UC-NRLF The Rural Problem and the Catholic School By T. LEO KEAVENY, A. M. A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Philosophy of the Catholic University of America in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Washington, D. C., 1922 o . ?*l\-g?\f*"ll ;/. t V v-> '.%; > J-? ?,-** ' "4 < ..*. .' ~ ' 7 V ?' 'i* I * t * %** * * * To THE RT. REV. JOSEPH F. BUSCH. D. D. BISHOP OP ST. CLOUD THIS MONOGRAPH is RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. COPYRIGHT 1922, T. LEO KEATBNY. w CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION ........................................... i Chapter I. The Priest in the Rural Parish .................... .1 Chapter II. Distinctive Features of The Catholic Rural School.. 15 Chapter III. The Catholic Rural School: Part I. The Need ........................... 25 Part II. Organization and Supervision ......... 32 Part III. Various Substitutes .................. 42 Chapter IV. The Preparation and Qualifications of the Teacher in the Catholic Rural School ..................... 47 Chapter V. The Curriculum of the Catholic Rural School ....... 63 Chapter VI. Examples of Catholic Rural Schools ............... 76 Conclusion ................................................... 83 Bibliography ............................... * ................. 85 478675 INTRODUCTION One of the many serious questions that confront the American people is the Rural Problem. This problem has direct reference to forty-eight per cent of our people and in an indirect way concerns the other fifty-two per cent. Gradually we have become an urban nation, developing urban attitudes and interests and are, therefore, prone to neglect the needs of our rural population. The exodus of rural people to industrial centers many Sociologists, Economists and Churchmen believe to be detrimental to the common good of the nation. This rural depopulation is one of the factors to be noted in the solution of the Rural Problem but it is not the prime factor. The Rural Problem is rather the development and maintenance on our fertile lands of a permanent, sat- isfied, agricultural population living in harmony with the best of American ideals. Defined in this manner, the problem presents many viewpoints, the Economic, Social and Educational. In this dissertation, we shall consider the problem from a Catholic educational point of view. We believe that a partial, if not a complete solution of it is to be found in religion, based on the love of God and neighbor. This necessitates a short survey of the country church. Moreover, in the Catholic economy, the Church and the School are intimately con- nected and one presupposes the other. In the Catholic system of education are found characteristics that are not met with in the State system; these likewise must be noted. Regarding the Catholic rural school proper, after calling attention to the need for it, we shall en- deavor to map out its organization and supervision and shall submit for consideration various substitutes now employed. Positing the existence of the school, the posi- tion of the teacher, her preparation and qualifications will be discussed. The curriculum also enters into our general plan and at the conclusion of this study are pre- sented a few examples of Catholic rural educational ef- fort to show what may be accomplished to meet the needs of rural people. The aim in this discussion is to discover a means by which the Rural Problem can be solved from a Catholic educational viewpoint. CHAPTER I THE PRIEST IN THE RURAL PARISH One of the outstanding problems in American rural life today is to be found in the decline of the rural church. Surveys conducted in recent years point to this defect as one of the cancers that are eating the vitals out of American public life. Religion must enter into the hearts of the people or evil looms up for the future. It is, indeed, only too true that the country church, both in Catholic and non-Catholic circles, is not fulfilling the mission for which it was intended. During the last year of President Roosevelt's ad- ministration the report of the Commission on Country Life was presented to the American public. 1 In this re- port emphasis was laid on the necessity of a strong, deep religious spirit that would permeate the entire rural population and create a contented and satisfied state of mind in the farmer. "The forces and institutions that make for morality and spiritual ideals among rural people must be energized. We miss the heart of the problem if we neglect to foster personal character and neighborhood righteousness. The best way to preserve ideals for private conduct is to build up the institutions of Religion. The Church has the greatest power of leadership. The whole people should understand that 1. The personnel of the Commission on Country Life comprised the following : Professor H. L. Bailey, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y., Chairman; Henry Wallace, Wallaces' Farmer: Des Moines, Iowa; Kenyon L. Butterfield, President Massachusetts Agricultural College, Am- herest, Mass.; Gifford Pinchot, U. S. Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Walter H. Page, of North Carolina, Editor of The World's Work; Charles S. Barret, Union City, Ga.; William A. Beard, Sacramento, Cal. TT&e .R^raZ Problem and the Catholic School it is vitally important to stand behind the rural church and to help it to become a great power in developing country-life ideals. It is especially important that the country church recognize that it has a social responsi- bility to the entire community as well as a religious re- sponsibility to its own groups of people.'?* The Commission on Country Life stated expressly that it did not wish or intend to dictate religious policies or to offer advice to religious societies or sects. It stated, however, that "any consideration of the problem of rural life that leaves out of account the function and possi- bilities of the church, and of related institutions, would be grossly inadequate. This is not only because in the last analysis the country life problem is a moral prob- lem, or that in the best development of the individual the great motives and results are religious and spiritual, but because from the purely sociological point of view the church is fundamentally a necessary institution in country life. . ... The time has arrived when the church must take a larger leadership, both as an institu- tion and through its pastors, in the social reorganization of rural life."* Any attempt to solve the rural problem, whether from a social, economic or political point of view, must of necessity embrace the religious side of life. "Society can be healed in no other way than by a return to Chris- tian life and Christian institutions." 4 Problems that so vitally affect the entire social group must be solved in the light of Christian ideals of life. "The cooperation of many agencies is required for the reconstruction of rural society. Few writers on Eural Sociology neglect to assign to the Church an important place among these agencies, but the Church itself must aspire to a more important place in rural society than 2. Beport of the Commission on Country Life, New York, p. 27. 3. Report of the Commission on Country Life, New York, p. 138. 4. Leo XIII Encyclical "Eerum Novarum," 1891. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 3 is usually allotted to it even by the most friendly soci- ologists. It must do so because its own well-being is so definitely bound up with rural life." 5 The Catholic Church does not confine its activities to functions that are of mere social import; it is, first and foremost, concerned with the spiritual welfare of man. It is in this regard that many sociologists writing on the rural problem make their mistake. They conceive the Church as an organization ministering to the material wants of man primarily and secondarily attending to their spiritual needs. The Catholic Church, if it is to at- tain success in rural communities must, in the first place, provide for the spiritual nature of man and then look to his material wants. The future of the Catholic Church is intimately bound up with rural life. " Since the country is the prolific source of population it is obvious that the Church which ministers to rural congregations is assured of the future in the city as well as in the country. Notwithstanding the prolific increase of the first generation of city dwellers, cities tend to extinction, through a restricted birth rate, caused voluntarily or otherwise. That the children are actually in the country may be seen by a comparison of the school attendance with the total population in city and country gathered from the thirteenth census. Rural Urban Total population 53.7 46.3 School attendance 57.4 42.6 "Even this high percentage of children in the country probably does not clearly represent the facts because of the low rural school attendance. The neglect of the country by the Church will mean not merely the loss of numbers in the future, but the loss of leaders because the country has been the natural training school 5. A program of Bural Action, Edwin V. O'Hara, L. L. D., 1922, Washington, D. C., p. 4. 4 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School of individualism and initiative, as it has also been the most favorable field for the development of religious vocations."* It is patent therefore that the Church which devotes its energies to the development of a rural population will be insured of its future. As has been stated previously, the "country is the natural training school for individ- ualism and initiative;" the individual living in the open country has untold opportunities for the development of self-reliance and initiative. In urban surroundings when need overtakes us, we immediately call for an ex- pert to minister to us; but in the country we have to rely on our own resources and there learn to work out our own salvation in meeting daily needs. In the country is found the remnant of the industrial home and it is due to the educational opportunities which the industrial home offers that self-reliance and initiative are more easily developed in the country than in the city. "The constant presence of both parents and of the adult mem- bers of the home group furnished opportunity for con- stant instruction of the children in all the practical af- fairs of life, while the life-sustaining industry carried on within the precincts of the home furnished material for physical education and sensory-motor training of a high order. The will of the child was strengthened and his character developed by the responsibilities which he gradually took over and by the atmosphere of love in which he lived. The real interest which called forth his efforts acted as a powerful stimulus in developing his various faculties." 7 The first factor in any plan or method of Catholic rural school action is the Catholic priest living in the rural parish. He must be the religious leader of the community, but before this is realized the , Catholic 6. Ibid. p. 5. 7. Shields, Thomas E., Philosophy of Education, Washington. D. 0., 1917, p. 282. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 5 Church in general must be made aware of the importance of the rural church. In other words, the parish in the small town will have to assume a new status. Any state of mind that might lead one to look upon the small town as a place of probation, which must be endured until the day arrives when the country pastor betakes himself to a large city parish, should be eliminated. This concept of the country pastorate as a stepping stone to the urban parish acts as a drawback and, having this idea, the country pastor either consciously or unconsci- ously is hindered from putting forth his best efforts. The individual priest cannot always be blamed because in many instances rural life is alien to him. He has been reared in urban surroundings and all his natural interests are centered there. Hence the bishop in appointing men to such parishes should take into con- sideration this fact. The importance of the little rural parish is some- times under-estimated. In the small parish the priest represents the entire Catholic Church; with him its in- fluence rises or falls ; and thus the best type of men should be selected for the rural charges. The large city parish can to some extent depend on its prestige but the standing of a little country parish depends on the per- sonality of the pastor. In the open country judgment, diplomacy, activity, progressiveness and leadership are the natural virtues required in a priest. 44 We must have a complete conception of the country pastorate. The country pastor must be a community leader. He must know the rural problems. He must have sympathy with rural ideals and aspirations. He must love the country; he must know the country life, the difficulties that the farmer has to face in his business, some of the great scientific revelations made in behalf of 6 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School agriculture, the great industrial forces at work for the making or the unmaking of the farmer, the fundamental social problems of the life of the open country." 