hercules killing the 
 centaurs. 
 
 Pausanias does not appear to know who 
 
COL 
 
 ^vas the artist that executed this curious 
 and admirable piece of ancient art ; but 
 thinks that the inscriptions were the per- 
 formance of Eumelus the Corinthian, on 
 account of the prosodion which he com- 
 posed for the Messenians on the isle of 
 Delos, If this conjecture be true, tlie an- 
 tiquity of the chest of Cypselus goes back 
 to a very ancient date, for this poet lived 
 about the time of the commencement of the 
 first war of the Messenians, which was 
 about seven hundred and forty-two years 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 CoLARiNO. Icolarin, Fr.] In architecture. 
 The part of a column of the Tuscan and 
 Roman Doric orders, which encircles the 
 upper part like a small collar ; it is more 
 properly called astragal. See Astragal. 
 Collar. See Necklace. 
 Collateral, [collateralis, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture. Running parallel to each other. 
 Houses, walls, columns, piers, &c. are 
 said to be collateral, when they are equi- 
 distant from each other. 
 
 Collection, [collectum, from collectio, 
 Lat.] In painting, sculpture, and engraving. 
 A series of vrorks of art gathered together. 
 A collection of paintings and sculptures 
 is a smaller quantity than what would 
 constitute a gallei-y, and distributed in the 
 living rooms of a dwelling house. A selec- 
 tion of choice prints are generally termed 
 a collection, whether large or small. 
 
 College. [coUegium, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. An edifice constructed for the resi- 
 dence of collegians, or societies of men set 
 apart for the study of learning or religion ; 
 and for the education of youth in the 
 higher branches of study. A college 
 sliould consist generally of one or more 
 spacious courts, encircled by buildings, 
 devoted to the purposes of study, exercise, 
 recreation, sleep, eating, living, &c. 
 
 England possesses, in her two universi- 
 ties of Oxford and Cambridge, many col- 
 leges in which every thing that conveni- 
 ence, necessity, and comfort can desire. 
 For their particulars, the reader is referred 
 to any of the numerous histories of tliese 
 two celebrated edifices. 
 
 In Italy there are many colleges, which 
 are remarkable for their arrangement *nd 
 the beauty of their construction. At Rome 
 the Collegia Romano de Gesuiti, I)uilt by 
 Rartolenieo Aminanati, is a large and 
 handsome structure. The large ((iiadran- 
 gle is one of the finest in Itonie ; it has 
 two stories of arcades, which serve as por- 
 ticoes, and is tlccorated with pedestals, 
 pilasters, and sculptural onuinicnts. The 
 facade alone remains as designed by its 
 
 COL 
 
 great architect. Among the other princi- 
 pal colleges in Rome that are most worthy 
 the notice of the student are, the CoUegii, 
 Clementino, de Neofiti, di Propagandi, 
 and della Sapienza. This last is one of 
 the finest edifices in modern Rome, and is 
 the work of Michel Angiolo Buonaroti, 
 and of Giacomo della Porta. Over its 
 gates is inscribed, " Initium. Sapientle. 
 TIMOR. DonM." 
 
 At Genoa there is a maguificent college 
 belonging to the Jesuits, quite in the stj le 
 of the palaces of that grand city. It was 
 designed by Bartolemeo Bianco, a Lom- 
 bard architect, for the Balbi family, for 
 whom he also built three others ; one of 
 which is now the Durazzo palace, and the 
 other was given by that munificent family 
 to the Jesuits for the purposes of a college 
 and a place of education. 
 
 In Paris there are nine colleges, not one 
 of which has any particular merit in its 
 architecture deserving the attention of the 
 student. 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin, is a large and 
 handsome building, with spacious qua- 
 drangles, gardens, and a park. It has 
 a fine chapel, refectory, and other hand- 
 some buildings, by Sir M'illiam Chambers, 
 and a very commodious and handsome 
 mansion for tlie provost. 
 
 Colonnade, [colonnata, Ital.] In archi- 
 tecture. A series or row of columns. Co- 
 lonnades are of various forms and dimen- 
 sions, and assume diflferent names accord- 
 ing to their application and uses. AVhen 
 in front of a building, or in the interior of 
 a quadrangle, they are called porticoes; 
 when surrounding a building of any shape, 
 peristyles; when double or more, as in 
 some of the ancient temples, and the cir- 
 cular peristyle in front of St. Peter's at 
 Rome, they are poliistylc. No people have 
 made more use of colonnades, or with 
 greater efiVct, than the ancient Egyptians. 
 Rlany of their temples being literally 
 thickset, both in tlie interior and exterior, 
 witii colonnadesof every description. The 
 Greeks were more simple in their arrange- 
 ment, and their colonnades were mostly 
 distributed into porticoes and ])eristyles, 
 both monostyle and polystyle. Tiieir most 
 magnificent example is perhaps the temple 
 of Jupiter Olympius at Athens. Haalbeck 
 and l*alin>ra iJiesent also various exam- 
 ples of splendid colonnades. Of modern 
 works, the niagiiilicenl colonnade of the 
 Pia/.zo di San Piitro at Rome, the work 
 of Bernini, is at once the grandest and 
 most beautiful. It consists of two hun- 
 dred and eighty columns, and forty -eight 
 
COL 
 
 pilasters, of forty feet high, raised on 
 three lofty steps. It is surmounted by a 
 ballustrade, on which are eighty-eight 
 colossal statues of saints, fifteen feet in 
 stature. 
 
 Colonnades are among the most beauti- 
 ful and splendid works of architecture, 
 and in the hands of a man of taste and 
 science, are capable of the grandest and 
 most imposing etlects. 
 
 Colossal, or Colossean. [colossciis, Lat. 
 from KoXoffcrof, Gr.] In all the arts. Of 
 enormous magnitude, like a colossus or 
 giant in form or size. Every figure, whe- 
 ther in sculpture or painting, that exceeds 
 the size of nature, is colossal. In archi- 
 tecture, which is an art essentially origi- 
 nal, and not depending on an imitation of 
 nature, the epitliet is less applicable. Yet, 
 when the mind has formed an idea of the 
 size of a house, a church, a temple, or 
 other considerable building, when that is 
 exceeded, it is occasionally employed, as to 
 the Pyramids of Egypt, the Amphitheatres 
 of Rome, and in modern times by some 
 writers, to the basilica of St. Peter's in the 
 same city. The term is, therefore, more 
 appropriate to those works of painting and 
 sculpture where the figures much exceed 
 their natural dimensions. 
 
 A taste for the colossal in art distin- 
 guishes all the nations of antiquity. The 
 Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans 
 have particularly excelled in the number 
 as well as in the perfection of their colos- 
 sal works. See Colossus, Gigantic. 
 
 Colosseum. [Lat.] In architecture. The 
 name of the largest amphitheatre in the 
 world. This stupendous edifice, 
 
 " Which in its public shows unpeopled Rome, 
 And held uncrowded nations in its womb ;" 
 
 was called the Amphitheatre of Vespa- 
 sian, or Colosseum, from its magnitude ; 
 or as some authors, with less probability 
 suppose, from a colossal statue of Nero, 
 which stood in its neighbourhood. It is 
 also called the Amphitheatre, and some- 
 times the Flavian Amphitheatre, but is 
 more generally known by the appellation 
 Colosseum. Situated in a valley in the 
 middle of the seven hills of Rome, it rears 
 its lofty head supreme among them all. 
 
 It was built by the Emperor Flavins 
 Vespasian, in A. D. 72, after his return 
 from his victories over the Jews, on the 
 site of Nero's gardens and fish ponds. 
 Thirty thousand Israelitish captives are 
 said to have been employed in its con- 
 struction, which occupied them for five 
 years, at an expense of ten millions of Ro- 
 man crowns. Vespasian did not live to 
 
 COL 
 
 witness its completion, which took place 
 in the reign of Titus, who finished and de- 
 dicated it with due solemnities and forms 
 to his father. The dedication of a theatre 
 by the Romans was celebrated by dramas, 
 or stage plays ; of a circus, by horse and 
 chariot races; of a naumachia, by naval 
 shows and combats ; and of an amphithea- 
 tre, by gladiatorial combats, hunting, and 
 fights of wild beasts. The day on which 
 Titus dedicated the Amphitheatrum Ves- 
 pasiani, five tliousand wild beasts of vari- 
 ous species were thus killed ; the shows 
 and games lasted a hundred days, and he 
 expended an immense sum of money upon 
 these favourite amusements of the people. 
 
 The circuses, theatres, and amphitliea- 
 tres were divided into three divisions, 
 from the bottom to the top, namely, the 
 orchestra for the emperor, the senators, 
 and other personages of the highest rank ; 
 the equestria for those of the equestrian 
 order ; and the popularia, which were tlie 
 highest, and behind the others, for the peo- 
 ple. It would accommodate ninety thou- 
 sand persons sitting, and twenty thousand 
 more standing in various places, who were 
 called excuneati. 
 
 The Colosseum is constructed almost en- 
 tirely with huge blocks of Travertine mar- 
 ble, and is raised on a lofty basement 
 story. Its exterior consists of four orders, 
 the intercolumniations of which are filled 
 with arcades, piers, and archivolts. The 
 lower order is Doric, the columns attach- 
 ed to the walls ; the second Ionic, also of 
 three-quarter columns; the third Corin- 
 thian, three-quarter columns; the fourth, 
 or upper, also Corinthian, raised on a 
 lofty stylobate, but of pilasters instead of 
 columns. The form of this vast edifice is 
 elliptical, the exterior circumference of 
 which is one thousand seven hundred and 
 sixty-three feet, the greater diameter five 
 hundred and sixty feet, and tlie smaller 
 four hundred and sixty, and its height one 
 hundred and sixty. See Amphitiieatke, 
 Theatre, Circus. 
 
 Colossus. [Lat. KoXoctctoc, Gr.] In sculp- 
 ture. A statue of enormous magnitude, 
 whence the Greek proverb Ko\o(rffa'iov to 
 fikyaOoQ. The practice of executing sta- 
 tues of colossal dimensions and propor- 
 tions is of very high antiquity. The 
 people of the east, from the most ancient 
 times, have been celebrated for colossal 
 sculpture. The pagodas of China and of 
 India, and the excavated caverns of the 
 east, abound with colossi of every denomi- 
 nation. The Asiatics, the Egyptians, and 
 in particular the Greeks, have excelled in 
 these works. The celebrated Colossus <>f 
 
COLOSSUS. 
 
 Rhodes ivas reckoned one of (he seven poraries the truth or falsehood of accounts 
 
 wonders of the world. Tliis statue, which that were given of it, give as authentic its 
 
 ]\Iuratori reckons among the fables of an- height at seventy cubits, or a hundred 
 
 tiquity, was raised by the Rhodians in English feet. Other authors, who flou- 
 
 honour of Apollo, who, according to Soli- rished since its destruction, reports its 
 
 nus, seemed to delight in Rhodes more height at eighty cubits. Pliny also relates 
 
 than in any other part of the earth, be- other particulars, as that few persons could 
 
 cause there is never any day so dark or embrace its thumb; and that its fingers 
 
 clouded, but the sun appears to the inha- were as long as ordinary statues, which, 
 
 bitants of that island. Besides, they say, calculated by the proportion of a well 
 
 that in Rhodes he begot his favourite made man, would make its height nearer 
 
 daughter Rhodia; that he sent down upon to eighty than seventy cubits. Perhaps 
 
 it showers of gold, and caused, on his 
 birthday, roses to open and spread. 
 
 There are many contradictory accounts 
 in ancient authors concerning this colossal 
 statue of Apollo; but the following, ga- 
 thered from several sources, is not devoid 
 
 the latter dimension may relate to its real 
 altitude to the crown of its head, and the 
 greater to its altitude if erect. Nor am I 
 aware that any other writer has given 
 this reason for the apparent difterence. 
 The statue was placed across the en- 
 
 of interest, though mixed up with much trance of the harbour, its feet placed on 
 
 fable. "When Demetrius, king of Mace- two rocks, and the Rhodian vessels could 
 
 don, the son of Antigonus laid siege to the pass under its legs. In the Anthology are 
 
 city of Rhodes, because they would not re- two epigrams upon this colossus, one of 
 
 nounce their alliance with Ptolemy Soter; which attributes the work to Chares, and 
 
 the Rhodians were so succoured by their the other to Laches. Strabo, Pliny, and 
 
 allies, and particularly by Ptolemy, that Eustathius,thelearnedarchbishopof Thes- 
 
 the besiegers were compelled to abandon salonica,who,in A. D. 750, wrote comments 
 
 their enterprise. The Rhodians in recog- upon Homer, and other ancient authors, 
 
 nition of their regard for these services of in his Dissertation upon the Geographical 
 
 their allies, and of the protection of their Writings of Dion>sius Periegetes, who 
 
 tutelary deity, Apollo, resolved to erect a flourished in the time of Augustus, agree 
 
 brazen statue of the sun of a prodigious in attributing this colossal work to Chares, 
 
 grandeur. Chares, the disciple of Lysippus, the disciple of Lysippus. Some antiqua- 
 
 was intrusted with the project. The Rho- ries havQ thought, with great justice, that 
 
 dians demanded what sum he required to the line head of the sun which is stamped 
 
 complete the statue of a given size. Upon upon the Rhodian medals is a represeuta- 
 
 delivering his answer, they required him to tion of that of the colossus, 
 
 name his price for one of double the size, Of other colossal statues those which 
 
 for which he demanded double the amount were executed by Phidias are among the 
 
 of his former estimate. He had scarcely most celebrated for beauty and elegance 
 
 half finished the work when he found that of workmanship. They were his Olym- 
 
 lie had expended all the money that he 
 had received for the whole, which over- 
 whelmed him so completely with grief and 
 despair, (liat he hanged himself. Laches, 
 his fellow countryman, finished the work 
 in the space of three Olympiads (twelve 
 
 pian Jupiter and his iMinerva of the Par- 
 thenon. The virgin goddess was repre- 
 sented in a noble attitude, twenty-six cu- 
 bits, or thirty-nine feet in height, erect, 
 I lothed in a funic reaching to the feet. In 
 her hand she brandished a spear, and at 
 
 years), and placed the enormous statue on her feet lay her buckler and a dragon ot 
 its pedestal. Pliny does not mention the admiral)le execution, supposed to repre- 
 latter artist, but gives all the honour to sent I'.richthonius. On the midille of her 
 
 Chares. 
 
 Scarcely sixty years had elapsed before 
 this monster of art was thrown from its 
 jtlace by an earthquake, which broke; it off 
 at the knees, where it remained till the 
 
 helmet a sphynx was carved, and on each 
 of its sides a griftin. On the a-gis were 
 disi>lay('d a Medusa's head, anil a liguro 
 of victory. This colossal work was not 
 only grand and striking in itself, but con- 
 
 concpiest of Riiodes by the Saracens in tained on its various parts curious speci- 
 
 A.D. OHI, when it was beaten to j)ieces, 
 and sold to a Jew merchant, who loatled 
 above nine hundred camels with its spoils. 
 Strabo, Pliny, and oilier ancient authors, 
 who livi'd at tiie time that the colossus of 
 Rhodes is said to have been in existence ; 
 and uhocoidd havi- learned from colem- 
 
 mens of niiimte sculpture in bassi rilievi, 
 which IMiidias is said to have brought to 
 perfection. Cicero, Pliny, Plutarch, Pau- 
 sanins, and other illustrious authors of an- 
 ti(iuit\, in whose times tiiis iuil)le piece of 
 workmanship was in existence, speak of 
 it with (intpialilied rapture ; «hile the ar- 
 
COLOSSUS. 
 
 chitecture of the temple itself and its ex- 
 quisite sculptures prove the veracity of 
 their asseverations. 
 
 His Olympian Jupiter was executed 
 after the ungrateful treatment that he re- 
 ceived from the Athenians, v\'hen he aban- 
 doned the city of his birth, which he had 
 rendered celebrated by his works, and 
 took refuge in Elis. Animated ratiier 
 than subdued by the ingratitude of his 
 countrymen, Phidias laboured to surpass 
 the greatest works with wliich he had 
 adorned Athens. With this view he framed 
 the statue of Jupiter Olympius for the 
 Eleans, and completely succeeded even in 
 excelling his own Minerva in the Parthe- 
 non. Luciau says, that in order to render 
 this work as perfect in detail as it was 
 noble in conception and outline, he exhi- 
 bited it, wliile in progress, to the public 
 view, and concealing himself near it, heard 
 every criticism made by the spectators, 
 and profited by every suggestion which he 
 considered as useful. This colossal sta- 
 tue was sixty feet in height, and com- 
 pletely embodied the sublime picture 
 which Homer has given of the mythologi- 
 cal monarch of the heavens. 
 
 Phidias, above all other artists, proved 
 the truth of Sir Joshua Reynolds's opinion 
 upon the works of the Greeks, who said, 
 in a conversation recorded by the amiable 
 secretary for foreign correspondence in 
 the Royal Academy (Prince Hoare, Esq.), 
 " I have settled my mind as to this point : 
 when, I look at the works of the Greeks, 
 I do not see Fancy, I do not see Genius; 
 I see Philosophy," which, he might have 
 added, embraces the essence of them both, 
 and of all the finer qualities of art. 
 
 While descanting on the colossi of an- 
 cient times, we should not forget the mag- 
 nificent, and perhaps extravagant, propo- 
 sal of Dinocrates to Alexander the Great 
 of forming Mount Athos into a colossus of 
 that conqueror ; nor of a similar proposal 
 of modern times of sculpturing one of the 
 Alps, near the pass of the Simplon, into 
 a resemblance of Buonaparte. 
 
 Among other celebrated colossi of an- 
 cient times, historians record as eminently 
 beautiful, that which was executed by Ly- 
 sippus at Tarentum. It was forty cubits 
 or sixty feet in height. The difficulty of 
 carrying it away, more than moderation 
 in the conqueror, alone prevented Fabius 
 from removing it to Rome with the statue 
 of Hercules belonging to the same city. 
 
 Colossi were in use also in Italy before 
 the time of the Romans despoiling their 
 vanquished enemies of their works of art. 
 
 The Jupiter of Lcontium in Sicily was 
 seven cubits in height, and the Apollo of 
 wood that was transported from Etruria, 
 and placed in the library of Augustus at 
 Rome, was fifty feet in stature. The same 
 emperor also placed a fine bronze colossus 
 of Apollo in the temple of that god, wliicii 
 he built near his own palace. Tlie ear- 
 liest colossus that is recorded to have been 
 sculptured in Rome was the statue of Ju- 
 piter Capitolinus, that Spurius Carvilius, 
 placed in the Capitol after his victory over 
 the Samnites ; but they soon became far 
 from scarce. Five are particularly noticed ; 
 namely, two of Apollo, two of Jupiter, and 
 one of the sun. 
 
 There have been dug up among the 
 ruins of ancient Rome a colossal statue of 
 the city of Rome, which was reckoned 
 among the tutelary divinities of the em- 
 pire. The superb colossi on the Monte 
 Cavallo, called by some antiquaries tlie 
 Dioscuri, are magnificent specimens of 
 Grecian art ; so is the Farnese Hercules, 
 and the gigantic Flora of the Belvedere. 
 Rome possesses several other colossi of 
 adnjirable workmanship, as the colossal 
 statue of Alexander the Great in the Co- 
 lonna palace ; the rare colossus of Anto- 
 ninus, in the Palazzi VitelJeschi; the ce- 
 lebrated statue of the Nile ; the four sta- 
 tues that surround the splendid fountaiu 
 and obelisk of the Piazza Navona, the ad- 
 mired work of Bernini. They are personi- 
 fications of four of the principal rivers in 
 the world ; namely, the Ganges, which 
 was sculptured by Fran. Baratta ; the 
 Nile by Antonio Fancelli ; the Danube by 
 Claude Franc ; and the Rio de la Plata 
 by Antonio Raggi : the statue of Jupiter, 
 in the gardens of the Palazzo Doria at 
 Genoa, and other colossal statues of less 
 consequence. 
 
 The pride and ambition of the Roman 
 emperors led them to encourage sculptural 
 representations of their persons. Nero 
 was the first who ventured on a colossus 
 of himself, by Zenodorus, but after his 
 death it was dedicated to Apollo or the 
 sun. Commodus afterwards took oil" the 
 head, and replaced it with a portrait of 
 himself. Domitian, actuated by a similar 
 ambition, had a colossus of himself carved 
 as the deity of the sun. 
 
 Among more modern works of this na- 
 ture is the enormous colossus of San Carlo 
 Borromeo at Arona, in the Milanese terri- 
 tory. It is of bronze, sixty feet in height, 
 and has a staircase into its interior for the 
 purpose of occasional repairs and resto- 
 rations. 
 
COL 
 
 The bronze colossus copied from one of 
 the Monte Cavalo statues, in Hyde Park, 
 London ; and a few but little larger than 
 life, of the size that may be termed heroic 
 rather than colossal, such as decorate some 
 of our public buildings and commemora- 
 tive columns, as those on St. Paul's ca- 
 thedral. Lord Hill's column in Shrews- 
 bury, the Britannia on the Nelson column 
 at Yarmouth, the Duke of Bedford in 
 Russell Square, Charles Fox in Blooms- 
 bury Square, &c. are all that England can 
 at present boast of in tliis noble stjle of 
 art. The four colossal statues at Paris, 
 which are in front of the facade of the pa- 
 lace of the Corps Legislatif, are in good 
 taste, and show great boldness and free- 
 dom in the execution. They represent the 
 four greatest legislators of France ; Sully, 
 Colbert, L'Hopital, and D'Aguesseau ; 
 they are in their proper costume and 
 seated. 
 
 Canova's Perseus is also much larger 
 than life, and although a very fine work, 
 belongs rather to the heroic than the co- 
 lossal. 
 
 Colour, [color, Lat.] 7n painting. The 
 superficial appearance of bodies to the eye. 
 The tints or hues which are laid upon pic- 
 tures or drawings, and the materials of 
 which they are composed are technically 
 called colour and colours. The art of co- 
 louring, or an agreeable and tit arrange- 
 ment of tints in a picture is one of the 
 greatest dillicuUies in the decorative part 
 of the art, and one in which the Venetian 
 school has eminently succeeded. In draw- 
 ing or water colour painting, as well as in 
 the art of colouring prints, the colours are 
 generally used as transparent washes or 
 tints. In the modern English style of 
 painting in water colours, the tints are 
 laid on opacjue or transparent, as required ; 
 and in oil i)ainting, except the operation 
 called glazing, with opaque colours. See 
 Glazing. 
 
 CoLDMBARiUM. [Lat.] In ancient archi- 
 tecture. A pigeon house or dove cote. 
 Colnmharitim fictile, an earthen pot for birds 
 to breed in. In the cemeteries of the an- 
 cient Romans the; apertures that were 
 formed in the wall for tin; reception of the 
 cinerary urns were also called columlmrii, 
 from their resemblance to the openings of 
 a i)ig('i)n house. IMiimeroiis r('i)rfsenta- 
 tions of these receptacles for mortuary 
 urns may be found in the works of Piit\- 
 Nicsi, in the Description of tiie ('i>luinl)arii 
 of tlio l''re(!dnu!n of Livia, by (ioni and 
 Handim ; and a good practical example of 
 them in one of the new roomy ut the Bri- 
 
 COL 
 
 tish Museum, which is appropriated to the 
 reception of ancient Roman cinerary urns, 
 which are all deposited as they were ori- 
 ginally in proper columbarii. See Urn. 
 
 Column, [columna, Lat.] In architecture. 
 A round pillar. In the earliest periods of 
 the world the column was merely the trunk 
 of a tree, or its imitation in stone used to 
 support the roof. The parts of a complete 
 column are its base, on which it rests, its 
 body, called the shaft, and its head, called 
 the capital. Columns are used to support 
 the entablature of an order, which has 
 also its proper division. See Architec- 
 ture, Order, Ent.vblature. 
 
 The origin of columns has already been 
 touched upon in the article Architec- 
 ture ; and their varieties are also enume- 
 rated under the word Capital. In the 
 most ancient times columns of wood were 
 the most \isual, as being the most practi- 
 cable. Such were the columns of the tem- 
 ple of Neptune in Arcadia, of which I'au- 
 sanias speaks ; and those at Elis, and two 
 at Olympia, of which he states himself to 
 have been an eyewitness. It is also pro- 
 bable that the Phoenician temples had also 
 columns of wood, with timber procured 
 from the forests of Libanum. All that we 
 are acquainted with of the temple of Solo- 
 mon leads to the same conclusion, both 
 with regard to the Phoenicians themselves 
 and this celebrated temple the work of 
 the architects. 
 
 In countries like Egypt, where timber 
 fit for construction is scarce and stone 
 abundant, the latter became the principal 
 material for columns, and those of Egypt 
 arc remarkable for the beauty of their 
 workmanship and the dural)ility of their 
 materials. The Greeks used marble of 
 the finest kind for their columns, with 
 which their coimtrj' abounded ; and other 
 nations, the stone or mat( rial of tlu-ir coun- 
 try. The Greeks properly considered the 
 column as an essential part of the archi- 
 tecture of their temples, and never used it 
 as a mere tlecoration. 
 
 The manner of constructing the columns 
 of all tlie orders are upon similar princi- 
 ples. They are all divided into three pri- 
 mary parts or divisions, liie liast\ the shutt, 
 and the capital, except the Doric order, 
 wiiidi has no base. The lowest or thick- 
 est part of tiie shaft is used i)y ardiitecls 
 as the universal scale or standaril ^^ iieine 
 all the meastires whicii regulate and de- 
 termine heiglitsand projections are taken; 
 and tills standard or scale iniisl lie under- 
 stood beftue any architectural design can 
 be commenced. 
 
COLUMN. 
 
 I The universal architectural scale is and 
 
 is called a diameter, being the diameter of 
 the lowest or largest part of the column ; 
 and unlike the foot, inch, or yard, is as 
 various as are diameters of columns. The 
 diameter, of course, implies the chord of 
 the circle, which forms the bottom of the 
 column. Half of this diameter, or the 
 length of the radius which forms the cir- 
 cle, is called a inodule, and is used as well 
 as the diameter, as a primary standard of 
 mensuration, by some writers upon archi- 
 tecture. These measures of length are 
 subdivided as follows ; namely, the diame- 
 ter into sixty parts, and the module into 
 thirty parts, each part being the same in 
 length, and are called minutes. Both 
 mensurations are the same, only under 
 different denominations ; as, for instance, 
 V one author says a column, which always 
 P includes the base,'shaft, and capital, is six 
 diameters, twelve minutes high, while ano- 
 ther would say of the same column and its 
 admeasurements, that it is twelve modules, 
 and twelve minutes, both meaning the self- 
 same dimension. 
 
 The Done column has no base. The 
 Ionic column has one peculiar to itself, 
 called the attic, which with those of the 
 Corinthian and Composite orders are fully 
 described under the article base. See 
 Base. 
 
 The shafts of the different orders differ 
 in height, and even in various examples of 
 the same order ; as may be seen in the ar- 
 ticles Architecture, Order, Shaft. 
 
 The capitals are also as various, and are 
 fully discussed under that word. See 
 Capital. The arrangement and distribu- 
 tion of columns are explained in the arti- 
 cle Intercolumniation, and their contours 
 under that of Entasis. Columns are either 
 plain or fluted, and the flutes and manner 
 of dividing them are different in the Doric 
 and Corinthian orders. The Ionic flutes 
 much resemble the Corinthian, and, in 
 many instances, are exactly similar. 
 Twisted, spiral, and rusticated columns, 
 like many of Mr. Nash's in the New Street, 
 of Borromini in various buildings in Rome, 
 and the Baldachino of St. Peter's, are alike 
 in bad taste, and to be avoided. 
 
 Columns are also often used for monu- 
 ments, as well as for architectural sup- 
 ports; like the Trajan and Antonine co- 
 lumns at Rome, and that called the Monu- 
 ment at London. There are also astrono- 
 mical columns, like that which Catherine 
 di Medici erected at the Halle au Bled in 
 Paris. The Romans had their columna 
 hellica, which was near the temple of Ja- 
 nus, and from which war was proclaimed 
 
 by the consul casting a javelin from it to- 
 wards the country of their enemy; also 
 chronological columns, whereon they in- 
 scribed historical events according to the 
 order of time. The cruciferal column car- 
 ries a cross upon its summit; the/«ne- 
 real column an urn ; the statuarial column a 
 statue ; the zoophoric column an animal ; 
 the genealogical or heraldic column inscrip- 
 tions relative to the genealogies or armorial 
 bearings of distinguished families ; the 
 gnomic column has lines and figures, point- 
 ing out the hours on its shaft; the honorific 
 or commemorative column has for its object 
 the commemoration of great men who have 
 died for or have served their country in 
 a distinguished manner; as those of Ju- 
 lius Caesar and of the Emperor Claudius, 
 which were formerly in the Forum Roma- 
 norum ; the itinerary column served to point 
 out the various roads diverging from its 
 site. The Romans had also a lacteal co' 
 lumn, which was erected in the vegetable 
 market, and contained in its pedestal a 
 receptacle for infants that were abandoned 
 by their parents ; see Juvenal, Satyr VI. 
 V. 601. The legal column was one on which 
 the ancients engraved their laws; the limi- 
 tative or boundary column marked the boun- 
 dary of a state or province ; the manubial 
 column was ornamented with trophies and 
 spoils taken from the enemy; the rostral 
 column with the prows (rostra) of the ships 
 obtained in a similar manner. The first 
 column of this description was that which 
 was erected in the capitol, on the occasion 
 of the naval victory which Caius Duillius 
 obtained over the Carthaginians. It is 
 now on the balustrade of the grand staircase 
 of the Campidoglio. Augustus raised four, 
 decorated with the prows of the vessels 
 which were taken from Cleopatra. Two 
 were also erected to the honour of Caius 
 Menius for a naval victory over the Latins 
 and Antiates. The sepulchral column was 
 one elevated upon a sepulchre or tomb, 
 with an epitaph engraven upon its shaft. 
 The triumphal column was one erected by 
 the Romans in commemoration of a con- 
 queror to whom had been decreed the ho- 
 nours of a triumph. The joints of the 
 stones were concealed by crowns obtained 
 by military conquests. The columns of 
 Trajan and Antonine, besides their specific 
 objects, are also triumphal columns. The 
 British parliament, when they voted the 
 magnificent palace of Blenheim to the 
 great Duke of Marlborough, also erected 
 a triumphal column in the park. On the 
 four sides of the pedestal are inscribed de- 
 scriptions of the victories of that great 
 commander, and his statue is upon (he 
 
abacus, supported by figures of captured 
 enemies, and surrounded by trophies. 
 
 COLUiMN. 
 
 The Trajan column 
 
 ■tall, 
 
 The milUary column, or milliarium au- From whose low ba^e the sculptures wind aloft, 
 
 rcum of Rome was originally a column of And lead, through various toils, up the rough steep, 
 
 white marble, which Augustus erected lis '"-'lo to the skies" 
 
 near the temple of Saturn in the Forum, is one of the most celebrated monuments 
 
 as a centre whence the account of the miles of antiquity, and has endured tiie stormy 
 
 began in their calculation of distances from battleings of the elements and the waste 
 
 the city. This celebrated column is still 
 in existence, being placed on the stylobate 
 in front of the Canipidoglio, the modern 
 capitol at Rome. It is a short column, with 
 
 of time for more than seventeen centuries. 
 Its height, including the pedestal and sta- 
 tue, is one hundred and thirty-two feet. 
 This monumental column was erected in 
 
 a Tuscan capital, and has a ball of bronze the centre of the Forum Trajani, and dedi- 
 for afinial,as a symbol of the globe. It was cated to the Emperor Trajan for his deci- 
 called golden either because it was once sive victory over the Dacians, as is testi- 
 gilded all over, or at least the globe and or- fied by the inscription on the pedestal. It 
 naraental accessories. As a companion to it is of the Doric order, and its shaft is con- 
 is a similar column bearing on its summit structed of thirty-four pieces of Greek 
 a vase, containing the ashes of Trajan, marble, joined with cramps of bronze, 
 with the following inscription :—" Hoc IN For elegance of proportion, beauty of 
 ORBicvLO OLiM Trajani ciNERES JACEBANT ; style, and for simplicity and dexterity of 
 NVNC NON CINERES, SED MEMORiA JACET. sculpture, is the finest in the world. The 
 Tempvs cvm cinere memoriam sepelivit. figures on the pedestal are masterpieces of 
 Ars cvm tempore NON ciNEREM, SED ME- Roman art. It Avas formerly surmounted 
 MORiAM instavrat; magnitvdinis enim byastatueofTrajan,whichisnowreplaced 
 NON REUQVi.«, SED VMBRA VIVA MANET, by a statuo of St. Peter. 
 ciNis, ciNERi IN VRNA .ETATE MORiTVR, The columu of the Empcror Phncas is 
 Memoria ciNERis IN .'ERE ARTE REVivisciT. near the temple of Concord; is of Greek 
 The principal insulated commemorative marble fluted, and of the Corintiiian order, 
 or triumphal columns now remaining are four feet diameter, and fifty-four feet high, 
 the following; namely, Pompey's pillar or including the pedestal, 
 column at Alexandria, in Egypt. Opi- The AnUmine column was erected by the 
 nions have differed much as to the date of Roman senate to the glory of Marcus Au- 
 its erection, and to Avhose memory it was relius, for his victories over the Marco- 
 
 raised. Its style is that of Dioclesian and 
 the lower empire. Engravings and de- 
 scriptions of this ancient monument may 
 be found in the works of Denon, and other 
 Egyptian travellers. It is of Thebaic gra- 
 nite, of the Corintiiian order, and, accord- 
 
 manes, in the reign of Commodus. Aure- 
 liiis afterwards dedicated it to his father- 
 in-law, Antoninus Pius, to whicii the fol- 
 lowing inscription, cut by order of Pope 
 Sextus V. in 1.589, after an ancient one al- 
 most defaced bears witness. Marcvs Ai'- 
 ing to the best atitliorities, it measures rei.ivs Imw Armenis, Parthis, Gehmanis 
 sixty-four feet in the shaft, about five feet bello maximo devictis, trivmphalem 
 in the base, ten feet in the pedestal, and iianc coi-vmnam rebvs gestis insic.nem 
 fromfen to eleven in the ca|)i(al. A Greek Imp. Antonino patri dicavit. Accord- 
 inscription was discovered by the British, ing to a rigid admeasurement made by M. 
 who were there at the time of Sir Ralph de la Condamino, this column measured 
 Abercrombie, which dedicates it to the one hundred and sixteen Frencii feet in 
 
 I'mperor Dioclesian, under the govern- 
 ment of the Prefect Portiits. The opinion 
 sustained by its common name, that it was 
 erected by Cajsar to commemorate his vic- 
 tory over Pompey, has had respeclab](! 
 
 height, and eleven in diameter. It is built 
 entirely of marble, and encircled with bassi 
 rilievi, which form twenty spirals arotind 
 its shaft. It has also been well eitK'idated 
 by engravings and descriptions by Pictro 
 
 supporters. Denon, and some other wri- Sanli lUinoi.i. It is in every respect in- 
 
 ters, have supposed it i)art of au iiiimense 
 building, of wiiich Ihi'y trace the ruins ad- 
 joining. It has Inu'ii sometimes Ihdiight 
 to commemorate the favours of Hadrian to 
 this city, and still more frequently tlidse 
 of Severus ; while some writers ascrilie 
 its erection to I»folemy ]MiiJadel[ihus, in 
 memory of his queen Arsinoc ; and others 
 to Plolemy Eiigcrfes. 
 
 ferior to that of Trajan as a work of nr(, 
 particularly in the slyle and execution of 
 the sculptures. It was repaired in l5Kt> 
 by Fonlana, tinder the ])oii)ili(a(e of Sex- 
 tus \ . who placed a colossal .slaliie of St. 
 Paul upon its stimmit, with the tollowing 
 inscription, "Sextvs V. i'oNi. Max. (o- 
 
 LVniNAM HANC rOCIU.IDl 'M, IMP. AnTONINO 
 mCATAM, M1ȣKE LACEKAM HVINOSAMQVE, 
 
COL 
 
 PRni,^ FORM.IE RESTITVIT, A.M.I). LXXXIX, 
 
 Pont. IV. 
 
 There is also in Rome another column 
 bearing the same name, situated on the 
 Monte Cittorio. Its shaft is of a single 
 piece of Egyptian granite, forty-five feet 
 in height, and five feet eight inches in dia- 
 meter. Its pedestal is ornamented with 
 bassi rilievi, representing the apotheosis 
 of Antoninus and Faustina, and other 
 events relating to the history of Rome, It 
 has been repaired by Lambertini, and 
 Pius VI. removed the bassi rilievi to the 
 Vatican, and it is engraved in the 5th vo- 
 lume of the Museo Pio Clementino. On 
 one of its sides it has the following in- 
 scription : — " Divo Antonino Avgvstino 
 PIO Antoninvs Avgvstvs et Vervs Av- 
 
 GVSTVS FILII." 
 
 Till the commencement of the eighteenth 
 century there were to be seen at Constan- 
 tinople two insulated columns, ornamented 
 with bassi rilievi, in the style of the Tra- 
 jan column at Rome. One was erected in 
 honour of Constantine, and the other of 
 Arcadius or Theodosius. Of the latter 
 there is nothing left but its granite base, 
 the column being destroyed by the Turks 
 because having been several times da- 
 maged by earthquakes, they were fearful 
 of its falling. The Constantine column was 
 composed of seven large cylindrical blocks 
 of porphyry, and was originally surmount- 
 ed by a statue of Constantinople, After 
 having been sevei'al times damaged by fire, it 
 was repaired by the Emperor Alexis Com- 
 nienes, as is indicated by an inscription in 
 Greek. 
 
 Of modern columns, that called the Mo- 
 nument, at London, whicii was erected in 
 commemoration of the great conflagration 
 of 1G66, is at once the loftiest, the best 
 constructed, and the most beautiful. It is 
 a Doric fluted column, two hundred and 
 two feet high from the bottom of the pe- 
 destal, which is ornamented with a bassi 
 rilievi of Charles II. and his Court 2:iving: 
 protection to the fallen city, and various 
 inscriptions, to the top of the vase of flames 
 by which it is surmounted. There are 
 also several smaller columns, but of beau- 
 tiful proportions, in various parts of Eng- 
 land, in imitation of the above, but mostly 
 of the Grecian or pure Doric order, as the 
 Anglesea column, erected in commemo- 
 ration of the battle of Waterloo and the 
 noble earl of that name, in the island of 
 Anglesea. The column at Shrewsbury, 
 erected in commemoration of the same 
 event and of another noble general. Lord 
 Hill. The Nelson columns at Yarmouth 
 and in Dublin. The Wellington column 
 
 COM 
 
 at Trim, in the county of Meath, Ireland, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Comb, [camb, Saxon.] In the costume of 
 painting- and sculpture. An instrument to 
 separate and adjust the hair. We have 
 no certain autiiority from either busts or 
 medals that either the Greek or the Etriis- 
 can women used this useful and ornamen- 
 tal appendage to their hair ; although in 
 most of them it is carefully and gracefully 
 arranged. Nor in the discoveries that 
 have been disinterred at Volterra and other 
 Etruscan cities, where abundance of uten- 
 sils and instruments of the female toilet 
 have been found, has there been a single 
 comb among them. There is therefore no 
 authority with which we are at present 
 acquainted to inform us from whom the 
 Romans borrowed this article of the toilet. 
 Many of their sepulchral inscriptions are 
 dedicated to their dressing maids (orna' 
 trices). GuAsco, in his work Delle Oiiia- 
 trici, has cited one at page 5, of a certain 
 Polydeuces or Pollux, in honour of Cipa- 
 rena. Besides the name and quality of his 
 friend or manumitted slave, Pollux has 
 had sculptured upon one side the bodkin 
 or pin with which the Roman women fas- 
 tened their hair, and on the other a comb. 
 It is probable that the combs of the Ro- 
 mans were of ivojy, box, gold, and silver, 
 but, according to Guasco, they were also 
 of iron and of bronze. In the beforemen- 
 tioned work of that author, Delle Omatrici, 
 there are several representations of ancient 
 Roman combs. One in particular at page 
 63, that was in the Museum Settala at 
 Milan, is a long one of box, of which the 
 handle is overlaid with ivory, and appears 
 to have been ornamented with a small 
 majander in gold. It has two rows of fine 
 teeth delicately wrought and well propor- 
 tioned. Another is engraved from the 
 same original that Montfaucon has also 
 published in Supplement a I'Antiq. Ex- 
 pliq. torn. iii. plate 21, fig. 2. Both wri- 
 ters judge them to be of no great antiquity, 
 Canova and other modern sculptors have 
 made great use of the comb in their female 
 busts, to which they add a grace and ele- 
 gance unknown to those of the ancients. 
 Combats. See Battles. 
 CoMiTiuM. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 A building wherein the assemblies of the 
 people were held for the election of ma- 
 gistrates and other officers, and the making 
 of laws. The meetings were called comi- 
 tia curiata when they voted by whole 
 courts; centurinta when they did it by 
 hundreds ; tributa when by tribes ; and in 
 each the majority carried. See Cic. de leg. 
 In this building justice was also adminiii- 
 
COM 
 
 tered from the ivory chair called Sella Cu- 
 rulis (see Curule chair) ; and under it 
 stood inferior benches called suhsellin. 
 The Comitium was in the Roman Forum, 
 which occupied the entire space between 
 the Palatine Hill, the Capitol, and the Via 
 Sacra. It was separated originally from 
 the Forum by rows of steps and barriers ; 
 and was uncovered till the memorable 
 year that Hannibal first entered Italy, 
 when it was embellished and covered with 
 a roof, supported by lofty and beautiful 
 fluted columns of the Corinthian order. 
 Three of them, with their architrave, are 
 still standing in the ancient Forum, near 
 the church of Santa Maria Liberatrice. 
 The capitals are wrought and finished on 
 the side next the Forum, but rough on the 
 opposite side. Some antiquaries have 
 supposed that these columns are the re- 
 mains of the temple of Castor and Pollux, 
 others a portion of the bridge of Caligula, 
 which went from the Palatine Hill to the 
 Capitol, and others that they are ruins of 
 the temple of Jupiter Stator. That they 
 are part of the comitium is, however, for 
 every reason, the most plausible conjec- 
 ture. The excavations recently made at 
 their base, by order of the late Pope Pius 
 VII. have laid open some remains of build- 
 ings at the depth of fourteen feet below 
 the surface of the soil, which was about 
 the level of the ancient Forum. The Co- 
 mitium was anciently ornamented with 
 pictures that the a'diles Varro and Mu- 
 rena captured from the Lacedemonians, 
 and with a number of line statues. Among 
 otiiers was a beautiful one of Venus, called 
 Cloacina, because Tatius, king of the Sa- 
 bines, who, after the peace between him 
 and the Romans, reigned conjointly with 
 Romulus, discovered it concealed in the 
 Cloaca. This accounts for tlie inscription 
 Cloacina, with a rej)rescntatiou of the co- 
 mitium, being on a Roman medal of the 
 Mussidian family. Ri presentations of this 
 building is also found on medals of the 
 families of Hostilia, Silia, and (according 
 to MorcU) Licinia. See Ci iua. 
 
 Compartments, [amiparthiwnti, lla].] In 
 painthiff and arclntcctuir. The arrange- 
 ments, or curved, uiixe<l, or rigiit lines into 
 superficial figures or divisions for use or 
 ornament. In the; distribution of a city 
 tiie streets siiould be formed into propter 
 compartments. In tlie elevation of a build- 
 ing, tii(! j)arts shoultl be divided into pro- 
 per and suitable compartments, according 
 to its nature and quality. Apartments 
 bhould also be arranged into proper com- 
 partments, and the walls therein be di- 
 vided into graceful proportions, and pro- 
 
 COM 
 
 per subdivisions, which may be decorated 
 with paintings, bassi rilievi, arabesques, 
 &c. See also Panel. 
 
 Compass or Compasses, [compas, Fr.] 
 In all the arts. A mathematical instm- 
 ment to draw circles, and to measure or 
 define distances between two points. The 
 triangular or three legged compasses takes 
 three points at once, and is useful in tri- 
 gonometrical drawings and geographical 
 drawings, as well as for the engraver. 
 There are also proportional coni])asses of 
 four points, two at each end, with a sliding 
 centre, by Avhich distances measured with 
 one pair of points, a proportion thereto ac- 
 cording to the situation of the centre, is 
 given by the other. 
 
 CoMPLUViuM. [Lat.] In ancient aixhitec- 
 tine. A void space in the centre of ancient 
 Roman buildings, constructed to receive 
 the waters that fell from the roof. Also a 
 gutter, penthouse, or eaves. 
 
 Composite order. In architecture. See 
 Order, Column, Capital, Architec- 
 ture. 
 
 Composition, [compositin, Lat.] In paint- 
 ing; sculpture, and architecture. The ar- 
 rangement of various component parts to 
 form a whole, whether of figures, trees, 
 vessels, &c. in a painting or piece of sculp- 
 ture, or of doors, windows, piers, columns, 
 pilasters, cornices, Sec. in a building. To 
 compose well is one of the lirst qualities 
 necessary for an artist, after he has ac- 
 quired the elements of his art, and com- 
 menced an original work. Composition, 
 in many instances, vies with and, in fact, 
 is invention (see Invention); and in others 
 takes up only arrangement and disposi- 
 tion; as in the composition of a group of 
 portraits in one case, and of an histt)rical 
 picture in the other. 
 
 Comj)osition, to be excellent, should be 
 subservient to nature. A study of nature 
 will assist composition, for nature mostly 
 comjjoses and groups w«'ll. Composition 
 may even be said U> enter into (he arrange- 
 ment of a single figure. Rallaelle's Car- 
 dinal Sforza, Titian's Carilinal Kenti^o- 
 glio, Reynolds's Mrs. Siddons, as the tra- 
 gic muse, till- same great master's GeiuM-al 
 Heatlilield, holding the key as goM'inor 
 of Gibraltar, Flaxman's Lord Mansfield, 
 in 'Westminster Abbey, and Clianfrey's 
 James Watt, are beautiful instances of a 
 happy composition of (he parts of a single 
 figure. 
 
 General or ideal beauty carried to a 
 system will never aid composition. The 
 beauty of the Faun is of oin' kind, (hat of 
 the Apollo of another; the beauty of the 
 Venus differs from that of (he Diana, yet 
 
CON 
 
 they are all beautiful. Character is ano- 
 ther essential quality in composition, parti- 
 cularly in architecture ; for buildings should 
 cany distinctive marks of their qualities 
 and use upon their fronts. The composi- 
 tion of theatrical edifices should difler from 
 municipal buildings. Churches again 
 from assembly rooms, and dwelling houses 
 from ancient temples. Yet how often are 
 these essential qualities in art neglected. 
 
 A composition in painting and sculp- 
 ture may be rich in figures, and in archi- 
 tecture abundant in parts, and yet be poor 
 in' ideas. A compositfcn should be learn- 
 ed, not pedantic. The composition is ge- 
 nerally settled in the sketch, and where 
 that is not from the first moment deter- 
 mined upon and good, the work, however 
 well finished in detail and colour, will 
 never be excellent. See Disposition, 
 
 CoNCAMERATA SuDATio. [Lat.] In an- 
 cient architecture. The apartment in the 
 Gymnasium where the wrestlers and 
 racers retired after their contests to wipe 
 away their sweat. It was situated be- 
 tween the laconicum or stove and the warm 
 bath. 
 
 Concave, [concatus, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. Hollow ; such as cavettos, quirks, 
 niches, recesses, 6cc. 
 
 Conclave. [Lat, from con and clavis.~\ 
 In architecture. An inner apartment, where 
 the attendants cannot come but with one 
 key ; but more specially the name of the 
 place where the cardinals meet to choose 
 a new Pope, on a vacancy of the Pontifi- 
 cal throne. The conclave is in the Pon- 
 tifical Palace of the Vatican, and consists 
 of a suit of grand halls or corridors, with 
 rows of cells formed on each side of equal 
 dimensions, being five feet long and four 
 wide. Two are allotted to each cardinal, 
 one for his eminence and the other for his 
 officer, called the conclavist, and his valet 
 de chambre. They are all painted green, 
 except those of the cardinals who were 
 created by the deceased pope, whose cells 
 are painted violet colour, and the insides 
 are lined with serge of the same colour. 
 The cardinals, after having heard all the 
 bulls read which relate to the election of 
 the pope, and the manner of living in con- 
 clave, wliich they ai'e all sworn to observe, 
 are then kept in close conclave till they 
 have decided upon which cardinal the 
 election has fallen. 
 
 Conduit. [Fr.] In architecture. A long 
 narrow passage between two walls, or 
 under ground, for secret communication 
 between various apartments ; of which 
 many are to be found in ancient buildings. 
 Also a canal of pipes for the conveyance 
 
 CON 
 
 of waters ; a sort of subterraneous or con- 
 cealed aqua?duct. The construction of 
 conduits requires science and care in their 
 execution. The ancient Romans excelled 
 in them, and formed their lower parts 
 whereon the water ran, with cement of 
 such an excellent quality, that it has be- 
 come as indurated as the stone itself which 
 it was employed to join. There are con- 
 duits of Roman aquseducts still remaining 
 of from five to six feet in height, and three 
 feet in width. 
 
 Conduits of modern times are generally 
 pipes of wood, lead, iron, or pottery ware, 
 for conveying the water from the main 
 spring or reservoirs to the different houses 
 and places where it is required. 
 
 CoNFESsiON.\L. [from confessionis, Lat.] 
 In architecture. A cell in a Catholic church 
 wherein the confessor sits to hear confes- 
 sions. The confessional, of which there 
 are many in every Roman Catholic church 
 and chapel, is a species of cell built of 
 joinery, with a boarded back next the wall, 
 or against a pillar or a pier, divided into 
 three niches or small cells. The centre, 
 which is for the reception of the priest, is 
 closed half way up by a dw arf door, and 
 has a seat within it. There is a small 
 grated aperture in each of the partitions 
 between him and the side cells, which are 
 for those who come to confess, and have 
 no doors. They are susceptible of taste 
 in their form and decoration, and in many 
 Catholic churches are sufficiently hand- 
 some. 
 
 Confused, [from cojifusus, Lat.] In cri- 
 ticism. Perplexed, indistinct, not clear. A 
 work of art, whether in painting, sculpture, 
 or in architecture, is said to be confused 
 when the figures or other component parts 
 are ill arranged, the lights ill distributed, 
 the colours badly sorted, and is the very 
 opposite of excellence in composition. A 
 subject may be crowded, but should not 
 be confused. The beautiful sculptures of 
 the temple of Minerva Parthenon, called 
 the Panathenaic procession, are crowded, 
 but any thing but confused ; and many 
 modern works are both crowded and con- 
 fused. 
 
 Confusion in architectural composition 
 often arises from ornaments being too 
 crowded in every part, leaving no repose 
 for the eye. Tliis vice in art is never 
 found in the exquisite designs of the Greek 
 school, nor in the purest of the Roman and 
 Italian schools ; but often in those of the 
 middle ages, and in parts of modern Eu- 
 rope. Baalbeck, Palmyra, Spalatro, and 
 parts of the New Street, London, are ex- 
 amples of this error. 
 
CON 
 
 CoNCiAHiUM. [Lat.] In Roman auhn'i- 
 olvgy and medallogy. A largess or bounty 
 of money given by the Roman emperors to 
 the people upon certain occasions, by tiie 
 hands of certain officers called Sequesters 
 or Divisoies. The money that was also 
 distributed by the rich class of Roman citi- 
 zens to the people ivhen they souglit their 
 favours or their votes was also called by 
 the same name. Tiberius, Caligula, and 
 Nero, stand in history among the most 
 profuse in their congiarii to the people. 
 Nero was the first who commemorated his 
 corruption by stamping the money with 
 which he bribed the slaves of Rome with 
 the image and superscription of baseness. 
 The type of the medals or coins which re- 
 presented, and were struck for the congia- 
 rii, exhibited the tyrant seated upon his 
 suggestum or chair, borne up by men, 
 giving a tessera or ticket, which indicated 
 what the receiver was to get for his pros- 
 tration, to a citizen, a woman, or a child. 
 
 CoNiSTERiuM. [Lat. Kovi^pa, Gr.] In 
 ancient architecture. An apartment in the 
 gymnasium and palestra, where the wrest- 
 lers, after anointing themselves with oil, 
 were besprinkled with dust, that they 
 might take the surer hold of one another. 
 
 Connoisseur. [Fr.] In criticism. A 
 judge of works in art ; a critic in matters 
 of taste. A connoisseur should be ac- 
 quainted with the principles of the art, 
 which he professes to understand, more 
 deeply than the amateur. See Amateur. 
 It is sufficient for the latter to love the 
 arts, to patronize them, and to understand 
 them generally ; but the connoisseur or 
 critic should be a learned judge if not a 
 l)ractitioner. He should be ac(|uainted 
 with the beauties and denunits of drawing, 
 anatomy, perspective, expression, charac- 
 ter, colour, chiaroscuro, composition, style, 
 &c. &c. He sho\ild also be well read in 
 history, a good inatheniatician, if his in- 
 quiries lead him to architecture, acquaint- 
 ed with mythology, the ancient poets, anil 
 every brancli of elegant literature. 
 
 CoNSEC'UA rioN. [consccralio, Lat.] In the 
 history of the arts. A dedication to the 
 service of any one. Among tlie aniuenls, 
 a consecration was the (Icdication of a 
 temple, statue, altar, or otiier work of art 
 to a deceased person, or a god, and in 
 many instances, tiie word has a siintlar 
 meaning to apoliieosis (s(!e that A\ord). 
 
 In modern tiiiu's it has a similar mean- 
 ing, but is principally conlined to tiie de- 
 dication of a iiuilding to sacred us<'S. 
 
 (^oNSKRVAiouv. [conscmitorio, Lat.J In 
 architecture. A building for the conserva- 
 tion and |)vot('(tion of lender plants. 
 
 CON 
 
 Among the Italians, a conserraturio is more 
 properly understood as being a nursery or 
 school for singers ; but the word, as well 
 as the building, is confined in Elngland to 
 botanical uses only. 
 
 The conservatory is distinguished from 
 the greenhouse by the circumstance of its 
 affording protection or conservation only 
 to the plants ; while the greenhouse is 
 used for the rearing of them. The con- 
 servatory is also often attached to the 
 house as an apartment for the display of 
 scarce and valuable plants during the 
 time of their greatest beauty and perfec- 
 tion, which are removed from the green- 
 house, stove, and hothouse, to (he conser- 
 vatory for such temporary exhibition, 
 "o hile space is allowed for walks between 
 the stages and plants. 
 
 Construction, [constructio, Lat.] hi 
 architecture. The art of building from the 
 architect's designs. The act of arranging 
 the materials of a structure in a scientific 
 manner. See AitCHiTECTURE. 
 
 CoNSUiJVR MEDALS. In numismatics. Me- 
 dals struck during the time of the Roman 
 republic, not bearing the name of any par- 
 ticular family, as in later times, which are 
 called/«/«i7(/ medals. See IMedai.. 
 
 CoNTORNiATEs. [tVom contomo, Ital.] In 
 numis>natics. A species of medals or me- 
 dallions of bronze, let into a circle of ano- 
 ther material. The contorniate medals 
 have seldom such high relief as the com- 
 mon medals, being scarcely more raised 
 than our modern current money. On 
 many ancient medals of tliis sort are found 
 a monogram composed of the letters 1* and 
 E, or an R reversed, with a palm engraved 
 in intaglio. On one side is generally a 
 head, and on tiie other some liistorical 
 mythological subject, taken from tiicii 
 plays. 
 
 Wiiat distinguishes tiie contorniate me- 
 dal from others is the want of connection 
 Ijetween tlie subjects of the re\erse and 
 tiie iiead upon tlie obverse. As mytiiolo- 
 gical and heroic subji-rts, such as ('yl)ele 
 and Alys seated in a car drawn l)_\ lions ; 
 a bacchanal ; the combat between Hercu- 
 les and Nessus the centaur; tiiat I)etwe('n 
 Acliilics and I'entiicsilca, (jucen of the 
 v\ma/.oiis ; Diana and I'ndxniion; the 
 education of Achilles l>> ("hiron tlu> cen- 
 taur; tile rape of tin- Saliiiies ; and the 
 Circus iMaxiimis at Kome, as re\erses to 
 the iiead of Alexander tiie (■reat :— gym- 
 nastic exercises, races in tiie circus, on (he 
 rcversi'S of Homer, Horace, Scx-ratcs. \'ir- 
 gil, A|)olIonius Tyaneus, Terence, Saiiust, 
 Apuleius, &c. On a contorniate medal, 
 described by Miliin, is even found tlie 
 
COP 
 
 heads of Nero and the younger Faustina. 
 The same types are often to be found upon 
 reverses of dilferent heads ; as tlie fable of 
 Scylla is represented upon medals having 
 the heads of Alexander the Great, Nero, 
 and Trajan. See the works of Spanheini, 
 Ducange, Pinkerton, Morel and JMahudel, 
 on medals. 
 
 CoNTORSiON. [contorsio, Lat.] In paint- 
 ing and sculpture. Unnatural, twisted, or 
 awkward flexure in the drawing or execu- 
 tion of a liguve. An expression may also, 
 through exaggeration, or want of attention 
 to nature, become a contovsion instead of 
 animation. 
 
 CoNTOi'R. See Outline. 
 Contrast, \contraste, Fr.] /?i all the arts. 
 An opposition, contrariety, and dissimili- 
 tude of figures, by which one contributes 
 to the visibility or effect of another. Con- 
 trast in painting arises either from the 
 management of the lights and shades, or 
 chiaroscuro ; from the varieties in size, 
 age, character, complexion, and passions 
 of the figures. In sculpture it arises 
 from the same causes, except colour ; and 
 in architecture, from bi-eaks, varieties of 
 heights, differences of orders, characters, 
 &c. The study of due contrast in every 
 work of art is essential to a fine eft'ect. 
 See also Opposition. 
 
 CoNTRE forte. See Counter fort. 
 Coping, [from cop or hop, Dutch.] In 
 architecture. The upper course of masonry 
 which covers the wall, wrought and laid 
 so as Jo throw off the water. 
 
 Copper. \];oper, Dutch, cuprum, Lat. i. e. 
 jEs Cijprium, because much of it was dug 
 in Cyprus.] In the arts ofsfatuury, engrav- 
 ing, and numismatics. One of the six primi- 
 tive metals. This metal, so useful in the 
 arts, is the most ductile and malleable 
 after gold and silver. It is also harder, 
 more tenacious, lighter, and more elas- 
 tic. It is, therefore, more proper for the 
 engraver's purpose, and from its cheap- 
 ness more fitting for the statuary in cast 
 metal. Copper mixed with other metals 
 forms bronze. See Bronze. 
 
 Copper was the metal most used in the 
 heroic days of Homer. Most of his trans- 
 lators have rendered the word x«^'^"'^^» 
 brass, perhaps as being more poetical in 
 sound. Antiquaries call this metal, when 
 referred to by ancient writers, whether 
 pure or mixed into brass, by the name of 
 bronze. 
 
 The discovery and use of copper pre- 
 ceded that of iron. Yet it is probable that 
 iron was known in the days of Homer's 
 heroes ; for in speaking of polished iron 
 and copper, he calls the first white and 
 
 CO P 
 
 the other red. Some authors attribute the 
 discovery of copper to Cadmus; but ac- 
 cording to Strabo, it was first f(,und at 
 Chalcis, a city in Euboea, now called Ne- 
 gropont, wlience its Greek name. Other 
 authors say it was first dug in the island 
 of Cyprus, and thence obtained its Latin 
 appellation. Pliny says the as Vyprium, 
 or Cyprus copper, was not so much esteem- 
 ed as that which was procured from other 
 places. There are several sorts recorded 
 by Roman authors, as being in much 
 esteem ; namely, the as Sallustianum which 
 they worked in the Alps, and named fiom 
 Salhist the proprietor of the mine ; the «?s 
 Livianum obtained from Gaul, and named 
 after Livia the wife of Augustus ; tJie a's 
 Marianum, brought from a mine in Spain, 
 which either belonging to the Marian fa- 
 mily^, or was situated in the Marianas 3Ions 
 (now the Sierra Morena), v^hich parted 
 Tarraconis (Arragon) from Baetica; and 
 the cEs Cordubensis, which was obtained at 
 Corduba (Cordova) in Spain. 
 
 The mixed metal called by the ancients 
 '(PS Corinthium, Corinthian brass, was in 
 much esteem, and reckoned more valuable 
 than silver. Its original composition is 
 said to have been fortuitous, and to have 
 arisen from the mixture of many rich and 
 costly statues of sundry sorts of metals, 
 which Avere melted, after the siege of Co- 
 rinth, by Lucius Mummius, in Anno Mun- 
 di, 3827, A. U. C. 630, who burned the 
 city and razed it to the ground, as a pun- 
 ishment for the Corinthians casting urine 
 on the heads of the Roman ambassadors. 
 
 Some critics have thought that Homer 
 alludes to the mixed metal called brass 
 or bronze, but he every where speaks of 
 it as a pure and not as a compound metal. 
 When Vulcan, in the eighteenth Iliad 
 (v. 475), makes the armour of Achilles, he 
 puts the copper in the fire, and forges it 
 like other metals, and though the poet 
 mentions ductile tin, impenetrable copper 
 (^aX/coc), precious gold and silver ; he re- 
 cords their separate uses, as the tin for the 
 greaves, copper for the helmet and cors- 
 let, brighter than the splendour of fire, 
 gold for the crest, and silver for decora- 
 tions to the shield ; he never mentions 
 their mixture into a compound metal. 
 
 Among the Romans, copper or bronze 
 was in use for engraving the public acts. 
 In a conflagration which happened in the 
 reign of Vespasian, three thousand tables 
 of this metal were consumed, that were 
 preserved in the capitol. It was also used 
 in construction for floors and roofs, instead 
 of carpentry, as we now use cast iron. 
 The roof of the portico of the Pantheon of 
 
COR 
 
 Agrippa was thus constructed, anti llu 
 
 cupola covered -with the same, till tluy 
 became the prey of the Barberini family, 
 under their head Urban VIII. who made 
 from them the Berninesque Baldachino of 
 St. Peter's, and above eighty pieces of 
 cunnon ; v^hich occasioned the biting epi- 
 grammatic inscription " Non Barbari sed 
 Barberini fecit." The memory even of 
 this fine and imperishable piece of con- 
 struction would have been lost, had not 
 Serlio, who was an admirer of this piece 
 of metallic carpentry, preserved its design 
 in his treatise on architecture. 
 
 This metal was also used to ornament 
 the interior, as well as the exterior of 
 many ancient edifices. At Lacedemon was 
 a temple of Minerva entirely of bronze or 
 copper, which was called chalciacus. 
 
 Coppeiipijvte. In engraving. A plate 
 of polished copper on which engravings 
 are made. See Engraving. 
 
 Copy, [co/j.'c, Fr.] In all the arts. A 
 transcript from the archetype or original. 
 A work of art executed in every part 
 after another which is called the original. 
 When an artist copies his own works, it is 
 called a double or duplicate. The artist 
 who executes an original work proceeds 
 ■upon ideas created by himself and formed 
 by his imagination, or presented to his eye 
 by nature ; while he who copies has be- 
 fore his eye a work of the same nature 
 with that which he would execute. It is, 
 therefore, more easy to make a good copy 
 than a good original ; which is the reason 
 why many an artist of mediocrity has suc- 
 ceeded in producing good copies, even 
 such as might be mistaken for tlie origi- 
 nals, who could not produce an original 
 work. There have been many instruments 
 invented and made to facilitate copying, 
 but nothing is equal to a correct eye and a 
 well practised hand. 
 
 Coral, [coralium, Lat. Kon/AXiov, Gr.] 
 In gem .■iculpture. A marine zixtphyte, tlint 
 becomes, after removal from the water, as 
 hard as a stone, of a fine red colour, and 
 will take a fine polish. Coral is much 
 used by gem sculptors for small orna- 
 ments, but is not so susceptible of receiv- 
 ing the finer execution of a gem, as the 
 hard and ])r('cious stones. Caylus has 
 publislied an anti(iue head of Medusa, 
 &culi)turcd in coral, of which the eyes are 
 ln(n'usli'(l or \v.l in, with a white; subslanco 
 rcsciiililing shells. He su|)p()SfS i( to have 
 been an amulet; because the ancients, wiio 
 were partial to a mystical analogy between 
 tilt; substance and the subject repicscnted 
 (8(?e Ai.i.KGonv), supposed, as ()•. id n- 
 lales iu his lM(!lnmorphoseH, that I'eiseu:;, 
 
 COR 
 
 after having cut ofl' the head of Medusa, 
 concealed it under some plants of coral, 
 which instantly became petrified, and 
 tinged with the colour of the blood which 
 flowed from it, and from a green turned to 
 a red colour. 
 
 Pliny and other ancient authors attri- 
 bute many superstitious qualities to the 
 coral, therefore it is no w onder that it was 
 often taken for an amulet. Pliny also re- 
 lates that the Gauls and other people, who 
 resided near the coast, as well as those of 
 the maritime parts of Italy, used it to form 
 sculptural ornaments for their armour and 
 household furniture. 
 
 Corbel, [corbis, Lat. corbeille, Fr.] In 
 architecture. A sculptured modillion or 
 bracket, sometimes made in the fonn of a 
 wide basket, and used to support columns, 
 piers, cornices, and other ])rojections. 
 Used in this manner, they belong to the 
 decadence and depraved style of the art, 
 that was introduced in the middle ages, 
 and has been revived in this country 
 within these few years, with, however no 
 followers. The French word corbeille has 
 a more extended meaning, and belongs to 
 sculpture. The baskets on the heads of 
 Canephora; and Caryatides, are thus call- 
 ed by their authors, as well as vases sculp- 
 tured in imitation of wicker basket work. 
 See Calathus, Caryatides, Canephora. 
 CoRYCELM. [from KopuKoc, Gr.] In an- 
 cient architccfui-e. The name of an apart- 
 ment in the gymnasii of the Greeks. Some 
 critics think it received its name from a 
 ball or stulfed bag (KopvKoe), which was 
 suspended from the ceiling for the pur- 
 pose of play, and is synonymous with the 
 spharisterium ; while others conceive it to 
 have been another name for the apodyte- 
 rium. 
 
 Corinthian order. See Architec- 
 ture, Base, Capital, Colvmn, Order. 
 
 Corinthian brass. See Bronze, Cop- 
 per. 
 
 Cornelian or Carneman. [cornaline, 
 Fr. corniola, Ital. from carmiis or corneiis, 
 Lat.] In g^m sciilpinre. A precious stone 
 of a light red or tlesli colour, whence its 
 name carnaline. It is much used for seals, 
 bracelets, necklaces, and other articles of 
 minute gem sculpture. Its name is also 
 derived from corneas cu- horny, w hiiut- its 
 other name cornelian, it being reckoned by 
 mineralogists among the hornstones. It 
 was known to tlie Homans, as we learn 
 from Pliny, by the name of Sania; from 
 being found originally in Sardinia. 
 
 Cornelians are of \arious colours, from 
 a light and fleshy n-d, oiiake, and senii- 
 trans|iairnl, uith anil without veins, ton 
 
COR 
 
 brilliant transparency and colour approacli- 
 ing the ruby, from which it ia, liowever, 
 known by sure and distinctive marks. 
 Winckelmann describes acornclijui of this 
 latter sort, on which was engraved a por- 
 trait of Pompey. 
 
 The cornelian is a stone well fitted for 
 engraving in intaglio, or sinking as for 
 seals, being of sufficient hardness to re- 
 ceive a fine polish, and wax does not 
 adhere to it, as it does to some other sorts 
 of stones which are used for seals ; and 
 the impression comes oft' clear and perfect. 
 The number of cornelians tliat were en- 
 graved by tiie ancients, and have reached 
 our times, are very considerable, and 
 nearly equal all the other kinds with 
 which we are acquainted. From an an- 
 cient epithet, " cornelian of the old rock," 
 Pliny conceives that they were taken from 
 a rock of that material near to Babylon ; 
 and that they were clarified by being 
 steeped in the honey of Corsica. The 
 royal collection at Paris, and the British 
 Museum of London, have numerous an- 
 cient engraved cornelians of a fine descrip- 
 tion. Many of the latter were found in 
 the field of Canna? in Apulia, where Han- 
 nibal defeated the Romans so signally 
 that there were forty thousand men slain ; 
 and among them such a number of the 
 higher class, that he sent to Carthage 
 three bushels of the rings which they 
 wore, as a token of his victory. 
 
 CoR>.'iCE. [coro7iis, Lat. corniche, Fr.] 
 In architect me. The upper division of an 
 entablature. There is as great a charac- 
 teristic diflerence between cornices of the 
 several orders, as between the capitals of 
 the columns, and in a good style of art 
 they never encroach upon each other. 
 
 The Corinthian cornice is the richest, the 
 loftiest in proportion, the fullest of mem- 
 bers and enrichments of all the orders. 
 It is known by its graceful proportions, its 
 modillions, deutels, and sculptured mem- 
 bers. / 
 
 The Ionic cornice is of graver propor- 
 tions, has no modillions, and very seldom 
 in the best examples dentels, which had 
 better always be left to the rich and gay 
 Corinthian. Harmony of proportion, beau- 
 ty of profile, particularly in the cyinatium, 
 breadth of parts, especially in the corona, 
 are the leading features which charac- 
 terize this order. 
 
 The Doric cornice is lower in its propor- 
 tions than either of the others, has a greater 
 comparative projection, and is known by 
 the masculine ciiaracter of its cymatium, 
 which is always in the purest examples 
 a beautiful echinus ; by its mutules and 
 
 COR 
 
 drops, one of vvliich is over every triglyph 
 and metoi)e of the friez.e. See Akchitix- 
 TURE, Entablature, Order. 
 
 Corona. [Lat. Xo^mioq, Gr.] In archi- 
 tecture. Tlie coping, crown, or brow of 
 the cornice which projects over the bed- 
 mouldings to throw off the water, and 
 form a division both for effect and use be- 
 tween the cymatium, and crown members, 
 and the bed or lower division of the cor- 
 nice. 
 
 Coronation medals. In numismatics. 
 Medals which are struck in commemora- 
 tion of a coronation, and distributed among 
 the people. See Medal. 
 
 Coronet. Icoronetta, Ital.] In costume. 
 An inferior sort of crown worn by the no- 
 bility, differing according to the degrees. 
 
 Corrections, [coirectio, Lat.] In paint- 
 ing. Emendations of errors, by the addi- 
 tion of something contrary. The Italians 
 call the correction of errors or alterations 
 of first thoughts in paintings, that are still 
 visible under the emendations, pe7itimcnti, 
 and they are to be found in many of the 
 finest originals. Some critics tliink them 
 proofs of originality, and in some cases 
 correctly so, for if there were a fine picture 
 by Rubens with pentimenti, and another 
 of the same subject without, the latter 
 would undoubtedly be considered either 
 as a copy, or as a duplicate ; but if a copy 
 be made for the purpose of imposture by 
 an able copist, he would undoubtedly 
 imitate the pentimenti, and even the un- 
 corrected errors ; and this picture would 
 then be, in the opinion of these dogmatists, 
 an original. See Copy. 
 
 Correspondence, [from con and respon- 
 dere, Lat.] In all the arts. A reciprocal re- 
 lation or adaptation of one part to another. 
 The painter, the sculptor, or the archi- 
 tect, may choose his proportions to be 
 large or small, short or tall, but there 
 should be a certain correlation or corres- 
 pondence of parts, pervade the whole 
 composition. The fai^ade of a building of 
 the Corinthian order, should not be embel- 
 lished by windows, doors, and sculptures 
 of a short or bulky proportion ; and so in 
 a picture or a group of sculpture, tiie 
 parts should be in just correspondence 
 with each other. 
 
 Corridor, [corridore, Ital. from citrrere, 
 Lat. to run round.] In architecture. A 
 gallery or long passage, connecting the 
 various apartments of a mansion; some- 
 times carried on every side of a quadran- 
 gle. The corridor is sometimes construct- 
 ed between two rows of apartments, when 
 it must receive its light and air from above ; 
 but is more agreeable when on one side, 
 
 p2 
 
CUR 
 
 when it can have its window on the oppo- 
 site side to the apartments, and be made 
 of more than one story in height. The 
 corridor being merely a passage, and as 
 it often leads to bedchambers, dressing- 
 rooms, baths, and other private apart- 
 ments, it should not be decorated with 
 pictures, or other works of art, that are 
 likely to detain persons in their progress 
 to such places ; except when on the prin- 
 cipal story, where it communicates only 
 "with dress apartments, when it is usual to 
 hang maps of the estate, or of the neigh- 
 bourhood, genealogical charts, and such 
 like general matters; whicii, however, 
 are better placed in the hall or vestibule. 
 Corridors are necessary only in large 
 houses, v/here numerous chambers and 
 suits of apartments are required; and in 
 ptiblic buildings which require similar 
 accommodations, as monasteries, convents, 
 colleges, barracks, hospitals, &:c. 
 
 CoRTiLE. [Ital.] In architecture. The 
 area or court yard of a dwelling house, 
 which in Italian architectiire is often 
 splendidly embellished with columns, sta- 
 tues, &c. It is the same with the cavae- 
 dium of the Romans. Tliey reckon four 
 sorts of cordli, namely, open cortili, roofed 
 cortili, both without columns, and open, 
 and roofed cortili with columns. 
 
 Cortina. [Lat.] In the nrchaiologij of the 
 fine arts. According to Virgil the tripod 
 (rpiTTHc) a table with three feet, whence 
 the oracles of Apollo were given by the 
 Pythia or Pythonissa. It was called cor- 
 tina from being covered with the skin of 
 the serpent Python. The ancients also 
 called by this name any culinary vessel 
 of metal that was hollow and stood upon 
 three feet, and, according to Pliny, the 
 caldron or vessel in which wool was 
 dyed, was so named. 
 
 Representations of the cortina are lo lie 
 found on ancient medals, and among others 
 upon some copper denarii of Rrulus, a 
 golden denarius of the family of the Cas- 
 sia;, and upon some medals of Viteilius. 
 On some bronze medals of Neapolis in 
 Campania (Naples), the cortina is repre- 
 sented as covered with a carpet. The 
 Pythia or Pythonissa was seated ujion 
 tlie corlinu wIk^ii she received the enthu- 
 siasm of the god to deliver in oracles to 
 the people. She is thus represented upon 
 some medals of the first kings of Syria ; 
 and ujion a line niedalliiin of Nilocles, 
 king of the Paphians, Ap<illo is seated 
 upon the cortina, which is also covered 
 with a carpet. 
 
 On a vi'ry (in" antiqur- (ictile vnse in 
 Mr. Thomas Hope's magnilictnt collection, 
 
 COS 
 
 is a painting of the expiation of Orestes, 
 whereon is a representation of the cortina 
 covered by a carpet ; which Mr. Westall 
 has introduced into his picture of the same 
 subject in Mr. Hope's gallery. 
 
 CoRTiNALE. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. The apartment wherein ^ as placed 
 a cortina. 
 
 CoRYMBiUM. [Lat. Kopi'7i/3iov, Gr.] In 
 ancient sculpture. A manner of dressing 
 the hair in a conical form on the top of the 
 head, resembling the thyrsus of Bacchus, 
 more particularly appertaining to figures 
 of Diana, huntresses, victories, the muses, 
 and youthful female figures in general. 
 
 CoRYMBUS. [Lat. Kopu/L«/3oc, Gr.] In 
 ancient sculpture. Pyramidal or conical 
 garlands of ivy berries, thistles, artichoke 
 heads, iSlC, which were used to encircle 
 ancient drinking vases, Bacchanial dresses, 
 friezes, &c. Also the nanie of similar 
 sculptures at the two extremities of the 
 Roman ships. 
 
 CoRYTL's. [Lat. KwpvTog, Gr.] In ancient 
 costume. The quiver or arrow case. There 
 are many authorities to be found for the 
 corytus, or antique quiver, as described by 
 Homer, and other ancient writers, on me- 
 dals of Calatia in Campania, Heraclea, 
 &c. 
 
 Costume. [Ital.] In painting and sculp- 
 ture. The manner, w^y, or style of dress 
 among different people. An observant 
 study of costume, which in its extended 
 sense means the time, the manners, the 
 customs, the taste, the dress, the arms, and 
 in fact the character of a people and of a 
 country, is of the highest importance both 
 to the painter and the sculptor. The ar- 
 tist who would represent an historical 
 event or action that has taken place, such 
 as it was in every respect, should make 
 himself acqtiainted with every particular 
 relating thereto. These particulars, as far 
 as concerns the appearance of the scene, 
 buildings, personages, &c. is called the 
 costume of the subject. It also means the 
 mere clothing or garments of a jieople. 
 Tlie old masters are by no means ])articu- 
 lar ill their observance of this essential por- 
 tion of their art, and in many instances 
 committed the grossest blunders in cos- 
 liiiiie. Al)rahain has been represented 
 oi)eying the divine command of sacrificing 
 ills son Isaac with a blunderbuss, Aga- 
 memnon as a Prussian general, Othello 
 with a bagwigand silk stockings; \\liile 
 learned pedants have represented I'rede- 
 rick the Great in Grecian armour, and Ge- 
 neral AVolfe IIS a Itiiinan General. 
 
 The painters o( the Lnnibard, tlie Fle- 
 m'uAt, and the Venetian schools have been 
 
COT 
 
 the most faulty, in this respect, and the 
 French, with tlie exception of Poussin and 
 Le Sueur, till the time of David and his 
 school, have been also reprehensible. 
 Louis XIV. is often represented both by 
 their painters and sculptors in Roman ar- 
 mour and costume, with the mountainous 
 wig of his own period. 
 
 The sculptors of the English school, as 
 may be seen in their best works in West- 
 minster Abbey and St. Paul's, have been 
 scarcely less to blame. A British captaiu 
 is fighting naked, while others are in an- 
 tique armour. Flaxman attempted mo- 
 dern costume in his Lord Howe, Nelson, 
 Rodney, and other public monuments, with 
 some success, in spite of the example of 
 the Duke of Cumberland in Cavendish 
 Square, and completely in his classical 
 statue of Lord Mansfield. Chantry has 
 completed the triumph of modern and 
 appropriate costume, in his whole length 
 statues of Dr. Cyril Jackson and James 
 Watt. 
 
 Our painters have been far less faulty, 
 and errors of costume are not among their 
 prevailing faults. The best works for the 
 study of this branch of art are the various 
 representations of ancient sculptures, bassi 
 rilievi, coins, medals, 6cc. which have 
 clothed figures upon them. Wingkelmann 
 Histoire ile VArt ; Danuue Bardon Truite 
 de Costume, which is, however, drawn 
 from the works of painters and not origi- 
 nal authorities. Le TraiU dcs Costumes, 
 par Lens, and an edition of the same with 
 notes, by Martini. Les Recueils de Cos- 
 tumes Antiques de Rocheggiani et de Wil- 
 LEMiN, is a very useful work. But the 
 best study is that of the original works of 
 the ancient sculptors of all nations, and 
 their monuments, tombs, ancient portraits, 
 painted glass, and other authentic docu- 
 ments, and the works of their descriptive 
 and historical poets and historians. See 
 also the various articles of the details of 
 costume in this Dictionary, the various 
 Cyclopaedias, Encyclopaedias, &c. &c. 
 
 Cothurnus. [Lat. KoOoqvoc, Gr.] In an- 
 cient costume. A species of boot or buskin 
 worn by hunters, and also by actors of 
 tragedy, when they represented the cha- 
 racters of gods and heroes. They diflered 
 from the sandal, which was a mere sole 
 tied about the toes and ancles with thongs 
 and straps of leather, while the cothurnus 
 covered the foot and leg as high as the 
 calf, and was ornamented with gold, gems, 
 and ivory. The Melpomene of the Vati- 
 can is accoutred with cothurni, so is the 
 Diana of the Townley collection, and seve- 
 ral statues of Roman emperors and gene- 
 
 COT 
 
 rals. Virgil and Cicero also mention them 
 as making part of the costume of hunters 
 and tragedians. 
 
 Cottage, [from coc, Saxon.] In architec- 
 ture.] A mean or humble habitation, built 
 with clay, and thatched with straw, " The 
 pride that apes humility" has converted 
 the humble dwelling of the labourer into 
 an absurd luxury, replete with folly and 
 bad taste. Le Hameau de ChantiUy, Le 
 Chaum/ere de Trianon, and La graude Cliau- 
 miere upon the Boulevard Neuf at Paris, 
 rival for inconsistency and bad taste some 
 in our country ; where imitative mud 
 walls, and thatched roofs, with hovel like 
 windows, and cottage chimneys, enclose 
 pavilions, drawing rooms, boudoirs, Per- 
 sian carpets, marble and or-molu chimney- 
 pieces, couches, ottomans, cabinet pic- 
 tures, bijoutrie, and all the splendour of 
 palaces and town mansions. 
 
 Not so the unpretending cottage of some 
 of our men of real taste, where the exterior 
 surpasses its type, and the interior does 
 justice by its comforts and arrangements 
 to the good taste and appearance of the 
 interior. The cottage to be in character 
 and picturesque, should not be too new in 
 appearance, nor naked in planting. The 
 late Richard Payne Knight defines part 
 of its accompaniments in his poem called 
 the Landscape, in the following lines, 
 
 " Its roof, witli reeds ami mosses cover'd o'er. 
 And honeysuckles clinibiut; roiiud the door, 
 While mantling vines along its walls are spread, 
 And clustering ivy decks the chimney head." 
 
 The real English cottage is a small house 
 in the country, of irregular form, with va- 
 rious harmonious tints upon its surface, 
 the effect of weather, time, and accident ; 
 the whole surrounded by garden scenery, 
 neat, trim, and comfortable. See also 
 Villa. 
 
 On the architecture of picturesque cot- 
 tages, the following works may be con- 
 sulted Avith advantage ; namely, " An 
 Essay on British Cottage Architecture, by 
 J.AMES Malton, 4to. Lond. 1798 ; Designs 
 for Villas and other Rural Buildings, by Ed- 
 mund AiKiN, Architect, 4to. Lond. 1815 ; 
 A Series of Designs for Villas and Country 
 Houses, by C. A. Bi sby, Architect, Lond. 
 1818 ; Architectural Designs for rustic Cot- 
 tages, picturesque Dwellings, Villas, Sfc. by 
 W. F. PococK, Architect, 4to. Lond.; 
 Sketches in Architecture, consisting of origi- 
 nal Designs for Cottages and rm-al Dwell- 
 ings, by T. D. W. Dearn, Architect, 4to. 
 Lond. 1807 ; Architectural Sketches for Cot- 
 tages, rural Dwellitigs, and Villas, by R. 
 Lugar, Architect, 4to. Lond. 1805 ; The 
 Country Gentleman's Architect,by the same 
 
cou 
 
 author, 4to. Lond. 1807 ; Designs for s)mdl 
 picturesque Cottages, Hunting-hoxef, ifc. by 
 E. Gyfford, Architect, 4to. Lond. part I.; 
 Designs for elegant Cottages and small 
 Villas, by the same author, 4to. Lond. ; 
 Hints f^r Dwellings, consisting of original 
 Designs for Cottages, Fann-hotises, Villas, 
 ^f., by D. Laing, Architrct, 4to. Lond. 
 1800 and 1804; Sketches for Country- 
 houses, Villas, and rural Dtcellings,hy Jouy 
 Plaw, Architect, 4to. Lond. 1800; De- 
 signs for Villas, Casinos, Mansions, Lodges, 
 and Cottages, by James Randall, Archi- 
 tect, 4to. Lond. ; A Series of Plans for Cot- 
 tages, &:c. by J. Wood, Architect of Bath, 
 large 4to. Lond. ; The Country Gentleman s 
 Architect, by J. Miller, Architect, 4to. 
 Lond. 1797; Rural Residences, consisting 
 of a series of designs for cottages, decorated 
 cottages, small villas, and other ornamental 
 liuildings, accompanied by hints on situation, 
 construction, arrangement, onrf decoration, in 
 the theory and practice of rural architcclure, 
 interspersed tvith some observations on land- 
 scape gardening, by John Buonarotti 
 P.APWORTH, Architect, large 8vo. Lond. 
 1818, which is without exception one of 
 the most useful, tasteful, and elegant books 
 that has appeared in the English language 
 on tliis truly British subject. Architecture 
 riirale, tMorique et pratiqtie, 8vo. Thou- 
 louse, 1820 ; Designs for picturesque Cot- 
 tages, by W". Atkinson, Architect, 4to. 
 Lond. 1805 ; Essay on rural Architecture, 
 by R. Elsam, Architect, 4to, Lond. 1803 ; 
 Hints for improring the Condition of the 
 Peasantry, with Designs for Cottages, by the 
 same author, 4to. Lond. 181G ; Engr((vivgs, 
 with Descriptions of the modern Style of 
 riiral Architecture, and the improvement of 
 Scenery, 4to. Lond. 1807 ; W. and J. Half- 
 penny's Rural Architect, 4to. Lond. 1755 ; 
 Rural Architecture, or a Series of Designs 
 for ornamental Cottages, hy P. F. Rohinson, 
 Architect, 4to. Lond. 1822 ; J. T. Smith's 
 Remarks oil rural Scenery, wilh tiventy 
 etchings of Cottages from Nature, 4to. Lond. 
 1797 ; 1*'. .Stevens's Views of Coll ages and 
 J'^arm-houses in England and Wales, Imp. 
 4to. Lond, IHIO. 
 
 Counter fort, [from counter contrary 
 to or against, and fort, Vr. strong.] In 
 architecture. Piers or obli(|uc walls I)iiilt 
 up against walls that are likely to bidge. 
 See Bu'iTRiCfiS. 
 
 CoiiNTER I'ROOF. [from counter and 
 proof] In (ugraring. An imi)ression laki-n 
 from a newly printed proof of a copper- 
 jilalc, printed for llie purpose of a closer 
 iiivestigiilioii of the stal<' of the iilale, as 
 (lie i)roof is in every respect the reverse of 
 (lie plate, \\liile tlie r'onnterprooriiase\ery 
 
 COU 
 
 thing the same way. Counterproofs of 
 Dorigny's engravings from the Cartoons 
 are more valuable than the prints, which 
 are reverses of the pictures, and the coun- 
 terproofs the same way, except that the 
 writing is backwards as on the plate. 
 
 Countermark, [from counter and mark.] 
 In lunnismatics. Antiquaries call by this 
 name those stamps or impressions which 
 are found on ancient coins or medals and 
 have been given since their lirst impress 
 in the mint. These countermarks or stamps 
 are often done without any care, and fre- 
 quently obliterate the most interesting por- 
 tion of the original inscription. To per- 
 form this operation they did nothing but 
 stamp the new mark upon the coin witli a 
 heavy blow of a mallet upon a punch, on 
 which was engraved tlie countermark, of a 
 round, oval, or square shape. The use of 
 countermarks appears to have been first 
 adopted by the Greeks, but it is impossi- 
 ble to say at what epocli of their history. 
 Upon the Greek coins so altered, the coun- 
 termarks are generally tigures, accompa- 
 nied by inscriptions ; those of Rome sel- 
 dom contain any filing more than inscrip- 
 tions and monograms. There have been 
 various opinions upon the cause of these 
 countermarks; some antiquaries thinking 
 that tliey were to indicate an augmenta- 
 tion of the value of the money upon which 
 they V, ere stamped ; others that they were 
 vouchers for workmen ; and again that 
 they were only struck upon money taken 
 or received from foreign enemies. Jo- 
 bert, Millin, De Boze, Bimard, INtabudel, 
 Pelleim, Florez, and other medallic anti- 
 quaries, have exercised their conjectural 
 skill on this subject. 
 
 During the long war with revolutionary 
 Franc e, England stamped millions of Spa- 
 nish dollars witii small oval countermarks 
 of the head of George III. upontlie neck of 
 the S])anish monarch, and many of them 
 were completely restamjied or counter- 
 marked in the mint, and both impressions 
 were casually ^isiI)Ie. Tlie English head 
 and reverse not coniijUlely destroying the 
 Spanish head, armorial bearings, and in- 
 scriptions. 
 
 Coi'RsE. [Fr.] In architecture. A con- 
 tinued range or layer of stones or bricks, 
 arranged in a peculiar manner for strength 
 called bond. 
 
 ('oi UT. [cour, Fr.] /" architecture. 1. 
 An open space- before or behind a Ikuisc, 
 or situate in the centre or bctv^een tho 
 main bod\ and (he u lug's. 2. The district 
 of a city where a ro\al palace is situated. 
 3. The hall or chamber in a municipal 
 buildiif, where jiisdce ift administered. 
 
CRA 
 
 4. A small street enclosed with houses 
 and paved, but not passable for carriages 
 and horses. The modern court or court- 
 yard in a palace or mansion is equivalent 
 with the Cavcedium in ancient Roman ar- 
 chitecture. (See Cav.^uium.) Tlie courts 
 of almost all the houses in Pompeii were 
 jjaved in compartments with marble or in 
 musaiek. The large court in the palace at 
 Versailles is thus done, and is therefore 
 called the marble court. See Palace, 
 Town Hall. 
 
 Cramp. Ikramp, Dutch.] In architecture 
 and scnlpture. Pieces of iron, bronze, or 
 other metal, bent at each end, by which 
 stones in buildings, and limbs, &c. of sta- 
 tues are held together. The ancient Ro- 
 mans made great use of cramps in their 
 buildings, and the cupidity of modern 
 barbarians like Pope Barberini, have de- 
 stroyed many a fine work for the sake of 
 the bronze used in its construction. The 
 Pantheon, and its fine portico by Agrippa, 
 and the Colosseum, have most suffered by 
 these wanton aggressions, and the balda- 
 chin of St. Peter's, and some eighty pieces 
 of brass ordnance, to thunder Papal bulls 
 from the Vatican, are all we have in ex- 
 change for some of the finest works of 
 which the world could boast. 
 
 Crane, [cftan. Sax.] In mechanical archi- 
 tecture. An instrument or machine made 
 with ropes, pulleys, and hooks, by which 
 blocks of stone and other heavy weights 
 are raised. Vitruvius calls this machine, 
 which was known to the Romans, carche- 
 sium. 
 
 Crane. Li pictorial mythology. A bird 
 with a long neck and beak, fabled by the 
 poets as enemies to the Pigmaei, a small 
 race of people in ^Ethiopia. On a paint- 
 ing in Heixulaneum there are several 
 groups of this little people, one of whom 
 is holding a miniature statue in his hand. 
 (See Pigmies.) Some archaiological cri- 
 tics pretend to recognise in this statue Ge- 
 ranos, a female of great beauty, who was 
 revered by the Pigmaei as a divinity. 
 Her name (Ftpaj'oe), in Greek signifying 
 a crane, gave rise to the fable, that having 
 treated Diana and Juno with contempt, 
 they changed her into the bird of that 
 name, and she became the most implaca- 
 ble enemy to her former worshippers. Two 
 antique Greek vases, published by Tisch- 
 bien, represent the wars between the pig- 
 mies and the cranes. The fable is also 
 told by Ovid and alluded to by Juvenal. 
 
 A celebrated antique dance that was in- 
 stituted by Theseus in the island of Delos, 
 in memory of his deiiverance from the 
 labyrinth by Ariadne, also bore the same 
 
 CRE 
 
 name. It was executed by young Athe- 
 nians who had escaped with hiiu from the 
 power of the Cretan monarch. It was 
 called geranion, or the crane dance, from 
 the actors imitating the mazes of the laby- 
 rinth in their involutions, and the flight of 
 the cranes in troops, with the master-bird 
 or leader at their head, which figured their 
 escape with Theseus as conductor, follow- 
 ed by Ariadne, Phaedra, and his fellow 
 prisoners in that form. 
 
 Craniology. See Phrenology. 
 Crayon. [Fr.] In painting. A kind of 
 pencil, a roll of colour prepared with 
 earths so as to draw, and colour dry on 
 proper paper. Crayons are both natural 
 and factitious, and are of various colours. 
 Crayons of plumbago or black lead, of va- 
 rious degrees of hardness, are the best for 
 architectural drawings, and the outlining 
 of water colour paintings on paper or vel- 
 vet. They are also capable of forming 
 beautiful finished drawings in black and 
 white, which produce a good effect. Black 
 and red crayons are generally, with the 
 white, termed chalks, and are much used 
 in the art of drawing on tinted paper by 
 students in paintings, and for drawing 
 their outlines on the canvass. The prepa- 
 ration of crayons belongs to a work on ma- 
 nufactures ; and their use is very limited 
 compared with former times. Rosalba di 
 Carara, Hoare of Bath, and Russell have 
 distinguished themselves as crayon pain- 
 ters, but it is now scarcely practised, anti 
 not at all by any artist of talent. 
 
 Crescent, [cresccns, Lat.] In urchaiology. 
 Representations of the moon in her state 
 of increase. This emblem of the Otto- 
 mans is of very high antiquity. The in- 
 fluence of the moon occasioning various 
 physical phenomena was soon perceived 
 by the ancient philosophers ; and they per- 
 sonified it under various types. The Egyp- 
 tians had their Isis, tlie Greeks their 
 Diana, and it is natural to conceive that 
 the crescent, which announced the com- 
 mencement of the moon, soon became an 
 object of worship with such people. Thus 
 Isis, Diana, the bull Aj)is, are decorated 
 with this emblem ; which is also found on 
 medals of Alexander and other ancient 
 monuments of art. The citizens of Athens 
 of illustrious birth wore crescents of ivory 
 and silver upon their buskins ; and the same 
 mark of distinction was granted to the pa- 
 tricians and senators of Rome. They were 
 called Lunulati Cakei. The crescent was 
 often used as an ornament to the female 
 head ; an example of wiiich may be seen 
 on a bust of Marciaua in the Villa Pain- 
 fili. On many medals of queens, the bust 
 
CRE 
 
 is supported by a. crescent allusive of their 
 relative situations to their husbands, who, 
 as kings, were as the sun, while they were 
 as the moon. It is also an emblem of the 
 eternity of an empire. Tiie god Lunus 
 bears it upon his shoulder ; and the de- 
 narii of the Liicretiau family have it also 
 accompanied by the seven stars of the 
 Nortiiern hemisphere. It is also found on 
 medals of many cities, particularly By- 
 zantium ; from whence it is supposed to 
 have been borrowed by the Ottomans. 
 Since this period the crescent has been 
 the universal emblem of their empire. It 
 decorates their minarets, their turbans. 
 
 their 
 
 their insignia, and every 
 
 thing appertaining to the Mussulman is 
 characterized by this sign, and their states 
 are designated the empire of the cres- 
 cent. 
 
 Crest, [crista, Lat.] In costume. The 
 ornament affixed to the top of the helmet. 
 The crests of the ancient Greeks, as we 
 learn from Homer, were of gold and other 
 metals, raised upon the crown of the hel- 
 met, and covered with horsehair, which 
 were so arranged as to add to the statue 
 of the hero, and inspire terror in his ene- 
 mies. Hector is described by the poet as 
 " of the waving plume," (II. iii. v. 324 ; 
 VI. v. 2G3, 440; Xix. v. 135); and in his 
 combat wiiii Paris, *' he seized him by the 
 helmet crested with horse hair," (U. iii, 
 v. 369). In the celebrated interview be- 
 tween that hero and the faithful Andro- 
 mache, Astj'anax, their infant son, shrinks 
 buck, "fearing the horsehair crest which 
 nodded terribly from the sunnnit of the 
 helmet," (II. vi. v. 470.) When Vulcan 
 makes the new armour for Achilles, he 
 " put upon it a golden crest," II. xvui. 
 V. fill. 
 
 The crests of tiio antique helmets were 
 sometimes divided from the base, spread- 
 ing like two horns, while the interval was 
 filled with the flowing mane of a horse, 
 and a plume arose on either side. Such 
 is the crest of Minerva on Mr. Hope's line 
 antique vase, which has a i)ainting of the 
 expiation of Orestes. The helnn't of a 
 Lapitha, on a \ase in the Hanullon col- 
 lection at the llritish Museum, is similarly 
 crested. Herodotus attributes (lie a(hli- 
 tion of tiie horsehair crest to I hi- I'.lliio- 
 pians ; and Titus Livius mentions iiebnets 
 u'itli large and waving crests as i)eeuliar 
 to the SaiiiiiKcs, wlio wore them to make 
 them iippear i>f U)l'tier stature, and of more 
 furmidiihle asi)(;ct to their enemies; and 
 he adds that tlu; ('ampanians added the 
 lofty crest to tlie helmets of (heir gladia- 
 lors as a mark of^conlenij>l, and called 
 
 CRI 
 
 them Samnitic. The Etruscans were also 
 celebrated for their lofty crests, and mo- 
 dern artists have given similar additions 
 to the helmets of the three Horatii. The 
 mane of horsehair which was appended 
 to the crest was called by the Greeks 
 Xoriiot,-, and by the Romans crista and juba, 
 and the part which upheld it, or the me- 
 tallic crest, was called <pd\og by the Greeks, 
 and conus by the Romans. The plume and 
 the crest must not be confounded. The for- 
 mer, when composed of the mane or tail of a 
 horse, was called liippitris, iinrtipic, by an- 
 cient authors ; and Virgil gives such a 
 plume and crest to Mezentius, King of the 
 Tyrrheni, the friend of Turnus. 
 
 The horns on the beforementioned hel- 
 met of Minerva is supposed to resemble 
 the piiniiB which Varro f" Pinncp qitas in- 
 si^niti milites habere in galeas solcnt, et in 
 giadiaturihiis Samnites," ) attributes to the 
 Samnite helmets. Juvenal, in alluding to 
 the gladiators, to whose exertions some of 
 the lirst families in Rome were indebted 
 for their heirs, calls them Pinnirupi, an 
 epithet which puzzles Pdillin, wlio says 
 that the transhLtors of that satirist ha\e 
 passed it o^ er in silence. He thinks with 
 the old scholiast upon Juvenal, tiuit the 
 gladiators appeared decorated with pea- 
 cocks' featlicrs, and that the i)innirapi 
 were those who bo/e these feathers. Tliey 
 are, however, " gladiatores quod piiinas 
 raiiiiinl," Isid. The gladiators who, whh 
 a net (also called from that cause rttiurii), 
 was to surprise his adversary and tear 
 oif the crest of Jiis adversary in token of 
 victory. 
 
 CuiTiciSM. [from critic] In all the arts. 
 Tiie art of a critic. Tiie standani of judg- 
 ing well. 
 
 Ciuric. [lvpi-iK-0(,-, Gr. criliciis, Lat.] In 
 all the arts. A man skilled in the art of 
 carrectly judging the merits of artists, and 
 of their works. Tiie Greek original of 
 this important ollice means, aptus ad diju- 
 dicandum, skilled in judging between con- 
 tentliug merits, a man of judgviient, or the 
 faculty of judging itself. 
 
 liy abuse of the powers assumed by 
 critics, the title is often uiulerstood as 
 meaning one who takes upon himself to 
 censure and blame the works of others — 
 censurers, instead of impartial judges. 
 The proper office of a critic should be 
 " admonere, nou mordere ; protlesse, non 
 hvdere;" and criticism, says an Italian 
 jiroverb, should be Innr/ica, non renefica. 
 
 A siuind and impartial critic, in matters 
 which naturally come under the govern- 
 ment of the empire of taste, should gi\e 
 reasons for I lie judgment that i» in hini, 
 
CRITIC. 
 
 why he prefers one work to another, and 
 why he praises this portion or condemns 
 that. By such conduct he convinces the 
 world of the purity of his motives, and his 
 criticism tends to the improvement of his 
 patient where he tind^ fault, and to his 
 confirmation in sound principles and prac- 
 tices where he praises. The extent of 
 knowledge which a critic possesses should 
 be all that is necessary for the learned 
 connoisseur. (See Connoisseur.) To 
 wliich should be superadded many other 
 qualities, and among the principal, a tem- 
 perateness of judgment, a coolness of head, 
 a goodness of heart, and a strict and ho- 
 nest impartiality. 
 
 The critic who undertakes the exami- 
 nation and the passing of judgment upon 
 works of ancient art, has an easier task to 
 perform, as far as concerns prejudice, than 
 he who is to sit in judgment upon his co- 
 temporaries, the " genus irritabile" picto- 
 rum. Praise will never satiate them, and 
 censure, even when deserved, rarely amends 
 them. 
 
 The business of giving judgment upon 
 ancient art is an important oIKce. Among 
 its duties are the examination of the me- 
 rits of monuments of antiquity of every 
 class and species, and the arranging of them 
 in their proper places. Tiie archaiologi- 
 cal critic has to decide upon their anti- 
 quity, the period when they were executed, 
 their authenticity, their use, and similar 
 questions. In order to perform this ardu- 
 ous t^k, it is necessary that he should 
 possess a knowledge of ancient tongues, 
 of geography, of chronology, of the classi- 
 cal writers, and of all tiiat relates to an- 
 cient art, such as archaiology, antiques, 
 antiquities, history, poetry, and litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Many of the works that will of neces- 
 sity come under such an investigation, will 
 be found deteriorated by time, by age, or 
 by accidents. Such as the dilapidations 
 of the weather, time, and barbarism upon 
 the far famed Elgin marbles, and other 
 ancient sculptures and inscriptions. The 
 deterioration of ages upon coins, or their 
 disfiguration by clipping and countermark- 
 ing. It is the duty of such a critic to sup- 
 ply these deficiencies, to make out the in- 
 tentions, to fill up the gaps in the inscrip- 
 tion, to supply, with a cool head and sound 
 judgment, what is wanting. He should 
 be able to distinguish impostures in art, 
 know what are restorations or reparations, 
 and what parts are original, and decide 
 upon the propriety or fallacy of the emen- 
 dations. Innocent impostures should have 
 no charms for him, and the exposition of 
 the cheats of trading antiquaries should 
 
 be his daily pleasure. Tiie unveiling of 
 the manufacturers of genuine antiques, 
 who hide and then can find, should be his 
 constant avocation ; of such who will alter 
 the legend and even the reverse of a medal 
 in their descriptions, and will add to an 
 engraved gem the name of any eminent 
 artist they please, where it be wanting, to 
 vamp up their manufactures. In this man- 
 ner did Pickler add the name of Dioscou- 
 rides, the celebrated Augustan gem sculp- 
 tor, to a stone which represented Caligula. 
 In this way was the name of Lysippus 
 added to the famous Florentine Hercules. 
 
 These forgers of names would go farther 
 if they had abilities for the task ; but they 
 have employed obscure talent to aid their 
 impositions, in imitating the inferior work 
 of the ancients with sufficient accuracy to 
 impose upon the unsuspecting credulity of 
 enlightened connoisseurs. Caylus, Winc- 
 kelmann, and Barthelemy have been thus 
 deceived, as well as many others who 
 would rather father the cheat tlian ac- 
 knowledge that they had been tricked. 
 It was thus that an Italian trickster put 
 off a purposely fractured head of a beau- 
 tiful Flora upon one of our most enlight- 
 ened English connoisseurs, at as large a 
 price as a genuine antique, when it was 
 the work of an able foreign artist now in 
 the employment of the English govern- 
 ment. And " when the candle came he 
 was" not " cured," for although the art- 
 ist wrought a duplicate almost before his 
 eyes, the purchaser had such faith he 
 would not see the light. 
 
 Sebastian Ricci also imitated some of 
 the worst originals of Paolo Veronese so 
 well that he tricked many into a belief of 
 their originality, and when the fraud was 
 discovered, one whom he had deceived 
 told him to paint nothing but Veroneses, 
 and no more Riccis. So may it be said to 
 some of our gem sculptors, make antiques 
 and not coins. 
 
 Of such impostures are the medals which 
 were fabricated by John Cauvin of Padua, 
 called Paduanino, Carteron, of Batavia, 
 Laurentius of Parma, anil Michiul Der- 
 vieu of Florence. 
 
 Among other imitations of antiques 
 which, however, are not to be reckoned 
 among impostures, are the beautiful imita- 
 tions of the fictile vases of the Greeks and 
 Etruscans, by the late Mr. Wedgwood ; 
 particularly his celebrated copy of the 
 much disputed Portland or Barberini vase 
 in the British Museum. (See Vase.) 
 Guerra imitated with great success the 
 ancient pictures at Herculaneum; and 
 Winckelmann himself, with all his sagacity 
 as a critic, and knowledj^e as a connoisseur, 
 
CRI 
 
 was deceived by a painting after the an- 
 tique by liis friend Casanova, which he 
 took for genuine (see Painting); and by 
 an engraved stone, whicli is now in the 
 collection of tlie Royal Library at Paris, 
 which was actually the performance of 
 Pickler. Altering the legends of medals, 
 sawing them in two, and joining them to 
 form variations of ob\erse and reverse, are 
 not among the smaller cheats that have 
 been practised upon the critics. 
 
 These alterations and substitutions pro- 
 duce a host of errors that will puzzle the 
 best informed connoisseur of the day ; and 
 similar errors have arisen as much from 
 the ignorance of some professed critics and 
 antiquaries as from the cupidity of others. 
 Thus, the errors which Struys and Serlio 
 have fallen into concerning the buildings 
 and other ancient monuments of Persepolis : 
 which Lauras, Da Costa, Kircher, Fischer 
 von Erlach, Pignorius, jEneas Vicus, Li- 
 gorius, Panvinius, and others, have pub- 
 lished of amphitheatres, naumachia?, sta- 
 tues, that never existed but in their ima- 
 ginations, and many of the meduls de- 
 scribed and figured by Goltz, are justly 
 rejected by critics and antiquaries. 
 
 Sometimes genuine monuments have 
 been misrepresented, as in the idea which 
 Picart gave of the statxie of Memnon, 
 thinking it to be no longer in existence. 
 Upon the engraving of an antique gem, 
 which represents the murder of Polyxena, 
 Gravelle has changed the figure of the 
 soul into an urn. Instead of the Taurobo- 
 lus wliich is upon the triumphal arch at 
 Suza, Maetjeus has metamorphosed it into 
 Aaron oflering sacrifices. 
 
 These are impostures and blunders ; but 
 critics have fallen into no less important 
 mistakes through error and misunder- 
 standing of their subjects. The name of 
 Solon upon an engraved stone for a long 
 time was believed by the critics to refer to 
 tli(^ great Athenian legislator; while at 
 the same time it was the name of tin; artist 
 wiio executed it. A pnpfectus riunim, or 
 supcrinteudant of roads, says Mabillon, 
 was canonized under (he nanie of Saint. 
 Viar. An anti(|iK' head, bearing (lie name 
 of Arcllwn the engraver, was for some time 
 regarded as the rei)rertenlation of Arclhitsn. 
 'J'lu! Minerva Aspasia {' Affnu^t'iud) was 
 tiius for a long time taken for a i>ortruitof 
 Aspasia, the friend of Pericles and So- 
 iTates. Those hiarned crilics liellori and 
 Wiiickeliiuinn have been oflen deceived, 
 and put forth errors in archaiology ; and 
 the reveries of Pere Hardouin, vviio in 
 medallic legends of llic dearest naliiie, 
 dreamed of occult niysleries under con- 
 realed initials, arc well known. So ai.^o 
 
 CRO 
 
 in our own times a learned antiquary, in 
 describing the antique sculptures at Pet- 
 worth, has described a handsome youth 
 as a young female. These errors, inse- 
 parable as they are from human nature, 
 are pardonable where they do not proceed 
 from wilful deceit, and show the import- 
 ance and the utility of the critic's art. 
 
 In respect of archaiologj', history, and 
 costume, it becomes every artist to be him- 
 self a critic. A deficiency of this know- 
 ledge led Rollin to speak of the Laocotin 
 as of a lost work, and the artists of the 
 French school to decorate Hercules with 
 a flowing wig of Louis XIV. and that 
 monarch with Roman armour and a French 
 perruque. A want of critical knowledge 
 has led the old masters into many and se- 
 rious errors. Greeks have been painted 
 in Roman armour, and Romans in French 
 and German costume. Cato has been re- 
 presented reading a modern bound book, 
 and Grecian ladies reading letters doubled 
 en envelope like a love letter of tlie nine- 
 teenth century. See Costume, Painting, 
 Sculptures, Attiiibutes, 6lC. 6i;c. 
 
 Crobylus. [Lat. Kf)w/3i'Xoe, Gr.] In an- 
 cient costume. The manner in \\hich the 
 hair of men is arranged in certain antique 
 statues, somewhat like the manner of the 
 Belvidere Apollo. The crohjliis was for 
 men, the conjmhus for women, and the 
 scorpius for boys. See these words. 
 
 Crockets, [from croc, Fr. a tenterhook.] 
 In ifotldc architecture. The small bunches 
 of foliage w hich are used to ornament ca- 
 nopies, spires, and i)innacles. The larger 
 bunches on the top are cdWcd finiuls. See 
 
 FiNIVL. 
 
 Crocodile, [crocodilux, Lat. Kt>oicvSu- 
 Xoc, Gr.] In the mi/tholof^ij of the arts. An 
 amphibious voracious animal, in shape re- 
 sembling a lizard, and found in Fgy pt and 
 the Indies; where it is called an alligator. 
 It received its ancient name from kookoi> 
 SetXici, crociiin metiiil, fearful of the crocus, 
 whose odour or colour this creature is said 
 by Dioscourides the physician, and other 
 ancient writers, to fear, or be averse from. 
 Fornu'rly almost every ri\er in Africa was 
 infested with these ampiiibious monsters, 
 whereas they are now rarely found but in 
 the Nile. The kitigdom of Fez, which is 
 iliiite free from them at present, was in an- 
 cient times quite o\ orrun w itii them. They 
 were also in Mauritania in the time of the 
 jouiiger Juba, for it is n lated that he con- 
 si'craled one in the leinpli' of Isis at Ca-sa- 
 rea, about the time of the commencement of 
 the (Christian era. In tin' days of Herodo- 
 tus l..o\ver j'.gypt was also iiifi'sted willicro- 
 ( odiles, but lliey ari! now very rarely found 
 in tli.it portion of tiie country, or till the 
 
CRO 
 
 Nile enters Upper Egypt above tlic 28th 
 degree of latitude. Seneca, says that Bal- 
 billus, who was praefect of Egypt in the 
 time of Nero, reported that he had wit- 
 nessed at the Heracleotic mouth of the 
 Nile dolphins coming from the sea, and 
 crocodiles descending the Nile to combat 
 them like regular armies. 
 
 Representations of this animal on an- 
 cient coins are, according to M. Zoega, 
 always to be considered as emblematical 
 of the Nile. It is also found on a fine, 
 niusaic discovered at Palestina ; upon the 
 base of the statue of the Nile in the Mu- 
 seo Pio Clementino, and upon many other 
 antique monuments. 
 
 Sculptural representations of the croco- 
 dile, on works not wrought in Egypt, the 
 crocodile is always to be understood as 
 the symbol or emblem of that country. A 
 crocodile chained to a palm tree repre- 
 sents the subjugation of Egypt. The cro- 
 codile was worshiped in many Egyptian 
 cities ; among others, particularly so at 
 Thebes, at Arsinoe, which was called from 
 / that cause Crocodilopolis. 
 
 Crocota. [Lat. KpoKwroc, Gr.] In an- 
 cient costume. A portion of female dress, 
 a gown, or toga, of a crocus or yellow 
 colour. 
 
 Crosier, [from cross.] In costume. The 
 pastoral staif or emblematical crook of a 
 bishop. The crosiers of many of the an- 
 cient Catholic bishops were made of costly 
 materials and elegant workmanship. The 
 greatest artists of Italy, such as Benve- 
 nuto Cellini, Giovanni da Bologna, &c. 
 have been employed in their execution. 
 
 Cross, [croix, Fr.] In all the arts. One 
 straight body laid at any angle upon ano- 
 ther. The ensign or emblem of the Chris- 
 tian religion, as being a representation of 
 the insti'ument of punishment, on which 
 Jesus Christ suffered death from the Jews. 
 The form in which many churches and ca- 
 thedrals are built. 
 
 The cross of the ancients was simply a 
 beam of wood fastened against a tree or 
 upright post, on which they executed cri- 
 minals of the very worst class. After the 
 crucifixion of Jesus, and the extension of 
 the Christian religion, the cross was as- 
 sumed as tlie distinctive ensign of its fol- 
 lowers. Constantine is generally supposed 
 to have been the first who ordered it to be 
 used as the sign or emblem under which 
 he would fight and conquer, in remem- 
 brance of the miraculous appearance of a 
 cross in the heavens. 
 
 The cross was, however, used emblema- 
 tically before the Christian era. Upon a 
 multitude of medals and ancient monu- 
 
 CRO 
 
 ments are to be found crosses placed in 
 the hands of statues of victory, and of 
 figures of emperors. It was also placed 
 upon a globe, which ever since the days 
 of Augustus has become the sign of the 
 empire of the world and the image of vic- 
 tory. The shields, the cuirasses, the hel- 
 mets, the imperial cap, were all thus de- 
 corated. The cross has also been often 
 stamped upon the reverses of money, as is 
 proved by the old English game of cross 
 and pile ; and also upon the coins struck 
 at Constantinople, and of the line of the 
 Franks from the time of Clovis. Exam- 
 ples of them are given in the Dissertation 
 by DucANGE, siir les Medailles Bijzantines, 
 and in the treatise by Le Blanc, sur les 
 Monnoies des France. The cross is now the 
 universal Christian emblem, being used 
 upon the arms and banners of the soldier, 
 the vestments of the priest, and in the 
 armorial bearings of the gentry. The 
 forms of our churches, and often the pat- 
 terns of their pavements are adapted to 
 the representation of the cross ; which is 
 also sculptured upon and elevated upon 
 tombs and sepulchres. Sculptured crosses 
 of various descriptions, elevated upon 
 handsome pedestals, were formerly erect- 
 ed in cemeteries, market places, to desig- 
 nate peculiar events, like the queen's 
 crosses at Northampton, Waltham, &c. 
 Many very fine ones of which are still to 
 be seen in many parts of Great Britain, 
 and particularly in Ireland. 
 
 In the time of the crusades or wars for 
 the recovery of the Holy Land from the 
 Turks, the cross was the emblem and the 
 namegiver of the crusaders, who took up 
 the cross and swore to defend its faith 
 against infidels. From this period the 
 cross entered into the art of heraldry, 
 where it still maintains a distinguished 
 place among the ancient families of Eu- 
 rope. It is also raised as a sign of Chris- 
 tianity on most Christian churches and 
 ecclesiastical buildings of the Catholic re- 
 ligion. 
 
 Architectural antiquaries have two sorts 
 of crosses for the forms of churches, the 
 Greek and the Latin. The Greek cross 
 has its arms at right angles, and all of 
 equal length, whereas the Latin cross has 
 one of its limbs much longer than the 
 other three. Bramante originally set out 
 St. Peter's as a Latin cross ; Mithel An- 
 giolo reduced it to the proportions of a 
 Greek cross ; but Carlo Maderno again 
 elongated it to the original dimensions of 
 Bramante. The cathedral of St. Paul, 
 London, is a Latin cross, with its base 
 spread by a sort of second transept, which 
 
CRY 
 
 increases the breadth of the western front 
 in a very beautiful manner. 
 
 (^RUDE. [cjudtt^, Lat.] Inpaiiitiiis^. Harsli, 
 raw, unconnected, not well digebted. Cru- 
 dity in painting is when the colours are 
 laid on roughly, without blending or har- 
 mony. Sometimes crudeness arises from 
 want of finish, and at others for want of 
 ability to manage the colours better. 
 
 Crlsta. [Lat.] In ancient architecture 
 and gem sculpture. Pieces of wood, ivory, 
 tortoiseshell, metal, 6cc. inlaid into or in- 
 crusted upon vases, shields, doors of tem- 
 ples, walls of apartments, 6»:c. in the man- 
 ner of modern buhl, marquettry, 6>:c. (See 
 these words). According to Pliny, Ma- 
 murra, the noble Roman who boasted that 
 he had in his house every thing that 
 France (Gallia) could afford him, was the 
 first who covered the walls of his house 
 with a crnstu of marble. Pliny also uses 
 this word to designate the inlaid work 
 which embellished the slabs of marble 
 used by the Romans, when they inserted 
 pieces (crustae) of another colour. "When 
 these applied or inlaid ornaments were 
 left projecting, they called them embla- 
 mata (from i}i^\i]iia, ab inserendo). They 
 were often so constructed as to be taken 
 off and put on at will. Cicero reproached 
 Verres, among other crimes, with taking 
 the crustie and emblenuites from the vases. 
 The emblemates and their antithet* are 
 tlius described by Calepinus, " emblemata 
 in parietibus die. vermiculata,\n pavimentis 
 tessellata, in lignis sefiiuentata." 
 
 Ckyi'T. [crypt, Lat. In urchiteciure. A 
 hollow place or vault constructed under 
 ground. Also the tombs of the Christian 
 martyrs were so called where the early 
 Christians met to perform their devotions, 
 for fear of persecution. Whence crypt 
 came to signify a church under ground, or 
 the lower constructed story like tiiat of 
 St. Paul's, London, Lastingham Priory, 
 and many of the ancient ecclesiastical 
 edifices of England, Germany, and France. 
 When crypts are on a large scale like 
 tiiose of Rome, Naples, and Paris, they 
 are then called catacinubs. (See Cata- 
 combs.) liartoli and llcllori have pui)- 
 lished engravings of paintings found in tlie 
 crypts of R(mie, of wiiich there are seve- 
 ral editions. The one of 17^8 is in Latin. 
 
 (^KVinoiHUtiK rs. [I^at. fr(nn tT'//)/rt and 
 porticiui.] In aucirnl archiUclure. A con- 
 c(!aled gallei7 or portico; or one that is 
 en( losed on every side to be inol in tiie 
 heals of suuuuer. Many of tiiese ent lose<l 
 or concealed porticoes were half sunk in 
 the ground, and some c<nnpletely so. They 
 w«'re constructid ailjoining (lie \illas, 
 
 CRY 
 
 mansions, and palaces of the Romans, for 
 the purpose of retiring from the excessive 
 heats of the noonday sun, and for perambu- 
 lation in the cool and fresh air. Even 
 when nearly buried in the ground they 
 were not without light and air, as were 
 seen in the long concealed porticoes of 
 Hadrian's villa, which were, without 
 doubt, the cryptoporticus of the palace, 
 received light and air from openings at the 
 ends, and perforations in \arious places. 
 
 In many instances, however, the cryp- 
 toporticus differed no otherwise from our 
 present galleries and corridors, than that 
 they had columns in tiiem, whence they 
 derived the latter half of their name. 
 The description which Pliny gives of the 
 cryptoporticus of his favourite villa Lau- 
 rentinum, near Laurentum, seventeen miles 
 from Rome, proves that it was often and 
 in this instance a long and covered gallery 
 lighted like the other apartments of the 
 house, and used for walking and conver- 
 sation during the continuance of the heats. 
 " From hence," says Pliny, " an enclosed 
 porto (cryptoporticus) extends, ^\hicll, by 
 its great length, you might suppose erected 
 for the use of the public. It has a range 
 of windows on each side, but on tluit which 
 looks towards the sea, they are double 
 the number of those next the garden. 
 When the weather is fair and serene these 
 are all thrown open ; but if it blow s, those 
 on the side the wind sits are shut, while 
 the others remain unclosed without any 
 inconvenieu('e. These are some of its 
 winter advantages : they are still more 
 considerable in summer; for at that sea- 
 son it tiirows a shade upon the terrace 
 during all the forenoon, as it defends the 
 gestatio and that part of the ganU'n which 
 lies contiguous to it from the afternoon 
 sun, and casts a greater or less shade as 
 the day either increases or decreases ; but 
 the portico itself is then coolest w hen the 
 sun is most scorching, that is, when its 
 rays fall directly ujion its roof. To these 
 its benefits, 1 must iu)t forg«'t to i\dd, that, 
 by setting open tiie windows, the wesfeni 
 breezes have a free draught, and by that 
 means the enclosed air is prevented fnun 
 stagnating." (I'l.iNv's Letters, book ii. 
 letter xvii. sllelmotk's translati(Ui). This 
 aninuite<l description of a cryptoporticus, 
 of the l)est order, juoves to what a state of 
 luxury and niagniliceuie flu- am ient Ro- 
 mans had arrived in tiie days of Trajan. 
 See Villa. 
 
 ClivsTVL. [cnjstalhis, \a\1. KpvTnWot;, 
 lir.| hi gem scnlpliire. Hard, pellucid, 
 and, naturally, colourless stones, of regu- 
 lar angular bodies, used for seals, rings, 
 
C R Y 
 
 cups, vases, and other ornamental pur- 
 poses. Rock crystal, so called because it 
 is most usually found in rocks, is the 
 transparent prismatic crystals of quartz. 
 It is probably the first substance ever no- 
 ticed as occurring in a regular furni. The 
 ancients believed it, from its transparency, 
 to be water permanently congealed by ex- 
 treme cold, from which circumstance it 
 derived its name (KpvoraXXoj glades; 
 aqua frigore concreta). This mineral crys- 
 tallizes in prisms of six planes witli two 
 hexangular pyramids ; the form of the pri- 
 mitive crystal is a slightly obtuse rhomb. 
 Miss Lowry gives the angles of incidence 
 of the planes, measured by a most accu- 
 rately divided goniometer, as 94*^ 15' and 
 88" 45'. 
 
 The most beautiful and transparent 
 crystals are brought from India. They 
 are also found in the mountainous regions 
 of the Alps, and clear and large specimens 
 are also brought from the Brazils. The 
 British isles possess them in great abund- 
 ance, particularly the neighbourhood of 
 Bristol, and various parts of Ireland. 
 They are called Bristol and Irish dia- 
 monds. In Ireland they have been disco- 
 vered of very large sizes, and fine speci- 
 mens of them are to be seen in the Mu- 
 seum of the Royal Irish Academy, in 
 Dublin. 
 
 Ancient authors make mention of crys- 
 tals also of a very large size. Pliny re- 
 lates that the largest which he had seen 
 was one that the Empress Livia dedicated 
 in the capitol, which weighed nearly forty 
 pounds. Xenocrates mentions having seen 
 a vase of crystal which held an attic am- 
 phora (nearly ten gallons and a half En- 
 glish wine measure), and others vouch to 
 having seen vases of this mineral that 
 would contain eight English wine gallons. 
 Nero purchased of the mother of a family, 
 who was not rich, a basin of crystal, for 
 which he gave a hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand sesterces (£1171. 17s. 6rf. sterling); 
 and at his last extremity, when he heard 
 there was no hope for him, and he could 
 find neither friend nor enemy to dispatch 
 him, when he uttered those memorable 
 words " nee amicum habes, nee inimicum," 
 he broke two splendid crystal cups that 
 no one should enjoy them after him. 
 
 Coloured transparent crystals are not 
 uncommon. Their colour arises from the 
 metallic oxydes which they contain. The 
 Brazilian, and Scotch or Cairngorm topaz, 
 is a ciystal of quartz of a yellow or 
 brownish colour. There are good speci- 
 mens of this yellow crystal also brought 
 from Switzerland. The brown ones are 
 
 CUB 
 
 sometimes called smoky quartz. They are 
 also white and colourless, gray, greenish, 
 yellowish white, the different shades of 
 yellow, the liglit brown, and the dark 
 brown varieties, which pass into red, of 
 which there are several kinds. Quartz 
 has also been found of a beautiful pink 
 colour, but it never crystallizes and is con- 
 sidered as a distinct subspecies. The 
 darkest and brightest red crystals, much 
 resemble the colour called by painters 
 Venetian red, for the colouring matter of 
 both is oxyde of iron. 
 
 The ancient engravers used crystal for 
 their best works. Pliny regrets bitterly 
 the two fine vases of crystal upon v/hicli 
 were engraved subjects taken from the 
 Iliad, which Nero broke as before men- 
 tioned. An epigram in the Anthology 
 mentions an artist of the name of Caius 
 Satureius, who engraved a portrait of 
 Arsinoe upon crystal. 
 
 The various cabinets of Europe possess 
 many antique engraved crystals, some of 
 which have been engraved by Borioni and 
 others. They have also been well imi- 
 tated in glass, but the decejjtion is soon 
 discovered. See Gl.\ss. 
 
 Cube. Icubus, Lat. Kii^og, Gr.] In archi- 
 tecture and the geometry of the fine arts. A 
 regular solid body, consisting of six square 
 and equal faces or sides, and the angles 
 all right and therefore all equal. 
 
 CuEicuLUM. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. The etj'mology of this word means 
 a bedchamber ; but it had also, among the 
 Romans, the extended meaning of cham- 
 ber. Pliny mentions both the cubiculum 
 and the dormitorium. Cubiculum also means 
 a royal pavilion; the balcony or tent 
 whence the emperor enjoyed the public 
 shows. According to Suetonius, Julius 
 Ca?sar constructed one in the orchestra of 
 the circus and amphitheatre, and his suc- 
 cessors kept up the distinction. They gave 
 to this pavilion the name of suggestum, 
 which at first was a simple scaffold, where- 
 as the cubiculum was enriched by curtains 
 which concealed the interior from the 
 view of the spectators. 
 
 Cubit. Icubitus, Lat.] In ancient archi- 
 tecture and sculpture. A measure of length 
 used by the ancients, which was consider- 
 ed as the distance from the elbow, bending 
 inward to the extremity of tlie middle fin- 
 ger, being about one foot and a half En- 
 glish measure, or one foot five inches and 
 .952 exactly. The geometrical cubit was, 
 according to Vitruvius, equal to six of the 
 common cubits. 
 
 Cubits of the Nile. In archaiologi/. The 
 sixteen genii which ancient sculptors 
 
CLIRASS. 
 
 placed about the figure of Nilus to ex- the Creeks wore about to sail up against 
 press the sixteen cubits which tlie Nile Troy in sliips. Wherefore he gave him 
 rose on its inundations. this, gratifying the king. Ton rods in- 
 CciRASs. [cidrasse, Fr.] In mUitary cos- deed were of daric blue {kvolvoc, color 
 tume. A breastplate ; also armour for the Cieruleus), or black metal (probably bronze 
 back and breast. According to Herodo- green with aerugo and rublied bright, Cow- 
 U\s, the Assyrians wore cuirasses or ar- per, and I believe Dr. Clarke, render it 
 mour for the body, of quilted or wadded azure steel), twelve of gold, and twenty 
 linen, which Pliny remarks will resist the of tin, and three azure serpents on each 
 cut of a sword; and the resistance of side were spread towards the neck, like to 
 stoutly wadded or quilted silk, even against rainbows, which the son of Saturn hath 
 a musket bullet, is well known. The an- fixed in a cloud, as a sign to articulate 
 cient mode of preparing these linen cui- speaking men. An accurate idea may be 
 rasses, was to macerate the material in formedof the cuirass of the ancient Greeks 
 wine mixed with a proportion of salt ; and by comparing this and other descriptions 
 then to full or cement together from twelve of Homer with ancient statues and paint- 
 to eighteen layers of the cloth, in the ings on the Grecian vases, particularly the 
 manner of making felt. These were with- fourth vase in the first volume of the col- 
 out doubt the species of cuirass on which lection by Tischbien, and the figures of 
 the muscles of the body were represented, Etruscan soldiers in the Royal Library of 
 as shown in antique sculpture. Such was Paris, published by Caylus. All the ar- 
 the cuirass of tl\e Emperor Conrad, de- niour described by Homer as worn by his 
 scribed by Nicetas Achomitates, in his heroes, is of enormous weight; so much 
 histoi-y of the reign of the Emperor Isaac so, that Plutarch, in his life of Pelopidas, 
 Angelus. This sort of cuirass was proof calls them walking colossi of brass. Pau- 
 against iron, and were used by many na- sanias, of all other ancient authors, has 
 tions, says Cornelius Nepos, iu the stead given us the best description of the Ho- 
 of iron. Linen cuirasses were used in the meric cuirass, which he introduces in a 
 days of the Homeric heroes, for in the description of a picture by Polignotus, re- 
 Iliad (II. v. 530), Ajax, the son of Oileus, presenting the siege of Troy. They were 
 is described by the poet as armed with a according to this author formed of two 
 corslet of linen. In progress of time they sheets of bronze or brass, one of which 
 wore cuirasses of iron over those of cloth served as a protection to the back, and 
 or linen; andoftenfimesof brass or bronze, the other to the chest and entire front of 
 or of leather and metal. The brazen cui- the body. These sheets of brass formed 
 rass was called Owjia? Ta^toc, or -raroe, and by the hammer into the requisite forms, 
 -was formed of polished brass. The cui- were called yvaka, holUnvs or cavities, 
 rass of leather and metal was made of a and they were joined together l)y hooks 
 jerkin or body coat, covered with chains and studs. They were sometimes reckon- 
 of rings, and then it was called 'AXi»(7t- ed of sullicient safety for tiie protection of 
 dmrog" Sometimes the plates or rings re- the wearer, for which reason the warlike 
 sembled scales, and then it was termed Phorcys, the son of Phenops, entering tin- 
 
 lists with Ajax (II, xvii. v. 312.) without 
 a shield, was slain by the brazen javelin, 
 hurled by tlie strong unerring hand of 
 Ajax, burst the ca\ ity (yraXa) of his cors- 
 let, and the weapon drank his entrails 
 tlirough it. Tlie clasps or TTfjioi-rti, which 
 
 AtTTtowrof and i^oXi^oiroQ. When they 
 were made wholly of leatlier, they were 
 called by the Romans coriaccns, whence 
 the modern word cuirass is evidently de- 
 rived. According to Tacitus, the Sarma- 
 tian chiefs wore cuirasses formed of thin 
 
 plates of iron, fastened on coats of hard served to join the back and !)reastplates 
 
 leather. Homer calls the Greeks in many togetlier, are accurately (l(>lined upon the 
 
 places mailed and brazen coated. In the before qtioted vase in Tischbien's collec- 
 
 sevcnteenth Iliad (v. 1!)1), Hector and lion, and were made of various metals and 
 
 jiEneas advance to the attack of the cha- curiously (unamented. Tlu> tiilrly-fourth 
 
 riot of Achilles, " covered to tiuir shoul- lilate in the sixth volume of Caylus, repro- 
 
 ders with bulls iiides, dry and thick, over sents a snudl bronze figure, of which the 
 
 whicli iiuuli brass was plated." cuirass is liki- those just dcscrilied, and is 
 
 III tiie beginning of the elexenth Iliad a good oxamiib- incouneciion witlilhe de- 
 
 (v. 2(». et seq.), he also describes the ar- scriptions of the poets and otiier writers 
 
 mour, jiiuticularly tin; corslet or cuirass for the examination of tl»e student, 
 
 of Agaiiuiunon, which was presented to The lower part of the cuira'-.s was en- 
 
 him by Ciiiyras, tlie King of Cyprus, as a circled by a belt or girdle, which Homer 
 
 tokeiiOf hor.pitality, when lie heard that calls the zone (/.wr»;, or ;'(.iTi/()), and which 
 
CUR 
 
 completed when on the arming of the 
 hero. Hence the expression twvvvaOai 
 (accingere se ad praelium), girded or pre- 
 pared for battle. 
 
 The cuirasses or corslets of the an- 
 cients were variously ornamented. That 
 of Minerva had in its centre the Gorgon's 
 head, which is also found on the cuirasses 
 of many of the Roman emperors. On other 
 ancient specimens are found dolphins, and 
 occasionally other ornaments. The mo- 
 dern cuirass, formed on tiie description of 
 those of the ancients, dilTers but little from 
 those of the Greeks, except perhaps in 
 size and weight, which the personal acti- 
 vity and quickness of modern warfare ren- 
 der necessary. 
 
 Cup. [Saxon.] In painting and sculpture. 
 A small low kind of vase, wider than it is 
 deep. It is sometimes used as a sculptu- 
 ral decoration to architecture. 
 
 Cupola. [Ital.] In architecture. An he- 
 mispherical roof, often used as the summit 
 of a building. The Italian word cupola 
 signifies an hemispherical roof, which co- 
 vers a circular building like the Pantheon 
 at Rome, and the round temple at Tivoli. 
 Many of the ancient Roman temples were 
 circular, and the most imtural form for a 
 roof for such a building was that of a half 
 globe, or a cup reversed. The invention, 
 or at least the first use of this beautiful 
 element of architecture is due to the Ro- 
 mans, and it has never been used since 
 with greater effect, either scientifically or 
 as an affair of taste, than by them. 
 
 The greater part of modern cupolas 
 (unlike those of the ancients, which are 
 mostly demi-globes or hemispherical), are 
 semi-elliptical cut through their shortest 
 diameter. The ancients seldom had any 
 other opening than a large circle in the 
 centre, called the eye of the cupola, while 
 the moderns elevate lanterns and perfo- 
 rate them with luthern and dormant win- 
 dows, and other disfigurements. The an- 
 cients constructed their cupolas of stone ; 
 the moderns of timber, covered with lead 
 or copper, except Mr. Soane's fine cupola 
 over the rotunda of the Bank of England. 
 Of ancient cupolas, the finest, without any 
 comparison, ancient or modern, is that of 
 the Rotonda or Pantheon at Rome. Of 
 modern constructions, the beforementioned 
 cupola at the Bank, that of St. Peter's at 
 Rome, those of St. Paul's, London, the 
 Hotel des Invalides, and the Church of 
 St. Genevieve at Paris, Santa Maria da 
 Fiori at Florence, and at Santa Sofia at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Curator. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 A surveyor or overseer, inspector or com- 
 
 CUli 
 
 missioner of public works. The curator 
 aquarium was, in the days of Augustus, an 
 officer in whom great trust was reposed, 
 being the surveyor of the waters that were 
 consumed in the city, and the charge of the 
 aqueducts and whatever appertained to 
 them were under his care. See Aqu.*> 
 DucT. The office of curator aquarium was 
 established by Augustus, who invested 
 the curator with many powers, and gave 
 him a sufficient number of subordinate 
 ofiScers and slaves to perform the requi- 
 site duties. Frontinus, who held this 
 post in the reign of Nerva and Trajan, 
 has acquainted us with the duties and 
 prerogatives of his office in his work on 
 the aquasducts of Rome. 
 
 Among these duties, the curator had to 
 put an end to many abuses that had arisen 
 in the management of the aqueducts and 
 public waters before his appointment, to 
 visit every aqufeduct in person, to examine 
 their state, the quantity and quality of the 
 water which they conveyed. He had also 
 to make plans and models of all the aquas- 
 ducts under his care, and for new ones 
 when required. Hence his office in many 
 instances resembled that of the modern 
 civil engineer. He had under his com- 
 mand a sufficient quantity of sub-officers, 
 and a great number of slaves as workmen 
 and labourers, who were employed in 
 building, repairing, and keeping them in 
 oi-der. 
 
 These slaves were divided into two 
 classes or familiee (gangs, retinues, or sets), 
 as they were called. One of these was 
 established by Agrippa in the reign of 
 Augustus, and bore the name of Familia 
 Publica. It consisted of about two hun- 
 dred and forty members. The t)ther, call- 
 ed Familia Ccesaris, was established by the 
 Emperor Claudius, and consisted of four 
 hundred and sixty members. These classes 
 were again subdivided into various sec- 
 tions, and were named according to the 
 duties which they had to perform. Those 
 called villici had the inspection of the 
 pipes, the directions of the cisterns or 
 tanks, placed them in the castcllcc or con- 
 duits, and took care that they should be of 
 appropriate dimensions and diameters ac- 
 cording to the nature of their required 
 services. The castellarii or water bailiffs 
 had the superintendance of the castellcc or 
 water towers, and directed the supply of 
 the waters as required. The circuitoi-es 
 perambulated the circuits of the aquas- 
 ducts, and reported their state to the cura- 
 tor. The siliviarii had the care of the 
 pavements under whicli the pipes ran, as 
 well as of the jnpes themselves, and of 
 
CUR 
 
 the lestoiation of the pHviu<r when done. 
 The tectores were the workmen or journey- 
 men builders, whose duties were to build 
 and keep in repair the piers, arches, walls, 
 and other parts of the, construction of the 
 arched aquasducts. There were also other 
 classes of these faniilia^, whose duties 
 were merely that of the common repara- 
 tions or general maintenance of the aquae- 
 ducts. 
 
 There Avere also otiier descriptions of 
 curators among the Romans, such as cura- 
 tor viarum, surveyor of the roads or high- 
 ways. 
 
 Curator colonicB, inspector or superin- 
 tendant of colonies, who superintended the 
 people who were transplanted from the 
 city or other overpopuious places to others, 
 with allowances from tlie public treasury 
 and of land for their support ; by which 
 means the city was disburdened of its 
 multitudes, the poor were provided for, 
 and the borders of the empire, whither 
 they were for the most part sent, secured 
 against the inroads of the enemy. 
 
 Curator kalendarii, the director of the 
 kalendar ; and curator reipublktE, were 
 officers of great trust attached to the up- 
 per order of the government. Curator 
 palatii was the governor of the emperor's 
 household, and, like our lord steward, Avas 
 a situation of great honour, confidence, 
 and patronage. The word curator, is also 
 adopted in the English language, but is 
 mostly confined to the universities and 
 other literary and scientific institutions. 
 
 The curator riarutn was an office of 
 great dignity among the Romans. Julius 
 Caesar was the first person of high rank 
 among tliem, who accepted the situation 
 of curator of tlie public ways, which was 
 afterwards rarely ever conferred, except 
 u))on those who were of consular dignity. 
 Thermus, a noble Roman, served this 
 otlicc, according to Cicero, and became 
 curator of the Flaminian way, and was a 
 colleague of Ciesar's. " Thermus," says 
 he, in his first epistle, book i. to Atticus, 
 "curator est \hv. Vlaniini;e: Qu;e cum 
 erit absoluta, sane facile eum C-aJsari con- 
 sulem addiderim." Pliny says in a let- 
 ter to l»ontiuB (lib. v. Kp. 1.5.) (hat the 
 news of Cornutus Tertullus iia\ ing ac- 
 cepted the surveyorship of liie /iLuiilian 
 way adectod him with joy," R(!cessi'rani in 
 municiliuni, cum mihi luinliiitum est C'or- 
 nutum Tcrtutliiiu acccpissc /IJiiiliie via' 
 curam. JCvprimere non possum (pianto 
 aim gaudio allcctus, el ipsius, et moo no- 
 mine." Statius also in his Sylvarum (lili. 
 4.) ad IMiivcclhiin, ])uls among his eulo- 
 giums n|><iii ViCTonii's Makcki.i.i's, who 
 
 CUT? 
 
 was of the praetorian order, that he had 
 been selected by Domitiau to I)e surveyor 
 of the via Latina, 
 
 " Qiiiqiip tuos alio subtpxit nronere fasces : 
 Et spatia antiquae mandat rcuovare Latinae." 
 
 He also mentions as a mark of similai; 
 dignitj, that Plotus Grippis, whom he 
 calls majoris gradus jurenem, had been en- 
 trusted by the same emperor with two of 
 the most honourable offices of the empire, 
 praifectum aiinonce, et curatorcm riarum, 
 lib. 4. Sylvarum, in risu saturnalitio ad 
 Plotium. 
 
 Curia. [Lat. from Knpia, Gr.] In ancient 
 architecture. A courL The council house, 
 or senate house of the Roman people. 
 Being originally an edifice for religious 
 services, it obtained its name, but at lengtli 
 becoming devoted also to secular pur- 
 poses, it still retained it. There were 
 several curiie in the Roman empire as 
 well as in tlie city. The curia municipalis 
 was, according to Vitruvius, a state house 
 or Guildhall, called also domus ciirialis. 
 The curia dominicalis, an equivalent to our 
 court baron or manor house. 
 
 The principal in the citj' of Rome were 
 the curia Ilostilia, which was the senate 
 house that was built by Tulliis Hostilius. 
 TJiere were two called after the king, 
 first the curia Hostilia vetus, which, ac- 
 cording to Asconius and Varro, was built 
 by him near the IMons Palatinus. Tlie 
 other callod curia Hostilia nova was built 
 by TuUus Hostilius for the Albani. In it 
 were originally held the meetings of tlic 
 CK;7«/rs or wards ofRome, which afterwards 
 assembled in the comitium. See Comi- 
 TiUM. It was situated on Mons Ca;lius, 
 and was ascended to by a flight of stairs 
 whicli Servius TuUius destroyed in a con- 
 test which happene<l between him and 
 Tarquinius Prisms in this building. Syl- 
 la rejjaired them, and tlie Curia of Hosti- 
 lius was redticed to ashes, according to 
 Asconius, when they burned tiie deail 
 body of Publius Clodius, the tribune of 
 the people, tliat formidulih* eiu-my of Ci- 
 cero, wlio was slain by T. .Vnuius iMilo. 
 The people having collected tlie seats and 
 benches of liic notaries and public scri\c- 
 ners, tlie tribunals of tiie infi-ricu' courts, 
 and the books of (lie librarians, they made 
 so larg(! a fire, fhat tliey not only burned 
 the corjjse, but also the curia itself, and 
 melted several bronze statues that were 
 about it. Faustus, the sou of Sylla was 
 commissioned to rebuild it, but he prefer- 
 red erecting a small temple to the god 
 i-'tl icily. Tiie rinia I lo.it ilia was not re- 
 stored till (he time of .lulius Ca»SHr, Avho 
 
CUR 
 
 began to rebuild it, and his nephew Au- 
 gustus finished it, but gave it the name of 
 Curia Julia, after his daughter Julia, and 
 commemorated it by a reverse upon one 
 of his denarii. After the banishment of this 
 profligate vi^oman by her father, it again 
 resumed its original name. 
 
 The Curia Pompeii was erected by Pom- 
 pey near to his theatre, in order that the 
 senate might be enabled to assemble for 
 the dispatch of public business on the 
 days of the games, and also give their 
 presence and authority to the shows. It 
 was in this edifice that Julius Caesar was 
 assassinated on the Ides of March, at the 
 base of the statue of Pompey its founder* 
 Suetonius affirms that it was always closed 
 after this event, or, as Appianus asserts in 
 his history of the civil wars of Rome, was 
 burned by the people. 
 
 Another of the curia of imperial Rome, 
 was that in the neighbourhood of the Fla- 
 minian Circus, known by the name of the 
 Curia in Porticu Octavi(P. There were 
 also four inferior curiae on the Mons Pala- 
 tinus, between the arches of Titus and 
 Constantine, called Curits Foi'iensis Rop- 
 t(B, Vellensis, and Velitia;. 
 
 Curiosity, [^cui'iositas, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. An object of elegance, finished work- 
 manship, rarity, beauty, &c. Curiosities 
 in art are works of whatever nature, that 
 are not only elegant and valuable in them- 
 selves, but rare, or uncommon. Such as 
 very highly finished cabinet pictures, an- 
 tique sculptures, gems, jewellery, armour, 
 arms, books, manuscripts, autographs, me- 
 dals, medallions, vases, models, little co- 
 lumns of agate, jasper, fine marbles, &c. 
 
 Curtain, [cortina, Lat.] /n architecture. 
 The part of the wall of a fortification or 
 rampart that is constructed between two 
 bastions. Also a cloth or large veil, that 
 can be contracted or enlarged at pleasure. 
 In the interior of the houses, mansions, 
 and palaces of the ancients, the entrances 
 to the difl'erent rooms were seldom closed 
 otherwise than by a curtain, or continua- 
 tion of the arras or tapestry with which 
 the walls were closed ; and were called 
 velum cubiculare, anlceum, &c. It was be- 
 hind a curtain or arras of this description 
 that Heliogabalus, according to Lampri- 
 dius in his account of that tyrant, conceal- 
 ed himself when the soldiers sought to 
 assassinate him for his crimes and tyranny. 
 Suetonius describes a similar piece of do- 
 mestic architecture, behind which Clau- 
 dius concealed himself also, for fear of 
 assassination upon the death of Caligula, 
 when the soldiers drew him forth from 
 
 eiTR 
 
 his hiding place and proclaimed him em- 
 peror. 
 
 Among the ancients, when the prince 
 gave audience, a curtain was drawn up 
 from before the passage to his apartment, 
 as a signal for entrance. The judges in 
 criminal cases, which demanded serious 
 investigation, were accustomed occasion- 
 ally to have a curtain dropped during 
 their discussions, to withdraw them from 
 the eyes of the criminals and the people, 
 while forming their decisions. This cus- 
 tom gave rise to the expression ad vela 
 sisti, to denote an appearance before a 
 bench of judges. On the contrary, in 
 affairs of little importance, they kept the 
 curtain raised, and they discussed the evi- 
 dence and passed their judgments levato 
 velo with a raised curtain, before the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 In the temples of the ancients, they often 
 suspended a curtain before the statue of 
 the divinity, during the times when they 
 were not sacrificing. In the temple of 
 Jupiter at Olympia there was a curtain 
 of extreme value, beautifully woven of 
 wool, after the manner of the Assyrians, 
 and dyed with the Tyrian purple ; that 
 was presented to the temple by Antiochus. 
 There was also a similar curtain or veil in 
 the celebrated temple of Diana at Ephe- 
 sus. When they would discover the sa- 
 cred statue to the wondering eyes of the 
 adoring crowds that assembled within the 
 walls of the temple, the curtain was lower- 
 ed as in the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, 
 or raised as in that of Diana at Ephesus. 
 The veil of the virgin goddess of the Athe- 
 nians is much celebrated by Pausanias 
 and other Greek writers, which is de- 
 scribed under the article Peplum. See 
 Peplum. Stuart, in his Antiquities of 
 Athens (vol. ii. p. 7 and 8), thinks that the 
 ancient veil or curtain of the temple was 
 for the purpose of covering the centre part 
 of the hyptethros, which was unroofed. 
 This sort of curtain differs from the vela- 
 rium of the Romans that was used in their 
 theatres and amphitiieatres. 
 
 In the theatres of the Romans, they 
 wex"e accustomed to close tlie scene be- 
 tween the spectator and the actors by a 
 curtain, which was raised at the com- 
 mencement of the performance. It was 
 called aulcEum and sipiirium: Apuleius 
 says aul(£um when used for tragedy, and 
 siparium when for comedy. It does not 
 appear that the Greeks used the curtain in 
 their theatre, except in the infancy of their 
 drama. The perispetesmata, of which Pol- 
 lux and Varro make mention, was nothing 
 
 Q 
 
cus 
 
 but a curtain extended over the audience 
 part of the theatre as a shade for the spec- 
 tators. 
 
 AVhen the curtain was to be withdrawn 
 for the commencement of the drama, it was 
 not raised as is the practice at the present 
 day, but lowered. During the represen- 
 tation it was either left lying on the front 
 part of the proscenium, hung over the hy- 
 posceuium, to which it became a species of 
 ornament, or let down under the stage or 
 proscenium by a trap. When tlie drama 
 was finished the curtain was slowly raised, 
 and the stage closed from the view of the 
 spectators. The curtain was usually 
 painted, and often with historical subjects, 
 as Ovid mentions in the third book of his 
 Metamorphoses (v. iii. et seq.). " When 
 the curtain rises," says he, "the figures 
 rise aloft ; we see at first the faces, and 
 then the other parts of the body succes- 
 sively arise, till their feet appear upon 
 the floor of the scene." The Romans ge- 
 nerally chose for the subjects of their 
 painted curtains the most striking events 
 of the last war in which tiiey were en- 
 gaged ; with figures of their most popular 
 heroes, and of the people whom they had 
 recently conquered. 
 
 Cl'Rule (chair). See Chair (curule). 
 
 Cushion, [coitssin, Fr.] In costume and 
 domestic architecture. A pillow for the 
 seat of a chair, a couch, or a bed. In an- 
 cient times the soldiers reposed on sacks 
 filled with wool, straw, or dry leaves ; 
 and cushions or mattresses were used in 
 their dwelling houses and temples for va- 
 rious purposes. In a painting on a fine 
 Greek or Etruscan vase, published by 
 Millin in the first volume of his fllonumois 
 inidits, which represents tlie expiation of 
 Orestes; he is represented as crouching 
 down before the cortina on a cushion or 
 mattress, formed like those of modern 
 times. But, it is evident, on inspection, 
 and on comparing it with the diflerent 
 passages of the poets which rc'j)resenl tiiis 
 subject, that it is merely a raised part of 
 the door of the temple covered with a car- 
 pet, that is laid over the cortina of the tri- 
 j)od before which Orestes is pcrfonniiig 
 his expiatory duties, and taking refuge 
 against tlie furies which are pursuing 
 them. See Coutina, Tuipod, INI AinitEss. 
 
 Custom HousK. In urchiticlure. \ pub- 
 lic building A\ here the iluties and customs 
 upon goods iniported or exported are col- 
 lected. A customhouse should be situ- 
 ated near the port of a city, where it is 
 both convenient of access for the shipping 
 and to tlie mercantile residentu thereof. 
 
 CYC 
 
 It should consist of a grand and spacious 
 quay, suitable warehouses for goods, wet 
 docks for ships and barges, rooms for the 
 chief and subordinate otficers, halls of bu- 
 siness, &c. &c. The best and most com- 
 plete buildings of this nature are the cut;- 
 tomhouse at Bologna, designed and built 
 by DoiHENico T1BA1.D1, son of tiie cele- 
 brated painter Pellegrino Tibaldi ; that of 
 London by Mr. Lai.ng ; and that of Dublin, 
 perhaps the finest in design of tliem all, by 
 the late Mr. Gandon. 
 
 C^UELE. In tlw arc}uiiologij of painting 
 and sculpture. The goddess who presided 
 over the eartli. She is represented with 
 a crown of turrets on her head, and was a 
 goddess of the highest dignity and wor- 
 ship in the religion of the ancient Ro- 
 mans, by whom she was called Mater 
 Pessinunte, Dea Syria, almu mater deum, 
 Sancta de&m gcnetrix, Domina, Mater, Ma- 
 ter cultrix, ice. the mother of the gods, 
 daughter of heaven and earth, the wife to 
 Saturn, upon which account she is also 
 called Ops, Rhea, and Vesta. Her priests 
 were called corybantes, and among other 
 ceremonies of her worship, accompanied 
 themselves by the noises of drums, tabors, 
 pipes, and cymbals. She is represented 
 on ancient medals as sitting, and with a 
 pine branch in her hand. The ancient 
 poets and artists give her sometimes a 
 chariot drawn by lions, in \\hich 0\ id 
 (Met. xiv. v. .S40.) describes her as de- 
 scending from heaven to earth. Sec also 
 Virgil, Mn. hi. v. 113. x. v. 253, and Lu- 
 cret. u. v. 609. She was also the goddess 
 of shepherds, and was called by them 
 Mafoia Pales. A celebrated statue of this 
 goddess in stone was formerly at Pessi- 
 nunte, which was brought to Rome, when 
 all the matrons of the city went out as far 
 as the mouth of the Tiber to welcome her. 
 The next year a splendid temple was built 
 for its reception. 
 
 Cycles, [ctjclus, Lat. KvkXoc, Gr.] In 
 the urchaiolofcy of art. A rouiul of time. 
 See MvTinr Ciiu i.e. 
 
 C\n.oiD. [ K. i'ikXoIc »;c» Gr.] In architec- 
 ture. The form of an arch, the curve of 
 which is mechanically constructed by tak- 
 ing a point in the circumferenc e of a circle, 
 and revolving it ou a right line, the curve 
 (lescribed by the point will be a cycloid. 
 See Alien, 
 
 Cyclopean works. In aiicicHt architec- 
 ture. Masonry perfornu'd with huge blocks 
 of stone, much of which is to be seiii in 
 Sicily, said by modern imbeciles to l)e the 
 works of an ancient and fabulous gigantic 
 ra<-e of people ; as Slonehenge is said by 
 
CYL 
 
 our country people to have been built by 
 the devil. Some of these works called 
 Cyclopean were the walls of Argos and 
 Sicyone. Near to Nauplea in Argolis 
 there were caveins which, according to 
 Strabo, were called Cyclopean. As ser- 
 vants of Vulcan, the Cyclops were cele- 
 brated in mythology and fabulous history 
 for their marvellous works. See Cyclops. 
 
 Cyclops. [Lat. KvkXw^'j ^'"•] In pictorial 
 and sculptural mythology. The Cyclops are 
 fabled by the poets as being the sons of 
 Neptune and Amphitryte, and assistants 
 of Vulcan. Their chief employment was in 
 the manufacture of thunderbolts for Jupi- 
 ter. The three most celebrated are Brontes 
 (the thunderer), Pyracmon (the fire and 
 anvil man), and Sterope (the lightning). 
 
 Cylinder, \cylindrus, Lat. KvXiv^poc, 
 Gr.] In the geometry of the fine arts, A 
 geometrical solid or cube having two flat 
 sides and one revolving, like a garden 
 roller, or a portion of the shaft of an un- 
 fluted column. The cylinder was reckon- 
 ed a sacred form among many nations, 
 particularly those of the east. Many of 
 the mystical deities of the ancient nations 
 that inhabited Hindustan and its neigh- 
 bourhood were figured as cylinders of 
 wrought and sometimes unwrought stone. 
 Their lingam was also represented under 
 the same form, and concealed in the dark- 
 est recesses of their obscure temples and 
 sculptured caverns. A rude cylinder of 
 this description served even an ancient 
 people for a statue of the goddess of Love 
 herself. These mysticisms had allu- 
 sions, there can be no doubt, to the pro- 
 creating power of nature. Sir William 
 Jones has treated the subject with pro- 
 found knowledge in his inimitable dis- 
 courses delivered before the Asiatic So- 
 ciety. See that work, 2 vols. 12mo. Lon- 
 don, 1821. 
 
 Pliny describes a valuable precious 
 stone, of a cylindrical form, which, he says, 
 the artist formed of that shape, rather 
 than that of the ordinary form, because it 
 was naturally of that shape ; but it is 
 more likely that it had allusion to the 
 above quoted mystical allusions. In ca- 
 binets of ancient gems many of this form 
 are to be found pierced throughout longi- 
 tudinally, which occasions Millin to think 
 that they were worn as amulets. They 
 are mostly engraved upon their peripheiy 
 with long and meagre figures, of a singu- 
 lar mode of costume, and accompanied by 
 Persepolitan characters similar to those 
 found at Tchelminai, or Persepolis. Ar- 
 chaiologists have regarded them as origi- 
 nally belonging to Persepolis or the an- 
 
 CYN 
 
 cient Suza, the residence of the former 
 kings of Persia before the conquest of 
 their kingdom by Alexander the Great. 
 Among these singular stones some are pa- 
 rallelopidons, but the greater part are 
 cylindrical. Their materials are mostly 
 jasper, turquoise, haematite (the most usu- 
 ally met with), lapis lazuli, and agate. 
 Bianchini has given an engraving and de- 
 scription of one of a curious cylindrical 
 form in his universal history. Caylus 
 has engraved and described eight, seven 
 of which are in the royal collection at 
 Paris. There are also specimens of them 
 in the British Museum ; and the late Mr. 
 Townley and Mr. Akerblad had also seve- 
 ral. Besides the abovenamed works of 
 Bianchini and Caylus, the inquirer is 
 directed to Raspe's Catalogue of the casts 
 from gems by Tassie. 
 
 Cyma. [Lat. Kffjua, Gr.] In architecture. 
 Billowing, swelling ; also a young shoot 
 of a plant or herb. Used as the name of 
 an undulating moulding, which is gene- 
 rally the upper one to a cornice, and is 
 then called cymatium. See Cymatium. 
 There are two sorts of cymae, the cyma 
 recta, which is composed of a concave and 
 convex moulding, the former being upper- 
 most in the shape of the Roman letter S ; 
 and the cyma reversa where the convex 
 moulding is uppermost, 
 
 Cymatium. [Lat. Kv^driov, Gr.] In 
 architecture. The upper moulding of a 
 cornice, so called because it is generally 
 formed of either a cytrni recta or reversa. 
 Vitruvius alludes to cymatii, the Doric and 
 the Lesbian. The French and Italian 
 architects call this compound moulding 
 gola, gueule, and doucine, a throat. The 
 cymatium is also used to the heads of mo- 
 dillions, and constitutes part of them, as 
 likewise it enters into the composition of 
 the abacus, and on pedestals, as in the 
 stylobata corona, and the base thereof, but 
 in both are inverted. 
 
 Cymbals, [cymbalum, Lat. Kvfifia\oi>f 
 Gr.] In the archaiology of the arts. Musi- 
 cal instruments of brass, used in the wor- 
 ship of some of the ancient deities. Ac- 
 cording to Servius they were particularly 
 dedicated to Cybele. 
 
 Cymbium. [Lat. YLvji^iov, Gr.] In the 
 archaiology of the arts. An ancient drink- 
 ing vessel, fashioned like a boat. 
 
 Cynocephalis. [Lat. KuvoKt^aXi'c, Gr. 
 ex PI. XIII. c. 2, called also cercopitheciis, 
 KepKOTTtdrjKog, simia cum cauda.] In the 
 archaiology of the arts. A large kind of 
 ape or baboon, approaching to the form of 
 a dog; under which form and name the 
 Egyptians worshiped theiv god Anubis, 
 
 q2 
 
CYP 
 
 the son of Osiris. The E^ ptian Mercury, 
 wlio •was hence called by Virgil and Ovid, 
 Latrator the barlier; by Plutarch Herma- 
 nubis; and by Lucan Semicanis deus. 
 
 Cypress, [cyprus, Lat. Ki^-ooc, Gr.] In 
 ancient architecture. The wood of a tall 
 straight tree much grown in the island of 
 Cyprus. Its leaves are bitter, and its smell 
 and shade deleterious. Hence the Ro- 
 mans looked upon it to be a fatal tree, and 
 used it in their funeral ceremonies, be- 
 sides covering the gate of the house of the 
 deceased with its brandies. It is also tlie 
 emblem of mourning, and dedicated to 
 Pluto, It was valued by ancient archi- 
 tects and can ers, as being a solid heavy 
 wood, of an aromatic smell, which pre- 
 serves it a long time from decay, and is 
 never worm eaten. The door posts of the 
 palace of Menelaus are described by Homer 
 as of Cyprus ; which is also the material 
 
 CYZ 
 
 on which the laws of Solon are said to 
 have been engraved. 
 
 There were in ancient Rome several ce- 
 lebrated statues carved of cyprus, among 
 others one of Vejovis or Vejupiter, placed 
 between the citadel and the capitol ; an- 
 other of Juno Regina, which they carmed 
 in solemn procession during the calamities 
 which iuippened in the war with Hannibal 
 in Italy. 
 
 Cyzicenus, [Lat. Kv^ukoc, Gr.] In an- 
 cient Greek architecture. The name of a 
 species of large and splendid halls, su- 
 perbly decorated witii architecture and 
 sculpture, so called by the Greeks after 
 the inhabitants of Cyzicus, a town of the 
 Propontis, wlio were celebrated for the 
 magnificence of their buildings. The cy- 
 ziceni of tlie Greeks much resembled the 
 coenaculi of the Romans. See Cienacl- 
 
 LUM, 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacia. In the history of the arts. A 
 country situate beyond Hungary, whose 
 inhabitants were often at v/ar with the 
 Romans, till their signal defeat by Trajan, 
 whicii is commemorated on his column. 
 See CoLUJiN Trajan, This important con- 
 quest, whicli reduced Dacia from the go- 
 vernment of a long line of powerful kings, 
 to the situation of a Roman province, is 
 often alluded to in the epigraphs upon tiie 
 medals and coins of Trajan. Vaillwt 
 has publislied an engraving from a Greek 
 medal, wliich also refers to this event. 
 Upon various Roman medals of tlie times 
 of the emperors, Dacia is represented as a 
 female sitting near to a trophy, exhibiting 
 marks of sorrow at her fallen state. On 
 some she is represented witii the Phry- 
 gian bonnet, and on others a species of 
 curved sword, such as was used by the 
 Dacians, while on some she has a palm or 
 an ensign. 
 
 Dactyliogi.ypus. [from AuKTuXog a fin- 
 ger, and rXii^w I engrave.] In nnti(iue i;em 
 sculpture. An engraver of stones for finger 
 rings. Many of the ancient gem sculptors, 
 lia\ing inscribed tlieir names uj)on their 
 works, they have descended with their re- 
 putations to tlic present day, and prevent- 
 ed many controversies in regard to tlie 
 artisls. 
 
 DA(-rYi.H)r.R\pnY. [from AoKruXdi;, and 
 rpcKpio I write.] Jn tin' history of the arts. 
 A descrii)tion of engraved linger rings and 
 precious stones. 
 
 Dactymomjgy. [from Afiicri'Xoc, and 
 Aoyof a discourse.] In (he history of the 
 
 arts. The science which describes or treats 
 upon the history, nature, and qualities of 
 engraved gems for linger rings. 
 
 Dactyliomancy. [from Aasrt'Xoc, and 
 MaiTt/.'^ the art of divination.] In the his- 
 tory of the arts. A species of divination 
 by linger rings, made under the aspects of 
 certain constellations, accompanied by cer- 
 tain charms and magic characters. Am- 
 mianus Marct'llinus describes another sort 
 of dactyliomancy, which consisted of sus- 
 pending a ring by a thread over a rounil 
 table, on which were various characters and 
 all the letters of the alphabet. The ring 
 was put in motion, and the letters or signs 
 o\ er which it stopped, when joined toge- 
 ther, formed the required answer. Super- 
 stitious people of the present day practise 
 a species of dactyliomancy, by suspending 
 a ring by a hair or very thin thread, in the 
 circuit of a glass, which tiiey say will al- 
 ways strike the hour of the day. 
 
 Dactvliotiieca. [Lat. AaKrvXioOi'ikti, 
 Gr.] In ancient architecture. A cabinet or 
 case to contain linger rings ami engraved 
 gems. The use of rings was very connnon 
 among tlie Greeks, both as an orniunental 
 part of tiieir dress, and as seals. A col- 
 lection of sucii was, therefore, an ai)i)en- 
 dage to ail persons of wealth and conse- 
 quence. The first collections of precious 
 stones or jewels that we are acquainted 
 with in ancient Rome were made as early 
 as the limes of Scaunis and Ponqjcy ; but 
 fliere is notiiing to imlicate that they were 
 engraved. Mithriilates had a dactylic- 
 thecu, which, on his defeat by Ponipcy, 
 
DACTYLIOTHECA. 
 
 was consecrated in the capitol by his con- 
 queror. Ca;sar established several in the 
 temples of Venus and Mai'cellus, an exten- 
 sive one in the cell of the temple of Apollo 
 Palatinus. 
 
 Among the jnoderns, Lorenzo di Me- 
 dici is the first vv^ho made an extensive col- 
 lection of antique engraved gems, which 
 was considerably augmented by Cosmo, 
 and several of his successors. This col- 
 lection formed a portion of the superb gal- 
 lery of Florence. The stones which com- 
 posed the part collected by Lorenzo are 
 for the most part marked with his initials 
 L. M. ; and others have upon their mount- 
 ings or settings a laurel, with the legend 
 semper viret, the cipher and devise of that 
 celebrated family. The dactyliotheca Flo- 
 rentina has been enlarged and augmented by 
 various successors of its princely founder. 
 They have been engraved and published 
 by Gori in the Mvseurn Florentbmm. The 
 once celebrated collections of Barberini and 
 of Odescalchi are no longer in existence. 
 The latter belonged originally to Chris- 
 tina, the celebrated Queen of Sweden, and 
 have been engraved in the Museum Odes- 
 calchi. 
 
 The Cardinal Borgia possesses at Vel- 
 letrl a fine collection of antique engraved 
 stones, celebrated particularly for the set 
 of Scarabaeii and of Egyptian stones. The 
 dactyliotheca Farncse now belongs to the 
 King of Naples. That of the Strozzi con- 
 tains some of the finest examples of the 
 art, such as the Hercules of Cneids^ the 
 Medusa of Solon, the Medusa of Sosthenes, 
 the Esculapius of Auu's, the Gcrmanicus 
 of Epitynchanus, the Sluse of Allion, the 
 Satyr of Scylax, &c. Gori has described 
 the greater part of them in his Bluseum 
 Florentinum, because the Strozzi family 
 was originally of Florence, and resided 
 in that cityj but their dactyliotheca was 
 kept in Rome, whence it could not be re- 
 moved under the penalty of its forfeiture. 
 The dactyliotheca Ludovisia is one of the 
 most celebrated in Rome, and belongs to 
 Ludovisi Buon Compagni, Prince of Piom- 
 bino. Besides tiie fine Demosthenes of 
 DioscouRiDES, it possesses several of the 
 finest antiques and specimens of the six- 
 teenth century. The collection of the 
 Vatican was formed more by chance and 
 at random than by a connected design, 
 and contains specimens of great size and 
 high value. 
 
 The most considerable collection in Ger- 
 many is that of Prussia, began by the 
 Elector Frederick William, and augment- 
 ed by Frederick II. from the collection of 
 Baron Stosch, of which Winckelmann has 
 
 published a catalogue. If the Prussian 
 collection has the advantage on the score 
 of erudition, that of Vienna has the pre- 
 ference in point of art. It has cameos of 
 the largest size and of immense value. 
 EcKHEL has published engravings of its 
 principal beauties. The senate of Leipsic 
 has a good collection of antique gems. 
 The King of Denmark possesses in his 
 palace at Copenhagen some fine antique 
 vases of sardonyx, and others enriched 
 with cameos and intaglios, some of which 
 are modern, by the celebrated Lau- 
 rence Natter, who resided and followed 
 his art in the palace. The King of the 
 Netherlands has also a good collection in 
 his palace at the Hague. 
 
 The imperial cabinet at St. Petersburgh 
 boasts of a splendid dactyliotheca. The 
 principal gems of which were formed by 
 the acquisition of the collection of Natter, 
 who died at St. Petersburgh ; by that of 
 the celebrated Orleans collection, by the 
 Strozzi, and by purchases from private 
 collections. A catalogue of them has been 
 published by M. Koehlen. Among the 
 most valuable and rare of this splendid 
 collection are some vases of Sardonyx. 
 The dactyliotheca Poniatowsky at St. Pe- 
 tersburgh is also rich in sculptured gems 
 of the highest value. 
 
 The most celebrated collections in Eng- 
 land are those belonging to the Dukes of 
 Devonshire, Bedford, and Marlborough, 
 and the Earls of Carlisle and Besborough. 
 The Marlborough collection boasts of the 
 beautiful Blarriage of Cupid and Psyche, 
 by Tryphon. Its best gems have been 
 engraved by Bartolozzi. 
 
 Many of the churches in France, before 
 the revolution, had collections of sculp- 
 tured gems ; and there was also some pri- 
 vate collections of value ; the principal of 
 which were those of M. D'Ennery and the 
 Count Caylua. The best, however, is the 
 dactyliotheca of the Royal Library at Pa- 
 ris, which is a large collection both of 
 antique and modern workmanship. M. 
 Mariette has published engravings from 
 the intaglios of that cabinet, but has not 
 exercised much judgment or discrimina- 
 tion, having given modern performances 
 for antiques, and those which are executed 
 by Bouchardon have no resemblance to 
 the beauty of the antique style. Some of 
 the cameos, such as the apotheosis of Au- 
 gustus, which formerly belonged to the 
 holy chapel, the fine sardonyx vase, which 
 was taken from St. Denys, and the apo- 
 theosis of Germanicus, have been pub- 
 lished separately. Others of them have 
 been published by A. L. Milun in his 
 
DAD 
 
 Monumens inedits. This fine collection, 
 besides the fine specimens just mentioned, 
 possesses also the very fine Achilles Citha- 
 Tadus of Pamphilus, the Mecanns of Dios- 
 couRiDES,the Dhnysiac BitUofKxu.vs, the 
 Griffin of MiDiLS, the Julia of Evodls, the 
 Jupiter jEgiochus that was found at Ephe- 
 sus, an Indian Bacchus upon a topaz, su- 
 perb portraits on sardonyx, and a long set 
 of modern portraits of celebrated charac- 
 ters. 
 
 As it is impossible to form all the fine 
 antique engraved gems into one cabinet, a 
 collection of impressions or casts from 
 them are curious and useful. These col- 
 lections are of great value and assistance 
 in the study of historj , of archaiology, and 
 of the fine arts. Pickler has formed a 
 collection of such casts taken from the 
 finest specimens, Lippert has also pub- 
 lished a collection of four thousand casts, 
 accompanied by a well written descriptive 
 catalogue of the subjects. It is knov.n by 
 the name of the dactyliotheca Lipperti, 
 Casts and impressions of this kind are on 
 common sale in Italy, from the finest an- 
 tiques. Tassie of Leicester Square, in 
 London, has executed the largest collec- 
 tion of casts yet known, amounting to 
 more than fifteen thousand, of which a 
 catalogue has been published, drawn up 
 by Rasp, whose name has occurred be- 
 fore in tliis article. The cabinet of an- 
 tiques in the Royal Library of Paris has 
 a large collection of casts from antique 
 gems of the finest description, which is 
 being augmented every day. 
 
 The publications on this subject are 
 principally those of Ciiiflet on Abraxas. 
 See Abraxas. Gori sur les Pien-es As- 
 triftres ; Ficoroni sur les Pierres qui portent 
 des Inscriptions ; Gori sur les Pierres gra- 
 vies ; the Museum Florentinum, by the 
 same author ; the Galerie de Florence, par 
 WiCAR, et Mongez ; the Musenm u'Odes- 
 CALCHi; Description des Pierres en Creuxdu 
 Cabinet du Roi, par Mahiette ; les Pierres 
 du Due d'Orlians, ))ar Le Bi.om) et La- 
 CHAux ; les Cabinets de Gravelle, de Cras- 
 BiER, de Stosch, (/(• Bossi, du Due de IM ari.- 
 BOROL'Gii; le Recueil de Cavlis; I'Anti- 
 quit6 expliqui'e de Monteai con ; the .)/«- 
 seam liuinanum ; a chapter entitled Dacty- 
 liotheca in the Recueil d'lmcriptions, par 
 
 MtJRATORI. 
 
 Daokhls. [Lut. AaCHxoc Gr,] In the 
 archaiology of sculpture. Literally a torcii 
 beart^r, but a))i>li((l as an opiliict to many 
 of the ancient (liviniti(!S, wiio were always 
 rejjresented as bearing a torch or llain- 
 beau. Diiducus also designated those per- 
 sons, wlio iu certain ceremonies iind reli- 
 
 DAl 
 
 gious processions carried the flambeaus or 
 sacred torches. The Daduchic deities are, 
 Ceres, when represented as searching for 
 her lost daughter Proserpine ; Diana, 
 Luna, Hecate, and Sol, when in their cars 
 employed in the business of lighting the 
 earth; Venus, Cupid, and Hymen, when 
 bearing the torch of love ; Rhea, or Cybele, 
 and Vesta, in the temples where the ves- 
 tals guarded the sacred fire of those god- 
 desses ; Vulcan, in whose honour, con- 
 jointly with Prometheus and Pallas as 
 Daduchi, the Athenians instituted a fes- 
 tival which they called Lampadephoria 
 Aap7ract](popia (see Lampadephoria) ; Bel- 
 lona, the furies, Aurora, Hymen, Peace on 
 a medal of Vespasian ; Comus in an an- 
 cient painting described by Philostratus ; 
 Night, Sleep, and Death or Thanatus 
 edvarog; and are always, when repre- 
 sented as Daduchi by the ancient poets or 
 artists, described as bearing flambeaux. 
 
 D.ED.ALEIAN. [cl^dalcus, Lat. AaicaXioQ, 
 Gr.] In all the arts. Artificial, skilfully 
 made, expert, workmanlike ; so called by 
 ancient writers after Daedalus, the most 
 ingenious artificer of the ancient world; 
 whence the proverb Dcedali opera, Daeda- 
 lian arts, when they meant to commend 
 a work for its ingenuity and excellence. 
 They also used the phrase Remigiis Dada- 
 leis to signify any thing done with dex- 
 terity and speed. The name of this skilful 
 Tprojector is also an adjective implying ex- 
 cellence with Latin authors, as D<edala 
 tecta by Virgil ; Dadala tellus and Dirdaleus 
 by Lucretius ; Dirdaleus and Dadalus by 
 Horace and Propertius ; and Diedal in the 
 same meaning by Dr. Johnson in his Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 D.iiOAHS. [Lut. AaiiUiXoQ, Gr.] In an- 
 cient architecture. A name of the labyrinth 
 of Crete, so called from D;edalus its archi- 
 tect. 
 
 Dairy, [from dey, an old English word 
 for milk.] In architecture. A building ap- 
 propriated to the purpose of preserving 
 and managing milk, skimming crejun, 
 making butter, cheese, &c. with sometimes 
 the addition of pleasure rooms for par- 
 taking the luxuries of the dairy, as sylla- 
 bubs, cream witli fruit, iced creams, &c. 
 Mr. IVvpwoRTH in his tasteful designs 
 for rural residences appropriately says, 
 '• \\'hi'n the fasliionable aiiiusenients of the 
 town are relinquished for those of tlie 
 country, there are few so interesting to 
 the female niind as liie dairy. Peihai)s 
 the i)oets ha\<' given a sentiment to all that 
 belongs to i)astoral life; or, in its own na- 
 ture*, liie means of supplying plensurablo 
 ideas may have a real existence : indeed 
 
DAM 
 
 it is probable, that nature and the poet 
 may have combined to give a relish for an 
 amusement that is equally engaging and 
 healthful, and taste has not failed to add 
 its influence in favour of this subject, for 
 there are few residences, whose possessors 
 have been acknowledged to lead in the 
 "walks of polished fancy or pictorial beau- 
 ty, where the dairy has not formed an 
 agreeable feature in the order of its rural 
 offices." 
 
 Woburn Abbey, the seat of the Duke of 
 Bedford, and one of the completest speci- 
 mens of the mansion of an English noble- 
 man of taste and refined intellects, pos- 
 sessing every advantage that art and na- 
 ture cau bestow, has a dairy of considera- 
 ble beauty and utility. It is a handsome 
 Chinese building, on the margin of a lake, 
 ornamented with stained glass, and pos- 
 sessing a character both for beauty and 
 rural economy. 
 
 Dalmatica. [Lat.] In ancient costume. 
 A species of tunic with sleeves, which de- 
 scended to the wrists, and brought into 
 Rome from Dalmatia, whence its name 
 Dalmatica vestis. The Emperors Commo- 
 dus and Heliogabalus, in wearing the 
 dalmatica, dishonoured themselves in the 
 eyes of the Romans, who regarded all 
 men as effeminate who concealed their 
 arms in the long folds of a tunic. The 
 tunic with sleeves was the characteristic 
 dress of those effeminate nations, which 
 the Greeks and Romans designated as 
 barbarians. The latter have commemo- 
 rated their hatred both of the dress and 
 people in their Caryatides and Persians, 
 who are all clad in this sort of long 
 sleeved tunic. 
 
 DAiViASKENiNG. [damasquinwe, Fr.] In 
 the arts of chafing, engraving, and sculpture. 
 The art of working ornamental metals in 
 various devises, as originally practised at 
 Damascus. The art of inlaying or in- 
 crusting iron and steel, called damasken- 
 jng in later times, was by no means un- 
 known to the ancients. The Egyptians 
 practised it with success, at least under 
 the times of the Grecian and Roman kings, 
 as may be witnessed in many of their 
 antique statues, where the eyes, the neck- 
 laces, and other ornaments are inlaid in 
 silver. The workmanship of the Isiack 
 table, that celebrated antique Egyptian 
 monument, which contains the figures and 
 mysteries of Isis, is of bronze, incrusted 
 with silver, and in some parts damaskenat- 
 ed ; but in others the silver is so thin that 
 there can be no doubt but its makers were 
 acquainted with the art of silvering as at 
 present practised. 
 
 DAT 
 
 The Greeks were also acquainted with 
 this art ; it is mentioned by Herodotus, who 
 calls it koUesis {KoXXrjmg). Its invention 
 is attributed to Glaucus of Chios, who 
 made the celebrated daniaskenated vase 
 that Alyattes, King of Lydia, sent to the 
 temple of Delphos. The Romans were 
 also acquainted with this art, which they 
 called feruminatio ; they also used the 
 phrase argentum aut aurum includere. The 
 people of the Levant are celebrated among 
 modern artists for this kind of workman- 
 ship. The French in the reign of Henry 
 IV. were also skilful in this art, and much 
 of their ornamental armour is in existence 
 as a proof. 
 
 Daphnephori^. [Lat. Aa^vi](p6pog, Gr.] 
 In archaiohgy. Festivals that took place 
 every nine years in Boeotia, in honour of 
 Apollo Ismenius. The origin of these 
 fetes is said to have been as follows : the 
 iEolians, having commenced ravaging the 
 territory of Thebes, then being besieged by 
 the Pelasgi, a festival of Apollo occurring, 
 occasioned a suspension of arms, during 
 which one party gathered the laurels that 
 were necessary in the ceremonies, on the 
 banks of the Helicon, the others on those 
 of the Melas, and they all performed the 
 ceremonies together. Polemathas, chief 
 of the Boeotians, had a dream that a young 
 lad appeared to him and presented him 
 with a complete suit of armour, desiring 
 him to consecrate every nine years, a feast 
 of laurels to the same deity; and in three 
 days defeated the enemy. 
 
 Dapifer. [Lat.] In the history of the 
 arts. An officer in the household of the 
 Roman emperors. His duty was to place 
 the first dish on state occasions before 
 the emperor. The title dapifer CcBsaris 
 occurs on a medal described by Mura- 
 
 TORI. 
 
 Daricks. [daricus, Lat.] In numismatics. 
 An ancient gold coin, bearing the image of 
 Darius. They generally bore the figure of 
 an archer discharging an arrow ; whence 
 they were often called sagittarii. Xeno- 
 phon speaks of them and also of demi- 
 daricks. They are very rare, and of ex- 
 treraely fine gold. 
 
 Date, \datte, Fr.] In the history of tlie 
 arts. The time at which any work of art 
 was executed, or when any event record- 
 ed thereby happened, or when any person 
 represented thereby lived. They are ge- 
 nerally referrable to dates of persons, of 
 facts, and of places, and are gathered from 
 inscriptions, style, manner, and other au- 
 thentic marks belonging to them. The art 
 of verifying the dates of antique works of 
 art is one of the great^ importance, and 
 
DEATH. 
 
 belongs to the most intricate brancl> of cri- 
 tical chronology. 
 
 Death. ["BeafS, Saxon.] In painting and 
 sculpture. The extinction of life. The 
 image of mortality variously represented 
 by different poets and artists. The per- 
 sonifications of this inevitable power, by 
 the poets, vary according to their mytho- 
 logical belief. As the ancients had more 
 gloomy notions of death than we have, 
 their descriptions and personifications are 
 more dismal and frightful. Death, as per- 
 sonified in the book of Revelations ar.d in 
 Milton, is as terrific and inexorable a ty- 
 rant as can be imagined ; but his terrors 
 are only held up to the evil doers. The 
 personification of death or vwrs, by ancient 
 artists, are very rarely to be found. The 
 most remarkable is a small brass statue at 
 Florence, of a skeleton sitting on the 
 ground, and resting one of his hands upon 
 a long urn. Neither death nor sleep ap- 
 pear among the numerous personifications 
 of the accidents of human life that are met 
 with in the celebrated pictures of the Vati- 
 can Virgil. Death is nq/t to be found on 
 ancient medals, for no artist would ven- 
 ture to place a vicious or hurtful being on 
 the medal of an emperor, though ever so 
 monstrous ; and as for the virtues they 
 are all to be found on the medals of the 
 emperors from Nero to Commodus, by 
 way of compliment. The personification 
 of evil beings, for the same reason, are 
 almost as uncommon. Mors, or the per- 
 sonification of death, was piobably more 
 common in ancient pictures, because slie 
 is frequently mentioned by the poets, who 
 make a distinction between letkiim and 
 mors. Perhaps by Icthum (see Petr. v. 2()3.) 
 was meant the general source of mortality 
 residing in Orcus ; and by mors, or mortes 
 the immi'diafe cause of each instance of 
 mortality. That the ancient poets had se- 
 veral personifications of this universal 
 power is plain from Statius, (lib. ii. Sylv. 
 7. V. 131. Theb. viii. v. 24). He describes 
 one like qnics] (Iv. Sylv. 3. v. 2()1), in 
 speaking of iiis father who died in a le- 
 thargy. Virgil also calls her dura ijuics. 
 Statius describes another death (or mors) 
 as giving in her tale of ghosts to the 
 rulers of the lower world. Theb. iv. 
 v. 029. He speaks of her as like to be 
 confined from doing mischief in a dark 
 prison. 
 
 The poets describe death personified 
 l)y mars as being ravenouri, treacherous, 
 
 and furious ; and as roving al)out oi)en 
 mouthed, and ready to swallow up all 
 
 dial conic in lier way. They give her 
 
 black robes andilark wings, and make 
 
 her often of colossal stature. From the 
 epithets pallida and lucida, pale and rcun, 
 she seems to have been represented with 
 a face and meagre body, instead of the 
 bare scull and skeleton of some of our 
 modern painters, like the dance of death 
 by Hans Holbein. The dead pale colour 
 of her cheeks seems to be meant by Lucre- 
 tius (vi. V. 1271.) when he calls her tnors 
 exanimis. Statius (Theb. i. v. C33.), in a 
 pestilence, gives her a sword, but there is 
 no other instance of her being so armed. 
 The artist who wishes farther description 
 of this allegorical personage, is referred 
 to Lucretius V. v. 222. Her. Fur. cap. ii. 
 Chor. CEdip. act. i. Chor. Stat. Theb. viii. 
 V. 378. Sil. xiii. v. 350. 845. Ovid ad Liv. 
 V. 360. Hor. 1. ii. Sat. i. v. 58. 
 
 The description of death by the ancients 
 was more frightful and dismal than that of 
 modern artists and poets. They describe 
 her as coming and thundering at the doors 
 of mortals, to demand the debt they owe 
 her. Sometimes as approaching their bed- 
 sides, and sometimes pursuing her prey, 
 or as hovering in the air, and ready to 
 sieze it. Mors is also represented like 
 the gladiators called refiares, pursuing 
 men with a net, as catching and dragging 
 them to their tombs ; or, as surrounding 
 persons, like the hunters of old, with her 
 toils, and as encompassing them on every 
 side. Phaed. 1. iv. epil. Hor. 1. i. od. 4. 
 V. 14. The expression of knocking at the 
 door is used by Proserpine and Beilona, 
 by Ovid in his heroic epistles (ep. 21. v. 
 46. ad Liv. v. 361. Am. iii. el. 0. v. 38.), 
 by Statius in his Thebaid (viii. v. 349 and 
 378), by Lucretius (1. iii. v. 492.), by Ho- 
 race (1. iii. od. 2. V. 16. 1. iii. od. 24. v. 9). 
 The way of hunting here described as 
 pursued by death, by enclosing a great 
 number of beasts, is very distinctly de- 
 scribed by Statius, Achil. i. v. 466. Plu- 
 tarch (in vit. Alex. Stat. 1. v.) speaks of 
 toils twelve miles in length. This custom 
 came from the east, where it is still prac- 
 tised. The author of the 116th Psalm, 
 v. 3. speaks in a similar figurative style, of 
 being encompassed by the snares of death. 
 
 The most picturesque descrijition of this 
 deity to be found in the ancient poets is 
 where Statius (1. ii. Sylv. 6. v. 79.) repre- 
 sents her by the side of a youtii in the 
 (lower of his age, attended by envy and 
 vengeance, or Nemesis. These terrific 
 deities sliow great friendship to one an- 
 otiicr in the execution of their purpose, 
 and vengeance in particular seems, l)y the 
 account, to take the net out of death's 
 hand, and to perform her oflice for her. 
 
 A representation of this Icrrilic deity 
 
DEC 
 
 presents greater difficulties to the artist 
 than to the poet. The former has more 
 to fear of falling from the sublime to the 
 ridiculous, as may be proved by delineating 
 to tlie eye many of the poets' personifica- 
 tions and descriptions addressed to the 
 ear. Of English artists, Mortimer and 
 West, in their pictures of death on the 
 pale horse, have succeeded the best. The 
 former, however, gave the first idea of the 
 meagre cadaverous body, and pale and wan 
 face, in the stead of the bony skeleton of 
 Roubillac in Westminster Abbey, and the 
 dancing skeletons of Holbein. Roubillac's 
 death aiming his lance at Mrs. Nightingale 
 is, however, the most animated skeleton 
 ever imagined or executed by art. Flax- 
 man has also, in two or three of his mural 
 monuments, delineated the Christian idea 
 of death, unvictorious over immortality, 
 with an artistlike correctness of feeling. 
 
 Decastyle. [decastijlus^ Lat. Ae/ca'ri'Xof, 
 Gr.] In architecture. A temple, portico, 
 or building, having ten columns in front. 
 See Architecture, Ordonnance, Por- 
 tico, Temple. 
 
 Decoration, [decoratio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. Ornament ; add«d beauty. The art 
 of decoration, whether of painting, sculp- 
 ture, or architecture, is divided into many 
 branches both liberal and mechanical. 
 Among the former are the ornamental 
 parts of painting, design in sculpture, and 
 the ornamental designs of architecture ; and 
 among the latter, house painting, paper 
 hanging, carving, gilding, &c. When a 
 nation is at peace, enjoying repose, wealth, 
 and civilization, and all its absolute wants 
 gratified ; the people begin to exhibit 
 symptoms of a taste for embellishment 
 and decoration, and practice it upon their 
 dwellings, their vestments, their arms, ar- 
 mour, furniture, and domestic utensils. 
 Decoration arises again from various 
 causes ; such as the distinctions of ranks 
 and dignities among men ; the natural 
 dislike to monotonous uniformity of ob- 
 jects of use or luxury ; the pleasure aris- 
 ing from an agreeable variety of form, dis- 
 position, and ornament; an imitation of 
 the ornamental and decorative parts of 
 nature. 
 
 The sentiments that give rise to the pas- 
 sions of love, religious devotion, and moral 
 culture in general, also inspire mankind 
 to decorate the objects of their attachment. 
 Ornaments belong to the art of decora- 
 tion, and are an essential part, when ap- 
 plied with taste. Mankind in all ages, 
 whether civilized, or of tliat class that 
 some please to call savage, have orna- 
 mented cind decorated the statues of their 
 
 DED 
 
 gods, and of their friends ; their houses, 
 their temples, and all that belongs to de- 
 votion or enjoyment. See Arabesque, 
 Arms, Grottesque, Contrast, Orna- 
 ments, Trophies, &c. 
 
 Decorator. An adorner. A practiser 
 of the art of decoration, an inferior sort of 
 artist. Among those inferior branches of 
 the fine arts, which appertain to the deco- 
 ration of the superior departments, the 
 decorative or scene painter stands among 
 the most prominent. Their art is mostly 
 practised with body colours, mixed with 
 size and water, and is called destemper 
 painting. See Destemper, Scene Paint- 
 ing. The decorator, or painter-decorator, is 
 also much employed in the interior of pa- 
 laces, mansions, and splendidly finished 
 dwelling houses, in decorating the walls 
 with destemper paintings in landscape, 
 history, imitations of bassi rilievi, trophies, 
 arabesques, &c. The Italians have many 
 able artists in this class, and have pro- 
 duced many excellent designs in this eva- 
 nescent style of painting. Decorators are 
 also in much request at ceremonials of 
 royal marriages, coronations, and public 
 fetes and festivals. 
 
 Decursio. [Lat.] In numismatics. A 
 tournament. On several bronze medals 
 of Nero are representations of two mount- 
 ed horsemen, of which one is carrying a 
 spear, and the other a military ensign. 
 On others are the emperor on horseback, 
 preceded and followed by a soldier, one 
 bearing a lance and the other an ensign as 
 before. Both of which sorts of medals 
 are inscribed with the word decursio, de- 
 signating a cavalcade in small companies 
 or troops, commanded by a decurio to eve- 
 ry ten horsemen ; which was a favourite 
 arrangement of Nero's, who thus exer- 
 cised the praetorian guard, as related by 
 Suetonius and Dio Cassius. The Romans 
 also had dccursions of bigae, and quadria- 
 drigae in the Circus Maximus, which are 
 commemorated on their contorniate me- 
 dals. 
 
 Decussis. [Lat. from decern assis.'] In 
 numismatics. A Roman coin, or piece of 
 money of the value of the Roman penny, 
 and which bore on that account the nu- 
 meral letter X. The type of the decussi 
 was a head of Minerva, with sometimes 
 the prow of a vessel, a victory driving in 
 a biga, and often the inscription ROMA. 
 
 Dedication, [tledicatio, Lat.] In 'the 
 history of the arts. The act of dedicating, 
 or appropriating solemnly, a temple, a sta- 
 tue, or other work of art to any particular 
 deity, person, or purpose, which, because 
 it was performed by the augurs, was call- 
 
DEL 
 
 ed inauguration, and was cailed '* inaugare 
 templum," consecration. The Greeks and 
 Rumans accustomed themselves to dedi- 
 cate monuments and other works of art of 
 every description to their divinities. Titus 
 made a grand and solemn dedication of his 
 celebrated amphitheatre, called the Colos- 
 seum, to his father Vespasian. See Co- 
 losseum. The Romans engraved upon the 
 frontispieces of their public monuments 
 the name of the persons who dedicated 
 them ; as on the frieze of Agrippa's portico 
 of the Pantheon. It was reckoned a great 
 honour to be chosen to dedicate any impor- 
 tant monument. The only honour that 
 was wanting to complete the fortunes of 
 Sylla, says Tacitus, was that of having de- 
 dicated the capitol, which was reserved for 
 Lutatius Catulus. 
 
 The custom of dedication, or rather con- 
 secration, has passed through the religion 
 of the church of Rome into that of En- 
 gland, and is similar in both churches, 
 that of consecrating the edifice to the wor- 
 ship of God, and dedicating it to the name 
 of a saint. See Consecration. 
 
 Deliack. [deliacus, Lat.] In sculpture 
 and numistmitics. A kind of sculptured 
 vases, also beautiful bronze and silver, 
 named from the island of Delos. 
 
 Delicacy, [delicatus, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. Nicety. Minute accuracy. Delicacy 
 in painting is the opposite to strength or 
 force, and particularly belongs to the 
 miniature and cabinet style. In sculpture 
 it means high finish, smallness, and effe- 
 minate beauty. In architecture, tenuity of 
 proportion, highness of finish, and fineness 
 of materials. 
 
 Delos. [Lat. from AifXoCy Gr. i. e. per- 
 spicuous.] In the history of the arts. An 
 island in the JEge&n sea, being the chief 
 of the Cyclades, where Latona was de- 
 livered of her twin children, Apollo and 
 Diana ; to whom, therefore, the island was 
 ever after consecrated, and held to be a 
 place of so great a sanctity, that the Per- 
 sians, when they made war against Greece, 
 and had i>rought to Delos a navy of a 
 thousand sail, yet out of reverence to 
 the patron deities, forebore attacking the 
 island. The ancients supposed it to have 
 been once a floating island, and it was 
 therefore called by Ovid erratica Deloa. 
 It was not allowed to bring up a dog in 
 the island, nor to bury any dead body, nor 
 to bring forth children ; wherefore if any 
 one were sick or pregnant, they were re- 
 moved to some of the neighbouring islands. 
 It was also calltil Ortygia, Asteria, Cjn- 
 thia, Lagia, Ciilamydia, Cynctbus, and 
 Pyrpile. 
 
 D E M 
 
 Delos w£is celebrated in ancient times 
 for the number and the excellence of its 
 artists, and the school which it founded. 
 Pliny says that the bronze of Delos was 
 excellent and much esteemed. The island 
 was also celebrated for the fineness of its 
 silver, which the Delians used with great 
 skill and taste in the formation of various 
 utensils, vessels, statues of their gods, of 
 heroes, animals. The statue of Jupiter 
 Touans in the capital was of Delian bronze. 
 Cicero, in his oration for Roscius, has 
 many eulogiums upon the fine vases of 
 Delos and Corinth. The temple of Apollo 
 at Delos was one of the most celebrated 
 of its time in all Greece. 
 
 Delphos. [Lat. AeX^'oq, Gr.] In the his- 
 tory of the arts. An ancient city of Pho- 
 cis in Greece, seated on Mount Parnassus, 
 where was a celebrated temple and oracle 
 of Apollo, that was consulted by the in- 
 habitants of all Greece. This oracle was 
 celebrated for the Pythia or Pythonissa, 
 who, seated upon the mystic tripod, de- 
 livered the answers from the god accord- 
 ing to the enthusiasm with which she was 
 inspired. See Cortina. 
 
 Dellbrim. [Lat] In ancient architec- 
 ture. A portion of a temple particularly 
 set apart to the especial service of the god, 
 or the reception of the shrine or statue. 
 Some critics suppose that the delubrum 
 was that part of the temple where the 
 worshippers washed themselves prior to 
 entering the body of Uie edifice ; deriving 
 its etvmology from deluo to wash clean, 
 delubrum, in the manner of polluo poUu- 
 brum. Others with Varro think it the 
 inmost recess, or most private part of the 
 temple. Its most probable etjmology is 
 Dei lahrum, id est locus, as a place in w hjch 
 a candle is inserted, was called by the 
 Romans candelabrum. It is, however, 
 sometimes used for the temple itself, as 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, in speaking of the 
 capitol, says " Jovis Tarpeii Delubra," at 
 others for a portion as " Proserpina? tabula 
 fuit in C«pitolio, in Minerva* delubro ;" and 
 Pliny uses it for one of the three portions 
 of the temple in a sense equivalent with 
 the cell. See iEuicii.*, Ceix, Temple. 
 
 Demitint. [demi and <i«/.] In jMintiug. 
 A gradation of colour between positive 
 light and positive shade, less pedantically 
 called hjilf lint. See Half tint, Paint- 
 ing. 
 
 Demon or D.emon. [d(Pmon, Lat. Saiftun: 
 Gr.] In the mythohgij of the arts. A good 
 or evil spirit. The etjnion of ila>mon 
 means wisdom, science; and in the dark 
 days of ignorance and super.^titirtn, the 
 few enlightened men who cast rays of 
 
DES 
 
 intellect around their benighted brethren 
 were reckoned of a superior order of be- 
 ings, and called daemons, or wise men, and 
 were held to hold intermediate situation 
 between the gods and the human race. 
 They were also called Genii. See Ge- 
 nius. 
 
 Demosthenes, lantern of. In architec- 
 ture. A building in Athens falsely so 
 called. See Choragic monuments. 
 
 Dendrachates. [Lat. AevopaxdrricGr.'] 
 In gem sculpture. A precious stone of the 
 agate kind, so called by Pliny and other 
 ancient natural historians, from having 
 streaks or herboraceous marks in its sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Dentels. [dentelU, Ital. from dens a 
 tooth, Lat.] In architecture. Small mem- 
 bers in the shape of cubes, somewhat re- 
 sembling teeth. They are used princi- 
 pally in the Ionic and Corinthian orders. 
 See Architecture, Order, Cornice. 
 
 Denticuli. [Lat.] Innumismatics, Some- 
 times called nutnmi serrati. Ancient coins 
 or medals with toothed or a sawlike edge. 
 
 Description, [descriptio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. The act of describing or marking 
 out pictures, statu(3S, buildings, coins, me- 
 dals, engravings, &c. by intelligible pro- 
 perties. Good descriptions of works of 
 art, or collections of antiques, are valuable 
 and interesting additions to the cabinet, 
 picture gallery, and library. They are 
 mostly in the form of catalogues, either 
 nominal or descriptive; the latter have 
 generally the titles of catalogues rai- 
 sonn^s. See Catalogue, Collection, Dac- 
 tyliotheca. 
 
 Design, to. [designo, Lat] To plan, to 
 project, to form in a rude draught. 
 
 Design, a. [from the verb.] In all the 
 arts. The idea which an artist endeavours 
 to execute or express. It is also, some- 
 what loosely however, used synonymously 
 for to draw, or drawing. Designs in 
 architecture are made either geometri- 
 cally, or according to geometrical rules 
 and proportions ; or perspectively as they 
 appear to the eye. In painting they are 
 mostly made on paper, in light and shade 
 or colours, or on canvass with oil co- 
 lours, and are then called sketches. See 
 Draughtsman, Drawing. 
 
 Destemper. [d^trempe, Fr.] In painting. 
 A sort of painting with opaque colours, 
 ground and diluted with water and gluten ; 
 used in decorative and scene painting. 
 When on a small scale, on paper or paste- 
 board, it is called body-colour painting; 
 which is a style that has almost disappear- 
 ed before the superior qualities of the 
 Jinglish school of painting in water co- 
 
 DET 
 
 lours. Destemper painting is executed on 
 plaster, wood, canvass, parchment, paper, 
 &c., and is reckoned the most ancient 
 mode. The pictures that have been disco- 
 vered in the ancient Egyptian temples and 
 tombs, and on many ancient bassi rilievi 
 in Italy, are all painted in this manner. 
 Destemper paintings will endure for a 
 great length of time, if kept from damp 
 and the external air. The colours are 
 brilliant and do not change, and their 
 effect is much increased by a bright light. 
 They are therefore the best for theatres, 
 ball rooms, and such apartments and rooms 
 as are mostly used by artificial light, not 
 having the glossiness of oil or varnished 
 paintings. Destemper when on walls or 
 cielings differ from fresco, by being exe- 
 cuted after the walls are dry, while fresco 
 is performed while the plaster is wet, and 
 is embued to a considerable depth therein. 
 See Fresco. 
 
 Detached, [detach^, Fr.] Iti painting. 
 Figures, buildings, trees, &tc. are said to 
 be detached, when they are painted so as 
 to appear standing out from the back 
 ground, in a natural manner ; and that the 
 other parts appear in proper relative situ- 
 ations. This is to be acquired by a study 
 of nature, and of the laws of perspective, 
 particularly of tiiat branch termed aerial. 
 See jErial, Perspective. 
 
 Details. Idetail, Fr.] Li all the arts. 
 Minute and particular parts of a picture, 
 statue, or building, as distinguished from 
 the general conception, or larger parts of 
 a composition. A proper management 
 and due subordination of the details of a 
 work of art is of the greatest importance 
 to its effect and value. The extreme finish 
 of the details engenders a littleness of 
 style, like the portraits of Denner, and the 
 worst parts of the French school of art ; 
 while a neglect of them often argues igno- 
 rance of execution to perfection. Details 
 are often accessorial, and should therefore 
 be subordinate to the general idea that is 
 wished to be conveyed by the ccjmposition, 
 whether in painting, in sculpture, or in 
 architecture. See Accessories. If the de- 
 tails are laboured, they encumber instead 
 of enriching the work they are intended to 
 adorn. In architecture this error is most 
 fatal, and if overloaded will beget heavi- 
 ness, and take off the attention of the 
 spectator from the artist's intentions. The 
 great artists of antiquity finished their de- 
 tails with care and knowledge, but never 
 elevated them by an overstudious ostenta- 
 tion of finish to the dignity of principals. 
 The Elgin marbles are existing proofs of 
 this position. 
 
DEV 
 
 De\1ce. [devise, Fr.] In paintinsc and 
 sculpture. An emblem or metaphor, which 
 represents one object by another which 
 bears some resemblance to it. Also, a 
 motto, a fanciful composition of small size, 
 composed of attributes rather than princi- 
 pals. See Attributes. Also the emblem 
 «sed on a shield to indicate the rank, per- 
 son, family, derivation of the wearer, or 
 of the nation to which he belongs. The 
 heroes of Greece wore different devices 
 and inscriptions upon their shields. See 
 Shield, Inscription. The Theban war- 
 riors carried the emblem of a serpent for 
 their device, to indicate that they derived 
 their origin from the serpent's teeth, that 
 were said to have been sown by Cadmus 
 the founder of their city and race. 
 
 iEschylus has described in his " Seven 
 chiefs against Thebes," the bucklers of 
 the chieftains, by the dramatic agency of 
 the soldier, who is communicating to Eteo- 
 cles the names of the seven heroes, who 
 are selected to attack the gates, and the 
 description of their appropriate armour. 
 Their bucklers bore both devices and in- 
 scriptions. That of Capaneus had the 
 figure of a naked man armed with a torch, 
 inscriJ>ed in letters of gold, " I will burn 
 Thebes." Upon that of Eteocles, a war- 
 rior scaling a castle, saying, " Mars him- 
 self shall not repulse me." On that of 
 Polynices, the brother of Eteocles, the 
 figure of himself led by Justice, bearing 
 for his motto, " I will reestablish him in 
 the city and palace of his father." 
 
 The usage of these devices was thus 
 practised by the people of the earliest an- 
 tiquity ; but they did not use them to the 
 extent of some modern nations, mostly 
 affecting a greater clearness in their in- 
 •scriplions, and placed their allegories in 
 images. Of modern devices, (hat of the 
 representation of a fish, indicating through 
 the initials of its Greek name 'IXOYZ, the 
 sentence, I j/iTHc Xpcrof Hih "YoS, is the most 
 celebrated, and perhaps the most perfect 
 device or anagram extant. The A and U 
 placed on each side of the cross is rather 
 more to be considt^red as a monogram than 
 a device. See Munocjkam. 
 
 Father Lemoyne considers the French 
 to have been the inventors <if devices, 
 which is certainly untrue ; but that tiiey 
 have used them to a considerable extent is 
 well known. They have been the founda- 
 tions of modern heraldry, whicij has been 
 carried to great perfc'ction by tiiat iieoplo. 
 Some of tiiem are very clear and intelligi- 
 ble, such as tlie figure of a star, with the 
 motto " Moiislrant regibus astra viam, " 
 which were the device of the knights of 
 
 DIA 
 
 the order of the star, instituted by the 
 French King John. The representation 
 of a fowling piece, with the inscription 
 " Ante ferit quam flamma micet," of the 
 Dukes of Burgundy. Ren6 of Anjou, 
 King of Sicily, having lost his wife, to 
 whom he was much attached, took for his 
 device the figure of a bow, with its string 
 snapped in twain, with the Italian motto 
 " Arco par lentar, piagia non sana." Va- 
 lentine of Milan, wife of the Duke of 
 Orleans, who was assassinated at Paris 
 by the orders of the Duke of Burgundy, 
 assumed, after his death, for a devise, the 
 emblem of an empty watering pot, with 
 the words " Plus ne m'est rien, nen ne 
 m'est plus." Louis XII. assumed the figure 
 of a porcupine, inscribed " De loin et de 
 pr^s," to intimate his power of wounding 
 close or at a distance. Devices may in 
 this manner be composed upon most occa- 
 sions, but they are in manj' instances only 
 pictorial punning, alike removed from good 
 taste and genius in art. See Allegory, 
 Emblem. 
 
 Diadem, [diadema, Lat. A(at^;;/:<«, Gr.] 
 In ancient royal costume. An imperial or 
 royal crown or tiara, an emblem of royalty, 
 worn by ancient monarchs. The most an- 
 cient diadem was originally a white fillet, 
 bound round the heads of emperors and 
 kings. Pliny and Diodorus Siculus attri- 
 bute the invention of the diadem to Bac- 
 chus ; who, according to the latter author, 
 wore one as an antidote to the head aches 
 arising from the fumes of wine. As this 
 bandage was termed mitre, the Jolly god 
 received from it the name of mitraphora. 
 A head of Bacchus thus atdred is to be 
 seen on the medals of Tarenfum and 
 Naxos. The heads of Neptune, of Her- 
 cules, of victory, and of otiier ancient di- 
 vinities, were also represented encircled 
 by the diadem. This ensign of royalty 
 was also very early adopted by tlie an- 
 cient kings. In the earliest examples the 
 diadem is very narrow. Alexander the 
 Great, says Justin, adopted the larger and 
 more decorated diadem of (he kings of 
 I'ersia, of which (l>e extremities came down 
 to his shoulders, whieii nmrk of sovereign- 
 ty was continued by his successors. Some 
 ancient <|ueens are also rt>i)r(>sente(l with 
 the diadem, to wiiich is added tiie veil. 
 The first kings of Syracuse abstained from 
 the use of llie diadem; and Diodorus ex- 
 pressly says (ha( Agadiocles look no( (his 
 distinctive mark of royalty, aUiiough h(> 
 knew (hat Alexander's generals, « ho suc- 
 ceeded to his divi<led kingdom, (iius de- 
 corated (lu'iiisclvfS ; which has gJM'n t»c- 
 casiun for bonic critics to think that the 
 
DIA 
 
 medals which bear the diademed head of 
 his predecessors were not struck till after 
 their decease. 
 
 The early emperors of Rome did not 
 assxime the diadem, because they knew it 
 was odious in the eyes of the people. 
 Constantine the Great is considered as the 
 first who adopted it, enriched and deco- 
 rated with precious stones, pearls, and 
 other ornaments. It became, during the 
 time of the lower empire, one of the em- 
 blems or insignia of the imperial dignity ; 
 and, in modern times, although its form 
 differs from that of the crown, the diadem 
 is often used as synonymous with crown. 
 
 DiADouMfiNOUS or DiADEMATUS. [from 
 diadem.] In the history of ancient sculpture. 
 The name of a celebrated statue carved 
 by Polycletus, which represented a youth- 
 ful hero encircling his brows with a dia- 
 dem. 
 
 DiMTA. [Lat. Aiaira, Gr,] In ancient 
 architecture. A set or suit of apartments ; 
 also a supper room ; and a place where 
 judgment was sometimes given, a council 
 room ; which the Germans still retain in 
 calling certain of the councils diets. Pliny 
 in his villa at Laurentum uses the word 
 dieta in the first sense. 
 
 ItijETVhA. A smaller kind of diaeta. 
 
 DiAGLYPHON. [Lat. AidyXvcpov, Gr.] In 
 ancient sculpture. The name by wliicli the 
 Greeks designated works in sculpture 
 when sunk in with the chisel. Among 
 the most celebrated of these were the 
 buckler and pedestal of a colossal statue 
 of Minerva at Athens. When it was in 
 relief, the work was called Anaglyphic. 
 See Anaglyphic. 
 
 Diagonal, [diagonios, Lat. Vit. vi. 3, 
 Aiuywviog, Gr.] In the geometry of the fine 
 arts, A line which reaches from one angle 
 to another, in any quadrilateral figure. 
 
 Diagram. [diagram>na, Lat. Aidypa[ifia, 
 Gr.] In painting and architecture. A figure 
 drawn to demonstrate any mathematical 
 or graphical scheme. 
 
 Diagraphic.«. [Lat. Ataypa0iK}j, Gr.] Jm 
 the history of the arts. The name by which 
 the Greeks and Romans called the art of 
 design or correct drawing; and which, 
 among them, always formed a part of a 
 good education. It held with them the 
 first place among the fine arts. Pliny 
 (iii. 10.) gives this name to the art of 
 painting on box. 
 
 Diameter, [^dia^neter or diametros, Lat. 
 AcafisTpog, Gr.] In architecture. The line 
 which, passing through the centre of a 
 circle, or other curvilinear figure, divides 
 it into equal parts. Also the largest part 
 of the shaft of a column, which is taken 
 
 DIA 
 
 and used by most architects as a scale or 
 standard of measurement. See Column, 
 Module. 
 
 Diamond, [diamant, Fr.] In gem sculp- 
 ture. The hardest and most valuable of all 
 the gems. Diamonds are of various co- 
 lours, but tlie colourless, which is the sort 
 mostly used in the arts, is, when pure, 
 perfectly clear, and pellucid as the purest 
 water. Hence the phrases, the water of 
 a diamond, a diamond of the finest water, 
 &c. The colourless diamonds are not, 
 however, the most common. The rarest 
 colours are blue, pink, and dark brown ; 
 but yellow diamonds, when the colour is 
 clear and equal throughout, are very 
 beautiful and much valued. Pale blue 
 i^liamonds are also very fine and rare, 
 but deep blue still more rare. There 
 was a small diamond of this colour in the 
 collection of the late Mr. Greville, before 
 it was purchased by the British Museum ; 
 and a very fine one in the possession of 
 Mr. Eliason, which is said to be worth 
 thirty thousand pounds. Diamonds of un- 
 conunon size and rarity of colour cannot 
 be valued by the rules which apply to 
 common cases. The large diamond in the 
 possession of the Great Mogul weighs two 
 hundred and seventy-nine carats (a carat 
 is equal to three grains two-fifths troy 
 weight), and is computed to be worth 
 seven hundred and seventy-nine thousand 
 two hundred and forty-four pounds ster- 
 ling. The large diamond in the sceptre of 
 the Emp'n'or of Russia was purchased by 
 the Empress Catherine, for about ninety 
 thousand pounds ready money, and an 
 annuity of four thousand pounds more. 
 It is about the size of a pigeon's egg, and 
 weighs a hundred and ninety-three carats. 
 But the largest diamond hitherto found is 
 in the possession of the Rajah of Mattan, 
 in the island of Borneo, where it was found 
 about eighty years since ; it weiglis tliree 
 hundred and sixty-seven carats. It is de- 
 scribed as having the shape of an egg, with 
 an indentation near the smaller end. Many 
 years ago the Governor of Batavia tried to 
 purchase it, and offered in exchange one 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars, two 
 large brigs of war, with their guns and 
 ammunition, and other cannon witli pow- 
 der and shot. But the Rajah refused to 
 part with a jewel, to which the Malays 
 attach miraculous powers, and which 
 they imagine to be connected witlx the 
 fate of his family. This diamond is 
 mentioned in the memoirs of the Batavian 
 Society. 
 
 The diamond is the hardest of all known 
 substances. Nothing will scratch it, nor 
 
DIAMOND. 
 
 By cutlinf^, it infliimmabh 
 
 can it be ciit but by itself, 
 acquires a brilliancy and play of lustre 
 that much augments its price. Diamonds 
 are found in the East Indies, in the king- 
 doms of Golconda, and Visapoor, in the 
 territory of the Mogul, and in other Asia- 
 tic countries. Towards the beginning of 
 the eighteenth century diamonds were 
 found also in the Brazils. Some writers 
 have affirmed that these latter are less 
 hai'd and perfect tlian those of the East 
 Indies ; and that the oriental diamond 
 assumes more particularly tlie octahedral 
 form in its crystallization, while those of 
 the Brazils that of the dodocahedron ; but 
 Haiiy asserts that these differences of 
 structure and hardness have not been 
 proved. Crystallized diamonds to th* 
 mineralogist, and to aid the science of 
 crystallography, are of much value, but 
 not costly, as some of the most curious 
 crystals are the smallest. Some of them 
 are rough and nearly dull externally. In 
 Miss Lowry's Conversations on Minera- 
 logy are some very curious specimens, de- 
 scribed and engraved from real stones, 
 one (pi. xi. fig. 390.) is in form a rhomboi- 
 dal dodecahedron, arising from an octahe- 
 dron, and exhibits the laminic of superpo- 
 sition very clearly. The most common 
 forms of diamonds are octahedral, vari- 
 ously truncated, and mostly with convex 
 faces ; there being a great tendency to 
 convexity in most crystallizations of the 
 diamond. The edges of the octahedron 
 are seldom truncated by a single plane, 
 but in general by two narrow convex sur- 
 faces (pi. xi. figs. 391 and .S92). 
 
 The hardness of the diamond was well 
 known to the ancients ; its name both in 
 Creek and Latin {acdfiac,iulttinus) inqily- 
 ing invincible hardness. They conceived 
 that it would yield neither to fire nor ham- 
 mer, and yet believed that it could be dis- 
 solved by goat's blood. Modern science, 
 however, has acquainted us that it not 
 only yields to fire, but is actually an in- 
 flammable substance, and is ranked in the 
 first genus (carbonaceous) of tlie inflam- 
 mable class, being pure cariion. It was 
 conjectured by Boetius de Boot to be an 
 inllanimalile substance as long ago as in 
 1009; and in Id'.H, and in flic fdllowiug 
 year, they were burnt in tlu; presence of 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany by means of a 
 strong lens. Sir Isaac Newton docs not 
 apjxar lo have been acquainted with these 
 experiments, but he suspected that it might 
 be combustible from its very gr«'at refract- 
 ing jxiwer. Because tlie diamoiid is in 
 this respect very aniilog(nis to amber; 
 which, as other vegttable resins, is very 
 
 Dr. Brewster has confirmed 
 the relation, which Newton supposed to 
 exist, between the refractive power and 
 the inflammability of substances, by his 
 experiments on phosphorus and sulphur; 
 and his investigation of the properties of 
 the diamond have led him to conclude, 
 " that it has originated, like amber, from, 
 perhaps, vegetable matter, which gradu- 
 ally acquires a crystalline form by the in- 
 fluence of time, and the slow action of cor- 
 puscular forces." Edinburgh Philosophi- 
 cal Journal, vol. iii. p. 98. 
 
 The ancients did not confine the word 
 adamas to indicate the diamond alone, but 
 applied it to other hard and adamantine 
 substances. They were unacquainted with 
 the art of cutting the diamond, satisfying 
 themselves with those which were polish- 
 ed naturally ; but knew of the property 
 of its powder or dust for cutting, en- 
 graving, and polishing other stones; as is 
 fully proved by Pliny's fabulous account 
 of dissolving it for the lapidary's use in 
 hot goat's blood, and by the great perfec- 
 tion to which they carried the art of gem 
 sculpture by its means. It is only sur- 
 prising, that knowing the power of the 
 diamond by its points and powder over 
 other stones, that fhey did not essay it 
 upon itself. Among the diamonds in the 
 British Museum there is a very ancient 
 gold ring, generally believed to be Roman, 
 in which an octahedral diamond is set, 
 which is a natural crystal ; and the four 
 diamonds which ornament the antique 
 clasp of the royal mantle of Charlemagne, 
 belonging to the kings of France, and kept 
 in the Abbey of Denis, are also natural 
 diamonds, unpolished by art and uncut. 
 
 The art of cutting and polishing the 
 diamond was unknown in Europe till the 
 fifteenth century. Before that perio<l, 
 rough and unpolished ones were set as 
 ornaments, and valued according to the 
 beauty and perfection of their crystalliza- 
 tion and transparency. This art is said to 
 have been invented and first practised in 
 ll.'iG, by Louis de Berciuen, a native of 
 Bruges. Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- 
 gundy, was one of tlie first jirinces of mo- 
 dern times who atlected a great splendour 
 in diamonds. He is rejiresented in a 
 portrait, which forms the frontispiece to a 
 manuscri))t in the Royal Library at I'aris, 
 ^^■earing in his hat the superb diamond 
 known by the name of .svoia/, >^ hich was 
 taken among his other treasures by the 
 Swiss, aftt'r the battle of (Jransnn. 
 
 Among engraved or sculptured dia- 
 monds is one with a head, whicii (rori 
 fidsely imagined to lie Hiili<|'ie, mu\ called 
 
DI A 
 
 it a portrait of Posidonius. It belonged 
 to the Duke of Bedford. Lessing thinks 
 that many of the engraved antique gems, 
 which are called diamonds, are nothing 
 but amethysts, sapphires, and emeralds, 
 deprived of their colour by the operation 
 of fire. M. Gurlett thinks that the an- 
 cients were acquainted with the art of en- 
 graving upon diamonds, and that if we 
 have but few examples, it arises from their 
 seldom using so valuable a stone. But 
 if they knew not the art of cutting and 
 polishing the diamonds, it is natural to 
 conclude, in the want of better evidence, 
 that they were equally ignorant of the 
 more difficult art of engraving upon so 
 hard a substance ; although some impos- 
 tors have endeavoured to pass bad sculp- 
 tures on diamonds for genuine antiques. 
 
 Jacques de Fresso appears to have been 
 the first who engraved upon diamonds ; 
 yet Mariette names Clement de Biragues 
 as the first in 15C4. Others assert that 
 Ambrose Charadossa engraved in 1500, 
 one of the fathers of the church for Pope 
 Julius II. Natter and Costranzi, both 
 eminent gem sculptors, engraved upon 
 diamond. However, the greatest artists 
 in this delicate and beautiful department 
 of the fine arts have been above losing 
 tlieir time in working upon so hard and 
 untractable a substance, which at the same 
 time they were deteriorating in value, as 
 none but diamonds of a large size are 
 suitable to their art, by diminishing its 
 weight and size. 
 
 Diamonds are also valuable for many 
 other purposes. Their powder is not only 
 the best for the lapidary and gem engraver, 
 but at the same time, is more economical 
 than emery, or any other material for cut- 
 ting, engraving, and polishing hard stones. 
 They are also employed by glaziers, who 
 cut out glass with them for windows ; by 
 glass cutters in cutting lookingglasses, and 
 other useful articles in window and plate 
 glass. The glazier's diamond is set in a 
 steel socket, and attached to a wooden han- 
 dle about the size of a thick pencil. It is 
 very remarkable, that they can only use 
 the point of a natural crystal for this pur- 
 pose ; cut or split diamonds will not cut 
 glass properly ; they scratch it, but the 
 glass will not break along the scratch, as 
 it does when a natural ciystal is used. 
 
 An application of the diamond, of great 
 importance in the art of engraving, has 
 been also made within a few years by the 
 late Wilson Lowry, the eminent engraver, 
 and first inventor of the mechanical me- 
 thods now used in that part of the process 
 called etching. He applied them to the 
 
 I) I A 
 
 purpose of drawing or ruling lines, which 
 are afterwards to be deepened by aqua 
 fortis. Formerly steel points, called etch- 
 ing needles, were used for that purpose ; 
 but they so soon became blunt by the fric- 
 tion against the copper, that it has always 
 been impracticable to make what are call- 
 ed flat or even tints with them ; such as 
 the azure parts of skies, large architectu- 
 ral subjects, and the sea in maps ; but the 
 diamond being turned to a conical point, 
 or otherwise cut to a proper form, is not 
 worn away by the friction of the copper, 
 and consequently, the lines drawn by it 
 are all of equal thickness. The diamond 
 etching points of Mr. Lowry are turned in 
 a lathe, by holding a thin splinter of dia- 
 mond against them, as a chisel. 
 
 Diana. [Lat. from Aibg, qu. Joviana, the 
 daughter of Jove.] In mytkological paint- 
 ing and sculpture. The daughter of Jupi- 
 ter by Latona, and twin sister of Apollo, 
 who with her was born in the island of 
 Delos. See Delos. She has three names, 
 either because of the three offices that are 
 attributed to her, or, because the poets 
 confound three of their deities into one. 
 She hath also been represented with three 
 heads, and therefore called the triple god- 
 dess, triple Hecate, from f icdf (quia longe 
 dominatur) Diana triformis, &c. She was 
 called Luna (a lucendo) in heaven, where 
 she is reckoned the moon, receiving light 
 from her brother Apollo, the sun ; on earth 
 she was called Diana, the daughter of 
 A'i or Jupiter ; and in hell she was called 
 Proserpina. She is also called Cynthia 
 from Cynthos, a mountain in Delos, where 
 she was born, and Delia from the island 
 of Delos. 
 
 As Diana, she is the goddess of hunting, 
 and called Diana Venetrix. She is always 
 represented by the ancient artists and 
 poets as armed with a bow and arrows, 
 and three score nymphs in her train. She 
 is often represented as running, as in the 
 fine marble statue in the Townley gallery 
 of the British Museum, with her vest fly- 
 ing back and girded about her. She is 
 tall of stature, and her face though hand- 
 some is rather manly. Her legs are bare, 
 well shaped, and strong. Her feet also 
 sometimes bare, and sometimes adorned 
 with the cothurnus or buskin of the hun- 
 ters. See Cothurnus. She has a quiver 
 on her shoulder, and iiolds either a javelin 
 or a bow in her right hand. Thus she ap- 
 pears in some of her antique statues, and 
 in the descriptions of the ancient poets, 
 who often, by a single epithet, bring the 
 idea of her whole figure to the mind. The 
 student is referred for example to guide 
 
DIANA. 
 
 him in a correct delineation of the Diana 
 Venetrix, to Ovid, Heroic Epistles, iv. 
 ver. 40. 91. b. 1. el. 1. ver. 12. Fast. ii. 
 Ver. 15G. Art of Love, iii. ver. 144. 1. iii. 
 el. 2. ver. 32. Virgil, eel. vii. ver. 32. 
 
 The statues of this Diana were frequent 
 in the woods, where she was represented 
 as hunting, or bathing, or resting herself. 
 It was on one of these occasions that 
 Actaeon had the misfortune to see her 
 bathing so fatally to himself. The story 
 is told on an antique gem in MafTeis' col- 
 lection, by Ovid in verse, and by Apuleius 
 (Asin. Aur. 1. ii.) in prose. Both the poet 
 and the artist represent the nymphs as 
 gathering round the naked goddess to 
 conceal her ; but, as Ovid observes, it was 
 partly in vain, as she was so much taller 
 than her nymphs. This majestic statue 
 was finely expressed, says Pliny (Nat. 
 Hist. lib. 35. cap. 10.), in the celebrated 
 picture of this goddess by Apelles, who 
 formed his idea of it from Homer's de- 
 scription (Odys. S. V. 108.), and even, 
 says Plinj^, surpassed his original. Virgil 
 has imitated the same description {JEn. i. 
 ver. 582). Statins also (Theb. iv. ver. 433.) 
 gives a beautiful description of her as rest- 
 ing herself, that would make an excellent 
 statue or picture. 
 
 The Diana triformis, called also Hecate 
 and Trivia, by Ovid, Horace, and Virgil, 
 when her statues stood where three ways 
 met, is represented by the above poets 
 with three heads, and sometimes with 
 three bodies. She was frequently invoked 
 in enchantments, as being the infernal 
 Diana, and appears more like a fairy than 
 a celestial goddess. 
 
 As the cdciit'ml Diana, she is described 
 by Statius (Achil. i. ver. 348.) as of majes- 
 tic stature ; and in the council of the 
 deities, retaining lier bow and the quiver 
 on her shoulders. Tliis description agrees 
 with a statue tiiat belonged to tlie late 
 Lord Leicester. Cicero (Orat. iv. in ver.) 
 describes a statue also mudi like it which 
 once belonged to Scipio Afriianus. 
 
 As Luna, or the moon, Diana is repre- 
 sented on ancient gems, medals, and l)assi 
 rilievi, witli a lunar crown or crescent on 
 her forehead (see Crescent), armed Avith 
 u bow and arrows, in a silver chariot 
 drawn by two wliite stags or does, some- 
 times by two horses, one bhu k, the other 
 white. Some poets speali i)f bolli her 
 horses as perfectly white. Sec Propert. 
 iii. el. 20. ver. 18. H(ii<-(' Horace calls licr 
 Jiegiiia l)icornis (('arm. Sii'c. ver. 35). Siie 
 is also thus described l)y Statius (Theb. i. 
 ver. 338.), Ovid (I'ast. iv. ver. 372. v. ver. 
 IG). On a giiu iuthe I'lorentine collection, 
 
 she is drawn by two heifers, a particular not 
 noticed by the poets of the first ages. It 
 was this Diana whom the poets feigned to 
 have fallen in love with Endymion, whom 
 Jupiter had condemned to a perpetual 
 sleep for his intrigue with Juno, or as 
 others say by Luna herself, that she might 
 kiss him unknown. If this fable be con- 
 sidered, it may perhaps appear to have 
 been a philosophical amour, or rather a 
 platonic love, that did not interfere with 
 her character of chastitv', or her petition 
 to Jupiter in Callimachus for perpetual 
 virginity. She is often represented on an- 
 tique sculptures as descending to a shep- 
 herd asleep, with a veil over her head. 
 By this, a line in Flaccus (.\rgon. viii. 
 ver. 31.) becomes not only clear, but very 
 expressive, and finelj'^ descriptive of her 
 appearance. Probably this fable might 
 liave originated from a personification of 
 the eclipses of the moon ; if so, her veil 
 would be the most significant and charac- 
 teristic part of lier costume. See also 
 Catullus de Coma Berenice, Iv. iv. ver. G. 
 The fable of Endj'mion, who was enjoyed 
 by his mistress while asleej), gave rise to 
 the Greek and Latin proverbs 'Eviv^iwvoi; 
 vTivov KaOtvceiQ, and Endymionis somnum 
 dormis, to indicate a sleepy and slothful 
 fellow. 
 
 Among other of her names and epithets, 
 some for her qualities, and others from the 
 places where she was worsliiped, are, 
 Artemis 'Aprf/ne from aprifu'ig perfecta et 
 incorrupta virgo; Diana Taurica, Persia, 
 Minthia, Ephesia, Torensis, Lijcea, Sospita, 
 or Sotera the dispenser of health, Ltiico- 
 phryiw, Salamiiiia, Aljiludia, Eiulea, .laeiila- 
 trix, Vinairi.r, Triformis, x^ovia (tlie ter- 
 restrial), G>;p»)rtiprt (the huntress or de- 
 stroyer of wild beasts), therefore also 
 named Lya or Lua. Tirat'ir, ]ii)npiit, 
 'Ayportjiia, Pharea, Daphnaa, MoyoTOfcof. 
 Orpheus calls her "'Ap7-f/(K;, Ei'\fi'(?/i«,.lc»r(i, 
 Conjplucu, Diana, Trivia, Alphiia^ ('arijatis, 
 Iphiiienia, Elymaitis, Priapiiia, Hiiliaxtis, 
 Elcca, &c. Homer calls her Partlunon, 
 'loxtntpav, 'AttoXXwj'oc, &c. 
 
 Tiie Hall of Diana in tlie Louvre at 
 I'aris is embellisliei! with several pictures 
 and bassi rilievi of subjects taken from 
 the history of that goddess. The subject 
 of the picture on the deling is taken frnni 
 the l)elore (jiioled Iiviiin by Callimachus, 
 which represents Diana asking Ju]>iter to 
 leave her in the class of virgin goddesses, 
 ]>ainte<l by I'rdndhoin. Tlie I\mi cinulur 
 pictures are Diana granting to the entrea- 
 ty of Hercules the liind witii the golden 
 liorns, by Gamier; and Diana recalling 
 llippoljtus to life at the riipicsl of Aricia. 
 
Dl A 
 
 The bassi rilievi represent — 1st. Orestes 
 carrying oft" the statue of Diana Taurica, 
 by Petitot; 2nd, the Lacedemonian vir- 
 gins celebrating the festival of Diana at 
 Thy reus, by Cartellier; 3rd, Diana and 
 her nymphs soliciting Vulcan to forge 
 their arms, by Espercieux ; 4th, Amazons 
 dancing round the statue of Diana at 
 Ephesus, by Foucou. 
 
 Among the ancient representations of 
 this goddess are the well known Diana 
 Venetrix, of the Towneley collection in 
 the British Museum, the before quoted an- 
 tiques in the Florentine and other galle- 
 ries, some fine antique bassi rilievi that 
 were formerly in the Napoleon Museum 
 at Paris, one that was No. 323, in the Hall 
 of Silenus in the Louvre, of Diana and 
 Endymion ; and 418, a fine sarcophagus 
 with a bassi rilievi of Diana and Ac^aeon. 
 
 DiANiuM. [Lat. from Diana.] In architec- 
 ture. A temple, wood, or other place de- 
 dicated to the goddess Diana. Also the 
 name of a city of Tarraconium (Arragon) 
 in Spain. The most celebrated structure 
 of this kind was the temple at Ephesus, 
 that was reckoned by the ancients to be 
 the g-reatest among the seven wonders of 
 the world. It was built by Ctesiphon, and 
 enlarged and enriched by every succeed- 
 ing king, till it was burned by Erostratus, 
 the same night that gave birth to Alexan- 
 der the Great. So engaged, say some of 
 the ancient poets, was Diana, in her capa- 
 city of Diana Lucina, that she quite forgot 
 lier temple. It was built, according to 
 Dionysius Periegetes (in Descrip. orb. 
 826), upon a moorish ground for fear of 
 earthquakes. It was four hundred and 
 tw'enty-five feet long, and two hundred and 
 twenty feet wide. It was said to have 
 had a hundred and twenty-seven columns 
 of peculiar beauty and worth, presented 
 by as many monarchs. It was rebuilt by 
 Dinocrates at the expense of Alexander 
 the Great, and was of the Ionic order. 
 The priests of this goddess, who at Ephe- 
 sus was called 'lo-^kaipr)Q (Avho joyed in 
 the sports of the chase), were, according 
 to Plutarch, divided into three classes ; 
 MtXXifpj;, novices just entered into the 
 ofBce ; 'Isp*;, priests ; and Ilopifp//, those 
 who were grown old in the service, and 
 superannuated. 
 
 Another celebrated temple of the goddess 
 was that of Scy thia Taurica, whence Ores- 
 tes, and Pylades, at the command of Apollo, 
 brought away the statue of the goddess, 
 and Iphigenia, the sister of Orestes, Avho 
 was detained as a priestess by Thoas, the 
 king and high priest. According to Es- 
 chylus, quoted in the article Architecture, 
 
 ]) I c 
 
 who mentions " the vacant place between 
 the triglyphs," it must liave been of the 
 Doric order. Other Diania are mentioned 
 among the titles of the goddess, under the 
 last head. See Diana. 
 
 DiASTYLE. [diastijlos, Lat AtarvXcc, Or.] 
 In architecture. One of the five manners 
 of intercolumniations used by ancient ar- 
 chitects, having three diameters between 
 the columns. According to Vitruvius it 
 was the third species, and comes between 
 the systyle and arteostyie. See Interco- 
 
 LLMMATION. 
 
 Diatom or Diatonic Stones. [diaio7>vsy 
 Lat. Au'iTovoi, Gr.] hi ancient architectnre. 
 According to Vitruvius, cubical wrought 
 stones used in construction by the Greek 
 architects, with two wrought faces, to be 
 used in coignes and angles, as corner or 
 bond stones. They were proportionably 
 longer than wide, and as wide as the thick- 
 ness of the wall in which they were in- 
 serted. When used as corner stones thej^ 
 are returned on both faces in the form of 
 a Roman L, the interior angle being cut 
 away for the better security and bonding 
 of the angles. 
 
 Diatretarius or Diatretaril's Cela- 
 TOR. [Lat.] In ancient sculpture. An artist 
 whose business it was to engrave, chase, 
 or emboss sculptural and other ornaments 
 on the vases called Calyces diatreti, 
 
 Diazoma. [Lat. Aid^oiicn, Gr.] In ancient 
 architecture. A term used by Viti-uvius to 
 indicate the landing or resting places in 
 the stairs of the amphitheatres and thea- 
 tres. They were so named from their re- 
 semblance to cinctures or bands, as their 
 name implies. 
 
 DiCASTERIUM. [Lat. AlKUTripiOV, Gr. ju- 
 
 diciale forum, from Aikij justice, punish- 
 ment.] In ancient architecture. The name 
 of a tribunal in Athens where the people 
 sat in judgment upon criminals of their 
 own class, and took cognizance of invo- 
 luntary murders. It is said to have been 
 instituted by Demophoon, and was like- 
 wise called TO CLKdr7]piov etti TlaWaci(i). 
 In the early times it was not required to 
 be a native of Attica who Avas to sit at this 
 tribunal ; the Argians being admitted also 
 to that honour. But Draco afterwards 
 excluded the Argians, and admitted only 
 Athenians. The judges of this severe tri- 
 bunal were fifty-one in number, and were 
 to be at least fifty years of age ; they were 
 chosen from the most respectable persons 
 of the ten tribes, from each of which fi\ e 
 citizens of an irreproachable life, to whom 
 one drawn by lot was added. Solon took 
 from it the cognizance of certain important 
 causes, which he transferred to the Arii- 
 
 R 
 
DIL 
 
 opagus, to increase the authority of tliat 
 court. The judajes of the dicasterium were 
 called EphetcP, from the verb ttpttvai to 
 appeal ; because appeals were made from 
 inferior tribunals to this. The situation of 
 the dicasterium is not correctly ascertained, 
 but it is probable that it was one of tlie 
 superior popular courts that assembled in 
 the Pnyx. Its form, situation (near the 
 Areiopagus), and its pulpitum being in 
 every respect calculated for such a pur- 
 pose. 
 
 DiCTYOTHETON Or DiCTYOTON. [Lat. 
 
 AncTVbJToi', Gr. i. e. reticulata siructura.^ In 
 ancient architecture. A species of building 
 made like lattices or net work, to admit 
 air and light; also, the name by which the 
 Greeks, according to Pliny and otiier an- 
 cient authors, designated that species of 
 walling called by the Romans opus reticu- 
 latus. 
 
 DiDORON. [Lat. Atcopajv, Gr.] In archi- 
 tecture. A Greek measure of two spans. 
 
 Die. [</t*, Fr.] In architecture. The cu- 
 bical pai't or body of the pedestal, between 
 its base and cornice ; so called as being 
 in general a perfect cube or die. In mo- 
 numental, commemorative, or honorary 
 columns, like those of Trajan, Antonine, 
 London, &:c. the die is generally orna- 
 mented with sculptures in relief of sub- 
 jects connected with the construction of 
 the colunm. 
 
 DiGLYPH. In architecture. A species of 
 ornament which has two channels sunk in, 
 while tryglyphs have three. Vignola 
 claims the honour of the important inven- 
 tion. 
 
 Dilettanti. [lUil.] In the criiicism of 
 art. An admirer or lover of Ihe line arts ; 
 one wiio delights in their pursuits. The 
 word is almost synonymous witii amateur 
 (see Amatelk), but does not imply so 
 mucli practical knowledge. We have a 
 socii iij of dilcKunti in London, to \\ iiosc 
 good taste and liljoruli'iy Uie world of art 
 is indebted for some of the finest importa- 
 tions of knowledge of the grandest %\tirks 
 of Grecian art. Such as the anti((uitii's of 
 Altica, Ionia, and other parts of Greece, 
 and a volume of rare sj)eciniens of ancient 
 Greek sculpture. They iiave also a series 
 of portraits of their members in Ihcir coun- 
 cil room in St. James's Strict, many of 
 them by Sir Joshua lleynolds, as every 
 mcnihcr, on iiis ehiction, must present his 
 portrait by an eminent artist ; and a valu- 
 able collection of architectural drawings, 
 views, maps, &;c. made in (Jreece for the 
 society i)y Messrs. !•'. IJedford and J. 
 Gandy, under the tlireclion of Sir \\'ili.'am 
 Gell, which it is hoped they will one day 
 
 DIM 
 
 publish. A catalogue of this collection is 
 in the tliird volume of Annals of the Fine 
 Arts, page 478. It is highly to the honour 
 of the Dilettanti Society that without any 
 support from the public, or any funds but 
 what have arisen from the liberality of its 
 members, the only two literary expeditions 
 which have, during a period of eighty 
 years, been sent out from England for the 
 purpose of investigating the remains of 
 Grecian taste and splendour, have sailed 
 at their expense. 
 
 DiJLVCHL's. [Lat. Ai^iaxa, Gr.] In the 
 history of painting and sculpture. A gladia- 
 tor who combatted in the amphitheatres 
 V. ith two short swords or poinards. 
 
 Dimensions, [dimensio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. The definite bulk or size of a pic- 
 ture, a figure, a statue, building, column, 
 or other work of art. Grandeur in art 
 does not result from largeness of dimen- 
 sions, but more from an observance of har- 
 mony, proportion, and character. A co- 
 lossus or a Colosseum may be little in style 
 though mountainous in size ; and a The- 
 seium, or a gem, large in style, though but 
 a toy in dimensions. As the exact size of 
 life is rarely exactly,kept in every respect, 
 particularly in painting, the artist must 
 study proportion, both actual and relative, 
 and greatness of style, if he wishes to soar 
 above the shackles of actual dimension. 
 
 In architecture the word dimension or di- 
 mensions is equivalent witii mntsure, mea- 
 surement or admea:iurement, and relates to 
 the actual size of every part of the edifice. 
 DiMiNtrioN. [ditninutio, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture. The contraction of a diameter of 
 a colunm as it ascends. The diminution 
 of a column, in following the example of 
 nature in tiie formaliou of the trunks of 
 trees, the most ancient sort of columns, 
 gives real as well as apparent strength 
 and beauty to its form. For the diminu- 
 tion of tiie shaft of a column the following 
 rules, principally taken from Vitruvius 
 and the best remains of ancient architec- 
 ture, nmy be oI)served. If the shaft of the 
 column be iifteeu feet high or llierealxiuts, 
 divide the bottom diameter into six equal 
 parts, each of which will be ten mintites, 
 and take li\e for the lop diameter; mak- 
 ing its diminution live minutes on cichsidc. 
 If the columns b(! from lifti-en to twenty 
 feet high, the lower diameter is to be di- 
 vided into six i)arts and a half, and five 
 and a half of those divisions given to the 
 top diameter. If (he columns are to be 
 from twenty to thirty feet in height, the 
 lower diameter is to be tlivided into sc^en 
 parts; six of which are for the upper dia- 
 meter. If the c(dumns ar.' to be from 
 
DIN 
 
 thirty to forty feet in height, the lower 
 diameter is to be divided into seven parts 
 and a half; and six and a half given to the 
 top diameter. If they are to be from forty 
 to fifty feet in height, the lower diameter 
 is to be divided into eight parts ; and seven 
 appropriated for the upper diameter. If 
 the columns ar-j to be of loftier dimensions, 
 they are to be diminished in similar pro- 
 portions. This additional thickness to the 
 upper part of columns as tiiey increase in 
 height is properly given by the best archi- 
 tects, on account of the increased height ; 
 for, as the eye is attracted by beauty, it is 
 necessary it should be flattered by the 
 pleasure it receives from proportionate and 
 just distribution of parts, as it is Avhen de- 
 ceived by judicious additions ; else the 
 whole will have a bulky and inelegant 
 eifect. 
 
 The diminution of a column in some in- 
 elegant examples commences from the very 
 bottom of the shaft, sometimes frpm a quar- 
 ter and sometimes from a third of its 
 height, forming, in some of the best Greek 
 examples, a graceful, elegant, and almost 
 imperceptible swell, which is called enta- 
 sis. See Entasis. 
 
 Dining-room. In architecture. A room 
 set apart for the purpose of dining. This 
 apartment should be spacious, lofty, and 
 easy of access. Northern or eastern as- 
 pects are among the best for a dining-room, 
 as it is not generally used till the latter 
 portion of the day, and the more cheerful 
 aspects are best to be reserved for the morn- 
 ing and more general living i-ooms. The 
 dining-rooms of the ancients are best de- 
 scribed by Vitruvius(lib. vi. cap. 10). In 
 one of the largest Grecian houses this able 
 writer on architecture describes the com- 
 mon dining-rooms for the family as being 
 imder the porticoes of the peristyle, and 
 in the portico which looked to the north, 
 the cyzican triclinium or chief dining- 
 room ; and the pinacotheca, or picture and 
 statue gallery. On the right and left also 
 of the mansion or main building small 
 houses were erected, having proper gates, 
 dining-rooms, and convenient chambers, 
 that when strangers arrive they may not 
 enter the peristyle, but be received into 
 this hospitalium ; for when the Greeks 
 were more refined and opulent they pre- 
 pared triclinia (dining-rooms), cubicula, 
 or chambers (see Cubicui.um), and provi- 
 sions for strangers ; the first day inviting 
 them to dinner, afterwards sending them 
 poultry, eggs, herbs, fruits, and other pro- 
 ductions of the country. Masters of fami- 
 lies, therefore, when they abode in this 
 manner, seemed not to be from home, en- 
 
 DIO 
 
 joying the full liberty of retirement in 
 these apartments. 
 
 The triclinia or dining-rooms of the Ro- 
 mans, with the procceton, or room for at- 
 tendants ; the cubicula, with the baths, 
 &c. were disposed on the sides of the Ca- 
 vaedium. Vitruvius directs t!>at the win- 
 ter dining-room and bath should look to 
 the winter's declining sun, because the 
 afternoon light is there useful ; besides, 
 the western sun shining thereon produces 
 heat, and makes that aspect warm and 
 pleasant in the evening. The spring and 
 autumn dining-rooms (for the luxurious 
 Romans had one for every season of the 
 year) should look to the east, for the win- 
 dows then being turned from the sun, 
 which is proceeding westward, render 
 those rooms temperate at the time they 
 are generally used. The summer dining- 
 room should look to the north, because 
 this aspect is not like the others, i-endered 
 hot at the summer solstice ; for being 
 turned from the course of the sun, it re- 
 mains always cool, and when used is salu- 
 brious and pleasant. 
 
 Pliny describes the dining-rooms at his 
 Laurentinum as being beyond the portico, 
 through a pleasant cavcedium, and which 
 advanced upon the shore, so that it was 
 gently washed by the waves when the 
 south wind blew. On every side were 
 folding dooi's or windows as large, so that 
 from the sides and the front he enjoyed a 
 prospect, as it were, of three seas, and 
 backAvards were to be seen the cavaedium, 
 the portico, and the area ; again the por- 
 tico and atrium terminated by woods and 
 distant mountains. On the left of the tri- 
 clinium, but not so forward, is a large 
 cubiculum, and then a smaller one, where 
 one window admits the rising, and ano- 
 ther the setting sun. From hence you 
 view the sea rather more distant, but mora 
 securely. This cubiculum and dining- 
 room, by their projection, formed an angle, 
 which not only retained but augmented 
 the heat of the sun's rays. On the right 
 side of the dining-room was a most ele- 
 gant cubiculum, with another large cubi- 
 culum, or moderate ctenatia (common eat 
 ing or supper-room), Avhich receives light 
 both from the sun and the sea. 
 
 Dioclesian's Palace. In architecture. 
 See Palace. 
 
 DiONYSiA. [Lat. Atovvffia, Gr.] In ar- 
 chaiolog:tj. Feasts instituted and celebrated 
 in Greece in honour of Bacchus, so called 
 from his Grecian appellation Dionysius ; 
 and observed with more solemnity at 
 Athens than in any other part of Greece. 
 In this festival they carried a vase full of 
 
 n 2 
 
DIO 
 
 wine, adorned with vine branches, after 
 tlie vase a kid and a basket of tigs, and 
 after them the phniliis. They who cele- 
 brated this festival were clad witli skins 
 of mules, crowned with ivy and vine, and 
 carried the thyrsus, flutes, and cjTnbals ; 
 some conducted the Bacchanals disguised 
 as Silenus, Pan, and the Satjrs ; others, 
 mouuted on asses, strayed over the hills 
 and through deserts, leaping and crying 
 with dreadful howls, Eyoi aajSui, Evoi 
 BciKxt, ito llaKxC' 
 
 There were two kinds of Dionysia; the 
 great festival, which was likewise called 
 Aiowtria kut ci'^v, because it was cele- 
 brated in the city. It took place in the 
 spring, and was accompanied with public 
 games. The less pompous festival was call- 
 ed Atoi'vffia Kar aypovg, because it was ce- 
 lebrated in the country among the fields, 
 in the autumn, when giapes and other fruit 
 were ripe. 
 
 DiopTRiCKs. [from AioTrriKri, Gr.] fn 
 ■paintbig and architecture. Afiording a me- 
 dium for the sight. A part of opticks, 
 ■whicli treats of the different refractions of 
 the light ; assisting the sight in the view- of 
 distant objects. A department of science of 
 the greatest use and importance to artists, 
 particularly to painters and architects. 
 Dioptricks is said by Millin to be a science 
 of which the ancients were ignorant, and 
 yet it is alluded to both by Pliny and Vi- 
 truvius. For the want of optical instru- 
 ments Nero, who, it seems, was short- 
 sighted, employed an emerald, reduced to 
 a polished surface, for a mirror, wiierein 
 he viewed by retiection the combats of the 
 gladiators. 
 
 DiOTA. [Lat. AtojTi], Gr.] In ancient 
 sculpture. A sort of vase with two han- 
 dles, which was used by the ancients in 
 their feasts to contain wine. Diotaj are 
 often represented on ancient medals, and 
 principally on those of tiie island of Chios, 
 to intimate the excellence of the wine 
 which it produced. The richness of its 
 soil and abundance of its natural jjrodiicc 
 were such tliat tiiey gave rise to a proverb 
 denoting an unequal comparison, Chios ad 
 Couin, used in tiie nuinniT of our " [joiii- 
 bard Street to a China orange." Tlie form 
 of the diota, coming to a point at the lower 
 end, has led some critics to sujjixisc, w hen 
 they iiave ijeen foiMul upon the Ciiian me- 
 dals, tliat they represented a hobiiin or 
 cocon(? of silk, wliicli was a commodity 
 mucii produced in that island. The word 
 diota is also used by sonu; ancient ^vritcrs 
 to indicate a measure of capacity. I'pon 
 some silver medals struck at Athens are 
 often seen tlie ligure of a diota, nurniounted 
 
 D IP 
 
 by an owl, the emblem of their tutelary 
 goddess Minerva ; probably to intimate 
 the necessity of wisdom in the use of 
 wine. 
 
 DiPix)is. [Lat. At^rXoif, Gr.] In ancient 
 costume. A sort of double mantle used by 
 old men and cynics. The latter class of 
 philosophers adopted this dress as they 
 wore not the tunic. Some writers have 
 suppose<l that the diplois was a mantle of 
 a large size, like those now worn in Italy, 
 that would go twice or double over the 
 body. 
 
 Dipteral, [dipteros, Lat. AiVrfpoc, Gr.] 
 In ancient architecture. One of the seven 
 orders of sacred buildings or temples, 
 which is placed by Vitruvius after the 
 pseudo or false dipteral. It is octost^lc 
 or eight columned, both in front and rear; 
 but it has a double row of columns round 
 the cell, as in the temple of Jupiter Qui- 
 rinus, of the Doric order, and the Ionic 
 temple of Diana at Ephesus, built by Cte- 
 siplion. 
 
 DiPTYCHLS. [Lat. AiiTTvxog, Gr.] In the 
 history of the arts. A sort of ancient book 
 or tablet that folded with two leaves. The 
 ancients had two sorts of books, eolumencs, 
 which were made of flexible materials, as 
 papyrus, parchment, ^c. and were rolled, 
 and codices or tablets of the sort called 
 diptychi, when made of harder or more 
 inflexible materials, as ivory, polished 
 metals, and wood. These kind of books 
 are of very ancient date, for they are men- 
 tioned by Homer (II. vi. v. l(j«), in the ac- 
 count given by Glaucns to Dionu-de of his 
 ancestor the illustrious Bellerophon, who 
 was sent to Lycia by Pra^tus" with injurious 
 letters, writing uptm a folded tahlet many 
 deadly sentences." When the critics found 
 fault with John Kemble for performing 
 Cato with a bound book, he might have 
 defended himself as using a itiptijchus, but 
 he yielded and used a roll or volumen. 
 Diptychus is also used by some ancient au- 
 thors syn(Uiym(iusly with tliploma. 
 
 In this last form of books or dyptichi are 
 those called, by archaiologisls, consular 
 hxhU'U ( diphjchi consuhires). The conve- 
 nience of rolls for large works or writings 
 was beyonil that of the diptychus or fold- 
 ing tablet, for they could be extended to 
 any re(iuisi(e length by adding new male- 
 rials to the former wlu n written full. l$ut 
 it was not so with their solid tablets, for 
 once filled, it was difiicult to extend them 
 except in number, and then they were 
 more dillicult to use, and more easily lost 
 or dispersed. These tablets were also 
 called pufiillares, as being of a size to hold 
 in one hand. 
 
 I 
 
DIPTYCH us. 
 
 In the end the diptychus or folding tab- 
 let was used for conlidential or secret pur- 
 poses. Sealed up, in envelopes of linen 
 with wax and the signet of the writer, the 
 contents, whether communicating secrets 
 of politics, of love, or of interest, were safe 
 till they reached their destination as the 
 modern letter. The leaves were covered 
 with wax, and the matter inscribed thereon 
 with a style, as is often alluded to in the 
 ancient poets. They were numbered as 
 tliey followed seriatim, and the dii)tyehus, 
 when the interior of its two leaves were 
 too limited for the Avriting, had others en- 
 closed within them, and were called trip- 
 tychon, pentaptychon, polyptychon, accord- 
 ing to the number, three, five, or many 
 tablets which the sealed diptychus con- 
 tained. 
 
 When the real consular dignity was su- 
 perseded in Rome by the imperial purple, 
 and the consuls became officers of more 
 honour and show than of popular respon- 
 sibility, they assumed gi'eater splendour 
 than was usual in the more severe times 
 of the republic. The new consul installed 
 during the kalends of Januaiy made his 
 acknowledgments to those friends who 
 elected him, either in his public orations 
 or by tablets which he distributed among 
 the people, or transmitted to his absent 
 friends. This last method gave rise to the 
 richly embellished tablets called consular. 
 At this period the diptychus was but in the 
 infancy of its invention ; but as the consu- 
 lar dignity increased in splendour under 
 the protection of the emperor, as its powers 
 were annihilated, so did the consul endea- 
 vour to keep up a show of his expiring 
 glory by the munificence of his largesses, 
 and the pomp of his public games. Thus 
 the diptychus, under the direction of the 
 consul, changed both its nature and its 
 original destination. Ivory was the mate- 
 rial principally used in its composition, 
 which was resei-ved by law to the consu- 
 lar diptychs alone. The best artists were 
 employed in carving their exteriors, where 
 was to be seen the portrait of the consul 
 with all the ornaments of his dignity. 
 They added his names, his qualities, the 
 denominations of his ancestors ; and to 
 publish his munificence to the world, they 
 also represented his public shows in the 
 circus and amphitheatre. 
 
 These consular diptychs were sent all 
 over Italy, and even into parts of Gaul, 
 sealed as before mentioned, Suetonius 
 relates (in Aug. c. 10), that Augustus seal- 
 ed his diptjrchs or diplomas, which are 
 synonymous, with the figure of a sphynx, 
 to denote secrecy, afterwards with a head 
 
 of Alexander the Great, and finally with 
 his own. In diplonuitibus, libellisquc, et 
 epistolis signandis, initio sphinge usus est : 
 mox imagine Alexandri Magni. Novis- 
 sime sua. In the time of Constantino they 
 received the name of crectiones. 
 
 The formula of one of these ancient di- 
 plomas or diptychs has reached our times, 
 and is preserved by Marculphus (i. 11), is 
 worth recording. It is as follows. 
 
 Ille princeps omnibvs agentibvs in 
 
 LOCO, NOS GAIVM I. V, PARTinVS ILLIS 
 LEGATIONIS CAVSA UlREXIMVS, lUEO JVBE- 
 MVS, VT LOCIS CONVENIENTIBVS EIDEM A 
 VOBIS EVECTIO SIMVL ET HVMANITAS MINIS- 
 TRETVR, HOC EST, VEREDI SIVE PARAVEREDI 
 TOT, PANES TOT, VINI MOD, TOT, CEREVISL'E, 
 MOD, TOT, LARDI LIB. TOT, CARNIS TOT, PORCI 
 TOT, PORCELLI TOT, VERVECES TOT, AGNI TOT, 
 ANSERES TOT, PHASIANI TOT, PVLLI TOT, OVA 
 TOT, OI,EI LIBR.^ TOT, GaRI LIBRJE TOT, MEL- 
 LIS TOT, ACETI TOT, CVMINI TOT, PIPERIS 
 TOT, COSTI TOT, CARIOPUYLLI TOT, SPICI TOT, 
 CINAMOMI TOT, GRANI MASTICIS TOT, DAC- 
 TILj9E TOT, PISTACI.E TOT, AMIGDAL^ TOT, 
 CER^ LIB, TOT, SAIJS TOT, OLERVM, LEGVMI- 
 MVM CARRA TOT, FA^VL^ TOT, PABVLI EQVO- 
 HVM CARRA TOT, H^C OMNIO TAM EVNDO, 
 QVAM REDEVNDO EIDEM MINISTRARI IN LOCIS 
 SOLITIS, ET IMPERI SINE MORA PROCURATE. 
 
 This curious ancient document may be 
 thus rendered, " The Emperor to all his 
 officers whom it may concern. Know that 
 we have sent the illustrious man, Gains, 
 as our ambassador into these parts. For 
 this reason we therefore command you, by 
 these writings, to provide and furnish to 
 him all manner of friendly assistance at 
 proper and convenient places ; such, as so 
 many riding and draught horses as he may 
 want, as many loaves of bread, as juany 
 modii of wine, as many modii of beer, as 
 many pounds of lard, as much butcher's 
 meat, as many hogs, as many sucking pigs, 
 as many wethers, as many Iambs, as many 
 geese, as many plieasants, as many pullets, 
 as many eggs, as many pounds of oil, as 
 many pounds of fish sauce, as much honey, 
 as much vinegar, as much cumin, as much 
 pepper, as many savoury herbs, as many 
 cloves, as much spice, as much cinnamon, 
 as many grains of mastic, as many dates, 
 as many pistachio nuts, as many almonds, 
 as many pounds of wax, as much salt, as 
 much oil, as many cartloads of vegetables 
 or pulse, as many torches, and as many 
 cars of provender for the horses. All 
 these things are to be fully and entirely 
 provided in the requisite places, and with- 
 out any delay." 
 
 By this imperial rescript or diptych we 
 may learn how a Roman ambassador was 
 
DIS 
 
 provided on his route to his destination. The 
 consular diptychs were, as before stated, 
 enclosed in covers of ivory beautifully 
 carved in relief, with portraits of the con- 
 suls dressed in the insignia of their office, 
 and often accompanied with representa- 
 tions of the consular games, and sometimes 
 with inscriptions denoting the person cele- 
 brated. 
 
 These relics of ancient art are valuable 
 documents, and of considerable use in de- 
 veloping the history of the periods to 
 which they belong. Some that have 
 reached our times appear to have been of 
 the period of the lower empire, as indi- 
 cated by the consulates. They afford an 
 interesting key to the costume, manners, 
 and usages of those times. They are both 
 rare and curious. The most celebrated 
 are the diptj'chs of Bourges and Leige, 
 that have been described and commented 
 upon by Father Wiltheim, a learned Je- 
 suit; those of Compiegne, explained by 
 Sidonius ; those of Brescia and of Zurich, 
 published by Hagenbuck ; that of Dijon, 
 discovered in 1718 by M. de la Marre, 
 upon which Bouhiers, Mautours, and 
 Montfaucon, in his Antiquite Expliquee, 
 have given several very interesting disser- 
 tations. In 1773 D. Berthod read, in the 
 academy of Besan^on, a description of a 
 leaf of a diptych preserved iu the public 
 library of the Benedictines, founded by 
 the Abbe Boisot. This valuable relic of 
 Roman art was lost during the revolution. 
 It was, however, described by M. Costo, 
 a bookseller of Besangon, in the Magaziu 
 Encyclopaedique. The Royal Library of 
 Paris has several diplychs in its cabinet of 
 antiquities; some of which are of great 
 beauty and curiosity. Among the best 
 dissertations in addition to these before 
 mentioned, are the TIusuuvks Diptyclwruin, 
 by Passkri. 
 
 DiKimrouiuM. [Lat.] In ancient archi- 
 tecture. A large covered building in an- 
 cient Rome where the soldiers received 
 their pay. It was begun and left unli- 
 nished by Marcus Agrippa, and stood near 
 the Flaminian Circus, on a site now occu- 
 l)ied by tiie Roman college. It was also 
 used for the elections and p()i)nlar assem- 
 blies, whisn the people gave tlieir tablets 
 inscribed with their si^ntiments from cer- 
 tain oliicers called dirihiliircs. \Vlieii tlie 
 heat of the sun was too great, or tli(; rain 
 too powerful for performances in the thea- 
 tre, they wer(! represented in the diriindi- 
 rium, which was one of the largest unco- 
 vered profane buildings in the ci(y. 
 
 Disci;kni(ui,luu. [La(.] In amiml cos- 
 tume. The pin or bodkin used b> tJie iCo- 
 
 DIS 
 
 man ladies to divide and fasten their hair 
 in tresses. 
 
 DisciNcrus. [Lat.] In ancient costume. 
 A statue or (Igure in a robe or garment 
 without a girdle. It was regarded as a 
 sign of effeminacy and softness; and some- 
 times as a mark of disgrace or dimissal 
 from an active employment. 
 
 Discobolus. [Lat. Aio-ko/SoXoc, Gr. i.e. 
 qui discum jacit.] In antique /sculpture , A 
 statue of one hurling the disk or quoit. 
 Among the ancient games of the Greeks, 
 tluit of the discus was a great favourite. 
 The discus was a sort of round quoit, three 
 or four inches thick, heavy, of stone, brass, 
 copper, or iron, called oiffKot; and ffoXoc. 
 It was launched into the air from a thong 
 that was put through a hole made in its 
 centre. He who launched it held one of 
 his hands near his breast, the other ba- 
 lancing the disk a while, which was 
 thrown with a rotatory motion, and he 
 who threw his disk farthest was the con- 
 queror. The Lacedaemonians are said to 
 have been the inventors of this healthful 
 exei'cise ; yet it is recorded as among the 
 games of the mythological period. Ac- 
 cording to Ovid (Met. 10), Apollo laid 
 down his divinity, and abandoned the 
 charge of his oracle at Delphos to go to 
 Sparta to play at the discus, where he 
 mortally wounded his favourite Hyaciu- 
 thus. Pausanias gives tlie invention of 
 the game to Perseus, the son of Jupiter 
 and Danae, who had the misfortune to kill 
 !iis maternal grandfather, Acrisius, with 
 his disk. 
 
 The game of disks was in practice at 
 the time of the Trojan war. The myrmi- 
 dons of Achilles practised it during their 
 leaders' inaction on the seashore, while 
 burning with ire against Agamemnon. 
 Homer also records it as among the gym- 
 nastic sports given at the funereal obse- 
 (|uies of Patroclns, with an iron discus, 
 wliich the \ ast strength of JCction was wont 
 to throw. But w hen the sw ift-footed noble 
 Achilles slew him, he brought this also with 
 other possessions into his ships. The iirst 
 whoseized tills weighty disk was (he noble 
 I'-peus, who sprang forward with Poly- 
 poetes, the godlike Leontius, and the Te- 
 lamonian Ajax. I'pi'us sci/.eil the mass, 
 and, whirling it round, hurled it; but all 
 the Greeks laughed at him. Then Jahiu- 
 teus, offspring of Mars, threw second ; 
 third again threw (he mighty Telamonian 
 .\ja\ iVoui his strong hand, ami cast be- 
 yond all marks. But when now Poly- 
 poeles, obstinate in light, liad sei/.ed the 
 mass, us far as some cow herdni.in hurls 
 liis crook, which, whirled around, tlies 
 
DIS 
 
 through the droves of oxen ; so far, by the 
 whole place of contest he cast beyond ; 
 and they shouted aloud ; and the compa- 
 nions of the gallant Polypoetes, standing 
 up, carried the prize of the king to the 
 hollow. ships. 
 
 Another celebrated game of the discus, 
 which would give the painter a good op- 
 portunity of displaying the finest heroic 
 forms, splendid costume, and classic ar- 
 mour, is that which Alcinoiis, king of the 
 Phseacians, gave in honour of Ulysses, 
 who took a part himself, and showed to 
 his antagonist the superiority of the Greeks 
 in this heroic exercise. When Pindar, in 
 his first Istmian ode, celebrates the victo- 
 ries obtained in the public games by Cas- 
 tor and lolaiis, their skill in launching the 
 discus is particularly extolled. Lynceus 
 was, according to the same poet, the first 
 who obtained a prize for hurling the dis- 
 cus at the Olympic games. The Greeks 
 prescribed certain rules for the game, and 
 to acquire skill in the performance ; which 
 their physicians esteemed as conducive to 
 health and strength. 
 
 Many artists have represented discoboli, 
 and among others, according to Pliny, the 
 painter Tauriscus, and the sculptors Nau- 
 cydes and Myron. The celebrated disco- 
 bolus that was dug up in the Villa Pa- 
 lombara on the Esquiline hill at Rome, 
 which is well known in England by casts 
 and various engravings, as well as by an 
 antique copy in the Towneley gallery at 
 the British Museum, is a duplicate of that 
 which was executed in bronze by Myron, 
 and described by Lucian. Quintilian has 
 also eulogized the discobolus of Myron in 
 a well known passage. There is also an 
 antique copy of it, that was found in the 
 Villa Hadriani, in the Museum at the Va- 
 tican, to which it was presented by Pius 
 VI. Discoboli are often found sculptured 
 on antique gems, and in difi'erent attitudes 
 from that by Myron. Some are repre- 
 sented as holding the disk with both hands 
 above their heads, as in one belonging to 
 M. Akerblad, and in another belonging to 
 M. de la Tarbie, described by Millin. See 
 Bronze. 
 
 Disk, [cliscus, Lat, AiaKog, Gr.] In an- 
 tique sculpture. A broad circular piece of 
 iron or otiier metal, or erf stone, used in 
 the ancient sports. There is an ancient 
 disk of granite in the cabinet of antiques 
 of the Royal Library at Paris, described 
 by Millin, in which are holes, one for the 
 thumb and four for the fingers. 
 
 DisoMUM or BisoMUM. In ancient sculp- 
 ture. A vase or tomb made to receive the 
 
 DIV 
 
 remains of two persons. The word has 
 been found in ancient inscriptions. 
 
 DisPLuviATUM. [Lat.] In ancient archi- 
 tecture. That which carries off rain two 
 ways. According to Vitruvius a camedium 
 displuvintum was an open court exposed to 
 the rain. 
 
 Disposition, [dispositio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. Tendency to any act or slate. Also 
 arrangement of the parts of a composition. 
 Disposition signifies a certain innate apti- 
 tude or natural fitness in persons necessary 
 for success in any of tlie arts. Disposi- 
 tion also means the manner in which an 
 artist arranges the materials of his compo- 
 sition. Composition may be considered as 
 the general order or arrangement of a de- 
 sign, disposition as the particular order. 
 See Composition. 
 
 Disposition in architecture, according to 
 Vitruvius (lib. i. cap. 11), is one of the six 
 essentials that belong to that art. Dispo- 
 sition in architecture is divided into three 
 parts, ichuography, orthography, and sce- 
 nography (see those woi-ds), that is, plan, 
 elevation, and perspective view. Disposi- 
 tion differs from distribution, inasmuch as 
 it embraces every part belonging to the 
 design of a building, while distribution 
 implies the special arrangement of the in- 
 terior. See Distribution. 
 
 Disproportion, [from dis, a preposition 
 disjunctive, and jrroportio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. Unsuitableness in quantity of one 
 thing to another ; want of symmetry. See 
 Proportion. 
 
 Distance, point of. See Perspective. 
 
 Distribution. Idistribufio, Lat.] In ar- 
 chitecture and painting. The act of arrang- 
 ing the several parts of a picture or archi- 
 tectural design. The due arrangement of 
 the subordinate parts or details in archi- 
 tecture is distribution] of the general idea 
 or an-angement of the whole is disposition. 
 See Disposition. To distribution belongs 
 the arrangement of ornaments, as triglyphs, 
 modillions, metopes, panels, bassi rilievi, 
 pictures, furniture, &c. See Apartment, 
 Cabinet, Chamber, House. 
 
 DiTRTGLYPH. [froui di two, and trigh/ph.] 
 In architecture. A space comprehended 
 between two triglyphs. 
 
 Diversity, [diversitas, Lat.] In nil the 
 arts. Difference, dissimilitude. Diversity 
 is a quality in art that demands the great- 
 est attention. It is the opposite of mono- 
 tony, but if carried too far will occasion 
 the work to become scattered or dispersed 
 and confused, instead of agreeable and di- 
 versified. See Confused. The Mass of 
 Julius, the Altila, and the school of Athens, 
 
DOG 
 
 by Raffaelle, are fine examples of picto- 
 rial diversity; the Laoco'nn of sculptural ; 
 and the Colosseum and Jones's Whitehall 
 of architectural; in none of ■n'liich does 
 diversity occasion confusion. 
 
 DiviDicuLA. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. A basin or head of a conduit in the 
 Roman aqua:ducts, which collected the 
 water from its source and divided it into 
 the various districts. They were in ge- 
 neral handsome and decorative build- 
 inrrs, under the direction of the curator 
 aijuurium, and by some writers are called 
 custella. See Aql.educt, Clratok. 
 
 Dog. \iloi>:ghe, Dutch.] In the history of 
 the arts. A domestic animal remarkably 
 various in its species. In the heroic ages 
 when the chase was the occupation of mo- 
 narchs and princesses, this faithful animal, 
 so necessary in that pursuit, was a fa- 
 vourite and cherished animal. As such 
 he often became the subject of the artist's 
 work and the poet's song. In ancient 
 Rome the most esteemed of all their sta- 
 tues was that of a dog, executed in bronze 
 with such miraculous perfection as to call 
 forth the approbation of Pliny, who reck- 
 oned it tiie llnest piece of cast sculpture in 
 Rome, while the Laocoiin of the palace of 
 Titus was its equal in carved work. He 
 thus expresses himself (lib. xxxiv. cap. 7), 
 " Canis eximium miraculum, et indiscreta 
 veri similitudo, non eo solilm intelligitur, 
 quod ibi dicata fuerat, verum et nova satis- 
 tlatione : nam summa nulla par videbatur. 
 (]apite tutelarios cavere pro eo, instituti 
 public! fuit." It was guarded with a sort 
 of religious caution, for they reckoned no 
 one rich enougii to answer for its value. 
 'I'he custodes of tlie temple, wiio had it in 
 «iiargc, answered for its safety at the peril 
 of their lives. 
 
 Hcnner speaks of the fidelity of the old 
 dog Argus, who alone of all the family 
 knew his master Ulysses at his return after 
 twenty years absence, and died witii exces- 
 sive joy at his sight. This event is record- 
 ed by ancient artists on some bassi rilievi, 
 wiiich represent Ulysses iin|)()sing silence 
 upon Eurymarhus, and on medals of Ithaca 
 and of the ftlenunian I'amily. Statues and 
 bassi rilievi of Diana, particularly the 
 Diana trivia, En(lyinioii,lMeK'agar, /Vdoiijs, 
 I'aris, Actu'on, are mostly acconii)anictl by 
 dogs. On an antique basso rilicvo in the Va- 
 lican Acticon is rei)res(!nted as being eaten 
 by his dogs. In the stanza degl' aniiiiali 
 at Koine are also anti(|U(; sculptuics of this 
 animal; and IJoissard has published two 
 of excpiisite workmanship that were found 
 ju llie Ciipilol. Jle has also iMiliIi.shcd 
 
 DOO 
 
 the representation of a fine antique mastiff 
 dog, restored by Cavaceppi, that is thought 
 to be the work of Phidias. This fine relic 
 of ancient art is in England, and known 
 by the name of the dog of Alcibiades ; it 
 is estimated at a very high price. The 
 British Museum has also in the Towneley 
 gallery two antique greyhounds in marble, 
 of great beauty and truth. The superb 
 gallery at Florence has also two fine an- 
 tique statues of dogs, and Prince Chigi 
 possesses one that w as discovered at Lau- 
 rentuni. The Egyptians united the head 
 of a dog to the body of a man in their sta- 
 tues of Osiris, and to the bodies of apes in 
 their Cynocephali. 
 
 Dome. [Fr. from duumo, Ital.] In archi- 
 tecture. A kind of vaulted roof or cover- 
 ing employed in architecture, in the shape 
 of some portion of a sphere, ellipsoid. Sec, 
 and frequently constructed of masonry. 
 Domes, or more properly cupolas, difler in 
 some respects from common arches, which 
 are cylindric concavities, resting on pa- 
 rallel walls, and having therefore a curva- 
 ture only in one direction ; whereas domes, 
 as also groins, have a double curvature, 
 and derive a degree of stability from the 
 circumstance, which is peculiarly deserv- 
 ing the attention of the architect. 
 
 The Italians derive their word duomo, 
 whence the French and English architects 
 have borrowed their dome, from the Latin 
 domus, a house; and by eminence call the 
 principal church in a place il duomo, the 
 dome or house, applying it generally whe- 
 ther there be a cupola or not, as il duomo 
 di 3Jiluno, to the gothic cathedral of Mi- 
 lan ; il duomo di San Pctronio at liologna. 
 and so on, in the same manner. Cupola 
 is a large cup, cupoletta a small cupola, 
 therefore cupola is the more corrt-ct word^ 
 and carries its full meaning better than 
 dome, and is so used and applied by the 
 best architects and critics. See Ci i'oi.a, 
 Ghoin. 
 
 Domestic ARCHiTEnriRE. [from domes' 
 ticus, Lat.] In architecture. The art of de- 
 signing auil executing buildings for do- 
 mestic or private use ; as cottages, farm- 
 houses, villas, <lwellings, nuuisions, &c. 
 See AuLiiiTKCTini:, Coitaoe, Vii.i.a, J*>;c. 
 
 Dixuf. [>oli, Saxon.] /// archilcclurc. 
 'i'he gate of a house; that which opens to 
 yield entrance. The doors of the ancients 
 were coiiunoidy raised abo\(' the level of 
 the gnuind, and wcri- made of wood, brass, 
 or iron ; and, to their temples, of ivory 
 and gold. The jambs of the lionian doors 
 were called anlcjiagmeul.e, the folding- 
 doors \alva-, single doors ostii, fores, 
 
DOR 
 
 janua3, portae; small doors ostiolii; a back 
 door posticum, pseudothyrum ; the doors 
 opened inwards, unless otherwise per- 
 mitted by an especial law, as to Publius 
 Valerius Poplicola, and his brother who 
 had twice conquered the Sabiues. The 
 doors of the Greeks opened outwards to 
 the street, and wlien any one went out, he 
 knocked on the inside, to give warning to 
 those witliout to take care ; the doors did 
 not move on hinges as with tlie moderns, 
 but on pivots, in the upper and lower parts 
 of the doors, which was narrower at top 
 than at bottom. 
 
 The arrangement and placing doors are 
 of great consequence in a design; and 
 their proportions and decorations give cha- 
 racter. The size of the door must be re- 
 gulated by its use, and its ornaments 
 suited to the character of the design to 
 which it is applied. A good proportion 
 is two squares, or twice its width in height. 
 See Gate, Portal, 
 
 Dorian, [from duria.^ In sculpture and 
 architecture. After the manner and style 
 of the people of Doria. 
 
 Doric, [from doria.'] In architecture. 
 One of the three original orders of Greek 
 architecture ; and of the five of the Roman 
 system. The late Mr. Edmund Aikin says 
 of this beautiful and truly original order, 
 that, ** In considering the buildings of an- 
 tiquity, and particularly of Greece, the 
 first circumstance that strikes us is their 
 extreme simplicity and even uniformity. 
 The temples of Greece were invariably 
 quadrilateral buildings, difi'ering only in 
 size, and in the disposition of the porti- 
 coes ; which either ornamented the front 
 alone, or sorrounded every side with their 
 beautiful and shady avenue. 
 
 " The system of Grecian architecture is 
 founded on the simple principles of wooden 
 construction ; a quadrangular area is en- 
 closed with trunks of trees, placed per- 
 pendicularly, with regular intervals ; these 
 support lintels, upon which rest the beams 
 of the cieling, and an enclosed roof covers 
 the whole. Such was the model when 
 touched by the hand of taste, the post and 
 lintel were transmuted into the column 
 and entablature, and the wooden hut into 
 the temple. 
 
 " It appears probable that the earliest 
 Greek temples were really of wood, since 
 so many of them were consumed during 
 the invasion of Xerxes ; and that large 
 and magnificent edifices Avere sometimes 
 icomposed principally of this material, is 
 rendered evident by the example of the 
 temple of Jerusalem, which was surround- 
 ed by columns of cedar. But builders 
 
 DOR 
 
 soon adopted the more noble and durable 
 material of stone ; and though the general 
 system of architecture was already esta- 
 blished, its forms received some modifica- 
 tions, by being thus, as it were, translated 
 into a new language. 
 
 " A wooden lintel, from its fibrous tex- 
 ture, possessing considerable tenacity and 
 strengtii in proportion to its weight, it was 
 practicable to form very wide interco- 
 lumniations ; thus, we are told by Vitru- 
 vius, that the ancient Tuscan temples 
 were constructed with wooden architraves. 
 Stone, on the other hand, of a granular 
 composition, and of great specific gravity, 
 would break by its own weight, in a bear- 
 ing where a timber beam would be per- 
 fectly secure. When, therefore, porticoes 
 were erected of stone, it was necessary, in 
 order to secure solidity, to contract the 
 distance between the columns to very nar- 
 row limits. A wooden edifice, never se- 
 cure from the injuries of accident or 
 violence, presented no motive for any 
 great solidity in its construction. But in 
 stone it is possible, as the energetic indus- 
 try of the ancient Egyptians has demon- 
 stiated, to defy the injuries of time, and 
 almost the violence of rapine. The archi- 
 tect who builds in stone may build for 
 eternity, and this idea will give a motive 
 for that grand and massy solidity so essen- 
 tial to the sublime of architecture. These 
 circumstances led to the perfection of the 
 Grecian style ; the original model secured 
 simplicity of form and construction, while 
 a superior material preserved it from the 
 meagreness attendant on wooden build- 
 ing. 
 
 " Thus arose the Doric, or as it might 
 be emphatically called, the Grecian order, 
 the first born of architecture, a composition 
 which bears the authentic and charac- 
 teristic marks of its legitimate origin in 
 wooden construction, transferred to stone. 
 
 " In contemplating a capital example of 
 this order, as for instance, the Parthenon 
 at Athens, how is our admiration excited 
 at this noblest, as well as earliest, inven- 
 tion of tlie building art ! What robust 
 solidity in the column ! what massy gran- 
 deur in the entablature ! what harmony 
 in its simplicity, not destitute of ornament, 
 but possessing that ornament alone with 
 which taste dignifies and refines the con- 
 ception of vigorous genius; no foliage 
 adds a vain and meretricious decoration, 
 but the frieze bears tiie achievement of 
 heroes; while every part, consistent in 
 itself, and bearing a just relation to every 
 other member, contributes to that harmo- 
 nious eflect which maintains the pow cr of 
 
DRA 
 
 first impressions, and excites increasing 
 admiration in the intellif^eut observer. So 
 in the immortal statue of Glycon, the form 
 of heroic vigour is crowned with beauty, 
 dignity, and grace. Other orders iia\e 
 elegance, have magnificence, but sublimity 
 is the characteristic of the Doric alone." 
 See Architecture, Capital, Column, 
 Order. 
 
 Dormitory, [dormitorinm, Lat.] In ar- 
 chitecture. A large apartment to sleep in, 
 distinguished from a bedchamber as con- 
 taining many beds ; such as belong to 
 * large boarding schools, barracks, hospi- 
 tals, convents, monasteries, 6ic. The dor- 
 mitory at Westminster School, by Inigo 
 Jones, is a good example of such an apart- 
 ment, which should be lofty, wide, airj^, 
 and of an eastern or south-eastern aspect, 
 that it may receive the morning sun, and 
 have air by its windows as long in the fore- 
 noon as possible, without being too much 
 exposed to the western rains. 
 
 Doryphorus. [Lat. Aooy^opoe, Gr.] In 
 ancient sculpture. Statues bearing spears 
 or lances, representing the body guards 
 that attended on ancient kings and princes. 
 
 DovEHOUSE. In architecture. A small 
 building in which doves or pigeons are 
 kept and bred. Dovehouses, or dovecots, 
 as they are sometimes called, may be made 
 subservient to decoration by taste, as they 
 are useful in a country residence. See 
 Aviary. 
 
 Dragon, [draco, Lat.] In the mythology 
 of the arts. A fabulous animal or reptile, 
 supposed to be a species of winged ser- 
 pent, that Avas held in divine estimation by 
 some of tlie earliest nations of antiquity, 
 and used by tiie Romans, according to 
 Ammianus Marcellinus (10), for the ensign 
 of a company, as the eagle was of a regi- 
 ment. The belief in tiiis fabulous reptile 
 was very general among the ancients, and 
 their representations or descriptions are 
 abundantly alarming. Pliny and Philos- 
 torgius relate that the dragons of Ethiopia 
 were twenty ells in lengtli. yLlian says 
 they were thirty pac(!S in lengtli, and 
 mentions a dragon tiiat had been seen in 
 tiie Indies, seventy ells in length, and 
 with eyes as large as a Macedonian buck- 
 ler. It WHS in the time of Ali-xandtr the 
 Great, and receivcfl di\in(! lioiiours; re- 
 siding in a cavern from which it only put 
 forth its head. He also sjicaks of two 
 otliiM' inunense dragons, one of which mea- 
 sured forty-six ells in length, and the 
 other eighty-eight ; and of two smaller 
 ones, tliirteen and fourteen ells long r»'- 
 8p<Hlively, which he says were brought 
 alive to Alexaudiia, in the reign of I'to- 
 
 DRA 
 
 lemy Philadelphus. Under Ptolemy Ever- 
 getes, they had three smaller ones of nine 
 and seven ells in length, the smaller of 
 wiiich, says ^lian, was kept with great 
 care in the temple of Esculapius. Diodo- 
 rus Siculus speaks of a dragon of thirty 
 ells in length, that was taken during the 
 reign of the same king, and Pliny, Philos- 
 tratus, and other ancient authors, record 
 similar instances. TElian gives a crest and 
 beard to the male dragon ; and others de- 
 scribe it as having a large mouth and 
 throat, teeth like a wild boar, and a long 
 body covered with scales. Pliny relates 
 that the dragons of Ethiopia traversed 
 the seas in shoals of four and live each, 
 holding their heads above the surface of 
 the waves. 
 
 These dreadful animals, as they were 
 believed to be, were objects of worship 
 from fear with many people. In Epirus 
 they kept sacred dragons, who were at- 
 tended by a virgin, and they judged from 
 his complacency or antipathy, by his taking 
 his food freely or rejecting it, whether they 
 should have a fruitful or a sterile season. 
 Julian relates abundant anecdotes of the 
 credulity of the people of those ages con- 
 cerning dragons, flying serpents, and such 
 like fabulous monsters. 
 
 Representations of dragons are often 
 found on ancient monuments. They are 
 among the attributes of Esculapius and of 
 Hygeia ; are attached to the cars of Ceres 
 and of Media; were the guardians of the 
 Hesperian apples. In the fabulous histo- 
 ries of the chivalresque ages, the dragon 
 is also mentioned, particularly one that 
 was said to have been combalted by the 
 patron saint of England, Saint George. 
 They are also part of the heraldic embla- 
 zonments of the city of Londtm, and a 
 majestic one of bronze gilt surmounts the 
 beautiful spire of Bow Church in ('heap- 
 side. T!u^ dragon of C!hina, which also 
 enters into the mythology of that strange 
 people, dilVers from tluit of antiquity by 
 having legs with feet armed with claws 
 like those of birds. 
 
 The Rimmns, in the time of Vegetius, 
 who wrote on their military allairs, car- 
 ried the dragon as an ensign to every 
 coliort, l)y an ollicer called dracoiiarius. 
 On Trajan's column it apjiears as a Da- 
 cian ensign, which is confirmed by various 
 \)assages in Lucian. The dragon or ser- 
 pent represented on a shield, >\ hich was 
 found on a coluiiui upon the tomb of I''pa- 
 minondas, indicated that he was descend- 
 (>d from the Spartans, that is from those 
 who sprang up from the dragons' Iceth that 
 were sown by Cadmus, But, the diagoa 
 
npon the shield of IMenelaus, in a picture 
 by Polygnotus at Delphos, designated the 
 serpent, which during the sacritice at 
 Aulis, came out from under the altar. See 
 
 AlTRIBUTliS. 
 
 Drapery, [draperie, Fr.] In painting 
 und sculpture. The dress of a figure in a 
 picture or a statue. Drapery means the 
 various sorts of habits or dresses, worn by 
 the different nations and classes of people 
 of every age and place. In hot climates 
 the drapery is not so full and ample as in 
 those of milder or of colder natures ; and 
 the inhabitants are more or less clothed as 
 necessity commands. A knowledge of 
 drapery and of all its characters is abso- 
 lutely essential to an artist, and comes 
 with more propriety, perhaps, under the 
 word costume. See Costume. 
 
 The Greeks often represented their dei- 
 ties and heroes naked, the Romans rarely 
 so. Naked, or nearly naked figures, are 
 often found in the early sculptures of the 
 Egyptians. Yet with all this partiality 
 for representing the naked figure, in which 
 the Greeks so much indulged and suc- 
 ceeded, they have equally surpassed all 
 other people in the representation of dra- 
 pery and costume. The most ample dra- 
 peries that they gave to their male figures 
 were those of Jupiter, who was sometimes 
 repi'esented, as in the celebrated statue at 
 Olympia by Phidias, naked to his waist, 
 but clothed from the girdle downward, 
 signifying that his upper part being unco- 
 vered, he was known to the heavenly 
 beings ; but the lower part being covered, 
 indicated how he concealed himself in his 
 works from the view of man : — of Serapis, 
 of Esculapius, of Silenus, and to the sta- 
 tues of philosophers. In the drapery of 
 females they particularly excelled, giving 
 them flowing full robes, arranged in grace- 
 ful folds, and embellished with tasteful 
 borders. 
 
 The Romans, though inferior to the 
 Greeks in taste and style of draperies, 
 have nevertheless carried the art of drape- 
 ry, or of clothing their figures, to gi-eat 
 perfection ; and rarely, if ever, represent- 
 ed tlie naked figure. " Grajca res est," 
 says Pliny (lib. xxxiv. cap. 5.), " nihil 
 velare. At contra Romana ac militaris, 
 Thoracas addere." Among their finest 
 draped figures are the Jupiter of the Pa- 
 lazzo Verospi, tlie Posidippus and the 
 Menander formerly in the Musee des Arts 
 at Paris. The Farnesian Flora and the 
 Ariadne so often mentioned in this Dic- 
 tionary. See Ariadne. The ancient Greek 
 paintings on their fictile vases, as witness- 
 ed iu the splendid collections of Mr. T. 
 
 DRAPERY. 
 
 Hope and the British Museum, also afford 
 fine examples of drapery. 
 
 So completely was the naked statue 
 reckoned of Greek workmanship, that the 
 Romans called all unclothed statues by 
 the general name of statute Achillcr, on ac- 
 count of the number of statues of Achilles 
 which they had of that Grecian hero, arm- 
 ed only with his pelias or Greek javelin. 
 It is of the Greeks and their knowledge of 
 nature and art that Virgil speaks in his 
 verses, 
 
 " Excudent alii spirantia melius sera, 
 Credo equidem, vivos ducent de marmore viiltns." 
 
 Mfi. vi. 
 
 The Romans named the draped statues 
 of their military leaders after the names 
 of their costvime, as Paludalas when attired 
 in the paludamentum of the general ; Tko- 
 racatas when defended with the thoraca or 
 breastplate (see Cuirass) ; and Loricatas 
 when completely armed with the lorica or 
 coat of mail, or in complete armour. These 
 were the leading classes of the military 
 statues of the Romans, as deduced from 
 the authority of Pliny and other efficient 
 writers, and under which archaiologists of 
 the present day should arrange them ac- 
 cording to the order of their vestments or 
 drapery. 
 
 The Roman statues belonging to civil life 
 were named also from the order of vest- 
 ments with which they were draperied, as 
 Togatas, Tunicatas, or Panulatas, according 
 as they are clothed in the toga, tunica, or 
 pasnula. They had other statues of a supe- 
 rior class, representing their emperors, or 
 of the imperial families, which clad in the 
 paludamentum or chlamys (see Chlamys), 
 a long robe over their complete imperial 
 armour, were, according to Isidorus, as 
 quoted by Pliny, only appropriated to the 
 imperator. Such is the statue of Augus- 
 tus in the capitol, which was published 
 by Laurentius Vaccarius in 15S4. The 
 statute Loricatw were Pedesti-ian, and of the 
 class that Julius Caesar consented to be 
 represented in bronze, according to Pliny 
 (lib. xxxiv. cap. 5.), " Cassar quidem Dic- 
 tator loricatam sibi dicari in Foro suo 
 passus est." 
 
 The other classes of statues among tlie 
 Romans were Pcdestres, Equcstres, and 
 Curules, which will all be treated of in 
 their proper places. See Costume, Sculp- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 Draperies iu painting are of equal im- 
 portance as in sculpture, and, in addition 
 to their arrangement, distribution, and cha- 
 racter, require additional study arising 
 from the diff'erent nature of the two arts. 
 The painter has to add to the foregoing, 
 
DRA 
 
 colour and material, which he must assort 
 accordiiij; to the age, character, sex, rank, 
 and even complexion of the figure which 
 lie has to (;Iothe ; and if in liistorical 
 paiEting, to suit the style of the colouring, 
 character, and arrangement of his pic- 
 tare. There are even certain artists who 
 have studied drapery alone with sucli 
 effect, as to have neglected the more im- 
 portant parts of the art, as drawing, cha- 
 racter, expression, and composition, and 
 have fallen under Reynolds's just censure 
 of being mere drapery painters ; making 
 the word drapery almost synonymous with 
 trifling. That great English master says, 
 in his fourth discourse, " there must be 
 light and shadow ; the figures must be 
 clothed, (here must be a background ; but 
 none of Uiesc ouglit to appear to have 
 taken up any part of the artist's attention." 
 To know tliese is only the learning which 
 is required of the artist, to show tiicni 
 ostentatiously is pedantry. " An inferior 
 artist," says Sir Joshua, " is unwilling 
 tiiat any part of his industry should be lost 
 «ipon the spectator." Again he says, "In 
 the same manner as the historical painter 
 Mever enters into the detail of colours, so 
 neither does he debase his conceptions 
 witli minute attention to the discrimina- 
 tions of drapery. It is the inferior style 
 that marks the variety of studs. With jiim 
 the clolliing is neither woollen, nor linen, 
 nor silk, satin, or velvet; it is drapery ; it 
 is nothing more. The art of disposing the 
 foldings of drapery makes a very consider- 
 able i)art of the, painter's study; to make 
 it merely natural is a mechanical opera- 
 tion, to which neither genius nor taste are 
 jefpiired ; whereas it requires the nicest 
 ju(lgment to disj)Ose the drapery so that 
 the folds shall have an easy connuunica- 
 tion, and gracefully follow each other with 
 such natural negligence, as to look like 
 lli(! ellect of chance, and at the sanu; time 
 .show the figure under it to tin! utmost ad- 
 vantage." 
 
 Carlo Maratti was of opinion, that the 
 disposition of tlrapery was a more dilliciilt 
 art than even that of drawing the human 
 figure; (hat a student might be more 
 easily taught tlu; latter than the former; 
 as the rules of drapery, he said, could not 
 be so well ascertained as those; for de- 
 lineating a correct foini. 
 
 The mc^chanical nuans of studying dra- 
 pery are by observing the most elegant 
 and tastefully dressing p<'rsons, and by 
 ciothing a mannekin or lay figure in the 
 drapery recpiired. See Cosri Mi", L\v l"i- 
 oviiF., Dkcouation. 
 
 l)i{Ai'UHT<jiMAN. Iniill llii ,(ils. One who 
 
 DRA 
 
 forms representations of objects by draw- 
 ing or draughts. Distinguished from an 
 artist as being rather a copier, than pos- 
 sessing original talents. Thus the draughts- 
 men to engravers. Architectural draughts- 
 men, who draw the designs of others, but 
 do not possess the inventive talent of the 
 architect, the deep knowledge of the sci- 
 ence of architecture, nor the businesslike 
 part of conducting the operations of build- 
 ing. See Akcmitect, Bliluer. 
 
 Drawing, [from draw to delineate or 
 represent by picture, from the Saxou 
 "tpajan.] In all the arts. The art of repre- 
 sentation by picture ; principally by chalk 
 and pencil. The art of drawing or de- 
 lineating the boundaries, outlines, termi- 
 nations, and forms of figures, is of the 
 greatest imjjortance to every artist. It is 
 the groundwork of parinting and sculp- 
 ture, and is almost architecture itself. 
 Drawing, so called by way of excellence 
 in painting, embraces all the first qualities 
 of tiie art, demands a good eye, a fine 
 taste, and a well practised hand. It re- 
 quires a knowledge of i)ictorial geemietry, 
 perspective, anatomy, proportion, both ex- 
 act and relative, and practice. This power, 
 which must be acquired during the artist's 
 period of discipline or studency in the 
 studio of his preceptor, and in the schools, 
 will give him those rules and strength in 
 his art that Sir Joshua lieytiolds (^l)isc. 1.) 
 calls an " armour, which upon the strong 
 is an ornament and a defence, and upon 
 the weak and misshapen a load." It will 
 give him (ibid.) " a facility in composing, 
 a lively, and what is called a nmsterly 
 handling of (he chalk or pencil," that are 
 much (o be desired if not actpiired at too 
 great an expensi> of other essential quali- 
 ties and other studies. 
 
 The great masters were incessant in 
 their study of drawing, and did not throw 
 away the portcraytm on taking u|) the 
 brush. " When they concei\ed a subject," 
 says one (Keynolds), who had studied 
 their wcuks (leei>ly, although he did not 
 draw scliolastically hiinsi'lf, " they first 
 made a variety of sketches ; then a finisli- 
 ed drawing of the whole; after that, a 
 more correct drawing of e\ery separate 
 part, heads, hands, feet, and pieces of dra- 
 l)ery ; they then ])ainlod the jiiclure, an<l, 
 after all, relouclied it tVom the life. 'rii(> 
 l)ictures thus wrought \\ilh such pains, 
 now appear like the cllecl of encliantment, 
 and as if koiiu* mighty g(<niiis had struck 
 tliem oil' at a blow." These are tine and 
 lUiiiticable «loctrines, and should be fol- 
 lowed and obeyed when (he lessons of tlie 
 schools relax, for practice u]>on the easel. 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 Drawing is one of the principal instru- 
 ments of painting, and must be studied 
 previously to and in conjunction, with com- 
 position, chiaroscuro, colouring, and exe- 
 cution. (See these words.) It is no less 
 so in architecture, and must be studied geo- 
 metrically and perspectively, and brought 
 to the aid of composition, arrangement, 
 distribution, order, design. In sculpture 
 its great necessity is superseded by that 
 of modelling, except in sketching designs. 
 Concerning the comparative merits of the 
 French and English school of art in the 
 article of drawing, Mr. Shee has some 
 pertinent remarks in a note to his poem 
 called Elements of Art. " The French 
 painter," says Mr. Shee, " remains longer 
 in the academy, and consequently becomes 
 more skilled in those parts of his art which 
 are to be acquired there. He has more 
 respect for the merits of design" (that is 
 drawing), " and therefore studies them 
 with more attention. He finds but little 
 opportunity or temptation to turn his ta- 
 lents to portrait painting, and from his ha- 
 bits and situation has less occasion to re- 
 sort to it as a means of subsistence. All 
 his prospects, therefore, are essentially 
 dependent on his elementary knowledge, 
 and demand a continued course of acade- 
 mical application. His pencil is commonly 
 employed in works of imagination ; on 
 subjects of poetry and history; in which 
 deformity cannot be sanctioned by fashion, 
 nor incorrectness excused by caprice : in 
 which the tailor cannot officiate in aid of 
 the anatomist ; nor imbecility take shelter 
 from the critic, under cover of a coat and 
 waistcoat. He must, in short, draw the 
 figure well, or he can do nothing. 
 
 " In the French school, therefore, the 
 portcrayon supersedes the pencil ; they 
 become designers rather than painters. 
 In the English school the pencil triumplis, 
 and the process is reversed. They are 
 more theoretical — we are more practical ; 
 they show more science in the foundation 
 ■ — we more skill in the superstructure ; the 
 vigour of our execution suffers in the fee- 
 bleness of our design" (drawing) ; " they 
 have more art — we have more nature ; 
 they look to the Roman school — we follow 
 the Venetian ; and, it must be confessed, 
 that their aim is the higher, though it may 
 be admitted that ours is the most success- 
 ful." 
 
 This censure against the carelessness of 
 drawing by the English artists, which has 
 been written above fifteen years, is less 
 necessary now than it was at the time it 
 was penned. The gallery of antiques at 
 the British Museum, the greater skill re- 
 
 quired from the probationers and students 
 of the Royal Academy, and the severe and 
 learned style practised by Mr. Haydon 
 and the pupils of his school has occasioned 
 great improvement in our drawing; while 
 the schools of colour, at the British Insti- 
 tution and at the Royal Academy, with 
 the example left by Reynolds and liis 
 school, leaves little to fear of our practice 
 being superseded by mere theory. 
 
 Drawing and colouring must be unitefl 
 to form a good painter, and all the other 
 requisites of the art to make a great one. 
 Between the opposite extremes of the 
 French and English schools may be found 
 a safe medium of study. Mr. Shee recom- 
 mends, in his Elements of Art (canto I, 
 note to verse 211), a middle course " as 
 most likely to embrace the benefits of each 
 practice, without incurring the disadvan- 
 tages of either. The student who long 
 employs himself exclusively in drawing, 
 while he attains to correctness and preci- 
 sion, runs the risk of becoming hard and 
 dry ; accustomed to express objects by 
 lines, the practice adheres to him after ho 
 has taken up the palette. He clings to 
 his outline with afliectionate solicitude, 
 and as it is the part which he executes 
 with most facility and skill, he is rarely 
 induced to sacrifice it to tiiose minor me- 
 rits, in his estimation, richness of colour- 
 ing and rotundity of effect. On the other 
 hand, the student who prosecutes his stu- 
 dies with the oil pencil only is exposed to 
 run into opposite and less pardonable 
 errors. If he is mellow in his colouring, 
 rich in his surface, and forcible in his ef- 
 fects, he becomes feeble in his composi- 
 tion, incorrect in his forms, and slovenly 
 in his execution. If he be not hard and 
 dry, he is probably vague and undefined ; 
 he loses all power of precision and detail 
 generalizes objects in shapeless masses, 
 and is obliged to resort to a variety of 
 awkward expedients to conceal the imbe- 
 cility of his design in the artifice of his 
 execution. 
 
 " A plan of study, in which the painter 
 and draughtsman cooperate, in which the 
 pencil and the portcrayon may act as mu- 
 tual correctives, ofiers, perhaps, the best 
 security for a style, which shall unite the 
 beauties of colouring to the merits of de- 
 sign ; and sustain the illusions of vigorous 
 effect by scientific precision and judicious 
 detail." 
 
 Of the leading elements of painting 
 Raffaelle has excelled in drawing, Titian 
 in colouring, Rembrandt in chiaroscuro, 
 Michel Angiolo in composition, expres- 
 sion, grandeur, and Tintoretto for execu- 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 tion. Their works are therefore indispen- have in themselves notl)ing out of nature, 
 
 sable in a school or academy of art. See nor inconsistent with its functions. It 
 
 Academy, School. does not differ from individual nature by 
 
 The human figure, as it is the most difTi- opposition so much as by selection. The 
 cult, so should it be the first object of tiie wonderful sculjitures from the Parthenon 
 student in drawing. To accomplish this in the British Museum, called the Elgin 
 he must first begin with making himself Marbles, possess this charm of pure and 
 used to fhe management of liis portcrayon perfect elevated nature in the highest de- 
 and chalk to produce the effect of light gree: and the Apollo Belvedere is one 
 and shade that he sees before him. When somewhat lower through an afl'ectation of 
 these first rudiments of drawing are ac- ideal beauty beyond and out of nature, 
 quired, and the student can draw with This last style, which I prefer calling 
 suflicient correctness, he must then apply the historical, heroical, or beautiful style 
 himself to the sfTudy of the figure after the to the doubtful phraseology of ideal, corn- 
 antique and nature, in a philosophical prehends beauty of form, propriety of at- 
 manner. titude, elegance of outline, choice and pro- 
 
 The different styles of drawing or design prietj' of expression, play and arrange- 
 
 may be arranged under the heads of imli- ment of drapery, in short, eveiT thing that 
 
 vidual vnture, or those common and fami- can elevate individual and select nature 
 
 liar forms, with all the imperfections and to the most sublime conceptions of tlie 
 
 peculiarities of the individual model ; imagination and intellectual dignity. " It 
 
 which, however necessary in tiie study, is not easy," says Reynolds in his third 
 
 must not be introduced in the picture, like discourse," todefine in wliattliis great st}'le 
 
 the finely coloured picture of Adam and consists ; nor to describe, by words, the 
 
 Eve by Guido, formerly in the Napoleon proper means of acquiring it, if the mind 
 
 Museum, where the markings of the gar- of the student should be at all capable of 
 
 ters and other artificial ligaments which such an acquisition. Could we teach taste 
 
 the model wore, were painted in the pic- andgeniusbyrules,they wouldbenolonger 
 
 lure of the first pair of human beings, who taste and genius. But though there neither 
 
 were never clotlied, were naked, and were are nor can be any precise invariable rules 
 
 not ashamed. Indi\idual nature is the for the exercise or the acquisition of these 
 
 department of art wiiich the Dutch mas- great qualities, yet we may truly say, that 
 
 ters, our great artists Hogarth and Wilkie, they always operate in proportion to our 
 
 and some of our best portrait i)ainters have attentioTi in observing tiic works of nature, 
 
 adopted and excelled in. Tiie humour, to our skill in selecting, and to our care in 
 
 character, and expression of the two Eng- digesting, methodizing, and comparing our 
 
 lisi» masters abovenamed liave raised them, observations. Tl»ere are many beauties 
 
 however, above the dull copyings of some in our art that seem at first to bv» without 
 
 of the Dutch school. Tlie next division the reach of precept, and yet may easily 
 
 of style in drawing is that of select nature, be reduced to practical principles. Expe- 
 
 wliere the artist has made a selection from 
 the mass of individuals by whicli he is 
 surrounded for a specific purpose. In this 
 class tiie artist selects his models accord- 
 ing to the view or design which lie con- 
 
 rience is all in all ; but it is not every one 
 wiio profits ))y experience : and most peo- 
 ple err, not so mucii from want of capacity 
 to find their object as from not knowing 
 wliiit t)])jecl to jiursue. Tliis great ideal 
 
 templates, which not only makes his works perfection and beauty is not to lie sought 
 
 more appropriate, but prevents monotony in the heavens, but upon the earth: they 
 
 in iiis pictures. Raffaelle, it is well known, are aliout us, antl upon every side of us. 
 
 sketched all liis figures in one work from But the power of discovering ^^hal is de- 
 
 the same individual model, but never in formed in nature, or, in other words, what 
 
 his finished pictures, wliich are as full of is particular and unc(mimon can be ac- 
 
 variety as the works of nature herself. 
 
 The third great division is the firainl 
 style, the firan'-i^^usto oi the Italians, fhe 
 beau ideal of the French, the ideal beauty 
 of )iatur(! in which the fi recks are so much 
 our masters. Not that ideal beauty that 
 
 (piired only by ex)>erience ; and the whole 
 beauty and grandeur of the art consists, in 
 my opini(ui, in being able to get above all 
 singular forms, local custtmis, particulari- 
 ties, aud detiiils ofiMcrx kind. 
 
 All the objects which are exiiibited to 
 
 would improve upon nature, but that ele- our view by nature, upon close examina- 
 
 vation of senliineiil, that selection of natu- lion will be found to have their blemishes 
 
 ral beauties a\ hich, though they do iint and defects. The most beautit"ul forms 
 
 often fall to the lot of an individual, may have something about them like weakness, 
 
 be supposed to be sometimes collected, and niiiiulencss, or iniperfecliou. But it is not 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 every eye that perceives these blemishes : 
 it must be an eye long used to tlie contem- 
 plation and comparison of these forms ; 
 and which, by a long habit of observing 
 what any set of objects of the same kind 
 have in common, lias acquired the power 
 of discerning what each wants in particu- 
 lar. This long laborious comparison should 
 be the first study of the paiitfer irho aims at 
 the greatest style. By this means he ac- 
 quires a just idea of beautiful forms ; he 
 corrects nature by herself, her imperfect 
 state by her more perfect. His eye being 
 enabled to distinguish the accidental defi- 
 ciencies, excrescences, and deformities of 
 things, from their general figures, he makes 
 out an abstract idea of their forms more 
 perfect than any one original ; and, what 
 may seem a paradox, he learns to design 
 naturally by drawing his figures unlike to 
 any one object. This idea of the pei'fect 
 state of nature, which the artist calls the 
 ideal beaut\', is the great leading principle 
 by which v.'orks of genius are conducted. 
 By this Phidias acquired his fame : he 
 wrought upon a sober principle what has 
 so much excited the enthusiasm of the 
 world ; and by this method you" (students 
 of art), " who have courage to tread the 
 same path, mav acquire equal reputa- 
 tion." 
 
 The stj'le of drawing or design, there- 
 fore, that the artist should study, ought to 
 be founded on nature ; individual nature 
 in the commencement of his studies, select 
 as he proceeds, and idealized according to 
 the principles of Reynolds and the prac- 
 tice of Phidias, that is, of the beauty of 
 the perfect state of nature when he at- 
 tempts originality. The old antique, the 
 admiration of the French and Italian 
 schools, was too much idealized, that is, it 
 was out of nature; Phidias and the Greeks 
 are only just inferior to nature herself in 
 the grand works of their period, whicli have 
 reached our times. " He," says Proclus 
 (lib. 2. in Timaeum Platonis, as cited by 
 Junius de Pictwa Veteriim), " who takes 
 for his model such forms as nature pro- 
 duces, and confines himself to an exact 
 imitation of them, will never attain to what 
 is perfectly beautiful : for the works of 
 nature are full of disproportion, and fall 
 very short of the ti-ue standard of beauty. 
 So that Phidias, when he formed his Ju- 
 piter, did not copy any object ever pre- 
 sented to his sight; but contemplated only 
 that image which he had conceived in his 
 mind from Homer's description." And 
 thus Cicero, speaking also of Phidias and 
 of his practice : " Neither did this artist, 
 when he carved the image of Jupiter or 
 
 Minerva, set before him any one Iiumati 
 figure as a pattern which he was to copy ; 
 but having a more perfect idea of beauty 
 fixed in his mind, this is steadily contem- 
 plated ; and to the imitation of this all his 
 skill and labour were directed." 
 
 It is therefore clear that other qualities 
 of the mind are required from the artist, 
 than a mere ability of hand or correctness 
 of eye in copying, selecting, or composing 
 from nature. As much as the actor falls 
 short in the personification of Shakspeare's 
 ideally natural conceptions, so much must 
 the artist conceive in restoring it, and in 
 making the picture equal the poetry. Mac- 
 beth or Hamlet must not be a portrait of 
 GaiTick or Kemble, with all their natural 
 imperfections, but Macbeth and Hamlet, 
 as Shakspeare imagines them, and as Gar- 
 i"ick would have looked and Kemble have 
 spoken had the natural stature of the one 
 or voice of the other equalled their concep- 
 tions. Here the painter of genius has 
 room to equal the poet and to surpass the 
 tragedian. 
 
 The artist, and here the word is used in 
 its most comprehensive sense, has therefore 
 to study beauty, grace, harmony, expres- 
 sion, elegance, and dignity. Pure simple 
 beauty, or the perfection of nature, must 
 be his first object ; grace, elegance, and 
 propriety of attitiule his next ; and harmony 
 of parts, or a true proportion or relation to 
 each other, and a characteristic expression 
 botli of features, as commonly so called, 
 and of the limbs and body, commonly called 
 action, his third. 
 
 Under the article drapery the naked sta- 
 tues of the Greeks and the clothed statues 
 of the Romans were discussed ; and it is 
 worthy of observation, how much beauty 
 and perfection arise from that entire un- 
 consciousness of observation, that careless 
 decency,and gracefulness of attitude which 
 characterize all the statues of the Greeks. 
 An attentive study of the beautiful models 
 of nature that were always before their 
 eyes in their gymnastic festivals, instead 
 of a vain seaixh after abstract rules and 
 predetermined lines of ideal beauty, are 
 among the principal causes why the an- 
 cient artists have produced works that 
 have been the delight of every age and of 
 every spectator. 
 
 The following statues and sculptures 
 are among the masterpieces of ancient ai't 
 to which the attention of the student is 
 particularly directed, as subjects for his 
 studies in chalk drawing or design. 
 
 First, of all the remains of ancient art, 
 those incomparable works the Elgin Mar- 
 bles. Of these, the Theseus, the Ilyssus, 
 
DRAWING. 
 
 the wonderful fra^^iipnt of the thest and 
 fcboulders of Neptune among the naked 
 figures. The colossal statue of Bacchus, 
 the Fates, the Victory, the Canephora, 
 and the Panathenaic procession, for the 
 clothed figures; and every one for various 
 sorts of perfection in art, equally useful to 
 the painter, the sculptor, the architect, and 
 the engraver. Of these transcendent works 
 Canova said, in his letter tfj Lord Elgin, 
 " I admire in them the truth of nature 
 combined with the choice of beautiful 
 forms: every thing about them breathes 
 animation, with a singular truth of expres- 
 sion, and with a degree of skill which is the 
 more exquisite as it is wthout the least 
 affectation of the pomp of art, which is 
 concealed with admirable address. The 
 naked figures are real flesh in its native 
 beauty." They were for more than seven 
 hundred years the admiration of the an- 
 cient world ; and in the time of Plutarch, 
 that is, in the age of Trajan, were regarded 
 as inimitable for their grace and beauty ; 
 ftop^jf cdfiiiiTjra km xapiri. Plat. Per. 
 4 13. 
 
 The celebrated trunk of the Hercules, 
 commonly called the Torso of the Belvedere, 
 is another beautiful work that merits the 
 greatest attention. It was also the admi- 
 ration of Michel Angiolo, and possesses 
 qualities in art of the highest sort. It is 
 less cumbrous in form, and more purified 
 from the grosser parts of human nature 
 than any other statue of Hercules in ex- 
 istence. 
 
 The Famene Hercules is also a fine an- 
 tique ; the muscular system of the heroic 
 demigod is finely developed for studies in 
 drawing, but in taste and style it is at an 
 immeasarable distance from the Elgin 
 marbles, and even the last mentioned 
 Torso. 
 
 Next to the Torso of the Belvedere may 
 be reckoned the Belvedere Apollo as the 
 most Boblime. His stature is heroic, and 
 his attitude is appropriate and command- 
 ing. It is a fine study for ^encvaX effect 
 and characters, bat the details of its pro- 
 portions are inferior in troth and nature 
 to those of the Theseos and I)y»sui of the 
 Parthenon. See Apoixo BtJ.\LDERE. 
 
 The well known antique group of Lao- 
 coon, from the second .tn' i ' other 
 example worth notice for c. n, ar- 
 rangement, expression, terror, and pity. 
 It is abundant in faults of proportion and 
 taste, but its beauties far transcend them. 
 Pliny reckoDed it the frst piece of art in 
 Borne, and conceived that they had no- 
 thing in painting or in sculpture so per- 
 
 fect. ** Opus omnibus," says he (lib. xxxi i.) 
 " et picturse, et statuarise artis praeferen- 
 dam." As a relic of ancient art it cannot 
 be too much admired, but as a didactic 
 work it is inferior to the Torso and Apollo. 
 
 The VeHut de 3Iedici may be considered 
 a perfect model of female beauty, grate, 
 elegance, sweetness, and perfection of the 
 female form. The sweetness and delicacy 
 of her fine form render this statue a fit re- 
 presentative of the queen of beauty. 
 
 The Antinotu of the Belvedere is also one 
 of the finest remains of ancient art, and is 
 justly celebrated for the beauty of its de- 
 tails, and the delicacy, harmony, and flow 
 of its outline. "The head of this figure," 
 says a writer in the Edinburgh Encyclo- 
 p<edia, " is, without controversy, the nj«»-t 
 beautiful of that class of character nov. 
 extant. The face presents the graces of 
 youthful beauty, accompanied with native 
 innocence, without the indication of any 
 passion capable of disturbing the harmony 
 of parts, and the repose of mind impressed 
 on every feature." 
 
 The Gladiators, both fighting and dying, 
 are to be admired, for many l>eauties, but 
 after the student has mastered his chalkb 
 and studied the Elzin and the Towneley 
 marbles, the .Apollo, the Venus, and some of 
 the groupings of the Eigin and Phigaleian 
 friezes and metopes ; he may c</! • 
 drawing from nature, undertaking n 
 of anatomy and anatomical drawing, ar. ! 
 return to the antique with increased knoH - 
 ledge and for a renewed taste of select 
 and beautiful nature, after bis deep in<pi- 
 rations at the fountains of pure but indi\ i- 
 dual nature. 
 
 The draw ings of da Vinci, Michel An- 
 giolo, Raffanlle, the Caracci, Titiaui, Co- 
 reggio, Parmegiano, Gaido, Domenichino. 
 Poussin, and Robeas, of which there are 
 many in our aceessible English libraries, 
 are to be studied for st>-le and manner ; 
 and next to them facsimile engravings 
 from them, which are more common, and 
 are valuable as they appr' !ity. 
 
 The following tables, exi.- . :rom the 
 work called / Frincipi del Desegno, pub- 
 lished at Rome by Volpato and Morgfaen, 
 of the measurements of the three principal 
 statues of antiquity thrown into a talnilar 
 form by tlie able author ^P. C.> of the ar- 
 ticle Drawinir, in Dr. Brewst^-r's E'Hn- 
 burgh E>>cyclopa;<lui, will be • 
 student in drawing in his earl. . . :..^ 
 and enalile him to form a perfect idea of 
 the proportions adopted by the ancients, 
 and the general distiftioM brtwcea the 
 male and female characters. 
 
DUAWlNi;. 
 
 1»«0»'«>«TI0N OF TMR 
 
 Ft\un the begiuninp: of the hp«d h» thp i>oot of the hairs 
 
 Fivrn (hp i\wt of the hairs to the pxobtxtwe, or beginning of 
 
 (ho mvsp ,., ,.....%. «».....,.iv,». 
 
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 8(ornuin ..»>.,,„..».„...... ,.%,.,,..... ...n,. ......%.. 
 
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 VnMU the un\hilicu.<i k» thp pymnhvsis puW8....,.»i.„nn,»,.„n^ 
 
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 gnMind ..>»tt.,>,u>>>»>^>k>>i> »w...t...t»i .......>....>.»>..>.. 
 
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 VUo loni>(h of the boIp of the font....kt>i«t%t.tkktk»»»>»ui««t>t»ik. 
 
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 (oitl inn.ioh^...., ...... 
 
 The long(h of the whole clavicle on the right side .....,», 
 
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 Frottt otto ottil of (ho htoasi (o (he otlter..>.,....,..kt.... 
 
 Tho grpa(pst hreatKh of the trunk, taken a li((le hoh<xv (l\o 
 
 ho^vttttitt^ of (ho (Itorax 
 
 Tito htoaihh of (Ito (rnitk fiom (he end of (hp breast. .i...>>.». 
 Tho n;nto\vos( part of the same, (aken at the beginning of 
 
 (ho (laitk 
 
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 ntopf , 
 
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 biceps .............,...,,,.....,,..,...,.....,.,.,.,... ...,...,, ,,»....... 
 
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 From dtp ottd of (ho biceps (o (ho boginning tif (ho hand 
 
 Tho u.toH(os( biostillh of (ho foro ntiit in fi'ont...>ttit .ttut.i.t. 
 Tho gloa(o^i( broadth of (ho arm in front. ...,,.....K»i.i,.«.i.i., 
 
 Hieaddi of (ho pulse of the arm in fronti.i. >•>>... .>>..>•>... 
 
 Tho groalop( Ittomllh fioni ono (rochMtt(pr lo the ttthef... ...... 
 
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 Tho gton(os( btOHildi of (ln> b^f( (high 
 
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 pa(oiia ........... ........t.. ...................... ....!.... I.... ...it...* 
 
 Tito gioH(p<<( hrrnildt of (ho en If of (ho log 
 
 Tho giontosi broHildi l<o(woon (ho inner and (he outer ankle 
 The ttarro\vps( part of (he foot, .ututni.ttit. iit>uiiit>ii>>tit>»> 
 
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 I' rout (ho bogiiining of the gastrooneinius to the end of the 
 
 nguro..(i«ii<iiiiiiiitiitiiiiiiiitt>ttiiiiiiiit>iii>iiitiii>i(i>tiitit«.>. 
 
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 Tlip vnvioiis slyles of drawing aro wKh irnil. (ho humnn fiiiHve. hhtnvintl, tinimul, 
 
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 clnssoil into iirrhittrhiriil, /<iHf/»ri(jir, ;inr- • 
 
DRE 
 
 Drawing instruments. 'See Instri- 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 Drawing-room or Withdrawing-room. 
 In architecture. An apavtiucnt or large 
 room at court, or in a Royal palace, v.Iiere 
 the sovereign receives the male and female 
 nobility and genti^ ; distinguished from 
 the levee, which is for gentlemen only. 
 Also a retiring or assembling room for 
 company previous to dinner, and for the 
 lady of the house to receive her company, 
 to Avhich they withdraw afterwards. A 
 light, elegant, and gay style of architec- 
 ture and decoration is the best suited for 
 the drawing-room ; which should be fur- 
 nished with pictures, statues, bassi rilievi, 
 and other elegant works of art of the 
 choicest description. In moderate sized 
 houses the drawing room is often made 
 use of also for a music room. 
 
 Dresden. [Dresda and Dresdena, Lat.] 
 In the history of the arts. The ancient 
 Misna, chief town of the province of 31is- 
 nia. The capital of the kingdom of Sax- 
 9ny; and celebrated for its collections of 
 the finest works of art and its able artists. 
 It is situated in a rich and fertile country, 
 on the banks of the river Elbe, at its junc- 
 tion with the Weisseritz, and is divided 
 into two parts, called the old and the new 
 town, by the first of these rivers. The 
 town properly consists of three parts. Old 
 Dresden, with its three suburbs ; the new 
 town (Neustadt), which received this name 
 from Augustus II ; and the P'rederick- 
 stadt or Ostra, which is connected with 
 the suburbs of Old Dresden by a stone 
 bridge over the Weisseritz. The bridge 
 which unites the old and new town, and 
 which has been either destroyed or greatly 
 injured by the French in 1813, was reck- 
 oned one of the finest in Europe. It was 
 built of stone, and consisted of nineteen 
 extremely flat arches; its length was about 
 seven hundred and seven ells, and on the 
 fifth pier was placed an instrument fur 
 measuring the heights of the river. Au- 
 gustus II. furnished the bridge with foot- 
 paths, and adorned it with an iron balus- 
 trade, surmounted by vases, trophies, and 
 lamps. The strc(;ts of this city are sixty- 
 one in number, and are straight, spacious, 
 well [)aved, and well lighted ; and llio 
 houses are in general iiigh,wcll built, and 
 commodious. The town contains several 
 handsome squares, and many elegant pub- 
 lic cdilices. 
 
 The Royal palace, formerly (he electoral 
 palace, is a very fine building, and owes 
 its chief ornaments to Augustus II. The 
 floors are )>riii('i])aily of ex<juisite iiiarldc, 
 and the walls are covered with mirrors. 
 
 DRE 
 
 Tlie green room, or vault, which contains 
 eight rooms, is particularly splendid; and 
 the hall of the giants, the hall of audience, 
 and the chambers of parade, are worthy 
 of peculiar notice. The tower of the pa- 
 lace is three hundred and fiftj-five feet 
 and a half high, exclusive of the conductor. 
 The green room contains a prodigious 
 number of natural and artificial curio- 
 sities. 
 
 The celebrated gallen,- of pictures occu- 
 pies the second floor of the palace. It 
 consists of several rooms communicating 
 with each other in a circular form, and 
 contains twelve hundred paintings, by 
 three hundred and thirty-four masters of 
 the principal schools of painting. All of 
 these are originals, and are admirably 
 preserved. Besides many pieces of Ger- 
 man, Flemish, and Dutch painters; the 
 gallery contains the best works of Anni- 
 bale Caracci, Raffaelle, Guido, Albano, 
 Leonardo da Vinci, Vandyck, Titian, An- 
 drea del Sarto, Rembrandt, (.'aravaggio, 
 Tintoretto, Nicolas Poussin, Luca Gior- 
 dano, Coreggio, Pompeo Battoni, and Ru- 
 bens. The celebrated Night, or II Notle, 
 and the Magdalen of Correggio are greatly 
 and deservedly admired. A list of the 
 principal pictures will be found in Le- 
 maistre's Travels, vol. ii. p. 399. In the 
 year 180G this gallery was enriched with 
 a large historical painting by Fr. Mathffii, 
 with twelve figures representing Egistheus 
 punisiied by Orestes and Pylades, in the 
 palace of Agamenmon. 
 
 The palace of Prince Antoine is situ- 
 ated in the Fauxbourg, and that of Maxi- 
 milian, which is a small though a light 
 and elegant building, is situated on the 
 other side of the bridge. 
 
 The Japanese palace, or the Dutch pa- 
 lace, as it is often called, stands in a most 
 picturesque situation, elevating its msijes- 
 tic cupolas among the lofty trees. It is a 
 large scjuare l^uilding, and Mas intended 
 by Augustus III. for a Chinese palace. 
 The garden is snuill, and at the end of 
 it near the water is a terrace, which 
 commands a delightful view of the city, 
 the river, and the environs of the town. 
 The ground floor of this palace contains 
 the collection of an(i(|uities, which tills a 
 long suit of rooms. It was formed be- 
 tween 1720 and 1730 by Augustus III., 
 ■who purchased the greater part of th(> gal- 
 lery of Prince ("liigi at KNiiue. He paid 
 six tiu)usund ducats for the >ases of por- 
 celain made at Rome, and painted by Raf- 
 faelle; and he also bought from the elector 
 of Bran(!enI)Uigli two jjorcelaiu >ases from 
 Japan. The collection of porcelain is 
 
DRESDEN, 
 
 reckoned the finest in Europe, and con- 
 sists of several millions of pieces of all 
 kinds, from every country, and of every 
 age. Mr. Lemaistre, who has given an 
 account of several of the articles in this 
 cabinet, considers it as the finest which he 
 has seen, excepting the collection of anti- 
 quities at Paris. The three Grecian sta- 
 tues of females, which were found in the 
 first excavations made at Herculaneum, in 
 1706, are particularly admired. 
 
 The two upper floors of this palace are 
 appropriated to the public library, which 
 contains above one hundred and fiftj' thou- 
 sand volnmes, and two thousand manu- 
 scripts. The books are kept in high order, 
 and the library is open several days in the 
 week to the public, who are even allowed 
 to carry the books to their own houses. 
 
 The tresor, or collection of jewels, con- 
 tains a vast assemblage of diamonds and 
 other precious stones, and innumerable 
 curiosities in ivory, enamel, coral, and jas- 
 per, with clocks and other mechanical in- 
 struments. 
 
 The gardens, called Der Zwinger, which 
 form a kind of public promenade, contain 
 several unfinished buildings, which were 
 intended by Augustus II. to form part of 
 a magnificent palace. The architecture is 
 loaded with ornaments, and many of the 
 buildings are in a state of ruin. These 
 buildings contain a cabinet of prints and 
 drawings, which is deemed one of the 
 finest in Europe, and contains specimens 
 of the art from its infancy to its present 
 state ; a cabinet of petrifactions and in- 
 crustations, and other objects of natural 
 history ; a cabinet of anatomical prepara- 
 tions ; and a saloon of mathematical and 
 pljysical instruments. The other public 
 buildings are the large and the small 
 opera house, the assembly rooms, the arse- 
 nal, which contains the first fire arms in- 
 vented by Berthokle Schwarze, the mili- 
 tary academy, the carousal, the barracks, 
 the mint, the landhause or state house, the 
 royal China warehouse, the hotels of 
 Schoenberg, of Saul, of the Countess of 
 Mokenska, of Flemming, of Anholt, of 
 Vitzthum, of Bruhl, of Cosel, and of Mar- 
 colini ; the last of which is remarkable for 
 its furniture, its pictures, and its gardens, 
 and for the colossal group of Neptune and 
 his court. The hotel of Count Bruhl is 
 now employed as a depot for the porcelain 
 manufactures ; but the garden is open to 
 the public, and forms a delightful prome- 
 nade on the banks of the Elbe. The ca- 
 rousal or the court where tournaments and 
 combats with wild beasts were formerly 
 exhibited, appears to have been once a 
 
 fine edifice, but it is falling rapidly to 
 decay. 
 
 Dresden contains about eighteen church- 
 es, the most remarkable of which are, tiie 
 church of the Holy Cross, the church of 
 the Catholics, the church of the Court, the 
 church of Notre Dame. The church of 
 the Holy Cross is an enormous circular 
 mass of stone, and the painting at the great 
 altar Avas executed by Schoenan. The 
 church of the Catholics, built by Augus- 
 tus III. between 1737 and 17-5(5, is one of 
 the finest in Germany, and the handsomest 
 building in Dresden. It stands delight- 
 fully on elevated ground, nearly fronting 
 the bridge over the Elbe. Its organ is the 
 chef d'oeuvre of the celebrated Silber- 
 mann. It is decorated by several admir- 
 able paintings by Mengs, a native of Dres- 
 den, among which is the Ascension, which 
 is reckoned his masterpiece, and adorns 
 the principal altar. The tower is three 
 hundred and three feet high, and the total 
 expense of building it and the church was 
 nine hundred and six thousand nine hun- 
 dred and fiftj'-five rix dollars. The c!uirc4j 
 of Notre Dame, or St. Mary's (Francis 
 Kirche), was built, in 1734, by Augustus 
 II. on the plan of St. Peter's at Rome. It 
 cost three hundred thousand rix dollars. 
 From the lantern of the cupola the view is 
 universally admired. 
 
 The literary and charitable establish- 
 ments are numerous and well managed. 
 The principal of these are the academy of 
 painting and architecture, the annual ex- 
 hibition of whicii is held on the 5th of May; 
 the veterinary school, the academy of noble 
 cadets, the military school, the school of 
 artillery and engineering, the college of 
 health, medicine, and surgery, the lying-in 
 hospital, the school of freemasons, the Ca- 
 tholic school, the foundation of Josephine, 
 the school of police, the school of St. Croix, 
 the house of industry, which finds employ- 
 ment for more than three thousand indivi- 
 duals ; the foundling hospital, the infir- 
 mary, the orphan's hospital, the Catholic 
 hospital, and a great variety of similar in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 For further and more general particu- 
 lars of Dresden, see Dr. Brewster's En- 
 cyclopaedia, and the various books of tra- 
 vels, &c. referred to in that work. The 
 most interesting of which to an artist are 
 Moore's View of Society and ]\Janners in 
 France, Sicitzerla7id, and Germany ; Le- 
 maistre's Travels ihroiigh Part of France, 
 Germatiy, ^-c. ; Letfres sur Drcsde, Berlin, 
 1801, 8vo. ; Description de Dresde (t de ses 
 Environs, a V Usage dcs Eirojigers, traduite 
 de VAllemande, 1807. 
 
 s 2 
 
DUS 
 
 Dress, [dresser, Fr.] In painting and 
 sculpture. To clothe or invest a ligure 
 with drapery. See Costcme, Drapery. 
 
 Drip. [drippe7t, Dutch.] In architecture. 
 A channel cut or stone laid to a certain 
 angle, to throw ofl' the drip water from 
 copings, cornices, coronas, sills, and other 
 projecting parts of buildings. 
 
 Drops. [&poppa, Sax.] In architecture. 
 Small cylinders or truncated cones used 
 in the niutules of tlie Doric cornice, and 
 in the member immediately under the tri- 
 glyph of the same order. They are called 
 guttaj by the old writers on architecture, 
 and were intended originally to represent 
 drops or tears flowing from the channels 
 and shanks of the triglyphs. Alberti 
 called them clavos, as conceiving them to 
 be in resemblance of nails, but without 
 any reason for his conjecture. 
 
 Dry. [bpij;, Sax.] In painting. Cold, 
 barren, without feeling. A drawing- is 
 said to be hard and dry when its outline 
 is too forcibly expressed, meagre, and in 
 bad taste, the opposite to free, undulating, 
 round. A picture is said to be dry in style 
 when its colouring is meagre and ill ar- 
 ranged, the very opposite to " the bloom of 
 beauty and the warmth of life." Hayley. 
 This fault may also arise from too close 
 an attention to the antique, and a neglect 
 of nature. No great artist has succeeded 
 so well as Poussin in giving a grace even 
 to the driest pencil of the great masters. 
 " No works," says Reynolds, " of any mo- 
 dern artists have so much of the air of an- 
 tique painting as those of N. Poussin. 
 His best performances have a remarkable 
 dryness of manner, which, though by no 
 means to be recommended for imitation, 
 yet seems perfectly correspondent with 
 that ancient simplicity that distinguishes 
 his style. Poussin, in the latter part of 
 his life, changed from his dry nuinner to 
 one mucii softer and richer, where tiiere is 
 a greater union between tlic figures and 
 the ground, as in the seven sacraments:" 
 now tlie property of the ]Mar()uis of Staf- 
 ford, and among the most distinguisiied 
 ornaments of the Cleveland House gal- 
 lery. Dryness is the fault of tlie infancy 
 of painting, and often arises from timidity. 
 Richness, fullness, and warmth are to be 
 acquired only by study, whicii will lie 
 niudi assisted by sket(;liing in oils uith 
 full brushes, observing (he arrangement of 
 natur<', the bloom of beauty, and tiie rieli- 
 ncss and harmony of colours displayed in 
 all tlie \vt)rks of the creation. Rubens is 
 perhai)s the best master to looli (o for a 
 correction of dryness. 
 
 DusSELDORF. In the history if the fine 
 
 DW A 
 
 arts. A town of Germany very celebrated 
 for its artists, and collections of works of 
 art. It was recently the capital of the 
 Grand Duchy of Cleves and Berg, and is 
 situated on the Rhine, near its confluence 
 with the river Dussel. The streets are 
 regular, clean, and spacious, the houses 
 lofty, and the public buildings numerous 
 and handsome. The principal objects of 
 curiosity are the Hotel de Ville, the eques- 
 trian statue of John William, Elector Pala- 
 tine, by Gripello ; the hotel of the former 
 government, the barracks, which were 
 built by the Elector John M'illiam, and 
 hold eight battalions, each of which has 
 its particular church ; the collegiate church, 
 containing a marble monument of the 
 Duke John; the cidevant church of the ^H 
 Jesuits, which is the finest in Dusseldorf, ^^ 
 the convent of Franciscans, the hospital 
 for paupers, the five fauxbourgs, particu- 
 larly the fauxbourgs of Neustadt, and the 
 market place and Charles' Square. The 
 fortifications of the town were demolished 
 during the war of the revolution ; and the 
 castle, which is now a heap of ruins, was 
 burned in the bombardment of 1794. 
 
 Dusseldorf possesses an academy of 
 painting and design, and a college ; but it 
 has been chiefly celebrated for its splen- 
 did gallery of paintings. This gallery 
 was carried ofl' to IVlunicIi, and nothing 
 was left but a single picture of Cignani or 
 Rubens, painted upon wood. It has lately 
 been sent back to the town ; and it con- 
 tains the chef d'ci'uvres of ^"an(lyck, Van- 
 derwerrt', Rubens, and other Flemish mas- 
 ters. The collection of plasters and de- 
 signs belonging to the academy, and tiie 
 physical cabinet of the college deserve 
 also to be noticed. 
 
 At the distance of about half a league 
 from tiie town stands tiie convent of La 
 Trappe, where the religious inhabitants ma- 
 nufacture and sell snufl'boxes with ciphers, 
 which are held in high estimation. An 
 account of the Dusseldorf gallery of paint- 
 ings will be found in the (iiderie Etectoralc 
 de Dusseldorf, jiar Nicolas de Pigage, Hale, 
 1777, folio ; and engravings of them in the 
 alnii:nae!v of M. IMoliii, entitled \iederrhei- 
 nisrhes Taschenbuch, which is published 
 annually. 
 
 l)ir(H MASTERS, siiiooi,, i\c. In paint- 
 ing. See Sciiooi.. 
 
 DwARK. ["^peoJlp, Sax.] In ixiinting and 
 sculpture. A man or wonian below the 
 common size. Among the ancients, the 
 rich were accustomed to keep dwarls 
 among their slaves ; stnne of whom were 
 as notorious for liieir ugliness as for their 
 dwarfish size. This taste is of very an- 
 
DW A 
 
 cient date, and was most prevalent in 
 Greece in the degenerate days which suc- 
 ceeded Alexander; and in Rome under 
 the degenerate times of their emperors. 
 Casaubon has collected many curious do- 
 cuments relative to this inifortunate race 
 of beings in his remarks upon the 83d 
 chapter of Suetonius's Life of Augustus. 
 They distinguished between the genuine 
 dAvarfs which they called na7ii, and pnmili 
 or pumiliones, who were but men of small 
 stature, but otherwise well proportioned; 
 and those little monsters with great heads 
 that are spoken of by Suetonius, and which 
 they called distorti. The dwarfs were a 
 species of pigmies, which the cruel art of 
 the orientals produced in many instances 
 by artificial means. Longinus speaks of 
 a species of box or press, in which they 
 kept their dwarfs while young to prevent 
 
 DW A 
 
 their growth ; and Pliny also mentions hav- 
 ing seen such machines of cruelty. They 
 seem to have preferred the ugliest little 
 dwarfs, with large heads and other simi- 
 lar distortions of nature. Ath(>na'us de- 
 scribes them under the appellation tiXttw- 
 voc, in his accounts of the luxury of the 
 Sybarites. These little unfortunates were 
 taught to dance and play the crotola, a 
 species of castagnette. Some of them so 
 engaged are represented among tl\e bronzes 
 found at Herculaneum, and engraved in 
 the second volume, plates 91 and 92, and 
 in the Recueil de Caylus, tome vi. pi. 93. 
 The Roman ladies were fond of dwarfs as 
 attendants ; and often p\xt them in combats 
 as gladiators, who were then called pumi- 
 liones. Domitian matched them publicly 
 in the amphitheatre against women of full 
 stature. See Pigmy, Ckane. 
 
 E 
 
 Eagle, [nigle, Fr.] In sculpture, archi- 
 tecture, and the mythology of the arts. A 
 bird of prey, called the king of birds, said 
 to be very sharp-sighted. Also a Roman 
 ensign in the shape of an eagle, made of 
 gold or silver, of which every regiment 
 had one. Representations of this noble 
 bird, which the ancients gave as one of the 
 attributes of Jupiter, are found sculptured 
 on various antique capitals ; as on tliose 
 of the temple of Septimius Severus, and 
 always on those of Jupiter. It was also 
 much used by the ancients in the friezes 
 of their temples and other architectural 
 sculptures. It is also found on numerous 
 medals, and in fine character on those of 
 Agrigentuni. The ancient gem sculptors 
 have left many fine representations of this 
 bird on various precious stones, particu- 
 larly on sardonyxes, of a fine size and 
 great beautj'. They seem to have pre- 
 ferred this stone to others on account of 
 the colour of its laminae according with 
 the figure of the bird, formed a suitable 
 ground to relieve its wings. The finest 
 are in the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna, 
 especially in cameo ; and in the cabinet 
 of antique gems in the Royal Libraiy at 
 Paris, where is a splendid one of the apo- 
 theosis of Germanicus. There are also 
 some very grand sculptured eagles on the 
 pedestals of many of the ancient columns 
 at Rome. 
 
 In Grecian architecture the woi"d eagle 
 («/£r6c), is also used for the frontispiece 
 
 or pediment of their temples. See Aetos. 
 
 As Wheler, in his description of the Pro- 
 
 pylea at Athens, says, " the eagle of the 
 
 front was sustained by four pillars of the 
 Doric order." Pausanias says also the 
 sculptures of the Parthenon were placed 
 in the eagles {auroiQ), aud tiie celebrated 
 Athenian inscription in the British Mu- 
 seum, that was brought to England by Dr. 
 Chandler, also calls the slabs which form 
 the face of the tympanum of the pediment 
 'A(£7-atoi \iOoi. See Aetos, Pediment, 
 
 TVMPANUM, FASTIGIUM. 
 
 Ear. [eap&j Sax.] In painting, drawing, 
 and sculpture. That part of the organ of 
 hearing which stands prominent. The 
 human ear is perhaps the most difficult 
 part of the whole figure to draw well, and 
 to affix in its proper situation. Much of 
 the character and expression of the head 
 depends upon it, particularly as concerns 
 beauty or deformity. jElian, in depict- 
 ing the beauty of Aspasia, describes her 
 ears as small and well shaped ; and Mar- 
 tial places large ears among marks of de- 
 formity. Agostino Caracci considers the 
 ear as the most difficult to represent of 
 the whole human form. He therefore 
 modelled one in relief much larger than 
 nature as a study, which he drew from in 
 every position. It was from this model 
 that were made those casts well known iu 
 the continental academies as the Orec- 
 chione d' Agostino. 
 
 The ear has always been wrought with 
 the greatest care by the ancient sculptors. 
 In fact, to such perfection that Winckel- 
 niann says, by a fragment of a mutilated 
 head, if it afford but the ear, we may judge 
 with certainty of the beauty and style of 
 the entire statue ; and of those where the 
 
EAR. 
 
 workmanship is of inferior style or of 
 doubtful antiqiiitj', the ear will always de- 
 cide. In the first place, a beautiful ear 
 vouches for its antiquity, as an ill worked 
 one has never reached us from their best 
 times ; and modern artists, who have re- 
 stored antique statues, have always failed 
 in giving so beautiful a representation of 
 the auricular organ as the ancients. In 
 the second instance, the ear, in all genuine 
 antiques, participates in character with 
 the w hole work, of which it forms a soi't 
 of attribute, and will always detect the 
 restorer's hand. 
 
 A particular or characteristic form of 
 ear is always found to belong to the sta- 
 tues of the ancients ; and those of Her- 
 cules are particularly marked. The ears 
 of this god are always small, attached 
 close to the head, and flattish ; tlie carti- 
 lage, particularly that portion of it wiiich 
 is called antUielix, is swoln, which narrows 
 the opening of the cavity of the tympanum, 
 and is marked with distinct ridges. The 
 ears of fauns, bacchanals, and satyrs are 
 thus made pointed more or less at the su- 
 perior extremity, denoting their various 
 degrees of sensual or animal propensities. 
 The statue of Kercules of gilt bronze in 
 the Capitol, together with six others of 
 marble, namely, those of the Belvedere, 
 tlie Villa Medici, the Palazzo Mattel, the 
 Villa Borghese, the Villa Ludovisi, and 
 that in the gardens of the Borghese pa- 
 lace, have each of them their ears formed 
 as just before mentioned. Some of the 
 fine antique statues representing figures of 
 Pancratiastes, which were the works of 
 Myron, Leochares, and other eminent sculp- 
 tors, as well as the fine one of Autolycus, 
 are all characterized by this sort of ear: 
 which may also be ol)served in a colossal 
 statue of Pollux at the Capitol, and in a 
 small figure of the same hero at the Far- 
 nese palace. The right ear of the pre- 
 tended gladiator of the Villa Borghese 
 has this form, while the left, which is a 
 restoration, dillers. The Villa Albani 
 possesses a fine statue of a youthful hero, 
 with this conformation of the ear; wiiicli 
 is also observed in one of tiie Dioscouri at 
 the Capitol ; as well as in all of those 
 which represent persons who have been 
 celebrated in gynmastic sports, wrestling, 
 &:c. 
 
 It is not surprising that this character- 
 istic is constantly assigned to tlie heads of 
 Hercules, ■when he is considered as the 
 founder of the Olympic games, which lie 
 rendered celebrated by his feats of address 
 anil sirenglh. Winckelmann lliinks that 
 this character is always given to gymnas- 
 
 tic heroes, in spite of the statue of a wrest- 
 ler, of black marble, w ho holds a phial of 
 oil in his hand, and of a basso rilievo of 
 another, which is designated by the stri§:U 
 and the bottle of oil, both in the Villa Al- 
 bani, w hich have neither ears of this pe- 
 culiar form. A fine colossal head of Her- 
 cules in the Towneley gallery exhibits 
 them in great perfection. These observa- 
 tions are confirmed by various other an- 
 tique statues, and by \arious passages in 
 Plato, Lucian, Philostrates, and Diogenes 
 Laertius. 
 
 There is another characteristic by which, 
 according to Buonarotti, we may recog- 
 nise the heads of divinities ; which is by 
 the earrings, or by having the ears pierced 
 for such purpose, a particularity which 
 he pretends never to have found in the 
 busts of mortals, whether they were of the 
 rank of empresses, or of other celebrated 
 females. This assertion, however, is re- 
 futed by Winckelmann, who cites many 
 authentic proofs to the contrary in the 
 heads of well known personages; such as 
 of Antonia, the wife of Drusus, and the 
 bust of an aged female in the gallei-y of 
 the Capitol, and a IMatidia in .the \ ilia 
 Ludovici, which have all their ears pierced. 
 Dion relates of Macrinius that he had his 
 ears pierced and woi-e earrings, after the 
 fashion of the Moors, an ancient and com- 
 mon practice among eastern nations. Yet 
 the statue of that emperor of African ori- 
 gin, which is pui)lislu'd in Mujico Pio Cli- 
 nwntino, vol. iii. pi. 12, has not this parti- 
 cularity. Visconti mentions, as a renmrk- 
 able instance of this practice, the fine bust 
 of Caracalla in the Villa Borghese, which 
 is afiixed to a statue of Hercules, and has 
 the right ear pierced. 
 
 It was a prevailing custom of the an- 
 cients to consecrate or dedicate various 
 parts of the human body. Such votive 
 members are to be found in all the collec- 
 tions of antiquities, and there are several 
 in the Elgin gallery at the British Mu- 
 seum. Votive ears have been discovered 
 in this number, as may be seen in Mont- 
 faucon's Supplement to l\\sV AntiiiuUe Ex- 
 pHijiK'c, torn. ii. pi. 32, No. I, where he has 
 figured and described two such, upon 
 which he found remains of gilding. 'I'hey 
 were ptiliaps dedicated or j)resente<l to 
 the temple of some deity on a recovery 
 from deal'ness. 
 
 The ancients were in the practice of at- 
 tributing the seats of various virtues to 
 dillerent parts of the human body. The 
 forehead and the face were assigned to 
 modest;/, or piidicily ; tlie rii;lit Inind to 
 l^ood Jiiilli ; the knees to ivmpiumivii ; and 
 
EAV 
 
 the ear to memory. It was customary with 
 them as a formulary to touch the ear of 
 one to avert any expected ill, or to recall 
 a fact to his memory. It was for this that 
 they touched the tip of the ear of those 
 Avho were called to bear witness. It was 
 with them also a mark of tenderness from 
 children to their parents, lovers to their 
 mistresses, to kiss and touch their ears. 
 There ai'e numerous passages in ancient 
 writers, and sculptures on precious stones, 
 in corroboration of these facts. Justus 
 Lipsius describes one that he had seen at 
 the brothers Mark and Guy Laurin, on 
 which was represented a head, which a 
 hand was holding by the ear, and inscribed 
 in Greek " Remember." Rsvard, Gravina, 
 and Heineccius have also described it. 
 Spon has figured two onyxes, of which one 
 (Miscellan. p. 297, No. 5) represents a 
 hand holding an ear, with an inscription 
 in Greek to the same efi'ect as the last ; 
 and the other a similar representation with 
 a Greek inscription intimating " Remember 
 thou thy good fortune." Ficorini, in his 
 Gemmce Literaratce, pi. 5, No. 12, has pub- 
 lished a representation of a sardonyx, on 
 which is a hand, of which the forefinger 
 is united to the thumb, inscribed also in 
 Greek with the word Remember. Gori 
 - has given the representation of a similar 
 stone, with a hand holding an ear, and a 
 parallel inscription. There have been 
 found many other like sculptures and in- 
 scriptions which are described by Gori, 
 Millin, Gravina, and other antiquaries. 
 See Allegory, Attributes, Votive. 
 
 Easel, [from case.'] In ■painting. A 
 frame used to support a picture while it is 
 being painted. They are of various forms 
 and sizes, according to the size of the pic- 
 ture and the habits of the painter. 
 
 Eating-room, [from eating and room.'] 
 In architecture. A room designed and set 
 apart for the purpose of eating. See Din- 
 ing-room. 
 
 Eaves, [epepe. Sax.] In architecture. 
 The edges of the roof which overhang the 
 house. The ancients generally formed gut- 
 ters just above the extremity of the eaves 
 in that part of the cymatium which is ter- 
 minated by the upper fillet. They were 
 ornamented by the ends of the joints that 
 extended from the ridge to the eaves, as in 
 the Erechtheiumat Athens, which has been 
 recently copied in the new church of St. 
 Pancras, near Tavistock Square. These 
 ornamental eaves, joint-tiles, or stones, are 
 called, in the celebrated Athenian inscrip- 
 tion at the British Museum, which relates 
 to the building of the Erectheium, Toy- 
 yoXoi X(0o(, which Mr. Wilkias, as I think 
 
 EBO 
 
 correctly, imagines to be the upright cir- 
 cular pieces, which terminated the joint- 
 tiles at the eaves or gutters of the roof. 
 The water was in some examples thrown 
 off from the building through the mouths 
 of lions' heads, sculptured on the cyma- 
 tium. In some temples the circular orna- 
 ments on the eaves were formed, as well 
 as the common or flat tiles, of clay. The 
 imbrex or eaves-tile of potter's earth was 
 called by the Greeks (TToyyv\oth)Q or yoy- 
 yv\otS)]Q Kfpanog; when made of marble 
 the word \iOog would probably be substi- 
 tuted, as in the Athenian inscription, for 
 Kspajuoc. The joint-tiles are also mentioned 
 in another part of the same inscription, 
 where they are called «(ijttoi. In laying the 
 tiles the rows at the eaves or gutters are 
 first placed, and then other rows in suc- 
 cession up to the ridge. The ap/itoi were 
 laid in the same order of succession one 
 above the other. 
 
 The tiles at the eaves or gutters were 
 formed by the Greeks in the top bed of 
 the cornice, behind the upper fillet of the 
 cymatium, commonly in blocks twice the 
 length of the other tiles ; consequently 
 there was no joint corresponding to that 
 between the two tiles of the next superior 
 course. The eaves itself, or superior ex- 
 tremity of the cornice where it met the lower 
 portion of the roofs was called by the 
 Greeks VticTa, upon which member of the 
 cornice the mouldings were carved. Mo- 
 dern architecture, particularly as prac- 
 tised in London, has rejected the dripping 
 eaves for the less architectural cornice, 
 with its harmi and sculptured spouts ; 
 which, however, are sometimes added, 
 without use, and consequently, without 
 meaning. 
 
 Ebony or Ebeny. lebenum,'La.t."Ef3i.voc, 
 Gr.] In sculpture. A hard, heavy, black, 
 valuable wood, which admits a fine gloss, 
 and was much used by the ancients in 
 sculpture. It is not easy now to deter- 
 mine exactly what is the precise wood 
 which the ancients called ebetium, of which 
 Theophrastus is the earliest writer who 
 mentions it. We only know that it was a 
 black, hard, and heavy wood, which I'liny, 
 with others, conceived bore neither leaves 
 nor fruit. Its known qualities, however, 
 rendered it valuable for the purposes of 
 carving. That which the Greeks used in 
 their most ancient times was procured 
 from India; but it was unknown in Rome 
 till after the victories obtained by Pompey 
 over Mithridates. The ancient inhabitants 
 of India, the Greeks, and finally the Ro- 
 mans, made frequent use of this fine wood, 
 inlaying it with ivory on account of the 
 
ECB 
 
 contrast of colours. Pausanias and Pliny 
 niention several statues of ebony, particu- 
 larly a statue of Ajax at Sulaniina, those 
 of Castor and Pollux, with their wives 
 Hilaria and JMioebe, and their children 
 Anaxjs and iMnasinous, in the temple of 
 Castor and Pollux at Thebes, tiie works 
 of Dipaenus and Scyllis. Their horses, 
 too, were of ebony, except a portion of 
 their trappings, which was of ivory. I'au- 
 sanias speaks also of an ebony statue of 
 Diana at Tegea, in Arcadia, of the earliest 
 times of art ; and of an Apollo Archegetes 
 at Megara. According to Pliny the statue, 
 of Diana at Ephesus was also of ebony, 
 but according to Vitruvius it was of cedar. 
 Artists and poets have used ebony allego- 
 rically for the attributes of the infernals, 
 giving a throne formed of it to Pluto and 
 Proserpine ; and made the gates of hell 
 of the same dark and durable material. 
 It is also used at the present day for sculp- 
 tural decorations, embellished and inlaid 
 with ivory, mother of pearl, silver, and 
 gold. 
 
 Eborarius. [Lat.] hi ancient scnlptnre. 
 The name given by the Romans to their 
 works in ivory, whether as turners or 
 sculptors. Spon mentions an ancient in- 
 scription wherein the word is found. See 
 Ivory. 
 
 EcBATANA. ['EKJSarava, Gr.] In the his- 
 tory of architecture. The chief city or an- 
 cient metropolis of Media, built, according 
 to Pliny, by Seleucus. It was the sum- 
 mer residence of the Persian and Median 
 kings, and existed in great splendour at a 
 very early period in the history of the 
 world. Diodorus Sicuhis ascriijes its ori- 
 gin to Scjiiiramis, and speaks of many as- 
 tonishing works completed by that heroine 
 for the embellishment of the city, and the 
 convenience of the inhabitants. It was 
 generally considered, however, as having 
 been founde<l by Deiocos, king of the 
 INIedes, who is called, in the book of Ju- 
 dith, Arpliaxaii', and the (irst who reigned 
 in Media alter that country had shaken olf 
 the Assyrian yoke. It was situated on a 
 rising ground, about twclNc stadia from 
 Mount Oronles, and t\velv<! Iiiiiidred sta- 
 dia south of I'alus Spauta. Its walls are 
 described by ancient writers in a style of 
 romantic exa;.',geration, and i)articularly 
 by Herodotus and the author of the book 
 of Juditli. According to the former, liiey 
 w<!re SON en in number, all of a circular 
 form, and gradually rising aliove each 
 oilier towards the centre of the cily ; the 
 first or outermost of which, about one luin- 
 dred and sc\(>nly eight Curlongs in circuni- 
 ference, had while baUlemeuts, the second 
 
 ECH 
 
 black, the third purple, the fourth blue 
 the fifth deep orange, the sixth was cover- 
 ed with silver, and the seventh, which en- 
 closed the royal palace, with gold. Ac- 
 cording to the latter, these walls were 
 seventy- cubits high and tifty broad ; the 
 towers on the gates sixty cubits broad at the 
 foundation, and a hundred in height; and 
 the whole built of hewn stone, each stone 
 being six cubits in length and three in 
 breadth. Daniel is said by Josephus to 
 have built one of its most magnificent pa- 
 laces, some of the beams of which are of 
 silver, and the rest of cedar plated with 
 gold. This splendid edifice afterwards 
 served as a mausoleum to the kings of 
 Media ; and is affirmed by the last men- 
 tioned author to have been entire in his 
 time. There are no traces now remaining 
 of these lofty buildings; and even tlie site 
 of this celel)rated city has become a sub- 
 ject of dispute among modern travellers. 
 Sir John Chardin fixes upon Tauris as the 
 most probable situation ; but, at the same 
 time, admits that no remarkable ruins are 
 to be seen there ; and that the materials 
 of those which have been found are dif- 
 ferent from those which the Medes em- 
 ployed in the structure of their palaces. 
 Others suppose it to be Hamedan ; and 
 some Gasbin in the province of Yerrack. 
 Merodach, whom some suppose to have 
 been Nebuchadnezzar, overthrew Deioces, 
 and defaced his capital, A. M. 3347 ; and 
 it was more fatally pillaged by the army 
 of Alexander, A. M. 3723. See .\ncient 
 Univ. Hist. vol. v. p. 4 ; Jldith, c. i. v. 
 2. 4 ; Herodotus, 1. i. c. 98 ; Chardin, 
 Voi/iiiic en Perse, toni. i. p. ISl ; Josephis, 
 Antiq. 1. X ; Qiint. C^urt. 1. v. S. 
 
 EcHEA. ['H^ta from j/x^t^j I sound.] In 
 ancient architecture. The name which the 
 ancients ga\e to the sonorous vases of 
 bronze or earth, of a bell like shape, which 
 they used in the construction of their the- 
 atres, to give greater power to the voices 
 of their actors. 'J'lu; size of these vases 
 were proportioned to the magnitude of the 
 building, and their conformation such tluit 
 tiu'y retiiriifd all liie concords from the 
 fourth and fifth to liie double octave. They 
 were arranged between the seats of the 
 tlicatrcs in niches made for tiu> purpose; 
 the particulars of which are described in 
 the lit'lli book of Vitruvius. According to 
 this ancient author, such vases were in- 
 serted in the theatre at Corinth, frcnn 
 wlifiue Ijucius IMununius, at the taking 
 of that cily, transpoitcd tlieiu to Ktmie. 
 
 It would apijeartiuit similar means have 
 been t'ni|>1ovt-d in some of the (lolliic ca- 
 thedrals, to assist the voices of the priests 
 
EDI 
 
 and choristers ; for in the choir of that at 
 Strasl)nrgh, formerly belonging to a mo- 
 nastery of Dominicans, Professor Oberlin 
 discovered similar vases in various parts 
 of the vaulted ceilings. 
 
 The student is referred to Mr. Wilkin's 
 translation of Vitruvius for further specu- 
 lations on this curious mode of construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Echinus. [Lat. tx'ivog, Gr.] In architec- 
 ture. A moulding or ornament in tlie 
 shape of a chestnut, used in the ancient 
 Doric entablature and capital. Its form 
 is eminently beautiful, and of infinite su- 
 periority to the ovolo or quarter round of 
 the Roman Doric. 
 
 Edifice, [(edificiuin, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. A fabric, building, or structure. 
 The word edifice is used in a higher sense 
 than building, being generally applied to 
 works of a monumental, grand, or public 
 nature ; and the phrase a public edifice is 
 more appropriate and euphonical than that 
 of a public building. To constitute a 
 public edifice it is not requisite that it 
 should be devoted to public usages, but 
 J;hat it should have been erected at the 
 public expense; as palaces of sovereigns, 
 episcopal residences, votive mansions like 
 Blenheim, houses of public functionaries, 
 &.C. Public edifices should be the princi- 
 pal ornaments of a city, should be splen- 
 did, durable, and in good taste. Substan- 
 tial and scientific construction, good and 
 handsome materials, and tasteful design, 
 rather than an extravagant and uncharac- 
 teristic costliness, should be the prevailing 
 feature of every public edifice. 
 
 Of all nations the Greeks and Romans 
 have surpassed all others in the good 
 taste, beauty, splendour, and costliness of 
 their public buildings. The Romans, in 
 particular, are celebrated for their lavisli 
 extravagance in this particular, which has 
 given them a deathless reputation that ex- 
 ceeds even their prowess in arms, and al- 
 most boundless conquests. They not only 
 embellished their capital with public edi- 
 fices of every kind, but also all their pro- 
 vincial towns and colonies. The erection 
 of such buildings was part of their policy, 
 not only to raise their name and celebrate 
 their deeds, but also to employ their nu- 
 merous soldiery and bands of slaves. The 
 public edifices of tlie republic are discussed 
 in the article Architecture ; but they fell 
 infinitely short of those which were erected 
 by their emperors. Augustus made Rome 
 resplendent with marble. Suetonius (in 
 Au gusto, cap. 28), records his munificence 
 in public works, and his proud boast of 
 having converted Rome from a city of 
 
 EDI 
 
 brick to a metropolis of marble. To him 
 Rome owes her grandest Forum, sur- 
 rounded by stately porticoes, for tlie use 
 of the people. (Suet, in Aug. cap. 29). 
 He built also the temples of Mars near 
 the Forum, and of Apollo on the Palatine 
 hill, which he accompanied by a grand 
 and fine library of the best works in Greek 
 and Latin ; as well as that of Jupiter To- 
 nans in the Capitol, and restored many 
 other useful and ornamental structures for 
 the public use. So numerous and splen- 
 did Avere his buildings and restorations, 
 that Suetonius, the historian of the twelve 
 Cassars, in his Life of Augustus (cap. 30), 
 says, " iEdes sacras vetustate collapsas, 
 aut incendio absumptas refecit, casque, et 
 casteras, opulentissimis donis adornavit." 
 Augustus possessed so much public spirit 
 that he delighted, above all things, in re- 
 storing and repairing the public edifices of 
 his illustrious predecessors, who by their 
 talents, prowess, and virtue had rendered 
 the Roman empire great and flourishing ; 
 and his modesty was such, that he always 
 reinstated the original inscriptions, with- 
 out permitting any mention of his own 
 among them. Suetonius bears willing tes- 
 timony to these great qualities of Augus- 
 tus in his 31st chapter, saying, among 
 other just eulogiums, " Proximus a diis 
 immortalibus honorem memoriae Ducum 
 prestitit, qui imperium P. R. ex minimo 
 maximum reddidissent. Itaque et opera 
 cujusque, manentibus titulis, restituit." 
 
 Besides these, he erected many other 
 public edifices, which he inscribed with 
 the names of others. Such were the por- 
 ticoes of Livia his wife, and Octavia his 
 sister ; the basilica of Lucius and Caius his 
 grandsons ; the children of Agrippa and Ju- 
 lia ; the theatre of Marcellus. These are 
 the public edifices to which Suetonius al- 
 ludes (ibid. c. 29), when he says, " Quajdara 
 enim opera sub nomini alieno, Nepotum 
 scilicet, et uxoris, sorisque fecit." 
 
 Not content with thus decorating Au- 
 gustan Rome, this first of its emperors 
 used all his influence with his opulent and 
 public spirited countrymen to lend their 
 aid in this magnificent enterprise. He 
 especially exhorted those to whom the 
 honour of a triumph was decreed, to bring 
 to Rome some splendid work of foreign 
 art, to decorate anew certain public edi- 
 fices, or repair the old and decaying. Sue- 
 tonius and Dion Cassius both bear witness 
 to it; the latter (1. 54), saying, " lis, qui 
 triunipharent mandavit, ut in rerum a se 
 gestarum mcmoriam aliquod opus ex ma- 
 nubiis facerent." It was in pursuance of 
 these commands that Marcius Philippus 
 
EDI 
 
 built the temple of Hercules and the 
 Muses; Lucius Cornificius that of Uiaini ; 
 Blunatius Plancus that of Saturn ; Asi- 
 nius PoUio the magnificent entrance and 
 court to the temple of Liberty ; Cornelius 
 Balbus his theatre ; Stutilius Taurus, his 
 amphitheatre ; Paulus Emilius his basi- 
 lica; and Marcus Agrippa his Pantheon 
 and aquaiducts. " Quorum accuratissi- 
 niam dili>i,cntiam Marcus Agrippa egit, 
 qui urbem pluribus aliis monumentis ador- 
 navit," says Strabo on this subject. Lib. 
 V. Geog. 
 
 The great roads and public ways of the 
 Roman empire became objects of the care 
 and munilicence of Augustus, but they do 
 not belong to its public edifices. Thus did 
 the Roman empire, under the reign of Au- 
 gustus alone, become as splendid in its pub- 
 lic editices as it had been before for the 
 number and extent of its conquests, and to 
 use the words of Virgil, (2 Georg.) " Re- 
 rum facta est pulcherrima Roma." 
 
 Tiberius built no public edifices worthy 
 of notice, for having begun a temple in ho- 
 nour of Augustus, and the reparations of 
 Pompey's theatre, he had not the spirit to 
 finish them ; but left tliem to be completed 
 by the equally mean-spirited Caligula, 
 who began nothing anew in Rome but an 
 aqua?duct and an amphitheatre, which he 
 did not live to finish. See Suetonius in 
 Calig. cap. 21. Claudius did but little 
 more towards the public edifices of the 
 city of Rome, but embarked in several 
 grand public enterprises, such as the emis- 
 sarium of the Fucine lake, and the form- 
 ing of the port of Ostia. Suetonius bears 
 witness to his ])ul)lic spirit in the following 
 passage (in Claud, c. 20), " Opera magna 
 potius, quam necessaria, quam multa per- 
 fecit : sed vel pra'cipua, a(|u;rducfum a 
 Cajo inchoatum. Item emissariuni Fu- 
 cina lacus, portumque Ostiensem." He, 
 liowever, made the course of the Circus 
 Maximus of marble, that was originally 
 of conuuon stone, and renovated and gilt 
 the mcta of the same edifice. 
 
 The principal public edifices of Rome 
 may be classed under the nuiiicroiis tem- 
 ples, circuses, theatres, ani])hilheatres, 
 curia;, basiliciu, &c. which abounded in 
 their emi)ire ; and those of Greece, of tem- 
 ples, odeons, theatres, courts of justice, 
 &c. Those of Rome were the most nume- 
 rous, costly, and colossal ; those of (Jreece 
 in tJK! best taste. The pui)lic edilices of 
 Konic were built at the exi)ense of their 
 emperors and private citizens of great 
 w(^allli, and those of Athens ut the united 
 ♦•xpense of all Attica. 
 
 The real magiiilicence of public edifices 
 
 EFF 
 
 depends particularly upon the taste with 
 which they are executed more than upon 
 the money that they may cost; so true is it 
 what the poet says, 
 
 " Taste, never idly workins;, saves expense. " 
 
 '1 HO>lSON. 
 
 Edile. [(Bdilis, Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. An officer under the Roman govern- 
 ment, whose duties were to see that tem- 
 ples, houses, conduits, streets, and high- 
 ways were kept clean, safe, and in good 
 repair. A sort of ancient surveyor gene- 
 ral, or master of the public works. Ac- 
 cording to Varro (lib. iv. de lingua Latina), 
 " Quod ffides sacras, et aediticia publica 
 procuraret." Cicero gives him, in addi- 
 tion, the care and direction of the public 
 games. He was also inspector of all the 
 public ways, had the direction of the 
 streets, public and private edifices, and 
 other similar duties, having proper execu- 
 tive officers as qua'stors, curators, &c. See 
 Curator, Qu.'Estor. 
 
 Effect, [ejf'ectus, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 That \vhich is produced by an operating 
 cause. In works of art critics use this 
 word to indicate the appearance that is 
 produced or is the result of their execu- 
 tion. AVhen the substantive effect is used 
 without an adjective ; as, that picture, that 
 edifice, or that statue has effect, it is al- 
 ways understood as laudatory and as mean- 
 ing a f((>od effect ; or is in itself effective, 
 producing the desired effect. 
 
 Effects in painting are various, particu- 
 larly in the class of landscape painting. 
 The effect of a picture is the sensation or 
 sentiment with which it inspires the spec- 
 tator, \\hile the rll'ect for a picture is that 
 whicii is created in the mind of the arlist. 
 A landscape or view of any particular 
 spot varies according to the accidental ef- 
 fect which is i)roduccd by the season, the 
 time of day, ami tiie weather. A cloudy, 
 a sunny, a moonlight effect will make 
 three separate i)ictures of the self-same 
 outline. This was boautifiilly and eUVc- 
 tively elu( idated in l)e Loufhcrbcuirg's 
 I'.iilophusikon, and in the landscape ^f the 
 valb'y otSaarnen,as e\iiil)ited with chang- 
 ing ell'ects at the Dioramas of London and 
 I'aris. 
 
 The effect of an historical jiicture is the 
 result of a nobler scntinnMit an<l a higher 
 cause. Effect in this highest branch of 
 painting is produced by a correct display 
 of the action of tiie pict\ire and the pas- 
 sions that are thereby elicited, aided by 
 the accessorial effects of the scene or pa.ss- 
 ing time in which the story is supposed 
 to have Iuip\)('ned. Macbeth's n)ysterioMS 
 interview with the witches; bis agitation 
 
EGG 
 
 in the chamber of Duncan, and his seeing 
 the ghost of the murdered Banquo at the 
 festive banquet, must have didrent natu- 
 ral effects given to the picture to produce 
 the consequence intended by the poet and 
 the painter. The effect of Raffaelle's car- 
 toons depend on the exercise of the higli- 
 est povs'ers of the imagination ; the ell'ects 
 of Rembrandt and Salvator, on a correct 
 observation of the accidental or passing 
 scenic effects. See Accidental. The 
 former are more mental and characteristic, 
 the latter more mechanical, more depen- 
 dent on accidents of light and shade, co- 
 lour or sceneiy, and more delusive as to 
 effects of nature. 
 
 Architecture has its effects as well as 
 the other arts. It produces its effects from 
 a parity of causes ; and receives its effects 
 in a similar manner. Its effects depend 
 on good sense, taste, science, learning, and 
 a knowledge of its laws and efficient 
 causes. They are produced by a judicious 
 use and application of its ornaments, its 
 breaks, heights, projections, orders, and 
 embellishments. Propriety is a grand 
 cause in producing effect in architecture, 
 and impropriety or a bad application of 
 what is otherwise good in itself, as a thea- 
 trical style to a church, or a religious one 
 to a banqueting house, an equally power- 
 ful cause of failure. 
 
 Effect in architecture also depends much 
 upon execution, somewhat upon material 
 and ornament, but more upon an intellec- 
 tual refinement of taste, that distributes 
 all the components and necessary parts of 
 a building into their proper places, ar- 
 ranges them in a characteristic manner, 
 and disposes of the chaotic members of a 
 large edifice in such a manner as to pro- 
 duce an effective whole. See Composi- 
 tion, Disposition, Distribution. 
 
 Effigy, Effigies, [effegies, Lat.] In 
 painting and sculpture. Resemblance, image 
 in painting or sculpture, representation, 
 portrait of a person. See Portr^vit, 
 Bust. 
 
 Egg. [oej, Sax.] In architecture and 
 sculpture. An ornament fashioned in the 
 shape of an egg. The egg has been from 
 time immemorial among the ancients the 
 symbol of the being who createth all things, 
 and hath all things within himself. It is 
 to be found placed on all the statues of 
 Mithras, upon his altars, and in many an- 
 cient votive hands of bronze. Montfaucon 
 has given the representation of a statue of 
 Isis in his Supplement de I'Antiquit^ Ex- 
 pliqu^e, tome 1, pi. 38, No. I, between the 
 horns of which is placed an egg. The 
 Egyptians also held it in profound venera- 
 
 EGY 
 
 tion, and, in conjunction with the serpent, 
 held it as representing the mystery of cre- 
 ation, or the mundane globe, or time, and 
 the serpent of eternity. On several of the 
 engraved gems published by Stosch, are 
 sculptured two crested serpents, raised 
 upon their tails, with the mystical egg be- 
 tween them. From the Egyptians the egg 
 and serpent's tongue crept into the archi- 
 tectural sculpture of Greece, and forms 
 one of their most elegant ornaments. It 
 is still much used, and called the egg and 
 tongue ornament. See Echinus. 
 
 Egg and Tongue. In architecture. A 
 graceful ornament sculptured between the 
 volutes of the Ionic order, v/hich may be 
 represented, if traced back, as is done by 
 M. Quatremere de Quincy (see Architec- 
 ture), to the head of Isis, to represent a 
 mystical collar or necklace of the mun- 
 dane egg and the tongue of the serpent of 
 immortality. It is also used in the enta- 
 blature of the same order with great effect, 
 as in the Erectheium. See Ionic. 
 
 Egis, See TEgis. 
 
 Egypt. IjEgyptus, Lat. A'iyvTrroe, Gr.] 
 In the history and archuiologij of the arts. A 
 country of Africa, said by ancient poets 
 and historians to have been named after 
 iEgyptus, the son of Belus, and brother of 
 Danaus, who was their first king. It is 
 divided by Pompcnius Mela, from ancient 
 authority, into two parts. The lower, 
 called Delta, from its triangular shape, 
 and the other Thebais, or Upper Egypt. 
 It is celebrated for the invention of many 
 of the useful and the fine arts, as physic, 
 astronomy, husbandry, architecture, sculp- 
 ture, painting, natural magic, and other 
 mysterious sciences ; insomuch that seve- 
 ral learned men of Greece, as Pythagoras, 
 Plato, &c. travelled thither in search of 
 knowledge. How magnificent it has for- 
 merly been its vast pyramids and other 
 colossal structures yet remaining show. 
 
 Egypt is one of the most ancient nations 
 of whom we have authentic records, and 
 was the birthplace, or, at least, a very 
 early protector of all the arts and sciences- 
 Herodotus, the patriarch of history, proves 
 it to have been the source whence the 
 Greeks derived their knowledge, their 
 arts, their sciences, and their literature. 
 Menes is the earliest king of Eg-ypt of 
 whom we have more than poetical or fa- 
 bulous account; but the circumstances of 
 his reign distinctly imply, that the age in 
 which he lived was an advanced period of 
 the Egyptian histoiy. The arrangements 
 which he made do not belong to a rude 
 and uncultivated period ; the wealth and 
 splendour of his court v^ere far removed 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 from the savage state, and the magnifi- 
 cence which he introduced into the ser- 
 vices of their religion manifest an imjirove- 
 ment in the arts, and a progress in tlie 
 splendour of society. Sir Isaac Newton 
 ascribes to this king the building of Mem- 
 phis, wiiich was not founded, or, at least, 
 not famous in the time of Homer ; for it is 
 Thebes, and not Menipliis, that he cele- 
 brates as the glory of Egypt. 
 
 Osymandias is the next f'gyptian king 
 of whom we have any probable account ; 
 and yet the narrative of liis reign is doubt- 
 ful and imperfect. While he was upon 
 the throne the city of Tiiebes was still in 
 its glory, and some of its most splendid 
 monuments of art are attributed to him. 
 His palace is reported to have been an 
 edifice of extraordinary beanty, and, in 
 the manner of those times, of vast extent. 
 Among other ornaments of this splendid 
 building were three colossal statues of im- 
 mense size, which, as in the infancy of 
 science every thing is vast, is sufficient to 
 show the antiquity of the reign of Osy- 
 mandias. 
 
 Moeris is another prince who, in passing 
 by other sovereigns of obscure liistoi-y, has 
 rendered liis name celebrated by the s))len- 
 dour and extent of his public works ; 
 among which are the formation of the cele- 
 brated lake which bears his name, and 
 has preserved his memory ; and the deco- 
 ration of the temple of Vu h-an at Memphis. 
 He was the three hundred and thirtieth 
 king from Menes, and the immediate pre- 
 decessors of tile well known and cele- 
 brated Sesostris. 
 
