UC-NRLF *i M ,^ i i THE I LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLASS BOOK, I i EMBRACING THE j LEADING FACTS AND PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE. | XUttstratetf i)S ISnfltatJinirs, WITH MANT DIFFICULT W0RB8 EXPLAINED AT THE HEADS OF THK | LKSSONS, AND QUESTIONS ANNEXED FOR EXAMINATION ', DESIGNED AS 'l KXERCISE3 FOR THE READING AND STUDY OF THE HIGHER CLAS5BS ] SS COUHON SCHOOLS. j SELECTED FROM THE '3 REV. JOHN PLATTS' \ aCUrars an^ .Scicntliic &am JJooife, JlitfD FROM VARIOUS OTHER SOURCES, AND ADAPTED TO THE WANTS AKB j CONDITION OF YOUTH IN THE UNITED STATES. | By LEVI W. LEONARD. tXXREOTYPED BY T. H. CARTER & CO. BOSTOK. PUBLISHED ^Y J. &J. W.PRENTISS. 1831. / DISTRICT OF NEW-HAMPSHIRE, to wit ; District Clerk's Office. Be it remembered, t|iat on the twelfth clay of November, A. D. 1825, and in the fiftieth year of tlie Independence of the United States of America, John Prentiss of the said District, has deposited in this office the title of a book, thp right whej-eof he claims as pro- prietor, in the words followin":, to wit : — " The LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLASS BOOK, embrac- ing the leading facts and principles of Science. Illustrated by engrav- ings, with many difficult words explained at tlie heads of the lessons, and questions annexed for examination ; designed as exercises for the reading and study of the higher classes in common schools. Selected from the Rev. John Platts' Literary and Scientific Class Book, and from various other sources, and adapted to the wants and condition of youth in tho United States. By Lkvi W, Leonaud." In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, enti- tled, « An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned ;" and also to an Act, entitled, " An Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled, An Act for the encouragement of learning, by sjecuring the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, dur- ing the times therein mentioned ; and extending the benefits thereof to tho arts of designing, engravipg, and etching historical, and other prints " SAMUEL CUSHMAN, { ^l}%tHLpsM:i:' A true Copy of Record : Attest SAMUEL CUSHMAN. Clerk.. ^- advertisement; The following Extracts are introduced as recommendatory of the design of the Literary and Scientific Class Book. In teaching the art of reading it is an obvious waste of the precious period, devoted to education, to confine the exer- cises in that art to mere combinations of words; or to compositions, the sole object of which is to prove the wit and genius of the writer ;— to compositions which do not teach any thing, and which, after a volume of them has been pe- rused and re-perused for years> leave the mind in a state of listless curiosity. In proof of the justice of this remark, we need only appeal to the feelings of those persons, who, while they were at school, read no other books than the selections published under the titles of Speakers, Readers, Extracts, and Beauties. As exercises in elocution, and as examples of elegant composition, such books cannot be sufficientlj commended ; but they are ill adapted to the more important objects of instruction, and with regard to the purposes of general knowledge, they bear the same relation that gilding bears to gold, or pastime to useful labour. Rev. D. Blair. It is evident that want of time will prevent the great mass of mankind from pursuing a systematic course of education in all its details ; a more summary and compendious method therefore must be pursued by them. The great majority JV ADVERTISEMENT. must be content with never going beyond a certain point, and with reaching that point by the most expeditious route. A few, thus initiated in the truths of science, will no doubt push their attainments further ; and for these the works in common use will suffice ; but for the multitude it will be most essential that works should be prepared adapted to their circumstances It is not necessary that all who are taught or even a considerable proportion should go beyond the rudiments ; but whoever feels within himself a desire and an aptitude to go further will do so, — and the chances of dis- covery, both in the arts and in science itself, will be thus indefinitely multiplied. Edinburgh Review, No. 81. PREFACE. The Literary and Scientific Class Book, by the Rev. John Platts of Doncaster, England, was published in the begin- ning of the year 182L "The grand object aimed at," he says in his Preface, " is, that while the pupil reads his daily lesson, he shall not only learn to pronounce words, but shall also treasure up a valuable stock of ideas, to enlarge his mind, to interest his heart, and to prepare him for his future scenes on the theatre of life." The plan and leading title of the above-mentioned publi- cation have been adopted in the present work, and many of the lessons have been retained either in full, or in an abridged and altered form. The notes, appendix, and engravings, have been added ; and such materials have been selected from other sources as were judged best adapted to improve the hearts and enlarge the minds of youth in this country. Most of the lessons have been selected with a particular reference to the instructio?i which they contain on important branches of knowledge. Although the work is designed for the higher classes, yet it is believed that all young per- sons, who are able to read with facility, and are acquainted with the rudiments of arithmetic and geography, may use it with advantage. The names of authors are given in many instances, but, in general, the quotations have been so much altered, or the same lesson taken from so many different sources, that it could not be done with convenience. The works consulted or from which extracts have been made, are noticed in the Appendix. A list of select books has been furnished for th« use of those who wish to make further attainments. SELECT BOOKS. Locke's Conduct of the Understanding, 1 vol. 18mo. Watts' Improvement of the Mind, 12mo. Rett's Elements of General Knowledge, 2 vols. 12ino. Bezout's Elements of Arithmetic, 12mo. Legendre's Elements of Geometry, 8vo. Colburn's Introduction to Algebra upon the inductive me* thod of Instruction, 1 vol. 12mo. Joyce's Familiar Introduction to the Arts and Sciences, 1 vol. 12 mo. Systematic Education, or Elementary Instruction in the various departments of Literature and Science, by Rev. W. Shepherd, Rev. J. Joyce, and Rev. L. Carpenter, 2 vols. 8vo. Cavallo's Elements of Natural and Experimental Philosophy^ by F. X. Brosius, 2 vols. 8vo. Nicholson's Operative Mechanic 8vo. Nicholson's Popular Elements of pure and mixed Mathe- matics, 8vo. Button's Recreations in Mathematics and Natural Philoso- phy, 4 vols. 8vo. Enfield's Institutes of Natural Philosophy, Theoretical and Practical, 4to. Ferguson's Lectures on select subjects in Mechanics, Optics, Astronomy, &c. edited by Dr. Brewster, 2 vols. 8vo. Ferguson's Astronomy, 2 vols. 8vo. edited by Dr. Brewster. Bonny castle's Introduction to Astronomy, 1 vol. 8vo. Cotting's Introduction to Chemistry, 12mo. Henry's Elements of Chemistry, 2 vols. 8vo. Macneven's Tabular View of the Modern Nomenclature and System of Chemistry. Mackenzie's One Thousand Experiments in Chemistry, ex- hibiting the applications of Modern Chemistry to all branches of the useful arts, 8vo. Cleveland's Mineralogy and Geology, 2 vols. 8vo. Lowry's Conversations on Mineralogy. Vm SELECT BOOKS. Robinson's Catalogue of American Minerals, 8vo. Locke's Outlines of Botany, 12mo. Thornton's Elements of Botany, with 160 plates. Eaton's Manual of Botany for the Northern and Middle States, 12mo. Eaton's Botanical Exercises, including directions, rules, &c. 12mo. Davy's Agricultural Chen>istry, 12mo. Brown's Compendium of Agriculture, 12mo. / Dean's New England Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary, 8vo(^ Willich's Domestic Encyclopsedia, edited by Dn Cooper, S vols. 8vo. Benjamin's Rudiments of Architecture, 8vo. Cabinet Maker's Guide. Gregory's Economy of Nature, 3 vols. 8vo. Buffon's Natural History, 2 vols. 8vo. Paley's Natural Theology, 12nio, Harris' Natural History of the Bible, 8vo. Harlan's Description of the Mammiferous Animals of North America, 8vo. Bewick's Quadrupeds, 1 vol. 8ro. Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, 2 vols. 8vo. Worcester's Sketches of the Earth and its inhabitants, 2 vols. 12mo. Malte-Brun's Universal Geography, or description of all parts of the world on a new Plan, 7 vols. 8vo. Bingley's Useful Knowledge, 3 vols. 12mo. Bigland's Letters on the Study of History, 8vo. Tytler's Elements of History, Ancient and Modern, 12mo. History of New England by Hannah Adams, 8vo. History of England, abridged from Hume and Smollet, by J. Robinson, D. D. Paley's Moral and Political Philosophy, 8vo. Baker's Moral Philosophy, abridged from Paley, 18mo. Parkhurst's Elements of Moral Philosophy, 12mo. Smith's Wealth of Nations, 2 vols. 8vo. The Federalist, by Madison, Jay, and Hamilton, Svo, Say's Treatise on Political Economy, 8vo. The American Journal of Science and Arts. New-Haven. The Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts. New Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, edited by Dr. Brewster. CONTENTS. LeEBon. F&ge* 1. Intellectual Pleasures, - - 1 2. Mental Improvement, - - • - 3 3. Habit of Attentive Thought, . - 5 4. Cultivation of Memory, - - - - G 5. Plan of Reading, - - - - 8 6. Hymn to Science, - - - - 10 7. Usefulness of Mathematical Studies, - 13 8. Imagination, — its Power illustrated, - - 14 9. Beauty and Sublimity, Illustration of, - 16 10. Taste, Improvement and Pleasures of, - - IS 11. Poetry,— its Object, .... 20 12. Advantages of Studying History, - - 21 13. Philosophy, — its leading Offices, - - 23 14. The Praise of Philosophy, - - - 25 15. General Properties of Bodies, - - - 27 16. Attraction of Gravitation. Sir Isaac Newton's Dis- coveries, r - - - . - 30 17. Centre of Gravitv. Pyramids of Egypt. Tower of Pisa, ' 33 18. The Laws of Motion. Velocity, Momenta, Action and Re-action, - - _ - _ 35 19. Compound Motion. The Pendulum, - - 37 20. Mechanical Powers. The Lever, - - - 40^ 21. The Pulley, Wheel, and Axle, and Inclined Plane, 42 22. The Wedge and Screw. Friction, - - 44 23. The Laws of Fluids. Pressure of Fluids, - - 47 24. Specific Gravity of Bodies. Archimedes, - 50 25. Hydraulics. Syphon. Common Pump. Forcing Pump, - , , - - - 52 26. The Diving Bell, and Steam Engine, - - 54 27. Nature and Properties of Air. The Air Pump, 56 28. The Barometer, Uses of, - - - - 59 29. Sound. Velocity of Sound. Echo, - - 61 30. Nature of Musical Sounds. Musical Barometer, 64 31. Optics. Reflection and Refraction of Light, - 66; M'^89^yl CONtENTS. 33. 34. 35. 36. 41. 42. 43. 44. Lesson. Page. 32. Different Kinds of Lenses. Burning Glass, - 69 Mirrors. Convex Reflectors, - - - - 71 Colours. The Prism. - " " " P The Rainbow, Halo, and Parhelia, - - - 75 Structure of the Eye. Angle of Vision, - 78 37. Optical Instruments. Spectacles. Microscopes, 81 38. Microscopic Discoveries, - - * - 83 39. The Telescope and Telegraph, - ^ - 86 40. Astronomy. Progress of this Science, - - 88 The Solar System. Galileo, - _ - 91 The Sun, a magnificent habitable globe, - - 93 Mercury and Venus, - - - - 95 The Earth, Ecliptic and Zodiac. Celestial Lati- tude and Longitude, - - - - 97 45. Day and Night, causes of, - - - - 100 46. Changes of the Seasons, - - - - 102 47. The Moon. Harvest Moon, - - - - 104 48. The Tides, explanation of, - - - 107 49. Eclipses of the Moon and Sun, _ - - 108 50. Mars, Vesta, Juno, Pallas, and Ceres, - * 111 51. Jupiter, — his Belts, Satellites, &c. - - - 113 52. Saturn, and Uranus. Saturn's Ring, - - 114 Comets. Pope Callixtus, - - - 115 The Fixed Stars. The Milky Way, - - 117 The Constellations. Hymn to the North Star, 119 Forms and Divisions of Time. Equation of Time, 122 57. The Planetary System, - - - - 125 58. Chemistry, Importance and Use of, - - 127 59. General Principles of Chemistry. Chemical Af- finity, -..--. 128 C-aloric. Thermometer, - - - - 130 Atmospheric Air, Composition of Oxygen. Nitro- gen, - 133 Water, Composition of Hydrogen Gas, - - 135 The Earths and Alkalies. Uses of Lime, - 137 Acids and Salts. Mountains of Salt, ^ - 140 Simple Combustibles. Carbon. Metals, - 143 66. Oxyds and Combustion. Exhilarating Gas, - 145 67. Electricity. Electrical Machine. Experiments, 148 68. Leyden Phial. Dr. Franklin's Discovery. Thun- der and Lightning, - - - 152 53. 54. 55. 56. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. CONTENTS. XI Lesson. Page. 69. Falling Stars, Water Spouts, and Northern Lights, 154 70. Galvanism. Voltaic Battery, - - - 157 71. Galvanism (continued.) Prof. Hare's New De- flagrator, - _ . ., 159 72. Magnetism. Variation of the Needle, - •» 162 73. Magnetical Experiments. Amusing Deceptions, 164 74. Aerostation. Air Balloons. Parachute. Death ofRozier, _ _ _ - 166 75. Natural History, — its Objects, - - - 169 76. Mineralogy. Characters of Minerals, - - 172 77. Classification of Minerals. The Diamond, - 174 78. Gold, — its remarkable ductility, . ^ - 176 79. Silver and Mercury. Plating with Silver. Quick- silver Mine, - - - - _ 178 80. Copper and Lead. Brass. White Lead, - 180 81. Iron and Tin. Importance of Iron. Use of Tin. Pewter, - - - - - 182 82. Zinc, Manganese, and Antimony, their Uses, 183 83. Study of Geology, — its objects and uses, - 185 84. Geology. Stratification. Sacred History confirmed, 186 85. Relative Situation of Rocks. Decomposition of Rocks, - - - ^ - 189 86. Biographical Sketch of Linna}us, - - - 191 87. Study of Botany, a Source of Mental Improve- ment, - . - _ - 194 SS. Texture of Vegetables. Bark. Wood. Pith. Age of Trees, - - - - - 196 89. Sap and Secretions, Flowing of the Sap. Sugar, 198 90. Process of Vegetation, - - - 200 91. Roots, Stems, Buds, and Leaves. Effect of Light upon Plants, ^ . - . 202 92. Flower and Fruit, , - - - 205 93. Classification of Vegetables,its Importance and Use, 207 94. Flowers. Insects in Flowers, - - 210 95. Animal Kingdom. Study of Zoology advanta-r geous to the Young, - ? •? - 212 96. First Class of Animals (Mammalia,) Orders of, 213 97. Birds,— their Division into Orders. Moulting, 217 98. Reptiles and Fishes. Electrical Fishes, - 219 99. Structure and Transformation of Insects, - 221 100. Orders of Insects. The Gossamer, - - 225 Xli CONTENTS. Lesson. 101. Crustaceous and Molluscous Animals. Shells, 102. Vermes and Zoophytes. Leech. Polypes, - 230 103. Existence of the Deity, - - . - 232 104. Political Economy. Progress of Civilization, - 233 105. Property, unequal Distribution of, - - 235 106. Division of Labour 237 107. Agriculture, — the Strength of Nations, - 239 108. Commerce and Manufactures, - - _ 240 109. Money, — its abundance, not the cause, but the con- sequence of Wealth, - - - - 242 110 Ship-building and Navigation, - - - - 244 111. Architecture, Advantages of, — Orders of, - 246 112. Constitution of the United States, Sketch of, - 248 113. Excellence of our Republican Government, - 251 114. Intelligence of the People a Means of Safety to the Government, - - - - 252 115. The government of England. King. Parliament, 254 116. America : an Extract from Bryant's Poem of the Ages, ----- 257 117. Structure of the Human Body, - - 258 118. Structure of the Human Body, (continued,) - 260 1 19. The Human Voice, wonderful Mechanism of, 262 120. Structure of the Ear, - - - - 263 121. Music, Pleasures of,— Ear for, - - 265 122. Painting. Cartoons of Raphael, - - - 267 123. Sculpture. Statuary. Casting in Plaster of Paris, 270 124. The Love of Nature, - - - - 271 125. The Importance of Natural Philosophy, - 272 126. Mythology, - - - - - 274 127. Account of the Principal Heathen Gods, - 275 128. Account of the Principal Heathen Goddesses, - 278 129. Harmony of Science and Christianity, - 280 130. The Influence of an Early Taste for Reading, 281 131. The Mechanical Wonders of a Feather, - - 282 132. Art of Making Pins, - - - . 