5 The rural pastor in America, although confronted with difficulties that are unknown in urban surroundings, has advantages and opportunities of which his fellow- priest in the large city parish is deprived. Since he serves a small number of people, he is enabled to enter into their lives and become acquainted with their needs and difficulties. He has the opportunity to become the spokesman of the community not only in religious mat- ters but also in social and economic affairs that affect the district in which he lives. In most cases the people look to him for aid and advice. The attitude of mind in rural people offers a problem for psychology. They transfer the priest's authority in matters religious to matters social and regard his word in many instances as final. Often, he is the only individual in the community, with the exception of the village doctor, who has received a college training and has an understanding of Sociology, and Economics. Many priests and ministers realize the amount of confidence that rural people have in their pas- tors and respond to the situation, thereby aiding the community not only in a religious but also in a social and economic way. "If the Church were to surrender its leadership at this time, when so much is at stake, it would cause little short of a calamity. The strong young men and women of correct vision and initiative who are to set up new standards of living in the country community should ac- quire their preparation under the inspiration and guid- ance of religious motives. The tendency of the day is to reduce everything to worldly standards. The Church 8. Report of the Commission on Country Life, New York, 1911, p. 144. Jie Rural Problem and the Catholic School 7 has been the saving force in the habits and the moral conduct of the country people ; it must ever continue as such. "2 Altho replete with opportunities for the zealous priest, country life also presents obstacles that impede effective work. One of the difficulties encountered in the small parish is the question of revenue. In some of the country districts, especially in the Western dioceses of this country, the revenue is so scant that the priest finds it impossible to supply the necessaries of life under mod- ern conditions. The salary of the country pastor should at least be sufficient to enable him to live according to his station in life. Curates in many of the city parishes are better situated financially than country pastors. This state of affairs is irksome and has a depressing effect that shows itself in the pastor's work. If the country parish is unable to support the pastor, and the number of people in the community demands a resident priest, the deficit should be supplied by a central fund furnished by the diocesan authorities. Another objection to country parishes' is their isolation. The country priest is cut off from his fellow priests and unless he is a student he is very apt to find rural life unpleasant. This is especially true in the parish .that is unable to erect or support a parochial school. This factor of isolation is rapidly disappearing owing to the advent of the automobile and the perfection of the means of communication. Considering the opportunities and the difficulties we are led to think American rural life is in dire need of another St. Benedict, a man fired with zeal for souls and with a deep realization of the vast possibilities for good in American rural life. Many of our bishops, aware of the possibilities, are endeavoring to build up Catholic rural communities. The late Archbishop of St. Paul, 9. Foght, Harold W., Rural Denmark and its Softools, 1915, p. 334. 8 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School John Ireland, saw the opportunity of a rural Catholic population and instituted settlements in various parts of Minnesota. Colonies were opened up at De Graff, Clon- tarf (Swift County), Adrian (Nobles County), Avoka, Fulda (Murray County), Graceville (Big Stone County), Minneota and Ghent (Lyons County). 10 The above set- tlements, although started thirty and forty years ago, still have a strong Catholic rural population. With one or two exceptions, each of these towns has a large par- ochial school which is a credit to the zeal of the Catholic people. Probably the greatest example of rural church lead- ership in modern times is to be found in the person of the Lutheran Bishop Nikolai Frederik Severin Grund- tvig of Denmark. The middle of the eighteenth century found Denmark in a deplorable condition; the urban trend was marked; landlordism was in the ascendancy; education was at a standstill ; in short, the national life of Denmark presented a sorry spectacle. Kef orms began in 1781, but the Napoleonic Wars left the nation politi- cally and financially stranded. From 1823 to 1835 more than one-third of the large estates were sold and measures were enacted that afforded relief to the nation. The War of 1864 with Germany again retarded progress but under the leadership of Bishop Grundtvig a new out- look and philosophy of life was adopted by the Danish people. He maintained that "Education must become universal, practical and democratic and that hereafter Denmark's defense must be built on the foundation of broad intelligence rooted in the love of God and home and native land. ' ni With the assistance of Kristen Kold he built up the system of "Folk High Schools," an insti- tution which played the greatest part in the rehabilitation of rural Denmark. The first school was opened in North 10. Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, p. 368. 11. Foght, H. W., Rural Denmark and its Schools, 1915, New York. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 9 Slesvig at Rodding in 1844.^ Due to troublesome times and the German War of 1864 the school was temporarily abandoned and after the treaty of peace was moved across the boundary line. Here under the name of "Askov Folkeshojskole" it became the pattern of all other Danish Folk High Schools. One remarkable feature about this school is to be found in the spirit that it incul- cates into the pupils. "It is claimed that they have dis- covered the way to educate young men back to the farms, and if this be true, it is worth while to note how they do it. Some main causes are principal and some are con- tributory. In the first place, all their courses and ex- periments are associated with the sense of the dignity of labor. They teach not caste, nor self-conscious pride that looks for contrasts and distinctions, but a simple love for the farm, the forest and the sea the dignity of the farmer's occupation, let other occupations be what they may."^ That the schools have educated the indi- vidual for rural life can be seen from a consideration of the census. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the rural population numbered 733,000 while the urban population reached 196,000.^ When the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century set in, Denmark in common with other European countries experienced an urban trend and agri- culture suffered a distinct loss. This fact is illustrated in the following graph which gives the annual increase per 10,000 persons : 12. Foght, H. W., The Danish Folk High Schools, U. 8. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1914, Number 22, p. 15. 13. Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918, Vol. II, p. 456. 14. Foght, H. W., The Educational System of Eural Denmark, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1913, N. 58, p. 9. 10 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School Annual increase of population per 10,000 Periods Capital Provincial Rural Total Towns per cent rural 1801-1840 48 112 85 79 1840-1880 190 177 82 72 1880-1890 325 230 21 67 1890-1901 259 252 28 61 1901-1906 152 110 999 66 It will be seen that the urban trend increased rapidly till the close of the eighties, while in 1890 the cooperative and educational enterprises became stronger and the cityward tide somewhat abated. 15 We would not convey the impression that the Folk High Schools and the elementary school system of Den- mark were solely responsible for the break in the urban trend but they were undoubtedly the most prominent factor. Bishop Grundtvig saw the possibilities of a rural Denmark and left no stone unturned until his plan was realized and today Denmark stands before the world as an example in rural education and farmer's cooperative associations. From the social viewpoint, rural life in Denmark has ceased to be the compliment of city life and isolation and lack of social intercourse have virtually ceased to exist. These latter factors are due to a large extent to the presence of a strong rural church, w r hose ministers understand the place of the Church in country life. The change brought ab'out in Denmark contains in- teresting and significant lessons which the American public might well imitate. In 1790 only 3.4 per cent of the population of the United States was urban; in 1890 15. Ibid. p. 10. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 11 it reached 33.1 per cent and in 1920 the urban population had surpassed the rural with a percentage of 51.9 while the rural had 48.1.** In the United States we can expect that the great industrial centers will continue to increase but this in- crease should not be at the expense of the rural communi- ties. "We should so organize our agricultural affairs that American rural districts may hereafter retain a majority of the rural minded people who now live upon the soil, as well as their natural increase from year to year. This would mean the gradual organization of a natural agricultural population, capable of greatly in- creased production. Then would cease the beguiling call of 'back to the land' of those who have already moved away from the land and who had just as well stay away because they are not rural minded. ' ' 17 We mentioned above that the Catholic priest has the opportunity of becoming the community leader, due to his position as minister of the gospel. There we had in mind his attitude toward Catholic and non-Catholic inter- ests. Now we intend to present his attitude towards organizations that concern only members of his own church. This is an age of organization and unless an organization is imbued with Christian principles it be- comes a menace to the public welfare. Cooperative agencies are multiplying more rapidly today than at any other period of the world's economic history and it is essential that correct principles be incorporated into their by-laws and constitutions. Much can be accom- plished in these matters by Catholic farmers in coopera- tion with their pastors. The country priest can organize associations to study all phases of the agrarian question and to inculcate Catholic principles into their cooperative enterprises. 16. Fourteenth Census of the United States, Washington, 1922. 17. Foght, H. W., Bural Denmark and its Schools, New York, 1917. 12 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School In speaking of the country pastor's attitude toward cooperative associations, we might mention another al- lied factor. This is the need of recreational and social organizations in rural districts. During the past few decades the rural church has neglected this phase of human activity and consequently other institutions in the form of fraternal organizations have assumed many of the social and even religious duties proper to the Church. In many rural communities these organizations are the only means by which the people can come to- gether and satisfy their instinct for social intercourse. " These organizations not only compete with the Church socially, but they absorb time, energy and money that might otherwise, in part at least, be devoted to the Church; and worst of all, they sometimes produce the impression that, so far as human welfare is concerned, they are almost as serviceable as the Church.'^ 5 The open country affords few opportunities for the gratification of the farmer's social instinct. The Ameri- can farmer is still isolated in spite of the advent of modern conveniences and the social meetings, in the form of husking bees and barn raisings, which featured the pioneer days, have passed out of American rural life. The farmer is conscious of this isolation and his children even more so ; the country pastor, if he is awake to the possibilities, is presented with an opportunity of which few city parishes can boast. In the city youth frequents commercialized places of amusement but country life is singularly free from this, and it is the duty of the country Church to offer some form of amusement that will satisfy the social instinct of the individual. The lack of recre- ational and social activities is one of the prominent causes of rural disintegration ; man is a social being and 18. Butterfieia, Kenyon, The Country Church and the Eural Problem, University of Chicago Press, 1911, p. 100. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 13 craves companionship, and if this is not forthcoming in the country, he seeks other places where it can be ob- tained. -1 We have endeavored to present the ideal attitude of the Catholic priest toward rural life. The rural prob- lem is not a question of increased production but rather of the ' l establishment on the land of a permanent, satis- fied agricultural population made up of the rural-minded people now there, and their natural increase from gen- eration to generation. " 19 To attain the solution the Church and other agencies must come to the assistance of the farmer, because reform to be effective must always come from within. "The miracle to be wrought," says George W. Rus- sell (AE), "is the creation of a rural civilization. Civ- ilization implies some measure of luxury and comfort; it can only be obtained when the community is organized and has the strength to retain some surplus of wealth beyond what is required for the bare necessities of life . . .because the farmer is more isolated by the nature of his employment than any other class he is the last to be organized, and his industry has suffered more in modern times than any other. Mutual aid, cooperative action clan or communal were instinctive with ancient rural communities. This was the true foundation on which alone a rural civilization could be built up." 80 Dr. Edwin O'Hara, of the Rural Life Bureau of the National Catholic Welfare Council, presents the rural problem as "the problem of maintaining on the land a sufficient population, effective and prosperous in produc- tion, and happy and content by reason of a highly de- veloped social and cultural status."* 1 19. Foght, H. W., The Eural Teacher and his Work, New York, 1917. p. 35. 20. Eussell, G. W., quoted in "A program of Catholic Eural Action," by Edwin V. O'Hara, 1922, p. 4. 21. Ibid. p. 4. 14 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School Any attempted solution of the problem from a Catholic viewpoint necessitates the realization of the im- portance of the priest. With this realization comes the place of the parochial school in rural life. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 15 CHAPTER II DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE CATHOLIC RURAL SCHOOL Prior to the discussion of the role of the Catholic school in American rural life, it is necessary to take note of the characteristics that differentiate the Catholic school from the school that is supported and controlled by public authority. Many of the difficulties that con- front the State school are not found in the Catholic rural school and problems that the Catholic rural school experi- ences do not affect the State system of education. We shall consider, in the first place, features that are com- mon to all Catholic schools, and later take up the charac- teristics of Catholic rural schools. First among the distinguishing marks of the Cath- olic school is the philosophy that underlies the entire Catholic system of education. There is a direct relation between the Catholic Church and her school system and the principles which determined the origin and develop- ment of parish schools in the United States are the same as those which guided Catholic schools in the past. " These principles sprang from certain definite views about God and man, and the relationship of man with God views that are as unchangeable as Christianity it- self, and are indeed of its very essence that man is a moral being; . . . that God has made a revelation of truth through Christ, outside of the natural order of things ; that man is destined for another and a more per- fect life beyond the grave, for which his life on earth has been ordained as a preparation these are concepts that lie at the root of Christian education. "* 1. Burns, J. A., Principles, Origin and Establishment of the Catholic School System in the United States, New York, 1912, p. 16. 