 Sesostris is perhaps the most celebrated 
 of all the Egyptian kings, and has had at- 
 tributed to him the vices and great public 
 spirited actions of many of his race from 
 tiie Pharaoh, who was drowned in the 
 Red Sea, to the Sesac or Siiisiiah, ^\ho 
 captured Jerusalem in the reign of licho- . 
 boam. According to all accounts lie was 
 a great, a prudent, and a successful sovo 
 reign. liy prudent conduct and salutary 
 arrangements Ik; preserved tranquillity 
 among his s\il)j('('(s ; by excellent manage- 
 ment he attached tlu; army to his interest ; 
 and he provided for every (h-partment of 
 tlie state with judgment and care. He 
 «livi(h^d his emi)ir(^ into thirty-six i)ro- 
 vinces, and having ajipointed a go\i'r- 
 nor to each, lie constituted liis brother 
 regent of the kingdom, with supreme 
 pow(!r, till he hiinself siiould return. He 
 k(!pt up great armies, made extensix' 
 conquests in Ethiopia, all over Africa, 
 and even reached tiie siiores of the Athin- 
 tic. He pL;nctrated Asia, cro;i8cd the 
 
 Ganges, returned into F.uropc, and invaded 
 Scythia as well as Tlirace. After these 
 conquests, many of which lie abandoned, 
 Sesostris returned home, exiled his bro- 
 ther for rebellion and malversation of office 
 during liis regency, and employed his 
 whole time, as well as his riches, in the 
 adorning his kingdom, aiid improving the 
 condition of iiis people. He provided for 
 tlie repose of his companions in arms, en- 
 riched, repaired, and ornamented the tem- 
 ples of the gods, and beautilied his whole 
 country with splendid public and private 
 edifices. 
 
 After a long period abundant in fable 
 we come to Cetes, who is called by Greek 
 authors Proteus, and is celebrated in an- 
 cient fable as the son of Oceanus and The- 
 tis. On account of his wisdom, and per- 
 haps on account of his dexterity in the art 
 of deception, and what was then considered 
 magic and enchantment, he was said to have 
 had the power of changing his shape. 
 Dwelling upon the seashore and cultivat- 
 ing commerce, he was reputed to be a sea 
 god, and to have had the care of the sea- 
 calves. Hence Statius calls him Neptuni 
 pnstorcm. 
 
 Rhempsis or Rhampsinitus, the imme- 
 diate successor of Proteus, is mentioned 
 here as having erected an expensive build- 
 ing for the reception of his treasure; being 
 much attached to riches. In times like 
 those in which he reigned, it is natural to 
 suppose that means woukl l)e employed to 
 spoil him of his wealth; and the story of 
 Herodotus concerning the device of the 
 architect for giving himself a private mode 
 of access to the king's treasure is unwor- 
 thy of belief. Tiiis king is said to have 
 enlarged and adorned the temple of Vul- 
 can. 
 
 After a considerable interval in the his- 
 tory of Egypt, in which we can find no- 
 thing concerning the arts worthy of record, 
 Ciieops or ("lieninis, who is mentioned by 
 ancient historians undt r a variety of other 
 appellations, is said to have erected the 
 largest of the pyramids. See Pyramid. 
 His succes;^or Cepiirenes erected the se- 
 cond, and other kings of less note enit)el- 
 lished the country with grand and splen- 
 did edifices. 
 
 Eg\ pt continued in a similar slate till 
 the ancient race of her kings were extir- 
 pated ; the claims to the throne being un- 
 setthul, and the kingdom feeble, it became 
 a province under the yok(' of IN-rsia. 
 Canihyses became its most cruel and 
 bloodthirsty persecutor. He traniple<l 
 U|)iin their laws, he violated all tiir pre- 
 judices and feelings of the people, he in- 
 
EGYPT. 
 
 suited the dead bodies of their ancestors, 
 which were held peculiarly sacred by 
 the Egyptians, and violated the remains 
 of their beloved king Amasis ; and spared 
 neither age nor sex nor feelings in his mad 
 career. He seized upon the temple of 
 Jupiter Amnion and violated its sanctuary, 
 he burned and destroyed the buildings 
 and public edifices of Memphis, and proved 
 himself to be one of the most dreadful 
 scourges that could afflict human nature. 
 
 After remaining a province of Persia 
 for a great length of time, Egjpt was at- 
 tacked and taken from the power of Per- 
 sia by Alexander the Great ; who founded 
 the city of Alexandria, and othei'wise 
 benefited the Egyptians. The story of its 
 founding by Dinocrates is well known to 
 every reader of Vitruvius. 
 
 Ptolemy was the next monarch who is 
 found as a patriotic sovereign, although 
 he was not at first honoured with the ap- 
 pellation of king. Ptolemy Soter was of 
 a literary character, wrote the life of Al- 
 exander the Great, and was a great lover 
 of science and of the arts. He founded a 
 college which became the abode of learned 
 men; and he formed a library to assist the 
 cultivation of science. The munificence of 
 this king was manifested in the splendid 
 buildings of his museum, as well as in the 
 magnificent temple which he erected to 
 Serapis in Alexandria, as well as in the 
 watch tower of Pharos, which he con- 
 structed for the commercial interests of 
 the country. In less than two reigns after 
 this munificent king, Egypt became at first 
 the ally, then tributary to, and lastly, a 
 province of the Romans. The civil wars 
 that happened in the reign of Cleopatra, 
 the widow of Ptolemy Philometer, and of 
 the sons of Ptolemy Euergetes II. sur- 
 named Physcon on account of his corpu- 
 lence and unseemly figure, destroyed 
 Egypt, dilapidated its temples and other 
 public edifices, and introduced anarchy, 
 rage, and bloodthirstiness, instead of the 
 beneficial influence of the fine arts. Egypt 
 under the Romans flourished, as did all 
 the colonies of that powerful people. Her 
 public buildings, art, and science improved, 
 and she became once more an enlightened 
 and powerful nation. But her day was 
 passed for much improvement in tlie arts. 
 Being only a province of the universal 
 Roman empire, Rome was the metropolis ; 
 and all her public works were compara- 
 tively neglected for the aggrandisement of 
 Rome. Rome raised yearly in Egypt alone 
 an immense annual revenue. Strabo men- 
 tions having seen, in an oration of Cicero's, 
 that the tributes which Ptolemy Auletes, 
 
 the father of Cleopatra, levied upon his 
 kingdom of Egypt amounted to twelve 
 thousand five hundred talents a year. " Au- 
 letae patri Cleopatrae quotannis duodenum 
 millium et quingenum talentorum tribu- 
 tum alferri solitum." Strabo, lib. 17. Geog. 
 
 During the time of Julius Cajsar, Mark 
 Antony, Cleopatra, and the Roman em- 
 perors, till the reign of Dioclesian, the af- 
 fairs of Egypt were turbulent and preca- 
 rious. The arts flourished but little, for 
 no one took care even of their religious 
 and national edifices. On the contrary, 
 while Claudius was emperor, the Egyp- 
 tians were robbed of one of the finest of 
 their obelisks, which was conveyed to 
 Rome, and placed upon the Vatican hill. 
 While Hadrian was emperor of Rome he 
 visited his dominions in Egypt, and re- 
 mained in that country for the space of 
 two years. He restored many of their 
 privileges of which they had been de- 
 prived, he enlarged the museum, reerected 
 many public buildings which had been 
 thrown down, and carried with him the 
 spirit of that love for the arts, and parti- 
 cularly for architecture, which always dis- 
 tinguished this munificent and splendid 
 emperor. He gave his name Hadriano- 
 polis to one of their cities, which still com- 
 memorates his benefactions and public 
 spirit. Egypt was also visited by the em- 
 peror Severus, who viewed and repaired 
 many of their national monuments, and 
 Dioclesian continued to bestow attention 
 upon it as a province. 
 
 The history of Egyptian art now began 
 to draw to a close, for when the Roman 
 empire fell, its provinces declined with it, 
 and when the Christian religion became 
 the religion of Rome, the heathen temples 
 were destroyed, and some of their inde- 
 cent and lewd emblems were exposed to 
 public view. The Egyptians, however, 
 adhered generally to the idolatry of their 
 forefathers ; they assumed a posture of 
 defence, and posting themselves in the 
 temple of Serapis, which was a strong and 
 massy building, they made a stout and 
 long resistance. They were, however, 
 overpowered, and the god Serapis himself 
 sliivered in pieces. 
 
 Egypt became, after this, interesting in 
 art to antiquaries alone, all her buildings 
 became awful ruins, but of an almost in- 
 destructible quality. They have been 
 treated upon in the articles Architecture 
 and Arts, to v.hich the reader is referred 
 for otlier particulars. 
 
 The Egyptians, notwithstanding their 
 partiality tor hieroglyphics, never charac- 
 terized themselves or their country by any 
 
El K 
 
 symbol3 upon their monuments ; which, as 
 they related to themselves and their coun- 
 try alone, without a sinp;le allusion to any 
 others, they never found occasion for. But 
 the allegorical genius of the Greeks found 
 no difficulties in designating Egjpt by in- 
 telligible and efficient symbols. The pro- 
 ductions of their country, tlie objects of 
 their worship, their peculiar and uational 
 works of art, all had so particular and so 
 distinctive a character, and so totally dif- 
 ferent from those of everj^ other nation, that 
 any one of them introduced into a compo- 
 sition indicated that the subject bore a re- 
 lation to Egypt. Their mode of representing 
 the hippopotamits, the crocodile, the sphynx, 
 the sistrum, the lotus (see these words), 
 are all symbols or attributes under which 
 Egypt is represented on many Roman me- 
 dals. The pyramids, obelisks, and Egyp- 
 tian architecture, with sphynxes and cro- 
 codiles, have served modern artiste for the 
 same purpose ; as may be seen in several 
 monuments in Westminster Abbey and St. 
 Paul's Catliedral, particularly in Mr. West- 
 macott's cenotaph to Sir Ralph Abercrom- 
 bie, in the latter ; and in several of Lord 
 Nelson's, alluding to the signal defeat of 
 the French fleet ofl' the mouth of the Nile. 
 
 Egypt is often personiiied by ancient 
 artists as a female seated, and holding a 
 sistrum, having near to her a basket filled 
 with corn, and sometimes an ibis. Some- 
 times under the figure of a spliynx with 
 wings, and the aspect of a young and beau- 
 tiful virgin. These personifications, as 
 was before mentioned, are not of Egyptian 
 but of Roman origin. After the battle of 
 Actiuni, which placed all Egypt under the 
 power of Augustus, the newly conquered 
 province was designated ujjon their medals 
 by a crocodile, inscribed /E(;Ymo Capta. 
 Upon some fine medallions of Nismes are 
 represented a crocodile chained to a palm 
 tree, wliicii designates the conquest of 
 Egypt by Augustus. 
 
 EcYiTiAN Architecture. See Arcih- 
 
 TECTCRE. 
 
 EcYiTiAN. [from Egypt.] //i the hisloni 
 of Htc arts. 'J'liat wiiicli belongs to or 
 tomes from Egypt, or is in tlje Egj'ptian 
 style. The character of the face of tlit^ 
 great sphynx at Ghi/.a induced \ oliu>y to 
 suppose tliat tlie ancient I-gyptians were 
 of Ethiojjian origin. The I'.gvptian style 
 of art is peculiarly national iiiid cliaracter- 
 istic, as may be seen by referring to the 
 articles E(;vpt, ARtiiiTEtTLiu:, I'aintinc, 
 Sculpture, Style, nnd to the various 
 works with engravings mentioned in the 
 several articles. 
 
 EiKON or Icon, [iron, Lut. IHkiov, Gr.] 
 
 ELE 
 
 In the history of the arts. According to 
 Pliny and other ancient writers on art, this 
 word means generally a resemblance, a 
 picture, a portrait, or the statue of an in- 
 dividual. In Greek inscriptions it means 
 a portrait or a statue of a citizen, which a 
 city or a confederation erected in some 
 public place in honour of his public ser- 
 vices. 
 
 Ekkyklema. See Exostra. 
 
 El.«othesilm. [Lat. 'EXawQitrtov, Gr.] 
 In ancient architecture. The name of the 
 apartment in the ancient baths, in wliich, 
 according to Vitnivius, the bathers used 
 to anoint their bodies when they left tlie 
 bath. It was situated by the side of the 
 frigidarium, and is sometimes called unc- 
 tuarium. See Bath. 
 
 Electklm. [Lat. "HXricrpov, Gr.] In an- 
 cient ficm sculpture. Electrum, according 
 to Ovid, was that resinous substance now 
 called amber; of which there are two 
 kinds, the white and the yellow. The 
 yellow transparent sort is the most ad- 
 mired, but the opake variety, of a yellow- 
 ish colour, is not uncommon. Sometimes 
 its colour approaches to a hyacinthine red. 
 Also, according to J^liny (lib. 30, cap. 4), 
 a mixture of gold and silver, of which the 
 fifth part was silver. According to other 
 ancient writers, they had three varieties 
 of substances called c?fc<ru»« that were used 
 in the arts ; namely, glass, a compound 
 metal, and succinum. In the Homeric 
 poems electrum is often mentioned, which 
 seems to have been succinum, the yel'ow 
 or white amber. According to Eustathius, 
 tlie ancients used sometimes to call gold 
 by this name, probably from its brilliancy, 
 the word 'HXfjcrwp signifying the sun. 
 The compound metal which Pliny calls 
 electrum, and its projiortions, are men- 
 tioned above ; he observes that it is more 
 brilliant and resplendent than pure gold. 
 Pliny also lliinks that this compound me- 
 tal or alloy is the same that Homer men- 
 tions in the fourth book of the Odyssey, 
 in describing the palace of Menelaus, 
 v\ hicii he says was ornamented with gold, 
 <7(V<r«m('H\tKr()ov), silver, and ivory. But 
 there is reason to believe, says Millin, 
 tiiat if the electrum of Homer was a me- 
 tallic alloy or compouixl metal, Homer 
 would not have omitted it in his descrip- 
 tion of the shield of Achilles. Some wri- 
 ters, among which is tlie scholiast u])iin 
 Aris(<)|)hanes, suppose that the electiiun 
 of Homer was glass, but there is nothing 
 in any of his works to warrant su<-h a suj)- 
 position, f(U' glass is not designated i)y any 
 charader. It is more probable that elec- 
 trum was yellow amber, which has a rc> 
 
ELE 
 
 splendent sunny brilliancy according witli 
 its Greek name; and Herodotus mentions 
 that succinum or amber was known to the 
 ancients. 
 
 Concerning Pliny's account of the com- 
 pound metal of gold, with a tifth part of 
 silver, which he calls electrum, he is cor- 
 roborated by Isidorus as to the quality 
 and compound, except in their respective 
 quantities ; the latter giving two parts of 
 gold to one of silver to his electrum. 
 There are many ancient coins of this rich 
 alloy, the principal of which are some of 
 the kings of Bosphorus, some small ones 
 of Syracuse, and many Celtic and of an- 
 cient Gaul. Gold alloyed with silver they 
 called electrum; with copper, aurichalcum 
 or chalcoUbanos, 
 
 Elegance, Elegant, lelegantia, elcgnns, 
 Lat.] In all the arts. A species of beauty 
 rather soothing than striking ; beauty 
 without grandeur ; pleasing with minuter 
 beauties, and without elevation. Elegance 
 in art does not imply that which is distin- 
 guished by oi'naments ; which, if distri- 
 buted in profusion and in good taste be- 
 comes richness, and if without judgment, 
 disorder or confusion. Elegance, on the 
 contraiy, like taste itself, depends more 
 on manner than matter ; and, like taste, 
 does not consist in expense. Elegance 
 may be found in a cottage where expense 
 cannot enter, and may be missed in a pa- 
 lace where want, in the slightest degree, 
 was never heard of. In literature a dis- 
 course or essay is said to be elegant when 
 the arrangement of the subject, and the se- 
 lection of the words and phrases are well 
 chosen, and express the meaning of the 
 author, rather happily than forcibly, more 
 in the way of an admirer than an able pro- 
 fessoi', more like an amateur than an art- 
 ist. Thus the discourses of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds are more elegant than learned, 
 those of Coypel more practical than ele- 
 gant, those of Opie more forcible and ener- 
 getic than either, and those of Fuseli 
 more critical and, in some places, power- 
 ful, energetic, and cynically satirical than 
 attractive. The harmony of language, 
 with a species of polish and elegance, like 
 his paintings, seem to have guided the pen 
 of Reynolds : a desire of communicating 
 all that he knew the mind of Coypel : Opie 
 found himself in a new world, and that he 
 only had to say. Do thus — and you will do 
 it — instead of enplaining first principles 
 and didactic method: and Fuseli, the ener- 
 getic, the erratic, the original, and critical 
 Fuseli, to censure, laugh at, and expose 
 the weaknesses of imbecility, and to laud 
 genius, " to deter rather than to delude," 
 
 ELE 
 
 to borrow from himself rather than to 
 teach, ex cathedra, the elements of his art 
 in an elegant manner. Elegance, how- 
 ever, belonged not to Michel Angiolo,who 
 assumed and took higher qualities: it did, 
 however, to Raflaelle, who possessed, in a 
 certain degree, many as high. Coreggio 
 was elegance in itself; so was Canova. 
 PJiidias aimed higlier, and, if we may 
 judge from those works which bear his 
 name, he assumed, he attempted, he reach- 
 ed beauty with grandeur, and could exe- 
 cute beauty with the milder radiance of 
 elegance. 
 
 In architecture an edifice is said to be 
 elegant when it avoids all that is superflu- 
 ous, all which contributes only to magni- 
 ficence and splendour, and which is exe- 
 cuted after the most approved models, in 
 the choicest style, and finished in the most 
 exquisite manner; avoiding useless extra- 
 vagance both in materials and workman- 
 ship, embellishing rather the humble than 
 adding to the rich or extravagant. It is 
 the Doric of art: — remote from poverty, 
 and far from gaudy richness or extrava- 
 gance of mere wealth. In point of fact, a 
 boudoir or a cabinet should be elegant, an 
 audience room or presence chamber of a 
 sovereign rich, a ^senate house grand, and 
 (perhaps) a banqueting house for a pecu- 
 liarly magnificent occasion extravagant in 
 expense, but not in taste. 
 
 Elegance consists in a good selection 
 and tasteful arrangement of necessaries ; 
 demands rather more embellishment than 
 mere want requires, and therefore is gene- 
 rally pleasing. Concominance will mostly 
 produce elegance, but there must be a 
 whole. This eminent quality of art re- 
 quires a decided harmony ; there must be 
 no discords nor discrepance, no dingy gild- 
 ing, but every part must accord. How- 
 ever plain, it must be neat in proportion, 
 embellished with simplicity and taste, and 
 yet useful. Elegance like taste can be 
 better felt and understood than described. 
 The simplex munditiis of Horace, the gra- 
 cilis te puer in rosa of the same elegant poet 
 explain the epithet to perfection. 
 
 Elegance may even exist with a species 
 of negligence, if it be not accompanied 
 with impei'fection, but it does not apper- 
 tain to the superior kind of beauty which 
 belongs rather to majesty and magnificence. 
 The beauty of the Venus Callipygos ap- 
 proaches the character of elegance more 
 than that of the Apollo Belvedere or the 
 Venus de Medici, Avhich are majestic, 
 grand, and far above the minuter beauties 
 of tliat milder sort, which by convention 
 we term elegant. The figures of Coreg- 
 
ELE 
 
 gio are, in a similar degree, more elegant 
 than those of Rallaelle, v\lio is again in 
 style more elegant than Michel Angiolo. 
 According to Mengs this quality in art 
 consists in a great variety of curved lines 
 and angles ; for the flexibility and undu- 
 lation of an outline consists of such a va- 
 riety ; which description of variety mainly 
 contributes to the elegance of Coreggio. 
 Mengs WAS, however, a mechanical artist, 
 and might define but could not imitate 
 what Sterne happily calls the Coreggios- 
 city of Coreggio. 
 
 Elephant, [elephantus, Lat. 'E\e<j)dvrog, 
 Gr.] In the history and archaiology of the 
 fine arts. The largest of quadrupeds, of 
 whose sagacity, fidelity, and intelligence, 
 many surprising relations are given. His 
 teeth furnish the finest ivory. These qua- 
 drupeds are not mentioned by the Greek 
 historians as having been employed in 
 their armies before the time of Alexander 
 the Great, whose generals brought them 
 into P^urope. The Romans became ac- 
 quainted with them for the first time in 
 the year 472 A. U. C, in the armies of 
 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who entered 
 Italy in aid of the inhabitants of Taren- 
 tum. It being in Lucania that elephants 
 were first seen by the Romans in the ar- 
 mies of Pyrrhus, occasioned them to be 
 called by that people Lucanian oxen (bos 
 Lucas). Seven years after this event the 
 consuls Marcus Curius Dentatus, and Lu- 
 cius Cornelius Lentiilus, led the elephants 
 of Pyrrhus in the triumph which followed 
 the defeat of that prince and his allies. 
 After this they Avere often used in their 
 triumphal ceremonies. In the year 502 
 A. I). C. they were introduced into the 
 public sports to combat each other, against 
 other animals, and even against the gla- 
 diators. Suetonius and other writers re- 
 late, that in the reign of Nero an elephant^ 
 mounted by a horseman, descended from 
 an elevated stage in the ami)hitlicatre to 
 the arena, and walked upon a rope. 
 
 The senate of Rome erected to the ho- 
 nour of Ralbinus, Maximus, and Gordian, 
 stytues placed in triumphal chariols drawn 
 each by four elepliants. (^assiodorus 
 speaks of bronze elephants in tin; \'ia 
 Sacra, and Victor places, in the eighth 
 region of the city, the statue of ati elej)liant 
 tlmt was known by the name of tlie (/lyj/nM 
 hcrlmrius, as being near to the forum olito- 
 rium, or vegetable market, which was last 
 by order of Augustus. At Constantinople 
 there were formerly, near the Pinia Aiirra, 
 sonje elei)hanls of bronze, which were said 
 to resemble those which Theoilosius used 
 ill his triumphal entry, and which hi' took 
 
 ELE 
 
 from the temple of Mars at Athens. In 
 the hippodrome, according to Nicetas, was 
 a fine elephant of bronze, which was after- 
 wards taken away by the Romans. In 
 the Forum of Constantine there was also 
 an elepiiant of bronze, which Avas over- 
 thrown and destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 The figure of this animal is often to be 
 met with on Greek and Roman coins and 
 medals. The ancient kings of Syria, who 
 often used elephants, have also figure<l 
 them upon their medals; sometimes alone, 
 sometimes with a driver, and at other 
 times attached to a chariot. Seleuchus I. 
 who bred elephants with great care, was 
 so much attached to them that he received 
 therefrom the nickname of Elephentarchus, 
 master of elephants. Antiochus I. repre- 
 sented elephants upon his medals in com- 
 memoration of the signal victory which he 
 obtained, by means of his ten elephants, 
 over the Galatians, who Avere very supe- 
 rior to him in the number of men. Tiie 
 elephant is also represented on medals 
 struck at Apamia in Phrygia. 
 
 This quadruped, as the emblem of Afri- 
 ca, is found on medals of the Ca'cilian 
 family of Rome ; and also on the reverse 
 of a denarius of the Apronian family, as 
 the symbol of the fifth legion, Avhich Avas 
 given them by Julius Ca?sar for having 
 beaten, in one of his engagements, the van- 
 guard of the enemy, Avhich Avas fortified 
 by elephants. For this I'eason it is pro- 
 bable that Julius C;esar also adopted the 
 same figure on several of his medals, al- 
 though IMillin makes it a matter of ques- 
 tion. According to Servius and Spartia- 
 nus, it was because the grandfather of 
 Ca*sar killed in Africa an elephant, which 
 is called in the Punic language Cusar, 
 and that he adopted it as a symbol in com- 
 memoration of that event. Titus Livius, 
 however, makes mention of a pra'tornanu d 
 Scxtus Julius, surnamed Caesar in the 
 year of Rome 545, in the second Punic 
 Avar, from Avhom as their ancestor Julius 
 took i»is surname. Otln'r Avriters tliink 
 that this figure on the medals of (?a>sar al- 
 ludes to the combat of elephants Avhich ho 
 gave to the people, in his dictatorship, 
 after iiis victorious return from Spain, 
 Avhere he defeated Pompeius, S(ni of Poni- 
 peius, ill the year of Rome 710; Avliilo 
 t)tliers, with more \ndlial)ility, think tliat 
 the elephant on Ca'sar's medals relates to 
 his victory over Scipio and Juba in Africa : 
 in memory t)f Avhich event other of Ca-sar's 
 medals are inscribed Avitli an elephant 
 trampling on a dragon. 
 
 According to Aristotle (he elephant Avaa 
 dedicated (o the sun, an<l looked upon as 
 
ELE 
 
 the longest liver of all animals. On ac- 
 count of this longevity this quadruped is 
 used as an emblem of eternitj^ upon me- 
 dals of Philip, of Diocletian, and of Maxi- 
 minus. Upon many medals of the Em- 
 presses of Rome the thensa or chariot of 
 these princesses is represented as drawn 
 by two or four elephants, and inscribed 
 with the word jEternitas. The epigraph 
 CoNSECRATio, which is found on many si- 
 milar medals of different emperors, denotes 
 that it is in memory of their consecration 
 tliat the elephant is represented upon 
 them. 
 
 In many instances similar medals were 
 struck to record the memory of public 
 games wherein combats of elephants were 
 introduced. Of which many are found of 
 Domitian, Antoninus Pius, Commodus, 
 L Septimius Severus, Heliogabalus, and of 
 r Gordiau, and inscribed with the epigraph 
 
 MUNIFICENTIA. 
 
 Upon several medals commemorative of 
 the secular games, struck in the reign of 
 Philip the elder, is an elephant rode by 
 a driver. On medals of Augustus and 
 Nero are bigas of elephants placed on the 
 summit of a triumphal arch. Tlie skin of 
 an elephant's head, worn as a casque by a 
 female, serves for a symbol of Africa upon 
 the medals of Alexandria in Egypt, and of 
 Cyrene ; of the Roman families of Casci- 
 lia, Cestia, Eppia, Furnia, and Norbana ; 
 and of the emperors Augustus, Nero, Tra- 
 jan, Hadrian, Septimius Severus, Diocle- 
 tian, Maximinus, Galerius, and Maxen- 
 tius. The heads of many Egyptian kings 
 are also represented upon coins and me- 
 dals, covered with a helmet in the shape 
 of an elephant's head. 
 
 According to Begei-, the elephant was 
 also used by the ancients as the symbol of 
 piety and reverence towards the gods, be- 
 cause they believed that he worshiped tlie 
 sun. It was also particularly consecrated 
 to Bacchus, and representations of ele- 
 phants have been found on antique monu- 
 ments containing Bacchanalian proces- 
 sions, in commemoration of that god's ex- 
 pedition to the Indies. 
 
 Elephanta. [from elcphantus, Lat.] In 
 ' the history of the arts. A small island in 
 the harbour of Bombay, in wliich is situ- 
 ated one of those curious and wonderful 
 excavations which have preserved to our 
 times specimens of the sculpture and ar- 
 chitecture of the ancient Hindus. This 
 excavation, which is one of the most sin- 
 gular and interesting, is mentioned in the 
 article Architecture, as far as regards 
 the style of that art therein preserved. 
 
 See Arcihtecti'RE. 
 
 The following ac- 
 
 ELE 
 
 count of this extraordinary effort of art is 
 principally taken from a Memoir by Mr. 
 Goldingham, one of the honourable Com- 
 pany's astronomers at Fort St. George, 
 who published his investigations" in the 
 fourth volume of the Asiatic Researches. 
 
 The Elephanta Cace, which is situated 
 in a small island in the harbour of Bom- 
 bay, has deservedly attracted the atten- 
 tion of the curious. An elephant of black 
 stone, large as the life, is seen near the 
 landing place, from which the island pro- 
 bably took its name : the cave is about 
 three quarters of a mile from the beach ; 
 the path leading to it lies through a val- 
 ley; the hills on either side beautifully 
 clothed, and, except when interrupted by 
 the dove calling to her absent mate, a so- 
 lemn stillness prevails ; the mind is fitted 
 for contemplating the approaching scene. 
 
 The cave is formed in a hill of stone, its 
 massy roof is supported by rows of co- 
 lumns regularly disposed, but of an order 
 diilerent from any in use with us ; gigan- 
 tic figures in relief are observed on the 
 walls ; these, as well as the columns, are 
 shaped in the solid rock, and by artists, it 
 would appear, possessed of some ability, 
 unquestionably of astonishing persever- 
 ance. Several of the columns have been 
 levelled and the figures mutilated, as Mr. 
 Goldingham was informed, by the Portu- 
 guese, who were at the trouble (and no 
 small one) of dragging cannon up the hill 
 for the better execution of this exploit. 
 Destructive superstition seeks not for me- 
 rit ; she commits to the flames and to de- 
 struction members of a community who 
 are most valuable, and structures which 
 do honour to human ability ! 
 
 The wall at the upper end of the cave 
 is crowded with sculpture ; the attention 
 is first arrested by a. colossal bust, repre- 
 senting a being with three heads ; the 
 middle face is presented in full, and ex- 
 presses a dignified composure ; the head 
 and neck are splendidly covered with or- 
 naments. The face on the left is in pro- 
 file, and the head dress rich ; in one of 
 the hands is a flower, and in the other a 
 fruit resembling a pomegranate ; a ring 
 like that worn by the Hindus at present 
 is observed on one of the wrists ; the ex- 
 pression of the countenance by no means 
 unpleasant. The head on the right is dif- 
 ferent ; the face is in profile, the forehead 
 projects, the eyes stare ; snakes supply 
 the place of hair, and the representation 
 of a human skull is conspicuous on the 
 covering of the head ; one hand grasps a 
 monstrous Cohro de' Capella (the hooded 
 snake), the other a smaller; the whole 
 
 i 
 
ELEPIl 
 
 together is calculated to strike terror into 
 the beholder. The height of tliis bust is 
 about eighteen feet, and the breadth of tlie 
 middle face about four. 
 
 Each side of this niche is supported by 
 a gigantic figure leaning on a dwarf. 
 
 A niche of considerable dimensions and 
 crowded with iigures is formed on each side 
 of the former ; in the middle of the niche, 
 on the right, stands a gigantic figure, ap- 
 parently a female, but with only one breast. 
 This figure has four arms, the foremost 
 right hand is leaning on the head of a bull, 
 the other grasps a cobra de capella, while a 
 circular shield is observed in the inner 
 left hand; the head is richly ornamented ; 
 on the right stands a male figure bearing 
 a pronged instrument resembling a trident ; 
 on the left is a female holding a mace or 
 sceptre ; near the principal is a beautiful 
 youth on an elephant; aboAe this is a 
 figure with four heads, supported by swans 
 or geese ; the opposite is another male 
 figure with four arms, mounted on the 
 shoulders of another, having a sceptre in 
 one of the hands. At the top of the niche 
 small figures are sculptured in different 
 attitudes, seemingly supported by clouds. 
 
 The most conspicuous of the groups on 
 the niche to the left is a male figure nearly 
 seventeen feet in height, with four arms ; 
 on its left stands a female about fifteen 
 feet high. The same circular rings worn 
 by the present Hindii women are conspi- 
 cuous on the legs and wrists of this figure ; 
 the hair bears a like correspondence in 
 the mode of putting it up; the counte- 
 nance is particularly soft, and expressive 
 of gentleness. In the back ground a figure 
 with four heads, supported by birds, and 
 one with four arms on the slioulders of 
 another are also observed. Several smaller 
 figures in attendance : one with tiie riglit 
 knee bent to tlie ground, in the attitude of 
 addressing (he princii)al, bears a crese ex- 
 actly resembling that in present use. The 
 heads of most of the small male figures 
 have a whimsical appearance, being co- 
 vered with an exact resemblance of mo- 
 dern wigs. 
 
 On each side of those groups is a small 
 darl; room, wiiicii was liehl sacred in au- 
 <^i(!nt times periiaps from all i)ut the un- 
 polluted IJraiimin ; but bats, sjjiders, scor- 
 pions, and snakes are now in full and un- 
 disturhiMJ possession. To tiie left of tlie 
 last described group, and nearer tiu; sidt! 
 of the cave, is another, in which a male is 
 observed in tiie action of leading a f<'niuU' 
 towards a majestic figure seated in tlie cor- 
 ner of tile niciie, his head covereii like our 
 judges on the bench ; tiie coiinti?nancc and 
 
 ANTA. 
 
 attitud'e of the female highly expressive 
 of modesty emd a timid reluctance; a male 
 behind urges her forward. Several smaller 
 figures compose this group. It is curious 
 to observe, that all the female figures have 
 ornaments sculptured round their wrists 
 and legs like those worn by the Hindil 
 v.omen at present, while the males, bear- 
 ing the same correspondence, \vd\e orna- 
 ments round the wrists onlj*. 
 
 Opposite the last niche, and fifty feet 
 nearer to the entrance, is another of equal 
 dimensions, enclosing a figure that forcibly 
 arrests the attention ; it is a gigantic half- 
 length of a male with eight arms ; round 
 one of the left arms a belt, composed of 
 human heads, is seen; a right hand grasps 
 a sword uplifted to sever a figure, seem- 
 ingly kneeling (but too much mutilated to 
 distinguish it properly) on a block, held 
 in the corresponding left hand ; a cobra de 
 capdla rises under one arm ; among the 
 singular decorations of the head a human 
 skull is observed; above are several small 
 figures represented in distress and pain. 
 Many of the figures are mutilated, as is 
 the principal, whose aspect possesses a 
 great degree of unrelenting fierceness. 
 
 Crossing to the other side of the cave 
 near to one of the small rooms beforemen- 
 tioned is a male, sitting as the people of 
 that country do at present ; a female in (he 
 same posture on his left, with an attend- 
 ant on either side ; at the feet of the male 
 is a figure of a bull couchant ; and in each 
 corner of the niche stands a gigantic 
 guard. Opposite is a corresponden( niche : 
 tlie figures being considerably mutilated, 
 and the situation dark, prevent these being 
 ])roperly discriminated ; a sitting male 
 figure, having an attendant on either luunl 
 is, Iiowever, easily perceived. 
 
 A niche filled with figures greatly de- 
 faced is observed on each side the en- 
 trance. On one side is a male that iiad 
 eight arms, which are all destroyed: in 
 the back part is a figure with four arms, 
 siii)ported by birds; and the other figure 
 with four ht^ads, wlumsicaiiy elt'^ atcd. A 
 large sitting figure is the principal in the 
 opjiosite niche; a horse and rider in (he 
 back ground ; the former caparisoned ac- 
 cording to the present mode of (hat coun- 
 try. 
 
 On tiic left side, and half way up tiie 
 ca\e is an apiulinent about lliirt\ teet 
 S(iuare, enclosing the Liiifiaiii ; an cnlraiii'e 
 on the four sides, and each side of either 
 ♦•ntrance is supi>ortc<l l)y a figure sex en- 
 teen feet iu lieight,eacli liguveoniameuted 
 diU'ereiitly. 
 
 The part of this surprisiir^; monument 
 
ELEPHANT A, 
 
 k 
 
 of human skill and pei'severance hitherto 
 described is generally called the great cave; 
 its length is one hundred and thirty-five 
 feet, and breadth nearly the same. There 
 are compartments on both sides, separated 
 from the great cave by large fragments of 
 rock and loose earth, heretofore probably 
 a part of the roof. That on the right is 
 spacious, and contains several pieces of 
 sculpture : the most remarkable is a large 
 figure, the body human, but the head that 
 of an elephant. The lingam is also en- 
 closed here. Above each, of a line of 
 figures standing in a dark situation, is a 
 piece of sculpture that was pointed out to 
 Mr. Goldingham as an inscription : how- 
 ever (with the assistance of a torch), he 
 found one an exact copy of the other, in 
 different dialects, and with little resem- 
 blance of characters. 
 
 The compartment on the other side con- 
 tains several sculptures, and among the 
 rest, a figure with an elephant's head and 
 human body, A deep cavity in the rock 
 hereabout contains excellent water, which, 
 being sheltered from the influence of the 
 sun, is always cool, and deservedly held 
 in estimation by those whom cui'iosity 
 leads to the cave, through a scorch- 
 ing atmosphere. A traditional account of 
 the extent of this cavity, and the commu- 
 nication of its waters by subterraneous 
 passages, with others very distant, was 
 given him by a native of the island ; which 
 would make a considerable figure in the 
 hands of a poet. 
 
 Gigantic as the figures are, the mind is 
 not disagreeably moved on viewing them, 
 a certain indication of the harmony of pro- 
 portions. Having measured three or four, 
 and examined their proportions by the 
 scale allowed to be the most correct, he 
 found many of them stood even that test, 
 while the disagreements were not equal 
 to what are met with every day in people 
 whom we think by no means ill propor- 
 tioned. 
 
 The island wherein these curious re- 
 mains of antiquity are situated is about 
 five miles and a half from Bombay, in an 
 easterly direction ; its circumference can- 
 not be more than five miles : a neat village 
 near the landing place contains all its in- 
 habitants, whom, inclusive of women and 
 children, number about one hundred. 
 Their ancestors, they tell you, having been 
 improperly treated by the Portuguese, fled 
 from the opposite island of Salsette hither, 
 cultivating rice and rearing goats for their 
 support. In the same humble road do 
 they continue. The islanders have no 
 boat ; they cut wood from the adjoining 
 
 hills, which the purchasers remove in 
 boats of their own ; they are under the 
 protection of the India Company, and pay 
 about fifty-six pounds annually to the go- 
 vernment ; the surplus revenue furnishes 
 their simple clothing. By persevering in 
 this humble path these harmless people 
 continue to rejoice in tranquillity under 
 their banyan tree. The cave, they tell 
 you, was formed by the gods : and this is 
 all they pretend to know of the matter. 
 
 Various have been and are to this day 
 the conjectures respecting the Elephanta 
 Cave. Those who attempt to deduce its 
 origin from the Egyptians, from the Jews, 
 or from Alexander the Great, appear to 
 give themselves much unnecessary trou- 
 ble ; Avhich shall be shown as briefly as 
 the subject will admit of, though at the 
 same time it must be observed, that resem- 
 bling features are not wanting in the case 
 of the Egyptians and of the Jews to lead 
 towards such deductions ; but these re- 
 semblances struck Mr. Goldingham as 
 tending to the elucidation of a more inter- 
 esting hypothesis, viz, that the systems of 
 those people were copies of an original, 
 found in that part of the world. 
 
 The striking resemblance in several par- 
 ticulars of the figures in the cave to the 
 present Hindu race would induce those 
 who from history, as well as from obser- 
 vation, have reason to believe they have 
 preserved the same customs from time im- 
 memorial, to imagine that the ancestors of 
 these people were its fabricators ; but 
 those who are in a small degree acquainted 
 with their mythology will be persuaded of 
 it ; nor is a much greater extent of know- 
 ledge requisite to enable us to discover it 
 to be a temple dedicated principally to 
 Siva, the destroyer or changer. 
 
 The bust is doubtless a personification 
 of the three grand Hindu attributes of that 
 being for whom the ancient Hindus enter- 
 tained the most profound veneration, and 
 of whom they had the most sublime con- 
 ceptions. The middle head represents 
 Brahma, or the creative attribute ; that on 
 the left Vishnu, or the preserving; and the 
 head on the right Siia, or the destructive 
 or changing attribute. 
 
 The figure with one breast has been 
 thought by most to represent an Amazon ; 
 but it is more likely a representation of 
 the consort of Siva, exhibiting the active 
 power of her lord ; not only as Bawani or 
 courage, but as Isani, or the goddess of 
 Nature, considered as male and female, 
 and presiding over generation, and also as 
 Durga. Here we find the bull of Isuara 
 (one of Sira's names), :;nd the figure bear- 
 
 t2 
 
ELE 
 
 ing liis tvisiilo or trident. Tlie beautiful 
 figure on the elephant Mr. GoUlini^lmiu 
 conceived to be Cama, or the Hindu god 
 of Love ; the figure with four Iwads, sup- 
 ported by hirds, is a representation of 
 Brahma ; and that with four arms, mounted 
 on tiie shoulders of another, is Vishnu's. 
 
 The two principal figures in the niche 
 to the left appear to represent Siva and his 
 goddess as Parvata. Here, as before, we 
 observe Brahma and Vishnu in the 6«i7i: 
 f(round. 
 
 The terrific figure with eight arms has 
 been much talked of; some will have it 
 to represent Svlomon threatening to divide 
 the harlot's child ; others, with more rea- 
 son on tlieir side, suppose it to represent 
 the tyrant Causa attempting the life of the 
 infant god Crishiia, wlien fostered by the 
 herdsman Ananda. To Mr. G. tiie third 
 attribute, or the destroijcr in action, ap- 
 peared too well represented to be mis- 
 taken. The distant scene, where the 
 smaller figures appear in distress and pain, 
 is perhaps the infernal regions. The figure 
 about to be destroyed does not seem to be 
 an infant, but a full grown person ; if, in- 
 deed, the destroyer was of the human size, 
 the figure in question would bear the pro- 
 l)er proportion as an infant ; but as he is 
 of enormous magnitude, a human being, 
 full grown, would appear but an infant by 
 the side of him ; and thus it is that people 
 have been deceived : a case by no means 
 uncommon in circumstances like the pre- 
 sent. 
 
 The sitting male and female figures hav- 
 ing a bull couciiing at Ihe feet of tin; for- 
 mer are Sira and his guddess ; and tlius 
 are they represented in tlie pagoda of the 
 l)resent day. 
 
 No person can mistake the figure with 
 the hunuvn body and el(i)hanl's head for 
 any other than Gancsu, the Hindu god of 
 Wisdom, and the first born of Sira ; and 
 thus is he represented at present. 
 
 From what has been advanced, it v, ill 
 ai)pear incontestable tiiat this is a Jlindfi 
 Icniph' ; whimce the lingam is a testimony 
 ynllicicnt of Sira's !ia\ing presided there, 
 wiliu)iit tiie oilier e\iilences which the in- 
 telligent in the Hindu mythology will 
 hav(! discovered in liie course of liiis ac- 
 count. 
 
 To deduce the era of the fabrication of 
 this structure is not so easy a task ; but it 
 was, no doubt, jxisteiior to the great sciiism 
 in the Hindu religion, which, according to 
 the I'uraniis, lia))pened at a period cot'Val 
 with our date of the creation. He this as 
 it may, we have accounts of povM-rful 
 primes who ruli'd this part of the counlrv 
 
 ELE 
 
 of the later date, particularly of one who 
 usurped the government in the ninetieth 
 year of the Christian era, famed for a pas- 
 sion for architecture. Many worse hypo- 
 theses have been, than one which might be 
 formed of his having founded the cave; 
 but Mr. Goldingham was led to imagine, 
 that no certain conclusions on this dark 
 subject could be drawn from the sources 
 of information open at present. See Sir 
 WiLMAM Jones's Treatise on the Gods of 
 India, published in his Discourses edited 
 by James Eijvies, M. K. I. A. 2 vols. 12mo. 
 London, 1821. 
 
 Elevation, [eleratio, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture. The height of a building above the 
 ground. The word elevation technically 
 mean? the gecmietrical representation of 
 an edifice measured vertically to the hori- 
 zon, Avithout regard to projections. It is 
 the sanse as the ancient architects called 
 orthof^raphia, and our old writers, like 
 Moxon, orthograpliy, but which is now 
 more correctly termed geometrical ele\ a- 
 tion. The graphic parts of an architectu- 
 ral design are the plans, geometrical ele- 
 vations, sections, details at large, and per- 
 spective views. 
 
 Ei.F.LsiMAN. [t7cJ/,s/Hi«, Lat. from eleusis.] 
 In archaiulogij. Sacred rites and ceremo- 
 nies performed by the ancient Greeks at 
 Eleusis, in honour of Ceres, with lighted 
 torches and in secret. They were not to 
 be spoken of under pain of death. 
 
 Elei SIS. [Lat. 'FXtvciQ, Gr.] In the his- 
 tory of ancient architecture. A town of At- 
 tica that was next in rank to Athens. The 
 road that connected these two cities was 
 dignified by the title of the sacred way ; 
 and was nearly four leagues in length. 
 The temple of Ceres and Proserpine stood 
 on a hill above the town ; it was built in 
 the time of I'ericles of Pentelican marble, 
 and no cost was spared to increase its 
 magniliceiu-e. Its length was three hun- 
 dred and eighty four feet, i>y three hun- 
 dred and tw enty-five feet. In this temple 
 the famous Eleusinian mysteries were ce- 
 lelirated. 1-leusis is now a miserable vil- 
 lage of about thirty mud houses. There 
 was also a temple of Diana, calleil from its 
 situation, Diana I'ropy lea. 
 
 In 1812 Eleusis was visited by a mission 
 from the Dilettanti Society of Loudtui, 
 consisting of Sir William Gell, a member 
 of tiiat society, and well known by his 
 works uixin tin; 'I'road, Ithaca, Argolis, 
 and l»omi)eii, assisted by two architects, 
 INIessrs. J. I'. Gaudy and V. IJedford. 
 These gentlemen sailed towards the end 
 of the year IHll, and at the bt'ginning of 
 LS12 anixod at /ante, fioni a\ hence they 
 
ELE 
 
 Tepaired to Athens, and being there de- 
 tained by the difliculty of procuring a safe 
 passage to Smyrna, employed themselves 
 in excavations at Eleusis, where the tem- 
 pleSj although of so high importance, had 
 never yet been examined, from the depth 
 of soil under which their ruins were 
 buried. The result of their labours was 
 the discovery of the great mystic temple of 
 Ceres, consisting of a cella, about one hun- 
 dred and eighty feet square, with a por- 
 tico of frvvelve magnificent Doric columns 
 of Avhite marble, more than six feet in dia- 
 meter. 
 
 The approach to this temple by " the 
 sacred way" from Athens, was over an 
 extensive pavement, supposed by the tra- 
 vellers to be the area of Triptolemus, on 
 the right hand of which was discovered a 
 most beautiful small Doric temple in antis, 
 probably that of Diana Propylcea. The 
 Propylajum itself was exactly similar to 
 lliiit of the Acropolis of Athens, already 
 published by Stuart. Within this was a 
 second portal of the Corinthian order, 
 w liich opened immediately into the peri- 
 bolus of the great temple. 
 
 The society have published one volume 
 of these elaborate and accurate researches, 
 which is surpassed by no architectural 
 publication extant, and is equalled only 
 by the second volume of the Antiquities of 
 Athens, which derives no inconsiderable 
 portion of its interest from the contribu- 
 tions of this patriotic society. It is called 
 " The unedited Antiquities of Attica, 
 comprising the architectural remains of 
 Eleusis, Rhamsius, Sunium, and Thoricus : 
 by the Society of Dilettanti, imperial 
 folio, 78 fine plates by the best engravers, 
 from the drawings of John Peter Gandy, 
 and Francis Bedford. 
 
 These drawings, as far as concerns 
 Eleusis, were a general plan of the build- 
 ings in and about Eleusis. Plan, eleva- 
 tions, section, and details at large and 
 figured of the temple of Diana Propylsa. 
 Similar drawings and details of the tem- 
 ple of Ceres ; and of the Propyla?a, with 
 all the orders, panellings of the marble 
 cieling, lacunaria, &:c. Order of the Co- 
 rinthian pilasters and all the details. A 
 map of the city of Eleusis, church of Agios 
 Zaccharias, a tomb on " the sacred way," 
 view of the rock of the Panagia, view of 
 Eleusis from the Mole, another view from 
 the east, Athens and Eleusis from the top 
 of Corydallus. A complete catalogue of 
 all the drawings, maps, &c. made in this 
 interesting mission is printed in the third 
 volume of the Annals of the Fine Arts, 
 p. 478, by the author of this Dictionary ; 
 
 ELG 
 
 who gives the preceding statement of a 
 portion of the labours of this excellent 
 society with the greatest satisfaction. It 
 is really surprising to witness the energy 
 of all classes of the British people at this 
 important period in cultivating and ex- 
 tending the arts of peace and of civiliza- 
 tion. Almost all our great discoveries 
 and important works are made by indivi- 
 duals or private societies of individuals ; 
 and while the late govei'nment of France 
 gave to the world their noble and splendid 
 Avork on Egypt, Lord Elgin is unable to 
 publish his magnificent collection of archi- 
 tectural drawings ; and the Ionian Com- 
 mittee of the Dilettanti Society are appre- 
 hensive (see their report of 1817), that 
 unless they have pecuniary assistance 
 either by the subscription of the members 
 of the society, or by other means, the re- 
 sults of their useful labours cannot be all 
 accomplished. They are really more en- 
 titled to a parliamentary grant to continue 
 their objects than any other society in 
 England after the British Museum. 
 
 Elgin IMarbles. In the urchaiologij of 
 architecture and sculpture. A series of an- 
 cient sculptured marbles, named after 
 Thomas Earl of Elgin, by whom they were 
 rescued from the barbarous hands of the 
 Turks, brought to England, and finally 
 sold to the British government, who have 
 deposited them in the British Museum for 
 the use of the public. 
 
 These miracles of ancient art belonged 
 originally to the temple of Minerva Par- 
 thenon, and to some other edifices on the 
 Acropolis at Athens. Their ancient his- 
 tory is well known ; they were imagined 
 and directed by Phidias, and executed 
 in part by his chisel, were for more than 
 seven hundred years the admiration of 
 the ancient world ; and have been re- 
 garded by all competent judges as inimit- 
 able for their perfection in art. During 
 the period of Lord Elgin's embassy to the 
 Poi-te, some eminent artists in England 
 recommended the object of this collection 
 as one of the highest importance to the 
 fine arts. It was proposed as such to the 
 English government, who declined the un- 
 dertaking, which appearing of doubtful 
 issue, his lordship engaged in the pursuit 
 entirely at his own risk and expense. 
 
 Lord Elgin, in pursuit of this patriotic 
 scheme, took six of the first artists from 
 Rome, and employed them several years 
 upon the undertaking, and continued his 
 establishment at Athens for sixteen years, 
 and succeeded, by unconquerable exertion 
 and perseverance, in achieving what pow- 
 erful and favoured sovereigns had, in sue- 
 
ELGIN M 
 
 cessive ages, attempted in vain ; what Ca- 
 n()\a would have been contented to have 
 come to Loudon alone to have seen*. 
 
 It is to be considered among the difli- 
 ciilties of Lord Elgin's undertaking that 
 he had to remove the enormous and pon- 
 derous pieces of marble a distance of nearly 
 live miles from Athens to Peiraeeus, the 
 port of maritime Athens, in a country 
 without roads, without machinery, and 
 without any other resources than manual 
 exertion. He had to convey them to Eng- 
 land, to bring (hem from tlie out ports to 
 London, and to keep them there at a con- 
 siderable expense. His lordship had also 
 the misfortune to lose a valuable vessel of 
 his own employed in tlie service, that was 
 wrecked ofl" Cerigo, while having on board 
 a number of tliese marbles, which he after- 
 wards recovered with infinite labour, great 
 perseverance, and cost. Besides these, it 
 is well known that no operations can be 
 conducted in Turkey without the distri- 
 bution of presents ; Avhich are always pro- 
 portioned to the rank of tlie parties, and 
 the eagerness or difficulty of the pursuit. 
 And that, while Lord Elgin negotiated as 
 ambassador with the officers of the empire 
 at Constantinople (the city of Athens be- 
 ing the jointure of the Sultan's mother), 
 his artists had to purcliase the good will 
 of the persons in authority on tlie spot, on 
 every occurrence, wherever any assistance 
 was required. 
 
 In a memoir upon these marbles written 
 by that eminent archaiologist and critic 
 the chevalier E. Q. Visconti, and read at 
 a public meeting of the two classes of the 
 llujal Institute of Trance in tiie year Itilo, 
 he admits that Ihe most celebrated collec- 
 tions of Europe contain scarcely any of 
 those monuments of sculpture, of vvhicli 
 the classic authors have given us an ac- 
 count as being in general estimation among 
 tlic ancients. He excepts the Laocoiin 
 and a few conjectural copies of a small 
 number of masterpieces of the great sculp- 
 tors ; the hope of seeing the originals of 
 which ajipeared to be lost for ever. " liut 
 in viewing," C(uilinues he, " tiie marbles 
 wliidi the; i^arl of Elgin has removed from 
 Athens to London, tin; connoisseur is per- 
 fectly certain tliat he is iMuitcinplaling a 
 variety of tliose valual)le works whidi, in 
 the time of IMutardi (i'lut. I'ericl. § i:{), 
 that is, in the age of Trajan, were regarded 
 as iniinit;il)l(' for their grace and bfaulv." 
 And all agn e that (hey jiresent an indis- 
 
 • Sec Ciuiova's liKcr lo F,or(l F,li;iii <if ilu- lOlli 
 NovcinhiT, ISIft, ol'lcii rt'|irinti'(l ; iiiiil wliii-li Ii.m 
 nlri-aily pifwliirod IIk' most btiKllcial cfltcts ii|)i>u (lie 
 finu arts of tlie country. 
 
 .\RBLES. 
 
 putable standard of perfection in art, and 
 are an invaluable acquisition to our rising 
 school of art. 
 
 These celebrated relics of the most glo- 
 rious days of ancient art consisted, when 
 Lord Elgin first brought them to Eng- 
 land, of 
 
 1. Several of the matchless statues 
 which adorned the pediments of the tem- 
 ple of Blinerva Parthenon at Athens. 
 
 2. A number of the metopes from the 
 same temple. 
 
 3. The whole remaining frieze of the 
 temple, of which about two hundred and 
 fifty feet is original, in marble: the re- 
 remainder is in casts executed on the spot. 
 
 4. Casts, also executed on the spot, of 
 all the sculpture of the Theseium, or tem- 
 ple of Theseus. 
 
 5. A great variety of fragments of valu- 
 able sculpture from Athens, various in 
 their subject and execution. 
 
 6. A complete series of architectural 
 drawings, containing the most accurate 
 details of every building that can still be 
 traced in Athens, or in the Peloponnesus, 
 and restorations of the most conspicuous 
 edifices executed on the spot, in a style of 
 the highest professional excellence t. 
 
 7. Specimens of the most admired cha- 
 racteristics and embellishments of archi- 
 tecture, such as columns, capitals, friezes, 
 &:c. &c. ; many of these originals, others 
 taken from the buildings. 
 
 8. A very precious and numerous series 
 of inscriptions, coiiiprehendiiig many of 
 considerable value to history, to literature, 
 and to the arts. The Boustrophedon of 
 Cape Sigajcum is among (he number of 
 these invaluable and authentic documents. 
 
 9. A number of vases procured by exca- 
 vations in (he neighbourhood of Athens. 
 
 10. And a collection of medals contain- 
 ing some of great m(?rit and interest. 
 
 The beforeinentioned drawings, num- 
 bcri'd (i, the vases, and medals, were not 
 iiuhided in the purchase by govcrnnu-nt. 
 
 The importance of these extraordinary 
 works to the arts of this country uu'rits, in 
 a dictiouarv of tlie tine arts, the fullest in- 
 vestigation ; their history is tlu'rcfore 
 
 i Tlii.i is llie onlliilioii alliulcd to lu'iir llio closi' of 
 tlie prccriliiii; iiiliclt', ;inil of wliirli Mr. W ilkiii>, in 
 his Atlu'iii>'ii.si,i, 8a,>s )ic " has been iiiloinuil that 
 l-onl lOI'iiirs inti'iiliuii of piililislilii^ a »-oiii|ili-lr and 
 spliiidid work iVoni the diawimis made on Ihr spot 
 has hiin nhandoncd, in ronstipn-nci' of Ihr cslinialrd 
 cxpi use of lli<> iindt'ilakini;, and ihi- lilllc prohahilily 
 tliat siu'li a work would lie in siiHiticnl drinand lo 
 diliaj Ihr inccssary expenses of pidilioalion." Surely 
 the uoveinineni who pniehased sneh a hai^ain should 
 gralil\ the puhlie and serve lun' artists, l>y undei tak- 
 ing; the pulilicalioii itself, tliroui;l> ''■'' medinui ul the 
 liiilisli iMu.-ciiiii. 
 
ELGIN MARBLES. 
 
 traced from the time that Lord Elgin first 
 indulged the idea of bringing them to his 
 native country, and as his lordship gave 
 his authority to a most interesting little 
 work, written by his then secretary, W. 
 Hamilton, Esq. entitled a " Memorandum 
 on the subject of the Earl of Elgin's pur- 
 suits in Greece." The following account, 
 which is decidedly the best, is extracted 
 from it. 
 
 In the year 1799, when Lord Elgin was 
 appointed his majesty's ambassador extra- 
 ordinary to the Ottoman Porte, he was 
 in habits of frequent intercourse with Mr. 
 Harrison, an architect of great eminence 
 in the west of England, whom his lordship 
 consulted on the benefits that might pos- 
 sibly be derived to the arts in this coun- 
 try, in case an opportunity could be found 
 for studying minutely the architecture and 
 sculpture of Ancient Greece ; whose opi- 
 nion was, that although we might possess 
 exact admeasurement of the public build- 
 ings in Athens, yet a young artist could 
 never form to himself an adequate concep- 
 tion of their minute details, combinations, 
 and general eflects, without having before 
 him some such sensible representation of 
 them as might be conveyed by casts. 
 
 On this suggestion Lord Elgin proposed 
 to his majesty's government, that they 
 should send out English artists of known 
 eminence, capable of collecting this infor- 
 mation in the most perfect manner ; but 
 the prospect appeared of too doubtful an 
 issue for ministers to engage in the ex- 
 pense attending it. Lord Elgin then en- 
 deavoured to engage some of these artists 
 at his own charge ; but the value of their 
 time was far beyond his means. When, 
 however, he reached Sicily, on the recom- 
 mendation of Sir William Hamilton, he 
 was so fortunate as to prevail on Don Tita 
 Lusieri, one of the best general painters in 
 Europe, of great knowledge in the arts, 
 and of infinite taste, to undertake the exe- 
 cution of this plan; and Mr. Hamilton, 
 who was then accompanying Lord Elgin 
 to Constantinople, immediately went with 
 Signor Lusieri to Rome, where, in conse- 
 quence of the disturbed state of Italy, they 
 were enabled to engage two of the most 
 eminent /orwrtYor/, or moulders, to make the 
 madreformi for the casts ; Signor Balestra, 
 a distinguished architect there, along with 
 Ittar, a young man of promising talents, to 
 undertake the architectural part of the 
 plan ; and one Theodore, a Calmouk, who, 
 during several years at Rome, had shown 
 himself equal to the first masters in the 
 design of the human figure. 
 
 After much difficulty Lord Elgin ob- 
 
 tained permission from the Turkish go- 
 vernment to establish these six artists at 
 Athens ; where they systematically prose- 
 cuted the business of their several depart- 
 ments during three years, under the gene- 
 ral superintendance of Signor Lusieri. 
 
 Accordingly every monument, of which 
 there are any remains in Athens, has been 
 thus most carefully and minutely measured, 
 and, from the rough draughts of the archi- 
 tects (all of Avhich are preserved), finished 
 drawings have been made by them of the 
 plans, elevations, and details of the most 
 remarkable objects ; in M'hich the Calmouk 
 has restored and inserted all the sculp- 
 ture with exquisite taste and ability. He 
 has besides made accurate drawings of 
 all the bassi relievi on the several temples, 
 in the precise state of decay and mutila- 
 tion in which they at present exist. 
 
 Most of the bassi rilievi and nearly all 
 the characteristic features of architecture 
 in the various monuments at Athens have 
 been moulded, and the moulds of them 
 brought to London. 
 
 Besides the architecture and sculpture 
 at Athens, all similar remains which could 
 be traced through several parts of Greece 
 have been measured and delineated, with 
 the most scrupulous exactness, by the se- 
 cond architect Ittar. 
 
 In the prosecution of this undertaking 
 the artists had the mortification of witness- 
 ing the very wilful devastation to which all 
 the sculpture, and even the architecture, were 
 daily exposed on the part of the Turks and 
 travellers: the former equally influenced 
 by mischief and by avarice, the latter from 
 an anxiety to become possessed, each ac- 
 cording to his means, of some relic, how- 
 ever small, of buildings or statues which 
 had formed the pride of Greece. The 
 Ionic temple on the Ilyssus which, in 
 Stuart's time (about the year 1759), was 
 in tolerable preservation, had so entirely 
 disappeared, that its foundation was no 
 longer to be ascertained. Another temple 
 near Olympia had shared a similar fate 
 within the recollection of many. The tem- 
 ple of Minerva had been converted into a 
 powder magazine, and was in great part 
 shattered from a shell falling upon it dur- 
 ing the bombardment of Athens by the Ve- 
 netians, towards the end of the seventeenth 
 century; and even this accident has not 
 deterred the Turks from applying the 
 beautiful temple of Neptune and Erec- 
 theus to the same use, whereby it is still 
 constantly exposed to a similar fate. Many 
 of the statues over the entrance of the 
 temple of Minerva, which had been thrown 
 down by the explosion, had been powdered 
 
ELGIN MAllBLES. 
 
 into mortai-jbccause they offered the whitest In regard to the works of the architects 
 marble within reach; and parts of the mo- employed by him, he had naturally, from 
 dern fortification, and the miserable houses the beginning, looked forward to their 
 where this mortar had been so applied, being engraved ; and accordingly all such 
 are easily traced. In addition to these plans, elevations, and details as to those 
 causes of degradation, the Turks will fre- persons appeared desirable for that ob- 
 quently climb up the ruined walls and ject, were by them, and on the sjjot, ex- 
 cimuse themselves in defacing any sculp- tended with the greatest possible care for 
 ture they can reach; or in breaking co- tiie purpose of publication. Besides these, 
 lumns, statues, or other remains of anti- all the working sketches and measure- 
 quity, in the fond expectation of finding ments offer ample materials for further 
 within them some hidden treasures. drawings, should they be required. It 
 
 Under these circumstances Lord Elgin was Lord Elgin's wish that the whole of 
 felt himself irresistibly impelled to endea- the drawings might be executed in the 
 vour to preserve, by removal from Athens, highest perfection of the art of engraving ; 
 any specimens of sculpture he could, with- and jfor this purpose a fund should be 
 out injury, rescue from such impending raised by subscription, exhibition, or other- 
 ruin. He had, besides, another induce- wise ; by aid of which these engravings 
 ment, and an example before him, in the might still be distributable, for the benefit 
 conduct of the last French embassy sent of artists, at a rate of expense within the 
 to Turkey before the Revolution. French means of professional men. 
 artists did then attempt to remove several Great difficulty occurred in forming a 
 of the sculptured ornaments from several plan for deriving the utmost advantage 
 edifices in the Acropolis, and particularly from the marbles and casts. Lord Elgin's 
 from the Parthenon. In lowering one of first attempt was to have the statues and 
 the metopes the tackle failed, and it was bassi rilievi restored ; and in that view he 
 dashed to pieces; one other object was went to Rome to consult anil to employ 
 conveyed to France, where it is held in the Canova. The decision of that most emi- 
 highest estimation, and where it occupies neut artist was conclusive. On«examin- 
 a conspicuous place in the gallery of the ing the specimens produced to him, and 
 Louvre, and constituted national property making himself acquainted with the whole 
 during the French Revolution. The same collection, and particularly with what 
 agents were remaining at Athens during came frtnn the Parthenon, by means of the 
 Lord Elgin's embassy, waiting only the persons who had been carrying on Lord 
 return of French influence at the Porte to Elgin's operations at Athens, and w ho had 
 renew their operations. Actuated by these returned with him to Rome, Canova de- 
 inducements Lord Elgin made every ex- clared, " Tliat however greatly it was to 
 ertion ; and the sacrifices he has made be lamented that those statues should have 
 have been attended with such entire sue- sullered so much from time and barbarism, 
 cess, that he has brought to England, from yet it was undeniable, that tiiey never had 
 the ruined temples at Athens, from the been retouched ; that they were the work 
 modern walls and fortifications, in whuh of the ablest artists the world had ever 
 many fragments had been used as blocks seen; executed under the most enlight- 
 for building, and from excavations from ened patron of the arts, and at a period 
 amongst the ruins, made on jjurpose, such when genius enjoyed the most liberal en- 
 u mass of Athenian sculpture, in statues, couragement,and had attained the highest 
 alti and bassi rilievi, capitals, cornices, d<-gree of perfection ; and that they had 
 friezes, and columns as, with the aid of a been f.uind worthy of forming the <lecora- 
 few of the casts, to present all the sculp- tion of the most admired edifice ever 
 ture and architecture of any value to the erected in Greece. That he should have 
 artist or man of taste vvhicli can be traced had the greatest delight, and dcriNcd the • 
 
 greatest benefit from the opportunity Lord 
 JCIgin oll'ered him of having in liis posses- 
 sion and contemiilating these inestimable 
 marbles. Hut" ( Itis ixinmsion iras ) " it 
 would be sacrilege in him <>r any man to 
 presume to touch them with his «-iiisel." 
 Since their arrival in this ct>unlry they 
 lia\e lici'ii laid open to the insiiccliou of 
 liie public ; and the oi)inions and impres- 
 sion:', mil oidy of urtlHts, but of uicn of 
 taste in j',i ncral, have thus been lornu-d 
 
 at Athens. 
 
 In proportion as Lord Elgin's plan ad- 
 vanced, and the means ac(uinnilated in his 
 hands towardsallording an accurate know- 
 ledge of the W(nks of arcliilccdiie and 
 sculptnr(t in Alliens and in Greece, it Ik-- 
 canio a subject of anxious inquiry with 
 him, in what way tin; greatest degree of 
 bcuelit could be derived to the arts from 
 what he li.iij liiTu so fortunate as to i>ro. 
 » uri . 
 
ELGIN MARBLES. 
 
 aiul collected. From these the judgment 
 pronounced by Canova has been univer- 
 sally sanctioned : and all idea of restoring 
 the marbles deprecated. Meanwhile the 
 most distinguished painters and sculptors 
 have assiduously attended the museum, 
 and evinced the most enthusiastic admira- 
 tion of the perfection to which these mar- 
 bles now prove to them that Phidias had 
 brought the art of sculpture, and which 
 had hitherto only been known through the 
 medium of ancient authors. They have 
 attentively examined them, and they have 
 ascertained that they were executed with 
 the most scrupulous anatomical truth, not 
 only in the human figure, but in the vari- 
 ous animals to be found in this collection. 
 They have been struck with the wonderful 
 accuracy, and, at the same time, the great 
 ■eil'ect of minute detail ; and with the life 
 and expression so distinctly produced in 
 every variety of attitude and action. Those 
 more advanced in years have testified the 
 liveliest concern at not having had the ad- 
 vantage of studying these models : and 
 many who have had the opportunity of 
 forming a comparison (among these are 
 the most eminent sculptors and painters 
 in this metropolis), have publicly and un- 
 equivocally declared, that in the view of 
 professional men, this collection is far 
 more valuable than any other collection in 
 existence. 
 
 With such advantages as the possession 
 of these unrivaled works of art aflford, and 
 with an enlightened and encouraging pro- 
 tection bestowed on genius and the arts, 
 it may not be too sanguine to indulge a 
 hope that, prodigal as nature is in the per- 
 fections of the human figure in this coun- 
 try, animating as are the instances of pa- 
 triotism, heroic actions and private virtues 
 deserving commemoration, sculpture may 
 soon be raised in England to rival these, 
 the ablest productions of the best times of 
 Greece. The reader is referred to the sy- 
 nopsis of the British Museum, and to the 
 Chevalier Visconti's Memoirs, before 
 quoted, for complete and authentic cata- 
 logues of these marbles, but the following 
 brief abstract is necessai-y to give a view 
 of what they consist to readers who may 
 reside at a distance from the metropolis, or 
 have not those works at hand. In that 
 part of the collection which came from the 
 eastern pediment of the Parthenon are 
 several statues and fragments, consisting 
 of two horses' heads in one block, and the 
 head of one of the horses of night, a statue 
 of Hercules or Theseus, a group of two 
 female figures, a female figure in quick 
 motion, supposed to be Iris, and a group 
 
 of two goddesses, represented one sitting 
 and the other half reclining on a rock. 
 Among the statues and fragments from the 
 western pediment are part of the chest 
 and shoulders of the colossal figure in the 
 centre, supposed to be Neptune, a frag- 
 ment of the colossal figure of Minerva, a 
 fragment of a head, supposed to belong to 
 the preceding, a fragment of a statue of 
 Victory, and a statue of a river god called 
 Ilissus, and several fragments of statues 
 from the pediments, the names or places 
 of Avhich are not positively ascertained, 
 among which is one supposed to have been 
 Latona, holding Apollo and Diana in her 
 arms ; another of the neck and arms of a 
 figure rising out of the sea, called Hype- 
 rion, or the rising Sun ; a torso of a male 
 figure with drapery thrown over one 
 shoulder. The metopes represent the bat- 
 tles between the Centaurs and Lapitha-, 
 at the nuptials of Pirithous. Each metope 
 contains two figures, grouped in various 
 attitudes ; sometimes the Lapitlia?, some- 
 times the Centaurs victorious. The figure 
 of one of the Lapithae, who is lying dead 
 and trampled on by a Centaur, is one of 
 the finest productions of the art, as well 
 as the group adjoining to it of Hippoda- 
 mia, the bride, carried off by the Centaur 
 Eurytion ; the furious style of whose gal- 
 loping in order to secure his prize, and his 
 shrinking from the spear that has been 
 hurled after him, are expressed with pro- 
 digious animation. They are all in such 
 high relief as to seem groups of statues ; 
 and they are in general finished with as 
 much attention behind as before. They 
 Avere originally continued round the enta- 
 blature of the Parthenoir, and formed 
 ninety-two groups. The frieze which was 
 carried along the outer walls of the cell 
 offered a continuation of sculptures in low 
 relief, and of the most exquisite beauty. It 
 represented the whole of the solemn pro- 
 cession to the temple of Minerva during 
 the Panathenaic festival ; many of the 
 figures are on horseback, others are about 
 to mount, some are in chariots, others on 
 foot, oxen and other victims are led to sa- 
 crifice, the nymphs called Canephora', Skio- 
 phorae, &c. are carrying the sacred offer- 
 ing in baskets and vases ; there are priests, 
 magistrates, warriors, deities, &c. &c. 
 forming altogether a series of most inter- 
 esting figures in great variety of costume, 
 armour, and attitude. 
 
 From the Opisthodomus of the Parthe- 
 non Lord Elgin also procured some valu- 
 able inscrij)tions, written in the manner 
 called Kionedon or columnar. The sub- 
 jects of these monuments are public de- 
 
ELL 
 
 crees of llie people, accounts of tlio riches 
 contained in the treasury, and delivered 
 by the administrators to their successors 
 in oflice, enumerations of the statues, the 
 sih er, gold, and precious stones deposited 
 in the temple, estimates for public works, 
 &c. (see Athens, Parthenon, Theseium, 
 &c.); and for books the Student is referred 
 to A Letter from the Chevalier Antonio 
 Canova ; and two 3Icinoirs read to the 
 Jioijal Institute of France, on the Sculptures 
 in the Collection of the Earl of El fi in, btj the 
 Chevalier E. Q. Visconti, member of the 
 class of the Jine arts, and of the class of his- 
 iorij and ancient literature, author of the Ico- 
 nographie Grecque, and of the jSIuseo Pio 
 Clemcntino, translated from the Frencli and 
 Italian, Svo. London, 1816. Memoran- 
 DLM on the subject of the E.vrl of Eix;in's 
 Pursuits in Greece, second edition, 8vo. 
 London, 1815. Athenienslv; or, Remarks 
 on the Topography and Buildings of Athens, 
 by W1U.IAM WiLKiNs, A.M. F.R.S. late 
 fellow of GonvJl and Caius College, Cam- 
 bridge, Svo. London, 1816. Annals of 
 TirE Fine Arts, vols. 1 and 3, for Report 
 of the Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons, &c. .5 vols. 8vo. London, 1820, 
 &;c. Choisel'i. GouFFiER, Voyiige Piito- 
 resque de la Grece, 2 torn. fol. l*aris, 1782, 
 1809. The Topography of Athens, by Colo- 
 nel Leake. 
 
 EiJ>oRA. [from Elloo lajah, who is said 
 to have built it.] In ancient architecture 
 and sculpture. An ancient Hindu town, 
 called also Elloor and Verrool, situate in 
 a line \ alley near to Dowlatabad or Deog- 
 hire, a strongly fortilied place in tlie Dec- 
 can of Hindiistan, fifteen miles from Au- 
 rungabad, the capital of the province of 
 Dowlatabad or Amednagure; where, in 
 tlie ranges of mountaias that surround it, 
 is a series of excavated pagodas, most of 
 which are cut out of the solid rock. For 
 the space of nearly two leagues together 
 liiere is little else to b(^ seen llian pagodas 
 of this nature, in wiiich there are thou- 
 sands of figuris, appearing, from tiu? style 
 of llieir sculjitiin , lo have Ix'en of ancient 
 Hindu origin. M. The\tnol, who lirst 
 gave any <lcscription of them (Voyages, 
 jiart. iii. cliap. 11), asserts his belief of 
 llieir great anti<juity and Hindu origin. 
 
 'J'lie excavated pagodas or stulptured 
 caverns of Ellora are among the most as- 
 tonishing works of ar( p<rrornie(l by any 
 ancient people for size, number, curiosity, 
 and skill. They were visitetl in 1704 by 
 Sir Chari.ks Ware M \i.et, Hart, who 
 piibiislicd a detailed account of the chief 
 of I Ik in in the sixth volume of (he Asiatic 
 Hesearciies. The plan and niea.^nremenls 
 
 ELL 
 
 were taken by Lieutenant James Mam.ey, 
 the drawings by a very ingenious native 
 in the baronet's service, named Gungaram, 
 and he was farther assisted by the mas- 
 terly talents of Mr. Wales, an able artist, 
 who was at that time in India. This faith- 
 ful and very detailed account has been 
 used by subsequent travellers, and the 
 plates copied even with their faults by a 
 recent traveller without any acknowledg- 
 ment. 
 
 Sir Charles Malet's inquiries as to the 
 origin and date of these wondrous works 
 were not so satisfactory in their results as 
 he wished and expected. He also doubted 
 not but that they were the works of a peo- 
 ple whose religion and mythology were 
 purely Hindu, and most of the excavations 
 carry strong marks of dedication to Mah- 
 UEw or i\1ah.aj)Eo, as the presiding deity. 
 The fanciful analogies of some travellers, 
 particularly that which attributed to the 
 eight handed figure of Veer Buddur, hold- 
 ing up the Rajah Dutz in one hand, and a 
 drawn sword in another, with the famous 
 judgment of Solomon, must vanish, and we 
 must seek no longer for colonies of Jews, 
 Egyptians, Ethiopians, or Pharnicians to 
 supersede the more rational nu)de of ac- 
 counting for such works in the enthusias- 
 tic labour and ingenuity of the natives of 
 the country ; by w hich means the wonder 
 is at least simplified, which is no trifling 
 point gained to minds in search of and in 
 lov e with truth. The difference of the in- 
 scriptions in some of the caves, as observed 
 by Sir Charles Malet, from the present 
 known characters of Hindustan, may be 
 objected fo their being the production o{ 
 Hindu artists ; but it is well known that 
 the fornuition of letters undergoes great 
 changes in the course of ages, and (hat 
 such may be the case with respect to the 
 excavations on that side of India may 
 be fairly inferred, as the baronet forcibly 
 observes, from the dilliculty with which 
 IMr. C;harles Wilkins, a most learned man 
 in llindiistanei' literature and anticpiitics, 
 traced and recovered some inscriptions in 
 the neighbourhood of Ghya. 
 
 Tiuuigh Sir Charles Malet was fully 
 perbwaded that the generality of the exca- 
 vations which he had se»;n, not onlv at 
 Ellora, but elsewhere, were dedicateil to 
 AImiuew or Mahaueo; yet he di<l not 
 nieau to abaiulon an idea, that the most 
 northerly caves of IJIora, occupied by the 
 naked, sitting, and standing tigures, are 
 the works of tin- Sewras or Jnltees, who, 
 by the lirahmins, are ehteenu-d schisma- 
 tics, and whose sect, called Sruuuk, is 
 very numerous in {iuzerat. 
 
EXCAVATED TEMPLES OF ELLOllA. 
 
 On the antiquity of these astonishing 
 works Sir Charles gives two different ac- 
 counts of two intelligent men, one a Ma- 
 homednn, and the other a Hindu. Tlie 
 first, named Meer al.\ Khan, an inhabi- 
 tant of Ahmednagure, who said he had 
 received it from a person of acknowledged 
 erudition. The second, a Brahmin, inha- 
 bitant of Roza, quoted a book, the authen- 
 ticity of which Sir Charles could not dis- 
 cover, entitled Sewa Lye Mahat, or the 
 grandeur of the mansion of Sewa, that is 
 RIahdew. 
 
 Tlie Mohamedan's account was, that the 
 town of Ellora was built by the Rajah Eel, 
 who also excavated the temples, and being 
 pleased with them, formed the fortress of 
 Deoghire (Dowlatabad), which is a cui-ious 
 compound of excavation, scai'piug, and 
 building, by which the mountains were 
 converted into a fort, resembling the insu- 
 lated temple in the area of the Indijr 
 Subba, in the mountains of Ellora. Eel 
 Rajah, he said, was contemporaneous with 
 Shah jNIomim Arif, who lived above nine 
 hundred years ago. 
 
 The Brahmin, on the other hand, inform- 
 ed Sir Charles that the excavated temples 
 of Ellora were then (1794) 7894 years old, 
 formed by Elloo rajah, the sou of Pesh- 
 pont of Elichpore, when 3000 years of the 
 Dwarpa I'o«g- were unaccomplished, which, 
 added to 4984 of the present Kal Voag, 
 made 7984. The Rajah was afflicted witii 
 a sore disease, from which he was cured 
 by the waters of Ellora, so that, looking 
 upon the place as holy, he excavated and 
 formed these wonderful pagodas. 
 
 This wide difference in the era between 
 the Mohamedan and the Hindu is exlra- 
 ordinai7, particularly when we reflect that 
 they both agree in the person of Eel, or 
 Elloo rajah as the author of these excava- 
 tions, who being identified as living in the 
 same age with a well known character, 
 throws the weight of probability into the 
 IMohamedan's scale ; and Sir Charles Ma- 
 let very correctly observes, it must be re- 
 marked, that however fond the writers of 
 that faith may be of the marvellous, in 
 points of preternatural agency, according 
 to their own system; yet, as annalists, 
 they seem more entitled to credit than the 
 Hindus, whose historical and theological 
 chronology is greatly mixed with and ob- 
 scured by fable. " Whether we consider," 
 says Sir Charles, " the design, or contem- 
 plate the execution of those extraordinary 
 works, we are lost in wonder at the idea 
 of forming a vast mountain into almost 
 eternal mansions. The mythological sym- 
 bols and figures throughout the whole 
 
 leave no room to doubt of their owing their 
 existence to religious zeal, the most pow- 
 erful and most universal agitator of the 
 human mind." 
 
 The following brief descriptions of these 
 most extraordinary efforts of human skill 
 are abridged from the accurate accounts 
 of the abovenamed gentlemen, who so mi- 
 nutely examined and detailed the princi- 
 pal of them. They commence from the 
 northernmost excavations, and are conti- 
 nued in the order in which they are situ- 
 ated in a mountain, which runs in a small 
 degree of circular direction from N. 25. W. 
 to S. 25 E. 
 
 The first cavern in this rotation is called 
 JuGNATH Slbba, and fronts s. 15 e. and is 
 a fine excavation that faces the entrance 
 of the area, having, on the left side Ad- 
 naut Subba, and on the right some other 
 small excavations almost choked up, as is 
 also the lower story of this. The ascent 
 to the upper story is by a flight of steps, 
 in the right corner of the excavation, which 
 is in very fine preservation, many parts 
 of the ceiling, pillars, &c. having the 
 coats of lime with which the marks of the 
 chisel have been concealed, and Avhich 
 has been curiously painted, still adhering 
 to the stone. Opposite to the front of the 
 cave is a large figure sitting crosslegged, 
 with his hands in his lap one over the 
 other, which the Brahmin who attended 
 Sir Charles called Jugnath ; his two at- 
 tendants he called Jay and Bidjee*. On 
 each side of the entrance of the recess are 
 two standing figures, whom he called Sld 
 and Bud. The whole room, except the 
 open front, has the same figures as that in 
 the recess, but of a smaller size. They all 
 appear to be naked, and to have no other 
 covering on the head than curled hair. 
 The Brahmin who shows the caves has a 
 legend that they were fabricated by Bis- 
 KURMAt, the carpenter of Ramchlnder, 
 who caused a night of six months, in which 
 he was to connect these excavations with 
 the extraordinary hill and fort of DonUta- 
 bad or Deoghire, about four coss distant ; 
 but that the cock crowing, his work was 
 left unfinished, and the divine artist took 
 the Ontar of Bode. On the left hand side 
 of this fine cave there is a coarse niche 
 that opens into the Adnaut Subba below. 
 This cave consists of two oblong squares, 
 the inner one being formed by twelve pil- 
 lars, the four at each end differing from 
 those in the centre. 
 
 * In the Hindu inythologj- Jatt and Bidjke, or 
 WlJEE, are the porters or doorkeepers of Vishnu. 
 
 t VrswA, or Wisma Ki'RMa, creator or maker of 
 the \Norld. 
 
EXCAVATED TEM 
 
 The cieling has been very handsomely 
 painted in circles, many parts of which 
 and tlie border, consisting of figures, are 
 entire, both of men and Avomen, the former 
 of which are generally bareheaded, with 
 short drawers or chulmts; tlie woman with 
 only tlie lower parts cohered. There is 
 110 inscription in the cave. There are 
 groups of dancers and singers, with the 
 same instruments as are now in use. Some 
 of tlie painted figures have highly orna- 
 mented head dresses like Tiaras ; but it 
 seems an argument against the antiquity 
 of the painting, tiiat much of the fine sculp- 
 ture and fluting of the pillars are covered 
 by it, which, it may be supposed, would 
 not have been done by the original artist. 
 
 The second excavation is named Ad- 
 NALT SuHBA, and is on the left hand en- 
 trance of tlie former. The entrance of this 
 excavation is unfinished, and above the 
 entrance has the figures of Llchmee Nak- 
 ftAiN, with two attendants, much injured 
 by time and weather. At the extremity 
 of the cave, opposite the entrance, is seated 
 the idol Adnaut ; and from the left there 
 is an opening into another cave of smaller 
 ilimensions, but infinitely better work ; 
 which is now so much choked with earth 
 as to have left scarce more than the capi- 
 tals of tiie pillars above the ground. The 
 capitals are very handsomely finished in 
 the style of the front ones of Jugnatli 
 Sithba. 
 
 The third is Inoi'R StUBA, and fronts the 
 soutii. Tlie entrance to this magnificent 
 pagoda or assemblage of excavations is by 
 a handsome gateway cut from the rock, 
 on which are two lions couchant. Tiiere 
 is a small cave, much choked, before liie 
 gateway, on the right hand. From the 
 doorway opens an area, in which stands a 
 |)agoda or temple of a pyramidal form, in 
 which is jjlaced a kind of scpiare altar, 
 with figures on each side, of the same kind 
 as In the last Suhha. This temple is ela- 
 borately finished with sculpture, and a 
 mass of sculplureil rocks serves as the 
 gate, left and fasiiioned wIumi the avenue 
 to the iiuuM' apartments was cut througii 
 tiic stony mountain. 
 
 In the same area, on the left hand side 
 is a very handsome obelisk, the capital of 
 wiiich is beautilied wilii a grou]) of silting 
 huiiian figures that are looscncul from tiu- 
 mass. The obelisk is fluted and orna- 
 incnlcd witli great taste, and has a \cry 
 iighl a]i|)('arance. 
 
 Oil the right hand side of the area is an 
 cle])liaiit, l)ut without rider or llodii. 
 
 On the left hand side of the same area 
 is an excavation, with a figure like the 
 
 PLES OF ELLORA. 
 
 preceding ones, in the recess opposite the 
 entrance. In this there are also the re- 
 mains of painting on the ceiling, »5ic. with 
 abundance of sculptured figures on the 
 sides within, and without of elephants, 
 lions, &c. On the right hand side the ex- 
 cavations are imperfect above and below. 
 After passing the same temple in the area 
 is the entrance of the lower story of this 
 iS«/;/;a, which is in a very unfinished state, 
 but has a figure in the recess opposite the 
 entrance like the former. 
 
 From this lower story is the ascent to 
 the upper by a flight of steps, on the right 
 hand side, fronting the top of which is a 
 gigantic figure of Inuur, with a tiara ou 
 his head, a jinoee or Brahmin string over 
 his left shoulder, sitting on an elephant 
 couched. Opposite to him is Indkanee, 
 his consort, seated under a mango tree on 
 a lion. At the end of this cave is a recess 
 with the same figure as the former, who 
 seems to be the presiding idol. This room 
 is formed into two nearly square divisions 
 by twelve pillars. In the middle of the 
 inner square is an altar. 
 
 Tiie fourth cave is Plrsakam Svbba. 
 On the left hand side of the upper story 
 of the Iiiditr Siiliint there is a passage into 
 this Siiliba, which, though smaller than 
 any of the foregoing, is exactly alike, and 
 equal to them in the fabric and preserva- 
 tion of its work. There is a passage from 
 it into the upper story of Jiignafli Suhba, 
 already described, which will explain the 
 contiguity of these tiiree caves. 
 
 The fifth is Doomak Leyna. W. 15 S. 
 distant from the last about a quarter of 
 a mile. 
 
 The entrance to this stupentlous exca- 
 vation is through a cut or hiuo in the solid 
 rocky mountain. On the left hand side of 
 tiiis lane is a cave that is near choked up 
 witli earth. The lane tenniiiates from ^\ ilii- 
 out at a doorway, which opens to an area, 
 at the end of nv liich, opposite the door, is a 
 small cave. On the right hand of the area 
 is the great excavation, having at its en- 
 trance two lions couchant, one of which 
 has lost its lu'ad. The entrance to this 
 cave is by a kiiul of veraiula, on the left 
 hand side of which is a gigantic sitting 
 figure of DiUMA rajah, with a club in his 
 hand, ami a jiiiocf over his siioulder. On 
 the right hand W iswKVsiiwi It M \iiiu:w, 
 in a dancing altitude, with a group of 
 ligui'cs round him, among which is the 
 bull \itii(lic. 
 
 After passing this veriuida the cavo 
 widens very considerably, and still more 
 after passing the next si'ction of pillars, 
 till it reaches the centre or fourth section, 
 
EXCAVATED TEMPLES OF ELLORxV. 
 
 on the left of which is the centre dow of 
 a very fine square temple, on the right en- 
 trance of which is a fine standing figure of 
 Mvs, a tiara on his head, a jinoee on his 
 shoulder, and Bouannee standing by him, 
 with two small figures above. 
 
 Oh the other side are groups in a simi- 
 lar style, of sculptures of various deities 
 of their mythology. 
 
 The end opposite the entrance by tlie 
 alley, and which exactly resembles it, has 
 a small area, descending a great depth by 
 steps to a pool of water, supplied l)y a cas- 
 cade that falls, during the rainy season, 
 from the whole height of the mountain. 
 Over the staircase is a small gallery, 
 meant, seemingly, to sit and observe the 
 falling stream. 
 
 On the right hand side, on entering from 
 the avenue, there is a gi'oup of a standing 
 woman and seven small figures, the left 
 hand has nothing. On entering the first 
 section of pillars there is, on the right 
 hand, a representation of the nuptials of 
 GouRA Mahdew and Parwuttee, with a 
 great number of figures above. Rajah 
 DuTZ and Alia, Parwiittee's father and 
 motlier on one side, and Brimha in a sit- 
 ting posture, performing the marriage ce- 
 remony, with Vishnu standing behind him. 
 In front of this group are the circles cut in 
 the floor for performing the Liidcha Home, 
 or nuptial sacrifices. On the left hand 
 side is another group of Mahoew and 
 Parwuttee, with the bull Nundee. 
 
 There are, as in the other, remains of 
 painting in this cave, but principally on 
 the ceiling. The heads of the figures in 
 this cave are generally adorned with high- 
 ly decorated tiaras. 
 
 Number of pillars forty-four, the space 
 occupied by the temple interrupting the 
 ranges. It is well worthy notice, that one 
 of the beams of stone that, crossing this 
 cave, rests on the heads of the pillars is 
 much thicker than the rest; which, it may 
 be supposed, arose from the workmen per- 
 ceiving some flaw in such an immense 
 space of ceiling supporting such a mass of 
 mountain above. 
 
 The sixth of these wonderful caverns is 
 called JuNWAssA, or the place of Nuptials. 
 Aspect W. N.W. This excavation is just 
 across the chasm that lies between it and 
 Doomar Leijna, It is much inferior to the 
 preceding. .It has a veranda with win- 
 dows, by which the inner cave is enlight- 
 ened, in which there are figures of Mah- 
 dew, Vishnu, and Brimha, on the left of 
 the door ; Bhuixel, Luchme, and Nar- 
 RAiN on the right ; and on the left hand 
 extremity, of the Bhurra Oittar, in which 
 
 the boar is represented as bearing Prifn'rt* 
 or the world, on his tooth, and having- 
 Serjs under his foot. On the right hand 
 side is a sleeping figure of Room Kurn, 
 attended by a female. The entrance to 
 this cave is from the veranda by the door. 
 In it are no figures of any note, though 
 there are niches. 
 
 The seventh is Comar Warra, aspect 
 W. N. W. This cave is near the last. Its 
 entrance deformed by fallen rock and ac- 
 cumulated earth. It is composed of four 
 sections, divided by four pillars, though 
 the outer one is unsupported by any at 
 present, whatever it may have been for- 
 merly, and is from the immense overliang- 
 ing mass of unsupported rock that the 
 fragments have fallen, which deform and 
 obstruct the entry. The four sections de- 
 crease gradually in length, the last bein»- 
 a recess. On each side of the door of 
 which there are handsome colossal figures, 
 the right hand one having a straight sword 
 in his hand ; the other is mutilated ; but 
 there is no figure within the recess, though 
 there is a pedestal that seems intended to 
 receive one. 
 
 The eighth is named Gaana, or the oil- 
 shop. This is a small group of little rooms 
 a lew yards from the last, and probably 
 takes its name from a place like that used 
 by oilmen for expressing oil. It merits 
 little notice otherwise than as exhibiting a 
 figure of the idol Gunnes, and the Ling- of 
 Mahdew. Very near it is another group 
 of small rooms of nearly the same style, 
 with two Lings of Mahdew. 
 
 The ninth is Neelkunt Mahdew, aspect 
 W. S. W. This excavation is a few yards 
 from the last. At its entrance is the bull 
 Nundee, in a square enclosure, on which 
 lime has made its ravages. After passing 
 this figure of Nundee are a few steps, on 
 each side of which on the Avail at the 
 extremity are two figures that seem to be 
 a military class. Opposite the door is a 
 recess with the Ling of Mahdew, made of 
 very fine smooth stone. This excavation, 
 like many of the preceding ones, is com- 
 posed of sections formed by rows of pil- 
 lars, decreasing in lateral length to the 
 recess. 
 
 The tenth cavern is Ramishwur, aspect 
 W.S.W. This excavation is but a few 
 yards from the last. The bull Nundee is 
 couchant at its entrance, and on the left of 
 it is a cistern of very fine water, which is 
 descended by steps. Previous to entering- 
 the cave, on each side, at the extremities, 
 are female figures. The front of this cave 
 is supported by four pillars and two pilas- 
 ters of considerable beauty, elaborately 
 
EXCAVATED TEM 
 
 sculptured. A female figure on the left 
 hand pilaster has much grace. It is wor- 
 thy notice, that the figures in the latter 
 caves have universally highly ornamented 
 head dresses, different from the first, which 
 have only curled hair. Opposite the cen- 
 tre of the entrance is a large recess, con- 
 taining a temple, in which the Ling of 
 Mahdew is placed. This cave consists 
 of a large hall, and the recess in which 
 the temple is situated. At each end of 
 the hall are recesses, containing a profu- 
 sion of figures. The Nun Chunda occupy 
 the extreme wall of that to the right. On 
 the right hand of this recess is a curious 
 group of skeleton figures, said to repre- 
 sent a miser, his wife, son, and daughter, 
 all praying in vain for food, while two 
 thieves are carrying off his wealth. Op- 
 posite to this group is another of Kal 
 Behroo, the principal figure being in a 
 dancing attitude, and musicians in the 
 group. 
 
 Reentering the hall again from the re- 
 cess, on the right is a gioup of Majidew 
 and Parwuttee, playing at Vhousur, w'lih 
 Narrand sitting between them stimulat- 
 ing a feud, to which Parwuttee, by the 
 throw of her right hand, seems well dis- 
 posed; which is below represented as 
 liaving taken place, while a burlesque 
 figure on the right is turning up his poste- 
 riors to them. 
 
 On the rigiit hand side of the left recess, 
 at the end of the hall, is tiie group of Bo- 
 NANEE Mysaseer ; on the left hand, that 
 of Sw.VMMY Kartick, with his peacock 
 and two mendascers. 
 
 On the extreme wall, in the centre of 
 this recess, is represented the nuptials of 
 Jennl'ck Rajah, at which there is a great 
 attendance of figures, and amongst thoni 
 one holding a cocoa nut used on such so- 
 lemnities. Below are sitting Glnnes, 
 Brimiia, &c. officiating at tlie marriage 
 ceremonies. 
 
 Reentering the hall again from the left 
 recess, there is on the left hand a group of 
 GoiiRA and I'arwuitee in heaven, sup- 
 ported by R()No\. 
 
 On each side of the pillars, before en- 
 tering the recess, are female figures. 
 
 On each side of the door of liie lemplc 
 in the recess are two gigantic and two 
 smaller figures; the former said to be 
 AiiRAoN INleyraon, the smaller ones Ki;v- 
 Roo Bill T on the rigiit, and NisiiNoo on 
 the left, challcMiging each other lo a com- 
 bat of wrestling. 
 
 Many of llu; i)illar3 of this cave are ela- 
 borately ornamented. Very near the cave- 
 irt another small one containing the Lint!^ 
 
 PLES OF ELLORA. 
 
 of M.ahdew, which does not require par- 
 ticular notice ; and still u little further, 
 another of considerable dimensions, but 
 quite plain, and almost choked up w ithin 
 and at the entry. 
 
 There are also three or four other exca- 
 vations of the same rank, between the 
 lastmentioned and the next great work of 
 Key las. 
 
 The front of this excavation has four 
 pillars and two pilasters ; and at the com- 
 mencement of the recess, two pillars and 
 two pilasters. 
 
 The eleventh cavern is Keyl.\s, alias 
 P^VRADiSE, aspect West. This wonderful 
 place is approached more handsomely than 
 any of the foregoing, and exhibits a very 
 fine front, in an area cut through the rock. 
 On the right hand side of the entrance is a 
 cistern of very fine water. On each side of 
 the gateway there is a projection reaching 
 to the first story, with much sculpture and 
 handsome battlements, which, however, 
 have suffered much from the corroding 
 hand of time. The gateway is very spa- 
 cious and fine, furnished with apartments 
 on each side that are now usually added to 
 the Dearies of the eastern palaces. Over 
 the gate is a balcony, which seems intended 
 for the Nobut Khanneh. On the outside 
 of the upper story of the gateway are pil- 
 lars that have much the appearance of a 
 Grecian order. The passage through the 
 gateway below is richly adorned with 
 sculpture, in which appear Bonannee 
 Ushtbooza on the right, and Gi'Nnes on 
 the left. From the gateway you enter a 
 vast area cut down through tiie solid rock 
 of the mountain to make room for an im- 
 mense temple, of the complete pyramidal 
 form, whose wonderful structure, variety, 
 profusion, and minuteness of ornament 
 beggar all description. This temple, which 
 is excavated from the up|)er region of the 
 rock, and appears like a grand building, 
 is connected with tiie gateway by a bridge 
 left out of the rock, as the mass of the 
 mountain was excavated. Beneath this 
 bridge, at the end opposite the entrance, 
 there is a figure of Bonannee sitting on a 
 lotus, with two elejjhants with their trunks 
 joined, as tluHigii ligiiting, over her head. 
 On each side of the i)assage under tlie 
 bridge is an ele])hant, one of which lias 
 lust its head, the other its trunk, and both 
 are inucli shortened of their height by 
 ciirlh. 'I'iiere are likiMvise ranges of 
 apartments on each side behind the ole- 
 jiiiants, of w iiieh those cm the left art- much 
 the finest, being handsomely <lecorateti 
 with figures. Advanced in the area, be- 
 yond the elephants, are two obelisks, of a 
 
EXCAVATED TEMPLES OF ELLORA. 
 
 square form, handsomely graduated to the 
 commeuceraent of the capital, which seem 
 to have been crowned with ornaments, 
 but they are not extant, though, from the 
 remains of the left hand one, I judge them 
 to have been a single lion on each. 
 
 The twelfth cave is called Dus Outar, 
 aspect \V. A very small distance from 
 Kcylas. The access to it is by very rough 
 steps in the rock, and the original entry 
 being built up, you enter over the wall on 
 the right hand into an excavated square 
 area, on the left hand side of which is a 
 small excavation. The middle of the area 
 is occupied by what has been a very hand- 
 some square apartment, the ascent to the 
 veranda of which, fronting the gateway, 
 was by a handsome flight of steps forming 
 a portico, the roof of which veranda was 
 suppoi'ted by two pillars, one of which 
 having given way, the roof has fallen. 
 The front of this squai'e has a stone lattice 
 in the centre, and figures in the compart- 
 ments on each side. The top has been 
 adorned with figures. The two corner 
 ones seem to have been lions, but time has 
 destroyed their form. On the right of this 
 square apartment is a dry water cistern, 
 but on the left there are cells with fine 
 w ater and plenty, and I dare say a little 
 care would supply the other. The front 
 of the ai'ea is greatly filled up with earth 
 from the surrounding hill, and no preven- 
 tive now appears to its washing it with 
 the rain. The entrance into the square 
 apartment is from the main structure, if it 
 may be so denominated, which has been 
 fabricated downwards, which consists of 
 two stories, having, both above and below, 
 a front of six pillars and two pilasters. 
 It appears to have been filling up fast; to 
 prevent which, by a very temporary remedy, 
 a trench is cut in the area in front of the fa- 
 bric, and close to it. The lower story is 
 quite plain, with two recesses or courts at 
 each end, and all the pillars are devoid of 
 ornament, being extremely square and 
 massy. The passage into the upper stoi-y 
 having been stopped up, it was with great 
 difficulty I ascended through a small hole 
 on the left hand side. The room above is 
 of great dimensions, supported by eight 
 rows of pillars in depth, all of which are 
 square and quite plain, except the front 
 row. At the extremity of the centre aisle 
 is a recess containing the Ling of Mah- 
 DEw ; and in the front of it, near the oppo- 
 site end, is the bull Nundee, but without 
 his head. The lateral walls, as well as 
 that on each side of the recess of Mahdew 
 at the end, are adorned with mythological 
 
 figures in very high preservation, and 
 amongst which the Dus Outar (or ten in- 
 cai'nations) are conspicuous, whence I 
 presume the place is named. In the cen- 
 tre of each side of the lateral walls there 
 is an altar. 
 
 The tliirteenth cave is Teen Tal, aspect 
 W. 10 S. Proceeding a few yards to the 
 southward of Dus Outar you reach the 
 excavation called Teen Tal (or three sto- 
 ries). The entrance to this structure is 
 from a level surface, through a good gate 
 in a wall left as the rock w as hewn, into a 
 fine area, as yet but little choked with 
 earth or fragments. The front of this ex- 
 cavation has a fine and simple appearance, 
 being composed of eight square pillars and 
 two pilasters in each story, all of which 
 are adorned except the centre ones of the 
 ground story, the ornamenting of which, 
 however, has not aflfected their quadran- 
 gular form. After entering the ai'ea a few 
 paces it widens, and in the left hand cor- 
 ner is a reservoir of fine water; indeed, 
 all the water in the*e cisterns is uniformly 
 tine and clear. In the side of the area, 
 opposite the water cistern, is a raised ex- 
 cavation, but of no note. The lower story 
 consists of six pillars in depth, and at the 
 extremity of the middle aisle is a recess 
 containing a gigantic image of Seys. Pro- 
 ceeding up the middle aisle the excava- 
 tion naiTows at the fourth pillar, and con- 
 tinues so to the end, having on each side 
 a small room, and in the next panel on 
 each side two very large sitting figures ; 
 that on the right of Sukl'R Achary, and 
 on the left of Adnaut. On each side tlie 
 door there are also large figures. As- 
 cending from the ground floor by a good 
 staircase on the right hand side, the raised 
 recess mentioned above fronts you, which 
 has a large sitting figure of Covere, and 
 several others that in any place would not 
 be unworthy notice. Proceeding to as- 
 cend by the same fine stairs you enter the 
 noble veranda of the second story ; oppo- 
 site the entrance of which is a recess with 
 the figure of Jum seated in it. There is a 
 doorway at each end of the veranda lead- 
 ing to four rooms in each extreme side of 
 the rock. From these doors the wall of 
 the rock is continued to the third pillar on 
 each side, and to the second in depth, to 
 give space for two rooms on each side, but 
 without figures. This continuation of the 
 wall narrows the opening of the temple, 
 with the veranda, to two pillars and two 
 pilasters. At the extremity of the centre 
 aisle is a recess containing a very large 
 sitting figure of LucHMON, with two gi- 
 
EXCAVATED TEM 
 
 Santic figures on each side of tlie iloor. 
 But before you reach the recess the room 
 lessens again from the innermost row of 
 pillars, to give space for two small rooms 
 on each side. The greatest depth of this 
 fine room has six pillars clear of wall, all 
 of which are square and plain. Ascending 
 from this story by a staircase at the oppo- 
 site end of the veranda by which you enter 
 it, but equally light and easy to ascend, 
 you enter the third story by a door, on the 
 left of which, in the landing place, is a 
 small room, and opposite the entrance, at 
 the end of the veranda, is a gigantic figure 
 of Sey Dew; on his left, continuing by 
 the lateral wall, is Llkkooi,, next to him 
 Bheem, then Arjl'n, then Dhurm rajah, 
 being the five sons of Pundoo. Opposite 
 to whom arc, in similar niches, the figures 
 of Oouo, Mado, Penda, and Sudan; the 
 space of the door occupying that of a fifth 
 figure opposite to Sey Dew. Advancing 
 through the middle aisle of this very line 
 temple, it is lessened at the six pillars to 
 make room, on each sftle of this great re- 
 cess, for fourteen sitting figures with curled 
 liair. Advancing from thence you enter a 
 kind of vestibule, very richly decorated 
 with figures standing and sitting. And in 
 the centre is a door leading into a recess, 
 into which you descend by three steps. 
 In front of the door there is a gigantic 
 figure of Ram, sitting on a throne or altar, 
 and attended on each side by the usual 
 deities employed in his service. Seta 
 being placed on the left hand side of the 
 door on the wall opposite him. AH the 
 pillars of this very fine and capacious tem- 
 ple are square and plain, but the ceiling 
 has the remains of paintiug. 
 
 The fourteenth cave is HhurtChutter- 
 GiiUN. Front W. 10 S. This is an excava- 
 tion of two stories, or but of two remain- 
 ing abo\ e ground, in good jjrcservation ; 
 the staircase of which being choked up, 
 you enter by the wall of the veranda. 
 After the former descriptions there is no- 
 thing in this worthy of iieing particular- 
 ized. It si'cms to tak(' its name from ils 
 dedication to lim kt and CiilttijIKjiiun, 
 twobrolliersof Kaau 111 M)i:ii, whole figures 
 by the JJialimiii's account, are the chief 
 ones in this place. 
 
 The (ifteentii cave is Biskiuma, or Vis- 
 wakuhma ka J()omi'ui;i:, or Uiskirma, the 
 Citrpinlir's Umil. I'roiil, W. :> S. (II. I.) 
 According to tiie legend Bishi itM\ * was 
 the artist, who fabricated the wiiole of 
 these wonderful works in u night oi siv 
 
 * Cii:at<)r (pC ilif winlil, liiit allci;inieall\ , iiitificcr 
 gf Kam. 
 
 PLES OF ELLOUA. 
 
 months ; but (he cock crowing before they 
 were finished, they remained imperfect 
 and he retired, having wounded his fin- 
 ger, to this his hovel, in which state the 
 figure in front of the entrance of this beau- 
 tiful excavation is said to be a representa- 
 tion of him holding the wounded finger ; 
 but Sir Charles thinks, with all respect to 
 the legend, that the figure is in the act of 
 devout meditation, as many figures with 
 similar p(Jsitions of the hands occur. But 
 quitting the fable for the fact, this excava- 
 tion is in beauty inferior to none. In form 
 it is unique, and in design elegant. The 
 portico is light and striking to the beholder. 
 On the right hand as you enter is a fine 
 cistern of water. Above the gateway, 
 which is richly sculptured on the outside, 
 is a balcony, which seems well suited, if 
 not intended for a music gallery to the in- 
 terior temple, which has the appearance 
 of an elegant chapel, with an arched roof, 
 and is exactly in the style of a similar ex- 
 cavation at Kitmtra, on the island of Sal- 
 sette, and another at Ekvera, near the top 
 of Jihore Gliniif, first explored by INIr. 
 Wales, the painter. At the iii)per end is 
 a figure abovementioned. From the del- 
 ing are projected stone ribs, following the 
 curvature of the arch to the capitals of the 
 pillars on each side through the whole 
 length of the excavation. Beside a grand 
 aisle or body of the excavation, there is a 
 small passage formed by the row of pil- 
 lars on each side round (he altar, but it is 
 dark and narrow. This singular form of 
 cave, from the orbicular cieling, and the 
 name aii<l attitude of its inhabi(an(, repre- 
 sents the Almighty meditating the creation 
 of the world, under the arch or canopy of 
 unlimited space. 
 
 The sixteenth cave is Deiiii AVarr a, or 
 the Haixau ore's Qi vrtkr. I'ront Inur- 
 iuf:: from Jiiiiiiath iSiibba, distant about a 
 a mile, S. 25 E. 
 
 By this designation ha\e the IJrahmins, 
 who describe them, thought proper to »lis- 
 criniiiiiile tliis grouj) of caves, which, 
 though making no conspicuous ligure here, 
 would render any other place illustrious. 
 They under this term of ])olluti()U endea- 
 \our to deter \isitin's from entering it, 
 though (he large cave is u very line one, 
 o\er (h(> front of which a little river must 
 rush in the rainy season into the plain be- 
 low, forming a sheet of wa(er (iiat, in u 
 beautiful cascade, must co\er the front of 
 the excavation as with a curtain of crystal. 
 There are 1\>(> stripes of stone (ha( run 
 ))ai'allel to each other along the Iloor, iVoiu 
 (he entrance, the whole depth of (his cave 
 
ELY 
 
 (the prospect from which of the great tank, 
 town, and valley of EUora, &c. is beauti- 
 ful), and seem intended as seats either for 
 students, scribes, or the sellers of some 
 commodities, a convenient passage lying 
 between them up to the idol at the end of 
 the cave. 
 
 Eloquence, [eloquentia, Lat.] In paint- 
 ing and sculpture. The power of speaking 
 with fluency and elegance. According to 
 Havercamp Eloquencewas personified upon 
 a medal of the Titian family by the figure 
 of a bee, because Homer (II. i. v. 250) 
 calls Nestor " the sw^eet speaking Nestor, 
 the pleasant orator of the Pylians, from 
 whose tongue flowed words sweeter than 
 honey." It is for this same reason, adds 
 Winckelmann in his " Traits sur V Allego- 
 ric" that Theocritus gives to his Thyrsis 
 a mouth filled with honey. 
 
 Elysium. [Lat. 'HXvcrtoe, Gr.] In the 
 mythology of art. The place assigned by 
 the ancient poets for the abode of the souls 
 of the virtuous after death. Called also 
 the Elysian fields. 
 
 With the ancients Elysium is the region 
 of bliss, the habitation of those who died 
 for their country, those of pure lives, in- 
 ventors of arts, and all who have done 
 good to mankind. Virgil does not speak 
 of any particular district, but supposes 
 that ail have the liberty of going where 
 they please in that delightful region. He 
 only mentions the Vale of Lethe or For- 
 getiulness, as appropriated to any parti- 
 cular use. Here, according to the Pla- 
 tonists and other philosophers, the souls 
 which had gone through some periods of 
 their trials were immersed in a river 
 which gives name to the vale, in order to 
 be put into new bodies, and to fill up tlie 
 course of their probation in our world 
 (yEn. VI. V. 660. 675. 679. 703. 749). The 
 ancient as well as the modern poets never 
 failed more in any thing than in making a 
 heaven. Virgil's ideas, though preferable 
 to Homer's, are still vei-y mean. The per- 
 sons in his Elysium are some dancing, 
 others engaged in w hat they ma?t delight- 
 ed in whilst on earth. Thus Orpheus, for 
 instance, is playing on his lyre. He speaks 
 also of delightful gro\es and a cascade 
 of water. But taking in all he says, his 
 description of Elysium, and the pleasures 
 enjoyed there are so very low, that it seems 
 almost to be borrowed from the manner in 
 which the common people of Rome passeil 
 their holidays on the banks of the Tyber. 
 (Compare the description of one by Ovid, 
 Fast HI. v. 5-10, and of the other by Virgil, 
 JEu. VI. V. 647. The fullest and best de- 
 
 ELY 
 
 scription is in Pindar, Olymp. od. 2.) 
 iEAcus, the proper judge of Elysium, is 
 neither described by the poets nor repre- 
 sented by the artists ; but Pluto and Pro- 
 serpina are common subjects with both. 
 Their palace stood where the three great 
 roads of Hades meet, near the centre of their 
 dominions. There is a great resemblance 
 in the faces of the three brothers, Jupiter, 
 Neptune, and Pluto, which appears in their 
 several figures (and is certainly well pre- 
 served by Rafiaelle in his feast of the gods, 
 on the marriage of Cupid and Psyche), 
 only the look of Jupiter is the most serene 
 and majestic, and Pluto's the most sullen 
 and severe. The poets make the same 
 distinction. Statius calls him the black 
 Jupiter, and his complexion (as well as 
 hio veil) should be dark and terrible. He 
 is sometimes called Dis, as Proserpina is 
 named Persephone. In one of the pieces 
 of painting discovered about the end of the 
 last century, in an old burial place of the 
 Na^onian family, Pluto and Proserpina 
 are sitting on thrones, whilst Mercury is 
 introducing the ghost of a young woman, 
 who seems intimidated at Pluto's stern 
 look. Behind stands her mother, waiting 
 to conduct her back to some grove in Ely- 
 sium. Pluto holds a sceptre in his hand 
 (Met. V. v. 420), and hath a veil over his 
 head, which Claudian calls Nubes. Claud, 
 de rapt. Pros. Ital. Theb. iv. v. 475, Theb. 
 II. v. 50, Stat. Theb. xii. v. 273, Luc. i. 
 v. 577, Fast, iv. v. 44, Met. v. v. 470. 
 
 ELYDOPac Painting, [from "EXcaoi' oil, 
 and iicwp water.] In painting. A method 
 of painting in a vehicle composed of oil 
 and water. This method of painting, call- 
 ed Elydoric, was invented by M. Vincent 
 of IMontpetit. Its takes its name from the 
 before quoted Greek words denoting oil 
 and water, both these liquids being em- 
 ployed in its execution. 
 
 Its principal advantages are, that the 
 artist is able to add the freshness of water 
 colours, and the high finishing of minia- 
 ture to the mellowness of oil painting, in 
 such a manner that the work appears like 
 a large picture seen through a concave 
 lens. 
 
 The following is the manner of proceed- 
 ing : a piece of very fine linen or white 
 taflety is sized with starch in the most 
 equal manner possible, on pieces of glass 
 about two incites square, in order that the 
 cloth may be without wrinkles. When 
 these are sufliciently diy, a layer of white 
 lead, finely ground in oil of pinks or pop- 
 pies (the whitest that can be procured), is 
 to be applied on them with a pallet knife. 
 
 V 
 
ELY 
 
 To this layer, when dry enough to admit 
 of scraping, more is to be added if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 As it is of very great importance for the 
 preservation of this kind of painting, tliat 
 the layers be free from oil, that they may 
 better imbibe the colours laid on them, it 
 is necessary that their surface be made 
 very smooth, and that it be very dry and 
 liard. 
 
 The artist is next to procure a circle of 
 copper, about two inches diameter and 
 one fourth of an inch in height, extremely 
 thin, and painted black on the inside. 
 This circle is to contain the water on the 
 surface of the picture. 
 
 Water distilled from rain or snow is 
 preferable to any other ; ordinary water, 
 on account of the salts which it contains, 
 being pernicious to this mode of painting. 
 
 The colours are to be finely levigated 
 between two oriental agates, carefully 
 preserved from dust, and mixed with oil 
 of poppies, or any other cold siccati\ e oil, 
 which should be as limpid as water. 
 
 All the colours being ground, are to be 
 placed in small parcels on apiece of glass, 
 and covered with distilled water. 
 
 The materials being thus prepared, the 
 subject to be painted is to be faintly traced 
 with a black lead pencil on one of the 
 pieces of cloth abovementioned. The tints 
 are then to be formed on tlie pallet from 
 the little heaps under the water ; and the 
 jiallet placed, as usual, in the left hand. 
 The picture is to be held between tlie 
 thumb and forefinger, supported by the 
 middle finger, and the necessary pencils 
 the third and little fingers. The hands 
 rest on the back of a chair to give a full 
 liberty of bringing the work nearer to, or 
 removing it far from the eye. 
 
 After having made the rougii draught 
 with the colours still fresli, the circle of 
 copper, which is to surround the picture, 
 is to be fitted exactly to the surface. Dis- 
 tilled water is then jjoured within this 
 circle till it rises to tlie height of one- 
 eiglith of an inch, and the <'ye is lield pcr- 
 peufiicular over the object. T\u: third 
 finger of tlie riglit hand, \\liile iiainling, 
 should rest on the inlornal right angh^ of 
 the picture. Tlie work is then to be re- 
 touclu^d, the artist adding colour and sof- 
 tening as he lintis r(Mjiiisite. As soon as 
 the oil swims on the top the water is 
 poured ofT, and tlie jiicfiire carefully co- 
 vered with a watch glass, and dried in n 
 box by a gentle heat. Wlien dry enoiigli 
 it is to be scrapetl nearly smooth with a 
 knife, tlie artist rejieating (he former me- 
 thod till lie is satisfied with iiis work. 
 
 EME 
 
 It is at this period that the advantage 
 of this new method particularly shows it- 
 self for the purpose of finishing; as the 
 water poured on the picture discovers 
 every fault of the pencil, and gives the 
 power of correcting and perfecting it with 
 certainty. 
 
 When the work is finished it is put un- 
 der a fine glass, from i^ hich the external 
 air is excluded, and then it is dried by 
 means of a gentle heat. 
 
 Emuellish, Embellishment, [from em- 
 hellir, Fr.] In all the arts. Ornaments, 
 adventitious beauty, decoration. This 
 word, though applicable to all the arts, is 
 more particularly used in architecture, 
 which is embellished by sculpture, paint- 
 ing, and other ornaments to make it more 
 beautiful. Embellishments are more ex- 
 tensive than ornaments, and if used pro- 
 fusely or with bad taste, will mar the 
 finest composition. The embellishmenfji 
 of exterior architecture are its sculptures 
 and carvings, and of interior architecture 
 pictures, statues, bassi rilievi, furniture, 
 mirrors, gilding, &c. 
 
 Emblemata. [Lat.] In anc'unt architec- 
 ture. A species of inlaid work for the 
 embellishment of panels, floors, &c. They 
 were distinguisiied into emblemata vermi- 
 culata, pavimenta tessalata, parimenta mu- 
 siva, Sec. The ancient poet Lucilius, 
 quoted by Pliny, speaks of this kind of 
 work as being used in Rome before the 
 period of the war of INIariiis against the 
 Cimbri, in tlie year U. C. G40, in tiie fol- 
 lowing verse, 
 
 " Ante pavimenta, atquc emblemala vcmiiculata." 
 
 EMnLE:Ms. [^Linlilema, Lat.'E/i/3\f;/(n, Gr.] 
 In all the arts. Correctly speaking emblems 
 are inlaid work, enamel, &:c. ; but in its 
 modern and more extensive application, 
 the word is used for any occult represen- 
 tation, allusive pictures or sculptures, and 
 the like. Emblems and attributes belong 
 to art, alUf^ory to poetry. See ArruiBLTts, 
 
 ALLKCiOKY. 
 
 Emehald. [emeranile, Fr.] In fcem sculp- 
 ture. A green iirccious stone used by tiie 
 ancients for sculptures of marine deities 
 and aiiiiatic subjects. The emerald, in its 
 perfect state, is one of the most beautiful 
 of gems, and varies in its sliades from the 
 deepest to (he palest of greens. It is 
 conijiosed of silex, aluminc, and carbonat 
 of lime, and its colour is produced by 
 chriune. 'I'he primitive form of tin; emt- 
 rald is an hexagonal prism ; but it is very 
 iVe(|uently niodilied. Emeralds are at pre- 
 sent only brought from I'erii ; but Mrs. 
 Li)wr\ tonjeclures that the ancients, \\ ho 
 
EMI 
 
 valued them very much, procuved them 
 from Ethiopia. Pliny describes its bril- 
 liancy as being like the air that encircles 
 us; and many of the ancients reckoned it 
 as comforting to the eyes. The large eme- 
 ralds that Herodotus and other ancient 
 writers mention must, from their size, have 
 been of other matter or of composition. 
 The high value that the ancients set upon 
 this gem is proved by the circumstance, 
 that when the rich and luxurious Liicul- 
 lus was at Alexandria, Ptolemy, who took 
 every care to please this expensive Ro- 
 man, could find nothing more precious or 
 valuable to offer him than a fine emerald, 
 on which was engraven a portrait of him- 
 self. 
 
 Emissarium. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. A canal formed with floodgates, 
 sluices, &c. to regulate the waters in the 
 great lakes of Italy. The two principal 
 of which are those of the Lake Albano 
 and of the Fucine Lake. The first emis- 
 saries that we read of go back to the ear- 
 liest periods of the republic, and with tlie 
 great sewers of Rome, prove to what a 
 perfection the knowledge and practice of 
 hydraulics, of levelling and of geometrical 
 surveying had arrived among the Romans. 
 During the siege of Veii by the Romans 
 in the year U. C 355, the rising of the 
 waters of the Lake Albano gave them 
 great uneasiness. This lake, which is 
 about thirteen miles from Rome, is about 
 eight miles in circumference, and of vari- 
 ous depths. As this rising of the waters 
 took place at the end of a dry summer, 
 without any apparent cause, the Romans 
 regarded the event as a prodigy, and sent 
 a mission to consult the oracle at Delphos. 
 The answer conformed to that of an Etrus- 
 can aruspexi, whom they made prisoner ; 
 which predicted that the Romans should 
 capture Veii after they had given a pas- 
 sage to the overflowing waters. They 
 tlierefore accomplished the emissarium of 
 Albano in that bold, masterly, and durable 
 manner that characterize all the works of 
 the Romans. Kircher an,d the elder Pira- 
 nesi examined this celebrated emissary 
 with the greatest care. The latter in a 
 very scientific and able point of view, and 
 to whose work the architectural student 
 is referred. 
 
 The emissary of the Fucine Lake was 
 formed by the Emperor Claudius, and tiie 
 ruins of the edifice which adorned and 
 strengthened the entrance of the canal 
 proves the strength, science, and solidity of 
 the ancient Roman architecture. See Pira- 
 NESi's Antichitd Albane. 
 
 EMU 
 
 Emperors, limperator, Lat.] In the cos- 
 tume of painting- and sculpture. The Ro- 
 man emperors are always to be known by 
 tiieir dress, which was peculiar to their 
 rank. Their armour and military robes, 
 or vestes militares, were the paludamen- 
 tum, cuirass, helmet, &c. (see those words). 
 Their other distinctive costume consisted 
 of the trabea, of which there were three 
 sorts, the purple for the gods, the purple 
 mixed with white was for the emperors, 
 and the other of purple and scarlet, woven 
 together, was for the augurs. Among the 
 other imperial habits are the vestes holo- 
 berae (of the true purple), sericaj (of silk, 
 whence the epithet sericatus homo, a silken 
 man), Paragaudae (Parthian), auro intex- 
 tse, &c. See Arms, Armour, Costume, 
 Cuirass, &c. 
 
 Emplecton. [Lat.'EjuTrXjjKrov, Gr.] In 
 ancient architecture. A mode of construc- 
 tion of walls used by the Greeks, and so 
 named by their ancient architects and by 
 Vitruvius. The front stones of this man- 
 ner of building were wrought, and the in- 
 terior left rough and filled in with stones 
 of various sizes or rubble. The emplec- 
 ton of the Romans was an inferior kind of 
 masonry to that of the Greeks, for they 
 mostly omitted the diatonoi or bond stones, 
 which the Greeks never did. See Ar- 
 chitecture, Diatonoi. 
 
 Emulation, [amulatio, Lat.] Iji all the 
 arts. That quality of the mind which en- 
 genders a desire of superiority. Without 
 emulation no one can be an artist. This 
 noble sentiment of the mind carries with 
 it neither envy nor unfair rivalry, but in- 
 spires a powerful inclination to surpass all 
 others by superiority alone. Such was 
 the emulation and rivalry between Zeuxis 
 and Parrhasius, which caused the im- 
 provement of both ; and similar thereto 
 was that which inspired tlie masterminds 
 of Michel Angiolo and Raffaelle; of Titian 
 and Pordenone ; and of Agostino and An- 
 nibale Caracci ; and with similar results. 
 Raflaelle's talents were excited by the 
 presence of Michel Angiolo in Rome, which 
 had laid dormant during that great man's 
 absence, and both the Caracci declined 
 when their competition ceased, as is proved 
 by the following facts. 
 
 The confraternity of the Chartreuse at 
 Bologna proposed to the artists of Italy to 
 paint a picture for them in competition, 
 and to send sketches or designs for selec- 
 tion. The Caracci were among the com- 
 petitors, and the sketch of Agostino was 
 preferred, which first gave rise, say some 
 authors, to the jealousy between the two 
 
 u 2 
 
ENA 
 
 brothers. The picture which Afrosfino 
 painted is his celebrated communion of St. 
 Jerome, that was formerly in the Louvre. 
 This fine picture represents the venerable 
 saint who feeling approaching dissolution, 
 is carried to tiie church of liethlchem, 
 where he receives the last sacrament of 
 tiie Komish church, the Viaticum, in the 
 midst of his disciples, while a monk writes 
 down his last words. It is reckoned the 
 masterpiece of the artist. The two bro- 
 thers then commenced the Farnese gal- 
 lery in conjunction, but the jealous feel- 
 ings which existed between them sepa- 
 rated them. Agostino, who was, accord- 
 ing to all authority, the best tempered of 
 the two, gave himself up entirely to the 
 practice of his art. The noble emulation 
 of high minds was lost, in this instance, in 
 the meaner spirit of jealousy and rivalrj'. 
 
 Enamel, [a compound word formed by 
 a junction of the inseparable particle cii, 
 which we have borrowed from the French, 
 and by them from the Latin in ; and the 
 old English word amel, taken from the 
 email of the French, both signifying the 
 material used in overlaying the variegated 
 works which we call en amdled.l In 
 painting. The art of variegating with co- 
 lours laid upon or into another body. 
 Also a mode of painting, with vitrified co- 
 lours, on gold, silver, copper, &c. and of 
 melting it at the lire, or of making divers 
 curious works in it at a lamp. This art is of 
 so great antiquity as to render it difficult or 
 impossible to trace it to its origin. It was 
 evidently practised by the Egyptians, from 
 the remains that have been observed on 
 the ornamented envelopes of mummies. 
 From Egypt it passed into Greece, and 
 afterv^ards into Rome and its provinces, 
 whence it was probably introduced into 
 this country, as various Roman antiquities 
 have been dug up in dilierent parts of liri- 
 tain, particula:rly in the IJarrows, in which 
 enamels have ibrmed portions of the orna- 
 ments. The following are instances in 
 proof of the antiquity of the art in this 
 country: a jewel found at Athelney in 
 Somersetshire, and preserved at Oxford, 
 bears witness to it, and by an inscrii)tiou 
 upon it, there is no doubt it was made by 
 order of Alfred, Tiie gold cup given by 
 King John to the corporation of liViin in 
 Norfolk proves tiuit tlu; art was known 
 among the Nornums, as the sides of llm 
 cuj) are enibelli.slied wilh various figures 
 •whose garments are i)arlly cmiiiiosed of 
 coloured (mamels. The tomb of Edward 
 the (Confessor in Westminster Abbey, built 
 ill the reign of llcnry III. is ornamented 
 
 ENA 
 
 with enamels; and a crosier of William 
 of Wykeham, in the time of Edward III, 
 exhibits curious specimens of the applica- 
 tion of the art of enamelling. 
 
 Enamels are vitrifiable substances, and 
 are usually arranged into three classes, 
 namely, the transparent, the semitranspa- 
 rent, and opaque. The basis of all kinds 
 of enamel is a perfectly transparent and 
 fusible glass, which is rendered either 
 semitransparent or opaque by the admix- 
 ture of metallic oxydes. M. Klaproth, 
 some years ago, read to the Royal Acade- 
 my of Sciences of Berlin a very elaborate 
 paper, the result of much research, " On 
 the pastes, coloured glasses, and enamels 
 of the ancients." From this we learn that 
 the art of colouring glass seems to be of 
 nearly the same antiquity as the inventiou 
 of making it; which is proved, not only 
 from written documents, but likewise by 
 the variously coloured glass corals with 
 which several of the Egyptian mummies 
 are decorated. This art supposes the pos- 
 session of some chymical knowledge of 
 the metallic oxydes, because these are the 
 only substances capable, as far as we now 
 know, of producing. such an effect. Still 
 a difficulty occurs : what were the means 
 and processes employed by the ancients 
 for this purpose? as they had no acquain- 
 tance with the mineral acids, which at pre- 
 sent are usually employed in the prepara- 
 tion of metallic oxydes. 
 
 It is, however, certain that the art of 
 giving various colours to glass must have 
 obtained a considerable degree of perfec- 
 tion, as Pliny mentions the artificial imi- 
 tation of the " Carbuncle," which was, at 
 that time, a gem in tlie highest estimation. 
 During the reign of Augustus, the Roman 
 architects began to make use of coloured 
 glass in their INIusaic decorations : thus 
 it is known that an application of glass 
 pastes was resorted to in a villa built by 
 (lie Empi-ror Tiberius on the island of 
 ('ai)ri. Sevei'al specimens of this coining 
 into the possession of Klaproth, were sub- 
 jected, liy that able chymist, to a chymical 
 analysis; and he lias detailed a very particu- 
 lar account of the several processes \\ liich 
 he performed to ascertain the component 
 parts of the ditlerent coUmred glasses 
 found in tiie ruins of the abo\ iMiu'iilioiu-d 
 villa. His first attemjit was iii)oii (he an- 
 tique red glass, of which the colour is 
 described as of a lively copper red. The 
 mass was opa<|ue and very bright at the 
 place of fracture ; and of two hundred 
 grains linely triturated, he found the con- 
 stituent parts to be, 
 
ENAMEL. 
 
 Silex 142 grains. a more beautiful yellow may be obtained 
 
 Oxydeoflead 28 from the oxyde of silver. Reds are formed 
 
 Oxyde of copper 15 by an intermixture of the oxydes of gold 
 
 Oxyde of iron 2 and iron, that composed of the former be- 
 
 Alumine 5 ing the most beautiful and permanent. 
 
 Lime 3 Greens, violets, and blues are formed from 
 
 the oxydes of copper^ cobalt, and iron ; 
 
 195 and these, when intermixed in different 
 
 Loss 5 proportions, afford a great variety of inter- 
 
 , mediate colours. Sometimes the oxydes 
 
 200 aj"e mixed before they are united to the 
 
 ass^ vitreous bases. Such are, according to 
 
 On comparing the external characters this author, the principal ingredients em- 
 of this red glass paste with the cupreous ployed in the production of various ena- 
 scoria; of a lively brown red, such as is mels ; but the proportions in which they 
 sometimes obtained on melting copper are used, as well as the degree and conti- 
 ores ; M. Klapi'oth imagines that the an- nuance of the heat necessary to their per- 
 cients did not compound the abovemen- fection constitute the secrets of the art. 
 tioned paste directly from its constituent Besides these there are probably other 
 parts, but instead of them employed, per- substances occasionally used in the com- 
 haps, copper scorias. And he adds, on position of enamels, and it has been as- 
 this supposition, they had nothing more to serted that the peculiar quality of the best 
 do than to select the best coloured pieces kinds of Venetian enamel is owing to the 
 to fuse and cast them into plates. admixture of a particular substance found 
 
 In green glass he found the constituent on Mount Vesuvius, and ascertained to be 
 parts the same as in the red, but in differ- thrown up by that volcano, 
 ent proportions. Both receive their co- The principal quality of good enamel, 
 lour from copper; and the reason why this and that which renders it fit for being ap- 
 metal produces in the one a red and in the plied on baked earthenware or on metals, 
 other a green colour depends on the differ- is the facility with which it acquires lustre 
 ent degrees of its oxygenation: it being by a moderate heat, or cherry-red heat, 
 an ascertained fact, that copper, in the more or less, according to the nature of 
 state of a suboxyde, that is, only half sa- the enamel, without entering into complete 
 turated with oxygen, produces a reddisli fusion. Enamels applied to earthenware 
 enamel, but when fully saturated with and metals possess this quality. They do 
 oxygen, the enamel yielded is green. not enter into complete fusion ; they as- 
 
 M. Klaproth next analyzed the blue same only the state of paste, but of a paste 
 glass paste, in which he found, next to the exceedingly firm ; and yet when baked 
 silex, that the oxyde of iron is the most one might say that they had been com- 
 predomiuating article. He expected to pletely fused. There are two methods of 
 find that the colour had been given by co- painting on enamel: on ravy or on baked 
 bait, but could not discover the smallest enamel. Both these methods are employ- 
 trace of it, and therefore he infers that its ed, or may be employed for the same object, 
 blue colour entirely depends on the iron. Solid colours, capable of sustaining the 
 This excited in him no surprise, knowing fire necessary for baking enamel ground, 
 that iron, under certain circumstances, is may be applied in the form of fused ena- 
 capable of producing a blue enamel, as is mel on that which is raw, and tlie artist 
 clearly exhibited by the beautiful blue co- may afterwards finish with the tender co- 
 loured scoria; of iron, which are frequently lours. The colours applied ou the raw 
 met with in the highly heated furnaces on material do not require any flux ; there is 
 sraeltiug iron stones. Our object in refer- one, even, to which silex must be added, 
 ring to these experiments is the fact that that is, the calx of copper, which gives a 
 the coloured glass pastes of the ancients very beautiful green : but when you wish 
 agree, in many respects, with modern ena- to employ it on the raw material you must 
 mels. mix with it about two parts of its weight 
 
 According to the writers in Dr. Rees's of silex, and bring the mixture into combi- 
 New Cyclopedia, white enamels are com- nation by means of heat. You afterwards 
 posed by melting the oxyde of tin with pulverise the mass you have thus obtained 
 glass, and adding a small quantity of man- in order to employ it. To obtain good 
 ganese to increase the brilliancy of the co- white enamel, it is of great importance 
 lour. The addition of oxyde of lead or that the lead and tin should be very pure, 
 antimony produces a yellow enamel ; but If these metals contain copper or anti- 
 
ENA 
 
 mony, fisis often the case, the enamel aaiH 
 not be beautiful. Iron is the least hurtful. 
 
 Of coloured enamels. — All the colours 
 may be produced by the metallic oxydes. 
 These colours are more or less fused in the 
 fire according as they adhere with more or 
 less strength to their oxygen. All metals 
 which readily lose their oxygen cannot 
 endure a great degree of heat, and are 
 unfit for being employed on the raw ma- 
 terials. 
 
 Purple. — This colour is the oxyde of 
 gold, which may be prepared diilerent 
 ways, as by precipitating, by means of a 
 muriatic solution of tin, a nitro-muriatic 
 solution of gold much diluted in water. 
 The least quantity possible of the solution 
 uf tin will be suHicient to form this preci- 
 pitate. The solution of tin must be added 
 gradually until you observe the purple 
 colour begin to appear: you then stop, 
 and having suffered the colour to be de- 
 posited, you put it into an earthen vessel 
 to dry slowly. The different solutions of 
 gold, in whatever manner precipitated, 
 provided tlie gold is precipitated in the 
 state of an oxyde, give always a purple 
 colour, which will be more beautiful in 
 jjroportion to the purity of the oxyde, but 
 neither the copper or silver with which 
 gold is generally found alloyed injure 
 this colour in a sensible manner : it is 
 changed, however, by iron. Tlie gold pre- 
 cipitate, which gives the most beautiful 
 purple, is certainly fulminating gold, which 
 loses that property when mixed with 
 fluxes. I'urple is an abundant colour ; it 
 is capaljle of bearing a great deal of flux, 
 and in a small quantity commuuicates its 
 colour to a great deal of matter. It ap- 
 pears that saline fluxes are better suited 
 to it than those in which there are metallic 
 calces. Those, tlierefore, which have been 
 made with silex, chalk, and borax, or 
 while glass, borax, and a little white oxyde 
 of antimony, with a little nitre, as I have 
 already mentioned, ought to be cm])loyed 
 with it. I'urple will bear from four to 
 twenty parts of flux, and e\en more, ac- 
 cording to the shade reqviired. I'ainters 
 in enamel employ generally for purple a 
 flux which they call brilliant white. This 
 llux apjiears to be a semiopaque iiiamel, 
 whicii has been drawn into lubes, and af- 
 terwards blown into a ball at an cnamel- 
 ler's lamp. Tlicse bulbs arc afterwards 
 broken in such a manner, llial tiie flux is 
 found in small scales, which appear like 
 the fragments of small hollow spheres. 
 Ijiainel jiainters mix this flux with a little 
 nitn; and borax. 'I'his nuilter, which jiro- 
 duies a ^ery good oflect, was employed 
 
 MEL. 
 
 without attempting to decompose it. It 
 may be a very fusible common white ena- 
 mel which has been blown into that form. 
 It is to be remarked, that purple will not 
 bear a strong heat ; and the colour is al- 
 ways more beautiful if the precipitate is 
 ground with the flux before it has become 
 dry. 
 
 Red. — We have no metallic oxyde ca- 
 pable of giving directly a fused red ; that 
 is to say, we have no metallic calces which, 
 entering into fusion and combining, under 
 the form of transparent glass, with fluxes or 
 glass, give directly a red colour. To obtain 
 this colour, it must be compounded different 
 ways, as follows : — Take two parts, or t\vo 
 parts and a half (you may, however, take 
 only one part) of sulphate of iron and of sul- 
 phate of alumiue,fuse them together in their 
 water of crystallization, and take care to 
 mix them well together. Continue to heat 
 them to complete diyness ; then increase 
 the fire so as to bring the mixture to a red 
 heat. The last operation must be per- 
 formed in a reverberating furnace. Keep 
 the mixture red until it has every where 
 assumed a beautiful red colour, which yo\i 
 may ascertain by taking out a little of it 
 from time to time, and suftering it to cool 
 in the air. You may then see whether 
 the matter is sufficiently red : to judge of 
 this it must be left to cool, because while 
 hot it appears black. The red oxydes of 
 iron give a red colour; but this colour is 
 exceedingly fugitive; for as soon as the 
 oxyde of iron enters into fusion, the por- 
 tion of oxygen, which gives it its red co- 
 lour, leaves it, and it becomes black, yel- 
 low, or greenish. To preserve, therefore, 
 the red colour of this oxyde in the fire, it 
 must be prevented from vitrif\ ing and 
 abandoning its oxygen. I have tried (^sa>s 
 IM. Clouet) a variety of difl'erent sub- 
 stances to give it this fixitj', but none of 
 them succeeded except alum. Tl\e doses 
 of alum and sulpliate of iron may be va- 
 ried. The more alum you add the paler 
 will be the colour. Three parts of alum 
 to one of sulphate of iron give a colour 
 which api)roaclu'S a flt'sh colour. It is 
 alum also which gi\es this colour the pro- 
 perty of becoming fixed at a very strong 
 heat. This lolour may be emplovcd on 
 raw enamel; it lias much more lixity 
 than the purple, but not so much as the 
 blue of cobalt. It may be washed to carry 
 oil' the superfluous saline matter, but i( 
 may be employed also without edulcora- 
 tion ; in that slate it is e\en more fixed 
 and more beautil'ul. It does not require 
 much flux ; the flux which appeareil to \m- 
 to be best suited to it is composed of alum, 
 
ENAMEL. 
 
 minium, marine salt, and enamel sand. This 
 flux must be compounded in such a man- 
 ner as to render it sufficiently fusible for its 
 objects : from two or three parts of it are 
 mixed with the colour. In general three 
 parts of flux are used for one of colour ; 
 but this dose may and ought to be varied 
 according to the nature of the colour and 
 the shade of it required. Red calx of iron 
 alone, when it enters into fusion with 
 glass, gives a colour which seems to be 
 black ; but if tlie colour be diluted with a 
 sufficient quantity of glass, it at last be- 
 comes of a transparent yellow. Thus the 
 colour really produced by calx of iron 
 combined with glass is a yellow colour, 
 but which being accumulated becomes so 
 dark, that it appears black. In the pro- 
 cess above given for making the red co- 
 lour, oxyde of iron does not fuse ; and this 
 is the essential point ; for if tliis colour is 
 carried in the fire to vitrification, it becomes 
 black or yellowish, and disappears if the 
 coat be thin, and the oxyde of iron present 
 be only in a small quantity. 
 
 Yellow. — Though yellow may be ob- 
 tained in a direct manner, compound yel- 
 lows are preferred because they are more 
 certain in effect, and more easily applied, 
 than the yellow which may be directly ob- 
 tained from silver. The compound yellows 
 are obtained in consequence of the same 
 principles as the red colour of iron. For 
 this purpose we employ metallic oxydes, 
 the vitrification of which must be prevent- 
 ed by mixing with them other substances, 
 such as refractory earths or metallic ox- 
 ydes difficult to be fused. The metallic 
 calces which form the basis of the yellow 
 colours are generally those of lead ; as 
 minium, the white calx of lead, or litharge, 
 the white calx of antimony, called diapho- 
 retic antimony ; that called " crocus me- 
 tallorum" is also employed. This regulus 
 pulverized, and mixed with white oxyde, 
 gives likewise a yellow. The following 
 are the different compositions used : one 
 part of the white oxyde of antimony, one 
 part of the white oxyde of lead (or two or 
 three), these doses are exceedingly varia- 
 ble ; one part of alum, and one of salam- 
 moniac. When these matters have been 
 all pulverised and mixed well together, 
 they are put in a vessel over a fire suffici- 
 ent to sublimate and decompose the sal- 
 ammoniac ; and when the matter has as- 
 sumed a yellow colour, the operation is 
 finished. The calces of lead mixed in a 
 small quantity either with silex or alu- 
 mine, also with the pure calx of tin, ex- 
 ceedingly white, gives likewise yellows. 
 One part of the oxyde of lead is added to 
 
 two, three, or four of the other substances 
 abovementioned. In those different com- 
 positions for yellow you may use also 
 oxyde of iron, either pure or that kind 
 which has been prepared with alum and 
 vitriol of iron ; you will then obtain differ- 
 ent shades of yellow. From what has 
 been said, you may vary these composi- 
 tions of yellow as much as you please. 
 Yellows require so little flux that one or 
 two parts, in general, to one of tiie colour 
 are sufficient. Saline fluxes are improper 
 for them, and especially those which con- 
 tain nitre. They must be used with fluxes 
 composed of enamel sand, oxyde of lead, 
 and borax, without marine salt. A yellow 
 may be obtained also directly from silver. 
 All these mixtures may be varied, and you 
 may try others. For this purpose you 
 may use sulphate of silver, or any oxyde 
 of that metal mixed with alumine or silex, 
 or even with both, in equal quantities. 
 The whole must be gently heated until 
 the yellow colour appears, and the matter 
 is to be employed with the fluxes pointed 
 out for yellow. Yellow of silver, like 
 purple, cannot endure a strong heat; a 
 nitric solution of silver may be precipitated 
 by the ammoniacal pliosphate of soda, and 
 you will obtain a yellow precipitate which 
 may be used to paint in that colour with 
 fluxes, which ought then to be a little 
 harder. Besides the methods abovemen- 
 tioned, the best manner of employing the 
 oxyde of silver is, in my opinion, to em- 
 ploy it pure : in that case you do not paint 
 but stain. It will be sufficient then to lay 
 a light coating on the place which you 
 wish to stain yellow, and to heat the arti- 
 cle gently to give it the colour. You must 
 not employ too strong a heat : the degree 
 will easily be found by practice. When 
 the article has been sufiiciently heated, 
 you take it from the fire and separate the 
 coating of oxyde, which will be found re- 
 duced to a regulus. You will then ob- 
 serve the place which it occupied tinged 
 of a beautiful yellow colour without thick- 
 ness. It is chiefly on transparent glass 
 that this process succeeds best. Very tine 
 silver filings produce the same eff'ect: but 
 what seemed to succeed best in this case 
 was sulphate of silver well ground up with 
 a little water, that it may be extended veiy 
 smooth. From what has been said, it may 
 readily be seen that this jellovy- must not 
 be employed like other colours ; that it 
 must not be applied till the rest have been 
 fused; for, as it is exceedingly fusible and 
 ready to change, it would be injured by 
 the other colours; and as the coating of 
 silver, which is reduced, must be removed, 
 
the fluxes would fix it, and prevent the 
 possibility of its being afterwards sepa- 
 rated. Working on glass is not attended 
 with this inconvenience, because the silver 
 yellow is applied on the opposite side to 
 that on which the other colours are laid. 
 
 Green. — Green is obtained directly 
 from the oxyde of copper. All the oxydes 
 of copper are good ; they require little 
 llux, which even must not be too fusible : 
 one part or two of the llux w ill be suffici- 
 ent for one oxyde. This colour agrees 
 with all the fluxes, the saline as well as 
 tiie metallic, which tends to vary a little 
 the shades. A mixture of yellow and 
 blue is also used to produce greens. Those 
 who paint figures or portraits employ glass 
 composed in this manner ; but those who 
 paint glazed vessels, either earthenware 
 or porcelain, employ in general copper 
 green. Independently of the beautiful 
 green colour produced by oxydated cop- 
 per, it produces also a very beautiful red 
 colour. This beautiful red colour, pro- 
 duced by copper, is exceeding fugitive. 
 The oxyde of copper gives red only when 
 it contains very little oxygen, and ap- 
 proaches near to the state of a regulus. 
 Notwithstanding the difficulty of employ- 
 ing this oxyde for a red colour, a method 
 has been found to stain transparent glass 
 with difi'erent shades of a very beautiful 
 red colour by means of calx of copper. 
 The process is as follows : you do not em- 
 ploy the calx of copper pure, but add to it 
 calx of iron, wliicii, for that purpose, must 
 not be too mucli calcined ; you add also a 
 very small quantity of calx of copper to 
 llie mass of glass which you are desirous 
 of tinging. The glass at lirst must have 
 only a very slight tinge of green, inclining 
 to yellow. VViien the glass has that colour 
 you make it pass to red, and e\cu a \ery 
 dark red, by njixing witii it red tartar in 
 powder, or even tallow. \>ni must mix 
 tliis matter well in the glass, and it will 
 assume a very dark red colour. 'I'lie glass 
 .swells up very much by this aildilion. 
 Before it is worked it must be suflered to 
 Kctlle, and l/cconu; conijiacl ; but as soon 
 as il has fully assumed the colour, it must 
 be immediately worked, for the colour 
 docs not remain long, and evi'n often dis- 
 appears while working; but it may be re- 
 stored !)y healing the glass at the tlame of 
 a lamp. It is dillicult to make this colour 
 veil, but when it succeeds it is very beau- 
 tiful, and has a great deal of si)l»'ndtuir. 
 \ty employing the cuK of copper alone for 
 the processes abovenicntioned, you will 
 oblaiti, when you suet ('(-{l well, a red si- 
 jnilar to the nutst beautiful carmine. The 
 
 ENAMEL. 
 
 calx of iron changes the red into vermilion, 
 according to the quantity added. If we 
 had certain processes for the making this 
 colour, we should obtain all the shades of 
 red from pure red to orange, by using, in 
 difi'erent proportions, the oxyde of copper 
 and that of iron. The calx of copper fuses 
 argil more easily than silex : the case is 
 the same with calx of iron. If you fuse 
 two or three parts of argil ^\ ilh one of the 
 oxyde of copper, and if the heat be suffici- 
 ent, you will obtain a very opaque enamel, 
 and of vermilion red colour. The oxyde 
 of copper passes from red to green, through 
 yellow, so that the enamel of copper, 
 which becomes red at a strong heat, may 
 be yellow with a weaker heat. The s;ime 
 eflect may be produced by deoxydating 
 copper in difl'erent degrees : this will be 
 effected according as the heat is more or 
 less violent. The above composition might, 
 I think, be employed to give a vermilion 
 red colour to porcelain. The heat of the 
 jjorcelain furnace ought to be of suflicient 
 strength to produce the proper effect. The 
 calx of iron fused also with argil, in the 
 same proportions as the calx of copper, 
 gives a very beautiful black. These pro- 
 portions may, however, be varied. 
 
 Blue. — Blue is obtained from the oxyde 
 of cobalt. It is the most tLxed of all co- 
 lours, and becomes equally beautiful with 
 a weak as with a strong heat. The blue 
 produced by cobalt is more beautiful the 
 purer it is, and the more it is oxydated. 
 Arsenic does not hurt it. The saline 
 liuxes which contain nitre are those best 
 suited to it : you add a little also when 
 you employ that tlux v hich contains a 
 little calcined borax or glass of borax, 
 though you may employ it also with that 
 llux alone. But the flux which, according 
 to my experinu'iits, gives to cobalt-blue 
 the greatest splendour and beauty is that 
 composed of white glass (which contains 
 no metallic calx), of borax, nitre, and dia- 
 phoretic antimony well washed. \\ hen 
 this glass is made for the purpose of being 
 employed as a llux for blue, you may add 
 lessof the white oxyde of antimony : a sixth 
 of the \\holi' ^vill be suliiiient. 
 
 VioLLT. — Black calx of numganese, em- 
 ployed with white fluxes, gives a very 
 beautiful violet. By varying the fluxes 
 the shade of the colour may also be varied. 
 It is very fixed as long as it retains its 
 oxygen. The oxyde of niiinganese may pro- 
 duce' ditrereiil colours ; but t'or that p\ir- 
 pose it will be lu'ci'Ssiiry that we should 
 lie able to flx its oxygen in it in dillerent 
 proportions. Mow to eA'cct this has, per- 
 
 hcip.-, ue\er yet biien discovered. T^iCoO 
 
ENAMEL. 
 
 are all the colours obtained from metals. 
 From this it is evident that something still 
 remains to be discovered. We do not 
 know what might be produced by the 
 oxydes of platina, tungsten, molybdena, 
 and nickel : all these oxydes are still to 
 be tried ; each of them must produce a co- 
 lour, and perhaps red, which is obtained 
 neither directly nor with facility from any 
 of the metallic substances formerly known 
 and hitherto employed. 
 
 Having laid before tlie English artists 
 the result of M. Clouet's Researches, as 
 they were presented to the Frencli Na- 
 tional Institute, of which he was an asso- 
 ciate, I shall add a few general obser- 
 vations taken from those of our own coun- 
 trymen, who have made the subject of ena- 
 melling their study and employment. The 
 most beautiful and expensive colour known 
 in this branch of the art is an exquisitely line, 
 rich, and purplish tinge, given by the salts 
 and oxydes of gold, especially the purple 
 precipitate formed by tin in one form or 
 other, and the nitro-muriate of gold, and 
 also by fulminating gold. Tliis line co- 
 lour, however, requires much skill in the 
 artist to be fully brought out. Other and 
 commoner reds are given by the oxydes of 
 iron, but this requires the mixture of alu- 
 mine, or some other substance refractory 
 in tlie fire; otherwise what would, under 
 proper circumstances, be a full red will 
 degenerate into a black. 
 
 Yellow is either given by the oxyde of 
 silver alone, or by the oxydes of lead and 
 antimony, with similar mixtures to those 
 required with iron. The silver is as ten- 
 der a colour as gold, and as readily in- 
 jured or lost in a high heat. Green is 
 given by the oxyde of copper, or it may 
 also be produced by a mixture of yellow 
 colours. Blue is given by cobalt, and tliis 
 seems the most certain of all enamel co- 
 lours, and as easy to be managed. Black 
 is produced by a mixture of cobalt and 
 manganese. "The reader," says Mr. Aikin 
 in his Chymical Dictionary, " may con- 
 ceive how much the difficulties of this nice 
 art are increased, when the object is not 
 merely to lay a uniform coloured glazing 
 on a metallic surface, but also to paint 
 that surface with figures and other designs 
 tliat require extreme delicacy of outline, 
 accuracy of shading, and selection of co- 
 louring. The enamel painter has to work 
 not with actual colours, but with mixtures 
 which he knows, from experience, will 
 produce certain colours after the opera- 
 ration of the fire, and to the common 
 skill of the painter in the arrangement of 
 
 his pallet and the choice of his colours ; 
 the enameller has to add an infinite quan- 
 tity of practical knowledge of the chymi- 
 cal operation of one metallic oxyde on 
 another, the fusibility of his materials, and 
 the utmost degree of heat at which they 
 will attain not only the accuracy of the 
 figures which he has given, but the precise 
 shade of colour which he intends to lay 
 on. Painting in enamel requires a suc- 
 cession of firings ; first of the ground which 
 is to receive the design, and which itself 
 requires two firings, and then of the differ- 
 ent parts of the design itself. The ground 
 is laid on in the same general way as the 
 common watch face enamelling already 
 described. The colours are the different 
 metallic oxydes melted with some or other 
 vitrescent mixture, and ground to extreme 
 fineness. These are worked up with an 
 essential oil, that of spike is preferred, 
 and next to it the oil of lavender, to the 
 proper consistence of oil colours, and are 
 laid on with a very fine hair brush. The 
 essential oil should be very pure, and by 
 the use of this, rather than any fixed oil, 
 is probable that the whole may evaporate 
 completely in a moderate heat, and leave 
 no carbonaceous matter in contact with 
 the colour when red hot, which might af- 
 fect its degree of oxydation, and thence 
 the shade of colour which it is intended 
 to produce. As the colour of some of the 
 vitrified metallic oxydes, such as that of 
 gold, will stand only at a moderate heat, 
 while others will bear and even require a 
 higher temperature to be properly fixed, 
 it forms a greater part of the technical 
 skill of the artist to apply different colours 
 in their proper order ; fixing first those 
 shades which are produced by the colours 
 that will endure the highest degree of 
 heat. The outline of the design is first 
 traced on the enamel ground, and burnt in ; 
 after which the parts ai'e filled up gradu- 
 ally with repeated burnings to the last and 
 finest touches of the tenderest enamel." 
 
 Those who paint on enamel, on earthen- 
 ware, porcelain, &c. must regulate the fu- 
 sibility of the colours by the most tender 
 of those employed, as, for example, the 
 purple. When the degree which is best 
 suited to purple has been found, the other 
 less fusible colours may be so regulated 
 (by additions of flux), when it is necessary 
 to fuse all the colours at the same time, 
 and at the same degree of heat. You may 
 paint also in enamel without flux ; but all 
 the colours do not equally stand the heat 
 which must be employed. If the enamel, 
 however, on which you paint be very fusi- 
 
ENAMEL 
 
 ble, they may all penetrate it. This man- 
 
 ner of painting gives no thickness of co- 
 lour; on the contrary, the colours sink 
 into the enamel at tlie places where tlie 
 tints are strongest. To make them pene- 
 trate and give them lustre, a pretty strong 
 fire will be necessary to soften the enamel 
 and bring it to a state of fusion. Tliis me- 
 thod cannot be practised but on enamel 
 composed with sand, which is called ena- 
 mel sand, as already mentioned. It may 
 be readily seen, also, that tlie colours and 
 enamel capable of enduring the greatest 
 heat will be the most solid, and the least 
 liable to be changed by the air. 
 
 The following method of Idling up en- 
 graving on silver with a durable black 
 enamel is practised in Persia and India. 
 
 They take half an ounce of silver, two 
 ounces and a half of copper, three ounces 
 and a half of lead, twelve ounces of sul- 
 phur, two ounces and a half of sal-ammo- 
 niac. The metals are melted together and 
 poured into a crucible, which has I)een be- 
 fore filled with pulverised sulphur, made 
 into a paste by means of water ; the cruci- 
 ble is then immediately covered that the 
 sulphur may not take fire, and this regains 
 is calcined over a smelting fire until the 
 superfluous sulphur be burned away. Tiiis 
 regulus is then coarsely pounded, and, 
 with a solution of sal-ammoniac, formed 
 into a paste, which is rubbed into the en- 
 graving on silver plate. The silver is then 
 wiped clean, and suffered to become so 
 hot under the muflle, that the substance 
 rubbed into tlie strokes of tiie engraving 
 melts and adheres to the metal. The sil- 
 ver is afterwards wetted w ith the solution 
 of sal-anmioniac, and again placed under 
 the muflle till it becomes red hot. The 
 engraved surface may then be smootlicd 
 and polished without any danger of the 
 black substance, which is an artilicial kind 
 of silver ore, either dropping out or de- 
 caying. In this manner is all the silver 
 plate brought from Russia ornamented 
 with black engraved figures. 
 
 'J'Ik! foregoing detailed acctount of the 
 mechanical process of enanu'lling is ex- 
 tracted and condensed from several of the 
 best practical works, particularly from the 
 long and elaborate arlicb; thereon, in IM.vit- 
 iin's C'/'rt7f "/ Ike IMecluiniad Ar(s, Ito. 
 L(md. IHir,. 
 
 Tlie town of l>imoges was very cele- 
 brated in the twelfth and thirteenth cen- 
 turies for the excellence of its enamels on 
 various nu^tals. In 11!»7, tables, vases, 
 basins, tabernacles, candelabra, crosiers, 
 Ike. enriched witli enamels, were called 
 
 opus dc Liiimsirt, Inbnr IAnw^i<v, opus Lcmo- 
 vitkuin, and are still known to dealers in 
 curiosities of this nature as enamels of 
 Limoges. 
 
 The principal artists who have excelled 
 in this beautiful department of the fine 
 arts are Primaticcio and Maitre Rorx, 
 who introduced a pure taste in arabesques 
 and other pictorial ornaments, which were 
 beautifully executed in enamel. Raf- 
 FAELLE and jNIichel Angiolo also gave de- 
 signs for ensunels on porcelain and earth- 
 enware, many of *vhich are still called 
 Raff'aelle's ware or China. Enamelling 
 on metal is of later invention, and is attri- 
 buted to the French, particularly the 
 smaller and more elegant subjects of his- 
 tory, poetry, and fancy. The first artist 
 who distinguished himself in this latter 
 depaitment, and in fact, as its inventor, 
 was Jean Toutin, a goldsmith at Cha- 
 teaudun. He was succeeded by his disci- 
 ple Gribelin, who was also an excellent 
 artist and workman. Dlbie, a goldsmith, 
 made excellent enamels in the galleries of 
 the Louvre. Mokuere, a native of Or- 
 leans, but W'ho practised at Hlois, followed 
 soon after; and was much admired for his 
 miniature enamels for rings and watch 
 cases. He had for a disciple Robert \\v- 
 QUER of Blois, who surpassed all lus pre- 
 decessors, particularly in his colouring ; 
 he died in 1670. Pierre Chartier, also 
 of Blois, was a celebrated enamelist, par- 
 ticularly in flowers. Jean PtniTOT, who 
 died in 1691, succeeded as an enamelist of 
 high repute, and practised in England, 
 wl\ere his works are well known and de- 
 servedly admired. Uordiek followed in 
 the same line, and also practised in this 
 country ; as did Lonia Hance and Lonia 
 UE Gl'ermer. Zinck, a Swede, has also 
 obtained a high reputation for the excel- 
 lence of his works ; as did an artist of the 
 nanu» of Boit, whose character, as an art- 
 ist, is given in Wai.poi.e's Aiuxdotes of 
 Painters. One of his enamels is there 
 mentioned as being of the extraordinary 
 dimensions of twenty-two inches by six- 
 teen ; which have, however, been excee<Ied 
 by our native artists Bone and IVIiss. Me 
 have also to notice, as eminent practition- 
 ers in this art, SciiNEr,!,, who died in 17tH ; 
 Sophia CiiEUON, in 1711; Ciivni.roN, in 
 17:»'2; Ism. Mengs, in 1764; Nelson, in 
 1770; IMevtens, a Swede, in 1770; Hor- 
 UVKV, who practised in Kiigland, mid wr>te 
 up(Mi the arts; Liotahu, Dukan, Pa- 
 
 GUIEH. 
 
 Enamcdiing on plates of metal, and paint- 
 ing with vitrilied colours «m glass, are 
 
ENC 
 
 pracUsed with great success in England, 
 and few artists in Europe have equalled 
 the fine and numerous works of Bone, and 
 the beautiful colouring of Muss, who, to 
 the great loss to the art, has recently died 
 at a very early age. We have also other 
 young and rising artists in this durable 
 and elegant department of painting. 
 
 The best works for consultation on ena- 
 melling are those before quoted. The 
 Traits pratique des Couleurs pour la Pein- 
 tiire en Email et sur la Porcelaine ; VArt de 
 pcindre sur Email, par D'Arclais de Mon- 
 TAMY, 12mo. Paris, 17G5. This work is 
 also placed at the beginning of the Abbe 
 Peunetty's Diclionvaire portatif de Pein- 
 ture. The chapter entitled dc Smulio, sive 
 Encausto, in the work of Boulanger, de 
 Pictura; I' Art du Feu; ou, de pcindre en 
 Email, 8vo. Paris, 17;j9. The 13th chap- 
 ter of Elemens de Peinture pratique, par 
 Haudicquer de Blancourt, in the Truite 
 d' Architecture de Feltbien. A chapter in 
 the Etat present des Arts en Angleterre, par 
 M. RouQUET, which has been translated 
 into English, and published the year fol- 
 lowing in Loudon. 
 
 Encarpus. [Lat. "EvKaQiroQ, Gr.] In an- 
 cient architecture. Festoons of fruit or 
 flowers in friezes or capitals. 
 
 Encaustic Painting, lencausticvs, Lat. 
 'UvKav^iic)), Gr.] In painting. The art of 
 painting in encaustic is a manner of paint- 
 ing which is executed with the operation 
 of fire. Ancient authors often make men- 
 tion of this species of painting, and which, 
 if it had been described simply by the 
 word encaustic, which signifies executed 
 by fire, might be supposed to have been a 
 species of enamel painting. But the ex- 
 pressions encausto pingere, pictura encaus- 
 tica, ceris pingere, picluram inurere, by Pliny 
 and other ancient writers, makes it clear 
 another species of painting is thereby 
 meant. We have no ancient pictures of 
 this description, and therefore the precise 
 manner adopted by the ancients is not com- 
 pletely developed, though many moderns 
 have closely investigated the subject, and 
 described their processes. At what time, 
 and by whom this species of painting was 
 fii'st invented, is not determined by anti- 
 quaries, although it appears to have been 
 practised in the fourth and fifth centuries *. 
 Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a painter, 
 were the first of modern times who made 
 experiments in this branch of art, about 
 the year 1749. Some years afier this, 
 
 * Vicenzo Rerjueno has treated the subject in a 
 very masterly and scientific maimer in a work called 
 •Saggi sul Ristabilimento dell' antica Arte dc Greet 
 c Romani Pittori, published at Parma, 178r. 
 
 ENC 
 
 Count Caylus presented to the Academy 
 of Painting at Paris his ideas and experi- 
 ments on the subject of the ancient man- 
 ner of painting in encaustic. In 1754 the 
 count had a head of Minerva painted by 
 Mons. Vien, after the process described by 
 himself, and presented it to the Academy 
 of Sciences in 1755. This success induced 
 Mons. Bachelier to recommence his expe- 
 riments, in which he succeeded better than 
 formerly ; but his manner of painting in 
 encaustic differed from the ancients, as 
 described by Pliny, and therefore he was 
 unsuccessful, inasmuch as he did not dis- 
 cover the real ancient manner ; after this 
 he made some other experiments on the 
 same subject, differing from the process as 
 described by Caylus and others. 
 
 Pliny, in a passage relating to encaus- 
 tic painting, distinguishes three species : 
 — 1st, that in which they used a style, and 
 painted on ivory or polished wood (cestro 
 in ebore); for which purpose they drew 
 the outlines on a piece of the aforesaid 
 wood or ivory, previously soaked or im- 
 bued with some certain colour ; the point 
 of the style or stigma served for this ope- 
 ration, and the broad end to scrape off the 
 small filaments that arose from the out- 
 lines, and they continued forming outlines 
 with the point till they were finished. 
 2nd. The next manner appears to have 
 been, where the wax previously impreg- 
 nated with colour was spread over the 
 surface of the picture with the style, and 
 the colours thus prepared were formed 
 into small cylinders for use. By the side 
 of the painter was a brasier for keeping 
 the styles continually hot, with the points 
 of which they laid on the colours when the 
 outlines were finished, and spread them 
 smooth with the broad end, and thus they 
 proceeded till the picture was finished. 
 3rd. The manner was by painting with a 
 pencil in wax liquified by fire : by this me- 
 thod the colours contained a considerable 
 hardness, and could not be damaged either 
 by the heat of the sun or the deleterious 
 eilects of sea water. It was thus that they 
 painted their ships Avith emblems and other 
 pictures, and therefore it obtained the 
 name of ship painting. The last process 
 was to smooth and polish the picture ; — 
 thus far the ancients. 
 
 Few of la;te years have made more ex- 
 periments in this mode of painting than 
 the ingenious Mrs. Hooker of Rottingdean, 
 in the county of Sussex, who has, in this 
 instance, united practice with theory ; and 
 for her very successful exertions in this 
 branch of the polite arts, was presented 
 with a gold luilette by the Society for the 
 

 »«>»• 
 
 
 'tlV, IV WvHlKl Ux\ '^ ■ . »U mi\>U^ aO Vit^i ivi ^i»!U wivU 
 
ENC 
 
 burning application (abbrucciamento), is 
 derived from a Greek word. 
 
 We have never thoroughly known the 
 nature of the Punic wax, which was an- 
 ciently used, and which, after all, was the 
 essential ingredient of the ancient paint- 
 ing in encaustic. The chevalier praises 
 the genius and industry of M. Requeno 
 and M. Bachelier, who have also treated 
 this subject, but who liave not fully suc- 
 ceeded in finding out the true way of 
 making the said wax, then quotes tiie pas- 
 sage of Pliny on the method of making it. 
 Punka Jit hoc modo, &c. see Pliny's Nat. 
 Hist. 1. 21. c. 14, and asserts, with many 
 other writers, that Pliny's iiitre is not the 
 nitre of the moderns, properly so called, 
 but it is tlie natron of the ancients, viz. the 
 native salt which is found crystallized in 
 Egypt and other hot countries, in sands 
 surrounding lakes of salt water; it must 
 not be mistaken for the natron of tiie new 
 nomenclature of our College of Physicians, 
 which is the new name of the mineral 
 alkali. 
 
 In the plains of Lower Egypt, which 
 was once covered by the sea in the envi- 
 rons of tiie salt lakes of that country, at 
 Tripoli, at Tunis, as also in the adjacent 
 parts of ancient Carthage, the natron, tliat 
 same natron which, under the name of 
 nitre, tlie Carthaginians, according to Pli- 
 ny, used in preparing their wax, is to tiiis 
 day extracted, and hence it was called 
 Punic wax. 
 
 I began now (says Lorgna) successively 
 to try my experiments, lirst with tliree 
 parts of wax and one of natron, and then 
 with four of wax, and so on till I used 
 twenty parts of white melted wax witii 
 one only of natron, with as much water as 
 was just suHicient to melt the natron. I 
 held the mixture in an iron \esscl over a 
 slow fire, stirring it gently witii a wooden 
 spatula, till tlie two substances thickened 
 by evaporation, and in closely uniting the 
 mass by degrees assumed the consistence 
 of buttt'r, and the colour of milk. I re- 
 moved it then from the iiie, and put it in 
 the shade to let it harden and to perfect 
 itself in the open air. Tiiis natron was ex- 
 tracted from the ley of kali of jMalta, eva- 
 porated till it was dry ; it may also hi', ex- 
 tracted from the kali of Spain, Sicily, Sar- 
 dina, and from that of Tunis and of 'i'ripoli, 
 wliicli niiiy be procured willioiit niiich dif- 
 licuity. The wax being cooled it liquelied 
 iu wat(!r, and a milky emulsion resulted 
 fiiiin i( like that which could be made with 
 tile lifst N'fnetian soaj). 
 
 IMiny, in another place, c. 7, 1. 2'3, gives 
 furtlu'r (lir((tions for tiie manut^r of using 
 
 ENG 
 
 caustic on paintings on walls ; but as it 
 concerns the antiquary more than the art- 
 ist, I have forborne from making the quo- 
 tation. It begins at these words, Ut parie- 
 tis siccato ccra Punica, &c. 
 
 As to making use of this wax in paint- 
 ing in encaustic the chevalier says, that 
 magnificent and repeated experiments 
 were made in the apartments of the Count 
 Giovanni JJattista Gasoia, by the lUilian 
 painter Signor Antonio Paccheri. He 
 dissolved tlie Punic wax, when it was not 
 yet so mucli hardened as to require to be 
 igni resoluta, as expressed by Pliny, with 
 pure water lightly infused with gum ara- 
 ble, instead of sarcocolla, male incense, 
 mentioned by Pliny. He afterwards melt- 
 ed and mixed his colours with this wax 
 so liquefied as he would have done w illi 
 oil, and proceeded to paint in the same 
 manner ; nor were the colours seen to run 
 or alter in tlie least ; and the mixture was 
 so flexible tiiat the pencil ran smoother 
 with it than it would have done with oil. 
 The painting being dry, he used the caus- 
 tic over it, and rubbed it with linen cloths, 
 by which the colours acquired a peculiar 
 vivacity and brightness which tliey had not 
 before the caustic and the rubbing had 
 been effected. 
 
 Engaged cof-umns. In architecture. Co- 
 lumns attached to, or built in walls or 
 jiiers, of which a portion is concealed. 
 There are half and three quarter engaged 
 columns ; which, how ever, lose much of 
 their beauty by such a clumsy attach- 
 ment. 
 
 English Architectche. In architecture. 
 The art of building as practised in Eng- 
 land or invented by the English. The 
 former is mostly imitations of the ancients, 
 and the latter rather doubtful. See Aii- 
 CHirixTtiiE, Gothic, Styix. 
 
 llxGRAMNG. The art of depicting by 
 incisions in any matter or substance, but 
 particularly on plates of metal, blocks of 
 wood, hard stones, 6vc. for the purpose of 
 producing certain impressions from thrm 
 called prints. 
 
 The art of engraving is divided into va- 
 rious branches or classes : as engraving 
 on stones for seals, signets, called ti'iin 
 sculpture; die sinking for coins, medals, 
 &:c. called niedallurfiy ; on copiur-jilate.i ufhr 
 various manners, as //'hc <;H,i' ('(u/h^'', cirhinff 
 or (iigra\iiig \\illi aqua forlis, wk ::(i//;i/(» 
 euf^rarinfi' m- scrui>infi', aqiialinla eiifirariiijii-, 
 stii>ple dot or chalk t'w^'r«ri«^', etigi-avinpr on 
 irood, ciifirarinf!^ on steel, on slune, called 
 lilliofiraidiii, elehinii' on iilass, and stime other 
 minor branches o( the arts. See Gem 
 Sti'i.ini ur, !Mi:i)Ai.i,i'iMiY, Euhing. 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 The most ancient as well as the most 
 legitimate and beautiful mode of practis- 
 ing the art is that which is called line en- 
 graving or engraving proper; and is the 
 art of cutting lines upon a copper-plate, by 
 means of a steel instrument called a graver 
 or burin, without the use of aqua Ibrtis. 
 This was the first way of producing cop- 
 per-plate prints that were practised, and 
 is still much used in historical subjects, 
 portraits, and in finishing landscape. The 
 tools necessary for this art are the graver 
 or burin, of which there are various sorts, 
 a scraper, a burnisher, an oil-stone, a sand 
 bag or cushion for supporting the plate, 
 an oil rubber, and some good charcoal. 
 The graver is an instrument made of tem- 
 pered steel, of the form of a quadrangular 
 prism, about one tenth of an inch thick, 
 fitted into a sijort wooden handle. They 
 are square and lozenge-shaped. The first 
 are used in cutting broad strokes, the other 
 for fainter and more delicate lines. In 
 making the incision it is pushed forward 
 by the hand in the direction of the line 
 required. The scraper is a three-edged 
 tool also of steel, about six inches long, 
 having three sharp edges, and is used for 
 rubbing oft" the burr or barb raised by the 
 graver. The burnisher is about three in- 
 ches long, and is used for softening or re- 
 ducing lines that are two deep, or for bur- 
 nishing out any scratches or holes in the 
 copper : it is formed of hard steel rounded 
 and polished. The oil-stone is for whet- 
 ting the gravers, etching points, &c. The 
 sand bag or cushion, about nine inches 
 diameter, is for laying the plate upon for 
 the conveniency of turning it in any direc- 
 tion, but is seldom used by artists. The 
 oil rubber and charcoal are for polishing 
 the plate. As great attention is required 
 to whet the graver, particularly the belly of 
 it, care must be taken to lay the two an- 
 gles of the graver, which are to be held 
 next the plate, flat upon the stone, and to 
 rub them steadily till the belly rises gra- 
 dually above the plate; otherAvise it will 
 dig into tlie copper, and then it will be 
 impossible to keep a point, or execute the 
 work with freedom. For this purpose the 
 right arm must be kept close to the side, 
 and the forefinger of the left hand placed 
 upon that part of the graver which lies up- 
 permost upon the stone. In order to whet 
 the face the flat part of the handle should 
 be placed in the hollow of the hand, with 
 the belly of the graver upwards, upon a 
 moderate slope, and the extremity rubbed 
 upon the stone till it has an exceedingly 
 sharp point. When the graver is too 
 hard, as may be known by the frequent 
 
 breaking of tlie point, it should be tem- 
 pered by heating a poker red hot, and 
 holding the graver upon it, within half au 
 inch of tlie point, till the steel changes to 
 a light straw colour; then put the point 
 into oil to cool ; or hold the graver close to 
 the flame of a candle till it be of the same 
 colour, and cool it in the tallow. Be not 
 hasty in tempering ; for sometimes a little 
 whetting will bring it to a good condition, 
 when it is but a little too hard. To hold 
 the graver cut off that part of the handle 
 which is upon the same line with the belly 
 or sharp edge of the graver, making that 
 side flat, that it may be no obstruction. 
 Hold the handle in the hollow of the hand, 
 and extending your forefinger towards the 
 point, let it rest on the back of the graver, 
 that you may guide it flat and parallel 
 with the plate. 
 
 To lay the design upon the plate, after 
 you have polished it fine and smooth, heat 
 it so that it will melt virgin wax, with 
 which rub it thinly and equally over, and 
 let it cool. Then the design which you 
 are about to lay on must be drawn on 
 paper with a black lead pencil, and laid 
 upon the plate with its penciled side upon 
 the wax ; then press it, and with a bur- 
 nisher go over every part of the design, 
 and when you take off the paper you will 
 find all the lines which you drew with the 
 black lead pencil upon the waxed plate, 
 as if it had been drawn on it ; then with 
 a sharp pointed tool trace the design 
 through the wax upon the plate, and you 
 may then take off the wax and proceed to 
 work. Let the table or board you work at 
 be firm and steady ; upon which place 
 your sand bag with the plate upon it, and, 
 holding the graver as before directed, pro- 
 ceed in the following manner : For straight 
 strokes move the right hand forwards, 
 leaning lightly where the strokes should 
 be fine, and harder where you would have 
 it broader. For circular or crooked strokes 
 hold the graver firmly, moving your hand 
 or tlie plate as you see convenient. Learn 
 to carry the hand with such dexterity that 
 you may end your stroke as finely as you 
 began it ; and if you have occasion to 
 make one part deeper or blacker than 
 another, do it by degrees : and take care 
 that your strokes be not too close nor too 
 wide. In the course of your work scrape 
 off the roughness which arises with your 
 scraper, but be careful not to scratch the 
 plate ; and that you may see your work pro- 
 perly as you go on, rub it with the oil 
 rubber, and wipe the plate clean, which 
 takes off the glare of the copper and shows 
 what you have done to advantage. Any 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 mistakes or scratches in the plate may be 
 rubbed out with the burnisher, and the 
 part levelled with the scraper, polishing it 
 again lightly with the burnisher or char- 
 coal. Having thus attained the use of the 
 graver according to the foregoing rules, 
 you will be able to finish the piece by 
 graving up the several parts, and advanc- 
 ing gradually with the stronger, till the 
 whole is completed. The dry point or 
 needle (so called because not used till the 
 ground is taken off the plate) is princi- 
 pally employed in the extremely light 
 parts of water, sky, drapery, architec- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 After all, in the conduct of the graver 
 and dry point, it is difficult to lay down 
 rules whicli shall lead to eminence in the 
 art. Every thing seems to depend ou the 
 habit, disposition, and genius of the artist. 
 A person cannot expect to excel very much 
 
 they ought always to have a certain con- 
 nexion with each other, so that tiie first 
 stroke may often serve, by its return, to 
 make the second, whifli will show the 
 freedom and taste of the artist. In en- 
 graving the muscles of the human figure, 
 the effect may be produced in the lighter 
 parts by Avhut are called long pecks of the 
 gravers, or by round dots, or by dots a 
 little lengthened, or what will be better, 
 by a judicious mixture of these togetlier. 
 With regard to the hair, the engraver 
 should begin his work by laying the prin- 
 cipal grounds, and sketching the chief 
 shades with a few strokes, which may lie 
 finished with finer and thinner strokes to 
 the extremities. In the representation of 
 architecture, the work ought not to be 
 made too black, because as the edifices are 
 usually constructed with stone, marble, 
 &c.thc colour, being reflected on all sides, 
 
 in engraving who is not a good master of does not produce dark shade, as is the 
 
 design, and he ought to be well acquainted 
 with perspective, the principles of archi- 
 tecture, and anatomy. He will, by these 
 means be able, by proper gradations of 
 strong and faint tints, to throw backward 
 and bring forward the figures, and other 
 objects of his picture or design which he 
 proposes to imitate. To preserve equality 
 and union in his works, the engraver 
 should always sketch out the principal 
 objects of his piece before he undertakes 
 to finish them. In addition to the rules 
 already given, we may observe, that the 
 strokes of the graver should never be 
 crossed too nuuh in the lozenge manner^ 
 particularly in the representations of mus- 
 cles or flesh, because sharp angles produce 
 the unpleasing effect of lattice work, and 
 take from the eye the repose which is 
 agreeable to it in all kinds of picturesque 
 designs. There are exceptions to this 
 rule, as in tlie case of clouds, tlic repre- 
 sentation of tempests, waves of the sea, 
 the skins of hairy aninuils, or leaves of 
 trees, in which this method of crossing 
 may be admitted. 
 
 In managing the strokes, the actions of 
 the figures, and of all their parts, should 
 be considered, and, as in painting, it 
 should I)e observed iiow tlu-y udvance to- 
 wards or recede from tlie eye ; and tiie 
 graver must, of course, be guide<l accord- 
 ing to tiie risings or tiic cavities of the 
 muscles or fohis, making tiie strokes wider 
 and faiiitrr in tiie ligiit, and closer and 
 iiniici- in (lie shades; thus the figures will 
 not apiicar jagged, and the. oiillincs may 
 be foiiiicd and terminalcd witiiout being 
 cut too hard. However, though the strokes 
 break off vvIutc the muscle begins, yit 
 
 case of other substances. Where sculp- 
 ture is to be represented white points must 
 not be put in the pupils of the eyes of the 
 figures, and in engravings after paintings ; 
 nor must the hair or beard be represented 
 as in nature, which makes the locks ap- 
 pear flowing in the air, because, as is evi- 
 dent, in sculpture there can be no such ap- 
 pearances. 
 
 For engraving a series of parallel lines, 
 which are either all equidistant or approxi- 
 mating towards each other in regular gra- 
 dation from a great to the most minute dis- 
 tance, such as the blue part of a sky, wa- 
 ter, or in i)lates of machinery, architecture, 
 6<.c. where a smooth flat tint is required, 
 nothing has yet equalled the ruling ma- 
 chines invented by the late Mr. Lowry 
 about thirty years since. They are thus 
 described by Mr. Landseer, in his Lec- 
 tures on Engraving delivered at the Royal 
 Institution in ISOl), and since published. 
 " The next mode of engraving that solicits 
 our attention is that in\cnted by Mr. M'il- 
 son Lowry. It consists of two instruments, 
 one for etching successi\e lines, either 
 equidistaiitorin just graduation, frtun being 
 wide apart to the nearest approximation, 
 nd hifiiiitum ; and another, more recently 
 constriiclecl, for striking elliptiial, para- 
 bolical, and hyperbolical curves, and in 
 general all those lines which geometri- 
 cians call mi'chiinicat curvis, from the di- 
 mensions of the j)oint of a needle to an 
 I'xteut of fi\e feet. Jiotli of these inv«-n- 
 tions combine elegance with iitdily, and 
 both are of high value, as auxiliaries of 
 liie imitative part of engraving; but as 
 the auxiliaries of «hyniical, agricultural, 
 and mechanical science, they are of incal- 
 
I 
 
 culable advantage 
 
 operation, as far as human sense, aided by 
 the magnifying powers of glasses, enables 
 us to say so, is perfect; and I need not 
 describe the advantages that must result 
 to the whole cycle of science from mathe- 
 matical accuracy." The whole of Mr. 
 Lowry's works, as well as those of his 
 school, are proofs of the accuracy of these 
 opinions. 
 
 Of Mezzotinto Engramnp; or Scraping. — 
 This art, which is of modern date, is re- 
 commended by the ease with which it is 
 executed, especially by those who under- 
 stand drawing. Mezzotinto prints are 
 those which have no strokes of the graver, 
 but whose lights and shades are blended 
 together, and appear like drawing in India 
 ink. They are diiierent from aquatinta, but 
 as both resemble Indian ink, the difference 
 is more easily perceived than described. 
 Mezzotinto is applied to portraits and his- 
 torical subjects, and aquatinta is chiefly 
 used for landscape and architecture. The 
 tools necessary for mezzotinto scraping are 
 the grounding tool, burnishers, and scra- 
 pers. To lay the mezzotinto ground, lay 
 your plate, with a piece of llannel under 
 it, upon the table, hold the tool in your 
 liand perpendicularly, lean upon it mode- 
 rately hard, continually rocking your band 
 in a right line from end to end, till you 
 have wholly covered the plate in one di- 
 rection ; next cross the strokes from side 
 to side, afterwards from corner to corner, 
 working the tool each time all over the 
 plate in every direction, almost like the 
 points of a compass ; taking care not to let 
 the tool cut (in one direction) twice in one 
 place. This done, the plate will be full, 
 and would, if it were printed, appear com- 
 pletely black. Having laid the ground, 
 take the scrapings of black chalk, and 
 witli a piece of rag rub them over the 
 plate, or the plate may be smoked with 
 candles. Now take the drawing, and 
 having rubbed the back with red chalk- 
 dust mixed with flake white, proceed to 
 trace it on the plate. To form the lights 
 and shadows take a blunt needle and mark 
 the outlines only, then scrape off the lights 
 in every part of the plate as clean and 
 smooth as possible, in proportion to the 
 strength of the lights in your drawing, 
 taking care not to hurt the outlines. The 
 use of the burnisher is to soften the ex- 
 treme light parts after the scraper is done 
 with ; such as the tip of the nose, fore- 
 head, linen, &c. which might otherwise, 
 when proved, appear rather misty than 
 clear. 
 
 Another method used by 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 
 The accuracy of their scrapers is to etch the outlines of the ori- 
 ginal, and the folds in drapery, making 
 the breadth of the shadows by dots, which, 
 having bit to a proper depth with aquafor- 
 tis, they take off the ground used in etch- 
 ing, and having laid the mezzotinto ground, 
 proceed to scrape as above described. 
 When the plate is ready, send it to the 
 copper-plate printer, and get it proved. 
 When the proof is dry, touch it with white 
 chalk where it should be lighter, and with 
 black chalk where it should be darker ; 
 and when the print is retouched, proceed 
 as before for the lights ; and for the shades 
 use a small grounding tool ; prove it again ; 
 and so proceed to prove and touch till it 
 is entirely to your mind. 
 
 Mr. Robert Lawrie, in the year 177C, 
 proposed to the Society for the Encou- 
 ragement of Arts, Manufactures, &c. a new 
 method of printing mezzotinto prints in 
 colours, for which he received a premium 
 of thirty guineas. He says he was in- 
 duced to attempt this method owing to the 
 great expense attending the execution of 
 good engravings, wliich had more than an- 
 swered his most sanguine expectations. 
 In this manner animals, plants, &c. for il- 
 lusti-ating natural history, may be finished 
 in their proper colours, very much like 
 drawings, and greatly resembling nature. 
 The plates will also admit of being re- 
 paired so as to furnish a large impression. 
 The following is an explanation of his 
 method : — 
 
 A copper-plate with an etched or en- 
 graved outline, dotted next the lights, and 
 filled in with mezzotinto ground, is printed 
 in colours after nature, or from a picture, 
 by the following process : The plate being 
 warmed in the usual manner, the colours 
 are applied by means of stump camel hair 
 pencils to the different parts, as the sub- 
 ject suggests ; it is then Aviped Avith a 
 coarse gauze canvass, any other being im- 
 proper; after this it is wiped clean with 
 the hand, and being again warmed, is 
 passed through the press. The colours 
 are mixed with burnt linseed oil, and those 
 generally used by painters are proper. 
 
 The invention of mezzotinto engraving is 
 generally attributed to Prince Rupert; 
 but in the Life of Sir Christopher Wren 
 (p. lOS), by the author of this Dictionary, 
 it is given to that eminent architect. " The 
 mode of impressing pictures by light and 
 shade on copper, commonly known by the 
 name of engraving in mezzotinto, owes its 
 improvement if not its origin to Wren." 
 The journals of the Royal Society for Oc- 
 tober 1, 1662, record that Dr. Wren pre- 
 mezzotinto sented some cuts done by himself iu a new 
 
way, whereby he could almost as soon do 
 u subject on a plate of brass or copper us 
 another could draw it with a crayon on 
 paper. Ou this subject the editor of Pa- 
 rentalia speaks with decision, that " he 
 was the first inventor of the art of graving 
 in mezzotinto ; which was afterwards pro- 
 secuted and improved by his Royal High- 
 ness Prince Rupert, in a manner somewhat 
 difi'erent, upon tlie suggestion, as it is said, 
 of the learned John Evelyn, Esq." 
 
 Of Engraving in Aquatinta. — Aquatinta 
 is a method of producing prints very much 
 resembling drawings in Indian ink. The 
 principle of the process consists in corrod- 
 ing the copper with aquafortis in such a 
 manner that an impression from it has the 
 appearance of a tint laid on the paper. 
 This is effected by covering the copper 
 with a powder, or some substance which 
 takes a granulated form, so as to prevent 
 the aquafortis from acting where the par- 
 ticles adhere, and by this means cause it 
 to corrode the copper partially, and in tlie 
 interstices only. When these particles are 
 extremely minute and near to each other, 
 tiie impression from the plate appears to 
 the naked eye exactly like a wash of In- 
 dian ink ; but when they are larger, the 
 granulation is more distinct, and as this 
 may be varied at pleasure, it is capable of 
 being adapted with success to a variety of 
 purposes and subjects. 
 
 This style of engraving was invented by 
 a French artist of the name of St. Non, 
 who flourished about 1(JG2, and communi- 
 cated it to Jean Baptiste le Prince, a pain- 
 ter and etclier, who was born at Paris in 
 1733, and died in 1781, wlio engraved 
 many plates in this way. It was intro- 
 duced into England and greatly improved 
 by Paul-Sandby. It is not much used at 
 l)reseut. 
 
 The art of engraving on wood is not only 
 of very ancient date, but is a legilimatc, 
 beautiful, and artistlike mode of (qKnation, 
 for tlie production of prints, jmrlicularly 
 for books. Tlie first engravers on wood 
 whose nanu^s have reached our times are 
 William PlujdenwurtV and Michael \\'ol- 
 geimilh,wlio engraved the cuts of the Nii- 
 remburg Chronicle, which was published 
 in folio in 1493, which are ni:ukc(l with 
 all the stidiicss and inaccuracy v hie h cha- 
 ractorize the works of the German artists 
 of (hat time. 
 
 Alhickt DiiHKii also practised the art of 
 wood engraving with great success, whicii 
 began now to assume a liigher character ; 
 and, as far as regards the executive part, lie 
 brought it (() a perfection vviiicli has liartliy 
 been equalled by any succeeding artist. 
 
 ENGRAVING. 
 
 Bewick of Newcastle, Harvey his pupil, 
 the Thompsons (brothers), Branston, and 
 other living artists, have carried this art to 
 the highest perfection. 
 
 Engraving on steel is performed in 
 nearly a similar way to engraving on cop- 
 per. For etching on steel the plate or 
 block is bedded on glazier's putty, and 
 etched with a qeedle through a ground of 
 Brunswick bfack in the common way. 
 Messrs. Perkins and Heath have carried 
 the art of engraving on plates of softened 
 steel, afterwards hardened by a scientific 
 process, to a great degree of perfection. 
 
 Engraving on stone is a recent invention 
 now in great vogue. It is cheap and, when 
 well performed, produces impressions of 
 great beauty in imitation of clialk, mezzo- 
 tinto, pen and ink, and even of etching. 
 See Lithography. 
 
 Engraving or etching on glass is perform- 
 ed by laying on a ground consisting of a 
 thin coat of bees wax, and drawing the 
 design therein with an etching needle. It 
 is then to be covered with sulphuric acid, 
 sprinkled over with powdered fluor spar 
 or fluoric acid. It must be taken ofl' after 
 four or five hours, and cleaned with oil of 
 turpentine. 
 
 The art of engraving is of great anti- 
 quity (see Akts), and was originally only 
 rude delineations expressed by simple out- 
 lines, such as are described by Herodotus, 
 as traced upon the shields of tlie Caiians. 
 The importance and utility of this art is 
 acknowledged by every person of taste 
 and knowledge ; and its dignity as an art 
 is undoubted. It multiplies the works of 
 other artists and preserves them to poste- 
 rity ; it records the talents of eminent art- 
 ists by an art which requires equal talent, 
 and scarcely less genius. Bezaleel and 
 Aholiab are mentioned in the book of Ge- 
 nesis as " filled with wisdom of heart to 
 work all manner of work with the graver." 
 The hieroglyphics of tiie Egjjitians are 
 also a species of engraving, of which there 
 are many fine specimens in the British 
 Museum. Among the Etruscan anti(|ui- 
 ties in tlie same collection are (wo speci- 
 mens of the art of engraving at a very re- 
 mote period; a representation of which 
 forms the frontispiece to one of the volumes 
 of S nu it's Dictionary of Engravers. 
 
 The engraving of seals or signets is also 
 very ancient, and was practised by most 
 nations of aiiticiuity. See 1)*ctm.i<>thi:< A. 
 TIk' art of engraving in this country, 
 like the practice in every other country, 
 commenct^d and increased with civilization 
 an.! knowledge. I'lider Alfred the Great 
 the art met i>ilh great cncyura;;;tmeut, and 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 remains of the art as practised iu his daj's 
 are still in existence. There is still pre- 
 served in the Museum at Oxford a valu- 
 able jewel of this period representing St. 
 Cuthbert, the back of which is ornamented 
 with foliage very skilfully engraved. 
 
 The principal engTavers in the line man- 
 ner, taken chronoloi,ically, are Martin 
 ScHOENGAUER or ScHOEN, bom at Colmar 
 about 1455, and died there in 1499 : His 
 principal works are religious subjects from 
 his own designs; Tommaso or Mazo Fi- 
 NiGUERRA, born at Florence in 1418, and 
 died there in 1500 ; Israhel von Mecheln 
 or Mecken, born at Meckenen on the 
 Meuse about the year 1450, and died 1523 ; 
 Bacio Baldini and SiOidro B0TICE14.0, 
 called Filipepi, painter and engraver, born 
 at Florence in 1437, died in 1515. To 
 these two artists are attributed the first 
 certain engravings after the Italian mas- 
 ters. In the cabinet of M. Paignon Di- 
 jonval at Paris were nine fine prints by the 
 latter. They are in the st^le of Andrea 
 Mantegna ; Michel Wohlgemuth, died in 
 1519; Albert Durer or Albrecht Thurer, 
 born at Nuremburg in 1471, died in 1528 : 
 the number of line engravings by this gTeat 
 artist amount to nearly a hundred, and are 
 among the choicest specimens of the art ; 
 Albert Altdorfer, born at Altdorfer in 
 Bavaria about the year 1488, and died at 
 Ratisbon in 1538: His engravings are 
 mostly after his own pictures ; Andrea 
 Mantegna, painter and line engraver, born 
 at Padua in 1431, died Sept. 15, 1517; 
 Marc Antoine Raymondi, about 1527, who 
 engraved after Michel Angiolo, Rafl^aelle, 
 Mazzuoli, Raibolini, a,nd i^ther tminent 
 Italian masters ; Agostino Veneziano, sur- 
 named de Musis, about 1620, who engraved 
 after Michel Angiolo, Raflaelle, all of which 
 are dated. He was reckoned one of the 
 first engravers in France, and inscribed his 
 works A. Venetien ; Nicolas Belin da Mo- 
 DEXA and Giov. Ghisi Montovanto, who 
 flourished about 1530 ; Luc Damesz, died 
 in 1533 ; Giov. Giac. Caraguo and Marco 
 Da Ravenna, about 1540 ; Giul. Bonasone, 
 born at Bologna in 1498, died at Rome in 
 1564; He engraved many excellent plates 
 after Michel Angiolo, particularly the last 
 judgment, Pontormo, Raffaelle, Giulio Ro- 
 mano, Caravaggio, Mazzuoli, and Titian. 
 Eneas Vicus, George Vens, Henrid Alde- 
 GRAF, and Jean Sebast. Bcehm, about 1550 ; 
 Adrian, Charles, William, and John Col- 
 i^ERT, Adrian the father was born at Ant- 
 werp in 1520, and designed and engraved 
 many excellent plates after his own de- 
 signs, as well as from the works of De 
 
 Vos, Stradan, Rubens, AVattelet; Adam 
 and George Gaisi, the latter born at Man- 
 tua in 1516; Lambert Sl'termann, Fagi- 
 roU Fr.\nco, and Virgilius Sous, about 
 1560 ; Corneillc Cost and Martin Rota, 
 about 1569, the latter born at Sevenigo in 
 Dalmatia, engraved the Last Judgment 
 after Michel Angiolo in 1569, and other ex- 
 cellent performances ; Giov. B. Cavalaris, 
 about 1574, engraved the Adoration of the 
 Shepherds after Bronzino in 1565, a large 
 plate of the Miracle of the Loaves after 
 Raffaelle, and other fine works ; Steph. 
 De Laurie, born at Orleans in 1510, and 
 died at Strasburg in 1590 : He engraved 
 numerous fine plates ; Jerome Bang, Paul 
 Flynt, and Ger. Jode, about 1596 ; Cojj- 
 rad Jode and Jean Sadeler, who en- 
 graved many plates after Albert Durer, 
 Heintz, de Vos, Spranger, &c. died in 
 1600 ; Frani-ois Aspruck, about 1601 ;. 
 Agost. Caracci, whose numerous prints 
 embellish the finest collection, was bora 
 at Bologna in 1558, and died in 1602 ; Jean 
 Saenredam, born at Leyden in 1570, and 
 died in 1607, engraved many fine plates 
 after Caravaggio, Baroccio, Van Mander, 
 Cornelius Bloemart, &C. ; Nicolas De 
 Bruyn, about 1610 ; Philippe Galle died 
 in 1612; Daniel Keixerthaler, about 
 1613; Cherubino Borghesiaiio ALBERTi,born 
 in 1552, died in 1615, was a fine engraver 
 and painter of the Roman school, who en- 
 graved many works after his o^vn designs ; 
 nine of Michel Angiolo's pictures in the 
 Capella Sistina; St. Jerome in the Desert 
 after the same great master ; many after 
 Raffaelle, also after Baroccio, Vanni, and 
 other masters of the Italian school ; Henri 
 GoLTZius, a celebrated line engraver, pain- 
 ter, and engraver on wood, born atMul- 
 brecht in 1588, died at Haerlem in 1617 : 
 he engraved a numerous collection after his 
 own designs,thewoi-ks of Raffaelle, Palma, 
 Stradan, Spranger, and a great number of 
 portraits of illustrious characters; Theo- 
 dore Galle about 1620 ; Amhroise Bonvi- 
 cino about 1622 ; Francois Villamena, born 
 at Assisi in 1566, died at Rome in 1626; 
 engraved many fine plates after his own 
 designs, after Raffaelle, Baroccio, Feu- 
 soni, Lanfranc, Albano, JIuziano,Veronese, 
 and other eminent Italian masters ; HenH 
 De Goudt, born at Utrecht in 1585, died 
 in 1630 : he was a painter as well, and 
 engraved his own designs, some from El- 
 sheimer, &c. ; Pierre Lastman, a painter 
 of the D.itch school, boru at Kaerlem in 
 1562, and engraved several plates after 
 Rembrant, was the first who attempted, in 
 1()26, the union of colour to his prints, but 
 
 X 2 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 with very little success ; Robert Van 
 VoERST about 1C28, who, among other por- 
 traits, engraved one of Sir Kenelin Digby, 
 for Overton the publisher; Gilles Sade- 
 LER about 1629 : an engraver of several 
 
 Henri TisciiBEiN the elder and Jean LovU 
 Aberli, about 1722; Et. Desrochers, 
 about 1723 ; Arn. Westerholt, died in 
 1725; Louis Simoneav, died in 1727; 
 Charles Simoneal' and Jean liapt. Poii.LY, 
 
 plates after Albert Durer,Heintz,DeVos, died in 1728; Frnn^. Chereav, Martin 
 
 Spranger, and other masters of the Fie- Bernigerotii, and Bernard Picakt, 1735 ; 
 
 niisli school; Crisp. De Paas, Schelle a Jean Henri St.ejiklin, died in 1730, who 
 
 Bolswert, IPaul Pontics, known by the was peculiarly celebrated for engraving 
 
 number and excellence of his works; Lucas in miniature ; his son, Jean Rodolphe, died 
 
 Vorstermann, and Pierre De Baujn, in 175C, who followed his father to a still 
 
 about 1030; Jat-^Hcs- Matham, died in 1631 ; higher degree of perfection ; Jean Gcerne, 
 
 Pierre Jade, died in 1034 ; Luc. Kilian, died in 1738 ; Louis Despl-\ces, died in 
 
 died in 1037 ; Abraham Blcemart, born at 1739; Henri Simon Thomassin, about 1741 ; 
 
 Gorcum in 1567,died in 1047 ; John Payne, Jacques Ckristophe Le P.U)\d, died in 1741 ; 
 
 who died in 1048, is accounted the first Charles Dlpins, died in 1742 ; Robert Al- 
 
 Englishman who engraved in the line denaert, died in 1743 ; Giovanni CAJiOss\, 
 
 manner; he executed several portraits died in 1747 ; ./fau G«;7/rtH)n<' Wolfgang, 
 
 after Mytens, and other Flemish portrait died in 1748 ; Nicolas Henri Takdiei', died 
 
 painters ; Giuseppe Zarlvti, Jean Frediric in 1749 ; Piet~re Drevet, the father and 
 
 Greutiier, who distinguished himself by his son, who both died in 1749; Jean An- 
 
 engraving after the Florentine masters; mirxi., Jacques A\.\\yiKV, Laurent C\Yi'>, Et. 
 
 Girol Rossi, Conrad Marinus, Jacques Fessard, Jean Jacques Fi.ipart, Th. jNIa- 
 
 Neefs, Pierre Nolpe, Henri Snyers, who jor, and Jean Ouvrier, about 1J50 ; Jacq. 
 
 engraved mi»ch after Rubens; Conrad Be j4n(/r^ Friederick, died in 1751; Jacques 
 
 Dalevi, ConradCxvKERKKfi, Pierre ChoVET, Frey, died in 1752; Gii.s/wn/ Dichange, 
 
 and Pierre Jode, about 1050; Fr. Sney- died in 1754; Geori^cs iMartin 1>reissi.eu, 
 
 ders, died in 1657 ; Giuseppi Battista Gal- died in 1754; Nicolas De Larmessin, Bart. 
 
 i^sTRUZZi, a painter and engraver, born at Crivell-vri, about 1755; Jt'(j?i Avur.vn, 
 
 Florence 1018 ; Jacq. Bellange, Pierre De died 1750 ; Philippe Andre Kiuan, died in 
 
 Bleek, and Pierre Lombard, about 1000; 1759; J. Ph. Le Bas, died in 1700; Jean 
 
 Conrad Meyssens, about 1062 ; TM'odore Michel Liotard and Jean Adam SnnvEic- 
 
 Mathasi, about 1663 ; Michel L'Asne, died kart, about 1700 ; Jeremie Jacques Sedei.- 
 
 in 1667 ; John Umuaih and Michel Nata- mayer, died in 1761 ; Louis Serigi E, died 
 
 MS, about 1070; £<. Baudet, who engrav- in 1702; Jean Dallle, died in 1703; Ni- 
 
 ed many of the pictures of the Caracci, ^o/asBEAUVAis, died in 1703 ; Jean Jactfitcs 
 
 All)iin(), Poussin, Mignard, Bourdon, &c. BAi,ECHOi',died in 1764 ; -4 HfoiHC Fai.doni, 
 
 nourished about 1664 ; Nic. Pitmau, died died in 176.5 ; Conrad Pj.oos van A>istei., 
 
 in 1671; Jean L'Enfant, died in 1678; born at Amsterdam in 1732, and was the 
 
 Charles Audran, died in 1671; Robert inventor of the art of imitation of all sorts 
 
 Nantedil, died in 1678; Rcfc. Zeeimann, of drawings, coloured or plain, to a great 
 
 X)«n/c/ Danckert's, J. MuNiniLYSEN, £<ia« perfection. He engraved many imitations 
 
 Hainzei.mann, and Anton. Bi.ooteri.ing, of the drawings of Wouvermans, Sachlle- 
 
 about 1080; Fr. Spikrui;, died in 1081; ven, Van Dyck, Oslade, Mieris, Goltzius, 
 
 Guillaume (^iiATKAii,died in 1683; Conrad Van Goyen, Brauwer, iS:c. ; Gustare Andre 
 
 BuEM.Eitr, about 16S6 ; Guillaume Rousse- Wolfgang, J<>'i(")»Ht' Speim.in(;, and (7. Duk- 
 
 I.CT, died in 1080; C'/.Melan, died in 1688; vtt, about 1766; Jean M. Bernigerotii, 
 
 Corn. Di; VissdiEU, about 16!»0; Philippe lifarc Pitteri, and Jean F.lie HiEnixGHt, 
 
 Kii.iAN,died in 109(i ; (Voirrtiy Mkykk, died 
 in 1098; Antoine Masson, died in 1700; 
 Gi'rard Audran, a most able artist and ce- 
 Irljiiitt'd engraver, died in 1703; Gerard 
 Ki)i:i.iNtK, born at Antwerp in 1627, died 
 
 Imrn at I'lm, died at .Vugsburg in 17(>7 ; 
 a very eminent painter and engraver of 
 animals and landscapes; ChrtUini /-'nW- 
 )/Vl{oiniiirs,about 17(n ; Lor. Zi( in, about 
 I7(i8; Jean (7*. FuA\cois, died in 1769; 
 
 at Paris in 1707; .4H<(i/«rTuoiVKAi', about Jean f.7. Nilson, alxuit 1769; Jacques Hov- 
 
 1707; r(W7v«(/Vi;Ri'vii:ui.EN, about l707;./c(/» mkmken, born at Dorldrecht in 1698, died 
 
 Rdlilistc Noi.i.iN, about 1710; Louis A\ - in WHO; one of tbe liiiest engravers of jior- 
 
 i)i( \N, died ill 1712 ; .yt'rt/i ./(/((/Hc.sTiiritNi:!- traits that ever li\ed; Jean Swwr, in 
 
 SER, died in 1718; ./frt?! t/ZWi- Kri'ns, died 1770; Framois Basan, A. B. Bauha/.a, 
 
 ill 1719; /Vt/7(>y)c Thomassin, alioiit 1720; Jean Bahkv, Francesco Bartoi.ozzi, born 
 
 iMiihel DdssiEii, aliout 1720; Elienne I'l- at l''loreii(e in 1730. died in London IS(I7 ; 
 
 cart, Bijh Auuran, died in 1721 ; Jean one of the lirsl engravers who practised 
 
ENGRAVING. 
 
 I 
 
 k 
 
 tile art of stipple or chalk engraving with 
 any success. His works are very nume- 
 rous, and are distinguished by delicacy 
 and taste rather than force. 
 
 Among other eminent artists who prac- 
 tised this art ai'e Jonathan Spilsbury,who 
 engraved several of Angelica KaufTmann's 
 works ; W. Ryland, Rob. Menageot, G. F. 
 Schmidt, Just. Preissler, Dan. Berger, C. 
 Feller, P. W. Tomkins, Bichard, J. R. 
 Smith, W. Dickinson, the two Facius's, J. 
 Parker, Caroline Watson, H. Kingsbury, 
 R. Macuard, T. Burke, G. Ward, G. P. 
 Carey, Saillier, G. Sharp, V. M. Picot, 
 Bettilini, P. Simon, Howard, G. Wilkin- 
 son, N. Pollard, C. Tomkins, Madame 
 Prestel, J. M. Delatre, G. Graham, H. 
 Sinzenich, Schiavonetti, &c. J. F. Bause, 
 Jean Beauvavlet, Beavit, Salv. Carmona, 
 G. Catini, G. B. Cecchini, Clievillet, Cle- 
 mens, R. Cooper, Dom. Cunego, Nic. De 
 Launay, William Ellis, Et. Figuel, Fab. 
 Gautier, Dagoty, Pierre de Geust, Jacques 
 Gilberg, Jean Hall, Antcine Hemery, Mar- 
 tin, Jan. Massin, Arch. Macdulf, Massard, 
 Chr. De Mechelen, P. E. Moitte, J. G. 
 IMlilier, Et. Mulinari, J. Mart Preissler, 
 Reinier, 7\.ndr6 Rossi, F. Selma, Jacq. 
 Schmutzer, Rob. Strange, J. K. Slierwin, 
 Jacq. Nicolas Tardieu, Porporati, Sim. 
 Fres. Ravenet, Giov. Volpato, Rosaspina, 
 Henri Vinkeles, Josue Wagner, Jean 
 Georges Wille, William Woollet, Raf- 
 faelle Morghen, Pierre Ducros, Pierre 
 Paul Montagniti, several members of the 
 family of Haid, Jean Etienne and Jean 
 Michel Liotard, Unger, the father and son, 
 Daniel Chodoweicki, the two Brands, the 
 two Crusiuss, Jean Guillaume Meil, Sa- 
 lomon Gessner, three Hackerts, Christian 
 Gotslieb Geyser, Cai'le and Henri Gutten- 
 berg, Angelica Kaufl'mann, Stoelzel, Cle- 
 ment Kohl, Adam Bartsch, Schlotterbeckj 
 Jean Henri Lips, Schubert, Schnorr, Boett- 
 cher, Durmer, Pfeifler, Wrenk, Pichler, 
 Geiger, &c. 6cc. 
 
 Among eminent English engravers are 
 Jvobert Walker, boin in Somersetshire in 
 1572, who engraved in aquafortis and 
 mezzotiuto ; William Faithorne, born in 
 London in 1620, and died in 1691, an ex- 
 cellent engraver of portraits ; Robert 
 White, born in 1645, died in 1704, por- 
 traits ; J. Beckett, born in Kent in 1653, 
 landscape, portrait, and history ; John 
 Smith, the celebrated mezzotinto engraver, 
 born in London in 1654, and died in the 
 same city in 1722, of whose numerous and 
 excellent works the cabinet of M. Paignon 
 Dijonval at Paris alone contained nearly 
 thirteen hundred ; John Faber, born 1684, 
 died 1756, also an eminent engraver in mez- 
 
 zotinto ; William Hogarth, born in London 
 in 1698, died in 1764, line engraver of his 
 own inimitable works ; Arthur Pond, en- 
 graver in aquafortis, born in 1700, died 
 about 1758 ; Thomas Worlidge, celebrated 
 for the delicacy and effect of his etchings, 
 in the manner of Rembrandt, born at Peter- 
 borough in 1700, died at Hammersmith in 
 1766 ; Francis Hayman, better known as 
 a painter ; James Mac Ardell, mezzotinto, 
 born in Ireland about 1720, died in Lon- 
 don in 1765 ; Thomas Smith of Chiches- 
 ter, and his brothers John and George, 
 landscapes ; they were also painters. Cap- 
 tain William Bailly, aquafortis; Richard 
 Houston, born in 1728, died in 1775, mez- 
 zotinto ; John Greenwood, born at Bos- 
 ton about 1730, died about 1770, chalk 
 and mezzotinto; William Wynn Ryland, 
 born at London in 1732, died there in 1783, 
 line and chalk ; William Woollett, born 
 at Maidstone 1735, died in London 1785, 
 one of the most eminent line engravers 
 that ever lived ; Richard Brookshaw, 
 born 1736, and practised much in France, 
 where he engraved, in mezzotinto, Louis 
 XVI. as dauphin, and as king with Maria 
 Antoinelle in 1775, and other French por- 
 traits ; John Dixon, bo'n about 1740, mez- 
 zotinto ; John Hall, born about 1740, line 
 engraving; John Raphael Smith, born in 
 London 1740, very eminent in mezzotinto, 
 and a good portrait painter in crayons ; 
 John Keyse Sherwin, born about 1746, 
 chalk ; Paul Sandby, R. A. a landscape 
 painter, and veiy eminent in aquafortis 
 and aquatinta; Robert Pollard, died in 
 1748, aquatinta ; John Boydell, born in 
 1719, and died an alderman of London in 
 1804, line ; Josiah Boydell, his nephew, 
 also an alderman of London, line ; Wil- 
 liam Dickenson, born about 1750, mezzo- 
 tinto and chalk ; James Gilray, line, and 
 peculiarly celebrated as the most eminent 
 caricaturist of his day ; James Fittler, 
 born in London in 1753, eminent as a line 
 engraver; William Ward, born about 1750, 
 mezzotinto ; J. Plimmer, who practised 
 about 1760, aquafortis ; Thomas Rowlett, 
 aquafortis, about 1760; Robert Dodd, 
 aquafortis and aquatinta, about 1770 ; Ro- 
 bert Thew, aquafortis and chalk, about 
 1786 ; The names of Vertue, Strange, 
 Woollett, Byrne, Middiman, Milton, 
 Sharpe, Lowry, and other eminent en- 
 gravers of the English school are known 
 and honoured wherever the arts are culti- 
 vated or understood. 
 
 Engraving on wood is a very artistlike 
 mode of execution, and requires consider- 
 able graphic abilities to execute it well. 
 Hence many painters of excellence have 
 
practised it with success, 
 engravers on wood we must particulnriy 
 mention Pierre Schieffer or Schoifer, whose 
 coloured figures in his celebrated Psalter 
 (fol. 1457) prove that this mode of en- 
 graving, tile invention of which is com- 
 
 EXGRAVING. 
 
 Among the best Pierre le Sueur the elder, in IfiOS ; the 
 
 two Papillons, died in 1710, and 1724 ; 
 Pierre le Sueur, jun. died in 171fi; Gon- 
 zalez van Hayden,died in 1720 ; Rerkha), 
 about 1720; El. Porcelius, died in 1722; 
 Vincent le Sueur, died in 1743; Jean Bap- 
 
 monly attributed to Hugo Da Capri, had tiste Jackson, about 1745 ; Giuseppe Maria 
 
 Jts rise in Germany. It is very probable 
 that Blartin Schoen, Michel Wolgemuth, 
 and Guillaunip Plydenwurfe engiaved on 
 wood about the middle and at the end of 
 the fifteenth century. The first artist in 
 this line who can be mentioned with cer- 
 tainty is Jean Schnitzer, who wrought 
 about 1480. Phillery, who lived near the 
 
 Moretti, died in 1740 ; Giovanni Battista 
 Ciinossa, died in 1747 ; Maurice Roger, 
 about 1 747 ; Pierre le Sueur, died in 1750 ; 
 Nicolas le Sueur, died in 17G4 ; Elis le 
 Sueur, in 1705 ; Antoine Marie Zanetti, 
 who died in 1707, endeavoured to revive 
 the peculiar manner of Hugo Da Carpi ; 
 Nicolas Caron, Jean Baptiste Papillon, the 
 
 Engraving, 8vo. London, 1800 ; to tlie 
 article Engraving in Dr. Bkewstek's 
 Edinburgh Encycloperdia, and the same 
 
 end of the fifteenth century, is the first en- t^vo M. M. Unger, Beugnet, Dugourc, &c. 
 graver on wood who practised in the Ne- TJie principal English engravers on 
 therlands. Among other eminent wood wood are mentioned in the early part of 
 engravers are Ad. Gampertin, about 1490 ; this article. 
 
 Rigm.Philesius, about 1508; Math. Grun- The limits of a general Dictionary of 
 wald, died in 1510 ; Hugo Da Carpi, about the fine arts cannot possibly find room for 
 1510; Albert Altdorfer, about 1511; Agos- all that is necessary to be said upon so 
 tino Veneziano de Musis, about 1514; Jean important an art as engraving. The reader 
 Balding, in 1510; Jean Burgmayer, died in is therefore referred to the article En- 
 J517; Albert Durer, died in 1528; of whose gravixb in Dr. Rees's Cyclopedia, Avrit- 
 works the Baron de Heinechen has given ten, we believe, by that eminent line en- 
 a complete catalogue ; Albert Glocken- graver Mr. Landseer ; to his Lectures on 
 thon, in 1510; Jean Guldenmund, about 
 152G ; Antoine Da Trento, in 1530 ; Bal- 
 thazar Peruzzi, died in 1530; Henri Vo^^- 
 
 tiierr, died m 1537; Jean Springinklee, word in the Eiuyclopcedia Metropolitana ; 
 died in 1540 ; Jean Brosshammer, in 1542 ; Strut's Dictionnr>i of Etig ravers ; Bryan's 
 Rodolpho Speckle, in 1543; Jean Kulen- Dictimiary of Painters and Engravers; 
 Lack, died in 1545 ; Daniel Beccafumi, died Meadow 's Lectures on Engraving:, London, 
 in 1549; George Pens, died in 1550; Jean 8vo, 181 1. 
 SchMPuflin, died in 1550; Pierre Gatin, 
 about 1550; Erhardt Schoeen, about 1550; 
 Jean Sebastien Bochm, about 1550 ; the bro- 
 thers Hopfer ; Henri Aldegraf, about 1551 ; 
 Conrad Gessner, about 1550, who engraved 
 natural history, marked his works with 
 the word Fo ; Lucas Van Leyden, died in 
 15.53 ; Jerome Resch, died in 1550 ; Jean 
 Bochsborgen, about 1500; Gietleughen De 
 Courtray, about 1550 ; Jacques Kerver, 
 about 1500 ; Virg. Solis, died in 1502 ; Sig- 
 fried Feyerabendt. about 1609; of which 
 name and family were many engravers; S. 
 Vichem, about 1570 ; Christophe Chriegcr, 
 in 1572; Christophe Sichem, in 1573; (). 
 Goujeon, in 1575 ; Salomon Berjihard, in 
 1580; Dupont, in 1583; Itrenze, about 
 1585; Luc. Muller de Cranach, died in 
 4586 ; Jean Rogel, about 1588; Laon. Nor- 
 sino,iii 1590; ('hristoplie Slimmer, in 1590; 
 Marc Ciaseri, in 1590 ; Jost. Aman,died in 
 1|>91 ; Jacf|ues Zuberlin, about 1595; 
 CiirJKtoplie Coiiolan, in 1000; Andr<'- An- 
 diiinii, fli,.,l in i,;2:{; Gio. Georg. Nivol- 
 .■^<<'lln,<lird in 1024; Barth(?lcmi ami Jean 
 Baptiste Coiiolan, about 1030; Christophe 
 Ji'gher, 1037; Etieuae Du Val, in 1050; 
 
 Of the earlier writers are Felibfen's 
 Principcs de V Architecture et des autres 
 Arts, qui y dependent. hUe de la Grarure, 
 par M. Marcenw DEniiiY, Paris, 8vo. 
 1750; Hi:iNEKEN Idee generate d'une Col- 
 lection complete d'Estampea ; Christ, Dic- 
 iiontiaire des Monogrammes ; Papillon, 
 Histoire de la Grururc en Boi,s. 
 
 In English, Sculpiura ; or, the Ilistorif 
 and Art of Chalcography and Engrariiig in 
 Copper, by John K\ki.y\, London, I2mo. 
 1003, 8vo. 1755;*T/« Art of Engraring 
 and Etching, trith the way of i»-inting Cop- 
 per-itlatis, hy M. Fvitmorne, Lond. 1702; 
 Scnlptiira hislorico-lrchnico ; nr, the Hisloni 
 and Art of F.ngraring, extracted from H\i,- 
 niNirri, Fu»rent, LeCompte, Faithorne, 
 the Aheriidiirio Pitlorico, aiul other authors, 
 Lond. 4lo. 1747, 1700, and 1770 ; An Essay 
 UjHtu Prints, containing Iteniark-s ujion the 
 Principles of Picturesque Hrnuly, the differ- 
 cut kind of Prints, and the (Characters of the 
 most noted JMasters ; itluslrateil hy Criticism 
 upon pitrticular pieces : to which are added 
 some Cautions that may he useful in collcct- 
 imr Printf!, i)y GiLPiv, London, 8vo. 1707, 
 1708, and 1781. ^ 
 
ENG 
 
 Among the Dutch writers the principal 
 is Gerard LAraEssE, who, in the thir- 
 teenth book of his Grand Livres des Pein- 
 tres, has treated of the art of engraving 
 with great ability. 
 
 Of German writers on engraving may 
 be cited the seventh section of the second 
 part of the work of Kceremon, entitled 
 De la Nature et de I' Art. The twelfth sec- 
 tion of the second part of the first volume 
 of the work of M. Prangen, which is en- 
 titled Essai sur la Formation d'une Acadi- 
 mie des Beaux Arts. The work called Sur 
 I'Etude de la Graimre, par Louis Fronho- 
 FER, which is printed in the Memoires de 
 VAcadimie de Baviere, Munich, 8vo. 1781. 
 
 Among the theoretical works on this 
 art worth consulting must be numbered 
 le Dktionnaire de Chiffres, et de Lettres 
 ornees d Vusage de tous les Artistes, conte- 
 nant les vingt-quatre Lettres de V Alphabet, 
 comhin^es de maniere H y rencontrer tous les 
 noms et surnoms entrela^es, par M. Pouget, 
 Paris, 1766; Le Pastel en Gravure, in- 
 vetit^ et ex^cut4 par Louis Bonet, compose 
 de huit epreuves qui indiquent les diffdrens 
 degrh, Paris, 8vo. 1769 ; Nouvelle Ma- 
 niere de faire des Gravures de diff^rentes 
 Couleurs, d la maniere du Dessin, par J. J. 
 Bylaert. 
 
 On aquatinta, or prints in imitation of 
 washed drawings, L'Art de Graver au Pin- 
 ceau ; nouvelle MHliode plus prompte qu'au- 
 cune de celles qui sont en usage, qu'on pent 
 ex4mter facilement sans avoir I' Habitude du 
 Burin, ni de la Pointe, mise au jour par M. 
 Stapart, 12mo. Paris, 1773. This work 
 is translated into German by Harempe- 
 TER, Nuremburg, 1780. Bosse has also 
 given a section of his work to the same 
 subject. 
 
 Upon the history of engraving the stu- 
 dent may consult with profit, Commincia- 
 mento e Progresso delV Arte d'intagliar in 
 rame, da Filippo Baldinucci, Firenze, 4to. 
 1686 ; with the Supplements of Dom. Ma- 
 ria Manni, Firenze, 1761 ; Abreg^ His- 
 torique de I'Origine et des Progres de la 
 Gravure, et des Estampes en Bois et en Taille- 
 douce, par le Major Humbert, Berlin, 8vo. 
 1752 ; Histoire de la Gravure, jusqu'au 
 temps d'Albert Durer, printed in the tenth 
 volume of the Journal des Arts de M. De 
 Muzz. Also a dissertation in the twenty- 
 fifth volume of La Nouvelle Bibliotheque des 
 Belles Lettres, sur V Histoire de la Gravure 
 en Allemagne, depuis son invention jusqu'd 
 Van 1500 ; Essai d'une Hisioire de la Gra- 
 vure, depuis sa premiere origine, suivi de 
 celle des Progris de cet Art, dans les Nou- 
 velles des Arts et des Artistes, p. 276. See 
 
 EPH 
 
 Arts, MezzotiNto, Monogram, Lithogra- 
 phy, Schools, Prints, &c. 
 
 Entabl.\ture. [from tabulatum, Lat. or 
 table, entablement, Fr.] In architecture. 
 The horizontal part of an order that is 
 supported by the column, and consists of 
 the cornice, frieze, and architrave, which 
 differ in all the orders. See Order, Ca- 
 pital, Column, Cornice, Architrave, 
 Frieze. 
 
 Entasis. ["Evraffie, Gr.] In architecture. 
 The slightly curved line that forms the 
 outline of the shaft of a column, which is 
 so beautifully graceful in the Grecian 
 Dorics as to be just suspected and scarcely 
 sensible. Were these profiles conical, they 
 would appear hollow in their outlines and 
 fragile; and when too gibbous or swoln 
 like the Tuscan and some bad examples of 
 the Romans and modern Italians, like a 
 bursting bai-rel, that had lost all its hoops 
 but the top and bottom, or, as Sir Henry 
 Wotton observes, " as if they were sick of 
 some tympany or dropsy." This contrac- 
 tion or comely diminution is to be found 
 in all the best Greek examples, although 
 many draughtsmen have represented them 
 as being straight from the apoplyge to the 
 colarino ; as Vitruvius (lib. iii. cap. 2) di- 
 rects, " De adjectione, quse adjicitur in 
 mediis columnis, quae apud Grajcos "Evra- 
 (Tic appellatur, in extremo libro erit for- 
 matio ejus." See Diminution. 
 
 Ephebeium. [Lat, 'E^jjjSsTov, Gr.] In 
 ancient architecture, From"E^rj/3oe a youth, 
 a lad. A building wherein youths or strip- 
 lings wrestled and exercised till they ar- 
 rived at manhood, and capable of entering 
 the Gymnaseium. Vitruvius and Palladio 
 both describe the details and manner of 
 constructing Ephebeii. 
 
 Ephesus. [Lat. 'E(pe(7oc, Gr. from '((piaiQ 
 permission, because Hercules permitted 
 the Amazons to found it.] In the history of 
 ancient architecture. A celebrated city of 
 Ionia, and once the metropolis of Asia 
 Minor, is affirmed by Pliny, Justin, and 
 Orosius to have been built by an Amazon, 
 whose name also it is supposed to bear. 
 It was then possessed by the Carians and 
 Leleges ; but was occupied by Androclus, 
 the son of Codrus, King of Athens, wlio 
 conducted the first colony of lonians into 
 Asia. The city is celebrated for the tem- 
 ple of Diana, one of the seven wonders of 
 the world, and other splendid works in 
 architecture and sculpture. See Diana. 
 It was known in ancient times by a va- 
 riety of names, as Arsinoe, after the wife 
 of Lysimachus, Alopes, Ortigia, Morges, 
 Smyrna, Trachsea, Samornion, and Pleta ; 
 
EPH 
 
 and is described by ancient geoG;raphcis 
 as at once the ornament of Asia, and the 
 most frequented emporium of that conti- 
 nent. Its citizens, in addition to their 
 mercantile eminence, were liberal patrons 
 of the fine arts, and their temples possessed 
 many of the most celebrated productions 
 of ancient genius. Their architecture was 
 conducted principally by Pharax, whom 
 "N'itruvius mentions with much commenda- 
 tion. Agasius, the son of Dosotheus, was 
 one of the most eminent sculptors. Par- 
 rhasius, Apelles, and Ephorus (the mas- 
 ter of the latter), all holding the first rank 
 as painters, were natives of Ephesus. 
 
 But the great boast of the Ephesians, 
 and the principal ornament of their city 
 was the celebrated temple of their tutelary 
 goddess Diana. The original object of 
 their worship was a small statue of elm 
 or ebony, ra;ide by one Canitias, though 
 commonly believed in those days to have 
 been sent down from heaven by Jupiter ; 
 but what is more remarkable, it had no 
 resemblance to the elegant huntress Diana, 
 and was merely an Egyptian hieroglyphic 
 with many breasts representing the god- 
 dess of Nature. As the original figure 
 became decayed by extreme age, it was 
 propped by two rods of iron like spits, 
 which, even after its renewal, were reli- 
 giously adopted in the substitute. It was 
 at first placed upon a block of beach or 
 elm wood, but in later times was preserved 
 in a shrine adorned with all that wealth 
 and genius could contribute. As the ve- 
 neration for the goddess increased among 
 the inhabitants of Asia, a magnificent tem- 
 ple was constructed on the spot where the 
 elm had stood, and the sacred image placed 
 within it. This temple seems to have been 
 several times (Pliny says seven times, lib. 
 xvi. c. 40) ruined and rebuilt, a circum- 
 stance which occurs in ancient writers, as 
 to the dates and descriptions of these suc- 
 cessive erections. One of them is ex- 
 pressly aflirmed by Livy (lib. i. c. 45) to 
 have been completed in the reign of Ser- 
 viiis TuUius, who flourished at the latest 
 570 years before Christ. Another is tie- 
 scribed which was originally designed by 
 (tcsipiion, a Cnossian architect, .")ll years 
 before the Christian era, whose j)lan was 
 continued by Demetrius, a priest of Diana, 
 and th(! wlu)le at length completed l)y 
 Daplinis of Miletus, and a citizen of J:^p]»e- 
 8U9. This temple is said to have been 
 ]);irtial!y dcslroyed by fire on the dny when 
 Socrnlcs was poisoned, 400 years IJ. ('. 
 and »;)(J 11. C. by the piiilosopher Heros- 
 tratus, on the day when Alexander (he 
 
 EPI 
 
 Great was born, Diana, says Tima;u8 the 
 historian, being then absent at the delivery 
 of Olympias. The incendiary confessed, 
 upon being put to the torture, that his only 
 motive for the sacrilegious act was a de- 
 sire to immortalize his name ; and though 
 an assembly of the Ionian states passed a 
 decree condemning his name to oblivion, 
 the prohibition served only the more to 
 perpetuate its remembrance. 
 
 There were also in Ephesus many other 
 temples of the Ionic order ; whereof two, 
 one dedicated to Apollo, the other to Bac- 
 chus, Avere the most remarkable. When 
 Cyras, having subjugated Asia and plun- 
 dered Ephesus, demolished all their tem- 
 ples, he spared that of Diana, whose asto- 
 nishing beauty served as a bulwark against 
 the rage and fury of that mighty conqueror: 
 but what he spared time, neglect, and the 
 ravages of the Turks in 1300 completed. 
 So that the temple of Diana, one of the 
 seven wonders of the world, and those of 
 Bacchus and Apollo with all their glories, 
 the sil\ er shrine and the statue that came 
 down from heaven are desolate and no 
 more to be seen. See Dianeium. Also 
 the article Ephesls in Dr. Brewster's 
 Edlnlnirgh Eiictjclupadia for more general 
 historical information ; Anacharsis' Tra- 
 vels, vol. vi. p. 188; Vitrlvils, lib. viii. ; 
 Puny, Nat. Hist. 1. xvi. c.40, and 1. xxxvi. 
 c. 14; Strabo, lib. xiv; Dr. Pococke's 
 Travels; Sandy's Travels; Voyufxe Pitto- 
 vesque lie la Grece ; Rev. J. Dali-vway's 
 Constanthwph', pp. 200, 211. 
 
 Epicramtis. ['E;riK-j)aj'iric, Gr. from iiri- 
 Kciaivu), I finish or perfect.] In ancient ar- 
 chitecture. Epicranitidcs are tiles forming 
 the cyma or top bed of the cornice Ixdong- 
 ing to the pediments of Grecian temples. 
 The angular stone that formed the vertex 
 of the fastigiuni or pediment was called 
 the angular epicranilis. The word occurs 
 in the celebrated Athenian inscription 
 brought to I'ngland by Dr. (.^handler, and 
 deposited in the British IMiiseum. See 
 Dr. Cm \Ni>i.i:u's luscriittioms antique, p. 
 11, No. 1. The Chevalier E. Q. Visconti's 
 memoir upon the same in th(' Ifh volume 
 of liis !\lii.s(o Piit Cltiiniiliiio, p. 80. M'li.- 
 KiNs's Atheiiiensia, p. 197. Stuart's An- 
 tiiiuilies of Athens, \i)\. ii. 
 
 I'iMCHAPii. [epi^^iaphe, Lat. 'ETriypatpi), 
 (o-.j lu architecture ami sculpture. An in- 
 scription or title denoting the use ordesti- 
 nati(m of the monument inscribed. Inde- 
 licndcntly of the utility of <"pignii)hs if 
 liit-y arc ingeniously devised, llu'v nia\ be 
 nuulo as ornamen'.al to the wOrk as foli- 
 age, fret.-i, or araln'squcs. See iNsiRiin io\. 
 
EQU 
 
 Episcenium or Episcenos. [Lat. Vitr. 1. 
 \ii. c. 5, 1. V. c. 8. 'ETTLfTKiiviov, Gr.] In an- 
 cient architecture. The upper part of tlie 
 scene in ancient theatres. As the scene 
 had sometimes three tiers of orders, the 
 episcenium was formed of the upper order, 
 with sometimes an attic or some other si- 
 milar finish. 
 
 Epistyle, [epistylium, Lat. 'ETrtTi'Xiov, 
 Gr.] In ancient architecture. That member 
 or division of the entablature which lies 
 immediately upon the abacus of the capi- 
 tal, and by some ancient writers is used 
 for the abacus itself. The architrave of 
 an order. The word occurs in Vitruvius 
 and also in the highly interesting inscrip- 
 tion in the British Museum, relating to 
 the survey of the Erectheium, brought to 
 England by Dr. Chandler. See Archi- 
 trave. 
 
 Epitaph, [epitaphium, Lat. 'EiriTa<piov, 
 Gr.] In architecture and sculpture. An in- 
 scription engraved on a tomb, mausoleum, 
 sarcophagus, cenotaph, or other funereal 
 monument intended to preserve the me- 
 mory of the deceased, and to inform pos- 
 terity of those actions which embellished 
 their lives. 
 
 Epoch, [epocha, Lat. 'Ettoxv, Gr.] In 
 the history of the arts. A solemn date or 
 beginning of a period whence a new com- 
 putation is begun. In art, Winckclmann 
 is the first writer who sought to distin- 
 guish its history into epochs, derived from 
 the classical writers and antique monu- 
 ments. Upon English art Mr. Prince 
 HoARE, secretary for foreign correspon- 
 dence in the Royal Academy of London, 
 has published a very interesting book call- 
 ed Epochs of the Arts, London, 8vo. 1813. 
 See Arts, Architecture, Egypt, Paint- 
 ing, Sculpture, &c. 
 
 Epoiei. ['ETroi'it, Gr.] In ancient art. A 
 word added by Greek artists to their 
 works after their names equivalent to the 
 Latin -word fecit, so much used in the pre- 
 sent day, and with the same meaning. 
 
 Equestrian statue, [from equestris, 
 Lat.] In sculpture. The statue of a man 
 on horseback. Pliny, in the beginning of 
 the thirty-fourth book of his Natural His- 
 tory, attributes the invention of equestrian 
 statues to the Greeks, and if their success 
 in single and isolated figures was equal 
 to those in their alti rilievi of the metopes 
 of the Parthenon, they must have surpass- 
 ed all succeeding ages. The Greeks 
 erected equestrian statues, says Pliny, in 
 honour of those who obtained the prizes 
 at their public games, in the horse races, 
 or with chariots. 
 
 The Romans adopted equestrian statues 
 
 EQU 
 
 in their commemorative statues very early. 
 Pliny (1. xxxiv. c, 3G, n. 16 and 17) relates 
 that one was erected in front of the temple 
 of Jupiter Stator to Claslia, who, on being 
 given as a hostage to Porsenna, escaped 
 across the Tiber on horseback. He also 
 mentions one in memory of Horatius Co- 
 des. " Pedestres," says he, " sine dubio 
 Romaj fuere in auctoritate longe tempore. 
 Equestrium tamen origo perquam vetus 
 est, cum feminis etiam honore communi- 
 cate. Clajliaj enim statua est Equestris. 
 Hanc primam, et Horatii Coclitis publice 
 dicatam erediderim." 
 
 The situations chosen by the Romans 
 for their equestrian statues were the Fo- 
 rums and other grand and public places 
 of Rome. Julius Csesar erected one in 
 his own forum to himself, that was of the 
 workmanship of Lisyppus, who made it 
 for Alexander the Great; but Caesar ap- 
 propriated it to himself by taking off the 
 head at the shoulders and substituting a 
 head of himself; which change gave rise 
 to the following verses of Statins, L. i. Sylv, 
 in cquo Blax. Domitian : 
 
 " Cffidat equns, Latiae qui contra templa Diones 
 Cicsarci stat sede Fori, qiiem tradere es aiiaiis 
 PcUito, Lisvppe, diici : inox Ca?saris era 
 Amata ceivice tulit." 
 
 Among other celebrated equestrian sta- 
 tues of the Romans were those of Castor 
 and Pollux, of the Emperor Domitian, also 
 described by Statius ; that of Trajan in 
 the middle of his forum, so much admired 
 by Constantine, that he desired to have 
 one of himself as fine, but Hormisdas, a 
 Parthian prince, who was with him, i-e- 
 plied, " Ante imperator stabulum tale 
 condi jubeto, si vales ;" that before he 
 procured so fine a horse he should erect an 
 equally fine stable for his reception. Those 
 of Marcus Aurelius, of Antoninus Pius, of 
 Alexander Severus, and many others of 
 which we have now only the records. 
 There was also a fine equestrian statue in 
 marble of Nonnius Balbus. 
 
 Of modern equestrian statues the most 
 celebrated are that of Henry IV. of France, 
 on the Pont Neuf at Paris, by John of Bo- 
 logna, that of Louis XIII. in the Place 
 Royale by Daniel da Volterra, those of 
 Louis XIV. in the Place Vendome, by Gi- 
 rardon, at Dijon by Le Hongre, at Rennes 
 by Coysevox, of Louis XV. at Paris by Bou- 
 chardon, of the same king at Bourdeaux, 
 by Le Moyne, of the Conn^table Anne de 
 Montmorency at Chantilly, the two in the 
 entrance of the Thuilleries by Coysevox, 
 called Mercury and Renown. 
 
 The best equestrian statues in England 
 are those of Charles I. by Le Sueur at 
 
ESC 
 
 Charing Cross, of George III. in Berke- 
 ley Square by Wilton, of the same king at 
 Liverpool by M'estmacott, of General Aber- 
 crombie in St. Paul's by the same artist, 
 of Charles II. at Windsor, of William III. 
 in St. James's Square, London, and of the 
 game king on College Green, Dublin, and 
 a few others of less merit. 
 
 Of other modern equestiian statues, the 
 very fine one of Peter tlie Great, on the 
 summit of an immense rock of granite at 
 St. Petersburgh, by Falconet, is the best. 
 There are also equestrian statues of some 
 merit erected to the memory of tlie Arch- 
 duke Charles of Austria at Ratisbon, and 
 of Frederic the Great of Prussia at Berlin. 
 
 See SCL'LPTLRE. 
 
 Equilibrium. [Lat.] In painting and 
 sculpture. Equality of weight so distri- 
 buted that a figure appears to stand ba- 
 lanced in a natural manner. 
 
 Erect, [^erectns, Lat.J Jn architecture. 
 To raise an edifice, to build, to place per- 
 pendicular to the horizon. 
 
 Erectheium. [Lat. 'Eptx^f'oi'j Gr.] In 
 architecture. A celebrated temple of the 
 Ionic order, erected in honour of Erec- 
 theus, on the Acropolis of Athens. From 
 the earliest period of Atlienian history 
 there appears to have been a temple of 
 Erecthus upon the Athenian Acropolis. 
 This building, according to Herodotus, 
 was burnt, and was again destroyed when 
 Xerxes gained possession of the citadel. 
 It at present forms a portion of the triune 
 temple of Erectheus, Minerva, and Pan- 
 drosus. The public may expect a full 
 treatise and delineation of this most exqui- 
 site relic of Grecian art from the pen and 
 pencil of Mr. Wiuuam Henry Inwood, 
 architect of the new church of St. Pancras, 
 in a short time. See also Wilkins's Athe- 
 nicnsia, Col. Leake's Topography of Athens, 
 Stuart's Antiquities of Athens, ike. 
 
 EscuRiAL. In the history of architecture. 
 The name of a village in Spain, about 
 seven leagues from Madrid, and celebrated 
 for the magnificent palace of the Escurial, 
 or St. Lorenzo, which has been deemed 
 by tlie Spaniards the eighth wonder of the 
 world. This splendid structure was be- 
 gun in 1557 by Philip II. in commemora- 
 tion of the battle of St. Quintin, Avhiih he 
 gained on the day of tlie Spanisli saint St. 
 i^orenzo, from which it received its naiiu^. 
 The first architect was John Batliste IMa- 
 negro of Toledo, and upon his death, in 
 1507, the work was cimlinued by IJusta- 
 manli,oni' of his puj>ils, \vi»o died in 15!»7. 
 
 The building, which consists of gray 
 stone from the ncighl)onring <|uarrics, is 
 arranged lu the loriu of a gridiron, in al- 
 
 ESC 
 
 lusion to the martyrdom of St. Lorenzo. 
 The dome of the church is surrounded 
 with eight symmetrical towers, which give 
 a fine effect to the whole edifice. 
 
 The Escurial is a long parallelogram 
 with four fronts. The principal or north 
 front is six hundred and thirty-seven feet 
 broad, and fifty-one high up to the cor- 
 nice. It is flanked at each angle with a 
 tower one hundred and eiglity feet high. 
 It has three entrances, and t\vo hundred 
 windows. The lower part of the central 
 gate is adorned with eight Doric columns, 
 and the upper part with four Ionic co- 
 lumns. The front on the opposite side to- 
 wards the east is of equal extent, and is 
 approached by a large square, raised on 
 arches like a terrace, and surrounded with 
 a lofty balustrade. The west and south 
 fronts are of the same dimensions ; the 
 latter having five rows of windows, and 
 the former almost none. 
 
 This vast building affords accommoda- 
 tion to a community of monks as well as 
 to the sovereigns of Spain, 
 
 The apartments occupied by the monks 
 contain various objects deserving of notice. 
 The chapter room and the prior's apart- 
 ment contain many admirable pictures. 
 The old church is one hundred and tn enty- 
 nine feet long, and thirtj-three feet broad. 
 The refectory is one hundred and three 
 feet long, and thirty -three broad. Among 
 other paintings is a Lord's Supper by Ti- 
 tian, which is generally admired. The 
 ground cloister is a square formed by a 
 double row of piazzas one above the other, 
 ninety-three feet long on each of the four 
 sides, and seventeen feet broad. The 
 walls of tlie lower cloisters lue covered 
 with paintings by the first artists. The 
 staircase from the lower to the upper clois- 
 ter is adorned with fine fresco paintings, 
 one of which represents tlie foundation of 
 the monastery and the battle of St. Quin- 
 tin. The upper cloister itself is orna- 
 mented witii the finest pictures. 
 
 The double cloister, which is built of 
 granite, is fifty-two feet high, and has four 
 grand fronts, one at each side, opening on 
 a spacious court of cighty-eiglit arolies, 
 eleven in each row, supported by ninety- 
 six colunuis, with a Doric below and 
 Ionic above. The area of i\\c cloister is 
 divided into several compartments. A 
 small octagonal temple, about fif(y-two 
 fi'ct higli and twenty-six in dianu'tcr, and 
 terminal iiig in a dome, occupies the cen- 
 tre. \\ illiout it is built of granite, and 
 withinof fine jasper marble; and its eight 
 sides arc allcriiatcly adorni'd with i)roiect. 
 injj, columns, or with sl^Uues iis large as 
 
ESCURIAL. 
 
 life ; all the ornamental sculptures being 
 wrought in Genoa marble. 
 
 The libraries are peculiarly valuable 
 and interesting. In one of them is a iine 
 collection of books in Latin, Hebrew, 
 and Arabic characters, with an assem- 
 blage of four thousand three hundred 
 MSS.of which five hundred and sixty-seven 
 are Greek, sixty-seven Hebrew, one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and five Arabic, and 
 one thousand eight hundred and twenty 
 in Latin, Castilian, and other languages. 
 In this number are included several Bibles, 
 particularly the Greek Bible of the Em- 
 peror Cantacuzene. Tliere is also in this 
 library, which is deposited in a private 
 cabinet, many choice designs and ancient 
 MSS. Among these is a copy of the four 
 Evangelists, seven hundred years old, em- 
 bellished with miniatures, and also Greek 
 Liturgy, supposed to have been written 
 by St. Basil. The apartment in which 
 these are contained is adorned with fluted 
 Doric columns, and the roof and frieze are 
 covered with allegorical paintings. On a 
 table in the centre is a small octagonal 
 temple which represents Charlemagne in 
 the midst of his princes and palatines. 
 The temple is of silver, and is embellished 
 with twenty pounds of lapis lazuli, forty- 
 eight ounces of gold, and one thousand 
 four hundred and forty-eight ounces of 
 silver, besides agates, diamonds, and other 
 precious stones. The monks are extremely 
 attentive in showing all these curiosities 
 to strangers. 
 
 The royal apartments are adorned with 
 the finest paintings, which are displayed 
 in two adjacent galleries. One of these 
 is called the Gallery of the Infanta, and 
 the other, which is the principal one, is 
 seventy feet long, on the walls of which 
 are traced many of the military achieve- 
 ments of the Spaniards, from which it has 
 received the name of the Battle Hall. 
 
 The Campana communicates with the 
 main building by a double gallery, one 
 above the other, eighty-six feet long, and 
 adorned with Ionic columns. The church 
 is ascended by a fine staircase, one hun- 
 dred and thirty-six feet broad, and thirty- 
 four long, which leads to a piazza, form- 
 ing the foreground of the church. This 
 piazza opens to five arcades resting on 
 pilasters, which support Doric semico- 
 lumns. Above these is raised a second 
 body, adorned with six statues of the 
 Kings of Israel, eighteen feet in length, 
 and formed of white marble inlaid with 
 black. This front is flanked by two towers, 
 which are used as belfries. The inside of 
 the church, which is Doric, is in the form 
 
 of a Greek cross, with a lofty dome in the 
 centre. It is three hundred and thirteen 
 feet long, and one hundred and ninety- 
 four broad, and contains forty-eight altars, 
 enriched by fine paintings. A fine marble 
 statue of St. Lorenzo is placed over the 
 holy water pot, and is supposed to have 
 been an antique discovered at Rome. The 
 interior of the choir is exquisitely finished, 
 and the fine paintings of Cambiaso cover 
 the walls and cielings. The pulpit of ce- 
 dar and ebony, resting on four columns of 
 bronze, is finely ornamented ; and there 
 are two rows of stalls, including two hun- 
 dred and twenty-eight seats. The chan- 
 cel, which is raised by twelve steps, is 
 adorned with bronzes, and has fresco paint- 
 ings on its roof. It contains two mauso- 
 leums, one representing the statues of 
 Charles V, his Empress Elizabeth, his 
 daughter the Empress Mary, and his sister 
 the Queen of France and Hungary. The 
 other exhibits the statues of Pliilip II. and 
 of his three queens, Anne, Mary, and Eli- 
 zabeth, all of gilt bronze. Three doors, 
 adoi-ned with crystal and bronze, lead 
 under an arch into the chancel, and con- 
 duct to three compartments, where the 
 royal family assist at divine service. The 
 principal altar consists of four bodies of 
 architecture. In the first are six Doric 
 columns, in the second six fluted Ionic co- 
 lumns, in the third four fluted Corinthian 
 columns, and in the fourth two Composite 
 ones. Fifteen statues and several paint- 
 ings are attached to these, several of which 
 are very beautiful. The ornaments of 
 these columns and pilasters are of gilt 
 bi-onze. In the centre of the altar stands 
 a Corinthian circular table, fourteen feet 
 seven inches high, and six feet seven 
 inches in diameter. It is adorned with 
 the statues of the twelve Apostles in gilt 
 bronze, and with eight columns of red jas- 
 per marble, which can scarcely be distin- 
 guished from agates. This beautiful struc- 
 ture terminates in a cupola of jasper mai'- 
 ble, which contains a statue of Christ, and 
 is adorned with a topaz as large as the 
 hand, and encased in a rose of gold. Within 
 this tabernacle is enclosed another more 
 gorgeous and magnificent ; it is of a square 
 form, nineteen inches high. It is deco- 
 rated on each side with four columns and 
 four pilasters, having their bases and ca- 
 pitals of gold enamel, and the cornice of 
 silver. It is crowned with small pyra- 
 mids or spires placed on pedestals of ver- 
 milion stone, embossed with gold. Two 
 doors of rock crystal, studded with gold, 
 appear as the two sides, and the whole, 
 like the large tabernacle, terminates in a 
 
ESCURIAL 
 
 cupola, on the top of vvliich is an emerald 
 Httached to a rose of gold, and on the in- 
 side a beautiful topaz enclosed in gold 
 enamel. 
 
 The sacristy is included in one beautiful 
 nave, ninety-three feet long and eighty 
 feet broad, and is enriched with relics, 
 shrines, chalices, crosses, cliandeliers, and 
 paintings of inestimable value. On the 
 altar called Santa Furma, adorned with 
 the finest marble and bronzes, is preserved 
 a splendid tabernacle, presented by the 
 Emperor Leopold. 
 
 The treasury of this church contains 
 many articles of great value ; among these 
 are a statue of St. Lorenzo, which weighs 
 nine hundred marks of silver and thirty- 
 six marks of gold ; an allegorical statue 
 of the city of Messina, which bears in its 
 liand an ostensoire of gold, weighing (ifty 
 marks; a small temple of gilt bronze more 
 than one hundred feet high, adorned with 
 eight Doric columns, and surmounted with 
 a dome ; a crucifix of silver attached to a 
 cross of gilt silver, having a topaz on the 
 Lead, a large ruby in each hand, and a 
 brilliant stone, an inch in diameter, at the 
 feet, which was long considered as a dia- 
 mond. 
 
 The place of interment for the royal fa- 
 mily of Spain is called the Pantheon. It 
 is below the church, and is perhaps the 
 most splendid part of the Escurial. The 
 descent is by fifty-nine steps, which form 
 the first staircase. Its walls and arches 
 are encrusted with the finest marble, and 
 it leads to a landing place of a round 
 form, decorated in a similar manner. Af- 
 ter continuing to descend some stairs, we 
 discover a beautiful front, formed by ten 
 marble Doric columns, the ornaments of 
 which are all of gilt bronze. On each 
 .side are placed two allegorical statues of 
 bronze, one representing Human Nature, 
 and the other Hope. After descending 
 thirty-four steps, we advance to the apart- 
 ment where the remains of forly-tlirfc in- 
 fantas and infantos are interred. In ano- 
 ther apartment, underneath the chancel, 
 and still more niagnilicent, are interr('<l (lu- 
 remains of the kings and ciueens. Il has 
 the form of an octagon, and is thirty-one 
 feet in diameter, and tiiirly-lhree feet liigh, 
 is incrusted with beautiful marltles of va- 
 rious colours, and is decorated wilii gilt 
 l)ronze. The door is in one of the angles, 
 and imniedialely oppositt! to it is the altar; 
 the otixT six angles are separated by six- 
 teen double Corinthian pilasters. In the 
 intervals are arranged twenty-four urns or 
 tombs, four being in ea<'h angle. 'J'here 
 are otiier two beyond the entrance, resting 
 
 on the claws of a bronze lion, and both of 
 marble. Sovereigns, principally of the 
 Asturian dynasty, occupy fourteen of these 
 tombs, each sepulchre having an appropri- 
 ate inscription. Only two ol the princes 
 of the French line are interred here. A 
 large bronze lamp, surrounded with twen- 
 ty-four chandeliers, hangs from the centre. 
 On the east and south of the palace are 
 a series of gardens supported w ith walls, 
 and laid out in terraces, which give them 
 the appearance of hanging gardens. The 
 ground is very unequal, and the greater 
 part of them are disposed in the form of 
 an amphitheatre. Ingeniously constructed 
 stairs form the communication between 
 the gardens. 
 
 A beautiful road, about a quarter of a 
 league in length, and planted on both 
 sides with lofty elms and linden trees, leads 
 to the village of the Escurial. A subter- 
 raneous corridor, arched with freestone, 
 and called the Mina, leads also to the vil- 
 lage. Another road leads to Fresneria, a 
 country house situated a quarter of a 
 league to the east of the palace, and in the 
 centre of it is a piazza, supported by Doric 
 columns. The road to Madrid is excel- 
 lent, but is through a naked country, with- 
 out field or pastures. In going from Ma- 
 drid it first winds along the jNIanzanarcz, 
 and leaving the Casa del Campo, it passes 
 Pardo, and then three houses in succes- 
 sion, where relays of horses are provided. 
 It then conducts to Valde Morillo, from 
 whence the Escurial is first seen. 
 
 The beautiful gardens of the Escurial 
 are intersected by woods and meadows, 
 containing numerous streams an<l foun- 
 tains and small lakes abounding with lish. 
 In the middle of one of these lakes is a 
 covered pavilion, adorned with eight co- 
 lunms, and encircled with a little garden 
 bordered by a balustrade. 
 
 The lofty mountains ^^ hich separate the 
 province of Old and New Castile surround 
 the I'^scurial. They are ilreary, bare, and 
 uncultivated. Spacious reservoirs have 
 been constructed in these mountains for 
 collecting the water, which is conveyed by 
 an atjueduct to sujjply ninety-two foun- 
 tains. The royal family, before the Spa- 
 nish revolution, inliabited the ICscurial 
 from Seiitiniber to Dcit^mber, a season al- 
 nmst wholly employed in ilevotion. Since 
 the invasion of Sjiain by the French the * 
 internal decorations of the Escurial hav(< 
 been greatly injured, and the linest paint- 
 ings have been carried to the Louvre. 
 The position of the Escurial, according to 
 trigoMuinetrical observations, is \\'e>t lon- 
 gitude l" T 00", and Noilh latitude 40" 
 
ETCHING. 
 
 85' 50". See Townshend's Travels in Spain, 
 vol. ii. ; Laborde's View of Spain, vol. v. 
 p. 143 — 155; Link's Journey through Por- 
 tugal, p. 302 ; and Francisco de los Padros 
 Description breve del Monasterio de St. Lo- 
 renzo el real del Escorial. 
 
 Etch or Etching, [etizen, German.] In 
 engraving: A mode of engraving on cop- 
 per and other metals or substances by- 
 drawing with a needle inserted in a han- 
 dle, called an etching needle, on and 
 through a thin ground, which being cor- 
 roded or bitten by aquafortis, forms the 
 lines upon the plate. 
 
 The tools and substances employed in 
 this free and artistlike way of engraving 
 are varnishes or grounds of various sorts, 
 both hard and soft, which can be pur- 
 chased at the colour shops ; etching nee- 
 dles of various sizes, etching boards, rules, 
 &c. The design is transferred to the 
 gi'ound in the same way as directed for 
 engraving, and then the lines and figures 
 are traced, drawn, or etched through the 
 ground with the needles. See Engrav- 
 ing. 
 
 The most eminent artists of different 
 nations who, after Albert Durer, have dis- 
 tinguished themselves by their abilities in 
 etching, and whose works are the fittest 
 examples for the student, in Germany are 
 Jean Guillaume Bauer, born at Strasburg 
 in 1600, and died at Vienna in 1640 ; he 
 engraved many battle pieces, capriccios, 
 and historical pieces with great ability ; 
 Mathieu Merian, 1661, who excelled in 
 natural history, entomology, &c. ; Wen- 
 ceslas Hollar, 1676, of whom G. Vertue 
 published in London, in 1752 and 1759, a 
 description of his works in one volume 
 4to. ; Jonas Umbach, a painter and etcher 
 born at Augsburg in 1624, and died there 
 about 1690, engraved many excellent 
 plates from scripture histoi-y ; Jean Henri 
 Roos, born at Otteudorf in the Palatinate, 
 in 1631, died at Frankfort in 1680; he ex- 
 celled chiefly in animals ; J. J. de Sand- 
 rart, 1698, who engraved after Raffaelle, 
 &c. ; Fran<^. Ettinger, 1702; Phil, Roos, 
 1705 ; Fel. Meyer, 1713 ; Jean Christophe 
 Dietsch, also a landscape painter, born 
 at Nuremburg in 1710, and died in 1769; 
 Pien-e Von Bemmel, born at Nuremburg 
 in 1689, and died in the same city in 1723, 
 landscape ; Fran<^ de Paule Ferg, born at 
 Vienna in 1689, died in London 1740 ; G. 
 Phil. Rugendas, born at Augsburgh 1666, 
 died 1742 ; J. F. Beich, born at Munich 
 1665, died there in 1748 ; J. Frey, born at 
 Lucerne 1689, died at Rome in 1760 ; 
 Thiele,1752; Wolfgang Kilian, 1759; Phil. 
 Jerome Briukmaiui, born at Spire 1709, 
 
 died at Manheim in 1761 ; J. E. Reidinger, 
 born atUlni in 1698, died at Augsburgh in 
 1767, celebrated for his animals and hunt- 
 ing pieces ; Francois Edmond Weirotter, 
 born at Inspruck in 1730, died at Vienna 
 in 1773 ; Chret. Guill. Ernest Dietrich, 
 also a painter, born at Weimar in 1712, 
 died at Dresden in 1774 ; his works are 
 both numerous and excellent ; a catalogue 
 of them is printed in " Les Melanges Ar- 
 tistiques de M. Meusel ; Georges P'red. 
 Schmidt, born at Berlin in 1712, died in the 
 same city in 1775 ; a catalogue raisonn6 
 of whose works, in two parts, was pub- 
 lished at Leipsic in 1789 ; Christ. Louis de 
 Hagedorn, 1780 ; Jos. Wagner, born at 
 Thalendorf in 1706, died at Venice in 
 1780 ; Salomon Gessner, born at Zurich, 
 1734, died there in 1788 ; Daniel Chodo- 
 weichi, born at Dantzic in 1726 ; his works 
 have been described by M. Meusel ; Bal- 
 thasar Antoine Dunker, born at Saal near 
 Stralsend in 1746 ; M. A. Geyser ; H. and 
 C. Guttemberg ; Jacques Philippe Hack- 
 ert, also a landscape painter, born at 
 Prenzlau, in Brandenburgh, in 1737 ; John 
 Hackert, born at Amsterdam in 1634 ; 
 George Hackert; Maria Angelica Kauf- 
 man, born at Coire in the Grisons in 1747, 
 died at Rome in 1807, also an eminent 
 painter. Her etchings are various and 
 beautiful. Ferdinand Kobell, also a land- 
 scape painter, born in 1740 ; Philip James 
 De Loutherbourg, born at Strasburg in 
 1740, died at Hammersmith, near London, 
 in 1812, many excellent etchings after his 
 own designs ; Jean Meill, born at Ant- 
 werp 1599, died at Turin in 1664 ; Oeser, 
 Rode, Schellenberg, Tischbien, Weisbrodt, 
 Wille, Zingg, &c. &:c. 
 
 Among the artists of the Netherlands 
 who have rendered tliemselves celebrated 
 by their etchings are Liicas Sim. Frisius, 
 1640; Pierre Soutman, 1640; many pieces 
 after Vandyck, Rubens, &c. ; Corn. Schut, 
 also a painter, born at Antwerp in 1590, 
 died there in 1660; Jonas Suyderhoef, 
 born at Leyden 1600; J. G. Van Vliet, 
 born in Holland 1608 ; many spirited etch- 
 ings after Rembrandt; Ant. Van Dyck, 
 born at Antwerp in 1559, died in London 
 1641 ; Jean Fyt, born at Antwerp in 1625, 
 died in 1644; Jean Botli, the celebrated 
 painter, born at Utreclit in 1609, died at 
 Venice in 1650, many very spirited and 
 artistlike etchings, of which tliere were 
 some fine specimens in the cabinet of M. 
 Paignon Dijonval ; P. Potter, born at Enk. 
 huysen in 1625, died in 1654 ; Pierre 
 Van SompeleUjJ^romeWittoweck, Jacques 
 Neefs, Fran<^. Sneyders, the celebrated 
 painter of animals, born at Antwerp in 
 
ETCHING. 
 
 1657; Antoine Waterloo, in 1C31, died in 1695 ; Ant Franc. Boude- 
 
 1579, died in 
 landscape painter, born at Utrecht iu 1618, 
 died there in 1662 ; Lucas Van Uden, born 
 at Antwerp in 1596, died there in 1662 ; 
 Corn. Bega, born at Haarlem in 1620, died 
 there in 1664 ; his etchings are botli nume- 
 rous and excellent ; Theodore Van Thiil- 
 deu, 1662; Jean Vischer, born at Amster- 
 dam in 1636, and Corneille Vischer, born 
 at Haarlem in 1610, died in 1673, of wliose 
 works a catalogue has been published by 
 Ger Hecquet in 1754 ; Adrian Van der 
 Velde, born at Amsterdam in 1639, died 
 there in 1672, animals and landscape ; 
 Pierre Van Laar, born at Laaren, in Hol- 
 land, in 1613, died at Haarlem in 1674 ; 
 Paul Rembrand van Ryn, born near Ley- 
 den in 1606, died iu 1674 ; of the numerous 
 etchings of this great artist several cata- 
 logues have been published, one in 1751 
 by Gersaint, another by Helle and Glomy 
 in 1756, to which P. Yver added a supple- 
 ment; in 1759 Ant. de Burgy published 
 another, but they have been all superseded 
 by the excellent catalogue raisonn6 of 
 Adam Bartsch, published at Vienna in 
 1797 ; Albert Van Everdingen, also a land- 
 scape painter, born at Alkmaer in 1621, 
 died there in 1675 ; Du Jardin Morglien ; 
 Jacques Jordaens, the celebrated painter, 
 born at Antwerp in 1594, died there in 
 1678; R. Stoope, born in Holland 1612, 
 died in England 1686 ; he engraved a set 
 of seven pieces relating to the marriage of 
 Charles IL and Catherine of Portugal ; 
 Jean Van der Velde, born at Leyden about 
 1598, died 1679; Reinicr Nooms, called 
 Zeeman, born at Amsterdam in 1612, and 
 died in 1680; he etched many excellent 
 sea pieces ; Melch. Kussel, born at Augs- 
 burg in 1621, died in 16H3 ; Nic. Berghem, 
 the celebrated painter, born at Haarlem in 
 1624, died in 1683, of whose Avorks a de- 
 scriptive catalogue was publisheil by Win- 
 ter in 1767; Adrian Van Ostade, born at 
 Lul>eck in 1610, died at Amsterdam in 
 1685; Abr. Genoels, born at Antwerp in 
 1638, di«'d in 1685; lit rnian SariUvcn, 
 born at Rotterdam in 1609, died at I'lrccht 
 in 1685 ; Roland JJogmann, born at Am- 
 sterdam in 1607, died in 1686; Jean I$is- 
 ihop, known by llie name of Episcopius, 
 born at ihr. Hague; in KiKi, died at Am- 
 sterdam 1686; Tiiomas Wyck, born at 
 Haarlem in 1618, died tiiere in 1686; 
 Jii(!(iues Ruysdaal, U\e landseaj)!' painter, 
 born at Haarlem in 1(J35, died at Amst(!r- 
 dam 1681 ; David Teniers, born at Ant- 
 werp in 1611, died in 1690; Herman 
 Van S\vaii('vel(l(,burn at Voerden, in Hol- 
 liind, in 1(120, died at lionie in 1690; 
 Adrian Van der Cubel, born at Rhy.swick 
 
 wyns, known by the name of IJoudouin, 
 1700; Corneille du Sart, a painter, en- 
 graver in aquafortis and mezzotinto, born 
 at Haarlem, in 1665, died there in 1704 ; 
 Romyn de Hooghe, born at the Hague in 
 1638, died in 1718 ; Gerard Lairesse, born 
 at Liege in 1640, died at Amsterdam in 
 1711 ; Jean Luycken, born at Amsterdam 
 in 1649, died there in 1712 ; Jean Gottlieb 
 Glauber, 1726; Jean Van Hughtenburg, 
 painter and etcher of battles, and engraver 
 in mezzotinto, born at Haarlem iu 1664, 
 died at Amsterdam in 1733; Jean Punt, 
 also a painter, born at Amsterdam in 1711, 
 died in 1770 ; Cornelius Ploos Van Am- 
 stel, who is alsn celebrated for his engrav- 
 ings iu imitation of drawings, born at Am- 
 sterdam about 1730. 
 
 The French artists have excelled in the 
 art of etching, which they have brought to 
 great perfection, particularly in finished 
 works upon a small scale. The principal 
 who have succeeded in this spirited and 
 artistlUve department of art are Et. Du 
 Perae, born at Paris about 1550, died in 
 1601; Jacques Callott, born at Nancy in 
 1593, (lied there in 1635 ; his works in 
 sacred and mythological subjects, history, 
 portraits, titles, frontispieces, grotesques, 
 landscapes, &:c. are very numerous and 
 much admired ; Jean Morin, born about 
 1612, died in 1665 ; Francois Perrier, born 
 at Macon in 1590, died at Rome in 1650; 
 Laurent De La Hire, born at Paris iu 
 1606, died there in 1656; Jean Boulan- 
 ger, born at Troves in 1613, died in Paris 
 in 1660; INIichael Dorigny, who engraved 
 mucli after Vouet, 1665 ; Et. Bourdon, Et, 
 Bandet, 1671 ; Franc*. Chauveau, born at 
 Paris in 1620, died there in 1676; Abr. 
 Bosse, born at Tours in 1610, died at Pa- 
 ris in 1678: Gabr. Perelle, born al Paris 
 1622, died 1680 ; Franc^, Tortebat, born at 
 Paris 1626, died 1690; Lsrael Silvestrc, 
 born at Nancy in 1621, died at Paris in 
 1691 ; Claudia Bousonet Stella, 1697 ; Jeau 
 Bai)liste INIonnoyer, who )niinted tlie llow- 
 ors at the British Museum, Ixirn at Lisle 
 in 1635, died at London in 1699; Elisa- 
 beth Sophie Cheron, born at I'aris in 1648, 
 died there in ITll; Sebastian Le Clerc, 
 born al Met/, in [637, died at Paris in 
 1714; a catalogue of this artisl's works 
 was published by Jombert in 1774; An- 
 toiuo Wiitleau, l)orn al Valeiicii'ntu'S in 
 I6,S|, died at Talis in 1721 ; Ant. ('o>pfl, 
 born at Paris in 1661 ; died tiiere in 1728; 
 Berniuii Picart, v liose nuiucrous and ex- 
 cellent works hiire procured him a de- 
 ser^edly gn-at name, ^^as born at Paris in 
 1673, and died at Amslcrdam iu 1733; Ch. 
 
ETCHING. 
 
 Nic. Cochin, born at Troyes in 1619, died 
 at Paris in 1686 ; J. B. Oudry, born at Pa- 
 ris in 1686, died in 1735 ; Jacques Phil, le 
 Bas, born at Paris in 1708, died in 1782 ; 
 Pierre Quentin Chedell, born at Chalons, 
 in Champagne, in 1705, died about the 
 year 1762 ; Jean Moyreau, 1762 ; A. C. 
 Ph. Comte de Caylus, born at Paris in 
 1687, died in 1765, known by the number 
 and excellence of his works and his writ- 
 ings on antiquities ; Nic. Ch. Silvestre, 
 1767; Ch. Hutin, born at Paris in 1715, 
 died at Dresden in 1776 ; J. B. Le Prince, 
 born at Paris in 1733, died in 1781 ; Ch. 
 Nic. Cochin the younger, born at Paris in 
 1715, died there in 1788; a catalogue of 
 the works of this able artist is published 
 by Jombert, Paris, 8vo. 1770 ; Laurent J. 
 Cars, born at Lyons in 1702, died at Paris 
 in 1771 ; Choffart, Flippart, S. Aubin, De- 
 mateau, J. de Longxieuil, Marcenay de 
 Ghuy, De S. Non, Denon, Tardieu, De 
 Seve, Pillement, Hibon, Willemin, &c. 
 
 Among the Jtalian artists who have ex- 
 celled in etching are Agostino Veneziano, 
 who etched many of the designs of Michel 
 Angiolo, Raffaelle, &c. and died in 1514 ; 
 Franc. Mazzuoli, commonly called Parme- 
 giano, born at Parma in 1504, died at Ca- 
 sal Maggiore in 1540 ; his etchings, after 
 his own pictures, are numerous and excel- 
 lent; Marco da Ravenna, died in 1540; 
 Giacomo Robusti, surnamed Tintoret, born 
 at Venice in 1512, died in 1594 ; Agostino 
 Caracci, born at Bologna in 1558, died in 
 1602 ; Annibale Caracci, brother of the 
 last, born at Bologna in 1560, died at Rome 
 in 1609; F. Baroccio, born at Urbino in 
 1528, died at Rome in 1612 : B. Schidone, 
 born at Modena in 1560, died at Parma in 
 1616; C. Procaccini, born at Bologna in 
 1546, died at Milan in 1626; F. Villamena, 
 born at Assisi in 1566, died at Rome in 
 1626 ; Giacomo Palma, born at Venice in 
 1544, died in 1628 ; Raffaelle Sciaminose, 
 born in 1570, died in 1615 ; Guido Reni, 
 born at Calvenzano, near Bologna, in 1575, 
 died in 1642 ; Lanfranco, born at Parma 
 in 1581, died at Rome in 1647; Pietro 
 Testa, born at Lucca in 1611, died at Rome 
 in 1648 ; Guiseppe Ribera, called II Spag- 
 nuoletto,born at Gallipoliin 1593, died in 
 1656 ; Giov. Franc, Barbieri, called Guer- 
 cino, born at Cento in 1590, died at Bologna 
 in 1660 ; Pietro Santi Bartoli, 1670 ; Giov. 
 Benedetto Castiglione, born at Genoa in 
 1616, died at Mantua in 1670; Salv. Rosa, 
 born at Naples in 1615, died at Rome in 
 1673; Gasp. Dughet, called Le Poussin, 
 born at Rome in 1613, died in 1675 ; Lucas 
 Giordano, 1705; Carlo Maratti, born at 
 Camerino in 1625 ; died at Rome in 1713 ; 
 
 Pietr. Aquila, 1720 ; Marco Ricci, born at 
 Bellunoinl689,dieaat Venicein 1730; J. 
 B. Tiepolo, born at Venice in 1697, died at 
 Madrid in 1770; Andr6 Scacciati, 1771 ; 
 Franc. Bartolozzi, Bern. Bellotto, called 
 Canaletti, Fr. Cunego, Piranesi, Volpato, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Among our English artists who have 
 distinguished themselves by the use of the 
 etching needle are Franc. Barlow, who 
 died in 1702; Dan. Marot, 1712; Jon. 
 Richardson, born at London in 1665, died 
 there in 1745 ; Arthur Pond, born in 1700, 
 died in 1758 ; William Hogarth, born at 
 London in 1698, died in 1764 ; of whose 
 numerous and admirable works an account 
 may be found in the Biographical Anecdotes 
 of Will. Hogarth, London, 1766 ; Rich. 
 Earlom ; William Woollet, born at Maid- 
 stone in 1735, died at London in 1785 ; 
 Robert Walker, born in Somersetshire in 
 1572 ; James Gammon, born about 1630 ; 
 Thomas Worlidge, in the style of Rem- 
 brandt, born at Peterborough in 1700, died 
 at Hammersmith in 1766 ; J. B. Chatelain, 
 born in England about 1710 ; Captain Wil- 
 liam Bailly, born about 1726 ; Thomas 
 Gainsborough, born at Sudbuiy in 1727, 
 died in 1788; Peter Tillemaus, James 
 Barry, Paul Sandby, Robert Pollard, 
 James Gilray, the inimitable caricaturist, 
 Robert Dodd, Thomas Vivares, and most 
 of our eminent engravers. 
 
 The best works for reference concerning 
 the subject of etching, and of the artists 
 who have practised it, are, among others, 
 mentioned under engraving. Lc Catalogue 
 du Cabinet de M. de Marolles ; le Cabinet 
 des Singularith d' Architecture, de Peinture, 
 Sculpture, et Gravure, par Florent Le 
 Comte ; Description du Cabinet de M. Lo- 
 rangh-e, par M. Gersarit ; Le Catalogue du 
 Chevalier de la Roque, by the same author ; 
 Le Catalogue raisonni du Cabinet de M. De 
 Fonspertuis, by the same ; that of the Ca- 
 binet de M. Mariette, par Franc. Basan; 
 Le Catalogue raisonni des Estampes de M. 
 Julienne, par P. Remy ; Les Notices ghe- 
 rales des Gravures divishpar Nations, suivies 
 d'mi Catalogue raisonni d'iine Collection 
 choisiie d'Estampes, par M. Huber ; Le Ca- 
 talogue du CabtJiet du Comte de Praun, par 
 Christophe de Murr, 8vo. 1797 ; Le Ca- 
 talogue raisonni des principaux Gruveurs et 
 d£ leurs Ouvrages, par Fuesslin ; Le Ma- 
 nual des curieux et des Amateurs des Arts, 
 by the same ; Le Dictionnaire des Artistes 
 dont nous avons des Estampes, par le Baron 
 de Heinecken ; Cabinet de M. Paignon Di- 
 jonval, various periodical works, such as 
 Le Mercurc de France, la Bibliotheque et la 
 Nonvelle Bibliotheque des Belles Lcttres ei 
 
ETR 
 
 des Beaux Arts, eii AUniuind, les Jouninux 
 artistiqnes puiili^s, par IM. de Murr et IM. 
 Mel'sel. See Engraving. 
 
 Etruscan, [from Etruria, erepi'nia, Gr.] 
 In the history of the arts. A country in 
 Italy, now called Tuscany, lying on the 
 Tyrrhene sea, reaching from the banks of 
 the Tiber to the river Macra, and now 
 forming the territory of the Dukedom of 
 Florence. The Etruscans, a colony from 
 Greece, were antecedent to all the rest of 
 the Italian peninsula in cultivating the 
 arts, which they practised even before the 
 reputed time of Cadmus. All their arts 
 were derived from the Greeks by the mi- 
 gration of the Pelasgi ; and their style of art 
 should be considered as a school and as a 
 system, rather than as the works of native 
 Etruscan artists. The people of Etruria 
 carried the cultivation of the fine arts to a 
 considerable degree of perfection, and gave 
 their name to an order of architecture after 
 the Roman system. In the earliest period 
 of their history, when the first inhabitants 
 of Etruria, having lost their liberty, the 
 Pelasgi established tliemselves near to 
 their territory, drove the Umbri from the 
 places they occupied, about 1G13 before 
 Christ. About 992 years before the vul- 
 gar era, 239 years before the foundation of 
 Rome, the Etruscans were a powerful state, 
 possessed of a regular form of government 
 and territory reaching from the upper to 
 the lower sea, with twelve principal cities. 
 The Umbri were their principal rivals, and 
 were for a long time at war. About (his 
 period of their history the arts and sciences 
 began to be cultivated by the Etruscans. 
 Nola and ('ai)ua were founded about 801 
 years Ix'fore the vulgar era, and Rome was 
 founded 752 years before tlie same epocli. 
 Its new inhabitants adopted the Pelagic 
 cliaracters in their wriliiigs, modified I\v 
 tlie Etruscans, and adopteil many of their 
 customs, sciences, and arts. If as it is 
 related that an ancient statue of Ronuiius 
 ^vithout a tunic was leally sculptured in 
 his own lime ; if tliose of Numa, of 'Jar- 
 (juinius Priscus, of Ser\ius Tullius, and of 
 Aclius Navius (he so<itiisayer, were works 
 col( inporary witi> (lie ])ersonages tiiey re- 
 lirescnted, it is clear they must ha\e been 
 the performance of Etruscan artists, and 
 that scul|)ture liad arrived to great |ierl"ec- 
 lion among (lieiii. IMiny sj)caks of a s(a- 
 tuc of Hercules anterior to Evanch-r, of a 
 (|u»(lriga tliiit Komulushad made of silver 
 taken tViiMi the; inhabitants of (.'anu'rinus, 
 ^vlli(•ll he consecrated to \'ulcan ; and of 
 a statue of Janus that the same king erect- 
 ed wiu-n he concluded i)eace with the Sa- 
 l)iucs. Under Tarcpiinius Prisons (he 
 
 EVA 
 
 Etruscans practised the art of modelling 
 or plastic. They formed a statue of Ju- 
 piter of terra cotta, which was painted 
 red, and another of Hercules of the same 
 material. This mode of sculpture is al- 
 luded to by Propertius, lib. iv. 1, in the 
 following verses, 
 
 " Fictilibus crevcrc Diis ha-c auroa tcmpla; 
 Iiiquo Jovis dextra lictite fulmen crat." 
 
 The Etruscan style of art is that which 
 prevailed in that school from its founda- 
 tion down to a certain epoch, whidi the 
 Latins distinguished by the word Tusca- 
 nicus. This tyle, according to Strabo, 
 resembled the Egyptian, or rather the early 
 Greek style. Quintilian calls it dnj, and 
 Cicero hard. 
 
 The best authors to consult on the Etrus- 
 can style of art are Winckel.mann in his 
 Histoire de I'Art ; Guarnacci in his Ori- 
 gine ItaUche ; Tiraboschi in his Sturia 
 dclla Literatura ; Lanzi in his Saggio sulla 
 lingua Etruria; HeynE in his HHm. de 
 I'Acad. de Gwttingiwiiox the year 1774; 
 and the various works of Passeri, Goiir, 
 and Blonarotti upon Etruscan monu- 
 ments of art. 
 
 El'Ripl's. [Lat. 'E«pi7roc, Gr.] In ancient 
 architecture. The canal or trench that se- 
 parated the arena from the seats in the 
 circus. See Circus. 
 
 EuKVTiniv. [eurijthmia, Lat. 'Ei'ocO/i/a, 
 Gr.] In all the arts. Regular and symme- 
 trical measure, harmony of proportion. It 
 is used by John Evelyn, Sir Henry Wot- 
 ton, and sonu' of our early writers on ar- 
 chitecture to designate the just proportions 
 of arclii(ecture. The latter writer defines 
 eurytluny in architecture to be " that agree- 
 able harmony between (he breadth, length, 
 and height of all the rooms of the fabric, 
 which suddenly, where it is, taketh every 
 beholder, by (he secret power of propor- 
 tion." Eiirylhmy is in Vitruvius (lib. i. 
 c. 2) one of the six essentials or consider- 
 ations which accomplish the whole art, 
 namely, ordinalio, disixisitin, curiilhniin, 
 sijmntctria, decor, dislril>iiliii. 
 
 I'^USTYJ.E. [cu.ttjlhis, IjA{. 'EvffTl'Xoi-, Uv. 
 
 from 'En beautiful, hai)py ; and arvXaij a 
 column.] In architecture. The liflh nuule, 
 according to \ itruvius, of distiibuting (he 
 intercolumniations of a building. The 
 eust\le nn'thod has (wo diameters and a 
 quarter between (he eolunuis. 1( is one of 
 the most beautiful arraiigenuii(s that can 
 be given to a row of cidunuis. See A»- 
 ( inri:rri ui;, CUii.imn, Order, Intehco- 
 
 1,1 MNIATION. 
 
 EvANCJKUSi'S. [Ernngelista; l,:i(. i:i<ayyf- 
 XtTf'/i;, Gr.] In painting and .sculpture. Fi- 
 gures representing the four cvungelists OJf 
 
EXH 
 
 writers of the history of Jesus Christ, 
 called the Gospel. The evangelists, Mat- 
 thew, Mark, Luke, anti Johu, whether re- 
 presented singly as on the acroteriee of St. 
 Paul's cathedral, or in a composition like 
 Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper are 
 known by costume and character gene- 
 rally received among artists and critics, 
 as well as by certain symbols and attri- 
 butes. 
 
 Upon an antique glass, an engraving of 
 which is published by liuonarotti, repre- 
 senting the miracle of the loaves and fishes, 
 are four rolls or ancient volumes of writing, 
 to represent the four gospels of the four 
 evangelists ; and upon another published 
 in the same work St, Peter and St. Paul 
 are represented with one such volume be- 
 tween them to indicate, as he says, that they 
 preached but one gospel, one to the Jews, 
 and the other to the Pagans. Besides dis- 
 tinguishing the four evangelists from the 
 rest of the apostles by attributes of writing 
 or as inspived penmen, they are usually 
 represented with personal and unchange- 
 able attributes, as St. Matthew with a 
 book, St. Mark with a lion, St. Luke with 
 an ox, and St. John with an eagle. 
 
 Excavations. See Elephanta, Ellora. 
 
 Exchange. In architecture. An edifice 
 where merchants, bankers, brokers, &c. 
 meet to negotiate their affairs. Among 
 the Romans the basilica answered for the 
 purpose of the modern exchange. The 
 Royal Exchange of London, by Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren, and the Exchanges of Liver- 
 pool and Amsterdam are among the finest 
 buildings of this description in Europe. 
 
 Execution. In all the arts. A ready 
 spirited mode of performing any portion of 
 the art, showing a practised hand, and a 
 ready mind. 
 
 Exedra. [Lat. 'EU^pa, Gr. from E|, a 
 pi'eposition meaning out of or from, and 
 1 tSpa, a seat or chair.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. A small room set apart for conver- 
 sation, which were common in the gym- 
 nasite, baths, and other public buildings j 
 something like the modern boudoirs or ca- 
 binet. See Boudoir, Cabinet. Cicero 
 well defines the exedra as " cella ad collo- 
 quendum." 
 
 Exergue. [Fr.] In medallurgy. The 
 place on a medal or coin below the type, 
 which has generally the date or other par- 
 ticular inscription. 
 
 Exhibition. \exhibHio, Lat.] In aU the 
 arts. A display or setting forth of works 
 of art, distinguished from a gallery, which 
 is permanent, while an exhibition is tem- 
 pory and sometimes periodical. The French 
 call such periodical displays expositions. 
 
 EXP 
 
 Exomis. [Lat. 'E^uifiig, Gr.] In ancient 
 costume. A garment or tunic used by the 
 Greeks, which hung straight upon the body 
 and left the shoulders uncovered. Pollux 
 in the 118th § of his fourth book says, the 
 exomis was used by the actors of comedy, 
 and was a white tunic without ornament 
 and without any seam on the left side. 
 
 ExosTRA. [Lat, "EKo'7pa, Gr.] In ancient 
 architecture. A machine or engine of tim- 
 ber, wherewith such things as are acted 
 within or behind the stage in the ancient 
 theatres were shown to the spectators. 
 Also a bridge thrust out of a turret by pul- 
 leys on to the walls of a town, bj'' which the 
 besiegers entered. The dramatic stage of 
 the ancients never represented the interior 
 of a building, but always an open space ; 
 and when the action required that they 
 should exhibit to the spectators or the actors 
 what was passing inside of a house or pa- 
 lace, it was performed by the machine call- 
 ed exostra or ekkyklema. 
 
 Expression, [expressio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. A representation by the imitative 
 arts. More particularly the character or 
 meaning of the soul, as expressed by the 
 countenance, by which the figures appear 
 to live, think, and breathe ; and appertains 
 principally to painting and sculpture. In 
 this meaning, expression is one of the high- 
 est qualities, if not the very highest of the 
 art. Without expression there can be no 
 character, and without character there can 
 be no interest. See Character. The ex- 
 pression in the face of Jupiter of Phidias has 
 been commended from authoritj^, and Ho- 
 mer is full of the characteristic expressions 
 of the countenances of his heroes. The 
 Laocoiin and the Niobe are models of ex- 
 pression in sculpture, and the heads of 
 RafTaelle in his Cartoons, and of Michel 
 Angiolo in his Prophets and Sibyls, iu 
 painting. 
 
 The heads designed by Lebrun as de- 
 scriptive of the expression of each passion 
 of the soul may be consulted, but not de- 
 pended upon, as they are exaggerated in 
 most instances, and erroneous in many. 
 Mr. Bell's treatise upon the anatomy of 
 expression is much better suited to the use 
 of the student, as being founded upon true 
 and philosophical principles. A series of 
 heads, published in France by M. M. Le- 
 nure, after difierent great masters, illustra- 
 tive of expression are also very useful, as 
 well as Chamberi^ain's engravings of the 
 heads of Holbein. An attentive observ- 
 ance of great tragedians or actors is also 
 very useful, if compared with the feeling 
 they mean to express. 
 
 Upo^ expression in art the student would 
 
 V 
 
EXV 
 
 do well to consult portions of tlie Traiti de 
 la Peiniure de Leonardo da Vinci; a por- 
 tion of the second book of the Trattufo dill' 
 arte delta Pittura de Lomazzo; the third vo- 
 lume of the Entretiens de FELiniEN, sur ks 
 ries ct les ourrages dcs Peintres; the seventh 
 chapter of the tenth book of the grand Lirre 
 des Peintres, par Lairesse; several of the 
 chapters in Richardson's Treatise on Paint- 
 ing ; Reflexions sur la Peintnre, par INI. de 
 Hagedorn ; The School of Raffaelle ; or, 
 the Student's Guide to Expression in Histori- 
 cal Painting. By B. Ralph, London, folio, 
 1759. Tetes d' Expression, grar^es par Le- 
 MiRE. La Plujsionomie de Lavater, and 
 many of the books referred to in the arti- 
 cle Painting. 
 
 Extrehhties. [from extremity, extremi- 
 tas, Lat.] In painting and sculpture. The 
 parts most remote from the middle ; that is, 
 technically, the head, the feet, and the 
 hands. To draw, model, or paint the ex- 
 tremities well are of the utmost importance 
 to the artist, and should be studied with 
 the c;reatest care. The sculptors of Greece 
 and the old masters in painting excelled 
 in this important branch of tlie arts. In 
 the most ancient periods of the art the 
 bodies of statues were formed of wood, 
 while their extremities were elaborately 
 finished of stone. Such works were called 
 acrolithean. See Acrolithes. 
 
 Ex VoTO. [Lat. from the preposition ex 
 rendered adverbially with its case and voto, 
 
 FAC 
 
 avow.] In the history of ancient art. Any 
 thing dedicated votively ; such as various 
 parts of the human body represented in 
 sculpture, of which there are many ancient 
 specimens in the principal galleries of an- 
 tique sculptures in England and on the 
 continent. Examples of these votive gifts 
 are veiy ancient, and antiquity atfords 
 many examples of them. They are also 
 still presented in catholic countries, to 
 avert danger and in return for good re- 
 ceived. The modern ex rotos are gene- 
 rally miserable daubs of pictures. 
 
 Eve. [ea?;.] In all the arts. The organ 
 of vision; the power of perception. Also 
 in architecture a small circular window, 
 sometimes also called a buUseye. In paint- 
 ing and sculpture, the eyes of a figure form 
 a most essential part of beauty and expres- 
 sion. The just expression of the eyes, and 
 delineation of the brilliant play of light 
 tliat gives such eflect to their expression, is 
 one of the most difficult parts of art to be 
 attained. In sculpture, particularly of 
 porti-aits, the bright speck of liglit which 
 appears on the prominent part of the cor- 
 nea is generally represented by a small 
 and effective cavity. Many antique statues 
 had their eyes formed of gems and vitreous 
 compositions. Busts, with cavities for the 
 entire eye are to be found in the principal 
 collections of sculptures in Europe. Tlu-re 
 are several of this description in the 
 Towneley gallei^ of the British Museum. 
 
 Fable. [Fr. /«fc«^(, Lat.] In painting and 
 sculpture. A feigned story intended to con- 
 vey some moral precept; the series or con- 
 texture of events that constitute a poein> 
 a pic'ture, or otlier composition. See Mv- 
 
 THOLOGV. 
 
 FAiiRiCK. [fahrica, Lat.] In architecture. 
 A building; an edifice. A falnirk is ge- 
 rally understood to mean a building of 
 large dimensions and extent ; as a cafiie- 
 dral, a royal palace, a college, and such 
 like structures. 
 
 Fa(;ade. [Fr.] In architecture. The front 
 view or elevation of a building, (Iiat is 
 taken in by the eye at one view. Thus a 
 square insulated building lias i)r()pcM]y 
 lour facades, but the word is mostly re- 
 slriclcd to the prinf'ipal front, particularly 
 wlieii it terminates the prosi)i'it of an ave- 
 nue. Dpon the distribution and disposi- 
 tion of the fa(;ud('S of buildings, good sense 
 and uliiily must be lirst consultc'd ; tlien 
 propriety and consistency, and always cha- 
 
 racter. See ARriiiTErrrRE, Et.EVATioN, 
 DiSTRinuTioN ; also Le Genie de I' Architec- 
 ture, par Camus ue Mezieres; Paris, 8vo. 
 178<). The first volume of a v\»nk by Je\n 
 Fran(,h)is Blondel, entitled de la Distrihu- 
 tion des Maisons de Plaisance; particularly 
 that portion where he expressly writes on 
 la Decoration des Facades. The same au- 
 tlu)r also treats upon tiie same subject in 
 his excellent Cours d' Architecture. 
 
 Face. [Fr. ./)/ciVs, Lat.] In painting and 
 sculpture. That part of tiu' hiiniau figure 
 which forms the front or intellectual part 
 of the head; the countenance or visage. 
 In architecture. A plain niemhcr or band. 
 On a i)roper delineation of the face de- 
 pends all tlic intellectual expression of a 
 figure, and the artist must study tiiis (lor- 
 tion of the wonderful human fabvie, which 
 Milt<m appropriately calls the " human 
 face divine," witl» the utnu)st assiduity and 
 attention. See CiiAR-VtTEU, Beadty, Ex- 
 pression. 
 
FAI 
 
 Facia. See Fascia. 
 
 Faciebat. See Epoiei. 
 
 Facile. [Fr. /acz/is, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 Ready in performing, dexterous. An artist 
 is said to have a facile pencil, chisel, or 
 burin, when his knowledge and practice 
 enables him to work with readiness and 
 quickness. 
 
 Facility, [facilitas, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 Readiness, performing with little labour. 
 A painter born with an aptitude or genius 
 for his art draws his outlines and distri- 
 butes his colours with lightness, freedom, 
 and dexterity, the very converse of labour 
 and heaviness. Rubens had this quality 
 to perfection, and it is the pinnacle of art 
 and the perfection of study. The stu- 
 dent however must not confound mere ra- 
 pidity and a dashing sketchiness with this 
 high quality of the practical part of the 
 arts. An architect is said to have a facility 
 of composition when his knowledge of his 
 art is such that he can compose, arrange, 
 and distribute the apartments of an edi- 
 fice with readiness and skill, with judg- 
 ment and propriety, according to the cha- 
 racter and requisites of his design. 
 
 Faenza. In the history of the arts. The 
 Faventia of the ancients, a city of Italy, 
 and capital ofthe department of the Amone, 
 is the see of a bishop suffragan of Raven- 
 na, Mr. Eustace, the latest author of tra- 
 vels in Italy, describes this ancient town 
 as spacious and well built. Its great square 
 has a fine range of porticos on either side 
 and a Corinthian church belonging to the 
 Dominicans. The cathedral, which is Go- 
 thic, stands in the great square, and is or- 
 namented with a handsome steeple, five 
 stories high, with ballustrades. There is 
 a fountain near the church, having a basin 
 surrounded with four lions of brass, and 
 encompassed with a wrought iron rail. Fa- 
 enza was once celebrated for its pottery, to 
 which it gave its name. (See Faience.) 
 The pottery obtained also the name of Ma- 
 jolica, from the inventor of it. Mr. Eustace 
 observed in the vicinity of this city a few 
 traces of the pine groves, which appear to 
 have formed one of its distinguishing fea- 
 tures in ancient times. Distance from Ra- 
 venna, twenty miles south-west, north lati- 
 tude, 44° 18', east longitude, 11° 51'. See 
 Keysler's rmic?s,vol. iii.p. 24G; Eustace's 
 Classical Tour through Italy, vol. i. p. 142, 
 143. 
 
 Faience. [Fr.] In painting;. A sort of 
 fine pottery or earthenware glazed with a 
 fine varnish, and painted in various de- 
 signs: named from Faence or Faventia, 
 where the art of manufacturing was re- 
 vived after having been forgotten by its 
 
 FAI 
 
 original inventors the Egyptians, who made 
 a similar kind of pottery covered with a 
 green or blue enamel, of which many ex- 
 amples are to be found in cabinets of the 
 curious. 
 
 It was for a long time believed that Raf- 
 faelle employed his great talents, at least 
 in his youth, in painting vases, paterae, 
 and other pieces oi faience made at Urbino, 
 his native town. This belief occasioned 
 Malvasia to call Raffaelle the "potter of Ur- 
 bino, in his Ilistoire dcs Peintres dc Bologne. 
 But the incon'ectness of this opinion, which 
 probably arose from many of his designs 
 appearing upon them, is now sufficiently 
 known ; and Malvasia himself has retract- 
 ed all that he had advanced, derogatory 
 to the prince of painters, as far as reprint- 
 ing the pages which contained the pas- 
 sage in question, without the offensive epi- 
 thet. The period of the fine porcelain 
 called Raffaelle's ware, as containing 
 copies of many of his works, and being in 
 general after his manner, does not derive 
 its date till after the death of that great 
 painter, being from about the year 1530 to 
 that of 1560. All the works of this kind, 
 executed before or after those thirty years, 
 are more or less inferior in style and exe- 
 cution to those made in that time. The 
 error probably arose, and the offensive ap- 
 pellation obtained from the parents of the 
 great Raffaelle having established a manu- 
 factory ofthe pottery of Faience at Urbino, 
 and that they were painted after the de- 
 signs of the great master or his pupils by 
 Raffaelle dal Colle, or dal Borgo, whose 
 principal occupation was executing those 
 exquisite little works that embellish this 
 ware. See also Enamel. 
 
 F.URFORD. In the history of architecture, 
 A market-town in Gloucestershire, situ- 
 ated at the foot of the Cotswold Hills, on 
 the banks of the river Colne, at an old 
 ford near the confluence of that river with 
 the Thames. The town consists of two 
 streets, neatly and regularly built, and is 
 principally distinguished for its fine Go- 
 thic church, and the exquisitely painted 
 glass which it contains. The church, 
 which is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, 
 is a fine specimen of the Gothic, which 
 prevailed about the end of the fifteenth 
 century. It consists of a lofty nave, a 
 chancel, side aisles, and a low tower ris- 
 ing from the centre of the edifice, which 
 has been supposed to have been intended 
 for the foundation of a spire. The whole 
 of the building, which is one hundred and 
 twenty feet long and fifty-five broad, is em- 
 battled and sustained by pinnacled but- 
 tresses, those of the tower being flattened 
 V 2 
 
FAN 
 
 and gradually diminishing to the top. Sta- 
 tues as large as life are rudely sculptured 
 on their bases; and round the architrave 
 is a series of grotesque figures. The ex- 
 terior is adorned with many niches, which 
 had once contained carved statues. The 
 architecture of the interior is remarkably 
 line; light fluted pillars, sustaining four 
 arches on each side, divide the aisles from 
 the nave. The aisles are continued paral- 
 lel with the chancel, with which there is 
 a communication by two arches of equal 
 height. The chancel is encircled with a 
 fine oak screen, adorned with finely carved 
 tabernacle work, and stalls of the same 
 work. The pavement is chequered with 
 blue and white stones. 
 
 This magnificent edifice was founded by 
 John Tame, an opulent merchant, who 
 having, in 1492, taken a vessel laden with 
 painted glass, and bound from a Flemish 
 port to Italy, resolved to have a large 
 building erected for its reception. Having 
 been for some time settled at Fairford, he 
 began the present church in 1493, and dis- 
 posed of the glass in twenty-eight win- 
 dows, each having four or more compart- 
 ments. The principal subjects of these 
 paintings are scriptural, some of them are 
 the Roman emperors who opposed and 
 who favoured the establishment of Chris- 
 tianity. The designs in the great west 
 ■window are the Resurrection and the last 
 Judgment, the colours of which are so bril- 
 liant, and the drapery so delicate that Mr. 
 Dallaway regards them as a more pleas- 
 ing specimen of ancient art than will often 
 be met with in England or on the conti- 
 nent. Vandyck considered some of the 
 figures as so well done lluit they could not 
 be surpassed by the best pencil. 
 
 The church contains a variety of monu- 
 ments and sepulchral inscriptions. A tomb 
 of Italian marble is erected in the north 
 aisle to the memory of Sir Edmund Tame, 
 son of the founder of the church. 
 
 Fane. [Vr.fanum, Lat.] In archilecture. 
 A temple or spot of ground consecrated to 
 religion. Fane rather means the wliole 
 site occupied in sacred ollice, and iiiniile 
 the building itself. 
 
 Fano. In tlu- histori/ of int. The ancient 
 Fanum or Fortun;e in L'mbria', between 
 Pisaurum now Pesaro and Sencgallia Ihe 
 present Siena. A seajjort town of Italy, 
 in the duchy of Urbino; it is a well built 
 and \ery handsoni(> town, surrounded with 
 a lofty wail of brick, iiaviiig lowers at a 
 small distance, and bastions towards (he 
 sea. The churches are remarkable^ botii 
 for tlicir architecture and for the i)aih(- 
 ings which they contain. The triumphal 
 
 FAS 
 
 arch erected in honour of Augustus, who 
 sent thither a colony called Julia Fanes- 
 tris, is now one of the gates of the town. 
 It is of the Corinthian order ; and in the 
 time of Constantine a gallery or portico 
 of five arcades was built over it. It was 
 greatly injured by the artillery in a con- 
 test between this town and Julius II. Se- 
 veral pillars were still lying (when Mr. 
 Eustace visited the town) as they seem to 
 have fallen on the platform above the arch. 
 There are three different inscriptions on 
 the three cornices. The theatre was for- 
 merly a magnificent and commodious 
 building, but it is now in ruins. The Via 
 Flaminia have turns from the sea towards 
 the Apennines. See Eustace's Classical 
 Tour in Italy, vol. i. p. 153. 
 
 Fasces. [Lat.] In ancient costume. Bun- 
 dles of rods carried before the magistrates 
 of Rome by the lictors, with an axe bound 
 up in the middle of them. The rods and 
 axe were to intimate that some offenders 
 for lesser crimes were to be chastised with 
 rods, and others, when there was no other 
 remedy, were to be cut off from the people 
 by the axe. The dignity of the magistrate 
 was expressed by the number of lictors 
 bearing fasces before him. A dictator had 
 twenty four, a consul twelve, and a pr.Ttor 
 uibanus or mayor of a city two. The word 
 is also applied to the office or dignity itself; 
 as sumere faces meant to assume the office, 
 fasces desj/onere to lay down his command, 
 'dnd fuscibiis ubrogatis, his authority being 
 taken away. According to most of the 
 Roman historians, Tarquinius Priscus 
 brought tlte custom of bearing the fiisces 
 as an ensign of office, with those of wear- 
 ing rings, the curule chairs of ivory, pur- 
 ple habits and other regal symbols from 
 the Etruscans. Upon the arch of Titus 
 and other monuments of Roman art, the 
 fasces are represented as decorated with a 
 crown of laurel. 
 
 They are also used by modern artists as 
 enjblematical of Itoinan history, and alsi> 
 to entrances of royal palaces, municipal 
 edifices, courts of justice, &:c. as emblems 
 of magistracy. 
 
 Fasciv. [Lat. *o(TAta, Gr.] In architec- 
 ture. .-V. fillet or flat member ; i)articularly 
 ai)i)lied to the band or broad lillet in an 
 architrave; which, when subdi\ided as in 
 the Ionic and Corinthian »)rders are eallid 
 Ihe first, and second, or third fascia. 
 
 Fasticii >i. f LuI. from./(i.s7u, lofty, high, 
 l)roud, as lilif;ium from lili; !\i.\ In archi- 
 tecture. The summit, apex, or ridge of a 
 housi" or ixiIinuMif ; usi-d by \'itruvi\is for 
 the pediment or the t»reek littroi,-. See 
 Afros. 
 
FEL 
 
 Fecit. [Lat.] In all the arts. A word 
 used by artists to inscribe their works, to 
 indicate the designer ; as Michel Angiolo, 
 fecit. 
 
 Feeble, [foible, Fr.] In all the arts. 
 Weak, imbecile. A picture may be feeble 
 in colour, drawing, character, or expres- 
 sion, and a statue in all but colouring, 
 when timidity or want of knowledge 
 guides the hand rather than that boldness, 
 which is the result of experience, know- 
 ledge, and practice ; it is the debility of cau- 
 tion, the opposite of boldness ; and the an- 
 tipodes of bravura. Feebleness of execu- 
 tion, if the artist be young, may be con- 
 quered, feebleness of conception never. 
 
 Felicity, [felicitas, Lat.] In the mytho- 
 logy of the arts. A symbolical moral deity 
 of the ancients, called Felicitas by the Ro- 
 mans and 'EvSaifiovia by the Greeks. She 
 was the goddess of happiness, prosperity, 
 or blissfulness, and a personification of one 
 of those moral beings by whose aid the 
 ancients supposed mortals obtained a place 
 in the heavens, and to whose honour the 
 Romans were enjoined in the laws of* the 
 twelve tables to erect altars. There is 
 scarcely a virtue or a blessing of life but 
 .what is represented on the medals of the 
 .«mperors. These figures were put on 
 the reverses out of flattery, and often on 
 those of a Domitian or a Nero, with the 
 distinguishing abbreviation S. C. senatus 
 consultum, to indicate that it was a piece 
 of national flattery. This minor divinity 
 is represented by ancient poets and artists 
 with the caduceus of Mercury in one hand, 
 and the cornucopia in the other, as em- 
 blems of peace and plenty, the two chief 
 ingredients of happiness. In the hymn to 
 Mercury, attributed to Homer, Apollo de- 
 signates the caduceus as the sceptre of fe- 
 licity and of riches. Horace speaks of her 
 under the name of Faustitas {evTvxia), and 
 hints that she prefers dwelling in the 
 country to residing in cities. (Hor. 1. iv. 
 od. 5. v. 18. 1. i. ep. 1. v. 3. Pers. Sat. v. 
 V. 82.) According to Pliny, Lucullus, on 
 his return from the war with Mithridates, 
 proposed to erect a statue to Felicity from 
 the chisel of Arcesilaus, but both died be- 
 fore its completion. Julius Caesar also 
 intended to erect a temple in honour of 
 this divine protectress in the square of his 
 palace in front of the Curia Hostilia, but 
 jt was finished by Lepidus. There were 
 also other temples to her honour in Rome, 
 
 * The law runs thus : " Eos qui coelestes semper lia- 
 biti, colunto, et olios quos cndo ccclo merita collo- 
 cavcrunt, Herculem, &c. ast oUa propter quaa datur 
 homini adsccnsus in ccElum, mentem, virtutem, fidem, 
 &c. fonimque laudnni delubro suuto. Tab. ll. c. 4. 
 Cic. de leg. L 2. c. 8. 
 
 FEM 
 
 one of which, that erected by Claudius, was 
 reduced to ashes in a conflagration. 
 
 Felix (Aqua) or Aqua Femce. In the 
 history of architecture. A fountain in Rome 
 constructed by Pope Sextus V. It is 
 generally supposed, on the authority of 
 -Baccius, a learned physician and anti- 
 quary of the sixteenth century, in his work 
 de Thermis, that the waters which supply 
 this fountain are a portion of the Aqua Ap- 
 pia, which is conducted from a distance of 
 five leagues to the gate of St. Laurence on 
 the Esquiline Hill, where it discharges 
 itself on the Quirinal. 
 
 Females. In painting and sculpture. Fi- 
 gures representing the opposite sex to man. 
 The ancient artists had difl'erent standards 
 of female beauty, both as related to their 
 goddesses and their mortals. Homer is 
 full of the beauties of his females, which 
 have all different characteristics. The god- 
 desses of the ancients, both as described by 
 their poets and as represented by their 
 artis.ts, are endowed with more than mor- 
 tal beauty. The Greeks, contrary to their 
 practice witli male figures, mostly repre- 
 sent their goddesses and females clothed. 
 Their principal exception is that of Venus, 
 who is abundantly clothed with resplen- 
 dent beauty, and an utter unconsciousness 
 of indelicacy. 
 
 As the goddess of beauty, Venus of 
 course occupies the first place among them, 
 and the Venus called de Medici is incom- 
 parably the most beautiful in the world. 
 The Venus of the Capitol, and the Venus 
 of Aries, rank the next. Venus was also 
 frequently represented as the genius of 
 indolence, lying in a languishing posture 
 on a couch, and generally attended by Cu- 
 pids to execute her orders. On an ancient 
 sepulchral lamp described by Spence, she 
 is yet more indolent ; as not only herself, 
 but the Cupids about her are all fast asleep. 
 This is a just character. Indolence being 
 the mother of Love in a moral sense, as 
 Venus is of the Cupid in the allegorical 
 sense. 
 
 Pallas or Minerva is represented as a 
 beauty, but of the severer kind, and with- 
 out tiie graces and softnesses of Venus. 
 Dignity and a becoming air, firmness and 
 composure, with just features and a cer- 
 tain masculine sternness, make the distin- 
 guishing character of her face. Hence her 
 heads are so like those of Alexander the 
 Great, that they are often mistaken for 
 his. 
 
 Diana is endowed by the ancient artists 
 with all the beauty of her sex, but with an 
 appearance of ignorance of her charms. 
 She is represented as tall of stature, ac- 
 
FER 
 
 tive, comely, well proportioned, and her 
 face, though very handsome, somewhat 
 masculine, and deficient in the softer win- 
 ning graces or prettiness of Venus. 
 
 Juno is represented as a magnificent 
 beauty, large and expressive eyes, full in 
 form, resplendent in her attire, and com- 
 manding in her attitude and expression. 
 
 Ceres and Proserpina are delineated on 
 medals of Magna Grecia and of Sicily, 
 with the highest characteristics of beauty ; 
 according with the descriptions of the 
 poets, as are most of the other goddesses 
 and celebrated females of antiquity. 
 
 The ancient artists no doubt attempted 
 a sort of ideal beauty in their portraits of 
 eminently beautiful women, without de- 
 stroying the similitude of the individual 
 resemblance ; as in the heads of Aspasia, 
 Cleopatra, Julia the daughter of Titus, 
 and other recorded beauties. 
 
 Among modern artists RafTaelle, Coreg- 
 gio,Albauo, and Guido have most excelled 
 in representing the lovely beauty of fe- 
 males. 
 
 Fekrara (anciently Fcrraria.) In the 
 history of art. A city of Italy, the capital 
 of the Duchy of Ferrara, situated on the 
 north bank of the river Po. This city is 
 surrounded by a fortified wall and broad 
 ditcii, which may be filled with water by 
 means of a canal from the river. There 
 are five gates, called the gate of St. Bene- 
 dict, St. Paul, St. George, St. John the 
 Baptist, and the gate of the angels ; and 
 at the south-west extremity there is a re- 
 gular fortress. Tliere are severa^ squares, 
 and the streets are tolerably wide and con- 
 venient. 
 
 The principal objects in the city of Fer- 
 rara are ciiurchcs, conventu, a few edifices 
 for public purposes not ecclesiastical, and 
 those belonging to private individuals ; 
 but of the first there is a very great supe- 
 riority with regard to numbers. Tiie me- 
 tropolitan churcli, dedicated to St. George, 
 tiie tutelar saint of the city, occupies one 
 side the I'iaz/.a di San Crispino, the prin- 
 cipal square. The antiquity of the edifice 
 remounts to the year 1135, when it was 
 completed and consecrated, and exhibits a 
 8i)eciinen of tJie bad taste wliich jiervaded 
 file architectur(M)f that jx-riod, intermixed 
 with subsequent alterations. It contains 
 many monuments, inscriptions, and sta- 
 tues. Among the last an; five in bronze 
 as large as life, ornanienling an ultar re- 
 presenting the crucifixitm, the Virgin 
 Mary, and other sanctified persons, Tiierc 
 are several of (ino Carrara niarlih-, of \vhi<-h 
 one of the most c()nspi<uious, and as large 
 as life, was erected by the citi/.ens of Fer- 
 
 FIC 
 
 rara, in honour of Albert, their sovereign 
 lord, in 1893, who had repaired to the 
 pope with a great cavalcade, and obtained 
 two important bulls, sanctioning tlie erec- 
 tion of a universitj', and certain privileges 
 regarding succession to property. 
 
 About tiie year loOO a spacious edifice, 
 the church of St. Benedict, was built by 
 two native arcliitects, towards the western 
 part of the cit}', to which a monastery ad- 
 joins. Here are deposited the remains of 
 the famous Italian poet Ariosto, in a mar- 
 ble mausoleum, executed by Nano, a ]Man- 
 tuan sculptor, with two inscriptions, one 
 of which was composed by Guarini. This 
 monument has attracted the notice of 
 crowned heads in their visits to Italy, 
 while the ashes of philosophers have re- 
 posed in neglected obscurity. Ariosto was 
 a native of Ferrara, and his house is still 
 shown as a curiosity to strangers. It bears 
 two inscriptions, composed by himself and 
 his natural son, a literary ecclesiastic. The 
 former is in these words, Parra, scd apfa 
 mild, sed nulli obnoxia, scd non sordida, porta 
 nco sed tamen aere dotnus, certainly neither 
 very elegant nor poetical : the latter is, Sic 
 domus hac Ariosta propitios kahcat deos olim 
 ut Piudurica. The house was built by him, 
 and he died there on the sixth of June, 
 1533. In the monastery annexed to the 
 church of St. Benedict are pi-eserved some 
 important archives. 
 
 Festoon, [fesfon, Fr.] In architecture 
 and sculptin-e. An ornament of car\ed 
 work in the form of a wreath or garland of 
 flowers, fruit, or leaves twisted together, 
 and suspended by the two ends. Festoons 
 have also been composed of hunting pieces, 
 of fishing, of music, and otlier articles of 
 art and numufacture, l)ut tliey arc in gene- 
 ral inferior in taste to those which are 
 composed of fruits, flowers, and foliage. 
 
 FinuLA. [Lat.J Jn the archaiolnf^y of 
 pfiinfiusc, sculpture, and architecture. A but- 
 ton or buckle of a shoe, a clasp, a brace to 
 fasten beams, a cramp. The fibula' of the 
 ancii-nts wert; of dillerent forms, often re- 
 presenting various animals, or portions of 
 animals, a lyre, &c. Fibulie are often 
 found in the tombs of the ancient Romans, 
 (iaiils, l''raiics, and the ancient Britons. 
 Blany anticjue libuhe of bronze are to be 
 found in various cal)inet3 and coilectiims 
 of antiquities, and a few in the Britisli 
 Museum, among other articles of tlu" toilet 
 or of personal decoration. 
 
 FicrriLi:. [Jictilis, Lat.] In sculpture. 
 \'ases, figures, &c. formed of cbiy. Sec 
 
 FuTOR. [Lat.] In ancient art. An artist 
 who models or forms statues and reliefs in 
 
FIL 
 
 clay ; called by the Greeks nXaffrijc, 
 whence the word plastic. See Plastic. 
 These works are called fictile. 
 
 FiDEiJTY, [fidelitas, Lat.] In the mytho- 
 logy of art. The goddess of liouesty, or 
 fidelity, one of the moral deities of the Ro- 
 mans who presided over the virtues of 
 men, and the conduct of human life. This 
 deity was one of those to whose honour 
 the Romans were enjoined in the laws of 
 the twelve tables to erect altars. See note 
 to the article Felicity. She was repre- 
 sented with an erect open air, and clad in 
 a thin transparent dress. The poets called 
 her blameless and incorrupt, and the com- 
 panion and sister of justice. They also in 
 some places represent her as gray headed 
 and very old, but not so on her figures as 
 found on antique medals. See HoR. 1. i. 
 od. 35, v. 22 ; od. 18, v. ult ; od. 24, v. 7. 
 IiL. ii. V. 484. jEn. i. v. 293. V/hen they 
 promised any thing of old they gave their 
 hand upon it, as we do now, and therefore 
 she is represented as giving her hand, and 
 sometimes as only two hands conjoined 
 (see Val. Max. lib. vi. c. 6), as on medals 
 of Marcus Antonius, Vespasian, Titus, 
 Balbinus, Pupienus, &c. On others she is 
 portrayed holding in one hand a patera, 
 and in the other a horn of plenty, a cadu- 
 cous, an eagle, or other symbol. The in- 
 scriptions on these antique medals are ge- 
 nerally^des puhlka, fides senatus, fides Ro- 
 manorum, fides exercitus, fides prcetoriano- 
 rum, cohortium, legionum, militum, &c. 
 
 Figure, [figura, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 The form of any tiling as terminated by 
 the outline ; a statue, an image, represen- 
 tation in painting, form of building. See 
 Painting, Sculpture, and (particularly) 
 Drawing, 
 
 FilicatjE paterae. In ancient sculpture. 
 A species of patera ornamented with scrolls 
 of fern, vine leaves, &c. See Acanthin.e. 
 
 Filigrane, FiligrjVme, or Fillagree. 
 [Fr. from filum and graniim, Lat.] In deco- 
 rative sculpture. A kind of ornamental 
 work, in which flowers, &c. are formed of 
 fine gold and silver wire, curled or twisted 
 in a serpentine form, and sometimes plaited 
 and worked through each other, and sol- 
 dered together. 
 
 This art appears to have been brought 
 to Europe from the East, and has been oc- 
 casionally employed in all ages. Such of 
 our readers as wish farther particulars on 
 this subject are referred to the following 
 works, quoted by Beckman in his History 
 of Inventions, vol. ii. p. 245—247. 
 
 Halle's Werkstate der Kunste, i. p. 101 ; 
 Jacobson, Technologisches Wortcrbuch, i. 
 
 FLA 
 
 p. 721. Grignon, Bulletin dcsfouilles d'une 
 ville Rotnaine, i. p. 22 ; Menage, Diction- 
 naire EUjmologique, i. p. 597 : J. H. Jun- 
 gius, Disquisit. de Reliquiis ; accedat Lip- 
 sanographia sive Thesaurus reliquiarum 
 Electoralis Brunsuico-Luneburgicus, Ha- 
 nov. 1783, 4to. p. 19, 29, 50; Marsden's 
 History of Sumatra, Lond. 1783, p. 145 ; 
 Der Mistress Kendersley, Briefe van der 
 Inscl Tenerijfa und Ostindien, Leips. 1777 ; 
 Thos. Reiseund, Lebensbeschreiburg, Augsb. 
 1788 ; and Von Stetten, Kunstgeschichtc, 
 i. p. 489, and ii. p. 287. 
 
 Fillet, [filet, Fr.] In architecture. A 
 little plain member, used to separate or- 
 naments and mouldings, named from its 
 place, either fillet, annulet, listel, band, &c. 
 See those words. 
 
 FiNiAL. \ivom. finio, I terminate, Lat.] In 
 architecture. The -knot or bunch of foliage 
 or flower that forms the upper extremities 
 or finishing point of pinnacles in Gothic 
 architecture. Sometimes used for the pin- 
 nacle itself. See Pinnacle. 
 
 Finish. [from_^H7r, Fr.] In all the arts. 
 A working up or bringing to the end pro- 
 posed; a completion of a picture, statue, 
 building, plate, or other work of art. 
 More particularly the last and masterly 
 working up to a proposed degree of per- 
 fection. Small and delicate works require 
 a difterent sort of finish than larger and 
 bolder ; and what is but finish in the one 
 is labour in the other. The Flemish mas- 
 ters are celebrated for the high finish of 
 their works in painting, as was Cauova 
 and his school in sculpture. 
 
 Flambeau. See Torch. 
 
 Flame, [fiamma, Lat.] In sculptwe. An 
 ornament representing the light which is 
 emitted from fire ; used to decorate fune- 
 ral monuments, as representing the uncer- 
 tainty of human life. Wren has used it 
 on the top of his gigantic column called 
 the Monument, as being commemorative of 
 the great conflagration of the city. 
 
 Flamen. [Lat.] In the archaiology of the 
 arts. A high priest among the Romans 
 appointed by Numa to assist the kings 
 who, till his time, had held the office. He 
 appointed one for each of the chief deities, 
 who bore the name of the god to whose 
 service they were dedicated ; Jupiter's 
 was called flamen dialis ; Mars's flamen 
 mart talis ; and the flamen of Jupiter was 
 the most honourable, therefore he wore a 
 Avhite hat, with a purple gown called tra- 
 bea, which was the costume only of the 
 gods, kings, and augurs. 
 
 Flammeum. [Lat.] In antique coslume. 
 A veil or garment of orange or flame co- 
 
TLO 
 
 lour, worn by the wife of the ^awen dialis, 
 when she officiated as priestess and assist- 
 tant to the flamen. 
 
 Flammeoli'm. [Lat.] In antique costume. 
 A little veil or scarf of flame colour, where- 
 with the bride's face, in the Roman mar- 
 riage, was covered. That colour being 
 .sacred to Hymen, hence the brides were 
 cdlled Jlammearii, Nubentes, flammeo vela- 
 bantur. See Pliny, 1. xxi. c. 8. 
 
 Flank, [fane, Fr.] In architecture. The 
 side of a temple or building;. 
 
 Flemish school. In painting. One of 
 Ihe grand divisions in the classification of 
 painters, named from Flanders, the coun- 
 try of their birth or practice. Rubens is 
 the principal master of this school, which 
 to brilliancy of colour and the magic of 
 chiaroscuro, added a great knowledge of 
 design, grandeur of composition, and, in 
 portraits, a striking air of nature, with a 
 noble expression. Yet, on the whole, it 
 <inly produced a sort of individual or na- 
 tural beauty (see Drawing), partaking 
 neither of the elevation of sentiment or 
 ideality of the antique, nor of the Italian 
 mode of representing nature. See School. 
 
 Flexibility. [Jiexihilite, Fr.] In paint- 
 ing and sculpture. The quality of appear- 
 ing able to be bent, ductile, pliable, sup- 
 pleness, the contrary of stiff. Flexibility 
 in art is acquired only by a correct and 
 close study of nature, from correct and 
 free models. Rubens is a celebrated in- 
 stance of flexibilily in painting, and the 
 Klgin marbles in sculpture; which are the 
 only marbles in existence whose apparent 
 flexibility equals flesh itself, the skin of 
 the Theseus actually appearing ready to 
 slip at tiie toucii upon the muscles. 
 
 Floor, [plope, Sax.] In architecture. 
 The pavement or layer of boards, &c. that 
 forms the bottom of a room ; a story, a suit 
 of rooms. 
 
 Flora, [from Jfos, Lat. a flower.] In the 
 myllwloffij of art. The goddess of flowers 
 and of gardens ; the wife of Zephyr, whose 
 loves have often been the theme of the 
 the poet's song. She was originally a field 
 nymi)h, and called t^hloris (from i^Xoof a 
 flower.) In a stat\ie at Florence siie is 
 almost naked, and is distinguished by the 
 little nosegay which slx^ holds \\\> in her 
 liand as i)leas(Ml with its hcauties. Some- 
 times she is crowned too wi(h flowers, and 
 sometimes has a chaplet of them in lier 
 bands. Slie lias only a light veil ; but in 
 tlu' famous Fariiese figure of her she is 
 iullcr dressed. Her robe was of as many 
 colours as the flowers with which she was 
 fully adoriK'd. ()vi<I gives n dtlightful 
 
 FLO 
 
 description of her garden, with the Flone 
 gathering flowers, and the Graces making 
 garlands of them. 
 
 Fast. V. v. 3f)0. Fast. v. v. 200. This 
 garden of Flora seems to have been the 
 paradise in the Roman mythology. The 
 traces of paradise were derived to the Ro- 
 mans from the Greeks. Among them this 
 idea was shadowed out by the gardens of 
 Alcinous. In Africa they had the gardens 
 of the Hesperides ; and in the East the 
 Horti Adonis, which term was used by the 
 ancients for gardens of pleasure. Plin. 
 1. XV. c. 4. 
 
 Florence. [Florevtia, Lat.] In the his- 
 torijofthe arts. An ancient and celebrated 
 city of Italy, built by L. Sylla the dictator 
 in the year U. C. G45. It is situated on 
 the banks of the river Arno, and is distant 
 one hundred and fifcy miles from Rome, 
 and about sixty from the shores of that 
 part of the Mediterranean called the Mare 
 Inferum, or Tuscan sea. 
 
 The city ilself spreads along the side of 
 the river, which forms one of its greatest 
 ornaments. It has several squares, and 
 many churches and palaces, so that its ap- 
 pearance is airy, clean, and sometimes 
 rising towards grandeur. 
 
 The first edifice which arrests the atten- 
 tion of the traveller is the cathedral (com- 
 monly called in Florence 11 Duomo), a 
 building of great extent and magnificence, 
 and in boldness and skill inferior only to 
 St. Peter's at Rome. This building is four 
 hundred and twenty-six feet in length, and 
 three hundred and sixty-three in height. 
 It is completely cased with polished black 
 and white marble, and the interior ])aved 
 with variegated marble, part of which was 
 arranged by Michel Angiolo. 
 
 Its most remarkable feature, however, 
 is the cupola, which was raised under the 
 directions of Filippo IJrunelleschi, the 
 most celebrated architect of the fifteenth 
 century. 'J'he dimensions are within a 
 few feet of the cathedral of St. Peter's; 
 and as it is prior to it in date by nearly a 
 century, and was always the peculiar ob- 
 ject of Michel Angiolo's admiration, it 
 may be fairly concluded that the plan of 
 the Ronuin edifice was at least in part sug- 
 gested by the Florentine. 
 
 Jlut, in many respects, the inferiority of 
 the latter ie undeniable. The octagonal 
 shape less simpli-, has consequently less 
 ji,raiidi'ur than the circular, and, from be- 
 ing closed at the top, there is a want of 
 Iigi\t to illuminate the vn.st vault below. 
 This is indeed the general defect of the 
 (liiirch, I lie windows being small, and tin. 
 
FLORENCE. 
 
 little they admit diminished by the deep 
 and rich colours of the painted glass. Such 
 at least is the opinion of Italian critics, 
 though to British eyes, accustomed to as- 
 sociate ideas of sublimity with the gloomy 
 grandeur of our Gothic cathedrals, these 
 very defects will appear to be excellences. 
 The statues which adorn the church both 
 within and without are most of them the 
 works of the most eminent sculptors, and a 
 few of the pictures are of the first rate of 
 excellence. Among the most remarkable of 
 the former are the statiie of Brunelleschi, 
 and those on the altar the production of 
 Baccio Bandinelli and Michel Angiolo, 
 Of the latter, those in the interior of the 
 cupola, by Zucchero and Vasari, and the 
 portraits of Dant^ and Giotto are most wor- 
 thy of attention ; the first for their intrin- 
 sic beauty, and the others on account of 
 the distinguished characters to whose me- 
 mory they are consecrated. Detached 
 from the church stands the campanile or 
 belfry, a light and elegant tower, incrust- 
 ed with variegated marble, and, like the 
 church, adorned with statues. The gene- 
 ral baptistery of the city, which fronts the 
 principal entry of the church, is also an 
 octangular building of great magnificence. 
 It is chiefly remarkable for the bassi ri- 
 lievis which adorn its three great bronze 
 portals. They are the work of Andrea 
 Ugalini of Pisa, and Lorenzo Ghiberti, 
 and were so highly admired by Michel 
 Angiolo, tliat he declared them worthy of 
 being the gates of Paradise. Before the 
 principal gate of the baptistery are two 
 columns of porphyry, on which are sus- 
 pended the immense chains with which 
 the Pisans, in 1406, attempted to close up 
 their harbour against the Florentines and 
 Genoese, and which were afterwards 
 brought to Florence as a trophy of victory. 
 
 The next and, indeed, the only other 
 church which deserves a particular de- 
 scription, is that of San Lorenzo, in the 
 northern part of the city. This also was 
 designed by Brunelleschi, but is, both in 
 design and magnificence, inferior to the 
 Duomo. It has, however, attained to high 
 celebrity from two buildings attached to 
 it, the Sacristy and the Medicean Chapel. 
 The first was one of the earliest works of 
 Michel Angiolo, and is decorated with 
 seven statues by the same artist ; and al- 
 though most of them are unfinished, yet 
 the eye of the connoisseur will easily dis- 
 cern in them the genius and boldness of 
 design, which so eminently characterize 
 the productions of that great sculptor. 
 
 The chapel which adjoins the back of 
 the church was began in 1G04 by Frede- 
 
 rick I. Grand Duko of Tuscany, who in- 
 tended not only to have rcmove<l thither 
 the mausolea of his ancestors, but was in 
 treaty to purchase the holy sepulchre at 
 Jerusalem. The plan of the building was 
 every way worthy of tlie purpose for which 
 it was intended. " Its form is octagonal, 
 its diameter ninety-four feet, and its eleva- 
 tion to the vault two hundred feet. It is 
 literally lined with lapis lazuli, jasper, 
 onyx, &c. furnished with sarcophagi of 
 porphyry, and supported by granite pilas- 
 ters, with capitals of bronze. The niches 
 between these pilasters are of touchstone ; 
 beneath is a subterraneous chapel, where 
 the bodies, whose nanies are engraved on 
 the sarcophagi above, are to repose. The 
 crucifixion of our Saviour, a group in 
 white marble, by Giovanni da Bologna, 
 with a statue of the Virgin Mary, by Mi- 
 chel Angiolo, and St. John by one of his 
 pupils, " grace this dormitory of the dead, 
 and preside over it with appropriate ma- 
 jesty. But before the magnificent monu- 
 ment intended for their reception was 
 finished, the Medicean line has failed ; the 
 work is now suspended ; and, if we may 
 judge from the impoverished state of the 
 country, it is not likely to be resumed for 
 many years if ever. The Laurentian li- 
 braiy, which is in the convent annexed to 
 the church, is a collection oi valuable ma- 
 nuscripts, first formed by Cosmo and Lo- 
 renzo di Medicis, and considerably in- 
 creased by Leo X. and Clement VII. 
 
 The palaces of Florence are remarkable 
 for a style of architecture peculiar to them- 
 selves, to which the long civil wars in the 
 thirteenth century between the Guelph and 
 Ghibelline families first gave rise. The 
 Palazzo Strozzi and the Palazzo Riccardi, 
 the latter of which was built by the great 
 Cosmo de Medici, are curious specimens 
 of this style. They are square, hea\'^', 
 solid masses, whose strength is their prin- 
 cipal ornament. The walls are thick, and 
 broken by few windows, and these of a 
 very diminutive size, and the whole base- 
 ment fortified with large unhewn masses 
 of stone. The upper stories are faced with 
 freestone, and tiie whole is crowned with 
 a very heavy projecting cornice. 
 
 In those palaces, which are the property 
 of private persons, there are many pictures 
 and statues by the best masters. Of these 
 the collections in the Riccardi and Gerini 
 palaces are the most valuable. The Pa- 
 lazzo Vecchio and Pitti, the residences of 
 the grand dukes, and more lately of the 
 King of Etruria, were completely stripped 
 of their pictures and statues by the French, 
 and the only monuments of art that no\v 
 
FLO 
 
 adorn them are their painted cielings, 
 which it was impossible for the rapacity of 
 the invaders to remove. But of all the 
 collections of the works of art, no one has 
 acquired so high a reputation as the IMedi- 
 cean gallery. This magnificent building 
 was erected by Cosmo I. in the year li564 ; 
 but the greatest part of its contents were 
 collected in the succeeding century by the 
 Cardinal Leopold di Medici, son of Cosmo 
 II. and many additions were made by the 
 Princes of Lorraine and Austria. The 
 busts of the IVIedicean princes and other 
 contributors to the gallery adorn the ves- 
 tibule, and, like the tutelar deities of the 
 place, seem to claim from the passing tra- 
 veller the homage due to their magnifi- 
 cence. The gallery or corridor is in the 
 shape of a Greek 11, of which the two 
 wings are each four hundred and thirty 
 feet in length, and the intermediate part 
 ninety-seven. The paintings and statues 
 in the gallery are arranged in series of 
 Florentine portraits, of illustrious foreign- 
 ers, of paintings, &c. and the busts of all 
 the Roman emperors and their families, 
 from Julius Ctesar to Constantine. The 
 corridor is bordered on one side by a suite 
 of halls or cabinets, each of which is con- 
 secrated to some set of masterpieces either 
 in sculpture or painting, or collections of 
 antique and modern medals, coins, gems, 
 &c. Of the former, however, many of the 
 most celebrated now grace the galleries of 
 the Louvre, and the hall of the far famed 
 Venus de Medipi is now a temple bereft 
 of its divinity. Of those that remain, the 
 most remarkable is the group of Niobe 
 and her children ; it consists of sixteen 
 figures, which are generally considered as 
 models of tiie highest perfection; although 
 it is a sul)ject of debate among critics, 
 whether this group be a cojiy or the origi- 
 nal, vvhicli is ascribed by J'liny, the elder, 
 to the chisel of Scopas or Praxiteles. 
 
 A minute description, however, of tiiis 
 celebrated collection woiikl exceed our 
 limits ; and we must refer our readers for 
 this and the account of the Natural History 
 Museum to tlie fliusi'iim Fluwiiliniiin, (he 
 Paiiomtiia of I'lorcncc, and similar publi- 
 cations. Also for general accounts of the 
 city to the ardcle FumiiNCii in IJuiiwSTKu's 
 I'l/clopadid, Guilt's ISlulilia Arcltilcctonica 
 Ital'mna ; Lc Pitlore dl Firenze, and many 
 other similar works. 
 
 Fi-oKKNTiNK SCHOOL. Ill paiiitiiiff. One 
 of tli(! great schools of Italy, oi wiiich 
 those of Florence, liome, Venice, and Liau- 
 bardy are tiio must eminent. They are 
 characterized from the manners a<lii|)l(^d, 
 uud in a great maimer establit'lied, by I he 
 
 FLO 
 
 masters who founded them. The Floren- 
 tine school is the mother of all the rest, and 
 is distinguished by an austerity and gran- 
 deur, which gives an elevation and ma- 
 jesty to the compositions of its artists su- 
 perior to all others. See Scuool, Paint- 
 
 iNG. , 
 
 Flowers or Flower painting. In painl- 
 ing. A representation of that part of a 
 plant which contains the seeds. The art 
 of painting flowers is one of the most in- 
 teresting and beautiful in the department 
 of imitative art. A knowledge of botany, 
 in all its branches, a correct eye, a prac- 
 tised and light hand, a consummate know- 
 ledge of colours, a delicate pencil, high 
 finish, taste, and a tact for arrangement, 
 are but among the requisites for a painter 
 of flowers. Van Huysum, Varelst, and two 
 or three others among the names at the 
 close of this article, elevated this art above 
 the mere botanical copyist, and one of its 
 practitioners obtained the flattering name 
 of the Miclicl Anglolo dafiuri. 
 
 Among the ancients, according to Pliny, 
 flowers were used symbolical of Spring ; 
 and upon many medals which represent 
 this happy season of the year, by four chil- 
 dren or genii, that of Spring always car- 
 ries a basket filled with flowers. Hope 
 is also figured by the ancient artists and 
 poets holding a flower in his hand. Ve- 
 nus is sometimes so represented or crown- 
 ed with a garland of flowers. Persons 
 conveying good news crowned themselves 
 also with flowers to indicate the happy 
 tidings of which they were the bearers. 
 They cast flowers in the paths of those 
 whom they would honour, as is still the 
 custom on coronations and important mar- 
 riages. Lovers ornamented with festoons 
 and garlands the houses of their mistresses. 
 They were also carried in the I'Moralia, as 
 is our custom still on May Day. They 
 also crowned with flowers the victims 
 which were led to sacrifice, virgins wiu'u 
 going to be married ; and they also deco- 
 rated the tombs of their beloved and ho- 
 noured kindred with flowers, which they 
 renewed on the anniversary of their depar- 
 ture from this world, as is still the custom 
 in Roman Catholic coui\tries, anil in some 
 of our country village burial grouiuls. 
 
 The selection of the flowers, and the 
 numner of arranging thiMU into garlands, 
 constituted an art anu>ng the am ients, 
 which had its rules and regulations, In 
 which the females particularly excelled in 
 conununicating their sentiments bv a gar- 
 land, us tho oriental nations of the jiresent 
 tlay have in cnunnunicating a love letter in 
 a buiiquel, as Lord IJyrou emphatically 
 
FLOWERS. 
 
 expresses it in his address to a young 
 Greek : 
 
 "By all those tokens, powers, that tell 
 What words can never speak so well, 
 By love's alternate joy and woe, 
 Zw>) )UOu <ra; ayccirZ* 
 
 Many epigrams in the Anthology {civdo- 
 \oyia, a collection of flowers) make us ac- 
 quainted T>'ith the names of the flowers 
 which they mostly used in forming these 
 crowns and garlands, and the significa- 
 tions of many of them. It was not only 
 the colours, but also the odour of each 
 £ower, that governed this syml)olical lan- 
 guage. In the 'OvdpoKpirag, or Book of 
 Dreams of Artemidorus, are many expla- 
 nations of the symbolical meaning of a list 
 of flowers which go to the formation of a 
 chaplet or garland. 
 
 Flowers also among the ancients contri- 
 buted to the festivities and joyousness of 
 the banquet. The revellers wore chaplets 
 or crowns of flowers upon their heads and 
 round their necks ; the perfumes of which 
 were not only agreeable, but reckoned an- 
 tidotes against intoxication. They also 
 frowned their goblets with wreaths of aro- 
 matic flowers. Many physicians of anti- 
 quity, particularly Mnesitheus and Calli- 
 piachus, wrote treatises on the medical 
 virtues of chaplets of flowers worn about 
 the head. 
 
 Flowers have been used in all times 
 as ornaments and perfumes in houses, pre- 
 served in vases or goblets with water. 
 Upon many ancient medals, particularly 
 the Byzantine, flowers are displayed as 
 used in the present inelegantly formed 
 vases. 
 
 Among the early Christians flowers were 
 regarded symbolically as representing gifts 
 of the Holy Spirit. On this account it was 
 that at the feast of Pentecost or Whitsun- 
 tide, the priests cast flowers from the up- 
 per ambulatories of their churches upon 
 the congregation of the faithful assembled 
 in the nave below ; a custom which is still 
 continued in Catholic countries, with the 
 decoration of the churches, with flowers 
 according to the season, both at Christmas 
 and at Whitsuntide, which is observed 
 also in many English protestant churches. 
 Flowers were also held by Catholics as sym- 
 bolical of the delights of paradise, and were 
 accordingly figured upon the glasses of the 
 early Christians ; many representations of 
 which are engraved in the works of Buo- 
 narotti. 
 
 To represent these beautiful and delight- 
 ful works of nature in painting requires 
 that delicacy, finish, lightness, and taste, 
 which is so peculiarly adapted to females, 
 
 and many of that sex have consequently 
 succeeded in their execution. Our pre- 
 sent school is rich in female talent in this 
 beautiful line of art. Among whom tire 
 Mrs. Pope, Mrs. Kearse, Mrs. Dighton, 
 Miss Storer, and others wliose names are 
 not immediately remembered. 
 
 Among the most celebrated flower pain- 
 ters, whose works are worthy the notice 
 of the connoisseur and student may be 
 cited, of the Florentine school, Angiolo 
 Gori, Bartolenieo Bimbi, a disciple of Lippi, 
 Andrea Scacciati, Fortiui, and, above all, 
 Gaspar Lopez, a Neapolitan by birth. In 
 the Roman school, Tommaso Salini, Mario 
 Nuzzi, surnamed Mario da Fiori, Laura 
 Bernasconi, Michel Angiolo da Campido- 
 glio, called Michel Angiolo da Fiori, Pie- 
 tro Paolo Bonzi, called sometimes 11 Gobbo 
 da Cortona, from Cortona his native place, 
 at others Gobbo di Caracci, and some- 
 times Gobbo da Frutti, for his excellence 
 in painting fruit, Carlo Voglar, surnamed 
 Carlo da Fiori, who also was excellent 
 in dead game and still life, Francesco 
 Varnetam, Christiano Bernitz, and Sci- 
 pione Angeli. In the Neapolitan school 
 we find, as celebrated in flowers and fruit 
 (see Frl'it), Andrea Ruoppoli, called An- 
 drea da Belvedere, who had many pupils ; 
 among them are the beforementioned Gas- 
 par Lopez. Among the painters of the 
 Venetian school mentioned as excelling in 
 flowers, are Domenico Levo of Verona, 
 Caffi, Duromano, Count Giorgio Durante 
 of Brescia, who was likewise very much 
 admired for the beauty and nature of his 
 birds, and other highly finished subjects of 
 natural history. Of the modern school, 
 Ridolfo Mazzoni, of Castelfranco, Ludo- 
 vico Bertucci, Pelegrino Ascani, Felice 
 Rubbiani, Carlantonio Procaccini, Ma- 
 derno and Mario of Crespini. The Bolog- 
 nese school has also produced some excel- 
 lent flower painters, as Antonio Mezzadri, 
 of whose pictures there are many in Bo- 
 logna, Anton-Maria Zagnani, Paolo An- 
 tonio Barbieri, Pietro Francesco Cittadini, 
 surnamed II Milanese, after the place of 
 his birth, a pupil of the celebrated Guido. 
 The Low Countries have not been behind 
 in either the number or the excellence of 
 their flower painters. Among others may 
 be reckoned Simon Varelst, Gerard Se- 
 ghers, De Heem, and Van Huysum, all of 
 first rate talents, and whose pictures are 
 highly esteemed, particularly those by Van 
 Huysum. France has also produced her 
 complement of flower painters, and reckons 
 among her best, Redouti?, Van Spaendonck, 
 Van P«l, Vandael, Chazelles, Bonneval, 
 &c. ; and among her female artists in this 
 
FOO 
 
 fascinating line, Madame do Montesson, 
 JMadaine Valayer Coster, and INIademoi- 
 selle Millet Moroaii. 
 
 Flutes. [Fr.] In aichifecliirp. Channels 
 or furrows cut perpendicularly in the 
 shafts of columns. Fluting the shafts of 
 columns is a practice never omitted in any 
 great and finished Grecian work ; it there- 
 fore seems probable, that it had some re- 
 lation to the original tjpe, perhaps the 
 furrowed trunk might have suggested the 
 idea. It is, however, a beautiful orna- 
 ment, which is applied with equal happi- 
 ness to break the otherwise heavy mass of 
 a Doric shaft, or to obviate an inconsistent 
 plainness in the other orders. 
 
 Fold, [pal'f , Sax.] In painting- and sculp- 
 ture. A double, romjjlication, one part 
 lapped over another in drapery. See Dra- 
 pery, Drawing. 
 
 Foliage, [from foliatus, Lat.] In archi- 
 tecture and sculpture. An assemblage of 
 leaves of plants and flowers, arranged sys- 
 tematically, so as to form architectural 
 and sculptural ornaments ; as in the capi- 
 tal of tiie Corinthian order, friezes, panels, 
 &c. 
 
 Font, [fons, Lat.] In architecture and 
 sculpture. A vessel of marble or stone in 
 which the water for Christian baptism is 
 contained, in the church or baptistery. 
 See Baptistery. Great Britain cun boast 
 of many very extraordinary fonts highly 
 interesting to the ecclesiastical antiquary. 
 That of Bridekirk in Cumberland, is al- 
 lowed to be of Danisli origin ; and that 
 which was recently removed, in the spirit 
 of modern improrcmnii, from the church of 
 St. Peter in the East, Oxford, exhibited 
 proofs of an antiquity nearly as early. The 
 font in St Mary's church, Lincoln, dated 
 1340, is handsome and of good proportions, 
 as is the elaborately sculj)tured one in 
 Winchester Cathedral. Two of uncom- 
 mon height are engraved in King's IV- 
 tusta !\I()numcnta,iUH\ a great variety in the 
 Archauilo!>ia of the Society of Antiqua- 
 ries. That singular inscription which, 
 read backwards or forwards, has tiie same 
 words, occasionally found on the walls of 
 many baptisteries, occurs also very fre- 
 <|uently on ancient fonts : 
 
 NII'ON ANOMHMATA Mil MONAN 
 
 and is cerlaii\iy the happiest instance nf 
 that species of composition laMed loniiliis- 
 hniir, a fabulous serpent which had (wo 
 heads, and could advance either way. 
 
 Foot, [pot, Sax.] In all thf arts. A 
 measure <.f lenglh divided into twelve in- 
 ches. Till! ancient Konian foot from .9(35 
 
 FOO 
 
 to .970 of the English foot. The Roman 
 mile of Pliny equalled 4840 feet C inches 
 English. A few of the foreign measures 
 of length, taken from a table in Guilt's 
 Notitin Architectonicn Italiana, maybe use- 
 ful in reducing foreign dimensions of pic- 
 tures, statues, or buildings to English mea- 
 sures. English foot, 1.000; the Ancona 
 foot is 1.282 English ; Bcrg:amo foot, 1.431 ; 
 Bologna foot, 1.244; Brescia foot, L.'iGO; 
 Brescia braccio, 2.092; Chamhcry foot, 
 1.107; Ferrara foot, 1.317; Florence foot, 
 .99.5 ; Florence, braccio, 1.905 ; Genoa palm, 
 .812; Genoa canna, 7.300; Geneva foot, 
 1.919; Leghorn foot, .992 ; Lucca braccio, 
 1.958 ; Mantua brasso, 1.521 ; Blantua brac- 
 cio, the same as at Brescia ; Milan deci- 
 mal foot, .855 ; 3Iilan braccio, 1.725; Mo- 
 dcna foot. 2.081 ; Naples palm, .861 ; Na- 
 ples canna, 0.908 ; Paris foot, l.OCG ; Paris 
 metre, 3.281; Parma foot, 1.8C9; Paria 
 foot, 1.540 ; Piacenza, s^me as the Parmcse ; 
 Bhinland, I. Q2i to 1.030 ; Rome palm, .733 ; 
 Rome foot, .900 ; Rome deto, i=.0G04 ; 
 Rom£ oncia, j'5=.0805 ; Rome pamo, 2.515 ; 
 Rome pahna d'architettura, .7325 ; Rome 
 canna d'architettura, 7.325 ; Rome braccio, 
 2.501 ; Siena foot, 1 .239 ; Trent foot, 1.201 ; 
 Turin foot, 1.070; Turin ras, 1.958; Venice 
 foot, 1.137; Verona foot, 1.117; Vicenza 
 foot, 1.130. The ancient Greek foot is 
 eleven inches .875 of the English foot. 
 
 The ancient Roman measures, according 
 to Julius Frontiuus, were divided into se- 
 veral intervals iind proportions; "31ensu- 
 ra," says this author, " est complurium, et 
 inter se a'quatium intervallorum longitudo 
 finita." Thus their foot was measured by 
 the inch, the pace by the foot, the stadium 
 by the pace, and the milliaria by the sta- 
 dium. He adds, that the Romans had 
 twelve sorts of measures which they called 
 " digitos, uncias, palmos, sextantes, seu 
 potius dodrantes, pedes, cubitos, gradus, 
 passus, decempedas, actus, stadia, milia- 
 ria." He also gives the digit as tlie small- 
 est measure used in the admeasurement of 
 land. " Digitus eniiu est pars minima 
 agrestium mensuarum." 
 
 The following Latin verses sum up the 
 uiode : 
 
 QiMliioi' ex prani* disiliis furniabiuir iniiiii, 
 Rsl (|ualir ill paliiin ilii;iiiis, (|iiali'i- in |)ri1r palmii?. 
 Qiiiiiiini' pc(li'!i passtini laciiiiit, pHsmis qmi(|iic ct'iitiiin, 
 (^iiiiii|iii' «■( vii-i'iii sladliiMi ilaiil : srrl inilliaio 
 Olio (lalmiil .slailia, (liipllcatuiii dat tibi Ifiu-iiiii." 
 
 To ascertain the correct measurement of 
 the RoTnan foot, and other ancient mea- 
 sures of length, Pojjc Hedediel XIV, about 
 the yi-ar 1748, collected logellier, in (he 
 museum of the ('ai)ilul,all the ancient mo- 
 Iiunicnts that he could I'rocurc that had 
 
FOR 
 
 Roman feet engraven upon them. Such as 
 those of Cossntius, Statilius, iEbutius, &c. 
 which arc all delineated in the fourth vo- 
 lume of the Museum Capitolinum. In the 
 Vatican Library is an ancient Roman foot in 
 bronze extremely well preserved ; and M. 
 Grignon, a French antiquary, discovered 
 one which was divided into four quarters, 
 and again into sixteen digits. 
 
 Foot, the human. In painting and sculp- 
 ture. The lower extremity of the human 
 body ; the part whereon human beings 
 stand. See Extremity, Drawing. 
 
 Foreshortening. In painting. The art 
 of representing figures and otlier objects, 
 projections, &c. as they appear to the eye. 
 This art, which, in many instances, is so 
 difficult, appears to have been known to 
 tlie Greeks, and Pliny speaks particularly 
 as to its being successfully practised by 
 Parrhasius and Pausias. Among the mo- 
 derns, Coreggio must be allowed the palm 
 for excellence in foreshortening. See Per- 
 spective, ClELlNG. 
 
 Form, [forma, Lat.] In all the arts. The 
 external appearance of bodies ; the essen- 
 tial, specifical modification of the matter, 
 which gives it its peculiar manner of exis- 
 tence. Form in art, as well as in nature, 
 is the quality that distinguishes one object 
 from another. In painting the word form 
 is specially applied to the human form. 
 In architecture it relates to the propor- 
 tions of buildings ; and beauty of form in 
 that art is as essential as either in painting 
 or sculpture. , 
 
 Fortitude, [fortitiido, Lat.] In the my- 
 thology of the arts. One of the moral dei- 
 ties of the Romans, whose worship is en- 
 joined in the laws of the twelve tables. 
 A deification of courage, bravery. Upon 
 a common medal of Hadrian, Fortitude is 
 represented with an erect aii", resting on a 
 spear with one hand, and holding a sword 
 in the other. She has a globe under her 
 feet, to sliow that by her the Romans were 
 to conquer the woild. From their mili- 
 tary dispositions, they gave Fortitude the 
 name of Virtue, or the virtue, by way of 
 excellence, by which they understood not 
 only military courage, but a firmness of 
 mind and love of action ; a steady i-eadi- 
 ness to do good, and a patient endurance 
 of all evil. Cicero (Tusc. quajst, lib. ii. 
 p. 392 ; 1. V. p. 501 ; de Nat. Deor. 1. i. p. 
 23) speaks of Virtus and Fortitudo as the 
 same thing, and that it includes a love of 
 action. 
 
 Fortune, [fortuna, Lat.] In the mytho- 
 logy of the arts. Another deification by 
 the Romans, of the virtue or power which 
 they supposed distributed the lots of life 
 
 FOR 
 
 according to her own humour. Fortune 
 was also thought to direct the c\'cnts of 
 human life. She was looked upon by the 
 wise as a usurper, and as such placed in 
 heaven only by the populace, who applied to 
 her at last in all their wants. At the same 
 time she was represented by the poets as 
 a divinity that could not deserve much re- 
 spect. Juvenal (sat. x. v. ult.) ; Ovid (ad 
 Liv. V. 374), speaks of her as blind ; Ho- 
 race (1. i. od. 54, V. 26) as inconstant ; and 
 in another place (1. iii. od. 29, v. 51) as de- 
 lighting in mischief; and Slatius (Theb. 
 xii. V. 505) as unjust. Cybele, on an an- 
 tique gem, turns away her head from For- 
 tune, in the attitude of rejecting her. See 
 Pliny, lib. ii. c. 7. Fortune is represented 
 by Ovid (ad Liv.) as standing on a wheel, 
 but more generally with wings, and a 
 wheel by her side, to show her inconstancy, 
 and sometimes with a wheel only, to show 
 she presided over the expeditions of the 
 emperors, and their happy return. She is 
 then called on medals Fortuna redax. Her 
 usual attributes are the cornucopia, as the 
 giver of riches, and the rudder in her hand, 
 often rested on a globe, as directress of all 
 worldly afi'airs. 
 
 The incoherences in this goddess's cha- 
 racter caused several distinctions. The 
 Romans had a good and bad, a constant 
 and inconstant, Fortune. The bona For- 
 tuna, according to Horace, is dressed in a 
 rich habit ; and the mala Fortuna in a poor 
 one. Fortuna manens, or the constant For- 
 tune, is without wings, and sitting in a 
 stately posture. She has a horse as an 
 animal of swiftness, which she holds by 
 the bridle. Inconstant Fortune is winged 
 as ready to fly away. Horace (1. i. od. SS', 
 V. 34 ; 1. iii. od. 29, v. 56) speaks of both 
 as deserving the favour of one, and as be- 
 ing above the power of the other. Th« 
 Fortune worshiped at Antium seems to 
 have been of the most exalted charac- 
 ter among the Romans. In a solemn pro- 
 cession to her honour, alluded to by Ho- 
 race, the statue of Necessity was carried 
 before her, and after her those of Hope 
 and Fidelity. 
 
 Forty Columns (the). In architecture. 
 See Persepolis. 
 
 Forum. [Lat. ^opo^, Gr.] In ancient ar- 
 chitecture. A market place where things 
 are sold ; also where the Rotnan courts of 
 justice are kept, and matters of judgment 
 pleaded and decided. The Greeks, says 
 Vitruvius, made their forums or agoiai 
 square, with large double porticoes ; the 
 columns close together, adorned with stone 
 or marble cornices, having ambulatories 
 iu the upper stories : but the Romans did 
 
rORUM. 
 
 not follow the same method; for by ancient 
 custom, the shows of gladiators were given 
 in the forum : for this reason the interco- 
 lumniations around the area were made 
 wider. In the surrounding porticoes the 
 shops of the Ijankers were disposed, with 
 galleries in the upper floors properly adapt- 
 ed for the use and management of the pub- 
 lic revenue. The proportion of a forum 
 was one third longer than broad. Ad- 
 joining the forum, on the warmest side, 
 was the basilUa ; where were large covered 
 halls, \>ith galleries supported by elegant 
 rolumns. In these galleries were shops, 
 where were sold the finest wares ; in the 
 middle was a large place for the conveni- 
 ence of merchants and men of business ; 
 at one end was the tribttue, where causes 
 were heard, and other public business 
 transacted. In parts of this building also 
 the lawyers or counsellors had apartments. 
 These structures having frequently been 
 converted into Christian churches, they 
 from them have obtained the neuue of basi- 
 lica:. See Basilica. 
 
 The agorai of the Greeks were onia- 
 mentcd with statues of their gods and he- 
 roes, and frequently with monuments erect- 
 ed to the memory of celebrated men. Most 
 of the cities of Greece were embellished 
 with splendid agorai or fora. Pausanias 
 enumerates and describes several. Among 
 the agorai of Athens, two are spoken of 
 by aiu-ient authors as surpassing the others 
 in extent, beauty, and decorations. One 
 was in the Ceraniicus, and the other in 
 that part of the city that wiis called Ere- 
 tria. It was planted with walks of plane 
 ti-ees, iuid divided into markets, streets, 
 and porticoes, which derived their names 
 from the objects sold in them. The senate 
 occasionally assembled in one hall within 
 it ; the prytanes dined in another, and a 
 Irniple to the mother of the gods, and al- 
 tars to the twelve gods, to l*ity, Modesty, 
 Fame, and Impetuosity, attracted sacrili- 
 cers. The council of five hundred also 
 assembled in this agora, and their hall was 
 ornamented vith statues of Jupiter, Hu- 
 laios, of Apollo, and of Demos, the dcitica- 
 tion of the Athenian people. The city of 
 Sparta had also a remarkably splendid 
 agora, where the assemblies of tlieir elders 
 and their council of five hundred wore 
 held. Near to this building was the resi- 
 tlenci'S of llie ei)Iiori and the liidiai or le- 
 gislators. It coutained also williin its cir- 
 cuit temples dedicated to Ca-sar, to Au- 
 gustus, to Tellus, Jupiter Agomicus, Mi- 
 iur\a Agoraia, Neptune Asi)halius, Apollo. 
 Juno, and tlie I'arci. It was also dina- 
 meutcd with statues of Apollo I'ythaieus, 
 
 Diana, Latona, Mercury Agoraiens, Jupi- 
 ter Xeniua, Minerva Xenia, &c. The 
 agora or forum of Megalopolis was also 
 another celebrated Grecian work. Among 
 its buildings was a splendid portico erected 
 in honour of Pliilip, and called the Phi- 
 lippeium ; and another erected by a pri- 
 vate citizen of the name of Aristander, and 
 from him named Aristandreium. Among 
 other celebrated Grecian agorai were those 
 of Corinth, Argos, Methena, Gytheium in 
 Laconia, Thespia in Boeotia, Tegea in Ar- 
 cadia, Elatea, Elis, Coronia in Messenia, 
 and on the authority of the fourth oration 
 of Cicero against Verres, all the chief 
 cities in Sicily. 
 
 Rome contained seventeen fora, of which 
 fourteen werfe used for the show and sale 
 of goods, provisions, and merchandise, and 
 were called Fora Venalia ; the other three 
 were appropriated for civil and judicial 
 proceedings, and called Fora Cirilin ctJu- 
 dicialia. Of the latter sort was the cele- 
 brated Forum of Trajan. 
 
 The most extensive and beautiful of all 
 the Roman fora was that called the Forum 
 Jionianiiin, now the CninjHt Vuccino. It was 
 situate between the Mons Capitolinus and 
 the Mons Palatinus, and was originally 
 called the Forum Vetns, or simply the 
 forum by way of excellence. It was for a 
 long time the only forum ia Rome, but as 
 the population increased another became 
 requisite, when Julius Ciesar built that 
 which bore his name. 
 
 The Forum of Julius Cirs<y was far more 
 splendid than the Forum Romnuum ; it cost 
 upv.'ards of eight humlred thousand pounds 
 sterling, and stood in the neighbourhood 
 of the Campo Vaccino, to the east of the 
 temples of Peace and of Antoninus and 
 Faustina. 
 
 In the vicinity of that last named was the 
 Forunt of Aug;u}ifus: the temple of Mars 
 bis Ultor deoirnted the centre of it. 
 
 The 7'on/m()/"AVrro, called also the Forum 
 Trausitorium, begun by Domitian, was de- 
 corated by Alexander Severus with colos- 
 sal statues of the emperors, some of which 
 were equestrian. Parts of this forum are 
 still in tolerable preservation. 
 
 The Forum of Trajan, which has lately 
 been accurately traced by means of very 
 extensive excavations, and the demolition 
 of a great number «)f houses, was by fur 
 the most magniticent. The Trajan column 
 formed one of its ornaments, the architect 
 was Apollodorus, and its situation was 
 between the Forum of Ncrva and the Ca- 
 pitol. 
 
 Other of the Emperors of Rome also sig- 
 nalized themselves by building fora for 
 
FOU 
 
 the people, as Vespasian, Domitian, Seve- 
 riis, Antoninus, &c. Among the other fora 
 were the Forum Boarium, named from a 
 bronze statue of an ox which decorated its 
 centre, and also from being the ox market; 
 the Foi-um Cupedinis, named after a Roman 
 named Cupes, was the market for meats, 
 poultiy, &c. ; the Fortim Olitorlum or herb 
 market; tlie Forum Piscarium; the Forum 
 Pistorium; the Forum Suarium, Sec. Many 
 modern architects and antiquaries have 
 exercised their talents and ingenuity in 
 the restoration of the Roman Fora, from 
 their ruins and the accounts of their histo- 
 rians. The best for the student's reference 
 are PERRiVULT, Gafxiani, Pall-\I)io, Pira- 
 NESi, &c. M. DuRAND has collected seve- 
 ral in his excellent Parallel d' Architecture. 
 
 Foundation, [fondation, Fr.] In archi- 
 tecture. The basis or lower parts of the 
 edifice. There is no part of the art of 
 building that requires more attention and 
 care from the architect than the founda- 
 tion; it therefore demands,of necessity, pe- 
 culiar study in the student who desires 
 to become an able and efiicient architect. 
 The ancients are our best masters in this 
 department of the art, and have left both 
 precept and example for our guidance. 
 Sir Henry Wotton, an able commentator 
 on Vitruvius, in his excjellent little manual, 
 the Elements of Architecture, says, " First, 
 then, concerning the foundations, which re- 
 quireth the exactest care ; for if that hap- 
 pen to dance, it will mar all the mirth in 
 the house." 
 
 As an elucidation of this most impor- 
 tant branch of practical architecture, the 
 opinions and principles or systems of the 
 old masters shall be first collected, accom- 
 panied by a few illustrative observations ; 
 and then summed up with wliat in my opi- 
 nion are the best methods of constructing 
 foundations for public and private edifices, 
 and on various soils ; according to the 
 practice and the materials commonly 
 adopted and used in this country, as far 
 as regards solidity in the choice of a good 
 natural foundation, proper materials to 
 work with, and their most judicious appli- 
 cation. 
 
 The first in chronological order who has 
 written on the subject is Vitruvius, who 
 leaves much to the discretion of the archi- 
 tect, his directions being very general. 
 Discoursing of the construction of walls 
 and towers, he says (lib. 1. cap. 5.), " When 
 therefore the situation chosen for the city 
 was found to be salutary, the soil fertile, 
 yielding food sufficient for the sustenance 
 of the inhabitants, and the approaches 
 easy, having the accommodation of a river 
 
 FOU 
 
 or seaport to expedite the carriage of goods 
 to and from the city, then the foundations 
 of the towers and the walls are to be thus 
 constructed: the ground is to be dug down 
 to the solid earth, and in the solid so far 
 as seems reasonable for the magnitude of 
 the work. The foundation walls are to 
 be thicker than those which are built above 
 ground, and they must be executed in the 
 firmest manner." 
 
 Farther on he is rather more particular, 
 laying down as a rule, that the walls under 
 the columns on the footings of the founda- 
 tions should be thicker by half than the 
 superstructure. (Lib. 3. cap. 3.) " For the 
 foundation of these works the ground must 
 be dug down to the solid earth, and in the 
 solid so far as seems needful for the mag- 
 nitude of the work. Tlie superstructure 
 must be made extremely strong. The walls 
 above ground under columns are to be 
 made thicker by half than the columns 
 which rest upon them, so that the inferior 
 may be stronger than the superior, and 
 that the bases may not project beyond their 
 support *. 
 
 These walls are called Stereobatas be- 
 cause they sustain the whole weight. The 
 thicknesses of the walls above must also 
 be wrought in the same manner, and the 
 interval either vaulted or made solid by 
 piling, whichever may be best improved. 
 But if the place is found to be infirm, soft, 
 and marshy to the bottom, then it must be 
 dug and emptied, and piles of alder, olive, 
 or oak scorched driven in by machines 
 very close together, and the intervals of the 
 piles rammed with coal; after v^iiich the 
 substructure is to be completed in the most 
 compact manner." 
 
 " If the foundation happens to be on a 
 hill the work will be more easily done. 
 But if necessity obliges it to be erected on 
 a plain or in a marshy place, the piling 
 and superstructure must be executed in 
 the manner described in the third book 
 for the foundations of temples. And in 
 another place, when treating on the stabi- 
 lity of edifices and their foundations, he 
 says (lib. 6. cap. 11.), If the edifices which 
 are built level with the ground have their 
 foundations constructed in the manner ex- 
 plained in the foregoing books that treat 
 of walls and theatres, they will, without 
 doubt, endure to a great age ; but if vaults 
 and arches are to be made, the founda- 
 tions should be thicker than the walls of 
 
 * Vitnivius has before mentioned that tlie bases 
 piojcct a quarter of the diameter of the colnmn be- 
 yond the shaft ; so that the projection of the base, 
 on both sides, added to the diameter of the coUimn, is 
 equal to one diameter and a half of the said column. 
 
FOUND 
 
 tLc superstructure, and the walls^ piers, 
 and columns should be disposed perpen- 
 dicularly over the middle of those below 
 them, that they may stand firmly; for if 
 the walls or columns overhang, they can- 
 not long remain lirm. 
 
 In edifices which are built with piers 
 and arches of wedges, with the joints tend- 
 ing to their centres, the extreme piers are 
 to be made of a greater breadth, that they 
 may resist the force when the wedges are 
 pressed by the weight of the walls, and, 
 impelling towards their centre, thrust 
 against the abutment ; for in that case, if 
 the angular piers be of a greater breadth, 
 they will, by confining the wedges, give 
 firmness to the work ; as great attention is 
 to be given to this article, so likewise it is 
 to be observed, that all walls stand per- 
 pendicularly, and in no part overhang. 
 But tiic greatest care ought to be taken in 
 the foundation, because it is often greatly 
 damaged by the (internal) mass of earth, 
 for this is not always of the weight it is in 
 summer. In winter time, by imbibing the 
 rain water, it will be greatly increased both 
 in weight and size, and will rupture and 
 extrude the enclosing walls. To prevent 
 this eflect therefore it must be thus order- 
 ed ; first, the thickness of the wall is to be 
 IMoportioued to the maguitudc of the mass, 
 and the anterides or crasmie* are to be 
 erected in the front so far apart as is equal 
 to the height of the foundation ; their tliick- 
 ness is to be tlie same as that of the foun- 
 dation wall, and tlieir projection at bottom 
 is also to be eciual to the thickness of the 
 same wall ; from thence diminishing gra- 
 dually till at tlie lop (licy may I)e as i)ro- 
 minent as the thickness of Ihe workf; 
 
 • UnllicRSfa or coiinlrrlVirls. 
 
 t I!<itli I'crraiill and (iailiaiii liavi' in this placi' 
 deviated lYoiM llic U'xl, tlir latter willioul laUini; any 
 noliee ul'any such <leviati(in, 
 
 'J'hcy say that the anteiidc or erasina" shouhl at 
 botloni pioject from the walls as nmrh as the height 
 of the wall, whereas the text elearly e\|)resses ; 
 " (|nani assitudu eonstituta fiierit siilistnietioniv," as 
 inueh as the thiekness of tlie wall. 'I'heir reason 
 for this seems to be that as Vitriiviiis a<lds, " deinde 
 eoiitrahenles i^radatim it.V iiti snmitium liabeani pro- 
 mieiiliain ipianta ojieris est crassiliida," tiom Iheiice 
 (liniinishiiiK till at the lo|> they are as prominent as 
 the lhi( kni'ss of the Work, and understandini^ liy this 
 that the projeetion of the erasma' at the top is also to 
 be eigiial to the thiekmss of the wall, and to increase 
 gradually as they approaeh toward Ihe holioin ; they 
 conelinle that the text was erroneons in one or other 
 of those pai^sat;e»; iiecordin|;ly they have li\ed on 
 Ihe foi nier and altered it as ahoveinentioned, allholl^ll 
 it is elearly and delerminately expresned, lea\ inj; the 
 latter passage (whieh is Indeed vayiie and donhllnl) 
 miallered ; lor this latli'r pas»Hi;e may hi' iinderslood 
 to sii;nily lli ii the anterides should project at the lop 
 of Ihi' foun<laiion no mine than is sidlitieiit to receive 
 the thickness of the work of the i)U|)erstruclure willi 
 ilii projecting |)il:i»ter», «Lc. 
 
 .vrioN. 
 
 moreover, adjoining to the mside of the 
 wall toward the mass of ground, teeth 
 formed like those of a saw are to be built, 
 each tooth projecting so far from the wall 
 as is equal to the height of the foundation 
 wall. At the extreme angle an extent equal 
 to the height of the foundation is marked 
 off on both sides ; from the interior angle 
 and from those marks a diagonal wall is 
 built, from the middle of which another wall 
 is adjoined to the angle of wall. Thus 
 the teeth and diagonal walls will not sutler 
 the weight of the earth to press against 
 the (foundation) wall, but will divide and 
 restrain the pressure of the mass. 
 
 This dependance of Vitruvius upon dis- 
 cretion rather than prescribed rules, is a 
 stroke of genius elicited by experience, 
 and shows that it is often more difficult to 
 teach by rule than to execute. 
 
 Andrea Pall.\dio, however, boldly lays 
 down a rule; he would have the escava- 
 tion for the foundation a sixth i)art of the 
 height of the whole fabric ; and if there 
 are to be cellars or other substructures 
 they are to be proportionally lower. This 
 architect either errs in his calculation, or 
 English architects in practise ; for we 
 should esteem it a great loss of materials, 
 to order in every instance a wall of thirty 
 feet to have a foundation five feet in deptli, 
 which is considered more fully in the 
 second part. 
 
 Palladio's directions are less general and 
 
 In this sense Barbaro has understood it; and that 
 this is the true sense, the determinate maimer in 
 which the quantity of the projection at bottom and 
 the diminution fruiii tUeiice upward is expressed, and 
 ill which all tlie copies ui;rec, renders it hit^hly pro- 
 bable. 
 
 I'erraiilt remarks that as \ itrnvins assigns the dis- 
 tance of the aiilci ides to be equal to the hei'^ht of the 
 wall, the anterides will consequently be fewer as 
 the wall is higher, which outjht to be directly the 
 roiitrary, and should be more luimerous and closer 
 ill proportion as the wall is liit;her, as beim; in that 
 t.ise weaker and wantini; more support; he, there- 
 lore, supposes we should read crassitudo instead of 
 iilllludo, and that the distances should be equal to the 
 thickness of the wall ; but this is taking it for granted 
 that Ihe wall, whether hii;h m- low, is to be alwa>s 
 of the same thickness; whereas it is always iiiider- 
 .stood that Ihe walls are to be made thicker in propoiv 
 tiiuiasthey are higher; and as Vitruvius before «iy.-«, 
 in pioportion to the nias.s of !;rouiiil lliey enclose. 
 Coiisidyrini; it in this lii;ht therefore, the h<ii;ht and 
 thickiii'ss of the walls and Ihe distance of Ihe ante- 
 rides will be the same in proportion to eacli other 
 in all cases, and of cuur.se be proportionally firm and 
 strong. 
 
 Vitruvius le.ives it uncertain whetluT the thiekness 
 of the teeth and diagonal wall at the angles is ex- 
 cluded or included in the piojeclion. He assi);ii:i 
 them from the main wall, hut Newtiui, in his trans- 
 lation of \ itruviiis, determined for Ihe former, as 
 otherwise those diagonal w.ills woulil not bear against 
 the anterides, which as bein^ the strongest pan ut' 
 Ihe wall tUey ought to do. 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 Well adapted to the country in which he 
 so much signalized himself. 
 
 Palladio, lib. 1. cap. 7. The foundation 
 i. e. that part which is under the gi-ound, 
 and sustains the whole edifice, is properly 
 called its basis. Of all the errors in build- 
 ing, those are the most fatal that are com- 
 mitted in (he foundation, because they at 
 once endanger the whole structure, nor can 
 they be rectified but with the utmost difficul- 
 ty. The architect must therefore take great 
 care to make choice of a good foundation ; 
 since, in some parts it is naturally strong 
 and solid, and in others, art must be used 
 to make it so. A natural foundation is 
 when the foundation is rocky, or consists of 
 a soft sandy stone or gravel, which is a sort 
 of earth inclining to be rocky ; for without 
 digging or any other assistance from art 
 these foundations are strong of themselves, 
 and capable of sustaining the most cum- 
 brous stTuctui'e either on land or water. 
 But when a foundation is not natural, art 
 must be exerted, and here the place for 
 building on is either a solid earth or clay, 
 a sandy, soft, and damp ground, or a 
 marshy land. If the earth be solid and 
 substantial, the foundation may be made 
 of such a depth as to an artful architect may 
 appear necessary to the bulk of the build- 
 ing and the strength of the soil ; and if 
 there are to be no cellars or other offices 
 under ground it will be sufficient to dig a 
 sixth part of the height of the building. 
 The firmness and solidity of the earth may 
 with ease be known by digging of wells, 
 cisterns, or the like, and also by the herbs 
 that grow upon it, if they are such as 
 spring up only in a firm and solid soil. 
 Another indication of the strength and 
 solidity of the earth is when any thing 
 ponderous is thrown upon it, it neither 
 shakes nor resounds, which may be easily 
 observed by the assistance of a drum ; if, 
 when it is set upon the ground and gently 
 touched, it does not resound nor shake the 
 water in a vessel that stands hard by it. 
 The firmness and strength of the ground 
 may likewise be known by the solidity of 
 the earth in the places adjacent. But if 
 it be a sandy or gravelly spot, particular 
 care is to be taken whether it be on land 
 or in the water; for if it be on the land 
 the observation of what has been already 
 mentioned concerning firm ground will be 
 sufficient. 
 
 If we build in the water, the sand and 
 gravel will be of no manner of service; for 
 ths water, by reason of its continual cur- 
 rent and flood, is continually varying its 
 bed, we must therefore dig till we find it 
 a firm and solid bottom ; or if this cannot 
 
 with ease b& effected, we must then dig a 
 little into the sand and gravel, and drive 
 in piles of oak till their ends reach the 
 good ground, and on these we may build. 
 But if we are obliged to build on mossy 
 or loose earth, we must then dig till we 
 find solid ground, and that in proportion to 
 the thickness of the walls and the bulk of 
 the structure. This firm and solid earth, fit 
 to support a building, is of various kinds ; 
 for, as Alberti justly observes, in some 
 places it is so hard that iron can hardly 
 penetrate it, and sometimes harder than 
 iron itself. In some places it is a blackish, 
 and in others of a whitish cast (which is 
 deemed the weakest); in some it is like 
 chalk, and in others soft and sandy. Of 
 these various kinds that is the best which 
 is cut with most toil and difficulty, or when 
 it does not dissolve aw ay in mud and dirt. 
 An old foundation must never be built 
 upon before we know its depth, and are 
 well assured that it is able to sustain the 
 fabric. But if the earth you build upon 
 be vei'y soft as in marshy grounds, you 
 must strengthen it with piles, whose length 
 must be the eighth part of the height of 
 the walls, and their diameter the twelfth 
 part of their length. These piles must be 
 drove in so contiguous to one another that 
 no others can be set between them, and 
 particular care must be taken to ram them 
 with gentle blows often repeated rather 
 than with violence, for the earth will con- 
 solidate better the one way than the other. 
 Piles must be drove not only under the 
 walls but also under the inner partitions 
 or walls. For if the foundations of the 
 inner walls are weaker than those of the 
 outer walls, when you come to lay the 
 girders and joists you will find experimen- 
 tally that the inward walls will sink while 
 those on the outside stand firm, because 
 they were raised on the piles, then all the 
 walls will crack and destroy the whole 
 structure ; besides these crevices strike 
 the eye very disagreeably. As, therefore, 
 the expense of piles will be of less impor- 
 tance than the endangering the whole fa- 
 bric ; you must not be too saving, but dis- 
 tribute them according to the prc^ortion 
 of the walls, and take care that those 
 within be placed somewhat thinner than 
 those on the outside of the building. The 
 foundation must be as thick again as the 
 wall intended to be raised on it ; and here 
 you must take particular notice of the qua- 
 lity or goodness of the ground and the 
 weight of the building, as also to make 
 the foundation wider in soft and loose 
 ground, and on which a veiy spacious fa- 
 bric is to be erected. The plan of the 
 
 z 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 trench must be exactly level, that the 
 
 weJRht may press equally in all parts, and 
 not lean more on one side than the other, 
 whicli occasions the cracking and dividing 
 of tiie walls. The ancients, therefore, used 
 to pave the plan with Tivertiue, but we 
 lay planks or beams when we build. The 
 foundations must always slope, that is to 
 say, diminish in proportion as they rise, 
 yet so as that there may be as much left on 
 one side as the other, and as the middle 
 wall above may be directly perpendicular 
 orer the middle of that below, which must 
 be also particularly regarded in the dimi- 
 nishing walls above ground, for this will 
 make the fabric much stronger than if the 
 diminution were made any other way. 
 Sometimes to prevent large expense, and 
 particularly in marshy grounds where we 
 are forced to make use of piles ; the foun- 
 dations must be arched, and on this the 
 edifice must be raised. In large buildings 
 it may be very proper to make vents or 
 holes through the body of the walls from 
 the very foundation to the roof, in order to 
 let out the winds and vai)Ours, which are 
 very prejudicial to the fabric; diminishes 
 the expense, and will likewise be found 
 very convenient in case winding stairs are 
 to be made from the bottom to the top. 
 
 It is sound advice in Sir Henry Wotton's 
 Elements of Architecture, to prescribe that 
 wells should lirst be sunk, to which I 
 would add that the architect or professed 
 mineralogist, if in a large concern, should 
 make a diagram of the substrata ; and 
 also a second should be sunk at a distance 
 to observe the variations or dip of the 
 strata, so that as little as possible be left 
 to conjecture. We nuiy gather from them 
 some excellent maxims, amidst the ((uaint- 
 ness of his style that may be termed apho- 
 risms ratlier tlian by any otiier nanu'. 
 