284 133. Clouds and Rain, - - - - - 285 134. Invention and Progress of Printing, ' - 287 135. Hope, Influence of, - ^ • - 288 THE LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CLASS BOOK. LESSON 1. Intellectual Pleasures^ ^■ Evolv'ed, unfolded, unrolled, thrown out, Transcen'dent, excellent, surpassing others. WHEN we think of what man is, not in his faculties only, but in his intellectual acquisitions, and of what he must have been, on his entrance into the world, it is difficult for us to regard this knowledge and absolute ignorance as states of the same mind. It seems to us almost as if we had to con- sider a spiritual creation or transformation, as wondrous a/s if, in contemplating the material universe, we were to strive to think of the whole system of suns and planets, as evolved from a mere particle of matter, or rising from nothing, as when originally created. We believe that they were so cre- ated, and we know that man, comprehensive as his acquire- ments are, must have set out in his intellectual career from absolute ignorance ; but how difficult is it for us to form any, accurate conception of what we thus undoubtingly believe I The mind, which is enriched with as many sciences as there are classes of existing things in the universe, which our or- gans are able to discern — the mind, which is skilled in all the languages of all the civilized nations of the globe, and which has fixed and treasured in its own remembrance, the beauties of every work of transcendent genius, which age after age has added to the stores of antiquity — this mind, we know well, was once as ignorant as the dullest and feeblest of those minds, which scarcely know enough, even to won- der at its superiority. That pleasure attends the sublime operations of intellect ia the discovery of truth, or the splendid creations of fancy, 1 Science ! thou fair effusive ray \ From the great source of mental day, j Free, gen'rous, and refined, % Descend with all thy treasures fraught, ^,, Illumine each bewilder'd thought, i And bless my lab'ring mind. But first with thy resistless light ^ Disperse those phantoms from my sight, '^ Those mimic shades of thee, ] The scholiast's learning, sophist's cant, ^ The visionary bigot's rant, • The monk's philosophy. ^ Oh ! let thy powerful charm impart -i The patient head, the candid heart, ^ Devoted to thy sway ; l Which no weak passions e'er mislead, i Which still with dauntless steps proceed Where reason points the way. I I HYMN TO SCIENCE. ]l Give me to learn each secret cause j het numbers, figures, motion's laws, Reveal'd before me stand ; Then to great nature's scenes apply, And round the globe and through the sky Disclose her working hand. Next to thy nobler search resign'd The busy restless human mind Through ev'ry maze pursue ; Detect perception where it lies, Catch the ideas as they rise, And all their changes view. Her secret stores bid Mem'ry tell, Bid Fancy quit her airy cell In all her treasures drest ; While, prompt her sallies to control, Reason, the judge, recalls the soul To truth's severest test. Say from what simple springs began The vast ambitious thoughts of man, That range beyond control. Which seek eternity to trace, Drive through the infinity of space, And strain to grasp the whole ? Then range through being's wide extent, Let the fair scale with just ascent And equal steps be trod, Till, from the dead corporeal mass, Through each progressive rank you pass To instinct, reason, God ! There, Science, veil thy daring eye, Nor dive too deep, nor soar too high, In the divine abyss ; To faith content thy beams to lend. Her hopes t' assure, her steps befriend, And light the way to bliss. Then downward take thy flight again, Mix with the policies of men. And social Nature's ties 12 ifYMN TO SCIENCE. The plan, the genius, of each state, j Its interest and its power relate, ' Its fortunes and its rise. Through private life pursue thy course , Trace ev'ry action to its source, { And means and motives weigh ; a Put tempers, passions, in the scale, i Mark what degrees in each prevail, J And fix the doubtful sway. j The last, best effort of thy skill, [ To form the life, and rule the will, I Propitious Pow'r ! impart ; -^ Teach me to cool my passions' fires, { Make me the judge of my desires, ] The master of my heart. ''■■ Raise me above the vulgar breath, i Pursuit of fortune, dread of death 'i And all in life that's mean : i Still true to reason be my plan, i And let my actions speak the man, ^i Through ev'ry varying scene. i Hail, queen of manners! test of truth! ' Hail, charm of age, and light of youth I Sweet refuge of distress ! | E'en business you can make polite, J Can give retirement its delight, ] Prosperity its grace. Of pow'r, wealth, freedom, thou the cause, i Foundress of order, cities, laws, i Of arts inventress thou ! j Without thee, what were human kind ! l How vast their wants, their thoughts how blind ! ^ Their joys how mean, how few ! i Sun of the soul ! thy beams unveil ! j Let others spread the daring sail On fortune's faithless sea : j While undeluded, happier I j From the vain tumult timely fly, And sit in peace with thee. \ MATHEMATICAL STUPIES. 13 LESSON 7. Usefulness of Mathematical Studies. Ax'ioms, maxims, self-evident propositions. Anal'ogy, resemblance — see Hedge's or Jamieson's Logic. Phys'ics, natural philosophy, or the doctrine of natural bodies, their various appearances, affections, motions, operations, &c. Of all the sciences which serve to call forth the spirit of enterprise and inquiry, there is none more eminently useful than mathematics. By an early attachment to these elegant and sublime studies we acquire a habit of reasoning, and an elevation of thought, which fixes the mind, and prepares it for every other pursuit. From a few simple axioms, and evident principles, we proceed gradually to the most general propositions, and remote analogies : deducing one truth from another in a chain of argument well connected and logically pursued ; which brings us at last, in the most satisfactory manner, to the conclusion, and serves as a general direction in all our inquiries after truth. Mathematical learning is likewise equally estimable for its practical utility. Almost all the works of art and devices of man, have a dependence upon its principles, and are indebt- ed to it for their origin and perfection. The cultivation of these admirable sciences is therefore a thing of the utmost importance, and ought to be considered as a principal part of every well regulated plan of education. They are the guide of our youth, the perfection of our reason, and the foundation of every great and noble undertaking. Mathematics are very properly recommended as the best remedy to cure an unsteady and volatile disposition. They teach us to reason in a clear and methodical manner. They give a manly vigour to our understanding, and free us from doubt and uncertainty on the one hand, and credulity and rash presumption on the other. These studies are calcu- lated to teach exactness and perspicuity in definition, con- nexion and conclusiveness in argument, carefulness in ob- servation, patience in meditation ; and from no exercises can ihe scholar go better prepared and disciplined to the pursuit of the higher branches of knowledge. The benefit to be derived from them is thus stated by Mr. Locke : " I have mentioned mathematics as a way to settle in the mind a 2 14 IMAGINATION. habit of reasoning closely, ^nd in train ; not that I think i necessary that all men should be deep mathematicians ; bu that having got the way of reasoning, to which that stud necessarily brings the mind, they might be able to transfe it to other parts of knowledge, as they shdl have occasion; Mathematics, according to their proper definition, const tute the science of quantity, either as subject to measure c number. They are pure and mixed. The former conside Quantity abstractedly, without any regard to matter or pai ticular bodies ; the latter treat of quantity as subsisting i bodies, and consequently they are intermixed with the coi sjderation of physics, or experimental philosophy. Rett's Elements of General Knowledge. ^ Questions. — 1. Whnt habit does an early attention to mathemi tical studies produce ? 