16 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School From the above concepts have developed many dis- tinct principles regarding Catholic education, its aims, content and means. One of the fundamental differences between Catholic and State schools is to be found in the stand that the Catholic Church takes on the question of moral educa- tion or the education of the will. "An education that quickens the intelligence and enriches the mind with knowledge, but fails to develop the will and direct it to the practice of virtue, may produce scholars, but it can- not produce good men. The exclusion of moral training from the educative process is more dangerous in pro- portion to the thoroughness with which the intellectual powers are developed, because it gives the impression that morality is of little importance, and thus sends the pupil into life with a false idea which is not easily cor- rected."* It is generally admitted that mere information or knowledge is insufficient for the formation of character; something more is needed and this is moral training, the direction of the will in education. But moral training postulates a norm, a standard by which morality can be measured; a distinction between good and evil, vico and virtue. This complete norm is not to be found in the natural order and recourse must be had to the super- natural. For the Catholic, the norm of morality is his absolute end, God ; hence the necessity of religious teach- ing in Catholic schools. The exclusion of religion from the schoolroom, Catholic educators maintain, is a mis- take and non-Catholic educators are endeavoring to find some standard for conduct in school procedure by which the child may be guided in the formation of his charac- ter. 5 2. Pastoral Letter of the Bishops, Washington, D. C., 1919, p. 74. 3. Character Training in Childhood, Mary S. Haviland, Boston, 1921, p. 259. also : Home, H. H., The Philosophy of Education. New York, 1915, p. 126. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 17 Speaking of the religious inheritance of the race, Nicholas Murray Butler says "no student of history can doubt its existence and no observer of human nature will undervalue its significance. We are still far from comprehending fully the preponderant influence of re- ligion in shaping our contemporary civilization; an in- fluence that is due in part to the universality of religion itself, and in part to the fact that it was, beyond dispute, the chief human interest at the time when the foundation of our present superstructure was being laid. It has played a controlling part in education till very recently, although it has too often played that in a narrow, illib- eral, and uninformed spirit." 4 Dr. Butler continues to lament the fact that religion, due to the separation of Church and State, has been omitted from the curriculum and proposes solutions for the inclusion of religious in- struction. He maintains that this duty of imparting religious instruction should devolve upon the Church and the home, but experience teaches that religion, to be effective, must be of daily contact and cannot be imparted piecemeal to the individual. The Sunday School is in- capable of giving adequate religious instruction. The attendance cannot be made compulsory; parents are neglectful and it is estimated that only about fifty per cent of the children in the United States attend Sunday School/ The Catholic school aims at the "development of Christian character, based upon the supernatural virtues and teachings of Christ, not distinct from the natural virtues, but including them and much more besides, which the Christian school places first among its duties, as the thing of most fundamental importance to the child. " 6 4. Butler, N. M., The Meaning of Education, New York, 1911, p. 281. 5. Harris, W. T., Proceedings of tlw National Educational Association, 1903. 6. The Principles, Origin and Establishment of the Catholic School System in the United States, Burns, J. A., New York, 1912, p. 18. 18 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School For the Catholic, the ideal of character is that estab- lished by Jesus Christ himself; and this ideal consti- tutes a radical difference between the Catholic school and the institution that does not permit the teaching of religion. The ideal of character being different, the means by which it is attained are likewise different. A knowledge of the higher moral law revealed to us by Jesus Christ, joined to the practice of the moral and the Christian virtues is, according to the Catholic view, the necessary requisite for the training of character. If, however, "the ideal of character is that of natural man and not of Christ, the doctrine of Herbart, which is coming more and more into favor, is sufficient for the attainment of the ideal." 7 Herbart and his followers maintain that "school discipline and instruction in the common branches, if illumined by fundamental moral ideas, may be the adequate means for the development of moral character. " 8 Non-religious schools may be called a recent innovation in education. It is only since 1840, due to the demands and efforts of Horace Mann and other educators, that religion has been omitted in public school curricula. Lest we convey the impression that these men were enemies of religion, let it be said that they realized the importance of religious training for the young, but considered religious instruction as the duty of the Home and the Church. However good their intentions, this much is certain, that when religion is banished from the schoolroom, it likewise disappears from the home. Out of the total population of 105,710,620 people there are in the United States about 41,926,854 who belong to some religious sect or body. 9 7. Monroe, Paul, A Brief Course in the History of Education, New York, 1911, p. 329. 8. De Garmo, Charles, Herbart and the Herbartians, New York, p. 56. 9. Fourteenth Census of the United States, Washington, D. C. 1922. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 19 Although the majority of people does not profess positive religious belief, nevertheless they still cherish certain Christian standards and desire that their chil- dren be imbued with the same. But with religion ex- cluded from the schools, there is wanting a firm basis for the standards and this defect constitutes one of the most striking differences between the Catholic and non- Catholic systems of education. Speaking on this ques- tion, the late Archbishop John Ireland says, " Morals not imbedded in the conscience are but shadowy conven- tionalities, powerless in the presence of strong tempta- tion ; and the conscience to be the moral censor, as it is destined by the Creator to be, must be permeated with, solidified in, religion ; the conscience without God and the Saviour is as a tribunal without a The inclusion of religion in the Catholic rural school curriculum will differentiate it from that of the State rural school course of study. Religion offers untold opportunities for correlation with other subjects, especi- ally Nature Study. Through Nature Study the child can come to know the visible creation and through visible creation arrives at the knowledge of his Creator. A second difference between Catholic and State schools is to be found in the manner of support and maintenance. The problem of school support presents an interesting story in the history of Catholic education in the United States. The first schools, especially in the French and Spanish colonies, were patterned after the schools of the mother country and, following the cus- tom then in vogue in France and Spain, the Catholics looked for assistance from the civil authorities. "In the English colonies there was also State support for denom- inational education, but whether the Catholics could or could not secure a share of the public funds depended 10. Ireland John, Archbishop, Pastoral Letter, Catholic Schools for Catholic Children, St. Paul, 1913. 20 The Rural Problem and the Catholic tichool on local conditions. When the States adopted their con- stitutions, they did not introduce any change in this respect." 11 It was the gradual "rise of dissentient reli- gious bodies in the colonies and States due to the influx of immigrants and other causes, that brought about im- portant changes which led to the establishment of a ' non- sectarion' system of schools. "^ The increase of schools after the American Revolution brought the question of State support to the fore. The first attempt to obtain State support was made by Father Richard in Detroit in 1808; he failed in his effort although he received tempo- rary assistance. 15 At Lowell, Mass., two Catholic schools received State assistance from 1836 to 1852. The School Contro- versy of 1840, in which Bishop Hughes played a con- spicuous part, had its origin in the question of State support. Many plans have been employed whereby Catholic schools have received support from public funds, e. g., Savannah, Georgia ; St. Augustine, Florida ; Pough- keepsie, New York; Lima, Ohio; Stillwater and Fari- bault, Minnesota. 14 The last named instance gave rise to the famous School Controversy of 1891-92. The Fari- bault plan was referred to the Congregation of the Prop- aganda and a decision was rendered on April 21, 1892, to the effect ' ' that considering the peculiar circumstances and character of the arrangement, and the agreement by which the plan was inaugurated, it may be toler- ated. " 15 This plan was later abandoned in Faribault and Stillwater although it is still in vogue in some places in Minnesota. 11. Turner, William, Catholic Encyclopedia; Article, "Schools," Vol. XIII, p. 556. 12. Burns, J. A., The Principles, Origin and Establishment of the Catholic School System in the United States, New York, 1912, p. 360. 13. Ibid. p. 196. 14. Burns, J. A., The Growth and Development of the Catholic School System in the United States, New York, 1912, pp. 248, seq; Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. XIII, p. 560. 15. American Ecclesiastical Eeview, Supplement, June, 1892. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 21 The question of maintenance constitutes one of the difficulties of the Catholic rural school. Quite often the number of Catholic families is limited and they are unable to finance a parochial school, but the public school does not depend merely on the number of families in a locality but rather on the attitude of the local school board working in conjunction with the State. One of the defects found in State rural schools is usually not found in the Catholic school system and this is the "one-teacher school." The one-teacher school system has its friends who maintain that it has served the people well in the past and advocate its continuance. We likewise hold that the one teacher-school had been a saving force in American life but "it has served its day." Poets have sung the praises of the "little red schoolhouse" and its associations are dear to us all. The little red schoolhouse or the one-teacher school belongs to a generation that has passed, and "is typical of a primitive social order in which each individual was a jack-of-all-trades, fitted to do all things passably well, and no one thing especially so. ' nQ For those who extol the advantages of the one-teacher school, we would say that it is well for them to remember that the one-teacher system came first and that it was supplanted by the graded system which is regarded as an outgrowth and also an improvement. In the one-teacher school, where there are from six to eight grades, there are at least four daily recitations for each grade. This demands more work and energy than one teacher is capable of and the result is usually the hastening over of lessons due to the curtailment of time. Another defect in the one-teacher system is the fol- lowing: "The small number of children enrolled very frequently makes an uninteresting school and never fails, 16. Carney, Mabel, Country Life and The Country School, Chicago, 1912, p. 141. 22 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School even in larger schools, to necessitate the formation of some classes of one, two or three children. Such con- ditions are abnormal and anti-social. The stray children of these classes consequently lose interest, dawdle, and often drop out of school altogether, through the simple lack of companionable associates." 17 One of the most important phases of school life is the social phase in which the child comes into contact with children of his own age. In the one-room school this stimulating and beneficial influence is absent due to the scarcity of num- bers in the classes. The child fails to see the advantage of team and cooperative work; he is not brought face to face with problems that affect other children and he leaves school without an understanding and an appreci- ation of cooperative effort. There are in the United States about 212,000 schools of the one-teacher type in use in rural communities and they are the only means of education for a large percentage of the children. 15 At the present time the one-teacher school in American edu- cation is one the ;wane and the consolidation of the small schools is constantly growing. Although a law was passed in Massachusetts as early as 1869 for consolida- tion it had little or no effect until the district system fell into disuse in 1890. From Massachusetts the move- ment spread westward to Ohio and Indiana. At the present the consolidation movement has passed the state of experimentation and has been accepted as a national policy in American education. In 1918 there were about 10,500 consolidated schools in the United States. "The most satisfactory type of consolidated schools is planned to give the rural community just the kind of education required by an agricultural population. Broadly cul- tural, and yet practical; preparing them for happy, wholesome, remunerative living on the land. Many of 17. Ibid. p. 143. 18. Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918, Vol. I, Washington, D. C., p. 167. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 23 the early consolidated schools were planned as big graded schools offering courses of study in no wise adapted to the needs of rural districts. The new type of schools are organized with a view of preparing for the new agri- cultural era of a permanent farming population of highest ideals. " 19 Happily, in the Catholic system of education, the one-teacher school is practically non-existent. This is due to the fact that most of the teachers in the Catholic system are Religious and do not accept schools which do not warrant the presence of at least two teachers. Two or three teachers in an outlying district are necessary in order that their religious life may not be interfered with. Again, where the parish can afford the erection of a parochial school, there is usually a sufficient number of children to demand the attention of at least two or three teachers. Hence the Catholic rural school does not have to contend with the problem that the State system has to meet. Another mark of differentiation of the Catholic rural school is the inclusion of subjects that are not found in the city parochial school. The content matter will differ but slightly but the attack on new subject matter in the curriculum will be different, due to the pre-school experience of country children. The Catholic school will then include in its curriculum, subjects such as Nature Study, Elementary Agriculture and Household Eco- nomics. All the branches of the rural curriculum will make special reference to country life and needs. To sum up the differences between the Catholic rural school and the State rural school: first and foremost is the distinction in regard to religion; secondly, in the manner of support ; thirdly, in the Catholic system there are no one-teacher schools and the personnel of the 19. Biennial Survey of Education, 1916-1918, Vol. I, Washington, D. C., p. 168. 24 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School teaching staff is composed largely of women living a religious life. The characteristics that are proper to the rural Catholic school are about the same as those found in the Catholic urban school with the exception that in the rural school there are added a few new sub- jects and the attack on subject matter is slightly different, dn~e~to the environment and the interests of the child. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 25 CHAPTER III THE CATHOLIC RURAL SCHOOL PART I. THE NEED. The American public mind is awakening to the need of establishing a permanent, satisfied population in the farming districts and of putting a check to the cityward trend of our rural inhabitants. This awakening has been caused principally by economic conditions. Economists, sociologists and statesmen are loud in their clamor for a remedy to alleviate the lot of our farming people. Catholic leaders share these ideas of their fellow Ameri- cans and are insisting that the Church take cognizance of the rural problem and attempt its solution. All Cath- olic and non-Catholic leaders are agreed that the beginning of the solution is to be found in the rural school. The question of rural education in the United States constitutes one of our greatest educational problems. The rural school typified in "the little red schoolhouse" of pioneer days has won for itself a place in the hearts and affections of the common people. It is an American institution suited to supply the demands of pioneer days but unable to meet the exigencies of modern rural life. Pioneer life was fraught with difficulties and trials, and each individual farmer had to struggle with the forces of Nature to obtain the bare necessities of life. His attention was centered on the material aspect of things and he had little opportunity to consider the cultural and educational advantages of life. "Consequently the school terms were short, attendance was low, and 26 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School teachers were miserably paid and poorly qualified for the work. The whole school was crude and primitive in the extreme, but as life in those days was exceedingly simple, in both the open country and in the towns, and school work did not go far beyond the ' three R's,' a school of this kind served the needs of the people fairly well."* The growth of industrial and manufacturing centers caused many social and economic changes and the city schools took cognizance of the changed character and altered their methods of procedure to meet the new needs of the people and thus kept abreast of the times. The rural communities likewise assumed new characteristics, especially during the Economic Eevolution. From the trials and privations of pioneer life, the American far- mer first rose to a state where he received reasonable returns from his labor and then to economic indepen- dence. The introduction of labor saving machinery after the Civil War completely changed the work of the farmer. Despite this change in the economic and industrial phases of agricultural life, the school has remained stationery; it has stagnated until at the present day we have a primitive educational institution serving 12,000,000 boys and girls living under modern conditions and preparing to take an active part in modern life. The problems of rural life and especially the rural schools received little attention and publicity until President Eoosevelt appointed the Country Life Com- mission and not until the comprehensive report of this Commission was presented to the public did the American people realize that "a national crisis existed in rural life conditions." The American farmer at that time, apparently at least, was successful in achieving financial 1. Arp, Julius B., Eural Education and the Consolidated School. 1918 p. 5. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 27 results from Ms labors ; the introduction of labor-saving machinery had removed much of the drudgery from farm life and had made agriculture more profitable. But these advantages affected only the material side of life. The intellectual and spiritual interests of the rural popula- tion were but slightly influenced. The American farmer was in a state of discontent; his social status was not in accord with the conditions of modern life ; the country church was nearly bankrupt; the school a blot on the civilization of the twentieth century; in fact, all those influences that go to make for the higher and spiritual betterment of man were peculiarly lacking in American rural life. The report of the Commission evoked reforms of various sorts; suggestions were manifold elaborate articles were compiled on the "Back to the Farm Move- ment, " and other idealistic and visionary schemes were proffered to relieve the situation which was seen to be confronting a large portion of the people. After a long and careful analysis, rural sociologists and economists placed the remedy in: 1, a satisfactory social life; and 2, an efficient school system. The two defects that stood out notably in American rural life were an unsatisfactory social existence and an antiquated and inefficient school system. The remedying of the former defect lies within the scope of the country church and we have noted this fact in a previous chapter. The case of the rural school will occupy us in the present chapter. We have mentioned that one of the alarming con- ditions in American rural life is the urban trend. This depletion of country people can, in four out of five cases, be explained by inefficient rural schools. E. P. Cubberly depicts the rural school in the following words: "The strong, virile, rural school of a generation ago has passed, and in its place is a primary school, weak in numbers and lacking in efficiency. The school buildings are poor, 28 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School unsanitary and ill-equipped. The school enrollment is constantly decreasing. The supervision is wholly inade- quate. The cost of instruction is higher than in the cities. The terms are short. The teaching body is immature and lacks proper training. Of the 12,000,000 rural school children, constituting a clear majority of the youth of school age, less than 25 per cent are completing the work of the grades."* Strange as it may seem, this type of school is still to be found ministering to a majority of the people on whom the strength and civilization of the nation rests. The urban centers depend on the country; the cities cannot thrive if rural life is unsatis- factory. "If the rural schools fail, rural civilization will fail ; if rural civilization fails, American civilization will fail." 5 Our agricultural wealth and rich farming lands have in the past seemed so vast that we as a nation have neglected to consider the plight of the farmer, socially and educationally. The recent World War revealed to us the vast importance of a sturdy agricultural popula- tion which provided food stuffs for the Allies as well as for ourselves and reminded the American people that this country was the granary of the world. The Ameri- can farmer responded to the call of increased acreage of wheat and other food materials but the Avar taught this lesson that 1 1 as a permanent food producer, America must be aroused to the urgent and immediate need of modern, intensive and efficient farming, both in war and in peace. ' u Increased food production is not the solution of the rural problem; it is rather the establishment on our fertile lands of a permanent, contented agricultural pop- 2. Fail-child, E. T., quoted J>y E. P. Culberly in. Rural Life and Education, New York, 1914, p. 97. 3. National Education Bulletin, Commission Series, Number four, 1918, Washington. 4. Arp, J. B., Rural Education and the Consolidated School, St. Paul, 1918, p. 144. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 29 ulation receiving adequate returns from their labors and leading a social existence that modern American life demands. To establish this permanent population the beginning is to be made in the schools and in the country church; in fact, in all those agencies that make for the betterment of man. Attention must be centered on the country if results are to be achieved. Urban problems have too long engaged the attention of the American mind, whereas the farmer has been left to his own initiative to work out his salvation. Neither the Church nor the State, except in recent years, has put forth organized effort to relieve the situation of the farming class. Economically, educationally and socially the American farmer is on the verge of despair. 5 Inflated land values have given rise to a form of landlordism, the concentration of land ownership in the hands of a few. This form of exploitation is not unlike the European system of "absentee landlords. " Educa- tionally, the farmer sees his children getting an unsatis- factory education while his city friends enjoy the advantages and benefits of a more thorough educational system. Socially, his life is one of isolation and drudgery. Such a condition gives rise to a state of discontent and dissatisfaction. To remedy this state of affairs the Catholic Church is called upon, and as in times past, she must respond to the situation. The rehabilitation of rural America is just as important and honorable as the work performed by St. Benedict and his followers in sixth century in Western Europe. 5. In 1916 the Federal Farm Loan act was passed which provided " capital for agricultural development, to create a standard form of investment based upon farm mortgage to equalize rates of interest upon farm loans, to furnish a market for United States bonds, to create Govern- ment depositaries and financial agents for the United States, and for other 30 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School Some prominent churchmen advocate the organiza- tion of a religious community that will devote itself especially to the rural work. Whether such a plan would prove feasible remains to be seen, but the issue at stake is certainly worth the trial. "The experience in Australia of a religious community of women who devote themselves to the religious instruction of children in the remotest country districts is full of significance for us in America, and the beginnings which they have already made of similar work in our country should be encour- aged and multiplied. 6 If the Catholic Church is to vitalize and rehabilitate the rural communities, the work is to be done through the medium of the Catholic rural school. Catholic rural education at present is only in its initial stage due to the fact already mentioned that only about 19 per cent of our Catholic population is classed as rural. Neverthe- less the welfare of the minority is to the advantage of the majority. The ruling of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore with regard to the establishment of schools did not take into consideration the distinction between urban and rural communities and the obligation of erecting and supporting schools was clearly set forth in the decrees of the Council: "I. Near each church, where it does not yet exist, a parochial school is to be erected within two years from the promulgation of this Council, and this is to be main- tained in perpetuum, unless the bishop, on account of grave difficulties, judge that a postponement be allowed. "II. A priest who, by; his grave negligence, pre- vents the erection of a school within this time, or its 6. O'Hara, Edwin V.,- Proceedings of the Catholic Educational Asso- ciation, Vol. XVII, 1920, p. 241. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 31 maintenance, or who, after repeated admonitions of the bishop, does not attend to the matter, deserves removal from that church. "III. A mission or a parish which so neglects to assist a priest in erecting or maintaining a school, that by reason of this supine negligence the school is ren- dered impossible, should be reprehended by the bishop and, by the most efficacious and prudent means possible, induced to contribute the necessary support. "IV. All Catholic parents are bound to send their children to the parochial schools, unless either at home or in other Catholic schools they may sufficiently and evidently provide for the Christian education of their children, or unless it be lawful to send them to other schools on account of a sufficient cause, approved by the bishop, and with opportune cautions and remedies. As to what is a Catholic school, it is left to the judgment of the Ordinary to define." 7 The above decrees, in a general way, have been carried out, especially in the cities and towns but they have had little or no effect in the rural or remote places of the country. As a result, Catholic education in the cities has made wonderful progress but in the matter of rural education Catholics have made little effort. Recently there have been indications of a concerted action on the part of the Church to consider and develop Catholic rural education. Means are also being devised for the instruction of those children who are unable, for one reason or another, to attend a Catholic school. The first one to make a move in this direction was Eeverend Edwin V. O'Hara of Lane County, Oregon. Dr. O'Hara presented a paper at the New York meeting of the Catholic Educational Association in 1920 in which he surveyed the rural problem in its religious and educa- 7. Deoreta N. 199, Cone. Plen. Bait. III. 32 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School tional aspects and emphasized the need of a thorough Catholic rural education which would minister to the needs of Catholics dwelling in the open country. In June, 1921, at the meeting of the Catholic Educational Association in Cincinnati, a paper was read on the "Catholic Rural School Curriculum" and also one on "Catholic Rural Extension Education." During the summer of 1921 the National Catholic Welfare Council deemed it necessary to institute a special department devoted to questions and problems pertaining to Catholic rural life. This bureau will form part of the Department of Social Action and Dr. Edwin V. O'Hara has been appointed the director. 