 Tiierefore, that we may found our habita- 
 tion firndy, we must lirst examine the bed 
 of ejirth (us I may term it) upon which we 
 will build, and then the undtrlillings or 
 substruction, as the ancients did call it; for 
 the former we have a general precipt in 
 Vitruvius, twice precisely ri'jx atcd by him 
 as a point indeed of main conseciuence; 
 First, lib. 1. cap. 5. and again more fitly, 
 lit). H. cap. 3. in these words IMiilander 
 <lo(!S well correct tlu- vulgar copic's, iS'«/;- 
 slriicliimts J-'tindationis /(ulirtiitiir (saitli he) 
 li'iueant invcrniri ml solidum et in stiiulo. 
 By which words I conceive liim fo com- 
 mend unto us not (miy a diiigiiit but iveu 
 H jealous examination, what tiie soil will 
 bear, advising us not to rest ui)on any iip- 
 peariMg solidity, unless the whcde mould 
 tiirough which we cut have likewise been 
 
 solid ; but how deep we should go in this 
 search he hath nowhere, to my remem- 
 brance, determined ; as perhaps depending 
 more upon discretion than regularity, ac- 
 cording to the weight of the work ; yet An- 
 drea Palladio hath fairly adventured to re- 
 duce it into rule, allowing for that cava- 
 sione (under-digging or hollowing of the 
 earth) a sixth part of the height of the whole 
 fabric, unless the cellars be under ground, 
 in which case he would have us (as it should 
 seem) to sound somewhat lower. 
 
 Some Italians do prescribe that when 
 they have chosen the floor or plot, and laid 
 out the limits of the work, we should lirst 
 of all dig wells and cisterns and other 
 conveyances for the suillage of the house, 
 whence may arise a double benefit, for both 
 the nature of the mould or soil would 
 thereby be safely searched; moreover, 
 those open vents would serve to discharge 
 such vapours as, having othei-w ise no issue, 
 might peradventure shake the building. 
 This is enough for the natural grounding, 
 which though it be not a part of the solid 
 fabric, yet here was the fittest place to 
 handle it. 
 
 There followeth the substruction or 
 groundwork of the whole edilice which 
 nuist sustain the walls, and this is a kind 
 of artificial foundation as the other was 
 natural; about which these arc the chief re- 
 membrances. First, that the bottom be pre- 
 cisely level, where the Italians, therefore 
 commonly lay a platform of good boards, 
 then that the lowest ledge or row be merely 
 of stone, and the broader the better. Close- 
 ly laid without nu)rtar, which is a general 
 custom t'orall partsof buildingthat are con- 
 tiguous to boariU)r timber, because lime and 
 wood are insociable, and if any where unfit 
 conliners,then most especially in the foun- 
 dation. Thirdly, that the breadth of the sub- 
 struction be at least double to the insistent 
 wall, and more or less as the weight of the 
 fabric shall require; for, as 1 may again 
 repeat, discretion may be freer than art. 
 Lastly, I find in some a curious precept that 
 the materials below be laid as they grew iu 
 the (luaiiN, sujiposing tiuin belike to have 
 most strength in their natural and haliitual 
 posture. For as Philip de L'Ormc ob- 
 servcth,the breaking or yielding of a stone 
 in tills part, but the breadth of a back »>f 
 a kuit'e will make a cliirormore lli.iii half 
 a foot in ti>e fabric aloft; so important are 
 fiiiidanient.il errius, among which notes I 
 ha\c said nolliing of piillilication on or 
 applying to the ground plot, ci'nimaiided 
 by Vitruvius, when we build upon a moist 
 or marshy soil, because that were an 
 error in tlie first choice; and therefore 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 all seats that must use such provision be- 
 low (as Venice for an eminent example) 
 would perhaps on good inquiry be found 
 to have been at fii-st chosen by the counsel 
 of necessity. 
 
 I shall conclude the present part with 
 the opinion of Leo Battista Alherti, who is 
 more diffuse on this interesting subject, 
 omitting some part of his excellent obser- 
 vations on the choice of ground, &c. as 
 well as on the practice of foundations of 
 bridges. 
 
 In marking out your foundations you are 
 to remember that the first groundwork of 
 your wall and the soccles which are called 
 foundations too, must be a determinate 
 proportion bi'oader than the walls that are 
 to be erected upon it, in imitation of those 
 that walk over the snow in the alps of 
 Tuscany, who wear upon their feet hur- 
 dles made of twigs and small ropes plaited 
 together for that very purpose ; the broad- 
 ness of which keeps them from sinking in 
 the snow. How to dispose angles is not 
 easy to teach with words alone, because 
 the method of drawing them is borrowed 
 from the mathematics, and stands in need 
 of the example of lines. 
 
 My method in describing the founda- 
 tions is to draw some lines, which I call 
 radical ones ; from the middle of the fore 
 front of the work I draw a line quite 
 through to the back front, in the middle of 
 this I fix a nail in the. ground, from which 
 I raise and let fall perpendicular according 
 to the method of the geometers, and to 
 these lines I reduce every thing I have 
 occasion to measure, which succeeds per- 
 fectly well in all respects ; for the parallel 
 lines are obvious; you see exactly where 
 to make your angles correspondent, and to 
 dis]X)se every part agreeably with the 
 others. But if it so happens that any old 
 buildings obstruct your sight from disco- 
 vering and fixing upon the exact seat of 
 every angle, your business then is to draw 
 lines at equal distances in those places 
 that are clear and free ; then having mark- 
 ed the point of intersection by the assist- 
 ance of the diameter and gnomon, and by 
 drawing other lines at equal distances, 
 fitted to the square, we may completely 
 effect our purpose ; and it will be of no 
 small convenience to terminate the ray of 
 sight with a line in those places which be 
 higher than the rest ; whence letting fall 
 a perpendicular we may find the right di- 
 rection and production of our lines. 
 
 The rest of this chapter concerns our 
 present subject but little, but in the suc- 
 ceeding he gives the following excell^'nt 
 directions which, with the due allowance 
 
 for difference in soil, may be with great 
 
 safety followed. 
 
 You must, says he, use different methods 
 for foundations according to the diversity 
 of places, whereof some are lofty, some 
 low, others between both, at the sides of 
 hills ; some again are parched and dry, as 
 generally the summits of ridges and moun- 
 tains, others damp and washy, as those 
 that lie near seas or lakes, or in the 
 bottoms between hills. Others are so si- 
 tuated as neither always dry nor always 
 wet, which is the nature of easy ascents 
 where the water does not lie and soak, 
 but runs gently off. We must not trust too 
 hastily to any ground though it does resist 
 the pickaxe, for it may be in a plain and 
 be infirm, the consequence of which will 
 be the ruin of the whole work. He men- 
 tions a tower at Mestre, a place belonging 
 to the Venetians, which in a few years 
 after it was built made its way through 
 the ground it stood upon ; which, as the 
 fact evinced, was a loose weak soil, and 
 buried itself in earth up to the very bat- 
 tlements. For this reason they are very 
 much to be blamed, who, not being pro- 
 vided by nature with a soil fit to support 
 the weight, and lighting upon the ruins 
 or remains of some old structure, do not 
 take the pains to examine the goodness of 
 its foundation, but inconsiderately raise 
 great piles of building upon it, and out of 
 the avarice of saving a little expense, throw 
 away all the money they lay out on the 
 work. It is therefore excellent advice, 
 the first thing you do, to dig wells, for 
 several reasons, and especially to get ac- 
 quainted with the strata of the earth, whe- 
 ther sound enough to bear the superstruc- 
 ture or likely to give way. Add likewise 
 that the water you find in them and the 
 stxiff you dig out will be of great service 
 to you in several parts of your work ; and 
 moreover, that the opening such vents will 
 be a gi'eat security to the firmness of the 
 building, and prevent its being injured by 
 subterraneous exhalations. Having, there- 
 fore, either by digging a well or any hole 
 of that nature, made yourself thoroughly 
 acquainted with the veins or layers of the 
 earth, you are to make choice of that you 
 may most safely trust with your super- 
 structure. In eminences or wherever else 
 the water, in running down, washes away 
 the ground, the deeper you make your 
 trench the better. In situations upon slopes. 
 Columella directs us to begin our founda- 
 tions at the lowest part of the slope first, 
 which is certainly ver^' right ; for besides 
 that, whatever you lay there will always 
 stand firm and immoveable in its place ; it 
 22 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 irill also serve as a prop or buttress to 
 whatever you add to tlie upper parts, if 
 you afterwards think iit to enlarj;e your 
 structure, you will also thereby discover 
 and provi(lc against those defects which 
 sometimes haj)peu in such trenches by the 
 cracking or falling in of the earth. In 
 marshy grounds you should make your 
 trench very wide, and fortify both sides of 
 it with stakes, liurdles, planks, sea weeds, 
 and clay, so strongly that no water may 
 get in; then you must draw oft" every 
 drop of water that happens to be left with- 
 in your frame work, and dig out the sand 
 and clear away the mud from the bottom 
 till you have lirm diy ground to set your 
 foot upon. The same you are to do in a 
 sandy ground as far as necessity requires. 
 Moreover the trench must be laid ex- 
 actly level, not sloping on either side, 
 that the materials laid upon it may be 
 equally balanced. There are other things 
 ordered to be done in marshy situations, 
 but they belong rather to the wall than 
 the foundations. They order us to drive 
 into the ground a great number of stakes 
 and piles burnt at the end, and set with 
 their heads downwards, so as to have a 
 surface of twice the breadth we intend for 
 our wall, that these piles should never be 
 less in length than an eighth part of the 
 height of the wall to be built upon them, 
 and for their thickness it should be tiie 
 twelfth part of their length and no less. 
 Lastly, that they should be drove in so 
 close that there is not room for one more. 
 The instrument we use for driviiig tliese 
 piles, whatever sort it is of, should do its 
 business by a great many strokes repeated ; 
 for when it is too heavy, coming down with 
 an immense and intolerable forte, it breaks 
 and splits tiie timber ; but the continual 
 repetition of gentle strokes wearies ami 
 overcomes the greatest hardness and ob- 
 stinacy of the earth. You have an instance 
 of this when you go to drive a small nail 
 info a iiard piece of timber, if you use a 
 great heavy hamnu;r it would not do, but 
 if you work with a manageable liglit one 
 it penetrates immediatidy. \Vluitf\er lias 
 been said may sullici; with relation to our 
 trencli, unless we would add, sometimes 
 eitiier to sav(! money or avoid an interme- 
 diate piece of rotten ground, it may not be 
 amiss to make a foun<bi(ion not coiiliiiiifil 
 ♦Mitire all the way, but with intervals ItM't 
 between, as if wo were making only co- 
 lunis or pilastiMs; then turning arches iVom 
 on(! ]>ilas(('r lo tiie other, to lay over (hem 
 the rest of the wall. In tiiese we are to 
 observe tin? same directi<mH as we gave; 
 before J but the greater weight you raise 
 
 upon them, the larger and stronger pilas- 
 ters and bases you must make. 
 
 For making the lower courses, that is to 
 say, raising the foundations up to the level 
 of the ground. I do not find any precepts 
 among the ancients except this one, that 
 all stones, after being in the air two years, 
 discover any defect, must be banished for 
 the foundations; for as in an army, the 
 sluggish and weak, who cannot endure the 
 sun and dust, are sent home with marks 
 of infamy, so those soft enervated stones 
 ought to be rejected and left to an inglo- 
 rious repose in their primitive obscurity. 
 Indeed, I find by historians that the anci- 
 ents took as much care of the strength and 
 soundness of their foundations in all its 
 parts as of any other part of the wall. 
 Asisthus the son of Nicerenus, King of 
 Egypt (the author of the law, that who- 
 ever was sued for a debt should give the 
 corpse of his father in pawn), when he 
 built a pyramid of bricks to make his 
 foundations, drove piles into the marsh 
 and laid his bricks upon them. And we 
 are informed that Ctesiphon,the excellent 
 architect that built the famous temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus, having made choice of a 
 level piece of ground, thoroughly drained 
 and likely to be free from earthquakes, 
 that he might notlay the foundations of such 
 a huge pile in such a loose and unfaith- 
 ful soil without due precautions, first made 
 a bottom of coals, pounded to dust, then 
 drove in piles with fleeces and coals 
 wedged in between pile and pile, and over 
 these a course of stone with very large 
 junctures. M'c find that about Jerusalem, 
 in tlie foundations of their public works, 
 they sometimes used stones thirty feet long, 
 and not less than fifteen high. IJut I have 
 ol)serve(l that in other places the ancients, 
 w iio were wonderfully exjjcrt in managing 
 of great works, followed ilillercnt rules 
 and methods in filling up the foundations. 
 In the sepulchre of the Antonini, they 
 filled tlum up with little pieces of very 
 hard stone each not bigger than a hand- 
 ful, and which they perfectly drowned in 
 mortar. In the forum Argentarium with 
 fragments of all sorts of broken stcuies; 
 in the C'omitia with bits of tlie very worst 
 sort of soft stuir. Hut I am mightily 
 pb'ased with those who in the Tarpeia 
 imitated nature, in a contrivance particu- 
 larly well a<lapled to hills; for she in the 
 formation of mountains mixes the softest 
 niiiteiials widi the haidesl stones. So these' 
 w orlviiien (irsl laid a course of scjuared stone 
 as strtmg as they couhl get to the height of 
 Iwy feet; over these tiu-y made a kind of 
 piaster of mortar and broken fragments, 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 then another course of stone, and with 
 another of plaster they finished their foun- 
 dation. I have known other instances 
 where the ancients have made much the 
 same sort of foundations and structures 
 too of coarse pit gravel and common stone 
 that they have picked up by chance, 
 which hath lasted many ages. Upon pull- 
 ing down a very high and strong tower at 
 Bologna they discovered that the founda- 
 tions were filled with nothing but round 
 stone and chalk, to the height of nine feet, 
 the other parts were built with mortar. 
 We find, therefore, that very diflTerent me- 
 thods have been used, and which to ap- 
 prove most, I confess myself, all of them 
 have so long endured firm and sound ; so 
 that I think we ought to choose that which 
 is least expensive, provided we do not 
 throw in all manner of old rubbish and 
 any thing apt to moulder. In laying foun- 
 dations under rows of columns, there is no 
 occasion to draw an evern continued line 
 of work all the way without interruption, 
 but only first to strengthen the places you 
 intend for the seat or beds of your co- 
 lumns, and then from one to the other draw 
 arches with their back downwards, so that 
 the plane or level of the area will be the 
 chord of these arches. For standing thus 
 they will be less able to force their way 
 into the earth in any one place, the weight 
 being counterpoised and thrown equally 
 on both sides of the props of the arches. 
 And how apt columns are to drive into the 
 ground by means of the great pressure of 
 the weight laid upon them is manifest from 
 the noble temple of Vespasian that stands 
 to the north-west. For being desirous of 
 leaving the public way, which was inter- 
 rupted by that angle, a free and open pas- 
 sage underneath, they broke the area of 
 their platform, and turned an arch against 
 the wall; leaving that corner as a sort of 
 pilaster on the other side of the passage, 
 and fortifying it as well as possible with 
 strong work and with the assistance of a 
 buttress. Yet this at last, by the vast 
 weight of so great a building and the giv- 
 ing way of the earth became ruinous. 
 
 Having thus quoted the opinions of some 
 architects, whose practical and theoretical 
 knowledge have procured for them the 
 just distinction of masters in the science, 
 the next step will be by way of summary, 
 to collect them to a focus, which I shall 
 denominate the ancient practice. In the 
 second, to naiTate my own method in com- 
 mon cases, detailing some difficulties that 
 have occurred, with the methods used to 
 overcome them, and the event of their suc- 
 
 cess. And in t!»e third, a compendium of 
 rules drawn from the above sources, which 
 I shall call the modern E?igUsh practice of 
 forming foundations. 
 
 The Summary of Ancient Practice, 
 We observe in all the authorities before 
 cited, without exception, a jealous solici- 
 tude towards a knowledge of the compo- 
 nent matter of the substrata, more neces- 
 sary for the volcanic territory of modern 
 Italy, than the more solid and secure soil 
 of Great Britain, 
 
 Sir H. Wotton, the only Englishman 
 quoted (because he found it in Palladio 
 and others), directs wells to be dug to ob- 
 tain that knowledge, and has given it as a 
 maxim never to be omitted. It is undoubt- 
 edly an excellent practice where wells are 
 wanted beforehand : yet, I do not think it 
 so indispensably necessary in this countrj', 
 as to be performed solely for the purpose 
 of investigating an intended foundation, 
 for the most usual and common kind of 
 'louses. 
 
 Vitruvius, as before observed, very judi- 
 ciously leaves much to the discretion of the 
 architect, who, if worthy of the name, will 
 be at no loss in accommodating his inten- 
 tions to the occasion, and his means to the 
 difliculty. This observation, from tl\e re- 
 puted father of the profession, proves to 
 my mind, as clear as history, that he was 
 as much an executive as we are certain he 
 was a theoretical architect. Reason would 
 dictate, if Vitruvius did not, that fotinda- 
 tion walls should be thicker than those 
 above them ; such general observations 
 convey but little information; but he af- 
 fords something more like certainty as to 
 a minium, and from which we may draw 
 an inference as to its general practice, when 
 he says, the footings should be thicker 
 by half than the superstructure. As for 
 the depths he determines nothing more 
 than to dig down to the solid earth. If the 
 ground was weak, swampy, or marsliy, he 
 dug it all out and well piled it. In other 
 respects his mode of practice did not suffi- 
 ciently difler from ours to make it worth 
 recapitulating. 
 
 Palladio defines the foundation to be that 
 part which is under ground, and sustains 
 the whole weight of the edifice; he is 
 therefore justly solicitous that no error 
 should be committed, or defect suffered to 
 escape notice, in this important part of the 
 building. He prefers a natural foundation, 
 or one which, without assistance from art, 
 will sustain the most cumbrous structure in 
 either land or water. He does not essen=. 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 tially differ from Vitruvius (whom he much 
 studied) except in determining Uiedeptli of 
 a foundation to be at least one eighth the 
 height of the wall, and even more wlien 
 cellars are used; which may tlicn be made 
 
 waste ; as a due lateral or transverse com- 
 pression of the soil is belter obtained by 
 moderate intervals, than such close ones 
 as to exude the earth t. Their diameter 
 was a twelfth part of their length ; by 
 
 of such additional deptli as (his translator whicli rule a pile twelve feet long must be 
 
 renders it) to an ai-tful architect may ap- a foot square. In m , opinion a much 
 
 pear necessary. I think if a modern archi- smaller diameter would be preferal)le ; as 
 
 tect was to make such a preposterous foot- every builder knows wliat an immense 
 
 ing to a house, a jury of twelve honest weight a perpendicular post or column 
 
 men, in spite of that great author's autho- will sustain, when prevented from leaving 
 
 rity, would pronounce him to be really a 
 very artful architect ; and one who paid 
 a due regard to the quantum of per cen- 
 tage on his labours, as well as the stabi- 
 lity of his edifice. An architect of our own 
 
 its perpendicularity. He preferred re- 
 peated gentle blows to violent ones, for 
 driving them, and with reason; he also 
 drove them under the inner or cross walls, 
 which ousht never to be omitted when they 
 
 times, in a nutshell full* of excellent ob- are to be carried up to the same height, or 
 servations, says, that a little stronger than have heavy partitions or floors to sustain, 
 strong enough is a good maxim in build- This architect (Palladio) made his foun- 
 ing: admitted — but as the two extremes dation wall twice the thickness of the su- 
 of the mean point of strong enough are perincumbent one (which is a better pro- 
 errors, that architect is surely to be pre- portion than that of Vitruvius), and dimi- 
 ferred who, by judicious calculations and nished upwards : the ancients, lie observes, 
 attentive study (which should always be paved tlie trench with stone, but in his 
 recommended to the architectural student), time they used plank. He also recom- 
 arrives at that desired point ; rather than mends some foundations to be arched, but 
 by an overcareful desire of being a little leaves us in the dark as to the manner, 
 stronger than strong enough, commits a It would be but repetition to analyse Sir 
 waste of his employer's money, by employ- H. Wotton's directions, which are evi- 
 ing timbers or erecting walls of double or dently more derived from former authors 
 treble the required dimensions. These me- than from his own practice ; and Alborti's 
 moranda are not intended for the medium is so similar, except in being more dill'use 
 of that school of architecture, which the and mathematical, that I think I may here 
 abovementioned author pleasantly calls conclude the summary of ancient practice, 
 the St. George's Fields and ftlary-lc-bone 
 
 School of Temple Builders, to whom, as 
 he observes, it would be flat heresy. We 
 need not fear their encroachments on this 
 extreme. 
 
 Of building in water Palladio says but 
 
 The Author's Method of Practice. 
 In detailing what I have presumed to 
 call my own method, I trust that inslead 
 of l)i'iug accused of egotism in llie tin) fre- 
 quent repetition of the i)ersonal pronoun 
 
 little; neither have I been very solicitous /, the wish of conveying ray information 
 to search for the methods used by the old on the subject will counterbalance the 
 masters on that head; thinking it of suf- defect. 
 
 Ccient importance for a separate treatise. 
 From his directions for piling a founda- 
 tion, I take leave to dill'er in )iart. He 
 says the length of tlie \n\^\ nuist be an 
 eighth part of the height of the intended 
 wall to be erected on it; I cannot allow 
 tliis to be an invariabli' maNiinuin. So 
 long as it is driven to the solid, « helher it 
 
 In that description of the houses, which 
 conies more fre<iuonlly under our ilirection 
 than royal palaces and splendid mansions, 
 I think tlie i)est manner is, to sink the 
 basement story to the intended level ; dig- 
 ging the plan of it in every break, as little 
 larger as jiiissiblc, rather than a large 
 K<iuare, that would extend beyond every 
 
 is a fourth or a fourteenth i)art of the pro- part of it; because new made earth thrust- 
 portion given by Palladio; I conceive it ing against new built walls is to b(> avoid- 
 to be the most pioi)er length. He orders ed when possible; and by this means the 
 the piles to be driven so contiguous to one 
 
 another, that no others can be set between + ]„ i>w»,u,,\ »...! oih.r d.lin.aior* of ilw anii.iui- 
 
 them; but this is certainly a needless iii-» »r \{»wr, die iiiiink: i:> oiitn iciniMnu'd, ai> 
 
 Ihickly |ilaiil('(l, tli.il the soil iniist liaM' hnii cii- 
 
 • OIKIAIA or niit.tlioll.H, by Jo.ic Mar I'.ikr, an (iri'l> im a\alicl to ailiiiil soiiiaii) , anil lliiikl) diivon 
 
 anaciani npiin llii' naini' of .lames I'rai'oi'k, till niirly piliD. Sri' pai licnlai l> llu' foiindalion of lli>' llii-a- 
 
 joini auliilcci uidi All. Daiicv to Ilic i-or|ioiBlion of Or of Maictllus in llio iibuTi'iiicutiuncd ini^raver's 
 
 l/ondon, woiki. 
 
FOUNDATION. 
 
 earth supports itself all round, till the 
 walls are sufficiently dry. Dig the foot- 
 ings upon an average two feet six inches 
 below the above level, and cut under the 
 perpendicular of the square of the base- 
 ment story, for the spreading of the foot- 
 ings, for the same reason as beforemen- 
 tioned. If piles are necessary, I should 
 order them to be driven iipon the before 
 quoted principle of Palladio, with the ex- 
 ceptions I there made. I wish here to 
 take occasion to observe, that I give the 
 preference most decidedly to the engine 
 pulled by ropes and men, to any of the 
 machine pile-drivers yet invented, as the 
 furious heavy blows given by the latter 
 are by no means equal to the continuity 
 and regularity of the former. Sleepers 
 two and a quarter times longer tlian the 
 width of the supei'incumbent wall should 
 then be laid across the trench, at intervals 
 not more than two feet asunder, to be filled 
 up with brick work level to the top ; but 
 no mortar suffered to touch the timber ; 
 sound oak or fir plank should then be laid 
 upon them, well intersected and fastened 
 together at the angles. If fir plank is 
 used, and there is any appearance of sap 
 or looseness of texture on the outside, it 
 should be carefully sawed off. 
 
 The foundation wall is now to be erect- 
 ed thereon ; the method I usually adopt 
 and recommend is to have the bottom 
 course, if for an external wall, twice the 
 width ; and if for an internal or partition 
 wall, one and a half times the width of the 
 superincumbent wall, but invariably to be 
 of equal depths, for if it should be less in 
 depth (a foot for example), there will be 
 four joints or nearly three inches in com- 
 mon work less to compress or settle than 
 the external walls. Two courses of the 
 above dimension are then to be carried up 
 perpendicularly, and then two more courses 
 perpendicularly one inch and a half on 
 each side less than the lower, and so on 
 gradatim, by offsetts of one inch and a 
 half on each side, every two courses, till 
 it arrives at the intended thickness of 
 the wall. The footings must be spread 
 round every break, chimney, breast, or 
 projection. When the soil is a fine hard 
 gravel or gravel and clay of an equal con- 
 sistency all round, the piles, sleepers, and 
 planking may be entirely omitted. I have 
 tried it on a fine gravelly foundation, on 
 which a verj' Iiea\'y building, the upper 
 part of the walls being in many places four 
 bricks thick, has been erected more than 
 ten years ; and it has neither crack nor 
 settlement. 
 
 Some Difficulties detailed. 
 In pulling down and rebuilding a house 
 of very large dimensions, in the city, the 
 front of the new house was to be set so far 
 back from the street, that the new founda- 
 tion stood about one foot three inches on 
 the old foundation, and two feet three 
 inches on the earth in the inside. Pre- 
 cautions were necessary to make the new 
 foundation as hard as the original one; 
 it was, therefore, very carefully piled, 
 with intervals of about nine inches, every 
 pile driven by an engine pulled by ropes 
 and men as far as it could be, and then 
 sawed off level ; each pile was shod with 
 iron rather more obtusely than is gene- 
 rally practised ; for it is my opinion, that 
 to keep the piles from splitting, and to 
 break or remove any partial obsti-uction, 
 is all that is wanting in this operation of 
 shoeing the piles with iron, which is much 
 better effected by these, than with such 
 verj- lancet pointed piles as are often used. 
 The foundations were prepared, and the 
 footings laid in the manner I have just 
 now directed. The front, both of the base- 
 ment and ground stories, was to consist of 
 very large openings, and small stone piers; 
 the walls upon the footings were carried 
 up to the level of the bottom of the base^ 
 ment windows, with inverted arches of 
 semicircles under every opening ; the dia^ 
 meter of which were eighteen inches longer 
 than the width of the intended windows 
 over them. When all the work was level.- 
 led, the stone piers were set upon the junc- 
 tions of every arch, and carried up to 
 the height of the ground-floor arches, and 
 the basement arches inserted upon them 
 afterwards. The front was upon that car- 
 ried up of brick three very lofty stories ; 
 yet, with all these precautions, the front 
 has receded from top to bottom, nearly 
 three inches. The fact has been accur 
 rately ascertained, on the account of an 
 accusation being hinted that sufficient care 
 had not been taken with the foundation ; 
 but it was decided in its favour. Another 
 case worth mentioning is, that in pre? 
 paring the foundation of an intended ware- 
 house for the heaviest description of goods, 
 two large and deep cesspools of old privies 
 wei-e found under the bottom planking of 
 the old foundation: they were too large 
 to admit of arches being turned completely 
 over them, as the upper surface of the arch, 
 if constructed properly, would have risen 
 loo high for the windows of the basement 
 story, and it was deemed imprudent to 
 trust to planking laid across as before, the 
 
FOU 
 
 old building having been only dwellings. 
 Four piles wide across the foundation 
 were therefore well driven at the extremi- 
 ties of each hole, the extreme width of the 
 trench ; and squares of piles, about three 
 wide and four across, were driven as piers, 
 leaving openings four feet wide ; they were 
 then sawed off le^ el, capped with a large 
 stone, a pier brought upon each, and flat 
 arches, turned from one to the other, the 
 whole length of the foundation. This has 
 completely answered the purpose ; for the 
 superstructure is perfectly free from any 
 appearance of partial settlement, though it 
 has been heavily loaded tliree or four 
 years. This method would be a more eco- 
 nomical way of piling a foundation, where 
 it is necessary, than the common way of 
 driving them thick set, as nearly live-sixths 
 of the piles and labour of driving might 
 be saved ; and when the spandrels be- 
 tween the arches were levelled up to their 
 crowns, it might be sleepered and planked 
 if wished, in the manner of a good foun- 
 dation, or the insistent walls erected on 
 them without. I shall certainly again 
 adopt it on the next occasion that such a 
 case comes under my direction. 
 
 Of Chimney Breasts, Bows, and other Pro- 
 jections, 
 
 In preparing the foundations for the 
 footings of chimney breasts, semicircular 
 or multangular bows, or other projections, 
 inwards or outwards, from the face of the 
 wall; it is much tii(> l)cst way to prepare 
 them, so that the foundation from the wall 
 to the point or line farthest from the face 
 shouhl be progressiviUy raised from the 
 wall outwards, in i)n)p()iti()n to the lieight 
 it is to be carried, or the solidity of the 
 work ; that in settling it may approach 
 nearer to a level, or if it does not it ap- 
 pears sounder to the eye as well as being 
 so in fact, to have it rather mounting up- 
 wards than dipping downwards and sei)a- 
 rating from tlie wail as it infallibly would 
 without such precaution. 
 
 Compendium of Rules, or the nwtla'n F.iifi- 
 li.sh Practice — the Results of the foret;;oing 
 Ohserralions, 
 
 The trench is distinifuished from the lirick 
 7vorlc or miusoiirij, Inj caUini; one the foumln- 
 lion, and the other the foolin'^s and insist mt 
 tvalls. 
 
 (Hiscrriilimi ].— Tiie foundation must be 
 truly level, Irausvcrscly and longitudi- 
 nally. 
 
 ?. — The interior or partition walls must 
 
 POU 
 
 be as low as the exterior or main walb, 
 which are also to be of one uniform level. 
 
 3. — Inverted arches should be turned 
 under all openings in buildings of any 
 considerable size. 
 
 4. — The foundation must be well pre- 
 pared by ramming, piling, planking, or 
 otherwise, according to the necessity of 
 the case. 
 
 5. — Foundations and footings of chim- 
 ney breasts, bows, projections, &c. should 
 be made to rise progressively from the face 
 of the wall outwards. 
 
 C. — The footings to external and inter- 
 nal main walls, or such as are to be car- 
 ried up more than two entire stories, are 
 to be twice as thick as the insistent wall 
 and partition walls, or such as are to be 
 of only one story, one and a half times the 
 said thickness. 
 
 7. — New made earth should not be laid 
 against new built walls. 
 
 Founder, (from fundare, Lat.] In the 
 history of architecture. One who raises an 
 edifice; one from whom any thing has its 
 original or beginning. Many cities of an- 
 tiquity vaunt of being founded by the gods. 
 Minerva, Neptune, Apollo, and Hercules 
 are the di^ inities to whom are attributed 
 the founding of the greatest number of 
 cities. Other cities are contented to owe 
 their original to some hero or other great 
 person, to whom they in general establish- 
 ed a sort of worship. The names of the 
 founders of celebrated cities are often to 
 be found on ancient coins and medals. 
 The colonies and prt)vinces did not alwa\ s 
 acknowledge their actual originators, but 
 those who founded the metropolis. It was 
 tiius that Calatia in Ma-sia, and I'riene in 
 Ionia, named Hercules upon their medals 
 as tiieir founder, because Calatia was built 
 by the Heiaclitia; of Ionia, and I'riene by 
 Philotas of Uwotia, where Hercules was 
 their tutelary god. Many cities of anti- 
 quity assume to themselves more than one 
 founder, as Cyzicus attributes the fouml- 
 ing of their city both to Hercules and the 
 hero i)y whose name it was called, and 
 Aristides, in his eulogiuni upon t'yzicus. 
 names Apollo as one of its founders. U'hen 
 a city was destroyed, its rebuilder always 
 received honour, as a joint founiKr, m illi 
 him to whom it owed its origin, in this 
 numner Smyrna acknowledged Ihn-e foun- 
 ders, l'e!(q)s, Theseus, and Ah^xander the 
 (ireat; and \sheii Ihulrian niade AIIkmis 
 the object of his munificence, llu; Athe- 
 nians acknowledged him as ei|ually n foun- 
 der Willi Theseus, naming part of the city 
 I [adrianupolis after him, us inscribed upon 
 
FOU 
 
 the arch of Hadrian ; on approaching the 
 south front of which the inscription de- 
 clares 'At(?£te 'Adpiavov k ow^' 'J'>?ff«<oe tto- 
 Xif. " What you see is the city of Ha- 
 drian, and not that of Theseus." On the 
 other front is inscribed 'AiSeic 'A9i]vai Brj- 
 crewg r/ Trpiv ttoXic- " What you see is 
 Athens, the ancient city of Theseus." So 
 also does Silius Italicus give to Marcellus 
 the title of founder of Syracuse, because 
 he prevented his army from pillaging and 
 destroying it; and Procopius to Justinian 
 that of founder of the empire, because of 
 the number of public buildings which he 
 ordered to be erected in the various coun- 
 tries belonging to it. 
 
 The Greeks designated the founders of 
 cities on their medals by three diflerent 
 names, 'Apxyijirag Archegetas, prince ; 
 OiK-(T«c Oikistas, first builder ; and more 
 frequently Ktkttijq Ktlstes, creator or foun- 
 der. The Romans most generally used 
 upon their medals the word conditor, but 
 upon a scarce medal of Corinth the word 
 fundatur is inscribed, and dcdux upon one 
 whose name is eifaced, but published by 
 Pelerin. 
 
 Spanheim and Eckhel have given a list 
 of the founders of cities, whose names are 
 recorded as such upon medals. Among 
 the principal are Augustus upon medals 
 of Clazomenes, of Ephesus, of Teos in 
 Ionia, and of Nicopolis in Epirus; Byzas 
 upon those of Byzantium ; Cyzicus upon 
 those of Cyzicus ; Hadrian upon some of 
 Argos and CElia. Capitolina ; Hercules 
 upon those of Calatia, of Cyzicus, of Ni- 
 c;ca in Bythnia, of Perinthus in Tlirace, 
 of Priene in Ionia, and many others ; Mer- 
 cury upon those of Amasea; Mnestmeus 
 upon those of Elea in ^olia ; Pergamos 
 upon those of Pergamos in Mysia ; Taras 
 upon those of Tarentum, ikc. &c. 
 
 Fountain, [fontaine, Fr. from/ores, Lat.] 
 In architecture and sculpture. A carved 
 basin through which a jet or spout of wa- 
 ter is conducted ; a building erected for 
 the same purpose, or for public supply of 
 water. In Greece every principal town 
 had public fountains or conduits, some of 
 which were of liandsome designs and beau- 
 tiful execution. In the city of Megara in 
 Achaia tliere was a public fountain esta- 
 blished by Theagenes, which was cele- 
 brated for its grandeur and magnificence. 
 The Pirevc, a fountain at Corinth, was en- 
 circled l)y an enclosure of white marble, 
 which was sculptured into various grottos 
 from which the water ran into a splendid 
 basin of the same material. Another foun- 
 tain in Corinth, which was called Lerna, 
 wa3 encircled by a beautiful portico, under 
 
 FRE 
 
 which were scats for the public to sit 
 under during the extreme heats of summer 
 to enjoy the cool air that emanated from 
 the falling waters. In the sacred wood of 
 Esculapius atEpidaurus there was a foun- 
 tain that Pausanias cites as most remark- 
 able for the beauty of its decorations. At 
 Messina there were also two elegant foun- 
 tains, one called Arsinoe, and the other 
 Clepsydra. Pausanias also alludes to 
 several other fountains, in various parts 
 of Greece, celebrated for the grandeur and 
 beauty of their architectural and sculptu- 
 ral decorations. 
 
 The French are more celebrated for 
 their fountains than we are, but Italy, more 
 particularly Rome, is still more so. The 
 fountains of Paris, of the Thuilleries, of 
 the orangery at Versailles, at St. Cloud, 
 and otlier places in the neighbourhood, 
 have splendid fountains replete with con- 
 ceits and bad taste in their decorations. 
 
 The principal and most admired foun- 
 tains of Rome are those of the Villa Aldo- 
 brandini at Frescati, of tlie Terminus, of 
 the Mount Janiculum, of the gardens of 
 the Belvedere in the Vatican, of the Villa 
 Borghese, which has also in the audience 
 chamber a splendid fountain of silver, five 
 Roman palms in height, ornamented with 
 superb vases and flowers ; of Trevi, of Tei"- 
 mini, the three fountains of St. Paul, of 
 the Aqua Cetosa, and many others de- 
 scribed in the numerous works on that 
 ancient city. Sir Henry Wotton describes, 
 in his Elements of Architecture, a foun- 
 tain by Michel Angiolo, in the figure of a 
 sturdy woman wringing a bundle of clothes, 
 from whence the water issues that supplies 
 the basin. 
 
 Francisca. [Laf.] In the archaiology of 
 painting' and sctdpture. The axe that, en- 
 circled by a bundle of fasces, was carried 
 before the consuls and other magistrates 
 of Rome. Also the ancient battleaxe used 
 by the Franks. See Fasces. 
 
 Fresco. [Italian.] Iti painting. A me- 
 thod of painting on stucco or other hard 
 plaster while the suljstance is soft or fresh, 
 whence it derived its name. Of all the 
 modes employed in painting that in fresco 
 is the most ancient, the most durable, the 
 most expeditiously performed, requires the 
 greatest skill in its execution, and is the 
 most worthy of being employed in the em- 
 bellishment of splendid edifices ; which 
 are reasons why no otlier style should be 
 adopted in great and public works. 
 
 Of the antiquity o{ fresco painting there 
 can be no doubt. Its simplicity, and the 
 ignorance of the ancients of oil, varnishes, 
 &c. are sufficient vouchers. The Egyp^ 
 
FRE 
 
 tians practised it from an unknown anti- 
 quity, as the chests or cases of their mum- 
 mies, and the paintings in their tomb's 
 abundantly prove ; as they do also their 
 surprising durability. The great series of 
 pictures in the Poikile, a grand gallery, 
 portico, and place of exercise at Alliens, 
 of which Pausanias speaks, appear to have 
 been painted in this manner; as well as 
 those which surrounded the statue of Ju- 
 piter Olympius at Elis. 
 
 In executing paintings in fresco the ne- 
 cessary preparations are the sketch, the 
 cartoon, in full size, cut in suitable pieces, 
 the colours, prepared only with water, and 
 the two sorts oi piuster, the rendering and 
 finishing coats, on which the picture is to be 
 painted. The painter's mind must be full 
 of his subject, every thing must be prede- 
 termined upon, as no alteration or amend- 
 ment can take place ; he must have a rapid 
 and decisive execution, and be well ac- 
 quainted with the qualities of his colours, 
 as they dry lighter than when laid on. 
 There are two operators, the plasterer in 
 constant attendance, and the painter, who 
 follows him, and dyes or embues his co- 
 lours into the very body of the plaster, 
 while it yet be wet. 
 
 Every thing being in readiness the plas- 
 terer renders the wall with a coat of 
 coarse stucco formed of lime and sand, and 
 finishes w'ith the finer to such a surface as 
 the artist requires; who then pricks his 
 outline through the cartoon, and draws it 
 with a style, to prevent the colours running 
 beyond them. The outlines of Michel 
 Angiolo's Last Judgment are cut in with 
 a depth, boldness, and decision quite sur- 
 prising, that make tiie figures almost in low 
 relief. The colours must then be dashed 
 on at once in a broad, bold, and general 
 manner that, in an able artist, must pro- 
 duce a grand style. But farewell to touch, 
 to pentimenti, glazing, handling, niacgilj), 
 first, second, and third paintings, varnish- 
 ing, and the trickeries of the oil palette ; 
 but ta7tto mej^Uo, as Milizia says, for fine 
 forms well expressed, character well jjor- 
 trayed, living attitudes, brilliant colouring, 
 and vigorous execution, will conunaiid the 
 admiration of the true critic. Well might 
 Michel Angiolo say, after dashing in his 
 gigantic ])roi)lu'ts and grand figures of the 
 tapclla Sistina, that " le pitturo ad olio 
 Bono jn'r le dame e per i zerbenotti die si 
 piccano d'cleganza ili mano." 
 
 'J'he frescoes of Kallaellc are finer co- 
 loured, bold(!r (IraAvn, and more vigorously 
 executed than his easel pictures, Michel 
 Angiolo is never known to any certainly 
 to have touched oil ; aud the frciicoes of 
 
 FRI 
 
 Annibale Caracci in the Palazzo Famese 
 are the finest of his works. 
 
 Dom. Peunetti, in the preface to his 
 Dictionnuire jiortatifdc Peinture, has given 
 a detailed account of the manner of paint- 
 ing in fresco. Vasari also may be con- 
 sulted upon this subject in his Introduzione 
 alle tre Arti del Dise^no, which is printed 
 with his Lives of the Painters ; as well as 
 Bernard du Ply de Grez, in his TraitS 
 stir la Peinture, Toul. 1G99, 4to. ; the eighth 
 and ninth chapters of FJemcns de Peinture, 
 par De Piles. See Paj.ntinc:. 
 
 Frieze, Prize, or Frise. I/rise, Fr. from 
 frep;fi;io, Ital. phrijgia, Lat. ipovyiov, Gr. an 
 embroidered belt or band.] In architecture. 
 The middle compartment or division of an 
 entablature. It was called Zwoi;'(6poc by 
 the Greeks, and by Vitruvius after them, 
 from being often sculptured with figures 
 of animals and plants. The frieze is the 
 best situation in an entablature for sculp- 
 tures and inscriptions ; and many of the 
 finest of the ancient temples have had 
 their friezes superbly decorated. See En- 
 tablature. The splendid metopes of the 
 Elgin marbles were orniunents of the frieze 
 of the Parthenon, and the Phigaleian mar- 
 bles of the temple of Apollo Epicureios at 
 Phigaleia. The frieze of the temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius at Elis bore sculptural 
 representations of the chariot race of Pe- 
 lops and Oenomaiis. Bucklers of gold, 
 which were part of the spoil after the bat- 
 tle of Marathon, were suspended accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, in the frieze of the temple 
 of Apollo at Delphos, which gave rise to 
 sculptural imitations of them in UKUiy me- 
 topes of the Doric frieze. 
 
 Gerard Ai dran has published a book 
 of friezes after La Fage. Jo>inEUT also 
 has a few in his works of Delia Bella; 
 and CoLi'MBANi and Le I'AiTREhave also 
 published several. Stuart's Anticpiities 
 of Athens has many from the Parthenon, 
 the temple of Theseus, ami other (irecian 
 buildings; and the trustees of the British 
 Museum have published those of th(> tem- 
 ple of Apollo at Phigaleia from the origi- 
 nal marbles in their possession. See Aii- 
 
 (IMTErrLRE. 
 
 KiutiiDAiiinM. [Lat.") In ancient archi- 
 tecture. According to N'itruvins, the cold 
 bathing apartment, and sometimes the cold 
 bath itself. See Bath. 
 
 I'iUN(ii:. \/riinire, l-'r.] fn costume. Or- 
 iianientiil appendages of gold, sih er, and 
 tither materials, added to dress or furni- 
 ture. W'inckelmann, in his Histoire de 
 I'Arl (book iv. chap, v), asserts that the 
 dress (if the Grecian women wore never 
 ornamented with fringe. The celebrated 
 
FRU 
 
 figure of Thalia that was found among tlie 
 paintings of Herculaneum, and presented 
 by the King of Naples to Buonaparte, 
 when first consul of the French Republic, 
 has fringe upon the upper part of the dra- 
 pery. The Romans designated tliis por- 
 tion of costume by the words fimbria and 
 lacinia; the Greeks by those of 6u<ravoi 
 L, and /cpo(T(TO(, which must not be confounded 
 ' witli tlie decorated hem that they called 
 KpaffTTiSov. The Romans derived the use 
 of fringes upon their garments from the 
 Persians and other oriental nations, and it 
 was reckoned effeminate, says Suetonius 
 in his Life of Julius Cassar (lib. 45), in 
 that illustrious soldier to wear a tunic 
 with long sleeves oi'namented with fringes. 
 Homer describes the fringe that decorated 
 the ajgis of Minerva as composed of a hun- 
 dred tufts of gold, each of which was va- 
 lued at a hundred oxen. 
 
 Frontispiece, [frontispidifiny Lat.] In 
 architecture and engraving. That part of a 
 building which directly meets the eye. An 
 engraving prefixed to a book, generally 
 illustrative of the author or of the whole 
 work. 
 
 Fruit. [Fr.] In painting and sculpture. 
 Representations of the product of trees and 
 plants which contain the seed. Many of 
 the observations in the article Flower 
 PAINTING (see that article) apply them- 
 selves to fruit ; being also an imitative and 
 laborious art, demanding equally high 
 iiuish and care. The same study of nature, 
 colours, &c. are required as in the flower 
 painter, with rather a richer and fuller 
 pencil. Among the artists who have dis- 
 tinguished themselves the most as painters 
 of fruit are Jean Louis Bos, who flourished 
 about 1490 ; C^s. Bernazzono, about 1,556; 
 Jacques Van Es, about 1620 ; Pierre Paul 
 Gobbo, in 1630 ; Jean Roos, died in 1638 ; 
 Jean De Heck, in 1680; Dan. Segers, died 
 in 1660 ; Jean de Kessel, in 16G5 ; Jean 
 Philippe de Thielen, in 1667 ; Juan de 
 Avellano, in 1670 ; Donna Bettina, in 
 1670 ; Marius Nuzzi, surnamed De Fieri, 
 died in 1673; J. J. De Heem, died in 
 1674 ; Corn, de Kik, in 1675 ; Guill. 
 d'Aelst and Mignon, died in 1679 ; Fel. 
 Bigi, Marg. Caffa, and Angel Ascione, in 
 1680 ; Gaspard Sraitz, died in 1689 ; Abr. 
 Breughel, died in 1690; Nic. Yerendael 
 and Morel, in 1690 ; Pierre Withoos, 
 in 1693 ; Marie d'Oosterwick, in 1693 ; 
 Jean Bapt. Monnoyer, died in 1699 ; Er- 
 nest Stuvens, in 1700 ; Herm. Verelst, died 
 in 1700 ; Joris Van Son, died in 1702 ; 
 Math. Withoos, died in 1703 ; Crepu, in 
 1705 : Zon, in 1710 ; Sunon Verelst, died 
 in 1710; Gillemanns, died in 1713 ; Jean 
 
 FUL 
 
 Bapt. Blain de Fontenay, died in 1715 ; 
 Madelaine Fiirst, in 1717 ; Jean Moortel, 
 died in 1719; Verbruggen, died in 1720; 
 Van Royen, died in 1723 ; Francois Tamni, 
 surnamed Dapper, died in 1724 ; Scipiun 
 Angelini, died in 1729 ; Giov. Garri, died 
 in 1731 ; Andre Belvedere, died in 1732; 
 Gaspard Lopes dai Fiori, died in 1732 ; 
 Pierre Hardime, died in 1748 ; Corn. Roe- 
 pel, died in 1748 ; Jean Van Huysum, died 
 in 1749; Rachel Ruysch, in 1750; Henri 
 Christophe Piccart, died in 1769 ; Jacques 
 Xavery, in 1769, &c. &c. See Flowers. 
 P^uit painting, as a distinct art, is not 
 much practised in England except by those 
 ladies mentioned as flower painters, except 
 in botanical illustrations which are in ge- 
 neral executed by artists practising other 
 departments of imitative arts. 
 
 Frl'stum. [Lat.] In architecture and ar- 
 chaiology, A piece cut off from a regular 
 figure, as the shaft of a column is a frus- 
 tum of a cone. It is also used for a broken 
 statue, a fragment of a gem, or an antique 
 coin or medal. 
 
 Fulmen. [Lat.] hi the archaiology of 
 painting and sculpture. The weapon which 
 Ui'anus presented to Jupiter for having 
 delivered him from the captivity in which 
 Saturn held him ; and which, according to 
 Virgil, was forged by the Cyclops. The 
 fulmen or thunderbolt in the hand of Jupi- 
 ter Fulminans was a sort of hieroglyphic, 
 and had three different meanings, accord- 
 ing to the three ways in Avhich it was re- 
 presented. The first manner is a sort of 
 wreath of flames in a conical shape, like 
 what is commonly called a thunderbolt or 
 stone. Tliis was adapted to Jupiter when 
 mild and calm, and was held down in his 
 hand. The second is a similar figure, with 
 two transverse darts of lightning, and 
 sometimes with wings, to denote swiftness. 
 This was given to him when in the atti- 
 tude of punishing. The third way is a 
 handful of radiating flames, which Jupiter 
 held up, when in the act of inflicting some 
 exemplary punishment. The fulmen, of 
 whatever shape it was, consisted chiefly 
 of fire, and is often so called by the poets. 
 The expressions in Horace (1. i. od. 2, v. 4), 
 Ovid (Met. ii. v. 249. 345), and Virgil (Geor. 
 i. V. 329), of ceruscus, rubens, and rutilns 
 refer to that gleam of light cast by light- 
 ning on the objects near it, and are very 
 picturesque. The Jupiter Tonans is re- 
 presented on antique medals and gems, as 
 holding up the triple-forked /«/;«£«, and 
 standing in a quadrig.-e thundering with 
 his rapid coursers, throwing the fulmen 
 out of his hand, which darts at the same 
 time out of the clouds beneath him. On 
 
FUL 
 
 a gem in the Florentine gallery Jupiter is 
 represented driving his chariot against one 
 of -the giants, and grasping the fulmen as 
 ready to dart it at liis liead. 
 
 The fulmen is also given to the eagle of 
 Jupiter, who grasps it in his claws, and 
 uses it in a similar manner to tlie thunderer 
 himself. Minerva is also so armed on a 
 medal of Syracuse, and according to Virgil, 
 she used it against Ajax the son of Oileus, 
 for having ravished Cassandra in her tem- 
 ple on his return homeward from Troy. 
 Hercules has also the fulmen upon medals 
 of the Brutiani, who boasted of that god as 
 their founder. Alexander the Great was 
 also so painted by Apelles, as the son of 
 Jupiter Ainmon. Several other of the hea- 
 then gods have been represented on an- 
 cient medals with the fulmen, as Apollo on 
 some of Nicopolis, Mars on those of the 
 Brutiani, Vulcan ou those of Cyzicus, of 
 Thyatira, &c. Pan, Cybele, Victory, and 
 otlier minor and moral deities have also 
 been so represented ; but the fulmen alone 
 is generally received as an attribute of 
 Jupiter, who is emphatically termed by 
 ancient poets the Thunderer. 
 
 One of the Roman legions bore the dis- 
 tinctive name of fulmbians, and bore tlie 
 winged fulmen on their bucklers, which 
 spread all over the shield, as appears by 
 
 FITS 
 
 columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and as 
 described by Flaccus, Argon, vi. v. 56. 
 This fulmen agrees with the epithets trifi- 
 dum and trisulcum in Ovid (Met. ii. v. 325, 
 847). 
 
 There is a figure of Jui>iter in Buona- 
 rotti's collection at Florence, holding up 
 the three-forked bolt as just ready to dart 
 at some guilty wretcii; but with the coni- 
 cal body of the fulmen lying under his 
 feet, as of no use in cases of severity. 
 
 Fur. [fourrure, Fr.] In costume. Skin 
 of beasts with soft hair, with wliich gar- 
 ments are lined for warmth. The custom 
 of using furs in garments is of the highest 
 antiquity. Strabo expressly says, that the 
 Amazons had garments of skins, and they 
 are so represented on many ancient monu- 
 ments. Hercules, Bacchus, Cybele, and 
 other heatlien deities, are also represented 
 as clothed with the skins and fur of the lion, 
 leopard, pairther, and other wild animals. 
 
 Fust, [fustus, Lat.] In architecture. The 
 shaft of a column, so named from being 
 originally one single trunk or limb of a 
 tree, like a post o;- large cudgel. The 
 word fust generally applies where the 
 shaft is of a single stone or solides, and 
 distinguished from the structih's, or such 
 columns wJiosc shafts were constructed of 
 many pieces. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gable, {jiural, Welsh.] In nrchitecture. 
 The pedimental end of a l)ui]ding formed 
 by walling up tlie end of the roof. In tlie 
 ancient domestic archilecttire tlie gable 
 was a very ornamented part of the house, 
 being finished in steps, embrasures, mould- 
 ings, sometimes witli a niche, and at others 
 witli an elegant window or aperture to 
 give air to the roof. In classical archi- 
 tecture it is called pediment. See Pedi- 
 ment. 
 
 Gaiet.v or Gaeta. [from Kauo I burn, 
 because when tlie Trojan women arrived 
 here, fearing their Iiusbands would leave 
 them, lliey I)urnt tlieir sliips.] In the his- 
 tory if the arts. The Cqjeta of the ancients, 
 a seaport town of Italy, in the kingdom of 
 Nai)l(^s, and province of Lavora. Tlie sea 
 floats into its moats, wliich are both broad 
 and d(!C!p. Its harbour, which is well de- 
 scribed by Homer, still exhibits the same 
 ciiaracter. It was anciently repaired by 
 Antoninus I'ius. Tiie streets of the ti>\vn 
 ar(' neatly built and well paved ; the 
 Iionsea are built on porticoes; and the ge- 
 neral a])pcaraiice of the town is lively 
 within and picturesque without. "The 
 
 catliedral," says Mr. Eustace " though not 
 large nor highly decorated, is well propor- 
 tioned, well lighted, and, by the elevation 
 of the choir, admirably calculated for pub- 
 lic worship. The font is a fine antique 
 vase of white marble, with basso rilievi 
 representing Afhamas, Ino with a child in 
 her arms, and a group of Bacchantes. The 
 sculptor was an Athenian ; but such a 
 vase is better calculated for the gallerj- of 
 antiques than for the j)lace where it now 
 stands. Opposite the great portal of the 
 cathedral rises an anticiue column, marked 
 with the names of the winds in Greek 
 and Latin. The tomb of Munalius Pla- 
 nens stands upon a bold eminence, on the 
 neck of land which joins the peninsula to 
 the continent. Like that of Hadrian, it is 
 round, stripped of its marble casing, and 
 converted into a tower with battlements. 
 The gulf abounds ni(h fish, i)arlicnlarly 
 sturgeon, from which caviar is made. 
 Gaefa is the see of a bishop, snllragan of 
 ('aj)iia. Distance from Naples forty miles 
 northwest; from INlola four miles by land, 
 and (wo by water. See HoMin, o<ly8S. x. 
 107 ; and Eustace's Travels, v(d. i. p. 475. 
 
GALLERY. 
 
 Gallery, [galerie, Fr.] In architecture 
 end painting. Au apartment of consider- 
 able length in comparison with its width ; 
 sometimes used for a connecting passage 
 with which various rooms communicate, 
 and in others for a spacious room, also of 
 of great comparative length, set apart for 
 the reception of pictures and statues. In 
 modern palaces and extensive mansions 
 and residences, the gallery has taken the 
 place of the ancient portico, for the recep- 
 tion of pictures and sculptures. The gal- 
 lery is an essential part of a magnificent 
 residence, and is appropriate to a museum 
 of natural and artificial curiosities. A 
 gallery is sometimes decorated with the 
 pencil of a single painter on its walls and 
 cielings, with subjects of au historical or 
 allegorical nature, like that of the Lux- 
 emberg at Paris, and others of a similar 
 description. 
 
 Among celebrated galleries of antiquity 
 that of Verres, described by Cicero, is the 
 principal. It contained, among other beau- 
 tiful works of art, a statue of Jupiter 
 Owpioe, the disperser of favourable winds, 
 the Diana Segestes, a grand and beautiful 
 statue of bronze, veiled, bearing a quiver 
 on her shoulder, holding a bow in her 
 right hand, arid a lighted torch in the left. 
 Apollo and Hercules, the works of Myron, 
 a Cupid by the hand of Praxiteles, a Sap- 
 pho in bronze by Silanion, and the famous 
 flute player Aspendus. It also contained 
 a splendid collection of vases, paterae, &c. 
 of gold and silver, decorated with costly 
 gems and engraved stones. The pictures 
 were of equal value and rarity, the tapes- 
 tries embellished with rich borders of gold, 
 and every part of the gallery enriched 
 with all the splendour that art and wealth 
 could bestow. 
 
 The gallery of the Palazzo Farnese at 
 Rome is justly regarded as the master- 
 piece of the Caracci. The grand gallery 
 of Fontainbleau, painted from the designs 
 of Primaticcio by Nicolo da Modena, com- 
 monly called Messer Nicolo, represents 
 the travels and labours of Ulysses on his 
 return from the siege of Troy. France 
 has many galleries of a similar kind, but 
 of inferior execution; but the famous gal- 
 lery of the Luxemburg, where Rubens ex- 
 ercised his gorgeous pencil with illustra- 
 tive allegories of the life of Mary de Me- 
 dici, is too well known to every artist and 
 amateur to need description here. This 
 •gallery also contains the collection of pic- 
 tures by Le Sueur, representing the history 
 of Saint Bruno, that was painted for the 
 Chartreuse, and many other works of art. 
 The principal galleries of England are 
 
 those of the Marquis of StaflTord at Cleve- 
 land House, St. James's ; the National 
 (late the Angerstein) Gallery, now in for- 
 mation ; the Royal Galleries of Windsor 
 Castle ; Hampton Court, celebrated for its 
 inestimable treasure, the Cartoons of Raf- 
 faelle ; Lord Egremont's at Petworth, Sus- 
 sex ; the late Fonthill Gallery ; the Titian 
 Gallery at Blenheim ; Lord Grosvenor's 
 fine collection, so resplendent in its Ru- 
 bens's ; Sir John Leicester's English gal- 
 lery, and many others of minor considera- 
 tion. 
 
 The most celebrated galleries of Ger- 
 many are those of Vienna, of Dresden, of 
 Dusseldorf, and at Sans Souci. 
 
 The principal works that have been pub- 
 lished on the various celebrated galleries 
 are, upon tliat of Florence, Saggio istorico 
 della real Galcria di Firenze, di Gitjseppe 
 Bencivenni, Florence, 1778,2 vols, in 8vo. 
 According to this work the Florentine gal- 
 lery contains one thousand one hundred 
 'and ninety-four portraits, and one thou- 
 sand one hundred pictures of other de- 
 scriptions. La real Galcria di Firenza, ac- 
 crescinta e riordinata di S. A. R. I'Archiduca 
 di Toscana, Flor. 1782, in 8vo. La Galerie 
 de Florence, par Wicar, in fol. Pitture 
 del Salone impcr, del Palazzo di Firenze, 
 Flor. 1751, in fol, Azione gloriose degli 
 Uomini ilhistri Fior. espresse co'loro ritratti, 
 nelle volte della real Galeria di Firenza, Flo- 
 rence, in fol. Museo Fiorentino, die con- 
 tiene i ritratti de' Pittori, Flor. 1752, in fol. 
 Disegni della Galleria di Firenze di diversi 
 Maestri, intagl. di Andrea Scacciati, stam- 
 pati all acquarella, Florence, 17G6, in fol. 
 Une Collection de soixante douze Portraits, in 
 fol. engraved after the principal pictures 
 in the gallery, and published by order of 
 Emperor Leopold II. Galleria 31edicia, 
 Flor. 1788, in fol. 
 
 Upon the galleries of France are De- 
 scription des Tableaux du Palais Royal, Pa- 
 ris, 1727, in 8vo. par Du Bois de Saint 
 Gelais. Catalogue raisoniid des Tableaux 
 du Roi, avec un Abr^gi de la Vie des Pein- 
 tres, contenant I'Ecole Florentine, Romaine, 
 V6netienne et de Lombardie, par M. Le- 
 PiciE, Paris, 1752, 4to. 2 vols. Catalogue du 
 Luxembourg, Paris, 1751, in 12mo, Premiere 
 Partie des Tableaux du Cabinet du Roi, Pa- 
 ris, 1G77, in fol. Annates du Mush et de 
 VEcole moderne des Beaux Arls,Y)ar Landon, 
 in 8vo. Cours de Peinture et de Sculpture, 
 tir6 du Musie NapoUon, par FujioL,in 8vo. 
 Le Musde Franfais, par Robillard, in fol. 
 L'Explication des Tableaux ve^ius d'ltalie, 
 par Le Brun, 1796, in 8vo. Galerie du 
 Palais Royal, gravh d'apres les Tableaux 
 des diffirentes Ecoles qui la composcnt, avec 
 
GALLERY 
 
 un AMge de la Vie dcs Peintres,et une De- 
 scription historique de chaque Tableau, par 
 1'Abbe Fontenay, Paris, 1784. 
 
 Upon the galleries of the Kings of Spain 
 are An accurate and descriptive Catalufi;ue of 
 the Paintings in the King of Spain's Palace 
 at Madrid, with some Account of the Pictures 
 in Buen Ritiro, by Richard CL':>ntERL.\Ni), 
 London, 17SC, in 12mo, Description de las 
 Ecclesias Pinturas del R. Monasterio de S. 
 Lorenzo del Esciiriai, par Fr. de los San- 
 tos, in fol. Madrid, 1CG7. And concerning 
 the collection of pictures of the Kings of 
 Sweden, which are in the grand gallery of 
 the Royal Castle at Stockholm, a full de- 
 scription may be found in the forty-fifth 
 volume of the Nouvelle Bibliotheque des 
 Belles Lettres. On the galleries of Brux- 
 elles, which were formed by the Archduke 
 Leopold, the following •« orks are the ])rin- 
 cipal. Dav. Tenier's Theatruin Pictorum 
 in quo exhibentur ipsius manu delincatts 
 ejusque cura in ces incisce picturce archet. ital. 
 quas Archidux in Pinacothccam suam Brux- 
 ellis collcgit, Antwerpias, ICOO, in fol. ; the 
 same work was also published, in 1684, 
 under the title of Le grand Cabinet des Ta- 
 bleaux de I'Archiduc Leopold, Amsterdam, 
 1755, in fol. Upon the dispersed galle- 
 ries of Charles the First of England are 
 Catalogue or Description of King Charles 
 the First's Pictures, London, 1758, in 4to. 
 A Catalogue of the Collection of Pictures 
 belonging to King James II.; to tvhich is 
 added, a Catalogue of the Pictures of the late 
 Queen Caroline, London, 1758, in 4to. Six 
 of hiji Majesty's Pictures, draum and en- 
 graved from the original's of P. Veronese, 
 Jac. Tintoretto, old Palma, Jul. Romano, 
 and Andre Schiavone, in the Royal Galle- 
 ries of Windsor and Kensington, by S. 
 Gribemn, Limdon, 1712. We may also 
 add, Le liecucil des Dessins du Guercliin, 
 in fol. engraved Ijy Hartoi.ozzi, of which 
 the originals are in tlie various collections 
 of the King of Great Brilain. Also Brit- 
 ton's Catalogue raisonui' of the Mar(|uis t)f 
 StaHbrd's gallery ; Young's engraved Ca- 
 talogues of the Angcrslciii, L(ir<l Grosve- 
 nor's, and Sir John J^eiccslcr's galleries. 
 Westmacott's British galleries. Ei.mes's 
 Catalogue raisonn/' of the Dulwicli Gallery, 
 printed in the lirst volume of Annals of the 
 Fine Arts, iVc. i\c. 
 
 Upon the imi)eriHl galh'ry of Vienna the 
 best works are the following: Cutaloguir 
 drs Tableaux dr la (ialiTie impiU'ialc, par 
 Chretien he Me(Ih:i,, Vienne, I7h;j, in 
 8vo. Ht'Jli'xions sur la Calerie des Tableaux 
 de Virvni', l?reg. 17H5. Culaloguc raisonnc 
 di' la (lalcric des Tablcnux dc I'ienue, par 
 Thek. RiEGiJEK, Vienne, 1780, in 8vo. i'n 
 
 Recueil en maniere noire, grate par. J. Ma- 
 NLL. Tluatrum artis Pictorum, quo tabulte 
 cUpictte qua in Cies. Vindobon. Pinacotheca 
 servantur, leviore calutura exhibentur, ah 
 Ant. Jos. DE Prenner, Vienne, 1728, in 
 fol. 4 vols. Un Itecueil de irente fenilles in 
 fol. gravi par Fr. de Stampart and Ant. 
 de Prenner, Vienne, 1735, entitled, Pro- 
 dronius S. Prceambulum reserati magnificen- 
 ti(E tlieatre, &c. which gives an account of 
 the then state of that gallery. 
 
 Upon tlie Dresden gallery the best works 
 are Catalogue des Tableaux de la Calerie 
 electorale de Dresde, Dresde, 17G5, in 8vo. 
 Recueil d'Estampes d'apres les plus celebrcs 
 Tableaux de la Galtrie royale dc Dresde, 
 Dresde, 1753, in fol. 2 vols. 
 
 Upon the Royal gallery of Prussia at 
 Berlin the following works are recom- 
 mended : Description des Tableaux qui se 
 trouverit dans la Galcrie du ChUteau royal A 
 Berlin, par J. G. Pihi.maxn, Berlin, 1790 : 
 this work is in German. Collection de 
 vingt-cinq Tableaux qui sc trouvent « Sans 
 Soaci, graves par Bartsch. Description de 
 la Galerie et du Cabinet du lioi « Sans Souci, 
 par Mathieu Oesterreich, Potsdam, 
 1704 ; the same in German, Berlin, 1770, 
 and following year. 
 
 Upon the fine gallery of Salzdahlen are 
 Le Catalogue de la Galerie ducale dcs Ta- 
 bleaux (I Salzdahlen, Brunswick, 1770, in 
 8vo. Artis in rulle sal Una Theatrum exhi- 
 bens elcganfissimas picturas quas Antonius 
 lUdaricus, D. B. collegit, Guelpli. 1710, in 
 fol. Description dc la Giderie des Tableaux 
 a Schleisheim, Munich, 1775, in 8vo. Di- 
 signadon cxaete des Pcintures pri'cicuses qui 
 sont en giuind nombre dans la Galerie d Dus- 
 seldorf, par Ger. Jos. Karsch, 1719. Ca- 
 talogue des Tableaux qui se trouvent dans les 
 Galeries du Palais a Dusseldorf, Manheim, 
 1700, in 8vo. Galerie iUctorale de Dussel- 
 dorf ou Catalogue raisonui^ et figure de ses 
 Tableaux, dans une suite de trente pi. conte- 
 nant truis cent soi.runle cinque petites l-ls- 
 tampes, gr. d'apres ces nuines tableaux, par 
 Chr. de RIechel, Basle, 1778, 2 vols, in 
 fol. Reeueil de Dessins tires del' Aeadimie 
 de Dusseldorf, 17M. Collection of fifty 
 Etchings l»j II. Selke and M. Billinger, 
 nfter the most celebrated paintings at Dus- 
 seldorf I7)S7. 
 
 'lliere are many line i)rivate collections 
 in Italy descril>eil in the following works: 
 Raccolta di SlamjH' rnppresentati i guadri 
 per scelli dei S. Mwuii. (iiniM, t. i. Fi- 
 rcir/.e, 1759, in fol. Descrizione de eartoni 
 disequali da Cahixj Cignani, e de quadri 
 ilipinii da S. Ivicc?, jMisseduti dal S. (»ii'- 
 sEi'i'i: Smith, Venise, 17 19, in Ito. De- 
 scri]>lioH des TabkauJt et dca Dessins qui 
 
GALLEUY. 
 
 sont dans la Galerie du Comte Algarotti a 
 Venise, Augsburg, 1780, in 8vo. Raccolta 
 di quadri i piu ecceUenti die si trovano nelle 
 GaUerie e Pilazzi di Firenze, Firenze, 1779. 
 
 Upon those of Fiance, Les Peinturcs de 
 Charles Le Brun et d'EusxACHE Le 
 Sueur, qui sont dans I'Hdtel du Chastelet, 
 dessinhs par Bernard Picart, Paris, 1740, 
 in fol. Recueil d'Estampes, d'apres les pbis 
 beaux Tableaux et d'apres les beaux Dessins 
 qui sont en France, Paris, 1729, et suiv. in 
 fol. 2 vols. The prints and engravings 
 which are described in this work have 
 never been collected, and they are men- 
 tioned here because they have generally 
 the name of the Cabinet de Crozat given to 
 them ; but that collection is described by 
 Mariette under the title of Description 
 sommaire des Dessins des grands Maitres 
 d'ltalie, des Pays Bas, et de France, du Ca- 
 binet de M. Crozat, Paris, 1741, in 8vo. 
 Recueil d'Estampes d'apres les Tableaux des 
 Peintures les plus c^lebres d'ltalie, des Pays 
 Bas, et de France, qui sont dans le Cabinet 
 de M. Bayer d'Aiquiixes, grave par F. 
 Coelemans, Paris, 1744. Catalogue des 
 Tableaux, Dessins, ^o. de feu M. C. Comte 
 De Vence, in fol. Catalogue d'un Cabinet 
 de Tableaux, par M. M. Helle and Glomy, 
 Paris, 1752. Catalogue du Cabinet du Due 
 De Tall\rd, Paris, 1756. Catalogue rai- 
 sotm^ des Tableaux, Dessins, et Estampes des 
 meilleurs Maitres d'ltalie, des Pays Bas, 
 d'Allemagne, d'Angleterre, et de France, qui 
 composent differens Cabinets, par P. Remy, 
 Paris, 1757, in 8vo. Catalogue historique 
 du Cabinet du Peinture Franc, de M. de la 
 Live de Jully, Paris, 1764, in 8vo. Ca- 
 talogue raisonni des Tableaux de M. De Ju- 
 lienne, par P. Remy, Paris, 1767, in 12mo. 
 Catalogue raisonni des Tableaux qui com- 
 posent le Cabinet defeu M. Gaignet, par P. 
 Remy, Paris, 1768. Catalogue des Tableaux 
 du Cabinet de M. De Tolosan, Paris, 1792, 
 in 8vo. 
 
 Upon the principal galleries of Holland 
 the best works to consult are Variorum 
 Imagin. d. ccleberrimis artificibus, pict. cala- 
 turcB apud Ger. Renst, Amsterd. in fol. 
 Catalogue du rare et pr^cieux Cabinet de Ta- 
 bleaux des meilleurs Maitres de la Ho II and e, 
 de meme que des Dessins des plus fameux 
 Maitres, defeu M. Is. de Wabraven, Am- 
 sterdam, 1765. 
 
 Concerning the best private collections 
 of England the student may consult De- 
 scrizione delle Pitture nella villa de Mil. 
 Pembroke, Flor. 1754, in 12mo. A new 
 Description of the Pictures at the Earl of 
 Pembroke's House at Wilton, by J. Ken- 
 MEDY, London, 1758, in 8vo. Descripiiou 
 
 of the Pictures at Houghton Hall, in Nor- 
 folk, by HoR. Walpole, London, 1752, in 
 4to. Catalogue of the curious Collection of 
 Pictures of Ge. Villiers, D. of Bucking- 
 ILIM, in which is included the valuable 
 collection of P. P. Rubens. A Catalogue 
 of S. Pet. Lely's capital Collection, Lon- 
 don, 1759, in 4to. A descriptive Catalogue 
 of a Collection of Pictures, selected from the 
 Roman, Florentine, Lombard, Venetian, Nea- 
 politan, Flemish,French, and Spanish Schools, 
 collected by Sir Robert Strange, London, 
 1769. Liber Veritatis ; or, a Collection of 
 two hundred Prints after the original designs 
 of CL.4UDE LoRRAiN, in the possession of the 
 Duke of Devonshire, in fol. 
 
 Of the German collections are Recueil 
 d'Estampes gr. d'apres les Tableaux de la 
 Galerie et du Cabinet du Comte de Bruhl, 
 Dresde, 1754, in fol. Recueil de quelques 
 Dessins tires du Cabinet de M. Le Comte 
 De Bruhl, par M. Oesterreich, Dresde, 
 1752. Descrizione complvta di tutto do che 
 ritrovasi nella Galleria di Pitiura e Scultura, 
 del Princ. di Lichtenstein, da Vinc. 
 Fanti, Vienne, 1767, in 4to. Catalogue 
 des Tableaux qui se trouvent a Pommers- 
 felde, Anspach, 1774, in 8vo. Explication, 
 historique des Tableaux recueillis, par M. 
 GoDEPROi Winkler a Leipsick, par H. 
 Kreichauf, Leipsic, 1768. Description du 
 Cabinet des Tableaux de M. Jean Jacques 
 Stein, Berlin, 1763. Collection de Tableaux 
 de VEcolc Italienne, Flamande at Allemande, 
 par Matthieu Oesterreich, Berlin, 1763, 
 in 4to. Catalogue des Tableaux de M. de 
 Wallmoden, Leipsic, 1779. Catalogue des 
 Tableaux qui se trouvent daiis la Collection 
 defeu M. Schwalbe a Hamburgh, Leipsic, 
 1780. 
 
 Critics often comprise under the name 
 gallery the frescoes with which many are 
 painted. The principal works which treat 
 upon or describe these sort of galleries 
 are the following, namely : La Galerie du 
 Palais Farni^se, peinte par Ann. Caracci, 
 gr. par plusieurs maitres, dont le principaux 
 sont C. Cesio, p. Aquii^, Jacques Che- 
 reau, &c. Imagines Farnesiani Cubiculi, 
 engraved by the same artists. Galerie. 
 peinte dans le Palais des S. Favi, par les 
 freres Caracci, gravie par Giuseppe Mi- 
 telli. II Claustro di S. Michele in Bosco 
 di Bologna, dipinto dal Lodov. Car,\cci e da 
 altri maestri. Descrizione dal S. C. Carlo 
 Ces. Malvasia, con I'essatto discgno ed in- 
 tagl del S. Gl\c. Giovanni, Bologna, 1696, 
 in fol. et grave par F.vbri and Pai>ipiuli, 
 avec une desci'iption de Zanetti, 1776, iu 
 fol. Les Tableaux d fresque dans le Palais 
 Magnani d Bologna, peints par les Caracci, 
 
GAT 
 
 ct gmvC'S par Le Pautre, Chatiixon, &c. 
 Lc Pitture di Peu-egr. Tibaldi, e di Nic. 
 AiiBATi, esistinti ncW inatitutu di Bolo^nit, 
 descritte da Giamp. Zanotti, Venise, 1756, 
 ill fol. Picturce Franc. Alhani, in cede Ve- 
 rospia, gravies par HiEU. Thezza, 1704, in 
 fol. La Galerie du Palais Pamphili d Rome, 
 peinte par Beretino di Cortona, graviepar 
 C. Cesio, G. Audran, Ch. Kolb. Lu Ga- 
 lerie du Palais Sachetti, peintc par le mime 
 artiste, et gravie par FiL. Caracci. He- 
 roicce rirtis Imagines Florentince in adibns 
 magni Ducis Hetrurice, in tribus cameris 
 Jovis, Martis et Veneris, peinte par le meme, 
 ct gravees par liLOEftL\ERT, Simon Blon- 
 UEAU, Rome, 1G91. La gra7ide Galerie de 
 Versailles, ct Ics deux Salons qui Vaccom- 
 pagnctit, peinte par Ch. Le Brln, designee 
 par J. B. RIasse, grange par les meillenrs 
 mallres, Paris, 1752. Besides these works 
 there is also au excellent description of the 
 pictures of the Royal Gallery of Versailles 
 by Ma. Raixsant, Paris, 1687. La petite 
 Galerie d'Apollon au Louvre, peinte par 
 Charles Le Brun, gr. par Sim. Renard 
 de Saint Andre, in fol. La Galerie du 
 Palais du Luxembourg, peinte |)«r P. P. 
 Rubens, Paris, 1710, in fol. 
 
 Gard. In the history of architecture. The 
 name of one of the departments of France, 
 in the province of Languedoc, formed out 
 of the diocesses of Ahns, Uzes, and Nimes. 
 It is bounded by the Rhone on one side, 
 and is watered by the Garden, which 
 passes below tlie Pout du Gard, a splen- 
 did specimen of Roman architecture. It 
 is an aqueduct bridge of forty-nine arches, 
 which crosses a valley not less than one 
 hundred and sixty feet deep. See Aqt.E- 
 
 DUCT. 
 
 Gardening. See Landscape Gardening. 
 
 Garland. See Flowers. 
 
 Gate, [jeat. Sax.] In architecture. Tlie 
 door of a city, castle, palace, or large 
 building. The gate or portal of a build- 
 ing should be considered by the architect 
 as a necessary appendage to his design, 
 and at the same time should accord with 
 it in every thing, should appear to belong 
 to it, and be at the sanu: tiiiie an eiubel- 
 lislimeut. Gates should be iiroportionate 
 to tiu'ir purpose, and bear ajjpropriate or- 
 nanu-nts. See DooR. 
 
 When the l{oniiins intended to liuild a 
 city, tlu-y traced its intended circuit with 
 a ploughshare, raising it wliere the in- 
 tended gates were to be erected, wIi'k h 
 were generally opi)oslt(! to the principal 
 roads or ways wliich led to, from, and 
 Ihrough the Inlcncb-d city. Leo Battista 
 Albtrti has well observed, that great rouds 
 
 GAT 
 
 or terrestrial ways commence or terminate 
 at the gates of a city, as rivers, canals, or 
 maritime ways in ports and harbours*. 
 The Romans, in the first construction of 
 tiieir city, did not make their gates to tlieir 
 great military roads, but the roads for the 
 gates. Rome had originally but three 
 gates, but when Romulus admitted the Sa- 
 bines to the privileges of Roman citizens, 
 the circuit of the city was enlarged, the 
 Capitoline hill taken into its boundary, 
 and a fourth gate built on the side of the 
 Capitol. Thus Pliny (lib. iii. c. 5), " Ur- 
 bem tres portas habentum Romulus reli- 
 quit, aut, ut plurimus tradentibus creda- 
 mus quatuor." According to Varro (lib. 
 iv. de lingua latina), tlie first gate of the 
 city was called Porta Mutionis, from the 
 lowing of the herds which were sent in 
 that way from the neighbouring pastur- 
 ages, the second was called Romanula after 
 the name of the city itself, and the third 
 Janualis, after the god Janus, whose tem- 
 ple was near to it " Pnrterea intra Mu- 
 ros, video portas dici : in Palatia Mutionis 
 a mugitu, quod ea pecus in ducitatum an- 
 tiquam oppidum, cxigebant. Alteram Ro~ 
 manulam, quie est dictu a Roma. Tertia 
 Janualis dicta a Jano." The fourth an- 
 cient gate of Rome was called tlie Porta 
 Cannentalis, from Carmenta the Arcadian 
 prophetess, the mother of Evander, who 
 resided near to it. This gate was after- 
 wards called Porta Scelerata, because 
 tlirough tliis gate the three hundred and 
 six Pahii went out, who, fighting at the 
 river Cremara against the Etruscans, were 
 all slain. Solinus, tlie imitator of Pliny, 
 mentions the fact of Caruu'nta. Livy, in 
 the seventeenth book of his history, and 
 Plutarch, in his Life of Camilhis, mentions 
 this ancient gate, as does Virgil in tlie 
 eighth jDneid ; 
 
 " El Carniciilalcni rvoiiiaiio iKiinino Poilain." 
 
 In these times the city of Rome was 
 nearly .square in its form, to enter and 
 leave which these four gates were suffici- 
 ent. But in subsi'(|uent ages, its bounda- 
 ries becoming dilated many times, these 
 gates were insuflicient. Nunia Pompilius 
 added to tlie city a part of IMount Quiri- 
 nal, and as tlie i)eople increased greatly 
 under tlie successive kings, Tullus Hosti- 
 lius took in IMount Cad ius; Ancus Mar- 
 tins the .liiniciduiu ; Servius Tullius tlu> 
 rest of the Uuirinal and the Viniinai. Long 
 
 * Viaiiim (|iii.liin, el oarniii, quiP extra urbcniduiil, 
 i-l rainm, ([lur iiiira iiiIh'Iii smil, rapiil, it i|iiasi trr- 
 iiiiiin.H i|iiiclaiii, isl li'i-ivsliiliiis I'oiia : iiiariliiiiis i>i»i 
 lalliimii , I'oilus. Lko lixTt. Ai.m.im, </<• re leJifi- 
 cittiiriii, lib. viii. c. tl. 
 
G E M 
 
 'Hime afterwards, Sylla, Julius Oaisar, Au- 
 gustus, and Tiberius, successively aug- 
 mented its dimensions, but Nero, after set- 
 ting fire to tlie city, enlarged it still more. 
 Trajan added his part, and Aureliau also, 
 who first surrounded the Campus Martius 
 with its enclosure. 
 
 The gates of ancient cities were gene- 
 rally formed with a central opening for 
 carriages, and two smaller ones at the 
 .sides for pedestrians ; such as are seen at 
 Pompeii, and other ancient cities. 
 
 The gates to the ancient temples were 
 always of sufficient height that the lintel 
 or architrave, which covered them, was of 
 the same height with the capitals of the 
 columns of the portico. Such are the gates 
 of t)ie temple of Tjieseus, of the small Ionic 
 temple near the Ilyssus, and of the Pan- 
 theon at Rome. The general form of the 
 ancient doors or gateways to the temples 
 was a parallelogram, but Vitruvius says 
 tiiat some of them were wider at the bot- 
 tom tlian tlie top, as in the examples of the 
 circular temples of Vesta at Tivoli, and 
 the Doric temple at Cora. 
 
 Vitruvius mentions three sorts of gates 
 to temples, which he denominates Doric, 
 Ionic, and Attic. The former appertaining 
 to the Doric order, the second to the Ionic, 
 and the third to tlie Corinthian. • 
 
 London had formerly several gates, be- 
 fore its wafts were removed, of which 
 there are now scarcely any remains, but 
 Temple Bar. They possessed neither 
 beauty nor design to recommend them. 
 
 Gem. [gemmn, Lat.] In sculpture. A 
 jewel, a precious stone of any kind. The 
 word nem did not, in its primitive sense, 
 mean, as at present, precious stones. The 
 Greeks termed them AiQoi Xiiiiot, that is, 
 noble or precious stones, or AiOoi simply, 
 that is, stones by way of excellence, and 
 XiOoi Statpaivtis, those which were trans- 
 parent. The word gemma is found in Pliny 
 and other ancient writers to mean pearls 
 and precious stones. The classification of 
 gems, belongs to a work on mineralogy, or 
 crystallography, and is therefore omitted. 
 
 The harder kinds of gems, as the dia- 
 mond, the emerald, &c. were seldom en- 
 graved upon by the ancient from their dif- 
 ficulty (see Diamond); but the substances 
 most frequently sculptured by engravers, 
 both ancient and modern, are rock crystal, 
 of different colours, jasper, calcedony, cor- 
 nelian, onyx, blood stone. Rock crystal, 
 is not of sufficient hardness, cornelian and 
 calcedony are of the same family, and are 
 principally distinguished by the tinge of 
 their colours. One of the most favourite 
 gems of the ancients was the cornelian, on 
 
 GEM 
 
 which all the ingenuity of the sculptor'^ 
 art has been assiduously bestowed. Its 
 colour, hardness, and texture are the most 
 favourable for delicate engravings, and it 
 seems to have been difiused in much 
 greater abundance than any other. See 
 Cornelian. 
 
 Among the ancients, the Egyptians prac- 
 tised gem sculpture with the greatest suc- 
 cess, both in intaglio and in relief, but 
 more commonly the former. Those pre- 
 served to our times are for the most part 
 called scaraba'i, from the figure resembling 
 a beetle, and consist of green jasper, corne- 
 lian, and calcedony. The Jews probably 
 learned engraving from the Egyptians, and 
 the books of Moses, bear witness in the 
 description of the ephod of Aaron, of their 
 skill in this department of the arts, but the 
 commandment prohibiting the representa- 
 tion of any animal or thing, confined it to 
 engravings of names, &c. as seals. 
 
 The Greeks, before the decline of their 
 country, and their artists being taken to 
 Rome, surpassed all others in the art of 
 sculpturing gems and precious stones. The 
 same refined taste, which pervaded their 
 architecture, their painting, and their 
 sculpture; accompanied their efforts in all 
 tlieir other arts, particularly gem sculp- 
 ture. 
 
 Among their leading artists in gem 
 sculpture are Mnesarchus, the father of 
 Pythagoras, and, according to Millin (who 
 has attempted the arduous task of arrang- 
 ing them in chronological order, with as 
 much success as indefatigable industry 
 and great knowledge of his subject could 
 accomplish) ; those who flourished ante- 
 rior to the era of Alexander, he supposes 
 were Theodore of Samos, who engraved a 
 lyre on a famous emerald belonging to the 
 king Polycrates, seven hundred and fifty 
 years before Christ, which the owner, to 
 mortify himself, threw into the sea ; Mne- 
 sarchus, before mentioned, none of whose 
 works are extant; Heius, Plirygillus, Tha- 
 mytos. Pyrgoteles was cotemporary with 
 Alexander, who is reported to have issued 
 an edict prohibiting all other artists from 
 engraving his portrait. Between this era, 
 and that of Augustus, he enumerates Ad ■ 
 mone, Apollonides, Polycletes, Mdio was 
 also a statuary, Tryphon, whose period is 
 well ascertained, and others of minor ce- 
 lebrity. The list becomes more numerous 
 as we descend the stream of time ; Aulijs, 
 Chronius, and especially Dioscourides, to 
 whom some of the most beautiful works 
 are ascribed, and who engraved the Roman 
 Emperor Augustus; Alph^eus Ehvodus, 
 Auliochus, iEpoiian, flourished in the age 
 
 A A 
 
a E!VT. 
 
 «f iiid immediate successors ; but tlic exatH ciscd itself, what it was, still remains to 
 period of the f^reater number cannot be as- 
 
 certained. Some of the most celebrated 
 of them are illtian, Agathemeros, Allion, 
 Apollodotus, said to be the first gem en- 
 graver who added his profession to his 
 name; Pamphilus, -whom some have sup- 
 posed to liave been a pupil of Praxiteles, 
 
 be determined. 
 
 The variety of opinions of the learned 
 and the naturalists upon this subject is a 
 suflicient proof of this assertion. Cesal- 
 pino is a marble ; which Boctis thought to 
 be an agate ; Isidorus of Seville a glass ; 
 and Caylus's aim in his writing is to show 
 
 and who engraved upon an amethyst, that the Obsidian stone of the ancients 
 
 Achilles playing on a lyre; Teucer, Car- was only volcanic glass*. Nothing but a 
 
 pus, and otiiers, whose names would pro- hasty reading of Pliny's works can have 
 
 tract the catalogue to an unnecessary given rise to so many doubts, which will 
 
 length. quite vanish as Soon as a deliberate and 
 
 Among the Roman artists, M. Rlillin in- due reflection attends investigation, 
 
 eludes all those whose names do not ap- It is perfectly clear, from reading this 
 
 pear of Greek origin, or are written in La- 
 tin ; such as Aquilus, Felix, Quintillus, 
 Rufus, and a few more. The Greeks still 
 preserved tiieir taste for engraving on fine 
 gems, during tlie earlier part of the darker 
 
 last Latin writer, that the ancients were 
 acquainted with an Obsidian stone, an 
 Obsidian glass, and an Obsidian gem; 
 which three substances, very diflerent one 
 from the other, were only similar in tlieir 
 
 ages ; nor was it obliterated entirely among black colour, 
 
 the Romans. Circumstances were now First of all, there was a black marble 
 
 adverse to the arts, and they fell, and tlic which was Obsidian (lapis Obsidiamis, or 
 
 beautiful art of gem sculpture with them, marmor Obsidianum), because it was first 
 
 Here the history of antique engraved gems found out in Ethiopia by a person called 
 
 terminates; because the empire of the an- Obsidiust; and this black marble was si- 
 
 cients being overrun by l)arbarians, tlio niilur to many whicii are now known, and 
 
 arts sunk into insignificance, and those perhaps more particularly to those whiiii. 
 
 which had flourished with the greatest being rubbed hard, send forth a bitumous 
 
 luxuriance, were nipped by the frosts and smell t. This circumstance alone series 
 
 gloom of ignorance. absolutely to distinguish it from a species 
 
 Among tiie gems of the ancients, that of glass, as Caylus asserts; and Pliny (1. 
 
 called the Obsidian has excited the great- xxxvii. ch. 36) himself clearly demon- 
 
 est controversy. The history of sculpture strates it, saying that, among the speciis 
 
 and of engraving, says the Ciievalier de of glass, there was one of a very black 
 
 Lorgna, who has discussed this curious colour, called Obsidian, on account of the 
 
 subject at much length, in the Mercurio resemblance it bore to tlie abovementioned 
 
 Italico, the substance of wliicli is here marble, which was formerly iV'aiid iuEthi- 
 
 quotud, together with the contemplation of opia by Obsidius. 
 
 the relicks, which still remain of the pro- Hence the true Obsidian marble was 
 
 ductions of the ancients on tliis subject, fill diflerent from the Obsidian glass mention- 
 
 us with just admiration as well on accotiut ed by the same author. He informs us 
 
 of the perfection of workniansixii), as of that this glass had a degree of transpa- 
 
 the variety of the materials wiiich the art- rency; that it hfid a greasy appearance; 
 
 ist made use of. and that they made of it mirrors, and sla- 
 
 Wood, ivory, metals, glass, marbles, the tues, and set it in rings (1. xxxvi. cii. 2(i). 
 
 hardest stones, and even gems became ani- In this Caylus is right, that the four 
 
 mated in the ingenious hands of tlie Egyp- elephants (ledicated by Augustus to tlie 
 
 tians, Etrusciins, Greeks, and Romans, temple of Concord, and the statue of Me- 
 lt is not easy, but would not l)e an idle 
 
 undertaking, to investigate what metallick 
 
 coi)q)ositions were used for the statues, 
 
 coins, and medals in the (lourisliing limes 
 
 of Egypt, doA\ 11 to those of Koine, and to 
 
 which of our stones the ancient names are 
 
 correspondent. 
 
 There is no gem or stone mentioned by 
 
 Thciiphraslirs and J'liny but what oilers 
 
 iiiMlter for a ver\ (curious investigation; 
 
 and even the Obsidian, on which liie pene- 
 
 tnitiiig gi'iiiiis oflhe ('('lebrali'ii and learned 
 
 antiquary Count de Cajlus so much exer- 
 
 neians found in Egypt, were evidently 
 made of such materials ; but these statues, 
 like tile celebrated and unique IJarberini 
 
 • Th.> o.l.'bialid Jiis<iii?, to'^flii.i willi Miis.iiilt 
 iiiul Koiix, ruiihibiiU'd to llir c<iiii|i»siiii; of the <l.i 
 liorati- (lii-coiiiKc wliiili, iipmi lliis Mibii'i'l, ("fiiiil 
 Cayiiis (liliv.ioa tin- lIMli Jiiiu', I7(i0, in Ihf Acade- 
 my of liiM-riptioii!! and lU-IU-s LrthTS. 
 
 f Sir Pliny, 1). 37, chap. W, «nd SavaryVi U'Hci.i 
 in Kuyi)!, wlio mcntioils a Ida. k inail)l>' fi'imd in 
 lho!><' connlrir.i. 
 
 J Arrlan a!«»crt!i it, and Hill flnils a testimony of it 
 In an nnrniain CJivi'l; anilior. 
 
(VEM. 
 
 vase, were centainly of artificial, and not 
 of volcanic glass ; since Pliny mentions 
 them in order to prove that the invention 
 of the art of making glass was very an- 
 cient, which would be of no manner of 
 use if they had been made of natural vol- 
 canic glass. They made, in fact, an artifi- 
 cial opaque aud black glass, for which 
 reason it was called Obsidian, as is ob- 
 served a little before ; and Pliny particu- 
 larly informs us, that with this, after the 
 manner of modern glass, vessels of terra 
 cotta were done over. It is uncertain whe- 
 ther any such volcanic glass exists, except 
 perhaps some seals. But this is not the 
 case with Obsidian stone, a species of 
 black marble, of which many antiques are 
 to be found in different museums, and of 
 whicli the beautiful sleeping child of the 
 Royal Gallery of Florence, called the god 
 of Sleep, may perhaps be made. 
 
 Besides tiie Obsidian marble and Obsi- 
 dian glass, either artificial or natural, there 
 is the Obsidian gem, of which none has 
 clearly treated, and which was confounded 
 by writers with the Obsidian marble, as 
 was the case with the glass, and yet Pliny 
 names it Avithout equivocation, saying, 
 that there were to be found also jewels of 
 the same name and colour, that is, Obsidian 
 black ones, not only in Ethiopia and in In- 
 dia, but also in Abrusso, as some maintain, 
 and in the neighbourhood of the Spanish 
 Sea. This gem was less hard than others, 
 and it was found to be of a similar colour 
 with the Obsidian stone or marble. Who 
 does not perceive the modern opaque and 
 black scorrillo in this ancient Obsidian 
 gem ? its colour, its hardness, are most 
 convincing proofs of it, as Pliny himself 
 mentioning this last circumstance, says 
 (b. IT, chap. 13), tlie pieces of Obsidian do 
 not scratch true gems, and these, on the 
 contrary, mark and cut them. The places 
 where the Obsidian gem and the scorrillo 
 used to be found in ancient times still af- 
 ford some in our own days, and they are 
 moreover to be found in other parts, which 
 were unknown before. Bieislac says he 
 has met with scorrillo on the way to Fres- 
 cati, and especially one of an hexagonal 
 prism, ending in two opposite triangular 
 pyramids, formed by the reunion of three 
 pentagonal surfaces. Gorgona, as also the 
 Island of Giglio, produce some of them, 
 which are of no indifferent size. 
 
 We find no mention made of what might 
 have been the largest size of the ancient 
 Obsidian gems, but in our days some have 
 been found of several inches in length 
 in the said Tuscan islands. Sage describes 
 a group of them brought from Greenland, 
 
 which is preserved in the Royal School 
 of Mines, Paris, and is formed of seven 
 regular prisms, with nine surfaces, two 
 inches high and one and a half in diame- 
 ter, having some triangular pyramids over 
 them ; and De Jubert has one of them in 
 his private cabinet of seven inches and a 
 half in length, and not less than eleven 
 inches in circumference. 
 
 Nature, which is every where the same, 
 has given to scorrilli or Obsidian gems of 
 Tuscany an equal form aud colour with 
 those of Greenland, Britain, Spain, Ma- 
 dagascar, Ceylon, &c. and they all exactly 
 agree with the description of the ancient 
 Obsidian gem, and perfectly resemble, by 
 their very beautiful blackness, the black 
 marble or Obsidian stone, and not less so 
 the Icelandic agate or volcani« black 
 glass*, called by the ancients Obsidian 
 glass. Among gems the Obsidian are less 
 hard, that is to say, in fact, that we can- 
 not scratch other gems with the Obsidian 
 or scorrilli, but with the former, we may 
 easily cut the latter. It appears evident, 
 therefore, that Pliny's Obsidian gem is 
 absolutely the modern black scorrillo, 
 which ought to be called, after its ancient 
 name, Obsidian, expunging from modern 
 books the barbarous words schioerl, sciorl, 
 and scorlio, as some German writers name 
 it ; or to call it at least Obsidian scorrillo, 
 to distinguish it from other species. The 
 Obsidian scorrilli of Greenland are almost 
 all endowed with the singular property of 
 becoming electrical when they are heated ; 
 and likewise some, though move rarely, 
 among those of IWadagascar and of Tus- 
 cany. This property, which once served 
 to distinguish a pretended peculiar kind 
 of stone with the name of tourmalin, can- • 
 not now be considered but a simple epithet 
 expressing variety ; and so we might call 
 scorrillo Obsidian turmalina, that which 
 is endowed with electrical property, or to 
 call it more clearly. Obsidian electrical 
 scorrillo. 
 
 This last wonderful property was not 
 unknown to the ancients ; for, it appeaijs, 
 they knew it to exist in the gem which 
 they called ligurio t, and without any doubt 
 
 * Some of this Obsidian natural glass is likewise 
 to be found in Tuscany, as also in many other parts 
 of both continents. The Italian is of a beoutifnl black, 
 rather inclining to a chestnut colour; that of Lii>ari 
 inclining to azure ; that of Hecla is black and opaque ; 
 that of Peru yellowish ; all of them have such a de- 
 gree of hardness, as to strike lire and cut glass. 
 
 + What can this stone ligurio be but a different 
 species of scorrillo '.' It was common in the terriloiy 
 of Genoa, and on the mountains inhabited by Ligu- 
 rians. Of this wc find a testimony in Strabo, p. 20a, 
 Paris ed. 
 
 A A 2 
 
GEM. 
 
 : n various species of carbuncle, and also iu 
 the carchedonius. Pliny mentions that lu' 
 found carbuncles, some of a purple colour, 
 otliers red, which, heated by the sun, at- 
 tracted straw and paper shavings : here 
 
 a suflicicnt degree of seriousness. 5. That 
 it would be proper now to restore, at least 
 in part, the ancient name, calling with the 
 general appellation of scorrillo those that 
 are black, opaque, and electrical ; the red 
 
 we clearly see in them the turmalines of turmaline of Ceylon, scorrilli electrical 
 
 a red colour of Ceylon, 6cc. Among the 
 species of carbuncles the same writer men- 
 tions one called carchedonius, which, after 
 Archelaus, he represented to be of a 
 blacker colour, and that it has the same 
 property of becoming electrical by heat ; 
 and, after Satyru«, he adds, that it is gene- 
 rally of a dark colour, parched and bright. 
 It is very clear that they are the same as 
 the Ceylonese turmalines, as Corsali says 
 in his Voyages, tliat such stones are found 
 in the island of Ceylon. 
 
 The properties described by Pliny as 
 belonging to the turmalines and scorrilli 
 are alike, that is, they are but little adapted 
 for seals, and being too soft for incision, 
 from retaining part of the wax ; hence 
 it is that we iiave no engravings on those 
 gems, the use of them having been soon 
 laid aside. From the report of the same 
 author, the ail of making statues and other 
 works of sculpture with the volcanic Ob- 
 sidian stone, was soon relinquished as be- 
 ing too similar to glass. Other properties, 
 also mentioned by Pliny, are exactly to be 
 found in the turmalines and scorrilli, or in 
 the electrical or non-electrical scorrilli, 
 that is to say, they are not eflected by fire, 
 for which reason they were by some called 
 apiroti. The Duke of Noja, in his letter 
 to Count Bullon, observes, that of all the 
 stones w Inch he had put to the trial of fire, 
 to determine their electricity, the diamond 
 alone can, like the turmaline, be safely 
 and suddenly exposed to a quick fire ; 
 others burst or break more or less quickly, 
 especially the most transparent ones ; and 
 this is, perhaps, tiie meaning of Pliny's 
 expression, who says of them they are not 
 afi"c(le<l by fire. 
 
 I think I have now a righl (o conclude, 
 says the Chevalier, I. That the Obsidian 
 gem is not the Obsidian glass, and that is 
 not the marble or Uie Obsidian stone of tiie 
 ancients, as Caylus pretends. 2. That tiie 
 ancients were acquainted with an Obsidian 
 nuirl)lo,an Obsidian natural i;lass,an(i with 
 an aililicial one; and liiialiy with an ()i)si- 
 dian gem, very dilVerent from liie rest. :{. 
 That tlie black scorrillo is the true Obsi- 
 dian gem of the ancients. 1. Tliat the elec- 
 trical properties of some; scorrilli were 
 known to them, and therefore they were 
 distinguished, even in those times, by dif- 
 ferent narm-s, although natural Iiistory was 
 wot then considered by jihilosophcrs with 
 
 carbuncle ; those scorrilli or turmalines, 
 smoked and of a pitchy colour electrical or 
 non-electrical, scorril li, charchedor^ , and in 
 this manner bring back these things to a 
 more exact and proper denomination. 
 
 Among the Romans, as the editor of 
 AVorlidge's ^iins has observed, Dioscou- 
 rides engraved the head of Augustus be- 
 fore alluded to, in so masterly a manner, 
 that the succeeding emperors advanced it 
 to the honour of being the imperial signet. 
 Among the latter emperors the luxury of 
 wearing gems about the person was car- 
 ried to an extravagant height. Juvenal 
 infoims us that there was a distinction in 
 the weight of the summer and winter ring; 
 and Rlartial wittily reminds a freedman, 
 who indidged this folly to a ridiculous ex- 
 tent, that the size of his ring was better 
 suited to his former condition than his pre- 
 sent, resembling more the link of a fetter 
 than a personal ornament. Heliogabalus 
 was attacked by Lampridius for covering 
 his shoes and stockings with engraved 
 gems, as if the elaborate work of the gem 
 sculptor could be admired in a seal-ring 
 worn on the toes. 
 
 The art of gem sculpture was revived in 
 Italy, about the middle of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, and manj' of the productions of that 
 age may deservedly hold the next rank to 
 the antique. Among the most successful 
 of the nuxlerns are Pickler and Pistrucci, 
 who now holds a situation in our mint, the 
 late Henry Burch, R. A. and the inimitable 
 Marchant, whose works, even in Rome, 
 are held in the highest estimation. 
 
 Wiuckelmann has published an enume- 
 ration of some of the linest gems in the 
 world, to which W(u-k the reader is refer- 
 red for more detailed information. Among 
 Ihem are a most exquisite Cameo of Per- 
 sexis and Andronu'da, in such high relief, 
 that almost all tlie contour of the figures, 
 in the most delicate white, are <lelached 
 from the ground. It belonged to Mengs, 
 the painter, at whose death it was pur- 
 ciiasi'd by the Ijnpress Catherine of Rus- 
 sia for three thousand Roman crowns. 
 The only other gem which M'inckelmanu 
 is disposed to class in Uu- sanu' rank is the 
 Judgnu'nt of I'aris, in Prince l'ionil)iuo's 
 cai)inet at liome. The INIarlborough gem 
 of Cupid and Psyche, has perhaps more 
 celebrity than any other in I'.iigland. The 
 moderns imitate (he genuine cameos by 
 
GEN 
 
 workmanship in shells, in many instances 
 not easily distinguishable from that on 
 stones. 
 
 The most celebrated engraved collection 
 of gems is that by Picart from the Cabinet 
 of De Hosch ; those of Faber from the Ur- 
 sini Cabinet; and of Brustolon ai-e indif- 
 ferent ; Leonard Augustus is still worse. 
 Count Caylus engraved three hundred 
 plates of the Royal Collection of France, 
 but they ai'e unworthy of his reputation. 
 In England we have one hundred and 
 eighty plates, well etched by Worlidge, 
 from the collections of Lord Montague, 
 Lord Besborough, Sir Thomas Dundas, 
 and others ; and two distinguished works, 
 printed only for private distribution, the 
 Marlborough and Devonshire gems ; the 
 latter book, being one of the rarest in the 
 world in its perfect state, as, owing to the 
 misconduct of the engraver, it is believed 
 there is not more than one copy extant, 
 which contains all the plates, though the 
 liberality of the noble proprietor had wish- 
 ed to give the work extensive circulation. 
 Relative to the art of gem sculpture are 
 some essays in the seventh volume of La 
 Bibliotheque d'histoire naturelle de M. Boeh- 
 mer ; some treatises by M. Bruckmann ; 
 the Collectanea of Lessing ; his Lettres sur 
 qiielques sujets d'Antiquitd ; V Introduction 
 h V Etude des pierres gravies, par Millin, 
 and a work with a similar title by M. Gur- 
 LiTT, in German ; Le Traitd des pierres prS- 
 cieuses, par Dutens ; the Mineralogy of 
 Hauy ; and other modern writers on the 
 same subject. 
 
 Gem sculptor and sculpture. See Gem. 
 
 Geneva (oppidum allobrogum). In the 
 history of the arts. A city in Switzerland, 
 and capital of an ancient and independent 
 republic of the same name. It is situated 
 on the confines of Savoy and France, at 
 the southern extremity of the Lake of Ge- 
 neva, where the Rhone issues from it in 
 two rapid transparent streams of a beauti- 
 ful blue colour, which unite after passing 
 the city. 
 
 Geneva is surrounded, except towards 
 the lake, with high walls and fortifica- 
 tions, which were begun at the commence- 
 ment of the seventeenth century under the 
 direction of Agrippa D'Aubigne. The 
 building of the bastion of Hesse, which is 
 well worthy of being visited by strangers, 
 cost no less than ten thousand ci'owns, 
 which Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, had 
 given to the republic for this purpose. 
 The southern gate of the city is remark- 
 ably beautiful. The double ditches round 
 tills gate are tilled with water. 
 
 GEN 
 
 The town of Geneva is irregularly built, 
 some of the streets are extremely steep. 
 The houses are lofty, consisting frequently 
 of four or live stories ; and in the commer- 
 cial part of the town, particularly in the Rue 
 Basse, they have gloomy arcades of wood, 
 supported by huge wooden pillars, which 
 rise to the very top of tlie house, and thus 
 protect the foot passengers from the elfects 
 of the sun and the rain. In tliis street 
 there are two rows of low wooden shops 
 in front of the houses, separating the street 
 from the foot pavements. 
 
 The principal public edifices and esta- 
 blishments are the cathedral of St. Peter's ; 
 the Hotel de Ville ; the arsenal, the col- 
 lege ; the public library ; the hospital ; the 
 theatre ; and the places of worship. The 
 cathedral, situated in the upper part of 
 the town, is a large modern church of Go- 
 thic architecture in the interior, with a 
 fine organ, and windows of painted glass. 
 The portal is in imitation of that of the 
 Pantheon at Rome. It is built of rough 
 marble, and consists of a fine peristyle of 
 six Corintliian columns supporting a pedi- 
 ment, which is surrounded by an ugly 
 substitute for a cupola, covered with tin. 
 In the time of the AUobroges and the Ro- 
 mans, a temple, consecrated to the sun, 
 occupied the spot on which the cathedral 
 now stands. 
 
 The college is a quadrangular building. 
 Each class has a separate and commodious 
 school-room on the ground floor, so as to 
 occupy the two sides of tiie quadrangle, 
 and the upper part of the building con- 
 tains apartments for the use of the princi- 
 pal or general inspector, and for the public 
 library of the city. 
 
 One of the chambers of the library con- 
 tains a collection of optical and mathema- 
 tical instruments, anatomical preparations, 
 and antiquities. Among these is an an- 
 tique circular buckler of silver, thirty-four 
 ounces in weight, with the following in- 
 scription : Largitur D. N. Valentiniani Au- 
 gusti. It was found in tlie bed of the Arve 
 in 1721, and it is the only one of the kind 
 in existence, excepting that which is pre- 
 served in the Royal Library of Paris. The 
 library is also adorned with paintings of 
 several eminent men ; and at one end of it 
 is a fine bust of Charles Bonnet, the cele- 
 brated naturalist. One of the halls of the 
 college contains several models in gyp- 
 sum of ancient statues, groups, busts, and 
 bas-reliefs, and also some fine paintings of 
 St. Ours and De la Rive. 
 
 Genii. [Lat.] In the mijthologij of art. 
 Moral deities who presided over the vir- 
 
GEN 
 
 tues of men and the conduct of human life. 
 Tlie genii of the ancients were a sort of 
 divinities that were supposed constantly 
 to attend each single person from his birth 
 to his death, and to begin to exist with 
 those they were to attend, and to cease to 
 exist when they died. The genii of the 
 women were called Junones (Plin. Nat. 
 Hist. c. vii), and tliey swore by them, as 
 did also their lovers at times (Tib. 1. iv, el. 
 13, V. 16). This shows the force of a line 
 in Juvenal (sat. ii. v. 98.) 
 
 The poets say nothing of the dress or 
 attributes of these deities, but in some an- 
 tiques and on medals they are dressed 
 liiie the persons over whom they preside. 
 Tlius the genius of a vestal, in an ancient 
 statue, is in the habit of that order ; and 
 on a medal of Julia Mammaea, the genius 
 is in the dress of the Roman empresses, 
 holding the emblem of Ho;>e (or spes) a rose 
 bud in one hand, and of vir.tus in the other, 
 to signify that the genius of that empress 
 was the defence and hope of the empire. 
 
 In Millin's Recueil dc Monumens inhlits 
 are several representations of Greek vases 
 with winged genii ; and in the fourth vo- 
 lume of the Museo Pio Cleinentino in a sar- 
 cophagus is a child encircled by baccha- 
 nalian genii, all with wings. A very line 
 statue of bronze, of the most beautiful 
 symmetry, is published in the Museum Flo- 
 rentinum, and others in the Museum Etrus- 
 cttw, and in the Marmora Fisaureiitia ; from 
 which the artist may gather sullicient know- 
 ledge of the forms and attributes of the 
 ancient genii. 
 
 Gknu s. [Lat.j In all the arts. Tliat dis- 
 j)Osition of nature by which any one is qua- 
 lified for some peculiar employment. The 
 spirit of a man, his nature itself. Sir 
 Joshua ReynoUls defines tliiH mental gift 
 or faculty to be " a power of producing 
 (excellences, which are out of the rules of 
 art; a power wiiich no jjrecepts can ti-ach, 
 and wliidi no industry can acquire." And 
 again, "what we call genius begins, not 
 where rules, abstractedly takt n, end, but 
 wliere known vulgar and trite rules have 
 no longer any place." 
 
 Genoa. In the history of the arts. A 
 celebrated city in the north of Italy, on 
 the northern shores of the INIeilittrraiu-an, 
 f(»rmerly (icnua a Juno, from (Irnvo, a sou 
 of Saturn, who founded it, the thief city 
 of Liguria. It is built in the form of an 
 aMi|)liitlH'ufr(', on the slope of a mountain 
 rising gradually from the sea, having for a 
 centre liie harbour, which is of very consi- 
 denibh; extent. 'J'lic external appearance 
 is cvlrenicly niagiiilicent. 
 
 GEN 
 
 In no other city in the world is there to 
 be found such a profusion of marble, and 
 otlier rich materials, both in public and 
 private edifices ; wliile their situation on 
 terraces, ascending one above the other, 
 adds an additional degree of splendour to 
 their appearance. On entering the city, 
 however, the narrowness and darkness of 
 the streets produce a mean eflect, but ill 
 corresponding Avith its magnificent exte- 
 rior, although lined witli palaces of vast 
 and lofty dimensions, some entirely of mar- 
 ble, and all ornamented with marble por- 
 tals, porticos, and columns. The interior 
 of these mansions are no less magnificent. 
 The staircases are of marble, and the long 
 suites of spacious saloons, opening into 
 each other, are adorned with the richest 
 marbles and tapestries, with valuable 
 paintings, and gilded cornices and panels. 
 Of these the most remarkable are those of 
 the Doria, Durazzo, Balbi, and Serra fa- 
 milies. The first of these (consecrated by 
 the recollection of the restorer of his coun- 
 try's liberties) is a beautiful specimen of 
 a pure and simple style of architecture, by 
 Kocca Lurago, a Lombard arciiitect, who 
 nourished about the year 1570, but in mag- 
 nitude and splendour it is far supassed by 
 the Durazzo palace, a work of Bartolomeo 
 Bianco, also a Lombard, which, both in its 
 materials and furniture, is superior to the 
 abodes of most of the sovereigns of Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 The i)\djlic buildings of Genoa are no less 
 splendid than the abodes of lior citizens ; 
 but the profusion of party coloured marbles 
 and gilding, which gives an air of wealth 
 and grandeur to the palaces, is olleusive to 
 the eye of taste in churches and temples, 
 wiiere all unnecessary anil gaudy ornaments 
 detract from the simplicity which should 
 always characterize such edifices. Of this 
 description are tlie cathedral of St. Law- 
 rence, the churches of llie Annunciation, 
 St. Siro, and St. Dominic. That of Santa 
 Maria di Carignano is in a purer style, 
 luid placed in a very conmianding situa- 
 tion. It was built about the niidiUe of liie 
 sixteenth century, at the expense of Bendi- 
 nelli Sauli, a noble citizen of Genoa, from 
 the designs of Galeazzo Aiessi of Perugia. 
 
 Tile aiiproaiii to this church is by a lolly 
 bridge of three arches, about ninety feet 
 high, across a deep dell, now a street, 
 (icnoa owes this buiiiling also to the mu- 
 nilicence of the Sauli family. It was be- 
 gun by the gr;uids(m, and finished in the 
 year 1725 by the great-great grandson of 
 tile founder of llie clmriii di ("arign;ino. 
 See Sib.MONUi's lli^itoirc iles Ju intliliijucs 
 
GEOMETRY. 
 
 Italknnes ; Accinelli's Revolutions of Ge- 
 noa ; Eustace's Classical Tour through 
 Italy, &c. 
 
 Geometry, [geometria, Lat. VtwutTpia, 
 Gr.] In all the arts, but more especially in 
 architecture. The science of extension, 
 quantity, or magnitude abstractedly consi- 
 dered ; demanding the greatest attention 
 from the scientific artist. 
 
 " There is a certain degree of geometri- 
 cal knowledge," says an able Avriter in 
 Dr. Brewster's EncyclopEedia, " which na- 
 turally arises out of the wants of man in 
 every state of society. It is impossible to 
 build houses and temples, or to apportion 
 territory, without employing some of the 
 principles of geometry. Hence we cannot 
 expect to find a period of society or a coun- 
 try in which it was altogether unknown." 
 " Ancient writers have generally sup- 
 posed that it was first cultivated in Egypt ; 
 and, according to some, it derived its origin 
 from the necessity of determining every 
 year the just share of land that belonged 
 to each proprietor, after the waters of the 
 Nile, which annually overflowed the coun- 
 try, had returned into their ordinary chan- 
 nel. It may, however, be remarked, that 
 the obliteration of the landmarks by the 
 inundation is quite a conjecture, and not a 
 very probable one. 
 
 Some writers, among whom is Herodo- 
 tus, fix the origin of geometry at the time 
 when Sesostris intersected Egypt by nu- 
 merous canals, and divided the country 
 among the inhabitants. Sir Isaac Newton 
 lias adopted this opinion in his Chrono- 
 logy, and has supposed that this division 
 was made by Thoth, the minister of Sesos- 
 tris, who, according to him, was the same 
 as Osiris ; and this conjecture is supported 
 by some ancient authorities. Aristotle 
 has, however, attributed the invention to 
 the Egyptian priests, who, living secluded 
 from the world, had leisure tor study. 
 Tims various opinions have been enter- 
 tained respecting the origin of geometry, 
 but all have agreed in fixing it in Egypt. 
 
 The celebrated philosopher, Thales of 
 Miletus, transplanted the sciences, and 
 particularly mathematics, from Egypt into 
 Greece. He was born about six hundred 
 and forty years before Christ, and being 
 unable to gratify his ardent desire for 
 knowledge at home, he travelled into 
 Egypt at an advanced period of life, where 
 he conversed with tlie priests, the only de- 
 positories of learning in that country. Dio- 
 genes Laertius relates, that he measured 
 the height of the pyramids, or rather flie 
 obelisks, by means of their shadow ; and 
 
 Plutarch says, that the King Amasis was 
 astonished at this instance of sagacity in 
 the Greek philosopher ; which is a proof 
 that the Egyptians had made but little 
 progress in the science. It is also stated 
 by Proclus, that Thales employed tlie prin- 
 ciples of geometry to determine the dis- 
 tance of vessels remote from shore. On 
 his return to Greece, his celebrity for 
 learning drew the attention of his country- 
 men; he soon had disciples, and hence the 
 foundation of the Ionian school, so called 
 from Ionia, his native country. 
 
 There were some slight traces of what 
 may be called natural geometry in Greece, 
 before the time of Thales. Thus Euphor- 
 bus of Phrygia is said to have discovered 
 some of the properties of a triangle ; the 
 square and the level have been ascribed 
 to Theodorus of Samos; and the com- 
 passes to the nephew of Daedalus. But 
 these can only be considered as a kind of 
 instructive geometry ; the origin of the 
 true geometry among the Greeks must be 
 fixed to the period of the return of Thales- 
 It was he that laid the foundation of the 
 science, and inspired his countrymen with 
 a taste for its study ; and various discove- 
 ries are attributed to him, concerning the 
 circle, and the comparison of triangles. 
 In particular, he first found that all angles 
 in a semicircle are right angles ; a disco- 
 very which is said to have excited in his 
 mind that lively emotion which is perhaps 
 only felt by poets and geometers : he fore- 
 saw the important consequences to which 
 this proposition led, and he expressed his 
 gratitude to the muses by a sacrifice. 
 This, however, is but a small part of what 
 geometry owes him ; and it is much to be 
 regretted, that the loss of the ancient his- 
 tory of the science should have left us in 
 uncertainty as to the full extent of the 
 obligation. 
 
 It is probable that the greater number 
 of the disciples of Thales were acquainted 
 with geometry ; but the names of Ameris- 
 tus and Anaximander only have reached 
 our times. The first is said to have been 
 a skilful geometer ; the other composed a 
 kind of elementary treatise or introduction 
 to geometry, the earliest on record. Thales 
 was succeeded in his school by Anaximan- 
 der, who is said to have invented the 
 sphere, the gnomon, geograpiiical charts, 
 and sundials; he was succeeded by Anax- 
 imenes ; and this philosopher again was 
 succeeded by his scholar Anaxagoras,who, 
 being cast into prison on account of his 
 opinions relating to astronomy, employed 
 himself in attempting to square the circle. 
 
GEOMl'TRY. 
 
 This is the earliest effort on record to re- 
 solve the most celebrated problem in geo- 
 metry. 
 
 Pythagoras was one of the earliest and 
 most successful cultivators of geometry. 
 He was born about 580 years before the 
 Christian era; he studied under Thales, 
 and by his advice travelled into Egypt. 
 Here he is said to have consulted the co- 
 lumns of Sothis, on which tliat celebrated 
 person had engraven the principles of geo- 
 metry, and which were disposed in stibter- 
 ranean vases. A learned curiosity induced 
 him to travel also into India ; and it is far 
 from being improbable, that he was more 
 indebted for his knowledge to the Brah- 
 mins, on the banks of the Ganges, than to 
 the priests of Egypt. On his return, find- 
 ing his native country a prey to tyranny, 
 he settled in Italy, and there founded one 
 of the most celebrated schools of antiquity. 
 He is said to have discovered that, in any 
 right angled triangle, the square on the 
 side opposite the right angle is equal to 
 the two squares on the sides containing i( ; 
 and, on this account, to have sacrificed one 
 hundred oxen to express his gratitude to 
 the muses. This, however, was incompa- 
 tible witli liis moral principles, which led 
 him to abhor the shedding of blood on 
 any account whatever; and besides, the 
 moderate fortune of a philosopher would 
 not admit of such an expensive proof of his 
 piety. Tlic application wliich the Pytlia- 
 goreans made of geometry gave birlh to 
 several new tiieories, such as the incom- 
 mensural)ility of certain lines, for exam- 
 ples, the side of a square and its diagonal, 
 also the doctrine of the regular solids, 
 whicii, although of little use in itself, must 
 iiave led to the discovery of many proposi- 
 tions in geometry, Diogenes Laertius luis 
 attributed to Pytliagoras tlie nu-rit of Iiav- 
 ing discover(!d thai, of all figures having 
 the same boundary, the circle among 
 plain figures, and the sphere among solid 
 figures are the most capacious: if liiis wiis 
 so, he is the first on record tliat has treated 
 of isoperimetrical problems. 
 
 Tlio I'ytluigorean school sent forth many 
 jiialhcmalicians ; of these, Archytas claims 
 atleiilion, because of his solution of llu; 
 jnoblem of finding two mean jjroportiomils; 
 also on account of his being one of (lie first 
 liiat employed tlie geomelrieiil analysis, 
 wliich he had learned from Plalo, and by 
 means of which he made niany disco\ cries. 
 He is said to iiave ai)i)li(!(l geometry lo 
 jneclumics, for which lie was bhinied by 
 Pla(o ; but probaiily it was rather for ap- 
 jdying, on the conlrary, mechanics to geo- 
 
 metry, as he employed motion in geometri- 
 cal resolutions and constructions, 
 
 Democritus of Abdera studied geometry, 
 and was a profound mathematician. From 
 the titles of his works it has been conjec- 
 tured that he was one of the principal pro- 
 moters of the elementary doctrine respect- 
 ing the contract of circles and spheres, and 
 concerning irrational numbers and solids. 
 He treated besides of some of the princi- 
 I)le3 of optics and perspective. 
 
 Hippocrates was originally a merchant, 
 but having no turn for commerce, his 
 affairs went into disorder ; to repair them, 
 he came to Athens, and was one day led 
 by curiosity to visit the schools of pliiloso- 
 phy. There he heard of geometry for the 
 first time ; and it is probable (iiere is a na- 
 tural adaptation of certain minds to parti- 
 cular studies ; he was instantly captivated 
 with the subject, and became one of the 
 best geometers of his time. He also was 
 the first that composed Elements of Geo- 
 metry, which, however, have been lost, 
 and are only to be regretted, because we 
 might liave learned from them (he state of 
 the science at that period. It has been 
 said tliat, notwithstanding his want of 
 success in commerce, he retained some- 
 thing of the mercantile spirit : lie accepted 
 money for teaching geometry, and for this 
 he was expelled the school of (he Pytha- 
 goreans. This oHence we (hink might 
 have been forgiven, in considf!ration of his 
 misfor(unes. 
 
 Two geometers, Bryson and Andphon, 
 appear to have lived about the (imc of 
 Hippocrates, and a little before Aristotle. 
 These are only known by some animadver- 
 sions of this last philosopher on their at- 
 (emp(s to square the circle. It ajipears 
 (hat before (his time geometers knew that 
 the area of a circle was equal (o a (riangle, 
 wliose base was e(iual (o (he circiunfer- 
 ence, and perpendicular equal to the ra- 
 dius. 
 
 Having brielly traced (lie progress of 
 geomc(ry during the two first ages after its 
 in(roduc(ion into Greece, we come now (o 
 (he origin of (he Plaltinic school, which 
 may be consitlen-d as an .era in (he history 
 of (he science. Its celebrated founder IkkI 
 been (he disciple of a philosopher (So- 
 crates') who se( little \alue on geometry; 
 but IMato eiitertaini'd a\ery difiereiit opi- 
 nion on its utilKy. After (he examples of 
 'Hiales and I'ytliagoras, he (ra\elle(l into 
 I'.gyp(, (o study under the priests. lie 
 also went into Italy to consult the lanunis 
 rythagoreans, Philolans, Tiuueus of Lo- 
 cris, and Archytas, and to Cyrene to hear 
 
tiie mathematician Theoclorus. 
 turn lo Greece, he made mathematics, and 
 especially geometry, the basis of his in- 
 sti-uctions. He put an inscription over his 
 school, forbidding any one to enter that 
 (lid not understand geometry ; and when 
 (|uestioned concerning the probable em- 
 ployment of the Deity, he answered, that 
 lie geometrized continually, meaning, no 
 doubt, that he governed the universe by 
 geometrical laws. 
 
 It does not appear that Plato composed 
 any work himself on mathematics, but he 
 is reputed to have invented the geometri- 
 cal analysis. The theory of the conic sec- 
 tions originated in this school ; some have 
 even supposed that Plato himself invented 
 ii, but there does not seem to be any suffi- 
 cient ground for this opinion. 
 
 These discoveries must be attributed to 
 tlie Platonic school in general ; for it is 
 impossible to say with whom each eli- 
 minated. Some of advanced years fre- 
 quented the school as friends of its cele- 
 brated head, or out of respect for his doc- 
 trines ; and others, chiefly young persons, 
 -as disciples and pupils. Of the first class 
 v/ere Loadamus, Archy tas, and Theaetetus, 
 Laodamus was one of the first to whom 
 Plato communicated his method of ana- 
 lysis, before he made it public ; and he is 
 said by Proclus, to have profited greatly 
 by this instrument of discoverj'. Archy- 
 tas was a Pytlragorean of extensive know- 
 ledge in geometry and mechanics. He 
 had a great friendship for Plato, and fre- 
 quently visited him at Athens ; but in one 
 of his voyages he perished by shipwreck. 
 Thetetetus was a rich citizen of Athens, and 
 a friend and fellow student of Plato under 
 Socrates, and Theodorus of Cyrene, the 
 geometer. He appears to have cultivated 
 and extended the theory of the regular 
 solids. 
 
 Passing over various geometers who are 
 said to have distinguished themselves, but 
 of whom hardly any thing more than the 
 names are now known, we shall only men- 
 tion Menajchmus and his brother Dinostra- 
 tus. The former extended the theory of 
 conic sections, insomuch that Eratosthenes 
 seems to have given him the honour of the 
 discovery, calling them the^ citrves of Me- 
 luechmus. His two solutions of the problem 
 of two mean proportionals are a proof of 
 ills geometrical skill. Several discoveries 
 have been given to Dinosti-atus ; but he is 
 chieflj'^ known by a property which he dis- 
 covered of the quadratrix, a curve sup- 
 posed to have been invented by Hippias 
 of El is. 
 
 The progress of geometry among the 
 
 GEOMETRY. 
 
 On his re- Peripatetics was not so brilliant as it had 
 
 been in the school of Plato, but the science 
 was by no means neglected. The succes- 
 sor of Aristotle composed several works 
 relating to mathematics, and particularly 
 a complete history of these sciences down 
 to his own time : there were four books on 
 the history of geometry, six on that of 
 astronomy, and one on that of arithmetic. 
 What a treasure this would be, did we 
 now possess it I 
 
 The next remarkable epoch in the his- 
 tory of geometry, after the time of Plato, 
 was the establishment of the school of 
 Alexandria, by Ptolemy Lagus, about 300 
 years before the Christian sera. This event 
 wa;5 highly propitious to learning in gene- 
 ral, and particularly to every branch of 
 mathematics then known ; for the whole 
 was then cultivated with as much attention 
 as had been bestowed on geometry alone in 
 the Platonic school. It was here that the 
 celebrated geometer, Euclid, flourished 
 under the first of the Ptolemies : his native 
 place is not certainly known, but he ap- 
 pears to have studied at Athens, under the 
 disciples of Plato, before he settled at 
 Alexandria. Pappus, in the inti'oduction 
 to the seventh book of his collections, 
 gives him an excellent character, describ- 
 ing him as gentle, modest, and benign to- 
 wards all, and more especially such as 
 cultivated and improved the mathematics. 
 There is an anecdote recorded of Euclid 
 which seems to show he was not much of 
 a courtier: Ptolemy Philadelphus having 
 asked him whether there was any easier 
 way of studying geometry than that com- 
 monly taught ; his reply was, " There is no 
 royal road to geometry." This celebrated 
 man composed treatises on various branches 
 of the ancient mathematics, but he is best 
 known by his Elements, a work on geo- 
 metry and arithmetic ; in thirteen books, 
 under which he has collected all the ele- 
 mentary truths of geometrj', which had 
 been found before his time. The selec- 
 tion and arrangement have been made wi(h 
 such judgment, that, after a period of two 
 thousand yeai'S, and notwithstanding the 
 great additions made to mathematical sci- 
 ence, it is still generally allowed to be the 
 best elementary work on geometry extant. 
 Numberless treatises have been written 
 since the revival of learning, some with a 
 view to improve, and others to supplant 
 the work of the Greek geometer ; but in 
 this country, at least, they have been ge- 
 nerally neglected and forgotten, and Eu- 
 clid maintains his place in our schools. 
 
 Of Euclid's Elements, the first four 
 books treat of the properties of plane- 
 
GEOxM 
 
 figures ; the fifth contains the theory of 
 proportion ; and the sixth its application 
 to piano ligiires; the seventh, eif^hlh, ninth, 
 and tenth relate to arithmetic, and the doc- 
 trine of iuconnnensurables ; the eleventh 
 and twelfth contain the elements of the 
 geometry of solids; and the thirteenth 
 treats of the five regular solids, or I'tatonic 
 bodies, so called because they were studied 
 in that celebrated school : tAvo books more, 
 viz. the fourteenth and fifteenth, on regular 
 solids, have been attributed to Euclid, but 
 these rather appear to have been written 
 by Hypsicles of Alexandria. 
 
 Besides the elements, the only other en- 
 tire geometrical work of Euclid, that has 
 come down to the present times, is his 
 Data. This is the first in order of the 
 books written by the ancient geometers 
 to facilitate the method of resolution or 
 analysis. In general, a thing is said to be 
 given, which is actually exhibited, or can 
 be found; and the propositions in the 
 book of Euclid's Data show what things 
 can be found from those which by hypo- 
 thesis are already known. 
 
 In the order of time, Archimedes is the 
 next of the ancient geometers that has 
 drawn the attention of the moderns. He 
 was born at Syracuse, about the year 287 
 A. C. He cultivated all the parts of ma- 
 thematics, and in particular geometry. 
 The most didicult part of the science is 
 tiiat which relates to the areas of curve 
 lines, and to curve surfaces. Archimedes 
 applied his fine genius to the subject, and 
 he laid the foundation of all the sul)se- 
 qucnt discoveries relating to it. His wri- 
 tings on geometry are numerous. We have, 
 in the first place, two books on the sphere 
 and cylinder; these contain the beautiful 
 discovery, that the sphere is two-thirds of 
 the circumscribing cylinder, Avhethcr we 
 compare their surfaces or their solidities, 
 observing that the two ends of the cylinder 
 are considered as forming a part of its sur- 
 face. He likewise shows that the curve 
 surface of any stigineiit of the vy Under, be- 
 tween two planes perpendicular to its axis, 
 is equal to the curve surface of the corres- 
 ])i)nding segnuMit of the si)h('re. Archi- 
 medes was so nnicli pleased with these! 
 discoveries, that he requested after liirt 
 <l(;ath that his tomb might \n: inscribed 
 with a sphere and cylinder. 
 
 ICralosthenes was another great geome- 
 trician, and nourished in the Alexandrian 
 Ki'hooi,ai)out thetinu! of Arciiimedes. He 
 was bdiii 27(» A. ('. and as a geonu'ler, 
 ranks with Aristieus, I^uclid, and Apol- 
 ionius. 
 
 About the time that Archimedes finished 
 
 ETRY. 
 
 his career, another great geometrician ap- 
 peared ; named Apollouius of Perga, born 
 240 A. C. He flourished principally under 
 Ptolemy PhiJopater, or towards the enil 
 of that century. He studied in the Alex- 
 andrian school under the successors of 
 Euclid ; and so highly esteemed were his 
 discoveries, that he acquired the name of 
 the Great Geometer. 
 
 The names of several other great mathe- 
 maticians of antiquity, conteujporary with 
 Archimedes and ApoUonius, have come 
 down to us ; but they are more referrible 
 to a distinct work on geometry alone, 
 which is of too much importance to be 
 condensed into a single article of a work 
 like this. We must therefore refer our 
 readers who would inform themselves pro- 
 perly on this important guide to all excel- 
 lence in art or science to the following 
 works. 
 
 On the history of geometry to Monti'- 
 cijV, Histoire de MatMmatiques, second edi- 
 tion. Bossut's General history of Muthemti- 
 tics, of which there is a good English 
 translation. Dr. Hltton's Ulittlmnalicdl 
 Dictioiiari/, second edition, 4to. Lond. 1815. 
 Dk. Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopicdiu, 
 to which we are much indebted in this 
 article. The ENC\CLOP.5iDiA iNlETKOPoi.t- 
 TANA, and similar works. 
 
 On the elements and practice of geo- 
 metry ; Euclid, of which there are many 
 editions ; the first is that of Ratdolt, 1 182. 
 Dr. Barrow's edition of all the books, and 
 the Data, and Dr. Horsley's of the first 
 twelve, from the Latin versions of C'om- 
 mandine and Gregory, and the Data are 
 among the most valuable. Ahchi.aikdes ; the 
 best editions of which are Torellis in (Jreek 
 and Latin, Oxford, 17y2 ; and i'ejrard's 
 French translation, Paris, 1808. The first 
 edition of the Greek text was that of Ve- 
 iKilorius in 1541. Ai'oi.i.OMis, all the 
 writings that have been recovered of this 
 celel)rated geometer, are: — 1. The Section 
 of a Ratio; and 2. The Section of a ttimce; 
 which were restored by Snellius, 1(107; 
 and by Dr. Halley in 170<». i. Determinate 
 Section; Snellius restored these in his 
 AinilloniuK liataviis, 1001. There is an 
 I'.nglish translation by Law son, to which 
 is added a new restoration by Wales, 1772. 
 Simson has restored this work in his Oprra 
 iiliiliia, 177(>; and (iiannini, an Italian 
 geometer, in 1773. 1. Taiiiimcie.i ; \'iela 
 restored this in his Apollouius Gallus, KIOO. 
 Some additions were nmde by (ihetaWlus, 
 and others by Alexander Anderson, in l(>12. 
 The labours of Victa and (iiielaldns have 
 been given in English by Lawson, 1771. 
 5. The plane loci ; these ha\ c beeu restored 
 
GER 
 
 by Schooten, 1656; and Fernmt, 1679; 
 but the best restoration is that of Dr. Sim- 
 son, 1749. 6. The Inclinations ; these were 
 restored by Ghetaldus, in his Apollonius 
 Red ivii- us, 1607 : to these there is a supple- 
 ment by Anderson, 1612, a restoration by 
 Dr. Horsley, 1770, and another by Reuben 
 Burrow, 1779. Theodosius and Mena- 
 LAus, 1558, 1675, and an Oxford edition 
 by Hunter in 1707. Proclus Commenta- 
 rium in j>rimum Euclidis Librum, libri iv. 
 Latine vertit. F. Baroccius, 1560. Pro- 
 clus has also been ably translated by Tay- 
 lor, 1788. Eratosthenes's Gcometria, &c. 
 cum annot, 1672. Albert Durer, Inst if u- 
 tiones Geometricce, 1532. Kepler, Noca 
 Steriometria, &c. 1618. Van Culen, de 
 Circulo et atlscriptis, 1619. Des Cartes, 
 Geometric, 1637. Toricelij, Opera Gco- 
 metrica, 1644. Oughtred, Claris Mathe- 
 matica, 1653. James Gregory, Geometric 
 Pars universalis, 1668. Barrow, Lectiones 
 Optica; et Geometrical, 1674, Lectiones Ma- 
 thcmatica;, 1683. Daiid Gregory, Prac- 
 tical Geometry, 1745. Sharp, Geometnj 
 Improved, &c. 1718. Stewart, Proposi- 
 tiones Geometrical, 1763. Thomas Simson, 
 Elements of Geometry, 1747 and 1760. Se- 
 lect Exercises, by the same, 1752. Emer- 
 soNs, Elements of Geometry, 1763. Lacroix, 
 Ele)nens de Geom^trie descriptive, 1795. 
 Playfair, Origin and Investigations of 
 Porisms, Ediu. Trans, vol. iii. Legendres, 
 Elemens de Giometrie, 9th edition, 1812. 
 Leslie, Elements of Geometry, Geometrical 
 Analysis, and Plane Trigonometry, 2nd edi- 
 tion, 1811. 
 
 To such as are entering on the study of 
 geometry, the following works are particu- 
 larly recommended ; Simson's £«cZJrf, Play- 
 fair's Geometry, Legendre's Geometrie, 
 which is a clear and valuable elucidation 
 of the science, and Leslie's Geometry. 
 
 Geometrical Elevation. Li architec- 
 ture. A design for the front or side of a 
 building drawn according to the rules of 
 geometry ; as opposed to the perspective or 
 natural elevation. 
 
 German School. In painting. One of 
 the grand divisions in the classification of 
 painters, named from Germany, the coun- 
 try of their birth or practice. It does not 
 otrer so connected or complete a series of 
 artists to make up the idea of a school, 
 as does the Italian, the Roman, or the 
 Flemish. The earlier masters were dry 
 and hard in their manners, though some 
 of them rose superior to their Italian co- 
 temporaries in the splendour of their co- 
 louring. The latter masters have followed 
 the schools of Italy and Holland, and con- 
 
 GIL 
 
 sequently belong rather to them than to 
 that of their native counti-y. See School. 
 
 Gestatio. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 A place in the gardens of tlie ancient Ro- 
 mans for exercise on horseback, or in a 
 carriage, the form of which was generally 
 circular. The gestatio of Pliny (lib, ii. ep. 
 17.) was uncovered and near to the tricle- 
 nium. It was encompassed with a box 
 tree hedge, and where that was decayed, 
 with rosemary ; for the box in those parts 
 which are sheltered by the buildings, pre- 
 serves its verdure perfectly well ; but 
 Avliere, by an open situation, it lies ex- 
 posed to the spray of the sea, tliough at 
 a great distance it entirely withers. To 
 the inner circle of the gestatio is joined a 
 shady row of young vines, with a walk, 
 soft and pleasant even to the naked feet. 
 
 Giant, [gigas, Lat. gennt, Fr.] In paint- 
 ing and sculpture. A man of size above the 
 ordinary rate of men ; a man unnaturally 
 large. The belief in the existence of 
 giants was very prevalent among the an- 
 cients, and mixes itself with their history 
 as well as with their mythology and poe- 
 try. Thus the Greeks assume that the 
 walls of Sicyone was built by the Cy- 
 clops, w ho were giants, and were also em- 
 ployed by Vulcan in the forges of JEtna. 
 The gia^its of antiquity were fabled to be 
 the sons of Titan and tlie Earth, and made 
 war against Jupiter, for which rebellious 
 act they were cast down, after their defeat, 
 to Tartarus to receive the punishment due 
 to their enormous crimes. The poets, in 
 speaking of these monsters, say, they had 
 snakes instead of legs, which is represent- 
 ed on a gem in the Florentine collection, 
 as terminating at the thighs into two vast 
 serpents. See Colossus. 
 
 Gigantic, [gigantes, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 Suitable to a giant; big, colossal, enor- 
 mous. See Colossal, Colossus. 
 
 Gigantomachia. [from gigantcs, and 
 liaxai, Gr.] In painting and sculpture. Re- 
 presentations of combats with, or between 
 giants. 
 
 Gilding, [j^il'oan, Sax.] In the practice 
 of the arts. The art of laying gold on any 
 surface or body by way of ornament. The 
 art of gilding is of great antiquitj-. In the 
 earliest of the Egyptian monuments of art, 
 which have reached our times, many traces 
 of gilding and silvering are to be found. 
 The ancient Persians also practised this 
 art, of which many vestiges are to be found 
 in the ruins of Persepolis. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans also practised 
 it to a very great extent, the former, even 
 gilding the liorns and hoofs of the victims 
 
GLA 
 
 T\hicli they used in their sacrifices. The 
 tustoin of gilding statues belongs to the 
 infancy of art, yet it was carried into the 
 times, when the arts had reached a high 
 degree of perfection. The Romans used 
 gilding to their furniture, domestic utensils, 
 ornaments, and toys to a prodigal extent. 
 
 Although the ancients were acquainted 
 with the art of gilding, they did not pos- 
 sess the means of extending the leaves of 
 gold to such a surprising degiee as is done 
 at present. From the information of Pliny 
 •w.e learn, that their thickest leaves of gold 
 were called bractece Prenestina;, because a 
 statue of Fortune at Prenestina was gilded 
 therewith. The proportions of these were, 
 an ounce of gold formed seven hundred 
 and fifty of these leaves, each being four 
 lingers or three inches square; which is 
 nine square inches in every leaf, or nearly 
 tbrty-seven square feet for the whole ounce. 
 The Komans employed thinner leaves, 
 which they called bracteoE questorice. 
 
 The art of gilding is performed either 
 upon metals, or upon wood, leathei-, parch- 
 ment, or paper; and there are three dis- 
 tinct methods in general practice; namely, 
 wash or icalcr gliding, in which the gold 
 is spread whilst reduced to a fluid state by 
 solution in mercury ; Imf gilding, either 
 burnished or in oil, is performed by cement- 
 ing thin leaves of gold upon the w^ork, 
 either by size or by oil ; Japanner's gilding, 
 in which gold dust or powder is used in- 
 stead of leaves. 
 
 The mechanical part of this art does not 
 belong to a dictionary of the fine arts, but 
 the curious reader is referred to the Hand- 
 maid of the Arts ; Lewis's Commercium phi- 
 losophico technicum, the Circle of Mechanical 
 Arts, the various Encyclopiedias, &:c. 
 
 Cladiatou. [Lat. from glmlius, a sword.] 
 In painting and sculpture. A combatant or 
 sword player in the public shows of the an- 
 cient Romans. The gladiators were for the 
 greater part slaves, kept and insf rutted for 
 the purpose, by a master whom Ihey called 
 Lanista. Their school of practice wascalled 
 haltuilia, whvTC lliey learned to use their 
 weapons, juactising with a wooden sword 
 called Itudis; so that rudihus hatucre is to 
 fence or exercise with this kind of instru- 
 ment. The gladiators were of several 
 sorts; some fought oidy with a naked 
 Bword in the right hand, and a bulkier on 
 the left; and were called Thraces* or Par- 
 viuliarii from llieir target the Parma ^. 
 Others appeare<l in perfect armour; some 
 
 * " Tliniccs cladiatorcR i'l sitniliituliiio parimiliiruiii 
 3'liiini:inmi." Kkst. 
 f " r.iriua est aciitum brcvc." No*. 
 
 GLA 
 
 went to the combat blindfold, and were 
 called Andahatcs. Another sort were named 
 Jietiarii, from the not or tunicati rctiarii 
 vel Laquearii, which they used to entrap 
 their adversaries. See Amphitheatre, 
 Circus. 
 
 At first the gladiators were slaves or 
 criminals, condemned ad ludum, or ad gla- 
 ditim, or prisoners taken in warfare, who 
 had this wretched chance of saving their 
 lives, after contributing a certain number 
 of times to the sports of their bloodthirsty 
 masters. The Secutores, so called from 
 their succeeding or following the slain as 
 they were killed off, were armed with a 
 helmet, a buckler, and a sword, or a club 
 loaded with lead. The Thraces, like the 
 people of that name, were armed with a 
 short sw ord, a poignard, and a small round 
 shield. The arms of the Myrmillones were 
 a shield, a scythe, and a helmet, on which 
 was the representation of a fish. The Ro- 
 mans having given the appellation oi Gauls 
 to them; from which circumstance they 
 cried out, " Non te peto, pisceni peto : 
 quid me fugis, Galle ;" it is not thee, that 
 I seek, but thy fish, why dost thou fly me 
 Gaul. Another sort were called at first 
 Samuites, and afterwards Iloplomachi, from 
 oTr\6iiax«c, combatting, armed from head 
 to foot. Some authors give them a shield 
 of chased silver, a baldrick, a boot on tlu» 
 left leg, and a helmet with aigrettes. The 
 essedarii, as their name imports, fought in 
 chariots called esseda, the andcbatts on 
 horseback with their eyes blindfolded, the 
 dimacharii with a short sword in each hand. 
 There were also other kind of gladiators, 
 but they are principally small \ariations 
 upon the before mentioned, or named from 
 their modes of figiiting. 
 
 Glass. [3la?r, Sax.] In painting and 
 architecture. An artificial transparent sul)- 
 stancc, nuule by fusing various salts, and 
 metallic oxydes, with siliceous earths, 
 n)uch used for i)lain and decorated win- 
 dows. The manufacture of glass is of 
 very ancient date, for it was known in 
 the time of Aristotle, who flourished three 
 centuries and a half l)efore tiie (.'iirislian 
 a-ra, and who gives two problems upon 
 glass ; of wiiich the first is, why is it trans- 
 parent ? the second, why is it not nuille- 
 iilile .' Theophrastus, who flourished about 
 tliree hundred years before tlie Ciiristian 
 a-ra, describes glass as having been made 
 of the sanil of the river l?elus ; and the 
 .spliere of Archimedes is a remarkable in- 
 .stanci- of the perfection to which the art of 
 glass nuiking had been brought at Hint 
 early jRiiod. Virgil, in his fifth Kneid, 
 
GLASS. 
 
 compares tl\e clearness oi' tlie water of the 
 Fucine lake to glass ; and Horace, in the 
 third book of his Odes, mentions glass in 
 such terms, as show that its transparency 
 ■was brought to great perfection. In the 
 time of Strabo, who lived in the first cen- 
 tury of tlie Christian era, the manufacture 
 of glass was well understood, and had be- 
 come a considerable article of trade. Se- 
 neca, who lived in the same century, seems 
 not only to have been well acquainted with 
 glass as a transparent substance, but also 
 understood its magnifying powers, when 
 formed into a convex shape. Pliny relates 
 the origin or discovery of glass (lib. xxxvi. 
 cap. Go) as arising from the circumstance 
 of a merciiant vessel, laden with nitre or 
 fossil alkali, having been driven ashore on 
 the coast of Palestine, near the river Be- 
 lus, the crew went in search of provisions, 
 and accidentally supported the kettles on 
 which they dressed them upon pieces of 
 fossil alkali. The river sands, above wliicii 
 this operation was performed, was vitri- 
 fied by its union with the alkali, and thus 
 liroduced glass. The important hint which 
 was thus accidentally obtained was soon 
 adopted, and the art of making glass was 
 gradually improved. 
 
 In the time of Pliny, glass was manu- 
 factured out of the fine sand which was 
 collected at the mouth of the river Vul- 
 turnus. After being ground to powder, it 
 was mixed with three parts of nitrous fos- 
 sil alkali or soda, and after fusion it was 
 taken to another furnace, where it was 
 formed into a mass called ammonitrum, and 
 converted into pure glass. A similar me- 
 thod of making glass was used in Spain 
 and Gaul. 
 
 To descend to modern times, Venerable 
 Bede informs us that artificers skilled in 
 making glass were brought into England 
 in the year 674. Glass windows did not 
 begin to be generally used in England be- 
 fore the year 1180, and for a considerable 
 time they Avere reckoned a complete lux- 
 ury, and as marks of great magnificence. 
 Italy had them first, France next, and 
 thence they were introduced into England. 
 Venice for many years excelled all Eu- 
 rope in the fineness of its glasses ; and in 
 the thirteenth century the Venetians were 
 the only people who had the secret of 
 making crystal looking glasses, which they 
 performed by blowing nearly in the same 
 manner as a considerable quantity of the 
 common mirror-glass is now manufactured. 
 
 The art of making coloured glass ap- 
 pears to have been coeval with the inven- 
 tion. Pliny relates that the finest glass 
 was brought from Alexandria at an im- 
 
 mense price, and De Pauw that the glass 
 manufactories of Diospolis the Great, the 
 capital of the Thebaid, was of high cele- 
 brity, particularly in the manufacture of 
 various sorts of coloured glass, and of a 
 sort which they enriched with gilding". 
 Many of the Egyptian mummies, some of 
 which are in tlie British Museum, are or- 
 namented with beads of variously coloured 
 glass, which could not have been executed 
 without a chymical knowledge of the pro- 
 perties of the metallic oxydes. Strabo 
 was told by the workmen of Alexandria, 
 that their country produced an ingredient, 
 for making coloured glass ; and Seneca 
 informs us, that Democritus introduced into 
 Europe the art of making coloured glass, 
 and of thus imitating the precious stones. 
 This beautiful and curious art was brought 
 to a high degree of perfection among tiie 
 Greeks and Romans, and many of the gems 
 were so admirably counterfeited as to de- 
 ceive even those who were acquainted 
 with the study of minerals. 
 
 In the time of Augustus the Roman ar- 
 chitects made use of glass in their musaic 
 decorations ; and several specimens of this 
 work have been found among the ruins of 
 the villa of the Emperor Tiberivis, in tlie 
 island of Capri. Some of these specimens 
 have been examined and analysed by Klap- 
 roth. They consist of pieces of red, green, 
 and blue glass. Another mode of forming 
 pictures with coloured glass was known 
 and practised by the ancients. It con- 
 sists of variously coloured glass fibres, 
 fitted with the utmost exactness, so that a 
 section across the fibres represents the oIj- 
 jects to be painted. These fibres, when 
 properly joined together, are afterwards 
 cemented by fusion into a homogeneous 
 and solid mass. Specimens of this singu- 
 lar art were found about the middle of the 
 last century. Count Caylus describes 
 them in his Collection of Antiquities, and 
 WiNCKELMANN in liis Annotations on the 
 history of the art among the ancients, under 
 the name of pictures made of glass tubes. 
 
 About the end of the third century, as 
 appears from a passage in Lanctantius {de 
 opificio dei, cap, 5), glass was used for 
 windows ; and there is reason to believe, 
 from the glass plates found in Hercula- 
 neuni, that window glass ha'd been intro- 
 duced at a much earlier period. St. Je- 
 rome, A. D. 422, Paulus Silentiarus, A. D. 
 534, Gregory of Tours, A. D. 571, and Jo- 
 hannes Philoponus, A. D. 030, all speak 
 in the most distinct manner of the use of 
 glass in the formation of windows. 
 
 The following manner of staining glass 
 for the painter's art, by Mr. Robert W\nn, 
 
GLASS 
 
 who received an honourable reward from 
 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, 
 &c. has been recommended to tlie author 
 of this Dictionary by competent judges ; 
 and on such recommendation he printed it, 
 a few years since, in the third volume of 
 his Annals of the Fine Arts. p. 358. 
 
 In coloured glass the whole body of the 
 material is tinged throughout by means of 
 some colouring ingredient uniformly dif- 
 fused through or dissolved in the sub- 
 stance of the glass. 
 
 In enamelling, the colours being ground 
 up with an easily vitriliablo flux, are laid 
 on the surface of metal, or porcelain, or 
 glass, and are then exposed to such a de- 
 gree of heat as shall just melt the enamel, 
 and then fix it on tiie surface of the sub- 
 stance on which it has been applied. 
 
 In staining glass, the colouring ingredi- 
 ents are mixed with water, or some other 
 fluid vehicle, by means of which they are 
 spread over the surface of a plate of glass, 
 and when dry, are exposed to such a de- 
 gree of heat as by experience has been 
 found to be suflicient. The colour is then 
 rubbed off from the surface of the glass, 
 to which it does not adhere, and those 
 parts of the plate which have been thus 
 covered are found to have acquired a per- 
 manent and transparent tinge or stain, 
 doubtless from some particles of the colour 
 having been absorbed and fixed in the 
 pores of the glass. 
 
 In all the compositions for staining glass, 
 silver in some form or other enters as an 
 essential ingredient; I sliall therefore be- 
 gin by describing the different prepara- 
 tions of silver that I make use of. 
 
 Take two or three ounces t)f pure nitric 
 acid, and dilute it with three times its 
 bulk of distilled water; i)ut it into a Flo- 
 rence flask, or any other convenient glass 
 vessel, and add ti) it reliued silver by small 
 pieces at a tinu; till the acid, though kept 
 at a warm temperature, refuses to dissolve 
 any more: after standing ((uiet for sonu! 
 liours, pour ofl' the clear li(|uor into a cb^an 
 ground stoppered phial, and label it ni- 
 trate of silver. 
 
 water ; and add nitrate of silver as above 
 described. The white precipitate thus 
 obt2dned, when washed and dried, is ready 
 for use. It is called carbonate of silver. 
 
 No. 3. Dissolve sub-carbonate of potash 
 in water, and proceed precisely as directed 
 for No. 2. The white powder thus ob- 
 tained is also carbonate of silver. 
 
 No. 4. Dissolve phosphate of soda in 
 water, and proceed as already mentioned. 
 The precipitate thus obtained is of a yel- 
 low colour, and is called plwsphate of 
 silver. 
 
 No. 5. Take any quantity of pure silv(>r 
 rolled out into thin plates, and put it into 
 a crucible, together with some sulphur. 
 When the crucible has been a short tiiiu" 
 ou the fire, the sulphur will first melt, and 
 then will gradually melt away with a blue 
 flame. When the flame has ceased, add 
 some more sulphur, and proceed as be- 
 fore ; then take the silver out and heat it 
 red in a muflle ; it will now be white and 
 very brittle, and, after having been reduced 
 to powder in a mortar, is fit for use. 
 
 No. 0. Take any quantity of a dilute so- 
 lution of nitrate of silver, and put into it a 
 stick of metallic tin, warm it a little, and 
 the silver will be precipitated in the form 
 of metallic leaves on the surface of the tin. 
 Scrape it ofl', wash it in warm water, dry 
 it, and grind it in a mortar. 
 
 No. 7. Take any quantity of nitrate of 
 silver, and put into it a piece of copper- 
 plate ; then proceed precisely as in No. (J. 
 
 The foregoing preparations of silver 
 mixed with other ingredients, in the j)ro- 
 portions about to be described, conqmise all 
 the varieties of ]>igment that are requisite 
 for staining glass. 
 
 Preparations of Silrer. 
 
 No. 1. Dissolve (^onmum salts in water, 
 and add nitrate of silver, ilrop by dnq), till 
 it C(;ases to occasion any precipitale ; tlierc 
 will thus be obtained a h('a\y white curd- 
 like substance, which must be well washed 
 in hot water, and dried ; by exposure to 
 ligiil it Ijccouu^s of a doll ijurpic colour. 
 It is known by the name of muriate of sil- 
 v«M', or luna cornea. 
 
 No. 2. Dissolve carbonate of soda in 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 Take silver. No. 2, one part; yellow lake, 
 one part. Mix the ingrcilicnts, and grind 
 them well with oil of turpiuitine, mixed 
 with the thick oil of turpeutine; lay it on 
 thin. 
 
 Take silver, No. 1, one part ; white clay 
 precipitated from a solution of alum by 
 sub-car!)onate of soda, tliree parts; oxa- 
 late iron, prepared by i)recii)ilaling a clear 
 solution of suli)hate of iron by oxalate of 
 jjotash, three parts ; oxide of zinc, twti 
 l)arts. Let the silver be ground first in 
 water with liu' oxyde of /iiu-, and tlicii 
 with the other ingredients. This is in- 
 tended for floating on thick. 
 
 Take silver. No. :$, oiu' pari ; yellow 
 lake, one part. (.«riud lluiii in spirit of 
 turpentine and oil, and lay the mixture on 
 very thin. 
 
 Take siUcr, No. 1, one part; yellow 
 
G L A 
 
 clay, one part; white clay, half a part. 
 Grind them in spirit of turpentine and oil, 
 and lay the mixture on thin. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Take silver, No. 6, one part; Venetian 
 red and yellow oclire, equal parts, washed 
 in water and calcined red, two parts. Grind 
 tlie ingredients in spirit of turpentine, with 
 thick oil of turpentine, and lay the mix- 
 ture on thin. 
 
 Take silver. No. 7, one part ; Venetian 
 red and yellow ochre, one part. Grind in 
 turpentine and oil, &c. as the foregoing. 
 If entire panes of glass are to be tinged 
 orange, the proportion of ochre may be 
 greatly increased. The depth of the tinge 
 depends in some measure on the heat of 
 the furnace, and on the time that the glass 
 is exposed to it, which, though easily 
 learned by experience, cannot be made the 
 object of precise rules. 
 
 Red. 
 
 Take silver. No. 5, one part ; brown 
 oxyde of iron, prepared by heating scales 
 of iron, then quenching them in water, re- 
 ducing them to a fine powder, and lastly 
 calcining it in a mufile, one part. Grind 
 the ingredients with turpentine and oil, 
 and lay the mixture on thick. 
 
 Take of autimonial silver, prepared by 
 melting together one part of silver and 
 two parts of crude antimonj^, and pulveriz- 
 ing the mass, one part ; colcothar, one 
 part. Grind the ingredients in turpentine 
 and oil, and lay the mixture on thick. 
 
 Take antimonial silver, prepared as 
 above, one part ; Venetian red and yellow 
 ochre, of each one part. Grind, &c. as 
 before mentioned. 
 
 When whole panes are to be tinged, 
 the proportions of ochre or of colcothar 
 may be much increased, and the ingredi- 
 ents should be ground in water. 
 
 Of laying on the colour. 
 
 The method practised by most stainers 
 of glass is to draw the outline in Indian 
 ink, or in a brown colour ground with tur- 
 pentine and oil, and then to float on the 
 colour thick, having previously ground it 
 with water. But in this way of proceed- 
 ing it is very subject either to flow over or 
 to come short of the outline, and thus ren- 
 der the skill of the draughtsman of little 
 effect. 
 
 My method is to draw the pattern in In- 
 dian ink, and having ground the colour as 
 fine as possible in spirits of turpentine, 
 brought to a proper consistence with thick 
 oil of turpentine, to adjj a little oil of spike 
 
 GLA 
 
 lavender, and to cover the outline entirely 
 with this composition. 
 
 When it has become dry, I work out the 
 colour with the point of a stick and a knife 
 from those parts that are not intended to 
 be stained, and am thus enabled to execute 
 the most delicate ornaments with exact- 
 ness and precision. 
 
 If the colour is required to be laid on so 
 thick that the outline would not be visible 
 through it, let the colour be first laid on as 
 smoothly as possible, and when it has be- 
 come dry, draw the outline upon it with 
 vermilion water colour, and work out the 
 design as before. 
 
 Besides the precision acquired by the 
 above method, it enables the artist to ap- 
 ply different shades in the same design ; 
 whereas the old method of floating only 
 communicates a uniform tint to the whole 
 pattern. 
 
 The artist should contrive to charge his 
 furnace with pieces the colour of which is 
 ground in the same vehicle, and not to mix 
 in the same burning some colours ground 
 in turpentine and others ground in water. 
 The ineces must also be very carefully 
 dried, and must be placed in the furnace 
 when the latter is moderately warm. 
 
 To Gild Glass. 
 
 Take of fine gold in grains, one part; 
 of pure mercury, eight parts. Warm the 
 mercury and then add the gold, previously 
 making it i-ed hot. When the gold is per- 
 fectly dissolved, pour out the mixture into 
 cold water, and wash it well. Then press 
 out the superfluous mercury through linen 
 or soft leather, and the mercury which 
 runs through (as it retains some gold) 
 should be reserved for the next opportu- 
 nity. 
 
 The amalgam which remains in the lea- 
 ther is to be digested in warm aquafortis, 
 which will take up the mercury, but will 
 leave the gold in the form of an extremely 
 fine powder. This powder, when washed 
 and dried, must be rubbed up with one- 
 third of its weight of mercury ; then mix 
 one grain of this amalgam with three grains 
 of gold flux, which is to be applied in the 
 usual manner. 
 
 The mechanical art of manufacturing 
 plain and coloured glass belongs to dis- 
 tinct treatises or general Cyclopedias, to 
 which, with Martin's Circle of the Mecha- 
 nical Arts, we refer our readers. 
 
 Glazing, [from glass, accidentally va- 
 ried.] In painting. The art of overlaying 
 or finishing pictures in oil colours, with 
 brilliant and pellucid colours. It is called 
 glazing from its transparency, and from 
 
G LY 
 
 its giving a lone and harmony to the. tints 
 resembling the ellects of glass. The man- 
 ner of glazing an oil picture is by laying 
 on a thin coat of transparent colour lightly, 
 through which all the lights and shades of 
 the under colouring is perceptible. How- 
 ever beautiful for a time glazing may ren- 
 der a picture, it is inevitably destructive 
 to it after a time, as the glazing forms a 
 disagreeable and opake coat, like yellow 
 varnish, over the whole surface of the pic- 
 lure, which cracks and destroys its effect; 
 and if any pencilling or finishing has been 
 affected by this manner, it is sure to be the 
 lirst destroyed in the cleaning. The man- 
 ner of colouring adopted by Rubens and 
 his school produces all the brilliancy, 
 depth, and effect of this and other meretri- 
 cious modes of practice. This effective 
 mode of colouring is thus related in that 
 great master's Lessons on Painting. " Be- 
 gin by painting in j'our shadows lightly, 
 taking particular care that no white is 
 suffered to glide into them, it is the poison 
 of a picture, except in the lights ; if once 
 your shadows are cnrru])ted by the intro- 
 duction of the baneful colour, your tones 
 will no longer be warm and transparent, 
 but heavy and leady. It is not the same 
 in the lights, they may be loaded with co- 
 lour as much as you may think proper, 
 provided the tones are kept pure ; you are 
 sure to succeed in placing each tint in its 
 place, and afterwards by a light blending 
 with tlie brush or pencil, melting tlicm into 
 eacii other, witliout tormenting them, and, 
 on this preparation, may be given tliose 
 decided touches which are always the dis- 
 tinguishing marks of the great master." 
 
 Gloiiy. [gloria, La(.] In paiiilitifc and 
 .somclimcs in a bad style of sculptnre, A 
 circle of rays which surrounds the heads of 
 saints, &c. in pidures; introduced by in- 
 different painters, wiio, to dislingnisli sanc- 
 tity and divinity, which they faile«l in 
 tlirough expression, added tin; glory ; like 
 one wiio, not knowing iiow to represent a 
 lion, painted a goat, and addetl, " this is a 
 lion." Sculptors have also with a similar 
 bad taste, like llernini's altar in tin- tri- 
 biina of St. I'cter at IJonic, made marble 
 clouds, bronze skies, and gilded brazen 
 rays and sun beams large enougii for the 
 main ijcanis of tlie ciiimla itself. 
 
 Gi.ovi:. Ij^lope, Sax.] In coslumc. Cloth- 
 ing for the hands. Gloves were known to 
 the ancients, and were called chirolhcca 
 and manicti- by the Koniaiis, and XniwiiiiKij 
 by the Ciretrks, liicrally hand coverers. 
 
 Gf.YPM. [rXw<)!»rf, Gr.] In archUccluvv. A 
 iiolcli or iiicisiini cut in by way of orna- 
 ment. iSco Du;lvi'ii, Tkkjlm'II. 
 
 GOT 
 
 Glyptick. [from rXixpu), I engrave of 
 sculp.] In sculpture. The art of cngrar- 
 ing figures, Sec. on stones and other hard 
 substances. See Gem. 
 
 Glyptography, [from glj-ptick.] In the 
 a-iticism of art. The knowledge of en- 
 graved gems. A great number of works 
 have been pablished on this branch of 
 knowledge, but very few of them being 
 elementary, their names w ill be suflicient 
 for reference. M. Vettoki is the lirst 
 who wrote on glyptography. jNIarieiti 
 has also published a work on the same 
 subject, which is very voluminous and 
 scarce. Blsching, Aldini, Glrutf, and 
 MiLLiN have each wrote concise elementary 
 works, well adapted for students. Er- 
 NESTi, INIartim, Siebexkees, Christ, and 
 EscHENBURG have devoted a portion of 
 their works on Archaiology to the consi- 
 deration of Glyptography ; and much in- 
 formation may be gained on the same sub- 
 ject from the works of the elder Pliny, 
 Count Caylus, M. Bruckmann, Spence, 
 in his Polymefes, M. de Veltheim, Kirch- 
 man, Klotz, WiNCKELiUANN, and other emi- 
 nent writers on archaiology and the art. 
 See Abraxas, Dactyuotheca, Ge.^i scli.i'- 
 ture. 
 
 GoBEXJNS. See Tapestry. 
 
 GoDROON, corruptly Gauroon. {/^odron, 
 Fr.] In archili'clural sculpture. A kind of 
 inverted fluting, beading, or cabling, with 
 which various members and ornameiils are 
 decorated. 
 
 GoLA or Gila. [Lat.] In archil ci lure. 
 A moulding so called from its resemblance 
 to the contour of the throat, from the Ita- 
 lian, and French geule, gola and tlouciuc, 
 but is more usually called cijnui rcccrsu, or 
 ogee. See Cymatilm. 
 
 Gorgon. See Medlsa. 
 
 G<)R(;oNEiA. [l^ofiyoi'fta, Gr.] In archi- 
 tectural sculpture. iMasks carved in imi- 
 tation of the Gorgon's or MedusiL.'s head, 
 used as keystones. 
 
 Gornic. [from Goth.] In architect urc. 
 A style of building nameil after the Goll-s, 
 its su]iposcd inventors, but called also 
 the Pointed, the Fnglish, and sometimes 
 the (.ierman style of architecture. It mav 
 be divided into the SAXt»N or early liriiish, 
 the NoitMAN or luiiilish, and the Floiiid. 
 N'arious h> pothes(>s have been formed upon 
 tin- origin of this beautiful and original 
 style of architecture, which have been 
 thus sumnud up by Dr. Geoiick IMou.Kif, 
 lirst architect Id the Grand Duki'of llrsse, 
 i\c. in his learned h'.ssat/ on the Orifiin and 
 7'ro/,'T('i« <(/' dot hie Architecture, traced in 
 and deduced from the ancient edifices of (icy- 
 many, nilh reference to thu.se of Ln^lund, i)C. 
 
GRA 
 
 a translation of which has just (1824) been 
 published, namely, 
 
 1. From the holy groves or thickets of 
 the ancient Celtic nations. 
 
 2. From huts made with the entwined 
 twigs of trees. 
 
 3. From the structure of the framing in 
 wooden buildings. 
 
 4. From the pyramids of Egypt. 
 
 5. From the imitation of jjointed arches 
 generated by the intersection of semi- 
 circles. 
 
 See ArciiitecturEjArts, Style, School; 
 and for the best books and principal artists 
 in this style see Architecture. 
 
 Grace. [Fr.] ht all the arts. 1. Adven- 
 titious or artificial beauty ; embellishment, 
 highest perfection. 2. Also a goddess 
 supposed by the heathens to bestow beauty. 
 3. In the 'plural graces lgraiife,ha.t.'] Three 
 heatiien goddesses or nymphs renowned 
 for their beauty. 
 
 1. Grace, or the highest, and perhaps 
 indescribable perfection of beauty, consists 
 of a certain arrangement of the component 
 parts of a figure or composition, from which 
 results a pleasing, or, as it is called, a 
 graceful efi'ect. This quality depends much 
 upon the contrast and lightness of the po- 
 sition and action of the figures. The figure 
 of St. Paul in Kadaelle's cartoon of the 
 Sacrifice of Lysti'a is an eminent example 
 of this fine quality. Indeed, all the pic- 
 tures of this great master, particularly his 
 inimitable cartoons, abound with grace, 
 and are splendid models of imitation. The 
 most so, however, are the St. John healing 
 the lame man, and several others in the 
 cartoon of the beautiful gate. The statue 
 of the Venus de Medici and of the sleeping 
 hermaphrodite also abound with this beau- 
 tiful quality. 
 
 2. The Graces are represented by the 
 ancient artists and poets like three Jjeauti- 
 ful sisters, naked, unconscious of shame, 
 and linked together. The Graces and 
 Nymphs are represented by Horace (1. i. 
 od. 4. V. 7) as dancing with Venus at their 
 head. Canova's Graces, in the Duke of 
 Bedford's fine gallery of sculptures at \Vo- 
 burn Abbey, are eminently beautiful and 
 replete with grace. 
 
 Gradation. [Fr.] In painting. That 
 regular progress from one degree of colour 
 or shade to another that gives efi'ect, ro- 
 tundity, and verisimilitude to painting. It 
 can only be obtained by an attentive study 
 of nature, particularly in her efl'ects of 
 light and shade. See Chiaroscuro. 
 
 Grand, [grnndis, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 Great, noble, sublime, lofty ; conceived or 
 expressed v/ith great dignity. As Raf- 
 
 GRE 
 
 faello, Coregglo, and Guido excelled in 
 grace, so does Michel Angiolo in this ma- 
 jestic quality of tlie art. His style is pe 
 culiarly and essentially grand. The Greek 
 style of architecture is also grand ; the 
 Roman rich and sometimes beautiful. 
 The Greeks also gave this sublime quality 
 as well as every other requisite character- 
 istic to their sculpture. It is an emana- 
 tion of the mind, which must be tuned by 
 nature to its essence, and, like poetry, is 
 born with the artist. A cultivated mind, 
 a study of the greatest masters, and a close 
 investigation of those qualities which im- 
 press grandeur upon people and things, 
 must be sought for by him who wovild ex- 
 cel in grandeur of style. See Style. 
 
 Granite. [Fr. from gi-anum, Lat.] In 
 practical architecfwe, A hard compact stone 
 much used in building, composed of sepa- 
 rate and very large concretions ruflely 
 compacted. The white granite with black 
 spots, sometimes called moorstone, which 
 is now much used in the pavement of Lou- 
 don, is a very firm, and though rude, yet 
 beautifully variegated mass. Hard red 
 granite, variegated with black and white, 
 called oriental granite, is valuable for its 
 extreme hardness and beauty, and its ca- 
 pability of receiving a most elegant polish. 
 The Aberdeen, Cornish, and Irish granites 
 are peculiarly fine. See any good treatise 
 on Mineralogy for further particulars. 
 
 Grecian, [from Greece.] In the history 
 of the arts. Appertaining to the people or 
 country of Greece. See Arts, Architec- 
 ture, Greece, School, Sculpture, Style. 
 Greece. [Gr^cfa, Lat.] In the history of 
 the arts. The most celebrated country of 
 antiquity, inhabited by the Greeks. It is 
 of very inconsiderable extent, and scarcely 
 equals in size the half of England. It 
 is comprehended between 30" and 41" of 
 north latitude ; and is bcmnded on all 
 sides by the sea, except on the north, where 
 it borders upon Epirus and Macedonia. 
 Thessaly, its most northern province, is an 
 extensive and fertile vale completely sur- 
 rounded by lofty mountains ; by Olympus 
 on the north ; by Ossa on the east ; by 
 Pindus on the west; and on the south by 
 Oeta, at the foot of which lies the famous 
 pass of Therniopyhc. The tract extending 
 from the borders of Thessaly and Epirus 
 to the Corinthian isthmus contains the 
 provinces of Acarnania, on the east fron- 
 tier of which runs the river Achelous ; 
 jEtolia, bounded on the south by the sea, 
 but defended on every other side by moun- 
 tains almost impassable ; Doris, wholly a 
 mountainous country ; Locris and I'hocis, 
 both of small extent, but full of fertile 
 
 D B 
 
plains 
 
 GRE 
 
 Hoeotia, a well watered vale, 
 
 bounded, except on the north-east, by the 
 mountains Parnassus, Helicon, Citha?ron, 
 and Parncs ; and Attica, a rocky and bar- 
 ren country, producing little grain or pas- 
 ture, but yielding a variety of fruits, par- 
 ticularly figs and olives. The isthmus of 
 Corinth, a mountainous ridge, at one place 
 only five miles in breadth, leads farther 
 south to the peninsula of Peloponnesus, 
 which contains Achaia, a narrow strip of 
 country on the northern coast, bounded on 
 its inland frontier by a ridge of mountains, 
 running along its whole extent from Co- 
 rinth to Dyme ; Argolis, a remarkably 
 fruitful valley, included between two 
 mountainous branches, stretching from 
 Cyllene, the most northern of the Arcadian 
 summits, and terminating, the one in the 
 gulf of Argos, and the other at the promon- 
 tory of Scylla ; Elis, or Eleia, watered by 
 the rivers Peneus and Alpheus, and less 
 mountainous than the other provinces in 
 Peloponnesus ; Arcadia, the central state, 
 consisting of a cluster of lofty mountains, 
 the principal of wliich are Taygetes and 
 Zarex ; Messenia, the most level district 
 in the peninsula, the best adapted for til- 
 lage, and most fruitful in general produce ; 
 and Laconia, traversed by two branches of 
 the Taygetus and Zarex, between which 
 runs the river Eurotas, watering several 
 very fertile but not extensive vales. 
 
 The general aspect of Greece is rugged, 
 but its climate is highly propitious; and 
 both the summer heat and winter cold 
 are preserved by the surrounding seas in 
 an equable state of temperature. Some of 
 its mountains contain valuable niekils • 
 other are composed of the finest marbles ; 
 and many are C()^ered to a great extent 
 witii a variety of useful timber. Its cen- 
 tral plains produce corn, oil, and wine ; 
 its valleys afiord the richest pasturage ; 
 and its long winding coast abounds witli 
 excellent harbours. The great variety in 
 its surface gives occasion to considerable 
 diversity, botli of produce and of cliniafe, 
 in every season of the year. It has i)cen 
 ren)arked,as a jjcculiar feature; in the toiio- 
 grapliy of the most ancient cities of Greece, 
 that every melropolis possessed Ksciladel 
 and its plains; llie former as a j)lac(' of 
 refuge in war, and tiie latter as a source 
 of agriculture in peace. The most rennnk- 
 al)le of its (owns were, in Tiikssai.v, (joni- 
 piii. Metropolis, and Scotussa, norlh of 
 the river Peneus ; Atrax, Larissa, the city 
 of Achilles; Magnesia, and Ai)he(a, the 
 ))<>rt of tlie Argonauts; Heraclea, nanu^d 
 from Hercules, wlio is sai<l to have tiirowii 
 himself into the pile on the siunniit of 
 
 GUI 
 
 Oeta, in its vicinity ; Lamea and Hypata. 
 on tiie banks of the Spercheus; Thaumaci, 
 Halos, and Pthia, the country of tiie JNIyr- 
 midones, Demetrias, Pherne, Pharsalia, on 
 the banks of the river Enipeus. In Ac ak- 
 NANiA, Amphilochicum, Stratus, and Ac- 
 tium, at the bottom of the Ambracian gulf. 
 In j^TOLiA, Chalydon, C'halcis, on tiie ri% er 
 Evenus ; Thermae, Lysmachia, Canope, 
 Naupactus, Erythrae, and Antirrhium. In 
 Doris, Cytinium, and three smaller towns 
 of little note. In Locris, Amphissa, Opus, 
 Cnemis, Narix, the native country of Ajax, 
 Thronium, Nicffia. In Phocis, Delphi, ac- 
 counted the centre of Greece, Elatea, on 
 the river Cephissus, Crissa, and Anticyra. 
 In BovOTiA, Thebes, near the ri\er Aso- 
 pus, Plataia, Leuctra, Orchomenos, Hali- 
 artus, Coronea, Cheronea, Lebadia, Thes- 
 piae, Ascra, the birthplace of Hesiod,Aulis, 
 Detium, and Tanagia. In Attica, Athens, 
 with its harbour, Pir.eeus, Phalereus and, 
 Munichia, Marathon, Phyhe, and Decelia. 
 In Megaris, Megara, Eleusis, and Nycfea. 
 In AcHAiA, Corinth, Sicyon, Patrip, 
 jEgium, Dyme, and Palleue. In Argous, 
 Argos, on the river Inachus, Mycena», the 
 city of Agamemnon, Epidaurus, Nemea, 
 and Tiryus. In Elis, Elis, on the river 
 Penens, Olympia, and Pisa. In Arcadia, 
 Megolopolis, Tegea, Mantinea, and Pal- 
 lantium. In Messenia, Messene, Steny- 
 clarus, and Pylos, the city of Nestor. In 
 Laconia, Sparta, on the river Eurotas, 
 Gythium, Silesia, Helos, Amyclaj. 
 
 Greek. See Grecian and its refer- 
 ences. 
 
 Greemioisr. [green and house.'] In ar- 
 chitecture. An ornamental building in 
 which tender plants are sheltered. See 
 Conservatory. 
 
 Griffin. [To/h//, Gr.J In the 7niiiholo(iii 
 of the arts. A fabulous animal, said to be 
 generated between tlie lion and the eagle, 
 and to have the head and paws of Hie lion, 
 the ears of the horse, the wings of the 
 eagle, and a crest formed like the dorsal 
 fins of a lisii. According to /Elian, in his 
 fotirtii book of his History of Animals, 
 this creature derived its origin from India ; 
 its back was covered wilii black fea- 
 lliers, its breast with red, and its wings 
 white. (Uesias, Herodotus, and other cre- 
 dulous Avriters also give similar descrip- 
 tioiirt of (he grillin. According to a tradi- 
 tion of the Hactriaiis, the gold mines of 
 the country were guarded by gritlins. Thr 
 grillin is also one of the atlriluitcs of Apol- 
 lo ; and, according to Philostiatus, in his 
 Life of ApoUouius, llie Indians (igured the 
 sun in a (|uadrign drawn by grillins. Ive- 
 presintations of gritlins are to !)e found on 
 
G W A 
 
 many antique bassi vilie.vi, and in BuoNA- 
 KOTxr, Medaglioni nniicld. 
 
 Gkimace. [Fr.] In painting and sculpture. 
 A i-epresentation of a distortion of the 
 countenance from habit, affectation, or in- 
 solence. 
 
 Groin. In architecture. A species of 
 arch, formed by one vault, or continued 
 arch intersecting another. See Arch, Cu- 
 pola, Dome. 
 
 Grotesque. [Fr.] In all the arts. Dis- 
 torted of figure, unnatural. 
 
 Grottesque. [from grotto.'] In architec- 
 ture and sculpture. Artificial work formed 
 in imitation of grottoes or grotto work. 
 
 Grotto, [grotte, Fr.] In architecture. An 
 artificial cavern or cave, decorated with 
 rock work, shells, &c. constructed for cool- 
 ness. 
 
 Ground, [jjiun'o, Sax.] In all the arts. 
 The first stratum of paint upon which the 
 figures, &c. are afterwards painted. The 
 fundamental substance ; that by which the 
 additional or accidental parts are sup- 
 ported. The back of a basso rilievo. The 
 face of the country or scenery that fills up 
 round and behind a building. The study 
 of backgrounds is one of the most essen- 
 tial branches of the art. So much so, that 
 when a great painter was offered a youth 
 as a pupil, whom he was told could paint 
 well enough to put in his backgrounds, 
 replied, then he requires no instruction. 
 An observation of nature, studying what 
 colours and forms best set off others, is the 
 best school for backgrounds. The student 
 may, however, be assisted by reading the 
 137th chapter of Leonardo da Vinci's 
 Treatise on Painting; the fourth and eighth 
 chapters of the fourth book of Le grand 
 Livre des Peintures de Lairesse ; Rey- 
 nolds's Discou7-ses on Painting, &c. 
 
 Gula. See Gola. 
 
 Gutt^^j:. [Lat.] In architecture. Drops, 
 ornaments used in the Doric frieze and 
 mutules. See Drops, Mutules. 
 
 Gutters, [guttur, Lat.] In practical ar- 
 chitecture. A passage or channel for wa- 
 ter on the roofs and other parts of houses. 
 
 Guttus or Gutturnium. [Lat.] In an- 
 cient sculpture. A species of small vase 
 with one handle, used by the Komans, ac- 
 cording to Pliny, in their sacrifices. 
 
 Gwalior, GuALioR, or Gualiar. In the 
 history of architecture. The name of a 
 strong fortress of Hindostan, in the dis- 
 trict of Goliud, and province of Agra. This 
 fort stands on a hill about one and six 
 tenths of a mile long, three hundred yards 
 wide at its greatest breadth, and three 
 hundred and forty-two feet high at its 
 north end. The sides of this hill are nearly 
 perpendicular, and a stone parapet is car- 
 
 GYP 
 
 ried all the v>'ay round cIofc to the brow 
 of it. At the north end of the hill, and 
 near the middle of the fort, are two re- 
 markable pyramidal buildings of red stone, 
 in the ancient Hindoo style of architec- 
 ture. The only gate to this fort is at the 
 northern extremity of the east side, from 
 which there is an ascent to the top of the 
 rock by several flights of steps. "The gar- 
 rison is supplied with excellent water, 
 from several natural cavities in the rock ; 
 and about half way up the rock, on the 
 outside, there are many artificial excava- 
 tions, containing the figures of men and 
 animals carved out of the solid rock. 
 
 The town is situated on the east side of 
 the hill. It is large and populous, and 
 contains many good stone houses. The 
 stone is obtained from the neighbouring 
 hills, which surround the fort like an am- 
 phitheatre, at the distance of from one to 
 four miles. They chiefly consist of schis- 
 thus, with apparently a large portion of 
 iron, and their surface is rugged, and 
 nearly destitute of vegetation. The small 
 river Soonrica rises to the eastward of the 
 town, and beyond it is the tomb of Mahom- 
 med Ghous, a learned man ; it is a hand- 
 some stone building, with a cupola covered 
 with blue enamel. Within the enclosure 
 of this monument is another tomb erected 
 to tlie memory of Tan-Sein, a great musi- 
 cian. The leaves of the tree which over- 
 shadows this tomb are supposed by the 
 vulgar to give great melody to the voice 
 when chewed. About seven hundred 
 yards from the northern extremity of the 
 fort is a conical hill, having on its summit 
 two high pillars joined by an arch, which 
 is supposed to be of very ancient work- 
 manship. See Architecture Indian. 
 
 Gymnasium. [Lat. ri^/ui'ao-iov, Gr.] In 
 architecture. A place or building where 
 wrestlers or other persons exercised their 
 strength in bodily exercises, and feats of 
 activit)^ Among the Gjeeks the gymnasii 
 occupied a primary station in their public 
 buildings, v/hich were more commonly 
 termed palasstrce (7r«Xatrrrpfl). See Cir- 
 cus, Hippodrome, Pal^istp-.e. 
 
 Gymnasia, [from gijinuasium.'] In an- 
 cient costume. The chief director of the 
 games and sports of the gymnasii. 
 
 Gyn.-eceium. [Lat. rwaiKtioc.] In an- 
 cient architecture. An apartment or build- 
 ing appropriated to the use and service 
 of the women. A sort of seraglio. 
 
 Gypsum. [Lat. Vv^^oq-'] In sculpture. A 
 hard, compact, whitish stone, which, Avhen 
 burnt, forms pla.ster of Paris. The finer 
 sorts are used to make vases, statues, &c. 
 See Alabaster. 
 
 B B 2 
 
II A E 
 
 HAG 
 
 H 
 
 H.UUT. [Juibitu.t, Lat.] In painting and 
 sculpture. Dress, accoutrements. See Cos- 
 tume. 
 
 Hadrianeium. [from Hadrian.'] In ar- 
 chitecture. The once splendid tomb of the 
 Emperor Hadrian, on the banks of the Ti- 
 ber at Rome, now the castle of St. Angelo. 
 The lower part of this edifice is a lar^e 
 square of about one hundred and forty ells 
 on a side. The upper part is a complete 
 circle, and surrounded by colonnades and 
 statues, as it is represented in the engrav- 
 ings made after the designs of G. Paolo 
 Panini. Twentj-four columns of Pavo- 
 nazzo marble, now forming a portion of 
 the basilica of St. Paul without the walls, 
 are said to have been taken from the Ha- 
 drianeium by the pious class of Christian 
 spoliators, and it is believed that the 
 greater part of the statues were thrown 
 into tlie Tiber by the Goths, on their first 
 taking possession of it as a fortress. Tlie 
 massive strength of its walls, togetiier with 
 its commanding situation, rendered it an 
 early object of military attention ; and Be- 
 lisarius was the first to avail himself of the 
 advantages it offered. It is now the prin- 
 cipal fortress in Rome, Hadrian's Villa. 
 See Villa. 
 
 Haerlem or Haarlem. In the history 
 of the arts. A toAvn in tlie United Pro- 
 vinces, twelve miles west of Amst(;rdam, 
 and fifteen miles and a iialf north of Ley- 
 den, is a place of considerable antiquity, 
 which has experienced many vicissitudes 
 in its history. 
 
 Haerlein is a large and handsome town, 
 well built, and well ]»a\ed. Its streets 
 arc broad and reguhir, and, like tiie other 
 towns of Holland, it abounds in caiuds, 
 bridges, and treef. Tlxe buildings most 
 wortliy of notice are the palace, tlu; piiljjic 
 library, and the cluircii. The last is a 
 very large structure, crowded, as is com- 
 nu)n in (hat country, with scpiare wooden 
 monuments, without any name, but iuiving 
 tlie arms of tlie deceased painted on a iilack 
 ground, and the <Iate of the death in gold 
 leltei'S. Us |)rinc'ipal ornament is tlu' or- 
 }.^an, whicli is accounted tlu- liriesl in Iht; 
 worhl, and which occupies tlie wliolo west 
 end of (he nave. It is siii)i)orted liy eight 
 marble coliuims, between (wo of wiiich, in 
 the centre, is a noble embUinati(al alto 
 rilievo, witli figures as larg(; as life. It 
 was built in 17;JH, and lias cigiit thousand 
 pipes, the largest of which is tiiir(y-(wo 
 
 feet in length, and sixteen inches in dia- 
 meter. Haerlem is still more justly cele- 
 brated as the birthplace of Lawrence Cos- 
 tar, who is said to have invented the art of 
 l)rinting, and the site of whose house is 
 still pointed out to strangers by an inscrip- 
 tion. He is said to have made tiie disco- 
 very by cutting the initial letters of his 
 name upon a piece of bark, and using it as 
 a seal ; and specimens of the infancy of 
 the art are preserved in the town house. 
 An academy of sciences was founded in 
 1752 ; and there is an elegant museum of 
 natural history formed by Dr. Van Marun, 
 superior to any other cabinet in Holland. 
 The articles are in an excellent state of 
 preservation, and arranged with scientific 
 taste. The Stadthouse is a magnificent 
 building at one end of the market place, 
 and contains a number of valuable paint- 
 ings, among which is the first piece in oil, 
 by Eyert, in 1437, which was sold during 
 the siege in 1572 for a few stivers, and is 
 now valued at £2000. 
 
 Hague. In the history of the arts. A 
 tow n in Holland, and the seat of the Dutch 
 go\ernment, ten miles south-south west 
 of Leyden, fourteen south-west of Am- 
 sterdam, and about three from the coast. 
 The streets are generally spacious, and 
 the meanest of (hem extremely clean. They 
 are decorated with trees, canals, and (as(e- 
 ful Iiridges. They are paved with a kind 
 of light coloured bricks, which have a gay 
 appearance, and which are so closely join- 
 ed (ogether, that no interstices can be per- 
 ceived to Iiarbour any species of dirt. The 
 Voorhout, wliich is accoun(ed (he princi- 
 pal street, is about half a mile in leiigdi, 
 with a mall in the middle, and contains a 
 numbi r of elegant buildings, in the pre- 
 sent style of archi(eclure. IJut (he Vy ver- 
 burg is the most beautiful part of (lie city, 
 and forms an oblong square, with a line of 
 niagniliceri( buildings on one side, and u 
 large body of water on (he other. The 
 palace of the Stadtholder consists chietiy 
 of old buildings, erected at ditlerent pe- 
 riods, without any regularity of design, 
 and is surroiiiidiil iiy a canal, with draw- 
 bridges. Tiie iMcnch chiireli is noted 
 as being (lu; liurving pbice of several 
 Counts of Holland, and in its vicinity 
 is a line garden in imitation of tiiat of 
 Vauxhall. The i)alace called JMaison de 
 ISois, a house of retircnuMit for the Stad- 
 hoider; has uuthing remarkable in i(s ap- 
 
HAN 
 
 pearauce or situation, but residence of a 
 I)lain country gentleman. During the time 
 of tlie Batavian republic it was converted 
 into a receptacle for tlie national cabinet 
 of paintings ; and, to the disgrace of the 
 government, one suit of its apartments was 
 occupied by the keeper of a tavern and 
 brotliel. The gardens belonging to this 
 palace are kept with great care as a public 
 promenade; but they are laid out in the 
 worst taste. Every thing is unnatural and 
 artificial, stagnant canals, puerile bridges, 
 flower beds of every conceivable form, and 
 trees cut into the most fantastic shapes. 
 By the recent restoration of the old go- 
 vernment, its empty palaces have been re- 
 occupied ; and its former affluence and 
 splendour may be expected to return. 
 
 Hall, [hal. Sax.] In architecture. The 
 first large room or apartment in a house ; 
 the public room of a corporate body ; a 
 court of justice ; a manor house, so called 
 because courts for the admission of tenants 
 and other manorial business are held in 
 them. There are also otlier apartments in 
 a mansion called halls besides the hall of 
 entrance, as the servants' hall, &c. 
 
 Hamburgh. In the history nf the arts. 
 A free imperial city of the Duchy of Hol- 
 stein, in Lower Saxony, and one of the 
 largest, richest, and most populous cities 
 in Germany. It is situated on the right 
 or northern bank of the river Elbe, at the 
 distance of about seventy miles from its 
 discharge into the German Ocean. The 
 town, although large and flourishing, is by 
 no means elegant. The principal streets 
 have long and broad canals, Avhich are 
 filled by the tide ; the others, especially in 
 the old town, are mean, narrow, and ill 
 paved. The houses are built mostly after 
 the Dutch fashion, and very lofty, several 
 of them being six or seven stories high. 
 The most beautiful parts of the town are 
 the Jimgfernstoig; which is the fashionable 
 promenade, especially on Sundays, and 
 the street and alleys along the Alster. 
 The principal public buildings in this city 
 are the churches of St. Peter, St. Nicholas, 
 St. Catherine, St. James, St. Michael, St. 
 John, and the cathedral. These are mostly 
 Gothic structures, having lofty spires, beau- 
 tiful altars, and large organs. From the 
 .spire of the church of St. Michael there 
 is an extensive and charming view of the 
 town and its environs. The exchange, the 
 orplian house, the several hospitals, the 
 room house, the house of Eimbeck, and the 
 o))elisk in honour of Professor Busch, are 
 also worthy of notice. 
 
 Hand, [han^. Sax.] In painting and 
 
 culpiurc. The extremity of the arui, con- 
 
 II AN 
 
 sisting of the palm and fingers, with their 
 radial and ulnar muscles. Performance 
 of any one. In tliis latter meaning artists^ 
 and critics say, the hand of such or such 
 an artist, for his perfurmmice ; and a know- 
 ledge of the hand of a great master is one 
 of the most difficult and necessary parts of 
 the science of a connoisseur. 
 
 The hand, taken in its ordinary sense, 
 consists of the bones and muscles of the 
 carpus, metacarpus, and the fingers ; the 
 knowledge of which is to be obtained from 
 works on anatomy. The hand is one of 
 tiie most difficult and important of the ex- 
 tremities to represent well either in draw- 
 ing, painting, or sculpture, and requires 
 the greatest attention from the artist. The 
 hands of the best masters are always well 
 understood and delineated, and by their 
 execution their works are often known. 
 The characters of the hands in a work of 
 art are as various as the persons to whom' 
 they belong; and nature must be the ar- 
 tist's guide in this as well as in all other 
 of his works. 
 
 A handsome hand is reckoned a great- 
 beauty, and the ancient sculptors have 
 succeeded in executing this difficult ex- 
 tremity to a wonder. Juno was called, by 
 ancient poets, the white armed goddess, 
 and Minerva is described as the goddess 
 with the beautiful hands. , 
 
 The hand was received by the ancients 
 as a symbol of various denominations. 
 Sacred hands were such as they worshiped 
 with particular rites. Votive hands are 
 known to the learned under various names, 
 derived either from the material of which 
 tliey were made, or from the usage to 
 which they were applied, as tnanus cema:, 
 from the material (bronze) of which they 
 were made ; maniis pantheos, when covered 
 with symbols appei-taining to all the gods. 
 The first votive hand was published by 
 PiGNORius, and is engraved in Le Tresor' 
 des Antiquites Grecqncs, vol. vii. page 510. 
 Thomassin published a second from the 
 Barherini Museum, in the same work, vol. 
 X. p. f)C6. The third belonged to the Mu- 
 seum Bellori, and was explained by Mi- 
 chel Angiolo La Chausse, in the same 
 work, vol. xii. p. 963, and vol. ii. pi. 2. of 
 liis Museum Romanum. It is also pub- 
 lished in Beger's Thesaurus Brandenburt;i- 
 eus, vol. iii. p. 404, and in Kircher's Oidi- 
 pus Egypt, vol. ii. part 2, page 451. Fa- 
 ther BoNANNi engraved the fourth in his 
 Museum Kirchcrianum, pi. 25, p. 82, which 
 is also, with the preceding three, in Mont- 
 FAUCON, vol. ii. part. 2, page 137. GoRi 
 has published a fifth in the third vol. of 
 his Inscriptions anti(iues ; <ind the liccueii 
 
II AN 
 
 de Caylus, vol. v. p. 63. Nos. 1 and 2, 
 contains a sixtli which was found in the 
 environs of Naples. 
 
 The authors of the AntiquiUs d'Hcrcnla- 
 vcnm iiave published in tiieir first volume 
 a votive hand, found in 1710, ainoiif; the 
 iruins of Resina. It is reckoned of indu- 
 bitable antiquity, and of the time of Titus. 
 It is a right hand, with two of the fingers 
 closed. Upon some of the antique votive 
 hands are found inscriptions concerning 
 their dedication, as on that described by 
 MoNTFAL'CON,vol.ii. i)art2,pagel37. No. 2, 
 where is one inscribed " Cecropius voti 
 compos votuni solvit." For farther infor- 
 mation the reader is referred to the before- 
 mentioned works. 
 
 Hanover. In the history of the arts, A 
 fortified town of Germany, and capital of 
 the kingdom of the same name. It is si- 
 tuated in a sandy plain, on both sides of 
 the river Leine, which divides it into two 
 towns, viz. Old and New Hanover. The 
 old town lies on the left bank of the river, 
 which here forms two branches, and after 
 enclosing an island, they again reunite 
 and become navigable. The old and new 
 tow'us are connected by bridges. The town 
 is built in the form of a half moon, and 
 contains several good streets. The houses 
 of the new street called George-strass are 
 ali built on the same plan. This street, or 
 rather row, is built along the side of a fine 
 rampart, from which it is separated by 
 iron chains, resting on pillars of freestone. 
 There is a Gothic appearance in most of 
 the buildings of Hanover. The houses 
 resemble the galleries of a vessel of the 
 sixteenth century, and the time of their 
 erection is always marked upon them. In 
 those dated 1505 each story projects seve- 
 ral feet over the one below it, and exhibits 
 medallions, pagan deities, warriors, and 
 verses of the Psalms. Ked and green 
 bricks are intermixed in some of the edi- 
 fices, and in others varuislicd (lies are ar- 
 ranged in rows. Sometinu'S bricks are 
 only used for the doors and windows, while 
 the rest of the hous(! consists of a\ ond, 
 painted of various colours. In sonic houses 
 the bricks are placed in wooden frames, 
 and secured by plaster. The town, how- 
 ever, contains nuiny handsome huildiiigs. 
 The elector's palace, which, after being 
 destroyed i)y fire, was rebuilt in 171M, is a 
 fme building constructed of hewn stmie. 
 This was the seat of the regency. Tlic 
 newly erected part of the electoral church, 
 and the palace of the Princess of Wales, 
 are likewise excellent buildings of ston<'. 
 Hanov(u- conlains also a theatre, three i)a- 
 rish chinches, a poor house, and three 
 
 H AR 
 
 hospitals. The public library of Hanover 
 is a respectable building. The first story 
 is appropriated to charts, state papers, and 
 juridical records. The upper stories con- 
 tain works of imagination and belles let- 
 tres. When the French threatened to in- 
 vade Hanover the elector ordered the four 
 copies of the beautiful Oxford Bible, the 
 books, and the precious monuments, to be 
 packed up and removed. We believe that 
 they were afterwards sent back to the ca- 
 pital. This library was founded by Leib- 
 nitz, who bequeathed to it his own tine 
 collection of books. There are two por- 
 traits of this great man in the library, one 
 at the age of forty, and the other at sixty ; 
 and the arm chair in which he expired is 
 there carefully preserved. His remains 
 are interred under a stone in the Lutheran 
 church in the new city. A very fine mo- 
 nument is also erected to his niemorj- by 
 private subscription. It is an Arian tem- 
 ple, situated in an umbrageous thicket, at 
 the end of a long avenue of lindar trees. 
 Twelve columns of the Tuscan order, of 
 hard gray stone, quarried in the Hartz 
 mountains, support a light cupola, beneath 
 which is placed a white marble bust of 
 Leibnitz, taken from the picture of him at 
 the age of sixty. " To the memorj- of Leib- 
 nitz" is the simple inscription which re- 
 minds us of the labours of this great phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 The cemetery of the Jews is situated on 
 an oval eminence near the city ; and that 
 of the Lutherans is avast field surrounded 
 by a parapet, and crowded with funeral mo- 
 numents. The tombstones of the noble lami- 
 lies occupy a large space in the middle of 
 the field. The graves of the lower dassis 
 are every day coNcrcd with fresh flowers. 
 The renniins of the celebrated physician 
 A\ herloff lie under a triangular jiyramid. 
 " Not far distant," says Mongourit, "is a 
 monument representing a mother stretched 
 upon the body of a belo\ ed daughter ; the 
 scissars of fate cut a half-blown rose, and 
 the parent tree, stripped of its leaves, is 
 torn up by the root. Just by is tli(> tomb 
 of the lover and the young lady. The 
 sculptor has succeeded in depicting the 
 beauty and elegant figure of this youth. 
 On one side of the monument we behold a 
 superb oak ; on the other, the oak is re- 
 versed, its branches are broken, its lea\es 
 fallen, and its seed scattered. There were 
 here sonu> tombs and sarcoi)hagi of white 
 marble, but the greater number are fornu-d 
 out of stomas from the Hartz nmuutains." 
 
 Hmmuinv. ["Aiijtno'iVr, Or.] 7// uU the 
 lilts. Tin; just adaptation of one part to 
 another; concord; corresponding sent!- 
 
HAS 
 
 ment. Harmony is the cause of all grace 
 and beauty in a comjwsitiun, and without 
 it no work of art, however correct in other 
 qualities, can be pleasing. See Composi- 
 tion. Harmony of expression is also ano- 
 ther essential quality to be acquired in the 
 production of a masterpiece of art. See 
 Expression. There is also harmony of co- 
 louring that must be equally sought after 
 by tlie painter, and harmony of proportion 
 by the sculptor and architect. Upon this 
 portion of the art the best works for con- 
 sultation are the twentieth chapter of the 
 second part of Les Elemens de Peinture, par 
 De Piles ; the second conversation on 
 painting in Le Recueil de divers Outrages, 
 Amsterdam, 17G7 ; the reflections at the 
 head of I'Art de Pehidre, a poem by Wate- 
 let; Mengs, in his Lemons pratiques de 
 Peinture, iu the second volume of that pain- 
 ter's works; a work by Hoffman, entitled 
 Essai d'une Histoire de I'Harmonie pifto- 
 resque en ghyf.ral, et de I'Harmonie des Cou- 
 leurs en particidier, 8vo. Halle, 1786. 
 
 Upon the subject of harmony in general 
 as applicable to all the arts, the student 
 may consult, with advantage, the follow- 
 ing works : Epistola de Harmonica Institu- 
 iione, by the Abbate Regino, an author 
 who flourished in the ninth century ; Liber 
 de Harmonica Tnstitutione, by a Benedic- 
 tine Monk named Ubald, which was pub- 
 lished in the tenth century; both these 
 works are to be found in the Scriptores Ec- 
 clesiastici, be Gerbert ; De Harmonia, et 
 de Harmonia; elementis Dialogus, by Alan. 
 Varenio, Paris, 1503, in 8vo. ; De Propor- 
 tione Harmonicfl, by Jacques de Billy 
 Paris, 1G58, 4to. and some other works of 
 a similar nature, although their principal 
 applications are to music; Reflessioni ar- 
 moniche dal P. Domen Scorpioni, Naples, 
 1701, 8vo. 
 
 Harp, [heapp, Sax.] In the archaiology 
 i>f painting and sculpture. A musical in- 
 strument strung with wire, and played 
 upon with the fingers. The ancients were 
 acquainted with various stringed musical 
 instruments that may be classed under this 
 general name ; as the trigonum, so called 
 from its shape, supposed to have been bor- 
 rowed from the Syrians by the Greeks ; 
 the sambuca, &c. Many of which are to 
 be found among the remains of ancient 
 sculpture. 
 
 Hasta. [Lat.] In the archaiology of art. 
 A spear or pike used by the ancient Ro- 
 mans. The hasta reversed was used as 
 an emblem of peace, and Cicero uses the 
 words hastam abjiccre in the meaning of to 
 give up the cause; ad hastam locare, to 
 
 II E I 
 
 make open sale. The husta pura was the 
 pike stair divested of its iron head or point, 
 which was sometimes ornamented with 
 flowers or fruit, like that of Bacchus by a 
 pine cone, called the thyrsis. The divini- 
 ties to whom the ancients gave this wea- 
 pon are iEsculapius, Anubis, Apollo, As- 
 tarte, Bacchus, BcUona, Castor and Pol- 
 lux, Ceres, Bybele, Diana, Janus, Isis, 
 Juno, Jupiter, Lunus, Mars, Nemesis, 
 Osiris, Pallas, Pluto, Priapus, Serapis, 
 Sol, Venus, Vesta. The ancients artists 
 and poets also gave the hasta to several 
 allegorical or metaphysical divinities, as 
 personifications of Equity, Eternity, Abun- 
 dance, Clemency, Concord, Fecundity, Fe- 
 licity, Liberty, Peace. Several heroes and 
 heroines also bore the hasta as a mark of 
 distinction, as Bellerophon and Jobates, 
 upon an antique painted vase in the col- 
 lection of M. Tischbien ; Byzas, Cyzicus, 
 Romulus, &c. The same weapon is found 
 in the hands of many emperors and heroes 
 on ancient coins and vases. 
 
 Hebrew Art and Architecture. See 
 Arts, Architecture. 
 
 Hecate. ['E/caroe, Gr.] In the mythology 
 of the arts. One of the heathen deities, 
 the same as Diana. See Diana triformis. 
 
 Hecatompolis. [Lat. 'E/caT-o/tTruXoc, Gr. 
 i. e. having a hundred totvns.'] In ancient 
 architecture. The name of the Isle of 
 Crete, so called from its hundred cities 
 which it had in the time of its ancient king 
 Minos. 
 
 Hecatompylos. [Lat. 'EKaro/tTrvXoe, Gr. 
 i. e. having a hundred gutes-l In ancient 
 architecture. The city of Thebes in Egypt, 
 so called from its hundred gates. 
 
 Hecatonpedon. [Lat.] In ancient archi- 
 tecture. Any temple of a hundred feet in 
 length, particularly applied to that of Mi- 
 nerva Parthenon at Athens. See Athens, 
 Parthenon. 
 
 Hecatonstylon. [Lat. ' EKarbv^vXov, 
 Gr. i. e. hainng a hundred columns.'] In an- 
 cient architecture. According to Pompo- 
 nias's Mela, the name of a celebrated gal- 
 lery in Rome that was supported by a 
 hundred columns. 
 
 Heidelberg is a city of Germany, in 
 the circle of the Lower Rhine, formerly 
 the capital of the Palatinate, and recently 
 forming a part of the grand Duchy of Ba- 
 den. It is a long and narrow town, and 
 is situated at the foot of a mountain on the 
 south side of the Neckar. This river is 
 crossed by a fine bridge, which cost one 
 hundred and seventy thousand florins, and 
 from which there is a fine view upon the 
 river. It is surrounded with walls, which 
 
II E L 
 
 Iiavc six gates. The citadel, called Fort 
 l'J:t()ile, was long ago destroyed by the 
 French. It contains three churches for 
 Roman Catholics and Protestants, a uni- 
 versity, an economical society, anatomical 
 llieatre, a military hospital, a cabinet of 
 minerals, models, and physical instru- 
 ments, a botanical garden, and more than 
 twenty fountains. The university was 
 founded in 138G, and has been under the 
 direction of twenty professors, sixteen Ca- 
 tliolic and four Reformed. When the Ba- 
 varians took it in 1C22, its library was 
 transferred to the Vatican by Robert Max- 
 imilian of Bavaria. The fine statue of the 
 elector, the church of St. Esprit, the church 
 of St. Peter, with the sepulchral inscrip- 
 tion of tlie celebrated Olympia FulviaMo- 
 rata, are worthy of being seen. The cas- 
 tle and the garden of Heidelberg, situated 
 near the town, are now in ruins. The sta- 
 tues of th,! ancient Electors and Count 
 Palatines are still to be seen on the front 
 of the castle ; the remains of tlie hall of 
 the chevaliers are still visible; and the 
 granite columns which formerly supported 
 a part of the imperial palace at Ingelheim, 
 near Mayence, are seen supporting the 
 roof of the fountain of the castle. 
 
 HfiGHTEN, to. [from height.] hi paint- 
 ing. To improve, to meliorate, to make 
 more prominent by touches of ligiit colours, 
 in imitation of the brigldness of the lights 
 in nature, contrasted with shadow, com- 
 monly called to heigiiten the lights. See 
 Pain'ung. 
 
 Hej.iack. [luliacus, Lat. 'llXutKhQ, Gr.] 
 hi the arclmiologij of sculpture. An astro- 
 nomical table, particularly a celebrated 
 anticpie basso rilievo calh'd the heliack 
 table, wliich is well (lescribed by Arme- 
 iiius, and also by Millin in his Dictionary 
 of Mythology. 
 
 Hi:i,i()CAniiNts. [Lat. 'IlXeoKu/jtvog, Gr. 
 .lolurix foiDuix.] hi undent HI ehileelure. An 
 arched room made iiot by tlie rays of the 
 Bun. Nero constructed one on the portico 
 befdrc his celebrated golden house. 
 
 Hi;i,i()i'<n.is. [from i)\inr and -ntiXir, the 
 citij of the sun.] hi the history of the arts. 
 One of llie most ancient cilies in the world 
 of which any vestigi-s can now be traced. 
 'I'iie most enlightened philosoi)liers of 
 Greece and Rome were attracted to tliis 
 celebrated S(^at t)f learning. It was liere 
 that Herodotus l)ecame acipiainted witii 
 tlu; sciences and mysteries of l^gyjit. Plait) 
 was here taught philosophy, and about 
 Ihirly years bi^fortf Cluist its ruins were 
 visiled and described by Strabo. 
 
 Strabo describes Hcliopolia as built 
 
 HEL 
 
 upon an nrtiGcial mound of earth, so as to 
 be out of the reach of the inundation of 
 the Nile; but owing to tlie accretion of 
 soil from the annual inundations of that 
 river, the place where it stood is now a per- 
 fect plane. In this city was erected a 
 temple to the sun, where a particular part 
 was appropriated for the feeding of the 
 sacred ox, which was here worshiped under 
 the name of Mnevis. There ^\ as also ano- 
 ther splendid temple, witii avenues of 
 sphinxes and superb obelisks, before the 
 principal entrance. Out of the four obe- 
 lisks which were erected here by Sochis, 
 two were carried to Rome, one was de- 
 stroyed by the Arabs, and the fourth still 
 remains. 
 
 When Pococke visited Heliopolis, he 
 observed the fragments of sphinxes still 
 remaining in the ancient way leading to 
 the eminence on which tiie temple of the 
 sun stood. These sphinxes are, however, 
 no longer visible. They are, no doubt, 
 covered with the soil deposited by the 
 Nile ; and we agree with Dr. Clarke in 
 flunking, that not only the sphinxes, but 
 even the pavement of the temple might be 
 disclosed by a very trifling excavation. 
 
 Tlic obelisk or pillar of ()\, which is 
 now the only piece of antitjuity that marks 
 the site of Heliopolis, is about sixty-eight 
 feet high, and six feet and a half wide on 
 each side. According to Dr. Clarke, who 
 has given a very correct engraving of it, 
 it is one entire mass of reddish granite. 
 Each of its four sides exiiibits the same 
 characters, and in tlie same order. Those 
 w hich face the south have been the least 
 ad'octed by the decomposition of the sub- 
 stance of which they are hewn; and it is 
 from the southern sidt; tliat Dr. Clarke's 
 engraving is taken. Fur a particular ac- 
 count of this obelisk, and (lie hierogly- 
 phics whicii it contains, the reader is re- 
 ferred to Kircher, Syntagma, \iii. Theat. 
 llierogli/ph. Q-Alipi r.iiyplinei, torn. iv. p. 
 S30 ; Pococke's Descrijition of the ICasf, 
 Mil. i. p. •2.i; Shaw's Trarels ; Ntuden's 
 Triirels ; but particularly Dr. Clarke's 
 Travels, part 2, sect. ii. p. ys. 
 
 Hki.iotkopk. [heliotropium, Lat. llXio- 
 Tjii'iTrio)'. Gr. from i'lXuuj, the sun, and r()o- 
 TToc, a turning.] hi gan seulpture. A pvc- 
 eious stone, so called by the iuuienls, be- 
 cause l)y the ancients, according to I'lin^, 
 it was used for solar observations by re- 
 flection. A sj)ecies of heliotrope is alst) 
 called bloodstone, from the red spots of 
 jasper which it sometimes contains. Set? 
 lli.ooDsroNK. It is at jircsent bronglit 
 from Bucharias,Tarlary, Siberia, Scotland, 
 
HER 
 
 and some other places. M, Lametherie, 
 ill liis Sciafi^raphe 3Iineralogique, has given 
 a very scientific description of this beauti- 
 ful mineral, which he tliinks to be green 
 agate, mixed with spots of red jasper, 
 
 Helyx or Helix. [Lat. "EXi'i,, Gr.] In 
 architecture, A little twist or volute under 
 the flower in the abacus of the Coi-inthian 
 capital, representing the twisted tops of 
 the acanthus stalk ; also called caulicoli. 
 See Caulicoli. 
 
 Heptaphonus. [Lat. 'Eirrdrpiovoc, Gr.] 
 In ancient architecture. According to Pliny, 
 tlie name of a portico in the city of Olym- 
 pia, so called from repeating seven echoes 
 or returns of sound. 
 
 Heptapylos. [Lat. 'EnraTTuXoe, Gr.] In 
 ancient architecture. A name of the city 
 of Thebes in Boeotia, so called from its 
 seven gates, whereas that of Thebes in 
 Egypt had a hundred gates. See Heca- 
 
 TOMPYLOS. 
 
 Herald. In painting and sculpture. In 
 tlie history of the heroic ages we find im- 
 portant functions ascribed to those officers 
 wliom the Greeks call icijpvicsQ, and the 
 Romans feciales. Their character is repre- 
 sented as sacred and inviolable ; and in 
 Homer their common epithet is " the di- 
 vine." Their duties were not less nume- 
 rous than important. They could enter, 
 without difficulty, into cities that were be- 
 sieged, and mingle, without danger, among 
 contending armies. They summoned the 
 chiefs to the council ; they commanded 
 silence, that the discourses of the kings 
 miglit be heard ; and presented to each of 
 them the sceptre before he commenced his 
 harangue. The herald was charged with 
 the most delicate missions, and accompa- 
 nied his prince on the most difficult occa- 
 sions. Agamemnon sent only Talthybius 
 and Eurybates to bring Briseis from the 
 tent of Achilles ; and when Priam went 
 to beg the body of his son, he took no one 
 with him but his herald. The herald was 
 distinguished by a long rod or sceptre, 
 which he carried in his hand ; and from 
 this circumstance it was that the Romans 
 gave him the name of caduceator. Eckhel 
 has published a beautiful medal of Cro- 
 tona, from which we may judge of the 
 dress, a icrjQv^, at a time much later than 
 the age of Homer. He is arrayed in a 
 long tunic like that of a priest, and holds 
 in his hands a patera and a caduceus. The 
 patera denotes a libation or offering to the 
 gods, a function with which the heralds 
 were frequently charged. According to 
 Eckhel this herald is in the act of demand- 
 ing peace, and the coin was most probably 
 struck at the time when the people of Cro- 
 
 II E R 
 
 tona, humbled by a severe defeat, were 
 obliged to send envoys to beg peace of the 
 Loerians. The attitude of stretching out 
 the right hand seems to have been consi- 
 dered as consecrated to the use of heralds ; 
 and it is on this account that, on the impe- 
 rial medals, the emperor is commonly re- 
 presented in the same position when he 
 announces peace and security to his peo- 
 ple. 
 
 The use of heralds was very long pre- 
 served among the Greeks. There were 
 heralds whose office it was to proclaim 
 the laws observed at the Olympic games, 
 the names of the combatants and tlie vic- 
 tors, and, in general, every thing which 
 was commanded by the judges of the 
 games. The best account of the njpv^ of 
 the Greeks, and the Fecxalis of the Ro- 
 mans, is to be found in the works of Gras- 
 vius and Pitiscus ; or, if ancient authors 
 be preferred, in Homer throughout; in 
 Livy, i. 32 ; Cicero De Legihus, ii. 9 ; an<l 
 Dionysius Halicarnass. lib. 2. See also 
 And. Dominic Floccus, de Potestnte Rom. 
 lib. i. c. 9 ; Joan. Jensii commentatio de 
 Fecialibus populi Romani in ferculo Littera- 
 rio, Ludg. Batav. 1717, 8vo. ; Dissertationes 
 Joan. Jac. Mulleri, Jen;e, 1693 ; Petri 
 Lagerloeff, Upsalice, 1698 ; Laur. Ar- 
 rhenii, ibid. 172S; Francisci Conradi, 
 Helmstadii, 1734 ; Joan. Georg. Grjevh, 
 Thesaurus Antiquitat. Romanar. Ludg. Ba- 
 tav. 1694, 1699, fol.; and among the an- 
 cient writers, Aurelius Victor, De Viris 
 Illustrihus, cap. 5 ; Titus Livius, lib. i. 
 cap. 32; Dionysius Haijcarnassus, lib. 2, 
 and Cicero de Legibus, lib. ii. cap. 9. 
 
 Her.'EUM. [Lat. 'Hciaiov, Gr.] In ancient 
 architecture. A name of temples dedicated 
 to Juno, so called after one of the names 
 ('Hpa) of that goddess. Pausanias parti- 
 cularly alludes to one so called near to 
 Mycenfe. 
 
 Herculaneum. In the history of the arts. 
 An ancient city of Italy, situated on the 
 Bay of Naples, and supposed to have been 
 either founded by Hercules, or in honour 
 of him, 1230 years before the Christian era. 
 About 957 years later the Romans seem 
 to have taken possession of the city, and to 
 have retained it ever after. In the year 63 
 it suffered severely from an earthquake, 
 which, according to Seneca, occasioned 
 the total ruin of it, and left the remainder 
 in a tottering state. But in the year 79 an 
 eruption of Vesuvius, for the first time ex- 
 hibiting volcanic fires to the existing ge- 
 neration, buried the wliole many feet deep, 
 under repeated showers of stones and 
 ashes ; while other cities were overwhelm- 
 ed by torrents of liquid lava, or swallowed 
 
op by the earthquakes which accompanied 
 them. 
 
 Cnncta jacent flammis et tristi racrsi favilla. 
 
 Mautial. 
 
 All memorials of the devoted cities were 
 lost; discussions on the places they had 
 once occupied were excited only by some 
 obscure passages in the classical authors. 
 Si>: successive eruptions contributed to lay 
 them still deeper under the surface. But 
 after sixteen centuries had elapsed, a pea- 
 sant, in digging a well beside his cottage 
 in 1711, obtained some fragments of co- 
 loured marble, which attracted attention. 
 Regular excavations were made under the 
 superintendance of Stendardo, a Neapoli- 
 tan architect; ruid a statue of Hercules of 
 Greek workmanship, and also a mutilated 
 one of Cleopatra, were withdrawn from 
 what proved to be a temple in the centre 
 of tlie ancient Herculaneum. 
 
 Twenty or thirty years afterwards the 
 King of the two Sicilies, with a laudable 
 love of science, directed a complete search 
 to be made among the remains of the sub- 
 terraneous city, and all the antiquities to 
 be preserved. This was long and ardently 
 prosecuted ; and the entrance is now gained 
 by a narrow passage, descending gradu- 
 ally to more than seventy feet from the 
 surface, where it branches into numerous 
 alleys, leading to ditlerent streets and 
 buildings. Neither the precise extent or 
 population of Herculaneum can be ascer- 
 tained, though it is probable that both 
 were considerable ; and we know tiiat it 
 was a city of the second order. All the 
 streets run in straight lines; they are paved 
 with blocks of lava, which indicates the 
 vicinity of more ancient volcanic erup- 
 tions ; and there is, for the most part, an 
 elevated footpath along the sides for the 
 convenience of pedestrians. The houses, 
 whose exterior does not seem to have been 
 ornamental or regular, consisted only of 
 one story l)uilt of brick. The walls of 
 many are thrown out of Ihi' pcrix-ndicular, 
 and soi»ie are covered wilh coloured stucco, 
 upon wliich are executed paintings in 
 fresco. From tiit^ general apjiearance ex- 
 hibited by the dillerent edilices, we may 
 safely conjecture that tlie volcanic matter 
 consisted of very fine dust or asiu's, wliich 
 fell in repeated sliowers, and pi'rliai>s in a 
 liumid state, until tlie city was totally bu- 
 ried under it. Indeed, it was so liius (hat 
 the most perfect impr(!Ssions «)f i\w objects 
 thus covcriid wtn'e imprinted tlx-re, and, 
 on tluiir being now removed, the cavity 
 may Horvc for a plaster or metallic cast. 
 IJy this means inuumeruble articles were 
 
 HERCULANEUM. 
 
 preserved entire, and scarcely displaced 
 from their original position, for the incum- 
 bent load received gradual accessions, un- 
 accompanied by any extraordinary degree 
 of heat or violence. 
 
 The remains of several public buildings 
 have been discovered, which have possi- 
 bly suffered from subsequent convulsions. 
 Among these are t^vo temples, one of them 
 one hundred and fifty feet by sixty, in 
 which was found a statue of Jupiter. A 
 more extensive edifice stood opposite to 
 these, forming a rectangle of two hundred 
 and twenty-eight feet by one hundred and 
 thirty-two, supposed to have been appro- 
 priated for the courts of justice. The 
 arches of a portico surrounding it were 
 supported by columns ; within it was paved 
 with marble ; the walls were painted in 
 fresco ; and bronze statues stood between 
 forty-two columns under the roof. 
 
 Before the year 1738 the theatre was 
 discovered, the size of which has aflbrded 
 some conjectures regarding the population 
 of Herculaneum. Tiie building was nearly 
 entire ; very little had been displaced ; 
 and we see in it one of the best specimens 
 extant of the architecture of the ancients. 
 It seems to have had two principal gates, 
 with inscriptions over the architraves of 
 each, besides seven entrances, called vomi- 
 toria, communicating with the benches. 
 Many columns and pilasters, with laboured 
 entablatures, appeared in the proscenium, 
 and some supported bronze and marble 
 statues. The walls were covered wilh 
 paintings in arabesque, and the floor 
 paved with marble ; that of the orchestra, 
 consisting of the finest yellow antique, is 
 preserved nearly entire ; and similar de- 
 corations adorned the various apartments 
 connected with the theatre. Twenty-five 
 rows of high and wide marble benches ac- 
 conunodated the audience ; which, rising 
 gradually above each other, gave a full 
 aiul distinct view of the arena below. The 
 greatest dianu'ter of the theatre, taken at 
 the highest benches, is two hundred and 
 thirty-four feet; whence it has been com- 
 puted, that it could contain ten thovisand 
 persons, which proves the great popula- 
 tion of the city. This theatre was rich in 
 anticiuities, independent of that ornamental 
 l)art to whi( h we have already alluded. 
 Statues occupying niches rcjjresented the 
 muses ; scenic nnisks were iniilated on the 
 entai)latures ; and inscriptions were en- 
 gruvrd on dillerent places. Analogous to 
 the last were several large alphahftiral 
 Koman characters in bronze, ami a numbir 
 of Kuudler size, wiiich had jirobably been 
 couuected in some conspicuous situation. 
 
HERCULANEUM. 
 
 A metallic car was found with four bronze 
 horses attached to it, nearly of the natural 
 size ; but all in such a state of decay that 
 only one, and the spokes of the wheels, 
 also of metal, could be preserved. A beau- 
 tiful white marble statue of Venus, only 
 eighteen inches high, in the same attitude 
 as the famous Venus de Medicis, was re- 
 covered ; and either here or in the imme- 
 diate vicinity, was found a colossal bronze 
 statue of Vespasian, filled with lead, which 
 twelve men were unable to move ; besides 
 many objects entire, there were numerous 
 fragments of others, extremely interesting, 
 which had been originally impaired, or 
 A^cre injured by attempts to obtain them. 
 The Herculaneans are said to have had 
 a particular taste for theatrical entertain- 
 ments ; and some authors have maintained 
 that, disregarding the danger which me- 
 naced them, they remained so intent on 
 the performance, that both here, and at 
 Pompeii, they were surprised by the erup- 
 tion of Vesuvius, and buried under it. But 
 we may reasonably conclude that, with re- 
 gard to Herculaneum, the theatre did not 
 suffer materially from the earthquake, and 
 tliat it was not attended with the destruc- 
 tion of the spectators. Remarkably few 
 skeletons have been found in this city, 
 though many occur in the streets of Pom- 
 peii ; but one appears under the threshold 
 of a door, with a bag of money in its hand, 
 as if in the attitude of escaping, leaving 
 its impression in the surrounding volcanic 
 matter. Nevertheless, it might be here, as 
 we are told of a different city, where the 
 Emperor Nero, appearing on the stage, 
 was surprised by a sudden earthquake ; 
 but the audience had time to escape, and 
 the theatre fell without doing any injury. 
 A similar incident occurred within these 
 few years at Naples, where the decora- 
 tions of the theatre were in visible motion 
 before the terrified sjiectators, but the 
 strength of its parts resisted the shock. 
 
 The cxfodiation was prosecuted along 
 the walls of the buildings, turning the cor- 
 ners, and entering by the doors and win- 
 dows as they occurred. Two marble 
 equestrian statues of the finest workman- 
 ship, which had been erected in honour of 
 the two consuls, Balbi and son, were found 
 opposite to the theatre : and in prosecut- 
 ing the researches into the public edifices 
 and private houses, or even through the 
 Streets, the workmen met with many things 
 worthy of observation. A well now con- 
 taining good water was seen surrounded 
 by a parapet, and covered by an arch 
 which had excluded the ashes. A capa- 
 
 cious bath, of a circular form, was pene- 
 trated, and also repositories of the dead, 
 still more ancient than the overihi'ow of 
 Herculaneum. Fragments of columns of 
 various coloured marbles, beautiful musaic 
 pavements entire, and mutilated statues, 
 were abtindantly disseminated among the 
 ruins. Some of the pavement, represent- 
 ing figures, has been taken up and again 
 disposed in its original order in a spacious 
 museum prepared for the reception of the 
 antiquities. The public edifices afford a 
 copious collection corresponding to their 
 different uses ; but many were utterly de- 
 stroyed, such as the statues in the build- 
 ing containing forty-two columns. Nume- 
 rous sacrificial implements, however, such 
 as paterae, tripods, cups, and vases, were 
 recovered in excellent preservation, and 
 even some of the knives with which the 
 victims are conjectured to have been 
 slaughtered. Numerous domestic uten- 
 sils employed in the exercise of t'le arts, 
 and contributing to the amusement of the 
 existing generation, were all preserved. 
 
 When we reflect that one thousand six 
 hundred years have elapsed since the de- 
 struction of this city, an interval which 
 has been marked by numerous revolutions 
 both in the political and mental state of 
 Europe, a high degree of interest must be 
 experienced in comtemplating the vene- 
 ral)le remains of antiquity recovered from 
 the subterraneous city of Herculaneum. 
 Pliny the younger, in his Letters, brings 
 the Romans, their occupations, manners, 
 and customs, before us. He pictures, in 
 feeling terms, the death of his uncle, who 
 perished in the same eruption as the city 
 we now describe ; and that event is brought 
 to our immediate notice by those very 
 things which it was the means of preserv- 
 ing. Among these we see the various ar- 
 ticles which administered to the necessi- 
 ties and the pleasures of the inhabitants, 
 the emblems of their religious sentiments, 
 and the very manners and customs of do- 
 mestic life. 
 
 Articles in vast variety were obtained 
 from the houses, wherein the beams ap- 
 peared as if converted to charcoal ; but it 
 is to be observed, that all the remains of 
 wood exhibit the same aspect to the very 
 heart. They were not consumed or turned 
 to ashes, owing, probably, to the exclusion 
 of the external air by the showers of vol- 
 canic matter. It is singular that while 
 Avood, which has remained during ages 
 buried in earth or immersed in water, ac- 
 quires additional consistence, this has en- 
 tirely lost what it possessed. Pieces of 
 
IlERCULANEUM 
 
 tkin and delicate texture have preserved 
 f iieir shape, but bh)cks of a large size are 
 converted tliroughout to charcoal. 
 
 If the subjects recovered from Hercula- 
 neum be classed according to tlicir value, 
 the statues should be enumerated lirst, 
 both as being oft he finest workmanship, and 
 of the most difKcult execution. Some are- 
 colossal, some of tlie natural size, and 
 some in miniature; and tlie materials of 
 their formation are either clay, marble, or 
 bronze. They represent all dillerent ob- 
 jects, divinities, Iieroes, or distinguished 
 persons; and in tlie same substances, espe- 
 cially bronze, there arc the figures of many 
 animals. Sculpture in its various brandies 
 had attained a liigh degree of perfection 
 among the ancients ; their religious pre- 
 judices and manners greatly contrii)uted 
 to tlie perfection of the art ; and ^ve have 
 ocular demonstrations that the reputation 
 of their celebrated artists -was not over- 
 rated. Paintings are interesting, but the 
 small portion of the object represented 
 renders them far less so than statues which 
 aflbrd complete imitations, and are thence 
 to be ranked as the most precious relics of 
 antiquity. Here there are two statues seven 
 feet high of Jupiter, and a woman in clay; 
 and two of gladiators, in bronze, about to 
 combat, are much admired. Tlie same 
 may be said of Nero in bronze, naked and 
 armed as a Jupiter Tojians, w'ilh a tliunder- 
 bolt in his hand. A Venus piulica of white 
 marble, in miniature, is extremely beautiful, 
 and also the statue of a female leaving the 
 bath. In the year 1758 a fine bronze sta- 
 tue of a naked Mercury, supposed to have 
 been the w(uk of a Greek artist, was dis- 
 covered ; and in the course of tlie excava- 
 tions extending beyond tlic confines of the 
 city, a Silenus witii a tiger, sometimes his 
 attribute, was found, wliich had formerly 
 adorned a fountain. Several fauns or 
 other sylvans, with vases on their shoul- 
 ders, were obtained in the vieiiiKy of Si- 
 lenus, which are of bronzt,' ; and it is sin- 
 gular to observe, that the younger figures 
 have silver eyes, a disagreealde deformity 
 .siunetiines adopted in maii)h' statues. 'J'lie 
 figure and attitude of a drunken faun, 
 stretched on a lion's skin, and sujiported 
 by one full of liquor, i)resents all the. va- 
 cuity of thought an<l sensation of animal 
 pleasure! wiiicii accomjyany ebriety ; ano- 
 ther faun asleep, as large as life, presents 
 a stale of alisolute reposes We have 
 named two line e(iuestrian statues of full 
 size. There is also a bronze; e(iuestrian 
 statue of an armed Amazon, only sixteen 
 
 inches hiirh. 
 
 There are many elegant sta- 
 
 tues of the goddesses and graces only eight 
 or ten inches in height, and we likewise 
 see some of the monstrous Egjptian di\ i- 
 nities with which the Herculaneans were 
 acquainted. Several fine busts, or simple 
 heads of the ancient philosophers, as Zcno 
 or Epicurus, stood in the houses, the name 
 being inscribed below or on a pedestal. 
 Bas reliefs likewise occurred, but few 
 coins or medals. Gold coins of Augustus 
 were found, and silver medallions, two or 
 three inches in diameter, bearing uncer- 
 tain devices. 
 
 The ancient pictures of Herculaneum 
 are of the utmost interest, not only from 
 tlie freshness and vividness of colour, but 
 from the nature of the subjects they repre- 
 sent. All are executed in fresco ; they 
 are exclusively on the walls, and gene- 
 rally on a black or red ground. It has 
 been supposed, from passages in the clas- 
 sics, that the ancients used only four co- 
 lours, white, black, yellow, and red ; but 
 here are added blue and green. Some are 
 of animated beings large as life, but the 
 majority are in miniature. Every diflerent 
 subject of antiquity is dei)ieted here ; dei- 
 ties, human figures, animals, landscape 
 foreign and domestic, and a variety of gro- 
 tesque beings. Sports and pastimes, thea- 
 trical performances, sacrifices, all enter 
 the catalogue. Having occasion after- 
 wards to speak cursorily of some of thi^se 
 subjects, we shall content ourselves with 
 observing, that they are more remarkable 
 for variety than for their intrinsic quality. 
 One of larger size found in a temple, and 
 the most celebrated, represents Theseus 
 vanquishing the Blinotaur, MJiich lies 
 stretched at his feet, with the head of a 
 bull and the body of a man, A fennde, 
 supposed to be Ariadne, and three chil- 
 dren, form part of the group. This, along 
 \\ ith a picture composed of several figures 
 as large as life, of which Flora is the most 
 conspicuous, adorned a temple of Her- 
 cules; each is six or seven fei't high aiui 
 five broad. Another represents Chiron 
 teaching Achilles the lyre; and femaJe 
 centaurs are seen suckling their vuing. 
 The interior of a shoemaker's shop is ex- 
 posed on a smaller scale ; a feast, l)askets of 
 fruit, a grasshopper dri\ iiig a parrot yoked 
 to a car, a cupid guiding swans in the saiiu^ 
 manner, and many allegorical subjects are. 
 represented. It is impossible, within these 
 limited bounds, to enumerate their varie- 
 ties, but \M' shall inunedialely refi^r the 
 reailer to a specific work upon the subject, 
 from \\hieh much entertaiiuneiit will b(> 
 derived. The king, desirous of prescrv ing 
 
HEUCULANEUM. 
 
 these pictures, directed them to be sawed 
 out of the walls, a work of great labour 
 and perseverance, tifter which they were 
 put in shallow frames and kept in the 
 museum. 
 
 It is said that a triremis or vessel, with 
 three banks of oars, was discovered, with 
 the iron or copper tackle and wood work 
 complete, and that a drawing was taken 
 of it ; but the more material parts imme- 
 diately fell to dust. A sea piece with ves- 
 sels is among the paintings. 
 
 It is extraordinary that numbers of pe- 
 rishable substances should have resisted 
 the corrosions of time. Many almonds 
 in the shells, imprinted with all the lines 
 and furrows characterizing their ligneous 
 envelope, were dug out of the ruins of 
 Herculaneum ; figs and some kinds of wild 
 apples were in preservation ; and a sort of 
 pine cone yet growing in the woods of 
 Italy, the seeds of which are now ate, or 
 used for culinary purposes. Grain, such 
 as barley, and also beans and peas, re- 
 mained entire, of a black colour, and of- 
 fering resistance to pressure. The stones 
 of peaches and apricots are common, thus 
 denoting the frequency of two trees, re- 
 puted indigenous in America and Pers^a. 
 liut what is still more singular, a loaf, 
 stamped with the baker's name in Roman 
 characters, or the quality of the wheat, 
 was taken from an oven, and was appa- 
 rently converted to charcoal. Diflerent 
 parts of plants prepared for pharmacy, 
 were obtained from the dwellings of those 
 who had been apothecaries. After such 
 an amazing lapse of time, liquids have 
 been found approacliing to a. fluid state, 
 an instance of which cannot be sufficiently 
 admired in a phial of oil, conceived to be 
 that of olives. It is white, greasy to the 
 touch, and emits the smell of rancid oil. 
 An earthen vase was found in the cellars 
 containing wine, which now resembles a 
 lump of porous dark violet coloured glass. 
 We acknowledge, however, that there is 
 great ditKculty in comprehending how tliis 
 change should have taken place. The an- 
 cients speak of very thick wines, requiring 
 dilution previous to use, whicli would 
 keep two hundred years, and would then 
 acquire the consistence of honey. Eggs 
 are also said to have been found whole 
 and empty. Solid pitch was also found at 
 the bottom of a vessel, wherein it had pro- 
 bably melted, as it afterwards did from 
 heat in tlie museum at Portici, which 
 stands near tlie entrance to the subterra- 
 neous city. 
 
 An entire set of kitchen furniture has 
 been collected, which displays several 
 
 utensils exactly similar to our own. Tlio 
 copper pans, instead of being tinned, arc 
 internally coated with silver, probably a 
 better precaution, as more of the poison- 
 ous metals are expelled from the latter. 
 These have not been attacked by verdi- 
 grease, whence the ancients perhaps un- 
 derstood some branches of metallurgy as 
 well as the moderns. Here is a large 
 brass caldron, three feet in diameter, and 
 fourteen inches deep, an urn or boiler for 
 hot water similar to those on our tables, 
 and also having a cylinder in the centre 
 for a heater. There are pestles and mor- 
 tars, and all kinds of implements for cut- 
 ting out and figuring pastry ; and, in short, 
 a complete culinary apparatus. Utensils 
 of finer quality are likewise collected 
 which had been employed at tables, as 
 silver goblets and vases, silver spoons, and 
 the remnants of knives. But, from the 
 absence of forks, both among tlie other re- 
 mains and in pictures, it is doubtful how 
 far they were known to the ancients. It 
 is probable, indeed, that their invention 
 and common use are to be dated several 
 centuries later. 
 
 Several articles belonging to personal 
 ornament and decoration occurred. We 
 sliall not speak of the colours still in a 
 condition fit for painting, because it is 
 questioned whether they were such as it is 
 known the ladies of that generation were 
 accustomed to use for more ordinaiy pur- 
 poses. Besides, they are red, blue, and 
 yellow. Those with which females height- 
 ened their complexion were prepared from 
 both minerals and vegetables, the latter 
 being chiefly marine plants. Two silver 
 bodkins, with which they pinned up their 
 hair, eight inches in length, are preserved, 
 the end of one clppropriately sculptured 
 with a Venus adjusting her tresses before 
 a lookingglass held by Cupid. Gold arm- 
 lets, bracelets, necklaces, with pieces of 
 plate gold suspended to them as a locket, 
 are preserved. Small nets also with fine 
 meshes, whicli, some have supposed, the 
 ladies employed to tie up their hair; and 
 others of coarser texture, which must have 
 been used for other purposes. Pieces of 
 cloth, coloured red on one side, and black 
 on the other, were found on the breast of a 
 skeleton ; the texture of which, Avhether 
 silk, woollen, linen, or cotton, antiquaries 
 have not been able to decide. Very few 
 jewels are discovered, which favours the 
 idea of the inhabitants having had time to 
 escape. There was a wooden comb, with 
 teeth on both sides, closer on one of tliem 
 than on the opposite; and portions of gold 
 lace fabricated from the pure metal. San- 
 
dais of laced cords are seen, though it is 
 more connnonly believed that leather was 
 in general use among the Italians ; and a 
 folding parasol, absolutely similar to what 
 we esteem a modern invention, was like- 
 wise discovered. 
 
 There is kept in the museum a case of 
 surgeon's instruments complete, with pin- 
 cers, spatulaj, and probes ; also a box sup- 
 Ijosed to have contained unguents ; and 
 pieces of marbles, employed in braying 
 pharmaceutical substances. A variety of 
 carpenters' and masons' tools, as chisels, 
 compasses, and trowels, were found, re- 
 sembling our own; and bolts and nails all 
 of bronze. 
 
 The weights and measures of the an- 
 cients have excited considerable discus- 
 sion, which those preserved in Hercula- 
 neum may elucidate. Different balances 
 appear, of which the most common is ana- 
 logous to the Roman steelyard ; but those 
 witli flats for scales, though wanting the 
 needle, are likewise seen. The weights 
 are either of marble or metal, of all grada- 
 tions up to thirty pounds ; and from the 
 
 HEKCULANEUM. 
 
 The beauty and variety of the vases 
 have attracted particular notice, and they 
 serve as excellent models for the moderns; 
 for all the skill of the ancient artists seems 
 to have been exhausted in their execution. 
 There is one preserved, four feet in dia- 
 meter, of fine white marble ; others are of 
 earthenware or silver, and the majority of 
 bronze or copper. Some are low, wide, 
 and flat; others tall and narrow, plain, 
 fluted, or sculptured. Sacrilicial vases 
 were supported on tripods, whose con- 
 struction seems to ha\e been attended 
 with equal care. Some of the latter are 
 richly sculptured with real and imaginary 
 figures of men and animals. One is orna- 
 mented with three lions' heads, and is 
 supported by as many paws ; another rests 
 on tliree Priapeian satyrs of elegant work- 
 manship, or on the feet of eagles. The 
 god of the gardens seems to have been 
 treated with peculiar regard by the Her- 
 culaneans. He appears with all his atti- 
 tudes of every possible variety, figure, and 
 dimensions, in tripods, lamps, and house- 
 hold utensils. Tlic articles on this sub- 
 
 marks exhibited by a set, well made, of ject are so common as to constitute a large 
 
 black marble, in a spherical shape, it is 
 supposed the pound was divided into eight 
 parts. A weight is insciibed erne on one 
 side, and habebis on the other. There are 
 pocket long measures, folding up like our 
 common foot rule, which may throw some 
 light on the length of the Roman foot. 
 Neat copper vases are supposed to have 
 been measures for grain ; the capacity of 
 one is one hundred ami ninety -one cubic 
 inches. 
 
 The various implements for writing re- 
 peatedly occurred ; and among the pic- 
 tures is a female Hppar(;nlly listening to 
 dictation. That the ancients were per- 
 fectly acquainted with the art of making 
 glass is proved by the vnricti(!s discovered 
 in these exfodiations. Considerable num- 
 bers of ])hials and bottles, chiefly of an 
 elongated shape, are preserved ; tliey are 
 of uiit'(|ual thickness, much hca\ icr than 
 glass of ordinary maTuifacturc, and of a 
 green colour. Vessels of cut white glass 
 have been found, and also while i)lati^ 
 glass, whicli antiijuaries snpposi; was used 
 in lining chambers called cuininc vitrcar. 
 ('objured glass or avlilicial gems engraved, 
 fVctiucntly occur ; and the paintings exhi- 
 bit <rjstul vessels. We may icniark, in 
 this place, that any one who studies the 
 antiquities of Herculnneuni will find his 
 researches greatly facililafcd by fn-<|nfiil 
 relerence to (ho epigrams of i\lartial, \\ lioni 
 nothing used in ordinary life seems to 
 have escaped. 
 
 branch of curious antiques, concerning the 
 emblematic use of which we can only en- 
 tertain conjectures. Several tripods are 
 very ingeniously constructed, so that the 
 feet may be closed or expanded by double 
 sets of hinges. Endless diversity and in- 
 finite elegance are displayed in the lamps; 
 few chandeliers have been discovered, at 
 least they are so rare, that we may doubt 
 whether the inhabitants often resorted to 
 lights fvom wax or resinous substances. 
 Sometimes a lamp appears as a shell, 
 sometimes as a bird ; then a human figure, 
 or resembling a quadruped. The ^ases, 
 hunps, and tripods were particularly used 
 in sacrifices, several of which are repre- 
 sented in the pictures; and among others, 
 are sacrifices to the Egyptian deities. 
 There were many funeral urns and sepul- 
 chral lamps, such as those, regarding which 
 vague idt:as have been entertained, as 
 formed for ct)ntaining peri)etnal lire. 
 
 In regard to sports and pastimes, nume- 
 rous remains render us familiar with those 
 »)f the aiu^ients. Hen- \\ e lind dice, with 
 the same disposal of points on a cui)e ; 
 and dice-boxes of bone or ivory, like those 
 now used, besides some of a llallish siiajie. 
 Several are false, being loadi'd on one 
 side; and the manner of throwing the 
 dice appears on a picture. No musiiul 
 instruments AM-re found bnl llie .sislrnm, 
 \\ liieli we imperfectly nndevsland, cym- 
 bals and Ihites of bone or ivory are yet ob- 
 tained. However, a concert is repreiunted 
 
HERCULANEUM. 
 
 on a picture sixteen inches square, con- 
 taining a lyrist, a player on a double flute, 
 probably by a mouth piece, and a female 
 apparently singing from a leaf of music ; 
 besides other two figures. Several thea- 
 trical masks, of different fashions were 
 found in clay and metal along with moulds 
 for their formation. Their use in drama- 
 tic representations, regarding which the 
 reader may consult a work by Ficoroni, is 
 well known, and is the subject of many of 
 the pictures. The theatre, we repeat, was 
 a favourite resort of the ancients; and 
 some ivory tickets of admission, with au- 
 thor's name and that of the piece, are pre- 
 served from Herculaneum. Rope-dancing 
 is exhibited in pictures, wherein all the 
 modern dexterity of playing on musical 
 instruments, pouring out liquids into cups, 
 and other feats of address are shown. The 
 most elegant and graceful of the Hercula- 
 neum pictures are perhaps female dancers 
 suspended as it were among the clouds. 
 
 It is to be observed in general, with re- 
 gard to the numeious articles relative to 
 this brief detail, that the quality of the sta- 
 tues infinitely exceed that of the pictures ; 
 and that the vases, and tripods, lamps, and 
 candelabra, are frequently of the finest 
 workmanship. Of many once complete, 
 only fragments at this day remain ; and 
 while gold, silver, bronze, or clay remain 
 entire, iron has altogether wasted away. 
 
 After a vast collection of antiquities had 
 been made, the king resolved on publish- 
 ing a laborious and expensive work, con- 
 taining engravings of those which appear- 
 ed most curious. In the course of thirty- 
 eiglit years, from 1754 to 1792, this was 
 accomplished in nine folio volumes, in- 
 cluding the pictures, bronzes, lamps, and 
 candelabra. The first is devoted to a cata- 
 logue, five to pictures, two to the bronzes, 
 and one to the lucerne. No less than seven 
 hundred and thirty-eight pictures are 
 named in the catalogue, and the other arti- 
 cles are proportionably numerous. The 
 v/ork was, with royal munificence, pre- 
 sented to the principal public libraries in 
 Europe; but owning to the succession of 
 the King of the Sicilies to the crown of 
 Spain, it is seldom to be seen complete. 
 At the same time, it has been a.lirmed 
 that some of the engravings of tlie pic- 
 tures appear with a perfection and de- 
 licacy which do not belong to the origi- 
 nals, although their general character be 
 not lost. 
 
 In penetrating an apartment of a villa 
 in the neighbourhood of Herculaneum, a 
 number of supposed pieces of charcoal 
 were carried off, which, by accidental frac- 
 
 ture, exposed the remains of letters, and 
 proved so many ancient malnuscripts. Here 
 Camillo Paderni, the keeper of the museum, 
 buried himself during twelve days, and 
 succeeded in carrying away three hundred 
 and thirty-seven manuscripts ; and, by sub- 
 sequent careful research, the total number 
 recovered now exceeds eighteen hundred. 
 They were in various stages of dacay ; 
 some so much disfigured and obliterated, 
 that nothing could be determined regard- 
 ing their nature from the beginning. How- 
 ever, the king instituted a society for in- 
 vestigating them completely. High ex- 
 pectations were formed by the European 
 literati, of the knowledge which would be 
 acquired respecting the history, the man- 
 ners, and the customs of antiquity ; more 
 especially as the materials themselves in- 
 dubitably remounted to a period of more 
 than sixteen hundred years. The manu- 
 scripts consisted of rolls, scarcely a span 
 in length, and two or three inches in thick- 
 ness, formed of pieces of Egyptian papyrus 
 glued together. Some had a label in front, 
 at one end of the roll, exposing the name 
 of the work or the author, as it occui^ied 
 its place in the library. But the substance 
 of the involutions was so crushed together, 
 the ink or pigment employed for the cha- 
 racter had faded to such a degree, that, 
 united to the general injury which they 
 had received from time, and the heat to 
 which they had been exposed, the opening 
 of them seemed at first sight to be imprac- 
 ticable. Acordingly, some snapped asun- 
 der like burnt wood, others flew into frag- 
 ments, or they exposed nothing. The as- 
 sistance of Piaggi, a monk, was obtained 
 from the Vatican, who invented an inge- 
 nious method of unfolding the manu- 
 scripts without destruction, by means of a 
 mechanical apparatus. The process was 
 slow, but tolerably certain; and the first 
 manuscript piit on the maciiine, being un- 
 rolled in the year 1754, proved to be a 
 treatise in Greek capitals, Avritten by 
 Philodemus, an Epicurean philosopher, 
 against music, with his name twice in- 
 scribed at the end, or interior of the roll. 
 Similar means were adopted with other 
 manuscripts, and they were partly success- 
 ful. Almost the whole of the manuscripts 
 are in Greek, very few having hitherto 
 been found in Latin ; and some of the rolls 
 are forty or fifty 'feet in length. The en- 
 tire surface of the roll is divided into suc- 
 cessive columns, resembling our ordinary 
 pages, each containing from forty to se- 
 venty lines in different manuscripts, this 
 being dependent on the size of the roll; 
 but each line is onlv about two inches 
 
long, and the column is no broader. In 
 the original state, therefore, the reader 
 held the roll before his eyes with one 
 hand, while he unwound it with the otlier, 
 as is represented by some of the Hercula- 
 neum pictures. Uncommon difiiculti(!S 
 were experienced from the decay of the 
 substance, from frequent lilanks and obli- 
 terations within, and from the absence of 
 punctuation. Four volumes, all by Phi- 
 lodemus, were successively uni-olled ; and, 
 in 17C0, Piaggi reached a fifth by another 
 author, on botany. But the king was in- 
 duced to order it to be withdrawn, and a 
 sixth volume was put on the machine, 
 where it remained thirty-six years. After 
 tw^enty years preparation, the work on 
 music was published, with illustrations by 
 Mazzocchi, a learned Italian, under the 
 title Hcrctilanensium voluminum qua super- 
 stint, tomus 1. Napoli, 1793. It must have 
 been anxiety for publication, not the de- 
 sire of enlightening the world that led to 
 the selection of this volume ; reputed a 
 dull and controversial performance, which 
 the utmost ingenious commentary is inca- 
 pable of enlivening. Cicero, notwithstand- 
 ing, has called the author optimum et doc- 
 tissimum; Piso, the supposed owner of 
 tlie manuscripts, derived his philosophy 
 from him, and he was well skilled in the 
 polite literature of the period. In the 
 course of forty years from the discovery 
 of the manuscripts, which were gradually 
 witlulrawn; only eighteen were unfolded. 
 TJic accession of Charles, indeed, to the 
 crown of Spain, and the death of Maz- 
 zocchi, had enervated the Herculanean 
 Society, which was renewed in 1787 by 
 tiie Marquis Caracioli, and the sectretary 
 of state tjjenceforward placed at its head. 
 Yet the work advanced very tardily; few 
 persons were emj)loyed, eitlu-r from the 
 dilliculty or want of interest in its prose- 
 cution; and it was perhaps totally inter- 
 rupted by the political events which dis- 
 turbid tlie peace itf lairope. Meantime 
 six of the manuscrijjts were presented, 
 along with other Herculaneum curiosities 
 to Jiuonaparle in 1S02, by tiu> sovereign 
 of tiu' Sicilies, in whose rcigii, indeed, we 
 believe tiiat botii Piiilodenius and the vo- 
 lume of Lucerne were ijublished ; and ten 
 volumes are said to have Ijeen senl, on 
 some occasion, to tiie J'rince of Wales. 
 
 At lengtii a proposal was made on tiie 
 part of tiiis country, to cooperate with tlie 
 Neapolitan goviM'nnienl (ui a subject so 
 important tt) tht; dill'iision of literature as 
 that of elucidating tiie Herculaneum ma- 
 nuscripts; and Mr. Hayter, ciiaplain to 
 the Prince of Wales, was appointed witii 
 
 HERCULANEUM. 
 
 a regular commission to superintend their 
 subsequent developcment. A parliamen- 
 tary grant of -t'l-JOO was next obtained to 
 aid its prosecution ; and Mr. Hayter hav- 
 ing commenced his operations under the 
 most favourable ausjjices in 1802, employ- 
 ed thirteen persons in unrolling, decipher- 
 ing, and transcribing. Some improvements 
 seem to have been attempted in the evolu- 
 tion of the manuscripts by a chemical pro- 
 cess ; but of those subjected to it, we are 
 told " the greatest part of each mass Hew 
 under this trial into useless atoms ; be- 
 sides, not a character was to be discovered 
 upon any single piece : the dreadful odour 
 drove us all from the museum." Mr. Hay- 
 ter continued Iiis operations from 1802 to 
 1800, during which time he aflirms that 
 more than two hundred papyri had been 
 opened wholly or in part, and he calcu- 
 lated that the remainder would have been 
 unrolled and copied w ithin six years far- 
 ther at latest. But as to the precise na- 
 ture and description of these manuscripts, 
 the accessions which literature has gained 
 or would gain by the work, we are only 
 informed that certain facsimiles of some 
 books of Epicurius were engraved. 
 
 It cannot but be considired particularly 
 unfortunate tliat the public expectation, so 
 repeatedly excited, regarding what are to 
 appearance among the most interesting 
 memorials of antiquity, should be as often 
 disappointed. Admitting every possible 
 dilliculty, and all the opposition which 
 might have been experienced unciuestion- 
 ably, there were sullicient materials to 
 make a specilic report regarding the state 
 and description of the manuscripts, towards 
 tlie deveio])einent of which the public had 
 so liberally contributed. 
 
 In 1806, during Mr. Hayter's operations, 
 it became necessary to e\;icunte Najjles; 
 but the existing government acciuainted 
 him that the King had prohibited the re- 
 moval of the manuscripts ; and in th(> flight 
 of the court e\ery thing was abandoned to 
 the l-'rench, who seem to have continued 
 the assistants in unrolling and deciphering 
 as before. Prom the oi)positi(ui which 
 Mr. Ha>ter experienced, he could do no- 
 thing more than retire with some of the 
 facsimiles to Palermo, where it appears 
 he superintended engravings of them. \'i't 
 misunderstandings with the secri'tary of 
 state prevented him from luociiring a com- 
 plete cojjy of tiie whole, until the British 
 ambassador interfered. 
 
 Ninety-f(uir facsimiles cojiies were tiien 
 obtained, partly engraved, it would seeiii, 
 and j)artly in numuscript. These were 
 carrieil to Ent^land by I\lr. Hayter on his 
 
HER 
 
 final recal in 1809, and presented by the 
 Prince Regent to the University of Ox- 
 ford. However, a very confused and in- 
 distinct account of the vvliole of this mat- 
 ter has reached the public, which compels 
 us to be thus brief regarding the history of 
 tlie Herculaneum manuscripts. 
 
 Perhaps it may ultimately be found that 
 they are less worthy of notice than was 
 anticipated, particularly if we are entitled 
 to form any judgment regarding the rest, 
 from the inconsiderable portions that have 
 already been published. See Antkhitil 
 d'Ereolano, 9 vols, in folio; Bayardi Pro- 
 dromo delle Antkhitil d'Ercolano; Notizie 
 del Scoprimento deW antka Citta d'Erco- 
 lano ; Vinuti Descrizione delle prime Sco- 
 perte dell' antica Citta d'Ercolano; Murr 
 de Papyris Herculanensihus ; Drummond 
 and Walpole, H^cj'fM/anensJa; Hayter's Let- 
 ter and Report on the Herculaneum Manu- 
 scripts; Philosophical Transactions for 1751, 
 1753, 1754, 1755, 175G ; and Sir W, Hamil- 
 ton, Campi Phlegrcei, p. 58. Likewise refer 
 to the interesting article on the same sub- 
 ject in Dr. Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclo- 
 pcedia, from which this article is mainly 
 taken : LaLettre de Winckelmann au Comte 
 de Br'xlhl ; La Relation des nouvelles Decou- 
 vertes faitcs a Herculanum, by the same 
 author; also his Six Letters, written in 
 Italian, and addressed to M. Bianconi: — A 
 French translation of these three works 
 was published in Paris, in 1784, by M. 
 Jansen. Fougeroux de Bondaroy, of the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences, has published 
 Recherches sur les Ruincs d' Herculanum et 
 sur les Lumieres qui peuvent en rilsulter, rela- 
 tivement d I'Etat prisent des Sciences et des 
 Arts, avec un Traite sur la Fabriquc des 
 Mosaiques, 12mo. Paris, 1770. Henri 
 Math. August. Cramer put forth, at Halle, 
 in 1773, Details pour scrvir u I'Histoire des 
 Decouvertes d' Herculanum, avec une Preface 
 de J. J. Rambach. Added to these, a lit- 
 tle German work on the Ruins of Hercula- 
 neum and Pompeii, 8vo. Gotha, 1791, with 
 plates, gives an interesting notice of these 
 discoveries. See Pompeii. 
 
 Hercules. ["HpaKX}}e, Gr.] In the my- 
 thology of art. One of the most illus- 
 trious heroes of antiquity, and the first 
 of the Dii Minorum Gentium, or demigods. 
 He was descended from the kings of Ar- 
 gos; but in the Pagan mythology, he is 
 said to have been the son of Jupiter by 
 Alcmena, the wife of Amphitryon, King 
 of Thebes. The period of his birth is 
 uncertain. Herodotus places it about the 
 year 1282, before the commencement of the 
 Christian era ; and in Blair's Cltronologi- 
 
 HEll 
 
 cal Tables, his death is placed in the yefair 
 1222, B. C. 
 
 Hercules was peculiarly honoured 
 among the Greeks, by the epithet of Mu- 
 sagetes, the conductor of the Muses ; and 
 among the Romans, by that of Hercules 
 Musarum. In reference to these titles, he 
 is represented, on medals, with a lyre in 
 his hand ; and the reverse is marked with 
 the figures of the nine Muses, with their 
 appropriate symbols. 
 
 The chief attribute of this deity, how- 
 ever, or the distinguishing character of 
 his figures, is incomparable strength. 
 Amongst the others are a lion's skin, a 
 club, and a bow. The lion's skin is some- 
 times so put on, that the head and jaws of 
 the beast appear over the head of the hero. 
 See Attributes. 
 
 Hercules, with very great merits, had, 
 notwithstanding his alleged choice of vir- 
 tue in preference to pleasure, as described 
 by Xenophon, faults as great. He was a 
 slave to amorous propensities, and drank 
 as immeasurably as he fought courage- 
 ously. The Drunken Hercules is, indeed, 
 nouncommon figure still. According to Sta- 
 tius,he was invoked (in the lectisternia made 
 to him by the Romans) under this charac- 
 ter. A friend of Statius had a little figure 
 of this god, which he put upon the table 
 whenever any gaiety was going forward. 
 The figure held a cyathus in one hand, and 
 his club in the other, with a good-natured 
 mild look, as if inviting others to be as 
 well pleased as himself. This little statue 
 is remarkable for having run through a 
 series of the highest fortunes of any upon 
 record. It was a Hercules in miniature, 
 of brass, cast by the famous Lysippus. 
 Before it came to Statius's friend, it had 
 belonged to Sylla; before him, to Hanni- 
 bal, and was his fellow traveller into Italy, 
 as, previously, it had accompanied Alex- 
 ander the Great in all his expeditions. It 
 was not a foot high, therefore poi-table 
 enough. This history of it is given by 
 Statius at large. 
 
 Hercules is represented much in the 
 same manner on an ancient gem by Admon, 
 at the Verospi at Rome, which our author 
 thinks was copied from this very figure. 
 
 The Twelve Labours of Hercules are so 
 notorious that we do not conceive it neces- 
 sary to enumerate them. 
 
 Heresy, {hceresis, Lat.] In mythological 
 sculpture and painting. " Many modern 
 painters and sculptors," says Winckel- 
 mann, in his Essay on Allegory, " have 
 employed their talents to represent He- 
 resy, in forms the most hideous and revolt- 
 
 c c 
 
II ER 
 
 ing, at the feet of pictures and statues of 
 the saints;" and such representations are 
 very frequently to be met with in the ca- 
 thedral church of St. Peter at Rome, as 
 well as in other Catholic places of wor- 
 ship, their exclusive and dogmatising 
 " modes of faith" rendering any departure 
 therefrom far more unpardonable to them 
 than similar diflerences of opinion are to 
 the followers of milder and less arbitrary 
 systems of Christian belief. Winckelmann 
 himself thinks that the most efficient me- 
 thod of personifying this abstraction would 
 be under the figure of a female, who, pros- 
 trate on the earth, either seeks to conceal 
 her shame, or meditates, in bitterness of 
 heart, on means to avenge her humiliation. 
 
 The term Heresy is often applied to art 
 itself, and is then understood, as indeed 
 will be obvious, to refer to any perform- 
 ance which is executed in neglect or con- 
 tempt of established and recognised prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 Hermaphrodite. [tpfiriQ, Hermes, and 
 a(^po^(r/;, Venus, Gr.] In sculpture. "This 
 being," says Millin, " must be considered 
 as a fiction of the imagination, produced by 
 a people who possessed the art of embel- 
 lishing every thing — the Greeks ; who de- 
 signed, in the hermaphrodite, to represent 
 a union of all the excellencies peculiar to 
 either sex." In point of taste, we must beg 
 leave to differ from the intelligent French- 
 man. Although in theory this combina- 
 tion may be exceedingly fine, yet when an 
 attempt is made to place it visibly before 
 us, the result is certainly, to our appre- 
 hension at least, any thing but ornamental 
 — it is, indeed, oli'ensive. In ancient juy- 
 thology the hermaphrodite is said to have 
 proceeded from an amour between Mer- 
 cury and Venus, as is indicated by the 
 etymology of the name. Venus was es- 
 teemed the queen of all beauty; and Mer- 
 cury, to his personal accomplislunents, 
 added wit, knowledge, and, in short, ta- 
 lent of every kind. These blended quali- 
 ties are then to be supposed to descend 
 upon their common offspring, who thus 
 becomes the representative of all imagina- 
 ble human perfection*. The painters of 
 the Greek vases, who, by the by, were not 
 at all scrupulous as to the natur(> o{ their 
 delineations, made no sniall use of tiiis 
 ideal personage ; and M. Millin 8])eaks of 
 a crouching statue of the same kind in (he 
 sculpture gallery of the Louvre, wlii(h 
 
 ♦ AiiolluT vfiwon of the story sl:ilo.t, lliai iho 
 nyni|)li Saliii;i»irt fill in love willi liiiii, iiiid lni;c;icl 
 of the nods lliitt llicir budii't might b« always iiiiiicd, 
 xiid iiKikc l)iit uiiv. 
 
 HE U 
 
 lie describes as a copy of the celebrated 
 Borghese hermnphrodite ; and that admi- 
 rable sculpture itself, according to M. 
 Visconti, is but an imitation, in marble, of 
 a bronze figure executed by Polycles, and 
 mentioned by Pliny. All these figures 
 have the breast of a woman, with the 
 sexual organs of a man. In other respects 
 they are generally represented, both with 
 regard to shape and countenance, as femi- 
 nine. 
 
 Hermathene. [fpfiijg, Hermes, and 
 a5i)vi], Minerva, Or.] In sculpture, A 
 little further on the reader will find, in 
 our description of the word Hermes, a 
 general account of the kind of figure de- 
 signated thereby. A Hermathene is sim- 
 ply the same thing surmounted particu- 
 larly by a head of Minerva, whom the 
 Greeks were fond of calling A-JZ/vj/, or by 
 the heads of Minerva and Mercury toge- 
 ther, placed back to back. 
 
 Hermeracle. [tpF'/Ct Hermes, and 
 f()«KX»}c, Hercules, Gr.] In sculpture. By 
 this word is indicated a Hermes surmount- 
 ed by a head of Hercules alone, or by the 
 united heads of Hercules and Mercury. 
 These figures were generally set up to 
 adorn places for the exhibition of g>mnas- 
 tic exercises, of which Mercury and Her- 
 cules were esteemed jointly the protecting 
 deities. 
 
 Hermeros. [ipfiiiQ, and tpwf, Gr.] In 
 sculpture. This term, composed of the 
 two words, Hermes, Mercury, and Eros, 
 Love, is used to designate a Hermes sur- 
 mounted either by the united heads of 
 these deities, or by that of Love singly. 
 
 Hermes. [ffi/iT/c, Gr.] lu sculpture. This 
 is one of the names of Mercury, a person- 
 age very celebrated amongst the myflio- 
 logical deities of the ancients ; and of 
 whom we propose to give a more particu- 
 lar account under the latter cognomen. 
 Our subject at present is to allbrd the 
 reader some information respecting those 
 peculiar-looking little figures one now and 
 then encounters in sculjiture, which re- 
 semble a stone placed upriglit, and \\hicli, 
 increasing in v idlh towards the top, ter- 
 minates in a head or bust. To these odd- 
 looking eculptures, whatever the charac- 
 ter of thi^ heaii by wiiich th<\v are crown- 
 ed, tiit> general name of Hermes has been 
 appropriated, even from ancient times, 
 and several reasons are recorded for thus 
 designating them, but tliese are, geiicrailv 
 speaking, destitute both of probability and 
 interest. The following exjilanation ap- 
 pears at (uice the most obvious and the 
 most crcdilile. 
 
' HER 
 
 Hermes or Mercury, though the patron 
 of robbers, was supposed, at the same 
 time, to preside over the highways. The 
 statues of this Mercury were of that odd 
 terminal shape so much in vogue in the 
 best ages of antiquity. These old termini 
 were sometimes without, but oftener with 
 busts, or half figures of some deity on 
 them; and those of Mercury so much more 
 frequently than any other, that the Greeks 
 gave them their uniform name Epfiai, from 
 this god. 
 
 There is an allusion in Juvenal (Sat. 
 viii. V. 1 — 67) which would strike us more 
 strongly were we used to see these ter- 
 minal Mercuries as commonly as the Ro- 
 mans were of old. The satire turns upon 
 this assertion, that where there is no vir- 
 tue, there cannot be any nobility. Virtue, 
 among the Romans, was " a man's exert- 
 ing himself in the service of his country 
 or friends :" so that the comparing a man 
 to a figure without arms or legs must con- 
 vey the strongest idea of his being the 
 most useless of mortals. 
 
 Hero, [Gr.] In mythological "painting 
 and sculpture. A beautiful maid of Sestos 
 (a town upon the European shore of the 
 Hellespont), the priestess of Venus, whom 
 Leander, who lived on the other side, fall- 
 ing in love with, was wont to come to 
 at nights, swimming over the streights. 
 He at last being drowned in one of his 
 attempts, Hero threw herself off her tur- 
 ret into the sea to him, 
 
 Herodotus. In archaiology and the his- 
 tory of the arts. The most ancient of the 
 Greek historians whose works are extant, 
 and thence called by Cicero the Father of 
 History, was born at Halicarnassus in 
 Caria, in the first year of the seventy- 
 fourth olympiad, or about 434 years B. C. 
 
 The history of Herodotus embraces a 
 period of about 240 years, from the time 
 of Cyrus the Great, to Xerxes; and con- 
 tains, besides the transactions between 
 Persia and Greece, a sketch of the affairs 
 of other nations, as the Lydians, lonians, 
 Lycians, Egyptians, and Macedonians. The 
 work is divided into nine books, which 
 are called after the nine Muses; not by 
 the historian himself, but, as it is thought, 
 by the Greeks at the Olympic games, 
 when they were first recited, as a compli- 
 ment to the author. 
 
 Besides this work, Herodotus is sup- 
 posed to have written a history of Assy- 
 ria; which, if it was ever published (a 
 fact that seems doubtful), is noAv lost. 
 The Life of Homer which is usually 
 printed at the end of his Avorks has also 
 
 HER 
 
 been ascribed to Herodotus; but the best 
 critics are of opinion tiiat it is the produc- 
 tion of a different author. 
 
 The two best editions of Herodotus are 
 that of Wesseling, fol, Amsterdam, 1763; 
 and that of Glasgow, in 9 vols, 12mo, 
 1761. A very excellent edition of Hero- 
 dotus, in Greek and Latin, was published 
 in Edinburgh by Mr. Laing, in 7 vols. 
 12mo, in the year 1806, corrected by Pro- 
 fessor Porson and Professor Dunbar. The 
 editio princeps is that of Aldus, Venet. fol. 
 1502. There are two English translations 
 of this historian; the one by Littlebury, 
 in 2 vols. 8vo. and the other by Mr. Beloe, 
 in 4 vols. Svo. with many useful and enter- 
 taining remarks and annotations. There 
 is also an excellent French translation, 
 with very learned notes, by M. Larcher. 
 The geography of Herodotus has been 
 examined and explained by the ingenious 
 Major Rennell, in one volume, 4to. 1800. 
 
 Heroes. [Lat.] In archaiology. Noble 
 and famous men, who for their great acts 
 and virtues were deemed to come next to 
 the immortal gods; and they obtained 
 such an opinion among men, tliat after 
 death they were themselves deified, and 
 therefore called t)f.ii^eoi, semidei, i. e. de- 
 migods. Such were those whom they 
 fancied to have had one parent mortal, 
 the other immortal. 
 
 Heroic, [from hero.'] In painting and 
 sculpture. This is a derivation, as will 
 plainly appear, from the word hero. Those 
 are denominated the heroic ages which 
 occurred before the capture of Troy, and 
 during which those heroes are said to 
 have existed whose praises have been 
 sung in verse so glowing and impassioned 
 by Homer and other ancient poets. la 
 the arts the term is applied to such per- 
 formances as represent the actions of these 
 half-fabulous personages, and, by some 
 stretch of courtesy, to a delineation of 
 any surprising effort of courage or strength. 
 It has been considered desirable, in the 
 treatment of subjects of this nature, to 
 give full play to the imaginative faculty, 
 and to deck the principal figure with per- 
 sonal attributes which rise above the com- 
 mon lot of humanity. In point of costume, 
 it is customary either to leave the figures 
 naked (with the exception of a helmet), 
 or to throw a mantle loosely across the 
 shoulders, loins, &c. It was usual, by 
 way of compliment, thus to represent the 
 Roman emperors : and the custom has de- 
 scended with regard to mauy princes of 
 more recent times. The statue of the Em- 
 peror Napoleon, by Canova, w'as one of the 
 
 C C 2 
 
latest specimens worthy notice of tlu' 
 heroic style. He is represented under the 
 characteristics of Mars. 
 
 Hexastyle. [e?, six, and ffrvXoc, a co- 
 lumn, Gr.] In ancient architecture. Tlie 
 term applied to that description of temple 
 or other ornamental building, the principal 
 facade of which is ornamented by six co- 
 lumns. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, ['upog, sacred, and 
 yXlifu, to enf^rave, Gr.] In nrchaiology. 
 Such is the appellation ^iven to those 
 sacred characters with which the Egyp- 
 tians decorated the greater part of their 
 monuments, and which formed a species 
 of writing understood only by the priests, 
 and unintelligible to all the rest of the 
 nation ; and which became at length, as it 
 would api)ear, unknown even to those 
 holy personages themselves. This name 
 of hieroglyphic has been since applied to 
 every description of arbitrary characters 
 which has been framed for the use of the 
 initiated few possessed of a key thereto : 
 but such application is an unjust one ; the 
 etymology of the word proving that one 
 cannot fairly understand by it any other 
 than the mysterious writing first alluded 
 to, and peculiar to the Egyptian priest- 
 hood. 
 
 It is necessary, says M. Millin, in a 
 somewhat fanciful theory, speaking of this 
 subject, to distinguish two several sorts 
 of writing — that of thought and that of 
 sound. Tiie writing which he ventures to 
 denominate that of thought, expresses an 
 action with all its circumstances — and of 
 this several varieties may l)e easily recog- 
 nised. l'2vt!n the least civilized among men 
 have a decided tendency to the principle of 
 imitation, guided by which tiiey are led to 
 trace upon tl»e siiiul,on wood, or on stone, 
 the rude resemblance of such objects as 
 liavc most excited them, in order to recall 
 and fix them in their memory. From this 
 imitative priiiei))le has been deduced the 
 art of pictorial design ; an art which pre- 
 ceded the use of written characters, but 
 which, it is <)!)vious, could only be applied 
 t(» things actually physical, and was iiica- 
 ])able of bearing any relation whatever to 
 tiu! imaginative or nu-taphysical. In the 
 dill! progress of civilisation it would be- 
 C(»me desirable that these (|ualilics should 
 be expressed, as well as those Avhicli ap- 
 peal merely to the senses, and hence 
 would api)ear the necessity of having 
 rccoursi! to coiiventioiiid signs: thus, the 
 reader will perceive, sprung up the sys- 
 tem of si/inlxilicul writing. In pursuance 
 of this system, the most notorious at- 
 
 H I V. 
 
 tri!)utes applicable to humankind were 
 imaged by the figures of various sensible 
 objects. The sun became symbolical of 
 f^lory, and not unfrequently, of the Deity 
 liimself; the lion characterized coMr«^v' ; 
 the dog fidelity ; the serpent, with tail in 
 mouth, was emblematical of immortality. 
 In course of time these symbolical cliarac- 
 ters became very numerous, and it was 
 therefore deemed essential to simplify and 
 contract their forms, that much meaning 
 might be introduced in small spa;e. In 
 this ingenious contrivance tlu? Egyptians 
 distinguished themselves beyond all other 
 nations. At length, Avhen alphabetical 
 writing became known, the original sym- 
 bolical signs were reverenced by the com- 
 mon people as images of their gods, and 
 the abridgment of those characters was 
 resolved into the term of hieroglyphics. 
 Many learned persons have attempted to 
 elucidate and explain the meaning of such 
 examples as are yet extant of Egyptian 
 hieroglyphics ; but they are wrapped Jij) 
 in such impenetrable mystery, that it has 
 become proverbial to apply the term to 
 any thing in writing obscure and indefina- 
 ble. The figures which, either entire or 
 abridged, are used sometimes materially, 
 sometimes symbolically, in the composi- 
 tion of hieroglyphics, are distinguishable 
 into five sorts : animals, plants, instru- 
 ments, household goods, and mathematical 
 figures. These are capable of furnishing 
 combinations incalculable. HorapoUon, 
 in his Treatise on Hieroglyphics, has given 
 some rude explanations of these signs ; 
 and Hermapion. whose very name is indi- 
 cative of an Egyptian origin, has also 
 several times written on hieroglyphics in 
 a work from which Ammianus Marccllinus 
 has drawn a description of the olielisk of 
 the grand circus. Kircher, howcN er, sa- 
 tisfactorily proves that Hermapion 's elu- 
 cidatiim is a false one, but his own substi- 
 tution is iu>t a jot more luminous. It can- 
 not be doubted that, as the art tell into dis- 
 use, and was superseded by the invention 
 of aliihabi'tical characters, flu' jiricsts took 
 up tiie thing, and discountenancing the 
 practice of symbolical writing among the 
 conuuon people, preserved it themsehes, 
 and turned it into an engine for obvious 
 l)urposes ; nanudy, to exact wonder and 
 reverence, and to conceal the mysteries of 
 their professicm. To such a height did 
 the suiiiMstilion respecting these ni;itlt'rs 
 reach, that the various cniblenialical 
 figures have frequently been cngru\en (ui 
 precious stones, which were carried about 
 us amulets by the besotted wearers. M. 
 
HIP 
 
 Niebuhr has devoted great attention to 
 this subject; he has made several copies, 
 but chiefly at Cairo, where, unfortunately, 
 tJie specimens are neither the most ancient 
 nor the most curious. From the account 
 of the travels of M. Denon, who went to 
 Egypt in the suite of the French army, 
 and from the intelligent Treatise on Obe- 
 lisks of M. Zoega, much interesting infor- 
 mation may be deduced. See ^Enigma. 
 
 HiLAitiTY. Ihilaritus, Lat.] In mytholo- 
 gical sculpture and painting. Gaiety or joy 
 personified. Upon most of the Roman 
 medals we find this quality represented 
 under the figure of a matronly female, 
 holding in her right hand a laurel branch, 
 which she bent towards the earth, and in 
 her left a cornucopia. Green boughs have 
 always been esteemed symbolical of gaiety 
 and rejoicing, and are constantly used as 
 such to this day both in public and private 
 buildings. 
 
 Hippocampus. Pttttoc, a horse, and 
 KauTT)), a bend, Gr.] In the archaiology of 
 sculpture. A sort of sea-monster, of which 
 the upper part resembles a horse, while 
 the whole remainder of the body is that of 
 a fish. This fabulous animal is frequently 
 to be found represented on medals, and is 
 the one spoken of by poets as drawing the 
 car of Neptune and Amphitrite. In the 
 hippodrome of Constantinople there is 
 said to have been a hippocampus, of 
 which Nicetas makes frequent mention, 
 and to which he applies the name of river 
 horse, or horse of the Nile, the tail of 
 which was covered with scales. It must, 
 however, be borne in mind, that this author 
 was greatly given fo fabling, and his tes- 
 timony must accordingly be received with 
 no small caution. See Hippopotamus. 
 
 HiPPOCENTAUR. See Centaur. 
 
 KiPPOCRATiES. [from Hippocrates.] hi 
 archaiology. A fete celebrated in honour 
 of the god Neptune. It was much used 
 amongst the Arcadians. Durfng the con- 
 tinuance of these fetes, the horses were 
 held exempt from all labour, and were 
 promenaded througli the stri>ets and over 
 the open country, superbly harnessed and 
 decorated with garlands of flowers. The 
 Romans celebrated a similar festival, 
 which they denominated Consualia. 
 
 HiPPOHROME. [(TTTToe, a horse, and ^p6- 
 ;ioe, a course, Gr.] In ancient architecture. 
 A place appropriated among the Greeks 
 to equestrian exercises, and in which they 
 disputed for the prizes. The name Was 
 atterwards adopted by the Romans and 
 other nations. Of all the hippodromes of 
 Greece, that of Olympius was the most 
 
 HIS 
 
 remarkable. It was, according to tradi- 
 tion, four leagues long and one broad. 
 
 There are in England some vestiges of 
 similar courses, the most remarkable of 
 which is that near Stonehenge. 
 
 Hippopotamus. [i7r;ro:rora/[ioc, a river 
 horse, Gr.] 7?! the archaiology of painting 
 and sculpture. The river horse, found only 
 in Africa. It has been chiefly discovered 
 on the banks of the rivers Nile, Niger, 
 Gambia, and Zaire. It is sometimes seen 
 in salt water. 
 
 Although an inhabitant of the waters, 
 this formidable animal is well known to 
 breathe air like land animals ; indeed, on 
 land he finds the chief part of his food. 
 
 This animal, probably from its anoma- 
 lous nature and appearance, has been 
 made great use of by the poets and artists, 
 and several grotesque and exaggerated 
 repi'esentations of it have come down to us 
 from the ancients. 
 
 There is an account of an hippopotamus 
 having been, for the first time, publicly 
 exhibited at Rome, at the games cele- 
 brated in honour of Julius Cassar; and it 
 is frequently found since engraven on Ro- 
 man medals, sometimes alone, sometimes 
 with ayoungboy mounted on it. Itis often 
 connected with an emblematical figure of 
 the Nile on the medals of Trajan and of 
 Hadrian. Spanheim speaks of one, on 
 which appeared two of these beasts draw- 
 ing the triumphal chariot of Trajan. 
 
 The hippopotamus difljers but in name 
 from the hippocampus, already mentioned. 
 It is certain that an animal somewhat re- 
 sembling the fabulous descriptions alluded 
 to has existed, and possibly still does: 
 but we suspect that, even in Egypt, its 
 appearance is now exceedingly rare. See 
 Hippocampus. 
 
 HiSPAMA. [Lat. Spain.] In (he history 
 of the arts. A large country of Europe, 
 separated from Gaul by the Pyrenean 
 mountains, and bounded on every other 
 side by the sea. Upon several of the im- 
 perial medals, Spain is represented under 
 the figure of a female in a military habit, 
 holding in one hand ears of corn and 
 olive branches, symbols of the fertility of 
 the country, and in the other two javelins, 
 to indicate the warlike propensity of its 
 inhabitants. The rabbit also served for 
 an emblem of this country, from its ex- 
 treme fecundity there. Tiiere is a curious 
 story in Pliny, of these animals under- 
 mining an entire Spanish town ; and 
 Strabo says, that in one place the inhabi- 
 tants demanded of the Romans to be trans- 
 ported into some other land, alleging 
 
H IS 
 
 tiicmselves unable any longer to resist 
 liie encroachments of these alarming ex- 
 cavators. 
 
 Historical Painting. See Painting. 
 
 History, [historin, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 In its general sense, history consists of 
 that description of knowledge which be- 
 longs to narrative ; and stands opposed to 
 science, which is demonstrated know- 
 ledge, and to piiilosophy, which is matter 
 of opinion. Literally, this word is appli- 
 cable only to that information which the 
 writer gives on his own knowledge. Those 
 who write histories of things or events 
 which they have not themselves seen, are 
 mere compilers of the testimonies pub- 
 lished by others. 
 
 History is naturally interesting in the 
 highest degree ; we cannot but take the 
 liveliest concern in the transactions of our 
 fellow-creatures ; and, if time be measured 
 by the succession of ideas, this study cer- 
 tainly antedates our lives, and makes us 
 live tluough the ages that have preceded 
 our birth. Nor is the importance of his- 
 tory inferior to its fascinations ; it is the 
 sxjurce, immediate or mediate, of almost 
 all our ideas. No man who is acquainted 
 with facts can form a theoiy without tak- 
 ing these into the account : we seldom 
 speak or tliink of human nature without 
 some reference to the actions which we 
 believe mankind to have performed. 
 
 I am very desirous of impressing deeply 
 on the mind of the student in art the great 
 importance, if to all, more particularly to 
 him, of the study of history. He should 
 understand well both chronology and geo- 
 graphy, in order that he nuiy avoid all 
 confusion, either of time or place. He 
 should be thoroughly acquainted with 
 mythology, and, in a word, witli history 
 both ancient and modern, tliat he might 
 liave a plentiful choice of subjects, and 
 tliat he might be careful to give to those 
 personages whom he selects the attributes 
 and characteristics wliich are i>roper to 
 each. 
 
 To those who arc desirous of studying 
 history with advantage, it is always re- 
 commended to make gi'Ograi)hy a correla- 
 tive pursuit; and farther, to have at hand 
 a map of the country the history of which 
 (hey are reading. 'Die IfNiriu^r cannot ho. 
 too sedulous, aii:o, to reduce tiie medley of 
 events into order; and to form in liis mind 
 an accurate abridgment of tiie narrative. 
 It is not here recommended to ccuiimit any 
 former abridgment to paper (for in that case 
 it will presently be forgotten, and tlie stu- 
 dent's knowledge be to be found not in his 
 
 110 N^ 
 
 head, but in his escritoire); nor ought his- 
 torical reading to be confined to that of the 
 abridgments of others : these have their 
 use ; but we cannot know too many par- 
 ticulars: it will often happen that some 
 unnoticed circumstance overturns, in the 
 mind of a man who thinks for himself, all 
 the specious fabric that partial historians 
 have set up. 
 
 Homeric. [Homericus, Lat.] In urchnio- 
 lo^y. That which appertains to Homer, 
 or to the eras of which his divine poems 
 treat. There was formerly a species of 
 divination practised, entitled the Homeric 
 lots, which consisted in opening the vo- 
 lume at random, and the first verse which 
 caught the eye was held to be oracular 
 respecting the question by which the in- 
 quirer was agitated. The same sort of 
 thing has obtained with regard to the 
 works of Virgil; and more recently, among 
 the early Christians, this superstitious 
 feeling sought for satisfaction by similar 
 reference to the sacred pages of the Hible. 
 The term Homeric has been applied to 
 those works of art, the subjects of which 
 are drawn from scenes of this great poet. 
 
 Honour. Ihojios, Lat.] In the mijtholo^y 
 of the arts. A virtue worshiped at Komc. 
 Her first temple was erected by Scipio 
 Africanus, and another afterwards was 
 built by Claudius Marcellus. We find a 
 personification of this quality on several 
 medals of Galba and of Vitellius. She 
 is represented half naked, holding in one 
 hand a spear, and in the other a cornuco- 
 pia: iipou others, a long robe envelops 
 the figure, and the spear is exchanged for 
 an olive branch. 
 
 Honours, [honos, Lat.] In all the aits. 
 Greece, in the heroic times, rendered to 
 all her great generals and captains some 
 liberal reward, as a proof of the public 
 approbation and respect. This was some- 
 times offered in the shape of a vase of 
 gold, or of a silver tripod, or some other 
 valualjle article either of utility or of mere 
 ornament. Similar rewards were con- 
 ceded to (he victorious Roman leader in 
 the shape of a triumph or ovation. 
 
 Nor was it to military merit alone that 
 tiie ancients decreed honours : the fine 
 arts were made objects of national regard 
 and eiicduriigement. tireece j)riiduci'd a 
 multituile of (he mos( eminen( men — and 
 why / because she cultivated anil recom- 
 piMised talent of every description. I'hi- 
 losojihy, elo(iuence, painting, poetry, mu- 
 sic, sculpture, architecture, were ea( h ena- 
 l)K'd to a.s|)ire to the higiicst distinctions. 
 'I'lic Lacedieinouiaus, even allhougii their 
 
11 o o 
 
 education was decidedly warlike, erected 
 statues to the poet Tyrtaeus. At the cele- 
 brated public games in Sparta, prizes were 
 distributed to the most successful amongst 
 the poets and musicians. Athens erected 
 statues to Solon, to Socrates, and an infi- 
 nity of others. To Homer temples were 
 raised ; and various poets and artists re- 
 ceived crowns, prerogatives, and often the 
 rights of citizenship. The Athenians in- 
 scribed upon the front of their temples the 
 names of the able architects who had de- 
 signed them. The town of Pergamus pur- 
 chased with the public funds a palace for 
 the reception of the works of Apelles. The 
 Eleans, for whom Phidias executed the 
 statue of Jupiter Olympius, in honour for 
 the memory of the artist, and in respect 
 for the surpassing beauty of his work, 
 erected, in favour of his descendants, a 
 lucrative office, of which the only duty 
 consisted in taking care of, and keeping 
 free from blemish, that celebrated piece of 
 art. 
 
 In the times of the republic, by the Ro- 
 mans, amongst whom the use of arms con- 
 stituted the chief, nay, almost the only 
 species of merit, few testimonies of esteem 
 were awarded to the practisers of the 
 fine arts, Tiiey affixed no honourable dis- 
 tinctions to the successful architect, pain- 
 ter, or sculptor, inasmuch as these peace- 
 ful avocations were, for the most part, 
 cultivated either by slaves or freedmen. 
 It was not until the reign of Augustus 
 Caesar that the arts were duly honoiired. 
 
 On the revival of intellectual energy, 
 after the darkness of the middle ages, the 
 arts were liberally encouraged. Michel 
 Angiolo was high in favour with the fierce 
 Julius II. RafFaelle was greatly beloved 
 by Leo X ; and the Emperor Maximilian 
 became the warm patron of Albert Durer, 
 whom he ennobled. Leonardo da Vinci 
 died in the arms of Francis I. Rubens 
 enjoyed the highest consideration, and 
 was entrusted with important negotiations 
 both by Philip IV. of Spain and Charles 
 II. of England. Even our stern Henry 
 VIII. was a mild and "kind master to Hol- 
 bein ; and the illustrious name of Medici 
 will at once recall to those least read in 
 history the zeal of that princely family for 
 tlie cultivation of the fine arts. 
 
 Hood, [ho*!). Sax.] In costume. An 
 article of dress designed to cover the 
 head and shoulders, and sometimes signi- 
 fying, among the ancients, a mantle which 
 served likewise to envelop the whole 
 body. In this sense we find it alluded to, 
 as serving to conceal from observation the 
 persons of the Roman youth during their 
 
 II () K 
 
 nocturnal rambles. In such a habit is 
 usually depicted Telesphorus, the son of 
 Esculapius. 
 
 Horizon, [opi'^wj', bounding (a view), 
 Gr.] In perspective. That great circle 
 which divides the heavens and the earth 
 into two equal parts or hemispheres, dis- 
 tinguishing the upper from the lower. 
 The horizon is either sensible or rational. 
 The sensible horizon is that circle which 
 limits our prospect. The ratiomtl horizon 
 is a great circle of the apparent celestial 
 sphere, dividing it into two equal hemis- 
 pheres, and serving as the limits of the 
 elevation or depression of celestial ob- 
 jects. 
 
 The line of the horizon should be in 
 perspective on an exact level : tlius it 
 is customary to say, a horizontal line, a 
 horizontal surface, a horizontal plan, &c. 
 to express the level of such plans, surfaces, 
 or lines. It is of high importance to the 
 painter tliat he should skilfully trace, in 
 his work, the horizontal line. All which, 
 in a picture, is placed above this line, is 
 viewed by the spectator from below up- 
 wards, and all which we find below it is 
 viewed by the eye from above down- 
 wards. 
 
 Horn, [hopn, Sax.] In archuiology. 
 The horns of animals, literally speaking, 
 formed the most ancient drinking cups. 
 Pindar, jEschylus, and Xenophon make 
 mention of them as being appropriated to 
 this purpose. Philip of Macedon is said 
 to have made use of one. It is from this 
 ancient usage that the general name of 
 horns has been given to a species of drink- 
 ing cup, as, after the actual employment 
 of the animal substance had been discon- 
 tinued, the shape remained in use. Tlie 
 horns of victims sacrificed to the gods 
 were gilt, and suspended in the temples — 
 more especially in those of Apollo and 
 Diana. From the most remote times the 
 altars of the heathen divinities were like- 
 wise embellished with horns, and such as 
 fled thither to seek an asylum embraced 
 them. It was by these excrescences that 
 the victims, when immolated, were bound 
 to tlie altar. Originally, the horns were 
 doubtless symbolical of power and dignity, 
 since they are the principal feature of 
 gracefulness in some animals, and instru- 
 ment of strengtii in others. Hence these 
 somewhat equivocal ornaments have been 
 frequently bestowed on pictorial represen- 
 tations of gods and heroes ; ancient me- 
 dals frequently present the figures of Se- 
 rapis, of Amnion, of Bacchus, and of Isis, 
 with these additions. The kings of Mace- 
 don were actually in the habit of wearing 
 
H () R 
 
 the horns of a ram in tlieir casque ; and 
 the same thing is asserted of various other 
 princes and chieftains. See Bow. 
 
 Horn of Plenty. Amalthaa, daugh- 
 ter of Melissus, king of Crete, fed Jupiter 
 with goat's milk : hence some autliors 
 have called her a goat, and have main- 
 tained that Jupiter, to reward her kind- 
 nesses, placed her in heaven as a constel- 
 lation, and gave one of her horns to the 
 nymphs who had taken care of his infant 
 years. This horn was called the horn of 
 plenty, or cornucopia, and from it issued 
 fruits and flowers, and, in short, all the 
 riches of art and nature. The cornucopia 
 is found on an infinite number of antiques, 
 and is the characteristic attribute of the 
 goddess styled Ei;6rji(irt by the Greeks, 
 and Abundantia by the Romans. It is 
 placed in the hands of figures representing 
 countries or towns, to indicate the rich- 
 ness of their territory ; and in those of 
 rivers, to express the fertility produced by 
 them. The beautiful statue of the Nile, 
 of whicli a copy maybe seen in the palace 
 of the Tuileries, holds a horn of plenty 
 full of the productions of Egypt; and on 
 (he reverse of the medals of the kings of 
 Egypt, we find two cornucopias attached 
 together. 
 
 Horology. [oipoXoyaov, a clock, Gr.] 
 hi arclmiolot^y . That branch of science 
 which enables us to measure the portions 
 of time as they pass. We judge of the 
 lapse of time by the succession of sensible 
 events, and the most convenient and accu- 
 rate measures of its quantity are derived 
 from motions which are either uniform or 
 repeated at equal intervals. Of the for- 
 mer kind, the rotation of the earth on its 
 axis is tlie most exact, and the situation of 
 the earth with respect to the fixed stars, 
 or sun, constitutes the means for deter- 
 mining the parts of time as they follow 
 each other. Of the latter kind, the rota- 
 tion of macliinery, consisting of wheel- 
 work, moved by a weight or sjiring, and 
 regulated by a peiidulum or balance, af- 
 fords instruments of which the utility is 
 well known. The term horology is at 
 present coiilincd to the ])rincii)les on which 
 the art of making clo/ks anil watcln's is 
 established. See Hvdkoscope and Clkp- 
 
 SYDHA. 
 
 Horse. [Iiojip, Sax.] In pniutluii- "'id 
 \'<cHlpture. This animal, of so vast utility 
 to man, has been made great use of by 
 artists, both ancient and modern. Tlie 
 horse ^vas consccrattHl (o Mars, and still 
 more especially to Neptune, to a\ liom, in- 
 deed, lias been attributed the origin of 
 this noble quadruped. INJauy princes and 
 
 II OS 
 
 chieftains have been celebrated for their 
 attachment to their horses. The Iliad 
 aflbrds us some idea of the estimation in 
 which they were held during the heroic 
 ages. The names of those horses were 
 preserved which obtained the prizes in the 
 courses of chariots. We find the horse 
 constantly depicted on ancient medals and 
 vases, and in many instances executed 
 with great taste and skill — more particu- 
 larly iu those of the Thessalians, who 
 were eminent for their knowledge of 
 horsemanship. According to Addison, 
 the horse, when found on these antiques, 
 is generally placed as a symbol of the 
 warlike disposition of the country. There 
 are yet extant several antique statues of 
 horses : such as the equestrian statue of 
 Marcus Aurelius ; the horses of Castor 
 and Pollux, before the Capitol, xvhich 
 have been attributed to Phidias. Amongst 
 the bronzes of Herculaneum, we find also 
 several horses remaining belonging to sta- 
 tues of Avhich the riders are lost. Ac- 
 cording to Pausanias, Herodes-Atticus, 
 eminent for his eloquence and riches, set 
 up in the temple of Neptune, at Corinth, 
 a car, drawn by four horses, richly gilt. 
 Amongst antique horses, we must not omit 
 to mention those taken from the hippo- 
 drome of Constantinople by the Venetians, 
 and placed to decorate St. Mark's, from 
 whence they were removed by Napoleon 
 to the Place Carousel at Paris (but have 
 been since restored). It has been con- 
 tended, though certainly not on the best 
 authority, that these famous horses were 
 executed by Lysippus, taken aAvay fnnu 
 Corinth, where they had been deposited, 
 and given to Nero by Tiridates, and after- 
 wards transported by Constantiiie to l?y- 
 zantium :— but all this rests on a slender 
 foundation ; in fact, their real (wigin is 
 unknown, and this alone appears palpai)ly 
 from (heir style — that they belong to the 
 period of the decline of the arts*. Many 
 modern artists have also excelled in re- 
 presenting the horse. Amongst painters 
 it is just to include those who have exe- 
 cuted chases and battles : among statua- 
 ries, the sculptors of equestrian statues. 
 See Ei.(iiN INlARni.iis. 
 
 Hospital, [hospitalis, Lat. hopital, Fr.] 
 hi (nrhilictiire. An edifice erecte<l and 
 supported either at the public cost, or by 
 the foundation and endowment of some 
 benevolent individual, for the rccepli(Ui 
 and medical treatment of unfortunate in- 
 
 • Niil M) \hv \n-.\i\ of Olio of llic horses of Niglit, 
 jiiiKln; llir l'',lj;iii M.ulilos, whii'h IxMis ;ill llir ni:irk« 
 iif liJtviiii; lu'iii iiuidiicvil ill the iiiosl pcilVct ira of 
 (iiician ail. 
 
I 
 
 uos 
 
 valids whose means will not procure them 
 sufficient care and attention at home. The 
 name is also given to places set apart for 
 the cure of wounded soldiers or sailors; 
 and, more generally still, to any Institution 
 of a charitable nature ; its derivative, hos- 
 pitalis, implying hospitable, courteous, 
 friendly to strangers. 
 
 It does not appear that these refuges 
 for the forlorn and afflicted were common 
 among the ancients. On the contrary, the 
 Greeks seem to have had scarcely any in- 
 stitution, the purpose of which could be at 
 all so understood. In the council-house of 
 Athens, indeed, food seems to have been 
 distributed to such as had suffered in de- 
 fence of their country, as well as to their 
 wives and children ; but we find no traces 
 of an asylum in case of disease. In Lace- 
 dasmonia, where, according to the legisla- 
 tion of Lycurgus, all the citizens fed in 
 common, Jiothing similar to our hospitals 
 existed. Nor do the other cities of Greece 
 appear to have atoned for this defect. 
 Among the Romans, too, the same defi- 
 ciency, to a great degree, prevailed. In 
 fact, these two people, the most refined 
 and civilized of all antiquity, -were uninflu- 
 enced by those feelings of humanity which 
 have prompted the moderns to provide so 
 many places of refuge for the sick and 
 unfortunate. The chief cause of this may 
 be found in those feelings of unmingled 
 contempt and detestation with which the 
 patricians regarded the plebeians and 
 slaves, whom they looked on as tiie very 
 dregs of the human race. It is however 
 just to mention, that they had numerous 
 buildings appropriated to the reception 
 and festive entertainment of strangers, and 
 that what are emphatically termed the 
 rights of hospitality were observed amongst 
 them with almost superstitious reverence. 
 
 But it was under the mild and soften- 
 ing spirit of Christianity, which incul- 
 cated the divine principle of common bro- 
 therhood, that institutions of the nature 
 we are treating of sprung up profusely. 
 
 M. Durand, in his admirable work, en- 
 titled Parallele des Edifices de tout Genre, 
 has presented an interesting collection of 
 plans of different hospitals : of such, for 
 instance, as those of Milan, of Geneva, of 
 Plymouth, of St. Louis at Paris, of 
 Langres, of the Incurables at Paris, ice. 
 &c. 
 
 The magnificence of the hospital at Mi- 
 lan is well deserving of attention. Its 
 style of architecture is demigothic, and 
 the details present several curious orna- 
 ments executed in hard clay. This edifice, 
 built at different times, and under diQ'cr- 
 
 II Y A 
 
 ent architects, has never been entirely 
 finished ; but the grandeur of the court- 
 yard, surrounded by two porticoes, one 
 above the otlier, forming galleries in ar- 
 cades, is very striking. The hospital at 
 Geneva partakes of the same character, as 
 does that of the Incurables at Paris. The 
 hospital of St. Louis at Paris is equally 
 remarkable for its simplicity, and for the 
 provision by which a great body of air is 
 allowed to play round that portion of the 
 edifice devoted to contagious disorders. 
 
 A little before the French revolution, 
 several of the most eminent medical men 
 were consulted as to the best distribution 
 of the various parts of an hospital, in order 
 to meet the double purpose of salubrity 
 and convenience. A building was com- 
 menced at La Roquette, in 1788, under 
 the designs of M. Poyet; by the construc- 
 tion of which it appears that among the 
 things prescribed was au entire isolation 
 of each of the wards, together with a 
 facile communication, by means of covered 
 galleries along all the circumference of the 
 court-yard ; which galleries w^ould afford 
 to convalescents the benefit of taking the 
 air. The hospital at Plymouth, erected 
 in 175(), possesses similar advantages 
 under another form, and on a smaller 
 plan. Greenwich Hospital is the most 
 noble in Europe. Its fine situation on the 
 banks of the Thames, its easy distance 
 from London, and its aspect, that of a ma- 
 jestic palace, offer to the brave seamen 
 whose energies have been spent in the 
 service of their country all the consola- 
 tions which declining age can require, or 
 tliat state of mutilation, from honourable 
 Avounds, which may render them unfit 
 again to encounter the dangers of war. 
 
 Hotel. [Fr.] In architecture. A large 
 inn, or place of public reception and en- 
 tertainment for people of rank and distinc- 
 tion. 
 
 Hourglass. [Iiora, hour, Lat. and jlres, 
 glass, Sax.] In ancient sculpture. In an 
 antique basso-rilievo representing the nup- 
 tials of Thetis and Peleus, published by 
 Winckelmann in his Monumenti Inediti, 
 we find Morpheus holding in his left hand 
 an hourglass, similar in shape to those 
 still in use. 
 
 House, [hur, Sax.] See Architec- 
 ture. 
 
 Hut. [huxre, Sax. a poor cottage.] See 
 Architecture, Cottage. 
 
 Hyacinth. [vc'tKiv&oQ, Gr. hyacinthiis, 
 Lat.] 7/1 gem sculpture. A genus of trans- 
 parent gems, of a red colour with an inter- 
 mixture of yellow. The hyacinth is of. 
 various sizes, from that of a pin's head to 
 
HYD 
 
 the third of an inch in diameter. It is 
 found in the East and West Indies, and in 
 Bolieinia and Silesia. 
 
 HvDRA. IvSpa, Gr.] In arcltaiology. A 
 celebrated monster which infested the 
 neighbourhood of the lake Lerna in Pelo- 
 ponnesus. It was the fruit of Echidna's 
 union with Typhon. It had a hundred 
 lieads, according to Diodorus : but ac- 
 counts vary much on this point, and no 
 wonder ; since, as soon as one of these 
 heads was cut off', two immediately grew 
 up, unless the wound was stopped by (ire. 
 It was one of the labours of Hercules to 
 destroy this monster, which he easily ef- 
 fected with the assistance of lolas, who 
 applied burning iron to the wounds as 
 Boon as each head was cut off". 
 
 The ancient artists differ in their repre- 
 sentations of the hydra. Sometimes it is 
 a serpent branched out into several others ; 
 and sometimes has a human head, with 
 serpents upon it instead of hair, and de- 
 scending less and less in serpentine folds. 
 
 Hydraulics. [vS(j)p, water, and aiiXog, a 
 pipe, Gr.] In architecture. The science of 
 measuring, conducting, and raising water. 
 Hydraulic architecture is that which re- 
 lates to the construction of harbours, 
 bridges, dykes, fountains, quays, naviga- 
 ble canals, &c. The necessity that an ar- 
 chitect should be in some degree acquaint- 
 ed Avith this science is obvious, that he 
 may be enabled, with intelligence and pre- 
 cision, to undertake and carry on such 
 works as we have enumerated : and even 
 that he may be enabled to conduct water 
 with facility into public or private edifices. 
 See AucHiTECTiiiE. 
 
 Hydkaulos. [v^ujp, water, and avXbc, a 
 pipe, Gr.] In hydraulics. A pneumatic 
 <!ngine used in ancient times, of which 
 Ctesibius, a celebrated merchant of Alex- 
 andria, has been reported the autiior. An- 
 tiquaries have puzzled themselves greatly 
 as to the peculiar form and construction 
 of tills instrument: a point which they are 
 by no means likely to attain a decisive 
 knowledge of, and which knowledge, could 
 it bo obtained, would be now of little or no 
 iililily. 
 
 HvDiioi'iiANE. [I'lfwp, water, <pav))i; hi- 
 <id, Gr.] In {(em .sculi>iurc. Tliis stone, so 
 called from its transi)aren(y being losi or 
 becoming visible on plunging it into water, 
 was not unknown to the ancient engravers. 
 Winckclmann, who wrote in an age when 
 liie study of mineralogy had not niadt- 
 much progress, speaks of this phenome- 
 non, l)ut oilers no kind of explanalion. 
 " l'|)(iii a s.irdonyx of three colours," says 
 he, " 1 found a figure of Apollo Btanding, 
 
 11 Y P 
 
 with a star before him; the under stratum 
 of this stone, which was white, became 
 black, on putting the ring on my linger, 
 and, on removing it, resumed gradually its 
 whiteness." This phenomenon was pro- 
 bably owing to the perspiration having 
 deprived the gem of its brilliancy, which 
 it regained by degrees as it became dry. 
 Some specimens of these stones have been 
 said to gain transparency, instead of losing 
 it, on the application of water. 
 
 Hydrophore. [i'l^wp, water, and ^opoc, 
 healing, Gr.] In the archuiolo^ij of sculp- 
 ture. A little bronze statue which The- 
 mistocles erected out of the fines which 
 he levied on certain individuals whom 
 he had condemned for turning the public 
 streams into private canals. He had it 
 consecrated in a temple. The same figure 
 was subsequently discovered at Sardis, in 
 the temple of Cybele. By this name are 
 frequently designated those small figures in 
 cabinets v hich bear a vase to hold water. 
 
 Hyuroscope. [i'ciwp, water, and aKonog, a 
 markjGr.] In thegevmetryoj'art. An instru- 
 ment anciently used for the mensuration 
 of time. The hydroscope was a kind of 
 water-clock, consisting of a cylindrical 
 tube, conical at the bottom : the cylinder 
 was graduated, or marked with divisions; 
 and as the surface of the water, which 
 trickled out at the point of the cone, suc- 
 cessively sank to those several divisions, 
 it pointed out the hour. See Cixpsydra. 
 
 Hyena, [hyami, I^at.] In >i;ythoU>i(ical 
 painfivi( mnt scuiplurc. In the year lOOG 
 of Rome, at the secular games given by 
 the Emperor Philip, and which lasted six 
 days, there appeared a hyena, an animal 
 until that time unknown in Europe. It 
 was struck on that occasion upon several 
 medals, though not very successfully. In 
 one described by Spanheim, he states it to 
 be represented with the head of a dog, 
 cars short and triangular, the head luid 
 feet of a lion, and the skin of a tiger. 
 According to the same author, it is a 
 hyena which appears on the reverse of 
 several medals of the Emperor (Jallienus, 
 bearing this inscription: 
 
 LiuEuu p. Cons. Aic;. 
 
 but it might rather !)<• suspected (o be a 
 liantiier, an animal consecrated lo Liber 
 Pater — that is to say, to Uacclius. 
 
 Hyp-itiiirai.. [Inrb, below, and aiOiip, 
 air, Gr.] In anciint architecture. Uncovered 
 or open to the sky; according lo Vitru- 
 vius, the seventli «irder of leini)les, and 
 witlioul a roof. The temples known under 
 tliis name had six columns l)efore each 
 front, and were surrounded by a double 
 
HYP 
 
 portico. The chapel of these temples was 
 mostly roofless, otherwise its extent would 
 have rendered it too gloomy, as the light of 
 day could only have been admitted through 
 the outer door. However, for the statue 
 of the patron deity, and those who had 
 business within, and required shelter in 
 bad weather, they constructed around the 
 interior, a portico consisting of two ranges 
 of columns one above the other. There 
 remain to the present day several antique 
 temples of this kind, answering more or 
 less to the description given by Vitruvius. 
 Such is the grand temple of Poestum, re- 
 presented in the works of Paoli and De- 
 lagardette on the Ruins of Pwstum: the 
 temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, re- 
 presented by Stuart in the Antiquities of 
 Athens; that of Selinus, in Sicily, repre- 
 sented by Houel, in his Voyage in Sicili/ ; 
 that of Minerva at Athens, given by Stuart ; 
 and that of Jupiter PanheJlenius, in the 
 isle of iEgina, given in the Ionian Antiqui- 
 ties. Of all these temples, that of Poestum 
 is the only one which yet retains its inte- 
 rior portico. See Architecture, Cella. 
 
 Hyperbola. [i»n-fp, over, and /3a\\w, to 
 throw, Gr.] In architecture. A term for 
 one of the sections of a cone. 
 
 Hypocaustum. [Lat. 'XiroKav^ov, a stove, 
 Gr.] In architecture. An arched chamber 
 in which a fire is kindled for the purpose 
 of giving heat to the rooms above it. The 
 heat is conducted fiom the hypocaustum 
 by means of tubes, which are carried 
 through every chamber, thus affording a 
 pleasant and equalized warmth. This me- 
 thod was first adopted in baths, and after- 
 wards became used in private houses. It 
 does not appear to have been known among 
 the Romans until, at least, the time of the 
 Emperors. The advantages of this method 
 are that it affords a uniform temperature 
 and is free from smoke ; the degree of 
 warmth is regulated by the addition of 
 valves. After all, however, there appears 
 to us to be something far more cheerful 
 about the blaze of a common coal fire. 
 
 These tubes for the conveyance of heat 
 are sometimes enclosed in the walls of a 
 
 HYP 
 
 room, and are continued to that above, so 
 that the same pipe serves for both. In 
 other instances, the hypocaustum itself 
 has been placed at the side of the apart- 
 ment for the use of which it is designed, 
 and an aperture made, capable of being 
 ehut at pleasure, through which the 
 warmth proceeds. Winckelmann gives the 
 following description of a hypocaustum 
 found among the ruins of Tusculum, under 
 several chambers. " Beneath the rooms," 
 says he, "were little underground cells, 
 of about the height of a table — two under 
 each apartment. They had no entrance. 
 The cieling of these small cells was con- 
 structed of large flat bricks, and supported 
 by two pillars alike constructed of brick 
 without lime, but with loam only, in order 
 that the heat may have no injurious effect 
 on them. Through the cieling ran qua- 
 drangular pipes made of loam, wliich de- 
 scended half-way down the little cell, and 
 the upper extremity of which terminated 
 in the chamber above. Similar pipes were 
 carried from this througli the walls into 
 the second story of the building. The ex- 
 tremity of these tubes was often decorated 
 with a lion's head in hard clay. These 
 subterraneous cells were approached by 
 a corridor two feet wide, and the coals 
 were introduced into them through a 
 square opening." 
 
 Hyposcenium. [vTrb, under, and aKjjvij, 
 a scene, Gr.] In architecture. This name, 
 which signifies under the scene or back 
 scene, is given by Pollux to the front 
 wall of a theatre which faces the orclies- 
 tra from the stage. It was usual to de- 
 corate it with columns and statues. This 
 obtained among the Romans, as appears 
 by the hyposcenium of the proscenium of 
 the theatre at Herculaneum, which exhi- 
 bits niches wherein there can be no doubt 
 statues were formerly placed. Vitruvius 
 makes no mention of this term. 
 
 Hypotrachelion. [Gr.] hi architecture. 
 According to Vitruvius, the slenderest 
 part of the shaft of a column, that which 
 joins the capital, and which we call the 
 frieze or necking. 
 
 Ibis. [i'jStf, Gr.] In mythological painting 
 and sculpture. The ancient Egyptians wor- 
 shiped this bird; they set it up in the 
 sanctuary of their temples ; they suffered 
 it to stray freely and unharmed about their 
 cities, they embalmed it with equal care 
 to that bestowed on their dearest rela- 
 
 tives ; they attributed to it a virgin purity, 
 and an inviolable attachment to their coun- 
 try, of which it was an emblem. In fine, 
 they felt assured that the gods assumed 
 the shape of the ibis whenever they found 
 it necessary to visit earth. Although the 
 ancients have left us several admirable 
 
ICH IDE 
 
 descriptions and representations of the that, in tiie conflict last mentioned, the 
 ibis; the intelligent French naturalist, ichneumon darted down the crocodile's 
 M. C'livier, and our countryman, Bruce, throat, and fairly nibbled away at its en- 
 whose accounts, by the by, although at trails. All these stories are without foun- 
 first consider*d almost wholly fabulous, dation. The French have designated this 
 are continually receiving fresh confirma- little quadruped Plmmoli's rat, and the 
 tion, are the only modern authors who name has been adopted by Prosper Alpin. 
 liave made any satisfactory allusion to The name of IchneuuKm has also been 
 this bird, the name of which appears to applied to a genus of insects of tlie hyme- 
 Iiave been improperly given by many na- noptera order. 
 
 turalists to those of another genus. Ichnography. [ivvoyoa^m, engraving 
 
 The testimony of the ancients, and the of a vestige, Gr.] In arcliiteclttrc. The 
 works of art on which the figure of the plan or outline upon the ground of an in- 
 ibis is engraven, accord equally Avitli the tended building. This word is not used 
 observations of M. Cuvier. Herodotus by painters or sculptors, but is adopted by 
 states the following particulars respecting those artists who conline themselves to 
 the commonest species of this bird: — the designing. In perspective, it is the view 
 head and neck bare, the plumage, with or representation of any object whatever 
 some exceptions, white : others, however, intersected by a horizontal line at its base 
 were represented as entirely black, with or ground-floor. 
 
 feet like the crane, and crooked beak. In architecture, this word signifies the 
 
 The paintings at Herculancum, and the transverse section of a building, which 
 Palestrine Mosaic, both present a number represents the circumference of the whole 
 of figures of the ibis, all agreeing in the edifice; the diflerent apartments; the 
 essential characteristics assigned by tiie thickness of the walls; the distribution 
 ancients: towhich we may add a medal in of parts; the dimensions of doors, win- 
 bronze, and another in silver, of the Em- dows, chimneys; the projection of columns 
 peror Hadrian, each bearing a similar and door-posts; and, in short, all that can 
 re])resentation. According to Bruce, this come into view in such a section, 
 bird is still to jje found, and not unfre- Ichnopoios. [Gr.] In .sculpture. A maker 
 quently, upon the banks of the Nile. of figures. See Wodku.eh, Plastic. 
 
 IciiHousE. In urchilccture. An apart- Itmiivs. [Gr.] In sculpture. A fish. 
 ment or cellar underground, constructed Buonarotti, in his Osservazioni sopra 
 for the purpose of preserving ice in its Framm. di Vasi di Vetro,speaks of a frag- 
 frozen state during the summer months, ment of glass representing a \oung man 
 Our readers are of course well aware of holding a live fish, in allusion, say the 
 the many luxurious preparations which critics, to young Tobias. This rcpresen- 
 result from this practice. tation of a man and fish had certainly a 
 
 Ichneumon. [('xi'^i'ijU'^j', Gr.] In the ar- mystical allusion in tiie minds of the early 
 clmiulogy of sculpture. A (luadrui)ed aljout Christians, and became to them a sacred 
 tliesize ofacat,co\eredwith longhair like symbol, by which was sometimes under- 
 a wolf : it has the snout of a hog, and a stood their di\iiie Founder. They were 
 tail long and thick, growing close to its also in the liabit of engraving the word 
 body. This animal is found in abundance ichtliys upon their seals and rings, ujion 
 in Egypt, haunting the towns and gardens their lamps, tombs, and sepulchral urns, 
 iiuring winter, but in summer taking to accompanied by the representation of a 
 the open country. Its favouriti' food is 
 crocodile's eggs, for which animal it seems 
 to cherish an hereditary hatred, whic h at- 
 tra{-t(!(l the observatiim of the ancients, 
 and is alluded to by them. Aristotle and 
 Ojipiau go largely also into the detail of its 
 
 lish. Buonarotti has also [lublished in the 
 same work, an inscription in the form of 
 an acrostic, and of which, coiisequenlly, 
 each letter of tiie (Jreik word l\'5('(,- coui- 
 niences a line. These five letters sepa- 
 rately form the Greek word 'Ii/.t.;.";,- Xfuaroi; 
 combat with the asp, which however it Oion Yioc i:<.>r»/();— that is to say, Jesus 
 
 (hristus Dei I'ilius, Salvalor. 
 
 1«()N. [Lat.J See KiKON. 
 
 I<;()Noi.o(iV. [tlKior, image, and Xoyof, a 
 word, (Jr.] The doctrine of picture or cm- 
 bleuiatical rei)resenlalion ; a description 
 of pictures and statues. 
 
 I DEVI. fi'<>(r, Gr.] In all the arts. i\Ieii- 
 <al, intellcclual, not perceived by the 
 senses. \\ ilh regard to art, the ideal, in 
 
 does not seem fond of attacking Avitiiout 
 having first summoned several oilier ich- 
 neumuns to its aid, a circumstance which 
 is represented on the Pah\strine IVIosaic. 
 On the base of the statue of the Nile is 
 depicted a confiict betw(\en the ichneumon 
 and crocodih'. It was pretendi'<l by /lllian 
 that (his animal is at once male and le- 
 male and other ancient writers fabled 
 
I M A 
 
 like manner, refers to any thinj;; which has 
 its origin wholly in the imagination, or 
 which, adopting a real person or natural 
 object, invests it with all kinds of attri- 
 butes, such as the impartiality of nature 
 never lavishes on any individual subject. 
 It will appear obvious that much caution, 
 and no small degree of fancy, are requisite 
 in pursuing this difficult department of art. 
 Ideal Beauty. See Beauty, Charac- 
 ter, Composition, Drawing. 
 
 Images, \_lmago, Lat.] In sailptnre. This 
 word was used, among the ancients, more 
 particularly to denominate the portraits of 
 their ancestors, either in painting or sculp- 
 ture. The Greeks and Romans enter- 
 tained for these images the greatest vene- 
 ration, and even rendered them a sort of 
 worship. The Romans preserved with 
 especial care the images of their ancestors, 
 and had them carried both in their funeral 
 pomps and in their triumphs. This honour, 
 however, was restricted to figures of such 
 as had held important offices in the state ; 
 as, for instance, those of eedile, praetor, or 
 consul. These images were often made 
 of wax, sometimes of marble, and were 
 occasionally adorned with pearls. But 
 extravagance, in this particular, did not 
 become general until the era of the empe- 
 rors. The atrium or porch of those fami- 
 lies who had for a long time held the 
 principal magistracies, were filled with an 
 infinite number of these images. They 
 became smoke-dried, in course of time, by 
 the fire which w^as always kept lighted in 
 the atrium, in honour of the lares, or 
 household gods. In order to prevent this, 
 they were sometimes deposited in the 
 chests or presses. On days of solemnity 
 or rejoicing, they drew these statues 
 forth, crowned them with laurel, or decked 
 them with the habits which characterized 
 the public offices of the parties whom they 
 depicted. According to Polybius, the toga 
 was invariably put upon these images, but 
 of various kinds : that called pretexta upon 
 those who had been consuls or praetors ; 
 the toga bordered with purple, on foi-mer 
 censors ; and those embroidered with gold 
 upon the statues of such as had been de- 
 creed a triumph. The slaves, designated 
 atrienses, had the charge of keeping these 
 images in order, of preparing them for 
 public days, and of carrying them in fune- 
 ral ceremonies of any member of the fa- 
 mily to which they belonged. In these 
 processions, the images in question were 
 usually placed upon little couches, and 
 sometimes fixed upon poles. If, however, 
 a man's memory became obnoxious, they 
 did not scruple to deface or destroy his 
 
 I M A 
 
 image, or, at least, suffered it not to take 
 a share in any public ceremony. The 
 images of the emperors, with their names 
 affixed thereto, and attached to military 
 emblems, were raised solemnly in the most 
 public places ; but even these were sub- 
 jected to the ever-changing opinion of the 
 populace, who, if they wished to shake 
 oflf the yoke of the reigning sovereign, 
 hesitated not to break his statue, drag it 
 through the mire, or tlirow it into the 
 Tiber. 
 
 The ancients were likewise habituated 
 to engrave upon their rings the images of 
 their friends, with which they also orna- 
 mented their cups or vases. The disciples 
 of Epicurus did not content themselves 
 with depositing the image of their master 
 in their inner or sleeping apartments, where 
 they rendered it a species of worship, but 
 bore it, in like manner, on their rings, and 
 had it engraven on their vases. The Ro- 
 man emperor Claudius permitted not his 
 subjects indiscriminately to wear his figure 
 on their rings, but those alone who had 
 made public entry of them — thus, in fact, 
 forming a kind of tax thereon. Vespasian 
 abolished this ungracious distinction, 
 which served as a cue for the exertions of 
 many public informers, a species of reptile 
 which existed in those days as well as the 
 present. Under Tiberius it was consi- 
 dered a capital crime to carry into houses 
 of prostitution, or places of undignified 
 retirement, the image of the emperor en- 
 graven on a ring. 
 
 It was also customary, among the an- 
 cients, to place at the stern of a vessel the 
 images of certain deities or animals, which 
 thence acquired the title of tutelce navis, 
 the guardians of the ship. Another cus- 
 tom was to set up, both in public and pri- 
 vate libraries, the images or busts of the 
 most celebrated writers. Both Greeks and 
 Romans offeredinthe temples of their gods 
 not only images of themselves, but of other 
 personages also. Thus Diogenes Laertius 
 informs us, that Mithridates, son of Rodo- 
 Jaates, dedicated to the Muses the statue 
 of Plato. According to another ancient 
 author, Romulus dedicated to Vulcan cer- 
 tain chariots of gold, together with his 
 own statue ; and we read in Tacitus, that 
 Julia dedicated to Augustus the image of 
 Marcellus. 
 
 Since the introduction of Christianity, 
 the use, and even the worship of images 
 has, together with several other pagan 
 institutions, been preserved. Among the 
 sectaries of the Greek church, more parti- 
 cularly, the practice of this kind of idola- 
 try is perpetuated: but with them, the 
 
IMITATION. 
 
 image docs not consist of a sculptured 
 figure, but a painted oue, and tliis painting 
 often executed in the worst and most bar- 
 barous style of art, although frequently 
 richly adorned. They had a custom of 
 surrounding the heads of their images 
 with a glory, in relief, the substance of 
 which was either gold, silver, or copper 
 gilt, according to the fortune of the pro- 
 prietor. These paintings were chiefly 
 done upon wood, in conformity with a 
 Greek superstition against the pictorial 
 use, in this way, of canvass. 
 
 The term images amongst us has de- 
 scended to a very undignified significa- 
 tion indeed ; for we principally under- 
 stand by it those little unpretending plas- 
 ter figures, a stand of which is often seen 
 in the streets of London or Paris, to deco- 
 rate the head of a poor wandering Italian, 
 and which are offered, at little or no cost, 
 for the amusement, or, in Catholic coun- 
 tries, for the devotion of the people. 
 
 Imitation, [imitatio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. We say, that a man imitates when 
 either his ideas or actions are not properly 
 of his own origin, but are reflected from 
 those of any other individual ; and this 
 may take place in a variety of Mays : the 
 child imitates those around him, in man- 
 ner, and language, and way of thinking. 
 His imitation, in fact, reduces itself to 
 mimicry, for he has no power of reasoning 
 on the strength or weakness of the mo- 
 tives which lead to what he sees done : 
 no faculty of judgment by which he may 
 be enabled to discriminate between proper 
 and improper modes of expression : no 
 experience to teach him the danger of in- 
 dulging such or such modes of thought. 
 He feels himself subjected to certain 
 wants and desires, and he is urged by 
 these to acquire the method of expressing 
 them, in order that they may be adminis- 
 tered to; besides which, the strong ])rin- 
 ciple of emulation and thirst for know- 
 ledge impel him almost blindly onward in 
 the course we have adverted (o. Hut as 
 the child casts off his puerility, and ad- 
 vances towards manhood — as his intellect 
 expands, and he acquires the faculty not 
 only of observation but also of comoarin" 
 and analyzing that which he observes, the 
 headlong principle of imitation is thrown 
 aside as unwortliy of a (iiinking creature ; 
 and such tilings only are adojited as ap- 
 pear to deserve to be so by the weighing 
 and reflecting power of reason. 
 
 Tims of the diihl ii I)oy, tlie boy a man, 
 KiiKiT 10 run ihc laor liix fatlifis ran. 
 
 11 is therefore sufliciently obvious, (hiit n 
 
 servile copy of the actions or opinions of 
 another man — whether adopted blindly and 
 without being impressed with a sense of 
 the wisdom, virtue, or talent of the person 
 copied ; or, on the other hand, whether 
 the choice of a model has proceeded from 
 reflection, and a deep conviction of the 
 worthiness of such individual, but with- 
 out having regard to difference of circum- 
 stance requiring various modifications — 
 is alike degrading to the judgment and 
 ability of the copyist. 
 
 There is, however, a species of imita- 
 tion which is praiseworthy and honoura- 
 ble — it is that which is usually expressed 
 by tlie word fire. In this case, the copyist 
 selects and adopts his model, but sets him- 
 self seriously to discover in what points 
 his own work deviates from the nature of 
 that he has placed before him ; he exer- 
 cises the same judgment, by aid of which 
 he had formed liis selection, in discarding 
 such particulars as do not seem to harmo- 
 nize with the whole : if he is endeavour- 
 ing to imitate the benignity and virtue of 
 some good man, he weighs well his own 
 means, together with the shades of dilicr- 
 ence, whether constitutional or liabitual, 
 that discriminate their characters : if he is 
 following in the course of some eminent 
 artist, he is careful not to be seduced into 
 errors by the brilliancy of a great name, 
 nor to forfeit his own inherent right of 
 opinion and imagination. Thus a work 
 conducted on similar principles to any 
 preceding one, may deserve a far better 
 reputation than that of mere imitation : it 
 may, indeed, by a thoughtful and intelli- 
 gent execution of its different parts, al- 
 most merit the praise of originality. It 
 was thus that Plautus and Terence imi- 
 tated the Greek comedy. 
 
 Having made these general observa- 
 tions on the principlis of imitation, we 
 will, in few words, apply what has been 
 said more especially to the fine arts. 
 
 According to some critics, all is liere 
 imitation. Tlie fine arts, say they, are 
 born of imitation. In imitation of nature 
 consists their very essence, luid they please 
 or oll'i 11(1 but jis this is true or \intrue. In 
 tliis opinion, there is imuii truth and soiiu' 
 error. 
 
 It is true, that the works of the painter 
 or sculptor give pleasure by their li\ely 
 rcseiiiblaiice to what is natural and real : 
 but, as we have observed belore, it is true 
 ill a modified sense. Were this otherwise, 
 llif iierfonnancfs of Gerard Dow, of Te- 
 nicrs, and other masters of the Dulih 
 school, would be far more excellent and 
 adiiiiral)lo than those of Kaflaelle, of Mi- 
 
1 M I 
 
 chel Angiolo, and tlie other great names 
 that throw lustre over the liistorj' of Ita- 
 lian art : but, in point of fact, it is the 
 splendour of imagination, the creative and 
 not the mere imitative power, tliat has 
 aiSxed to these immortal works the sur- 
 passing fame which they have had, have, 
 and will still continue to possess. 
 
 If the painter or sculptor should employ 
 himself only in making close copies of the 
 different objects of a pleasing kind which 
 surround him in nature, and if his success 
 were to be estimated simply in proportion 
 as these resemblances were exact, he 
 would be degraded into the character of a 
 mere draftsman. There are a multiplicity 
 of objects agreeable in nature which are 
 not at all calculated for introduction into 
 a work of art, in the same way as many 
 colloquial phrases, quite proper and even 
 happy in conversation, are unfitted to the 
 gracefulness of poetry or dignity of elo- 
 quence. It is the selection, the combina- 
 tion, the fancy displayed — it is these 
 things, add^d to a just eye for verisimilitude, 
 that constitute the artist's greatest suc- 
 cess, and characterize his highest achieve- 
 ments. 
 
 We have already, under the head of 
 Architecture, enlarged upon this subject, 
 and endeavoured to trace out the differ- 
 ence between free and servile imitation. 
 Let not the young artist hesitate to mould 
 his style on that of some eminent prede- 
 cessor ; or rather let him strive to collect 
 from the works of each of the great masters 
 in art, the peculiar charm by which he was 
 rendered conspicuous, and blend them, so 
 far as may be consistent and harmonious, 
 in his own compositions. Let him remem- 
 ber that this kind of imitation has been 
 recommended and adopted by the most 
 illustrious names ; and that even Raffaelle 
 himself was indebted, for the main design 
 of his two majestic figures of St. Paul — 
 namely, the one preaching at Athens, and 
 the other punishing Elymas the magician, 
 to Massaccio, a preceding painter. 
 
 Before we close this important subject, 
 we would take occasion to refer the stu- 
 dent to the following works -.—Considera- 
 tions ur la Peinture, by C. L. de Hage- 
 dorn ; the Discourses of Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds ; the excellent articles of Wattelet, 
 in the Dictionnaire de Peinture ; Sulzer, in 
 the Theorie des Beaux Arts, at the word 
 Nachahmung ; and Lanzi, in his Storia 
 Pittorica. 
 
 Imitators. In all the arts. It is curious 
 to observe with what extraordinary feli- 
 city certain individuals have seized the 
 stj'le and manner, not only of their own 
 
 IMP 
 
 masters, but, in numerous instances, of 
 artists who lived in preceding ages. This 
 has given rise, not unfrequently, to ludi- 
 crous mistakes. Men have been affirmed 
 to have been the personal pupils of such 
 or such a master, who were born only just 
 before, or even after his death. 
 
 The faculty of imitation to this extent 
 must be considered a dangerous one ; in- 
 asmuch as it is calculated to lead the pos- 
 sessor out of the walk prescribed by his 
 own intellect and ability. See the pre- 
 ceding article- 
 
 Impassioned. In all the arts. See Style, 
 
 Impastation, [;in and paste.'\ In sculp- 
 ture. A mixture of several matters, such 
 as various colours or other different things 
 united together by some cement or mastic, 
 which will endure exposition either to the 
 air or fire: such are works in earthen- 
 ware, porcelain, imitation of marble, &c. 
 
 Imperial, [imperial, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. A kind of roof or dome which, 
 viewed in its profile, is pointed towards 
 the top, and widens itself more and more 
 in descending towards its base. 
 
 Imperial Medals. In sculpture. This 
 name is applied specifically in art to those 
 struck after the conclusion of the Roman 
 republican era, and until the fall of the 
 Eastern empire. 
 
 Many authors have furnished us with 
 accounts of these imperial medals. Among 
 the most useful for reference, are Patin, 
 Vaillant, Banduri, Morell, Eckhel, and 
 Tanini; all of whom agreed in consider- 
 ing them merely as relative to history. 
 Among this description of medals, we find 
 the greatest number of gold or some other 
 precious substance. 
 
 Caius Julius Caesar was the first Roman 
 who obtained permission to put his figure 
 upon medals, but all which bear his name 
 or head are not of his time: Trajan, in 
 order to show his respect for the memory 
 of this great man, had a great number of 
 them repaired or restored. 
 
 Upon the earliest of the medals bearing 
 the name of Cassar, we find the pious 
 JEneas, from whom the family of Julius 
 pretended to have sprung; the elephant 
 crushing a serpent, in allusion to the name 
 of Caesar, which in Phoenician signifies 
 elephant; Venus, Pallas, and Victorj- — 
 emblems of sovereign power. The head 
 of Ca?sar did not begin to appear on them 
 until the year 45 B. C. or that of Rome, 
 709. It was Julius Csesar who introduced 
 the chaplet of laurel, to cover his head, 
 which was bald. His titles were — Divus 
 Julius, Consul, Dictator, Imperator, Pa- 
 rens Patria', Pontifex Maxinius, Angus- 
 
IMP 
 
 tus. The comet, which is said (o have 
 appeared alter his death and to have de- 
 noted his admission into Olympius, is found 
 only in his restored medals. 
 
 The medals of Marcus Junius Brutus 
 present us the head bearded, wearing an 
 oak crown, emblem of liberty; we see 
 liim, on others, marching, preceded and 
 followed by lictors, and having before him 
 his accensus, or proclaimer: on others 
 again, the reverse presents the cap of 
 liberty, between two daggers, with the 
 inscription, Eid. Mar. indicatory of the 
 Ides of March, the day on which Cassar 
 fell by the steel of Brutus. A representa- 
 tion of Liberty is accompanied by this in- 
 scription: LiBERTAS P. R. ReSTITUTA 
 
 Liberty restored to the Roman people. 
 Brutus is not the only one among C;esar's 
 assassins whose name and head were en- 
 graven on medals. Cassius had his also. 
 We find on these a female figure sur- 
 rounded by a glory, with the word Liber- 
 tas. The sons of Pompey had, in order to 
 avenge their father, stirred up commotion 
 in Spain, but Octavius Ca?sar subdued 
 them. There remains to us but one medal 
 of Cneius Pompeius, on which we per- 
 ceive a figure of Spain in the act of re- 
 ceiving him. Sextus caused many to be 
 struck after the peace which he concluded 
 with Antony and Octavius, who aban- 
 doned to him Sardinia, Sicily, and Corsica, 
 with the title of Prcrfcctns classis et orce 
 nuiritima; which he assumed upon his 
 coins. He also placed thereon, with filial 
 piely, the head of the great Pompey, his 
 lather. 
 
 The triumvirs had each his set of medals. 
 Those of Lepidus present us with his 
 ligure, and on the reverse, those of his 
 two colleagues, or, in other instances, the 
 various attributes of imjjerial sovereignty. 
 TJie medals of Mark Antony are much 
 more plentiful than those of Lepidus; they 
 bear the title of Iniperator, the emblems of 
 dominion, and the initials R. P. C. to in- 
 «licate that the triumviri ha<l assumed 
 supreme authority only in order to restore 
 the republic. On tiiese medals, as may 
 be supposed, tlm figure of the beaufifnl 
 ICgyptian, Cleojjatra, is not wanting, and 
 it is frequently acconii)anied by the title 
 of Queen of hinns, or Mother of I\'i>i/is. 
 Many of Antony's coins bear tlu- nann- of 
 dillercnt legions, and of tiuMi'diicfs ; some, 
 also, are ornamented with a ni,vstic cistus, 
 and a crown of ivy, inasmuch as this once 
 powerful chief ii Heeled greatly lobe known 
 by the iiainc of Hacciius. The nudalsof Oc- 
 tavius Ca*sarure still more numerous than 
 those of Anlony; anil it is with him loni- 
 
 IMP 
 
 mences the history of the Roman emperors. 
 On the earliest specimens we read the ap- 
 pellation of Triumvir; but soon after he 
 appears to have assumed those of Caius, 
 Ca;sar, Augustus, Impcrator, Pontifex 
 Maximus, Divi Filius, Pater Patria;. His 
 head is encircled with a laurel crown, 
 and among the most curious reverses on 
 his medals we find the following: — the 
 temple of Janus shut; the civic crown 
 between the talons of the Roman eagle; 
 this prince in a chariot upon a triumphal 
 arch ; a crocodile, w ith the inscription, 
 JEgypto capta, indicating the defeat of An- 
 tony and Cleopatra; the Parthians re- 
 placing the Roman eagles; the Capricorn, 
 sign under which Augustus was born ; 
 the head of Julia, his daughter, between 
 those of Caius and Lucius Caesar, his 
 sons ; the construction of the public roads ; 
 his equestrian statue. The medals struck 
 after the death and apotheosis of Augustus 
 bear the title of Divus Augustus. The 
 head radiated is the sign of his deifica- 
 tion; it is sometimes accompanied by a 
 thunderbolt or a star. The coins of Au- 
 gustus Caesar have been restored by seve- 
 ral succeeding emperors, w ho also struck 
 medals of themselves. 
 
 With Constantiue commences the series 
 of medals of the emperors of the East, or 
 of Constantinople. Ducange has given a 
 description of them, but not in a very 
 exact manner. Constantine has the head 
 casqued, or surrounded by a glory. He 
 bears a pike and shield, a sceptre adorned 
 with gems, and sometimes in his right 
 hand a globe surmounted by a figure of 
 Victory. He has occasionally the head 
 veiled. Dvicange and Handuri have en- 
 graved his nii'dals, and those of his family. 
 The figure is often found holding the laba- 
 rum, or imperial standard, which bears 
 the monogri'.m of Christ, and this motto, 
 hoc sinHo victor eris. Julian, surnaniod 
 the Apostate, has a tufted ijeard, to allicl 
 the costume of the j)hiiosoi)hers : the head 
 of Jupiter Serapis adorns the reverse of 
 several of this enipert>r*s coins. Under the 
 reigns of Valentinian and his successors, 
 synil)ols referring to Christianity became 
 Very frecjuent. On the medals of Justinian 
 the younger, Christ is depicted giving his 
 benediction; and \\\nm those of C<nislaii- 
 tine Duca, the emperor is represented in 
 the act of being crowned by (iod himself. 
 The series of imperial medals concludes 
 with those of Michael I\. 
 
 Imim.i vii'M. jlval.] Jii (iiicidil arihitie- 
 titre. This term denoted, in (he lio\ises of 
 the :incient Romans, a place in tlu; middle 
 of the courtyard, which, not being co- 
 
INC 
 
 vered, was consequently exposed to all 
 the varieties of tlie weather. The size of 
 the inipluvium was never less than a quar- 
 ter or lar<rer than a third of the dimen- 
 sions of the atrium, or court-yard itself. 
 Sometimes, in the ardent heats of summer, 
 they drew over the impluvium a kind of 
 veil, or awning, under which they were 
 enabled to remain without being incom- 
 moded by the rays of the sun. 
 
 Impost, [from impnno, Lat. to lay on.] 
 In architecture. A facia or small cornice 
 which surmounts a pier or pilaster, and 
 serves as a base for the construction of an 
 arch. This layer of stone is shaped into 
 different mouldings, according to the seve- 
 ral orders of architecture. See Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Impression, limpressio, Lat.] In all the 
 arts. This word is used to designate the 
 sensation excited in the mind of the spec- 
 tator by any work of art. 
 
 In painting it means ea,ch coat or stra- 
 tum of colour laid on the canvass or other 
 surface, to prepare it to receive finally the 
 colours proper to each object intended to 
 be delineated. It is also sometimes ap- 
 plied to that species of painting, of a sin- 
 gle colour, used upon the wall or wain- 
 scoting of an apartment for the purpose of 
 decoration ; upon timber or joiner's work, 
 to preserve it from humidity; and upon 
 the works of the locksmith, to keep them 
 from rust. 
 
 The word impression is likewise ap- 
 plied to a copy of an engraving or wood- 
 cut, or to the whole number printed at one 
 time of a book. 
 
 Inauguration. [Fr.] Iji the history of 
 the arts. The ceremony which takes place 
 at Rome when either the pope himself, 
 one of the cardinals, or indeed any of the 
 high dignitaries of religion eater on their 
 offices. It is, in fact, a kind of consecra- 
 tion. 
 
 This word, used more generally, applies 
 to the coronation of sovereigns or any in- 
 vestiture whatever by solemn rites. 
 
 The original meaning of the term inau- 
 guration appears to have been the consul- 
 tation of the gods by the flight of a bird. 
 
 Incertum. [Lat.] In architecture. Vi- 
 truvius designed by this word a manner of 
 construction which consisted in making 
 use of small rough stones, cemented toge- 
 ther by mortar. Chandler, in his Voyage 
 in Greece and Lesser Asia, is deceived in 
 applying the term incertum to walls built 
 of hexagonal and pentagonal stones con- 
 structed without mortar. 
 
 Inch. [Sax. ince.] In architecture. A 
 measure of length supposed equal to three 
 
 IND 
 
 grains of barley laid end to end : the 
 twelfth part of a foot. 
 
 Incrustation. [Fr.] In architecture and 
 sculpture. Any work of architecture or 
 sculpture, of whatsoever substance it may 
 be, which is fixed either with mortar, 
 with mastic, or cramp-irons, into notches 
 made to receive it : such are inlaid work, 
 mosaics, &c. The ancients often executed 
 these incrustations. Many Egyptian fi- 
 gures have the eyes incrusted. The figures 
 of the Isiac table exhibited in the Cabinet 
 des Antiques of the National Library at 
 Paris are for the most part incrusted in 
 silver: some are inlaid upon copper by a 
 particular process. 
 
 India Ink. In draivin^. A prepara- 
 tion manufactured in China and other 
 parts of Asia, and there used in writing. 
 In Europe, this ink is employed in sha- 
 dowing drawings. By appropriate expe- 
 riments Dr. LeAvis has shown that this 
 substance is composed of fine lampblack 
 and animal glue. 
 
 India Rubber, or Elastic Resin. In 
 drawing. A substance produced from the 
 syring-a tree of Cayenne and other parts of 
 South America. It oozes, in a milky form, 
 from incisions made in the tree ; and is 
 chiefly gathered in time of rain, because it 
 then flows in peculiar abundance. It is 
 said to acquire the consistence in wliich it 
 is seen in other countries merely by ex- 
 posure to the air. The Americans use it 
 to make boots, which are impenetrable to 
 water; and bottles, which they fasten to 
 the end of reeds. They also convert it 
 into flambeaux, an inch and a half in dia- 
 meter, and two feet long, which afford a 
 brilliant light, and burn twelve hours. A 
 kind of cloth is farther prepared from it, 
 which supplies, to the inhabitants of Qui- 
 to, the place of the oiled or tarred cloths 
 of Europe. By means of moulds of clay, 
 it is made into various useful and orna- 
 mental figures. This process is commenced 
 by spreading it, while yet in a clammy 
 state, over the moulds, in successive lay- 
 ers, till tlie desired thickness is attained. 
 The figure is then exposed to the smoke of 
 burning vegetables, m hich gives it a black- 
 ness of colour. Before it is perfectly har- 
 dened, it is also capable of receiving those 
 impressions on the outer side which are 
 commonly seen. 
 
 We need not enlarge on the obvious use 
 of this substance in the oflSces of the painter 
 or architect. 
 
 Indian Architecture. See Architec- 
 ture. 
 
 Indigo. [Lat. indicum.'\ In painting: A 
 drug of a dark blue colour prepared from 
 
 n D 
 
INS INS 
 
 the leaves and small branches of a low in Palestine, instances are known of such 
 shrub indigenous to the warmer parts of trees being replanted at diti'erent times, thus 
 Asia and Africa, and now cultivated in preserving, through a long series of years, 
 those of America. the remembrance of the event in honour of 
 
 Individual, [indkidud, Fr.] In all the ^vliich the sylvan testimony had been ori- 
 arts. That which is proper or peculiar to S'uated. After the invention of written 
 any one object or person ; to depict which, characters, it soon became habitual to add 
 for instance, is the purpose of portrait- their more certain and lasting assistance to 
 painting or miniature. the traditional record of the intent of these 
 
 Indulgence, [hidul^entia, Lat.] In sculp- piles, and the custom is found to have pre- 
 ture. A medal of the emperor Severus vailed amongst the Phoenicians, the Egjp- 
 represents this virtue under the emblem tians, the Persians, and indeed all the na- 
 of Cybele, tower-crowned and seated upon tions of antiquity. Tlius, according to 
 a lion; in her left hand she has a pike, in Thucydides, the citadel of Athens com- 
 ber right a thunderbolt. Tlie lion was re- prised columns on which were recorded 
 garded among the ancients as symbolical the injustice of those tjrants who had 
 of indulgence or clemency. usurped sovereign authority. Herodotus 
 
 Upon a medal of Gallianus, indulgence informs us that, by the decree of Amphic- 
 is designated by a female seated, who tyon, a pile of stones was erected, bearing 
 stretches forth her right hand and holds an inscription in honour of tliose who fell 
 a sceptre in the left;— on another, slie is at Thermopylae. In course of time, the 
 represented walking, having a llower in Greeks, and other ancient nations, in- 
 her right hand, wliile with the left slie scribed on their columns and tables both 
 spreads out her robe, to shelter criminals religious and civil laws ; from this prac- 
 under it. tice, however, the Lacedaemonians were 
 
 Initial. [Fr. initium, Lat.] In sculpture exempt, who were forbidden by Lycurgus 
 and engraving. The incipient or com- to adopt it, he being desirous to constrain 
 menciug letter of any proper name or other them to learn his institutions by heart. At 
 word. See Abbreviation, Insckution. length, even the histtiry of the country. 
 
 Inlaying. See Crusta, Emblemata, the ceremonies of worship, principles ol 
 Incrustation. science, treaties of peace, declarations of 
 
 Inscription. [Fr. inscriptio, Lat.] In war, &c. were all engraved either upon 
 sculpture, yabiting, and engrarlng. This marble, ivory, stone, or other substance, 
 word denotes a brief and comprehensive This is, however, clearly not the mean- 
 sentence by which any particular or me- ing to which we now limit the term in- 
 morable event is recorded upon some mo- scription, which, as at first observed, indi- 
 nument raised for the purpose, and it also cates an expression either briefly explana- 
 fre<iuently serves to hand down the name tory or epigrammatic. It will lunce ap- 
 of the author or proprietor of any work of pear that much diUiculty is often experi- 
 art, together with the object for which it enced in forming such as combine the 
 may have been designed. necessary requisites. The ancients were 
 
 This term is synonymous to that to which often very happy in practising this art. 
 the Greeks applied the word tniypanfin. They knew how to render a few words 
 from tTTi, under, and ypfi^tjua, a writing, striking and expressive. Energy and per- 
 The Latin word inscriptio has ])recisely spicuity are the points mainly to be de- 
 the same derivation— m under, and »fri/)trf sired, and those artists or authors wlio 
 
 to write. 
 
 Tiu; inscriptions which, on pillars, or 
 other monumental edifices, are tiestined to 
 transmit ti> posterity the memory of some 
 interesting event are generally engraved 
 upon marble or bronze. In \ery rciiiote 
 
 propose to acquire this accomplishment 
 would do well to study the terseness of the 
 elegant Greeks and strenuous Komans. 
 
 There are several nu)dern inscriptions 
 which may be cited that possess this force 
 and precision. That on the Hotel of li>- 
 
 times, however, they contented themselves valids at lUrlin, L.iiso kt invuto INIii.iti 
 
 with merely setting up a rude stone, or (To the warrior wounded and not con- 
 
 lusip of stones, to c(nnuitunorate the act or quered), is an instance; as is likewise 
 
 circumstance vvhicii they were desirous of that on the statue of Peter the First at 
 
 recording. We read in Genesis that when Petersburgli, which has u siniplieily very 
 
 Jacob and Laban were reconciled, the similar to (hat of the ancients:— Pirruo I. 
 
 former erected a stone, to serve as the tes- (' athakina U. (t'atharine the Second to 
 
 timony of this reconciliatitm. It was cus- I'eler the First.) This daring inscription 
 
 tomary, also, in remote ages, to plant one was dictated by JVl. Falconet, who formed 
 
 or more trees to answer a similar end, and the statue. This kind of style nuist, at 
 
INSCRIPTION. 
 
 the same time, be cautiously dealt with. 
 Such an inscription as the last xvould be 
 perfectly ridiculous if applied to any other 
 than the most distinguished personages. 
 We must not forget, also, to notice the 
 inscription to the memory of our great 
 architect, Sir Christopher Wren, in St. 
 Paul's. 
 
 SUBTUS CONDITUR 
 HUJUS ECCLESLE ET UrBIS CoNDlTOR 
 
 Christophorus Wren, 
 Qui vixit annos ultra nonaginta, 
 
 non sibi sed bono publico, 
 Lector, si monusientum requiris, 
 
 CiRCUMSPICE. 
 
 (Underneath lies buried Christopher 
 Wren, the builder of this church and city, 
 who lived upwards of ninety years, not 
 for himself, but for his country. — Reader, 
 if thou seekest his monument, look around 
 thee !) 
 
 It will be obvious that the Greek and 
 Latin languages are peculiarly fitted, from 
 their construction, for the purposes we 
 are treating of: they have, however, one 
 great counterbalancing disadvantage : — 
 the principal object, namely, that of per- 
 petuating any person or event in the popu- 
 lar mind, is very unlikely to be gained by 
 enveloping the inscription in the veil of a 
 foreign tongue. 
 
 Although inscriptions have been placed 
 on paintings as well as on edifices and 
 statues, on ivory, bronze, or marble, the 
 art of composing them has received the 
 denomination of the lapidary style, inas- 
 much as stone (in Latin, lapis,) is the sub- 
 stance on which they have been most ge- 
 nerally used. 
 
 Many authors have published works 
 professing to teach the manner to compose 
 inscriptions: but several amongst them 
 have suiTered themselves to be led away 
 by a desire of displaying wit, and the sen- 
 tences which they propose as models offend, 
 consequently, from want of simplicity. 
 
 A knowledge of ancient characters is 
 exceedingly useful both to the student and 
 amateur, as it enables them to decipher the 
 words found on monuments of remote 
 times, and to fix with some precision their 
 respective dates. The celebrated Heyne 
 has extracted from the epigrams of the poets 
 of the Anthology much curious informa- 
 tion respecting the ancient monuments of 
 art. It is necessary to be very cautious as 
 to the introduction of written characters 
 into a picture, and when done, it should 
 be in the place and manner least likely to 
 injure the general effect. Instances abound 
 of very bad taste in this particular : as, for 
 
 example, in Paul Veronese's painting of 
 the Repast with the Pharisee, wlierein is 
 represented Mary Magdalen at the foot of 
 Christ, and two angels holding in the air 
 a scroll with these words : Gaudium in 
 ccelo super uno peccatore pcenitentiam agcnte 
 (" There is joy in heaven over one sinner 
 that repenteth "). From this censure we 
 must however except Poussin, who has 
 afforded us the happiest specimen of an 
 inscription placed in the most prominent 
 part of the picture. The scene is in Arca- 
 dia: a young man and a young girl arrive 
 in a country glowing with beauty and in- 
 viting to enjoyment; on their way they en- 
 counter a rural tomb, beside which is a 
 shepherd, who points out on the sepulchral 
 stone these words: Et in Arcadia ego, 
 " I also was an Arcadian." 
 
 Inscriptions or mottoes ai-e also common 
 to coats of arms, shields, warlike-weapons, 
 rings, &c. 
 
 The following works have treated at 
 large on the utility of the art of writing 
 inscriptions.— Franc. Oudendorpii, Oral, 
 de veteribus Inscriptionibtts et Momimento- 
 rum Usu, Lugduni Batavorum, 1745, 4to.; 
 J. F. Eisenharti, Comment, de Auctorit. et 
 Usu Inscriptionum in Jure, Helmst 1750, 
 4to. Essais sur I'Histoire des Belles Lettres, 
 des Sciences, et des Arts, par Jouvenel de 
 Carlencas, chap. x. vol. ii. Jo. Aug. Er- 
 nesti, Archceologia Liternria, 36th and fol- 
 lowing pages, Lipsiffi, 1790, 8vo. Christ. 
 Abhandlungen, Uber Die Litteraturund 
 Kunst-Werke, Vornemlich des Alterthums, 
 Leipzig, 1776, 8vo. Martini, Litterair Ar- 
 chcBologie, Altenburg, 1796, 8vo. Sainte- 
 Croix, Essai sur les Inscriptions antiques, 
 dans le Magasin Encyclop. Noureau TraitS 
 de Diplomatique, par Deux B^nedictins, 
 6 vols, 4to. 
 
 The first persons who occupied them- 
 selves in making collections of antique 
 inscriptions were, Cyriacus of Ancona, 
 Giovanni Marcanova of Padua, and Felice 
 Feliciano of Verona, who all flourished in 
 the fifteenth centur5\ Since their time, 
 various collections have appeared in dif- 
 ferent works, professedly published for 
 the purpose ; besides which, specimens of 
 these inscriptions are to be met with in 
 almost all the great works on antiquity ;-— 
 such, for instance, as the Antiquiti ex- 
 pliqu^e de Montfaucou; the Antiquitas 
 UrbcE Romance of Boissard ; the MisceU 
 lanea eruditcn antiquitatis of Spon ; the i?e- 
 cueil d' Antiquitas de Caylus; Mi'moires de 
 L'Academie des Inscriptions, in the Menu- 
 menti Inediti di Guattini; Monumens an- 
 tiques inedits de Millin; Marmora Arun- 
 delliana, sive Saxa Greece incisa, publicavit 
 DD3 
 
INS INS 
 
 Joan. Seldenus; Archaologia Britannica, the ten sections which at present compose 
 &c. &c. tlie first class of the Institute, with a new 
 
 Other authors have devoted their atten- section of geography and navigation, and 
 tion more particularly to Christian in- eight foreign associates, 
 scriptions. Among these books are :— L« The sections shall be composed and 
 Roma sotteraneu di Antonio Bosio, Roma, named as follows : 
 1632, fol. ; La Roma sotteraneu d'Aringhi, 
 
 Roma, 1651, 2 vols, fol.; Ossenazioni MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES. 
 
 sopra i Cimiteri de' Santi Martiri, da Bol- M"""-" ''■''S'.'^'Jl"' 
 
 detti, Rom. 1720,2 vols, fol.; Anton. Mar. Geometry 6 6 
 
 Lupi, Dissertatio et Atiimadrersiones ad Mechanics 6 
 
 nuper inventutn severa Martyris Epitaphium, Astronomy 6 10 
 
 Panormi, 1754, fol. (a work, of great in- Geography and Navigation.. 3 8 
 
 terest and value from its perfect know- General Physics 6 6 
 
 ledge of the subject) ; lUustnizione di un 
 
 Antico p'lomho del Mnseo Borgiano di Vel- PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 
 
 letri,apparteneuleaUa Memoria ed al Cidto di chemistry 6 12 
 
 San Genesio, Vescoro di BresceUo, opvscido jviineralot^y 6 8 
 
 del P. Ireneo Ajf'o,i'dnm.. 1790, 4to, Botany ...". 10 
 
 For modern inscriptions the reader is RurarEconomy and the Ve- 
 
 referred to the following works :—Joannis terinary Art 10 
 
 Christoph. Boehmeri, Inscriptioiies Sepul- Anatomy and Zoologj- 10 
 
 crales Helmstadienses, Helmst. 1710, 8vo.; ]\iejieine and Surgerj' G 8 
 
 Johann. Gottfr. Michaelis, Inscriptions et 
 
 Epit.de Dresde, Dresden, 1714, 4to. ; Joan. The first class shall appoint, with the 
 August. Guidarelli, Inscriptiones nonnullo', approbation of the first consul, tAvo perpe- 
 Perus, 1721, Svo. ; Joan. Phil. Slevogtii, tual secretaries, one for the mathematical 
 Inscriptiones varii generis, Jenii,n2i,4to.; science?, and the other for the physical 
 J. C. Nemeiz, Inscriptionum singularium sciences. The perpetual secretaries shall 
 fasciculus, Lipsiw, 172G, Svo. ; Totdervy's he members of the class, but shall not 
 Ejiitaplis, London, 1754, 2 vols. 12nio. ; form a part of any section. 
 Recueil d'Epitaphes serieuses, htidines, saly- The first class may elect six of its mem- 
 riques,et burlesques, ■pdr Deha.i)\dce,Brus- bers from the other classes of the Insti- 
 sels, 1782, 3 vols. 12ino. See Arms, De- tute. 
 
 VICE, Epigraph. It may name a hundred correspondents, 
 
 Institute, National, of France, or, as selected from the learned men of France 
 it is now called, the Institute of France, and foreign countries, 
 was establisiied on tlie suggestion of Con- 3. The secoud class shall be composed 
 dorcet, in the year 1795, and was opened of forty members. 
 
 on the 7tli of December, of that year, by It is particularly charged with the com- 
 Benezech, the minister for the Home De- position of the dictionary of the French 
 partment. It was formed out of the Royal language. It shall examine, with respect 
 Academy of Sciences, the French Aca- to language, the important works of lile- 
 demy, the Academy of Inscriptions and rature, history, and the sciences. Tlie 
 Belles Lettres, and the Academy of Paint- collection of its critical observations shall 
 ing and Sculpture, &c. It was reorgan- be published, ut least, four times a year, 
 ized in 1806, during the consulship of It shall name, from its own body, and 
 Bonaparte, and it again experienced con- with the approbation of the first consul, a 
 siderable changes in the year 1816, after perpetual secretary, who shall continue to 
 the second return of the IJourlwns. l)o of the number of tiic forty members 
 
 Inordertounderstaiid the changes whicii which compose it. 
 this distinguished body has recently under- It may ebct twelve of its members from 
 gone, we shall first lay before our readers the other classes of the Institute, 
 an account of the National Iiislilute, as it 4. The third class shall be composed 
 existed in the early time of Bonaparte. of t'orty members, and eight foreign asso- 
 
 1 . Tiie National Institute consists of four ciates. 
 
 classes, viz. :—l. Class of Physical and The object of its researches and labours 
 
 Mathematical Sciences. 2. Class of French shall i)e learned languages; anti(|uilies 
 
 Language and Literature. 3. Class of and mi>uuinenls, history, and all the moral 
 
 History and Foreign Literature. 4. Class and political sciences connecled with liis- 
 
 of Fine Arts. tory. It shall particularly apply itself 
 
 2. The first class shall bo formed of to the enriching of French literature with 
 
institute;. 
 
 the works of Greek, Latin, and oriental au- bation of the government, the particular 
 
 thors, which have not yet been translated. statutes and regulations of its internal 
 
 It shall employ itself in the continua- police, 
 
 tion of diplomatic collections. 10. Each class shall hold one public sit- 
 
 It shall name from its own body, under ting every year, at which the other three 
 
 tlie approbation of the first consul, a per- shall assist. 
 
 petual secretary, who shall be of the num- 11. The Institute shall receive annu- 
 
 ber of the forty members which compose ally from the public treasury 1500 francs 
 
 the class, for each of its nonassociated members, 
 
 It may elect nine of its members from 6000 francs for each of its perpetual secre- 
 
 the other classes of the Institute. taries ; and for its expenses, a sum which 
 
 It may name sixty correspondents, na- shall be fixed every year, upon the demand 
 
 tives and foreigners. of the Institute, and comprised in the esti- 
 
 5. The fourth class shall be composed mates of the minister of the interior. 
 
 of twenty-eight members, and eight foreign 12. There shall be an administrative 
 
 associates. committee of the Institute, composed of 
 
 They shall be divided into sections as five members, two from the first class, and 
 
 follows: one from each of the others, named in 
 
 r> • ,. ml their respective classes. 
 
 rainting 10 members. rp.- ... > i, i x • ^. 
 
 o 1 . /-I Ihis committee shall regulate in the 
 
 {sculpture 6 do. , .,,. ., °, ,. , _ 
 
 . , ., , - , general sittings, prescribed by article 9, 
 
 Architecture 6 do. '',, ,, , , ° '/ ,, , • • . .- . 
 
 r^ . - , all that relates to the administration, to 
 
 Engraving 3 do. , r ti t ^-^ *. J* 
 
 HT ■ 1 /^ •*• o 1 general expenses ot the Institute, and to 
 
 Musical Composition 3 do. ?i ,- • • j- •. i- . . , !, ^ 
 
 the division of its funds between the four 
 
 It shall appoint, with the approbation classes. 
 
 of the first consul, a perpetual secretary. Each class shall afterwards regulate the 
 
 who shall be a member of the class, but application of the funds assigned to it for 
 
 shall not be a part of a section. its expenses, as well as all that concerns 
 
 It may elect six of its members from the the printing and publishing its memoirs, 
 
 other classes of the Institute. 13. The classes shall annually distri- 
 
 It may name thirty-six correspondents bute prizes, thus regulated : 
 
 national or foreign. The first class a prize of 3000 francs. 
 
 6. The foreign associated members shall The second and third class each a prize 
 hare a deliberative voice only on subjects of 1500 francs. 
 
 of science, literature, and the arts ; they The fourth class, grand prizes of paint- 
 shall not form part of any section, nor in- ing, sculpture, architecture, and musical 
 terfere in any usage. composition ; those who gain one of the 
 
 7. The present actual national asso- grand prizes shall be sent to Rome, and 
 ciates of the Institute shall form part of maintained at the expense of government, 
 the one hundred and ninety-six correspon- On 21st March, 1816, an order was 
 dents attached to the classes of the sci- issued by Louis XVIII. for new model- 
 ences, belles lettres, and the fine arts. — ing the Institute, of which the following 
 Correspondents may not assume the title is an abstract : 
 
 of members of the Institute. 1. The Institute shall be composed of 
 
 They shall lose that of correspondent four ucndemks, viz. 
 
 when they shall be domiciliated at Paris. The French Academy. 
 
 8. Nominations to vacant places shall The Royal Academy of Inscriptions and 
 be made by each class in which the va- Belles Lettres. 
 
 cancy happens ; the persons elected shall The Royal Academy of Sciences. 
 
 be confirmed by the first consul. The Royal Academy of the Fine Arts. 
 
 9. The members of the four classes shall 2. The academies are under the direct 
 enjoy a reciprocal right to assist at the par- and special protection of the king, 
 ticular sittings of each class, and may de- 3. Every academy shall have an inde- 
 liver lectures when they are requested, pendent regime and free disposal of the 
 
 They shall reunite four times in a year funds which belong to it, 
 
 into one body, to communicate their pro- 4, The agency, the secretariat, the li- 
 
 ceedings. brary, and the other collections of the 
 
 They shall elect in common the libra- Institute shall remain common to the four 
 
 rian and under librarian of the Institute, academies. 
 
 as well as all those agents who belong to 5. The property common to the four 
 
 the Institute in common. academies, and the common funds which 
 
 Each class shall present, for the appro- belong^ to them, shall be managed under 
 
IXS 
 
 tlio aiidiority of the secretary of state for 
 the interior, by a commission of eiglit 
 members, of which two shall be taken 
 from each academy; these commissioners 
 shall be elected annually, and shall be 
 always reeligible. 
 
 G. TJie property or funds of each aca- 
 demy shall be managed in its name by the 
 boards or commissions instituted for this 
 purpose. 
 
 7. The academies shall hold a common 
 public sitting on the 2-lth April, the day 
 on which the Bourbons returned to 
 France. 
 
 8. The members of each academy may 
 be elected to the three other academies. 
 
 9. The French academy shall reserve 
 its ancient statutes, with such modifica- 
 tions as may be thought necessary. 
 
 10. It shall be composed of thirty-eight 
 members. 
 
 11. The Academy of Inscriptions and 
 Belles Lettres shall preserve the organi- 
 zation and the distributions into sections 
 of the first class of the Institute. 
 
 14. The Royal Academy of the Fine 
 Arts shall preserve the organization and 
 the distributions into sections of the fourth 
 class of the Institute. 
 
 It shall be composed as follows : 
 
 Painting 14 members. 
 
 Sculpture 8 do. 
 
 Architecture 8 do. 
 
 Engraving 4 do. 
 
 Musical Composition do. 
 
 16. There shall be added to the Royal 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Let- 
 tres, and to the Royal Academy of Sci- 
 ences, a class of free academicians, to the 
 number of ten to each of those academies. 
 
 17. The free academicians shall have 
 no other privilege than tiiat of the right of 
 attendance, they shall enjoy the same 
 rights as the other academicians, and 
 shall be elected according to the usual 
 forms. 
 
 18. The ancient honorary members and 
 academicians, both of the Royal Academy 
 of Sciences, and of (he Hoyal Academy of 
 Inscrijjtions and Belles J^tttlics, shall he 
 free academicians of the academy to which 
 they belong. 
 
 These academicians shall make (lie ne- 
 cessary elections for completing tlie num- 
 ber of ten free academicians iti each. 
 
 11). The Royal Academy of Fine Ar(s 
 shall likewise have a class of free iicade- 
 miciaiis, of whicth the number shall he de- 
 termined by a particular regulation uj)on 
 the proposition of the academy itself. 
 
 INT 
 
 20. The ministar of the interior shall 
 submit to the king, for his approbation, 
 the modifications which may be thought 
 necessaiy in the regulations of the first, 
 third, and fourth classes of the Institute, 
 for adapting the said regulations to the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences, to the Royal 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Let- 
 tres, and to the Royal Academy of the 
 Fine Arts. 
 
 21. All the decrees and regulations 
 which contain nothing contrary to the re- 
 gulations of the present ordonnance shall 
 be maintained. — The following is a correct 
 statement of the volumes of memoirs pub- 
 lished by the Institute of France : 
 
 Number of volumes published 
 from the foundation of the In- 
 stitute till 1806 by the three 
 classes 16 in4to. 
 
 Number of volumes published 
 from 1806 to 1812 : viz ; 
 Volumes published by the 
 
 Academy of Sciences 7 
 
 Academy of Inscriptions 4 
 
 M^moires de Savans[^trangers 2 
 
 Systeme Metrique 3 
 
 Etatdu Science et des Lettres 2 
 Prix Deceunaux 1 
 
 Total 35 vols. 
 
 The volumes of memoirs for 1813, 1814, 
 1815, and 1816, have not yet appeared. 
 
 Instruments, Mulhematical. A common 
 case of these contains : — 1. A pair of plain 
 compasses. 2. A pair of drawing com- 
 passes. 3. A drawing pen. 4. A pro- 
 tractor. 5. A parallel ruler. 6. A plain 
 scale. 7. A sector, besides black lead 
 pencils. Drawing instruments are much 
 ti>e same, witli the addition of hair pen- 
 cils, a drawing board to fix the paper upon, 
 and a T square or ruler, made in the form 
 of the letter T. 
 
 liNT.viiLU). [Ital.] In sculpture and en- 
 graving. Any thing that has figures en- 
 graved on it so as to rise above the ground 
 thereof. More particularly, precious 
 stones, on which are engraved the heads 
 of great men, inscriptions, and liu' like; 
 such as we frequently see set in rings, 
 seals, ^c. 
 
 1nti:ki;st. [/h/it, between, and esse, to 
 be, Lat.J In all the arts. 'I'liat emotion of 
 which tlie mind is sensible from the view 
 or conleniiilation of an> given object which 
 cM'itis it. Tlie painlt'r and sculptor 
 should both study not only to niaki' choice 
 of subjects in themselves interesting, but to 
 seii^c on the ^ery point uf time connected 
 
INT 
 
 with that subject which is likely to create 
 the most powerful effect. Those grand 
 compositions which represent an assem- 
 bled people, a battle, or ceremony, are not 
 susceptible, by any means, of so high a 
 degree of interest as is raised by many a 
 meritorious work depicting only one figure, 
 or a very small number of figures, and 
 where, consequently, the interest is more 
 condensed, and therefore likely to be more 
 powerful. At the same time, the artist 
 sliould be careful not to select too painful 
 a subject, lest a feeling of disgust and hor- 
 ror should supersede that admiration to 
 which the delineation of the truly pathetic 
 naturally gives birth. 
 
 Intercolumniation. l^inter and columna, 
 Lat.] In architecture. One of the great 
 divisions of the elements of Grrecian archi- 
 tecture, and on which the elegance and 
 magnificence of a structure greatly de- 
 pends, is the various modes of distributing 
 the columns, which are all settled more or 
 less according to laws founded on good 
 taste, reason, beauty, and strength. Co- 
 lumns are placed at various distances 
 from each other, not by chance or caprice, 
 but according to rule ; and the vacuity, or 
 interval between one column and another 
 is called the intercolumniation. These 
 intervals, or intercolumniations, differ in 
 the different orders ; and the style of por- 
 ticoes or colonnades is named from them 
 as follows : 
 
 The first style or manner of intercolum- 
 niation is called Pycnostyle, or columns 
 thick set. The space between each co- 
 lumn in this mode is one diameter and a 
 half. Of this style are the Parthenon and 
 the temple of Theseus. 
 
 The second is called Systyle, and has 
 two diameters between the columns. 
 
 The third mode of intercolumniating a 
 building is called Diastyle ; and its width 
 is three diameters. 
 
 The fourth style is called Arcvostyle, or 
 columns thinly set, and its width is four 
 diameters. 
 
 The fifth and last style or mode is called 
 Eustyle, and is, according to Vitruvius, 
 the most pleasing and eligible for general 
 use. It is formed by allowing to tlie dis- 
 tance of the intercolumniations two dia- 
 meters and a quarter, and to the middle 
 one, only, botli before and behind, three 
 diameters. The author of this work here 
 takes leave to observe, that (as it strikes 
 him), the most eligible mode of intercolum- 
 niating, or distributing the distances of 
 columns in a design, is according to the 
 specific dimensions of the building, and 
 the number of columns to be used. 
 
 INV 
 
 ISesides these orders or styles of i^ter 
 columniation, porticoes are also named 
 from the number of columns of which they 
 are composed, and are called tetrastyl«, 
 hexastyle, octastyle, and decastyle, ac- 
 cording as they consist of four, six, eight, 
 or ten columns in front. 
 
 Intermodillion. [inter, Lat. modlllon, 
 Fr.] In architecture. The space between 
 two modillions, which ought always to be 
 eqvial. 
 
 Interpilaster. [inter, Lat. and pilastre, 
 Fr.] In architecture. The interval between 
 two pilasters, which should invariably be 
 regulated by the rules and principles fol- 
 lowed in intei'columniation, more particu- 
 larly when both pilasters and columns are 
 used in the decoration of a building. 
 
 Invention. [Fr.] In all the arts. That 
 property by virtue of which any thing is 
 originated. Judging by this strict standard, 
 the claims of many an artist and poet to 
 the merit of invention would be set aside. 
 Solomon, indeed, said in his day that there 
 was nothing new under the sun : too much 
 therefore must not be expected from gene- 
 rations so remote from him as the present. 
 
 In fact, novel arrangement and combi- 
 nation may fairly aspire to the distinction 
 of this title (see Composition) : but, to 
 that end, it is necessary that the artist 
 should feel himself inspired with a high 
 gusto for the subject he has made choice 
 of; that he should take care to inform 
 himself of all the peculiar circumstances 
 connected therewith ; and that he should 
 fit his mind, by patient and persevering 
 thought, for the exercise of its greatest 
 faculty. 
 
 Sometimes, however, a fortunate acci- 
 dent becomes the leading cause of inven- 
 tion. It is said, for instance, that the 
 consummate beauty of the Corinthian 
 capital owes its origin to the affection of a 
 Grecian nurse, who placed a basket of 
 flowers on the tomb of her deceased 
 charge. See Architecture. 
 
 The artist who is desirous of acquiring 
 for himself the superlative praise of in- 
 vention must be content to devote his mind 
 and attention altogether to his art. Like 
 the true poet, he should refer every thing 
 he sees, every thing he hears, to the chance 
 of its becoming useful to his professional 
 purposes. Leonardo da Vinci hesitated 
 not to avow that even from the stains 
 wrought by time on old walls he obtained 
 many excellent hints, and to this appa- 
 rently unfruitful subject did he dedicate 
 an entire chapter of his work. 
 
 With regard to invention in the arts of 
 design, the reader is referred to the fol- 
 
ISI 
 
 lowing works : — Dialvgo ddla Pitturti, by 
 Louis Dolce, p. 150 of the edit, of 1735 ; 
 the ninth chapter of the first book of Vcri 
 Precetti ddla PUtura, by Giov. Batt. Ar- 
 menini; Franc. Lana, in the iirst chapter 
 of his Prodromo, Bresc. 1G70, fol.; La 
 Nuova Raccolta d'Opuscuoli sckntif. e Jilol. 
 by the Abbe Giovandr. Lazzarini, vol. i. 
 p. 97, Pez. 1763, 4to. ; Algarotti, in his 
 Essai sur la Peinturc ; Richardson, in liis 
 Treatise on Painting; Hagedorn, in the 
 elevcntii Considiration sur la Peinture, &c. 
 &c. See Drawing. 
 
 Ionian, [from Ionia.'] In sculpture and 
 architecture. After the manner and style 
 of the people of Ionia. 
 
 Ionic, [from Ionia.] In architecture. 
 The second of the Grecian orders of archi- 
 tecture, and the third according to the 
 Roman system. See Orders, Architec- 
 ture, Capitals, Columns. 
 
 Ikon, [ijien, Sax.] In mineralogii and 
 the archaiologij of sculpture. One of the 
 imperfect metals, but the hardest and most 
 generally useful, as well as the most abun- 
 dant. I 111 is attracted by the magnet, 
 and is capable of becoming magnetic ; but 
 it retains this quality only a short time. 
 Iron unites with carbon, and, according 
 to the proportions, the compound is either 
 black lead or steel. 
 
 Goguet is of opinion that at the epoch of 
 the siege of Troy, iron was extremely rare 
 among the Greeks. Achilles, says he, in 
 the funeral games celebrated by him in 
 honour of Patroclus, proposed a ball of 
 iron as the prize of one of the combats. 
 He made it, at the same time, the meed of 
 the conqueror and the subject of the contest, 
 it being necessary, in order to obtain this 
 jjrize, to luirl it to a greater distance than 
 either of the other combatants. It must 
 be remarked, however, thoroughly to un- 
 derstand this circumstance, that the said 
 ball of iron was proposed by Achilles, not 
 as a thing precious in its nature, but as 
 having been the weapon of a celebrated 
 champion, which it was therefore glorious 
 to possess. 
 
 This metul is not sufliciently fusible, 
 neither does it take the imjiression of the 
 mould with facility iMiough, to render it 
 useful ia casting statues. It is recorded, 
 however, that instances of this kind have 
 existed. I'liiiy makes mention of a sta- 
 tue of Hercules in iron, and adds, that 
 the artist was determined in his choice of 
 the material by the idea of implying there- 
 by l\u' unexampled endurance with which 
 llie hero uchievtHl his gigantic^ labours. 
 
 IsiAC TAULEis a name given by uutlqua- 
 rians to an Egyptian monument, in the 
 
 ISP 
 
 form of a plate of copper or brass, con- 
 taining various figures in basso rilievo. 
 