2. What is said of their practical utility 3. What are they calculated to teach ? 4. How is the benefit to I derived from them stated by Mr. Locke ? 5. Give a definition ( mathematics. C. Mow do pure mathematics consider quantity ? Mixed.? Note. Pure mathematics are arithmetic, algebra, geometry, ar fluxions : mixed consist chiefly of mochanics, pneumatics, hydn statics, optics, and astronomy. ^ i LESSON 8. ^ Imagi7iation. We do not merely perceive objects, and conceive or r* member them simply as they were, but we have the power c combining them in various new assemblages, — of formin at our will, with a sort of delegated omnipotence, noti single universe merely, but a iieii^ and varied universe, wit every succession of our thought. The materials of whic we form them are, indeed, materials that exist in ever mind ; but they exist in every mind only as the stones exii shapelessly in the quarry, that require little more than m( chanic labour to convert them into cornmon dwellings, bi that rise into palaces and temples only at the command o architectural genius. This power of combining our coi ceptions or remembrances in new assemblages is terme imagination. The most sublime exertions of imagination are made b IMAGINATION. 15 the poet. But we must not conceive, merely because they are sublime, that they comprehend the whole ojQice of ima* gination, or even its most important uses. It is of far more importance to mankind, as it operates in the common offices of life, — in the familiar feelings of every hour. What are all those pictures of the future, which are ever before our eyes, in the successive hopes, and fears, and designs of life, but imaginations, in which circumstances are combined that never perhaps, in the same forms and proportions, have ex- isted in reality, and which, very probably, are never to exist but in those very hopes and fears which we have formed ? The writer of romance gives secret motions and passions to the characters which he invents, and adds incident to inci- dent in the long series of complicated action which he de- velopes. What he does, we, too, are doing every hour ; — ' contriving events that never are to happen, — imagining mo- tives and passions, and thinking our little romances, of which ourselves, perhaps, are the primary heroes, but in the plot of which there is a sufficient complication of adventures of those whom we love, and those whom we dislike. Our ro- mances of real life, though founded upon facts, are, in their principal circumstances, fictions still ; and, though the fancy which they display may not be as brilliant, it is still the same in kind with that which forms and fills the history of imagi- nary heroes and heroines. It is well known, from experience, that the activity and consequent improvement of imagination, depend not a little upon the character of the objects with which it is first occu- pied. The great, the sublime, the beautiful, the new, and the uncommon, in external nature, are not only striking and agreeable in themselves, but, by association, these qualities powerfully awaken the sensibilities of the heart, and kindle the fires of youthful imagination. If the student permit objects which are mean, low, or sensual, to usurp possession of his mind ; if the books which he reads, and the studies that he pursues, are contaminated with gross ideas, he has no right to expect that this omnipotent faculty shall ever draw from the polluted treasures of his memory, any thing noble, useful, or praiseworthy ; or that his name shall ever be enrolled among those who have delighted, instructed, and honoured their native land and the world at large. By an excessive indulgence in the pleasures of imagina- 16 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. tion, the taste may acquire a fastidious refinement unsuitable to the present situation of human nature ; and those intel- lectual and moral habits, which ought to be formed by ac- tual experience of the world, may be gradually so accommo- dated to the dreams of poetry and romance, as to disqualify us for the scenes in which we are destined to act. But a well-regulated imagination is the great spring of human ac- tivity, and tlie principal source of human improvement. As it delights in presenting to the mind scenes and characters more perfect than those with which we are acquainted, it prevents us from ever being completely satisfied with our present condition, or with our past attainments, and engages us continually in the pursuit of some untried enjoyment, or of some ideal excellence. Destroy this faculty, and the con- ditioft of man will become as stationary as that of the brutes. Questions. — 1. What is imagination ? 2. By whom are its most sublime exertions made ? 3. Illustrate its operation in the common offices of life. 4. On what do the activity and improvement of ima- gination greatly depend ? 5. What may be the consequence of an excessive indulgence in the pleasures of imagination .'' 6. Why is a well-regulated imagination the great spring of human activity, and source of human improvement ? LESSON 9. Beauty and Sublimity. Emo'tions, vivid feelings arising immediately from the consider- ation of objects, perceived, remembered, or imagined. Cartoon', a painting or drawing upon several sheets of large paper pasted on canvass. The most celebrated are the cartoons of Raphael. See Lesson on Painting. Our emotions of beauty are various ; and, as they gra- dually rise, from object to object, a sort of regular progres- sion may be traced from the faintest beauty to the vastest sublimity. These extremes may be considered as united, by a class of intermediate feelings, for which grandeur might, perhaps, be a suitable term, that have more of beauty, or more of sublimity, according to their place in the scale of emotion. Let us imagine that we see before us a stream gently gliding through fields, rich with all the luxuriance of summer, overshadowed at times by the foliage that hangs BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 17 over it, from bank to bank, and then suddenly sparkling in the open sunshine, as if with a still brighter current than before. Let us trace it, till it widens to a majestic river, of which the waters are tlie boundary of two flourishing em- pires, conveying abundance equally to each, while city suc- ceeds city, on its populous shores, almost with the same ra- pidity as grove formerly succeeded grove. Let us next be- hold it losing itself in the immensity of the ocean, which seems to be only an expansion of itself, when there is not an object to be seen but its own wide amplitude, between the banks which it leaves, and the sun that is setting, as if in another world, in the remote horizon ; — in all this course, from the brook to the boundless waste of waters, — if we were to trace and contemplate the whole continued progress, we should have a series of emotions. The emotions which rose, when we regarded the fiarroio stream, would be those which we class as emotions of beaut?/. The emotions which rose when we considered that infinity of waters, in which it was ultimately lost, would be of the kind which we deno- minate sublimit?