5 Efforts have also been made in regard to Catholic Vacation schools and some dioceses have started cor- respondence courses in Religious Instruction for those who are so situated that they are unable to enjoy the benefits of oral instruction. We will consider this question after we have surveyed the Catholic school proper. PART II. ORGANIZATION AND SUPERVISION. In the formation of a Catholic rural school the question of organization and administration is of para- mount importance. In the Catholic system of education we meet with three elements of authority; the diocese, the religious community and the individual parish. Each of these has jurisdiction over the school, but their juris- diction is confined to a special sphere so that there is no overlapping. The jurisdiction of the diocese is usually exercised thru a diocesan superintendent whose authority extends over all the schools of the diocese. In this respect his office is quite similar to that of the State superintendent who exercises jurisdiction over all the 8. National Catholic Welfare Council Bulletin, January, 1922, Wash- ington, D. C., p. 24. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 33 schools of the State. In the individual school the repre- sentative of the religious community is the Superioress who acts in the same manner as does the State school principal. The parish priest, as the representative of parochial authority, is responsible to the diocesan authorities for the administration and management of the parish school. He is by law the school principal, but rarely does he exercise the duties of this office, except to a certain extent. "The Pastor is the supervisor, the banker, the motive power, the soul of the school. He must bear all the worries, to obtain the necessary funds to meet the expenditures; but, large as these responsi- bilities are, his duties would be comparatively light if these ended here. He should show that everything that is done in other schools is done also for those in the parish school. He should show that the future belongs to the people who will educate their children ; show them how the business world is taken over by the Jews because of the great sacrifices they make to educate their chil- dren; show them that, as a Cardinal of the Church has said on matters of religion, a people may, in thirty years with no Catholic education, no Catholic thought, no church, and by the reading of irreligious and socialistic books, lose their faith and become as their surround- ings. " 9 In a large city parish, with its many and varied responsibilities, it is well nigh impossible for the pastor to personally fulfill all of his duties towards the school. The reverse is true of the small country parish; the priest can devote a major portion of his time to the activities of the school proper; altho in the actual work of the classroom, which demands technical training, he should be aware of his limitations. The American priest, altho a moral teacher par excellence, has had little oppor- 9. Cassidy, Charles A., Proceedings of the Catholic Educational Association, 1920, p. 182. 34 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School tunity to receive pedagogical training. This lack of specific training, for the duties of teaching is not the fault of the individual priest but of the seminary curric- ulum. In recent years the science of Pedagogy, has been making its way slowly but surely into the seminary course. The introduction of Pedagogy and kindred studies will do much for Catholic education and especially in rural districts, where the priest has more time at his command and where his duties are not so many. The priest who has had technical training can easily conduct classes in many of the subjects that are proper to the rural school, e. g., Elementary Agriculture, as some priests at present are doing. If, however, he is lacking in pedagogical skill, caution must be exercised in matters that demand technical training; because in this case more harm can be done that good accomplished. An energetic pastor who is aware of the possibilities of a Catholic rural school can focalize the entire community around the institution. Where there is the alternative of either erecting a church or a school the school should come first. A combination church and school building might be erected which for the time being would serve the parish very efficiently. The Catholic rural school should be the social centre of the community in which it is placed ; around it should be gathered all the activities that make for the better- ment of the countryside. Social activities especially should receive attention and in the construction of the school this matter should be taken into account. The school plant should be so arranged that institutes, enter- tainments and other forms of recreation could be held in the building. If we conceive the school merely as a building in which the child receives formal instruction in the various branches of the curriculum, we are making a serious mistake. This however, has been the attitude in the past. In the future, not only the child but also The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 35 the adult will receive benefit from the school, if not along purely educational lines, at least in a social and recreative way. This is especially true of the rural school of the future. The lack of recreative facilities has made rural life unattractive and boring, but with the right use of the school plant much of the unpleasantness of life in the country can be eliminated. "The school- house standing alone in its isolation and aloofness from all community interests and activities may still be found. Such a schoolhouse has a cold, forbidding appearance. It attracts neither the child nor the parent. Under compulsion the child goes to school in the morning and leaves with joy when school is over. It may be the only building in the neighborhood with a room large enough for an assembly. It may stand in the midst of lowly homes whose occupants are waiting to be led to higher standards of living. It may be the sole instrument available for transforming the district into a cooperative body working for their common interests. In spite of these opportunities and needs, the school continues to serve its owners but a few hours of the total number possible and in an educational field limited to classroom instruction. " 10 This type of school is still prevalent in many communities and it is clear that it is not fulfilling its responsibilities to the people who support it. The Catholic rural school should be the dynamic center from which the countryside is to derive its power, energy and inspiration. One factor in country life that receives little atten- tion but which could easily be supplied by the rural school is the library. People living in towns or in the cities enjoy the benefits of a well-organized library. The farmer however is deprived of this. To supply this need in country life, the school should have a well equipped 10. Strayer, George, and Englehardt, N. L., The Classroom Teacher, New York, 1920, p. 372. 36 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School library for the use of the community. The establishment of a rural school library will give the country resident, whether adult or youth, an opportunity to procure just as good reading material as his friend in the city. The farmer and his children seek suitable reading matter for the same reason that the family in the city does. Their isolation and lack of social intercourse make reading in the home almost a necessity. Altho there is much work to be done about the farm, there is a time during the year, and especially during the winter, that could be given over to the perusal of good literature, either for enjoyment or inspiration. "The school, as a central point from which books may be obtained for general reading in the home, should, and does in most instances, offer a safeguard against the selection of books that contain nothing in particular to recommend The raising of money to support the library could easily be put in the hands of one of the parish societies or the necessary funds might be realized through public subscription. The selection of books for the school library could be made by the diocesan superintendent working in conjunction with the pastor, the teachers and a few laymen of the community. There are some libraries that contain books that are useless because of the fact that they are not suited to the people's tastes or needs. The judicious selection of books is to be taken into account when the library is formed which will supply the needs of country people. The principal reason for the presence of a school library is to develop in the pupils a taste for and an appreciation of the best literature. In the early years of adolescence habits are easily formed; hence if the proper books are placed at the disposal of the child he will form a habit 11. Graham, A. B., The Tenth Year Boole of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1911, p. 25. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 37 of good reading. The presence of such a school library will make itself felt in the farm home; it will raise the standard of living and contribute much to the elevation of country life. "Literature is perhaps the most spirit- ualizing influence of the average farm home, but much of the reading done in the country is of a desultory character. Too little attention is given to the upbuilding of systematically planned libraries. Books are often indiscriminately purchased from agents or at bargain counters and are carelessly thrown about the house until lost or worn out." lg In recent years the various States have recognized the importance of libraries for country people and have devised means of meeting this need through the estab- lishment of county libraries and branch stations located in convenient centers, as the country store or school. Another form of library is the "travelling library" which in the short period of its existence has certainly proven its worth. "Its purpose has been accomplished wherever it has received fair trial. And this is in truth in many places, for not alone has it been adopted as a regular form of library work in almost every State in the union, but it is penetrating the remotest corners of states where hitherto library privileges were practically unknown. At present the average rural inhabitant is far behind the urban resident in the matter of good reading. The lack of good books in the average farm home is pathetic and the character of the daily or weekly paper commonly received in the home is anything but uplifting and inspiring. The duty of cultivating the habit of good 12. Carney, Mabel, Country Life and the Country School, 1913, Chicago, p. 32. 13. Foght, H. W., The American Eural School, 1913, New York, p. 271. 38 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School reading devolves on the school. A community that is devoted to reading is invariably a progressive com- munity. Thus far we have considered the Catholic rural school in a community that is predominantly Catholic. But there are many districts in this country that are unable to support a Catholic school, owing to the scarcity of numbers, and the needs of these must be taken into consideration. It is generally conceded that about seventy families are necessary to support and maintain a parochial school efficiently. A small number of families makes the erection and support of a parochial school an impossibility unless several parishes combine for the purpose. The following plan, we think, could be adopted in many places throughout the country. The school could be located in a town or village and take on the appear- ance of a boarding school. This type of school is called the ''Five Day Boarding School" because the children are at school from Monday morning until Friday evening, when they return to their homes. This system has its good features and also its disadvantages but it seems to be the only solution of the difficulty. "The idea has been carried out in some country parishes and the pastors are enthusiastic over the good results. It seems possible to board a child for about ten dollars a month at the present time, a sum which parents are willing to pay for the advantages received, especially, when the importance of the matter has been brought within reach of their understanding."^ The child under this plan is not entirely removed from home influence which, as we know, is so important in the early years of childhood. He is in school about four and one-half days and the remainder of the week he spends at home with his family. This plan entails extra work on the part of the teachers who have to act in the capacity of prefects and demands an extra 14. Superintendent's Eeport, Archdiocese of St. Paul, 1921, p. 14. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 39 quota of Sisters who have to devote their time to the preparation of the pupils' meals and other household cares incidental to the running of a boarding school. This method does not entail heavy expense on those families who are compelled to send children to a school of this kind. Usually the board is quite reasonable because of the fact that the farmers supply much of the food stuffs gratis and thus the institution is saved con- siderable expense. A plan similar to this will eventually come into vogue, because there are many districts that cannot and will not be able to support a school. In fact this type of school is gradually appearing in the Western dioceses and the results thus far point to its still greater development. In the matter of the supervision of a Catholic rural school, the part played by the diocesan superintendent is of paramount importance. One of the drawbacks in many parochial schools is the lack of professional super- vision. The Third Plenary Council of Baltimore realized this defect in the schools and embodied in its decrees rules and regulations for the formation of a "Diocesan School Board " and defined its duties. 