 This piece of antiquity was discovered 
 at Rome in the year 1525, when Consta- 
 ble Bourbon took that city. It was pur- 
 chased from a soldier by a locksmith, who 
 sold it to Cardinal Bembo, after whose 
 death it came into the possession of the 
 Duke of Mantua. When jNIantua was 
 taken by the Imperialists in 1630, it ap- 
 pears to have been lost, as it has never 
 since been heard of. It was, however, 
 eniraved in its full size by iiineas Vico, 
 of Parma. This plate was divided into 
 three horizontal compartments, containing 
 hieroglyphics and figures of gods. Anti- 
 quarians are not agreed respecting the 
 object of this piece of antiquity, and there 
 is some reason to believe that it was fabri- 
 cated at Rome. See lianier's Mijthohgif, 
 vol. i. p. 5C7 ; Jablonski, Pantheon F.gijptut- 
 cuin ; Pignorius, Charactcres Egiiptii ; and 
 Jablonski, Miscellanea Bcrolinensia. 
 
 IsoDOiMON. [Gr.] In architecture. One 
 of the Greek methods of construction, and 
 was of courses of equal thicknesses and 
 equal lengths. This manner, as being the 
 most beautiful, was used by them in their 
 grandest buildings. See Architecti re. 
 
 Ispahan, Isfahan or Sfahan. In the 
 hisforij of art. A city of Persia in the 
 province of Irak, situated towards the 
 south part of a very extensive plain, on 
 the nortli bank of the river Zainderond, 
 which is not fordable in spring, and is 
 crossed by several fine bridges. 
 
 Ispahan, ia its most prosperous days, 
 was surrounded by avail twenty miles in 
 circuit; but the inhabited part of the city 
 is now restricted to a space of between 
 two or three miles diameter. Every where 
 it is surrounded by ruins, extending to a 
 great distance. Some of its most exten- 
 sive suburbs have entirely disappeared, and 
 the most populous quarters are deserted. 
 Beheld from the top of the highest edifices, 
 all the buildings exhibit a light yellow 
 colour; and were it not for the inlermix- 
 ture of trees, the view would be monoto- 
 nous. The domes of the numerous mosijues 
 are a field of green, or sometimes blue 
 lacquered tiles, with ornaments in blue, 
 yellow, or red, and they are crowneil l)y 
 golden balls iu\d a crescent. AVhen visited 
 by Chanlin, the walls were so completely 
 covered by houses, as scarci^ly to be dis- 
 cernible. Ho observes, that ho did not 
 take a plan of the city; neither did he 
 give any view of it except ia a vignelt(>, 
 " because, from whatever side the city is 
 beheld it resembles a wood, where only 
 tlomes are to be seen, with lofty slender 
 
ISPAHAN. 
 
 towers attached to them, serving the Ma- 
 hometans for belfries. Chardin relates, 
 that in his time, namely, between the 
 yoars 1600 and 1076, there were within 
 the walls one hundred and sixty-two 
 mosques, forty-eight colleges, one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and two caravanseras, 
 two hundred and seventy-three baths, 
 twelve cemeteries, and the number of 
 houses was computed at thirty-eight thou- 
 sand. But the city has since undergone 
 so many dilapidations, that, in addition to 
 the total destruction of the walls, many of 
 the most celebrated edifices have perished. 
 But the Shah Maidan, or Royal Square, 
 is still the tinest and the largest in the 
 universe, and its bazars and religious 
 edifices rival any to be seen in eastern 
 kingdoms. It is four hundred and forty 
 paces in length by one hundred and sixty 
 in breadth. At the distance of twenty-tive 
 feet from the houses it was surrounded by 
 a canal, bordered by lofty trees, both of 
 which are now destroyed. On the south 
 side stands the royal mosque, a magnifi- 
 cent building, which was constructed by 
 Shah Abbas in the sixteenth centuiy. 
 Every part of it exhibits a style of archi- 
 tectural ornament quite unknown in Eu- 
 rope. It is entered by a gate twelve feet 
 wide, closed by two leaves, covered with 
 plates of solid silver, partly gilt and sculp- 
 tured, which were added by Shah Sefi the 
 First. An iron chain hangs across the 
 outside towards the square. Within these 
 are fountains flowing into jasper basons, 
 spacious courts, and extensive porticos, 
 of which that in the centre is surmounted 
 by a vast dome and gilt crescent, visible at 
 the distance of four leagues on the road 
 from Casan. All this edifice is constructed 
 of massy stone, covered with highly var- 
 nislied bricks and tiles, upon which are 
 inscribed sentences of the Koran. Though 
 the royal mosque has lofty minarets, they 
 are not used for calling the people to 
 prayers, from their overlooking the neigh- 
 bouring houses, which excites the jealousy 
 of the inhabitants. On the other side of 
 the Maidan there is a Mahometan college, 
 called the Medresse Shah Siillan HcLssein. 
 Its entrance is gained by a lofty portico, 
 enriched with twisted pillars of beautiful 
 Tabriz marble which leads through two 
 brazen gates, the extremities of which are 
 of silver, and their whole surface highly 
 sculptured and embossed with flowers, 
 and verses from the Koran. They open 
 into a court on the right side of which is 
 a mosque, with a great cupola covered 
 with lacquered tiles, and adorned exter- 
 nally with ornaments of pure gold. It is 
 faced by two minarets; but they can no 
 
 longer be ascended, as the stairs are de- 
 stroyed, and the dome itself Is falling to 
 decay, but its interior is richly spread 
 with variegated tiles, bearing a profu- 
 sion of inscriptions. The other sides of 
 the square are occupied, one by a high 
 and beautiful portico, and the remaining 
 two by small square cells with carpets, as 
 rooms for the students; twelve in each 
 front disposed in two stories. Here there 
 are thirty professors, who not only instruct 
 the youth in reading and writing, but in 
 the languages, belles lettres, geometry, 
 astronomy, and astrology. M. Oliver was 
 informed, that in 179G there were three 
 hundred or four hundred pupils; but for- 
 merly, as many thousands had attended it. 
 The palaces of the king are enclosed in 
 a fort of lofty walls, which are about three 
 miles in circuit, and to which there is no- 
 thing at all comparable in Europe, whe- 
 ther in appearance or extent, or in the 
 number and beauty of the edifices, dis- 
 persed over spacious gardens. In gene- 
 ral, the front room or hall is vei'y open, 
 and supported by pillars exquisitely carved 
 and gilded ; while the large glass win- 
 dows, through which it receives a mellow 
 light, are curiously stained with a variety 
 of colours. Each has a fountain in front. 
 The palace Chehel Sitoon, or forty pillars, 
 stands in the middle of an immen^f' square, 
 intersected by various canals, and planted 
 with trees. Towards the garden there is 
 an open saloon, supported by eighteen 
 pillars, each inlaid with mirrors, and ap- 
 pearing from a distance to consist entirely 
 of glass. The base of each pillar is mar- 
 ble, sculptured into the figures of four 
 lions, so disposed that the shaft rests on 
 the whole. Mirrors are likewise pro- 
 fusely arranged over the walls; and the 
 cieling is decorated with floM'ers in gild- 
 ing. An arched recess, embellished in 
 the same manner with glass and portraits, 
 leads into a spacious and splendid hall. 
 The roof is formed into a vai-iety of domes 
 and figures, and is tastefully painted and 
 gilded. Part of the walls consists of 
 white marble, and part is covered with 
 mirrors ; they are besides ornamented with 
 six large paintings, chiefly of Shah Ismael, 
 and Shah Abbas the Great, in battles and 
 in royal fetes, Avhich are all of consider- 
 able age, yet the colours are perfectly 
 fresh, and the gilding surprisingly bril- 
 liant. No furniture remains here except 
 carpets. Those of the time of Abbas, cen- 
 turies old, are superior to the fabric of the 
 present day. Adjoining to this palace is 
 the harem, which was erected by the se- 
 cond minister a few years ago, and pre- 
 sented to the king. The apartments are 
 
I vo 
 
 alike elegant as those of the other: the 
 walls painted with birds, ravenous ani- 
 mals, and bouquets of flowers: besides 
 which, they are resplendent with mirrors 
 and gildings. Here are seen the portraits 
 of several sovereigns, particularly of the 
 present king, for whom an establishment, 
 complete in all its parts, is always kept 
 in readiness, though he resides at Tehe- 
 ran, many miles distant. The windows of 
 this palace display some beautiful speci- 
 mens of stained glass and enamelling, dis- 
 posed in couplets, in honour of the mo- 
 narch, together with quotations from the 
 Koran. It appears from Chardin, that the 
 kings of Persia have always had a number 
 of palaces, arising from confiscations. But 
 he observes, that of one hundred and thirty- 
 seven which belonged to him, the greater 
 part were uninhabited, and many falling 
 to ruin. Most of the caravanseras and 
 bazars are very fine. Some of the former 
 are large, and appropriated for travellers 
 from their respective provinces ; so that 
 no difficulty occurs in finding a stranger. 
 Short and expressive sentences are fre- 
 quently inscribed on the outside, such as, 
 " Two companions are indispensable for 
 a traveller, a long purse and a good 
 sword ;" or, " Ask for nothing more than 
 others have previously had," and the 
 like. 
 
 The bazars are highly celebrated, con- 
 sisting of large wide streets, arched, and 
 lighted from above. Several are covered 
 with domes, and painted, especially in tiie 
 interior, with portraits of the heroes of the 
 country, with combats, the figures of beasts, 
 and similar subjects. The most extensive 
 bazar was formerly six hundred geome- 
 trical paces in length, very broad and 
 lofty, but we do not know that any are 
 now so large. Bj means of successive 
 coninuinications, a passenger could tra- 
 verse the whole city sheltered from the 
 elements. A new one has been built, and 
 those of older date repaired by the pa- 
 triotic minister Hajee Mahomet Hussein 
 Khan. 
 
 Ivory, [ivoire, Fr.] In all the arts. The 
 subslance of the tusk of the clipliant. 
 Ivory is esteemed for its beauliful cream 
 colour, the fineness of ifa grain, and the 
 high polish it is c;ii)al)ie of receiving. 
 'J'hat of India is apt to lose its colour, ami 
 turn yellow; but the ivory of Achein and 
 (Ceylon is not chargeable with this defect. 
 Ivory is used as a nuiterial for toys, and 
 as panels for miniature-paintings ; to pre- 
 pare it for whicii latter purpose, it is to 
 be washed with the juice of garlic, or 
 sonic other absorbent cunipositiun to re- 
 
 IVY 
 
 move its oily particles. The shavings of 
 ivory maybe reduced into ajelly, of a na- 
 ture similar to that of hartshorn ; or, by 
 burning in a crucible, they may be con- 
 verted into a black powder, which is used 
 in painting under the name of ivory- 
 black. 
 
 Ivory may be stained or dyed: — a black 
 colour is given it by a solution of brass and 
 a decoction of logwood ; a green one, by a 
 solution of verdegris; and a red, by being 
 boiled with brazil-wood in lime water. 
 
 The use of ivory was well known in 
 very early ages. We find it employed for 
 arms, girdles, sceptres, harnesses of iiorses, 
 sword-hilts, &c. The ancients were also 
 acquainted with the art of sculpturing in 
 ivory, of dying and encrusting it. Homer 
 refers to the extreme whiteness of ivory. 
 The coffer of Cypselus was doubtless the 
 most ancient monument of this kind in 
 basso-rilievo, and we meet with similar 
 instances in the temple of Juno, at Olym- 
 pius, in the time of Pausanias — that is to 
 say, seven hundred years after it had been 
 built. 
 
 Antiquity possessed numerous statues 
 of ivory, particularly in the temples of 
 Jupiter and of Juno at Olympius. In these 
 statues there was very frequently a mix- 
 ture of gold. The most celebrated are 
 stated to have been the Olympian Jupiter 
 and the Minerva of J^hitlias : the former 
 was covered with a golden drapery, and 
 seated on a throne formeil of gH>ld, of i\ory 
 and cedar-wood, and tMiriched with pre- 
 cious stones. In his haiul the god held a 
 figure of Victory, alike of ivory and gold. 
 The Minerva was erected in the Parthe- 
 non at Athens (hiring the first year of the 
 eighty-seveiitli Olympiad, the year which 
 commenced the Peloponnesan war. Pau- 
 sanias, likewise, makes nu'ntion of an 
 ivory statue of Juno, on her throne, of re- 
 markable magnificence, by I'olyeletes, to- 
 gether with an infinity of others. See 
 Euohahu s. 
 
 For more detailed particulars respect- 
 ing the qualities of iNory, consult: — Lit 
 DissiTtiition nur I'lpoiir, par M. Heyne, 
 or a treatise, under llie same title, by Dau- 
 benton, in the MiinoiitK </<■ I'AcMlfiiiif ilcs 
 Scicnci's. 
 
 Ivy. [i};ij;. Sax.] /// «/;///i(»/()C'<"'(//'«"'/"'.C 
 iiiidscitlidior. A plant, ihe leaves of which 
 were made very plentiful use of by ancient 
 artists on vases, pedi-stals, altars, ivc. It 
 was also, in the shape of a crown, the con- 
 stant attribute of IJacihus, prol)alil\ be- 
 cause, being evergreen, it implieil, in an 
 allegorical and at the same time elegant 
 nutiiner, tho eternal youth of that deity. 
 
JEA 
 
 JES 
 
 Jame. [jamhe, leg, Fr.] In architecture, 
 Tliis name is applied to a pillar raised 
 perpendicularly to support the superior 
 parts of a building. They are of various 
 kinds according to their situation. 
 
 Jasper, [jaspe, Fr.] In gem sculpture. 
 A genus of stones of the siliceous class. 
 It includes the blood-stone, so called from 
 its being supposed efficacious in stopping- 
 blood ; a quality probably imputed on ac- 
 count of the crimson spots which diversify 
 its green-coloured substance. Dauben- 
 ton enumerates fourteen other varieties. 
 Theophrastus and Pliny have treated of 
 this stone, and many artists have employed 
 it. Modern artists, however, have not 
 made great use of the jasper because it 
 does not yield well to the graver, neither 
 is it susceptible of a fine polish. Natter 
 writes of an engraving upon a red jasper, 
 the ground of which is of a transparent 
 chalcedony. This fine gem is the only one 
 of the kind which has been discovered 
 either ancient or modern. It was chiefly 
 the Greek engravers of the Lower Empire 
 who, since the establishment of Chris- 
 tianity, have employed this stone. The 
 Italian engravers have followed their ex- 
 ample. It has been especially used for re- 
 presentations of the bust of Christ after the 
 crowning with thorns or after the flagella- 
 tion. The principal reason for this ap- 
 pears to be, that the sanguine spots pecu- 
 liar to the jasper harmouise,with the ex- 
 pression of torment, sought to be given. 
 This reason, however, is not a very good 
 one, as these same spots, on the other hand, 
 often interfere with, instead of heighten- 
 ing, the expression of the engraving. The 
 jasper is of various colours. The Italians 
 call one particular species diaspro, which 
 is green with transparent spots. Pliny 
 mentions this sort: there is a variety of it, 
 of which however many specimens have 
 not appeared, interspersed with white 
 streaks. 
 
 .Jealousy, [jalousie, Fr.] In the history 
 of the arts. This passion produces effects 
 mournful and terrific, while that of emula- 
 tion inspires one with fair and honourable 
 rivalry. We know to what excess it drove 
 Andrea Castagna. Dominico, a Venetian, 
 having gone to establish himself at Flo- 
 rence, Andrea, by dint of assiduity and ca- 
 resses, gained his confidence, and induced 
 Dominico to instruct him in the important 
 art which he possessed of painting in oil. 
 
 From the time that he had acquired this, 
 no longer regarding his friend but as a 
 rival of whom it was desirable to get rid, 
 he resolved to disengage himself from the 
 unwary and unfortunate Venetian, whom 
 he finally poniarded. Michel Angiolo, 
 jealous of the reputation of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, drew upon him so much odium, and 
 rendered his life so disagreeable, that he 
 was necessitated to expatriate himself. 
 He also applied himself to get the still 
 more illustrious Raffaelle regarded merely 
 as a plagiarist from him, and attempted to 
 set up as that great man's rival Fra Bas- 
 tian del Piombo. The talent of Zam- 
 pieri was strenuously denied, and himself 
 as strenuously persecuted, by several con- 
 temporaries, and above all by Lanfranc. 
 Having quitted Rome he sought refuge in 
 Naples, where he found in L'Espagnolet a 
 mortal enemy. Overcome by distress of 
 mind, and in constant dread of being poi- 
 soned, this ill-fated artist met death in a 
 shape under which he has presented him- 
 self, we lament to add, to many other of 
 the sons of genius — disappointment and 
 hunger. The violent and premature death 
 of Chenda is also attributable to jealousy. 
 The distaste Avhich Poussin and Lesueur 
 excited in the breast of Lebrun obliged 
 the former to quit France, and embittered 
 the days of the latter. Poor Lesueur ! 
 even his works, as well as their author, 
 were subjected to the withering touch 
 of jealousy. The finest heads — the most 
 artistical effects about his pictures for the 
 cloister of the Chartreux were defaced 
 with a knife, and their expression rendered 
 absolutely ridiculous, while, from the man- 
 ner in which the instrument had been used, 
 it is obvious that the hands of an artist 
 w ere employed for the unworthy purpose. 
 This passion indeed, although often shown 
 in acts of dark atrocity, is still more fre- 
 quently productive of low manoeuvres, 
 dirty intrigues, and humiliating contri- 
 vances. 
 
 Jesus, [ywn', a Saviour, Heb.] In paint- 
 ing- and sculpture. The divine founder of 
 the Christian religion is often found re- 
 presented on monuments offered by the 
 piety of the faithful, and principally upon 
 those of the time of the primitive church, 
 as appears by the collections of Aringhius, 
 Bosius, Buonarrotti, Alegranza, Bottari, 
 &c. whom we have already repeatedly 
 cited. Unfortunately, the primitive Chris- 
 
JES 
 
 tians were chiefly poor, and consequently 
 were not able to afford to have these fi,';ures 
 executed so well as they might have been : 
 and by the time the religion had niade< 
 progress, and enlisted amongst its follow- 
 ers the rich and poweiful, the decline of 
 Jirt was apparent and rapid. Hence the 
 ideal of Christ, of the Virgin, the Saints, 
 and other personages celebrated in the 
 New Testament was scarcely formed until 
 after the revival of the arts, and under the 
 guidance of the great modern artists, who, 
 however, do not seem to have used much 
 exertion to bestow on the representation 
 of the Divine Being that characteristic 
 expression which belongs to the Saviour 
 of the human race. In the greater number, 
 indeed, of those works in which He is in- 
 troduced, the head has something in it of 
 ignoble rather than illustrious, and often 
 sinks in character below that of every 
 other person introduced into the picture. 
 The Greeks took care to give a divine 
 beauty to all the objects of their worship, 
 and we are tempted to say, with W'inckel- 
 mann, that the true spirit of ancient art 
 should inspire the modern painter or sculp- 
 tor before he will be able to treat with be- 
 coming dignity the figure of Christ. 
 
 Raftaelle, it is true, has done something 
 towards removing this reproach from the 
 great names of modern art, as appears 
 conspicuously in a little design found in 
 the Farnese cabinet at Naples, the head 
 of which is that of a beautiful youth, with- 
 out beard. Annibale Caracci, and per- 
 haps he alone, has followed Rallaelle in 
 this respect, as we may judge by three 
 pictures of his on the same subject: — the 
 first in the Farnese cabinet ; the second 
 and third at Rome. Some, however, 
 would consider it an unpardonable inno- 
 vation to represent Christ beardless, iind 
 amongst those heads which are painted 
 after the more received manner, we should 
 be inclined to refer the student, for a mo- 
 del, to Leonardo (la Vinci. Winckehnann 
 bestows the most rapturous coiuincndation 
 ui)on one particular head of Christ hy tliis 
 master, in the cabinet of the Prince de 
 Liclitcnstein, at Vienna. It is bearded, 
 expresses the greatest possil)le degree of 
 manly beauty, and is perhaps the most 
 perfect thing in exislenee of its kind. 
 Artists appear, generally speaking, to 
 have preferred jiaiiiling figures of the in- 
 fant Jesus, because in infancy the features 
 are less niarked, and consequently little 
 or no demand made on the iuuiginalioM. 
 The ex(iuisite pictures of Kallaelle repre- 
 senting the Holy Family, tiio sleeping 
 Jesus, and the Virgin and Charily, are all 
 
 JOT 
 
 models of this species of composition. 
 The early artists gave Christ a tunic, with 
 a border of purple, and sometimes of gold, 
 but in the latter case they seem to have 
 gone out of the ordinary way for the pur- 
 pose of doing honour to the image of the 
 Saviour, and not in consequence of any kind 
 of authority. They also give him an ample 
 white cloak as symbolical of his parity. 
 He is made to wear sandals, and not co- 
 vered shoes, tlie use of which he forbade 
 to his disciples : the head is often sur- 
 rounded by a glory. Besides the direct 
 representations of Jesus, he is sometimes 
 also allegorically painted under the figure 
 of a lamb, or flower, or by his monogram ; 
 either placed alone or in the midst of 
 angels and cherubim. When not forming 
 part of any composition, his figure is often 
 represented in a medallion, as is some- 
 times seen upon sarcophagi. 
 
 Jet. [Jeter, to throw, Fr.] In sculpture. 
 In the casting of statues this word is used 
 to denominate the channels by which the 
 metal, in a state of fusion, is introduced 
 into the mould. 
 
 Jet u'eau. [Fr.] In hydraulics. A move- 
 ment of water, elevated into the air, by 
 means of a pipe or tube placed in the mid- 
 dle of a basin, from the upper extremity 
 of which pipe the water issues, and falls 
 again into the basin below. 
 
 Joinery, [from joindre, Fr.] Joinery is 
 that branch of civil architecture which 
 treats of the art of framing and joining 
 wood together, for the internal and exter- 
 nal finishing of houses. 
 
 The smoothing of wood by cutting the 
 superfluous parts away in thin equal slices 
 is called pluiiin!^, and the tools used for 
 this purpose are called jilnnes, ^^lu■tlu■r 
 they are employed in reducing the surface 
 to a plane, or to a convex, a concave, or 
 an undulated form. 
 
 The wood is called stujf, and is i)revi- 
 ously formed into rectangular prisms by 
 the saw. These i)risms aue denominated 
 deals, boards, battens, planks, .ivc. accord- 
 ing to their dimensions in breadth and 
 thickness. So that in this article, when- 
 e\er a piece of wood is spoken of, it is 
 understood to be bounded by six i)lanes, 
 and to have all its angles right angles. 
 
 The arrisis are the liiu's of concourse 
 formed by i\er) t\v»> planes, and are there- 
 fore eight iu nuuil)er. 
 
 Deals are (»f two kiiuls, vliile and y<'l- 
 li)\v; the white is employed for i)anclling, 
 and the yellow for the framing. Hut of 
 late, instead of white deal, .American wood 
 lias l)een brought into use, and employed 
 both ill flaming and panelling. It is soft, 
 
JOI 
 
 very free from knots, and easily wrought, 
 but is more liable to warp than white 
 deal. 
 
 Of Mouldings. 
 
 As mouldings have already been de- 
 fined under Civil Architectlre, we shall 
 here only point out those which are com- 
 monly used in joinery. 
 
 Wood is generally much thinner than 
 the dimension of its breadth and thickness 
 on the sides of the rectangular section 
 made by cutting it perpendicular to the 
 fibres, the length being understood to be 
 parallel to the fibres. The faces are the 
 two broad planes that run in the direction 
 of the fibres, and the edges are the two 
 narrow planes, wliich also run in tlie di- 
 rection of the fibres ; the ends are the two 
 planes perpendicular to the fibres. 
 
 When the wood has been reduced to 
 the rectangular shape by the square and 
 plane, so that the sides may be planes, 
 and the angles right angles, the next ope- 
 ration is to take away the right angles, 
 and reduce the wood to mouldings, which 
 is called sticking, and the moulding is said 
 to be stvck. 
 
 When the edge of a piece of wood is 
 reduced to a cylindrical form, it is said to 
 be rounded, which is the simplest species 
 of moulded work. 
 
 When a part of the arris is reduced to 
 a semicylinder, so that the surface of the 
 cylindrical part may be flush, both with 
 the face and edge of the wood, and that a 
 groove or sinking may be made in the face, 
 only the cylindrical part is called a bead, 
 and the sinking a quirk, so that the mould- 
 ing is called a quirked bead. 
 
 When a quirk is also formed in the nar- 
 row plane, or edge, so as to make the 
 rounded part at the angle three fourths of 
 a cylinder, the moulding obtains the name 
 of bead and double quirk. 
 
 When they are two semicylindrical 
 mouldings, rising both from a plane pa- 
 rallel to the face ; and Mdien one comes 
 close to the edge of the piece, and the 
 other has a quirk on the farther side, and 
 its surface flush with the face of the wood, 
 the combinations of these mouldings are 
 termed a double head, or double bead and 
 quirk. In this combination, the bead 
 which is next to the edge of the stuff is 
 much less than the other. 
 
 Mouldings are generally separated from 
 one another, and frequently terminated by 
 two narrow planes, at right angles to each 
 other, c?l\\gA fillets, which show two sides 
 of a rectangle prism. 
 
 Mouldings, as well as fillets, are called 
 members. 
 
 JUS 
 
 When a semicylindrical moulding which 
 rises from a plane parallel to the face, is 
 terminated on the edge by a fillet, the two 
 members thus combined are called a torus. 
 
 If there be two semicylindrical mould- 
 ings springing from a plane parallel to the 
 face, terminated on the edge by a fillet, 
 this combination of members is called a 
 double torus. 
 
 A repetition of equal semicylindrical 
 mouldings, springing from a plane or cy- 
 lindrical surface, is called reeds. 
 
 The cima recta, and cimn rereisa, are 
 called in joinery ogee. The former is 
 called ogee, and the latter ogee reversa. 
 
 Ovolo has already been defined in our 
 article Civil Architecture. 
 
 A quarter round is the fourth part of a 
 cylindrical surface, but has no quirk on 
 either side. 
 
 Joy. [joie, Fr.] In mythological painting 
 and sculpture. This quality is found re- 
 presented on many ancient medals, gene- 
 rally holding a bough or branch of a tree, 
 with which it was customary to adorn the 
 buildings, both public and private, on any 
 occasion of rejoicing. To indicate the 
 desire that joy should be durable, one 
 sometimes finds an anchor between the 
 hands of the figure; while, in other in- 
 stances, it presents a crown and a rudder. 
 
 Judgment, [jugenmit, Fr.] In all the 
 arts. The quality of distinguishing pro- 
 priety and impropriety. When the artist 
 has made choice of a subject, or outline of 
 a plan (in which act, by the by, he must 
 be guided by the selfsame faculty), it is 
 necessary that he should have recourse to 
 his judgment to dictate the filling up of 
 the details so as to produce the greatest 
 eflfect or utility. The property of judg- 
 ment or taste (for, as regards art, these 
 words are almost synonymous), is to a 
 certain extent the gift of nature. It is, 
 however, in common with every other 
 mental qualification, capable of cultivation 
 and improvement by reflection and study 
 of the best models. 
 
 Jupiter and Juno. In the mythology of 
 art. See Mythology. 
 
 Justice, [justitia, Lat.] In the mytho- 
 logy of art. According to Winckelmann, 
 the earliest Greek artists represent Jus- 
 tice without a head. On a medal of the 
 Emperor Galba, she appears with a pair 
 of scales, held exactly even. In other in- 
 stances she holds a palm branch in her 
 hand; occasionally a thunderbolt, some- 
 times an eye. 
 
 The poets describe Justice to have been 
 the daughter of Jupiter and Themis, and 
 say that she lived on earth during the 
 golden age ; but the wickedness of man- 
 
JUS 
 
 kind drove her to heaven in the brazen 
 and iron ages, where she %vas placed in 
 the zodiac, becoming the constellation Vir- 
 go. Her flight to heaven, •when the world 
 grew vile and corrupt, is described by 
 Virgil, but more fully by Aratus, in one 
 of his finest digressions. A passage in 
 Petronius, on the breaking out of the civil 
 
 JUS 
 
 wars, describes her as discomposed, with 
 her hair all loose and disordered. The 
 most general method of depicting this god- 
 dess, and that which still obtains, is, iiold- 
 ing a sword in one hand, and a pair of 
 scales in the other, having her eyes bound 
 with a fillet. 
 
 K 
 
 Kalos. [icaXoc, Gf' beautiful.] In sculp- 
 ture and enffravhi!^. This word is very 
 often found inscribed on Greek vases, &c. 
 probably to indicate their supposed per- 
 fection. In many cases, however, it is 
 joined to a proper name, giving rise to a 
 speculation that the vase was dedicated 
 to some particular individual. 
 
 Keramos. iKtpaixoQ, Gr.] In modelling 
 and sculpture. Earth which is tenacious 
 and malleable when moist, but hardens on 
 exposure to the sun or fire. It is used in 
 the construction of vases, bassi rilievi, 
 cornices, &c. as well as tliat of bricks and 
 tiles, and indeed all works the substance 
 of which is commonly distinguished by 
 the term of terra cotta. 
 
 Keraunoscopeian, iKtpavvbg, a tlmn- 
 derbolt, and aKOTvtvj, to behold.] In archai- 
 olugy. A machine used in the theatres of 
 the ancients, by means of which they imi- 
 tated the hurling of a tiiunderbolt, a thing 
 particularly necessary in their dramatic 
 representations, which frequently ran on 
 the mythological exploits and appearances 
 of the lieatiien divinities. They had also 
 another macliine, consisting of small stones 
 rolled upon pieces of bronze, tlie sound of 
 which resembled thunder. These were 
 placed at the back part of tin; scene. 
 
 Keystone, [fcty and stouc] In arcldtcc~ 
 ture. The highest or centre stone of an 
 arch, which being narrower towards the 
 bottom liian the toj), serves to j)r<ss toge- 
 ther the others, and to consolidate the 
 whole. A projection is usually given to 
 it, and it is often ornamented eitiur ac- 
 
 cording to the order of architecture used 
 in the building to which the arch belongs, 
 or after the taste of the designer. The 
 keystones of the triumphal arches of the 
 Romans were embellished with allegorical 
 sculptures, and figures applicable to the 
 subject. That of Titus is one of tlie most 
 beautiful and most richly adorned that yet 
 remain standing. 
 
 Kitchen, [^kegin, Wclsii, cuisine, Fr.] 
 In architecture. That part of the oflices of 
 a building where refreshments are pre- 
 pared. It is mostly, in town houses, in 
 an underground floor, and always, for ob- 
 vious reasons, placed by the architect as 
 far as possible from the apartments appro- 
 priated to the use of the family. 
 
 Millin speaks quite rapturously of a 
 kitchen in the Chateau de Kainci ; " it 
 is," says he, " a vast and lofty hall, the 
 walls of which are garnished with delft 
 earthenware, and brackets, supporting the 
 busts of Apicius, Lucullus, Bechamel, and 
 other famous patrons of the culinary art. 
 Around is ranged a grand gallery, with 
 balustrades, from which one might over- 
 look the labours of the cooks, and applaud 
 their ellorts, without interfering with 
 them." This is truly French, in point of 
 description, but we suspect many an Fng- 
 lishgourmand would relish a similar pri\ i- 
 lege to that lastmentioned. Me believe, 
 indeed, that there are in existence, in se- 
 \eral old mansions (Arundel t'asth', for 
 instance) in this country, kitchens simi- 
 larly constructed. 
 
 u. 
 
 Lahariim. [\«/3(f()oj/, Gr.] The royal was, and adduces several Ixtxsi riliivi on 
 
 or inijjcrial standard used by (jonstantine which a similarly sliaj)ed standard ap- 
 
 and otiier Konian einpci-ors, before whonj i)ears. It was certainly, however, most 
 
 it was Wdiit 1(1 i)c carried in war. It was frccnicntly used by the siixeni^ns ol the 
 
 generally magnilicently adorned w ith gold lower empire, who usually had iiisc rilicd 
 
 and preciouB stones. It is doubtful whe- on it a nu)nogram of Christ, 
 
 ther this ensign was or was not used by The form of tlie labarum somewhat ro- 
 
 the Greeks; Visconli is of o])iuion that it sembles a cross. It consists of a long 
 
LAB 
 
 pike, with a piece of wood fixed on trans- 
 versely at a certain height. On the upper 
 part, which rises above this transverse 
 piece, it was customary to affix either the 
 Roman eagle, or a crown composed of 
 some pi-ecious metal. 
 
 Laboratory, [laboratoire, Fr.] In archi- 
 tecture. A chamber, or collection of seve- 
 ral chambers on the same floor, properly 
 fitted up with the various utensils used in 
 the interesting pursuit of ciiemistry. 
 
 Laboured, [from labor.] In all the arts. 
 Any work which bears tiie marks of con- 
 straint and hardness of style. Opposed 
 to free, graceful, flowing. This term may 
 often be justly applied to copies after the 
 great masters. 
 
 Labyrinth, [labyrinthus, Lat.] A build- 
 ing whose numerous passages and per- 
 plexing windings render the escape from 
 it difficult and almost impossible. There 
 were four very famous among the an- 
 cients ; one near the city of Crocodiles, or 
 Arsinoe; another in Crete; a third at 
 Lemnos; and a fourth in Italy, built by 
 Persenne. That of Egypt was the most 
 ancient, and Herodotus, who saw it, de- 
 clares that the beauty and the art of the 
 building were almost beyond belief. It 
 was built by twelve kings, who reigned 
 at one time in Egypt, and was intended 
 for the place of their burial, and to com- 
 memorate the actions of their reign. It 
 was divided into twelve halls or palaces, 
 or, according to Pliny, into sixteen, or, as 
 Strabo mentions, into twenty-seven. These 
 halls were, according to the relation of 
 Herodotus, vaulted. They had each six 
 doors opening to the north, and the same 
 number to the south, all surrounded by 
 one wall. The edifice contained three 
 thousand chambers, one thousand five 
 hundred in the upper part, and the same 
 number below. The chambers above were 
 seen by Herodotus, and astonished him 
 beyond conception, but he was not per- 
 mitted to see those below, where were 
 buried the holy crocodiles, and the mo- 
 narchs, whose munificence had raised the 
 edifice. The roofs and walls were en- 
 crusted with marble, and adorned with 
 sculptured figures. The halls were sur- 
 rounded with stately and polished pillars 
 of white stone, and, according to some 
 authors, the opening of the doors was ai't- 
 fuUy attended with a terrible noise like 
 peals of thunder. 
 
 The labyrinth of Crete was built by 
 Dfedalus, in imitation of that of Egypt, 
 and it is the most famous of all in classi- 
 cal history. It was the place of confine- 
 
 LAC 
 
 ment for Dsedalus himself, and the prison 
 of the minotaur. Our readers are no doubt 
 familiar with the fable of Theseus, who 
 was one of the youths sent by the Athe- 
 nians to be devoured by this monster; but 
 who, having achieved his destruction, ob- 
 tained egress from the labyrinth, through 
 means of a clue of thread furnished him 
 by Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, king 
 of Crete, for that purpose. 
 
 According to Pliny, the labyrinth of 
 Lemnos even surpassed the others in 
 splendour and magnificence. It was sup- 
 ported by forty columns of uncommon 
 height and thickness, and equally admir- 
 able for their beauty and grandeur. 
 
 Modern travellers are still astonished at 
 the noble and magnificent ruins which 
 appear of the Egyptian labyrinth, at the 
 south of the lake Moeris, about thirty 
 miles from the ruins of Arsinoe. 
 
 Mela, l,c.9; Plin. 3G, c. 13 ; Strab. 10; 
 Diod. 1 ; Herod. 2, c. 148 ; Virg. En. 5, 
 V. .588. 
 
 We have elsewhere (see Architecture), 
 given another account of the labyrinth of 
 Egypt, which will be found to differ in 
 some particulars from the above. All 
 statements, however, concur in represent- 
 ing it to have been a structure of surpass- 
 ing magnitude and grandeur, and when 
 we consider the remote — nay, almost fa- 
 bulous age, in which it is said to have 
 existed in full splendour, it ceases to be 
 remarkable that its details have not been 
 consistently related. 
 
 Lacerna. [Lat. from Xaxepov, Gr.] In 
 ancient costuine. A sort of mantle which 
 was worn over the toga or tunic. It was 
 at first only used among the soldiers, but 
 at length became common. It was of dif- 
 ferent materials, according to the season : 
 in winter of thick wool, in summer of thin 
 and light coloured cloth. They attached 
 to it a hood, which covered the head and 
 shoulders, and might be worn or not at 
 pleasure. 
 
 Laconicum. [Lat.] In architecture. One 
 of the apartments of the ancient baths, so 
 called from its having been first used in 
 Laconia. See Bath. 
 
 Lacrymatory. [Fr. lacrymatoire, from 
 lachryma, a tear, Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 vessel supposed by some antiquaries to 
 have been devoted to the reception of 
 tears in honour of the dead, a purpose to 
 which the circumstance of an eye being 
 sculptured at the bottom of it, together 
 with the shape of its neck and mouth, 
 seems to give some colour. Others, how- 
 ever, assign to it the equally useless but 
 
LAM 
 
 !cB3 sentimental office of containing water 
 to sprinkle the ashes of the deceased. It 
 -vvas found in the tombs of the ancients. 
 
 Lactarilm. [Lat. strictly meaning a 
 dairy -house.'] In architecture. A place in- 
 dicated by a column (Inctaria coluinnn), in 
 the Roman herb-market, where foundlings 
 were brought and supplied ^\ilh nourish- 
 ment. 
 
 Lacunaria. [Lat.] In architecture. Pa- 
 nels or coffers in cielings, or in the soffits 
 of cornices. These are frequently orna- 
 mented — sometimes with paintings, some- 
 times with carved work. 
 
 Lacus. [Lat.] In urchaiologij. A vat or 
 great vessel into which the wine ran after 
 it was pressed, and from which it was 
 poured into smaller receptacles. These 
 vessels were often richly sculptured, and 
 a dance of bacclianals was, appropriately 
 enough, a common subject; an instance of 
 which appears in tlie basso-rilievo, en- 
 graved in Le Musee Pio-Clemcntin, torn. 4. 
 pi. 29. 
 
 This name was also applied to the pub- 
 lic reservoirs of Rome. 
 
 Lagobolon. [Xaytic, a hare, and /3a\\w, 
 I throw, Gr.] In archaiology. An inverted 
 staff which the sportsmen were wont to 
 throw adroitly at the animal they were 
 pursuing, even when at full speed, in order 
 to ensnare its legs, which they gave to the 
 dogs when it was cauglit. This instru- 
 ment wart chiefly used in the hunting of 
 hares, whence the derivation of the word. 
 Lamin.^. [Lat.] Tliin plates of metal, 
 one coat laid over another. 
 
 Lampadephoria. [Lat. Xafnra^t](popia, 
 Gr.] In archaiology. A play in which they 
 ran about w itii lamps. See Daduchus. 
 
 Lampadodrome. [Xainruc, a lamp, and 
 Spofioij, a race, Gr.] In archaiology. This 
 was the name given at Athens to the race by 
 young men, each of wliom bore a himp in 
 his hand in their public games. He who 
 lirst arrived at the goal w itliout liis lamp 
 beinj^ extinguished oljtained tlie prize. 
 
 Lampadists. [lamiiadisteg, Vr. from tlie 
 same derivation as the former word.] In 
 archaiology. Tlius w'ere designated those 
 young men who had gained pri/.i's in llie 
 course of tlie lami)adodrome. Caylus, in tiic 
 firii volume of his Rccucil, luis i)ublished 
 a inoiiuint-nt found among the ruins of an- 
 cient Athens, and which had been raised, 
 witiiout doubt, in iionour of tliese victors. 
 Lamps. [Xa/iTru*;, Gr,] In ntodelling and 
 ncnliititrr. It was not until a late era that 
 niiuh atlention was j;iven to this M-ry ele- 
 gant part of the household convcnieuc.es 
 of the ancients. Indeed, the lamp had j;e- 
 
 LAM 
 
 nerally been considered as a monumental 
 accompaniment merely, and this notion 
 tended to deaden the interest which would 
 otherwise have been excited with regard 
 to its shape and varieties. 
 
 The first person who is known to have 
 published a collection of lamps is Fortu- 
 nio Liceto, an Italian, whose chief design 
 appears to ha^ e been to prove the possibi- 
 lity of the existence of inextinguishable 
 or rather perpetually burning lamps. Pie- 
 tro Santi Bartoli, a countryman of his, 
 afterwards published at Rome, in the year 
 1691, the collection of Bellori ; but these 
 engravings are exceedingly ill executed, 
 and unfaithful, and it is more than sus- 
 pected that Bartoli indulged himself ad 
 libitum in adding to and what he conceived 
 embellishing the proportions of his origi- 
 nals. He evidently regarded all these 
 lamps as being merely sepulchral. Pas- 
 seri, however, another Italian, published, 
 at the instigation of the academy of Pe- 
 saro, a collection of three hundred and 
 twenty-two lamps which he possessed in 
 his museum. In the prolegomena, at the 
 commencement of the first volume, he 
 speaks in general of antique lamps, and 
 was the first who arranged them into three 
 classes — lamps used in the temples, do- 
 mestic lamps, and sepulchral lamps. 
 
 All of the abovementioned collections, 
 however, have been surpassed in beauty 
 and interest by that of Portici: the sixth 
 hall of that museum is entirely tilled with 
 lamjjs and candelabras discovered in the 
 houses of Pompeii and Hercu'aneum. Re- 
 presentations of these were published in 
 1792 in ninety-three copper-plates, exclu- 
 sive of vignettes. They form the 9th \o\. 
 of the Antiquities of Herculaneum. A\'e 
 find there represented and explained up- 
 wards of two hundred lamps and cande- 
 labras of bronze and terra-cotta. Six of 
 these lamps in bronze, the same number in 
 terra-cotta, six candelabras, and two pots 
 to hold the oil, were presented by the late 
 King of Naples to the Ihnpress Jose- 
 phine, then INIailame Buonaparte, and are 
 perhaps .still at iNlalmaison. Still more 
 beautiful specinu-ns, ho\\e\er, were jiro- 
 cured to ornament the splendid cabinet of 
 our countrjman, Mr. Towidey ; anil tlie 
 cabinet of the National Library of France 
 also possesses a great number, the larj;er 
 part of which have been described in tiie 
 collections of Caylus and Montfancon. 
 
 The ancients appear to lm\e %cry early 
 aecniired the practice of using lamps, 
 though in various ways and in dillirent 
 degrees of ai)proxinnition to the specimens 
 
LAMPS. 
 
 above referred to. The use of oil was 
 not perhaps known to the Romans in very 
 remote ages, although the Greeks unques- 
 tionably were acquainted with it, as ap- 
 pears from several passages in Herodotus. 
 We find, indeed, the figure of the lamp 
 sculptured and engraved on many of the 
 most ancient Greek vases. It is with a 
 lamp that Mercury, as depicted on one of 
 these, lights Jupiter, who is represented 
 scaling with a ladder the chamber of Alc- 
 mena. 
 
 Baked earth was the substance of which 
 the earliest of these useful articles were 
 compounded ; but subsequently we find 
 them wrought of various metals — of bronze 
 more particularly. Aristophanes makes 
 mention of an artifice used by certain mer- 
 chants, who put a quantity of lead into 
 the inside, thus to increase the apparent 
 weight of the bronze and consequent value 
 of the lamp. It is curious to trace, in re- 
 mote antiquity, vestiges of these little 
 finesses de commerce, the art of practising 
 which has by no means degenerated in 
 these our latter days. 
 
 A few ancient lamps of iron are also ex- 
 tant; but these are rare, either because 
 that metal was little used for the purpose, 
 or on account of its more ready destruc- 
 tion in the ground. There are four speci- 
 mens in the museum of the King of Naples 
 at Portici ; where there is likewise one 
 specimen of a lamp in glass. It is entirely 
 solid, and in one single piece. 
 
 Record has also been made of lamps 
 formed of the precious metals. Pausanias 
 mentions a golden one which was in the 
 temple of Minerva, and St. Augustine 
 ^ speaks of lamps of silver : no antique of 
 either kind, however, has reached modern 
 times, 
 jj^ The testimony of Pliny, St. Austin, and 
 
 p others have led many to believe that the 
 ancients had the invention of perpetual 
 lamps ; and some moderns have attempted 
 to find out the secret, but hitherto in vain. 
 Indeed, it seems no easy matter to find out 
 either a perpetufil wick or perpetual oil. 
 The curious may read Dr. Plot's conjec- 
 tures on the subject in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, No. 166, or in Lowthorp's 
 Abridgment, vol. iii. p. 636. But few, 
 we believe, will give themselves the trou- 
 ble of searching for the secret, when they 
 reflect that the credulity of both Pliny and 
 St. Austin was such, that their testimony 
 does not seem a sufficient inducement 
 to us to believe that a lamp was ever 
 formed to burn fifteen hundred or a thou- 
 sand years ; much less is it credible that 
 
 the ancients had the secret of making one 
 burn for ever. 
 
 The lamps or candlesticks made use of 
 by the Jews, in their own houses, were 
 generally put into a very high stand on 
 the ground. The lamps supposed to be 
 used by the foolish virgins, &c. in the gos- 
 pel were of a different kind. According 
 to critics and antiquaries, they were a sort 
 of torches made of iron or potter's earth, 
 wrapped about with old linen, and moist- 
 ened from time to time with oil, Matt. 
 XXV. 1, 2. The lamps of Gideon's soldiers 
 were of the same kind. The candlestick 
 with seven branches placed in the sanc- 
 tury by Moses, and those which Solomon 
 afterwards prepared for the temple, are 
 said to have been crystal lamps filled with 
 oil, and fixed upon the branches. 
 
 Among the Romans, also, it was cus- 
 tomary to have the lamp either depending 
 from the cieling or placed on a stand in the 
 room, since the use of tables was not com- 
 mon to them, and their attitude, in study- 
 ing, as well as at repast, was a half re- 
 cumbent one, holding their scroll or tablets 
 before them on their knees. These stands 
 were often highly ornamented. The com- 
 monest form of them was a tripod with 
 lion's feet, from which sprung sometimes 
 the shaft of a column, according to one of 
 the orders of architecture, the disk placed 
 to receive the lamp forming the capital. 
 
 These vessels were generally ornament- 
 ed with mythological or allegorical sub- 
 jects, and their shape varied greatly. 
 Sometimes, it was a simple disk with a 
 hole in the circumference through which to 
 pass the wick, and another in the middle 
 to povir the oil into. At other times, they 
 presented the appearance of a boat. Oc- 
 casionally their extremity terminated in 
 two or three divisions, according to the 
 number of beaks: but it would be endless 
 to attempt to pursue these details. Inscrip- 
 tions were likewise often found placed 
 vipon them. 
 
 It is not perhaps generally known, that 
 the custom of public illuminations on oc- 
 casions of national rejoicing was common 
 to the Romans. On the birth-days of their 
 princes, on great religious solemnities, &c. 
 they suspended their lamps at the win- 
 dows. Juvenal and Perseus both make 
 mention of this usage. 
 
 The motive for the ancient practice of 
 placing lamps in sepulchres has been spe- 
 culated on in a variety of ways. One of 
 the most ingenious, and perhaps the most 
 satisfactory, is that it was allegorical of 
 the cessation of mortal life, of the sej^a- 
 
 E E 
 
LAN 
 
 ration of the soul, which the ancients 
 regarded us an emanation of fire. On 
 some sepulchral lamps we find sculptured 
 the figure of the butterfly, in allusion no 
 doubt to the equally cheerful and elegant 
 imagination of the escape of the spirit, in 
 a more aerial semblance, from its chrysalis 
 state. The early Christians adopted in 
 their monuments this pagan usage, toge- 
 ther with many others, and the lamp has 
 been found in the tombs of saints and mar- 
 tyrs and of distinguished men who em- 
 braced Christianity. In their instances, 
 it was no doubt meant to be still more illus- 
 trative of that divine flame by which they 
 were inspired, and whose inward light 
 guided them through the many savage per- 
 secutions lieaped on the primitive follow- 
 ers of our holy faith. 
 
 We cannot conclude this article without 
 alluding to the exquisite specimens of the 
 shapes of tlie ancient lamps to be found in 
 Mr. Wedgwood's exhibition rooms in St. 
 James's Square. The refined classical 
 taste of that gentleman has rescued these 
 delicious fragments of antiquity from the 
 grasp of the mere antiquarian, and by 
 means of his "so potent art" has multi- 
 plied them in endless copies for the delight 
 and utility of his countrymen. — By the by, 
 we take this opportunity of assuring any 
 of our readers who may not be acquainted 
 witli the place, that they will find an hour 
 very well disposed of in rambling through 
 those rooms, filled as they arc with the 
 most elegant articles of every-day utility 
 (borrowed from antique proportions) of 
 Mr. Wedpvood's peculiar manufacture. 
 
 The principal works to be consulted on 
 the subject of lami)S are those already 
 quoted, of Liceti, of Bellori, and of Pas- 
 seri : Antichita d'Ercolitno,\o]. ix. Lucerne: 
 Unc Dissertation sur une Lampe nnlique 
 irouvSe d Munich en 1753, written by tiie 
 Prince de St. Severe on the questitni of 
 inextinguishable lamps: and the ])rcani- 
 ble of the description of two antique lamps 
 found at Nismes, in tlio second volunu' 
 of Millin's Monumens Jneilils, from which 
 work this article is in a great mcaswre 
 extracted. 
 
 Lanck. [lancia, Lat.] Inurchaiolo^ij. An 
 ofl'ensive weapon, worn !)y the ancient 
 warriors and cavaliers, in tiie form of a 
 half j)ike. The lance consisted of three 
 parts — the siiaft, or iiandle; the wings; 
 and tlie dart. 
 
 i'liny attributes the invention of lances 
 to Ww IClolians; l)ut Varro and Aulus (Jcl- 
 liiissay tiiis instruincntis Spanish ; whence 
 olln IS concludi- tliat the use of it was bor- 
 rowed by the peojile of Italy from tlic Spa- 
 
 LAN 
 
 niards. Diodorus Siculus derives it from 
 the Gaulish, and Festus from the Greek 
 Xoyx'/, which signifies the same. 
 
 The lances used in the times of chivalry 
 were made of a soft and light wood, 
 such as ash or elm. The well-known in- 
 strument called by this name, and used in 
 modern European armies, differs in point 
 of construction, as need hardly be observed, 
 from that above described. 
 
 Landing, [from the verb to land.'] In 
 architecture. That part of a staircase 
 which is level and without steps, serving 
 to connect one flight with another. These 
 divisions, or resting places, afford conve- 
 nient and graceful opportunities for the 
 introduction of something ornamental — as, 
 for instance, a clock or bust. 
 
 Landscape. [/a«(/sc7i«;)e,Dutch.] Inpaint- 
 ing and engrai-ing: The view or prospect 
 of a country extended as far as the eye 
 can reach. Tiiis to an artist, as need 
 scarcely be observed, is one of the richest, 
 the most agreeable, and the most fruitful 
 of subjects. In fact, all the productions 
 both of nature and art enter into this spe- 
 cies of composition — all appertain to tlie 
 studies of the landscape painter. The 
 solitude and horror of rocks ; the coolness 
 and freshness of groves; the bloom and 
 verdure of meadows; streams rapid or 
 tranquil ; the extent of vast plains ; the 
 misty vapour of distance ; the varieties of 
 trees ; the peculiar effects of clouds, with 
 tiieir gorgeous hues, — all these, and a 
 thousand things besides, form his mate- 
 rials, and put to proof his ability. 
 
 We shall not, in this place, enlarge on 
 the present subject, but refer the reader 
 for a fuller treatment of it to our articles 
 Dhawing and Painting. 
 
 Landscape Gardening. This briuich of 
 art allies itself very closely both to paint- 
 ing and architecture. It requires a just 
 and comprehensive eye, and a hand skilled 
 in planning and distribution of parts. 
 Landscape or picturesque gardening is so 
 much the work of fancy, and so inucli de- 
 pends on the situation, or what tiu* cele- 
 brated Mr. Brown was wont to term the 
 cai)ability of tlie place (which word cupa- 
 bilitij was afterwards, from his frequent 
 use of it, engrafted upon his cognomen), 
 tluit no specific regulations can be advanced 
 concerning it. All that can be expected 
 is a few loose hints, from which the man 
 of taste maj improve according to eiri urn- 
 stances. 
 
 The satisfaction we aim at, in laying out 
 gardens, is now justly fimnded on the 
 principles of eoneealed art, which ajqx'ars 
 like nature; but still, whether ingenious 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 contrivances and decorations (altogether 
 artificial) should be so completely laid 
 aside as they are, deserves consideration. 
 The works of the statuary might still be 
 introduced with effect, if well executed 
 and placed in proper situations. A ter- 
 race as a boundary is now seldom formed, 
 but in some situations such an eminence 
 might in several respects be agreeable. 
 
 An ingenious arguer, indeed, in an arti- 
 cle called " Walks I'ound London " in the 
 Literary Pocket Book for 1822, decidedly 
 objects to the present fashion of laying out 
 this kind of gardens in what is called a 
 picturesque, or wild, or natural manner, 
 this being, in his opinion," by no means an 
 improvement on the stateliness of the old 
 English method, which is an imitation of 
 the Dutch without its clipped conceits. 
 
 " To say nothing," proceeds this author, 
 " of the absurdity of being industriously 
 negligent, of making arrangements for ac- 
 cidental effects, or of cultivating little do- 
 mestic wildernesses, a garden is perfect in 
 proportion as it possesses every thing that 
 art, in contradistinction to the untamed ca- 
 prices of nature can do for it, — vride and 
 level terraces, clear perspectives drawing 
 to a minute point. 
 
 shades 
 
 High roord, and walks beneath, and alleys brown," 
 
 fountains, statues, shapely groves, trim 
 arbours, smooth-shaven lawns, &c. (We 
 are speaking, of course, of gardens on a 
 large scale of many acres.) Were it only 
 for the sake of keepiug the keenness of 
 our enjoyment alive for the mighty irre- 
 gularities of Nature, we would wish to 
 have no imitation of them in gardens. Dis- 
 tinction is in itself a great source of 
 beauty. 
 
 " How many things by season season'il are 
 To their right praise, and true perfection." 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 " In the delight arising from the con- 
 templation of uncultivated scenery there is 
 something of melancholy : the mind is ele- 
 vated, expanded, and tasked in specula- 
 tion. But in a garden we seek recreation 
 bodily and mental ; we enter it idly, and 
 are disappointed if we do not find in it 
 luxury and repose. In open Nature there 
 are many unenjoyable parts, — intricacies, 
 sudden obstructions, and places of difiicult 
 access; imitations of all which are to be 
 included in the new system; but in what 
 are stigmatized as formal gardens every 
 portion is dedicated to human pleasure. 
 Nature is trained in happy discipline to 
 be the servant of man. 
 
 " In other things we count Art to excel, 
 If it a docile scholar can appear 
 To Nature, and but imitate her well: 
 It overrules, and is her master here. 
 
 Who would not joy to see his conqaering hand 
 O'er all the vegetable world command ; 
 And the wild giants of the wood receive 
 What law he's pleased to give !" 
 
 Cowley. 
 
 " The old gardeners were, therefore, 
 right in selecting flat spots in which to 
 lay out their plantations, and where tlieir 
 avenues might stretch away uninterrupt- 
 edly ; for there are few objects in Nature 
 finer than those old-fashioned long per- 
 spectives, and few accidental effects more 
 grateful to the eye than remote figures in 
 them, coming, as they must, so palpably 
 in the line of vision, and yet looking so 
 fairy-like in their size and noiseless foot- 
 falls. These are vistas, if we may speak 
 profanely, finer than Nature ever made; 
 nor is any inequality of ground equal to 
 the wide and costly terraces of the old 
 stj'le of gardening, or so fit for the prome- 
 nading o£ those courtly dames who used 
 to undulate along them in all the triumph 
 of their beauty and brocade. The garden 
 festivities in the pictures of WatteauAvould 
 lose nearly all their gtisto were they sur- 
 rounded by anything resembling romantic 
 scenery. Tlie careless, amorous air of the 
 gallants, and the soft figures of the ladies, 
 beautiful as they are, would seem imper- 
 tinent amongst hills and tangled dells; 
 and so would Boccaccio's holiday-party * 
 of " seven honourable ladies and three 
 noble gentlemen," who, in the seclusion of 
 goodly gardens, sing canzonets, and pace 
 dances, and slumber under orange trees, 
 and banquet, and cluster round fountains, 
 and tell the Hundred Tales of the Deca- 
 meron. Groups such as these require the 
 pervading consciousness, indicated by the 
 character of the garden, and always in- 
 cluded by Boccaccio and Watteau, that 
 the mansion, with all its luxuries, is at 
 hand. The ladies must have no fatigue in 
 prospect to daunt the brilliance of their 
 eyes ; no chance of brambles or mire to 
 sully the elaborate polish, or discompose 
 the folds of their alluring satins; no dank 
 overgrowth to mufl!le with cold the tones 
 of their silver voices. 
 
 " It has been observed of Milton that he 
 anticipated the present taste of gardening 
 in his description of Eden: but it should 
 be recollected that Eden was the whole 
 world to Adam and Eve, not a small spot 
 
 * See the delicious inductions to ll:e different 
 books of the Decameron. 
 
 E E 2 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 enclosed out of it, for the purposes of 
 
 careless pleasure. Let us see what his 
 
 taste was when he had to allude to such. 
 
 It is a part of the sublime invocation in 
 
 his Penseroso : 
 
 " And add to tlicse, retired leisure, 
 Tliat in trim gardens takes his pleastirc." 
 
 AFithout going the whole length of the 
 preference avowed by this writer, we 
 think it will at least be admitted that he 
 has made out a strong case, and put it in 
 a powerful way with an attractive tone. 
 In fact, both manners have their peculiar 
 charms, nor should an attachment to tlie 
 one necessarily exclude admiration of the 
 oilier. 
 
 If trees are planted injudiciously, the 
 error is a trifle; but if cut down so, the 
 consequence is serious, and has often been 
 sorely lamented. Extirpation ought there- 
 fore to be well considered before it is 
 adopted, especially on trees about houses, 
 for many dwellings have been tluis too 
 hastily exposed, and deprived of comfort- 
 able shelter and sliade. 
 
 Hilly spots in view of a house should 
 be planted with firs, as fine looking trees, 
 and very hardy. Beecli does well on high 
 ground, particularly if chalky. In low 
 ground (not to mention alders, and that 
 tribe), the birch, and even the oak, should 
 not be forgotten, where the wet does not 
 long stand. 
 
 Around the house, some shady walks 
 ought always to be provided, by thick 
 planting, if not of trees, yet of flowering 
 shrubs and evergreens, among which the 
 laurel will be found the most useful. 
 
 Those who have much space of ground 
 to decorate do well to plant trees and 
 shrubs of every kind, as enlarging the 
 sources of amusement; but if the allot- 
 ment of sj)ace for this purpose is contract- 
 ed, then, of course, tlu)se oidy should be 
 introduced, whicii, by their neat foliage, 
 natural synunetry, and gay flowers, may 
 be truly esteemed ornamental. 
 
 The walks should always be wide, some 
 inclining lo serpentine, and coiilrivcd as 
 niucli as possible on a leNcl, as \\alking 
 up and down hills can hardly be called 
 l)Ieasure. Tliat Ihey may be exiensive, 
 tiiey should skirt the grounds, and seldom 
 go across them. In small pleasure giomids, 
 llic ('dges of the walks should hv regularly 
 planted with flowers, and long ones occa- 
 sionally so, or with dwarf shrubs: and 
 neat sheltered compartments of flowers 
 (every now and then to be met with) ha\e 
 a pretty efl'ccl. Ff the walks are extended 
 lo (libianl plantations of forest trees, e\ cry 
 
 opportunity should be taken of introducing 
 something of the herbaceous flowery kind, 
 which will prove the more pleasing as 
 found in unexpected situations. The outer 
 walk of pleasure grounds and plantations 
 should every here and there break info 
 open views of the country, and to parts of 
 the internal space, made agreeable, if not 
 striking, by some work of art, or decora- 
 tion of nature. 
 
 Water should be introduced in those 
 situations only where it will run itself 
 clear, or may be easily kept so, as likewise 
 in full sight; and some fall of it should be 
 contrived, if possible (with graceful and 
 unstudied effect), for the sake of giving it 
 motion and sound, because a lively scene 
 of this element is always much more plea- 
 sant than a dead one. Near some piece 
 of water, as a cool retreat, it is desirable 
 that there should be some building of the 
 summer-house kind; or a simple rustic 
 arbour, embowered with the woodbine, the 
 sweelbriar, the jessamine, or rose. 
 
 Before the design of a rural and exten- 
 sive garden is put in execution, it ought 
 to be considered, or anticipated, vhat it 
 is likely to prove in twenty or thirty years* 
 time: for it often happens that a design 
 which looks handsome when first planted, 
 and in good proportion, becomes so small 
 and ridiculous in process of time, that 
 there is a necessity either to alter it, or 
 destroy it entirely and so plant it anew. 
 Landscape gardening depends greatly on 
 the form of the ground, and therefore lo 
 shape that, is the first object. Too much 
 plane is to be guarded against; and when 
 it abounds, the eye should be relieved by 
 clumps, or some other agreeable object. 
 Hollows are not easily filled ; and emi- 
 nences are mostly advantageous, in the 
 fornuition of picturesque scenes, in whicli 
 the general principle of omamenla! gar- 
 dening is now almost universally consi- 
 dered to consist. 
 
 In order to plant picturesquely, a know- 
 ledge of the characteristic diflerences of 
 trees and shrtibs is evidently u principal 
 <lualilicatitMi. To range the shnilis and 
 small trees so that they nnilually set olf 
 the beauties and conceal the blemishes of 
 each other; lo aim at no elVects which de- 
 pend on a nicety for their success, and 
 which the soil, the exposure, or the season 
 of the year may destroy; to attend more 
 to the groups than to the iiulivi<luals ; and 
 to regard the whole as a i)lantation, not 
 as a collection of plants -are the best ge- 
 neral rules which can be given concerning 
 them. 
 
LANTERN. 
 
 For several ofthe foregoing observations, 
 we are indebted to the sensible abstract 
 made of this subject in Watkins's Cyclo- 
 paedia. 
 
 Lantern or Lanthorn. [laterna, Lat. 
 lanterne, Fr.] In optics and architecture. A 
 contrivance to carry a candle in ; being a 
 kind of cover usually made of tin, with 
 sashes of some transparent matter, as 
 glass, horn, &c. to transmit the light. 
 
 Different epochs have been assigned for 
 the invention of this instrument. Those 
 who love the marvellous have placed it 
 back even in the fabulous ages, and given 
 the invention of it to Prometheus. All 
 that we can assure ourselves respecting 
 the matter is that its usage is very ancient. 
 Theopompus, a Greek comic poet, toge- 
 ther with Empedocles and Agrigentes, are 
 the first who have spoken of this kind of 
 illumination. In the AntiquMs d'Hercu- 
 luniim, vol. viii. will be found represented 
 a collection of ancient lanterns, one of 
 which, of a round form, was discovered in 
 one of the great roads of Herculaneum, in 
 1760; and another, 1764, at Pompeii, in 
 the vestibule of a house, by the side of a 
 human skeleton. 
 
 The use to which these instruments 
 were put was various, A modern author 
 has stated, without sufficient proof, how- 
 ever, that the games of the Circus at 
 Rome, and the sacred games in Greece 
 were celebrated by this kind of light. 
 Plutarch expressly says, that they were 
 used in augury. It is more certain still 
 that they were common among the mili- 
 tary, and were always carried before any 
 troops who had to march by night. These 
 were borne upon the top of a pike, and 
 were constructed of a fashion to throw 
 light only behind them. 
 
 Dark Lantern. One with only a single 
 opening, which may also be closed up 
 when the light is to be entirely hidden, or 
 opened when there is occasion for its as- 
 sistance to discover some object. 
 
 Magic Lantern. An instrument used to 
 magnify paintings on glaiss, and throw 
 their images upon a white screen in a dark- 
 ened chamber. The lantern contains a re- 
 flector, which is so situated as to have the 
 light of a candle in its focus. On the fire- 
 part of the lantern there is a thick double 
 convex lens, or a plane-convex (usually 
 called a bull's eye) of short focus. The 
 lantern is closed on every side, so that no 
 light can come out of it but what passes 
 through the lens. In the direction of this 
 lens, there is a tube fixed to the lantern, 
 which has a lateral aperture from side to 
 side; through this a glass slider with 
 
 the painted small images is moved in an 
 inverted position. The forepart of the 
 tube contains another sliding tul)e which 
 carries a double convex lens. The effect 
 of those parts is as follows: The thick 
 lens throws a good deal of light from the 
 candle upon the image. And, to increase 
 that light still more, a reflector is very 
 often, but not always, placed on such lan- 
 terns; for as the flame is in the focus of 
 the reflector, the light proceeds in parallel 
 lines from the reflector to the lens. The 
 image being thus well illuminated, sends 
 forth rays from every point, which, by 
 passing through the lens, are conveyed to 
 a focus upon the wall, and form the large 
 images. 
 
 The phantasmagoria is like the magic 
 lantern, only instead of painting the figures 
 on transparent glass, all the glass is 
 opaque, except the figure only, which 
 being painted in tiansparent colours, the 
 light shines through it, and no light can 
 fall on the screen but what passes through 
 the figure. The screen is very thin silk 
 between the spectators and the lantern, 
 and by moving the instrument backwards 
 or forwards, the figures seem to recede 
 or approach. 
 
 Feast of Lanterns in China. A cele- 
 brated feast held on the fifteenth day of 
 the first month, and thus denominated 
 from the immense number of lanterns 
 hung out of the houses, and in the streets, 
 the number of which has been reported even 
 to exceed two hundred millions. On this 
 great occasion lanterns of all prices are 
 exhibited, some of which have been esti- 
 mated at the value of two thousand crowns. 
 Several of their mandarins retrench some- 
 what daily out of the expenses of their 
 dress, equipage, table, &c. to appear the 
 more showy and magnificent in this fa- 
 vourite embellishment. They are adorned 
 with gilding, painting, japanning, sculp- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 The size of many of these lanterns is 
 represented to be quite huge :^some reach 
 nearly thirty feet in diameter. They are 
 constructed so as to resemble halls or 
 chambers ; and two or three such ma- 
 chines together would make a handsome 
 house : so that in China they are able to 
 eat, lodge, receive visits, have balls, and 
 act plays, in a lantern. To illumine them 
 they should have bonfires, but, as that 
 would be inconvenient, they are contented 
 with lighting up in them an infinite num- 
 ber of torches or lamps, which, at a dis- 
 tance, have a beautiful eflect, lu these 
 they exhibit various kinds of shows to 
 divert tlie people. 
 
LAO 
 
 IJesides the enormous machines first 
 meutioned, there is a multitude of others 
 smaller, which usually consist of six 
 faces or lights, each about four feet high 
 and one and a half broad, framed in wood, 
 finely gilt and adorned ; over these they 
 stretch a fine transparent silk, curiously 
 painted with flowers, trees, and some- 
 times with human figures ; the painting is 
 very extraordinary, and the colours ex- 
 tremely bright ; and when the torches are 
 lighted, the appearance is exceedingly 
 striking and lively. 
 
 In architecture the word lantern implies 
 a little dome raised over tiie roof of a 
 building, to give light, and serve as a sort 
 of crowning to the fabric. The same term 
 is likewise used for a square cage of car- 
 pentry placed over the ridge of a corridor 
 or gallery, between two rows of shops (as 
 in the Royal Exchange, London), to illu- 
 mine them. 
 
 The lantern, on ship-board, js a well- 
 known machine, of which there are many 
 in a sliip, particularly for the purpose of 
 directing the course of other ships in a 
 fleet or convoy : such as the poop and top- 
 lantern. 
 
 Laocoon. Ill mythological seulpture and 
 history. A son of Priam and Hecuba, or, 
 according to others, of Antenor or of Ca- 
 pys. Being priest of Apollo, he was com- 
 missioned by the Trojans to oiler a bullock 
 to Nepture to render him propitious. 
 During tiie sacrifice, two enormous ser- 
 pents issued from the sea, and attacked 
 Laocoou's two sons, who stood next to the 
 altar. The father immediately attempted 
 to defend his sons; but the serpents fall- 
 ing upon him, squeezed him in their com- 
 plicated writlies, and he died in tlie great- 
 est agonies. Tiiis punishment was re- 
 ported to have been inllicted on him for 
 dissuading tiie Trojans to bring into the 
 city the fatal wooden horse whicii the 
 Greeks had consecrated to Minerva, as 
 also for his impiety in hurling a javelin 
 against the side of tije horse as it entered 
 witiiin the walls. 
 
 In tlie history of the arts, the Laocoon 
 is a celebrated monument of («reek sculp- 
 ture, executed in marble l)y I'oljdorus, 
 Athenodorus, and Agtsander, liie three 
 famous artists of Rhodes. This relic of 
 aiili(|uity was dis('overed at IJoine, in the 
 coHuiieuc^emcnt of the sixteenth icnliiry, 
 among the ruins of the palace of Titus, 
 and was afterwards deposited in tiu' I'ar- 
 nese j)alace. Laocoon is repri'sentetl 
 Willi his t\\o sons: two hideous serju^uls 
 are clinging round iiis boiiy, gnawing it, 
 and injecting their poison, wiiilo their 
 
 LAP 
 
 gigantic folds envelop also, in the same 
 ruin, the two young men. Virgil has 
 given us the following description of tlie 
 circumstance : 
 
 -. Et primum parva dnoniin 
 
 Corpora natonun serpens amplexus nterque 
 Iinplicat, ct miseros morsu depascitur artns: 
 Post, ipsum, aiixilis subeuntem ac tela ferentcni, 
 Corripinnt, spiri.«que ligant ingeiitibus: ctjain 
 Bis niediiira aiiiplcxi, bis collo tquatnea circiiiu 
 Terga dati, superant capite, et ccr%icibus altis. 
 
 This statue exhibits the most astonish- 
 ing dignity and tranquillity of mind in the 
 midst of the most excruciating torments. 
 Pliny (lib. GG, c. 5) says of it, that it is 
 opus omnibus picture et staturea artis pra- 
 ferendum. 
 
 " The Laocoon," observes Dr. Gillies, 
 in his History of Greece, " may be re- 
 garded as the triumph of Grecian sculp- 
 ture ; since bodily pain, the grossest and 
 most ungovernable of all our passions, and 
 that pain united with anguish and torture 
 of mind, are yet expressed with such pro- 
 priety and dignity, as aflford lessons of for- 
 titude superior to any taught in the schools 
 of philosophy. The horrible shriek wiiich 
 Virgil's Laocoon emits is a proper cir- 
 cumstance for poetry, which speaks to the 
 fancy by images and ideas borrowed from 
 all the senses, and has a thousand ways of 
 ennobling its object; but the expression 
 of this shriek would have totally degraded 
 tiie statue. It is softened, therefore, into 
 a patient sigh, with eyes turned to heaven 
 in search of relief. The intolerable agony 
 of suilering nature is represented in tlie 
 lower part, and particularly in the extre- 
 mities of the body ; but tlie manly breast 
 struggles against calamity. The conten- 
 tion is still more plainly perceived in his 
 furrowed forehead; and his languishing 
 paternal eye demands assistance, less for 
 himself than Air his miserable children, 
 who look up to him for help." 
 
 Lapidary. [Inpidaire, Fr.] In the prejta- 
 Vdtion of f^ I ins for sculpture. An artilicer 
 who cuts precious stones. This art is of 
 great antiquity. 
 
 There are various machine.-* employed 
 in tiie culling of precious stones, acciuding 
 to llieir (juaiily. The (liaiimiKJ, whicli is 
 extreinely hard, is cut in a wheel of soft 
 steel turned by a mill, wilii diamond dust, 
 tempered witli oli\e oil,wliich also serves 
 to ))<iiish it. 
 
 IjApidaky style denotes the style pro- 
 jier for nionumenlal or other inscrijilions. 
 See Aiiniii:\ lAiioN, Ins( itiiTlON. 
 
 Laims La/.u.i. This tiuni is derived 
 iVoMi the word <izul, by whicli the Ara- 
 bians ilcbignji te this substance, the only one 
 
LAR 
 
 among those of the argillaceous kind that 
 has been subjected to the purposes of the 
 graver. It is a species of zeolite, not 
 transparent, and mixed with a small por- 
 tion of gypsum. The specimens of this 
 stone, which are of a fine blue inclining 
 to purple, have obtained the name of orien- 
 tal; but the pale blue is less esteemed. 
 It is not unusually found variegated with 
 yellow, and white shining veins and spec- 
 kles. These appearances have given rise 
 to a notion among the vulgar, that there is 
 a mixture of gold and silver with the 
 stone, but they are, in fact, only marca- 
 sites. 
 
 The lapis laziili derives its greatest 
 value from furnishing the artist with that 
 beautiful colour known by the name of 
 ultramarine. 
 
 This stone is discovered in various 
 countries : those of Asia and Africa, how- 
 ever, greatly surpass, both in beauty and 
 real value, the Bohemian and German 
 sorts, which are too often passed off on 
 the purchaser instead of the former spe- 
 cies. 
 
 LAPITH.E. [Lat.] In the mythology of art. 
 A people of Thessaly, opposed to the Cen- 
 taurs, who had sprung from one common 
 stock with themselves. The occasion of 
 their quarrel is fabled to have been as 
 follows. The chief of the Lapitha? met 
 together to celebrate the nuptials of Peri- 
 thous, one of their number. The Centaurs 
 were invited to partake of this general 
 festivity, which would all have gone off 
 in good feeling and hilarity had not one 
 of the Centaurs, being intoxicated, offered 
 violence to Hippodamia, wife of Peri- 
 thous. The Lapithae resented this insult, 
 and the Centaurs supporting their compa- 
 nions, the misunderstanding became uni- 
 versal, and resulted in blows and blood- 
 shed. Hence arose the subject which has 
 been often treated in so masterly a way by 
 the chisel of the ancients, among the most 
 brilliant instances of which are the various 
 admirable friezes to be found among the 
 Elgin marbles. 
 
 Lararium. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. A sort of oratory, or domestic cha- 
 pel, specially devoted, among the Romans, 
 to the worship of the Lares, or household 
 deities. Every ancient Roman possessed 
 a singular reverence for these family divi- 
 nities, and kept little images of them. 
 The Emperor Alexander Severus had two 
 different lararia: one extremely retired, 
 wherein were deposited the images of his 
 ancestors, also of virtuous princes who had 
 been deified ; the other, less private, was 
 devoted to the reception of images distin- 
 
 LAU 
 
 guished for their superior talent — such, for 
 instance, as Virgil, Cicero, &c. 
 
 Lares, [lar, Lat. from \ap6g, Gr. benig- 
 nant, kind.] In mythological sculpture. This 
 word was derived by Apuleius (De Deo 
 Socratis) from lar familiar is, a kind of do- 
 mestic genii or divinities worshiped in 
 houses, and esteemed the guardians and 
 protectors of families ; supposed to reside 
 more immediately in the chimney corner. 
 
 The lares were distinguished from the 
 penates : as the former were supposed to 
 preside over housekeeping, the servants 
 in families, and domestic affairs ; and the 
 latter were the protectors of the masters of 
 families, their wives and children. Accord- 
 ingly the lares were dressed in short suc- 
 cinct habits, to show their readiness to 
 serve ; and they held a sort of cornucopia 
 in their hands, as a signal of hospitality 
 and good houeekeeping. According to 
 Ovid, there were commonly two of them, 
 who were occasionally represented with a 
 dog at their feet. Apuleius tells us that 
 the domestic lares were no other than the 
 souls of departed persons, who had lived 
 well, and discharged the duties of their 
 station ; whereas, such as pursued a dif- 
 ferent course were vagabonds, wandering 
 about and frightening people, and called 
 larvcB or lemures. The lares were wor- 
 shiped under the figures of little marmon- 
 sets, or images of wax, silver, or earthen- 
 ware. 
 
 The ancients have left various accounts 
 respecting the origin of these deities. 
 Varro and Macrobius say, that they were 
 the children of Mania ; while Ovid repre- 
 sents them as the issue of Mercury and 
 the naiad Lara or Larunda. 
 
 The victim offered to the lares in the 
 public sacrifices was a hog: in private, 
 they tendered them wine, incense, a crown 
 of wool, and a little of what was left at 
 the table. They also were in the habit of 
 crowning them with flowers, particularly 
 the violet, myrtle, and rosemary. Their 
 symbol was a dog, which was usually re- 
 presented by their side, on account of its 
 fidelity, and the service it does to man in 
 watching his house. 
 
 Large. In all the arts. See Grand, 
 Style. 
 
 Laurel, [flaunts, Lat.] In painting and 
 sculpture. The laurel, or bay tree, dedi- 
 cated to Apollo, used in triumphs, and 
 worn by emperors, conquerors, or poets, 
 in garlands. We find it appropriated to 
 tliis latter purpose constantly on a variety 
 of ancient medals. 
 
 Laurentalia. In arcliaiology. See Ac- 
 
 CALLi, 
 
LEA 
 
 Lay-figcre, or Mannikin. In painting 
 and sculpture. A figure of wood, the joints 
 of which are made to play with as muck 
 ease as possible, for the purpose of afl'ord- 
 ing the artist opportunities to judge of the 
 different positicms and effects of the human 
 body. See Costume, Decoration, Dra- 
 pery. 
 
 Lazaretto, [lazzaretto, Italian.] In 
 architecture. An hospital for the reception 
 of such invalids as are sick of contagious 
 disorders. Each ward in these gloomy 
 receptacles is quite isolated, and in them 
 are guarded, during a quarantine of forty 
 days, the contents of such vessels arriving 
 in the Mediterranean from the Levant 
 as are suspected to be tainted with the 
 plague. 
 
 Lead, [laj'c, Sax.] In the arts of statuary, 
 engraving, and numismatics. The heaviest 
 metal except gold and quicksilver, but the 
 softest of all the metals, and very ductile ; 
 it is very little subject to rust, and the 
 least sonorous of all the metals except 
 gold. 
 
 Homer makes scarcely any mention of 
 this metal. Although in the heroic ages 
 they no doubt understood how to distin- 
 guish pewter or tin from lead, yet it does 
 not appear that the points of difference 
 were very clearly defined, since Homer 
 speaks of each indifferently under the 
 same appellation. He often uses the word 
 KaffairtpoQ for the pewter or white lead 
 which the Latins denominated alike stan- 
 num and plumbum. 
 
 It is pretty certain that both lead and 
 tin were employed in extremely remote 
 ages in the fabrication of arms, and above 
 all, in the ornamental parts of them. Ho- 
 mer also alludes to the practice of putting 
 leaden balls at tlie end of fishing lines ; 
 and without doubt they were acquainted 
 with the method of fiattening lead, so flex- 
 ible, so facile is it in its nature. (Jaylus 
 lias demonstrated tliat this proceeding wa3 
 known to the ancient Romans. The cus- 
 tom of writing on lead mounts also into 
 very great antiquity. Fronfinus and Dio 
 Cassius assure us that the Consul Hir- 
 tius, l)usieged in Modena, wrote upon a 
 leaf of lead, respecting his situation, to 
 Decius IJnitus, who replied by tlie sanui 
 means. Pausanias speaks of certain 
 books of Hesiod written upon sheets of 
 lead ; and if we may believe IMiiiy, even 
 j>id)lio acts were consigned to volumes or 
 lea\es of tlie same maferial. 
 
 Till' poets make fre(|uent allusion to 
 leaden i oins. l-'itorini, in his Piomlii An- 
 lichi, lias collected and represented a vast 
 number of monwmeuls of this kind. Cay- 
 
 LEC 
 
 lus conceived them to be all Roman; and 
 thus, according to that writer, those even 
 which represent Egyptian divinities, or 
 are inscribed with Greek characters, are 
 yet to be referred to the times of the Ro- 
 man emperors. Tlie opinion of Ficorini 
 is, that these leaden medals, of which he 
 treats, were circulated in commercial trans- 
 actions ; that they were fabricated for the 
 Saturnalia, and that they were employed 
 as seals; but he imagines, and we think 
 justly, that the extreme malleability of the 
 metal, and its consequent subjection to 
 being falsified, is opposed to the idea of 
 its ever having subsisted as a regular cur- 
 rent coin. 
 
 Statues of lead are very rare, which is 
 somewhat surprising, since the facility of 
 working in this metal must have been so 
 great, and the ancients had such an at- 
 tachment, the Romans particularly, for all 
 species of statuary. This circumstance, 
 however, is capable of explanation by the 
 same consideration — namely, the little 
 consistency and easy alteration of the ma- 
 terial. 
 
 Lectisternium. [Lat. from lectus, a bed, 
 and sternere, to dress.] In archaiulogy. A 
 religious ceremony practised at Rome in 
 seasons of public calamity, such as the 
 plague, and the object of which was to 
 appease the gods. This ceremony con- 
 sisted in a feast which, during several 
 days, was given in the name and at the 
 expense of the republic, to the honour of 
 the principal divinities — such as Jupiter, 
 Apollo, Diana, Ceres, Neptune, &c. They 
 decorated in one of the temples of these 
 deities, and near the altar, a table sur- 
 rounded by couches or beds, covered with 
 rich trappings, and strewed with flowers, 
 upon which they placed the statues of 
 the gods to whom the festival was dedi- 
 cated. 
 
 According to Titus Livius, the first lec- 
 tisternium was celebrated at Rome in the 
 year 3.50 after its foundation. An un- 
 healthy winter ha\ing been ftdlowed by a 
 spring still more pernicious, a plague 
 sprung up, and a great mortality ensued. 
 The evil being without remedy, the senate 
 decreed a consultation of the Ixioks of the 
 Sibyls, and the sibylline duuinvirs report- 
 ed that, in order to conciliate the ungry 
 gods, and arrest the progress of the ma- 
 lady, it was necessary to cslablish a i>ul)lic 
 solemn festival, «»/'ir/iit/i thcmsclfcs were to 
 hi the directors. Thv lectisternium was 
 accordingly set on foot, anil every measure 
 adopted wliich was lield eharaeteristie of 
 pul)lic festivities. Processions were form- 
 ed, hymns chanted, convicts released, &c. 
 
LEV 
 
 &c. Livy does not think proper to state 
 whether these notable means did or did 
 not serve the purpose designed : however, 
 we who live even in the nineteenth cen- 
 tury must not be too sarcastic about the 
 credulity of the ancient Romans, when we 
 reflect on the farces which are acted every 
 now and then in Italy and other Catholic 
 countries. 
 
 The word lectisternium sometimes means 
 the bed itself on which the statue has 
 been described to be placed, and we find 
 it thus represented on a variety of medals, 
 with different figures seated or lying 
 thereon. 
 
 Legend, [legenda, Lat.] In archaiology. 
 The motto or words engraved, in a circu- 
 lar manner, round the head of a personage 
 or other representation upon a medal or 
 coin. The meaning of this term is similar 
 to that of an inscription, but the latter 
 relates chiefly to the writing placed in the 
 middle of the coin, while the legend, as 
 we have just observed, surrounds it. 
 
 Legion, [legio, Lat. from legere, to 
 choose.] In archaiology. A Roman regi- 
 ment of soldiers, consisting of ten compa- 
 nies, or troops, cohortes. The number of 
 men was uncertain — now more, now less, 
 as appears by Livy. If, as Calep. reckons, 
 a legion had been companies, each com- 
 pany five bands, and every band in it 
 twenty-fivTe men ; then, in the whole ten 
 companies there would be but one thou- 
 sand two hundred and fifty men ; whereas 
 some authors have spoken of six thousand, 
 besides horse soldiers. The head oflicer 
 was the tribunus, or colonel. 
 
 The derivation of this word arises from 
 the circumstance of their choosing the 
 young men to be enrolled in the legions 
 by their height and other personal qualifi- 
 cations. We find the names and charac- 
 teristic emblems of different legions upon 
 a great number both of imperial medals, 
 and of colonial ; to account for the for- 
 mer circumstance, we should bear in mind 
 that each Roman imperatoi; or emperor, 
 existed chiefly by the good will and suf- 
 ferance of the soldiery ; while a reason 
 for the appearance of the names, &c. of 
 the legions on colonial medals is to be 
 gathered from the fact of their having 
 been often sent into distant provinces, 
 where they were certain to excite either 
 the love and admiration, or, at all events, 
 the respect of the natives. 
 
 Level, [laepel. Sax.] In architecture, 
 mensuration, &c. The state of a surface 
 which inclines to neither side. An instru- 
 ment wherewith to draw a line parallel 
 to the horizon, by means of which the 
 true level, or the difference of ascent or 
 
 LEV 
 
 descent between several places may be 
 found, for conveying water, and other 
 purposes. 
 
 There are several instruments in use of 
 this description : — namely, the air-levei, 
 the water-level, the refiecting-lerel, the pen- 
 dulum level, the carpenter's or bricklayer's 
 level, the mason's level, &c. 
 
 The air-level is that which shows the 
 line of level by means of a bubble of air 
 enclosed with some liquor in a glass tube 
 of an indeterminate length and thickness, 
 whose two ends are hermetically sealed'. 
 When the bubble fixes itself at a certain 
 mark, made exactly in the middle of the 
 tube, the plane or ruler wherein it is fixed 
 is level. This application of a bubble of 
 air was the invention of Dr. Hooke. 
 
 The water-level shows the horizontal 
 line by means of a surface of water or 
 other fluid, founded on this principle, that 
 water always places itself level or hori- 
 zontally. The most simple instrument of 
 this description is made of a long wooden 
 trough or canal, whose sides are parallel 
 to the base ; so that being equally filled 
 with water, its surface exhibits the line 
 of level. This is the chorobates of the 
 ancients. 
 
 Caiyenter's, bricklayer's, or pavior's le- 
 vel consists of a long ruler, in the middle 
 of which is fitted at right angles another 
 broader piece, at the top of which is fas- 
 tened a plummet, which, when it hangs 
 above the middle line of the second or 
 upright piece, shows that the base or long 
 ruler is horizontal or level. 
 
 The mason's level is composed of three 
 rulers, so joined as to form an isosceles 
 triangle, somewhat like a Roman A : from 
 the vertex of which is suspended a plum- 
 met hanging directly over a mark in the 
 centre of the base, when this is horizontal 
 or level. 
 
 Levelling. The art of discovering a 
 line parallel to the horizon at one or more 
 stations, to determine the height or depth 
 of one place with respect to another. 
 
 Two or more places are on a level with 
 each other when they lie at equal dis- 
 tances from the earth's centre. A line 
 equally distant, at all points, from that 
 centre is denominated the line of true level. 
 Hence it appears that, by reason of the 
 roundness of our globe, that line must be 
 a curve, making part of the earth's circum- 
 ference, or, at least, being parallel to it, 
 or concentrical with it. The usual man- 
 ners of levelling (described in the pre- 
 ceding article) are sufficient for laying 
 pavements or walks, or for conveying 
 water to any small distance, &c. ; but in 
 operations of a more extensive kind the 
 
LIB 
 
 difTercnce behvcen the true and apparent 
 level must be carefully taken into account. 
 — This amounts to somewhere about eight 
 inches in every mile, or four and a half for 
 every hundred yards. 
 
 LiBER.'VLiTY. [liberalitas, Lat.] In emble- 
 matical sculpture. Upon several of the 
 Roman imperial medals, with the epi- 
 graph Liberalitas, we find this quality 
 (as exercised by the emperor towards 
 the people in grants or distributions of 
 .silver or lands), personified by the figure 
 of a female holding in her hand a square 
 tablet, upon which is observed a certain 
 number of characters marking the various 
 sums thus handsomely circulated by the 
 prince to whose reign the coin belongs. 
 
 LiBEiiTY. [libertas, Lat. from liber, free.] 
 In allegorical painting and sculpture. A 
 goddess of ancient Rome, and to whom a 
 temple was consecrated on the Aventine 
 hill, by T. Gracchus, and improved and 
 adorned with many admirable statues and 
 brazen columns by PoUio, and in vyhich 
 was also a gallery for the deposit of the 
 public acts of the state. 
 
 Tliis goddess was commonly represented 
 as a woman in white robes, holding a rod 
 in one hand, and a cap in the other. The 
 cap was, according to Valerius Maximus 
 (v. c. 2. 1. 8. c. G), and other ancient writers, 
 a mark of liberty used on all occasions. It, 
 as well as the rod or wand, referred to the 
 customs used by the Romans in setting 
 their slaves free. The rod was held by 
 the magistrates in the performance of tiiat 
 ceremony, and the cap by the slave, even 
 for some period previous. Sometimes a 
 cat is found placed at tlie feet of tiie deity, 
 lliis animal Ijcing very fond of liberty and 
 impatient when confined. 
 
 Tiu! statues of Liberty were numerous 
 among tiu; ancients, as was also its jicr- 
 sonidcalion on medals. Of llie former 
 kind, that in the Aventine temple before 
 alluded to was a c<)nspicuous instance. It 
 had tlie iicad crowned, and a scej)tre in one 
 hand, while the other held the cap. The 
 former two characteristics, by the by , do not 
 seem to harmonize at all with (he general 
 notion of libtjrty, which is oppciseil to con- 
 straint of all kinds whetlicr real or imi)lied. 
 Tiie cmlilems of Liberty are met with most 
 particularly upon tlu* medals of (iali)a, 
 and (he rt.'ason api)ears (o iw (hat on the 
 <leath of the infamous Nero, the citiz<'ns 
 were full of hope that the repuiilic would 
 be restored, and were seen running in all 
 directions tlirough the streets dcc(Maled 
 with the cap of liberty. One of (ialbu's 
 coins presents a figuri^ of this gitddess in 
 ■ in at(ilud(- siimewliat uiutunmon. She is 
 represented an sluiidiug between two ours 
 
 LIG 
 
 of corn, lifting up her hands towards hea- 
 ven. This is typical of an exhortation to 
 the people to give themselves up to the 
 cultivation of agriculture, since the exe- 
 crable tyrant was dead who had desolated 
 the face of the country. 
 
 LiBURN^l. [Lat.] In archaiology. The 
 name given by the Romans to a species 
 of light vessel, with two sets of rowers, 
 which cut through the water with great 
 rapidity. This name was derived from 
 a nation of Illyria, and the vessel was 
 distinguished by its size and construction, 
 which opposed but little resistance to the 
 liquid element in which it moved. 
 
 Licence, [licentiaj Lat. licence, Fr.] In 
 all the arts. 
 
 Licence tliey mean when they cry liberty. 
 
 This quality is personified by modern art- 
 ists under the figure of a satyr. 
 
 As applied to art in general, licence 
 means any thing opposed to the common 
 rules, or to the history of the subject. See 
 Heresy. 
 
 LiCTOR. [Lat.] In archaiology. A Ser- 
 jeant, beadle, macebearer or verger. A 
 consul had twelve of these officers to go 
 before him: they carried each a bundle of 
 rods (for lesser crimes) bound up with an 
 axe (for capital punishment) which they, 
 at the consul's command, indicted. 
 
 Light, [leahr, Sax.] In painting, draw- 
 ing, and engraving. Light ought to be re- 
 garded as the cause of colour, because all 
 bodies appear to us ctdoured only in pro- 
 portion as they are struck by the light. 
 It results hence that the object which is 
 entirely thrown into shade must necessa- 
 rily appear black whate\ er may be its co- 
 lour at other times when it is struck by 
 rays of light. A plain globe of whatever 
 cohuir, when illuminated by the sun, will 
 display all jiossible shades on that siile 
 which is exposed to the sun's raj s. The 
 point to which the strongest light is di- 
 rected, will exhibit the strongest tinge of 
 colour, and those points which are altoge- 
 ther in shad(! will appear quite black. 
 ISetween these two ext<emes the natural 
 coldur of the globe will exhibit dillerent 
 shades according to its position. The 
 painter must therefore carefully obser\e 
 the action which the light, as it is more or 
 less strong, produces upon each colour: 
 he should relied that the force or intensity 
 of the light is produced by two causes: 
 (list by its absolute quantity ; as f<u- in- 
 stance, the sou is less brilliaul when the at- 
 mosphere is loaded with mists and vapours 
 than when the sky is clear and serene. 
 Another principal point, which ought to 
 occupy tho attention of the artist, is the 
 
LIG 
 
 nature or colour of light, because it has a 
 great iufluence oa the colour of bodies. 
 He ought also to take equal care to ob- 
 serve the influence of light on the chiar' 
 oscuro. A landscape appears altogether 
 different when the light is sensibly changed, 
 and the different objects are seen more or 
 less distinctly. Each scene of inanimate 
 as well as of animated nature should be 
 examined by the artist with the greatest 
 attention, under different aspects of the 
 sky, whether the sun is shining, or the sky 
 charged with lowering clouds and va- 
 pours. He will thus discover that a very 
 strong light, wheu the shadows are not 
 relieved by a strong reflected light, is 
 against the harmony of the picture, be- 
 cause the bright and the shaded spots 
 then seem at a distance to be blots upon 
 it. Certain methods of disposing the ob- 
 jects will prove to him that a weak light 
 renders the picture dull and heavy, and 
 that a light too violent produces little dis- 
 persed clear and sombre masses. The 
 best advice to be given to artists on this 
 subject is to follow the example of Leo- 
 nardo da Vinci, to write down his obser- 
 vations, and to fix them (if one may so 
 speak) by sketches taken whenever he 
 sees a fine effect of light. 
 
 Light is sometimes spread uniformly 
 over all the objects, and at other times the 
 principal and strongest light comes only 
 from one side, while the other is radiated 
 by a much weaker and reflected light. 
 Sometimes the best effect is produced by 
 the light uniformly spread over all the 
 surface of objects : at other times a bor- 
 rowed light is preferable. There are some 
 subjects for which the latter, or to speak 
 more properly a dead light, is almost ab- 
 solutely necessary, such as portraits. 
 
 An accurate observer will perceive that 
 generally a light from above produces the 
 best effect, not only because it throws into 
 greatest clearness the plan on which the ob- 
 jects are traced, and because the shadows 
 are more shortened, but also because their 
 shapes are more elegant than when the 
 light strikes them in an oblique direction. 
 He will have the same occasion to observe 
 this, when any group which forms by 
 itself a complete picture is illumined in a 
 manner the most advantageous by a light 
 which strikes the principal figure through 
 a narrow opening, in that manner that the 
 other objects are only radiated by a re- 
 flected light. 
 
 Sometimes a picture receives light in 
 two different ways, which generally pro- 
 duces a bad effect, and this method should 
 therefore be carefully shunned by the artist. 
 
 LIG 
 
 In that case only, where a side-light should 
 be too brilliant, another, weaker, might be 
 advantageously introduced from the op- 
 posite side. 
 
 To these observations on natural effects 
 of light, the artist should add those which 
 are furnished to him by study of the works 
 of the great masters. He will perceive in 
 those of the elder Venetian school all the 
 advantages and admirable harmony of 
 colours produced by a judiciously modi- 
 fied distribution of light and shade. Va- 
 rious effects of light are likewise, in par- 
 ticular, very splendidly exemplified in the 
 masterly productions of Rembrandt. 
 
 The reader is referred for further infor- 
 mation on this subject to the fourth book 
 of Trattato dell' Arte delta Pittura, by Lo- 
 mazzo; to several chapters of the fifth, 
 sixth, and seventh books of Le Grand 
 Licre des Peintres, by Lairesse ; Le Traite 
 sur la Peinture, by Du Puy de Grez ; the 
 forty-seventh of the Considerations sur la 
 Peinture of Hagedorn ; the third section 
 of L'Acadimie des Arts du Dessin, by 
 Prange; the Dictionnaire de Peinture of 
 Wattelet at the words Conference and Lu- 
 miire, and that of Sulzer, at the word 
 Licht: — together with the various works 
 on Painting of Dandre Bardon, Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, Felibien, &c. 
 
 Lighthouse. In architecture. An edi- 
 fice built upon a promontory or cape on 
 the seacoast, or upon some rock in the 
 sea, and having a great fire on its top in 
 the nighttime, which, being perpetually 
 attended and kept burning by some trust- 
 worthy person, may be seen at a very 
 considerable distance from shore. It is 
 used to direct the shipping on the coast, 
 which might otherwise run aground or 
 steer an improper course when the dark- 
 ness of the night, the uncertainty of cur- 
 rent, &c. might render their point of situa- 
 tion distressingly doubtful. Lamp-lights 
 are, on many accounts, preferable for this 
 purpose to coal fires or candles; and tlie 
 effect of these may be increased by placing 
 them either behind glass hemisjjheres or 
 before properly disposed glass or metal 
 reflectors. 
 
 The present Eddystone Lighthouse, 
 built by the famous Mr. Smeaton, is tlie 
 most celebrated edifice of this kind exist- 
 ing. 
 
 Lightness, [from light.'] In all the arts. 
 That property opposed to densitj', heavi- 
 ness, or clumsiness. In architecture, a 
 building of airy and elegant proportions ; 
 in painting, a picture whose efl'ect is grace- 
 ful, sunny, or lively. In sculpture, in like 
 luftnuer, the word refers itself to delicate 
 
LIN 
 
 rpsulls of the chisel, such, for instance, as 
 the flying drapery of a statue, the leaves 
 of the Corinthian or composite capital, &c. 
 In drawing and engraving, the meaning of 
 this term may be traced in a similar way. 
 
 Limb. [Imi, Sax.] A jointed or articu- 
 lated part of animals. Any given mem- 
 ber. 
 
 Limit, [limite, Fr.] In archniolu!^)/. This 
 word signifies the bound or extremity 
 which separates one country from another. 
 Solon made a law by virtue of which the 
 different lands were distinguished by a 
 boundary space, five feet in width, which 
 became at length imprescriptible. This 
 disposition Avas at first adopted among the 
 Romans, but they abandoned it after 
 awhile and substituted a boundary of 
 stone, or sometimes by raising little hil- 
 locks. In those lands distributed by the 
 Romans to the colonies, the country was 
 equally divided by limits, which consisted 
 of paths or byways, at certain intervals of 
 which were erected piles of stones, which 
 were held sacred and might not be dis- 
 placed without crime. 
 
 Linear, [linearis, Lat.] See Perspec- 
 tive. 
 
 Linen, [llnevs, Lat.] In painting. We 
 do not possess any proof that the artists 
 of antiquity made use of linen to paint 
 upon before the reign of Nero. Since the 
 revival of art, it has been the common cus- 
 tom to use wood or copper: but in recent 
 times this practice has been laid aside, 
 and coarse linen or canvass again substi- 
 tuted. 
 
 Lines, [linca, Lat.] This word does not 
 apply to art so much as to geometry. It 
 means, in general, longitudinal extension. 
 It has dillerent significations, according to 
 the object to which it is directed. In ar- 
 chitecture, the line of level is that parallel 
 to tlie horizon; that of decHcity, a right 
 line which goes from one jxHiit to another 
 situated lower, &c. The line which, in 
 drawing or painting, terminates an object, 
 is denominated contour. 
 
 'J'h(! line of Apcllcs was for a great 
 lengtli of time ti»e admiration of anli(|iiity. 
 Tliis painter having landed at Khodcs, 
 went to visit I'rotogenes, a celel)rat('d con- 
 l<'niporary artist, \\li()ni he knew only by 
 reputation. Ihidid not succeed in seeing 
 him; I)ut having observed in his work- 
 siiop alarg(> pjiiiiicl disp()S('<l for ]iaiiiting, 
 he left a tcsliinoiiy of liis iiaviiig l)ceii tlicrc 
 l)y <lrawiiig witli on(! of tlie coli>urs a line 
 of extreme tenuity. This Iraitwas iinnu-di- 
 ately recognised l)y I'rotogenes, wiio, lu>\v- 
 ever, un\^ illing to l)e outdone, <li'S( lilx-d a 
 line of still liner proportions with unollii r 
 
 LIO 
 
 colour. Apelles returned, and strrprised 
 to find himself surpassed, he surrounded 
 the two lines with one of a third colour, 
 the astonishing delicacy and precision of 
 which left no room for further outdoing. 
 Pliny reports himself to have witnessed 
 this wonderful panel, which is said to 
 have been destroyed in the burning of the 
 palace of Caesar on the Palatine hill. 
 
 Many artists, both ancient and modern, 
 have admitted the existence of what they 
 have chosen to denominate the line of 
 beauty. The Greeks have left several re- 
 cords of their attempt to establish such a 
 theory, and modern artists have actually 
 published their various sentiments and 
 speculations on the subject. Thus our im- 
 mortal Hogarth in his Analysis of Beauty, 
 sought to prove that this line was formed 
 upon the principle of nndultition or icaring. 
 Mengs also found it in a serpentine line ; 
 and Winckelmann, in his Essai sur VAlli- 
 gorie, likewise made a similar choice. But 
 many others have differed from these in 
 various ways ; and the matter is altogether 
 of a fanciful nature, rather than one which 
 can be reduced to the test of any thing 
 like argument. 
 
 Lintel, [lintcau, Fr.] In architecture. 
 That part of the door-frame that is across 
 the door-posts over head. Vitruvius styles 
 it antepagmentum supcrius. 
 
 Lion, [lea, Lat. lion, Fr.] In antique 
 painting and sculpture. The strongest and 
 most magnanimous of fourfooted beasts. 
 The lion was consecrated to Cybele, and 
 we find it sculptured upon many monu- 
 ments erected to that mysterious deity. 
 Sometimes she is borne upon a lion, at 
 others they draw her car, aiul occasionally 
 are found standing by the throne on which 
 she is seated. 
 
 The poets have been large in their ad- 
 miration of the magnanimity and clemency 
 of this beast, Avhich lias by distinction ac- 
 quired the title of cm/"/ •■ aud hence, many 
 princes have been represented symboli- 
 cally by the figure of a lion. In the sacred 
 writings of the Ilebrewf, as well as in the 
 mystic language of the ancient (U-acles this 
 kiiul of representation is maintained, since 
 the lion has always been considered the 
 enihlem of sovereign power and sway. 
 
 The coins and medals of tlie Konian em- 
 perors and others of the ancients abound 
 with introductions of this aninuti; and oc- 
 casioniiily we liiid it usetl as a sy mliol of 
 consecration or of eternity with the legend 
 of Mk.moki.v; /Ivn-.itN.K Soeral princes, 
 both ancient and modern, have caused the 
 artist to introduce the skin of tin- lion's 
 liead drawn over their own helmet, in 
 
LIT 
 
 imitation of some of the figures of Her- 
 cules. 
 
 There remain to us. many beautifully 
 executed antique lions. Among the finest 
 is that placed before the Barberini palace ; 
 another very fine specimen is to be found 
 in the villa Medicis ; a third at Dresden, 
 The two lions of Venice, placed at the entry 
 of the arsenal, are particularly celebrated. 
 These were brought from Athens in the 
 year 1687, when Morosini took possession 
 of that ill-fated city. 
 
 LiSTEL. [lUteau, listel, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. A small square moulding, which 
 serves to crown or accompany a larger, 
 and to separate the flutings in columns. 
 They are also called Annulets, Armiix.e 
 (bracelets), Fillets, and Bands. See 
 those words. 
 
 Litharge. ll7jthargyrum,L,a.t.'] Litharge 
 is properly lead vitrified, either alone or 
 with a mixture of copper. This recrement 
 is of two kinds ; — litharge of gold and 
 litharge of silver. It is collected from the 
 furnaces when silver is separated from 
 lead, or from those where gold and silver 
 are purified by means of that metal. TJie 
 litharge sold in the shops is produced in 
 the copper works, where lead has been 
 used to purify that metal, or to separate 
 silver from it. 
 
 This substance is used by artists to 
 cleanse their oils and render them sicca- 
 tive. 
 
 Lithoglyph. [Xt^^og, a stone, and y\v<pto, 
 I engrave or sculp.] The art of engraving 
 on precious stones, &c. See Engraving, 
 Gem, Glyptic. 
 
 Lithography. [Xi^of, a stone, and 
 ypcKpw, I write.] In tlie art of engraring. 
 A little reflection will suffice to show that 
 this interesting invention, of only a few 
 years' date, is calculated to be in many 
 ways of the highest possible utility. The 
 facility with which, through its medium, 
 any thing whatever in the shape of writing 
 or pictorial display can be multiplied is 
 truly astonishing. By means of it the pain- 
 ter, the sculptor, the architect, are enabled 
 to hand down to posterityas many facsimiles 
 of their original sketches as they please. 
 The collector or antiquarian is enabled to 
 multiply his originals, and the amateur 
 th^ fruits of his leisure hours. The por- 
 trait painter can gratify his patron by sup- 
 plying him with as many copies as he 
 wishes to have of a successful likeness. 
 Men in office may obtain copies of the most 
 important despatches or documents, with- 
 out a moment's delay, and without the 
 necessity of confiding in the fidelity of 
 
 LIT 
 
 secretaries and clerks; whilst the mer- 
 chant and the man of business, to whom 
 time is often of the most vital importance, 
 can, with similar promptitude, preserve 
 what copies they may require, of their 
 tables or accounts. 
 
 The invention of the art of lithography, 
 or engraving on stone, is claimed by a 
 German of the name of Senefelder, who 
 describes it as " a branch of a new method 
 of printing or engraving differing in its 
 fundamental principles from all other me- 
 thods now in use, and distinguished by 
 the name of chemical printing. 
 
 " The chemical process of printing (pro- 
 ceeds this artist) requires that the lines 
 and points to be printed ought to be co- 
 vered with a liquid, to which the ink, con- 
 sisting of a homogeneous substance, must 
 adhere, according to its chemical affinity 
 and the laws of attraction, while at the 
 same time all those places that are to re- 
 main blank must possess the quality of 
 repelling the colour. These two condi- 
 tions, of a purely chemical nature, are 
 perfectly attained by the chemical process 
 of printing ; for common experience shows 
 that all greasy substances, such as oil, 
 butter, &c. or such as are easily soluble in 
 oil, as wax, bitumen, &c. do not unite with 
 any watery liquid, without the interven- 
 tion of a connecting medium ; but that, on 
 the contrary, they are inimical to water, 
 and seem to repel it. The principal dis- 
 solving or uniting liquid for the above- 
 mentioned substances is alcali, which, by 
 proper management, forms a sort of soap 
 soluble in water. 
 
 " Upon this experience rests the whole 
 foundation of the new method of printing, 
 which, in order to distinguish it from the 
 mechanical methods, is justly called the 
 chemical method ; because the reason why 
 the ink, prepared of a sebaceous matter, 
 adheres only to the lines drawn on the 
 plate, and is repelled from the rest of the 
 wetted surface, depends entirely on the 
 mutual chemical affinity, and not on me- 
 chanical contact alone. 
 
 " It might perhaps be objected that in 
 the other methods (namely, letter-press 
 and copper-plate printing), the colour ad- 
 heres to tlie lines which are to be printed 
 from the very same cause ; since it is a 
 well known law that water and oil adhere 
 to all bodies in a perfectly dry state. But 
 the case is not the same with fluids and their 
 mutual effect, and this constitutes the es- 
 sential difference between the former and 
 this new method of printing. A dry plate 
 would every where imbibe the colour ; but 
 
LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 the surface of the plate being sufficiently 
 wetted, it takes the colour only on those 
 places that are in a state the reverse of 
 wetness. The repelling, therefore, of the 
 colour from all those places that are to 
 remain blank is the novelty in the whole 
 process. 
 
 " It is not however sufficient, in order 
 to print chemically, to make certain spots 
 of the plate greasy, and others wet; water 
 of itself being, when applied to most of 
 the substances used for plates, of insuffi- 
 cient power to act as a means for repelling 
 the colour from all the places in which 
 it ought not to be. In siliceous or porcel- 
 laneous substances, such as glass, china, 
 and clay slate, pure water might be suffi- 
 cient ; but then the slight power of adhe- 
 sion, and tenacity of greasy ink, when ap- 
 plied to these plates, is another obstacle 
 to the taking a considerable number of im- 
 pressions from them : however, in case of 
 necessity, this obstacle may be removed, 
 in part, by the use of very hard sub- 
 stances, which soon drj^ ; such, for instance, 
 as linseed-oil varnish, mixed with a great 
 deal of sulphate of zinc. But in those 
 substances which powerfully attract the 
 ink, as, for instance, metals, wood, calca- 
 reous stone, artificial stone, paper, &c. it 
 is necessaiy to prepare the surface of the 
 plate so, that in those places which are to 
 remain blank, it may reject, as if from 
 aversion, the colour, and consequently en- 
 tirely change its nature. 
 
 " The chemical process of printing is 
 not only applicable to stone, but likewise 
 to metals, &c. and lithography, therefore, 
 is only to be considered as a branch of the 
 more general chemical process of printing. 
 
 " Amongst the different materials ap- 
 plicable to this new method of printing, 
 the calcareous slate occupies the first 
 place. It possesses not only a strong ten- 
 dency to combine with unctuous substances, 
 and to retain thcni obstinately, but it like- 
 wise possesses the power of absorbing 
 bodies (tf a diflerent nature, such as aque- 
 . oiis fluids : so that the stone, thus inijireg- 
 natod with them, Avill repel oleaginous 
 and unctuous bodies. 
 
 " This excellent quality, together with 
 the cheapness and facility wifh which 
 these stones could be procured in Bavaria, 
 and the advantage of their being easily 
 rendered fit for use, deternrmcd nie to 
 overlook the few defects or inecmveni- 
 ences they presented, such as their heavi- 
 ness anil occupying considerable room, 
 and Ihcii not unfrequent difVerenrc in qua- 
 lity, and induced me (o \ise tlicni, as the 
 
 principal material for my various experi- 
 ments, the successful result of which has 
 now established this my invention as a 
 new art. 
 
 " Since the art of lithography has risen 
 to considerable celebrity, attempts have 
 been made to discover the same species of 
 stone, or one resembling it, and possessed 
 of the same qualities, in other countries ; 
 and in England, France, and Italy, as well 
 as of late in Prussia, these attempts have 
 been successful." The author, however, 
 speaks in another part of his book, of cotn- 
 position stones, which he describes as ad- 
 mirably calculated for the purposes of 
 lithographic engraving. 
 
 " Since the year 1809 (says M. Senefel- 
 der) I have devoted all my leisure to tlie 
 improvement of lithography, and to the 
 reducing of all operations in its different 
 branches to the most simple and certain 
 principles. Thus I have, by numberless 
 experiments, succeeded, for instance, in 
 simplifying the manner of transferring from 
 paper, upon which drawing or writing is 
 previously executed with prepared ink ; 
 and particularly in transferring leaves of 
 old prints or old books to stone, by which 
 in the most easy manner lithographic ste- 
 reotj'pes may be obtained. Such progress 
 has also been made in printing in colours, 
 that I produce not only coloured prints, 
 but likewise copies so like oil paintings, 
 that it is impossible to discover any differ- 
 ence between these copies and the original 
 pictures. I farther discovered a new me- 
 thod of printing playing cards, tapestry, 
 and even calico, by means of which two 
 persons in one day can print two thousand 
 pieces of the size of folio sheets, even if 
 the pattern should consist of a hundred or 
 more different colours." 
 
 He describes the following methods as 
 having been introdticed by him during 
 this ])eri()d : — the engraved chalk manner, 
 the dotted manner, some new kinds of 
 aquatint, the transfornmtion of the raised 
 or relief manner into tlie engraved, and 
 rice versa, and a new method of writing 
 printed characters, by means of a machine, 
 for sjilendid works. 
 
 The art of litliography, rude liki- all 
 otiiers in its commeiu'enu'nt, has unques- 
 ti(inal)ly been advanced to a very high 
 degree of !)cauly and polish. The prescnf 
 writer has seen many engravings in this 
 style i)ossessing a higli finish, an exquisite 
 softness, and abundant spirit, and he can- 
 not help noticing, as an instance, a collt>c- 
 tion of anatomical engrav ings, of u recent 
 <lale, published at Paris, but after whose 
 
LITHOGRAPHY. 
 
 drawings he does not on the instant re- 
 member. 
 
 It is curious to trace an invention of 
 such magnitude and of so extremely po- 
 pular a nature to its earliest stage. M. 
 Senefelder's first idea was to engrave let- 
 ters in steel, stamp these matrices in forms 
 of hard wood, and thus make a sort of ste- 
 reotype composition, from which impres- 
 sions could have been taken in the same 
 manner as from a wooden block. But he 
 was compelled to relinquish this plan, for 
 want of proper tools and sufficient skill in 
 engraving on steel. 
 
 He represents the next plan which oc- 
 curred to him as having been to compose 
 a page of letter-press, in common printing 
 characters, to form a cast of this composi- 
 tion in a soft manner, and by taking ano- 
 ther cast from this, to obtain a sort of ste- 
 reotype frame. This experiment, he says, 
 did not wholly disappoint his expecta- 
 tions. He composed a kind of paste of 
 clay, fine sand flour, and pulverized char- 
 coal, which, mixed with a little water, 
 and kneaded as stiffly as possible, gave a 
 very good impression of the types ; and in 
 a quarter of an hour became so hard that 
 he could take a perfect cast from it in 
 melted sealing-wax by means of a hand- 
 press. He subsequently applied printing 
 ink to this stereotyped block in the usual 
 manner, thus obtaining a perfectly clear 
 impression from it. By mixing a small 
 quantity of pulverized plaster of Paris 
 with tlie sealing wax, the composition be- 
 came much harder than the common type- 
 metal of lead and antimony ; and to the 
 invention of thus forming a sort of stereo- 
 type tables, nothing was wanting but a 
 few preparatory improvements, and a small 
 stock of types ; but the ingenious artist, 
 finding these difficult to procure, aban- 
 doned this plan, and adopted another 
 which he had just hit on, and which was 
 no other than to learn to imitate the printed 
 characters very closely in an inverted 
 sense : to write these with an elastic steel 
 pen on a copper-plate covered with etch- 
 ing ground, to bite them in, and thus to 
 take impressions from them. 
 
 At this period of the invention, the au- 
 thor's attention seems to have been fortui- 
 tously directed to a fine piece of Kellheim 
 stone, which he had purchased for the 
 purpose of grinding his colours. It oc- 
 curred to him that by covering this plate 
 with a peculiar ink he had composed, he 
 should find it as serviceable as copper or 
 tin plates for his exercises in writing back- 
 wards : but having until then seen nothing 
 but very thin plates of this stone, he had 
 
 no conception that he should be enabled 
 to take impressions from them, as they 
 would not resist, without breaking, the 
 pressure necessary for that purpose : how- 
 ever, being informed by a stone-mason that 
 he could procure these plates from one to 
 eight inches thick, he began to imagine 
 the possibility of using them for the im- 
 pressions likewise ; but before this could 
 be done, it was absolutely necessary first 
 to discover a method of giving a higher 
 polish to the stone, or to prepare a colour 
 that could be better wiped oft' the stone 
 than the common printer's ink ; for the 
 application of which the stone never ad- 
 mits the requisite polish; and M. Sene- 
 felder supposes this to be the reason why, 
 the stone having not long before been used 
 by engravers for etchings, as a substitute 
 for copper, the attempt did not prOve suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 Having invented a colour calculated to 
 answer his purpose, M. Senefelder pur- 
 sues his interesting experiments until a 
 circumstance of a very trivial nature ap- 
 pears to have let in fresh light upon him, 
 and to have given actual birth to the new 
 discovery. 
 
 " I had just succeeded in my little labo- 
 ratory in polishing a stone plate, which I 
 intended to cover with etching ground, in 
 order to continue my exercises in writing 
 backward, when my mother entered the 
 room, and desired me to write her a bill 
 for her washerwoman. I happened not 
 to have even the smallest slip of paper at 
 hand, as my little stock had been entirely 
 exhausted by taking proof impressions 
 from the stones ; nor was there even a 
 drop of ink in the inkstand. As the mat- 
 ter would not admit of delay, and nobody 
 was at hand to send for a supply of the 
 deficient materials, I resolved to write the 
 list with my ink (prepared with wax, soap, 
 and lampblack) on the stone which I had 
 just polished, and from wliich I could copy 
 it at leisure. 
 
 " Some time after this I was just going 
 to wipe this writing from the stone, when 
 the idea all at once struck me to try what 
 would be tlie effect of such a writing with 
 my prepared ink, if I were to bite in the 
 stone with aqtia fortis ; and whether, per- 
 haps, it might not be possible to apply 
 printing ink to it, in the same way as to 
 wood engravings, and so take impressions 
 from it. I immediately hastened to put 
 this idea in execution ; surrounded the 
 stone with a border of wax, and covered 
 the surface of it, to the height of two 
 inches, with a mixture of one part of aqua 
 fortis and ten parts of water, which I left 
 
LITHOG 
 
 standing five minutes on it; and on exa- 
 mining tlie etfect of this experiment, I found 
 the writing elevated about a tenth part of 
 a line, or the hundred and twentieth part 
 of an inch. Some of the finer, and not 
 sufiiciently distinct lines had suffered in 
 some measure, but the greater part of the 
 letters had not been damaged at all in 
 their breadth, considering their elevation ; 
 so that I confidently hoped to obtain very 
 clear impressions, chiefly from printed 
 characters, in which there are not many 
 fine strokes. 
 
 "I now proceeded to apply the printing 
 ink to the stone, for which purpose I first 
 used a common printer's ball : — but, after 
 some unsuccessful trials, I found that a 
 thin piece of board, covered with fine 
 cloth, answered the purpose perfectly, and 
 communicated the ink in a more equal 
 manner than any other material I had be- 
 fore used. My farther trials of this me- 
 thod greatly encouraged my perseverance. 
 The application of tlie printing ink was 
 easier than in the other metliods, and I 
 could take impressions with a fourth part 
 of the power that was requisite for an en- 
 graving, so that the stones were not at all 
 liable to the danger of breaking: and, 
 which was of the greatest moment to me, 
 this method of printing was an entirely 
 new invention, wliich had occurred to no- 
 body before." 
 
 An ingenious practiser in this art has 
 favoured us with tlie following informa- 
 tion : 
 
 The size of the stone used for lithogra- 
 phic purposes must vary in proportion to 
 the nature of tiie work it is destined to 
 receive, and the tliickness of it in pro- 
 portion to its size : two inches, or from 
 that to two inches and a half, is a fair 
 average thickness. These stones are not 
 calculated to bear rough usage, since, in 
 despite of their hard (juality, they are 
 liable to break. Clialk tlrawiugs require 
 the best and hardest stones, and the coarser 
 sort of pen and ink drawings may be exe- 
 cuted upon tiiosf! of irregular surface and 
 firmness. All must be carefully ijolislicd 
 before they are in any way fit for use : tlie 
 method of doing whiciv is with a substan- 
 tial ruler of brass or ironcalifd a straigiit 
 edge. Tiiis is passed over the surface of 
 the stone in all directions, and if it touclies 
 eacli i)ortion e(|ually, llu; artist may feel 
 ('(inlidctil thill Ills iiiatiM'ial is so far good. 
 Any hollows, liow«!ver, (iiat may be found 
 in\ tlic surface? may b(! removed by rubbing 
 it will* a coarse-grained sand or pumice 
 fitone. 
 
 The stone tlius prepared niiisl be put on 
 
 RAPHY. 
 
 a steady table (with a horizontal inclina- 
 tion), and thinly covered with fine sand, 
 mixed with soap and water. Another 
 stone being laid upon the first, and moved 
 up and down in dilferent directions, fresh 
 sand and water must be now and then ap- 
 plied, by which means the surfaces of both 
 stones are levelled and polished at the 
 same time. This, however, must be cau- 
 tiously managed ; since, in moving one 
 upon the other, if the upper stone should 
 unfortunately exceed the surface of the 
 under one, the former will become con- 
 cave and the latter convex : the relative 
 situations of the two stones should there- 
 fore be occasionally changed. At inter- 
 vals, the stones should be examined with 
 the ruler to ascertain their advances to per- 
 fection ; and after awhile the hand of the 
 artist will become sufficiently experienced 
 for that purpose. Various chemical pro- 
 cesses have been introduced wherewith to 
 prepare the stone for the due reception 
 of the ink. 
 
 Two great styles, or branches of the 
 art of lithography have obtained :— namely, 
 the elevated and the incised or enp:i-itved: in 
 the first style, all those parts of the sur- 
 face of the stone that are covered by a 
 greasy ink resist the action of tiie acid 
 poured over the whole, and by virtue of 
 which the other parts of the surface be- 
 come corroded; they stand, therefore, 
 higher than the latter, as being elevated 
 above the plane surface of the stone. — In 
 the second, or incised style, each of those 
 traced lines, which are to yield the im- 
 pression, is engraved into the surface of 
 the stone by means of a sharp needle, or 
 bitten into it by the action of an acid. 
 
 Each of these styles has its peculiar ad- 
 vantages ; tiie elevated manner allows of 
 more promptitude in taking the impres- 
 sions, and of a great many more of tliem 
 being taken ; while the incised manner 
 admits of a iiigliei degree of delicacy and 
 expression. 
 
 The following is an enumeration of the 
 dilferent inslrumenis i)rincipally necessary 
 in liliiograpiiy : 
 
 A steit pen : hruxhes for cleaning, biting 
 in, and colouring the stones: etchinii nee- 
 dles ; and a draieins^ and ropiiint; maehine. 
 
 We cannot conclude our brief nienlion 
 of this novel, useful, and curious style of 
 engraving williout earnestly referring our 
 readers (mid parliciilarly every stuih'iil in 
 art), to IVl. SenelVlder's valuable and in- 
 teresting work entilled, .1 I'dniplele Course 
 of lAthofirajdtij, [luhlished by Mr. .\cker- 
 niaiiii, lo \\liiih we are iiidel)ted for a con- 
 siderable part of tiie foregoing information. 
 
LOB 
 
 LiTHOLOGY. [Xi'^of, a stone, and Xoyoc, 
 knowledge.] In the history of art. The 
 science of understanding the varieties of 
 precious stones, very necessary both to 
 the antiquary and gem fancier. We may 
 also include imder this term an acquaint- 
 ance with the different kinds of marble, 
 an acquirement of much greater utility, 
 and which every artist should obtain in 
 some degree. 
 
 LiTHosTROTON. [Xi^oc, a stoue, and <7rpw- 
 vivf.u, to pave.] In archaiology. We apply 
 this Greek term to a species of mosaic, con- 
 sisting of pieces of marble of a certain size. 
 The Romans designated it by the words 
 opus sectile. This kind of mosaic had very 
 probably some analogy to that now called 
 Florence mosaic. Another variety had the 
 name of opus tesselatum, or vermiculatum. 
 
 Litter, \litiere, Fr.] In archaiology. A 
 sort of vehiculary bed. A noble couch or 
 chair wherein the Roman patricians were 
 wont to be borne about by their servants, 
 particularly on solemn public occasions, 
 such as triumphal pomps or religious cere- 
 monies. These litters were mostly pro- 
 vided with an awning or canopy to pre- 
 serve their occupiers at once from the heat 
 of the sun and the impertinence of the ge- 
 neral gaze. 
 
 LiTTERATA. [Lat. from litera, a letter,] 
 In the history of antique art. We give this 
 name to such monuments as are accompa- 
 nied by inscriptions. 
 
 Little, [litel. Sax. leitels, Gothic] In 
 all the arts. This word is commonly used 
 in a depreciating sense, implying that the 
 artist has failed in producing the desirable 
 effect. 
 
 Lizard, [lisarde, Fr.] In ancient sculp- 
 ture and engraving. An animal resembling 
 a serpent with legs added to it. The most 
 curious varieties of this animal are the 
 crocodile, the chamelion, and the salaman- 
 der. The natural phenomenon of the cha- 
 meleon changing its colour according to 
 being placed in different positions of light 
 is well known. The salamander has been 
 reported to be able to endure fire without 
 injury. This notion, however, is unfound- 
 ed, and probably proceeded from its pos- 
 sessing a power of exuding, in any state 
 of irritation, a white and glutinous sub- 
 stance, which would obviously tend to 
 render the application of heat less imme- 
 diately destructive to it. 
 
 We find these animals often represented 
 on ancient coins and medals. 
 
 Lobby. [Zaufte, German.] In architecture. 
 An open space surrounding any range of 
 seats or chambers, or the boxes of a thea- 
 tre. A small hall or waiting room. Also, 
 
 LOC 
 
 an entrance into any principal apartment, 
 when there is a considerable space be- 
 tween that and a portico or vestibule, and 
 the length or dimensions will not permit 
 it to be regarded as a vestibule or ante- 
 chamber. See Antechamber, Hall, Ves- 
 tibule. 
 
 Locality, [from local {localis, Lat.) per- 
 taining to a place.] In all the arts. That 
 which relates to any peculiar nation, peo- 
 ple, town, &c. Some artists, and those 
 perhaps the most illustrious, have divested 
 themselves of all nationality of this kind, 
 as, for instance, the divine Raffaelle, not 
 to mention the great names of antiquity — 
 the artists of the Apollo, of the Venus de 
 Medicis, of the Laocoon, &c. On the other 
 hand, very eminent men have submitted to 
 the trammels of locality, and amongst the 
 chief of them may be cited Rubens, whose 
 figures are all completely Dutch, more 
 particularly his women. The same obser- 
 vation will hold respecting almost every 
 practiser of the Flemish school, not only 
 with reference to their human figures, but 
 to the description of landscape painted by 
 them ; nor are the Italian masters exempt 
 from it : we will instance Paul Veronese, 
 almost the whole of whose individual 
 figures bear the appearance of noble Ve- 
 netians. Exquisite specimens of perfect 
 freedom from this kind of locality are to 
 be found in the landscapes of Claude Lor- 
 raine, of the Poussins, of Salvator Rosa, 
 &c. 
 
 This term applies, and, as will be obvi- 
 ous, should most completely apply to por- 
 trait-painting. Here the artist should be 
 careful not only to transmit to his canvass 
 the peculiar features of his subject, but to 
 preserve the costume and general air pro- 
 per to the country of which he may be a 
 native. Here, however, there is likewise 
 a vicious locality to be guarded against — 
 namely, mannerism in the artist's own 
 style, or certain affectations of dress, &c. 
 which, although probably they may please 
 at the moment, soon become obnoxious to 
 ridicule. 
 
 Lock, [loc. Sax.] In architecture. A 
 well known instrument used for fastening 
 doors, chests, &c. and generally opened 
 by a key. 
 
 In remote times they had not acquiied 
 the knowledge of this kind of safeguard, 
 and were without any other means of se- 
 curity than what was afforded by a cord, 
 the knot of which did the office of our 
 locks. The inconvenience and unsatisfac- 
 tory nature of this fastening soon, as may 
 be imagined, became apparent: and the 
 first substitution for it consisted of a trans- 
 
 K F 
 
LOT 
 
 Terse woodeu bolt, which slipped, no 
 doubt, into rin<is of iron. To this suc- 
 ceeded the LacedcEinonian lock, which was 
 of a construction somewhat more compli- 
 cated, and in course of time, through vari- 
 ous improvements, this necessary instru- 
 ment acquired that degree of perfection 
 which is attached in the present day to the 
 invention of the Bramah lock. 
 
 Lodge, [logbs, Fr.] In architecture. A 
 small house in a park or forest. Any 
 small house appendant to a greater: as 
 the porter's lodge. 
 
 LuGEiON. [Xoyt'iov, Gr.] In architecture. 
 The Greeks designated thus the prosceniion, 
 which the Latins expressed by the word 
 pulpifum. See Proscemlm. 
 
 LosANGE. [Fr.] hi the art of co7istruc- 
 tion. Millin defines this to be a figure of 
 four sides, with two acute and two obtuse 
 angles. 
 
 Lotus. [Xorug, Gr.] In mythological his- 
 torij and sculpture. " The lote tree ; of the 
 fruit whereof if a man do eat, straigiit he 
 forgets his own counti-y : a pleasant fruit 
 like a cherry, of the bigness of a bean, and 
 yellow, which grows in Afric." 
 
 Thus says a quaint but excellent old 
 writer: and it is certain that no plant was 
 so highly esteemed as this was by the an- 
 cient Egyptians, or so much used by them : 
 and the various errors committed in treat- 
 ing of it prove how advantageous a know- 
 ledge of natural history must be to every 
 cultivator of the fine arts. 
 
 The fabulous history of the lotus tree 
 has of course been long since exploded; 
 but the honours and veneration whicli it 
 has received, not only in Egjpt but also 
 throughout the East Indies, render it a 
 curious object of interest and research. 
 
 Four trees have been entitled lotus by 
 the ancients: and live otlier plants like- 
 wise received tiie same name. These lat- 
 ter are : mjmpluca lotus, mjmpha-a ndumho, 
 mjmpluca cairulea, arum cotocusia, and tr{/'o- 
 lium melilotus: the first mentioned of these 
 is white; its exterior petals alone being a 
 little rosy at tiieir extremili(>s; the second 
 is of a flesh colour; the third blue. The 
 leaves of the nympha'a lotus are orbicular 
 and a little indented ; tliosc^ of the ni/m- 
 pliaa ndumho are j)erfect in their outline 
 and generally closed; while the leaves of 
 Ihv nymiihaacurulea are somewhat sinuous, 
 as appears by tlie representations given of 
 it by M. Savigny. 
 
 The lotus rose, or fnjmphera nelnmbo, is 
 very faithfully depicted upon llie I'ales- 
 trine mosaic, of which Harlhc leniy hiis af- 
 forded an explanation in tiie Mimoires de 
 V Academic den Inscriptions ,f dts Hiltrs 
 
 LUS 
 
 Lettres. The fruits, the flowers, the leayes, 
 are all to the life. They float on the sur- 
 face of the water, upon, a lake on which 
 several vessels appear to be glancing about 
 during a fete. This delineation reminds 
 one of a passage of Strabo, who says that, 
 for diversion, it was customarj- to go in 
 boats on the lakes, which were covered 
 with " beans," and that they " sheltered " 
 themselves with the leaves of this plant. 
 
 The reader who is desirous of further 
 information on this interesting topic may 
 obtain it by reference to the following 
 works, independently of engravings of the 
 ancient monuments which bear its figure, 
 of the classic writers, or of general trea- 
 tises on botany. — Memoire snr le Lotus, by 
 Mahudel, in the Mhnoires de VAcadhnie 
 de Belles Lettres, torn. 2; Me moire sur Us 
 differentes especes de Lotus, by IVL Desfon- 
 taines, in the ISUmoires de I'Acadhnie de 
 Science, and in the Journal de Physiqtw ; 
 Antiquitatum Botanicarum, specimen pri- 
 mum, auctore Sprengel, Hahe, 1794, 4to.; 
 Description du Tsymphira Carulea, by Ju- 
 lius Ca?sar .Savigny, in the Annales du 
 Mush d'Histoire Naturelle, lom. i. p. 3CG, 
 and Obseifations sur le Lotus d'.Egypte, by 
 Kaffeneau Delille, tom. i. p. 372. 
 
 Li'STRATiON. [lustratio, Lat.] In archaio- 
 logy. A sacred ceremony used among the 
 Greeks and Romans, and accompanied by 
 sacrifices. They purified thus their towns, 
 fields, flocks, houses, soldiers, &:c. These 
 lustrations were performed either by fire, 
 burning of perfumes, or by the sprinkling 
 of water upon the objects to be purified. 
 
 Upon a coin of an ancient Roman fa- 
 mily, entitled Postumius, we find a man 
 robed, and holding a laurel branch in one 
 hand, with wliich it was customary to per- 
 form the sprinkling. The lustration of 
 infants, among (lie Romans, is represented 
 in a curious manner upon a medallion 
 of Lucilla, wife of the Emperor Lucius 
 Verus, which was published by Vaillant. 
 AVe observe Lucilla herself, standing, hold- 
 ing a branch of laurel. A priestess is on 
 her knees beside a stream or basin of wa- 
 ter, near which is also a child half naked. 
 
 The following worksmay be consulted on 
 this sul)jeit.- — Lonieieri/r Lustrationibus, of 
 which the second edition, with additions, 
 api)eared at Zutphen in tlie year 1700, in 
 Jlo. Tlu' sixth ( hapter of the work of the 
 Jesuit Peter Taflin, dc Anno scculuri ; tlie 
 eleventii ciuipter of the work </<• Siii-rificiis, 
 by J. Saubert; Jer. Holl'nian, /><• Lu.s 
 Irnndi I'urgundique reterum (uiililium I^i- 
 tibus circa A<iuam obscrratis, W iltenberg, 
 KiOO; J. I'. Hartner, Dc Aqui] lustrali 
 ntrrum Ccntiliuiti, .lenn, 16S7 ; (Mirist. 
 
MAC 
 
 ('lenientinus, De Lustrafione Hoininum 
 per Ignem, Havuiae, 1692; Magn. Dau. 
 Omeis, De E.rpnfionibus apud veferes Gm- 
 tilcsUsitatis, Aldorf, 1700; Two Disserta- 
 tions by Joh. Godof ; Lesclinert, De Lvs- 
 trationibns veterum Gentilium pracidaneis, 
 Witteb. 1709. 
 
 LiSTRE. [Fr.] A kind of chandelier sus- 
 pended by a cord or cliain from the cieling, 
 which was the fashion in which the Ro- 
 
 M A (' 
 
 mans used their lamps. This elegant 
 piece of furniture is often introduced in 
 public places, such as churches, theatres, 
 &C. and is sometimes made of bronze, 
 sometimes of gilt rnetal, and sometimes 
 (its most beautiful material) of crystal. 
 
 Lysicrates. [Gr.] /w architecture. The 
 choragic monument of, commonly called 
 the Lantern of Demosthenes. See Cho- 
 ragic. 
 
 M 
 
 Macedonia. [Macf^oj/ta, Gr.] In ancient 
 modelling and sculpture, and in the history of 
 the arts. A large country of Greece, con- 
 taining seveial provinces. It is now all 
 subject to the Turks. Macedonia is re- 
 presented upon various medals with a 
 whip or rod in her hand, either because 
 her inhabitants paid particular adoration 
 to the sun, wliich is, itself, often thus 
 figured on ancient coins, or because the 
 country produced excellent horses, or, 
 finally, because the men were celebrated 
 as skilful charioteers. The medals of this 
 nation bear also the club of Hercules, from 
 whom the Macedonian monarchs boasted 
 themselves to be derived : — after the era 
 of these princes, while Macedonia existed 
 in the shape of a republic, we find like- 
 wise engraven the prow of a vessel, the 
 head of Silenus, a winged thunderbolt ; 
 and sometimes a trident, a vase, a lyre, or 
 a cavalier mounted. The costume of this 
 people resembled that of the other Greek 
 provinces, with the exception of a longer 
 cloak and the horns of a ram, which Lysi- 
 machus and other successive kings wore 
 on their casque, and which was a type or 
 allegory of puissance. 
 
 Machicolated. \innchicoulis, Fr.] In ar- 
 chitecture. Having a kind of jutting or 
 projecting gallery, with a parapet, as was 
 common in many old chateaux and cas- 
 tles. 
 
 Machine, \rnachina, Lat. from (itj^ain), 
 a warlike instrument.] Any thing, speak- 
 ing generally, which has power sufficient 
 to raise or stop the motion of a heavy 
 body. 
 
 Machinery or Mechanics, [mechanica, 
 Lat. from the same Greek derivation.] 
 That branch of practical mathematics re- 
 lating to the laws of motion and moving 
 power^s, their nature and their eiTects as 
 shown by machinery. This term is ap- 
 plied with like justice to the doctrine of 
 the equilibrium of powers, more properly 
 called statics, and to that science which 
 
 treats of the generation and communi- 
 cation of motion constituting mechanics 
 strictly so called. By a knowledge of 
 this science (the degree of which know- 
 ledge is always demonstrative of the civi- 
 lization of a country) the utmost improve- 
 ment is made of every power and force in 
 nature; and the motion of the elements 
 (water, fire, and air) rendered adminis- 
 trable to the various uses of life: for, 
 however weak the force of man appears 
 to be when unassisted by this art, yet with 
 its aid there is hardly any thing above his 
 reach. 
 
 The nature of this work does not admit 
 of our enlarging on the present subject; 
 although it enters into almost every con- 
 venience of civilized life, and should be 
 thoroughly understood by the architect or 
 builder; we shall therefore briefly enu- 
 merate the various mechanical powers, as 
 generally arranged, give a condensed de- 
 scription of each, and refer to the classifi- 
 cation made by M. Millin in his Diction- 
 naire des Beaux Arts. The six mechanical 
 powers are as follow : viz. the lever, the 
 pulley, the wheel and axis, the inclined 
 plane, the wedge, and the screw. These, 
 however, may in point of simplification of 
 arrangement, be reduced to two ; since the 
 pulley and wheel are, in fact, only assem- 
 blages of levers, while the wedge and 
 screw are inclined planes. 
 
 The lever is the simplest of all machines, 
 and is merely a straight bar of wood, of 
 iron, or any other substance supported on 
 and moveable round a prop called the ful- 
 crum. 
 
 In the lever there are three circum- 
 stances requiring especial attention. 1. The 
 fulcrum, or prop, by which it is supported 
 or on which it turns as an axis. 2. The 
 force to raise and support the weight. 
 3. The resistance, or weight to be raised 
 and sustained. 
 
 The points of suspension are those at 
 which the weights actually are, or from 
 
 F F 2 
 
MAC 
 
 which they hang freely. The power, or 
 force, and tlie weight are always sup- 
 posed to act at right angles to the lever, 
 except it should be otherwise expressed. 
 
 The wheel and axis may be regarded as 
 a sort of perpetual lever of which the ful- 
 crum is the centre of the axis, and the long 
 and short arms are the diameter of the 
 wheel and the diameter of the axis. From 
 this it is evident that the larger the wheel 
 and the smaller the axis, the greater must 
 be the power of this machine ; but then the 
 weight must rise slower in proportion. 
 
 The pulley is a small wheel turning on 
 an axis, with a drawing rope passing over 
 it; the small wheel is usually denomi- 
 nated a sheeve, and is so fixed in a box or 
 block as to be moveable round a pin pass- 
 ing through its centre. 
 
 The inclined plane is of very essential 
 utility in mechanics. It is applied to the 
 purpose of rolling up or down hea^7 bo- 
 dies, such as casks, chests, &c. and is 
 formed by the placing either of boards or 
 earth in a sloping direction. The force 
 wherewitli any given body descends upon 
 an inclined plane is to the force of its ab- 
 solute gravity, by which it would descend 
 perpendicularly in open space as the 
 height of the plane is to its length. 
 
 The wedge is the fifth mechanical power, 
 and may be considered in the light of two 
 planes equally inclined and joined toge- 
 ther at their bases. 
 
 The sixth and last, called the scretc, 
 cannot properly be denominated a simple 
 machine, since it is never used without tlu; 
 assistance of a wincii, or lever, to help 
 turn it : but it then becomes a compound 
 engine of prodigious force either in press- 
 ing the parts of bodies closer together, or 
 in raising great weigiits. 
 
 Compound Machines. At length it has been 
 establislu'd, in theory, tiiat any one of the 
 mechanical powers is capable of overcom- 
 ing the greatest possible resistance ; yet, in 
 practice, if used singly for producing very 
 grfateH'ects,tht!y would beconu' frf(|uently 
 so unwieldy and unmanageable as to ren- 
 der it impossible to apply them. For this 
 reason, it is couinionly fouiid inori; satis- 
 factory toconil)iiie tlieni together, by which 
 means tiie power is more easily applied 
 and many other advantages obtained. 
 
 M. Milliii, after referring to tlu^ six 
 kinds of sim])le niacliines already enume- 
 rated, proceeds to observe tiiat it lias been 
 proposed to establish as many cliuiscs of 
 machinery, wliich he describes and e\- 
 l)biins as follows : 
 
 First Class. Those machines which 
 serve to raise and sustain weights; such 
 us the lever, the roller, the pulley, with its 
 
 MAG 
 
 varieties, — the crane, the jack, the screw, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Second Class. Those which are used for 
 the fabrication of ditferent things in less 
 time, greater number, or a more commodi- 
 ous manner than otherwise. Such are all 
 the various kinds of mills, mints, knitting 
 and spinning engines, &c. 
 
 The Third Class includes all sorts of hy- 
 draulic machines, and the Fourth, those 
 which are applied to the measurement of 
 time, &c. 
 
 The Fifth Class comprises all that va- 
 riety of machines employed directly as 
 tools in the multifarious species of manu- 
 facture — weaver's looms, turner's lathes, 
 spinning-wheels, and so forth. This class 
 diflers from the second, inasmuch as, whilst 
 that comprises those machines which work 
 by virtue of their own elaborate construc- 
 tion, and require little other human aid 
 than the impetus which sets them moving, 
 the instruments of the fifth class demand 
 the constant attention and constant exer- 
 tion of the artificer. 
 
 In the Sixth Class are ranged all the 
 machines which act upon the air, together 
 with those relating to the science of phy- 
 sics. 
 
 MACinNiST. The constructor or director 
 of machinery. This term is now almost 
 confined to the person occupying this post 
 in a theatre. 
 
 MiEANDER. A celebrated river of Asia 
 Minor, rising near Cehena^, and flowing 
 into the jllgean Sea. It is celebrated 
 among the poets for its windings, said to 
 amount to no less than six hundred, and 
 from which all obliquities have received 
 the name of Mteandcrs. These sinuosities 
 of track are said to have given Da'dalus 
 the first idea of his famous labyrinth. 
 
 V\nm ancient vases and vestments the 
 maander or line revolving round itself 
 was made very abundant use of. 
 
 Magistrate, [nuiiiistratus, Lat.] In ar- 
 chaiologij. The towns subjected to the Ro- 
 man power were in the habit of erecting 
 statues to the magistrates sent to preside 
 over their institutions. 
 
 Ma(;niki(KMK. [inagnificmiia, Lat.] /« 
 sculpture and enifrarinii: Coeliin has com- 
 bined in one the two emblems given to this 
 (lualityby Kipa, representing Magnitieenee 
 by a female (igure of noble physiognomy, 
 splendidly habited and crowned with 
 gold, iiolding in her left hand the plan uf 
 a sumptuous edifice, and resting tiie right 
 on an image of Pallas. The ancients 
 seem not to have personified Magnilieenc e ; 
 but Liberality, an almost synonymous qua- 
 lity, is olleu foun.l represented uiion Ko- 
 uiau ini'il.il.". 
 
MAN 
 
 Maison Carree. [Fr. a square house.] 
 In architecture. The name of a famous relic 
 of antiquity at Nismes in France, supposed 
 to have been originally built for the pur- 
 poses of a temple. 
 
 Malleator. [Lat. a beater with a ham- 
 mer.] In archaiology. An inscription pub- 
 lished by Gruter, p. 1066. No. 5, presents 
 this word, which means a sort of mint-mas- 
 ter, whose function was to strike the coins 
 with a mallet. 
 
 Maltha. [^fidXSra, Gr.] In ancient con- 
 struction. A kind of cement or glutinous 
 substance, by virtue of which several dif- 
 ferent bodies were attached to each other. 
 According to some authorities it consisted 
 of pitch and tallow, or hog's grease, with 
 lime dusted upon it. The same term also 
 implied a liquid brimstone. 
 
 Man. [man, mon. Sax.] In painting, sculp- 
 ture, &c. The general qualifications as- 
 signable to the representation of the male 
 part of the human race may be regarded as 
 moral dignity, physical power, majesty of 
 carriage and appearance, and intellectu- 
 ality of countenance : while to the more 
 delicate female sex the artist should attach 
 the prevailing expression of gentleness, 
 regularity of feature, slenderness of make, 
 and a certain confiding air, which consti- 
 tutes one of the most winning charms of 
 that lovely portion of our species. 
 
 " For contemplation he and valour formed. 
 For softness she and sweet attractive grace." 
 
 Manipulus. [Lat. from tnamis, a hand, 
 and plenus, full, meaning literally a hand- 
 ful.] In archaiology. A small band of Ro- 
 man infantry, which in the times of Romu- 
 lus formed the tenth part of a legion. 
 There was an ancient ensign of the same 
 name, which was commonly borne before 
 these troops of soldiers, and which origi- 
 nally consisted of a bunch of herbs or 
 grass, but was afterwards changed to the 
 figure of some animal. 
 
 Manner, [maniere, Fr.] Iti all the arts. 
 Appertaining to the particular character, 
 style, or school of any given work of art. 
 See Composition, Style. 
 
 Mannerist. See Locality. 
 
 Manners, [from manner.'] In all the arts. 
 The law which Horace, and before him 
 Aristotle, and in fact, which reason itself 
 lays down, for the poet is alike deserving 
 of attention, and the strictest attention from 
 the artist: — namely, to avoid any charge 
 of anachronism, and to make every ob- 
 ject introduced in his performance har- 
 monize with the era proper to the subject 
 he has chosen, and with the costume, ha- 
 bits, and manners of the people among 
 
 MAR 
 
 whom his scene is placed. Thus, a female 
 of Ionia should be delineated with a vo- 
 luptuous gracefulness, while the represen- 
 tation of a Spartan woman requires the ex- 
 pression of energy and even manly cou- 
 rage. A certain degree of licence is un- 
 doubtedly to be conceded to the artist; 
 but it would be insupportable to see in- 
 stances of refinement and luxury intro- 
 duced in representations of an age or of a 
 people decidedly simple or poor ; or to 
 observe a Lacedaemonian general covered 
 with gold in a picture referring to that 
 era when the precious metals were pro- 
 hibited in Lacedaemon. Instances may 
 be abundantly mentioned in illustration, 
 but we trust our meaning will already be 
 sufficiently cleai*. See Costume. 
 
 Mansard-roof. In architecture. A roof 
 of peculiar construction, named after its 
 first practiser Julius, or as some say, 
 Francis Mansard, who used it upon all 
 his principal buildings. Before the time 
 of either of these architects, however, this 
 kind of roof was employed by the Abbe de 
 Clagny in the old palace of the Louvie. 
 
 Mansion, [maiisio, Lat. from maneo, to 
 remain.] In architecture. The house of the 
 lord of the manor : any considerable build- 
 ing used as the residence of a nobleman or 
 gentleman. 
 
 The first use of this term seems to have 
 been among the Romans on occasions of 
 giving rest to their troops, for brief pe- 
 riods, during their marches. Camps were 
 constructed for these purposes; which 
 camps were generally denominated man- 
 siones. 
 
 Mantle, [inentell, Welsh, manteau, Fr.] 
 In costume. An ample cloak, or vestment, 
 without sleeves, worn over the other parts 
 of the dress. Among the Romans, pecu- 
 liar names were appropriated to differ- 
 ent varieties of this garment: such as, 
 DiPLOis, Lacerna, Pallium, Paludamen- 
 TUM, Peplos, Toga, &:c. See these words. 
 
 Manuscript, [from manus, a hand, and 
 scriptus, written, Lat.] In the history of art. 
 The science of deciphering manuscripts is 
 proper to literary history and antiquities ; 
 but there are certain ancient relics of this 
 description which refer themselves to the 
 history of art; such, for instance, as pre- 
 sent miniatures, vignettes, or other species 
 of illumination. 
 
 Marble. Imarhre, Fr. marmor, Lat. from 
 fia^iixagov, a shining stone.] In statuary and 
 architecture. A peculiar and very beauti- 
 ful kind of stone dug out of quarries or 
 pits, in which it is frequently found in 
 large blocks or masses. It is of a texture 
 so hard and compact, and at the same time 
 
MAR 
 
 so fine in grain, that it takes, without dif- 
 ficulty, a very iiigh degree of polish. The 
 varieties of this stone are immense, and its 
 uses both in sculpture and architecture 
 truly eminent. Some species of marble 
 are of one simple colour, as white or black ; 
 others present surfaces variegated with 
 clouds, stains, waves, and veins : all, how- 
 ever, are opaque with the exception of the 
 white kind, which when cut into thin 
 pieces, becomes transparent, 
 
 Beds or strata of marble are common to 
 most of the mountainous countries of Eu- 
 rope. In our own, Derbyshire has afforded 
 the greatest quantities. But Italy is the 
 part of Europe which produces the most 
 valuable marble. The black and the milk- 
 white marble, coming from Carara, a town 
 in the Duchy of Massa, are in particularly 
 high estimation. 
 
 In his work on the Origin of Laws, 
 Goguet advances an opinion that Homer 
 was ignorant of the existence of marble ; 
 but this notion, which appears to us to 
 rest on slender foundation, has been com- 
 bated by Millin and others, who maintain 
 that the Greeks of the Homeric age not only 
 understood the existence and nature of 
 marble, but also the arts of polishing and 
 working in it. In fact, the use of marble 
 both in building and sculpture originated 
 with that great people, the earliest who 
 adopted the practice of adorning and en- 
 riching their edilices, whether public or 
 private, at once Avilh taste and splendour. 
 In general, they were in the habit of ap- 
 propriating that marble which was found 
 in the most immediate vicinity of the tem- 
 ple or other building or statue they were 
 about to rear; but if any stone of a finer 
 or harder quality was found in a distant 
 quarry, means were adopted to procure it. 
 The Athenians principally employed in 
 the construction of their grandest works 
 the Pentelican marble and that of Mount 
 Hymettus, which were preferred for their 
 delicate whiteness. The quarries of Phry- 
 gia furnished a white marl)le diversiliod 
 with various colours. The ten)i)ie of 
 Apollo at Phigalia, in Arcadia, was built 
 with a gray marble tinged with rosy 
 veins: while from Nisa, in Asia IMinor, a 
 variety was drawn chequered with veins 
 of a cerulean tint. In short, as we be- 
 fore observed, ,the dill'erent species are 
 almost numi)crl('ss. 
 
 'I'lu! Komiiiis unquestionably liorrowed 
 the art of polishing and working in mar- 
 ble from the politer Greeks. IMctclIns 
 Maccdohicus, rontcnipoiary of IMiimmius, 
 the con<iueror and destroyer of Corinth, is 
 reported to luivo built the lirst marble 
 
 MAR 
 
 temple at Rome. After that period, how- 
 ever, the use of this kind of stone became 
 quite general throughout Italy; although 
 they do not seem to have been aware that 
 veins of excellent marble were indige- 
 nous to their own country, since, in order to 
 adorn their most celebrated buildings they 
 despoiled the temples of conquered Greece 
 of their columns, friezes, 6>;c. and likewise 
 imported huge blocks not only from Greece, 
 but from several parts both of Asia and 
 Africa. 
 
 The island of Paros was particularly 
 eminent among the nations of antiquity 
 for its exquisite marbles — from the pro- 
 duction of "vshich Strabo reports that it re- 
 ceived the appellation of excellent. Virgil 
 speaks of Mount Marpessus in this island, 
 from which the principal blocks v\ ere ex- 
 tracted. According to an expression of 
 Propertius, the Parian marble demanded 
 the chisel of Praxiteles. An epigram iu 
 the Anthology leads us to believe that it 
 was of Parian marble Phidias constructed 
 the statue of Nemesis for the victory of 
 Marathon. 
 
 The beauty of coloured marble consists 
 chieily in the mixture of colours, just as 
 that of white or black marble does in its 
 perfect purity. These species are gene- 
 rally confined to the uses of architecture; 
 although there are busts in existence 
 framed from them. 
 
 The writers who treat on the marbles 
 of the ancients are: — Ernesti, Winckel- 
 mann, De Launay ( Min^ralogie des And- 
 ens), and Caryophilus (De 3Jarmoiil)us 
 Antiquis). Besides these, any approved 
 work on natural history — particularly on 
 mineralogy and lithology may be consult- 
 ed. See AiuniTtrrLiiK, Crista, Sciij'- 
 TlUE, Statl'e, &c. 
 
 Poli.shiiif'- of Marble. This operation is 
 performed by first rubbing it thoroughly 
 ^\i^U a freestone, or sand, until the strokes 
 of the axe are worn off; then with pumice- 
 stone, and afterwards with emery. 
 
 Maiu II or THK DEiriKS. In arcliaiolofrij. 
 'I'he ancients, in all their representations 
 of the superhuman powers, and even of 
 heroic men or demigods, pai<l great atten- 
 tion to tlicir step or gait. They held a 
 grave, steady, and at the same time liglit 
 step to be indicative of dignity and even 
 of a spiritual nature. Occasionally, as on 
 a medal of Antoninus re|n-os('ntiiig the ad- 
 vance of Mars to Sylvia, the (igure appears 
 rather to glide over the surface of the 
 earlli thini to tread uiion it. The Belve • 
 der(> Apollo has a similar character of step 
 or walk. 'I'he foot of the deity scarcely 
 presses the gtound. The Greek artists 
 
MAR 
 
 always gave wings to their divinities when 
 they wished to express the action of un- 
 usual speed. 
 
 Marcia Aqua. In ancient architecture. 
 Name of one of the aquasducts of Rome. 
 See Aqu.educt. 
 
 Market-place, [formerly written mer- 
 cat, from mercatus, Lat. a mart or place of 
 trade.] In architecture. A place built in 
 any city or town for the general reception 
 of dealers of every description, and the 
 other inhabitants, who resort thither, more 
 particularly on a given day or days of the 
 week (called market-day) for the pur- 
 chase and sale of commodities. These 
 structures are generally built and roofed 
 in a very slight and unadorned manner. 
 
 Marmora Oxoniensia. Ancient mar- 
 bles with a chronicle of the city of Athens 
 inscribed on them, many years antece- 
 dent to tlxe birth of Christ, and presented 
 by their proprietoi-, Thomas, Earl of Arun- 
 del, to the University of Oxford. See 
 Arundelian Marbles. 
 
 Marmorarii. [Lat.] In archaiology. The 
 name given to those who cut and worked out 
 the marbles. The same name was also 
 often extended to the artists who chiselled 
 them. The marmorarii formed a sodali- 
 tium,OY brotherhood, which had its schools, 
 its privileges, patrons, and protecting dei- 
 ties. 
 
 Marmoratum. [Lat.] In architecture. 
 A plaster of pounded marble, or mortar of 
 lime and marble beaten together. Varro 
 makes mention of this stucco, which was 
 employed in walls, terraces, and various 
 other works. 
 
 Marquettry. [marqneterie, Fr.] In the 
 art of inlaying. A curious species of work 
 composed of different coloured pieces of 
 hard fine wood, fastened, in thin layers, 
 on a ground, and occasionally enriched 
 with other matters, such as tortoiseshell, 
 ivory, tin, or brass. There is a separate 
 kind of marquettry made, instead of wood, 
 of glasses of various colours ; and another 
 still, wherein nothing is used but precious 
 stones and the richest marbles : but these 
 are more properly denominated mosaic 
 work. 
 
 The art of inlaying is very ancient, and 
 has been supposed to have passed from 
 the east to the west, as one of the spoils 
 brought by the Romans from Asia. In- 
 deed it was at that time executed with 
 great simplicity, nor did it reach even a 
 tolerable degree of excellence till the fif- 
 teenth century, among the Italians. 
 
 Until John of Verona, who flourished at 
 the same time Avitli Raffaelle, the finest 
 works of this kind were only black and 
 
 MAR 
 
 white, such as we call morescoes ; but 
 that devotee, who possessed some genius 
 for the fine arts, stained his wood with 
 dyes or boiled oils, which penetrated 
 them. He proceeded no farther, however, 
 than the representing of buildings and 
 perspectives, which require no great va- 
 riety of colours. They who succeeded 
 him not only improved on the invention of 
 dyeing the woods, by a secret which they 
 discovered of burning them without con- 
 suming (which served particularly well 
 for the shadowing), but they had likewise 
 the advantage of several fine new woods 
 of naturally bright colours, wliich were 
 imported from the newly discovered conti- 
 nent of America. With these assistances 
 the art is now capable of imitating almost 
 any thing. 
 
 The ground whereon the pieces are to 
 be ranged and glued is ordinarily of oak 
 or fir well dried ; and to prevent warping, 
 it is composed of several pieces glued to- 
 gether. The wood to be used, being re- 
 duced into leaves, of the thickness of a 
 line, is eitlier stained with some colour, or 
 made black for shadow ; which some eflect 
 by putting it in sand extremely heated 
 over the fire, others by steeping it in lime- 
 water and sublimate, and others in oil of 
 sulphur. Thus coloured, the contours of the 
 pier are formed according to the parts of 
 the design they are to represent. This last 
 is the most difficult part of marquettry, and 
 that wherein most patience and attention 
 are requisite. See Crusta, Emblemata, 
 Incrustation, Mosaic, &:c. 
 
 Mars. In mythological painting and sculp- 
 ture. The son of Jupiter and Juno, ac- 
 cording to the Greeks, but of Juno alone, 
 as Ovid tells the story : for she being dis- 
 pleased that Jupiter should have a daugh- 
 ter (Minerva) without female assistance, 
 consulted with the goddess Flora how she 
 herself might bring forth a son. Flora 
 accordingly told her of a certain herb or 
 flower, the touch of which rendered her 
 pregnant with 3Iars. 
 
 This god is always represented with his 
 usual attributes, the helmet and spear, 
 which he does not quit even when going 
 on his amours. He had several, of which 
 that with Rhea was one of the most cele- 
 brated among the Romans. In a rilievo 
 belonging to the Mellini family at Rome, 
 relating to the birth of Romulus, Mars is 
 descended and moving towards Rhea, who 
 is asleep. On the reverse of Ihe medal of 
 Antoninus, he is represented as suspended 
 in the air, just above the vestal virgin*. 
 
 * By this medal Mr. Arldisoii explained Juvenal's 
 expression pcndcntii dei (Sat. xi. v. 107), which 
 
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MAT 
 
 are ^cnenilly Hiiid to bo introdnrtnj in 
 
 inHHHCIi. Sec AcriDENTAI, (^IIIAHOHnJHO. 
 
 M KH-tivi-:. [nuunif, Vr. from miiHu.] In 
 nrchUiclurf, miilpture, fttc. Iliavy, full, 
 Holiil. Thirt ttTiii is ont! <if rrjinniiiuliition, 
 or olIwrwiMc, arrordiriK to tin- niitiirr- of llic 
 WDrk ri'Spt^cliiiK wliicli it in ustcd. TIiiim in 
 Hpi-nliin); of an ahiitinoni, a wall, tin- pirr of 
 a briil^f, &c. thi; ar<;i»it<:( I in conipliiniMilrd 
 by the application of thiH t»!nn : whcreaH, 
 llip prcciMi* contrary is* j;rncrally tho caM<-> 
 when it in eniployt-d in speaking of a por- 
 tico, an arch, column, or a roof. 
 
 M\vrr:n. [mirnlri; Dutch, mnUrr, Fr.] 
 Ill nil till lilts. A (irofcrtsor of <itlicr of 
 thi; line arts, who j;iv(«s Iccturi-s thereon to 
 HtiKli-nts. In another, and niori! (;''"'-''iil 
 m'ns«», any distinnuishcd practixer of art, 
 whose works are rtulliciently exc client to 
 have attainefl him an undyin;? reputation, 
 and to rentier hirt perfornianeeH referred to 
 as niinlels for styh- an<l exccutiiin by the 
 younn artist. Without the evisteni't; of 
 the works of the great nuuitcrs, the arts 
 would still be in their infancy. 
 
 Mastu'. [/i(j-:iy^(/, Gr.J A kind of resin 
 exuding from the lentiscus tree. It is of 
 a pale yellow, or \\hit(> hue, nnd princi- 
 pally brou);ht from the island of Chios in 
 drops or tears. It has an agreeable snudi, 
 especially when healed by lire. 
 
 In nrchiticluie. This substance enters 
 into the ciini])ositioii of a kind of cement 
 or mortar, intind«;<l to till up crevices in 
 walls or in wood work, or cracks in stones. 
 Lapidaries also lin<l it \>arti(-ularly ser- 
 viceable for the latter purpose. Tin; an- 
 cients appear to have possessed several 
 compositions of this kind, which they ap- 
 plied to various architectural purposes. 
 
 M vs'i'icoT. [massicot, Fr.] /»« tlif art of 
 coloitriiif:^. Masticot, or yellow lead, is the 
 calx or ashes of lead calcined by a mtule- 
 rate lu-at, according to the d<'i;ree of which 
 it is changed to a lighter or darker tint; 
 Bucli as peach colour, golden, citron, &c. 
 
 TVIati:ui M.S. [wd/cc/K, I,at, from mntrr 
 and ni, mother of all things.] In nil tlu- 
 arts. All those things collectively which 
 are used in the construction of any given 
 work of art. 
 
 MvTiiKMATirs. [ftaOimariKor, from /mi'- 
 Odj'w, to learn, Gr.] The tloctrine of (pian- 
 tity ; or a science that considers mag- 
 nitudes either as compufalde or measur- 
 able. The word, in one of the Greek 
 forms of its derivation, ^oW/jerif, signifies 
 disci jili III' or science in the general, and 
 seems lo have bien applietl to the doctrine 
 of quantity or mensuration, either by way of 
 eminence, or because, this having had the 
 
 M AU 
 
 jitart of all other sciences, the re»t took 
 their conmxm name therefrom. 
 
 It does not enter into our plan t(» go into 
 greater length respecting tin- principles of 
 mathematics ; but it was necesnary to no- 
 tice them, inasmuch as every architect 
 should be well actjuainted therewith. Th*; 
 science is, it is true, turned to more prac- 
 tical account by the engineer; but let not 
 the architectural fltud*;nt imagine himself 
 exempted from the cultivation of il, or that 
 the use of the pencil will form an ellectual 
 substitute. He should remember that no 
 less an authority than Vitruvius has com- 
 bated this nio.it erroneous notion. 
 
 Uipn, in his Iconologia, has represented 
 the science- of nuithenuitics under tht; 
 figure of a woman of middle age, covered 
 with a while and transparent veil, having 
 a globe at her feet, and holding in her 
 right hand a compass. The allegory of 
 (iravelot is more complete. This artist 
 presented a female ligure with wings at 
 her head, and an armillary sphere, which 
 announces that this science can measure 
 inunensity. Thi; figure appears occupied 
 with the square of the hypothennse, onn 
 of the first mathemati(-al discoveries. The 
 cube sustaining the tablet on which this 
 ligure is tract.-d designates the three pos- 
 sible a<lm<'asurements — length, breadth, 
 and depth. The- dillerent substances and 
 instruments hing altout, as well as the 
 figtire which, in the distance, seems taking 
 the height of some object all harmoui/e 
 well, tending to imply the vast utility of 
 the nuithenuilical science. 
 
 M VTiucES. [iiuitrix, Lat. a womb.] In 
 mcditllnrf^ij and coining. Pieces of steel in 
 the shape of dyes, up<ui which are en- 
 graven the several figures, characters, 
 arms, legends, iScc. wherewith the species 
 are to be stamped. The engraving is per- 
 formed with several |)uncheons, which 
 being formed in rilievo, nuike, when struck 
 on the metal, an indented impression ciilled 
 by the French en ciru.v. 
 
 M.viTHKSs. [nutlnui. Vr.] /« archaioloj^ij . 
 The ancients seem to have understood 
 l)erfectly the use of this convenient article, 
 which was denominated by them piilrinus, 
 and was made with feathers extremely 
 soft. They put these mattresses upon the 
 beds or couches brought forth on occasions 
 of public rejoicing, and upon which were 
 often laid the inuiges of the gods. We 
 also find the pulvinus engraved upon seve- 
 ral tomi)s, having on it, in an attitude of 
 repose, the ligure of the personage in ho- 
 nour of whom the sepulchre was erected. 
 M.VLKiTANiA. [from ti/uti'poj;, by apha- 
 
MEC 
 
 resis, ftavpb^, obscure, implying the dark 
 complexion of the inhabitants,] In gem 
 sculpture. Upon a medal of Hadrian, we 
 find Mauritania represented under the 
 figure of a moor, leading a horse with a 
 sort of bridle. 
 
 M VLSOLEUM. [^lavainXeiov, from Mauso- 
 lus, a king of Caria, to whom a sumptuous 
 sepulchre was raised by his wife Artemi- 
 sia.] In architecture. King Mausolus is said 
 to have expired in tlie year 353 B. C^. and 
 his wife was so disconsolate at the event, 
 that she drank up his ashes, and perpe- 
 tuated his memory by the erection of this 
 magnificent monument, which became so 
 famous as to be esteemed the seventli won- 
 der of the world, and to give a generic 
 name to all superb sepulchres. This edi- 
 fice was, according to report, built by four 
 different architects. Scopas erected the 
 side which faced the east, Timotheus had 
 the south, Leochares the west, and Bruxis 
 the north. Pithis was also employed in 
 raising a pyramid over this stately monu- 
 ment, and the top was adorned by a cha- 
 riot drawn by four horses. 
 
 The expenses of this edifice were im- 
 mense, giving occasion to the philosopher 
 Anaxagoras to exclaim, when he saw it, 
 " How much money changed into stones !" 
 
 This structure presented something of 
 the sliape of a long square : it was sur- 
 rounded by thirty-six columns, and en- 
 riched with an immense number of sculp- 
 tures. It was, according to I'liny, one 
 hundred and eleven feet in circumference, 
 and a hundred and forty feet high. Praxi- 
 teles is thought by Vitruvius to have used 
 his admirable talent among the sculp- 
 tures. 
 
 The Count de Caylus has given, in tlie 
 twenty sixth volume of the Mimoires dc 
 rAcaddmie dcs liellcs Lcttns, a paper on 
 this celebrated monument ; and in the 
 tliird volume of the Tliesaunis of Sallen- 
 gre, we find another treatise De AlausoUi 
 Arckitecturfi, by Aulisius. 
 
 Mkasliik. [fi'kT{)ov, Or. meiisura, Lat. 
 mcnurc, Fr.] Tiiut which serves as a rule 
 to discover and to ascertain the size, the 
 extent, and tlie quantity of any given 
 body. 
 
 Mechanics, [meclianka, Lai.] See Ma- 
 
 < IIINICKY. 
 
 Mixiian(k;iiapiiia. [/ir/icai')/, a inachin(?, 
 and yp<'i(l>o>, to write or cngTave.] The 
 term apjilitMl to that art wliich iinitatos 
 and multiplies the cluf-d'anvres of i)ainliiig 
 by incclianical means. Artists and learned 
 men ha\<' at din'ercnt jieriods been occu- 
 pied in the endeavour to discover this 
 
 MED 
 
 secret ; and one of the most successful in 
 the search is M. Boeninger, whose per- 
 formances in this way were for some time 
 exhibited in the Louvre, among other pro- 
 ductions of French ingenuity. By a me- 
 chanical contrivance equally simple and 
 clever, this gentleman succeeded in copy- 
 ing the works of the great masters on 
 cloth, as well as on wood, porcelain, me- 
 tals, and even upon glass. 
 
 Medal, Medallion, [medaille, Fr. from 
 likraWov, metal, Gr.] A medal denotes a 
 piece of metal in the shape of a coin, such 
 as was either circulated as current money 
 among the ancients, or struck on any par- 
 ticular occasion, in order to transmit to 
 posterity the portrait of some great person, 
 or the memory of some illustrious action. 
 Scaliger derives the word medid from the 
 Arabic metludin — a sort of coin with a hu- 
 man head upon it. But the opinion of 
 Vossius is more generally received, who 
 derives it, as we have done, from the 
 Greek fiiraXKov, of which substance me- 
 dals are commonly made. 
 
 The study of medals is, in a variety of 
 ways, of great and obvious utility. The 
 sole evidence we can have of the veracity 
 of an ancient historian arises from such 
 collateral documents as are evident to all 
 men, and cannot be falsified, and of this 
 species of proof the relics we are treating 
 of form a most important division. The 
 Greek coins, it is true, do not show the 
 dates of events, although they illustrate 
 the chronology of reigns : but this defect 
 docs not exist in those of Rome, which 
 commonly mark the date of the i)riuce's con- 
 sulship, the year of his tribunitian power, 
 and also, on the reverse, the representation 
 or poetical symbol of some great event con- 
 nected therewith. In geography, likewise, 
 we find the situations of towns, \c. deter- 
 mined by their vicinity to some noted rner 
 or mountain. To the painter and sculptor 
 the study of medals is no less important, 
 since it allords them the means of deli- 
 neating tluMr historical personages with 
 the features they actually bore during 
 life. 
 
 None of the classic writers give any 
 account of collections of medals. In the 
 best <lays of Greece, it was proliably not 
 considered desirable to accumulate them, 
 since they must ha>e consisted wholly of 
 those struck by the little neightuiuring 
 stales, and therefore did not i)rcsent them- 
 selves as matters of curiosity : but as soon 
 as a line of communication was opened 
 between ti recce antl Konn-, the artists be- 
 longing to the latter empire imitated the 
 
MEDAL. 
 
 former in this as well as other branches of 
 art, and there can be no doubt that, at a 
 period somewhat more advanced, collec- 
 tions of medals were formed by the inha- 
 bitants of " the eternal city." Dr. Stukely, 
 in fact, in his Rledallic History of Carau- 
 sius informs us, that a complete series of 
 silver coins was lately found in this coun- 
 try, containing all the emperors down to 
 Carausius inclusively. From the decline 
 of the Roman empire, until the revival of 
 learning in tlie fifteenth century, the study 
 of medals seems to have been suspended 
 in common with every other branch of po- 
 lite art ; but, like the rest, it sprung into 
 notice again at that interesting period. 
 
 The first among the moderns who began 
 this pursuit was the celebrated Petrarch, 
 who, being requested by the emperor 
 Charles IV. to write a work containing 
 the lives of eminent men, and to place him 
 in the list, boldly replied, he would do so, 
 whenever the emperor's life and conduct 
 should deserve such a distinction. He 
 subsequently sent the monarch a collec- 
 tion of gold and silver coins beai'ing re- 
 presentations of eminent men (with suit- 
 able inscriptions), and accompanied with 
 an address somewhat like the following : 
 " Behold to what men you have succeeded ! 
 Behold whom you should admire and imi- 
 tate !" 
 
 There are few countries, Italy excepted, 
 in which a greater number of coins have 
 been discovered than in Britain, though 
 we ai'e by no means well acquainted with 
 the time when the study of them com- 
 menced amongst us. Mr. Pinkerton sus- 
 pects that Camden was one of the first, if 
 not the very first British author who pro- 
 duced medals in his works, and who must 
 have had a small collection. Speed's 
 Chronicle, published in the seventeenth 
 century, was illustrated with coins from 
 Sir Robert Cotton's cabinet. Gordaeus's 
 collection was purchased for Henry Prince 
 of Wales, brother of Charles I., to whom 
 he left it at his death. According to Jo- 
 seph Scaliger, this fine assortment com- 
 prised thirty thousand coins and medals, 
 but they were dissipated and lost among 
 the civil commotions which ensued. A 
 collection of upwards of five thousand was 
 presented by Archbishop Laud to the Bod- 
 leian library. The Dukes of Buckingham 
 and Hamilton, Sir Thomas Fanshaw, Sir 
 Thomas Hanmer, Mr. Sclden, and many 
 others, are enumerated as having collec- 
 tions. Vaillant speaks of that of Charles 
 II., and we believe our present august 
 sovereign is in possession of a consider- 
 able assortment: indeed, several noble 
 
 cabinets have been recently formed, which 
 we have not space to particularize. That 
 of the late Dr. Hunter, however, claims 
 notice, as having been one of the very 
 greatest in Europe. 
 
 Medals are usually formed of gold, sil- 
 ver, and the various modifications of cop- 
 per. The gold commonly made use of in 
 coinage is about the fineness of twenty-two 
 carats ; but as the art of purifying this 
 metal was not much known in former 
 times, the ancient medals are on that ac- 
 count considerably more impure than those 
 of modern date. Many of t!iem are com- 
 posed of a mixture of gold and silver, 
 called by the ancients electrum. The Egyp- 
 tian silver coins, struck under the Roman 
 emperors, are at first of tolerably pure sil- 
 ver ; but afterwards degenerate materially. 
 In fact, the silver, like the gold, was less 
 pure than in succeeding ages, more espe- 
 cially among the Greeks. The brass of 
 the ancients, when pure, wliich is rather 
 uncommon, consisted of two kinds : the 
 red, or what the ancients called Cyprian 
 brass (called among us copper), and the 
 yellow, or brass. As medals of this nature 
 are generally covered with patina, the dif- 
 ference has not excited attention ; though 
 in Roman coins brass was double the 
 value of copper, and it has been conjec- 
 tured that the Greeks followed the same 
 rule. 
 
 On the face of medals we generally find 
 the portrait of some powerful or illustri- 
 ous personage, and most commonly in pro- 
 file. The coins of the kings of Macedon 
 are the most ancient of any yet discovered 
 bearing portraits ; and Alexander I. who 
 commenced his reign about 500 years B. C. 
 is the earliest monarch whose medals have 
 yet been discovered. Then succeed the 
 sovereigns who reigned in Sicilj', Caria, 
 Cyprus, Heraclea, and Pontus. After- 
 wards conies the series of kings of Egypt, 
 Syria, the Cimmerian Bosphorus, Thrace, 
 Parthia, Armenia, Damascus, Cappadocia, 
 Paphlagonia, Pergamos, Galatia, Cicilia, 
 Sparta, Pseonia, Epirus, lUyricum, Gaul, 
 and the Alps. This series reaches from 
 the era of Alexander the Great to the 
 Christian era, comprising a period of about 
 330 years. This must be accounted the tirird 
 mcdallic series of ancient monarchs, and 
 the fourth and last descends to the fourth 
 century, including some of the kings of 
 Thrace, of Bosphorus, and Parthia, witli 
 those of Comagene, Edessa, or Osrhoene, 
 Mauritania, and Judea. A perfect and 
 distinct series is formed by the Roman em- 
 perors from Julius Caesar to the Gothic 
 destruction of the empire, and indeed still 
 
MEDAL. 
 
 later, but it is to be lamented that towards 
 the latter part of this series, the coins be- 
 come exceedingly barbarous. Many series 
 may be formed of modern potentates. 
 
 The kings, upon Greek coins, have ge- 
 nerally the diadem without any other or- 
 nament. The side-face is always present- 
 ed ; but upon some very early Greek coins 
 of cities, and Roman consular coins, full 
 faces are found, of amazing relief and ex- 
 pression. Occasionally, several heads are 
 found on the same coin, either impressed 
 upon both sides, or only upon one. Thus 
 the beautiful gold medal of Ptolemy Phi- 
 ladelphus, king of Egjpt, bears his own 
 head and that of Arsinoe, his queen, on 
 one side, eind those of his father and mo- 
 ther on the reverse. Coins have also been 
 discovered of Antony and Cleopatra, Agrip- 
 pina and Gennanicus, &c. 
 
 The reverses of medals contain figures 
 of deities at full length, with their attri- 
 butes and symbols ; public buildings and 
 diversions ; allegorical representations ; 
 private and historical events; public cere- 
 monies of various kinds ; plants, animals, 
 &c. Some reverses bear the portrait of 
 the queen, the son, or daughter of the 
 prince who appears on the obverse. On 
 the Roman coins, the reverses did not dif- 
 fer much till about 100 years B. C. when 
 their consular medals afford an infinite 
 variety. 
 
 The figures of deities and personifica- 
 tions, on the Roman medals, are commonly 
 attended with their names, in addition to 
 the allegorical symbol ; but the Greek 
 medallists, witli superior taste and deli- 
 cacy, left these (at that day sulHciently 
 obvious) to exjjlain themselves. 
 
 The most ancient coins, according to 
 Froelich, are distinguished by the follow- 
 ing marks, accounted by him infallible. 
 I. Their oval circumference, and globular 
 swelling shape. 2. Antiiiuity of ali)hii- 
 bet. 3. The characters being retrograde. 
 4. The indented scjuare. 5. Tli<^ simple 
 strucliire of the mintage. 0. Some of (lie 
 very old coins are hollowed on the re- 
 verse, with the image impressed on the 
 front. 7. The dress, symbols, \c. fre- 
 qni^ntly of the rudest design anil execu- 
 tion. 
 
 The Grecian medals claim lliat place in 
 a caijinct from llicir anli(|uity \\ hiili their 
 woi-kiuansliip might ensure to them, iiuhs 
 pcnilcntly of that adventitious considera- 
 tion. The invention of coinage is ascribed 
 liy Menxlotiis to the peoi)l(! of Lydia, u])- 
 vvards of 1000 years before the Christian 
 era. In a sliorl time the Greeks assumed 
 great elegance ; and it is observed by Pin- 
 
 kerton, that an immense number of the 
 medals of cities, which, from their charac- 
 ter, we must judge to be of the highest 
 antiquity, have a surprising strength, 
 beauty, and relief in tlieir impressions. 
 About the time of Alexander the Great, 
 however, this art appears to have attained 
 its very highest perfection. The head of 
 Minerva on his gold affords a variety of 
 exquisite faces ; and the coins of Alexan- 
 der and his father exceed all that were 
 ever executed, if we except those of Sicily, 
 Grsecia Magna, and the ancient ones of 
 Asia Minor. Sicilian medals are famous 
 for workmanship even from Gelo's time. 
 The coins of the Syrian kings, successors 
 to Alexander, almost equal his own in 
 beauty. But adequate judges are con- 
 strained to confine their high praises of 
 the Greek mint to those coins struck be- 
 fore the subjection of Greece to the Roman 
 empire. The feeling of slavery appears 
 to have deadened their genius, and ren- 
 dered them comparatively dull ; and ac- 
 cordingly, the Greek imperial medals must 
 certainly be regarded as inferior to the 
 Roman. 
 
 The Roman coins, considered as medals 
 in a cabinet, may be resolved into two 
 great divisions, the consular and imperial. 
 The consular coins seldom or never bore 
 the names or titles of consuls till towards 
 the close; nevertheless they are not im- 
 properly called consular, because they 
 were struck in the consular times of Rome. 
 These have also been denominated coins 
 of families; and are always so arranged, 
 according to the names inscribed on them. 
 The brass consular coins are rather unin- 
 teresting, consisting chiefly of large un- 
 wieldy pieces, with types of insipid simi- 
 larity. Few of them have any imagery or 
 symbol. 
 
 Gold was first coined at Rome 62 years 
 after the application of the mint to silver. 
 The general gold coin is the aureus. The 
 consular coins, whose number is estimated 
 at two hundred in brass, and two thousand 
 in silver, extend not to above one hundred 
 in gold, most of which are curious. The 
 beautiful Pomiuy, with his siuis on the 
 reverse, and the Brutus with his brother 
 Lucius, commonly classed with imperial 
 coins, sho\ild rank with the consular. 
 Most of tiie gold consular coins are of 
 great beauty and high value. We have 
 in a fornur part of this work spoken of 
 IniiMCKiAi. IMi:i)Ai>, and the reader is re- 
 ferred to that article. 
 
 The eoliniial medals had sometimes 
 Greek, sonu-times even Punic legends : 
 but those with Latin <udy are far more 
 
MEDAL. 
 
 numerous. Some of these coins are ele- 
 gant : but they are, for the jnost part, rude 
 and uninteresting. They begin with Julius 
 and Antony, and occur only in brass. 
 
 All coins preceding the ninth century, 
 or age of Charlemagne, are denominated 
 ancient ; all posterior to that period down 
 to the present time, modern. Mr. Pinker- 
 ton, in his valuable Essay on Medals, ob- 
 serves of the 1 atter that, down to the revival 
 of learning in the sixteenth century, " they 
 are so very rude that curiosity alone sug- 
 gests any inducement to examine them. 
 Without dates or epochs, they cannot serve 
 one purpose of utility. The very portraits 
 found on them are so uncouth, that the ' hu- 
 man face divine ' is scarcely discernible ; 
 the reverses always bear a most beautiful 
 cross, garnished with pellets, or a dish of 
 some such exquisite flavour." Mr. Pin- 
 kerton concludes his notice of modern 
 medals with a comparison between them 
 and the ancient ones. The most observ- 
 able difference in respect of art seems to 
 lie in the portraits. The ancient artists, 
 even of the lowest class, marked the cha- 
 racter, and exhibited the life and spirit, of 
 the person represented ; while the moderns 
 only produce a kind of model, with very 
 faint features of the character. The or- 
 naments of the portraits have also this 
 effect ; the ancient being simple and pic- 
 turesque in real life, whereas ours are 
 discordant and ungraceful. The reverses 
 of ancient medals, when consisting of hu- 
 man figures or detached objects, exceed 
 the modern in every view of strength, ele- 
 gance, or taste. But in landscape, and 
 all belonging to perspective, the modern 
 excel the ancient to a prodigious degree. 
 A great fault of moderu reverses, as of 
 modern portraits, is that the manners of 
 the time and country are often wholly 
 perverted in them. Personifications are 
 of all ages, countries, and languages ; but 
 what title have heathen gods and god- 
 desses to exist on our medals and attract 
 the adoration of our connoisseurs ? 
 
 The first English medal is that in the 
 Duke of Devonshire's collection. It is of 
 a large size, and executed after the plan 
 of the early Italian medals. It has on 
 the reverse the arms of Kendal, with the 
 inscription Tempore Obsidionis Turcorum, 
 MCCCLXXX. On the other side is a 
 portrait with 10. Kendal Rhodi Turcopel- 
 lerius. It was found last century in 
 Knaresborough Forest, but was most pro- 
 bably done in Italy. The next is that of 
 Henry VIII. of gold, struck in 154.5 : it is 
 larger than a crown piece, with the king's 
 head upon the obverse, and three legends 
 
 within each other including his titles, &c, 
 while upon the reverse are two inscrip- 
 tions (one in Hebrew, the other in Greek), 
 declaring him to be head of the church. 
 This was imitated exactly by Edward VI. 
 whose coronation medal is the first we 
 have. There are two medals of Philip 
 and Mary, whose execution is tolerably 
 good ; but those of Elizabeth are very 
 poor. There are good medals of James I. 
 and his queen, with a fine one of Charles 
 I. and Henrietta, though the workman- 
 ship is much inferior to the antique. There 
 are many good medals of Charles, with 
 various devices upon their reverses. Un- 
 der the commonwealth the celebrated 
 Simon produced medals which are deserv- 
 edly reckoned the most admirable pieces 
 of modern workmanship. There are many 
 good medals of Charles II., James II., and 
 William III., and a few of James after 
 his abdication. Some fine gold, silver, 
 and copper medals were issued in the 
 time of Queen Anne ; the two last afford- 
 ing a series of all the great actions of the 
 Duke of Marlborough. About 1740, a 
 series of medals was engraved in London 
 by Dassier, a native of Geneva, containing 
 all the kings of England, being thirty-six 
 in number. They are executed upon fine 
 copper, in high taste. There are besides 
 numerous medals of eminent private per- 
 sons in England ; and those who are de- 
 sirous of further information concerning 
 them are referred to Pinkerton's Essay, 
 already cited, and Mr. Snelling's plates of 
 them. 
 
 Preservation or Conservation of Medals. 
 The reason why some medals are so much 
 more prized than others arises from the 
 greater or less degree of preservation they 
 are in. Mr. Pinkerton says, that a true 
 judge will reject even the rarest coins if 
 in the least defaced either in figures or 
 legends. This spirit of exclusiveness does 
 not, it is true, obtain among all collectors 
 of medals : but it is absolutely indispensa. 
 ble that a coin be in what is called good 
 preservation ; which in those of the Greek 
 or Roman emperors, and the colonial coins, 
 is held to be when the legends can be read 
 with some difticulty ; but when the con- 
 servation is perfect, and the medal just as 
 it came from the mint, even the commonest 
 coins are valuable. 
 
 The fine rust, resembling varnish, which 
 covers the surface of brass and copper 
 coins is found to be the best preserver of 
 them, and is produced by lying in a cer- 
 tain kind of soil. Gold cannot be conta- 
 minated but by ironmould, which happens 
 when the coin lies in a soil impregnated 
 
MED 
 
 with iron ; but silver is susceptible of va- 
 rious kinds of rust, principally green and 
 red : both, however, yield to vinegar. In 
 gold and silver coins, the rust must be re- 
 moved, as prejudicial: but in brass and 
 copper it is preservative and ornamental, 
 a circumstance noticed by the ancients. 
 
 The value of the medal is lowered when 
 any of the letters of the legend are mis- 
 placed, as a suspicion of forgery is thereby 
 induced. A similar or even greater dimi- 
 nution in value occurs with respect to such 
 coins an have not been well fixed in the 
 dye, which has occasioned their slipping 
 under the strokes of the hammer, and thus 
 making a double or triple image. IMany 
 specimens have been found, on which the 
 one side is perfectly well formed, but the 
 other blundered in the manner just men- 
 tioned. It is considered, as a certain rule 
 in numismatics, according to Pinkerton, 
 that none of the ancient money was cast in 
 moulds, except the most ancient and very 
 large Roman brass, commonly called 
 weights, and some other Italian pieces of 
 that description. 
 
 Medallions are medals of a larger size, 
 and supposed to have been struck by the 
 different emperors for their friends, or for 
 foreign princes and ambassadors. That 
 the smallness of the number of these, how- 
 ever, might not put to hazard the loss of 
 the devices they bore, the Romans gene- 
 rally took care to stamp the subjects of them 
 upon their ordinary coins. Medallions, 
 in respect of other coins, resembled w hat 
 modern medals, properly so speaking, are 
 ia respect to money, having had no current 
 value, but merely an arbitrary one. Me- 
 dallions are so scarce tliat no set can be 
 made of them even w ith mixing the dilVer- 
 ent metals. 
 
 The most valuable writer on this sub- 
 ject is, without doubt, Mr. I'inkerton, the 
 second edition of whose Essmj on Medals 
 will, indeed, almost preclude the necessity 
 of reference to any other work. This edi- 
 tion is enriched and illustrated with nu- 
 merous engravings, forming specimens cor- 
 responding exactly in size and shape with 
 the originals, of all the jirineipal varieties 
 of medals. It is in two small \ olumes, and 
 was published in London in 1729. Amongst 
 other authors in this department may h(^ 
 enumerated Knea Vieo, wiio published in 
 I5.IH or 1555, Discoursis on the Malals 0/ 
 the Ancients; Charles Palin, whose His- 
 tiinj of Medals, or Introdiutiiin to that Sci- 
 ence, ai)peare(l in [(i(i5 ; Antoiiie le I'ois, 
 in 1579, gave his JJiscours shv les iarluls 
 el Medaillvs de.t Ancicns ; in 1092, Pero 
 Jiil'crt, or .Joubal, presented to the public 
 
 M E D 
 
 his Scu^nce des MedniUea, the be«t edition 
 of which is that of 1739, by M. le Baron 
 Bimard de la Bastie. On the same year 
 on which Jobert published tlie above work, 
 another much resembling it came out in 
 this country, entitled. The Greek and Ro- 
 man History, illustrated btj Coins and Medals 
 representing their Religion, Rites, kc. by 
 Obadiah Walker; and in 1C95, a transla- 
 tion of Jobert's work appeared under the 
 title of The Knowledge of Medals, also as- 
 cribed to Walker; the celebrated John 
 Evelyn's Nuniisinata, or Discourse of Me- 
 dals, ancient and modern, folio, issued from 
 the press in 1G97 ; in 1720, an Italian mu- 
 sician, of the name of Haym, put forth at 
 London his Tesoro liritannico, or British 
 Treasury, in both languages. 
 
 Mr. Pinkerton strongly advises the stu- 
 dent to peruse the work of Frcclich, en- 
 titled Notitia Numismatum antiquorum illo- 
 rum, qu<e Urbium Librarnm, Rcgum ct 
 Princip'.tm, ae Personariuni illusfrium, appel- 
 lantur, Vienna, 1758, 4to. The following 
 authors are also very favourably mentioned 
 by him. For the study of the Greek coins, 
 Goltzius's Historia Sieilio! et Magne Grtc- 
 ci<e ex antiqnis Numismatibus, Antwerp, 
 1G44, fol. ; Gessner's Thesauriim \iiniisma- 
 tum, Tiguri, 1738, 2 vols. fol. ; the various 
 ■works of Pellerin, published at Paris, be- 
 tween 17C2 and ITTS, forming altiigether 
 10 vols. 4to. Dr. Combe On Dr. Hunter's 
 Coins of Greek Cities, London, 1782, 4to. 
 This is jjcrhaps the most excellent of all 
 the numerous works on the subject. Gess- 
 ner has also given much information re- 
 garding Roman medals, both consular and 
 imperial, witii whom, for the rarer coins, 
 should be read ^'aillant's A'umismata Im- 
 peratorum Romanorum, 3 vols. 4to, Roma, 
 1743, as well as his Nunnni Antiqui Fami- 
 liarum Romanorum, 2 vols. fol. Amsterdam, 
 1703; Banduri's Aumismata Imp. Rom. a 
 Trajano Decio tisque ad Palu-ologos (or to 
 the termination of tiie lUzantine empire), 
 2 ^<)ls. folio, Lutctia', 17IH; Occo's Sumis- 
 mata Imp. Rom. 
 
 Modern coins and medals have also 
 been treated of by various hands. Me 
 shall conline ourselves to specifying n few 
 wUo have written on English coins. 
 Among these works are : — Lowndes's Re- 
 port, runtainiiig an Essay for the Amendment 
 <i)' Silri r Coins, 8vo. I^oikIoii, 1(195; Snei- 
 ling's Views of English Money, I'ti'i ; Hu- 
 carel's /,<7//'7'.ii on Anglo-Gallic Coins; and 
 Clarke's I'onne.rion of the Roman, Sa.ron, 
 anil l''.ngtish C«/wjt, Ho. London, I7(i7. 
 
 Mkdai.i.ion. 7/1 architecture. Any circu- 
 lar tablet on whi<'h are presented iini)ossed 
 tigures or bustos. 
 
MED 
 
 Medailurgy. [from medal.] In archaio- 
 logy. The art of striking medals and other 
 coins. 
 
 Medicine, [mcdicina, Lat. from juijooCj a 
 cure.] In mythology, painting, and sculpture. 
 The ancients represented Medicine allego- 
 rically under the traits of Apollo, Miner- 
 va, Hygeia, and Esculapius. The moderns, 
 on the contrary, delineate the same qua- 
 lity in the shape of an aged female, in or- 
 der to express thereby that experience in 
 the basis of the medical art. She holds a 
 figure of Nature, the perpetual object of 
 her observation, and the knotted stick upon 
 which she leans indicates the difficulties 
 by which the study is accompanied. The 
 serpent, the casting of whose skin is em- 
 blematical of health, clings round her stalF 
 which rests upon the works of Galen and 
 Hippocrates : while the cock, consecrated 
 of old to Esculapius, on account of its vigi- 
 lance (so necessary in the healing art), is 
 at hand; and the bit and bridle lie at the 
 feet of the old woman, to indicate the tem- 
 perance indispensable to the convalescent. 
 After all we question whether the prac- 
 tisers of this noble art would fancy them- 
 selves much complimented by the personi- 
 fication. 
 
 Meditation, \meditatio, Lat.] In the 
 mythology of painting and smlpture. The 
 ancients have not personified this quality 
 except under the same traits as Mnemo- 
 syne. The moderns depict it in the figure 
 of a seated female, her temples resting on 
 her hand, and her whole form expressive 
 of the profoundest revei'ie: her eyes are 
 shut, and a large veil enwraps the entire 
 figure. 
 
 Mediterranean, [from mediterraneum 
 mare, Lat. an inland sea.] In emblematical 
 painting and sculpture. This sea is parti- 
 cularly delineated among the moderns by 
 a female who holds an oar in her hand, 
 and has a dolphin by her side. 
 
 Medusa. [Lat. ixkcovira, Gr.] In the my- 
 thology of art. One of the three Gorgons, 
 daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. She was 
 celebrated for her personal charms and 
 the especial beauty of her locks. This 
 tempting Neptune, he obtained her favoui'S 
 in the temple of Minerva, which so enraged 
 that deity that she changed these alluring 
 locks into serpents. Perseus rendered his 
 name immortal by the conquest of Medusa. 
 He cut off' her head, and the blood which 
 trickled from the wound all turned into 
 snakes. 
 
 The head of the dying Medusa is some- 
 times represented as most beautiful, some- 
 times most appalling. In the Strozzi Me- 
 dusa at Rome, her look is dead, but has 
 
 MEM 
 
 a beauty death itself cannot extinguish. 
 She is depicted, on a jasper at Florence, 
 with two serpents, whose tails are twined 
 together under her chin, and their heads 
 reared over her forehead. Her eyes are 
 frightfully convulsed. A breastplate with 
 the Medusa's head, when worn by a deity, 
 was called jEgis. 
 
 Megalographia. [Gr. from juiyae, great, 
 and ypd(pw, to write or engrave.] In archai- 
 ology. Viti'uvius applies this term to a 
 kind of painting with which the ancients 
 were accustomed to adorn the interior of 
 their edifices. It admitted only of repre- 
 sentations of their gods and demigods and 
 their fabulous exploits. 
 
 Melancholy, [inelancholia, Lat. from 
 jtifXaira and KoXr], atra bilis, or black cho- 
 ler,] In allegorical painting and sculpture. 
 The emblematical figure of Melancholy is 
 a man of leaden coloured complexion, 
 holding in one hand an open book, in the 
 other a closed purse; to represent his 
 tendency to study and his misanthropy. 
 La Feti, in a picture which was in the 
 Napoleon Museum at Paris, and of which 
 many copies have been made, has personi- 
 fied the same dark quality under the figure 
 of a female, young, but sallow and wasted. 
 Books are scattered around her, and on a 
 table near, lie in a confused way several 
 globes and mathematical instruments. Al- 
 bert Durer, in a print which is among 
 the very rarest of his works, has symbo- 
 lised Melancholy under the semblance of 
 a seated female, her head resting on her 
 hand. Her air is severe, her brow wrin- 
 kled, her eyes bent to the ground. Around 
 lie in disorder instruments of art, books, 
 rules, compasses, &c. A bunch of keys 
 hangs at her side. Just by stands a ladder, 
 the top of whicli is hidden in the clouds, 
 at her feet is a drowsy dog, and the win- 
 dow of the apartment is covered with cob- 
 webed cloth. 
 
 Meijna. [/XJ7X1VOV, Gr.] In the archaio- 
 logy of art. A kind of earth or colour 
 used by the ancients in painting, and 
 which, according to the description of 
 Dioscorides somewhat resembled ochre. 
 
 Member, \membrum, Lat. membre, Fr.] 
 In all the arts. A limb : a part appendant 
 to the body. We say of a figure, in the 
 arts of design, that its different members 
 are exact and well proportioned. 
 
 In architecture, this word is applied to 
 each of the different parts of a building, to 
 each separate portion of an entablature, or 
 to each diiTerent moulding of a cornice. 
 
 Memnon. [n'ifivm', Gr. cherishing, last- 
 ing.] In ancient architecture and sculpture. 
 A king of Abydos, son of Tithonus and 
 
MEM 
 
 Aurora. Achilles slew him before Troy, 
 because he had brought assistance to 
 Priam ; and when his body was laid upon 
 the pile, Apollo changed him into a bird, 
 at the request of Aurora: tliis bird multi- 
 plied greatly, and retired into Ethiopia 
 with its young ones. They were called 
 Memnonides; and it has been observed by 
 several of the ancients that they never 
 failed to return yearly to the tomb of 
 Memnon in Troas, where they fought till 
 some of them were killed. The Ethio- 
 pians, or ^Egyptians, over whom Memnon 
 reigned, erected a celebrated statue in 
 lionour of their monarch. This statue had 
 the wonderful property of uttering a me- 
 lodious sound every morning at sunrise, 
 like that which is heard at the breaking 
 of the string of a harp when it is wound 
 up. This music was said to be produced 
 by the rays of the sun when they fell upon 
 the statue. At the setting of the sun, and 
 in the night, the sound was lugubrious. 
 Strabo, in speaking of this curious subject, 
 confesses himself to have been puzzled, 
 and to have remained ignorant whether 
 the noise actually proceeded from the base 
 of the statue or from the people who sur- 
 rounded it while he was present. Ac- 
 cording to the testimony of Anticlides, an 
 author alluded to by Pliny, Memnon was 
 the inventor of the alphabet. 
 
 M. Millin goes at some length into an ac- 
 count of the controversy between two cele- 
 brated travellers, Mr. Pocock, and M. Nor- 
 den, a Dane, as to the situation and existing 
 fragments of this famous monument. Those 
 authors both treat of certain colossal sta- 
 tues, more or less in a state of mutilation, 
 which are to be seen in the neighbourhood 
 of (^arnac, and on the western stream of 
 the Nile. Two of these are still on tiieir 
 bases or pedestals, to one of whiili Mr. 
 Pocock seems anxious to secure tlie honour 
 of being esteemed the ancient nnisical phe- 
 nomenon. M. Norden, on the other hand, 
 maintains that distinction to be due to one 
 of two other statues which have fallen, 
 and are grievously disligured either by 
 time or violence, <ir i)otii. Millin takes 
 part with the Dane, and is even malicious 
 eniiugh to conjecture the reason why those 
 who visit the spot incline to adopt tlic 
 theory of Poc((ck, to be because Ins Mem- 
 non is formed of a stone or granite of softer 
 <|Mality, thereby allowing these virtuosi to 
 iiiimorlalize themselves by tiu> inscription 
 of their names. The fact is bejond the 
 ])ossil)ilily of denionstralioii, nor is it of 
 any eonse(juence that it should be other- 
 wise. To the lover of poetry the slatiu- 
 still exists and thuirisiies, the niNstcrious 
 
 MEN 
 
 music still vibrates to the touch of the 
 rays of the morning sun. Let us leave 
 the splendid liction (if such it be) as we 
 find it, and not, by seeking to establish 
 what is incapable of proof, sap the foun- 
 dation of a pleasant and classical super- 
 stition. 
 
 Memnonium. [Gr.] Inarchaiolo^ij. Stra- 
 bo and other ancient writers give this 
 name to the structure which is said to have 
 encircled the celebrated statue of Mem- 
 non. This long and superb peristyle was 
 dismantled and destroyed by order of 
 Cambyses, when he conquered Egypt. 
 The modern Greeks call it Stpan-w/j, 
 doubtless because they trace some re- 
 semblance between the colossal statue of 
 Memnon and that of Serapis. At Abydos 
 were found the ruins of the palace of 
 Memnon, to which the Greeks applied the 
 appellation of INIf/ivoi'iji^. 
 
 Memory, [mcmoria, Lat.] In emhlemati- 
 cal puinting- and sculpture. The Greeks 
 personified Memory under the figure of 
 Mnemosyne. She is sometimes represented 
 as a young female driving in a nail. The 
 iconologists also represented her as a mid- 
 dle-aged woman whose head-dress is 
 adorned with pearls and jewels, and who 
 holds the tip of her ear with the two first 
 fingers of her right hand. Ripa gives 
 her two visages, a black robe, a pen in 
 her right hand and a book in her left. 
 The dog is often placed by personifica- 
 tions of memory, in allusion to the acute- 
 ness with which this sense is displayed by 
 that sagacious aninml. 
 
 Menace. [Fr.] In emblemuticnl painting' 
 and sculpture. The iconologists represent 
 this passion under the traits of a female 
 with llamiug ejes, whose action is preg- 
 nant with violence and reproach, juid who 
 holds a sword in one hand and a stall' in 
 the other. They generally lay the scene 
 in the dead of night, whicli however is 
 faintly illuminated. 
 
 MENA(iE. [maniiii; Fr.] //i architecture. 
 The name of a jjlace generally of circular 
 construction, appropriated to the purposes 
 of horsenuinship and teaching the art of 
 riding. It was very customary for the 
 lioinans to ha\e buildings of this kind in 
 the inunediate vicinity of their houses. 
 Pliny has left us the following pictnres(|ue 
 desiriiilion of his: "The menage of my 
 country house is open in the middle, and 
 unfolds itself at once in all its extent to 
 the view of those who enter. It is encom- 
 passed by i)lane-trees, round which i\y is 
 entwined. Thus while the top of these 
 trees is verdant with their own proper 
 foliage, the lower part is e(|ually clothed 
 
MER 
 
 with a verdure foreign to it. These ivies 
 run along the trunk and branches, and 
 spreading from one plane tree to another 
 bind them together. Between the planes 
 are box-trees, and these in turn are envi- 
 roned by laurels, all mixing and mingling 
 their various foliage. 
 
 " Towards its entrance the menage is 
 straight, but at its extremity it deviates 
 into a semicircle. The walks within side 
 as well as without receive a, moderate and 
 agreeable degree both of heat and light. 
 Roses present themselves on all hands, 
 and cypress trees form arches overhead. 
 Rides and alleys diverge in every direc- 
 tion, some circular, others straight; while 
 box trees are trained into various shapes 
 and devices, occasionally presenting the 
 name of the owner, in other instances that 
 of the constructer or architect. Between 
 the trees small pyramids, and other orna- 
 mental objects arrest the eye." 
 
 Menagery. [Fr.] In architecture. A 
 structure divided into separate compart- 
 ments, where are kept and reared animals 
 of foreign or of rare species. The opulent 
 Romans, who were passionately fond of 
 the chase, had frequently menageries, or 
 perhaps we might rather term them pre- 
 serves, attached to their villas. 
 
 Meniscus. [Lat. menisque, Fr.] In the 
 archaiohgij of sculpture. The Athenians 
 were in the habit of placing upon the 
 heads of their statues a kind of disk or 
 bronze plate, to defend them from the rain, 
 and more particularly from the ordure of 
 birds. The word is derived from the re- 
 semblance of this article to a lunar disk. 
 
 Mercury. [Mercurius, Lat. from merx, 
 merchandise, or mercator, a merchant.] In 
 mythological painting and sculpture. The 
 son of Jupiter and Maia. He was the god 
 of merchandise, and in this character is 
 represented with the attribute of a purse 
 in his hand, and with his winged cap on 
 his head, which in the language of the 
 statuaries is as much as to say, " If you 
 take not gain when ofiiered, it will fly 
 away, and perhaps for ever." In a gem, 
 Mercury is giving up his purse to For- 
 tune: in a painting in Mear's collection, 
 he offers it to Minerva, who takes only a 
 little out of it, as if good luck had more to 
 do with it than good sense: in another 
 gem he offers it to a veiled lady, like Pu- 
 dicitia, who strenuously refuses it. 
 
 Mercury was also esteemed the god of 
 eloquence, as likewise of all gainful arts; 
 the inventor of the harp, and of the exer- 
 cise of wrestling. Another of his func- 
 tions was, to patronize thieves, himself 
 being an adept in that worthy profes- 
 
 MES 
 
 sion : notwithstanding which he was also, 
 strangely enough, regarded as the pre- 
 sider over highways and the guide of 
 passengers, in which capacity, terminal 
 statues (See Hermes) were erected to his • 
 honour in the public roads. 
 
 But the principal and distinguishing 
 character of this god, called among the 
 Greeks 'Hpjuj/e, is that of Jupiter's mes- 
 senger. His make is young, airy, and light, 
 all proper for swiftness. His limbs are 
 finely turned, and he yields to none but 
 Apollo and Bacchus in beauty. His dis- 
 tinguishing attributes are the petasus, or 
 winged cap; the talaria, or wings for his 
 feet ; and the caduceus, or wand, with two 
 serpents about it. To these must be added, 
 his harpe or long sword, with a particular 
 hook behind it. 
 
 The cap is like the common cap of the 
 servants of old. The wings might be 
 taken off; and we sometimes find only two 
 feathers stuck in it. Hence, perhaps, the 
 practice of the Roman messengers sticking 
 a feather in their cap, or, sometimes, in 
 the letter itself, as a mark of dispatch 
 (Juv. Sat. iv. V. 149). The wings for the 
 feet might also occasionally be removed. 
 In a figure in the Justinian gallery, Cupid 
 is fixing the wings on Mercury's feet. The 
 caduceus, too, is sometimes represented 
 with wings. Mercury is thus accoutred 
 in the Vatican manuscript with the chla- 
 mys floating behind him in the air. By 
 the flying back of the drapery, the artists 
 generally denote the motion of a person 
 making rapid way. 
 
 Mercy, [merci, mish'icorde, Fr.] In em- 
 blematical painting and sculpture. Ripa, 
 seldom very happy in his allegories, has 
 left us a particularly far-fetched personi- 
 fication of Mercy, which he represents 
 under the figure of a woman, whose com- 
 plexion is of a dazzling whiteness, and 
 who has an aquiline nose, which Ripa 
 seems to regard (though nobody else does) 
 as an indication of sensibility. She has 
 an olive garland round her head, her left 
 shoulder bare, a branch of cedar in the 
 right hand, and at her feet a rook, which 
 bird the Egyptians are said to have reve- 
 renced as more peculiarly inclined to cle- 
 mency than any other. — It is almost need- 
 less to say that a painter who should in 
 the present day allegorize Mercy after this 
 fashion would be set down either as unin- 
 telligible or mad. The only comprehen- 
 sible method of depicting this quality is 
 obviously by embodying it in the shape of 
 some one who is in the act of relieving the 
 unfortunate. 
 
 Mesaulon. [Gr.] Iii ancient architecture. 
 
 G G 
 
MET 
 
 According to Vitruvius, the Greeks and 
 Romand applied this name to a little court 
 or open space between the two sides of a 
 large house, similar to those whidi we 
 now observe in many palaces, and the ob- 
 ject of which in either case may be de- 
 scribed to give light to staircases, separate 
 entrances, &c. 
 
 Metals. [nhaWov, Gr,] Firm, heavy, 
 and hard substances, of which it is ol)- 
 served, tliat they possess a lustre; that 
 they are opaque ; that they are fusible, or 
 may be melted ; that their specific gravity 
 is greater than that of any other bodies 
 yet discovered ; that they are better con- 
 ductors of electricity than any other body ; 
 that they are malleable, or capable of 
 being extended and flattened by the ham- 
 mer; and that they are ductile or tena- 
 cious, that is, capable of being drawn out 
 into threads or wires. The simple metals 
 are six in number; gold, silver, copper, 
 tin, iron, and lead : but recent discoveries 
 and classifications have greatly increased 
 this number. 
 
 Homer never speaks of metals collec- 
 tively, and probably the word //sraXXoj', 
 from whence our term is derived, was not 
 then at all in existence. The original dis- 
 covery of metals was doubtless accidental, 
 but the art of metallurgy as evidently 
 springs from industry and invention. Va- 
 rious savage nations are at the present 
 day utterly ignorant of the use of metals, 
 and substitute lish-bones, shells, flints, &c. 
 Egypt and several Asiatic countries were, 
 as appears by holy writ, early acquainted 
 with the art of working metals; indeed 
 with them obviously originated almost all 
 the arts whether useful or ornamental, 
 and to I'-gypt Greece lierself is indebted 
 for the lirst elements of most of them. 
 
 M. Millin adopts a theory that the well 
 known phrase of " the four ages of the 
 world," designated by the terms golden, 
 hilver, copper or brazen, and iron, was flrst 
 meant to point out the successive order of 
 the discovery of tliese metals. 
 
 The metals employed in the Fine Arts 
 are gold, silver, copper (and its alloys, 
 such as bronze, &c.) tin and lead. Several 
 otiiers liowever enter, in a state of <ixy(h', 
 into use in oil paintings and enamelling. 
 
 Upon various ancient coins and medals 
 we lind the name of the country inscribed 
 from which the nietiil composing them was 
 extracted ; as, for instance, those inscribed 
 Ml-tai.u Dklm. designate that the metal 
 was brought from Dalmatia, which was 
 ancit^nlly denoiiiiiiMlcd Uelnnitia, and of 
 tli(i number and richness of the mines 
 wherein both the liiatorians and the poets 
 often vaunt. 
 
 MET 
 
 Metamorphosis, [jifrd, to turn about, 
 and /iop^jj, a form.] In the tmjthology of 
 art. Transformation: change of shape. 
 This, as applied to mythology is of two 
 kinds: namely, first, the ephemeral as- 
 sumption of other forms by the heathen 
 deities, to accomplish any given purpose — 
 such, for instance, as the transformation 
 of Jupiter into a bull, or that of Minerva 
 into an old woman : and, second, the per- 
 p; tual metamorphoses of mortals by the 
 gods : as, for example, the change of Ac- 
 ticon into a stag, of Lycaon into a wolf, 
 kc. 
 
 Metamorphoses are not expressed with 
 facility either by the brush or chisel ; and 
 few ancient monuments of this description 
 have reached our times. Among the most 
 eminent are the Tyrrhenian sailors turned 
 into dolphins, found upon the frieze of 
 the choragic monument of Lysicrates at 
 Athens; a beautiful nymph transformed 
 into a flower, in the cabinet of Mr. Town- 
 ley ; a gem engraven for the Duke of Or- 
 leans, representing the metamorphosis of 
 Narcissus into a flower; Actaeon changed 
 into a stag upon a Greek vase. 
 
 The moderns however have achieved 
 many performances of this nature, among 
 which may be noticed that of the chevalier 
 Bernini, which represents Apollo seizing 
 Daphne at the moment at which she is 
 changing into a laurel. 
 
 Metatome. [mctatiis, Lat. meted, or 
 measured out.] Jn arckitccture. The space 
 between one dentil or denticle and ano- 
 ther. Vitruvius applies to tlie same thing 
 the word metocha. 
 
 Metope, [/xtra, between, and oirt), a 
 hole.] In architecture. The interval or 
 scpiare space between the triglyphs in the 
 Doric frieze. 
 
 The ancients were in the habit of orna- 
 menting these parts of their buildings w ith 
 carved works, or with ])aintings represent- 
 ing the heads of oxen, vessels, and otiier 
 articles brought into use^in heatlien sacri- 
 fices. 
 
 Since some dilliculty is found to occur, 
 in disposing the triglyphs and metopes in 
 that degree of synunetrical projiortion re- 
 quired by the Doric order, certain arclii- 
 ti'cls have ad\ ised the use of that order to 
 be restricted to the construction of ti in- 
 ples. 
 
 Min'iucM.. [inctricKs, I^at. from ittriwi', 
 Gr. a measure.] In the arts ofattislnu-lion 
 and desiffn. In its most extensive signifi- 
 cation this term implies every thing which 
 is mcasureii with exactness and due prt)- 
 portion; and of which both the greater 
 and lesser parts harmonize well with each 
 other. A structure built for the purposes 
 
MEX 
 
 of habitation, and which consequently 
 should be planned with a peculiar refer- 
 ence to objects of utility, has of course less 
 necessity to lay out for attracting the eye 
 by its beauty and shapeliness than another 
 purely ornamental ; nevertheless, this prin- 
 ciple of consistency and harmony should 
 never be wholly lost sight of. 
 
 Mexico. In the history of the arts. At 
 the epoch of the discovery of America by 
 the Spaniards, this people had already 
 reached a certain degree of civilization, 
 and had practised several arts, including 
 that of drawing. On the landing of Cor- 
 tez, the inhabitants of various parts of the 
 country apprized their monarch of what 
 was going forward by making a kind of 
 paintings on cloth. Some relics of this 
 sort are extremely curious. They repre- 
 sent marches of the different armies, sacri- 
 fices made to their gods of straggling Spa- 
 niards by the enraged barbarians ; tri- 
 umphal entries of the combatants into 
 various towns, &c. &c. 
 
 The Mexican paintings however, which 
 some have extravagantly praised, are de- 
 preciated by other writers, as uncouth 
 delineations of common objects, or very 
 coarse images of the human and other 
 forms, destitute of gracefulness and in- 
 deed of propriety. In the armoury of the 
 royal palace of Madrid are exhibited seve- 
 ral suits of annour said to have belonged 
 to Montezuma; and which are composed 
 of thinly lacquered copper-plates. Dr. 
 Robertson observes of these, that in the 
 opinion of competent judges they are evi- 
 dently Eastern. Clavigero, on the other 
 hand, maintains them to be actually Mexi- 
 can J since, says he, we are absolutely cer- 
 tain, from abundant testimony, that those 
 nations used such plates of copper in war, 
 and that they covered their breasts,^ thighs, 
 and arms therewith as a protection against 
 arrows: whereas we do not know that 
 such were ever in use amongst the inha- 
 bitants of the Philippine Islands, to which 
 Dr. Robertson refers them, or among any 
 other people who had any commerce with 
 the Mexicans. 
 
 These people, proceeds Clavigero, could 
 boast of many inventions worthy of immor- 
 talizing their name. Besides those of 
 casting metals, and mosaic works in fea- 
 thers and shells, they understood the art 
 of making paper : together with those of 
 dyeing in iudelii)le colours ; of spinning 
 and weaving the finest hair of rabbits and 
 hares; making of a stone called itztli, 
 beautiful lookingglasses set with gold ; 
 the cutting and polishing of gems ; breed- 
 ing of the cochineal, and making use of 
 
 MEZ 
 
 its colour; preparing of cement for the 
 pavements of their houses, &:c. Their pot- 
 ters were famous; and their carpenters 
 wrought several kinds of wood with in- 
 struments made of copper. 
 
 It must, however, be admitted, that in 
 the copper-plates and wood-cuts which 
 have been published as representations of 
 Mexican paintings, every figure intro- 
 duced, whether of men, quadrupeds, or 
 birds, is extremely rude and ungainly. 
 But although necessarily ranking low as 
 works of art, they rise into immense inter- 
 est and importance, when, as we before 
 observed, they are considered as national 
 records. 
 
 Of their picture-writing some singular 
 specimens have been preserved ; the most 
 valuable of which have been published by 
 Purchas in sixty-six plates, divided into 
 three parts. The first contains the history 
 of the Mexican empire under its ten mo- 
 narchs. The second is a tribute-roll, re- 
 presenting what each conquered town paid 
 into the Royal Treasury. The third is a 
 code of their institutions, domestic, politi- 
 cal, and military. Another specimen of 
 Mexican painting has been published in 
 thirty-two plates by the Archbishop of 
 Toledo; and some very curious examples 
 have been recently brought over to this 
 capital by Mr. Bullock of the Egyptian 
 Hall, Piccadilly, whose exhibition of an- 
 cient and modern Mexico (the result of a 
 spirited voyage to that country for the 
 purpose of collecting materials) is inter- 
 esting in a variety of ways, and highly de- 
 serving of a visit from every lover both of 
 Nature and Art. 
 
 Ail these paintings resemble each other 
 strongly in style and character. They re- 
 present things rather than ideas; exhibit 
 images to the eye, without arrangement or 
 selection ; still they are worthy of consider- 
 ation as exhibiting an instance, by no means 
 common, of the efforts of a barbarian nation 
 towards a very high degree of refinement; 
 and they acquire peculiar interest just 
 now, when the modern Mexicans have as- 
 sumed a new attitude, and one to be re- 
 spected amongst the nations of the world. 
 
 Mezzo-Tinto. [Italian, half-tinted.] In 
 engravi)ig\ A particular method of en- 
 graving figures on copper. 
 
 We have already (see Engraving) made 
 some allusion to the probable invention of 
 this branch of art. It is very peculiar in 
 its nature and execution. The artist rakes, 
 hatches, or punches the surface of the 
 plate all over with a knife, or instrument 
 made for the purpose, first one way and 
 then the other, across, &c. till the face of 
 G g2 
 
MIL 
 
 the plate be thus wholly covered with 
 lines or furrows, close and as it were con- 
 tiguous to each other; so that if iin im- 
 pression were tlius taken from it, it would 
 be one uniform blot or smut. 
 
 This being done, the design is drawn or 
 marked on the same face ; after which 
 they proceed, with burnishers, scrapers, 
 &c. to expunge or take out the dents or 
 furrows in all those parts where tlie lights 
 of the piece are to fall ; and that more or 
 less as the lights are to be stronger or 
 fainter: leaving black those parts which 
 are to represent the shadows or decipher- 
 ings of the drauglit. 
 
 It being much easier to scrape or bur- 
 nish away parts of a dark ground, corres- 
 ponding -with the outline of any design 
 sketched upon it, than to form shades upon 
 a light ground, by an infinite number of 
 hatches, strokes, and points, wiiich must 
 all terminate with exactness on tlie out- 
 line, and at the same time differ in tlieir 
 force and manner; the method of scraping, 
 as it is called in mezzo-tinto, consequently 
 becomes mucli more easy and expeditious 
 than any otiier manner of engraving. The 
 instruments used in this style are cradles, 
 scrapers, and burnishers. 
 
 The art of mezzo-tinto engraving was 
 at first considered as only adapted to broad 
 subjects, and where high minute finishing 
 was required, it was thought vain to at- 
 tempt it ; but llie great advance made since 
 the introduction of the art have convinced 
 every artist and amateur to the contrary, 
 and tlie successful works of Eadom (espe- 
 cially his masterly llower-pieces) are ad- 
 mirable specimens of its power, as also 
 are the beautiful productions of Hodges, 
 Dixon, and many oilier artists of the pre- 
 sent day. It is decidedly most appropriate 
 for tlie engraving of portraits, both as to 
 touch and ellect. 
 
 The art of scraping mc/.zo-tinto has been 
 applied to the printing with a variety of 
 colours, in order to produce the resem- 
 blance of paintings. 
 
 I\li(o(()i)i,iEU. [I'V.] Ill tlw art of ciiniiiii- 
 in wood. The Milanese editors of Winc- 
 kelmanii's History of Art range this tree 
 among tlioM' llii' wood of « liicli w;is work- 
 ed by the ancient artists: but it remains 
 to determine by what name the ancients 
 knew and denominated it; whether it is 
 the ciltis of I'liiiy, as Dalcclianip thinks, 
 with considerable probability, or (he <(//.s/( r, 
 as Harduuin is of u])inion. At ail events, 
 there is no reason to imagine I hat it was 
 ever niadt; use of by tlie sculplois. 
 
 Mii.i.-iioDsi;. liivXi}, Gr. niyln. Sax.] In 
 nnliidrhnr. A building raisird for the |iur- 
 
 MIN 
 
 pose of enclosing an engine or machine, 
 which, by means of any adequate force, as 
 steam, water, wind, or manual exertion, 
 acquires such an additional power as en- 
 ables the machinery to act with increased 
 efl'ect and with requisite regularity. 
 
 Water-mills similarly constructed to 
 ours appear to have become known to tlie 
 Romans about the time of Cicero. 
 
 Mii.uARiLM ALREtM. 1)1 arcluuolo^. A 
 gilded pillar in Rome, near Saturn's tem- 
 ple, whence the account of their miles are 
 said to have begun. See the following 
 article. 
 
 jMiujary. [milliare, a milestone, Lat. 
 from/tiXiov, Gr.] Inarchaiologij. The stone 
 or column erected by the Romans in their 
 public roads to mark the distances from 
 one mile to another, and the number of 
 miles from Rome was also marked there- 
 on. Hence the expression so often met 
 with in Latin authors, tevt'w ab urbc /«/)/(/<•, 
 ad quartum lapidcm, kc. 
 
 Caius Gracchus was the first Roman 
 who established this highly useful cus- 
 tom, which iu the time of the emperors 
 was adopted on all the public roads 
 throughout the empire. Caius Gracchus 
 likewise occasioned square flat stones to 
 be placed at occasional distances, to assist 
 the traveller in getting into his chariot, 
 mounting his horse, &c. 
 
 In the capitol at Rome is still preserved 
 a milliary or milestone found near the .Ap- 
 piau way, and which h<is been conjectured, 
 from its appearance and situation, to have 
 been the first or original one. In the fo- 
 rum of ancient Rome there was a grand 
 milliary stone, upon which was traced the 
 great roads of Italy, and the distances of 
 the princijjal places from the capital. It 
 was Augustus Ciesar who, while he exer- 
 cised the oHice of curator rtitrion, erected 
 this pilliU' and enriched it in a variety of 
 ways. It received the nanu> of milliariiiin 
 nureum (golden milliar\) from these orna- 
 ments, and above all from a globe of gilt 
 metal, by which it ^^ as surmounted. This 
 stone or column has been regarded by 
 some antiquaries as having been the cen- 
 tral point from whiih all the rest were 
 reckoned; but a variety of opinion has 
 always prevailed on this subject. 
 
 The conuuon milestone to be found on 
 all the highways (or at least all the con- 
 sideral)le ones) in this country is a usage 
 derived from that of the milliary. 
 
 MiNAHET. I 1m. frcmi the Turkish.] A 
 kind of eir( ular lurref rising by dillerent 
 stages or di\ i.sioiis, each of which has a 
 balcony. These turrets or minarets are 
 common enough in iMahomelan (ountries. 
 
MIN 
 
 They are used as posts from whence the 
 hours are announced and the people are 
 called to prayer, bells not being in use 
 among those nations. 
 
 Minerva, [Lat.] In thermjthology of paint- 
 ing and sculpture. The goddess of wisdom, 
 war, and of all the liberal arts, is fabled 
 to have sprung from Jupiter's brain ready 
 armed and in full growth. Slie was im- 
 mediately admitted into the assembly of 
 gods, and considerable power was award- 
 ed to her. She could prolong the life of 
 men, bestow the gift of prophecy, and in- 
 deed was the only one of all the divinities 
 whose authority and consequence were 
 regarded as equal to those of her father. 
 The actions of Minerva are numerous, as 
 well as the kindnesses by which she en- 
 deared herself to man. She and Neptune 
 disputed as to which should give a name 
 to the city of Cecropia. It was decided 
 that whichever of tlie two produced in an 
 instant the most beneficial gift to mankind 
 should have that honour. Neptune, with 
 a stroke of his trident, brought a horse out 
 of the ground ; whilst Minerva, with her 
 lance, made an olive spring up in full 
 bloom : this being the symbol of peace, 
 was held a preferable achievement by the 
 gods, and thereupon the victorious god- 
 dess called the city Athens, and became 
 its tutelar deity, the Greeks always deno- 
 minating Minerva 'A&r]vr) or ' k^rjva'ia. 
 
 The worship of Minerva was univer- 
 sally established : she had magnificent 
 temples in Egypt, Phoenicia, all parts of 
 Greece, Italy, Gaul, and Sicily. She was 
 invoked by every artist, and particularly 
 such as worked in painting, sculpture, em- 
 broidery, or wool. 
 
 Minerva is represented as a beauty, but 
 of the severer kind, and without the graces 
 and softnesses, which for instance distin- 
 guish Venus. Dignity and a becoming 
 air, fiimness and composure, with regular 
 features and a certain masculine sternness, 
 form the peculiar characteristics of her 
 face. Hence her heads are so like those 
 of Alexander the Great that they have 
 been occasionally mistaken for his. Her 
 dress and attributes are adapted to her 
 character. She has a helmet on her head, 
 and a plume nodding formidably in the 
 air. In her right hand she shakes a spear, 
 and in her left grasps a shield, with the 
 head of the dying Medusa upon it. The 
 same figure, with all its terrors and beau- 
 ties, is also on her breastplate ; and some- 
 times she herself has serpents about her 
 bosom and shoulders. 
 
 It was common among the Romans to 
 transfer the distinguishing attributes of 
 
 M I N 
 
 their divinities to the statues of their em- 
 perors. This kind of flattery was carried 
 by the ancient artists in no point so far as 
 in the Gorgon's head on Minerva's breast- 
 plate, as the emperors were fond of this 
 badge of wisdom and strength. There 
 might be made a series of Roman empe- 
 rors from Augustus to Gallienus with this 
 attribute on their breastplates, except per- 
 haps two or three, of whom scarce any 
 figures remain. The strongest for the dy- 
 ing cast of the eyes is on the bust of Nero 
 at Florence, and answers to Virgil's fine 
 description, Mn. iii. v. 438. There is ano- 
 ther on a Domitian, alluded to by Martial, 
 vii. ep. 1. 
 
 In most of the statues of Minerva she is 
 represented as sitting, and sometimes she 
 holds in one hand a distaff instead of a 
 spear. When she was depicted as the 
 goddess of the liberal arts she was ar- 
 ranged in a variegated veil, which the 
 ancients called peplum. Sometimes Mi- 
 nerva's helmet was covered at top with 
 the figure of a cock, properly, on account 
 of that bird's great courage, held sacred 
 to the deity of war. Some of her statues 
 represented her helmet with a sphinx in 
 the middle, supported on either side by 
 griffins ; and on some medals, a chariot 
 drawn by four horses, or, in other in- 
 stances, a dragon or serpent with winding 
 spires appears at the top of her helmet. 
 
 Miniature Painting. See Painting. 
 
 Minium. [Lat.] In painting. According 
 to Pliny, this term meant common redlead, 
 or cinnabar, which the Romans used great- 
 ly, extracting it from mines. There was 
 however another substance to which they 
 appropriated the same name, and which 
 was a preparation of calcined lead. This 
 colour is found in greater or less degrees 
 of deepness, in most of the stuccoings and 
 paintings which still exist at Hercula- 
 neum. 
 
 Minotaur, [ininotaurus, Lat. from MtVof, 
 King of Crete, and tovqoq, a bull.] In the 
 mythology of art. A celebrated monster, 
 half a man and half a bull. Virgil uses 
 the expression, regarding it, of biformis ; 
 and the most ancient figures give it a bull's 
 head with human parts below. See Bu- 
 centaur, Centaur, Labyrinth. 
 
 Mint, [nmnte, Dutch, mynetian. Sax.] 
 In architecture. A building appropriated 
 to the coinage of money. 
 
 Minute, \rninutus, Lat.] An architec- 
 tonic measure; tlie lower diameter of a 
 column, being divided into sixty parts, 
 each part is called a minute. 
 
 Minutk*;. [Lat. minutieux,Vx^ In all the 
 arts. See Detail. 
 
MIT 
 
 MiRMiixo. [Lat.] In archaiologij. A spe- 
 cies of gladiator, arrayed according to the 
 fasliioii of tiie Gaulish nations, and who 
 was made to combat with the Retiarii and 
 the Thraces. See Gladiator. 
 
 MmnoR. [miroir, Fr.] In architecture. 
 A small oval ornament, cut into the deep 
 mouldings, and separated by wreaths of 
 flowers. 
 
 Mitre, [jiirpa, Gr.] In costume. A sa- 
 cerdotal ornament worn on the head by 
 bishops, and certain abbots, on solemn oc- 
 casions; being a sort of cap, pointed and 
 cleft at top. The high priest among the 
 Jews wore a mitre or bonnet on his head. 
 The Inferior priests of that nation had 
 likewise their mitres, but in what parti- 
 culars they differed from that worn by the 
 high priest is not now certain. Some 
 writers contend that the earlier bishops 
 wore mitres ; but this circumstance is also 
 enveloped in a good deal of doubtfulness. 
 Amcngst the primitive followers of Chris- 
 tianity there was a class of young women 
 who professed a state of virginitj^ and 
 were solemnly consecrated thereto. These 
 wore a purple and golden mitre as a badge 
 of distinction. His holiness the Pope uses 
 four difierent mitres, which are more or 
 less rich, adorned according to the nature 
 of the festivals on occasion of which they 
 are assumed. The cardinals formerly wore 
 mitres; and some canons of cathedrals in 
 Popish countries have the privilege of 
 wearing the mitre, which is also borne by 
 several families of distinction in Germany 
 as their crest. 
 
 But we must look back into remoter 
 ages in order to find the origin of the use 
 of the mitre. It would seem to have ob- 
 tained primarily in India. According to 
 several authors, it was first a part of fe- 
 male costume, and when worn by a man 
 was considered as indicative of effemi- 
 nacy. The fillet with which Bacchus is 
 often represented as having his head 
 bound, has been denominated JMitrepIwrn. 
 A peculiar kind of headdress, covering 
 the whole head, is often found depicted on 
 ancient coins, &c. with pendents or pointed 
 dewlaps, by means of which tiuy perhaps 
 tied this kind of niitn: uiuicr the diin. 
 These ties or dewlaps are denominated by 
 "Virgil redimkula mHrw. Tiiis was proba- 
 bly the Phrygian mitre, for wo find I'aris 
 with this luiaddress on a gem pul)lished 
 by Natter, and subsequently by Winckel- 
 nianii, in his Monumaiti Incditi, No. 112. 
 l*riain,and the Amazons, ujion the Home- 
 ric monuments, and the l'ar(hian kings, 
 upon several medals, have a similar mitre. 
 The mitre ib very frequently met wi(h 
 
 xMOD 
 
 in early Christian manuscripts, in illumi- 
 nated missals, and upon the oldest eccle- 
 siastical monuments : this, however, might 
 be expected, since its usage has always 
 been principally ecclesiastic. A statue of 
 St. Peter, erected in the seventh century, 
 bears this mark of distinction, in the shape 
 of a round, high, and pyramidal mitre, 
 such as those worn by each of the popes 
 since. Perhaps this statue offers one of 
 the earliest instances of its usage in the 
 Christian churches. 
 
 MiTREPHORA. [Lat.] In the archaiology 
 or mythology of costtime. The peculiar 
 kind of bandage, fillet, or mitre which is 
 often found decorating the head of Bac- 
 chus in ancient representations of that 
 deity. See the foregoing article. 
 
 Mnemosyne. [Mv?;;io(ti;j'»j, Gr. memory.] 
 In mijthologkal painting and sculpture. The 
 goddess of Memory, which word see. 
 
 Mode. [Fr. modus, Lat.] In costume. 
 See Costume. See also, in reference to 
 the more enlarged sense of the term mode, 
 the articles on Style and Taste. 
 
 Model, [modulus, Lat. modele, Fr.] /n 
 all the arts. Speaking generally, this word 
 may be applied to an original pattern of 
 any kind proposed for copy or imitation. 
 It is particularly used, in building, for an 
 artificial pattern formed in stone or wood, 
 or, as is most commonly the case, in plas- 
 ter, with all due parts and proportions, in 
 order for the more correct execution and 
 conducting of some great work, and to af- 
 ford an idea of the effect to be produced. 
 Models in imitation of any natural or arti- 
 ficial substance are usually made by means 
 of moulds comi)oscd of plaster of Paris. 
 
 In ]Hiinting, this is the name given to a 
 man or woman who is procured to exhibit 
 him or herself in a state of nudity for the 
 advantage of the students. These models 
 are constantly provided in all academies 
 and schools for painting, and it is custonuiry 
 for all the students who have acquired a 
 tolerable use of the pencil to be intro- 
 duced to this kind of study, and urged to 
 exertion and emulation in it. By this 
 nu»ans, the details and proimrtions of the 
 human sliajie, the play of the muscles, the 
 varieties of expression, ike. are displayed 
 and inculcated far better than by any 
 course of lectures or any study of former 
 works. 
 
 The term model is, however, at the same 
 time extended to the great masters and to 
 their admiriiMe i)errormances, and it is 
 clear thiit the enlarged meaning we first 
 applied to it fully warrants such an e\- 
 ti'iision. 
 
 It is desirable that the li\ing models 
 
MOD 
 
 used in an academy, or even in a private 
 painting room, should be changed as fre- 
 quently as possible, or the student is in 
 danger of falling into mannerism. Millin 
 speaks of a model, of the name of Des- 
 champs, who did duty in this way upwards 
 of forty years in the academy at Paris, 
 and grows quite facetious in alluding to 
 the facility with which this person's form 
 and features might be recognised, in every 
 variety of subject or of expression, in all 
 the paintings of the students of that pe- 
 riod. 
 
 In sculpture a model implies a figure 
 made of wax or terra cotta, or any other 
 malleable substance, wiiich the artist 
 moulds to guide him in fashioning his 
 work, as the painter first makes a sketch, 
 or the architect a design. 
 
 Modelling, [from the verb, to modcl.l 
 In sculpture and architecture. When a mo- 
 del of any existing object is to be taken, 
 the original is first to be greased, in order 
 to prevent the plaster from sticking to it^ 
 and then to be placed on a smooth table, 
 previously greased, or covered with a 
 cloth, to guard against the same accident : 
 then surround the original with a frame 
 or ridge of glazier's putty, at such a dis- 
 tance as will admit of the plaster resting 
 upon the table, on every side of the sub- 
 IH ject, for about an inch, or as much as may 
 ■^ be thought sufficient to give the proper 
 degree of strength to the mould. An ade- 
 k quate quantity of plaster is then to be 
 " poured as uniformly as possible over the 
 whole substance, until it is every where 
 covered to such a thickness as to give a 
 proper substance to the mould, which may 
 vary in proportion to the size. The whole 
 must then be allowed to continue in this 
 way till the plaster shall have attained its 
 firmness ; when, the frame being removed, 
 
 ^the mould may be inverted and the subject 
 taken from it; and when the plaster is 
 thoroughly dry, it should be well sea- 
 soned. 
 
 Modest V. [_modestia, Lat.] In emblema- 
 tical painting and sculpture. The emblem 
 of this virtue is a young female robed in 
 white, and covered by a veil, with no other 
 ornament besides, except her hair. 
 
 MoDiLLioN. \_modillon, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. An ornament resembling a bracket, 
 in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite 
 cornices. 
 
 In Grecian architecture, however, the 
 Ionic order is without modillions in the 
 cornice, as are also the Roman examples 
 of the same order, with the exception of 
 the Temple of Concord, at Rome, which 
 has both modillions and dentils. 
 
 MON 
 
 A singular example of modillions is to 
 be found in the frontispiece of Nero, at 
 Rome, where tliey consist of two plain 
 faces, separated by a small cyma reversa, 
 and crowned with an ovolo and bead ; and 
 another very remarkable specimen is that 
 of the frieze of the fourth order of the Co- 
 losseum, cut on the outside, or projecting 
 part, of a cyma reversa form. 
 
 MoDius. [Lat. from p6Sio(:, a measure, 
 Gr.] In the archaiology of sculpture. This 
 name is applied to a kind of basket fre- 
 quently seen on the heads of the heathen 
 divinities ; this basket is likewise occa- 
 sionally called Calathus, which word see. 
 Module, \jnodulus, Lat.] An architec- 
 tonic measure ; the lower diameter of a 
 column being divided into two parts, one 
 is a module ; and each module is divided 
 into thirty minutes ; thus either is not a de- 
 terminate, but a proportionate measure. 
 See Minute. 
 
 The term module is also sometimes used 
 with reference to the different sizes of 
 medals. See Medai,. 
 
 Mole. [Fr. moel. Sax.] In architecture. 
 A mound, or a pier constructed of immense 
 blocks of stone, and thrown into the sea 
 in the form of a dyke, to shelter vessels 
 from the violence and impetuosity of the 
 waves. 
 
 Among the Romans, the mole was a 
 species of mausoleum of a circular form, 
 upon a square base, surrounded by co- 
 lumns, and covered with a dome. Such 
 was that of the Emperor Hadrian at Rome, 
 which is at present denominated the Cas- 
 tle of St. Angelo. See Hadrianeium. 
 
 Monastery, [monasterium, Lat.] In ar- 
 chitecture. A convent, or house built for 
 the reception and entertainment of monks, 
 mendicant friars, or nuns, whether it be 
 an abbey, priory, &c. See Abbey. 
 
 MoNETARii. [Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 maker or coiner of medals or money. 
 These monetarii, with their wives and 
 children, anciently formed a regularly or- 
 ganized body, constantly employed in the 
 fabrication of specie. 
 
 The monetales triumviri were three indi- 
 viduals who had the surveillance of this 
 body, and the whole management of the 
 mint. 
 
 Money. [mo7inoie, Fr.] In the art of en- 
 graving. This word has properly no plu- 
 ral, although former usage admitted of 
 monies. Metals coined for the purposes of 
 barter and commerce. The medium of ex- 
 change. Medals with an infinite variety 
 of inscriptions, &c. were applied by the 
 ancients to this use. See Medals. 
 Monochrome, [/xovoc, single, and Kpwjitw, 
 
MON 
 
 colour, Gr.] In ancient painting. A paint- 
 ing with one sinijle colour. This descrip- 
 tion of art id very ancient, and was known 
 by the Etruscans. It is an undoubted fact, 
 which, indeed, it requires no great extent 
 of credulity to believe, that the first speci- 
 mens of the art of painting were of one 
 tint only, and the figures introduced all 
 put in with lines of this one only hue, 
 which was most commonly red, made 
 either with cinnabar or minium. Instead 
 of red they sometimes used white paint. 
 Quintilian says of Polygnotus, and Pliny 
 of Zeuxis, that their performances of this 
 kind were of the latter description. The 
 antique tombs of the Tarquins, in the 
 neighbourhood of Corneto, offer several 
 figures painted in white upon a dark 
 ground. The first four plates in the first 
 volume of the paintings of Herculaneum 
 contain several monochromes upon marble. 
 The most numerous monuments existing 
 of this kind of painting are on terra cotta. 
 
 As this kind of painting, when adopted 
 from choice, forfeits all the various beau- 
 ties arising from the use of colours, it is 
 incumbent on the artist to endeavour to 
 make up for this defect by every other 
 attainable excellence, and above all, by 
 Aose of form and expression. 
 
 Monogram, [jaovoc, single, or one, and 
 ypaiJIia.] In archuiohgy. A character or 
 cipher composed of one, two, or more let- 
 ters interwoven ; being a sort of abbrevia- 
 tion of a name, anciently used as a seal, 
 badge, arms, &c. The latter use of it is 
 particularly ancient, as appears from Plu- 
 tarch, and from some Greek medals of the 
 time of Philip of Macedon, and Alexander 
 his son. The Roman labarum bore the 
 monogram of Jesus Christ, which con- 
 sisted of two letters, a P placed perpendi- 
 cularly through the middle of an X,aswe 
 find it on many medals of the age of Con- 
 stantinc, these being the two first letters 
 of the word XPl^TOii:. Thus, under the 
 Kastern empire it is usual to find I\IIK, 
 which form the monogram of .'Mary, Jesus, 
 Constantine. 
 
 The use of monograms was exceedingly 
 common upon Greek coins; and many an- 
 tiquarians have bestowed much lime and 
 attention in the edbrt to decijjhcr tiiem— a 
 useless labour, and equally unavailing as 
 uscdess; since a great nnmlii'r of these 
 monograms were without doubt of a con- 
 ventitmal nature, and understood only by 
 a few even in the times at which the coins 
 were current. 
 
 Mcmlfaucon, in his Palcugraiihic (iiriijiw, 
 has given a very extensive catalogue of 
 inonogrunis taken from medals of various 
 
 MON 
 
 kinds. SchlcGger has furnished another 
 in his Dissertadun sur une Mcdaille d'Alcx- 
 andre. Froelich has endeavoured to ex- 
 plain several in his Histoire des Rois de 
 Sijrie. Combe has added an ample col- 
 lection in his Description of the Medals in 
 the Cabinet of Hunter. The Prince Torre- 
 muzza has also explained a good many in 
 his Description des Monnoies de Sicile. 
 Pellerin, in his Recueil des Villes, des Peu- 
 ples, et des Rois, has given two plates of 
 monograms, elucidating such as are sus- 
 ceptible of elucidation. But we will not 
 swell our list of learned works further, 
 for the reason alluded to above. 
 
 MoNOLiTHAL. [juoi'oc, onc, and \i6og, a 
 stone.] In arehaiologij. A\'orks constructed 
 of one single stone. The Romans had no 
 word expressive of this kind of perform- 
 ance, although they had several examples 
 of it. Laberius, it is true, speaks of " mo- 
 nolithal" columns, but we are inclined to 
 regard it as a solitary instance. Pliny, 
 speaking of the Laocoon, says that it is c.r 
 una lapide, but does not use this peculiar 
 term. Strabo and Diodorus have both 
 written about monolithal pillars: and He- 
 rodotus talks of a chamber (cut in a rock), 
 which was hewn out of one tremendous 
 block. It was pretended that the same 
 monstrous excavation was subsequently 
 removed, by order of a certain king Ama- 
 sia, from Sais to the city of Elephanta, 
 and the removal employed three thousand 
 men during three years. In Lower Egypt, 
 at some distance from Alexandria, several 
 grottoes, and other sul)terraneau struc- 
 tures have been discovered, but these can- 
 not be traced back to any very remote age. 
 M. Denon, the intelligent Frenili traveller 
 in Egypt, has given representations of some 
 of these, together with sundry little mono- 
 lilhal temples. 
 
 MoNOPODiLM. [povoQ, one, and ttocioi; 
 from Troi'f, a foot.] In archaiology. A 
 table with but one leg. These kind of 
 tallies were used fur the purposes of repast. 
 In the luxurious times of the Ronums, 
 they were constructed of maple wood, 
 sometimes of citron, and were supported 
 by one branch or leg often ornamented 
 with silver or ivory ridily worked. The 
 price of these tables was enormmis, i)arti- 
 lularly if tiie grain of the wood i)resented 
 a variety of colours. The louer part, or 
 platform, of these tables was designated 
 the abacus, and the artist sought always 
 to give it the most elegant shape possible. 
 Among the antiquities jjiiblisJud by C'ay- 
 lus several specimens of nKuiopodions are 
 to be found, which were execuleil in stone 
 or metal, and adorned with sculptures; 
 
I 
 
 M O N 
 
 and one example is extant among the 
 bronzes of Herculaneum. 
 
 Tlie usage of tables with single feet or 
 claws is now very common, and indeed, 
 as our readers well know, the handsomest 
 articles of the kind wear this shape when 
 their size will at all admit of it. 
 
 MoNOPTERAL. [novoTTTtpoQ, Gr.] Ill ar- 
 chitecture. This term is used to denomi- 
 nate a round temple without a cell. They 
 have each a tribunal or throne, and are 
 ascended by steps of one-third of the dia- 
 meter of the temple ; the columns, placed 
 on pedestals, are as high as the diameter 
 of the temple, taken at the outer side of 
 the pedestals : their thickness is one tenth 
 part of the height of the shaft and capital : 
 the height of the architrave is half the 
 the diameter of the column : the frieze, and 
 other ornaments above, may be according 
 to the general rule. 
 
 jMonotony. \ji6vos and tovo, a sound, 
 Gr.] In (dl the arts. Want of variety: 
 undue preponderance of any part of a pic- 
 ture or building over another: sameness 
 of colour, or of style. 
 
 MoNOTRYGLYPH. [Gr.] Ill architecture. 
 The space of one triglyph and tv/o me- 
 topes between two Doric columns. 
 
 MoNTMORiLLON. [Fr.] In the history of 
 the arts. The name of a small town, about 
 eight leagues from Poictiers, long cele- 
 brated for a Druidical temple (at least 
 such it is supposed to have been), the re- 
 mains of wdiich are still to be found there. 
 Montfaucon, in the Supplement to his An- 
 tiquite expliquie, and Martin, in his Reli- 
 gion of the Gauls, have given engravings 
 of this structure, both of its elevation and 
 plan, inclusive of the monstrous figures 
 which remain at its portal, and which they 
 regard as the statues of Gaulish divini- 
 ties. Martin does not scruple to recog- 
 nise one of these as being meant for a per- 
 sonification of the moon, and concludes 
 therefrom that this edifice must have been 
 dedicated to the lunar goddess. Millin, 
 on tlie other hand, affirms, that he has exa- 
 mined both the building and its appen- 
 dages with great care, and is of opinion 
 that it is neither more nor less than the 
 relics of an old church, possibly of tlie 
 tenth or eleventh century, and that tlie 
 statues are merely fantastical, and bear no 
 specific meaning. 
 
 Monument. Imonumentum, Lat. from 
 moneo, to remember.] In architecture. A 
 structure erected to commemorate any 
 given person or event : such, for instance, 
 as a triumphal arch, a mausoleum, a pyra- 
 mid, &:c. The word is also used, in a 
 
 MON 
 
 more general sense, to denote any relic, 
 extant at this day, of ancient times. 
 
 Every monumental trophy, being de- 
 signed to attract the public observation, 
 and to perpetuate the memory of the indi- 
 vidual to Avhom it is dedicated, should be 
 situated in as exposed a place as possible. 
 The ancients, in this spirit, always raised 
 them in the roads and walks most fre- 
 quently resorted to. Thus, at Athens, in 
 one of the public promenades which con- 
 sisted of a covered portico, the most lau- 
 dable actions of the illustrious citizens 
 were inscribed and signalised in various 
 ways. It was under this portico, called 
 Srofl, that Zeno taught philosophy ; whence 
 his disciples attained the well known ap- 
 pellation of stoics. 
 
 As we have before had occasion to ob- 
 serve, in speaking of Inscriptions (which 
 word see), the attention of the artist in 
 framing a monument should be especially 
 directed not only to the capabilities for dis- 
 play he might possess in another sense, 
 but to consistency in the matter, weighing 
 well the nature of the person or circum- 
 stance he may have to commemorate. It 
 would be absurd, for instance, to honour 
 private or peaceful virtues by the erection 
 of a triumphal arch, or to celebrate an 
 event calculated to affect the destinies of 
 a great nation by a monument of unassum- 
 ing simplicity, even although it should be 
 in the best possible taste. 
 
 As we observed above, the Greeks were 
 particularly anxious to impress the recol- 
 lection of their great citizens on the mind 
 of the populace. Even their sepulchral 
 monuments, instead of being clustered to- 
 gether in the burial grounds, wherein no 
 one will stop one moment longer than he 
 can help, or in the interior of a church, 
 which is very seldom visited except for 
 purposes quite foreign to the examination 
 of tombs, were placed along the public 
 walks and roads, so that the Grecian tra- 
 veller could not proceed a mile without 
 his attention being called to some freshly 
 erected monument, calculated to excite his 
 emulation or patriotism. 
 
 As courage and military talent were 
 chiefly requisite for the support of the 
 republics of Greece, it is to be expected 
 that we should find numerous monuments 
 were erected in commemoration of differ- 
 ent generals and warriors who had fallen 
 in defence of their country. At Sparta 
 they erected two statues to the honour of 
 Pausanias, the Grecian commander in the 
 battle of Platoea ; and Pollux had a tro- 
 pliy constructed at Sparta likewise, in 
 
MONU 
 
 celebration of his victory over Lynceus. 
 The Argivi built a monument in their city 
 of Argos, to record their conquest of La- 
 phaes, who had endeavoured to subjugate 
 them. The Mantineans raised one also in 
 memory of a victory gained by them over 
 the Lacedaemonians and their king Agis. 
 In short, we might, were it necessary, go 
 on multiplying examples to a very great 
 length indeed. 
 
 The Romans held the same custom, and 
 commemorative trophies were frequently 
 erected by them to their generals, both in 
 Rome and in the provinces. Pope Sextus 
 V. adorned the Capitol with two beautiful 
 antique monuments in marble, which had 
 been discovered among the relics of the 
 ancient city. Common opinion has ex- 
 plained these to be the trophies of Marius 
 raised on his defeat of the Cimbri ; but 
 the character and style of the Avorkman- 
 ship seem rather to refer them to the age 
 of Trajan. We may consider as a monu- 
 ment of this kind, the marble column 
 erected at Rome in commemoration of the 
 naval victory gained by Duilius over the 
 Carthagenians. It is decorated with the 
 prows of ships, and tlience denominated 
 the Rostral Column ; and it is still pre- 
 served beneath tlie Capitol. 
 
 The Greeks were also in the habit of 
 dedicating monuments to the conquerors 
 in the public games. Near the temple of 
 Neptune, upon the isthmus of Corinth, 
 were statues of this nature ; as there were 
 likewise in the vicinity of Olympius, at 
 Sparta, and elsewliere. 
 
 All these ancient commemorative mo- 
 numents dillered in point of size and mag- 
 ' nificence. Some were truly splendid. 
 Those which were particularly distin- 
 guished in this way were the Chouagic 
 Monuments among the Greeks, and the 
 Triumphaj. AncHES among the Romans. 
 See those words. 
 
 Thus we perceive even the warlike 
 achievements of tlie ancients were made 
 instrumental to tlie cultivation of the ele- 
 gant arts of peace. I Jut \\ iu're, wo may 
 be allowed to ask, are our ineuiurials of 
 splendid victories, whether naval or mili- 
 tary ? — Waterloo has not yet i)Voduce(l a 
 single grand picture; nor has Nelson re- 
 ceived any public national honour.s but a 
 statue among the sculptures of St. I'aiil's 
 Cathedral : — Nelson, a namc^ r(|ual almost 
 to any in history ; a man who lived and 
 <li<Ml in the active service of his country. 
 Had he been a Roman, the m(!tro]iolis and 
 j)r(>vinreH would lia\e abonmlcd with his 
 Iriuniplial arches and his statues. There 
 
 MENT. 
 
 are, it is true, Matthew Wyatt's tine group 
 at Liverpool; the column erected by his 
 fellow countrymen at Yarmouth ; and 
 Westmacott's bronze statue at Birming- 
 ham, executed by subscription of the in- 
 habitants : but we are speaking of national 
 honours. 
 
 The monumental column erected to Nel- 
 son at Yarmouth (after the design of Mr. 
 Wilkins, architect of Downing College, 
 Cambridge), is of the Grecian Doric, raised 
 on a pedestal, and surmounted by a statue 
 of Britannia; being in the whole one hun- 
 dred and forty feet high, overlooking the 
 sea from a small eminence on a beach. A 
 friend of the present writer has thus beau- 
 tifully described it (in imitation of an an- 
 cient Greek poet), in the Annals of the 
 Fine Arts : 
 
 " Thy tomb, thus proudly o'er the ocean gazing, 
 Shall view each passin<; sail, — to deeds of might 
 Exhort the seaineu, — and when tires, war blazing, 
 Burst from embattled ships, shall stolid spectator of 
 the fight." Leeds. 
 
 Is not our government, so liberal in 
 other respects, somewhat culpable in the 
 want of instances of monumental gratitude 
 to the great warriors, statesmen, and ora- 
 tors who have embellished the present 
 era ? The moderns, however, speaking 
 generally, have not perpetuated this prac- 
 tice in any great degree, nor will our 
 space admit us to enlarge on the instances 
 which might be adduced. The art of the 
 sculptor has been abundantly employed in 
 the interior of our religious buildings, to 
 the memory of departed excellence, or as 
 a tribute of surviving atlection : but this 
 is not precisely that sense of the term mo- 
 nument, in wiiich we have been regarding 
 it. The most recent case in point that has 
 occurred in our own country is the colos- 
 sal statue of Achilles, erected in Hyde 
 Park to the heroes of Waterloo, ami 
 which is very noble both in character and 
 dimensions. This public monument has 
 been somewhat fastidiously, we think, ob- 
 jected to, on the score of indelicacy : it is 
 true, the special nature of the dedication 
 might have been omitted. 
 
 The Abbe do LiiIuMsac has published a 
 judicious work on the subject of our pre- 
 sent article, entitled Discours siir Us Mo- 
 iiiiniiiis imhlics tie tons Irs .Ifi^is it </<' tons lex 
 J'fiiphs, folio, Paris, I77(i. On the style 
 of erecting monuments the reatler may 
 consult, amongst other treatises, Hijliwions 
 sitr I'Arihitirturi; by the Abbe Langier; 
 the seventh chapter of vol. 2 of I'oiirs 
 d'ArclutcitunyUy Bloudel; and the sicoiid 
 
MOO 
 
 part of Principes d' Architecture Civile, by 
 Miliza, third book and fifth chapter. See 
 Architecture, Column, &c. 
 
 Moon, [/xjji/jj, Gr.y In the mythology of 
 art, and in painting, drawing, &c. The 
 changing luminary of the night, called by 
 the poets Cynthia or Phoebe. The ancient 
 artists represented the moon allegorically 
 by tlie divinities who are said to have 
 presided over its course, such as Diana, 
 Isis, Lunus, &c. 
 
 The different appearances of the moon 
 are very numerous ; sometimes she is in- 
 creasing, then waning ; sometimes horned, 
 then semicircular ; sometimes gibbous, 
 then full and round. Sometimes, again, 
 she illumines us the whole night, some- 
 times only part of it: sometimes she is 
 found in the southern hemisphere, some- 
 times in the northern : all which varia- 
 tions having been first observed by the 
 ancient Gi-ecian Endymion, who watched 
 her motions, she was fabled to have fallen 
 in love with him. The source of most of 
 these appearances is that the moon is a 
 dark opaque and spherical body, and only 
 shines with the light she receives from 
 the sun ; when only that half turned to- 
 wards him, at any instant, can be illumi- 
 nated, the opposite half remaining in its 
 native darkness. The face of the moon, 
 visible in our earth, is that part of her 
 body turned towards the earth ; whence, 
 according to the various positions of the 
 moon, with regard to the sun and earth, 
 we observe different degrees of illumina- 
 tion ; sometimes a large and sometimes a 
 less portion of the enlightened surface 
 being visible. 
 
 The artist will find it greatly to his ad- 
 vantage to study different effects of moon- 
 light. There are various subjects for 
 which that species of illumination is far 
 better adapted than the gorgeous splen- 
 dour of the sun : — A quiet landscape, for 
 instance, lying in the stillness of the 
 drowsy summer air ; a picture of domestic 
 repose, such as an assembled family ; or 
 scenes of an amorous or luxurious nature, 
 such, for example, as the exquisite even- 
 ing festivities described in the Decameron 
 of Boccaccio. Marine subjects also afford 
 ample opportunities for efl'ects of moon- 
 light; but, above all, representations of 
 deserted mansions, or of ruined buildings, 
 are susceptible of their greatest and most 
 touching expression from the introduction 
 of this soft radiancy. 
 
 If thou woiildst view fair Melroje aright, 
 Go visit it by the pale moonlight : 
 For the gay beams of lightsome day 
 Gild but to flout the ruins gray. 
 
 MOR 
 
 When the broken arches are black in night. 
 And each shafted oriel glimmers while ; 
 When the cold light's uncertain shower 
 Streams on the ruiii'd central tower ; 
 When buttress and buttress, alternately 
 Seem framed of ebon and ivory ; 
 AVhen silver edges the imagery, 
 And the scrolls that teach thee to live and die : 
 Then go— but go alone the while, 
 There view St. David's riiin'd pile ; 
 And, home returning, sootlily swear 
 Was never scene so sad and fair. 
 
 Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel. 
 
 The reader is referred to our article 
 Light, many observations in which will 
 apply, with certain modifications, to the 
 present subject. 
 
 Moorish Architecture. See Sara- 
 cenic. 
 
 Moral, [moralis, Lat.] In painting. By 
 this term we designate a species of histo- 
 rical painting, which, however, does not 
 select any particular scene or incident, 
 complete in itself, and presenting itself 
 singly to the mind of the spectator, but 
 tells a story, in all its different stages and 
 bearings. The most illustrious examples 
 of this style of painting are to be found in 
 the invaluable works of our great coun- 
 tryman, Hogarth ; the enrolment of whose 
 name among British artists enables us to 
 look with some complacency on the pro- 
 ductions of foreign masters. 
 
 Much more use might, we think, be 
 made of this style of art than hitherto has 
 been. In the hands of an artist of talent 
 it cannot fail, indeed, to be highly effec- 
 tive. A series of paintings of this kind 
 possesses a diffusive and continuous in- 
 terest, and we almost imagine ourselves 
 personally acquainted with the individuals 
 represented. It is true, it can hardly be 
 expected that we shall meet again with 
 such specimens of real life, both comic 
 and tragic, as are presented to us in the 
 Rake's Progress; or, the Marriage-ci-la- 
 Mode. The profuse character and ludicrous 
 extravagances of the March to Finchley, or 
 of the Election Dinner, contrasted with the 
 grotesque and unspeakable horrors of Gin 
 Lane or of Beer Street, are not likely to be 
 disturbed in our imagination by any new as- 
 pirant after similar fame. These, together 
 with the other performances of the same 
 powerful hand, form a ge7ire—a class- 
 distinct and peculiar in themselves. Stilly 
 there are many able painters now living 
 in this country whose canvass we should 
 be highly gratified to find employed in 
 this manner— we will just name, in pass- 
 ing, Wilkie and Mulready : and we have 
 seen, in the unassuming and ephemeral 
 sketches of Cruikshanks indications by 
 no means to be overlooked of genius for 
 
MOK 
 
 
 
 •r « 
 
 
Mor 
 
 • ml 
 erer M ■ yMe, a y^e or< 
 with trees, to aife^d lUiicf t ii 
 These cfancka d0 aot bear the 
 
 haTBg reserved to ttiMihm tke 
 le^ of desgBaliBS &eik~ 
 As it is keM nlavfd to e^er &e 
 
 MOU 
 
 sewed together. 
 
 tke postue of k»rrtr»y. 
 trafee. The ■!■>< ■ axe Berer 
 Maayof 
 
 nd, ndeed, attorWd to 
 
 krs, af eveiy drMMBHl 
 
 greea 
 
 i 
 
 .thespKc flTtikice 
 ^KTi. Ewk toavle k» mko a 
 which they I i iir i»ie,«MiwkkkB 
 
 the 
 is a; 
 Mtia «r veHet, 
 
 ^ the eads,« 
 wha read the kona avl pn? jior the re- 
 pose of the SMb af the de«L 
 The Bas^iae flf Sl Sophia, at C4: 
 is efaallr ceje h tated 
 
 I 
 
 lively, 
 
 tothe 
 , a my slight degree of 
 tonadtithe 
 > t^ se-veral lazieties of 
 
 *»y 
 
 CMstiMS of the aiad. The Grccks were 
 
 exceedia«:tT rMwaf ia th^ war, as ia 
 
 vo6« ocaer Toair'^ cooBecoe^ wsta ne iBe 
 
 ■d frace- 
 fwi, XoCasK is peifrctly 
 mctitm wiiichword see . :^iace 
 ks aei^tr ■■TraliT,aad oA« 
 
 hedy aic a a state of re- 
 
 [Italiaa.] H 
 
 A ifMfran or wwd added to 
 a deTice oa 9cais« i^SS <v tol)tet5. See 
 IncaaRVMt, LsHipta 
 
 Mocuac [noUr, Spaawh ] H (.«<.- err «- 
 JiMiMrf . The ■atriT in which &a; tkiag: 
 is cast, or i taw»& it» tooa. The MwaMs 
 ased by tuondcts of laif<e w«(k3« s«ch as 
 
 the straight aad carved oaes sncceed < 
 O* rwMy] 
 
 Ikeai 
 
 tohe 
 ekher to sappoK. to tetil^, or 
 to shelto.- ie &eoK the iajazr of the wesit- 
 ia a cMcmke whea the coeoaa is 
 ,^ c3nnaorcavvCtocaiv«ril,aBd 
 &e mdUIioK^ dcMteks, < 
 s ap pa rt it. 
 
 * Whea oraaaaeats are 
 adaea the MaUiB$s« 9MK of theai < 
 he left ptua ia order to tea a 
 pi»» ; jor whea att are tararht d, the 1 
 ofthepro&ksfliasC laacaeaacethecMvaa 
 
MOU 
 
 band ; neither should the different facies 
 of architraves, the plinths of columns, fil- 
 lets, nor scarce any square number be 
 carved ; for they are, generally speaking, 
 either principal in the composition, or used 
 as boundaries to other parts ; in either of 
 which cases, their figures should be dis- 
 tinct and unembarrassed. Tlie dentele 
 band should remain uncut, when the 
 ovolo and talon immediately above and 
 below it are enriched; for, when the den- 
 teles are marked, particularly if they be 
 small, the three members are confounded 
 together, and, being covered with orna- 
 ment, are much too rich for the rest of the 
 composition ; a fault carefully to be avoid- 
 ed, as the just and equal distribution of 
 enrichments is on all occasions to be at- 
 tended to. For, in eflcct, the articles of 
 sculpture, in architecture, are like dia- 
 monds in a lady's dress, with which it 
 Avould be absurd to cover her face, and 
 other parts that are in themselves beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 " When mouldings of the same form and 
 size are employed in one profile, they 
 should be enriched with the same kind of 
 ornaments. It must be observed that all 
 the ornaments of mouldings are to be re- 
 gularly disposed, and answering perpen- 
 dicularly above each other; the middles 
 of the modiJlions, denteles, oves, and 
 other ornaments, all in a line; for nothing 
 is more confused and unseemly than to 
 distribute them without any kind of order. 
 The larger parts are to regulate the smaller ; 
 all the ornaments in the entablature are to 
 be governed by the uiodillions or miitules ; 
 and these are to be dependent on the inter- 
 vals of the columns, and so disposed that one 
 of them may correspond with the axis of 
 eacii column. It is fartlier to Ijc observed, 
 that the ornaments must partake of the 
 character of the order which they enrich; 
 and those used in the Doric and Ionic 
 orders must be of a simpler kind and 
 grosser make than lli(jse employed in the 
 Composite and Corinthian." 
 
 Thus far Sir \Vn).Ciianibers: and we beg 
 leave, in conclusion, to refi-r the reader to 
 our several articles entitled AnciUTEt-rf kk 
 and Column. 
 
 MoiNTiNc;. [moidinil, Fr.] In the arts of 
 dcsiffii. The act of straining a jirint or 
 drawing upon canvass, or of placing it 
 upon an ornamental frame. 
 
 Moi'HMNf;. [from niiijiiian, to mourn. 
 Sax. J Jn Ilia (irchaiolojiij of custumc. 'I'lic 
 method of mourning among the ancients 
 was to abstain from all ornaments, jewels, 
 &c. and even from siipcrlluKics of olhi-r 
 kinds, such as the i)atli and tlio enjoj uients 
 of the table : the greater number of nations 
 
 MUM 
 
 we find, also adopted the custom of wear- 
 ing mournful garments, &;c. These dif- 
 fered in colour, with different nations, 
 through all the variety of hues from black 
 to white. The Greeks and the republican 
 Romans adopted black as a symbol of 
 mourning, or rather perhaps a very dark 
 brown, lender the emperors, the ladies 
 changed that colour for white, or at all 
 events white veils. The Romans left their 
 beard and hair to grow at random during 
 the time of mourning, while the Greeks, on 
 the other hand, cut theirs off. 
 
 Mummy, \inumea, Lat. motn'u, Fr. from 
 the Arabic] In archaiologij . A dead body 
 preserved by the Egyptian art of embalm- 
 ing. 
 
 Principles of religion, and the nature 
 of the climate were undoubtedly the prin- 
 cipal motives that induced the ancient 
 Egyptians to embalm and preserve the 
 bodies of men and animals. It is a cus- 
 tom of the most remote antiquity. The 
 word mummy, which has not its origin in 
 either the Greek or the Latin languages, 
 appears not to have belonged even to the 
 Egyptian; for St. Augustine says that the 
 Egyptians gave to bodies prepared after 
 this manner the name of gabbaras. Some 
 writers derive it from the Arabic mum 
 which signifies wax. 
 
 Ancient authors have conveyed to us 
 but very insufficient details relative to the 
 preparation and preservation of mummies. 
 The plain of Saccara or Sakkara, in the 
 enviions of the ancient Memphis, is the 
 place from whence the gTeatest quantity 
 of mummies have been taken, but very few 
 have been brought away unbroken or en- 
 tire ; the cause of this is the avarice of the 
 Turks and Arabians, who will scarcely 
 ever deliver tiicm to travellers before they 
 have broken them open, to see for jewels 
 or other valuables they suspect may be 
 enclosed therein. The outer case of the 
 mummy is generally of some common 
 wood, sometimes of oriental cypress or 
 sometimes of sycamore. At the upper 
 part is generally a nmsk drawn on the 
 face;, aiid oftentimes under the chin is a 
 lock of hair in the form of a bunch. 
 Authors are not decided as to the meiui- 
 ing of this bunch, sonu' taking it for a 
 beard, anil others for the leaf «)f the plant 
 persea, which is consecrated to Isis. In 
 tile female mununies, and in general in 
 tiic feniiile ligures of Egyptian worknjuu- 
 ship, this msrk is not to be found, which 
 gi\es some weight to the opinion of those 
 wlio take it for a beard. On the coverings 
 of llifir Collins are also found tiie repre- 
 sentation of a face, from wiiieii some have 
 supposed them to be portraits of the de- 
 
ceased ; but they have in general such a 
 perfect resemblance one to the other that 
 they cannot long be conceived to be any 
 thing else than ornamental. Some have 
 conjectured, and with much appearance 
 of truth, tliat the figure of Osiris vs^as re- 
 presented on the mummies of men, and 
 Isis on those of females. On the exami- 
 nation of a mummy that was in the pos- 
 session of the University of Gottingen it 
 was remarked that a face was painted on 
 the bands that enveloped the body, and it 
 had under the soles of its feet several folds 
 of linen. In some mummies the nails of 
 the feet and hands have been found to be 
 yellow, but I find no authority of any hav- 
 ing been discovered gilt, according to com- 
 mon report. In the interior of many have 
 been found small images, amulets, beads, 
 nilometers (see these several words), &c. 
 many of wiiich taken from mununies are 
 to be seen in the Eighth Room under the 
 head of Egyptian Antiquities of the Bri- 
 tish Museum, where are also two of the 
 finest mummies, and in the best state of 
 preservation now in Europe ; one of which 
 was with its coffin sent to England by Ed- 
 ward Wortley Montagu, and presented to 
 the Museum by his present Majesty; and 
 the other which was found in one of the 
 catacombs, at the before mentioned Sak- 
 kara, about four leagues from Cairo, was 
 sent to England by Colonel William Le- 
 thieullier, who, on his death, bequeathed 
 it to the Museum. 
 
 A mummy that was opened by Mons. 
 Blumenbach, had artificial eyes made of 
 cotton cloth prepared with resin. 
 
 The Imperial Library at Paris has a 
 mummy which was formerly in the church 
 of St. Genevieve, but which is much broken 
 and otherwise damaged, and the coffin of 
 one extremely well preserved. It is orna- 
 mented like the otliers with hieroglyphic 
 paintings, which are also sometimes found 
 delineated on the bands of cloth with 
 which the body is enveloped. (See Hiero- 
 glyphics.) They have also a heap of linen, 
 which they conjecture to have been taken 
 from a mummy, on which is represented 
 the ceremony of embalming. In the same 
 plain of Sakkara beforementioned, and 
 in the same catacombs where the human 
 mummies are found, are also a great num- 
 ber of the mummies of sacred animals. 
 Mons. Denon, in his voyage into Upper 
 and Lower Egypt, visited these sepulchres, 
 in one of which he found more than five 
 hundred mummies of the Ibis. The pots and 
 vases which contained them and served for 
 sarcophagi,were made of common red earth, 
 from fourteen to eighteen inches in height ; 
 
 MUMMY. 
 
 one would almost be inclined to doubt 
 their antiquity, so well are they preserved. 
 In the 99th plate of the quarto French 
 edition of Denon's Travels are engraved 
 several representations of these mummies. 
 The British Museum has in the same room 
 with tiieir valuable mummies, many of 
 these vases, the lids of which are seve- 
 rally adorned with a head of Isis, a hawk, 
 a wolf, or a baboon, several fragments of 
 statues ; of sistrums, amulets, and a great 
 variety of other monuments of art, which 
 serve to illustrate the religious worship 
 of the ancient Egyptians. The same tra- 
 veller (Denon) has also published a very 
 curious account (page 281 of the quarto 
 Paris edition of his Travels) of the open- 
 ing and developing of one or two of these 
 mummies that were given him ; to which 
 work we refer for more detailed parti- 
 culars. 
 
 In general these mummies of the Ibis 
 are enveloped with bands of cloth, wrap- 
 ped and interlaced with much care. The 
 head and feet are hidden under the wings, 
 and the whole compressed into a conical 
 form. All of them are not enclosed in 
 vases or urns ; some have been found that 
 are swathed with much care, excepting 
 the head and beak which are left uncover- 
 ed ; these are but few, and their arrange- 
 ment is the same as the human mummies, 
 and are placed standing upright. Mons. 
 Chr^t-Aug. Langguth has published an 
 engraving of one, that accompanies his 
 dissertation entitled De Mumiis Avium in 
 Lalnjrintho apud Saccarnm reperfis, &c, Vi- 
 leberga?, 1803, 4to. This description tal- 
 lies exactly with the mummy of an Ibis 
 they have at present in the Imperial Li- 
 brary at Paris. This bird, which was 
 much adored and revered in ancient Egypt, 
 is the same which still inhabits those coun- 
 tries. This is ably demonstrated by a 
 French naturalist, in the dissection and 
 anatomy of the mummy of an ancient Ibis, 
 and t!iat of a modern one, compared toge- 
 ther; both the skeletons are kept in the 
 Museum of Natural History at Paris for 
 the gratification of the curious. The Bri- 
 tish Museum at London has the skeleton 
 of one of these birds ; but we are not told 
 whether it is of a mummy or a modern 
 bird. See Ibis, Hieroglyphics, &c. 
 
 There are several interesting publica- 
 tions on the mummies of men and of ani- 
 mals, to which those who would enter 
 more fully into these matters are referred, 
 viz. Herodotus, lib. ii ; Diodorcs Sicl- 
 Lus, lib. i. cap. 91 ; Le Voyage de Corneille 
 Le Brln en Perse; Athauasii Kircheri, 
 Diatribe Hierogli/phica de Mumiis, Amste- 
 
MUS 
 
 loJami, 1C74, in folio; Olai Wormii, Mu- 
 seum, page 30 and following ; Voyage dc G k- 
 MEixi Careri, vol. i. page 113; Lndov. 
 pEMCHER,rr«i7(.- das Emhatimemetts selon lis 
 Anciens et les Modernes, Paris, 1G99, 12mo.; 
 Andreas Gryphii, Mumia: Wratislavknscs, 
 Wratislav. 16C2, 12mo.; Letin- d'tin Acu- 
 demicicn, oii sv7it expliqiUi's les Ilicrogliplics 
 d'une Momie d'Egypte, Paris, 1G92, in 4to.; 
 Frider. Gottlieb KETryERi,Historicumsche- 
 dias7nu de Miimiis ^gyptiacis, &;c. Leipsig, 
 1694, in 4to. and 1703, in 8vo. ; Mimoires 
 de Trcvoux, 1705, page 429, 441; and 
 1740, page 476 — 495 ; Christ. Herzog, or 
 rather Godofredi Vockerout, Mumogra- 
 pliia Medka, &ic. Gotha, 1717, in 8vo.; 
 Robert! Ainsworth, Tractatiu de Egyptio- 
 rum Funcribus, London, 1720, in 8vo. ; 
 Alexander Gordon's Essay towards ex- 
 plaining the Hieroglyphical Figures on the 
 Coffin of an ancient Mummy, London, 1737, 
 folio ; Congers Middleioni, Descripiio 
 Mumia Cantabrigiensi.s, Londini, 1745, 4to. ; 
 >S'«r les Egyptiens et les 3Jo7nies, par Joli. 
 Frid. Blumenbach, in the Gottiugen Ma- 
 gazine, part lir.st, page 109-139. Christ. 
 Guil, Franc. Walciiii, Prulectio de Mumiis 
 Chrisiianis, in Commentation. Socictatis re- 
 gite Scientiar. Gottingen, 1780, vol. iii.; 
 Heynii, Observatianes dc Antiquitate Mumi- 
 arum, in the Cvmmentat. Soc. Gotiing. for 
 the year 1781, vol. iv. ; Andr. Rivini, De 
 Balsamaiione, Lipsia;, 1655,4to.; INIelchior 
 Seriz, De Balsamaiione Caduverum humano- 
 rum, Argentorat, 1649, 4to.; Christ. HoF- 
 MA%ti,Dissertatiode PollincturiC Antiquitate, 
 Jena!, 1669, 4to. ; Joscphi Lanzom, Trac- 
 tatus lie Poliinctune ct lialsamatione upud 
 Veteres,kc. Ferraria;, 1693, Geneva, 1696, 
 12mo. ; llovELLE, Sur les Embaumcmens des 
 Egyptiens, vide Memoires de I'Academic 
 des Seiences des Paris, 1750; Cayi.us, 
 Des Embaumemens des Egyptiens, vide Ilis- 
 toire de I'Academie des Inscrijifions, vol. 
 xxiii. The same author, llecueil d'An- 
 tiquites, vol. vi. ])late 11, lig. 1 ; Leltrcs 
 de Savary sur I'/Egyple, 8m). ; Shaw's 
 Voyages in different Countries of liarbary ; 
 Ueeueil d'Anliqailes, par La Salvaceke, 
 Paris, 1769, 4t(>. page 328; Jo. Hcnrici 
 Sciiii.ZE, Disserfatio inaugnralisde Mumii), 
 I-Iahr, 1737, in llo. ; Dincours ahrig/' lou- 
 chani les Mamies, el les Ceremonies de I' Em- 
 baumement, tw.jiar L'Abbe Falvei, Paris, 
 1726, in8vo. ; De Mumiis Acium in Luby- 
 rinlbo apud Saeearam reperlis Prolasio,auc- 
 lore Christ. Aug. LA\cic;Li iiui, N ileberga-, 
 1803, 4to. 
 
 MusAu; or Mosaic. [/Miou^mr, (-r. from 
 IxoiiiTot', iiov<n-)(iii', polislicd, elegaiil, or well 
 wrought.] In painting. A kind of painting 
 executed with :.mn\\ pieces ol'ghiss or wooil. 
 
 MUS 
 
 pebbles, enamel, tec. fixed upon any given 
 surface by means of mastic. Although 
 'this branch of art was well known and 
 much practised by the ancients, Pliny has 
 spoken of no express style, nor lias he par- 
 ticularized any of the artists w ho wrought 
 in it. We can only judge tliorcfore by the 
 appearance of antique relics of this kind, 
 and by comparing them with modern per- 
 formances, the metiiod of executing which 
 is known to us. Wlien an artist com- 
 mences a work in musaic, he cuts in a 
 stone plate a certain space, which he en- 
 circles with bands of iron. Tliis space is 
 covered with thick mastic, on whicii are 
 laid, conformably to the particular design, 
 tlie various substances meant to be used. 
 During the whole of his work, the artist 
 must have his eye constantly fixed on tlie 
 picture which it is his object to copy. The 
 mastic in time acquires the consistency of 
 stone, it is susceptible of a polish like 
 crystal. However, as the brilliancy tlius 
 acquired is injurious to the eti'ect of the 
 design itself,w hich is not clearly perceived 
 througli it, tliose musaics which are ap- 
 plied to the adornment of cupolas, ciej- 
 ings, &c. are generally less elaborately 
 polished, the distance from which they are 
 viewed preventing the spectator from de- 
 tecting the inequalities of surface, or the 
 interstices between the pieces of which 
 the work is composed. The means have 
 been discovered of giving to the colour of 
 glass so many dillerent shades, that it has 
 been found to serve the purposes of all the 
 various descriptions of painting. The ar- 
 tist, in mosaic, has all his various mate- 
 rials ranged before him in compartments, 
 according to their several tints, in much 
 tlie same way as tlie j)riiiter arranges his 
 dillerent letters. To Pompeo Savini, of 
 Urbino, has been attributed the art of ex- 
 ecuting mosaics in rilievo. 
 
 The origin of mosaic-work must, appa- 
 rently, be sought in the East, the rich car- 
 pets of which were imitated in hard stone. 
 It is probable that the art was known to 
 the Pha'iiicians, but to the Greeks its per- 
 fection and glory are to be attribuleii. 
 From Greece it passed with the other or- 
 namental points of knowledge into liome, 
 towards the end of the republic, the Italian 
 conciuerors of Greece transporting from 
 that country into their own the most beau- 
 tiful specimens, in the .hape of pavements, 
 \c. which they could discover. S\lla was 
 the tirst Ronuin wiio caused a piece of mo- 
 .saic-work of any magnitutlt> to be exe- 
 cuted lor the temple of Fortune at l»r;e- 
 nesle (now Paleslrina) which mosaic, at 
 least a great portion of it, still exists. At 
 
MOSAIC. 
 
 first they ornamented in this manner the 
 pavements of buildings merely, but after 
 awhile the walls and arched cielings also. 
 The tents of the generals, in time of war, 
 were also paved thus, to keep ofl' the hu- 
 midity of the ground, as Suetonius reports 
 of the tent of Julius Caesar. The inven- 
 tion of coloured glass was a great dis- 
 covery for the purposes of musaic work. 
 
 When tiie dark ages had driven the ele- 
 gant arts out of Italy, musaic work, as 
 well as painting and sculpture, was pre- 
 served a considerable time amongst the 
 Byzantian Greeks, who used it to adorn 
 the altars of their churches. Towards the 
 conclusion of the thirteenth century, an 
 Italian of the name of Tafi learnt to work 
 in mosaic of a Greek called ApoUonius, 
 who decorated the cathedral of St. Mark 
 at Venice, where is still preserved an ad- 
 mirable pavement executed by him. But 
 in general these works are wanting in de- 
 sign, are in bad taste, and equally bad in 
 colouring. Since then, the art has been 
 brought, in Italy, to a very high degree of 
 perfection. Pope Clement the Eighth, at 
 the commencement of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, contributed much to this end by 
 adorning in musaic all the interior part of 
 the dome of St. Peter's. Among the ear- 
 liest artists employed thereon weje Paul 
 Rossetti and Francis Zucchi. 
 
 One of the greatest advantages of mo- 
 saic is its power of resisting all those 
 things which ordinarily affect the beauty 
 of painting, and another the facility with 
 which one can repolish it without at all 
 hazarding the brightness and effect of the 
 colouring. At the same time, as it can 
 only be worked slowly, and requires great 
 exertion, it can never come into such ge- 
 neral use as painting : nor would it have 
 attained the degree of perfection which it 
 did at Rome and Florence, had not the 
 respective governments of those two states 
 made a point of encouraging it. 
 
 In modern times, a species of musaic, 
 and a very beautiful one too, has sprung 
 up under the name of Marquetry. (See 
 that word.) The pebble and shell work of 
 which grottoes are composed may like- 
 wise be regarded as a species of musaic, 
 and there are several other varieties, which 
 itwould be beyond our limits to enumerate. 
 
 Among the most beautiful musaics pre- 
 served in the pavements or walls of an- 
 cient buildings, we may particularize that 
 found iu a chamber in Hadrian's villa, 
 near Tivoli ; the Palaastrine musaic, be- 
 fore alluded to, and which is remarkable 
 for the light which its delineations throw 
 
 on the history, local and natural, of Egypt. 
 In the villa Albani is also a beautiful mo- 
 saic discovered in the territory of Urbino, 
 which represents a scliool of philosophers, 
 and another, depicting the history of He- 
 sione, daughter of Priam. In 1763, was 
 found, in a villa near Pompeii (probably 
 that of the Emperor Claudius), a mosaic 
 representing three females with comic 
 masks, and playing on various instru- 
 ments. The name of the artist (Diosco- 
 rides of Samos) was engraven thereon in 
 Greek letters. There are besides a very 
 great number of others, which have been 
 at sundry times dug up, and which present 
 a greater or less degree of beauty and of 
 excellence in the art. 
 
 The principal works to be consulted 
 on the theoi-y and practice of musaic or 
 mosaic-work are the following: — Ciam- 
 pini. On the Mosaics of sacred and profane 
 Buildings, Rome, 1G90, 1699, 2 vols, folio. 
 Besides mosaics, this work also presents 
 engravings of the temples constructed 
 since the time of Constantine the Great. 
 Furietti, On Mosaics, Rome, 1752, 4to. 
 with engravings. The above two works 
 were written in Latin, and a French trans- 
 lation of them appeared at Paris in 1768, 
 in 8vo. under the title of Essai sur la Pein- 
 ture en Mosnique, par M. de Vielle ; ensem- 
 ble une Dissertation sur le Pierre spiculaire 
 dcs Anciens: which work comprehends 
 treatises on the origin of mosaic, on the 
 etymology of the word, on the ditferent 
 methods of the Greek artists thereon, &c. 
 Paciaudi, in his book De sacris Romano- 
 rum Balneis, Rome, 1748, has also treated 
 of this subject, as likewise has Buonarotti, 
 in his Observations on the Glass of the An- 
 cimfs, 4to. Florence, 1716. Piacenza, in 
 the lirst vol. of his edition of Notizie dei 
 Professori del Disegno da Cimabue in qua, by 
 Baldinucci, 4to. Tor. 1768, has inserted an 
 intelligent paper on the subject of musaics. 
 Fougeroux de Bondaroy has written a 
 Traits sur la Fabrique des Mosaiques, at the 
 conclusion of his Recherches sur les Ruines 
 d'Hercnlanum, Paris, 1770, 8vo. Caylus 
 has also treated of them in his Essai stir 
 la Maniere de peindre en Marbre, in the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, 
 vol, xxix. To conclude, a German author 
 of the name of Gurlitt has published a par- 
 ticular dissertation on the same subject. 
 
 The most curious works containing de- 
 scriptions and explanations of antique 
 mosaics, are: — Opus Musivum erutuin ex 
 Rudei-ibus Villa; Hadriani, Florence, 1779. 
 The drawings of this work are by Caj. 
 Savorelli; the engravings executed by 
 
 H H 
 
MUS 
 
 Capellani. The musaic here treated of re- 
 presents a chase. Observations sur la Mo- 
 saique des Anciens, d Voccasion de quctques 
 Tableaux en Mosa'iqne, qui se trouvent d la 
 Gulerie des Peintures de I'Electeur palntin, 
 by the Abb6 Hceffelin, in the Comment. 
 Histor. Academic Theodora Palatince, vol. 
 V. No. 3. p. 89, Manheim, 1783, 4to. This 
 author compares musaics in glass and 
 stone with the pictures executed among 
 the native Americans in feathers of birds, 
 and also with tapestrj'. Explication de la 
 Mosai'qtie de Pulcestrine, by the Abbe Bar- 
 thelemy, Paris, 1760, 4to. and also in the 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, 
 vol. XXX. Kircher, in his Latium, and 
 Montfaucon, in the fourth vol. of his Sup- 
 plement de V Antiquity expliqu^e, had alrea- 
 dy endeavoured to give an analysis of 
 that celebrated monument of art. Osser- 
 vazioni di Ennio-Quirino Visconti, su due 
 Miisaici antichi istonati, Parma, 1788, 4to. 
 Description de la Mosdique trouvie d. Seville, 
 published by order of the late King of 
 Spain. Mosdique d'ltalica, published in 
 1802, by M. Alexandre La Borde, which 
 is the best executed of any collection of 
 representations of musaics: the plates in 
 tliis work may be safely recommended as 
 models. 
 
 Among the most distinguished artists in 
 this style may be enumerated the follow- 
 ing :— Gaddo de Gaddis, who died in 1312; 
 Angelo Bondone, called Giotto, died 1336; 
 Dora. Ghirlandajo, died 1493 ; Pietro Oda, 
 died 1500; Franc, and Valerio Zuccari, in 
 1545; Alex, and Franc. Scalza, Ferd. 
 Sermei, Giov. Fratini, Louis Ricci, Thom. 
 Brandus, Gab. Mercanti, towards 1550 ; 
 Louis Cajetano, 1559; Ang. Sabattini, 
 Bernasconi, Ambr. Giosio, Vitalde Massa, 
 P. Lambert de Cortoiia, Cruciano de Ma- 
 cerata, Giov. Cataneo, Fr. Zucdia, 1'. lio- 
 setti, and Ca"sar Torelli, who departed 
 this life towards the end of the fifteenth 
 century; Giov. Calandra, died 1614, iiav- 
 ing invented a mastic for (ixing the pieces 
 in a manner more solid than had been 
 hitherto practised; Giov. Merlini, Giov. 
 Ciachetti, Bottini, Cosm. t'hermar, (iiov. 
 Giorgi, Lor. Boltini, Giov. Biaiiclii, (Jarlo 
 (!entinelli, and others whom l>aldin\icci 
 cites as the first artists employed in the 
 fabrication of the musaics of the Gallery 
 of h'hirence, and who died al)out llic mid- 
 dle of the seventeenth century. At tlie 
 Si(m(; epoch flourished also INlarc Spina, 
 Oraz. lMan(tla,!ind Matth. I'iccioni: IMai- 
 cel. l*rovcn/.ab', wlio dicMl in l(i93 ; La 
 Valette, 1710; Nic. Brocchi, 1713 ; IMiil. 
 Cocchi, Nic. Ouuplirio, Bern. Kegolo, 
 
 MUS 
 
 Funo, Guil. Palat, Franc. Fiano. The 
 city of Paris, a few years ago (and per- 
 haps still), possessed a school of painters 
 in musaic, directed by M, Belloni. See 
 
 CrUSTA, InCRLSTATION, LlTFiOSTROTON, &C. 
 
 MuscARiA. [Lat.] In archaiology. A pe- 
 culiar description of fans, used among the 
 ancients, and often composed of the fea- 
 thers of birds. Brandies of trees were, 
 however, no doubt, in the most remote 
 times, used for the pleasant purpose of 
 agitating the air in sultry weather. Upon 
 several vases and other antique monu- 
 ments we observe figures holding in their 
 hands this kind of instrument, in the ma- 
 jority of instances shaped like a leaf. It 
 was customary, in the classical ages, and 
 still is amongst the inhabitants of hot 
 countries, for women of distinction and 
 even men also to be fanned by their slaves. 
 Who does not recollect the splendid pas- 
 sage of Shakspeare in Antony and Cleo- 
 patra, describing the river pomp of the 
 voluptuous Egyptian ? 
 
 The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne 
 Buru'd on the water : the poop was beaten gold ; 
 Purple the sails, and so perfumed, that 
 The winds were love-sick with thcui ; the oars were 
 
 silver, 
 ^^'hich to the tane of flutes kept stroke, and made 
 The water, which they beat, to follow faster. 
 As amorous of their strokes. For her own person. 
 It beggared all description : she did lie 
 In her pavilion (cloth of gold, of tissue,) 
 O'erpicturing that Venus, when we see 
 The fancy out-work Nature ; on each side her 
 Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids, 
 With diverse-coloured fans, whose wind did seem 
 To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool. 
 And what they undid, did. 
 
 RIusES. [/(oi)ffa, Gr.] In the inytholo^n of 
 sculpture and painting. There is a rilievo 
 on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline Gal- 
 lery at Rome, in which the nine Muses 
 are represented ; by tlie help of \vliich and 
 Ausouius's description of them (Idyl 20), 
 it has been attempted to distinguish thera 
 from one another, which has always been 
 very tlinicult. The order of these seems 
 to be quite arbitrary, as appears by the 
 diirerent ranging of Ihem by Herodotus 
 (who has annexed their names to the nine 
 books of his history) aiul by Ausonius, as 
 well as in all the rilievos now to be nu-t 
 with. In the rilievo abovementit)ned, they 
 are jilaeed and distinguished in the follow- 
 ing numner : — 
 
 Clio is first, and distinguished by tlio 
 roll or book in her hand, or with the longer, 
 bolder pipe (li<ir. i. o<l. 12. v. 2). llerotlice 
 was to celebrnle the actions of departed 
 heroes, Ihougii Statins makes her descend 
 to lower functions, from the old notion that 
 
MUS MUS 
 
 every thing penned in hexameters was an feet and the radius in her hand. In sta- 
 epic poera. Stat. 1. Sylv. 2. v. 10. tues, the globe is sometimes in iier hand, 
 
 Thalia was the muse of comedy and and sometimes placed on a column before 
 pastorals (Virgil, Eclogue C. v. 2), and is her. 
 
 distinguished by the comic mask in her Melpomene was the muse of tragedy, 
 hand, and her pastoral ci-ook. and was held, in fact, to preside over me- 
 
 Tei'psichore has nothing to distinguish lancholy subjects of all kinds. She is 
 her. Ausonius gives her the cithava. On distinguished by the mask on her head, 
 the medals of the Pomponian family, three which is occasionally placed so fai' back- 
 muses have stringed instruments in their ward that it has been mistaken for a se- 
 hands, but we do not know them from one cond face, as may be seen in Montfaucon 1. 
 another; and are, besides, used to call the pi. 59. 
 
 cithara, barbiton, and sestudo by the com- The palm-tree, the laurel, together with 
 mou name of lyres. These three muses all the fountains of Pindus, Helicon, Par- 
 are, in the rilievo, the third, or Terpsi- nassus, &c. were sacred to the muses. 
 chore, and the fifth and seventh, which Sometimes they were depicted as dancing 
 appear to be Erato and Polyhymnia ; in a chorus, probably to intimate the near 
 though that cannot be determined till the and indissoluble connexion existing be- 
 names and shapes of the stringed instru- tween the liberal arts and sciences. 
 ments come to be better known. Museum, [fiovaeov, Gr.] In architecture 
 
 Euterpe presided over music, and played and the history of the arts. This term, 
 on two pipes (tihice) at once, as in the re- which means a study, or place of retire- 
 marks before Terence's plays. By these ment, is, strictly speaking, proper to a 
 pipes she is distinguished, though some- part of the palace at Alexandria in Egypt, 
 times she holds the fistula, or calami, in which part was so denominated in conse- 
 her hands, and is so described by Auso- quence of its being reserved for the muses, 
 nius. Hor. 1. od. 1. v. 33. and the study of the sciences. In it men 
 
 Erato, who presided over tlie amorous of learning, of diiTerent kinds, were lodged 
 kinds of poetry, is neatly attired and looks and entertained ; and they were divided 
 pretty, though thoughtful. She is repre- into several companies, or colleges, ac- 
 sented at times pensive, but in other in- cording to the sciences of which they 
 stances full of gaiety, as she appears on were professors : to each of these esta- 
 gems ; botli which characters, though di- blishments was assigned a handsome re- 
 rectly opposite, suit with the ever-varying venue. The founder of this museum is 
 moods of lovers, and, consequently, are said to have been Ptolemy Philadelphus, 
 proper to their patroness. Ovid invokes who deposited his extensive libraiy and 
 Erato pleasantly enough in his Art of curiosities therein. The word museum 
 Love, and likewise in his Fasti for April, has, from this origin, become common to 
 which among the Romans was considered any place set apart for the reception of 
 as more peculiarly the lover's month. But rare or otherwise valuable things which 
 Virgil appears to invoke her, in his ^neid, bear relation to literature, art, science, or 
 before a field of battle, with less propriety, natural history. 
 
 unless indeed it was because the war was The museum at Oxford, called the Ash- 
 occasioned by a woman. molean Museum, is a magnificent pile of 
 Calliope is called by Ovid the chief of building; erected at the expense of the 
 the muses ; and by Horace Regina, as University, at the west end of the theatre, 
 skilful on all instruments. The tables in on which side it has a noble portico, sus- 
 her hand mark her distinguishing charac- tained by pillars of the Corinthian order, 
 ter, which was to note down the worthy The front, which is to the street, extends 
 actions of the living. The books in ancient about sixty feet, and this inscription, in 
 times somewhat resembled the rolls in the gilt characters, appears over the entrance, 
 offices for old records; and the form now Museum Ashmoleanum, Schola Natura- 
 iu use for books was then only used for lis Histori.^, officina CHYivncA. The 
 
 tablets (pvgillares) or pocket-books, call- 
 ed by Catullus pugillaria, and by Auso- 
 nius pugillar bipatens. 
 
 Polyhymnia is specified by some string- 
 
 edifice was begun in 1679, and completed 
 in 1683, when a valuable collection of 
 curiosities was presented to the univer- 
 sity by Elias Ashmole, Esq. and was im- 
 
 ed instrument in her hand, perhaps what mediately deposited therein : numerous 
 
 the Romans called the barbiton, which we accessions have been since made, includ- 
 
 have no name for. ing hieroglyphics, and other Egyptian an- 
 
 Urania presided over astronomy, and is tiquities, altars, medals, lamps, ike. and a 
 
 distinguished by the celestial globe at her great variety of natural curiosities. 
 
 H H 2 
 
MUS 
 
 The Britisli Museum, in London, is one 
 of the most superb cabinets of rare and 
 estimable works, both of nature and art, 
 now existing : — a degree of praise to which 
 it is more peculiarly entitled since the ac- 
 quirement of the El'gin marbles. The pre- 
 sent building, although of considerable 
 dimensions, is still not large enough for 
 the purposes to which it is destined ; and 
 we are happy to state, that a new edifice 
 is contemplated, wherein suites of apart- 
 ments will, it is understood, be constructed 
 for the reception of the splendid library 
 lately presented to the public by his most 
 gracious Majesty, as well as for the Na- 
 tional Gallery of Paintings, which has 
 been commenced by the purciiase of the 
 fine collection of the late Mr. Angcrstein, 
 and is noAV exhibiting in contracted and 
 incommodious apartments in Pall Mall. 
 
 In Paris, and sundry other continental 
 cities, have been established very exten- 
 sive and noble museums. That formerly 
 denominated the Musie Napoleon (now the 
 Louvre) was, periiaps, rendered altogetiier 
 the richest in Europe. 
 
 It is essential in constructing and ar- 
 ranging a museum, that great care and 
 attention should be paid to system and 
 method. Tiie eye and the mind should be 
 led gradually from one series of objects to 
 another, witiiout any hazard of confusion 
 or of too harsh contrast. Nothing should 
 be huddled together, or found in a mista- 
 ken department. It is obvious that to this 
 end a logical head and a practised hanil 
 should be employed; a superintendent, 
 indeed, of great natural talent, and not 
 less experience, wiio would not sacrifice 
 theory to caprice, nor be led into such 
 errors of classification as might probably 
 deceive an unlearned or superficial ob- 
 server. See AuciiAioix)GV, Catalogue, 
 Classification, &c. 
 
 Mustaches, [moustache, Vr.'] In costume. 
 This kind of beard or rather whisker on 
 the upper Hi) does not seem to have ever 
 been in habit among the jjoliter ancients, 
 but savage nations of the same ages were 
 un<juestionaljly accustomed to iircserve it, 
 and we know tliat in the liine of Julius 
 Ca'sar the IJritons shaved the chin, and 
 retained only the mustache. The cut and 
 shape of titese accoin|)aniin('ii(s has of 
 course varied greatly according lo the 
 fashion of the limes. 
 
 We do not find many instances on nn- 
 titpu's of figures weai iiig niiislai lies. Cay- 
 lus, in the (ill) vol. of his />'/■<?/( ;/ (plate 71, 
 No. 3), lias published a bron/>e coin, u])(iii 
 which w(( find the cas(|u<'d head of a liar- 
 bari.iii bearing niuslaclies rescniblinf, tho.-^e 
 now worn ainoiij', ihr iiiililai'>. i'lie will- 
 
 MYS 
 
 known statue of the Dying Gladiator has 
 also mustaches ; and hence Visconti, with 
 other intelligent writers on art have ima- 
 gined that this fine sculpture has been 
 falsely named, and was most probably 
 meant for a barbarian soldier (probably a 
 Gaul) wounded to death, ami that it ori- 
 ginally decorated the triumphal monu- 
 ment of a Roman victor. 
 
 Mutation, [inutntin, Lat. from /it ra/3(iX>), 
 Gr. a change or alteration.] In nil the arts. 
 The variations in point of taste, abilitv', or 
 style, which the course of years produces 
 in all the various departments of art. 
 
 Mutule. [mutulus, Lat.] In architecture. 
 An ornament in the Doric cornice answer- 
 ing to a modillion in the Ionic and Corin- 
 thian entablature. See Drop*, Gi tt.t:. 
 
 Myology, [mtiologie, Ft.] In painting, 
 drawing, and sculpture. The description 
 and doctrine of tlie muscles. See Ana- 
 to:my'. 
 
 Myrotiiecium. [Lat.] In archniologn. 
 The first volume of the Paintings of Her- 
 culaneum,pl.l-l,presents a repast inwhicii 
 a young slave bears a small casket to a 
 female seated. The editors of the Anti- 
 quities of Ilerculaneum suppose that this 
 casket or little box is intended for the my 
 rothecium or perfume-box, founding tiieir 
 opinion on divers passages of Diogenes 
 Laertius, Elianus, Atlueneus, &:c. who 
 each make mention of the usage adopted 
 by the ancients of anointing the head at 
 the conclusion of their meals, in the per- 
 suasion that these perfumes possessed the 
 virtue of dissipating, or, at least, of alle- 
 viating the influence of the wine. 
 
 Myrtle, [myrtus, Lat. from ^ivproc, 
 Cr.] In (trchuiologij. The name of a shrub 
 or snnill tree consecrated to Venus. .\t 
 Athens, both magistrates and supplicants 
 wore myrtle garlands, as did also the vic- 
 tors in the Istiimian games. Tiie Ronnin 
 triumphs also presented opportunities of 
 assuming the myrtle wreath. 
 
 Pliny enters into a gooil deal of detail 
 respecting this plant, but he does not 
 speak of it as having been much useil in 
 sculptures; nor indeed does it ajiix-ar \er_\ 
 well calculated for that purpose. M'iiuk- 
 elmann, however, helil an opinion some- 
 what diflerent, and cites instances of an- 
 ticiues in which myrtle ln-aiuhes are intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Mystery. fjuvTi'/fnor, Gr. mh/.v/ZTc, Fr.] 
 In all the arts. Any thing dark, compli- 
 cated, or unintelligible. In art, this term 
 is applied lo such works as are intended 
 to produce an cllect striking, solemn, and 
 obscure ; such, for instance, as in painling 
 tiie Sight, of Corregio; the Death of SI. 
 Uruno, of !,<• Smiir; (he inlrodnclion of 
 
MYT 
 
 Henry IV. as a simple spectator in the 
 Coronation of Mcdicis, by Rubens, &c. In 
 sculpture, the statue of Memnon is an 
 illustrious instance, if any credit is to be 
 attached to the tradition of musical sounds 
 having issued therefrom at the uprising 
 of the sun, which effect might possibly 
 have been the result of very complicated 
 mechanism. (See Memnon.) In archi- 
 tecture, we may cite as examples the four 
 celebrated ancient labyrinths (see that 
 word.) The painter who would produce 
 a mysterious effect should take care that 
 his lights be skilfully disposed. A light 
 produced by means half natural, half arti- 
 ficial, would be perhaps best calculated 
 to serve his purpose. 
 
 Mythic Circle. In the mythology of 
 art. This term is applied to any particu- 
 lar series of fabulous adventures or tradi- 
 tions, such, for instance, as those relating 
 especially to the siege of Troy, to the 
 voyages of Ulysses, to the feats of Achilles, 
 or of Hercules, of the family of Agamem- 
 non, &c. An acquaintance witii the nature 
 and varieties of these mythic circles is of 
 great use to the artist, in supplying him 
 with subjects, and preserving him from the 
 hazard of anachronism, &c. 
 
 Mythology. [iiiiSrog, a fable, and X6yog, 
 a discourse, Gr.] In archaiology. A term 
 compounded of the above Greek words, 
 and signifying, in its original import, any 
 kind of fabulous doctrine. As appropri- 
 ated by us, it refers to those systems of 
 worship adopted among the primitive 
 countries of the world, and, more particu- 
 larly still, amongst the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans. The following is an enumeration of 
 the imaginary deities of those accomplish- 
 ed nations. 
 
 I. The twelvjfe great celestial deities ; — 
 Jupiter, Juno, Minerva ; Neptune, Venus, 
 Mars, Vulcan, and Vesta ; Apollo, Diana, 
 Ceres, and Mercury. 
 
 II. The six heroes, supposed by the Ro- 
 mans to have been received into the higher 
 heavens ; Hercules, Bacchus, ^sculapius, 
 Romulus, Castor, and Pollux. 
 
 III. The moral deities who preside over 
 the virtues of men, and the conduct of 
 human life ; such as Prudence, Justice, 
 &c. 
 
 IV. The constellations, planets, times, 
 and seasons. 
 
 V. The beings supposed to inhabit the 
 air. 
 
 VI. The deities of the waters. VII. 
 The deities of the earth. VIII. The dei- 
 ties and inhabitants of the lower world. 
 
 We have in other parts of this work 
 treated of the most celebrated among these 
 
 MYT 
 
 mythological personages, at least in so far 
 as seemed requisite for the purposes of 
 our Dictionary: but have reserved until 
 the present time a description of the man- 
 ner in which the great supreme god of the 
 ancients, Jupiter, and his coequal bride, 
 Juno, have been represented on those an- 
 cient monuments which have come down 
 to our age. 
 
 The distinguishing character of Jupiter's 
 person in all the representations of him, 
 whether by artists or poets, is majesty ; 
 and every thing about him carries dignfty 
 and authority with it. His look is meant 
 sometimes to strike with terror and some- 
 times to excite gratitude, but always re- 
 spect. This would have appeared more 
 strongly, had some of the noble statues of 
 Jupiter, particularly that of Jupiter Olyni- 
 pius, the work of Phidias, remained to 
 our days : since that was reckoned the 
 masterpiece of the greatest statuary that 
 ever lived. The statue of Jupiter in the 
 Verospi palace at Rome, though it is one 
 of the best we have, falls very short even 
 of the idea we can form by the help of 
 the ancient poets. However, it is easily 
 known to be Jupiter, by the dignity of his 
 look, by the fulness of his hair about his 
 face, by his venerable beard, by his scep- 
 tre, the mark of command in his left hand, 
 and the fulmen in his right. 
 
 Phidias being asked how he could con- 
 ceive that air of divinity which he had 
 expressed in Jupiter's face, replied, he 
 had copied it from Homer's celebrated 
 description of him. Now all the personal 
 strokes in that description relate to the 
 hair, the eyebrows, and the beard ; and 
 indeed to these it is that the best heads &f 
 Jupiter owe most of their dignity: for 
 though we have now a mean opinion of 
 beards, yet all over the east a full beard 
 still carries the idea of majesty along with 
 it ; and the Grecians had a share of this 
 oriental notion, as may be observed in 
 their busts of Jupiter, and the heads of 
 kings on Greek medals. But the Romans, 
 though they held beards in great esteem 
 even as far down as the sacking of their 
 city by the Gauls, yet in their better ages 
 were apt to undervalue and speak disre- 
 spectfully of them. They were then worn 
 only by poor philosophers, and by such 
 as were suffering under disgrace or mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 The fulmen in the hand of Jupiter was 
 a sort of hieroglyphic, having three differ- 
 ent meanings, according to the three ways 
 in which it was represented. The first 
 way is a w^reath of flame, in a conical 
 shape, like what we call the thunderbolt. 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 This was adapted to Jupiter wlien mild 
 and calm, and was held down in his hand. 
 The second way is the same figure with 
 two transverse darts of lightning, and some- 
 times with wings on each side of it, to 
 denote swiftness. This was given to Ju- 
 piter when punishing. The thundering 
 legion among the Romans bore the winged 
 fulmen on their shields, which spread all 
 over them, as appears by the Antonine 
 and Trajan pillars. There is a figure of 
 Jupiter in liuonarotti's collection at Flo- 
 rence, holding up the three-forked bolt as if 
 just ready to dart it at some guilty wretch, 
 but with the conical fulmen lying under 
 his feet, as of no use in cases of severity. 
 The third way is a handful of flames, 
 which Jupiter held up when inflicting 
 some exeujplary punishment. 
 
 The diirerent characters under which 
 Jupiter was represented among the Ro- 
 mans, were chiefly these : 
 
 The Jupiter Capitounls, who was 
 esteemed the great guardian of the Ro- 
 mans, and who was (according to a very 
 early and strong notion among them) to 
 give them the empire of the world. They 
 called him Optimus 3i(iximus, or the best 
 and greatest, which inscription is often 
 found on medals. He was represented 
 (as he appears on a medal of Vitellius) in 
 his chief temple, on the Capitoline Hill, 
 as sitting in a curule chair, with the mild- 
 est fulmen held down in his right hand, 
 his character being rather one of goodness 
 than of severity. In his left hand he 
 bears his sceptre as the king or father of 
 all beings, ]5ut it was neither his sceptre, 
 nor even his fulmen, hut that air of ma- 
 jesty which the artists strore to eorpress in 
 his countenance, that chiefly showed the 
 superiority of Jupiter, in all his dillercnt 
 characters. 
 
 The Mild Jupiter appears (as on a 
 gem at Florence) with a mixture of dig- 
 nity and ease in his face ; that severe kind 
 of majesty given him by Virgil, when re- 
 ceiving Venus with so much i)arental ten- 
 derness, in the first jiilneid, v. 2.H;. 
 
 The TKRunii.i; Juimtlu was represented 
 in his statues, in every particular, difler- 
 ently from the Milil. These were gene- 
 rally of white marble, as the others were 
 of black. The IMild is silling witii an air 
 of tranquillity; the Terrible is standing, 
 and t\wYv or less disturbed : the face of 
 th(^ Mild is scM'cne ; of tiie other aie^ry or 
 cloudy : the hair of the one is c{nni)osed, 
 in the other so disconii)osed as to fall half 
 way down the forehead. 
 
 The artists took care never (o rcj)reseMl 
 Jupiter so angry, but that he still rclaius 
 
 his majesty, which too much passion would 
 destroy. 
 
 The Jupiter Tonans is represented on 
 medals and gems, as holding up the triple- 
 forked fulmen, and standing in a chariot 
 whirled by four horses. The Jupher 
 FuLMiNANs and the Jupiter Fulgukatok 
 appear to be much the same. The Fuir 
 MiNANS may be considered as the dispenser 
 of lightnings which dart from the clouds; 
 and the other of the fulgetra, or lesser 
 lightnings, which shoot along the clouds 
 like the aurora boreaUs, 
 
 The Jupiter Puuvius, or dispenser of 
 rain, is no where represented except on a 
 medal (where he is seated in the clouds, 
 holding up his right hand, and pouring 
 down a stream of hail and rain from it on 
 the earth, whilst his fulmen is held down 
 in his lap), and on the Trajan and Anto- 
 nine pillars. On this last, as well as on 
 the medal, he appears with an elderly 
 and sedate look ; and extends his arms 
 almost in a straight line each way. The 
 wings given him on the pillar relate to the 
 original and principal character of this 
 god, that of presiding over the air. His 
 liair and beard are all spread down by 
 the rain, which descends in a sheet from 
 him, and falls for the refreshment of the 
 Romans, whilst their enemies are repre- 
 sented as struck with the lightning, and 
 lying dead before them. 
 
 There was scarcely any character of 
 Jupiter that was more capable of giving 
 sublime ideas to the artist tlian this of 
 the Jupiter Pluvius. For though on the 
 medal and Antonine pillar he is all calm 
 and still, on the Trajan he appears much 
 mi>rc agitated; and the Roman poets 
 (whose works are counterparts to those of 
 the artists), not only speak of Jupiter as 
 descending in violent showers, but as quite 
 ruflled also with the winds that usually 
 attend them. Silius actually rises into 
 poetry, where he is treating this subject, 
 and one of the tinest passages in the ^Dneid 
 relates to the same. It is where Evander 
 is pointing out the Capitoline hill to 
 TFneas, which Virgil supposes Jupiter to 
 have chosen for his peculiar residence, 
 before his temple, or even Rome, was 
 built. 
 
 JJesides the ligurc of Jupiter in his chief 
 temple, there was another, on the outside 
 of it, on the fop of the dome, standing in 
 his chariot, and probably with the I'ulnien 
 in his right, and, according to Silius, the 
 wixis in his left hand. This was one of 
 the oldest statues in U(une, and was first 
 made of earth, but afterwards cast in BOine 
 rich metiil. 
 
NAR 
 
 N A V 
 
 N 
 
 Naiades. IvaiaStg, Gr. from raw, to 
 flow.] In the mythologij of painting- and 
 sculpture. Certain inferior deities who 
 presided over rivers, springs, walks, and 
 fountains. The Naiades generally inha- 
 bited the country, and resorted to the 
 woods or meadows near the stream over 
 which they presided, and hence the deri- 
 vation of their name. They are repre- 
 sented with long bright hair flowing down 
 their shoulders, and as having a shining 
 humid look, with a fine shape, and well- 
 turned limbs. Their robes (if any, for 
 they are commonly naked) are of a green- 
 ish colour, with lighter or darker shades, 
 and so transparent as to show the fineness 
 of their skin and shape. They have some- 
 times, on the ancient gems, flying veils 
 over their heads, like the Auras or sylphs. 
 
 Naive. [Fr.] In painting, drawing, and 
 sculpture. A term used to denote the ex- 
 pression of liveliness, frankness, or inge- 
 nuousness. The word would be most 
 properly applied, indeed, to such works of 
 art as afford a representation of any action 
 which is the effect of extreme simplicity. 
 
 Name, [nama, Sax. naem, Dutch.] /w 
 all the arts. In ancient times it was com- 
 mon for the artist, whether painter, sculp- 
 tor, architect, or engraver, to aflix the cha- 
 racters of his name to such of his works 
 as he might deem the likeliest to acquire 
 celebrity. These however were not al- 
 ways inscribed in the most unequivocal 
 manner, and a good deal of caution is ne- 
 cessary to be used in deciphering them. 
 Sometimes the name of the artist has been 
 mistaken for that of the figure represented, 
 for instance, and vice versa. In other 
 cases, the cupidity of the vender, and the 
 credulity of the purchaser of antiques, 
 have combined to palm off some inferior 
 production as having been executed by 
 one of the great masters of ancient art ; 
 and, in addition to these hazards of de- 
 ception, the purchaser or collector has 
 himself occasionally been instigated by 
 vanity to have his own name impressed 
 on the coin or statue. 
 
 In the present day, it is customary for 
 the name of the artist to be affixed at the 
 corner either of a sculpture or engraving, 
 or at the back of a painting. 
 
 Nares. [Lat. the nostrils.] In architec- 
 ture. This term is used by Vitruvius to 
 signify the point of issue of a conduit or 
 aqueduct. 
 
 Natural, [from naturn, Lat.] In paint- 
 ing, drawing, and sculpture. That which 
 offers a true and striking resemblance to 
 reality : close imitation of Nature, as dis- 
 tinguished from the ideal or imaginative, 
 though that species of art should likewise 
 retain the principle of verisimilitude, or 
 proximity to what actually exists. 
 
 Nature, [natura, Lat. from nascor, na- 
 tus, to be born.] In the mythology of paint- 
 ing and sculpture. The goddess Nature 
 appears in a statue with great simplicity ; 
 her robes fall down to her feet, for dignity, 
 and to show how much her ways are con- 
 cealed ; and she has a basket of fruits on 
 her head, as the cause of plenty, and the 
 producer of all things. The great Diana 
 of the Ephesians, probably, represented 
 this goddess, as appears from the various 
 symbols on her figure, as the sun, moon, 
 and stars, all sorts of animals, and a num- 
 ber of breasts, to show that she produces 
 and nourishes all things. 
 
 Naumachia. [yav[iaxia, Gr. from vavQ, 
 a ship, and pdxVj ^ fig^it.] In archaiology. 
 The representation of a sea fight, which 
 was at first made in the Circus Blaximtis, 
 but afterwards elsewhere. Augustus dug 
 a lake for this purpose near the Tiber, and 
 Domitian built a naval theatre. 
 
 Nautilus. \yavri\oQ, from vavriKku), to 
 sail, Gr.] In engraving, sculpture, &c. 
 The nautilus is a certain shellfish, which 
 swims with its belly upwards, and is fur- 
 nished by nature with something analo- 
 gous in appearance to oars and a sail. 
 Those artists who engrave on shells make 
 frequent use of this curious animal. When 
 its cortical substance has been subjected 
 to the action of some acid, and a light 
 friction upon a grindstone, it presents an 
 appearance more brilliantly beautiful than 
 even mother-of-pearl itself. 
 
 Nave, [from vaoQ, a temple, or vavQ, a 
 ship, Gr.] In architecture. The middle part 
 of a church, distinct from the aisles or 
 wings. 
 
 Navigation, [iiavigatio, Lat.] In em- 
 blematical painting and sculpture. This was 
 figured, among the ancients, by Isis, hold- 
 ing in her hands an expanded sail, as we 
 find her on the Alexandrian medals, stand- 
 ing near a pharos, or light-house. The 
 moderns represent Navigation by a female 
 crowned with poops of vessels, her vest- 
 ments agitated by tlie wind. On one side, 
 she leans on a rudder, and on the other 
 
NEC 
 
 liolils a sounding instrument. At the feet 
 of tlie figure are a naval clock, a compass, 
 l(ie tiident of Neptune, and various riches 
 of commerce. In the distance, we per- 
 ceive ships sailing on the ocean, and a 
 light-house terminates the prospect. The 
 amplitication of this method of personify- 
 ing Navigation is far from the tasteful and 
 noble simplicity of the ancients. 
 
 Naxium. [Nuxos, one of the Cyclades, 
 from va^ai, to sacrifice.] A species of 
 hard stone, which, when reduced to pow- 
 der, was often substituted for powder of 
 diamonds. It was cither extracted from, 
 or at all events prepared for use at, Naxos, 
 in the island of Crete, and hence is de- 
 rived its denomination. 
 
 Necessity, [necessitwi, from nec-esse, or, 
 as others derive it, from necto, to bind or 
 knit.] In emblematical painting and sculp- 
 ture. See Parc^e. 
 
 Neck. [Dutch, hneca. Sax.] In painting; 
 and sculpture. Among the ancients it was 
 customary for both men and women to 
 leave the neck quite bare, as the inhabit- 
 ants of Eastern countries do at this day. 
 The females, however, were sometimes 
 adorned with necklaces. In forming this 
 member, regard should always be paid by 
 the painter or sculptor of imaginary per- 
 sonages to the degree of physical force 
 meant to be expressed, and tlie circumfe- 
 rence of the neck proportioned accord- 
 ingly. 
 
 Necklace, [neck and lace.'] In costume. 
 The Egyptians wej-e early habituated to 
 the use of the necklace, as is proved from 
 the greater number of their ancient sta- 
 tues, even those of men : sometimes these 
 necklaces are found encrusted in silver 
 upon statues of bronze. The Greek and 
 Koman ladies love<l to appear thus orna- 
 mented, ])articuhirly in feasts and dances. 
 The S])aniards wore collars of iron. The 
 Romans designated these articles of dress 
 by two names — torques and collarc. The 
 former appellation inchided tliosc which 
 tlie generals were wont to distribute so- 
 li innly amongst such soldiers as were dis- 
 tinguished by their valour and good con- 
 duct, and who were hence called iitiiiles 
 lonjuati. These toniucs were frerniently 
 made of gold or of silver. Tiu> Cauls 
 wore collars or necklaces of ])recious 
 metal in their armic^s. Manlius received 
 his well known surname, Torijuulus, from 
 having despoiled a Gaul of one of tiiese 
 ornauK-nls \\ lioni he had killed in single 
 coMibiit. 'I'Ih^ cdllare was an instninicnt 
 of punislimenl, such as the iron collar 
 of the moderns. It was i)rincipally in- 
 flicted on the slaves who had <loped from 
 
 NES 
 
 tlieir owners, and were retaken. There 
 are still extant specimens of these collars, 
 bearing an inscription cimiprising the name 
 of the slave's master, his residence, and a 
 request to those finding the unfortunate 
 man, to restore him to the proper owner. 
 
 To return to the ornamental collar or 
 necklace, many of the most ancient monu- 
 ments, such as Greek vases, 6:c. present 
 it as encircling the neck of some divinity. 
 Venus, Ariadne, and even Minerva, may 
 be cited as instances. This necklace is 
 most commonly composed of round berries, 
 or beads, strung together; occasionally of 
 acorns. There are several antique Roman 
 necklaces still preserved ; they are con- 
 structed similarly to ours— namely, of an 
 assemblage of small pieces of different 
 substances, attached by rings. Caylus, in 
 his Recueil, Guattani, in his Monumenii 
 Incditi, Roccheggiani and "VVillemin, in 
 their several works on costume, have pub- 
 lished specimens of ancient necklaces or 
 collars. 
 
 Negligence, [negligent i<i, Lat.] In all 
 the arts. Carelessness and inattention to 
 admitted rules, to propriety of costume, 
 correctness of story, natural disposition of 
 light and shade, &c. This is more or less 
 blamable in proportion as the thing over- 
 looked is of little or great consequence, or 
 is, in its nature, of an obvious or of a re- 
 chcrcMe kind. 
 
 Neptune, [from vIittio, to bathe.] In 
 mythological painting and sculpture. Nep- 
 tune, on a connnon medal of Adrian, is 
 standing, as he was generally represented, 
 with his trident in his right hand. This 
 was his pecidiar sceptre, and seems to be 
 used by him ehielly to rouse up the waves; 
 but he sometimes laid it aside, when he 
 was to appease them, though he resumed 
 it on occuision. He holds a dolphin in iiis 
 left hand, and rests one of his feet on part 
 of a shi[), to indicate that he presides over 
 the inland seas, more i)arlicularly the INle- 
 dilerranean, wliieii was the great aiul al- 
 most only scene for na\ igation among the 
 Greeks and Romans. His aspect is nm- 
 jeslie and serene (as it is'in all ids good 
 figures), and he is so described by \ irgil, 
 even when represented as in a passion. 
 The poets have generally delighted in de- 
 scriljing Neplime as i)assitig o\cr the calm 
 surface of tiie waters in his chariot, drawn 
 by six horses, with a Triton sometimes on 
 I'aeh side, as guiding those that draw the 
 chariot. 
 
 Nicssorimniii'M. [Lat. j'tn-orpo^tioi', (.'r. 
 from i'i;7r«, a duck, and rpefn'ic, a feeder 
 or iiourislier.] In Ihr arihuiohigij of archi- 
 ll dure. A place in the lioiuan towns eon- 
 
NIL 
 
 strncted for the purpose of breeding and 
 fattening ducks. 
 
 New. [newyd, Welsh, neow, Sax. neuf, 
 Fr.] In all the arts. The introduction of 
 any branch, style, or manner of art Tiot 
 known before. In aiming at novelty (an 
 aim higlily praiseworthy and creditable to 
 every artist), it is necessary, at the same 
 time, that extravagance and bad taste be 
 avoided, and these are errors which a 
 young aspirant after fame would not im- 
 probably fall into. It is not sufficient that 
 a thing be merely novel, unless it com- 
 bines with that quality the still higher one 
 of excellence. See Composition, Inven- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 NiccoLO. [Italian.] In gem sculpture. A 
 species of Arabian sardonyx, the upper 
 stratum of which is of a white hue inclin- 
 ing to bluish — a quality called by the Ita- 
 lians niccolo col velo turchino ; that is to 
 say, an onyx with a bluish vein. 
 
 Niche, [niche, Fr.] In architecture. A 
 cavity or hollow in a wall, for the recep- 
 tion of busts, statues, &c. These niches 
 are found most abundantly in Gothic build- 
 ings, as witness any of the cathedral 
 churches of our own country. 
 
 NiEixo. [Italian.] A species of work 
 used amongst the Romans and modern 
 Italians, somewhat resembling damask- 
 work, and performed by enchasing a mix- 
 ture of silver and lead into cavities and 
 holes cut in all sorts of hard wood and 
 metals. This art was denominated by the 
 ancients ingellum, and was used by them 
 to decorate a great variety of things, and 
 more especially candelabras. Several 
 drawings exhibiting specimens of this de- 
 scription are given by the editors of the 
 Antiquities of Herculaneum. 
 
 Night, [mhr, Sax. Mrtft^s, Gothic] Night, 
 or, according to the Greeks, 'Hvi, and the 
 Romans, Nox, was one of the most prime- 
 val among the deities of the heathens. 
 She had a famous statue in the temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus. She was held to be 
 mother of the Parcae, or Destinies, of the 
 Hesperides, of Dreams, Discord, Death, 
 &c. She is commonly represented as 
 mounted on a chariot, and covered with a 
 veil bespangled with stars. Occasionally 
 two children are depicted held under her 
 arms : — the one black, representing the 
 principle of death — the other white, to in- 
 dicate the innocence and refreshing nature 
 of sleep. Some of the modern artists have 
 depicted her as a woman veiled in mourn- 
 ing habiliments, crowned with poppies, 
 and borne on a chariot drawn by bats and 
 owls. 
 
 Nile. [Nilus, Lat. NtiXoc, Gr.] In em- 
 blematical sculpture. The Nile, anciently 
 
 N IM 
 
 called jT^gyptus, is one of the noblest 
 rivers in the known world. The ancients 
 were ignorant of its sources, nor have tlie 
 moderns been enabled to solve the diffi- 
 culty. From this cause, an impossibility 
 is often implied by the proverb Nili caput 
 quarere — " to seek the river-head of the 
 Nile." This magnificent stream flows 
 through the middle of Egypt in a northern 
 direction, and on coming to the town of 
 Cercasorum, it divides itself into several 
 branches, and falls into the Mediterranean 
 by seven mouths. 
 
 The Nile has been personified in seve- 
 ral statues, but most particularly in a very 
 noble one of black marble now in the Va- 
 tican. He is distinguished by his large 
 cornucopia, by the sphinx couched under 
 him, and by the sixteen little children 
 playing around him.' The cornucopia is 
 introduced with the greatest propriety, 
 this river being the absolute cause of the 
 great fertility of Lower Egypt, which it 
 supplies both with soil and moisture. He 
 was their Jupiter Pluvius, or chief river 
 god, and thence termed by Tibullus the 
 Egyptian Jupiter. The sphynx alludes 
 either to the celebrated statue on the plain 
 of Memphis, or to the mystic knowledge 
 so much cultivated in Egypt. By the six- 
 teen children are understood the several 
 risings of the river every year, as far as to 
 sixteen cubits (Pliny, 1. xxxvi. c, 7). This 
 piece of statuary is said to be of black 
 marble, in allusion to the Nile's coming 
 from Ethiopia. It is worthy of remark, 
 that Virgil, in his account of ^neas's 
 shield, describes the Nile as of a vast size, 
 with a mixture in his countenance of ter- 
 ror and concern, spreading his robe, and 
 inviting the defeated fleet of Cleopatra to 
 the inmost r-ecesses of his stream. In the 
 Vatican statue tlie water flows down from 
 under his robe, which conceals his urn, 
 to denote that the head of this river was 
 impenetrable. In some modern statues 
 the head of the figure is quite hidden under 
 his robe for the same reason. 
 
 An instrument, called a nilomtter, was 
 constructed by the ancient Egyptians, con- 
 sisting of a rod or pillar, marked with the 
 necessary divisions, for the purpose of 
 ascertaining the proportionate increases of 
 the flood of the Nile. 
 
 Nimbus. [Lat.] In archaiologij. A circle 
 or disk, of a luminous nature, which, on 
 sundry ancient medals and other monu- 
 ments, environs the heads of divinities or 
 sovereigns : the primitive Christian artists 
 adopted this usage, and applied it to their 
 personifications of the great Founder of 
 their religion, and also to the saints and 
 martyrs of the holy church. There can 
 
NIO 
 
 be little doubt but that the origin of this 
 custom arose from a desire on the part of 
 the people of remote antiquity to compli- 
 ment their kings and heroes by decorating 
 them with a resemblance to the rays of 
 the sun, the great apparent source of life, 
 heat, and fertility. 
 
 NioBE. In mythological painting and 
 sculpture. The daughter of Tantalus, sis- 
 ter of Pelops and wife of Amphion, king 
 of Thebes. She had six, or according to 
 other accounts seven sons, and as many 
 daughters. Niobe comparing herself, in 
 her pride of heart, with Latona, that god- 
 dess became so incensed, that she desired 
 her two children, Apollo and Diana, to 
 avenge the affront. They, granting her 
 request, slay all Niobe's children. Ovid 
 is very diffuse in his description of this 
 retributive vengeance. He represents 
 Apollo and Diana, with their bows, exe- 
 cuting the deed, and even tells us how and 
 where each son was wounded. 
 
 There was, according to Propertius, a 
 fine rilievo on one of the folding doors to 
 the temple of Apollo Palatinus, and ano- 
 ther is spoken of by Pliny in his Natural 
 History — both on this subject. There is 
 likewise a noble collection of detached 
 figures in the Medicean gardens, repre- 
 senting Niobe and her children about the 
 beginning of the action. Among the sons 
 there is a figure, which has been supposed 
 to be meant for Ami)hion, being too old 
 for one of his sons. The attitude agrees 
 with Juvenal's description of this prince 
 (Sat. vi. v. 193), whom he imagines to have 
 been present. Besides this select set 
 (which were dug up near the Porta di 
 Sun. (iioranni, and purciiased by the 
 Grand Duke of Florence) there are single 
 figures of Niobe's sous in several collec- 
 tions at Home. 
 
 In the celebrated Medicean statue, Niobe 
 appears in an ecstasy of grief for the loss 
 of her odspring, and about to be converted 
 into stone herself. She seems as if de- 
 prived of all sensation by the excess of 
 sorrow, and incapable either of shedding 
 tears or of uttering lamentations. \\'ith 
 her right hand she clasps one of her little 
 daughters, who throws herself into her 
 parent's bosom; which aKiludc e(|uiiliy 
 expresses Xhv ardent iillcclion of (he mo- 
 ther and the natural confidence of liic 
 child. The whole is executed in a sur- 
 jjrisingly beautiful maniu-r, as are tlie sta- 
 tui;s of the other children. We have no 
 •Ifa-ect information at wliat period this 
 nol)l(' group was trans|)orted from (ireece 
 to l<(>nic, nor as to wiicn it was first crect- 
 <'d. i'iuniinius Vaccaonly says, thai these 
 statues were (as we before observed) found 
 
 NOD 
 
 in his time not far from the gate of St. 
 John, and purchased by the Grand Duke 
 Ferdinand. 
 
 Dr. Moore, speaking of the statue of 
 Niobe, says, "The author of Niobe has 
 had the judgment not to exhibit all the 
 distress which he might have placed in 
 her countenance. This consummate artist 
 was afraid of disturbing her features too 
 much, knowiug full well that the point 
 when he was to expect most sympathy 
 was then, when distress cooperated with 
 beauty, and when our pity met our love. 
 Had he sought it one step farther in ex- 
 pression, he had lost it." 
 
 In the following epigram this statue is 
 ascribed to Praxiteles. The original is in 
 Greek, by an unknown author, and is to 
 be found in the fourth book of the Antho- 
 logia. 
 
 While for my children's fate I vainly moiirn'd, 
 The angry gods to massive stone nie ttiru'd ; 
 Praxiteles a nobler feat has done, 
 He made nie live again from being stone. 
 
 NiSMES. In the history of the arts. A 
 flourishing city of France, in the depart- 
 ment of Gard, and late province of Lan- 
 guedoc, with a bishop's see. In this town 
 are to be found the remains of several mo- 
 numents of the splendour of the Romans. 
 The amphitheatre is still in a state of good 
 preservation, and afi'ords an imposing coup- 
 el' ceil. The Maison Cakree (see that 
 word) is another magnificent instance : and 
 to these are to be added the remains of a 
 bath and of a nynipheum, together with 
 several musaics, and a variety of inscrip- 
 tions. At a short distance from Nismes is 
 also a magnilicent aciueduct consisting of 
 three arcades one abo\e another, known 
 by the api)ellation of the Pont du Hard, by 
 reason of tlie lower arciulc having served, 
 ami indeeil serving still, for a briilge over 
 the Garden. 
 
 NoBi.E. [Fr. «()/>i7«, Lat.] In all the arts. 
 See Guam), 
 
 Nodus, [Lat,] In ancient sculpture and 
 costume. This was one of the terms by 
 which the Honians expressed that peculiar 
 kind of head-dress called by thi- (i reeks 
 Xoju'w^tov. (See CouYMUiiini.) Sometimes 
 the i)in which served to retain this kind 
 of III ad-driss in shape was hollow, and 
 has even been Unown to be used for the 
 purpose of ciuttaining poison. It was from 
 a receptacle of this nature, according to 
 Did t'assius, that (."li(ii)atra drew the 
 pernicious drug by wiiicli she destroyed 
 her life. It is withiuit doubt that this vo- 
 luptuous and ill-fuled woman did commit 
 vitdcnce on lier own person. i)nl by what 
 particular instrument is subject to great 
 uncurtuinl'y nnil dispute. 
 
NOU 
 
 Nose, [noese, nosa, Sax.] 7» painting, 
 sculpture, drawing, &c. That prominence 
 on the face, which is the organ of scent 
 and the emunctory of the brain. 
 
 The ancients seem to have had a consi- 
 derable aversion to small noses, and the 
 Romans esteemed above all the aquiline 
 nose, which Pliny termed, by way of dis- 
 tinction, royal. It is thus that jElianus 
 has described that of Aspasia, and Philos- 
 tratus those of Achilles and of Paris, Ac- 
 cording to Plutarch, Cyrus had the same, 
 and on this account the Persians are said 
 to have admired noses of this shape. But 
 these aquiline noses were only reckoned 
 beautiful insofar as the curve was gentle 
 and almost insensible, in contradistinction 
 to such as are decidedly crooked, resem- 
 bling the nose of a parrot, which amounts 
 to a deformity. The Grecians, indeed, 
 generally speaking, seem to have held a 
 straight line from the forehead or rather 
 slightly inclined to be the beau idial with 
 respect to this feature, and accordingly we 
 find it so practised in their best statues, 
 &c. They however participated greatly 
 in the dislike to small and unimportant 
 noses, and probably one cause for this is 
 to be found in the fact of their making the 
 expression of indignation and anger lie 
 greatly in the nose and nostrils. It may be 
 remarked, in confirmation of the above ob- 
 servations, that the short nose is never to 
 be found in Roman sculptures earlier than 
 the times of Caracalla, when the art evi- 
 dently declined, as is obvious, among other 
 proofs, from the introduction of so bad a 
 taste as working in vaiuegated marbles. 
 See Nostrils. 
 
 Nostrils, [noese and thyrl, a hole. Sax.] 
 In sculpture, painting, &c. In the figures of 
 the divinities, the idea of repose and tran- 
 quillity which answers so perfectly to our 
 notions of supreme serenity and benevo- 
 lence is genei-ally found strongly marked, 
 and is seldom altogether contradicted. If 
 however, impelled by circumstances, they 
 thought it necessary to disturb this ex- 
 pression by introducing that of agitation 
 or of anger, they usually confined the latter 
 to some particular feature. Thus a large 
 nose with expanded nostrils became indi- 
 cative of the displeasure of the deity re- 
 presented. The Greek authors speak, in 
 these cases, of wide nostrils which inspire 
 the air freely; and sacred writers have 
 also used the same image in treating of 
 the displeasure of Jehovah. With regard 
 to art, an eminent instance is found in the 
 swollen and enlarged nostrils of the noble 
 statue of the Apollo Belvidere. See Nose. 
 
 Nourished, [from the verb to nourish.] 
 
 NYM 
 
 In painting. This is a term sometimes ap- 
 plied, in the way of commendation, to a 
 judicious mixture of colours. Its usage 
 amongst the French (nnurri) is however far 
 commoner than on this side the channel. 
 
 Nudity, [nudus, Lat. naked.] In paint- 
 ing and sculpture. The gods, demigods, 
 and heroes of antiquity are generally re- 
 presented either entirely naked, or with a 
 slight mantle only thrown across the 
 shoulders. Figures of fauns, satyrs, &c. 
 also have this distinction. An exception 
 must, however, be made with respect to 
 Jupiter, who is very seldom found with- 
 out an ample robe enveloping diflTerent 
 parts of his body. Perhaps the reverence 
 entertained by the ancients for this their 
 principal deity, prevented them from ex- 
 hibiting him in a state of absolute nudity. 
 
 Numismatics, [vojukt/io, Gr. money, coin.] 
 In archaiology. A term used to express 
 the description and knowledge of ancient 
 coins and medals, whether of gold, silver, 
 brass, &c. See Medals. 
 
 NymphtEum, [Lat. from vvfi<pa~ioi', Gr.] 
 In archaiologij. This term was applied by 
 the ancients to a species of Grottoes (see 
 that word) which were found very fre- 
 quently in mountainous and rocky coun- 
 tries, and which, surrounded often by trees 
 and shrubs, presented a beautiful and pic- 
 turesque appearance. The Romans were 
 fond of constructing these kind of grottoes 
 in the gardens attached to their villas, at 
 least wherever the situation would permit. 
 One of the most celebrated among ancient 
 nymphceae, or grottoes, was that dedicated 
 to the nymph Corycia, upon Mount Par- 
 nassus, which enclosed a spring of unusual 
 size and clearness. This famous grotto 
 was very extensive, and yet admitted so 
 much light from the external air, that its 
 whole space might be traversed without 
 the aid of lamps or torches. In the mid- 
 dle of a wood, near to Lebadia, in Boeotia, 
 was the grotto of Trophonius, celebrated 
 for its oracle. In Attica may still be seen 
 the remains of a nymphseum adorned with 
 many inscriptions and bassi-rilievi, from 
 the rude workmanship of which it may be 
 presumed that the grotto is exceedingly 
 ancient. 
 
 These places were each of them dedi- 
 cated either to some nymph, Avho was sup- 
 posed to preside over the spring which 
 often shot up withinside them, or to one 
 of the gods themselves. They were in 
 some instances situated at the foot of a 
 mountain; in otjiers halfway up, and ap- 
 proached by serpentining paths frequently 
 obscured by the overhanging foliage. By 
 the side of these paths, the rills which had 
 
N Y M 
 
 their source in the grottoes above might, 
 here and there, be seen trickling down 
 their narrow beds into the valley below. 
 We must not omit, in conclusion, to allude 
 to the far-famed grotto of Calypso, of 
 whicij so fine a description has been given 
 by Homer in the Odyssey. 
 
 Nymphs. [vvj-Kpi], Gr.] In the mythology 
 of painting and sculpture. Certain female 
 deities among the ancients. They were 
 most commonly separated into classes, 
 nymphs of the land and nymphs of the sea. 
 Of the former class, some presided over 
 woods, and were termed Dryads and Ha- 
 madryads; others presided over moun- 
 tains, and received the name of Oreads; 
 others again over hills and dales, being 
 denominated Napaeas. Of the sea nymphs, 
 
 N YM 
 
 there was an equally great variety : such 
 as, Naiaues (which word see), Nereids, 
 Oceanides, &c. They were all worship- 
 ed by the ancients, though not with so 
 much solemnity as the superior deities. 
 They were usually depicted as young and 
 beautiful virgins, veiled up to their mid- 
 dle, and sometimes they held a vase, from 
 which they seemed to pour water. Occa- 
 sionally, however, by way of substitution 
 for these vases, they held grass, leaves, or 
 shells. 
 
 The nymphs were generally specified 
 by an epithet denoting the place of their 
 residence ; and thus the nymphs of Sicily 
 were termed Sicelides, those of Corycus, 
 Corycides, &c. 
 
 o 
 
 O Du Giotto. In the history of art. Pope 
 Benedict IX. having entertained the pur- 
 pose of adding to the embellishments of 
 St. Peter's, sent a messenger to Florence 
 and other places, to consult the principal 
 artists then living on the subject. Among 
 these was Signor Giotto, who being ap- 
 plied to in like manner as the rest, took 
 up a piece of paper, and traced thereon, 
 without the aid of compasses, or indeed 
 any other instrument except a pencil, a 
 circle of the most regular, nay even of the 
 most perfect description. Having done 
 this, he, with a smile, gave the paper to 
 the gentleman who had waited on him, 
 whom he reiiuested to present it to the 
 Pop(! as his design. The gentleman ex- 
 pressed some incredulity as to the i)aintcr's 
 inffintion, wliicii however becDiiiiiig after 
 awhile evident, he returned to his holiness, 
 and oilered Giotto's design with the rest. 
 The Pope, alike struck with the extraor- 
 tlinary delicacy and trutii of the i)erform- 
 ance, and with the singularity of the trans- 
 action, made choice of Giotto, in prefer- 
 ence to all the oilier can<li(latcs, to super- 
 intend the i)rojected improvements. 
 
 This story evidently forms a counter- 
 part to that of th(! lines of Apclles and 
 I'rotogenes, and bolli appear to us to iiave 
 received an intiiiite deal too nnuh noto- 
 riety and admiration. All that is proved 
 by them is that the several artists pos- 
 sessed strong nerves and ste.idy lingers. 
 The latter must undoubtedly i)o consider- 
 ed as of great utility and advantage to a 
 j>aint(!r or sculptor, but it is rallier too 
 mucli to round thereon a high notion of 
 his tairnl:';, and still nxu'e absurd to make 
 
 such a distinction the basis of a preference 
 over other men who, with less ready slight 
 of hand, might probably possess far supe- 
 rior ability. 
 
 Oak. [ac, a;c, Sax.] In archaiology. Tlie 
 ancients had a considerable veneration for 
 this tree by reason of its utility in the arts 
 of construction and various otiier ways. It 
 was particularly consecrated to Jupiter. 
 Among the Romans, an oaken crown was 
 awarded to such as had saved the life of 
 a citizen. Before the Capitoline games, 
 the curule ajdiles offered to Jupiter, in his 
 temple, a garland of the leaves of this 
 tree. 
 
 The editors of Winckelmann's History 
 of Art, published at Milan, name the oak 
 aniong those trees the wood of which was 
 used in sculpture. Their opinion is pro- 
 bable, but it seems to be destitute of the 
 necessary proof. However, as the oak is 
 excessively well adapted to this i)urpose, 
 and lias been much used therein by the 
 moderns (more particularly for carved 
 work in the interior of cathedrals), we 
 may readily imagine that its use in this 
 resjiect was not unknown in former times. 
 Oiuci.iSK. [obtliscus, Lat.] In nnhitir- 
 lurc. These structures are the simplest 
 among all tlu- forms of ancient ;13g\ptian 
 and I'hanician architecture. We are ig- 
 norant of the actual period at which they 
 were origiii:ited, since no ancient hist(n'ian 
 has made much mention of them, but it is 
 most likely that they were erected in ages 
 absolutely primeval. They may be de- 
 lined as a (juadrangular pyramid trun- 
 cated and of slender proi)orlioiis, and are 
 fretpiently charged with inscriptions or 
 
OBELISK. 
 
 hieroglyphics. It has been conjectured been preserved at Constantinople, the most 
 ■\Vith some ingenuity that the first purpose celebrated of which was in that part of the 
 for which these pillars were raised was to hippodrome denominated Medm Sphia. On 
 transmit to posterity precepts of philoso- tlie four sides of the base of this noble mo- 
 phy, which Avere cut in hieroglyphical nument were sculptured a variety of sub- 
 characters : afterwards, they were used jects : the bassi-rilievi of the northern side 
 as monuments to immortalize the great have been published by Spon. Besides 
 actions of heroes, or the memory of per- this, anotlier fine one exists there, made, 
 sons beloved. The first obelisk directly like most of the others, of granite. At Ca- 
 referred to in history was that of Ramases, tana, in Sicily, fragments have been dis- 
 said to have been a king of Egypt in the covered of two Egyptian obelisks, doubt- 
 time of tlie Trojan war, and which was forty less conveyed thither by the Romans. One 
 cubits high. Phius, another king of Egypt, has been set up again, presenting a curi- 
 raised one of fifty-five cubits, and Pto- ous appearance from its having eight fronts 
 lemy Phiiadelphus another of eighty-eight or faces. Figures were frequently placed 
 cubits, in memory of Arsinoe. These obe- at the point of the loftiest obelisks, 
 lisks were entitled by the Egyptian priests The famous obelisks denominated the 
 the fingers of the sun, hecnuse they ^veYe in devil's arrows, now reduced to three (the 
 the habit of making them serve also as fourth having been taken down in the last 
 styles or gnomons to mark the hours on century), stand about half a mile from the 
 the ground. The Arabs still call them town of Boroughbridge, to the south-west, 
 Pharaoh's needles; whence the Italians in three fields, separated by a lane, and 
 have designated ihem aguglia, and the two hundred feet asunder, on higli ground 
 French aiguilles. sloping every way. Mr. Drake urges 
 But of all the situations in which obe- many arguments to prove their Roman 
 lisks were generally erected, one of the antiquity, and plainly proves them to be 
 most common and frequent was the space natural, and, brought either from Plump- 
 before a temple. Diodorus makes mention ton quarries (about five miles ofi) or from 
 of two obelisks of Sesostris placed before Ickly (sixteen miles off). The cross in 
 a Tlieban temple, which were one hun- the town (twelve feet high) is of the same 
 dred and twenty cubits high. Herodotus kind of stone. The easternmost, or high- 
 mentions two others, of a hundred cubits est, is twenty -two feet and a half high, by 
 high, one of which was erected before a four feet broad, and four feet and a half in 
 temple at Sais, and the other before the girth. This stands alone, and loans to the 
 temple of the Sun at Heliopolis. Pliny, soutli. Stukely and Plot allirm these to 
 of the few ancient authors, however, who be British monuments originally hewn 
 have treated of the subject, goes most into square. The flutings are cut in the stone, 
 detail on this species of monument. Tlie but not through. Dr. Gale supposed them 
 remains of many very antique examples to have belonged to that species of termi- 
 have been discovered by modern travel- nal figures called Hermes (see tliat word), 
 lers ; some eminent for their magnitude and to have lost their heads and inscrip- 
 and beauty. Norden, a Danish writer, tions : in a MS. note in his Antoninus, 
 
 speaks of having seen several that had 
 been ornamented with coloured hierogly- 
 phics. Some have been found without 
 hieroglypliics, but these are most probably 
 referable to later times. 
 
 however, that learned gentleman confesses 
 himself to have been mistaken in this opi- 
 nion, there being no cavity whatever to 
 receive a bust. 
 
 On the north side of Penrith, in the 
 
 The Romans, in the plenitude of their churchyard, are two square obelisks of a 
 
 power and splendour, removed many of single stone each, eleven or twelve feet 
 
 these relics of times, then ancient, from high, one about twelve inches diameter, and 
 
 their original situations, and transported twelve by eight at the sides, the highest 
 
 them to Italy. On the overrunning of that about eighteen inches diameter, with some- 
 
 majestical empire by the barbarians, most 
 of these interesting pillars were thrown 
 down, defaced, or demolished. The ex- 
 humations made under the decree of Pope 
 Sextus V. brought to light four of them. 
 
 thing like a transverse piece to each, and 
 mortised into a round base. They are 
 fourteen feet asunder, and between them 
 is a grave enclosed between four semicir- 
 cular stones of the unequal lengths of five. 
 
 which were repaired as well as possible six, four and a half, and two feet high, 
 
 by the attention of his architect, Fontana. having on the outsides rud« carving and 
 
 Since that period, several others have been the tops notched. Tliis is called the Giant's 
 
 dug up. Several obelisks have likewise grave, and ascribed to Sir Ewun Cajsarius, 
 
OBE 
 
 xvho is said to have been as tall as one of 
 the columns, and capable of stretching his 
 arms from one to tlie otiier. 
 
 Many very learned and interesting works 
 have been put forth on the subject of obe- 
 lisks, the most important of which we will 
 proceed to cite : — 
 
 Mic. Mercati, Degli Obelischi di Roma, 
 1589, 4to. Petri Angelii Bargarei, Com- 
 mentarhis de ObeliscU, 4to. Rome, 1586: — 
 This dissertation will be found in Graevius 
 Thesaur. Antiqtiitatum Romanor, fourth vol. 
 1). 1893, and following. — Domen. Fontana, 
 Delia Trasportatione dell' Obelisco Vaticano 
 et delle fabriche di nostra Sig7i. Papa Sisto 
 6, first book, Rome, 1590, folio, with figures. 
 An article entitled Des Obilisques, by M. 
 Pouchard, in tlie History of the Academy of 
 hisa-iptions, first vol. p. 193-8. An inter- 
 esting abstract of this excellent work will 
 be found in the Gentlenuin's Magazine for 
 June, 1748. Angeli Mar. Bandinii, De 
 Obelisco Ccesaris Augusti, e Canipi Martii 
 ruderibus nvpcr cruto Commetitari us, with an 
 Italian translation, &c. Rome, 1750, folio, 
 with plates. Question Historique sur le 
 Sujetd'un ancien Ohelisque. (V. Continuation 
 des Memoirs de Litth-ature de Sallengre, 
 eleventh vol. p. 473-8.) Observations de 
 Gibert sur VOb6lisqne interpret^ par Her- 
 mapion, in the Mhnoires de VAcml. des 
 Inscriptions, thirty-fifth vol. p. CC5-76. — 
 De Origine et usu Obcliscorum ad Pium 
 Sextum, pontific. max. by Georgio Zoega, 
 Rome, 1797, folio. This admirable work 
 (one of the very best to which we can re- 
 commend the reader for information on 
 tlie present sulyect) is ornamented with 
 many engravings executed uncommonly 
 well. 
 
 The following are among the most in- 
 teresting books of voyages and travels, 
 which I»ear on the sul)jert of obelisks. 
 Benjamin Tudelensis, Itinernriuin, hcbraice, 
 cum Latinaversione Constantini Imp. Lugd. 
 1033, 12ino. Petrus Marlyr de Angleria, 
 Legaiio liabylohicu, Basil. 1533. The A'«- 
 rigationi e Viaggi, collected by Ramusiiis, 
 in Venice, 1503. Prosperi Ali)ini, Itali, 
 Rerum JEgyptiacarum, foiirlh ixmk, Lugd. 
 Batuvor. 1735. Lays del Marmol Carva- 
 sal, Descrijicion general de Africa, INlalaga, 
 1599. Manuel D'Almcyda, Ilistoria gene- 
 ral de Klhioitia a .Ilia, conijiosla na mesma 
 i'Jhiopia; abbrcviuda pclo P. Telle/, en» 
 Coimbra, 1660. Relation d'un Voyage en 
 r.lhiopie, 1700. Franc. Gemello C'arreri, 
 iiiro del Mondo, Venice, 1719. L' lUat 
 present de L'Kgypte, par Domiiil(pie Jau- 
 na, Lcyden, 1747. Voiiages in h'.nropc, in 
 Asia, and Egypt, transiutid IVoiu tlie Diili ii 
 
 OBS 
 
 of Van Egmont and J. Hejinan, London, 
 1759. Relation d'un Voyage fait en Egypte, 
 par Granger, Paris, 1745. The different 
 Voyages of Paul Lucas, Paris, 1704 and 
 1712, and Rouen, 1724, 12mo. Lcttrea 
 Mifiantes et curieuses, Paris, 1704. Nou- 
 veaux Mimoires des Missionnnires Jisuits 
 dans le Levant, vols. ii. v. and vii. Paris, 
 1718, 1725, 1729. Voyage d'Egypt et de 
 Nubic, par Frederic Louis Norden, edited 
 at Paris by L. Langles, 1795, 4to. Lettres 
 sur L' Egypte, par M. Savary, Paris, 1785, 
 8vo. Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, par. M. 
 Voliiey, Paris, 1787, 8vo. 
 
 Object, [objectum, Lat. objet, Fr.] In all 
 the arts. In general any thing which at- 
 tracts and fixes our regard. The word is 
 also applied to signify the end or purpose 
 which a man proposes to himself in any 
 given pursuit. The object of the fine arts, 
 to speak in an enlarged sense, is to answer 
 the ends of utility and of mental accom- 
 plishment in the most graceful and agree- 
 able manner. 
 
 Obrvzl'm. [Lat. from o/3pi>?oc, Gr.] In 
 archuiology. According to a passage in 
 Pliny, this name was appropriated by the 
 ancients to a species of gold which had 
 been several times purified with fire. In 
 fact, aurum obryznm meant the very purest 
 of all gold. 
 
 Obscure, [obscurus, Lat.] Sec Chiaro- 
 
 SCURO. 
 
 Obscurity. \obMuritas, Lat.] In emble- 
 ma('\-al painflng. Certain modern artists 
 have personifieil obscurity by a figure 
 wrapped in a long black veil. She ex- 
 tends over her head another thick veil, or 
 canopy, by means of which the rays of the 
 sun are hindered from penetrating to tiie 
 spot on whicii she stands. An owl is 
 perciied upon tiie head of the figure, and 
 other nocturnal birds Hy around her. 
 
 Obseuvatouy. [from the Latin verb 
 ob.icrvo, to watch.] In architecture. A 
 building erected upon an eknated spot 
 of ground, sucli, for instance, as that in 
 Greenwich Park, and sometimes sur- 
 mounted by a ti'rrace, from which to make 
 astroiiDinical and physical observations 
 and e\perimeii(s. 
 
 The Pari,s Observatory is oiw. of the finest 
 in Kurope, anil wiis constructed from the 
 drawings of IM. (Maude Perrault, between 
 the years Ui()7 and I(J72. This edifice is 
 vaulted throughout, and neither iron nor 
 wood formally portion of its materials. It 
 is eighty feet high, with a fine terrace at 
 to]). 
 
 The (irrcnwich Observatory was erected 
 ill ItiTO, by order of (.'harles II. at the 
 
OBS 
 
 solicitation of Sir Jonas Moore and Sir 
 Christopher Wren ; and furnished with 
 the most accurate instruments, particularly 
 a noble sextant of seven feet radius, with 
 telescope sights. 
 
 Tycho Brake's Observatory, which was 
 in the little Island Ween, or Scarlet Island 
 (between the coasts of Schonen and Zea- 
 land in the Baltic), was built and furnished 
 with instruments at his own expense, and 
 called by him Uraniburg. Here he spent 
 twenty years in observing the stars, and 
 the result is his catalogue. 
 
 Pekin Observatory. Father Le Compte 
 describes a very magnificent observatory, 
 erected and furnished by the Emperor of 
 ^ China, in his capital at the intercession of 
 some Jesuit missionaries, principally Fa- 
 ther Verbeist, whom he made his chief 
 observer. The instruments are exceed- 
 ingly large ; but the division less accurate, 
 and the contrivance in some respects less 
 commodious, than that of the Europeans. 
 
 Observatories, as they are very useful, 
 and indeed absolutely necessary for astro- 
 nomers, so they have become far more 
 common than they were. There is a very 
 excellent one now at Oxford, built by the 
 trustees of Dr. Radclifle, after the designs 
 of James Wyatt, at the expense of nearly 
 £ 30,000. At Cambridge there was, a few 
 years ago, over the great gate of Trinity 
 College, one which was called Sir Isaac 
 Newton's, because that great philosopher 
 had used it ; but it is gone to decay. It 
 had been well had the University kept it 
 in repair, in memory of that illustrious 
 man. In St. John's too, there is a small 
 one; but a handsome building has been 
 erected within the two last years, at an 
 expense of nearly £60,000, which we be- 
 lieve is not yet quite completed. The late 
 ingenious Mr. Cotes had used to give lec- 
 tures in Sir Isaac Newton's on experimen- 
 tal philosophy. There are several very 
 good observatories in the Scotch Universi- 
 . ties, and an excellent one has been erected, 
 not many years ago, at Dublin. 
 
 OBSIDL4.N. lobsidianus, Lat.] In architec- 
 ture, statuary, aiid engraving. This name 
 has been given, in various eras, to several 
 different substances. The obsidianum lapis 
 of the ancients was a stone of a synony- 
 mous kind to that which in other places 
 they termed Cfiian marble. It was repre- 
 sented as being very smooth and hard, but, 
 from the latter quality, extremely difficult 
 to cut; as being susceptible of a particu- 
 larly high polish, and employed among the 
 nations of ancient Greece, for the purpose 
 of constructing reflecting mirrors, &:c. 
 
 Caylus, however, and many other mo- 
 
 OBS 
 
 dern writers, question the fact of the real 
 obsidian having ever meant a marble at 
 all, and describe it as a species of factiti- 
 ous stone, or composition. Caylus, in- 
 deed, has given a treatise on this subject, 
 which will be found in the thirty-first vol. 
 of the Mhnoires de I'Acaddmie. 
 
 On the other hand, the mineralogists 
 attach the designation of obsidian to a 
 kind of lava, which presents all the ap- 
 pearance of glass, from which substance 
 it is even difficult to distinguish it. They 
 represent it as being black in colour, or of 
 a sort of bottle-green ; as smooth in sur- 
 face, hard, and striking fire with steel. It 
 is conmionly to be met wdth in the neigh- 
 bourhood of volcanoes, and in some basalts, 
 w hich are probably the products of volca- 
 nic fires now extinguished. According to 
 Spalanzani, the mountain de la Castagna, 
 in the volcanic island of Lipari, is altoge- 
 ther formed of this volcanic glass, or obsi- 
 dian, which would appear to have flowed 
 in successive currents, similarly to streams 
 of water falling in a rapid descent, and 
 then to have suddenly frozen. This glass 
 is, in some instances, found to be substan- 
 tial and compact, in others porous and 
 spongy. Obsidian, therefore, may, ac- 
 cording to this definition, be denominated 
 lava suddenly cooled :— if a mass of lava 
 or basalt be exposed to the heat of a glass 
 furnace, it melts into a shining black or 
 greenish black glass. Several large strata 
 of obsidian, it is reported, intersect the cone 
 of Vesuvius, serving as a cement to keep 
 together the loose materia,ls of which it is 
 composed. 
 
 Instances are not rare of tlie use of ob- 
 sidian in art. Under its first definition 
 (namely Chian marble) and second also, 
 it has been frequently adapted to the uses 
 of the statuary and architect, and consi- 
 dered in the point of view in which we 
 last described it (namely as volcanic glass) 
 it is often ground and polished, and sub- 
 mitted to the operation of the graver. 
 
 Obsidional Crown, [obsidonalis, from the 
 Latin verb obsideo, constructed of ob, be- 
 fore or about, and sedeo, to sit down ; and 
 the English word croicn.'] In archaiology. 
 This species of crown, or garland, was ac- 
 customed to be presented by a town, cita- 
 del, or army which had been blocked up, 
 to the chief or general who had delivered 
 them by raising the siege. It w'as habi- 
 tual to frame it, if possible, of the blades 
 of those herbs which were indigenous to 
 the town relieved. 
 
 Obsidional Money, [similar derivation .] 
 In nvmismatics. Such are denominated 
 those several coins struck in a besieged 
 
OBS 
 
 town, to supply the defect or scarcity of 
 other species of current money. De IJoze 
 has produced a treatise on this subject, 
 of which we tind a short abstract in the 
 M6moires de I'Academie des Inscriptivns, and 
 from tliis abstract, we have drawn the fol- 
 lowing particulars. 
 
 The usage of coining money for the im- 
 mediate use of a blockaded town is very 
 ancient, and the medals tlius struck gene- 
 rally bear in their fabrication and mate- 
 rial evidences of the calamitous and be- 
 reaved condition which gave rise to their 
 existence. They are mostly of bad metal, 
 and rudely formed, an observation to which 
 some exceptions of course occur, but they 
 are not numerous. The shape of these 
 coins or medals varies : — sometimes they 
 are round, sometimes oval, sometimes 
 square ; occasionally, even, octagon or tri- 
 angular, &c. The type and inscriptions 
 vary equally. Some are engraved on both 
 sides, which however is rare ; by far the 
 greater part having no reverse. The arms 
 of the besieged city are often found on 
 them, sometimes those of the sovereign, or 
 governor ; but it is most common to see 
 the name of the town only (either entire or 
 abridged), with the date and value. The 
 earliest specimens of this kind of money 
 at present known are those struck at the 
 connuencement of the sixteenth century, 
 in Italy, at the sieges of Pavia and Cre- 
 mona, under Francis I. In 1529, a mint 
 of this description was formed at Vienna, 
 then besieged by Solimun II. The first 
 wars between Spain and Holland pro- 
 duced a considerable quantity of obsi- 
 dional coins. It is scarcely necessary to 
 add, tluit these coins iiad only an epheme- 
 ral and local value, not passing into per- 
 petual or general currency, but being in 
 fact a sort of token or obligation contracted 
 by the governor or magistrate of a block- 
 aded jilace, to meet the exigencies of the 
 particular time. 
 
 For further information on the subject 
 of obsidional money, the reader is referred 
 to Klot/.ius, De Nitiiiis iwcessitule uri::eiite 
 cusis, in his Ojiuscnln Numniia, Hull. 1772, 
 8vo. ; and to Tobieseii Diiby, liecttdl f^e- 
 iUr<d des Pieces Obsidioiutles et de ueees.siU^ 
 Paris, 17HG, folio. This latter work, pub- 
 lished l)y M. Knncrv after the dtath of 
 the aiiliior, was compiled on the colleilion 
 of obsidional coins in the possession of M. 
 de I'diilogne, and which afterwards jiassed 
 into th(' cabinet of tlu; tiicn Imperial Li- 
 brary. 
 
 OiiSTiNACV. [ohslinatii), Lat.] Jn ewhle- 
 vuilical yniniini; and scitlidiire. According 
 to Bcvernl iconologists, the i nibbm of tliis 
 
 OCE 
 
 moral defect is a tiguve embellished with 
 the ears of an ass, and who holds her 
 hands before her eyes, to shut out the light 
 of day. Her most ordinary accompani- 
 ment is a mule, upon v\ Inch she leans or 
 sits. In other instances, she is seen to 
 hold by the bridle a restive ass. 
 
 OnviiRSE. [ubversus, Lat. towards.] In 
 riumistnatics. That side of a coin or medal 
 which bears the head of the chief or sove- 
 reign by whose direction it was struck. 
 See Medals. 
 
 Occasion, [uccasio, Lat. from Kaipoc,Gr.] 
 In emblematical paintint; and sculpture. By 
 the account of Himerius and Callistratus, 
 cited by Winckelmann, Lysippus repre- 
 sented Occasion under the figure of an 
 adolescent, with wings to his feet, w hich 
 rested upon a globe ; in the left hand he 
 held a bridle, and his temples were shaded 
 with long hair, w hilst the back part of his 
 head was bald. A noble statue of Occa- 
 sion was sculptured by the illustrious Gre- 
 cian artist, Phidias, in the shape of a fe- 
 male resting upon a w heel, having wings 
 at her feet, a tuft of hair hanging over her 
 face, and shaven close behind. 
 
 Occidental, [occidentalis, Lat.] In the 
 history of art. The western quarter of the 
 globe, or horizon, or that point of the latter 
 where the ecliptic, or the sun therein de- 
 scends into the lower hemisphere : in con- 
 tradistinction to Orient. Hence we use 
 the word occidental for any thing belonging 
 to the west, as, for instance, occidental 
 pearls, &c. 
 
 In (icm sculpture, the term occidental has 
 been applied to those stones which reach 
 only an inferior degree of beauty and ex- 
 cellence : the hardest, finest, and niost 
 brilliant of the precious stones, with but 
 few exceptions, are the produce of Eastern 
 countries, and hence the relative terms 
 oriental and occidental have acquired ge- 
 neral use, an<l designate, among lapida- 
 ries, not so nuich the particular part of the 
 globe from ^vllich the gem was e\tra<ted, 
 as its greater in- less degree of splendour, 
 brightness, and susceptibility. 
 
 Ot'KAN. [oceanus, Lat. fromctiKtai'u;,', Gr.] 
 In painting-. 'I'hat gigantic body of salt 
 waters i'ii(()mi)assing every portion of the 
 terrestrial globe, and by means of which, 
 in the degree of perfection to which navi- 
 gation has attained, tlie diirereiit nations v( 
 the eartli are enabled to communicate and 
 interchange conunodities with t-ach other. 
 The ocean is sei)arati'd into thri-e great 
 di\ isions, wiiicli it is ni'cessary the artist 
 should be acquainted with, parlicularly 
 tlie painter whose inclination leads liim 
 towards the choice of marine subject" >■ 
 
ocu 
 
 The Atlantic Ocean, which divides Europe 
 and Africa from America, and which is, 
 generally speaking, about three thousand 
 miles wide. 2. The Pacific Ocean, or 
 South Sea, which divides America from 
 Asia, and is in most parts ten thousand 
 miles across. 3. The Indian Ocean, sepa- 
 rating the East Indies from Africa ; this 
 is three thousand miles over. The other 
 seas are only parts or branches of these, 
 and commonly are designated from those 
 countries upon which tliey border. 
 
 OcEANUS. [Lat.] In the mythology of 
 painting and sculpture. A powerful deity 
 of the sea, son of Coelus and Terra. He 
 is fabled to have married Tethys, and their 
 ofl'spring are the most celebrated of the 
 rivers, such as the Peneus, Strymon, Al- 
 pheus, &c. with a number of daughters who 
 are called from him Oceanides. Oceanus 
 is usually represented as a very aged man, 
 with a venerable flowing beard, and riding 
 upon the waves of the sea. Sometimes he 
 holds in his hand a pike, while a sea- 
 monster stands near him, and in the dis- 
 tance ships are seen under sail. The an- 
 cients paid great devotion to this deity, to 
 whose especial care they intrusted them- 
 selves, when about to set forth on any 
 voyage. 
 
 Ochre. [wxp«, Gr.] In painting. A ge- 
 nus of earths, slightly coherent, and com- 
 posed of fine, soft, smooth, and argillaceous 
 particles, rough to the touch, and easily 
 diffusible in water. These earths are of 
 various colours. Yellow is the one most 
 prevalent and best known : but the varie- 
 ties of ochres comprise also red, green, 
 blue, and black. 
 
 Octagon, [oktw, eiglit, and yuvia, an 
 angle or corner, Gr.] In architecture. A 
 figure of eight sides and angles ; and which 
 when all these sides and angles are equal, 
 is denominated a regular octagon, or one 
 that may be inscribed in a circle. 
 
 OcTOSTYLE. [oKTio, and TvXoc, a column, 
 Gr.] In ancient architecture. The term ap- 
 plied to that variety of temple or other or- 
 namental building, the principal facade of 
 which is adorned with eight columns. See 
 Intercolumniation. 
 
 Ocular, [oculus, Lat. an eye.] In archai- 
 ology. Antiquaries have appropriated this 
 term to certain stones whereon are found 
 engraven the name of some surgeon-ocu- 
 list, together with the remedies proper for 
 diseases of the eye. Caylus countenances 
 the opinion of the Abb^ Le Beuf, who 
 thinks, with some likelihood, that these 
 stones served as tickets or labels, and were 
 attached as such to the medicines which 
 
 ODE 
 
 the leech or surgeon dispensed, in order 
 to guarantee their authenticity. Spon, in 
 his Miscellanea, p. 237, and Caylus, in the 
 Rccueil d'Antiquith (first vol. 90lh pi. and 
 22.5 and following pages), have published 
 several of these antiques. 
 
 Odeon or Odeum, [(ijcaor, Gr. from <^S)}, 
 a song.] hi ancient architecture. This name 
 was given among the Greeks to a species 
 of theatre, in which the poets and musi- 
 cians submitted their Avorks to the ap- 
 proval of the public, and disputed for the 
 prizes awarded to the successful candi- 
 dates. It is probable, however, that this 
 was not the original object of the odeon, 
 Pericles not seeming to have had it in 
 view when he built that at Athens, which 
 served as a magazine wherein to deposit 
 all the paraphernalia used in religious 
 and other solemn processions, and had 
 likewise another destination, namely that 
 of offering under its portico a shelter to 
 tiie spectators assembled in the theatre of 
 Bacchus (by the side of which it was 
 erected) in case of surprise from bad wea- 
 ther. It was not, apparently, until a later 
 period that the odeon became itself a 
 theatre or saloon for the purposes of music 
 and declamation. Sometimes, even, it is 
 said to have been used by the Archontes, 
 as a council-house in which they dispensed 
 the decrees of justice. 
 
 The form of the odeons resembled that 
 of other tiieatres, except that they were 
 inferior in point of extent, and Avere cover- 
 ed with a roof. The inside of that built 
 by Pericles, before alluded to, was filled 
 with seats and ranges of pillars, and on 
 the outside the roof descended shelving 
 downwards from a point in the centre, 
 with many bendings, in imitation of a fa- 
 mous pavilion of the king of Peisia. Vi- 
 truvius is of opinion that the roof of this 
 building was constructed of the masts or 
 sail-yards of Persian ships which the Athe- 
 nians had taken in their war with that, 
 people. 
 
 It is probable that this odeon at Athens 
 was the first edifice of its kind erected in 
 Greece. Led into error by an obscure 
 passage of Vitruvius, several modern au- 
 thors (such as Bulenger and Onuphrius 
 Pauvinius) have supposed it to have been 
 part of the theatre of Bacchus ; there can 
 however exist no rational doubt as to this 
 matter. Besides that tiie passage alluded 
 to is capable of a construction quite foreign 
 to that given it by these writers, the re- 
 searches of Chandler (see the second chap- 
 ter of his Travels in Greece) put the matter 
 beyond dispute. Not only was the odeon 
 
 1 1 
 
ODEON. 
 
 a perfectly separate structure, but it was 
 even situated at some little distance from 
 the other. 
 
 Another mistake which has been made 
 on the present subject by certain intelli- 
 gent writers is, that there existed but one 
 odeon at Athens, tliey having confounded 
 together the different buildings of this 
 kind, the ruins of which have been dis- 
 covered in that city. Now, it may be as- 
 serted with considerable confidence that 
 there were three : viz. the one already de- 
 scribed, and built by order of Pericles ; 
 another, spoken of by Pausanias ; and 
 that which was erected by Herodius At- 
 ticus. 
 
 The odeon of Pericles was situated to 
 the south-east of the Acropolis, between 
 the extremity of the street of tripods and 
 the theatre of Bacchus : that mentioned as 
 the second, and commonly denominated 
 by the appellation Pnix, served as a i)lace 
 of public meeting, or assembly, for the 
 Athenian citizens. On the destruction of 
 the first mentioned edifice, however, name- 
 ly that (tf Pericles, it was appropriated, as 
 Pausanias relates, to the purposes of an 
 odeon. 
 
 The third Athenian odeon was that 
 caused to be erected by Herodius Atticus 
 in memory of his spouse Regilla. Chand- 
 ler expresses an opinion that this superb 
 edifice had been built on the ruins of the 
 odeon of Pericles, which he erroneously 
 conceives to have been situated to the 
 right of the theatre of Bacchus, whereas 
 Vitruvius, on sufficient authority, places 
 it to tiie left. Tlie situation of the build- 
 ing we arc now speaking of was in fact at 
 the foot of the Acropolis, and on the south- 
 west side. Pocock, Le Koy, and Stuart 
 all speak of magnificent ruins lying in this 
 direction, and which tiiey imagine, from 
 their extent and sjjlendour, to be tiie relics 
 of the celebrated tlicatrt; of Bacchus. But 
 if the observations of Chandkr on the re- 
 lative situations of these two buildings are 
 examined candidly, it will ajipoar jilainly 
 tiiat the travellers before uu'utioticd are 
 deceived in their opinion, and that these 
 ruins actually bilong to the once stately 
 odeon of Heroilius; Avliilst on (he other 
 hand the remains to which Stuarl a]>pli('S 
 tiiat name form (hose of (he tlu'atrt' of Bar- 
 clius. A passage in Pinloslraliis, who 
 (probably from heedlessness) gave (lie title 
 vf odeon lo that tiieatre itself, miglil have 
 contributed to the mistake. 
 
 According to Pausanias, in whose lime 
 it was constructed, lh(! odeon of Herodius 
 was one of the noblest und most nugcstic 
 
 edifices in all Greece. The niins yet ex- 
 isting, indeed, attest sufficiently its former 
 grandeur, although the hand of the spoiler 
 Time has well nigh obliterated every trace 
 of its shape and proportions. An idea of 
 its size may be obtained from some of the 
 walls which yet stand, and here and there 
 a broken column, or part of a facade still 
 entire, yield evidence of the stately arcades 
 which in ancient days rose over the per- 
 sons of the sprightly and intellectual Athe- 
 nians. 
 