/ ; and the grandeur of the river, while it was still distinguishable from the ocean, to which it was pro- ceeding, might be viewed with feelings, to which, on the same principle of distinction, some other name or names might be given. The same progressive series of feelings, which may thus be traced as we contemplate works of nature, is not less evi- dent in the contemplation of works of human art, whether that art has been employed in material things, or be purely intellectual. From the cottage to the cathedral — from the simplest ballad air, to the harmony of a choral anthem — from a pastoral to an epic poem or tragedy — from a landscape to a cartoon, — in each case there is a wide interval, and you may easily perceive, that, merely by adding what seemed degree after degree, you arrive at last at emotions which have little apparent resemblance to the emotions with which the scale began. In the moral scene the progression is equally evident. Let us suppose, for example, that in the famine of an a;my, a soldier divides his scanty allowance with one of his com- rades, whose health is sinking under the privation. We feel in the contemplation of this action, a pleasure, which is that of moral beauty. In proportion as we imagine the famine 3* IS TASTE. of longer duration, or the prospect of relief less probable^ the action becomes more and more morally grand and heroic. Let us next imagine, that the comrade, to whose relief the soldier makes this generous sacrifice, is one whose enmity he has formerly experienced on some interesting occasion j and the action is not heroic merely, it is sublime. It is in the moral conduct of our fellow men, that the spe- cies of sublimity is to be found, which we most gladly re- cognise, as the character of that glorious nature, which we have received from God, — a character which makes us more erect in mind, than we are in stature, and enables us not to gaze on the heavens merely, but to lift to them our very wishes, and to imitate in some faint degree, and to admire at least, where we cannot imitate, the gracious perfection that dwells there. — Brown. Questions. — 1. What illustration is given of the emotions of beauty and subUmity which arise from contemplating the works of nature ? 2. Tlie works of human art ? 3. What is the example for illustrating moral beauty and sublimity ? LESSON 10. Taste. Fhie Arts, the arts generally distinguished by the appellation fine, are poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and engraving, with their several branches. To these may be added architectur« and gardening. The word taste has two general significations : one literal or primitive relating to corporeal sensations ; the other figu- rative, referring to mental discernment. This metaphor would not have been so general, had there not been a con- formity between mental taste, and that sensitive taste which gives us a relish of every flavour. The subject of this lesson •j^ mental or intellectual taste. Without the emotions of beauty and sublimity, there would be no taste to discern the aptitude of certain means for pro- ducing these emotions. On the other hand, w-ithout the judgment, which discerns this order, in the relations of means and ends, there would be no voluntary adaptation of the groat stores of forms and sounds, and colours, for producing TASTE. 10 them, — none of those fine arts which give as much happi- ness as embellishment to life. Reason and good sense have so extensive an influence on all the operations and decisions of taste, that a thorough good taste may well be considered as a power, compounded of natural sensibility to beauty, and of improved understanding. Frequent exercise and curious attention to its proper objects must greatly heighten its power. Nothing is more improveable than that part of taste, which is called an ear for music. At first, the sim- plest and plainest compositions only are relished. Our plea- sure is extended by use and practice, which teach us to re- lish finer melody, and by degrees enable us to enter into the intricate and compound pleasures of harmony. An eye for the beauties of painting is never acquired all at once. It is gradually formed by being conversant among pictures, and studying the works of the best masters. It is the same with respect to the beauty of composition or discourse : attention to the most approved models, study of the best authors, com- parisons of lower and higher degrees of the same beauties, operate towards the refinement of taste. In no part of nature is the pure benevolence of ^Jeaven more strikingly conspicuous than in our susceptibility of the emotions of this class. In consequence of these emotions, it is scarcely possible for us to look around, without feeling either some happiness or some consolation. Sensual plea- sures soon pall, even upon the profligate, who seeks them in vain in the means which were accustomed to produce them ; weary, almost to disgust, of the very pleasures which he seeks, and yet astonished that he does not find them. The labours of severer intellect, if long continued, exhaust the energy which they employ ; and we cease, for a time, to be capable of thinking accurately, from the very intentness and accuracy of our thought. The pleasures of taste, however, by their variety of easy delight, are safe from the languor which attends any monotonous or severe occupation, and, instead of palling on the mind, they produce in .it, with the very delight which is present, a quicker sensibility to future pleasure. Enjoyment springs from enjoyment ; and if we have not some deep wretchedness within, it is scarcely pos- sible for us, with the delightful resources which nature and art present to us, not to be happy, as often as we will to be happy. 20 POETRY. Questions. — 1. What are the two significations of the word taste ^ 2. What does intellectual taste discern ? 3. How may a thorough good taste be considered ? 4. What effect have exercise and atten- tion upon taste ? 5. What examples of this are given P 6. What is said of sensual pleasures ? 7. Of the pleasures of taste? LESSON 11. Poetry. The object of the philosopher is to inform and enlighten mankind ; that of the orator, to acquire an ascendant over the will of others, by bending to his own purposes their judg- ments, their imaginations, and their passions : but the pri- mary and the distinguishing aim of the poet is to jjlease ; and the principal resource which he possesses for this purpose, is by addressing the imagination. In poetry, we perceive every where what Akenside calls "The charm, That searchless nature o'er the sense of man Diffuses, — to behold, in lifeless tilings The inexpressive semblance of himself, Of thought and passion." The zephyrs laugli, — the sky smiles, — the forest frowns, — the storm and the surge contend together, — the solitary place not merely blossoms like the rose, but it is glad. AU nature becomes animated. The poetic genius, like that soul of the world, by which the early philosophers accounted for all earthly changes, breathes its own spirit into every thing surrounding it. The world is full of poetry — the air Is living with its spirit ; and the waves Dance to the music of its melodies. And sparkle in its brightness — earth is veiled, And mantled with its beauty ; and the walls, That close the universe, with crystal, in, Are eloquent with voices, that proclaim The unseen glories of immensity. STUDY OF HISTORY. i 'Tis not the chime and flow of words, that move \ In measured file, and metrical array ; 'Tis not the union of returning sounds, 1 Nor all the pleasing artifice of rhyme, And quantity, and accent, that can give 3 This all-pervading spirit to the ear, i Or blend it with the movings of the souh -i 'Tis a mysterious feeling, which combines ' Man with the world around him, in a chain ' Woven of flowers, and dipped in sweetness, till He taste the high communion of his thoughts, \ With all existences, in earth and heaven, That meet him in the charm of grace and power. J 'Tis not the noisy babbler, who displays, ' In studied phrase and ornate epithet, \ And rounded period, poor and vapid thoughts, ] Which peep from out the cumbrous ornaments, i That overload their littleness. Its words i Are few, but deep and solemn ; and they break j Fresh from the fount of feeling, and are full ; Of all that passion, which, on Carmel, fired j| The holy prophet, when his lips were coals, i His language winged with terror, as when bolts ' f^ Leap from the brooding tempest, armed with wrath, ^^ J Commissioned to affright us, and destroy. — Percival. j^ Questions. — 1. What is the object of the philosopher ? 