15 This " Board System " correlated to a large extent Catholic school work. "The central board was found to be an admirable institution for the settlement of educational questions of a practical character, but these questions had to be brought before it. The members were not primarily educators, but pastors. They had little time to give to the study of educational problems, even if they had the requisite training for it. They visited the schools, but the inspection was more often characterized by a spirit of kindly, paternal interest than by practical insight. It soon became evident that the central board needed to be supplemented by a man who, to scientific training in Pedagogy, should add those qualities of zeal, discretion 15. Ada et Decreta, Cone. Plen. Bait. Ill, N. 203, 204. 40 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School and large mindedness which would fit him to act as the executive officer of the board. " 16 The School Board of the Archdiocese of New York was the first to recognize this need and in 1888 appointed as inspector of schools, Rev. Wm. J. Degnan, D. D. 17 Other dioceses throughout the country have followed this example until at the present day there are about forty-three superintendents. Many of these men have received their training in the Department of Education at the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. The duties and function of the diocesan superintendent are ably put forth in the following words of a member of the Department of Education, Catholic University: "The superintendent is an executive, to be sure, and an administrator; he is likewise, to some extent, an inspector. But these duties are but secondary to his real work. He is more than a judge of schools and teachers; he is, in the truest sense of the word, an educator. The whole diocese, bishops, priests, teachers, and people look to him for leadership in all that affects the school. The future, as well as the present, of the diocesan system rests with him. His must be the vision required to recognize the greater things that can be accomplished and the judgment neces- sary to choose the proper means. It is not such a great task to organize the educational facilities of a diocese and to develop some kind of a working system, but it is a tremendous task to organize a system that is living, that is built on principle and not on prescription, that has within itself the power of growth and development. Thus, for example, any one can sit down, and with the aid of paste and scissors, work out a fairly decent course of studies to which all the teachers of the system must strictly conform. But to recognize that a course of studies must be real and vital; that it is a means and 16. Burns, J. A., The Growth and Development of the Catholic School System in the United States, 1912, New York, p. 206. 17. Hid. p. 206. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 41 not an end ; that it must be elastic and adaptable to meet the varying needs of children and communities; that while it gives adequate direction, it should never cramp that most precious of our educational assets, the initia- tive and individuality of the teacher all, of this requires a grasp of educational principles that cannot be achieved in passing, a quality of knowledge that is the fruit of much concentration on a rather wide number of sub- jects."** The need of a superintendent in a diocese which is largely rural is even more urgent than in a diocese which is urban, because in the latter case there is some inter- communication of ideas and methods of teaching, while in the rural districts each school forms an isolated unit and very little interchange of methods or ideas is possible. The lack of properly qualified superintendents in rural dioceses constitutes one of the main drawbacks in Catholic rural educational activity and unless these dioceses are properly supplied with men who have had a technical training, there is little hope for Catholic rural education. In a large 'diocese one superintendent will find it impossible to supervise efficiently all the schools under his control. This condition of affairs necessitates the appointment of another man, or perhaps two men, to assist the superintendent. The Archdiocese of New York at present has three men who devote their time to school work, one of whom confines his activities to schools located in rural districts. In the near future, we hope that other dioceses will follow this example. Another very important officer for the organization and supervision of Catholic rural schools is the com- munity inspector. Almost every religious congregation 18. Johnson, George, "The Training of the Diocesan Superintendent," Catholic Educational Eeview, Washington, D. C., p. 127. 42 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School that has schools in cities and large towns has its com- munity inspector but the presence of such an officer in rural districts is still to be hoped for. This is particularly true of Western dioceses, but indications point to improvement in this regard. The duty of the community inspector is to keep the Superiors of the religious teaching orders in touch with the schools which they control, "with the individual teachers employed and with educational methods in general * ' The inspector is not a mere delegate or examiner but rather a sort of general school officer of the teaching body, whose whole time is spent in visiting schools, reporting on conditions and persons, and whose knowledge thus acquired is of great advantage for the future placing of teachers and the further development of works. " 19 All admit the necessity of an inspector in city schools and the reasons advocated for the presence of such an officer there, might well be adduced to establish the need in rural schools. Such community inspectors are even more necessary for the little school, situated in remote districts; for each school is isolated and the superintendent is able to visit the school only once a year; hence the individual school is practically deprived of any kind of supervision. PART III. VARIOUS SUBSTITUTES. There is one other matter which we wish to touch on before concluding this chapter on Catholic rural schools. It will be some time before there are parochial school facilities for every Catholic child, not only in the country but also in the city. It is estimated that about fifty per cent of our Catholic children do not attend Catholic schools. Whatever religious instruction they receive depends on the initiative of the local pastor and in many instances the children grow up ignorant of the 19. Saner, George H., Proceedings of the Catholic Educational Asso* dation, Vol. XIII, No. 1, 1916, p. 358. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 43 fundamental truths of the Catholic religion. There are many localities throughout the country, especially in rural districts, where the priest visits only once or twice during the year and his work then is generally limited to the administration of the Sacraments. There is very little opportunity for him to give catechetical instruction and the children in these places are in many cases lost to the Faith. To meet this difficulty various means have been devised. Some of these activities deserve com- mendation and we propose to consider them briefly. In the Archdiocese of Chicago, under the leadership of Rev. John M. Lyons S. J., the Catholic Instruction League was organized in 1912. The main object of the League is to instruct in Christian Doctrine Catholic children whom the parochial school cannot reach and also working boys and girls and even adults who may be in need of such instruction.^ The League is a lay organ- ization under the direction of priests and the instruction proper is given by lay workers, men and women. Since its organization in Chicago in 1912 it has extended to the dioceses of Milwaukee, Omaha, Duluth, Davenport, Fort Wayne, Bismarck and Rockford.^ The extent 'of the work can be seen from the fact that from 1912 to 1917 in Chicago, 6000 children have been prepared for First Holy Communion/* In the Diocese of Bismarck, North Dakota, which is a typical rural diocese, the League is well established and is accomplishing splendid results. Bishop Wehrle of Bismarck in a letter to the priests of his diocese says ' ' Means must be found to gather all Catholic children of every mission on all Sundays of the year for religious instruction. Where the priest cannot give this weekly instruction let him select some persons who will act as 20. Lyons, John M. ; Practical Plan of the Catholic Instruction League, Chicago, p. 2, 1919. 21. Ibid. p. 5. 22. Ibid. p. 6. 44 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School Sunday School Teachers. . . . Where many children live far from church, organize Sunday Schools in different parts of the missions, so that every child can reach the place of instruction without difficulty. Catholic families are glad to offer their homes for such pur- poses. " gs The Diocese of Pittsburgh solves the problem of catechetical instruction through an organization known as the "Missionary Confraternity of Christian Doc- trine/' The Society is composed of laymen and women who are banded together for the purpose of organizing and conducting catechism classes in mining towns, rural districts and other localities where there are Catholic children in need of religious instruction. The organ- ization is under diocesan control with headquarters in Pittsburgh. The activities of this Society from Novem- ber, 1918 to October, 1919 are tabulated as follows : Catechism classes 166 Teachers 500 Children enrolled 14,010 Average attendance 9,000 Children prepared for First Holy Communion 1,592 Children received First Holy Communion 1,695 Children Confirmed 566 Children and adults baptized 100 Catholic children removed from Protestant Sunday Schools 1,000 Fallen away Catholics brought back to the Faith 62 M The annual expenses for carrying out this work amounts to about $10,000. This includes cost of transportation of teachers, hall rent for catechism centers and distri- bution of catechisms. The teachers receive no salary. The expenses are met by voluntary subscription. This method might easily be adopted in other dio- ceses where there are outlying districts and where the Catholic children are deprived of religious instruction. The work should, however, be under diocesan control and 23. Quoted in "The Teachers Manual of the Catholic Instruction League, Chicago, p. 6. 24. Report of the Missionary Confraternity of Christian Doctrine of the Pittsburgh Diocese. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 45 expenses defrayed by diocesan funds. The dependence on voluntary subscriptions is accompanied by difficulties and efficiency is hindered. In every diocese there might be a number of priests appointed who would instruct lay catechists in the truths of the Catholic Faith. Supplied with this knowledge, the catechists might reach regularly many remote remote localities where the priest seldom visits. Another method of imparting religious instruction is through the medium of correspondence. The Diocese of Helena, Montana, during the summer of 1921, opened such a correspondence course in Religion. The object and method of the plan is explained in the following words "This First Communion Catechism Correspon- dence Course has been devised to give children whom the pastor cannot teach regularly an opportunity to pre- pare for their First Holy Communion and Confirmation. The pastor will send out one lesson weekly. The chil- dren, with the assistance of parents or friends, will read the story part of the lesson, study the picture, answer the proposed questions on printed question sheet. They will then return the questions and written answers to their pastor to prove that they have studied the lesson, and finally they will memorize the questions and answers, and prayers printed in blackfaced type at the end of each lesson. They are also asked to keep the lesson thus learned in the cover sent at the beginning of the course. The pastor will examine the answers and correct them, if necessary. He will return the corrected paper to the pupil with the proper marks. This paper the pupil will send back with the answers to the next lesson and the pastor will file the same for the inspection of the bishop. ' ' 5 The Course comprises twelve lessons ; each lesson is divided into four parts. First there is an in- 25. First Communion Catechism Correspondence Course adopted for the Diocese of Helena, 1921. 46 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School struction on some religious truth, then follows a picture depicting or illustrating the instruction; then a prayer and lastly a story illustrating some virtue. This method has its advantages and disadvantages. It will reach children who are deprived of religious instruction and afford them some knowledge of religious truths. It assumes however that the child is able to write in order to answer the question. Many children are unable to write at the age when they receive First Holy Com- munion. Again, effective instruction depends to a great extent on the person who is giving the lesson; in this method, the written word replaces the spoken word and here also is a disadvantage/ 6 The plan is still in the stage of experimentation and at present we are unable to gauge results. The Catholic rural school can contribute much to the solution of the rural problem provided it is properly organized and supervised. Organization and super- vision are two essentials for any educational institution and, especially, for rural schools that are located in remote districts. Our Catholic schools in the city enjoy a fair degree of organization and supervision, due to the fact that we have centered our attention on urban education. In the near future, we hope the same will be true of rural education. The gradual increase of diocesan superintendents throughout the country augurs well for the future of Catholic education in the United States. With a rural school system efficiently supervised and properly organized, the Catholic Church can answer the call to rural action and accomplish wonderful results. 