 Other Grecian cities built odeons, but 
 the only two of which distinct mention has 
 been made are the cities of Corinth aiul 
 Patra;. According to Philostratus, the 
 odeon of Corinth was also built by order 
 of Herodius Atticus. That of Patra-, how- 
 ever was far the most magnificent of the 
 two, and indeed yielded in splendour to 
 none in Greece, with the single exception 
 of that of Herodius at Athens. Amongst 
 the numerous works of art with which it 
 was adorned, one above all excited the 
 admiration of the spectators — namely, a 
 remarkably fine statue of Apollo. The 
 inhabitants of Patra; are reported to have 
 built this theatre with the treasure ac- 
 quired in a war between the ^tolians and 
 the Gauls, the former of whom they had 
 assisted. 
 
 Several cities of Asia Minor had also 
 their odeons. That of Smyrna was, ac- 
 cording to Pausanias, superemiuent, from 
 having possessed a picture of Ape lies, re- 
 presenting the Graces. Pocock and Chand- 
 ler have discovered at Ephesus ami Lao- 
 dicea ruins which they regard as having 
 formerly constituted a portion of struc- 
 tures of this kind. 
 
 It was not until a late period of its his- 
 tory tiiat tiie city of Rome possessed any 
 theatre of this particular kind. Fabricius, 
 in his Description of lionu; indeed, puts 
 forth an o])inion that in the times of Cicero 
 such a structure was in existence; but 
 tins opinion appears to want the necessary 
 jiroof. If such a building had then exist- 
 ed, contemporary writers would doubtless 
 have made unequivocal mention of it. Fa- 
 bricius deceives himself again when ho 
 speaks of anotiier odeon, wliich he places 
 in tlie \ieiMity of the Palatine INlount. He 
 states that KoMie contained allogetlier fiuir 
 odeons, whereas, according to the united 
 testimony of various authors, living in dit- 
 ieient ages and writing quite indepen- 
 dently of eacii other, it never had more 
 thnii two. Of these. (liC first was erected 
 by Domitian. Among the otlier public 
 gtuucs celebrated by that emperor in ho- 
 
CECO 
 
 noiir of the Capitoline Jupiter, he insti- 
 tuted combats of music, and for tlie pur- 
 pose of displaying these he built his odcon. 
 Most probably, before this period, musical 
 prizes were unknown at Rome — at all 
 events there are no records of any. The 
 Romans, to say the truth, were fond of 
 pleasures of a grosser and less imaginative 
 nature — such, for instance, as the combats 
 of gladiators with each other, or with wild 
 beasts. The second odeon was constructed 
 at Rome by order of the emperor Trajan, 
 on the design of the architect Apollodorus, 
 who directed likewise the other great pub- 
 lic works of that sovereign. 
 
 Besides these odeons in Rome itself, it 
 is, no doubt, to Roman skill and munificence 
 that the existence of several others is to 
 be attributed. In Carthage, for instance, 
 which had been indebted for its entire re- 
 establishment to Julius Caesar, an odeon 
 was erected by Septimius Severus, who, 
 himself an African, showed great liberality 
 to the African states, and above all to Car- 
 thage. There was likewise an odeon at 
 Pompeii. Among the ruins of that city, 
 by the side of the great theatre (see Pom- 
 peii) was discovered the remains of a 
 smaller edifice bearing a similar shape, 
 and which, judging by its style of archi- 
 tecture, as well as by an inscription on its 
 walls, must have been a building of this 
 sort. The odeon of which the relics have 
 been found at Catana, in Sicily, was also 
 most probably constructed by the Romans. 
 Like that at Pompeii, it is situated by the 
 side of a regular theatre, to which it ap- 
 proaches so nearly that a narrow gallery 
 would be sufficient to connect them. There 
 is still to be perceived a portion of the 
 rows of benches upon which the spectators 
 were seated, as well as vestiges of the 
 place appropriated to the singers and mu- 
 sicians : but the greatest part of the ground 
 is unfortunately covered with wretched 
 huts, and barracks. 
 
 CEcoNOMY. [from oiKog, a house, and 
 vkfid), to distribute.] In architecture and 
 painting. The term oeconomy is employed 
 in architecture in two significations. In 
 its simple sense it implies sparingness or 
 paucity of means, of materials, of embel- 
 lishments : in its figurative acceptation, it 
 is used to express a judicious and harmo- 
 nious combination, good taste, and a dis- 
 position of parts at once skilful and un- 
 loaded. Ornaments should never be need- 
 lessly multiplied about a building. Their 
 very beauty and efi'ect are dependent on 
 their comparative rareness. In this re- 
 spect, as in most others, good taste is. 
 
 OIL 
 
 cdmparatively speaking, an unexpensive 
 thing. 
 
 In paintins:, in like manner, tiie word 
 oeconomy refers itself to the agreement, 
 the harmony of grouping and of colouring, 
 in a word, the tout ensemble of the artist's 
 performance. 
 
 Office, [officium, Lat.] In architecture. 
 A place or apartment appointed for clerks 
 and officers to attend in, in order to dis- 
 charge their several duties and employ- 
 ments ; as, for instance, the secretary's 
 office, ordnance oflice, excise office, signet 
 office, paper office, pipe office, six-clerks' 
 office, &c. — Also, all those apartments pro- 
 vided for the necessary occasions of fi pa- 
 lace or other great house ; as kitchens, 
 pantries, confectionaries, &c. 
 
 Ogee. In architecture. A sort of mould- 
 ing, called a cytna reversa, consisting of a 
 round and a hollow. 
 
 Ogive. In architecture. An arch or 
 branch of a Gothic vault; which, instead 
 of being circular, passes diagonally from 
 one angle to another, forming a cross with 
 the other arches. The middle, where the 
 ogives cross each other, is called the key ; 
 being cut in the form of a rose, or a cul de 
 lampe. The members or mouldings of the 
 ogives are denominated 7ierres, branches, 
 or reins; and the arches vv^hich separate 
 the ogives, double arches. 
 
 Oil. [ooel. Sax. oteMJM, Lat,] In painting. 
 An unctuous inflammable substance, drawn 
 from various bodies, both animal and ve- 
 getable. From the peculiar properties of 
 different oils, they are naturally divided 
 into two kinds, the fixed or fat oils, and 
 the volatile or essential oils : the former 
 demand a high temperature to raise them 
 to a state of vapour, but the volatile oils 
 are volatilized at a temperature of boiling 
 water, and even at a lower one. Both the 
 volatile and fixed oils may be obtained 
 from plants, and sometimes from the same 
 plant, but always from different parts of 
 it. While the seeds yield the fixed oil, 
 the volatile is extracted from the bark or 
 wood. 
 
 In the arts, fixed oils are of the most 
 extensive utility. They are employed in 
 the fabrication of soaps for mixing colours 
 in painting, for some kinds of varnish, and 
 for defending substances from the action 
 of air and moisture. The greater or less 
 period of time these unctuous substances 
 have been subjected to the action of fire, 
 the greater or less is their degree of thick- 
 ness and consistency. The oil of walnuts 
 is especially serviceable to tlie painter in 
 grinding and diluting his colours; and 
 
 I I 2 
 
OLI 
 
 that of the aspic (a species of lavender) 
 lias also been strongly recommended for 
 the purpose of rendering the colours al- 
 ready mixed smoother, firmer, and more 
 siccative. The oil of the white poppy, ex- 
 tracted from the plant of that name, is 
 clearer and whiter than any other. That 
 produced from flax is of a deep yellow, 
 and very fat. M. Millin speaks of boil- 
 ing this or walnut oil with litharge and 
 onions until the latter are reduced to cin- 
 der : this composition, he says, is useful to 
 mix with black, I)rown, and other colours 
 which liave little body and do not dry 
 readily. 
 
 Oil Painting. See Painting. 
 
 Olfactoiul.m. [Lat.] In archuiology, A 
 small box, somewhat resembling a snufl'- 
 box, which was used by the ancients to 
 carry perfumes or the like about in. Buo- 
 narotti, in his Osseivazioni Sopi-a Mcdagli- 
 oni antichi, has given (pi. 30, Nos. 4 and .5) 
 two medallions w hicli are at present to be 
 seen in the Royal Library at Paris. One 
 is of Commodus, tlie other of Julia Au- 
 gusta. They are hollowed, and shaped 
 somewhat in the form of a box with a lid. 
 He mentions also having seen a medal of 
 Nero, and another of Heliogabalus, both 
 hollowed and worked all over. These 
 likewise bore the shape of snuff-boxes, 
 and he believes that they miglit have served 
 as small smclling-boxes, commonly called 
 olfactorioles. They preserved in the ca- 
 Ijinet of the Imperial Library some other 
 medals similarly worked. 
 
 Olive, [olive, olivier, Fr. olca, Lat.] In 
 archaiologij. Tiiis tree was held to be 
 particularly consecrated to Minerva: we 
 also find, on several monuments, lliat god- 
 dess crowned witli olive, of which she 
 likewise holds a branch in her hand. 
 Hence these representations of Dliiurni 
 have acquired the addition of PuciJ'vrti. 
 The olive is also placed in the hand of 
 Mars Pacifer, on the reverse of a medal 
 of Rlaxiniian. The olive, generally re- 
 garded as tlu! symbol of jx-ace, was liow- 
 ever also that of victory and (hastily. It 
 was alike an attribute of triumphant war- 
 riors, and victors at the Olympic games. 
 Amongst the ancients, brides, also, bore 
 crowns of olive. The branch of olive, per- 
 ceived in th<! hand of (igurcs i)crs()iiifying 
 Spain, indicalcs (hat the pro\ luces ot" that 
 country are celebrated for (he prodiicdon 
 of this fruit. Winckelmann rep(M(s (hat 
 l)eace is allegorized on (he sepulchral 
 s(oneH of (he early (Mirisfians, by (he 
 figure of a dove bearing an olive branch 
 in ifs beak. The wild olive is frequently 
 (o be seen upon iHiti(|ues. The ( liib nf 
 
 ONY 
 
 Hercules and other heroes, as well as the 
 sceptres of kings, were said to be made 
 thereof. The ancients were in the habit 
 of planting the wild olive tree in the front 
 of their temples. 
 
 Onychites. [Lat.] In nrchaiolngy. A 
 very beautiful species of alabaster, thus 
 denominated by Pliny. The name has 
 also been applied to those elegant little 
 alabaster perfume-boxes, most generally 
 known among antiquaries by the name of 
 alabrtstrum or aXajiwrpov. See Alabaster, 
 Alabastrites. 
 
 Onyx, [wt;?, Gr. a finger or toe nail.] 
 In gem sculpture. One of the semii)ellucid 
 gems, with variously coloured zones, but 
 scarcely any red; being composed of crys- 
 tal debased by a small admixture of earth, 
 and made up either of a number of flat 
 plates, or of a series of coats surrounding 
 a central n\icleus, and separated from each 
 other by veins of a diflerent colour, re- 
 sembling zones or belts. A\'e have four 
 species of this gem. 1. A bluish-white 
 one, with broad white zones. 2. A very 
 pure onyx, with snow-white veins. 3. The 
 jasponyx, or horny onyx, w ith green zones. 
 4. The brown onyx, with bluish-white 
 zones. The ancients attributed wonder- 
 ful properties to the onyx, and imagined 
 that, if worn on the finger, it acted as a 
 cardiac. They have likewise reconnnend- 
 ed it as an astringent, but at present no 
 regard is paid to it whatever. The word, 
 in the Greek language, signifies nail: the 
 poets feigning this stone to have been 
 formed by the Parca> or Fates from a i)iece 
 of Venus's nails, cut oil' by Cupid with one ^ 
 of his arrows. Andquarians, however, 
 imve diflered very gready with regard to 
 the real cause of the derivation of the name 
 of this stone from the ovi-S of the Greeks, • 
 and various fanciful resemblances between 
 it and (he subs(ance of (he finger-nail have 
 from time to time been assigned as (he 
 origin of (he appellation. Ka^hler, from 
 the tenor of what he says, seems (o incline 
 (o an opinion (hat the (erm oni/x is, in 
 point of fac(, no( derived from (ho Greek 
 word ovv^, but that, it is merely a corrup- 
 (ion of (he name which (his stone had 
 borne in some oriental language. 
 
 The ancients have engraven n number of 
 designs, without much meri(, however, 
 ui)(>n cornelians of (he linest hue and 
 greatest purity. At (he presen( <lay s(one9 
 of (his (|uali(y are very dillicuK (o be met 
 widi, and hence Na((er has inferred (lint 
 the ancieuts were possessed of some secret 
 whereby (hey were enabled (o refine and 
 (ocIari("y bo(h cornelians and onyxes. The 
 tiiilh isjliiit there is iml one in a thousand 
 
OPA 
 
 amongst those now tliecovered which have 
 a similar degree of purity and fire. No 
 traces, however, are discernible in the 
 writings of the ancients which miglit lead 
 us to a discovery of their system, or even 
 warrant us in concluding that they pos- 
 sessed one. Pliny, by the way, speaks of 
 a process for the clarification of gems : he 
 says, that they would become more bril- 
 liant if boiled in honey, principally that of 
 Coi-sica. He adds, that the flowers of the 
 box-tree, very abundant in that island, 
 gave to the honey coming from thence its 
 superior quality. Lessing proposed a re- 
 petition of this experiment, with honey in 
 which the leaves or flowers of the box 
 should have been infused, but the success 
 is doubtful. The Italians possess a pecu- 
 liar method by which an additional degree 
 of purity is given to occidental stones. 
 
 Opal, [cin-aXoc, Gr.] In gem sculpture. 
 A hard, half-transparent stone, which has 
 the power of reflecting difl'erent colours. 
 This species of precious stone is held in 
 very high estimation, owing, perhaps, 
 chiefly to its changeable appearance. The 
 shape of the opal is similar to that of a 
 pebble, like the agate-stone, with which 
 several authors have classed it, from a 
 supposed resemblance, which, however, 
 presents no proofs whatever. On the con- 
 trary, Bergman's analysis points it out to 
 be of a very diflferent nature from that 
 genus of flint of which the agate is a spe- 
 cies ; magnesia constituting a large part 
 of its composition, and not entering at all 
 into that of the agate, if we are to judge 
 from the analysis of the parent species, or 
 flint, there being none yet published of 
 agate. 
 
 No method of estimating the opal is, so 
 far as we are at present aware, given by 
 any author. Such, however, as are of un- 
 usual size and lustre will fetch enormous 
 prices. 
 
 The Russian general. Prince Potemkin, 
 purchased, for the sum of one thousand 
 ducats, a stone of this kind, said to have 
 been taken by the famous Nadir Shah from 
 the head of a Gentoo idol, of which it 
 formed one of the eyes. By what circuit- 
 ous road it found its way to the Russian 
 prince does not appear : but it is said to 
 have disappeared, together with many 
 other gems, from the tent of the Persian 
 conqueror, when he was assassinated. It 
 is related that Nonnius, a Roman senator, 
 seemed willing rather to forfeit his life 
 than to cede an opal to Mark Antony. A 
 beautiful oriental stone, of one inch dia- 
 meter, and of immense value (sometimes 
 described as a cat's eye, and sometimes as 
 
 P 11 
 
 an opal), was in tiie possession of the latie 
 Leopold the Second, Emperor of Germany. 
 Opals are generally discovered in de- 
 tached pieces, in an envelop of a different 
 kind of stone, from the size of a pin's head 
 to that of a walnut. Beautiful opals of 
 tills last size are extremely rare : so that 
 it is difficult to find an opal sufficiently 
 perfect and large to be completely pos- 
 sessed of all its beauties. This renders 
 it so precious, and makes it indeed almost 
 inipo£»ible to determine its value. It has, 
 however, we believe, been agreed to esti- 
 mate a beautiful oriental opal at double 
 the price of a sapphire of the same dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 It is very observable, that all the co- 
 lours of the opal may entirely change or 
 disappear when the stone is divided into 
 pieces. This phenomenon, which has been 
 frequently demonstrated by experience, 
 induces us to think that all the sparkling 
 play of the opal is owing to the refraction 
 of the rays of the sun from the surface of 
 the stone, which is formed by nature to 
 produce this refraction. 
 
 In the middle ages, this stone was de- 
 nominated orphanus (the orphan) ; that, at 
 all events, is the name given by Albert 
 the Great to an opal in the imperial crown, 
 on account of none resembling it being 
 supposed to exist. 
 
 Openings, [open. Sax.] In architecture. 
 Those parts of the walls of a building 
 which are left unfilled up, for the purposes 
 of admitting light, air, &c. These should 
 be distributed symmetrically and taste- 
 fully, and so as to avoid, as far as possi- 
 ble, the monotonous tone which is given to 
 most of our modern streets by the never 
 ending repetition of the same kind of un- 
 decorated and ugly looking apertures. 
 See Architecture, Door, Gate, WiNr 
 
 DOW. 
 
 Opera-house. In architecture. A thea- 
 tre for the express purpose of performing 
 musical dramas. The theatres entitled La 
 Scala, at Milan, and San Carlos, at Naples, 
 are among the most celebrated structures 
 erected with this view in Europe. The 
 Italian Opera-house at Vienna is also 
 very fine. The king's theatre in London 
 is a very capacious and splendid building, 
 nearly twice as large as either of the other 
 theatres, and surrounded by a handsome 
 portico. It was built in the year 1797 by 
 Noveskielsky ; and the exterior finished 
 by Mr. Nash a few years ago. It has been 
 found necessary, within these few months, 
 to submit its interior to several radical 
 repairs. 
 
 Ophis. [Lat.] In archaiology. Menan- 
 
on 
 
 dcr and Lucian glvetliisnume to a species 
 of bracelet!*, wliidi were of a revolving 
 or serpentininp; shape. In the second 
 volume of the Bronzi tV Ercolano, plates 4 
 and 25, wc find two statues, each of which 
 bears bracelets answering the above de- 
 scription. 
 
 Ophites. [Lat.] In .sculpture and archi- 
 tecture. A kind of variegated or diversi- 
 fied marble, bearing a ground of a sort of 
 dusky green, and sprinkled with spots of 
 a lighter green. The Italians cal* it il 
 serpentina antico, from the resemblance of 
 its colour to that of the skin of a snake. 
 Pliny cites several species of oiildtes : one 
 of a soft substance and white ; another 
 black and hard ; and a third designated 
 tephria, which was of a grayish hue. Di- 
 oscorides says of this last, that it is of the 
 colour of ashes, and sprinkled with dots 
 or i)()ints : Pliny denominates it also mem- 
 phites, and describes it as bearing spots of 
 the size of little pebbles, as being heavy in 
 appearance, and of various colours. The 
 same author says expressly, that no mar- 
 bles were used in the fabrication of sta- 
 tues, except such as were of one colour 
 only, A certain artist of his times, by 
 name Vitruvius Pollio, sent to Rome a sta- 
 tue of the Emperor Claudius, made of va- 
 riegated marble, which innovation was 
 disapproved of. The same sculptor also 
 executed a similar statue in porphyry, but 
 this style likewise remained without imi- 
 tators. 
 
 Opima spoLiA. [Lat.] Li archaiology. Ar- 
 mour or other spoils of war taken from a 
 vanquished enemy. 
 
 Opisthohoml's. {l^TTKjQoSofioq, Gr. the 
 bark part of a house.] In archaiologi/. 
 TJiis Greek term, which corresponds, in 
 tin; meaning applied to it, with the Latin 
 word posticum, is tiie appellation given to 
 the hinder part of a temple, where there 
 is a regular entrance, and a facade of co- 
 lumns as in front. Some autliors ajjpear 
 to have mistaken the use of tlie word opis- 
 thiulomus, and to have ap])lied it to the 
 <loi)r or gate itself admitting one into the 
 back part of the temjjle, whereas it was, 
 in fact, a jiortion of tiie space withinsidc. 
 It was customary amongst the ancients to 
 preserve llieir treasure, jjublic records, 
 images, &c. in tiiis part of their aacred 
 buildings: the opistliodomus was there- 
 fore often made very (extensive, and was 
 situatud iniiucdiately hehiiul tlic ('i:i.i,\ 
 (see that word). The two most celcl)ruted 
 opiKthod<m)es of Greece were those of the 
 temple of Jupiter at Olynipius, wlierein 
 they (Ie|Kisi(e(i (hose precious objecls 
 which had been consecrated to it by the 
 
 OPT 
 
 piety of the pcoj)le ; and that of the tem- 
 ple of Minerva Polias at Athens, which 
 served as a receptacle for the treasures of 
 the republic. This temple of Minerva Po- 
 lias was not the one of whicii the ruins 
 still exists, but another nuich more ancient, 
 of which no vestige whatever remains. 
 Stuart is deceived in supposing that this 
 opisthodomus, of which mention is made 
 by Pollux, formed the back part of the 
 Parthenon. See Parthenon. 
 
 Opposition. [Fr. oppositio, Lat.] In all 
 the arts. Or contrast. This is one of the 
 nicest principles of art, and requires a 
 very considerable portion of skill. Con- 
 trast, when not too violent, brings out into 
 striking and pleasant relief all the various 
 parts of a work, and heightens the beauty 
 of each. A just eye both for proportion 
 and colour is the main requisite for this 
 department of art. The management of 
 light and shade is of peculiarly great im- 
 portance to the painter, and he should be 
 very careful, in this matter, not to be se- 
 duced into outrageous and unnatural op- 
 positions. The works of Rembrandt are 
 quite stupendous examples of masterly 
 composition in this way, but they are, at 
 the same time, somewhat cautiously to 
 be recommended as models to the young 
 painter, inasmuch as the attempt to copy 
 them would infer a hazard of deviation 
 from contrast into contradiction, an error 
 most sedulously to be guarded against. 
 That great master's own works often stand 
 themselves, in this respect, on the very 
 confines of the extravagant. The pictures 
 of Rubens, Giorgione, Tintoretto, \c. are 
 safer guides ; and at the same time admi- 
 rable ones. To a deep feeling of the real 
 and natural, these illustrious artists ap- 
 pear to have added a strong sense of ab- 
 stract beauty ; and to this and incessant 
 study (without which no portion of genius 
 is sufficient) is to be ascribed their con- 
 suminate success in tlie principle of art 
 now under consideration, aa well as in 
 others. We find likewise excellent spe- 
 cinuMis of the application of contrast or 
 opposition in the performances ol' Daniel 
 de Volterra,an(l of tlie inunortal Rall'aellt\ 
 In fact, the application of this ])rin(-i))le 
 enters, in greater or less degree, into tlie 
 works of all llie principal artists of namo 
 and note. See Comhast. 
 
 Oprus. [oTTTiKii, lir.] in all the arts. 
 The science of th(( laws liy whi< 1» tin- rays 
 of light form a luminous point, and reach 
 the eye: that is, the knowledge of the 
 causes of visinii, iind of Ihe eliects of light, 
 (iirecl, refiected, or refracted. In liiis coni- 
 preliensivv sense, Newton denominated 
 
ORC 
 
 his book of light and colours optics. In a 
 simpler application, optics is the science 
 of direct vision only ; while that of the 
 laws and properties of the rays of light, 
 when considered as reflected, is called 
 catoptrics, and the science of refracted 
 rays dioptrics ; so that in a general sense, 
 optics comprehends the whole of that of 
 which catoptrics and dioptrics are two 
 parts. It also includes the science of 
 perspective. In our article Light we have 
 given some observations connected with the 
 present subject, to which we beg leave to 
 refer the reader, as also to Anamorphosis, 
 Chiaroscuro, Moon, Perspective. 
 
 Orangery, \orangcrie, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture, A kind of hothouse, constructed for 
 the purpose of cultivating and preserving 
 from the action of the air in cold weather 
 the beautiful and refreshing fruit from 
 which this sort of conservatory derives 
 its name. 
 
 Or-^tory. [oratoire, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. A closet, or similar apartment near 
 a bedchamber, constructed principally in 
 the mansions of Roman Catholic families 
 for the purposes of private devotion. 
 These are generally furnished Avith an 
 altar, crucifix, &c. according to the taste 
 or opulence of the parties : sometimes also 
 with an organ, or with religious paintings. 
 
 Orchestra. I6pxn'^9^> G^^"-] ^^ architec- 
 ture. That part of the interior of a theatre 
 situated between the stage and the audi- 
 ence part of the house. It bore the same 
 situation amongst the ancients as at pre- 
 sent, but was applied to purposes some- 
 what diflerent. In the Greek theatres the 
 chorus danced here, and in that of Athens 
 a kind of altar was erected in the opxv'^pa, 
 called the -^vpiXr) {thymele among the Ro- 
 mans), which sometimes served to offer 
 sacrifices on to Bacchus (whence the edi- 
 fice was named the Theatre of Bacchus), 
 and sometimes as a tribune from which 
 orations were made by the magistrates and 
 orators to the assembled people, it being 
 customary for the Greeks often to hold pub- 
 lic meetings in their theatres. It is proba- 
 ble that this altar, as well as the orchestra 
 itself (of which it formed the centre) was 
 sunken somewhat below the level of the 
 proscenium (as in modern days), in order 
 that the view of the performance on the 
 stage might not be interrupted. 
 
 In the Roman theatres, the orchestra 
 was commonly much smaller than among 
 the Greeks, since they were not in the 
 habit of having dances of choruses. It was 
 appropriated to the senators, patricians, 
 vestals, and other people of distinction 
 who went to witness the performances. 
 
 O li D 
 
 Order, [ordu, Lat.] In all the arts. This 
 term may be defined as signifying method 
 or regular disposition, from which results 
 uniformity to the plan proposed, and a 
 general sense of harmony. In the absence 
 of this principle, unsightly confusion and 
 jarring effects must necessarily prevail; 
 and if the imagination is sufl'ered to ex- 
 pand, and embrace the globe itself, the 
 absence of order would cause the return 
 of all those several elements of M^hich it 
 is compounded into their primeval state of 
 anarchy and chaos. That we may be still 
 more impressed with the beauty and ne- 
 cessity of order, let us consider for a mo- 
 ment the various materials used in art in 
 their simple and uncombined nature. A 
 quantity of stones, for instance, lying 
 about confusedly upon the ground, are in- 
 capable of producing in our minds any 
 emotion whatever, or at least a disagree- 
 able one : but, called into regularity and 
 order by the skill of the architect, they 
 become an object of attention and gratifi- 
 cation. A painter's pallet furnishes a 
 similar illustration. There lie scattered, 
 in uninteresting confusion, the actual co- 
 lours and oils which, transmitted to the 
 canvass, afterwards start into life, and 
 awaken in the spectator feelings of the 
 most ardent admiration. The artist of 
 musaic-work produces his effects (and they 
 are often among the most beautiful in the 
 whole scope of imitative art) from little 
 pieces of marble, glass, or other substances, 
 which, seen separately, or mixed and min- 
 gled together in a box or bag, would be 
 altogether unsightly, and considered ra- 
 ther in the light of rubbish. 
 
 Order may either be simple or compli- 
 cated. In a work of small proportions 
 detail and particularly disposition are emi- 
 nently desirable: on the other hand, in 
 buildings or paintings which are meant 
 to produce a grand and noble effect, it is 
 unwise to be too scrupulous or finical 
 about the regulation of minute parts. Or- 
 der in some degree complicated has, it is 
 true, in most instances, a certain charm ; 
 but it is, in some, calculated to weaken, 
 rather than strengthen, the impression 
 made upon the heart and imagination. 
 The artist should also be careful, where- 
 ever his material is of a coarse or inferior 
 nature, to compensate, as far as he can, 
 for this by increased attention to regula- 
 rity and order. See Disposition, Dis- 
 tribution, Rules. 
 
 Orders, [from order.'] In chivalric paint- 
 ing, &c. Thus are designated the several 
 military or religious institutions which 
 have from time to time been established 
 
ORDERS OF AUCIIITECTLRE. 
 
 oifhor by secular or spiritual authorities cliitrave, three for the frieze, and the rc- 
 
 as marks of distinctiou or desert. Such maining four for the cornice. The capital 
 
 are the Orders of the Garter, the Bath, of is in height one module : the base, iuclud- 
 
 Saint Esprit, of the Golden Fleece, &:c. ing the lower cincture (which is peculiar 
 
 among the former class ; and those of the to the measurement of this order) of tl>e 
 
 Jesuits, of the Benedictinesi, of the Cister- shaft, is also one module; and the shaft, 
 
 cians, &c. among tiie latter. There are with its upper cincture and astragal, is 
 
 also certain mixed orders, which partake twelve modules. In interior decorations, 
 
 of the nature of both ; among them may the height of the column may be fourteen 
 
 be ranked the Knights of ]\Ialta, of St. modules and a half, or even fifteen nio- 
 
 John of Jerusalem, of Calatrava, the dules,whichincreasemay be in the column 
 
 Knights Templars, &c. only. [It is customary, in executing this 
 
 It is necessary that the artist should order, to diminish it one quarter, but per- 
 
 gain some acquaintance with these several haps without sufficient reason ; as its cha- 
 
 establishments, in order that he may avoid racter of extraordinary strength would be 
 
 the running into mistakes or anachronisms better preserved by the usual diminution 
 
 in any subject wherein they may be intro- of one-eighth or one-sixth.] 
 
 duced. For instance, it would be ex- The Doric possesses nearly the same 
 
 tremely absurd to invest a cavalier of the character for strength as the Tuscan, but 
 
 age of Louis IX. with the exterior deco- is enlivened by its peculiar orn:unents ; 
 
 rations of a knight of the order of St. Mi- the triglyph, mutule, and guttoe, or drops, 
 
 chael, M'hich was not instituted until the under the triglyph: these decorations cha- 
 
 reign of Louis XI. Information on this racterize the Doric order, and in part are 
 
 subject may be acquired by reference to inseparable from it. The proportions of 
 
 the more enlarged treatises on heraldry. this order recommend it when united 
 
 Ohoers of Architecture. These, as strength and grandeur are requisite, 
 
 now executed after the Roman system, are The height of the column, including its 
 
 live, and ranged as follow : — the Tuscan, capital and base, is sixteen modules : the 
 
 the Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and height of the entablature four modules ; 
 
 the Composite. which being divided into eight parts, two 
 
 We have in our article on Architecture are for the architrave, three for the frieze, 
 
 given an account of the origin of the dif- and three for the cornice : the base is one 
 
 ferent orders, together with the relation module in height; the capital thirty-two 
 
 which they may he considered to hold in minutes, or a little more. See Doric. 
 
 the estimation of a correct taste. In that, The Ionic order partakes of more deli- 
 
 under tiie head of Capital, also, is af- cacy than the former, and therefore, as 
 
 forded a description of the various orna- well as on account of its origin, is called 
 
 ments forming tiiat essential part of the feminine, and not improperly compared lo 
 
 Avhole colunni: we shall therefore content a matronly aiipearance. It forms a me- 
 
 ourselves, in conclusion, with giving a dium between tlie masculine Tuscan and 
 
 short sunmiary of tiie several characters Doric, and the virginal slonderness of the 
 
 of the orders, adding a descrijition, from Corinthian. The boldness of the capital, 
 
 the valuable works of Sir William (;iiam- with tiie beauty of (he shaft, makes it eli- 
 
 bers, of the modern proportions of each. gible for porticoes, frontispieces, entrances 
 
 Of the Tuscan order little can be said to houses, &c. Denleles were first added 
 in addition to what will Ix^ found l)y tlie to the cornice of this order, 
 reader in other parts of this work, there Tiie height of the Ionic column is eigh- 
 being no regular exanipb; of it among the teen modules, and that of the entablature 
 remnants of anti()uity. I'iranesi has given four modules and a half, or one quarter 
 a drawing of a Tuscan base, but of what the height of tlie column, as in the other 
 date is uncertain. Vitruvius, in an indis- orders, which is a trille less than in the re- 
 tinct manner, has mentioned the general gular antique Ionics : the capital is twen- 
 proportions, but through his whole book ly-one niiiuites, and the base thirty mi- 
 does not refer to <me structure of this nutes in heiglit ; the shaft of tiie column 
 order, 'i'he plainness of its appearance may be jdain or tinted, with twenty or 
 causeil it, no doubt, to be a good deal ne- twenly-four llutiiigs, whose jilan may be 
 glected at l{ome. a trille niori! than a semicircle, because 
 
 The height of the (;<<lumn is fourteen they then appear more distinct; and (he 
 
 modules, or seven diamelers: that of the (illet or interval between them must not 
 
 whole entablature, three modules iind a 
 half, wlijeh bcjuj;- dixiih^d into ten ei|ual 
 parts, three art- for (he height of the ar- 
 
 be broader than one-third of the breaddi 
 of ihe Ihiliiii;, nor narrow«'r than one-fourth 
 thereof; the ornaments of the ciipital are 
 
ORDERS Of ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 to con-ORpond with Ihc fliitings of the shaft; 
 and there must be an ove above the middle 
 of each fluting. The entablature being 
 divided into ten equal parts, three are for 
 the architrave, three for the frieze, and 
 four for the cornice. In interior decora- 
 tions, where much delicacy is required, 
 the height of the entablature may be re- 
 duced to one-fifth of the height of the 
 column. 
 
 Denteles properly belong to the Ionic 
 cornice ; they represent the assers, or 
 smaller rafters, which support the tiles. 
 
 The volute of the capital of this order 
 is now generally executed on an angular 
 plan, the same as in the Composite ; so 
 that, viewed in every direction, it presents 
 the same appearance : this differs from the 
 general mode of the antiques, which was 
 to have the volutes parallel. And to Mi- 
 chel Angiolo this was attributed as a new 
 invention ; but examples are found in the 
 capitals of the angle columns in the tem- 
 ple of Erictheus at Athens, and in that 
 of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. 
 
 Piranesi has endeavoured to prove the 
 first idea of the Ionic volute to have been 
 derived from shells : be this as it may, 
 many pleasing forms of convolution may 
 be obtained from the section of shells. 
 
 The Corinthian possesses more delicacy 
 and ornament than any other order. The 
 beauty and richness of the capital, with 
 the slenderness of the pillar, render it 
 very properly adapted where magnificent 
 elegance is required. It is frequently used 
 for internal decoration to entrance halls, 
 and to spacious or state rooms : the ap- 
 pearance is that of virginal delicacy and 
 gay attire. This order, in the opinion of 
 Vitruvius, " differs from the Ionic only in 
 its capital ; the Ionic capital having no 
 more than one-third of the diameter of the 
 column for its height ; but the Corinthian 
 capital is allowed one entire diameter, 
 which gives to the column a noble but de- 
 licate grandeur. The other members placed 
 on the Corinthian pillar are common to 
 the Doric and Ionic orders, for it has no 
 particular species of ornament peculiar to 
 its cornice : sometimes it has the Doric 
 mutules and triglyphs in the architrave ; 
 sometimes an Ionic frieze, with denteles 
 in the cornice : in a manner, it is no more 
 than a third order, sprung out of the former 
 two, which has nothing peculiar to itself 
 except the capital." Vitruvius, however, 
 in the foregoing account, forgets the pecu- 
 liarities of the Corinthian cornice, or, the 
 entablature to this order was not in his 
 day practised in the manner we find »e- 
 maining among ancient buildings; for to 
 
 this cornice the modillion is ever an attofl- 
 dant. But exactly according to this de- 
 scription of Vitruvius is the cornice of the 
 portico at Athens called IIoikiX;), as repre;- 
 sented by Stuart. The splendour and ele- 
 gance of this order have rendered it very 
 famous, and the numerous examples exist- 
 ing among the fragments of antiquity suf- 
 ficiently evince the great esteem with 
 which it was regarded. 
 
 The Corinthian column, as executed by 
 the moderns, is, according to Chambers, 
 twenty modules in height ; the entabla- 
 ture five modules ; the base one module, 
 and which may be either Attic or Corin- 
 thian ; the capital has seventy minutes in 
 height ; the proportion of the members of 
 the entablature is the same as in the Tus- 
 can and Ionic orders. If the entablature 
 is enriched, the shaft of the column may 
 be fluted, and the flutings may be filled to 
 one-third part of their height with cabling, 
 which will strengthen the lower part of the 
 column, and make it less liable to injury. 
 In very rich interior decorations, the ca- 
 bling may be composed of reeds, ribands, 
 husks, flowers, &c. The capital is en- 
 riched with olive leaves, at least almost 
 all the Roman antique specimens of this 
 order are so : the acanthus is more pecu- 
 liarly employed in the Composite order. 
 The entablature to the Corinthian may be 
 reduced to two-ninths, or one-fifth of the 
 height of the column, in which case it may 
 be best to use the Ionic entablature, or 
 reduce the denteles of the cornice. 
 
 The Composite or Roman order owes its 
 origin to that constant solicitude after no- 
 velty which ever renders the mind of man 
 restless in enlightened and highly culti- 
 vated ages. The desire of variety and 
 novelty, either of invention or combination, 
 stimulated the Roman architects to unite 
 with the proportions and enrichments of 
 the Corinthian order the angular volute of 
 the Ionic, and by this union to compose a 
 new order. 
 
 Its proportions are as follow: — The 
 height of the c'olumn is twenty modules, 
 and that of the entablature five modules. 
 The capital has seventy minutes in height ; 
 the base measures the same as in the 
 Doric and Ionic orders ; and as the mo- 
 dule is less, all its parts will of course be 
 more delicate. The shaft may be enriched 
 with flutings to the number of twenty or 
 twenty-four, as in the Ionic order ; there 
 is no reason why they should be aug- 
 mented. The principal members of the 
 entablature may have the same propor- 
 tions as the two former orders, viz. being 
 divided into ten equal parts, three are for. 
 
ORD 
 
 the height of the architrave, three for the 
 frieze, and four for the cornice. 
 
 We will take this opportunity, before 
 vre conclude, to notice (not, however, by 
 way of recommendation) that there are 
 ancient examples of oval columns, where 
 the circle of tlie column is elongated by a 
 broad plain space on the two opposite 
 sides of the shaft. Of this description 
 were some fragments found in the island 
 of Delos by M. Le Roy. There are two 
 others at La Trinile dit Mont, at Rome : 
 also in the tomb near Mylasso in Greece, 
 according to M. De Choiseul. This ele- 
 gant structure is very perfect ; of a square 
 form, on a basement; tiie pillars insulated, 
 and supporting a vaulted cieling highly 
 enriched : each front has two oval fluted 
 columns with the narrow face outwards ; 
 at the angles are pilasters having the same 
 enrichments as the columns; the capitals 
 are Composite, and the volutes are omit- 
 ted. This elegant little morceau is of 
 white marble, and about nineteen feet 
 square. 
 
 There have been various speculations 
 and eflbrts made, at different periods, in 
 order to construct a new order of archi- 
 tecture : but in the first place, this appears 
 to be hopeless; in the second needless. 
 An attempt of this kind was made in 
 Franco by Philibert De Lorme, who pro- 
 posed to make his column represent a 
 tree, whose branches should be twisted 
 underneath in order to form the entabla- 
 ture. Louis XIV. offered a prize to the 
 architect who could succeed in the inven- 
 tion of a sixth order. In Italy I'iranesi 
 built a church at Rome after a new or- 
 der, the capital of which is symbolical. 
 In our own country two artists, Evelyn 
 and De La Roche, each designed a new 
 order. In Germany L. Sturm pretended 
 to have founded one, which lie styled the 
 Gernum Order, and the chief variety of 
 which consisted in the capital of the co- 
 lunui having only a single range of leaves, 
 witli sixteen volutes. Wagner, also, pro- 
 posed a sixth order of architecture in a 
 German work, published at Leipsic in 
 1728. Periuips it was with great reason 
 and good judgment tliat a certain Italian 
 architect declared he never would even 
 read any work wliich contained one of 
 these propositions. 
 
 Tlic principal works whidi liirow liglit 
 on this particular branch of architecture 
 are : — Edifices antiquci de Rome dcssim^.s ct 
 misiircs Ircs-exticltmnil, by Antiionv I)i;s- 
 liODi;/,, architect, Paris, ICtH'Z, folio. L<s 
 plus hi'iiua- Moiiuiiutis dr Uomc aiiciiiiiii; tkv. 
 dissincs par JJAinjAiLT, Rome, 1G7I, folio. 
 
 ORD 
 
 Reliquiie aiiliqu<c Urbis Romet, qunrnm sin- 
 ffulas dclineavlt, dimensus est, descripsit atque 
 in as incidit Bonavext. ab Overbeck,6cc. 
 Amstelod, 1703, 3 vols, folio. Le Antkhiti 
 Romane, Opera di Gian. Batt. Piranesi, 
 Rome, 1756, 4 vols, folio. Del Palazzo di 
 Cesari ; site de regiis antiqiwrum Ccesarum 
 JEdibus, Opera post, di Franc. Bianchini, 
 Ver. 1738, fol. Les Ruines des plus beaux 
 Monumens de la GrUce, par Le Roy, Paris, 
 1758 and 1769, folio. Antiquities of Athens, 
 by Stuart and Revett, London, 1767, 
 folio. Ruins of Pastuni or of Posidonia, 
 by T. RLvjOR, London, 1768, folio. Ruins 
 of Bulbcck, otherwise called Heliopolis, by 
 Wood and Dawkins, London, 1753, folio. 
 Ruins of Palmyra, otherwise called Tedmor 
 in the Desert, by the same, London, 1753, 
 folio. The Ionian Antiquities, by Chand- 
 ler, Revett, and Pars, London, 1769, 
 folio. L'Ordine Dorico, Ossia il Tempio 
 d'Ercole dclln Cittu di Cori, by Giov. Ant. 
 Antoni, Rome, 1785, folio, witli engrav- 
 ings. Areifesto per formnre con faeilitd Up 
 cinque Ordini dell' Architettura, di Ottan. 
 Revesi BriiTI, Ven. 1627, folio. 7»V5^/<; 
 precise pour dicrire le projil elcci du fust des 
 Colonnes, par George Huret, Paris, 1665, 
 folio. Trail6 des cinq Ordres d'Architec- 
 ture tant ancicns que modernes, par N. Du- 
 Pb'is, Paris, folio. Dissertution sur les Or- 
 dres d' Architecture, par Frezier, Stras- 
 burg, 1738, 4to. Ch. Le Brun, Nourcl 
 Ordre I'ranfais, folio (containing orna- 
 ments and decorations for pavilions). Dc 
 I' Ordre Franrais trouee duns la Nature, 
 par Ribart de Ciiamolx, Paris, 1783, folio. 
 A Proposition for a new Order in Architec- 
 ture, with Rules for druwinff the several 
 Parts, London, 1781, folio. See Architec- 
 ture, Capital, Column, Bed Mouldings, 
 &:c. 
 
 Ordonnance. [Fr.] In all the arts. Dis- 
 position ; the classification of different 
 parts all combining to produce the entire 
 effect. 
 
 In architecture it relates, accordingly, to 
 the composition of a building, and the dis- 
 tril)ution of its details, botli witli regard 
 to the whole and to each other ; or, as it 
 is expressed by IVIr. Kvelyn, the determin- 
 ing flic measure of what is assigned to the 
 several apartments. Tlius ordonnance is 
 the judicious contrivance of the plan or 
 mould ; as when the court, hall, lodgings, 
 \c. are neither loo large nor too snuiil,l)ut 
 the court allords couNenient light to (he 
 apartnuMits about it, the hall is of fit ca- 
 pacity to receive company, and the hi-d- 
 chaiabcr, \c. of a proper si/.e. \\ hen 
 these divisions are either too great or too 
 small with regard to the whole (as, for in- 
 
ORI 
 
 stance, where there is a large court to a 
 little house, or a small hall to a magnifi- 
 cent palace), the fault is in the ordonnance. 
 See Architecture, Intercolumniation, 
 &c. 
 
 In 'painting, ordonnance is used for the 
 disposition of the particular portions of a 
 picture, such as the groups, masses, con- 
 trasts, &c. The species of ordonnance 
 which it is incumbent on the artist to 
 adopt must be regulated by his peculiar 
 subject. An Asiatic subject, for instance, 
 should be rich in its details, which on the 
 other hand should be of a simpler nature, 
 when the painting refers to the heroic 
 ages. We may distinguish an ordonnance 
 of a picturesque from one of a poetical 
 character. The former may be defined as 
 consisting of objects which strike from 
 their natural grotesqueness, either of form 
 or situation, or from their abstract beauty ; 
 the latter lifts these out of the circum- 
 stances in which they are commonly pre- 
 sented by nature, and bestows on them an 
 increased and extraneous light which is 
 reflected from the imagination. In order 
 that the ordonnance may be good, it is 
 necessary that those figures should be ren- 
 dered most prominent, in every way, which 
 are intended to demand the greatest mea- 
 sure of the spectator's attention. This is 
 one of the most important rules requiring 
 the historical painter's care. In every 
 group, the several figures should present, 
 in the most advantageous manner, the pe- 
 culiar action and character calculated to 
 bring out and give effect to the whole. 
 Monotony or sameness either in the expres- 
 sion, the action, or position of the figures of 
 a group fatigues the eye and the mind of the 
 spectator. In the cartoon of Raffaelle re- 
 presenting St. Paul preaching at Athens, 
 the contrast of the figures is admirable, 
 whilst the group of apostles in that of the 
 Death of Ananias has been objected to by 
 several acute critics on the score of want- 
 ing that principle. Contrast is not only 
 necessary, for the purposes of effect, be- 
 tween the different figures in a group, but 
 between the various groups themselves 
 introduced by the artist into his picture, 
 and, in fact, between all the relative por- 
 tions of a painting. However, at the same 
 time, these contrasts should be managed 
 with a degree of skill and discrimination 
 sufficient to make them appear rather as 
 the productions of accident than as the 
 efforts of art. See Painting. 
 
 Orichalcum. [Lat. from ogixaXKoq, Gr. 
 mountain copper.] In archaiology. It ap- 
 pears that the ancients used this word to 
 signify, at the same time, a peculiar kind 
 
 ORI 
 
 of metal and a mixture of metals. The 
 natural orichalcum was a substance both 
 rare and precious, according to several 
 passages to be found in ancient writers. 
 It was indeed esteemed as almost equal 
 to gold itself, and was frequently employed 
 as a substitute for that metal. These 
 authors do not afford us any information 
 respecting the countries from which the 
 substance called orichalcum was extracted. 
 The factitious species of orichalcum, or 
 that compounded of several different me- 
 tals, was also employed among the ancients 
 in many different ways. Amongst the 
 medals of Gallienus in the collection of 
 Carpegna (now in the Royal Library at 
 Paris), there are certain coins which have 
 the appearance of being formed of a pecu- 
 liar kind of white metal, bearing somewhat 
 of the semblance of bar silver. Buona- 
 rotti presumes these to be of orichalcum. 
 The author of an ancient work on sun- 
 dry marvellous subjects (which work, by 
 the by, has been attributed to Aristotle), 
 speaks of a people of Pontus, called Mos- 
 sinici, who were in the habit of making 
 great use of a species of copper which 
 was not (as commonly the case) mixed with 
 tin, but with a sort of earth adherent to 
 the copper itself, and which rendered it 
 beautifully white and shining. He adds, 
 that the discoverers of this secret would 
 not confide it to any one else, and that con- 
 sequently the process was lost. 
 
 Orichalcum was very well known to 
 the Romans, who often took advantage of 
 the resemblance of its best species to gold : 
 for some sacrilegious characters, who 
 could not resist the temptation of taking 
 gold from temples and other public places, 
 chose frequently to conceal their guilt by 
 replacing it with orichalcum. It was thus 
 that Julius Caesar acted, when he robbed 
 the capitol of three thousand pounds 
 weight of gold; in which he was followed 
 by Vitellius, who despoiled the temples 
 of their gifts and ornaments, and replaced 
 them with this inferior metal. Perhaps^ 
 after all, the kinds of orichalcum mostly 
 in use for these purposes were very simi- 
 lar in appearance, if not wholly synony- 
 mous, to the brass of modern times. The 
 value of our brass is much less than that 
 of gold, and the resemblance between the 
 two, in point of colour, is obvious at first 
 sight. Both brass and gold, iu fact, are 
 susceptible of a vai-iety of shades of yel- 
 low ; if very pale brass be compared 
 with gold mixed with much copper (such, 
 especially, as is used by the foreign gold- 
 smiths in their toys), a disparity may be 
 observed : but the nearness of the resem- 
 
ORICIIALCUM. 
 
 blance is suflicicntly ascertained in gene- 
 ral, from tlie fact that substances gilded 
 ■with brass, or, as it is commonly called, 
 Dutcli-lcdf, are not readily distinguishable 
 from those which are gilded with gold 
 leaf. 
 
 We have already made allusion to the 
 methods said to have been possessed by 
 the ancients of making orichalcum as well 
 as offndhig it, and we may noAV add, that 
 several ingenious mineralogists have ex- 
 pressed it as their opinion, that the mate- 
 rials which entered into the composition 
 of this factitious substance were the same 
 as those now used in making brass. On 
 the other hand, there are authors of very 
 great repute who think differently, and 
 who consider the art of making brass as 
 altogether modern. Thus M. Cronstedt 
 does not think it fair to conclude, from old 
 coins and other antiques, that the making 
 of brass was undoubtedly known in the 
 most remote times ; and the authors of the 
 French Encyclopajdia assure us that our 
 brass is a very recent invention *. It ap- 
 pears, however, from Pliny's Natural His- 
 tory, 1. xxxiv. sect. 2, as well as from the 
 concurring testimony of other writers, that 
 orichalcum was not a pure or original me- 
 tal ; but that its basis was copper (as the 
 reader will have observed in the former 
 part of this article), which the Romans 
 changed into orichalcum by means of cad- 
 mia, a species of earth which they threw 
 upon the copper, and which was absorbed 
 by it. It has indeed been contended that 
 the cadmia of Pliny was native arsenic, an 
 ojjinion scarcely meriting confutation, and 
 which must appear extremely groundless 
 when we reflect that it is impossible to 
 make cither brass or copper from arsenic, 
 and that Pliny expressly calls it a stone 
 from which brass was made. 
 
 On all hands, however, it seems to be 
 admitted that there were two sorts of ori- 
 chalcum — natural and factitious. The 
 latt(!r, there can be little doubt, weighing 
 what has been advanced on either side, 
 closely resembled (with some modilica- 
 tions as to hue) our brass. As to the for- 
 mer, there is no impossibility in supposing 
 that copper ore may be S" iiidMialcly 
 blended with an ore of zinc, or of some 
 oilier metallic substance, that the com- 
 pound, when smelted, may yield a mixed 
 metal of a paler iiui- than copper, and re- 
 seiiiblin 
 
 the colour of either gold or sil- 
 
 * All. Orichalifue. " Tlic vessels here called 
 br.i/,en, ufter aiieii'iil aiillioix, eaiiiiol liave Ixoii oi llir 
 main lain Diir iiicscnl bias.i i.i eoiiiiiiinecl ol : llie ail 
 ol iiiaKiiii; ii i'^ a lundeiii diseiivi'iy." See l.auijh 
 'nil's Uhtiiii/ nf Ancient l.'iJt/lit, \>. OS. 
 
 ver. In Du Halde's History of China, we 
 meet with the following description of the 
 Chinese white copper. " The most extra- 
 ordinary copper is called dc tong, or white 
 copper : it is white when dug out of the 
 mine, and still more white within than 
 without. It appears, by a vast number of 
 experiments made at Pekin, that its colour 
 is owing to no mixture : on the contrary, 
 all mixtures diminish its beauty ; for when 
 rightly managed, it looks exactly like sil- 
 ver ; and were there not a necessity of 
 mixing a little tutanng, or some such metal 
 with it, to soften and prevent its brittle- 
 ness, it would be so much the more ex- 
 traordinary, as this sort of copper is per- 
 haps to be met with nowhere but in China, 
 and there only in the province of inn-nan." 
 Notwithstanding what is here said of the 
 colour of the copper being owing to no 
 mixture, it is certain that the Chinese 
 white copper, as brought to us, w a mixed 
 metal ; so that the ore from which it is ex- . 
 tracted must consist of various metallic 
 substances, and from some such ore it is 
 possible that the natural orichalcum, if 
 ever it existed, may have been produced. 
 
 We know of no country in which ori- 
 chalcum is found at present, nor was it 
 any where found in the age of Pliny, nor 
 does he seem to have known the country 
 where it ever had been found. He admits, 
 indeed, its having been formerly dug out 
 of the earth : but it is remarkable that, in 
 the very passage where he is mentioning 
 by name those countries most celebrated 
 for the production of difl'ereut kinds of 
 copper, he only says, in general, concerning 
 orichalcum, that it had been found in other 
 countries, without specifying any particu- 
 lar one. Plato states that oriclialcum 
 was a thing only talked of even in liis 
 time ; it was nowhere then to be met 
 with, though in the island of Athuitis it 
 had been formerly drawn out of mines. 
 The Greeks were in possession of a me- 
 tallic substance called dfiixn^KOf before 
 the foundation of Koine; for it is men- 
 tioiieil by Homer and by Hesioil, ami by 
 both of them in such a manner as shows 
 that it was then held in great esteem. 
 Oilier ancient writ<'rs have expresscil 
 thiiuselves in similar terms of eommeiula- 
 tioii ; and it is principally from the cir- 
 cumstance of the high reputed value of 
 orichalcum that authors are induced to 
 suppose the ancient metal so called to 
 have been a natural substance, and altoge- 
 ther diirercnt from the factitious one used 
 at lioine, and probably in various parts of 
 Asia. 
 
 'i'liis conclusion, however, caiiiiot be va- 
 
ORI 
 
 lidly drawn from the encomiums upon it : 
 for at whatever time the method of making 
 it was first discovered, both its novelty 
 and scarceness (joined to its utility) would 
 enhance its value— at least, there can be 
 no absurdity in supposing, that when first 
 introduced, it was greatly prized, even 
 though it be granted that it possessed no 
 other properties than such as appertain to 
 brass. 
 
 ORL 
 
 term oriental to the purest and hardest spe- 
 cies of precious stones. See Occidental. 
 
 Oriental style. See Style. 
 
 Oriflamme. See Standard. 
 
 Original, [from origo, Lat. a beginning.] 
 In all the arts. This word has, with re- 
 spect to art, more than one signification. 
 In its more obvious and general sense, it 
 is used as an adjective, and applied to 
 such productions as possess the principles 
 
 Respecting the etymology of this word of novelty or invention, as distinguished 
 
 there has been a considerable diversity of from that of imitation or mannerism ; but 
 
 opinions. Some antiquaries write it auri- it is sometimes also made into a substan- 
 
 chalcum, supposing it to be compounded of tive, and it then means such works as 
 
 the Latin word (mrum, gold, and the Greek are the undoubted performances of the 
 
 xaXKoc, brass or copper. The derivation, great masters in any given art, or branch 
 
 however, most generally preferred is that of art, a distinction which it is often very 
 
 which we have adopted, viz. opoc, a moun- difficult to award justly, and which has 
 
 tain, and xa^Koe ; alluding perhaps to its been consequently given, over and over 
 
 having been mostly found in mountains or again, through want of complete evidence, 
 
 mountainous countries. To the above two 
 etymological meanings of the word, we 
 will subjoin the following, in our opinion 
 equally well founded, and certainly as in- 
 
 genious as the other two 
 
 to successful and spirited copies. 
 
 The love of gain also often contributes 
 to this end, and miserable imitative daubs, 
 without being spirited at all, or successful 
 in any other way than in hoaxing the unfor- 
 The Hebrew word -^'ij*} signifies light, tunate purchaser, have frequently formed 
 fire, flame ; the Latin terms nro, to burn, a wretched substitute for the genuine ster- 
 and aurum, gold, are derived from it, inas- ling gold of the would-be connoisseur. It 
 much as gold resembles the colour of is curious, indeed, to observe, thatin every 
 flame: and hence it is not unlikely, that unimportant collection of pictures we meet 
 orichalcum may be composed of a Hebrew with undoubted Rubens's, undoubted Pous- 
 
 I 
 
 and a Greek term, and that it is rightly 
 rendered flame-coloured copper. In confir- 
 mation of this it may be observed, that the 
 Latin epithet liicidum, and the Greek one 
 (pcutvop, are both applied to the orichal- 
 cum by the ancients. 
 
 sin's, undoubted Claude's, &c. Now, how- 
 ever prolific the imagination, and however 
 industrious the hands of these great artists 
 might have been, still it is almost impossi- 
 ble that everyone of these paintings should 
 be bona flde originals. The fact is, that it 
 
 We have gone into some little length on requires the application of a man's whole 
 
 this subject, both because the metal in 
 question has given rise to a vast deal of 
 interesting speculation, and because the 
 frequency of its occurrence in the relics of 
 ancient art renders it desirable that the 
 artist and amateur should possess some- 
 thing like sufficing information respecting 
 it. We have been indebted, in the compi- 
 lation of this article, to M. Millin (in his 
 Dictionnaire dcs Beaux Arts), and to an 
 intelligent paper in the second volume of 
 Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical 
 Society of Manchester, written by the late 
 
 time to obtain the knowledge requisite to 
 enable him to decide in these matters, and 
 even then, unless the Ajstorj/, traditional or 
 recorded, of the picture in question assist 
 him, there is, in many instances, still room 
 for doubt. We shall probably say a few 
 words more on this subject in the course 
 of our article on Painting. 
 
 OitiGiNALrrY. See the preceding arti- 
 cle, and also Invention, Composition, &c. 
 
 Orison, [oraison, Fr. a supplication.] In 
 emblematical painting and sculpture. Ripa 
 represents this under the figure of a knecl- 
 
 Dr. Watson, Bishop of Landaff, and com- ing female, with outspread arms ; in one 
 
 municated by Dr. Percival. — To both these 
 sources we beg, in conclusion, to refer the 
 reader who may be anxious for a more 
 diflTuse account. 
 
 Oriental, [from oriens, Lat. the East.] 
 In the history of art. The eastern quarter 
 of the hemisphere : in contradistinction to 
 occidental. 
 
 The lapidary and engraver apply the 
 
 hand she holds a fuming censer, and in 
 the other a flaming heart, which she offers 
 to heaven, from whence a ray of light de- 
 scends towards her. This same emblem 
 of the flaming heart is not much happier 
 than the generality of Ripa's conceits. 
 See Prayer. 
 
 Orle, lorlo, Italian, to hem.] In archi- 
 tecture. This is the little fillet or band 
 
under the ovolo of the capital, 
 is applied also, according to Palladio, to 
 the plinth of the base of a column or pe- 
 destal. 
 
 Ornament. [ortiaTnentum, Lat.] In all 
 the arts. Those smaller and more detailed 
 portions of a work of art which are not 
 essential to it, but added in order to aug- 
 ment its beauty or magnificence. A work 
 which is wanting in respect of ornament 
 is not necessarily on that account imi)er- 
 fect, but it may justly be considered as too 
 bare or naked. Ornaments, therefore, are 
 more or less valuable inasmuch as they 
 are made by the artist to blend harmoni- 
 ously with more important parts, and to 
 assume to themselves the air of essen- 
 tials. 
 
 Quinctilian, in treating of eloquence, 
 seems to regard ornaments with a very 
 severe eye, and as being rather calculated 
 to please the mere amateur than the real 
 connoisseur. The latter, says he, con- 
 fines his attention to those things, in an 
 oration, which are essential, and which 
 lead to something, in preference to the 
 tropes and flowers of speech which fall 
 musically upon the ear, but make no ap- 
 peal to the understanding ; and the Greek 
 artists were doubtless influenced by a pa- 
 rity of feeling and reasoning wlien they 
 constructed their principal works, which 
 are almost all very sober and sparing in 
 point of ornament. With tlieni, whenever 
 ornaments are introduced, they are made 
 to combine aptly with, while they are sub- 
 servient to, the essential parts of their com- 
 position, and never are to be found stuck 
 in without any other aim than the boyish 
 one of diverting not the imagination but 
 the eye alone, as gilt is stuck on ginger- 
 Ijnsad for children. There is, in fact, no 
 department of art wliich requires greater 
 care and skill, and a more refined taste, 
 tlian that which superintends the distri- 
 Ijution of ornaments. The artist, as a ge- 
 neral rule, should adopt this maxim — to 
 be sjjaring rather than profuse; since, as 
 we have before observed, the entire al)- 
 senee of ornaments does not necessarily 
 ini|)ly defect, whilst a work is unecpiivo- 
 caliy <lisfigured which is loaded with 
 llicui. Some works of art, indeed, posi- 
 tively admit of very few ornaments, such, 
 more particularly, as, in painting, repre- 
 sent an aetiiin of solemn or absorbing in- 
 terest. When tlu! aim ig ligliter and less 
 important, ornament may be more freely 
 introduced, but even then with caulion 
 an<l (b'lieacy. 
 
 Anumg the most ancient nations re- 
 
 ORNAMENT. 
 
 The word specting which accounts have come down 
 to our times, ornaments were employed to 
 decorate their buildings. They sought 
 and found the models for these in Nature 
 herself, rich in objects of beauty and con- 
 venience. At first they appear to have 
 been fond of imitating the various appear- 
 ances of trees, and adorning their edifices 
 with branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, &c. 
 In remote ages, tiiese were, as may be 
 supposed, executed without skill and ap- 
 plied without taste. But, in course of 
 time, they began to make rapid advances 
 in the fine arts, and evidences of their pro- 
 gress are to be met with in the superior 
 workmanship and the refined taste exer- 
 cised in their buildings, paintings, and 
 sculptures. The Grecian artists did not 
 content themselves with using such orna- 
 ments as were merely beautiful in them- 
 selves, but took care always to preserve in 
 them the peculiar character of the build- 
 ing or other performance. 
 
 At first the Grecian architects confined 
 themselves to ornamenting the exterior of 
 their edifices, and it was not until a later 
 period that a growing attachmeut to tiie 
 luxurious prompted them to adorn tlicir 
 interiors likewise. The public temples 
 and porticoes were the buildings wliich 
 led the way in this respect ; and the Gym- 
 nasia {yvuvamor), were rendered more 
 than usually ornate in the inside. 
 
 The columns and their accessories pro- 
 bably owe their origin, among the Greeks, 
 to the imitation of those parts which, in 
 the most ancient temples (built with wood), 
 were indispensable for the purpose of sus- 
 taining the edifice generally, and more 
 particularly the cieling. When, stibse- 
 quently, they came to use stone instead of 
 wood, these parts were executed witli a 
 greater degree of care, they were invested 
 with beautiful shajjcs and proportions, and 
 agreeably diversified in outline by the va- 
 riety of their members. In order to avoid 
 the monotony which this quantity of sur- 
 face naked and uniform would after all 
 l)roduce, they proceeded to embellish the 
 different members «)r divisions with cer- 
 tain ornaments, the nature of wliich has 
 been akeady described in our articles 
 (Upitai,, Coi.iMN, AnriiiTKcn UK, J\c. 
 (which see). In process of time, the an- 
 cient, beautiful, and graceful simplicity, 
 which iiad arri\e(l at its highest perfection 
 on the imeiitioii and adoiitiim of the (Jre- 
 cian orders of arciiitecture, gave way to 
 the gradual innovations produced by 
 wealth and luxury, and at length, among 
 the magniliceiit Romaii.s, the system of or- 
 
ORNAMENT. 
 
 nament was profusely introduced, and al- 
 though, in the best instances, employed by 
 the hand of refined taste, still it tended 
 gradually to undermine the truest princi- 
 ples of the fine arts, and, in the sequel, ef- 
 fected a mighty and utter revolution both 
 in their nature and application. 
 
 So long as the Romans did not possess, 
 among their own artists, such as were ca- 
 pable of adorning their walls with paint- 
 ings, sculptures, &c. equal to those which 
 they had found in Greece, they transported 
 thence into their own cities many of the 
 chefs d'ceuvre which had belonged to Gre- 
 cian towns fallen into their power. They 
 possessed a method of detaching from the 
 walls large portions of these entire, which 
 they fixed on the sides of the interiors of 
 their own habitations, surrounding them 
 with a border of stucco. Winckelmann, in 
 his Essay on the Works of Art discovered 
 at Herculaneum, states that he found se- 
 veral paintings detached fi'om the walls, 
 which they merely i-ested against, the 
 owners of the mansions having probably 
 intended to fix them had not their purpose 
 and their life together been arrested by 
 the inexorable hand of destiny. Engrav- 
 ings of these are to be found in the Anti- 
 ques d' Herculanum, fourth vol. pi. 41 — 
 44 (the Neapolitan edition). At length, 
 however, the Roman artists themselves be- 
 gan to acquire reputation in this depart- 
 ment, and under the reign of Augustus, 
 the adorning the walls of chambers with 
 representations of landscapes was parti- 
 cularly in vogue. Zodius, who flourished 
 at this epoch, was, according to Pliny, one 
 of the first practisers in this manner — 
 namely, in painting on walls views of 
 country-houses, of sea-ports, of forests, and 
 of landscapes generally, more or less ex- 
 tensive. This taste continued to spread ra- 
 pidly, and in the ruins of Herculaneum 
 and Pompeii (see those words) numerous 
 instances were discovered. Occasionally 
 they varied these landscape-paintings by 
 the introduction of columns, porticoes, 
 halls, &c. but these columns are very dis- 
 similar in their proportions to the actual 
 specimens handed down to us from the 
 sculptors of those times ; they are rud« and 
 uncouth, and resemble more the construc- 
 tion of primeval times. Pliny, in a de- 
 scription of his villa entitled Tusci, speaks 
 of a chamber upon the walls of which 
 branches of trees had been painted with 
 birds perched upon them. On the upper 
 portion of the walls tlius ornamented, just 
 under the cieling, tliey made a cornice run 
 round the whole room composed of lime 
 mixed with powder of marble. They af- 
 
 forded this cornice but little projection, in 
 order that its weight might not endanger 
 its falling. In the rooms appropriated to 
 winter residence, these cornices were left 
 plain, in order that they might be cleaned 
 with facility, when blackened by the smoke 
 of the fire : in the summer apartments, on 
 the contrary, and in others wherein fires 
 were not used, they were richly orna- 
 mented. 
 
 It is incumbent on the architect to pos- 
 sess some general knowledge of the sister 
 arts of painting and sculpture, in order that 
 he may be enabled to direct the applica- 
 tion of ornaments, both external and inter- 
 nal, about his buildings. It has been ob- 
 served, with great justice, that in order to 
 preserve harmony and consistency through- 
 out the several relative parts of an edifice, 
 one sole eye and mind should superintend 
 and control the whole of the artists and 
 workmen employed. Several palaces 
 which could be mentioned, that have either 
 been erected at different periods, or have 
 been subjected to the surveillance of vari- 
 ous individuals, afford in the discordant 
 and inharmonious nature of their details 
 striking and conclusive evidence of the 
 truth of this remark ; whilst many of the 
 finest structures of Italy are known to owe 
 their principal charm and excellence to 
 the unity of design and of taste which was 
 suffered to preside in their ordonnance 
 and decoration. 
 
 We also apply the term ornament, or 
 decoration, to those marks of distinction 
 which characterize any given dignity. 
 Thus, amongst the ancient Romans', the 
 ornaments of the grand ediles were — the 
 curule chair, the ivory staff, and the toga 
 pretexta : they were preceded likewise by 
 twelve lictors, with fasces (or rods) and 
 axes. Under the emperors, the actual 
 power of these officers was diminished ; 
 but their external pomp became even still 
 more ostentatious. The consuls wore their 
 toga, or robe, painted and embroidered; 
 they used also a sword, and had their 
 fasces bound with laurel. The signs of 
 imperial dignity were — to have also borne 
 before its possessor (the imperator or em- 
 peror) fire in a brazier, and rods bound 
 with laurel ; he wore purple, was crowned 
 with a diadem, and had his image wrougiit 
 upon the standards of the army. The or- 
 naments, or marks of dignity, peculiar to 
 the pretor were — six lictors with fasces, 
 the pretexta which he carried into the Ca- 
 pitol the day of his installation, the curule 
 chair placed on a tribune, or elevated 
 place, the spear or lance which marked 
 his jurisdiction, and the sword. The ap- 
 
ORNAMENT. 
 
 pointmcnts of the senators consisted of the 
 laiiclaiius, or tunic adorned with a large 
 purple band, the black hose (which cover- 
 ed the foot and half the leg), adorned with 
 a silver crescent, and, lastly, a distinj^uish- 
 ed place in all public ceremonies or spec- 
 tacles. The questors had for their insignia 
 the ivory staii' and the curule chair. To 
 those who had been decreed a triumph, tlie 
 following ornaments were assigned : — the 
 triumphal robe called pnlmata; this was 
 worn over the toga called ;;u<«, which was 
 of purple adorned with gold : a crown of 
 laurel for the head, and a magnificent car, 
 or chariot, drawn by four wliite horses, in 
 which the victorious cliief was conducted 
 with pomp to the Capitol. 
 
 In the present day, the ornaments of 
 royal or imperial power are much the 
 same in all the European countries ; in 
 our own, the principal among them are: — 
 the crown, the mantle of rich velvet trim- 
 med witli ermine, the ring, the sceptre, the 
 globe, tiie sword, and the oil of consecra- 
 tion. 
 
 The following works will be found use- 
 ful with respect both to the principles of 
 ornament, in general, and to its various 
 species in particular. — DegU Ornamenti 
 della Architcttura chile seco7Hlogli Antichi ; 
 according to the Vite de' piU celehri Archi- 
 tetti, p. 474, Rome, 17G8, 8vo. the above 
 treatise was written by Girol del Pozzo. 
 — Nic. Goldmann, Truitc sur les Onicmens 
 d'Architecture, qui. sunt I'Ourruge de la Pein- 
 iure et de la Sculpture, Augsburgh, 1720, 
 folio, witli five plates. Schubler's Archi- 
 tecture of Sturm and Goldmann augmeuted 
 and improved, with a variety of Objects serv- 
 ing for the Decoration of the interior of 
 Buildings, Augsburgli, folio, witli lifty-four 
 jilates. La Supplication aux Orfivres, Ci^e- 
 hurs, Sculptcurs en liois pour Ics Appurte- 
 7n(rns ; this work is attributed to Ch. Coquin, 
 as well as another entitled Letlre d'unc So- 
 ciil^ d'Architectes, first inserted in tlu' Mcr- 
 cure de France, and republished in the Re- 
 cueil de quclques Pieces conccrnant les Arts, 
 I'aris, 1757, 12mo. F. A. Krubsacius's 
 Reflections on the Origin, Progress, and De- 
 cline of Ornaments in the Pine Arts, Leipsic, 
 175!) and 177:i,8vo. ISlouiiu, Pssaissurl'Arl 
 de decorer les Thi^dfres, Paris, 17(i(), Kvo. 
 Luc. Vocii, Oh the Ornaments of Architec- 
 ture, according to the Antique Taste adopted 
 liij the Moderns, Augs. 178".$, 8vo. with 
 twenty-one plates. Francois de SchoyI), 
 who treats of Grecian ornaments in the 
 r.Uli ( liajjter of tlii' '2d vol. of iiis Kanmon : 
 the 5<.)lh, (iOtli, and (ILsl clia])ters of the 
 lOtli j>art of the same author's Orestrio 
 dj.scoursf of the ornaments of arcliitccliire 
 
 as well as of the other arts of design, and 
 also of grotesque ornaments. The Gth 
 chapter of a German work, entitled Re- 
 searches on the Styles of Edifices, Leipsic, 
 1788, 8vo. The M and 4th chapters of 
 the 6th book of Grand Lirre des Peintres, 
 by Lairesse. Treatise on Arabesques, in the 
 10th No. of the German Mercury for 1789. 
 C. L. Stieglitz, Sur I'Empire des Grotesques 
 et des Arabesques, in the 40th vol. of La 
 Nouvelle Bibliothique des Belles-Lettres. 
 The same author treats again of this sub- 
 ject in several passages of his Archa-ologie 
 de V Architecture. A. Riem, On Arabesques, 
 in the periodical work of the Academy of 
 Arts at Berlin, 1st vol. p. 276, 2d ^oi. p. 
 22 and 119. K. P. INIoritz, On the Orna- 
 ments of the Orders of Architecture, ibid. 3tl 
 vol. p. 1. Prolegomena of a Theory of (Jr- 
 namaits, by the same author, Berlin, 1793, 
 8vo. Sulzer, in his Thcorie dtr Schnncn 
 K'unstes, at the word Verzierung. 
 
 Several artists have published designs 
 for ornaments of different kinds. Poly- 
 dore Caldara da Caravaggio, whose works 
 have been engraved by Giov. Batt. Gales- 
 truzzi; several plates have also been en- 
 graved by Ch. Albert and others. Stepli. 
 Delia Bella has published eight plates of 
 friezes, leaves, and grotesques ; sixteen of 
 Ornamenti di Pregi e Fogliani ; twenty-four 
 of Divei'si capriccii ; twelve sheets of Or«rt- 
 me7iti Grotesche, iiisegni varii d'ornati, 
 intagliati dal dartres, &c. L. Burnacci, 
 several of whose ornaments and decora- 
 tions have been engraved by Melch. Kussel. 
 Balth. Bianchi, FjY^i d'Archittttura,forty- 
 eight sheets, folio, 1645. Gaet. Brunetti, 
 Ornamenti, twelve sheets, 4to, engraved by 
 Vivares, and sixty sheets, 4to. engraved 
 by Rogun and Fletcher. Dom. Santi, 
 Campi ornati d'Architetiura, intagliati da 
 Dom. Mattioli, Bologna, 1695. Fil. Pas- 
 sarini, Inretizioni d'Ornamrnti d'Architet- 
 iura, et d'intaglio dinrsi, ulili at Argmiiiri, 
 Intagliatori, Ricamatori, <vc. Rome, 1698, 
 folio. In the Varie Opcre of Ferd. Bi- 
 biena, we find several designs of decora- 
 tions and ornaments. l''r. A(iuila, Racadta 
 da Vasi diversi format i da illusiri Artefici 
 antichi, e di varie Targbe sopraposte alle 
 Pabriche piii insigni di Roma, Rome, 1713, 
 ol)long-folio. Gaet. C'liiaveri, Ornanunli 
 dirersi di Porte c Pinestre in Prospctliva, 
 Dres. 1743, folio. Giov, Giardini, I'romp- 
 tuarium Arlis ArgenUiritr, ex quo centum 
 exquisito Studio inrentis, dilineatis ar /Pre 
 incisis Tabulis eleganiissima- ac innumer<r 
 educi possunt norissimu- lde<r, Rome, 1750, 
 2 \(ils. folio. Carlo Antonini, Mununh di 
 Vari Ornamenti, Iralti delle Pabriche e 
 Irani, anliihi, R<inic, 1777—1781, 4 vols. 
 
ORN 
 
 4to. J. Catelle, Livre de divers Ornemens 
 pour Plafonds, Galeries, &c. engraved by 
 Poilly, 1640, 21 pi. in folio. Pineaii, DS- 
 corations pour toufes soi-tes de Chamhres, 36 
 pi. in folio. In M. de Heinekei's Dic- 
 tionnaire des Artistes, 2d vol. 459 and fol- 
 lowing pages, we find a numerous list of 
 ornaments published by J. Berain. O. P. 
 Can vet, Recueil d' Ornemens u VUsager des 
 jeunes Artistes qui se destinent d la Decora- 
 tion des Batimens, Paris, 1757, folio. Tli£ 
 Principles ofdratving Ornaments made easy 
 by proper Examples of Leaves for Mouldings, 
 Capitals, Scrolls, Husks, Foliage, &c. Chip- 
 pendale, Designs of the most useful and ele- 
 gant household Furniture, London, 1762, 
 200 plates in folio. 1'. Bourdon, Livre 
 d' Ornemens pour les Orfevres et les Jouail- 
 liers, 1793. Livre d'Ecrans Chinois et Bor- 
 dures d'Ea'ans; Deux Livres pour Principes 
 d'Ornemens, Panneaux, &c. Colambini's 
 Book of Vases. Hipplewhite's Designs for 
 Household Furniture. Recueil de D^cora- 
 iious relatif a l'Ameuhlement,Vax'is, folio; 
 and many others. 
 
 With regard to the ornaments employed 
 by the ancients, the reader may consult — 
 Le Antiche Camere delle Terme di Tito dis. 
 intagl. e color, da L. Miri, Rome, 177(i, fol. 
 Description des Bains de Titus, grar^e sous 
 la direction de M, Ponce, Paris, 1759, folio. 
 Collection des Peinfures antiques qui ornoient 
 les Palais, Thei'mes, MausoUes, Chambres 
 sfpulchrales des Empereurs Titus, Trajan, 
 Hadrian, et Constantine, engraved in 53 
 plates, Rome, 1782, folio. Arabesques an- 
 tiques des Bains de Livie ct de la Villa 
 Adrienne, engraved by Ponce, Paris, 1789, 
 folio, &c. 
 
 Ornamental Style. See the preceding 
 article ; also Style. 
 
 Ornatrix. [Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 waiting maid, or slave, who was employed 
 for the purpose of dressing her mistress's 
 hair. This name is often met with in 
 antique inscriptions. The collection of 
 Gruter contains several of these inscrip- 
 tions, wherein we read ornatrix H tutulo, 
 namely, the arranger of the cap or bonnet 
 entitled tutulus : ornatrix auriclce for auri- 
 culce, the fixer of the earrings : ornatrix 
 galecp, the slave who dressed the hair in 
 the peculiar manner styled galea. We 
 read, in an inscription published by Mura- 
 tori, ancilla ornatrix ; — in another ornatrix 
 DiancE, which may be familiarly rendered 
 hairdresser to the goddess Diana; &c. 
 
 Ormthon. [6pvt^b)v, Gr.] In archaio- 
 logy. A building constructed somewhat 
 in the shape of a large pen or fold, the in- 
 terior of which was divided into several 
 compartments, for the reception and pre- 
 
 ORP 
 
 servation of different kinds of fowls and 
 birds, some of which were therein fatted 
 for the use of the table, and others (such 
 as birds of song, &c.) were set aside for 
 purposes of amusement and luxury. Varro, 
 in the 3d chapter of the 3d book of his 
 work, entitled De Re Rustica, has treated 
 somewhat at large on this subject; and 
 information respecting it is likewise to 
 be found in the work of a recent author, 
 — namely, in the 19th p. of The Villas 
 of the Ancie7its illustrated, by Castell. M. 
 de Seguer was the author of a work, en- 
 titled De Ornithone Varronis ; and Goiffon 
 has published Observations sur la Voliere 
 de Varron: these two treatises have been 
 republished by M. Schneider, at the end 
 of his commentary on the 1st vol. of Scrip- 
 tores Rei RusticcB, 
 
 Orphanus. See Opal. 
 
 Orpheus. [6p(psvc, Gr.] In the mythology 
 of painting and sculpture. Great use has 
 been made both by poets and artists of this 
 half- fabulous personage. Indeed, the sis- 
 ter art of Music has afforded many fine 
 subjects for the painter's brush and the 
 sculptor's chisel, the principal of which 
 we shall consequently take this opportu- 
 nity of briefly mentioning. 
 
 Wonderful stories were related of seve- 
 ral musicians of the earliest ages: as, for 
 instance, of Amphion, who is said to have 
 built the walls of Thebes only with the 
 pleasant harmony of his musical instru- 
 ments ; for the sweetness of the tunes 
 caused the stones to move, and place them- 
 selves in good order. 
 
 Arion was also admired for his skill in 
 music : when sailing from Italy into Greece, 
 the seamen resolved amongst themselves 
 to cut his throat, that they might have his 
 purse. But he requested of them the fa- 
 vour to suffer him to play once more with 
 his hai'p before they dispatched him ; upon 
 which the dolphins, ravished to hear him, 
 came in companies about the ship; and 
 when Arion beheld them, he cast himself 
 into the sea, hoping to meet there with 
 more humanity than amongst the cruel ma- 
 riners ; nor was he mistaken, for one of 
 these dolphins, taking the musician upon 
 his back, carried him to Corinth, and was 
 rewarded by the gods for this service with 
 a place among the stars. 
 
 But the most famous of all these classi- 
 cal fables, and the most qualified to call 
 forth the talents of the artist, is that of 
 Orpheus, who was said to be a son of 
 Apollo and Calliope. Of him it is report- 
 ed that he caused his voice to agree so 
 admirably well with his lute, that the 
 rivers stopped to listen to him, that Iho 
 
 K K 
 
ORP 
 
 storms and tempests ceased, that the most 
 savage animals came to him in companies 
 to recreate themselves with this excellent 
 harmony, and that the trees and rocks 
 were seen to move at the sound. 
 
 The most beautiful piece of imagination, 
 liowever, connected with the subject of 
 Orpheus, is that of the return from the in- 
 fernal regions of his beloved wife Eury- 
 dice. She having died suddenly of a 
 wound received from a serpent, Orpheus 
 resolved to recover her, or perish in the 
 attempt. With his lyre in his hand, he 
 entered tlie regions of Pluto, and gained 
 admission into his palace. The king of 
 hell was charmed with the melody of his 
 strains, and at length granted him the fa- 
 vour to carry his wife again to earth, on 
 condition that he would not look back on 
 her until he had passed the extremest bor- 
 ders of the gloomy territory. Orpheus 
 was already in sight of the upper regions 
 of the air, when his impatient love caus- 
 ing him to turn his eyes back on his long- 
 lost Eui7dice, she vanished on the instant 
 from his view, and was dragged back into 
 hell, whither he was not permitted again 
 to follow her. 
 
 There is a curious old story, which has 
 given rise to a fine painting of Annibale 
 Caracci (now in the National Gallery in 
 Pall Mall) of a musical dispute between 
 Apollo, and Pan the god of the mountains 
 and shepherds. According to some ver- 
 sions, Midas, a king of Phrygia, but a 
 mighty simple fellow, was appointed um- 
 pire of this controversy, and he giving the 
 preference to Pan, Apollo, ofT'ended, be- 
 stowed on him an appropriate punishment 
 by adorning him with the ears of an ass. 
 
 In all the representations of Orpheus, 
 and there are many, he is constantly ac- 
 companied by his lyre. 
 
 Orimment. [auripigmeiitum, Lat.] In 
 painting. A bituminous mineral, com- 
 posed of sulphur and arsenic, sometimes 
 artilicially produced, but also to be found 
 native in the earth, and constituting one 
 of the ores of arsenic. It is commonly 
 found in shapeless masses, very seldom 
 crystallized. Tii(^re is a variety of this 
 fossil, of a broad-ilaked gold-coloured 
 kind, which was well known among the 
 ancients (as is plain from the (lcscrii)fion 
 of it left us by Dioscorides), and is luiuli 
 esteemed at present by our artists. This 
 is found in several places, as in the islands 
 of the Arcliipelago, in the mines of CdU'e- 
 laer, in Saxony, in some parts of Turkey 
 and the East Indies, and in its utmost 
 purity about Smyrna; this nutkes the linest 
 of all yellows in painting. The small- 
 
 OSS 
 
 flaked yellow kind, which is the common 
 orpiment of the shops, is also a fine colour, 
 though greatly inferior to the former. 
 
 Orpin. [Fr,] In painting. This sub- 
 stance, which is of various colours, such 
 as a golden yellow, a pale yellow, a rose 
 colour, yellow-green, and red, is however 
 seldom made use of, in painting, on ac- 
 count of its virulent poisonous quality. 
 
 Orthography. [opOoc, right, and ypa(p(o, 
 to write.] The age of charters, as well as 
 of various other monuments, is often de- 
 tected by the orthography of the writing 
 or inscription thereon ; and on the other 
 hand, these monuments have been regard- 
 ed as authorities to settle the disputed 
 orthography of certain words. 
 
 In architecture, the elevation of a build- 
 ing at any of its particular parts. 
 
 In geometry, this term is applied to the 
 art of drawing or delineating the fore 
 right plan of any object, and of expressing 
 the heights or elevations of each part. It 
 is denominated orthography from its de- 
 termining things by perpendicular lines 
 falling on the geometrical plane. 
 
 In perspective, orthography is the fore 
 right side of any plane, i. e. the side or 
 plane that lies parallel to a straight line, 
 tiiat may be imagined to pass through the 
 outward convex points of the eyes conti- 
 nued to a convenient length. 
 
 Orthostade. [o()06e, upright, and 'irapat, 
 to stand.] In ancient costume. A long and 
 ample tunic, thus denominated on account 
 of its straight or upright folds. This tunic, 
 like the stola of the Roman ladies, had 
 sleeves covering the arms even down to 
 the hand. Jiriseis appears with a vest- 
 ment of this kind, as will be seen in tin- 
 first vol. and tenth plate of M. Millin's 
 Monutnenti Inediti. 
 
 OscH.r.A. [Lilt, from os, oris, the counte- 
 nance, and cilleo, to move.] In archaiology. 
 A species of mask consecrated to Bacchus. 
 Virgil makes mention of liieniin liisGeor- 
 gics. These kind of vizards are found 
 often represented on ancient monumt>nts. 
 Among the gems whereon they have been 
 engraved are those published by Lippert, 
 in his Diictiliothcquc. Sponce, in iiis I'oly- 
 nutis, pi. 20, No. 2, has given one wherei)n 
 we find engraven a tree with several oscilln 
 suspended from if. 
 
 Ossi'ARiL'M. [Lat. from o.s, ossis, a bone.] 
 In archaiology. The vase or urn destined 
 to enclose the ashes and the remains of 
 the bones alter the body had been con- 
 sumed ui)on the funeral pile. Mimtfaucon 
 ( Antiiiitilr cxiiliqui'r, Ist part, vol. 5), has 
 published, according to Kabretti, an urn 
 upon which is inscribed ossuarium. 
 
PAD 
 
 Osteology. [Gr. ote^v, a bone, quod a 
 Tail), to make to stand, and Xoyog, a dis- 
 course.] In fainting, drawing, and sculp- 
 ture. That jiart of anatomy which treats 
 of the bones. See Anatomy. 
 
 OsTRAciAs. [Gr. oTpoKov, a bony sub- 
 stance or shell. In gem sculpture. Pliny 
 speaks of a stone so called from its ex- 
 treme hardness and resemblance in its 
 surface to that of a shell. The fragments 
 of this stone, according to him, were capa- 
 ble of being used wherewith to engrave 
 other stones. 
 
 Outline, [out and liiie.'] In drawing, 
 &c. Contour. Line by which any figure is 
 defined. Extremity. 
 
 Outre. [Fr.] hi all the arts. Fantasti- 
 cal, exaggerated, or overstrained. 
 
 Oval. [Lat. ovum, an egg.] In painting. 
 An oblong curvilinear figure, otherwise 
 called ellipsis. However, the proper oval, 
 or egg shape, differs considerably from that 
 of the ellipsis, being an irregular figure, 
 narrower at one end than at another : 
 whereas the ellipsis, or mathematical oval, 
 is equally broad at each end : though it 
 must be owned, these two are commonly 
 confounded together ; even geometricians 
 calling the oval a. false ellipsis. 
 
 Ovation, [ovatio, Lat.] In archaiology. 
 A lesser triumph allowed to commanders 
 for victories obtained without bloodshed- 
 ding. The show generally commenced at 
 the Albanian hill, from which point the 
 chief, accompanied by his retinue, made 
 
 PiED 
 
 his entry into the city on foot, with many 
 flutes or pipes sounding in concert as he 
 passed along, and wearing a garland of 
 myrtle as an emblem of peace. The term 
 ovation, according to Servius, is derived 
 from ovis, a sheep ; because, on these oc- 
 casions, the conqueror sacrificed a sheep, 
 as in a triumph he sacrificed a bull. The 
 senate, equestrians and principal plebeians 
 assisted in this procession, which termi- 
 nated at the Capitol, when rams were sa- 
 crificed to Jupiter. The first ovation was 
 granted to Publius Posthumius, the con- 
 sul, for his victory over the Sabines in the 
 2.53d year of Rome. 
 
 OviLE. [Lat. from ovis, a sheep.] In 
 archaiology. The ancients designated thus 
 a place in the Campus Martins, where the 
 people assembled for the purpose of nam- 
 ing their magistrates. It probably re- 
 ceived this name on account of the differ- 
 ent divisions into which it was separated 
 making it resemble a sheepfold. In re- 
 mote times, this enclosure was formed by 
 barriers of wood ; but at a later pei'iod it 
 was surrounded with porticoes, as we 
 learn by the fourth book of the Letters of 
 Cicero to Attic us. 
 
 OvoLO. [Italian.] In architecture. A 
 round moulding, whose profile or sweep, 
 in the Ionic and Composite capitals, is 
 usually a quadrant of a circle, whence it 
 is also commonly called the quarter round. 
 It is generally cut with representations of 
 eggs, arrow heads, &c. 
 
 Pacificator. [Lat. from pax, peace.] 
 In emblematical painting and sculpture. 
 The attitude of a person who makes 
 peace, or any other act of grace, consisted, 
 among the ancients, in the horizontal 
 extension of the right arm, which formed 
 a right angle with the breast, the hand 
 being quite open, and all the fingers 
 stretched out. They used this same atti- 
 tude at other times to indicate a truce, and 
 employed it likewise in the composition 
 of any figure in the act of appeasir.g up- 
 roar or sedition. As this attitude was 
 noble and imposing, we find it made use 
 of in the statues of several emperors : that 
 of Marcus Aurelius, in the Capitol, and 
 that of Domitian, were thus composed. 
 
 Paduan Coins. /» numismatics. Such 
 are denominated those spurious medals 
 fabricated with much care by J. Cauvin, 
 surnamed II Padoano, and by Bassiano. 
 These spurious coins are copies of an- 
 
 tiques, or, at least, of the antique style, 
 and display, especially on their reverses, 
 a profound knowledge of history. The 
 Cabinet of Antiquities in the Royal Li- 
 brary at Paris possesses a beautiful series 
 of Paduan medals. 
 
 PiEAN. [Lat. from iraidv, Gr.] In ar- 
 chaiology. A song of rejoicing, sung, 
 among the ancients, in honour of Apollo, 
 and chiefly used on occasions of victory 
 and triumph. 
 
 P^dagogus. [Lat. Troc^aywyoc, Gr. from 
 Trftjf, a boy, and dyw, to lead.] In archaio- 
 logy. The name of a slave, to whom the 
 Greeks and Romans were in the habit of 
 confiding the education, or, at least, the 
 behaviour of their children. They were 
 dressed after the fashion of barbarians, 
 generally wearing a tunic with straight 
 sleeves, and a kind of pantaloon which 
 descended to their feet : sometimes tliey 
 were decorated with the Phrygian cap, as 
 
 K K 2 
 
PIES 
 
 may be observed from several monunif-nts, 
 amongst which IMilliu cites the basso-ri- 
 lUro representing the death of Niobe's 
 children, and published by Winckelmann 
 (See Monumenti Inediti, No. 89), and by 
 Visconti ( Fi//o Pi/itiana, stanza l,No. IG). 
 It may be here remarked, that the ancients 
 appropriated the costume of nations then 
 barbarian to every species of domestic 
 servant. 
 
 PiENULiTi [Lat. from 7ratvoX?;e, Gr.] /jj 
 archaiology . Seneca applies this term to 
 those slaves ^vhose employment vsas to 
 bear the litter, in consequence of their 
 being clothed in a pantda, or sort of thick 
 riding coat, made somewhat like a smock 
 frock, \\hich was often very richly em- 
 broidered. 
 
 P/ESTLM. In the history of (he arts. Leu- 
 cania was, in ancient times, one of the 
 most flourishing divisions of Grecian Italy, 
 and has been long comprised within the 
 kingdom of Naples. It had at first for its 
 principal town the celebrated Sybaris, and 
 subsequently I'a^stum, or, as it was called 
 by the Greeks, iromldiovia, which name 
 was changed to the former on the city 
 falling into the hands of the Romans. The 
 utmost taste for art seems to have reigned 
 in this once famous town, and all which 
 could in tliose days be imagined of inge- 
 nious, of delicate, or voluptuous, was to 
 be found within its walls. The climate 
 conspired to complete the charms and 
 graces of the spot, and during the era of 
 Augustus, Horace, Virgil, Propertius, and 
 Ovid, each vied with the other in singing 
 the praises of 
 
 " Picstnm'8 twice-blowing roses." 
 
 This place is now, and has been for 
 many successive ages, a perfect solitude. 
 Towards the year 930, it was sacked by 
 the Saracens. Still, however, that rude 
 people left standing abundant evidences 
 of its former splendour and jnagnidcence, 
 and it was reserved lor Kobert Guiscard, 
 nearly two centuries after, to destroy what 
 the barl)arians had sjjared. Ily llie direc- 
 tions of lliis man, all the an<ient edilices 
 were demolished, the temples most of 
 them razed to the ground, and (heir )>r('- 
 ciouH remains, such as bcautitul columns 
 of rt'iil anliiiiie, ^:c. tran.sported to Salerno, 
 there to serve toward tlie conslruclion of 
 a church. From the ashes of (he old town, 
 lidwever, arose a new one \\liieli was de- 
 nominated Pesti,an(l which was notlinully 
 abandoned until 1580. Since that period, 
 the ruins of llie anrienf ci(y <lo not appear 
 lo liav<' aKracted notice until ITITi. Tlu' 
 first modern author who treated of (hem 
 
 PiES 
 
 was the Baron Joseph Antouini, in his 
 work on Leucauia, published at Naples in 
 174.5 and following years. The descrip- 
 tion which this writer has given of the 
 ruins of Picstum leave no room whatever 
 to doubt but that he had actually visited 
 them ; and this being granted, what be- 
 comes of the story of the young Neapoli- 
 tan painter, to whom, according to Gros- 
 ley and others, the honour of their disco- 
 very (in 1755) is to be attributed? The 
 first artist who measured and made draw- 
 ings of them was, according to jNIillin, 
 J. G. Soufllot, a celebrated architect of 
 his day, who built the basilica of St. Ge- 
 nevieve, afterwards called the Pantheon. 
 " These drawings," says Millin, " although 
 executed in 1750, lay for a long time un- 
 used in the artist's portfolio, and were not 
 published until 17C4 at Paris, by M. Du- 
 mont, professor of architecture." 
 
 The ruins of the ancient town of Pa^s- 
 tum are situated in the gulf of Salerno, 
 twenty-two leagues from Naples, and in a 
 vast and mountainous plain. The precise 
 extent of their antiquity is altogether baf- 
 fling ; in all probability, it stretched far 
 beyond the conquest of the town by the 
 Romans. 
 
 The circumference of the city, in form 
 an angular oblong, which is contracted 
 towards the west, is enclosed by thick 
 walls, partly ruinous, but still lofty in 
 many places, and their height \ arying from 
 twelve to twent>'-one feet. Substantial 
 square towers flank each angle of the 
 walls, and there are several other interme- 
 diate ones between these and the gates. 
 There remained a few years ago one gate 
 (towards the east), quite perfect. 
 
 These walls enclose a prodigious multi- 
 tude of ruins, the principal of which are 
 those of three temples, which were deno- 
 minated by the discoverers the grand tem- 
 ple, the lesser temple, and the basilica. 
 The latter ditlers from every other temple 
 in existence, having nine columns in the 
 front, with a central range down the miil- 
 dle of the cell, tlu- use of which appears 
 to have been to sujjporl the roof. 
 
 The situation of these central columns 
 has led to many conjectures as to what 
 purj)ose this singular edilice had been ap- 
 plied. Paoli designates it us a liit.siliaif 
 in which conjecture he is followed by Oe- 
 lagar<lette ; but Major observes, with more 
 probability, that it does not present the 
 form of a basilica, because its jjortico is 
 on (he outside, whereas those described 
 by >'itruvius were on the inside: nor can 
 he supiiose it to ha\ e been simply a portic ci, 
 as portions of the wall of the cell are still 
 
in existence. All Its other parts, the odd 
 number of columns in front excepted, and 
 the beforementioned central row of co- 
 lumns, bear every other mark and charac- 
 teristic of a temple. 
 
 Of the centre, or hypaethral temple, we 
 have already spoken in another place. See 
 Architecture. 
 
 Mr. Forsyth, who visited this mysteri- 
 ous city with the feelings of a poet, says, 
 that on entering its walls he felt all the 
 religion of the place. " I stood," says 
 this inspiring writer," as on sacred ground. 
 I stood amazed at the long obscurity of its 
 mighty ruins." With regard to its great 
 antiquity, however, he difters from other 
 authors and antiquaries, and does not con- 
 clude that, because the Psestum Doric dif- 
 fers in its proportions from that of the 
 Parthenon, the P?estan temples are con- 
 sequently to be considered any older than 
 the Athenian. The proportions of an or- 
 der, he justly observes, are but matters 
 of convention. They often vary in the same 
 country, nay, in the same edifice ; and 
 surely a Phidias, working in the metropo- 
 lis of Grecian art, with its two best archi- 
 tects, and the Pentelican quarry at his 
 command, might well produce more pure 
 elegance than contemporary or even later 
 artists, who were confined to the ruder 
 materials and taste of a remote colony. 
 (Forsyth's Italy, p. 312.) 
 
 The most authentic accounts of these 
 antiquities are to be found in Major's 
 Travels ; and in the Magna Grcecia of Wil- 
 KiNS, who has dilated, with a true archi- 
 tectural feeling, on their drear ruins. The 
 following works may also be consulted : 
 
 Vues et Details de Pcestum, published 
 by DuMONT, professor of architecture, Pa- 
 ris and London, 1764, 1767, and 1769, in 
 folio. (The last edition contains also en- 
 gravings and details respecting Hercula- 
 neum, and other antiquities, principally in 
 the kingdom of Naples). Sei vedute delle 
 Ruine di Pesto, da Morghen, Napoli, 1766, 
 folio. Tke Ruins of Pcestum, or Posidonia, 
 Town of Blagna Grcecia, in tke Kingdom of 
 Naples, ivith four fine plates engraved by J. 
 Miller, London, 1767, folio. The Ruins 
 of Pcestum, or Posidonia, by Thomas Ma- 
 jor, 1768, folio. (A French translation of 
 this book appeared at Paris soon after). 
 Diff^rentes Vues de quelques Restes de tres- 
 grands Edifices qui subsistent encore dans 
 le milieu de I'ancienne Ville de Pesto, autre- 
 ment Posidonia, situh dans la Lucanie, by 
 PiRANEsi, folio. This collection, pub- 
 lished at Rome, is complete and faithful. 
 Pffst. quod Posidoniam etiam dixere, rudera, 
 seu Pccstana Dissertationes Italice et Laline, 
 
 V A G 
 
 auctore patre Paulo Antonio Paoli, Rome, 
 1784, folio. This work also deserves to 
 be distinguished. Lcs Raines de Pcestum, 
 ou Posidonia, ancienne Ville de la Grande 
 Grece H 22 lienes de Naples, dans le Golfe 
 de Salerne, levies, mesur6es, et dessini'es sur 
 les Lieux, en 1793, par M. Delagardette, 
 architecte, Paris, 1797. This work, toge- 
 ther with that of Piranesi, is the best in 
 point of illustration, that exists on the 
 subject of Paestum. In the Chalcography 
 of Franzetti, at Rome, has appeared a 
 fine collection of twenty-eight small views 
 of difl[erent pieces of antiquity at Paestum, 
 engraved by Morelli : it is entitled, Rac- 
 colta degli antichi Blonumenti esistenti nella 
 Cittii di Pesto, e di alcune altre vedute ap- 
 partenenti alia medesima Cittd. There are 
 also some remarks on the town and mo- 
 numents of Paestum to be found in the 
 Dissertations sur la Lucanie of Baron Jo- 
 seph Antonini, Naples, 1747, and follow- 
 ing years. Voyage en Sicilie et dans la 
 Grande Grace, par Riedesel, Laus. 1773, 
 8vo. Sicula, by D'Orville, Amst. 2 vols. 
 1764, folio. Pajjcrazi, Le antichitd Sici- 
 liane spiegate, Napol. 1751, folio. Les 
 Remarques sur V Architecture, by Winckel- 
 mann. Le Voyage en Italic, by Lalande. 
 Grosley, Observations sur Vltalie et les 
 Italiens, par deux Gentilshommes Su6doiSy 
 &c. 
 
 Page, [paggio, Ital. by contraction from 
 pcedagogium, Lat. or vaiSiov, a little boy, 
 Gr.] In archaiology. One of a troop of 
 young boys, who were kept by the more 
 opulent Greeks and Romans both for pur- 
 poses of ostentation and of domestic em- 
 ployment. The term pcedagogium was ap- 
 plied also to that part of the mansion 
 wherein they were lodged. These boys 
 were generally chosen from among the 
 plebeian children distinguished for per- 
 sonal beauty. They are very frequently 
 found depicted on vases, bassi rilievi, &:c. 
 Pages were commonly kept, in modern 
 times, by barons, knights, ladies, &c. and 
 figure greatly in the stories of romance. 
 Their use is, at the present day, at least 
 in Europe, restricted to the courts of 
 princes. 
 
 Pagoda, [a corruption of poutghad, Per- 
 sian, a house of idols.] In architecture. A 
 name given by the East Indians to those 
 temples devoted by them to the worship 
 of their gods, and occasionally to the gods 
 themselves. The pagoda usually consists 
 of three parts. — The first is a vaulted roof, 
 supported on stone or marble colunms; it 
 is adorned with images ; and being oi)en, 
 all persons without distinction are per- 
 mitted to enter it. The second part is 
 
PAGODA. 
 
 filled with grotesque and monstrous figures, 
 and no person is allowed to enter therein 
 but the brainins themselves. Tlie third 
 is a kind of chancel, in which the statue 
 of the deity is placed, and which is shut 
 up with a very strong gate. 
 
 We cannot afl'ord loom to go into detail 
 on the several pagodas of diflerent nations 
 and their peculiar circumstances ; and 
 shall therefore content ourselves with of- 
 fering the reader some account of the most 
 interesting structures of this class in ex- 
 istence, which account is chiefly extracted 
 from a paper in the Asiatic Researches, 
 concerning the sculptures, &c. of Mavali- 
 puram, a few miles north of Sadras, and 
 known to seamen by the name of the Sccen 
 Pagodas, 
 
 The monuments which Mr. Chambers 
 (who communicated the paper) describes, 
 appear, he says, to be the ruins of some 
 great city decayed many centuries ago. 
 " They are situated close to the sea, be- 
 tween Covelong and Sadras, somewhat 
 remote from the high road that leads to 
 the different European settlements. And 
 when visited in 1776, there was still a na- 
 tive village adjoining to them which re- 
 tained the ancient name, and in which a 
 number of brainins resided who seemed 
 perfectly well acquainted with the sub- 
 jects of most of the sculptures to be seen 
 there. The rock, or rather hill of stone, 
 on which great part of these works are 
 executed, is one of the principal marks 
 for mariners as they approach the coast, 
 and to them the place is known by the 
 name of the Seven Pagodas, possibly be- 
 cause the summits of the rock have pre- 
 sented them with that idea as they passed : 
 but it must be confessed, that no aspect jects " on that part of the upper surface of 
 
 by the foot of the hill on the side facing 
 the sea, there is a pagoda rising out of the 
 ground of one solid stone, about sixteen or 
 eighteen feet high, which seems to have 
 been cut upon the spot out of a detached 
 rock that had been found of a proper size 
 for that purpose. The top is arched, and 
 the style of architecture according to which 
 it is formed, diflerent from any now used 
 in those parts." Beyond this a numerous 
 group of human figures in basso rilievo, 
 considerably larger than life, attract at- 
 tention. They represent considerable per- 
 sons, and their exploits, many of which 
 are now very indistinct through the inju- 
 ries of time, assisted by the corroding na- 
 ture of the sea air; others, while protected 
 from that element, are as fresh as when 
 recently finished. 
 
 The hill, which is at first of easy ascent, 
 " is in other parts rendered more so, by 
 very excellent steps cut out in several 
 places, where the communication would 
 be difficult or impracticable without them. 
 A winding stair of this sort leads to a 
 kind of temple cut out of the solid rock, 
 with some figures of idols in high relief 
 upon its walls, very well fiuisiied, and 
 perfectly fresh, as it faces the west, and 
 is therefore sheltered from the sea air." 
 This temple our author conjectures to 
 have been a place of worship appertain- 
 ing to a palace; some remains of which 
 still exist, and to which there is a passage 
 from the temple by another flight of steps. 
 This conjecture (for it is brought forward 
 merely as such) is in some measure fa- 
 voured by several ruins still remaining, 
 and by the tradition of the braniins who 
 inhabit the place. This finishes tiio ob- 
 
 which the hill assumes as viewed on the 
 shore, seems at all to authorize this no- 
 tion ; and tliere are circumstances, which 
 will be mentioned in the sequel, that would 
 lead one to suspect, that this name has 
 arisen from some such numljcr of jiagodas 
 that formerly stood here, and in (inie have 
 i)eeii buried in the waves." The rock 
 here mentioned, as it rises abruptly out of 
 a level plain of great extent, iialurally en- 
 grosses llie attention of Ww. eye. It con- 
 sists chiefly of a single stone ; and in its 
 shape (which is singular and romantic), in 
 a distant view, it has the appearance of 
 an antique and lofty edifice. Works of 
 imagery and sculpture crowd thicker upon 
 the eye on a nearer approach, and at first 
 sigiit at least favours tlie idea of a petrilied 
 town, which, through tlie credulity of tra- 
 vellers, has been believed to exist in vari- 
 ous parts of the world. " IMoceudinn on 
 
 the hill, the ascent to which is on the 
 north ; but on descending from thence, 
 you are led round the hill to the opposite 
 side, in which there are steps cut from the 
 bottom to a place near the suuunit, where 
 is an excavation that seems to have been 
 intended for a place of worship, and eon- 
 tains various sculptures of Hindoo deities. 
 The most remarkable of these is a gigantic 
 figure of Vislumii^ asleep on a kind of bed, 
 witii a huge snake wound about in many 
 coils by way of pillow for his head ; and 
 these figures, according to tiie manner of 
 this ])lace, are all of one piece liewn from 
 the body of the rock." These works, 
 however, although they are unquestion- 
 ably stupen<ious, are, in our author's opi- 
 nion, surpassed b_\ others al>oul a mile 
 and a half to the southward of the hill. 
 " Tlu-y consist of two pagodas of about 
 thirty feet long by twenty feet wide, and 
 
PAGODA. 
 
 about as many in height, cut out of the 
 solid rock, and each consisting originally 
 of one single stone. Near these also stand 
 an elephant full as big as life, and a liou 
 much larger than the natural size, but 
 very well executed, each hewn also out of 
 one stone. None of the pieces that have 
 fallen off in cutting these extraordinary 
 sculptures are now to be found near or 
 any where in the neighbourhood of them, 
 so that there is no means of ascertaining 
 the degree of labour and time that has 
 been spent upon them, nor the size of the 
 rock or rocks from which they have been 
 hewn ; a circumstance which renders their 
 appearance the more striking and singu- 
 lar. And though their situation is very 
 near the seabeach, they have not suffered 
 at all by the corrosive air of tJiat element, 
 which has provided them with a defence 
 against itself by throwing up before them 
 a high bank which completely shelters 
 them. There is also great symmetry in 
 their form, though that of the pagodas is 
 different from the style of architecture ac- 
 cording to which idol temples are now 
 built in that country. The latter resem- 
 bles the Egyptian ; for the towers are al- 
 ways pyramidical, and the gates and roofs 
 flat, and without arches ; but these sculp- 
 tures approach nearer to the Gothic taste, 
 being surmounted by arched roofs or domes 
 that are not semicircular, but composed of 
 two segments of circles meeting in a point 
 at top." Our author observes, that the 
 lion in this group, as well as one on a 
 stone couch in what he took to be a royal 
 palace, are perfectly just representations 
 of the true lion, and the natives there give 
 them the name which is always under- 
 stood to mean a lion in the Hindoo lan- 
 guage, to wit, sing ; but the figure which 
 they have made to represent that animal 
 in their idol temples for centuries past, 
 though it bears the same appellation, is a 
 distorted monster totally unlike the origi- 
 nal ; insomuch that it has from hence been 
 supposed, that the lion was not anciently 
 known in this country, and that sing was 
 a name given to a monster that existed 
 only in Hindoo romance. But it is plain 
 that that animal was well known to the 
 authors of these works, who in manners 
 as well as arts seem to have differed much 
 from the modern Hindoos. 
 
 " There are two circumstances attending 
 these monuments which cannot but excite 
 great curiosity, and on which future in- 
 quiries may possibly throw some light. 
 One is, that on one of the pagodas last 
 mentioned there is an inscription of a sin- 
 gle line, in a character at present unknown 
 
 to the Hindoos. It resembles neither the 
 Deyva-niigre, nor any of the various cha- 
 racters connected with or derived from it, 
 which have come to the writer's know- 
 ledge from any part of Hindostan. Nor 
 did it, at the time he viewed it, appear to 
 correspond with any character, Asiatic or 
 European, that is commonly known. He 
 had not then, however, seen the alphabet 
 of the Balic, the learned language of the 
 Siamese, a sight of which has since raised 
 in his mind a suspicion that there is a near 
 affinity between them, if the character be 
 not identically the same. But as these 
 conjectures, after such a lapse of time, are 
 somewhat vague, and the subject of them 
 is perhaps yet within the reach of our re- 
 searches, it is to be hoped that some method 
 may be fallen upon of procuring an exact 
 copy of this inscription. 
 
 " The other circumstance is, that though 
 the outward form of the pagodas is com- 
 plete, the ultimate design of them has ma- 
 nifestly not been accomplished, but seems 
 to have been defeated by some extraordi- 
 nary convulsion of nature. For the wes- 
 tein side of the most northerly one is ex- 
 cavated to the depth of four or five feet, 
 and a row of pillars left on the outside to 
 support the roof; but here the work has 
 been stopped, and a uniform rent of about 
 four inches breadth has been made through- 
 out the solid rock, and appears to extend 
 to its foundations, which are probably at 
 a prodigious depth below the surface of 
 the ground. That this rent has happened 
 since the work began, or while it was car- 
 rying on, cannot be doubted ; for the marks 
 of the mason's tools are perfectly visible 
 in the excavated part on both sides of the 
 rent, in such a manner as to show plainly 
 that they have been divided by it. Nor 
 is it reasonable to suppose, that such a 
 work would ever have been designed or 
 begun upou a rock that had previously 
 been rent in two. Nothing less than an 
 earthquake, and that a violent one, could 
 apparently have produced such a fissure 
 in the solid rock ; and that this has been 
 the case in point of fact, may be gathered 
 from other circumstances, which it is ne- 
 cessary to mention in an account of this 
 curious place. The great rock above de- 
 scribed is at some small distance from the 
 sea, perhaps fifty or one hundred yards, 
 and in that space the Hindoo village before 
 mentioned stood in 1776. But close to the 
 sea are the remains of a pagoda built of 
 brick, and dedicated to Sib, the greatest 
 part of which has evidently been swal- 
 lowed up by that element ; for the door of 
 the innermost apartment, in which the idol 
 
PAI 
 
 is placed, and before which there are al- 
 ways two or three spacious courts sur- 
 rounded with walls, is now washed by the 
 waves, and the pillar used to discover the 
 meridian at the time of founding the pa- 
 goda is seen standing at some distance in 
 the sea. In the neighbourhood of tiiis 
 building there are some detached rocks, 
 washed also by the waves, on which there 
 appear sculptures, though now much worn 
 and defaced. And the natives of the place 
 declared to the writer of this account, that 
 the more aged people among them remem- 
 bered to have seen the tops of several 
 pagodas far out in the sea, which being 
 covered with copper (probably gilt) were 
 particularly visible at sunrise, as their 
 shining surface used then to reflect the 
 sun's rays, but that now that effect was no 
 longer produced, as the copper had since 
 become incrusted ^^ ith mould and verdi- 
 gris." 
 
 From these circumstances our author 
 conjectures, and we think reasonably, that 
 the magnificent city, of which these appear 
 to be part of the ruins, has been destroyed 
 partly by an earthquake by which the 
 rock was rent, and partly by a sudden in- 
 undation of the sea, occasioned by this 
 commotion of the earth. The braniins give 
 an account of this matter peculiar to them- 
 selves, filled with extravagance, fable, and 
 folly ; from which, however, with the as- 
 sistance of ancient monuments, coins, and 
 inscriptions, some probable conjectures, at 
 least, if not important discoveries, may, it 
 is hoped, be made on these subjects, which 
 are far from being uninteresting. 
 
 Paint, [from the French verb peindre, 
 to paint.] The various colours used by the 
 artist to represent any proposed object. 
 
 Pajnter. [same derivation as the for- 
 mer word.] The artist who represents the 
 appearances of the objects of nature on a 
 plane surface, with colours, as though 
 they were in riliero. According to the 
 species to which each one is particularly 
 attached we divide painters into dillerent 
 classes. We denominate him an historical 
 piiiiitiT who represents the actions of the 
 Divinity or of men, such as belong either 
 to sacred or profane history, to ni\ tholugy, 
 S<v. The landscape painter is ho who lakes 
 for his subjects the abundant beauties uf 
 external nature; tlie portrait painter, he 
 whoHe business it is to portray an indiNi- 
 (lual in such a manner as that the resem- 
 blance may strike the spectator at first 
 sight. The marine painter takes for his 
 Buljji'cLs that extensive range which is 
 ronufcled with the various changes and 
 effects of the sea; &c. &;c. 
 
 P A T 
 
 We cannot do better in this place than 
 transcribe a few of those inestimable di- 
 rections which Sir Joshua Reynolds dis- 
 pensed from his chair as President of the 
 Royal Academy, and which should never 
 be lost sight of by the student in art. 
 
 In the beginning of his Se\enth Dis- 
 course, our illustrious countryman thus 
 addresses the students before him : — " It 
 has been my uniform endeavour, since I 
 first addressed you from this place, to im- 
 press you strongly with one ruling idea. I 
 wished you to be persuaded that success 
 in your art depends almost entirely on 
 your own industry ; but the industry which 
 I principally recommended is not the in- 
 dustry of the hands, but of the mind. 
 
 " As the art of painting is not a divine 
 gift, so neither is it a mechanical trade. 
 Its foundations are laid in solid science ; 
 and practice, though essential to perfec- 
 tion, can never attain that to which it aims 
 unless it works under the direction of 
 principle. 
 
 " Some writers on art carry this point 
 too far, and suppose that such a body of 
 universal and profound learning is requi- 
 site, that the very enumeration of its kinds 
 is enough to frighten a beginner. Vitru- 
 vius, after going through the many accom- 
 plishments of nature, and the many ac- 
 quirements of learning, necessary to an 
 architect, proceeds with great gra\ity to 
 assert, that he ought to be well skilled in 
 the civil law, that he may not be cheated 
 in the title of the ground he builds on. 
 But, without such exaggeration, we may 
 go so far as to assert that a painter stands 
 in need of mort; knowledge than is to be 
 picked oil' his pallet, or collected by look- 
 ing on his model, whether it be in life or 
 in picture. He can never be a great artist 
 who is grossly illiterate. 
 
 " Every man v\ hose business is descrip- 
 tion ought to be tolerably well actpiainted 
 with the poets in some language or other, 
 that he may imbibe a i)oetical spirit, and 
 enlarge his stock of ide.is. He ought to 
 acquire a habit of comparing and digest- 
 ing his notions. He ought not to be 
 \\ holly unai(|uainted with that part of 
 lihiloso|)hy which gives an insight into 
 human nature, and relates to the miuiners, 
 characters, i)assions, and affections. He 
 ought to know somethinii- concerning (ho 
 mind, as well as a ^reat deal toncerning 
 the liodij of man. For this purpose, it is 
 not necessary that he should go into such 
 a compass of reading as must, by tlistract- 
 ing his attention, discpialify him for liie 
 practical part of his i)rofession, and make 
 him sink (he performer in the ciilic. 
 
Reading, if it can be made the favourite 
 recreation of his leisure hours, will im- 
 Iirove and enlarge his mind, without re- 
 tarding his actual industry. What such 
 partial and desultory reading cannot afford 
 may be supplied by the conversation of 
 learned and ingenious men, which is the 
 best of all substitutes for those who have 
 not the means or opportunities of deep 
 study. There are many such men in every 
 age ; and they will be pleased with com- 
 municating their ideas to artists, when 
 they see them curious and docile, if they 
 are treated with that respect and defer- 
 ence which is so justly their due." 
 
 Again, in the course of his second Lec- 
 ture, the same great authority observes : — 
 " Dividing tlie study of painting into three 
 distinct periods, I shall describe the first 
 of them as confined to the rudiments ; in- 
 cluding a facility of drawing any object 
 that presents itself, a tolerable readiness 
 in the management of colours, and an ac- 
 quaintance with the most simple and ob- 
 vious rules of composition. 
 
 " This first degree of proficiency is, in 
 painting, what grammar is in literature, a 
 general preparation for whatever species 
 of the art the student may afterwards 
 choose for his more particular application. 
 The power of drawing, modelling, and 
 using colours, is very properly called the 
 language of the art. 
 
 " When the artist is once enabled to ex- 
 press himself with some degree of correct- 
 ness, he must then endeavour to collect 
 subjects for expression ; to amass a stock 
 of ideas, to be combined and varied as oc- 
 casion may require. He is now in the 
 second period of study, in which his busi- 
 ness is to learn all that has been known and 
 done before his own time. Having hi- 
 therto received instructions from a parti- 
 cular master, he is now to consider the 
 art itself as his master. He must extend 
 his capacity to more sublime and general 
 instructions. Those perfections which lie 
 scattered among various masters are now 
 united in one general idea, which is hence- 
 forth to regulate his taste and enlarge his 
 imagination. With a variety of models 
 thus before him, he will avoid that nar- 
 rowness and poverty of conception which 
 attends a bigoted admiration of a single 
 master, and will cease to follow any fa- 
 vourite when he ceases to excel. This 
 period is, however, still a time of subjec- 
 tion and discipline. Though the student 
 will not resign himself blindly to any sin- 
 gle authority, when he may have the ad- 
 vantage of consulting many, he must still 
 be afraid of trusting his own judgment, 
 
 PAINTEH. 
 
 and of deviating into any track where he 
 cannot find the footsteps of some former 
 master. 
 
 " The third and last period emancipates 
 the student from subjection to any autho- 
 rity but what he shall himself judge to be 
 supported by reason. Confiding now in 
 his own judgment, he will consider and 
 separate those different principles to which 
 different modes of beauty owe their origi- 
 nal. In the former period he sought only 
 to know and combine excellence, where- 
 ever it was to be found, into one idea of 
 perfection : in this he learns (what requires 
 the most attentive survey, and the most 
 subtle disquisition), to discriminate per- 
 fections that are incompatible with each 
 other. 
 
 " He is from this time to regard himself 
 as holding the same rank with those mas- 
 ters whom he before obeyed as teachers, 
 and as exercising a sort of sovereignty 
 over those rules which hitherto restrain- 
 ed him. Comparing now no longer the 
 performances of art with each other, but 
 examining the art itself by the standard 
 of nature, he corrects what is erroneous, 
 supplies what is scanty, and adds by his 
 own observation what the industry of his 
 predecessors may have yet left wanting 
 to perfection. Having well established 
 his judgment and stored his memory, he 
 may now without fear try the power of 
 his imagination. The mind that has been 
 thus disciplined may be indulged in the 
 warmest enthusiasm, and venture to play 
 on the borders of the wildest extrava- 
 gance. The habitual dignity which long 
 converse with the greatest minds has 
 imparted to him will display itself in all 
 his attempts ; and he will stand among 
 his instructors, not as an imitatof but a 
 rival." 
 
 We will not weaken, by any additional 
 remarks of our own, the force of these 
 admirable precepts ; although the subject 
 is one on which we might with pleasure 
 expatiate. It is our purpose to give the 
 comprehensive, critical, and descriptive 
 list of modern painters communicated by 
 the late ingenious Mr. Maloue, from the 
 papers of his friend, the celebrated poet 
 Gray, a catalogue which we are quite cer- 
 tain cannot fail to be highly acceptable, 
 both on account of its interest and utility, 
 to all our readers ; and we will precede 
 this by a brief notice of the great names 
 which have been handed down to us as 
 belonging to famous painters of antiquity. 
 The first picture of which any mention 
 is made by ancient writers is the Battle of 
 the Magnete.s, in Lydia, which was said 
 
TAINTERS. 
 
 to have been executed by Bularchus, in 
 the eighteenth olympiad. This picture 
 was purchased with its weight in gold by 
 Candaules, king of Lydia. There seems 
 to have been a great gap or chasm in the 
 history of painting after the time of Bular- 
 chus ; and the next allusion to the art ap- 
 pears to be made by Anacreon, who, to 
 express the abilities of any successful 
 painter, said, '' he is sovereign in the art 
 which they cultivate at Rhodes ;" hence 
 we learn that the art must have flourished 
 at Rhodes in that era, namely, 500 years 
 before Christ. Phidias, the celebrated 
 sculptor, is also cited by Pliny as eminent 
 in the sister art of painting, and he flou- 
 rished 445 years before our era. The 
 brother of this illustrious ancient, Panas- 
 nus (or, according to others Pannaeus), ac- 
 quired great reputation as a painter. He 
 represented, in the temple of Jupiter 
 Olympius, the subject of Atlas supporting 
 the heaven and earth, and Hercules ofl'er- 
 ingto relieve him of his burden ; and ano- 
 ther of Greece, and Salamin (an island in 
 the neighbourhood of Athens), personified ; 
 together with many other pictures, the 
 most famous of which was the Battle of 
 Marathon, wherein, according to Pliny, 
 the portraits of several generals, such as 
 Miltiades, Callimachus, &:c. might be re- 
 cognised. We may observe that, even at 
 this early period, prizes were contended 
 for amongst the painters, Panicuus having 
 disputed, both at Corinth and at Delphos, 
 with Timagoras of Chalcis. 
 
 Polygnotus of Thasos was a contempo- 
 rary of Panaenus, and is reported to have 
 made great progress in his art. " He was 
 the first," says Pliny, " who painted females 
 with splendid vestments, who gave them 
 for head-dresses mitres of dift'erent colours, 
 and who, in a word, disentangled himself 
 from the hard style of his predecessors." 
 Mycon was his contemporary and partner 
 in the works which adorned the Pu^cile at 
 Athens. After Mycon we proceed to men- 
 tion Dionysius of Coloplion, in whose 
 works, according to Tlilianus, were to be 
 found many of tlie excelkMUH'S of Polyg- 
 notus, sucli as choice of attitudes, flow of 
 draperies, &c. but less grandeur of imagi- 
 nation. In the ninetieth olynipia<l we find 
 mention made of Aglaoplion, Ct.phisst)do- 
 rus, Phryllus, Evenor, 6lC. but it was not 
 until the ninety-fourth olympiad tliat tlie 
 art of painting among thc^ aiici«'nls apjii-ars 
 to have reached its blaze of pirfcition. 
 Then ensued a list of celebrated artists, 
 at the head of wlioni stands Ai'oi.l.oDonus 
 «)f Atlicns, who, according to IMul.uch, 
 ac'iuirtd the knowledge of chiaroscuro. 
 
 Zeuxis of Heraclea, who lived four centu- 
 ries before Christ, followed up what Apol- 
 lodorus began. The chief talent of this 
 artist is said to have existed in the ex- 
 pression of the ideal, and above all in the 
 representation of females. Parrh.^ius of 
 Ephesus was the friend and rival of Zeusis, 
 and the disciple of Evenor, before men- 
 tioned. Seneca says of this artist, that 
 wishing to represent a Promithetis with 
 the greatest truth, he put a slave to the 
 torture for the purpose of studying the 
 bodily convulsions thereby produced. Ju- 
 nius, in his work on Ancient Painting, 
 repeats the same anecdote in the words of 
 Seneca : but this detestable atrocity hav- 
 ing been elscAvhere attributed to Polyg- 
 notus, and being again found in the me- 
 moirs of Apelles, humanity is i)rompted to 
 hope lliat it may be altogether a fabrication. 
 Rather than that such an anecdote should 
 be true, we would, however great our en- 
 thusiasm, consent to forfeit the pleasures 
 arising from the art altogether. Next in 
 our list comes Tlmanthes of Sicyone, emi- 
 nent for his inventive faculty, and after 
 him EupoMPUS, also of Sicyone, and who 
 obtained high reputation. Theon of Sa- 
 mos was distinguished by the singularity 
 and wildness of his conceptions. Aris- 
 TiDES of Thebes, and Echion (an artist 
 mentioned by Cicero), were the immediate 
 precursors of the greatest master whose 
 works are said to have thrown lustre on 
 the art of painting, as practised by the 
 ancients — Apelles, in praise of whom the 
 authors who lived whilst his performances 
 were still extant, have exhausted all their 
 terms of panegyric. This painter was tlie 
 contemporary and favourite of Alexander 
 the Great, and appears to have been able 
 to take more freedoms witli that haughty 
 conqueror than perliaps any one else. 
 There is a curious incident related in il- 
 lustration of this. The monarch having 
 one day expressed himself, whilst in the 
 painting chamber of Apelles, rather igno- 
 rantly witii regard to the principles of art, 
 the jjuinter counselled him, tiiat he would 
 do wiser to be silent, and not f;ive the 
 young lads who grounil his colours occa- 
 sion to laugh at the great Alexander ! It 
 is adihtl, nuuii to the credit of the king, 
 that he l)ore tliis implied rel)uke patiently. 
 Apelles is reported to have evinced, in 
 his pictures, the utmost simplicity, with 
 the most consummate grace ; and when 
 we reflect on the splendid achieNenients 
 of architecture and sculpture in his era, 
 we siiall know how to appreciate the 
 sense whirli the ancients had of lliese <iua- 
 lities. The paintiuijs of this artist referred 
 
PAINTERS. 
 
 many of them (perhaps most), to the ex- 
 ploits of his master, Alexander. Proto- 
 GENEs of Rhodes was the contemporary of 
 Apelles, and Perseus, the pupil of that 
 great master. Euphranor came shortly 
 after, and succeeded in almost all the arts 
 of design. Antidotus was his disciple, 
 and he again had for his the celebrated 
 
 NiCIAS. 
 
 The Roman painters make but a poor 
 show after this brilliant enumeration of 
 Grecian artists. The most ancient paint- 
 ings known in Rome were indeed executed 
 by Etruscan artists, and in later times 
 they seem rather to have been ambitious 
 of removing the chefs-d'oeuvre of art from 
 conquered Grecian provinces than of cul- 
 tivating it among tliemselves. Their na- 
 tional pride might have conduced to this, 
 which taught them to consider the peace- 
 ful arts as almost essentially plebeian. 
 As a proof of the rarity of the practice of 
 painting among them during the consulate, 
 may be adduced the fact that Fabius, who 
 painted (indifferently, it may be concluded, 
 since Pliny does not enlarge on it), the tem- 
 ple of Salus, on the Quirinal Mount, was 
 thenceforward denominated Pictor (the 
 painter), this cognomen descending to his 
 offspring ; and that this was not an epithet 
 given by way of laudatory distinction is evi- 
 dent from a passage of Cicero, in the first 
 book of his Tusculan Dissertations. A few 
 
 other names follow this artist's ; but none of 
 much notoriety. Turpilius had some fame 
 in his day, and Pliny says of him that he 
 painted with his left hand. Arellius flou- 
 rished at Rome a short time before the 
 reign of Augustus. This artist is gravely 
 reproached by Pliny for painting god- 
 desses after the objects of his own private 
 amours. Under the Augustan reign we 
 find Marcus Ludius, a landscape and ma- 
 rine painter, &c. The mania of Nero to 
 be considered a painter infected, as might 
 be supposed, several members of his court, 
 but the muse seems to have been inexor- 
 able to their addresses. Under Vespasian, 
 Cornelius Pinus and Accius Priscus paint- 
 ed the temples of Virtue and of Honour. 
 According to Pliny, the latter approached 
 nearest to the manner of the Grecian 
 artists. 
 
 In our next article (to which the reader 
 is referred), we shall give a summary of 
 the different eras, manners, &c. of the art 
 of Painting, and now proceed to the sort 
 of Catalogue Raisonnee of modern painters 
 (to the beginning of the last century), be- 
 fore alluded to, in which the reader will 
 find the name of each artist, the master 
 he studied under, the species of art he ob- 
 tained fame in, the year of his death, his 
 age, and a brief mention of his chief claim 
 or claims to notice. 
 
 Names. 
 
 studied under. 
 
 Painted. 
 
 Died 
 
 < 
 
 00 
 81 
 00 
 
 78 
 83 
 85 
 00 
 00 
 32 
 83 
 
 37 
 
 24 
 
 68 
 
 49 
 
 09 
 
 71 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 90 
 08 
 44 
 
 50 
 00 
 09 
 
 78 
 59 
 (iS 
 
 Excelled in. 
 
 Giovanni Cimabue 
 
 Andrea Taffi 
 
 certain Greeks 
 
 ApoUonius, a Greek . 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 Poitraits ...... 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 Birds, some 
 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 Hist.Miniatures 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 H istory 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History .... ,. 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 1300 
 l-i94 
 1330 
 
 1.340 
 1350 
 13G4 
 134.') 
 
 1380 
 
 i;>5ij 
 
 1432 
 
 1418 
 
 1443 
 1455 
 
 1475 
 
 1488 
 
 1480 
 
 1412 
 1170 
 1501 
 1512 
 1184 
 1493 
 
 1488 
 1517 
 1505 
 
 1524 
 1513 
 1518 
 
 first revived Painting, 
 revived Musaic. 
 
 qnitted the stiff maimer of the 
 Greeks. 
 
 Giolti 
 
 Buonamico Buflfalmacco 
 Ambrogio Lorenzetti. .. 
 
 Andrea Taffi 
 
 Giotto 
 
 Pietro Cavallini 
 
 Giotto 
 
 
 Simon Memmi 
 
 Giotto 
 
 
 Andrea Orgagna 
 
 Tomaso Giottino 
 
 Paolo Uccello 
 
 IMassolino. ............ 
 
 imitated Giotto 
 
 imitated Giotto 
 
 Antonio Venetiano . . 
 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti and 
 Gher. Stamina 
 
 first who stndied perspective. 
 
 gave more grace to his figrircs and 
 drapery. 
 
 Masaccio 
 
 Fra. Giov. Angelico da 
 
 Fiesole 
 Antonella da Messina .. 
 Fra. Filippo Lippi 
 
 Andrea del Castagno, 
 
 detto Degl' Impiccati 
 
 Gentile del Fabriano. .. 
 
 Giacomo Bellini 
 
 Gentile Bellini ) 
 Giovanni Bellini ]■•••• 
 Cosmo Rosselli 
 
 Giottino ............ 
 
 
 John Van Eyck 
 
 introduced oil Painting into Italy, 
 began to paint figures larger than 
 
 life, 
 painted ia oil first at Florence. 
 
 Domenico Venetiano . 
 
 Giovanni da Fiesole. • 
 Gentile del Fabriano . 
 ( Giacomo their fa- 
 \ ther 
 
 Domenico Ghirlandaio . 
 
 Andrea Verocchio 
 
 Andrea Mantegna 
 
 Alessand. Baldovinctti 
 Giacomo Squarcione . 
 
 lively colouring, genteel designing, 
 
 and good airs, 
 observation of perspective. 
 
 Filippo Lippi 
 
 Fra. Philippe his fa- 
 ther, and Sandro 
 Boticelli 
 
 Andrea Verocchio. .. 
 
 Pietro Perugino 
 
 Marco Zoppo 
 
 
 Pietro Periigino 
 
 Bernardino Pintnricchio 
 Francesco Fraucia 
 
 first considerable Master of the Bo- 
 lognese School. 
 
PAINTERS. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Studied under. 
 
 Painted. 
 
 Died 
 1541 
 
 
 Excelled m. 
 
 Bartoloineo Raiiicnuhi, 
 
 Francesco Francia . . . 
 
 History 
 
 48 
 
 soft and fleshy colouring. 
 
 detto H Bannacitvallo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lunocenzo Francuzzi, 
 
 Francesco Francia . . . 
 
 History ••.... 
 
 
 
 correct drawing. 
 
 dutto da Iniola 
 
 
 
 
 Francesco Turbido, 
 
 Giorgione. ■ • 
 
 Portraits 
 
 1521 
 
 81 
 
 
 detto U Mauro 
 
 
 
 
 Luca Siguorelli 
 
 Piet. dcUa Franccsca 
 
 History 
 
 1.521 
 
 82 
 
 
 Lioiiardo da Vinci 
 
 
 Hist, and Port. 
 
 1317 
 
 75 
 
 exquisite designing. 
 
 management of the clair-ob»cure. 
 
 Giorgio Giorgione 
 
 imitated Lionardo's 
 
 History & Por- 
 
 1511 
 
 33 
 
 
 manner 
 
 traits 
 
 
 
 and colouring. 
 
 Antonio da Correggio . . 
 
 
 History & Por- 
 traits 
 
 1534 
 
 4;) 
 
 divine colouring and morhidezza of 
 his flesh ; anuelical grace and joy- 
 ous airs of his figures, and clair- 
 obscurc. 
 
 Mariotto Albertinelli . . 
 
 Cosmo Roselli 
 
 History 
 
 1520 
 
 45 
 
 
 Baccio, detto Fra. Bar- 
 
 Cosmo Rosclli 
 
 History 
 
 1517 
 
 48 
 
 
 tolomeo di S. Marco 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pietro di Cosinio 
 
 Cosmo Rosclli 
 
 Grotes.&monst 
 
 15>1 
 
 80 
 
 
 Raphaellino del Garbo 
 
 Filippo Lippi 
 
 History 
 
 1.529 
 
 .58 
 
 
 Michel Angiolo Buona- 
 
 DomenicoGliirlandaio 
 
 History 
 
 I5ti4 
 
 90 
 
 great correctness of design, grand 
 
 roti 
 
 
 
 
 
 and terrible subjei.ts, profound 
 knowledge of the anatomical part. 
 
 RafTaelle Sanzio d'Ur- 
 
 Pietro Perugino : cor- 
 
 History & Por- 
 
 1520 
 
 37 
 
 in every part of painting, but chiefly 
 
 biuu 
 
 rected his manner 
 upon seeing the 
 works of Lionardo 
 da Vinci & Michael 
 Aiigclo 
 
 traits 
 
 
 
 in the thought, compo^itiou, ex- 
 pression, and drawing. 
 
 Titiano Vecelli 
 
 Giovanni Bellini .... 
 
 History & Por- 
 traits 
 
 157(i 
 
 99 
 
 the clair-obscnre and all the beauties 
 of colouring. 
 
 Domeuico Puligo 
 
 DomenicoGhirlandaio 
 
 History 
 
 1525 
 
 52 
 
 
 Timoteo Urbino 
 
 Kati'aelle 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 1524 
 1527 
 
 54 
 
 52 
 
 the same as his Master. 
 
 Vicenzo da San Gemi- 
 
 Katiaelle 
 
 
 niaiio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lorenzo di Crcdi 
 
 Andrea Veroccliio, 
 imitated Liouardo 
 da Vinci 
 
 History 
 
 1530 
 
 
 
 Balthazar Penizzi 
 
 
 Hist, buildings 
 History 
 
 153e 
 152S 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 
 GiovanniFranccscoPen- 
 
 iiatiaellc. ".'.'.!! !!!!!. 
 
 good imitation of his Master and 
 ureal dispatch. 
 
 ni, detto il Fattore 
 
 
 Giulio Romano 
 
 Ratfaelle 
 
 History 
 
 1546 
 
 54 
 
 Vivid and poetical fancy, and pow- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 erful thought. 
 
 Peligrino di Modena . . 
 Pieriiio Buonacorvi, 
 
 Ralfaelle 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 1538 
 1547 
 
 47 
 
 
 RaHaelle 
 
 
 detto Periu dtl Vago 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Giovanni da I'dina 
 
 Raffaelle 
 
 Grotesques .... 
 
 150 4 
 
 70 
 
 animals, flowers, and frnils. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto 
 
 Pietro di Cosimo 
 
 History, Por- 
 traits 
 
 1530 
 
 42 
 
 natural and uraceful airs, and cor- 
 rect drawing ; a bright manner of 
 colouring. 
 
 l^rancia Bii^io 
 
 Mariotto Albertinelli 
 
 History 
 
 ^ 
 
 41 
 
 painted in company with and like 
 Andrea. 
 
 A 9 tAlA^Al^ ^J m^»\^ ••«*••••« 
 
 
 
 Sehastiano, detto Fradel 
 
 Giov. Bellini; H Gi- 
 
 History, Por- 
 
 1547 
 
 62 
 
 painted in the stroiu; and correct 
 
 Pionibo 
 
 orgione, M. Angelo 
 
 traits 
 
 
 
 m.inner of this last, and coloured 
 better. 
 
 Orazio Sammachini . . . 
 
 11 Bagnacavallo, Lino- 
 cenzo d'lmola 
 
 History 
 
 1577 
 
 45 
 
 
 Lorenzetto Sabattini . . . 
 
 the same 
 
 History. 
 
 
 
 
 Pros|)ero Fontana .... 
 Lavinia Fontana 
 
 Ihc same 
 
 History, Portr. 
 History, Portr. 
 
 11)02 
 
 50 
 
 
 I'rospero her father.. 
 
 
 Pelestrino 'libaldi 
 
 11 Baiiaacavallo, luno- 
 cenzo d'lmola 
 
 History 
 
 15yi 
 
 70 
 
 a strong Michael Angelo manner. 
 
 Priniaticcio, detto 11 
 
 the same ; Giulio Ro- 
 
 History 
 
 1,570 
 
 80 
 
 genteelness and strenuous imagiun- 
 
 Hologna 
 
 mano 
 
 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 Nicolo 15oloi;ne9(', detto 
 
 I'rimaticcio 
 
 History ...... 
 
 1372 
 
 60 
 
 
 Mcssur Micolo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 Dosso 
 
 Lorenzo Costa, Titian 
 
 History, Lands. 
 
 
 
 
 Bernazzano da Milano . 
 
 
 .\nimals, land- 
 
 1550 
 
 
 
 
 
 sc(ipe,i\: Iruils 
 
 
 
 
 Giov. Martino da Udina 
 
 (■iov. Bellini 
 
 H islory 
 
 15IM 
 
 70 
 
 
 Pcligriiii) da san Danielu 
 
 Ilie same 
 
 Ilisl(uy. 
 
 
 
 
 Giov. Ant. Ki;;ill<),<li'lli> 
 
 (iiorgione 
 
 Ilisli.ry, Por- 
 
 1540 
 
 .56 
 
 line colouring. 
 
 liirinio (la I'didriioiir 
 
 
 traits 
 
 
 
 
 Giiol.iiiKi (II- Trcvii;! . .. 
 
 
 lli.'t., buildings 
 
 1.5 14 
 
 3(i 
 
 
 Polidoro da Caravaggio 
 
 liaiiaei'ie!!!!!!!."!!!! 
 
 History 
 
 1543 
 
 51 
 
 the correctness of (lesii;ii and imila- 
 li(Ui of Ihc antique cliiell.> in chia- 
 roscuro. 
 
 Il Maturino 
 
 Raffaelle 
 
 Hi.story 
 
 1527 
 
 37 
 
 the same; Ihey always painled to- 
 
 yetlier. 
 :;rial delicacy and genteelness of 
 
 Francesco Ma/./.iiolo, 
 
 iniilated Rallaelle 
 
 History .. 
 
 1540 
 
 31) 
 
 (litlip 11 I'arnii'ui.iiio 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Irawinn. 
 
 iiirohuno Mc/.'/.iioli .... 
 
 l''rancesco, his cousin 
 
 History 
 
 ... . 
 
 , , 
 
 .ilwajs imitated his Master. 
 
 (Jiaciiino I'ahna, detto 
 
 Titian and othem .... 
 
 History, Portr. 
 
 I3!l(i 
 
 IS 
 
 aarni and mellow linl.s. 
 
 II Vecchio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lorenzo Lotto 
 
 imitated llcllini iind 
 Giorgione 
 
 HiMory, Portr. 
 
 1541 
 
 36 
 
 
 Fi anccKCo MoMjignoi i . . 
 
 H.'llini 
 
 I'orliails 
 
 151!) 
 
 61 
 
 
PAINTERS. 
 
 Nanie^ 
 
 Doiiionico Bcccafumio 
 
 Meccaiiiii) 
 Giacumo Pontormo 
 
 Girolamo Genga 
 
 Giov. Antonio da Vei 
 zelli, (letto U Sodoma 
 Bastiano Aiistotile . . . . 
 Bcnveunto Garofalo . .. 
 Girolami da Carpi 
 
 Studied under. 
 
 imitated Pietro Peru- 
 
 gino 
 Lionardo da \ inci, Al- 
 
 bt-rtinelli, Andrea 
 
 dtl Sarto 
 Pietro Perugino 
 
 Giov. Francesco Bezzi 
 detto II Nosadolla 
 
 Ercole Procacciiii 
 
 Bartolomeo ') 
 
 He >Pa3serotti 
 
 tre ligli 3 
 Francesco Salviati .... 
 
 Giorgio Vasari 
 
 Daniel Ricciarelli, detto 
 
 da Volterra 
 Taddeo Ziicchero. . 
 Frederico Znccliero 
 Bartolomeo Cesi .. 
 Dionigi Calvart .. . 
 John of Bruges.. .. 
 
 Albert Durer 
 
 (Jiiiutin Matsys, called 
 
 the Smith of Antwerp 
 
 Lucas Jacob, called 
 
 Lucad'Ollaiida 
 Peter Brueghel, called 
 
 Old Brueghel 
 John Holben, called 
 
 Hans Holben 
 Roger Vandensyde .... 
 
 John Schorel 
 
 Matthias Cock 
 
 Martin Heemskirke 
 
 Francois Fioris, called 
 
 Frauc-Flore 
 Francesco Vecelli . ... 
 
 Orazio Vecelli 
 
 Nadalino di Murano ... 
 
 Damiano Mazza 
 
 Girolamo di Titiano . . . 
 
 Paris Bordone 
 
 Andrea Schiavone 
 
 Alessandro Bonvincino, 
 
 detto II Moretto 
 Girolamo Romanino. 
 
 II Muttano 
 
 Pino Ligorio 
 
 Baldini,LorenzoCost.i 
 Garofalo, he imitated 
 
 Coreggio 
 Pelegrino Tibaldi.. 
 
 Painted. 
 
 the same, 
 the same. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto . . 
 
 the same 
 
 II Sodoma ; Baldasar 
 
 Peruzzi 
 studied Raffaelle . . 
 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History. 
 
 History. 
 
 History 
 
 History, Portr, 
 History 
 
 II Nosadella 
 
 Prospero Fontana. . . . 
 
 Hubert Van Eyck 
 
 Hupse Martin 
 
 Cornelius Eiigelbert.. 
 Peter Koek 
 
 John Van Eyck. 
 Jacob Cornil . . . 
 
 Died 
 
 History, Portr. 
 History, Portr, 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History, Portr, 
 History, Portr, 
 History, Portr, 
 
 History, Portr. 
 
 1540 
 
 1558 
 
 1551 
 1554 
 
 1551 
 1559 
 1556 
 
 1571 
 
 1563 
 1584 
 1506 
 
 1566 
 160y 
 
 John Schorel 
 
 Lambart de Liege . , 
 
 Titian, his brother ... 
 Titian, his father .... 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titian, imitated Raf- 
 faelle 
 
 Titian 
 
 Titian, Tad. Zucchero 
 Giulio Romano.. . 
 
 History, Portr 
 
 History. 
 
 History , 
 
 Landscape 
 
 Droll figures . 
 History 
 
 65 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 1019 
 1470 
 1528 
 1529 
 
 1533 
 
 1570 
 
 1444 
 
 Dom. Giulio Clovio. .. 
 
 II Bronziuo, Angelo- 
 
 Allori 
 AUessandro Allori .... 
 
 (Jiaconio Sementi 
 
 Marcello Vennsto 
 
 Marco da Faenza 
 
 Girolamoda Sermouetta 
 
 Battista Naldino 
 
 Nicolo del Pomerancio 
 
 Jean Cousin 
 
 Michael Coxis 
 
 John Bol , 
 
 Peter Porbus , 
 
 Antony More , 
 
 George Hoefnaghel 
 
 Camillo Procaccini . . 
 
 Giulio Cesare Procac- 
 cini 
 
 Jude Indocns Van-Win 
 ghen 
 
 John Strada 
 
 Giulio Romano 
 
 Giacomo Pontormo . 
 
 Bronziuo, his uncle , 
 
 Diouigi Calvart 
 
 Perin del Vaga 
 
 Portraits 
 
 History, Portr. 
 
 Portraits 
 
 Historj , Portr. 
 History, Portr. 
 History, Portr. 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 1562 
 1465 
 1754 
 1570 
 
 1579 
 
 1588 
 
 Hsccelied in. 
 
 like Raffaelle. 
 
 60 
 
 46 
 
 strong sense of character. 
 
 painted v ith Lis brother. 
 
 said to have invented Oil Painting. 
 Nature, high finishing. 
 
 great Nature, extreme finishing. 
 
 History .... 
 
 Landsc. Portr. 
 
 Antique monu 
 ments and 
 buildings 
 
 Miniature, His- 
 tory 
 
 History, Portr. 
 
 Perin del Vaga. 
 II Bronzino ... . 
 
 Van Orlay, Raffaelle 
 
 John Schorel. 
 
 Ercole, his father ; 
 
 Prospero Fontana 
 Ercole, his father ; 
 
 Prospero Fontana 
 studied in Italy 
 
 BartholomewSprangher 
 Michael John Miervelt 
 Paolo Cagliari, detto 
 Paul Veronese 
 
 studied in Italy. 
 
 Ant. Blockland . . 
 Antonio Badiglio , 
 
 History .... 
 
 History 
 
 History .... 
 History. 
 History .... 
 Hi.-tory. 
 
 History . 
 
 History .... 
 
 History 
 
 Miuiat. Landsc. 
 
 1582 
 1564 
 
 1507 
 1590 
 1573 
 
 1578 
 
 1580 
 
 1607 
 1625 
 1570 
 
 1550 
 
 Portraits, Hist. 
 Views of Cities, 
 
 Landscape 
 History .... 
 
 History 
 History 
 
 colouring. 
 
 Battles, Hunt- 
 ing 
 
 History 
 
 Portraits 
 
 History, 
 traits 
 
 Por- 
 
 1026 
 1589 
 1592 
 1593 
 1583 
 1575 
 1600 
 
 1626 
 
 1620 
 
 1003 
 
 1604 
 
 1623 
 1641 
 
 1588 
 
 chaste and genteel colouring, some- 
 what of M. Aug. in the drawing. 
 
 commonly upon glass. 
 
 a dark, strong, expressive manner. 
 a dark, strong, expressive manner. 
 
 rich and noble composition ; 
 warm colouring. 
 
 fine 
 
PAINTERS. 
 
 Namea. 
 
 Studied under. 
 
 Painted. 
 
 Died 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 20 
 
 Excelled In. 
 
 Carlo Cagliari 
 
 Paolo, his father .... 
 
 History, Portr. 
 
 imitated his father's manner. 
 
 Beuedctto Caqliari 
 
 the same 
 
 the same 
 
 the same 
 
 History, chiefly 
 
 \5'JS 
 
 io:il 
 
 1532 
 
 00 
 03 
 00 
 
 the same. 
 
 Gabriclle Cas;liari 
 
 the same .......... 
 
 the same. 
 
 iJattista Zelotli 
 
 Ant. Badiglio, worked 
 
 
 
 with Paul Veronese 
 
 in Fresco. 
 
 
 
 
 Giacomo da Ponte, dctto 
 
 Francesco, his father. 
 
 Rustic figin'cs, 
 
 1592 
 
 82 
 
 much Nature, and fine colouring. 
 
 11 Bassaoo 
 
 Bonifacio Venetia- 
 no, imitated Titian 
 
 Animals.Por- 
 traits,Historv 
 
 
 
 
 Francesco Bassano .... 
 
 Giacomo, his father. . 
 
 the same 
 
 1594 
 
 84 
 
 imitated his father's manner, and 
 copied his pictures. 
 
 Leandro Bassano 
 
 
 the same 
 
 the same 
 
 1C23 
 I»il3 
 
 65 
 00 
 
 the same. 
 
 Giambattista Bassano.. 
 
 the same 
 
 the same. 
 
 Girolamo Bassano 
 
 
 the same 
 
 History, Por- 
 
 1C22 
 1 5!1 1 
 
 02 
 
 82 
 
 the same. 
 
 Giacomo Robusti, detto 
 
 Titian, in his drawing 
 
 the boldness and softness of his pen- 
 
 11 Tintoretto 
 
 iniitatedMichael An- 
 gel o 
 
 traits 
 
 
 
 cil ; variety and correctness of de- 
 sign ; seldom finished. 
 
 Marietto Tintoretto 
 
 Tintoret, her father .. 
 
 Portraits 
 
 1.500 
 
 30 
 
 
 Paul Franceschi 
 
 Tintoret 
 
 Landscape .... 
 
 1.590 
 
 50 
 
 
 Martin de Vos 
 
 Tintoret 
 
 Landscape .... 
 
 I(in4 
 
 84 
 
 
 Jobn Kothenamer 
 
 Tintoret 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 KiOO 
 l(iO(i 
 
 42 
 
 84 
 
 designed after Tintorct's manner. 
 
 Paolo Farinato 
 
 Antonio Badiglio .... 
 
 
 Marco V ecelli 
 
 
 
 Kill 
 I5S0 
 
 06 
 
 
 Livio Agresti 
 
 Perin del Vaga 
 
 History 
 
 
 Marco da Sienna 
 
 Dan. Volterra 
 
 Hi.story 
 
 1507 
 
 01 
 
 
 Giacomo Rocca 
 
 Dan. Volterra 
 
 Historj'. 
 
 
 
 
 Frederico Barocci 
 
 studied Raftaelle 
 
 History, Portr. 
 
 1012 
 
 84 
 
 fine genteel drawing. 
 
 11 Cavaliero Francesco 
 
 Fred. Baroccio 
 
 History 
 
 1015 
 
 51 
 
 correct design and agreeable colour- 
 
 Vanni 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing. 
 
 Michael An^'clo Ame- 
 
 Cav. Apino 
 
 History, humo- 
 
 1609 
 
 40 
 
 a strong and close imitation of Na- 
 
 rigi, detto 11 Caravaggi 
 
 
 rous figures 
 
 
 
 ture, but withont choice ; exqui- 
 site colouring. 
 
 Lodovico Caracci 
 
 Prospero Fontana .... 
 
 History 
 
 1019 
 
 04 
 
 exquisite design ; noble and proper 
 composition; strong and harmoni- 
 ous colouring. 
 
 Agostino Caracci 
 
 Ludovico, his cousin . 
 
 History, Por- 
 trait, Landsc. 
 
 1002 
 
 44 
 
 similarly accomplished. 
 
 Annibale Caracci 
 
 Ludovico, his cousin . 
 
 History, Por- 
 traits, Landsc. 
 
 1009 
 
 49 
 
 similarly accomplished. 
 
 Domenico Zampieri, 
 
 the Caracci 
 
 History, Por- 
 traits 
 
 1041 
 
 00 
 
 correct design, strong and moving 
 
 detto 11 Domcnichino 
 
 
 expression. 
 
 Guidu Reni 
 
 Dionigi Calvart, the 
 
 History, Por- 
 
 1(H2 
 
 68 
 
 divine and graceful air.» and atti- 
 
 
 Caracci 
 
 traits 
 
 
 
 tudes, gay and lightsome colour- 
 
 Cav. Giov. Lanfranco.. 
 
 the Caracci 
 
 History 
 
 1047 
 
 60 
 
 ing, 
 great force and fulgore, chiefly in 
 
 fresco. 
 
 
 
 Francesco Albani 
 
 Dionigi Calvart, the 
 Caracci 
 
 History 
 
 1060 
 
 82 
 
 genteel poetical fancy, beautiful airy 
 colouring, his Nymphs and Boys 
 are most admired. 
 
 Lucio Massari 
 
 the Caracci 
 
 History 
 
 10.-J3 
 
 04 
 
 
 Sisto Badalocchio 
 
 Annibal Caracci 
 
 History. 
 
 
 
 
 Antonio Caracci 
 
 Annibal, his uncle. .. 
 
 History 
 
 1018 
 
 35 
 
 
 Giuseppe Pini, detto 
 
 RaH'aelle da Rheggio. 
 
 History 
 
 10-10 
 
 80 
 
 the furia and force of his composi- 
 
 Cavalier Arpino 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 
 Portraits. 
 Ilislorv •• 
 
 1013 
 
 ')) 
 
 
 11 Cigoli 
 
 
 
 
 
 H istory 
 
 History 
 
 HLstory 
 
 1021 
 1015 
 1038 
 
 35 
 (i3 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cavaliere Passignaiio .. 
 
 Frederic Zncchero . . . 
 
 
 Orazio Geutileschi 
 
 Aurelio Lonii 
 
 History 
 
 1047 
 
 84 
 
 
 Filippo d'Angeli, detto 
 11 Napolitaiio 
 
 
 Landscape .... 
 
 1040 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Paul Brill 
 
 alter Titian and Anni- 
 bale 
 
 Landscape .... 
 
 I(i20 
 
 72 
 
 
 Matthew Brill 
 
 
 Landscape .... 
 
 1.584 
 
 34 
 
 worked with Paul, his luinher. 
 
 Pictro Paolo Gobbo . . . 
 
 
 Kriiit, Lan<lsra. 
 Landscape .... 
 Landscape .... 
 
 KUO 
 KiVV 
 
 (>0 
 50 
 
 
 II Viola 
 
 Annibal Caracci 
 
 
 RolaiKl Saveri 
 
 imitated I'aul Brill .. 
 
 I(i3!l 
 
 03 
 
 much finishing, but dry. 
 
 Uartdlomeo Maiil'redi.. 
 
 M. Aug. (!aravaggio . 
 
 History. 
 
 
 
 
 Carlo Saracino 
 
 Imilalcd ('aravaggio.. 
 
 History 
 
 1025 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 VaU'iiliiio 
 
 M. Aug. Caravaggio . 
 
 History 
 
 Iti32 
 
 32 
 
 
 Giu-rppe Ribcra, detto 
 
 M, Ang. Caravaggio . 
 
 History 
 
 1050 
 
 ti7 
 
 a ilark strong manner ; dismal and 
 
 L(i Spannudlello 
 
 
 
 
 
 cruel subjects. 
 
 
 
 Landscape. 
 Seiiporls, Ships 
 
 
 
 
 Hen. Cornelius Wroon, 
 
 Corn. Henrickson ... 
 
 
 
 
 or Vroon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AjiioBtinu TaBsi 
 
 Paul Brill 
 
 Ships, 
 i\ inpisis, 
 liHndscapes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fruil, Per 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 spi'ctives. 
 
 
 
 
 Fra. Matico Zaccolino . 
 
 
 Prr>pcftivi' . • . 
 
 1030 
 
 10 
 
 
 Antonio 'IVnipesIa 
 
 John Slradu 
 
 Aniiii.iis, ilal 
 ■ lis, Huntings 
 
 Ili30 
 
 75 
 
 
 Octavins Van Veen, 
 
 
 History 
 
 1031 
 
 7H 
 
 
 called Otho Vicuiiifl 
 
 
 
 ^. 
 
PAINTERS. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Jean Le Clerc... 
 
 Simon Vouet 
 
 Peter Noefs 
 
 Henry Steinwick. 
 
 Theodore Rombouts. 
 Gerard Segrcs , 
 
 Carlo Saracino . . . . 
 Laurent, his father. 
 Henry Steinwick . . 
 John De Vries . . . . 
 
 Abraham Jansens. 
 Abraham Jauscns. 
 
 Sir Peter Panl Rubens 
 
 Sir Antony Vandyck ., 
 Rembrandt 
 
 Cornelius Polembourg . 
 
 Jolm Brues;hel, called 
 Velvet BiTieghcl 
 
 Moses, called the Little 
 
 Studiert under. 
 
 Otho Vajnius . 
 
 Rubens . 
 
 Abraham Bloemart. 
 
 Old Brueghel, his fa 
 ther 
 
 Corn. Polembourg . . 
 
 F. Dan Legres 
 
 Gasper Craes , 
 
 Bartholomew Briem- 
 
 bcrg 
 John Asselyn, called 
 
 Little Jolin 
 Francis Snyders 
 
 Ert Veest . 
 
 Lewis Cousin 
 
 Philip Vauvremaus . . 
 
 Gerard Dow 
 
 Pictro Francesco Mola . 
 
 Giov. Battista Mola 
 
 Giacomo Cavedone .... 
 Agostino Metelli 
 
 Angclo Michael Colona 
 Giov. Benedetto Castig- 
 
 lione, detto 11 Genoese 
 
 Pietro Testa 
 
 Matthew Flatten, called 
 
 II Montagna 
 Francesco Barbieri, 
 
 detto n Guercino da 
 
 Cento 
 
 Pietro BeiTettini, detto 
 
 Pietro da Cortona 
 Antonino Barbalonga 
 Andrea Camaceo.... 
 Andrea Sacchi 
 
 Young Brueghel . 
 
 Coxis 
 
 tudied at Rome . 
 
 Painted. 
 
 History .. 
 
 History, Portr, 
 
 Perspective . . . 
 
 Buildings, 
 Places illu 
 minated bj 
 lire and can 
 dies 
 
 Low life , 
 
 History, Por 
 traits, Land- 
 scape 
 
 Porti-aits, 
 
 toiy 
 History, 
 
 traits, 
 
 life 
 
 His 
 
 Por 
 
 Low 
 
 Died 
 
 Miniature, 
 Landscape, 
 with figures 
 
 Little Landsca. 
 with figures, 
 animals, and 
 flowers 
 
 Small Landsca. 
 with figures 
 
 Flowers 
 
 lfi.3.! 
 1041 
 I(i5I 
 l(i03 
 
 1C40 
 1051 
 
 1041 
 
 1641 
 1074 
 
 lOOJ 
 
 1625 
 
 Esaias Vander Velde . 
 painted with Rubens . 
 
 John Wynants , 
 
 Rembrandt , 
 
 Albani, Cav. Arpino 
 
 Albani 
 
 Ludov. Caracci 
 
 Ferrantino 
 
 Paggi, Vandyke. 
 
 Domenichino - 
 Asselyn . 
 
 the Caracci . 
 
 Baccio Ciarpi . 
 
 Domenichino., 
 Domenichino . 
 Albani 
 
 Landscape . . 
 Landscape . . 
 
 Animals, dead 
 
 and alive 
 Seafights, Tem 
 
 pests 
 
 63 
 
 42 
 
 74 
 
 65 
 
 Excelled in. 
 
 i;reat skill and beauty in hia particu- 
 lar walk of art. 
 
 imitated M. A. Caravaggio. 
 
 admirable colouring; great magnifi- 
 cence and haimouy of composi- 
 tion : a gay and lightsome man- 
 ner. 
 
 his Master's excellences with more 
 grace and correctness. 
 
 great knowledge and execution of 
 the clair-obscure ; high finishing, 
 sometimes a very bold pencil and 
 distinct colouring ; vast Nature. 
 
 very finished execution. 
 
 extreme neatness and finishing. 
 
 Little figures 
 
 History 
 
 Hist. Lajidsc. 
 History .... 
 Buildings, Per- 
 spective 
 BuildingSjHist. 
 
 History, Whims 
 Seapieces. 
 
 History .... 
 
 1650 
 
 1006 
 1609 
 1630 
 
 1060 
 
 1657 
 
 1670 
 
 1670 
 166S 
 1474 
 1660 
 
 Simone Cantarini.... 
 Cav. Carlo Cignani.. 
 
 Pietro Facini 
 
 Giov. Andrea Donducci 
 
 detto II Masteletta 
 Alessandro Tiarini ... 
 
 Leonello Spado 
 
 Giov. Andrea Sirani . 
 Elisabetta Sirani .... 
 Giacomo Sementi . .. 
 
 Francesco Gessi 
 
 Lorenzo Garbieri 
 
 G. Francesco Romanelli 
 
 Diego Velasquez 
 
 Alessandro Veronese . . 
 
 Mario de Fiori 
 
 Michelangelo del Cam 
 
 pidoglio 
 
 Guido . 
 Albani . 
 
 Annibal Caracci . 
 the Caiacci . . . . 
 
 Prospero Fontana. . . 
 
 the Caracci 
 
 Guido 
 
 Andrea, her father . . 
 
 Guido 
 
 Guido 
 
 Lud. Caracci 
 
 Pietro Cortona 
 
 Francesco Pacheco , 
 Felice Riccio 
 
 Fioravante . 
 
 History 
 
 History. 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History, Portr 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 History 
 
 Portraits 
 
 History 
 
 Flowers 
 
 Flowers 
 
 fruits 
 
 aud 
 
 1660 
 1660 
 
 1687 
 
 1650 
 
 1067 
 
 1669 
 
 1057 
 1061 
 
 1648 
 1710 
 
 1602 
 16.15 
 
 1C6S 
 1622 
 1670 
 1664 
 1025 
 
 1654 
 1662 
 1000 
 1670 
 1656 
 1070 
 
 87 
 
 39 
 
 76 
 
 73 
 
 great truth and brilliant execotion. 
 
 strong painting, 
 the same. 
 
 capricious and strange designs. 
 
 a medium between the Caracci and 
 
 Caravaggio ; he has two manners, 
 one a dark and strong one ; the 
 other more gay and gracious, 
 noble compositions; bright and bean- 
 tiful colouring. 
 
 a colouring more languid than Pietro 
 Cortona, but extremely delicate 
 and pleasing. 
 
 noble, bold manner and bright co- 
 louring. 
 
 
 good imitation of his master. 
 
 great fire and force. 
 
 a weak but agreeable mamier. 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Stuilietl under. 
 
 Painteil. 
 
 Died 
 1673 
 
 < 
 59 
 
 Excelled in. 
 
 
 
 LandscapCjHi.'*- 
 tory 
 
 savage and uncouth places : very 
 great and noble style; stories that 
 
 
 niel Falcone 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 have something of horror or cru- 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 elty. 
 
 II Cav. Calabrese 
 
 Guercinu 
 
 History 
 
 lOftS 
 
 S6 
 
 
 Fer. aiiiola Fiovarenti,. 
 
 
 \ ases, instru- 
 ments, Car- 
 
 151-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pets, & still- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 life 
 
 
 
 
 11 Maltese 
 
 
 the same. 
 Landscape .... 
 
 1682 
 
 82 
 
 
 Claude Gelee, called 
 
 Godfrey Wals ; Agos- 
 
 rural and pleasing scenes, with va- 
 
 Claude Lorraine 
 
 tino Tas.<i 
 
 
 
 
 rious accidents of Nature, as gleams 
 of sunshine, the rising moou, &c. 
 
 Nicholas Poussin 
 
 Quintiu Varin 
 
 History, Land- 
 scape 
 
 1665 
 
 71 
 
 exquisite knowledge of the antique ; 
 fine expression ; skilful and well 
 chosen compo.«ition and design. 
 Scenes of the country with an- 
 cient buildings and historical 
 figures intermixed. 
 
 Caspur dn Ghcf, called 
 
 Nicholas, his brothcr- 
 
 Landscape .... 
 
 1665 
 
 , , 
 
 a mixture of Nicholas's and Claude 
 
 Caspar Ponssiii 
 
 in law 
 
 
 
 
 Lorraine's styles. 
 
 Euslaclie Le Sutur 
 
 Simon Vouet 
 
 History 
 
 1655 
 
 38 
 
 simplicity, dignity, and correctness 
 of style; he is called the French 
 Raflaelle. 
 
 Michelangelo dclle Bat- 
 
 Mozzo of Antwerp . . 
 
 Battles. 
 
 
 
 
 taglie 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jatpies Stella 
 
 his father 
 
 History, Minia- 
 tures 
 
 History 
 
 H istory 
 
 1647 
 
 ■il 
 
 painted upon marble frequently. 
 
 
 Andrea Sacchi 
 
 Lo Spasinuoletto 
 
 171.-? 
 1705 
 
 88 
 76 
 
 Luca Giordano 
 
 
 Charles Le Brun 
 
 Simon Vouct ; Nico- 
 
 History 
 
 I6<»0 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 las Poussin 
 
 
 
 
 Cav. Giacinto Brandi .. 
 
 Laiifranoo 
 
 History 
 
 1713 
 
 90 
 
 
 Ciro Ferri 
 
 Pietro Cortona 
 
 History 
 
 1689 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 Painting, [from the verb to pahit.'\ 
 Painting has been defined as another sort 
 of writing, and as subservient to the same 
 ends as those of lier younger sister. The 
 latter, by characters, can communicate 
 some ideas which Painting cannot, who, 
 on her j)art, in other respects supplies the 
 deficiencies of writing. 
 
 And the ideas thus conveyed to us have 
 this advantage. They come not by a slow 
 progression of words, or in a language pe- 
 culiar to one nation only ; but witli such a 
 velocity, and in a manner so universally 
 understood, that it resembles intuition or 
 inspiration — as the art by wiiich it is ef- 
 fected resembles creation ; tilings so con- 
 siderable and of so great price being pro- 
 duced out of materials so inconsiderable, 
 and of a value next to nothing. 
 
 What a tedious thing woidd it be lo 
 describe by words the view of a country 
 (that from tiie Green wicli C)l)S('rvat()ry for 
 instanc(?), and liow iniperf"ct an idea 
 would, after all, be aflbrded ! Painting 
 siiows the thing imiuediately and exactly. 
 — No words can give jou a ((iniijlete idea 
 of the face and person of one ytui Iiave 
 never seen. — Painting does it ellectiially, 
 with the addition of so much of iiis cha- 
 racter as can be known from Ihence ; and, 
 moreover, in an instant recalls to your 
 memory at least the most considerable 
 parlicnliirs of what you hav(^ heard coii- 
 cerniiig him, or occasions that lo be (old 
 whicii you have never lioard. 
 
 Agostino Caracci, discoursing one day 
 on the excellency of the ancient sculptures, 
 was profuse in his praises of the Laocoon, 
 and observing that his brother Annibale 
 never spoke, nor seemed to take any notice 
 of what he said, reproached him as not 
 enough esteeming so masterly a work. He 
 then went on describing every particular 
 of that noble relic of antiquity. Annibale 
 turned himself to the wall, and with a 
 piece of charcoal drew the statue as ex- 
 actly as if it had been before him. The 
 rest of the company were surprisei! ; and 
 Agostino, silenced, confessed that his bro- 
 ther had taken a more ellectual way than 
 himself to demonstrate the beauties of that 
 Avonderful piece of sculpture. *' Li poeti 
 dii)ingono con le parole, li pittori parlano 
 con I'opere," — (the poet paints wiiit words, 
 the painter speaks with \\orks), said An- 
 nibale. 
 
 Tlie j)oets have peopled the air, earlli, 
 and water with angels, cupids, satyis, and 
 nymphs ; they have imagined wiiat is done 
 in iieaven and hell, as well as on this globe : 
 and in like manner tlie painters have 
 stored our fancies with beings and actions 
 that had no existence save in tiieir own 
 teeming imaginations. They have also 
 given us the finest natural and historical 
 inmges — and all for the same end as that 
 proposed by the poet; namely, to blend 
 instnution with delight. 
 
 The liiisiiuss of painting indeed is to 
 perform much of what discourse and books 
 
PAlNTlNli. 
 
 can, and in many instances more speedily 
 and with greater reality : — so that if his- 
 tory, if pliilosophy (natural or moral), if 
 theology, if any of the liberal arts and sci- 
 ences are worthy the notice and study of 
 a gentleman, painting is so likewise. 
 
 To consider a picture aright is to read 
 it: but, taking into account the beauty 
 with which the eye is all the while enter- 
 tained (whether of colour or composition), 
 it is not only to read a book, and that finely 
 printed and well bound, but as if a con- 
 cert of music were heard at the same time. 
 — You have at once an intellectual and a 
 sensual pleasure. 
 
 Such are the encomiums and almost the 
 words of an enthusiastic old writer (Rich- 
 ardson), on his art; and in adopting them, 
 we feel that we do not go beyond our own 
 sense of the importance of this charming 
 pursuit. 
 
 By an admirable effort of human genius, 
 painting offers to our eyes every thing 
 which is most valuable in the universe. 
 It presents to us the heroic deeds of an- 
 cient times as well as the facts with which 
 we are more conversant, and distant ob- 
 jects as well as those we daily see. In 
 this respect it may be considered as a sup- 
 plement to nature, which gives us a view 
 of present objects only. 
 
 It is undoubtedly to the Greeks, and 
 to them alone, we are indebted for the 
 highest cultivation which the imitative 
 arts have known. In sculpture this is even 
 now sufficiently palpable, since at this day 
 their performances remain not only une- 
 qualled but unapproached. The same ob- 
 servation holds with respect to architec- 
 ture ; and it is probable that, so far as 
 relates to the perfect representation of a 
 single figure, it might be applied also to 
 their painting : but there is great reason 
 to conclude, that in many branches of this 
 art they are surpassed by the great names 
 among the moderns. In Egypt, the know- 
 ledge of that principle which is most de- 
 sirable in art (selection) never appears to 
 have operated far. When a specific form 
 of character was once adopted, there it 
 remained, and was repeated unchanged 
 for generations. Little action was given 
 to figures, and no attempts at all made at 
 expression. Pliny reports, that the statues 
 executed by the Egyptians in his time dif- 
 fered in no respect whatever from those 
 made by them a thousand years before. 
 Of their paintings a few remain to the 
 'present era, but the date of these relics is 
 by no means evident. Two of them (seen 
 at Thebes, and described by Bruce), are 
 referred by him to the time of Sesostris 
 
 (about 700 years B. C) who is said to have 
 restored and embellished that city ; but 
 this is mere conjecture. He remarks of 
 these paintings, that they might be com- 
 pared with good sign-paintings of his day. 
 For further observations on the earliest 
 origin of Painting, see Arts. 
 
 We shall not detail here the reasons 
 and the coincidence of fortunate circum- 
 stances which raised the Greeks to be the 
 arbiters of form. " The standard they erect- 
 ed (says Fuseli), the canon they framed, 
 fell not from heaven : but as they fancied 
 themselves of divine origin, and religion 
 was the first mover of their art, it followed 
 that they should endeavour to invest their 
 authors with the most perfect form ; and 
 as man possesses that exclusively, they 
 were led to a complete and intellectual 
 study of his elements and constitution ; 
 this, with their climate, which allowed that 
 form to grow, and to show itself to the 
 greatest advantage ; with their civil and 
 political institutions, which established and 
 encouraged exercises and manners best 
 calculated to develope its powers; and, 
 above all, that simplicity of their end, that 
 uniformity of pursuit which in all its de- 
 rivations retraced the great principle from 
 which it sprang, and like a central stamen 
 drew it out into one immense connected 
 web of congenial imitation ; these, I say, 
 are the reasons why the Greeks carried 
 the art to 9. height which no subsequent 
 time or race has been able to rival or even 
 to approach. 
 
 " Great as these advantages were, it is 
 not to be supposed that Nature deviated 
 from her gradual progress in the develop- 
 ment of human faculties, in favour of the 
 Greeks. Greek art had her infancy, but 
 tlie Graces rocked the cradle, and Love 
 taught her to speak. If ever legend de- 
 served our belief, the amorous tale of the 
 Corinthian maid, who traced the shade of 
 her departing lover by the secret lamp, 
 appeals to our sympathy to grant it ; and 
 leads us at the same time to some observa- 
 tions on the first mechanical essays of 
 painting, and that linear method which, 
 though passed nearly unnoticed by Winc- 
 kelmann, seems to have continued as the 
 basis of execution, even when the instru- 
 ment for which it was chiefly adapted had 
 long been laid aside. 
 
 " The etymology of the word used by the 
 Greeks to e^^xess painting being the same 
 with that which they employ for writing, 
 makes the similarity of tool, materials, 
 method, almost certain. The tool was a 
 style or pen of wood or metal ; the mate- 
 rials a board, or a levigated plane of wood, 
 
PATNTIVG. 
 
 metal, stone, ov some prepared compound; 
 the metliod, letters or lines. 
 
 " The lirst essays of the art were skia- 
 ^ams, simple outlines of a shade, similar 
 to those which have been introduced to 
 vulgar use by the students and parasites 
 of physiognomy, under the name of Sil- 
 iiouettes; \vithout any other addition of 
 character or feature but what the profde 
 of the object thus delineated, could af- 
 ford. 
 
 " The next stfep of the art was the moito- 
 grain, outlines of figures without light or 
 shade, but with some addition of the parts 
 within the outline, and from that to the 
 monockrom, or paintings of a single colour 
 on a plane or tablet, primed with white, 
 and then covered with what they called 
 punic wax, first amalgamated with a tough 
 resinous pigment, generally of a red, some- 
 limes dark brown, or black colour. In, 
 or rather through this thin inky ground, 
 the outlines were traced with a firm but 
 pliant style, which they called cest7-um; if 
 the traced line hajjpened to be incorrect 
 or wrong, it was gently effaced with the 
 finger or with a sponge, and easily re- 
 placed by a fresh one. When the whole 
 design was settled, and no farther altera- 
 tion intended, it was suffered to dry, was 
 covered, to make it permanent, with a 
 brown encaustic varnish, the lights were 
 worked over again, and rendered more 
 brilliant with a point still more delicate, 
 according to the gradual advance from 
 mere outlines to some indications, and at 
 last to masses of light and shade, and from 
 those to the sujjerinduction of different 
 colours, or the invention of the polijchrom, 
 which, by the addition of the pencil to the 
 style, raised the mezzotinto or stained 
 drawing to a legitimate picture, and at 
 length produced that vaunted hitimouy, the 
 magic scale of Grecian colour. 
 
 " If this conjecture, for it is not more, on 
 the process of linear painting, formed on 
 the evidence and comparison of passages 
 always unconnected, and freciuenlly con- 
 tradictory, be founded in fact, the raptur- 
 ous astonishment at the sujiposed niomen- 
 laiieous production of the Ilerculanean dan- 
 cers, and the figures on the earthen vases 
 of the ancients, will cease ; or rather, we 
 shall no longer sullor ourselves to be de- 
 lu(l<>d by palpal)le impossibility of execu- 
 tion : on a ground of levigated lime or 
 on potter's ware, no velocity or certainty 
 atliiiiiiihle by liuinaii hands can coikIucI a 
 lull iiciuil with that degree of eveiuiess 
 equal from beginning to end with which 
 we see those figures executed, or, if it 
 tould, would over b(! able to fix the line 
 
 on the glassy surface without its flowing : 
 to make the appearances we see possible, 
 we must have recourse to the linear pro- 
 cess that has been described, and transfer 
 our admiration to the perseverance, the 
 correctness of principle, the elegance of 
 taste that conducted the artist's hand, 
 without presuming to arm it with contra- 
 dictory powers : the figures he drew, and 
 we admire, are not the magic produce of a 
 winged pencil, they are the result of gra- 
 dual improvement, exquisitely finished 
 monochroms. 
 
 " How long the pencil continued only to 
 assist, when it began to engross, and when 
 it at last entirely supplanted the cestrum, 
 cannot, in the perplexity of accidental re- 
 port, be ascertained. ApoUodorus, in the 
 ninety-third olympiad, and Zeuxis, in the 
 ninety-fourth, are said to have used it 
 with freedom and with power. The battle 
 of the Lapithae and the Centaurs, which, 
 according to Pausanias, Parrhasius paint- 
 ed on the shield of the IMinerva of Phi- 
 dias, to be chased by Mys, could be nothing 
 but a monochrom, and was probably de- 
 signed with the cestrum, as an instrument 
 of greater accuracy. Apelles and Proto- 
 genes, nearly a century afterwards, drew 
 their contested lines with the pencil ; and 
 that alone, as delicacy and evanescent 
 subtlety were the characteristics of those 
 lines, may give an idea of their mechanic 
 excellence. And yet in their time the 
 diagrnphic process, which is the very same 
 with the linear one we have described, 
 made a part of liberal education. And 
 Pausias of Sicyon, the contemporary of 
 Apelles, and perhaps the greatest master 
 of composition amongst the ancients, when 
 employed to repair the decayed pictures 
 of Polygnotus at Thespi:v, was adjudged 
 by general opinion to have egregiously 
 failed in the attempt, because he had sub- 
 stituted the pencil for the cestrum, and en- 
 tered a cont(!St for superiority with wea- 
 pons not his own. 
 
 " Here it might seem in its place to say 
 something on the encaustic method used 
 by the ancients; were it not a subject by 
 ambiguity of expression and conjectural 
 dispute so involved in obscurity that a true 
 account of its process must be des\)aired 
 of: the most probable idea we can form of 
 it is, that it bore some resemblance to our 
 oil painting, and that the name was adojit- 
 ed to denote the use of materials, inflam- 
 mable or prepared by fire, the supposed 
 durability of which, whetiu-r applied hot 
 or cold, authorized the terms IvfKavat and 
 iiiussit." 
 
 In Pliny, we find some allusion made to 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 an artist of the name of Saurias, who, ac- 
 cording to him, practised the earliest stage 
 of the art, and is said to have drawn the 
 figure of a horse. Mention is also made 
 of Cleanthes of Corinth, Ardices, likewise 
 of Corinth, Philocles the Egyptian, and 
 Telephanes of Sicyon, who advanced to 
 the monogi-aphic style. The first-men- 
 tioned of these artists is reported to have 
 been the original practiser of the mono- 
 chromatic, and his colour to have been 
 that of a pounded tile. About the same 
 era, Hygiemon, Dinias, and Charmas ap- 
 pear to have wrought, of whom one might 
 possibly have improved the monochromatic 
 style. Quinctilian remarks of these prime- 
 val artists, " they could so manage their 
 single colour as to give every appearance 
 of relief to parts ;" but how (chiaro-scuro 
 being then unknown) he does not explain. 
 Subsequently came Eumarus the Athenian, 
 and Cymon of Cleonea ; the latter of whom 
 receives praise from Pliny for having ad- 
 vanced the art by giving variety of atti- 
 tudes to his figures, attending to the folds 
 of draperies, and marking with discrimi- 
 nation the veins, joints, &c. of the human 
 body. 
 
 But the existence of the names of these 
 artists is unaccompanied by a record of 
 any nature whatever as to the date at 
 which they flourished ; and the painter 
 named Bularchus, the sale of whose Bat- 
 tle of the Magnetes to Candaules, king of 
 Lydia, we mentioned in the preceding 
 article, is the first as to whom there seems 
 to be any veracious testimony. 
 
 Whatever might have been the degree 
 of excellence to which the immediate suc- 
 cessors of this fortunate painter carried 
 their art, we must be content to remain in 
 utter ignorance respecting it. Probably 
 the confusion and anarchy which are the 
 necessary results of foreign war, aided by 
 civil commotion (a state which about this 
 period brought Athens, and indeed all 
 Greece, near to ruin), obstructed in no 
 unimportant degree the cultivation of an 
 accomplishment which, to be successfully 
 practised, demands the fostering assistance 
 of patronage, of science, and, above all, of 
 national security. 
 
 Xerxes, however, having at length been 
 expelled from Greece, the load which 
 hung on the backs and spirits of her lively 
 population was thrown off", and genius, 
 under a brighter sky, issued from her ob- 
 scurities in order to excite admiration and 
 reward. The liberal arts, aided by the 
 general cultivation of mind, were sum- 
 moned to preside at the erection of monu- 
 ments voted by their applauding country- 
 
 men to tlie national heroes ; and again we 
 are enabled to trace the steps of painting, 
 still weak, and tottering in her gait at first, 
 but soon making rapid strides towards the 
 highest point she is supposed to have ever 
 reached. 
 
 And here it will be curious to observe 
 the better fate which seems to have at- 
 tended the sister art of sculpture, which 
 was in all probability practised with con- 
 tinued success even during the times of 
 distress and warfare. The necessities of 
 that idolatrous religion by which the 
 Greeks were controlled might indeed have 
 alone required the exertion of all the ta- 
 lents the nation could produce. In no 
 other way is that immense advance to be 
 explained which sculpture achieved before 
 the art of which we are now treating. 
 Phidias (the most illustrious sculptor the 
 world ever saw) is said to have guided 
 the hand of his brother Panjenus in adorn- 
 ing the walls of the Poecile portico at 
 Athens. These two brothers afford an apt 
 illustration in their own persons of the 
 respective fates of the arts they practised. 
 The name of Phidias is as familiar to 
 every man of gentlemanly endowment as 
 his own. That of Panaenus is known only 
 to the few who trace back to their start- 
 ing post the early and obscure footsteps 
 of the muse of painting. The perform- 
 ances of Phidias (particularly those in the 
 temple of Minerva, called the Parthenon), 
 remain even to the present day a source 
 of admiration, of wonder, and envy. Those 
 of Panaenus exhibited his art still in its 
 infancy, and have been for many revolving 
 ages buried in the stream of oblivion. — To 
 this man, however, Greece appears to 
 have been indebted for an anxious zeal, at 
 least, to advance the art he practised to a 
 more equal station with sculpture ; and in 
 his time there were prizes established 
 both at Delphos and Corinth, for its en- 
 couragement, whereat he himself contend- 
 ed, but was excelled by Timogras of 
 Chalcis. 
 
 The first great name of that epoch of the 
 preparatory period, when facts appear to 
 overbalance conjecture, is that of Polyg- 
 notus of Thasos, who painted the Poecile 
 at Athens, and the Lesche, or public hall, 
 at Delphi. Of these works, but chiefly of 
 the two large pictures at Delphi, which 
 represented scenes subsequent to the ever- 
 sion of Troy, and Ulysses consulting the 
 spirit of Tiresias in Hades, Pausanias 
 gives a minute and circumstantial detail ; 
 by which we are led to surmise that what 
 is now called composition was totally want- 
 ing in them as a whole ; for he begins his 
 11.2 
 
PAIM 
 
 ilescriptimi at one end of the picture, and 
 linislies it at tlie opposite extremity, — a 
 senseless method, if we suppose that a 
 central group, or a principal figure to 
 wliich the rest were in a certain degree 
 subordinate, attracted the eye ; it appears 
 as plain that they had no perspective, tlie 
 series of figures on the second or middle 
 ground being described as placed above 
 those in the foreground, and tlie figures in 
 tlie distance above the whole : the honest 
 method, too, which the painter chose of 
 annexing to many of his figures their 
 names in writing, savours much of the in- 
 fancy of painting. This circumstance, 
 however, we should be cautious in imput- 
 ing either to ignorance or imbecility, since 
 it might rest on the firm base of permanent 
 principles. The genius of Polygnotus 
 was, more than that of any other artist, 
 before or after, a public genius, his works 
 monumental works, and these very pic- 
 tures the votive offerings of the Gnidians. 
 Polygnotus was, in fact, a man endowed 
 with uncommon ability, and certainly ad- 
 vanced his art very far in point of expres- 
 sion and action in his figures, and in ideal 
 colouring. Of the truth of this observa- 
 tion, his figure of the demon Eurynomus 
 in one of the pictures abovementioned, 
 namely, Ulysses consulting the shade of 
 Tiresias in Hades, affords sufficient proof. 
 " His colour," says Pausanias, " is be- 
 tween black and azure, like that of the 
 flies which infest meat; he shows his 
 teeth, and sits upon the skin of the vul- 
 ture." Lucian and Pliny both speak in 
 high commendation of this artist; the for- 
 mer in particular, invoking his aid to finish 
 his perfect woman, exclaims : — " Polygno- 
 tus shall open and spread her eyebrows, 
 and give her that fine, glowing, decent 
 blush which beautilios so irresistibly his 
 Cassandra. He also sliall give her a flow- 
 ing, unconstrained attire, whicii, wifh all 
 its delicate wavings, sliall partly adhere to 
 her body and partly flutter in the wind." 
 
 " Polygnotus, says Aristotle, imiiroves 
 the model. His invention readied the con- 
 cejition of undcscribed being, in the demon 
 Eurynomus; fiUetl Hie chasm of descrip- 
 tion in Theseus and Pirithtms, in Ariadne 
 and Phoedra; and improveil its terrors in 
 the spectre of Tityus ; whilst colour to 
 assist it became in his hand an organ of 
 expression ; such was the prophetic glow 
 whicli still crimsoual the cheeks of his 
 Cassandra in (he time of Lucian. The 
 improvements in painting which Pliny as- 
 cribes to him, of having dressed the heads 
 of his fi'Miales in variegated veils and Iniii- 
 </<■««#, and robed llieiii in lucid dr.ipery, of 
 
 having gently opened the lips, given a 
 glimpse of the teeth, and lessened the 
 former monotony of face, — such im- 
 provements were surely the most trifling 
 part of a power to which the age of 
 Apelles and that of Quinctilian paid equal 
 homage : nor can it add much to our es- 
 teem for him, to be told by Pliny that there 
 existed, in the portico of Pompey, a pic- 
 ture of his with the figure of a warrior in 
 an attitude so ambiguous as to make it a 
 question whether he were ascending or 
 descending. Such a figure could only be 
 the offspring of mental or technic imbeci- 
 lity, even if it resembled the celebrated 
 one of a Diomede carrying off the palla- 
 dium with one, and holding a sword in 
 the other hand, on the intaglio inscribed 
 with the name of Dioscorides. 
 
 " With this simplicity of manner and 
 materials the art seems to have proceeded 
 from Polygnotus, Aglaophon, Phidias, 
 Panasnus, Colotes, and Evenor, the father 
 of Parrhasius, during a period of more or 
 less disputed olympiads, till the appear- 
 ance of Apollodorus the Athenian, who 
 applied the essential principles of Polyg- 
 notus to the delineation of the spesies, by 
 investigating the leading forms that discri- 
 minate the various classes of human qua- 
 lities and passions. The acuteness of his 
 taste led him to discover that as all men 
 were connected by one general form, so 
 they were separated each by some pre- 
 dominant power, which fixed character 
 and bound them to a class : that in pro- 
 portion as this specific power partook of 
 individual peculiarities, the farther it was 
 removed from a share in that harmonious 
 system which constitutes nature, and con- 
 sists in a due balance of all its parts: 
 thence he drew his line of imitation, 
 and personified the central form of the 
 class to which his object belonged ; and 
 to which the rest of its qualities adminis- 
 tered without being absorbed : agility was 
 not suffered to destroy firmness, solidilj. 
 or weight; nor strength and weight agi- 
 lity ; elegance did not degenerate to elfenii- 
 nacy, or grandeur swell to hugeness; such 
 were his principles of sljle: his expres- 
 sion extended them to the mind, if we may 
 Judge fnuii the (wo subjects mentioned by 
 I'liiiy, ill which he seems to ha\e perso- 
 nified the characters of devotion and im- 
 piety ; that, in the adoring figure of a 
 priest, periiaps of Chryses, expanding his 
 gratitude at the shrine of tin- god whose 
 arrows avenged his wrongs ami reslnivd 
 liis daughter : and this, in the figure of 
 Ajax vvreiked, and from the sea-swept 
 rock hurling defiance unto the murky 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 sky. As neither of these subjects can 
 present themselves to a painter's mind 
 without a contrast of the most awful and 
 the most terrific tones of colour, magic of 
 light and shade, and unlimited command 
 over the tools of art, we may with Pliny 
 and with Plutarch consider ApoUodorus 
 as the first assertor of the pencil's ho- 
 nours, as the first colourist of his age, and 
 the man who opened the gates of art which 
 the Heracleot Zeuxis entered. 
 
 " From the essential style of Polygnotus 
 and the specific discrimination of ApoUo- 
 dorus, Zeuxis, by comparison of what be- 
 longed to the genius and what to the class, 
 framed at last that ideal form, which, in 
 his opinion, constituted the supreme de- 
 gree of human beauty, or, in other words, 
 embodied possibility, by uniting the vari- 
 ous but homogeneous powers scattered 
 among many, in one object, to one end. 
 Such a system, if it originated in genius, 
 was the considerate result of taste refined 
 by the unremitting perseverance with 
 which he observed, consulted, compared, 
 selected the congenial but scattered forms 
 of nature." 
 
 Quinctilian remarks of Zeuxis, that he 
 considered the poetic unity of character 
 adopted by Homer, in the descriptions 
 of his heroes, as his model ; giving to 
 each individual he painted the peculiar 
 distinction of a class. It is said, and the 
 anecdote bears on the remark, that, previ- 
 ously to commencing a picture of Juno for 
 her temple at Agrigentum, he requested 
 to see all the most beautiful maidens of the 
 city naked, and from them selected five 
 whose shape he most admired ; purposing 
 to exhibit the most perfect combination of 
 female forms, by selecting and adopting 
 the most beautiful parts of each. Of the 
 colouring employed by Zeuxis, little is 
 known with certainty ; but it may doubt- 
 less be inferred with some fairness, that 
 it rivalled the excellences of his design, and 
 from his alleged method of painting mono- 
 chroms on a black ground, adding the 
 lights in white, we may deduce that he 
 understood the extension of light and 
 shade to masses. 
 
 Timanthes, Eupompus, Androcides, and 
 Parrhasius the Ephesian, all flourislied 
 during tlie same era with Zeuxis. The 
 latter, however, is the only one who may 
 be said to have rivalled that eminent artist, 
 and indeed it is hard to tell Avhich of the 
 two bore the palm, or most self-sufficiently 
 claimed it. The story related by Pliny of 
 their contest is not decisive on the former 
 point, since those pictures had little to do 
 
 with the real excellences of eillier artist 
 except in the one quality of colouring. 
 Zeuxis painted grapes ; and on exhibiting 
 his picture, the birds came with the great- 
 est avidity to pluck them. The rival artist 
 tlieu proceeded to display his perform- 
 ance, and on being introduced to the spot, 
 Zeuxis exclaimed, " Remove your curtain 
 that we may see the painting." The cur- 
 tain was the painting, and Zeuxis con- 
 fessed himself vanquished, exclaiming, 
 "Zeuxis has deceived birds, but Parrha- 
 sius has deceived Zeuxis himself." Now, 
 how does this fact, if it be regarded as 
 one, tally with the limitation of Pliny as 
 to the colours used by the ancient artists ? 
 A curtain may, it is true, be of a dull co- 
 lour, and such a one might possibly have 
 been imitated by Parrhasius with such 
 materials, and so perfectly, as to have de- 
 ceived Zeuxis : but it is to be presumed 
 that the luscious transparency, colour, and 
 brilliancy of the grape, in those days, were 
 not very widely dlfierent from what it now 
 exhibits ; and those pure qualities can 
 only be rej)resented by the purest and 
 most perfect of colours. Parrhasius is re- 
 ported to have had a surer eye than this 
 celebrated rival for proportion and sym- 
 metry: he circumscribed the ample style 
 of Zeuxis, and, by subtle examination of 
 outline, established that standard of divine 
 and heroic form v/hich raised him to the 
 authority of a legislator from whose deci- 
 sions there was no appeal. He gave to the 
 divine and heroic character, in painting, 
 what Polycletus had given to the human 
 in sculpture, by his Doryphorus, a canon 
 of proportion. " Piiidias had discovered 
 in the nod of the Homeric Jupiter the cha- 
 racteristic of majesty, inclination of the 
 head: this hinted to him a higher eleva- 
 tion of the neck behind, a bolder protru- 
 sion of the front, and the increased per- 
 pendicular of the profile. To tiiis concep- 
 tion Parrhasius fixed a maximum ; that 
 point from, which descends the ultimate 
 line of celestial beauty, the angle within 
 which moves what is inferior, beyond 
 which what is portentous. From the head 
 conclude to the proportions of the neck, 
 the limbs, the extremities ; from the fa- 
 ther to the race of gods ; all the sons of 
 one, Jupiter; derived from one source of 
 tradition, Homer ; formed by one artist, 
 Phidias : on him measured and decided 
 by Parrhasius. In the simplicity of this 
 principle, adhered to by the succeeding 
 periods, lies the uninterrupted progress 
 and the unattainable superiority of Gre- 
 cian art. With this prerogative, which 
 
evidently implies a profound as well as 
 general knowledge of the parts, how are 
 we to reconcile the criticism passed on the 
 intermediate parts of his forms as inferior 
 to their outline? or how could Winckel- 
 mann, in contradiction with his own prin- 
 ciples, explain it, by a want of anatomic 
 knowledge ? how it is possible to suppose 
 that he who decided his outline with such 
 intelligence that it appeared ambient, and 
 pronounced the parts that escaped the eye, 
 should have been uninformed of its con- 
 tents ? Let us rather suppose that the de- 
 fect ascribed to the intermediate forms of 
 his bodies, if such a fault there was, con- 
 sisted in an afl'ectation of smoothness bor- 
 dering on insipidity, in something effemi- 
 nately voluptuous, which absorbed their 
 character and the idea of elastic vigour; 
 and this Euphranor seems to have hinted 
 at, when in comparing his own Theseus 
 with that of Parrhasius, he pronounced 
 the Ionian's to have fed on roses, his own 
 on flesh : emasculate softness was not in 
 his opinion the proper companion of the 
 contour, or flowery freshness of colour an 
 adequate substitute for the sterner tints of 
 heroic form. 
 
 " None of the ancients seem to have 
 united or wished to combine, as man and 
 artist, more qualities seemingly incompati- 
 ble than Parrhasius: — the volubility and 
 ostentatious insolence of an Asiatic with 
 Athenian simplicity and urbanity of man- 
 ners ; punctilious correctness with blan- 
 dishments of handling and luxurious co- 
 lour, and with sublime and pathetic con- 
 ception a fancy libidinously sportive. If 
 he was not the inventor, he surely was the 
 greatest master of allegory, supposing that 
 he really embodied, by signs universally 
 comprehended, that image of the Athenian 
 AHMOS or people, which was to combine 
 and to express at once its contradictory 
 qualities. Perhaps he traced the jarring 
 branches to their source, tlio aboriginal 
 moral principle of the Athenian character, 
 which he made intuitive. This supposi- 
 tion alone can shed a dawn of ptissibility 
 on what else appears impossible. We know 
 that the personification of the Alhcnian 
 AtifiOQ was an object of sculpture, and that 
 its images by Lyson and Lcixhares were 
 publicly set up; but there is no due to 
 <lecidc wlictlicr tUcy preceded or followed 
 the conceit of Parrhasius. It was reix-ated 
 by Aristolaus, tlie S(ni of Pausias. 
 
 " Tile decided forms of Parrhasius, Ti- 
 nianthcs tlie Cytiinian, his conipctitor for 
 fame, attempted to iMspir<> with mind and 
 to Hni)!iiit<' with passions. No picture of 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 antiquity is more celebrated than his im- 
 molation of Iphigenia in Aulis, painted, 
 as Quinctilian informs us, in contest with 
 Colotes of Teos, a painter and sculptor 
 from the school of Phidias ; crowned with 
 victory at its rival exhibition, and since, 
 the theme of unlimited praise from the 
 orators and historians of antiquity, though 
 the solidity or justice of their praise rela- 
 tively to the art has been questioned by 
 modern criticism." 
 
 The art now continued to advance with 
 rapid strides. Nature was the guide ; and 
 to develope her various charms (in expres- 
 sion, shape, and colour) the object of the 
 artists. The leading principle of Eupom- 
 pus may be traced in the advice which he 
 gave to Lysippus (as preserved by Pliny), 
 whom, when consulted on a standard of 
 imitation, he directed to the contemplation 
 of human variety in the multitude of cha- 
 racters who were passing by. " Behold," 
 said the painter, " behold my models ! 
 From natiire, not from art, by whomsoever 
 wrought, must he study who seeks to ac- 
 quire reputation and extend the scope of 
 his art." The doctrine of Eupompus was 
 adopted by Pamphilus the Amphipolitan 
 (the most scientific artist of his time), and 
 by him transmitted to Apelles of Cos (or, 
 according to Lucian, of Ephesus), his pu- 
 pil. This wonderful person was, if we 
 may credit the tradition respecting him, 
 gifted with such a combination of natural 
 and acquired endowments as never, per- 
 haps, either before or since, fell to the lot 
 of another individual. In addition, he had 
 the happiness to live at tliat period wlierein 
 the genius of his country had reached its 
 highest point of elevation. The name of 
 Apelles in Pliny is the synony me of u nri vai- 
 led and unattainable excellence, but in our 
 estimate of his talents we must candidly 
 consider what modifications may be requi- 
 site (man eniuueralion of liis actual works. 
 It is very diliicult to ascertain iiow far 
 real value may be attached to the panegy- 
 rics on works of art. These will always 
 be bestowed, in the highest strain, on tlie 
 best works of the writer's time : and thus 
 we observe that, at all periods, contempo- 
 rary authors have e\piesse<l tlie same de- 
 grees of approbation, and in the same 
 terms, of tlie pictures they have seen pro- 
 duced ; w hilst we know that, as art was 
 slow in its progress, it is inipossilile that 
 in every stage it woiilil ha\e merited equal 
 conmiendation. The uorks of Apelles, so 
 far as it is possilili' to romprehend their 
 nature, exhiliit iieitlicr tli.- d.epesi jiallios 
 of eKpression, tin- widest sphere of com- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 prehension, nor the most acute discrimina- 
 tion of character : his great prerogative 
 consisted, perhaps, more in tlie unison 
 than in the extent of his powers : he knew 
 better what his capabilities could achieve, 
 and what lay beyond them, than any otlier 
 artist. Grace of conception and refine- 
 ment of taste were his elements, and went 
 hand in hand with grace of execution, 
 and completeness in finish, irresistible 
 when found united. The Venus of Apelles, 
 or, as it may rather be called, the personi- 
 fication of the birthday of Love, was es- 
 teemed as the most splendid achievement 
 of art ; the outline of the goddess baffled 
 every attempt at improvement, whilst imi- 
 tation shrunk from the purity, the force, 
 the brilliancy, the evanescent gradations 
 of her tints. 
 
 The pictures produced by this consum- 
 mate artist appear to have been numerous, 
 and the reader will find, in Pliny, lib. 
 XXXV. cap. 10, a pretty extensive list. A 
 brief enumeration of some of them will 
 serve to convey a just idea of the class of 
 subjects generally chosen by him. 
 
 The portraits painted by him both of 
 Alexander the Great and his father Phi- 
 lip were numerous ; some of them single, 
 some accompanied by other figures. Alex- 
 ander launching thunder, in the temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus, has been greatly ex- 
 tolled for its effect and the boldness of its 
 relief, " the hand which was raised ap- 
 pearing to come forward, and the lightning 
 to be out of the picture." In another por- 
 trait of the same prince, he was repre- 
 sented in a triumphal chariot, and near 
 him the figure of war, with his hands tied 
 behind his back. 
 
 This, and another Alexander, accompa- 
 nied by Castor and Pollux, and a figure of 
 Victory, were preserved by Augustus in 
 the forum. 
 
 Many other portraits are alluded to : 
 namely, Antiochus, king of Syria ; Anti- 
 gonus ; Archelaus, with his wife and 
 dau ghter ; Abron, an effeminate debauchee ; 
 Clatus, on horseback armed (except his 
 head), with an attendant delivering his 
 helmet to him ; and Megabysus, a priest 
 of the temple of Diana at Ephesus, sacri- 
 ficing, in his pontifical vestments. In fan- 
 ciful subjects we find : — Diana attending 
 a sacrifice, surrounded by her nymphs ; 
 Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, on horse- 
 back, contending with Persians ; Hercules, 
 with his back towards the observer, and 
 his head turned round so as to show his 
 face ; and lastly, his renowned picture of 
 Venus rising from the sea, already men- 
 
 tioned, which, being taken to Koine, was 
 dedicated by Augustus in the temple of 
 Julius Cffisar ; and upon which several 
 Greek epigrams are to be found in the 
 Anthologia. 
 
 " The refinements of the artwere by Aris- 
 tides of Thebes applied to the mind. The 
 passions which history had organized for 
 Timanthes, Aristides caught as tliey rose 
 from the breast or escaped from the lips of 
 nature herself; his volume was man, his 
 scene society: he drew the subtle discri- 
 minations of mind in every stage of life, 
 the whispers, the simple cry of passion, 
 and its most complex accents. Such, as 
 history informs us, was the suppliant 
 whose voice you seemed to hear, such his 
 sick man's half-extinguished eye and la- 
 bouring breast, such the sister dying for 
 her brother, and, above all, the half-slain 
 mother shuddering lest the eager babe 
 should suck the blood from her palsied 
 nipple. This picture was probably at 
 Thebes, when Alexander sacked that 
 town ; what his feelings were when he 
 saw it, we may guess from his sending it 
 to Pella. Its expression, poised between 
 the anguish of maternal affection and the 
 pangs of death, gives to commiseration an 
 image, which neither the infant piteously 
 caressing his slain mother in the group of 
 Epigonus, nor the absorbed feature of the 
 Niobe, nor the struggle of the Laocoon, 
 excite. Timanthes had marked the limits 
 that discriminate terror from the excess 
 of horror ; Aristides drew the line that 
 separates it from disgust. His subject is 
 one of those that touch the ambiguous line 
 of a squeamish sense. — Taste and smell, 
 as sources of tragic emotion, and in conse- 
 quence of their power, commanding ges- 
 ture, seem scarcely admissible in art or on 
 the theatre, because their extremes are more 
 neai-ly allied to disgust, and loathsome or 
 risible ideas, than to terror. The prophe- 
 tic trance of Cassandra, who scents the 
 prepared murder of Agamemnon at the 
 threshold of the ominous hall ; the despe- 
 rate moan of Macbeth 's queen on seeing 
 the visionary spot still unellaced infect her 
 hand— are images snatched from the lap 
 of terror— but soon would cease to be so, 
 were the artist or the actress to enforce 
 the dreadful hint with indiscreet expres- 
 sion or gesture. This, completely under- 
 stood by Aristides, was as completely 
 missed by his imitators, Raffaelle in the 
 Morbetto, and Poussin in his Plague of the 
 Philistines. In the group of Aristides 
 our sympathy is inunediately interested 
 by the mother, still alive tliough mortally 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 wounded, helpless, beautiful, and forget- 
 ting herself in the anguish for her child, 
 whose situation still suffers hope to mingle 
 with our fears; he is only approaching 
 the nipple of the mother. In the group of 
 Raffaelle, the mother dead of the plague, 
 herself an object of apathy, becomes one 
 of disgust, by the action of the man, who 
 bending over her, at his utmost reach of 
 arm, with one hand removes the child 
 from the breast, whilst the other, applied 
 to his nostrils, bars the eflluvia of death. 
 Our feelings alienated from the mother, 
 come too late even for the child, who by 
 his languor already betrays the mortal 
 symptoms of the poison he imbibed at the 
 parent corpse. It is curious to observe 
 the permutation of ideas which takes 
 place, as imitation is removed from the 
 sources of nature: Poussin, not content 
 with adopting the group of Raffaelle, once 
 more repeats the loathsome attitude in 
 the same scene ; he forgot, in his eager- 
 ness to render the idea of contagion still 
 more intuitive, that he was averting our 
 feelings with ideas of disgust." 
 
 At the same era flourished Protogenes 
 of Rhodes, towards whom the generous 
 conduct of Apelles deserves particular 
 mention. Protogenes had painted a pic- 
 ture of Jalysus, which so delighted Apelles 
 that he sailed to Rhodes on purpose to 
 visit his accomplished cotemporary. There 
 finding him in poverty and obscurity, he is 
 reported to have bought several of the per- 
 formances of Protogenes with the avowed 
 intention of selling them as his own, and 
 thus succeeded in exciting the notice of 
 the people of Rhodes towards the abili- 
 ties of their fellow-citizen, who thence 
 rose from his hitherto humble situation 
 to fame and fortune. Tiie well known 
 friendly contest of Apelles and Protogenes 
 respecting the Lhies has been described 
 elsewhere, and stands as a fact on unde- 
 niable testimony. The tablet whereon they 
 were drawn, having been taktMi to Rome, 
 was there seen by Pliny himself, who 
 speaks of it as having tlie appearance of 
 a large blank surface, the extreme (h>li- 
 cacy of the lines rendering them invisible 
 except on close inspection. They were 
 drawn with did'c-rent colours— one tipon, 
 or rather within, the other. Judging from 
 Pliny's account, it might l)e imagined (hat 
 all the beauty lay in the extrcine delicacy 
 of the points which had been used, and of 
 the hands which had applied Ihein; but it 
 is reasi)nal)le lo sui)])ose, thiil llie firsJ di- 
 rection of (lie litu' might have some ])rin- 
 cjple of bt-auty for its guide, hy which, ns 
 
 well as by the neatness of its execution. 
 Protogenes was immediately moved to the 
 declaration, that none but Apelles could 
 have drawn it. 
 
 But we must hasten to conclude our 
 review of the art, as practised by the an- 
 cients. The refinements of expression, 
 which have been so abundantly praised 
 in our account of Aristides, were carried 
 to a still higher pitch by Euphranor the 
 Isthmian, his disciple, who is said to have 
 excelled equally as painter and statuary. 
 At this time, indeed, the art of painting 
 seems to have been supported in Greece 
 by many celebrated men, renowned for 
 their distinctive excellences : but from the 
 means which we retain of tracing its his- 
 tory and progress, it is extremely difficult 
 to decide as to the precise degree of supe- 
 riority to which the Greeks attained in 
 several departments of this delightful art, 
 as its principles are now understood. In 
 the examination of this interesting ques- 
 tion, the various authors who have treated 
 of it have put forth opinions widely differ- 
 ent from each other ; some have been led 
 away by a blind admiration of every thing 
 ancient, while others, running into the op- 
 posite extreme, have regarded the efforts 
 in painting of the ancients merely with an 
 eye of contempt. Here, as in most cases, 
 truth is to be found by steering between 
 the two. It is certain that no great works 
 are remaining which would enable us to 
 judge confidently on the matter, but there 
 are many reasons, independently of the 
 direct testimony borne to their worth by 
 Pliny and others (whose general percep- 
 tions of beauty give strength to what they 
 say in this particular), and among these 
 we may reckon foremost the unquestioned 
 perfection to which the sister arts of sculp- 
 ture and i)oetry had risen amongst them, 
 the former of which may indeed almost be 
 termed the twin-sister of painting. 
 
 In comparing the performances of mo- 
 dern painters with (he character of (liose 
 the names and description of which an- 
 cient authors have handed down to us, it 
 will appear pretty clearly that the Greek 
 artists surjjassed the moderns in sentinunt, 
 in invention or imagination, in I'xpression, 
 in i)osition of figures, in proportion, and 
 contour. With regard to colour, the case 
 is by no nieans so evident. Pliny allows 
 (hem tile use of l)ut four, and \oi at other 
 times makes allusions which palpably im- 
 ply their means of that kind to be far UKue 
 extensive. The use of oils has however 
 given to moderns « ileci<l<Ml advantage in 
 this particular. Their colours \vcr<', how- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 ever, both vivid ami enduring, as is obvi- 
 ous from the fact of their paintings having 
 existed uninjured, and become objects of 
 admiration to the Romans several ages 
 after they vrere executed. They v^rere in 
 the habit of employing a sort of varnish 
 called atramentum, which served to secure 
 their paintings from the inHuence of the 
 atmospheric air. 
 
 Whether the art of composition, at least 
 in the scientific way now practised, was 
 ever understood by them, or whether they 
 possessed any knowledge whatever of the 
 laws of chiaro-scuro, is wrapped up in 
 doubt and mystery which it is next to im- 
 possible any opportunity will occur of un- 
 ravelling. The accounts of these perform- 
 ances by ancient writers do not seem to 
 have sprung from any practical acquaint- 
 ance with the rules of the art, and hence 
 they are, as will be readily imagined, very 
 vague and unsatisfactory to the painter. 
 According to the light which is thus af- 
 forded us, we are led to conclude that the 
 chief aim of the Greek artists was to im- 
 press on the mind of the spectator in the 
 most energetic way the effect of one parti- 
 cular image ; we do, it is true, occasionally 
 encounter descriptions of pictures contain- 
 ing many figures, but in general the sub- 
 ject is confined to the introduction of two 
 or three. Nothing is said by these wri- 
 ters of what we term background, and little 
 on the contrasts of light and shade, &c. 
 That they had some knowledge of this 
 kind, however, is apparent from an obser- 
 vation of Plutarch, namely, that "painters 
 heighten the brilliancy of light colours by 
 opposing them to dark ones, or to shades ;" 
 and from another, of Pliny, who, speaking 
 of painters in the monochromatic style, 
 adds : — " In process of time the art as- 
 sumed new powers, and discovered light 
 and shadow, by gradating which the co- 
 lours are alternately kept down or height- 
 ened. Afterward splendour was added, 
 which was different from light, and which, 
 being a medium between light and shade, 
 was denominated tonon ; while the union 
 of colours, and transition from one to ano- 
 ther, they called harmogen (lib. xxxv. c. 5). 
 Hence we find that the great requisites for 
 the science of -chiaro-scuro, viz. contrast, 
 tone, and harmony, were comprehended by 
 them ; that the various degrees of light 
 and shade, distinctly and in combination, 
 were duly felt, and that the value of middle 
 or half tint V,' us perceived and attended to. 
 Led away by these facts, M. du Bos and 
 others have concluded that chiaroscuro was 
 scientifically comprehended and practised 
 
 by them. It will not fail, however, to strike 
 the artist, that every thing stated by Pliny 
 to have been known by the ancient artists 
 is resolvable into that which is requisite 
 for the due execution of a single figure on 
 a plain ground, and in the most simple 
 style of execution. In the best of tlje 
 paintings found at Herculaneum there is 
 exhibited an unusually skilful manage- 
 ment of chiaro-scuro in the reduction of 
 tone on parts, both of the flesh and dra- 
 pery, but it is inconclusive on the general 
 point at issue. - 
 
 With respect to their knowledge of per- 
 spective, similar uncertainty appears to 
 exist. Vitruvius, indeed, reports it to 
 have been practised by Agatharcus (a con- 
 temporary of ^Eschylus and Polygnotus), 
 in the theatre at Athens ; and to have been 
 shoi'tly after reduced to principles, and 
 treated as a science, by Anaxagoras and 
 Democritus. The deductions, however, 
 are made from premises of a similarly in- 
 conclusive nature to those enumerated in 
 our observations on chiaro-scuro. 
 
 Lastly, we may remark that no mention, 
 at all events none of consequence, is made 
 ox a ground of relief by the ancient writers 
 on painting. Landscape also appears to 
 have been wholly disregarded. There are 
 attempts at background made in several of 
 the paintings of Herculaneum, but unde- 
 serving of any commendation ; and the 
 most beautiful of those productions of an- 
 cient art which have hitherto been dis- 
 played to the eyes of the moderns are of 
 figures relieved off plain grounds, or rather 
 amalgamated into them. In none of the 
 criticisms or observations of ancient au- 
 thors is a secondary object ever mentioned 
 as being in the distance. 
 
 The paintings of the ancient artists were 
 either movable, or on the cielings or com- 
 partments of buildings. Those of the first- 
 mentioned description were deemed the 
 most valuable, and were either on fir wood, 
 larch, box wood, or canvas : — sometimes, 
 indeed, they seem to have used marble. 
 When wood was employed, they laid in, 
 in the first instance, a white ground. 
 Among the antiquities of Herculaneum 
 are four paintings in white marble. 
 
 Their immovable paintings on walls were 
 either in fresco or on the dry stucco in 
 distemper. Indeed, all the ancient paint- 
 ings may be reduced to,first, fresco paint- 
 ing; secondly, water colour or distemper 
 painting, on a dry ground; and, thirdly, 
 encaustic painting. The outlines of the 
 ancient paintings in fresco were probably 
 done at once, as appear from the depth of 
 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 the incision and the boldness and freedom 
 of the design, equal to the care and spirit 
 of a penciled outline. 
 
 We shall not dwell at all on the degree 
 of cultivation bestowed on the art of paint- 
 ing by the ancient Romans, to which we 
 briefly adverted in the preceding article, 
 but pass on to enumerate the several co- 
 lours stated by Pliny to have been known 
 to them (see lib. xxxv. caps. 6 and 7.) and 
 enumerated in Rees's Cyclopaedia. 
 
 Whites. — Melimim. A native white 
 earth from the island of Melos, used by 
 Apelles before white lead prepared with 
 vinegar was invented. 
 
 ParcEtonium. An Egyptian white earth 
 used in distemper, and similar, probably, 
 to the white now called Cremnitz white, 
 from Hungary. Pliny complains that pa- 
 rastonium was often adulterated with Ci- 
 molian earth, which was used by the ful- 
 lers at Rome. 
 
 Erctria. An ashy white. It is so named 
 from a town of Euboea, now Trocco. 
 Cerussa. White lead. 
 Anulare. Gypsum. Crcta. Chalk. 
 Yellows. — Sil. Ochre of four kinds ; 
 named Atticum, Lucidum, Syricum, and 
 Marmorosum. 
 
 Auripigmentum, or Arsenicum. Orpi- 
 ment. 
 
 Cerussa usta. Masticot, fiist discovered 
 by the fire at the Pineus. 
 
 Reds. — Minium. Red lead, both natural 
 and artificial. The best native minium 
 was found in a quicksilver mine, near 
 Ephesus ; and in endeavouring to extract 
 gold from it, Callias tiie Athenian disco- 
 vered vermilion. 
 
 Vermilion. The same as now used. 
 Sinopis. A red earth. The best was 
 found near Lemnos, and was so \ aliiable 
 as to be sold sealed up. It approached 
 near, in colour, to minium. 
 Ruhrica. A red earth. 
 Cinnabar. Native Indian name for dra- 
 gon's blood. 
 
 Samhiracha. A red orpiment. 
 Sandyx, By some tlionght l<> be veget- 
 able red, and obtained soniewliat after llie 
 manner of our lakes, viz. al)sorl)ing I lie 
 rolouring matter of a decoction of tlie ve- 
 getable matter in chalk. 
 
 Purinnissum. A lake made from tlie 
 ingredient used in dyeing purple, being 
 absorbed in tripoli. 
 
 Sijricnm. A mixture of sino])ig and 
 sandyx. 
 
 Arnu'niuni, or Azure, also called (V'r«- 
 leum. Verrl'ji/.iir, or i)lue vitriol. Pliny 
 rails it a sand ; and says there were three 
 
 kinds, viz. the Egyptian, the Scythian, and 
 the Cyprian. 
 
 Indicum. Indigo. 
 
 Greens. — Chrysocolla. Malachite, or 
 mountain green. 
 
 Appianum. Another of the same nature. 
 Bl-VCKs. — Atramentum. A common name 
 for all black colours. l-*liny speaks of one 
 kind as oozing from the earth ; and it may 
 possibly have been some kind of bitumen: 
 of another, as being made from smoke of 
 resin and pitch. Burnt lees of wine or 
 husks of grapes produced a third, used by 
 Polygnotus and Mycon, under the name 
 of truginon ; and a fourth was invented 
 and used by Apelles, by burning ivory. 
 That, being made thin by some process, 
 was probably the atramentum or varnish, 
 w hicli he is said to have laid over the sur- 
 face of his pictures. What this process 
 was is unknown : perhaps, as the mode 
 of painting with wax by heat was prac- 
 tised, it might have been some modification 
 of that material. 
 
 Of the above colouring substances, 
 Apelles and other ancient artists employed, 
 if we are to give credit to Pliny, only four. 
 Here, however, he ^eems to have placed 
 himself between the horns of a dilemma ; 
 since we are compelled to question either 
 his correctness as to their limitation of co- 
 lours or the abundant encomiums which 
 he bestows on their works. Four perfect 
 colours, it is true, with all their modifica- 
 tions and combinations, may be regarded 
 as adequate to every purpose the art of 
 colouring might require. But the cele- 
 brated historian has forbidden us to spe- 
 culate on the possibility of this perfection, 
 by naming the substances ; and since the 
 present })ractice of art (although possessed 
 of substances far more powerful than those 
 enumerated above) denies the knowledge 
 of any four pigments equal to tlie proiluctiou 
 of a really fine piece of colouring, we are, 
 as before observed, comjielled to suspend 
 our judgment on the subject. 
 
 The art of painting Avas revived in V.u- 
 rope about th(! end of the tliirteciilii or 
 l)eginning of the fourteenth century. It 
 might have been practised in r.n humble 
 and obscure manner somewhat earlier, 
 l)ut it was not until a still later period that 
 it made any thing like progress. The 
 iuinian mind, having been plunged into 
 profound ignoraiici*, was destitute of <'very 
 principle of sound philosophy which ena- 
 bles it to determine on the object of the 
 arts; and consequently the painters con- 
 tented tlicMisehcs with works adapted to 
 the general taste, without proportion and 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 without beauty. In Italy, where the first 
 attempts were made, they were employed 
 chiefly on subjects connected with religi- 
 ous feelings, such as the mysteries of the 
 passion, Sic; and their labours were princi- 
 pally to the adornment of ecclesiastical 
 buildings. 
 
 Painting, however, did not long continue 
 in the imperfect condition in which it was 
 left by those who first cultivated it among 
 the moderns. It was to be expected that 
 their successors should endeavour to sur- 
 pass them by joining some degree of the- 
 ory to the barbarous practice they had 
 adopted. Among the first points of ai-t 
 discovered after its restoration, was the 
 principle of perspective, a knowledge of 
 which made the artists capable of express- 
 ing what is denomin'Atedforeslioi-tenitig, by 
 means of which a greater degree of truth 
 and effect was afforded to their perform- 
 ances. Cimabue, Giotto, Masaccio, Man- 
 tegna, and Luca Signorelli, successively 
 upheld the dawning glories of revived art. 
 The latter, in particular, appears to have 
 been the first who contemplated objects 
 with a discriminating eye ; perceived what 
 was accidental, what essential ; balanced 
 light and shade, and decided the motion of 
 his figures. He foreshortened with equal 
 boldness and intelligence ; and thence it 
 is, probably, that Vasari fancies to have 
 discovered, in the Last Judgment of Mi- 
 chel Angiolo, traces of imitation from the 
 Lunetta, painted by Luca in the church of 
 the Madonna, at Orvieto ; but the powers 
 which animated him there, and before at 
 Arezzo, are no longer visible in the Go- 
 thic medley with which he filled two com- 
 partments in the chapel of Sextus IV. at 
 Rome. 
 
 Two years after the death of Masaccio 
 (namely, in 1445), was born Lionardo da 
 Vinci, whose genius broke forth with a 
 splendour which distanced former excel- 
 lence : " made up of all the elements that 
 constitute the essence of genius, favoured 
 by education and circumstances, all ear, 
 all eye, all grasp ; painter, poet, sculptor, 
 anatomist, architect, engineer, chymist, 
 machinist, musician, man of science, and 
 sometimes empiric, he laid hold of every 
 beauty in the enchanted circle, but with- 
 out exclusive attachment to one, dismissed 
 in her turn each. Fitter to scatter hints 
 than to teach by example, he wasted life, 
 insatiate in experiment. To a capacity 
 which at once penetrated the principle 
 and real aim of the art, he joined an ine- 
 quality of fancy that at one moment lent 
 him wings for the pursuit of beauty, and 
 the next flung him on the ground to crawl 
 
 after deformity : we owe him chiaro- 
 scuro with all its magic, we owe him cari- 
 cature with all its incongruities. His 
 notions of the most elaborate finish and his 
 want of perseverance were at least equal ; 
 — want of perseverance alone could make 
 him abandon his cartoon destined for the 
 great council chamber at Florence, of 
 which the celebrated contest of horsemen 
 was but one group ; for to him who could 
 organize that composition, Michel Angiolo 
 himself ought rather to have been an ob- 
 ject of emulation tlian of fear : and that 
 he was able to organize it, we may be cer- 
 tain from the remaining sketch in the 
 " Etruria Pittrice" lately published, but 
 still more from the admirable print of it 
 by Edelinck, after a drawing of Rubens, 
 who was Lionardo's great admirer, and 
 has done much to impress us with the 
 beauties of his Last Supper, in the Refec- 
 tory of the Dominicans at Milan, which 
 he abandoned likewise without finishing 
 the head of Christ, exhausted by a wild 
 chase after models for the heads and hands 
 of the apostles : had he been able to con- 
 ceive the centre, the radii must have fol- 
 lowed of course." 
 
 Towards the beginning of the century 
 in which Lionardo da Vinci was boi-n, the 
 use of oil was adopted as a vehicle for 
 painting, and aftbrded the means of most 
 extensive improvements, particularly in 
 colour and effect. The methods to which 
 the former execution of the art had been 
 restricted (namely, distemper, in colours 
 mixed with size and water, and after- 
 wards fresco), were of a limited nature, 
 especially the latter, in which, no means 
 being given to change or retouch the co- 
 lours without manifest detriment to the 
 work, the artist was hampered in his plan 
 of conduct and management of design. 
 The invention of oil painting remedied 
 this disadvantage ; and as it allowed end- 
 less variety in effects as well as disposi- 
 tion of colours, together with complete 
 harmony throughout the whole, the fancy 
 of the artist was now permitted to take its 
 full swing, and to produce enchantments 
 which successive ages have not been suffi- 
 cient to dissolve or even weaken. 
 
 The circumstance of varnishing over pic- 
 tures which had been painted in water 
 colours is thought, and perhaps justly, to 
 have been that which led to this important 
 discovery. John Van Eyck, who flourished 
 at Brussels in 1410, is the artist to whom 
 the first exercise of painting with colours 
 ground and mixed with oil has been attri- 
 buted. At all events, if he was not the 
 first who actually applied it to the pifr- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 poses of his art, it was he who first made 
 effectual use of it. In any other case, his 
 application of the fystem would not, to 
 use the words of Vauinander, " have made 
 as much noise in the world as the disco- 
 very of gunpowder by Bertoldo Schwartz 
 had done near a century before." Accord- 
 ing to this same writer, the art of painting 
 had been carried into Flanders about the 
 time of Giotto by some Flemings who 
 went to Italy for the purpose of receiving 
 instruction in it; and he goes on to de- 
 scribe it as having been practised " with 
 gum and eggs at its first commencement 
 by Cimabue." The Germans, likewise, 
 acquired the art about the same time ; but 
 its most successful progress and achieve- 
 ments were confined to the classic coun- 
 tries of Italy. 
 
 " Bartolomeo della Porta, or di S. Marco, 
 the last master of this period, first gave 
 gradation to colour, foi"m, and masses to 
 drapery, and a grave dignity, till then un- 
 known, to execution. If he was not en- 
 dowed with the vei-satility and compre- 
 hension of Lionardo, his principles were 
 less mixed with base matter, and less apt 
 to mislead him. As a member of a reli- 
 gious order, he confined himself to sub- 
 jects and characters of piety, but the few 
 nudities which he allowed himself to ex- 
 hibit show sufficient intelligence and still 
 more style : he foreshortened with truth and 
 boldness, and whenever the figure admit- 
 ted of it, made his drapery the vehicle of 
 the limb it invests. He was the true mas- 
 ter of Ralfaelle, whom his tuition weaned 
 from the meanness of Pietro Perugino, 
 and prepared for the mighty style of JMi- 
 chel Angiolo IJuonarrotti. 
 
 " Sublimity of conception, grandeur of 
 form, and breadth of manner are the ele- 
 ments of Michel Angiolo's style. By these 
 principles he selected or rejected the ob- 
 jects of imitation. As j)iuntt'r, as sculp- 
 tor, as architect, he attempted (and above 
 any other man succeeded) to unite magni- 
 ficence of plan and endless variety of sub- 
 ordinate parts with the utmost simplicity 
 and breadth. His Hue is uniformly grand : 
 cliaracter and beauty were admitted only 
 as far as they could be n\ade subservient 
 to grandeur. The child, the female, mean- 
 ness, deformity, were by him indiscrimi- 
 nately stamped with grandeur. A beggar 
 rose from his iiand the patriarcli of po- 
 verty ; the iiump of his dwarf is impressed 
 witii dignity ; iiis women are moulds of 
 generation ; liis infants teem willi the man ; 
 Ills men arc a race of giants. This is the 
 ' terribil via' hinted at by Agostino C"a- 
 rncei, though perhaps as little understond 
 
 by the Bolognese as by the blindest of his 
 Tuscan adorers, with Vasari at their head. 
 To give the appearance of perfect ease to 
 the most perplexing ditliculty was the ex- 
 clusive power of Michel Angiolo. He is 
 the inventor of epic painting, in that sub- 
 lime circle of the Sistine chapel, whidi 
 exhibits the origin, the progress, and the 
 final dispensations of theocracy. He has 
 personified motion in the groups of the 
 cartoon of Pisa; embodied sentiment on 
 the monuments of St. Lorenzo ; unravelled 
 the features of meditation in the prophets 
 and .sybils of the chapel of Sextus ; and in 
 the Last Judgment, with every attitude 
 that varies the human body, traced the 
 master-trait of every passion that sways 
 the human heart. Though as sculptor, he 
 expressed the character of flesh more per- 
 fectly than all who went before or came 
 after him, yet he never submitted to copy 
 an individual — Julio the second only ex- 
 cepted, and in him he represented the 
 reigning passion rather than the man. In 
 painting he contented himself witli a ne- 
 gative colour, and, as the painter of man- 
 kind, rejected all meretricious ornament. 
 The fabric of St. Peter, scattered into an 
 infinity of jarring parts by Bramante and 
 his successors, he concentrated ; suspended 
 the cupola, and to the most complex gave 
 the air of the most simple of edifices. 
 Such, take him all in all, was M. Angiolo, 
 the salt of art : sometimes he no doul)t 
 had his moments of dereliction, deviated 
 into manner, or perplexed the grandeur of 
 his forms with futile and ostentatious ana- 
 tomy : he met with armies of copyists, 
 and it has been his fate to have been cen- 
 sured for their folly. 
 
 " The inspiration of ISIichel Angiolo was 
 followed by the milder genius of Rallaelle 
 Sanzio, the father of dramatic painting, the 
 painter of humanity ; less eU-vated, less 
 vigorous, but more insinuating, more pres- 
 sing on our licarls, the warm master of 
 our sympathies. What effect of human 
 connexion, wliat feature of tiie mind, from 
 the gentlest emotion lo the most fer\ id 
 burst of passion, has been left unobserved, 
 has not received a characteristic stamp 
 from that examiner of man .' M. Angiolo 
 canu> to nature, nature cami' to liiilfaelle — 
 he tran.smitted her features like a lucid 
 glass unstained, unni(>dified. We stand 
 witii awe l)efore M. Angiolo, and tremble 
 at the heiglit to which he elevates us — >\e 
 embrace Rallaelje, and follow him where- 
 e\er he leads us. Knergy,with proprirly 
 of character and modest grace, poise his 
 line anil <leterminr his correctness. I'er- 
 fcct human beauty he has not ripresenled ; 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 no face of Raffaelle's is perfectly beauti- 
 ful ; no figure of his, in the abstract, pos- 
 sesses the proportions that could raise it 
 to a standard of imitation : form to him 
 was only a vehicle of character or pathos, 
 and to those he adapted it in a mode and 
 with a truth which leaves all attempts at 
 emendation hopeless. His invention con- 
 nects the utmost stretch of possibility 
 with the most plausible degree of proba- 
 bility, in a manner that equally surprises 
 our fancy, persuades our judgment, and 
 affects our heart. His composition always 
 hastens to the most necessary point as its 
 centre, and from that disseminates, to that 
 leads back, as rays, all secondary ones. 
 Group, form, and contrast are subordinate 
 to the event, and commonplace ever ex- 
 cluded. His expression, in strict unison 
 with and decided by character, whether 
 calm, animated, agitated, convulsed, or 
 absorbed by inspiring passion, unmixed 
 and pure, never contradicts its cause, 
 equally remote from tameness and gri- 
 mace : the moment of his choice never suf- 
 fers the action to stagnate or to expire ; 
 it is the moment of transition, the crisis 
 big with the past and pregnant with the 
 future. — If, separately taken, the line of 
 Raffaelle has been excelled in correctness, 
 elegance, and energy ; his colour far sur- 
 passed in tone, and truth, and harmony ; 
 his masses in roundness, and his chiaro- 
 scuro in effect — considered as instruments 
 of pathos, they have never been equalled ; 
 and in composition, invention, expression, 
 and the power of telling a story, he has 
 never been approached. 
 
 " Whilst the superior principles of the 
 art were receiving the homage of Tuscany 
 and Rome, the inferior but more alluring 
 charm of colour began to spread its fasci- 
 nation at Venice, from the pallet of Gior- 
 gione da Castel Franco, and irresistibly 
 entranced every eye that approached the 
 magic of Titiano Veceiii of Cador. To no 
 colourist before or after him did nature 
 unveil herself with that dignified familia- 
 rity in which she appeared to Titiano. 
 His skill, universally and equally fit for 
 all her exhibitions, rendered her simplest 
 to her most compound appearances with 
 equal purity and truth. He penetrated 
 the essence and the general principle of 
 the substances before him, and on these 
 established his theory of colour. He in- 
 vented that breadth of local tint which no 
 imitation has attained ; and first expressed 
 the negative nature of shade : his are the 
 charms of glazing, and the mystery of i-e- 
 flexes, by which he detached, rounded, 
 connected, or enriched his objects. His 
 
 harmony is less indebted to the force of 
 light and shade, or tiie artifices of con- 
 trast, than to a due balance of colour, 
 equally remote from monotony and spots 
 His backgrounds seem to be dictated by 
 nature. Landscape, whether it be consi- 
 dered as the transcript of a spot, or the 
 rich combination of congenial objects, or 
 as the scene of a phenomenon, dates its 
 origin from him : he is the father of por- 
 trait painting, of resemblance with form, 
 character with dignity, and costume with 
 subordination. 
 
 " Another charm was yet wanting to com- 
 plete the round of art — harmony : it ap- 
 peared with Antonio Lasti, called Correg- 
 gio, whose works it attended like an en- 
 chanted spirit. The harmony and the 
 grace of Correggio are proverbial : the me- 
 dium Avhich by breadth of gradation unites 
 two opposite principles — the coalition of 
 light and darkness by imperceptible tran- 
 sition, is the element of his style. — This 
 inspires his figures with grace, to this 
 their grace is subordinate : the most ap- 
 propriate, the most elegant attitudes were 
 adopted,rejected, perhaps sacrificed to the 
 most awkward ones, in compliance with 
 this imperious principle : parts vanished, 
 were absorbed, or emerged in obedience 
 to it. This unison of a whole predomi- 
 nates over all that remains of him, from 
 the vastness of his cupolas to the smallest 
 of his oil pictures. — The harmony of Cor- 
 reggio, though assisted by exquisite hues, 
 was entirely independent of colour : his 
 great organ was chiaro-scuro in its most ex- 
 tensive sense ; compared with the expanse 
 in which he floats, the effects of Lionardo 
 da Vinci are little more than the dying 
 ray of evening, and the concentrated flash 
 of Giorgione discord-ant abruptness. The 
 bland central light of a globe, impercept- 
 ibly gliding through lucid demitints into 
 rich reflected shades, composes the spell 
 of Correggio, and affects us with the soft 
 emotions of a delicious dream." 
 
 The patronage which the art had enjoyed 
 in Italy, from the commencement of its 
 restoration, kept pace with its progress, 
 and was at length perfected by Julius II. 
 and Leo X. at Rome, and by the truly 
 illustrious family of the Medici at Flo- 
 rence. Cosmo di Medici, at the same time 
 that his care and thoughts were directed 
 to the state affairs of the latter province, 
 still found time and means to watch over 
 the developement of the fine arts. His 
 grandson Lorenzo (surnamed the Magnifi- 
 cent), who became his successor a.d. 1464, 
 carried these elegant tastes to a still 
 greater extent, and increased, among other 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 praiseworthy actions, that mass of ancient 
 relics which the industrious search pre- 
 scribed by his predecessor had collected, 
 and which adorned the Medici palace. 
 Desirous of stimulating his countrymen to 
 a successful rivalry with these invaluable 
 treasures, Lorenzo threw open his gardens, 
 wherein they had been deposited, as a 
 school for study, and honoured both his 
 own discrimination and the consummate 
 ability of the artist by placing Michel An- 
 giolo at the head of it. By the influence 
 of this potentate, principally, the council 
 hall of the Florentine republic (which had 
 been shortly before rebuilt), was adorned 
 with paintings by Michel Angiolo and Lio- 
 nardo da Vinci, each being allotted one 
 side of the hall for the exercise of his 
 talents. This may be considered as the 
 first instance of any moment, of public 
 civil employment being given to the pain- 
 ters of Italy ; their chief exertions having 
 been previously restricted to the decora- 
 tion of religious edifices. 
 
 The internal discords which about this 
 period began to engross the attention of 
 the Florentines prevented them from con- 
 tinuing to patronize the arts as they had 
 done ; and, added to this, Julius II., who 
 tiien filled the papal chair, aware of the 
 splendour and glory attached to a state by 
 the successful cultivation of the fine arts, 
 summoned to Rome both Rafiaelle and 
 Michel Angiolo, who, under his auspices, 
 began those inimitable works in the Vati- 
 can which every judicious artist or ama- 
 teur both thinks and speaks of with en- 
 thusiasm. Leo X., his successor, was son 
 of Lorenzo di Medici, and thus possessed 
 a double stimulus, both from the example 
 of his father and his predecessor, to en- 
 courage and preside over art. We use 
 but weak words when we say this stimu- 
 lus was not disregarded. It served to 
 direct the efi'orts of painting towarils the 
 service and splendour of the churdi over 
 which he swayed, of his rank as a secular 
 Bovereign, and of himself as one of the 
 Medici. 
 
 Tims was the principal seat of (ho arts 
 transferred from Florence to Rome ; wiiicii 
 gradually became, in consequence of its 
 many combined advantages, a comi)Ictc 
 university of art, and tlie resort of all sucii 
 as were ambitious to excel therein ; and 
 thus may be said lo have terminated in the 
 rt;ign of Leo X. tiie second grand ejioch 
 of iUr art. 
 
 " Tiic resemblance which mark<!d liic 
 two first periods of ancient and modern art 
 vanishes altogi'ther as we extend our view 
 to the consideration of th(; third, or that 
 
 of refinement, and the origin of scliools. 
 The preeminence of ancient art, as we 
 have observed, was less the result of su- 
 perior powers, than of simplicity of aim 
 and uniformity of pursuit. The Helladic 
 and the Ionian schools appear to have 
 concurred in directing their instruction to 
 the grand principles of form and expres- 
 sion : this was the stamen which they drew 
 out into one immense connected web. The 
 talents that succeeded genius, applied and 
 directed their industry and polish to deco- 
 rate the established system, the refinements 
 of taste, grace, sentiment, colour, adorned 
 beauty, grandeur, and expression. The 
 Tuscan, the Roman, the Venetian, and the 
 Lombard schools, whether from incapa- 
 city, want of education, of adequate or 
 dignified encouragement, meanness of con- 
 ception, or all these together, separated, 
 and in a short time substituted the medium 
 for the end. Michel Angiolo lived to see 
 the electric shock which his design and 
 style had given to art, propagated by the 
 Tuscan and Venetian schools, as the os- 
 tentatious vehicle of puny conceits and 
 emblematic quibbles, or the palliative of 
 empty pomp and degraded luxuriance of 
 colour. He had been copied but was not 
 imitated by Andrea Vannucchi, surnamed 
 del Sarto, who in his series of pictures on 
 the life of John the Baptist, in preference 
 adopted the meagre stjle of Albert Durer. 
 The artist who appears to have penetrated 
 deepest to his mind was Pelegrino Ti- 
 baldi, of Bologna ; celebrated as the pain- 
 ter of the frescoes in the Academic Insti- 
 tute of that citj', and as the architect of 
 the Escurial under Philip II. The com- 
 positions, groups, and single figures of the 
 Institute exhibit a singular mixture of ex- 
 traordinary vigour and puerile imbecility 
 of conception, of cliaracter and caricature, 
 of style and manner. Polyphome groping 
 at the moutii of his cave for IHysses, and 
 yiiolus granting him favourable winds, are 
 striking instances of both : than tlie Cyclops, 
 Michel Angiolo himself never conceived 
 a form of savage energy, with attitude and 
 limbs more in unison ; whilst tlie god of 
 winds is degraded to a scanty and ludi- 
 crous semblance of Thersilea, and Ulysses 
 with his companions travestied by the 
 scniibiubaroiis look and costume of the 
 age of ('(uistantine or Attila ; the manner 
 of Midiel Angiolo is the style of Pele- 
 grino Tibaldi ; from iiim Gol/.ius, Hems- 
 Mik, ami Spranger borrowed the compeii- 
 (liiiiii of the Tuscan's peculiarities. Willi 
 tliis mighty talent, however, Michel An- 
 giolo seems not to have been acquainted : 
 but by that tinaccountable weakness inci- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 dent to the greatest powers, and the severe 
 remembrancer of their vanity, he became 
 the superintendent and assistant tutor of 
 the Venetian Sebastiano, and of Daniel 
 Ricciarelli, of Volterra ; the first of whom, 
 with an exquisite eye for individual, had 
 no sense for ideal colour, whilst the other 
 rendered great diligence and much anato- 
 mical erudition useless, by meagreness of 
 line and sterility of ideas : how far Michel 
 Angiolo succeeded in initiating either in 
 his principles, the far famed pictures of 
 the Resuscitation of Lazarus, by the first, 
 (once in the cathedi-al of Narbonne, and 
 now one of the chief ornaments of the Bri- 
 tish National Gallery), and the fresco of 
 the Descent from the Cross (in the church 
 of La Trinita del Monte), at Rome, by the 
 second, sufficiently evince : pictures which 
 combine the most heterogeneous princi- 
 ples. The group of Lazarus in Sebastiano 
 del Piombo's, and that of the women, with 
 the figure of Christ, in Daniel Ricciarelli's, 
 not only breathe the sublime conception 
 that inspired, but the master hand that 
 shaped them: offsprings of Michel Angiolo 
 himself, models of expression, style, and 
 breadth, they cast on all the rest an air of 
 inferiority, and only serve to prove the 
 incongruity of partnership between une- 
 qual powers ; this inferiority however is 
 respectable, when compared with the de- 
 pravations of Michel Angiolo'^ style by 
 the remainder of the Tuscan school, espe- 
 cially those of Giorgio Vasari, the most 
 superficial artist, and the most abandoned 
 mannerist of his time, but the most acute 
 observer of men, and the most dextrous 
 flatterer of princes. He ovei'whelmed the 
 palaces of the Medici and of the popes, 
 the convents and chuixhes of Italy, with a 
 deluge of mediocrity, commended by rapi- 
 dity and shameless 'bravura' of hand: 
 he alone did more tvork than all the art- 
 ists of Tuscany together, and to him may 
 be truly applited, what he had the inso- 
 lence to say of Tintoretto, that he turned 
 the art into a boy's toy." 
 
 Giulio Romano was the most eminent 
 of the pupils of Raft'aelle ; but though, 
 like his illustrious master, impressed with 
 the stupendous views and style of Buona- 
 rotti, lie had by no means equal force of 
 judgment, or delicacy of taste, to guide 
 him in his application of these qualities. 
 It is not so much from his tutored works 
 in the Vatican that we are to judge of the 
 best achievements of Romano as from the 
 grand conceptions, the pathetic or sublime 
 allegories, and the luxurious reveries 
 which constitute the principal charm of 
 the palace del T, near Mantua : Iiad the 
 
 artist united purer taste with loftiness of 
 imagination, the magnitude of these per- 
 formances would perhaps have distanced 
 all competition ; but, as it is, they have 
 been likened to a mighty stream, some- 
 times flowing in a full and limpid vein, 
 but oftener turbid with rubbish. 
 
 Besides this celebrated artist, Parme- 
 giano, Tintoretto, Polydori, and Cara- 
 vaggi were amongst the most skilful of 
 those who continued to uphold the prac- 
 tice of art with ability. " No artist ever 
 painted his own mind so powerfully as did 
 Michel Angiolo Amevigi, surnamed II Ca- 
 ravaggi. To none did nature ever set 
 limits with a more decided hand. Dark- 
 ness gave him light ; into his melancholy 
 cell light stole only with a pale reluctant 
 ray, or broke on it as flashes in a stormy 
 night. The most vulgar forms he recom- 
 mended by ideal light and shade, and a 
 tremendous breadth of manner." 
 
 Titian and Correggio had, in point of the 
 adoption of their respective principles, 
 fates widely diff'erent. That of the former 
 being less pure in itself, and less decided 
 in its object of imitation, than either An- 
 giolo's or Raffaelle's, suffered compara- 
 tively less from the various applications of 
 it by his followers. It had besides for its 
 support the irresistible fascinations of co- 
 lour, which speak to every spectator, and 
 hence was successfully pursued for a con- 
 siderable time. But the principle of Cor- 
 reggio was not calculated for this species 
 of longevity. It vanished with its author. 
 His expansive breadth of light ; his inex- 
 pressible grace (so much talked of, yet so 
 little understood) ; his perfect harmony 
 and depth of tone have never been other- 
 wise than partially imitated. Parmegiano 
 may be considered to have imbibed his 
 style the most fully. This admirable art- 
 ist was, like Raff"aelle and Giorgione, ab- 
 stracted from this world in early manhood, 
 and perhaps before the complete capabili- 
 ties of his mind had been developed. 
 
 Such was the condition of the art when, 
 towards the end of the sixteenth century, 
 the Caracci (Ludovico, Agostino, and An- 
 nibale), founded at Bologna that Eclectic 
 school, the aim of which was, by selecting 
 the beauties, correcting the faults, supply- 
 ing the defects, and avoiding the extremes 
 of the different styles then practised, to 
 establish a perfect system. The plan was 
 laid down by Agostino Caracci in the fol- 
 lowing sonnet : 
 
 Chi farsi nn bnon Pittor cerca, e dcsia, 
 II disegiio di Roma liabbia alia mano. 
 La mossa coll' ombrar Vcneziaiio, 
 E il degno colovii- di Lombardia. 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 Di Michel' Angiol ta terribil via, 
 II vero natural di Ti/.iano, 
 Del Corrcggio lo stil puro, e sovrano, 
 E di UD Rafel la giusta siinetria. 
 
 Del Tibaldi il decoro, e il fondamento, 
 Del dotto Primaticcio I'inveDtare, 
 E un po di gratia del Parraigianino. 
 
 Ma senr.n tanti stiidi, c tanto stento, 
 Si ponga I'opre solo ad imitare, 
 CUe qui la^ciocci il oostro Niccolino. 
 
 "Take," says Agostino, " the design of 
 Rome, Venetian motion and shade, the 
 dignified tone of Lombardy's colour, the 
 terrible manner of Michel Angiolo, the 
 just symmetry of Rafl'aelle, Titiano's truth 
 of nature, and the sovereign purity of Cor- 
 reggio's style : add to these the decorum 
 and solidity of Tibaldi, the learned inven- 
 tion of Primaticcio, and a little of Parme- 
 giano's grace : but to save so much study, 
 such weary labour, apply your imitation 
 to the works which our dear Nicolo has 
 left us here." 
 
 This tone of advice has, it must be con- 
 fessed, very much the character of " a good 
 receipt for making blacking;" and it is the 
 more curious that it should be so, inas- 
 much as the object proposed by these ce- 
 lebrated relatives, although notefi'ectually 
 attained, yet was sufficiently so to arrest 
 for awhile the backward progress of the 
 art. Ludovico, indeed, instead of blindly 
 following the dictates of any master or 
 masters, was the decided pupil of nature ; 
 by the simplicity and purity of his taste 
 and execution not only surpassing his 
 kinsmen, Annibale and Agostino, but in a 
 considerable degree restoring the art once 
 more to its first and greatest principles. 
 Annibale, it is true, disputed the point 
 vigorously by his energetic execution and 
 academic acquirement; but the work on 
 which his fame chiefly reposes (the gal- 
 lery of the Farnese palace at R(mie) proves 
 tiiat, if superior to both of his kinsmen in 
 those accomplisliments, he was inferior to 
 either in taste, sentiment, or discrimina- 
 tion. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, wlio saw the works 
 of Ludovico Caracci at Hologiia, holds him 
 out, in his Discourses, as tlie best model 
 for what is more specifically denominated 
 style in painting. " Ludovico Caracci," 
 says lie, (I mean in his best works), ap- 
 pears to me to ai)|)roa{li tiie nearest to 
 perfection. His unallected brcadtii of 
 light and siiadow, the simplicitj of ct)lour- 
 ing, which, liolding its jjroijcr rank, docs 
 not draw aside tlie least part of (lie atlen- 
 tion from the subject, and the solemn ef- 
 fiTt of that twilight which seems dill'iiscd 
 over his pictures appears lo mc to corre- 
 
 spond with grave and dignified subjects 
 better than the more artificial brilliancy of 
 sunshine which enlightens the pictures of 
 Titian." 
 
 The school formed by the Caracci for the 
 improvement of their art was entitled I. 'jica- 
 (k'lni degli Desiderosi, but is better recog- 
 nised as the Academy of the Caracci, and 
 gave rise to many artists of high name and 
 merited celebrity. But these individuals 
 soon threw aside, at least as completely as 
 they could, the heterogeneous principle on 
 which it was founded, each following the 
 dictates of his own uncontroled imagina- 
 tion, and difl'ering from his fellow students 
 as well in manner as in objects of imita- 
 tion. The greatest of these names is that 
 of Guido Rheni, whose grace, although 
 exquisite, was yet artificial ; his female 
 forms, more especially, may be considered 
 as abstracts of antique beauty, attended by 
 languishing attitudes, and dressed in vo- 
 luptuous attire. Domenichino comes next, 
 who, unusually obedient to the prescrip- 
 tion of his master, strove to combine with 
 the expression of RafTaelle the energy of 
 Annibale Caracci, and the colour of Lu- 
 dovico. Schidone, Lanfranco, Guercino, 
 each studied in the school of the Caracci ; 
 but the indefinite nature of its system soon 
 wrought its downfall. 
 
 From this period is to be dated the 
 rapid decline of the art in Italy. Da Cor- 
 tona and Giordano both possessed great 
 powers, but abused them by yielding im- 
 plicitly to the tasteless suggestions of their 
 employers. Nicholas Poussin, a French- 
 man, but grafted on the Roman stock, 
 placed himself in the gap, and endea- 
 voured to stem the torrent of corrupted 
 taste. He reverted, for his models, to 
 the pure source of Grecian art : indeed, 
 such was his attachment to the ancients, 
 that he has been said to have copied their 
 relics ratiicr than imitated their spirit. 
 The costume, the mythology, the rites of 
 antiquity, were his elements; his scenery, 
 his landscape, are pure classic ground. 
 The wildness of Salvator Rosa opposes a 
 .striking contrast to the classic rcgulariCy 
 of Poussin. Terrific and grand in his 
 conceptions of inanimate nature, he was 
 reduced to attempts of hiding, l)y boldness 
 of iiand, his inability of exhibiting her im- 
 passioned, or in the dignity of character. 
 With Poussin and Siilvalor closes all 
 record worth notice of the history of the 
 art in Italy. 
 
 The first name which claims our atten- 
 tion, in noticing the progress of painting 
 in Gerujany, is that of Albert Durer. This 
 man's talents wore various, his coniposi- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 tions tlie result of deep study, his thoughts 
 ingenious, his colours brilliant. On the 
 other hand, he has been blamed for stiff- 
 ness and aridity in his outlines, for the 
 absence of taste or grandeur in his expres- 
 sion, for ignorance of costume, of aerial 
 perspective, and of gradation of colours. 
 Lucas of Leyden was Durer's most suc- 
 cessful rival, unless we except Holbein, 
 who, if he did not equal him in composi- 
 tion, unquestionably surpassed him, and 
 that greatly, in portrait. 
 
 The history of the art in the neighbour- 
 ing countries of Flanders and Holland is 
 not distinct from that of Germany until the 
 appearance of those two " meteors of art" 
 Peter Paul Rubens and Rembrandt Van 
 Rhyn. The former of these extraordinary 
 men produced an immense number of 
 works. He excelled alike in historical 
 painting, in portrait and landscape, in fruit, 
 flowers, and animals. He both invented 
 and executed with the utmost facility ; 
 and, to show the extent of his powers, fre- 
 quently made a great number of sketches 
 of the same subject altogether different, 
 and without allowing any time to elapse 
 between them. His figures appear to be 
 the exact counterpart of his conceptions, 
 and their creation nothing more than 
 a simple act of the will. He had great 
 knowledge of anatomy, but was often hur- 
 ried away by the impetuosity of his ima- 
 gination, and his ardour for execution. 
 He preferred splendour to beauty of form, 
 and occasionally sacrificed correctness of 
 design to the magic of colour. In short, 
 the qualities of Rubens, generally speak- 
 ing, indicate a mind full of fire and vigour 
 rather than accuracy or profound thought. 
 
 It appears evident, from the works of 
 Rubens, that his method of painting was 
 to lay the colours in their place one at the 
 side of another, and mix them afterwards 
 by a slight touch of the pencil. Titian 
 mingled his tints as they are in nature, in 
 such a manner as to render it impossible 
 to discover where they began or termi- 
 nated ; the effect is evident, the labour is 
 concealed. Thus Rubens is more dazzling, 
 and Titian more harmonious. In this re- 
 spect, the first excites the attention, the 
 second fixes it. The carnations of Titian 
 (see Carnation), resemble the blush of 
 nature ; those of Rubens are brilliant and 
 polished like satin, and sometimes even 
 his tints are so strong and separate, as to 
 have the effect of spots. 
 
 " Rubens," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 " is a remarkable instance of the same 
 mind being seen in all the various parts of 
 
 the art. The whol{> is no much of n piece, 
 that one can scarce be brought to believe 
 but that, if any one of tliem had been more 
 correct and perfect, his works would not 
 be so complete as they appear. If we 
 should allow a greater purity and correct- 
 ness of drawing, his want of simplicity in 
 composition, colouring, and drapery would 
 appear more gross." He was truly the 
 father of Flemish art, so remarkable for 
 brilliancy of colouring, for exactness of 
 drawing, and the magic of their chiaro- 
 scuro. To these may be added profound 
 arrangement, though not exercised on the 
 most beautiful forms ; a composition not 
 destitute of grandeui', a certain air of no- 
 bleness in the figures, strong and natural 
 expression ; in short, to speak generally, 
 a species of art, neither copied from the 
 ancients, nor from the Roman or Lombard 
 Bchools, and indeed unknown to any other 
 part of the world ; and which, during the 
 course of the seventeenth century, fur- 
 nished those countries wherein it arose 
 with innumerable Avorks of the greatest 
 perfection in their kind. 
 
 Rembrandt was a genius of the first 
 order, if we except what relates to form, 
 and in him the choice of low figures is the 
 more offensive, as his compositions fre- 
 quently required the very opposite. As 
 his father was a miller near Leyden, his 
 education must altogether have depended 
 on the exertion of great talents, and the 
 study of nature. He studied the grotesque 
 figure of a Dutch peasant, or the servant 
 of an inn, with as much application as the 
 greatest masters of Italy would have stu- 
 died the Apollo Belvidere or the Venus 
 de Medici. In spite, however, of the most 
 portenlous deformity, and without dwell- 
 ing on the spell of his chiaroscuro, such 
 were his powers of nature, such the gran- 
 deur, pathos, or simplicity of his composi- 
 tion, from the most elevated or extensive 
 arrangement to the meanest or most home- 
 ly, that the best cultivated eye, the purest 
 sensibility, and the most refined taste 
 are equally fascinated by them. Like 
 Shakspeare he combined transcendant ex- 
 cellence with many even unpardonable 
 faults, and reconciled us to them. " He 
 possessed the complete empire of light and 
 shade, and of all the tints which float be- 
 tween them. He tinged his pencil, with 
 equal success, in the cool of dawn, in the 
 noontide ray, in the livid flash, in evanes- 
 cent twilight, and rendered darkness visi- 
 ble. Though made to bend a steadfast 
 eye on the bolder phenomena of nature, 
 he knew how to follow her into her calm. 
 
 M I>1 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 est abodes, gave interest to insipidity or 
 baldness, and plucked a flower in every 
 desert." 
 
 " Rembrandt's manner of painting (says 
 M. Descamps) is a kind of magic. No 
 artist knew better the effects of different 
 colours mingled together, nor could better 
 distinguish those which did not agree from 
 those which did. He placed every tone 
 in its place with so much exactness and 
 harmony, that he needed not to mix them, 
 and so destroy what may be termed the 
 flower and freshness of the colours. He 
 made the first draft of his pictures with 
 great precision, and with a mixture of co- 
 lours altogether particular. He proceeded 
 on his first sketch with vigorous applica- 
 tion, and sometimes loaded his lights with 
 so great a quantity of colour, that he seemed 
 to model rather than to paint. His work- 
 shop was occasionally made dark, and he 
 received, through a hole, the light, which 
 fell as he chose to direct it. On particu- 
 lar occasions, he placed behind his model 
 a piece of cloth of the same colour with 
 the ground he wanted, and this piece of 
 cloth receiving the same ray which enlight- 
 ened the head, marked the difference in a 
 sensible manner, and allowed the painter 
 the power of augmenting it according to 
 his principles." 
 
 It is difficult to determine the progress of 
 painting in France. Miniature painting, 
 and painting on glass were early cultivated 
 in that country ; and in these two kinds, 
 the Italians had often recourse to the 
 French artists. The art, for some time en- 
 couraged by Francis I., fell into a state of 
 languor from which it did not recover till 
 the reign of Louis XIII. Jacques Blan- 
 chard, who has been called the French Ti- 
 tian, flourished about this period ; but, as 
 he died young, and without educating any 
 pupils to perpetuate his manner, he cannot 
 be regarded as tlie master of any school. 
 We have already spoken of N icholas Pous- 
 sin, in our review of Italian art, to which 
 he more properly belonged. I5ut the seeds 
 of mediocrity which the Caracci had at- 
 tempted to scatter over Italy found a more 
 congenial soil, and reared an abundant 
 harvest, in France : " to mix up a com- 
 pound from somt'Uiing of every excellence 
 in the catalogue of art, was tlie principle 
 of their th(!ory, and their aim in execution. 
 It is in FiMiiie wliere INlichel Angiolo's 
 right to the title of u paintttr was first 
 questioned. The Jiercencss of his line, as 
 they call it, the purity of the auti(|ue, and 
 th(! characteristic forms of |{affaell«! are 
 only the road to the academic vigour, the 
 
 librated stjle of Annibale Caracci, and 
 from that they appeal to the model ; in 
 composition they consult more the artifice 
 of grouping, contrast, and richness, than 
 the subject or propriet>' ; their expression 
 is dictated by the theatre. From the uni- 
 formity of this process, not to allow that 
 the school of France offers respectable ex- 
 ceptions would be unjust ; without recur- 
 ring again to the name of Nicholas Poussin, 
 the works of Eustache le Sueur, Charles 
 le Brun, Sebastien Bourdon, and some- 
 times Pierre Mignard, contain original 
 beauties and rich materials. Le Sueur's 
 series of pictures in the Chartreux exhibit 
 the features of contemplative piety, in a 
 purity of style and a placid breadth of 
 manner that moves the heart. His digni- 
 fied martyrdom of St. Laurence, and the 
 burning of the magic books at Ephesus, 
 breathe the spirit of Raffaelle. The pow- 
 erful comprehension of a whole, only 
 equalled by the fire which pervades every 
 part of the battles of Alexander, by Chas. 
 le Brun, would entitle him to the higheit 
 rank in history, had the characters been 
 less mannered, had he not exchanged the 
 Argyraspids and the Macedonian phalanx 
 for the compact legionaries of the Trajan 
 pillar; had he distinguibhed Greeks from 
 barbarians rather by national feature and 
 form than by accoutrement and armour. 
 The seven works of charity by Seb. Bour- 
 don teem with surprising, pathetic, and al- 
 ways novel images ; and in the plague of 
 David, by Pierre Mignard, our sympathy 
 is roused by energies of terror and combi- 
 nations of woe, which escaped Poussin 
 and Raffaelle himself. 
 
 " The obstinacy of national pride, per- 
 haps more than the neglect of government 
 or the frown of superstition, coulined the 
 labours of the Spanish school, from its ob- 
 scure origin at Sevilla to its brightest 
 period, within the narrow limits of indivi- 
 dual imitation. But the degree of perfec- 
 tion attained by Diego Velasquez, Joseph 
 Ribera, and Murillo, in pursuing tlie same 
 object by means as dill'erent as successful, 
 imi)resses us with deep respect for the 
 variety of their powers. 
 
 "That the great stjle ever received the 
 homage of Spanish genius, ai)pears not ; 
 neither Alfonso Beruguette nor Pelegrino 
 Tibi.Idi left followers: but that the eyes 
 and the taste, fed by the substane.- of Spag- 
 nuolctto and ISIurillo, should without re- 
 luctance have sul)initted to the gay Nolati- 
 lity of Luca Gionlaiio, and the ostentatious 
 llimsiness of Sebastian t'oiua, would be 
 nuitter of surprise, did we not see the same 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 principles successfully pursued in the 
 plafonds of Antonio Raphael Mengs, the 
 painter of philosophy, as he is styled by 
 his biographer D'Azara. The cartoons of 
 the frescoes painted for the royal palace 
 at Madrid, representing the apotlieosis of 
 Trajan and the temple of Renown, exhibit 
 less the stjle of Raflaelle in the nuptials 
 of Cupid and Psyche in the Farnesina, 
 than the gorgeous but empty bustle of 
 Pietro da Cortona." 
 
 We will conclude this sketch of the his- 
 tory of painting by a brief notice of its 
 progress in our own country. 
 
 But little is known respecting the exist- 
 ence of painting in England previously to 
 the reign of Henry VIII., who patronized 
 tiie talents of Holbein and Torregiano, 
 and invited Titian to visit his court. It 
 M'as but a short period before that these 
 islands had begun to cultivate the elegant 
 arts of life, and to shake olf the influence 
 of rude and ignorant manners. The clioice 
 of subjects, however, prescribed by Henry 
 and his courtiers to those eminent men who 
 then resided in England was unquestion- 
 ably to be lamented, and sutlers extremely 
 from a contrast with what was done by his 
 rival, Francis I., the French king, Avho 
 employed and enriched Andrea del Sarto, 
 Rustici, Rosso, Primaticcio, Cellini, and 
 Niccolo, not to aggregate a mass of painted 
 and chiseled treasures for the mere grati- 
 fication of his own vanity, but to scatter 
 the seeds of real taste throughout France; 
 while, on the other hand, Torregiano and 
 Holbein under Henry, as well as Frede- 
 rigo Zucchero under Elizabeth, were con- 
 demned to gothic work and portrait paint- 
 ing. The Reformation, however great the 
 satisfaction with which the English people 
 justly regard it, was, without doubt, highly 
 injurious to the cultivation of the principles 
 of art. The stern spirit of the early re- 
 formers led them not only into a total dis- 
 regard, but into an absolute condemnation, 
 of every thing ornamental or superfluous ; 
 and the arts of painting and sculpture, 
 more particularly, owing their principal 
 splendour and success to the munificent 
 patronage of the mother church, fell under 
 the peculiar and powerful ban of her re- 
 volted daughter. If, on the contrary, at 
 this juncture, when the national spirit Avas 
 remodelled, and when that stupendous 
 change laid open almost all that was grand 
 in intellect or spirited in action, the fine 
 arts had participated in the vigorous up- 
 springing, and had received the encou- 
 ragement instead of the reprobation of 
 tliose lofty-minded theologians, it is more 
 than probable that England would at this 
 
 day have had to boast, in addition to her 
 brilliant and recognised claims on the 
 score of literature and science, the glory 
 of exhibiting a national and superior style 
 of historical painting. But, as it was, the 
 injunction of Henry against images (which 
 had been made tlie instruments of idola- 
 trous delusions in churches), and still 
 more the rigid edicts of Edward VI. and 
 Elizabeth against statues and pictures in 
 general, while they suddenly checked the 
 career of historical and religious painting, 
 seem to have set a mark of disgrace on 
 tiie arts themselves, and to have left them, 
 for a considerable length of time, a prey to 
 indifference and scorn. 
 
 Charles I., it is true, strove to introduce 
 a feeling for the art ; and whilst Rubens 
 sojourned amongst us in the character of 
 an ambassador from the court of Madrid, 
 employed him to paint the cieling of his 
 newly erected banqueting room (now the 
 chapel) at Whitehall. He also, by coun- 
 tenancing and patronising that prince of 
 portrait painters, Vaudyck, as well as 
 other foreigners of talent, conferred on his 
 country a treasure for which we ti-ust she 
 is at length grateful. Charles collected a 
 very considerable gallery of pictures, and, 
 at the instance of Rubens, bought the in- 
 valuable cartoons of Ralfaelle, now the 
 chief and envied ornament of Hampton 
 Court : he likewise, at a cost of £20,000, 
 purchased the cabinet of the Duke of 
 Mantua, and commissioned an artist to 
 copy for him the works of Titian in Spain. 
 But the exertions of Charles were frus- 
 trated and intercepted by his unhappy des- 
 tiny; and the whole of his artistical col- 
 lection was sold and dispersed by the par- 
 liament of 1643, which issued a mandate 
 " that all pictures which had the repre- 
 sentation of the Saviour or the Virgin 
 Mary in them should be burnt." As if to 
 complete this unfortunate distribution, so 
 prejudicial to the interests of the art in 
 England, a large part of this magnificent 
 collection, which had been on the Restora- 
 tion replaced in the palace of Whitehall, 
 was utterly destroyed by the fire which 
 consumed that edifice. 
 
 Charles II., with the cartoons of Raf- 
 faelle in his possession, and with the 
 splendid pictorial ornaments of Whitehall 
 before his eyes, permitted the absurdities 
 of Verrio, and the dull mimicries of Gen- 
 naro to render unsightly the walls of his 
 palaces, whilst the genuine talent of Sir 
 Peter Lely was degraded in painting the 
 Cymons or Iphigenias of his voluptuous 
 court. This distinguished artist, the rival, 
 and in many instances the successful rival 
 
of Vandjxk, was succeeded by Sir God- 
 frey Kneller, who, with undoubted natural 
 abilities, suffered the love of gain, when 
 those abilities had lifted liim into notice, 
 to pervert his taste and deaden his ambi- 
 tion. 
 
 In historical painting no British artist 
 had appeared to rival the perforniances of 
 foreign excellence until Sir James Thorn- 
 hill, born in 1677, arose to dispute the ho- 
 nours of the palette with La Guerre, whom 
 many among our nobility had employed to 
 decorate their halls and staircases. Sir 
 James Thornhill received a commission 
 from the state to decorate St. Paul's Ca- 
 thedral and Greenwich Hall, in which 
 performances he was assisted by a German 
 artist of the name of Andv^. It will not, 
 however, be imagined that much value 
 was set on tlie talents of these gentlemen, 
 when we state that Sir James's engage- 
 ment was at £2. per square yard ! Tliorn- 
 hill's merits, indeed, as an historical pain- 
 ter, cannot be said to demand any very great 
 commendation ; still he was the father of 
 English art in that particular, and for a long 
 time had no successful imitator. " In the 
 commencement of tlie reign of George I. 
 (says Sir Horace Walpole), the arts of Eng- 
 land were sunk almost to the lowest ebb." 
 Portraiture, it is true, had been success- 
 fully practised by Dobson, Riley, Cooper, 
 Greenhill, Jervas, and Richardson, but by 
 none with any remarkable eminence. 
 
 It was not, however, to continue always 
 thus : and the time at length arrived when 
 the English artists appeared not only de- 
 sirous but capable of raising tlie character 
 of their country in tliis respect, at least, 
 to a level with tiiat of any other nation of 
 Europe. 
 
 The principal difficulty in the outset of 
 this event was to rescue the art from the 
 degrading influence of a vicious taste, to 
 retrace the steps of our jjredecessors (or 
 rather to burst the bandages in wiiich they 
 had enthralled us), and resort at once to 
 the original principle of imitation; which, 
 when pure and select, is tiie only sound 
 basis of the art. The first step towards 
 this reformation was the establisiinient of 
 a school for drawing from the li\ing figure. 
 Tiiis iiad been begun by Sir Janics Tliorn- 
 liill, in most inexplicable conjunction witii 
 Sir Godfrey Kneller, who, one would ima- 
 gine, fioin liis latter works, had left all 
 •consideration of the valu(> of such a tliiiif; 
 far behind. Thus, however, lie assisted 
 in laying tlie foundation of a remedy for 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 Piazza for some years. His death, in 
 173 1, obliged the artists to procure ano- 
 
 ther situation, which was not effected 
 without some difficulty; for the people 
 V ere so unprepared to regard the study 
 from the naked figure as necessary to art- 
 ists, that their meetings were even sus- 
 pected to be held for immoral purposes. 
 Another school was at length formed by 
 Michael Moser, a native of Schaffhausen, 
 and a chaser by profession, and six other 
 artists, principally foreigners, the manage- 
 ment resting with Moser. After awhile, 
 they were visited by Hogarth and otheis, 
 and a larger body was formed in conse- 
 quence, who established themselves in Pe- 
 ter's Court, St. Martin's Lane, in the year 
 1739. Having acquired some property by 
 combined exhibitions of their works, they 
 solicited a charter of incorporation, and 
 the scheme being sanctioned by his late 
 Majesty, their charter was granted in 
 1705. But dissensions arising in the body, 
 a secession of many of its principal mem- 
 bers took place, and the result was the 
 establishment of the Royal Academy in 
 1708, under the more immediate patronage 
 of the king; Sir Joshua Reyholds being 
 nominated its first president. Introduc- 
 tion to Edwards's Anecdotes of Painters. 
 
 The general taste of the country was, 
 in fact, awakened and purified with re- 
 spect to art, and, on the success of Ho- 
 garth, Reynolds, and Wilson, several so- 
 cieties were formed throughout the king- 
 dom for the avowed purpose of patronising 
 and cultivating it. 
 
 Richardson, whose tracts ought to be 
 known to every student and amateur of 
 painting, died in 1745, at the advanced 
 age of 80. He was a bad painter, but his 
 treatises on the art are full of enthusiasm, 
 and of judicious observations on the theory 
 of the art. Of one of these Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds declared, that it had confirmed 
 him in iiis love of the art, and elevaleil iiis 
 ideas of its professors. Richardson con- 
 tended strenuously for the propriety of 
 painting portraits in the costume of their 
 time ; thus striking at the a!)surd system 
 of flowing robes which had been adojjted 
 by Kneller. This suggestion of Richard- 
 son's, dictated by common sense, produced 
 the happiest ellects. The nonsensical dra- 
 peries which had invested the represented 
 l)ersons of tlie gentlemen, together with 
 tlu- ungraceliil silk robe which liiey con- 
 trived to liuow nctilifiintlij over tiic ^lioui- 
 ders of tht^ ladies, were laid aside ; and 
 
 the evil which he, more than any other the succeeding portrait painters, headed 
 man, had occasioned. This school Sir by a son-in-law of Richar'Ison (Huflson), 
 James continued at his own house in the and a Frenchman of the name of Van Loo 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 (brother of Carle Van Loo), began to dress 
 their sitters in all the formality of the day, 
 Hudson being assisted by a Fleming of 
 the name of Van Aiken, in the represen- 
 tation of tiie silks and laces. Nor did the 
 reformation stop here: it extended into 
 the region of historical painting : and 
 Hayman,the successor of Sir James Thorn- 
 hill, perceived the propriety of retaining 
 the costume properly appertaining to those 
 figures introduced into his paintings ; no 
 longer, by an unmeaning affectation, chang- 
 ing them into Grecian heroes or Roman 
 centurions. 
 
 This period might be denominated the 
 infancy of English art; and it is not a 
 little curious, that at the time when paint- 
 ing was verging towards a state of hope- 
 less decline all over the Continent of Eu- 
 rope, it should have revived, and that to 
 no small purpose, in these islands, the in- 
 habitants of which had been frequently 
 taunted by foreigners as unable to execute 
 a fine painting. 
 
 We shall not dwell on its incipient state 
 of improvement ; indeed, the commenda- 
 tions bestowed on the painters alluded to 
 above regard the priiiciple of imitation 
 rather than the thing imitated, since no- 
 thing could possibly be more untasteful or 
 repulsive than the stiff, starch, and un- 
 sightly uniform (both male and female) of 
 those days. But the principle of attention 
 to actual representation once established, 
 it soon produced the fruits of a better 
 taste in the art generally; and, accord- 
 ingly, it was not long before the matchless 
 talent of Hogarth beamed forth in unap- 
 proachable splendour to gild the onward 
 progress of the muse of painting, and to 
 herald the appearance of a kindred genius 
 in the person of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 Hogarth traced out a department in 
 painting which was at once novel and ex- 
 citing—and he filled it : — 
 
 " Within that circle none durst walk but he !" 
 
 His pictures are pregnant with meaning. 
 Each one tells you a whole history. He 
 had the faculty to grasp all the minutiae of 
 the scene which he placed before you — 
 nothing was suffered to escape. 
 
 " It is the fashion," says an admirable 
 living critic (Mr. Charles Lamb), " with 
 those who cry up the great historical 
 school in this country, to exclude Hogarth 
 from that school, as an artist of an inferior 
 and vulgar class. Those persons seem to 
 me to confound the painting of subjects in 
 common or vulgar life with the being a 
 vulgar artist. The quantity of thought 
 
 which Hogarth crowds into every picture 
 would alone unnulgurize every subject 
 which he might choose. Let us take the 
 lowest of his subjects, the print called Gin 
 Lane. Here is plenty of poverty and low 
 stuff to disgust upon a superficial view : 
 and accordingly, a cold spectator feels 
 himself immediately disgusted and re- 
 pelled. I have seen many turn away from 
 it, not being able to bear it. The same 
 persons would perhaps have looked with 
 great complacency upon Poussin's cele- 
 brated picture of the Plague, at Athens. 
 Disease and death and bewildering terror, 
 in Athenian garments, are endurable, and 
 conre, as the delicate critics express it, 
 within the ' limits of pleasurable sensa- 
 tion.' But the scenes of their own St. 
 Giles's, delineated by their own country- 
 man, are too shocking to think of. Yet if 
 we could abstract our minds from the fas- 
 cinating colours of the picture, and forget 
 the coarse execution (in some respects) of 
 the print, intended as it was to be a cheap 
 plate, accessible to the poorer sort of peo- 
 ple, for whose instruction it was done, I 
 think we could have no hesitation in con- 
 ferring the palm of superior genius upon 
 Hogarth, comparing this work of his with 
 Poussin's picture. There is more of ima- 
 gination in it — that power which draws 
 all things to one, — which makes things 
 animate and inanimate, beings with their 
 attributes, subjects and their accessories, 
 take one colour, and serve to one effect. 
 Every thing in the print, to use a vulgar 
 expression, tells. Every part is full of 
 * strange images of death.' It is per- 
 fectly amazing and astounding to look at. 
 Not only the two prominent figures, the 
 woman and the half-dead man, which are 
 as terrible as any thing which Michel An- 
 giolo ever drew, but every thing else in 
 the print contributes to bewilder and stu- 
 pify, — the very houses, as I heard a friend 
 of mine express it, tumbling all about in 
 various directions, seem drunk — seem ab- 
 solutely reeling from the effect of that dia- 
 bolical spirit of frenzy which goes forth 
 over the whole composition. — To show the 
 poetical and almost prophetical concep- 
 tion in the artist, one little circumstance 
 may serve. Not content with the dying 
 and dead figures, which he has strewed in 
 profusion over the proper scene of the ac- 
 tion, he shows you what (of a kindred na- 
 ture) is passing beyond it. Close by the 
 shell, in which, by direction of the parish 
 beadle, a man is depositing his wife, is an 
 old wall, which, partaking of the univer- 
 sal decay around it, is tumbling to pieces. 
 
Throuf^h a Rap in this wall arc seen tliree 
 lisures, whicli appear to make a part in 
 some funeral procession which is passing 
 by on the otlier side of the wall, out of the 
 sphere of the composition. This extend- 
 ing of the interest beyond the bounds of 
 the subject could only have been conceived 
 by a great genius. 
 
 " The faces of Hogarth have not a mere 
 momentary interest, as in caricatures, or 
 those grotesque physiognomies which we 
 sometimes catch a glance of in the street, 
 and, struck with their whimsicality, wish 
 for a pencil and the power to sketch them 
 down ; and forget them again as rapidly, — 
 but they are permanent abiding ideas. 
 Not the sports of nature, but her neces- 
 sary eternal classes. We feel that we 
 cannot part with any of them, lest a link 
 should be broken. 
 
 " It is worthy of observation, that he 
 has seldom drawn a mean or insignificant 
 countenance. If there are any of that de- 
 scription, they are in his Strolling Players, 
 a print which has been cried up by Lord 
 Orford as the richest of his productions, 
 and it may be, for what I know, in the 
 mere lumber, the properties, and dead 
 furniture of the scene ; but in living cha- 
 racter and expression it is (for Hogarth) 
 lamentably poor and wanting; it is, per- 
 haps, the only one of his performances at 
 which we have a right to feel disgusted. 
 Hogarth's mind was eminently reflective ; 
 and, as it has been well observed of Shak- 
 speare, that he has transfused his own 
 poetical cliaracter into the persons of his 
 drama (they are all more or less poets), 
 Hogartli has impressed a thinkiiifj; charac- 
 ter upon the persons of his canvass. This 
 remark must not be taken universally. 
 The exquisite idiotism of the little gentle- 
 man in the bag and sword beating his 
 drum in th(> print of tlie ihintf^cit Mnsician, 
 would of itself ris(! up against so sweep- 
 ing an assertion. Hut I think it will be 
 found to be true of tiie generality of Iiis 
 countenances. Tiu; knife-grinder and Jew 
 flute player in the plate just mentioned 
 may serve as instances, instead of a thou- 
 sand. Thi'y have intense thinking faces, 
 though tiie |)urpos(; to which tliey ar(; sub- 
 servient by no means rcciuircd it; liut in- 
 deed it seems as if it was painful to H(i- 
 garth to contemplate mere vacancy or in- 
 Hignilicunce. 
 
 " This reflection of tim artist's own in- 
 tellect from the faces of his characters, is 
 one reason why llie works of Hugarlli, so 
 inucli more thiin those of any ollu-r artist, 
 arc objects of meditation. Our intellectual 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 natures love tlie mirror which gives them 
 back their own likenesses. The mental 
 eye will not bend long with delight upon 
 vacancy. 
 
 " Another line of eternal separation be- 
 tween Hogarth and the common painters 
 of droll or burlesque subjects, with whom 
 he is often confounded, is the sense of 
 beauty, which in the most unpromising 
 subjects seems never wholly to have de- 
 serted him. ' Hogarth himself,' says Mr. 
 Coleridge, from whom I have borrowed 
 this observation, speaking of a scene which 
 took place at Ratzeburg, 'never drew a 
 more ludicrous distortion, both of attitude 
 and physiognomy, than this effect occa- 
 sioned : nor was there wanting beside it 
 one of those beautiful female faces which 
 the same Hogarth, in whom the satirist 
 never extinguished that love of beauty uhich 
 belonged to him as a poet, so often and so 
 gladly introduces as the central figure in 
 a crowd of humorous deformities, which 
 figure (such is the power of true genius) 
 neither acts nor is meant to act as a con- 
 trast; but dilTuses through all, and over 
 eacli of the group, a spirit of reconcilia- 
 tion and human kindness ; and even when 
 the attention is no longer consciously di- 
 rected to the cause of this feeling, still 
 blends its tenderness with our laughter : 
 and thus preveiits the instructive merriment 
 at the whims of nature, or the foibles or hu- 
 mours of our fellow men, from degenerating 
 into the heart-poison of contempt or hatred,' 
 To the beautiful females in Hogarth, 
 which Mr. C. has pointed out, might be 
 added, the frequent introduction of chil- 
 dren (w hicjj Hogarth seems to have taken 
 a particular delight in) into his pieces. 
 They have a singular etTect in giving tran- 
 quillity and a portion of their own inno- 
 cence to the subject. The baby riding in 
 its mother's lap, in the March to I'inchleij 
 (its careless innocent face i)laced directly 
 behind the intriguing time-furrowed <i)uii- 
 tenance of the treason-plotting l'"rench 
 priest), perfectly sobers the whole of that 
 tumultuous scene. The boy mourner wind- 
 ing up his to]) with so nuich unpretending 
 insensibility in tiie plate of the Harlot's 
 i'uncral (tiie only thing in that assembly 
 that is not a hypocrite) (juiets and soothes 
 tlie mind that lias been distiirhcd at the 
 sigiit of 80 much depraved man ami woman 
 kind." 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds was the first Pre- 
 sident of tlie Woyal Academy ; an<l on his 
 r<-turn from Home, at a previous part of 
 his life, carrittd the art (at least us far as 
 re;^:;ar(ls poilrail painting) to its very high- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 est point of perfection. Tlie life, the grace, 
 the truth of his portraits have, for a long 
 series of years, demanded and received 
 the tribute of universal admiration. His 
 best specimens are perhaps inferior to no 
 pictures of the same kind in existence, 
 and in some points may be said to exceed 
 the performances of any preceding artist. 
 He not only appears to have always aspired 
 to attain the highest excellence of colouring, 
 but in very many instances he did attain 
 it ; there being no one particular in which, 
 generally speaking, he left his contempo- 
 raries so far behind him as in the richness 
 and mellowness of his tints, when his co- 
 lours were successful and permanent. 
 
 Though the landscapes Sir Joshua has 
 given in the background of many of his 
 portraits are eminently beautiful, he sel- 
 dom exercised his hand in regular land- 
 scape painting ; but in the historical de- 
 partment he took a wider range ; and by 
 his successful exertions in that higher 
 branch of his art, he not only enriclied va- 
 rious cabinets at home, but extended the 
 fame of the English school to foreign 
 countries. 
 
 And here it may not be amiss to observe 
 upon the notion which prevails of the co- 
 louring having faded and perished in the 
 majority of Sir Joshua Reynolds's works. 
 This is not correct: far the greater part 
 of his pictures preserve their original hue, 
 and are in perfect preservation. Those 
 which have failed have been mentioned 
 again and again, and thus have been mul- 
 tiplied in the imaginations of connoisseurs. 
 — Nor should it be forgotten, that the pic- 
 tures of other considerable painters have 
 not been more durable than his. As many 
 perished pictures of Gainsborough are, it 
 has been affirmed, to be found in cabinets 
 as of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Even the 
 great colourists of the continent wei-e not 
 wholly free from this defect. Several pic- 
 tures of Titian and Vandyck, and more 
 particularly of the exquisite French pain- 
 ter, Watteau, have entirely lost that bril- 
 liancy which, without doubt, they once 
 possessed. 
 
 What Reynolds did for portrait paint- 
 ing, his distinguished contemporary, Wil- 
 son, did for landscape. He also had stu- 
 died at Rome, and brought home from 
 thence a refined taste, and a power of exe- 
 cution at once chaste, glowing, and bril- 
 liant : while, in the historical department. 
 Sir Joshua's successor, the late lamented 
 Mr. West, without rivalling either of the 
 three great names just mentioned, yet dis- 
 played sufficient ability to throw com- 
 pletely into the background what had been 
 
 previously produced by the successors of 
 Sir James Thornhill, Hayman, Pine, and 
 Whale. Besides West, we cannot forbear 
 to make honourable mention of the names 
 of Romney, Opie, and Barry. 
 
 The present state of painting in this 
 country is very encouraging to the lover 
 of art. In portrait, besides the highly- 
 gifted president of the academy. Sir Tho- 
 mas Lawrence, we have several other emi- 
 nent professors : in landscape and marine 
 subjects, Turner and Callcott are at the 
 head of a numerous body of followers. 
 The pencil of Wilkie throws a brilliant 
 lustre over both the humorous and pathe- 
 tic departments of art ; and in the arduous 
 walk of history (a walk of art which, al- 
 though it is entitled, when successfully 
 pursued, to the highest honours, is too 
 often followed without either profit or dis- 
 tinction), there are several names which 
 we might select, whose bearers appear to 
 us qualified to elevate the national repu- 
 tation far higher than it has ever hitherto 
 been raised. For the truth of these ob- 
 servations, we need only appeal to the an- 
 nual exhibitions both at Somerset House 
 and at the British Institution. 
 
 It w^ould be beyond the limit of this 
 work to go much at large into the theory 
 and practice of the art of painting. We 
 should, however, deem this article incom- 
 plete did we not subjoin a few heads of 
 illustration as to the principles of the art 
 and theory of the artist's studies. 
 
 And first. Of Anatomy. It would be 
 unnecessary to cite what the greatest au- 
 thorities have declared with respect to the 
 requisiteness of this point of knowledge. 
 It must be obvious that a man unacquainted 
 with the construction and form of the se- 
 veral bones that govern and support the 
 human frame, or who does not understand 
 the way in which the muscles moving 
 these bones are fixed to them, can make 
 nothing of what appears of them through 
 the integuments with which they are co- 
 vered; which appearance, however, is 
 one of the noblest objects of the pencil. 
 
 It seldom happens that the painter's bu- 
 siness is limited to the mere exact copying 
 of an object before him. For instance, if 
 he has to depict gestures any way sud- 
 den, or motions any way violent, a living 
 model would scarcely answer his pur- 
 pose, since it holds but two or three in- 
 stants, soon growing languid, and settling 
 into a fixed attitude, which is produced by 
 an instantaneous concourse of the animal 
 spirits. Here then the painter's acquaint- 
 ance with anatomy should come into play, 
 his knowledge not only of the skeleton, 
 
PAIN 
 
 but of the origin, progress, and shape of 
 t!ic muscles which coser the boao-s, unci 
 also the dilTerent degrees in which nature 
 has clothed these muscles with fat. 
 
 It was the intention of Michel Angiolo 
 to give the public a complete treatise on 
 this subject, and it is much to be re^'retted 
 that he never should have accomplished 
 so desirable a purpose. This sublime 
 painter having observed (as appears in 
 Condivi's life of him) that Albert Durer 
 was delicient with respect to anatomy, re- 
 solved to compose a theory founded on his 
 long practice : and surely no one could be 
 better qualified to furnish anatomical pre- 
 cepts than he who, as competitor of Lio- 
 nardo da \ inci, formed that fduous car- 
 toon of naked bodies whicii was studied 
 by RalFaelle himself, and subsequently ob- 
 tained the approbation of the Vatican. 
 
 The want of Michel Angiolo's jjrecepts 
 may be in some measure compensated 
 by books written on the same subject 
 by Moro, Cesio, and Tortelal ; and more 
 recently by Boucherdon, one of the most 
 famous statuaries of France. Nothing, 
 however, can be of equal service with the 
 lessons of some able dissector, besides 
 which a good deal of improvement may 
 be acquired by the study of anatomical 
 casts. 
 
 It was the particular happiness of the 
 Greeks to be capable of characterizing and 
 expressing the various parts of the human 
 body much better than we can pretend to 
 do ; towards this end their earnest study 
 of the naked tigure mainly contributed, as 
 did also the constant exercise taken by 
 the Grecian youth in gymnastic games, 
 which, by developement and display of 
 the muscular system, allbrdcd the painter 
 and statuary far more perfect models than 
 those at present employed. 
 
 It has been well sug.;este(I, that the stu- 
 dent might make himself more tliorouglily 
 master of the science of anatomy by taking 
 one part of any well known figure, the 
 thighs of the Laocoon, for in.stance, and 
 adding to them legs suitable to that state 
 in which the muscles of tiie thigiis are re 
 presented. 'l"o the simple (ontour of an 
 Hu.itome, or statue, he migiit add the parts 
 induded by it, and give it a system of 
 niii8ck>s conformable to the quality of that 
 particular conlour. lAercises of tliis na- 
 ture would soon e>(al)li.sh him in the most 
 fundanuMituI principlcH of ])ainting, cBjie- 
 cially if he had an ojiportunity of ccnnpar- 
 ing his drawings with the statue or ( ast 
 from which the parts given him to work 
 
 "I "cre taken. See Anatomy. 
 
 It cannot fail to upjjear obvious that the 
 
 TING. 
 
 study of Sijmtnciry should imniediately 
 succeed that of anatomy ; since it would 
 not much avail us to be acquainted with 
 the different parts of the human body, and 
 their several oflices, were we, on the other 
 hand, ignorant of the relative order and 
 proportion of those parts to one another. 
 The Greek sculptors were as eminent for 
 the just symmetry of members as for ana- 
 tomical skill. Polygnotus executed a sta- 
 tue which he denominated the Rule, from 
 which other artists might take measures 
 for every part of the human body. Thc-^e 
 measures, not to speak of those books 
 which professedly treat of them, may now 
 be derived from the Apollo Belvedere, the 
 Laocoon, the Venus de Medici, and parti- 
 cularly the Antinous, which was the rule 
 adopted by Nicholas Poussin. See Sym- 
 metry. 
 
 Perspective, according to Lionardo da 
 Vinci (an authority from which there can 
 be no appeal), is to be considered as the 
 reins and rudder of painting. It teaches 
 the proportion in which the parts fly from, 
 and lessen on, the eye ; how iigures should 
 be marshalled upon a plane surface, and 
 foreshortened. It contains, in a word, the 
 whole rationale of design. 
 
 As the demonstration of the rules of 
 perspective depends on the doctrine of 
 proportions, on the properties of siniihir 
 triangles, and on the intersection of planes, 
 it is desirable that an abridgment of Eu- 
 clid should be put into the hands of the 
 young painter, in order that he may un- 
 derstand these rules fundamentally, and 
 not stand confined to a blind practice of 
 them: at the same time, there is nothing 
 in this author relative to the art of paint- 
 ing which might not easily be acquired in 
 a few months. See Pkhspective. 
 
 Tiie study of Optics, so far as it is requi- 
 site to determine the proportion in which 
 oljjects are to be illuminated or shaded, 
 should proceed hand in hand with that of 
 perspective : and this in order that the 
 shades cast by figures upon the planes on 
 which they stand may fall properly, and 
 be neither too strong nor loo light: — in a 
 wortl, that those most beautiful effects of 
 the chiaroscuro may run no risk of ever 
 deviating from truth, which, sooner or 
 later, is sure to render itself \isible. See 
 Orrus, (!iii \no.s( L'lM). 
 
 " Colouriiif::," says Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 " though it may at first sight ai)pear a p;irt 
 of i)ainting merely meehanical, vet it >till 
 has its rules, and those grounded ui'on 
 that i)residing principle which regulates 
 both the great and (he little in the study 
 of a painter. By this, (he first effect of 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 the picture is produced ; and as this is 
 performed, the spectator, as he walks the 
 gallery, will stop, or pa s along. To give 
 a general air of grandeur at first view, all 
 triiling, or artful play of little lights, or 
 an attention to a variety of tints, is to be 
 avoided ; a quietness and simplicity must 
 reign over the whole work ; to which a 
 breadth of uniform, and simple colour, will 
 very much contribute. Grandeur of effect 
 is produced by two different ways, which 
 seem entirely opposed to each other. One 
 is, by reducing the colours to little more 
 than chiaroscuro, which was often the 
 practice of the Bolognian school ; and the 
 other, by making the colours very distinct 
 and forcible, such as we see in those of 
 Rome and Florence ; but still, the presid- 
 ing principle of both these manners is sim- 
 plicity. Certainly, nothing can be more 
 simple than monotony ; and the distinct 
 blue, red, and yellow colours which are 
 seen in the draperies of the Roman and 
 Florentine schools, though they have not 
 that kind of harmony which is produced 
 by a variety of broken and transparent 
 colours, have that effect of grandeur which 
 was intended. Perhaps tiiese distinct co- 
 lours strike the mind more forcibly, from 
 there not being any great union between 
 them; as martial music, which is intended 
 to rouse the nobler passions, has its effect 
 from the sudden and strongly marked 
 transitions from one note to another, which 
 that style of music requires ; whilst in that 
 which is intended to move the softer pas- 
 sions, the notes imperceptibly melt into 
 one another." 
 
 Drapery, being also a most important 
 branch of the art, accordingly requires the 
 greatest study and attention. It but sel- 
 dom occurs that a painter has only naked 
 figures to represent ; and it may be ob- 
 served, that the flowing of the folds in 
 every garment depends principally on the 
 relief of the parts which lie under it. A 
 certain author, whose name we do not re- 
 collect, remarks, that as the inequalities 
 of a surface are discoverable by tlie ine- 
 qualities in the water that runs over it, so 
 the shape and posture of the members 
 must be discernible by the folds of tlie 
 vestment which covers them. See Dra- 
 pery. 
 
 Of Landscape and Architecture. The most 
 eminent landscape painters are Claude 
 Lorraine, Poussin, and Titian. The for- 
 mer of these celebrated men, although he 
 reigns triumphantly in every department 
 of landscape, and in marine subjects also, 
 yet might be said to have applied himself 
 principally to express the various pheno- 
 
 mena of light, particularly those observ- 
 able ill the heavens; and, thanks to the 
 delicious climate of Italy, where he stu- 
 died and practised, he has bequeathed us 
 the brightest skies, and the most splendid 
 cloud-tipped horizons that can be ima- 
 gined. 
 
 Poussin, was distinguished, and deserved 
 to be so, for his uncommon application. 
 His compositions are fraught with imagery 
 of a classical as well as delightful charac- 
 ter, being set off with learned episodes, 
 such as poets reciting their verses in the 
 woods, Grecian youths exercising gym- 
 nastic games, &c. 
 
 Titian may be styled the Homer of land- 
 scape painting. One of the finest land- 
 scapes that perhaps ever issued from mor- 
 tal hands is the background of his 3Iar- 
 tyrdom of St. Peter ; which has so much 
 truth, so much variety, so much bloom, 
 that it is almost impossible to behold with- 
 out desiring to make an excursion there- 
 into. 
 
 Paolo Veronese is, in architecture, what 
 Titian is in landscape. To excel in land- 
 scape, we must, above all things, study 
 nature ; to excel in architecture, we must 
 regard principally the finest among the 
 works of art: such, for instance, as the 
 elevations of ancient edifices, together 
 with the fabrics of those moderns who 
 have J)est studied and best copied anti- 
 quity. 
 
 " Invention in painting does not," accord- 
 ing to Sir Joshua Reynolds, " imply the 
 invention of the subject ; for that is com- 
 monly supplied by the poet or historian. 
 With respect to the choice, no subject cau 
 be proper that is not generally interesting. 
 It ought to be either some eminent instance 
 of heroic action or heroic suffering. There 
 must be something either in the action, or 
 in the object, in which men are universally 
 concerned, and which powerfully strikes 
 upon the public sympathy. 
 
 " As it is required that the subject se- 
 lected should be a general one, it is no 
 less necessary that it should be kept un- 
 embarrassed with whatever may any way 
 serve to divide the attention of the specta- 
 tor. Whenever a story is related, every 
 man forms a picture in his mind of the 
 action and expression of the persons em- 
 ployed. Tlie power of representing this 
 mental picture on canvass is what we call 
 invention in a painter. And as in the con- 
 ception of this ideal picture, the mind does 
 not enter into the minute peculiarities of 
 the dress, furniture, or scene of action ; so 
 when the painter comes to represent it, he 
 contrives tliose little necessary concoini- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 tant circumstances in such a manner, that 
 they (*liull strike the spectator no more 
 than tliey (lid himself in his first concep- 
 tion of the story. 
 
 " The great end of the art is to strike 
 the imagination. The painter therefore 
 is to make no ostentation of the means by 
 which this is done; the spectator is only 
 to feel the result in his bosom. An infe- 
 rior artist is unwilling that any part of 
 his industry should be lost upon the spec- 
 tator. He takes as much pains to disco- 
 ver, as the greater artist does to conceal, 
 the marks of his subordinate assiduity. 
 In works of the lower kind, every thing 
 appears studied and encumbered ; it is all 
 boastful art, and open affectation. The 
 ignorant often part from such pictures 
 with wonder in their mouths, and indifler- 
 cnce in their hearts. 
 
 " But it is not enough in invention that 
 • he artist should restrain and keep under 
 all the inferior parts of his subject; he 
 must sometimes deviate from vulgar and 
 strict historical truth, in pursuing the gran- 
 fleur of his design. 
 
 " How much the great style exacts from 
 its professors to conceive and represent 
 their subjects in a poetical manner, not 
 confined to mere matter of fact, may be 
 seen in the cartoons of RafiTaelle. In all 
 the pictures in which the painter has re- 
 presented the apostles, he has drawn them 
 with great nobleness ; he has given them 
 as much dignity as the human figure is 
 capable of receiving; yet we are ex- 
 pressly told in scripture they had no such 
 respectable appearance ; and of St. Paul 
 in particular, we are told by himself, that 
 his bodibj presence was mean. Alexander 
 is said to have been of a low stature : a 
 painter ought not so to represent him. 
 Agesilaus was low, lame, and of a mean 
 appearance: none of these defects ought 
 to appear in a piece of whicii he is the 
 hero. In conformity to custom, I call this 
 part of the art, history painting; it ougiit 
 to be called poetical, as in reality it is. 
 
 " As in invention, so likewise in Expres- 
 swn, care must be taken not to run into 
 particularities. Those «'xi)ressioiis alone 
 should be given to (he ligures which tlieir 
 resjjcctive situations generally produce. 
 Nor is this enough ; each person should 
 also iuive tiiat expression wliich men of 
 his rank generally exhibit. Tiie joy, or 
 the grief of a character of dignity is not to 
 be expressed in the same numner as a 
 similar passion in a vulgar face. I'pou 
 tills ]>rinciple, Kernini, i)erhai)s, may be 
 subject to censure. This sculptor, in many 
 respects admirable, has given a very mean 
 
 expression to his statue of David, who is 
 
 represented as just going to throw the 
 stone from the sling ; and in order to give 
 it the expression of energy, he has made 
 him biting his under lip. This expression 
 is far from being general, and still farther 
 from being dignified. He might have seen 
 it in an instance or two ; and he mistook 
 accident for generality." 
 
 These may be deemed the chief princi- 
 ples of the art of painting, which it behoves 
 the student indispensably to acquire not 
 only the knowledge but likewise the prac- 
 tice of. There are also others, which 
 must not by any means be overlooked, and 
 among these are to be enumerated — Dis- 
 position (see that word) ; Costume (which 
 word see); and Illusion. This latter 
 quality cannot, perhaps, in its strictest 
 sense, be attained by painting : there is, 
 however, a species of it (although proba- 
 bly the name is not fairly applied), which 
 demands the greatest attention, and forms 
 one of the chief fascinations of the art. 
 It is this: that the painting shall resem- 
 ble truth to such an extent, by the just- 
 ness of its forms, the combination of its 
 colours, and all its general effects, that 
 the image thereby presented shall af- 
 ford all the gratification resulting from 
 the imitation of reality. This, it is ad- 
 mitted, is not illusion in the stricter sense 
 of the word, for it exists as well in pic- 
 tures on a small scale as in those of 
 equal dimensions with the thing repre- 
 sented : but it is that exactness of imita- 
 tion of which painting is susceptible, even 
 in pictures which comprise any number of 
 figures at a reasonable distance from each 
 otiier. 
 
 Me shall now proceiul to illustrate the 
 theoretical part of our subject by a few 
 practical observations. 
 
 And, first:— Let us warn the young art- 
 ist against being led astray by the ambi- 
 tion of composing facilely, or acquiring 
 that which is termed a masterli/ hamlliu^ 
 of the chalk or pencil. To tiiis mistaken 
 aim, however, young men are ituited in 
 various ways. There is something dash- 
 ing and fine about the notion in the first 
 place ; and in the next they are tempted 
 to it by that slotiiful feeling too natural to 
 us all. They are terrified at the prospect 
 of (lie foil re(iuired to obtain exactness ; 
 not <onsidering (hat flie lives of all those 
 painters who attained eminence furnish 
 instances and recommendations of unceas- 
 ing industry and application. When these 
 grea( masters imagined a subject, they first 
 executed a variety of sketches; afterwards 
 .1 finished drawing of (he whole ; after 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 that, a more correct drawing of every se- 
 parate part : — they then painted the pic- 
 ture, and concluded the whole by retouch- 
 ing it from the life. 
 
 At the same time, a student is not al- 
 ways advancitig' because he is employed; 
 he must exert his strength in those parts 
 of the art where the real difficulties lie ; 
 to those parts which distinguish it as a 
 liberal art, and not to such as may be re- 
 solved into the merely ornamental. 
 
 It is, secondly, a matter of considerable 
 importance, that those drawings on which 
 the young artist first exercises his ability 
 should be of the very best kind ; that the 
 profiles, the hands, the feet, &c. given him 
 to copy be of the first masters, in order that 
 both his eye and hand may become early 
 acquainted with the most exquisite pro- 
 portions and the most charming shapes. 
 
 Thirdly, It would be desirable that the 
 student should copy some of the fine heads 
 to be met with on Greek and Roman me- 
 dals : he will hence become acquainted 
 (if we may be allowed the phrase), with 
 the personages whom he may in course of 
 time transplant into his pictures, and, 
 above all, improve himself in the impor- 
 tant art of copying from relief. Hence 
 also he will become initiated into the doc- 
 trine of light and shade, and the nature of 
 that chiaroscuro by which the different 
 forms of things may, justly speaking, be 
 said to be distinguished. 
 
 The chief divisions of the art of paint- 
 ing are into historical (comprising mysti- 
 cal and allegorical), grotesque, portrait, 
 fancy, animals, fruits and flowers, battles, 
 landscape, sea views, still life, and archi- 
 lecture. 
 
 Grotesque paintings are to be found in 
 the celebrated Loggia of the Vatican pa- 
 lace at Rome, painted from the designs of 
 Ralfaelle, and on the cieling of the portico 
 of the Capitol, carved from those of Mi- 
 chel Angiolo. 
 
 The other departments are sufficiently 
 explained by their respective names : it 
 may be as well, however, to observe, that 
 the term still life refers to all inanimate 
 objects, and chiefly to household furniture, 
 instruments of use, &c. 
 
 Modes and Materials of Painting, The 
 difi'erent methods of painting at present 
 practised are : — 
 
 Oil painting, which is preferable to any 
 other mode, since it allows a complete 
 gradation of tints, in the most enduring of 
 all materials, except those of musaic. 
 See Musaic. 
 
 Fresco, is performed, as tlie reader will 
 see by referring to that word, with colours 
 
 diluted in water, and laid on a wall newly 
 plastered, with which they incorporate, 
 becoming often as durable as the stucco 
 itself. 
 
 Crayons, in which colours, either sim- 
 ple or compound, are ground in water 
 mixed with gum, and made into small 
 rolls of a hard paste, which are then used 
 on paper or parchment. See Crayon. 
 
 Miniature, consisting of colours prepared 
 with water or gum, and laid on vellum or 
 ivory. A smaller kind of portrait. 
 
 Enamel, performed on copper or gold, 
 with mineral colours dried by fire. This 
 method is likewise extremely durable. 
 See Enamel. 
 
 Encaustic, executed by the mixture of 
 wax with the varnish and colours. See 
 Encaustic. 
 
 Water colours, more properly denomi- 
 nated limning. This is performed with 
 colours mixed with water, gum, size, or 
 paste, on silk, paper, and sundry other 
 materials. 
 
 Besides these various methods we may 
 add the painting in distemper; namely, with 
 colours mixed with size, white of eggs, or 
 any thin glutinous substance, and used on 
 paper, linen, silk, board, or wall. See 
 Distemper. There are also painting on 
 glass (which word see), and clydonic paint- 
 ing, consisting of a mixed use of oil co- 
 lours and water. 
 
 The various pigments at present in use 
 and fitted for the general purposes of oil 
 painting are : — Cremnitz white, white lead 
 of different sorts, a fine yellow, recently dis- 
 covered from chromete of iron, king's yel- 
 low or orpiment, patent yellow, Naples yel- 
 low, ochres, Dutch pink, terra di Sienna, 
 yellow lake, red lead, vermilion, red ochre, 
 Indian red, Venetian red, lakes of various 
 kinds, brown pink, Vandyke's brown, um- 
 ber, burnt and unburnt, terra di Sienna, 
 burnt, Prussian and Antwerp blue, ultra- 
 marine, ivory black, blue black, asphal- 
 tum. These may be reckoned the chief 
 colours for the palette : there are, how- 
 ever, several others, which are employed 
 for particular purposes, such as verdigris, 
 &c. 
 
 The oils best adapted to the ends of 
 painting are poppy, nut, and linseed oils ; 
 and in this climate a preparation of the 
 latter, by boiling it with some siccative, is 
 in common use. See Oil. 
 
 We will subjoin two or three observa- 
 tions made by a quaint old writer on art 
 (Richardson), with respect to the method 
 of distinguishing a genuine picture of one 
 of the old masters from a copy : 
 
 " There are some pictures and drawings 
 
PAIN 
 
 which arc seen to be originals, though the 
 hand and manner nf thinking are neitlicr 
 of them known ; and that by the spirit and 
 freedom of them : which sometimes ap- 
 pears to sucl» a degree as to assure us it 
 is impossible they siiould be copies. But 
 we cannot say, on tiie contrary, when we 
 see a tame, heavy handling, that it is not 
 original merely upon that account, because 
 there have been many bad originals, and 
 some good masters have fallen into a fee- 
 bleness of hand, especially in their old 
 age. 
 
 "The best counterfeiter of hands can 
 rarely do it so well as to deceive a good 
 connoisseur; the handling, the colouring, 
 the drawing the airs of heads, some, nay, 
 all of these discover the author; more or 
 less easily, however, as the manner of the 
 master happens to be : what is highly 
 linished (for example) is more easily imi- 
 tated than what is loose and free. 
 
 " Copies made by a master after his own 
 work are discoverable by being well ac- 
 quainted witli what that master did when 
 he followed nature ; these shall have a 
 spirit, a freedom, a naturalness which even 
 he cannot put into what he copies from 
 his own work. 
 
 " To conclude : — There is one qualifica- 
 tion absolutely necessary to him that 
 would know hands, and distinguish copies 
 from originals ; as it also is to any one 
 who would judge well of the goodness of 
 a picture or drawing; or indeed of any 
 thing else whatsoever; and that is — he 
 must know how, and accustom himself, to 
 take in, retain, and manage, clear and dis- 
 tinct ideas." See Original. 
 
 In the work of Junius, De Pirtura Ve- 
 (erum, book 2, chap. iii. sect. 3, and in the 
 Bibliotheca Greca of Fabricius, book 3, 
 chap. xxiv. sect. 10, are catalogues of 
 Greek authors who have written upon 
 painting; of wliich, however, few have 
 reached our times. Among this number 
 are the Iconex of the two 1'nii.osTi! \ti:s ; 
 which have been translated into French 
 under the title of Les Tableaux de Plate 
 I'einlure, &c. by Blaisk ue Vi«;e\kiie, cor- 
 rected and augmented by Tii. F.mmiiv, Pa- 
 ris, Kiir), l(;i7, in fiil. An exdUent com- 
 mentary upon tiiis work may be found in 
 a Memoir of Count Cavi.i's, inserted in 
 fli(! twenty-ninth volume of Meinoires de 
 rAcademie ib'S helles Lrttrrs. To some 
 editions of tlu! works of I'hilostrates ari> 
 addeil a work of Cau.istiiatks, entitled 
 Kift/)()«ffit (that is, explanations or descrip- 
 tions). 
 
 Tlie ancient work which gives the most 
 detailed accounts of the art «)f painting; 
 
 TING. 
 
 among the ancients, is the Natural His- 
 tory of Pliny, who, in speaking of mine- 
 rals, takes occasion to speak of colours, 
 and their use in painting; in which sub- 
 ject he treats of the history of ancient 
 painting, in several chapters of the thirty- 
 iiftli book. These chapters have been 
 published separately, and commented upon 
 by Dlrand, in a work entitled Histoire 
 de la Peinture ancienne, published at 
 London in 172-5, in fol. M. F uxoxet has 
 also published a translation of the 341h, 
 35th, and 36th books of Pliny, with notes, 
 Amsterd. 1772, 8vo. These chapters of 
 Pliny have also been commented upon, in 
 several articles inserted in the INIemoirs 
 of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles 
 Lettres. (An English translation of the 
 whole work, by P. Holland, was pub- 
 lished in 2 vols. fol. Lond. 1634.) 
 
 Count CvYi.Ls has given, in the nine- 
 teenth volume of the same work Eclair- 
 cissemens sur quelques Passages de Pline 
 qui concernent les Arts de])endans du Des- 
 sin ; and in tiie twenty-fifth volume, three 
 Memoirs, entitled R6tiexions sur quelques 
 Chapitres du trente-cinquieme Livre de 
 Pline. In the second of these memoirs 
 the reflections of the author are particu- 
 larly directed to the kind and manner of 
 ancient paintings ; and in the third, the 
 character and manner of the Greek pain- 
 ters. The twentj'-tirtli volume contains 
 also a Memoir of M. he la Naize, upon 
 the manner in which Pliny has treated 
 the art of painting. M. Qi atrkmkke i)E 
 QuiNCY, the learned author of part of tiie 
 Encyclop^die M^thodique, and of Letters 
 from London, in 1818, to Canova, on the 
 l",igin lMarl)les, announced in 1805, a new 
 translation of tills book ; but we are not 
 certain that he published it. 
 
 Among modern works iijion painting, 
 we will first mention those \\iiich are 
 written in Latin: among the princiiial of 
 which are: — L. liapt. Aluerti, de Pic- 
 tura, libri iii. Basil, 1510, in 8vo. Among 
 the best translations of this work are, one 
 in Italian, published at \'enice, 1517, 8vo. ; 
 one in French by Jean Martin, among the 
 works of Aluerti upon Architecture, Pa- 
 ris, 1553, fol. ; and one in I'liglish in the 
 edition of his work upon Architecture, by 
 Leom, 1726 and 173<), 3 vols. fol. .Also, 
 Job. MoLANi, de Picturis et Imaginibus 
 Sacris, liljri ii. Leo\ard. 1570 and I51it, 
 8vo. Robert Fi.iui), or De Fi.i(-nms, 
 Tractatus de Arte Picturae, Francof. 162J, 
 fol. Jul. ("les. Bui,en(;e», ile Pictnra, 
 Plastiee, et Statuaria Veterum, printed in 
 his Opuscula, Ludg. Batnv. 1621, 8vo. ; 
 anil also sei)arately under the same title. 
 
PAINTLNG. 
 
 in 8vo. 1627, as well as in the ninth vo- 
 lume of Tresor tie Gronovius. Of this 
 work Thomas Maue has given an Eng- 
 lish translation, London, 1C57, fol. It is 
 merely a nomenclature of tlie various arti- 
 cles used in painting, and of the manner 
 in which they are prepared. The next in 
 chronological order is the work of Fran- 
 ciscus Junius (Francis Dujong, or Young), 
 entitled de Pictura Veterum, Amst. 1C37, 
 in 4to. A new edition of it, much aug- 
 ment and corrected, was published by 
 GiLEvius at Rotterdam, in 1694, fol. which 
 is reckoned preferable to tlie first. At the 
 end of the work is a list of ancient artists, 
 in alphabetical order, which is, perhaps, 
 one of the best parts of the woi'k. 
 
 Among the Latin works which treat of 
 the theory and practice of the art, we 
 find : — Speculum Imaginum Veritatis oc- 
 cultae per Synibola et Emblemata, Auct. 
 Jac. MosENio, Col. 1661, 1681, 8vo. De 
 Graphice sive Arte pingendi ; whicli is 
 the fifth chapter of the work of Ger. J. 
 Vo&sius, entitled de Natura Artium. Jo- 
 annes ScHEFFERi, Argentinensis, Graphice, 
 id est de Arte pingendi, Norimb. 1669; 
 Upsal. 1699, 8vo. This is an interesting 
 little work, and is well written. De Ina- 
 nibus Picturis, Diss. Joa. Fr. Jungeri, 
 Lips. 1679, in 4to. By " picturas inanes" 
 the author appears to mean those paint- 
 ings which represent imaginary beings, or 
 scandalous subjects. Dissert, de Pictura, 
 Auct. Hulderic. Sigism. Rothmaler, Jen. 
 1692, 4to. De Lectione Poetarum recen- 
 tiorum Pictoribus commendanda. Program- 
 ma, Joh. G. Jacobi; Hal. 1766, 4to. De 
 Pictura contumeliosa, Diss. Job. Lud. 
 Kluber, Erl. 1787, in 4to. Car. Hodoby 
 DK HoDA, Ars delineandi Coloribusque 
 localibus adumbrandi, 1790, 8vo. Car. 
 Adol. Du Fresnoy de Arte graphica, Pa- 
 ris, 1658. — A poem on the art, with the 
 French version by De Piles, of which 
 Dryden published a prose translation in 
 1694; Wills, an English painter, a metri- 
 _ cal translation withoutrhymes ; and again 
 Mason, in 1782, a translation, with notes 
 by Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 Among the works written in Italian are, 
 Discorso eruditissimo della Pittura, con 
 molte segrete Allegoric, circa le muse, pub- 
 lished in the Instituzione al comporre in 
 ogni Sorte di Rima, &c. of Mar. Equicola, 
 Milan, 1.541, 4to. Dialogo de Pittura, di 
 Paolo Pino, Ven. 1548, 4to. Trattatello 
 della nobilissima Pittura, e della sua Arte, 
 della Dottrina, e del Modo per conseguirla 
 agevolmente, da Mich. Ang. Biondi, Ven. 
 1549, 8vo.: — a little and very superficial 
 work. II Disegno del Anton. Franc. 
 
 Doni, dove si tratta della Scoltura, Pit- 
 tura, de' Colori, de' Getti, de' Modegli, con 
 molte cose appertinentiaquest' Arti,Vene- 
 gia,1549,8vo.:— ausefuUittle work stored 
 with excellent directions. Delia nobilis- 
 sima Pittura, e della sua Arte, del modo e 
 della Dottrina di conseguirla agevolmente 
 e Presto, da Biondo, Venice, 1549, 8vo. 
 Introduzzione alle tre Arti del Disegno, 
 thirty-five chapters (for an account of 
 which see Vite de' Pittori da Vasari. 
 L'Aretino, Dialogo della Pittura, di Lod. 
 Dolce, nel quale si raginao della Dignila 
 di essa Pittura, e di tutte le Parte neces- 
 sarie che a perfetto Pittore si acconven- 
 gano : con Esempi di Pittori ant. e Mod. 
 e nel Fine si fa menzione delle Virtii e delle 
 Opere del divin Tiziano, Venice, 1557 ; 
 of Avhich there is a more modern edition, 
 with a French translation (printed at 
 Rome, 8vo.), and a long preface by the 
 translator; also an English translation 
 published in London, 17S2, 12mo. Osser- 
 vazioni nella Pittura, di M. Cristofane 
 Sorte, Venice, 1580, 4to. Lettera di Bar- 
 tolomeo Ammanati, sopra le Pitture men 
 che oneste, Firenze, 1582, 4to. II Riposo 
 di Rall'aelo Borghini, in cui si favella della 
 Pittura e delle Scoltura, et de'piii illustri 
 Pittori e Scultori, antichi e moderni, Fi- 
 renze, 1584, in 8vo. ; of which there has 
 been a new edition, augmented and cor- 
 rected by Antonio Maria BiscioNi, Firenze, 
 1730, 4to.; and a much later one in 3 vols. 
 8vo. Parere sopra la Pittura, di M. Ber- 
 nard Campi, Pittore Cremonese, Cremona, 
 1584, 4to. Discorso d'Allessandro Lamo, 
 intorno alia Scoltura et Pittura, Cremona, 
 1584, 4to. Trattato dell' Arte della Pit- 
 tura, ne' quali si contiene tutta la Teorica 
 e la Prattica di essa Pittura, da Giovanni 
 Paolo LoMAZzo, Mil. Pittori, div. in vii. 
 libri, Milano, 1584, 4to. The same work 
 is also to be found under the following 
 title, Trattato dell' Arte della Pittura, 
 Scoltura, et Architettura, da G. P. Lo- 
 MAZZo, Mil. Pitt. div. in vii. libri, ne' quali 
 si discorre della Proporzione, de' Moti, 
 de' Colori, de' Lumi, della Prospettiva, 
 della Prattica, della Pittura, e fiualmente 
 de le Istorie d'essa Pittura, con una Ta- 
 vola de' Nomi de tutti le Pittori, Scultori, 
 Archiietti, e Matematici, antichi e mo- 
 derni, Milan, 1585 and 1590, in 4to. There 
 is an English translation of this work by 
 Haydok, London, 1598, fol. ; and a French 
 translation of the first book, which ap- 
 peared at Toulouse in 1649, in fol. To 
 this work we must add another by the 
 same author, entitled, Idea del Tempio 
 della Pittura nella quale si discorre dell' 
 Origine e del Fondamento delle cose con- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 tcnonlo del trattato, dell' Arte della Pit- 
 tiira, Milan, 1571, in 4to. De' veri Prr- 
 cetti della Pittura de Giovanni Bat. Ak- 
 MEMM (la Faouza, lib. iii. ne' quali con 
 beir Ordiue d' utili e buoni Avvertimeiiti 
 per clii desidera in essa Farsi con pres- 
 tezza eccellcute si dimostrano i Modi prin- 
 cipali del disegnare e del dipingere, di 
 fare Ic PKture die si convengono alle Con- 
 dizioni de' Luoghi e dclle Persone, Ra- 
 venna, 1587, in 4to., and Venice, 1G78, in 
 4to. II Filogino, Ovvero del Fine della 
 Pittura ; Dialogo del 1'. D. Grogorio Com- 
 MANi.vo, Canon. Later, nel quale s mostra 
 qual sia Tiniitare piu perfetto, o il Pittore, 
 o il Poeta, Mantova, 1591, 4to. Difini- 
 zione e Divizione della Pittura, di Giovan. 
 Batt. Paggi, Nobile Genov. e Pittore, Ge- 
 neva, 1C07, fol. L'Idea de Plttori, de' 
 Scultori, e degli Architetti, del Cav. Feder. 
 ZbcniKKi, in due lil)ri, Torino, 1G07, 4to, 
 This work is to be seen also in the sixth 
 vohinie of the Kaccolta di Lcttere sulla 
 Pittura, Scultura, e Architettura, Rome, 
 1754, 7 vols. 4to. Avvertiiuenti e Regole 
 sopra I'Architcttura civile e niilitare, la 
 Pittura, Scultura, c Prospettiva, da Pier' 
 Antonio Barca, Milan, 1020, fol. Trat- 
 tato della I'ittura, fatto a connnune Bene- 
 ticio de' Virtuosi, da Fra. Dom. Francesco 
 BiSAGNO, (^avaliere di Malta, Ven. 1642, 
 8vo. La prima I'arte della Luce del di- 
 pingere, di Crisp, del. Passu, Anisterd. 
 1G43, fol. Trattato della Pittura, de Lio- 
 nardo da Vinci, date in Luce con la Vita 
 deir istesso Autore, scritta da Ralf. Du 
 F^RESNE, Paris, 1G5I, and Naples, 1733, 
 fol., with engravings, after designs made 
 by Poussin. Tiierc; was a new edition of 
 it published at Floreuee, 1792, 4to., aug- 
 iiient('(l with tlie lile of the author by 
 I'ranc. Fontani. There is also a transla- 
 tion of it into French by Rol. Freart. de 
 CiiA!>iiiHAY, l<i.>l, fol. 17l(), 1721, ..\e., and 
 an J'jiglish translation, London, 1721, 8vo. 
 Trattato della Pittura e Scultura, use ed 
 abuso loro, coniposto da un Teologo (Pere 
 Otionei.i.i), e da uu l»ittore (l»ietro di 
 Cortona), in cui si risolvono niolti Casi 
 di Coscienza intorno al fare e tenere, le 
 Inunagine sacre e jjrofane ; si riferiscono 
 iiiollc llislorie anticiie i' nioderne, si con- 
 siderano alcune Cose d' alcuni Pittori 
 Hiorli e faniosi del nostro Tempo, e si no- 
 tano cerli avvisi e certi particolarita circa 
 I'operare secondo I'Osservazioni fatte in 
 alcune Ojjcre, tli Valent. Llomi, Firenza, 
 l(j.')2, 4lo. 11 Microcosnio (hdia Pilturn, 
 di Franc. Scaneij.i da l-'orii ; Cesena, l(>57, 
 4to. Carta di'l Navigar pittoresco, <lial. 
 in quarta Kima, in Dialetto N'enez. da 
 INIano BosniiM, Vene/.ia, UifiO, «vo. Le 
 
 Minere della Pittura, di M. Boschim, 
 Venice, 1664, 4to. In the Prodromo alle 
 Arte maestra, di Franc. Laxa, Brescia, 
 1070, fol. the author treats of invention, 
 of design, of colours, and of the ditfcrent 
 kinds of painting. Rillessioni sopra la 
 Pittura di Nicolas Poussin, printed in 
 the Vite de' Pittori, de' Scultori, ed 
 Architetti moderni, par Bei.i-ori, Rome, 
 1072, 4to. II Vaeabolario Toscano dell' 
 Arte del Disegno, co' propri Termini e 
 Voci non sola della Pittura, Scultura, e 
 d'Architettura, ma Ancora di altre Arti, e 
 che hanno per Fondamento il Disegno, di 
 Fil. Baloinlcci, Firenza, 1681, 4to., of 
 which Ant. Mar. Biscioni has given a new 
 edition, published at Florence, 1730, 4to. 
 Baldinl'cci is also the author of Lettera 
 nella quale si risponde ad alcuni quesiti 
 in Materie di Pittura e Scultura, Rome, 
 1081, 4to. ; and of La Veglia, Dialogo di 
 Sincero Vero (Philip Baldinlcci), in cui 
 si disputano, e scogliono varic Diflieulta 
 pittoriche, Lucca, 1084, 8vo., and in the 
 Raccolta di alcuni Opuscoli, da Fil. liAi.- 
 DiNtTCi, Fir. 1705, 4to. Beux)RI, della 
 Pittura antica, Venez. 1097. Le Pittura 
 in Parnasso, da Giovanni Maria Ciocciii, 
 Pittore, Firenza, 1725, 4to. La Teoriea 
 della Pittura, ovvero "Trattato delle Ma- 
 terie pift necessarle i)er apprendere con 
 Fondamento quest' Arte, coniposto da Ant. 
 Franchi, pittore Lucchese, Lucca, 1739, 
 8vo. Sfoganienti d'ingegno sopra la Pit- 
 tura e la Scultura, da P. Franc. Minozzi, 
 Venice, 1739, 12nio. Dialoghi sopra le 
 Arti del Disegno, by BoriARi, Lucca, 1754, 
 8vo. Avvertimenti di Gianip. Cavezzoni 
 Zano'iti, per !o ineaminamento di un Gio- 
 vane alia Pittura, Bal. 1750, 8vo. Disser- 
 tazione sopra I'Arte della Pittura dell' 
 Abbalc Giovanni Andrea Lazzarim, in 
 the 97th and following pages of the second 
 volume of tlieNuova Raccolta d'Opusciili 
 scientif. et lilol. reprinted at Pesaro, 1703, 
 4to. ; and in the Catalogo delle Pitturc 
 iielle chicse di Pesaro, I'es. 1783, 8\o. 
 Saggio sopra la Pittura, by Count Ai.tiA- 
 Honi, Livorno,1703, 8vo. ; of which there 
 is a French translation by Pingeron, Paris, 
 1709, 12mo., and an Fnglish translati(ui, 
 12mo. London, 1783. L'Idea del i)rofetto 
 Pittore del servire di Regola nel Cuidizio, 
 che si deve formare Intorno all' ()i)ere de' 
 Pittori, accre.sciuta della Maniera di di- 
 pingere sopra le Poicellanf, Smalto, Ve- 
 tro, Metalli, e Pietre, Venice, 1771, 4to. 
 Dell* Arte di vedere nelle belli Arti del 
 Disegno, secondo li Princiiii di Si i-/.er e 
 di Mengs, Venice, 1781, 8\o. Tiie works 
 of Mengs, in their various editions and 
 translations. A poem, entitled dell Arte 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 Pittorica, in eight cantos, by Count Ad. 
 Chiusole, Venice, 1768, 8vo. will afford 
 some pleasure ; it has been abridged into 
 four cantos, under the title of Precetti 
 della Piltura, Vic. 1T81, 8vo. Storia 
 della Pittura in Italia da Luigi Lanzi. 
 The best edition of which is in six volumes 
 8vo., Bassano, 1809. Vicenzo Requeno, 
 saggi sul Ristabilimento dell' antica Arte 
 de' Greci e Romani Pittori, Rome, 1786. 
 A second edition of which appeared in 2 
 vols. Parni. 1787. Storia della Pittura e 
 della Scultura dai Tempi antichi. This 
 work, which is written in Italian and Eng- 
 lish, has also the following title, The His- 
 tory of Painting and Sculpture, by Tho- 
 mas HiCKAY, and was jjublished at Cal- 
 cutta in 1788, 4to. 
 
 Among the works written in Spanish 
 upon the theory of painting are the follow- 
 ing, namely : — Arte dei Pintura, symme- 
 tria y perspectiva, por Phil. Nunnez, in 
 Lisbon, 1615, 4to. Memorial informatorio, 
 por los Pintores, Madrid, 1C29, 4to. Dial, 
 de la Pintura, su Defensa, Origen, Essen- 
 cia, Definicion, Modos, y Differencias, por 
 Vine. Carducho, Firent. Madrid, 1633 and 
 1637, 4to. Trattato de la Pintura, su an- 
 tiguedad y grandezas, por Franc. Pacheco, 
 Seville, 1649, in 4to. El Museo pintorico, 
 y escala Optica, por Ant. Palaniino Ve- 
 LAsco, Madrid, 1715, 1724, 3 vols. fol. 
 Under the title of La Pittura, Diego Ant. 
 Regon de Silva has printed, in 1788, at 
 Segovia, a poem in three cantos, of which 
 painting is the subject. 
 
 Among the works of French authors on 
 this subject are the following: — Ide6 de 
 la Perfection de la Peinture d^montree 
 par les Principes de I'Art et par des Ex- 
 emples conformes aux Observations que 
 Pliue et Quintellien ont faits sur les plus 
 celebres Tableaux des anciens Peintres, 
 mis en Parallele avec quelques Ouvrages 
 de nos meilleurs Peintres modernes, Lion, 
 da Vinci, Raffaelle, Jules Remain, et Le 
 Poussin, par Rolajvd Freart, Sieur de 
 Chambray, au Mans, 1662, 4to. ; Paris, 
 1672, 8vo. Le Peintre converti aux Regies 
 precises et universelles de son Art, avec 
 un Raisonnement au Sujet des Tableaux, 
 by Abr. Bosse, Paris, 1667, 4to. Des 
 Principes de I'Architecture, de la Pein- 
 ture, Sculpture, et des autres Arts qui en 
 dependent, avec un Dictionnaire propre a 
 chacun de ces Arts, par Andr^ Felibien, 
 Paris, 1669, 1697, 4to. Conferences de 
 I'Acad^mie royale de Peinture et de Sculp- 
 ture pendant I'Annee 1667, Paris, 1669, 
 4to. ; Amst. 1706, in 12mo. ; and in the 
 fifth volume of Entretiens sur les Vies 
 des Peintres, by the same, Trev. 1725, 
 
 in 12mo. Traite de la Pratique de la 
 Peinture, par Philippe de la Hire, in 
 I'Histoire de rAcad^mie des Sciences de 
 Paris, 1666—1669, vol. 9, page 635, and 
 following. L'Acadtiniio de la Peinture, 
 nouvellement mise au jour pour instruire 
 la Jeunesse a bien peindre en Huile et en 
 Miniature, par La Fontaine, Paris, 1679, 
 12mo. Conference de I'Academie, avec 
 les Sentimens des plus habiles Peintres 
 sur la Pratique de la Peinture et de la 
 Sculpture, avec plusieurs Discours acad^- 
 miques, par Henry Testelin, Paris, 1696, 
 fol. Livre de Secrets pour faire la Pein- 
 ture, 1682, 12mo. Cours de Peinture par 
 Principes, by M. Roger de Piles, Paris, 
 1708, 1720, 12mo. This work forms the 
 second volume of his (Euvres diverses, 
 Amsterdam, 1766, 12ino. El^mens de la 
 Peinture-pratique, by the same, Paris, 
 1684, 12mo; 1708, 12mo. Ch. Ant. Jombert 
 has given an enlarged edition of it, 1766, 
 8vo., which forms the third volume of his 
 CEuvres diverses, Amster. 1766, 12mo. 
 Many authors, among others M. de Murr, 
 in his Bibliotheque de Peinture, at page 
 151, have attributed this work to Jean 
 Baptiste Cokneille, who is not the author 
 of the engravings which are in it. Traite 
 sur la Peinture, pour en apprendre la 
 Theovie et se perfectionner dans la Pra- 
 tique, par Barnard Dupui du Grez, Tou- 
 louse, 1699, 4to. Reflexions sur la Poesie 
 et sur la Peinture, by the Abb^ Jean Bap- 
 tiste DuBos,Paris,l719,2 vols. 12mo. There 
 have appeared enlarged editions of it in 
 1733, and 1740, in 3 vols. 12mo. Discours 
 prononc^s dans les Conferences de I'Aca- 
 demie royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, 
 by Antoine Coypel, Paris, 1721, 4to. Dia- 
 logues sur la Peinture, by Fenelon. They 
 are joined to the Life of Mignard, by the 
 Abbot Monville, Amst. 1731, in 12mo, 
 In the Choix des Mercures, vol. ii, page 
 167, is a Letter upon Painting, by M. 
 Brossaru de Mantenei. Observations sur 
 la Peinture, Loudon, 1736, 8vo. Re- 
 flexions sur la Peinture, by M. de la Font 
 de Saint Yenne, 1746, 12mo. Lettres sur 
 la Peinture, a un Amateur, par Louis 
 Guillaume Baillet de Saint Juuen, Ge- 
 neve, 1750, 12mo. Essai sur la Peinture, 
 Sculpture, et Architecture, by Louis de 
 Bachaumont, Paris, 1752, 8vo. Jaq. Gad- 
 tier, Observations sur I'Hist. naturelle, 
 sur la Physique, et sur la Peinture, Paris, 
 1752, 6 vols. Observations sur la Pein- 
 ture et sur les Tableaux anciens et mo- 
 dernes, by the same, Paris, 1753, 2 vols. 
 12mo. In the Recueil de quelques Pieces 
 concernant les Arts, by Cochin, Paris, 
 1757, 12mo. page 121, is a Memoire sur la 
 
PAlNTrXG. 
 
 Ptinlure, which had already appeared 
 ill the Mercure de France. Discours 
 siir la Peiuture et sur rArchitectiire, 
 by M. du Perron, Paris, 17.38, 8vo. B.6- 
 flexions sur les differentes Parties de la 
 Peinfure, is found with I'Art de Peindre 
 of Watelet, Paris, 1700, 4to. 1701, 12nio. 
 In I'Amateur ; ou, Nouvelles Pieces et 
 Dissertations pour servir aiix Progres 
 du Gout et des Beaux Arts, Paris, 1702, 
 8vo. are some reflections upon colours. 
 Traits de la Peinture, suivi d'un Essai 
 8ur la Sculpture, pour servir d'lntroduc- 
 tion k une Histoire universelle relative 
 a ces beaux Arts, by Andr^ Bardon, Pa- 
 ris, 1765, 2 vols, in 12mo. Observations 
 raisonnet^s sur I'Art de la Peinture, ap- 
 pliquees a la Galerie de Dusseldorf, by 
 Fredon de la BretOxNmere, Dusseldorf, 
 1776, 8vo. Principes abr^ges de Peiu- 
 ture, par iVI. DtTEMS, Tours, 1779, Svo. 
 Traite des Principes et des Regies de la 
 Peinture, by M. Liotard, Geneve, 1781, 
 8vo. Reflexions sur la Peinture et la Gra- 
 vure, by C. F. Joi'u.ain, 1785, 12nio. The 
 author of this v.'ork speaks particularly of 
 the dealing in pictures. There are 'also 
 several memoirs upon this matter in the 
 Hibliotlieq. des Artistes et des Amateurs, 
 by the Abbe Jean Raymond de Petjty, 
 
 1700, 3 vols. 4t<). 
 
 Many French didactic poems have been 
 ■U'rilten on painting; such are: — La Pein- 
 ture, a poem, 1755, 12mo. L'Art dc pein- 
 dre, by Watei.et, Paris, 1760, -Ito., Amst. 
 
 1701, 121110. La Peinture, a poem, crown- 
 ed at tiic (!oral games in 1767, by M. Mich. 
 d'AviGNON, Lyons, 12mo, La Peinture, a 
 poem, in tliree cantos, by La Mieure, Pa- 
 ris, 1 770, Ito.; Amst. 1770, I2m(). There are 
 also to be found some interesting articles 
 in tiie Grand Livre des Peintres ou I'Art 
 de la Peinture, considtir^ dans toutes ses 
 Parties et demontre par I'rincipes, avec 
 des Reflexions sur les Ouvrages de 
 quelques bons Maitres et sur les Defauts 
 (jui s'y trouvent, par Gerard de Lmkesse, 
 I'aris, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Among the older works in the English 
 language upon this subject art; : — A jiro- 
 per Treatise, wherein is bri( fly set forth 
 (he Art of IJinning, London, 1025, llo. 
 Ars Picloria ; or, an Acuflemy treating of 
 Drawing, Painting, Limning, and i'.tching: 
 to which ar(! added Ihirty copper-iilati's, 
 exjiressing (lie ehoicesl, neatest, and most 
 exact grounds and rules of symmetry, col 
 liTted out of the most eminent Italian, 
 German, and Nfthtil.md auliiors, by Alex. 
 HlloWN, Ijoiid. 1000, H\<).; 1001) and 107.), 
 small folio. Introduction to the general 
 All of Drawing and Limning, Lund. 1071, 
 
 4to. Painting illustrated, in three Dia- 
 logues, containing some choice Observa- 
 tions upon the Art; together with the 
 Lives of the most eminent Painters from 
 Cimabue to the time of Raff'aelle and Mi- 
 chel Angiolo, with an explication of the 
 diflicult terms, Lond. 1085, 4to., 1719, 4to. 
 1785, 4to. by Will. Aglionby, and the 
 lives of painters are corrected after Va- 
 SARi. Polygraphice ; or, the Art of Draw- 
 ing, Engraving, Etching, Limning, Paint- 
 ing, Washing, by Salmon, Lond. 1078, 2 
 vols. 8vo.; 1701, 2 vols. Svo. The Art of 
 Painting of the best Italian, French, and, 
 German Masters, Lond. 1692, fol. Art of 
 Painting in Oil, and Method of Colouring, 
 by J. Smith, London, 1753, r2mo. Art of 
 Painting after the Italian Planner, by M. 
 Elslm, London, 1704, Svo. Essay upon 
 the Theory of Painting, by Ricuvrdson, 
 London, 1719, Svo. This work forms the 
 first volume of a Treatise on Painting of 
 the same author, which has been translated 
 into French by A. Rutgers; Amst. 1723, 
 Svo. 4 parts in 3 vols. The Art of Draw- 
 ing and Painting in Water Colours, by J. 
 Smith, London, 1730, 1732, 1757, and 
 1779, in 12mo. Essay upon Poetjy and 
 Painting, with relation to the sacred and 
 profane History, by Charles La Moite, 
 London, 1730, 12mo. The Principles of 
 Painting, London, 1744, Svo. Polymetis; 
 or, an Inquiry concerning the Agreement 
 between tiie Works of the Roman Poets 
 and the Remains of the ancient Artists, by 
 John Spence, London, 1747, 1755, and 
 1774, fol. TiXDAL has given an abridg- 
 ment of it, London, 1765, republished in 
 178C, Svo. Plan of an Academy of Paint- 
 ing, Sculpture, &c. London, 1755, 4to. 
 Practice of Painting and Perspective, in 
 which is contained the Art of Painting 
 in Oil, with the Method of Colouring ; 
 first Painting or Dead Colouring, second 
 Painting, third or last I'aiiiting, painting 
 Backgrounds, Copying, Drapery, and 
 Landscape Painting, by Th. B\Ri)\VEr.i,, 
 l^oiidon, 1750, 1773, and 17!:-2, 4lo. In- 
 (juiry into the Beauties of Painting, and 
 into Ihe Merit of the most ei-lebrated 
 Painters, ancient and moilt rn, by Dan. 
 M'Eiiit, London, 17 77, 4lii. A l^<'ttfr on 
 Poetry, Painting, and Sculpture, by KiN(;, 
 London, 1768, 12mo. Seven Discourses 
 delivered in (he Royal Academy by llie 
 President Sir Joshua Ri:\ Noi.ns, London, 
 1778, 8vo. Tliere was a French transla- 
 tion of it published in Paris in 1787, 2 vols. 
 12nio. Several otiier Discourses of Rey- 
 nolds have since been published, and are 
 now cidlected in his works, Lonclcui, 4lo. 
 17'.M}, 6<c. Sketches on the Art of Paint- 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 ing, by Talbot Diixon, 1782, 8vo. The 
 Artist's Repository and Drawing Maga- 
 zine, exhibiting the Principles of the po- 
 lite Arts in their various Branches, Lon- 
 don, 1784, in 4to. There are to be found 
 also some curious details upon painting 
 in the Handmaid to the Arts, by M. Dos- 
 siE, London, 1764, 2 vols. 8vo. as in the 
 School of Arts, London, 1785, 8vo. 
 
 Among the English poems upon painting 
 are : — A Poetical Epistle to an eminent 
 Painter, 1778, 4to. by W. Hayley, Esq. 
 and the Beauties of Painting, by Pollin- 
 ger Robinson, 1783, 4to. 
 
 More modern works by Opie, Fuseli, 
 West, and others, are so well known, that 
 they are omitted to make room for the 
 enumeration of others less common. 
 
 In the Dutch language are : — Inleyding 
 tot de hooghe School der Schilderkonst 
 door Sam, Van. Hoogstraeten, Middelb. 
 1641, 4to. ; Rotterd. 1678, 4to. Wullh 
 G^ERE, Natuurlyk en schilderkonstig Ont- 
 werp der Menschenkunde : leerende niet 
 alleen de Kennis van de Gestalte, Propor- 
 tie, Schoonheyd, Muskeleti, Bewegingen, 
 Actien, Passien en Welstand des men- 
 schenbeelden, tot de Teykenkunde, Schil- 
 derkunde, Beldhouwery, Botseer en Giet- 
 Oeffening toe passen ; maar ook hoe sich 
 een mensch na deselve Regelen, in aller- 
 hand Doeningh van Gaan, vStaan, Loopen, 
 Torssen, Dragen, Arbeyden, Spreken en 
 Andere gebeerden bevallig en verstande- 
 lijk aanstelen zal, Amst. 1682. An excel- 
 lent work, with many fine engravings. Der 
 leermeester der schilderkonst, eertyds in 
 rym gestelt door Karel van Mender, weder 
 aan't licht gegeeven en ontrymi'd door 
 WiBRANDtis DE Geest, Schlldcr, Leawar- 
 den, 1712, 8vo. 
 
 Among works upon painting written in 
 German, whose titles we have been able 
 to collect, we shall mention — Le Livre 
 curieux des Arts a I'Usage des Peintres, 
 Sculpteurs, et Orfevres, par Henri Vog- 
 THEREN, Strasburg, 1543, 4to. Le Manuel 
 des Arts de S^bald Beham, propre a ap- 
 prendre a peindre et a dessiner d'apres 
 les v^ritables Proportions et Divisions du 
 Cercle a I'Usage des Peintres et des Ar- 
 tistes, Francfort, 1605, 4to., with fifty-seven 
 engravings in wood. L'Academia tedesca 
 della Architettura, Scultura, e Pittura, 
 Nurembourg, 1675, 1679, 2 vols. fol. Le 
 vrai Chemin a suivre pour apprendre a 
 peindre, par Guillaume Stettler, Berne, 
 1679, 12mo. Le Peintre curieux, Dres- 
 den, 1679, Svo., with engravings. Le 
 Peintre instruit, habile, galant, et ^difiant, 
 par J. Dauw, Copenhagen, 1721, Svo. ; an 
 enlarged octavo edition by Charles Ber- 
 
 TRAND, ib. 1755, Svo. Principes de la 
 Peinture et du Dessin, par Joseph Widt- 
 MAissER, "Vienna, 1731, 4to. Le Peintre 
 instituteur, montrant aux Amateurs com- 
 ment il faut s'y prendre pour apprendre 
 a peindre en Huile, en Pastel, en Fresque, 
 &c. by Jean Melchior Croecker, Jena, 
 1778, Svo. Id6es sur I'lmitation des Mo- 
 numens Grecs en Peinture et Sculpture, 
 Dresden, 1754 and 1756. Epitre au Sujet 
 de rOuvrage pr^c^dent, Dresden, 1755, 
 4to. Dissertations upon the work : Id^es 
 sur I'lmitation des Monumens Grecs, ib. 
 1756, 4to., Jean Winckelmann. La Ma- 
 niere d'apprendre a peindre : Ouvrage 
 dans lequel on montre I'Excellence et 
 I'Utilite de cet Art, I'Usage qu'on doit en 
 faire, et comment on doit s'y perfection- 
 ner, &c. Leipsick, 1756, Svo. Reflexions 
 sur la Peinture, by Chretien Louis de Ha- 
 gedorn, Leipsick, 1762, 2 vols. Svo. This 
 work has been translated by Huber, Leip- 
 sick, 1775, Svo. Du Laocoon ; ou, des 
 Limites respectives de la Po^sie et de la 
 Peinture, by G. E. Lessing, Berlin, 1766. 
 M. Charles Vanderbourg has given a 
 French translation of it, Paris, Renouard, 
 1802, Svo. Dissertations sur la Theorie 
 de la Peinture et du Dessin, ou on ^tablit 
 les vrais Principes propres pour former le 
 Gout dans les Arts, Francfort et Leipsick, 
 1769, in Svo. Sur la Nature et I'Art 
 dans les Tableaux, la Sculpture, I'Archi- 
 tecture, et la Gravure, Leipsick, 1770, 2 
 vols. Svo. par Christophe Scheyb. The 
 same author has also published another 
 work upon this subject: it is entitled Ores- 
 trio, sur les Arts du Dessin, avec un Ap- 
 pendix sur la Maniere de faire des Em- 
 preintes en Souffre, Platre, et Verre, et 
 graver en Pierres dures, &c. Vienna, 1764, 
 2 vols. Svo. Instruction sur I'Etude de la 
 Peinture en tant qu'elle appartient aux 
 beaux Arts, et la Peinture comme metier, 
 prouvee d'une Maniere pratique, par E. 
 L. D. HucH, Halle, 1773, Svo. L'Etude 
 du Dessin et de la Peinture, a I'Usage 
 des Commencans, suivi d'une Liste des 
 plus c^lebres Peintres, Sculpteurs, et Ar- 
 chitectes, ainsi que des Academies et 
 Ecoles, par Chretien Louis Reinhold, 
 Goetingue, 1773, Svo., with forty-five en- 
 gravings. Systeme des Arts du Dessin, 
 suivi d'une Introduction a I'Etude des An- 
 tiques, Hieroglyphes, et Attributs all^go- 
 riques modernes, by the same, Munster, 
 1784, 8^0., with forty engravings. We 
 may regard, as a continuation and supple- 
 ment of this work, L'Ecole du Dessin et 
 de la Peinture, Munster, 1786, Svo., with 
 forty-five engravings : and I'Academie des 
 beaux Arts, &c., with fourteen engravings, 
 
 N N 
 
Munster, 1788, 8vo., both by the same au- 
 thor. Principes de la Peinture, par JuN- 
 KKR, Zurich, 177.1, 8vo. Acadi'mie des 
 Arts du Dessin, par Chretien Frederic 
 Prangen, Halle, 1778, 2 vols. 8vo. Le- 
 <;on8 sur les Arts du Dessin, destin(5s aux 
 Eleves des Academies des Arts, par H. A. 
 Mektens, Leipsick, 1783, 8vo. Instruc- 
 tion sur la Theorie et la Pratique du Des- 
 sin et de la Peinture, pour les Commen- 
 <;ans de cet Art, Altona, 1778, in 8vo., 
 with engravings. Bibliotheque des Arts, 
 destin^e aux Peintres, Dessinateurs, Gra 
 veurs, et Sculpteurs, en Forme de Lettres, 
 par C. L.VNG, Erlangen, 1779. The same 
 author has given a continuation of this 
 work under the title of Lettres a I'Usage 
 des Peintres, Dessinateurs, &c., Francf. 
 1791 et 1792, 2 vols. 8vo. Magasin pour 
 les Arts du Dessin, Munich, 1791, 8vo. 
 Theorie de la Peinture ; ou, I'lnstruction 
 sur la Peinture d'Histoire a I'Usage des 
 Commen<;ans, par Christophe Fesel, 
 Wurtzbourg, 1792, 8vo. 
 
 Among the best Latin works which treat 
 on various subjects connected with the art 
 of painting, or in praise of the arts in ge- 
 neral, may be enumerated, Martin Fri- 
 sius, de Erroribus Pictorum, Hafnia?, 1703, 
 4to. Ml'ixer, de Pictura, Dissertatio ju- 
 ridica, Jen. 1712, 4to. Brunquell, de 
 Pictura honesta ac utili, Jen. 1733, 4to. 
 C. F. VoiTA Berg, de Pictura famosa, 
 Jen. 1703, Ito. F"ichtner, de eo quod 
 justum est circa Picturam, Altorf, 4to. 
 TiiEoi'H. Boerner super Privilegiis Pic- 
 torum, Lipsia?, 1751, 4to. Dlrr Franc. 
 Ant.de Probalione per Picturas in sacris, 
 Rlogunlia!, 1779, 4to. Kmjber Joannes 
 Ludov. de Pictura contumeliosa, Erlan- 
 gen, 1787, 4to. 
 
 The best Italian works on the same sub- 
 jects are :— Trattato della Nobiltil della 
 Pittura, composto ad instanza della Ve- 
 neral). Comp. di S. Luca, et della Nob. 
 Acad, de' Pitt((ri di lioma, da liom. Ai.- 
 iiEini, Koma, 1585, 4to. Anotiier edition 
 of the same work was published at Paviu 
 in HJOl, alK() in 4to. Tlie .sctoiid of the 
 Lezioiii di M. B-n. VAitnii, Firenze, 1549 
 and 1590, 4to. is entitled, Qual sia pii) 
 nobile la I'ittiua o la Sr;illura? C.\i Oncui 
 dciia Pittura, v della Scullura, Disrorso 
 di (jianb. Bi m.ori, Lucrn, l(i77, 4to. 
 Prtgi della l'i(tura, di Dom. I»all<tta, 
 Koina, l(i88, 8vo, La Pillura in (iiudi/.io, 
 ovvcid il Bene delle oncste Pitture, ed il 
 Male dtlb- Oscene, di C. Cregor. Rosk;- 
 Noi.i, Venezia, 1«)9«, 12nio., and anolher 
 •tdition at Bologna, lf)97, also in I2ni(). 
 Lc (re bi'Ib- Arti in Lrgu con rArmi per 
 difesa «l<lla Keligiono, Oruz. di Venc. 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 LiccHESiKi, Roma, 1716, 8vo. Orazione 
 in Lode della Pittura, Scultura, ed Archi- 
 tettura, da Nicolas Fontingueri. This 
 tract is printed in the second volume of 
 the Prose degli Arcadi, Rome, 1718, 8vo. 
 Orazione della Pittura, Scultura, ed Ar- 
 cliitettura, giovano per I'acquiste delle 
 Scienze, da Vine. Santini, printed in the 
 third volume of the same work. Ora- 
 zione in Lode della Pittura, Scultura, ed 
 Arcliitettura di Giambattista Alessandro 
 
 Moreschi, Bologna, 1781, 8vo, Esame 
 ragionata sopra la Nobilta della Pittura e 
 della Scultura, per Nicolas Passeri, Na- 
 poli, 1783, 8vo. 
 
 In the Spanish language, the most es- 
 teemed works on the same subjects are : — 
 Discorsos apologeticos en que se defiende 
 la Ingenuidad del Arte de la Pintura, que 
 es liberal y noble de todos Derechos, por 
 Juan de Bltron, Madrid, 1G2G, 4to. Por 
 el Arte de la Pintura, por D. Juan Xan- 
 REGur, Madrid, 1G33, 4 to. 
 
 In French : — Eloge de la Peinture, par 
 Philippe Ancele, Paris, 1G42, 12mo. 
 Ichnographie ; ou, Discours sur les quatre 
 Arts d'Agriculture, Peinture, Sculpture, 
 et Gravure, avec des Notes historiques, 
 cosmographiques, ciiiftVes, Lettres ini- 
 tial es, Logogriphes, &€. par M. Hebert, 
 Paris, 17G7, 5 vols. 12mo, 
 
 In English:— A Parallel between Poe- 
 try and Painting, by Drydex, Lond. 1G95, 
 4to., inserted as a preface to that great 
 poet's translation of Du Fresnoy, The 
 various editions of the Lectures of Rey- 
 nolds, Barry, Fdseu (some passages 
 from whose work have been extracted in 
 the course of this article), Oime, West, ^c. 
 The Artist ; a Collection of Essays on Art, 
 by various English artists, edited and con- 
 ducted by Prince Ho-uie, Esq. London, 
 1809, 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 Our intention being more to direct our 
 readers to scarce an<l %aUiable foreign 
 works, than to well known I'.nglish trea- 
 tises, this portion is rendered necessarily 
 brief. 
 
 In the German language are to be found ; 
 a reply to the following question: — Does 
 Painting possess any influence over a state ? 
 llanil)urgh, 17(i3. A<lvice to young Art- 
 i^;ls (o apply themselves to Literature, by 
 H. de SoNNENFEi.s, Vienna, 1708, 8vo. 
 An Inquiry whetiier Painting produces n 
 greater eliect than Music. A Dialogue, 
 by Herder, inserdii among tlie Miscella- 
 neous Works of that author, published at 
 (Jolha, 1785, in 8vo. 
 
 The jiriucipal Lexicons and Dictionaries 
 
 on Painting art-: Dictionnaire abngc d<« 
 
 Peinture et d'Arcliiteeture, oii Ton trouve 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 les principaux Termes de ces deux Arts, torias, by Peter Ciner, inchnled iii liis 
 avec leur Explication, la Vie abreg^e dss Dissertationcs Lilteiariic, Florence, 1742, 
 grands Peintres et des Architectes c^le- Svo, Essai d'tme Histoire des Arts du 
 bres, et une Description succinte des plus Dessin, par A. F. Busching, Hamburgh, 
 beaux Ouvrages de Peinture, de Sculp- 1761, Svo. Delia Patria de^U Arti del 
 ture, et d'Architecture, soit antiques, soit Disegno del Gherardo d'ARCo, Cremona, 
 modernes, par I'Abb^ Marsy, Paris, 1746, 1785, Svo. Anecdotes des Beaux Arts, 
 2 vols. Svo. Dictiounaire port.atif des contenant tout ce que la Peinture, la Sculp- 
 beaux Arts, par Lacomee, Paris, 1766, Svo. ture, la Gravure, I'Architecture, et la Vie 
 Dictionnaire portatif de Peinture, Sculp- des Artistes oftVent de plus curieux et de' 
 ture, et Gravure, avec un Traite pratique plus piquant chez tous les Peuples du 
 des diff^rentes IManieres de peindre, par Monde, depuis I'Origine de ces differens 
 D, Ant, Joseph Pernetty, Paris, 1757, Arts jusqu'a nos Jours, Paris, 1776, Svo. 
 Svo. Dictiounaire Iconologique ; ou, In- 3 vols. Domenico Makni, del vero Pit- 
 trod action a la Connoissance des Peintres, tore Luca et del Tempo del suo fiorire. 
 Sculptures, Estarapes, par M. Phezei,, Florence, 1761, 4to, Dell' Errore che 
 Gotha, 1758, Svo. Dizionario portatile persiste di attribuirsi le Pitture al S. 
 dclle belle Arti, che contiene quanto e di Evang. by the same, Florence, 1766, 4to. 
 piu remarchevole nella Pittura, Scultura, On the state of painting among the 
 Intaglio, &c., colla Vita de' piu celebri Greeks and Romans : — De I'An.our des 
 Professor! delle medesime Arte, Venezia, beaux Arts, et de I'extreme Consideration 
 1758, Svo. Nouveau Dictionnaire des que les Grecs avoient pour ceux qui les 
 Peintres, pour acqu^rir une Connoissance cultivoient avec Succes, par Caylus, &c. 
 exacte des oons Tableaux anciens et mo- in the twenty-first volume of RIemoires de 
 dernes, avec un Appendix de quelques I'Academie des Belles Lettres. Histoire 
 Monogrammes, par Louis de Winckel- de la Peinture ancienne, extraite de 
 MANN, Aug. 1796, Svo. (in German). Die- I'Histoire naturelle de Pline, avec le 
 lionnaire des Arts de Peinture, Sculpture, Text.e Latin, corrige sur les Manuscrits 
 et Gravure, par Watelet et Levesque, de Vossius et sur la premiere Edition de 
 Paris, 1792,5 vols. Svo. Th^orie generale Venise, et traduite en Francois par D. 
 des beaux Arts, r^digee par Ordve al- Durand, London, 1725, folio. We may 
 phab^tique, par J. G. Sulzer, Leipsick, recognise as a continuation of this work, 
 1793, 4 vols. Svo. (iu German). the Treatise of the Count de Caylus on 
 On the presei'vation of pictures we may the Pictures of Polygnotus, on several 
 consult, Recueil des Memoires et diverses Passages of Pliny relating to the Arts, on 
 
 Experiences, faites au Sujet de la Conser- 
 vation des Tableaux, avec un Discours sur 
 rincorruptible, par G. Dagly', Berlin, 
 1706, Svo. 
 
 the Picture of Venus, by Apelles, &c. in 
 the 19th, 27th, 29th, and 30th vols, of Me- 
 moires de I'Acad. des Inscriptions et Belles 
 Lettres. The third and fourth parts of the 
 
 On the origin, antiquity, and history of work entitled Gallus lloniae Hospcs, par 
 
 painting among different nations, we may L. Mont Josieu, Rome, 1585, 4to. (and to 
 
 cite, Joa. Nicolai Funch, Diss, de Picturee be found in the ninth volume of the Tre- 
 
 Usu et Origine, with his Dissertationcs sor of Gronovius), treat of antique sculp- 
 
 academicae, 1746, Svo. 470th and follow- ture and painting. De I'Origiue de la 
 
 ing pages. Lettere dell' Origine, Uso, Peinture et des plus excellens Peintres de 
 
 ed Abuso della Pittura, in the Lettere I'Antiquit^, Paris, 1660, 4to. Des Pein- 
 
 scelte del Abbate Pietro Chiari, Venice, tres anciens et de leurs Manieres, in the 
 
 1750, Svo. page 172. De I'Anciennete de tenth volume of NouveauxChoix des Mer- 
 
 la Peinture, par Fraguier, to be found in cures. Joann. Fonseca, de Pictura vete- 
 
 the first volume of Memoires de I'Acade- rum. Delle Pittura antica, da G. B. 
 
 mie des Belles Lettres. On the Origin Beu-ori, Venice, 1697, 4to. Treatise on 
 
 and History of the Art, by Studemund, ancient Painting, containing Observations 
 
 Jena, 1767, Svo. on the Rise, Progress, and Decline of that 
 
 On the history of painting in general — art among the Greeks and Romans, &c., 
 
 Histoire des Arts qui ont rapport au Des- by George Turnbull ; adorned with fifty 
 
 sin,divisee en trois Livres, ou 11 est traits pieces of ancient Painting discovered in 
 
 de son Origine, de sou Progres, de sa the ruins of old Rome, accurately engraved 
 
 Chute, et de son Retablissement, par Mo- from drawings of Camillo Paderni, Lond. 
 
 NiER, Paris, 1705, Svo. The Perfect Pain- 1740, fol. Inquiry into the Causes of the 
 
 ter ; or, a History of the Origin, Progress, extraordinary Excellency of ancient Greece 
 
 and Improvement of Painting, 1730, 12mo. in the Arts, London, 1767, Svo. In the 
 
 Introductio ad Historiam Artis Delinea- Arclucologia Litteraria of Ernesti, in that 
 
 K f. 2 
 
PAl 
 
 ot Martini, and in that of Siebenkees, 
 appear chapters on painting among the 
 ancients. Sur la Peinture des Anciens, 
 par F\ixoNET, in the sixth volume of his 
 works, Lausanne, 1781. Rccherches sur 
 rOrigine, I'Ksprit, et le Progres dcs Arts 
 de la Grece, sur leur Connexion avee les 
 Arts et la Religion des anciens Peuples 
 de rinde, de la Perse, du rcste de I'Asie, 
 de I'Europe, et de I'Eijypte, London, 1785, 
 4to. Sur la Peinture des Anciens, servant 
 de Suppli-n\ent ;\ I'Histoire de I'Art, par 
 A. RiEM, Berlin, 1787, 4to. Observations 
 on the Art of Painting among the Ancients, 
 by Cooper, in the third volume of Me- 
 moirs of the Literary and Philosophical 
 Society of Manclicster, 1790, 8vo. 
 
 Works which treat in general of the 
 lives of painters of every age and country : — 
 Entretiens sur les Vies et sur les Ouvrages 
 des plus excellens Pcintres, anciens et 
 modernes, by Andre Felibien, Paris, 1C96, 
 5 vols. 4to, and London, 1705, 4 vols. 8vo. 
 The second part of the first volume of the 
 Acadeniiatedescadella Architettura, Scul- 
 tura, e Pittura, of Sandrvrt, Nuremberg, 
 1675, folio. Noms des Peintres les plus 
 c^lebres, anciens et modernes, Paris, 1679, 
 12mo. Abrege de la Vie des Peintres, 
 avec des Reflexions sur leurs Ouvrages, 
 par R. De Pii.es, Paris, 1747, 12mo. Abe- 
 cedario Pitlorico, o sia serie degli Uomini 
 i piu illustri in Pittura, Scultura, ed Ar- 
 chitettura, da F. P. A. Oklandi, Bologna, 
 1704, 4to. Account of the most eminent 
 Painters, ancient and modern, continued 
 down to the present Times according to 
 the Order of their Succession, by R. Gra- 
 ham, London, 1716, Hvo. Table hislorique 
 et c!»rimoli)gi(iue des plus fameux Peintres 
 anciens et modernes, par A. F. Harms 
 Brunswick, 1742, folio. Dictionnaire g^- 
 n<;rale des Artistes, by 1'lessi.i, Zuric 
 1767, 4to. I'^xtraits des diderens Ouvrages 
 puljlii-s sur la Vie des Peintres, by M. 
 Papillon (le la Ferte, Paris, 1776, 12mo. 
 Pel. Oi'>iKUU Opus Ciuoiiiogr. Orbis uni- 
 vcrsi a Mundi Exordio usque ad Annum 
 1611, Antwerp, 1611, folio. 
 
 Works expressly on the ancient pain- 
 ters:— Vile de' Pitlori antichi, srritte ed 
 iilustrale da Carlo Dvri, 1667, 4t(i. Le- 
 /.ione dettu nella Academia «lella Crusca 
 iiitornoa' I'ittori.Greci e !^alini,d(' I'liipjio 
 H\i.i)iNi(( I, 1692, 1 to. In the le:!th edj- 
 tion of Jmiiiis's work entitled, De Pic- 
 tura Veterum (Roderdam, 169J), there 
 will be fcuind an extensive calalogiu- of 
 the Painters uiid other Artists of anti- 
 M'lily. 
 
 Respecting modern jminters in general 
 we lind details in L'Acad6inie des Sciences 
 
 PAL 
 
 et des Arts, contenant les Vies et les 
 Floges des Homines illustres, par J. Bul- 
 i.\RT, Brussels, 1695, folio. Le Vite de' 
 Pittori, de' Srultori, e degli Architetti 
 moderni, con loro Ritratti al naturale, da 
 Giovanni Pietro liEux)Ri, Rome, 1672, 4to. 
 Accresciuta colla Vita e Ritratto del Car. 
 Luc. GiARDANO, Rome, 1728, 4to. Vite 
 de' Pittori, Scultori, ed Architetti moderni, 
 da Lione Pascoli, Rome, 17S0— 6, 2 vols. 
 4to. (The names of all other painters 
 save Italian are dreadfully mangled in 
 this book.) Portraits of the most eminent 
 Painters and other famous Artists that 
 have flourished in Europe, curiously en- 
 graved on above one hundred copper- 
 plates, from original l^aintings ef Van 
 Dyck, Jansens, Guido, Teniers, and other 
 celebrated Masters ; with an Account of 
 their Lives, Characters, and most consi- 
 derable W^orks, London, 1739, 4to. Abrege 
 de la Vie dcs plus fameux Peintres, avec 
 leurs Portraits graves en taille-douce, les 
 Indications de leurs principaux Ouvrages, 
 quelques Reflexions sur leurs Caracteres, 
 et la Maniere de connoitre les Dessins et 
 les Tableaux des grands Maitres, par M. 
 A. J. Dezallier d'ARGENSVii.i.E, Paris, 
 1745, 3 vols. 8vo. The Gentleman and 
 Connoisseur's Dictionary of Painters, con- 
 taining a complete Collection and Ac- 
 count of the most distinguished Artists, 
 who have flourished in tlie Art of Paint- 
 ing in Europe from 1250 to 1767 ; to which 
 is added, a Catalogue of the Disciples of 
 the most famo\is Masters, «\;c. by Pii.- 
 KiNGTON, London, 1767, 4to. Dictionnaire 
 des Artistes, par M. I'Abbe L. A. Fon- 
 TENAV, Paris, 1776, 2 vols. 8vo. Biogra- 
 phical Memoirs of extraordinary Pain- 
 ters, exhibiting not only Sketches of their 
 principal Works and professional Cha- 
 racters, but a variety of romantic Adven- 
 tures and original Anecdotes, London, 
 1780, 12mo. Abrege de la Vie des Pein- 
 tres, dont les Tableaux composent la Ga- 
 lerie Eleetorale de Dresde, Dresden, 1782, 
 8vo. Manuale de' Pittori, for the Year 
 1792, Florence, 8vo. See Drawing., En- 
 «iR\viN(i, Snuioi., Style, SrLi.i«TiUE, &c. 
 
 Palace, [pitlatiuin, i^at.] In iircliili\tiirf. 
 The term generally ajjplied to the dwel- 
 ling-iu)nses of kings and princes. 
 
 Tiiere is sonu* diflVrence of opinion as 
 to the derivation of tiu' Latin word pulu- 
 tium. Procopius derives it from a Grecian 
 called Palios, who gave his own nanu- to 
 a splendid iiouse wiiich he had built: 
 adding, that the l{oman emperor Augus- 
 tus, «/]f(T him, applied llu> nanu* palalium 
 to tlu> house of the Roman emperors on 
 the hill, which, for that reason, was dcno- 
 
PALACE. 
 
 minated the Palatine Mount. On the 
 other hand, it has been contended, that 
 Rornulus's house, in which Augustus lived, 
 was properly called palatium because si- 
 tuated on the Palatine hill. However this 
 be, palatium, at first doubtless a proper 
 name, became at length, not " like homo, 
 common to all men," but, in a similar way, 
 common to all the habitations of sove- 
 reigns. Neither is it restricted to these : 
 for, taking different additions according 
 to the quality of the inhabitants, we speak 
 of imperial palace, royal, pontifical, cardinal, 
 ducal, episcopal, &c. Nay, it is customary 
 in China to build palaces in honour of 
 celebrated ancestors : and in the year 
 1263, Hu-pi-lay, of the Mogul empire (the 
 first wiio borrowed the Chinese custom), 
 built one for his ancestors. 
 
 In the Ancient Universal History, we 
 have an account of a most magnificent pa- 
 lace in Upper Egypt, not far from Aswan 
 (the ancient Syene), the ruins whereof are 
 so extensive as to impress the mind of the 
 spectator vvifh amazement. It is as large 
 as a little city, having four avenues of co- 
 lumns leading to as many porticoes. At 
 each gate, between two pillars of por- 
 phyry, stand two gigantic figures of fine 
 black marble armed with maces. The 
 avenues consist of columns set three and 
 tliree together, in a triangle, on one pe- 
 destal : on the chapiter of each triangle is 
 placed a sphinx and a tomb alternately. 
 Each colunm is seventy feet high, all of 
 ofte stone. There are in all the four ave- 
 nues about five or six thousand of these 
 columns, a great many of which are fallen 
 down. 
 
 The palaces of modern Europe are cer- 
 tainly not distinguished by magnificence 
 of this description. They are very often, 
 more particularly, perhaps, in our coun- 
 try* (and after a degree in Germany and 
 Holland), observable rather on account of 
 their extent than their purity or brilliancy 
 of style as buildings. The interior, it is 
 true, generally makes amends, through 
 the exertions of the upholsterer, for the 
 baldness of the elevation, and extent itself 
 possesses the principle of grandeur ; but 
 in Paris, and in the principal towns of 
 Italy, these edifices have other character- 
 istics, and are some of them as noble and 
 
 * We are happy, however, to say, that a royal pa- 
 lace is now building, by Mr. Nash, in front of Buck- 
 ingham House (the greater part of which is to be 
 removed for the purpose), which will, it is under- 
 stood, be rendered worthy the residence of the chief 
 magistrate of this powerful empire. Its elevation 
 will be (Vrecian, and a copy of the Roman arch of 
 Con.«tanlJue is to be placed before the building. 
 
 beautiful in point of external display as 
 they are profuse of ornament in their in- 
 teriors. 
 
 These, however, sink dreadfully in com- 
 parison with the superb structures of the 
 ancient Roman emperors, and, in respect 
 of vastness, to the residence of the Empe^ 
 ror of China at Pekin. 
 
 Homer gives us details with regard to 
 the construction of the palaces of the 
 kings in the heroic ages. Tliese descrip- 
 tions are to be taken with a great deal of 
 reservation. They are, most likely, in 
 part ideal, in part embellished, and possi- 
 bly taken from edifices erected long after 
 the reputed era of the siege of Troy. At 
 all events they are curious, even as afford- 
 ing an evidence of the notions entertained 
 by tlie illustrious old Grecian on the sub- 
 ject. In the sixth book of the Iliad, the 
 palace of Priam is represented as a vast 
 edifice, the lower part of which was com- 
 posed of porticoes of stone and covered 
 galleries, beneath which were fifty cham- 
 bers richly decorated, for the fifty sons of 
 Priam. In front of this edifice, and in the 
 middle of the court-yard, stood another of 
 stone, in which were twelve beautiful 
 rooms for the daughters of Priam. Paris, 
 who is represented as a prince possessing 
 himself some knowledge of architecture, 
 brought to Troy several architects to build 
 him a palace. This was situated between 
 those of Priam and Hector, and like those 
 included many apartments. 
 
 In the earliest periods of their history, 
 the Romans applied the word domus, not 
 only to ordinary houses, but also to the 
 habitations of the great, and even to those 
 of their sovereigns. Even in the time of 
 the voluptuous madman, Nero, the cele- 
 brated new palace built by him was deno- 
 minated domus aurea Neronis, Nero's golden 
 house. This sumptuous palace surpassed 
 in profuse splendour, as well as in dimen- 
 sions, all which either had preceded or 
 have succeeded it. According to Sueto- 
 nius, the court in which was the colossal 
 statue of Nero was adorned with three 
 ranges of porticoes, each a mile in length. 
 The gardens attached to the palace were 
 also of a prodigious size, and contained a 
 sort of pond or lake, which Suetonius 
 states miglitbe said to resemble a sea, and 
 on the banks of which stood clusters of 
 elegant buildings, each like a little town. 
 The imperial portion of the building was 
 embellished with unheard-of magnificence. 
 Gold, jewels, and other articles of value 
 were lavished around with an unsparing 
 hand, while the essences and perfumes 
 fuming up on all sides bore testimony to 
 
PAL 
 
 the effeminate luxury of this worse than 
 rival of Sardanapalus. The whole of tliis 
 surpassing structure has been demolished 
 centuries since, and it would be well for 
 the outraged feelings of humanity if the 
 infamy of its wretched owner liad passed 
 away witli the walls he constructed. On 
 part of its site (to obtain wliich Nero liad 
 destroyed a whole neighbourhood), Ves- 
 pasian afterwards caused the celebrated 
 Colosseum to be erected. 
 
 The palace of Diocletian, at Spalatro, 
 built by that emperor to spend his hitter 
 years in is still (even in ruin) one of the 
 most remarkable among the relics of an- 
 cient art. It had the ligure of a parallelo- 
 gram; was six hundred and thirty feet in 
 length, and five hundred and ten in breadth. 
 Its principal facade, which fronted the 
 sea, was decorated with a superb colon- 
 nade, which is almost entirely preserved : 
 it was composed of lifty columns, of which 
 forty-two remain : this colonnade formed 
 a gallery twenty-five feet broad, which, in 
 its length, occupied the entire fa(;ade. 
 For further details respecting this once 
 splendid mansion, the reader is referred 
 to the Voyage Pitloresque of M. Cassas in 
 latria and Dalnialia, Paris, 1802, folio, 
 where drawings w ill be found of all those 
 portions of Diocletian's palace still exist- 
 ing. M. DtKAND, in his Pamlele des Edi- 
 fices de tout genre, has collected various 
 palaces of different eras and different na- 
 tions in the same plates, for the purpose 
 of comparison. Tlie ancient palaces, after 
 Piranesi, are represented in plates IG, 43, 
 45, and 40, and amongst them the palace 
 of Diocletian, the golden house of Nero, 
 ^c. 
 
 Tiie palaces of Italy, in addition to otlicr 
 attractions, possess that of containing 
 many of the works of the greatest masters 
 in the art of painting. Amongst tiie fore- 
 most of these structures may be enume- 
 rated the Aldobrandini, tlie Uorghcse, the 
 Pitti, lioisi)igliosi, IJarbcrini, Corsini, &c. 
 Pai..];(k;» M'liv. [7r('(\<(ior, anricnt, and 
 y^n'iipu), to write, (Jr. J Jii tticliuinloify. Tiie 
 knowledge of ancient manuscripts. Sec 
 
 I\S< KlITIONS. 
 
 l'.\i..KViH/i;. [7raXaiT()fr, from iraXalio, to 
 wrestle, Gr.J 7?i iirehawlof(i/. Tiiis deno- 
 mination belongs, properly sjn-akiiig, to 
 that part of liie iuicienl (irecian yviii'ucriuii 
 more parlieulaily appropriated (o gym- 
 nastic exercises, sucii as wrestling, <|Uoit- 
 ing, throwing darts, and other similar 
 games. Wrestling ai>pear8 to have been 
 aniongsl (lie \(!ry earliest corporeal exer- 
 (-ises. In tli(> lieroic or fai>ulous ages, 
 lleriules and Theseus are said (o have 
 
 PAL 
 
 overcome in wrestling Anteus and Cer- 
 cyon, the reported inventors of the exer- 
 cise. Theseus was the first wlio is said to 
 have united address and skill to bodily 
 force in this kind of combat, and by him 
 were established the public schools where- 
 in the practice was taught on scientilic 
 principles. The yvuvdffiov, or gymmisuim, 
 contained also baths, which were thrown 
 open for the use of the public, as well as 
 for the refreshment of the youths who had 
 been engaged in the games abovemen- 
 tioncd ; and likewise schools or classes 
 wherein philosophy was taught. The term 
 pahestra? was, however, often vernacularly 
 applied to the whole of the building, not- 
 withstanding its derivation clearly proves 
 that its application should be more limited. 
 The wise Grecians were well aware how 
 desirable it was to provide for the health 
 and accomplished developement of the 
 bodily functions as well as t!ie mental 
 ones; they knew indeed how much the 
 latter depended on the former; and ac- 
 cordingly we find them adopting, as a mat- 
 ter of state policy, establishments wherein 
 their youth were stimulated to all manly 
 and healthful sports— all those athletic 
 exercises by which the ancients rendered 
 the body pliant and nervous, and enabled 
 the muscles to do their offices with treble 
 effect. We are glad, by the way, to per- 
 ceive that gymnastic exercises are grow- 
 ing daily more common in our own coun- 
 try, and we cannot too strongly recommend 
 their adoption and pursuit in all families 
 wherein there are boys to be brought up. 
 