2. Of ] the orator ? 3. Of the poet ? 4. What is the principal resource of the poet ? 5. To what is the poetic genius compared ? . LESSON 12. Advantages of studying History. If we consider the knowledge of history with regard to its application, we shall find that it is eminently useful to us in three respects, namely, as it appears in a moral, a political, and a religious point of view. In a moral point of view, it is beneficial to mankind at large, as the guide of their conduct. In a political — as it suggests useful expedients to those who exercise the public offices of SSS STUDY OF HISTORY. 1 the State ; or as it enables us to form, by comparison witli ' those who have gone before them, a just estimate of their I merits. In a religious — as it teaches us to regard the Supreme | Being as the governor of the universe, and sovereign disposer \ of all events. 1 The faculties of the soul are improved by exercise ; and ; nothing is more proper to enlarge, to quicken, and to refine \ them, than a survey of the conduct of mankind. History ] supplies us with a detail of facts, and submits them to exami- , nation before we are called into active life. By observation \ and reflection upon others we begin an early acquaintance \ with human nature, extend our views of the moral world, and ' are enabled to acquire such a habit of discernment, and cor- "i rectness of judgment, as others obtain only by experience. ] By meditating on the lives of sages and heroes, we exercise j our virtues in a review, and prepare them for approaching ac- I tion. We learn the motives, the opinions, and the passions 1 of the men who lived before us ; and the fruit of that study is 1 a more perfect knowledge of ourselves, and a correction of \ our failings by their examples. ^ Experience and the knowledge of history reflect nmtual ^ light, and afford mutual assistance. Without the former no j one can act with address and dexterity. Without the latter . no one can add to the natural resources of his own mind a \ knowledge of those precepts and examples, which have tended ] to form the character and promote the glory of eminent m.en. j History contributes to divest us of many illiberal prejudices, ] by enlarging our acquaintance with the world. It sets us at ; liberty from that blind partiality to our native country, which ] is a sure mark of a contracted mind, when due merit is not " allowed to any other. This study likewise tends to strengthen ; our abhorrence of vice ; and creates a relish for true greatness i and solid glory. We see the hero and the philosopher repre- | sented in their proper colours ; and as magnanimity, honour, 1 integrity, and generosity, when displayed in illustrious in- J stances, naturally make a favourable impression on our minds, ; our attachment to them is gradually formed. The fire of j enthusiasm and of virtuous emulation is lighted, and we long \ to practise what we have been instructed to approve. j The love of our country naturally awakens in us a spirit of ; curiosity to inquire into the conduct of our ancestors, and to ] learn the memorable events of their history. Nothing that -l PHILOSOPHY. happened to them can be a matter of indifference to us. We are their descendants, we reap the fruits of their public and private labours, and we not only share the inheritance of their property, but derive reputation from their noble actions. History, considered with respect to the nature of its sub- jects, may be divided into general trnd particular ; and with respect to time, into ancient and modern. Ancient history commences with the creation, and extends to the reign of Charlemagne, in the year of our Lord eight hundred. Modern history, beginning with that period, reaches down to the pre- sent times. General history relates to nations and public af- fairs, and may be subdivided into ecclesiastical and civil, or ac- cording to some writers, into sacred and profane. Biography, memoirs, and letters, constitute particular history. Statis'tics refer to the present condition of nations. Geography and chronology are important aids, and give order, regularity, and clearness to all. Kett. Questions. — 1. What is the advantage of history in a moral point of view ? 2. In a political .^ 3. In a religious? 4. What are the uses of history in respect to the mental facuhies and the conduct of life ? 5. How does history divest us of illiberal prejudices ? G. How does it tend to strengthen our abhorrence of vice, and create, a relish for true greatness ? 7. What is said of the history of our ancestors ? 8. How may history be divided .'' 9. subdivided ? LESSON 13. PhilosopTiy . Proposi'tion, a sentence in which any thing is affirmed or denied. Demonstra'tion, a process of reasoning in which we perceive it to be impossible that the conclusion should not follow from the premises, or antecedent propositions. By philosophy we mean the knowledge of the reasons of things, in opposition to history, which is the bare knowledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the knowledge of the quantity of things, or their measures. These three kinds of knowledge ought to be joined as much as possible. History furnishes matter, principles, and practical examinations, and mathematics complete the evidence. All arts have their pe- culiar philosophy, which constitutes their theory. It is to be observed, that the bare intelligence and memory of philoso- 24 PHILOSOPHY. phical proposi'tions, without an ability to demo'nstrate them, is not philosophy, but history only. Where such propositions, however, are determinate and true, they may be usefully ap- plied in practice, even by those who are ignorant of their de- monstrations. Philosophy discovers and teaches those principles by means of which happiness may be acquired, preserved, and increased. Wisdom applies these principles to the benefit of individuals and of society. Knowledge which is applicable to no useful purpose cannot deserve the name of wisdom. The sources of that knowledge of truth which leads to the possession of happiness are reason and revelation. To instruct men in those truths which God hath communicated to mankind by revelation, is the province of theology. To teach them such truths, connected with their happiness, as are capable of being discovered by the powers of reason, is the province of philosophy. The leading offices of philosophy may be easily deduced from the general idea of its object. As the permanent en- joyment of real good is the end to be attained, the business of philosophy, therefore, will be to cultivate the understand- ing, and direct its operations ; to correct and improve the will and affections ; to inquire out the causes of natural ap- pearances, and hence arrive .at the knowledge of the first cause, under those characters and relations that are most interesting to mankind ; to conduct men to such an acquaint- ance with the properties of natural bodies, and their recipro- cal actions, as shall enable them to apply the objects around them to their own convenience ; and, finally, to assist them in investigating the principles of social virtue, and thus pro- vide themselves with such rules of conduct as arise from mu- tual convenience and interest, from the natural sentiments of justice and humanity, and from the voluntary engagements of civil society. Questions. — 1. What is meant by philosophy ? 