26. Bagley, William C., Educative Process, New York, p. 267. The Rural ProWem and the Catholic School 47 CHAPTER IV THE PREPARATION AND QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER IN THE CATHOLIC RURAL SCHOOL The most important factor in any school is the teacher. With capable, well trained teachers, the success of almost any school is assured. On the other hand, with teachers who are incapable, lacking professional knowl- edge and skill, no school, however rich in material equipment or in courses of study, can hope to accomplish the end for which it was intended. Such a school may even do positive harm; it will retard the pupil's mental development and give him a wrong impression of the meaning of education. The evils that have resulted from the presence of incompetent persons in the teaching profession have caused the various States to enact laws defining the qualifications the prospective teachers shall possess before they are permitted to enter the classroom. The Catholic church likewise, has realized the importance of trained teachers and has enacted legislation pertain- ing to teacher preparation and normal training. Since the school has been established by the State for the purpose of educating future citizens, each child within the State has the right to as good an education and as competent a teacher as the State can afford. The lack of untrained teachers is one of the difficulties that confronts American educators. The National Education Association in Commission Series, No. 3, informs us that "of the 600,000 public school teachers in the United States, 200,000 have had less than four years beyond the eighth grade; 300,000 have had no special professional preparation for teaching ; 65,000 are teaching on permits, not being able to meet the minimum requirements of the 48 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School county superintendents; of the twenty million children in the United States, ten million are taught by teachers who have had no special preparation for their work and whose general education is clearly inadequate.'^ To overcome this deficiency the National Education Associa- tion advocates higher salaries for trained teachers and higher academic and professional requirements, thereby excluding the incompetent. In the Catholic system there are no statistics avail- able by which we may judge of the competency of the men and women who are actually engaged in teaching, but we are inclined to believe that teacher preparation and training could be greatly improved. In discussing the teacher in the rural school many questions present themselves. We shall however confine ourselves to a consideration of certification, her profes- sional training, and her relation to the home. As regards certification it is not necessary to consider in detail the various methods now employed but it will be sufficient to indicate some of the deficiencies in the different plans. The diversity of requirements in the various states has proven an obstacle to many teachers. It tends to patronize "home talent" and to exclude teachers from other States. Again the absence of reciprocal relations between the States in the matter of certification is often a handicap to teachers. The following States do not recognize certificates granted in other States : Colorado, Connecticut, Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oklahoma, North Dakota, West Virginia, Louisiana and Florida. Colo- 1. Commission Series of the National Education Association, No. 3, Washington, D. C., 1919. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 49 rado, New Hampshire, Florida, North Dakota, Ohio, Louisiana and West Virginia recognize graduation or credits from standard institutions outside the State/ The necessity of universal recognition in the matter of certificates and diplomas is paramount for the cause of American education. The educational requirements of the various States should be unified. Each State, we grant, has the right to set its own standards ; but a State with low requirements cannot expect that its certificates will be honored by a State requiring higher standards. 4 'It is possible for every State to evaluate the credentials from other States in terms of its own, if equivalents are accepted and a little flexibility allowed. It this is done it is then possible to arrange an accredited list of normal schools in and credentials from other States, which may be accepted by the local certificating authority in place of an examination. A fundamental principle should be, that the certification door should always be open for competency and from whatever quarter this competency should come." 5 Localism, or the employment of "home talent," is the result of non-recognition of diplomas and certificates issued by other State authorities. It is one of the problems that the Catholic teaching communities have to encounter as they may have the Motherhouse or Community Normal in one State where their certificate is issued but when they are sent to another State to teach, their certificate is not recognized. As already stated, the Church, like the State, has recognized the importance of the role of the teacher in the classroom and has laid down regulations concerning their competence to teach in the parochial schools. In 2. Cook, Katherine, State Laws and Regulations Governing Teachers' Certificates, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., 1921, p. 30. 3. Cubberly, E. P., article "Certification of Teachers" Encyclopedia of Education, Vol. I, p. 562. 50 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 1875 the Propaganda issued an "Instruction to the Bishops of the United States " in which, after enumer- ating the dangers to which the Catholic children are liable in the public schools, the Congregation exhorted the bishops to establish and maintain schools. "Every effort then, must be directed towards starting Catholic schools where they are not and, where they are, towards enlarging them and providing them with better accommo- dations and equipment until they have nothing to suffer as regards teachers and equipment by comparison with the public schools. ' u This instruction formed the basis of much of the educational legislation of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore in 1884. Two aims the Fathers of the Council had in view in its educational legislation, the increase of schools and the perfecting of them. The teacher, they realized, made the school and if the school failed to prosper and make progress the blame was due in large measure to the incompetent teacher. To prevent the entrance of the unqualified teacher the Council issued a decree which provided a central examining board in each diocese whose duty it was to examine prospective teachers and to issue certifi- cates to the successful candidates. 5 If we consider that few States required certificates of any kind at this time the action of the Council in demanding certificates of all teachers is noteworthy. After the promulgation of this decree it remained for the bishops to enforce this legislation in their respective dioceses. Some bishops appointed examining boards who faithfully carried out the decrees of the Council. In other dioceses, with the introduction of the superintendent system, the certifica- tion and examination of teachers became a regular phase of the work. Much good has been accomplished by the above mentioned legislation, but we are of 'the opinion 4. Instr. S. C. S. OFF., Nov. 24, 1875 (New Collectanea, N. 1449). 5. Acta et Decrcta, III Cone. BALT., DEC. N. 203. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 51 that at the present time some new means must be devised to meet the requirements in the matter of certification. At the present time it is evident that the day is not far distant when the State will demand certification of all teachers, whether they teach in public, private or parochial schools. The States of Nebraska and Arkansas are demanding State certification of parochial school teachers and indications point to similar legislation in other States. Some Catholic educators would have our teachers meet State laws and regulations in obtaining their certificates. Some would go further and have our teachers undergo the same preparation as public school teachers. While there are a number who favor State certification it is our opinion that at present it would be unwise to accede whole-heartedly to the various States and ask to have our teachers certified. We should how- ever be prepared to meet the situation when it does arise. The following plan might be followed with some modifications and thus, while preserving our own autonomy, we can at the same time be prepared to meet future legislation in the matter of State certification. "Certificates might be issued in each State by the eccles- iastical authorities of that State. These certificates would render the recipient eligible to teach in any parochial school of that State, nor would a Religious be allowed to teach in the schools if she did not hold such a certificate. Where there would be more than one diocese in the State, a governing body would be formed, consisting of a representative of each bishop. There would likewise be an advisory committee including repre- sentatives of the various communities whose Mother- houses wore in the State. A schedule would be drawn up, which might include everything that the State de- mands and more. Certificates would be issued upon the successful passing of an examination that would be prepared by the governing board and administered by 52 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School the local authorities in each diocese. Provision might be made, because of present exigencies, to grant tem- porary, renewable certificates to teachers in service who have not had the advantage of completing their normal course before going out to teach. Exemption would only be made in the case of those teachers who have completed a certain term of successful experience." 6 With this plan in operation we would have an effective and standardized method of issuing certificates and as stable as that of any of the States. The State authorities would have little cause for interference because we would have evidence that the standards are adhered to. If the above plan were carried out we would be supplied with an efficient means of certifying our teachers and preventing the entrance of the unqualified aspirants. This plan, while meeting the requirements of the various States, would still be controlled by ecclesiastical authorities. Another very important problem that must be dealt with in regard to the teaching staff in the Catholic rural school is the question of professional preparation or teacher-training. The chasm between the immature, un- developed child and the social heritage of the race is to be bridged over by the teacher. She is to act as inter- preter or intermediary between the immature being and the vast amount of subject matter crystallized under the form of the curriculum. Hence to meet this situation the teacher must be acquainted with the child mind, its growth and development, the interests and activities of the individual, if success is to be assured. This idea of the function of the teacher has given rise to the normal or training schools for teachers. Due to the influence of Horace Mann the first State Normal School was opened at Lexington, Massachusetts, 6. Johnson, George, Proceedings of the Catholic Educational Asso- ciation, Vol. XVIII, p. 391 (1921). The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 53 in 1839. 7 Since that time the normal school has grown in popular favor. "Now every State and territory has its public and private normal schools, and it has come to be generally recognized that only through the perfect- ing of the methods of the normal school and its continued development, together with a wider application of the fundamental principles for which it stands, can we hope to add to or even maintain the progress that has been made thus far in the way of better teaching in the elementary school."* Years before Horace Mann emphasized the need of normal schools, the religious communities, following the rule laid down by their respective founders had regularly established normal schools for their prospective teachers. In the normal school, the novice was supposed to receive one or two years of professional training. Often the demand for teachers exceeded the supply and the un- trained teacher was sent into the classroom, ill-prepared and in many cases devoid of all professional training. The curtailment of the normal course was not the only defect in the community training schools. While the science of pedagogy had established a firm foundation in the State normals it was not fully anchored in the novitiate training schools. The Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, cognizant of this defect, determined to remedy this evil and stated in its decrees that the com- munity training schools are "to be in suitable establish- ments, in which the young may be trained by skillful and experienced teachers, during a sufficient period of time . . . in the various studies and sciences, in Method and Pedagogy. " 9 The communities endeavored to make amends for the defects in the training of teachers and 7. Life and Works of Horace Mann, Vol. V, Boston, p. 220. 8. Burns, James A., The Training of the Teacher, Philadelphia, 1904, p. 11. 9. Con. Plen. Bait. Ill, Acta et Decreta, N. 205, Baltimore, 1886. 54 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School reform was obtained in the larger communities. In the smaller teaching Sisterhoods conditions were bettered to some extent and they accomplished as much as pos- sible under adverse circumstances. Much good has been accomplished by the legislation of the Council but we are still far from the ideal in regard to normal training. Our religious teachers are striving to the utmost to meet the demands of ecclesiastical and State authorities, but under the stress of circumstances, unqualified and ill- prepared teachers are still sent into the schools and here they receive training in the school of experience, a school that demands an excessive fee both from the teacher and the pupils. Many communities, and especially, the smaller, find it impossible to support and maintain a community normal because of the lack of trained teachers and necessary equipment. The following plan with some modifications could be employed in many of the States or ecclesiastical provinces and special consideration might be given to prospective rural teachers in these establishments. Under this method, the question of financial support, faculty for the training schools and the necessary equipment could easily be solved. To meet the problem of teacher training we propose a system of provincial normal schools for religious teachers under control of ecclesiastical authority and supported by the various ecclesiastical provinces. We advocate provincial rather than diocesan normals because many of the smaller dioceses would find it difficult to support a normal, where- as, if several dioceses combine in supporting a school of this nature the burden will naturally be divided and no one diocese will find it unbearable. In order that the religious life of the individual be not interfered with each prospective teacher should be required to have completed her full term of the novitiate before she is admitted to the normal school. The administration of The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 55 . this system of normal schools would be in the hands of the Archbishop of the Province together with the suffragan Bishops. The faculty would be drawn from the province; if possible each diocese could supply one professor. The feasibility of having 1 Sisters on the faculty is a question open to considerable discussion but it seems that some plan might be devised whereby they could assume the office of teaching. Undoubtedly, some of the best talent in Catholic educational circles is to be found among our religious teachers and it seems a waste of energy to have this ability unused. The faculty would have to be of such a calibre that the individual teachers would have special preparation in the subjects that they are called upon to teach. The funds necessary for the support and maintenance would be met by the respective dioceses in proportion to the number of students they send to the normal school. As regards the religious life of the prospective teachers while they are pursuing their studies at this proposed institution, it would be much the same as it is at the Catholic Sisters ' College at the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. It would be preferable for each community to have its own house of study, situated in close proximity to the normal school, to ensure the proper religious spirit for their subjects and also for the convenience of the students. The curriculum of the normal school will take into consideration the requirements of the State in which it is situated. Assistance could be obtained in this regard from the Digest of State Laws prepared by the Bureau of Education of the National Catholic Welfare Council. The course of study should place special emphasis on the professional equipment of the prospective teacher. To ensure this, entrance requirements would be insisted upon and no one admitted unless she can present satis- factory evidence of having completed a standard high school course. 