 Barthelemi's Anacharsis furnishes us 
 with the following account :— " The pa- 
 lajstriB are nearly of the same form with 
 the gymnasia. We visited the apartnunts 
 appropriated to all the species of batlis; 
 those where the wrestlers leave their 
 clothes, when they rub their bodies with 
 oil to render their limbs supple, and where 
 they roll themselves in the sand in order 
 to give their antagonists a hold. 
 
 " Wrestling, leai)ing, tennis, and all the 
 exercises of the Lyct;um were here re- 
 peated before us with greater varieties, 
 and with more strength and skill on the 
 pail of tiie performers. Among the diller- 
 eiit groups before us we distinguished men 
 of the most perfect beauty, and worthy of 
 serving as models for artists: some with 
 vigorous and boldly-marked outlines, as 
 Hercules is represented ; anil others of a 
 mine slim and elegant shape, consistent 
 with till' description of Achilles. Tlio 
 fiuiner, devoting themselves to wrestling 
 and boxing, had no object but to increase 
 their bodily strength ; the latter, educated 
 
PAL 
 
 to less violent exercises, such as runnin^c, 
 leaping, &c. confined themselves to ac- 
 quirements of agility." 
 
 Vitruvius asserts most positively that 
 there were never any palcestrcB at Rome. 
 See Apodyterium, Bath. 
 
 Palette. [Fr,] A little oval table, or 
 piece of wood or ivory very thin and 
 smooth ; on and round vphich the painter 
 places the various colours he has occasion 
 for, that they may be ready for the brush. 
 
 The middle part serves to mix the co- 
 lours on, and to make the several tints re- 
 quired in the work. This instrument has 
 no handle, but in the place thereof, a hole 
 at one end, to put the thumb through to 
 hold it. 
 
 Palla. [Lat.] In costume. A large upper 
 robe hanging down upon the ground, and 
 the use of which, together with that of the 
 long tunic called stnln, distinguished the 
 ancient Roman females of quality from 
 those of the lower classes. 
 
 Palladium, [from naXX«c, Minerva, 
 Gr.] In archaiology. This celebrated sta- 
 tue of the goddess Pallas was about three 
 cubits high, and represented her as in a 
 sitting posture, holding a pike in her right 
 hand, and a distaff and spindle in her 
 left. 
 
 The palladium is fabled to have fallen 
 from heaven near the tent of Ilus at the 
 time that prince was employed in building 
 the citadel of Ilium or Troy ; and Apollo, 
 by an oracle, declared that that city should 
 never be taken whilst the palladium was 
 contained within its walls. Hence, the 
 assailants of Troy became exceedingly 
 anxious to get possession of this treasure; 
 and Ulysses, accompanied by Diomede, 
 undertook to purloin it. Having, by 
 stealth, entered the citadel at night, they 
 stole the palladium away, the consequence 
 oi' which act was the fall of Troy. The 
 goddess, however, did not fail, through 
 her image, to testify her wrath at this un- 
 gallaut violence, the palladium appearing 
 at the period of its capture to receive life 
 and motion. In allusion to this Virgil 
 makes Sinon say : — 
 
 " Scarce to the camp the sacred image came, 
 When from her eyes she flashed a living flame : 
 A briny sweat bedewed her limbs around. 
 And thrice she sprung Indignant from the ground ; 
 Thrice was she seen with martial rage to wield 
 Her ponderous spear, and shake her blazing shield." 
 Pall's Aineid, ii. 228. 
 
 It is also averred, that anciently there 
 existed a statue of Pallas at Rome which 
 was held to be the veritable heaven-de- 
 scended palladium above spoken of; that 
 it was brought into Italy by jEneas, depo- 
 
 PAL 
 
 sited in the temple of Vesta, and secured, 
 as well as might be, from capture, by the 
 construction of several others made ex- 
 actly similar to it. 
 
 The carrying off the palladium has from 
 ancient times been a favourite subject 
 among artists. Amongst the most consi- 
 derable of those works of sculpture, how- 
 ever, which were framed on it, one only 
 remains still in existence — a basso rilievo 
 of marble preserved in the Spada Palace. 
 Nevertheless, a passage in the Museum 
 Florentinum, p. 68, sets forth that Gori was 
 acquainted with several other antique 
 marble monuments upon which the pur- 
 loining of the palladium by Diomede was 
 represented. Upon the Iliac table we see 
 Diomede and Ulysses issuing forth from 
 the gates of Troy. Pliny makes mention 
 of an artist of the name of Pytheas, who, 
 upon a vase, depicted in rilievo, Ulysses 
 and Diomede stealing the palladium. A 
 great number of engraved gems present 
 the same story at different points of it, 
 and may be said altogether to form a my- 
 thic circle of the raising of the palladium. 
 According to the moment of action which 
 each artist has chosen, we may separate 
 the different gems which represent this 
 subject into five classes. 
 
 The first class is that in which Diomede 
 is already in the interior of the Trojan 
 temple of Minerva, without having as yet 
 laid hands on the palladium. 
 
 The second class comprises those stones 
 upon which Diomede is figured as just on 
 the point of committing the theft. 
 
 In the third class we may range all 
 those stones which represent Diomede as 
 having consummated the theft, and al- 
 though holding the palladium in his hand,, 
 is still seen within the temple of Minerva. 
 This division is the most numerous, and, 
 in respect of art, the most important. We 
 may subdivide it into two branches : the 
 first, that wherein Diomede is represented 
 alone ; the second, that in which he is ac- 
 companied by Ulysses. Tassie's catalogue 
 affords the most complete enumeration of 
 stones of this class. 
 
 The fourth class comprehends those 
 gems whereon Diomede is engraved as 
 just on the point of escaping from the tem- 
 ple of Minerva in possession of the stolen 
 treasure ; whilst the fifth and last class 
 comprises all that series of monuments 
 representing Diomede and Ulysses return- * 
 ing to the Grecian camp. 
 
 Pallas. One of tlie names of Minerva, 
 probably given her either because she slew 
 the giant so called, or othervdse from the 
 spear which she appears in some of her 
 
PAL 
 
 representations to bratidish in her hands 
 (irnWuv). 
 
 Palulm. [Lat. from TroXXiai', Gr.] //* 
 costume. A long wrapping gown, or sort 
 of upper garment worn by the Greeks, 
 and subsequently adopted by the Itouians. 
 The shape of this vestment has been dif- 
 ferently reported : some authors having 
 described it as being square, and otiiers 
 as circular or oval. The manner in which 
 it was worn is now also become uncer- 
 tain : one thing, however, appears clear, 
 namely, that it was never attached by 
 chisps or hooks. 
 
 From this term springs tlic word pall, 
 which denotes the rich pontifical garment 
 worn by the popes, patriarchs, primates, 
 and metropolitans of the Komish chuidi 
 over their other vestments ; and which is 
 in tiie shape of a band or fillet three inches 
 broad, encompassing the shoulder; whence 
 it has been denominated by certain writers 
 supLvhumcrale. Both behind and before 
 are pendents, or strings, about a palm in 
 lengtli, with small lamin;e of lead rounded 
 at the extremities, and covered with black 
 silk with four red crosses. 
 
 PjVi^m. [palma, Lat.] In sculpture, cn- 
 l^ravtnf:;', and measurement. The branch or 
 bough of the palm tree is found engraved 
 upon a great number of medallions and 
 otiier monuments of ancient art. It is 
 sometimes tiie symbol of victory, because 
 in the triumphal days the conqueror, be- 
 sides his crown, bore also a palm branch ; 
 and sometimes of stability of empire, the 
 palm tree being a very sturdy plant. It 
 likewise expresses symbolically rt\joicing, 
 abundance, felicity. It is often observed 
 in the hand of Hercules, of Juno, Jupit(.'r, 
 Mars, Mercury, Venus, and, above all, 
 Minerva. At Rome they gave it to perso- 
 nifications of Liberty, Fortune, or Peace, 
 as well as to representations of Julius 
 Crcsar, of Augustus, and other emperors. 
 Among the early Christians, the jjalm was 
 considered an attribute of martyrs. 
 
 Tlie term palm is likewise used by the 
 Italians to exjjress a measure of length. 
 It is necessary that this should be undcr- 
 8too<I, inasmuch as it is employed by seve- 
 ral authors that treat of antiipiil), .such as 
 VVinckelmann, the editors of the Anliciui- 
 ties of Herculaneum, Viscoiiti, \c. 'I'liis 
 measure dill'ers in IIk; acceptation of the 
 iidial)itants of dillerent parts of Italy, from 
 eight to niiu' inches. 
 
 Palmki-ja. [pnlm-ltr, Fr.) In seulplurr. 
 A little ornament of sculpture, in t'oiin of 
 the leaves of (he palm tree, and which 
 iH cut upon the mouldings of architecture. 
 
 Palmvra in the Desert, or Tadmoii. In 
 
 PAL 
 
 the history of the arts. A noble city of 
 ancient Syria, at present in ruins, and said 
 to have been originally built by Solomon. 
 Learned men, however, have been much 
 divided on this point. At all events, it is 
 startling to find, in the Desert of Syria, at 
 a considerable distance from the sea, with 
 but a precarious and scanty supply of wa- 
 ter, and in no apparent connexion with 
 any great monarchy, remains of a city 
 which must almost have rivalled, in ex.- 
 tent and splendour, Rome itself, the mis- 
 tress of the world, and the grand empo- 
 rium of Grecian art. 
 
 The origin of the name of this interest- 
 ing place is sufficiently obvious : the word 
 Tadmor, as well as Palmyra, signifying, 
 in the Syrian and Latin languages, a re- 
 gion of palm trees. The site of the town, 
 in fact, presents one of those spots of ver- 
 dure which, rarely to be met with in the 
 deserts of Arabia and Egj pt, spring up to 
 redeem the horrors of the sandy wilder- 
 ness around them. 
 
 This magnificent city was situated to 
 the north-east of Damas, betv^cen that 
 place and the Euphrates, in a tract of land 
 fertile and watered with springs. The 
 vei-dant part of the ground was, perhaps, 
 in remote times far more extensive than it 
 is at present, the sands having without 
 doubt encroached in a considerable de- 
 gree on the tract calculated for bearing 
 the fruits of the earth. A place possessed 
 of the advantages we have mentioned was 
 soon made a point of resort for the cara- 
 vans by w hich the various rich commodi- 
 ties of India were transported to Euro- 
 pean countries. Palmyra thus grew to be 
 an independent and wealthy city, and ap- 
 pears to have been permitted by the Ro- 
 mans, during their Parthian wars, to main- 
 tain a strict neutrality. Trajan, however, 
 incorporated it with the imperial Ronu.n 
 state, and it should seem that during the 
 period in which it held the subordinate 
 rank of a Roman colony (namely, for a 
 century and a half subsequenll) ), those 
 temples and palaces of Grecian architec- 
 ture, whose widely extendeil ruins have 
 occasioned so much speculation, were 
 erected . 
 
 In old times. Palmyra was doubtless en- 
 compassed by palms and tig tret>s, and it 
 iiiii;lit probably have been reduced to its 
 present forlorn and mir.eralile appearance 
 by the oci-ans of sand drifted over it by 
 whirlwinds. The walls of the city are 
 Hanked with scjuare towers; and are of 
 the extent of three miles in circumference. 
 
 The celebrated ruins of Palmyra were 
 discovered in an accidental manner some- 
 
PALMYRA. 
 
 thing beyond a century ago, by certain 
 English travellers from Aleppo. The one 
 most worthy of notice is that of the temple 
 of the Sun, the remains of which now 
 spread over a square of two hundred and 
 twenty yards. It was surrounded by a 
 stately wall, built of large square stones, 
 and ornameated with pilasters both within 
 and without, to the number of sixty-two 
 on a side. Withinside the court are the 
 remains of two rows of very noble pillars, 
 thirty-seven feet high, and having capitals 
 of the most exquisite workmanship. Fifty- 
 eight of these remain entire : as, however, 
 they appeared to have been continued 
 round the whole court, and to have sup- 
 ported a double piazza, there must origi- 
 nally have been a greater number. The 
 walls on that side of the piazza opposite 
 to the temple were evidently the most 
 roomy and elegant. At each end of this 
 line are two niches for statues, carved 
 with the greatest possible beauty and 
 skill, together with their borders, sup- 
 porters, canopies, and pedestals. The 
 wretched hovels of the few barbarians 
 who reside about the spot now fill the 
 space within this enclosure, which space 
 was formerly an open court, the temple 
 itself standing in the middle thereof, encom- 
 passed by another row of pillars, of a dif- 
 ferent order, and much higher, being fifty 
 feet high : of these sixteen only remain. 
 The entire space contained within these 
 pillars is fifty-nine yards in length, and 
 about twenty-eight in breadth. The tem- 
 ple is thirty-three yards in length, and 
 thirteen or fourteen broad, pointing north 
 and south. A most magnificent entrance 
 goes exactly into the middle of the build- 
 ing, on the Avest side, on the remains of 
 which are some vines and clusters of 
 grapes, carved in the boldest and most 
 masterly imitation of nature imaginable. 
 Just above the door a pair of wings are 
 still visible, extending its whole breadth, 
 but the body to which they belonged is 
 totally destroyed, nor can it now be clearly 
 determined whether it was that of a che- 
 rub or an eagle, sundry representations of 
 both being discernible on other portions of 
 the building. The windows of this edifice, 
 which were not large, Avere narrower at 
 top than at bottom. The north end is or- 
 namented with the most curious fret-work 
 and bassi rilievi ; and in the centre is a 
 dome or cupola about ten feet diameter, 
 apparently either hewn out of the rock or 
 moulded of some compositioa which time 
 has rendered equally hard. 
 
 North of this spot is an obelisk, consist- 
 ing of seven large stones, besides its capi- 
 
 tal and the wreathed work about it. In 
 all probability a statue formerly surmount- 
 ed this obelisk (which is about fifty feet 
 high), and it might have been destroyed 
 by the Turks in their zeal against any 
 thing looking like idolatry. About a quar- 
 ter of a mile from this pillar, to the east 
 and west, are two others, besides the 
 fragment of a third. 
 
 At the distance of one hundred paces 
 from the middle obelisk, straight forward, 
 is a grand entry to a piazza, which is forty 
 feet broad, and more than half a mile in 
 length, enclosed with two rows of marble 
 pillars, twenty-six feet high, and eight or 
 nine feet in compass; one hundred and 
 twenty-nine of these yet exist ; and origi- 
 nally their number must have exceeded five 
 hundred. The upper end of the piazza 
 was shut in by a row of columns, standing 
 somewhat closer than those on each side. 
 A little to the left are the ruins of a sump- 
 tuous edifice, once apparently a banquet- 
 ing house. It is built of better marble, 
 and finished with still greater elegance 
 than the piazza. The pillars which sup- 
 ported it were of one entire stone, which 
 is so strong, that one of them which has 
 fallen down has yet received no injury. 
 It measures twenty-two feet in length, 
 and in compass eight feet nine inches. In 
 the west side of the piazza are several 
 apertures for gates into the court of the 
 palace. Each of these was adorned with 
 four porphyry pillars, not standing in a 
 line with those of the wall, but placed by 
 couples in the front of the gate facing the 
 palace, two on each side. Two of these 
 only remain entire, and but one standing 
 in its place. They are thirty feet long, 
 and nine in circumference. On the east 
 side of the piazza stand a considerable 
 number of marble pillars, some perfect, 
 but the greater part mutilated. At a small 
 distance are the remains of a lesser tem- 
 ple, also without a roof, and the walls 
 much defaced. Before the entry, which 
 looks towards the south, is a piazza sup- 
 ported by six pillars, two on each side of 
 the door, and one at each end. The pe- 
 destals of those in front bear several in- 
 scriptions both in the Greek and Palmy- 
 rene tongues, but which are now become 
 illegible. 
 
 Among these ruins many sepulchres are 
 to be found, which are ranged on each 
 side of a hollow way, towards the north 
 part of the city, and extend more than a 
 mile. These are all square towers, four 
 or five stories high ; but though similar in 
 form, they yet differ greatly in magnitude 
 and si)!endour. The outside is of common 
 
PAL 
 
 stone, but the floors and iiartitions of each 
 Htory are niurblo. There is a walk across 
 the whole building, just in the middle ; 
 and the space on either hand is subdi- 
 vidi'd into six partitions by substantial 
 walls. The space between these partitions 
 is wide enough to receive the largest 
 corpse ; and in these niches there are six 
 or seven piled upon one another. 
 
 Besides the monuments of art we liave 
 already mentioned, there have been disco- 
 vered twentj'-six inscriptions in Greek, 
 thirteen in Palmyrene, and one in Latin. 
 The most ancient of these is of the third 
 year after Christ, and the most modern of 
 the time of Diocletian. The inscriptions 
 in the Palmyrene language and character 
 have called forth all the ingenuity of the 
 learned. Joseph Scaliger was compelled 
 to admit that he could not understand 
 these characters. Samuel Petit, in 1G32, 
 occupied himself a good deal in endea- 
 vouring to decipher them, but without 
 success. Galand and Spon, men of ap- 
 proved sagacity in matters relating to an- 
 tiquarian research, put forth conjectures 
 on the subject of a very vague and unsa- 
 tisfactory nature. Several years after, the 
 actual existence of a Palmyrene language 
 was questioned by Noris, — a point which 
 was, however, set at rest by the report 
 made of the monuments and inscriptions 
 by the English travellers beforementioned. 
 The Abb<j IJarthelemy at length, subse- 
 quently to the publication of the Travels 
 of Wood and Dawkins, succeeded in dis- 
 sipating much of the darkness which hung 
 over this subject. In the year 1754 this 
 learned antiquary read to the Academy of 
 Belles Lettres, a Mhnoire siir V Alphabet et 
 sur la Lariffue tlont on sc scrvoit autrefois d 
 Palmyre, printed in the twenty-sixth vo- 
 lume of the Memoirs of the Academy of 
 Inscriptions; and since tiiat time it has 
 been no longer doubted but tliat the inha- 
 bitants of Palmyra juissessed both distinct 
 characters and ali)habct. 
 
 The following works may be consulted 
 with rosj)ect to the ruins of Palmyra: — 
 (thsiTvatioiis 0)1 the Stale of Palntijva^ piil)- 
 Ushed about the year 1700, by Doctor 
 H ALLEY. SiXi.F.K, On the Antiquities of 
 Palmjira, hoiulon, ItiOtj, Hvo. Hai.i.iiwx's 
 F«»///^T to Ta(liiior,S\it. l/ondoii, 170.5. Itiit 
 the most important of all is liu- work of 
 Messrs. Wood and Dawkins, entitled The 
 Ituins of Palmijra, olheru-ise Tailmor in the 
 Desert, Ltmdon, 175:{, fdlio, with llflj -seven 
 fme engravings. M. ('assas, in hia I'oi/a^ce 
 en Sijrie, has also exiiiijited soni(> admir- 
 able prints (if the interesting relics of Pal- 
 myra and its ncighbotirhuod. 
 
 PAN 
 
 Pai-gmbino. In statuary. A species of 
 marble so called among the Italians, the 
 colour of which is milk-white. 
 
 PaxudAuMEntum. [Lat. id quod palla.'\ 
 In ancient costiune. A sort of upper vest- 
 ment which the military chief, or emperor 
 (see that word), threw over his cuirass, 
 and which was commonly fastened on the 
 right shoulder. This kind of mantle or 
 cloak was, like most of the other Roman 
 habits, of wool, at least before they ac- 
 quired the practice of using silk and such- 
 like richer substances. When it denoted 
 the wearer to be of imperial rank, it was 
 adorned with purple and gold. 
 
 This garment owed its origin to the 
 Greeks, who transmitted the use of it to 
 the Etruscans : it is found represented on 
 several antique engraved stones ; such, 
 for instance, are those which depict the 
 seven chiefs before Thebes, in the first 
 volume and 21Sth page of Winckelmann's 
 History of Art. It is remarked likewise 
 on many monuments of art incontestably 
 Etruscan, exhibited by Dempster, Etruria 
 Regalis, first volume, and 70th, 71st, and 
 72d plates, &:c. It somewhat resembled 
 the ^Xa^vg of the Greeks, than ^^luch, 
 however, its folds were more ample. In 
 setting forth on any military expedition, 
 the general always assumed the paluda- 
 mentum at the Capitol, and on his return, 
 at the gate of the city, laid it aside and 
 substituted the toga. The cuirass is al- 
 most always seen to accomjiany tiie palu- 
 damentum, in the representation upon an- 
 cient medals. 
 
 Pal ,'DATis. [Lat.] In archaiologi/. Name 
 given to a general fullj attired in tiic mi- 
 litary habit. 
 
 Pampinata. [Lat. from pampinus, a vine- 
 leaf, wiiich, according to some, is from 
 panilo, to spread, in allusion to the shape 
 of the leaves.] In modelliniz and scntplMre. 
 The designation given to those vases or- 
 namented with tiie leaves of the \iiu>. 
 
 Pv^iPKr. [Im-.J An ornament of sculp- 
 ture composed of the vine leaves, and of 
 bunches of grapes, with whic!> they sonu'- 
 times decorated the hollow of the circum- 
 volutions of twisted columns. 
 
 Pan. [Gr. 11((1', from n-ciw, to food.] The 
 god of shepherds, of huntsmen, and of all 
 the inhabitants of the country. Accord- 
 ing to Homer, he was the son of Mercury 
 by Driope. The worship of Pan was well 
 established, jiarticularly in Arcadia, wIumc 
 he gave oracles on iMomit Lyca-us. Tliis 
 god was likewise adored with the great- 
 est solemnity all throughout ICgypt. His 
 statues (itteii, i"or mysterio\is riMSons, rtN 
 presented him as a goat. He was the 
 
PAN 
 
 emblem of fecundity, and regarded as the 
 principle of all things. His horns were 
 said to represent the rays of the sun, 
 while the brightness of the firmament was 
 expressed by his vivacity and ruddy com- 
 plexion. The star which decorated his 
 breast was the symbol of the sky, and his 
 hairy legs and feet denoted the inferior 
 parts of the earth, such as the woods and 
 plants. 
 
 The figures of Pan are usually naked, 
 to express agility. Silius speaks of his 
 springing from rock to rock, and gives al- 
 together a fuller description of him than 
 any other Roman poet. He crowns him 
 with pine branches, with which he shades 
 his forehead. He invests him with a doe's 
 skin over his left shoulder, and a pedum 
 in his right hand ; and represents him in 
 several picturesque attitudes. (Silius, I. 
 xiii. V. 347). This account of Pan is in- 
 troduced where the poet is speaking of 
 the Roman army approaching Capua to 
 destroy it, after Hannibal had quitted 
 Italy. Jupiter (says the poet), moved by 
 the distress of the Capuans, sends Pan to 
 soften their incensed enemies, which he 
 effectually did. Silius, on this occasion, 
 calls Pan the Mild God, or the inspirer of 
 mildness. (Sil. xiii. v. 320). There is a 
 terminal figure at Florence which they 
 call Pan, whose face agrees with this cha- 
 racter. He has a goat on his shoulder, 
 and a little milking vessel in his right 
 hand. This is the Pan, perhaps, invoked 
 by Virgil (Geo. i. v. 18.) 
 
 Pan is well known under the formida- 
 ble character of the inspirer of sudden 
 frights and fears, especially such as hap- 
 pened in an army without any real foun- 
 dation, and are to this day called Paxic 
 fears. These causeless alarms are de- 
 scribed by the Roman poets, and the art- 
 ists, agreeably to what they say, give Pan 
 sometimes a face more terrible than that 
 of Mars himself. The Athenians had a 
 statue of Pan, with a trophy on his shoul- 
 ders, like the figures of Mars, he having 
 often assisted them in their wars, espe- 
 cially at the battle of Marathon. This 
 appears from two inscriptions in the col- 
 lection of Greek epigrams. Pan's face ap- 
 pears very terrible on a gem in the Strozzi 
 collection ; and probably it was from some 
 of these horrific representations of him 
 our modern artists have borrowed the 
 idea of a demon. This conjecture becomes 
 more probable when it is recollected that 
 the ancients always gave Pan a tail, horns, 
 and cloven feet, like a goat, in which 
 shape the devil is most usually said to ap- 
 
 PAN 
 
 pear. Pan, by Ovid, ia called the goatish 
 god (Met. xiv. v. 515). 
 
 Panathen.ea. \\lav, all, and 'AQitvt), 
 Minerva.] In arckaiology. A feast held 
 at Athens in honour of the goddess Mi- 
 nerva, or, according to the Greeks, 'a Sr/i'j;. 
 
 There were two kinds of Panathensa : 
 the greater, celebrated every five years, 
 and the lesser annually, or, as some say, 
 every three years. The ceremonies were 
 alike in both, with the exception of a pe- 
 plus or banner, used only at the former, 
 on which the achievements of the god- 
 dess were depicted in embroidery, worked 
 by virgins, together with the names of 
 those who had distinguished themselves 
 in the service of the republic. See Pe- 
 
 PLUS. 
 
 Pancarpi. [TTct)', all, and Kccpwog, fruit, 
 Gr.] In the decorative arts. Thus are de- 
 nominated the crowns, gai'lands, festoons, 
 &c. made of all sorts of fruits, flowers, and 
 leaves, which served to adorn the altars, 
 doors, vestibules, and vases of antiquity. 
 Above all, they were applied to religious 
 purposes. The Pantheon at Rome afi'ords 
 an example of this species of decoration. 
 Our modern ornamenters have often intro- 
 duced the pancarpi in metal, wood, and 
 stone ; but not always successfully or in 
 fine taste. 
 
 Panckatium. [Trav, and k^utoq, strength, 
 Gr.] In archaiologij. A species of gym- 
 nastic exercise, compounded of wrestling 
 and boxing; and in v.diich, as the name 
 implies, the whole body was tasked to its 
 utmost. Thus in the pancratium, the com- 
 batant was warranted in employing every 
 allowable artifice ; for neither (as in the 
 cestus) were their hands or fingers bound 
 up or armed, nor their legs and feet re- 
 stricted from joining in the contest. With 
 the use of these natural weapons, how- 
 ever, and of none other, they were found 
 frequently to mangle and injure each other 
 seriously ; and at length it becanw neces- 
 sary to subject this mode of werfare to 
 further restraint. The pancratium wa& 
 admitted into the Olympic games in the 
 twenty-eighth olympiad. 
 
 Pandora, [yrav, aud ^w^ov, a gift, Gr.] 
 In the mythology of art. According to He- 
 siod, the first mortal female who ever 
 lived. She was made with clay by Vul- 
 can at the request of Jupitei, who wished 
 to punish the artifice and impiety of Pro- 
 metheus by giving him a wife. When this 
 earthen lady had been constructed and 
 endowed with life, the gods all vied in 
 bestowing gifts on her, and lience the de- 
 rivation of her name. In conclusion, Ju- 
 
PAN 
 
 piter presented her with a beautiful box, 
 to be given to the man who should marry 
 her: and tlius provided, ftlercury was in- 
 structed to carry her to Prometheus. That 
 wary mortal, however, was on his guard. 
 Knowing Jupiter's character, he suspected 
 the trick, and sent the alluring damsel 
 away. His brother Epimetlieus, however, 
 destitute of similar sagacity, married Pan- 
 dora ; and on opening the magical box, 
 out rushed a multitude of evils and dis- 
 tenii)ers, wiiich have ever since continued 
 to haunt and distress mankind. The su- 
 preme giver of evil, nevertheless, in some 
 degree counterbalanced his mischief; for 
 hope remained at the bottom of tlie box — 
 the never-failing friend of man, and alle- 
 viator of all iiis sorrows. 
 
 The subject of Pandora and her box has 
 proved very suggestive to the imagina- 
 tions of the poet and painter, and still 
 offers a good mark for the display of the 
 student's ability. 
 
 Pandrosel'M. [from jravopoaoQ, Gr.] In 
 the archaiology of architecture. Tlie name 
 of a temple of small dimensions, situated 
 near both to the temi)le of Erectheus and 
 that of Minerva Polias; it was consecrated 
 to Pandrosia, that one of the three daugh- 
 ters of Cecrops who remained faithful to 
 tiie order of Minerva, who had intrusted 
 a casket to their care with instructions by 
 no means to open it. 
 
 Panel, [pancllenm, Lat. paneaii, Fr.] In 
 imhling and architecture. See Comi'akt- 
 
 MKNT. 
 
 Pangonios. [nav, and yovia, an angle, 
 Cr.] A species of crystal, so called from 
 the great number of ils angles. 
 
 Paniomum. [ttuv, and lojc. Ion, from 
 \\honi the loniaiis were descended.] In 
 archurilofiy. The term given to tlie league 
 established among the twelve principal 
 cities of the loniaus, and to which the ac- 
 cessiou of Smyrna made a thirteenth. The 
 spot where the deputies of liiis league 
 assembled to tlelibi'rate on tlieir eonunon 
 interests^ as situated near the promontory 
 of Mycali>, and bore also tlie name of Pa- 
 nionium. Here they erected a temple to 
 Neptuntis lieliconiu.s, in which the d<'|)u- 
 ties from the cities oU'ered sac-rilices to 
 that d(!ity in common, at the time of their 
 asseml)liiig. This l)uil(lirig was a n-niark- 
 alile one, for it has been said to !ia\<' l)een 
 the first instance of a national structure of 
 the kind. Strabo informs us thai this 
 temple of Ni'i>lune was destroy ed by mi 
 4-artli(|iiake. Modern travellers, such as 
 Piicoeke, in his description of the Kast, 
 an<l Chandler, iu the forty-sixth chapter 
 
 PAN 
 
 of his Travels in Asia Minor, have none 
 t)f them succeeded in discovering with 
 exactitude the precise situation of the Pa- 
 nionium. The fete which was wont to be 
 held on these assemblies of the deputies, 
 and by consequence the league itself, ap- 
 pears to have subsisted until towards the 
 middle of the third century of the Chris- 
 tian era, in the reign of the Emperor Tre- 
 bonianus Gallus. Vaillant makes men- 
 lion of a Greek medal of this prince, the 
 tj'pe and legend of which bore evident 
 relation to the ceremonies of the Panio- 
 nium. 
 
 Panorama, {vdv, and 6paw, to see, Gr.] 
 In painting. This word is employed to 
 designate the exhibition of a picture cir- 
 cularly disposed round the interior sides 
 of a rotunda, in the middle of which the 
 spectator is placed upon an elevation in 
 such a manner as to enjoy, in all direc- 
 tions, the view of any given country or 
 scene from nature, the extent of which is 
 bounded only by the horizon. Every high 
 point from which an uninterrupted pros- 
 pect all round may be commanded is, 
 without doubt, according to this delinition, 
 a natural panorama. Tiie artificial pano- 
 rama elaborates and stretches out what 
 perhaps would form but a small portion 
 of the natural one, such as a particular 
 town, landscape, ikc. and surrounds vou 
 with it in order that the pictorial illusion 
 migiit become more striking and real by 
 tiie exclusion of all otiier objects. To 
 this end the peculiar admission of tiie 
 light (the aperture for which purpose, at 
 the top of the rotunda, is skilfully con- 
 cealed from the spectator's eye), greatly 
 conduces, as also does the circumstance of 
 his being kept, by the enclosure of an in- 
 termediate space, from approacliing sulli- 
 ciently near the painting to lia/anl liie 
 decrease of its ell'ect. Our ingenious 
 ciwntryman, Mr. Robert Barker, was the 
 inventor of this favourite species of paint- 
 ing, wliicli lias since become liiglil) popu- 
 lar, not only in this country, but in those 
 of the Continent. It is now between thirty 
 and f(n-ty \ears since the first panorama 
 was exlubil<(l by him in Leicester Scpiare. 
 It represented the country between Ports- 
 mouth and the Isle of Wight, with the 
 view of tlie sea and the ships of war 
 painted alter nature with surprising fide- 
 lity. 
 
 In I'rance this invention was adopted 
 by two Americans of the names of I'lilloii 
 and Janus, with the assistance of the 
 l'ren<:h artists Fontaine, Prevost, and 
 Bourgeois. They succesbively placed he- 
 
PAN 
 
 fore the inhabitants of Paris two views of 
 that city itself, taken from different points, 
 and also representations of Lyons, Toulon, 
 London, Rome, Naples, &c, all executed 
 with great care, and received with abun- 
 dant applause. 
 
 But if an English artist be admitted to 
 have introduced to the notice of our inge- 
 nious neighbours this interesting disco- 
 very, they have returned the compliment 
 by bringing us acquainted with a new mo- 
 dification of it, and one which must cer- 
 tainly be allowed to exceed all former 
 efforts at strength of illusion : we speak 
 of the Diorama, recently imported from 
 France, and the exhibition of which has 
 afforded the public so much rational de- 
 light. This differs from the panorama 
 chiefly in the circumstance of the picture 
 being square instead of circular, and view- 
 ed consequently in front of you instead of 
 around. The effects produced upon the 
 face of the painting by the moderated and 
 varied introductions of light are likewise 
 to be ranked among the peculiar charms 
 of the diorama, which is altogether of a 
 higher rank of art than its predecessor. 
 The first paintings exhibited in the dio- 
 rama were the Valley of Sarnen, in Swit- 
 zerland, and the interior of Trinity Cha- 
 pel in Canterbury Cathedral. The illu- 
 sion of the latter almost amounted to the 
 magical, and would have been still more 
 perfect but for the introduction of a sleep- 
 ing figure, whose minuteness somewhat 
 contradicted the general feeling of har- 
 mony and proportion. The most success- 
 ful of the pictures more recently exhibited 
 is the Chapel of the Scotish Palace of 
 Holyrood. 
 
 The qualities most likely to ensure suc- 
 cess to the painter of this species of the 
 art are, as must be evident, great know- 
 ledge and attention to the principles of 
 perspective and cliiaro-scuro. 
 
 Panstereorama. [wciv, TEOEoc, solid, 
 and opdw, to see.] In the art of rilievo. 
 Works of rilievo which represent in mi- 
 niature the tout-ensemble of towns, or other 
 objects, and which are constructed some- 
 times in wood, sometimes in cork, paste- 
 board, or other light and flexible sub- 
 stances. Such are the representations in 
 rilievo of the cities of Paris, London, 
 Lyons, Marseilles, &c. In the Library of 
 the Pantheon at Paris, is a panstereorama 
 of the city of Rome ; and at the Hotel of 
 Invalids, in the same capital, is preserved 
 a valuable collection of similar represen- 
 tations in rilievo of the greater part of the 
 fortresses and seaports of France. 
 
 Pantheistic, [ttcij/, and 9ebg, god.] In 
 
 PAN 
 
 statuary. Pantheistic statues or figures 
 are those which bear the signs and sym- 
 bols of several deities together. Authors 
 differ in opinion respecting their origin: 
 Buonarroti and Passeri refer it to tiie 
 epoch at which Christianity was intro- 
 duced into Rome. The allegorical meaning 
 of these figures has also been subjected to 
 dispute : according to some antiquaries, 
 a Pantheistic figure may be said to repre- 
 sent the universe or nature herself. There 
 is one made of antique paste in the collec- 
 tion of Mr. Townley, which has the wings 
 and bow of Apollo, the trident of Nep- 
 tune, the caduceus of Mercury, the lion's 
 skin of Hercules, 6cc. It was probably to 
 these soi"t of pantheistic statues that those 
 inscriptions were dedicated (reported by 
 Muratori and Gruter), in which we read 
 — Divo Pantheo, or Pantheo alone. 
 
 Pantheon. \}A qno& Pantheistic.'] This 
 magnificent edifice, one of the most sump- 
 tuous and tasteful remnants of ancient 
 Rome, and the only one of their many 
 beautiful temples which still exists entire, 
 was originally, as its name implies, dedi- 
 cated to all the gods ; or, as some aver, to 
 Mars and Jupiter the Avenger ; adding, 
 that its name of Pantheon arose fi'om its 
 containing statues of all the Roman deities. 
 It is now converted into a Christian church, 
 and the universality of its application in 
 some measure preserved by its consecra- 
 tion to the Virgin Mary and all the Martyrs. 
 The frieze of the portico of this building 
 bears the following inscription : M. Agrip- 
 PA L. F. Cos. Tertium Fecit ; and hence 
 it has been inferred, that to Agrippa (son- 
 in-law of Augustus) is to be awarded the 
 honour of its erection. This, however, is 
 subject to some doubt, and there are pretty 
 clear evidences that the Pantheon existed 
 in the times of the Commonwealth. But 
 be that as it may, it is indisputable that 
 Agrippa greatly improved the edifice, and 
 most likely gave its proportions that air of 
 winning beauty which has since proved 
 so attractive to the eye of the connoisseur. 
 
 The form of the body of the Pantheon 
 is round or cylindrical, and its roof or 
 dome is spherical. It is one hundred and 
 forty-four feet diameter within, and the 
 height of it, from the pavement to the 
 grand aperture at top, the same. The 
 order used throughout the building is the 
 Corinthian. The inner circumference is 
 divided into seven grand niches, wrought 
 in the thickness of the Avall ; six of which 
 are flat at the top, whilst the seventii (op- 
 posite the entrance) is arched. Before 
 each niche are two columns of antique 
 yellow marble fluted, and of one entire 
 
PANTHEON. 
 
 block, making in all fourteen, the linest in sovereign caused all tlie names which had 
 liome. The whole wall of the t<implc, as been previously inscribed on the Panliicon 
 high as tlic grand cornice inclusive, is to be clfaccd, retaining only (besides his 
 cased with divers sorts of precious marble own and his son's) that of its founder, 
 in compartments. The frieze is entirely On the architrave appears the following in- 
 of porphyry. Above the grand cornice scriplion :— Im?. C^es. Seitimivs Severvs. 
 arises an attic, in which were constructed, Pivs. Pertinax, Arabicvs. Parthicvs. 
 at equal distances, fourteen oblong niches: Pontif. Max. Trie. Pot. xi. cois. m. P. P. 
 between each niche were four marble et Imp, Cj£s. INIarcvs. Avreuvs. Antom- 
 pilasters, and between each pilaster mar- nvs. Pivs. Feux. Avg. Trib. Pot. v. cos. 
 ble tables of various kinds. This attic procos. Panthevm. vetvstate. obrvptvm. 
 had a complete entablature ; but the cor- cvm. omni. c\ltv. restitiver^'NT. Medals 
 nice projected less than that of the grand were likewise struck both of the founder 
 order. Immediately from the cornice and repairer of tiiis temple. The former 
 springs the spherical roof, divided by bear the head of Agrippa, whose statue 
 bands, which cross each other like the likewise was erected in the building, 
 meridians and parallels of an artilicial ter- This structure has been despoiled of the 
 restrial globe. The spaces between the statues which formed one of the principal 
 bands decrease in size as they approach ornaments of its interior, as well as of the 
 the top of the roof; to wliich, however, vast quantity of bronze which once en- 
 they do not reach, there being a consider- riched it. Alaric the Goth, whose incur- 
 able plain space between them and the sion into Rome, in the time of Honorius, 
 great opening. That so bold a roof might is well known to the scholar, commenced 
 be as light as possible, the architect formed this abstraction, which was completed by 
 the spaces between the bands of nothing amanwho called himself civilized, namely, 
 but lime and pumice-stone. The walls the Emperor Constantine II., who came 
 below were decorated with lead and brass, from Constantinople for that purpose, 
 over which were works carved in silver; About lifty years before this, Pope Bo- 
 and the roof was covered exteriorly with niface IV. had obtained the Pantheon 
 plates of gilded bronze. From the spring- from the Emperor Phocas for the purpose 
 ing of the roof to the very rjamrait of it of turning it into a church, and the artists 
 there was an ascent by a fligiit of seven of those days, perfectly ignorant of the 
 stairs. beauties of Greek or Roman architecture. 
 The portico of liiis elegant building is injured, as may be supposed, whatever 
 superb. It presents the most majestic as- they laid their hands upon. 
 p(-ct, being formed of sixteen grand Co- From the time Constantine had carried 
 rintiiian columns of granite, four feet in off the brass plating of the external roof, 
 diameter, eight of whidi stand in front that part was exjwsed to the violence of 
 with an equal intercolumniation all along the weatlier, or at best but slightly filed, 
 (contrary to the rule of Vitruvius, who till Benedict II. covered it with lead, 
 prefers having the space answering to the which Nicholas V. renewed in a better 
 door of a temple wider than the rest), style. It should be noticed, to the honour 
 The tympanum, or flat of the pediment of of the illustrious painter Rallaelle, that he 
 these colunuis, was adorned with hassi-ri- left in his will a considerable sum for liie 
 lieci in brass; the cross-beams which reparation of the Pantheon, wherein his 
 formed the cieliiig of the portico were co- tomb is placed. Several other artists did 
 
 vered with the same metal, and so were the 
 doors. The ascent to the portico was by 
 e.iglit (»r niiu! steps. Such ^vas the temple 
 which Pliny felt himself warranted in 
 ranking among the wonders of the world. 
 We have already iu)ticed the supposi- 
 
 the like. 
 
 Urban VIII. did something towards the 
 restoration of this noble building, but ge- 
 nerally in v.i-elclied taste; anil it must not 
 be forgotten that he stripped the portico 
 of the brazen coverture of the cross-beams. 
 
 tiitn that Agrip|)a was rather the beautilier wiiich amounted to sucli a vast quantity, 
 
 llian the builder of the I'aiitlieon ; and, that not only the huge baMaquiu or canopy 
 
 in fact, it has undergone, at dillerent pe- of the confessional in St. I'eter's >»as cast 
 
 riods, a variety of alterations and restora- out of it, but likewi.so a groat number of 
 
 linns. Xipliilin jjlaces it in the number of <'aiiiiim for the castle of SI. Angelo. This 
 
 buildings iiuiut during the reign of Titus, pope, who was of llu' family ol" Harberini, 
 
 and C.assiodorus speaks of its reparation i)n'sented also as much of this metal to his 
 
 by 'IVajan. We lind it also restorer! by nei)hew as sullii-ed for the decoratiiui of 
 
 Hadrian, by Antoninus I'ius, l)y Marcus liis new iialaee ; which gave rise to this 
 
 Aurelius, and by Severus. This latter meniorablo and merited pasquinade — 
 
PAN 
 
 '' Quod non fecerunt barban fecere Barbe- 
 rini." 
 
 There was, besides the structure we 
 have been describing, another Pantheon 
 in ancient Rome dedicated to Minerva, as 
 the goddess of medicine. It was in the 
 form of a decagon, the distance from one 
 angle to tlie other measuring about twenty- 
 two feet and a half. Between the angles 
 were nine round chapels, each designed 
 for a deity ; and over the gate was a statue 
 of Minerva. 
 
 The Pantheon of Athens also underwent 
 the change into a Christian church of the 
 Greek persuasion, and subsequently into 
 a Turkish mosque. It merited in most 
 respects a participation of title with its 
 more celebrated namesake. 
 
 England also has possessed her Pan- 
 theon ; — alas ! that we must use the past 
 tense in speaking of it. This most elegant 
 and magnificent structure, situated in one 
 of the linest streets of the metropolis (Ox- 
 ford Street), was erected between the years 
 1768 and 1771, after the design of Mr, 
 James Wyatt. It was held, and deserv- 
 edly, as one of the finest, if not the very 
 finest, building of its order in Europe. 
 On the 27th January, 1772, it was opened 
 as a place of public entertainment — at first 
 only for the reception of assemblies, some- 
 what after the plan of Ranelagh, These 
 assemblies occurred three times a week, 
 and on the intermediate days the interior 
 of the building was shown at the somewhat 
 costly rate of five shillings admission. 
 
 In the year 1790 the Italian Opera 
 House, in the Haymarket, having been 
 burnt down, the Pantheon was converted 
 into a theatre for the performance of ope- 
 ras ; and even in this altered state, drew 
 forth the greatest encomiums on its beauty 
 and accommodation. Two seasons after- 
 wards it sufiered itself from fire, and has 
 seldom since been applied to any purpose. 
 The interior of the building is at present 
 stated to be unsafe. 
 
 Panther, [ttuv and 9}]p, a wild beast.] 
 In emblematical painting and soulpture. 
 This animal was considered one of the at- 
 tributes of Bacchus, and is very frequently 
 found on monuments which represent that 
 god. In L' Antiquity expliqufe, vol. 1, pt, 2, 
 pi. 145, Nos. 1 and 3, and in the 5th vol. 
 and 25th plate of the Pitture d'Ercolano, 
 Bacchus is accompanied by the panther. 
 It is also symbolical of the god Pan, and 
 figured likewise in the games of the Cir- 
 cus at Rome, where they both attached it 
 to their cars, and caused it to fight. The 
 panther, as well as the tiger, upon both of 
 which Bacchus is often represented as 
 riding, sometimes alone, sonsetimes with 
 
 PAP 
 
 Ariadne, indicates the Indian origin of the 
 god of conviviality ; for these animals 
 (and above all, the smaller species called 
 by Bufton the ounce), are readily tamed, 
 and, in the East Indies, are trained to liie 
 chase of gazelles, roebucks, &c. 
 
 We often find, on ancient monuments, 
 the Bacchantes and Moenades giving wine 
 to panthers or tigers, an office in which 
 Bacchus himself is sometimes employed. 
 Hero of Alexandria, in an important pas- 
 sage found in pages 246 and 247 of Mathe- 
 matici veteres Graci, describes a remark- 
 able automaton representing Bacchus in 
 his temple : round him were seen the INIoe- 
 nades dancing and playing music ; the 
 god himself was seated in the middle, 
 holding in his left hand a thyrsus, and in 
 his right a drinking cup, of the kind deno- 
 minated scijphus : at his feet lay a panther, 
 and when the principal automaton moved, 
 he poured upon the panther either water 
 or milk, which flowed from fhe thyrsus, 
 or wine which issued from the scyphus. 
 This passage is very curious, inasmuch as 
 it proves that some of our most ingenious 
 discoveries, or supposed discoveries, in 
 mechanism were, in fact, known to the an- 
 cients, at least in their principles — thus 
 throwing fresh lustre on the observation 
 of Solomon, that there is nothing actually 
 " new under the sun." 
 
 Pantogr.\ph. [wdvra, all things, and 
 yparpb), to write, Gr.] An instrument serv- 
 ing to copy the traits of all sorts of designs 
 and pictures, and to render them, at plea- 
 sure, either large or small. It has been 
 invented since the commencement of the 
 seventeenth century, and a good descrip- 
 tion of it appeared at Rome, A. d. 1631, 
 entitled : — Pantographice, sen Ars deline- 
 andi Res qnaslibet per Parallelogrammum 
 lincnre, sen Cavum, Mechanicum, Mobile, &c. 
 &c, 4io, This work, together with the 
 invention of the instrument itself, is attri- 
 buted to Christopher Scheiner, a Jesuit 
 born in Suabia. A Frenchman, of the 
 name of Langlois, added several consider- 
 able improvements. 
 
 Pantry. \^panetene, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. The room in which provisions are 
 reposited. 
 
 Papal Medals. In numismatics. These 
 are consecrated to representations of the 
 apotheoses of saints, the wars undertaken 
 for the defence of the Catholic faith, rites 
 and customs ecclesiastical, construction 
 and dedication of churches, &c. The most 
 important works which treat of this sub- 
 ject are : — Historia sumrnorum Pontificum d, 
 Martino V. ad Innocentium XI. per eorum 
 Numismata, ab anno 1417 ad annum 1678, 
 (J Claudio Dl'molinet, 1679, folio. A'a- 
 
PAP 
 
 viisnuta Pontificum Romanorum d tempore 
 Martini V., usque ml annum 1G99, &c. a S. 
 Pliilippo BoNANM, Koine, 1009, 2 vols, 
 folio. Antiqxdorcfi Pontificum Romanorum 
 thiiiirii olim editi a. Joanne Vignolio, iterum 
 jnoiliti Studio, licnedicti Floravantis, 
 Rome, 1734, 4to. Brere A'otizia delle mu- 
 ni'te I'onlijicii, antiche e moderne, raccolte 
 da Saverio Sciixa, Rome, 1715, 4to. A'm- 
 mitmata Romanorum Pontificum Prcestan- 
 tiora, <i Martina V, ad Beuedictum XIV., 
 per Rodulphinum Venxti, cortonensem, 
 Rome, 1744, 4to. 
 
 Papeu. [Traizvooc, from ttooj, to feed, 
 and 1TVQ, fire, Gr. from which pajryrus, Lat. 
 and papier, Fr.] The derivation of this 
 word requires some explanation. The 
 ■jTUTTvpog of the Greeks was a certain 
 flagsj shrub, growing ou the banks of the 
 Nile, so called from its being applied to 
 keep up the fire, and from tiiis same sub- 
 stance was subsequently constructed tlie 
 first kind of paper used : and thus, from 
 this remote and obscure origin, sprang the 
 common term now in every one's mouth, 
 and denoting one of the most serviceable 
 and well known articles of daily use. 
 
 It would not be consistent with the pur- 
 pose of this work to describe particularly 
 the dKicrent expedients which men in 
 every age and country have employed in 
 order to give stability to their ideas, and 
 to hand them dowu to their children. 
 When the art of writing was once disco- 
 vered, stones, bricks, leaves of trees, the 
 exterior and interior bark, plates of lead, 
 wood, wax, ivory, were each and all ap- 
 propriated. In the progress of society, 
 men invented the Egjptian paper (from 
 the Trairv()or); paper of cotton ; paper ma- 
 nufactured from tlie bark of trees, and, in 
 our times, from old rags. 
 
 The paper used for drawing, or for co- 
 loured maps, is in some mills niaile from 
 one kind of wiiite stulf, either tine or mid- 
 dling; in others, from a mixture of three or 
 four kinds of stulf of dillerent colours. 
 Not very many jears since, tiie Dutch 
 were aliuost the only people who possessed 
 this manufacture. The same qualities are 
 re(|uisite in this paper as in those for writ- 
 ing : but the sulislanre must be thicker for 
 drawing on, and the grain a little more 
 raised ; as otherwise the |)encil would 
 have diilicully in leaving the traces of the 
 objcils. Great care is also necessary in 
 tiu- sizing of tliis paper. 
 
 Painters liave been in the habit of pre- 
 parintc tlieir i)aper for drawing, i)y giving 
 it a dark ground, which spares them much 
 labour of the pencil afterwards where 
 shade is necessary. For (his purpose, 
 they take white paper and pass a sponge 
 
 P AK 
 
 over it which has imbibed water impreg- 
 nated with soot, leaving the light places 
 to be formed afterwards. They also use 
 a kind of paper for drawing and engrav- 
 ing which is denominated tinted paper. 
 A light colour is passed over the whole 
 ground, which deprives the paper of its 
 original brightness, and makes the light 
 places of the print appear more in rilievo 
 and more luminous. 
 
 A common and convenient method for 
 copying prints is to use oiled paper. The 
 manner of preparing this is to take paper 
 which is extremely thin and smooth, and 
 moisten it with a composition, two parts of 
 the oil of walnuts, and one part of the oil 
 of turpentine, mixed well together. A 
 sheet of pasteboard and a sheet of paper 
 are laid on a smooth table ; above them 
 are placed two sheets of paper to be pre- 
 pared, and a layer of the oil a])plied to the 
 uppermost is sufhcieut to penetrate both. 
 This may be done to any number of sheets, 
 and a strong sheet of pasteboard is placed 
 over the whole. The heap is afterwards 
 submitted to the press, under which it re- 
 mains for two or three days, till the oil be 
 /completely dry. Paper prepared in this 
 manner has been held to copy ^ery exactly 
 and readily allkinds of figures, plants, &;c.; 
 because, being wholly transparent, all the 
 parts of the drawing, whether of light or 
 shade, are easily distinguished. 
 
 Engravings require a paper the stuff of 
 which must be pure, without knots, and 
 equally reduced ; the grain uniform, and 
 the sheets without folds or wrinkles. 
 
 There still remain, in various public 
 libraries and otiicr literary repositories, 
 several ancient manuscripts written on the 
 actual papyrus prepared from tlie leaves 
 of the Egyptian plant. It is worthy of 
 notice, that our two conunon w\n-i.]s— bible 
 (or book) and chart, are likewise derived, 
 at least in some degree, from the same 
 root; for the Egyptians and Greeks de- 
 noniinatv'd the paper tliey formed from (lie 
 leaves of the papyrus /3t/3Xoc and xaprtjc, 
 and hence the Greek word /3ij3\ii>r, a book, 
 and the Latin words bihlia and charla. 
 
 PAH\noi.A. [7rai)(T/-)o\//, CJr.] In income- 
 try. A conic section, arising from a cone's 
 being cut by a plane parallel to one of it^ 
 sides, or parallel lo a plane that touches 
 one side of tiie cone. 
 
 Parvdise. [TTintu^iKToc, a garden, Gr. 
 from the Hebrew.] In emblematical paint- 
 inic and sculpture. In ecclesiastical lan- 
 guage this word signifies a garden, or 
 place of eternal blessedness. Aciording 
 to Buonarroti, the earliest t'hrislinns sym- 
 bolized it by a crown of (lo\vi>rs placed 
 near the personage represented, by fiowera 
 
PAR 
 
 strewed around liini, or by two trees, be- 
 tween which was placed the saint. This 
 antiquary has given examples in his Os- 
 servazioni di Vasi dl Vctro, plates IG and 
 21, No. 1, and plate 18, No. 2. 
 
 Parados. [Trapa, and 656c, a way.] Tn 
 archaiology. This Greek term signified 
 in general an entrance ; and more particu- 
 larly that grand entrance which, in the 
 Grecian theatres, conducted from without 
 into the orchestra and upon the stage. See 
 Theatre. 
 
 Parallel. [Trapa, from, and aXXr)\av, 
 mutually, or rather equi-distant.] In geo- 
 metry. An appellation given to lines, sur- 
 faces, and bodies, every where equi-distant 
 from each other. 
 
 The parallel ruler is an instrument com- 
 posed of two rules of wood or brass, &c. of 
 a breadth equal throughout the whole of 
 their length ; and so joined together by 
 cross blades as to open to different inter- 
 vals, accede, recede, and yet still retain 
 their parallelism. Another ruler differs 
 from the former in being double ; the ad- 
 vantage of which is, that the two rulers 
 can be moved parallel to each other with- 
 out sliding endways, as the other does 
 every part of the moving ruler describing 
 the arc of a circle. 
 
 There is another variety of this instru- 
 ment now by many preferred to the former 
 ones, and which acts by means of a paral- 
 lel roller inserted into the middle of the 
 rule. It is the invention of Mr. Echard, 
 a German, and seems calculated to ope- 
 rate with more certainty than the old 
 rulers, and to be less likely to get out of 
 order. 
 
 Parallelopipedon. [id quod parallel.'] 
 In geometry. A solid figure contained 
 under six parallelograms, the opposite of 
 which are equal and parallel ; or it is a 
 prism, whose base is a parallelogram : it 
 is always triple to a pyramid of the same 
 base and height. During those times 
 when good taste reigned amongst the 
 Greeks and Romans, the shape of build- 
 ings, &c. never varied far from either a 
 square or parallelopipedon. At length, 
 when they began to grow addicted to a 
 meretricious love for ornament, the pyra- 
 midal proportion was substituted for those 
 simpler ones, and thus, in course of time, 
 were originated tlie principles of moorish-. 
 gothic architecture, as appears from the 
 treatise of our countryman, Murphy, on 
 that subject. 
 
 Paralytic. [-TrapaXvffig, paralysis, from 
 TrapaXvw, to unloose, Gr.] In sculpture. 
 Balsetti has published, in his Ossercazioni 
 eopra i Cimeteri, p. 197, a glass vase, upon 
 
 PAR 
 
 which is depicte<l, among Other things, the 
 healed paralytick, carrying his bed on his 
 shoulders. 
 
 Parany.mi'ii. [TTcipa, fmm, and vi'/t^j;, a 
 bride.] In archniology. The Greeks gave 
 this name to those who conducted the 
 newly married bride to her husband. The 
 Latin term for this purpose was pronubi, 
 or pronubce. The commencement of the 
 ceremony consisted in enclosing the vest- 
 ments of the espoused in a wicker basket 
 called by Festus cumerum. The bearer of 
 this basket was followed by several fe- 
 males holding in their hands a distaff 
 with flax, which they placed upon a spin- 
 die. The parents and friends of the 
 spouse walked next, followed by three 
 boys clad in white robes bordered with 
 purple. These were termed patrimi, ma- 
 trimi, paranymphi: one of the boys bore a 
 lighted flambeau or torch made of a branch 
 of hawthorn, because, according to Festus 
 and Varro, this sort of wood was held to 
 typify benevolence, and also to disperse 
 enchantments. 
 
 Parapet. Iparapetto, Ital. breastwork.] 
 In architecture. A small wall constructed 
 either of masonry or earth, serving for the 
 support or railing to a quay, a bridge, a 
 terrace, &c. 
 
 Parapetesmata. [7rapc(7rsra(7/xa, a co- 
 vering, Gr.] In archaiology. In the inte- 
 rior of their houses the ancients had scarce- 
 ly any doors : they suspended only the 
 carpet or covering called TrapaTrsraffjtjf?, 
 more or less rich, before the opening which 
 conducted from one apartment into ano- 
 ther. This is the reason why, upon an- 
 tique monuments, we find sometimes ta- 
 pestry or drapery depicted to indicate the 
 interior of a chamber. In the palaces of 
 their sovereigns and other great men, there 
 were vrdarii, that is to say, officers ap- 
 pointed to the charge and guardianship of 
 these openings, otherwise so slightly se- 
 cured. It appears that this same term 
 was likewise applied to designate the veil 
 spread over the theatres to place the spec- 
 tators in the shade. 
 
 Parascene. [Trapti, from or behind, and 
 ffKijvr], a scene, Gr.] In archaiology. The 
 pavascenium, among the Romans, signified a 
 place at the back part of the theatre, to 
 Avhich the actors retired for the purpose 
 of robing and disrobing themselves, &c. 
 It was still more frequently denominated 
 the posiscenium, and answered probably 
 both to the green-room and dressing-rooms 
 of the modern stage. It will be recol- 
 lected that the Greek and Roman theatri* 
 cal performers were all men and boys. 
 P^VRASiTE. [TTapdaeiToc, one who flatters 
 o 
 
PAR PAR 
 
 lor the sake of gain, from napa, at, and is occupied by the lower part of the en- 
 (TiVor, provisions.] The original meaning graving is the bather, bearing a parasol, 
 of this Greek -ivord was a certain oilicer with bracelets on his arms, and directing 
 who was appointed to take charge of the his steps towards a sort of small table, of 
 first fruits offered to the deities of the an- which it v.'as customary' to have several in 
 cients, and which principally consisted of the baths, either to put their clothes on, 
 wheal and barley. The Romans borrowed or the vases which contained oil and other 
 this custom, as they did most others, of the essences serving to anoint themselves 
 Greeks, denominating their officers for a withal, or to rub themselves with after- 
 similar purpose epuloncs. It is difficult to wards. (See Bath.) From a rather prud- 
 ascertain the precise period at which the ish principle, Paciaudi has given in the 
 appointment fell into disrepute; but be engraving a cincture to the bather which 
 that as it may, the term parasite, in pro- he is destitute of in the original vase, 
 cess of time, acquired a signification of a In process of time, when the Romans 
 very contemptible kind, denoting a kind began to throw aside the simple and aus- 
 of toadeatcr to the rich and great, or, in tiie tere habits of their forefathers, tlie parasol, 
 words of our derivation, one who flatters by a very natural transition, began to ac- 
 for the sake of gain. quire the purpose to which it is still ap- 
 Parasol. [TT-aod, at, Gr. and svl, the plied. The matrons, particularly, used to 
 sun, Lat. i. e. opposed to the sun, ut opi- be followed, in their perambulations, by a 
 nor.] In archaiology . It would appear slave whose office was to protect the deli- 
 from ancient monuments and descriptions cacy of their charms by intercepting be- 
 that the well known instrument thus called, tween them and the solar heat the agree- 
 or something exceedingly resembling it, able shade of the parasol, 
 was greatly used among the ancients, not With respect to the form of this article 
 for the purpose so much of preservation among the ancients, sufficient is to be 
 from tlie rays of the sun, as in religious learnt from those figures which the re- 
 ceremonies and processions. Athenaeus, in searches of Paciaudi (above referred to), 
 his description of the fete solemnized at and other autliors have afforded us. They 
 Alexandria by Ptolemy Philadelph\is, were constructed of wands or twigs dis- 
 states that they paraded a large car, drawn posed in such a manner as to admit of 
 by a hundred and eighty men, on which their being put up or down in much the 
 was placed a statue of Bacchus, magnifi- same way as those used at the present day. 
 cently adorned, ten cubits high, and shaded As to tlie substance employed, it was often 
 by a parasol. This instrument is observed of rich stuff, such as silk, 6cc. of showy 
 
 on a multiplicity of ancient monuments. 
 The 41st plate of the Admiranda Roma; Mo- 
 numenta presents a ba.sfio riliero represent- 
 ing the triumplial pomp of Bacchus and 
 Ariadne, whereon a parasol is remarked 
 above the figure of tin; former. 
 
 colours, and elegantly embroidered. 
 
 Pai{astat.«. See Pilaster, .\nta. 
 
 Parazomum. [Trapa, at, and ^wvi], the 
 girdle or waist, Gr,] In archaiology. Such 
 is the term which antiquaries have applied 
 to a warlike instrument which was, pro- 
 
 In the fetes of Ceres and Minerva, the perly speaking, the Greek sword. The 
 
 young females who celebrated them bore, most ancient form of this weapon is to be 
 
 among other sacred instruments, the para- found represented on antique Grecian 
 
 sol. It was, in fact, one of tiu; most an- vases. The blade is very short, thickest 
 
 cient marks of dignity tliat we find iudi- iu the middle, and has somewhat tlie ap- 
 
 cated either by relics of art or by authors, pearance of a spear-head. Orestes, upon 
 
 In the Tiarels of Ciiardin and of liituvN, a vase of Lord Hamilton's published by 
 
 we find several bnssi rilieri ni' INrsepolis, Tisclibeiu (toni. 3, j)!. 32), holds a parazo- 
 
 whereon the king or one of tiie principal nium, as he does also on the painting on 
 
 magistrates is represented surrounded witii 
 slaves, among which are two young fe- 
 males, oiU! of whom holds a parasol, and 
 the other chases lliis with an instrument 
 somewhat resembling a horse's tail. 
 
 At the head of tin; dissertation of Paci- 
 audi, entitled, IJc I'nihilUv iii'slittimir, is 
 engraved a vase from tiie iNluseum of M. 
 Felix Mastrilli, of Nola. The figures ob- 
 Herved on this monunu'ut recall the usage 
 of baths, wher*^ paiasols w«'re also eni- 
 plny»(|. Oil itiiit half of the vase which 
 
 another Greek vase published by Miilin 
 in the 1st vol. and li'Jth pi. of his Monu- 
 mrns Aiitujiirs Incdits. 
 
 I'ARC.K [Lat. according to Varro from 
 partus^ birth : others, however, derive it 
 from jxirtidi; to divide.] In mi/lltoldgical 
 imhiliii^ and sculpt inc. Tiie heat liens of 
 old supptised every tiling to b^^ fixed, 
 not only the happy but the unftirtunate 
 events in life. These eternal decrees of 
 what every one was to do or sullVr were 
 represented by orders written on tablets 
 
PAR 
 
 of brass kept by tlie Parcaj or Destinies : 
 one of %vhom, and sometimes all three, 
 were supposed to spin out the tiiread of 
 life chequered unequally with two colours, 
 with more of white or more of black, ac- 
 cording as each man was to have a greater 
 share of happiness or unhappiness. This 
 notion was borrowed, like so many others, 
 from the Greeks by the Romans, though it 
 was capable of undermining all the vir- 
 tues, and particularly their great favourite, 
 industry. Probably there was no personal 
 representation of Fate among the Romans, 
 but it seems with them to have included 
 every thing spoken by Jupiter. If this be 
 admitted. Fate •will signify only the words 
 or decrees of that supreme deity, and the 
 Parca3 or Destinies the agents for putting 
 them in execution. 
 
 Thus Necessity is (though Fate Avas not) 
 represented as a person. In a statue in 
 Montfaucon, she holds in her right hand a 
 clacis traballs, or one of those vast nails or 
 pins that fastened the beams of brass in 
 the strongest buildings. This (with her 
 other attributes mentioned by Horace), 
 was used as emblematic of firmness and 
 stability. 
 
 The three Destinies (as we have said) 
 were deemed the dispensers of the eternal 
 decrees of Jupiter, and were supposed 
 to spin the party-coloured thread of each 
 man's life. They are represented on a 
 medal of Dioclesian each with a distaff in 
 her hand, and their names are Clotho, La- 
 chesis, and Atropos. 
 
 The figures of these goddesses are very 
 uncommon. The best written description 
 of them is in Catullus, and may itself be 
 styled a perfect picture. They are ex- 
 tremely old, and dressed in long robes. 
 
 Parchment. Iparchemin, Fr. pergamena, 
 Lat. from llspyajuoe, Troy, in which city it 
 is said to have been first invented.] In 
 drawing; &c. The skins of sheep or goats 
 prepared after such a manner as to render 
 it proper for writing or drawing upon. It 
 is said to have been the invention of Eu- 
 menes, king of Pergamos, but is probably 
 of still remoter origin : for the Persians of 
 old, according to Diodorns, wrote their 
 verses, &c. on skins ; and Herodotus, the 
 father of history, states, that the ancient 
 lonians made use of goat and sheepskins 
 in writing and drawing figures long before 
 the age of the prince alluded to. He 
 perhaps improved its quality and manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Parchment is still used in the fine arts for 
 purposes of drawing, but vellum makes a 
 much preferable substitute (see Veliaim). 
 
 Parerga. [TTafja, beyond, and fpyoj/, 
 
 PAR 
 
 work, Gr.] In architecture, paintins:, &c. 
 This word is sometimes made use of in 
 architecture to signify the supplements or 
 additions made to the principal work to 
 which they are appended by way of orna- 
 ment. In painting it denotes those petits 
 morceaux, or compartments placed upon the 
 sides or in the angles of the main picture. 
 It is likewise occasionally used to specify 
 vignettes, flower pieces, &c. with which 
 a book is adorned. 
 
 Parian Chronicle. See Arundelian 
 Marbles, 
 
 Parian Marble. In statuary. We have 
 already, under the head Marble (which 
 word see), made mention of this celebrated 
 variety ; and shall merely say a few words 
 here which seem called for by the mis- 
 takes so commonly made with regard to it. 
 It has been over and over again confound- 
 ed, not only with Carrara Marble 
 (which refer to), but with alabaster (see 
 Alabaster); notwithstanding it altogether 
 differs in nature from the latter substance, 
 and in character from the former. Carrara 
 marble is of a finer structure and clearer 
 white than the Parian ; but, at the same 
 time, less bright and splendid, harder to 
 cut, and not capable of so glittering a po- 
 lish. The true Parian marble has gene- 
 rally somewhat of a faint bluish tinge 
 among the white, and often has blue veins 
 in different parts of it. 
 
 Park. \^parc, Fr. papk, Saxon.] The 
 meaning of this word, as originally applied 
 in our language, is a large forest enclosed 
 and stored with beasts of chase, &c. which 
 a man may possess either by prescription 
 or the grant of the sovereign. These are 
 usually royal demesnes. 
 
 In its more general acceptation, how- 
 ever, the term park implies a considerable 
 extent 6f ground enclosed with walls or 
 palisades, and attached to the residence 
 of some individual of rank, except in those 
 instances wherein it is laid open for the 
 recreation and healthy exercise of the 
 public. 
 
 In their villas the ancient Romans were 
 fond of possessing capabilities for enjoy- 
 ing the pleasures of the chase ; to which 
 they were greatly addicted, among other 
 reasons, from the excellent effect produced 
 by robust and manly exercise upon their 
 bodies, and through that medium upon 
 their minds likewise. For this purpose, 
 then, parks were generally attached to 
 their country houses. We find one repre- 
 sented in a painting on the cieling of the 
 tomb of the Pisones, near the Flaminian 
 way. Originally hares constituted the 
 only game placed therein, and hence they 
 o o 2 
 
were denominated Itporaria (from Upus, a 
 hare). At length, however, other game 
 were introduced — such as stags, wild 
 boars, wild goats, roebucks, 6:c., and the 
 extent of the enclosures was proportion- 
 ably enlarged. Fulvius Lupiuus was one 
 of the first Romans who greatly increased 
 his domain in this way ; his park stretched 
 over forty acres. Pompey and Hortensius 
 followed this example, the latter establish- 
 ing a park of upwards of fifty acres. 
 
 Mr. Loudon, in his Trfutise on Country 
 Residences, observes, that parks should be 
 of two descriptions ; those attached to 
 small houses, wherein regard should chiefly 
 be directed to the value of the pasture, 
 and where the pasturing animals are sheep, 
 horses, oxen, 6\;c. ; and secondly, such as, 
 belonging to splendid mansions, demand 
 more especially grandeur of character and 
 distribution. 
 
 In the former species, the surface of the 
 ground should receive its principal cha- 
 racteristic from groups of trees, or gentle 
 walks, conducting the promenader from 
 vista to vista, so as to produce as great a 
 variety of eflects as the nature of the 
 scenery around and the contracted space 
 the artist has to work in will possibly 
 admit. Indeed, by circuitous paths, and 
 skilful disposition of trees, this kind of 
 park will often deceive the eye of the 
 spectator with respect to its actual extent. 
 A level and monotonous surface, such as 
 we frequently are con)pelled to notice, 
 containing a walk round, and dotted with 
 sophisticated-looking clumps, at regular 
 distances, can, it will be obvious, never 
 appear larger tiian it really is ; but a very 
 few acres, laid out in the manner hinted 
 at by us abote, may even be made to ap- 
 pear almost boundless; every step ])re- 
 benting a novel combination, arising from 
 the judiciously planted masses of trees, 
 and the sight of the cattle caught by the 
 eye at different points througii the inter- 
 mediate foliage. 
 
 In the latter description of park another 
 principle must be proposed and followed. 
 Here that style of distribution and plant- 
 ing denominated t\\o forest style is in place. 
 Long avenues ; open glades stretcliing out 
 in am])le proportions; broken ground, set 
 with trees, slirul)S, underwctod, furze, fern, 
 &c. is admissible, and indeed desiraMe. 
 The grazing aiiinmls, in a domain of this 
 order, should be deer or horses, inter- 
 mixed with a few wild <uitlle. It has 
 been suggested tiial, as parks form (he 
 prominent features of many capital re- 
 sidences, were the appearance of wild- 
 nesH and I'orcul scenery just alluded to 
 
 PARK. 
 
 given to them, the eflect would be most 
 grand and imposing, not only as regarded 
 the actual domain of which they formed a 
 jiart, but viewed with reference to the 
 w hole surrounding country. 
 
 As it is, the seats of our principal men 
 of rank and fortune possess many very 
 noble specimens of enclosures of this kind 
 — among which we will enumerate, by the 
 way, those of Blenheim, Knole, Stowe, 
 Donnington, Bow Wood, &c. &c. 
 
 Among the royal demesnes, M'indsor 
 Park stands proudly preeminent, and is, 
 indeed, one of the noblest in Europe, and 
 every way worthy to encircle the castle of 
 an English monarch. 
 
 In the metropolis there are several at- 
 tached to the crown, but which are become 
 by prescription almost the common pro- 
 perty of the nation, contributing inestima- 
 bly, not merely to the amusement and re- 
 laxation, but to the health and comfort of 
 the immense population of the capital. 
 These are— Hyde Park, St. James's Park, 
 and the Green Park; and to these has 
 within a few years been most munifi- 
 cently added — the Marylebone, or, as it 
 was at first denominated, the Regent's Park, 
 which skirts the w estern extremity of the 
 town. On the three well known enclosures 
 first mentioned, we deem it quite unneces- 
 sary to enlarge at all : but since the last 
 is comparatively little known, especially to 
 such of our readers as live in the country, 
 and as it assumes a new character (and 
 one very interesting viewed in relation to 
 the tine arts), from its princely architectu- 
 ral embellishments, we shall extract, from 
 an admirable little publication before al- 
 luded to (see Landscafk Gardening), 
 called the Literary Pocket Book (for 1823), 
 the following well written and succinct 
 description : 
 
 " When we first saw that the Maryle- 
 bone Fields were enclosed, and that the 
 hedge-row walks which twined through 
 them were gradually being obliterated, 
 and the whole district artificially laid out 
 (there is nothing more wretched than the 
 first process of planting and making roads), 
 we underwent a painful f«'eling or two, 
 and heartily deplored the destructive ad- 
 vances of what generally goes by the name 
 of improvement. Old recollections— re- 
 eolleclions of youth, upon wliicii we Iom- 
 to dwell as we advance into the shadowed 
 part of our life's road, are remorselessly 
 stricken aside by this change in j)leasant 
 liicalilies ; we almost mourn o\er the loss 
 of the old trees and paths which stood at* 
 quiet mementos of the cheerful rambli>s of 
 our boyish days, or, it may be, of love-hal- 
 
PARK. 
 
 lowed walks and looks, and tender words 
 first ventured under the influence of the 
 fields and the comparative retirement. 
 Nothing makes the lover bold and the mis- 
 tress tender so well as the fresh and fra- 
 grant air, the green herbage, the quiet and 
 the privacy of country spots, which, when 
 near towns, are more exciting by the con- 
 trast. 
 
 " A few years, however, have elapsed, 
 and we are not only reconciled to the 
 change alluded to, but rejoice in it. A 
 noble park is rapidly rising up, if we may 
 use such an expression, and a vast space, 
 close by the metropolis, not only preserved 
 from the encroachment of mean buildings, 
 but laid out with groves, lakes, and villas, 
 with their separate pleasure grounds, 
 while through the whole place there is a 
 winding road, which commands at every 
 turn some fresh features of an extensive 
 country prospect. 
 
 " This is indeed a desirable appendage 
 to so vast a town as London, more espe- 
 cially as the rage for building fills every 
 pleasant outlet with bricks, mortar, rubbish, 
 and eternal scaflfold-poles, which, whether 
 you walk East, West, North, or South, 
 seem to be running after you. We heard 
 a gentleman say, the other day, that he 
 was sure a resident of the suburbs could 
 scarcely lie down after dinner, and take a 
 nap, without finding, when he awoke, that 
 a new row of buildings had started up 
 since he closed his eyes. It is certainly 
 astonishing: one would think the builders 
 used magic, or steam at least, and it would 
 be curious to ask those gentlemen in what 
 part of the neighbouring counties they in- 
 tend London should end. Not content 
 with separate streets, squares, and rows, 
 they are actually the founders of new 
 towns, which in the space of a few months 
 become finished and inhabited. The pre- 
 cincts of London have more the appearance 
 of a newly discovered colony than the 
 suburbs of an ancient city. 
 
 " For instance : In what a very short 
 time back were the Bayswater Fields, 
 there is now a populous district, called by 
 the inhabitants ' Moscow ;' and at the foot 
 of Primrose Hill we are amazed by coming 
 upon a large complication of streets, &c. 
 under the name of ' Portland Town.' The 
 rustic and primeval meadows of Kilburn 
 are also filling with raw buildings and in- 
 cipient roads ; to say nothing of the charm- 
 ing neighbourhood of St. John's Wood 
 Farm, and other spots nearer town. * The 
 artificial causes of the extension of the 
 town,' says Mr. Nash, in one of his Re- 
 ports to the Commissioners of his Majesty's 
 
 Woods, &c. ' are the speculations of buil- 
 ders, encouraged and promoted by mer- 
 chants dealing in the materials of building, 
 and attorneys with monied clients facili- 
 tating, and indeed putting in motion, the 
 whole system, by disposing of their clients' 
 money in premature mortgages, the sale 
 of improved ground-rents, and by nume- 
 rous other devices, by which their clients 
 make an advantageous use of their money, 
 and the attorneys create to themselves a 
 lucrative business from the agreements, 
 assignments, leases, mortgages, bonds, and 
 other instruments of law, which become 
 necessary throughout such complicated 
 and intricate transactions. It is not ne- 
 cessary for the present purpose to enume- 
 rate the bad consequences and pernicious 
 effects which arise from such an unnatural 
 and forced enlargement of the town, fur- 
 ther than to observe, that it is the interest 
 of those concerned in such buildings that 
 they should be of as little cost as possible, 
 preserving an attractive exterior which 
 Parker's stucco, coloured bricks, and bal- 
 conies accomplish ; and a fashionable ar- 
 rangement of rooms on the principal floors, 
 embellished by the paper hanger and a 
 few flimsy marble cLimneypieces, are the 
 attractions of the interior. These are suf- 
 ficient allurements to the public, and en- 
 sure the sale of the houses, which is the 
 ultimate object of the builders ; and to 
 this finery every thing out of sight is sacri- 
 ficed, or is no further an object of atten- 
 tion, than that no defects in the construc- 
 tive and substantial parts shall make their 
 appearance while the houses are on sale ; 
 and, it is to be feared, that, for want of 
 those essentials which constitute the 
 strength and permanency of houses, a very 
 few years will exhibit cracked walls, 
 swagged floors, bulged fronts, crooked 
 roofs, leaky gutters, inadequate drains, 
 and other ills of an originally bad consti- 
 tution ; and, it is quite certain, without a 
 renovation equal to rebuilding, that all 
 those houses, long, very long, before the 
 expiration of the leases, will cease to 
 exist, and the reversionary estate the pro- 
 prietors look for will never be realized, 
 as it is not till the end of the builder's 
 term that the proprietor of the fee will be 
 entitled to the additional ground-rents laid 
 on by the builder. It is evidently, there- 
 fore, not the interest of the crown that 
 Marylebone Park should be covered with 
 buildings of that description,* 
 
 " The noble appropriation of the district 
 of which we are now speaking is not so 
 much a change as a restoration. It was 
 formerly a park, and had a royal palace 
 
PAR 
 
 in it, where, we believe, Queen Elizabeth 
 occasionally resided. It was disparked 
 by Oliver Cromwell, who settled it on Co- 
 lonel Thomas Harrison's regiment of dra- 
 n;oon5 for their pay; but, at the restoration 
 of Charles II. it passed into the hands of 
 other possessors, from which time it has 
 descended through diflorent proprietors, 
 till, at length, it has reverted to the crown, 
 by whose public spirit a magnificent park 
 is secured to the inhabitants of London. 
 The expense of its planting, &:c. must have 
 been enormous, but money cannot be bel- 
 ter laid out than on purposes of this last- 
 ing benefit and national ornament. 
 
 " The plan and si^e of the park is in 
 every respect worthy of the nation. It is 
 larger than Hyde Park, St. James's, and 
 the Green Park together ; and the trees 
 planted in it about ten years ago are al- 
 ready becoming umbrageous. The water 
 is very extensive. As you are rowed on 
 it, the variety of views you come upon is 
 admirable : sometimes you are in a narrow 
 stream, closely overhung by the branches 
 of trees ; presently you open upon a wide 
 slieet of water, like a lake, with swans 
 sunning themselves on its bosom ; by and 
 by your boat floats near the edge of a 
 smooth lawn fronting one of the villas ; 
 and then again you catch the perspective 
 of a range of superb edifices, the elevation 
 of which is contrived to have the eft'ect of 
 one palace. Tlie park, in fact, is to be 
 belted with groups of these mansions, en- 
 tirely excluding all sight of the streets. 
 Some of them are finished ; and give a sa- 
 tisfactory earnest of the splendid spirit in 
 whicii tiie whole is to be accomplisiied. 
 There will be nothing like it in Europe. 
 The villas in the interior of the park are 
 planted out from the view of each other, 
 so that the inhabitant of each seems, in 
 his prospect, to be the sole lord of the sur- 
 rounding picturesque scenery. 
 
 " In the centre of tiie i>arlc there is a 
 circular plantation of immense; cirrumfer- 
 ence, and in tiie interior of this you are in 
 a perfect Arcadia. The mind cannot con- 
 ceive any tiling more huslied, more s\ Ivan, 
 more entirely removed from tiie slightest 
 evidence of proximity to a town. Nothing 
 is audible there except tlie songs of birds 
 and tiif ru.stling of leaves. Kensington 
 Gardens, beautiful as tliey are, liavt; no 
 seclusion so perfect as this. 
 
 ** We cannot recommend a betl(tr tiling 
 
 to Hucli of our rca(hTS as luive leisure, 
 
 than a liay HjxMit in wiiiuleriiig amidst the 
 
 union of stately objects and rural beauty 
 
 which constitute the diarm of Marylebone 
 I'll' " 
 
 i 111 n. 
 
 PAR 
 
 Parma, [a Thracian word, signifying 
 round or circular.] In ancient costume. Ac- 
 cording to Polybius and Titus Li^ius, this 
 was a little thick shield or buckler, circu- 
 lar, as its name imports, and about three 
 feet in diameter. It was used by the light 
 cavalry of the ancients. A soldier appears 
 on the Trajan column armed with the 
 parma or parmula, which covers his body 
 from the neck to the knees. 
 
 Parquetry, [parqucterie, Fr.] In the 
 art of can inland modelling. A species of 
 joinery or cabinet work, which consists in 
 making a. parquet, or inl&id floor, composed 
 of small pieces of wood, either square or 
 triangular, which, by the manner of their 
 disposition, are capable of forming various 
 combinations of figures. Two sorts of 
 wood are employed for this purpose al- 
 most of the same colour, or ditlering only 
 in shade, and these two sorts sutlice for 
 the production of a great variety of effects. 
 The curious in this matter may consult 
 Memoires sur les Combinaisons, by R. P. 
 Truchet, inserted in the Mhnoires pour 
 VAcadc-mie Royale des Sciences for the year 
 1704. 
 
 Parricide. [ parens, a parent, and cedo, 
 to kill, Lat.] In arciiaiology. Pausanias 
 says that, in the infernal regions, the pe- 
 nalty of the crime of parricide will be, for 
 the culprit to have his own father for his 
 tormentor, by whom he shall be strangled ; 
 and it was after this fancy that Polygno- 
 tus, the Greek painter, represented the 
 punishment of an unnatural son who had 
 maltreated his father. 
 
 Parterre. [Fr.] In decoration ofgrround. 
 A level division of ground that is laid out 
 with shrubs and flowers. These kind of 
 works have been much more practised than 
 tliey now are, although they may be made 
 to impress the spectator \ery agreeably, 
 and to allord, by their graceful combina- 
 tions of flowers (whicli are among the 
 sweetest things in nature), an ornamental 
 and elegant e fleet. 
 
 Parterres are commonly constructed 
 either oblong or of a long square, and 
 their situation is generally in front of a 
 house, siunetimes stretching along its entire 
 width. 
 
 PvRTiiENON. [UapOtvoc, a virgin, Gr.] 
 In uiuirnt arihilecture. Such is the appel- 
 lation given to the celebrated Grecian tem- 
 jilc of IMinerva, who was often herself de- 
 signated WapOfvoc, or virgin, and worship- 
 eil with the most profound adoration in 
 the citadel of Athena. Tiie temiiie tiius 
 called was built during the splendid era 
 of Pericles, that name so deservedly dear 
 to the lover of the fine arts. The expenses 
 
PAR 
 
 ol its erection were estimated at six thou- 
 sand talents. It was built upon a spot 
 elevated on all sides above the town and 
 citadel ; of the Doric order ; constructed 
 of Pentelicau marble ; and from its breadth 
 (one hundred Greek feet) was denomi- 
 nated by the ancients Hecatojnpedon. 
 
 Tlie Parthenon was two hundred and 
 twenty Greek feet in length, and about 
 sixty-nine in height. Its portico was dou- 
 ble at the two fronts, and single at the 
 sides. On the exterior facade of the nave 
 was represented a procession in honour of 
 Minerva. The t%vo architects employed 
 by Pericles in the building of this superb 
 and elegant edifice were Callicrates and 
 Ictinus. 
 
 This magnificent temple had resisted all 
 the outrages of time ; had been in turn 
 con\ erted into a Christian church and a 
 Turkish mosque ; but still subsisted entire 
 when Spou and Wheeler visited Attica in 
 1676. It was in the year 1687 that the 
 Venetians besieged the citadel of Athens 
 under the command of General Koenigs- 
 marck. A bomb fell most unluckily on 
 the devoted Parthenon, set fire to the 
 powder which the Turks had shut up 
 therein, and thus the roof was entirely de- 
 stroyed, and the whole building almost 
 reduced to ruin. The Venetian general, 
 being afterwards desirous of carrying off 
 the statue of Minerva which had adorned 
 the pediment, had it removed, thereby as- 
 sisting in the defacement of the place 
 without any good result to himself— for 
 the group fell to the ground and was shat- 
 tered to pieces. Since this period every 
 man of taste must have deplored the de- 
 molition of this noble structure, and the 
 enlightened travellers who have visited 
 the spot have successively published en- 
 gravings of its remains. One of the first 
 of these was Le Roy, in his Ruins of 
 Greece ; after him came Stuart, who, pos- 
 sessing greater pecuniary means, surpassed 
 his predecessor in producing a beautiful 
 and interesting work on the Athenian An- 
 tiquities. Chandler, and other travellers 
 in Greece, have also described what came 
 under their eye of the remains of the Par- 
 thenon, of which many models have like- 
 wise been executed. M. Cassas (says 
 Millin) has a very fine one in his valuable 
 cabinet of models of antique temples and 
 other monuments. There is another in the 
 Galerie d' Architecture au Palais des Arts, 
 at Paris, &c. &c. 
 
 But, not content with these artistical 
 labours and publications, more recent tra- 
 vellers have enriched their country and 
 
 PAS 
 
 themselves with the actual spoils of the 
 Parthenon. The foremost of tliese is our 
 fellow-countryman. Lord Elgin, who, 
 about the year 1800, removed a variety of 
 the matchless friezes, statues, &c. which 
 were purchased of him by Parliament on 
 the part of the nation, and now form the 
 most valuable and interesting portion of 
 the British Museum. (See Ei-gin Mar- 
 bles.) A part of his lordship's precious 
 treasure was, however, to the regret of all 
 lovers of the fine arts, lost in the passage 
 to England. 
 
 After the comprehensive works of Le 
 Roy and Stuart, it should seem that little 
 remained to be published with respect to 
 the ruins of the Parthenon. Neverthe- 
 less, Millin appears to be of opinion, that 
 there are sufficient materials in the Royal 
 Library of Paris to furnish forth a new 
 work ; and he mentions a series of designs 
 on tlie subject (comjirising all the bassi ri- 
 Jievi, and, more especially, a great part of 
 the pediment), which are preserved in the 
 Cabinet of Engravings, and which had 
 been made by a Flemish artist at the in- 
 stance of M. Oilier, of Nointel, who was 
 ambassador from France to the Porte in 
 the year 1670, and consequently when the 
 building was yet perfect. 
 
 Parthl\.\s. In archaiology. A people 
 of Asia, famous in antiquity, and who de- 
 serve notice here on account of the per- 
 ception they seem to have possessed of the 
 taste and greatness of the Greeks, whose 
 manners and habits they constantly emu- 
 lated. Arsaces, a Parthian king, and 
 chief of the dynasty of the vVrsacides, ap- 
 pears on many medals, beardless like the 
 Greeks, and wearing a mitre of simple 
 construction surrounded by a diadem. 
 Some of these medals are very beautifully 
 executed ; indeed, it is probable that the 
 coins of the Parthian kings, some of which 
 bear Grecian inscriptions, were the actual 
 workmanship of Greek artists. 
 
 Partition. [Lat. partior, to divide.] In 
 architecture. That which divides or sepa- 
 rates one room or apartment from ano- 
 ther. 
 
 Pasquin. [^pasquino, Italian.] In sculp- 
 ture. By this name is designated a group, 
 or rather a torso, in white marble, now in a 
 corner of the Ursini palace at Rome, and 
 which has been regarded by some as the 
 figure of a wrestler, by others as tliat of 
 Mars, or some earthly warrior, by others 
 again as a gladiator, &c. M. de Ramdohr, 
 in considering the merits of this relic of 
 ancient art, observes that its very mutilated 
 state prevents the connoisseur from arriv- 
 
PAS 
 
 iiig at any satisfactory conclusion respect- 
 in.; tliem. He himself seems to be of opi- 
 nion that it is the representation of a war- 
 rior carrying from the scene of battle his 
 vvoimded comrade. 
 
 The history of this sculpture is remark- 
 able enough. It derives its present name 
 from an Italian cobbler, so called, who 
 lived at Rome, and was notorious for the 
 bitterness of his gibes and the raciuess of 
 his jokes. His shop became, consequently, 
 the rendezvous for a quantity of splenetic 
 and idle persons, vvliu diverted themsehes 
 at least, by bantering all the passers by. 
 
 After Pasquin's decease, in digging the 
 pavement up in front of his shop, or stall, 
 the fragments of a statue were exhumed, 
 well chiseled ; but, as has been already 
 observed, maimed and half spoiled. 
 
 To tills statue, by common consent, was 
 affixed the name of the jocular cobbler, in 
 the neighbourhood of whose nest it was 
 discovered and immediately set up on the 
 same spot ; and from tiiat time and circum- 
 stance arose the well known term of pas- 
 Huinudc, all lampoons and satires having 
 been, at Rome, ascribed to this figure, 
 being put in its mouth or pasted against it 
 as if the bona fide lucubrations of Pasquin 
 redivi.vus. The usual method is, to make 
 Pasquin address himself to Marforio (ano- 
 ther statue in the same town) or the latter 
 to Pasquin, who never fails to make reply, 
 the one being often made to assist the 
 other, when either is assailed. These 
 satirical libels are commonly brief; this, 
 one should imagine, is a matter not very 
 difticult to hit. They also constantly aim 
 at being piijitiint ; but here the result is by 
 no means so certain or uniform. 
 
 Millin speaks of two other groups at 
 Florence which l)ear a striking resemblance 
 to the Pasiiuin : — tlu-y are of Menelaus 
 carrying olf Ihe dead body of I'atroclus ; 
 one at the Pitti Palace, the other upon tlie 
 I'onte. Vecfhio. 
 
 I'assa(;ic. [l-'r. from pnsfius, a slc)), Lat.J 
 ill ariliilcrlitrc. A patiiway i)oth connect- 
 ing and dividing the diflferent rooms in a 
 lionse, or an avenue leading from one 
 Btrcfil in((i another. A small corridor. 
 
 Passk-paktout. [Fr.J Jn en^ritfiiif-:. A 
 ])iece of wood or of metal >i])on which is 
 « iigraved some ornanienlal ilcsign, l)y way 
 of border, the midle of the plali^ being cut 
 out to leave roon> for anotiicr piece to 
 which it serves as a kind of frame. 
 
 Pas^-ions. ( I'r. from juitior, IM. to s\i{- 
 W'r.] Ill jiainlini^j.iniliiliiri', \r, 'I'he word 
 used by the (ireeks in this sense was 
 7r«0i)t,and in itsori;^inal import it dcnoled 
 
 PxVS 
 
 every feeling of the mind occasioned by an 
 extrinsic cause ; but its more general ac- 
 ceptation signifies some agitation of mind 
 opposed to that state of tranquillity in 
 which a man is most master of himself, 
 and tliat it was thus used by the Greeks 
 and Romans becomes manifest from Ci- 
 cero's rendering iraQoq pcrturbatio. 
 
 The language of the passions is that 
 which, above all other things, it behoves 
 the painter to understand. Without it the 
 finest works in other respects must often 
 appear " stale, flat, and unprofitable." It 
 does not suffice that a painter should be 
 able to delineate the most exquisite forms, 
 to give them the most graceful attitudes, 
 or, in addition, to group them well toge- 
 ther. Drawing, colouring, composition, 
 either singly or unitedly, are of little avail 
 if the countenances of the figures be not 
 lighted up by the fire of expression. 
 The artist must learn how to clothe the 
 personages of his scene with grief, with 
 joy, with fear, with auger : he must, as it 
 were, write on their faces what they think 
 and what they feel ; for it is in this de- 
 partment that painting soars her highest 
 flight, and suggests to the imagination of 
 tlie spectator much more than she ex- 
 presses. 
 
 Every thing which is the source of pas- 
 sion to the mind soon communicates to the 
 countenance a characteristic appearance, 
 this appearance relating to the alteration 
 of the muscles, which enlarge or contiact, 
 become irritated or relaxed, in propor- 
 tion to the quantity of animal excitement. 
 If Lionardo da Vinci's advice be taken, 
 the best masters a painter can have re- 
 course to in this branch are those dumb 
 men who have found out the method of 
 expressing their sentiments by the motion 
 of their hands, eyes, eyebrows, and, in 
 short, every other part of the body. In 
 adopting tliis advice, however, care should 
 be taLen to avoid gestures too strong and 
 exaggerated, wliicii tiiose untV)rtunate in- 
 dividuals, from destitution of the organ of 
 spix'ch, would in all probability display. 
 
 Almost every student is, it is presumed, 
 acquainted more or less with the cele- 
 brated work of the French painter, Le 
 Hrun, on the l*assions. Prom this .some- 
 tiiing may in(lisi)utably be learned ; but 
 the study of it is subject to the same re- 
 straint and objection as that course reeom- 
 meiided by the illustrious old nnister men- 
 tioned above. Le Hrun, also, is givt-ii to 
 •'xaggeration ; a eirciimstance wiiieh has 
 railed forth tho following ol)servations 
 (Vfun W'iuckt iuiaun. " I'2\pression, though 
 
PASSIONS. 
 
 precarious in its nature, has been reduced 
 into a system, in a Treatise on tlie Pas- 
 sions, by Chas. Le Brun, a work generally 
 put into the hands of young artists. The 
 plates accompanying this treatise do not 
 only give to the face the aifections of the 
 soul in too high a tone, but there are many 
 of the heads in which the passions are re- 
 presented in a manner quite outrageous. 
 He appears to give instructions in expres- 
 sion as Diogenes gave lessons of morality. 
 ' I act like a musician (said that cynic), 
 who gives a high tone in order to indicate 
 a true one.' But the fervour of youth re- 
 quires to be repressed rather than stimu- 
 lated ; and hence it is difficult for the 
 young artist copying after Le Brun to 
 seize the true tone." 
 
 M. Millin divides the various passions 
 into four species, which he designates the 
 tranquil passions, the agreeable, the sorrow- 
 ful, and the violent or terrible. In the first 
 kind (says he), which are formed by quies- 
 cent impressions, the different parts of the 
 face rest in their natui-al situation, and 
 undergo no alterations ; each announcing 
 the state of peace in which the mind re- 
 poses. (But if this be passion, logically 
 considered, it certainly is not so in the un- 
 derstood acceptation of the term). It is in 
 the eyes (proceeds he), and more particu- 
 larly still in the eyebrows, and their vari- 
 ous movements, that the passions exhibit 
 themselves most forcibly. That movement 
 by which the eyebrows are gently elevated 
 expresses the second class of passions — 
 the agreeable ones : that by which they 
 are forcibly depressed the latter class— or 
 violent ones. Again, it has been observed, 
 that in fits of anger the face reddens, the 
 muscles of the lips puff out, the eyes spar- 
 kle ; and that, on the contrary, in fits of 
 melancholy, the eyes grow motionless and 
 dead, the face becomes pale, and the lips 
 sink in. The different expressions of 
 laughing and weeping are well defined by 
 Le Brun. " The movements of laugjiter 
 are expressed by the eyebrows elevated 
 towards the middle of the eye, and lowered 
 towards the sides of the nose : the eyes, 
 almost shut, appear sometimes as if mois- 
 tened with tears : the mouth, a little open, 
 allows the teeth to be perceived : the ex- 
 tremities of the mouth being drawn back, 
 a dimple is occasioned in the cheeks, 
 which appear to be swelled : the nostrils 
 are open ;. and the face becomes flushed. — 
 The changes which weeping occasions are 
 equally visible. The eyebrow is lowered 
 on the middle of the forehead ; the eyes 
 are almost shut, moistened and lowered 
 
 towards the sides of the cheeks ; the nos- 
 trils are swelled, and the veins of tlie fore- 
 head very apparent: the mouth shut, by 
 the lowness of its sides, occasions wrin- 
 kles in the cheeks : the under lip is turned 
 down, and presses at the same time the 
 upper lip : the whole countenance is wrin- 
 kled, and becomes red, especially the 
 eyebrows, the eyes, the nose, and the 
 cheeks." 
 
 It will appear from the above extract, 
 that the two operations of laughing and 
 crying, however opposite in their nature, 
 nevertheless act upon the muscles of the 
 face in much the same manner. Pietro da 
 Cortona was one day finishing the face of 
 a crying child in the representation of the 
 iron age, with which he was adorning the 
 floor called the hot bath in the royal Pitti 
 palace. Ferdinand II. chancing to be, for 
 amusement's sake, looking on, could not 
 withhold his admiration, and cried out — 
 "Oh, how well tliat child cries!" To 
 which the painter replied — " Has your 
 highness any desire to see how easy it is 
 to make children laugh?" — on which, tak- 
 ing up his pencil, by giving the contour of 
 the mouth a concave turn downwards in- 
 stead of the convex upwards, which it had 
 before, and with little or no alteration in 
 any other part of the face, he made the 
 child, who a minute befoi'e seemed ready 
 to burst its heart with crying, appear 
 equally in danger of bursting its sides 
 with immoderate laughter; after which, 
 by restoring the altered features to their 
 former position, the infant's crying pa- 
 roxysm returned instanter. 
 
 Other writers have given instructions 
 respecting the expression of the passions ; 
 but all whom we have consulted make so 
 many divisions and subdivisions of them, 
 that a philosopher can scarcely follow 
 them in metaphysical theory, much less a 
 painter embody their effects on canvass. 
 Nature, therefore, nature must be the stu- 
 dent's best guide, more particularly in 
 treating those very minute and almost im- 
 perceptible differences by which, never- 
 theless, things decidedly opposite to each 
 other are sometimes expressed. 
 
 The artist will also reap considerable 
 benefit from studying the fine ancient 
 heads ; such as those of Mithridates, Se- 
 neca, Alexander dying, Cleopatra, Niobe, 
 &c. : but, above all, let him endeavour fully 
 to comprehend — to feel — the kind of emo- 
 tion which he is about to express ; whe- 
 ther by calling up mentally the image of 
 an absent person or thing, or by being af- 
 fected with the lively idea of a situation 
 
PAS 
 
 he has before himself experienced, or wit- 
 nessed another experience. He should 
 bear in mind, likewise, that all the terrible 
 or agreeable, the violent or slight move- 
 ments, are to be treated in a natural man- 
 ner, and bear relation to the age and con- 
 dition, sex and dignitj', of the person re- 
 presented. Those gradations which art 
 varies according to the nature of the situ- 
 tion and the characters of men compose 
 the principal ingredients of discernment, 
 knowledge, and taste. Tiiey have been 
 tlie objects of attention and inquiry to the 
 most eminent painters of every age, and 
 were of the greatest importance in assist- 
 ing them to arrive at that degree of excel- 
 lence to which they have carried expres- 
 sion. 
 
 Pastas. [TraTor, Gr. a bed of flowers — 
 a nuptial couch — from vracrawyto sprinkle.] 
 In archaiology. Name of one of the vesti- 
 bules of the G\'N.«:cEiUM (which word see). 
 The term has also been applied to an em- 
 broidered carpet suspended before the 
 entrances into the chambers of ancient 
 houses. 
 
 Paste. [pAte, Fr.] A sort of prepara- 
 tion in glass made to imitate gems. The 
 Egyptians are said, from the most remote 
 antiquity, to have practised this deceit. 
 Sidonia, a Phoenician town, was very fa- 
 mous for this kind of work, and they called 
 these imitated or factitious stones gemma: 
 vitrite. Pliny makes mention of them in 
 his Natural History, and Seneca in his 
 ninetieth letter. The former enumerates 
 the marks by which a real stone or gem 
 might be distinguished from a mock one. 
 TJiere yet remain several very beautiful 
 specimens of these ancient forgeries in 
 glass, denominated antique paste. They 
 are often found in sepulchres, with Gre- 
 cian, improperly designated Etruscan 
 vases : their colours are blue, green, white, 
 and gray. A Milanese painter, Franc. 
 Vicpcomite, restored tliis department of art 
 towards the close of tlie (ifteenth century. 
 Matthxus, however, in iiis work De In- 
 ventoriliits, attributes it to a certain artist 
 of the name of Aiigelus llarroellus. Alb. 
 Neri and Kunkel, liaving discovered (lie 
 secret of giving to glass tiie identical 
 shades of colour of gems, have brought the 
 invention to tin; greadst perfdtioii. M"\t\\ 
 the former originated tlie eniploynient of 
 the word paste in tiiis sense. Homberg 
 has pul)lish('d liie process of making fac- 
 titious jewels in a treatise eiitilled, Mnn- 
 w<i- of Cojiyiitg upon iiluss nigrarcd (icm.i. 
 This freati«e was inserted in Mimoires de 
 f Academic des Sciences for 1712. In the 
 
 PAS 
 
 preface to the treatise of Vcttori De Sep- 
 tern Dormientibus, Rome, 1741, we find 
 some instructions on the method of making 
 pastes, with a catalogue of the artists in 
 that way. In the first volume of the trea- 
 tise Des Pierres gravies of Mariettc, Paris, 
 1750, similar strictures on the factitious 
 stones, and the manner of making them, 
 are to be found at page 209. Clachant, 
 Delin, Reifenstein, Lippert, and Tassie 
 are amongst the most successful recent 
 practisers of this species of art. 
 
 These imitations are no way inferior to 
 the native stones (when carefully made 
 and well polished), either in transparence 
 or brightness, but they are not equal in 
 hardness. Calcined crystal, lead, and 
 metallic preparations are the ingredients 
 of their composition. The colours may be 
 rendered deeper or lighter according to 
 the particular purpose for which the coun- 
 terfeit stone is designed ; and it may be 
 remarked, as a general rule, that small 
 stones for rings, 6<:c. require a deeper hue, 
 and large ones a paler. Verdigris, zafl'er, 
 and manganese are the usual colouring 
 substances. Other very beautiful tints, 
 however, may be produced from different 
 ingredients: exquisite red, for instance, 
 may be obtained from gold, and one not 
 much inferior from iron : a sky colour 
 from silver, and a fine green from copp(>r 
 or brass. The gems themselves, likewise, 
 furnish brilliant colours resembling their 
 own. 
 
 Pastel. [Lat. pastillits, dim.] In paint- 
 ing. Name given to a certain plant from 
 which is extracted a beautiful blue colour, 
 which might perhaps be rc'n<iered eiiual 
 to indigo. Its true botanical appellation 
 is isatis tinctoria. 
 
 This name, or pastil, is also used for a 
 kind of paste, composed of several colours, 
 and ground up with gum water, either to- 
 gether or separately, in order to make 
 crayons to paint with on paper or parch- 
 ment. See CiiAYON. This kind of paint- 
 ing possesses some advantages over the 
 modes more conunonly practised ; but, un- 
 fortunately, its want of tlurability roun- 
 teibalances those qualities for which it 
 might otherwise be desirable. 
 
 PvsTiaio. [Italian.] fii painting. Name 
 given to a peculiar species of paintings 
 which cannot properly be designated 
 either originals or cojiies of other pictures, 
 but rather direct copies of some master's 
 general style. David Teiiiers, the younger, 
 possessed the faculty of imitating exactly 
 many of the best masters of Italy and 
 Flanders. He has produced pasticcins 
 
PAS 
 
 which hare been mistaken for original 
 pictures of Rubens. After this artist, 
 Luca Giordano, the Neapolitan, was one 
 of the greatest of pasticcio painters. In 
 order to detect this kind of forgery in the 
 art, the application of those rules may be 
 serviceable which we inserted on the sub- 
 ject towards the conclusion of our article 
 on Painting. 
 
 Pastophores. [Gr. TraToc, a couch, and 
 ^fpw, to bring or bear.] In archaiology. 
 Priests of an inferior order among the 
 Egyptians, who, in solemn religious pro- 
 cessions, carried the statues of the gods. 
 Schmidt infers hence that care should be 
 taken not to confound them with those 
 priests who were appointed to take charge 
 of other objects consecrated to religious 
 purposes. It is known that the Egyptians 
 sometimes placed upon carts or chariots, 
 but still more frequently in ships, the 
 images of their principal deities ; and ac- 
 cordingly Pocock speaks of two antique 
 monuments extracted from the ruins of 
 Thebes, on one of which are represented 
 twelve pastophores, carrying on their 
 shoulders a vessel, in the middle of which 
 was a little chapel, closed : — on the other 
 antique, eight priests of a similar order 
 bore, in like manner, a ship wherein a god, 
 in human guise, appeared seated upon a 
 kind of shrine. It is to be regretted that 
 this traveller only cites from memory, 
 having neglected to procure a drawing of 
 the figures. 
 
 Sometimes, also, these pastophores bore 
 in their hands the images of the gods. 
 Caylus {Recueil d'Antiquit. I. vi. pi. 13), 
 has presented a drawing of a priest bear- 
 ing the idol of a divinity enclosed in a sort 
 of little tabernacle. 
 
 Some antiquaries have affirmed that the 
 name of pastophores was applied to these 
 theological persons by the Greeks from 
 the circumstance of their wearing long 
 mantles, or more specifically still from the 
 couch or bed (TraToc) of Venus, which was 
 carried by them in certain ceremonies, or, 
 again, from the veil which covered the di- 
 vinities, and which was occasionally lifted 
 up by the pastophores, to exhibit them to 
 the view of the people. 
 
 Pastor. [Lat. a shepherd, from pnsco, 
 to feed.] In emblematical painting and sculp- 
 ture. The good pastor is the ntime given 
 to an allegorical figure bearing a lamb 
 upon his shoulders. The primitive Chris- 
 tians, above all, were in the habit of thus 
 typifying the holy Founder of their reli- 
 ^on. This representation of the good 
 pastor, or shepherd, bringing back in his 
 
 PAT 
 
 arms his wandering sheep, is received as 
 symbolical of the redemption and resur- 
 rection. Buonarroti, in his Osservazioni 
 sopra Frammenti di Vasi dl Vetro, has 
 given several instances of this kind in pi. 
 1, No. 3, pi. 4 and pi, 5, No. 1. The good 
 pastor was generally clothed with a tucked- 
 up tunic, and sometimes bore a wand or 
 the pedum. 
 
 Pataick. [Gr. iraTakoQ, from a Phoe- 
 nician word, originally signifying the 
 image of their gods painted on the sterns 
 of their vessels.] In archaiolngy . Herodo- 
 tus is the only author who speaks of these 
 little images, which he likens to pigmies. 
 He, however, does not certainly give them 
 the name of divinities, and hence Larcher 
 and other writers on archaiology have 
 speculated that they were merely figures 
 of an indiflferent or arbitrary nature, pro- 
 bably of brute animals, which served to 
 give name to the vessel. On the other 
 hand, Stanley is of opinion that the an- 
 cients were in the practice of placing sta- 
 tues of their gods at the prow as well as 
 the stern of their vessels, to which latter 
 part the author befoi-e quoted, together 
 with Selden and Morin, seems to think the 
 custom was restricted. 
 
 Patella. [Lat. from ;)a<ma, iraravri, Gr,] 
 Li archaiology. A small vase in use 
 amongst the poorer orders of the Romans. 
 It served also as a vessel whereon to offer 
 fruits and vegetables to the lares or pe- 
 nates, household deities of a third or 
 fourth-rate order; and on this account the 
 Romans denominated those inferior deities 
 Patellarii Dii. Caylus (Recueil d'Anti- 
 quit6, tom, vii, pi. 77), has given a repre- 
 sentation of a priestess seated in a sort of 
 elbow chair, and who, according to him, 
 was a priestess of the patella. 
 
 Patera. [Lat. from pateo, I am open ; 
 quod pateat, having a great aperture.] In 
 modelling, sculpture, and architecture. A 
 vessel or goblet employed by the Romans 
 in their sacrifices ; wherein they offiered 
 their consecrated meats to the gods, and 
 wherewith they made libations. It was 
 also occasionally used to deceive the blood 
 of the victim. 
 
 The Romans appear to have derived 
 this usage from the Etruscans, who shaped 
 the patera round and shallow, with a han- 
 dle underneath. The Etruscan paterae are 
 extremely interesting and useful towards 
 obtaining a knowledge both of ancient lan- 
 guages and art. They offer us a species 
 of engraving, the traits of which are consi- 
 derably less deeply cut than those of our 
 copper-plate engraving. Many curious 
 
P A T 
 
 subjects drawn both from mythology and 
 history are represented thereon ; and tlie 
 inscriptions underneatii furnish us with 
 examples of the Etruscan language and its 
 characters. 
 
 The Romans, in adopting the use of the 
 patera, wrought some changes in its shape. 
 They occasionally retained the handle and 
 occasionallj' suppressed it. In the solem- 
 nization of sacrifices, it seems almost ne- 
 cessary that the vessel should have a han- 
 dle, but in its representation on ancient 
 monuments it is often seen destitute of one, 
 probably that the elegant contour of its 
 form should not be interfered with. Ori- 
 ginally tliese vases were made of terra 
 cotta, but subsequently of bronze, gold, 
 silver, and other valuable substances. 
 
 The Royal Cabinet of Antiquities at 
 Paris possesses a magnificent one, in gold, 
 of which Millin has given an ample de- 
 scription (together with a drawing) in his 
 Monumens Antiques Inidits, tom. i. pi. 24. 
 This elegant monument of art is nine 
 inches and upwards in diameter. The 
 subject represented on it is a contest be- 
 tween Hercules and Bacchus, as to which 
 could drink most. Around we see the 
 triumph of the conqueror of India over his 
 strenuous antagonist; but the particular 
 point which might be most strongly recom- 
 mended to the artist desirous of copying 
 from this celebrated antique is that at 
 which the contesting deities have drained 
 all their drinking cups except the last, 
 wiiich Bacchus is about to empty at one 
 draught. He holds the vase with a firm 
 hand, and looks scornfully on his van- 
 quished rival, who appears to be sinking 
 down from the effects of intoxication. 
 
 This beautiful vase was discovered at 
 Rennes, in Brittany, on the 2Gth of March, 
 1774, by some masons who were at work 
 in pulling down a chapter house. 
 
 On ancient medals the patera is seen in 
 the hands of several deities, and frecjuently 
 in lh(' liands of princes, to mark the sacer- 
 dotal authority joined with tiie imperial. 
 Hence, F. Joubert observes, tiiat, besides 
 the patera, there is frequently an altar 
 upon which that vessel seems to be pour- 
 ing its contents. 
 
 Tlic patera was also sometimes enclosed 
 in urns witli the ashes of deceased persons, 
 after it had served for the libations of wine 
 and liquors at their funeral. 
 
 There is likewise an ornament in archi- 
 tcdure thus dciioniinatcd, wliich is fre- 
 quently seen in the Doric frieze and tin- 
 lynipana of arches. They are occasionally 
 used by themselves to ornament a space ; 
 
 PAT 
 
 and in this case, it is common to hang a 
 string of husks or drapery^ over them : in 
 other instances, they are much enriched 
 with foliage, and have a mask or a head 
 in the centre. 
 
 Paternoster. [Lat. Our Father.] A 
 chaplet or string of beads, so called be- 
 cause serving, among Roman Catholic de- 
 votees, to number their rehearsals of the 
 Lord's prayer. 
 
 In architecture, a sort of ornament per- 
 haps thus denominated from its resem- 
 blance to the before-mentioned, cut in the 
 shape of beads either round or oval; used 
 on baguettes, astragals, &:c. 
 
 Pathetic. [Gr. 7radT)TiK6g, from -rdffxw, 
 to suflfer.] In painting and sculpture. That 
 which relates to the softer or more sorrow- 
 ful passions, and which is calculated to 
 awaken or excite them. See Passions. 
 
 The artist should be careful to distin- 
 guish the pathetic from the terrible or vio- 
 lent. It is altogether of a different and 
 milder character ; and tends rather to de- 
 press and compose the feelings than to 
 agitate and render them turbid. The pa- 
 thetic may indeed be frequently blended 
 with the comic, which the terrible never 
 can ; their elements will not amalgamate. 
 
 The reader may consult, on this subject, 
 the thirty-sixth to forty-first chapter of 
 the third volume of Progymnasnmtn Poe- 
 tica, published by Florettus under the as- 
 sumed name of Udeno Nisielli. The 
 sixth chapter of the fourth book of La 
 Pratique du Theatre, by the Abb^ Aubig- 
 nac : — the 298th page of the Amsterdam 
 edition of 1715 treats of Discours patlu^- 
 tiques ; ou, des Passions ou Mouremen.i 
 d' Esprit. C'lement, in the seventh chapter 
 of his work on tragedy, page 173 of the 
 first vol. speaks of Path^tique de Situation, 
 principally with regard to the tragedies of 
 Voltaire. We find also reflections on this 
 subject in the greater part of those works 
 which discourse of the principles and ele- 
 ments of the hclles-lettrcs. 
 
 Patina, [derived as former word 
 through the Latin from jrarar*;, Gr. from 
 TTtraw, to spread ; in allusion to its shape.] 
 In modelling and sculpture. A hollow vase 
 or dish in which the ancients served up 
 ragouts, tish, and other culinary prei>ara- 
 tions. It varied from that species of plate 
 entitled tun.v, which was used only for 
 roasted viands. These palintu were origi- 
 nally <'onstr\K-te<l of earth; i)ut as the Ko- 
 nians became from a simple a luxurious 
 peo|)le, they were, in conunon with other 
 articles, whellier of use or ornament, forn>- 
 *mI of nu)re costly materials. We read 
 
PAT 
 
 with surprise that Vitellius had one made, 
 the cost of which was a million of sestertia, 
 and for the making of which an oven was, 
 according to the testimony of Pliny, pur- 
 posely constructed. 
 
 In the Roman Catholic church the term 
 patina or pntena is used to denominate a 
 sacred vase in the shape of a small plate 
 of gold or silver, which serves to receive 
 the consecrated wafer, and is given, to be 
 kissed, both to the clergyman and to the 
 people. 
 
 There is also a remarkably brilliant 
 green or brownish colour thus called, 
 which has been noticed in our remarks on 
 the conservation of Medals (see that word), 
 and which is regarded both as a proof of 
 their genuine antiquity, and as a means 
 by which they are preserved from deterio- 
 ration. 
 
 This rust is sometimes counterfeited, 
 and a false patina substituted for that 
 which is true. The false varnish is black, 
 greasy, and shining, and is besides very 
 tender when touched with a burin or nee- 
 dle. The ancient, on the contrary, has 
 none of these qualities, and is as hard as 
 the coin itself. Mr. Pinkerton observes, 
 that sometimes a light green, coalylike 
 varnish is produced, spotted with a kind 
 of iron marks. This is made of sulphur, 
 verdigris, and vinegar ; and is to be often 
 distinguished, among other marks, by hair 
 strokes of the brush with which it was 
 laid on. The following hints are given by 
 Vico, whom Pinkerton cites, respecting 
 false patina. He describes it as green, 
 black, russet or brown, gray, and iron co- 
 lour. The green is made with verdigris ; 
 the black is smoke of sulphur; the gray is 
 formed of chalk steeped in «nna, in which 
 the coin is left for some days. The russet 
 most nearly approaches the natural patina, 
 being a kind of froth formed by the fire 
 from ancient coins ; but when false it is too 
 shining. The large brass coins of the Pto- 
 lemies are often employed in producing it, 
 since they are frequently corroded : these 
 are made red hot, and the medals being 
 put in them, a fine rust adheres. Vico 
 does not explain the process of iron colour. 
 Sometimes, he says, they take an old de- 
 faced coin, covered with real ancient pa- 
 tina, and stamp it afresh : but the patina 
 is then too bright in the cavities and too 
 dull in the protuberances. It may be ob- 
 served, in conclusion, that the trial of brass 
 coins with the tongue is often serviceable ; 
 for, if modern, the patina tastes pungent 
 or bitter; while, if ancient, it is perfectly 
 tasteless. 
 
 Patronage. Mr. Prince Hoare, in his 
 
 PAT 
 
 interesting little work entitled Epochs of 
 the Arts, has explained and illustrated the 
 degree of patronage the fine arts have hi- 
 therto received in this country in a very 
 clear, and, at the same time, concise man- 
 ner ; we cannot, therefore, do better than 
 lay before our readers a few extracts, 
 taken from different parts of his volume. 
 
 " The patronage afforded by the state to 
 science and art in England, whether it 
 tend in a greater or less measure to their 
 advancement than in other countries, dif- 
 fers from that of all others in its mode of 
 action. The claims of merit are not su- 
 perficially viewed; long and accurate 
 proofs of utility precede reward : a me- 
 thod which, if ultimately followed by com- 
 mensurate support, is evidently fraught 
 with the highest public benefits. 
 
 " The favour of England lingered in 
 encircling him, whose discoveries have 
 rescued nations from a loathsome disease. 
 She beheld in silence the strife of regions, 
 contending which should first enshrine 
 him among the preservers of our race. 
 Yet reward (perhaps less appropriate than 
 philosophy might have desired), was un- 
 erringly advancing towards him, from the 
 unanimous suffrages of her two legislative 
 bodies. 
 
 "The progress of the arts of design may 
 be regarded in a similar view. The me- 
 rits of the English school are diffused over 
 the continent: painters and sculptors have 
 been courted to the most distant realms. 
 The greatest historical work of Reynolds 
 is in the palace at Petersburgh. The 
 ' Cupid and Psyche' of Banks adorns the 
 gardens of Czarsko-zelo. Engravings from 
 West's pictures have been eagerly pur- 
 chased in France ; and the candid Wate- 
 let, in his Dictionnaire des Arts, acknow- 
 ledged our pretensions to fame. What 
 country or language has not welcomed the 
 Discourses delivered by Reynolds at our 
 Academy ! The arts of design, rooted in 
 our soil, are fostered in foreign lands. 
 England alone tranquilly contemplates 
 their growth ; 
 
 ' Conscious of highest worth, unmoved :' 
 
 They have blossomed and faded ; they 
 have adorned the sunshine with flowerets, 
 and withered in tlie shade ; alike unno- 
 ticed. Yet there is no reason to doubt, 
 that, whenever their beneficial influence 
 shall be explored, they will receive sup- 
 port from the same pi-otecting wisdom and 
 bounty, which have so often rewarded the 
 labours of Science. 
 
 " The wonder excited in our artists by 
 the inactivity of the English government 
 
PATROXAGE. 
 
 with respect to the arts of desi>cn, in com- 
 parison with the earnestness which other 
 states have shown to encourage their ad- 
 vancement, has often led me to researches 
 on the subject. Although the end of 
 painting and sculpture, in common with 
 other imitative arts, is justly said to be 
 delight, I have been inclined to think, that 
 it could not be for mere delight, or even for 
 luxury, that they have been so diligently 
 courted, and at such cost, by men of distin- 
 guished political abilities, to fix their abode 
 in their several states. I was therefore 
 led to suspect that advantage had also been 
 in view. It appeared, that if any instance 
 of their encouragement were to be singled 
 out, in which splendour seemed to be the 
 predominant object, it was certainly that 
 of the adornment of Athens, under Peri- 
 cles. Yet I could not but recollect, that, 
 ■when that great statesman was called on 
 to give an account of his large public ex- 
 penditures, he justified himself, not by the 
 value of the delight, or the glory produce^ 
 by the arts, and to which his exertions had 
 60 confessedly contributed, but by their 
 utility. Neither could I disregard the ex- 
 pression of Aristotle, when, in speaking 
 of the study of painting, he calls the art 
 * serviceable to many purposes, and use- 
 ful to life: 
 
 " The utility of the arts bears a dififerent 
 construction, according to the diflferent 
 states and times to which it is referred. 
 The arguments of Pericles at Athens were, 
 that ' the city being well supplied with 
 every thing necessary for supporting the 
 war, the superfluity of their treasure 
 should be spent on such works as, when 
 finished, would be an eternal monument 
 of their glory, and, during the execution 
 of them, would dill'use riches and plenty 
 among the people ; for, so many kinds of 
 labour, and such a variety of instruments 
 and materials being requisite in these un- 
 dertakings, every art would be exerted, 
 and every hand employed ; and tiie city 
 would be not only beautified, but main- 
 tained, by itself*.' 
 
 " This apology for the arts stands on 
 general grounds, applicable to all coun- 
 tries. Pericles does not even mention the 
 aid which they adorded in (ireece to the 
 purposes of national worship; yet tlieir 
 elFects, in that respect, were there of very 
 high amount ; and scarcely of less in 
 Rome. In later times, besides the fame 
 and ininu'diate employnitnl, wliicii Peri- 
 cles projiosed as his soit' aim, an i'xtt;nsi\o 
 system of commercial industry is found to 
 
 have multiplied the uses of painting, and 
 to have increased the \alue of its influence 
 to a prodigious amount; so that, in what- 
 ever modes of their operation we regard 
 the arts of design, they will still appear 
 unquestionably productive of national 
 utility. 
 
 " The inadequacy of the support which 
 the fine arts derive from the ordinary 
 paths of national prosperity, has, in all 
 countries, given birth to patronage ; a 
 mode of encouragement to which artists of 
 genius have resorted, as a measure of ne- 
 cessity rather than of inclination. Pa- 
 tronage of an exalted kind has adorned 
 the greatest states; and conducted, as it 
 is, with honourable and virtuous purposes, 
 it cannot fail, in its extension, to produce 
 honour to our own. 
 
 " First in rank, amidst the patrons of 
 English art, stood our late beloved and 
 venerable sovereign, George the Third t. 
 How pleasing a testimony will it bear of 
 his benevolent and polished mind, that, at 
 a time when the arts of design in England 
 were languishing in the extreme, for want 
 of sustenance to the artists ; when they 
 poured forth their complaints unheard in 
 every other quarter, the heart of the sove- 
 reign was moved w ith comjjassion ! He 
 received the supplicants into his paternal 
 care, and extended to them the solacing 
 assurance of needful assistance ! The 
 Royal Academy rose under his auspices, 
 and has been established in a building 
 assigned to the public uses of the state ; 
 he permitted his name to be enrolled at 
 the head of a numerous list of men, de- 
 pressed by neglect, but zealous to increase 
 the fame of their country by the merit of 
 their attainments. At the same time that 
 the sovereign thus generously extended 
 his protection to the rising establishment 
 of tile Academy, nothing could be more 
 graceful and amiable than the inii)artial 
 candour of his conduct towards the (."bar- 
 tered Society of Artists, from which the 
 Royal Academy had been formed. On 
 tiie members of liiat Society addressing 
 him, wlu'ii liie success of the exhibitions 
 of the Royal Academy had instigated 
 them to a similar undertaking, they were 
 benignly answered, ti\at 'The Society ha<l 
 iiis majesty's proli'cliiin ; that liis majesty 
 did not nu-an to encourage one set of men 
 beyond another ; that having allbrded his 
 favour to the Society by his royal charter, 
 he had tiioughl right also to encourage the 
 new petitioners ; that his intention was to 
 
 LaD|;liurni'> Plutarclt't J.ivei. 
 
 i And wc hope If will not be ronsidcrod Indeco- 
 ronii if we luld tli.il lu' lum Icll In llii!>, nr in oilier lo- 
 »p«!Cl.i, H worUij Micccvaur. — Ediixik. 
 
PAV 
 
 patronise the arts; that the Society might 
 rest assured, his royal favour would be 
 equally extended to both, and that he 
 should visit their exhibitions as usual.' — 
 See the Introduction to Edwai-ds's Anec- 
 dotes of Painters, Graced by the favour 
 of the sovereign during more than fifty 
 years, the annual exhibitions of the Royal 
 Academy have not only attracted continual 
 public attention, but have produced a re- 
 venue equal to the entire maintenance of 
 the Academy, without farther burden on 
 the benevolence of the founder. 
 
 " About thirty years after the establish- 
 ment of the Royal Academy, relief began 
 to dawn anew on one description of artists. 
 The parliament decreed funereal honours to 
 our statesmen and heroes. These honours 
 were ordered to be bestowed in the form 
 of public monuments, erected in the cathe- 
 drals of the metropolis. Hero after hero 
 crowned his life with glory, and vote after 
 vote showered affluence on the sculptors. 
 " Lastly ; sensible of individual merits, 
 unjustly depressed or obscured, and form- 
 ing generous designs for the support of a 
 laborious class of men, employed in inno- 
 cent and, perhaps, virtuous pursuits, a 
 combination of opulent and highly culti- 
 vated persons arose to vindicate the friend- 
 less painters, and by timely aids to pre- 
 serve their industry for the honour of their 
 country. The British Institution pur- 
 chased and opened a place of perpetual 
 exhibition and sale for the works of Bri- 
 tish artists, and has, by its exertions, al- 
 ready distributed among them several 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 " These are the chief supports which 
 professional talents have received in this 
 country; which have successively aided 
 the course of the arts of design, and cheered 
 the toils of the artists." 
 
 Pavement. [Lat. pavimentum, from pa- 
 vio, to plane.] The construction of streets, 
 highways, or ground-floors in such a way 
 as that they may be conveniently walked 
 upon. 
 
 According to Isidorus, the Carthagi- 
 nians were the first people who adopted 
 the practice of paving their towns with 
 stones. In imitation of them, Appius 
 Claudius Caecus paved the city of Rome 
 188 years after the expulsion of the kings, 
 and he also constructed a road, which 
 was named after him the Appian way. At 
 length the Romans undertook the great 
 improvement of paving the high roads 
 which led out of the city, and these were 
 gradually established throughout the 
 whole of their empire, and the remains of 
 them are found, in a greater or less degree 
 
 PAV 
 
 of preservation, in the different provinces 
 of which that immense empire was com- 
 posed. Several of these public roads, be- 
 sides the Appian, received their names 
 from those of the parties who had dictated 
 their construction. For instance : — Aure- 
 lius Cotta founded, in the year 512 after the 
 foundation of Rome, the Aurelian way ; 
 Flaminius was the author of the Flaminian 
 way ; and the Mmilian way was executed 
 by the command of jEmilius. The censors 
 superintended the forming of these high- 
 ways, and directed their situations, &c. 
 
 With regard to the pavements in the 
 interior of the Roman edifices, they gave 
 the designation of contignata parAmenta to 
 such as were constructed upon stages of 
 timber work ; and the pavements denomi- 
 nated by them coassationes were made of 
 oaken planks, of the kinds denominated 
 quercus cesculiis from its being regarded as 
 little subject to warp. The opulent Ro- 
 mans appear to have had portable pave- 
 ments carried about to pave their tents in 
 time of war, as by Julius Caesar. These 
 were chiefly of musaic. See Musaic. 
 
 In Great Britain the pavement of the 
 principal streets, &c. is generally of flint 
 or rubble-stone, while churches, courts, 
 stables, domestic offices, &c. are paved 
 with tiles, bricks, flags, or fire stone ; some- 
 times with a kind of free stone or rag stone. 
 In some continental churches the pave- 
 ment is of marble, and sometimes of mu- 
 saic, as in the cathedral of St. Mark at 
 Venice, &c. 
 
 In France the public roads, in common 
 with the streets, courts, &c. are all paved 
 with gres or gritt (a kind of free stone), 
 and the elegance and convenience arising 
 from the use of flag stones in the streets of 
 English towns is unknown, even in Paris, 
 where the pedestrian is in constant dan- 
 ger of being run down by the pole of a 
 carriage. 
 
 In Amsterdam, and the chief cities of 
 Holland, they denominate their brick 
 pavement the hurghermaster's, in order to 
 distinguish it from that of flint or stone, 
 which, usually occupying the middle of 
 the street, serves as with us for carriages. 
 Pavements of free stone, flint, and flags, 
 in streets, &c. are laid dry— i. e. in a bed 
 of sand : those of courts, stables, ground 
 rooms, &c. in a mortar made of lime and 
 sand, or of lime and cement, especially if 
 there be vaults or cellars underneath. Oc- 
 casionally after laying a floor diy (particu- 
 larly of brick), a thin mortar is spread 
 over it, and swept backwards and forwards 
 to fill up the joints. 
 
 There are numerous subdivisions of 
 
PEA 
 
 pavements, accordinj^ to the materials of 
 which tliey are comy)osed. 
 
 Pavilion. [pavif>lione, Italian.] In ar- 
 chitecture. A species of turret or building 
 usually insulated, and comprised beneath 
 a single roof; sometimes square, and in 
 other instances^ of the shape of a dome- 
 thus called from the resemblance of its 
 roof to a tent. 
 
 This term is likewise pfiven to those 
 projecting pieces placed in the front of a 
 building to mark the centre thereof, and 
 occasionally it flanks a corner, and is then 
 designated an angular pavilion. These pa 
 
 V K D 
 
 est degree. The celebrated Cleopatra, 
 equally famous for her beauty, voluptu- 
 ousness, and misfortunes, is represented 
 on the medals cited by Vaillant(and which 
 are to be found in the Cabinet of Antiqui- 
 ties of the Royal Library at Paris), with 
 an ornament of triangular pearls. In 
 fact, this princess was supposed to possess 
 the finest specimens ever seen, and, in 
 consequence, the Romans designated those 
 which were most remarkable for size and 
 brilliancy cleopatrines. 
 
 Pliny tells the story of the dissolution 
 of a magnificent pearl by the Egyptian 
 
 vilions are higher than the other parts of queen. She had vaunted to her lover. 
 
 the building. The Louvre, at Paris, is 
 flanked with four. The summer houses, 
 ^c. thrown up in gardens, may fairly be 
 denominated pavilions. 
 
 Pearl, [perle, Fr. perla, Spanish.] fn 
 the decorative arts. A hard, white, shining 
 body, generally roundish, and found in a 
 testaceous fish resembling an oyster. 
 
 Pearls have been highly valued in all 
 ages and by all nations habituated to the use 
 of them. They have been uniformly ranked 
 of the number of gems, yet their formation 
 is the consequence of disease in the crea- 
 ture producing them— a distemper similar 
 to that occasioning the bezoars and other 
 strong concretions in diflerent animals. 
 The fish from which pearls are usually 
 produced is the East Indian pearl-oyster, 
 as it is commonly designated : other shells, 
 it is true, yield tliem, such as the common 
 oyster, the muscle, &c. but of an inferior 
 kind. 
 
 Neither Herodotus nor Homer make 
 any mention of this ornamental substance. 
 Theoplirastus does not seem to have per- 
 fectly understood its nature, speaking of 
 it as a precious stone, altliougii ho admits 
 It to be also discovered in .slulls. It would 
 appear that the use of them began to spread 
 aliroad in Greece after tlie Persian war 
 and the conquests of Alexander. We 
 perceive, from ancient monuments refer- 
 able to that period, that they were pro- 
 fusely employed to adorn the nerk, arms, 
 and ears. The stern Pallas, herself, is 
 often decorated with a pearl necklace, 
 and Venus almost constantly. See Nk( k- 
 LACE. In the instance of (lie laKn- ^dd- 
 dess, the attribute of jxarls was doubtless 
 considered lu-culiarly applicable, as she 
 was fabled lo have arisen from the sea in 
 a sh.ll. 
 
 It does not apjx'ar that the ancient 
 I'.gyi)tian8 accustomed themselves to the 
 use of pearls until after the r<ni(|uest of 
 • heir eounliy by Hi,- IMiircdonian At 
 der, wIk^u luxury was cariicil to it: 
 
 icxan- 
 hiKli- 
 
 Antonj', that she would expend, in a sin- 
 gle banquet, ten millions of sestertm. An- 
 tony was disbelieving, and a wager ensued 
 between them. (Plin.lib. ix.cap. 35. Ma- 
 crob. Sat. lib, ii. cap. 15), The feast was 
 provided, but presented nothing above the 
 ordinary accompaniments of the festivities 
 of princes. Antony, in a rallying tone, 
 already demanded an account of the cost, 
 but was answered that Avhat he saw con- 
 sisted merely of accessories, and that tiie 
 queen herself would devour the ten mil- 
 lions of sestertia. She gave orders for the 
 second course, and the officers of the ban- 
 quet, instructed beforehand, set nothinic 
 before the queen save a vase containing 
 vinegar. The triumvir gazed on her with 
 impatience ; while Cleopatra, detaching 
 one of her most splendid pearls, cast it 
 into the vase, the contents of which, M'hen 
 the jewel had dissolved therein (as it spee- 
 dily did), she at once drank up, and the 
 astonished Roman v, as declared to luivti 
 lost his wager. Many conjectures have 
 been hazarded regarding this story : but, 
 however the circumstance might have been 
 modified, the broad fact of the dissolution 
 and swallowing of the pearl appears to be 
 indisputable. 
 
 A similar tale is told of the spendthrift 
 Clodius, who is said to have given each 
 of his guests a pearl to drink dissolved in 
 vinegar. After all, however high the 
 coni])Iinient i)aid to the entertained, their 
 jiotation could scarcely have been as agree- 
 able as costly, 
 
 Pectinatuivi Tectiim, [Lat.] /// nr.hi- 
 tectitrc. A kind of roof so called from its 
 being shaped somewhat lik(> a comli, and 
 calculated for throwing oil" the rain-water 
 in two ways, 
 
 1'ki)i:si\i,. [pedestal, I'r. from /»/'.«••, pedis, 
 a foot, Latin.] In arehiteetiire. This is a 
 solid body, of square or round form, serv- 
 ing to sup)iort a column, statue, pilaster, 
 or vase, \e. having three parts- llw base, 
 the dye, and the cornice. No particular 
 
PEN 
 
 proportions can be laid down for them, but 
 it is usual to allow to them one quarter, or 
 from that to one third of the height of the 
 column and entablature; and this being 
 divided into nine parts, two are for the 
 base, one for the cornice, and six for the 
 die (which is of similar dimensions with 
 the plinth of the column). One pedestal 
 is sufficient for two columns placed toge- 
 ther, and a continued pedestal with pro- 
 jections in the cornice under each column 
 should be used for a peristyle or colon- 
 nade. Pedestals vary, both in their shape 
 and ornaments, according to the order of 
 architecture which surmounts them. 
 
 Pediment, [same derivation, from the 
 Latin word pes.] In architecture. An or- 
 nament, generally low and triangular in 
 shape, that crowns the ordonnances, 
 finishes the fronts of buildings, and serves 
 as a decoration over gates, doors, windows, 
 &c. See Aetos, Eagle, Fastigium, Ga- 
 ble, Tympanum. 
 
 Pelta. [TTsXr/;, properly a dart, from 
 TraXXw, to throw.] In archaiology. The 
 Greek and Latin authors give this name 
 to a species of buckler or shield of Thra- 
 cian or Amazonian origin: but the former of 
 these kinds differs from the latter, in having 
 two slopes or cuts, while the Amazonian 
 pelta had but one, and was described as 
 resembling a lunar crescent, as indeed it 
 is represented on ancient medals and other 
 monuments. There is a drawing of one 
 in Millin's Monumens Antiques InMits 
 (vol. ii. pi. 18). 
 
 Pen. \^penna, Lat.] In drawing. Draw- 
 ings with the pen were frequent among 
 the ancients. Treated in a masterly way, 
 this style is not much less expeditious 
 than that with crayons, and is certainly 
 susceptible of more spirit and taste. There 
 is a great number of studies made with the 
 pen left by Titian. Some artists have 
 drawn with a fine pen, and in a light 
 style ; other have used a coarser instru- 
 ment, laid on a greater quantity of ink 
 (sometimes even with the finger), and at- 
 tempted an air of greater spirit and fire. 
 Other artists, again, have exerted suffi- 
 cient patience on pen and ink drawings to 
 enable them to vie with the delicate exac- 
 titude of the graver. This department of 
 art is, however, now rarely practised. 
 The prints of the Caracci afford excellent 
 models of it. 
 
 Various different sorts of ink are em- 
 ployed in pen and ink drawings — such as 
 black, green, blue, red, &.c. but Indian ink 
 is the most serviceable. 
 
 Penates.- [from penus, Lat. provisions ; 
 or, perhaps, simply, from penitus, within.] 
 
 PEN 
 
 In archaiology. Every house, among the Ra- 
 mans, as well as every city, had its presid- 
 ing deities : the penates, who were sup- 
 posed the protectors of the masters of fa- 
 milies, their wives, and children, and the 
 lares, who presided over housekeeping, the 
 servants, and household affairs. See Lares. 
 The penates are figured nowhere but in a 
 picture in the Vatican Virgil. There were 
 public penates, who were the guardians of 
 the state, as the others were of families. 
 The penates were properly the tutelar 
 gods of the Trojans, from whom the Ro- 
 mans adopted them. 
 
 Pencil. [Lat. pencillum.'] In painting, 
 drawing, &c. An instrument employed by 
 painters in laying on their colours. The 
 ancients appear to have used sponges for 
 this purpose, which instrument had, 
 however, several inconveniences, as will 
 be obvious from a moment's consideration 
 of its nature and shape. The pencil was, 
 at length, as the art advanced, substituted 
 for the sponge, and this, again, gave way 
 to the introduction of the brush, at least, 
 in paintings of a larger size, where breadth 
 and substance of colour are requisite. 
 
 Pencils are of various kinds, and con- 
 structed of as various materials. The 
 largest sorts, or brushes, are made of boar's 
 bristles, the thick ends of which are bound 
 to a stick, larger or smaller, proportionate 
 to the purposes they are meant to be ap- 
 plied to. The finer sorts of pencils are 
 made of camel's, badger's, and squirrel's 
 hair, and of the down of swans : these are 
 fastened at the superior extremity by a 
 piece of strong thread, and enclosed in the 
 barrel of a quill. All good pencils, on 
 being drawn between the lips, come to a 
 fine point. 
 
 In drawing. The pencil used in draw- 
 ing is made of long pieces of black lead or 
 red chalk, placed in a groove cut in a slip 
 of cedar ; on which other pieces of cedar 
 being glued, the whole is planed round, 
 and one of the ends being cut to a point, 
 it is fit for use. 
 
 Pendant. [Lat. pendeo, to hang.] In 
 painting, &c. This term is applied to one 
 of two paintings, or prints, which, having 
 equal dimensions with each other, are 
 attached, in a parallel manner, to the same 
 Avail. Perhaps a better word for our mean- 
 ing would be pairs. 
 
 Although conformity of size should, 
 questionless, be the principal object with 
 regard to pictures thus circumstanced, yet 
 similarity of design is highly desirable, as 
 well as of colour and effect. For instance, 
 it would appear inharmonious and un- 
 tasteful to balance a picture of a clear tone 
 
 p p 
 
FEN 
 
 with one dusky or enveloped in shade ; a 
 sorrowful or pathetic subject with a lively 
 or bustling one, ice. a:c. Portraits are 
 often placed in situations of this nature, 
 and it is then desirable that they should 
 be so painted as to have the eyes bent 
 upon each other, that the expression of 
 the faces may meet. The noblest species 
 of pendants are such as face each other 
 from tlie two extremities of a long gallery, 
 and in saying tiiis, we are reminded of a 
 tine specimen in the gallery of Paul Me- 
 thuen, Esq. of Corshain, Wiltshire, where 
 two exquisite pictures of Claude, repre- 
 senting Morning and Evening, are put in 
 this kind of juxta-position. 
 
 It will be obvious, from tlie derivation 
 of the word, that this term cannot with 
 propriety be applied to two statues simi- 
 larly placed, although it may be extended 
 to btissi rilievi. 
 
 Penetralia. \^penct.riile, from ■penitus, 
 within, Lat.] In archaiologij. Among the 
 ancients, liiis term was applied to a small 
 chapel dedicated, in the very heart of 
 their domestic abodes, to the deities called 
 penatcs. It was a place sacred and retired, 
 a sort of sanctum sanctorum, wherein they 
 «Ieposited whatever was held by tliem as 
 most valuable eitlicr intrinsically or from 
 sentiment. 
 
 Penitence, [pcnitcntia, Lat. from poena, 
 punishment.] In allegorical painting and 
 sculpture. The iconologists have repre- 
 sented this quality \inder the figure of a 
 woman, thin, pale, clothed in a wliite vest- 
 ment, though none of the purest, and seated 
 on a stone by a brook, which she augments 
 with her tears. She has ashes on her 
 head (a symbol of penitence among the 
 Jews), and tears her garments. She is 
 also accoutred with a large black veil, has 
 a cross in her hands, and upon her knees 
 rest the gospel and the scourge. 
 
 Pentauoron. [irtvradopoj', Or.] In an- 
 cient architecture. That species of bricks 
 employed by llie Greeks in the construc- 
 tion of their public edifices. It was of the 
 length of live palms. See Rrickmaiiini;, 
 'i"i;ri{Ai)«)U(»N. 
 
 Pentastvi.i;. [Or. TrtiTf, live, and ti'Xoc, 
 a column.] In architecture. An edilice hav- 
 ing live columns in front. 
 
 Picntatiii.i:. [Or. TTMTf, live, and aOXor, 
 a combat.] In archaiology. An assi'iublage 
 of several gymnastic exercises, and those 
 individuals wlio addicted Iheniseh es (here- 
 to were denoiiiiniited in Ihe same way. 
 The most general opinion is, that these 
 games consisted of wrestling, ruiuiing, 
 quoiting, and hurling the javelin. In the 
 relobrulion of the public guines, the morn- 
 
 PEP 
 
 ing was devoted to the more rapid and 
 lithesome exercises, the afternoon to the 
 weightier and rougher ones. There being 
 but one prize, it was necessary, in order 
 to win it, to conquer in all the five exer- 
 cises, unless one party (which was seldom 
 the case) voluntarily gave in to the other, 
 or unless bolli combatants, by their own 
 free will, reduced the number of trials. 
 See Gymnasium, Pau«str.«. 
 
 Pentelican Marble. In architecture, 
 statuary, kc. Drawn from a mount called 
 Penteles, near Athens, and greatly sought 
 after by the Grecian artists. 
 
 This marble has been a good deal mis- 
 understood, with respect to its peculiar 
 character. AV'iuckelmann, in his Histi>ry 
 of Art, has given a mistaken definition of 
 it, confounding the Pentelican with other 
 species of Greek marble. The celebrated 
 French mineralogist, Dolomieu, was per- 
 haps the first to recognise the true Pente- 
 lican marble in that denominated by work- 
 men cipola, because it is like foliage. Tiie 
 Pentelican marble is distinguished by the 
 beautiful fineness of its grain, and by its 
 being variegated occasionally with green- 
 ish spots. 
 
 Penula. Ipcenula, Lat.] A close thick 
 riding cloak worn among the Romans, for a 
 protection either against cold or rain. Ci- 
 cero, Tacitus, Buonarroti, &c. describe it as 
 being fast at the sides, and having no other 
 opening than that through Avhich the head 
 was passed in putting it on. This was, 
 no doubt, its earliest form : but it appears 
 that, in after usage, for the sake of greater 
 convenience, they constructed lateral open- 
 ings or slits for the passage and exercise 
 of tlie arms. 
 
 Penumbra. [Lat. pene, almost, and um- 
 bra, a shade.] In painting, drau-ing, &;c. 
 Tliat point of a jticlure or drawing w here 
 the shade blends itself with the light. The 
 principles of the art demand that these 
 gradations should be nearly imperceptible. 
 
 Peperino. [Italian.] In architecture. 
 In the environs of the city of Rome is 
 worked a species of stone of a deep gray 
 colour, and obtained from (lie neighbour- 
 hood of .Alba and Tivoli. That found near 
 the lirst-iiientioned place bears, at tliis 
 day, the name of peperino ; and (he other, 
 found iK-ar Tivoli, is calletl Irarcrlino. 
 'i'hese two kinds of stone (^niuch esteemed 
 on account of their fine quality) were em- 
 liloyed more frt>(|iiently than others, not 
 only in (In; jilaces near which (lu'y were 
 discovered, but also in the city of Home 
 itself. The tirst-meiitioned stone served 
 to construct an ancient tomb near Albano; 
 while, at Rome, the great common sewer, 
 
P ER 
 
 the foundations of the Capitol, and the 
 column called the Rostral, were formed of 
 the same substance. 
 
 Peplus or Peplum. [Gr. ttettXoc-] In 
 ancient costume. Synonj me of the palln of 
 the Romans (see that Avord). This habit 
 was always worn over tlie others, and 
 took, under the same appellation, difl'erent 
 shapes. Sometimes it was a long and 
 ample mantle, sometimes a vestment 
 shorter than the tunic, and attached by a 
 clasp. This latter sort of peplum, indeed, 
 greatly resembled a tunic, which name 
 Pollux has extended to it. 
 
 In the third plate of the third volume 
 of Pitture d'Ercoluno, Diana is seen con- 
 ducted by Love towards Endymion ; slie 
 is habited in this light mantle, which float- 
 ing a part in the wind, exhibits the god- 
 dess half naked. 
 
 Under the title of the pepluin of Mi- 
 nerva is designated a piece of white stuff, 
 embroidered with gohl, on which were re- 
 presented the memorable actions of that 
 goddess, as likewise of Jupiter, and other 
 divinities. They bore the peplum in the 
 processions of the greater panathencea (see 
 that word). 
 
 Perfidy, [perjidia, Lat.] In allegorical 
 painting and sculpture. Cochin represents 
 perfidy under the figure of a woman whose 
 headdress consists of serpents partly hid- 
 den. She holds in her hand a net and a 
 fish-hook. 
 
 Pergula. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 Designated that part of a house now com- 
 monly denominated the gallery. It was 
 also called magistralis by Vopiscus. The 
 painters, as well as grammarians, mathe- 
 maticians, and, indeed, the teachers of all 
 the liberal arts and sciences, gave their 
 lessons in the different galleries assigned 
 to them. In Plautus, this word is used to 
 indicate the balcony of a house, at which 
 the courtezans were in the habit of plac- 
 ing themselves, in order the more readily 
 to be noticed by the passers-by. Winck- 
 elmann seems, however, to incline to the 
 opinion tli&t pergula, more properly speak- 
 ing, meant an arbour in a garden, or per- 
 haps a terrace overhanging one. 
 
 Periactos. [Gr. Trspt, around, and aya», 
 to act.] In archaiology. A certain machine 
 used in the ancient Greek theatres, spoken 
 of by Vitruvius and others. It appears to 
 have served to produce certain changes in 
 the decoration of the scene, and was com- 
 posed of three sashes or frames, being 
 placed on a pivot so as to admit of its 
 working easily. On each of these frames 
 was presented a difl'erent scene, and the 
 whole was so placed that each of the three 
 
 PER 
 
 sashes was in turn submitted to the eye of 
 the spectator, while the other two were 
 concealed behind. 
 
 Peribolos. [Gr. Trspi, around, and /3a\Xw, 
 to throw.] In archaiologij. Several tem- 
 ples of the ancients were surrounded by a 
 peribolos — that is to say, a court or enclo- 
 sure, witliin a wall wliich separated it 
 from the adjoining ground as a place sa- 
 cred and appertaining to the temple. It 
 was generally adorned with a profusion 
 of statues, altars, and monuments. Some- 
 times it contained other smaller temples, 
 or even a sacred grove. 
 
 Peridrome. [TTfpj, around, and opojwg, 
 a course or parade.] In archaiology. This 
 name implies that part of a periptery, 
 which, in the shape of a gallery, or alley, 
 or other open space, was left between 
 the columns and the walls. The peri- 
 dromes served as promenades among the 
 Greeks. 
 
 Peril. [Fr. from periculum, Lat.] In al- 
 legorical painting and sculpture. Cochin 
 represents it as a young man, who, resting 
 on a slender reed, walks upon the banks 
 of a precipice, beneath which flows a tor- 
 rent. A serpent, concealed under the 
 herbage, is in the act of darting at him. 
 
 Periodomc. I'^ipi, and 6cbc, a way.] In 
 archaiology. Those who bore away the 
 victory in the four ancient sacred games 
 of Greece. Whatever the species of com- 
 bat, this was the name given to the suc- 
 cessful combatant. The name was derived 
 from TTEoioSog, in consequence of tlie cele- 
 bration of these games recurring at fixed 
 periods. 
 
 PtRiPTERY. [TTfpi, and TTTipov, a wing, 
 which from Trtrw, to expand.] In ancient 
 architecture. An edifice or temple envi- 
 roned, in its exterior circumference, by a 
 range of insulated columns distant from 
 the wall to the extent of an intercolumni- 
 ation. These structures are occasionally 
 both square and round. As instances we 
 may mention the portico of Pompey, the 
 basilica of Antoninus. See Peridrome. 
 
 Peripteral, [id quod periptery.] In ar- 
 chitecture. Having columns all around. 
 According to "Vitruvius, the fourth order 
 of temples. See Architecture, Perip- 
 tery. 
 
 Perirrhanterion. [Gr. irepionhno, to 
 sprinkle.] In archaiology. Among the an- 
 cients they generally placed, at the en- 
 trance of their temples, vases filled with 
 pure water, with which the priests both 
 laved their own hands, and sprinkled such 
 as entered. In the fifth volume of the 
 Pitture d'Ercolano, pi. 69, are exhibited, 
 at the gate of a religious edifice, two lus- 
 p p 2 
 
I* E 11 
 
 tral vases, ia each of which is a laurel 
 branch, serving (loiil)tless for purposes of 
 Ihe nature alluded to. The one branch 
 or stick, larger tiian the other, is attached 
 to the vase by a cliain. From this prac- 
 tice, we have little hesitation in saying, 
 arose the system of holy wdter, and sprink- 
 ling therewithal, used still by the followers 
 of the lioniau Catholic church. 
 
 Pekisiii.is or Pkrisouue. [Gr. Trepi, 
 and ffKtXoc, the leg.] Jn ancient costume, A 
 circular ornament used by the Greeks, 
 and attached soinetinies to the leg and 
 sometimes to the arm, but principally to 
 the former member. They corresponded, 
 in some degree, with the arinillcB of the 
 Romans. 
 
 Peristyle. [Gr. irepi, and ■tt-uXoc.] In 
 ancient (irchitecture. A range of columns, 
 or colonnade, within a court or building 
 like a cloister : the internal colonnade to 
 the hypaethral temple is a peristyle. 
 
 Peusepolis. [nip(T//c, Persian, and ttoXic, 
 a city.] /?t the history of the arts. For- 
 merly the capital of Persia, and now in 
 ruins,but still remarkable for the most mag- 
 niticent remains of a palace or temple that 
 are now perhaps to be found in the world. 
 This city stood in one of the finest plains 
 in Persia, being eighteen or nineteen 
 leagues in length, and in ditferent places, 
 two, four, or six leagues in breadth. It 
 is watered by the great river Araxes, now 
 Bendemir, and by a multitude of rivulets 
 besides. Within the compass of this plain 
 are between one thousand and one thou- 
 sand five hundred villages, all adorned with 
 pleasant gardens, and planted with shady 
 trees. The entrance of this plain on the 
 w est side has received as much grandeur 
 from nature, as the city it covers could do 
 from industry or art. It consists of a 
 range of mountains stecj) and high, four 
 leagues in length, and about two miles 
 broad, forming two flat banks, with a ris- 
 ing terrace in the middle, the summit of 
 wiiich is perfectly plain and <'veii, all of 
 native rock. In this there are such open- 
 ings, and the terraces arc so fine ami so 
 even, that one would be tempted to 
 think the whole the work of art, if the 
 great extent, and prodigious elevation 
 thereof, did not convince one that it is a 
 wonder too great for aught but nature to 
 produce. Undoubtedly these banks were 
 Ihe'very place where the advanced guards 
 from i'ersepolis took jiost. and from whieh 
 Alexander found it so dillicult U> dis- 
 lodge them. One cannot from hence 
 dt^Hcry the ruins of the city, because the 
 bunks are too high to be overlooked : but 
 one can jierceive on every .sii'e the ruins 
 
 PER 
 
 of walls and of edifices, which heretofore 
 adorned the range of mountains of which 
 we are speaking. On the west and on the 
 north this city is defended in the like man- 
 ner : so that, considering the height and 
 evenness of these banks, one may safely 
 say, that there is not in the world a place 
 so fortified by nature. 
 
 The mountain Rehuniut, in the form of 
 an amphitheatre, encircles the palace, 
 which is one of the noblest and most beau- 
 tiful pieces of architecture remaining of 
 all antiquity. Authors and travellers have 
 been exceedingly minute in their descrip- 
 tions of these ruins ; and yet some of them 
 have expressed themselves so differently 
 from others, that, had they not agreed with 
 respect to the latitude and longitude of 
 the place, one would be tempted to sus- 
 pect that they had visited diflerent spots. 
 These ruins have been described by Gar- 
 cias de Silva Figueroa, Pietro de la Valle, 
 Chardin, Le Brun, and Mr. Franklin. 
 We shall adopt the description of the lat- 
 ter, as being exceedingly distinct, and 
 given by a traveller intelligent and unas- 
 suming. The ascent to the columns is by 
 a grand staircase of blue stone containing 
 one hundred and four steps. 
 
 The first objects that strike the beholder 
 on his entrance are two portals of stone, 
 al>out fifty feet in height each ; the sides 
 are embellished with two sphinxes of an 
 immense size, dressed out with a profusion 
 of bead-work, and, contrary to the usual 
 method, they are represented standing. 
 On the sides above are inscriptions in an 
 ancient character, the meaning of which 
 no one hitherto has been able to decipher. 
 
 At a small distance from these portals 
 you ascend another flight of steps, which 
 lead to the grantl hall of cohnnns. The 
 sides of this staircase are ornamented 
 with a variety of figures in basso rilievo ; 
 most of them have vessels in their hands : 
 here and there a camel appears, and at 
 other tiTues a kind of triumphal car, made 
 after the Roman fashion ; besides these 
 are several led horses, oxen, and rams, 
 that at times intervene and diversify the 
 procession. At the head of the staircase 
 is another basso rilievo, representing a 
 lion seizing a bull; and close to this arc 
 other iiiseri])tions in ancient characters. 
 On getting to the top of this staircase, you 
 enter what was formerly a most niagnili- 
 crnt hall ; the natives have given this the 
 uaiiu- ii( chihiil minor, or forty jiillars; and 
 though this name is often used to express 
 the whole of the l)uilding, it is more par- 
 ticularly appropriated lo this part of it. 
 Although a vast number of ages have 
 
PER 
 
 elapsed since the foundation, fifteen of tlip 
 columns yet remain entire; they are from 
 seventy to eighty feet in heiglit, and are 
 masterly pieces of masonry : their pedes- 
 tals are curiously worked, and appear lit- 
 tle injured by the hand of time. The 
 shafts are enfluted up to the top, and the 
 capitals are adorned with a profusion of 
 fretwork. 
 
 From this hall you proceed along east- 
 ward, until you arrive at the remains of a 
 large square building, to which you enter 
 through a door of granite. Most of the 
 doors and windows of this apartment ai"e 
 still standing ; they are of black marble, 
 and polished like a mirror : on the sides 
 of the doors, at the entrance, are bassi ri- 
 lievi of two figures at full length; they 
 represent a man in the attitude of stabbing 
 a goat: with one hand he seizes hold of 
 the animal by the horn, and thrusts a dag- 
 ger into his belly with the otlier; one of 
 the goat's feet rests upon the breast of the 
 man, and the other upon his right arm. 
 This device is common throughout the pa- 
 lace. Over another door of the same apart- 
 ment is a representation of two men at full 
 length ; behind them stands a domestic 
 holding a spread umbrella: they are sup- 
 ported by large round staffs, appear to be 
 in years, have long beards, and a profu- 
 sion of hair upon their heads. 
 
 At the south-west entrance of this apart- 
 ment are two large pillars of stone, upon 
 which are carved four figures ; they are 
 dressed in long garments, and hold in 
 their hands spears ten feet in length. At 
 this entrance also the remains of a stair- 
 case of blue stone are still visible. Vast 
 numbers of broken pieces of pillars, shafts, 
 and capitals are scattered over a consider- 
 able extent of ground, some of them of 
 such enormous size, that it is wonderful 
 to think how they could have been brought 
 whole, and set up together. Indeed, every 
 remains of these noble ruins indicate their 
 former grandeur and magnificence, truly 
 worthy of being the residence of a great 
 and powerful monarch. 
 
 These noble ruins are now the shelter 
 of beasts and birds of prey. Besides the 
 inscription abovementioned, there are 
 others in Arabic, Persian, and Greek. 
 Dr. Hyde observes, that the inscriptions 
 are very rude and unartful ; and that some, 
 if not all of them, are in praise of Alex- 
 ander the Great; and therefore are later 
 than that conqueror. 
 
 Perses. See Caryatides. 
 
 Persian Architecture. See Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Personification. [Lat. pcrsom, and 
 
 PER 
 
 facio, h) make : — '. e. to change things into 
 persons.] In pinufin^ and sculpture. " So 
 strong (says the ingenious Dr. Blair, in his 
 Lectures on Rhetoric) is that impression of 
 life whit h is made on us by the more mag- 
 nificent and striking objects of nature es- 
 pecially, that I doubt not in the least of 
 this having been one cause of the multi- 
 plication of divinities in the heathen world. 
 The belief of dryads and naiads, of the 
 genius of the wood and the god of the 
 river, among men of lively imaginations 
 in the earliest ages of the world, easily 
 arose from this turn of mind. Whan their 
 favourite rural objects had often been ani- 
 mated in their fancy, it was an easy tran- 
 sition to attribute to them some real divi- 
 nity, some unseen power or genius which 
 inhabited them or in some peculiar manner 
 belonged to them. Imagination was highly 
 gratified by thus gaining somewhat to rest 
 upon with more stability; and when be- 
 lief coincided so mucli with imagination, 
 very slight causes would be sufficient to 
 establish it. From this deduction may be 
 easily seen how it comes to pass that per- 
 sonification makes so great a figure in all 
 compositions where imagination or passion 
 has any concern. On innumerable occa- 
 sions it is the very language of imagina- 
 tion and passion, and therefore deserves 
 to be attended to and examined with par- 
 ticular care." 
 
 The artist must be cautious in this de- 
 partment, that he be not seduced into ab- 
 surdity in his choice of vehicles for per- 
 sonification: but that a general spirit of 
 propriety be preserved, as well as, parti- 
 cularly, some tolerably recognisable re- 
 semblance to the thing personified. For 
 further observations on the subject we beg 
 to refer the reader to our article Alle- 
 gory. 
 
 Perspective. [Lat. per, through, and 
 specio, to behold.] In all the arts. That 
 branch of optics which teaches how to re- 
 present objects on a plane surface, in the 
 manner wherein they appear under the pe- 
 culiarities arising from distance or height. 
 This is a science of the first importance to 
 a painter ; yet, at the same time, he is not 
 to be too strictly confined to its rules, but 
 to endeavour to render tliem subservient 
 to his own purposes. Nothing, indeed, 
 should be permitted to tie up his hands or 
 cramp his genius ; on the contrary, he 
 should be left fully at liberty to express 
 his idea with one stroke of his pencil ; and, 
 as Fresnoy advises, " let the compasses be 
 rather in his eyes than in his hands ;" in 
 that way let him measure distinctly every 
 object by comparison — the principal talent 
 
PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 wliich he Bhoiild own. If he is well ac- ginary line which parts the earth and sky, 
 
 quaintec/Nvith the principles of his art, he will seem to be raised as far above the 
 
 will not stop at fiie dry rules of goonietrj-, ground upon which the spectator stands, 
 
 while his fancy is sketching all tlie chief as his eye is removed from the same place, 
 
 parts of liis picture; but proceed with the Now, suppose the person at the window 
 
 whole, and when the design is arranged, looks through an upright pane of glass at 
 
 then correct all those portions which re- any object beyond it, and, keeping his head 
 
 quire it by the laws of perspective. steady, draws the figure of the object upon 
 
 liut while, on the one hand, we are anx- the glass with a black-lead pencil, as if 
 
 iousto guard the student against dwelling the point of the pencil touched the object 
 
 too much on the more mechanical parts of itself; he would then have a true repre- 
 
 his interesting art, we must, on tl\e other, sentation of the object in perspective as it 
 
 strive to impress on his mind that a tho- appears to his eye. 
 
 rough knowledge and an undeviating at- In order to this, two things are neces- 
 
 tention to this important branch of it is sary: — first, that the glass be laid over 
 
 not only eligil)le but indlsptnsahle. The with strong gum-water, wliicli when dry 
 
 study of it should, indeed, go hand in hand will be fit for drawing upon, and will re- 
 
 with that of anatomy, as not less funda- tain the traces of the pencil ; and secondly, 
 
 mental and necessary. that tlie spectator looks through a small 
 
 Tlie contour of an object drawn upon hole in a thin plate of metal, fixed about a 
 
 paper or canvass represents nothing more foot from the glass, between it and his eye, 
 
 than such an intersection of the visual and tliat he keeps his eye close to the 
 
 rays sent from the extremities of it to the hole ; otherwise he might perhaps shift 
 
 eye as would arise on a glass put in the the position of his head, and consequently 
 
 place of the paper or canvass. Now, the make a false delineation of the object, 
 
 situation of an object at the other side of Having traced out the figure of the ob- 
 
 a glass being given, the delineation of it ject, he may go over it again with pen and 
 
 in the glass itself depends entirely on the ink ; antl when that is dry, put a sheet of 
 
 situation of the eye on this side of the paper upon it, and trace it thereon with a 
 
 glass; in other words, on the rules of per- pencil: then taking away the paper and 
 
 spectu-e. laying it on a table, he may finisli the pic- 
 
 We will illustrate this by a familiar in- ture by giving it the colours, lights, and 
 
 stance. Suppose a spectator to be looking shades, as he sees them in the object itself, 
 
 at a prospect witiiout doors, from within, of which he Vvill tiieii have a true resera- 
 
 through a glass window :— he will per- blance. 
 
 ceive not only tlie vast extent which even To every person who possesses a gene- 
 
 80 small an aperture will admit to be seen ral knowledge of tlie principles of optics, 
 
 by his eye, but also the shape, size, and this must be self-evident: for, as vision is 
 
 situation of every object, upon the glass, occasioned by pencils of rays coming iu 
 
 If the objects are near the window, the straigiit lines to the eye from every point 
 
 spaces they occupy on the glass will be of the visible object, it is plain that, by 
 
 proportionably larger than when they arc joining the points in the transparent plane 
 
 at a grealer distance; if they are parallel through which all those pencils respec- 
 
 to the window, then their shapes upon the tively pass, an exact representation must 
 
 glass will be parallel likewise! ; if tlu-y be formed of the object as it appears to 
 
 are oblicpie, then their shapes will be the eye in that particular position and at 
 
 oblique, and soon. And he will always tluit (Utermined distance: and were jiic- 
 
 perceive that, as he alters the situation of tures of things to be always first drawn on 
 
 his eye, the situation of the objects upon transparent planes, this simple operation, 
 
 the window will be altered also: if he with the principle on w hich it is founded, 
 
 raises his eye ever so high, the objects would comprise the whole theory and prac- 
 
 will seem to keep pace with it and ris.; tice of perspective. As this, however, is 
 
 higher upon the window, and the contrary far from being the case, rules must be de- 
 
 if he places it ever so low. And thus, in duced from the sciences of optics and gco- 
 
 cvery situation of the eye, the objects upon metry for drawing representations of visi- 
 
 the window will apiiear to rise higher or ble ol)je(ts on opaiiue planes ; and the ap- 
 
 lower; and consecpiently, the depth of the pliealion of these rules constitutes what is 
 
 whole prospect will bo jiroportionably properly called the en/ of iierspective. 
 
 greater or less as the eye is elevated or The t^ollowing definition of the principle 
 
 depressed, and the h(nizon will iu every features iu this art will, we hojie, prove 
 
 situation of the eye be upon a level with useful to the student. I'rojtclinn <leli- 
 
 it: lliat is, the horizontal line, or that ima- neates objects i» piano by means of right 
 
PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 lines called rays, supposed to be drawn 
 from every angle of the subject, to parti- 
 cular points. When the objects are an- 
 gular, these rays necessarily form pyra- 
 mids, having the plane or superficeswlience 
 they proceed for their basis ; but when 
 drawn from or to circular objects, tliey 
 form a cone. 
 
 Ichnography, or ichnographic projec- 
 tion, is described by right lines parallel 
 among themselves and perpendicular to 
 the horizon from every angle of every ob- 
 ject, on a plane parallel to the horizon : 
 the points where the perpendicular lines 
 or rays cut that plane being joined by 
 right lines. The figure projected on the 
 horizontal plane is likewise called the 
 plan or seat of that object on the ground 
 plane. The points are the sites, or seats, 
 of the angles of the object. The lines are 
 the seats of the sides. By this we are to 
 iinderstand how the basis of figures re- 
 presented as superstructures stand or are 
 supported ; and we are further enabled to 
 judge of, indeed to measure, their several 
 parts and their areas. 
 
 Orthography represents the vertical po- 
 sition and appearance of an object; and 
 hence orthographic projection is called 
 the elevation. When we see the front of a 
 house represented, we give it that term — 
 when.the side, we denominate it the pro- 
 file. If we suppose a house, or other ob- 
 ject, to be divided by a plane passing per- 
 pendicularly through it in a line at right 
 angles with the point, we call it the lateral 
 section; but if the plane pass in a direc- 
 tion parallel with the front, it is termed a 
 longitudinal section. If the plane passes 
 in neither of the former directions (not 
 however deviating from the vertical), it is 
 said to be an oblique section. 
 
 These afford us tlie means of laying 
 down plans, of showing the parts, and the 
 manner in which the interiors of edifices 
 are arranged, consequently are indispen- 
 sable to the architect or surveyor, and in- 
 deed should be understood by every indi- 
 vidual connected any way with designing 
 or building. Nor should the follov/ing be 
 neglected ; — namely, Scenography, which 
 shows us how to direct the visual rays to 
 every point or part of a picture ; and Ste- 
 reography, which enables us to represent 
 solids on a plane, from geometrical pro- 
 jection ; whence their several dimensions, 
 viz. length, breadth, and thickness, may all 
 be represented and correctly understood 
 at sight. We conclude our readers to have 
 acquired some knowledge of geometry be- 
 fore they commence on this or any other 
 of the abstract sciences founded thereon. 
 
 An original object is that wliich becomes 
 the subject of the picture, and is the pa- 
 rent of the design. Original planes or lines 
 are the surfaces of the objects to be drawn ; 
 or they are any lines of those surfaces ; or, 
 they are the surfaces on which those ob- 
 jects stand. Perspective plane is the i)icture 
 itself, which is supposed to be a transpa- 
 rent plane, through which we view the 
 objects represented thereon. Vanishing 
 planes are those points which are marked 
 upon the picture by supposing lines to be 
 drawn from the spectator's eye parallel to 
 any original lines, and produced until 
 they touch the picture. Ground plane is 
 the surface of the earth or plane of the 
 horizon, on which the i)icture is imagined 
 to stand. The ground line is that formed 
 by the intersection of the picture in the 
 ground plane. The horizontal line is the 
 vanishing point of the horizontal plane, 
 and is produced in the same manner as 
 any other vanishing line, i. e. by passing a 
 plane through the eye parallel to the 
 horizontal plane. The point of sight is 
 the fixed point from which the spectator 
 views the perspective plane. Vanishing 
 points are the points marked down in the 
 picture by supposing lines to be drawn 
 from the spectator's eye parallel to any 
 original lines, and produced until they 
 touch the picture. The centre of a picture 
 is tliat point on the perspective plane where 
 a line drawn from the eye perpendicular 
 to the picture would cut it; consequently 
 it is that part of the picture whicli is near- 
 est to the eye of the spectator. 
 
 The distance of the picture is that from 
 the eye to the centre of the picture. The 
 distance of a vanishing point is the dis- 
 tance from the eye of the spectator to that 
 point where the converging lines meet, and 
 after gradually diminishing all the objects 
 which come within their direction and pro- 
 portion, are reduced so as, in fact, to ter- 
 minate in nothing. All parallel lines have 
 the same vanishing points ; that is to say, 
 all such as are, in building, parallel to 
 each other, when not represented pre- 
 cisely opposite to, and parallel with, the 
 eye, will appear to converge towards some 
 remote point, i. e. their vanishing point. 
 Circles, when retiring in such manner, are 
 represented by ellipses, proportioned to 
 their distances: their dimensions in per- 
 spective are ascertained by enclosing them, 
 or the nearest of them, where a regular 
 succession is to be portrayed within a 
 square, which being divided into anj' num- 
 ber of equal parts or chequers, will exhi- 
 bit all the proportions of those more re- 
 mote. 
 
PEUSPECTIVE. 
 
 A bird's eye riew is supposed to he taken 
 from some ele\ated spot which commaiuis 
 a prospect nearly resembling the plane or 
 ichnography of the places seen. Thus the 
 view from a hi^li tower, or from a moun- 
 tain, whence tlie altitudes of the various 
 objects on the plane below appear much 
 diminished, gives nearly the same repre- 
 sentation as is oflered to a bird flying over 
 them — and hence the term. Some idea of 
 this may be obtained by standing on any 
 height, and observing how low those ob- 
 jects which are near thereto will appear 
 when compared with those more distant ; 
 taking however the perspective diminu- 
 tion of the latter into consideration. 
 
 When a painter has formed a scene in 
 his mind, and supposed, as is customary, 
 that the principal figures of this scene lie 
 close, or almost close, to the back of his 
 can\ass, he is, in the next place, to fix on 
 some point on this side of the canvass from 
 %vhich he would choose his piece should 
 be seen. But in choosing tiiis point, Avhich 
 is called the point of sight, regard should 
 be had to its situation to the right or left 
 
 above the picture, the horizontal ground 
 of it w ould appear sloping to the eye, and 
 both figures and buildings as ready to 
 tumble head-foremost. It is true, indeed, 
 that there is seldom a necessity for such 
 extraordinary exactness ; and that, unless 
 in some particular cases, the point of sight 
 had better be high rather than low : as a 
 reason for which we may observe, that as 
 we are more accustomed to behold people 
 on the same plane with ourselves than 
 either higher or lower, the figures of a 
 piece must strike us most wlien standing 
 on a plane nearly level with that on which 
 we ourselves stand. To this it may be 
 added, tiiat by placing the eye low, and 
 greatly shortening the plane, the heels of 
 the back figures will seem to bear against 
 the heads of the foremost, so as to render 
 the distance between them far less percep- 
 tible than it would otherwise be. 
 
 The point of sight being fixed, accord- 
 ing to the situation in which the picture is- 
 to be placed, the point of distance is next 
 to be determined. lu doing this, a painter 
 should carefully attend to three things : — 
 
 of the middle of the canvass ; but, above - first, that the spectator may be able to take 
 
 all things, to its distance and height with 
 respect to the lower edge of the canvass ; 
 which edge is called the base line, and is 
 parallel with the horizontal line which 
 passes through the eye. For by assuming 
 the point of sight, and consequently the 
 hoiizontal line, too low, the planes upon 
 which the figures stand will appear a great 
 deal too shallow ; as by assuming it too 
 high, they will appear too steep, so as to 
 render tiie piece far less light and airy 
 than it ought to be. In like manner, if the 
 point of sigiit is taken at too great a dis- 
 tance from the canvass, the figures will not 
 admit of degradation enough to be seen 
 with suflicient distinctness: and if taken 
 too near it, the degradation will be too 
 quick and precipitate to have an agree- 
 able cd'ect. Thus, then, it is evident that 
 no small attention is requisite in the choice 
 of this point. 
 
 When a jjicture is to be placed on high, 
 tlie point of sight should l)e assumed low, 
 and ricf-nrsa: in order that the horizon- 
 tal line of the picture may be, as near as 
 possilfle, ill the same horizontal plane 
 witii that of the spectator; for tiiis dis- 
 position has a surprising e/l'ect. \Hien 
 H picture id to be placed very high, as, 
 amongst many others, that of the I'm ifira- 
 tion, l)y Paulo V«ionese, it will be jjroper 
 to assume liie point of sight so low that it 
 may lie quite uiulor the picture, no part of 
 whose ground in in that case to be visii)le ; 
 for, were (he point of sight to be taken 
 
 in, at one glance, the whole and every 
 part of the composition; secondly, that he 
 may see it distinctly ; and thirdly, that the 
 degradation of the figures and other ob- 
 jects of the picture be sufliciently sensible. 
 
 But we cannot aflord room to go into 
 further particulars on this important sub- 
 ject, and will conclude our sketch by 
 briefly adverting to its progress in the 
 history of the arts. 
 
 I'erspective owes its origin to painting, 
 and more especially to that department of 
 it employed in the decorations of the an- 
 cient theatres, wherein landscapes were a 
 great deal introduced, the very essence of 
 which peremptorily required that the ob- 
 jects represented should be mollified ac- 
 cording to their distance from the eye. 
 Vitruvius tells us, that Agatharcus, the 
 disciple of yLschylus, was the first who 
 wrote upon this subject; and that subse- 
 quently the principles of the art were more 
 clearly elucidated by Democrilus and 
 Anaxagoras, the followers of Agatharcus. 
 Of the nature of their descri]>tions we 
 must be content to remain in total igno- 
 rance, since none of their w rilings are ex- 
 tant. It is most probable that their know- 
 ledge of the art did not reach far. The 
 revival of painting, in Italy, was accoin- 
 l»aiiied by a revival of the art of piTspec- 
 tive. 
 
 The Arabians were not ignorant of this 
 art, as ap]iears from the optical w ritings of 
 Alhazen (wlio flourished about the year 
 
PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 I 
 
 IT 00), and whose work is cited by Roger 
 Bacon, who himself treated the subject with 
 surprisino; accuracy, considering tlie time 
 at which he lived. 
 
 The oldest authors who professedly gave 
 rules respecting perspective were, how- 
 ever, Bartolemeo Braniantino, of Milan, 
 whose book Resole di Prospettiva, e 3Iisure 
 delle Antichita di Lomhardia, is dated 1440 ; 
 and Pietro del Borgo, who most likely 
 wrote still earlier, as he is said to have 
 died in 1443. Various other works fol- 
 lowed, which will be enumerated here- 
 after:— to Balthazar Peruzzi, of Sienna 
 (who had diligently studied the writings 
 of Borgo, we owe, it is reported, the dis- 
 covery of points of distance, to which 
 every line th^t makes an angle of 45" with 
 the ground line is drawn ; and Guido 
 Ubaldi soon after discovered, that all the 
 lines parallel to each other, if they be in- 
 clined to the ground line, converge to 
 some point in the horizontal line : and 
 that through this point, also, a line drawn 
 from the eye parallel to them will pass. 
 Ubaidi's Perspective was printed at Pe- 
 saro in 1600, and may be said to contain 
 the first principles of the method after- 
 wards established by Dr. Brook Taylor. 
 
 This latter gentleman has done much 
 towards improving the art of perspective. 
 His principles are in a considerable degree 
 novel, and far more general than those of 
 either of his predecessors. His system is 
 the only one calculated for answering the 
 views of such as are practitioners in the 
 art of design, and it includes an explana- 
 tion of the perspective of shadows, the 
 reflection of objects from polished planes, 
 and the inverse practice of perspective. 
 
 Aerial perspective is the art of giving a 
 due diminution or degradation to the 
 strength of the lights, shades, and colours 
 of objects, according to their different dis- 
 tances, the quantity of light which falls on 
 them, and the medium through which they 
 are seen. 
 
 A painter who would succeed in aerial 
 perspective ought carefully to study the 
 effects which distance, or different de- 
 grees, or colours of light have on each 
 particular original colour, in order to 
 know how its hue or strength is altered 
 under various circumstances, and to re- 
 present it accordingly. As all objects in 
 a picture take their measures in propor- 
 tion to those placed in the front, so, in 
 aerial perspective, the strength of light, 
 and the brightness of the colours of adja- 
 cent objects, must serve as a measure, 
 with respect to which all the same colours 
 at several distances must have a propor- 
 
 tionate degradation in similar circum- 
 stances. 
 
 In order, therefore, to give any colour 
 its proper diminution in proportion to its 
 distance, it ought to be ascertained what 
 the appearance of that colour would be 
 were it close to the picture ; regard being 
 had to that particular light which is cho- 
 sen as the principal light of the picture. 
 For if any one colour should be rendered 
 too bright for another, or for the general 
 colours employed in the rest of the com- 
 position, it will appear too glaring, seem 
 to start out of its place, and throw a flat- 
 ness and damp on the rest of the work : or, 
 as the painters express it, the brightness 
 of that colour will kill the rest. 
 
 Perspective machine is an' instrument by 
 w^hich any person, without the assistance 
 of the rules of art, may delineate the true 
 perspective figures of objects. Mr. Fergu- 
 son has described a machine of this kind, 
 the invention of which he attributes to 
 Dr. Bevis. 
 
 The term perspective is likewise used 
 for a sort of picture or painting frequently 
 seen in gardens and at the end of galleries; 
 and the object of which is to deceive the 
 eye by representing the continuation of an 
 alley, landscape, building, &c. 
 
 The number of works produced on the 
 subject of this article has been very great. 
 It will suffice, for our purpose, to cite the 
 most considerable and celebrated of them, 
 and, above all, those which treat of perspec- 
 tive relatively to art and artists. 
 
 In the Latin language we find : — Johan- 
 nis Cantuariensis, Perspectiva, Pisa, 1508, 
 folio ; an Italian translation of which with 
 notes was published, by Galucci, at Ve- 
 nice, 1593, folio. C. ViTTELLioNis, De 
 Natura, Ratione, et Projectione Radiorum 
 Visits, Luminum, Colorum, atque Formarum, 
 quam vulgo Perspectivam vacant, libri x. 
 Norimb. 1551, folio, with plates. Joa. Fr. 
 NiCERONi, Taumaturgus Opticus stndiosis- 
 simus Perspective, Paris, 1638, folio; a 
 French translation of this appeared also 
 at Paris, under the title of Perspective 
 Curieuse, 1663, folio. Guido Ubai,dus, 
 Perspectiva, 1600, folio. Perspectiva Ho- 
 raria, Auct. Em. Maignan, Rome, 1648. 
 . Andrea Putei, surnamed PoRZi, Perspec- 
 tiva Pictorum et Architectorum (Latin and 
 Italian), Rome, 1693-1700, 2 vols, folio, 
 with 226 engravings. This very useful 
 work has also appeared in Latin and Ger- 
 man, translated into the latter by J. Box- 
 BARTH and G. C. Bodenner, Augsburgh, 
 1706-9, folio. Strutt published, likewise, 
 an edition in Latin and English, London, 
 1693-1707, folio. Bernard Lamy's book 
 
PERSPKCTIVE. 
 
 appeared in 1 701 , in 8vo. and the ingenious 
 work of S'Gkavesanue, in 1711, in 8vo. 
 translated into English by Stonk, in 1724. 
 Ram. Rampinelli, Lectiones Optica, Brix. 
 1760, 4to. with 32 plates. 
 
 lu Italian: — Trattato di Prospettiva, di 
 Bern. Zenale da Trevigi, Milan, 1524, 
 folio. Prattka tlella Pronpeftimt, di M. 
 Dan Barbaro, Venice, 15.59, 1568, 1669, 
 folio, with plates — a very serviceable pub- 
 lication. Dispareri in 7nuteria d'Architet- 
 tura e di Prospettiva, Bresc. 1572, 4to. 
 Le Due Regole ddla Prospettiva prattica, 
 di Giac. Barozzi di Vignola, con i Com- 
 ment, del p. Egn. Danti, Rome, 1583, 
 1611, 1644, fol. Bol. 1682, folio, Venice, 
 1743, fol. La Prattica di Prospettiva, del 
 Car, Lor. Sirigati, Venice, 1596, 1626, 
 folio. Discorso intorno al Disef^no con gV 
 Inganni del Occhio, Prospett. Prat, di P. 
 Accoi.Ti, Firenza, 1625, folio. Prospettiva 
 Prattica, di Bern. Contino, Venice, 1645, 
 1684, folio, Paradossi per pratiear la Pro- 
 spettiva, senza saperla, da Giul. Troili, 
 Bol. 1672, 1683, folio. Nuova Prattica di 
 Prospettiva, da Paolo Amato, Pal. 1736, 
 folio. Trattato Teoretico Prattico di Pros- 
 pettiva, di Eust. Zanotti, Bol. 1766, 4to, 
 with engravings, Delia Geometric e Pros- 
 pettiva Prattica, di Bald, Orsini, Ronn., 
 1774, 3 vols. 12mo. 
 
 In Dutch: — Het Perspectiv Consfc van 
 John Friess Vredemann, London, 1559, 
 folio, Amst. 1633, 2 vols, folio. Marolois 
 has given a French translation of this 
 work, entitled La Perspective, contcnant 
 tant la TMorie que la Pratique, Amst. 1662, 
 fol. Ondei'wysinge in der Perspectiv Conste, 
 door Henr. Hondius, La Hague, 1622, 
 1647, fol. of which a Latin translation was 
 published at the same place, 1647, folio. 
 
 In French: — Livre de Perspective, par 
 J. Cousin, Paris, 1560, folio, I5S7, 4to. 
 Lemons de Perspective, i)ar Jacjues Andr(i 
 du Cerceau, Paris, 1576, folio. La Per- 
 spective avec la liaison des Oiuhrcs ct des 
 Miroirs, par Sal. De Caiix, Lomlon, 1612, 
 fol. La Perspective of Mattli. JtissE, in 
 Latin and French, Paris, 1635, fol. with r,5 
 plates. La Perspective Pratique, nfcessaire 
 it tons les Peinlns, (irarenrs, et .Ircliiteetes, 
 par iin Rcligieux de la Conij). de Jesus, 
 Paris, 1642, 4to. 1668, 4t6. and 1679, 4to. 
 3 vols. — Tii(>re have ai)pi!are(l two English 
 translrttions of this, one by I'riki:, 1672, 
 4to, — the otiier by Chamhers, 1726, folio; 
 and a Gcrnum translation by J. (', Kk.^i- 
 noi.n, Angs. 1710, 4 to. Mauii'rr Vniver- 
 nellc de (iriard l)i-:sARi;iii:s, jiour pruliquer 
 la I'erspcrtire par petit-pied comme ghnnd- 
 tral ; ensemble les Places et Proportions 
 des Jorlts el ftiihles Touches, Teintes, ou 
 
 Coulevrs, par Abr. Bosse, 1648, 2 vols, 
 with 202 engravings. This is one of the 
 most extensive and at the same time im- 
 portant of the works on perspective. It 
 occasioned a great many other writings on 
 the same subject, a detail of whicii will be 
 found in Lettres icrites au Siear Bosse, 8vo. 
 The same Abraham Bosse has also given 
 a work entitled, Traits des Pratiques G^o- 
 vietrales et Perspectives, Paris, 1665, 12mo. 
 with 70 engravings. Optique de Por- 
 traiture et de Peinture, par Fran(;ois Hu- 
 RET, Paris, 1675, fol. Traits de la Per- 
 spective oil sont contenus les Fondemens de la 
 Peinture, par le P. Bern. Lami, Paris, 1701, 
 12mo. Amst. 1734, 8vo. An English trans- 
 lation appeared at London in 1702, 12mo. 
 Perspective Pratique d'Architecture, par L, 
 Bretetz, Paris, 1706, 1746, 1752, folio. 
 Trait6 de la Perspective Pratique, avec des 
 Remarques sur I'Architecture, par le S, 
 Courtonne, Paris, 1710, 1725, folio. Per- 
 spective Tliiuriqueet Pratique, ])dr M. Oza- 
 NAM, Paris, 1711, 8vo. Traite de la Per- 
 spective ii I'usage des Artistes, par E. S. 
 Jealrat, Paris, 1750, 4to. with 1 U) en- 
 gravings. Essai sur la Perspective Pratique, 
 par Le Roy, I'aris, 1757, 12mo. liai- 
 sonnement sur la Perspective pour en faciliter 
 Vusagc aux Artistes, p:ir M. PirnTOT,Parma, 
 1758, fol. in French and Italian. Essai 
 sur la Perspective IJneaireet sur les Ombres, 
 par le Chevalier de Ci rel, Strasb. 1766, 
 8vo. Traitt de Perspective Lindaire, par 
 S. N. Michel, Paris, 1771, 8vo. La Per- 
 spective AMenne soumisc a des Principes 
 pnisi:s dans lu Nature, ou Nouveau Traiti 
 dn Clair-obscur et de Chromitique, a I'usage 
 des Artistes, par M. de St. Morien, Paris, 
 1789, 8vo. Elemens de Perspective Pra- 
 tique, d I'usage des Artistes, par Valen- 
 cienjnes, Paris, 4to, Lavit, Perspective 
 Linhtire. 
 
 In English: — Practical Perspective nvtde 
 Easy, by Mason, 1670, folio. Architectural 
 Perspective, by Peake, fol. Perspcctitie 
 made Eastj, by W. Hai.epennv, 1731, 4to. 
 Stereographij, or a Complete Ihuhj of Per- 
 spective, in all its liranches, by J. Hamil- 
 ton, London, 1738, 1749, fol, with 130 en- 
 gravings. Humphry Ditton's book, 1712, 
 folio. Tu-o Treatises, by Brook Taylor, 
 one in 1715, the other in 1719, Oakley's 
 magazine of Architecture, Perspective, and 
 Sculpture, 1730, folio. Perspective made 
 Easy in Theory and Practice, by J, KiRliY, 
 l.ontlon, 1755, 1768, 4to. I'erspeetire of 
 j4(v/(/<(r/«ir, deduced from the principles 
 of Brook Tavi.or, and performed by two 
 rules only of universal application, by the 
 same, London, 1755, 1761, 2 vols. Mio. 
 The Art »/ drawing in Perspretivr made 
 
PER 
 
 easy to those who have no previous Know- 
 ledge of Blathcmatics, by J. Ferguson, 
 Lond. 1755, 1778, 8vo. Practice of Per- 
 spective, by J. HiGHMORE, 1784, 4to. Theory 
 of Perspective in a Method entirely new, by 
 J. L. Cowi-EY, London, 1766, 2 vols. 4to. 
 Familiar Introduction to the Theory and 
 Practice of Perspective, by J. Priestley, 
 Lond. 1770, 8vo. The Elements of Linear 
 Perspective demonstrated by geometrical 
 Principles, by Edw. Noble, London, 1771, 
 8vo. A Cotnplete Treatise on Perspective, 
 ill Theory and Practice, on the Principles of 
 Dr. Brook Taylor, by T. Malton, Lond. 
 1776, folio. Wake's Cotnplete Body of Ar- 
 chitecture contains a Treatise on Perspective, 
 1760, fol. A thin 4to. without the author's 
 name, entitled A New Treatise on Perspec- 
 tive, founded on the simplest Principles, con- 
 taining universal Rules for Drawing the 
 Representation of any object on a vertical 
 Plane, 1810. The work of D. Cresswell, 
 A.M. 1811, 8vo. Milne, in his Elements 
 of Architecture, 1812, 4to., and Mr. Hay- 
 ter's work, 1813, 8vo. Besides the above 
 authors and treatises, are Martin, Muller, 
 and Emerson, all of whom have written 
 treatises in their mathematical courses. 
 
 Works on this subject, under the fol- 
 lowing denominations, have appeared in 
 the German language: — Of Perspective, as 
 it regards the Arts, 1509, fol. with 37 wood- 
 cuts. Gualt. Ilenr. Rivius, New Perspec- 
 tive; or. The True Foundation of the Arts 
 of Design, Nuremberg, 1547, fol. John 
 Lautensak, histructions on the Use of the 
 Compass and Rule, particularly in Perspec- 
 tive, Franckf. 1567, fol. Perspectivum 
 Corporum Regulurium, &;c. par Jamitzer, 
 Nuremberg, 1564, fol. Lud. Bruns, Prac- 
 tice of Perspective, &c. Leipsic, 1615, folio. 
 LENKAjtT, Treatise on Perspective, Augs. 
 1616, folio. Alberti, On Perspective and 
 Shading, Niirnb. 1623-7, fol. Schubler, 
 Instructions on Perspective, kc. Niirnb. 
 1719-20, 2 vols. fol. with 50 engravings. 
 Lucidum Prospectivce Speculum, by P. Hei- 
 NECKEN, Augs. 1727, fol. with 93 engrav- 
 ings. Ibid. 1753, fol. with 126 engravings. 
 Summary Instructions on Perspective, by 
 John Christopher Bischof, Halle, 1741, 
 8vo. Instructions on the Manner of tracing 
 all Elevations in Perspective, without having 
 regard to a Plan, by J. H. Lambert, Zu- 
 rich, 1759, 8vo. and 1774, 8vo. A French 
 translation appeared in 1759, 8vo. Plan- 
 ner of learning to draw by means of Geo- 
 metry and Perspective, by Werner, Erfort, 
 1764, 8vo. Detailed Instructions on Per- 
 spective, after an easy and clear Method, by 
 C. Phil. Jacobz, Amst. 1767, 8vo. with 60 
 plates. Treatise on Perspective, by Luc. 
 Vocii, Augs. 1780, 8vo. Elements of Per- 
 
 PET 
 
 spective for the use of Painters, by Bukja, 
 Berlin, 1793, 8vo. 
 
 The reader may also turn with advan- 
 tage to Lemons de Perspective, par L. Le 
 BiCHEUR. Ludovico CiGOLi,On Perspective. 
 Perspectiva Practica, by Franc. De Bredil. 
 The work of Albert Dlrer on The Propor- 
 tions of the Human Body, Niirnberg, 1528, 
 fol. The second book of the Architcttura of 
 Seb. Serlio, Paris, 1545, fol. The fifth 
 book of Traituto delV Arte della Pittura, of 
 LoMAZZO, Milan, 1585, 4to. Museo Pitto- 
 rico, by Velasco, Madrid, 1715, fol. Re- 
 marques sur les Tableaux en jen d'Optique, 
 in the French Mercury for the year 1763 : 
 and indeed observations on the subjectinay 
 be found in almost all those works the 
 object of which is to convey instructions 
 on the art of Drawing, of Painting, or of 
 Architecture. See those words. 
 
 Peter and Paul. [/« painting^ Such is 
 called the portrait which Nicephorus has 
 left us of these two great pillars of the 
 primeval Cliristian church. St. Peter is 
 represented as having a Avell proportioned 
 figure, a complexion very pale, indeed 
 almost white ; the hair and beard frizzled 
 and short; the eyes spotted with blood; 
 the eyebrows arched; the nose long, not 
 however pointed, but a little flattened at 
 the extremity. 
 
 St. Paul is depicted as short and little, 
 and even a trifle crooked. The forepart 
 of his head is bald; the eyebrows low; 
 the eyes sharp and sparkling ; the nose 
 bent back ; the beard bushy, gray like the 
 hair, and tolerably long. It would not be 
 judicious to place too much confidence in 
 the fidclitj' of these details, which are to 
 be found only in Nicephorus's picture, and 
 differ in some respects from descriptions 
 in works both ancient and modern. Ne- 
 vertheless, the traditional account of these 
 holy personages was no doubt attended 
 to by the artist, and we think some stress 
 may fairly be laid on the truth of the 
 representation, which it is certainly in- 
 teresting to become acquainted with. 
 
 On those ancient monuments which re- 
 main to us we find St. Peter and St. Paul 
 often clothed with a kind of mantle closed 
 at the breast with a clasp, adorned by a 
 gem, or something bearing that shape, and 
 occasionally itself covered with a tunic 
 having long and wide sleeves. Upon all 
 the relics published by Buonarroti in his 
 Osservazioni sopra Framm. di Vetro (pi. 10 
 ■ — 16) and by Boldetti in his Osservazioni 
 sopra i Cimiteri (liv. 1, chap, xxxix.), the 
 two apostles are found by the side of each 
 other ; and there is often seen near them 
 a crown (the attribute of martjrdom) and 
 a monogram of Christ. 
 
FUA 
 
 In Bolilttti (pi. 200, No. 14), St. Peter 
 13 represented under the figure of Moses, 
 in the attitude of striking the stone or 
 rock with his wand. 
 
 Phalang.*. [Gr. ^aXay?, from -dXXw, to 
 strike or revolve.] In arcliaiologi/. This, 
 together with Sciitnlce, \\a.s the name given 
 by Vitruvius, to rollers, or wooden cylinders 
 which served to transport from one place 
 to another immense burdens, occasionally 
 even ships or large barges. 
 
 Phaix)S. [Gr. <pn\6g, bright, from (paw, to 
 shine.] In archaiology. One of the terms 
 applied to the ornaments placed at the 
 summit of the casque of ancient warriors, 
 which at the same time served to inspire 
 the breast of the enemy with terror. The 
 crest by which the casque was surmounted 
 bore sometimes the mane of a horse flow- 
 ing between two great horns or two fea- 
 thers. Thus is the casque of Miner\a 
 adorned upon a beautiful vase represent- 
 ing the expiation of Orestes, and published 
 by Millin in the first vol. of his Monumens 
 Inidits ; and another, exactly similar, ap- 
 pears upon one of the lapithcp, who is com- 
 bating a centaur on a vase in the first vol. 
 of the collection of Hamilton published 
 by Tischbein. The Latin words cr-ista and 
 juba, and the Greek \o(poc, have been ap- 
 plied to ornaments of this description. 
 
 Phaijxs. [Gr. <^aX\6c.] In archaiologij. 
 Simulachrum tigneinn membri virilis. The 
 institution of the phallus originated thus. 
 After the murder of Osiris, Isis was unable 
 to recover, amongst the other fragments of 
 his body, the privities of her husband; as 
 therefore she liad determined to pay all 
 possible respect to his remains, she distin- 
 guished that part which was lost with more 
 than usual honour and attention. Its repre- 
 sentation was formed in wood, and borne 
 with solemnity during the sacred festivals 
 which were instituted in nu:mory of Osiris. 
 The ancients held it in the greatest vene- 
 ration, and never were known to mix up 
 therewith any impure or lascivious tliougiit 
 or allusion. It was regarded simply as 
 tlie emblem of fecundity, and tiiese festi- 
 vals were adopted from the F.gyptians by 
 the Greeks, and introduced into Europe 
 by tlie Atiienians,who made tlie procession 
 of the pluiUiis, part of the celebration of the 
 Dionysia of the god of wine. Tlicy who 
 carried the j)hallus, at the extremity of a 
 long pole, were denominated phallophori. 
 They generally appeared among the 
 Greeks besmeared witli llie dregs of 
 wine, covered with skins of lambs, and 
 wearing on their heads an ivy crown. 
 Plul.de Isid.et Osir.— Paus. l,c. 2.— Lu- 
 cian de Deft Syr. 
 
 PH A 
 
 Among the Hindoos, a similar emblem 
 called lingam is used at this day, and with 
 similar reverence. 
 
 Pharos. [Gr. ipwc, light, and bpau), to 
 see.] In archaiology. A lighthouse or 
 pile constructed either of masonry or wood 
 work and erected near the entrance of a 
 seaport or on any dangerous spot, to serve, 
 from the fire constantly kept burning there- 
 in through the night, as a guide and warn- 
 ing to vessels in the vicinilr. 
 
 This name was derived from the exist- 
 ence of a most celebrated lighthouse, once 
 reckoned even amongst the wonders of the 
 world, and which was built by order of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus on the island so call- 
 ed, adjoining to the continent of Europe 
 over against Alexandria. It was a cognomi- 
 nal tower of four sides, each side a stadium 
 in length, and was so high as to be visible 
 a hundred miles ofl^. It has been aflirmed 
 that each of its four corners rested on a 
 sea-crab of glass, or of hard transparent 
 stone of ^Ethiopia or Memphis. Others 
 imagine, with greater probability, that the 
 crabs were only added externally to the 
 base by way of ornament, or as emblema- 
 tical of its situation and use. Sostrates 
 the Cnidian was, according to an inscrip- 
 tion on the tower, the architect employed 
 to erect it by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who 
 is said to have expended eight hundred 
 talents in the work. This most magnifi- 
 cent tower consisted of several stories and 
 galleries, with a lantern at top, in which 
 a light being continually burning might be 
 seen for many leagues at sea and along the 
 coast. The several stories were adorned 
 with columns, balustrades, galleries of the 
 finest marble and workmanship; to which 
 some ancient writers add, that the archi- 
 tect hail contrived to fasten some looking- 
 glasses so dexterously along the highest 
 galleries, that all the ships which were 
 sailing on the sea, including a cCnsider- 
 able distance, might be descried tlierein. 
 
 If we may credit Arabian authors, this 
 edifice was originally a thousand cubits 
 high. The commotions occasioned by 
 earthquakes reduced it to less than four 
 hundred cubits (about six hundred and 
 sixty feet). The Grecian kings who suc- 
 ceeded Alexander in ^gypt. at dillerent 
 tinu'S repaired it. Nothing however now 
 renuiins of this once splendid structure, 
 tlie traveller only finding, instead, a kind 
 of irregular castle, witliout ditches, or out- 
 works of any strength ; and out of the 
 middle of this clumsy building rises a 
 tower which serves for a lightliouse, but 
 retains not one vestige of tiie beauty and 
 grandeur of the old one. 
 
PHI 
 
 The colossus of Rhodes also served as 
 a pharos. See Lighthouse. 
 
 Phatnomata. [Gr. (paTvwfiara.'] In ar- 
 chaiology. Name applied by the Greeks 
 to arched or vaulted cielings. 
 
 Phengites. [Gr. (i>ikroQ, brightness.] In 
 architecture, statuary, &c. This firm and 
 brilliant marble was discovered in Cappa- 
 docia in the age of Nero, and is still to be 
 found there : there are also specimens to 
 be met with both in Gei'many and France ; 
 and, among ourselves, in Derbyshire and 
 some other counties. According to Pliny, 
 one of its properties, namely, transparence, 
 caused it to be frequently used among the 
 ancients in the construction of windows. 
 It bears the semblance of a rude irregular 
 mass, very shattery and friable, but of a 
 brightness excelling that of most other 
 marbles, and perfectly surpassing them in 
 the quality before alluded to. The colour 
 is a rich somewhat yellowish white, or 
 pale straw colour ; the yellowness is more 
 deeply marked in some places than others, 
 producing a kind of cloudy or in some in- 
 stances veiny appearance. It is extremely 
 weak and brittle in the mass; and when 
 broken into small pieces, may be readily 
 crumbled between the fingers into loose 
 flakes of an angular appearance, some per- 
 fectly so, others complex, irregular, or mu- 
 tilated, and all making approaches to a 
 flat shape. 
 
 The ancients were extremely attached 
 to the use of this species of marble in their 
 public buildings. It was employed in the 
 construction of Nero's golden house; and 
 the temple of Fortune, so long and so 
 justly celebrated, was entirely built of it. 
 Its distinguishing beauty is unquestionably 
 its transparency ; from which alone this 
 temple was quite light when the doors 
 were shut, although it was built without a 
 window and had no other light than was 
 transmitted through the stone its walls 
 were built with. Domitian, who, towards 
 the end of his life, became extremely sus- 
 picious and mistrustful of all about him, 
 had a porch or portico, in which he was in 
 the constant habit of promenading, en- 
 closed with phengites, in order that he 
 ^ might be enabled to perceive whatever 
 was passing withoutside. Pliny says that 
 it' was customary likewise to construct 
 bee-hives of this material for the purpose 
 of overlooking the work of the bees. 
 
 Philosophers, [id quod Philosophy.'] In 
 sculpture, &c. This name is given some- 
 times to the statues or busts of ancient 
 philosophers which are distinguished by 
 having no other vestment than a mantle 
 without tunic, while the chest remains un- 
 
 PH(E 
 
 covered. The busts of Zcno, of Emarchus, 
 and of Epicurus, found at Herculaneum, 
 and engraved in the first vol. of Bronzes, 
 will afford us an idea of the manner in 
 which they were depicted. 
 
 PHU.OSOPHY. IcpiKog or <pi\ia, desire or 
 study, aocfua, wisdom, Gr.] In allegorical 
 painting and sculpture. See Moral Phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 Phocicum. In architecture. Name of 
 an edifice in which were held assemblies 
 of the deputies from all the Phoca^an towns. 
 It was situated near the city of Daulis in 
 Phocis. Pausanias gives a description of 
 this building in the .5th chapter of his 10th 
 book. It was a vast structure, the two long 
 sides of which were ornamented interiorly 
 with porticoes, which served to support 
 the roof as well as to embellish the build- 
 ing. Under these porticoes were benches 
 elevated a little above the level of the 
 floor, and destined for the accommodation 
 of the deputies. The side immediately 
 fronting the entrance was adorned with 
 statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva ; 
 the former seated on his throne, the two 
 latter each on one side him. 
 
 PiKENiciANS. [Gr. either from Phoenix, 
 one of their kings, or from 0oTvi$, a palm- 
 tree.] In the history of the arts. The Phoe- 
 nicians were one of the most politic and 
 most industrious of the nations of antiquity. 
 We know that almost all the arts flourish- 
 ed among them, as may be evidenced by 
 the celebrity of Tyre and Sidon, two of 
 their cities. The glass of Sidon, the pur- 
 ple of Tyre, and the exceeding fine linen 
 they wove, were the productsof their own 
 country and their own invention ; and for 
 their extraordinary skill in working me- 
 tals, as well as in hewing timber and stone 
 — in a word, for their thorough knowledge 
 of what was solid, great, and ornamental 
 in architecture — we need only put the 
 reader in mind of the large share they had 
 in erecting the temple of Jerusalem under 
 their king Hiram. Their fame indeed for 
 taste, design, and ingenious invention was 
 such, that whatever was elegant, great, or 
 pleasing, whether in apparel, vessels, or 
 toys, was distinguished, by way of excel- 
 lence, with the epithet of Sidonian. 
 
 Carthage was another of their principal 
 cities, the temples of which were enriched 
 with statues of gold, as was the case with 
 that of Apollo. Titus Livius makes men- 
 tion of a shield of solid silver weighing 
 one hundred and thirty pounds, on which 
 was wrought the portrait of Asdrubal, the 
 brother of Hannibal. The Carthaginians, 
 Phoenicians by origin, were often domes- 
 ticated at Rome for the purpose of exe- 
 
IMI R 
 
 cnting for the Romans various ingenious 
 performances in ^voo(l. 
 
 Pn(KM(i.vN Architecture. See Ar- 
 chitecture. 
 
 PiiOvMX. [id quod Phanicitnis.] In em- 
 blematical paintiug; and sculpture. A bird 
 famous in antiquity, but generally consi- 
 dered by the moderns as being fabulous. 
 The ancients speak of tliis bird as unique, 
 and their artists represent it as of the size 
 of an eagle, its head tiuely crested with a 
 beautiful plumage, its neck covered with 
 feathers of a golden colour, and the rest 
 of it purple, witli the exception of the tail, 
 which is wliitc. The eyes are extremely 
 sparkling, like stars. The tradition is, 
 that it lives five hundred or six hundred 
 years in the wilderness ; and Avhen thus 
 advanced in age, builds itself a pile of 
 sweet wood and aromatic gums, and firing 
 it witli the wafting of its wings, thus de- 
 stroys itself; while from its a;,hes arises 
 a worm which, in time, grows up to be 
 a phoenix. Hence, perhaps, the word 
 ^olt^iK, has been applied to the palm tree, 
 inasmuch as, when burnt down to the root, 
 it rises again fairer than ever. 
 
 In the sixth book of the Annals of Taci- 
 tus (sect. 28), it is stated, that in the year 
 787 of Rome, the phoenix revisited Egypt, 
 which created much speculation among 
 the learned. The accounts of the longe- 
 vity of this creature vary from five hundred 
 to one thousand five hundred years. It 
 was considered as sacred to t!ie sun. 
 
 Tradition has assigned the several eras 
 at which the piicenix appeared. The first, 
 it informs us, was in the reign of Sesos- 
 tris ; the second in that of Amasis ; and 
 the third at that period when Ptolemy 
 (the third of the Macedonian race) was 
 seated on the throne of Egypt. When to 
 these circumstances are added the I)ril- 
 liant appearance of the phcx^nix, and the 
 tale that it makes frequent excursions 
 with a load on its back, and that when, by 
 having made the experiment through a 
 long tract of air, gaining suHicient confi- 
 dence; in its own vigour, it flies with the 
 body of its progenitor fo the altar of the 
 sun, in order that it maybe (here consiMiied, 
 some key will be alforded to the frtM|uent 
 use made by artists of this curious subject, 
 as also to the idea which has bet n put 
 I'oith by antiquarians, that the sages of 
 Egypt envelojK^d under this allegory the 
 philoso])hy of conu'ts. 
 
 I'liHVCioiiioN. [(»r. ({nwKTiopioi'y a lire- 
 bniiid to mark (he arrival of an enemy, 
 from ^'joeyoj, fo fry.] hi (urhdiolof;'!/. Name 
 of those towers upon wliich wcri; statiimed 
 Rentinels among the Greeks to give notice 
 
 P H 11 
 
 of the approach of an hostile force by 
 means of fire and flame. They had also 
 an instrument employed in the theatres 
 similarly denominated and applied to the 
 same purpose. 
 
 Phrygia. [Gr. $p(oyioc, parched, or 
 rather perhaps corrupted from Brygiuni, 
 the name of a country in Macedonia, 
 whose inhabitants migrating to another 
 place, gave its name to their new settle- 
 ment.] In ancient costume. This people 
 were in the habit of wearing a peculiar 
 kind of bonnet or cap, which distinguished 
 them from other barbarous nations. Tliis 
 cap, with which Paris and the Trojans 
 were generally invested, was conical, and 
 its point fell forward on the summit of the 
 head. The Phrygian bonnet is a well 
 known term, and it is presented to artists 
 on several antique monuments. The beau- 
 tiful statue of Paris, in the Louvre, is al- 
 together equipped in the Phrygian man- 
 ner, and wears this particular kind of cap. 
 It appears that they wore the tunic w ith 
 long sleeves, and even the pallium. A 
 casque of leather furnislied with a tuft of 
 plaited hair, small shields, pikes of ordi- 
 nary length, darts, and poniards, seem to 
 have formed, according to Herodotus, the 
 armour of the Phrygians. 
 
 Phrygian Marble, called likewise 
 Synuadique, was either white or red. The 
 latter of these names was adopted from 
 the town of Synnas, in Phrygia. They 
 extracted at first only small blocks of this 
 species of marble ; but in tiie time of 
 Strabo the Romans drew forth entire 
 columns, which, being carried towards 
 the sea, were transported in ships. Pliny 
 cites the basilica of I'aulus among the 
 most beautiful of structures, and it was 
 remarkable for its column of marble from 
 Phrygia. According to the testimony of 
 Sidouius Apollodorus this nmrble \\as 
 white; while Claudian describes it as 
 having red spots of a round or oval shape. 
 Statins confirms this, and in a mythologi- 
 cal \ein attributes the sanguine spots to 
 the blood of the wretched Atys. The l>,>- 
 fi/ncHWH marble, so called from Docimium, 
 a l*hrygian town, was also white and 
 red. 
 
 Phuycian Stone. A substance de- 
 scribed by the ancients, and emi)loyed by 
 tliem in the process of dyeing ; perhaps 
 from some vitriolic aluminous salt con- 
 tained therein, which served to enliNcn lu- 
 lix the colours used by the dyers. It was 
 light and spongy, resembling a pumice- 
 stone; and the whitest and lightest kinds 
 were esteemed most highly. Pliny Ri\e3 
 an account of the method of preparing it. 
 
P [1 Y 
 
 Physiognomy, [(/luo-ic, nature, and yn-oj- 
 <T(cw, to know.] In painting; and sculpture. 
 The ancients appear to have believed that 
 the faculty of judging the characters of 
 men from the conformation of their fea- 
 ture was capable of being reduced into 
 an actual science. The formation of the 
 forehead, the nose, the mouth, the greater 
 or less distention of the eyes and eye- 
 brows, even the disposition of the hair, 
 have all been held indicative, in a greater 
 or less degree, of the constitutional ten- 
 dencies of the individual. We have al- 
 ready, in the article Passions (which word 
 see), made some observations on the dif- 
 ferent effects of circumstance and feeling 
 on the " human face divine." But those 
 characteristic expressions were, as their 
 causes, transitory and fleeting ; whereas 
 those we now consider are fixed and in- 
 delible. It will appear obvious, however, 
 that those features which are insusceptible 
 of modulation must be the least important 
 in physiognomy ; although the followers 
 of the art tell us that all the parts enume- 
 rated above are equally definite in mark- 
 ing character. Lavater's well known 
 work is very explicit on this subject ; and 
 a careful perusal of it cannot fail to be 
 advantageous to the artist ; for notwith- 
 standing the probable deficiencies of and 
 exceptions to this science, it is desirable 
 that he should invest the personages whom 
 he introduces into his composition with 
 that cast and expression of features most 
 generally tallying with their received cha- 
 racters. Thus, in real life, a man, very pos- 
 sibly, may have lowering eyebrows and a 
 frank heart ; but a painter will not, never- 
 theless, give half-closed eyes to a figure in 
 which he means to exhibit a person of a 
 frank disposition. An elongated face, ap- 
 proaching to the formation of a sheep's 
 head, infallibly communicates a stupid air 
 to the countenance : — such a face may, 
 perchance, belong to a man of wit, but the 
 painter wull take care, in representing 
 such a one, religiously to avoid such a pe- 
 culiarity. We know perfectly well that 
 there have been many heroes (and, at least, 
 one great hero now living), the contour of 
 whose features is mean and unintellec- 
 tual ; yet the painter would be justly re- 
 prehensible if he should give such a 
 shabby expression to the face of his hero, 
 unless, indeed, he were making a portrait. 
 No artist more profoundly studied, or more 
 thoroughly understood, variety of expres- 
 sion, than Raffaelle. 
 
 The aid of Lavater is not necessary to 
 inform us that there exists a national phy- 
 siognomy by M'hich a stranger in any given 
 
 PIC 
 
 country may be known bj those who arc not 
 possessed of previous information to be a 
 Spaniard, a German, or a Frenchman, and 
 which impels even the vulgar to exclaim 
 — " He is a foreigner," tliough their skill 
 does not avail to appropriate him to his 
 country. 
 
 The most unequivocal proofs exist of 
 family physiognomy, or, in other words, 
 family resemblance. Buflbn, Boimet, Hal- 
 ler, and many others, have endeavoured 
 to account for this circumstance, but, as 
 may be supposed, without any very de- 
 cided success. After all, it must be con- 
 fessed, that this science (if such it can 
 fairly be denominated) must be precari- 
 ous, and in some respects delusive. It 
 cannot, however, be doubted, that there is 
 an apparent correspondence between the 
 face and the mind : the features and line- 
 aments of the one are directed by the mo- 
 tions and affections of the other : — there 
 is, perhaps, even a peculiar arrangement 
 of the members of the face, and a peculiar 
 disposition of the countenance, to each 
 particular affection of the mind. 
 
 Jacques Spon has published a disserta- 
 tion, in French, on the physiognomy of 
 the different Roman emperors. It is enti- 
 tled, Dissertation de V Utility des Medailles 
 pour Vitude de la Physionomie ; which 
 Heusinger has reprinted at the 231st and 
 following pages of his edition of the Cae- 
 sars of Julian ; and there is also a Latin 
 translation of the same. The most consi- 
 derable and the most interesting work on 
 the subject of physiognomy is, without 
 doubt, that of the celebrated Lavater, 
 already alluded to. 
 
 Physiognotrace. [id quod physiognomy 
 and the word trace.^ Name given by M. 
 Chretien to a species of pantograph which 
 he placed vertically, and by means of 
 which he took, in the short period of two 
 minutes, a portrait after nature of the 
 most infallible description. This portrait 
 might afterwards be reduced, by means of 
 the horizontal pantograph, and engraved 
 of any size that was preferred. 
 
 Piazza. [Italian.] In architecture. A , 
 continued archway, or vaulting, supported 
 by pillars, under which to promenade. 
 
 Picturesque. [Lat. pictura, from pingo, 
 to paint.] " Picturesque beauty," says a 
 late writer on that subject, " refers to such 
 beautiful objects as are suited to the pen- 
 cil." This term, although principally ap- 
 propriated to the works of nature, is not 
 misplaced with reference to many of the 
 performances of art. Those objects best 
 merit the appellation (of the former class) 
 which are distributed by the hand of na- 
 
PICTURESQUE 
 
 ture with a mixture of grandeur, simpli- 
 city, and varied rudeness. A neat ordi- 
 nary' looking garden, for instance, although 
 a cheerful and agreeable object, abstract- 
 edly considered, yet displays too great a 
 proportion of uniformity, of laying out, of 
 design, to be fairly characterized as pic- 
 turesque. " The ideas of neat and smooth," 
 observes Mr. Gilpin, •' instead of being 
 picturesque, in fact, disqualify the object 
 in which they reside from any pretensions 
 to picturesque beauty. Nay, farther, we 
 do not scruple to assert that rougliness 
 forms the most essential point of differ- 
 ence between the beautiful and the pic- 
 turesque : as it appears to be that parti- 
 cular quality which makes objects chiefly 
 pleasing in painting. I use the general 
 term roughness; but, properly speaking, 
 roughness relates only to the surface of 
 bodies ; when we speak of their delinea- 
 tion we use the term ruggedness. Both 
 ideas, however, equally enter into the pic- 
 turesque, and both are observable in the 
 smaller as well as in the larger parts of 
 nature ; in the outline and bark of a tree, 
 as in the rude summit and craggy sides of 
 a mountain. 
 
 " Let us then examine our theory by an 
 appeal to experience, and try how far 
 these qualities enter into the idea of pic- 
 turesque beauty, and how far they mark 
 that difference among objects which is the 
 ground of our inquiry. 
 
 " A piece of Palladian architecture may 
 be elegant in the last degree ; tlie propor- 
 tion of its parts, the propriety of its orna- 
 ments, and the symmetry of the whole, 
 may be highly pleasing : but if we intro- 
 duce it into a picture, it immediately be- 
 comes a formal object, and ceases to please. 
 Should we wish to give it picturesque 
 beauty, we must use the mallet instead of 
 the chisel : we must beat down one half 
 of it, deface the other, and throw the mu- 
 tilated members around in heaps; in short, 
 from a smooth building we must turn it 
 into a rough ruin. No painter wjio hud the 
 choice of the two objects would hesitate a 
 moment. 
 
 " Again, wiiy does an elegant piece of 
 garden ground make no figure on canvass ? 
 — The sliape is pleasing, the combination 
 of the objects harmonious, and tlu! wind- 
 ing of the walk in tiic very line of beauty. 
 All this is true ; but the smoothness of the 
 whole, though right and as it should be in 
 nature, offends in jiielure. Turn tlie lawn 
 intoa pieceori)roken ground, plant rugged 
 oaks instead of flowering shrubs, break 
 the edges of the walk, give it the rudeness 
 of .1 road, mark it with wheel tracks, and 
 
 scatter around a few stones and brush- 
 wood ; in a word, instead of making the 
 whole smooth, make it rough, and you 
 make it also picturesque. All the other 
 ingredients of beauty it already pos- 
 sessed." 
 
 Picturesque composition may be defined, 
 to speak generally, as the art of uniting, 
 in one whole, a variety of parts, which 
 parts may be sought and found among the 
 works of art (though in a far less propor- 
 tion), as well as in the works of nature. 
 Objects may likewise be made picturesque : 
 this, however, is hazardous work, and 
 there is no small danger of missing the 
 picturesque and falling into the ridicu- 
 lous. Artificial ruins, for example, can 
 seldom be regarded as matters of good 
 taste : and when the trick is known, the 
 eye, or rather the imagination, through the 
 medium of the eye, refuses to recognise 
 therein any of the principles of romantic 
 beauty sought to be imparted. The great 
 source of picturesque beauty is Nature in 
 all her original variety and irregular gran- 
 deur. " We seek it," says the ingenious 
 authority quoted above, " among all the 
 ingredients of landscape, — trees, rocks, 
 broken grounds, woods, rivers, lakes, 
 plains, valleys, mountains, and distances. 
 These objects, in themselves, produce infi- 
 nite variety ; no two rocks or trees are 
 exactly the same ; they are varied a second 
 time by combination ; and almost as much 
 a third time by (lifferent lights and shades, 
 and other aerial effects. Sometimes we 
 find among them the exhibition of a whole, 
 but oftener we find only beautiful parts." 
 
 Grandeur or sublimity, unassisted, can- 
 not elevate an olyect to tlie character of 
 picturesque ; however grand tiie mountain 
 or rock may be, it has no claim to this 
 epithet, unless its form, its colour, or its 
 accompaniments have some degree of 
 beauty. Nothing can be more sublime 
 than the ocean ; but, wholly unaccompa- 
 nied, it has little of the jiicturesque. 
 When we talk, therefore, of a sublime ob- 
 ject, we always understand that it is also 
 beautiful ; and we call it sublime or beau- 
 tiful only as tlie ideas of sublimity <m' sini- 
 l)ie beauty prevail. Hut it is not only the 
 form and the composition of the objects of 
 landscape which the |iicfures<iue ey»' exa- 
 mines : it connects them witii the atnu)s- 
 l>here ; and seeks for all those various 
 ellects which are produced frtmi that vast 
 and wonderful storehouse of nature. Nor 
 is there, in tra\elling, a greater pleasure, 
 than when a scene of grandeur bursts un- 
 expectedly on the eye acccmipanied with 
 some accidental circumstance of the af- 
 
PIE 
 
 mospliere which harmonizes with it and 
 gives it double value. 
 
 Few are tlie places so barren and desti- 
 tute as to afford nothing from wJiich mate- 
 rials may be extracted by the lover of the 
 picturesque. 
 
 Believe the Miisc, 
 
 She does not know that inaiispicious spot 
 Where beauty is thus niggard of her store : 
 Believe the Muse, througli this terrestrial waste 
 The seeds of grace are sown, profusely sown, 
 Even where we least may hope. 
 
 The great military road between Carlisle 
 and Newcastle is, perhaps, the most bar- 
 ren tract of country in England : yet even 
 here, says Gilpin, " there is always some- 
 thing to amuse the eye. The interchange- 
 able patches of heath and greensward 
 make an agreeable variety. Often, too, 
 on these vast tracts of intersecting grounds, 
 we see beautiful lights softening oft" along 
 the sides of hills ; and often we see them 
 adorned with cattle, flocks of sheep, heath- 
 cocks, grouse, plover, and flights of other 
 wild fowl. A group of cattle standing in 
 the shade on the edge of a dark hill, and 
 relieved by a lighter distance beyond them, 
 will often make a complete picture, with- 
 out any other accompaniment. In many 
 other situations, also, we find them won- 
 derfully pleasing, and capable of making 
 pictures amidst all the deficiencies of land- 
 scape. Even a winding road itself is an 
 object of beauty ; while the richness of 
 the heath on either side, with the little 
 hillocks and crumbling earth, give many 
 an excellent lesson for a foreground. 
 When we have no opportunity of examin- 
 ing the grand scenery of nature, we have, 
 at least, every where the means of observ- 
 ing with what a multiplicity of parts, and 
 yet with what a general simplicity, she co- 
 vers every surface. 
 
 " But if we let the imagination loose, 
 even scenes like these administer great 
 amusement. The imagination can plant 
 hills, can form rivers and lakes in valleys, 
 can build castles and abbeys, and, if it find 
 no other amusement, can dilate itself in 
 vast ideas of space." 
 
 Pier, [pierre, stone, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. A mass of stone, &c. opposed, by 
 way of fortress, to the force of the sea, or 
 a great river, for the security of ships that 
 lie at anchor in any haven. 
 
 Piers of a Bridge. See Bridge. 
 
 Piety. [Lat. pieias.] In allegorical paint- 
 ing and sculpture. Pietas, as the goddess 
 of devotion, is represented as veiled, and 
 casting incense on an altar. The Romans, 
 in their solemn devotions, covered their 
 
 PIG 
 
 heads with a long veil. — Ovid, Fast. 1. iii. 
 v. 3C4. Lucr. v. v. 1198. — The vestal vir- 
 gins were, therefore, always veiled. 
 
 The poets speak of the severe face and 
 modest air of this goddess, describing her 
 as dressed in white, the colour of inno- 
 cence, and therefore most proper for devo- 
 tion. She is also represented as jjroduc- 
 tive 01 the good and virtuous offices of 
 life. Thus, instead of an altar, she has 
 sometimes the attribute of a stork ; and 
 then signifies the duty of children towards 
 their parents, or the afi'ectionate behaviour 
 of parents to their children. There are 
 figures of her with one, two, and sometimes 
 three children before her, like our figures 
 of Charity. 
 
 Pigeon. [Fr.] In emblematical painting 
 and sculpture. The ancient Assyrians are 
 said to have considered the pigeon as 
 the symbol of their country, and to have 
 persisted in refusing to eat it, suffering 
 these birds to go at large in flocks, and 
 having the representation of them wrought 
 upon their garments. 
 
 Of all birds the pigeon is the one most 
 frequently found depicted upon ancient 
 ecclesiastical monuments. There is one 
 sublime allegory which this practice may 
 be intended to shadow forth, to which we 
 will do no more in this place than allude: 
 but the pigeon, or dove, was likewise, 
 among the primitive Christians, a symbol 
 of martyi'dom, and is thus meant when 
 found upon their tombs bearing in its beak 
 a crown or palm-garland. It was some- 
 times, when represented on the wing, un- 
 derstood to typify the escape of the soul 
 from the body ; and has at all times been 
 regarded as emblematical of repose and 
 peace. 
 
 The reader may consult Boldetti, who 
 has, on this subject, published, in his Os- 
 scrvazioni sopra i Cimeteri, several antique 
 monuments. Buonarroti reports that, in 
 the first ages of the church, they preserved 
 the eucharistic bread in a vase shaped 
 like a dove ; and that the same form was 
 likewise given to the lamps burnt on cer- 
 tain occasions upon the tombs of the 
 saints. 
 
 Pigment, [pigmentum, Lat.] In paint- 
 ing. Preparations used by painters to im- 
 part colour to bodies, or to imitate parti- 
 cular colours. (See Painting.) They are 
 extracted from animal, vegetable, or mi- 
 neral substances. 
 
 Pigmy. [Gr. TruyjtiaToc, from izvypy), a 
 cubit.] In the mythologi) of art. A little 
 nation of Ethiopia fabled to have been de- 
 voured by the cranes (see Crane); and 
 
 Q Q 
 
PIL 
 
 thence any thing of mean or inconsidera- 
 ble dimensions haB been denominated 
 pigmy. 
 
 PiLA. [Lat. from TrtXw, Gr. compressed 
 wool.] In archaiologij. A little image of 
 a man made of wool, and sacrificed by the 
 ancients to the household gods, or /ares, in 
 the fetes instituted in honour of those in- 
 ferior deities by Servius, and styled compi- 
 talcs. Macrobius states that actual infants 
 were originally oU'ered up for this pur- 
 pose ; but on the expulsion of the kings 
 from Rome that barbarous custom was 
 abolished, and Ihepila substituted in place 
 of the child. 
 
 This appellation was likewise given to 
 a figure made of straw, which they pre- 
 sented to the bulls in the amphitheatre for 
 the purpose of exciting them ; as also to a 
 species of standard upon which were re- 
 presented several shields piled upon one 
 another. Titus Livius calls the pillar in 
 the forum, from which Horace had sus- 
 pended the spoils of the Curiatii, Fila Ho- 
 ratia. 
 
 Pilaster, [jnlastre, Fr.] In architec- 
 ture. A square pillar or column, usually 
 placed against a wall, and projecting not 
 more than one-fifth or one-sixth of its 
 thickness. It has the same proportions 
 and ornaments as a column, varying ac- 
 cording to the different orders of architec- 
 ture, but no diminution. The pilasters in 
 a building should be of the same order as 
 the columns, if any of the latter are used. 
 
 It would be incorrect to attribute the 
 invention of pilasters to mesre imitation 
 of the column, inasmuch as the motive for 
 their use is chiefly to give strength to 
 the building, and the desire to render 
 these props ornamentiil occasioned the 
 ancient architects to apply to them the 
 graces of adornment and proportion. See 
 Al'I^\, Aiuhitectuhk. 
 
 I'lLE. [Gr. TTiXoio, to press or squeeze, 
 in allusion to the diU'erent pieces of stone 
 wedged together ; pijle, Dutch.] In arclii- 
 lecture. Generally sjieaking, any mass of 
 building. A large stake rammed into the 
 ground at the bottom of rivers, or in marshy 
 land, as a foundation to build on. 
 
 I'ile luifiiitf, a very curious machine, in- 
 vented by Mr. Vauloue, for driving the 
 jjilos of Westminster Bridge. A new ma- 
 chine for similar purposes has been in- 
 vented by Mr. S. llunce. It ^vill <lrivo a 
 greater nunilier of piles than any jjrevi- 
 ously used, and can be constructed to 
 work more simply by horses than Ihe for- 
 mer one mentioned. 
 
 The I'uncral Pile, among the Greeks 
 
 PIL 
 
 and Romans, was a pyramid built of wood, 
 whereon were laid the bodies of the de- 
 ceased, to be burnt. It was partly in the 
 shape of an altar, and differed in height 
 according to the rank of the party destined 
 to be consumed. Probably it might origi- 
 nally have been considered as an altar on 
 which the dead were consumed as burnt 
 offerings to the infernal deities. The trees 
 made use of in the construction of a fune- 
 ral pile were such as abounded in pitch 
 and resin, as being most combustible. If 
 any other wood was employed, it was 
 split, the more readily to take fire. 
 
 PiLEUS. [Lat. from ttiXiciop, Gr. a hair- 
 cap.] In the archaiologij of costume. A 
 hat, cap, or bonne* lo cover the head. 
 Plant. Stat. The Roman pileus was not 
 much unlike our nightcap, or rather, o\ir 
 seaman's cap. On several ancient Greek 
 vases, we find sundry heroes of antiquity 
 invested with the ttiXuiov, and more espe- 
 cially the figures of Ulysses, perhaps by 
 way of indicating his long and frequent 
 voyages. According to Eustathius it was 
 Apollodorus, the master of Zeuxis, who 
 first decorated Ulysses thus. 
 
 The Romans, at the commencement of 
 the republic, were much in the habit of 
 going about with the head uncovered, or 
 covered but with a piece of their vest- 
 ment; they wore the pileus only during 
 public games, at the time of the satnr- 
 valia, or in voyages. It was likewise used 
 as an emblem of liberty : and in this sense 
 was applied to slaves about to be enfran- 
 chised. Serrum ad Pileum rocare (Livy), 
 was to give him his freedom, w hich they 
 did by first shaving his head, then putting 
 a cap upon it. 
 
 Pileus ThessaVunts. A broad -brimmed 
 bonnet for the purpose of shielding the 
 wearer either from sun or rain. It took 
 its name from the ThessaloniaTis, who first 
 adopted it. 
 
 Pileus Pannonicus was a sort of military 
 bonnet made of skin. 
 
 PiUiKiM. [pelgrim, Dutch.] In painting 
 and architeclure. According to lloldetti, 
 the pilgrims of the early ages bore, on 
 their return from Jerusalem, a branch of 
 palm. In the middle of the hill of Sion 
 was a cemetery destined for the reception 
 of the bodies of all such as died in pil- 
 grimage. The Empress St. Helena caused 
 sui)sc(|uently a sort of vaulted sepulchre 
 to be constructed, sulVuienlly large, and 
 penetrated by seven openings, or doors, 
 by which those engaged in the funeral 
 ceremonies entered with tiie corpse. No 
 vestiges of this sepulchre remain. 
 
PIL 
 
 Pillar, [pilar, Spanish, pillei', Fr.] In 
 architecture. This word is generally used 
 as synonymous with column ; though, in 
 strict fact, they are difi'erent. The pillar 
 may indeed be regarded as the prototype 
 or forerunner of the column, and is accord- 
 ingly of plainer and more unassuming 
 appearance, and generally of stouter pro- 
 portions. The supporters in Gothic ar- 
 diitecture ai'e pillars, but can never pro- 
 perly \ie termed columns, from which 
 they vary both in shape and every parti- 
 cular. 
 
 As the pillar is rarely used for orna- 
 ment so much as for strength, no rules 
 have been laid down by architects whereby 
 to regulate its proportions ; in this respect, 
 therefore, the artist must be guided by his 
 own judgment, to be exercised with refer- 
 ence to the general dimensions of the 
 building in which his pillars are employed. 
 They have generally a sort of foot, or 
 base, and a cornice above, on which the 
 superincumbent weight rests. There is 
 something not inelegant in the cluster-pil- 
 lar found in Gothic cathedrals, which 
 seems to possess the principle of multiply- 
 ing itself, and, vrhile each constituent part 
 preserves its own little section of a capital 
 and pedestal, is bound together by a com- 
 mon cornice and base, 
 
 Jn archaiology, pillars are large single 
 stones set up perpendicularly. Those of 
 them which have been discovered in this 
 country wci'e doubtless the work of the 
 Druids ; but these being the most simple 
 of all monuments, it cannot be disputed 
 that their use is more ancient even than 
 Druidisra itself. They were placed as 
 memorials in testimony of diflerent events : 
 such, for instance, as remarkable exam- 
 ples of God's mercies, contracts, singular 
 victories, boundaries, and sometimes se- 
 pulchres. (See Inscription, Monument). 
 They were occasionally also marks of 
 execration and magical talismans, as like- 
 wise warning memorials indicative of the 
 danger of any particular spot. 
 
 These stones, from having been long re- 
 garded as objects of veneration, were ulti- 
 mately even idolatrously worshiped by the 
 votaries of superstition and ignorance : 
 wherefore, after the introduction of Chris- 
 tianitj^, some had crosses cut thereon, 
 which was considered as snatching them 
 from the service of the devil. 
 
 At the magnificent mansion of the Earl 
 of Pembroke, at Wilton, near Salisbuiy, 
 is a pillar formed of one piece of white 
 Egyptian granite, brought from the temple 
 6f Venus Genetrix at Rome, near fourteen 
 
 PIN 
 
 feet high, and twenty-two inches diame- 
 ter, with an inscription to Astarte or 
 Venus. 
 
 PiNACiA. [Gr. viva^, a board, picture, 
 or dish.] In archaiolo^ij. Name given by 
 the Greeks to those little tablets called by 
 the Romans piigillares. The statue of Cal- 
 liope, in the Louvre, presented in the 
 27th plate of the first volume of the Mus6e 
 of Pius Clementinus, holds similar tab- 
 lets. 
 
 Piiiacia was also the term applied to 
 those minute plates of copper on which 
 were inscribed the names of all those per- 
 sons duly qualified from every tribe or 
 caste who aspired to be members of the 
 areopagus. These plates of copper were 
 thrown into a large vase, and into another 
 a like number of beans, of which one hun- 
 dred were white, and all the rest black. 
 The names of the candidates v/ere drawn 
 forth, one by one, together with a bean ; 
 and those whose names were produced 
 correspondently with the white beans 
 were admitted into the areopagus. See 
 Areopagus. 
 
 PiNACOTHECA. [TTiVaS, a picture, and 
 Ti9)]fit, to put.] In archaiology, signified 
 what we denominate a cabinet or gallery 
 of paintings, and in this sense it is em- 
 ployed by Vitruvius. That author, ia 
 speaking of the dili'erent divisions and 
 chambers of a house, assigns to each its due 
 proportions with the exception of the pina- 
 cotheca, respecting which he only says, 
 that it should be spacious, and, if possible, 
 on the north side, because it being desir- 
 able to give this apartment a light always 
 equal, that end could not be attained so 
 vv^ell from any other aspect. 
 
 Pine tree, [Gr. ttTvoc.] In painting; 
 sculpture, and architecture. This tree, the 
 leaves of which are straight, filamentous, 
 and very long, garnished at their base 
 with a sheath, from which five or six leaves 
 issue, was well known to the ancients, 
 and employed by the Greeks, who deco- 
 rated their Pans, Bacchanals, &c. with its 
 leaves. The Romans used rather vine or 
 ivy leaves for this purpose, and their ex- 
 ample has been followed by the moderns. 
 On several bassi rilievi the pine tree ap- 
 pears growing near the figures of Cybcle 
 and Atys. The species of pine called 
 pinus ccdrits was much used in building 
 and statuary. (See Cedar). Solomon's 
 temple and palace were both of this wood. 
 Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, is re- 
 ported to have built a palace there, ia 
 which were seven thousand beams of ce- 
 dar, most of them one hundred and twentj' 
 QQ 2 
 
PIR 
 
 feet in length, and twelve in circumfer- 
 pncc, as we are told by Herrera. 
 
 The statue (says Hanbury) of the great 
 goddess at Ephcsus was made of this 
 iiialerial ; and if tliis tree abounded with 
 us, it might have a principal share in 
 the construction of our most superb edi- 
 fices. Tlie effluvia constantly emitted 
 from its wood are said to purify the air 
 and make rooms wholesome. Chapels, 
 and places set apart for religious duties, 
 being wainscoted with this wood, inspire 
 the worshippers with a more solemn awe. 
 It is not obnoxious to worms ; and emits 
 an oil which will preserve cloth or books 
 from worms or corruption. Tiie sawdust 
 will preserve human bodies from putre- 
 faction ; and is therefore said to be plenti- 
 fully used in embalming, where those rites 
 are practised. 
 
 Pinnacle. [Lat, pinnacuhim, from pin- 
 mis (now obsolete), pointed.] In architec- 
 ture. The top or roof of a house termi- 
 nating in a point. This is most frequently 
 used in Gothic architecture, and among 
 the ancients was attached to their temples 
 and other public buildings, but rarely to 
 private houses. See Finial. 
 
 PiNTADA. [Fr. pcintade, from the Latin 
 word pingo, to paint.] Iji the mythology 
 of art. Name of a bird, the spots of a 
 white kind on the blue plumage of which 
 resemble tears, and are so regularly dis- 
 posed as to bear the appearance of having 
 proceeded from an artist's pencil. The 
 fabulous history of this animal is, that the 
 Meleagrides, sisters of Meleager, a cele- 
 brated hero of antiquity, were so discon- 
 solate on the death of their brother, that 
 they refused all aliments, and were at the 
 point of death changed into l)irds, preserv- 
 ing on their plumage the representation 
 of their salt tears. This bird took its an- 
 cient name from these sisters of Meleagris, 
 to which Numida was prefixed, on account 
 of its Numidian origin : but from the cir- 
 cumstance bcforcincntioucti of the aitisti- 
 cal distvibiition of its spots, it has been 
 denominated by the moderns pintmln. 
 
 PiK^i's. [Gr. IlMpaifiV.] In nnlmiolngy. 
 The ])()rt of I'halerus iiaving l)een found 
 too small and incommodious for tiic in- 
 creasing extent and splendour of Athens, 
 tiie Pira-us, a celebrated \h)vX to the Avest 
 of that city, consisting naturally of three 
 harbours or basins, was constructed by 
 the suggestion and advice of Themislo- 
 cles. According to the autiiorily of Cor- 
 nelius N( pos, this port eq\ialled (he town 
 in Ik iuity and surpassed it in dignity. They 
 Uiiit there five f.npi-rb porlicoe!i,and three 
 
 PIS 
 
 magnificent temples, consecrated to Jupi- 
 ter, Minerva, and Venus. There also was 
 established the famous library of Apel- 
 licon, of which nothing more remains than 
 the enumeration in Diogenes Laertius. 
 Of the three ports, that in the middle is 
 called by the modern Greeks porto-draco, 
 and by the Franks, or Western Europeans, 
 pnrto-linne, names arising from a beauti- 
 ful marble lion ten feet high, that is, three 
 times as large as nature. This lion has 
 been described as an admirable sculpture, 
 and as reposing on its hinder parts. It 
 was pierced, and, as some have conjec- 
 tured, had belonged to a fountain. Near 
 Athens, in the way to Eleusis, was ano- 
 ther, the posture couchant, probably its 
 companion. Both these were removed to 
 Venice by the famous general Morosoni, 
 and may be seen there before the arsenal. 
 The Pira?us gradually became the em- 
 porium of all Greece. Hippodamus (the 
 inventor of many improvements on the pre- 
 vious nature of house building) was em- 
 ployed in laying out the ground ; and 
 hence the porticoes and temples we have 
 before alluded to. The cavities and wind- 
 ings of Munychia, natural and artificial, 
 were filled with houses ; and the whole 
 settlement, comprehending Phalerum and 
 the ports of the Piricus, with the arsenals, 
 the storehouses, the famous armoury, of 
 which Philo was the architect, and the 
 sheds for three hundred, and afterwards 
 for four hundred triremes, resembled the 
 city of Rhodes, which had been planned 
 by the same Hippodamus. 
 
 Sylla reduced the Pira-us, though not 
 witiiout considerable ditliculty, demo- 
 lished the walls, and set fire to the ar- 
 moury and arsenals. Strabo, who lived 
 under the emperors Augustus and Tibe- 
 rius, states, that the many wars had de- 
 stroyed its long walls, fogetiier with the 
 fortress of Munychia, and had contracte<l 
 the PiraMis into a small settlement by tiie 
 l)ort and temple of Jupiter Sax iour. This 
 fabric was then adorned with fine pictures, 
 the works of illustrious artists, and on the 
 exterior with statues. In the second cen- 
 tury, besides houses for triremes, the teni- 
 ide of Jupiter and Minerva remained, 
 with the images of tiiose deities in brass, 
 a t(-nii)leof Venus, a portico, and the tomb 
 of 'I'hcmistocles. 
 
 PiSAY or PisAN, because supposed to 
 have been lirst ])ractised in Pisa, [pisf, 
 l"r.] In nnhitt'ctiirr. A sjiecies of wall con- 
 structed of oarfii or clay, and which is par- 
 ticularly suited to rural purposes. This me- 
 thod was well known to the Ronums, who 
 
PLA 
 
 employed, for the purpose, means very 
 similar to those now in use. This kind 
 of wall, when well put together, possesses 
 great strength and durability, and is capa- 
 ble of withstanding almost any violence. 
 
 Piscina. [Lat.] In archaiologij . A pond 
 or reservoir of water, principally for fish. 
 The basin placed in the middle of the cal- 
 darium of the ancient baths was also de- 
 nominated piscina. See Baths. 
 
 Place. [Fr. from TrXartia, a broadway, 
 from TrXdrvg, broad.] In arcJdtecture. This 
 word signifies in general any space, of 
 regular or irregular proportions, destined 
 for the erection of a building. It is also 
 appropriated to an open piece of ground 
 surrounded with buildings, such as the 
 Place Vendome, at Paris, &c. The beauty 
 of public places depends on their regula- 
 rity. In the centre they are generally de- 
 corated with some grand statue, a column, 
 or some other imposing monument. 
 
 The Romans used two words (area and 
 forum) by which to designate a public 
 place. The former term meant nothing 
 but a wide unappropriated space ; the lat- 
 ter was destined for the carrying on of 
 public business. 
 
 Plaister. [Gr. TrXdo-ffw, to form.] In 
 architecture, A composition of lime, some- 
 times mixed with sand,&c. used to parget, 
 or cover, the nudities of a building. See 
 Stucco. 
 
 In the arts of modelling, &c. plaister of 
 Paris is a preparation of sundry species 
 of gypsum or alabaster dug near Mont 
 Martre, a village in the neighbourhood of 
 Paris, whence its name. The best kind 
 is white, shining, hard, and marbly, and is 
 known by the title of the plaister stone or 
 parget of Mont Martre. It will neither 
 give fire with steel nor ferment with aqua- 
 fortis ; but readily enough calcine in the 
 fire into a fine plaister, the use of which, 
 in building and casting statues, is well 
 known. 
 
 Plaister of Paris is employed for taking 
 moulds or models either of inanimate na- 
 tural objects or even of living ones, as well 
 as of works of art, which it possesses the 
 power of multiplying— such as statues, 
 hassi-rilievi, &:c. 
 
 The method of representing a face cor- 
 rectly in plaister of Paris is as follows : — 
 The person whose countenance is to be 
 taken is laid on his back, with any conve- 
 nient thing to keep off the hair. Into each 
 nostril is introduced a conical piece of 
 stiff paper, open at both ends, for the pur- 
 pose of admitting respiration. These 
 tubes, being anointed with oil, are sup- 
 ported by the hand of an assistant, after 
 
 PLA 
 
 which, the face being lightly oiled over 
 and the eyes kept shut, alabaster fresh 
 calcined, and tempered with water to a 
 consistence tolerably thin, is nimbly thrown 
 over the whole countenance by spoonfuls, 
 till it lies nearly the thickness of an inch. 
 This matter grows perceptibly hot, and in 
 about a quarter of an hour hardens into a 
 kind of stony concretion, which, being 
 gently removed, represents, on its concave 
 surface, the very minutest parts of the ori- 
 ginal face. In this a head of good clay 
 may be moulded, wherein the eyes are to 
 be opened, and other necessary things 
 done. This second face being anointed 
 with oil, a second mould of calcined ala- 
 baster is made, consisting of two parts 
 joined lengthways along the ridge of the 
 nose ; and herein may be cast, with the 
 same matter, a face extremely like the 
 original. 
 
 Plaister of Paris casts from the antique 
 are ciieap, and offer a facility to the artist 
 of studying the most beautiful productions 
 of the great masters of sculpture with- 
 out the necessity either of travelling or 
 possessing a heavy purse ; while, at the 
 same time, the amateur is gratified by 
 having it in his power to adorn his rooms 
 with facsimiles of the divinest productions 
 of ancient art, which would otherwise 
 exist only for the benefit and delight of 
 the fortunate few. True taste is, by this 
 means, rendered an inexpensive thing; — 
 as Rogers the poet says or sings, when 
 describing the facilities aflbrded through 
 the interesting medium of engravings and 
 plaister of Paris casts: — 
 
 " Here no state chambers in ton" line unfold, 
 Bright with broad mirrors, roiigii witli fretted gold ; 
 Yet modest oruajnent, with use combined. 
 Attracts the eye to exercise the mind. 
 Small change of scene, small space his house requires. 
 Who leads a life of satisfied desires. 
 
 " What though no marble breathes, no canvass 
 From every point a ray of genius Hows ! [glows. 
 
 Be mine to bless the more mechanic skill 
 That stamps, renews, and multiplies at will; 
 And cheaply circulates, through distant climes. 
 The fairest relics of the purest times. 
 Here from the mould to conscious being start 
 Those finer forms, the miracles of art ; 
 Here chosen gems, impress'd on sulphur, shine. 
 That slept for ages in a second mine ; 
 And here the faithful graver dares to trace 
 A Michel's grandeur, and a Ratfaelle's grace! 
 Thy gallery, Florence, gilds my humble walls, 
 And my low roof tlie Vatican recalls ! 
 
 " Soon as the morning-dream my pillow flies. 
 To waking sense what brighter visions rise : 
 Oh, mark again the coursers of the sun. 
 At Guido's call their rouud of glory run ! 
 Again the rosy hours resume their flight. 
 Obscured and lost in floods of golden light •. 
 
 * Alluding to the print from Guido's ex(iuisitu 
 allegorical picture of Sunrise, or Aurora, in thu 
 Rospigliosi palace at Rome. 
 
PLA 
 
 " Though my Uiatch'ti bath uo rich niusnic know», 
 A limpid eprini; with uiifcit current flona. 
 Emblem of life ! which slill, as we survey, 
 Seems m(<ti()nloss, yet ever glides away I 
 The shadowy walls record, with Attic art, 
 The strength and beauty that its waves impart. 
 Here Tlielis, biiuliiii; with a mother's feais, 
 Dips her dear boy, whose pride restrains liis tears. 
 There Venus, rising, shrinks with sweet surprise. 
 As her fair self, reflected, sceini to rise." 
 
 Epistle to a Friend in RoGtiis's Poems. 
 
 " It is the desipcn of tliis epistle (says its 
 accomplished author) to illustrate the vir- 
 tue of true taste ; and to show how little 
 she requires to secure not only the comforts, 
 but even the elegancies of life. True taste 
 is an excellent economist. She confines 
 her choice to few objects, and delights in 
 producing great eflects by small means : 
 ■whilst false taste is for ever sighing after 
 the new and the rare ; and reminds us, in 
 her works, of tiie scholar of Apelles, who, 
 not being able to paint his Helen beauti- 
 ful, determined to make her fine." 
 
 Plan. [Fr.] In architecture, pahitin^,&ic. 
 The representation, generally speaking, of 
 any thing drawn upon a plane surface : 
 for example, ichnographies, charts, maps, 
 &c. The term is however more specifi- 
 cally applied to the draught of a building 
 such as it appears, or is intended to ap- 
 pear, on the ground ; exhibiting the ex- 
 tent, division, and distribution of its area 
 or ground-plot into apartments, rooms, 
 passages, &c. The raised plan of a build- 
 ing is synonymous with that which is 
 otherwise denominated the Elevation (see 
 that word), or Othouk.aphy (which also 
 refer to). 
 
 A geometrical plan is that wherein the 
 solid and vacant parts are represented in 
 tiieir natural j)roportions. 
 
 A perspective plan is that exhibited by de- 
 gradations or diminutions, according to 
 the rules of that science. See Pekspec- 
 
 TIVE. 
 
 It is customary in extensive buildings 
 to have a diflerent plan for each of the 
 three first .stories; and in order lo rentier 
 plans inleiligiblc, the massives are com- 
 monly distinguished with a black work, 
 the projcctures on the ground drawn in 
 full lines, whilst dt)tled lines characterize 
 those which un; bU])posed lo be above 
 them. The alterations or nugmenlntions 
 to l)c made ar<' dislinguish<-d i)y a colour 
 didcrent from what is already biiiK, and 
 the tints of each plan made lighler ua tiw 
 stories are raised. 
 
 l'i.\Ni:. [Lat. planus, from Or. 7rX«ri'f, 
 broad. I In ^cinnvlnj. A plain surface, (u- 
 one that lies evenly between its bounding 
 lines: and a right line being the Hlu)rtest 
 «xteii.<)ion from one point lo another. In 
 
 PLA 
 
 like manner a plane surface is the short- 
 est extension from one line to another. 
 
 In mechanics, planes are either horizon- 
 tal, that is, parallel to the horizon, or in- 
 clined thereto. See IMacihnerv. 
 
 The determining how far any given 
 plane deviates from a horizontal line forms 
 the whole business of levelling. See Le- 
 
 VELUAG. 
 
 In perspectice we meet with the perspec- 
 tive plane, which is supposed to be pel- 
 lucid and perpendicular to the horizon; 
 the horizontal plane, supposed to pass 
 through the spectator's eye, parallel to the 
 horizon; the geometrical plane likewise 
 parallel to the horizon, wherein the object 
 to be represented is imagined to be placed, 
 
 &iC. See I'ERSPECTIVE. 
 
 The term plane is frequently employed 
 to express an ideal surface, supposed to 
 cut and pass tlirough solid bodies; and on 
 this foundation the whole doctrine of conic 
 sections may be said to be built. 
 
 Planets. [Gr. TrXariirrjc, a wandering 
 star, from TrXai't], straying.] In sculpture, 
 engraving, &c. The planets are depicted 
 upon several medals struck at Alexandria, 
 upon sundry engraved astrological stones, 
 upon a circular altar at the villa Pin- 
 ciana, described by Visconti ; and upon 
 a bronze published by Montfaucon (1st 
 vol. of Supplement, pi. 17), where we find 
 the week represented by seven planetary 
 figures, the first of which is Saturn, the 
 second the sun, the third the moon, &c. 
 
 Plastic. [Gr. TrXaffffio, to form.] A term 
 applied in speaking of the art of modelling, 
 which is sometimes denominated the plas- 
 tic-art. 
 
 PLAT-BANn. In architecture. Any flat 
 square moulding with little jjrojection ; 
 the dilferent fascia.- of an architrave are 
 called plat-bands; the same term is ap- 
 plied to the list between tlutings, &:c. 
 
 Plate. [Dutch, plaque, Fr.] A piece of 
 metal beat out into breadth. Wrought 
 gold or silver. A small shallow vessel in 
 V Inch nunit is taken. 
 
 Platfoum. In architecture. A row of 
 beams supporting the limber-work of ii 
 roof, anil lying on the loj) of a wall where 
 the eiitalilature ought to be raised. A sort 
 of terrace or open promenade at the top 
 of a building, cimunauding a itrospoct of 
 the surrounding counlrN. Any temporary 
 elevation of a i)lane de8crij)tion raised 
 nbo\e the surface of the ground. 
 
 Pi.ATiNA. |.Si)aiiisli.] A metallic sub- 
 stance not long discovered. The name, 
 which has nu allusion to its colour, is a 
 derivative ol' plata, and signifies li Hie sil- 
 ver. 
 
PNI 
 
 Plaustrum. [Lat.] Inarchaiology. Mont- 
 faucoii has published in his Antiquitf^^ Ex- 
 pliqu^e (vol. iv. pt. 1, pi. 118), two of these 
 machines drawn from the Antoninus co- 
 lumn. They resemble somewhat in ap- 
 pearance our carts. 
 
 Plinth. lirXivOog, a brick.] In architec- 
 ture. The lower member of a base. See 
 Base. 
 
 Plumbago, [from plumbum, Lat.] See 
 Blacklead. 
 
 Plume. [Lat. plmna.^ In archaiology. 
 Plumes of feathers were often used by the 
 ancient artists to decorate the heads of 
 their divinities and other personages both 
 male and female. The nine Muses are 
 frequently to be met with thus adorned. 
 
 Plummet, [from the 'Latinplumbum,lead.~\ 
 In 7neasurhig: A weight of lead hung at 
 a string, by which depth is sounded, and 
 perpendicularity ascertained. Sometimes 
 the string descends along a wooden ruler 
 raised perpendicularly upon another, in 
 which case it becomes a level. See Level. 
 
 Pluteus. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. 
 Vitruvius applies this term to a species of 
 balustrade or support before the porticoes 
 of buildings, and which ti-aversed the in- 
 tercolumniations. A model is to be found 
 in the Pittnre d'Ercolano, vol. i. pi. 41. 
 The plutei were constructed sometimes of 
 marble, sometimes of wood. 
 
 Pluto. [Gr. irXovrov, rich : because (ac- 
 cording to Cicero) riches are dug from the 
 bowels of the earth.] In the mythology of 
 art. Both Pluto and Proserpine are com- 
 mon subjects with the artists. There is 
 generally a resemblance given between 
 the faces of the three brothers, Jupiter, 
 Neptune, and Pluto ; which appears in 
 their several figures, and is well preserved 
 by Raffaelle in his Feast of the Gods on the 
 Marriage of Cupid and Psyche. Jupiter's 
 countenance is made the most serene and 
 majestic ; Pluto's the most sullen and se- 
 vere. In a piece of painting discovered 
 about the end of the last century, in an 
 old burial-place of the Nassonian family, 
 Pluto and Proserpine are sitting on thrones, 
 whilst Mercury is introducing the ghost of 
 a young woman, who seems intimidated at 
 Pluto's stern look. Behind stands her 
 mother, waiting to conduct her back to 
 some grove in Elysium. Pluto holds a 
 sceptre in his hand, and has a veil over 
 his head. 
 
 Pnix. [Gr.] In archaiology. The spot 
 where the Athenian citizens assembled to 
 choose their magistrates. It was situated 
 near the Acropolis, and almost in front of 
 the Areopagus. Originally, the shape and 
 ornaments of this place were extremely 
 simple. It was however subsequently 
 
 POE 
 
 adorned with statues, and served as an 
 Odeon. See that word. 
 
 Podium. [Lat.] In architecture. A bal- 
 cony or open gallery. In the amphitheatre, 
 the senate, foreign ambassadors, vestal 
 virgins, and the emperor, sat in the podium, 
 which was projected over the wall of the 
 arena, and was raised twelve or fifteen feet 
 above it. 
 
 P(ECIle. [Gr. TToiKiXoc, various.] In ar- 
 chaiology. A celebrated portico at Athens, 
 which received its name from the variety 
 of paintings, &c. exhibited there. It was 
 here that Zeno kept his school ; and here 
 also their lessons were disseminated to 
 the stoics ; whence their name (-roa, a 
 porch). Among many other pictures which 
 adorned the Poecile, we may particularize : 
 — the Athenians in order of battle at JEnoe 
 against the Lacedaamonians ; the same peo- 
 ple conducted by Theseus against the 
 Amazons; and subjects taken from the 
 siege of Troy, &c. &c. The only reward 
 bestowed on Miltiades, after the battle of 
 Marathon, was the having his picture 
 drawn more conspicuously than those of 
 the officers who fought with him, in the 
 representation of that celebrated victory 
 which was hung up in the Poecile. 
 
 Poesy. [Gr. Troijjcrie, from ttouoj, to 
 make.] In the mythology of art. The Ge- 
 nius of Poesy painted at the Vatican by 
 Raffaelle is borne upon the clouds : she 
 is seated on a piece of white marble on 
 which are sculptured tAVO masks : she has 
 v/ings at her back, and a laurel crown on 
 her head. Her dress is modest, a large 
 mantle dropping even to her feet. She 
 holds in one hand a lyre, and in the other 
 several heroical poems. Her entire atti- 
 tude is expressive of high enthusiasm ; 
 and the two lesser genii accompanying 
 present an inscription in Latin, signifying 
 — It is the Deity who inspires her. 
 
 Poets. Agreement between poets and 
 artists. The subjects in which this is 
 chiefly noticeable may be arranged as fol- 
 lows : — I. The amours of the gods w ith 
 mortals; those of Jupiter with Semele, 
 Danae, Europa, and Leda, with the story 
 of Ganymede. Neptune's rape of Ccenis, 
 Apollo and Daphne, Bacchus and Ariadne, 
 Venus and Adonis, Diana and Endymion. 
 II. The amours of the heroes, or offspring 
 of the gods : — as Perseus and Andromeda, 
 the actions of Hercules and Bacchus be- 
 fore their deification, &c. III. Fabulous 
 things relating to those famous men not 
 properly heroes : — as Arion on his dolphin, 
 Theseus killing the minotaur, Bellerophon 
 engaging the chimwra, Helle's crossing 
 the Hellespont on a ram, and Dedalus's 
 flight through the air. The judgment of 
 
POI 
 
 Paris, and descent of Orpheus into hell ; 
 the Amazons and Pigmies ; the stories of 
 Narcissus and Acticon, &c. IV. Historical 
 facts deiivored fur truth: — as Meleaser 
 and Atalanta, Hero and Leander, the The- 
 ban and Trojan wars, the rape of Helen, 
 the sacrifice of Iphigcnia, &:c. V. Things 
 relating to tiie Roman histoiy: — as Ro- 
 mulus's death, the rape of the Sabines, 
 Sca'vola burning his hand, Curtius de- 
 voting himself, Lucretia killing herself. 
 VI. Subjects relating to religion : — ^as tem- 
 ples and altars, from the reverses of me- 
 dals ; the various sacrifices, from gems, 
 paintings, and rilievi ; dresses of the 
 augurs, priests, and vestal virgins, from 
 statues ; the lectisfernia to the great gods ; 
 the processions, especially the Bacchana- 
 lian, so frequent in antiques as well as in 
 the descriptions of the poets ; the mar- 
 riage and funeral ceremonies, which were 
 most superstitiously observed. VII. Things 
 belonging to the arts and sciences, and 
 used by the Romans in civil life : — as 
 their dress and the furniture of their 
 houses ; their games and sports, musical 
 instruments, carriages, chariots, boats, and 
 ships. VIII, What related to military 
 affairs : — tlieir arms, ensigns, and military 
 dresses, from tiie Trajan and Antoniue 
 pillars ; their mural, naval, and laurel and 
 oaken crowns, from medals ; their trophies 
 and triumphs, from triumphal arches. 
 
 All tliese particulars would furnish ma- 
 terials for an entire course of comparing the 
 descriptions of the Roman poets with the 
 remains of the artists, and thus eiial)!ing 
 these two most interesting studies mutually 
 to explain and illustrate each other. Mr. 
 Spence observes, in his Pohimctis, that if 
 such an extensive inquiry were to be made 
 likewise into the Greek writers, the whole 
 would form a more useful and complete 
 body of anti(|uity than any hitlu-rto pub- 
 lished, and at tlie same time mi;;ht be less 
 voluminous than the collections of either 
 Grajvius, Gronovius, or Montfaucon, with 
 tlie work of which latter he expresses 
 himself somewhat dissatisfied. 
 
 Point. [Fr. formerly poinct, from jmne- 
 tuin, Lat.] Itifursiiictiri;f!:cumitni,iSic. Point 
 of sifchl. Sec PKKSi'Kt-rivK, iiiwiiicli art 
 the word is used to denote various i)oU'8 
 or places with regard to the perspective 
 plane. 
 
 In i^roinctrii, point is, according to l"u- 
 • lid, that wliicii hath neither parts nor 
 magnitude. They are the ends or extre- 
 mities of lines, and if a j)oint be supposed 
 to move any way, it will by such motion 
 describi; a line. 
 
 Point is also nn instrument of steel or 
 iron, Ubcil by engraveis, ettlicrs, ciittirs in 
 
 POM 
 
 wood, &c. to trace their designs with on 
 the several materials employed. See En- 
 graving and Etching. The point of the 
 diamond is sometimes used in engraving 
 fine gems, and is esteemed on account of 
 its extreme hardness. Pliny speaks of 
 the ancients putting in the rudiments of 
 their figures with a diamond poiut, which 
 was likewise used by them to give the 
 finishing stroke to their works. 
 
 PoLiA. [Lat.] In architecture. A beau- 
 tiful species of stone, much employed by 
 the ancients in building, and known like- 
 wise by the names of Amiantti^ and Car- 
 soides. 
 
 Polish. [Lat. polio, to make smooth.] 
 Ill enamelling. We say of those paintings 
 in enamel which, placed to the tire, ac- 
 quire thereby a high lustre, that they have 
 taken a ^ood polish. 
 
 Polisher, [from to polish.'] Or Bur- 
 nisher. An instrument for the purpose of 
 polishing or burnishing things calculated 
 to undergo that process. 
 
 Polishing, [from the same.] The opera- 
 tion of giving a gloss or lustre to certain 
 substances, such, for example, as glass, 
 metals, marble, &c. 
 
 The usage of polishing marble figures 
 appears to have been very common in an- 
 cient times, and remains so still. 
 
 Polvitvchon. [Gr. 7roXi''c, many, and 
 TTTvffrrio, to fold.] In archaiolo^j. Name 
 given to a diptychns composed of several 
 tablets. See Diptvchls. 
 
 PoLYSTYLE. [Gr. TToXt'c, many, and ri'Xoc, 
 a column.] In architcrtiire. Term applied 
 to an edilice, the columns of which are 
 too numerous to be readily counted ; which 
 reminds us of an old tradition respecting 
 the pillars at Stonehenge — luunely, that 
 no two persons ever counted their num- 
 ber alike on the first trial. 
 
 PoMCEHUM. [Lat.] In archaiologij. A 
 space al)out t!\e walls of a city or town, 
 as well within as without, v.liich was 
 held sacred at once from the plough or the 
 builder, and, according to some, so set 
 apart for the defence of tiie city. Within 
 this enclosure altars were erected, whereon 
 sacrifices were offered to the gods. 
 
 PoMi'Kii. [This town according to some 
 derives its name from the procession 
 (Tro/iTTi)) of the heads of Gorgon exhibited 
 there by Hercules.] In the histonj of the 
 arts. A town of ("anip;inia, which was 
 anciently a place of very fiourishing trade, 
 the Sarnus (now Sarno), near the banks of 
 which it was situated, furnishing the in- 
 lial)itanls with fa\oural)le means to exjjort 
 their produce. This town liad the same 
 fate as Heiculaneum, and was buried 
 under the lava and cinders of Vesuvius 
 
POMPElt. 
 
 from wTiich it is about two or three miles 
 distant. At a mile from the Torre dele' 
 Aniionziata the traveller must quit the 
 route of Salerno and turn to the right to 
 come at the ruins of Pompeii. The first 
 object discovered is what is called the 
 country house ; it was thus named because 
 it is situated without the walls of the 
 town, but is not perceived till quite near 
 it. It is the same with the other edifices 
 of Pompeii, which are all hidden beneath 
 the heaps of cinders arising from the 
 diggings which they have undertaken 
 since the discovery. It is for the same 
 reason that one can hardly form an exact 
 idea of the real extent of the town, and 
 the more so, on account of the small eleva- 
 tion of the houses. This country house 
 had two divisions, one higher than the 
 other; columns, or rather square pillars, 
 formed a covered gallery, which was con- 
 tinued round the court, and six other co- 
 lumns, destined probably to sustain a kind 
 of portico. These columns or square pil- 
 lars were covered with a yellowish stucco, 
 and the pedestals were black and orna- 
 mented. The second division of the edi- 
 fice was decorated with several columns, 
 which formed a rich portico, of a propor- 
 tion however sufficiently little. In gene- 
 ral all the parts of this country house 
 were extremely close ard narrow. Upon 
 the road which passes before the door of 
 entrance to this house, one sees the tracks 
 of carriages. Near to the door have been 
 found two skeletons; the one held a key 
 in one hand, and in the other a purse 
 filled with medals and precious stones. 
 They believe that the other had carried a 
 box, shutting up diflferent valuable things, 
 which have been found near him. Per- 
 haps this was the master of the house and 
 his slave, who, in running away, had car- 
 ried tiie most precious objects, but who, 
 arrived at the door, found it already en- 
 cumbered with cinders, under which they 
 have been buried. The court of the house 
 formed a square of ninety-four feet. The 
 two corners of the side of the entrance 
 were occupied by two rooms, of which the 
 one served probably to lock up the corn, 
 the other to tliresh it. 
 
 In entering the court one sees a covered 
 portico supported by six columns ; on two 
 sides it was surrounded with trees, of 
 which there are still seen trunks and 
 branches. Before this portico was a ba- 
 sin, of which they have also found the 
 pipes of lead on the spot. At the end of 
 the gallery was a vault of stone, which 
 appears to have served as a cellar because 
 there have been found there several of those 
 
 vessels iu which the ancients preserved 
 their wine ; it is pretended even that iu 
 several of these vessels have been found 
 the remains of wine wliich was thickened, 
 and which is become, by the lapse of time, 
 as hard as stone. Near this, one de- 
 scends into a stone cellar, very dark, and 
 covered with stucco ; it is left absolutely 
 whole, but has been blocked up with 
 cinders. Near the staircase which leads 
 to tills cellar have been found seven skele- 
 tons of women, whom terror, in the mo- 
 ment of the volcanic eruption, had no 
 doubt carried to shelter themselves in this 
 remote place, where they perished. They 
 were all pressed, one near the other, in 
 a corner near to the door, and iu dis- 
 covering their bones they have observed 
 the image and form of their bodies, which 
 were preserved in the cinders ; they have 
 there even discovered parts of their clothes. 
 These impressions are seen still in the 
 Museum de Portici; they show there 
 among others that of the breast of one of 
 these women, which is so well preserved 
 that they perceive there the impression of 
 a very delicate lace. They perceive there 
 also the impression of rings, of bracelets, 
 of necklaces, and of earrings, with which 
 these women were adorned. Hamilton, 
 in the account which he has published 
 upon the discoveries of Herculaneum, 
 makes on this subject the remark that the 
 volcanic cinders, mixed with a great quan- 
 tity of water at the time of the eruption, 
 formed akind of clay, which would produce 
 the same effect as the stufl" which serves 
 to make models. Near to this cave was 
 a very dark chamber of which they have 
 not been able to guess the use, as also that 
 of five other little rooms which come one 
 from the other ; each has no windows. 
 
 At the end of the gallery one descends 
 by a staircase to the second division of the 
 house, which contains several rooms more 
 or less grand, and behind which was the 
 garden, into which you descend also by a 
 grand staircase. In all this part of the 
 house they have not found a single place 
 which can be regarded as a bedchamber, 
 with the exception of a kind of alcove and 
 circular wardrobe, having three windows 
 into the garden, in which latter they have 
 distinguished still the compartments, as 
 of different shrubs and thickets, which 
 probably have been rose bushes. This 
 second part of the house was tiie most 
 elegant; the pictures with which it was 
 decorated were done with great care; 
 those above all of the principal piece were 
 very well executed. Near to the chamber 
 of which we have been speaking, and 
 
w liich may be regarded as a sleeping room, 
 ■was the eating parlour, and at the side 
 was the buttery, from whence one enters 
 into a room which appears to have served 
 as a vestry, for there they have found 
 clothes. Another less court, embellished 
 with a basin, and columns of different 
 proportions, was near the great road, and 
 ■was the entrance to the great court of the 
 interior, where was the door by wliich 
 one might go out upon this great road. 
 Near the garden are the cold bath and the 
 vapour bath. 
 
 At a little distance from this house they 
 have found near the great road a small 
 sepulchral monument ornamented solely 
 witii fasces. An inscription makes it ap- 
 pear that a certain Diomedes, or a free 
 man of Arria, has consecrated this monu- 
 ment to his mistress and her famih, as 
 for himself and his. 
 
 The fragments of columns which were 
 near the tomb of the arch-priestess Mam- 
 mia, make one think that formerly it was 
 more elevated than it actually is ; upon a 
 square base it had a circular building or- 
 namented with columns and marble sta- 
 tues. By a door one enters into the first 
 enclosure, that is to say, into the fore court 
 of the sepulchral monument ; the tomb, cor- 
 rectly speaking, was surrounded with a ter- 
 race ; some steps conducted to the base of it, 
 upon which one still finds columns. From 
 thence an opening leads into the tomb, 
 where there are several niches, of which 
 the principal enclosed an urn, which pro- 
 bably contained the ashes of Mammia. 
 In the fore court were two open excava- 
 tions ; these were the entrance to two 
 "vaulted caverns, which could not have 
 any other use than to serve for burying. 
 Upon the wall of the sepulciual monu- 
 ment, and near the excavations which we 
 have just mentioned, they have found 
 masks of a colossal greatness ; they ap- 
 pear not to have belonged jjrobably to the 
 tomb of Mammia, which is of a proportion 
 much too little ; they remind us of scenical 
 masks, which renders sufli('ieiilly proba- 
 ble tlie opinion of many learned nioii who 
 have regarded this place as the burying 
 place of the players of tliis town. 
 
 The entrance to Pompeii is small and 
 little; apparently it would not announce a 
 town of great importance. It cousists in 
 fragments of columns of wiiich tliey have 
 found in the environs many considerable 
 pieces, and fine ciipitids of tlie lonio 
 order; proltably these columns have served 
 formerly to support edifices. On the two 
 Bides there an- arcades and porticoes, 
 which form the entrance to the ways, 
 
 POMPEII. 
 
 or paths, for the foot soldiers; they 
 are continued on the side of the great 
 road. In many modern towns of Italy 
 and other countries there are like roads 
 for the foot soldiers ; but that of Pompeii, 
 which is here the subject, are very nar- 
 row ; they are but three feet wide. This 
 agrees with the breadth of the principal 
 road, which is but ten or twelve feet, 
 though it is lengthened to a distance of 
 fifteen or sixteen fathoms. In the ancient 
 ground of the road is seen still very obvi- 
 ous traces of tracks of different carriages, 
 which prove that there was four feet dis- 
 tance between the wheels. At the en- 
 trance is raised a square pedestal, which, 
 according with what one sees there, ap- 
 pears to have supported a pretty large 
 column. Several tumulary monuments 
 which are found in the neighbourhood, as 
 well as the inscriptions upon the pedestal 
 itself, causes us to think that this was a 
 sepulchral monument. Very near to the 
 door are found two semicircular benches of 
 about twenty feet long ; there is but one 
 of them well preserved ; we there read an 
 inscription wiiich says that this was the 
 burying place of the priestess Mammia, 
 w hich has been granted to her by a decree 
 of the Decurions. This last circumstance, 
 that her burying place was assigned by a 
 decree of the Decurions, proves that the 
 family of this priestess enjoyed great con- 
 sideration at Pompeii. 
 
 In following this principal street one 
 recognises still the form of difi'erent shops, 
 notwithstanding the ravages caused by 
 
 time and the earthquake. To judge from a 
 kind of balustrade or wire lattice which is 
 seen at one of them, it was the shop of a 
 dealer in perfumes and spirituous liquors ; 
 below, there is a kind of pipe or excava- 
 tion in marble, but it would bo diflicult to 
 assign the use of it. In the same street 
 and very near to the door of the town, one 
 sees a fantastical sign, and which chance 
 has perfectly well preserved. It is a 
 Phallus or Priapus grossly sculptured in 
 basso rilievo in the stone post of a house. 
 The general opinion is, that this was the 
 sign of a house consecrated to^enus; and 
 one is supported in this opinion, above all, 
 by a remarkable inscription found at Pom- 
 peii and reported by Winckeluiann, in his 
 letter to the Count de Uruhl, upon the dis- 
 coveries of Herculaneum, at page 02 of 
 the Trench translation by M. Jansen. 
 Others have thought that this was the 
 sign of a magazine or manufactory of those 
 figures which wo call obscene, l)ut to 
 which the credulity of remote times at- 
 tached religious ideas, and whicii the 
 
POMPEII. 
 
 ladies carried as amulets. Mr. Hamilton 
 thinks that it was rather the sign of par- 
 ticular worship, rendered to the god of 
 gardens, as are now seen sometimes houses 
 Jiaving for a sign the figure of some saint. 
 According to M. Hii"t, the distribution of 
 the house which has this Priapus for a 
 sign proves that it was rather a tavern 
 than a place consecrated to Venus. It 
 appears to him probable that many of the 
 shops with which this street is bordered 
 were taverns, in which they gave at the 
 same time to eat, and in which they pre- 
 pared warm drinks ; or a kind of coffee- 
 houses. One sees every where about a 
 similar disti'ibntion and style of architec- 
 ture ; several houses are very agreeably 
 ornamented with marbles. In these build- 
 ings they have found but the most neces- 
 sary utensils ; but all were very well 
 worked, and were of the most agreeable 
 forms ; there were lamps, candelabras, ves- 
 sels, and kitchen utensils, weights, statues, 
 different vessels of all sizes, in earth, in 
 bronze, and in glass ; many fragments of 
 glass windows ; small idols, women's trin- 
 kets in gold and silver ; mirrors, wax 
 tablets for writing, surgical and musical 
 instruments ; colours of all kinds ; medals 
 in gold, silver, and bronze ; children's play- 
 things, toothpicks, paint boxes, even eat- 
 ables, corn, fruits of different sorts, &c. 
 They have found there neither statues nor 
 busts of a great size ; the best paintings 
 have not been found so much at Pompeii, 
 as at Herculaneum. The wooden utensils 
 Lave been carbonised by the burning cin- 
 ders, or are fallen to rottenness. 
 
 The temple of Isis is without doubt the 
 most remarkable of the ruins discovered 
 at Pompeii. The columns with which it 
 was surrounded are almost entirely pre- 
 served. The half of those which orna- 
 mented the peristyle have been broken, as 
 the capitals and the pediment. The tem- 
 ple itself is almost entirely built with 
 bricks, and on the outside covered with 
 a very solid stucco, which the ancients 
 in general used frequently. The style 
 of architecture is rather agreeable than 
 strict. The orders are of a small propor- 
 tion, which diminishes the effect the edi- 
 fice would have had if it was of a more 
 imposing architecture. They have found 
 in this temple all the instruments belong- 
 ing to the religious ceremonies, and even 
 the skeletons of priests, who had been 
 surprised there, and surrounded by the 
 shower of cinders in the middle of the oc- 
 cupations of their ministry. They show 
 also their vestments, the cinders and coals 
 upon the altars, the candelabras, many 
 
 lamps, cisterns, vessels to hold the holy 
 water, the patera employed in libations, 
 a kind of kettles to preserve the intestines 
 of the victims in; cushions upon which 
 they placed the statue of the goddess 
 Isis, when they offered sacrifices to her ; 
 the attributes of the divinity, with which 
 the temple is every where ornamented, 
 &c. Many of these vessels have the figure 
 of an ilex, of an hippopotamus, or a lotus, 
 and what renders them much more impor- 
 tant is, that they have been found upon 
 the same places where they were used, 
 so that one can have no doubt upon 
 the reality or the kind of employ of these 
 objects. The walls of the temple were 
 ornamented with paintings relative to the 
 worship of Isis; they have found there, 
 among others, the figures of priests in their 
 habits ; their vestment was of white linen, 
 the heads of the officiating priests were 
 shaven, their feet were covered with a 
 fine and light lace, through which one 
 distinguishes the muscles. It appears that 
 in the sanctuary of this foreign divinity, 
 they granted also places to other divini- 
 ties, for they have found there statues of 
 Bacchus, Venus, and Priapus, the great- 
 est part in wood, with feet and hands in 
 marble ; that of Priapus was more than 
 the others enriched with that durable ma- 
 terial, especially at the m.ember which 
 characterizes this divinity. All which 
 were transportable of these different ob- 
 jects have been placed in the Museum de 
 Portici. It would be desirable that they 
 had separated them there from other an- 
 tiquities, because those who had seen the 
 temple might be better able to recognise 
 the instruments and utensils which they 
 found there. 
 
 The temple had the form of a long 
 square, and v/as not covered. A covered 
 gallery supported by columns surrounded 
 the temple ; it served for a shelter in case 
 of bad weather. In the middle was raised a 
 small chapel, to which you are led by some 
 steps, and which appears to have been the 
 sanctuary of the goddess. At the bottom 
 was probably the place where they assem- 
 bled those initiated, and on the side one sees 
 another cellar,in which the three statues of 
 Venus, Bacchus, and Priapus were united 
 in one niche. The principa.1 entrance to 
 the temple was on the side of the street of 
 Pompeii ; and on each side of the entrance 
 was an altar, before a figure of the goddess, 
 wrought in basso rilievo. The grand altar 
 upon which they sacrificed was three feet 
 and a half high ; and they have found 
 there ashes and bones partly broken and 
 burnt. The principal door of the interior 
 
sanctuary consisted of two wings; they 
 have found there still the brass hinges 
 upon wliich these were put in motion ; 
 whicli have been carried to the Museum de 
 Portici. Above tlie door is an inscription, 
 by which one sees that " Nonius Popidius 
 Celsinus liad reconstructed, at his ex- 
 pense, and from (he foundativns, this tem- 
 ple of Isis, whicli an earthquake had de- 
 stroyed ; and that, to recompense this libe- 
 rality, he had been, at the age of sixty 
 years, received gratis in the college of the 
 Decurions." This inscription, as well as 
 the ancient pavement of lava, proves then 
 that this country has often been exposed 
 to volcanic eruptions. Perhaps the earth- 
 quake which this inscription mentions is 
 that which Seneca and Strabo speak of, 
 whicli shook and overthrew the most part 
 of the editices of Herculaneum and Pom- 
 peii, obliged the inhabitants to fly, and 
 menaced them with the most disastrous 
 ruin. Upon a fine pavement in musaic 
 they have found still another inscription, 
 which appears to indicate that this pave- 
 ment was made at the expense of Corelia 
 (probably Cornelia) Celsa, wife, daughter, 
 or parent of Popidius Celsinus, who built 
 the temple. The skeleton of a priest, 
 which they have found upon this pave- 
 ment, has caused it to be thouglit that the 
 place was devoted to priests, and to the 
 initiated of the first class. This skeleton 
 was near a marble table ; it appears that 
 this priest had been surprised by the vol- 
 canic eruption at tiie moment he was going 
 to eat fish, for in digging they have still 
 found the relics dispersed, and some ves- 
 sels which were used to prepare this sort 
 of food. We know, from Plutarch, that 
 the priests of Isis might not live upon any 
 tiling but fish. The statue of the goddess 
 in white marble was found in this sanc- 
 tuary. It was placed upon a square base; 
 and is of a very agreeable style. Near it 
 has been found a stone table, covered with 
 hieroglyphics : the great altar on whicli 
 they sacrificed is also of an elegant form. 
 There are still to be found liicre dillcrent 
 ornaments, dillcrcint fragments of columns 
 ■which decorated the sanctuary, masks of 
 baked earth, whicli served, at tiie same 
 time, as ornaments, and to colled (he rain 
 Waters. Probably the roof of the gallery 
 was ornamented with similar nmsks ; the 
 open mouth served to give elllux to (he 
 Water. They have found there ct'iisers or 
 accrrcE, in thin iron, serving to burn the 
 perfumes. 
 
 Near tlu' wall, and upon an elcvati'd 
 place, are I lie remains of a temple of (ireck 
 architeclure : these remains resemble 
 
 POMPEII. 
 
 pretty much those found in the ruins of 
 Psestum. The pavement of the temple, 
 whicli may still be seen, formed an oblong 
 square, and is raised upon steps, whicli 
 surround it on all sides. It had a colon- 
 nade, which formed a covered gallery. 
 
 The small remains which are found of 
 this edifice would indicate that it had 
 been destroyed in an eruption anterior to 
 that which drew with it the ruin of the 
 whole town ; as we have seen above that 
 the temple of Isis had already sustained 
 before a like catastrophe. On the side of 
 this monument are still seen five steps of 
 twelve inches in height, and fourteen in 
 breadth : the entrance was from the side 
 of the sea, and nine steps, six inches in 
 height, formed a projection, and conducted 
 to tlie peristyle. It appears that it had 
 eight columns at the facade, and eleven 
 along the side. The musaic pavement is 
 still inlaid in many places, and shows 
 plainly that the temple had two divisions: 
 the most distant was probably the sanc- 
 tuary : there exists still a round and insu- 
 lated altar, and, without, a long square 
 stone upon which the victims were placed. 
 As to the rest, it appears that this monu- 
 ment is the most ancient of all those at Pom- 
 peii. Its dimensions, what remains of its 
 columns, &c. prove that it was of noble and 
 majestic architecture : it appears that it 
 was a periptery. The place upon which 
 it is built is ninety-one feet in length, and 
 near sixty-four in breadth : the columns 
 are of the Doric order; their diameter is 
 three feet and a half: it appears that 
 their height was equal to six diameters. 
 They have found here a moulding in 
 baked earth which probably surrounded 
 the cornice, and which, adorned with 
 these masks, of which wo have spoken 
 above, serves to give ettlux to the rain 
 water. 
 
 Between this temple and that of Isis, 
 which we have spoken of above, there 
 was a spacious edifice which, according 
 to all appearance, has served for an apart- 
 ment and place of arms to the Roman sol- 
 diers : which is the reason it has been 
 called the soldiers' quarter. This edifice 
 has least sufl'ered from the earthquake, 
 because it was of less height, anil was of 
 a lighter construction. Experience has 
 proved that high edifices, and of a massy 
 construction, are much niore exposed to 
 bo ruined by earthquakes liian frail and 
 light buildings. Sicily, among others, 
 furnishes more than one example of tem- 
 ples wiiich one should think ought (o have 
 been preserved by their colossal size and 
 the solidity of their construction. 
 
POMPEII. 
 
 It is precisely the light architecture and 
 little elevation of the greater part of the 
 houses of Pompeii which has caused them 
 to be so well preserved. In the quarter 
 of the soldiery they have found almost all 
 the walls, and nearly all the columns, en- 
 tire. The form of this edifice is that of a 
 long square, and it is surrounded by co- 
 lumns, and a covered gallery. This gal- 
 lery communicated with several chambers 
 or cells placed along, and which probably 
 served as lodging rooms for the soldiers. 
 The interior court, in length about twenty- 
 three toises, and breadth seventeen, served 
 probably for military exercises. The co- 
 lumns are of the Doric order : they have 
 no base ; they are in height eleven feet, 
 and their diameter is eighteen inches. 
 The gallery between the colonnade and 
 the wall is thirteen feet seven inches wide. 
 It served for a promenade, and, at the 
 same time, to shelter the cells, in each of 
 which were lodged, probably, four sol- 
 diers, for in each there are four armoin-s. 
 These cells were not of equal dimensions : 
 all were very small, covered with stucco, 
 ornamented with arabesque paintings and 
 musaic pavements. They were shut in by 
 means of a folding door, which opened on 
 the inside, as may be judged by the situa- 
 tion of the threshold. They received the 
 light only by the door, and perhaps some- 
 times by an opening contrived in the ceil- 
 ing. The size of two of these sets of ar- 
 mour, and the weight of the helmets which 
 have been found in one of these chambers, 
 have induced some persons to think that 
 they were only trophies raised to orna- 
 ment these places : however, as they were 
 covered with cloth, we have reason to be- 
 lieve that they were really used. Among 
 the armours which had been found there, 
 there is, according to M. Hamilton, a helmet 
 upon which is engraved the siege of Troy. 
 These helmets were nearly similar to those 
 of our ancient warriors in the times of 
 chivalry, and were furnished with vizors. 
 There is still found there a trumpet of 
 brass, of a form rather singular; six ivory 
 pipes fixed to the lower part unite in one 
 single mouth-piece : they have no holes to 
 vary the tones, but the difference of their 
 diameters would produce different sounds, 
 which, joined to the sound of the trump-jt, 
 must have formed a military music, very 
 noisy, although a little monotonous. The 
 bronze chain which was attached to it has 
 served, no doubt, to hang it upon the shoul- 
 der. The neatness of these chambers, the 
 finish of the paintings with which they were 
 ornamented, the musaic which formed their 
 
 pavement, contrasts very much with the 
 darkness which must have reigned there, 
 and the little ease which they aflbrded to 
 those who inhabited them : but it appears 
 that the soldiers, as well as the greatest 
 part of the inhabitants of Pompeii, passed 
 the greatest part of their time upon the 
 terraces and in the galleries, and returned 
 in their chambers only to sleep, or, at the 
 most, to take some repast. It is at least 
 this which the distribution of almost all 
 the edifices discovered at Pompeii would 
 induce one to believe. It is this which 
 has made many persons to think that this 
 edifice was rather destined to military ex- 
 ercises and gymnastics than to dwelling- 
 houses. M. Bartels, in his Letters upon 
 Calabria, says, however, that it was a true 
 lodging-house ; and he supports his opi- 
 nion principally by the resemblance of this 
 quarter with the Villa of Hadrian at Ti- 
 voli. In this case, however, it must be 
 granted, that the garrison of Pompeii 
 could not be very sti'ong, and did not much 
 exceed forty soldiers. There are there 
 also larger chambers, which are consi- 
 dered as the abode of the commander ; 
 because at a little distance have been 
 found the skeletons of some slaves, and of 
 a horse loaded with clothes, stuffs, and 
 valuable effects, which they endeavour- 
 ed probably to save. At some steps fur- 
 ther there was a peristyle ornamented 
 with columns, with fine capitals; probably 
 this was the side door. Very near ano- 
 ther door leads, by means of four steps, to 
 a place which was equally surrounded 
 with a covered gallery, supported by Ionic 
 columns. 
 
 To the right is the entrance of a little 
 theatre, which is believed to have been 
 covered : the steps only are seen, the rest 
 is covered with ruins. Some travellers 
 think that this edifice was an odeon. To 
 the left of the door of the soldiers' quarter 
 there are five little divisions, chambers, or 
 cells, in one of which has been found a 
 handmill ; and one of the others appears 
 to have served as a prison to the soldiers 
 that they had put in irons. They have 
 found there several skeletons which ap- 
 pear to have belonged to the unhappy sol- 
 diers who, at the time of the eruption, 
 found themselves here in prison, and with- 
 out the possibility of saving themselves. 
 The disposition of these skeletons makes 
 it appear that the manner of putting pri- 
 soners in irons resembled that which is 
 still in use in many countries. Their feet 
 were placed upon a block of wood, and 
 underneath passed an iron which held 
 
POM 
 
 them, and which was fixed to the block 
 by solid nails. The remains of tiiis edi- 
 fice, in other respects, demonstrate clearly 
 enough that it made part of a theatre, to 
 which it appears to have served for a pe- 
 ristyle. The proscenium of this theatre is, 
 in a great part, discovered, and appears to 
 have been of a form similar to that of 
 Heiculaneura, The covered gallery with 
 which it was surrounded, and where are 
 found the vomitories, is also in a great 
 part discovered. 
 
 The construction of the houses of Pom- 
 peii shows that this town must have been 
 built upon a very unequal surface, perhaps 
 even upon the extinguished crater of an 
 ancient volcano ; at least, it appears that 
 it had subterranean communications with 
 Vesuvius, for at the present time a cellar, 
 which has been found under the terrace 
 of a small house, is filled in such a man- 
 ner with a suffocating effluvia, that it is 
 oecessai7 to use every precaution on en- 
 tering it. When this cellar was disco- 
 vered, there was found there the skeleton 
 of a woman, stretched out by the side of 
 a large vase, near a stove which heated, 
 at the same time, two bathing rooms and 
 a dark rotunda, lighted only by an open- 
 ing contrived in the roof. This place is 
 equally remarkable to the naturalist and 
 tlie antiquary. The vase, by the side of 
 which the skeleton is stretched upon a 
 heap of cinders, is three feet and a half in 
 diameter, and appears to have served for 
 a bathing tub. The place where the ske- 
 leton is found, and its position, evince that 
 the person has been suddenly thrown 
 down, which was, without doubt, the eflfect 
 of an ai,phixy produced by the noxious 
 eflluvia. It is owing to the counsels and 
 solicitations of M. Hamilton, that travel- 
 lers find this skeleton still in the place 
 and position it was discovered in; it is 
 certain that it makes here a much live- 
 lier impression than if it had been trans- 
 ported to the Cabinet of Portici. It may 
 be said that it is nearly tlie same with re- 
 spect to other antiquities found at I'ompeii 
 and Herculaneum. 
 
 Even at the present day, the entrance of 
 this cellar is sometimes dangerous, on ac- 
 count of the mci)hitic air witii wliic li it is 
 •)ften filled. At other times these exhala- 
 tions are less sensible, or do not rise suf- 
 ficently to reach the organs of respiration. 
 Tiiis ciive and many others evince that 
 these fatal exiialatioiis are snl>ject to vari- 
 ations, which dejx'nd, ix-rhnps, on the at- 
 mosphere; or on tin; state of the nearest 
 volcauocB, which communicate with these 
 
 POR 
 
 subterraneous places. Relative to Pom- 
 peii the works cited at the conclusion of 
 the article Hercli^nelm may be con- 
 sulted. 
 
 PoMPEiON. [Gr.] In architecture. Name 
 of a sumptuous edifice of Athens, in which 
 all the sacred utensils and other things 
 necessary for the celebration of the fetes 
 were reposited. It was erected at the 
 entrance of tlie ancient city, by the side of 
 the port of Phalerus, and embellished with 
 a multitude of statues of heroes. This 
 building had been thus denominated be- 
 cause they transported thither, willi much 
 pomp and display, all those articles which 
 appertained to the worship of the gods. 
 
 PoNDERATioN. [Lat. poudus, a weight.] 
 In painting, sculpture, &cc. The act of 
 weighing or balancing. It is indispensable 
 that the artist should pay careful atten- 
 tion to this matter, in drawing his difl!'cr- 
 ent figures, for without such attention he 
 can give them neither attitudes nor move- 
 ments that shall be just and conformable 
 to nature. 
 
 Poplar, [populus, Lat. peupUer, Fr.] In 
 archaiology. Carlo Fea ranks this tree 
 amongst those which were used by the 
 ancients in the making of statues. Nei- 
 ther Pliny nor Pausanias, however, bear 
 him out in this application of it. 
 
 Poppy, [popij, Saxon.] In archaiology. 
 The Egyptians had a sort of veneration 
 for this plant, which is found depicted 
 upon several of their monuments. They 
 represented the god of sleep as crowned 
 with poppies, an emblem which has apper- 
 tained to this deity ever since. Some- 
 times he was seen couched upon a bed 
 thereof. The poppy was also consecrated 
 to Ceres. It was esteemed as a symbol 
 of fecundity, on account of the number of 
 seeds produced by each. In the Corpus 
 Inscrii)tionu!n of G niter (vol. i. \). 102), wo 
 find the engraving of a basso riliero which 
 represents Hope holding ears of corn and 
 heads of poppies. A red jasper, in the 
 collection of Stosch, exhibits a poppy-head 
 encircled by a serpent. Further inlorma- 
 tion on the subject may be obtained by 
 consulting a work cntitli>d : — MiLonopaig- 
 nion ; .sire, Vapaver t:r omni Autiiiuitule 
 irutitm, (iemniis, Nummis, &i-c. Alrl incisia 
 illiistratum, Noriberg;e, 17 KJ, Ito. Fre- 
 derick IMiehiiel Lochnar, the author of this 
 work, has liieriin <'olieclecl all those an- 
 cient monuments whereon the poppy is 
 depicted. 
 
 Porcelain. [Fr. pnrciiiiue.'] In painting, 
 moilclliiig, &c. This beautiliil species of 
 earthenware is jirincipally manufactured 
 
PORCELAIN. 
 
 in China : and this being the case, it is 
 curious that the natives of that country 
 are quite unable to pronounce the word 
 itself which has been applied to it by Eu- 
 ropeans, their language comprising no 
 such sounds. Some say that the deriva- 
 tion is from the French pour cent ann£es — 
 in consequence of a notion that the mate- 
 rials of porcelain were matured during that 
 period under ground. 
 
 All white and semitransparent earthen- 
 wares receive the common appellation of 
 porcelain. Yet among these there are in- 
 finite varieties ; and the propriety of affix- 
 ing one generic name to the whole may 
 well be doubted. 
 
 As we have already said, China is the 
 principal source from whence valuable por- 
 celains are drawn, and to that country 
 Japan may be added ; there have been, 
 however, some very successful potteries 
 establislied in various European nations, 
 such as France, Saxony, and more recently 
 in England, Italy, Germany, &c. At the 
 same time, these sorts differ not only from 
 those of the eastern nations, but from each 
 other also. 
 
 Tse-ki is the name given to this compo- 
 sition in China, and the two chief ingre- 
 dients employed in it are called p^-tiin-tse, 
 and kao-lin, from the union of which the 
 paste is produced. The former consists of 
 fragments of rock extracted from certain 
 quarries, and reduced to a very fine pow- 
 der. The colour of the best kinds inclines 
 slightly towards green. The /iao-^in, closely 
 examined, appears to be nothing else than 
 a very pure white sand, intermixed with 
 shining particles. In proportion as these 
 materials are pure, and of good colour, the 
 porcelain becomes more or less valuable. 
 
 The art of fabricating porcelain appears 
 to have been understood at a very early 
 period, and we are ignorant of its actual 
 origin. That the Egyptians were ac- 
 quainted therewith is pretty evident. From 
 Egypt it most probably passed into Asia, 
 and the Chinese empire having undergone 
 few or no revolutions, those arts once in- 
 troduced there were the more likely to be 
 retained. 
 
 Authors and historians speak of a re- 
 markable monument existing in the vast 
 plain situated near the city of Nankin. 
 It is an octagon tower, with nine arched 
 stories, encrusted with marble in the inte- 
 rior, and covered with porcelain without, 
 from which circumstance it has received 
 the appellation of the porcelain tower. At 
 each story is a gallery, and all are covered 
 with roofs of a green colour, supported by 
 gilded rafters, from which depend little 
 
 copper bells, which, agitated by the wincf, 
 send forth an agreeable sound. The point 
 of this curious structure is surmounted by 
 a pineapple said to be of solid gold, and 
 the workmanship of the whole is so skil- 
 ful, that the spectator can by no means 
 detect the places at which the several 
 pieces of porcelain are joined together, 
 whilst the lead and enamel covering diffe- 
 rent parts of the building, glazed witli 
 green, yellow, and red, give it, at somo 
 little distance, the effect of being enriched 
 with gold, emeralds, and rubies. Fischer 
 has represented this tower in his Eased 
 d" Architecture Historique. It seems to have 
 subsisted for eight hundred years without 
 receiving injury. 
 
 In the fabrication of poixelain the larger 
 works are executed in parts, which are 
 subsequently put together, and cemented 
 with paste of the same substance softened 
 with water. The seams being polished 
 with an instrument on both sides, no trace 
 remains of them after the vessel has been 
 covered with varnish. Thus are added 
 such pieces as have been either fashioned 
 upon moulds or modelled with the hand — 
 for example, the embossed works, gro- 
 tesque images, figures of animals or plants, 
 busts, &;c. With regard to that descrip- 
 tion of ornaments not in rilievo, they are 
 either put on with a stamp or engraven. 
 
 A piece of porcelain having been pro- 
 perly fashioned and prepared, is handed 
 over to the workmen employed to paint 
 thereon. These hoa-pei, as they are deno- 
 minated, possess no regular rules of art, 
 but being generally ignorant men, and en- 
 gaged in a mechanical pursuit, content 
 themselves Avith representations of the 
 most absurd and monstrous kind : all their 
 knowledge, indeed, is the result of prac- 
 tice, guided in most cases by a whimsical 
 fancy. Some of these, howevei", as may 
 be imagined, discover more taste than 
 others ; and tliere are, consequently, some- 
 times to be met with instances of well 
 painted animals, flowers, and even land- 
 scapes, on this elegant kind of ware. The 
 human figure is generally the worst exe- 
 cuted. 
 
 The artist who should feel disposed to 
 paint upon porcelain should, above all 
 things, attach himself to the exquisite 
 forms and graceful proportions which have 
 come-down to us upon the Grecian vases 
 and other relics of antiquity : and it is also 
 essential that the subject represented on 
 each piece, whether a vase, a dish, a drink- 
 ing cup, &c. should bear some relation to 
 the purpose for which the article is meant, 
 while a uniformity of design should run 
 
POR 
 
 llirousli the various pieces intended to 
 make up a service. 
 
 With respect to the history of Chinese 
 porcelain, and the art of fabricating it, the 
 reader is referred to the description of 
 Father d'EntrecoUer, Jesuit, to be found 
 in the Recueil des Lettrcs Fdifinnfcs, antl 
 since tlien copied into the llistuire ile Id 
 Chine of Father Du Halde, and the Re- 
 CKcil des Obsiirvations curieuses. 
 
 Porch. [Fr. porclie, Lat. porticus, from 
 yorta, a gate.] In architecture. An arched 
 way or vestibule at the entrance of a build- 
 ing, more particularly used in churches. 
 This porch is sometimes supported by co- 
 lumns or pillars ; and anciently, when it 
 had four columns in front, was called 
 tetrastyle ; when six, hexasfyle; when eight, 
 octostyle, &C. 
 
 PoKK. [Lat. ;wrc)«.] The animal whose 
 flesh is thus denominated was held sacred 
 among many of the nations of antiquity, 
 particularly by the Cretans. The Egyp- 
 tians, on the other hand, held it to be un- 
 clean and foul, and the eastern nations 
 generally, as has been supposed by philo- 
 sophers, were forbidden to use it as food, 
 from motives of health, on account of the 
 heating and exciting nature of its flesh. 
 
 Porphyry. [Gr. from 7ro^)^vpa, purple.] 
 Jn architecture, statuary, 6cc. Winckel- 
 mann, in his Observations on the History of 
 Art, asserts that it is by no means sure 
 that Egypt x)roduced any works in por- 
 phyry, and probably the attention bestow- 
 ed by that people on the syenites (which 
 word see) occasioned them to neglect, for 
 a long while, the jwrphyrites, according to 
 which opinion, works in the latter sub- 
 stance cannot be traced back to any very 
 remote antifjuity. If, indeed, it be ad- 
 mitted that a few specimens of porpiiyry 
 Btatues of Egyptian workmanship actually 
 exist, the very small number of these relics 
 go a good way to bear out A\'inckelmann's 
 theory. 
 
 The mixture, in this stone, of red (or 
 rather purple) and white seems to have 
 been disai>proved of by the ancient Gre- 
 cian and Roman artisis in a great degree, 
 and considered unlit for statues of high 
 pretension. J*liny, after having related 
 that Pallio, goxernor of ICgypt, had jirc- 
 sentcd to the emperor Cllaudian certain 
 statues of j)ori)hyry, which were trans- 
 ported from Egypt to Kome,a(lils that they 
 were regarded rather in the iigiitof a fan- 
 ciful novelty liian as possessing intrinsic 
 exceiience. 
 
 Notwithstanding these objections, the 
 p(irph\ry of the ancients is undoubtedly a 
 most elegant mass, of structure both tirm 
 
 POR 
 
 and compact, remarkably heavy, and of a 
 fine strong purple, variegated more or less 
 with pale red and white ; its purple is of 
 all gradations, from claret colour to that 
 of the violet ; its variegations being rarely 
 disposed in grains so much as in spots, 
 sometimes very small, but occasionally 
 running into large blotches. It is less fine 
 than many of the ordinal^ marbles; but 
 excels them all in hardness, and is capable 
 of bearing a high polish. It is still found 
 in immense strata in Egypt. The hard, 
 red-lead coloured porphyry, variegated 
 with black, white, and green, is a most 
 beautiful and valuable substance. It pos- 
 sesses the hardness and all the other cha- 
 racteristics of the oriental porphyry ; and 
 even greatly excels it in the brightness 
 and variety of its tints. It is found in 
 great plenty in the island of Minorca, and 
 is well ■v\orth importing, being greatly 
 superior to all the Italian marbles. The 
 hard, pale-red porphyry, variegated with 
 black, white, and green, is of a pale flesh 
 colour, often approaching to white. It is 
 variegated in blotches, from half an inch 
 to an inch broad, takes a considerable 
 polish, and emulates all the qualities of 
 the oriental porphjry. This is found in 
 huge veins in Arabia Petraea and Upper 
 Egypt ; and in separate nodules in Ger- 
 many, England, and Ireland. 
 
 Ficorini takes notice of two exquisitely 
 fine columns of black porphyry in a church 
 at Rome. In Egypt there are three cele- 
 brated obelisks or pillars of porphyry ; 
 two at Alexandria, and the third near 
 Cairo. The French call them ai^iUcs, 
 and among oursehes they are termed Cleo- 
 patra's needles. 
 
 The art of cutting porphyry, practised 
 by the ancients, appears to be now quite 
 lost. Indeed it is dillieult to imagine 
 what kind of tools they employed where- 
 with to fashion those huge columns aud 
 other porphyry works, in some of the an- 
 cient Roman i)uildings. A tomb of Con- 
 stantia, daughter of C'onstantine, is one of 
 these remains, and still ( ntire. It is com- 
 monly called the tomb of Itacehus, and is 
 in the church of St. Agues. In the palace 
 of the Tuilleries there is likewise a bust 
 of Apollo, and of the twelve empertirs, all 
 in porphyry. Some ancient pieces seem to 
 liave been wrought with the chisel, others 
 with the saw, others whh wh(>els, iiud 
 others again gradually ground down with 
 emery : yet modern tools will scarcely 
 touch i)or[)hyry. Dr. Lister, therefme, 
 thinks ( yVj/7.r)/»fi.v. No. 203), that the un- 
 eients must have had the secret of femi)er- 
 ing steel beltir than we ; and not as othera 
 
 I 
 
POR 
 
 have advanceil,that they possessed means 
 of softening tlie porphyry ; though, on t!ie 
 other hand, it is probalile that time and 
 air have contributed to increase its hard- 
 ness. Mr. Addison states his liaving seen 
 a workman at Rome engaged in cutting 
 jsorphyry; but his advances were ex- 
 tremely slow, and, in fact, almost insensi- 
 ble. The Italian sculptors work the pieces 
 of old porphyry columns still remaining (for 
 their quarries are long since lost), with a 
 brass saw without teeth. AYith this saw, 
 emery, and water, they rub and wear the 
 stone with infinite patience. Many per- 
 sons have endeavoured to retrieve the an- 
 cient art ; and particularly Leon Baptista 
 Alberti, who, searching for necessary ma- 
 terials for temper, says he found goat's 
 blood the best of any ; but even this avail- 
 ed not much ; for, in working with chisels 
 tempered therewith, sparks of fire were 
 tlirown oft' much more abundantly than 
 pieces of the stone. The sculptors were 
 thus, however, able to make a flat or oval 
 form ; but never could attain to any thing 
 like a figure. 
 
 In the year 1555, Cosmo di Medicis is 
 said to have distilled a water from certain 
 herbs, by help of which his sculptor, Fran- 
 cesco Tadda, gave his tools such an admi- 
 rable hardness, and so fine a temper, that 
 he performed some most exquisite works 
 with them, particularly a head of Christ, 
 in demi-rilievo, together with those of Cos- 
 mo and his duchess. The very hair and 
 beard, how difficult soever, are here well 
 executed, and there is nothing at all supe- 
 rior, in these respects, in ancient art ; but 
 the secret appears to have died with him. 
 The French have discovered another mode 
 of cutting porphyry — namely, with an iron 
 saw destitute of teeth, grez (a kind of free- 
 stone pulverized), and water. The inven- 
 tors of this method say, that they could 
 form the whole contour hereby, if they 
 had matter to work on. Others have pro- 
 posed to harden tools to cut porphyry by 
 steeping them in the juice of the plant 
 called brankursine, or bear's breech. Birch's 
 Hist. R. S. vol. i. p. 238 ; vol ii. p. 73, &c. 
 Mr. Boyle says, that he caused porphyry 
 to be cut by means of emery, steel saws, 
 and water ; and observes that in his time 
 the English were ignorant of the manner 
 of working porphyry, none of them under- 
 taking to cut or polish it. 
 
 Da Costa supposes, and perhaps with 
 reason, that the method used by the an- 
 cients in cutting and engraving porphyry 
 was extremely simple, and that it was 
 performed without the aid of any scientific 
 means since extinct. He imagines that, 
 
 V 11 
 
 by unwearied diligence, and with numl)ers 
 of common tools, they rudely hewed or 
 broke the stone into tlie intended figures, 
 and by continued application reduced them 
 into more regular designs ; that they then 
 completed the work by polishing it, with 
 great labour, througli the aid of particular, 
 hard sands found in Egypt. And he thinks 
 that in the porphyry quarries there were 
 layers of grit, or loose disunited particles, 
 analogous to the porpliyry, which tliey 
 carefully sought for, and employed for 
 this purpose. See Nat. Hist, of Fossils, 
 p. 285. 
 
 Portal, \_portail, Fr. from porta, a gate, 
 Lat.] In architecture. The lesser gate 
 where there are two at an entrance, of 
 different dimensions ; or perhaps, more 
 properly speaking, the arch, whether of 
 joiner's work or masonry, over the door or 
 gale. 
 
 PoRTici. In architecture. A palace of 
 the king of Naples, six miles from the ca- 
 pital. It is situated on the seaside, near 
 Mount Vesuvius, and embellished with a 
 quantity of interesting relics of antiquity 
 discovered in the ruins of Herculaneum 
 and Pompeii ; such as frescoes, statues,&c. 
 Tlie Portici Museum comprises sixteen 
 rooms, in which the various articles are 
 arranged by the hand of a refined taste. 
 The floors are paved with musaic, taken 
 from the recovered towns, and the waKs 
 of the court are lined with inscriptions. 
 Independently of paintings, statues, busts, 
 medals, intaglios, lamps, tripods, &:c. there 
 is scaixely any article that was in use 
 among the ancients, a specimen of which 
 is not comprehended in this interesting 
 collection. But perhaps the most valuable 
 room of all is the library, on account of 
 the numerous MS. rolls contained therein. 
 Speaking of the wonders of the Portici 
 Museum, Mr. Mathews observes, in his 
 entertaining work, the Diary of an Inva- 
 lid: — "The museum consists principally 
 of specimens of the paintings found at 
 Pompeii. These remains are very inter- 
 esting, as illustrative of the stale of the 
 art amongst the Romans ; but it would be 
 ridiculous to take the paintings on the 
 walls of the houses of a provincial town 
 as the standard of their skill. 
 
 " It is fair to suppose, that the taste of 
 the ancients was as refined and fastidious 
 in painting, as in the sister art of sculp- 
 ture ; and that the praises which they 
 have lavished upon Zeuxis and Apelles, 
 would have been supported by their works, 
 if these works had come down to us. 
 
 " All traces of these great masters are 
 lost ; but we know some of the most ad- 
 
 R R 
 
FOR 
 
 mired pieces of the latter were brought by 
 Augustus to Rome; and Pliny's descrip- 
 tions, which do remain, seem to demon- 
 strate tiiat they must have been executed 
 in a mucii higher style of finishing, and 
 with a technical knowledge, that will in 
 vain be sought in the painted walls of 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii. Many of 
 these, however, are designed with great 
 taste, grace, and feeling ; and, if we sup- 
 pose that the works of Zeuxis and Apelles 
 were as superior to these, as the Last 
 Judgment, and the School of Athens, are to 
 the painted walls of a modern Italian 
 room, we shall probably not form too high 
 an estimate of the excellence of the great 
 masters of ancient art. One of the most 
 elegant figures in this museum, is the pic- 
 ture of a female, with a pencil and tablets 
 in her hand, which they call Sappho. The 
 story of the picture is often plain, as in 
 that of Orestes, Pylades, and Iphigenia, 
 in the temple of Diana. — In another there 
 is an old woman selling Cupids to a young 
 female, behind whom stands a sort of Du- 
 enna, in the attitude of advice and cau- 
 tion. The old retailer of loves holds a 
 fluttering Cupid by the wings, and has 
 another in her cage. 
 
 " We have also a specimen of their taste 
 in caricature. A little delicate chariot, 
 that might have been made by tlie fairies' 
 coachmaker, is drawn by a parrot, and 
 driven by a grasshopper. This is said to 
 be a satirical representation of Nero's ab- 
 surd pretensions as a singer and a driver ; 
 for Suetonius tells us, he made his debut 
 on the Neapolitan theatre : — Et prodiit 
 Neapoli primum : ibidem swp'nis et per com- 
 plures cantavit dies. 
 
 " Here is a curious picture of a school- 
 master's room, with an unhappy culprit 
 horsed on the back of one of his fellows ; 
 precisely as tlie same discipline is adminis- 
 tered in many parts of England at present. 
 
 " Many articles, even of food, are to be 
 seen preserved in a charcoal state. There 
 is a loaf of bread on which the baker's 
 name is still visible. 
 
 " It is easy to recognise the dilleront 
 fruits and vcgotablen, corn, rice, ligs, al- 
 monds, walnuts, beans, lentils, &c. They 
 show you also the remains of a woman, 
 found among the ashes, (he skull of which 
 is still perfect; with the iiecklace and 
 bracelets of gold, which she nuist have 
 hud on. Time lias hardened the liquid 
 shower which overwiiehned her, recording 
 that she perished in the prime of youth, 
 by Die impression that remains of her 
 beautiful bosom. 
 
 *' The only relic of the temple of Isis is 
 
 FOR 
 
 a priapic goblet ; from the spout of which 
 it is plain that the votaries must have 
 quailed the wine." 
 
 Portico. [Italian, from porticos, Lat.] 
 In architecture. A continued range of co- 
 lumns, covered at top in order to serve as 
 a shelter from the weather; also a com- 
 mon name for buildings which had such 
 covered walks supported by pillars. Hav- 
 ing these distinctions, when the portico 
 was on the outside of the structure, it was 
 called periptcrium, and when in the inside 
 of a hall, court, &c. 2)eristylium, the place 
 for walking, porticus. Among (he ancients 
 these were highly ornamented, and of 
 great extent. The remains of the portico 
 at PalmyRjV (see that word) show it to 
 have been full four thousand feet long. 
 There was a square portico at Athens, 
 adorned with Corinthian columns, and a 
 great variety of excellent paintings, and 
 thence called Poecile (see P(ECIle.) — A 
 piazza encompassed with arches supported 
 by pillars, the roof of which is sometimes 
 vaulted, sometimes (lat. Among modern 
 porticoes, those of the grand facade of the 
 Louvre and of the great court of the Hos- 
 pital of Invalids at Paris, and that at 
 Greenwich Hospital, in our own country, 
 deserve to be particularized. 
 
 I'oRTL.\NU Stone. A well known spe- 
 cies of free sand-stone, produced from a 
 peninsula so called in Dorsetshire, and 
 greatly employed in London as well as 
 various provincial towns, for building the 
 finest structures. It is not equal however 
 to Bath stone in beauty or freeness of 
 working, but is more durable. 
 
 Portland Vase. A celebrated funeral 
 vase, which was long in the possession of 
 the liarberini family, but was purchased for 
 one thousand guineas by the late Duke of 
 Portland, from whom it derives its present 
 name. Its height is about ten inches, ajid 
 its diameter, where broadest, six. There 
 are a variety of figures upon it, of most ex- 
 quisite workmanship, in Ixissu rilicvo, in 
 white opaque glass, raised on a ground of 
 deep blue glass,which appears black except 
 when held against tiie light. It appears 
 to have been the work of many years, and 
 there are anticiuarians who date its pro- 
 duction several centuries before the Chris- 
 tian era, as sculpture unciuestionably ile- 
 tliiu'd since (he (irne of Alexaniler the 
 Great. 
 
 Kespccting the purpose of (his vase, and 
 wha( the figures on it were meant to re- 
 present, it would be unavailing (o conjec- 
 ture. Dr. Darwin disstints from the opi- 
 nion (ha( it was made for the ashes of 
 some particular individual, and the sub- 
 
P O R 
 
 jf'cl of its embellishments arc most proba- 
 bly of a general rather than a private 
 nature. 
 
 In one compartment, three exquisite 
 figures are placed on a ruined column, the 
 capital of which is fallen, and lies at their 
 feet among other disjointed stones : they 
 sit under a tree on loose piles of stone. 
 The middle figure is that of a female in a 
 reclining and dying attitude, with an in- 
 verted torch in her left hand, tiie elbow of 
 which supports her as she sinks, while 
 the right hand is raised and thrown over 
 her drooping head. The figure on her 
 right hand is a man, and that on her left a 
 woman, both supporting themselves on 
 their urns, and apparently thinking in- 
 tensely. Their backs are to the dying 
 figure, towards whom, however, their 
 faces are turned, although without their 
 making one effort to assist her. On ano- 
 ther compartment of the vase is a figure 
 coming througli a portal, and going down 
 with extreme timidity into a darker region, 
 where he is received by a beautiful female, 
 who stretches fovtli her hand to help him: 
 between her knees is a large and playful 
 serpent. She sits with her feet towards 
 an aged figure, who has one foot sunk into 
 the earth, and the other raised on a co- 
 lumn, with his chin resting on his hand. 
 Above the female figure is a Cupid pre- 
 ceding the first figure, and beckoning him 
 to advance. This first figure holds a cloak or 
 garment, which he seems anxious to bring 
 with him, but which adheres to the side 
 of the portal through which he has passed. 
 In this compartment there are two trees, 
 one of which bends over the female figure, 
 and the other over the aged one. On the 
 bottom of tjie vase there is another figure 
 on a larger scale than that we have al- 
 ready mentioned, but not so well finished 
 nor so elevated. This figure points with 
 its finger to its mouth. The dress appears 
 to be cumbersome and curious, and above 
 is the foliage of a tree. On the head of 
 the figure there is a Phrygian cap : it is 
 not easy to say whether this figure be male 
 or female. On the handles of the vase 
 are represented two aged heads with the 
 ears of a quadruped, and from the middle 
 of the forehead rises a kind of tree with- 
 out leaves. These latter are in all proba- 
 bility mere ornaments, and have no con- 
 nexion with the rest of the figures, or with 
 the story represented on the vase. 
 
 Portrait, [from the verb to porfraii.'\ 
 In painting. The representation of a per- 
 son, or more particularly of a face, taken 
 from real life. Portraits are either full 
 length, half length, &:c. and when as large 
 
 POU 
 
 as the life are generally painted in oil 
 colours : sometimes they are execute-'d in 
 miniature with water colours, crayons, 
 pastils, &c. See Painting, and the article 
 now following. 
 
 Portrait Painting. This is a very im- 
 portant branch of the art, as will be obvi- 
 ous on the least consideration : for, since! 
 the human face is allowed on all hands to 
 form the grand vehicle of expression, and 
 to contain indeed traits whereby the ac- 
 tual character of the individual may be 
 defined, it necessarily arises that a just 
 and intellectual representation thereof 
 must constitute a work of art not interest- 
 ing alone to the circle of friends by whom 
 any particular person is cherished, but 
 in itself highly curious, and demanding 
 powers in tlie artist, not merely of hand 
 but of head- — not only skill in dra,wing and 
 colouring, but mind sufficient to compre- 
 hend and tact sufficient to call out and 
 mark all those more delicate gradations 
 which discriminate characters and expres- 
 sions, in their broad features, and to a vul- 
 gar eye, almost synonymous. The por- 
 trait painter should be a physiognomist ; 
 and that not in the more general and su- 
 perficial sense of the tei"m, but decidedly 
 and scrupulously ; for otherwise, particu- 
 larities will be likely to escape him which 
 a study and knowledge of that science 
 would suflice to occasion his observation 
 of. Even admitting that physiognomy 
 is altogether a fallacious pursuit (which 
 we do only for the sake of putting a 
 case); suppose that its theory is built upon 
 sandy foundations, and its practice, as it 
 has before now been stigmatized, pernici- 
 ous from its liability to mislead: even were 
 all this grunted, still the very pursuit it- 
 self would be serviceable to the portrait 
 painter : since it would infallibly direct 
 his otttntion to those nicer traits of coun- 
 tenance, which if tliey lead to no reason- 
 able deduction, yet form a very consider- 
 able portion of the individuality, strictly 
 speaking, of the person represented. 
 
 But portrait painting is not to be by any 
 means confined to the representation of 
 single and isolated faces; it enters into 
 the higher department of historical paint- 
 ing, wherein actual portraits are frequent- 
 ly introduced, and wherein one of the 
 greatest charms, generally speaking, arises 
 from the pov/er of depicting with accuracy 
 and force the various passions communi- 
 cated from the heart and imagination tq 
 the faces of men. See Passions. In this 
 point of view all t!ie great painters of his- 
 torical subjects may be denominated por- 
 trait painters ; and we know of few more 
 K K 2 
 
desirable acquirements for the student 
 who is ambititius of excellins? in history 
 than a thorough, nay, a prartiial ac(iuaint- 
 ance with tlie principles of actual portrait 
 painting. 
 
 PORTRAIT PAINTING. 
 
 the living person, and feels that the painter 
 by his " so potent art" elfectually bids de- 
 fiance not only to time but to mortality-. 
 How mucii then is the charm onlianced to 
 tlie eye of aflection ! who would part with 
 Who'does not feel anxious to have as it the portrait of one who had been dear to 
 were a personal acquaintance with those tlicm, and has been abstracted from buman 
 illustrious personages, whose names illu- society by the all-devouring grave? «e 
 mine the pages of history, and whose ac- shall be pardoned for quoting on this sub- 
 tions excite in the generous breast at once ject the lines of the amiable and elegant 
 admiration and emulation > Who does not Cowper, On Receipt of his Motlter's Pic- 
 glow with pleasure on viewing the like- 
 ness of Cajsar, of Milton, of Henri Quiitre, 
 and the other great and estimable men 
 whom succeeding ages have held up for 
 (he applause or instruction of the world? 
 ■VVluit fond regrets have been expressed, 
 and how many more have been felt, that 
 we possess no surer likeness of Alfred — 
 the truly Great, and the deserved favourite 
 of our history; or of Shakspeare, one of 
 tlie kindest as well as wisest sons of hu- 
 manity ? The skill of the portrait painter 
 enables us to stand face to face with the 
 objects of our interest, and if the expres- 
 sion on their countenances is still and un- 
 changing, it is at the same time perpetual, 
 and subject neither to the accidental dim- 
 ming of angry and unworthy passions, nor 
 to the fading touch of time. It haply re- 
 mains young while we grow old, and con- 
 stitutes a charm whereby our earlier and 
 later years are linked together. 
 
 Portrait is a very favourite branch of 
 the art in this country, and higlily culti- 
 vated. That it should be so is, in fact, not 
 matter for surprise, since its practice is de- 
 cidedly more lucrative than thatof any other 
 kind of painting. The present president 
 of tlie Royal Academy (.Sir Thomas Law- 
 rence) is a portrait painter; and it is in the 
 same walk of art that the great name whose 
 owner first filled that honourable chair ob- 
 tained its highest celebrity. The portraits 
 of Sir Josiiua Ueynolds have been alluded 
 to and ciiaracterized in our article on 
 Paintin(; (which see). He was a worthy 
 follower and rival of Van Dvck, whoso 
 reputation is siii)erlati\ e in this division of 
 art. The spectator of one of the portraits 
 of Van Dyck or Reynolds is interested 
 and excited in despite of his jirobable ig- 
 norance of the party rt^presented. He be- 
 holds a Kkefch on canvass which ap|)ears 
 almost aniiiiateil with life ; and iftliclu'ad 
 be a line one in itself, ht^ has, and enjoys, 
 (he privilege of gazing uncontrolled upon 
 one of the most noble acliievements of 
 creation — an intdli^ctual <ounlt'iinnce. He 
 views, or innigincs, in tlie curve of (lie lij) 
 and the play of the eyes, (ho germs of 
 those characteristics whicii ilislinguished 
 
 tare. 
 
 " Oh, that those lips had lanpia2;e! time has past 
 With me but roughly since I saw thee last! 
 Those lips are thine— thy own sweet smile I see, 
 The same that oft in childhood solaced me. 
 Voice only fails— else how dislinct they say. 
 Grieve not, my child, wipe all thy tears away. 
 The meek intelligence of those dear eyes 
 (Blest be the art that can innnortalize! 
 The art that batiles time's tyraanic claim 
 To quench it) here shines on me still the same." 
 
 A most happy revolution has been 
 wrought of late years, in this country, iu 
 the art of portrait painting. We no longer 
 see young ladies stuck upon the canvass, 
 grinning with all their might, and holding 
 in one hand a great bunch of flowers ; nor 
 family pieces resembling that so well de- 
 scribed (we cannot say caricatured) by 
 Dr. Goldsmith in his exquisite novel of 
 the, F*car of Walaji eld— tha vicar loquitur: 
 — " My wife desired to be represented as 
 Venus, and the painter was reciuesled not 
 to be too frugal of his diamonds in her 
 stomacher and hair. Her two little ones 
 were to be as Cupids by her side, while I, 
 in my gown and band, was to i)resent her 
 with my books on the Whistonian contro- 
 versy. Olivia would be drawn as an 
 Amazon sitting upon a bank of flowers, 
 dressed in a green Joseph richly laced 
 with gold, and a whip in her hand. Si>phia 
 was to be a shepherdess, with as many 
 sheep as the painter could put in for uo- 
 tliing, and Moses was to be dressed out with 
 a hat and whiti; feather." The fact is that 
 the customary daily habits both of look 
 and deportment are inlinitely the most de- 
 sirable whenever they can be aciiuired, 
 and hence the superior truth and reality 
 of those likenesses which are taken when 
 the party is not himself aware. People 
 are known and recognised almost as much 
 by their predominating gait and expression 
 as by (heir actual features, and conse- 
 quently the habit so iiiiuh practised by 
 sitters of maldnfi tlumsehes »//', as it may 
 lie termed, for the occasion, cannot be too 
 iinuh decried by (he critic, and guarded 
 against by the artist, whose eyes should 
 dive, a» it were, into the very recesses of 
 the sitter's soul, and divest him of hi.^ 
 
PORTRAIT PAINTING. 
 
 flesh-and-blood mask either by penetrating 
 glances or easy and familiar discourse. 
 Let us repeat that it is not the accidental 
 but the prevalent and genuine character- 
 istics of the face that are to be seized and 
 perpetuated. It is necessary to be re- 
 marked, also, that the position of the head 
 should accord with the peculiar character 
 of the countenance. There is more in this 
 than may at first sight be imagined : — it 
 ■would appear perfectly ridiculous, for in- 
 stance, to place the head in a position in- 
 dicative of defiance or pride upon the 
 shoulders of a person whose physiognomy 
 denoted the milder and more modest 
 graces. We know of few things connected 
 with personal bearing more decisive of 
 manners and disposition than the carriage 
 of the head. To hold up 07ic's head in the 
 world has passed into a proverb, and the 
 various gradations and modifications of 
 this faculty are well worthy of the artist's 
 serious observation. 
 
 With respect to color, the same rules 
 must be observed as hold in all other 
 kinds of painting. The chiaroscuro should 
 be carefully studied and maintained ; and 
 it may be as well to observe, that certain 
 different kinds of light are calculated to 
 give effect to different species of counte- 
 nance. Some require to be viewed in a 
 stronger shade than others, and vice versa. 
 The powerful light used with such striking 
 effect by Rembrandt should be dealt witli 
 in a very cautious and wary manner. The 
 artist should endeavour to shun any thing 
 like mere masses of colours, which should 
 be blended together with great nicety and 
 harmony. 
 
 Among the ancients, portrait was amal- 
 gamated into historical painting — the most 
 celebrated practisers of the former having 
 also the highest names in the latter de- 
 partment of art. After the revival of art 
 among the moderns, it was a long time 
 before portrait painting began to be con- 
 sidered as a separate pursuit. RafTaelle, 
 Titian, Holbein, Albert Durer, Le Tinto- 
 retto, Paolo Veronese, all distinguished 
 themselves in painting portraits, and are 
 at the same time the greatest names in his- 
 torical painting*. 
 
 On this particular department of the 
 art, the following authors are proper to 
 be consulted : — The 2d chap, of the 3d 
 book of Precetti della Pittura of Giov. 
 Armenini. Livre de Portraiture, by An- 
 
 * The Romans gave the name of statucB icnnicee 
 to those statues which represented a man in liis ac- 
 tual personal likeness and proportions. Suetonius 
 denominates them simulacra iconica, and AtheUMUS 
 nses an analojous Greek term. 
 
 nibale Caracci, with 30 plates engraven 
 by Poilly. Livre de la Vrai Science de la 
 Portraiture, d^crite et d^montr^e, by Jean 
 Cousin, Paris, 1.589, 4to. 1635, 4to. A cor- 
 rected edition of this book appeared in 
 1766, in 4to. El^mens de Portraiture, by 
 the Sieur de S. Igny, Paris, 1030, 12mo. 
 with engravings. Livre de Portraiture 
 contenant, par une facile Instruction, plu- 
 sieurs Plans et Figures de toutes les 
 Parties s^par^es du Corps humain, re- 
 cueillies des plus excellens Peintres de 
 toute ritalie, by Jean Le Clerc, Paris, 
 1640, 36 sheets, 4to. Livre de Portraiture, 
 according to Le Brun, by Simoneau, 28 
 sheets. Another work under the same 
 title, in 14 sheets, by the same. Les Pre- 
 miers Enseignemens de la Portraiture 
 pour la Jeunesse, ou autres qui s'y vou- 
 dront adonner, par A. BossE, 8vo. We 
 find also a tract on this subject in the Re- 
 cueil de quelques Pieces contenant les 
 Arts, Paris, 1757, 12mo. Sur le Merite 
 du Peintre Portraitiste (in German), by 
 Joseph de Sonnenfels, Vienna, 1768, 8vo. 
 In the work of A. Bosse, entitled— Des 
 Sentimens sur la Distinction des diverses 
 Manieres de Peinture, Dessin, et Gravure, 
 Paris, 1G49, 12mo. will be found a chap- 
 ter called — Des Chemins pour arriver 
 promptement et facilement a bien portraire. 
 The 7th book of the Grand Livre des 
 Peintres, of Lairesse, is entirely devoted 
 to portrait painting. We find, likewise, 
 in the Cours de Peinture par Principes, 
 by De Piles, a number of observations on 
 the same subject — including remarks on 
 the question Avhether it is proper to correct 
 natural defects of complexion, &c. in por- 
 traits, &c. The most intelligent and in- 
 structive observations on portrait piiinting, 
 in our own language, are to be found in 
 the works of Richardson and Reynolds. 
 We shall now proceed to cite several 
 collections of ancient Greeks and Romans, 
 after engraved stones, medals, busts, and 
 other undoubted authorities. Jacobi Ma- 
 zocHii, Imperatorum et illustrium Virorum 
 Imagines ex antiquis Numismatibus, Rome, 
 1517, 8vo. Jo«Hi. HuTTiCHir, Imperatorum 
 tarn Grascorum, quam Latinorum, Foemi- 
 narum et Tyrannorum Icones, Argento- 
 rati, 1525; Lugd. Bat. 1550, 1554, 8vo. 
 Jacobi de Strada, Thesauri Antiquitatura 
 Epitome, hoc est Imperat. Romanorum 
 oriental, et occidental. Icones ex antiquis 
 Numismatibus, Lugduvi Batavorum, 1553, 
 4to. Rome, 1557, 8vo. Tigur. 1559, folio ; 
 and in French, by Louveav, Lyons, 1553, 
 4to. Gulielmi Ruillii, Promtuar. Icon, 
 insignior. a Srieculo Hominum, Ltidg. 1553, 
 2 vols. 4to. Le Imagine delle Dcjunc Au- 
 
Rustc, da Enea Vito, Venice, 1557, 4to. 
 Kiliquie Augustarum Imagines a Plotina 
 ad Saloninam, edonto Jacob. FuANto,Ven. 
 4to. Hubert! Goi.i7.u, Icones Imperato- 
 ruiii Konianoi-um ex prise. Numisinat. 
 Brug. Fland. 1558, folio, and Antwerp, 
 lG-1.), folio. Insigiiium aliquot Virorum 
 Imagines, Lugd. 1559, b^o. Tliis work 
 comprises the portraits of one hundred 
 and forty-three philosophers and men of 
 letters w ho have flourislied since the time 
 of Constantine the Great, all of which 
 however cannot be considered quite au- 
 thentic, lUustrium Virorum ut extant in 
 Urbe, express! Vultus, Rome, 15G9, 4to. 
 These portraits are engraved by Augustin 
 Veneto. This work appeared some years 
 after, under the title of Imag. et Elog. 
 Virorum iliuslr. ex Bibliotheca Fulvi! 
 Ursini, 1570, folio; and was again re- 
 printed, with additions, under the name 
 of Illustr. Imag. ex Autiq. Mam., Numism. 
 et Gemmis ; Theodorus Gall^els delin. et 
 incid. Antwerp, 1598, 4to. The same was 
 translated into French by Bandei.ot, Pa- 
 ris, 1710, 4to.; and again, modified anew 
 by Bellori, was published under this 
 name :— Imagines veterum illustrium Phi- 
 losophorum, Poetarum,Rhetorum, et Ora- 
 toruin, Rome, 1685, 3 vols, folio. Illus- 
 trium Philosoph. et sapientium Elligies ab 
 eorum Numismat. extract. Ven. 1580, 4to. 
 Portraits et Vies des Homnies illustres 
 Grecs, Latins, et Pay ens, par Andr(5 The- 
 VET, Paris, 1584, 2 vols, folio, and 1C71, 
 8 vols. 8vo. Imagines XXIV. Cicsarum 
 a Julio ad Alex. Severum ab antiquis 
 Marjiioribus, Ven. 1585, folio. L. Hllsii, 
 Effigies XII. priorum Ciesarum et LXIV. 
 ipsor. Uxor, et Parent. Francofurti, 1597, 
 folio. XII. Cajsarum Romanorum Ima- 
 gines ex Numism. e Museo Fr. Swertii, 
 Ant. 1012, 4to. Icouogralia, ci\e Disegn! 
 d'Immagini, cav. per Giov. Angel. Ca- 
 ■ NiNi (hi I'ranimenli di Blarnie, da Gioje e 
 Medaglie, Roma, 1C(>9, folio. T!ie same 
 work has also appeared under the follow- 
 ing title : — Les Images dvH Ileros et 
 grands Honnnes de I'Anliquili', drawn by 
 Canini, and engraved by Messrs. Picart 
 and Vau.et, Amst. 1731, 4to. In this are 
 five iiundrcd portraits. I^lligies Ivotnano- 
 runi Imperatoriim ex antiquis Numism. 
 Reg. Christina?, del Pet. A(jui.A Panor- 
 milanus, Rome, l(>81, fol. Elligies Viro- 
 rum ac Fd'iniiun'um illiistriuni (jiiibns in 
 Gi'a'i'is atit l^atinis jMonuuK'nlis aiiquu 
 Memoriie I'ars datur, Lugd. liatuv. apud 
 Petrum Vamieii-aa, 4 vols. fol. Illustr. 
 Virorvini, Piiil(>si>]iii(>riiin, Oratorum, et 
 Icones (!x INIarnior. iintiquis del. a P. F. 
 ItuiJKNs, ticulpt. a Lud. Vorstermann, I', 
 
 1»C) UT U A IT PA 1 N T INC.. 
 
 Pontio, ^:c. 12 excellent plates, fol. Lud. 
 Pataroe, Series August. Augustar. Caesa- 
 rum ed Tyrann. a Jul. Cssare ad Carol. 
 VI. Ven. i740, 8vo. Henrici Spoor, Fa- 
 vissaj utriusque Antiquitat. tunc Rom. 
 quam Gra^c. in quibus reperiuntur Simu- 
 lacra Deorum, Icones magnorum Ducum, 
 Poetarum, &c. Ultraj. 1707, 4lo. These 
 portraits, to the number of a hundred, are 
 executed after engraved stones, but the 
 greater part are to be found !n the work 
 of Canim. Raccolta de! Bust! degli Im- 
 perat. Romani, delle Donne illustri, de! 
 Filosofi, &c. esistenti nella Galleria d! 
 Firenze, 1779, 4to. Galerie des anciens 
 Grecs et Romains, by Th. Fr. Riedel, 
 Augs. 1780, 4to. (in German) 24 sheets. 
 
 Amongst those works which contain 
 portraits of tlie emperors and kings of 
 Germany, we will mention : — Brief De- 
 scription and faithful Portraits of the Em- 
 perors, Kings, and other illustrious Per- 
 sonages of both Sexes, Frankfort, 1538, 
 4to. (in German.) Portraits of the Ro- 
 man Emperors, their Wives and Children, 
 Zurich, 1558, 8vo. J. B. De Cavaixerus, 
 CLVII. Imperat. et XXXI. Pontif. max. 
 Imagines, Rome, 1585, 8vo. August. Im- 
 perat. Regum, atque Archid. illustr. Prin- 
 cipum verissimie Imagines, Jo. B. Fon- 
 tana delineavit, D. Clstodi sculp. Q-^nip. 
 IGOl, fol. Aquila Romana ovvero la Mo- 
 narchia Occident, da Carlo M. in tino alia 
 Coronal, di Leopoldo I. da PAL.4ZZi,Venet, 
 1G79, fol. 
 
 Portraits of the kings of France :— Por- 
 traits des Rois de France depuis Phara- 
 mond Jusqu'a Henri III, par Virg. Sous, 
 et J. Amman, Nor. 15G0. Les vrais Por- 
 traits des Rois de France, depuis Clovis 
 jusqu'a Louis XIII. par Jacques de Bie, 
 
 Paris, IG34, fol. Les Vrais Portraits des 
 Reines de France, by tlie same, fol. with 
 sixty portraits. Monarchie Fran(;aise, ou 
 Rscueil Clnonologique des Pu/traits dc 
 tous les Rois et des Chef» des premieres 
 Families depuis Pharamond jusciu'i Louis 
 XV. par Galtiek u'Acolv, fds, Paris, 
 1770, 4(0. 
 
 Portraits of various sovereigns and 
 jirinces of Europe :— Reg. Neapolit. Vita' 
 it iCdigies, Auct. B. C. Aug. Vindel. IG03, 
 folio. Portraits de tous les Rois de Sued.-, 
 Nuremb, 1707. Jae. a Mei.i.en, Series 
 Regum llungarias e Nummis aureis quos 
 Nulgo DiKulos iii)iielliint ; Lub. 1G90. 4to. 
 Icon, et Hist. Principum et Kcgum Polo- 
 iiiiB a Nkl'(;ehai;ero, 4to. Portraits de 
 tous les (irand Dues, Eleefeurs, Dues et 
 I'riiucs de la Maison de Saxe, par N. J. 
 A(;ni((»i.A, Wilt. I5G3, 8vo. Nic Heis- 
 M i!i, Icones Iniperatorum, Kcgum, Prin- 
 
PORTRAIT 
 
 cipum, Electorum et Ducum Saxoniae, 
 Jenae, 1597, fol, Austriacae Gentis Ima- 
 gines, (Enop. 1659, fol. Regiae Familiffi 
 Mediceorum, Etruria; Principuni, Ima- 
 gines, by Francis Alegrini, 50 sheets, 
 augmented under the title of Cento Ri- 
 tratti della Real Famiglia de' Medici, 
 1762, fol. Icones Ducum et Gubernato- 
 rum Lotharingia;, Brabantiae, Limburgi, 
 1 669, 5 1 sheets, 4to. Portraits des Princes, 
 Comtes, et Dues de Savoie, fol. 33 sheets. 
 Principes Hollandiae et Westfrisiiv ab 
 anno 1553, by P. Souttmann, and C. 
 Fischer, 1650, fol. 40 sheets. Les v^ri- 
 tables Portraits de quelques Princes qui 
 out v6cu du temps de la R(5forme en 1562, 
 Effigie Naturali de' Maggiori Principi e 
 pill valorosi Capitani, di Andrea Vaccha- 
 Rio, Rome, 1597, fol. Portraits des Princes, 
 Seigneurs, et Persounes illustres, by 
 MoNTCORNET, Paris, 1680, fol. 
 
 Collections of portraits of illustrious 
 men of all nations : — Icones quinquaginta 
 Virorum illustrium, per Thorn. De Bry, 
 Francofurti, 1569, 5 vols. 4to. The same 
 work under this title :— Bibliotheca Chal- 
 cographica, Franc. 1650, 4to. Ph. Gallei, 
 Effigies XLIII. Virorum Doctorum de 
 Disciplina bene merentium, Antwerp, 1572, 
 4to. La Prosopographie, ou Description 
 des Personnes insignes, par A. Du Ver- 
 DiER, Lyons, 1605, 3 vols, folio. Imagines 
 Virorum illustrium (without date) con- 
 taining 104 prints. Monuni. Sepulcror. 
 cum Epigr. Ingenio et Doctrina excellen- 
 tium Virorum, per Tobiam Fendt, Amst. 
 1638, fol. with 125 portraits. P. Jovii, 
 Elogia Virorum Litter, illustr. ad vivuin 
 expressis Imagin. exornata, Basil, 1577, 
 fol. with 63 prints. Musei Jovian i, Ima- 
 gines ad vivum expressas, Basil, 1577, 4to. 
 We may regard as an appendix to this 
 work, the following: — Joan Imperialis, 
 Museum Historicum,Venet. 1640, 4to. v/ith 
 57 sheets. Icones Virorum nostra Patrum- 
 que memoria illustrium ab Henrico Hon- 
 Dio, sculpt. 1599, 4to. Icones LXXXIV. 
 Virorum eruditorum Seculi XV. et XVI. 
 Flor. Val. Andreas Desselii, Imagines 
 Doctorum Virorum, ^ variis Gentibus, 
 Antwerp, 1611, 12mo. with 73 portraits. 
 Nicolai Reusneri, Icones sive Imagines 
 Virorum Litteris illustrium, Strasb. et 
 Bale, 1587 and 1589, 8vo. Opus Chrono- 
 graphicum Orbis universi a Mundi Exor- 
 dio usque ad annum MDCXI, continens 
 Historiam, Icones, &c. Summorum Pontifi- 
 cura, Imperatorum, Regum, ac Virorum 
 illustrium, autore Pet. Opmeero and Laur. 
 Beyerlinck, Antwerp, 1611, 2 vols. fol. 
 containing nearly 500 portraits. Icones 
 ex. Principuni, Virorum doctorum. Pic- 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 torum, Chalcograph. Statuar., &c. ab Ant. 
 Van Dyck, ad vivum expressic, Antwerp, 
 1646, folio. The same, thus called — Le 
 Cabinet des plus beaux Portraits, Anvers, 
 100 sheets (without date). Again the 
 same, entitled — Iconographie, ou Vies des 
 hommes illustres du XVII. siecle, par 
 M. v., Amst. 1759, fol. Decern pict» 
 Effigies, ab Antonio Van Dyck, lEri incisae 
 a Petr. Van Gunst,1716, fol. Principum 
 et illustrium quorundam Virorum Ima- 
 gines, Lugd. Batav. (v/ithout date) 97 
 sheets. Imagines XLI. Virorum cele- 
 brium in Politic. Histor. ib. (undated) fol. 
 XXV. Portraits des Hommes c^lebres, ib. 
 (undated). Images de divers Hommes 
 d'Esprit, par Jean Meyssens, Anvers, 
 1649, 4to. Portraits des Peintres, Gra- 
 veurs, et Hommes d'Esprit sublimes par 
 leur Art et Savoir, engraved by Hollard, 
 Anvers, 1649, folio. Lor. Crasso, Elog. 
 d'Uomini Letterati, Ven. 1666, 2 vols. 4to. 
 142 portraits. Icones Virorum illustrium k 
 Mathia Von Sommern j^ri incisae. Ratisb. 
 1667, fol. Academic des Sciences et des 
 Arts, contenant les Vies et les Eloges 
 Historiques des Hommes illustres depiiis 
 environ quatre siecles parmi diverses Na- 
 tions de I'Europe, par Is. Bullart, Paris, 
 1681, 2 vols. fol. Pauli Freheri, Thea- 
 trum Virorum eruditorum clarorum, No- 
 rimb. 1688, fol. 4 vols, with 1312 portraits. 
 Portraits de c(51ebres Hommes et Femmes 
 Francois, Hollondais, et AUemands, par 
 Montcornet and Mariette, fol. 131 por- 
 traits. Jacobi Bruckeri, Pinacotheca 
 Scriptorum nostra TEtate Litteris illus- 
 trium, Augustas Vindelic. 1755, 2 vols. fol. 
 engraved by J. J. Ha\d. A Supplement to 
 tliis Gallery at Augsburgh, 1766, fol. con- 
 taining 11 sheets. L'Europe illustre, en- 
 richie de Portraits graves par Ouieuvre, 
 Paris, 1777, 6 vols. 4to. each volume con- 
 taining nearly 100 portraits. The same 
 author has since published a Catalogue des 
 Portraits des Princes, Personnes illustres, 
 et des Savans, Paris, 1742, 8vo. Galerie 
 Historique Universelle, par M. de Pujol, 
 comprised in a suite of 1000 portraits of 
 men and women celebrated in ancient and 
 modern history, Paris, 1787, 4to. Galerie 
 Universelle des Hommes qui se sont il- 
 lustres depuis le siecle de Leon X., par le 
 Comte de Platiere. Collection de Por- 
 traits des Hommes illustres vivaus, Paris, 
 1788, folio. Galerie Historique des 
 Hommes les plus c^lebres de tous les 
 Siecles et de toutes les Nations, contenant 
 leurs Portraits graves au trait d'apres les 
 meillerus Originaux, avec I'Abreg^ de 
 leurs Vies, et des Observations sur leur 
 Caractere et sur leurs Ouvrages, publish- 
 
V O 11 
 
 e.'\ by C. I'. Lamk)N. This work extends 
 to If) or 12 vols, liino. er.ch containing 
 72 ])ortraits. Portraits ties Hommes il- 
 liistres du dix-scptit-me Sii'cle, gravi-s par 
 Edeijnck, LuniN, and Van Schlfpen, ac- 
 companied by an abridgment of the lives 
 of the persons represented, Paris, fol. 
 P. Jovii, Elogia Virorum Bellica Virtute 
 illustrium, ad vivum expressis Inuiginibus 
 exornata, Basil. l.itlG, fol. Ritratti di 
 cento Capitani illnstri, Intagl. da Ali- 
 prandi Capriolo, Rome, 1000, 4to. Ri- 
 tratti di Capitani illustri, da Rose. Mas- 
 CARDi, Lf.omda, et Trons.vreu-i, Rome, 
 1G46, 4to. Les Portraits des Plenipoten- 
 tiaires assembles a Muuster et a Osna- 
 bruck, gravi-s par Francois Bignon, fol. 
 33 sheets. Pacilicatores Orbis Christiani, 
 Rotterdam, 1C97, fol. 131 sheets. Icones: 
 id est, ver;e Imagines Virorum, Doctrina 
 simul et Pietale illustrium, Theo. Beza 
 autore, Gen. Io.jS, 4to. 38 portraits. Ve- 
 terum aliquot et recentioruni Medicorum 
 Philos()j)horunique Icones ex Bibliotheca, 
 J. Sa.mblcci, Antwerp, 1574 and 1663, 
 fol. 64 portraits. XX. Icones clarissimo- 
 rum Medicorum Philosophorum, Leyden, 
 fol. llistoire des Philosophes Modernes, 
 par M. Saverien, avec leurs Portraits 
 dans le Gout du Crayon, par M. Fran- 
 <,ois, Paris, 1759, 7 vols. 4to. 60 portraits. 
 Illustrium Jureconsultorum Iniagiues ex 
 Museo Marci MantutB Benatidii, Rome, 
 1564, 4to. Venet. 1569, 4to. 
 
 Portraits of illustrious Englishmen : — 
 Heroulogia Anglica, hoc est, Clarissimo- 
 rum Anglorum qui lloruerunt ab anno 
 Christi 1500 usque ad priesentem annum 
 1620, Viv;e F.fligies, Impens. Crisp. Pas- 
 s.Ei, 2 vols. fol. 64 sheets. A Collection of 
 I'ortraits of the Court of Henry VIII. 
 etched by Dalton, folio, with 56 portraits. 
 liouBRAKEN and Vehtle's Heads of illus- 
 trious Persons of Britain, with tlieir Lives, 
 by Thus. Biucii, London, 1751, 2 vols. fol. 
 with 108 portraits. A Biographical His- 
 tory of England, from Egbert tlu; Great 
 to the Revolution, disposed in tliflerent 
 Classes, and adapted to a methodical Ca- 
 talogue of engraved British Heads, by J, 
 («u\N<ii;ii, Loudon, 1774, 5 vols, llo. 
 
 Of celebrated Fnnchnien :--Portraits 
 dc plusieurs Houunes illustres qui out lleuri 
 en France, par M. MiciiEi., Paris, 1643, 
 fol. Les Portraits des Hommes illustres 
 I'raneois, dessinc^s et gravels par Zach. 
 Heince et Fr. Bignon, Paris, 1G50, folio, 
 27 sheets. Portraits des illustres I'ran- 
 «,Mis et lllrangers, graven i)ar I'ierre Di'- 
 JIET, l»aris, 1652, 4to. Portraits des 
 Honnnes illustres Francois qui sont peints 
 dans la (Jalerie du Cardinal de Richelieu, 
 
 POS 
 
 Paris, 1C68, bvo. Les Hommes illustres 
 qui ont paru en France pendant ce Si^cle 
 avec leurs Portraits, par IM. Perrault, 
 Paris, 1700, 2 vols. foL Galerie Fran- 
 ^aise, ou Portraits des Hommes et des 
 Fcmnies illustres qui ont paru en France, 
 graves sous la conduite de M. Restoit, 
 Paris, 1770. Les illustres Francais, ou 
 Tableaux Historiques des grands Hommes 
 de la France, pris dans chaque Genre de 
 Celebrity, fol. Collection complete de tous 
 les Acteurs et Actrices c^lebres dans les 
 trois Spectacles, d'apres les Dessins de 
 M. Monet, 1770, fol. 40 sheets. Collec- 
 tion Generale des Portraits des Deputes 
 aux Etats-Gen^raux, 1789, 4to. Galerie 
 des Portraits des Membres de I'Assemblee 
 Constituente, 4to. 
 
 Portraits of eminent Italians : — Joannis 
 Philippi Tomasim, illustrium Virorum 
 Elogia Iconibus illustrata, Pat. 1630, 4to. 
 48 portraits. Elogia Virorum Litteris et 
 Sapientia illustrium, by the same, 16-14, 
 4to. 35 portraits. C. Patim, Lyceum Pa- 
 tavinum, sive Icones et Vita; Professorum 
 Patavinorum, Patav. 1682, 4to. Ritratti 
 d'Uomini illustri Toscani, Firenz. 1766, 
 2 vols. fol. 
 
 We might swell our list of curious and 
 interesting collections of portraits by in- 
 serting those of distinguished Hollanders, 
 Danes, Spaniards, Germans, Swiss, Ame- 
 ricans, &c. but we forbear to do this, inas- 
 much as the limits of our Dictionary will 
 not conveniently afl'ord us the requisite 
 space. 
 
 PoRUS. [•n-(ipoc, Gr.] In aichaiolo§:y. The 
 denomination of a species of marble used 
 by the ancients, and somewhat resembling 
 both in colour aud quality the Parian 
 marble, and which Pausanias speaks of, 
 as well as Theoi)hrastus and Pliny, as 
 having formeil the substance of several 
 liue structures. It is now unknown. 
 
 Position. [Fr. from Lat. j«>«o,toi)ut.] In 
 painling unil (irchilfctiirc. The artist dis- 
 poses his model in tlie manner best calcu- 
 lated to answer the peculiar end he has 
 in view in his painting, and should always 
 bear in miud that those positions are the 
 best which are thi- most natural aud lea.^t 
 overstrained, and in Portrait Painting 
 (which refer to) those which most clearly 
 express the habitual bearing of the indi- 
 vidual. 
 
 In arch i lecture, wc talk of the posidun 
 ol' a building with reference to the points 
 of the horizon. 
 
 I'osr. [y)M.s7c, I'r.J In nrchilcctuiT iind 
 sculiiturc. This term is used to t^\press 
 certain ornaments shaped after the nuin- 
 nt!r of rolls or wn'athiii;;s. It also dc- 
 
PRiE 
 
 notes a piece of tinibei", or stake, set erect 
 iu the earth. 
 
 Postern. [Fr. poterne, Lat. poslerus, 
 from post, behind.] In architecture. A 
 small gate or little door at the back of a 
 building. 
 
 PosTicuM. [Lat.] The porch in the back 
 front of an ancient temple. 
 
 PosTSCENiUM. [Lat. post and scena.l In 
 archaiolog-y. The back part of the theatre 
 where those things were managed which 
 were unfitted for the more prominent parts 
 thereof, where the actors retired to robe 
 themselves, and where a part of the ma- 
 chinery was deposited. 
 
 Posture. [Lat. positura.'] See Position. 
 
 Poverty. [Fr. })aiwret4.} In emblema- 
 tical painting, &c. The iconologists have 
 represented poverty as pale, unquiet, badly 
 clothed, and in a humiliating posture. In 
 the Triumph of Poverty, ]idinte(.l by Hol- 
 bein, she is seen under the traits of an old 
 woman, haggard, and seated on a bundle 
 of straw. The car on which she is borne 
 is dilapidated in sundry places, and drawn 
 by a horse and an ass both in sad plight. 
 
 PR^^iCiNCTis. [Lat. prcEcingo, to gird 
 about.] In archaiology. In the ancient 
 theatres and amphitheatres, this name was 
 applied to a sort of wide seat, or rather 
 step, which served to facilitate the moving 
 of the spectators round the entire inner 
 circumference of the building. The name of 
 balteus was appropriated to the same thing. 
 
 Pr.«torian Camp. In the archaiology of 
 architecture. The Praetorian Camp was, 
 as its name imports, designed for the pur- 
 pose of assembling within the same en- 
 closure all the troops subjected to the 
 power of the praetors. Sejanus, minister 
 of Tiberius, occupying the station of pre- 
 fect, desired that all the soldiers of the 
 praetorian cohorts, whose quarters were 
 dispersed about, should be gathered toge- 
 ther and lodged in one vast edifice, which 
 he caused to be built, and entitled Castrum 
 Pratorium or rather Castro; Pratoriana. 
 Antiquarians are not agreed as to the pre- 
 cise situation of this magnificent struc- 
 ture, but it is pretty evident that it stood 
 at the eastern side of Rome, between the 
 umys called Nomentana and Tihertina, be- 
 hind the thermes of Dioclesian, and near 
 the walls of the city. This camp or rather 
 barrack was constructed of brick, of reti- 
 cular workmanship, covered with stucco, 
 and enriched with superb porticoes in co- 
 lumns. Constantine demolished it : but it 
 appears to have been restored by the care 
 of Ligorio. In the centre of the camp was 
 the Pr.etoruim (see the following article) 
 or tribunal, at which the prefect distri- 
 
 PR A 
 
 bnted justice. Tliis had I lie exterior form 
 of a temple, but was very plain witiiin, 
 the most conspicuous object being a table 
 covered with a purple clotli embroidered 
 with gold. 
 
 The camp was surrounded by an en- 
 closure in some places double, and more 
 or less extensive, within which were erect- 
 ed, on a quadrangular plan, two stories in 
 height, the quarters of the soldiers, be- 
 tween the different divisions of which vast 
 colonnades establislied a facile communi- 
 cation. The towers placed on the outside 
 gave to the whole of tliis extensive and 
 formidable place the appearance of a for- 
 tress, and the great space withinside en- 
 sured salubrity to the troops, while it af- 
 forded them the requisite room for going 
 through their various exercise. Messrs. 
 DuRAND and Legranu, iu their excellent 
 work, entitled — Rccueil et Parallele des 
 Edifices anciens et modernes, have given, at 
 pi. 26, the plan of this superb mass of 
 building. In the same plate are. exhibited 
 the small camp of Pompeii and that of 
 Otricoli. M. Legrand very judiciously 
 remarks, in this respect, that a small su- 
 pei'ficies may be made to appear impor- 
 tant by giving it unity and simplicity of 
 form, which, far from excluding the orna- 
 mental, partakes largely of its very essence. 
 The Bimplicity of the plan of the camp of 
 Pompeii ; the nobleness of the galleries 
 encircling it, although supported by co- 
 lumns of a small size ; the perfect preser- 
 vation of the place, &c. render it an object 
 of great interest and admiration. With 
 these antique monuments we may mention 
 the Hotel des Invalides, at Paris, built by 
 Louis XIV. for disabled soldiers, which 
 richly decorated and altogether superb 
 edifice passes, and justly, for one of the 
 chefs-d'oeuvre of Parisian architecture, and 
 whose majestic dome may be said to rival 
 that of St. Peter's at Rome, or our own 
 St. Paul's. 
 
 Pr^etorium. [Lat. prator, {quasi prcB- 
 itor, one who goes before) from prce, and 
 eo, to go.] In archaiology. A place or 
 court where causes were heard and judg- 
 ment given, by the praetor. Also any pa- 
 trician's seat or manor-house in the coun- 
 try was often so called. 
 
 Pr^Vsinl'S. [Gr. nrpcKTivoc, from Trpacrov, 
 a leek (owing to its green colour). This 
 colour was one of those used to designate 
 the four parties in the games of the 
 Circus. These parties were denominated 
 after the four seasons, and the prasinus, or 
 gi*een, distinguished the combatants ranged 
 under the banner of Spring. There are 
 some curious details on this subject to be 
 
nil 
 
 found in the excellent work of Alexander 
 La BoRDE, on the l\[osairjne d'Ualka, in 
 the J^otes de Saumaise sur Solin, (634th p.) 
 and in different authors who have treated 
 of these celebrated antique games. 
 
 Pr.\yers. [Fr. ptvV're.] In painting and 
 .sculpture. The Greeks and Romans (par- 
 ticularly the latter) were in the habit of 
 oflerjng up their prayers in a standing 
 posture. The Greeks always commenced 
 with benedictions, and previously to en- 
 tering their temples, purified themselves 
 with the lustrel water. The Romans wore 
 a veil on their head on these occasions, 
 touched the altar while the priest was 
 pronouncing the prayer, and occasionally 
 saluted the knees of the deity before whose 
 slirine they were bending. They ordina- 
 rily turned their bodies towards the east 
 during tiie time of prayer. 
 
 The most ancient attitude was to lift the 
 palms of the hands towards heaven, but 
 the early Christians, after awhile, substi- 
 tuted that of spreading out the arms, to 
 imitate the form of the cross. 
 
 More information may be gained on this 
 interesting subject by consulting Buonar- 
 roti, Vetri anfichi, p. 121; Binghahi, 
 Origines Eccles. v. .5. p. 207 ; RECiiEXiiERG, 
 De Ckeirasia Orantium, Lips. 1678 ; Cai,- 
 VOER, Rituale Sacrum, v. 2, p. 582 ; Hilde- 
 URANi), Rituale Orantium, chap. 9. 
 
 Presbytery. [Gr. TrpKjjSvTtpioj', from 
 ■7rp«r[ivTepog, older or elder, the compara- 
 tive of TrptffjivQ, old.] In architecture. Such 
 is the derivation of tiiis word, from which 
 it will be obvious that, if used for a build- 
 ing, it is no less suited to human per- 
 sons. In the former sense it is employed 
 among certain religious communities, to 
 designate the residence of the priests, or 
 elders, as the sages and religious persons 
 of a town were wont 1o be called. In 
 Roman Catholic countries the name is ap- 
 plied to religious houses near any given 
 l)arisli, wherein all such priests as are 
 lield to merit such distinction are received, 
 lodged, and have food provided them in 
 common. 
 
 I'lUAPus. [Gr. npinTToc, item nicmlirum 
 virile; jn'opter tiMf^niludincmcujus eognomi- 
 natus est I'riapus.] In mytholof^icnt painting 
 and sculpture. Tiie representations of this 
 deity, lu'ld among tlu; ancients to preside 
 over gardens as well as over tlie genital 
 parts of the sexes, are very numerous 
 upon anti(|ue monuments, and are often 
 found iu situations wliich 8("<in very inaj)- 
 propriate thereto, whence it appears that 
 the Greeks mon; particularly were apt 
 to introduce and lamiliari/.e themselves 
 therewith, It i.s probable that they re- 
 
 PRl 
 
 garded the Priapus merely as an emblem 
 of fecundity, and attached not to it (at 
 least deemed it unnecessary to attach to it) 
 any indecent or lascivious meaning. See 
 Phallls. The original worshippers of this 
 god, however (tlie people of Lampsacus) 
 have been much belied if, in the festivals 
 they held in his honour, they did not in- 
 dulge in a good deal of licentiousness and 
 impurity. 
 
 The representations of this nature which 
 have a religious object are extremely nu- 
 merous, and, as well as tiie Avorship of 
 Priapus, have been treated of at a consi- 
 derable length, and depicted in the rare 
 work of Mr. Knight, entitled — An Ac- 
 count of the Remains of the Worship of 
 Priapus, to ichick is added a Discourse 
 thereon, as connected tvith the Mystic Theo- 
 logy of the Ancients, London, 1786, 4to. 
 
 The second class of priapi are likewise 
 numerous, and must be regarded as exe- 
 cuted with a licentious design, in order to 
 administer to the looser ideas of the pos- 
 sessors or artists. Of this nature was a 
 painting spoken of by Suetonius, which 
 represented Atalanta exchanging caresses 
 with Meleager, and which was left by tes- 
 tament to the Emperor Tiberius, under 
 the condition that, if he thought it too vo- 
 luptuous, he might take, instead, a million 
 of sesterces. Tiberius, however, preferred 
 the picture, which he even caused to be 
 placed at Capreae in his bedchamber. The 
 ancient sculptors not unfrequently sinned 
 in this particular way, and among the 
 most remarkable specimens may be rank- 
 ed — the Satyr and the Goat of the Portici 
 Museum (whiclj cannot be seen without a 
 particular order of admission), and ano- 
 ther sculpture mucii resembling it at Dres- 
 den, whicli was found at Nettuno, and sold 
 by the Cardinal Alcxaiuler Albani to the 
 last king of I'oland. The priapus of the 
 Cardinal Albani with the inscription Sal- 
 ralorcm mvndi, and that of tlie Cabinet of 
 Florence, have also obtained distinction. 
 See Mr. Knight's work above referred to. 
 
 Tiie god hiniself is generally rejiresenfed 
 with a human face and the ems of a goat : 
 he holds a .stick in his hand, witli wliich 
 he terrifies birds, as also a club to drive 
 away thieves, and a scythe to prune the 
 trees and cut down corti. Me was crowned 
 witii the leaves of the vine, and sometimes 
 with laurel or rocket, which plant was 
 sacred to him, as it was said to raise tlie 
 passions and excite love. 
 
 Priest, [id quod preshytiry.] In archai- 
 ology. We cannot pretend to oiler in this 
 place, any thing like n ditaibd descrip- 
 tion of the n\imerous varieties of (he sacer- 
 
PHI 
 
 dotal office among the ancients. Those 
 most frequently remarked upon ancient 
 monuments are, among the Egyptians, the 
 pastophores (which word see); among the 
 Greeks, the hierophantes, tlie pythitc, &c. ; 
 among the Romans, the flamens (see Fi-A- 
 men), the camillce, the poptr, the vestals 
 (see Vestal), &c. 
 
 Primitive Colours. These are said to 
 be I'estricted to three — namely, red, yel- 
 loAV and blue, from the mixtures and com- 
 binations of Avhich all tlie other colours, 
 tints, and gradations are produced. For 
 the number of colours used by the ancients, 
 refer to the article Painting. 
 
 Principal. [Lat. principalis, vide princi- 
 ple,'] In all the arts. The chief object pro- 
 posed by the artist in his work, to which 
 all othei's should be rendered subordinate. 
 Unless this subordination be rigorously 
 observed, the unity of the piece is lost, 
 and the interest perishes with it. Thus, 
 in painting, the main action or figure 
 should possess not only the strongest tone 
 of colour, but the most important and 
 striking situation in the picture, and should 
 unite itself with all the other objects by 
 means simple and natural. 
 
 Principles. [Lat. principiam, a begin- 
 ning.] In all the arts. By this term we 
 designate those rules and maxims upon 
 which an art is founded, and of which the 
 student must make himself well informed 
 if he is desirous of practising it. 
 
 Print. See Engraving, Paper, &c. 
 
 Printing. The act of taking impres- 
 sions or prints from a copper-plate or wood- 
 cut, &c. on paper or any other substance. 
 Those costly impressions which are taken 
 off with great care are denominated, from 
 their superior appearance, proofs. See 
 Proof. 
 
 Prism. [Gr. 7rp(o-/i«.] /w geomefrtj. An 
 oblong solid, contained under more than 
 four planes, whose bases are equal, paral- 
 lel, and alike situated, if the body be 
 triangular, it is called a triangular prism, 
 if square, a quadrangular one. 
 
 In optics, or, more precisely speaking, in 
 dioptrics, the prism is a triangular glass 
 body, used in experiments respecting the 
 nature of liglit and colours, which it is de- 
 sirable, on every account, that the painter 
 should obtain some acquaintance v/ith. It 
 does not however enter directly into the 
 scope of the present Dictionary, and the 
 reader is referred for a further explana- 
 tion to any work on optics, or the articles 
 in the various Encyclopedias. 
 
 Prison. [Fr. from prendre, to take.] In 
 architecture. A strong hold in which per- 
 
 PRI 
 
 sons are confined for tiie commission of 
 crime, or for the incurring of debt, and 
 which is constructed with a uniform re- 
 ference to security, solidity, and conveni- 
 ence. 
 
 By different passages in Greek and Ro- 
 man writers, it appears that among both 
 those people the prisons were composed of 
 cells or chambers, all more or less fright- 
 ful. Sometimes, according to the nature 
 of their offence, the prisoners were only 
 guarded in a simple vestibule, where they 
 might see their parents, their friends, &c. 
 as appears from the history of Socrates. 
 In other instances, they were immured 
 in subterranean dungeons, often damp and 
 infectious, in one of which description 
 Sallust reports Jugurtha to have been 
 plunged. The greater part of their exe- 
 cutions were perpetrated withinside the 
 prisons, more particularly those by stran- 
 gling or swallowing hemlock. 
 
 Eutropius attributes the establishment 
 of a prison at Rome to Tarquin the Superb, 
 other authors to Ancus Martins ; Tullus 
 Hostilius adding, according to them, a 
 peculiar kind of dungeon, for a long time 
 called after him, Tulliaman. Juvenal 
 states that, during the time of the kings 
 and of the republic, Rome contained but 
 one prison, and that Tiberius caused ano- 
 ther to be built, which was denominated 
 the Mamertin. 
 
 The prisons, especially the county gaols, 
 lately erected in our own country, are built 
 on the best principles, in the best and 
 most substantial manner; are replete with 
 general convenience and such accommo- 
 dations as are consistent with the safe 
 custody of the unfortunate inmates, and 
 often occupy sites of a most healthy and 
 even picturesque description. 
 
 In the Rccueil et Parallkle d' Edifices en tout 
 Genre of Messrs. Durand and Legrand, 
 we find at the 28tli plate plans and eleva- 
 tions of different modern prisons : in which 
 number is distinguished, above all, our 
 metropolitan gaol of Newgate, by Dance, 
 which, says M. Millin, is in a style of archi- 
 tecture approaching to the severe manner 
 of Florence. There is also a plan of the 
 3Iuison de Correction of Gand, which com- 
 prises, in an octagonal shape, a great 
 number of detached buildings all never- 
 theless approaching a common centre, 
 which disti'ibution is very advantageous 
 in facilitating tlie inspection and surveil- 
 lance of the establishment. We find like- 
 wise a representation of the prison of Aix, 
 built by M. Ledoux, in a style which sa- 
 vours somewhat of that of the Egyptians, 
 
1' 11 o 
 
 but simple iu its details. The same pintc 
 olFers, beHidi-s, the Houses of Correction 
 of Rome, of Milan, and of Amsterdam. 
 
 I'ko.m LION. [Gr. from too, before, and 
 aiiXor, a pipe.] In ancient architecture. 
 This word was synonymous among tlie 
 Greeks to rcstibtilum among the Romans, 
 designating tiiat part or passage which 
 conducted from the exterior to the interior 
 of a building. See Vestibule. 
 
 Phockssiox. [Lat. processio, from jrro- 
 ccih, to go forward.] Processions were 
 common among all the nations of anti- 
 quity ; aiid among the Romans were ren- 
 dered very stately and splendid in the 
 shajje of triuniplial marches, obsequies of 
 the illustrious dead, 6tc. They are to be 
 found represented in an immense variety 
 of forms upon all descriptions of antique 
 monuments. One of the most celebrated 
 processions of antiquity was that of the 
 Panathex.ka. See that word. 
 
 I'RODOMis. [Gr. TToo, before, and ^oiioc, 
 a house.] In ancient urchitccturc. Term 
 sometimes appli(!d to the anterior or front 
 fa(;ade of temples, and to the portico at 
 the entrance of the cella. See Cella. 
 The word PitoNAOS (which sec) was how- 
 ever often used synonymously. 
 
 J'uoFEssoii. [Lat. from profitcor, to j)ro- 
 fess, or promise openly.] In all the itrt.s. 
 A person who teaches or reads from the 
 chair in some public institution, such as 
 the Royal Academy, &c. a series of lec- 
 tures on either of the arts. 
 
 P110HI.E. [Vr. projil.] In painting, archi- 
 tecture, and ncnlpturc. A portrait, or bust, 
 is said to he in profile when they are pre- 
 sented in a sid(^ view; as, when in a por- 
 trait, there is but one side of the face 
 shown, and nothing of the other. On al- 
 most all nu'duls, this is the manner in 
 which th(^ hciid is represented. 
 
 'I'liis style of art was practised in the 
 remotest antiquity, and may be said to be- 
 long, iu fa( t, to the very first essays of 
 painting. The tradition has been already 
 iilliided to (see I'AiNTiNii) of the Grecian 
 girl who traced on the wall, by the shade 
 of the lamp, the features of her departing 
 IoV(;r. Others pretend that A|)elle3 was 
 the discoverer of this method; if we may 
 believe Pliny, he invented it in order to 
 eonri'ii! the deformity of Prince Anligitnus, 
 who liiul but one «^ye. Hut still more an- 
 cient nionuuients present us with speci- 
 mens of prolih;, more especially medals 
 und engravcfi stone.-. 01)ser\ations on 
 llie most l)emitifiil of these will tend to 
 < (juvince us that the oval form of eouiite- 
 nuncu is that best adapted for the display 
 
 PRO 
 
 of the beauty of the " human face divine," 
 whether in profile or otherwise. The oval 
 line may indeed be said abstractedly to be 
 the most graceful that the eye can rest 
 upon. 
 
 In architecture, profile designates the 
 draught of any building, wherein is ex- 
 pressed the different widths, heights, and 
 thicknesses, such as they would appear 
 were the building cut down perpendicu- 
 larly from the roof to the foundation. 
 Hence the profile is likewise called the 
 section, sometimes the orthographical sec- 
 tion, and by Vitruvius the sciagraphy. In 
 this sense, profile is a species of elcration, 
 as opposed to a plan or ichonographij. 
 
 The profile means likewise the outline 
 of a member of architecture, such, for ex- 
 ample, as a cornice, or base, 5cc. Hence 
 the term profiling is occasionally used for 
 designing, or describing the given member 
 with compass, rule, &c. 
 
 It is from the just proportion and ele- 
 gance of the jirolile that the several orders 
 of architecture extract their principal 
 beauty — and harmony, which is beauty. In 
 the same way, from the profile of the co- 
 lumns and all the ornamental members, the 
 connoisseur can best judge of their height, 
 therr projection, their reciprocal propor- 
 tions, ice. The ancients applied the great- 
 est attention to the profiles of their nuiuld- 
 ings, the good appearance of w hich may 
 be said to depend on the choice of the 
 mejiibers employed therein, and in these 
 points the Grecian architects were parti- 
 cularly careful and happy. 
 
 The beauty of the profile of a buililing 
 mainly rests upon the projection of each 
 member. When this is too great, the pro- 
 file lias a clumsy appearance ; when too 
 small, it looks meagre and petty. The 
 ancients knew how to show both these ex- 
 tremes ; and according to \itru\ius their 
 method consisted of awarding to each 
 member as nuich i)r()jection as height, in 
 support of \vhi(li statement most of the 
 finest edifices of antiquity may be cited, 
 Sonii'times, however, they increased this 
 proportion with regard to the principal 
 member, which was calculated to stand 
 out b(ddly, and cover as it were the infe- 
 rior oni'S about it. 
 