2. What three kinds of knowledge should be joined as much as possible? 3. What is the distinction between philosophy and wisdom ? 4. What is the province of theology ? 5. Of philosophy ? 6. What are the leading offices of philosophy ? Note. The three great objects of philosophy are God, man, arid the universe. Philosophy is sometimes divided into three parts, intellectual, moral, and physical, or natural. I>RAISE 0^ PHILOSOPHY. <15 LESSON i4 The Praise of Philosophy. But now !et other themes our care engage^ For lo, with modest yet majestic grace, To curb imagination's lawless rage, And from within the cherish'd heart to brace. Philosophy appears. The gloomy race By Indolence and moping Fancy bred, Fear, Discontent, Solicitude, give place, And Hope and Courage brighten in their stead, While on the kindling soul her vital beams are shed Then waken from long lethargy to life The seeds of happiness and powers of thought ; Then jarring appetites forego their strife, A strife by ignorance to madness wrought. Pleasure by savage man is dearly bought With fell revenge, lust that defies control, With gluttony and death. The mind untaught Is a dark waste, where fiends and tempests howl ; As Phoebus to the world, is science to the soul. And Reason now through number, time, and space, Darts the keen lustre of her serious eye, And learns, from facts compared, the laws to trace, Whose long progression leads to Deity. Can mortal strength presume to soar so high ! Can mortal sight, so ok bedimm'd with tears ^uch glory bear ! — for lo, the shadows fly From Nature's face ; confusion disappears. And order charms the eyes, and harmony the ears |n the deep windings of the grove, no more The hag obscene and grisly phantom dwell ; )Kor in the fall of mountain-stream, or roar Of winds, is heard the angry spirit's yell ; No wizard mutters the tremendous spell, f^or sinks convulsive in prophetic swoon ; Nor bids the noise of drums and trumpets swell, Vo ease of fancied pangs the labouring moon, Or chase the shade that blots the blazing wb of noon 3 SS6 PRAISE OP PHILOSOPHY. Many a long-lingering year, in lonely isle, Stunn'd with th' eternal turbulence of waves, Lo, with dim eyes, that never learn'd to smile, "g/ And trembling hands, the famish'd native craves Of Heaven his wretched fare : shivering in caves, Or scorch'd on rocks, he pines from day to day : But Science gives the word ; and lo, he braves The surge and tempest, lighted by her ray, And to a happier land wafts merrily away. And even where nature loads the teeming plains With the full pomp of vegetable store, Her bounty unimproved is deadly bane : Dark woods, and rankling wilds, from shore to shore, Stretch their enormous gloom ; which to explore Even Fancy trembles in her sprightliest mood ; For there, each eye-ball gleams with lust of gore, Nestles each murderous and each monstrous brood. Plague lurks in every shade, and steams from every flood. 'Twas from Philosophy man learn'd to tame The soil by plenty to intemperance fed. Lo, from the echoing axe, and thundering flame, Poison, and Plague, and yelling Rage are fled. The waters bursting from their slimy bed, Bring health and melody to every vale : And from the breezy main, and mountain's head, Ceres and Flora to the sunny dale. To fan their glowing charms, invite the flutt'ring gale. What dire necessities on every hand Our art, our strength, our fortitude require ! Of foes intestine what a numerous band Against this little throb of life conspire ! Yet Science can elude their fatal ire i Awhile, and turn aside death's levell'd dart. Sooth the sharp pang, allay the fever's fire, f And brace the nerves once more, and cheer the heart, And yet a few soft nights and balmy days impart. Nor less to regulate man's moral frame Science exerts her all-composing sway. Flutters thy breast with fear, or pants for fame, Or pines, to Indolence and Spleen a prey, GENEitAt PROPERTIES OP BOfiilES. at Or Avarice, a fiend more fierce than they ? Flee to the shade of Academus' grove ; Where Cares molest not, Discord melts away In harmony, and the pure passions prove How sweet the words of Truth breathed from the lips of Love. What cannot Art and Industry perform, When Science plans the progress of their toil ! They smile at penury, disease, and storm ; And oceans from their mighty mounds recoil. When tyrants scourge, or demagogues embroil A land, or when the rabble's headlong rage Order transforms to anarchy and spoil, Deep-versed in man, the philosophic sage Prepares with lenient hand their frenzy to assuage. 'Tis he alone, whose comprehensive mind, From situation, temper, soil, and clime Explored, a nation's various powers can bind And various orders, in one form sublime Of polity, that midst the wrecks of time. Secure shall lift its head on high, nor fear Th' assault of foreign or domestic crime, ; While public Faith, and public Love sincere, And Industry and Law maintain their sway severe. Beattib. LESSON 15. j General Properties of Bodies. Symmetrical, proportionate, having parts well adapted to each other, i Cap'illary, a term applied to tubes of a very small bore, scarcely ^ larger than to admit a hair, derived from capillus, the Latin ] word for hair. When we speak of bodies, we mean substances, of what- \ ever nature, whether solid or fluid ; and matter is the ge- neral term used to denote the substance of which the diffe- rent bodies are composed. As we do not suppose any body ; 2ft GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BODIES. to exist without certain properties, such as impenetrability, extension, figure, divisibility, inertness, and attraction, these, therefore, are called the general properties of bodies. By impenetrability , is meant the property which bodies have of occupying a certain space, so that, where one body is, another cannot be, without displacing the former ; for two bodies cannot exist in the same place at the same time. A liquid may be more easily removed than a solid body ; yet it is not the less substantial, since it i? as impossible for a liquid and a solid to occupy the same space at the same time, as for two solid bodies to do so. If some water be put into a tube closed at one end, and a piece of wood be inserted that accurately fits the inside of the tube, it will be impos- sible to force the wood to the bottom, unless the water is first taken away. The air is a fluid differing in its nature from liquids, but not less impenetrable. If you endeavour to fill a phial by immersing it in water, the air will rush out in bubbles in order to make way for the water ; and if you reverse the phial, and plunge it perpendicularly into the wa- ter, so that the air will not be able to escape, the water will not fill it, though it will rise a little, because it compresses the air into a smaller space in the upper part of the glass. A body which occupies a certain space must necessarily have extension ; that is to say, length, breadth, and depth. These are called the dimensions of extension, and we can- not form ail idea of any body without them. The limits of extension are called figure or shape. A body having length, breadth, and depth, cannot be without form, either symme- trical or irregular ; and this property admits of almost an in- finite variety. The natural form of mineral substances is that of crystals ; many of them are very beautiful, and not less remarkable for their transparency and colour, than for their perfect regularity, as may be seen in the various mu- seums and collections of natural history. The vegetable and animal creation appears less symmetrical, but is still more diversified in figure than the mineral kiji^dpm. Mfc^^ nufactured substances assume the various arbitrary f<^ms . which the art of man designs for them. Divisibility is that property of matter, by which its parts may be divided and separated from each other ; and of this division there can be no end. We can never conceive of a particle of matter so small as not to have an upper and under GENERAL PROPERTIES OF BODIES. 