56 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School The course of study would in general outline take the following form: I. Psychology, Educational and Social; Philos- ophy of Education; History of Education; School Administration and Management and a Study of the School laws of the respective States. II. Methods of Teaching in the following sub- jects : (A) Keligion, Christian Doctrine and Bible History. (B) English, Mathematics, Science, Art, ,His- tory and Geography. Since we are interested in the teacher of the rural schools, the normal will take cognizance of the Sister whose work will be in these schools. We admit that there are common interests between rural and city peoples; that the course of study in their schools will have many elements in common ; but there are important differences in occupation and environment. Hence there will be a difference in the method of instruction; the subject matter of the curriculum will have to be attacked from a different angle ; and the problems of the country child and of rural people in general will have to be under- stood if the teacher is to do effective work in the class- room. In order that the rural teacher may become a real impelling force in a community, and contribute her part of the rehabilitation of the country school, she must be prepared in a special manner in the normal school. The following subjects should therefore receive special con- sideration: Nature Study; Elementary Principles of Agriculture; Sanitary Science and Hygiene; Domestic Science and a Survey of Rural Sociology. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 57 The course in Nature Study furnishes a starting point for the rural teacher's special training and it like- wise offers a foundation for a course in Elementary Agriculture. Thru experience man learns that he must cope with other living forms, some of which are his friends and other his enemies ; some that are a constant help in attaining life purposes and others that are opposed to him; and in order to make the most of life it is necessary to know what living things are doing in order to form proper attitudes. The aim of Nature Study is to acquaint the child with the living things in Nature that influence human life. The following aims should be kept in view in the Course of Nature Study: I. To afford a knowledge of Nature ; II. To acquaint man with the useful and harm- ful in nature; III. To form a basis for the study of agricul- ture; IV. To make the individual realize the goodness and omnipotence of God towards His creatures. The subject matter would embrace a study of: I. Bird Life, both the harmful and useful species; their habits; protection and their economic value to the community. II. A study of insects; harmful and useful species. III. Study of plant life including the economic and aesthetic phases. 58 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School Elementary Principles of Agriculture : Using the basis furnished by Nature Study this branch would include a study of: I. The Soil, from a chemical, geological and physical viewpoint; its constituents, depletion, con- servation and preparation for seed. II. Seeds; principles determining selection; germination tests; forage and filed seeds; also a study of the weeds both useful and noxious. III. Live stock, embracing the different varie- ties and their respective economic values. IV. Study of Trees; the orchard; the economic and aesthetic aspects. Sanitary Science and Hygiene: There is an opinion prevalent amongst the American people that the open country is a place singularly free from the ravages of disease and sickness. In theory, the open country is a healthier place to live in ; but, due to the absence of organized health controls, disease takes its toll because of the ignorance of those afflicted. The ravages of the Hookworm disease in the South with its attendant ills emphasize the need of a thorough under- standing of health on the part of the teacher. The good health of the pupil is of fundamental importance in education and much retardation and other mental defects can be traced to an inadequate understanding of the elementary laws of health. If the school is to prepare for complete living the welfare of the body must be taken into consideration and it devolves on the teacher to be fully prepared to go into a community, armed with the latest discoveries of medical and sanitary science, not The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 59 only to teach the children the rudiments of sanitary knowledge but also to implant in them habits and appre- ciations of the fundamentals of health preservation. Rural Sociology: This subject represents an innovation in most normal schools and institutions for the training of rural teachers. For many teachers both in the Catholic and State systems the first experience in rural life begins when they are appointed to teach in the open country. They have lived in an urban atmosphere and their interests are centered there, and it takes some time before they realize the difference between the environ- ment of country and city children. To reach the heart of the child; to understand his difficulties as well as the problems that confront country people in general, the prospective teacher should have some acquaintance with Rural Sociology and Economics. One defect in nearly all our Catholic normals at present is the absence of the " model' ' or " practice " schools. In most of our normals the teacher is given a rather good course theoretically, but no opportunity is afforded her to try out the principles learned in the lec- ture room. She must go into the school, experiment on the pupils, and note their reactions. Sometimes this mode of procedure consumes time and energy both for the pupil and the teacher. In any proposed scheme of normal schools, whether they be community, diocesan or provincial, the place of the "model" school should be emphasized. The school should be a model in the true sense of the term, in regard to architecture, sani- tary requirements, administrative staff and properly qualified teachers. The actual erection and support of a model school would entail little expense in a system of provincial normals, as the burden would be borne by the 60 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School various dioceses; and greater effectiveness would be secured when such schools are properly equipped and supplied. A system of normal schools established on the pro- vincial plan would afford the necessary preparation for prospective teachers in Catholic rural schools. In estab- lishing a system of such normals, two facts must be taken into consideration. 1. Each community, either through tradition or otherwise, tends to have its own methods of teacher preparation. 2. The different com- munities invariably overlap diocesan and provincial boundaries. It follows that the provincial normal should be strictly neutral, that is, not under the control of any particular teaching community, but rather under the jur- isdiction of the ecclesiastical authority of the province. All educational agencies, Catholic and State, are clamoring for more and better teachers. The lack of properly qualified teachers is found in both systems. Any attempt to solve the rural problem from a Catholic educational viewpoint must of necessity regard the ques- tion of teacher training and preparation. In addition to training, another important element is required in order that the teacher in the rural school meet with success. She must be in sympathy with life in the open country. She must really feel that her call to teach in the small parish schools is as important as the work in a large city parish. For the public school teacher it is often a matter of economic concern where she teaches, but for the religious teacher it is a matter that finds expression in the very life that she leads. The soul of the country child is just as pleasing in the sight of the Creator as the soul of the child in the city, and the work of teaching in the rural school is just as important and meritorious as in any other place. The Catholic teacher will play a large rol, The Rural Church Movement, New York, 1914. Federal Farm Loan Act, Washington, 1916. Felton, Ralph A., The Study of a Rural Parish. A Method of Survey, New York, 1915. Galpin, C. J., Rural Life, New York. Gillette, John M., Constructive Rural Sociology, New York, 1913. Groves, Ernest R., Rural Problems of Today, New York, 1916. Husslein, Joseph, The Catholic's Work in the World, New York, 1917. Leo XIII, The Great Encyclical Letters of Pope Leo XIII, New York. MacGarr, Llewellyn, The Rural Community, New York, 1922. McGiffert, A. C., The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas, New York, 1917. O'Hara, Ed. V., "The Rural Problem and Catholic Education," The Catholic Educational Association, Report of the Proceedings and Addresses, Vol. XVII, 1920. A Program of Catholic Rural Action, Washington, 1922. Pastoral Letter of the Bishops, Washington, 1919. Plunkett, Horace, The Rural Life Problem of the United States, New York, 1910. Rauschenbusch, Walter, Christianity and the Social Crisis, New York, 1907. The Rural Problem and the Catholic School 91 Report of the Commission on Country Life, New York, 1911. Rural Health, Proceedings of the Second National Country Life Conference, Chicago, 1919. Rural Organization, Proceedings of the Third National Country Life Conference, Chicago, 1920. Rural Life Survey of Ohio, Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, New York. Rural School as a Community Center, The Tenth Year- book of the National Society for the Study of Edu- cation, Part II, 1911. Schmidt, George A., The Church and the Problems of To- day, New York, 1921. Sims, Newell L., The Rural Community, Ancient and Modern, New York, 1920. Vogt, Paul L., Introduction to Rural Sociology, New York, 1918. Wilson, Warren, The Church of the Open Country, New York, 1917. The Evolution of the Country Community. "The Church and the Rural Community," American Journal of Sociology, March, 1911. SURVEYS AND COURSES OF STUDY, ETC. Baltimore Country Public Schools Course of Study, Baltimore. Bienneal Survey of Education, 1916-1918, Washington, 1918. Curriculum of the Horace-Mann Elementary School, New York, 1917. Census, Fourteenth, of the United States, Washington, 1922. Collectanea Sacrae Congregationis de Propaganda Fide, 2 Vol. Romae, 1907. Cook, Katherine M., State Laws and Regulations Govern- 92 The Rural Problem and the Catholic School ing Teachers' Certificates. United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., 1922. Course of Study for the Rural Schools of the State of Montana, Series 1917. Course of Study for the State Schools of Wisconsin, Mad- ison, 1916. First Communion Correspondence Course adopted for the Diocese of Helena, Helena, Montana, 1921. Handbook of Information about Parent-Teacher Asso- ciations and Mothers' Circles, Washington, 1921. Practical Plan of the Catholic Instruction League, Chicago, 1919. Questionnaire concerning Catholic Rural Education, O'Hara, E. V., 1920. Report of Missionary Confraternity of Christian Doc- trine of the Pittsburgh Diocese, 1919. Reports of the Immigration Commission, 2 Vol. Wash- ington, 1911. Religious Bodies, United States Bureau of the Census, Washington, 2 Vols. 1919. Superintendent's Report of the Archdiocese of St. Paul 1921. VITA T. Leo Keaveny was born at Hereford, Minnesota, August 23, 1894. His early studies were pursued in the public schools at Tintah, Minnesota, and his high school and junior college courses at St. Lawrence College, Mt. Calvary, Wis. In September, 1914, he entered the St. Paul Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota. Ordained to the priesthood in 1919, he matriculated at the Catholic Uni- versity and received the degree of Master of Arts in June, 1920. At the Catholic University he pursued courses in Education under the late Very Rev. Thomas E. Shields, Ph. D., LL. D.; Very Rev. P. J. McCormick, S. T. L., Ph. D.; Rev. Edward Jordan, S. T. D., and Rev. Leo Ligouri McVay, S. T. B., J. C. L. ; in Psychology un- der Very Rev. Edward A. Pace, S. T. D., Ph. D., LL. D. and Rev. Thomas Vernon Moore, Ph. D., M. D. ; in Sociology under Rev. William Kerby, S. T. L., Ph. D., LL. D. ; and Biology under John Bernard Parker, A. M. Ph. D. During the summer of 1920 he attended the Fordham Graduate School of Education and during the summer of 1921 he made studies at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. The writer welcomes this opportunity to express his gratitude to these professors and especially to Dr. Mc- Cormick, Dr. Jordan and Dr. Kerby for valuable aid and suggestions in the revision of the manuscript. He like- wise wishes to thank the Very Rev. Edwin V. 'Hara of Lane County, Oregon and Dr. J. C. Muerman of the United States Bureau of Education for assistance in the gathering of material used in this study.