 PiMUixnioN. [liiit. projicid, to throw An-- 
 ward.] In painting and drau-ing. The re- 
 presentation of any object whatever in 
 l)erspective, that is to say, such as it would 
 ajjpiNir if viewed tVoin a certain point. 
 
 Pno.iKcruiiK. (id (|uod projection.] In 
 archileclure. The prominence, outjetting, 
 or embossing, which the mouldings and 
 
PRO 
 
 other members have beyond the naked 
 wall, column, &c. 
 
 Pronaos. [Gr. npo, before, and tmoQ, a 
 temple.] In ancient architecture. The fiont 
 porch of a Grecian temple. See Prodomus. 
 
 Proof, [from the verb to prove, from 
 probo, Lat. and prouver, Fr.] In engnwing. 
 Proofs of prints were formerly a few im- 
 pressions taken off in the course of the 
 engraver's process. He proved a plate in 
 different stages, that he might ascertain 
 how far his labours had been successful, 
 and when tliey were complete. The ex- 
 cellence of such early impressions, worked 
 with care and under the artist's eye, occa- 
 sioning them to be greedily sought after, 
 and liberally paid for, it has been custom- 
 ary, among our modern printselIers,to take 
 off a number of them, perhaps amounting to 
 hundreds, from every plate of considera- 
 ble value — and yet their want of rarity 
 has by no means abated their price. On 
 retouching a plate, it has been also usual, 
 among the same conscientious fraternity, 
 to cover the inscription, which was imme- 
 diately added after the first proofs were 
 obtained, with slips of paper, that a num- 
 ber of secondary proofs might also be 
 created. 
 
 Proplasm\. [Gr. Trpo, before, and TrXacr- 
 fia, a work, from TrXaaao, to form.] In «r- 
 chaiology. See Lay Figure. 
 
 Propnigeum. [Lat. from Gr. TTj'iyw, to 
 suffocate.] In archaiology . This was the 
 name given to that chamber in tlie Roman 
 baths in which heat was produced, which 
 was distributed afterwards to the different 
 portions of the bath, such as the Lnconicum, 
 &c. under which the propnigeum was 
 placed. They more frequently denomi- 
 nated it prafnrnitun. 
 
 Proportion. [Lat. proportio.] In all the 
 arts. By proportion Ave mean, generally 
 speaking, the size and dimensions of one 
 part compared with another, or with the 
 whole of that to which it appertains. 
 Greatness is only, of course, a comparative 
 term. Nothing can be either great or 
 small, except in reference to some other 
 thing. That thing is justly said to be in 
 good proportion, when none of its details 
 are too small or too large viewed relatively 
 to each other. 
 
 The judgment by means of which we 
 decide on this subject is the result some- 
 times of the nature of the thing, sometimes 
 of the strength of habit, which frequently 
 induces us to fancy disproportion in an 
 object where it does not actually exist, 
 and vice versa. In the m.atters pronounced 
 on by this species of judgment, men are 
 apt to differ very materially according to 
 
 PRO 
 
 their several modes of thought. But it i3 
 otherwise with respect to that which re- 
 gards proportion as springing out of tiie 
 nature of the object — as, for instance, when 
 a part possesses dimensions unsuited to 
 its meaning and destination. A column, 
 at the same time unusually high and very 
 slender, would be amenable to censure in 
 this way ; in other words, the sense of 
 unfitness or disproportion would be expe- 
 rienced by any person who should view 
 it, and the superincumbent weight would 
 seem in some danger of overwhelming the 
 frail-looking support. Two similar mem- 
 bers of the same human body, such as the 
 hands, arms, legs, &c. should, from this 
 very nature, be of the same size. 
 
 With respect to visible objects, propor- 
 tion may be defined, in the first place, as 
 referring to size ; in the next place to de- ' 
 gree (as in light and chiaroscuro) ; again, 
 to the excitement of feeling, as in those 
 works of art which include expression. In 
 fact, respecting every thing submitted to 
 the sense of sight, proportion is requisite 
 in durability, in force, in height of colour- 
 ing, in peculiar charm and impression de- 
 sired to be produced. That, therefore, is 
 an error which limits the extent of pro- 
 portion to the arts of design and architec- 
 ture. Every artist sliould direct his at- 
 tention thereto, as it is thence the princi- 
 ple of harmony and unity of effect arises. 
 
 A word or two may be said with regard 
 to the particular parts which it would be 
 most proper to subject to the principles of 
 proportion. These sliould not be too far 
 removed from each other to be readily and 
 at once comprehended by the eye. Thus 
 the size of the mouth or nose may be com- 
 pared with that of the face generally, but 
 not with tlie wiiole body. When a given 
 object forms one portion of a principal 
 part, we may compare it with that part 
 itself, and witji the other details thereof — 
 thus, again, the fingers may be viewed re- 
 latively to the hand, the hand to the arm, 
 and that to the whole body, or to its other 
 principal parts. A man may lose a finger, 
 and remain, nevertheless, a fine-looking 
 person — but the hand Avhich had sufiered 
 the amputation of one of its members, could 
 no longer be termed a well-shaped hand. 
 
 In the estimate of proportion, it is ne- 
 cessary to consider the nature of the ob- 
 ject. A window would, doubtless, be 
 thought disproportioned whose height was 
 six or eight times greater than its breadth, 
 which, however, would be perfectly al- 
 lowable — indeed, indispensable in a co- 
 lumn. Here the different purposes of the 
 two things must be taken into account. In 
 
the window, the height and breadth have 
 the same end tn answer — namely, the aug- 
 mentation of the mass of light admitted 
 through it into the interior of the structure ; 
 whilst in the column there are two ends 
 to be achieved, the elevation of the object 
 to be supported, and the necessary soli- 
 dity of the supporting or propping body- 
 It suflices if the thickness of the column 
 is just capable of bearing tirmly the body 
 pressing upon it. 
 
 The human body has always been con- 
 sidered as presenting the most beautiful 
 specimens of proportion. We may remark 
 therein all the rules of the most perfect 
 harmony preserved. This form, considered 
 in its totality, presents several principal 
 parts, neither of wiiich predominates so 
 far as to overpower the eiTect of the other, 
 and of which the smaller members gain in 
 beauty and variety what they want in 
 size. Thus tlie head, which is the small- 
 est of the principal members, is, at the 
 same time, the most important, and the 
 same remark will iiold good witii respect 
 to its parts. The forehead, the cheeks, the 
 eyes, the nose, the mouth, the chin, all are 
 influenced by the same rule — the eyes more 
 particularly excelling in expression and 
 beauty, while their dimensions are smaller 
 than either of the other features. 
 
 Proportion is, in its elements, that which 
 
 PKOPOUTION. 
 
 and sculpture, therefore, all the dimen- 
 sions of the human figure have been regu- 
 lated by lengths of one of these members, 
 the former being a line drawn perpendi- 
 cularly from the crown of the head to 
 under the chin, and the latter a line taken 
 from tiie top of the forehead only to the 
 same point. 
 
 For further particulars respecting the 
 theories of proportion (for the practice of 
 it we must refer him to the works of Gre- 
 cian art), the reader may consult the fol- 
 lowing works : — La Dirinu Projtorziime, by 
 BoRGO S. Sepulcro, Vea. 1508, fol. In- 
 struction sur la Mesure atec le Compos et Ui 
 liegle, en Lignen, Surfaces, et Corps solidis, 
 by Albert DtRER (originally written in 
 German), Nurem. 1525 and 1538, fol. with 
 plates. There w'ere various early editions 
 of this work, and its celebrated author 
 publislied likewise at Nuremberg, in 1528, 
 folio, four books On the Proportions of the 
 Human Body (in German). This work 
 has been translated into almost all the 
 modern European languages, as well as 
 the Latin. Instruction utile sur I'Art des 
 Mesures, « I' Usage des Peinfres, Sculptenr.i, 
 &c. (originally in German), by J. Rouler, 
 Siemern. 1531, fol. Instructions on Per- 
 spective, and on the Proportions of Man and 
 ol' the Horse (German), by H. Lvutens.vck, 
 Franc. 15G4, fol. II primo Lihro delle per- 
 
 is agreeable to the sense : it would there- fctta Proporzivni di tutte le Cose che imitar 
 
 fore be idle, and, indeed, absurd, to endea- 
 vour to lay down aTiy specific rules for it. 
 Every oljject must draw its most beautiful 
 proportions from the use which is to be 
 made of it, or from tlie nature of those ob- 
 jects surrounding it. A serpent is beautiful 
 with proportions altogetiier diflerent from 
 those of a quadruped or bird. Nature de- 
 signs it to glide along the ground in a 
 hinuous trai:k,and gi\es it corresponding 
 length and slenderness ; but an animal 
 which has legs to assist its locomotion 
 becomes ugly, and even disgusting, when 
 it approaciies to tim proportions of the 
 Serpent ; and hence the odious phantasma 
 of dragons and "chinneras dire," and the 
 real.ac lual ileforinily of cniiodiies, lizards, 
 Htc. An artist, in lliis spirit, eniphi\ed in 
 the worknmnship of a vase, would take 
 tare, to inform liims<;lf of (he purpose to 
 whi(!li it was likely to be applied, in order 
 to delerniinc both its general i.liape and 
 the peculiar character of its details. 
 
 In onlrr to mak<! an aetu:il niodrl of tlu- 
 pKiportions of tile human body, arijsts 
 wlio have oocui>icd themselves in rc- 
 Kearehos of this kind, have chosen certain 
 parts of IJuit body for measures, the lu-uil 
 and face more purticuiurly. In painting 
 
 e ritrar si possttno, colV Arte del Discgno, 
 by V. Dati, Florence, 15G~, 4to. G. P. 
 LoMAZZO treats also of proportions in the 
 first book of his Trattato dM' Arte dclln 
 Piltura, i\Iilan, 1581, 4to. In tlie same 
 author's Idea del Tempio delta Pittura (Mi- 
 lan, 1691, 4to.), there is an entire chapter 
 treating of Proporziunc del Corpo umano 
 de diece faccie. Li Priini FJementi nelU 
 Simmetria, o sia Comnwnsuruzione dfl Di- 
 seifuo delli Corpi I'mani, by Fiiippo Jlst;- 
 c.henh), Padua, 1000, fol. Anihrojtome- 
 tria, by J. L. ]^i„-.ii(ti.r, Patav. 16.)4, 4to. 
 Katnurti/k en ScUitderUonslifi,; Untieerp de 
 fllenschenkonde, by G. Goere, Amst. 1G82, 
 8vo. with engravings. Sur les Proportions 
 de 4 </i'.s plus tiiites I'lguns de fAiidque, 
 by A. BossE. Proportions du Corps IJu- 
 main, mesur/'es sur lis plus belles Piii-urcs de 
 l'Anti<iuit,^, by G. Aidran, Paris, l(>83, 
 lid. 30 sheets. Compasso di I'roporzioui, 
 by 1*. (.^Asvri, Bologna, l(iH5. Anthropo- 
 metna; ou, Juf^ure du I'.orps lluimtin, by J. 
 G. BKUt;:Mi i.i.i.ii, .Aug>l)urgli, 1723, fol. 12 
 sheets. Proixniions du Corps Humuiu 
 d'apris des liijiles p^ometriijues et arithnn^- 
 <i</i(f,s, by G. Li( ini:.\sTi;<:i:R, Nuremberg, 
 17 IG, loi. In LArl de Peindre of (i. U. 
 Watelet, Paris, 1700, we find reflections 
 
I 
 
 PRO 
 
 on the same eut^ect. Proportions du Corps 
 Humain, engraved by J. Punt, explained 
 by De Witt, Amst. 1747, fol. Dimensions 
 du Corps Humain, by C. T, E. Reinhard, 
 17C7, 8vo. Reflexions sur la Peiuture, by 
 C. L. De Hagedorn (35th and 3Gth). 
 Traite snr Ics Proportions du Corps Humain, 
 by J. B. Hagenauer, Vienna, 1791, with 
 engravings. 
 
 With regard to proportion, as respects 
 architecture specifically, the following may 
 be referred to: — Observations sur I'Ai-chi- 
 tecture, par I'Abbe Langier, and the se- 
 cond book of Civil Architecture,hy Milizia. 
 
 Propyleia. [Gr. TrpoTruXniov.] In archa- 
 iology. Name applied by the Greeks to 
 the vestibule of a house. It was employed, 
 particularly, in speaking of the superb ves- 
 tibules or porticoes conducting to the acro- 
 polis or citadel of Athens, which formed 
 one of the principal ornaments of that town. 
 This magnificent work, of the Doric order, 
 was constructed under the government of 
 Pericles, after the designs of Mnesicles, 
 one of the most celebrated architects of 
 his age. Pausanias says, it was covered 
 with white marble, which, for the size of 
 the blocks, and the beauty of the work- 
 manship, was surpassing. Stuart, in his 
 Antiquities of Athens, and Le Roy, in his 
 Ruins of Greece, together with the travels 
 of the young Anacharsis, all make men- 
 tion of the relics of the propylea. 
 
 Proscenium. [Gr. irpo, before, and crKrjvi], 
 a scene.] In architecture. The front part 
 of the stage of a theatre, immediately be- 
 yond the orchestra, and under the sound- 
 ing board. 
 
 Proserpine. See Pluto. 
 
 Prostas. [Gr.] See Antechamber. 
 
 Prostyle. [Gr. Trpo, and tuXoc, a co- 
 lumn.] In ancient architecture. Having 
 pillars or columns in front only : accord- 
 ing to Vitruvius, the second order of tem- 
 ples. See Architecture. 
 
 Proteus. In mythological painting and 
 sculpture. Proteus, as well as Triton, was 
 by Neptune advanced to a high charge. 
 His distinguishing character Avas the 
 power of changing his form ; a character 
 more manageable by the poets (who could 
 describe him in all his various shapes, 
 with the transition from one to another), 
 than by the artists, who could exhibit him 
 only in his own form, or in some one alone 
 of all his transmutations. Of all the poets, 
 Virgil has described him most fully. He 
 gives the character of his person and the 
 description of his cave, with his seaherds 
 about him. He represents him as tending 
 them on shore; as plunging hinjself into 
 the sea ; and as riding over the surface of 
 
 PRY 
 
 it. He marks out, briefly indeed, but in 
 a picturesque manner, the whole series 
 of the transmutations of this changeable 
 deity. 
 
 Two passages seem to have been copied 
 by Virgil from some ancient painting. 
 One relates to the manner of Gyrene's 
 placing Aristeus and herself to surprise 
 Proteus (Geo. iv. v. 424) : the other is the 
 strange turn of his eyes whilst he is be- 
 tween anger and compliance ; which seems 
 not only to agree with the contest in his 
 mind, but to suit his character as a pro- 
 phet (Geo. iv. \. 452). 
 
 Protoma. [Gr. Trporofii], from -rrpo, and 
 TEjivio, to cut.] In archaiology. One of 
 the Greek terms for a bust (which word 
 see). 
 
 Prototype. [Gr. irptorcQ, first, and 
 Tvnog, a mark.] hi all the arts. The ori- 
 ginal of any work of art ; the model, the 
 study of which gives rise to otlier perform- 
 ances. 
 
 Providence, [providentia, Lat. from 
 Trpo, before, Gr. and video, to see.] In em- 
 blematical painting and sculpture. The Ro- 
 mans generally represented Providence, 
 upon their medals, under tlie figure of a 
 woman resting upon a column, holding in 
 her left hand a cornucopia reversed, and 
 in the right a baton, with which she points 
 to a globe, to indicate that her cares extend 
 over the whose universe. 
 
 Prudence. [Lat. prudentia.l In emble- 
 7natical painting and sculpture. Prudence 
 (or Good Sense) was very early received 
 as a goddess, and had temples dedicated 
 to her, particularly on the Capitoline hill. 
 On a medal of Gordianus, she is repre- 
 sented with a rule or measure in her hand, 
 and a globe at her feet, to show not only 
 that the emperor, by his pi'udence, kept 
 the world in order, but that the affairs of 
 human life are by her regulated as they 
 ought to be. 
 
 Raffaelle has represented the same qua- 
 lity by means of a woman with a feminine 
 countenance, but on the back part of her 
 head the face of an old man. She is 
 partly veiled, has a mirror in her hand, 
 and her arm is encircled by a snake. 
 That reptile is indeed itself symbolical of 
 Prudence, and often, without any accesso- 
 ries, represents her. But this complicated 
 allegory is surely unworthy of the great 
 painter who has used it, and the quality 
 of Prudence would be better characterized 
 under the traits of Minerva, for how is it 
 separable from that of Wisdom? 
 
 Prytaneium. [Gr. Trpvravtlov.^ In ar- 
 chaeology. A place at Atiiens wherein 
 those who had deserved well of their 
 
P i E 
 
 country were maintained at public charge, 
 aud wherein were preserved the laws of 
 Solon, and the statues of many divinities 
 and celebrated generals. I'ausanias makes 
 particular mention of those of Irene, 
 Vesta, Autolycus, Miltiades,. Themisto- 
 cles. It answered to the Curiae of the 
 Romans. See CLiii.t:. 
 
 Pkvtanis. [Gr.] In archaiology . Tlu; 
 president or chief of the council ; a magis- 
 trate in Greece, such as were the fifty at 
 Athens, who were lodged in tlie Pryta- 
 neum. See the above word. 
 
 PsELl)isiD<)>i()N. [Gr. \j/tvcijQ, false, iffoc, 
 equal, and co/i/), a building.] In ancient 
 architecture. The mode of the construc- 
 tion of buildings among the Greeks op- 
 posed to the IsoDo.MON (which word see), 
 the height, or thickness, aud length of the 
 courses dill'eriug. 
 
 PSEUDODIPI ERAL. [Gr. Iptv!')]!', falsC, CKJ, 
 
 twice, and Trrtpor, a wing.] In ancient 
 nrclutecture. False or imperfect dipteral, 
 the inner range of columns being omitted ; 
 according to Vitruvius, the liftii order of 
 temples, but the sixth, in our review of 
 AiKiiiTECTt'RE, wlierc the reader will find 
 it more fully explained. 
 
 The Pseudoperipteral was, in like man- 
 ner, an imperfect peripteral, in which the 
 columns at the wings were set within the 
 walls, and, instead of being surrounded 
 by a portico, it had nothing but the facade 
 in front. The walls of the cella were ad- 
 vaiiCL-d on each side as far as the interco- 
 liimniations of the portico, which were 
 thereby shut. This form was sometimes 
 adopted to give increased size to the inte- 
 rior of the cella. The temple of Fortuna 
 Virilis, at liome, and the Maison Carree, 
 at Nismes, arc examples. 
 
 P.si:i;i)OTiivit()N. (Gr. »;/£y()/)c, and <pvpa, 
 a door or gate.] In ancient architecture. 
 A false door at the buck of a building. 
 
 PsYCiiK. [-^vxT), the soul.] In emblema- 
 tical iHiinlinf^ anil sculjituir. TIk; same 
 (■n-fk word, »//i'xij, signifies a biittrrfiy 
 and the soul. Hence the former was used 
 by the Greek arli.sls as an emblem of the 
 bitter; and Cupid fondling or binning a 
 Imltcrlly is the same as his caressing or 
 slinging Psyche or the human spirit. In- 
 <leed, for almost all the ways in which 
 ('ti|)id is Sfiii playing with bntterllies, 
 some paralbl may be fnmul in the npre- 
 nenlalions of Cupid and Psyche. Thus, 
 in an anlicnie, the god of love is drawn in 
 II Iriuiiiphal ear by two lVyclies--in iino- 
 Ihir by two bnllernies. lly this might be 
 hhiidowed forth his power over the beings 
 of the air, of w hich the car is an emblem. 
 
 PiiJioMA. |(;r. from nr(\ii)v, a ^\ing.] 
 
 PUT 
 
 In archaiology. The Greek name for a 
 
 wall. 
 
 Pl'LPIT. [Lat. puljnfum.] In architecture. 
 A place raised on high, and adapted to the 
 purposes of public speeches. The highest 
 desk in a church, whence the sermon is 
 pronounced. Some of these, particularly 
 in Roman Catholic churches, where ex- 
 ternal splendour is greatly regarded, are 
 enriched in a variety of ways ; namely, by 
 being elevated on columns or adorned 
 with elegant carved work. They are often 
 surmounted with a cross or mitre, and 
 there are many specimens existing which 
 are constructed in fine marble. The prin- 
 cipal substance employed for the purpose 
 in this country is mahogany. 
 
 PuuiTY. [Fr. pureti, Lat. piirus, from 
 Gr. Trep, fine.] In emblematical painting 
 and sculpture. The modern iconologists 
 have symbolized this virtue by a young 
 girl clothed in white, holding in her hand 
 a white lily, or sometimes a cygnet in her 
 arms, both the one and the other being 
 considered as emblems of candour aud 
 purity. 
 
 Purple. [Lat. purpura, Gr. to(i(}>v(>(i.'] In 
 paintinij^, 6>:c. The ancients seem to have 
 all possessed the art of tinging wool with 
 purple. It appears that they distinguished 
 two varieties— the marine, or animal, and 
 the vegetable. The former was extracted 
 from two little shell-fish entitled mure.v 
 and purpura, w hich were fished for on all 
 the coasts of Plia-nicia, of Africa, Greece, 
 and around all the Mediterranean isles. 
 This purple, of a reddish violet colour, 
 was the dearest and most esteemed. The 
 other was red or scarlet, precious, but not 
 equally so with the former. It was not 
 produced fro?a the cochineal, which seems 
 to have been unknown to the ancients, but 
 from the kerines of the evergreen, or holm 
 oak. The marine purple was always 
 used about the vestments of the Persian 
 kings. The Tyrian purple was very cele- 
 brated in antiijuity : it was of a deeper 
 dye than the other sorts, and much valued 
 by the Romiin emperors, who forbade the 
 use of it, and indeed, of the colour gene- 
 rally, and from this restriction, arose the 
 phrase referring to those sovereigns, of 
 assuming the purple. 
 
 PtRPL'Risst'M. [Lat. id quod purple.'] In 
 archaioloffij. A species of colour obtained 
 from the froth or ticuin of the purple. A 
 sort of vermilion. 
 
 Pi I EM,. [Lat.] In architecture. The 
 I'nieal Libinis, so celebrated in Roman 
 history, was the co\er, or rather marginal 
 stones, 1^ a well, which Scriboiiius Libo 
 caused to be erected, by order of the sc- 
 
PUT 
 
 nate, on the space where a thunderbolt 
 had fallen. An altar and a chapel were 
 comprehended within the enclosure of this 
 well ; and, indeed, it became a kind of tri- 
 bunal which took cognizance of commer- 
 cial affairs. We still find the figure of the 
 puteal on several ancient medals, &c. with 
 this inscription: — Puteal Libon. See 
 Basso Riuevo. 
 
 PuTEOLi. [Lat. places of sulphurous 
 waters.] In the history of the arts. A town 
 of Campania, thus called, perhaps, from 
 its hot and cold springs, the stench arising 
 from some of which proceeds from sul- 
 phurous exhalations. 
 
 The Romans knew the utility of this 
 port, and sought to improve its natural 
 advantages. No part of their works how- 
 ever remains, except a line of piers, con- 
 structed to break the force of a rolling 
 sea: these piers are vulgarly styled the 
 bridge of Caligula, that conqueror having 
 been said to have marched in triumph from 
 Puteoli to Baia on a bridge — but this was 
 a bridge of boats. 
 
 The ruins of the ancient edifices of Pu- 
 teoli (now called Puzzuoli), are exten- 
 sively spread along the adjacent hills and 
 shores. An amphitheatre still exists en- 
 tire in most of its parts, and the temple of 
 Serapis offers many curious subjects of 
 observation : half of its buildings are still 
 buried beneath the earth thrown upon it 
 by volcanic commotions, or accumulated 
 by the crumblings of the hill ; the enclo- 
 sure is square, environed with buildings 
 for priests and baths for votaries : in the 
 centre remains a circular platform, with 
 four flights of steps up to it, vases for fire, 
 a centrical altar, rings for victims, and 
 other appendages for sacrifice, entire and 
 not displaced ; but the columns that sup- 
 ported its roof have been removed to the 
 new palace of Caserta. Behind thi^ round 
 place of worship stand three pillars with- 
 out capitals, part of the pronaos of a large 
 temple ; they are of CypoUine marble, and 
 at the middle of their height are full of 
 holes, eaten in then; by the filefish. 
 
 The present city occupies a small pe- 
 ninsula, and the cathedral was a pagan 
 temple, dedicated to the divinities which 
 presided over commerce and navigation. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Puteoli are 
 many relics of ancient grandeur, none of 
 which deserves more attention than the 
 Campanian way, paved with lava and 
 lime on each side, with venerable towers, 
 the repositories of the dead, which are 
 richly adorned with stucco inside. This 
 road was constructed in a most solid and 
 expensive manner, by order of Domitian, 
 
 PYll 
 
 and is frequently the subject of encomium 
 in the poems of Statins. 
 
 PuzzoLANA. [Ital.] In ancient construc- 
 tion. A reddish volcanic earth, sometimes 
 inclining to black, used in Italy instead of 
 sand, and which, mixed with lime, pro- 
 duces a kind of mortar which hardens in 
 water. It was called by the Romans terra 
 puteolana, from being principally found 
 near that town. 
 
 Pycnostyle. [Gr. ttvkvoq, recurring, 
 and TiiXoe, a column.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. According to Vitruvius, the first 
 method of intercolumniation, having one 
 diameter and a half between each column. 
 See Intercolumniation. 
 
 Pyramid. [Gr. TTvpajxig, from TriSp, fire : 
 i. e. shaped like a flame.] In architecture. 
 A structure which, from a square, trian- 
 gular, or other base, rises gradually to a 
 point. 
 
 The object of this kind of monument 
 was, undoubtedly, either to perpetuate the 
 recollection of some memorable event, or 
 to stand a testimony of the glory and splen- 
 dour of deceased monarchs. That it was 
 principally sepulchral has been rendered 
 tolerably evident. Among other reasons 
 because it was held, from its shape, sym- 
 bolical of immortality. 
 
 The pyramids of Egypt must unques- 
 tionably be ranked among the most extra- 
 ordinary specimens of human physical 
 power, and the contemplation of them is 
 interesting, and, indeed, awe-inspiring, 
 from the remoteness of their antiquity. 
 The largest are those of Geeza, so deno- 
 minated from a village of that name on the 
 banks of the Nile, distant from them about 
 eleven miles. The three which most at- 
 tract the notice of travellers, stand near 
 one another on the west side of the river, 
 almost opposite to Grand Cairo, and not 
 far from the spot whereon stood the an- 
 cient Memphis. 
 
 The following description of " the Great 
 Pyramid" is from the work of M. Savary, 
 who journeyed to it in the nighttime, for the 
 purpose of reaching the summit by sun- 
 rise. Coming within sight of the two 
 largest while tlie moon's rays were flung 
 upon them, he likens their appearance (at 
 the distance of three leagues), to two 
 points of rock crowned by the clouds. 
 Their aspects varied according to the cir- 
 cuits which he made in the plain. 
 
 " At half-past three in the morning we 
 arrived at the foot of the greatest. We 
 left our clothes at the gate of the passage 
 which leads to the inside, and descended, 
 carrying each of us a flambeau in his hand. 
 Towards tiie bottom it is necessary to 
 
 s s 
 
PYRAMID. 
 
 creep serpcntlike to set into tli-j interior ness of the stones is lost in the immensity 
 
 passage, which corresponds with the for- of the whole, and they appear very small, 
 
 mer. We mounted it with our knees, sup- " To determine its dimensions is still a 
 
 porting ourselves with our liands a^ainsl problem. From the time of Herodotus to 
 
 our sides. Without this precaution, one our days, it has been measured by a great 
 
 number of travellers and learned men, and 
 tlieir different calculations, far from clear- 
 ing up all doubts, have only increased the 
 uncertainty. The following table will 
 show, at least, how difficult it is to come 
 
 runs the risk of slipping on the inclined 
 
 plane, where the slight notches are insuf- 
 
 licient to stop the foot, and one might fall 
 
 to the bottom. Towards the middle we 
 
 lired a pistol, the friglitful noise of which, 
 
 repeated in the cavities of this immense at the truth. 
 
 cdifioc,continued a long time, and awaken- rnr \T T»vn \attt> 
 
 ed thousands of bats, which, ilying round UKl:.Al i \ KAiUii^ 
 
 us, struck against our hands and faces, ancients. height. 
 
 and extinguished several of our wax can- French feet 
 
 dies. They are much larger than the Herodotus 800 
 
 European bats. Arrived above, we en- gtrabo 625 
 
 tered a great hall, the gate of which is Diodorus Siculus. COO and a fraction 
 
 very low. It is an oblong square, wholly puny 
 
 composed of granite. Seven enormous 
 
 , r ,, ,1 ii MODERNS. 
 
 stones extend from one wall to the other. 
 
 WIDTH OP ONE OF 
 ITS SIUES. 
 
 French foot. 
 
 800 
 
 COO 
 
 700 
 
 708 
 
 and form the roof. A sarcophagus, made 
 of a single block of marble, lies at one end 
 of it. It is empty, and the lid of it has 
 been wrenclied off. Some pieces of earthen 
 vases lie around it. Under this beautiful 
 hall is a chamber not so large, where you 
 find tlie entrance to a conduit filled with 
 rubbish. After examining these caves, 
 where daylight never penetrated, we de- 
 scended the same way, taking care not to 
 fall into a well, which is on the left, and 
 goes to the very foundations of the pyra- 
 mid. Pliny makes mention of this well, 
 and says it is twenty-six cubits deep. The 
 internal air of tliis edifice, never being re- 
 
 Le Bruyn CIG 
 
 704 
 
 Prosper Alpinus.. C25 750 
 
 Thevenot .520 CS2 
 
 Niebuhr 440 710 
 
 Greaves 444 C48 
 
 NUMBER OF LAYERS OF STONE WIIICU FORM IT. 
 
 Greaves 207 
 
 Maillet 208 
 
 Albert Liewenstein 2C0 
 
 Pococke 212 
 
 Belon 250 
 
 Thevenot 208 
 
 According to Herodotus, the blocks of 
 stone which served for the construction 
 newed, is so hot and mephitic, that one is of the pyramids were drawn from quarries 
 almost suffocated. When we came out of of oriental mountains on the frontiers of 
 it, we were dropping with sweat, and Arabia. This, however, is absolutely con- 
 pale as death. After refreshing ourselves trary to the observations of modern travel- 
 wilh tiie external air, we lost no time in lers, who have ascertained that the same 
 ascending tlie pyramid. It is composed chalky stone of which they are composed 
 of more than two hundred layers of stone, is the produce of the country on which 
 
 tliey stand. Other ancient writers have 
 followed Herodotus in giving similar un- 
 founded accounts ; and the moderns have 
 even outvied tiiem in estimating the diffi- 
 culties of tlie erection of these monstrous 
 
 Tlicy oviM'lap eacii oilier in projKJrtion to 
 their elevation, wliich is from two to four 
 feet. It is necessary to climb up all these 
 enormous steps to reach tlie top. We un- 
 dertook it at tiie north-east angle, wiiich 
 is tiie least damaged. It took us, how- piles, conceiving it mpst strange how the 
 
 ever, half an hour, witii great pains and 
 nmny ell'orts, to effect it. 
 
 " Ti>e sun was rising, and we enjoyed 
 jiure air, with a most delicious coolness. 
 After admiring the prospect around, we 
 (leseentled cautiously, for we hud llie al)yss 
 before us, A piece of stone detaehing 
 
 l)rimeval people by w!u)m they were exe- 
 cuted, and who ai)pear to have iiad such 
 a limited knowledge of machinery, could 
 have succeeded in their fabrication. 
 
 The method employed to this end was 
 lirobably ^ ery simple. Indeed, ])hysieal 
 power seems to be all tliat was re(iuisile; 
 itself under our feet or hands might have since other Egyptian works of similar anti- 
 preripitated us to tlie fiottom. qiiity— ffuch as spacious tiniples, obelisks, 
 
 " Arriv<'d ul the foot of the jiyramid, wi- and immense columns, covered w'llU huge 
 made the tour of it, contempialing it with masses of stone, denuuuled a far greater 
 a sort of horror. When \iewe»l close, il knowledge of the niceties of construction, 
 seeing to bif made of masses of rock, but ami a much deeper feeling for the fine arte 
 at one hundred paces distance the large- in general. 
 
QUA 
 
 The ancient Egyptians seem to have pe- 
 netrated very far into the mysteries of 
 nature; and although their superstition 
 appears at first sight to be extremely gross 
 and absurd, yet it is very probable that 
 their deities were only emblematical per- 
 sonages, representing by sensible images 
 the grand effects or presiding principles 
 which they supposed to exist in the uni- 
 verse. Thus the moon was called Isis, 
 and the sun Osiris ; and to the honour of 
 this last deity, from whose visible influ- 
 ence and creative energy all things seem 
 to spring into existence, it is not improba- 
 ble that the Egyptians erected those stu- 
 pendous monuments, and dedicated them 
 to him as temples or altars. It was natu- 
 ral to build them in that shape which the 
 rays of the sun display when discovered 
 to the eye, and which they observed to be 
 the same in terrestrial flame, because the 
 circumstance was combined in their ima- 
 ginations with the attribute which they 
 adored. If they were temples dedicated 
 to the sun, it seems a natural consequence 
 that they should likewise be places of se- 
 pulture for kings and illustrious men, as 
 the space which they covered would be 
 considered consecrated ground. This hy- 
 pothesis is common, and is not contradicted 
 by the present reasoning. But, consider- 
 ing them as altars, and as most travellers 
 agree that they were never finished, but 
 terminate in a square horizontal surface, 
 it would not be refining too much, to ven- 
 ture an assertion that, in great and solemn 
 acts of adoration, the Egyptians construct- 
 ed fires, the flames of which should termi- 
 nate in the vertex of the pyramid, and so 
 complete that emanation of their deity 
 which they admired and adored. 
 
 The ancient authors, such as Herodotus, 
 Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, &c. who have 
 treated of Egypt in general, have also gone 
 into detail with respect to the pyramids, 
 and the same observation will hold with 
 regard to several modern travellers — Po- 
 cocke, Norden, Savary, Volney, &c. But 
 many works have been written exclusively 
 on this particular subject, and among them 
 are the following :— Petri Beixonii, De 
 
 QUA 
 
 Admirabili Operum Antiqmrum et Rerum 
 sHspiciendariim prastantia, lihri tres, Paris, 
 1535, 4to. This edition is very rare, and 
 the work was reprinted by Gronovils, in 
 the eighth volume of his Thesaurus An- 
 tiquitatum Gracarum. John Greaves, Pij- 
 ramidographia ; or, a Description of the Py- 
 ramids ill Egypt, London, 1646, 8vo., and 
 in the first volume of his Miscellaneous 
 Works, published by T. Birch, London, 
 1737, 2 vols. 8vo. In the tenth volume of 
 a Collection of Voyages and Travels, Lond. 
 1744, 4to. are also some remarks on this 
 subject, which Thevenot has translated 
 into French in the first volume of the Re- 
 lation de divers Voyages curieux. F. L. 
 Norden has inserted, in the first volume 
 of his Voyage d'Egypte, Remarques sur la 
 Pyramidngraphia de M. John Greaves, ci- 
 devant Professeur d Oxford. L'Egypfe de 
 Murtadi, Fils de Graphiphe, oil il est traits 
 dcs Pyramides, du Dibordement du Nil, et des 
 autres Merveilles de cefte Province, selon 
 les Opinions Arahes, translated from the 
 Arabic by P. Vattier, Paris, 1666, 12mo. 
 An English translation appeared at Lon- 
 don, 1666, 8vo. Olai Celsii, Historiola 
 Pyramidum Mgypti, Upsal, 1725, Bvo. J. 
 D. GocHWEND, Programma de Pyramidihus 
 Mgypticis, Eisenberg, 1743, fol. G. P. 
 Krans, Theoria Pyramidum, Frank, and 
 Leip. 1757, 8vo. ^gyptische Merkwurdig- 
 keiten, Sec. i. e. Blemorahle Things of Egypt, 
 containing Extracts from Herodotus, Diodo- 
 rus, Strabo, 8f COS likewise modern Travellers, 
 Leipsic, 1786, 8vo. White, Mgyptiaca ; 
 or. Observations on certain Antiquities of 
 Egypt, Oxford, 1801 : the second part of 
 which work contains an English transla- 
 tion of the Essay on the Antiquities of Egypt, 
 composed in Arabic by Abdollatif. 
 
 Pyx. [pyxis, Lat. from ttv^iq, Gr.] In 
 archaiology. Name given to the little cas- 
 ket in which the ancients often deposited 
 their jewels and other ornaments. It was 
 frequently of rich materials, and highly 
 embellished, its shape was a long square, 
 and it is often found represented on Greek 
 vases. One is presented in a picture 
 serving as vignette to the 7th plate of the 
 second volume of the Antichita d'Ercolano. 
 
 Q 
 
 QuADRiGARii. [Lat. quadriga, a chariot.] 
 In archaiology. Name applied generally 
 to the charioteers of the Circus. From a 
 small figure in bronze, published by Fico- 
 rini, a beautiful basso rilievo in the collec- 
 tion of Giustiniaui (N° 94'), and the statue 
 engraved in the third volume and 31st 
 
 plate of the Museo Pio Clementino, we find 
 that the quadrigarii had their f^et covered, 
 although Bianconi expresses a different 
 opinion. The most remarkable part of 
 their costume is a ligature bound over 
 their tunic. 
 
 Ql'ADRIGAts. [Lat.] In numismatics, 
 s s 2 
 
RED 
 
 Name of the first species of 9il>er money. 
 It «as struck ii» the year of Rome lb5 (a 
 little Ijeforc the first Punic war), and bore 
 a head of Janus, and, on the reverse, tlie 
 figure of a woman leading a ciiariot and 
 horses. 
 
 QuAunuPEDS. [Lat. quadrupes, from qua- 
 tuoVy four, and pes, a foot.] In pinnting. 
 Sec. It will be obvious that the student 
 should make himself acquainted with the 
 several varieties and shaiies of fhese ani- 
 mals, many of which are introduced fre- 
 quently into paintings of almost every de- 
 .seription. Let him consult the naturalists ; 
 and under the heads particularly of lion, 
 elepliant, panther, horse, ape, &c. he will 
 find those treated of which it is most de- 
 sirable he should be familiar with, and 
 which have been most frequently repre- 
 sented in allegorical and other subjects by 
 the artists of antiquity. 
 
 REE 
 
 (iuAKTERlXC. In heraldic painting, is the 
 dividing a coat into four or more quarters 
 or quarterings, by parting, couping, cS:c. 
 that is, by perpendicular and horizontal 
 lines, 6lC. 
 
 Qi AUTER RotND. See OVOLO. 
 
 Qlartz. [German.] A genus of siliceous 
 earths, very common in Europe, more or 
 less transparent, one of the most abundant 
 natural productions of the kind, and the 
 varieties of which are frequently employed 
 in the arts. M. Magellan observes, that 
 quartz is one of the principal kinds of 
 stone containing metals. 
 
 Qi AY. [quai, Fr.] In architecture. An 
 artificial bank, constructed of masonry, to 
 the sea or a river, on which goods are 
 conveniently unladen. 
 
 Quoins, [coin, Fr.] In architecture. 
 Stones or other materials put in the angles 
 of buildings to strengthen tiieni. 
 
 R 
 
 Rafter. [Dutch.] In architecture. Tiie 
 .secondary timbers of the house ; those 
 which are let into the great beam. 
 
 Rehate. [Fr. rabot.] In the arts of con- 
 struction. A kind of hard freestone, used 
 in the formation of pavements. Also a 
 piece of wood hafted into the top of a 
 long stick, serving to beat out the mortar. 
 Rebate is likewise the name given to an 
 iron tool sharpened something like a chi- 
 sel, and employed by different workmen 
 in drcssitig and polishing \\(iod, &c. 
 
 Ki;(i:ss. [Lat. recessus, from recedo, to 
 retire or withdraw.] In architecture. A 
 depth of some inches, constructed in the 
 llii<kness of a wall, such as arcades, 
 niches, iSic. 
 
 Red. [Saxon, ruhd, M'elsh.] in painting. 
 One of the three primitive colours, very 
 lively, and possessing considerable l)riglil- 
 ness. There are an infinite number of 
 tints, serving to the uses of painting — such 
 as lake, carmine, vermilion, red brown, 
 orjiiment, violet, i\c. whicii multiply their 
 own varieties by mixture with other co- 
 lours darker or brighter. 
 
 Redans. [Vr.) In architecture. Those 
 inojections cntislrucled at intervals in a 
 wail built on uneven ground, to preserve 
 Iho same height throughout its length. 
 They lire sometinies used in foundations 
 IniMi the same causes. 
 
 RiitiMK ui.UM. [Lilt, from redimio, Ut 
 crown or enc(mipnss.| In ancient costume. 
 'I'his niiino is applied to a cincture \vhi( h 
 
 was used by the Roman ladies, and which, 
 after having been twice passed round the 
 neck, was crossed over the breast, and 
 passed twice or thrice round the sides, in 
 order to fix the robe firmly thereto. Buo- 
 narroti says, that the early Christian pain- 
 ters were accustomed to give this cincture 
 to their representations of angels. A spe- 
 cimen is seen upon the figure of a naked 
 genius, published by this author in the 
 28th i)late of his Osservazioni sopra Framm. 
 di Vetro. It was, without doubt, consi- 
 dered in an allegorical view by the primi- 
 tive Christians, on account of its offering 
 the resemblance to the cross. 
 
 Thi! term redimicula initrir is given to 
 thosi! pendent strings which ser\e to tie 
 under the chin the mitre or Phrygian bon- 
 net. 
 
 IJEDKrc. {reduco, Lat.] In the arts of 
 desifin. This term signifies to copy a pic- 
 ture, a drawing, or print, diminishing its 
 size, and at tiie same time carefully pre- 
 serving its proportions. This is <lono 
 either by the artist adopting himself a 
 smaller scale, or by the emi)loyment of 
 mechanical instruments, such as the pan- 
 tograph (\\ hich word see). iSc. 
 
 Reenter, [re, again, liat. and enlrcr, 
 Fr.] In engraving. This phrase is some- 
 times used to denote the passing of the 
 graver into the incisions of the plate, 
 where the aquafortis has not sutliciently 
 bitli'n, in in-di-r, by deeiiening then\, to give 
 mori^ force to certain parts. 
 
REF 
 
 Refectory. [Lat. refectorium, from refi- 
 cio, to refresh.] In architecture. The hall 
 or room wherein meals are taken. This 
 term is almost confined to religious houses 
 or colleges. 
 
 Reflex. [_rejlexus, Lat.] In jwintiv^, 
 means those places or objects in a picture 
 which are supposed to be illuminated by 
 light reflected from some other body in the 
 same piece. 
 
 The study of reflexes is one the under- 
 standing of which is of considerable im- 
 portance to the artist. He may, indeed, 
 think that, in painting after nature, he is 
 doing what will render the study of that 
 theory unnecessary. We are of opinion, 
 that such an idea would be a mistaken 
 one in the practiser of any branch or any 
 part of the art. If admissible in any case, 
 it is so in that of the landscape-painter, 
 but in history and portrait it should be re- 
 collected, that the painter most generally 
 has the choice of the position, of the dis- 
 tribution of the whole, of the introduction 
 of the light, and even of the accessories 
 serving to relieve or set off the principal 
 objects. In this point of view, therefore, 
 it is obvious that a knowledge of the doc- 
 trine of reflexes in particular, as well as 
 of chiaroscuro in general, will be most de- 
 sirable. In fact, no painter ought to dis- 
 regard it, since it will be serviceable to 
 him even in forming a correct judgment of 
 those colours exhibited in nature. Ci- 
 cero's observation should never be lost 
 sight of — that the painter should have 
 skill to perceive and to discriminate, better 
 than any other man, the light and shades 
 thi-own out by different bodies. (Cicero's 
 Academic Questions, book 4.) 
 
 The fundamental principle of the theory 
 of reflexes is, that every coloured object 
 emits its light — that is to say, its colour, 
 on all surrounding objects, in the same 
 way that a flame illumines every thing about 
 it. But the effect of this reflex is only 
 perceptible under certain circumstances, 
 which are subjected to and regulated by 
 the general theory of light. Any body is 
 so much the more enlightened as, — first, 
 the light itself is stronger ; second, the 
 distance is less between the light and it ; 
 third, as the light strikes its surface more 
 directly ; and hence it arises that the force 
 of the principal light influences more or 
 less that of the reflexes. The flame of a 
 wax candle, although it have great ef- 
 fect at nighttime, is scarcely perceptible 
 during daylight; and in like manner 
 we perceive not the presence of the reflex 
 except in places which are darker than 
 the reflex itself. 
 
 S ER 
 
 For further observations on the doctrine 
 of reflexes, the student is referred to Lio- 
 NAROo DV Vinci's admirable Treatise on 
 Painting (T.'ith and following chapters) : to 
 the Grand Litre des Peintres of L airesse, 
 5th book, and Sd and 5th chapters ; to the 
 49th Consideration of Hagedorn on Paint- 
 ing ; to the Letter to a7i Amateur of Paint- 
 ing, Dresden, 1755, 8vo., 350th and follow- 
 ing pages ; and to Sulzer's Theory of the 
 Fine Arts, at the word Wiederschein, 
 
 Religion. [Lat. religio, according to 
 Cicero, from rclego, to read again, from 
 the great attention necessary for that 
 study.] In emblematical painting and sculp- 
 ture. Picart has represented the Chris- 
 tian i-eligion with a majestic air, a simple 
 habit, and the monogram of Christ on her 
 chest. An allegorical figure of Religion, 
 sculptured by M. Rousseau, bears a sim- 
 ple tunic covered with a mantle, and holds 
 the book of the evangelists and a cross. 
 
 Reuquary. [Fr. reliquaire.'] In sculp- 
 ture and modelling. Portable vessel of 
 gold, silver, or other substance, often en- 
 riched with other ornaments, and serving 
 for religious purposes, in Romish monas- 
 teries, &c. 
 
 Repetition. See Imitation. 
 
 Repose. [Fr. repos, from Lat. repono, to 
 lie down.] In painting, sculpture, 8f-c. That 
 quality opposed to violence : the principle 
 through which an action of a passionate 
 kind in a picture — such as a quarrel or 
 assassination, a feast of bacchanals, or 
 even a powerful eflect of light, is displayed 
 with threefold vigour and eflect, and pre- 
 vented from becoming painful, by the feel- 
 ing of contrast and juxta-position. When 
 all is overstrained, or violent, or gorgeous, 
 the eye has no point to rest on, and the 
 imagination is fatigued and repelled. It 
 is this which renders battle pieces, gene- 
 rally speaking, uninteresting, if not offen- 
 sive. In the ordinary language of art, 
 the word is occasionally applied to ex- 
 press accord or agreement in tones or co- 
 lours, and a judicious distribution of light 
 and shade. 
 
 Repose of body is indicated in figures 
 which are seated or lying, and sometimes 
 in standing figures. There is a well known 
 little figure of a. piping faun, which displays 
 this latter species in a manner equally 
 complete and graceful. 
 
 Representation. [Lat. reprasento, from 
 re, again, and prascns, present.] In all the 
 arts. The act of exhibiting, as if the thing 
 exhibited were present. 
 
 Reservoir. [Fr. from reserver, to lay 
 up.] In construciinn. A large basin in 
 which water is collected in order to be 
 
RES 
 
 (Iistribuffd again in dilFercut directions, 
 aiul for various purposes. These are often 
 constructed of timber, and lined interiorly 
 witii lead. Others are made of masonry, 
 &c. 
 
 RicssENTi. [Italian.] In drawinfr. A 
 word employed in tlie arts connected with 
 drawingjto signify whatever is pronounced 
 «>r expressed with force. Thus we speak 
 of muscles rcsscnli, or a manner resscnti. 
 Nature exhibits all the varieties of form, 
 but these are only occasionally to be so 
 denominated. Women, children, and men 
 of d(!licate habits or profession, display 
 only muscles lightly shaped and unmarked 
 by strenuousness, while, on the other hand, 
 men exercised to robust employments pre- 
 sent this style of person. Who is not 
 struck with the contrast between the Far- 
 nese Hercules and the Belvedere Apollo 
 or the Antinous ? Among the moderns, 
 Rad'aelle is perhaps the greatest painter 
 to be cited for the precision and variety of 
 the shapes which he has adapted to differ- 
 ent figures, as well as for superiority in 
 the art in general. 
 
 Restore, [rcstaurcr, Fr.] In all the arts. 
 To repair a building, and place it again in 
 good order. Also to put again into its 
 primitive state a mutilated image, or any 
 otiier piece of sculpture. The greater part 
 of the antique statues, having been more 
 or less mutilated when found, have been 
 restored with a greater or less degree of 
 sagacity and good taste. Many, however, 
 have suffered irremediably from the incon- 
 gruous mistakes of these restoring gentle- 
 men. The fact is, that of all the depart- 
 ments of the line arts, this, if not one of the 
 Jiigiiest, is undoubtedly, one of the most 
 delicate and diHicult. To restore well, a 
 man should not only have eye to perceive 
 and imagination to comprehend, but a 
 hand ready and skilled to embody the 
 idi'as and expressions of tiic august origi- 
 nator of the work ; but, unfortunately, the 
 hand is mucii oftcner found to possess the 
 former than the latter <|uality— namely, to 
 be ready than skilful; and hence the fre- 
 quent want of harmony between different 
 parts of tiie same performance, the palpa- 
 ble differences of style, and even of pur- 
 pose, which induce tiie spectator most 
 heartily to wish that the mangled trunk or 
 tiie shattered column stood before him, ra- 
 tin-rthanliie lu'tcro^iencous mass half madi^ 
 up of perfection and half of pretence. 
 
 Many of the blunders into which gen- 
 tlemen given to antiquarian research have 
 falliMi, dale llirir origin from lii(< ljlll(> 
 utUnlion devottd by them to tiie detection 
 of modern additions and rinlorations. Fu- 
 
 RET 
 
 bretti, in his work on the column of Tra- 
 jan, has sought to prove, by a basso rUiero 
 representing a chase of the emperor Gal- 
 lienus, that they shoed horses at that time 
 in the same manner as at the present day ; 
 whereas there cannot be any doubt that 
 tiie ground on which this essayed proof 
 stands, exists in consequence of the resto- 
 ration made by an ignorant modern artist. 
 
 There is, however, no doubt, likewise, 
 but that many line statues were broken 
 and repaired in ancient times. During 
 the civil wars of Greece, above all in those 
 of the Achaians against the Etolians, the 
 public monuments were often defaced ; and 
 others might have been injured during 
 their transportation to Rome, in which city 
 itself the relics of art often suffered in 
 times of public commotion. It was also 
 very customary for one Roman emperor to 
 restore the medals of his predecessors. 
 See Medals. 
 
 In Italy, where the antique statues often 
 exhiimed in ruins were destined princi- 
 pally for the decoration of palaces, villas, 
 or saloons, it is natural that they should 
 wish to render perfect (that is, of all their 
 chief members), those discovered trea- 
 sures — inasmuch as to the motley crowd 
 assembled in the hall of a palace, a muti- 
 lated figure would rather be an object of 
 disgust than admiration. Consequently, 
 at times, great modern artists have been 
 employed in the work of restoration, 
 among whom we may reckon Rlichel An- 
 giolo, Delia Porta, Sansavino Tatta, Fra. 
 Giov. Agnolo, Pietro Tacca, Salvetti, &;c. 
 but most generally the work has been 
 confided to indifferent or, at best, mediocre 
 artists. Sometimes even it has happened 
 that those artists most skilful in sculjjture 
 have been wanting in sullicient knowledge 
 of ancient costume, and of the mythic cir- 
 cles (see Mythic Ciuaj;) of the iuicieuts 
 to restore with complete propriety. 
 ' Modern times have produced various 
 methods of restoring the faded or damagetl 
 pictures of the old masters. In some 
 cases this has, doubtless, been wrought 
 successfully, and the result is a fortunate 
 one for the lover of art : but we cannot too 
 strongly express our conviction of the ex- 
 treme tlelicacy and hazard of such under- 
 takings. Some further observations on 
 this subject may be found in a work en- 
 litied Haudmiid to the Arts, London, 17.')S, 
 Hvo. ; in a letter of Louis Crispi, in Lvltcrc 
 snila Pittiira, Sciiltura, ^c; and in the 
 (ii-iilliinan's Dlni^azinc for ITCil, p. ;V.il. 
 
 Keticdi.atim. [Lat.] In architecture. 
 Ancient method of construcliug a wall, 
 preferred, by Vitruvius, to an inccrlum 
 
RID 
 
 (which word see), on account of having a 
 more regular appearance. He objects, 
 however, that it was wanting in solidity, 
 the stones not having been horizontally 
 placed. 
 
 Retouch. [Fr. retoucher.'] In painting, 
 sculpture, S^c. The application of the mas- 
 ter's hand to his pupil's performance, in 
 order to improve it. A similar process 
 used with regard to his own works, and 
 for the same purpose. Also see Restore. 
 
 Retrace. [Fr. retracer,'] In drawing, 
 &c. To renew the outline, &c. of a draw- 
 ing which had been effaced. 
 
 Return. [Fr. retour, retotmier.'] In ar- 
 chitecture. The continuation of a projec- 
 tion, moulding, &c. in a different or oppo- 
 site direction. 
 
 Reverse. [Fr. recers.'] In numismatics. 
 That side of a coin or medal on which the 
 head is not impressed. See Medals. 
 
 Rez-de-Chaussee. [Fr.] In architecture. 
 The ground floor. 
 
 Rhamnus. In the history of the arts. A 
 town of Attica, built near the sea, on the 
 south arm of the Euripus, seven miles 
 N. E. of Marathon. On a neighbouring 
 eminence stood the temple of Nemesis, the 
 goddess of vengeance. Her statue was 
 sculptured by Phidias, from a block of 
 Parian marble, which the Persians had 
 brought thither to assist in erecting a tro- 
 phy. It was ten cubits high, and was in- 
 scribed, not with the name of the artist 
 himself, but with that of his favourite 
 pupil Agarocritus. 
 
 Rhodiacum. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. In the interior of that part of the 
 house which, among the ancients, was oc- 
 cupied by the men, there was often a pe- 
 ristyle larger than that belonging to the 
 female's portion. It was surrounded with 
 porticoes, and the intermediate space 
 planted with herbs and flowers. Some- 
 times these porticoes forming the peristyle 
 were of the same height all round, but, in 
 other instances, the centi-al columns were 
 higher than the others, which latter dis- 
 position was denominated by the word 
 rhodiacmn. 
 
 In describing that division of the Greek 
 houses appropriated to the men, Vitruvius 
 makes no mention either of bedchamber 
 or of common sitting room ; and hence it 
 has been inferred, that the master of the 
 house passed the day generally in the Ex- 
 EDRA (which word see), or the library, 
 and repaired at night to the apartment of 
 his wife, situated among the rooms of the 
 women. 
 
 Ridge. [hfu^S, Saxon, rig, Danish.] In 
 architecture. The top of the roof rising to 
 an acute angle. 
 
 ROM 
 
 Riding School. See Menage. 
 
 RiLiEVO. See Basso Rilievo. 
 
 Rock Work. In architecture. A con- 
 struction of misshapen, rough, and irregu- 
 lar blocks or pieces of stone, sometimes 
 intermixed with shells, and designed to 
 represent the unpolished and angular ap- 
 pearance of the surface of rock. This 
 kind of work is principally employed to 
 construct grottoes, baths, &c. See Grotto. 
 
 Roman, [from Rome.] In the history of 
 the arts. Appertaining to the people or 
 country of Rome. See Architecture, 
 Arts, Painting, Robie, School, Sculp- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 Romanesque. [Fr.] In painting, ^-c. 
 That which appertains to romance or fable. 
 The romanesque, in historical painting, 
 may be defined as the choice of a subject of 
 a fanciful nature rather than one founded 
 on fact. The romantic differs from the ro- 
 manesque, inasmuch as the latter is merely 
 fabulous ; whereas the former even admits 
 of being true, provided it offer situations 
 of an unusual and impressive nature. 
 
 Rome. [Lat. Roma; named from Romu- 
 lus, its founder ; or, according to others, 
 from the Greek pwjitrj, an oak, or strength.] 
 7k the history of the arts. A city of Italy, 
 at one period mistress of the whole known 
 world. It was, as the tradition goes, 
 founded by Romulus, a half-fabulous chief 
 of remote antiquity, in the year 748 before 
 Christ: is situated on seven hills, and on 
 the side of the Tiber. The names of these 
 hills were Palatinus, Capitolinus, Aventi- 
 nus, Janiculus, Ccelius, Esquilinus, and 
 Quirinalis. 
 
 The city of Rome, like its inhabitants, 
 was at first rude and unadorned. The 
 houses, agreeably to the name given them 
 (tecta), were only a covering and defence 
 against bad weather. They were not 
 formed into regular streets, but flung toge- 
 ther as chance directed. The walls were 
 half mud, and the roofs pieces of boards ; 
 and even this latter was an after improve- 
 ment; for, in Romulus's time, the roofs 
 were only of straw, and from thence called 
 culmina. The palace of the kings was a 
 little thatched house, called, by Ovid and 
 Livy, a cottage. Any thing finer than or- 
 dinary was appropriated to the embellish- 
 ment of the temples ; and when these be- 
 gan to be furnished with the statues of the 
 gods (which was not till long after Numa's 
 time), they were either of earthenware or 
 chopped out of wood. The chief orna- 
 ment, both of the temples and the houses, 
 was their ancient trophies, which were 
 trunks of trees loaded with the arms taken 
 in wars ; and this privilege was at first 
 allowed only to patricians, it having some 
 
ROME. 
 
 rights annexed to it. It was unlawful to the statues put up in the public places of 
 rcni'ive these trophies, and they never the citj", extolled Marcellus, saying:— 
 were removed but on extraordinary orca- " We shall now be no longer reckoned 
 sions, as after the battle of Cannse, &c. barbarians. Our generals have conquered 
 
 Such was the state of Rome, when her our enemies, but Marcellus has conquered 
 citizens had subdued the better part of our ignorance : let the Romans be polite 
 Italy, and were able to engage in war as well as victorious." 
 with the Carthaginians, the strongest Marcellus's party prevailed ; and from 
 power then both by land and sea. But it this point of time may be dated the intro- 
 was not till the second Punic war that the duction of arts into Rome. How fast and 
 Romans acquired any taste for the arts how greatly the love of the arts prevailed 
 and elegancies of life: for though in the there maybe seen by a speech of old Cato 
 first war with Carthage they had made an the censor in the senate, not above seven- 
 irruption into Sicily (which, in the old Ro- teen years after the taking of Syracuse. 
 man geography, made a part of Greece), In vain did Cato exclaim against it ; the 
 and were masters of several cities, in the Roman generals,iu their several conquests, 
 eastern parts of Italy, which were inha- seem to have strove who should bring 
 bited by Grecian colonies, and adorned away the most statues and pictures to 
 with the pictures and statues in which adorn their triumphs and the city of Rome, 
 that nation excelled all the world, they The elder Scipio from Spain and Africa, 
 Lad hitherto looked on them with so care- Flaminius from Greece, and, more parti- 
 less an eye as not to be touched by their cularly, j^milius from Macedonia, brought 
 beauty. This insensibility remained thus in a very great number of vases and sta- 
 long, either from the grossness of their tues. Tiie latter general adorned his tri- 
 minds, from superstition, or (which is more umph (which lasted three days) with fine 
 likely), from a political dread that their statues and sculptured vessels, taken from 
 martial spirit and natural roughness might the collection of Alexander the Great : as 
 be destroyed by Grecian arts and refine- for the inferior spoils of no less than se- 
 ments. venty Grecian cities, he left them to his 
 
 When Fabius Maximus, in the second soldiers, as unworthy his triumph. Not 
 Punic war, had taken Tarentum, he found many years after, Scipio the younger de- 
 it full of riches, and adorned with paint- stroyed Carthage, and transferred to Rome 
 ings and statues, particularly with some the chief ornaments of lh;it city. The 
 line colossal pictures of the gods fighting same year Mummius sacked Corinth, one 
 against the rebel giants. These were of the principal reservoirs of the finest 
 made l)y the most eminent masters of works of art. He had no taste ; but, how- 
 Greece, and the Jupiter probably by Ly- ever, he took the surest method not to be 
 sippus: for Lucilius speaks of a remark- mistaken, for he carried oil" all lliat came 
 able figure of Jupiter at Tarentum, sixty in his way, and in such quantities tiiat he 
 feet high. Tlie money and plate Fabius alone is said to have filled Rome with pic- 
 ordered to be sent to Rome, but the sta- tures and statues. In the sale of the plun- 
 tues and pictures to be left behind. The der of Corinth, there was a picture of 
 secretary, struck with the largeness and Bacchus by Aristides, for wiiich king At- 
 noble air of (he statues, remonstrated talus gave a sum commensurate to about 
 against their being left wilh the rest; upon £5000. Amazed at the vast price, Mum- 
 which rejilied Fabius, " Ves, leave their mius ignorantly thought tliere was some 
 
 angry gods to (he Tarentines— we will 
 have nolhing to do with them." 
 
 Marci-llus had, it is true, a year or two 
 bi'fore, acted very diilerently at the taking 
 of Syracuse, which abounded in tin' works 
 of tlic best masters: for he sent all tiu' 
 l)ic(ure8 and statues to Itonie, in onler (as 
 he used to declare) to introduce a (as(e 
 for tiie fine arts among his countrymen. 
 
 This didereiici' of behaviour in (heir (wo 
 greiilesl leaders occasioned two parties in 
 Rome. The elder part of the conununity 
 Htood up for Fabius. " Let (he (Jreeks 
 (said (hey) keep their ell'eniinate ar(s (o 
 th.-nis.-lves, and let the Ronums learn oidy 
 how to cou(|Uer and govern." The younger 
 people, however, wlu) were deligl>ied with 
 
 magic virtue conceali-d in i(, and ac(ually 
 took away the picture again from Attains 
 (who grievously complained thereof), and 
 sent it to Rome. The soldiers had used it 
 for a table to play dice ui)on. 
 
 At a further period, Sylla, besides many 
 otliers, made vast ailditions (o these trea- 
 sures, by his taking of Adieus, and by his 
 con(iues(s iti Asia. 
 
 These ac(inisi(ions were likewise car- 
 ried (Ml by the governors of (he conquered 
 provinces, whose rapaciousness, (hough 
 no( fully exposed by the partial historians, 
 is, l)y an honest poet of their o\v n, set in as 
 strcmga light as that of Verres by Cicero. 
 (Juvenal Sa(. viii. v. H7 — WJ). If many 
 of (jieir pr,e(or^ and proconsuls acted at 
 
ROME. 
 
 k 
 
 all like Verres, when governor of Sicily, 
 probably Home was more enriched by the 
 secret rapines of their governors, than by 
 the open spoils of their generals. For, 
 according to Cicero, there was not a gem, 
 a statue, or picture which Verres saw and 
 liked, but what he took from the owner. 
 
 There was another, but less infamous, 
 method of increasing these treasures : — 
 namely, the custom of asdiles, when they 
 exhibited their games, of adorning their 
 theatres and other places with statues and 
 pictures, bought or borrowed all over 
 Greece, and even from Asia. Scaurus had 
 no less than three thousand for mere orna- 
 ment, in a theatre built only for four or 
 five days. The same Scaurus brought to 
 Rome all the pictures of Sicyon, one of the 
 most eminent schools of Greece for paint- 
 ing, on pretence of a debt' due to the Ro- 
 man people. 
 
 From these public methods of drawing 
 the works of the best ancient artists into 
 Italy, it grew at length to be a part of pri- 
 vate luxury,to adorn their houses, porticoes, 
 find gardens with the statues and pictures 
 that could be produced out of Greece and 
 Asia. None went earlier into this taste 
 than the Luculli, and particularly Lucius 
 Lucullus, who is censured by Plutai'ch for 
 his excessive fondness for pictures and 
 statues, which he got from all parts at an 
 immense expense. This man was attached 
 to the polite arts from a child. He was 
 famous, likewise, for his vast baths and 
 piazzas, and for his magnificent gardens. 
 The Julian family fell into the same ex- 
 cess. Julius Cccsar was a great collector, 
 and as fond of gems as his successor, Au- 
 gustus, was of Corinthian vases. Pliny 
 speaks of a superb collection of gems 
 which Julius placed in his temple of Ve- 
 nus Genetrix ; and Augustus is reported 
 to have proscribed certain individuals only 
 to obtain their fine Corinthian vases. 
 
 This may be caJled the first age of the 
 flourishing of the politer arts, or rather 
 the age in which they were introduced at 
 Rome; for though some, perhaps, had a 
 good taste, in general there was yet rather 
 a love than any great knoivledge of their 
 beauties among the Romans. No doubt 
 the latter would have obtained much ear- 
 lier amongst them than it did, had it not 
 been for the frequent convulsions of the 
 state, and the perpetual struggles of some 
 great man or other (from Sylla to Augus- 
 tus), to get the reins of government in his 
 hands. The succeeding peaceful times, 
 and encouragement given by Augustus to 
 all the arts, aft'orded leisure to contem- 
 
 plate the fine works collected in the age 
 before, and to perfect the taste for the ele- 
 gances of life. The artists who were then 
 much invited to Rome worked in a man- 
 ner greatly superior to what they had 
 done even in Julius Caesar's time ; as ap- 
 pears evident by comparing the medals 
 of the two eras; so that under Augustus 
 may be reckoned the second and most 
 perfect age of sculpture and architecture, 
 as well as of the sister art of poetry. He 
 changed, indeed, the whole face of Rome 
 itself: he found it ill built and left it a 
 city of marble. He adorned it with fine 
 buildings, and decked them, and even the 
 common streets, with some of the finest 
 statues in the world. 
 
 On the death of this magnificent prince, 
 the fine arts suffered a great change, al- 
 though not so great as eloquence and poe- 
 try. There is a secret union through all 
 the politer arts, which makes them fade or 
 flourish together. The favour of Augus- 
 tus, like a gentle dew, caused them to bud 
 forth and blossom ; while the sour reign 
 of Tiberius, like a sudden frost, checked 
 their growth and killed all their beauties. 
 The vanity and tyranny of the subsequent 
 times gave the finishing stroke to what 
 Tiberius's ungenial sway had begun. 
 From the baleful influences of himself, of 
 Caligula, and Nero, the arts suffered so 
 much, that they were soon after reduced 
 to a very low ebb. Some spirit was after- 
 wards given to the ai'ts by the series of 
 wise emperors after Domitian ; but after 
 the Antonines they declined very fast, and 
 by the time of the thirty tyrants, were so 
 utterly fallen, as to be unable to rise again 
 under the succeeding emperors. 
 
 Hence it appears, that the fine arts, in 
 the first age under the republic, gradually 
 grew up and flourished together : that in 
 the second or Augustan age, they were at 
 the highest perfection : that in the third, 
 from Tiberius to Gallienus, they both de- 
 clined, then revived a little, and at last 
 sunk entirely together. 
 
 For this reason, in comparing the de- 
 scriptions of the poets with the works of 
 art (see Poets), all should be omitted after 
 the Antonines, and those only referred to 
 who belonged to the three great ages, with 
 the understanding that the writers of the 
 first were but little acquainted with the 
 arts, consequently their authority should 
 be received with reservation. Ennius has 
 the most picturesque strokes of any of 
 them, but his descriptions are probably 
 more from reading than taste. Besides, 
 the appearance, dress, and attributes of 
 
ROM 
 
 the allegorical beings were not so well 
 settled in his time as they came to be af- 
 terwards. Passages, therefore, from him 
 and his contemporaries should be very spar- 
 ingly used, and rather to illustrate than 
 build on ; for they sometimes differ mate- 
 rially from the Augustan writers, who, on 
 all accounts, are the most to be depended 
 upon, especially Virgil. His iEneid should, 
 indeed, be the standard in such inquiries. 
 His taste, judgment, and exactitude give 
 him the preeminence. Ovid's authority 
 is but of a mixed kind; the luxuriance 
 of his fancy and his incorrectness make 
 what he says doubtful and uncertain. The 
 poets of the tliird age have a middle kind 
 of authority, as much better acquainted 
 with the works of art than the ancient 
 writers, and much less exact than the Au- 
 gustan. Silius, perhaps, may be allowed 
 the greatest authority of any poet of this 
 age for his carefulness and particular love 
 of the arts ; as Lucan's heat, and Statius's 
 inexactness may render them less lit to be 
 depended on than others who wrote in 
 the decline of poetry and of the arts at 
 Rome. 
 
 The most noble remains of ancient Rome, 
 such as the Colosseum, Pantheon, &c. 
 (see those words, and Architecture), have 
 been elsewhere treated of in this work ; 
 and it will not consist with the plan of it 
 to go into detail respecting the various 
 works of art which decorate the modern 
 city. The principal ornament of this is 
 unquestionably the cathedral of St. Peter, 
 the largest and most beautiful church in 
 the world. It was projected by Nicholas 
 V: Julius n. laid the first stone in the 
 year 1500; but the wliolc structure was 
 not completed until the next century. It 
 is said to cover twenty acres, and to have 
 cost upwards of one million sterling. Tlie 
 original artist was Hramante, but the 
 greater part was from the plan of Michel 
 Angiolo, who raised the cupola; Maderni 
 linisluil it in tlic year l(j21. 
 
 1{()MULLS. Ill mylhuloi^icttl juthitiiig- and 
 sculpture. As the liomans tliouglit they 
 could nut do too much honour to their 
 founder, llicy made Uomulus llie son of 
 INlars, tlic god who must liave been most 
 respected in the lirat ages of their military 
 Btnte. He is Hometinu'S represcnlcil so 
 like his father, that it is dillicuil to distin- 
 guish their figures asunder. On a medal 
 of Antoninus Pius In- appears like Mars 
 GradivuH, witii a si)ear in one band, and a 
 trophy on the opposite slioiihUr. It in 
 very likely tiiat several of the supposed 
 ligurcB of Murs, with u trophy so placed, 
 
 ROO 
 
 belong rather to Romulus, who was the 
 inventor of trophies among the Romans. 
 
 The whole story of the birth of this hero 
 is represented in a rilievo at the villa Mel- 
 lini in Rome. It is divided into four com- 
 partments. In the first Mars is going to 
 Rhea as she sleeps by the Tiber. In the 
 second she is sitting with her twins in her 
 lap, whilst Amulius seems to be upbraid- 
 ing her. In the third the two infants, Ro- 
 mulus and Remus, are exposed on the 
 banks of the river; and the fourth repre- 
 sents them as cherished by the wolf, whilst 
 Faustulus stands surprised at their strange 
 situation. This work is but indifl'erent ; 
 however, the particulars of it are to be met 
 with in other works of better ages. The 
 descent of Mars to Rhea is not uncommon ; 
 and the circumstance of Romulus and Re- 
 mus being suckled by the wolf is very 
 common on medals, gems, and statues. 
 
 Roof. [Sax. or from Gr. 6p6<}>, which 
 from epe(pu), to cover.] In architecture. The 
 covering of a house, or other building, by 
 means of which its inhabitants are pro- 
 tected from the injuries of the weather. 
 It is the essential part of the enclosure of 
 a house, and is frequently used to express 
 the whole. Thus, to come under a man's 
 roof is to enjoy his society and protection. 
 Tectum was used in the same sense by the 
 Romans. 
 
 The roofs of the ancients, according to 
 Vitruvius, consisted of the following parts. 
 Trabes, a beam or wall-plate — being the 
 timber which is laid upon the walls, co- 
 lumns, &c. to receive and distribute the 
 pressure of the roof. Culmcn, the top or 
 ridge, of consequence the ridgepiece. Co- 
 Uimcn, from whence columns derive their 
 name : this must, therefore, be what we 
 call the king-post. Tr«ns<r<r— if the space 
 of the roof is great, these, therefore, may 
 be considered as largt; or principal rafters. 
 To these are added cnprcoli, struts or 
 braces ; cantcrii, small or common rafters, 
 projecting to the exlremilies of the eaves ; 
 <(7H/)/(i, cross or longitudinal pieces, which 
 serve to support or strengthen the asscres, 
 or laths, which support the tiles or cover- 
 ing. 
 
 The pitch of liie roof should be regu- 
 lated by the climate, and by the mate- 
 rials made use of to defend the timber 
 from tiie weather. Roofs covered with 
 lead may be nearly flat, but this method is 
 seldom iised. For tiles, the roof must bo 
 higher than the pediment pitch, whieh is 
 oiu! fourth of file entire building. But 
 this pilch is scarcely high enough for 
 slates. Copper coverings have recently 
 
ROU 
 
 been adopted, and may be laid on roofs of 
 a low pitch. 
 
 Rose. [Lat. rosa.'] In numismatics and 
 sculpture. Several authors have believed 
 that the] rose was the symbol of ancient 
 Rhodes. This flower is certainly seen 
 upon the medals of that town, as well as 
 upon those of Rhoda in Spain. 
 
 The rose or rosette is an ornament sculp- 
 tured in the centre of each face of the 
 abacus of the Corinthian capital. 
 
 Rostral Column. See Column. 
 
 Rostrum. [Lat.] In architecture. The 
 place of common pleas at Rome, wherein 
 was a pulpit set (trimmed with sterns or 
 forefronts of ships), out of which place 
 they were wont to make orations to the 
 people : a pulpit : a pleading place. 
 
 Rotunda. [Lat. rotundus, round, from 
 rota, a wheel.] In architecture. A building 
 which is round both within and without. 
 
 Round Towers, Cromlechs, &c. of Ire- 
 land. The round towers of Ireland,of which 
 the author has a list of nearly seventy now 
 remaining, are among the most singular 
 and disputed buildings of antiquity. They 
 resemble one another in general appear- 
 ance, and vary from thirty to one hundred 
 and thirty feet in height, and from thir- 
 teen to nineteen or twenty feet in diame- 
 ter. Their resemblance to the pillars or 
 round towei'S of the east cannot but be re- 
 marked. These structures have opened 
 to men of leisure and erudition a spacious 
 field for conjecture. Giraldus Cambrensis 
 mentions them as early as 1185 ; John 
 Lynch alludes to them in 1C62, and says 
 the Danes who entered Ireland, according 
 to Giraldus, in 838, are reported to be the 
 authors of our orbicular narrow towers. 
 " They were called," he says, " clock 
 theach, or house of the bell." Peter Walsh 
 wrote of them in 1684, and Dr. Molyneux 
 in 1727. Since these. Dr. Ledwich and 
 Mr. Grose are the most satisfactory. Some 
 writers think that they were watch towers 
 or beacons to observe the approach of an 
 enemy, and others that they were merely 
 belfries to warn the country round of dan- 
 ger, or to call the people to worship, be- 
 cause they are mostly found near their 
 ancient churches. To the author this hy- 
 pothesis appears quite unsatisfactory: the 
 tower at Kilkenny, v/hich he has mea- 
 sured and investigated, is, indeed, evi- 
 dently older than the cathedral, the south 
 transept of which appears to have been 
 shortened in its original building, on ac- 
 count of the round tower, which is within 
 a very few feet of it. Other antiquarian 
 writers suppose them to have been the re- 
 
 ROU 
 
 sidence of anchorite monks, in imitation of 
 eastern pillars similar to that of Allaha- 
 bad. Some few imagine them to have 
 been places of penance, or purgatorial pil- 
 lars, in which the penitent was elevated 
 according to his crime, and descended as 
 his offences were expiated. 
 
 A description of one may serve for the 
 whole ; and we will take that at Monaster- 
 boice, three miles from Drogheda. This 
 fine tower is one hundred and ten feet 
 high, and fifty-one feet in circumference, 
 beautifully diminishing like tlie shaft of 
 an antique Doric column. Its diameter is 
 seventeen feet, and the thickness of the 
 walls, which are built of a blue stone 
 found in the neighbourhood, three feet six 
 inches ; the door is five feet six inches 
 high, twenty-two inches wide, and six feet 
 above the present level of the ground. The 
 ancient church, which is close to it, is now 
 in ruins. In the churchyard are two very 
 old and curious crosses ; one, about eigh- 
 teen feet high, covered with sculpture, is 
 called St. Boyne's cross, and is esteemed 
 the most ancient religious relic now in 
 Ireland. It is of one stone, and is said to 
 have been sent from Rome, and erected by 
 order of the pope. Among the sculptures 
 on it, there is an inscription in Irish cha- 
 racters, in which is plainly legible the 
 name of Muredach, who was for some time 
 king of Ireland, and died in 534, about a 
 hundred years before the arrival of St. Pa- 
 trick in that kingdom. 
 
 This, however, is by no means the lof- 
 tieet round tower ; that of Drumiskin, in 
 the county of Louth, being one hundred 
 and thirty feet high, and that of Kildare, 
 or Chilledaire, being one hundred and 
 thirty-three feet high, and only eighteen 
 feet in diameter. The latter extraordinary 
 building, the walls of which are but three 
 feet six inches in thickness, is built of fine 
 white granite to about twelve feet from the 
 ground, and the rest of the blue stone of 
 the country ; the door is fourteen feet from 
 the ground. Chilledaire signifies the wood 
 of oaks, and was a large ancient forest, 
 comprehending the middle part of the pre- 
 sent county of Kildare. In the centre of 
 this wood was a large plain sacred to dru- 
 idical worship, and now called the Cur- 
 ragh of Kildare, celebrated as a race- 
 course. 
 
 Our next subject will be those very an- 
 cient and rude structures in both king- 
 doms, commonly understood to be druidi- 
 cal remains ; and first, though briefly, of 
 comlechs. These monuments are called 
 by the Welch crwm Icchctc, or bowing- 
 
stones, because they bowed before Ihcni in 
 their ceremonials of religious worship. 
 Both the northern and eastern ancient su- 
 perstitions ascribed divine <jualities (o 
 monstrous unhewn stones, which they 
 adored as gods (Grose, vol. i. p. G). A 
 circle of twelve, with one in the centre 
 representing the prime deity, became a 
 temple, within which they performed sa- 
 crifices and other religious ceremonies, 
 elected and inaugurated their kings, and 
 held their courts of justice. 
 
 Cairns, or immense conical heaps of 
 stones, raised as a rude monument, are nu- 
 merous in Ireland ; and one can travel but 
 little in the interior without frequently 
 meeting them. 
 
 Dr. Macpherson is doubtful whether the 
 cairns in the Scottish isles were reared by 
 the Norwegians or Ohl Dritons of Caledo- 
 nia; adding, that there are cairns in Aber- 
 deen an(lInverness,andinCaernarvonshire, 
 where the northerns never penetrated. 
 
 Near the town of Naas, in the county 
 of Kildare, the author saw, among some 
 ancient ruins of a round tower, and other 
 relics, several under-ground caves beneath 
 the circles, such as are alluded to in Os- 
 sian. " Go, Ferchios," says the poet, in 
 his Fingal (book v. p. 43), " go to Allad, 
 the gray-haired son of the rock ; his dwel- 
 ling is in the circle of stones." This Allad 
 was a druid, and is called the son of the 
 rock, evidently, from his dwelling in a 
 cave; and tlie circle of stones is the pale 
 of a druidical temple. The hero then 
 visits the druid, and Allad gives him his 
 answer; the hero's reply to the priest 
 proves the druid's dwelling place to be in 
 the cave. " Allad," said the chief of 
 Cromla, " jteace to thy dreams in thy 
 cave." The holiness of caves was as firndy 
 believed in as tiiat of gro\es, and therein 
 tli(! druids performed divine ollites, and 
 taught their disciples. 
 
 The ar( liili'dural anliquitics of Ireland, 
 indeed, jireseiit a line iine\plored lield. 
 There are riiins of between thirty and forty 
 abbeys, of splendid archit<'(ture. Tliose 
 of Jerjioiiit and of the IJiaek Abbey, in tiie 
 c(»Mii(y of Kilkenny, are, perhaps, finer 
 than any in Kngland, not even excepting 
 the far-famed Netley Abbey, in Hanip- 
 Bhire. Then (here are tiieir iiionnts, their 
 cairns, and their eaves; llieir round low- 
 ers; their ancient cathedrals; and the 
 modern Haalbeck, th<- deserted city <,f 
 KillMiiilltK h, in the coun(y of Limerick ; 
 likew ise 111., leniains of (he seven churches 
 at (;b iidiil,,,!,, i„ the connly of Wieklow; 
 and the bed of St. Kicven, inunortalizcd 
 
 ROUND TOWERS. 
 
 by the muse of the Irish melodist ; toge- 
 
 ther with their cromlechs, which rival any 
 in England. 
 
 The cromlech at Tobin's Town, in the 
 county of Carlow, forms a sort of rude 
 temple. On the west end is a porch, or 
 portico, formed by two upright pillars, 
 somewhat round but irregular, each eight 
 feet high, terminated behind by a broad 
 flat stone, eight feet high and nine feet 
 broad, which, being set on the edge, makes 
 a jjortico of six feet wide and four feet 
 deep. This is covered by the large slop- 
 ing stone, or cromlech, which is twenty- 
 three feet long, eighteen broad at the 
 upper end over the portico, and six feet at 
 the lower or back part, where it rests on 
 small stones about a foot high. Its thick- 
 ness at the upper end is four feet, and at 
 the lower tvvo. The under surface is 
 plain, and the upper convex. The upper 
 surface has a large channel, from which 
 branch a number of smaller ones : some 
 antiquaries think these natural, tilhers 
 (with more probability) artilicial, and in- 
 tended for sacrificial purposes. The sides 
 are enclosed and supported by several up- 
 right stones from three to six feet high, 
 thus forming a room or cell not unlike the 
 Monopteral temples of the Egyptians, 
 eighteen feet long, eight feet witle at the 
 upper or west end, and five at the oppo- 
 site one ; eight feet high in front, and two 
 behind ; perfectly secure from every in- 
 convenience of weather. From the por- 
 tico, westward, is a sort of avenue nearly 
 one hundred and twenty feet long, formed 
 of small, irregular, artificial hillocks. 
 This curious remain of ancient Irish archi- 
 tecture is situated in a low plain field, 
 near a rivulet, on the road from Tullow to 
 Hachetstown. 
 
 The other cromlech, at lirown's Town, 
 is in a lield about a mile and a half from 
 Carlow ; it consists of an immense rock 
 stone, raised on edge from its na(i\e bed, 
 and suj)ported at its east end by three 
 rude columns. At a smaH distance is 
 another pillar by itself, nearly round, and 
 live feet in heigli(. The covering-slone, 
 or cr«)mlech, is twenty-two feet ten inches 
 long, eighteen feet nine inches wide, and 
 four feet si\ inelu'S thick at the upper part, 
 having nearly t\vi> (housaiul cubic feet of 
 stone, weighing ninety tons, and making, 
 with the horizon, an angle of thirty-four 
 tiegrees. 
 
 A very singular si)ecinien of ancient 
 Irish architecture, which is certainly one 
 of (he most curious fabrics in these king- 
 doms, must be noticcil, — the stone-roofed 
 
RUD 
 
 chai^el of the ancient king Cormac, at 
 Cashel, who was, after the patriarchal 
 mode, both king and bishop, and flourished 
 about the year 908 (Ware's Ant. of Ire- 
 land, p. 52). It is supposed to have been 
 erected about the year 1134, and dedicated 
 to that celebrated royal priest; and yet 
 Ware, in his Antiquities, says, that when 
 Roderick O'Connor, King of Connaught, 
 in the year llGl, built a stone castle at 
 Tuam, it was considei-ed such an extraor- 
 dinary work that the natives called it the 
 Wonderful Castle. The aforesaid chapel 
 of St. Cormac, at Cashel, is a regular ec- 
 clesiastical edifice, divided into a nave 
 and choir, the latter narrowing in breadth, 
 and separated from the nave by a wide 
 arch. Under the altar tradition reports 
 the remains of St. Cormac to be deposited. 
 There is a striking resemblance between 
 this chapel and the church of St. Peter, at 
 Oxford, with Grimbauld's crypt beneath 
 it. Its dimensions, plan, and section may 
 be found in Grose's Antiquities, and are 
 well deserving the attention of the stu- 
 dent. 
 
 Ruby. [Lat. ruber, red.] In gem sculp- 
 ture. Name of a gem very difficult to be met 
 with in its most perfect state. There are 
 rubies of different shades of colour, but 
 that the most sought after should be scar- 
 let, or fire colour ; it should be soft and 
 velvety in appearance, and throw forth a 
 glow lively and ardent. When these qua- 
 lities are eminently displayed, no stone is 
 comparable thereto, and its value surpasses 
 even that of the diamond. This species 
 of ruby is undoubtedly that on which the 
 ancients lavished such high encomiums, 
 and which they name anthrax, carlio pyro- 
 pus, carbunciilus, &c. 
 
 According to Pliny, the ancients found 
 considerable difficulty in engraving on this 
 stone : many modern artists have essayed 
 upon it, and among them one of the most 
 successful is a German named Haefler. 
 
 Rudder, [r-oeder, Dutch.] In allegorical 
 painting, &c. That instrument at the stern 
 of a vessel by which its course is go- 
 verned. 
 
 The ancients sometimes put two rudders 
 to a vessel. According to Athenaius, there 
 were even four to that of Philopater ; and 
 Suidas says, that of these four, two were 
 placed at the prow, and two at the stern. 
 Winckelmann, in his Description des Pierres 
 de Stosch, cites a jasper of this collection 
 upon which was engraved a ship without 
 oars, going at full sail, and having two 
 rudders at lier stern. 
 
 Upon various ancient monuments the 
 rudder is found in the hand of the allego- 
 
 RUL 
 
 rical figures of Fortune or Abundance, 
 wliilst in the other hand they grasp a cor- 
 nucopia. Tins instrument indicates also 
 the riches produced by maritime commerce. 
 The ancients had a custom of detaching 
 the rudder from their vessels on the ap- 
 proach of autumn, when the sea began to 
 grow boisterous, and the return of spring 
 was marked by the replacement of the 
 rudder. 
 
 Modern artists have often made this in- 
 strument one of the accompanying attri- 
 butes of tlie allegorical figure of Hope. 
 
 RuDENTURE. [Fr.] /« architecture. The 
 figure of a rope or staff, wherewith the 
 flutings of columns are frequently filled 
 up. 
 
 Ruins, [ruina, Lat. from ruo, to fall.] In 
 architecture, A term peculiarly applied to 
 magnificent buildings fallen into decay by 
 length of time, and whereof there only re- 
 mains a confused heap of materials. Such 
 are the ruins of the tower of Belus, two 
 days journey from Bagdat in Syria, on the 
 banks of the Euphrates ; which are now 
 no more than a heap of bricks, cemented 
 with bitumen, and whereof we only per- 
 ceive the plan to have been square. Such 
 also are the ruins of a famous temple, or 
 palace, near Schiras, in Persia, which the 
 antiquaries will maintain to have been 
 built by Ahasuerus, and which the Per- 
 sians now call Tchelminar, or Chelminar, 
 q. d. the Forty Columns, on account of so 
 many columns remaining pretty entire, to- 
 gether with the traces of others, a great 
 quantity of bassi rilievi, and unknown 
 characters, sufficient to show the magnifi- 
 cence of the antique architecture. The 
 most remarkable ruins still existing of en- 
 tire cities are those of Palmyra and Per- 
 SEPOLis, of Herculaneum and Pompeii 
 (see those words). 
 
 The superb and stupendous ruins re- 
 maining to this day of particular build- 
 ings, in Rome, Athens, &c. as of temples, 
 palaces, amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, 
 &c. it were beyond the plan of this work, 
 and, indeed, would be almost endless to 
 enumerate. 
 
 Rule or Ruler, [regula, Lat. from i-ego, 
 to govern.] In tnensuration. An instrument 
 of wood or metal, with several lines deli- 
 neated on it : of great use in practical 
 mensuration. 
 
 Rules of Art. Much diversity of opi- 
 nion has taken place amongst persons of 
 virtu with regard to the propriety or im. 
 propriety of paying attention to any given 
 rules of art. Certain philosophical spirits 
 have occupied themselves, at different in- 
 tervals, in examining works of art analy- 
 
RUL 
 
 tically, with llic view of tracing out tlie 
 origin of those powerful impressions pro- 
 duced by tliem upon the mind of sensibi- 
 lity, and iu the hope, by means of such 
 discovery, of being enabled to lay down 
 such directions to the future artist as may 
 be almost infallible. Among the foremost 
 of these inquirers, the mass of whom in- 
 cludes philosophers, orators, poets, pro- 
 fessed critics, and artists, we may mention 
 the names of Aristotle, Cicero, Horace, 
 Boileau,Pope, Lionardo da Vinci, Rubens, 
 Lairesse, &c. Notwithstanding all their 
 efforts and pains, however, certain critics 
 of the day have not scrupled to declare, 
 that so far from its being desirable to pre- 
 scribe general rules of art, the practiser of 
 the arts will only feel himself shackled 
 thereby, and will have by no means an 
 equally fair chance of displaying the ex- 
 tent of his genius. 
 
 Those who are thus terrified at the idea 
 of established principles of art have not, 
 perhaps, considered duly their real nature. 
 They imagine, probably, that they com- 
 prise nothing but insignificant precepts, 
 dictated by the fashion of the time. In 
 this point of view, they are deserving cer- 
 tainly of nothing but neglect: but the fact 
 is, that the true rules of art should be 
 founded upon a theory deduced from the 
 very essence and nature of the arts them- 
 selves, and not from any extraneous or ar- 
 bitrary circumstances; and, thus consider- 
 ed, they start at once into importance. 
 
 But the word theory is indignantly re- 
 jected by these objectors to rule. " It is 
 precisely tliis tlicory," say they," which is 
 destructive to tiie genuine exertions, and 
 to the unsophisticated talent of the artist: 
 it binds down the imagination, produces 
 works cold and formal, insipid, and desti- 
 tute at once of freedom, power, or grace." 
 All this would be true if, through igno- 
 rance or error, the word were applitd to a 
 false meaning. Itut it is in art, as in all 
 other things dependent on design and 
 construdion ; there are certain essential 
 principles inherent in (iic nature of the 
 Heveral j)ur.'-uits which cannot be over- 
 looked or violated without risking utterly 
 the agreeablenesrt of the result. At the 
 sanur lime, W(> are (juite ready to admit, 
 that these should be as few and aa simple 
 as possible. 
 
 'I'hostr rules of art which are of real 
 Berviee to the student teach him to dislin-' 
 guish between what is necessary to the 
 perfection of his work, and what is ustfut 
 only. They are calculated to direct and 
 BUggcHt, not to enslave. They cannot be- 
 stow the power of genius on those who 
 
 RUS 
 
 have it not, neither need they for one in- 
 stant to repress originality, since there is 
 abundant room, u-ithin their limits, for its 
 exercise. They may, in short, be com- 
 pared to sign-posts, which are only useful 
 to such as possess the power of proceed- 
 ing by them, which power they are en- 
 tirely destitute of means either to increase 
 or diminish. 
 
 Rustic. [Lat. rusticus, from rvs, the 
 country.] In architecture. A manner of 
 building in imitation of nature rather than 
 according to artificial laws. 
 
 The ancients had a method of building 
 with stones smooth only on those sides 
 where the juncture was effected w ith other 
 stones, their exterior surfaces being left 
 quite rough. This style was adopted from 
 various motives : sometimes economy dic- 
 tated it ; in other instances, want of time ; 
 and occasionally a capricious taste, similar 
 to that which leads many men at the pre- 
 sent day to have their stone houses painted 
 to imitate brick. At all events, there can 
 be no doubt but that some circumstance 
 which was deemed unlucky at that period 
 originated the peculiaritj', which has since 
 grown into an actual separate style, emd 
 from its rudeness and want of finish has 
 been denominated rustic. Among the great 
 number of fine edifices built by the magni- 
 ficent and enterprising Romans, many 
 were, doubtless, left imperfect from scar- 
 city of means, or other causes, and these 
 imperfections have, in the eyes of modern 
 speculators, assumed the character of de- 
 sign, and become the objects of imitation. 
 
 A species of rustic seems nho to have 
 been occasionally practised among the 
 Greeks, an instance of which may be found 
 in the base of the choragic nu)nument 
 called the Lantern of Demosthenes. The 
 kind of work to which it was most fre- 
 quently applied, and to which, in fact, it 
 is best appropriated, was the construction 
 of walls, and one of the noblest specimens 
 of this nature is the vast wall which sur- 
 rounded the forum of Nerva, and which is 
 now designated the wall of the arch of 
 Panthanus. The species of rustic em- 
 ployed thereon is a model for all work of 
 that descripti(Ui, and appears to have been 
 imitated at Florence. Its character is 
 bold and grand, without being in the least 
 oulr^ or unsightly. 
 
 Other examples are to be met with in 
 the aejucduct of Claudius, otherwise called 
 the arch of Drusus, and in the amphithea- 
 tres of Hola, in Istria, and of Verona. The 
 ancients, although they often emjiloyed 
 rus^cwork in the construction of porticoes^ 
 of heavy pillars, and other erections bear- 
 
SAC 
 
 ing the character of weight and solidity, 
 carefully abstained from applying it to 
 columns, to which it certainly is not at all 
 adapted. 
 
 The moderns, as was before hinted, have 
 not been so moderate at all in their intro- 
 duction of rustic. The celebrated archi- 
 tect Bruneleschi, who sought to impress 
 a character of strength and grandiosity on 
 almost all his works, found rustic a very 
 availing instrument in his hands for that 
 purpose. The old palace at Florence, the 
 Pitti palace, and several others, have 
 their fronts covered with this sort of thing. 
 The other Italian schools of architecture 
 have employed it with less profusion and 
 more taste. Vignola and Palladio intro- 
 duced it occasionally, and more for the 
 purpose of affording variety of effect than 
 as a uniform and prevailing decoration ; 
 more as an accidental kind of caprice than 
 as the indication of a separate style. From 
 Italy, the method of constructing in rustic 
 passed into England, France, and other 
 European countries, and has been, per- 
 
 SAC 
 
 haps, oftener turned to account than the 
 exercise of a pure and correct taste would 
 sanction. See Bossage. 
 
 Rustic Gods. In archaiology. The gods 
 of the country (dii rustici), or those who 
 l)resided over agriculture, &c. Varro in- 
 vokes the twelve dii consentes, as the prin- 
 pal among the rustic gods ; namely, Jupi- 
 ter, Tellus, the Sun, Moon, Ceres, Bac- 
 chus, Rubigus, Flora, Minerva, Venus, 
 Lynipha, and Good Luck. Besides these 
 twelve arch-rustic gods, there were an in- 
 finity of lesser ones ; as Pales, Vertum- 
 nus, Tutelina, Fulgor, Sterculius, Mel- 
 lona, Jugatinus, Collinus, Vallonia, Ter- 
 minus, Sylvanus, and Priapus. Struvius 
 adds the satyrs, fauns, sileni, nymphs, and 
 even tritons ; and gives the empire over 
 all to Pan. 
 
 Rustic Order. That decorated with 
 rustic quoins, rustic work, &c. i. e. where 
 the stones in the face, &c. of the building, 
 instead of being smooth, are hatched or 
 picked with the point of a hammer. 
 
 Sacome. [Italian, sacoma.} In architec- 
 ture. Term applied to the exact profile of 
 every member or moulding ; and by some 
 architects (principally French), to the 
 mouldings themselves. 
 
 Sacrarium. [Lat.] hi archaiology. A 
 sort of family chapel in the houses of the 
 Romans. It differed from the larariuniy 
 inasmuch as that was dedicated to all the 
 household deities without exception, while 
 the sacrarium was devoted to some parti- 
 cular divinity. Cicero, in his oration for 
 Milo, speaks, in the 31st chapter, of the 
 Sacrarium de la Bona Dea, in the country 
 of Titus Sextus Gallus. The name was 
 also given to that particular portion of 
 the ancient temples wherein the sacred 
 things were deposited. 
 
 Sacrifice. [Lat. sacrificium, from sacer, 
 holy, and facio, to do.] In archaiology. 
 All the nations of antiquity were, at one 
 period or other of their history, addicted 
 to the offering up of sacrifices. It is not 
 to our present purpose to institute inquiry 
 into the origin of the practice. It is by 
 some attributed to the Phoenicians, by 
 others to the Egj'ptians ; while Ovid ima- 
 gines, from the import of the words victim 
 and hostin, that no bloody sacrifices were 
 offered till wars prevailed in the world, 
 and nations obtained victories over their 
 
 enemies. These, however, are mere hy- 
 potheses, not borne out by historical re- 
 search or tradition, and entitled to little 
 regard. 
 
 That part of the subject which is likely 
 to be of service to the artist, and which 
 we shall immediately proceed to investi- 
 gate, is the method in which sacrifices 
 were wont to be offered up : an acquaint- 
 ance with which is not only calculated to 
 act as a guide in any work he may himself 
 project, but will afford an explanation to 
 such numerous relics of antiquity (sculp- 
 tures, frescoes, &c.), as bear representa- 
 tions of this nature. 
 
 Of the various kinds of Jewish sacri- 
 fices, and the subordinate ends for which 
 they were offered, a full account is given 
 in the books of Moses. When an Israelite 
 offered a loaf or a cake, the priest broke it 
 in two parts ; and, setting aside that half 
 which he reserved for himself, broke the 
 other into crumbs, poured oil, wine, in- 
 cense, and salt upon it, and spread the 
 whole upon the fire of the altar. If these 
 offerings were accompanied with the sa- 
 crifices of an animal, they were thrown 
 upon the victim, to be consumed along 
 with it. If the offerings were of the ears 
 of new corn, they were parched at the fire, 
 rubbed in the hand, and then offered to 
 
SACRIFICE. 
 
 the priest in a vessel,ovcr which he poured as were then desired. Prayers being 
 oil incense, wine, and salt, and then burnt ended, the priest took a cup of w,ne, and, 
 it noon the altar, havinp lirst taken as having tasted it himself, caused his assist- 
 much thereof as of right belonged to him- ants to do the like ; and then poured forth 
 ,, the remainder between the horns of the 
 
 ^Vhe principal sacrifices among the He- victim. Then the priest or the crier, or 
 brews consisted of bullocks, sheep, and sometimes the most honourable person m 
 goats ; but doves and turtles were ac- the company, killed the bi-ast, by knock- 
 cepted from those who were not able to ing it down or cutting its throat. If the 
 bring the other; these beasts were to be sacrifice was in honour oi the celestial 
 perfect, and without blemish. The rites gods, the throat was turned up towards 
 of sacrificing were various, and all are heaven; but if they sacrificed to the he- 
 very minutely described in the books of roes or infernal gods, the victim was killed 
 jyj g with its throat towards the ground. If 
 
 The' manner of sacrificing among the by accident the beast escaped the stroke, 
 Greeks and Romans was as follows. In leaped up after it, or expired with pam 
 the choice of the victim, they took care and difficulty, it was thouglit to be unac- 
 that it was without blemish or imperfec- ceptable to the gods. The beast being 
 tion: its tail was not to be too small at killed, the priest inspected its entrails, 
 the end; the tongue not black, nor the and made predictions from them. They 
 ears cleft; and the bull was to be one that then poured wine, together with frankin- 
 had never been yoked. The victim being cense, into the fire, to increase the flame, 
 pitched upon, they gilt the forehead and and then laid the sacrifice on the altar ; 
 horns, especially if a bull, heifer, or cow. which in the primitive times was burnt 
 The head they also adorned with a gar- whole to the gods, and thence called a 
 land of flowers, a woollen itifula or holy holocaust ; but in after times, only part of 
 fillet whence hung two rows of chaplets the victim was consumed in the fire, and 
 with' twisted ribands; and on the middle the remainder reserved for the sacrificers; 
 of the body a kind of stole, pretty large, the thighs, and sometimes the entrails, 
 hung down on each side : the lesser vie- being burnt to their honour, the company 
 tinis were only adorned with garlands and feasted upon the rest. During the sacri- 
 bundles of flowers, together with white fice, the priest, and the person who' gave 
 tufts or wreaths. the sacrifice, jointly prayed, laying their 
 
 The victims thus prepared were brought hand upon the altar. Sometimes they 
 before the altar ; the lesser being driven played upon musical instruments in the 
 to the place, and the greater led by a hal- time of the sacrifice, and on some occasions 
 ter : when, if they made any struggle, or they danced round the altar singing sa- 
 refused to go, the resistance was taken cred hymns in honour of the gods, 
 for an ill omen, and the sacrifice frequently The abominable inactice of human sa- 
 set aside. The victim thus brought was crifices followed that of ollVring brutes, 
 carefully examined, to see that there was When men had gone so far as to indulge 
 no defect in it ; then the priest, clad in his the fancy of bribing their gods by sacrifice, 
 sacerdotal habit, and accompanied with it was natural for them to think of en- 
 tile sacrificers and other attendants, and hancing the value of so cheap an ri<<»iit'/H(Mi 
 being washed and inirilied according to by the cost and rarity of the oflering; and, 
 the ceremonies prescribed, (urned to the oppressed with their malady, they never 
 right hand, and went round llie altar, rested till they had gt>t to that which Ihey 
 si)rinkling it with meal and holy water, conceived to be the most precious of all, a 
 and also bcsi>rinkling those who were human sacrifice. " It was custcnnary (says 
 present, 'i'lieii the i rier prochiiiufd with Sanchoniathon), in ancient times, in great 
 a loud voice, Who is here ? To which the and public calamities, before things be- 
 peoi)le replied. Many and good. The came incurable, for princes and inagis- 
 
 priest then, having exhorted the jxopU' 
 to join with him, by saying, Li't us pray, 
 confessi'd his own unt\orthiness, acknow- 
 ledging that he had been guilty of divers 
 
 trates to oiler up in sacrifice to the aveng- 
 ing (lemons the dearest of (heir otl'spring." 
 Sanchoniallion wrote of I'luvnicia, imt the 
 practice prevailed in every nation under 
 
 sins; forwhiih lie begged pardon of the heaven of which we have received any 
 
 gods, hoping that they would be pleased ancient account. The Kgyjilians had it in 
 
 to grant his requests, accept the oblations the early part of their monarchy. The 
 
 ollVnd them, and send them all health (.!retans likewise had it, and retained it 
 
 and happiness; and to this general fonn for a longer timi-. The nations of Arabia 
 
 added petitions for such particular favours did the same. The people of Dumah, in 
 
SACRIFICE. 
 
 particular, sacrificed every year a child, 
 and buried it underneath an altar, which 
 they made use of instead of an idol ; for 
 they did not admit of images. The Per- 
 sians buried people alive. Amestris, the 
 wife of Xerxes, entombed twelve persons 
 quick under ground for tlie good of her 
 soul. It would be endless to enumerate 
 every city, or every province, Avhere these 
 dire practices obtained. The Cyprians, 
 the Rhodians, the Phoceaus, the lonians, 
 those of Chios, Lesbos, Tenedos, all had 
 human sacrifices. The natives of the Tau- 
 ric Chersonesus ofl'ered up to Diana every 
 stranger whom chance threw upon their 
 coast. Hence arose that just expostula- 
 tion in Euripides upon the inconsistency 
 of the proceeding; wherein much good 
 reasoning is implied. Iphigenia wonders, 
 as the goddess delighted in the blood of 
 men, that every villain and murderer 
 should be privileged to escape, nay, driven 
 from the threshold of the temple ; whereas, 
 if an honest and virtuous man chanced to 
 stray thither, he was only seized upon, and 
 put to death. The Pelasgi, in a time of 
 scarcity, vowed the tenth of all that should 
 be born to them for a sacrifice, in order to 
 procure plenty. Aristomenes the Messi- 
 nian slew three hundred noble Lacedae- 
 monians, among whom was Theopompus 
 the king of Sparta, at the altar of Jupiter 
 at Ithome. Without doubt the Lacede- 
 monians did not fail to make ample re- 
 turns ; for they were a severe and revenge- 
 ful people, and offered the like victims to 
 Mars. Their festival of the Diamastigo- 
 sis is well known ; when the Spartan boys 
 w ere whipped in the sight of their parents 
 with such severity before the altar of 
 Diana Orthia, that they often expired 
 under the torture. Phylarchus aflirms, as 
 he is quoted by Porphyry, that of old every 
 Grecian state made it a rule, before they 
 marched towards an enemy, to solicit a 
 blessing on their undertakings by human 
 victims. 
 
 The Romans were accustomed to the 
 like sacrifices. They both devoted them- 
 selves to the infernal gods, and constrained 
 others to submit to the same horrid doom. 
 Hence we read in Titus Livius, that, in 
 the consulate of iEmilius Paulus and Te- 
 rentius Varro, two Gauls, a man and a 
 woman, and two in like manner of Greece, 
 were buried alive at Rome in the ox mar- 
 ket, where was a place under ground, 
 walled round, to receive them ; which had 
 before been made use of for such cruel 
 purposes. He says it was a sacrifice not 
 properly Roman, that is, not originally of 
 Roman institution ; yet it was frequently 
 
 practised there, and that too by public 
 authority. Plutarch makes mention of a 
 like instance a few years before, in the 
 consulship of Flaminius and Furius. 
 There is reason to think, that all the prin- 
 cipal captives who graced the triumphs of 
 the Romans were, at the close of that 
 cruel pageantry, put to death at the altar 
 of Jupiter Capitolinus. 
 
 The Gauls and the Germans were so 
 devoted to this shocking custom, that no 
 business of any moment was transacted 
 among them without being prefaced with 
 the blood of men. They were offered up 
 to various gods; but particularly to He- 
 sus, Taranis, and Thautates. These dei- 
 ties are mentioned by Lucan, wliere he 
 enumerates tiic various nations who fol- 
 lowed the fortunes of Caesar. 
 
 The altars of these gods were far re- 
 moved from the common resort of men ; 
 being generally situated in the depth of 
 woods, that the gloom might add to the 
 horror of the operation, and give a rever- 
 ence to the place and proceeding. The 
 persons devoted were led thither by the 
 druids, who presided at the solemnity, and 
 performed the cruel offices of the sacrifice. 
 Tacitus takes notice of the cruelty of the 
 Hermunduri, in a war with the Catti, 
 wherein they had greatly the advantage ; 
 at the close of which they made one gene- 
 ral sacrifice of all that were taken in battle. 
 The poor remains of the legions under Va- 
 rus suffered in some degree the same fate. 
 There were many places destined for this 
 purpose all over Gaul and Germany ; but 
 especially in the mighty woods of Ardu- 
 enna, and the great Hercyniau forest; a 
 wild that extended above thirty days jour- 
 ney in length. The places set apart for 
 this solemnity were held in the utmost re- 
 verence, and only approached at particu- 
 lar seasons. Lucan mentions a grove of 
 this sort near Massilia, which even the 
 Roman soldiers were afraid to violate, 
 though commanded by Ceesar. It was one 
 of those set apart for the sacrifices of the 
 country. 
 
 These practices prevailed among all the 
 people of the north, of whatever denomi- 
 nation. The Massageta;, the Scythians, 
 the Getes, the Sarmatiaus, all the various 
 nations upon the Baltic, particularly the 
 Suevi and Scandinavians, held it as a fixed 
 principle, that their happiness and security 
 could not be obtained but at the expense 
 of the lives of others. Their chief gods 
 were Thor and Woden, whom they thought 
 they could never sufficiently glut with 
 blood. They had many very celebrated 
 places of worship ; especially in the island 
 
 T T 
 
SAC 
 
 (if Rii^tn, near the mouth of the Oder; 
 ajid in Zealand : some, too, very famous 
 among the Semnones ami Naharvalli. But 
 the most reverenced of all, and the most 
 frequented, was at Upsal ; where there 
 was every year a grand celebrity, which 
 continued for nine days. During this 
 term they eucrificed animals of all sorts: 
 but the most acceptable victims, and the 
 most numerous, were men. 
 
 The manner in which the victims were 
 slaughtered was diverse in diircreiit places. 
 Some of the Gaulish nations chined them 
 with a stroke of an axe. The Celta; placed 
 tlie man who was to be otiered for a sacri- 
 fice upon a block, or an altar, with his 
 breast upwards, and with a sword struck 
 him forcibly across the sternum ; then tum- 
 bling him to the ground, from his agonies 
 and convulsions, as well as from the effu- 
 sion of blood, they formed a judgment of 
 future events. The Cimbri ripped open 
 the bowels ; and from tiiem they pretended 
 to divine. In Norway they beat men's 
 brains out with an ox-yoke. The same 
 operation was performed, in Iceland, by 
 dashing them against an altar of stone. 
 In many places they transfixed them with 
 arrows. After they were dead they sus- 
 pended them upon the trees, and left them 
 to putrify. One of the writers above 
 <Hioted mentions that, iu his time, seventy 
 carcasses of this sort were found in a wood 
 of the Scevi. Dithmar of Mersburgh, an 
 author of nearly the same age, speaks of 
 a place called Lcdiir, in Zealand, where 
 there were every year ninety-nine persons 
 sacrificed to the god Swantowite. During 
 these bloody festivals a general joy pre- 
 vailed, and bamjuets were most royally 
 served. They fed, caroused, and gave a 
 loose to indulgence, which at otlier times 
 was not i)ermitted. They imagined that 
 there was something mysterious in the 
 number nine : for which reason these 
 feasts were in some places celebrated 
 every ninth year, in others every ninth 
 i"'>nth ; and continued for nine days. 
 AVhen all was ended, they washed the 
 iiuiine of the deity in a j)ool ; and tiien dis- 
 missi'd tile assembly. TJieir servants were 
 numerous, wjio attended during the term 
 of their feasting, and partook of tlie ban- 
 '|>iet. yM the dose of all, they were smo- 
 tlnrcd ill tlie same pool, or (itherwise 
 made away with. On which Tacitus re- 
 marks, how great an awi; this circumstance 
 niiist necessarily iiifiise into those who 
 W( re iKit admitted to these mysteries. 
 
 'I'he sacrifices of which we have Ix-cn 
 treating, if we cxc<-i)t some few instances, 
 consisted of persona doomed by the chtince 
 
 SAG 
 
 of war, or assigned by lot, to be offered. 
 But among the nations of Canaan the vic- 
 tims were peculiarly chosen. Their own 
 children, and whatever was nearest and 
 dearest to them, were deemed the most 
 worthy offerings to their god. The Car- 
 thaginians, who were a colony from Tyre, 
 carried with them the religion of their 
 mother country, and instituted the same 
 worship in the parts where tiiey settled. 
 It consisted in the adoration of several 
 deities, but particularly of Kronus ; to 
 whom they offered human sacrifices, and 
 especially tlie blood of children. If the 
 parents were not at hand to make an im- 
 mediate offer, the magistrates did not fail 
 to make choice of such as were most fair 
 and promising, that the god might not be 
 defrauded of his dues. Upon a check being 
 received in Sicily, and some other alarm- 
 ing circumstances happening, Haniilcar, 
 without any hesitation, laid hold of a boy, 
 and od'ered him on the spot to Kronus ; 
 and at the same time drowned a number 
 of priests, to appease the deity of the sea. 
 The Carthaginians another time, upon a 
 great defeat of their army by Agathocles, 
 imputed their miscarriages to the anger of 
 this god, whose services had been neg- 
 lected. Touched vrith this, and seeing 
 the enemy at their gates, they seized at 
 once three hundred children of the prime 
 nobility, and oliered them in public for a 
 sacrifice. 
 
 Sackisty. [Lat. sacrisla or sacristariits, 
 a keeper of holy things.] In archittcturi'. 
 An apartment in a church wherein the 
 sacred vessels and other utensils were 
 kept, being the same with our vestry. See 
 Vkstry. 
 
 Saddle, [ra'ol, Saxon, ,s(((/i7, Dutch.] In 
 arclutiology. In the earlier ages the Ko- 
 mans used neither saddle nor stirrups. 
 Thus an antiquarian writer has remarked 
 in several parts of his works, tliut tlie Ho- 
 man cavalry were subject to sundry mala- 
 dies and accidents of the hips and legs 
 from the want of some support for their 
 feet. Hippocrates had already made the 
 observation that the Si j thians, who were 
 much on horseback, were incommoded by 
 delluxions in the legs from the same cause. 
 In less remote times, tiie Honmiis i)lace(l 
 upon their horses a S(iuare paiuiel, or spe- 
 cies of covering which enabled them ti) sit 
 less harilly. This they termed cphipiiium. 
 
 SA(arrAiiii. [Lat. from sns^ittUf an ar- 
 row.] See Dauu Ks. 
 
 SAtii'M. [Lat. from Or. oayoz, n soldier's 
 cloak.] In anchnt costume. A garment 
 appropriated to warriors among the Ro- 
 mans. It was indeed a symbol of war, as 
 
SAI 
 
 the toga was of peace. The sagum was a 
 mantle of white wool, generally attached 
 with a clasp or hook, and the shape of 
 which was similar to that of the pnliida- 
 mentum of the generals, from which it dif- 
 fered in colour and ornaments only. Some 
 authors have defined the sagum as a mili- 
 tary tuuic, but several passages of Tacitus 
 and Pliny show that it was without sleeves, 
 and was more ample than the tunic. The 
 emperor Caracalla had imagined, or imi- 
 tated from the Gauls, a particular kind of 
 sagum, to which the emperor's name was 
 assigned, and so fond is he represented to 
 have been of his adopted garment, that he 
 preferred it to any other, distributed a 
 large number among the people and sol- 
 diers, and even required that all who ap- 
 proached his presence should wear this 
 vestment. 
 
 The precise form of the caracalla is not 
 now to be ascertained. It has been de- 
 scribed as a garment made of several 
 pieces diversely embroidered, and descend- 
 ing to the heels, excepting in the instances 
 of the soldiers, who wore it shorter. 
 
 The sagum of the Gauls had many points 
 of difl'ereuce from that of the Romans. It 
 had sleeves, and more resembled the Ro- 
 man tunic. According to Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus, it was constructed of various colours, 
 enriched with purple bands, and with 
 pieces of stuff shaped like flowers. 
 
 The sagum, generally speaking, may be 
 defined as a military habit, open from top 
 to bottom, and usually fastened on the 
 right shoulder with a buckle or clasp. It 
 approximated in shape to the XXi'invg (see 
 Chlamvs) of the Greeks, and, as has been 
 mentioned, to the paludamentum of the ge- 
 nerals. The only difference between them 
 was, that the paludamentum was made of 
 richer stuff, was generally of a purple co- 
 lour, and both longer and fuller than the 
 sagum. 
 
 Sail, [segl, Saxon, seyhel, seyl, Dutch.] 
 In archaiology. In ancient times, the sub- 
 stance whereof sails were composed Avas 
 either flax, rush, broom, leather, or the 
 skin of beasts. Caesar remarks that the 
 Venetians had sails made of the latter 
 substance. In the age of Homer they were 
 all flaxen. The ancients gave to their 
 sails three different forms; one triangular, 
 as was commonly used in the vessels of 
 the Mediterranean ; another square, chiefly 
 adapted to very small vessels ; and a third 
 round, much used by the Portuguese in the 
 Indies. At first sails were only spread in 
 favourable winds. They were frequently 
 of a blue colour, which was subsequently 
 tinged, as luxurious habits advanced, with 
 
 S A M 
 
 purple. Several antique monuments, and 
 especially the paintings of Herculaneuni 
 (vol. 2), present us vessels with flying 
 sails. 
 
 Saloon. [Fr. salon.'] In architecture. A 
 spacious and lofty sort of hall, vaulted at 
 top, and usually comprehending two sto- 
 ries, with two ranges of windows. The 
 saloon is a grand room in tiie middle of a 
 building, or at the liead of a gallery, &c. 
 Its faces or sides sliould all have a sym- 
 metry with each other; and as it commonly 
 takes up the height of two stories, its del- 
 ing should be with a moderate sweep. 
 The saloon is a state room much used in 
 the palaces of Italy, where the balmy and 
 luxuriant nature of the climate renders 
 airy and spacious apartments desirable; 
 and from thence it travelled into France 
 and England. People of distinction are 
 generally received by the master of a house 
 in the saloon. It is sometimes built square, 
 sometimes round or oval, sometimes octa- 
 gonal (as at Marly), and sometimes in 
 other forms. 
 
 Salutatouium. Another term for the 
 Sacuisty (which word see). 
 
 Samaritan, [from Samaria.l In painting, 
 sculpture, Sfc. Under this name is desig- 
 nated every work of art represeuting the 
 Samaritan woman spoken of by the evan- 
 gelists as standing near a well, cistern, or 
 fountain, and in the act of drawing the 
 water. The figure of this scripture cha- 
 racter is generally accompanied by that of 
 Christ. Nevertheless, Boldetto states, that 
 he visited a chapel in the cemetery of St. 
 Calista, where, among other pictures, he 
 remarked the Samaritan standing alone. 
 At the second arch of the Pont-Neuf at 
 Paris, on the side of the Louvre, an hy- 
 draulic building was constructed in the 
 reign of Henry the Third, destined to dis- 
 tribute water through the various parts of 
 Paris. Having been destroyed in 1712, 
 this erection was rebuilt afterwards with 
 care and taste. It is composed of three 
 stories, the second of whicii is level with 
 the bridge, while the sides have five win- 
 dows at every story, and the front two. 
 Between these two last mentioned win- 
 dows was a piece of rustic-work, the base 
 of which was filled by a group represent- 
 ing Christ in conversation with the Sama- 
 ritan near Jacob's well, which was indi- 
 cated by a basin into which fell a sheet of 
 water, issuing from a siiell above. Tiie 
 figure of Christ was by Bernard, and that 
 of the Samaritan woman by Fr^min, able 
 sculptors. Under the basin was sculp- 
 tured this Latin inscription : — Fons Lorto- 
 rum, puteus aquarum vireniinm. This piece 
 T T 2 
 
SAN 
 
 of workmanship was repaired anew in 
 1775; and tlie group and the shell were 
 regihled. Some years since both these 
 latter were destroyed ajrain ; but in spite 
 of this <lefacement, the little building re- 
 tained, up to a recent period, the name of 
 l-'unluhw dc la Samarilahtc. 
 
 Sanctlahy. [Lat. sinictuarium, from 
 sanctus.] In architecture. Among the Jews 
 this name was given to the most sacred 
 and retired jiart of the temple of Jerusa- 
 lem, wherein was deposited the ark of the 
 covenant, and which was also denomi- 
 nated sanctum sanctorum. Into this i)lace 
 none were permitted to enter save the high 
 priest, and he only once a year, to inter- 
 cede for the people. Some authors dis- 
 tinguish the sanctum sanctorum (or holiest 
 of holies) from the sanctunrij, aOirming that 
 the latter term implied generally the whole 
 temple. In the temples of the Greeks and 
 Romans there was likewise a sanctuary, 
 designated Adytum. See that word. 
 
 In tJie Romish church, the term is ap- 
 plied to that part of the building where 
 the high altar is placed, accompanied by 
 a vaiJ or balustrade. In the ancient Eng- 
 lish customs, it is synonymous in meaning 
 with asylum. 
 
 S.VNU. [Danish and Dutch.] In construc- 
 tion and laying out pleasure grounds. A 
 kind of gravel extremely fine and varioua 
 in hue. Sea or river sand is by some 
 considered to make the best mortar, and 
 to be most advantageous for garden walks. 
 Sandal. [Lat. sandalium, from Gr. (rav 
 fakiov.'] In costume. A rich kind of slip- 
 jier worn on the feet by the Greeks and 
 Romans, and made of gold, silk, or other 
 precious stuff. It consisted of a sole, witli 
 a hollow at one extreme to embrace the 
 anclf, but left the upper part of the foot 
 bare. It was fastened on with leather 
 strings or rii)an(is, which crossed several 
 times round tlie lower part of the leg. 
 Hesides these sandals, the ancients used 
 also other coverings for the feet, which, 
 like those of our own day, left no part 
 bare. 'J'hose, indeeil, oftcner ascended as 
 iiigh as the ancle, and even the calf of the 
 leg. The proper term given by the Ro- 
 mans to this latter article of dress was 
 iiilcius. These were, however, generally 
 r<gar(b(l as trouI)lesonn; and uneasy. 'I'he 
 weanrs look care to provide them of lea- 
 ther extremely HHi)ple, which was ternn<l 
 aluta, dtrivalivf of (//h;;ich, alum, thai suh- 
 Btarici- bciii^; riiiiijiiycd (o j>ro(luce the rc- 
 Mui.^il.- softnehs. The Rimian nmtrons, 
 when assembled on o(-easjons of solenMiKy, 
 won- (he (i/i/^c of Willi.' leather: llie cour- 
 Icsnns, (Ml lilt' oilier hand, preferred llie 
 
 SAP 
 
 sandal, of elegant shape and handsomely 
 embroidered, this not hiding at all the 
 shape of a pretty foot. For this reason, 
 Ovid, in his Art of Lore, counsels these 
 amiable fair to conceal their feet, if ill 
 made, in an aluta of dazzling white. Art- 
 ists, in painting subjects from ancient his- 
 tory, generally prefer using the sandal, or 
 soleuy on account of its giving a more pic- 
 turesque air to the figure. 
 
 Sandal is likewise a slipper, or shoe, 
 worn by the pope and other Romish pre- 
 lates when they officiate. It is, besides, 
 the name of a sort of slipper worn by seve- 
 ral congregations of reformed monks. This 
 last species consists of nothing else than a 
 mere leathern sole, fastened with latches 
 or buckles, all the rest of the foot being 
 left bare. The capuchins wear sandals ; 
 the recollets clogs. The former are of 
 leather, and the latter of wood. 
 
 Sanguine. [Lat. sanguis, blood.] In 
 drawing and gilding. A kind of oxyde of 
 iron, solid and compact, of a red brown, 
 smooth to the touch, by no means sandy, 
 and ductile in working. It is employed 
 frequently in the arts of design, and the 
 gilder uses it to produce a polish. It is 
 preserved cool and soft in leaden boxes. 
 
 Sapphire. [Gr. o-aTn^apof.] In gem sculp- 
 ture. A genus of precious stones, of a 
 blue colour, and the hardest of all except 
 the ruby and diamond. They are found 
 in the same countries with the ruby ; also 
 in Bohemia, Alsace, Siberia, and Au- 
 vergne. M. Rome de I'lsle mentions one 
 found at Auvergne, which appeared quite 
 green or blue according to the position in 
 which it was placeil. 
 
 The blue stone to which the ancients 
 ap])lied the name of sapphire was diller- 
 eiit from ours : it was spotted with golden 
 spangles : it was, indeed, the same as the 
 lapis lazuli. 
 
 The finest sapphires, like most other 
 gems, come from the East Indies. In 
 Scotland, also, they have been found of a 
 hardness and lustre equal to the oriental. 
 Mr. Deiiehar, seal-engra\ er at Edliilnngh, 
 had in his possi'ssion a beautiful sapi>liire, 
 which was cut in a double crystal. On 
 one of these was cut a head, which, how- 
 ever, was ellected with great dilliculty on 
 account of its hardness. The other is cut 
 init) faci'ts, has a line water, and great 
 brilliancy. 
 
 The fine hard sapphires, called by the 
 jewellers oriental, are of the same nature 
 with the ruby and topaz, from which they 
 diller only in colour. The late unlorlu- 
 iiali- Louis W'Lol' France had oiu' \> i(h a 
 stripe of line yellow topaz in tlii' middle. 
 
SAR 
 
 Some are found half green and half red, 
 and are foliated like tlie ruby. 
 
 Saracenic Architecture. Egypt and 
 Syria present many specimens of Saracenic 
 architecture, which form a striking, con- 
 trast with the ancient Egyptian and Greek 
 styles. The Saracens, in Egypt, have bor- 
 rowed but little (if any) of their style from 
 the aborigines of the country. The style 
 called Saracenic, which is justly supposed 
 to have been the parent of the Gothic, is 
 distinguished by the boldness and loftiness 
 of its vaultings ; the peculiar mixed form 
 of its curves; the slenderness of its co- 
 lumns ; the variety of its capitals ; the 
 prodigious multiplicity of its mouldings 
 and ornaments : presenting a strong assem- 
 blage of friezes, musaics, foliage, and ara- 
 besques, interlaced with flowers, and dis- 
 posed altogether with much skill. 
 
 The Egyptian Saracenic differs from the 
 Spanish principally in the form of the arch, 
 as may be seen by comparing the gate of 
 Cairo with that of the Alhambra in Gre- 
 nada, or the great churcli at Cordova. 
 Among the principal remains of the former 
 style are the walls of Alexandria, built, 
 in 878, by the Caliph Motahwakkel ; se- 
 veral arcades of the aqueduct of Alexan- 
 dria, which are distinguished by the med- 
 ley of the capitals ; the greater and the 
 smaller pharos, the mosque and the ancient 
 palace of the sultans, in the same city : 
 there are also several buildings of the sul- 
 tan Saladin, whose real name was Joseph 
 or Jussuf, which bear his latter appella- 
 tion, as the walls at Cairo, the Granaries, 
 &c. 
 
 The Moorish, or Mauresque, is but a 
 variation on the Saracenic : yet, as Millin, 
 in his Antiquitis Nationales, uses the term, 
 it is, in deference to his authority, pre- 
 served here. Its examples are not nume- 
 rous, and may be found in his Dictionnaire 
 des Beaux Arts, 
 
 These several styles, though of various 
 dates, are either of the period of, or have 
 emanated from, the immersion of architec- 
 ture in the dark or middle ages. 
 
 Sarcophagus. [Gr, ffapKo^ayoc, from 
 ffcrp?, flesh, and (payo), to eat.] In architec- 
 ture. Name of a stone found, according 
 to Pliny, in the Troad, and of which tombs 
 were constructed on account of its caustic 
 qualities. It is said to have perfectly con- 
 sumed the flesh of human bodies buried in 
 it in the space of forty days. This pro- 
 perty, for which it was greatly celebrated, 
 is mentioned by all the ancient naturalists. 
 There was, besides, another singular qua- 
 lity attached to this stone : but whether to 
 its entire mass, or only to particular pieces, 
 is not thoroughly known ; that is, its power 
 
 SAR 
 
 of turning into stone whatever was depo- 
 sited in vessels made of it. Tliis is recorded 
 only by Mutiauus and Theophrastus, except 
 that Pliny had copied it from these au- 
 thors, and some of the later writers on 
 these subjects from him. 
 
 The custom of burying the dead is of 
 great antiquity, as is likewise that of burn- 
 ing their bodies. Mythology attributes 
 the latter mode to Hercules, while it as- 
 signs the earliest usage of the former me- 
 thod to the primitive Greeks and Romans. 
 In the Greek colonies of Italy they buried, 
 as we do, the entire body ; and even when 
 the custom of burning the body obtained 
 among the Romans, several families re- 
 tained that of interment. 
 
 But the term sarcophagus is by no means 
 limited to a particular kind of stone. In- 
 deed, its more generally accepted mean- 
 ing is a sort of coffin or grave itself. This 
 kind of sepulchral chest was made, among 
 the ancients, either of stone, of marble, or 
 porphyry. The Greeks also sometimes 
 employed haixl wood, which was calcu- 
 lated to resist humidity, such principally 
 as oak, cedar, or cypress. Occasionally 
 terra cotta, and even metal. 
 
 The form of these sarcopJiagi was ordi- 
 narily a parallelopipedon — namely, a long 
 square, such as our cofiin. Sometimes the 
 angles were rounded, thus assuming an 
 elliptical shape. It was not usual for 
 these funeral chests to narrow downwards, 
 as, for instance, the species of bathing tub 
 called lahrum. 
 
 The lid of the sarcophagus varies also 
 both in shape and ornament. Sometimes 
 it bears tlie statue of the person inhumed 
 therein, often lying down in the posture 
 used by the ancients as they took their 
 meals. The capacity or size of the sarco- 
 phagi was also of course very various. 
 Those of the primitive Christians, destined 
 to enclose several corpses, had often two 
 several sets of bassi rilievi. 
 
 The workmanship on the sarcophagi of 
 the ancients is frequently of a very high 
 order. The figures sculptured or en- 
 graved thereon are either those of the 
 parties connected immediately with the 
 history of the deceased, or the heroic, 
 half-fabulous personages of mythology. 
 Achilles detected by Ulysses among the 
 daughters of Lycomedes ; Venus surprised 
 by Vulcan in the embraces of Mars ; 
 Orestes, the parricide, pursued by the Fu- 
 ries ; the combats of the Centaurs and La- 
 pithas; — these are among the subjects very 
 often treated on these monuments. Some- 
 times the young warrior is characterised 
 by any given hero of antiquity ; and the 
 sarcophagus represents the condemnation 
 
S AR 
 
 of Hyppolytus by hid father Tlieseus ; the 
 deatli of Phaeton, who could not escape 
 his evil destiny, althou^fh son to the god of 
 day; the death ofPatrocIus announced to 
 Athilles by Antilochus ; that of Hector 
 announced to his father Priam, &c. 
 
 Tlie ancients were fond of denominating 
 deatii a sleep: sleep and death are with 
 them brolliers, and are often placed on the 
 sides of the sarcophagus. Often also, by 
 an ingeniond allegory, the artists repre- 
 sented the eternal sleep of the pale inha- 
 bitant of the sarcophagus by some cele- 
 brated mythological slumber :— such, for 
 instance, as the sleep, on Latmos, of Endy- 
 mion visited by Diana; of Thetis, surprised 
 during her sleep by Peleus; or of Ariadne, 
 who, slumbering full of grief and regrets 
 after the abandonment of Theseus, is 
 awakened by tlie approach of the divine 
 and conquering Bacchus. 
 
 At other times the figures on the sarco- 
 phagi were moral or allegorical. The 
 twelve Labours of Hercules, so often 
 found upon the tombs of the thirteenth and 
 fourteenth centuries, present an ingenious 
 allegory of tiie triumph of Virtue over the 
 Passions. The various seasons, which 
 are likewise frequently depicted thereon, 
 are of course emblematical of the several 
 ages of man. Occasionally the profession 
 or peculiar taste of the deceased is indi- 
 cated, as in the three bas.si rilievi, wherein 
 the ligure of a young poet is introduced 
 standing encircled by the Muses. In fact, 
 these ancient monuments present almost 
 every variety of decoration, in some in- 
 stances bearing an obvious relation to the 
 person entombed, in others to subjects of 
 a general, a political, or a religious cha- 
 racter. 
 
 Certain sarcophagi have never contained 
 the entire corpse of the deceased person, 
 but merely an urn enclosing his or her 
 ashes. This is the case with that reganled 
 as having been ajipropriated to Alexander 
 iSeverus, wherein was found the beautiful 
 glass urn or vase at present in the British 
 Museum, and called the Portland Vask 
 (which refer to). 
 
 Sahdonvx. [Gr. aapSovvK, from ffap^wc, 
 the Sardinian stone, i. c. cornelian, and 
 ouvK, thit human nail.] In gem sciilplurc. 
 Name of a jirerious stone; consisting of a 
 mixture of the < halccdony and cornelian, 
 sometimes blended together, sometimes in 
 dillcrent strata. It is found I. Striped 
 with wiiite and red strata, which may bo 
 cut in cuineo as well as the onyx. 2. White 
 with red denlrilical figures, greatly resem- 
 bling IJie mocha stiuie ; but with this dif- 
 lerence, that the figures in the sardonyx 
 are of a red colour, in the other black. 
 
 SAT 
 
 There is no actual diiTerence (excepting in 
 the circumstance of hardness) between the 
 onyx, cornelian, agate (see those words), 
 chalcedony, and sardonyx, notwithstand- 
 ing the ditferent names bestowed on them. 
 Mongez informs us, that the yellow or 
 orange coloured agates, with a wa\7 and 
 undulating surface, are now commonly de- 
 nominated sardonyx. 
 
 The sardonyx was highly esteemed 
 among the ancients ; the Romans fashioning 
 it into rings and other articles of jewellery. 
 According to Pliny, the rings of the 
 knights and senators were frequently en- 
 riched with the sardonyx. Martial uses 
 the expression sunlonijchata manus to indi- 
 cate a hand embellished with rings of sar- 
 donyx. 
 
 Saturn. In mythological painting and 
 sculpture. Saturn, the most remote of the 
 planets, and one of the oldest of the fabu- 
 lous deities, is represented as very aged 
 and decrepid, with fetters on his feet, to 
 denote the slowness of his motion, and a 
 pruning hook in his hand ; from a tradi- 
 tion that, after his being dethroned by Ju- 
 piter, he took refuge in Italy, and intro- 
 duced there several parts of agriculture, 
 particularly the art of pruning and manag- 
 ing the vines. In his character of presid- 
 ing over time, he has wings on his shoul- 
 ders, as well as shackles on his feet. la 
 his left hand he sometimes holds a child, 
 which he raises up as if instantly to de- 
 vour it : in allusion to his affectionate plan 
 of swallowing all his male children. 
 
 Tatius, king of the Sabines, first built a 
 temple to Saturn on the Cajjitoline llill: 
 a second was afterwards added by Tullus 
 Hostilius, and a tiiird by the first consuls. 
 On his statues were generally hung fetters, 
 in commemoration of tlie chains he had 
 worn when imprisoned by Jupiter. From 
 this (urcumstance, all slaves that obtained 
 their liberty generally dedicated tiieir fet- 
 ters to him. 
 
 In the outer round of a gem (in Baron 
 Stosch's collection at Tlorenee), are the 
 seven i)lanets in chariots. Saturn is drawn 
 by two serpents; Jupiter by two eagles; 
 Mars by two horses, and Sol by four ; Ve- 
 n>is by two doves ; Mercury by two cocks, 
 and Luna by two stags. In tiie next round 
 are the twelve signs of the Zodiac ; and 
 in the centre is a person playing on two 
 pipes, to signify the iiavmony of the uni- 
 verse, or what we vulgarly call the music 
 of the spheres. This is reckoni-d a great 
 curiosity. 
 
 Sati'KNM.iv. I from Saturn.'] In nrrhaio- 
 I'lgy. A festival tibserveil about tiie niid- 
 tlli? of December, in honour of the god 
 Saturn, wIkmu Lucan introduces giving an 
 
SCA 
 
 account of tlie ceremonies observed on 
 this occasion, tlius: — " During my whole 
 reign, which lasts for one week, no public 
 business is done ; there is nothing but 
 drinking, singing, playing, creating ima- 
 ginary kings, placing servants with their 
 masters at table, &c. There shall be no 
 disputes or reproaches; but the rich and 
 poor, masters and slaves shall be equal, 
 &c." On this festival the Romans sacri- 
 ficed bareheaded, contrary to their custom 
 at other sacrifices, and the statues of the 
 god were unfettered. 
 
 Satyrs. [Gr. aarvpbc, from ffaQt], puden- 
 dum virile, in allusion to the fabled lasci- 
 viousuess of those beings.] In mythological 
 jminting and sculpture. A species of demi- 
 gods who dwelt in the woods. They are 
 represented as monsters, half men and half 
 goats ; having horns on their heads, a 
 hairy body, with the feet and tail of a 
 goat. They are generally in the train that 
 follows Bacchus ; but the poets supposing 
 that they were remarkable for piercing eyes 
 and keen raillery, they have been placed 
 in the same pictures with the Graces, 
 Loves, and even with Venus herself. 
 
 Saw. [sawe, Danish, r^^a, Saxon.] In 
 joinery, 8fc. An instrument serving to cut 
 into pieces several solid matters, such as 
 wood, stone, ivory, &c. 
 
 The Greeks attributed the invention of 
 this instrument either to Daedalus, or to 
 his protege Talus ; we find it upon the 
 obelisks of the Egyptians. The best saws 
 are of tempered steel, ground bright and 
 smooth : those of iron are only hammer- 
 hardened ; hence the first, besides their 
 being stiller, are likewise found smoother 
 than the last. They are known to be Avell 
 hammered by the stiffbending of the blade; 
 and to be well and evenly ground by their 
 bending equally in a bow. 
 
 Saxon Architecture. See Architec- 
 ture. 
 
 ScAGLioLA. [Italian.] In architecture. 
 The name of a composition from a certain 
 transparent calcareous stone, ranged as a 
 gypsum. To make this composition, se- 
 lenites is calcined, and reduced into a fine 
 powder, which is mixed with the quantity 
 of water necessary to constitute a paste, 
 which they take care to knead well. With 
 it is formed, after a certain consistence has 
 been attained, a mould shaped into flowers, 
 fruits, architectural designs, &c., and the 
 hollow being filled with the same compo- 
 sition, but coloured as the nature of the 
 subject may require, when all is dry and 
 well hardened, a high polish is added, 
 and we find a solid tablet, apparently co- 
 vered with crystals. 
 
 The art of working in scagliola is indi- 
 genous to the town of Carpi, in Modena, 
 where it has reached the highest point of 
 perfection. The honour of inventing it is 
 due to Guido del Conte, called Fassi, born 
 at Carpi in 1584. 
 
 ScALA Santa. [Italian.] Thus is deno- 
 minated a portico near the church of St. 
 John de Latran, at Rome, which presents 
 five arcades in front, with three flights of 
 a staircase. The middle one purports to 
 have been made out of several steps once 
 belonging to the house of Caiaphas, and 
 which were brought from Jerusalem to 
 Rome on account of their having served 
 as a passage for the holy Jesus when he 
 was transferred from Caiaphas to Pilate. 
 These original steps, to the number of 
 twenty-eight, are covered over with mar- 
 ble, in order that they may be preserved. 
 The Scala Santa,\\h\c\i is ascended kneel- 
 ing, is daily a subject of devotion and of 
 pilgrimage to Rome. 
 
 Scantung. [eschantiUon, Fr.] In archi- 
 tecture. A small quantity or proportion, 
 cut out for a particular purpose. 
 
 Scaphium. [Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 drinking cup, or vase, in the shape of a 
 boat. 
 
 Scarabeus. [Lat.] In archaiology. Name 
 of an insect which was held in great vene- 
 ration by the Egyptians. There were 
 three varieties ; but that most celebrated 
 and which is alone to be found represented 
 on ancient monuments, is the scarabeus 
 sacer of the naturalists. This is perceived 
 on the Isiac table ; and is frequent among 
 hieroglyphics : it passed as the symbol of 
 immortality, and as the emblem of the sun. 
 Another species was consecrated to Isis,and 
 indicated the moon ; its two horns resem- 
 bling the crescent of that planet. Accord- 
 ing to Caylus, the Egyptians were in the 
 constant habit of giving the shape of the 
 scarabeus to their amulets or rings. 
 
 Scene. [Gr. aK7]v>).'] In painting. The 
 original meaning of this word is an alley, 
 or rural portico destined to provide shade, 
 or to keep ofl'tlie injuries of the weather. 
 Cassiodorus says (according to Rollin), 
 that it was at first in such places as this 
 that theatrical pieces were represented. 
 At length, applied specifically to the com- 
 plete edifice called a theatre, it indicated 
 primitively the wall which forms the back 
 part of the stage. It was, however, oftener 
 used, in a more extended sense, for the 
 entire stage ; but subsequently was limited 
 to the meaning which it now has. Ac- 
 cording to Vitruvius, there were three 
 special scenes appertaining to the theatres 
 of the ancients : — the tragic, the comic, and 
 
SCE 
 
 the satiric. Tho custom was to diBplay, 
 u]nft\ the tililt's of these, buildings orna- 
 mented with statues and columns ; and at 
 the back of the stape, other edifices — more 
 particularly, a sjdendid palace or temple, 
 for a tragedy ; ii house or street, for a co- 
 medy ; a forest, mountain, cavern, or land- 
 scape, for a pastoral. These decorations 
 were either rotatory, as when they turned 
 upon a pivot, or sliding, as when fixed in 
 a groove, as is the present practice. 
 
 Scene Painting. This department of 
 painting forms a walk of art both peculiar 
 and extensive, which has its own laws, its 
 own practical and scientific rules, in the 
 same way as perspective has. The fol- 
 lower of scene painting should, in the first 
 place, be deeply conversant with that 
 particular knowledge, by means of which 
 he is enabled to decide on the effects of 
 those colours lie employs by day, when 
 they shall be subjected to a strong artifi- 
 cial light. In the next instance, it is ab- 
 solutely indispensable that he should be 
 well versed in tlie rules of both linear and 
 aerial perspective. He traces, by fixed 
 geometrical operations, lines bent or in- 
 clined, which the spectator, placed at the 
 proper jioint of vie w, imagines to be straight 
 ones. He employs gradual diminutions 
 of plans which give the appearance of an 
 extent and distance existing merely in his 
 own art; thus in a few fathoms to which 
 he is bounded expressing an extent some- 
 times almost infinite. He uses chiefly 
 water colours, on account of their operat- 
 ing promptly, and presenting no glossy 
 surface. 
 
 Two kinds of light are to be principally 
 regarded in scene painting. One the light 
 which the painler suj)poses to Illuminate 
 the objects of his performance ; the other 
 that which actually does light up the can- 
 vass : and in this res|)ect the scene painter 
 possesses a great advantage over every 
 other, in multiplying, cmnbining, and con- 
 trasting to his taste, the number and force 
 of the hidden lights with which he radiates 
 his work. 
 
 Rut, on the other hand, the scene pain- 
 ter has to contend with dillicnlties pecu- 
 liar to his conlined walk of art. Tlu; ne- 
 cessity of giving a brilliant light to the 
 audience part of the house is oflen de- 
 structive to the truth and delicacy of lli(iS(> 
 tints which (he artist applies to his scene • 
 while, in iiddilion, the perspe( tive is fre- 
 <|uently contradicted and violated by the 
 actor moving about at the very back of the 
 Hlage ; when all those objects placed there, 
 which, whilst the perf(uiner kept in fr(uit 
 (where every thing is suited to liis actual 
 
 SCE 
 
 size), appeared in due proportion, lose 
 their verisimilitude, and appear insignifi- 
 cant and disproportioned. The man be- 
 comes as tall as the rock or tree, and the 
 imagination of the spectator has not power 
 sullicient to preserve the illusion of the 
 scene. This latter disadvantage, which 
 can scarcely be obviated, the artist would 
 do well, nevertheless, to keep constantly 
 in mind, and to modify as much as possi- 
 ble : and the actor also, if he is desirous 
 of rendering the representation a perfect 
 one, will remain as little as ho can at the 
 back part of the scene. 
 
 As the scene painter is frequently called 
 on to decorate the places represented with 
 statues, &c. it is necessary that he should 
 be able to draw well the human figure : 
 he should also possess some relish for, as 
 well as knowledge of, the clufs-d'orutTe of 
 ancient art; and should take care not to 
 violate consistency by placing, for instance, 
 in a Grecian temple, affected or mutilated 
 statues. In addition to these qualifica- 
 tions, architectural and landscape painting 
 should enter into his course of study, as 
 their use, and, indeed, necessity, must be 
 self-evident. 
 
 To the scene painter the use of brilliant 
 colours, of skilful chitiro-scitro, of striking 
 management of masses of light and shade, 
 is obvious. He addresses less the heart 
 or understanding than the eye. AV'ith him 
 effect is every thing. His fame, as well as 
 his works, is commonly of short duration ; 
 and there is consequently the greater rea- 
 son that he should acquire that prompt- 
 ness and decision of style which would 
 secure immediate approbation. 
 
 For a performance of (his description to 
 be eminently successful, it is requisite that 
 it should be not only well painted and 
 striking in effect, but that it should be also 
 appropriitle — in good cosluiiw : it should 
 conform, in style and in taste, to the man- 
 ners and usages of the people amongst 
 whom the scene is placed. 
 
 ScKNOttRAPiiY. [Gr. aK)]roypa(pia, from 
 aK>]vii, a scene, and yfx'Kpio, to write.] In 
 puintiiiff, ()C. This is, properly speaking, 
 the art of ])ainting scenes aiul decoratiiuis : 
 but the word likewise expresses the art 
 of representing a building, town, or land- 
 scape' in perspective. It has also hovn 
 sometimes ai>propriate<l to tlu! representa- 
 tion of some eilitice in rilitfo, and in this 
 acceptation may be considered as synony- 
 nuius with Modki.. See that wtunl. 
 
 S(i:mti:. [Hr. (Tv;;7rr/)0j', a sce|)tre, or 
 stick, from crKtinrw, to lean ui)on.) In ar- 
 fliiiiiilofrij. The original nieuning of the 
 word s( tptre is a baton or walking stick ; 
 
SCHOOLS OF ART. 
 
 and tlnis called among antiquarians hasfn 
 pura, tlie pike or stall' vhich is often re- 
 presented in the hand of divinities or 
 kings. According to Justin, the lance 
 "was considered as the sceptre of heroes, 
 who also bore one or the other when ap- 
 pearing in public assemblies. In process 
 of time, the king's sceptre became covered 
 with ornaments in copper, ivory, gold, or 
 silver, and also with symbolical figures. 
 The sceptre borne by the Roman emperors, 
 as it appears on their medals, &c. is sur- 
 mounted, when these princes are in the 
 consular habit, with a globe topped by an 
 eagle. Proofs of this are discoverable 
 from the time of Augustus. 
 
 Phocas is imagined to have been the 
 first who added a cross to his sceptre ; and 
 his successors even substituted the former 
 emblem for the latter, bearing ornamented 
 crosses alone. Richard Coeur de Lion 
 held in his right hand a golden sceptre 
 surmounted by a cross, and, in his left, a 
 golden baton, topped by the figure of a 
 dove. 
 
 Schools of Art. The amateurs of the 
 arts of design understand by this term cer- 
 tain classes of artists, whose works are all 
 referable to one common origin. The 
 phrase, however, takes at times a more 
 limited meaning, and refers to the fol- 
 lowers of one particular master, and thus 
 we say, the school of Raffaelle, the school of 
 Rubens, &c. In the first and most com- 
 prehensive sense, however, the schools of 
 painting may be divided into nine ; name- 
 ly, the Florentine, the Roman, the Venetian, 
 the Lombard, the Flemish, the Dutch, the 
 German, the French, and the English. There 
 are also a variety of schools in the sister 
 arts of ARCHrrECTURE and Sculpture, to 
 which words we beg to refer our readers. 
 
 The several manners of imitating nature 
 which have peculiarly characterised dif- 
 ferent countries, have given rise to the di- 
 versity of schools. This diversity has ex- 
 isted at all times. The Grecians adopted, 
 recognised, and distinguished these varie- 
 ties. In painting they at first distinguished 
 two celebrated schools, the Helladic and 
 the Asiatic. Eupompus, the painter of 
 Sicyon, invented in Greece a new man- 
 ner ; and in honour of him, says Pliny, 
 they divided the Helladic school into 
 two; — namely, the Attic and the Sicyo- 
 nian. 
 
 In architecture, the term has not been 
 so commonly used ; though not because 
 that art is wanting in celebrated masters, 
 who have brought up numerous pupils 
 and have transmitted to them their own 
 style. Paliadio, for instance, is the chief 
 
 of an extensive school. But it should 
 seem that variety of style, in architecture, 
 is less sensible than in the other imitative 
 arts ; and it has been even remarked, that 
 many modern architects, whose names 
 stand out from the general list as having 
 acquired a great degree of celebrity, are 
 indebted more to novelty and caprice than 
 to real and abiding invention. There are, 
 at the same time, in architecture, various 
 local manners of building, dependent 
 either on climate, materials, or some other 
 arbitrary cause, which, in the commence- 
 ment of the art, have become, almost in- 
 sensibly, the principles of its development, 
 and may consequently be ranged into 
 schools. Thus we speak of the Florentine 
 school, at the head of which may be placed 
 Bruneleschi and Michel Angiolo ; the Ve- 
 netian, which is led by Paliadio and Sca- 
 mozzi, &c. But we have treated fully 
 upon the subject under the head of Archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 We shall now proceed to say a few 
 words respecting the several schools of 
 painting. 
 
 The Florentine School. For many ages 
 the city of Florence has been one of the 
 principal seats of the fine arts; and has 
 produced, in all their various branches, a 
 number of justly eminent professors. It is 
 requisite to distinguish the elder from the 
 more modern Florentine school. Ever since 
 the thirteenth century Florence has ob- 
 tained high reputation as the seat of art. 
 Its senate introduced several artists from 
 Greece, by whom the style and taste of 
 the students were formed ; and hence arose 
 the elder Florentine school, at the head 
 of which stands Cimabue, and which may 
 be said to comprise all the painters of Italy 
 worthy notice until the appearance of Lio- 
 nardo da Vinci, with whom commenced 
 the modern Florentine school, and who 
 was followed by Michel Angiolo, and a 
 list of other great masters. The leading 
 principles of the Florentine school of 
 painting may be denominated grandeur, 
 dignity, and force. Details respecting it 
 may be found in Memoriale di molte Statue 
 e Pitture, che sono nella Citti de Firenze, 
 di Franc. Albertino, Florence, 1510, 4to. 
 Le Bellezze della Cittd di Firenze, di M. F. 
 BoccHi, Florence, 1591, 8vo., and 1677, 
 8vo. Ristretto delle Cose piU notabili in 
 Pittura, della CittH di Firenze, da Jac. 
 Carueri, Florence, 1689, and 1757, 12mo. 
 and other similar works. 
 
 The Roman School is, perhaps, the most 
 important of any, a circumstance which 
 may fairly be attributed to that city having 
 been so rich in the productions of ancient 
 
SCHOOLS 
 
 Grecian urt. It was tlie intense study of 
 these incBtimable relics of antiquity that 
 formed the groundwork of the Roman 
 school of painting, although in its progress 
 it was mixed up a goo<l deal both with the 
 Florentine and A'enetian schools. Raf- 
 faelle, for instance, the greatest name be- 
 longing to the Roman school, and perhaps 
 to the art altogether, evidently was in- 
 debted, and that largely, for the style of 
 his grander works, to the stupendous ge- 
 nius of Michel Angiolo. To this school, 
 however, we may justly attribute the 
 truest principles and the finest examples 
 of drawing, as well as of lliat scrupulous 
 correctness which, nevertheless, was quite 
 consistent with vigour and with beauty. 
 Its followers were also eminent for their 
 knowledge in the department of drapery, 
 which knowledge they generally displayed 
 in adopting ample and flowing robes and 
 vestments, as may be observed in the match- 
 less cartoons w'hich form the cliief orna- 
 ment of Hampton Court. On the other 
 hand, one must not seek, in this school, 
 for any very superior exhibition of colour- 
 ing : indeed, its artists seem to have been 
 too intent on other branches of art, such 
 as we have mentioned — on majesty, com- 
 position, and striking efiects, to regard 
 with any close attention the varieties and 
 splendours of colour. 
 
 The works to be consulted on the his- 
 tory of the Roman school (wliich com- 
 prised, besides Rafl'aelle, Giulio Romano, 
 the Zuccheri, Romanelli, Caspar Poussin, 
 Carlo Maratti, kc.) are chiefly the difl'erent 
 Discourses pronounced at the Academy of 
 I'ainting in that town, and the Treatises 
 composed for it. The following are among 
 the i)rincipal of these : — Tniitdto delta No- 
 h'llUa (lilia I'iltura comiiosto (id istanza dclla 
 fcnerahil Compafiniu di Sun-Luai, e delta 
 ntthil Acudcmia detta I'iitura di Roma, da 
 Romano Ai.nEmi, 15HI, 4to. Acadcmie 
 dircrsc fallc jicl ('ampidu^lio di limna, in 
 tnwra diltu I'iltura, dclla Sciiltura, e delV 
 Architclturu,con le Orazione recitate de vavi 
 I'rilali e Ainatori del Discf^m, Rome, l()9(i, 
 1727,4 ^(»ls. 4to. L<- Powpc dell' Acade- 
 mia del IJisrfino, Orazione di Giamb. Zappi, 
 rrcilata mil' Academia di S. Luca, per I'aiino 
 I7(tj, l{()iiic, Ito. Le Corone del Mrriio 
 dislrilitiilc snl Cumpidofitio, (Jraz. di Lud. 
 SKKii.vuDi, reeilata veil' Acad, di S. Luca, 
 Rome, 1703, 4to. J.e liuoni Arti sempre 
 pill Kloriose sul ( '<imjiidiif;lio. One. lU tta ncll' 
 Academia di S. I,uea, da Annib. Ai.ltAM, 
 Card. Rome, 1704, 4to. Kxcellcnza delta 
 Ire iwliiti Arti, dimostrala net ('aiiipido/iHo 
 dell' .Icademia di S. Luca, per I'liuno 17li'.», 
 Rome, 4to. Detle Arti del Vi.segno, Oraz. 
 
 OF ART. 
 
 di Gull. Cesare della Somagija, detta per 
 la Holenne distribuzinne de' premi in Campi- 
 dniflin, it di 19 di Mags^io, 1775, Rome, 4to. 
 
 The Venetian School presents a great va- 
 riety, whether we view it relatively to the 
 Florentine or the Roman. Destitute of 
 the examples which the elder Florentine 
 school presented to its later offspring, and 
 also of the far more brilliant advantages 
 possessed by the followers of the Roman 
 school, the Venetian artists applied them- 
 selves ardently to the contemplation of 
 nature, and seized upon a source of fasci- 
 nation w hich had been in a great measure 
 disregarded by their predecessors, namely 
 —colour. Here start up to our view the 
 most exquisite and brilliant arrangements 
 of tints; and the delighted fancy of the 
 connoisseur revels among the productions 
 of the great prince of this department of 
 art, Titian. To this exalted master, artists 
 of other schools have, we know, been op- 
 posed. Both Rubens and Van Dyck have 
 partisans, who claim for each tiie title of 
 chief colourist : but, in our opinion, how- 
 ever highly we are disposed to estimate 
 the talents of those extraordinary men, 
 we cannot consent to award either the 
 preeminence. Rubens is more meretri- 
 cious and less true, and Van Dyck, admi- 
 rable as he is, seems inferior both in va- 
 riety and richness. Tintoret, Paul Vero- 
 nese, Giorgione, Sebastian del Pionibo, 
 &c. adorn with their illustrious names the 
 Venetian school of painting; and tlic per- 
 formances of all are more or less imbued 
 with its peculiar characteristics; namely, 
 vivacity and truth of colour, perfect dis- 
 tribution of light and shade, boldness of 
 touch, and correct eye for nature. They 
 sought out those scenes in landscape, as 
 well as other subjects, wherein the con- 
 trasts, the assimilations, or combinations of 
 colour presented the opportunity of exhi- 
 biting their greatest fascination. It should 
 be renuirked, however, that one explana- 
 tion of this predominating excellence in 
 the Venetian school may be afl'orded by 
 the circumstance of tiie I'lorentine and Ro- 
 man artists painting chiefly in fresco ami 
 water colours, whilst Titian and his cele- 
 brated l)rethren preferred the use of oils. 
 The portraits of Titian, too, which are nu- 
 merous, led him to acquire great skill and 
 disi)lay of colouring, since he was con- 
 strained to be correct niul glowing in his 
 carnations, (lrai>eries, iSc. 
 
 We find an abridged history of the Ve- 
 netian school of painting, as well as an 
 account of the princi|ial work^♦ thereof, in 
 a bo((k entitled Deserizione di tutle le puh- 
 Hche Pitture dclla C'i/M di Vcnezia ediiole 
 
SCHOOLS OF ART. 
 
 cireoyivicine, Venice, 1733, 8vo. The fol- 
 lowing may also be consulted : — Le Riche 
 Minere della Pittura Vcneziana, Venice, 
 1S64, 1674, 12mo. (An enlavged edition 
 appeared in 1730, in 8vo.) II gran Tcatro 
 di Venezla, ovvero Raccolta delle principali 
 veduti e Pitture, che in essa si contengono, 
 2 vols, folio. Varie Pitture a Fresco de' 
 principali Blaestri Vcneziana, di Ant. Mar. 
 Zanktti, Venice, 1760, folio. Della Pit- 
 tura Veneziana, e delle Opere puhliche de Ve- 
 neziani Maestri, Venice, 1771, 8vo. Rac- 
 colta di cento e Dodici quadri rappres, Istorie 
 sacre, dipinte da' piu celehri Pittori della 
 Scuola Veneziana, 1772, fol. ikc. &c. 
 
 The Lombard School, sometimes deno- 
 minated the Bolognese, or Eclectic (Bologna 
 having been its principal seat), was esta- 
 blished by the Caracci, and the reader is 
 referred to our article on Painting for the 
 sonnet from the pen of one of those emi- 
 nent masters, in which the principles of 
 their school are developed. It was an 
 attempt to combine and harmonize all 
 the beauties of the different styles which 
 had preceded it ; but, although the idea 
 was comprehensive and fine, and mani- 
 fested uncommon grasp and power in the 
 minds of its suggestors, its unfixed, hete- 
 rogeneous nature prevented it from hold- 
 ing together, and its avowed followers 
 soon separated, each taking that particu- 
 lar path to which his individual genius 
 appeared to impel him. It is common to 
 rank among the Bolognese artists Corregio, 
 Domenichino, Guido, Lanfranco, Caravag- 
 gio, Primaticcio, Schidone, Zampieri, &c. 
 of whom Domenichino may be said to have 
 endeavoured most zealously to pursue the 
 plan of the founders of his school. 
 
 The following works will introduce the 
 student more particularly to the several 
 master's of the Lombard school and their 
 performances. — Felsina Pittr ice ovvero Vite 
 de' Pittore Bolognesi, di Carl. Ces. ^L^x- 
 VASIA, Bol. 1678, 2 vols. 4to. with prints. 
 Ossercazioni sopra la Felsina Pittrice, da 
 Vine. ViTTORL4, Rome, 1679, 8vo., and 
 1703, 8vo. Lettere in defesa del Malvasia, 
 par Gianp. Zanotti, Bol. 1705, 8vo. Vite 
 dei Pittori Bolognesi non descritte nella Fel- 
 sina pittrice, Rome, 1769, 4to. II Passa- 
 giere desingannato, Bol. 1676, 12mo., 1732, 
 8vo. Descrizione delle Pitture di Bologna, 
 da Giamb. Zanotti, Bol. 1686 and 1766, 
 12mo. Histoirede I'AcadSmie appellee Vln- 
 stitut des Sciences et des Arts, itahli d. Bo- 
 logne en 1712, par M. Limiers, Amst. 1723, 
 8vo. Dell' Origine e Progrcssi della Pit- 
 tura, Scultura, ed Architettura di Bologna, 
 da Aless. Machiavelli, 1736, 4to. Storia 
 delV Academia Clementina di Bologna, da 
 
 Glamp. Zanotti, Bol. 1738-39, 2 vols. 4to. 
 with prints. To these we may add the 
 thiid vol. of the work entitled -.—Disin- 
 ganno delle principale Notizie ed Erudizioni 
 dell' Arti di Disegno, da Lud. David, Rome, 
 1670, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
 The German School may be said to have 
 originated with Albert Durer, although he 
 neither reared scholars nor was imitated 
 by the German artists of that or the suc- 
 ceeding century. The indiscriminate use 
 of the words genius and talent has, per- 
 haps, no where caused more confusion 
 than in the classification of artists. Al- 
 bert Durer has been characterised as a 
 man of great ingenuity without being a 
 genius. " He studied, and, as far as his 
 penetration reached, established certain 
 proportions of the human frame ; but he 
 did not invent a style. Every work of his 
 is a proof that he wanted the power of 
 imitation, of concluding from what he saw 
 to what he did not see, that he copied 
 rather than selected the forms which sur- 
 rounded him, without remorse tacking de- 
 formity and meagreness to fulness, and 
 sometimes to beauty." 
 
 Besides Durer, we may reckon in the 
 German school, or it would be, perhaps, 
 more correct to say, among the German 
 artists, Lucas of Leyden, Marc Antonio 
 (the engraver of Raffaelle), Holbein, Nets- 
 cher, Mengs, &c. Lives and accounts of 
 these men are to be found in most of the 
 Biographical Dictionaries and Cyclopae- 
 dias, both foreign and English. 
 
 The Flemish School ordinarily comprises 
 all the celebrated painters and sculptors 
 of the Low Countries, including Spaniards 
 and Austrians. These countries, more 
 particularly Brabant and Flanders, were 
 long the chief seats of industry and riches, 
 and consequently of the arts springing 
 therefrom. We may say, speaking gene- 
 rally, that this school carried to the high- 
 est point of perfection that imitation of 
 nature which is contented with drawing 
 from her most ordinary and uninviting 
 moods, and takes no pains whatever to 
 select or improve. The Flemish artists 
 were also gifted with an abundant taste 
 for character of the lower and more fami- 
 liar description, and with great apprehen- 
 sion of the humorous. The name of Te- 
 niers must be, of course, well known to 
 every admirer of art; and he is at the 
 head of a long list of names eminent in a 
 similar walk. Of Rubens we have al- 
 ready spoken in our article on Painting. 
 Van Dyck, the prince of portrait painters, 
 also belonged to this school, and among 
 its other illustrious ornaments we may 
 
particularize Stccn\\i(k, SpranRor, Sny- 
 <lers, Neefs, \c. Tin- Floniisli scliool is 
 likewise extremely famous for its skill in 
 coloiirini;, and, as has been before ob- 
 served, authorities have varied as to tiie 
 l)a]m of excellence in that jiarticular be- 
 tween it and the Venetian sciiool. 
 
 The authors to be referred to hereon are : 
 — I'ies des Pcintrcs Flaiiunids uvec dcs Por- 
 traits f!^rav/:s en Tuille- Douce, une Indication 
 de leurs principaux Oitcraf^es, et des Re- 
 flexions sur leurs differcntes Manures, par 
 Jeau Bapt. Dkscamp, Paris, 1753, 4 vols. 
 8vo. Voyage Pittoresque des principales 
 Villes de Plandre ct du Brabant, Paris, 
 1708, 8vo. In the 4th vol. of CEuvres di- 
 vcrses de De Piles, we find details respect- 
 ing several pictures of Rubens; a disser- 
 tation on the works of other famous masters 
 compared with those of Rubens ; and a 
 biography of this last mentioned master. 
 
 The Dutch School is not materially dis- 
 tinguished from the i)rcccding ; but since 
 it has obtained a separate notice in many 
 of the enumerations, we afford it one also 
 here. The Dutch painters seem to have 
 carried to a still greater extent than the 
 Flemish the principle of taking Nature as 
 they found her, without any regard to 
 selection or embellishment. They made 
 choice of the lowest of subjects : and hence 
 we so frequently find tlie scenes of their 
 pictures laid in taverns, workshops, or 
 watclihouses. They were very fond of 
 representing the noisy and drunken revels 
 of villagers ; and their success in this walk 
 is unquestionably surprising. Tlieir paint- 
 ings arc crowded witii figures, just as they 
 happen to come. Their heads are unin- 
 lellectual, ugly, and vulgar; but at the 
 same time characteristic and various, and 
 often grotesque. Tliey held not back their 
 hand, whatever the nature of the object 
 which might seem incidental to such 
 scenes, and the postures and occupations 
 
 SCHOOLS OF ART. 
 
 marine subjects, fruits, animals, ^c. as 
 Will as the lesser kind of portraits, and, 
 in short, of all that depends chiefly on a 
 correct eye and a delicate handling. 
 
 It must never be forgotten, in speaking 
 and thinking of the Dutch school, that at 
 its head stands one of the mightiest names 
 in the art, whether ancient or modern ; 
 we allude to Rembrandt Van Rhyn. We 
 have already (see Painting) made some 
 allusion to this extraordinary painter, and 
 have little here to add. A thoughtful ob- 
 servation of his pictures inclines us some- 
 times to place him at the very summit of 
 his art, so powerful is the impression 
 made by his works on the imagination and 
 feelings. A memorable instance of this 
 occurs iu the case of a little cabinet picture 
 by him in the Dulwich gallery, the sub- 
 ject of which is Jacob's Dream. Here, in 
 spite of the vulgar appearance of Jacob 
 himself (who looks very much like an old 
 Jew clothesman), and of the perfectly 
 nondescript figures of the " angels ascend- 
 ing and descending the ladder," an elVect 
 is produced almost indescribable, and 
 which, once witnessed, can never be for- 
 gotten. The dark, heavy sky and land- 
 scape, which send their loneliness into the 
 very heart of the spectator ; — the radiant 
 column which the grand fancy of the artist 
 has substituted for any resemblance of a 
 ladder ; the sleeping figure stretched out 
 below, and but half descried in the gloom ; 
 and the undefined, muflled, shapeless phan- 
 toms with outspread wings ho\ering upon 
 the pillar of light, — ^form uniteilly a re- 
 sistless appeal to the inmost region of the 
 imagination. The picture hangs on one's 
 remembrance like a vivid dream : or ra- 
 ther like what the exalted painter meant, 
 a sort of glimpse into the shadowy i)re- 
 cincts of futurity. We may also aflix ho- 
 nourable mention to the names of De 
 Leide, Heemskirk, Poleinbourg, Wouver- 
 
 of many of their figures ure consequently mans, Vandervelde, Gerard Dow, Mieris, 
 
 quite revolting. This kind of taste must &c. 
 
 !»(■ admitted to be execrable; and yet the 
 
 iinconinion, the almost sui)ernatural reality 
 
 ot th(' representation goes a great way 
 
 towards redeeming it. Hagedorn was so 
 
 struck with this, that he ilenominated this 
 
 Bchool— till- " school of truth." 
 
 These artists almost all challenge the 
 praise of extnnie neatness of execution 
 and beautiful finish. They succeed, above 
 all, in producing piipiant results of chiuro- 
 scuro, su( h as thosti of a strong light in a 
 Rmall enclosed space, efiects of lorihlight, 
 «>r of (he (ir<- of a forge, \c. They have 
 likewise been ecmsidered eminent in the 
 representation of perspective, of sky, of 
 
 Besides the works cited in speaking of 
 the Flemish school, the student is here 
 referred to De Lerensbeschnirint^en der f\'e- 
 dertnnlschen Konst-SchiUlcrn en lionst- 
 Schildere>isen, meten I'ljlhrei/dini:^ orer de 
 Schilderkonst der Ouden, door Jac. Campo 
 Wevkumann, Hague, 1729, 3 vols. 4to. 
 with prints. 
 
 The i'rench School is not very easily 
 characterised, taking it en tiuissc ; since its 
 elements are various, and it comprises 
 within itself several wholly dillerent sty les. 
 Of those artists who may be ranked among 
 its ornaments, some have cultivated the 
 Florentine, some the Roman, some the Ve- 
 
SCHOOLS OF AUT. 
 
 I 
 
 netian manner ; whilst others, with a be- 
 coming ambition, have trusted to nature 
 and their own genius. 
 
 France possessed at a very early period 
 the art of painting on glass, as well as 
 that of miniature ; and in both these de- 
 partments Italy herself stands under obli- 
 gations to the grande riation. (See Paint- 
 ing). The oldest of the French painters, 
 however, who left a reputation behind him 
 was Jean Cousin, who, although chiefly 
 devoted to paintings on glass, yet exer- 
 cised his talents upon canvass also. He 
 likewise practised sculpture. He was 
 correct but iuelegant in his drawing. 
 
 The three greatest names in French art 
 are Claude Lorraine, Nicholas Poussin, 
 and Anthony Watteau, and the latter alone 
 can fairly be classed in the French school, 
 as the tv.'o former practised in Italy, where 
 their style was altogether formed. Of Wat- 
 teau it is difficult to speak too highly. He 
 appears to tlie waiter of this article to have 
 been one of the most delightful artists that 
 ever set brush to canvass. He is the 
 painter of refined life in its hours of re- 
 pose and enjoyment. His figures are all 
 true gentlefolks without the slightest pa- 
 rade or affectation. His fancy seems to 
 have dwelt eternally among those scenes 
 which embellish and throw a grace over 
 existence. A ball or concert under the 
 umbrageous trees, or a lady singing while 
 her cavalier, stretched at her feet, accom- 
 panies her on some musical instrument, 
 are the subjects he loves to illustrate. 
 Watteau's landscapes are not good ; in- 
 deed, his spirit seems to have been so well 
 tuned, that he required nothing more than 
 a green turf and a few trees to become 
 moved to elegant mirthfuluess. A house 
 (generally of handsome dimensions) is 
 commonly introduced in the background, 
 to indicate that a few minutes would suf- 
 fice to put the ladies beneath its comfort- 
 able roof, if the dew fell, or an overhang- 
 ing cloud discharged its moisture; and, 
 on the whole, the spectator feels that quiet 
 happy sensation almost always excited by 
 the contemplation of " becoming mirth." 
 
 Le Brun and Le Sueur have been al- 
 ready noticed in the course of our article 
 on Painting, and we may particularize, in 
 addition, Blanchard, Vouet, Du Fresnoy, 
 Bourdon, Mignard, Noel, and Anthony 
 Coypel, &lC. M. Millin gives to an artist 
 of the name of Vien the praise of having 
 regenerated the taste of the French school, 
 and spread among his pupils that admira- 
 tion of the antique which they have turned 
 to such good account in their own works. 
 M. David, a French painter of the present 
 
 day, has acquired great reputation in the 
 department of history. The French Aca- 
 demy of Painting, like our Royal Acade- 
 my, have annual exhibitions in an apart- 
 ment of the Louvre. 
 
 The following observations are extract- 
 ed from " Lettres on the Fine Arts," by 
 Henry Milton, Esq. and although some 
 allowance must be made for national pre- 
 judice, we are of opinion tliat they convey 
 a pretty just estimate of the present state 
 of the art among our continental neigh- 
 bours. 
 
 " Of two very large productions from 
 the pencil of the " great" Baron David, 
 one represents Brutus just having entered 
 his dwelling, after the condemnation of 
 his sons ; — the other, the Horatii, swear- 
 ing to their father that they will return 
 victorious, or perish on the field. They 
 are both, as you may imagine from their 
 subjects, pictures of the very highest pre- 
 tensions. 
 
 " In composition, colouring, and expres- 
 sion, I think it is hardly possible for any 
 thing to be more contemptible. They are 
 caricatures of all the faults of Poussin ; 
 but unredeemed by the smallest portion of 
 the energy, pathos, and sublimity of that 
 impressive artist. Amongst Rubens's rich 
 freedom, the stiff unmeaning stonework of 
 David looks like the cut yew trees of a 
 Brentford villa, transplanted into a region 
 of luxui'iant oaks. 
 
 " When we parted in London, you re- 
 quested me to give you some account of 
 the present state of the art in France. I 
 am little qualified to do so ; as it is diffi- 
 cult, whilst surrounded by a profusion of 
 noble works, to examine with attention 
 what are so decidedly inferior. Added 
 to this, many of the paintings on which 
 the French most pride themselves are at 
 present not visible. The subjects they 
 represent being the victories of Buona- 
 parte, the government has deemed it ex- 
 pedient to cover them with green cloth. 
 If their merits correspond with their size, 
 they must be the finest pictures in the 
 world. 
 
 "In addition to the works of David which 
 I have just mentioned, I have seen two or 
 three of his portraits. They are splendid 
 paintings ; and he is highly skilled in all 
 the mechanical part of his profession. His 
 faces have that strong appearance of indi- 
 vidual expression, which inclines you, 
 without knowing the original, to pro- 
 nounce them to be likenesses. But his 
 portraits are no more to be compared to 
 those by Laurence, than the well looking 
 ladies and gentlemen of Sir Peter Lely to 
 
SCHOOLS 
 
 tlie breathing and intelligent forms of Van- 
 dyck. Indeed, I could mention several 
 other English artists greatly his superiors 
 in portrait; and as for history, I may save 
 myself the trouble of comparison, by as- 
 serting, that to me they appear absolutely 
 devoid of any merit, except correctness of 
 design. 
 
 " In the lofty style of historic painting, 
 of which he and his schocd arrogate to 
 themselves the exclusive possession, the 
 dramatic management of the subject is the 
 essential attribute. In none of their com- 
 positions, with which the prints have made 
 us familiar, can a single instance be shown, 
 in which the subject is treated with grace 
 and dignitj'; or in which nature is follow- 
 ed judiciously, and without affectation. — 
 Not a single instance can be adduced, in 
 which a fine idea is simply and felicitously 
 expressed. 
 
 " The largest collection of modern French 
 paintings which I have yet seen, are the 
 portraits of the marshals, in the hall of the 
 Tuilleries. I particularly examined these 
 pictures; thinking from the consequence 
 of the persons painted,— at least at the 
 time when they Mere painted, — and from 
 the destination of the pictures, that they 
 would bo the careful productions of the best 
 artists. None of them can be considered 
 as good pictures: — none of them deserve 
 a higher character than I have given of 
 those by David." 
 
 An abridged history of the old French 
 academy of painting may be found in the 
 DcscripliuH de I'Acadcmit' Roijalc de Pchi- 
 ttire it de Sculpt iiir, by M. Glkiun, Paris, 
 1715, 8vo. ; and in the 1st vol. of the De- 
 scription de Paris, by Piganiol de la Font f. 
 Oliscrvations l)iographical and critical on 
 the Fn-nch painters may likewise be met 
 with in the following works: — Fntreticns 
 par Fi;i.iiiiKN, sur Ics Vies ct les Oiivragrs 
 de.s plus e.Tccllcns I'ciutrcs ; L'Ahn^ge de la 
 Vic dcs Pientrcs, arec des I{(flcxiuiis sur Icurs 
 Outrages, par Koger de IMits; Les Vies 
 des premiers Peiutres du lioi, depuis Charles 
 Le liruii, jus(ju'i't Innnois Le Moinc, \n\Y 
 IJcrnard L'VA'U'WM^—Ahrcgf dcla Vie des 
 plusj'aweux Peintris, par D'Aur.KNsvir.r.i:, 
 iVc. Jtespccliiig the rrench academy 
 founded l)y I.oiiis XIV. at Kiune, the rea- 
 «ler may consult the Sag/::ii> sopra I'Acadc- 
 mia di Pranciu clic i in Jioma, l)y Ai.c v- 
 Horn, Livoino, \HV.\, Hvo". translated into 
 French by l'iN<;Kit<iN, I'aris, 1709, 12nui. : 
 and on the actual existing stnto of the art 
 in France tlu- Utile work will be found 
 usi'fid wiiicii M. Ni.i.ni:(;A.M{i) has pub- 
 lislied under the title of Lei I res sur la Si- 
 iunliun acluellc des Beaux Arts en Prance, 
 
 OF ART. 
 
 Paris, 1801, Svo. as well as the various 
 catalogues of and criticisms on their re- 
 cent exhibitions. 
 
 It now remains that we take a brief no- 
 tice of the school of painting which has 
 sprung up in our own country. This, like 
 the French school, is not easily to be spe- 
 cified. Its range is extensive ; but it may 
 be said to shine with the greatest effect in 
 tlie walk of portrait. Millin, who seems to 
 take every opportunity of doing us justice, 
 gives the English school of artists praise for 
 "judicious composition, great excellence 
 in drawing the human form, elevated ideas, 
 and truth of expression. Several masters 
 of this school," he goes on to observe, 
 " unite fine colouring to the more exalted 
 parts of the art, and it may be remarked 
 tiiat their colours, less brilliant than those 
 of the Flemings or Venetians, resemble 
 greatly those of the Lombard school." 
 
 At the head of the English school of 
 painting may be placed the names of Ho- 
 garth, Reynolds, and Wilson; and the im- 
 petus given by them to the art has since 
 produced a number of worthy succes- 
 sors. At the present day, we are happy 
 to say that the historical department is 
 cultivated with a greater chance of suc- 
 cess than ever. We shall perhaps be ex- 
 cused for particularizing a picture lately 
 exhibited by Mr. Elty, the subject of 
 which is allegorical, and represents a 
 combat between two warriors, with a fe- 
 male figure pleading for the vanquished. 
 This picture seems to us, both in respect 
 of composition, expression, and colouring, 
 better calculated than any we have seen 
 since the days of Sir Joshua to elevate and 
 ennoble the school in which it has been 
 painted. 
 
 We shall now proceed to extract a few 
 passages from the " Epochs of the Arts," 
 by fllr. Hoare, from which the reader will 
 gather a more complete view of the recent 
 and indeed i)resent state of liritish art than 
 from any other source with which we are 
 acquainted. 
 
 " Th(! annual returns of numerous exhi- 
 bitions of painting in dillerent parts of the 
 kingdom, (hough they may occasionally be 
 without some particular si)eciiueiis of su- 
 perior talents, unquestionably demonstrate 
 the average slate of the arts amongst us; — 
 that average state, wliicli, it has been as- 
 serted, must corresjioiul, in a very great 
 measure, with the general state of the pub- 
 lic feeling with regard to the arts. 
 
 " licl ns lirst look a( llie e\hii)i(ioTi at So- 
 merset House: what does it still exhibit? 
 A splendid mass of Portraiture, such as 
 lias rarely, if ever, been surpassed in any 
 
SCHOOLS OF ART. 
 
 school of any nation. To this point, the 
 actual degree of knowledge and esteem of 
 painting in the public, and the skill of the 
 artist, equally concur. Tlie slowly awaken- 
 ing taste of the nation has scarcely pro- 
 duced any increase of works in the higher 
 classes of art. In familiar history, the 
 scenery of humble and domestic life, the 
 nearest allied to portrait painting, extra- 
 ordinary efforts have deservedly attracted 
 a considerable portion of public attention. 
 The number of historical pictures in other 
 classes continues in the same inferior pro- 
 portion as ever, to that of portraits. The 
 nation views with complacence, and with- 
 out farther ambition, an excellence of no 
 inconsiderable degree, widely diffused in 
 the latter branch ; and its taste may be re- 
 garded as so far advanced, as it no longer 
 imagines superior powers to exist in every 
 work of foreign schools. We reason with 
 justice from a lately imported specimen (in 
 engraving) of the most favourite portrai- 
 ture of France, that we are as yet in no 
 dread of rivalry in that province. 
 
 " Our exliibitions oi water-coloured draw- 
 ings have displayed a uniformity of merit 
 in landscape ; and some examples have 
 here also appeared in subjects of familiar 
 history, which aided, perhaps, by the com- 
 paratively easy method of execution, have 
 presented instances of graphic expression, 
 seldom seen except in works of the high- 
 est kind. To this point also, the state of 
 tlie art appears to be within the compass of 
 the actual degree of public knowledge. 
 
 " The British Institution, having provided 
 commodious rooms, where the pictures of 
 living artists might be exhibited, has an- 
 nually admitted for sale, whatever works 
 of competent merit liave been sent thitlier. 
 It assembles, also, an annual collection of 
 the works of Italian and other masters, 
 wliich students are invited to copy: a ju- 
 dicious and liberal arrangement, tending 
 to relieve one of the greatest deiiciencies 
 noted in the Royal Academy, and accep- 
 table to the young proficients, 'in propor- 
 tion to the exceeding difficulty of procuring 
 access (for the purposes of study) to many 
 valuable collections, with which the me- 
 tropolis abounds. Not long after its esta- 
 blishment, it announced the offer of pecu- 
 niary rewards for the best compositions in 
 distinct classes ; and in proportion as its 
 funds increased, it has augmented its re- 
 wards. It commenced also its gallery of 
 ancient masters. Finally, redeeming the 
 neglect of the age, and offering to the state 
 an example of patronage, the directors 
 purchased of a great historical painter 
 one of his best and latest works, at the 
 
 splendid price of 3,000 guineas, purposing 
 at the same time that it shall form the 
 commencement of a gallery of the English 
 school. After the long interval, which had 
 succeeded to the labours of Barry, at the 
 Society of Arts, this purchase made by the 
 British Institution is to be hailed as tlie 
 first example of public patronage shown to 
 painting in England. 
 
 " The institution will ever merit the gra- 
 titude of English artists for the weight it 
 has added to the benevolent efforts of in- 
 dividuals, in favour of our native school. 
 It has opened the doors of opulence to the 
 admission of English pictures, and recon- 
 ciled the patrons of foreign talents to the 
 pretensions of our own. Nor is it a mat- 
 ter of small moment, that, if ever the go- 
 vernment should assume to itself the pa- 
 tronage of the higher provinces of paint- 
 ing, its views would be found so fully se- 
 conded by the British Institution, as to 
 produce nearly a complete arrangement of 
 the powers of the state in regard to paint- 
 ing. This respectable institution, even if 
 it should not attain a higher end, cannot 
 fail to create a body of artists, capable of 
 filling every subordinate channel with 
 adequate excellence. 
 
 " The exhibitions established in the pro- 
 vincial cities, liave been in many instances 
 highly creditable to individual exertion, 
 and may not a little tend to mature the 
 taste of the public ; but they have been 
 hitherto attended witii very various re- 
 sults. In some instances they have been 
 greatly successful; in otliers far less pros- 
 perous. — Little information is to be ga- 
 thered from tliem respecting the present 
 state of the public knowledge or taste." 
 
 In most of the schools of art we may 
 trace some predisposing cause for the pe- 
 culiarity of style and genius by which 
 they are characterised. Thus the Roman 
 school deduced its manner from the admi- 
 rable education afforded to its earliest 
 practisers and to the chefs-d'wuvre of an- 
 cient art found among the ruinous parts of 
 the " eternal city." With respect to tlie 
 Venetian school, the magnificence which 
 was imparted to Venice by commerce with 
 tlie East, together with their frequent fetes 
 and masquerades, and the splendid vest- 
 ments of their nobles, produced that rich- 
 ness and warmth of colour by which its 
 works are distinguished : while the Dutch 
 school, on the contrary, owes to the hum- 
 ble and unpretending life of its artists, who 
 were ordinarily the frequenters of taverns 
 and workshops, that lowliness of stjle and 
 want of selection as to subject which re- 
 quire all the transcendent talent for cor- 
 
SCI 
 
 rectneBS and spirit possessed by its fol- 
 lowers to lift it above reprobation. 
 
 SciAfiKAPiiv. [Gr. (Tictayna^i'a, from ffKi<V, 
 a shadow, and ypapu), to describe.] In 
 pnlnlinp: and aichitectiirc. This word ge- 
 nerally sifjnilied, among the ancients, 
 jiainting in shades; and the Greeks some- 
 times employed it in the same sense to 
 which we now apply the term chiaro- 
 scuro. Apollodorus was the first of the 
 Greek painters who knew how to beat out 
 his colours and to express the privation of 
 colour by shade. His success obtained 
 him tlie appellation of sciographi; that is 
 to say, painter of shadow. Hesychius in- 
 forms us of this fart, which appears to be 
 of some importance with regard to the his- 
 tory of ancient art. 
 
 In architcclurc, sciagraphy is the repre- 
 sentation in ])rofde, or the section in per- 
 spective, of tlie interior parts of a build- 
 ing. It is tlirough mistake that this word 
 has been often spelt sciography. 
 
 Science, [scientia, Lat. from scio, to 
 know.] In all the arts. The cultivation of 
 the tine arts, generally speaking, requires 
 too entire an application of the time and 
 attention of the artist to enable him to 
 make any deep research into the i)rinci- 
 ples of those points of knowledge, the ac- 
 quirement of which would nevertheless 
 conduce greatly to his profit. Certain 
 writers have exaggerated absurtlly on this 
 topic, alarming the fancy of the student by 
 representing as necessary the acquirement 
 of such a mass of information as he must 
 despair of ever obtaining. For ourselves, 
 M'c are inclined to say, with Reynolds, 
 that a painter should possess more know- 
 ledge than he can obtain either from liis 
 jialelte or from his model, whether he stu- 
 dies nature or some production of art ; in- 
 asmucli as it would be impossible for a 
 grossly ignorant man to become a great 
 artist. The painter, us well as the poet, 
 ought to gain a sudicient insigiit into that 
 part of the science of philosophy which re- 
 lates to the passions and an'ections of men, 
 to the end that he miglit be enabled to dis- 
 l>lay tiiem judiciously ; and we liave al- 
 ready observed that lu! should have some 
 ac<iuaiiilance, and that not siiglit, with 
 the science of anatomy, as \vell as those of 
 perspective, ojjtics, ivc. Hut hit not the 
 young aspirant after fame be daunte<I. 
 What is re(|uired of him is \vi(hiii his 
 reueh. We do not expect or seek lliat he 
 should bo as i)rofoundly skilled in these 
 various HtudicH as tliose who follow them 
 not as a nu-ans l)ut as an end. All that is 
 necessary (but this he must do) is to hus- 
 bauU his time, to apply closely and unde- 
 
 scu 
 
 viatingly to his art and its auxiliary points 
 of knowledge, and if he has chosen it 
 wisely, he will soon (ind that excellence is 
 by no means placed beyond his grasp. 
 
 Scientific, [from aciencc] In the arts of 
 co7istructiun. This term is principally ap- 
 I)lied to the skilful, solid, and propor- 
 tionate disposition of the various parts of 
 a building. 
 
 SciPio. [Lat. a walkingslick.] In archai- 
 ology. Name given by the liomans to u 
 staff or sceptre of ivory, which was the 
 emblem of the consular dignity and power. 
 In the times of the republic, this baton 
 was single and unornamented. Under the 
 emperors, and principally under tJiose of 
 Constantinople, tlie scipio was surmounted 
 by an eagle, and sometimes by a bust re- 
 presenting the reigning emperor. It be- 
 came in the end a distinctive ensign of tri- 
 uniphers. The inipcrator never bore it. 
 AVe see it in several dipticks in the hand 
 of the consuls. 
 
 SCIROPHOKION. [^VKlpO(pOpiOV, froUl (T(Cq)n, 
 
 an Athenian festi\ al.J In archuiology. See 
 Parasol. 
 
 Scorpion. [^aKopirvc, perhaps from oKop- 
 TTicrw, to scatter, subin, poison.] In archaiu- 
 logy. This insect is represented on seve- 
 ral ancient monuments. It is generally 
 extremely ill drawn, and its traits are 
 rudely indicated upon a cornelian of tiie 
 Royal Cabinet of I'aris. It would not be 
 easily recognised if Natter, in his iMethoJc 
 (le graver sur Pierresjines, pi. 3, No. 1, had 
 not published a llgure somewhat similar 
 but better executed. When found u\)on 
 medals, the scorpion is considered as sym- 
 bolical of Africa. 
 
 ScoRi'ius. [Lat.] In archaiohgy. See 
 Crobvi.ls. 
 
 Scotia. [Gr.uKoria, darkness.] In archi- 
 tecture. A hollow nioiildiiig used in bases 
 to capitals. 
 
 ScRiNiuM. [Lat. from secernn, to lay 
 aside.] In archaiologij. Name of a little 
 box or chest, usually of a circular form, in 
 which tiie ancii'iits dei)osilt'd their vo- 
 lumes or rolls of manuscrii)ts, most gene- 
 rally when they travelled about. 
 
 ScuuTou. [Lat. from sculpo, to carve.] 
 Engraving is occasionally called working 
 en crt/ta", sculpture working in riliero: yet 
 in its most comprehensive range the word 
 sculpture has bi'eii a|)plied to both tliese. 
 
 The sludii'S necessary for the >oung 
 sculptor, towards the attainnu-nt of his art, 
 are so similar to those w hich form the 
 painter (with the obvious exceptions aris- 
 ing from the diifereuee of nuiteiials em- 
 ployed in the two arts), that very little re- 
 niaiiib lure to be enlarged tui, under the 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 The principal acquisi- persed beauties combined and collected in 
 
 head of studies 
 tions to which the student must direct his 
 endeavours are, a knowledge of composi- 
 tion, form (including anatomj'), and ex- 
 pression; to wliich, as in painting, must 
 be added the diiBcult study of grace. 
 
 The method of study most recommended 
 to young sculptors is, to begin with copy- 
 
 the forms 
 
 rivalling, 
 
 ing, and to end with 
 
 of the Greek statues. 
 
 " Vos excmplaria Grseca 
 
 Nocturna. veisate manu, vcrsato diurna ;" 
 
 says Du Fresnoy: nor can it be questioned 
 that the sculptors are, generally speaking, 
 the safest guides to the study of nature. 
 But it should not pass unnoticed, that al- 
 though the forms of the Greek sculpture 
 are, in general, not only more beautiful, 
 but more appropriately so than any other; 
 yet in some instances they have been sur- 
 passed by modern sculptors, as in the forms 
 of infants by Flamingo. 
 
 The method of execution in the Greek 
 statues and other works of sculpture, 
 seems to have been extremely difl'erent 
 from that which is generally in use among 
 modern artists. In the ancient statues, 
 we frequently find striking proofs of the 
 freedom and boldness that accompanied 
 each stroke of the chisel, and which re- 
 sulted from the artist being perfectly sure 
 of the accuracy of the method which he 
 pursued. Even in the most minute parts 
 of the figure, no indication of timorousness 
 or difllidence appears : nothing that can in- 
 duce us to believe, that the artist feared he 
 might have occasion to correct his strokes. 
 It is difficult to find, even in the second- 
 rate productions of the Grecian artists, 
 any marks of a false or a random touch. 
 This firmness and precision of the Grecian 
 chisel were certainly derived from a more 
 determined and perfect set of rules than 
 those of which we are masters. 
 
 Besides studying, therefore, in the pro- 
 ductions of the Grecian masters, their 
 choice and expression of select nature, 
 whether beautiful, sublime, or graceful, 
 together with that sedate grandeur and 
 simplicity which pervade all their works, 
 the artist will do well to investigate the 
 manual and mechanical part of their ope- 
 rations, as they may lead to the percep- 
 tion of their mode of progress. 
 
 As soon as the artist has rendered him- 
 self familiarly acquainted with the beau- 
 ties of the Grecian statues, and formed his 
 taste on the admirable models they exhi- 
 bit, he may then proceed with advantage 
 and assurance to the imitation of nature. 
 The ideas he has already formed of the 
 perfection of nature, by observing her dis- 
 
 the composition of the ancient artists, will 
 enable him to acquire with facility, and to 
 employ with advantage, tha detached and 
 partial ideas of beauty which will be ex- 
 hibited to his view in a survey of nature, 
 in her actual state. When he discovers 
 these partial beauties, he will be capable 
 of combining them with those perfect 
 forms of beauty with which he is already 
 acquainted. In a word, by having always 
 present to his mind the noble models al- 
 ready mentioned, he will form an accurate 
 judgment of the powers of his art, and will 
 draw rules from his own mind. 
 
 There are, however, two ways of imi- 
 tating nature. In the one, a single object 
 occupies the artist, who endeavours to re- 
 present it with precision and truth ; in the 
 other, certain lines and features are taken 
 from a variety of objects, and combined 
 and blended into one regular whole. All 
 kinds of copies belong to the first kind of 
 imitation ; and productions of this sort 
 must necessarily be executed in a confined 
 and servile manner, with high finishing, 
 and little or no invention. But the second 
 kind of imitation leads directly to the in- 
 vestigation and discovery of true beauty, 
 of that beauty whose perfect idea is only 
 to be found within the mind. 
 
 " The sculptor (says Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds) may be safely allowed to practise 
 every means within the power of his art 
 to produce a deception, provided this prac- 
 tice does not interfere with or destroy 
 higher excellencies; on these conditions 
 he will be forced, however loth, to ac- 
 knowledge that the boundaries of his art 
 have long been fixed, and that all endea- 
 vours will be vain that hope to pass be- 
 yond the best works which remain of an- 
 cient sculpture. 
 
 " Imitation is the means, and not the 
 end, of art ; it is employed by the sculp- 
 tor as the language by which his ideas are 
 presented to the mind of the spectator. 
 Poetry and elocution of every sort make 
 use of signs, but those signs are arbitrary 
 and conventional. The sculptor employs 
 the representation of the thing itself; but 
 still as a means to a higher end, — as a gra- 
 dual ascent always advancing towards 
 faultless form and perfect beauty. It may 
 be thought at the first view, that even this 
 form, however perfectly represented, is to 
 be valued and take its rank only for the 
 sake of a still higher object, that of con- 
 vejiug sentiment and character, as they 
 are exhibited by attitude, and expression 
 of the passions. But we are sure from ex- 
 perience, that the beauty of form alone, 
 
 u u 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 williout the assistance of any other qua- 
 lity, makes of itself a great work, and 
 justly claims our esteem and admiration. 
 As a proof of the high value we set on the 
 mere excellence of form, we may produce 
 the greatest part of the works of Michel 
 Angiolo, both in painting and sculpture ; 
 as well as most of the antique statues, 
 which are justly esteemed in a very high 
 degree, though no very marked or striking 
 character or expression of any kind is re- 
 presented. 
 
 " But, as a stronger instance that this 
 excellence alone inspires sentiment, what 
 artist ever looked at the Torso without 
 feeling a warmth of enthusiasm, as from the 
 highest efforts of poetry? From whence 
 does this proceed ? What is there in this 
 fragment that produces this ellect, but 
 the perfection of this science of abstract 
 fomi ? 
 
 "A mind elevated to the contemplation 
 of excellence perceives in this defaced 
 and shattered fragment, disjecta membra 
 piH'ta;, the traces of superlative genius, the 
 relics of a work on which succeeding ages 
 can only gaze with inadequate admiration. 
 
 " It may be said that this pleasure is re- 
 served only to those who have spent their 
 whole life in the study and contemplation 
 of this art ; but the truth is, that all would 
 feel its effects, if they could divest them- 
 selves of the expectation of deception, and 
 look only for what it really is, a partial re- 
 presentation of nature. The only impe- 
 diment of tiieir judgment must then pro- 
 ceed from their being uncertain to what 
 rank, or ratlier kind of excellence, it 
 aspires; and to what sort of approbation 
 it has a riglit. This state of darkness is, 
 without doubt, irksome to every mind; 
 but by attention to works of this kind the 
 knowledge of what is aimed at comes of 
 itself, without being taught, and almost 
 without being perceived. 
 
 " Tile sculptor's art is limited in com- 
 parison of others, but it lias its variety and 
 intricacy witliin its proper bounds. Its 
 essence is correctness: and when to cor- 
 rect and perfect form is added tiie orna- 
 ment of grace, dignity of character, and 
 api)r(>i)riat(' (^xjiression, as in the Apollo, 
 tiu' \ enus, the Laocoon,the ISloses oli\li- 
 chel Angiolo, and many otiters, this art 
 may be said to have accomplished its pur- 
 pose." 
 
 According to I'liny, the fillieth olym- 
 piad or tli(! year GOO before the vulgar era, 
 was the epoch of tiie first Grecian sculj)- 
 tors, and lie particularizes Dipu iius and 
 Scyllis. Tiiese artists were born at t'rete, 
 and dwelt at Sicyon ; their works were to 
 
 Ije found at Argos, at Cleone, and at Am- 
 bracia. We may next mention Bathycles, 
 who flourished in the time of Solon. 
 
 The arts went on advancing from the 
 reign of Pisistratus until the epoch of ti»e 
 liberty of Athens, the riches of the Samians 
 appearing to have greatly facilitated their 
 progress. Learchus of Rhegium made at 
 Sparta a Jupiter composed of several 
 plates of bronze; Doryclidas, of Laconia, 
 a Themis, which was placed upon the tem- 
 ple of Jupiter at Olympius; his brother 
 Medon, a Minerva armed, for the same 
 temple; Dontas, the combat of Hercules 
 and Achelous — the former protected by 
 Minerva, the latter by Mars; Theodes, 
 Hesperides, both in brass and gold. Bu- 
 palus and Antheimus must have flourished 
 in the sixtieth olympiad, since they exe- 
 cuted a bust of the poet Hipponax, who 
 lived about that year. Besides these, we 
 discover, relative to that remote date, the 
 names of Damea, Calou of Elea, Laphore, 
 Aristomedon of Argos, &;c. 
 
 The expulsion of the Pisistratidcs 
 brought about a new era of Grecian art. 
 After that epoch, and more especially after 
 the battles of Salamines and Plat;ea, the 
 genius of tlie Athenians, excited and in- 
 flamed by success, spread widely over the 
 whole field of art, pursuing with peculiar 
 aptitude the walk of sculpture. About this 
 period we must rank Ageladas,whom Pliny 
 places, doubtless through mistake, in the 
 eighty-seventh olympiad. This man had the 
 distinguished honour of being the master 
 of Phidias. To the same era belongs the 
 name of Pythagoras of Kliegiuni, who, ac- 
 cording to Pliny, was tiie first sculptor by 
 whom were expressed the nerves, veins, 
 and arteries of the human body ; and who 
 excelled all prior masters in the exhibition 
 of the hair. Simon and Onatas, of iHgina, 
 follow; together with Calamis and Dio- 
 nysius of Argos, who carved a bronze 
 horse placed at Olympius, and which 
 (says Millin) must have imitated nature 
 capitally, since itatfractod the attention of 
 all the mitlf horses wliidi passed. 
 
 But it was under the government of I'e- 
 rides that the art of sculpture, above all 
 others, rose to its most eminent degree; 
 and no wonder, since his reign was ailorn- 
 ed by tlie performances of the finest and 
 noblest hand that ever held a chisel. Its 
 possessor was IMmnAS, at whose illustri- 
 ous name the masterpieces of ancient art 
 rise in dazzling succession before the men- 
 tal eye of (he anuiteur. This great artist 
 was an Atlienian, son of Charniinus, and, 
 aa we have already said, pupil of Agela- 
 das of Argos, and of H ippias, whose names 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 are known only from the circumstance of 
 their having imparted to their higlily gifted 
 Here tlie rudiments of his art. The con- 
 temporaries of Pliidias were Alcam^nes, 
 Critias, H6g6as, and Nestocl^s, the first 
 mentioned of whom is the only one whose 
 reputation has survived. Diodorus has ob- 
 served that Phidias flourished at an epoch 
 favourable for the developement of his 
 talent; and it is an interesting fact that 
 the same era was irradiated by the glori- 
 ous names of Socrates, Plato, and Aris- 
 totle, philosophers ; Isocrates and his dis- 
 ciples, orators ; and the most celebrated 
 generals — such as Miltiades,Themistocles, 
 Aristides, Cimon, &c. Phidias at first ap- 
 plied himself to the sister art of painting ; 
 but ultimately abandoned it for sculpture, 
 to the cultivation of which he devoted all 
 the resources of his powerful and original 
 talent. He wrought in bronze, in ivory, 
 and in marble. See the following article. 
 
 Alcam^nes, already alluded to, was the 
 pupil of Phidias, whom he nobly endea- 
 voured to rival, thereby acquiring in his 
 day great renown. He was born at Athens 
 in the eighty-third olympiad, and worked 
 in bronze and marble, and his productions 
 were numerous. Agarocrites of Paria was 
 another favourite pupil of the mighty mas- 
 ter. It is related that these two fellow- 
 students agreed each to make a statue of 
 Venus, as a kind of trial of strength; and 
 the palm was awarded to the former, not 
 so much on account of superior merit as 
 from the circumstance of his being a towns- 
 man of his judges, the Athenians, who thus 
 reversed the old saying, that " a prophet 
 is without honour in his own country." 
 Mys was an artist celebrated for his works 
 in silver ; this was he who, upon the buck- 
 ler of the goddess Minerva, represented in 
 rilievo the combat of the Centaurs and La- 
 pithae. Ctesilaus executed Amazonians, in 
 bronze, for the temple of Diana at Ephe- 
 sus, and his statues were regarded as 
 taking the next rank to those of Polycletes 
 and Phidias. Onatas, son of Mycon, for- 
 gotten by Pliny, flourished about the seven- 
 ty-fifth olympiad, and made several cele- 
 brated works, such as the Greek heroes 
 going to combat Hector, &c. Myron, born 
 at Eleutherae in Boeotia, obtained an act of 
 naturalization in Athens, and hence has 
 been frequently called an Athenian. The 
 greater part of this artist's works, cited by 
 Pliny, are in bronze ; one only is mention- 
 ed by him in marble. Pausanias how- 
 ever speaks of a figure of Hecate in wood. 
 
 Sicyon, celebrated in the annals of an- 
 cient art, was the birthplace of Poly- 
 cletes, one of its brightest ornaments. He 
 
 was a pupil of Ageladas, and according to 
 Pliny, flourished in the eighty-seventh 
 olympiad (432 years B. C). This sculp- 
 tor appears to have been the first who ex- 
 ecuted figures supporting themselves only 
 upon one leg. He was reproached for 
 giving to all his figures too great an ex- 
 pression of dignity, which was wont to 
 exalt mere mortals into the semblance of 
 gods. The celebrated statue of Dorypho- 
 rus, frequently designated the Canon (see 
 that word) of Grecian art, and the no less 
 renowned CANEPHORiE (which refer to) 
 of this great artist are alone sufficient to 
 immortalize his fame. This age possessed 
 also two sculptors of the name of Callon, 
 who have been erroneously confounded 
 together by Winckelmann, whereas the 
 fact is that one was of iEgiua, the other of 
 Elis. It may be observed, also, that be- 
 sides the famous Polycletes of Sicyon, 
 there was another statuary of the same 
 name born at Argos. 
 
 The isle of Paros gave birth to Scopas, a 
 sculptor in bronze and marble. Pliny places 
 him likewise in the eighty-seventh olym- 
 piad. This artist, assisted by his rivals 
 and imitators, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and 
 Leochares, was employed in ornamenting 
 the sepulchral monument erected to the 
 memory of her husband Mausolus, by 
 Queen Artemesia, and thence called Mau- 
 soleum (see that word). 
 
 With the reign of Alexander the Great 
 commenced a new era in the history of art, 
 and the beautiful or graceful style has been 
 said to have superseded the grand. This 
 style, invented by Parrhasius in painting, 
 was soon communicated to sculpture. 
 
 Praxiteles may be said to have begun 
 the change. This transcendant genius 
 seems to have lived in the one hundred 
 and fourth olympiad, or about 400 years 
 B. C. His birthplace is not known. Ac- 
 cording to Pliny, Praxiteles was more 
 successful in and acquired greater fame 
 from his works in marble than those in 
 bronze. The reader will find further men- 
 tion made of him in the next article. Eii- 
 phranor was both sculptor and painter. 
 See Painting. Lysippus, a native of Si- 
 cyon, contributed greatly to the progress 
 of sculpture. Pliny places him in the one 
 hundred and fourteenth olympiad. This 
 man was originally a tinker or braziei", 
 but the irrepressible consciousness of ge- 
 nius lifted him out of that humble sphere, 
 and he was fortunate enough in the early 
 part of his career to receive the instruc- 
 tions of the painter Eupompus, who ex- 
 horted him to follow Nature alone. Bronze 
 appears to have been the chief substance 
 V V 2 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 j'lnployod by Lysi])pTis, and it is by no Sciili>tiire," and his son, Giovanni Pisano, 
 niciuis terlain wliether he ever wrought ^vlio was one of the best artists of his age, 
 in marble or not. The number of this ar- and whose works are numerous at Pisa 
 list's works is quite remarkable. If we his country ; Angelo and Agostino Sanese, 
 may trust l»liny, they amount to six hun- who died about 1340 j Andre Ugolino, 
 dn<l and ten statues ! There can however died 1345 ; Andre Orcagna,surnamcd Ru- 
 be little doubt but that he had skilful as- falmaco, who was an excellent artist, for 
 sistants. He indeed founded a school ; and his time, and died 1389, as did also Andre 
 amongst his most accomplished disciples Pisani, the author of several good figures 
 we may instance Euthycrates, his son, who in the church of Santa INIaria del Fiore at 
 imitated his father's correctness and truth, Florence. Michelo Aignani, died in 1400 ; 
 rather than grace or beauty, of execution. Jac. della Quercia, in 1418 ; N. di Banco, 
 Tisicrates of Sicyon, eleve of this latter, in 1421 ; Luca della Robbia, in 1442. This 
 adhered more faithfully to the school of man possessed the means of overlaying his 
 Lysippus, and was the author of many productions in terra cotta with a Cue var- 
 beautifiil works. — The famous horses nish, which circumstance caused them to 
 which formerly decorated the Place Ca- be much sought for throughout Europe. 
 rouscl at Paris, but have been since re- Donato was one of the greatest men con- 
 stored to St. Mark's, have been attributed earned in the revival of the art of sculp- 
 to Lysippus, but on doubtful testimony, lure. It was one of his figures, a bronze 
 and it is as well for the sculptor's fame statue of St. IMark, that Michel Angiolo is 
 that the testimony is doubtful. said to have addressed in these emphatic 
 
 Sculpture, in common with the other words — " Marco, pa' che non mi parli?" 
 
 arts, declined in Italy with the loss of "Mark, why do you not speak to nie ?" 
 
 liberty. The war which had taken place Another remarkable production of his hand 
 
 among the successors of Alexander was is the figure of an old man with his head 
 
 extremely unfortunate for the arts. They shaved, to be found at Florence, and called 
 
 found an asylum at Alexandria, in Syria, the Tvndu or bald man. Donato died in 
 
 and at Pergamus. The Romans sacked 14CG, at the advanced age of eighty-three. 
 
 Corinth towards the one hundred and for- Amongst his most favourite pupils we 
 
 ty-fifth olympiad ; and the perpetual rob- may class: — Bertolde, a Florentine; Di- 
 
 beries committed on Greece by that jjcople dier da Settignano, a most promising artist, 
 
 (See Greece and Ro.^ie) tended much to who died at the early age of twenty-eight; 
 
 discourage the higher practice both of Vellano of Padua ; Rosselliuo; F. Caniil- 
 
 painting and sculpture altogether, and led liani, and M. Michelozzi. Simon, brother 
 
 those individuals who still pursued it to of Donatello, also followed his manner. 
 
 Rome itself. Among these, the foremost This artist was summoned to Rome by the 
 
 name is that of Arcesilaus, the friend of Pope Eugenius IV. and made one of the 
 
 Lucius Lucullus, of whom Varro speaks bronze gates of St. Peter's. Prato, Rimi- 
 
 liiglily, and we must next allude to that of ni, Florence, and Arezzo possess sundry 
 
 Pasiteles, which latter was likewise an works of Simon. lienedetto di INIajana 
 
 author. flourished about 14(i0. Andre Pisano, 
 
 The art of sculpture (which never found commonly called I'isanello, a pupil of 
 
 any very distinguished followers among Andre del Castagno for painting, ac(|uired 
 
 the Romans) fell into lonipkte disuse in considerable reputation in sculpture, more 
 
 the middle ages, although ornaments of particularly distinjiuishing himself in the 
 
 diHerciit kinds, together with rude images, execution of medals. We also lind, Gio- 
 were profusely lavished on the various 
 churches. The revival of painting pro- 
 •lui-ed a like resuscitation of the sister art ■ 
 and amongst the earliest professors \vIio 
 Btrovc to rescue sculi)ture from its disre- 
 
 vaniii Antonio Aniadeijdieil 1470; A. lios- 
 selino, called Gamberelli, 1490; G. Vel- 
 lano, 1493 ; A.Abondio. 1.V20; G. F. Rus- 
 tichio, l.V.i8; A. (,'onlurei, l.'i29; A. R. 
 Briosco, 1532; G. Sanctacrocc, 1537; A. 
 spected state appeared Donatello, or (t() Busto, called Bambaja, about 1538; L. 
 
 give him his true name) Donato di Bardi, 
 born at Florence in 13H3. There had, in- 
 di-ed, been some ellorts nuide e\en a cen- 
 tury before his time towards thesanu- lau- 
 didile iMirpose; and of those engaged 
 therein, we nuiy mention the names of Ni- 
 
 Lotlo, called Lorenzetto, I. VII (according 
 to Vasari, this was the lirst resl»)rer of 
 the antique statues); B. Agnolo, 1543; P. 
 Clemente, 1548; G. Campagna and L. 
 Leoni, al)out 15.'.(); S. IMosca, 155 1; A. 
 Begarelli and G. Bandiui, called Bene- 
 
 cholas Pisano, who was designated by his detto, about 1556, with A. Zotto; D. Cat- 
 counlryinen liilrortilore ilrl liiinn fiiislo mlht taneo, A. Minganti, and F. Mosca, called 
 ScuUiira, ''Restorer of I'ine 'I'aste in Mx.-.diiuo, 1500; A. Birrugincta, 15(jl ; 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 A. and L. Calamech, 1564. Andr^ Vero- 
 chio is particularly known through the 
 celebrity of his pupils Pierre Perugin and 
 Lionardo da Vinci — of the latter of whom 
 becoming jealous, he quitted painting al- 
 together and attached himself wholly to 
 sculpture. Jean Francois Rustici, born at 
 Florence about 1-170, was an ^leve of Ve- 
 rocliio, and afterwards of Lionardo fla 
 Vinci, who taught him the methods of mo- 
 delling, of carving in marble, and casting 
 in bronze. Rustici was invited to Paris by 
 Francis I. who employed him to work from 
 the model of a horse twice as large as life, 
 and his performance when finished was to 
 have borne a statue of the king himself; 
 but, that prince's death suspended the 
 undertaking. Rustici died at Paris in 
 1550. 
 
 We now proceed to cite the name of 
 Michel Angiolo Buonarotti, one of the 
 very greatest names of modern art, whe- 
 ther regarded as sculptor, painter, or ar- 
 chitect. He was born in 147 1 and died in 
 1504, at the advanced age of ninety. The 
 productions of his chisel enriched several 
 of the Italian cities. The beautiful group 
 of Notre Dame de Piti6 in the basilica of 
 St. Peter's ; the colossal statue of Julius 
 II.; the three figures executed for the 
 tomb of that pontiif, the centre one of 
 which is the far famed Biases ; the David 
 combating' Goliath ; the Victory at Florence : 
 • — these, among many others, bear abun- 
 dant evidence of the transcendant skill of 
 the artist. The statue representing Night, 
 upon the tomb of Julian de Medicis, is 
 considered by Keyssler worthy of a paral- 
 lel with the most admired works of anti- 
 quity. Giacomo Tatti, better known under 
 the title of Sansovino (the place where 
 he was born), was architect likewise as 
 well as sculptor (See Architecture). 
 This artist made at Roma (at the same 
 time with two other able sculptors) a mo- 
 del of the famous antique group of the 
 Laocoon to cast in bronze. Sansovino's 
 was esteemed the best, on the authority of 
 Rafl^'aelle. The lodge of St. Mark's Place 
 at Venice is the work of the same artist, 
 who placed in niches four bronze statues 
 representing Pallas, Apollo, Mercury, and 
 Peace. One of his celebrated perform- 
 ances (the greater part of which are at 
 Rome and Florence) was a marble statue 
 of Bacchus, lost in the fire at the Grand 
 Duke's palace in 17G2: an engraving of it 
 remains in the 3d vol. of the Mus('e de Flo- 
 rence. The Virgin in the church of St. 
 Rlark, and a figure of St. John Baptist, in 
 that of Casa Granda, pass for the chefs- 
 d'wurre of this master. He died at Ve- 
 
 nice in 1570, eighty-three years old. Bac- 
 cio Bandinelli, born at Florence in 1487, 
 had for his first master his father, who was 
 a goldsmith, but afterwards received in- 
 structions from Rustici. He was a good 
 designer : his manner was learned and 
 striking, and bore some resemblance to 
 that of Michel Angiolo. There is how- 
 ever, in the Pitti Palace, a Bacchus in 
 marble treated in a manner very soft and 
 graceful. To Bandinelli was imputed the 
 heavy charge of his having been seduced 
 by jealousy to destroy the cartoons of Mi- 
 chel Angiolo and of Lionardo da Vinci. 
 It was he who restored, in terra cotta, the 
 right arm of the Laocoon, the original hav- 
 ing been lost. Skilful in anatomy, he was 
 accused of having been too fond of dis- 
 playing that knowledge. He died in 1559. 
 Amongst his most renowned pupHs were: 
 — P. da Vinci (nephew of Lionardo), died 
 1570 ; B. Ammanati, born at Florence in 
 1511 ; V. Rossi and J. B. D. Lorenzi, who 
 sculptured, at Florence, at the tomb of 
 Michel Angiolo, a figure of painting, toge- 
 ther with the bust of that great artist. 
 Bcnvenuto Cellini was born at Florence 
 in 1500, and died in 1570. He was painter, 
 goldsmith, and sculptor. He also was 
 summoned to Paris by Francis I, Pro- 
 pertia Rossi is one of the few female 
 names that we meet with among the sculp- 
 tors of this early date. This in! cresting 
 woman lays claim to notice in several 
 ways. She studied and well understood 
 the laws of perspective and architecture ; 
 nor did the science of music escape her 
 observation. She likewise executed some 
 pretty drawings in pen and ink. Her fame 
 as a sculptor rests principally on a bust of 
 the Count Guido, and upon two angels in 
 marble with which she decorated the fa- 
 cade of the church of St. Petronia. This 
 poor young creature fell a \ictim to the 
 chagrin arising from a hopeless attach- 
 ment, in 1530. D. Ricciarelli, called Vol- 
 terra (the town wherein he was born, about 
 1509), was the friend and imitator of Mi- 
 chel Angiolo. L. Ricciarelli, his nephew, 
 was likewise a good sculptor. Amongst 
 his other eleves were : — M. Alberti, of 
 Florence; F. da San Vito, of Rome; J. 
 Mazzoni; Pelegrin, of Bologna, called 
 Tibaldi; M. de Sienne; J. P. Rosetti, of 
 Volterra; and D. B. da Cormigliano, of 
 Pistoia. The year 1576 witnessed the 
 death of Gaspard Bacerra. V. Dante, who 
 executed the admired statue of Pope Ju- 
 lius II. died in 1576. G. D. D'Auria, in 
 1585. A. Fontana, in 1587. P. Scavezzi, 
 in 1590. G. B. Lorenzi, in 1593. G. Delia 
 Porta, born at Milan, studied under his 
 
uncle, and cultivated the art of drawing at 
 Geneva from the lessons of Perin del Vaga. 
 In this town he also produced several 
 works in sculpture. At Rome, he restored 
 several antiques, particularly the legs of 
 the Farnese Hercules, the work of the 
 Athenian Glycon. These were esteemed 
 so very beautiful that, although the an- 
 tique limbs were subsequently found, Mi- 
 chel Angiolo expressed himself against 
 their being restored. The pupils of Delia 
 Porta were: — G. Tedesco, who executed 
 small statues, and ornaments in basso- 
 rilievo, and B. Torregiani, of Bologna, 
 who died 1596. There were also in his 
 own family several other renowned sculp- 
 tors, such as the Chevaliers J. B. and 
 T. Delia Porta.— F. Ferrucci, surnamed 
 Tadda, lived towards the middle of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 J. L. Bernini, born at Naples in 1598, 
 was a great architect as well as sculptor. 
 A. Algardi, born at Bologna in 1602, and 
 died in 1654, studied painting at first in 
 the school of Ludovico Caracci, but he 
 afterwards went over to the sister art. He 
 could not however divest himself of his 
 old attachments; and accordingly we find 
 him praised by some and blamed by others 
 for endeavouring to add to the generally 
 understood beauties of sculpture some of 
 the effects previously considered proper to 
 painting. Algardi, however, formed a 
 school, which has produced D. Guidi, J. 
 M. Baratta, J. Peroni, H, Ferrata, G. Bru- 
 nelli, and C. Mazza, of Bologna, Neither 
 should we omit to state that Algardi like- 
 wise occupied himself with engraving. 
 A. Raggi, called the Lombard, was born 
 in 1624 at Vicomorto, on the confines of 
 the Milanese territory, and was succes- 
 sively tlie pupil of Algardi and of Ber- 
 nini. His works arc numerous at Rome. 
 J. Gonnelli, surnamed the hlind inan of 
 Cambassi (the name of his country in Tus- 
 cany), studied successfully under Peter 
 Tacca. Having lost his siglit at the early 
 age of twenty, he nevertheless did not 
 abumlon Ihi; practice of his art, but exe- 
 cuted several figures in terra culla, guided 
 by tact alone. It is thus that he made a 
 statue of Cosmo, l-'irst Grand Duke of 
 Tuscany. J. B. Tubi saw the- ligiit at 
 K(jiiic in 1 (>:((). 'I'iiis man a])pi'ars to luue 
 pracliscd iliielly in I*'rancc, where he was 
 admitted into the lioyal Academy in UiiV.i. 
 He made a beautiful ropy of the group of 
 till' Laocuon, which ornaments one of (ho 
 ajjartmentH iu the palace of Trianon. Ho 
 
 died at Piiris in 1700. C. Ruseoni was 
 born at Milan in l(>5K, where \u' learnt 
 ttculjiture, and iifterwards proceeded lo 
 
 SCULPTOR. 
 
 Rome in order to perfect himself therein. 
 Passionately devoted to the antique, he 
 copied the Antinous, the Rape of Proser- 
 pine, the Belvidere Apollo, and twice the 
 Farnese Hercules. The Apollo and one 
 of the latter figures were brought over to 
 this country. The disciples of Ruseoni 
 were J. Ruseoni and J. B. INIaini, both 
 artists of reputation. Angelo Rossi fol- 
 lows, distinguished both as sculptor and 
 drawer. His claim to merit is more par- 
 ticularly founded on the excellence of his 
 bassi rilievi. Not only has he surpassed 
 all his predecessors in that particular 
 walk, but has served as a model to those 
 succeeding him. Rossi did not treat bassi 
 rilievi in the manner of Algardi, who gave 
 a considerable projection to the figures, 
 but observed that demi-relief which cer- 
 tainly approaches very near to the method 
 taken by tlie ancients. His basso riliero 
 made for the tomb of Alexander VIII. and 
 representing several canonizations made 
 by that pope, is regarded as the most ex- 
 quisite of all the ornaments of a similar 
 character which adorn the basilica of St. 
 Peter's. He left only one pupil of any 
 note — namely, F. Moderati, of Milan, of 
 whom there are extant two stucco figures 
 of Venus in the palace of the Apostolical 
 Chancery at Rome. G. G. Zumbo, born 
 at Syracuse in 1656, became a sculptor 
 w ithout any other aid than that of his own 
 genius. He used in all his works no other 
 substance than coloured wax, Avhich how- 
 ever he prepared in a peculiar manner. 
 Warin and Le Bel had possessed, it is 
 true, this secret before him: but it was 
 reserved for Zumbo to bring it to perfec- 
 tion. It was this artist who executed for 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany the famous 
 subject known by the name of La Corru- 
 zione: this singular composition consists 
 of five figures, of which the first is a man 
 dying, the second a dead corpse, the third 
 a body beginning to decay, the fourth, ano- 
 ther in a further stage of decomposition, 
 and the fifth, an appalling spectacle of 
 complete putrefaction ! Great h«)rror is 
 inspired by the sight of these objocls, 
 owing to the truth and corre<tness which 
 the artist has thrown into their delinea- 
 tion. He died in France in 1701. 
 
 The following nanu<s will complete our 
 catalogue of Italian sculptors: of their 
 peculiar nicrits little is now known. — A. 
 ViU<uiii, (lied 1608; A. G. Da Faen/n, 
 l(;o<>; F. Cordine, suriunued Franciosiiio, 
 1612; O. Censore, 1622; C. Garafaglia, 
 16:{0; C. M(dli and P. G. Tacca, 1610; 
 F. Mocclii, 1646; F. Agnesini and P. 
 Barci, about 1650 ; G. B. Bissoui, 1657 ; 
 
F. Baratta, 1066; G. B 
 1670 ; M. Maglia, 1678 ; L. Bernini, 1682 ; 
 P. P. Nardini, 1684; F. Fenata, 1686; 
 L. Ottone, about 1691 ; G. B. Foggini, 
 about 1700 ; G. Mazzoli, 1725 ; M. Bcnzi 
 and G. Mazzo, 1740; P. Mazetti, 1744; 
 A. Corradini, 1752 ; and, to conclude, F. 
 Sdiiafino, 1765. Tlie most celebrated name 
 connected in our day with Italian sculp- 
 ture is that of the lamented Canova. 
 Thorwaldsen, however, although by coun- 
 try a Dane, has been accustomed so long 
 to practise in Italy, that his name may be 
 permitted to stand by the great one just 
 mentioned. 
 
 We will now proceed to give a list of 
 those sculptors who have distinguished 
 themselves in the neighbouring kingdom 
 of France. The first of these, respecting 
 whom their countrymen have much cause 
 to boast, is Jean Goujon, of Paris. The 
 date of his birth is unknown, nor are there 
 many authentic circumstances related of 
 his life. He must, nevertheless, be re- 
 garded as the restorer of sculpture in 
 France. One of his most considerable 
 performances is the fountain of Nymphs, 
 called the Innocents, began in the reign 
 of Francis I., and completed under that of 
 Henry II., in 1550. Goujon also distin- 
 guished himself, not only as an architect, 
 but as an engraver of medals. This artist 
 was slain, as a huguenot, on the bloody 
 festival of St. Bartholomew, 1572. G. 
 Pilon, of Paris, was the author of vari- 
 ous works chiefly distributed about the 
 churches of that city, which may be said 
 to possess the principle of grace rather 
 than that of correctness. Tlie town of 
 Douai gave birth to Jean de Bologne, 
 whose works enriched several of the Ita- 
 lian cities. This artist wrought perhaps 
 the most colossal figure that owes its ori- 
 gin to modern art. It is named, we know 
 not why, the Apennine, and represents Ju- 
 piter Pluvius seated. It is so large, that 
 within the head is a capacious pigeon- 
 house, whilst the hollow of the trunk is 
 occupied by a grotto adorned with shells 
 and jets d'eau. John of Bologna wrought 
 with great skill both in marble and bronze, 
 and his naked figures are particularly 
 elegant and graceful. Born in 1524, he 
 died in 1608. Amongst the great body of 
 his pupils we may select P. Francoville ; 
 Anzirevelle ; Adrian, a Fleming ; Moca ; 
 A. Susini ; F. Delia Bella, and Gaspar 
 his brother, both of Florence ; and Pierre 
 Tacca. The latter is, perhaps, the most 
 celebrated of any, and was engaged to 
 complete all the works left unfinished at 
 his master's death : among which was the 
 
 SCULPTOR. 
 
 Volpi, about liorse which bore the statue of Henry IV. 
 
 on the Pont Neuf at Paris. He died 1640. 
 S. Guillain was born at Paris in 1581. 
 His father was a sculptor, known by the 
 appellation of Pere Cambrai, the place of 
 his birth. This man having taught his 
 son the first rudiments of his art, sent him 
 to perfect himself therein at Rome. The 
 greater part of Guillain's works were de- 
 stroyed, together with those of other art- 
 ists, during the Revolution. His style 
 may, however,be perceived from the figures 
 ornamenting the portals of St. Gervas, of 
 the Sorbonne, and of the Feuillans. His 
 followers were Anguier, Hutinot, and 
 Jacques Sarrasin ; which latter is well 
 known among French sculptors. He was 
 born at Noyon, but sojourned eighteen 
 years at Rome. The performances of Sar- 
 rasin manifest almost throughout a correct 
 taste ; but his chef-d'ceuvre is the group of 
 Caryatides, decorating the grand pavilion 
 of the old Louvre, figures, although colos- 
 sal, still light and delicate. The group of 
 Romulus and Remus, at Versailles, is like- 
 wise worthy of distinction. The school of 
 Sarrasin has produced many excellent 
 artists ; among whom we may cite Leram- 
 bert, Le Gros, and J. Burette, of Paris, 
 who died 1699. Francois Anguier, born 
 at Eu in 1604, wrought under Simon Guil- 
 lain, and under Algardi at Rome. Senti- 
 ment appears to have been his strong 
 point, the expression of which was before 
 his time but comparatively little known 
 to the French statuaries. Paris received 
 the ornament of many of this sculptor's 
 works, but the most distinguished was the 
 superb mausoleum of the Due de Mont- 
 morency, beheaded at Toulouse. This 
 monument is to be seen at Moulins, in (he 
 church of St. Mary. M. Anguier, brother 
 of the preceding, should be classed ratlier 
 amongst Italian sculptors, since he was 
 born at Rome, and studied in the school of 
 Algardi. The same may be said of Th^odon, 
 who died at Paris about 1680. L. Leram- 
 bert, born at Paris in 1614, preceded but a 
 little Peter Paul Puget, painter, architect, 
 and sculptor, born at Marseilles in 1622. 
 Of all the performances of this celebrated 
 artist, the most admired are, a basso rilievo 
 representing the Assumption, at Mantua ; 
 the famous statue of Milo, placed in the 
 pai-k at Versailles ; the rape of Andro- 
 meda by Perseus; and the Alexander be- 
 fore Diogenes, at Versailles ; his last work, 
 also, which was left unfinished, and is at 
 Marseilles, has been highly esteemed ; its 
 subject is the plague of Milan. Puget 
 died 1694. Gaspard and Balthazar Marsy 
 were born at Carabray, the former 1624, 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 They were first educated M. Cliabry, a pupil of Puget, was born in 
 
 the hitter 1C28 
 by their father, and did not go to Paris 
 until 1048, where they received instruc- 
 tions, successively, of Sarrasin, Anguier, 
 and Buyster. These two brothers gene- 
 rally worked in concert ; and a favourable 
 idea of their talent may be gained from tlie 
 group of tritons giving drink to the horses 
 of the sun, in the baths of Apollo at Ver- 
 sailles. !■:. Lc Hongre, born at Paris 
 1628, studied under Sarrasin. Of all the 
 sculptors employed during the splendid 
 reign of Louis XIV. tlie one who has left 
 behind him the highest reputation is Fran- 
 <:ols Girardon, born in 1030 at Troyes in 
 Champagne, where he acquired the first 
 elements of his art from studying the beau- 
 tiful sculptures which then adorned his 
 native town. After having passed some 
 time at Rome, he repaired to Paris, where 
 his talents were duly encouraged. The 
 production most contributing to his fame 
 19 the mausoleum of Richelieu, in the 
 church of Sorbonne. The equestrian statue 
 of Louis XIV., in the Place Vendome, is 
 another of his finest works. But, after 
 all, the strongest point in the genius of 
 Girardon is his facility and skill in mo- 
 delling. Among the number of his pupils 
 were Frcjmin, Nourrisson, Charpentier, 
 Jean Joly of Troyes, and P. Granier, born 
 near Montpellier in 1035. M. Van den 
 Bogaert, surnamed Desjardins, although 
 a Dutchman by birth (born at Breda, 10-10), 
 takes rank among French artists, since he 
 
 1060. The chief of his performances em- 
 bellish the town of Lyons. P. Le Pautre 
 was born in the same year. His name is 
 immortalized in France by the group at 
 the Tuileries of jEneas bearing the body 
 of his father Anchises. J. L. Lemoyne, 
 born at Paris 1603, was an eleve of Coy- 
 sevox. R. Le Lorrain, born in 1006, was 
 distinguished for scientific style, elegant 
 and piquant expression, and masterly hand- 
 ling of the marble. He formed two sculp- 
 tors, whose productions reflect honour on 
 his tutoring. These were Lemoyne and 
 Pigalle. A. Cayot was born in 1007, and 
 wrought fourteen years under Vancleve. 
 L. Magniere died in 1700. P. Mazeline 
 in 1708. F. Coudrai, pupil of Coysevox, 
 and who became first sculptor to the king 
 of Prussia, died 1727. J. Thierry, born 
 at Lyons 1009, was invited to Spain, where 
 he wrought many years in marble, bronze, 
 and lead, for the gardens and palace of 
 St. Ildefonso. R. Fremin, born at Paris 
 in 1072, worked at Rome in the school of 
 the Chevalier Bernini. C. Falconet was 
 born at Lyons in 1071, and died at Paris 
 1702. L'Amoureux, born in 1074, was an 
 ^leve of Nicolas Coustou. His native 
 city, Lyons, possesses his best productions. 
 G. Coustou, born at Lyons 1078, was a 
 pupil of Coysevox, his uncle. He was 
 brother of Nicolas. His most celebrated 
 works are — the pediment of the Chahun 
 iVcau, opposite the Palais Royal, and the 
 
 established himself when very young at two fine horses placed at the entrance of 
 
 I'aris, where ho remained. A. Coysevox, 
 of Spanish origin, was born at Lyons in 
 1010. His statues, portraits, and bassi 
 rilievi,liave enilu'llislied Paris, Versailles, 
 Sceaux, and Cluintilly. He particularly 
 excelled in represcntiug horses ; his skill 
 in which respect is abundantly nuuiifested 
 by the two groups of those animals placed 
 at the principal entrance gate of the Tuile- 
 ries. C. Vancleve was born at Paris iu 1645, 
 and studied under Fran(;ois Anguier. A. 
 Flanu-n, b(jrn at St. Omer in l(it7, had for 
 his master Gasi)ar<I Marsy. ]'. Francvilie, 
 a native of Cambray, was remarkable for 
 purity of taste. I'ierre LeGros is a nanu' 
 Miiich serveil to illustrate greatly tin- art 
 of Bculpluru during the sevenleenlh cen- 
 tury. Hi! was born at Paris l(i.')0, but did 
 not long altide among his country Mini, 
 having rei)aired to Rouu- at the age of ten 
 years. N. Coustou, born l(i5H, excelled in 
 the art of modelling (o such a degree, as 
 rarely to use liie pencil. His dra|)erii'S 
 are rich and llo\\ ing ; his .-ilN le chaste and 
 delicate; l)ut lie dois not si'< ni to have 
 caught the genuine spiiil <>f Ilie anliijue. 
 
 the Champs Elys<-es. J. Rousseau, elcve 
 of Nicolas Couston, born in 1081, became 
 first sculptor to the king of Spain, and 
 died at Rladrid. A. Vasse was born at 
 Seine, in Provence, in 1083. Dandre Bar- 
 don commends, among others, his sculp- 
 ture in the gate of the Capuchins at Paris. 
 F. Dumont, born at Paris in 1088, was tlio 
 sculptor of the two figures of St. Joiiu and 
 St. Joseph, as well as the two correspi)nd- 
 ing ones of St. I'eter and St. Paul, whicij 
 decorate the portal of St. Suliiiee. Tiie 
 Dominicans of Lisle have also a fine spe- 
 cimen of this sculptor's ability, in the mau- 
 sole\iiu of Louis de INlelun. G. Bouchar- 
 (loii, born in 1098, belongs to tiie school of 
 Guillaume Coustou. In the construction 
 of the fountain in the Rue de Grenelle at 
 I'aris, he lias displayed his talent as an 
 arehitecl as well as statuary; and ano- 
 ther i)erforniance well worthy of eulogy is 
 the equestrian statue of Louis XV. erected 
 ill tlie place of that name, and desfid\ed 
 in 1792. The horse was a perfect cluf- 
 <r<tittir. The expression of this artist 
 was, generally ; peaking, rather sweet than 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 sublime— his ideas learned rather than 
 bold. L. S. Adam, born at Nancy in 1700, 
 after having studied at Paris under tlie 
 most able masters, repaired to Rome, where 
 he was employed to restore, among others, 
 twelve antique statues, exhumed from the 
 ruins of the palace of Marius. Two co- 
 lossal figures by this artist, representing 
 the Seine and the Marne, decorate the 
 head of the cascade at St. Cloud. C. 
 Francin was born at Strasburgh in 1701. 
 Jean Baptiste, son of Jean Louis Lenioyne, 
 was born at Paris in 1704. His two most 
 famous works are a monument dedicated 
 to Louis XV. in 1744, by the states of 
 Bretagne, and the colossal equestrian sta- 
 tue of the same prince at Bordeaux. Le- 
 moyne was likewise author of the mauso- 
 leum of Mignard (a very ricli piece of 
 sculpture), as also of that of Crebillon. 
 Rene Rlichel Slodtz, better known by the 
 appellation of Michel-Ange, was born at 
 Paris in 1705, and demands the praise due 
 to a style grand although simple, and to a 
 skill in representing draperies which has, 
 perhaps, seldom found a parallel in mo- 
 dern art. N. S. Adam (brother to the art- 
 ist of that name before mentioned), was 
 born at Nancy in 1705. A basso rilievo in 
 the chapel at Versailles, representing the 
 martyrdom of St. Victoii-e, is amongst the 
 number of his most successful works. He 
 took part with his brother in the principal 
 group of the basin at Versailles. F. G. 
 Adam, another brother of the preceding, 
 was born at Nancy in 1710. J. B. Pigalle, 
 born at Paris in 1714, was a pupil of Le 
 Lorrain, and Lemoyne the father. This 
 sculptor wrought at Lyons a statue of 
 Mercury, which alone sufficed to raise his 
 reputation. The group of infants is also 
 fine, embellishing the facade of St. Louis 
 at the Louvre — more particularly the naive 
 figure of an infant holding a cage from 
 which a bird has escaped. The mauso- 
 leum of Marshal Saxe, at Strasburgh, and 
 the pedestrian statue of Louis XV, in 
 bronze, erected at Rheims, are both re- 
 garded as chefs d'ceiivre of execution. 
 Amongst the pupils of this artist, we may 
 particularize M. M. Mouchy (liis nephew), 
 Moette, Lebrun, Bocquet, and Duprc, 
 which latter passed his life very obscurely, 
 lending his talent to more fortunate artists, 
 who thus fathered works above their own 
 ability. J, F. J. Saly, born at Valen- 
 ciennes in 1717, was author of a pedes- 
 trian statue of Louis XV., placed in his 
 native town. His " second best" was an 
 equestrian statue in bronze of Christian 
 IV,, king of Denmark, which was erected 
 at Copenhagen. 
 
 It may not be uninteresting to the reader 
 to possess the following list of French 
 sculptors who were flourishing at the com- 
 mencement of the present century, and 
 many of whom are, no doubt, still pursuing 
 their honourable avocation : — J. L. Boyer, 
 61eve of Allegrin; L. F. Boizot; J, B. 
 
 Budelot and Cartellier, both pupils 
 
 of Bridan the elder ; T. N. Delaistre, pu- 
 pil of Lecomte and of Vass^ ; he made 
 the statue of Phocion at the Conservative 
 Senate ; J. Demontreuil ; E. J. Dumont, 
 ^leve of Pajou ; Esparcieux, author of a 
 well known bust of Raynal ; Joplere, pupil 
 of Berruer, and author of an ivory group 
 representing the Death of Lucretia; J. 1*. 
 Le Sueur ; P. Merard, of the school of 
 Bouchai'don ; Monot, eleve of Claude 
 Vass6 ; Pettitot ; C. Ramey ; P, Roland, 
 pupil of Pajou, the executor of a marble 
 bust of Admiral Ruyter, for the gallery of 
 the Tuileries ; Thierard, pupil of Barthe- 
 limi ; J, B. Stouf, pupil of Coustou ; Bo- 
 quet; P. C. Bridan, the younger, author 
 of a fine bust of the Duke of Marlborough ; 
 Brunet ; Chardin ; J, M, Renaud ; Mou^ 
 chy, author of a marble bust of the Due 
 de Sully for the gallery of the Tuileries ; 
 F, Masson ; Chaudet, pupil of Stouf, and 
 author of the colossal bust of the Emperor 
 Napoleon, formerly in the hall of the Corps 
 LSgislatif, and of a bust of the empress ; 
 M. Clodion ; ComoUi, a Piedmontese ; C. 
 L, Corbet, pupil of Berruer ; J. L. Couas- 
 non; J, C, N, Lucas; J. F. J, Leriche, 
 superintendent of the sculpture at the ma- 
 nufactory of Sevres; F, F, Lemot; Du- 
 mont; Lange, of Toulouse; E, P, A. Gois, 
 and his son and pupil ; Dejoux ; Salvage ; 
 Renaud ; P. N. Beauvallet ; Blaise, au- 
 thor of a fine marble bust of Ginlo Roma- 
 no; Montpellier, pupil of Lemoyne; Lorta, 
 pupil of Bridan, j!)ere ; Foucou; D'Egens- 
 viller ; Deseine ; Cardelli ; A. Pajou, pupil 
 of Coustou ; Houdon ; P. Roland ; Alle- 
 grin ; and, finally, Moette, pupil of Pi- 
 galle, 
 
 Nor has the gentler sex forborne to pay 
 its devoirs to this interesting art. Mad. 
 Julia Charpentier, a pupil of Pajou ; Mad. 
 Antoinette G. Desfonts, pupil of Carlini ; 
 and Mad. Milot, may be particularised 
 with high commendation. 
 
 A wide field for observation presents 
 itself in turning to the catalogue of Spa- 
 nish sculptors, and we regret that our 
 confined limits will not allow us to dwell 
 on it as the theme deserves. We shall, 
 however, take a rapid glance over l!ic 
 principal names, commencing with that of 
 Aparicio, who flourished in the eleventh 
 century, and was commissioned by Don 
 
Sancho the Great to construct the shrine 
 of SL Millan, still preserved in the monas- 
 tery of Yuso, and presenting, if we consi- 
 der its remote date, great merit both of 
 grace and proportion. Aparicio was as- 
 sisted in his work by Rodolphe. About 
 the same time flourished Mateo, sculptor 
 and architect. Bartolome made, in 1278, 
 nine stone statues, of the size of life, for 
 the gate of the cathedral church of Tarra- 
 gona. J. Castayls, of Barcelona, lived to- 
 wards the end of the fourteenth century, 
 as did also Annr;(iue, who executed the 
 rilievi of the tomb of Don Henry II. F. 
 Gonzalez flourished in 1399, and Centel- 
 las in 1410. A. and F. Diaz, A. F. de 
 Sahagun, A. Rodriguez, A. Gonzalez, A. 
 Martinez, Alvar Rodriguez, Christophe 
 Rodriguez, J. Fernandez, F. Garcia, F., J. 
 and M. Sanchez, J. Alfonzo, John Fer- 
 nandez, John Rodriguez, M. Ruiz, P. Gu- 
 tierrez Nieto, together with P. and A. 
 Lopez, were all employed, from 1418 to 
 1425, in executing the ornaments of the 
 principal facade and tower of the cathe- 
 dral church of Toledo. To this number 
 we may add A. Gomez, James Rodriguez, 
 Garcia Martinez, and John Ruiz. The 
 marble altar-piece of the grand altar of 
 the church of Tarragona was commenced 
 in 112G by P. Juan, and finished after- 
 wards by his associate G. De La Mota. 
 A. De Lima flourished at Toledo in 1459, 
 as did also F. De Las Av(!nas, F. Garcia, 
 &c. The sculptors belonging to the last 
 halfof the lifteenth century are: — J.Caste- 
 luou, sculptor and goldsmith of Valencia, 
 and James his son ; the works of both are 
 considerably valued. J. Alenian, of To- 
 ledo, eminent for the beautiful attitudes 
 and draperies of his statues. G. De Siloe, 
 who ohtain((l great reputation at Burgos 
 from his tomb of King John II., and of 
 the Infant, Don Alfonso. Paul Ortiz, one 
 of the most famous names in the circle of 
 Sj)anisii art, ami the most rousiderable of 
 the restorers of sculpture. Andres, who 
 wrought in conjunction with Nicolas: — 
 their jxirformances, as also those of J. De 
 f^u Cruz, have a Gotiiie ciiaractcr, but dis- 
 play much facility of execution. B. De 
 Ortega must not \h\ forgotten amongst the 
 inaslers of Se\ille, nor (slill more |)ui(ieu- 
 lai ly) l)an(!art and his ])U|iil Marco. 
 
 Anu)ng tiie most eminent of Spanish 
 Bculptors who adorne<l the beginning of 
 the sixteenth century may be rimkcd A. De 
 Fries, B. .1. Moian, Ciirisliano, J. l)e(;ua- 
 dnluji,., i\ Dii Aranda, F. Do Cibdad, 
 Guiliemin Digante, J. Do Aranda, J. De 
 AugoH, J. I'.ii, I'. I),. SI. Mieh.i, K(Mliigi>, 
 SulttH, Soliiiv.ano, ,1. De Lanos, Laberrox, 
 
 SCULPTOR. 
 
 and Luxan,each of whom contributed more 
 or less to the advancement of the art gene- 
 rally, and in particular to the sculptures 
 embellishing both exterior and interior, 
 and to the beautiful shrine, of the cathe- 
 dral of Toledo. In the course of the same 
 half century — namely, from 1500 to 1550 
 appeared P. IMillan, and his son John ; J. 
 Olotzaga, sculptor and architect ; F. De 
 Lara ; G. Orozco ; S. De Aponte, whose 
 productions manifest a most refined taste ; 
 D. Micier, pupil of Dancart ; J. Perez, of 
 Seville, author of several colossal figures 
 for the cathedral of that city ; John, pupil 
 of G. F. Aleman ; J. Morlanes, who first 
 among the Spanish sculptors adopted the 
 style of Albert Durer, which subsequently 
 became general ; B. De Aguilar and G. 
 De Cardenas, who were selected, with F. 
 De Sahagun and P. Izquierdo, to adorn 
 with sculptures the ecclesiastical theatre 
 of the University of Alcada de Henarez ; 
 R. Aleman, remarkable for his grotesque 
 compositions; J. Millan, son and pupil of 
 Peter ; B. Ordonez, of Barcelona, one of 
 the most celebrated aitists of his time, 
 particularly in bassi rilievi of marble ; Jkc. 
 &c. We must not omit the famous Al- 
 fonso Berruguete, who likewise adorned 
 this period, as sculptor, painter, and archi- 
 tect. This illustrious artist, after having 
 long sojourned at Rome, where he studied 
 under Vasari and Buonarroti, returned to 
 his native country ; and was the first 
 to establish there perfect correctness of 
 drawing, the most beautiful proportions 
 of the human body, antique grandeur and 
 expression — in short, all which gives life 
 to marble or to canvas. Saragossa, Gre- 
 nada, Valladolid, and Salamanca, as well 
 as the capital itself, all cuntaiii evidences 
 of the talent of Berruguete, whose return 
 threw into the shade the artist who had 
 previously occupied the largest share of 
 public attention, Philip De Vigarni. 
 
 Tiie interval from 1550 to IGOO was not 
 fruitful with respect to the followers of 
 sculpture in Spain ; there are, however, a 
 few great names to be selected. Among 
 these are:— J.de Navas, pupil of Berru- 
 guete, with J. de "Valencia, frtnn the same 
 school. P. de Salanmnca ha<l the honour 
 of ohiarning, in I55^s, a royal edict \vlu'rt>by 
 the art ofstulpture was cK-vated from the 
 mechanical vocations to the rank «)f a libe- 
 ral prt)fessi(Mi. Christopher of Salamanca 
 deserves also honourable notice. But the 
 most celebrated artist i)elonging to this 
 era was I'aul de Cespedes, born at Cor- 
 dova, an<l one of the first t>f Spanish art- 
 ists. Not only did he successliilly prac- 
 tise painting, sculpture, and architecture, 
 
SCULPTOR. 
 
 but found time also to court the muse of 
 poetry. The elegance and purity of his 
 drawing are admirable, as is the noble air 
 of his figures. He was skilful in ana- 
 tomy, had a perfect knowledge of chiaro- 
 scuro, and excelled in colouring. 
 
 The seventeenth century produced A. 
 Sardigna and G. Hernandez or Fernandez ; 
 the latter of whom embellished with his 
 works Madrid, Salamanca, and, above all, 
 Valladolid. This artist followed the im- 
 pressive style of Michel Angiolo. He had 
 the assistance of his kinsman and pupil J. 
 F, de Hibarne. A. Pujol, of Catalonia, 
 composed and designed with great spirit 
 and taste, and his draperies are particu- 
 larly admirable. E. Pereyra, a Portu- 
 guese, who settled early in Spain, left, 
 among other works, a statue of St. Bruno 
 at Madrid, eminent for character and ex- 
 pression. J. M. Montagnez had the talent 
 to give his figures expressive and natural 
 attitudes. A. Cano, born at Grenada in 
 1601, was an admirable sculptor; abun- 
 dant proof of which is to be found in the 
 temples of Seville, Cordova, Madrid, &c. 
 L. F. de la Vega, born in Asturias, died at 
 Oviedo in 1675. Don J. de Rebenga, of 
 Saragossa, obtained a high reputation for 
 his little figures in wax, which were re- 
 markable for their grace and finish. J. 
 de Mora died in 1725. Peter Roldan, and 
 Louis his son, were both greatly esteemed 
 among the sculptors of their day. 
 
 The eighteenth century gave birth in 
 Spain to several excellent sculptors. Don 
 P. Duque Cornesso, of Seville, and Don 
 J. de Hinestrosa, both deserve favourable 
 notice. A. Salvador, surnamed the Roman, 
 died in 1766. L. S. Carmona, in 1767. 
 Philip de Castro, of Galicia, is a most 
 prominent artist of this era, and contri- 
 buted greatly to spread the principles of 
 fine taste throughout his country. He 
 died in 1775. F. Gutierrez, in 1782. Be- 
 sides these we may particularize Zarcillo 
 y Alcaraz, J. P. de Mena, C. Salas, and 
 E. Alvarez. 
 
 For this list of Spanish artists we must 
 confess ourselves indebted to the work 
 published at Madrid, in 1800, in 6 vols. 
 12mo. entitled Diccionari historico de los 
 mas iUustres Professores de las Bellas Artes 
 en Espagna, compuesto por Don Juan Au- 
 gustin Cean Bermudez. 
 
 We select the following names from the 
 list of sculptors who have rendered them- 
 selves celebrated in Germany, Holland, or 
 Russia. F. Duquesnoi, born at Brussels 
 in 1594, was surnamed by the Italians the 
 Fleming, by which appellation he is best 
 known. This artist was most successful 
 
 in the representation of infants, in which 
 depaitment of sculpture he has been rarely 
 excelled. P. Buyster, born at Brussels in 
 1595, passed the greater part of his life ia 
 France, where he died at the age of 84. 
 Sebastian Slodtz, born at Anvers 1655, 
 went to perfect himself in the French 
 school of Girardon. A. Quellius, also of 
 Anvers, embellished his native city with 
 many admirable productions. G. Van Ob- 
 stal died at Paris in 1668. Albert Durer, 
 so famous in other branches of the fine 
 arts, excelled also in sculpture, both in 
 stone and wood. L. Kern, and his son J. 
 J. Kern, were also celebrated in their day. 
 The latter practised a long while in Eng- 
 land, where he died in 1668. G. Leygebe, 
 born in 1630 in Silesia, died at Berlin in 
 1683, in possession of the singular art of 
 cutting beautiful little equestrian statues 
 out of large ingots of iron. One of his 
 most esteemed performances of this kind 
 is at Dresden, and represents Charles the 
 Second of England, as the Chevalier St. 
 George. M. Rauchmiiller just preceded 
 
 A. de Schliiter, of Hamburgh, who learnt 
 the art of sculpture at Dantzic, and after- 
 wards repaired to Rome, where he attached 
 himself to the manner of Michel Angiolo. 
 
 B. Permoser, who died in 1732, is better 
 known by his Christian name, Balthazar. 
 F. X. Messerschmidt adorned Vienna, his 
 native town, with many excellent perform- 
 ances. C. Osner, of Niirnburg, died at 
 Petersburgh in 1704. The Count Ras- 
 trelli, of Italian origin, Zwenkof, Dunker, 
 and Stahlmeyr, of Vienna, all practised in 
 Russia; as likewise did Domacht, of 
 Swiss origin. Schwartz, of Dresden also, 
 settled at Petersburgh ; nor must we omit 
 to notice a Russian artist of the name of 
 Pawlof, who, having studied under Dun- 
 ker, resorted to Paris for further instruc- 
 tion. To this nomenclature we may add 
 the names of G. Petel, who died in 1636 ; 
 N. Millich, in or about 1669; M. Barthel 
 in 1674 ; G. G. Weyhenmeyer, in 1715 ; 
 A. de Papenhoren, about 1745 ; and A. 
 Nahl, V. Sonnenschein, and Ohnmacht, 
 who were living at the commencement of 
 the present century. 
 
 In our own country sculpture has not 
 been very successfully practised until late 
 years. The reader is, however, congra- 
 tulated on the chance now exhibited of 
 this department of art, like painting, reach- 
 ing a high point of excellence in these 
 islands. There are several admirable 
 sculptors at present elevating with their 
 productions the artistical reputation of the 
 British empire, and we can reflect with 
 pride on such names as Nollekins, Wilton, 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 Gibbons, Sclieemaker, and Banks. The We know not of what substance these 
 following are anions the most eminent of images were wrouglit, or in what manner, 
 our living sculptors:— J. Bacon, E. H. The lirst person particularized as an artist 
 Bailey, R. a., J. G. Bubb, F. L. Chantrey, (if we except the eastern tradition of Abra 
 
 H. A. j. Flaxnian, K. a. Professor of Sculp 
 turn to the Koyal Academy, S. V. and L. 
 Gahagan, G. Garrard, A. u. A., J. Ken- 
 ning, C. Rossi, R. A., Rouw (modeller of 
 gems and cameos), P. Turnerclli, and R 
 
 ham's father having been a statuary) is 
 Bezaleel, who formed the cherubim co- 
 vering tiie mercy seat. 
 
 The Egyptians, without doubt, culti- 
 vated the art of sculpture ; but there were 
 
 Wcstmacott R. A. Nor must we omit to certain circumstances operating among 
 mention the fair sculptor, Miss C. Adams, them to obstruct its developement. In the 
 
 ScuLPTLHE. [Lat. sculptitrn, from sculpo, lirst place, the persons of the Egyptians 
 to c<(iTc.] The origin of this art may be were deficient in grace and symmetry ; and 
 sought in vain even in the most remote they had consequently no perfect standard 
 times to which we have any means of whereby to model their taste. In the next 
 throwing a retrospective glance. There place, being restricted by law to the i)rin- 
 can be no doubt that the system of hiero- ciples and practices of their forefathers, 
 glyphics or pii;ture writing, as it has been any vicious manner wliich had once got 
 lernu:d first employed the chisel of the introduced into their system of art was 
 sculptor, who traced rudely on stone, on sure to be perpetuated. Thus their sta- 
 wood, or the bark of trees, those shapes tues were always constructed in the same 
 by wiiich he meant to express his wishes still" attitude, with the arms hanging, like 
 or designs. It is probable, also, that ido- those of a wooden doll, perpendicularly at 
 latrous feeling was a great deal mixed up their sides. AH the large figures, in Egyp- 
 with the matter, as it was doubtless found tian sculpture, were executed in calcare- 
 necessary to place before uneducated peo- ous stone, in basalt, granite, or alabaster, 
 pie imitges of their gods, in order to keep No instances appear of their having re- 
 sleadily burning within their souls the sorted to the use of bronze. Many of these 
 llame of devotion. are colossal. The smaller statues, how- 
 
 Tiie pursuit arising from this necessity, ever, are not so limited in point of mate- 
 indeed, contributed to carry the art to that rial: bronze, gold, wood, marble, terra 
 degree of perfection whicli it afterwards cotta, &c. enter by turns into the composi- 
 attained among some of the nations of an- tion of tliem. The eye was frequently of 
 ti(|uily. It is worthy of observation, that different material from the rest of the sta- 
 evin in the dark or "middle ages," the tue, and, in many instances, composed of 
 ritual of the church of Rome, particularly a precious stone or metal. The valuable 
 that portion which instilled veneration for diamond of the late Empress of Russia 
 hermartyrsandsaints,suniced to preserve (the largest and most splendid hitherto 
 among the Italians some vestiges of the known), is confidently allirmed to base 
 art of sculpture ; and it is fair to conclude formed one of the eyes of the famous sta- 
 hence (since liuman nature is always tue of Scheringham, in the temple of Bra- 
 pretty much the same), tliat a similar ve- ma. Several of tliese statues which still 
 IK ration for heroes and demigods would, remain are made of wood or baked earth ; 
 among the ancient nations, have a corres- those of the latter substance are covered 
 ponding edect. In this view of the case, the with green enamel. 
 
 Chaldeuns may be supposed to have been The Phamicians, the Persians, the 
 
 among the very earliest i)raclisers of the Etruscans, or ancient Tuscans, all most 
 
 art of sculpture, they having uiuiuesliou- 
 ably been the lirst idolaters; and accoril- 
 ingly we liiid their skill in (his \\ay borne 
 witness to ijy sundry ancient writers, in- 
 cluding ApiiUodorus and Pliny 
 
 probably preceded the Greeks in a suc- 
 cessful cuhivation of the art of sculpture, 
 though by no means to an equal extent. 
 The statuaries of Klruri;t, indeed, seem to 
 have presented high claims to lavouraliie 
 
 In turning to the Olil Testument (possi- notice. Among their chief productions 
 
 bly the most ancient record in existence), two several styles have been traceil out: 
 
 tin,' lirst intimation that vvi; find of liie art the first straight lines, still' attitudes, an 
 
 of sculpture is the information that when absence of ideal beauty about the head, 
 
 Jacob, by divine command, was returning and, in short, other defects incidental to 
 
 to Canaiin, Rachel, his wife, carried with an art in its slate i)f infancy. But, in (he 
 
 her the luaiiliiiii, or idols of her father, seconil style, appearaMce;> iieeoini' w holly 
 
 These must, by the by, have been small, changed, and ancient Etruscan sculpture 
 
 since she contrived to conceal them ellec- may be said to bear some resemlilaiui- to 
 
 tually,uot\vithsta»ding her father's search, the grand and somewhat overcharged man- 
 
SCLLPTURE. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 nel- of the great modern Etruscau artist, 
 Michel Angiolo: the joints being strongly 
 marked, the muscles raised, the bones 
 distinguishable, and great knowledge dis- 
 played of the science of anatomy. Millin 
 adds a third period to the history of 
 Etruscan art, which is said to have com- 
 menced at the conquest of Greece by the 
 Romans, an epoch at which the Greek art- 
 ists flocking to Rome and other parts of 
 Italy, the Etruscans became their imita- 
 tors, and, at lengtli, their rivals. It is 
 probably of this period that Horace speaks, 
 when he praises (in the 1st satire of the 
 10th book) the Italian artists, most likely 
 with particular reference to those of Etru- 
 ria, as superior to the boasted artists of 
 Greece. 
 
 According to ancient history, the Greeks 
 did not emerge from a savage state until 
 a long time after the Egyptians, the Chal- 
 deans, and Indians had obtained a consi- 
 derable degree of civilization. The ori- 
 ginally rude inhabitants of Greece were 
 civilized by colonies which arrived among 
 them, at different times, from Egypt and 
 Phoenicia. These introduced, by degrees, 
 the religion, the arts and letters of their 
 parent states. The original statues of the 
 gods, however, were extremely rude. The 
 earliest objects of idolatrous worship have 
 in all instances been the heavenly bodies ; 
 and it was not until hero-worship w as en- 
 grafted on the planetary that the sculptor 
 thought of giving to the sacred statue any 
 part of the human form. About the era of 
 this revolution in idolatrj'^, the art of sculp- 
 ture appears to have been introduced 
 among the Greeks. The first representa- 
 tions of their gods were round stones 
 placed upon cubes or pillars ; and these 
 stones were afterwards so shaped as to 
 give them somewhat the appearance of a 
 head. Pausanias describes a Jupiter of 
 this kind, at Tegeum in Arcadia. These 
 representations were denominated hermes ; 
 not, accoi'ding to some, because they re- 
 presented Mercury, but from the word 
 henna, which signified a rough stone. 
 
 The art, having passed the periods of its 
 infancy and childhood, proceeded with 
 rapid steps ; particularly at Athens and 
 Sicyon, its two most celebrated seats. 
 Climate, no doubt, did much for the an- 
 cient Greeks, and would, of course, be 
 equally advantageous for the modern ones, 
 did not ages of subservience and luxury 
 appear to have thoroughly vitiated tlieir 
 national character. Probably no country 
 under the face of the sun is blessed with 
 a serener air, or possesses in a greater 
 proportion that equable and genial warmth 
 
 so well calculated to develope, in the 
 human body, the principles of muscular 
 strength and activity, as well as the win- 
 ning delicacies of female loveliness ; and 
 never was there any people more gifted 
 with a profound sense of beauty, or more 
 desirous to improve it, than its old inha- 
 bitants. Of the four wishes of Simonides, 
 the second was to have a handsome figure ; 
 and among the Lacedaemonian women so 
 great was the abstract love of beauty, that 
 they are said to have kept statues of Nar- 
 cissus, of Hyacinth, &c. in tlieir chambers, 
 in the hope (no doubt often realised) that 
 by constant contemplation thereon, they 
 might produce beautiful children. 
 
 A variety of circumstances combined to 
 render the models of beauty subservient 
 to the cultivation of the fine arts. There 
 were no absurd prescriptions, as in Egypt, 
 to encumber the free spirit of the ai'tist. 
 He had the fiuest opportunities for study 
 in the public places, where the Grecian 
 youth, requiring no other veil than inno- 
 cence and purity of manners, went through 
 their various exercises, gymnastic or other- 
 wise, naked. The Greeks preferring ge- 
 nerally natural accomplishments to artifi- 
 cial ones, the first honours and rewards 
 were often decreed to such as excelled in 
 corporal agility and strength. Statues 
 were sometimes raised to wrestlers, and 
 the statuary was stimulated to excellence, 
 since the work of his hands was consi- 
 dered as the highest token of honour which 
 merit could aspire to. The number of 
 statues erected on various occasions was 
 consequently prodigious ; and, of course, 
 the number of artists must have been great, 
 their emulation ardent, and their progress 
 rapid. 
 
 It was under the government of Peri- 
 cles that Grecian art may be said to have 
 reached, altogether, its highest point of 
 perfection. At this epoch flourished the 
 illustrious sculptor Phidias. From the 
 matchless works of this artist has arisen 
 the phrase signum Phidia;, to denote any 
 piece of sculpture of a decidedly high 
 order. He employed his transcendent 
 talent principally to illustrate ideal beauty, 
 and, above all, to represent grand and he- 
 roic subjects, or figures of gods and god- 
 desses. His two colossal statues of Jupi- 
 ter at Olympius and Minerva at the Par- 
 thenon were above all praise. 
 
 In contemplating the Elgin Marbles 
 (which refer to), the amateur or student 
 may feel confident that he has before him 
 a variety of those inestimable perform- 
 ances which, having been directed and 
 imagined by Phidias (indeed, partly exe- 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 cuted by his chisel), were for upwards of 
 seven hundred years the wonder of the 
 ancients ; having been, according to Plu- 
 tarch, who wrote in tiie reign of Trajan, 
 considered inimitable for beauty, dignity, 
 and grace. Plutarch's testimony, in fact, 
 puts it bejond question that the sculptures 
 adorning the Parthenon were the actual 
 productions of this " mighty master," who 
 had been engaged by the munificent Pe- 
 ricles in the execution of these majestic 
 works, and under whom several other 
 eminent artists were employed. 
 
 Winckelmann, in his " History of Art," 
 observes that the Jiue style in statuary was 
 introduced by Praxiteles and Lysippus, 
 and that the manner of managing drape- 
 ries in sculpture, previously, was ex- 
 tremely simple. This opinion is, however, 
 to be received with great caution. If the 
 art of sculpture received from Praxiteles 
 the germ of any novel fascinations, they 
 probably resided rather in the refinements 
 of the graceful than in that whicli is pro- 
 perly called the fine or beautiful style. 
 He may have given to the heads of his 
 figures (especially those of his women) an 
 air of greater delicacy or voluptuousness ; 
 but we suspect it must be admitted, from 
 a candid and thoughtful examination of 
 the Elgin marbles, that the art of the sta- 
 tuary had attained the limits of its perfec- 
 tion in the age of Pericles and Phidias. 
 " Notiiing is more perfect," observes Ci- 
 cero," than the statues of Phidias," (Orat. 
 sect. 2). A connoisseur, used to examin- 
 ing the masterpieces of antiquity, will rea- 
 dily discover, in the detached sculptures 
 of the Parthenon (and more especially in 
 the parts of those statues which have suf- 
 fered least injury from time), the grand 
 and l(;arned style of the Laocoon, the 
 Torso, and the Gladiator ; the same skill 
 in the expression of the skin, the same life 
 inspired, as it were, into the senseless 
 stone, the same harmony of proportion, 
 the same general perfectness. In the sta- 
 tues of females, again, the dignity and 
 grace of posture, and the richness of dra- 
 pery (whose folds an; adjusted with such 
 singular adroitness), if they do not sur- 
 pass, certainly do not fall beneath, the 
 most (:onii)k'tf works of tlie kind, the pre- 
 Bervalioii of which enables us to form a 
 comparison. 
 
 Jn (lie modern practice of tho art of 
 8cul|ilurc llic greatest name is, jierliaps, 
 that of iMicliel Angiolo, whom we look 
 o<:caHion to notice in tho Cdtahf^nw Hni- 
 snvni'r of (uir preceding article. " Michel 
 Angiolo," says his Flnglish biographer, 
 Mr. I)uj>pu, <' considered sculpture us his 
 
 profession, and his studies throughout hifl 
 whole life were more particularly directed 
 to it, than to painting or to architecture. 
 His first work of celebrity was a group of 
 a Madonna with a dead Christ, called in 
 Italian la Picfd. The subject, in its na- 
 ture, is impressive, and the composition is 
 felt with appropriate simplicity ; and of 
 all his works, it is that which seems to 
 have cost him the most laborious atten- 
 tion. 
 
 " With Michel Angiolo expression and 
 character were a primary consideration ; 
 and although he set the antique sculpture 
 before him as an example and a guide, this 
 marked distinction is to be taken between 
 his view of the subject and that of the 
 ancients. He made ideal beauty and /<)»•>« 
 subservient to expression ; they, on the 
 contrary, made expression and animation 
 subservient to form. The Laocoon* and 
 his two sons have more expression in their 
 countenance than all the other antique 
 statues united ; yet Sir Joshua Reynolds 
 has observed, that even in this instance, 
 there is only the general expression of 
 pain, and that the pain is still more strongly 
 expressed by the writhing and contortion of 
 the body, than by the features. In con- 
 sulting all the examples which are left of 
 ancient sculpture, it would seem, they 
 established it as a general principle, that 
 to preserve the most perfect beautv', in its 
 most perfect state, the passions were not 
 to be expressed; all of which maybe sup- 
 posed, in some degree to produce distor- 
 tion and deformity in the features of the 
 face. The group of the Boxers is a re- 
 markable instance in favour of this opi- 
 nion ; they are engaged in the most ani- 
 mated action witii the greatest serenity of 
 countenance ; and without attributes, it 
 would be difficult to discriminate between 
 the Juno or the Rlinerva, the Bacihus or 
 the Meleager; nevertheless, in tlie Apollo 
 Pythius there is a graceful, negligent, and 
 animated air, and in the Discobulus a 
 vulgar eagerness of expression, wliicli de- 
 serves to be remarked, to show the nice 
 discrimination of character which the an- 
 
 • "The Laocoon is rmi.tlicd nitli lliocliisfl.sliowiii;; 
 nil iiifi'i'(til)lo coinniaiul of t'xt'ciilioii ; but in Uoim- 
 I oiur lifard a viTy uiiiiiiciil si-iilptor say, tlial In- lif- 
 licviilthcHlaliie had been prcvioiisly liiiisliiMlwilhllie 
 ras|> and lilc, and Ibal llio marks ol' (In: cbiM'l >\i'r<' 
 niadr arirrwar<ls,lo jjivr llir a|i|U':nanct' of fai-ility to 
 llir I'M'Ciition, and at tlir saini' linii' a loiiijiinfss to the 
 sinfacc, whicli was inon- favourable lo Ihi" i;i'|utiiI 
 flli'ct of the fti;iiii> than if it had bcfii hit i|iiilc 
 .iinoolli. If the statue had liui-n broiiuhl down lo 
 Ihis surface at once, he saiil, the dcxterily of llie 
 artist was more woiulcrful than any tliiiii; he knew ol 
 ill sculpture." 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 cients were capable of making, when the 
 expression was not incompatible with what 
 they considered as a higher excellence. 
 
 " The Bacchus of Micliel Angiolo is an 
 attempt to unite a degree of drunkenness 
 with his character ; but, inasmuch as that 
 effect is produced, both the sculpture and 
 the deity are degraded : of this character 
 there are several examples in antique 
 gems, but however skilful the representa- 
 tion may be in so small a size as a gem, it 
 is certainly not a fit subject for a statue of 
 the proportion of life. The two female 
 figures composing part of the present mo- 
 nument of Julius II. are simple and ele- 
 gant ; and tliose of Morning and Night, 
 in the Lorenzo Chapel, are composed with 
 great grandeur of design. 
 
 " The works of Michel Angiolo have 
 always a strong and marked character of 
 their own, his thoughts are elevated, and 
 his figures are conceived with dignity ; 
 and if he wants the purity and correctness 
 of the antique, (whicli he certainly does, in 
 an eminent degree) his faults never de- 
 grade him into feebleness ; when he is not 
 sublime he is not insipid ; the sentiment of 
 aggrandizing his subject ever prevails, 
 and however lie may fail in the execution, 
 his works are still entitled to the first rank 
 among modern productions in sculpture. 
 Barry has truly observed, when speaking 
 of his statue of Moses, that although that 
 figure may be considered as rather extra- 
 vagant, yet it contains such proofs of know- 
 ledge and capacity as will ever make his 
 name sacred among artists ; and this criti- 
 cism may be extended with equal propriety 
 to his other works, whatever may be their 
 faults. 
 
 " Michel Angiolo was of the middle 
 stature, bony in his make, and rather 
 spare, although broad over the shoulders. 
 He had a good complexion ; his forehead 
 was square, and somewhat projecting; his 
 eyes rather small, of a hazel colour, and 
 on his brows but little hair : his nose was 
 flat, being disfigured by a blow he received 
 from Torrigiano, a contemporary student 
 with Michel Angiolo, and a sculptor of 
 great merit, but a proud, inconsiderate, 
 and ungovernable character. Bevenuto 
 Cellini, in his own life, has recorded this 
 affair with Michel Angiolo, as it was re- 
 lated to him by Torrigiano himself. ' His 
 conversation one day happened to turn 
 upon Michel Angiolo Buonarroti, on see- 
 ing a drawing of mine made from the ce- 
 lebrated cartoon of the Battle of Pisa. 
 " This Buonarroti and I (said Torrigiano), 
 when we were young men, went to study 
 in the church of the Carmelites, in the cha- 
 
 pel of Masaccio; and it was customary 
 with Buonarroti to rally those who were 
 learning to draw there. One day, amongst 
 others, a sarcasm of his having stung me 
 to the quick, I was extremely irritated, 
 and, clutching my fist, gave him such a 
 violent blow upon his nose, that I felt the 
 cartilage yield as if it had been made of 
 paste, and the mark I then gave him he 
 will carry to his grave."* 
 
 " B. Cellini's account of Torrigiano is, 
 — ' That he was a handsome man, but of 
 consummate assurance, having rather the 
 air of a brato than a sculptor : above all, 
 his strange gestures and his sonorous 
 voice, with a manner of knitting his brows 
 enough to frighten every man wlio saw 
 him, give him a most tremendous appear- 
 ance, and he was continually talking of 
 his great feats amongst those bears of Eng- 
 lishmen whose country he had but recently 
 left.' 
 
 " We are indebted to Torrigiano for the 
 monument of Henry VII. in Westminster 
 Abbey, finished, according to Stow, in 
 1519, and for which the sculptor received 
 a thousand pounds. His ungovernable 
 and restless habits often precipitated him 
 into great difficulties, and the circum- 
 stances of his death furnish a melancholy 
 instance of the vicissitudes of life, and the 
 baneful effects of inquisitorial jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
 " Upon leaving England he visited Spain, 
 and after distinguishing himself by many 
 excellent works, was employed by the 
 Duke D'Arcus to execute in marble a Ma- 
 donna and infant Christ, of the size of na- 
 ture, with high promises to be rewarded 
 in proportion to his merit. As the Duke 
 was a grandee of the first rank, Torrigiano 
 flattered himself with a proportionate ex- 
 pectation. After much study and appli- 
 cation he completed his work to his own 
 satisfaction ; and his performance was seen 
 with delight and reverence. Impatient to 
 possess this treasure, the Duke immedi- 
 ately sent for it; and that his generosity 
 might be displayed to the greatest advan- 
 tage, he loaded two lacqueys with the mo- 
 ney to defray the purchase. The bulk 
 was promising ; but when the bags were 
 found to contain nothing but brass mara- 
 vedi, which amounted only to the small 
 sum of thirtj'^ ducats, vexation and disap- 
 pointment roused Torrigiano's resentment, 
 who considering this present rather as an 
 insult than as a reward for his merit, on a 
 a sudden snatched up his mallet, and, 
 without regard to the perfection of his 
 workmanship or the sacred character of 
 the image, he broke it into pieces, and 
 
dismissed the lacqueys witli tlieir loud of 
 fartiiings to tell the tale. The grandee, 
 with every passion alive to this merited 
 disgrace, and perhaps, impressed with hor- 
 ror for the sacrilegious nature of the act, 
 presented him before the court of Inquisi- 
 tion, and impeached him for his conduct 
 as an infidel and a heretic. Torrigiano 
 urged the right of an author over his own 
 creation : Reason pleaded on his side, but 
 Superstition sat in judgment, and lie was 
 condemned to lose his life with torture ; 
 but the holy oflice lost its victim — Torri- 
 giano starved himself to death in prison 
 (1522), to avoid its torments and the hor- 
 ror of the execution ! He was about fifty 
 years of age." Vasari, torn. iii. p. 76. 
 
 Canova and Thorwaldsen, together with 
 our own Chantrey, occupy the topmost 
 rank among sculptors of the present day, 
 or rather did so until death snatched away 
 the former of these eminent artists. Still 
 we are inclined to think that the perform- 
 ances of Canova have been somewhat over- 
 rated. Many of them have a studied and 
 theatrical air quite inconsistent with good 
 taste as well as with the higher produc- 
 tions of Grecian art, which this sculptor 
 always affected to copy. Mr. Mathews, 
 in his " Diary of an Invalid," speaking of 
 Canova's Venus, one of his most vaunted 
 figures, says : — " The boudoir of the Pitti 
 Palace, in the centre of which stands Ca- 
 nova's Venus, brilliantly illuminated, and 
 lined with mirrors, reflected the beauties 
 of her figure in all directions, and exhi- 
 bited the statue to the highest advantage. 
 This is the statue which occupied the pe- 
 destal of the Medicean Venus during her 
 flight to Paris, but I can lind nothing di- 
 vine about Canova's A'enus. Siie is not 
 worthy to oliiciate as chambermaid to the 
 goddess of the Tribune. It is simply the 
 representation of a modest woman, who 
 seems to shrink from exposure in such a 
 dishabille; while her Grecian prototype, 
 in native innocence and sim])li(ity, scarcely 
 conscious of nakedness, seems to belon"" 
 to an order of l)cings to whom (lie senti- 
 ment of shame was as yet unknown. The 
 attitude of Canova's is constrained and 
 pi-rliiips even awkward. This may arise 
 trom the manner in which she <'ompresses 
 that scanty drapery which the sculptor 
 has given her, — intended, I suppose, to 
 ' d(Mil)ie every charm it seeks (o lildc.' 
 The symmetry, too, is by no means jx-rfecf. 
 The head is manifestly too large. Il is 
 perlijips unfair to attribute to the sculptor 
 the faults of liii' marble; but il is impossi- 
 ble nut to remark, that e\en if tlur work 
 iuid been more perfect than it is, the un- 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 fortunate flaws, just in those places where 
 they are most 7nal a-propos, must still have 
 detracted much from its beauty. Many 
 of the copies of this statue seem to me 
 quite equal, if not superior, to the origi- 
 nal ; an infallible proof, if the remark be 
 correct, of its mediocrity of merit." 
 
 The same intelligent traveller thus 
 speaks of the talents of Thorwaldsen, a 
 Danish sculptor practising at Rome: — 
 "There is a freshness and originality in 
 his designs, guided by the purest taste. 
 What can be more elegant and beautiful 
 than his basso-rilieto of Night? His Vetiits 
 victrix approaches nearer than any mo- 
 dern statue to the Venus di Medicis. There 
 is a shepherd, too, which is a delightful 
 specimen of simplicity and nature ; — and 
 the charm of these statues is, that while 
 they emulate they have not borrowed any 
 thing from the works of the ancients." 
 
 On the works of our own Chantrey, we 
 are disposed to enlarge with all the spirit 
 of nationality ; but a recollection of our 
 confined limits, together with that sense of 
 delicacy which restrains us from discuss- 
 ing minutely the merits of a living artist, 
 withhold us. Mr, Chantrey's principal 
 productions are busts ; but the work which 
 first fixed his high reputation, and is still 
 regarded by many as his chcj'-d'auire, is a 
 group of sleeping infants, to be seen in 
 the cathedral at Lichfield. 
 
 To the productions of ancient art, how- 
 ever, we must after all return, if we are 
 desirous of contemplating the sublimest 
 as well as the most beautiful specimens of 
 sculpture. VVe shall, therefore, now pro- 
 ceed to give a particular account of the 
 ideas entertained by the Greeks respecting 
 the standard of beauty in the dillerent 
 parts of the human body. M'ith regard to 
 the head, the profile chiefly admired by 
 them consists in a line almost straight, or 
 marked by inflexions so gentle as scarcely 
 to be recognised as such. The forehead 
 and nose, indeed, in female or youthful 
 figures, form a line which appmailies to 
 the iJerjiendicular. Il has been often held, 
 as a principle of ancient beauty, that the 
 forehead was extremely high. This opi- 
 nion, however, is subject to dispute; for 
 many ancient writers, and artists also, as- 
 sure us tiiat the Greeks considered a small 
 or loir forehead essential to l)eauty. Thus 
 the Circassians sullered their hair to shade 
 the forehead almost to the eyebrows. In- 
 •leed, it will be evident that, to give an 
 oval form (the most esteemed) to the coun- 
 tenance, it is rc(|uisit(' that (lie hair should 
 cover till' forehead, and make a cur\e 
 about the temples ; or else the face, which 
 
SCIJLPTORE. 
 
 terminates in an oval form in the inferior 
 part, will bo angular in the' higher part, 
 and tlie proportion consequently destroyed. 
 This rounding of the forehead may be seen 
 in all handsome persons, in all the heads 
 of ideal beauty, in ancient statues, and 
 especially in those of youth. 
 
 Large eyes are generally considered 
 beautiful; their size, however, is of less 
 importance in sculpture than their form 
 and the manner in which they are most 
 used. The eye has been often made a 
 characteristic feature in the heads of dif- 
 ferent deities. Apollo, Jupiter, and Juno 
 have the eye large and full. In the sta- 
 tues of Pallas they are also large, but by 
 lowering the eyelids the virgin air and ex- 
 pression of modesty are delicately marked. 
 The celebrated Venus de Medici, how- 
 ever, affords sufficing proof that large eyes 
 are by no means essential to beauty : hers 
 are small, and the gentle elevation of the 
 lower eyelid imparts to tliem a languish- 
 ing look and an enchanting sweetness. 
 In ideal beauty, tlie eyes are always deeper 
 than in nature, and, of course, the eye- 
 brows have more prominency. By deep- 
 ening the cavity of tiie eye, the statuary 
 increases the light and shade, thus impart- 
 ing to the head more expression and rea- 
 lity. In ancient statues the eyebrows are 
 sometimes completely joined. 
 
 The mouth is, after the eyes, the great- 
 est vehicle of expression, and therefore 
 demands to be next considered. The Gre- 
 cian artists made the lower lip fuller than 
 the upper, in order to give an elegant 
 rounding to the chin. The lips are gene- 
 rally closed in figures of mortals, and a 
 little open in those of the gods. Those of 
 Venus are half open. The teeth are sel- 
 dom shown, except in laughing satyrs. 
 
 It was not deemed consistent with the 
 principles of ideal beauty to interrupt the 
 rounding of the chin by the introduction 
 of a dimple. Hence, it may fairly excite 
 suspicion, when dimples are found either 
 on the chin or cheek of an ancient statue, 
 that they are the innovations of a modern 
 hand. 
 
 Modern artists appear often to have 
 overlooked the ear, as a portion of the 
 head undeserving of careful attention ; 
 but they should bear in mind that the Gre- 
 cian artists, whom they affect to admire 
 .'ind imitate, bestowed much consideration 
 and great pains on this to them unimpor- 
 tant feature ; and were particularly anxi- 
 ous, in taking likenesses, to copy the pre- 
 cise shape of their subject's ear. 
 
 The disposition of the hair, too, presents 
 another test bv which the undoubted 
 
 works of ancient art may be recognised. 
 On coarse, hard stones the hair was short, 
 and appeared as if it luid been combed 
 with a v> ide comb; this kind of stone being 
 difficult to work, and requiring immense 
 labour : but when the finer sorts of marble 
 were submitted to the chisel of the Gre- 
 cian artist, the obedient locks descended 
 in thin and ample ringlets; in the heads 
 of won)en tliey were thrown back, and 
 tied behind in a waving manner, at consi- 
 derable intervals, thus affording an agree- 
 able variety of light and shade. This me- 
 tiiod was adopted with the hair of the 
 Amazons. On the otlier hand, Apollo 
 and Bacchus have theirs falling down 
 their shoulders, which was the common 
 habit of youth. 
 
 It is a curious fact that, with the Greek 
 statuaries, it seemed to be a point to en- 
 large the natural appearance of the breasts 
 in men, and to suppress it in women. The 
 figures of their deities, indeed, have mostly 
 the breasts of a virgin, the beauty of which 
 they evidently held to consist in a gentle 
 elevation, for so desirous were their wo- 
 men to conform to this standard of taste, 
 that various arts were put in pi-actice to 
 restrain exuberant prominency. The 
 breasts of the nymphs and goddesses were 
 never represented swelling, that appear- 
 ance being peculiar to women who are 
 suckling. The paps of Venus contract 
 and end in a point, which is considered 
 an indispensable characteristic of perfect 
 beauty. 
 
 In the statues of men, the lower part of 
 tlie body was formed similar to the state of 
 the living bodj"^ after tranquil sleep and 
 good digestion. The navel v/as consi- 
 derably Slink, especially in female sub- 
 jects. 
 
 In the figures of young men, the joints 
 of the knee are slightly expressed; that 
 member uniting the leg to the thigh with- 
 out making any remarkable cavities or 
 projections. Winckelmann observes, that 
 " the most beautiful legs and best turned 
 knees are preserved in the Apollo Sau- 
 rocthanes, in the Villa Borghese ; in the 
 Apollo Avhich has a swan at his feet ; and 
 in the Bacchus of the Villa Medicis." 
 The same able connoisseur remarks, that 
 it is rare to meet with beautiful knees 
 either in the elegant representations of art 
 or in the persons of young people them- 
 selves. With respect to feet and hands, 
 there are sufficient relics to prove how 
 scrupulously attentive the Grecian artists 
 were to develope in these members every 
 possible perfection ; although, unfortu- 
 nately, the ravages committed by time or 
 
 \ X 
 
SCULPTLHE. 
 
 negligence have sadly reduced the num- 
 ber of instances. Tliose extremities arc, 
 (if course, most sulijoct to mutilaticm, and, 
 accordingly, we find many statues wholly 
 destitute of them. The hands of young 
 persons were moderately plump, with little 
 cavities or dimples at the joints of the fin- 
 sjers, which tajjcred very gently from the 
 root to the point, the joints being scarcely 
 perceptible. The terminating joint was 
 not bent, as it is so commonly found in 
 modern statues. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to observe that, 
 as beauty never appears in equal perfection 
 in every part of the same individual, per- 
 fect or idc(tl beauty can only be produced 
 by selecting tiie most beautiful parts from 
 different models. This, however, must be 
 set about with delicacy and judgment, in 
 order that these detached beauties, when 
 united, may form the most exact symme- 
 try. The ancients, n(!vertheless, even in 
 the most nourishing age, occasionally con- 
 lined tliemselvcs to one individual. Theo- 
 dorus, who was visited by Socrates and 
 his disciples, served as a model for the 
 artists of his day. Phryne also seems to 
 have been a model both for painters and 
 sculptors. On the other hand, Zeuxis, 
 when about to paint Helen, united in his 
 picture tlie various charms of the most 
 liandsome women of Crotona. 
 
 Having thus exercised the most patient 
 attention and care on the several portions 
 of the human body itself, the Grecian 
 .sculptors proceeded with equal scrupu- 
 losity to invest them with becoming dra- 
 pery. The vestments of the Grecian wo- 
 men usually consisted of linen cloth, or 
 some other light stutV, and, in latter times, 
 cilh(!r of silk or occasionally of woollen 
 cloth. In the works of sculpture, the 
 linen may be distinguished by its trans- 
 parency and small united folds. The 
 principal garments worn by the Greeks 
 were the tunic, the robe, and the mantle. 
 The tunic, or that part of the dress next 
 the body, may be seen in sleeping figures, 
 or in those in dishabille; as, for instance 
 the l-'lora Farnese, and the i-tatue of tin; 
 Amazons in the Capitol. The rohc.s of 
 women commonly consisted of two Ion"- 
 piecrs of woollen cloth, destituti; of any 
 particular form, iittaclicd to the slioulders 
 by a great many buttons, and sonu-times 
 by u clasj). They had straight sleeves, 
 which came down to the wrists. The 
 young girls, as well as the wonu'n, fas- 
 tened their robe to their side by a cinc- 
 ture, as is still dime in many parts of 
 (•recce. The cincture formed in the side 
 :i Knot (if libbons somewhat rosemblinir a 
 
 ro:^e in shape, as has been particularh 
 marked in the two beautiful daughtei 
 Niobe. The mantle was called TmrXo. 
 the Greeks (see Peplus), which sign' 
 properly the mantle of Pallas or Minerva ; 
 but the word was aftenvards applied to 
 those of the other deities, and subsequently 
 of men. Tiiis article of dress was round 
 rather than square, and when the ancients 
 speak of square mantles, they allude to the 
 addition of four tassels, which were fixed 
 to them, two visible and two concealed 
 under the mantle. 
 
 Women seldom wore any other head- 
 dress than hair : using the corner of their 
 mantle when they wished for further co- 
 vering. Sometimes, however, we meet with 
 veils of a fine transparent texture. The 
 covering for the feet consisted of shoes or 
 sandals, the latter generally an inch tiiick, 
 and composed of sundry soles of cork. 
 
 The colour of vestments peculiar to eas- 
 tern statues is curious, and must not be 
 omitted. To begin with those of the gods : 
 — the drapery of Jupiter was red, that of 
 Neptune, according to AVinckelmann, sea- 
 green, wliich colour belonged likewise to 
 the Nereids and Nymphs. The mantle of 
 Apollo was blue or violet. Bacchus was 
 clothed in white. Martianus ("apella as- 
 signs green to Cybele ; while Juno's vest- 
 ments were sky-blue, with tlie occasional 
 addition of a w hite veil. I'allas was robed 
 in llame-colour; and Venus (in a painting 
 at Herculaneum) is in flowing drapery of 
 golden yellow. Kings were arrayed in 
 purple ; priests in white ; and conquerors 
 sometimes in sea-green. 
 
 Of (he different 3Iodes of Process in Sculp- 
 ture. — AVorks of sculpture are performed, 
 either by hollowing or excavating, as in 
 metals, agates, and other precious stones, 
 and in marbles of every description ; or 
 by working in relief, as in bassi-rilievi in 
 the materials just mentioned, or in statues 
 of metal, clay, wood, wax, marble, or 
 stone. 
 
 The excavation of precious stones forms 
 a particular branch of art called intaglio, 
 which, together witli tlie working them in 
 relievo, when the term camayeu is applied 
 to them, belongs to the art of seal-engrav- 
 ing. 
 
 The excavation of metals constitutes the 
 art of engraving, in its various branches, 
 on metal of any kind; and its relief com- 
 prises enchasing, casting in bronze, i'v;c. 
 
 The jirocess of hollowing hard stone or 
 marble will need no particular descrip- 
 tion; i'si)ccially as it is now wholly in 
 disuse, ex(-ept for tin; forming of letters in 
 monumental or other inscrii)tious. 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 In working in relievo the i)vocc6S is nc- work, and the 
 cessarily diirerent, according to the mate- 
 rials in Avliicli the work is performed. 
 
 As not only the beginning of sculpture 
 was in clay, for the purpose of forming 
 statues, but as models are still made in 
 clay or wax, for every work undertaken 
 by the sculptor; we shall first consider tiie 
 metliod of modelling figures in clay or 
 wax. 
 
 tandard from which he 
 takes all its measurements. 
 
 Of Sculpture in Wood.— A sculptor in 
 wood sliould first take care to choose wood 
 of the best quality, and the most proper 
 for the work wliich he intends to execute. 
 If he undertakes a large work, requiring 
 strength and solidity, he ought to choose 
 the hardest wood, and that which keeps 
 best, as oak and chestnut ; but for woriis 
 
 Few tools are necessary for modelling of moderate size, pear or apple tree serve 
 in clay. The clay being placed on a stand very well. As even these latter woods 
 
 or sculptor's easel, the artist begins the 
 work with his hands, and puts the whole 
 into form by the same means. The most 
 expert practitioners of this art seldom use 
 any other tool than their fingers, except in 
 
 are still of considerable hardness, if the 
 work consists only of delicate ornaments, 
 the artist will find it preferable to take 
 some more tender; wood, provided it is at the 
 same time firm and close ; as, for instance, 
 
 such small or sharp parts of their work as the Indian tree, which is excellent for this 
 
 the fingers cannot reach. 
 
 If clay could be made to preserve its 
 original moisture, it would undoubtedly 
 be the fittest substance for the models of 
 the sculptor ; but when it is placed either 
 in the fire, or left to dry imperceptibly in 
 the air, its solid parts grow more compact. 
 
 purpose, as the chisel cuts it more neatly 
 and easily than any other wood. 
 
 The ancients made statues out of almost 
 every diflferent kind of wood. At Sieyon 
 was a statue of Apollo made of box ; the 
 statue of Diana at Ephesus was of cedar. 
 As these two sorts of wood are extremely 
 
 and the work shrinks, or loses a part of hard and undecaying ; and as cedar, in 
 
 its dimensions. This diminution in size 
 would be of no consequence, if it aflfected 
 the whole work equally, so as to preserve 
 its proportions. But this is not always 
 the case : for the smaller parts of the figure 
 drying sooner than the larger; and tlius 
 losing more of tlieir dimensions in tiie 
 same space of time, than the latter do ; 
 the symmetry and proportions of the work 
 inevitably suffer. 
 
 This inconvenience, however, is obviated 
 by forming the model first in clay, and 
 moulding it in plaster of Paris before it 
 begins to dry, and the taking a plaster cast 
 from that mould, and the repairing it care- 
 fully from the original work ; by which 
 means you have the exact counterpart of 
 the model in its most perfect state ; and 
 you have, besides, your clay at liberty for 
 any other work. 
 
 In modelling in wax, the artist some- 
 times uses his fingers, and sometimes tools 
 of the same sort as those alluded to for 
 
 particular, is of such a nature as, accord- 
 ing to Pliny, to be nearly indestructible, 
 the ancients preferred them for the images 
 of their divinities. In the temple built on 
 mount Cyllene in honour of Mercury, 
 Pausanias relates, that there was a statue 
 of that god made of citron-wood, eight feet 
 in height. This wood was also much es- 
 teemed. The cypress likewise, being a 
 wood not apt to spoil, nor to be damaged 
 by worms, was also used for statues ; as 
 were the palm tree, olive, and ebony, of 
 which latter, according to Pliny's account, 
 there was another statue of Diana at 
 Ephesus. 
 
 Several other kinds ofwoodv/ere equally 
 employed for this purpose, even the vine, 
 of which the same author says there were 
 statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Diana. 
 
 Felibien speaks of a French artist at 
 Florence, of the name of Janni, who exe- 
 cuted several statues in wood, in a style 
 of finishing equal to marble, and particu- 
 
 modelling in clay. It is at first more difli- larly one of St. Roque, which Vasari con- 
 
 cult to model in wax than in clay, but 
 practice will render it familiar and easy. 
 Of the Use of the Mode/.— Whatever con- 
 siderable work is undertaken by the sculp- 
 tor, whether basso-rilievo, or statue, &c. it 
 is always requisite to form a previous mo- 
 
 sidered as a marvellous production. 
 
 The beauty of sculpture in wood con- 
 sists in the tender manner of cutting the 
 wood, free from all appearance of hardness 
 or dryness. 
 
 Of Sculjdure in Stone and Marble. — For 
 
 del,of the same size as the intended-work; sculpture in marble and other stone, the 
 and the model being perfected, according artist must make use of tools made of good 
 to the method before described, whether steel, well tempered, and of strength pro- 
 it is in clay, or in wax, or a cast in plaster portioned to the hardness of the material, 
 of Paris, becomes the rule whereby the The first thing to be done is, to saw out 
 
 from a larger block of marble, a block 
 X X 2 
 
 artist guides himself in the conduct of lii 
 
SCULP 
 
 proportioned to the size of tlie work wliich 
 is undcrluken. After this, the sculptor 
 shapes the gross masses of tlic forms he 
 designs to represent, by knocking ofl tiic 
 superfluous parts of marble with a strong 
 mallet or beele, and a strong steel tool 
 called a point. When the block is thus 
 hewn out agreeably to the measures pre- 
 viously taken for the performance of the 
 work, the sculptor brings it nearer to the 
 intended form by means of a finer point ; 
 and sometimes of a tool called a ('.og's 
 tooth, having two points, but less sharp 
 than the single one. After this he uses 
 the gradine, which is a flat cutting tool, 
 with three teeth, but is not so strong as 
 the point. Having advanced his work 
 with the gradine, he uses the chisel to 
 take oft' the ridges left by the former 
 tools ; and by the dexterous and delicate 
 use of this instrument, he gives softness 
 and tenderness to the figure, till at length, 
 by taking a rasj), wJiich is a sort of a file, 
 Jic brings his work into a proper state for 
 being polished. 
 
 Rasjjsare of several kinds, some straight, 
 some curved, and some harder or softer 
 than others. 
 
 ^\'hen the sculptor has thus far finished 
 his work with the best tools he can pro- 
 cure, wherever certain parts or particular 
 works require polishing, he uses pumice- 
 stone to make all the parts smooth and 
 even. He then goes over them with tri- 
 poli, and when he would give a still higher 
 gloss, he rubs them with leather and straw 
 ashes, 
 
 IJesides the tools already mentioned, 
 scu!])t(irs use also the pick, which is a 
 small hammer pointed at one end, and at 
 the otiier formed with teeth nuide of good 
 steel and sfjuared, to render them the 
 stronger. This serves to break the mar- 
 ble, and is used in all places where the 
 two hands cannot be employed to manage 
 the mallet and chisel. 
 
 Th(! bouchard, which is a piece of iron, 
 well steeled at the boltoin, and fonneil 
 into several strong and short points like a 
 •iiamoiid, is use(l for making a hole of 
 eipial dim(!nsions, which cannot be done 
 with euHiiig tools. 'J'lie bouchard is dri- 
 ven with the mullet or beetle, and its points 
 bruise the marble and reduce it to pow- 
 der. Water is (hittwn into (he holr from 
 time lo time, in pnijjorlion (<> Ihc dcjjd, 
 I hat is made, to luring out the dust of the 
 marble, and to jirevent the tool from heat- 
 ing, which would destroy its diniMr; for 
 
 ""■ '""'•<«l • dust on w hich to(ds are edged 
 
 is only moistened with water to prevent 
 the iron from liealing and taking oil the 
 
 TL'RE. 
 
 temper of the tool by being rubbed dry ; 
 and tlie trepans are wetted for the same 
 reason. 
 
 The sculptor uses the bouchard to bore 
 or pierce such parts of his work as the 
 chisel cannot reach without danger of 
 spoiling or breaking them. In using it he 
 passes it through a piece of leather, which 
 leather covers the hole made by the bou- 
 chard, and prevents the water from spirt- 
 ing up in his face. 
 
 The tools necessary for sculpture on 
 marble or stone, are the roundel, which is 
 a sort of rounded chisel; the houguet, 
 which is a chisel squared and pointed ; 
 and various compasses to take the requisite 
 measures. 
 
 The process of sculpture in stone is the 
 same as in marble, excepting that the ma- 
 terial being less hard than marble, the 
 tools used arc not so strong, and some of 
 them are of a dilierent form, as the rasj), 
 the handsaw, the ripe, the straight chisel 
 with three teeth, the roundel, and the 
 grater. 
 
 If the work is executed in freestone, 
 tools are employed which are made on 
 purpose, as the freestone is apt to scale, 
 and does not work like hard stone or 
 marble. 
 
 Sculptors in stone have commonly a 
 bowl in which they keep a powder com- 
 posed of plaster of Paris, mixed with the 
 same stone in which their work is exe- 
 cuted. With this composition they fill up 
 the sm;ill holes, and repair the defects 
 which they meet with in the stone itself. 
 
 In the work of Junius, De Picturu I'ete- 
 riim (lib. 2, chap. 3), and in the B'thlio- 
 ihiquc Grccque of F.\mucii s (liv. 3, chap. 
 24, sect, x.) a catalogue is to be fouiul of 
 ancient authors who have treated of the 
 art of sculpture. Among modern works 
 on the theory and practice of this art we 
 may cite the following: — Pomponii Gau- 
 RKi, De Sculpturn sive Stutuuyia Vitcriim 
 Dialiii^nis, Florent. 1501,lto.,and in the <)th 
 vol. of the r//(\s««r«A()fGuo\ovii s. L. I5.de 
 Ai.iiERTis, Da Sciilptum, Basil, 1510, Hvo. 
 I)c Cululitra el Sciiliititm Viicriim, by Aid. 
 M/VNiJCK, also to \n\ found in the Dth vol. 
 of the 'jr/ic,s<n<)H.s-of GitoNovii s. The 3d aiul 
 ■Ith books of the work entitled dull lis 
 liintue llosjies, by Ludovieus Dicsiontio- 
 sii s, Uouie, l.iM.'i. These have been re- 
 printed in the Uiuii/liolhaiiie of Goiu..i;i s, 
 likewise in the 9tii vol. of the Tlusiiiinis of 
 (iifoNovn s. Jul. r. Rii.KMM.iiiis, De P/V- 
 liiiii, l'liintice,il Slutuiiriii, in his Opiisciiles, 
 Leydcni, l(i2l, 8vo. and in the Dth vol. of 
 Ghonovii's. p. p. KiiHKNii's, /)<• Imihi- 
 tioiu Sliilnarum iirucuruw, in the L'ours de 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 Peinture, by Depikes, Paris, 17G0, 12mo. 
 Tlie 1st chap, of the 1st book, and the 5th 
 and 6th chapters of the 2d book of the Ar- 
 cha'olngia Littcvaria de Ernesti, treat de 
 Marmoribm, de Torentke, et de Plustice. 
 Commentntiones duce super Veterian Eboree, 
 Eburncisijue Signis, by I\I. Heyne, in the 
 1st vol. of the new Memoirs of the Royal 
 Society of Gottingeu ; in the 4th and 5th 
 vols, of which same Memoirs we find Mo- 
 viimentorum Etruscorum Artis ad Genera 
 sua et Tempora recocatorum Illustratio, by 
 tlie same. 
 
 Among Italian works : — II Disegno del 
 S. Ant. Fran(^. Doni, ove si Tratta della 
 Scultura e Pittura de' Colori, de' Getti, de' 
 ModegU, con molte Cose appartinenti, Ve- 
 nice, 15-19, 8vo. Several chapters of the 
 Introduction to Vite de piii excellenfi Ar- 
 chitetti, Piftori e ScuUori Italian?, by Va- 
 sAiii, treat of Sculpture. Due Trattati, 
 mio dalle ofte principale Parti d'Oreficeria, 
 I'allero in materie dell' Arte della Scult^tra, 
 dove si vedono infiniti Segrcti per lavorare le 
 Figure di Marmo, c del gettarle di Bronzo, 
 da Beuvenuto Cellini, Firenze, 1568, 4to. 
 In the Leziune di M. Benedetto Varchi, 
 Sopra diverse Materie poctiche e filosojiche, 
 Firenze, 1549, we find a letter of Cellini 
 on the advantage which sculpture has over 
 liainting ; and another little treatise of 
 this nature is added, by the same author, 
 to the Essequie di Michel Angiolo Buo- 
 narroti, Firenze, 1564, 4to. Discorsi 
 sopra le Antichita Romana, di Vincentio 
 ScAMozzi, Venice, 1582, with 40 folio en- 
 gravings, contain several articles on sculp- 
 ture, and on the marbles to be preferred 
 for statues. II Riposo di Raffaele Borghini, 
 in cui si favella della Pittura e della Scul- 
 tura e de' pill illustri Pittori et Scultori, an- 
 tichie mwlerni, Firenze, 1584, 4to., and 
 1730, 4to. Discorso intorno alia Scultura e 
 Pittura, di Alessaudro Lami, Cremona, 
 1584, 4to. L'Idea de' Pittori, Scultori, e 
 Architetti, del Cav. Fed. Zuccaro, Torino, 
 1607, 4to, Avvertimenti e Regole sopra 
 I' Architettura civile e niilit., la Pittura, 
 Scultura, e Prospettiva, da Pietro Ant. 
 Barca, Milan, 1620, fol. Le Pompe della 
 Scultura, da Giamb. Moroni, Ferrara, 
 1640, 12mo. Trattato della Pittura e Scul- 
 tura, uso ed abuso loro, composto da un Teo- 
 Ingo (Father Ottonelli), e da un Pittore 
 (Pietro da Cortona), Firenze, 1652, 4to. 
 Discorso delle Statue, da Giovanni Andrea 
 BoRDOM, Rome, 1661, 4to. Lettera, nellu 
 quale si ri,spondc ad alcmii Quesiti di Pittura, 
 Scultura, kc. addiessed to the Marquis V. 
 Clapponi, by Filippo Baldinucci, Rome, 
 1681. S/ogamcnti d'Ingcgno sopra la Pit- 
 
 turn e la Scultura, dal P. F. MiNOZZi, Ve- 
 nice, 1739, 12mo. Raccolla di Lettere sulla 
 Pittura, Scultura, cd Architettura, scrette 
 da pill celehri Personnaggi die in dette Arti 
 Jiorirono dal sec. xv. all. xvii. Rome, 1754, 
 4to. 7 vols. Dialoghi sopra le tre Arti del 
 Disegno, by Giovanni Bottari, Lucca, 
 1754, 8vo. 
 
 In Spanish is the following: — Varia 
 Cominensuracion para la Escultura y Archi- 
 tettura, por Don Juan de Arphez Villa- 
 fane, Madrid, 1675, 4to. 
 
 In the French tongue we find : — Confe- 
 rences de I'Acadimie Roijale de Peinture et 
 Sculpture pendant Vann6e 1667, by Feli- 
 bien, Paris, 1668, 4to. Dcs Principes de 
 ['Architecture, de la Sculpture, de la Pein- 
 ture, et des Arts qui en dependent, by Feli- 
 bien, Paris, 1697, 4to. Sentimens des plus 
 habiles Peintrcs, sur la Pratique de la Pein- 
 ture et de la Sculpture, mis en table de Prd- 
 ceptes, avec pliisieurs Discoars acadhniques, 
 by Henri Testelin, Paris, 1680, folio. 
 Traiti des Statues, by F. Lemee, Paris, 
 1688, 8vo. Manuscrit pour connoitre les 
 Mcdailles et les Statues anciennes, by Nico- 
 las de Porcionaro, and four of the most 
 famous and learned antiquaries of Italy, 
 Naples, 1713, 4to. De la Sculpture, du 
 Talent qu'cUe dcmande, et de I'Art des Bas- 
 reliefs, by Dlbos, to be found in the 50th 
 chap, of the 1st part of his Rrjlexions cri- 
 tiques sur la Poesie et sur la Peinture ; — • 
 Discours sur le Beau Ideal des Peinfres, 
 Sculpteurs, et Poetes, by L. H. Ten-Kate, 
 included in a translation of Richardson's 
 Works, Amst. 1728, 8vo. Lettre sur la 
 Peinture, Sculpture, et Architecture, Amst. 
 1740, 8vo. Essai sur la Peinture, Sculp- 
 ture, et Architecture, by L. P. de Bachau- 
 MONT, Paris, 1731, 12mo. In the 29tii vol. 
 of Mimoires de I'Acadimie des Inscriptions 
 is a Memoir of the Comte de Caylus, sur 
 un Moyen d'incorporer la Couleur dans le 
 Marbre, et de fixer le Trait. Reflexions 
 sur la Sculpture, by E. Falconet, Paris, 
 1761, 12mo. Nouveaux Sujets de Peinture 
 et de Sculpture, Paris, 1755, 12mo. Essai 
 snr la Sculpture, to be found with the 
 Traits de Peinture of Dandr^ Bardon, Pa- 
 ris, 1765, 2 vols. 12mo. Histoire Univer- 
 selle, trait^e rclativemcnt aux Arts dc Pcin- 
 dre et de Sculpter, Paris, 1769, 2 vols. 
 12mo. Ichnographie, ou Discours sur les 
 quatre Arts d' Architecture, Peinture, Sculp- 
 ture, et Gravure, avec des Notes historiques, 
 cosinographiiues, chronologiques, ghiialo- 
 giques, et Monogrammes, Chiffres, Lettrcs 
 initialcs, Logogriphes, &c. by M. Heruert, 
 Paris, 1767, 5 vols. 12mo. De V Usage dcs 
 Statues chez les Ancicns, Essai hisforique. 
 
Brussels, 17CS, Ity. wKli 
 Comtt' de Cla-Co i;; tlu- aullior of this 
 work). Let Ire nur In Sculjiture a M. Theo- 
 dore de Sinclh, by M. Hemsteiuilis the 
 youiiper, Amst. 17G8, Ito. with engravings. 
 OLscrvalioii-ii historiques et critiques sur hs 
 Erri'urs des Peinires, Sculptcnrs, ifc. dans 
 la Representation des Sujcts tires de I'llis- 
 toiresainte, acec des Eelaireissemens pour 
 ks rciidre plus e.ractes, Paris, 1771, 12mo. 
 In tlie Coiirs d' Architecture de F. Blonuel, 
 (Paris, 1771), we find a M6moire sur I'Ori- 
 gine de la Scnlptiire. 
 
 Tlie following ulso may be cited as con- 
 veying information with respect to the 
 execution of vitrious works of sculpture : 
 D'tscDurs sur hi Statue Equestrc de Frederic 
 (iuilUiuine erigee sur le Ponf-Neuf A Berlin, 
 by C. ANtiuxjx, Berlin, 1703, fol. De- 
 scription de ce qui a M pratique pour 
 j'mulre d'un scul jet la Statue Equcstre de 
 lyiuis X'ir. en H>99, by G. Boffranu, Pa- 
 ris, 1743, fol. Description des Travaux qui 
 «nt pr(ced6, accompa'^n6 et suivi la Fonte en 
 Imnize, d'un seul jet, de la Statue Equestre 
 de Louis XV. Paris, 1768, fol. Description 
 de la Statue Eqiusfre que la Compagnie des 
 Indes Oriiuiales, il ('openhaguc, a ci>nsacr6e 
 d la Gloire de Fredi'-ric V., avcc les explica- 
 tions des motifs qui ont d6termin6 le choix 
 des diJfYrentes jHirlies qu'on a suiri dans Ui 
 composition de ce monument, l)y J. F. J. 
 Sailly, Copenhagen, 1771, fol. 
 
 In German: — Joachim de Sanorart, 
 Admiranda Artis Staluaria, Nor. 1080, foK 
 Snmmari/ of the History and Principles of 
 the Fine Arts and Sciences, tiie first divi- 
 i;i<m of which relates to tiic hintory and 
 principles of sculpture, Berlin, 1772, 8vo. 
 by A. !•'. litsciiiNr,. Sketch of a Ilistonj 
 of the Arts of Design, Haiiiljurgh, 1781 
 8vo. by tlie same. Philosophy of Sculptors, 
 liy 1'. L. Jitrii, Brandciiburgh, 177;"., 8vo. 
 'I'Ik; 5lh and 0th chapters of tlie Treatise on 
 Literature and tlw Woi-ks of Art of Anti- 
 quity, by J. V. CiiuiST, Lcipsic, 1770, Hvo. 
 Treatise on the Plastic Art, includiuf^ sun- 
 dry Oliserrations on Form and Fif':ure, Itiga, 
 I77H. Ill tli(! 1st vol. of an llssay on an 
 Academy of ]'ine Arts, l)y C. 1'". Pran- 
 «;kn, w<! find a li« atiso on the niecliani.sm 
 of liculplure. Essay on a History of Sculp- 
 ture amonn the Ancients, by lf(jisiVKriai, 
 Vienna, 1778, 8v() : in addition to which 
 (he dilforenl works of WiNi m i.imann may 
 lie conHulled. 
 
 In our own langua^•,<' tlie works more 
 particularly ii.wl'iil for refereni-e arc :— .< 
 Litter on Poetry, Painlinp;, and Sculpture, 
 by II. KiN(;, l.iMidon, \Hi{i, Hvo. (•()//,•<•. 
 lion of (hecli, lUrusian, and Homutt Anti 
 
 SClJLrTLliE. 
 
 print.;. (Tiie quitics from the HamiUon Cabinet, Naples, 
 
 1700, folio, which work contains a paper 
 on Expression in I'aiiiting and Sculpture, 
 as well as an Historical Summary on the 
 State of Sculpture among the Greeks. 
 
 The following books treat of certain mo- 
 numents of antique sculpture in particu- 
 lar. — Callisthati, 'EK<ppaffHc, sive De- 
 script io Statuarium, found among the works 
 of P1HLOSTHATE.S. The Dcscription<f Greece, 
 by Pausanias, and the 33d and 37th books 
 of Pliny's Natural History, Several M^- 
 inoires of the Comte de Caylvs on passages 
 of Pliny relative to objects of art, are in- 
 serted in the 19th, 2.>th, and 32d vols, of 
 Memoircs de V Academic des Inscriptions et 
 Belles I^ttrcs. Edmundi Figrellii, De 
 Sfatuis illustrium Komanorum, liber singu- 
 laris, Holmia', 1650, S\o. Joannes Henrici 
 ScHLEMWii, De Imaginibus Veterum Atrien- 
 sibus Prtelim. et cubicularis Dissertatio, 
 Jena, 1064, 4fo. Frederic! Muu.eri, deli- 
 neat lib. xi. quos molitus est de .Statuis Rn- 
 manorum et pracipne de Natura Statuarium 
 quibus prisci Ronutni bene meritos honora- 
 bant, Giessaj, 1664, 4to. Joannis NicoijVI, 
 Diatribe de Mercuriis et Hermis, Franco- 
 furti, 1701, 12mo. Chr. Gotlfr. Barthh, 
 De Imnginibus Veterum in Bibliolhecis vel 
 alibi positis, Halla^, 1702, 4to. Jacobi 
 GuoNovii, De Imaginilncs et Stafuis prin- 
 cipum Disscrtatio, Ludg. Bat. 1700, Ito. 
 J. MuNCiiii, De Statuis Veterum Romano- 
 rum Disserlatio, Hafnia?, 1714, 4to. F. 
 G. Freytagii, De Statuis TtriXfcrpivati; 
 Veterum Disscrtatio, Lip. 171.'>, 4to. Ora- 
 torum ct Rhetorum Grcccorum, quibus Sla- 
 tua; honoris causa positfvfucrtint, decas. Lips. 
 17.52, 8vo. by the same. G. G. Bierneui, 
 De Statuis Achilleis Disscrtatio. Lips. 
 
 ur,{), 4 to. 
 
 With respect to sculpture, as practised 
 by tlie moderns, the reader is referred to: 
 —i'abinct des Siugularit^s d' Architecture, 
 Peinture, Sculpture, ct Gracurc, by F. Le 
 Comte, Paris, 1099, 3 vols. 12nio. Cata- 
 logue hisloriquc du Cabinet de Sculpture 
 Franfaise de M. do la LivK tm Jui.Y, Paris, 
 17()l, 121110. Alonumens tlrig^s en France a 
 la Gloire de Louis Xl\'. pricedes d'un Ta- 
 Ideaux du I'rogiis des Arts et dis Sciences 
 sur ce Regnc, ainsi que d'une Description des 
 Honneurs et des fllonumens accordcs aux 
 grands Hommcs, tant cbez les Anciens que 
 ehez les i\Iodernts, et suivis d'un Choix des 
 jirincipaux Projets qui ont it/: propost's pour 
 placer la Statue du Roi, by iM. Pahi:, Pa- 
 ris, 1705, fol. willi 67 plates. Anliquiies 
 Nationales, mi Recueil de Monumens pom- 
 serrir 1) I'Histoire de l' Empire Frmicais, tih 
 que Tombiaux, Inscriptions, Statues, I tiraux. 
 
SEA 
 
 Frescoes, Sfc, tires iks AblMujes, Moimslcres, 
 et Chateaux, by A. L. Millin, Paris, 1791, 
 5 vols. 4to. and fol. with plates. 
 
 A catalogue of ancient sculptors is to 
 be found in the 2d edit, of De Pictura Ve- 
 ierum, by Jtmus, Rot. 1694, fol. whilst the 
 following treat of modern Italian sculp- 
 tors :— Vite de' piil insigni Pitton e Scultorl 
 Ferraresi, by G. Baruffaldi, Ferrara, 
 1705, 4to. Notizie intorno alia Vita ed alle 
 Opere de' Pittori, Scultori ed intagl. di Bas- 
 mna, by G. Verci, Bass. 1775, 8vo. Catal. 
 Istoricke de Pittori ed Scultori Ferraresi, e 
 dell' loro Opere, Ferrara, 1783, 2 vols. Svo. 
 
 On modern Spanish sculptors, indepen- 
 dently of the work by Bermudez, already 
 quoted (see preceding article), we have : — 
 Vidas de los Pintores y Estatuarios eminentes 
 ' Espagnoles, by D. A. P. Velasco, London, 
 1742, Svo. and (in French) Paris, 1749, 
 12mo, This forms the third part of the 
 same author's 3Iuseo Pittorici, Madrid, 
 1725, fol. 
 
 On German sculptors : — J. C. Schu- 
 mann, Alcimedon, or Lives of the most ce- 
 lebrated German Sculptors and Engravers, 
 Dresden, 1684, Svo. History of the best 
 Swiss Artists, by J. C. FussLi, Zurich, 
 1780, 5 vols. Svo. Notices of sundry Art- 
 ists of Frankfort, of the Life and Works of 
 its Painters and Sculptors, by Husgen, 
 Frankfort, 1780, Svo. Several papers on 
 the same subject are likewise to be found 
 in the Journal of Arts of M. de Murr, and 
 in that of Meusel. 
 
 ScuTUL^. See Phalang.*. 
 
 ScYPHATi. [Lat. from Gr. <7Kv<poc, a 
 glass or cup.] In archaiology. Towaids 
 the latter period of the Western empire, 
 golden medals were struck concave on 
 one side and convex on the other. These 
 were denominated numyni scyphati, from 
 their resemblance to the shape of a cup. 
 
 Seal, [p^e^l, Saxon.] In gem sculptui'e. 
 A stamp engraved with a particular im- 
 pression, fixed upon the wax that closes 
 letters, or aflixed to any document as a 
 testimony. The chief use to be derived 
 from a consideration of the present sub- 
 ject arises from the light which it is cal- 
 culated to throw on the manners and 
 usages of our ancestors, as well as on the 
 historical facts concerning them. The 
 term is, properly speaking, applicable only 
 to the instrument itself, but is commonly 
 employed wheu speaking of the impres- 
 sion produced. The use of rings appears 
 to have preceded that of seals. These 
 latter have been engraved on all sorts of 
 substances — metals, precious stones, glass, 
 ivory, &c. The subject matter which has 
 
 SEA 
 
 recttivcd tlie impression has itself varied 
 equally. Chalk, wax, plaster, &c. have 
 by turns been put in requisition for this 
 purpose. The French kings, copying the 
 Roman potentates, sealed with wax ; that 
 called Spanish wax, a mixture of gum-lac, 
 resin, chalk, and cinnabar, was invented 
 nearly two centuries since, by a Parisian 
 merchant of the name of Rousseau. The 
 colour of impressions of seals has likewise 
 varied considerably. That sort of wax 
 most anciently used was white. The em- 
 ployment of yellow wax on public docu- 
 ments obtained a good deal about the 
 twelfth century. Ultimately, however, red 
 wax became preferred in almost all the 
 European countries, and remains so at the 
 present moment. The Western patriarchs 
 and emperors sealed in green wax certain 
 letters to persons of distinction. This 
 usage was adopted in the twelfth century 
 in France, and at a date somewhat subse- 
 quent introduced into Germany. Speci- 
 mens of this variety are, however, extremely 
 rare. In our own country, the green seal 
 is still occasionally used on charters. The 
 Emperor Charles V., in 1524, accorded the 
 privilege of sealing in blue, but the exam- 
 ple is unique of the employment of that 
 colour among European potentates. Cer- 
 tain princes have, at different times, adopt- 
 ed black wax to seal withal ; as, for in- 
 stance, Jeremy, patriarch of Constantino- 
 ple, and, since his time, the Grand Master 
 of the Teutonic Order in Prussia. In the 
 thirteenth century it was employed in 
 France. Impressions are also found in 
 mixed wax — i. e. of different colours. 
 Seals vary, besides, in siz,e and shape ; 
 they are sometimes large, sometimes small, 
 square, round, long, trefoil, lozenge, &c. 
 
 The most curious circumstance connect- 
 ed with the study of seals, however, is the 
 symbol or inscription engraved on them j 
 and, in this point of view, their value is as 
 great to the antiquarian or historian as 
 medals themselves. They frequently serve 
 to fix, disputed dates, genealogies, &c. 
 The round form is tlie simplest and most 
 ancient, and has been particularly appro- 
 priated to metal seals. The oval shape is 
 also of early date. They were subse- 
 quently shaped ogivelike,which mode was 
 peculiar to ecclesiastics. 
 
 Being unable to give, in this brief no- 
 tice, any thing more than a general idea on 
 the subject, we will add a list of those 
 works which appear to treat of it in the 
 most intelligent manner : — De Subscribendis 
 ct Subsignandis Testamcntis, et de Antiquo- 
 rum et hodiernorutn Sigillorum Differentia, 
 
S EA 
 
 AHctore Claiifl. Salmasio, husr,d. Hatiiv. 
 !0.>3, 8v(). Thtocl. HoEi'iNCK, Dc Jure 
 Sii^illornm, Norinib. Ifi42, 4to. H. O. 
 Tiib'LEM.VRtt'S, De Bulla aurea, nrginlea, 
 jilumbcii, ct cercd, Hcidelb. 1687 and 1724, 
 fol. Joan. Michael. Heineccii, De Vcla-i- 
 biii (ieniumnrum alutrumquc Nationum Si- 
 f^illis, coriimque usu ct prastatitia, sijntaf^nia 
 liiatiiiicuni: iicceditnt Sif^^illorum icones. Lips. 
 17)!). MtK-vroRi, I)c SiiiiUis mciin JEvi, 
 in tlie 3d vol. of Antiqititutcs Italicce Dis- 
 sert. 35. Dom. INIaria Manni, Osservazioni 
 Istorichc snpru i Sigilli ttntichi de' Jac, 
 Hasn-i, rircnz. 1780. Adam P'rid. Gi^\fey, 
 Specimen decadcm Sigillorum complectens, 
 tjxiitms historiam Italia;, Galluv, atque Ger- 
 mania iUuslmt. Lips. 1749, 4to. Didionnaire 
 Ihmimni- de Diptomtditiiw^c. &c. by Dom. 
 deVAiNESjlJencdictinc, Paris, 1774,2 vols. 
 8vo. Jtecueil de Sceaux du moyen Age, dits 
 Sceaux Gotliii]ucs, Paris, 1779, 4to. J. 
 JJeckmann, Des Sceaux, et sur la Maniere 
 dc Scellcr ; (to be found in his Supplemens 
 ii VHistoire des Inventions). Renutrques sur 
 les Sceaux phh'sl res, by Puaun, Brunswick, 
 1779,410. Obsevrafions sur ies Scemix et 
 sur Its Cordons attacMs aux Sceaux, by 
 Wir.L, found amongst iiis Supplcinens A la 
 Diplomatique, Altdorf, 1789, Svo. Ohser- 
 rativns 07i Seals, by G. P. Gheuchen, Augs- 
 hurgh, 1781. Antiquilis Nationales, vu 
 Recueil de iMontnnens, pour serrir <2 I'His- 
 ioire de V Empire Fran\-uis, tkc. &c. by A. 
 L. MiLMN, 4 vols. art. 49, 17th and follow- 
 ing pages, in the folio edition of 1792. 
 Polycarp. Leyser, Dc Contra Sigillis mcdii 
 yiu-i, Iklmstadt, 1728, 4fo. 
 
 Seapiece. /« painting. A representa- 
 tion of the ilillerent aspects of the ocean, 
 togetiier with any accidental circumstances 
 connected tlierewilh, such as a naval ac- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 SicvsoNs. [Fr. sfiisnn.'] In emblematical 
 painliug and sculpture. Tluf seasons are 
 all represented as persons, as well by 
 artists as poets. They are frequently seiti 
 all together on rilievi, medals, and gems. 
 Thus, on a medal of tlommodiis, they ap- 
 l)ear moving over a celestial globe, which 
 lies by the god<lesa Tell us. The artists 
 Jiav(! alr.o followed the poets in expressing 
 I he four ages of life by (iepicljng I'er 
 (S)iring) HB infantile and tender; /liitas 
 (Siiinmer) as young and sprif;htly ; Aii- 
 tumnus (Autumn) nniture a:>il manly ; and 
 lliiems (Winter) old and decrcpid. (See 
 Ovid, Mel. XV. 2I.S.) 
 
 'I'lius, again, Ver is a youlli niiirked out 
 geneially by the coroncl of Mowers on his 
 hfud, m- (he basket of {lowers in his hand. 
 /Kjlits is crowned with corn, or holds a 
 
 SEA 
 
 sickle in his hand. Autumnus is usually 
 distinguished by his crown of difl'erent 
 fruits ; and Hyems by his crown of reeds, 
 by the birds in his hand, or the beast at 
 his feet; and by his being warmly clothed 
 whilst the others are naked. 
 
 Dies, or the Day, was looked on as a 
 divinity, and represented sometimes, like 
 Sol, in a chariot : and Nox, or the Night, 
 is more distinctly mentioned in a personal 
 character. She is crowned with poppies, 
 and perhaps sometimes with stars. Her 
 appearance has something venerable and 
 majestic ; she has large, dark wings, and 
 a long robe. She is represented as riding 
 in a chariot drawn by two black horses, 
 and every part of her stage is described 
 by some poet or other. 
 
 The beginning of daybreak v/as proba- 
 bly characterised under the person of 
 Phosphorus; as the time from thence to 
 sunrising belonged to Aurora, or the IMorn- 
 ing (see Aurora), who is variously de- 
 scribed, though without confusion. If we 
 may judge by the poets, her complexion 
 was suited by the painters to the occasion. 
 It was sometimes of a lively red, some- 
 times pale, and sometimes more or less 
 brown, according to tlie sort of n-.orning 
 they intended to represent. Her skin was 
 like that of Apelles's Venus, with such a 
 humid cast. Her robe was of a pale 
 bright yellow, and. she held a whip or 
 torch in her hand. Her chariot was of a 
 fine rose colour, with pearls of dew upon 
 it, and the horses were cream coloured or 
 strawberry. 
 
 Hesperus, or the Evening, is tiie same 
 with Phosphorus, or Lucifer, only having 
 dilierent attril)utes. The poets give him 
 a black horse as Hesperus, and as I'hos- 
 phorus a white one. The artists distin- 
 guisli him by a torch when they make him 
 the forerunner of Sol. 
 
 The Uorff, or Hours, are represented 
 by (he jtoets in fine coloured or embroi- 
 dered robes, gliding on witii a quick and 
 easy motion. Ovid mentions them as 
 standing at equal distances about the 
 throne of Sol. Others make them attend 
 (hat deity at his setting out, or at his com- 
 ing in. All agree in describing (hem as 
 allendants of Sol ; and therefore it was 
 that sonu- of (Ikmu were always stationed 
 with Janus at (he ga(e of heaven, as ready 
 to accompany the chariot of Sol in his 
 daily course. 
 
 Tliis gliding motion is attributed to all 
 the deilies pn-siding over any piir( t>r(inie. 
 Ther»i is a known riticro a( Konu-, tin- 
 figures whereof have been taken »)nly for 
 
SEASONS. 
 
 so many ladies dancing for their own di- 
 version ; but more accurate observers have 
 imagined them, from their position and 
 attitudes, to express the liorcc. The hands 
 of these figures are mutually joined ; they 
 are placed in a straight line ; some seem 
 coaling towards, and others going from 
 you ; and they stasid at equal distances : 
 all which agrees with the manner in which 
 the hours should be represented. 
 
 Janus, alluded to above, presided over 
 the gates of heaven, and was therefore 
 represented sometimes with a staff in one 
 hand and a key in the other. When sup- 
 plications were made to any god, Janus 
 was first invoked, since it was he who was 
 to give access to the prayers, even to Ju- 
 piter. He was considered as the most 
 ancient of beings, and as compreliending 
 the whole universe. Possibly, in tlieir 
 most secret mythology, they might mean 
 space by this deity. An open arch, or in- 
 deed any opening, was called Janus ; as 
 the opening to a house was named Janua. 
 As this shows his relation to space, so his 
 including all things shows his relation to 
 infinite space. 
 
 Janus is distinguished by his double 
 form. He had sometimes two, and some- 
 times even four bodies given him. Hence, 
 he is denominated Geminus ; and hence 
 Statins, in a somewhat ridiculous de- 
 scription, makes Janus lift up all his 
 hands, and speak with all his mouths at 
 once, (Stat. iv. Sylv. i. v. 20.) There is a 
 bust of Janus Quadriformis on a bridge 
 at Rome, from whence the place is called 
 Quatrc Cupite. In some figures of him on 
 medals, he has but one body with four 
 heads. Under this sort of figure, which 
 looks every way, they meant, perhaps, to 
 express his presiding over space : as his 
 figures with two faces, one looking back- 
 ward and the other forward, might denote 
 his presiding over time. As the beginning 
 of the year was under the disposition of 
 Janus, so the entrance into the consulship 
 was, of course, under his protection. This 
 is frequently alluded to by the artists ; 
 and hence he has, in some figures, the 
 consular fasces in his hands. His busts, 
 with two faces, are veiy common ; espe- 
 cially on the medals which have tiie dou- 
 ble head of Janus on one side, and part of 
 a ship on the other. These were so very 
 old that, in Ovid's time, the figures were 
 almost worn out with age, (Fast. i. v. 235.) 
 Their number now makes them not much 
 valued. Were there but one left, it would 
 doubtless be deemed as great a treasure 
 as an Otho ; especially as they are so 
 much talked of by the poets, from whom 
 
 it may be proved that t'lic Roman children 
 played with them at /it'(«/.s- or sltips as ours 
 do now at cross or pile. (Macrob. Saturn. 
 1. ii. c. 7.) 
 
 The faces of Janus, in all the antiques, 
 are both alike, and both old ; and yet some 
 moderns, even in Italy, give Janus a young 
 and an old face. His presiding over 
 peace and war had no relation to his my- 
 thological character as the god of space or 
 time, but was wholly founded on an old 
 Roman legend. 
 
 The Montlis are likewise personified 
 both by poets and artists. December, par- 
 ticularly, is depicted in a drunken atti- 
 tude ; as some explanation of which it 
 will be recollected that the Saturnalia 
 were then celebrated ; and it must be con- 
 fessed that, under Christian usages, the 
 old charter of the month does not seem 
 likely to be lost. It has been already ob- 
 served, that the heathen deity Janus was 
 held to preside over the opening or gate of 
 the year ; and hence the first mouth therein 
 is called January. 
 
 The Greek months were named after 
 diilerent festivals in honour of tlie gods, 
 as the present one, for instance, Antheste- 
 rion or the Flowery — from the quantity of 
 flowers displayed at the festival of Bac- 
 chus. 
 
 The modern use of ancient terms on ac- 
 casions of this kind produces some amus- 
 ing inconsistencies, especially among the 
 Celtic nations. Thus, in our House of 
 Commons, there shall be a call of the 
 members for Wednesday, or the day of the 
 gothic deity Woden, which their Journal 
 translates into Dies Martis, or the day of 
 the Roman deity Mars ; and this day of 
 Gothic and Roman divinityship is com- 
 menced with the reading of Christian 
 prayers. 
 
 We shall here give from that fruitful 
 offspring of Spenser's imagination, the 
 Faery Quecne, a poetical list of the twelve 
 months; in which the personifications of 
 each, often very happy and ingenious, 
 may afford many a hint to the student or 
 amateur of the Fine Arts. 
 
 Then caiiic old Jannary, wrapped well 
 111 many weeds to keep the cold away ; 
 Yet did he quake and quiver like to ([iiell ; 
 And blowe his iiayles to wanue tbciu if he may ; 
 For they wore minib'd with holding all the day 
 An hatchet keene, with which he felled wood, 
 And from the trees did lop the iiecdlessc spray ; 
 Upon a huge great earth-pot stoene he stood. 
 From whose wide mouth there flowed forth the Ro- 
 mane flood. Book vii. Canto 7. 
 
 February is so called from the Roman 
 custom of buruiug expiatory sacrifices, Fe- 
 lyualia. 
 
,.., Tlita came colil February, eiltiiii; 
 111 III ulil wai;s;on, for lie cuuKl not ride, 
 Diawiic of t«u fidlies fxr the season niling, 
 Wliicli through Hie 11o<h1 before dirt eoftly flyde 
 Ami !< Willi away ; yet had he by his side 
 Hi." |iK>iii;h and hariiease lit to till the ground. 
 And loolei to prune the trees, before tlie pride 
 Of hastiut; prime did make them burgeon round 
 
 March, which was the first month iu 
 antiquitj', was so named by the Romans, 
 after Mars the god of war, because he was 
 the father of their first prince. This, at 
 least, is the reason given by Ovid. As to 
 the deity's nature, March has certainly no- 
 thing in common with it; for though it 
 aflfects to be very rough, it is one of the 
 best naturcd months in the year, drying 
 up the superabundant moisture of winter 
 with its lierce winds, and thus restoring 
 us our paths through tlic fields, and piping 
 before the flowers like a bacchanal. 
 
 — Sturdy Miirch, with brows full sternly bent 
 And armed strongly, rode upon a rain ; 
 The sanii' which over Hellesiioutus swam ; 
 Yet in his hand a spade he also hent. 
 And in a bag all sorts of seeds ysamc, 
 Wliicli on the earth he strewed as he went. 
 And fil'd her womb with IVuiUuU hope of nourieh- 
 meuC. 
 
 April is so called from the Latin Aprilis, 
 wliich is derived from the word Aperire, 
 to o;<t7i. The allusion is obvious. 
 
 Next came fresh April, full of lusteyhed. 
 And wanton as a kid whose home new buds ; 
 Upon a bull he rode, the same which led 
 Utiropa noting llirough the' Argolick lluds : 
 Hisjii.rns were gilden all with golden studs. 
 And garnished with garlands goodly dight 
 <)l all the laiicsl llowers and frcslust buds 
 Wliicli til' earUi briiigs forth ; and wet he seem'd 
 
 in sight 
 Willi waves, through which he waded for hia love's 
 
 delight. 
 
 May is so called from tlio goddess Maia, 
 a name under which tlie earth was wor- 
 sliiped at this dudal season of the year. 
 May is the month spoken of with tiie 
 greatest rapture in all i\\o. polite countries 
 of Europe, tliough (he Ijiglishman is some- 
 times at a loss to perceive why. 
 
 Then came faiie May, the fayrest Mayd on ground, 
 l)i-<k'l all with daiiilirs of her season's prydo. 
 Anil liiiowiiig llowiis (Mil of her lap ariiniid : 
 llpoli Iwo liiutlireiiH shoulders she did I ide, 
 'I'ln- l«iiiins of Lida ; which on either side 
 .Siippiiiiiil hrr like to their soveiaine (pieene; 
 Ijoid I how all creatures lauglil when her lluy 
 
 Kplde, 
 And leapt and daiinc'l as they had ravisht beene I 
 And (Ju|)iil sell about lur lliiltcred all in gieeiio. 
 
 Tht! name of June (and indeed that of 
 '^'•'y)) gave ritte to various •■tymologifs ; 
 lull the most probiihle one derives it from 
 Juno, ill honour of wlioin a fcslival was 
 < elclnaled at Ihe beginning of llie mouth. 
 
 Kpenser is not so hiippy as usual in his 
 deicriptiou of this month, but has wanted 
 
 SEASONS. 
 
 his stanza on the sign of the Zodiac. The 
 allusion at the end is supposed to be aimed 
 at the Puritans, who were then just be- 
 ginning to poison all our natural enjoy- 
 ments; but it seems obviously to point to 
 the description of the hypocritical preten- 
 ders to prophecy in Dante, wiiose faces 
 looked behind instead of before them. 
 
 And after her came jolly June, array'd 
 All in green leaves, as he a player were; 
 Yet in his lime he wrought as well as play'd. 
 That by his plough-irons mote rite well appeaie. 
 I'pou a crab he rode, that him did bare 
 With crooked crawling steps an uncouth pase. 
 And backw ard-yode, as bargemen wont to fare. 
 Bending their force contrary to their face ; 
 Like that ungracious crew which faines demurest 
 grace. 
 
 July is so called after Julius Ca?sar, 
 who contrived to divide his names between 
 moiitlts and dynasties, and among his bet- 
 ter deeds of ambition reformed the calen- 
 dar. 
 
 Then came hot July, toiling like to fire. 
 
 That all his garments he had cast away. 
 Upon a lyon raging yet with ire 
 He boldly rode, and made him to obey: 
 (It was the beast that wliiUmi did foiray 
 The Nemxan forest, till the Ainphilriouide 
 Him slew, and with his hide did him array:) 
 Behind his backc a sithe, and by his side 
 Under his belt he bore a sickle circling wide. 
 
 August is 80 named from Augustus, a 
 clever man of the world, who, partly by 
 chance, and partly by foolish political 
 hopelessness, was allowed to become mas- 
 ter of it. The Romans originally called 
 July and August (iuiiitilis and Sextilis, 
 or fifth and sixtli mouliis, dating from the 
 old yearly commencement of March ; Sep- 
 tember, October, November, and Decem- 
 ber, meant tiie seventh, eigiith, nintii, and 
 tenth months accordingly. 
 
 Admire the deep beauty of this allegori- 
 cal picture. Spenser takes advantage of 
 the sign of the Zodiac, the Virgin, to con- 
 vert her into Astrea, tlie goddess of justice, 
 who seems to return to eartlt awhile, when 
 the exuberance of the season presents 
 enough for all. 
 
 The eighth was Augurt, being rich array'd 
 In >j[arnirnt all of gold dowiie to the ground: 
 Yet lode he not, bul led a lov.ly ma>d 
 Forth by the lilly hand, the wliieli was crown'd 
 With cares of corn, and full her hand was found. 
 Thai was the rightrmis Virgin, which of olil 
 liiv'd here tm earth, and pleiily made ubouiid ; 
 lint alter wrong waslov'd, anil jusliee solde, 
 She lell Ih' iiniiglilioii.t world, uiid wa.t to heav'ii 
 vxtol'd. 
 
 The poet still lakes advantage of the 
 exuberance of harvest ami tlie sign of Ihr 
 Zodiac ill the next mouth, to read us a les- • 
 joii uii justice. 
 
SEC 
 
 Next liiin September marched ckc on fool ; 
 Yet was he heavy laden with the cpoylc 
 Or liai vest'a riches, whicli lie made liis boot. 
 And him enriched witli bnimty of (lie soyle : 
 III liis one hand, as fit for harvest's toyle, 
 Hi; held a l<nife-hool'; ; and in tli' otiier hand 
 A paire of weisjhts, with whicli he did assoylc 
 liiith more and Icsse, where it in doubt did stand. 
 And equal gave to each as justice duly scanned. 
 
 Then came October, fidl of merry glee. 
 For yet his nowle was totty of tlu' must. 
 Which he was treading, in the wine-fat's sec, 
 And of the joyous oyle, whose gentle gust 
 Made him so frolic and so full of lust. 
 Upon a dreadful Scorpion he did ride. 
 The same which by Dianae's doom unjust 
 Slew great Orion ; and eeke by his side 
 He had his ploughing-share and coulter ready fyde. 
 
 Next was November ; ho full grown and fat 
 As fed with lard, and that right well might secmc ; 
 For he had been a fatting hogs of late. 
 That yet his browes with svveatdid reek and steam ; 
 And yet the season was full sharp and breem ; 
 In planting eeke he took no small delight. 
 Whereon he rode, not easie was to deeme ; 
 For it a dreadful centaure was in sight. 
 The seed of Saturn and fair Nais, Chiron bight. 
 
 And after him came next the chill December ; 
 Yet he, through merry feasting which he made 
 And great bonfires, did not the cold remember ; 
 His Saviour's birth so much his mind did glad. 
 Upon a shaggy bearded goat he rode. 
 The same wherewith Dan Jove in tender years. 
 They say was nourisht by the Idcean mayd ; 
 And in his hand a broad deep bowle he bears. 
 Of which he freely drinks an health to all his peeres. 
 
 Seat, [^sett, old German.] In architec- 
 ture and joinery. The name of any thing 
 serving as a resting place or chair. We 
 often find depicted on ancient monuments 
 sundry specimens of this useful article. 
 Tlie suhsdlium was a seat peculiar to he- 
 roic personages and to kings. The Roman 
 magistrates were commonly seated on the 
 curule chair, a sort of bench. The sella 
 curulis is principally remarked on medals 
 of the Lollia, Cornelia, and Cestia fami- 
 lies; while those of the Sulpicia and Cri- 
 tonia families are adorned with the kind 
 of benches appropriated to the quaestors, 
 ittdiles, and inferior magistrates gene- 
 rally. 
 
 The arrangement of seats in the Greek 
 and Roman theatres was subjected to par- 
 ticular rules; it was not permitted for 
 each spectator to place himself where he 
 chose; but the different classes of citizens 
 luid different seats assigned to them. 
 
 Seclusorium. [Lat. from se, which de- 
 notes separation, and claudo, to siiut up.] 
 Jnarchaiologij. In the large aviaries which 
 the wealthy Romans established in their 
 villas, an apartment was set aside under 
 the title of the seclusorium, wherein birds 
 were confined for the purpose of being 
 sold or killed. 
 
 SEC 
 
 Section. [Lat. scciio, from seco, to di- 
 vid(!.] In architectural drawiiif^^s, thb word 
 section is applied to the view of an edifice 
 cut down the middle for the purpose of 
 exhibiting the interior and describing the 
 height, breadth, thickness of wall, arches, 
 domes, &c. The drawings relative to an 
 architectural work cannot be said to be 
 complete, unless they comprise plan, ele- 
 vation, and section. The terms Sciagka- 
 PHY and Profile (see those words) are 
 occasionally substituted for section. 
 
 Secular Games. [Lat. secular is, from 
 scculum, a hundred years.] In archaiologij. 
 These celebrated games were held, as 
 their name implies, but once in the space 
 of a century. They lasted three days, and 
 as many nights ; and throughout this pe- 
 riod, sacrifices were performed, theatrical 
 shows exhibited, with sports, combats, 
 &c. in the Circus. Valerius Maximiis, 
 Zosimus, and the ancient authors, ascribe 
 their origin to the following cause. 
 
 In the earliest times of the Roman state, 
 a rich man named Valesius, who dwelt at 
 his country house in the Sabine teri-itory, 
 had several of his children attacked by 
 the plague; and, to procure their reco- 
 very, was commanded by his household 
 gods to take them down the Tiber to a 
 place called Tarentum, and there to make 
 tiiem drink water heated on the altar of 
 Pluto and Proserpine. The orders of 
 these sage deities were complied with, 
 and the children recovered ; whilst in 
 token of his gratitude the father offered 
 sacrifices and lectisternia ; put sumptuous 
 clothes on the accommodating little lares, 
 and, in conclusion, instituted games of re- 
 joicing. The practice, however, did not 
 spread xintil, in the year of Rome 245, Va- 
 lerius Publicola followed the example of 
 the Sabine citizen, on a similar occasion, 
 namely, to check the progress of an infec- 
 tious disease. 
 
 The solemnity was as follows : — The 
 whole world was invited by a herald to a 
 feast such as they had never before wit- 
 nessed, nor would ever see repeated. 
 Some days before the games began, the 
 quindecemriri in the Capitol and the I'ala- 
 tine Temple distributed among the people 
 purifying compositions of diflercnt sorts, 
 such, for instance, as sulphur, flambeaux, 
 &;c. From hence the populace passed to 
 Diana's Temple on the Avcntine Mount, 
 with barley, wheat, and oats, by way of 
 ofi'ering. Entire nights were afterwards 
 spent in devotion to the destinies. 
 
 When the time of the games was fully 
 arrived, the i)eople assembled in the Cam- 
 pui Martius, and sacrificed to Jupiter, 
 
Juno, Apollo, Lalona, Diana, the Parca?, 
 (\.res — and, though last not least, to Pluto 
 and Proserpine. On the first nifjht of the 
 festival, the emperor, with thequindeceni- 
 viri, caused three altars to be erected on 
 tlie banks of the Tiber, which having 
 sprinkled with tiie blood of three lambs, 
 they proceeded to regular sacrifice. A 
 space being next marked out for a theatre, 
 v.as illuminated with countless fires and 
 flambeaux. Here hymns were chanted, 
 and all descriptions of sports celebrated. 
 On the succeeding day, having ofli'ered 
 victims at the Capitol, they repaired to the 
 Campus Martins, and engaged in sports to 
 tlie honour of Apollo and Diana. These 
 lasted till next day, when the noble ma 
 
 SECULAR GAMES. 
 
 Horace, and the 21st ode of his first, and 
 6th ode of his 4th book. Details respect- 
 ing the secnlar games are also to be met 
 with in Festls, at the words scccuUtrcs 
 ludi ; in Valerils M.vximls, 2d book and 
 chap. 4th ; in the work of Censorin'us, De 
 Die Natali, chap. 17 ; in the ISth chap, of 
 the 3d book of St. Augustine's work, Dc 
 Civifate Dei; and in the 1st and 2d odes 
 Ad Quirinum of Metellls, suruamcd Tc- 
 
 Among writers of a later date we may 
 cite :— Joseph Sc vi.iger, in the 2d book of 
 Eincndatione Temporiim. Onuphrius Pan- 
 viNiLS, in his work De Secultirihus Ludix, 
 found at the end of his Fasti, Venice, 
 1558, Heid. (same date), fol. In the 1st 
 
 trons, at the hour appointed by the oracle, vol. of the Mlscellunca of Gaudentius Ro 
 
 went to the Capitol to sing hymns to Ju- 
 l)iter. On the third and last day (which 
 concluded tlie solemnity), twenty-seven 
 boys and as many girls sung in the temple 
 of Palatine Apollo verses and hymns, in 
 Greek and Latin, to recommend the city 
 to tlie protection of those deities to whose 
 especial honour their sacrifices were de- 
 voted. 
 
 The matchless Carmen Seculare of Ho- 
 race was composed for tliis last day, in 
 the secular games held by Augustus. 
 
 Much diversity of opinion has obtained 
 with reference to the question, whether 
 those games were held every hundred or 
 every hundred and ten years. Valerius 
 Anlius, Varro, and Livy are all quoted in 
 support of the former opinion : whilst, in 
 fa> our of the latter may be urged the quin- 
 deceniviral registers, the edicts of Augus- 
 tus, and tiie words of Horace in the Car- 
 wic« — " Catus iindenos dccies jier autios." 
 
 A general belief oljtained that the girls 
 Avho bore a part in the song should be 
 soonest married ; and that those children 
 wiio did not dance and sing at the coming 
 of Apollo sliould die unmarried, and at an 
 early period of life. 
 
 On tills interesting subject an acquaint- 
 ance with wlii( h cannot fail to 1)1- useful 
 to the arlistical student, he is referrcti, for 
 further information, to the follo\^ing 
 works: — The Sijhilline Versen, wliicli '/.o- 
 M.^ii s has preserved to us in his 2d book ; 
 together with those handed down by Piii.k- 
 i;i)N, in tlie Uli chaiitir of his work O/i the 
 iirviil Dhn irhii jUtuvislud Imif; since. An- 
 gi'luB Poi.niANiJs has translated (li<'se 
 very eh'gantly into Latin verse in the 58tli 
 chapter of his IMisciltititni. We may com- 
 pare with Ihe al)o\i' wiiat lias Ix-cn said 
 by the coniinenlalcM'S on Ihe '.i'lih porin of 
 (xATUixus, entitled (.'itrmni SecHlnreud I)ia- 
 utiin, 116 well as (he ('urmm Scculun of 
 
 kertus; and the 11th of tlie Ticsor of 
 Graevius. — P. Taffinus, De A»no Seeiilari 
 et Ludis Sectilarihus Romaiioriim, Tournai, 
 1G41, 4to., and in the 8th vol. of the Tresor 
 of Gr.^vils, w hicli work w as composed on 
 occasion of the secular festival of the Or- 
 der of the Jesuits. Sp vmieim, in the 9th 
 Dissci'tutioH of his w ork De Usii et Pias- 
 tantia Numismatitm. J. Cia.->ji>inls, Sacni 
 historica Disqvisitio de duohtts Einblemuii- 
 btis in Cimelio Cardinalis Carpinei asservati, 
 %ibi disputatur, an duo Vhilippi Impiiatuiea 
 fuerint Cliristiani? Just. UvEQtas, Syn- 
 tiiiiina de Auno Sacnlari, Jul.ileo, et Anuis 
 sulemnibus diversurum Nationum, Ant. 
 1625, 8vo. J. A. TLnuETiNL>;, Acudeinicie 
 Qucstiones de Ludis StcuUiribus, Geneva, 
 1701, 4to. Florent. de BiuiN, Eeuw-Spe- 
 ten der oude Romfijneu, Ike. Anist. 1703, 
 8vo. P. Rainssant, Dissertation snr douze 
 MMitHles de Jeux S^cidaires de I'Emperetir 
 Domitiun, Versailles, 1684, 4to. A Disser- 
 tiilioii, by an anonymous author, upon two 
 Roman "medals, Paris, 1701. Gai.l.\ni), 
 E.vtniit d'une Lettre sur In Medtiille de Crn- 
 tien, dans laquelle il est parte d'nn eommence- 
 ment de siede dansles Manoives de 7')( rm/.r, 
 1701. Hardl'INI, Dissertatio de ISunnnu 
 Cnitiani, cum Epiiiraplie :—G\.oKi\ Novi 
 S.KCiii.i, in his Opera Sclirta, p. 503. Hau- 
 notiN, Exirait d'une Dissertation Latim 
 snr deux Midailles dc Gratien, sur fune des 
 (juelles il est parte d'un eomnuncenu-nt de 
 siiele, el peul-etre d'un siecle de fire VUri- 
 lienne, in the fllemoires de Tri^roux, 1701, 
 1). 131. Lkibnitz, Diss, de A'ummis, in </«/- 
 l>us liine (iralianus dicitur Aid. (i. A 1 <.'. 
 inde aulem eonimenlatur Gi.oniv No\i S.i:- 
 CULI, in the llleeta of Wolteretk, p. 30S. 
 Lettre touehant rExplicalion du P. Hak- 
 DOUIN, de la Mt'daitle de (iratien dans la- 
 tiuelle il est parte d'un conimeneenieni de 
 .sii)cU', in tiic HhUnoires de TrtU-oux, 1701. 
 Hoi'-sM-, S'oetes 'i7it(»/(w n «f , the 61 h of 
 
S£R 
 
 S E W 
 
 which treats of the subject before us. J. to the priests and attendants ; and around 
 M. Gesnek, Commentatio dc Anins LmUfujue are refectories, council chaniljon^, &c. The 
 Scvcnlarlbus Veterum Romanorum, Vin. temple itself is adorned witli columns, and 
 1717. D'issertatio dc Opinatis Scccularium has walls of marble." 
 Ludontm Notts in Numinls Romanorum Scecii- Ptolemy, the son of Lagiis, had built 
 larihtis, by tlie same, Gottingen, 1745, 4to. this serapeum on a spot by which, for a 
 Ayrmann, De Ludls Romanoium Saxulari- long time before, had stood a cliapel con- 
 bus, Wittemb. 1717. C. G. Schwartz, De secrated to Serapis and Isis. lioth this 
 Ludls Sceculuribus, sub Philippis Auguslis, and the new temple, however, were de- 
 Alt. 1723. J. A. M. Nagel, De Ludis See- stroyed by order of the Christian Emperor 
 culavibus Veterum Romanorum in Getnara Theodosius. 
 
 Bubylonica Commemoi-atis, Alt. 1743. The statue of Serapis, according to Ma- 
 
 Semicircle. [Lat. from semi, half, and crobius, was of a human form, witli a bas- 
 circulus, a circle.] In geometry. A half ket or bushel on his head, signifying 
 round : part of a circle divided by the plenty. His right hand leaned on the 
 diameter. head of a serpent, whose body was wound 
 
 Senaria. [Lat.] In ancient architecture. I'ound a figure with three heads — of a dog, 
 Name applied by the Romans to those a lion, and a wolf. In his left hand he 
 pipes or tunnels, in their aqueducts, the lif^W a measure of a cubit length, as it 
 diameter of which was an inch and a half, were, to take t!ie height of the waters of 
 or six quarters; when the diameter was the Nile. Thii celebrated statue was de- 
 seven quarters of an inch they vvere deno- stroyed with the temple ; its limbs first 
 minated septenaria ; and the proportion in- carried in triumph through the city, and 
 creased to the viccnaria, so called from its then thrown by the meek Christians into 
 measuring twenty quarters, or five inches. ^ fierce fire kindled for that purpose in the 
 See Aqueduct. amphitheatre. The figure of Serapis is 
 
 Sentiment. [Fr.] In painting and sculp- found on many ancient medals. 
 tttre. The evidence in his work of feeling Serpentine. Ihom serpe^it.] In archilec- 
 and sensibility in the mind and percep- ture, 8fc. The species of stone commonly 
 tions of the artist. This quality may be thus called is, according to Fabroni, a 
 almost identified with Expression (which true lapis ollaris ; but has its name from 
 Avord see). being variegated with green, yellowish, 
 
 Septa. [Lat.] See Ovile. and brown spots, like the skin of some 
 
 Septizonium. [Lat.] In ancient architec- serpents. Great quantities of it are found 
 ture. The mausoleum which Septimius in Italy and Switzerland, where it is fre- 
 Severus caused to be erected at Rome for quently worked into dishes and other ves- 
 himself and family. It was a large build- sels. M. Magellan observes, however, 
 ing, square in plan, and with seven ranges that there is a very great variety of colour, 
 of columns, forming a pyramidal figure, as well as of composition, in this genus of 
 and all surmounted by tlie statue of Sep- earths. 
 
 timius. It was constructed at the foot of Sewers, [asseo?/?-, old French.] Inarchi- 
 the Palatine Mount. Besides tiiis new tecturc. Underground gutters or channels 
 septizonium, there was one more ancient, constructed to receive and carry off the 
 which was iu the tenth quarter of the superabundantwater, as well as tiie ordure 
 city. of a town. 
 
 Sepulchral Arch. An arch, supported The common sewers of Rome, which 
 
 by columns, and erected over a tomb, with have been more or less imitated in the 
 
 an inscription on its base, or on the shafts principal modern European cities, were, 
 
 of the columns. and still continue to be, almost among the 
 
 Sepulchre. [Lat. sep^ilchrum.'] In archi- wonders of the world. They are said to 
 
 lecture. See Tomb. 
 
 Serapeum. [Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 temple of Serapis, the Egyptian deity. 
 
 have originated with Tarquin the Elder, a 
 prince whose territory did not exceed, in 
 any direction, sixteen miles ; ami in this 
 
 b 
 
 The most famous of these edifices was that case must have been constructed for the 
 
 at Alexandria. Rufinus, who witnessed it accommodation of a city containing chiefly 
 
 while standing, has left us the following herdsmen with their cattle, or banditti, 
 
 description. "This vast mass of building Now, although rude nations sometimes 
 
 is square, and forms an immense platform, execute works of great magnificence, such 
 
 supported on aches, and upon which stands as fortresses and temples, for the purposes 
 
 the temple itself. The vaults of the plat- of war or superstition, it is seldom that 
 
 form are separated into a great number of palaces, and still more seldom that works 
 
 diflferent apartments, which allbrd lodging calculated to ensure comfort and cleanli- 
 
SEW 
 
 11098 attract their attention : it may, there- 
 fore, admit of rational doubt, wliethor or 
 not tradition is correct in tJiis particuhir. 
 In fad, ingenious iiypolheses liave been 
 started which tend to assign to these vast 
 excavations an antiquitj' even more remote 
 tlum tlie era of Rouiulus, and to imagine 
 them tiie relics of a city \vl»ich mi^^'lit have 
 preceded Rome herself in tiie natural re- 
 volution of spendour and decay, and on 
 tlie ruins of which the fuf^itivc founders 
 of that emporium of art migiit have set- 
 tled, as the Arabs now hut or encamp on 
 tlie ruins of Biialbec and Palmyra. Livy 
 adniils that the common sewers were not 
 accommodated to the plan of Rome as it 
 existed in his time : " they were carried in 
 directions across the streets, and passed 
 under buildings of the greatest anfiiiuity." 
 This derangement, it is true, he imputes 
 to the liasty rebuilding of the city after its 
 destruction by tlie Gauls : but, one would 
 tliink, that liie very circumstance of haste 
 would have determined the people to ad- 
 here to their old sites ; at all events, not 
 to cross, to their inconvenience, the direc- 
 tion of former streets. 
 
 Leaving this question, however, in the 
 hands of antiquarians of deeper research, 
 we shall proceed to observe, that througli 
 the instrumentality of these stupendous 
 and most useful works, the vast city of 
 Rome, even in its most populous days, was 
 preserved perfectly dry and free from the 
 offensive eflluvia sc common and so dis- 
 gusting in various European towns. The 
 common sewers, or cloaca, of Rome had, 
 between the Capifoline, th(> Palatine, and 
 the Quirinal hills, sundry branches which 
 were all united in the Forum or Camjw 
 l'acclii(),iuu\ emptied into the Til)er by one 
 and the same canal, which was denomi- 
 nated cloaca mojcima. In tlic times of the 
 Rejiubiic, Cato the Censor and his col- 
 league, Valerius Flaccus, caused these to 
 be repaired, and new ones constructed in 
 such <juarters of the growing city as had 
 not before posscss(?d the advantage, 
 
 I?ut the jicrsonage to whom the swarm- 
 i";i population of ancient Rome was most 
 deeply indebted in this matter was Agripjia, 
 \vli(is»; iinproveiiicnts and additions were 
 so Miimerous thai, according to (he ex- 
 pression of Pliny, he built under Rome a 
 navigable city. He is said to have turned 
 llie course; of seven rivers into tliese sub- 
 Icrraneous passages, and to have actually 
 |)aHS((l in barges under the streets and 
 buildings of Rome. These immense works 
 are still supposed to remain : but as it es- 
 • eods lb.' power ami resnurcis of the mo- 
 dirn government to keep tin ni in repair 
 
 S H I 
 
 they arc, except in one or two places, quite 
 concealed. It was usual, in the times of 
 the Republic, when they became oljstruct- 
 ed, for the censors to contract to pay the 
 sum of a thousand talents (about £193,000), 
 for cleansing and repairing them. 
 
 The common sewers of London, although 
 not capable of vieing with the wonderful 
 constructions abovementioned, are still 
 very extensive and complete ; and being 
 kept in the best order, suffice to purify our 
 vast metropolis, equal in size and popula- 
 tion to Rome in her proudest days. 
 
 Sfumato. [Italian, smoky.'] In jm'int'mg. 
 This term is applied to the species of 
 painting in which the tints are extremely 
 smooth and blended, so as to present that 
 sort of indefinite contour and outline dis- 
 played by natural appearances on a misty 
 day, or at a considerable distance. This 
 style, in the hands of a master, is very 
 agreeable and harmonious. Perhaps Giier- 
 cino has seized its true spirit better than 
 any other artist of celebrity. 
 
 Sgraffito. [Italian.] In jmintin'^. A 
 sort of fresco, but simpler in its execution, 
 and better calculated to resist the injuries 
 of the weather. This work sluiuld be per- 
 formed by an able artist; since any line, 
 or contour once traced can never be obli- 
 terated. 
 
 Shadow, [j-ca'cu, Saxon.] /« paintln:;, 
 4c Shadow must not be confounded with 
 obscurity; the latter being an entire yx/- 
 vation of light, whilst the former is merely 
 a gradation of it, the parties in shad(< 
 being still radiated by the light dispersed 
 through the air. According to Felibieii, 
 it may be regarded simply as a light cloud 
 covering the bodies and depriving them of 
 the stronger brilliancy without remlering 
 their colours and siuipes inqjerceptible. 
 It is requisite, in a picture, that there 
 should be different modifications of sha- 
 dow, as operated on by situation and sur- 
 rounding objects. The direction of the 
 shades should be diagcmal, and the elVecIs 
 triangular, like those of lights. The pro- 
 gression of the latter, in fact, should .serve 
 as a model for the former, to the end that 
 the chiaroscuro should be well and natu- 
 rally balanced. See ('in vito-scirio. 
 
 Sii AIT. [[-ceapT, Saxon.] in urchitcclurc. 
 The trunk or body of a column bclwei-n 
 the base aud the capital. See Dimint- 
 
 riON, I'XTASIS. 
 
 Shape, [piyphan, Saxcm.] In all Ihcarls. 
 I'orm: external ai)iiearance. The wco'd 
 shiiiulij is used when speaking of any ob- 
 ject the proi)<)rtioiis of which are elegant 
 and harniouious. 
 
 Snii':i,i>. f fcyl't, Saxon.] In military co.i- 
 
SIC 
 
 tu7ne. One of the moBt ancient articles of 
 defensive warfare. Upon those hassi ri- 
 lievi which represent subjects of an heroi- 
 cal nature, the heroes, otherwise naked, 
 are generally supplied witli buckler or 
 shield, helmet, and sword. The shields of 
 tlie earlier Greeks were woven of osiers, 
 for which was afterwards substituted 
 planks of light wood, and subsequently 
 ox hides, frequentlj' ornamented as well 
 as rendered more solid with plates of me- 
 tal. Withinside the shield had two han- 
 dles, through which to pass the arm and 
 hand. This instrument was of various 
 shapes, according to the customs of differ- 
 ent countries. Some wore it oval, some 
 triangular, others round, others again cres- 
 cent shaped. The modern shields, those, 
 for instance, worn in the middle ages, and 
 since, are chiefly circular or square, round- 
 ed and pointed at the bottom, and adorned 
 witli paintings illustrative of the name, 
 rank, or disposition of the warrior to Avhom 
 they belonged. Indeed, as the shield was 
 one of the most important of warlike arti- 
 cles, its bearer always, even in remote 
 ages, took care to have it embellished 
 with some appropriate device. Hence the 
 ancient poets were at great pains to be 
 precise in describing witli all imaginable 
 detail the ornaments of their heroes' 
 shields ; and of these descriptions, the 
 most celebrated are those of the shield of 
 Achilles, by Homer, of Hercules, by He- 
 siod, and of /Eneas, by Virgil, Among 
 the Romans, each legion had shields of a 
 particular colour, and adorned with pecu- 
 liar symbols ; to which were added dis- 
 tinctive signs, by means of which each in- 
 dividual soldier knew his own from ano- 
 ther man's — a necessary precaution, since 
 all were deposited together in the same 
 tent or magazine. That soldier was held 
 to be dishonoured who abandoned his 
 shield. See Device. 
 
 Shrine, [fcpm, Saxon.] In sculpture 
 and modelling. A small chest or coffer, in 
 which are deposited, on the altars of Ro- 
 man Catholic churches, the relics of the 
 saints, &c. See Reliquary. 
 
 SiCYON. In the histonj of the arts. A 
 town of Acliaia, celebrated for the pro- 
 gress made by its inhabitants in painting 
 and sculpture. Dajdalus, so often spoken 
 of by Pausanias, and the painter Eupom- 
 pus, with many other famous names, drew 
 their first breath in Sicyon, where Eupom- 
 pus founded a numerous and able school. 
 This city contained several fine buildings, 
 and its reputation altogether, as regards 
 the fine arts, is deservedly high. 
 
 The Sicyouians were, however, a luxu- 
 
 SIG 
 
 rious and somewhat cfTcniinate pcoj)I<-. 
 Tiie shoes of the wom(?n were formed with 
 peculiar elegance, and their make after- 
 wards adopted in Rome. 
 
 SiGiLLUM. [Lat. diminutive of signum.^ 
 In archaiology. A seal, or ring used as a 
 seal, which was denominated annuhis sig- 
 natorhis, or sigillatorius. 
 
 SiGLA. [Lat.] In archaiology. Letters 
 used to express, without tiie assistance of 
 others, syllables, and sometimes whole 
 words. In fact, initial letters. Cicero 
 calls them singulce littera ; and other an- 
 cient writers singidarice Utterce, St. Je- 
 rome styles them signa verhorum ; and Va- 
 lerius Probus give them the general name 
 of Jiotce. 
 
 Tliere are many collections extant of 
 the sigla employed in ancient inscriptions. 
 Tlie most complete are the following: — 
 NotcB ct SiglcB qucE in Nuinmis ct Lapidibus 
 apud Ronuinos ohtinehant explicatee, Venice, 
 1785, 4to. ; and another, still more exten- 
 sive, published by M. J. Gerrard, under 
 the title of Siglurium Romanum; site Ex- 
 pUcatio Notarum aid Literarum, qua: hacte- 
 nus reperiri potuerunt, in MarmorUms, La- 
 pidibus, Nummis, Auctoribus, aliisque Ro- 
 manorum vetcrum reliquiis, Ordine alphabe- 
 tko distributa ; complecfcns non tantum sin- 
 gulas qucE in Commentariis antiquis inccni- 
 untur, scd ctiam quascunque viri eruditi ad 
 hunc usque Diem, in lucem \ protulerunt, 
 London, 1792, 4to. These two useful 
 works comprise all the information pub- 
 lished on the subject up to the period of 
 their appearance. 
 
 Sigma. [Gr. Siyjua.] In archaiology. 
 The letter S had at first among the Greeks 
 the form of a C, and the Romans having 
 adopted this form in the construction of 
 their tables, instead of the triclinium, tlie 
 name of sigma was given to those which 
 resembled the shape of a horseslioe, round 
 which was placed a couch following the 
 diameter of the table. Tiie most honour- 
 able places were those at the two exti-e- 
 mities of this bed, and at the void space 
 left by the semicircle the servants intro- 
 duced the meats. 
 
 SiGNiNUM Opus. In archaiology. Name 
 given by Vitruvius (book viii. chap. 7), to 
 a particular kind of work made use of in 
 the construction of wells and cisterns. 
 The following is the plan pursued. They 
 mixed five parts of pure sand and two of 
 lime ; and having stirred these well toge- 
 ther, added pieces of soft sandy stone, 
 about a pound weight each. This mass 
 served to cover the walls or ground work ; 
 and, for the purpose of additional- soli- 
 dity, they beat it with masses of wood 
 
SIM 
 
 pointed with iron. According to Pliny, 
 the sisc^inum opus was constructed of 
 jMnindcd tiles and lime. 
 
 SiLENCK. [Lat. .silriilium.'] In cmbltmnti- 
 ctU painting and sculpture. Silence has been 
 personified by Harpocrates, as a young 
 man with his finger in his mouth. Si- 
 lence, or rather sftcresy, is also expressed 
 by a figure lifting a seal to his lips. The 
 allegory was furnished by Alexander the 
 Great, who, observing Hepiiestion reading, 
 at the same time with himself, a letter 
 which he had received from his mother, 
 drew from his linger the ring whicli he 
 used as a signet, and placed it ou the 
 other's lip. 
 SiLicAKii. See Curator Aquarium. 
 Sii.K. [j-eole, Sax.] In archaiologij. The 
 ancients, there is reason to believe, had 
 but a very imperfect knowledge either of 
 the uses of this article or the method of 
 making it. The honour of its invention is 
 sometimes attributed to Pamphilus of 
 Cos. Tlie discovery was soon introduced 
 into Rome, though even in the times of the 
 Emperor Aurelius silk was a rare and ex- 
 pensive thing. 
 
 Sill, [j-yl. Sax.] In architecture. The 
 timber or stone at tiu; foot of the door. 
 
 SiMiA. [Lat. fl« rt/'f.] In anhaiolngij . 
 The siniia was one of the objects of vene- 
 ration among the Egyptians. Upon the 
 Palestrine musaic are represented the 
 figures of several varieties of simia, or 
 apes. 
 
 SiMPuciTY. [Lat. from simplicitas.'] In 
 ail llic arts. That quality opposed to exu- 
 berance or pretension. We say tliat a 
 work of art possesses a noble simplicity 
 when the effect produced by it is the result 
 •if nunins neither numerous nor compli- 
 cated. \Vc say also that a form is simply 
 beautiful when, jis in the majority of an- 
 ti(|ue vases, it pleases by its agreeable 
 contour alone, without the assistance of 
 any accessories. With regard to an edi- 
 fice similar remarks apply. It is sinijjly 
 idegiint wiien tliere is no (tonfuscd or con- 
 tradictory diversity of parts, and when tiie 
 whole is harmonious and graceful. Ex- 
 perience; has abumliinlly proved, tiiat sim- 
 lilicity, as distiuguishi'd from meanness or 
 boldness, is always comtormable to good 
 (asle. This (|uality may be evidenced in 
 all Ihc (lidcrenl portions of a work, from 
 the general |)Iane\eli lo tile execution of 
 the niiiuitest details. The best uorks of 
 art are always the simplest in point of <le- 
 sign. Their projeclors s<iughl the loiiui- 
 ples of grandeur and beauty not in a su- 
 I)ernuouH cpiantity of parts, but in unity, 
 in connection, in lnvl insnnlilr. I( is true 
 
 SIP 
 
 that the great masters have sometimes 
 j)roduced works the composition of which 
 is extremely rich, but only when the sub- 
 ject necessarily demanded such profusion. 
 When Poussin i)ainted the gathering of 
 manna by the Israelites in the Desert, he 
 could not limit himself to a small number 
 of figures. But often, in the finest speci- 
 mens of pictorial art, a single group, com- 
 posed of four or five figures, is found sufli- 
 cient to tell an interesting story, and to 
 display the most consummate ability in the 
 artist. 
 
 In order to attain this most desirable 
 quality, the artist should take care to pro- 
 pose to himself one great aim, one princi- 
 pal point de vue, to which every thing else 
 siiould be subordinate. The grand stjle 
 presupposes simplicity in all its parts: — 
 in subject, in forms, in attitudes, in com- 
 position, in ordonnance, in accessories, 
 &c. It presupposes also a great mind in 
 him who practises — a higli taste in him 
 w ho appreciates and applauds it. 
 
 In Home's Eh'm<'nts of Crilicism, we find 
 several just observations on this subject. 
 On simplicity in painting we may read with 
 advantage the second of Hageuorn's din- 
 siderutions snv la Peinture. On simplicity 
 in architecture we may consult the 3d 
 book of the first volume of the Principes 
 de I' Architecture Civile, by Mii.iziv. 
 
 Sinuous. [Lat. sinuosus.^ In the arts of 
 design. The contours of any ligure or ar- 
 tistical jierformance will appear stiff" and 
 rigid if right lines are suffered to predo- 
 minate. A great variety of curves ought 
 to be described, thus presenting that grace- 
 ful undulatory outline denominated serpen- 
 tine or sinuous. 
 
 SiPvmuM. [Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 curtain serving often, instead of a door, to 
 separate one room from another. The an- 
 cient judges in criminal causes were in 
 the hal)it of having a curtain raised before 
 their tribunal, in order to admit of their 
 discussing the subjects in their hands with 
 freedom aiul secresy. In cases of minor 
 interest and importance, the veil was left 
 undrawn, and hence arose the two Latin 
 i^xjjressitms — ad relu sisti to denote tlu! 
 curtain being drawn, and lirato velo to 
 specify an open investigation. 
 
 In the temples a sipariuin often con- 
 cealed the statue of the tieity in times 
 when sacrifice was not performing. In 
 tlie theatres it was adapted to pretty much 
 the same puri)ose as in our own; but to 
 develope the sccMie, it was customarily 
 lowered, instead of raised, and left during 
 Ihc spectacle on the ground under the an- 
 terior pari of the prosci'iiinm, until increas- 
 
I 
 
 SK£ 
 
 ed skill enabled them to sink it beneath 
 the staj^e by means of a trap. 
 
 Sheath, [pcaerhe, Sax.] In sculpture. 
 The under part of a hermes, from which 
 the head may be said to issue, as from a 
 sheath. This was the most ancient form 
 of statuary, which employed at first no- 
 thing but square stones, at top of which 
 heads were carved. The Palladium was 
 shaped in this manner. See Palladium. 
 It was customary to put half way down 
 the emblem of virility when a man's bust 
 was intended. See Hermes, Sculpture. 
 
 Sjstrum. [Lat.] In archaiology . Or 
 CiSTRUM. A kind of musical instrument 
 used by the priests of Tsis and Osiris. 
 It is described by Spon as of an oval form, 
 in manner of a rocket, with three sticks 
 traversing it breadthwise ; which playing 
 freely by the agitation of the whole instru- 
 ment, yielded a kind of sound, which to 
 them seemed melodious. Mr. Malcolm 
 takes the sistrum to be no better than a 
 kind of rattle. Oiselius observes, that the 
 sistrum is found represented on several 
 medals and on talismans. 
 
 Site. [Lat. situsJ] In nrchitedure. The 
 situation of a building, and sometimes the 
 ground-plot or spot of earth it stands on. 
 The term is occasionally used to denote 
 the particular spot or tract presented in 
 the landscape of a picture. 
 
 Sketch, [schiazzo, Ital.] In painting, 
 drawing, &c. This word expresses the 
 first idea of the subject of any given 
 picture, traced with the earliest fire of 
 composition, before the enthusiasm the 
 painter may be supposed to feel has been 
 sobered down by judgment. Sketches are 
 made either with carbon, with the pen, or 
 the pencil; in general that method is pre- 
 ferred which seems to present the great- 
 est promptitude and facility. It is this 
 rapidity of execution, indeed, to which 
 may fairly be ascribed that fire and anima- 
 tion perceptible in the sketches of the 
 great masters. These, and more particu- 
 larly such of them as are peculiarly happy 
 in composition, are extremely useful to 
 the artist. A painter of genius rarely 
 confines himself to a single idea for his 
 composition. His first sketch has gene- 
 rally the advantage of being the most bril- 
 liant, but is at the same time subject to 
 the defects inseparable from haste. The 
 following one offers the results of a mode- 
 rated imagination, whilst those succeeding 
 mark the rout which the artist's judg- 
 ment has pursued, and which it will be 
 matter of no small interest to the student 
 to trace. A comparison between the 
 sketches of the great masters imd their 
 
 SOB 
 
 finished pictures is also interesting from 
 suggesting reflections on their character, 
 their modes of thinking, their style in 
 its details, &c. and sometimes it affords 
 means for appreciating the constraint that 
 has impelled thorn to substitufe for tlieir 
 own reasonable ideas, others absurd and 
 ridiculous, arising either from the vanity 
 or bad taste of their employers. 
 