29 surface, which might be separated, if we had instruments fine enough for the purpose. A grain of gold may be ham- mered by the gold-beaters to such a degree of fineness, that the two millionth part of it may be seen by the naked eye ; and by the help of a microscope the fifty millionth part will be visible. There are animals, it is said, so small that a single grain of sand is larger than four millions of them. But the natural divisions of matter are still more wonderful. The fragrance of a body is a part of the body itself, and is produced by very minute particles or exhalations which escape from it. How inconceivably small must be the odo- riferous particles of a carnation, which diffuse themselves through a whole garden, so that, in every part of it, its fra- grance is perceptible ! The word inertness expresses the resistance which inac- tive matter makes to a change of state. It requires some external force to put a body which is at rest in motion ; and an exertion of strength is also requisite to stop a body which is already in motion. If a ball were fired from a cannon with a certain velocity, and there were no resistance from the air, it would circulate round the earth perpetually, and never come to a state of rest. In this manner the moon goes round the earth. By attraction is meant the tendency that bodies have to approach each other, whatever be the cause of such tenden- cy. All bodies are composed of infinitely small particles of matter, each of which possesses the power of attracting or drawing towards itself any other particle, and of uniting with it, when sufficiently near to be within the influence of its attraction ; but in minute particles this power extends t® so very small a distance around them that its eflfect is not sensible, unless they are, or at least appear to be, in contact. It then makes them adhere together, and is hence called the attraction of cohesion. It is by this principle that bodies preserve their forms, and are prevented from falling to pieces. The cohesive attraction of solids is much greater than that of fluids ; and in elastic fluids, such as air, there is no cohesive attraction among the particles, and the utmost efforts of human art have proved ineffectual in the attempt to compress them, so as to bring them within the sphere of each other's attraction, and make them cohere. If two po- lished plates of marble, or of brass be but together with a 3* 30 ATTRACTION OF GRAVITATION. little oil between them to fill up the pores in their surfaces, they will cohere so powerfully as to require a very consi- derable force to separate them. Two globules of quicksil- ver, placed very near to each other, will run together, and drops of water will do the same. The ascent of water and other liquids in sugar, sponge, and all porous bodies is a spe- cies of this attraction, and is called capillary attraction. Some bodies appear to possess a power which is the re- verse of the attraction of cohesion. It is called repulsion, and is supposed to extend to a small distance around bodies, so as to prevent them from coming into actual contact. Water repels most bodies till they are wet. A small needle carefully placed on water will float. The drops of dew which appear in the morning on plants assume a globular form, from the mutual attraction between the particles of V4^ater; and upon examination it will be found that the drops do not touch the leaves, for they roll off in compact bodies, which would not be the case if there existed any degree of attraction between the water and the leaf. The repelling force between water and oil is so great that it is impossible- to mix them in such a manner that they shall not separate again. Questions. — 1. What is matter ? 2. What are the general pro- perties of bodies ? 3. What is impenetrability ? 4. By what experi- ments is this property of matter illustrated ? 5. Define extension and figure. 6. What is divisibility, and liow illustrated ? 7, Define inert- ness ? 8. What is meant by attraction ? 9. Attraction of cohesion ? 10. What is said of the attraction of solids and fluids ? 11. What ex- periments illustrate cohesive attraction .' 12. What is capillary at- traction.' 13. What is repulsion, and by what experiments illua- Uftted. LESSON 16, Attraction of Gravitation. Roctilin'ear, consisting of right or straight lines. Curvilin'ear, consisting of crooked, or curved lines. Projec'tile, a body put in motion. Evaga'tion, a wandering deviation. Phenom'enon, (pi. phenomena) appearance^ commonly oxprossivc of some remarkable appearance in nature. The attraction of gravitation is only a modification of the j ATTRACTION Of GRAVITATION. 31 attraction of cohesion. The latter is not perceptible but in very minute particles, and at very small distances, the other acts on the largest bodies, and extends to immense distances. That very law which moulds a tear, And bids it trickle from its source, That law preserves the earth a sphere. And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers. The tendency which bodies have to fall is produced en- tirely by the attraction of the earth ; for the earth is so much larger than any body, on its surface, that it forces every body, which is not supported, to fall upon it. The follov/ing simple incident led to the most extensive and complicated calculations, and was productive of the most noble and won- derful discoveries. Newton happening one day, in the year 1666, when only twenty-five years of age, to be sitting under an apple-tree, and an apple falling upon his head, it suggested a variety of reflections. The phenomena of falling bodies in particular engaged his attention ; and, extending his re- searches to the heavens, he began to investigate the nature of motion in general. Because there is motion, he reason^ ed, there must be a force that produces it. But what is this force 1 That a body when left to itself, will fall to the ground, is known to the most ignorant ; but if you ask them the rea- son of its thus falling, they will think you either an idiot or ' a madman. The circumstance is too common to excite their wonder, although it is so embarrassing to philosophers, that they think it almost inexplicable. It is the mark of a supe- rior genius to find matter for wonder, observation, and re- search, in circumstances which to the ordinary mind appear trivial, because they are common, and with which they are satisfied, because they are natural, without reflecting that nature is our grand field of observation, that within it is con- tained our whole store of knowledge ; in a word, that Us study the works of nature, is to learn to appreciate and ad- mire the wisdom of God. In applying his reflections on the nature of falling bodies to the celestial motions, Newton soon perceived that the force of gravity was not confined to the surface of our globe ; it being found to act alike at the bottom of the lowest valleys, jind at the summit of the most lofty mountains. This led 32 ATTRACTION OF GRAVITATION. him to conjecture, that it might extend as far as the qjoon, and be the means of retaining her in her orbit. Imagine the moon, he reasoned, at the first moment of its creation, to have been projected forward, with a certain velocity, in a rectilinear direction ; then, as soon as it began to move, gra- vity would act upon it, an