 The student must however be guarded, 
 in the contemplation of sketches, from 
 being seduced into indecision or looseness 
 of style, which too great a fondness for 
 taking them as models may probably su- 
 perinduce. See Drawing. 
 
 Skin, [skind, Danish.] In painting and 
 sculpture. The natural covering of the 
 flesh. It has been remarked that the an- 
 cient artists took no care to mark the va- 
 riety presented by the surfaces of skin 
 either in statues of their divinities or in 
 such as Avere placed at a great distance 
 from the eye. But it would be erroneous 
 to conclude from hence that they were de- 
 ficient either in observation, or in the skill 
 necessary to display its fruits; for an ex- 
 amination of some of their finest heads 
 woxild soon show that they possessed great 
 excellence in rendering wrinkles and folds 
 of skin : and the Laocoon presents an emi- 
 nent instance of adroitness in expressing 
 all the peculiarities of a skin agitated by 
 the swelling of the veins, the crispation of 
 the cutaneous muscles, and the violent 
 contraction of the tendons. This sculp- 
 ture, together with those of the Gladiator, 
 the kneeling Venus, the Hermaphrodite, 
 &c. and the paintings of Raffaelle and 
 Guido, may be confidently selected by the 
 student whereon to form his taste and 
 style in the expression of the skin. 
 
 Skins, [same derivation.] In ancient 
 costume. Skins were very much employed, 
 and formed likewise tiie ordinary couch 
 and coverlid. Skins were also used be- 
 fore the invention of saddles, to supply the 
 purpose now answered by them. Among 
 the Greeks, they were frequently used (at 
 least those of animals sacrificed) to orna- 
 ment the statues of their gods. Tents were 
 constructed likewise, both by the Greeks 
 and Romans, of the skins of beasts. 
 Smalt. [Lat. smaltum.'] See Enamel. 
 Smaragdum. [Gr. aixapaySoQ.'] See Eme- 
 rald. 
 
 Sobriquet. [Fr. a name arbitrarily 
 given : a nickname.] In all the arts. This 
 term is introduced here in order to men- 
 tion the practice, which has so frequently 
 obtained among artists of giving them a 
 surname by which they are more readily 
 known than by their proper appellation, 
 
 Y \ 
 
SOL 
 
 and which is commonly derived either 
 from the town where they were born, from 
 some feeling of derision, or from some par- 
 ticular liabit of the bearer. Thus, for in- 
 stance, Anthony Allesrri is called Correggio; 
 Francis Mazzuoli, Parmcgiano ; Paul Cag- 
 liari, Veronese, &c. from the towns w here 
 they first saw the light. Zimenes de Na- 
 varetta was surnanied el miulo, or the dumb, 
 he having been deprived from birth of the 
 faculties of speech and hearing. Peter 
 Breughel was denominated the droll, from 
 his fondness for saying good things; while 
 John, his son, received the sobriquet of vel- 
 vet Breughel, since he wore velvet coats 
 in winter, a remarkable luxury towards the 
 end of the sixteenth century. The sur- 
 name is sometimes regulated also, by the 
 particular sort of work practised by the 
 artist ; as, in the case of Michel Ange Cer- 
 quozzi, called Michel-Ange des Bamho- 
 chades, from having been chiefly employed 
 in painting grotesque subjects. 
 
 Society. [Lat. sodetas.] In all the arts. 
 See Academy. 
 
 Sock. [Lat. soccus, either from Gr. aaK- 
 Kog, a bag, or from siccus, dry, because 
 they were a protection from the wet.] In 
 archaiology. A covering for the feet some- 
 what similar to the Cothurnus (which 
 word see) and often applied particularly to 
 the shoes, soles, or sandals worn by the 
 comedians. 
 
 Soffit or Soffita. In architecture. The 
 under part or cieling of a cornice. Any 
 timljcr cieling formed of cross-beams of 
 flying cornices, the square compartments 
 or panels of which are enriclied with 
 sculpture, painting, or gilding; such are 
 those in the palaces of Italy, and in the 
 apartments of tiie Luxembourg at Paris. 
 The term is also employed for the under 
 side or face of an architrave ; and more 
 especially for that of the corona or larmier, 
 which the ancients called lacunaria (which 
 see), the French denominate pluf'ond, and 
 we usually the drip. It is enriched with 
 compartments of roses; and in the Doric 
 order has eighteen drops, disposed in fliree 
 ranks (six in each), placed to the riglit of 
 tiic guttai at the bottom of the triglyphs. 
 Thp word soflit has likewise been applied 
 to the cieling of an arcii. 
 
 SoiTKNiNG, [fiDin lo soften.'] In paint- 
 ing. The mixing and diluting of colours 
 with the brush or |>encil. 
 
 S«)i.viiU'M. ( I.at. from so/, Iho sun.] A sun- 
 •lial. A platform at top of the; houses of 
 the ancients where the inhabitants walked 
 to take the nir and occasioiKilly took re- 
 frcMlinients. The word snlurinm likewise 
 ^ignifipd an impost levied on tho.se who 
 
 SOM 
 
 received permission to build upon the pub- 
 lic ground. The exaction as well as the 
 fixing of this tax rested with the curators 
 of the public places. 
 
 Solder or Sodder. {soldare, Ital. soli- 
 dare, Lat.] A metalic or mineral composi- 
 tion used in soldering or joining together 
 other metals. Solders are made of gold, 
 silver, copper, tin, bitumen, and lead : 
 usually observing that in the composition 
 there be some of the metal that is to be 
 soldered mixed with some higher and 
 Cner metals. Goldsmiths generally make 
 four kinds of solder, viz. solder of eight, 
 where to seven parts of silver there is one 
 of brass or copper ; solder of six, where 
 only a sixth part is copper; solder of four 
 and solder of three. It is the mixture of 
 copper in the solder that makes raised 
 plate always come cheaper than flat. 
 
 SoLDSRiNG. [from to solder.'] The join- 
 ing and fastening together of two pieces of 
 the same metal, or of two diflerent metals, 
 by the fusion and application of some me- 
 tallic composition on the extremities of the 
 metals to be joined. 
 
 SoLEA. [Lat. fvom solum, the sole of the 
 foot.] In ancient costume. A kind of shoe, 
 having nothing on the upper part of the 
 foot but latchets. See Sandal. 
 
 SoMNUS. [Lat.] In allegorical painting 
 and sculpture. Somnus, or sleep, seems to 
 be placed by Virgil in the prerinus region, 
 or enti-ance into the infernal shades, on 
 account of his relation to L;ethum, or 
 Lethe, though Ovid and Statius gives him 
 a place on our earth. He is generally re- 
 presented by the artists as a soft youth 
 stretched out at his ease on a couch, rest- 
 ing his head on a lion's skin (and some- 
 times on a lion, as in a statue in Rlaf- 
 fei) with one aj-m either a little over or 
 under his head, and the other hanging 
 dow n negligently by the side pf the couch, 
 with poppies in it, or a horn full of jioppy- 
 juice. He is often winged, and so like 
 Cupid as to have been frequently taken 
 for one, notwithstanding the lizard at 
 his feet, the i)roper attribute of Somnns, 
 as it sleeps half the year. The lizard is 
 not mentioned by the poets, and niiglit be 
 used by the artists merely for tlistincfion, 
 though the poppy seems sullicieiit for that 
 purpose, except in some few ])ieees, w here 
 the distinguishing attributes of both are 
 blended together. In that ease these may 
 be Cupids under the ehaiiieti-r of Somnus. 
 
 The poets speak often of the wings of 
 Somnus, and of their being black, as niosl 
 I)roper for (he god wh« chiefly rules at 
 night. For the same reason his figures 
 are of ebony, basalt, or «lark coloured 
 
8PH 
 
 marble. Siicli is the fine statue at Flo- 
 rence wliich holds a horn in his hand so 
 remisslj' that the poppy juice is running 
 out of it. Somnus is supposed to commu- 
 nicate sleep to mortals by pouring out of 
 his liorn on them, by touching them with 
 his virga or rod, or by gently passing by 
 their bedside. When he gave troubled 
 sleep or tumultuous dreams, he mixed 
 M^ater from some infernal river with his 
 poppy juice. 
 
 Statius describes Somnus more fre- 
 quently than any other poet. He repre- 
 sents him standing on the highest point in 
 the moon's course, and hovering down 
 from thence with his wings spread over 
 the earth, just at midnight. He speaks of 
 several rilievos, on each of which this god 
 was joined with proper companions. In 
 the first, he Avas with Voluptas, as the god- 
 dess of feasts ; in the second, with Labor, 
 represented as tired and inclined to rest ; 
 in the third, with Bacchus ; and in the 
 fourtii with the god of Love. 
 
 All these fine images are in Statius's 
 description of the Palace of Sleep. He 
 places it in the unknown parts of Ethiopia, 
 and Ovid in Italy, near the lake Avernus. 
 Somnus's attendants before the gates were : 
 — Rest, Ease, Indolence, Silence, and Ob- 
 livion; and within were a vast multitude 
 of dream.s, in different shapes and atti- 
 tudes. Over these, says Ovid, presided 
 the three chiefs who inspire dreams into 
 great persons only : Morpheus, such as 
 relate to men; Phobaetor, such as relate 
 to animals ; and Photsesro, such as relate 
 to inanimated things. 
 
 Specus. [Lat.] In archaiology. The ca- 
 nal into which the water flows in aque- 
 ducts raised above the surface of the soil. 
 
 Sph.eristerium. [Lat. from Gr. <T^aipi<^rj- 
 ptov, from acpalpa, a sphere or ball.] In 
 archaiology. A circular court for playing 
 at ball, or other exercises : a tennis court. 
 Sph.'EROid. [Gr. from (rfcupa, a sphere, 
 and ticoQ, form.] In geometry. A solid ap- 
 proaching to the figure of a sphere. It is 
 generated by the entire revolution of a 
 semi-ellipsis round its axis. Where the 
 revolution is made round the largest axis, 
 the spheroid is called prolate; and when 
 round the shortest oblate. This last is the 
 figure of the earth, and most probably of 
 all the planets. 
 
 Sphere. [Gr. ff^aTpa.] In geometry. A 
 solid contained under one uniform round 
 surface, every point of which is equally 
 distant from a certain point in the middle 
 called its centre; and is formed by the re- 
 volution of a semicircle about its diame- 
 ter. 
 
 Sphinx. [Or. trotyl, from fffjiyyw, to 
 bind.] In sculpture, &c. A figure or re- 
 presentation of a monster of that name, 
 famed among the ancients, now mostly 
 used as an ornament in gardens, terraces, 
 &c. It is represented with the head and 
 breasts of a woman, the wings of a bird, 
 the claws of a lion, and the rest of the 
 body like a dog. It is supp.wed to have 
 been engendered by Typhon, and sent by 
 Juno to be revenged on the Thebans. 
 Among the Egyptians, the sphinx was the 
 symbol of religion, by reason of the ob- 
 scurity of its mysteries; and on the same 
 account the Romans placed a sphinx in 
 the porch of their temples. 
 
 Spina. [Lat.] See Circus. 
 
 Spiral. [Lat. spira, wliich from Gr. 
 (TTTfipa.] In geometry. A curve line of a 
 circular kind, which in its progress re- 
 cedes from its centre. 
 
 Spire. [Gr. (TTraipa, a twisting.] In ar- 
 chitecture. This word, among the ancients, 
 designated the vase of a column, and some- 
 times the astragal or torus ; but among 
 the moderns it signifies a steeple that con- 
 tinually diminishes as it ascends, whether 
 conicaliy or pyramidally. The steeples of 
 Gothic churches are often extremely high, 
 and richly ornamented. The spire of Sa- 
 lisbury cathedral is perhaps the most re- 
 markable instance in our country, and 
 forms a striking object for a considerable 
 extent of country around. See Belfry. 
 
 Spollv Opima. [Lat.] hi archaiology. 
 The armour and other personal spoils of 
 which a conquered chieftain was dispos- 
 sessed by his vanquisher. These always 
 formed part of the pageantry of a Roman 
 triumph. See Triumph. 
 
 Spoliatorium. [Lat.] See Apodyterium 
 and Bath. 
 
 Spoon, [^spaen, Dutch.] In archaiology. 
 The Cabinet des Antiques, at Paris, pos- 
 sesses several specimens of ancient spoons 
 found among the ashes in antique vases. 
 They doubtless answered the purpose 
 of filling the lacrymatories with those 
 odoriferous liquors, or perfumes, which 
 were always profusely scattered over the 
 funeral pile. The handle of these spoons 
 is more or less ornamented, and is some- 
 times terminated by a small figure. 
 
 Square, [qiuidratus, Lat. from quadra, 
 which from quatuor, four.] In geometry. A 
 quadrilateral figure both equilateral and 
 equiangular. 
 
 In architecture. A mass of buildings 
 describing the figure of a square, the area 
 or space in the middle being generally 
 ornamented with an enclosure of trees, 
 shrubs, lawn, 6;c. There are many mag- 
 
 Y Y 2 
 
STA 
 
 nificent squares in London, and one or 
 two (lescrvin;; notice in Edinburgh. 
 
 Square, among mechanics, is an instru- 
 ment consisting of two rules or branches, 
 fastened perpendicularly at one end of 
 their extremities, so as to form a right 
 angle. It is of great use in the descrip- 
 tion and mensuration of right angles, and 
 in laying down perpendiculars. 
 
 The ancient Romans often applied the 
 term square as a synonyme of regular or 
 siimmvtrical. 
 
 Stable. [Lat. stabulum, from sto, to 
 stand.] In architecture. Building designed 
 for the lodgment of horses. The noise and 
 tinpleasant odour inseparable from a sta- 
 ble should induce the architect to place it 
 at the furthest possible distance from the 
 dwelling-house. In houses of a large class, 
 and in palaces, a separate site altogether 
 is assigned to these kind of offices. 
 
 Stadium, [■radwv, Gr.] In archaiology. 
 The open space wherein the athletic Gre- 
 cian youth exercised in the course and 
 combated for the prize. In its earliest 
 signification, the word indicated that part 
 of the gtjmnasium appropriated to the use 
 of the spectators. According to Vitru- 
 vius's description, it was longer than 
 broad, was rounded at one of its extremi- 
 ties, and furnished with seats and benches. 
 
 In its other signification, the stadium 
 meant the place itself devoted to the cele- 
 bration of the public games, as the Olym- 
 pic Stadium, or site of the Olympic games ; 
 the Pijthic Stadium, kc. The lists usually 
 thus (lencmiinated were formed by a bank 
 or kind of terrace. Ancient authors par- 
 ticularise three parts of the stadium — the 
 entrance, the middle, and extremity of the 
 career. In the third they ordinarily placed 
 the prizes for which the combatants were 
 to contend. 
 
 The stadia often formed part of the gym- 
 vnsia. At Thebes was a gymnasium bear- 
 ing the name of Hercules, and containing 
 a stadium. In the same town was also 
 another gymnasium bearing the name of 
 Solaus, the stadium of which was sur- 
 Kumdcd by a i)ank of carlii. S(miclimcs, 
 likewise, the stadium formed a separate 
 structure, communicating with the gymna- 
 sium. Tlie greater part of Uw Grecian 
 Hiadia had no oilier (mk losure than an 
 eartiieii mound, aitliinigh some were un- 
 doul'tedly constructed with greater cost 
 and elegance. On the Corinthian isth- 
 mus, for instance, was oiu> built, according 
 to I'ausanias, of white marble. Another 
 cited by tlie same author, ns possessing 
 great splendour, was that of Uerodius At- 
 ti< IIS at Alliens, whi< h was of I'eiitelicaii 
 marble and ver.y extenaive. Ho uiukes 
 
 STA 
 
 mention, likewise, of several other stadia, 
 built separately; such as that of Argos, 
 in which were celebrated the sacred 
 games of the Nemiean Jupiter and of 
 Juno; that of Epidaurus, of Megalopolis, 
 of Tegea, and various other towns. See 
 Circus, Gymnasium, Pai.lstr.t-, &c. 
 
 Staff. [Danish and Dutch, r^oep, Sax.] 
 See Rldentire. 
 
 Staircase, [stair and case.'] In architec- 
 ture. An ascent enclosed between walls, 
 or a balustrade consisting of stairs or 
 steps with landing-places and rails, serv- 
 ing to make a communication between the 
 several stories of a house. 
 
 In his description of the houses of the 
 ancients, Vitruvius makes no mention of 
 stairs; yet even in the supposition that 
 these dwellings had only a ground-floor, 
 still means would be requisite to mount to 
 the roof. Those staircases conducting to 
 the upper stories of the lesser houses of 
 Rome often ran up the outside of the 
 building, and were secured by a separate 
 door. From this it should seem that there 
 was no interior communication between 
 the several floors. The staircase was not, 
 however, altogether an extraneous erec- 
 tion, but excavated, as it were, in the main 
 wall of the building, and might have been 
 intended to render tlie ditlerent stories 
 more independentofcit-cli other — a desira- 
 ble thing when each was occupied by a 
 separate tenant. In their more recent con- 
 structions, however, as well as in houses 
 of a higher order, the staircase was no 
 doubt disposed much in the same manner 
 as at the present day. The building call- 
 ed the country-house, at Pompeii, and 
 se%eral others have staircases of modern 
 appearance, saving that they are narrow 
 and incoiunuMlious : the steps are some- 
 times a fool high. We lind occasionally, 
 likewise, private staircases, as in Pliny's 
 Tuscan villa, where it was situated by the 
 side of the dining-room, and destined for 
 the use of the slaves who served the re- 
 past. There were also staircases in numy 
 of the ancient temples for the purpose of 
 reaching the roof, i.\c. 
 
 In modern architecture, great skill is 
 often displayed in the disposition of tin' 
 staircase, in order thai it may possess con- 
 veiiience of access without iiiterfcring ^^ itli 
 the han(i(HJin9^ size and distribution of 
 the \arious apartments. In houses «)f tlu' 
 middling size and iharaeter, it is gene- 
 rally of wood; but in the re>idences of 
 the nobility, as well as in public edilices, 
 it is ccmunonly constructed in stone tir 
 marble. In fact, (his should always be 
 done, where possible ; since a double pur- 
 pose is answered thereby : namely, soli- 
 
ST A 
 
 dity and freedom from prompt ignition in 
 case of fire. One most desirable point is, 
 to afford to all the several divisions of a 
 staircase the strongest possible proportion 
 of light. The balustrade should be light, 
 and at the same time ornamental ; and the 
 M'all on the other side, as well as the ciel- 
 ing above produces a fine eflTect if adorned 
 with' paintings, as in the mansions of many 
 of our nobles. 
 
 With regard to form, all kinds of varie- 
 ties have been in use at different periods. 
 The commonest shape is that in which right 
 lines are employed. Circular staircases 
 have often a very pleasant and handsome 
 effect; but the artist must be a good deal 
 regulated by his space, and the peculiar na- 
 ture of the ground. 
 
 Our limits will not admit us to go into 
 the question of the construction of stair- 
 cases ; for instruction on which head, as 
 well as for further information on the sub- 
 ject generally, we refer the reader to sun- 
 dry of the practical works which he will 
 find enumerated tit the end of our article 
 on Architecture. 
 
 Stairs. [{-tEeseji, Sax. steghe, Dutch.] 
 In architecture. Steps by which we as- 
 cend from the lower part of the building 
 to the upper. 
 
 Stalactites. [Gr. from TaXayfibs, a dis- 
 tilling, which from <ra$w, to drop.] In ar- 
 chitecture. An imitation in the artificial 
 grottoes of gardens, of those crystalline 
 spars which in the shape of oblong, coni- 
 cal, round, or irregular bodies, composed 
 of various crusts, are usually found hang- 
 ing in form of icicles from the roofs of na- 
 tural caverns, grots, &c. 
 
 Stai.k. [ftealcan, Sax.] In architecture. 
 A sort of ornament in the Corinthian capi- 
 tal, sometimes fiuted and resembling a 
 stalk, from which spring the volutes and 
 the helixes. 
 
 Stall, [rteal,Sax.] In architecture. The 
 seat of a dignified clergyman in the choir 
 of a church. These are generally enriched 
 with a profusion of carved work, and con- 
 structed either of mahogany or oak. 
 
 Stand, [j-tan'oan. Sax.] In architecture. 
 A solid square body placed under pedes- 
 tals, statues, vases, columns, &c. 
 
 Standard, [^tendard, Fr.] In all the 
 arts. A rule or measure, by which other 
 things may be regulated. A sort of ban- 
 ner or flag, borne as a signal for the join- 
 ing together of the several troops belong- 
 ing to the same body. 
 
 Star, [Gr. d'^>)p.] In archaiology. This 
 symbol is often found upon medals. Upon 
 those of Julius Caesar it indicates the star 
 of Venus, the goddess from whom he was 
 
 ST A 
 
 fond of deriving his origin ; or perhaps 
 the comet which appeared during several 
 days after the death of Ca2sar, and which 
 was regarded as his star : Horace, Ovid, 
 and Virgil have all profited in their poems 
 by that popular opinion. The Roman em- 
 peror and empress are often represented 
 on medals by a star, signifying the sun, 
 and a crescent, indicating the moon. In 
 fact, stars are the frequent emblems of 
 sovereigns, and are found likewise upon 
 the medals of numerous Roman families 
 and towns. 
 
 Statuary, [statuaire, Fr, vide statue.] 
 A sculptor. Although this latter word 
 applies to the most elevated practisers of 
 the art, which indeed derives its name 
 therefrom, yet it seems desirable, even in 
 common usage, to distinguish the sculp- 
 tor who makes statues from him whose 
 skill is chiefly displayed in architectural or 
 other ornaments. The Latins used the 
 word statuarius to designate the artist who 
 made figures in bronze. In this sense it 
 is employed by Pliny, who denominates 
 the artist working in marble sculptor or 
 marmorum sculptor. This distinction ap- 
 pears to be just. The author of a bronze 
 statue is not a sculptor, but a modeller. 
 
 Statuary, in its general sense, is the art 
 of casting or carving statues. 
 
 Statue. [Lat. stutua, from sto, to stand.] 
 In sculpture and statuary. A work of sculp- 
 ture or modelling which represents the 
 figure of a man or woman in full relief. 
 The word is sometimes applied likewise 
 to figures of animals executed in the same 
 manner. In the most remote ages we find 
 indications that several eastern nations 
 possessed the art as well as practice of mak- 
 ing and of erecting statues, but the Gre- 
 cians were the first people who executed 
 them skilfully. In the first place, the 
 several heathen deities were represented 
 by human figures, and after awhile the 
 heroes of antiquity were also sculptured 
 forth, and subsequently living characters 
 of eminence or such as had recently ex- 
 pired. These statues were erected in the 
 public places to which the citizens gene- 
 rally resorted, to the end that the memory 
 of tiie great men might be perpetuated. 
 In the sequel, this particular taste became 
 so. widely spread, that there was no other 
 branch of the Fine Arts to which equal 
 attention was paid. 
 
 In the early times of the republic, Rome 
 possessed but a small number of statues 
 of gods and distinguished men. After 
 ha^ing, however, accomplished the con- 
 quest of Greece, and at diflerent epochs 
 transported from that country to Rome a 
 
STAT IE. 
 
 (jioat number of Grecian statues, the taste It will not, we suspect, be deemed a 
 
 for this kind of perforninnce became by questionable affirmation that a fine statue 
 
 dojrrees so ardent and general that, ac- is one of the most beautiful productions of 
 
 cording to the expression of an ancient genius and of art. The Greeks admired 
 
 author, they were able to count at one Phidias even more than any other of tiieir 
 
 particular period more statues in the im- illustrious men. The critical examination 
 
 perial city than inhabitants! They did not of a statue requires no inconsiderable por- 
 
 content themselves with raising statues to tion of knowledge, taste, and skill. The 
 
 deceased worthies, but awarded that ho- lirst point to which the attention of the 
 
 nour to sundry living characters of merit, critic sliould be directed is the marble, 
 
 It was very customary among them to from a careful scrutiny of which, the pe- 
 
 erect statues upon the tombs of their de- riod when the statue Mas made may often 
 
 ceased patriots or chiefs ; and such vene- be ascertained. For instance, the cer- 
 
 ration was felt for the statues of their tainty that any given statue is of marble of 
 
 princes that the law prohibited a master 
 from punishing an offending slave who 
 had sought refuge near the statue of an 
 emperor. In the age of Tiberius it was a 
 kind of crime to have merely changed a 
 garment befoi-e his statues. The erection 
 of statues of public men is by no means 
 
 Luna renders it evident that its age can- 
 not be anterior to that of Augustus, since 
 it was under that prince's reign the Luna 
 quarries were discovered. The critic 
 should proceed to take the exact measure 
 of the statue ; to describe its attitude ; to 
 indicate what restorations it might have 
 
 equally common in our days: but it is not undergone; to decide whether it is the 
 the less important, representation of a divinity or hero, or 
 A statue, when it is intended to perpe- simply of some distinguished ancient, &;c. 
 tuate the recollection of a n)an estimable &:c. It is also desirable that he should be 
 for his patiiotisra or merit should be acquainted with its history, traditional or 
 ])laced in some conspicuous spot, where it otherwise, the authors who have mention- 
 would be most likely to attract the obser- ed it, the period of its disco\ery, the dif- 
 vation of the people. Mere resemblance ferent prints engraved of it, &c. 
 of feature is by no means the only, or even The principal works in which the stu- 
 the principid denkleraliim in a statue; it dent will liud representations of the most 
 .should display in a striking manner the celebrated statues are the following: — 
 elevation of soul, the grandeur of charac- J. IJ. Carou-erIi, Antlqiicp Stadia; Home, 
 ter which might have rendered the object 1585, fol. J. J. De Kikeis, Imii}iiiwrts 
 Avorthy of calling forth the exercise of the Statunnim tirbis Romie h-oms, Rome, 1045, 
 sculptor's chisel. Whether he might have 4fo. Maffki, Racculta di Statue Atitiche e 
 been distinguished by probity and bene- Moderne, Rome, 1707, fol. La GaUria 
 voknce, or by intrepidity in the midst of Ghtstianea. — Vetera Momniutita ijuu- in 
 dangers, or by any other elevated virtue, horiis culimimtun'is et in adilus Mattlmonun 
 the expression of this should be preserved (uhcn-antur, 3 vols. fol. Rome, 1770—9. 
 in the statue. Many of the statues of an- ZAM-rrr, Delle auliclie Statw Girche e 
 
 tiquity, which express the ideal of great 
 characters, or of divinities, prove tliat the 
 art of the sculptor is fully equal to this 
 task. Indeed a considerable number of 
 them are merely allegorical representa- 
 
 Riimane che neW Antisalu delta Lilireria di 
 San Marco, c inullri liwiilii pnhlici di Vene- 
 zia si Ti-orano, Yen. 1740, 2 \ ols. fol. Lcs 
 Marlires de Dresde, by Lk Plat, Dresden, 
 173:5, fol. The three lirst vols, of Miiseu 
 
 tions of various abstract qualities and pro- Pio Clementina, by Visconti. The 3d \ol. 
 
 perties. It is thus that Jui)iter is the 
 image of severe majesty joined (o good- 
 ness; and Pallas that of the most consnm- 
 iiia((! wisdom, Ike. 
 
 The general character of a man may be 
 more justly gathered when he is in a slate 
 
 of Jiaseum Capitolinum. Le IMiish Napa- 
 leiin, by I'liioi.i. Jai I'illa I'iiieiana, and 
 Munumenti Gahini. The Aiiffusleuin o( M. 
 Ukcker, &c. &c. 
 
 The reader may also consult m ith ail- 
 vantage the following works on statues: 
 
 of rrposi- than when agitated by any par- Kdmundus ruiiiKUi's, Liber de Staluis 
 
 ticular and transitory ])assion ; and ac- 
 
 cording to this theory it is fair to presume 
 
 that a tranquil altitude is best ada])tc<l to 
 
 express the prevailing character of the 
 
 personage represented by a statue. This 
 
 opinion, however, is to be received with 
 
 Honiii reservation, although IIk; ancients 
 
 will be found to Imvo generally adopted il. 
 
 ilhistrium Romanorum, Holini;c, KWO, vSvo. 
 I'rid. Ml i.i.i:i{, libri \i. de Slatuis Konia- 
 noruni, HJOl, Ito. J. (Jhononus, Disser- 
 tatio de Iniagiiiibus et Statuis I'rincipuni, 
 Lugd. Hat. 170H. .lustinus Munch, de 
 Statuis >'eleruin Ronianonim, Ilafni.-e, 
 1714. Antoniiis l''i:i{itis, Juriscousult of 
 Naples, published in IGUO, in Italian, u 
 
STE 
 
 work on the twelve statues found among 
 the ruins of a' temple at Cuniae. Haver- 
 camp has given a Latin translation thereof 
 in the 9th vol. of Tliesaurus Antiquitatum 
 _et Historiarum Italiaj. Discours sur la 
 Statue equestre de Frederic Guillaume, 
 6rig^e sur le Pont-Neuf a Berlin, par Chas. 
 Ancillon, 1703, fol. G. G. Boirner, De 
 Statuis Achilleis, Lips. 1759, 4to. Rai%- 
 SANT, Dissertation sur les Statues, in the 
 Journal des Savans, for the year 168G. 
 M. de BozE has inserted in the Journal de 
 Trevoux for the year 1706, a Dissertation 
 upon statues, inscriptions, medals, crowns, 
 and other recompenses of merit among the 
 ancients. Boivin, in his Memoire sur la 
 
 STO 
 
 by medals and other monuments, the func- 
 tions of the stephanephorae were annual. 
 
 Stiff, [ptip, Sax. stiff, Danish, stijff, 
 Dutch.] I7i all (he ai'ts. Constrained, la- 
 boured, wanting in ease and gracefulness of 
 style. Such, for example, are the Egj'ptian 
 figures, those of the most ancient Greek 
 style, certain Gothic figures, &c. Stifiness 
 is essentially opposed to beauty of form. 
 Nature, bountiful in almost all her pro- 
 visions, has given to the limbs and naove- 
 ments of men freedom and suppleness ; 
 and it is only through the unworthy affec- 
 tation which sometimes springs from so- 
 phisticated habits of society, that con- 
 strained or stiff movements are discernible, 
 
 Vie et les Merits de Gregoras, has trea^ted, * except in people out of health. 
 
 at p. 760, of the statues of Justinian, of 
 Louis XIIL, Louis XIV., Henry IV., &c. 
 De Simulacris Veterum Romanorum, by 
 F. M. BoxADA, in the 1st Dissertation of 
 the 1st vol. of his Carmina ex Antiquis 
 
 Stiij'hon. [Gr. ^iXn-ovse, dwarfs.] See 
 Dwarf. 
 
 Stirrups, [ptipap, Sax,] In equestrian 
 costtnne. The ancients were ignorant of 
 the use of this convenient article ; the em- 
 
 Lapidibusillustrata, Rome, 17.51 and 1752, peror Mauritius, who flourished towards 
 
 2 vols. 4to. Des Hermes, Hermathenes, 
 Hermanubes, et Hermeracles, in the Re- 
 cherches Curieuses d'Antiquite, by Spon, 
 at p. 93, Lyons, 1683, 4to. I. Nicolai, 
 Diatriba de Mercuriis et Hermis, Fraucof. 
 1701, 12mo. J. ScHLEMJiiLS, De Imagini- 
 bus Veterum Atriensibus, Pra;liminaribus, 
 Cubicularibus ; Jena, 1C64. F. Lemef, 
 Traits des Statues, Paris, 1688, 8vo. De 
 rUsage des Statues chez les Anciens, by 
 the Comte de GuAsco, Brussels, 1768, 4to. 
 
 See also Acrolithes, Agalma, Carya- 
 tides, Canephores, Discobolus, Dra- 
 pery, EiKON, Child, Kermes, Laocoon, 
 Pasquin, Sculpture, &c. 
 
 Steatite. [Gr. asarinjc-'] In g(m sculp- 
 ture. A genus of magnesian earths, very 
 ductile, yet capable of being hardened 
 sufficiently to receive the impression of 
 the graver. 
 
 Steeple, [fteopel, r^ypel, Sax.] In 
 architecture. An appendage erected gene- 
 rally in the western end of churches, to 
 hold the bells. Steeples are denominated, 
 according to their form, either spires or 
 towers: the first are such as ascend con- 
 tinually diminishing either conically or 
 pyramidally : the latter are merely paral- 
 lelopipeds, and are covered at top plat- 
 form-wise. The steeple appears to have 
 originated in Gothic architecture. 
 
 Stela. [Gr. Ti/X?;, from 'i<^T]^ii, to stand.] 
 In architecture. See Cippus, of which this 
 word is a synonyme. 
 
 Stephanephor^. [Gr. -rt^aroc, a crown, 
 and (pspuj, to bear.] In archaiology. Thus 
 were designated priests of a particular 
 order consecrated to different divinities and 
 to emperors. In several towns, as we find 
 
 the end of the sixth century being the first 
 who makes mention of them, in his Trea- 
 tise on the Military Art. Owing to this pri- 
 vation the Roman youth were accustomed 
 to leap upon their horses sword or lance 
 in hand. A jasper explained by Winckel- 
 man, a basso-rilievo engraved by Roccheg- 
 giani, and the painting of a Greek vase 
 published in Millin's Recueil de 3Ionumens, 
 all exhibit warriors mounting on horse- 
 back by help of a cramp-iron attached to 
 the pike or lance. Distinguished persons 
 and old men had servants to place them 
 on their horses, and conquered sovereigns 
 were often compelled to perform this office 
 for their vanquishers. Caius Gracchus, in 
 order to merit their good opinion and suf- 
 frages, caused to be placed at certain dis- 
 tances along the high roads, after the ex- 
 ample of the Greeks, large stones to assist 
 the horsemen in mounting. 
 
 Stola. [Lat. from Gr. toX j}, from TtXXoi, 
 to adorn or dress.] In archaiology. The 
 habiliment of Roman ladies of the higher 
 rank. It consisted of a tunic with an in- 
 stita or train. This had a great number 
 of small folds, and terminated often by a 
 border of purple or embroidery sometimes 
 even of gold, fo be clothed with the stola 
 was, among the Roman dames, as if one 
 should say to be in full dress ; beneath 
 they wore a patla, the ample folds of which 
 formed a drapery both elegant and majes- 
 tic. One of the most beautiful antique 
 statues which brings us acquainted with 
 the real gracefulness of form, botli of the 
 stola and palla, is that to which an antique 
 head has been adapted of the Empress 
 Sabina. Thia statue, evidently from its 
 
STO 
 
 size an honorary one, holds in the left 
 hand a cornucopia, a symbol characteris- 
 tic alike of unity, abundance, and fortune. 
 
 Stone, [pcan, Sax. steen, Dutch.] In 
 architecture, &c. Stones are bodies iusi- 
 piii, hard, not ductile or malleable, nor so- 
 luble in water. In the most ancient times 
 wood was employed by preference in the 
 arts of construction, because it was more 
 ductile to fashion and to work. In some 
 countries, such for instance as Egypt, 
 wherein wood is rare, they found them- 
 selves however obliged to build with 
 stone, and the solidity and endurance of 
 this substance soon caused its introduc- 
 tion into other countries. In those which 
 possessed not an abundant supply of stone, ' 
 bricks (see that word) were substituted. 
 The Greeks were in the habit of employ- 
 ing stone upon several of their theatres, 
 temples, and other public buildings, before 
 the introduction of marble. 
 
 Stones are of various qualities, and ex- 
 tracted from various places. Their two 
 great divisions are into hard and soft 
 stones. The former are calculated to re- 
 sist tlie injuries of the air, and to support 
 immense burdens ; while the latter are 
 jjrincipally employed in works wherein 
 mouldings or other sculptured ornaments 
 are introduced. They also vary in co- 
 lour, as well as in degrees of ductility. 
 
 The Rocking Stone, or Lvgan, is a stone 
 of prodigious size, so exactly poised that 
 it would rock or shake witli the smallest 
 force. Of these stones the ancients give 
 us some account. Pliny says that, at 
 Harjtasia, a town of Asia, tliere was a 
 rock of such a wonderful nature that if 
 touciied \\i(h tiie linger it would shake, 
 but could not be moved from its place 
 with the whole force of the body. Ptole- 
 my Hephestionmcnlions a gygonian stone 
 near the ocean, which was agitated when 
 struck by the stalk of an asphodel, but 
 could not be removed by a great exertion 
 of force. The word tiytiunins seems to be 
 Celtic; for |£,'mvh^>(»j!,'- signifies vwtitnns, i\\e 
 rocking btone. 
 
 Many rocking slones are to be found in 
 dinVrcnt parts of this island; some natu- 
 ral, others aililicial, or phu ed in their po- 
 sition by human art. In the parish of St. 
 Leven, ("ttnnvall, tlier*' is a promonlnry 
 called Ciislte Trrii/n. On the western 
 side of the middle group, near the top, lies 
 a very large stone, so evenly i)oised that 
 any hand nuiy move it from one side to 
 another; yet it is so lixed nii its base, that 
 no lever iu)r any mechanical force can re- 
 move it from its prestnit situation. It is 
 railed the Luifiiu-sliinc, and it is such a 
 
 NE. 
 
 height from the ground that no person can 
 believe that it was raised to its present 
 position by art. But there are other rock- 
 ing stones, which are so shaped and so 
 situated, that there can be no doubt but 
 that they were erected by human strength. 
 Of this kind Borlase thinks the great 
 Quoit or Karnleliau, in the parish of Ty- 
 widnek, to be. It is thirty nine feet in 
 circumference, and four feet thick at a 
 medium, and stands on a single pedestal. 
 There is also a remarkable stone of the 
 same kind in the island of St. Agnes in 
 Scilly. The under rock is ten feet six 
 inches high, forty-seven feet round the 
 middle, and touches the ground with no 
 ' more than half its base. The upper rock 
 rests on one point only, and is so nicely 
 balanced, that two or three men with a 
 pole can move it. It is eight feet six 
 inches high, and forty-seven in circumfer- 
 ence. On the top there is a basin hol- 
 lowed out, three feet eleven inches in dia- 
 meter at a medium, but wider at the brim, 
 and three feet deep. From the globular 
 shape of this upper stone, it is highly pro- 
 bable that it was rounded by human art, 
 and perhaps even placed on its pedestal 
 by human strength. In Sithney parish, 
 near Helston, in Cornwall, stood the fa- 
 mous logan, or rocking stone, commonly 
 called Men Amber, q. d. Men an Bar, or 
 the top stone. It was eleven feet by six, 
 and four high, and so nicely poised on 
 another stone that a little child could 
 move it, and all travellers who came this 
 way desired to see it. IJut Shrubsall, 
 Cromwell's governor of Pendennis, with 
 much ado caused it to be undermined, to 
 the great grief of the country, 'i'here are 
 some marks of the tool on it, and by its 
 (juadrangular shape, it was probably de- 
 dicated to Mercury. 
 
 That tlu! rocking stones are monuments 
 erected by the Druids caniu)t be doubted ; 
 but tradition has not informed us for what 
 purpose they were intended. Mr. Toland 
 thinks that the Druids made the people 
 believe that they alone could move them, 
 and that by a miracle ; and that by this 
 pretended miracle they condennud or ac- 
 (luitled the accused, and brought criminals 
 to confess what could not otherwise be 
 extorted from them. How far this con- 
 jecture is right we shall leave to those 
 who are deeply versed in the knowledge 
 of anticjuities to determine. 
 
 SroNKHKNciK. This celebrated monu- 
 ment of anti(|\iity is of very une<Mtain 
 (late. That it is very ancient is admitted 
 by every one, but its origin, intention, ami 
 era, are points of (he most doubtful con- 
 
troversy. Its situation is on 
 
 Plain, six miles from the city of this 
 
 name. 
 
 It is described by Camden as a huge 
 and monstrous piece of work, such as 
 Cicero termeth insanem substn(ctione7n. For 
 within the circuit of the ditch, he says, 
 there are erected, in manner of a crown, 
 in three ranks or courses, one within ano- 
 ther, certain mighty and unwrought stones, 
 whereof some are twenty eiglit feet high, 
 and seven broad ; upon the heads of which 
 others, like overthwart pieces, do bear and 
 rest cross-wise, witli small tenons and 
 mortises, so that the whole frame seemeth 
 to hang: on which account we call it 
 Stoneheng, as our old historians termed 
 it, because of its magnitude, chorea gigan- 
 tum, the giant's dance. The perpendicu- 
 lar stones are called coarse stones, and the 
 overthwart ones are called cronets. This 
 antiquity, says Mr. Inigo Jones, because 
 the architraves are set upon the heads of 
 the upright stones, and hang, as it were, 
 in the air, is generally known by the 
 name of Stoneheng. The whole work, in 
 general, being of a circular form, is a hun- 
 dred and ten feet in diameter; double 
 winged about, without a roof; anciently 
 environed with a deen trench, still appear- 
 ing about thirty feet broad : so that be- 
 twixt it and the work itself, a large and 
 void space of ground being left, it had 
 from the plain three open entrances, the 
 most conspicuous of which lies north-east ; 
 at each of which Avas raised, on the out- 
 side of the trench, two huge stones, gate- 
 wise ; parallel to which, on the inside, 
 are two others, of less proportion. The 
 inner part of the work, consisting of an 
 hexagonal figure, was raised, by due sym- 
 metry, upon the bases of four equilateral 
 triangles, which formed the whole struc- 
 ture. This inner part was likewise dou- 
 ble, having v> ithin it also another hexagon 
 raised ; and all that part within the trench, 
 situated upon a commanding ground, emi- 
 nent, and much higher than the surround- 
 ing plain ; in tlie midst of which, upon a 
 foundation of hard chalk, the work itself 
 was placed ; insomuch that, from whatso- 
 ever part they came into it, they rose by a 
 hill of easy ascent. In the inmost part of 
 the work is a stone, appearing not much 
 above the surface of the earth, and lying 
 towards the east, four feet broad, and six- 
 teen feet long; which, whether it be an 
 altar or no, this author refers to the judg- 
 ment of others. The great stones, which 
 are made tiie entrances from the outside 
 of the trench, are seven feet broad, three 
 
 feet thick, and twenty feet high. The pa- 
 
 STONEHENGE. 
 
 Salisbury rallel stones on the inside of the trench 
 
 'are four feet broad, and three feet thick ; 
 but they are so broken, that their propor- 
 tions in height cannot be exactly measured. 
 The stones which make the outward cir- 
 cle are seven feet broad, three feet and a 
 half thick, and fifteen feet and a half high; 
 each stone having two tenons mortised 
 into the architrave continuing upon them, 
 throughout the whole circumference. For 
 these architraves being jointed exactly in 
 the middle of each of the perpendicular 
 stones, that their weight might have an 
 equal bearing ; and upon each side of the 
 joint a tendon wrought (as remains yet to 
 be seen), it may hence positively be con- 
 cluded, that the architrave is continued 
 round about this outward circle. The 
 smaller stones of the inner circle are one 
 foot and a half broad, one foot thick, and 
 six feet high. These had no architrave 
 upon them, but were raised perpendicular, 
 of a pyramidal form. The stones of the 
 greater hexagon are seven feet and a half 
 broad, three feet and three quarters thick, 
 and twenty feet high, each stone having 
 one tenon in the middle. The stones of 
 the inner hexagon are tv^'-o feet and a half 
 broad, one foot and a half thick, and eight 
 feet high, in form pyramidal, like those of 
 the inner circle. The architrave lying 
 round about upon the perpendicular stones 
 of the outward circle, is three feet and a 
 half broad, and two feet and a half high. 
 The architrave on the top of the great 
 stones of the outward hexagon, is sixteen 
 feet long, three feet and three quarters 
 broad, and three feet and a quarter high. 
 This architrave, continuing only from 
 stone to stone, left betwixt every two and 
 two, a void space free to the air, unco- 
 vered. The vulgar have thought it omi- 
 nous, and indeed absolutely impossible, 
 to count the number of stones composing 
 this ancient monument. To this legen- 
 dary tale Sydney refers in his sonnet of 
 the wonders of England, when he says. 
 
 Near Wilton sw cet, huge heaps of stones are found. 
 But so confused, that neither any eye 
 Can count tliem just, nor reason try, 
 
 What force brought thera to so unlikely ground. 
 
 In reference to this absurd superstition, 
 Mr. Jones says, that if any one will ob- 
 serve the orders of the circles as they now 
 appear, without passing from one to ano- 
 ther confusedly, and note where he begins, 
 he may easily find the number. Dr. 
 Stukely computes them in the following 
 manner : " the great oval," he says, " con- 
 sists of ten uprights ; the inner with the 
 altar, of twenty ; the great circle of thirty ; 
 the inner of forty ; which are a hundred 
 
STO 
 
 iipright stoues ; five imposts of the great 
 oval; thirty of the great circle; the two 
 stones on the bank of the area, the stone 
 Ij'ing within its entrance, and that stand- 
 ing without; and another on the ground 
 directly opposite to the entrance of the 
 avenue ; so that the whole number is a 
 hundred and forty." This writer observes, 
 that, according to the intention of the 
 founders, the whole circle of the work 
 was to consist of thirty stones, each stone 
 to be four cubits (a cjibit being twenty 
 inches and four lifths English measure) 
 broad, each interval two cubits ; thirty 
 times two cubits sixty ; and, therefore, 
 thrice sixty cubits complete a circle, whose 
 diameter is sixty, A stone four cubits 
 broad, and two thick, is double the inter- 
 val, which is a square of two cubits. 
 
 Storm. [Danish and Dutch.] Inarchaiu- 
 logij. Among the ancients, those who had 
 suffered shipwreck shaved the head, and 
 hung up their vestments in the temple of 
 Neptune, with the accompaniment of a 
 painting whereon the history of their mis- 
 fortune was represented. Such as had 
 endured a loss suihciently great, througii 
 the same means, to reduce their circum- 
 stances materially, often went begging with 
 a similar picture hanging on their neck. 
 Petronius relates, that such as found them- 
 selves in peril of shipwreck were accus- 
 tomed to cut their hair and to suspend 
 from their necks pieces of gold or of some 
 other precious metal, in order to remune- 
 rate those who might find their bodies, for 
 bestowing thereon the rites of sepulture. 
 
 The first custom mentioned above is 
 beautifully alluded to by Horace in his 
 ode beginning 
 
 Qiiis nmlta gracilis to, piicr Iti losa, 
 translated by Milton with all the exqui- 
 site and unadected grace of the original. 
 
 What sl.ii.lor >omli I.c.IcmM wiili liquid odours 
 Coiirls tlu'c oil roM'.i in soiiu- pleasant cave 
 
 I'jnlia; for whom biiid'.sl tliou 
 
 111 wnallis (lij !;i>ldiii luiir, 
 I'lain in lliy licaliuss f O how of! shall lie 
 Oil r^illh and .-haiinnl gods .diiiplaiii, and seas 
 
 Hough Willi Idack winds and sloiin.s 
 
 I nwonttrd shall iidiiilir ! 
 Who now enjoys Ihee iiednlons, all gohl, 
 \V ho always varanl, always aiiilalde 
 
 Hopes Ihee, o| llallerini; gales 
 
 I ninindfiil. Hapless lliey 
 To whom Ihoii unli led seem'si fair. Me in my vowM 
 I irliiie the saered wall .leelares lo' have hliii^ 
 
 My ilank anil dropping wieds 
 
 To the Dlerii (Jod of sea. 
 
 SroiiY. Trfop, place, Sax.] /« urchUcc 
 'ti>r. A il„„|- J II iii^iii ,,,- ,.„^„„„_ 
 
 STtivK. [sfoo, a tlreiilace, Icelun.lick.J 
 J'l mchiiwhgy. The liomana were in the 
 
 STU 
 
 habit of employing two kinds of stoves 
 with which to heat the chambers and 
 other apartments of their houses. Of 
 these, the first kind were furnaces con- 
 structed under the floors (see Hypocals- 
 tl'm) and the warmth from which was con- 
 ducted by means of tubes into the rooms 
 on the different stories. 
 
 Stkiu.e. [Lat.] In architecture. The 
 flutings of a column. 
 
 Stropheion. [tooi^iov, from ^pti^iiu, to 
 twist.] or Strophil'm. [Lat.] In arcliaio- 
 logij. Name of a cincture worn by the 
 Greek females below the throat. The term 
 was also applied to a sort of machine used 
 in the theatres of the ancients, somewhat 
 resembling the Perlvctos (see that word). 
 
 Stucco. [Ital.] In architecture. A com- 
 position of white marble pulverized and 
 mixed with plaster of lime ; and the whole 
 being sifted and wrought up with water, 
 it is to be used like common plaster. Ar- 
 chitectural and sculptural ornaments, such, 
 for instance, as fruits, flowers, garlands, 
 festoons, &c. are made herein. 
 
 In the interior of buildings, stucco work 
 is generally applied to the cielings of 
 apartments, the mouldings, &:c. On the 
 exterior it should be conlined to those parts 
 which are not too much exposed to the 
 rain. In some countries, they make a 
 sort of stucco of common mortar and of 
 plaster, which applied to the outside of 
 houses is extremely durable. It appears 
 that Vitruvius makes mention of stucco in 
 the 2d, 3d, and 6th chapters of the 7th 
 book, under the name of Opus Albariiim or 
 Opus Coruunrium. Immediately after the 
 stucco is mixed, it forms a very si)ft and 
 ductile paste, the consistence of which 
 however soon hardens, and then the de- 
 sired form is given to it, whether with 
 moulds, or, as in some cases, with little 
 spatula of iron. During this operation, 
 it continues to harden, and may e\eu be 
 cut, and it is at this period those i>arts of 
 the ornaments are executed w hich demand 
 a nice finish. In a few days after, it ac- 
 (juires the consistence of dry clay, and ul- 
 timately becomes as hard as stone itself 
 (of an average thickness) and takes a 
 beautiful polish. The iineution of stui<o 
 work is extremely useful, iiuismuch as it 
 is a great deal more economical than simi- 
 lar performances would be if executed 
 either in stone or v.'ood. 
 
 The following treatises may be consult- 
 ed on tills subject:— Joli. Aug. (okvims, 
 Artis Scnlptoria; vulffo StucaitoriiPy Para- 
 diKii>itl,i.Au/>:. liniltl. iloA. Jean Melchior 
 C'Roi.m;!!, between the 22d and IJ'.nli ciiap- 
 Icrsof Ins lustructioHii I'llsagc dcs Peintres. 
 
I 
 
 STU 
 
 In the Traits des Couleurs pour la Peintre 
 en Email, by Anclais de Montamy, we 
 find also details respectint;; the art of stuc- 
 coing: Appeal on the Right of using- Oil 
 Cement or Composition for Stucco, 1779, 
 8vo. 
 
 Sti'ccoer. [from to stucco.'] In architec- 
 ture. The following is a list of the most 
 eminent stuccoers: — Margaritone, who 
 died in 1317, and who is generally re- 
 garded as the inventor of the art. Bar- 
 thelemi Ridolfi, who died towards the 
 year 1550. Giovanni Nanni, died, 1564. 
 Leonard Ricciarelli, towards 1570. Luca 
 Romano, abont 1586. Arudini and Bran- 
 chi, about 1640. Roncaioli, 1660. G. F. 
 Bezzi, 1690. G, B. Artario, about 1700. 
 G. B. Genone, same year. A. Disegna, 
 1710. S. Busi, 1730. A.Stazio; M.Costa; 
 Clerici, who died about 1745. C. Maz- 
 zetti, surnamed Tenchola, towards 1750. 
 G. Artario, 1769. B. Bossi, &c. 
 
 Study. [Lat. studium.] In all the arts. 
 He who would merit the appellation of a 
 perfect artist should distinguish himself at 
 the same time by genius, by acquirements, 
 and by practical address. Genius is a 
 gift of nature ; acquirement is the product 
 of study and of practice. Natural genius 
 is unquestionably indispensable towards 
 constituting a great artist ; but it would be 
 a fatal error in any one to imagine that, 
 with the help of some occasional practice 
 in the mechanical part of the art, genius 
 unassisted would suffice to constitute an 
 artist. We always find, with regard to 
 every individual who has presented proofs 
 of genius, that he at the same time was 
 conspicuous for the care and assiduity 
 with which he had pursued the neces- 
 sary studies. A brief mention of the prin- 
 cipal points to which the studies of an 
 artist should be directed will not be out 
 of place in the present article. It is not 
 our province to speak of such general pre- 
 paratory studies as appertain to e^ ery man 
 who would uplift himself above the vul- 
 gar, of such as enlarge the circle, gene- 
 rally, of men's ideas, without having any 
 particular application to the cultivators of 
 the Fine Arts. We may nevertheless ob- 
 serve, in passing, that every thing which 
 serves to develop the various dispositions 
 and tendencies of genius, all those points 
 of knowledge which contribute to give to 
 a man extensive and clear ideas, are of 
 indisputable advantage to the student of 
 art. It is certain that there have been great 
 artists who have been almost wholly des- 
 titute of literary knowledge; but even in 
 their cases, abundant reason appears for 
 believing that this deprivation prevented 
 
 STU 
 
 them from taking still more rapid strides 
 towards perfection. Raflfaelle himself ia 
 known to have often availed himself of the 
 hints thrown out by learned friends when 
 his genius had been arrested by a defec- 
 tive education. 
 
 The points of study, however, which ap- 
 pear to belong more decidedly to the 
 follower of the Fine Arts, are— 1. A ge- 
 neral knowledge of man ; 2. A knowledge 
 of the particular character and manners 
 of entire people as well as of individuals ; 
 3. A knowledge of nature in all her vari- 
 ous appearances ; and 4. An acquaintance 
 with the works of art and with artists. 
 
 Without the first branch of knowledge, 
 it must be evident that little or no pro- 
 gress can be made by the student. With- 
 out it, how is it possible that he should 
 understand what is necessary to make an 
 impression on the minds of his spectators ? 
 This study must be commenced by a scru- 
 pulous attention to the movements of his 
 own mind, particularly to all those sensa- 
 tions which produce either pleasure or 
 pain. The man who is without clear ideas 
 of his own emotions will never arrive at 
 the knowledge of others, and consequently 
 will never become an artist. 
 
 A general knowledge of human nature 
 will nevertheless not suffice for the artist. 
 He must also distinguish difterences of 
 character and manners. In order to ac- 
 quire this quality he must strive to intro- 
 duce himself into all kinds of society, and 
 especially at those times when interesting 
 occupations put men into full activity, and 
 the force of their genius has an opportu- 
 nity of developing itself freely. To ob- 
 servations of this kind he should unite in- 
 quiries respecting other nations besides 
 his own, and comparisons with the cus- 
 toms of ages previous to that in which he 
 himself exists. 
 
 To these studies should be joined that 
 of external nature. We have often had 
 occasion to repeat that Nature is the true 
 school for the artist; but it is necessary 
 that he should be aware how to study in this 
 school. The feeling ofthe beautiful, of uni- 
 ty, and of variety, of the accord of exterior 
 forms with interior character, of the har- 
 mony of all the parts, of the truth and per- 
 fection — in a word all the fine points which 
 make up the general excellence of a work 
 of art, will be strengthened, harmonised, 
 and concentrated by an assiduous and in- 
 telligent reflexion on the face of Nature. 
 We shall always discover that the most 
 distinguished artists have been at the same 
 time the most scrupulous and patient ob- 
 servers of the world around them, and 
 
STY 
 
 that they have regarded with attention and 
 care whatsoever passed under their eyes. 
 It also frequently happens that we find 
 oitjjer in some customary appearance of 
 nature, or in some occasional phenomenon, 
 the original of a fine idea which an unob- 
 servant amateur might have attril)uted 
 solely to the imaginative faculty of the 
 painter. 
 
 To conclude : — in addition to the points 
 already enumerated, tiie student should 
 make himself familiar with the best works 
 of the best masters. It is a well establish- 
 ed truth that examples instruct, if not bet- 
 ter, at least more rwpidly than rules; and 
 they are to he met with alone in the per- 
 formances of the great masters who adorn 
 the various schools of art. To these, then, 
 let the student repair, at least to as many 
 of them as lie at all within his reach: and 
 let him dwell on their several beauties, 
 not with the doting and slavish eye of a 
 servile copyist, but with the free spirit of 
 observant emulation. Good biographies 
 of celebrated artists, so useful and inter- 
 esting in otiier points of view, are no less 
 so in this : the recital of their methods of 
 study, of the peculiar circumstances in 
 which they were placed, of the connexions 
 they formed, in a word, of all those things 
 which contributed to expand and deve- 
 lops their talent, cannot fail to be ex- 
 tremely serviceable to the onward pro- 
 gress of the young student. See Imha- 
 TioN, Painteu, Sculptor, ARrniTEtT, &c. 
 Stldies. In painting. Such is the term 
 applied to those separate parts of a pic- 
 ture first designetland painted unconncct- 
 edly, with a view to Dieir future introduc- 
 tion and composition in the entire work. 
 Thus, entire figures, in some instances; 
 in others, human heads or feet, animals, 
 trees, plants, flowers, and, in short, any 
 thing designed after nature, receive the 
 general (h-nomination of .sfiKtics. 
 
 Stiihjii,. [Lat.*] fn (irchaiology. A little 
 instrument of ivory or horn, and scmietimes 
 of gold or silver, in great use among the 
 ancients, cliictly for the i)Uiii()se ()fnibl)ing 
 and cleansing the skin when bathing or 
 engaged in athletic sports. 
 
 Stvi.i:. {stijlus, Lid.] In all the arts. The 
 union of all tliose several parts which 
 unite in the conception, composition, and 
 execution (see the two last words) of a 
 work of art. There are an infinite variety 
 of ditlcn-nt styl.s; among which niiiy be 
 enunitratcd as the i>rin<ipal and most ge- 
 neral, tin- frntmt, the suhlinu; the I'caHlit'iil, 
 the f.riinssirr, tlw imiiassional, and the na- 
 iural. Having already in \arious pails of 
 this Dictionary made reference to these 
 
 SUB 
 
 varieties, and taken occasion to detail and 
 explain them, we do not conceive it ne- 
 cessary to go here over the same groun<l, 
 but refer our readers to the articles Grand, 
 Natlral, Bealty, Expression, Si blime, 
 &c. as well as to the leading articles, of 
 Architecture, Painting, Engraving, 
 Sculpture, and Schools of Art. 
 
 Style, [same derivation.] In archaio- 
 logy. An iron or steel-pointed instrument 
 used anciently in writing on tablets of 
 wax, &.C. and still used to write on ivory 
 leaves, and paper prepared for the pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Any thing with a sharp point: as a 
 graver, the pin of a dial. 
 
 Stylobate. [Gr. <ri'Xoc, a pillar, and 
 /3aff(c, the base or foot.] In architecture. 
 A kind of continued pedestal or of base- 
 ment which has itself base and cornice, 
 and which projects both in front and be- 
 hind the columns which it supports. 
 
 Styx. [Gr. from Tvyeoi, hateful.] lu my- 
 thological painting and sculpture. A cele- 
 brated river of hell, round which it is 
 said to flow nine times. According to 
 some w riters the Styx was a small river 
 of Nonacris in Arcadia, whose waters 
 were so cold and venomous that they 
 proved fatal to such as tasted them. 
 Among others, Alexander the Great is 
 mentioned as a victim to their fatal poi>on, 
 in consequence of drinking them. They 
 even consumed iron, and broke all ves- 
 sels. The wonderful properties of this 
 water suggested the idea, that it was a 
 river of hell, especially when it disap- 
 peared in the earth a little below its foun- 
 tain heatl. The gods held the waters of 
 the Styx in such veneration, that they al- 
 ways swore by them, an oath which was 
 inviolable. 
 
 Subject. [Lat. subjicio, from suh, under, 
 and ,/'(/(•/(), to lay or tlirow.] In all the arts. 
 The design of a composition or piilure. 
 Any thing which constitutes the olyect or 
 aim of any given art or science. In i)ainf- 
 ing,sculpturc,and engraving, it often desig- 
 nates the representation of an action. See 
 A(TioN, Motion, OiuErr, ivc. 
 
 Sublime. [Lat. suhlimis.'] In all the artr. 
 That which of its kind is mu.^t fully 
 possessed with force anil grandeur, and 
 which by consequence excites at once our 
 surprise and admiration. This faculty 
 operates, if we may so express it, by sud- 
 den and \iolent impressions, and seizes 
 hold of the mind with overwhelming and 
 irresistible force: and this not oidy at the 
 first moment ; but its ellcct increases on 
 reflexion, ami deepens as we conltniplate 
 it. 
 
SUB 
 
 The arts of design possess this quality 
 in common with poetry and eloquence. 
 There is scarce any species of it to which 
 Michel Angiolo and Raffaelle have not 
 attained ; and the testimony of contempo- 
 rary authors, as well as those monuments 
 of art which have come down to our times, 
 ' sutHcieiitly prove that the ancient artists 
 possessed in an eminent degree the power 
 of embodying the sublime both of charac- 
 ter and sentiment. The divine majesty 
 of Jupiter, and the divine wisdom of Mi- 
 nerva have been rendered quite sublime 
 in their sculptured representations of those 
 deities. With respect to modern artists, 
 they do not seem quite so well to have hit 
 this particular power. Their attempts at 
 embodying the divinity must certainly be 
 admitted not to be happy. An object may 
 be said to be sublime either with reference 
 to its own intrinsic grandeur or to the cir- 
 cumstances in which it is presented. The 
 first we may denominate essential, the 
 latter accidental sublimity. There are ob- 
 jects and ideas which it is suilicient to 
 know or to perceive, in order to admire ; 
 on the contrary, others require some pecu- 
 liar coni))ination, some extraordinary ar- 
 rangement of circumstances, to entitle 
 them to this species of commendation. 
 
 The artist of the sublime is not uniformly 
 true to nature. The circumstances in 
 which he finds himself should contribute 
 largely to the development of his genius. 
 The highest aspirations of an artist may 
 be checked and beaten down if he finds 
 himself surrounded by low and ignoble 
 objects. Simplicity eminently appertains 
 to the sublime : simplicity of intention, of 
 action, and of means. Energy and gran- 
 deur are also constituent parts of it ; while 
 unity of intention produces unity of sen- 
 timent and of action. Generally speaking, 
 fewness of objects, absence of complica- 
 tion in the disposal of those objects, an 
 undivided light, a simple style of colour- 
 ing, and a general accord and harmony of 
 parts — these are the means employed in 
 art towards the production of a sublime 
 effect. 
 
 As applied to architecture, vastness it- 
 self sometimes constitutes this charm. 
 Unity of design is almost inseparable from 
 it here also. No building can be consi- 
 dered sublime, however extensive, if it is 
 separated into an immense number of 
 small parts, having no immediate con- 
 nexion with each other — if its ornaments 
 are in a petty taste, or its style barbarous 
 or fantastical. One of the sublimest ar- 
 chitectural effects to be seen in this me- 
 tropolis is the noble cathedral of St. Paul's 
 
 SUP 
 
 lighted up by the soft and romantic radi- 
 ancy of tiie silver moon. 
 
 On the sublime in general, we may con- 
 sult, in the first place : — Longinus on the 
 Sublime, which exists in a variety of edi- 
 tions. One of the best is that of Toup, 
 Oxford, 1778, 4to. Burke's Philosophical 
 Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the 
 Sublime and the Beautiful, London, 1757, 
 1772, and 1787, Bvo. A French transla- 
 tion appeared at Paris, in 1765 in 12mo. 
 The 2d chapter of the 1st part of the 
 Essay on Taste, by A. Gerard. The 4th 
 chapter of Home's Elements of Criticism. 
 The 4th, 5th, and 6th chapters of the 2d 
 book of the Art de sentir et de juger en 
 Matiere de Gout, page 112, &;c. of the edi- 
 tion of 1788. 
 
 On the sublime, as relates more particu- 
 larly to the arts of design, we may cite:— 
 An Essay on the visible Sublime in the Arts 
 of Design{in German), by J. P. Melchior, 
 Manheim, 1781, 8vo. Richakdson, in his 
 Treatise on Painting, 1st vol. and p. 182, 
 in the edition of 1728. Considerations of 
 Hagedorn on Painting, p. 535 ; and above 
 all the Laocoon of Lessing, of which M. 
 Vanderbourg has given a capital French 
 translation, Paris, 1802, 8vo. We know 
 not how to recommend this latter work 
 too strongly. 
 
 SuDATio. [Lat. from sudor, sweat.] In 
 archaiology. See Laconicum, Bath. 
 
 SuGGESTUM. [Lat.] In archaiology. The 
 tribunes i',pon which were seated the em- 
 peror and praetors. Julius Ca3sar was the 
 first who introduced for it the shape of a 
 table-bed or triclinium. Hence it obtained 
 also the appellation of pulvinar ; and this 
 article the succeeding emperors always 
 used at the theatres, while the prjetors 
 adhered to the old fashioned suggestutn. 
 The pulvinar of the emperors is portrayed 
 on many ancient monuments. When they 
 were represented, as on the Trajan co- 
 lumn, ike. delivering harangues to their 
 soldiers, they were always seated on the 
 suggestum. 
 
 Supple. [Fr. souple.'] In all the ai'ts. A 
 praiseworthy quality opposed to hardness 
 or inflexibility. It is to be sought in con- 
 tours, in attitudes, in adjustments, and in 
 fact in all the parts of composition. The 
 contours should be sinuous, flowing ; the 
 attitudes easy and unconstrained ; the ad- 
 justments natxxral; the compositions vari- 
 ous. The term is more strictly applied 
 to the movement of contours, the flow of 
 draperies, &c. than to the general ordon- 
 nance of a work. 
 
 SuppiJAMT. [Fr. or Lat. supplicans, from 
 sub, under, and plico, to bend.] In painting. 
 
swo 
 
 &c. Several passages of the ancient au- 
 thors, as well as niomnnentsof art, inform 
 us that suppliants were in the habit of 
 bearing olive branches, and of touching 
 the knees and chin of those whose assist- 
 ance they invoked. On a beautiful Greek 
 vase, published by Millin, in his Monumens 
 Antiques InkHts, 2d vol. 49th plate, we see 
 Orestes before the statue of INIinerva. He 
 hohis the olive branch tied round with 
 bands of white wool. Upon another, pub- 
 lished by the same person (1st vol. 29th 
 plate), Apollo and Minerva are introduced 
 rescuing from the beseUing furies an olive 
 branch which Orestes had hung up to the 
 former deities in quality of supplicant. 
 
 Sl'RIjasement. [surlinissement, Fr.] In 
 architecture. The trait of any arch or 
 vault which describes a portion of an el- 
 lipsis. 
 
 Slrcoat. [surcot, old Fr. upper gar- 
 ment.] In costume. A rich vestment worn 
 by ladies above their other robes. It af- 
 terwards designated a sort of vestment 
 worn over their mantles by the knights of 
 the star. Thus the term was applied in- 
 discriminately to the upper garment both 
 of males and females. According to Du- 
 cange, the surcoat usually descended no 
 lower than the waist, but the ladies occa- 
 sionally had it made much longer. In the 
 1st vol. and' 1st article of Millin's Anti- 
 qnith Natioiiules, Isabel of Bavaria, wife 
 of Charles VI. is represented wearing a 
 very long surcoat Avilhout sleeves, and 
 having on the stomach two very long sepa- 
 rate pieces, which formed a fold at the 
 girdle or waist. 
 
 Slspension Bridge. See Bhidce. 
 
 Svelte, [srelto, Ital.] In paintbif;. A 
 term to express that which is executed in 
 a light, graceful, and delicate manner: it 
 is opi)osed to a taste or style heavy and 
 lumbering. The word is not however 
 much practised, at least on this side the 
 •«ater. Both in Itiily and France it is 
 common. 
 
 SwoRi). [Sax. swceril, Dutch.] In mili- 
 ttirij costume. The most iincieiit form of 
 Jlif (jrcek sword which is (rrtceable by 
 lielp of monuments of art (among others 
 upon Greek vases) is that of a si)eiir-li( ad. 
 The blade was short and swelling in the 
 niiddlr, iin<l i)rob;d)ly, in order to nmke a 
 lance, they were accustomed merely to (ix 
 this sword to the end of n stafl" or baton. 
 It is evident from these relics of initi(|uil y 
 that the (M-eeks carried their swords under 
 the left uxilla, or arm-pit, very high and 
 almost in a perpendicular position. The 
 scabbanl was adorned, in dillerent in- 
 •tances, with pieces of gold or silver, or 
 
 s w o 
 
 with sculptured figures. Tliese weapons 
 were often made of brass. Their heroes 
 frequently carried with them one and 
 sometimes two lances, but never bore the 
 naked sword except when engaged in the 
 combat. We find Orestes generally re- 
 presented carrying a naked sword, it -is 
 true; but then, after his murder of his 
 mother, he is always held by the poets and 
 artists to be pursued by Furies. Subse- 
 quently, the Grecian swords were made of 
 greater length. Antiquaries commonly 
 bestow the name of parazonium on antique 
 swords. See Parazonrm. The Lace- 
 dtemonians used crooked swords by way 
 of foils ; but these were so very short that 
 Plutarch reports a wag to have observed 
 that any mountebank might readily swal- 
 low them. Upon ancient monuments, the 
 people usually denominated straii<!:ers by 
 the Greeks, and bwbarians by the Romans, 
 are armed with crooked swords. Up to 
 the period of the wars of Hannibal, the 
 Romans appear to have made no innova- 
 tions upon the shape of the Grecian sword ; 
 but after that, they adojjted the form of 
 those used among the Celtiberians. This 
 instrument was never worn by them except 
 with the military habit; and in cases of 
 surrendering as prisoners, or yielding sub- 
 mission to any great potentate, it was cus- 
 tomary, as in modern times, to tender the 
 sword. The lictors were charged to take 
 away the swords of all those who accosted 
 the emperors; indeed it was considereil a 
 capital crime to approach their presence 
 with a naked sword even through forget- 
 fulness. The sword and spear were reck- 
 oned as attributes of the pr;etors, and were 
 commonly set up before them. It appears 
 that the Romans wore their swords alter- 
 nately on either side, at dillerent cpoclis, 
 and indeed often at the same, when the 
 difference was regulated by military gra- 
 dations. Polybius slates it to have been 
 generally worn on the right side ; whilst 
 Josephus says that the foot soldiers of 
 Titus wore it on the left side and on the 
 right a poniard. I'pon the Trajan co- 
 lunui, the swords of the soldiers, of the 
 ensigns, and of the simple pretorians, are 
 on the right side: those of the emperor, of 
 tii(> pretorian ollicers, of the tribunes, an<l 
 of the centurions, on the left. By (he tro- 
 l)hies found on the same column, we per- 
 ceive that the (ierman swords were ge- 
 nerally bent back. The swords of the 
 (Jauls, at the time of lirennus, were long, 
 without point, and fell back, according to 
 Polybius, upon the right thigh, from whicli 
 they were s\ispended by iron chains, and 
 s(Mnetinies by baldrics or shoulderbelts of 
 
silver or gold. The Spaniards used very 
 short swords, pointed, and double-edged. 
 They had also poniards of a foot in length. 
 The Cabinet of Antiquities belonging to 
 the French National Library possesses 
 many specimens of antique swords. 
 
 Upon the seals of the middle ages vre 
 very often find the sword used as emble- 
 matical of authority. 
 
 Syenite, [from Syene, a town of The- 
 bais, at the extremity of Egypt, famous for 
 its quarries.] In archaiology. In a passage 
 of Pliny, wherein he speaks of the monu- 
 ments of Egypt, he states that in the envi- 
 rons of Syene this species of stone was 
 plentiful and was at tirst denominated py- 
 ropoecilos. " It is of this stone," says he, 
 " that the kings of Egypt caused those 
 stupendous monuments to be erected call- 
 ed obelisks." See Obelisks. Now, as 
 we know of what kind of stone the Egyp- 
 tian obelisks are composed, it is to be in- 
 ferred that the syenite of the ancients was 
 in point of fact a granite which owed its 
 peculiar appellation to the land from 
 whose bowels it was extracted. As to 
 the name pyropoecilos it is compounded of 
 the two Greek words Trup, fire, and ttoikI- 
 Xog, various ; and evidently denotes a sub- 
 stance in the mixed colours of which we 
 distinguish a fiery red. This hue is there- 
 fore predominant in the granite particu- 
 larized by Pliny under the name of sye- 
 nite ; and in accordance with this, Winc- 
 kelmann observes that all the obelisks 
 have been constructed of a red and whitish 
 granite. M. Stultz, in describing a rock 
 composed of feldspethum and blend ore, 
 mixed perhaps with quartz, makes the re- 
 mark that IM. ^^erner, who first distin- 
 guished it from granite, designated it, in 
 honour of Plinj^, by the name of lapis 
 sienus, and tliat it is precisely the same 
 substance as tliat employed in the con- 
 struction of tlie beautiful obelisks to be 
 seen at Rome. M. de Veltheim observes 
 justly, however, that this is a mistake, 
 and that the two stones materially differ. 
 The ancients made use of red granite, not 
 only in their obelisks but in columns also; 
 and Pliny makes mention of columns of 
 syenite adorning the Labyrinth. The most 
 beautiful relic of art composed of this gra- 
 nite is the celebrated Pompey's Pillar. 
 See CoLLMN. In the Royal Museum of 
 Paris are several fine columns and an ele- 
 gant table likewise made of syenite. See 
 Granite. 
 
 Sylvanus. [Lat. from sylva, a wood.] 
 In mythological painting and sculpture. This 
 deity presided over woods and the fruits 
 that grow there, and has therefore, on a 
 
 SYN 
 
 sepulchral lamp in Bartoli, a lap full of 
 fruit; his pruning hook is in one hand, 
 and a young cypress tree in the other, 
 wliich is mentioned by Virgil as a distin- 
 guishing attribute. He describes him as 
 crowned with wild flowers, and as pre- 
 siding over the corn-fields as well as the 
 woods. The Fauns, a corresponding sort 
 of woodland deities, ranged over the coun- 
 try, but delighted chiefly in vineyards. 
 Tliey are represented even eating grapes 
 out of Bacchus's hands ; and appear ge- 
 nerally as his attendants in Bacchanal 
 feasts and processions. The Fauns were 
 partly of the Satyr kind, as may be seen 
 by their short tails, little horns, and point- 
 ed ears. Tliey have all the agility and 
 playfulness of the satyrs, but not their 
 savage form and lewdness. See Satyrs. 
 The famous Faun at Florence is dancing, 
 with some musical instruments in his 
 hands used at the feast of Bacchus. 
 
 The chief passion as well of the Fauns 
 as the Satyrs, was for the nymphs, though 
 both are fabled to have had females of 
 their own kind. The poets are not very 
 ample in their descriptions of the persons 
 and attributes of the Sylvans, though 
 Nymphs and Fauns formed so common a 
 subject with ancient artists. 
 
 Symmetry. [Gr. (xvppfrpia, from aw, 
 in compos, equal, and perpov, a measure.] 
 In all the arts. Fitness of one part to ano- 
 ther : Harmony, Proportioiv. See these 
 two words. 
 
 Sympathy. [Gr. ffvpTradeia.'] In all the 
 arts. The meaning of this term is closely 
 allied to that of the last, wliich refer to. 
 It is more especially applied, in the Fine 
 Arts, to the friendly and eifective union of 
 colours. 
 
 Symphlegma. [Gr. ffvpnXcypa, an em- 
 bracing, from ffvv, with, and 7r\ivioj, to fold 
 or join.] In fainting and sculpture. This 
 term is used to denote a group of persons 
 interlaced with each other. Thus we may, 
 according to Winckelmann, call the chil- 
 dren of Niobe a symphlegma. Pliny gives 
 this name to two famous groups of wrest- 
 lers ; the one of Cephessodorus, of which 
 it was said that the hands of the figures 
 appeared rather to be buried in flesh than 
 in marble ; and the other of Heliodorus, 
 who represented the struggle of Pan and 
 Olympus. But this appellation of sym- 
 phlegma cannot be appropriated to two 
 figures placed by each other's side, as 
 Gort has imagined. 
 
 Synnadicum or Synnadique M.uible. 
 See Phrygian Marble. 
 
 Synthrone. [Gr. (tvv, together with, 
 and Opovovg, a throne.] In archniology. 
 
SYR 
 
 Term wliicli signifies particijHiting in a 
 throne. Tiie ancients were in tlie habit of 
 unitinf^two orniore deities in one common 
 worsliip. Tlie striking resemblance so 
 oflen found in representations of Bacclms 
 and Hercules made this custom particu- 
 larly general with regard to them. Tlie 
 most ancient of those relics which exhibit 
 this alliance is the celebrated bassu-rilievo 
 of the Farnese Palace, since in the Museum 
 Albani, which is accompanied with a 
 Greek inscription. 
 
 SvitiNX. [Gr. (TDpiy?, a pipe.] In mytho- 
 lugual painling and sculjiturc. A njmph 
 of Arcadia, daughter of the river Ladon. 
 Pan became enamoured of her and at- 
 tempted to offer her violence; but Syrinx 
 escajied, and at her own request was 
 changed by the gods into a reed, called 
 syrinx by the Greeks. The god made 
 himself a pipe with the reeds, into which 
 his favourite nymph had been changed, 
 and upon this pipe he is often introduced 
 playing, in pictures. 
 
 The syrinx, or Pan's pipe, is frequently 
 found figured upon ancient monuments. 
 It is composed of seven tubes of unequal 
 size. Ordinarily it is placed in the hands 
 of fauns and satyrs (the followers of Pan) ; 
 but is sometimes also the accompaniment 
 of rustics. Upon the sarcophagus of Tyr- 
 
 SYS 
 
 rania, preserved in the Museum at Aries, 
 and of which a description and engraving 
 are included in the 2d vol. of Millin's Mo- 
 numens Antiques Inidits (plate 37) is de- 
 picted a syrinx in a case or box. It is 
 occasionally found on the earlier Chris- 
 tian monuments as an emblem of our holy 
 faith ; the divine Founder of Christianity 
 having been regarded as the shepherd of 
 his spiritual fiock, and the syrinx being 
 the common musical instrument of the 
 husbandman or shepherd. 
 
 Syuma. [Or. tyvwfia, Ihe train of a gown, 
 from cri'ipw, to drag along.] In archaiology. 
 A very long tunic descending even to the 
 heels, but which nevertheless had not an 
 amplitude greater than the thickness of 
 the body. See Pall.\. 
 
 System. [Gr. av^tjfia, from avv-i-ijyn, 
 to put together.] In all the arts. Regu- 
 laritj^, order, method. Fixed principles 
 either in point of style or plan of study. 
 In a w orse sense of the term, mannerism, 
 into which system, if not closely watched, 
 runs a hazard of degenerating. 
 
 SvsTYLE. [Gr. <7u^\of, from aw, with, 
 and TuXof, a column.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. According to Vitru\ius, the second 
 method of I.\TERtoLtMMATiON (see that 
 word), having two diameters between the 
 columns. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tadekna. [Lat.] In archaiology. The 
 commentators contend that Horace by the 
 word taherna meant not merely what we 
 call a tavern, but every description of 
 shops wherein idle persons assembled to 
 converse. The bottom of the great circus, 
 withoutside, formed among the Romans 
 a row of shops constructed into the most 
 beautiful arcades. The term taberncc ar- 
 gentarite was applied to the shops of the 
 bankers or (lealers in all kinds of money, 
 which Tarquin the older caused to be 
 built round the Forum. The shops of the 
 librarians were in the street Argihtw, op- 
 posite the I'alatiiie Mount. This is the 
 reason why Martial calls them lubciitw 
 argiUlu: After the murder of Virginia 
 by her father, the shops or stalls of the 
 butchers were destroyed and replaced by 
 others, which were denominated lalxrna- 
 nova. The Rcnnans designated by lahirnw 
 iiiriariir the icehouses wherein Ihcj kept 
 ice (luring the summer mouths for pur- 
 jioses corresponding with our own. 
 
 TAbEKNAtLE. \ luhcrnaculum, d tviA.] In 
 
 ancient architecture, &ic. A kind of build- 
 ing among the Hebrews, somewhat in the 
 form of a tent, set up by express com- 
 mand of God, for the performance of reli- 
 gious sacrifices, &c. during the journcy- 
 ings of the Israelites in the wilderness; 
 and made use of after their settlement in 
 the land of Canaan, for the same purpose, 
 until the erection of the temple at Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 It was divided into two i)arts: The one 
 covered, and properly called the Taber- 
 nacle; the other open, called the court. 
 The tuirtains which covered the taberna- 
 cle were made of linen, of se\eral colours, 
 embroidered. There were ten curtains, 
 twenty-eight cubits long, and four in 
 breadlli. Five curtain.-* fastened together 
 made two coverings, which covered up all 
 the tabernacle. Over these were t\\o 
 other coverings ; the one of goat's hair, 
 the other of sheep's t^Kins. The " holy of 
 holies" was partetl livmi the rest of the 
 taliernade by a curtain made fast to four 
 liillars, alundiug ten cubits from the end 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
The length of the whole tabernacle was thir- 
 ty-two cubits ; that is, about fifty feet ; and 
 the breadth twelve cubits, or nineteen feet. 
 The court was a spot of ground a hundred 
 cubits long, and fifty in breadth, enclosed 
 by twenty columns, each twenty cubits 
 high and ten in breadth, covered with silver, 
 and standing ou copper bases, five cubits 
 distant from one another, between which 
 there were curtains drawn and fastened 
 with hooks. At the east end was an en- 
 trance twenty cubits wide, covered with a 
 curtain hanging loose. 
 
 Tabernacle, in modern language, is ap- 
 plied to designate a small edifice con- 
 structed of marble or sometimes of pre- 
 cious stones, in form of a small temple, 
 generally placed upon the altar in Roman 
 Catholic churches or chapels, and employ- 
 ed to enclose the sacred vases, &c. 
 
 Table. [Lat. tabula.'\ In archaiolog-y, ij-c. 
 A movable piece of furniture, usually made 
 of wood or stone, and supported on pillars 
 or the like, for the commodious reception 
 of things placed thereon. 
 
 As a decoration of architecture the word 
 table is applied to a part of tiie wall 
 united and smooth, ordinarily of a square 
 or rectangular form. 
 
 The Romans displayed great magnifi- 
 cence in respect to the table? with which 
 they adorned their halls and other apart- 
 ments. The greater part were made of 
 cedar wood, drawn, according to the tes- 
 timony of Pliny, from Mount Atlas. They 
 employed also at times a still more pre- 
 cious wood called lignum citrum, which 
 was not the same as our citron wood, but 
 that of a tree much more scarce even then, 
 and now unknown. None but the most 
 wealthy individuals, however, were ena- 
 abled to have tables of this valuable de- 
 scription. The high price of the Roman 
 tables was in a great degree occasioned 
 by the circumstance of their being very 
 richly ornamented. As to their bases a 
 table with but one foot was denominated 
 MoNOPODiuM (which word see), that with 
 two was called bii)es, that with three tripes. 
 All served, alike, for the purposes of re- 
 past. The form of these tables varied 
 greatly. Some were square, some long, 
 others oval, &c. according to the prevail- 
 ing fashion. Under the reigns of Theo- 
 dosius and Arcadius we find the horse- 
 shoe, or demi-crescent shape much adopt- 
 ed. See Sigma. After having finished 
 their meal, the table was covered with a 
 sort of counterpane or mattress, that it 
 might be fitted for the guests to repose 
 upon. At top, among the more opulent 
 citizens, the tables were fi-equently cover- 
 
 TAB 
 
 ed with bronze and indeed with silvef* 
 The feet were sometimes cased with silver, 
 sometimes adorned witli ivory, and the 
 artists often applied to them the form of 
 Caryatides, of Atlantes, of Griffins, 
 Sphinxes, &c. (See those words.) 
 
 We may remark, in conclusion, that the 
 ancients seldom made use of tables to 
 write upon, having been accustomed, when 
 they wrote, to hold their tablets upon their 
 knees. 
 
 Tablet, [from table.'] hi archaiologij. 
 Those tablets of stone or metal employed 
 in the most ancient times as matters 
 whereon to write, were by no means all 
 of them portable; and for letters whicli 
 were to be transported from one place to 
 another, it was necessary to have recourse 
 to another invention. Tablets were intro- 
 duced made of wood. Plutarch and Dio- 
 genes Laertius teach us that the laws of 
 Solon were inscribed upon tablets of wood 
 called axones. Previously to the intro- 
 duction of bronze, which subsequently be- 
 came very common for the purpose, the 
 Romans were accustomed to use oaken 
 tablets, which they sometimes denomi- 
 nated schedcE, The general name for these 
 articles, however, was tabula. They were 
 usually covered with wax or plaster either 
 green or black, and sometimes pitch was 
 mixed with the other materials. The in- 
 strument with which they wrote thereon 
 was the Style. See that word. The cha- 
 racters were easily eflaceable ; and this 
 facility affording the ancient authors op- 
 portunities abundant for polishing and 
 revising their compositions, the use of 
 wooden tablets was perpetuated for some 
 time after the introduction of paper and 
 parchment. They were in the habit of 
 making their rough draughts on the tablet 
 and then causing it to be copied out clean 
 upon parchment or paper. After awhile 
 it became necessary to renew the compo- 
 sition beforenientioned with which the 
 tablet was prepared. Those specimens 
 which remain to us appear either black, 
 or of a green so dark as to be scarcely dis- 
 tinguishable from black. When these ta- 
 blets were dispatched by way of epistle, 
 they were tied round with a flaxen string, 
 and the seal of the writer was stamped 
 upon the knot. See Diptychls. 
 
 Tablinum. [Lat.] In architecture. Name 
 of a chamber in the houses of the Romans, 
 which was situated in the narrow part of 
 the atrium, fronting its entrance. Vilru- 
 vius did not indicate, it is true, this exact 
 position precisely; but he leaves abun- 
 dant room for the inference. 
 
 The following may be considered as 
 z z 
 
T A L 
 
 iM'firlj the i:6iial mode of distribution. 
 The i>art which first presented itself was 
 the Vestibilvm (see that word) or wl\at 
 we rail the portico; passing this you en- 
 tered the Atrilm (which refer to) or hall, 
 at the extremity of which was tlie tahliniim, 
 or repository for books, records, is.c. : from 
 the sides of the atrium you passed by alee, 
 or aisles, to the cavadium (see Cav^dium), 
 which was an open court, surrounded by 
 a portico, or piazza, at the extremity of 
 which was the basilica, or place to admi- 
 nister justice, &c. 
 
 Tablla. [Lat. a board or plank.] In 
 archaioUigij. The Romans designed by this 
 term not only a finished picture, but also 
 the board on which it was painted. They 
 employed for these artistical purposes, 
 above all other, a wood called larix femina, 
 a species of pine the wood of which is not 
 ajit to split readily, nor to become worm- 
 eaten. It also resisted for a long time the 
 attack of lire. 
 
 The painters for a long while retained 
 the habit of employing wood. Cranach, 
 Holbein, Durer, and RalTaelle himself, and 
 indeed almost all the most celebrated mas- 
 ters, have occasionally painted thereon. 
 
 Tabula ^^ as likewise the Latin word for 
 Table, which refer to. 
 
 Tabcfjvtl'M. [Lat.] In the archaiologij of 
 unhitectiire. This term signified, amongst 
 the Romans, not only the floors, cielings-', 
 wainscoting, &c. made of joinery, of a 
 house, but also the balconies and other 
 projections. 
 
 TALAniA. [Lat. from talus, the ankle.] 
 In mythalnirical painting and sculpture. 
 Name given to the wings attached to the 
 heels of Mercury. 
 
 Talc. [Sax.] In painting, ^c. A spe- 
 cies of fossil c(inipos<'d of lamina or plates, 
 more or le.ss flexible and transparent. Its 
 siiljstance is soft to the touch, and its frag- 
 ments leave whitish traces. 
 
 There are two varieties of this earth ; 
 the Venetian and Hie Muscovite. Tin; 
 former has not ri'Cei\ed its name so much 
 from being the produce of the Venetian 
 territority as from Ixiing an article of Ve- 
 netian commerce. It abounds in Kngland, 
 Norway, Hungary, Hohemia, Spain, and 
 umny countries of Asia. Venice talc, with 
 half its weight of alkaline salt, nuiy, in a 
 strong lire, be l)rought into perfect fusion, 
 tiiougli not to jM-rfect transparency : with 
 t'tpial its weight, or less, of borax, it runs 
 into a beautiful, pelluci(l, greenish yellow 
 glass. 
 
 MiiKc«iN7 talc, called likewise /«/<« spe- 
 cuUtriB, in found in many purls. The island 
 of Cyprus nbiMiiuls with it. It is veiv 
 
 T A M 
 
 common aJso in Russia, and has of late 
 been discovered to abound in the Alps, 
 the Apennines, and many of the moun- 
 tains of Germany. It is imported in large 
 quantities into England, and is used by 
 lantern-makers, instead of born, in their 
 nicer works; by painters to cover minia- 
 ture pictures, &c. The ancients used it 
 instead of glass in their windows. A va- 
 riety is likewise employed, reduced into 
 the quality of an oil, in oil paintings. 
 
 Talea. [Lat.] In archaiology. The name 
 given to those shapeless pieces of silver 
 which, previously to the invention of re- 
 cognised coins, were passed in exchange 
 for such commodities as the purchaser was 
 desirous of possessing. 
 
 Talent. [Lat. talentum.'\ In all the arts. 
 Peculiar aptitude to>any given art or pur- 
 suit. General ability and cleverness, whe- 
 ther natural or acquired. See Genus. 
 
 Taus.max. [Gr. rtXsff^ta.] In archaiology. 
 Pieces of metal, or stones, charged with 
 certain characters to which superstition 
 was wont to attribute extraordinary vir- 
 tues. Some authors have attributed their 
 invention to Apollonius of Tyana, but we 
 suspect that their origin stretches back to 
 a far more remote period. At the time of 
 Aristophanes the commerce in these talis- 
 mans must have been extremely general ; 
 he makes mention of several fabricators 
 of them. M'e tind also, from passages in 
 Gallienus and Marcellus Enipiricus, that 
 there was great confidence universally 
 jjlaced in their virtues. According to 
 I'liny, the opinion of the multitude was 
 that Milo of Crotona owed his victories 
 alone to these kind of stones, which he 
 bore in the combats ; and after this exam- 
 ple, the candidates in atliletic encounters 
 used to supply themselves therewith. The 
 golden bull suspended from the neck of the 
 generals in the ceremony of the trium])bs 
 enclosed talismans, rcmedia qutc credunt 
 contra inridiam valcntissima, as INlacrobius 
 says. They hung similar charms round 
 the necks of infants, to preserve them from 
 evil genii and other perils. The Roman 
 women often carried talismans in their 
 rings, and other ornaments. The head of 
 Medusa was frequently engraven on dif- 
 ferent parts of armour, in order to serve as 
 a talisman. The best maiiuraetured articles 
 of this kin<l were held to come from Sa- 
 mothracia, where they were fabricated with 
 due soleiniiily acconling to the varying in- 
 lliiences of llie stars. 
 
 Tai.on. [l"r.] In arrhitcrtiirc. A cyma 
 ra-ersa. 
 
 Tamuoi K. [T'r. 1 or Dia M. hi arrhaio- 
 tfgy. This musical iiistrumenl, denonii- 
 
TAP 
 
 nated rvftrravov by the Greeks, and tym- 
 panum by the Romans, is found among 
 almost all the dances and processions of 
 Bacchanals, and -oas still more peculiarly 
 employed by the worshipers of Cybele. 
 Its shape and structure very nearly re- 
 sembled those at present in use, and it was 
 beaten sometimes with the hands alone, 
 and at other times with drumsticks. 
 
 Tantalls. [Lat. from Gr. rdXavTarovc, 
 superlative of raXog, wretched.] In mylho- 
 logical palntitig and sculpture. Tantalus is 
 represented as hanging over the waters, 
 which are always flovt^ing through his 
 hand and gliding from him. Disappoint- 
 ment, and a sort of stupidity the conse- 
 quence of being so perpetually baulked, 
 are marked in his features. From some 
 such representation, Horace compares the 
 self-inflicted tortures of a miser to those of 
 Tantalus. He seems also to have been 
 depicted as standing under a tree, with 
 ripe fruits hanging just before his mouth, 
 which, when he attempts to pluck them, 
 move away out of his reach; and in other 
 instances, with a huge stone over his head, 
 just ready to fall upon him. 
 
 Tapestry, [tapisserie, Fr.] In painting, 
 embroidery, &c. A kind of woven hang- 
 ings of wool and silk, frequently raised 
 and enriched with gold and silver, repre- 
 senting figures of men, animals, landscapes, 
 historical subjects, &c. 
 
 This species of curtain-covering for 
 walls was known among the inhabitants 
 of eastern countries at an extremely re- 
 mote era. Tiie most grotesque composi- 
 tions of men, animals, plants, &c. ; the most 
 fantastic combinations and heterogeneous 
 mixtures, were commonly selected for the 
 display of the talents of workmen in this 
 department of oriental art, which was, in 
 common with all the other branches of the 
 fine or the useful arts, afterwards imported 
 into Greece. It is from these bizarre com- 
 positions that the elegant Greeks took 
 their ideas of those half-fabulous crea- 
 tures — griffins, centaurs, &c. These Per- 
 sian or Babylonian tapestries were known 
 by the*appeilation of barbarian, to distin- 
 guish them from the curtain more pecu- 
 liarly in use amonst the Greeks, and called 
 TTtnXov. See Peplum. 
 
 At length the refined taste of Athens 
 became visible in the structure and adorn- 
 ments of tapestries. The old grotesque 
 combinations no longer, as formerly, co- 
 vered their surfaces ; but were confined to 
 the borders only : and the centre received 
 the impress of more regular and systema- 
 tic representations. 
 
 In modern times, this desci'iption of em- 
 
 TAS 
 
 broidery has been executed with very 
 great success, and has often called forth 
 the talent for design of the greatest mas- 
 ters in the art of painting. At the same 
 time it must be confessed that these can- 
 not challenge equal praise with the orien- 
 tal specimens for brilliancy and variety of 
 colours. In Flanders, more particularly, 
 during the fifteenth and sixteenth centu- 
 ries, the art was practised with uncommon 
 skill, and many examples might be cited — 
 above all, the tapestries which were exe- 
 cuted there after tlie masterly designs of 
 Raffaelle in his invaluable Cartoons. 
 
 This art Avas brought into England by 
 Wm. Sheldon, near the end of Henry 
 VIII's. reign. In 1619, a manufacture 
 was established at Mortlake, in Surrey, 
 by Sir Fras. Crane, who received £2000 
 from James I. to encourage the design. 
 The first manufacture of tapestry at Paris 
 was set up under Henry IV, in 1G06 or 
 1007, by several artists whom that monarch 
 invited from Flanders. But the most cele- 
 brated of all the European tapestry manu- 
 factures was that of the Gobelins, instituted 
 under Louis XIV. which sent forth a ery 
 beautiful cloths, remarkable for strength, 
 for elegance of design, and happy choice 
 of colours. The finest paintings were 
 copied, and eminent painters employed in 
 making designs. For a long while Gobelin 
 tapestry was the most costly and favourite 
 method of hanging the walls of chambers: 
 but the revolutions of fashion have wrought 
 a great change in this as in other respects ; 
 and the stately productions of the Parisian 
 workmen have given way to the exertions of 
 the paper-hanger, carver, or housepainter. 
 
 Taste. [Dutch.] In all the arts. That 
 faculty of the mind by means of which we 
 perceive and enjoy whatever is beautiful 
 or sublime in the works of Nature and 
 Art, Like the taste of the palate, this 
 faculty relishes some things, is disgusted 
 with others, and to many is indifl'erent ; 
 and from these obvious analogies between 
 it and the external sense it has obtained 
 its name. 
 
 A fine taste is formed and strengthened 
 by reflexion, study, and comparison. It 
 is his taste which decides tlie painter in 
 the choice of a subject ; and hence we 
 may learn if this taste is bad or good. 
 It is impossible however to fix limits or 
 a standard to this quality, inasmuch as 
 the minds and perceptions of men are 
 infinitely various. Generally speaking, 
 as regards the Fine Arts, that may be 
 called tasteful which is uatunal and grace- 
 ful, or which produces the greatest ellect 
 by the fewest and simplest means. Good 
 
 z z 2 
 
tasio limy be evidenced alike in tiic most 
 and ill the leiiht important parts of a work 
 of art; and allhotinh, strictly speaking, 
 it is iindefinable, yet tljere is a sort of 
 freemasonry anions men of cultivated in- 
 tellects by whicii it is at once detected and 
 appreciated. We have said that an artist 
 is influenced by his taste, or relisii, in the 
 choice of a subject : we may also say, that 
 it is the same governing principle which 
 generally incites him to tlie pursuit of the 
 art itself, to the particular brunch of it 
 which he practises, and to the peculiar 
 style predominant in his performances. 
 
 'I'hese varieties of taste, as regards 
 paintinfT, are commonly enumerated : na- 
 tural, urtificiiil, and miiional. Tlie first 
 mentioned, namely that witii which an 
 artist ajipears to be originally endowed, is 
 perhaps in most instances the one which 
 clings to him in a greater or less degree 
 througliout life ; although it is usually mo- 
 dified by acquaintance with the world, by 
 thought, and by observation of the works 
 of others. Sometimes, however, and more 
 particularly in men of decided genius, we 
 find the original or natural taste, very lit- 
 tle interfered with, still governing and 
 predominating over every other, and im- 
 pelling the individual forward even against 
 a stream of opinion and precedent which 
 might iiave borne weaker minds away 
 with it. We would not, at tlie same time, 
 wish to encourage this predisposition too 
 strongly, since experience is constantly 
 suggesting subject matter for imi)rovoment, 
 and the limited faculty of tiie human 
 being in his earliest years is, except in a 
 few favoured instances, but a blind guide 
 to puroiiits or princijdes which are to stand 
 the vvear-and-tear of life. 
 
 The second description of taste, there- 
 fore, is perhaps the safest and the most 
 just ; namely, that which is acquired as the 
 mental faculties develop themselves, and 
 as the individual begins to appreciate duly 
 the did'creiiccs of things around him. A 
 thousand inii)ressions made upon tliei)las- 
 tic Hubstance of the mind, and, altho\igh 
 fieeting, treasured up in the mysterious 
 cells of the memory, and s\il)se<iuenlly 
 turM<-(l 1(1 iiccMunt, conduce to form this 
 taste, which may be resembled to (he per- 
 fect buildinR, of which nevertheless the 
 natural taste is the foundation-stone. 
 
 'I'he last of III,' three great varieties 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 possess considerable influence, and to be 
 readily traceable in the works of tlie se- 
 veral artists. 
 
 .Among the numerous works on taste in 
 general, we may cite, in the first place, 
 that which L. A. Mlratohi published 
 under the fictitious name vi Lamiiido Piita- 
 vio, and which is entitled, Kijiessioni supra 
 il biion Gusto, intonio le Seienze c le Art'i, 
 Venice, 1708 and 1717. Juan Sempre y 
 GuARiNOs published at Madrid, a Dis- 
 course on the Actual State of the Spa- 
 niards in Literature; and he likewise 
 treated of taste in the first book of ano- 
 ther of his works entitled, Delia per/itta 
 Poesia. At the commencement of the 
 translation of certain comedies of Aristo- 
 phanes, Mademoiselle Dacier has placed 
 a digression on taste, which she defines to 
 be harmony or aifrecmcnt between wit and 
 reason. The 3(1 of the Entretiens Galans 
 treats likewise of the same subject; sty- 
 ling it the clearness of the reasoning; faculty 
 inciting to a just choice the enthusiasm of 
 the heart. Lettres sur le ion Goitt, sur les 
 Moyens de le reglcr, et sur les Differences 
 du GoSt, by the Abb^ Bellegarue, in his 
 Lcffres curiinses de Littcraiure et de Morale, 
 and in his Lettres Clioisits de M. M. de 
 L'Acad^mie Fran(^. Paris, 1708, 12mo. Ma- 
 Jiiire de Inen peiiser dans Us Ou rrages d' Esprit, 
 by the Pere BoiiioiHS, Paris, 1G84, 4to. 
 and 17 71, 12mo. Discoars sur le bon GoCif, 
 by J. F. Du Tkemui-,\y, Paris, 1713, 12mo. 
 R/Jle.rions gentfrales sur le Gvtit, by Koi.lin, 
 in his Mauiere d'enseigner et d'^iudier les 
 Belles Lettres. Essui historique et philoso- 
 phique sur le Gout, by Cartaud de la Vi- 
 LAi'E, Paris, 173G and 17.51. IJArrEAi x, 
 in the 1st vol. of his Cours de Jlelles Let- 
 tres. Leftre de J. B. de la Curne tie 
 Sainte-Palave, to M. BAriiAiMONT, sur 
 le bon Gofit dans les Arts et dans Us Belles 
 i.(//»rA-, Paris, 1751. The article GoAt in 
 the French JCucyclopa'dia, which is by 
 \'oi;rAiiu:. Rijlexions sur I' Usage, et sur 
 I'Abus de la l'hili)sojihie m Matiere de Gofit, 
 by D'Alemhekt, in the Ith vol. of his 
 fli/langes. L'Art de sentir et de juger in 
 nintiirede Goi'it, by the Abbe Sehan i>i; i a 
 Tom, Paris, 17()2. Discours et ]{< Jle.iiuus 
 sur le Gofit, by Fokmey ; found in his 
 Essais sur le Beau, Amst. 17C1. Diaserta- 
 tiiin sur U Goiil, by Le Cat, in the new 
 HJenioirs of the Acadennj (f Berlin. 
 
 Among (Jeniian aiilliors, 'Ihomasil's 
 
 termed a national taste, is the result of was the first who wrote on Taste. Be- 
 
 liose 
 
 peculiarities which geiierHlly are 
 found to sepiirale one distinct nation, using 
 • he same language, an<l living und.r the 
 Kame forms of soci.ly, from another; and 
 a« such may reasonably be exiiected to 
 
 sides him are: — l)n the Influence and I'se 
 of the hnaginatiou,and on the pirfecling of 
 i.ood Taste, by J. J. UoDMEif, Frankfort, 
 I7'J7. De Morum Vi ail Sensum I'utchri- 
 ludinis, <iuam Artes scctantur ; uuctorc Chi: 
 
TASTE. 
 
 OoUl. Hkvne, Gottingen, 1763. Treatise 
 on the Influence of Manners upon Language 
 and Good Taste, by G. I. Findeisen, Ber- 
 lin, 1768. In the Revision of German Lite- 
 rature, is a Treatise on the Taste of the pre- 
 sent Day, Manheim, 1776. The 19th chap- 
 ter of the Philosophy of the Fine Arts, by 
 R^NiG, treats principally of Taste. In 
 the 2d vol. of the Theory of the Fine Arts, 
 by ScHOTT, we likewise find an entire 
 cliapter on the nature of taste ; and the 3d 
 vol. of the Criticism on the Faculty of the 
 Judgment, by I. Kant, discourses almost 
 entirely on the same subject. 
 
 Among the works on Taste in our own 
 language are the following : — In the Es- 
 says and Treatises of Hume, those articles 
 entitled— Of the Standard of Taste ; and Of 
 the Delicacy of Taste. Letters concerning 
 Taste, by Cooper, London, 1753. Essay 
 on Taste, by Alex. Gerahd, Edinburgli, 
 1789. Clio, a Discourse on Taste, Lon- 
 don, 1766. A Treatise on the Origin of our 
 Ideas of the Subline and Beautiful, in the 
 Philosophical Inquiries of Harris, London, 
 1772. Ladius and Hortensia, or Thoughts 
 on Taste and Genius, Edin. 1782. Of 
 Taste and its improvements, in Beattie's 
 Dissertations Moral and Critical, London, 
 
 1783. Essay on the Taste for the general 
 Beauties of Nature, and Essay on a Taste 
 
 for the Fine Arts, by T. Percxval, in his 
 Moral and Literary Dissertations, London, 
 
 1784. The 7th section of Essays on the 
 Intellectual Power of Man, by Reid, Edin, 
 
 1785. Attempt to show that a Taste for the 
 Beauties of Nature and the Fine Arts has an 
 influence favourable to Morals, hy S. Hall, 
 which together with another tract. On the 
 Pleasure which the Blind receives from the 
 Exercises of Taste in particular (by C. Po- 
 lier) are to be met with in the 2d vol. of 
 Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical 
 Society of Manchester, London, 1785, Dis- 
 courses of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Inquiry 
 into the Principles of Taste and the Origin 
 of our Ideas of Beauty, Loudon, 1790. Es- 
 says on the Nature and Principles of Taste, 
 by A. Alison, London, 1790. 
 
 With respect to the history of taste, and 
 its decline from the purity of the ancient: 
 —Esprits des Beaux Arts, or Histoire rai- 
 sonnie du Go&t, by P. Esteve, Montpelier, 
 1753, 2 vols. 12mo, Causes of the Decline 
 of Taste among difl^erent Nations (in Ger- 
 man), by Herder, Berlin, 1775. Del Gusto 
 presente nella Litteraturu Italiana, Dissert. 
 del D, Matteo Borsa, accompagnato da 
 copiose Ossercazione da Stef. Arteaga, 
 Venice, 1784. Discorso s^ul Gusto presente 
 delta Belle Lettcre d'ltalia, by J. Pinde- 
 .monte, to be found in his Volgarie deW 
 
 Inno a Ccrere, Bass, 1785. Dell Carattere 
 nazioruile del Gusto Ilaliano, Milan, 1785. 
 Le.ttres sur la Naissance, les Vrogri's, ct la 
 Decadence du Godt en France, by Reniond 
 de Saint-Mard in his Inflexions sur la 
 Po6sie, Paris, 1733. Quelles sont les 
 Sources de la Decadence du Go&t? by the 
 Abbe Laserre, Nismes, 1768. 
 
 The following works relate to the prin- 
 ciples of taste as applied to the line arts 
 exclusively : — L'Idea del perfetto Pitlore, 
 per servire di Regola nel Giudizio che si 
 deve formare intorno all' Opere de' Pittore, 
 Venice, 1771, 4to. Dell' arte di vedcre 
 nelle belli Arti del Disegno, secondo li prin- 
 cipi di SuLZER, e di Mengs, Venice, 1781. 
 Scntimens sur la Distinction des diverses 
 Manieres de Peinture, Dessin et Gravure, 
 et des Originaux d'avec leurs Copies, by 
 BossE, Paris, 1649, 8vo, Co7iversations 
 stir la Connoissance de la Peinture, et sur le 
 Jugement qu'on doit faire des Tableaux, by 
 De Piles, Paris, 1677, Maniere de bien 
 juger des Ouvrages de Peinture, by the 
 Ahh6 Laugior, Paris, 1771, Two Dis- 
 courses and Essays on the whole Art of 
 Criticism, as it relates to Painting, and in 
 behalf of the Science of a Connoisseur, by 
 Richardson, London, 1719. Thoughts on 
 Beauty and Taste in Painting (in German), 
 by Winckelmann, Zurich, 1762. Dic- 
 tionnaire des Beaux Arts, by Sulzer, tlie 
 work under the same title by IMillin. Dia- 
 tionary of Painting, by Watelet, i5cc. &c. 
 
 Technical. [Gr, fix%n], art, from r'kx^>), 
 to produce.] In all the arts. That method 
 of speaking which is proper, or peculiarly 
 appertaining, to any given art. Artists 
 and amateurs are accustomed, wlicn tliey 
 talk of matters relating to the arts, to em- 
 ploy many expressions which are not in- 
 troduced into ordinary language, or at 
 least do not bear the same signification. 
 This species of conversation is not with- 
 out its advantages. The terms it employs 
 are often arbitrary, but they are much 
 clearer than any other would be to the 
 artist or connoisseur, inasmuch as he has 
 habituated himself to combine witli them, 
 and with them alone, the ideas meant to be 
 conveyed; and they besides often save a 
 round-about way of expression. But this 
 stated, we are bound to add that they 
 should never be introduced into books, 
 excepting only such as are addressed spe- 
 cifically to the practisers of our art; for in 
 any work designed for the purposes of 
 general information, tiiey merely tend to 
 mystify and confuse the reader ; save 
 when, as for instance in the case of this 
 Dictionary, they are introduced for tho 
 sake of being explained. 
 
T E M 
 
 Tettokes. [Lilt] See Clilvtor. 
 TtcroiMiM or TtrroRitM Opls, [Lat. 
 from lector, a plasterer, which from tef^u, 
 to cover; opus, a work.] In archaiolojiij . 
 The Romans applied this name to the 
 stucco or phister v itli which tiiey covered 
 the cielings and walls iu the interior of 
 their apartments. The tectorium differed 
 from the Ai.nARiLMOpus (which refer to), 
 which was whiter and liner. It was com- 
 posed of a mixture of lime and sand. 
 
 Tiif.VMONES. [Gr. from ruXaw, to sus- 
 tain.] In ancient arcliitecture. The figures 
 of men which similarly to Caryatides 
 (which see) supjiort the weight of a cor- 
 nice, inc. Sometimes these statues are de- 
 nominated Atlan'tes (which refer to). 
 
 Ti:i.LUS. In mylholo'^kal painting and 
 sculpture. Tellus, or the genius of the 
 eartii, is ahvays represented in a reclining 
 posture, like the river gods. The only- 
 considerable description relating to this 
 goddess is in Ovid's account of the fall of 
 Phaeton. Tellus is sometimes represented 
 with a globe ( orhisterrarum) in her hand; 
 and sometimes the orbis (or world) itself is 
 personified, as on a medal of Gallieuus, 
 where it appears under the figure of a 
 naked man, kneeling on one knee, and the 
 emperor giving him his hand to raise him 
 up. 
 
 The figures of Tellus are often to be met 
 with on gems, where Sol is setting out in 
 his chariot; and on sarcophagi, where 
 Tellus aiul Occanus are often in the front, 
 to signify that the dead person was re- 
 turned to his first elements. 
 
 TEM 
 
 moon, then the waves receiving the lumi- 
 nous rays of that body appear bordered 
 with silver, and take the character of im- 
 mense sheets of crystal. That part of them 
 which is left uuradiated presents nothing 
 but a tone of greenish black, very strong, 
 and with bluish reflections upon the dif- 
 ferent inequalities of the wave. Rocks, 
 vessels, and all other bodies which are 
 sustained upon or surrounded by the 
 waters, are of the deepest tone, and com- 
 bine to present a contrast the most poignant 
 and picturesque." 
 
 Temple. [Lat. temphtm.] In architecture. 
 Edifices destined for the performance of 
 public worship. Various etymologies have 
 been suggested for the Latin word tern- 
 plum. Some derive it from the Greek rept- 
 voQ, the meaning of which was the same; 
 others from TSfxvio, ubscindo, " I cut off", or 
 separate," a temple being a place abstract- 
 ed and set apart from other uses. Others 
 again, perhaps with more probability, do 
 not go to the Greek at all, but seek the 
 root of the word in the old Latin verb tem- 
 plare, to contemplate. The ancient augurs 
 undoubtedly applied the name templa to 
 those parts of the heavens which were 
 marked out for observation of the flights 
 of birds. Temples were originally all 
 open, and hence indeed most likely came 
 their name. 
 
 These structures may be regarded as 
 among the most ancient of monuments. 
 Amongst eveiy people, they formed the 
 first built and the most noticeable of pub- 
 lic edifices. As soon as a nation had ac- 
 
 Tempest. [Lilt, tempcstas.l In painting quired any degree of civilization, they took 
 
 and pcrspectire. M. Valenciennes, in his 
 FJdmcnjt de Perspective pratique, nuikes, ou 
 this subject, the following observations: 
 " In the tempest, the waves of the sea are 
 brown, green, and frothy. They burst 
 over each other; and when, pressed by 
 the violence of the winds, they rush to 
 encounter a body capable of opposing 
 resiNlarue to tiiein, the impulse becomes 
 terrible from their force and dimensions. 
 The rocka which border the shores, the 
 
 thick moles whicli protect the seaports, 
 
 iieitlur can arrest the fury of these break- 
 ers ; they shiver against the powerful bar- 
 riers, an<l throwing up tiieir foaming Ijillows 
 overleap the jjiers even to a ((msidcral.le 
 (liHlancf; whili! the temporary illuniina- 
 tioiisi of th(! ligiilning serve j)iily to deve- 
 lop the horrible aliysses which seem to 
 threaten the engulfment of all surround- 
 ing (ibjects. 
 
 " Wiien there is no liglitning or rain, 
 and the awful scene is lighted up jx-r- 
 thunce by the splendour of the genllu 
 
 care to consecrate and appropriate i)arti- 
 cular spots to the worship of their deities. 
 In the earliest instances, they cunteutcd 
 themselves with erecting altars either of 
 earth or ashes in the open air, and some- 
 times resorted for the purposes of worship 
 into the depths of solitary woods. At 
 length they ac(iuired the practice of build- 
 ing cells or cha]K"ls, witiiin the enclosure 
 of which they placed the images of their 
 divinities, and assembled in order to offer 
 tip their su])plicati()ns ami thanksgi\ ings 
 us well as sacrifices. These were chiefly 
 formed similarly to their own dwellings, 
 'J'lu! Troglodiles adoretl their gods in 
 grottoes; the people who lived in cabins 
 erected edifices, the form of which was 
 nuire or less assimilat(>d to that sjiecies of 
 of habitation, ("lemens Alexaiulrinus and 
 Kusebius refer the origin of temples to the 
 8ej)ulehres built for the di-ail ; and this 
 notion has been latterly illustrated and 
 I'onrirmed from a variety of testimonies by 
 Mr. J'armer, in his Treatise on the Worship 
 
TEMPLE. 
 
 of Human Spirits, p. 373, &c. Herodotus 
 and Strabo contend that the Egyptians 
 were the first who erected temples to the 
 gods ; and the one first erected in Greece 
 is attributed by Apollonius to Deucalion. 
 (Argonaut, lib. iii.) The temple of Castor 
 was built upon the tomb of that hero. 
 
 According to Pausanias, the oracle of 
 Delphos, in remote ages, was consulted in 
 a kind of arbour formed of laurels. That 
 of Jupiter, at Dodona, rendered, at a simi- 
 lar era, its oracles by an old oak, as we 
 learn both from Pausanias and Herodotus. 
 In the vicinity of Magnesia, upon the Mae- 
 ander, was a grotto consecrated to Apollo, 
 wherein was to be seen a very ancient 
 statue of that god. When the Greeks, at 
 a subsequent period, surpassed all other 
 people in cultivation of the arts which 
 they had introduced from Phoenicia, Sy- 
 ria, and Egypt, they appropriated a consi- 
 derable portion of time, care, and expense 
 to the building of temples and rendering 
 them every way worthy their destination. 
 No country has ever surpassed, or per- 
 haps equalled them, in this respect ; the 
 Romans alone, indeed, may be said, every 
 thing considered, to have at all success- 
 fully rivalled them, and they took the 
 Greek structures for models. 
 
 In every city of Greece, as well as in 
 its environs, and in the open country, was 
 a considerable number of sacred temples. 
 It is not therefore matter for surprise that 
 the ruins of this description now existing 
 should greatly exceed those of any other 
 kind of building ; and still less so w hen 
 it is recollected that the best materials and 
 the utmost attention were uniformly em- 
 ployed upon the Grecian and Roman tem- 
 ples, which were thus much better enabled 
 to resist the injuries of time. The particu- 
 lar divinity who was held to preside in 
 chief over each several town had always 
 the most elegant and costly temple therein 
 especially dedicated to liira or her. In- 
 stances of this are to be found in the tem- 
 ple of Minerva, at Athens ; that of Diana, 
 at Ephesus; of Apollo, at Delphos; of 
 Jupiter at Olympius ; of Venus, at Pa- 
 phos and Cytherea; and of Jupiter Capi- 
 tolinus, at Rome. The temples construct- 
 ed in the provinces chiefly appertained to 
 the gods of the country or to those common 
 to the several communities. At Panio- 
 nium was a temple of Jupiter Heliconius, 
 erected by the Ionian colonies imported 
 into Attica from Asia Minor. The Dorian 
 colonies of Asia Minor had likewise a 
 common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo 
 Triopius. Near to Mylassa was a temple 
 - sacred to Jupiter Carius, and common to 
 
 the Carians, the Lydians, and the Mysi- 
 ans. In the territory of Stratonica was 
 the temple of Jupiter Chrysaoreus, apper- 
 taining to the Carians. In the immediate 
 vicinity of these edifices, the people held, 
 at fixed seasons, assemblies for the pur- 
 pose of sacrificing to the gods ; tiiey also 
 celebrated their fetes on the same spot, 
 and deliberated respecting the allairs of 
 the entire nation. 
 
 We should be deceived in imagining 
 that the most ancient Grecian temples 
 were of great extent. On the other hand, 
 some of them were very small. The cella 
 was barely large enough to contain the 
 statue of the presiding deity of the temple, 
 and occasionally an altar in addition. 
 Even in succeeding ages, when the riches 
 and power, as well as the taste and skill 
 of the Grecian states were augmented, 
 this observation continues to hold good in 
 a great degree. Their object, in fact, did 
 not render extent necessary ; since the 
 priests alone entered the cella, and the 
 people accumulated in masses without- 
 side the walls. Exceptions indeed v.ere 
 made, in the examples of those dedicated 
 to the tutelary divinities of towns, of those 
 of the supreme gods, and of those appro- 
 priated to the common use of various com- 
 munities. This increased extent was' 
 chiefly displayed in the porticoes sur- 
 rounding the cella, and was again aug- 
 mented by the Peribolos (See tiiat word). 
 
 Vitruvius teaches us the peculiar situa- 
 tions and aspects which the Greeks select- 
 ed for their temples ; but we are bound to 
 state that there are numerous exceptions 
 to his rules. According to this authority, 
 however, the situations were regulated 
 chiefly by the nature and characteristics 
 of the various divinities. Thus, the tem- 
 ples of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, who 
 were considered by the inhabitants of 
 many cities as their protecting deities, 
 were erected on spots sufBciently elevated 
 to enable them to overlook the whole 
 town, or at least the principal part of it. 
 Rlinerva, the tutelary deity of Atliens, 
 had her seat on the Acropolis, so that 
 all those who arrived in the city might 
 behold it while yet afar oft". The temples 
 of Mercury w ere ordinarily in the Forum, 
 or otherwise, like those of Isis and Sera- 
 pis among the Egyptians, in the market. 
 Those of Apollo and Bacchus were placed 
 beside the theatres. The temple of Her- 
 cules was commonly built near the Gym- 
 nasium, the amphitheatre, or circus. Those 
 of Mars, of "Venus, and of Vulcan, had 
 their place generally without the walls of 
 the city, but near the gates. The temple« 
 
TKM 
 
 of Ceres were likewise placed, in most in- 
 stances, outside the town in a retired and 
 quiet place, and were visited by few per- 
 bons except such as were initiated into 
 tlie mysteries of Iier worship. The Greeks 
 rarely placed the temples of Vesta with- 
 outsiue the walls, but on the contrary 
 were accustomed to select for tliein tiie 
 most commodious and beautiful sites. Tlie 
 temides of Esculajiius, however, were uni- 
 formly built in tiie nei(;hb<(urhood of the 
 towns, on some elevated and desirable 
 Bpot, where the pure air might be inhaled 
 by the invalids w ho caine to invoke the aid 
 of the god of health. In order, says Vi- 
 truvius, to give to the temples the most 
 convenient direction relatively to all the 
 four quarters of the horizon, the architects 
 8o constructed them as to admit of the 
 statues of the divinity in the cella being 
 turned towards the east, to which quarter 
 all those who come to pray or sacritice 
 likewise beut their regard. When a tem- 
 ple was situated beside a river, its princi- 
 pal fa<;ade faced the streams ; a similar 
 system was also observed with respect to 
 such as were erected beside the public 
 ways. Sometimes tlie particular spot on 
 which the temple was erected had been 
 pointed out by an oracle or presage. In 
 the cities, the houses of the inhabitants 
 clustered round the temples : from this 
 observation, however, we must except the 
 citizens of Sanagra in Boeotia, who sepa- 
 rated their dwellings altogether from the 
 vicinity of their temples, which were con- 
 structed on spots perfectly apart from the 
 carrying on of any civic occupations. 
 
 The form most generally given to tem- 
 ples was that of a long square. Some- 
 times, however, the construction was cir- 
 cular. Those of the former shape had 
 commonly for their depth or length the 
 double of their breadth, and their iclla.' had 
 ordinarily, at the exterior, porticoes which 
 Kometimes adorned only the fa<;ade ante- 
 rior, sometimes that also of the posterior, 
 and occasionally was carried round all 
 four sides. 'I'lic anterior part of the tem- 
 ple, where the porch was constructed, and 
 indeed the anterior facade generally, was 
 ilenominatcd by tin- terms >;o«.f (or front) 
 Antki.m, I»1(on aos, and I'hodo.mis (Seo 
 the three last words). The word pioiuws 
 was however chiclly liuiited to the jiorch. 
 The i)oslerior dixision, w iiere, as on tiie 
 oiipiihilL- side, was an entrance with co- 
 lumns, bore the name of I'osTitUMor Oims- 
 rnDDOMus (Seo those words). Over the 
 eiital.liiture of the (olumns was at both the 
 Jronl.s a indin i. »>,.,. yi/ros, Fastimi m. 
 
 The principal fu^adua of the tcmpka 
 
 PLR 
 
 were always ornainented with an even 
 number of columns, while the sides had 
 generally an uneven number. The farmer 
 gave tlie denominations of Tetrastyle, 
 Hexastyle, Octostyle, &c. to the temple, 
 according as they possessed a correspond- 
 ing number of columns. 
 
 The circular form was by no means 
 common. Those temples were generally 
 covered with a cupola, the height of which 
 about equalled the half diameter of the 
 entire edifice. The most celebrated in- 
 stance of the circular temple is the Pan- 
 theon of Rome ; it has some peculiarities 
 not common to its class. See Pantheon. 
 
 Several of the very ancient Etruscan 
 temples have an oblong shape, or one ap- 
 proaching to a perfect square. 
 
 In several of the ancient buildings of 
 this character were staircases by means 
 of which they mounted to the roof. These 
 were constructed within the walls, by the 
 side of the entrance fronting the cella; and 
 that they might occupy less space, they 
 were made winding : staircases of this kind 
 were constructed in the temple of Jupiter 
 at Olympius, in the grand temple of Pa;s- 
 tuni, and in that of Concord at Agrigen- 
 tiim. The Egyptian temples had a spe- 
 cies of openings or windows. 
 
 The statue of the divinity to whom 
 the structure was dedicated was, as may 
 be supposed, the most venerated and sa- 
 cred object of the temple, and the most 
 prominent ornament of the cella. It was 
 in almost every instance executed by a 
 distinguished artist, even when destined 
 only for a small building. Several ancient 
 authors, and above all others Pausanias, 
 expressly say that they have disco\ered 
 an abundant number of excellent statues 
 in the various parts of Greece. In the 
 earliest instances, these statues were 
 constructed in terra cotta, and were 
 tonunonly painted red. Others were 
 fashioned in wood. In succeeding times, 
 as the fine arts advanced, iron and bronze 
 were occasionally substituted, but still 
 more frequently marble (See Scilptlke, 
 Staixe). The primitive examples of 
 bronze statues were not cast in luie single 
 jet, but in separate jjieces al'terwards join- 
 ed together. Besides the statue of the 
 presiding deity, there were generally others 
 either in tlie <'(7/(i or proiinos, or ixitli, some 
 of \vhicii had a special relatitui to the 
 principal figure, whilst others 8er>ed the 
 mere purpose of ornament. 
 
 'I'iie altar on which the sacrifices were 
 od'i'red was placed before the statue of 
 liie divinity, a little less cdevated than it, 
 and turned towards tlie east (See Altau). 
 
TEMPLE. 
 
 I 
 
 Sometimes a single cella contained altars 
 raised to sundry deities. 
 
 The steps by ascending which the en- 
 trance to the temple was approached were 
 regarded as a very essential part of the 
 whole. They served as a base, and at the 
 same time distinguished the building from 
 any one of a different description. 
 
 Delightful to the eye of taste are the 
 mysterious and solemn vistas of an ancient 
 English cathedral : grand and majestic are 
 the ruins of the Nerva Forum: awfully 
 severe, impressive and overpowering is 
 the Colosseum of ancient Rome : elegant 
 is the circular temple of the Sibyl at Ti- 
 voli, which graces, with its endless ro- 
 tunda and sweetly proportioned cupola, 
 its own delightful surrounding country, 
 and many of the sweetest landscapes of 
 the tender and fascinating Claude : mag- 
 nificent are the triumphal arches and 
 aspiring columns of imperial Rome. 
 
 Yet, neither the magnificence of these 
 triumphal structures with all their mad- 
 dening associations ; nor the sweet pro- 
 portions of the fane of Tivoli, with the fas- 
 cinations of its scenery, and the magic 
 pencil of Lorraine ; nor the grandeur of 
 the Roman forum in its pristine perfec- 
 tion ; nor the majesty of the Colosseum, 
 great in ruins and sublime in dust, or 
 filled with the whole population of a 
 mighty city, headed by an Augustus ; — ■ 
 are equal in majesty, dignity, awfulness, 
 splendour, perfection, to the temple of the 
 virgin goddess of the Greeks. 
 
 The arrangement of this celebrated edi- 
 fice may be seen from its plan in Stuart's 
 Antiquities of Athens; and the style of 
 architecture, the purest and grandest Do- 
 ric, from many engraved views. This 
 temple is two hundred and twenty-seven 
 feet* in length, which, for the purpose of 
 immediate comparison, we take leave to 
 mention is only one foot short of the length 
 from the inside of the north door of the 
 principal transept of St. Paul's, to the in- 
 side of the south door of the same tran- 
 sept ; and one hundred and one in width, 
 the width of the nave and aisles of St. 
 Paul's on each side of the cupola between 
 the walls; and sixty -five feet six inches 
 high, to the summit of the pediment, which 
 is somewhat higher than the bases of the 
 composite order of columns of the second 
 story of St. Paul's taken from the ground. 
 These general dimensions may serve to 
 give some idea of its magnitude ; but its 
 grandeur and sublimity is not the result 
 of its size. 
 
 It stands upon a pavement elevated on 
 
 • Statements liovvever vary somewhat respecthig 
 its exact diniensious. 
 
 three steps, and was surrounded by forty- 
 six columns, thirty-four feet one inch high ; 
 eight feet in the front of each portico, and 
 seventeen on each flank, including the 
 angle columns. The porticoes were both 
 surmounted by pediments filled with sta- 
 tuary, of which some of the most glorious 
 remains, which have immortalized the 
 name of Elgin, and do honour to the Bri- 
 tish legislature, form that collection at the 
 British Museum which Canova declared 
 was alone worth a journey from Rome to 
 see, and which formed an epoch in his 
 style. 
 
 A contemplation and examination of this 
 wonderful structure, in all its bearings, 
 would occupy too much space (see Par- 
 thenon) ; and we will proceed to an exa- 
 mination of the principles of the style and 
 elements of the sacred architecture of the 
 Greeks ; another fine example of which is 
 the temple of Jupiter Panellenius, in the 
 island of Egina, which was recently dis- 
 coverd by Messrs. Cockerell, jun. Foster, 
 Linckh, Baron Haller, and others ; than 
 which discovery of Grecian architecture 
 and sculpture none of modern times can 
 be considered as more extraordinary, or 
 more interesting and important to the his- 
 tory of art. It is only to be regretted that, 
 having been discovered partly by English 
 travellers, its sculptural remains do not 
 grace our national museum, as well as 
 those of Athens and Phigaleia. 
 
 The inhabitants of the island of Egina 
 were the first European Greeks who be- 
 came considerable for their intelligence in 
 maritime traffic. Pausanias relates, that 
 soon after the return of the Heraclidae into 
 Peloponnesus, the Eginetans had much 
 commerce in Greece. iElianus, Strabo, and 
 other authors, believe that the builders of 
 this beautiful temple were the first among 
 the Greeks who brought coined money 
 into use. 
 
 The power of the Eginetans was de- 
 stroyed, after a short but brilliant cai't'er, 
 by the Athenians, in the time of Pericles, 
 who drove them from their island, and an- 
 nihilated their wealth and their power in 
 a moment. 
 
 The sculptures of this fine temple are 
 now at Munich, and are the property of 
 the Prince Royal of Bavaria. They were 
 discovered under the fragments of its ar- 
 chitecture, where they had been concealed 
 from the rapacious conquerors of Greece 
 for a period of nearly two thousand years. 
 They have been united, and the very few 
 parts of them which were deficient re- 
 stored at Rome, by Thorwaldsen, the cele- 
 brated Danish sculptor. 
 
 Mr. Cockerell, in his excellent paper on 
 
TEM 
 
 these sculptures, published in the 12th 
 No. of tlie Journal of Science and Arts, 
 says: — "But what may be considered of 
 still greater interest, and that which ren- 
 ders tlie discovery of the first importance 
 to architecture as well as to archaiology is, 
 that they aflord us a complete example of 
 the great historical compositions of entire 
 statuary, with which the Greeks enriched 
 the pediments of their temples ; a species 
 of representation hitherto unknown to us, 
 and which far exceeds, in scale find splen- 
 dour of ellect, any which the moderns have 
 attemi)ted: for the greatest ellbrts of art 
 hitherto employed in the grand pictures 
 (the stila nutchinoso) oi the Italians, cannot 
 vie with compositions of this nature, any 
 more than the materials by which either 
 were eflected can be compared together." 
 The style of these sculptures is man- 
 nered, and possesses no variety of expres- 
 sion. " A smile is seen on all the mouths, 
 Jike that of an opera dancer ; the cheeks 
 are hollowed; the lips are thick; the nose 
 is short, but angular and prominent ; the 
 eyes are protruded," probably for eflect ; 
 "the forehead is flat and retiring; and 
 the chin is remarkably long, and ratlier 
 pointed ; the hair and drapery are arranged 
 with the greatest precision. 
 
 " The style of the architecture is pure 
 and beautiful, and its order a grand and 
 chaste Doric. In it we find a very remai'k- 
 able and very ancient example of the prac- 
 tice which prevailed among the Greeks of 
 painting tiicir sculptures; for tlie style 
 and execution of the colours of the temple 
 prove that they cannot be of any other date 
 than the original construction." 
 
 " III order to relieve the statues, the 
 tymiianum of the pediment was of a clear 
 light blue: large portions of the colour 
 were still seen on the fragments," says 
 Mr. Smirke, " as we raised tliem from the 
 ground. The moulding, both over and 
 under the cornice, was painted; the leaf 
 wuH red and white, and the superior 
 moulding of the cornice was painted in 
 encaustic ; the colours being on marble, 
 and more exposed, had long disappeared, 
 but tin- ri-licf ill wlii<-ii the part so covered 
 was found indicated very perfectly its out- 
 line." 
 
 The Kginetans formed aschool, and after 
 thcin ill succession, but perhaps before tliem 
 ill point of merit, are the Corinthians. 
 
 'l"he iiiiiuliitants of Corinth were very 
 early distinguished for their riches and 
 their marilinie force. Few situations are 
 more favourable for commerce than that of 
 Corinth; mid Homer and Thucyd ides fre- 
 •luintly gave Corinth tiie ejiilhet of opu- 
 lent. 
 
 PLE. 
 
 The genius and inclination of the Corin- 
 thians led them rather to cultivate com- 
 merce and the peaceful arts than mi- 
 litary enterprises. Satisfied with gaining 
 wealth by honourable means, they next 
 sought to enjoy it with taste, and gave 
 themselves up to the luxuries and refine- 
 ments which their opulence afforded them. 
 They applied themselves also to render 
 their city the most beautiful and magnifi- 
 cent of Greece, and spared nothing to ac- 
 complish it. Corinth was filled with tem- 
 ples, palaces, theatres, porticoes, and a 
 vast number of other structures, as com- 
 mendable for the rarity of the marbles em- 
 ployed in their construction as for the ele- 
 gance of their architecture. These mag- 
 nificent edifices were moreover enriched 
 with an infinite number of columns and 
 statues of the most precious materials, and 
 executed by the hands of the most famous 
 masters. Luxury, opulence, and eflemi- 
 nacy displayed themselves in every part of 
 Corinth. She was, without exception, the 
 richest and most voluptuous city that could 
 be found in all Greece. 
 
 The invention of the Corinthian order 
 has been spoken of in the article on Ar- 
 chitecture, but of the sacred architec- 
 ture of the inhabitants of Corinth we have 
 little left to guide us. There are ruins of 
 a grand and solemn temple of the Doric 
 order; its style is of an early period, as 
 the shortness of the columns, with the 
 great height and form of the architrave, 
 clearly prove. Tlie proportions of its co- 
 lumns and capitals are nearly similar to 
 those at Pajstum, while the graceful form 
 of its echinus, and its great projection, 
 have a very striking appearance. 
 
 To tlie sacred architecture of the Greeks, 
 as exhibited in their various temples, we 
 are indebted for the purest and best ca- 
 nons of architecture that the world has 
 ever seen. 
 
 The Egyptian temples were remarkable 
 for the number and disposition of the co- 
 lumns contained in several enclosures 
 within the walls. The little cilla appear- 
 ed like nothing but a kind of stable or 
 lodging for the sacred nniinal to whom, as 
 it may be, the building was consecrated. 
 This was never entered but by the priests; 
 and it is curious to observe how confined 
 and unpretending this heart, or kernel of 
 tlie structure, if we may so e\i>ress it, is, 
 when compared with the magnificent por- 
 ticoes — mitgnineeiit in size, projiortions, 
 and often in st\ le likewise. Obelisks and 
 colossal statues were ordinarily placed 
 liefore tlie entrance. These were some- 
 times preceded by alleys of sphinxes or of 
 lions of inmicnsc size. Near the gates 
 
TEMPLE. 
 
 two masses of a pyramidal form were 
 erected : these were often covered with 
 hieroglyphic bassi-rilicvi. A corbel scoop- 
 ed out in the shape of a gorge was the 
 only substitution for the entablature, whe- 
 ther to the gate itself or to the two lofty 
 masses adjoining. No pediment or shape 
 of roof interfered with the horizontal line 
 of the platform above, where it is probable 
 the priests often passed the night, accord- 
 ing to the usage of the country. Here 
 they had abundant opportunities for mak- 
 ing, under a beautiful sky, those astrono- 
 mical observations which occupied so con- 
 siderable a portion of their thoughts. 
 Thus every thing about an Egj'ptian tem- 
 ple was calculated to excite wonder and 
 a sensation of awe. The gigantic obelisks, 
 columns, and pyramids without— the end- 
 less ranges of lofty columns within — the 
 hieroglyphics and robed priests — all com- 
 bined to weave a kind of mysterious charm, 
 which the ministers of religion knew well 
 how to convert to their own advantage. 
 
 The varieties of temples among the 
 Romans were numerous; whereof those 
 built by the kings, &c., consecrated by the 
 augurs, and wherein the exercises of reli- 
 gion were regularly performed, were held 
 especially worthy of that appellation. 
 Those which were not consecrated were 
 called JEdes (see that word). Those little 
 temples which were covered or roofed they 
 denominated jEdicule (which refer to); 
 the open ones, sacellai. Other edifices, 
 consecrated to particular mysteries of their 
 worship, received the names of/ana or de- 
 luhra. See Delubrum and Fane. 
 
 The Romans, in point of fact, appear to 
 have outdone all other nations in respect 
 to the number of their temples. They not 
 only erected them to their gods, to their 
 virtues, to their diseases, &c., but also to 
 their emperoi's, and that even in their life- 
 time ; instances whereof we meet with in 
 medals, inscriptions, and other monuments. 
 
 The temple of Jerusalem was similar in 
 its plan to the Tabernacle (which refer 
 to). The first temple was begun by Solo- 
 mon about the year of the world 2992, and 
 according to some chronologers, before 
 Christ 1012, and was finished in eight 
 years. Great mistakes have been com- 
 mitted respecting the dimensions of this 
 building, by confounding the emblematical 
 description of Ezekiel with the plain ac- 
 count thereof in the Books of Kings and 
 Chronicles, to which we beg to direct the 
 reader's attention. 
 
 The second temple of Jerusalem was 
 built by the Jews after their return from 
 the Babylonish captivity, under the in- 
 
 spection and influence of Zerubbabel their 
 governor, and of Joshtia the high priest, 
 with the leave and encouragement of Cy- 
 rus the Persian emperor, to whom Judea 
 was now become a tributary kingdom. 
 This temple was plundered and profaned 
 by Antiochus Epiphanes (who also caused 
 the public worship in it to cease), and af- 
 terwards purified by Judas RIaccabeus, 
 who restored the divine worship; and, 
 after having stood five hundred years, it 
 was rebuilt by Herod, with a magnificence 
 approaching to that of Solomon's. Tacitus 
 calls it immenscc opulentice templnm; and 
 Josephus says it was the most astonishing 
 structure he had ever seen, as well on ac- 
 count of its architecture as its magnitude, 
 and likewise the richness and magnificence 
 of its various parts, and the reputation of 
 its sacred appurtenances. This temple, 
 which Herod began to build about sixteen 
 years before the birth of Christ, and so far 
 completed, in nine years and a half, as to 
 be fit for divine service, was at length de- 
 stroyed by the Romans on the same month 
 and day of the month on which Solomon's 
 temple was demolished by the Babyloni- 
 ans. 
 
 The Indian temples, or pagodas, are 
 sometimes of prodigious size. We have 
 treated of them more at large under the 
 head of Pagoda. 
 
 We may remark, in conclusion, that no- 
 thing is more commonly found on ancient 
 medals, and particularly those of the Ro- 
 mans, than representations, some of them 
 very exact, of diflTerent temples. 
 
 The following works treat more especi- 
 ally of the subject now under review, and 
 require therefore to be pointed out to the 
 reader, who is likewise referred to the 
 general list of books attached to the ar- 
 ticle on Architecture. 
 
 On the tabernacle of the Jews : — Anti- 
 quities 0/ Josephus, 3d book, 17th and fol- 
 lowing chapters, Philippus Aquinas, £x- 
 plications littfrales, alligoriques, et morales 
 du Tabernacle, Paris, 1624, 4to. Grew, in 
 the 4th book of his Sacred Cosmologij. 
 Lund, in his Judaic Antiquities, S. Van- 
 TiLL, Conunentarius de Tabernaculo Mosis, 
 Amst. 1714, 4to. G. Peringerus, Historia 
 Tabernaculi Mosaici, Upsal, 1G68. A. 
 ScHULTENS, De Mysteriis Tabernaculi Mo- 
 saici, Fran. 1729, 4to. Joann. Gottfr. Tvx>i- 
 pius, Tabcrnaculum e Monmnentis Mosaicis 
 descriptum, Jen. 1731, 4to. H. Benzelius, 
 Templum Mosaicum, in his Syntagma Dis- 
 sertationum, 2d vol. 97th and following 
 pages. Wichmanshausen, De Velis Taber- 
 naculi et Templi, Witt. 1718. Sebald. 
 Rauius, Comm. de iis quce ex Arabia in 
 
TER 
 
 t'siim Tnhcmdcuh fucntnt petUa, L'llraj. 
 1733, roprinted hI Leipsic, 1735. 
 
 On the temple of Jerusalem we may 
 likewise consult Josephl's's Aniifiuities, 
 Look 8, chap. 3. Portrait of the Temple of 
 Solomon, hy J. J. Lko, Anist. ir>43, -Ito. 
 J. LifiiiTFOoT, Descriptio Tcmpli Hicrosoly- 
 niitiini, pripxertim quale erat tempore serrato- 
 ris nnstri, reprinted in the 1st vol. of his 
 works, HotU-rdam, 1G8G, fol. Samuel Lee, 
 On the Temple and the Priesthood, London, 
 166.5, fol. M. H AFENREFFERis, De Tem- 
 plo Ezcchielis, Tubing. 1613, fol. G. Car- 
 HERi, at the 142d page of the l.-5t vol. of 
 the French translation of his Travels, Pa- 
 ris, 1719, 12nio. 
 
 On the temples of the ancient Greeks 
 and Romans we may consult :— J. C. Bu- 
 LENGERis, in the last chapter of the 3d 
 book of his work, De Templis Ethniconim, 
 (in the 7th vol. of Gfjonovrs). J. Kool, 
 De Templis Antiqmrum, Lugd. Bat. 169.5. 
 P. VENtTi has given, in the 10th vol. and 
 211th page of the Memoirs of the Academy 
 of Corfona, an Italian dissertation on an- 
 cient temples. 
 
 Upon the temples of Rome we find de- 
 tails in tiie topography of that town, by 
 DoNATits, Nardim, 6cc. Jac. Gltiierius, 
 De Jure Poyitificio, lib. 3. Justus Ryc- 
 QLiiis, De Capitolio. J. Castai.io, De Tem- 
 plo Pacis, Rome, 1614, 4to. ; and in the 4th 
 vol. of the Thesaurus of Gr^vil'S. Rld- 
 BECK, in his Atlantica,\o]. i. p. 247. T«»- 
 ples ancinis et modemes ; ou, Observations 
 historiqites et critiques sur les plus calibres 
 Monumens d' Architecture iirecque et Go- 
 thique, by the Abb6 May, Paris, 1774, 8vo. 
 But above all we would quote a (iornian 
 work, by Stieglitz, called Archaiologij of 
 the (ireelcH and Romans, Weimar, 1801, 
 3 vols. 8vo., from which indeed this article 
 is in a great measure extracted. 
 
 'I'ema. f Lat. tirnia, a fillet or headband, 
 from tile Greek, Tcuvia.] In architecture. 
 The uiii)er member of the Doric archi- 
 trave. A kind of Li>iTr:i, (wliich word .«ee). 
 
 Tkrkura. [Lai. frym Ur. rfoto, to Ixire 
 through.] In ennrurinf^. In the last chap- 
 ter of his J^'atural llistonj, I'l.iVY makes 
 mention of this iiislriinuMit as used l>y en- 
 gravers of precious stones. It is a small 
 pointed tool, which, put into action by the 
 •Irill, serves to jjierce a stone through its 
 entire thickness without any lia/.ard of 
 breaking it. 
 
 Tkumims. [Lnt.] See Hehmes, 
 
 Ti'iiii \(E. [ I'V. terrasse.] In architecture 
 and landscape t^ardenini^. Any walk or 
 bunk of earth, raised to a i)roper elevation 
 in »i garden or court, for the purpose of 
 a j>roiiuMiade, or <if all'onling a prospect 
 
 TES 
 
 The term is likewise applied to such roofs 
 of houses as, being quite flat, present a 
 space whereon to walk. These kind of 
 terraces were and are very common in the 
 houses of wanner countries, where they 
 are frequently resorted to by the inhabi- 
 tants as a cool and pleasant situation 
 when the sun has gone down, and the 
 shades of evening descend. 
 
 Terra Cotta. [Lat. baked earth.] fn 
 architecture, sculpture, ^-c. Earth or clay 
 was the first matter employed by artists, 
 whether in building or modelling; and at 
 much more recent periods was abundantly 
 used for the latter purpose, and was the 
 substance of many beautifully executed 
 bassi rilicvi, of which relics and examples 
 have been found among the ruins of Her- 
 culaneumand Pompeii, and at other places. 
 In fact, it is greatly used at the present 
 day for constructing architectural orna- 
 ments, 6:c. ; it being plastic, readily work- 
 ed, and at the same time solid and unex- 
 pensive. 
 
 Tesseijvted Pavement. [Lat. fessella, 
 dim. of tessera.'] In archaiology. A col- 
 lection of small square stones, tiles, or 
 boards, made into chequer-work for a 
 floor. A pavement of rich musaic work, 
 made of curious square marbles, bricks, or 
 tiles, in shape and disposition resembling 
 dice. Various ancient specimens of tliese 
 have been from time to tinu; exhumed in 
 Italy, and other countries of P2urope. 
 
 Tessera. [Lat. a square tile, from Gr. 
 Tin(7a(>iQ, four.] In urchaiolo^y. The tes- 
 sera: were small pieces of wood, bone, 
 ivory, or bronze, which received different 
 names according to the several uses to 
 which they were destined. Thus, there 
 were tessera of the theatre, of the gladia- 
 tors, of liberality, &c. The first-mentioned 
 were distributed in the solemn games, and 
 bore either the names of the consuls, the 
 head of the emperor, or a theatrical mask, 
 with an inscription on the reverse. The 
 vignette of the preface to the 4th vol. of 
 the Pitture d'Krcolano offers one of this 
 kind, which, however, is round in siuipe, 
 and appears to represent on one side the 
 exterior view of a theatre, and on the re- 
 verse the name of jl-^schylus and the num- 
 ber XVI. I'pon the same vignette is en- 
 graven another tessira, whereon we see a 
 liiilf-cirruiar edifice, in the middle of which 
 n kind of tower is tTecfcd. 
 
 The gladiatorial iessenr were shaped 
 like a long square. They were so teriued 
 from being distributed among the gladia- 
 tors, as a sort of cerlilicate that tiny had 
 exhibited on such a day before the public. 
 A great ntnuber of these arc found in tho 
 
THE 
 
 Recueil dee Inscript'ums of Fabrktti. Tlie 
 shape is the same in each ; and they bear 
 ordinarily inscriptions stating the name of 
 the gladiator, the day when he appeared 
 in public, and the names of the consuls 
 for the year. 
 
 In the times of the emperors tessera 
 were distributed among the people, en- 
 titling them to the reception, at stated pe- 
 riods, of a quantity of corn, oil, or some- 
 times silver : hence these were denomi- 
 nated tessercB liheralitatis. In the same 
 class we may place the tessera convkiales, 
 which bestowed the right of assisting at 
 public festivals or banquets. 
 
 The tessercc hospitales were either public 
 or private. This was an interesting usage of 
 antiquity. Among those of the former na- 
 ture are instances of two municipal towns 
 which put themselves under the patronage 
 of the Roman governor ; and the recipro- 
 cal engagement between them, engTaved 
 on two copper-plates, in the form of an 
 oblong square, with a pediment at the top, 
 is called in both tessera hospitales. The 
 design of the private species v/as to culti- 
 vate a lasting friendship between indivi- 
 duals and their families ; and afforded a 
 mutual claim to the contracting parties 
 and their descendants to reception and hos- 
 pitable treatment at each other's houses, 
 as occasion required. For this end the 
 tessera were so contrived as best to pre- 
 serve the memory of the transaction to 
 posterity. One method of doing this was 
 by dividing one of them lengthwise into 
 two equal parts ; upon each of which one 
 of the parties wrote his name, and inter- 
 changed it with the other. 
 
 We may consult on this subject: — L'An- 
 tlqidte expliqu^e of Montfaucon. Recueil 
 d'Antitjuith of Caylus. Inscriptioimm an- 
 tiquarum Explication by R. FABRETTi,Rome, 
 1599, fol. Pitture d'Ercolano, 4th vol. (pre- 
 face and notes). De Tesseris Hospitalitatis, 
 by J. P. Thomasino, Amstel, 1670, 12mo. 
 
 Tetradoron. [Gr.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. That species of bricks employed by 
 the Greeks in the construction of their 
 private houses. They were four palms in 
 length. See Brickmaking. 
 
 Tetrastvi.e. [Gr. TerpnrvXos.'] In ar- 
 chitecture. Term applied to a portico, 
 temple, or other building, having four co- 
 lumns in front. See Intercoi-ummation, 
 Arcihtecture. &c. 
 
 Theatre. [Gr. ■Starpov, from ■^tuoixat, 
 to behold.] In architecture. A building 
 set apart for the purposes of dramatic re- 
 presentation. 
 
 After their temples, the theatres were, 
 by the Greeks and Romans, considered as 
 
 THE 
 
 the most considerable of their public edi- 
 fices ; and in order to account for this, it 
 must be borne in mind that their uses 
 were not restricted to the mere exhibition 
 of shows, but that they were applied to 
 other and more important purposes ; they 
 served as places of assembly when the 
 people gathered together on any interest- 
 ing political occasion, and hence the walls 
 of the theatre almost as frequently reechoed 
 with the deliberations of the citizens in 
 matters of great public interest as with 
 the merriment of the masked comedian or 
 the lamentations of his tragic coadjutor. 
 
 The Greeks were in the habit of giving 
 Bacchus the credit of having invented 
 this species of edifice, and the theatres 
 were accordingly very often dedicated to 
 him, as was the case with that most mag- 
 nificent one at Athens, of which the reader 
 will find, as he proceeds, a succinct de- 
 scription. 
 
 In point of fact, the origin of theatrical 
 representations is, no doubt, to be sought 
 in the solemn processions which had been 
 established in honour of the rosy god, and 
 his equally beautiful sister divinity, Ceres. 
 In these fetes it was customary to chant 
 dithyrambics in praise of Bacchus, and to 
 accompany them with dances. In the se- 
 quel they introduced personations of sa- 
 tyrs, sileni, and nymphs ; and hence, most 
 probably, sprung the first use of masks. 
 (See Mask.) For the amusement of the 
 spectators, the intervals of the dance or 
 chorus were filled by a relation of the 
 adventures of the gods. Thespis, whose 
 name is to this day so universally familiar, 
 introduced this practice into Attica, but 
 there is great reason to think that it had 
 obtained for some time previously in other 
 countries of Greece. It is to Athens, how- 
 ever, that our eyes must be turned to dis- 
 cover the first steps made by the dramatic 
 art towards perfection, which were taken 
 when these adventures, hitherto rudely 
 improvised, were regularly written down, 
 divided into various modes of action, and 
 the serious separated from the droll. 
 
 At this period they constructed, in order 
 to preserve the performers and spectators 
 from the heat of the sun, a sort of huge 
 cabin made of branches of trees ; but tiiis 
 was more easily done when the procession 
 or exhibition occurred in the country. In 
 the towns they erected a scafl"old of wood, 
 and Thespis is said to have given his reci- 
 tations in a chariot or cart. But, in pro- 
 cess of time, and according to the progres- 
 sion which we may observe in all the arts, 
 the scaffolding became permanent instead 
 of temporary, was surrounded by a Avail, 
 
nn<l at lenjfth shut ;ip into the magnifici;nt 
 theatre, in the construction and decoration 
 of which tiie extent of Grecian taste and 
 skill WHS exhausted. In after ages, the 
 Romans followed their example, if not 
 with equal taste, with still greater splen- 
 dour and luxury. 
 
 Deschution of the hrst great The- 
 atre AT Athens. — Ancient authors have 
 treated of the construction of theatres but 
 obscurely and imperfectly. Vitruvius has 
 given us no account either of their dimen- 
 sions, or of the number of their principal 
 and constituent parts ; presuming, it may 
 be supposed, that they had been well 
 enough known, or could never have pe- 
 rished ; for example, he docs not deter- 
 mine the dimensions of the rows of benches. 
 Among the more modern writers the learn- 
 ed Sculiger has omitted the most essential 
 parts, and the citations of Bulingerus from 
 Athena?us, Hesychius, Eustathius, Sui- 
 das, and others, throw but a weak and 
 imperfect light on the real construction of 
 ancient theatres. 
 
 An exact description of the theatre of 
 Bacchus, at Athens, whose circumference 
 is still visible, and whose ruins arc a mo- 
 nument of its ancient magnificence, will 
 give us a true idea of these structures. 
 The famous architect Philos built this 
 theatre in the time of Pericles, above two 
 thousand years ago : it consisted without 
 of three rows of porticoes or galleries, one 
 above the other, and was of a circular 
 form. Tlie diameter was one hundred of 
 Athenian feet, nearly the same in English 
 measure, for which reason it was called 
 by the Athenians Hecatompedon. A part 
 of the area, which coniprnhended fourteen 
 feet of the diameter, did not belong pre- 
 cisely to the theatre, being behind the 
 scene. 
 
 Tiic theatre itself was divided into two 
 principal j)artitions,one for the spectators, 
 the other for the representators. 
 
 The parts designed for the spectators 
 were the amistra, wliieii the Komans call- 
 ed arena : the rows of benches, the little 
 stairs, and the gallery called circijs. The 
 parts approjjriated to the actors were the 
 orchfutra, tlu; laffcon, or tlu/inilf, tiu- yicos- 
 cininm, and the Hcenr. In tiuil part of tiie 
 eilifice allotted to the spectators were 
 twenty-four rows of seals or benches as- 
 cending gradually one al)ove the <i(lier, 
 and proceeding round the conistra or urma, 
 in an arc h of a circle, to the stage, which 
 the (ireclvs culled prosci'tiinn. These lienciies 
 were dislinguislied eight and eight, by 
 three i oridors or passages, which were 
 called tifd^'oma. They were of the same 
 
 THEATRE. 
 
 figure with the rows of the seats, and 
 were contrived for the passage of the 
 spectators from one story to another, with- 
 out incommoding those who were already 
 placed. For the same convenience there 
 were stairs that passed from one cori- 
 dor to another across the several rows, 
 and near those stairs there were doors by 
 wliich the people entered from the galle- 
 ries on the outside, and took their places 
 according to their rank and distinction. 
 The best places were in the middle divi- 
 sion, containing eight rows of seats be- 
 tween the eighth and seventeenth : this 
 division was called bouleuticon, and de- 
 signed for the magistrates, the other rows 
 were called ephebicon, and were for the citi- 
 zens, after they were eighteen years of age. 
 The height of each of these rows of 
 benches was about thirteen inches, their 
 breadth about twenty-two inches ; the low- 
 est bench was about four feet high from 
 the level of tiie floor : the height and 
 breadth of the coridors and passages was 
 double the height and breadth of the 
 benches. The sides of the stairs passing 
 from the body of the edifice towards the 
 stage were not parallel, for the space be- 
 tween them grew sharper as they came 
 near the conistra or arena, and ended in 
 the figure of a wedge, whence the Romans 
 called them cunei, to prevent the falling 
 down of the rain upon those steps that 
 were called pent-houses set up to carry 
 oil' the water. 
 
 Above the upper coridor there was a 
 gallery called circijs, for women, where 
 those who were infamous, or irregular in 
 their lives, were not permitted to enter. 
 
 This tiieatre was not near so spacious 
 as that built at Rome by Marctis Scau- 
 rus the aedile; for in that there was room 
 for seventy-nine thousand persons, in this 
 there was room for six thousand ; it could 
 not contain less, for the sufiVages of the 
 people were taken in it, and by the Athe- 
 nian laws six thousand siilVrages were re- 
 quisite to make a decree of tlie people au- 
 thentic. 
 
 Thus much for tlie places ajjpointed for 
 the s[>eelators. As to tiiose which were de- 
 signed for the actors (which coiiipreliend- 
 ed the orchestra, the logeon or thymcle, 
 the proscenium, and the scene), the or- 
 chestra was about four feet from the 
 ground, its ligure was an oblong s(|uare, 
 thirty-six feet in length, extending from 
 the stage to the rows of benches; its 
 breadtii is not mentioned in the memoirs 
 we have of this theatre, which were taken 
 upon the spot about one hundred years 
 since, by Moua. de la Ouillatiere, an inge- 
 
THEATRE. 
 
 nious traveller. In certain places of it 
 the music, the chorus, and the mimics 
 were disposed. Among the Romans it 
 was put to a more honourable use, for tlie 
 emperor and senate had places upon it. 
 Upon the flat of the orchestra, towards 
 the place of the actors, was an elevation 
 or platform called logeon or thymele, 
 which among the Romans was called pul- 
 pitum; it was higher than the orchestra; 
 its figure was square, being six feet every 
 side, and in this place the principal part 
 of the chorus made their recitations, and 
 in comic interludes the mimics used to 
 perform in it. 
 
 The proscenion, or stage, was raised 
 above the logeon. That great architect, 
 Philos, contrived the edifice in such a 
 manner as that the representations may 
 be seen, and the voices of the actors may 
 be heard with the greatest advantage. 
 The proscenion was eighteen feet in 
 breadth, and its length extended from one 
 side of the edifice to the opposite side, but 
 not diametrically, being eighteen feet dis- 
 tant from the centre. 
 
 The scene, properly speaking, was the 
 columns and ornaments of architecture 
 raised from the foundation, and upon the 
 sides of the proscenion, for its beauty and 
 decoration. Agatharcus was the first ar- 
 chitect who found out tlie way to adorn 
 scenes by the rules of perspective, and 
 ^schylus assisted him, 
 
 Parascenion signified the entire space 
 before and behind the scene, and the same 
 name was given to all the avenues and 
 passages from the music-room to the place 
 where the actors perfoi'med. 
 
 The theatre of Regilla, not far from the 
 temple of Theseus in Athens, was covered 
 magnificently, having a fair roof of cedar. 
 The Odeon (which see), or theatre of 
 music, was covered likewise ; but no part 
 of the theatre of Bacchus, which we have 
 described, was covered except the prosce- 
 nion and circys. The Athenians, being 
 exposed to the weather, came usually with 
 great cloaks, to secure them from the rain 
 or cold ; and for defence against the sun, 
 they had the sciadion, a kind of parasol, 
 which the Romans used also in their the- 
 atres by the name of umbrella; but when 
 a sudden storm arose, the play was inter- 
 rupted, and the spectators dispersed. 
 
 A sort of tent-work over the entire area 
 of the edifice might have been contrived 
 as a shelter from the rain, and a shade 
 from the sun. Such a roof would have 
 obviated the inconveniences of roofed the- 
 atres, which obstruct the free communica- 
 
 tion of the air, and of unroofed theatres, 
 which do not keep out the bad weather. 
 
 At Athens their plays were always re- 
 presented in the daytime, which made the 
 unroofed theatre much less inconvenient. 
 
 In that now described, Philos has pre- 
 served a just symmetry of architecture, 
 and showed great judgment in assisting 
 the communication of the sounds ; for the 
 voice being extenuated in an open and 
 spacious place, where the distant walls, 
 though of marble, could give little or no 
 repercussion to make it audible ; he con- 
 trived cells in the thickness of the cori- 
 dors, in which he placed brass vessels 
 supported by wedges of iron, that they 
 might not touch the wall. The voice pro- 
 ceeding from the stage to the coridors, 
 and striking upon the concavity of these 
 vessels, was reverberated with more clear- 
 ness and force: their number in all was 
 twenty-eight, and they were called echea, 
 because they gave an augmentation or an 
 echo to the sound. 
 
 Outwardly there was a portico, consist- 
 ing of a double gallery divided by rows 
 of pillars, called the portico of Euraenicus. 
 The floor of this portico was raised a good 
 distance from the ground, so that from the 
 street they ascended to it by stairs. It 
 was of an oblong square figure, embellish- 
 ed with green palisadoes, to please the 
 eyes of those who walked into it. Here 
 it was that their repetitions were made, 
 and proposed for the theatre, while the 
 music and symphony was in the Odeon. 
 
 " If evei"," says a sensible writer, " the 
 present generation, or posterity, would 
 dignify the drama with such noble edifices 
 as were constructed for it by the ancient 
 Greeks and Romans, they should enter 
 into articles with the dramatic poets and 
 performers, that no immodest witticisms 
 be repeated, and no lascivious passions 
 expressed on the stage. If the passion of 
 love is to be described, let it be described 
 with decency, as that of Dido for j^neas, 
 in the ^neid. 
 
 " Not only the modesty of the spectators 
 is to be scrupulously respected, but like- 
 wise every other virtue : when vice is the 
 subject of the drama, it ought to be repre- 
 sented in an odious light; the unfortunate 
 Mr. Budgel threw himself into the Thames, 
 to do what Cato had done, and Addison had 
 approved *. See the bad effects of vice re- 
 
 * Addison's representation of Gate's suicide does 
 not amount to a full approbation of the practice, even 
 upon Cato's principles ; but if it had, it coDid not 
 encourage the same practice in a Christian : this 
 stricture, therefore, of our ingenious author does not 
 seem to be quite just. 
 
THE 
 
 presented as a virtue! — That the rules of 
 virtue and decorum be regarded in all re- 
 spects, the theatres should be removed 
 from the neighbourhood of brothels, or the 
 brotliels should be compelled to remove 
 out of the neiffhbourliood of the tlieatres ; 
 then these amusements would become as 
 innocent as they are diverting. In the 
 situation of a theatre, not only the man- 
 ners of tlie people are to be considered, 
 but also their health, by having it in a free 
 and open air. 
 
 "In Alliens the scene looked upon the 
 castle-hill; Cynosarges, a suburb of Athens, 
 was behind it ; the Mussus was on the 
 right hand ; and the causeway leading to 
 Pyneum, the neit^hbouring seaport, was 
 on the other side." 
 
 The Olympic Theatre of Vicenza was de- 
 signed and built in 1.583 by Palladio, in 
 imitation of the cincicnt theatres. Its form 
 is semi-elliptical, it not being possible from 
 the narrowness of the situation to use a 
 semicircle. This semi-ellipsis is encom- 
 passed all round with a frame-work of 
 stairs consisting of fourteen steps of wood 
 for the spectators. Its greater diameter is 
 ninety-seven feet and a half, and its lesser, 
 as far as the stage, is about fifty-seven feet 
 and a half. At the summit of this stair- 
 case, or receding galleries of stairs, is a 
 coridor of the Corintliian order, which, 
 from the narrowness of the ground, could 
 not be detached from the outer wall all 
 round. Palladio therefore tilled up tiie 
 nine centre and the tJiree external inter- 
 columniations, where the columns touched 
 the external wall, with niches and statues. 
 The stage is constructed with two tiers of 
 columns, both of the Corinthian order, and 
 surmounted with a light and well propor- 
 tioned attic. On the stylobate of the second 
 story are placed statues, and tiie interco- 
 lumnialions are enriched with niches and 
 statues. Tiie panels of the attic are orna- 
 mented witli bttssi and iiiizzi rilicvi of tiie 
 labours of Hercules, and the centre paii.-l 
 over tiie largest of three openings in the 
 proscenium, which is arched, with a re- 
 presentation of an ancient hiiipodionie. 
 Over this aich is the following inscrip- 
 tion :■ — 
 
 Vlin VTI AC GENU) 
 (H.VMI'KOHVM A( ADK.MIA illlATUVM HOC 
 
 A i\ MIAMI NTis i:i(i;mt 
 
 ANNO M.D.I.XXMlll. I'AI.I.AI)IO AI{( INT. 
 
 In the front of the stage are three open- 
 ings, through «hi(h are seen three majes- 
 tic nv.nu.s diN.iging right and Icfl,,,,, 
 each Hide of which are magniliceiit palaces 
 lui.l i)nva(e dwellings, tinishing with tri- 
 
 ATRE. 
 
 uni])hal arches, all planned aud erected 
 in alto riliero, foreshortening and dimin- 
 ishing perspectively, by Vincenzo Sca- 
 niozzi. The exterior of this theatre is by 
 no means suitable to its internal beauty, 
 but it was built, not at the expense of the 
 senate or government of Rome, but by 
 some private Vicentine gentlemen of the 
 Olympic Academy. — Vide I'Origine delV 
 Academia Ohjmpica di Vicenza, con una 
 breve Descrizione del suo Teafro Opera di 
 Ottavio Berfotti Scamozzi, Architctfo, pub- 
 lished at Vicenza, 1690, by Gioruiini Rossi. 
 The Theatre of Parma is commonly sup- 
 posed to have been the work of Palladio, 
 and finished by Bernini; but neither of 
 them had the smallest share in it. Gio. 
 Battista Magnani, an architect and engi- 
 neer, and Leonello Spada, a painter, were 
 employed by tiie Duke Ranuccio P'arnese 
 to construct and embellish that famous 
 theatre. Its form is semicircular, to which 
 are added two straight sides. Its length 
 from the wall to the front of the stage is 
 about a hundred and twenty-five feet; and 
 its breadth, reckoning from the wall be- 
 hind the boxes, about ninety-three feet. 
 Around the pit, which is about forty- 
 eight feet broad, is erected on a base- 
 ment, with balusters between the piers, 
 a gradation of fourteen rows of seats, 
 witli two entrances at the sides, and a 
 large ducal balcony in the middle. Each 
 entrance is furnished witli a large w inding 
 staircase. Over these gradual seats are 
 raised two stately boxes, one Doric, and 
 the other Ionic; eacii with a gradation of 
 four rows of seats. The upper decoration 
 of the boxes is sustained by enchased pil- 
 lars, between w liich are arches supported 
 by other pillars, smaller and insulated, 
 which causes a confusion of appearance 
 in the architecture, and a great impedi- 
 ment to the view of the spectators who 
 are in the boxes. A worse elfect is pro- 
 duced by the two great lateral entrances 
 which are between tiie seats and the stage, 
 as the two orders with which they are or- 
 namented, instead of uniting in the best 
 maiiiur, divide, and rudely dasii both 
 witii the tlieatre and with the stage. lu 
 tiie middle of the upper arcli of these en- 
 trances, on a verj high peiUstal, is an 
 • iliiestrian statue, wjiicii seems determined 
 to rush headlong, to destroy all rules of 
 propriety. (Jreat projections and unmean- 
 ing arciies hurt the stage and the im( hes- 
 tra. But the greatest inconvenience is 
 in the front of the stage being excessively 
 narrow, and distant from the seats, whilst 
 with tiie greatest ease it might ha\e iiet-n 
 coiistr\icted wider, and much nearer the 
 
THEATRE. 
 
 spectators. From the aforesaid inconve- 
 nience, and the abovenientioned medley 
 figure of the theatre, results this very 
 great evil, tliat the spectators who arc at 
 the sides can see but a very small part of 
 the stage; in compensation for which they 
 hear surprisingly well, as the structure, 
 whether by design or accident, is such 
 that, a person whispering in one part, an- 
 other situated at the opposite side dis- 
 tinctly hears him. This great theatre has 
 no external decoration; and by being such 
 a length of time out of use, is in such a 
 ruinous state as scarcely to be visited 
 witliout danger. — Vide Capi d'Opera del 
 Teatro antico moderno Italiano e straniero, 
 &c. Presso Giacomo Ciirti, 1789, Venezia. 
 The theatre of Milan begins from its 
 foundation with a curve of a diameter of 
 seventy-two feet, which gradually widens 
 into two straight sides ; whence in the 
 stage the breadth is seventy-seven feet, 
 the front of the stage is sixty-nine feet, 
 and the length of the pit one hundred 
 and forty feet, which is almost double its 
 breadth. Hence it appears excessively 
 long. The form of this theatre is directly 
 opposite to that of the greatest number of 
 other modern theatres, which all run nar- 
 row towards the stage; whilst this is 
 widest at that part. Such a contrivance is 
 vei-y favourable for seeing as much as is 
 possible in so uncouth a form. This the- 
 atre is constructed with all common boxes ; 
 nor has it any thing remarkable except 
 that each box has opposite to it a small 
 wardrobe, and between the one and the 
 other is a wide coi-ridor. 
 
 The celebrated theatre of Fano was de- 
 signed about the year 1670, by James To- 
 relli, and erected at the expense of himself 
 and five other Fanesian gentlemen. Its 
 form is what the French call the toilette 
 form, being in the shape of a dressing- 
 glass, eighty-four feet long, and little more 
 than half broad. It has a convenient dou- 
 ble staircase, which leads to the fifth tier 
 of boxes, the last of which forms a lobby 
 with a private gallery at each extremity 
 of the straight sides. There are two co- 
 lumns on each side of the stage, with a 
 niche between each column, where are 
 the statues of Pallas and Minerva, and in 
 the centre is the inscription, Theatrlm 
 
 F0RTUN.«, 
 
 The theatre at Verona was built by Fran- 
 cesco Galli Bibiena, under the direction 
 of the Marquis Malfei, and is situated 
 within the Philharmonic Academy. Its 
 figure is a curve, which gradually enlarges 
 in proportion as it approaches the stage, 
 and the boxes (which are in five tiers) 
 
 project out more and more as they are dis- 
 tant from the stage ; which, although it 
 may have a good effect in looking towards 
 the stage, must have a bad one in viewing 
 the theatre from the stage ; the front of 
 which is rather narrow and ill designed. 
 The orchestra is divided from the audi- 
 tory, that none of the audience may be 
 disturbed with the excessive noise of the 
 instruments : and the stage is reckoned 
 by the Italians to be placed in a just situ- 
 ation, because they think the actors ought 
 never to be seen sideways. Between the 
 auditory and the stage are doors leading 
 to the pit, according to the custom of tlie 
 ancients, which is an excellent contri- 
 vance ; for the door ought never, to be 
 opposite to the stage, because it not only 
 occupies the best jjlace in the auditory, 
 but weakens the voice of the actor. Be- 
 sides the exterior roof, this theatre has an 
 internal one of boards, with holes in cer- 
 tain places; which, like the body of a mu- 
 sical instrument, renders the theatre very 
 sonorous. There are commodious stair- 
 cases at the four angles ; the corridors, 
 lobbies, and stairs are convenient, but the 
 principal entrance is on one side. In the 
 Philharmonic Academy they still preserve 
 a model for a theatre in the ancient Greek 
 and Roman manner, which they intended 
 at first to have executed, as it was made 
 expressly for that purpose ; but in the act 
 of execution their courage failed them ; 
 and, despite the exertions of Mafl'ei, and 
 many other celebrated literary and scien- 
 tific men, with which Verona abounded, 
 fashion prevailed, and the present theatre 
 was executed by Bibiena. Thus Verona 
 was deprived of an ornament, which would 
 have increased its splendour, and exhibit- 
 ed with advantage those admirable anti- 
 quities which it preserved with so much 
 laudable care. 
 
 Rome has at least a dozen theatres ; 
 which one would suppose were excellent- 
 ly designed after so many monuments of 
 the golden age of Augustus, and especially 
 after the theatre of Marcellus. However 
 it ought to have been, the fact is other- 
 wise. The worst theatres in Italy are 
 those of Rome ; all irregular, ill shaped, 
 defective in construction, and dirty to ex- 
 cess ; yet the modern Romans think they 
 have the most elegfint theatix'S in the 
 world. 
 
 Its largest theatre is that of the Alibcrti, 
 designed and executed by Ferdinand Bi- 
 biena, of an irregular and incommodious 
 curve, with six tiers of arched boxes. The 
 length of the pit is about fifty-five feet, 
 and its greatest breadth fifty-one feet and 
 
 3 A 
 
a half. It has miserable entrances, wretched 
 staircases, impassable corridors, and the 
 very WDrst situation in the city. 
 
 The theatre of Torilinona was built in 
 the 17th century by Carlo Fcmtana, and 
 rebuilt in the last under C;iement XII. 
 It is of a figure more approaching a circle 
 than any other. Its great( st diameter is 
 fifly-two feet, and its smallest foity-eight 
 feet. It has six tiers of boxes, the upper 
 tier of which is compressed in the side. 
 Of the internal accommodations and ex- 
 ternal ornaments there is no occasion to 
 make the least mention, it so much re- 
 sembles all the rest. 
 
 The most modern tiieatre of Rome is 
 that of Argentina, built by tiie Marquis 
 Girolamo Teodoli. It has six tiers of 
 boxes. Its figure is neither circular nor 
 elliptical,butofthat irregular shape called 
 the horse-shoe or lyre. Its greater dia- 
 meter is fifty-one feet, and its lesser forty- 
 six feet. The situation, stairs, passages, 
 and entrances, are all wretched. 
 
 Neither of these three large Roman 
 theatres has any theatrical front, and they 
 arc all built of wood. The rest are in a 
 similar style of inelegance and incomnio- 
 diousness, but smaller. 
 
 The theatre royal of Naples, constructed 
 according to a design of the engineer Bri- 
 gadier Giorgio Metrano in 1737, is also of 
 the lyre or horse-shoe form, that is, a semi- 
 circle, the extremities of which elongate 
 in almost straight lines, I)ut draw nearer 
 to each otiier in proportion as they ad- 
 vance towards the stage. The greatest 
 diameter of the pit is about seventy-three 
 feet, and the smallest sixty-seven feet. 
 There are six tiers of boxes, with a superb 
 royal box in the middle of the second tier. 
 The building is all of stone ; the stairs are 
 magnificent; the avenues, vestibules, cor- 
 ridors, and lobbies, spacious. The en- 
 trance, separated into three divisions, has 
 some (locorations which are neither sufli- 
 ciently majestic or appropriate. 
 
 Tile theatre rinjal of Turin was erected 
 in 1740 liy Count IJenedetto Allieri, a 
 gentleman of the ciiamber, and prim ipal 
 architect to the king of .Sardinia. It is of 
 an oval figure. The pit as far us the stage 
 is fifty-seven feet in length, and about lil'ty 
 in hreatli. There are six tiers of ixixes, 
 divided by partilions, but perhaps too 
 much arched. The royal box in the se- 
 cond tier includes five Ijoxes, ornMinenfed 
 with balustradcH, and covered witii a su- 
 perb caiii)i)y over the centre, and projects 
 out in a convex f»irm, under which is the 
 l»rincipal entrance into the pit. The last 
 tier, or as they call it, the dovecote {piccio. 
 
 THEATRE. 
 
 nura) has a parapet all balnstraded, in the 
 front of which is a circular row of seats 
 for servants out of livery ; the left side is 
 for the public ; and the right is separated 
 for the servants of the court, and those of 
 the ambassadors. At the two extremities, 
 contiguous to the stage, are two boxes for 
 persons in the service of the theatre, and 
 excepting these two partitions, the boxes 
 of this last tier are not in the least sepa- 
 rated from the grand corridor which winds 
 around. Under the orchestra is a con- 
 cavity with two tubes at the ends, which 
 extend to the height of the stage, in order 
 to improve the sound. 
 
 The cieling is arched, and above is a 
 room for the scene painters ; but the con- 
 vexity of the cieling is covered with strong 
 cemented bitumen, to prevent the water 
 from penetrating through, which would 
 damage the paintings underneath. At 
 the extremities are boxes continued round 
 within the cornice, well calked and co- 
 vered with bitumen, and filled with the 
 finest sand, in order to absorb any small 
 quantity of water which by accident may 
 fall in, a very necessary precaution to 
 preserve the painting of the cieling un- 
 hurt. In most of the theatres on the con- 
 tinent the lamp or chandelier is usually 
 suspended from the middle of the cieling 
 over the pit, within a large aperture, to 
 the great injury of the principal paintings, 
 the voice of the actors, the view of the 
 boxes, and, above all, whoever is under- 
 neath is thus exposed to the dust, dirt. 
 
 and even to no small danger. To avoid 
 these inconveniencies, they have contrived 
 what is not much less awkward, the lights 
 to descend from the middle of the cieling 
 of the prosccnicum, which is decorated 
 with two Corinthian columns raised on a 
 plain pedestal. Between the columns are 
 two boxes, one above the other, for the 
 actors; over the columns are pediments, 
 and over the stage a larger one, all three 
 inelegant, inappropriate, and ill conceived. 
 The entrances, stairs, apartments of va- 
 rious kinds, galleries, lobbies, and corri- 
 dors, are of a royal magnificence. There 
 is also sullicient space for the machines of 
 decoration, and every convenience for in- 
 troducing quadrupeds on the stage, as 
 well as lor fireworks. AV'ells, drains, ma- 
 gazines, and ovens, are not omitted in tliis 
 well furnished theatre ; they have even 
 contrived stoves with tubes communicating 
 to the pit, to warm it when necessary. 
 This considerable theatre has no fr<mt 
 belonging to it but what is common with 
 the royal palace to which it is annexed. 
 The theatre at liolo!::nn, finished in 17(::i, 
 
THEATRE. 
 
 was designed and buMt bj' Autonio Galli 
 Bibiena, the son of Ferdinando. In the 
 inside it has the unhappy shape of the 
 section of a bell cut lengthways. Its 
 lencjth in the pit is sixty-two feet, and its 
 breadth in the stage is about fifty. There 
 are five tiers of boxes, each consisting of 
 twenty-five, besides a circular place round 
 the pit four steps high, fenced with a balus- 
 trade. The boxes of the first and second 
 tier are central, the two above are in flat 
 sides, and those of the fifth are drawn into 
 half moons, and are wdthout balusters. 
 Over the door are four tiers,but very small. 
 The imposts and pilasters which divide 
 the boxes are overloaded with cartouches, 
 scrolls, brackets, and other wretched bi- 
 zarreries of the Roman school of architec- 
 ture. The parapets have wretched ill 
 proportioned balustrades and worse pro- 
 jections. The two frontispieces of the 
 lateral entrances terminate in a line with 
 the supporters of the first story, exactly 
 cutting the columns and the parapet. The 
 other frontispiece of the entrance in the 
 middle is fastened under the principal 
 box, and even with the impost, but with 
 an internal decoration, which is an almost 
 unexampled barbarism in the art. It is 
 pretended by the Bolognese that many 
 disputes, oppositions, and satires, occa- 
 sioned by the choice of this design of 
 Bibiena, have caused alterations very pre- 
 judicial to the theatre. The exterior prin- 
 cipal front is ornamented with two orders 
 well divided ; the first of Doric columns 
 insulated, over the capitals of which are 
 arches in a barbarous style, perhaps to 
 render the porticoes which are on the same 
 floor lighter. The second order is of a 
 mixed Ionic, with windows between, and 
 with their pediments, which are also in 
 the windows, within the aforesaid por- 
 ticoes. 
 
 Monsieur Soufflot constructed at Lyons 
 in 1756 a theatre of an oval figure, the pit 
 of which up to the stage is fifty-four 
 feet in length and forty feet broad, with 
 seats in the circumference and front. 
 There are three tiers of boxes, each con- 
 tinued without partitions, and equally 
 furnished with seats. The second tier is 
 more recluse and private than the first, and 
 the third more so than the second. This 
 edifice is well provided Avith convenient 
 appurtenances, and has a straight front 
 with three tiers of windows, a large bal- 
 cony in the middle, and a balustrade on 
 the top surmounted with statues. 
 
 Theatre of Montpelier. — Montpelier has 
 a theatre in the shape of a bell internally, 
 about forty-four feet long, and thirty feet 
 
 broad. The pit is surrounded with a por- 
 tico, on the pillars of which are raised 
 several tiers of boxes with spacious cor- 
 ridors round them, and at the bottom fur- 
 nished with various steps to ascend and 
 enter the apartments, oflfices, and vesti- 
 bules ; and the various staircases that are 
 around this theatre form a regular edifice 
 of a good appearance on the outside, but 
 nothing to denote its internal use. 
 
 The theatre of the opera at Paris, built in 
 1769 from the designs of Moreau, is a long 
 oval, with four tiers of boxes, without 
 partitions, and there are likewise some 
 boxes between the columns of the stage. 
 The pit is about thirtj'-nine feet broad and 
 thirty-two feet long, and has a range of 
 seats in front. The outside is simply de- 
 corated, and has a very convenient por- 
 tico. 
 
 Theatre of Versailles. — In the palace of 
 "Versailles M. Gabriel the king's architect 
 erected in 1770 a theatre after the ancient 
 manner, that is of a semicircular figure, 
 with seats all round, encompassed with a 
 gallery. The court occupies the pit, in 
 the middle of which the king sits. 
 
 Theatre of Petersburgh, — At Peters- 
 burgh, under the Empress Elizabeth, was 
 erected within (he imperial palace a su- 
 perb theatre by Count Rastelli, a Venetian. 
 The stage is about seventy-two feet long, 
 and the rest of the theatre, which is 
 elliptical, is in length one hundred and 
 three feet. There are five tiers of boxes, 
 each divided into eighteen. The first 
 tier has a balustrade; the second boxes 
 have arched fronts; the third, drapery 
 a la toilette; the fourth is plain, with 
 flat sides ; and the fifth, open, without any 
 divisions. The imperial gallery, which is 
 in front, was ornamented by Monsieur de 
 la Motte, a French architect, Avitli four 
 columns to support it, and a canopy which 
 extends over all the third tier. The court 
 goes into this gallery to enjoy a sight of 
 the dances, but to hear the opera better 
 they go to a box contiguous to the or- 
 chestra. The stage is decorated with 
 two columns on each side, and with two 
 flights of stairs to facilitate the commu- 
 nication of the stage with the orchestra 
 and pit. 
 
 Our own national theatres are, we pre- 
 sume, so well known to the reader, either 
 visually or by description, that it does not 
 seem necessary to go into the subject here. 
 We may, however, observe, in passing, 
 that the interior of Drury Lane Theatre 
 has, within these three or four years, been 
 remodeled in a very beautiful manner by 
 Mr. Beazley the architect, and now pre- 
 3 A 2 
 
TH E 
 
 8»'nt.s one of the most elegant as well as 
 compact coups d'eeils of any theatre in 
 Eiinipe. 
 
 The following works may be consulted 
 on tiie suljject of tlic establishment and 
 the disposition of theatres. — Nic. S abat- 
 TiM, Pratica di fnbricar Scene e Machine 
 vc Teatri, Rom. IfiSS. 4to. with enfcravings. 
 Fabr. Carino iNIoita, Tvattalo supra la 
 Strut tuia dc Teatri e Scene, Gnast. 1676, 
 fol. Enca ARNALor, Idea d'un Teatro nolle 
 principali sue Parti simile a Teatri antichi, 
 ad Usii moderno accommodate), Vic. 1762, 
 4to. witii prints. Projet d'une Salle de 
 Spectacle pour un Theatre de Comidie, 
 I'aris, 1760, 8vo. Vacs sur la Construc- 
 tion intiriiured'un Theatre d'Op<!ra,suivant 
 Ics Principes des Italiens, Paris, 1766 and 
 1767, 2 vols. Exposition des Principes 
 qu'on doit suiire duns I'Ordonnancc des 
 Theatres modernes, Paris, 1769, 12nio. 
 Memoirc sur la Construction d'un Th^iitre 
 pour lu Comidie Fran{-aise, London, 1770, 
 8\o. Dlmont, Suite des Projets diUailMs 
 des Salles de Spectacles particulicres, avec 
 Ics Principes de Construction, taut pour la 
 Mecanique des Theatres que pour les Deco- 
 rations en plusieurs genres, Paris, 1773, 
 50 sheets, fol. Roubo, Traits de la Con- 
 struction des Theatres et des 3Iachines 
 tlUiilrales, Paris, 1776, fol. with 10 en- 
 gravings. NovERRE, Observations sur la 
 Construction d'une nouvelle Salle d'Opira, 
 Paris, 1781, 8vo. Patte, Essai sur I' Ar- 
 chitecture thi'dtralc, ou dc I'Ordonnance la 
 plus arantafieuse it une Salle de Spectacle, 
 relaticcment uux Principes de I'Optique ou de 
 I'Acoustique, arcc mi Examen des principaux 
 Theatres de I'Europe, (t une Analyse des 
 Ecrils les plus importans sur cette Matiere, 
 Paris, 1782, 8vo. Vine. Lamberti, La 
 Uegolata Construzione de Teatri, Nap. 1787, 
 fol. Franc. Ricaii, Delia Conlruzione de 
 Teatri, secondo il Costume d' Italia, vole a 
 dirse in piccoli Logi, Hass. 1790, 4to. A 
 Treatise on Theatres, ineluilitiii- some Expe- 
 riments on Sound, by G. Salnuers, Lon- 
 don, 1790,410. 
 
 Details and representations of ancient 
 and modern llieiitrts may be found in 
 Traltato de Teatri antichi e moderni, Ver. 
 1723, 4to. J. Cai'i, Opera del Teatro antico 
 e moderno, Italiano e Straniero, Ven. 1789, 
 
 On (he theatres of liie ancients, we may 
 consult, arii.iii;^ other works: — ISoinoin, 
 JJiscours sur la Eorme et la Construction dn 
 'Thh'ttre des Anciens, ou Von examine la 
 Situation, les Proportions, cites I 'sages de 
 toules ses Parlies, in the 2d volume of 
 fllemoires de I'AcadiUuic. Ant. Hocciii, 
 Itsservazioni sopra un Teatro antico, Sco- 
 pirto in Ailria, Venez. 1739, llo. with 
 
 TH E 
 
 plates, and in the 3d volume of Mhnoires 
 de I'Aeadhnie de Cortona. Girol. del Pozzo, 
 Sopra i Teatri degli antichi. At the com- 
 mencement of the translation of Sophocles, 
 by Thos. Fuankun, London, 1766, 8vo. is 
 a Dissertation on ancient Tragedy, in which 
 we find a chapter entitled. On the Con- 
 struction of the Greek Theatre. We find 
 engravings of the ancient theatres in seve- 
 ral books of travels, such, for instance, as 
 the Voyage Pitforesque de Naples et de 
 Sicile, by M. Houei,, Paris, 1782, fol. 
 
 On tiie theatres of the moderns, more 
 particularly, are :— G. Montenari, Di- 
 corso del Teatro Olimpico di A. Pali.vdio 
 in Vincenza, Pad. 1733, 1749, 1752, Svo. 
 Description du Theatre de la Ville de Vi- 
 cenza en Italie, by A. Palladio, drawn by 
 Patte, Paris, 1779, 4to. The same theatre 
 is found in the Fabriche e discgni, di A. 
 Palladio, Vic. 1776—178.5, 5 vols. fol. 
 Plante e spaccato del Teatro di Bologna, 
 Bol. 1703, fol. Cas. Morelu, Planta e 
 Spaccato del nuovo Teatro d'Imola in Roma, 
 Rome, 1780, fol. Plan de la Salle de 
 I'Opira de Berlin, built by the Baron de 
 Knobelsdorf, Berlin, 17.53, oblong fol. 
 Description de la nouvelle Salle de Conu^dic 
 <1 Breslau, Berlin, 1783, 4to. Parallele des 
 Plans des plus belles Salles des Spectacles 
 publics d' Europe, by M. BtMONT, Paris, 
 1700. Description de la Salle de Spectacle 
 dc Bordeaux, by Lot' is, Paris, 1782, fol. 
 A Description of the Theatre Royal Drury 
 Lane, by B. MvATr, London, 4to. 
 
 Theory, [■^iwptia, from .^twptw, to con- 
 template, which from -^cwpoc a spectator.] 
 In all the arts. Knowledge of an art so 
 far as results from speculation on its na- 
 ture, on the end which it proposes to at- 
 tain, on the means which it is necessary 
 to employ, iS:c. without being occupied 
 with its practice. In the article entitled 
 Rules ov Art, some observations will be 
 found on the utility of a sound theory and 
 of the regulations which are deducible 
 therefrom, 
 Tiieuicleans. See Vase. 
 TijKRisiRON, or TiiERisTRioN. [Gr. from 
 ^fjioi;, suuuner.J /« archaiology. A kind 
 of large veil used by the Grecian wt>nien 
 to ilefend tluMU from the burning heat of 
 the sun. Pollux states that il was com- 
 mon to men as well as to fenudes. It 
 was so pluied on the head as to forn> a 
 sort of headdress or bonnet, when it was 
 not unfolded. It is representj'd tin S« veral 
 antiiiue ligures of l''.st'ulapius. 
 TiiKRM.K. See Bath. 
 TiH.RMoLoiisiA. See the same. 
 TiiisKii M. [Lut.J See Athens, Eujin 
 Marbles, \c. 
 
THU 
 
 Theusa. [Lat.] In archaiologij. A kind 
 of chariot or waggon whereon the statues 
 and images of the gods were borne in the 
 sacred games. 
 
 Tholus. [Lat. from Or. ^oXrc.] In nr- 
 chaiology. This word has been variously 
 defined as the middle or centre of an 
 arched or vaulted roof — as the roof itself 
 of a temple or church, or as the lantern or 
 cupola of a large public hall. 
 
 Pausanias applies the term to several 
 circular edifices with a cupola at top, but 
 which were not considered temples. At 
 Athens was a building of this description, 
 in which were found sundry little silver 
 images, and where tiie Prytanea offered 
 sacrifices. At Epidaurus was another 
 tholus, in the wood sacred to TEsculapius, 
 and behind the temple of that deity. Pau- 
 sanias speaks of this as a very remarkable 
 structure. It was built of white marble. 
 Polycletes was the architect, and the in- 
 terior was adorned with paintings. In 
 Sparta was an edifice of a similar kind, 
 in which were found statues of Jupiter 
 and Venus. 
 
 Throne. [Gr. Bpovog, from Bpaw, to sit.] 
 In archaiology, &c. This word in its ori- 
 ginal meaning signifies merely a seat ; but 
 it was subsequently limited to the elevated 
 and ornamented chairs of princes, chiefs, 
 and magistrates, and was applied even to 
 the seats of the gods themselves. Having 
 thus become the symbol of sovereign power, 
 the idea suggested itself to the ancient 
 artists of representing the throne of a 
 deity filled with his attributes only, in- 
 stead of the deity himself, and various 
 examples of this kind have been handed 
 down to us in bassi rilievi, &c. It was 
 the custom also among the ancients to 
 consecrate by way of homage a throne to 
 some particular divinitj', and place it in 
 his temple. These were generally as 
 magnificent as it was in the power of the 
 donor to make them. The immense throne 
 executed by Bathycles in the town of 
 Amyclas, in Laconia, and of which Pau- 
 sanias gives us a detailed account in the 
 18th and 19th chapters of the 3d book of 
 his Description of Greece, was covered 
 with a great number of sculptures. M. 
 Heyne has made a very interesting me- 
 moir respecting this throne, to be found 
 at the commencement of the 1st vol. of 
 his Antiquarische Aitfsatzc, and M. Jansen 
 has given a French translation thereof in 
 his Recucil de Pieces intei'essantes concernant 
 les Antiquites, les Beaux Arts, les Belles 
 Lettres, ef la Philosophie, Paris, 6 vols. 
 Svo. 
 
 Thunder. [Saxon.] In archaiology, Ju- 
 
 TIB 
 
 piter is far more frequently than any other 
 deity, but still not exclusively, represented 
 as armed with thunder, which is figured 
 in two several ways, — sometimes as a kind 
 of firebrand flaming at both ends, at others 
 as a similar instrument with pointed 
 arrowy extremities. It is obvious, how- 
 ever, that in giving a tangible form to this 
 powerful engine of the wrath of the gods, 
 much must be left to the imagination of 
 the artist: we greatly question, indeed, 
 whether any attempt to that effect is likely 
 to be very successful. 
 
 Thyrsus. [Gr. S-i'paoc-] Tn archaiologij. 
 One of the most ancient and common at- 
 tributes of Bacchus and his joyous^crew. 
 It consisted of a lance, the iron part of 
 which was hidden in a cone of pine, in 
 memory of the stratagem which the fol- 
 lowers of Bacchus employed against the 
 Indians, when they went to combat them 
 with pikes, the iron of which was con- 
 cealed by ivy leaves. It was used at all 
 the festivals held in honour of the god of 
 wine, and often enveloped with wreaths 
 of ivy or bay, or with little fillets of other 
 kinds. See Bacchus, Attributes. 
 
 TiAR-A. [A Persic word.] In archaiology . 
 An ornament for the head, worn in ancient 
 times by kings and priests on solemn oc- 
 casions. This species of headdress was 
 most ample at its upper part. 
 
 TiRERiNus. [Lat. the Tiber.] In archaio- 
 logy. The habitations of the river deities 
 and their attendants were supposed to be 
 under water, and generally near the head 
 of each river. If there was any grotto, 
 the figure of the presiding deity was 
 placed in it, with his urn, and the water 
 gushing therefrom. Their temples were 
 also built near the sources. The poets 
 speak of these grottoes of the river gods, 
 and desci-ibe some of them. 
 
 Tiberinus, or the residing deity of the 
 Tiber, is the most celebrated of all these 
 fabulous personages. In a statue at the 
 Belvedere he appears inclined, and lean- 
 ing on his urn, as the figures of the river 
 gods generally do*. He is crowned with 
 fruits and flowers, and has a venerable 
 look, as chief of all the rivers of the 
 province through which he leads his wa- 
 ters into the sea. Just by him lies the 
 wolf suckling the twin brothers Romulus 
 and Remus. He was sometimes repre- 
 
 * The ancients acted, in this particular, with more 
 propriety llian has been commonly observed. They 
 not only stocked each element with proper beings, 
 but also adapted the appearance and posture of them 
 to their respective elements. Thus, as water strives 
 to keep its level, the river deities are more or less 
 reclined. 
 
TOG 
 
 F«uted wilh hums, a known emblem of 
 power, and which might denote his i)re- 
 siding over several streams, as liis title of 
 PatiT did his majesty. The poets even 
 (ell us the colour of his skin, his iiair, and 
 his robes. They describe him likewise 
 on particular occasions (as when amazed 
 at some unusual incident, or under an un- 
 common concern) in a very picturesque 
 manner. JEutid, viii. v. Gl and v. 34. 
 
 TifiER. [Gr. 7-iyj)i(;, a Medean word sig- 
 nifying swiftness: in the Armenian lan- 
 guage, the same word signifies an arrow.] 
 In archaiology. This animal is frequently 
 depicted on ancient monuments as draw- 
 ing the car of Bacchus, \\ hich office, how- 
 ever, is still oftener performed by pan- 
 thers. See Panther. 
 
 Tigris, [same derivation.] A river of 
 Asia. Its tutelary deity is distinguished, 
 in the Agostini collection, by the tiger, on 
 which he rests his rigiit arm. The Eu- 
 phrates, in a rilievo on tlie Constantine 
 pillar, is marked out by the palm branch 
 in iiis hand. These rivers are said to 
 spring from the same source. Ovid speaks 
 of th(;m as carried in triumph togetlier. 
 They appear together on a medal of Tra- 
 jan, where tlie genius of Mesopotamia is 
 kneeling at the emperor's feet. 
 
 Toga. [Lat. perhaps from tcgo, to cover.] 
 In (indent costume. A wide habit, ordina- 
 rily made of white wool, without either 
 sleeves or folds, which enveloped the 
 whole body even to the feet, and was 
 worn above the tunic. This garment dif- 
 fered both in richness, colour, and size, 
 according to the condition and circum- 
 stances of the wearer; but, in all its di- 
 versities, it was held peculiar to the Ro- 
 man people, no other being allowed by 
 them the privilege of wearing it, and 
 tiius during the Katuvnalia it was never 
 worn at all, master and slave being then 
 uniforiidy mixed up together. Some 
 writers give to the toga the form of a se- 
 micircle, but it doubtless varied its shape 
 according to the prevailing mode, and 
 was regulated as to the introduction of 
 folds and other ornamental matters (as 
 we before observed), by the rank of the 
 wearer. 
 
 The artist who has a Roman figure to 
 enrobe will do wisely to betake himself to 
 the conteniplalioii and study of sucii an- 
 <iiiit statues as remain to us. They will 
 iind a model, also, in tiie :i,>th plate of the 
 4th vol. of the Museum of I'ius CUenunti- 
 nus. .leronu- IJossn s wrote a small trea- 
 tise, 7>t' Ti)t;n liiiinitnii, Amsl. 1(»71, I2mo., 
 iiImo see the Tiiesaurus of Sallengrius, 
 vol. 2. At the end of our iiitii le on Cos- 
 
 TOM 
 
 TUME mention is made of other works on 
 the subject, to which likewise we beg to 
 refer the reader. 
 
 ToGATi. [same derivation.] In arcltaio- 
 logtj. Those who, in the colonies and 
 municipalities, habited themselves after 
 the Roman fashion, and wore the toga. 
 
 ToGULA. [same derivation.] In ancient 
 costume, A narrow and short kind of 
 toga, worn by the poorer orders of citizens. 
 We see one on an Etruscan figure which 
 is standing at the villa Medicis, and 
 spreads forth the right arm. 
 
 To.MB. [Gr. ri'/n/3of, from ru^w, to burn.] 
 In architecture and sculpture. This term 
 may be said to include both the grave or 
 sepulchre wherein a deceased person is 
 interred, and the monument erected to 
 preserve his memory. In many countries 
 of antiquity it was most customary to burn 
 the bodies of the dead, and to collect the 
 ashes with pious care into an urn, which 
 was deposited in a tomb or sepulchre. 
 Among the Greeks these tombs were ge- 
 nerally constructed outside the walls of 
 the cities, with the exception of such as 
 were raised to the founders of the place or 
 to heroes. Nevertheless, an edict of Ly- 
 curgus permitted the Lacediemouians to 
 inter within the town, and even round 
 about the temples, as is the custom at this 
 day. Tiie Athenian people, who possessed 
 a considerable tract of ground in the vici- 
 nity of the town, had each his own parti- 
 cular toml) ; but the other communities of 
 Attica, with whom ground was more pre- 
 cious, were frequently obliged to put 
 three or four funereal urns into the same 
 recess. Clumps of trees, of dillerent 
 sorts, surrounded these sepulciires, which, 
 in other respects, were mostly marked by 
 a stunted pillar, on which the epitaph was 
 engraven. To these spots, iKiwe\ er, con- 
 secrated by sorrow and all'eclion, tiie be- 
 reaved parties often repaired, scattering 
 oil and other essences over the tombs of 
 their relatives or friends. 
 
 In Campania, several tombs of the an- 
 cient inhabitants have been discovered, 
 and in these it is tiiat they found the beau- 
 tiful (Grecian Aasi-s (improperly called 
 i'truscan), of which Mr. Hamilton succes- 
 sively formed twt) collections, the lirst pub- 
 lished by D'Ancarville, the 2(1 by Tisch- 
 bein. In botii tiie one and the other of 
 these works is represented one of the 
 Camjianian tombs, such as it appeared at 
 the monicnt of its discovery. They were 
 formed by an enclosure of cut stones, and 
 covert'd with a sort of roof of flagstones 
 shelving on both sides. The dead body 
 was slrotcheil on tlir ground, the feet 
 
TOM 
 
 turned towards the entrance of the sepul- 
 chre, and the head ranged against the 
 wall, from which were suspended, by 
 bronze nails, vases of terra cotta, whilst 
 others of a similar kind were disposed 
 around the body. 
 
 In the plains of Etruria "we also find 
 many sepulchral grottoes scooped in a 
 shallow manner out of the living rock. 
 They are sometimes excava.ted in shape of 
 a cross, or with three aisles, somewhat 
 similar to our churches ; others present 
 squares of different proportions : gates 
 have been constructed to pass from one 
 grotto to another ; and sometimes there 
 are two, one above the other. These cells 
 or sepulchres receive the daylight only 
 through an opening placed in the middle 
 of the vault, and which communicates 
 with the superficies of tiie mountain or 
 rock. The interior of these grottoes is 
 often ornamented with paintings. 
 
 The Romans designated by the word 
 sepulchrum, in the first place, the ordinary 
 tomb wherein either the entire body of 
 the defunct was deposited, or the ashes, 
 where the usage was to burn it. In the 
 second place, the term was applied to 
 more magnificent appurtenances to the 
 dead, such as are likewise denominated 
 monuments, mausolea, sepulchral arches, 
 &c. These were destined to princes, to 
 the great and the rich. After having con- 
 structed a tomb, they celebrated there tlie 
 funeral rites with all their ordinary para- 
 phernalia, yet without depositing the body 
 — this receptacle was called a cenotaph. 
 Persons of an elevated class had some- 
 times, in their palaces, sepulchral vaults, 
 where were deposited, in diflerent urns, 
 the ashes of their forefathers. The pyra- 
 mid of Cestius, at Rome, constructed of 
 Parian marble, and which contained a 
 chamber ornamented with beautiful paint- 
 ings, was the tomb of an individual sur- 
 named Cestius, one of the Septemviri epu- 
 lones. Pope Alexander VII. rescued this 
 pyramid from the ruins under which it 
 had been buried, in order to reestablish it 
 in all its splendour. 
 
 After the decline of the arts, this species 
 of architecture was much neglected, the 
 tombs becoming simply masses of large 
 stones, upon which were engraved rude 
 eflSgies of the deceased, and inscriptions 
 stating his age and circumstances of his 
 death, &c. Sometimes for marble or stone 
 plates of copper were substituted, rarely 
 enamelled, but generally engraven. The 
 dead person is here represented as clad 
 in the habit commonly worn by him when 
 living; his hands are joined as in the act 
 of prayer ; and two angels are, in most in- 
 
 TON 
 
 stances, placed near the cushion upon 
 which his head reposes, to indicate his 
 admission into heaven. 
 
 The revival of art opened a vast field 
 for the sculptor and architect with respect 
 to the construction of tombs or sepulchres. 
 They have been plentifully adorned with 
 groups and statues either of the deceased 
 person himself, or of the holy or allegori- 
 cal personages. Upon the splendid tomb 
 of Julius the Second, Michel Angiolo, the 
 prince of modern sculptors, exercised his 
 surpassing talent, and there perhaps is to 
 be found its most illustrious example, 
 namely, the figure of Moses. 
 
 We may consult with advantage, rela- 
 tively to the subject of antique tombs, the 
 work of GuTHERius, De Jure Muinum, 
 Paris, 1615, Lips. 1671, 8vo. ; as also the 
 different collections of antique monuments. 
 See Sarcophagus. 
 
 With respect to modern tombs, many 
 works appropriated to the history of pro- 
 vinces and families contain representa- 
 tions of them. Besides these, are the fol- 
 lowing : — Discours sur les anciennes Sepul- 
 tures de nos Rois, by Mabiixon, in the Me- 
 moires de VAcadimie des Belles Let f res, vol. 
 2, p. 633 ; a Dissei-taiion on the same sub- 
 ject, by Legrand D'Aussi, is to be found 
 in the R'Minoires de I'lustitut. Les Monu- 
 mens de la 3Ionarchie Frangaise, by Mont- 
 FAUCON. Les Antiquites Nationalcs, by A. 
 L. MiLLiN, 5 vols, folio, or 5 vols. 4to. Les 
 Histoires de Bourgogne, du Languedoc, du 
 DauphinL Martini Gerbert, Topogra- 
 phia principum Austrio;, 1772, fol. / Rcgali 
 Sepolcri del Dnomo di Palermo rlconosciuti 
 ed illustrati, Nap. 1784, fol. Sepulchral 
 Monuments, 3 vols. fol. &c. &c. 
 
 Tone. [Gr. tovoq, from rsu'w, to stretch 
 or expand.] In painting, 8j-c. A term used 
 chiefly in colouring to express tiie prevail- 
 ing hue. Thus we say, this picture is of 
 a dull tone, of a lively tone, of a soft tone, 
 of a clear tone, &:c. and thus it may be also 
 observed — it is requisite to heighten the 
 tone of this work, or otherwise, to render 
 the colours more vivid, and, in some in- 
 stances, the masses more decided and the 
 figures more striking. The word tone, in 
 relation to chiaroscuro, expresses the de- 
 gree of brightness or intensity. Tone is 
 not precisely synonymous with tint; the 
 latter relating rather to the mixture of co- 
 lours, and the former to their effect. 
 
 Tongue, [tun?;, Saxon.] In architecture. 
 An ornament with a triangular point, such 
 as has been supposed, though erroneously, 
 to belong to the serpent. This ornament, 
 in conjunction with the egg, is extremely 
 elegant, and is used between the volutes 
 of tlie Ionic capitals, and also in the enta- 
 
TOR 
 
 hladirc of tlic same order. See Egg and 
 
 Toi'iAitiiM Opls. [Lat. a work made 
 of trees, c\c.] In anhaiology. Pliiiy uses 
 this term to designate a sort of garden 
 ornament, which consisted in S'^'iS a" 
 kinds of fanciful forms to arbours and 
 thickets. 
 
 Torch. [Fr. torchc, from Lat. torrvs, a 
 firebrand.] In archniology. Tiie torches 
 or flaml)eaux consecrated by the ancients 
 to religion, were of the same kind as those 
 employed in obsequies and nuptial cere- 
 monies. They were all comprised under 
 the generic name of funalia, because they 
 were made of cords. The collection of 
 engraved stones of Stosch presents an adi- 
 cula, and a two wheeled car drawn by 
 two figures with torches in their hands. 
 Among tiie Greeks, several fetes were 
 celebrated with torches, such as the lesser 
 Panatheenca, tlie fetes of Hecate, of Vul- 
 can, of Prometheus, of Ceres, &c. Upon 
 ancient monuments we sometimes see 
 torches of almost double the height of a 
 man. Tiiese are generally conical, and 
 apparently formed of several pieces bound 
 together at certain distances, like the 
 staves of a cask. 
 
 TouELMi.VTA. [Gr. TvpiVfia, from roptiw, 
 to engrave.] /« sculpture and en^mvinii-. 
 This word designates that description of 
 works (more particularly vases) chased, 
 and ornamented boldly in rilicvo. 
 
 Toreutic. [Gr. ropivrog, polished.] In 
 sculpture and cngracing. This brancli of 
 art comprises not only all such matters of 
 sculpture or engraving as are executed 
 with iiigh polish and delicacy (as has been 
 erroneously stated), but, in point of fact, 
 all sculptured or engraved figures in ri- 
 licvo on wood, ivory, stone, marble, &:c. 
 more especially on the harder substances. 
 Phidias is said to have invented this de- 
 parlnu-nt of art, which was jjcrhaps 
 brouglit to perfcclion by Polycleles. It 
 Wiis known to all the nations of anti- 
 quity. 
 
 Air. HrvNE has written a Dissertation 
 uiKin the Toreutic Art, in his Anliijuarische 
 An/sutze, 2d vol. from p. 127 -IIH. A 
 French translation has been published by 
 Ja\sk.v, at tl>c end of his translation of 
 VVin««,i;i..mann's IHstitrtj of Art. M. Qla- 
 THEMEiiE i)K Qui.Ncv also read a Disserla- 
 ti<in on the same subject before the Na- 
 tional Institute of I'rance. 
 
 ToitKUToN. [same derivation.] /;/ ur- 
 chauthgy. The Greeks designated by the 
 ternm to^uvtov and yXvnToy every wmk 
 of arl pidciiiced by |||,. graver or any simi- 
 l.ir iiislrunieii(. Sei- ToiiiaMATA, ToiiKf- 
 
 TOU 
 
 Toaso. [Fr. torse, from Lat. tumio, a 
 writhing or torturing.] In sculpture. Name 
 given by artists to tiiose mutilated statues 
 of which nothing remains but the trunk. 
 Every one at all familiar with the arts 
 knows the famous antique torso regarded 
 as the invaluable fragment of a statue of 
 Hercules. 
 
 The name of torso is also applied to 
 those columns the shafts of vhich are 
 twisted. Of this description are the beau- 
 tiful examples at the grand altar of \ al de 
 Grace. Of these kind of columns there 
 are several varieties : as, for instance, the 
 fluted or channeled torso column, and the 
 cabled or indented one, &c. 
 
 Tortoise. [Fr. tortu.'\ In archuiology. 
 The tortoise was much celebrated among 
 the Greeks, and from its scales the first 
 lyres were fabricated. These animals are 
 represented upon the Palestrina jVIusaic ; 
 and are, without doubt, the creatures 
 which, according to the report of M. Son- 
 nini, bear for the crocodile that anti- 
 pathy erroneously attributed to the ich- 
 neumon. 
 
 The tortoise is a type or symbol fre- 
 quently met with upon the medals of Pe- 
 loponnesus and of jiigium in Achaia. 
 
 The ancients also gave the name of tor- 
 toise (testudo) to a sort of covered gallery, 
 or fence made of boards topped with raw 
 hides, under which, as a penthouse, the 
 besiegers of a town got up close to the 
 walls. 
 
 Torus. [Lat.] In architecture. A large 
 semicircular moulding used in the bases of 
 columns. 
 
 Tournament. [Fr. tournoi, from tounier, 
 to turn round.] In the arts rt/erring to 
 chirulry. In the middle ages, all kiiuls of 
 military courses were thus denominated, 
 which were practised agreeably to certain 
 rules, between did'erent chevaliers, or 
 knights, and their scjuires. It woulil be 
 dillicult to fix the epoch at which these 
 encounters were originated. For a consi- 
 derable period the gentler sex, instigated 
 by a natural repugnance to scenes of 
 bloodshed, absented themselves systemati- 
 cally from the joust or tournament: but 
 at length the spirit of curiosKy, which 
 many writers ha\e not scrupled to appro- 
 priate more especially to that fascinating 
 part of the creation, aided probably by the 
 solicilations of (he knights, each of whom 
 thought he coukl pierce his opponent's 
 heart with better grace in the presence of 
 his " ladye-love," prevailed over all scru- 
 ples, and it was then thai the cuslom was 
 esteemed to lie most glorified, when its 
 display attracted a whole host of t'air and ' 
 Icnder-lKdrlcd spectators. 
 
TOURNAMENT. 
 
 The place of combat was a vast enclo- 
 sure surrounded either by cords covered 
 with cloth, or with a double row of bar- 
 riers, separated about four feet from each 
 other. Here were placed the minstrels 
 and musicians, the attendants of the 
 knights, the heralds, kings and Serjeants at 
 arms, &c. The mass of the people were 
 assembled together without the fence : 
 while an elegant gallery or amphitheatre 
 was erected for the ladies, princes, judges 
 of the tournament, and old knights put by 
 age in a state hors de combat. A flourish 
 of trumpets announced the arrival of the 
 combatants, superbly equipped, and fol- 
 lowed by their squires mounted. Some- 
 times they wore favours bestowed on 
 them by the fair ones who looked favour- 
 ably on their devotion : these were gene- 
 rally in the shape of a mantle or scarf, 
 sleeve or bracelet, or, in short, of any de- 
 tached piece of costume which the giver 
 frequently disengaged from her own dress 
 or ornaments, and still more frequently 
 worked with her own hands. With this 
 the warrior adoi'ned his helmet, his lance, 
 his shield, or some other portion of his 
 armour. Their arms generally consisted of 
 a Mfo7i or staff, a blunted lance, and a 
 sword without edge. In other cases, how- 
 ever, when the combat was not so com- 
 pletely sportive, but assumed a more ear- 
 nest character, these foils were laid aside, 
 and the regular warlike weapons substi- 
 tuted. The lance was commonly of ash- 
 tree wood. It was the fashion to employ 
 great address in using this instrument, and 
 thus arose the expressions so frequent in 
 books of chivalry— /aire un coup de lance; 
 rompre la lance, briser la lance, baisser la 
 lance, &c. (These latter terms signify 
 ceding the victory.) The most general 
 exercises of the tournament consisted of 
 breaking the adversary's lance, casting 
 the dart, &c. &c. 
 
 In the sequel, the lists were richly or- 
 namented in various ways after the ex- 
 ample of the Circuses and Hippodromes 
 (see those words) of antiquity. These 
 exercises were so privileged, that it was 
 not permitted for a slave or serf to present 
 himself. The horse and arms of the van- 
 quished, and sometimes the unfortunate 
 combatant himself, were considered as the 
 fair prize of the victor. 
 
 If we may reasonably object to these 
 pompous and lordly amusements of a for- 
 mer era, that they were attended not only 
 with expense and danger, but that they 
 were calculated to become, and, in point 
 of fact, did become, pregnant sources of 
 ill blood and animosity between man and 
 
 man, it must be admitted, on the other 
 hand, that they were serviceable as a field 
 for the acquirement of skill and address, 
 and that they tended to cultivate a high 
 sense not only of courage and intrepidity, 
 but of good faith and honour. Indeed, it 
 was considered indispensable, in order to 
 qualify an individual for an entrance into 
 the lists, that his character should be 
 stainless, or at all events, that he should 
 present himself there for the express pur- 
 pose of clearing it from unmerited re- 
 proach. Viewed merely as a splendid 
 spectacle presented to the public gaze by 
 a military race, the tournament is quali- 
 fied to fill a high jjlace in the fancy both 
 of the poet and the painter. The bold and 
 vigorous nobility of Europe entered in 
 full armour the lists of combat, to the 
 sound of warlike instruments, armed with 
 lances decorated with rich streamers, or 
 with the embroidered workmanship of 
 their mistresses. To this superb and im- 
 posing costume the imagination of the 
 artist must add the beauty of the horses 
 (often extreme) ; the gaiety of the equi- 
 pages ; the eclat of the arms ; the scaffold- 
 ing filled with ranks of the noble and the 
 fair ; the tents or pavilions spread over 
 the adjacent country, and formed of silk 
 or cloth of gold ; the prize awarded to the 
 most brave by the united suffrages of the 
 princes, ladies, and heralds, and presented 
 with an embrace by the queen of the tour- 
 nament; the victor led away among the 
 approving shouts of the populace and the 
 sound of warlike instruments, and relieved 
 from his heavy armour by the gentle hands 
 of the dames of quality. Such matei'ials 
 cannot fail to constitute many a happy 
 subject for the pencil of the artist. It was 
 in France that the tournament was prac- 
 tised with the greatest splendour and ac- 
 quired the highest fame. 
 
 There exist several curious works on 
 this interesting subject. We will instance 
 the following: — Vues ginerales sur les 
 Tournois et la Table Ronde, by M. de Fonce- 
 MAGNE, in the Memoires de I'Acadimic des 
 Inscriptions, vol. 18, p. 311. Le Vrai TM- 
 dtre d'Honneiir et de la Chevalerie, conte- 
 nant les Combats, les Triomphes, les Tour- 
 nois, les Joustes, les Armes, les CaiTousels, 
 les Courses de Bagues, &c. by M. Vulson de 
 la CoLOMBiERE, Paris, 1648, 2 vols, fol. 
 Traits, des Tournois, Joustes, Coirousels, et 
 autres Spectacles, by C. F. Menestrier, 
 Lyons, 1660, 4to., and Paris, 1694, 8vo. 
 De I' Usage de Tournois, by Ducange, Dis- 
 sertation 6th on the History of St. Louis. 
 Des Armes a outrances et des Joustes, by 
 the same, Diss. 7th, ibid. Memoires sur. 
 
TOW 
 
 VAncieune Clieralerie, considirie comme F.ta- 
 lilissement }>olHi(jue et militdirc, by J. B. de 
 la Curuc <le S.mnte-Palvyk, Paris, 1759, 
 2 vols. 121110. : [These memoirs, exceed- 
 ingly interesliiif;, are likewise to be found 
 in the 20tli vol. of the Histoire de V.lai- 
 dhniedes Inscriptions.] The lioyal Library 
 of France possesses also some curious 
 tracts on the subject. 
 
 TowKR. [top, Saxon.] In architecture. 
 A very high building, of several stories, 
 generally round, but sometimes square or 
 polygonal, and which is commonly con- 
 structed to flank the walls of a fortress, or 
 of the enclosure of a town or castle. 
 
 The tower of a church is ordinarily 
 square, sometimes however circular, and 
 more or less lofty, forming a receptacle 
 for the clock and bells. 
 
 Maecenas caused a magnificent tower to 
 be constructed at Rome, the ruins of which 
 are still visible. It is commonly received, 
 that from this tower Nero indulged him- 
 self in the ferocious gratificatiou of wit- 
 nessing the conflagration of the imperial 
 city. Other authorities, however, state 
 this last point to have been the Quirinal 
 Mount. 
 
 The tower of London was built in 1077 
 by William, the Norman bastard, who, 
 profiting by the intestine divisions of the 
 Saxon population, rendered himself mas- 
 ter of England. This celebrated fortress 
 is of considerable extent, commanding the 
 river Thames, and serving as a prison for 
 state culprits. It was formerly regarded 
 as a royal palace, where the kings often 
 held their court : but this custom has 
 been for some centuries laid aside. It 
 now contains a garris(m ; a magnificent 
 arsenal, stored with arms and other war- 
 like accoutrements; an odice wherein are 
 dei)osited the paraphernalia of royalty, 
 biC. &c. 
 
 A sort of tower, or town gate, placed 
 upon certain medals, witii these words, 
 I'roiidentia Aw^usti, designates a maga- 
 zine established for public purposes; but 
 it is only since the reign of Constantint^ 
 that this species of building is at nil seen 
 upon coins. Others think that it is, in the 
 iimtances above cited, a tyjie sacred to the 
 city of Constantinople, the star of which 
 apjiears ab()\f it. V\'c find a tower coin- 
 iiionly upon Ihr heads of C'ybele, of Isis, 
 of NemeHis, and of several towns and pro- 
 vinces pi-rsonilied. 
 
 The 'linen- of I In- Winds is nn octagonal 
 building which Andronicus ('yrrhcstes, 
 one (if those who recognised eight winds 
 in nature, caused to be erected iil Athi lis 
 Bubiioquently to the uge of Pericles. The 
 
 TRA 
 
 upper part of each of the eight faces or 
 fronts is occupied by a symbolical figure 
 representing the wind which blows from 
 that side. The summit, which forms a 
 pyramid of twenty-four sides, was termi- 
 nated by a copper triton which turned ac- 
 cording to the direction of the wind. An- 
 dronicus designed also that this tower 
 should serve as au horologe for the Athe- 
 nians, not only during the day, by means 
 of the sundials with which its fronts were 
 decorated, but also during the night, to 
 which end a Clepsydra was established 
 there (see that word), and occupied the 
 interior of the edifice. This building, still 
 to be seen at Athens, is constructed of 
 marble, which forms even the substance of 
 its roof. Stuart has given a representa- 
 tion of it in his Antiquities of Athens, and 
 we find also a reduction of it in the Gule- 
 rie Antique of Messrs. Delettke and 
 BoL'TROis, pi. 48 — 55. 
 
 Town H^ux. In architecture. An edi- 
 fice applied to purposes very similar to 
 those appropriated to the Basiuca of an- 
 cient times (see that word). It is gene- 
 rally by their style of architecture and 
 important appearance that the wealth, ex- 
 tent, and power of the town over whose 
 buildings they preside are estimated. The 
 town hall is generally situated in the most 
 central, open, and public part of the town 
 or city. M. Durand, in his Kecucil et 
 Parallele des Edifices anciens et modernes, 
 has engraved, at pi. 17, drawings and 
 plans of several town halls. That of 
 Brussels dates upwards of four hundred 
 years back. Its style is a sort of Gothic 
 Saxon, presenting great unity and simpli- 
 city in the plan. Richness is, at the same 
 time, occasionally and judiciously «lis- 
 played, and the pyramidal system pre- 
 served throughout every part of the build- 
 ing. It presents to the eye a style light 
 and airy, yet possessing quite sufficient 
 solidity, as indeed its age will justify. 
 The spire, in the centre, is in a more ro- 
 bust taste, and bears the print of the mo- 
 dern Lombard. 
 
 TitAi'.KA. [Lut.] In ancient costume. A 
 white gown, \M)rn like the toga over the 
 tunic, larger than the tos;a, and somewhat 
 reseiniiling the italudamentuin of the gene- 
 rals, from which, however, it difl'ert d, that 
 garnu'iil being wholly purple. The trabea 
 was commonly bordered with purple, and 
 ornaiiKMiled with <7(u/ (i. e. studs), or 
 trabes (i. v. stripes), of scarlet. 
 
 TKA.IAN Coi.fMN. See COI.IMN. 
 
 Thansi'arknt. [Lat. from trans, on the 
 other .'iide, and purco, to appear.] In paint- 
 ih;,-. Thosi; colours which are eitlu-r light 
 
TRI 
 
 and aerial in their own nature, or become 
 so by the delicate manner in which they 
 are laid in by the painter. In this latter 
 sense the term only expresses effect, to- 
 ward producing which the use of varnish 
 is the great means. It is by the use of 
 varnish that Rubens made his colours 
 transparent. Tlie most beautiful speci- 
 mens indeed are to be found in the pic- 
 tures of the Flemish and Venetian schools. 
 
 A transparency is a picture painted on 
 fine linen, on silver or tissue paper, or on 
 taffeta. It is radiated by lights skilfully 
 introduced behind, and produces a strik- 
 ing and piquant effect on occasions of 
 public illuminations or other festivities. 
 
 Travertino. [Ital.] See Peperino. 
 
 Treasury, [from treasure.'] In archi- 
 tecture. A building constructed for the 
 reception of money or other precious 
 things. Pausanias describes a very re- 
 markable edifice of this kind — that erected 
 at Orchomenes by King Minyas. It was 
 wholly of marble, and its form was that of 
 a rotunda gradually terminating in a point. 
 The back part of ancient temples often 
 served as a treasury. See Opisthouo- 
 
 MUS. 
 
 Triangle, [triangulmn, Lat.] In geome- 
 try. A figure of three angles. 
 
 Tribune. [Lat. tribunus, from tres, three, 
 the original number.] In archaiology. The 
 commander of a Roman legion. Also a 
 bench or elevated place from which 
 speeches were delivered. See Rostrum. 
 
 Triclinium. [Lat.] In archaiology. A 
 dining room furnished with couches which 
 occupied three sides of the dinner table, the 
 fourth being left free for the ingress and 
 egress of the servants. From this dispo- 
 sition has arisen its name, which comes 
 originally from the Greek rpuQ, three, and 
 Kk'nn], a couch. See Dining Room, 
 
 Trident. [Lat. tridens.] In archaiology. 
 Sceptre with three points, forming a sym- 
 bol or attribute of Neptune. It is ob- 
 served on a great multitude of medals. 
 
 Triglyph. [Gr. from tquq, three, and 
 y\v<pu), to make hollow.] In architecture. 
 An ornament repeated at equal intervals 
 in the Doric frieze. 
 
 Tripod, [tqiiq, three, and ttsq, a foot.] 
 In archaiology. Any sort of vessel, table, 
 seat, or instrument having three feet. The 
 ancients made very common use of the 
 tripod, for domestic purposes, to set their 
 lamps or vases upon, and also in religious 
 ceremonies. Perhaps the most frequent 
 application of all others was to serve water 
 on in their common habitations. In these 
 instances, the upper part was so disposed 
 as to receive a vase. 
 
 TRI 
 
 But to the poet and the artist, the most 
 interesting recollections and associations 
 connected v.ith tripods arise from the cir- 
 cumstances peculiar to the establishment 
 of the celebrated oracle of Delphos. With 
 this famous event every individual who 
 devotes himself to the pursuit of a classi- 
 cal and imaginative art should be well 
 acquainted, and we shall therefore pro- 
 ceed to give a succinct account of the tra- 
 ditions respecting it. 
 
 The first discovery of this famous oracle 
 is said to have been occasioned by some 
 goats which were feeding on Mount Par- 
 nassus, near a deep and large cavern, with 
 a narrow mouth. These goats were ob- 
 served by a goatherd, called by Plutarch 
 Coretas, to frisk and leap strangely, and to 
 utter unusual sounds on approaching tliis 
 cavern ; upon which he had the curiosity 
 to examine it, and found himself seized 
 with the like fit of madness, skipping, 
 dancing, and foretelling things to come. 
 At the news of this discovery, multitudes 
 flocked thither ; and the surprising place 
 was soon covered with a kind of chapel, 
 originally made of laurel boughs, but, 
 finally, converted into a temple of great 
 magnitude and splendour. Such indeed 
 was its reputation, and such the multi- 
 tudes who came from all parts to consult 
 the oracle, that the riches brought into the 
 temple and city became comparable to 
 those of the Persian kings. At first, the 
 whole mystery requisite for obtaining the 
 prophetic gift was to approach the cavern, 
 and inhale the vapour issuing therefrom ; 
 but at length several enthusiasts, in the 
 excess of their frenzy, having cast them- 
 selves headlong into the chasm, it was 
 thought expedient, by way of prevention, 
 to place over the hole, whence the vapour 
 issued, a machine, which they called a 
 " tripod," because it had three feet. Upon 
 this chair a woman was seated, imbibing 
 the vapour without danger, the three feet 
 of the machine standiug firmly on the rock. 
 This priestess was named " Pythia," the 
 Greek etymology of wliich word is " to 
 inquire." The oracle could only be con- 
 sulted on certain days, and, excepting on 
 these, the priestess was forbidden, under 
 pain of death, to go into the sanctuary to 
 consult Apollo. Alexander, before his 
 expedition into Asia, came to Delphi on 
 one of the forbidden days, and entreated 
 " Pythia" to mount the tripod, which she 
 steadily refused. The impetuous prince, 
 not brooking opposition, drew her by force 
 from her cell; and on their way to the 
 temple, she took occasion to exclaim, " My 
 son, thou art invincible ! " As soon as these 
 
Till 
 
 words were pronounced, Alexander cried 
 out that he was satislied, and would have 
 no other oracle. Strange and gliaslly con- 
 tortions were said to have agitated tlie 
 priestesses on ascending the tripod. They 
 altenipted to escape from the priests, wiio 
 detained them by force. At length, yield- 
 ing to the impulse of the god, they gave 
 forth some unconnected words, which were 
 put into wretched verse by the poets who 
 attended, giving occasion to the raillery 
 that Apollo, the prince of the Muses, was 
 the worst of poets. This oracle was, 
 liko all others, obscure and ambiguous; 
 and its retailers not inaccessible to the 
 temptations of corruption.— Perhaps Dr. 
 Thornton, in his lectures on gas, could 
 give the best solution of the Pythian mys- 
 tery. Its priestesses were remarkable for 
 the pallid horror of their visages; and the 
 resistance made by them no doubt resulted 
 from the anguish of convulsed and shat- 
 tered nerves. 
 
 MoNTFALCON, in his Antiquity Erpliquee, 
 vol. ii. part 1, pi. 52 and 53, has published 
 several ancient tripods, among which we 
 find (No. 3, pi. 53) one which was dis- 
 covered in 1C29, near Frejus, and which 
 furnished to Peiresc the subject of his 
 DisserliUion sur uii Tripled ancicn, printed 
 in the Continuation des Mcmoircs de Litti- 
 rature et d'Histoin; vol. x. part 2, p. 247— 
 277. The greater part of these tripods 
 hare a solid base ; but two of them which 
 Montfaucon has had engraved are disposed 
 in such a manner as to be able to receive, 
 at their upper part, a vase greater or less 
 in diameter. 
 
 iJcsidcs the dissertation of Peiresc, cited 
 above, and that which IMontfaucon has 
 taken occasion to say on the plates alluded 
 to, th(! student may consult on this mat- 
 ter : — the Misccllantn of Si'ON, j). 118 and 
 following. An Explication of tliv Apotheo- 
 sis of Homer, by J. C. Sciiott, G7th and 
 following pages. Si'Aniikim, in his Com- 
 vuntanj on Calliinaclius, 3H3d and sui)se- 
 quent pages. Beokk, in the Tliixaitiits 
 lirandnihurfcicus, 3d vol. 38Ist p. The 
 Tlicsaitni.s Aiit. Horn, of (iit.Kvus, 5th vol. 
 3l7tii p. Tiic Miisiiim hcirlnriftniim, by 
 1'. Onnanm, class I, Itii anil following 
 pages. See Ciiokauic, Coiitina, Dehmios, 
 
 ('I'SllloN, iS( . 
 
 Tim M I'll. I Lilt, triiiinjilus, fVoin (ir. Tfti- 
 apj3otj.] Ill iiiihaiolofxii. Several medals 
 pn-si-iit triniiiphiil niiircht'S. Somi'limi'S 
 Wf liiiil tlii-rciiii a rliariot, as, lor exam- 
 ple, on those of Vespasian, who is repre- 
 neiiled holding a laurel branch, and crown- 
 ed by \ ictory. In his (tssirruzioni xopra 
 IMidu^lioiii, IX. No. I, Ik'UNAKKori has 
 
 TR[ 
 
 published a medallion on which Caracalla 
 is, in like manner, placed upon a chariot, 
 having in his hand an ivory sceptre. 
 
 TaiL'MPHAL Arch. In architecture. A 
 monument consisting of a grand portico or 
 archway, erected at the entrance of a town, 
 in its principal street, upon a bridge, or in 
 a public road, to the glory of some cele- 
 brated general, or in memory of some im- 
 portant event. Some of these arches are 
 merely honorary monuments set up in the 
 spirit of adulation : these, of course, bear 
 no triumphal trophies, while those of the 
 former description are generally charged 
 with inscriptions in honour of the tri- 
 umpher, with bassi rilievi representing the 
 arms of the vanquished enemy, &c. Se- 
 veral triumphal arches appear to have 
 been erected with the double purpose of 
 serving as monuments to the glory of the 
 chieftain whose name they bear, and as 
 gates of the town to Avhich they belong. 
 
 The invention of these structures is at- 
 tributable to the Romans. The earliest 
 specimens are destitute of any magnifi- 
 cence. For a long time, they consisted 
 merely of a plain arch, at top of which 
 were placed the trophies and the statue of 
 the triumpher. Subsequently the span 
 Avas enlarged, the style enriched, and a 
 profusion of all kinds of ornaments loaded 
 on them. The whole mass formed a square 
 penetrated by three arcades, crowned by 
 a very high attic, which received inscrip- 
 tions, and sometimes hassi rilievi, and 
 which supportet^ equestrian statues, tri- 
 umphal cars, and other analogous orna- 
 ments, as we find represented on a variety 
 of medals. Ti\e archivaults were adorned 
 with figures of victory holding palms and 
 crowns. In early times, when the tri- 
 umpher passed under the arch which had 
 been erected for the occasion, they had at 
 the summit little figures of Victory with 
 wings, and so suspended that, by means 
 of pullies, they descended and placed a 
 crown on the head of the victor. Hence 
 the winged Victories which arc repre- 
 sented on all these arches. 
 
 The Triumphal Arches varied greatly 
 in point of construction, form, and deco- 
 ration. As has been already observed, 
 the first specimens were simple, composeil 
 only of a single arcade, ailormd with Do- 
 ric or Tuscan columns, without pedestal; 
 and many of them were without imposts. 
 Those existing at the present day oiler 
 three very distinct si)ecies :— First, those 
 which consist but of a single arch, such as 
 that of Titus at Home, of Trajan at An- 
 emia, ivc. Secondly, those vhicli are 
 formed of two arches or arcades, such as 
 
TRl 
 
 those of Verona, &c., which appear to 
 have formed, at the same time, gates for 
 the town. Thirdly, the species composed 
 of three arcades, the centre being the 
 principal or grand arch, and the others at 
 each side much smaller. Such is the arch 
 of Septimius Severus, of Constantine and 
 otiiers. The lesser arch of SepUmiiis Se- 
 verus, called also that of the Orfevres, 
 forms a class apart. It is not vaulted, but 
 formed in plat-band. 
 
 The arch known to us as that of Con- 
 stantine is, thanks to the care and restora- 
 tions made by order of Pope Clement XII. 
 the best preserved of all the great antique 
 arches, but as the greater part of the I/assi- 
 rilievi represent the victories of Trajan, it 
 is most likely that this structure is the 
 same as that erected by command of the 
 senate in honour of that emperor ; and 
 this opinion is strengthened on recollect- 
 ing that the decline of the arts in the time 
 of Constantine had rendered it almost im- 
 possible that such a structure could have 
 been then raised. This arch is at present 
 buried to the height of the pedestals of 
 the columns. 
 
 The arch of Septimius Severus, placed 
 at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, and also 
 partly buried, greatly resembles that of 
 Constantine. The arch of Titus is the 
 next most considerable in Rome, after these 
 two. This monument, composed of one 
 single arcade, is the first upon which we 
 find the composite order employed. It 
 was constructed after the death of the em- 
 peror, who was called Diviis, and whose 
 apotheosis is perceived in the centre of the 
 vault. 
 
 The provincial towns were not back- 
 ward to emulate the capital in erecting 
 similar structures. A small arch placed 
 upon the Flaminian way, and called Arcus 
 PortugallicB, was pulled down by order of 
 Pope Alexander VII. and its sculpture 
 placed in the Capitol. This arch was con- 
 structed out of the ruins of other edifices. 
 The arch of Benevento (see that word), 
 erected in honour of Trajan, is one of the 
 most remarkable relics of antiquity, as 
 well on account of its sculptures as its 
 architecture ; the order which decorates 
 it is composite. The bassi rilievi with 
 which it is adorned are similar in point of 
 taste to those of the arch of Constantine at 
 Rome. They represent different actions 
 in the life of the Emperor Trajan ; and in- 
 deed the work altogether may vie even 
 with the structures of Rome both for gran- 
 deur of style and boldness of execution. 
 This beautiful monument is too little 
 known, for it does not stand in the ordi- 
 
 TRO 
 
 nary route pursued by tlie artists'and ama- 
 teurs who Hock into Italy. 
 
 The arch of Trajan, at Ancona, is like- 
 wise one of the most elegant works of an- 
 cient architecture. It is placed on the 
 pier of the port, at the entrance of the 
 mole, and is in capital preservation, having 
 only been despoiled of its accessories and 
 ornaments in bronze. It is decorated with 
 four Corinthian columns on pedestals ; 
 and its principal charm arises from the 
 beauty of its construction, the elegance of 
 its proportions, and its great simplicity. 
 
 The arch of Rimini, erected in honour 
 of Augustus, on the occasion of his repair- 
 ing the Flaminian way, from this town to 
 Rome, is the most ancient of all the antique 
 arches, and, for its size, one of the noblest 
 existing. That of Pola, in Istria, is re- 
 garded as a monument of the Augustan 
 age, on account of the beauty of its archi- 
 tecture and ornaments. 
 
 On the subject of the triumphal arches 
 of antiquity the following works may be 
 consulted with advantage :— Bellori's 
 work, and that of Suares on the Arch of 
 Septimius Severus. The arch of Bcnor 
 vento, published at Rome in 1739 and 1770. 
 That of Titus, published at Paris in 1770, 
 &c. 
 
 Many beautiful structures of this kind 
 have been erected in modern times, but 
 principally on the plan, and in imitation, of 
 one or other of the edifices abovemention- 
 ed. Ancient medals are very numerous 
 bearing figures of this specimen of archi- 
 tecture ; and some of them represent arches 
 which have for centuries past ceased to 
 exist. 
 Triumphal Column. See Column. 
 Troglodytes. See Simia. 
 Trophy. [Gr. TpoTraiov, from rpoTrt], the 
 flight of an enemy.] In archaiology. This 
 consisted, in the heroic ages and among 
 l^ie Greeks, merely in the trunk of an oak 
 dressed and adorned with tlie arms and 
 other spoils of a vanquished enemy; that 
 is to say, with a cuirass, a casque, and a 
 buckler, as are ordinarily the trophies 
 which Mars Gradivus bears on his should- 
 er, as well as those which we see on the 
 medals of Trajan; sometimes, even, there 
 was nothing else but the cuirass without 
 a buckler. The trophy was dressed on the 
 field of battle, immediately after the vic- 
 tory. This custom passed, like others, 
 from the Greek into the Roman states, the 
 inhabitants affecting to believe that it was 
 instituted by Romulus. They began, in 
 the long run, to ha^e the trophies carried 
 before the triumphal car in the ceremo- 
 nies which followed at Rome; and at this 
 
TRO 
 
 period, in order to render more durable 
 the t;liiry of the conquerors, these memo- 
 rials were carved in stone, in marble, and 
 otht-r solid substances. The first of these 
 «»f which Roman history makes mention is 
 that C. Flaminius erected in the year of 
 Rome 530. It was of gold,, and placed in 
 the Capitol. But the most celebrated 
 which were to be found at Rome during 
 the times of the republic are the two tro- 
 phies of Marius : they were of marble, 
 and elevated in the fifth region, called 
 Exquilina, upon two brick arches, v hich 
 rested on the reservoir of the Aqua Maria. 
 Sylla overturned them, contrary to the 
 ancient prescription, which forbade any 
 one to destroy or even to displace the 
 trophies. Caesar, during his aedility, re- 
 stored them. The quarter of the imperial 
 city in which they were set up still pre- 
 serves the recollection of them. It is now 
 called 11 Ciinlirico, between the churches 
 of St. Julian and St. Eusebius upon the 
 Esqniline Mount. Nardini is of opinion 
 that these trophies were subsequently 
 transported to the Capitol ; but Ligorius 
 believes, to the contrary, and with more 
 reason, that the trophies of the Capitol are 
 those of Doniitian. Augustus caused a 
 tropiiy to be erected in honour of him upon 
 the Alps ; and in Pliny we may read the 
 inscription thereon. There are still some 
 remains of this monument to be seen at 
 Tnrbia, mar Monaco. Since that era, 
 these kind of monuments were greatly 
 multiplied, and throughout Italy and the 
 • olonies, the traveller perpetually met 
 with military, conmieinorative, or hono- 
 rary trophies. The Trajan and Antonine 
 columns (see Column) belong, in point of able." 
 
 TRU 
 
 dais, as well Greek as of the Roman and 
 lower empires. The naval trophy is also 
 observed frequently on ancient coins, &;c. 
 Three cornelians, in the collection of 
 Stosch, offer examples of this kind. 
 
 The moderns have followed the steps of 
 the ancients in this as in other respects, 
 and trophies, military or otherwise, now 
 frequently employ the skill of the sculptor 
 and architect. They consist principally 
 of a tasteful collection of all the instru- 
 ments and insignia peculiar to the profes- 
 sion to whose member or members they 
 are dedicated. 
 
 Truth, [tpeowtha, Saxon.] In all the 
 arts. Truth is the very essence of the fine 
 arts, and in all the advantages attributable 
 to it, they may, without much stretch of 
 metaphor, be said to participate. It is 
 through the medium of truth alone, that 
 the art of painting is enabled to display to 
 us, and make us acquainted with, the dif- 
 ferent elements and climates of our globe; 
 the appearances of distant places; their 
 habitations and people; the personal like- 
 nesses of men; the inlinite varieties of 
 character; the evanescent shades of pas- 
 sion. With some exceptions, the same re- 
 marks will apply to the art of sculpture. 
 \\'itiiout truth indeed art can express no- 
 thing. The architect, to become success- 
 ful, and obtain the applause of the judici- 
 ous, must be true to his model ; or if he 
 has none, to the peculiar nature and inten- 
 tion of the buik'ing he is about to erect. 
 The engraver jnust be true to the sen- 
 timent and expression as well as the mere 
 contours of his subject, or his production 
 will turn out " stale, flat, and unprofil- 
 
 fact, to this class. Besides tiiese public 
 and lasting testimonials, the ancients were 
 in llic habit of ornamenting the vestibules 
 or porticoes of their houses and other edi- 
 fices, wilh the arms and spoils of the van- 
 qui.sJKMl. Upon ancient monuments the 
 trophies are accompanied with a variety 
 of ornaments, sucii, for instance, as those 
 "f liie 'i'rajan column. Spanhkim, in his 
 excellent work on the Cajsars, has given 
 • he representation, engraved by I'icard.of 
 one of these superb trophies which still 
 exists at Rome, an<l is attributed to Trajan 
 on account of the .-.pot fnnn whence it was 
 extracted. On this relic the trunk or 
 Hhiift is covererl uilli a eas(iue, wrought 
 and invested with a chlamys. It is like- 
 wise ornamented with (piivers, shields 
 hiippoiled by winged sphinxes, tritons, 
 eenl:iurs, iVc. 
 
 A great numl)(>r of representation.s of 
 trophies are to lie found upon ancient me- 
 
 In short, that artist has mistaken his 
 calling, and must be esteemed, «* an artist, 
 utterly worthless, who is either negligent 
 in acquiring this quality of faithfulness, 
 incapable of attaining it, or disposed to 
 sacrifice it to the vagaries of a wanton 
 and unrestrained fancy. The prineiiile of 
 correctness and verisimilitude should 
 nerev be sulFered to run at random through 
 the labyrinths of the imagination. 
 
 At the same time, it should be borne in 
 recollection that there is a moral as well 
 as physical truth, which resides in the per- 
 cei)lioiis of the soul — in the miiiil's eve ; 
 and which is no less true than the other. 
 This it is which invests the scenery of a 
 country, or the circumstances of a scene, 
 with a light wiiieh lo the eye of the gifted 
 artist, as lo that of the ]>oet, sheds over it 
 a radiance and animates it with a 8])irit 
 that enlivens and graces and adorns the 
 subject without interfering in the least with 
 
TUF 
 
 its truth and reality of outline or contour. 
 Thus, also, it is allowable, in representing 
 an ancient hero, to overlook the traditions 
 respecting his actual personal appear- 
 ance, and depict him according to the pre- 
 vailing qualities of his character : for the 
 former traits were evanescent and have 
 faded ; whilst his name has descended to 
 us surrounded with the associations ap- 
 pertaining to his moral existence. Tlie 
 painter, therefore, or sculptor, would be 
 justly blamable who should represent the 
 v/arlike Alexander as what he really was, 
 bodily speaking, a short and insignificant- 
 looking man. Our notions of him are 
 essentmlly disembodied : inseparably woven 
 with the traditions of his heroism and 
 greatness: and it is therefore requisite 
 that the artist should endeavour to per- 
 sonify these attributes in his figure. This 
 would not be the idle unsubstantial dreani- 
 ings of an exuberant imagination; but 
 would be entitled to the praise even of a 
 loftier perception of truth than can be con- 
 veyed to us by the mere bodily organs of 
 sense. 
 
 With this it is curious to compare the 
 precision and exactitude of the Dutch 
 school of painting, the productions of 
 which, generally speaking, while they 
 claim the high merit of extraordinary fide- 
 lity, ailord a striking commentary on the 
 observations made above ; — their represen- 
 tations becoming monotonous, and indeed 
 often offensive, from the total absence of 
 that species of moral truth which we have 
 been endeavouring, in so few words, to 
 explain to the student of the arts. See 
 Schools of Art, 
 
 TscHLLMiNAR. [Persic, signifying /orf?/ 
 columns.'] See Persepolis. 
 
 TuF. [Fr.] In architecture. A species 
 of sandy stone, generally of a calcareous 
 nature, porous, light, soft without being 
 fragile, ductile, and well appropriated to 
 the construction of vaults. This stone re- 
 ceives mortar well. Its colour varies, as 
 well as its consistence, according to the 
 predominance of its several component 
 parts. 
 
 Tuf is designated by the ancients under 
 the name of ponts. Plutarch speaks of a 
 Silenus made of this kind of substance ; 
 and the celebrated temple of Apollo at 
 Delphos was built of it, as were also the 
 walls of the temple of Jupiter at Olyra- 
 pius, and that portion of the temple of 
 Juno at Altis, which looked towards the 
 nortli. The Travertino (see that word), 
 of Avhich is constructed the immense cu- 
 pola of St. Peter's at Rome, is undoubt- 
 edly of the genus of tuf. 
 
 TUN 
 
 Tumulus. [Lat.] In nrchaiolo^ij. In the 
 most ancient times the funereal monu- 
 ments of the Greeks consisted merely in 
 a tumulus, or small mound of earth, ele- 
 vated conically, and sometimes covered 
 with stone. In the country wherein old 
 Troy was said to be situated, and on the 
 side of the Hellespont, several of these 
 tumuli have been found, respecting which 
 the reader may consult, among other works, 
 that of M. Lechevalier, Sur la Troade. So 
 early as the siege of Troy, we hear of 
 tumuli raised as monuments and even then 
 considered very ancient. Such was that 
 of iEsyetes ; such also were the tombs of 
 Zethes and of Amphion at Thebes, of 
 which Pausanias speaks in the 17th chap- 
 ter of his 9th book. Occasionally these 
 tumuli, or earthen mounds, were surround- 
 ed with stone. Such was the case with 
 regard to the tomb of Qiluomaus, near 
 Elis; &c. 
 
 The Celtic tribes had a custom of bury- 
 ing their dead at the summit of these ele- 
 vations. Many specimens, and some veiy 
 remarkable, still exist both in the coun- 
 tries of France and England. 
 
 Tunic. [Lat. tunica ; according to Varro, 
 from tueor, to defend.] Li ancient costume. 
 Almost all the ancient nations have made 
 use of this habiliment, which varied how- 
 ever greatly in point of shape, according 
 to the habits of different populations. The 
 tunic common to both sexes was com- 
 posed of two pieces which presented pretty 
 much the figure of a long square. It was 
 fastened by a cincture, and disposed in 
 such a manner as to allow the limbs full 
 liberty and facility of movement. It was 
 ordinarily sewed from the inferior border 
 as high as the hips. The primitive Greek 
 kings bore neither cuirass, casque, or 
 chlamys, but a tunic made longer than 
 that of other Greeks, with a mantle more 
 ample than the chlamys, and a great scep- 
 tre. It is thus that they were accoutred 
 upon the stage. The females adorned 
 their tunics, upon the shoulder, with clasps 
 of a greater or less size. With this ex- 
 ception, however, and that of the round 
 buttons placed along the sleeves, we rare- 
 ly perceive any other ornament upon the 
 Greek tunic. The Dorian tunic was at- 
 tached on the shoulders with buttons, as 
 we observe upon an engraved figure in the 
 1st vol. and 6th pi. of Millin's Monumens 
 InMits, and upon two others at pi. 18. In 
 the border which terminates the tunics of 
 these latter, they have sought to imitate 
 the undulations of the sea. The Dorian 
 tunic was the most ancient vestment in 
 use in Greece, and was always made with- 
 
TUN 
 
 out sleoves; differing, in tliat resi)ect, 
 from tin- lunian tunic, which had them, 
 'J'lic Laccda'iiionians liahituatid llieiiiselves 
 to the use of red tunic*, in time of war, 
 in order that the blood wliich flowed from 
 their wounds mi^^ht be less perceptible 
 both to tiitinselves and their enemies. In 
 remote a^tes, (lie tunic was of wool, and 
 subsequently of flax. It was worn imme- 
 diately over the skin. Those of the weal- 
 thier citizens were generally white, ne- 
 vertheless, other colours were occasionally 
 subt>tituted. The poorer classes, together 
 witli the common soldiers and slaves, had 
 tlicm of a reddish hue. The tunic, fas- 
 tened by the cincture, descended to the 
 knee in the civil habit of men, and even as 
 low as the heels on women. Soldiers and 
 travellers turned it up, so as not to let it 
 incommode their motion by falling below 
 the thigh. 
 
 At first, modest women wore their tunics 
 at the same time so low down and so high 
 up, that it was scarcely possible to per- 
 ceive any thing more than their faces. 
 In i)rocess of time, however, as luxury 
 advanced, and coquetry began to gain 
 ground, they were cut in a freer style, and 
 li;ft both the throat and ancles bare. At a 
 still more recent period jElianus relates 
 that the sleeves were not sewn, but, from 
 the shoulder to the wrist, fastened with 
 gold or silver clasps, in such a manner as 
 that one full side of the tunic rested upon 
 the left shoulder, the other side falling 
 negligently over the superior part of the 
 n't^ht arm. The sleeves of this garment 
 ordinarily descended no lower than the 
 elbow; when they descended so low as 
 the wrists, they were denominated chi- 
 riiloles. 'J'he term of orthosUide was appro- 
 priated to those tunics long and of ample 
 folds which were at the same time quite 
 .straight. See Oin hostadk. This kind 
 of tunic was chielly worn by the come- 
 dians and singers who appeared upon the 
 stage; and this is the reason why Apollo 
 CitharaMles (formerly No. 11)5 of the 
 Alus^'-e Napoluoii) is clothed with it. 
 
 it was at first esteemed a mark of effe- 
 minacy among the hardy I{omans to wear 
 the tunic with sleeves: but manntis hav- 
 ing changed with (lu; reiiublic, towards 
 Ihe decline of the empire the tables were 
 completely turned, ami the thing to be 
 Kcolled at was the tunii- without those aj)- 
 pendages. The principal ornament of the 
 iComaii tunic con-sisled of a jiurple band, 
 more or less large, called clarus, which 
 ran all Ihe way from tin- top of it to (ho 
 Ijiillom, and from whence the tunic took ii 
 j).irli(ular name, W'iMckelniann liaK re- 
 
 TUR 
 
 marked that the tunic, which seems to 
 have done duty as chemise, is seen upon 
 several figures in dislinbilk or sleeping, 
 such as the Flora Farnese, the Amazonian 
 statues of the Capitol, that of Ariadne 
 sleeping, and the beautiful hermajdirodite 
 of the Farnese palace. The youngest of 
 the daughters of Niobe, in that celebrated 
 group, who throws herself upon the bosom 
 of her mother, is clothed simply with the 
 tunic. The same observation applies to 
 the Cassandra, surprised and violated by 
 Ajax, painted upon an elegant Greek vase, 
 belonging to the Duchess Amelia of 
 Weimar, On the greater number of sta- 
 tues, however, as well of busts and bassi 
 rilievi, we perceive no other signs of the 
 tunic except at the neck and breast, the 
 figures being represented either with a 
 mantle or the toga. See Toga. 
 
 As has been observed in speaking of 
 the toga, the tunic received, according to 
 its dili'erent uses or varieties, dillercnt 
 names. Tiie tunica palliolata was one to 
 which was adapted a light cloak or mantle. 
 The tunica pnlmatu was of purple, anil had 
 a band of cloth of gold. This was the ha- 
 biliment of those who received the ho- 
 nours of a triumph, or who presided at 
 the games of tlie circus. The tunica picta 
 was, doubtless, laced with embi'oideries 
 of llowers, &c. as is a figure engraved in 
 Millin's J\Ionnint'ns Inedits, vol. i. pi. 10. 
 It would appear that the tunica recta was 
 so called on account of tliL'ir not putting 
 the cincture over it, but suffering it to 
 flow ojjen and unrestrained. This sort of 
 tunic was bestow ed on enfranchised slaves, 
 together with the robe. The tunic with 
 a single sleeve was reserved for slaves. 
 Nevertheless, on sundry moninneuts, this 
 form of it is given to gods and heroes, and 
 always to those who required a free move- 
 ment of the right arm, in ordi'r to ilraw 
 the bow, such as Diana, the Nymphs and 
 the Amazons, ^c; or to play on the I) re, 
 such as the Muses, ivc. ivc. Seneca si)eaks 
 of the luuica multstii as of a sliiit dauhed 
 over wjtii brimstone, with which they co- 
 vered those criminals condemned to be 
 burnt alive. There are also nnmy other 
 varieties of this garnunl observal)le upon 
 nuinunumts, the peculiar ai>propriations 
 «if which we cannot, at this ilistance of 
 time, clearly understand. 
 
 Ti'NNi:i., IToHuillc, I'v.] In iircliilccluir. 
 A subterranean canal construcleil of ma- 
 sonry for the purpose of conducting the 
 waters of a stream under a road or hill, 
 
 'i'l'KKisii Am iirnicnui;. This stvle as- 
 similates itself, in a great measure, to that 
 of the Saracenic. In their pul)lic build- 
 
TYP 
 
 ings tlicy indulge, above all other things, 
 in a great number of towers and minarets. 
 They employ little art, on the other hand, 
 in the construction of private houses, the 
 lower parts of which are generally of cut 
 stone, and the upper of bricks dried in 
 the sun. The dwellings of the rich are 
 surrounded by a court-yard ; and in the in- 
 terior is often a beautiful hall, paved with 
 marble and adorned with fountains. This 
 hall is ordinarily of the whole height of 
 the building, and surmounted by a small 
 dome. See Architectlre. 
 
 Tl'rquoise. [Fr. ascomingfrom Turkey.] 
 In gem sculpture. The tooth of an animal 
 penetrated with the blue calx of copper: 
 it loses its colour when heated : is opaque 
 and of a lamellar texture, and susceptible 
 of a fine polish. Some species are of a 
 deep blue, some of a whiiisli blue, but 
 which become of a deeper tint when 
 heated. 
 
 The turquoise is the only petrifaction 
 which is submitted to the tool of the graver. 
 Several ancient Egyptian engravings are 
 upon this substance ; and St. Laurentius be- 
 lieves that it is the calla'is of the ancients. 
 Turtle. [Lat. tuitur, so named, pro. 
 bably, from the tones of its voice.] An 
 emblem of constancy and affection often 
 to be met with in works of art, and more 
 particularly upon the tombs of the early 
 Christians. 
 
 Tuscan. See Column, Etruscan, Or- 
 ders of Architecture. 
 
 Tympanum. [Gr. jvniravov, a drum, 
 from rvTTTw, to strike.] The flat surface 
 or space within a pediment. Also a drum. 
 See Tajibour, ^tos, Pediment. 
 
 Type. [Gr. ruTroe, amark.] In numisma- 
 tics. The impression on a coin or medal 
 of any image or figure whatever. A con- 
 siderable number of these relics have no 
 inscription : but it is rare to find them des- 
 titute of a type. In remote times we re- 
 mark, on the reverse of medals, noj^iing 
 but a hole or cavity, for which at a subse- 
 quent period was substituted the type. 
 The most ancient of the Greek medals 
 present no head ; on the contrary, we 
 often find them impressed with entire 
 figures, or with representations of inani- 
 mate objects. The same observation will 
 hold with regard to the Macedonian coins 
 
 T Y P 
 
 of equal antiquity. At length they began 
 to place a head on the obverse, or face, of 
 the medal : that is to say, on autonomous 
 medals, the head of a divinity or a hero ; 
 on royal medals, that of a king or queen ; 
 on imperial ones, that of an emperor, &c. 
 It is not nnfrequent that we find upon 
 ancient coins several heads together, some- 
 times turned from, sometimes towards each 
 other. The representations of the em- 
 perors generally terminated at the breast. 
 See Bust. Sometimes, it is true, although 
 rarely, we find the entire figure of the 
 emperor on his medals ; as in the instance 
 of Trajan on those of Tripolis in Caria, 
 Upon autonomous medals, the reverse 
 usually connects itself with the subject of 
 the obverse : as, for example, if the latter 
 presents the head of some hero or divinity, 
 the former depicts his attributes; as, the 
 thunder for Jupiter, the lyre and the tri- 
 pod for Apollo, &c. The medals of Ro- 
 man families were mostly formed after the 
 same system. 
 
 Several ancient Grecian towns had un- 
 derstood and perpetual types,by which they 
 were uniformly recognised without ac- 
 companying inscriptions. Thus, the head 
 of Pallas, or Minerva, and the owl (esteem- 
 ed an emblem of wisdom) were the types 
 of Athens ; the labyrinth, that of Cnosus, 
 a Cretan city ; the silphium, or buckler of 
 particular form, that of Cyrene ; the rose, 
 that of Rhodes, (Sec. 
 
 The Roman medals offer, together with 
 the head of the emperor, images or types 
 illustrative either of the history of the 
 empire generally, or that of the emperor's 
 family individually : ordinarily, they made 
 more use of allegorical subjects than the 
 Greeks, who confined themselves a great 
 deal to subjects connected with their my- 
 thology. 
 
 Besides the species of type of which we 
 have been treating, others often appear 
 appertaining to the monetarii, or coiners, 
 (see Monetarii) and affixed by them either 
 to enhance the beauty of the design, or to 
 distinguish their several workmanships. 
 Upon the reverse of the money of Attica 
 is the figure of tlie owl, together with a 
 vase : occasionally, likewise, is the ca- 
 duceus, the stag, the figure of victory, &c. 
 See Medals. 
 
 3 B 
 
UND 
 
 UNI 
 
 U. 
 
 Ultramarine. [Lat. ultra beyond, and 
 mitrinits, marine.] In painting. A beau- 
 tiful blue colour used by painters, and 
 prei)ared, by the process of calcination, 
 from Lapis lazuli (which refer to). The 
 genuineness of this article may be proved 
 by submitting it to the following test. Put 
 a portion in an iron vessel, and if, when 
 that has been rendered red-hot, the paint 
 retains its proper hue, it is unexception- 
 able. This exquisite colour has the addi- 
 tional value of being extremely lasting ; 
 perhaps more so than any other blue ever 
 produced. See Azure, Bice, Blue. 
 
 Umber, or Umbre. [Ital. omhrin.] In 
 painting. A kind of dry, dusky-coloured 
 earth, which, diluted with water, serves to 
 make a dark brown colour, usually called 
 with us a hair colour. 
 
 This substance was originally obtained 
 from Ombria, the ancient name of the 
 Duchy of Spoleto, in Italy. It might, 
 however, be found in considerable plenty 
 in England and Ireland, if properly look- 
 ed after, several large masses of it having 
 been thrown up in digging on the Mendip 
 Hills in Somersetshire, and in the county 
 of Wexford in Ireland. It is also some- 
 times extracted from the veins of lead ore, 
 in Derbyshire and Flintshire. 
 
 Umbilicus. [Lat. the navel ; the middle 
 of any thing.] In urcliniology. The books 
 of the ancients were rolled around a staff 
 or lialon, called umlnlicus, which served as 
 an axle to the column or cylinder formed 
 by the roll. Sometimes this tube had only 
 the i)recise length of the manuscript wrap- 
 ped round it; in other instances, it ex- 
 ceeded this, and the extremities were 
 made shapely, and even decorated with 
 littlepiecesof silver, of ivory, occasionally 
 of gold itself, or with precious stones ; 
 and to tJiiu particular ornamented extre- 
 mity of the tube or lialon some authors 
 liiiiit the application of the word itmhiiiais. 
 By (ho Greeks it was denominated op(pa- 
 Xof, 
 
 Uncial. [Lat. uncia, a twelfth.] In «;•- 
 chiiwlogij. Term applied to letters sliiud- 
 iiig (or words in inscriptions and epitaphs. 
 RlanuHcripts written with uncial letters 
 possess from that circumstance a proof of 
 consiili Table age, sinti! these characters 
 have not been in use since the seventh 
 century. See Aiuiiieviation, iNscitinioN. 
 
 UNI)lLATIN(i. See SiNI <)!>;. 
 
 Ungrateful. [Lat. ingratus, from in, a 
 negative in coniposition,and^ra<ia, thanks.] 
 In all the arts. Any subject unfitted by its 
 nature to produce a definite and happy ef- 
 fect in a work of art. Such, for instance, 
 are those of which it is diflicult to obtain 
 a full or sufficient view — in other words, 
 that are either fugitive, too much in mo- 
 tion, or apt to change colour, form, or 
 character. 
 
 Unifor:mity. [Lat. from vnus, one, and 
 forma, form.] In all the arts. Resem- 
 blance of shape, of aim, or of style, be- 
 tween the several parts of a whole, 
 
 Umon. [Lat. from unus, one.] In all the 
 arts. See Agreement, Harmony. 
 
 Unity. [Same derivation.] In all the 
 arts. This quality is essential to all the 
 arts connected with design. Unity of time 
 and of action must ever be maintained in 
 a Composition (which word see), to the 
 end that the thing represented may not 
 appear to exceed the duration of time, &c. 
 intended to be understood. If there should 
 be in a painting several dillerent effects of 
 chiaroscuro introduced, it is necessary that 
 one should always predominate over the 
 remainder. In fact unity of object is, or 
 should be, the great mark for the artist 
 to aim at ; for a divided attention is always 
 painfully on the stretch: and when two 
 objects occupy us in the same performance, 
 it is an obvious deduction that the artist 
 doubts the power of either, exclusively, 
 to fix the regard of his spectators. 
 
 When an architect is charged with the 
 construction of an edifice, his first care 
 should be to obtain a clear and definite 
 knowledge of its nature and destination : 
 this done, he is enabled to invent and 
 arrange the different parts in such a man- 
 ner as that their tout ensemble shall display 
 u building exactly applicable to the pur- 
 poses sought to lie adniini.-tercd to. This 
 precision of character and design cannot 
 perhaps be at all times attained : in this 
 case, it will depend mainly on the taste 
 and experience of the artitt to fill up the 
 deficiency; but, at all e\enls, whatever 
 plan he may decide on adopting, that plan 
 must be kept constantly in view, or the 
 result, instead of being harmonious and 
 beautiful, will turn out to be incongruous 
 and unsightly. 
 
 I'NivEitsnv. \Ia\\. uniiersus,i\u' whole, 
 in allusion perliaps to the comprehensive 
 
UNI 
 
 nature of tlie studies practised therein.] 
 In architecture. The name of a mass of 
 buildings erected for the education of 
 youth in tile liberal arts and sciences, such 
 as have studied therein being admitted to 
 certain degrees in different faculties. Uni- 
 versities generally comprehend within 
 their mass one or more Colleges (see 
 Cou,ege); but it must not be held that 
 this is uniformly the case. The Scottish 
 university of St. Andrew's was in ex- 
 istence before either of its colleges was 
 founded, and it would so continue though 
 both its colleges were leveled with the 
 dust. 
 
 Universities, in their present form, and 
 with their present privileges, are institu- 
 tions comparatively modern. They sprang 
 from the convents of regular clergy, or 
 from the chapters of cathedrals in the 
 church of Rome, where young men were 
 educated for holy orders, in that benighted 
 period Avhen the little learning left in 
 England was wholly in the hands of the 
 monks. These convents were probably se- 
 minaries of leai-ningfrom their original in- 
 stitution : and we know with certainty that 
 in Old Aberdeen there was a monastery 
 in which youth were instructed in theo- 
 logy and other sciences at least two cen- 
 turies before the University and King's 
 College were founded. The same was no 
 doubt the case with respect to Oxford and 
 Cambridge, and probably with respect to 
 every town in Europe which now pos- 
 sesses a university having any claim to 
 be called old ; for it was not till the 
 more eminent of the laity began to per- 
 ceive the importance of literature and 
 science that universities distinct from con- 
 vents were founded, with the privilege of 
 admitting to degrees, which conferred 
 some rank in civil society. These univer- 
 sities have been long regarded as lay cor- 
 porations; but as a proof that they had 
 the ecclesiastical origin which we have 
 assigned to them, it will be sufficient to 
 observe, that the pope arrogated to himself 
 the right of vesting them with all their 
 distinctions ; and that, prior to the re- 
 formation, every university in Europe 
 conferred its degrees in all the faculties 
 by authority derived from a papal bull. 
 
 It appears to the writer of this article 
 extremely probable that the church of 
 Rome derived her idea of academical ho- 
 nours from the Jews, among whom lite- 
 rary distinctions very similar subsisted 
 before the nativity of our Saviour. Amongst 
 them, the young student, with respect to 
 his learning, was called a disciple; from 
 his minority, a j?«»or; and the chosen, or 
 
 URN 
 
 elected, on account of his election into the 
 number of disciples. 
 
 The most ancient universities in Europe 
 are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, 
 Salamanca, and Bologna : and in the two 
 first-mentioned, the earliest founded col- 
 leges are those of University, Baliol, and 
 Merton, in the former ; and that of i^^ Pe- 
 ter in the latter. Oxford and Cambridge, 
 however, were universities, or, as they 
 were then called Studies, some hundreds 
 of years before colleges or schools were 
 built in them : for the former flourished 
 as a seminary of learning in the reign of 
 yVlfred the Great; and the other, if we 
 are to believe its partisans, still earlier. 
 The universities of Scotland are four: 
 St. Andrew's, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and 
 Edinburgh. In Ireland, there is but one 
 university ; namely, that of Dublin, found- 
 ed by Queen Elizabeth, and very richly 
 endowed. 
 
 Universality. [Same derivation.] In 
 painting. This quality, though impossible, 
 strictly speaking, to be attained by any 
 individual, should in a modified sense be 
 acquired by the artist who enters for fame 
 in the hazardous lists of historical paint- 
 ing. According to the subject which he 
 has to treat, it is requisite that he should 
 know well how to represent both land- 
 scape and architecture. He will occa- 
 sionally find himself obliged to introduce 
 the figures of horses, dogs, tigers, lions, 
 serpents, &c. Wai'like arms, utensils de- 
 voted to saci'ed ceremonies whether an- 
 cient or modern, groups of cattle, human 
 figures — in short, almost eveiy object 
 which is susceptible of exhibition on can- 
 vas may be regarded as likely to fall in 
 his way, and to demand a faithful deli- 
 neation. The ancient artists, it is true, 
 mostly disclaimed this universaliti/ ; with 
 them the sole object frequently was, to 
 paint with exactness and expression the 
 human form : but modern art has exploded 
 their exclusive system ; and requires at the 
 hand of the painter of history an acquaint- 
 ance with the extensive range to which 
 we have alluded. 
 
 Urn. [Lat. urna.'] In modelling, sculp- 
 ture, &c. A species of vase of a roundish 
 form, but largest in the middle, destined, 
 among the ancients, to receive and en- 
 close the ashes of the dead ; which desti- 
 nation its name, in fact, sufl[iciently indi- 
 cates, — the Latin word urna, or urnula, 
 beingmostprobably a derivative of theverb 
 urcre, to burn. It is curious to remark that 
 the Romans often made use of Grecian 
 vases, obtained by them in various ways, 
 for this purpose, as is evident from those 
 3 E ■.' 
 
IJST 
 
 fouml in llie tombs in tiie vicinity of Na- 
 jdi's, which contain both bones and ashes. 
 See Vase. 
 
 Urns are commonly met with in almost 
 all collections of antiquities, and Mout- 
 faucon, in particular, has drawn and en- 
 graved a (jrcat number of tiiem. In i\Iil- 
 lin's Mmiumins Iiiidits, vol. i. plates 3 and 
 20, two are published, extracted from the 
 interesting and comprehensive collection 
 of INI. Van-Hoorn. 
 
 The substances employed in the con- 
 struction of these vessels are numerous. 
 Amongst them are gold, bronze, glass, 
 terra-cotta, marble, and porphyry. They 
 were madt; of all manner of shapes and 
 sizes : some had smooth surfaces, others 
 were enf^raved in Ixisso rilievo. Many 
 have been discovered bearing inscriptions 
 on labels (see Insci{iption); others with 
 the name only of the party to whose re- 
 mains they were devoted. Several have 
 no other character than the two letters, D. 
 M. DUs Manibus (To the Shadowy Dei- 
 ties). Others, again, present nothing more 
 than the name of the artist by whom they 
 were wrought, written either on the handle 
 or at (he bottom. 
 
 The Egyptians sometimes enclosed in 
 urns their sacred birds, having first had 
 tliem embalmed. These urns were gene- 
 rally covered with hieroglyphics (see 
 Mummy). The Romans were in the habit 
 of applying the same term to certain vases 
 destined to receive sudrages in elections. 
 Little vessels have also occasionally been 
 found in ancient tombs, denominated lacnj- 
 mul vrns. See Lackymatoky; and refer 
 likewise to Osslaimim and Cinerarum. 
 
 Usage. [Fr. from Lat. m<oc, to use.] In 
 all Ihe arts. We have already, in our 
 articles Costume and Manners, made 
 some observations on the absolute neces- 
 sity the artist is under of rendering him- 
 self familiar with the modes, customs, and 
 usages of diflVrent periods and nations, 
 bolh ancient and modern. As far as the 
 former great era of time is concerned, the 
 only guides for the student are the de- 
 h<:ri|.(i()ns in the classics, and (he spcci- 
 nuiis on the nionumcnls of art which have 
 reached our day. 
 
 UsTRiNA. [Lat. from iiro, to burn.] In 
 itnhniologii. The place where dead bodies 
 were burned. At |{(iino, the Cnmpus Mar- 
 liii.i was appropriated for this purpose, to 
 the wealthy, and the /iw/K/'/m to the poorer 
 classes. 'Ihcrc were, besides this, private 
 iislrinw devoted to tin- families of the 
 Kreul. 
 
 UTE 
 
 UxENSiii!. [Fr. u.stcnsile, from Lat. titor, 
 to use.] In aicliaiolvgy. A people gifted 
 with so beautiful and pure a taste as the 
 Greeks, who had eyes constantly accus- 
 tomed to the exhibition of fine forms, 
 such, for instance, as their architectural 
 structures, and sculptures, may fairly be 
 regarded as equally tasteful and elegant 
 in their household furniture, and still 
 more particularly in the vessels appro- 
 priated by them to purposes connected 
 with their mythology. The fact is, that 
 these minor displays of elegance kept full 
 pace with the progress of the other arts. 
 In proportion as luxury and magnificence 
 were multiplied amongst this fine people, 
 the greater was the richness and beauty of 
 their household implements and utensils. 
 It would appear, indeed, that even from 
 the period of the siege of Troy, or perhaps, 
 to speak more soberly, from the age of 
 Homer, wealthy and distinguished per- 
 sonages amongst the Greeks already pos- 
 sessed precious utensils and articles of 
 furniture, which however were seldom 
 used except on public and solemn occa- 
 sions: but, as was before observed, as 
 opulence and power increased, this re- 
 serve was thrown ofl", and the augmented 
 means were shoAvn in every variety of 
 way. 
 
 lu receiving the arts of refined life from 
 the Greeks, the Romans received, at the 
 same time, their spirit of n)agnificence and 
 luxury, and outrivalled in these ornamen- 
 tal matters their masters themselves. In- 
 deed to such an extent did the love of 
 pomp and finery prevail, that it was often 
 gratified to the exclusion and sacrifice of 
 real taste and beauty. 
 
 All which ancient authors have reported 
 on this subject combines in testifying the 
 great number, the extreme variety, the 
 costly materials of the ditFerent utensils 
 then in vogue : and most of those relics of 
 the kind which have been preserved for 
 the contemplation of the moderns exhibit, 
 in a striking degree, the beautiful harmony 
 and [iroportion, together with the exqui- 
 site tiiiish, to bo found (and there only to 
 be found), amongst the works of those ac- 
 complished artists. 
 
 In various parts of our Dictionary the 
 reader will lind particular mention of se- 
 veral of the most conspicuous of these 
 ornamental articles. For example, he is 
 referred to Candei.auri'M, TRiti.iMtM, 
 Lasip, Vase, Urn, Tuu'od, &c. 
 
VAP 
 
 VAR 
 
 Vallum Hadriani. [Lat. Hadrian's 
 bulwark.] In architecture. A wall de- 
 fended with towers built by the Emperor 
 Hadrian, during the Roman possession of 
 Britain, to preserve the inhabitants of the 
 country from the incursions of the northern 
 barbarians. It stretched along the whole 
 breadth of the island, that is, from the 
 river Tyne to the Sohvay frith. This for- 
 midable barrier was fifteen feet high, and 
 in some places nine broad ; was about a 
 hundred miles long, and flanked by towers 
 at regular distances ; and along its shel- 
 tering range were constructed numerous 
 towns and villas. The Britons denomi- 
 nated it the Pictish wall. 
 
 The Vallum Agricol.e was erected to- 
 wards the north of Britain by Julius Agri- 
 cola, father-in-law of Tacitus, the histo- 
 rian, and governor of Great Britain under 
 the Emperor Vespasian. A similar bar- 
 rier had also been constructed, denomi- 
 nated vallum Antonini Pii, to arrest the in- 
 vasions of the Scots. Its position is not 
 now distinctly known. Besides those, 
 was the vallum Severi, a wall which 
 stretched from one sea to another, between 
 the gulfs of Glotta and Bodotria, at this 
 day denominated the Clyde and the Forth. 
 To conclude, vallum or muris Stilicinis, 
 was thrown up by that general from the 
 river-mouth of the Derwent to that of the 
 Elme, against the Scots descending in that 
 quarter. 
 
 Vapours. [Lat. vapor.'] In painting. 
 Watery emanations uprising either from the 
 earth or from the surface of aqueous bodies. 
 These vapours, which are denominated 
 terrestrial, exhale continually, sometimes 
 of a greater, sometimes of a lesser consist- 
 ency. They rise only to a certain height, 
 and that without quitting the earth, on 
 which they rest as on a base. These oc- 
 casion in colours an alteration so much 
 the more strong inasmuch as their inter- 
 mediate quantity is more or less augmented 
 by the distance of the coloured object. 
 They receive light, also, in various de- 
 grees and by various means ; and as they 
 are diaphanous, they transmit to all sur- 
 rounding objects the luminous rays with 
 which they themselves are invested ; thus 
 altering the purity of local colours, and 
 establishing throughout a sort of aerial 
 harmony. Before the rising of the sun, 
 vapours are only lighted by the celestial 
 
 vault, in the bluish tint of which they will 
 be seen to participate. But on the up- 
 springing of that glorious luminary, their 
 hue alters, and becomes more warm and 
 glowing. As the sun advances in height 
 and strength, the vapours, more and 
 more penetrated by his efiulgence, ex- 
 pand and consequently lose their density, 
 thus becoming less and less sensible : 
 whilst, on his decline, they again thicken, 
 and often inflame or redden in the lustre 
 of evening. Twilight is in fact consti- 
 tuted of vapour. 
 
 The painter cannot dispense with study- 
 ing the phenomena of vapours, their dif- 
 ferent degrees of density, their local co- 
 lours, &c. He should observe that these 
 exhalations are more abundant in humid 
 or marshy situations, than on the summits 
 where, when they have been drawn thi- 
 ther, they resolve themselves into clouds. 
 Aerial vapours are least sensible when not 
 invested with light. The moon exhibits 
 them feebly : the dawn and the twilight 
 a little stronger : but the sun himself is 
 their great developer. The interposition 
 of vapour between the eye and any colour- 
 ed object more or less modifies that colour ; 
 and it will be obvious to every reader that 
 daylight, moonlight, and firelight all oc- 
 casionally wear strange unnatural appear- 
 ances, which are to be attributed to the 
 influence of these exhalations. 
 
 For further observations on this inter- 
 esting subject, the student is referred to 
 the excellent work of M. Valenciennes 
 Sur la Perspective, from which the present 
 article has been extracted. 
 
 Varnish. [Fr. vernis, from Lat. vernix, 
 from ver, the Spring — when the gum ap- 
 pears on the trees.] In painting; &c. A 
 clear limpid fluid, capable of hardening 
 without losing its transparency, used by 
 painters, gilders, &c. to give a lustre to 
 their works, to preserve them and defend 
 them from the air. 
 
 A coat of varnish ought to possess the 
 following properties : — 1. It must exclude 
 the action of the air; because wood and 
 metals are varnished to defend them from 
 decay and rust. 2. It must resist water; 
 for otiierwise the effect of the varnish 
 could not be permanent. 3. It ought not 
 to alter such colours as are intended to be 
 preserved by this means. It is necessary 
 therefore that a varnish should be easily 
 
VARNISH. 
 
 extended or spread over the surface, with- 
 out leaving pores or cavities ; that it should 
 not crack or scale ; and that it should re- 
 sist water. Now resins are tiic only bo- 
 dies that possess these properties. Resins 
 consequently must be used as the bases of with a little rectified spirit of wine affords 
 
 is again and again washed over with the 
 varnish till the colour appears sufficiently 
 deep. AVhat is called gilt leather, and 
 many picture frames, have no other thau 
 this counterfeit gilding. Washing them 
 
 varnish. The question which of course 
 presents itself must then be, how to dis- 
 pose them for this use ? and for tins pur- 
 pose they must be dissolved, as minutely 
 divided as possible, and combined in such 
 a manner that the inipeiftctions of those 
 which might be disposed to scale may be 
 corrected by others. 
 
 Resins may be dissolved by three agents. 
 1. By fixed oil. 2. By volatile oil. 3. By 
 alcohol. And accordingly we have three 
 kinds of varnish : the fat or oily varnish, 
 essential varnish, and spirit varnish. Be- 
 fore a resin is dissolved in a fixed oil, it is 
 necessary to render the oil drying. For 
 this purpose the oil is boiled with riietallic 
 oxides ; in which operation the mucilage of 
 the oil combines with the metal, while the 
 oil itself unites with the oxigene of the 
 oxide. To accelerate the drying of this 
 varnish, it is necessary to add oil of turpen- 
 tine. The essential varnishes consist of a 
 solution of resin in oil of turpentine. The 
 varnish being applied, the essential oil 
 flies off, and leaves t!ie resin. This is used 
 only for paintings. When resins are dis- 
 solved in alcohol, the varnish dries very 
 speedily, and is subject to crack ; but this 
 fault is corrected by adding a small quan- 
 tity of turpentine to the mixture, which 
 renders it brighter, and less brittle when 
 dry. 
 
 (iuld coloured Varnish. — Pound sepa- 
 rately four ounces of stick lac, four ounces 
 of gamboge, four ounces of dragon's blood, 
 four ounces of anotta, and one ounce of 
 saffron : put each of them separately into 
 a quart of alcohol, and expose them for 
 five days in a narrow-mouthed bottle to 
 the sun, or keep them during tliat time in 
 a very warm room, shaking them every 
 now and then to hasten the solution. When 
 they are all melted, mix them together. 
 INlore or less of eacli of these ingredienis 
 will give the different tints of gold accord- 
 ing as they are combined. In order to 
 make silver imitate gold exactly when co- 
 vered witli tills varnish, the quantity of 
 ingredients must fje sonujwhat greater. 
 Thcnu'thodof gilding silver-leaf, &c. with 
 this varnisii is as follows: The silver-leaf 
 l)eing fixed on Ih,- hubjeel, in the same 
 manner as gold leaf, by tiie interpositiim 
 of proper glutinous matters, the varnish is 
 spread upon the jjiece with a brush or 
 ixiicil. The first coal being dry the piece 
 
 a proof of this; the spirit dissolving the 
 varnish, and leaving the silver-leaf of its 
 own whiteness. For plain frames, thick 
 tin-foil may be tised instead of silver. The 
 tin-leaf fixed on the piece with glue, is to 
 be burnished, then polished with emery 
 and a fine linen cloth, and afterwards with 
 putty ajjplied in the same manner : being 
 then lacquered over with the varnish five 
 or six times, it looks very nearly like bur- 
 nished gold. The same varnish, made 
 with a less proportion of the colouring 
 materials, is applied also on works of 
 brass ; both for heightening the colour of 
 the metal to a resemblance with that of 
 gold, and for preserving it from being tar- 
 nished or corroded by the air. 
 
 Oil Varnishes. — Gum copal and amber 
 are the substances principally employed 
 in oil varnishes; they possess the proper- 
 ties necessary for varnishes, solidity, and 
 transparency. — The copal being whitish, 
 is used for varnishing light, the amber for 
 dark colours. It is best to dissolve them 
 before mixing them with the oil, because 
 by this means they are in less danger of 
 being scorched, and at the same time the 
 varnish is more beautiful. They should 
 be melted in a pot on the fire ; they are in 
 a proper state for receiving the oil when 
 they give no resistance to the iron spatula, 
 and when they run off from it drop by 
 drop. The oil employed should be a dry- 
 ing oil, and perfectly free from grease. It 
 should be poured into the copal or amber 
 by little and little, constantly stirring the 
 ingredients at the same time with the 
 spatula. When the oil is well mixed with 
 the copal or amber, take it off the fire ; 
 and when it is pretty cool, pour in a 
 greater quantity of the essence of turpen- 
 tine than the oil that was used. After 
 the varnish is made, it should be passed 
 through a linen cloth. Oil \arnishes be- 
 come thick by keeping; but when they 
 are to be used, it is only necessary to i)our 
 in a little essence of turpentine, and to 
 put them for a little on the fire. The tur- 
 pentine is necessary in oil varnishes to 
 make them dry properly ; gciu'rally twice 
 as much of it is used as of oil. Less is 
 necessary in sununer than in winter. 'J'oo 
 nuich oil hinders the varnisii from drying; 
 but \\hcn too little is used, it cracks aiul 
 does not spread properly. We shall sub- 
 join the most useful oil varnishes: 
 
VAll 
 
 IV kite Copal Varnish.— On sixteen 
 ounces of luelted copal pour four, six, or 
 eight ounces of linseed oil, boiled and 
 quite free from grease. When they are 
 well mixed, take them oft" the fire (not 
 forgetting to stir them properly); and 
 wlien pretty cool, pour in sixteen ounces 
 of the essence of Venice turpentine. Pass 
 the varnish through a cloth. — Amber var- 
 nish is made in the same way. 
 
 Essential Oil Varnishes. — The only essen- 
 tial oil varnishes used are, as has been ob- 
 served, for pictures. Picture varnishes 
 should be white, light, and quite transpa- 
 rent, which will preserve the colours with- 
 out giving them any disagreeable tint; 
 and it should be possible to take them oft" 
 the picture without injuring it. They are 
 usually made of gum mastich and turpen- 
 tine dissolved together in some essential 
 oil. The tarnish is passed through a 
 clotii, and allowed to clarifj-. It is ap- 
 plied cold to the picture. 
 
 Varnishes before they are used should 
 be carefully kept from dust, which would 
 spoil them ; and they should be kept in a 
 vessel quite clean and dry. When used, 
 they should be lifted lightly with tlie 
 brush, and spread upon a ground altoge- 
 ther free from dirt and moisture. The 
 substance, after being varnished, should 
 be exposed to the heat of the sun, or 
 placed in a warm room covered with a 
 glass case, to keep out all filth. Oil var- 
 nishes require more heat than alcohol var- 
 nishes. The varnish should be put on 
 very quickly, making great strokes with 
 the pencil or brush, taking care that these 
 strokes never cross one another ; it should 
 be spread equally, and never thicker than 
 a leaf of paper; a second coat should not 
 be put on till the first is quite dry. If the 
 varnish, after being put on, becomes dull 
 and uneven, it must be taken oft" entirely 
 and new varnish put on. 
 
 Varnishes are polished with pumice- 
 stone and tripoli earth. The pumice-stone 
 must be reduced to an impalpable powder, 
 and put upon a piece of serge moistened 
 with water; with this the varnished sub- 
 stance is to be rubbed liglitly and equally. 
 The tripoli must also be reduced to a very 
 fine powder, and put upon a clean woollen 
 cloth moistened with olive oil, with which 
 the polishing is to be performed. The 
 varnish is then to be wiped with soft 
 linen, and, when quite dry, cleaned with 
 starch or Spanish white, and rubbed with 
 the palm of the hand or with a linen 
 cloth. 
 
 To recover colours or varnish, and to 
 
 MSH. 
 
 take oft' the dirt and filtii which may ad- 
 here to them, a ley is used made of potash 
 and the ashes of lees of wine. 
 
 The Chinese varnish is not a composi- 
 tion, but a resia which exudes from a tree 
 called in China tsi-chu, " varnisli-troe." 
 This tree grows in several provinces of 
 the southern parts of China. They do not 
 procure varnish from the tsi-chu until its 
 trunk is nearly five inches in diameter, 
 which size it seldom attains to before 
 seven or eight years. Varnish extracted 
 from a tree smaller or of less age would 
 not have the same body and splendour. 
 This liquor distils only in the nighttime, 
 and during the summer season. To cause 
 the gum to fiovv, they make several rows 
 of incisions round the trunk, the number 
 of which is proportioned to the vigour of 
 the tree. The first row is seven inches 
 from the earth, and the rest are at tlie same 
 distance one from the other, and continue 
 to the top of the trunk, and even some- 
 times on the boughs which are of sufficient 
 strength and size. The Chinese use a 
 crooked iron for making these incisions, 
 which must nm a little obliquely, and be 
 equal in depth to the thickness of the 
 bark ; they make them with one hand, 
 and with the other hold a shell, the 
 edges of which they insert into the open- 
 ing, where it remains without any sup- 
 port. These incisions are made towards 
 evening, and next morning they collect 
 the varnish which has fallen into the 
 shells; the following evening they are 
 again inserted, and this operation is con- 
 tinued until the end of summei". A thou- 
 sand trees yield almost in one night twenty 
 pounds of varnish. 
 
 While the varnish distils, it exhales a 
 malignant vapour, the bad efi"ects of which 
 can only be prevented by preservatives 
 and great precaution. 
 
 Varnish, among medalists, is the term 
 used to signify those hues which antique 
 medals have acquired by lying in the 
 earth. The beauty which nature alone is 
 able to impart to medals, and which art 
 has never yet attained the power of coun- 
 terfeiting, enhances their value. Tlie co- 
 lours acquired by certain metals from hav- 
 ing lain a long while in the ground are 
 various, and some of them exquisitely 
 beautiful. The blue nearly rivals that of 
 the turquoise ; others have an inimitable 
 vermilion colour ; others, again, a polish- 
 ed shining brown. But that most usually 
 found is a delicate green, which hangs to 
 the finest strokes without eff'acing them 
 more accurately than the finest enamel 
 
V A S 
 
 docs on medals. No metal except brass 
 is susccptjljli; of tliis : the preen rust which 
 gathers on silver always spoils it, ttud must 
 be removed with vinegar or lemon juice. 
 See Prcscnatiun of Medalu, in Mi:d.u„s. 
 
 Falsiliers of medals hu\e a varnish 
 which they use on their counterfeits to give 
 them the appearance of being antique. 
 J$ut there are means of discovering these 
 deceptions. See Patina. 
 
 Vascllaril's. [Lat.] Inarchaiolvgy. An 
 artist employed in the fabrication of vases, 
 without any ornaments in rilievo. 
 
 Vase, [vas, Lat.] In imnhlling, sculpture, 
 &c. The Grecian artists took care to give 
 to every vase, or other utensil, that shape 
 which appeared best adapted to its des- 
 tined use, and at the same time most 
 agreeable to the eye. Sometimes they 
 took the parallelipipedon for a vase, be- 
 cause the eye was thought most easily 
 to accommodate itself to that form. In 
 other instances, they adopted a shape 
 either circular or slightly curved, to pre- 
 vent the eye from being intercepted by 
 angles or corners. These shapes admitted, 
 at the same time, of greater variety, not- 
 withstanding which however its primitive 
 character was always ])crceived, how nu- 
 merous soever might be the ornaments 
 with which the vessel was charged. It 
 was only in times subsequent to the de- 
 cline of the arts that these simple contours 
 were departed from, and the pyramidal 
 or angular figure substituted. 
 
 Tli(! ancients did not always estimate 
 the value of a vase according to the price 
 of the substance composing it. Sometimes, 
 even, vases of simple terra-cotta or of 
 stone, and more i)avlicularly of any matter 
 jiot commonly so appropriated, were pre- 
 ferred to others of gold or silver. At the 
 same time, si)ealviMg generally, very rich 
 and precious subsfances were employed 
 by those wlio could afford such profusion. 
 Vases were frequently set u]) as jirizes 
 in the public games. It is upon this ac- 
 count that upon medals, and other monu- 
 ments relating to these lestivities, we often 
 Bee vases adornetl with palm-branches. 
 
 A vast number of these vessels have 
 ))oen preserved to the present day ; and 
 these curious relics become of great im- 
 portance to us, not only because they 
 make ns specilically ac(iuaint<(l with an- 
 cient art, but alrto inasmuili ;is they oiler 
 lo our own artists models of the most 
 beautiful forms, and of the cure with which 
 their execution nunlit lo be acconipanieil. 
 It is indeed to tin- study and conteniphi- 
 linn of these be.iulil'iil examples that wc- 
 
 VAS 
 
 may fairly attribute the improvements lat- 
 terly exi)erienced in taste for the fine arts 
 generally, and in perception of the truly 
 graceful and elegant. 
 
 Of all the works in this department of 
 Grecian art which liave conie<lown to our 
 times, there are none so richly meriting at- 
 tention as the ancient vases in terra-cotta 
 so long and universally, but so improperly 
 designated as Efrttscan. They have been 
 thus denominated from the circumstance 
 of their original describers (Montfaucon, 
 Dempster, Gori, Passeri, Caylus, and 
 D'Hancarville) having regarded them as 
 monuments of Etruscan art. But the fact 
 is, that the greater number of these vases 
 was not found in Etruria. It is to the 
 sepulchres of Nola, of Capua, of Santa 
 Agatha, 6cc. as well as to ditlerent cities 
 of Grcccia Magna, that we are indebted 
 for the largest and finest collections. 
 The Athenian tombs have also furnish- 
 ed many. Our celebrated countryman, 
 Hawkins, brought several away w ith 
 him, which he had discov ered in sundry 
 Grecian towns. These vases, then, are 
 by no means to be held peculiar to Etru- 
 ria; and Mr. Hamilton is correct in de- 
 signating them, as he has done in one of 
 his prefaces, emphatically Grecian. 
 
 The tombs, or sepulchres in which this 
 exquisite class of vases were commonly 
 found, were situated near the walls of 
 towns, and were of small depth, if we ex- 
 cept those of Nola,where volcanic eruptions 
 had considerably raised the ground since 
 the tombs were first constructed, so' that, 
 in some instances, they were sunk twenty - 
 six palms below the surface of the earth. 
 The tombs are ordinarily built of brick or 
 rough stone, and have just sullicient size 
 to admit the body, with some live or six 
 vases round it, more frequently on the right 
 than on the left si<lc. The number, size, 
 und beauty of these vases varied, doubt- 
 less, according to the rank of the party 
 inhumed. 
 
 The paintings of these ancient Greek 
 vases are extremely interesting; not only 
 on account of the subjects represented, 
 but also on account of the beauty of the 
 workmanshij). The anticpiary and the 
 artist are alike fascinated by their study. 
 The subjects most frequently to be 
 found are sacrifices, processions, and re- 
 presentations which bear relation to the 
 mysteries of IJacchus or ("eres. 'J'her*- 
 are occasionally, but not so often, exhibi- 
 tiiuis of family feasts or of public games. 
 Sometimes also Ihi- mythics of the heroic 
 ages (see Mythic Ciuclk) are introduced. 
 
The drawing of the figures approaches to 
 perfection. Justness and purity are com- 
 bined with freedom and grace. The Com- 
 position (see tluit word) is simple ; often 
 we see nothing but single figures placed 
 one beside another; but the position of 
 these is always noble, and groups are dis- 
 played with the utmost skill and effect. 
 
 In the 1st vol. of the 2d Collection of 
 Hamilton's Vases, published by Tischbein, 
 Mr. Hamilton thus expresses his opinion 
 of the process w' hich the ancient masters 
 adopted in painting these vases. He 
 thinks that, with respect to those vases 
 wliereon yellow figures are engraven on a 
 black ground, the figures had been first 
 cut out in some flexible matter similar 
 perhaps to our paper, and subsequently 
 applied on the vase ; that afterwards tlie 
 other parts of the surface of the vase were 
 covered with a black varnish, which when 
 the substance of the figures in question 
 was taken away, was likewise applied 
 to the outlines of those figures, which of 
 course themselves remained in the natural 
 colour of the vase. This opinion however, 
 he seems to have afterwards renounced, in 
 favour of another which presumes the de- 
 signs to have been traced with a pointed 
 instrument on the earth of the vase itself, 
 while yet soft. 
 
 Thericlean Vases were, no doubt, such as 
 were made use of to drink from on festive 
 occasions. 
 
 As to the vases of the theatre, their theoiy 
 and construction are to the moderns en- 
 tirely unknown: but to investigation, their 
 history is nevertheless curious: all we 
 know of them is what Vitruvius reports, 
 which is as follows : " Of the brazen vases, 
 which are used on account of the magni- 
 tude of theatres, they are so formed, that 
 upon being struck, they sound in them- 
 selves the notes diatessnroii, diapente, and 
 so in order to disdiapason ; after which 
 they are disposed, according to the laws of 
 music, in cells, formed within the seats of 
 tJie theatre in such a manner, as not to 
 touch the wall, and have a vacancy all 
 round them, to the top of the cell. They 
 are situated inversely, and on the side 
 which is turned toward the scene; they 
 are supported by wedges, not less than 
 half a foot high; also opposite the cells, 
 in the beds of the lower seats, apertures 
 are left, two feet long, and half a foot high. 
 Rome has not any theatre thus construct- 
 ed ; but the provinces of Italy, and many 
 cities of Greece, can show them. Lucius 
 Mummius, who destroyed the theatre of 
 Corinth, brought to Rome the vases of 
 brass ; and which were used at the plays 
 
 VASE. 
 
 acted in his triumph : likewise many in- 
 genious architects, who construct theatres 
 in small towns, to save expense, make use 
 of earthen vessels to help the sound, whicli 
 being adjusted according to rule, answer 
 the purpose." 
 
 Sometimes inscriptions have been found 
 upon the Greek vases, but rarely the 
 name of the artist by whom the painting 
 is executed (See Epoesi). In the 2d vol. 
 of Milun's Monumens InMits, will be 
 found a vase upon which may be read the 
 name of the artist Taleides, Occasionally 
 the name of the person to whom the vessel 
 was offered is inscribed with the addition 
 of the word icaXbc. See Kalos. 
 
 We possess three works more particu- 
 larly devoted to the examination and his- 
 tory of Grecian vases. These arc: — Pic- 
 turai Etruscorum in Vasciilis, by Passehi, 
 Rome, 1767 and 1770, 4 vols, folio. The 
 figures, as represented in this work, how- 
 ever, by no means equal the beauty of 
 the originals. D'Hancarville, at a later 
 period, published the vases of Hamilton's 
 first collection under the following title; — 
 Etruscan, Grecian, and Roman Antiquities, 
 draivn from the Cabinet of Haj^iilto^, Na- 
 l)les, 1768, 4 vols. fol. This publication 
 does not always render the originals with 
 sufficient fidelity: besides which ground 
 of complaint, another still more consider- 
 able is, that the subjects painted upon 
 the same vase are often dispersed over 
 various plates in different parts of the 
 same volume, and occasionally even of 
 different volumes ; whilst the explanations 
 are never to be found at the same place as 
 
 the engravings. 
 
 Mr. Hamilton having disposed of his 
 first collection, which was transferred to 
 the British Museum, set about forming a 
 second, which is the one published by 
 Tischbein. This work does nut gi-\ e co- 
 loured prints, but contents itself with pre- 
 senting simple outlines of the paintings, 
 which it seems not unfrequently to embel- 
 lish. M. Italinsky digested the explana- 
 tions to this performance, which appeared 
 in 4 vols, at Naples, in the year 1791, thus 
 entitled : — Collection of E7igravings after 
 antique Vases, the greater part of Grecian 
 workmanship, and found in Tombs in the 
 Kingdom of the Ttvo Sicilies, but pi-incipallif 
 in the Environs of Naples, during the Years 
 1789 and 1790; dratcn from the Cabinet of 
 the Chevalier Hamilton, published by G. 
 Tischbein, Direct, of the Royal Academy of 
 Painting at Naples. 
 
 Grecian vases are likewise to be found 
 in almost every collection of any ancient 
 monuments. Dempster has presented 
 
VEI 
 
 Bomn iu his Etruria Regalis ; Montfal- 
 coN, in liis Antiquiti Expliqude; Wikckei.- 
 MAN.N, ill his Monumniti Iniditi; Cavlls, 
 in Ills RccHcil d'AntiqititLS ; and, to con- 
 clude, MiLLiN, in his Moiiuinetis Antiques 
 Jncdits. See Lamp, Patera, Tomb, Ukn, 
 &c. 
 
 Vai LT, [Ital. voKo, Fr. route.] In avcki- 
 tecturc. An arched roof, so contrived tiiat 
 the stones which form it sustain each 
 other. Vaults are on many occasions to 
 be preferred to sofiits or flat cielings, as 
 they give a greater height and elevation, 
 and are besides more firm and durable. 
 
 Tlie art of constructing vaults does not 
 appear to Iiave been known to the people 
 who, anteriorly to the Greeks, were ac- 
 customed to the exercise of architecture ; 
 at least, we find no examples of them in 
 the ruins of Indian or Egyptiiin edifices. 
 The Greeks, therefore, may perhaps be 
 regarded as the inventors of vaults; but 
 at the same time it is obvious that this spe- 
 cies of building was understood among 
 them very early, and it is possible might 
 have been adopted from some more pri- 
 meval people. The cloaca, or common 
 sewers of Rome were built by Etruscan 
 architects (according to tradition) under 
 the directions of Tarquin the Elder. The 
 Museum Etruscum of Gori (1st vol. diss. 1, 
 chap. 5) may be consulted with advantage 
 as to the ancient construction of vaults, 
 and any elementary work on Architec- 
 TtRE (see the list at the end of that arti- 
 cle) will aflord the student practical infor- 
 niation. 
 
 Vehicle. [Lai. rchiculum, from veho, to 
 cany.] In archaiologij. See Car. 
 
 Veil. [Lat. velum, from velo, wliich 
 from tlXUo, to surround or envelop.] In 
 archnioloKij. A piece of stuft" serving to 
 cover either the entire head, or the coun- 
 tenance. It was worn in a variety of 
 ways by the ancients, and is often intro- 
 duced upon statues. The reader is re- 
 ferred for a quantity of curious informa- 
 tion on the subject to a work by RL 
 K(EIILER, entitled Description of an Ame- 
 thijsl in the ( abinel of eufi raved Stones of 
 the Emperor of Russia, Petersburgh, 17'JH, 
 bvo. : which anu.-tiiyst was formerly in tiie 
 collection of the Duke of Orleans, and is 
 represented, among oilier stones, in the 
 Description dcs Eierres gracecs de M. t, Due 
 d'Orleann, torn. ii. pi. 11. Ka-liler explains 
 it til be Hercules, or jx-rliaps iiis jiriest, in 
 the habit of a female crowned with lau- 
 rels, and covered with a transparent veil. 
 Veins, [trine, Fr. from renu, Liit.] In 
 srulplnre, \,-. In the later tiiiH-s of sculp- 
 «ure, jl has been believed that peculiar 
 
 VEN 
 
 talent is displayed in pronouncing the 
 veins in a strongly marked manner, which 
 is however contrary to the practice of the 
 ancients. Upon the arch of Septimius 
 Severus, we may remark veins extremely 
 prominent on the hands of several ideal 
 figures of women, such, for instance, as 
 victories bearing trophies ; as if force, 
 which is a general quality of the hand, 
 needed expression in this way. Nothing 
 shows better with what delicacy and 
 beauty the artists of the really flourishing 
 periods of art could express these parts of 
 the human frame, even in colossal statues, 
 than the Torso, formerly in the Musee Na- 
 poleon ; the neck of a colossal head of Tra- 
 jan, in the Villa Albani ; and other relics 
 of antiquity. 
 
 Vellum, {relin, Fr.] In painting. Pre- 
 pared calfskin, which being finer in tex- 
 ture and smoother than parchment, is 
 often used in drawing and painting in 
 miniature. See Parchment. 
 
 Vell'm. See Veil. 
 
 Velvet. [Fr. velours, Ital. rcllnto, from 
 Lat. villus, the nap of cloth.] In painting. 
 The art of painting on this rich substance 
 has been latterly brought to a very high 
 degree of perfection. The principal and 
 best manufactories of velvet are in France 
 and Italy. 
 
 Veneering, [from the verb.] In inusaic 
 work. A kind of marquetry, or inlaying, 
 whereby several thin slices or leaves of 
 fine wood, of dilferent kinds, are a])plied 
 and fastened on a ground of some common 
 wood. There are two kinds of inlaying: 
 the one, which is the more ordinary, goes 
 no farther than the making of compart- 
 ments of difl'erent woods; the other re- 
 quires much more art, and represents 
 flowers, birds, and the like figures. The 
 first kind is what we properly call veneer- 
 ing ; the latter we iiave already described 
 under Marquetry (which see). The 
 wood intended for veneering is lirst sawed 
 out into slices or leaves, about a line 
 tiiick: in order to saw them, the blocks or 
 planks are placed upright in a kind of 
 vice or sawing press : the ilescriptiou of 
 wiiicli may be seen in any work on the 
 subject. Tiiese slices are afterwards cut 
 into slips, and fashioned divers ^\ays, ac- 
 cording to the design proi)osed ; then the 
 joints lieing carefully adjusted, and the 
 pi(H-es brought down to their proper thick- 
 ness, with several planes t'or tlu' purpost;, 
 they are glued down on a grounil or block 
 of dry wood, with gootl strong English 
 glu(». The i)ieces thus joined and glued, 
 the w(uk, if small, is put in a press; if 
 large, it is laid on the bench, covered with 
 
VEN 
 
 a board, and pressed down with poles or 
 pieces of wood, one end whereof reaches 
 to the cieling of the room and the other 
 bears on the boards. When the glue is 
 quite dry, they take it out of the press and 
 finish it ; first with little planes, then with 
 divers scrapers, some whereof resemble 
 rasps, which take oft" dents, &c. left by the 
 planes. When sufficiently scraped, the 
 work is polished with the skin of a sea- 
 dog, wax, and a brush and polisher of 
 shave-glass : which is the last operation. 
 
 Venetian, [from Venice.] In the his- 
 tory of the arts. Appertaining to the state 
 or people of Venice. See Architecture, 
 Painting, Schools of Art, Venice, &c. 
 
 Venice. [ Venetia, Lat.] In the history of 
 the arts. A city of Italy, and capital of a 
 republic. This city makes a very grand 
 appearance at a distance, as seeming, 
 from its being built on a multitude of 
 islands, to float on the sea; or rather, with 
 its stately buildings and steeples, as it 
 were rising out of it. The number of 
 these islands is uncertain; some reckon- 
 ing sixty ; others seventy-two ; and others 
 again making them amount to one hundred 
 and thirty-eight ; but the latter must com- 
 prehend, in their calculation, all those 
 places which have gradually been raised 
 in the Laguna, and, by driving piles in the 
 ground, fitted for building on. The La- 
 guna, or marshy lake, which lies between 
 the city and the continent, and five Italian 
 miles iu breadth, is too shallow for large 
 ships ; but, by the attention of the repub- 
 lic, was prevented from becoming part of 
 the continent, or from being ever frozen, 
 so as to bear an army. Towards the sea, 
 the access to the city is also difficult; but 
 the safe and navigable parts are indicated 
 by piles ; which, at the approach of an 
 enemy's fleet, can be cut away. The seve- 
 ral canals, leading to the city among the 
 sand banks and marshy shallows, are, 
 though at a vast expense, kept clear of 
 the mud and slime the flood brings with 
 it. The return of the sea is something 
 later here than every sixth hour, and it ge- 
 nerally rises between four and five feet, 
 keeping the water between the islands of 
 the city in continual motion. Some of 
 these canals being very narrow, the mud 
 is not so effectually carried off as to pre- 
 vent ill smells in hot weather. The great 
 canal, which winds through the city, and 
 divides it into two parts, is thirteen hun- 
 dred paces long. The best way of going up 
 and down the city is in gondolas, which, 
 indeed, strike the eye with a mournful 
 appearance, being all lined either with 
 black cloth or serge, or painted black. 
 
 VEN 
 
 Over the several canals are laid four hun- 
 dred and fifty (some say upwards of five 
 hundred) bridges, great and small, and 
 the better part of tliem stone : the highest 
 and longest is the Rialto, wiiich, in the 
 midst of the city, crosses the great canal 
 at its narrowest part, where it is but forty 
 paces broad. This bridge consists only of 
 one single arch, whose foundation takes 
 up ninety feet, resting on twelve thousand 
 elm jjiles, and everywhere incrustated with 
 marble. It is said to have cost the repub- 
 lic two hundred and fifty thousand du- 
 cats. In the upper part it is thirty-seven 
 common paces broad, with two rows of 
 shops, forming as it were tliree streets, of 
 which that in the middle is the widest. 
 At each end is an ascent of fifty-six steps. 
 The city may, indeed, everywhere be tra- 
 versed on foot; but the streets are very 
 narrow, paid the free-stone pavement very 
 slippery in wet weather. The many small 
 bridges, with their steps, are also not a 
 little troublesome. The whole city is said 
 to be six Italian miles in circumference, 
 and to make the tour of it in a gondola 
 takes up somewhat more than two hours. 
 Venice contains seventy parish churches, 
 besides others, fifty-four convents of monks, 
 twenty-six nunneries, seventeen rich hos- 
 pitals, eighteen oratories, forty religious 
 fraternities, with their chapels (among 
 which are six called Scuole Grandi), fifty- 
 three squares, one hundred and sixty-five 
 marble, and twenty-three half, statues. 
 The buildings, indeed, are all of stone ; 
 but the greater part make so mean a figure, 
 that this city, in point of beauty and ele- 
 gance, can in nowise stand the test with 
 many others. St. Mark's Square, it is true, 
 is very fine, and so are the several stately 
 marble palaces that border upon the great 
 canal, though most of them are of Gothic 
 architecture. In the churches and con- 
 vents, the most admirable part are the 
 paintings ; and indeed, Venice, highly re- 
 nowned for fine paintings, far surpasses, in 
 the opinion of many, even Rome itself. 
 
 Venice is divided into six parts, called 
 Sestiere, Sesfieria. S. Marco contains the 
 piazzo di S. Marco, with the adjacent 
 buildings. This square, the pride of the 
 city, forms a right angle, the shortest side 
 of which, two hundred and forty paces 
 long, and seventy-five broad, reaches along 
 the ducal palace. The ducal palace, to- 
 wards the water-side and St. iMark's place, 
 is entirely Gothic ; but on the side of the 
 small canal, and in the court, of modern 
 architecture, and mostly of marble. It not 
 only served for the residence of the Doge, 
 but also for the meeting of the council. 
 
VEN 
 
 The finest ornaments of the council-cham- 
 ber an<i other apartments, are the paint- 
 inps of famous ancient masters. In one 
 side of the palace, towards the canal Rio 
 cii Palazzo, dark prisons, strongly secured 
 with iron grates, present themselves to 
 view. The lower gallery, or arched walk, 
 on the side of St. Mark's square, together 
 with the opposite hall, is called Broglio, 
 Here, at a certain hour of the day, the 
 nobles took their \\alks; an(l,at this time, 
 no Venetian, of an inferior rank, might be 
 seen on it, though a foreigner, as sup- 
 posed unacquainted with the custom, was 
 not desired to quit the place. That part 
 of St. Mark's square, between these two 
 buildings and the piazza, receives an ad- 
 ditional ornament from two pillars of ori- 
 ental granate, on one of which stands St, 
 Mark's lion in brass, and on the other, a 
 marble .statue of St. Theodore. Contigu- 
 ous to the north part of the Doge's palace, 
 is St. iVIark's church. Its materials justly 
 entitle it to be called magnificent, being, 
 I)oth on the out and inside, covered with 
 fine marble: but the architecture is en- 
 tirely Gothic. The best part of it are the 
 Musaic i)aintings, and the four brass 
 horses, formerly gilt, standing over the. 
 great door, and said to have been brought 
 here from Constantinoj)le. 
 
 In the Sestieria di Castello, is the so 
 much celebrated arsenal or dock, two Ita- 
 lian miles and a half in circuit, walled 
 and moated in, with twelve towers along 
 its walls ; and within the enclosure a 
 great variety of buildings, in which every 
 thing requisite for a land or sea armament 
 was kept in readiness. These buildings 
 consist of an armoury, storehouses for iron- 
 work, oars, cordage, bullets, tar, canvas, 
 guns, iVc. a rope-house, a t^altpetre-house, 
 smith's forges, a foundry, basons and slips 
 for shipbuilding, &.c. Within it lay the 
 men-of-war, frigates, galleys, and other 
 vessels, with the JJucentauro, wliich was 
 also laid up here. In the Sestieria di Ca- 
 nalt! Itegio is (he theatre. 
 
 On the invasion of llaly, in the fifth cen- 
 tury, by the iiuns, under Attila, and the 
 general desolation tiiat everywhere ap- 
 pi'ared, great numbers of the ptupli', who 
 lived near the Adriatic, look shelter in 
 those islands where now stancLi the fa- 
 mous city of Veni('e; and wliich islands, 
 about the year 421, particularly Itialto, 
 liad, in sr)nie measure, been built U|)on by 
 the I'uduans, for the advantage of cimi- 
 meree. Here having ^settled their small 
 places or states, they wen- at first govern- 
 e<l by consuls ; afterwards by tribunes, and 
 formed n Kind of republic, the council of 
 
 VEX 
 
 which was represented by the persons of 
 these magistrates. These islands became 
 still better inhabited on the succeeding 
 incursions of the Goths and Longobardi 
 into Italy ; multitudes from Rome and 
 other large cities repairing hither, so that 
 this state became soon able to make some 
 head against those bold invaders. At 
 length the chiefs of the islands and the 
 Longobardi came to an agreement, where- 
 by the former were to remain unmolested. 
 This was the commencement of the city 
 and state of Venice. — Alas, how fallen ! 
 
 Venis. [Lat. from venh, to come, ac- 
 cording to Cicero, in allusion to the uni- 
 versality of love. Another author de- 
 duces it from (pa'u'to, to shine.] In mijfholo- 
 gkal painfiiig and sculjiture. One of the 
 most celebrated deities of the ancients. 
 She was the goddess of Beauty, the mo- 
 ther of Love, the queen of Laughter, the 
 mistress of the Graces and Pleasures, and 
 the patroness of courtesans. She is fa- 
 bled to have sprung from the froth of the 
 sea, after the mutilated part of the body of 
 Uranus hadbcei' thrown there by Saturn. 
 The dominion of Venus over the heart 
 was assisted and supported by a celebrated 
 girdle called zone by the Greeks, and ccs- 
 tus by the Latins. This mysterious cinc- 
 ture gave beauty and gracefulness when 
 worn even by the most deformed ; whilst 
 it excited love and rekindled extinguished 
 desires. 
 
 The worship of Venus was universally 
 established : statues and temjiles were 
 erected to her in every kingdom, and the 
 ancients delighted in paying homage to a 
 divinity who presided over generation, and 
 by whoso influenct' alone mankind existed. 
 In her sacrifices, and in the festi\als cele- 
 brated in her honour, much licentiousness 
 prevailed, and public prostitution v\as 
 often part of the ceremony. 
 
 Venus is represented with one of the 
 jjrettiest, as Minerva is sometimes with 
 one of the handsomest faces that can be 
 conceived. 
 
 Her look, as represented by the artists 
 and poets, has all the taking airs, wanton- 
 nesses, and graces they could give it. Her 
 shape is the most exact imaginable, all 
 soft, and full of tenderness ; the fineness 
 of her skin, and the beauties of her com- 
 plexion ^^•eIe so e\(|uisite, that it re((uired 
 the utmost skill of A))elles to <'\press 
 them. Her eyes were either wanton, or 
 quick, or languishing, or insolent, accord- 
 ing to the occasion; and her face and 
 air agreed with them. The poets are fuller, 
 as to the eyes, than any statue or j)irture 
 can be. Tiie sculptors can only give the 
 
VENUS. 
 
 proportion of things, and one single atti- 
 tude in a statue. Tlie painter can do the 
 same, and add the natural colours ; and, 
 by the helpof lights and shades, can throw 
 things into proper distances. The poets 
 can describe all this, and can farther put 
 the figure into a succession of different 
 motions in the same description. This 
 must give the poet an advantage in de- 
 scribing the quick and uncertain motions 
 of Venus's eyes, and occasions the meet- 
 ing with expressions which cannot be ex- 
 plained from statues or paintings. Such 
 the epithet pata, which refers, perhaps, to 
 a certain turn of Venus's eye, and her 
 catching it away again the moment she is 
 observed, Ovid. Art. Am. ii. v. G57. Her 
 eyes are well described by Silius, De 
 Bell. Pun. 1. XV. v. 27. She is frequently 
 described too as having a treacherous 
 smile on her face. But, however she ap- 
 pears, or whatever she is doing, every 
 thing about her is graceful, bewitching, 
 and charming. 
 
 Venus, in all attitudes, is graceful, but 
 in no one more so than in that of the Venus 
 of Medici; where, if she is not really mo- 
 dest, she, at least, counterfeits modesty 
 extremely well. This attitude might be 
 described in two verses of Ovid. (Art. Am. 
 ii. V. 614, (il5.) This statue, as to the 
 shape, will ever be the standard of all 
 female beauty and softness. Her breasts 
 are small, distinct, and delicate, to the 
 highest degree. Her waist is not repre- 
 sented as stinted by art, but as exactly 
 proportioned by nature to all the other 
 parts of her body. Her legs are neat and 
 slender, the small of them is liuely round- 
 ed, and her feet are little, pretty, and 
 white. The general tenderness, elegance, 
 and fine proportions of her whole make 
 seem to take a great deal from the beauty 
 of her face, or the head is really (as has 
 been suspected) not of the same artist who 
 made the body. Some have fancied that 
 there are three dillerent passions express- 
 ed in the air of the head, in which the 
 face is a little turned away from you. At 
 your first approaching her, aversion ap- 
 pears in her look ; move one step or two, 
 and she has a compliance in it; and one 
 step more to the right turns it into a little 
 insulting smile, as having made sure of 
 you : but some unimaginative persons can- 
 not find out this malicious smile, though 
 they often view the statue on purpose. 
 
 Besides the insidious smile in some 
 figures, Venus is represented in others 
 smiling, and in a wheedling posture. Such, 
 probably, was the figure of the Venus 
 Erycina,called by Horace, Erycina Ridens ; 
 
 (Hor. i. od. 2, v. 33.) Such also was the 
 Venus Appias, a statue of whom stood 
 near the forum, where the lawyers plead- 
 ed ; and such was the design on the medal 
 of Aurelius, in which Venus is begging 
 some favour of Mars. This was inscribed 
 to Veneri Victrici, as sure of carrying her 
 point. Thus also in a statue at Florence, 
 Venus holds one of her hands round Mars's 
 neck, and the other on his breast; and 
 seems enticing him to grant her request. 
 She is represented in this manner with 
 others, as well as with Mars (Virg. ^n. 
 viii. V. 394). In a rilievo at Turin, Venus 
 is caressing Jupiter in the same manner 
 as she does Mars in the Florentine statue. 
 
 Venus is also frequently represented as 
 the genius of indolence, lying in a lan- 
 guishing posture on a bed, and generally 
 attended by Cupids to execute her orders. 
 Some of these figures, possibly, were ori- 
 ginally meant for the goddess Desidia, 
 who might more easily be mistaken for a 
 Venus than for a Cupid, as she was apt to 
 be among the ancients themselves. This 
 Venus appears in one of the finest colour- 
 ed pictures left us by the ancients. It is 
 in the Barberini palace at Rome. The 
 air of the head may be compared with 
 Guido's, and the colouring with Titian's. 
 The lost part, restored by Maratta (though 
 a noted painter) serves to do honour to the 
 paintings of the ancients. Venus is de- 
 scribed by Statins as in this picture, 1. i. 
 Sylv. V. 5G. 
 
 On an ancient sepulchral lamp she is 
 yet more indolent; as not only herself, 
 but tlie Cupids about her are all fast 
 asleep. As this was found in a sepulchre, 
 it probably related to some fine lady buried 
 there with her children. Death being so 
 like Sleep, at first, that it has been gene- 
 rally compared to it. 
 
 Venus, by the poets of the third age, is 
 represented under a quite contrary cha- 
 racter, as the goddess of jealousy, or the 
 furious Venus. Flaccus and Statins, in 
 their account of the women of Lemnos 
 killing their husbands, at the instigation 
 of Venus, describe her like a fury in black 
 robes, and armed with a torch, a sword, 
 and with serpents, the attributes of the 
 Furies. 
 
 The attendants of Venus were the Cu- 
 pids, the Nymphs, and the Graces. The 
 Cupids were supposed to be numerous; 
 but there were two most remarkable, one 
 of which caused love, and the other made 
 it cease. Hence Venus is called the mo- 
 ther of the two Cupids. 
 
 The two Cupids witii the dolphin at the 
 foot of the Venus de Medici are supposed, 
 
V E R 
 
 to bo lliesc, and are now called by the an- 
 tiquarians at Florence, Eros, and Anteros. 
 Cupid is generally ropresented as a 
 « hild of seven or eijjht years old, almost 
 always naked, handsome, inclining to 
 plumpness, and sometimes a little idle 
 and sly. His hair is soft and fine, and 
 sometimes dressed up. His wii)i;s orna- 
 mental as well as useful, and probably in 
 paintings were of divers colours. His 
 ijuiver, bow, and darts, are continually 
 mentioned to this day. The poets give 
 him sometimes a lighted torch, and arrows 
 tinged with fire. In a statue at the Vcnere 
 near Turin, he appears as a youth of se- 
 venteen, as he does in liaflaelle's Cupid 
 and Psyche. 
 
 The poets and artists represent their 
 Cupids either as playful or as powerful. 
 Hence in gems and olher pieces, they are 
 Been in some little diversion, as driving a 
 hoop, playing at quoits, and wrestling or 
 fighting in jest; but more especially as 
 catching and tormenting butterflies: but 
 this may be brought as an instance of Cu- 
 pid's power over the beings of the air. 
 
 His power over the other elements is 
 variously expressed: over the earth, by 
 riding on a lion with a lyre in his hand, 
 and the savage seeming to listen : over the 
 sea, by being seated on a dolphin : and in 
 heaven, by breaking the fulmen, or fiery 
 bolt of Jupiter. Sometimes Cupid is 
 riding on a centaur, who has his hands 
 tied behind him ; sometimes on a chima>ra, 
 &:c. to show that Love conquers the fiercest 
 monsters. Neptune's dominion over the 
 sea is also denoted by a dolphin in his 
 hand. 
 
 Cupid was so constant an attendant on 
 Venus, that he may be reckoned one of 
 her attributes: as the Bambino (or little 
 image of Christ) is now of the Virgin 
 Mary, by the artists (and perhaps by the 
 people) in Italy. This has k'll llicni into 
 such strange petitions as jure inairis Jilio 
 imperil, and the like. The child is as much 
 a mark of the Virgin as the serpent under 
 her feet, or the crown of stars over her 
 head. The other attendants of Venus are 
 the Graces and Nymimis (which refer to). 
 
 Vi:iii)i(inis, f Fr. md-tlc-Kiis, or ])erliaps- 
 Lat. I'loni liridis, green, and as, brass.] 
 Jn piiiulhiff. The acetite of copper ; greatly 
 used uniong jiainters as a green colour. It 
 is much pnrferred in oil paintings iVu- gar- 
 den scenery, Kc. It serves also, mixed 
 with rrean: of tartar, to nuike a kind of 
 water green, for colouring maps or prints. 
 
 Vin.MKi i.Aiii.. \]mI. nimuuliis] l„ 
 the lilt iij iiil'iijhii': Wrought in chequer 
 work, or pieccH of divers colours. 
 
 VIG 
 
 Vermtmon. [vermeil, vermilion, Fr.] In 
 painting. An extremely bright and beau- 
 tiful red colour, composed of quicksilver 
 and sulphur, in great esteem among the 
 ancients under the name of minium. That 
 preparation, however, which bears anKuigst 
 us the name of minium is of lead, known 
 also as redlead. See Mimlm. 
 t Vestal. [Lat. restulis, from Vesta, a god- 
 dess of fire.] In archaiology. A priestess 
 of Vesta, entrusted with the charge of the 
 sacred fire. They were at first only four 
 in number, but afterwards increased to 
 six, the superior being denominated ves- 
 talis maxima. The habit of these virgins 
 consisted of a headdress, called iii/ula, 
 which sat close to the head (and from 
 whence hung certain laces called rittce), 
 a kind of surplice made of white linen, 
 and a purple mantle over it, with a long 
 train. 
 
 VESTinir.E. [Lat. resfihulum, an open 
 space before the door of a house, where 
 the altars of Fes^rt were commonly raised.] 
 In arckifecture. A sort of entrance into a 
 large building; being an open place be- 
 fore the hall or at the bottom of the stair- 
 case. 
 
 Vestry. [Lat. restiarium, a wardrobe.] 
 In architecture. A room adjoining the 
 open church wherein the vestments of the 
 minister are kept, and parish meetings 
 held, &c. 
 
 Victory. [Victoria, Lat.] In archaio- 
 logy. Victoi-y is represented with wings, 
 and almost in the attitude of flying, with 
 her robe as carried back with the wind. 
 She holds in her hatid, as the reward of 
 great conquerors, a laurel crown, which, 
 with the palm branch and a trophy, were 
 her general attributes. Her wings and 
 robe are described as white. She is some- 
 times hovering between two armies en- 
 gaged, a;? doul)tful which side to choose; 
 and sometimes standing tixed to the army 
 she is resohed to favour. 
 
 Victory is represented as drawn by two 
 horses, particularly in the Roman family 
 medals, which had their name from her. 
 There was a picture at Home, in which 
 she was ascending to heaven in a chariot 
 drawn with four horses, as she appears on 
 the Antonine ])illar carrying up her hero 
 thither. The trophy was a proper mark 
 for her at Home, as there was one or more 
 before the door of every oflicer who had 
 gained any advantage over their enonies. 
 
 \'ui\KnE. [Fr.] In painting ami engrav- 
 ing. A j)i( torial embellishini'nt intro- 
 duced intti the tillejiage, or in fart into 
 any page of a iiook, but not occupying it 
 whollv. 
 
 ^ 
 
VILLA. 
 
 ViLi^v. [Lat.] In architecture. A coun- 
 try-house. A rural mansion, or retreat, for 
 wealthy men. 
 
 In constructing their country-houses, the 
 Greeks were careful to select, for the pro- 
 prietor, a situation which should be warm 
 in winter and shady in summer. The 
 apartments for the women here, as well as 
 in the town-houses, were separated from 
 those of the men by halls and baths. Ad- 
 joining these villas were generally spacious 
 gardens filled with plants and fruits, and 
 beyond stretched the open fields, rine- 
 yards, or plantations of olives. 
 
 The love and enjoyment of these coun- 
 try-seats was, however carried by the Ro- 
 mans to a still greater extent than by the 
 Greeks, and they were accordingly ren- 
 dered much more extensive and magnifi- 
 cent. 
 
 The Roman villas consisted of three 
 parts, one called the Urbana, a part where 
 the master and his family dwelt, the other 
 the Rustica, destined for the uses of hus- 
 bandry ; and the third the Fructuarin, or 
 receptacle for the fruits of the earth. 
 
 In the choice of situation and aspect, 
 the Romans were very particular, the lat- 
 ter requiring peculiar attention, as only by 
 the aspect of the buildings and rooms, 
 could they be rendered conveniently ha- 
 bitable in bad weather; glass for \vindows 
 being then little known, and its substi- 
 tutes costly, and not in general use. 
 
 Vitruvius has given us the following 
 rules : the winter triclinium (dining-room) 
 and bath should look to the winter's de- 
 clining sun, because the afternoon light is 
 there useful; besides the western sun 
 shining thereon produces heat, and makes 
 that aspect warm and pleasant in the even- 
 ing; bed-chambers, and libraries, should 
 look to the east, for in these the morning 
 light is required ; it is also proper, that 
 the books in libraries may not decay, for 
 in those that look to the south and west, 
 they will be damaged by damps and 
 worms, which the humid winds generate 
 and nourish. The spring and autumn tri- 
 clinia should look to the east, for the 
 windows being then turned from the sun, 
 proceeding westward, render those places 
 temperate at the time they are generally 
 used. The summer triclinium should look 
 to the north, because this aspect is not, 
 like the others, rendered hot at the sum- 
 mer solstice ; for being turned from the 
 course of the sun, it remains always cool, 
 and when used, is salubrious and plea- 
 sant. To the same aspect also, should 
 be disposed Pinacotheca (picture rooms), 
 
 as well as embroidering and painting 
 rooms, that tlie colours used in the works, 
 on account of the equality of the light, 
 may remain unchanged. 
 
 The belter to convey an adequate idea 
 of the extent, accommodation, and gran- 
 deur of the villas of the Romans, we 
 will add Pliny's (the consul) description 
 of his villa at Laurentum. It may be 
 proper to observe, that this villa was con- 
 sidered as on a small scale. 
 
 After describing the route, the views on 
 the road, &c. he adds, ray villa is large 
 enough to afford a convenient, though not 
 sumptuous reception for my friends. Tlie 
 part which first presents itself is the atrium 
 (court-yard), plain, but not mean ; then the 
 portico, in form of the letter O, which sur- 
 rounds a small, but pleasant area; this is 
 an excellent retreat in bad weather, being 
 sheltered by glazed windows, but more by 
 the projection of the roof. Beyond the 
 portico is a pleasant cavcedium (open court), 
 passing which, is a handsome triclinium, 
 which advances upon the shore, so that 
 it is gently washed by the waves, when 
 the south-west wind blows. On every 
 side are folding doors, or windows as 
 large, so that from the sides and the front, 
 you enjoy a prospect, as it were, of three 
 seas, and backAvards are seen the cava- 
 (Hum, the portico, and the area ; again the 
 portico and atrium terminated by woods 
 and distant mountains. On the left of the 
 triclinium, but not so forward, is a large 
 cubiculum (chamber or apartment), and 
 then a smaller one, where one window 
 admits the rising, and another the setting 
 sun. From hence, you view the sea rather 
 more distant, but more securely. This cu- 
 biculum and triclinium, by their projecture, 
 form an angle, which not only retains, but 
 augments, the heat of the sun's rays. 
 
 Here then is my liybernaculum (winter 
 room or apartment) and the gymnasium 
 (place for exercise) for my family, which 
 is never incommoded by any winds, but 
 such as bring cloudy weather, and destroy 
 the otherwise serene situation of the place. 
 Adjoining to this angle, is a cubiculum of 
 a curved or round form, the windows of 
 which admit the sun of consequence 
 through its whole course. In the walls 
 are inserted library presses, furnished 
 with books more for amusement tlian 
 study ; close to this is the dormitorium 
 (sleeping room) separated by a space hav- 
 ing a covering of wood work, Avhich col- 
 lects and distributes the vapour to the 
 room in salubrious temperament. The re- 
 mainder of this wing is allotted to my ser- 
 
VILLA. 
 
 vaiits aixl slaves; yet, is generally sufti- 
 cienlly ne.it for visiters. 
 
 On tiie rigiit side of the triclinium, is a 
 most elegant cubiculum with another large 
 cubii:uluin, or moderate cwnatio (common 
 eatinn, or suijper room), which receives 
 lit?lit both from the sun and the sea; after 
 this is a cubiculum, with a procceton (ser- 
 vants' room)— fur height, a summer, but for 
 shelter, a winter apartment, being screen- 
 ed from all winds: a wall only separates 
 another cubiculum with its procaton. There 
 you enter (lie spacious and extensive cella 
 frigidnria of the bath ; against the walls of 
 which are two projecting baptisteria, suf- 
 ficiently large to swim in ; joining to this 
 is the unctuarium, the liiipocditslum, and 
 projiniKi'im of the baths ; and two other 
 cells more elegant than sumptuous. Skil- 
 fully contrived, adjoins the caliida piscina 
 (warm bath), where those who swim en- 
 j<iy a view of the sea : not far distant is 
 the sph(eristerium (tennis court, of a circu- 
 lar form), which enjoys the warmest rays 
 of the declining sun. 
 
 Here arises a turris (pavilion, or sum- 
 mer-house), under which are two diceta 
 (suites or sets of apartments), and two also 
 above, besides a ccenatio, from which is 
 a beautiful prospect of the sea, the dis- 
 tant coast, and several i)leasant villas ; 
 there is also another turris, containing a 
 cubiculum, exposed to the rising and the 
 Setting sun ; behind this, are an apotheca 
 and Iwrrcum (cabinets, or store rooms), 
 and underneath a triclinium, where the 
 noise of the sea is not heard, but only in 
 storms, and then but faintly. This looks 
 on the ffcstatio (a place to exercise on 
 horseback, or in a carriage); and the gar- 
 den which it surrounds. 
 
 The gestalio is encompassed with box, 
 or rosemary, where the box is wanting; 
 for box, when well sheltered, flourishes 
 much, but witlusrs, if exposed to the wind, 
 or weather, or to the sj)ray of the sea. To 
 the inner circle of the f;estatio is joined a 
 xliady row of young vines, with a walk, 
 soft and pleasant even to the naked feet. 
 The garden abounds with tig and mul- 
 berry trees, to which the soil is suitable, 
 but not to other trees. The prospect here, 
 not less pleasant than that of the sea, is 
 enjoyed from a cwnatio, rather distant 
 from thesc^a; on thi^ back it is encompass- 
 ed ^villl two dittltc, wUosv windows look 
 til the vestibule of the \illa, and to a fruit- 
 ful kitchen garden. 
 
 Hence, a it///i/»-/«»W/Vi/.<i (a liuig inclosed 
 room, in portico) extends, for size compa- 
 rable to a public building, with windows 
 
 on both sides ; those next the sea, the 
 most numerous ; on the garden side they 
 are single, with fewer in the upper row. 
 These, when the day is serene aud calm, 
 are all opened ; but when the wind is trou- 
 blesome, those on the opposite side are 
 opened without any inconvenience. Be- 
 fore the crypto-porticus is a ccijstus (a spa- 
 cious place for exercise, or a terrace), fra- 
 grant with violets, in which the heat of 
 the sun is increased by the reflexion of 
 the crypto-porticus, which at the same time 
 keeps off the north-east wind ; wherefore 
 it is hot in the front, and cool in the rear; 
 it also screens from the south-west, and 
 several other winds. These are its de- 
 lights in winter ; but much greater does it 
 allbrd in summer; for before midday, the 
 xystus, and after, the gestatio and neigh- 
 bouring parts of the garden, are made 
 temperate by its shadow, which is longer 
 or shorter as the day proceeds. The build- 
 ing is also the coolest when the sun shines 
 most intensely on the roof; by opening 
 the windows, the western bree/es are en- 
 joyed, and it is therefore never clouded by 
 thick or stagnant air. 
 
 At the top of the xijstus, projecting from 
 the crypto-porticus, are the dicetw of the 
 garden, and these are my delight; for here, 
 in truth, have I placed my aflection. Here 
 is an luliocaminus (an apartment made 
 warm by the sun), one side of which 
 looks to the xystus, the other to the sea, 
 and both to the sun. From the folding 
 dooi-s is seen the cubiculum ; from the w in- 
 dows, the crypto-porticus : on the side next 
 the sea, and opposite the wall, a very ele- 
 gant zotheca (a closet or small room), re- 
 cedes, to which a cubiculum is either added 
 or separated by means of glazed window s 
 and curtains. Here are contained two 
 chairs and a bed, from the foot of which, 
 you have a prospect of the sea ; from the 
 back, of the neighbouring villas ; and from 
 the head, of the woods: each window- 
 giving a particular j)rospect, which may 
 be seen either together, or scpiuately. 
 Adjoining is a cubiculum, for night ami 
 sleep; for here neither the noise of ser- 
 vants, tlie murmurs of the sea, the roaring 
 of tempests, the glare of lightning, nor 
 even the light of day is perceived till the 
 windows are opened ; but all is profound 
 silence, which is caused and preserved by 
 an itndroH (an open court, or space) which 
 is between the wall of the cubiculum, and 
 that of the garden; so that all noise is 
 drowned by the void space betwj'en. 
 
 t'lose to this cnhiculum is a small hypo- 
 ftiustum (stove), I lie heat from which, by 
 
VIL 
 
 a small window, may be regulated at plea- 
 sure. Thence a procaton and cnbiculum 
 extend into the sun, where it is enjoyed, 
 though obliquely from its rise, till after 
 midday. 
 
 When retired to these apartments, I 
 seem as absent from my villa ; I receive 
 great delight here, particularly in the time 
 of the Saturnalia, when the other parts of 
 the villa, by the accustomed freedom al- 
 lowed at those times, resound with festive 
 clamours ; for here, I neither obstruct the 
 diversions of my servants, nor they my 
 study. 
 
 These conveniences, these pleasures, 
 are deficient in falling water, yet near the 
 surface are wells, or rather springs, &c. 
 Plinii, Epist. lib. 2, Ep. 17. 
 
 This copious description conveys a pretty 
 accurate idea of the extent of a Roman 
 villa, their numerous apartments, various 
 and multiplied conveniences. In the de- 
 scription of Tuscum, by the same Pliny, 
 which merits to be called in modern lan- 
 guage, a mansion, more than a villa, being 
 surrounded by an extensive domain, and 
 distant from Rome (one hundred and fifty 
 miles); here apartments more numerous, 
 and of greater elegance, are enumerated ; 
 and the garden, or pleasure grounds, were 
 more abundantly accommodated with ex- 
 tensive buildings and conveniences; nor 
 were these two villas all which were pos- 
 sessed by the consul, for he writes to a 
 friend, I prefer my villa of Tuscum, to 
 those of Tusculmn, Tybur, and Prccneste. 
 These three, as well as Laurentinum, 
 were in the vicinity of Rome. On the 
 boi-ders of Lake Larium (his native place, 
 now called Lake Como, on the confines of 
 Switzerland), in Epist. 7, lib. 9, he men- 
 tions having several seats ; two of which 
 afforded him particular delight ; and from 
 their solemn and gay situations, he called 
 one tragedy, the other he called comedy ; 
 from one out -of the bed-chamber, almost 
 from the bed, you might angle in the lake 
 below. 
 
 Of neither of these villas are there any 
 remains. What has been traced of the 
 Tyburtine villa of Adrian, according to 
 the plans published by Piranesi, show it 
 to have been of an amazing extent ; here 
 were, each npon a grand scale, an hippo- 
 drome, a naumachia, a theatre, a palcestra, a 
 nymphceum, a castle for a guard, with a 
 temple to Mars ; a piscina, a bihliotheca, a 
 stadium, a vestibulum, of various apart- 
 ments, (being the entrance to the baths, 
 stadium, &c. &c.); baths, a pretorium, a 
 pinacotheca, an hospitalia, for visitors ; a 
 canopum, an academia, an odeum, and ihea- 
 
 VI R 
 
 tre ; a lyccnm, a palace, for the emperor, 
 with many other buildings ; each of which 
 were accommodated witli various apart- 
 ments, fitted up in a style of elegance 
 and grandeur scarcely credible ; this truly 
 princely palace occupied a space of ground 
 about twelve hundred yards in length. 
 
 The villa of Mecasnas, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Tivoli, was also very extensive, 
 and not less elegant. 
 
 The villas of the modern Romans and Ita- 
 lians generally are extremely beautiful and 
 costly, and may be with equal propriety 
 denominated palaces, as indeed they often 
 are (See Palace). In the gardens sur- 
 rounding them, it is customary to plant 
 vigorous and fine hedge-rows of laurels of 
 every description, which besides forming 
 an agreeable variety, preserve, even in the 
 midst of winter, a delightful verdure. In 
 the larger seats of this order, such, for in- 
 stance, as the Albani, the Borghese or Pin- 
 ciana, the Pamphili, &c. all sorts of expen- 
 sive fruits and flowers are collected to de- 
 corate the walks, whilst beyond spreads 
 the ample park, and on the house itself 
 the granite and porphyry of Egypt, the mar- 
 bles of Africa and Paros, the sculptures 
 of ancient Greece and Rome, the paint- 
 ings of the most eminent modern masters, 
 all are lavished with unsparing hand. It 
 is in vain to expect, or seek, in colder cli- 
 mates, to produce the same exuberant and 
 voluptuous variety which glows and revels 
 in the plantations of this delicious coun- 
 try : perhaps the most exquisite enjoyment 
 of them is to be felt at night, when the 
 heat of the day has subsided and the fra- 
 grance of the flowers is exhaled with ad- 
 ditional power. See Cottage. 
 
 Virtus. [Lat. virtue.] In archaiology. 
 Virtus is spoken of personally, both in 
 verse and prose. She had several temples 
 at Rome, with representations in them of 
 her. Though these may be all lost, her 
 figure is common on the medals of the em- 
 perors. 
 
 Mr. Spence thinks her figure more com- 
 mon than is imagined, and that in the Ad- 
 miranda, what Bartoli takes to be the 
 genius of Rome, is this goddess ; as where 
 she is giving the globe to M. Aurelius, and 
 where she is guiding Titus's chariot, and 
 conducting Adrian home. On these she 
 is dressed like an Amazon. She is some- 
 times in a coat of mail, or a short succinct 
 vest, with her legs bare, like the Roman 
 soldiers. She has a manly face and air, 
 and generally grasps a sword or spear in 
 her hand. Her dress shows her readiness 
 for action, and her look a firmness not to 
 be conquered by difficulties or dangers. 
 
 3 c 
 
VOL 
 
 Volcano. [Ital. from Vulcan, the god of 
 fire.] In jmintin!^. The eruption of a vol- 
 cano is perhaps the most magniticent as 
 well as the most terrible spectacle with 
 wliicii Nature presents us. It is generally 
 announced several months previously by 
 a succession of signs. The size of the 
 volcano augments from day to day, be- 
 coming of a friglitful magnitude ; and, in 
 proportion, the cinders, ashes, and burn- 
 ing stones are hurled upwards a prodigi- 
 ous height. 
 
 The artist may make great use of the 
 explosion of a volcano; and even, speak- 
 ing generally, we should advise him, 
 should he ever be placed in the way, to 
 embrace the opportunity of contemplating 
 its awful beauties, since such a sight could 
 liardly fail to strengthen his ideas, and 
 consequently his chance of expression, of 
 the sul)lime in his art. 
 
 The following description of one of the 
 most celebrated volcanoes in the world, 
 extracted from the work of a recent au- 
 thor, will give the reader a good notion of 
 the effect of similar scenes. 
 
 " Excursion to Vesuvius. — ]My surgeon 
 warned me against this ascent, but I was 
 resolved to go. To leave Naples, Avithout 
 seeing Vesuvius, would be worse than to 
 die at Naples, after seeing Vesuvius. The 
 ascent was laborious enough, but no part 
 of tiie labour fell upon my shoulders. 
 When we arrived at the foot of the per- 
 pendicular steep, where it was necessary 
 to leave our mules; while my companions 
 toiled up on foot, I got into an easy arm- 
 chair, and was carried on the shoulders of 
 eight stout fellows, to my own great asto- 
 nishment, and to the greater amusement of 
 my friends, who expected every moment to 
 see us all roll over together. I certainly 
 should not have thought the thing practi- 
 cable, if I had not tried it ; for the ascent 
 is as steep, as it is well possible to be; 
 the surface however is rugged; and this 
 enabled the men to keep their footing. It 
 was not the pleasantcst ride in the world ; 
 for, without jjrolcnding to any extraordi- 
 nary sen.-ibililj, tlicre is something disa- 
 greeable in overcoming dilliculties by the 
 sweat of other men's brows, even if they 
 are well paid for it. The men however 
 seemed to enjoy it vastly. 
 
 " When you arrive at the top, it is an 
 awful sight; more like the infernal regions 
 than any thing liiat humun imagination 
 could suggest. As you approach the great 
 crater, the crust u])on which you trend be- 
 conn;;j HO hot, that you cannot stand long 
 on the same place-; -your progress is lile- 
 raiiy ' per imie.'t xupponilus cincri doloso ;' ~ 
 
 VL L 
 
 if you push your stick an inch below the 
 surface, it takes fire, and you may light 
 paper by thrusting it into any of the cracks 
 of the crust. The craters of the late erup- 
 tion were still vomiting forth flames and 
 smoke, and when we threw down large 
 stones into these fiery mouths, one might 
 have thought they were replying to Lear's 
 imprecation — ' Rumble thy hellij full! — 
 Spit fire!' — Altogether, it was a most sub- 
 lime and impressive scene, and may be 
 classed amongst the very few things in the 
 world that do not disappoint expectation. 
 " The look down, into the great crater at 
 the summit, is frightfully grand ; and when 
 you turn away from the contemplation of 
 this fearful abyss, you are presented with 
 the most forcible contrast, in the rich and 
 luxuriant prospect of Naples, and the sur- 
 rounding country; where all is soft and 
 smiling as far as the eye can see." 
 
 VoLUMEN. [Lat. from rolto, to roll, be- 
 cause the ancients used to write on rolls.] 
 In archaiology. A word synonymous with 
 book. The Greeks as well as Romans 
 used to roll up their manuscripts, and re- 
 presentations of these volununes are to be 
 met with on a great variety of ancient mo- 
 numents. 
 
 Volute. [Lat. valuta, from rolvo, to 
 roll.] In architecture. A kind of spiral 
 scroll used in the Ionic and Composite 
 capitals, whereof it forms tiie principal 
 characteristic and ornament. 
 
 VoMiTARiA. [Lat.] In ancient architec- 
 ture. Gates or doors of the amphitheatre 
 by which the spectators entered, in order 
 to take their seats. Perhaps the name 
 was derived from the concourse of people 
 which flowed through them on public oc- 
 casions. 
 
 Votive. [Lat. i-otirus, from rotutn, a 
 vow.] In archaiologi/. See Ear, Secllar 
 Games, Storji. 
 
 VoussoiRs. [Fr.] In architecture. Cut 
 stones placed wetlge-wise and employed 
 in forming the arch of an arcade, Cfvc. 
 
 Vuix'AN. [Lat. I'ulatnus.] In miitholoi^i- 
 cal paintin'j; ami sculpture. A god of the 
 ancients, \\ ho presided over tire, and was 
 the patron of all artists who worked iron 
 and motals. He was the son of Juno 
 alone, she in this wisiiing to imitate Ju- 
 piter, who had produced iVliuerva from 
 liis brains. According to liomer, he was 
 the son of Jupiter and Juno, and the mo* 
 tlier was so disgusted with the deformi- 
 ties of her son, that she threw him into 
 the sea as soon as born, where he remain- 
 (•(I f(>r nine years. According to the more 
 received opinion, N'ulcan was educated in 
 heaven \Nilii tiie rest of the gods, but his 
 
VULCAN. 
 
 father kicked him down from Olympus 
 on his attempting to deliver his mother, 
 who had been fastened by a golden chain 
 for her insolence. His journey through 
 the air, from the time it occupied, might 
 be called a " nine days' wonder ;" and on 
 his fall in the island of Lemnos, the inha- 
 bitants, seeing him in the air, caught him 
 in their arms. He nevertheless broke his 
 leg by the fall, and ever after remained 
 lame of one foot. 
 
 Vulcan took up his residence in Lem- 
 nos, where he built himself a palace, and 
 raised forges to work metals. The inha- 
 bitants of this island became sensible of 
 his industry, and were taught all the use- 
 ful arts which could civilize their rude 
 manners, and render them serviceable to 
 the good of society. The first work of 
 this god was, according to some, a throne 
 of gold with secret springs, which he pre- 
 sented to his mother to be revenged on her 
 for her want of affection towards him. 
 Juno was no sooner seated on the throne 
 than she found herself unable to move. 
 The gods attempted to deliver her by 
 breaking the chains which held her, but 
 to no purpose, and Vulcan alone had the 
 power to set her free. 
 
 The ancient artists and poets have de- 
 scribed and represented Vulcan in vari- 
 ous ways. He was exceedingly celebrated 
 for the automata executed by him, and 
 many have spoken of two golden statues 
 which not only seemed animated, but 
 which walked by his side, and even as- 
 sisted him in the working of metals. The 
 Cyclops of Sicily (see Cyclops) were his 
 ministers and attendants, and with him 
 they fabricated not only the thunderbolts 
 of Jupiter, but likewise arms for the gods 
 and the most celebrated heroes. Vulcan's 
 
 forges were supposed to be under Mount 
 vEtna, and indeed in every part of the 
 globe where there were volcanoes. The 
 best known of the works of Vulcan which 
 were presented to mortals are the arms of 
 of Achilles, those of jEneas, the shield of 
 Hercules described by Hesiod, a collar 
 given to Hermione, the wife of Cadmus, 
 and a sceptre which was in the possession 
 of Agamemnon, king of Argos and My- 
 cenae. The collar proved fatal to all who 
 wore it; but the sceptre, after the death of 
 Agamemnon, was carefully preserved at 
 Cheronoea, and regarded as divine. Venus 
 is universally admitted to have been the 
 wife of Vulcan ; but her infidelity is well 
 known, and particularly her amour with 
 Mars. 
 
 The worship of Vulcan was well estab- 
 lished, particularly in Egypt, at Athens, 
 and at Rome. It was customary, in the 
 sacrifices offered to him, to burn the entire 
 victim, and not reserve part of it, as in the 
 immolations to thy rest of the gods. A 
 calf and a boar-pig were the principal vic- 
 tims offered. 
 
 This god was generally represented as 
 covered with sweat, blowing with his ner- 
 vous arm the fires of his forges. His 
 breast was hairy, and his forehead black- 
 ened with smoke. Some artists make him 
 lame and deformed, holding a hammer 
 raised in the air, ready to strike ; with the 
 other hand, he turns, by the help of pincers, 
 a thunderbolt on his anvil, for which an 
 eagle waits by his side, to carry it to Jupi- 
 ter. He appears on some monuments with 
 a long beard, dishevelled hair, half naked, 
 and a small round cap on his head, whilst 
 in his hand he holds a hammer and pincers. 
 The Egyptians symbolised him under the 
 figure of a monkey. 
 
 w. 
 
 Wainscot, [wagescot, Dutch.] In archi- 
 tecture. The timber work serving to line 
 the walls of a room, being generally made 
 in panels, and painted, to serve instead of 
 hangings. 
 
 Walks, [walen, German, pealcan. Sax.] 
 See Landscape Gardening. 
 
 Wall. [Sax.] In architecture. The most 
 important part of any building, serving 
 both to support the roof, floors, Sec. and to 
 enclose the whole. 
 
 Walls are of various kinds, according 
 to the materials employed in their con- 
 struction ; as, for example, plastered or 
 
 mud walls, brick walls, rough or hewn 
 stone walls, flint or boulder walls, boarded 
 walls, &c. See Architecture. 
 
 Warriors, [from war.] In painting, 
 sculpture, and engraving. The warlike 
 qualities have ever been esteemed worthy 
 of particular admiration, and as giving the 
 clearest title to glory and immortality ; and 
 if such an opinion obtains in later periods, 
 in the earlier ages of the world it was far 
 more extensively diffused ; and hence it is 
 by no means matter of surprise that the 
 greatest number of ancient monuments of 
 art have been devoted to the glorification 
 
W A 11 
 
 of tilt; warlike virtues, la the heroic 
 ages, indeed, there were no other lauded 
 or cared about; and provided a man was 
 a courageous warrior, it mattered not how 
 great his folly or knavery in other re- 
 spects. 
 
 Tlie Greek and Roman artists were con- 
 stantly employed in works of this nature, 
 <'ither to depict tlie deified heroes of my- 
 tliological worship, or the famous chiefs of 
 their own times. Witii regard to the for- 
 mer, they established a luiiii iileul, io which 
 they elevated the common nature and at- 
 tributes of man ; and to this elevation they 
 occasionally lifted tlie greatest and most 
 celebrated of their princes and generals, 
 such, for instance, as Alexander, Lysima- 
 chus, Cassar, Augustus, Adrian, &c. The 
 painter or sculptor invarialily took, as the 
 base or foundation of this ideal, a body 
 formed and developed by fatigue and exer- 
 cise. The appearance of robust youth was 
 also considered indispensable to approach 
 towards the heroical attributes ; and, from 
 this approximation, it is sometimes diffi- 
 cult, when there is no assistance from ac- 
 companying inscriptions, to decide whe- 
 ther the picture or statue is meant for a 
 humaji or divine personage. The ancient 
 writers themselves cite a considerable 
 number of figures, naked (save casque and 
 cincture) but without any other attribute, 
 respecting which they are perfectly inca- 
 pable of rendering any determinate expla- 
 nation. Hence it obviously results, that 
 in restoring a mutilated statue, the great- 
 est care should be taken to preserve, as 
 far as possible, the sentiment and meaning 
 of the original. 
 
 Among the ancient bronzes spoken of 
 by I'liny, we find in the number, one male 
 figure naked and colossal; another naketl, 
 one, executed by Polycletes, and placed 
 upon a cube; seven similar figures by Py- 
 Ihagoras of Samos, f«:c. and a great variety 
 liesides, which bear no si)ecific names, and 
 are altogether of doubtful quality. 
 
 Another class of statues is that of war- 
 riors armed and <l()thed. These atlord 
 ample o|)]iortunities for the display of the 
 sculptor's ability in exhibiting the armour, 
 the shield, the ias(|Ue, I've, which were 
 ofti'ii decoratrd with rilievi and otiier or- 
 luimentrt. Many of these are no further 
 recognisable than by the head or by some 
 inscription. Whenever, in niodeni limes, 
 the trunks or torsos of statm-s have been 
 discovered,the artist naturally wants these 
 indications, which might guide him in 
 making the restorations consistent with 
 llie primeval object of the perfonmuice. 
 Aieverul statues of this kind, perfectly 
 
 \\ A Y 
 
 armed, and clothed with the jmlndamenlum. 
 bear the names of different illustrious Ro- 
 mans; but the authenticity- of these appel- 
 lations is commonly of very dubitable 
 origin. Amongst these are the Julius Ca?- 
 sar of the Capitol, the arms and hands of 
 which have been restored ; another at the 
 villa Borghese ; the Augustus of the Ca- 
 pitol ; the Domitianof the Giustiniani Pa- 
 lace, the head of which is strongly sus- 
 pected by the acute and learned Winckel- 
 maun; Antoninus Pius, in the gardens of 
 the villa Mattel ; Marius Aurelius in the 
 Giustiniani Gallery; the Pescennius Ni- 
 ger, in the palace Altieri ; the Carecalla 
 of the Farnese, &c. 6cc. 
 
 Upon engraved gems we also find a 
 great number of ancient warriors depicted. 
 They are to be met with both naked and 
 clothed, and in every variety of attitude. 
 Many are represented in the 10th vol. of 
 the 3Iiisi'uin of Florence. 
 
 At Florence are two figures known 
 iinder the name of warriors, likewise en- 
 graved in the Museum Florcntinum, 3d ^ol. 
 77th and 78th pp.; and with the first of 
 these two ma.y be compared a cornelian 
 engraved at No. 4 of the G7th plate, 'id 
 vol. Gori, who was not very scrupulous 
 in awarding names to these relics, gave, to 
 these, Roman appellations, although the 
 air as well as vestments of one, are those 
 of a barbarian rather than of a Roman. 
 Heyne thinks that the head of this statue 
 (the expression of which is very common) 
 together with the buckler, are by a modern 
 hand. The other warrior appears about 
 to strike a blow with his lance. 
 
 Washing, [from the verb.] In painting;. 
 Is when a design, drawn with a pen or 
 crayon, has some one colour laid over it 
 with a pencil, as Indian ink, bistre, or the 
 like, to make it appear the more natural, 
 by adding the shadow of prominences, 
 apertur(^s, &;c. and by imitating the parti- 
 cular matters whereof the thing is suji- 
 posed to consist. Thus they wash with a 
 pale red, to imitate brick and tile ; with a 
 jiale Indian blue, to imitate water and 
 slate ; with green, for trees and meadows; 
 with saflron or French berries, for gold 
 and brass ; and with several colours for 
 marbles. 
 
 Wiisliini^ of Ores: the piirifying an (oe 
 of any metal, by means of water, from 
 earths and stones, which would otherwise 
 rentier it dillicult of fusion. 
 
 Waticu-Colouh I'aintinc. See Paint- 
 ing. 
 
 M'\vi;s. f jia>;t;e. Sax.] See Tkivipkst. 
 
 W ws. Ipa';^, Sax.] In inThuioli>i:;ii. It 
 is bv no means certain which nation nf 
 
WAY 
 
 antiquity first established either military 
 or public ways. The Persians seem to 
 have constructed them at a very remote 
 period; and according to Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus,the famous,or rather infamous Semira- 
 mis established them throughout the whole 
 of her extensive dominions ; for which 
 purpose she caused the " valleys to be ex- 
 alted and the high places to be brought 
 low." Justinus assures us that Xerxes 
 employed likewise large sums for the con- 
 struction of public ways. According to 
 Isidorus, at the end of his 15th book, the 
 Carthaginians were the first who paved 
 their public ways. 
 
 Ancient authors do not furnish us with 
 many data by which to judge of the de- 
 gree of care bestowed by the Grecian states 
 in this matter. Herodotus simply says 
 that, amongst the LacedtEuionians, the ma- 
 nagement of these roads was wholly vested 
 in the kings ; and in this case, it is not 
 very uncharitable to imagine that they 
 were badly attended to, since it is the na- 
 ture of royal power to be regardless of 
 the accommodation of " the general." 
 Strabo, indeed, says plainly, that the 
 Greeks neglected three objects to which 
 tlie Romans, on the other hand, paid espe- 
 cial attention : viz. cloaca, or common 
 sewers, aqueducts, and public ways. 
 
 To ancient Rome therefore, we must 
 look for the perfection of these woi'ks, mi- 
 litary and public, whether as regards mag- 
 nitude or splendour. The remains of the 
 most celebrated of them, to this day, at- 
 tract the attention and excite the admira- 
 tion of all travellers over the classical 
 ground of Italy, to which country they 
 are not however confined. These ruins 
 have off'ered to all subsequent ages a mo- 
 del of style which, applied to a national 
 and important object, united solidity, uti- 
 lity, and beauty. 
 
 Nicholas Bergier, historiographer of 
 France, has composed, on the Roman 
 ways, an excellent work entitled : — His- 
 toire des grands Chemins de VEmpire Ro- 
 main paves depids la Ville de Romejusq'avx 
 ExtrimiUs de son Empire, Paris, 1622, 4to. 
 Brussels, 1729, 2 vols. 4to. This h^ been 
 translated into Latin by H. C. Hennin, 
 and inserted in the 10th vol. of the The- 
 saurus of Gr(Evius, with observations by 
 the translator and by J. D. Du Bos. It 
 has likewise been translated into Italian 
 and English. Count Marsigli's Danubius 
 illustratus may also be consulted, vol. 2. p. 
 81. Dissertation d'Aug. Calmel, sur les 
 f grands Chemins de la Lorraine, Nanci, 1727. 
 Vetera Romanorvm Itineraria, cum integiis 
 
 Jos. Simkri, Hieron. Surito', et Ami, 
 Schotfi notis : Itinerarium hierosolymitamnit 
 et Hieroclis grammatici Sijnecdemus, curante 
 Petro Wesselingio, Amst. 1735, 4to. — 
 Adrian. Steger, de Viis militarihus vetc- 
 rum Romanorum in Gcrmania, Lips. 1738, 
 4to. Fabretti, De Aquis et Aquadtictihus 
 RomcB, Disseri. 3, in the 4th vol. of the 
 Thesaurus of Gr(evius. Vine. Bartolucci,^ 
 Dissertatio de Viis publicis, and the 13th 
 chap, of the Archaiology of Architecture, by 
 M. Stieglitz. 
 
 Weights, [geiricht, German.] In arcluii- 
 ology. In several different cabinets, as 
 well as in the works of sundry antiqua- 
 rians, we find specimens of ancient weights. 
 Among the small number of these which 
 Caylus has collected, one (pi. 39, vol. 6.) 
 merits a degree of attention. It is of (lie 
 ancient town of Cyzicus, the name of 
 which is on one of its sides (as common 
 on medals), on the other side Siq, signify- 
 ing that this little bronze weight was dou- 
 ble. These words are worked in rilievo, 
 and placed on either side of a fish, which 
 occupies the middle of the square. This 
 symbol proves that fishing was an impor- 
 tant trading object among the inhabitants 
 of Cyzicus. I 
 
 In Montfaucon, several of these weiglils 
 are found, bearing the heads of emperors ; 
 but perhaps the most curious is that pub- 
 lished by Caylus at the 49tli plate of his 
 2d vol. (No. 1.) This is of lead, and was 
 found in the isle of Chios. It presents a 
 sphinx, resting upon the vase called am- 
 phora, and behind which is the emblem of 
 two mines, in rilievo. The sphinx, sudi 
 as it appears upon tliis monument, is rare- 
 ly met with upon the medals of Chios. 
 Whenever this fantastic animal is en- 
 countered thereon, it is always, for what 
 reason is uncertain, grouped with a vase 
 of a particular form. 
 
 Well, [psel, Sax.] hi architecture. A 
 deep hole sunk underground, generally of 
 a cylindrical figure, and walled with stone 
 and mortar, for the purpose of collecting 
 the water exuding from the surrounding 
 strata. 
 
 Joseph's Well is situate in the edifice of 
 Cairo, commonly called Joseph's Palace. 
 It is a vulgar error to attribute either 
 house or well to the illustrious patriarch 
 so named: for in fact the appellation is 
 taken from a prince, father to the one 
 under whose reign the edifice was con- 
 structed. 
 
 This celebrated well, carved in the rock, 
 is two hundred and eighty feet deep, and 
 forty-two in circumference. It is descend- 
 
W 1 N 
 
 »-il Ijj nii'uiis of a circular staircase of 
 xhTfu hundred stei)s, and the declivity is 
 «x.treniely gentle. The partition which 
 separates the staircase from the well is 
 formed also of a portion of rock. Small 
 windows, at given distances, illuminate it. 
 The well consists of two separate basins, 
 not however perpendicular to each other. 
 
 U'lUTK. [hpir, Sax. ivit, Dutch.] In 
 pamlhig. A negative colour. The effect 
 of the admission of light upon any object 
 which reflects it directly. Painters reduce 
 all their colours under the two classes of 
 dark and light ; the former comprehending 
 Black (which refer to), and such as are 
 obscure and earthy ; the latter white and 
 such as approach nearest to it. 
 
 Although white may be considered the 
 colour most significatory of light, as black 
 is of the privation of it, the painter should 
 take care never to introduce upon his can- 
 vass either of these negative colours pure 
 and unmixed ; since, to give due effect to 
 the Chiaiio' Scuro (which see), gradation 
 i.« indispensably necessary. Sometimes, 
 the manner in which the artist has ad- 
 mitted the light into his painting-room, 
 and directed it upon his work, deceives 
 liini witii regard to the effect of his whites, 
 vhich appear to him while laying them in 
 Ifilliant and natural, and softening the 
 acrimony of his shades; whereas, when 
 txposed to a light expanded generally, or 
 placed in positions less favourable, the 
 histre disappears, the colours look crude 
 and offensive to the eye, and the exertions 
 of the painter are lost. 
 
 Window, [rindue, Danish. Some iiua- 
 ^ne it to have been originally triiul-dooi:] 
 In urchHvctiirc. This word has various 
 •ierivations. Perhaps tiie most direct is 
 tiie Danisii one first cited ; but there can 
 be liltle doubt that the original meaning of 
 tlie word was, like the M elsh term uijnt 
 dor, a passage for the wind. In fact, it is 
 still i)ri)vincially denominated wiiulor in 
 Lancashire, as it is (though with no sucii 
 retrospective intention) among the citizens 
 of (Cockaigne. 
 
 Windows are an essential part of every 
 building, since light is one of tlie principal 
 necessaries of existence. At the same 
 time, they nmy be so introduced as to con- 
 tribute to (trnami-nlal as well as useful 
 purposes ; and Un- architect who thorough- 
 ly understands his profession will take 
 ffspccial caie that they do so contribute. 
 Nothing can be more tasteless and ugly 
 than liic " hull' in the wall " which is com- 
 monly denominated a window. Grace nniy 
 be dis|)layed not only in their number, size, 
 
 WIN 
 
 and disposition, but in their shape and 
 ornaments. 
 
 The proportions of windows shouJd of 
 course vary according to the usages of dif- 
 ferent countries, and these usages are in- 
 fluenced by divers causes, such as climate, 
 degrees of temperature, length of days, 
 clearness of sky, (S:c. &c. In countries 
 where, as in our own, the sun has seldom 
 any very fierce sway, even in summer, and 
 where the winter is long and dreary, the 
 windows should be large and numerous, 
 in order to convey to the interior of the 
 house as much as possible of the light and 
 heat that Nature accords. On the other 
 hand, in hot climates, they may be fewer 
 and of less extent. Thus, then, it is im- 
 possible to lay down precise rules for the 
 construction of these portions of architec- 
 ture ; but nevertheless there are rules 
 springing out of the principles of solidity, 
 convenience, agreement of parts, and the 
 pleasure which arises from an harmonious 
 combination. See Proportion. 
 
 In the most ancient eras, the windows 
 of habitations were very small and nar- 
 row ; and the same remark obtains with 
 regard to the castles and other edifices 
 constructed during the middle ages. In 
 the painting on the Greek vase which re- 
 presents Jupiter about to scale the win- 
 dow of Alcmena, the ojiening is exceed- 
 ingly small. According to Seneca those 
 of the baths of Scipio were so little that 
 they merited not the name, and might 
 rather be denominated crevices. As the 
 Romans improved, however, in the ele- 
 gant arts, this particular was not over- 
 looked, and both their to\>n and country 
 houses were decorated with numerous and 
 ample windows. It was not customary, 
 though, to have them overlooking the 
 street ; and they were in the majority of 
 instances confined to the interior court of 
 the house. 
 
 The windows of the tenijjle of Jerusa- 
 lem were larger withinside than without; 
 and appear to have served the double pur- 
 pose of admitting light and giving ^ eut to 
 the fumes of the incense which was so 
 plentifully burned. The ancient temples 
 had not generally windows; some ex- 
 ceptions, however, exist to this observa- 
 tion. 
 
 Ilefort' the use of glass became comnum, 
 which was nut till towards the end of the 
 twelfth century, the windows in this coun- 
 try sei'm gi'uerally to have bei'n composed 
 of piiper; which properly prepared with 
 oil, forms no contemptible defence against 
 the intrusions of the weather, and is a 
 
light 
 
 In 
 
 WON 
 
 tolerable vehicle for the admission of 
 See Glass. 
 
 Woman, [pifman, pimman, Sax.] 
 painting, sculpture, ^x. See Man. 
 
 Wonders. [German, wunder.'] In archai- 
 ologij. All antiquarians are, we believe, 
 agreed as to the number of the Seven Won- 
 ders of the World, but differ somewhat as 
 to their identity. The following is the 
 
 WON 
 
 enumeration most adhered to. The gar- 
 dens of Babylon supported on pillars; the 
 pyramids of Egypt; the statue of Jupiter 
 Olympius ; the Colossus of Rhodes ; the 
 walls of Babylon ; the temple of Diana 
 of Ephesus; and the tomb of Mausolus. 
 See Babyi-on, Colossus, Dianium, Mytho- 
 logy, Mausoleum, Pyramid. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xenia. [Gr. Ikviov, from livoQ, a guest.] 
 In archaioiogy. Vitruvius thus denomi- 
 nates those paintings which represent 
 landscapes, vases with fruits, fishes, &c. 
 
 Xenodochium. [Gr. Uvoq, a guest, and 
 dtX^Hai, to receive.] In archaioiogy. See 
 Hospital, Tessera. 
 
 XiPHiAS. [Kifpiag, from Ki(pog, a sword.] 
 In archaioiogy. This word is one of those 
 found on the stone called the sapphire of 
 Constantine. This gem represents a hun- 
 ter attacking a wild boar. Above the 
 horseman are engraved the words Con- 
 sta7itius Aug. and over the boar the word 
 Xiphias. Underneath is a female couch- 
 ing figure, above which are the words Ca- 
 sarea Cappadocie. 
 
 The most rational explanation of this 
 ancient relic is, that it depicts the Emperor 
 Constantius hunting a sort of marine mon- 
 ster called by Strabo, Polybius, and others, 
 
 xiphias ; and that the crouching figure, who 
 holds a cornucopia (see Horn of Plenty), 
 is emblematical of the town Ccesarea, near 
 which the chase was carried on. 
 
 Xystarch. [Gr. from ^v^bg, a wrestling 
 school, and apxof, a chief.] In archaioiogy. 
 An oflicer charged with the surveillance 
 and direction of the stadia, &c. Ammianus 
 Marcellinus attires him partly in purple, 
 and with a sort of crown. He was no 
 doubt a species of ancient master of the 
 ceremonies. See Stadium, Palestr.e. 
 
 Xystus. [Gr. ^v^og, from $tw, to smooth 
 or polish, it being customary for the com- 
 batants to anoint their bodies with oil.] In 
 archaioiogy. A large court with a portico 
 on three sides, planted with rows of trees, 
 where the ancients performed athletic ex- 
 ercises — running, wrestling, &c. See Pa- 
 
 IJE&TRJE. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellow, [jealepe, Sax.g'/(eZei«w,Dutch.] 
 In painting. One of the three original 
 colours of light, from which others are 
 compounded. Naples yellow is a beauti- 
 ful variety, greatly employed by painteis, 
 and formerly thought to be prepared from 
 arsenic, but now discovered to have lead 
 for its basis. 
 
 Youth, [yeo^urh, Sax.] hi painting, 
 sculpture, Sfc. The most beautiful period 
 of life, and consequently tliat which the 
 artist will select to display and embody 
 
 his abstract ideal of corporeal human per- 
 fection. The smooth and glowing sub- 
 stance of the skin, the beautifully defined 
 contours of the figure, the firm and well 
 knit muscles of man, and the delicious 
 shapeliness of woman ; these qualities, as 
 they are in themselves uniformly amiable 
 in real life, so they cannot fail to draw 
 forth the ability of tlie artist, and excite 
 the admiration of the beholder, when 
 transmitted to canvas or marble. 
 
 z. 
 
 tZocLE. [German.] In architecture. A 
 ow square member, which serves to ele- 
 vate a statue, vase, &c. : also when a range 
 of columns is erected on one continued 
 high plinth, it is called a Zoclc ; it diHcrs 
 
 from a pedestal, being without base or 
 cornice. 
 
 ZoDiA. [Gr. ^ot^ioi', a living creature.] 
 In imiitling and sculpture. See Arabesques. 
 
 Zodiac. [Gr. ZwhaKoij, containing living 
 
ZO D 
 
 \reature6, from ^riw, to live.] In cmblema- 
 Ileal imintitv^ and sculpture. Kvery body 
 knows (hat the zodiac is divided into 
 twelve parts, according to the circle de- 
 scribed by the sun every year. The an- 
 cients represented the constellations by so 
 many animals, whose names tliey bear ; 
 but in order to bring tliem into little space, 
 conventional terms and figures were often 
 employed. There exist a considerable 
 mimbcr of monuments upon which the 
 zodiac is figured. One of the most curi- 
 ous is the rustic calendar, called the Far- 
 nese calendar because it belongs to the villa 
 of that name. It is a square marble, each 
 face of which presents three signs of the 
 Zodiac, and three columns inscribed with 
 the names of the months, together with 
 those of the tutelary deities, and also the 
 length of the equinoxial and natural hours 
 of the day and night. This marble served 
 as base to a sundial. 
 
 Upon the summit of the nave of the 
 grand temple of Tentyra or Denderah is a 
 small apartment, part of the cieling of 
 which is occupied by a celestial plani- 
 sphere. M. Denon, in his Voyage en 
 Egijpte, pi. 130, has given a draw ing of it. 
 There we perceive the twelve signs of the 
 >?odiac represented, intermixed with hiero- 
 
 ZOT 
 
 glyphic figures. This would be the nio^t 
 ancient monument of the kind, could we 
 safely refer its date to the period of Egyp- 
 tian freedom; but there is reason to think 
 that it was constructed during the reign of 
 Tiberius. 
 
 The custom of placing the signs of the 
 Zodiac upon sacred monuments has been 
 continued since the adoption of Chris- 
 tianity. There is a very old example 
 over one of the lateral or side gates of the 
 cathedral of Autun ; and others at the 
 portals of the cathedrals of Vezelay and 
 of Arras. M. Dlpuis has described that 
 at the Parisian church ; and M. Lalande 
 has given drawings and descriptions of 
 that at the church of Strasburgh, in the 
 Mhnoires de I'lnstUiit National. See Pla- 
 nets. 
 
 Zone. [Gr. Zmvtj, from i^iovrvo}, to en- 
 compass.] In architecture, See Cinctvre. 
 
 ZoPHOULS. [Gr. from ^oov, an animal, 
 and (pipu), to bear or support.] In architec- 
 ture. See Frieze. 
 
 ZoTiiECA. [Lat.] In architecture. A 
 small room, or alcove, which might be 
 added to or separated from another, by 
 means of curtains and windows. See 
 Plinifs description of Laurcntinum, in the 
 article Vill.\. 
 
 VIMS. 
 
 ('. Mill C, \VliiUtiii;liHiii, Chi»\rlcl>. 
 
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